,,philosophy ,,in ,,sport ,,made ,,science ,,in ,,earnest2 ,,being ,,an ,,attempt ,,to ,,illustrate ,,the ,,first ,,principles ,,of ,,natural ,,philosophy ,,by ,,the ,,aid ,,of ,,popular ,,toys ,,and ,,sports4 ,illustration3 ,printer's logo ,,fourth ,,edition1 ,,with ,,considerable ,,additions4 ,,london3 ,,harvey ,,and ,,darton1 ,,gracechurch-,,street2 ,,and ,,highley1 ,,fleet-,,street4 #ahci4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,to ,,miss ,,maria ,,edgeworth4 ,,madam1 ,to whom can a work which professes to blend amusement with instruction1 be dedicated with so much propriety1 as to one1 whose numerous writings have satisfactorily demonstrated the practicability and value of such a union2--to one1 who has stripped ,romance of her meretricious trappings1 and converted her theatre into a temple worthy of ,minerva8 ,justly has it been observed1 that to the magic pens of ,madame ,d',arblay and yourself we are indebted for having the ,novel restored to its consequence1 and1 therefore1 to its usefulness2 and ,i may be allowed to add1 that your ,harry and ,lucy has shown how profitably1 and agreeably1 the machinery of fiction may be worked for the dissemination of truth4 ,that a life which has been so honourable to yourself1 and so serviceable to the commonwealth1 may be long extended1 and deservedly enjoyed1 is the fervent wish of ,,the ,,author4 ,london1 ,february #ahci4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,to ,,the ,,reader4 -------------- ,tell me1 gentle ,reader1 whether thou hast not heard of the box of ,pandora1 which was no sooner opened by the unhappy ,epimetheus1 than it gave flight to a troop of malevolent spirits1 which have ever since tormented the human race4--,behold6--,i here present you with a magic casket1 containing a ,,genius alone capable of counteracting their direful spells4 ,thou mayest1 perhaps1 say that its aspect but ill accords with the richness of its promised treasure2 so appeared the copper vessel found by the fisherman1 as related in the ,arabian tale2 but1 remember1 that no sooner had he broken its mystic seal1 than the imprisoned genius spread itself over the ocean and raised its giant limbs above the clouds4 ,but this was an evil and treacherous spirit2 mine is as benevolent as he is mighty1 and seeks communion with our race for no other object than to render mortals virtuous and happy4 ,to be plain1 for you must already1 my young friends1 have unriddled my allegory1 his name is ,,philosophy4 ,in your progress through life1 be not so vain as to believe that you will escape the evils with which its path is beset4 ,arm yourselves1 therefore1 with the talisman that can1 at once1 deprive adversity of its sting1 and prosperity of its dangers2 for such1 believe me1 is the rare privilege of philosophy4 ,i must now take leave of you1 for a short time1 in order that ,i may address a few words to your parents and preceptors2 but1 as ,i have no plot to abridge your liberties1 or lengthen your hours of study1 you may listen to my address without alarm1 and to my plan without suspicion4 ,imagine not1 however1 that ,i shall recommend the dismissal of the cane1 or the whip2 on the contrary1 ,i shall insist upon them as necessary and indispensable instruments for the accomplishment of my design4 ,but the method of applying them will be changed2 with the one ,i shall construct the bow of the kite1 with the other ,i shall spin the top4 ,the object of the present work is to inculcate that early love of science which can never be derived from the sterner productions4 ,youth is naturally addicted to amusement1 and in this item his expenditure too often exceeds his allotted income4 ,i have1 therefore1 taken the liberty to draw a draft upon ,philosophy1 with the full assurance that it will be gratefully repaid1 with compound interest1 ten years after date4 ,but to be serious2 those who superintend the education of youth should be apprised of the great importance of the first impressions4 ,rousseau has said1 that the seeds of future vices or virtues are more frequently sown by the mother than the tutor2 thereby intimating1 that the characters of men are often determined by the earliest impressions2 and1 of so much moment did ,quintillian regard this truth1 that he recommends to us the example of ,philip1 who did not suffer any other than ,aristotle to teach ,alexander to read4 ,in like manner those who do not commence their study of nature at an early season1 will afterwards have many unnecessary obstacles to encounter4 ,the difficulty of comprehending the principles of ,natural ,philosophy frequently arises from their being at variance with those false ideas which early associations have impressed upon the mind2 the first years of study are1 therefore1 expended in unlearning1 and in clearing away the weeds1 which would never have taken root in a properly cultivated soil4 ,writers on practical education have repeatedly advocated the advantages of the plan ,i am so anxious to enforce2 but1 strange to say1 it is only within a few years that any works have appeared at all calculated to afford the necessary assistance4 ,in short1 previous to the labours of ,mrs4 ,marcet and ,miss ,edgeworth1 the productions published for the purpose of juvenile instruction may be justly charged with the grossest errors2 and must have proved as destructive to the mind of the young reader1 as the book presented by the physician ,douban is said to have been to the ,grecian king1 who1 as the ,arabian tale relates1 imbibed fresh poison as he turned over each leaf1 until he fell lifeless in the presence of his courtiers2 or1 to give another illustration1 as mischievous as the magic volume of ,michael ,scott1 which1 as ,dempster informs us1 could not be opened without the danger of invoking some malignant fiend by the operation4 ,how infinitely superior in execution and purpose are the juvenile works of the present century6--to borrow a metaphor from ,coleridge1 they may be truly said to resemble a collection of mirrors set in the same frame1 each having its own focus of knowledge1 yet all capable of converging to one point4 ,allow me1 friendly ,reader1 before ,i conclude my address1 to say a few words upon the plan and execution of the work before you4 ,it is not intended to supersede or clash with any of the elementary treatises to which ,i have alluded2 indeed its plan is so peculiar1 that ,i apprehend such a charge cannot be brought against it4 ,the author originally composed it for the exclusive use of his children1 and would certainly never have consigned it to the press1 but at the earnest solicitations of those friends upon whose judgment he places the utmost reliance4 ,let this be received as an answer to those1 who1 believing that they can recognise the writer1 may be induced to exclaim with ,menedemus in ,terence1--8,tantumne est ab re tu otii tibi aliena ut cures1 eaque nihil qu ad te attinent80 #a ,it is scarcely necessary to offer any apology for the conversational plan of instruction2 the success of ,mrs4 ,marcet's dialogues has placed its value beyond dispute4 ,it may1 however1 be observed1 that this species of composition may be executed in two different ways1 either as direct conversation1 where none but the speakers appear1 which is the method used by ,plato2 or as the recital of a conversation1 where the author himself appears1 and gives an account of what passed in discourse1 which is the plan generally adopted by ,cicero4 ,the reader is aware1 that ,mrs4 ,marcet1 in her 8,conversations on ,philosophy10 has adopted the former1 while ,miss ,edgeworth1 in her 8,harry and ,lucy10 has preferred the latter method4 ,in composing the present work ,i have followed the plan of the last-mentioned authoress4 ,its advantages over the more direct conversational style appear to consist in allowing occasional remarks1 which come more aptly from the author than from any of the characters engaged in the dialogue4 ,if scientific dialogues are less popular in our times than they were in ancient days1 it must be attributed to the frigid and insipid manner in which they have too frequently been executed2 if we except the mere external forms of conversation1 and that one character is made to speak1 and the other to answer1 they are altogether the same as if the author himself spoke throughout the whole1 instead of amusing with a varied style of conversation1 and with a display of consistent and well-supported characters4 ,the introduction of a person of humour1 to enliven the discourse1 is sanctioned by the highest authority4 ,csar is thus introduced by ,cicero1 and ,cynthio by ,addison4 ,in the introduction of ,mr4 ,twaddleton and ,major ,snapwell1 ,i am well aware of the criticisms to which ,i am exposed2 ,i have exercised my fancy with a freedom and latitude1 for which1 probably1 there is not any precedent in a scientific work4 ,i have even ventured so far to deviate from the beaten track as to skirmish upon the frontiers of the ,novelist1 and to bring off captive some of the artillery of ,romance2 but if1 by so doing1 ,i have enhanced the interest of my work1 and furthered the accomplishment of its object1 let me intreat that mere novelty may not be urged to its disparagement4 ,the antiquarian ,vicar1 however1 will1 ,i trust1 meet with cordial reception from the classical student4 ,as to ,ned ,hopkins1 although he may not bear a comparison with ,william ,summers1 the fool of ,henry ,,viii4--or with ,richard ,tarlton1 who 8undumpished ,queen ,elizabeth at his pleasure20 or with ,archibald ,armstrong 7vulgo ,archee7 ,jester to ,charles1--yet ,i will maintain1 in spite of the ,vicar's censure1 that he is a right merry fellow1 and to the ,major1 and consequently to our history1 a most important accessary4 ,if it be argued that several of my comic representations are calculated1 like seasoning1 to stimulate the palate of the novel-reader1 rather than to nourish the minds of the younger class1 for whom the work was written1 ,i might1 were ,i so disposed1 plead common usage2 for does not the director of a juvenile fte courteously introduce a few piquant dishes1 for the entertainment of those elder personages who may attend in the character of a chaperone8 ,you surely could not deny me the full benefit of such a precedent2 and so1 ,gentle ,reader1 ,i bid thee--,farewell6 ----- ,footnote #a3 8,have you such leisure from your own affairs ,to think of those that don't concern you80 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,contents4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,chapter ,i4 ,page #a ,tom ,seymour's arrival from school--,description of ,overton ,lodge--,the ,horologe of ,flora--,a geological temple--,a sketch of the person and character of the ,reverend ,peter ,twaddleton--,mr4 ,seymour engages to furnish his son with any toy1 the philosophy of which he is able to explain--,mr4 ,twaddleton's arrival1 and reception--,his remonstrances against the diffusion of science amongst the village mechanics--,a dialogue between ,mr4 ,seymour and the ,vicar1 which some will dislike1 many approve of1 and all laugh at--,the plan of teaching philosophy by the aid of toys developed and discussed--,mr4 ,twaddleton's objections answered--,he relents1 and engages to furnish an antiquarian history of the various toys and sports ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,page #be ,on gravitation--,weight--,the velocity of falling bodies--,at what altitude a body would lose its gravity--,the ,tower of ,babel--,the known velocity of sound affords the means of calculating distances--,an excursion to ,overton well--,an experiment to ascertain its depth--,a visit to the vicarage--,the magic gallery--,return to the lodge ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,page #dh ,motion--absolute and relative--,uniform1 accelerated1 and retarded velocity--,the times of ascent and descent are equal--,vis inerti--,friction--,action and reaction are equal and in opposite directions--,momentum defined and explained--,the three great laws of motion ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,page #fe ,a sad accident turned to a good account--,one example worth a hundred precepts--,the centres of magnitude and gravity--,the point of suspension--,the line of direction--,the stability of bodies1 and upon what it depends--,method of finding the centre of gravity of a body--,the art of the balancer explained and illustrated--,various balancing toys ,,chapter ,v4 ,page #he ,the ,chinese tumblers1 illustrating the joint effects of change in the centre of gravity of a body1 and of momentum--,mr4 ,twaddleton's arrival after a series of adventures--,the dancing balls--,the pea-shooter--,a figure that dances on a fountain--,the flying witch--,elasticity--,springs--,the game of 8,ricochet10 or duck and drake--,the rebounding ball--,animals that leap by means of an elastic apparatus--,a new species of puffing1 by which the ,vicar is made to change countenance ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,page #ajb ,the arrival of ,major ,snapwell1 and the bustle it occasioned--,the ,vicar's interview with the stranger--,a curious discussion--,a word or two addressed to fox-hunters--,verbal corruptions--,some geometrical definitions--,an enigma ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,page #aag ,compound forces--,the composition and resolution of motion--,rotatory motion--,the revolving watch-glass--,the sling--,the centrifugal and centripetal forces--,theory of projectiles--,a geological conversation between ,mr4 ,seymour and the ,vicar ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,page #acf ,the subject of rotatory motion continued--,a ball1 by having a peculiar spinning motion imparted to it1 may be made to stop short1 or to retrograde1 though it meets not with any apparent obstacle--,the rectilinear path of a spherical body influenced by its rotatory motion--,bilboquet1 or cup and ball--,the joint forces which enable the balancer to throw up and catch his balls on the full gallop--,the hoop--,the centre of percussion--,the whip and peg-top--,historical notices--,the power by which the top is enabled to sustain its vertical position during the act of spinning--,the sleeping of the top explained--,the force which enables it to rise from an oblique into a vertical position--,its gyration ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,page #aea ,trap and ball--,gifts from the ,vicar--,an antiquarian history of the ball--,the see-saw--,the mechanical powers--,the swing--,the doctrine of oscillation--,galileo's discovery--,the pendulum--,an interesting letter--,mr4 ,seymour and the ,vicar visit ,major ,snapwell ,,chapter ,x4 ,page #afg ,marbles--,antiquity of the game--,method of manufacturing them--,ring-taw--,mr4 ,seymour1 the ,vicar1 and ,tom1 enter the lists--,the defeat of the two former combatants2 the triumph of the latter--,a philosophical explanation of the several movements--,the subject of reflected motion illustrated--,the ,vicar's apology1 of which many grave personages will approve ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,page #ahj ,mr4 ,seymour and his family visit the ,major at ,osterley ,park--,a controversy between the ,vicar and the ,major--,the ,sucker--,cohesive attraction--,pressure of the atmosphere--,meaning of the term suction--,certain animals attach themselves to rocks by a contrivance analogous to the sucker--,the ,limpet--,the ,walrus--,locomotive organs of the house-fly--,a terrible accident--,a scene in the village1 in which ,dr4 ,doseall figures as a principal performer--,the ,vicar's sensible remonstrance--,the density of the atmosphere at different altitudes--,inelasticity of water--,bottle-imps--,the ,barometer--,the pop-gun--,the air-gun--,an antiquarian discussion1 in which the ,vicar and ,major ,snapwell greatly distinguish themselves ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,page #bjb ,the soap-bubble--,the squirt--,the bellows2 an explanation of their several parts--,by whom the instrument was invented--,the sucking and lifting1 or common pump ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,page #bae ,the kite--,its construction--,the tail--,an author's meditations among the catacombs of ,paternoster-row--,works in their winding sheets--,how ,mr4 ,seymour strung puns as he strung the kite's tail--,the ,vicar's dismay--,the weather1 with the hopes and fears which it alternately inspired--,kites constructed in various shapes--,the figure usually adopted to be preferred--,the flight of the kite--,a philosophical disquisition upon the forces by which its ascent is accomplished--,the tail--,a discourse on the theory of flying--,the structure and action of the wings of birds--,a series of kites on one string--,a kite carriage--,the messenger--,the causes and velocity of wind explained ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,page #bdg ,a short discourse--,the shuttlecock--,the solution of two problems connected with its flight--,the windmill--,the smoke-jack--,a toy constructed on the same principle--,the bow and arrow--,archery--,the arrival of ,isabella ,villers ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,page #bfb ,a curious dialogue between the ,vicar and ,miss ,villers--,an enigma--,the riddles of ,samson and ,cleobulus--,sound--,how propagated by arial vibration--,music--,a learned discussion touching the superior powers of ancient music--,the magic of music1 a game which the author believes is here described for the first time--,adventures by moonlight--,spirits of the valley ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,page #bia ,origin of the crescent as the ,turkish ensign--,apparitions dispelled by philosophy--,fairy rings--,musical instruments classed under three divisions--,mixed instruments--,theory of wind instruments--,the ,jew's harp--,the statue of ,memnon--,an interesting experiment--,the flute--,the whiz-gig1 c4--,echoes--,the whispering gallery in the dome of ,st4 ,paul's--,the speaking trumpet--,the invisible girl--,other acoustic amusements--,creaking shoes--,haunted rooms ,,chapter ,,xvii4 ,page #cai ,an interesting communication1 from which the reader may learn that the most important events are not those which absorb the greatest portion of time in their recital--,major ,snapwell communicates to ,mr4 ,seymour and the ,vicar1 his determination to celebrate the marriage of his nephew by a fte at ,osterley ,park--,an antiquarian discussion of grave importance--,an interview with ,ned ,hopkins1 during which the wit displayed both cunning and humour--,the ,thaumatrope--,its improved construction--,philosophy of its action--,another optical toy--,the nature of optical spectra illustrated and explained--,the spectral cross of ,constantine ,,chapter ,,xviii4 ,page #ccg ,the ,thaumatrope--,a great improvement effected in its construction--,another toy upon the same optical principle ,,chapter ,,xix4 ,page #cfd ,preparations for the approaching fte--,the procession of the bridal party to ,osterley ,park--,the ,major and his visitors superintend the arrangements in the meadow--,the curious discussion which took place on that occasion--,the origin of the swing--,merry-andrews--,trajetours1 c4--,the dinner at the hall--,the learned controversy which was maintained with respect to the game of ,chess ,,chapter ,,xx4 ,page #chc ,the arrival of the populace at ,osterley ,park--,the commencement of the festivities--,dancing on the tight and slack rope--,balancing--,conjuring--,optical illusions--,various games--,penthalum--,the banquet--,grand display of fire-works--,conclusion ,,appendix--,additional ,notes ,page #djg ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,philosophy ,,in ,,sport4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,tom ,seymour's arrival from school4--,description of ,overton ,lodge4--,the ,horologe of ,flora4--,a geological temple4--,a sketch of the person and character of the ,reverend ,peter ,twaddleton4--,mr4 ,seymour engages to furnish his son with any toy1 the philosophy of which he is able to explain4--,mr4 ,twaddleton's arrival and reception4--,his remonstrances against the diffusion of science amongst the village mechanics4--,a dialogue between ,mr4 ,seymour and the vicar1 which some will dislike1 many approve of1 and all laugh at4--,the plan of teaching philosophy by the aid of toys developed and discussed4--,mr4 ,twaddleton's objections answered4--,he relents1 and engages to furnish an antiquarian history of the various toys and sports4 ,the summer recess of ,mr4 ,pearson's school was not more anxiously anticipated by the scholars than it was by the numerous family of ,seymour1 who1 at the commencement of the year1 had parted from a beloved son and brother for the first time4 ,as the season of relaxation approached1 so did the inmates of ,overton ,lodge 7for such was the name of ,mr4 ,seymour's seat7 betray increasing impatience for its arrival4 ,the three elder sisters1 ,louisa1 ,fanny1 and ,rosa1 had been engaged for several days in arranging the little study which their brother ,tom had usually occupied4 ,his books were carefully replaced on their shelves1 and bunches of roses and jasmines1 which the affectionate girls had culled from the finest trees in the garden1 were tastefully dispersed through the apartment2 the festoons of blue ribbons1 with which they were entwined1 at once announced themselves as the work of graceful hands1 impelled by light hearts2 and every flower might be said to reflect from its glowing petals the smiles with which it had been collected and arranged4 ,at length the happy day arrived2 a post-chaise drew up to the front gate1 and ,tom was once again folded in the arms of his affectionate and delighted parents4 ,the little group surrounded their beloved brother1 and welcomed his return with all the warmth and artlessness of juvenile sincerity4 8,well10 said ,mr4 ,seymour1 8if the improvement of your mind corresponds with that of your looks1 ,i shall indeed have reason to congratulate myself upon the choice of your school4 ,but have you brought me any letter from ,mr4 ,pearson80 8,i have10 replied ,tom1 who presented his father with a note from his master1 in which he had commented1 in high terms of commendation1 not only upon ,tom's general conduct1 but upon the rapid progress which he had made in his classical studies4 8,my dearest boy10 exclaimed the delighted father1 8,i am more than repaid for the many anxious moments which ,i have passed on your account4 ,i find that your conduct has given the highest satisfaction to your master2 and that your good-nature1 generosity1 and1 above all1 your strict adherence to truth1 have ensured the love and esteem of your school-fellows40 ,this gratifying report brought tears of joy into the eyes of ,mrs4 ,seymour2 ,tom's cheek glowed with the feeling of conscious merit2 and the sisters interchanged looks of mutual satisfaction4 ,can there be an incentive to industry and virtuous conduct so powerful as the exhilarating smiles of approbation which the school-boy receives from an affectionate parent8 ,tom would not have exchanged his feelings for all the world1 and he internally vowed that he would never deviate from a course that had been productive of so much happiness4 8,but come10 exclaimed ,mr4 ,seymour1 8let us all retire into the library4 ,i am sure that our dear fellow will be glad of some refreshment after his journey40 ,we shall here leave the family circle to the undisturbed enjoyment of their domestic banquet1 and invite the reader to accompany us in a stroll about the grounds of this beautiful and secluded retreat4 ,we are amongst those who believe that the habits and character of a family may be as easily discovered from the rural taste displayed in the grounds which surround their habitation1 as by any examination of the prominences on their heads1 or of the lineaments in their faces4 ,how vividly is the decline of an ancient race depicted by the chilling desolation which reigns around the mansion1 and by the rank weed which insolently triumphs over its fading splendour2 and how equally expressive of the peaceful and contented industry of the thriving cottager1 is the well cultivated patch which adjoins the humble dwelling1 around whose rustic porch the luxuriant lilac clusters1 or the aspiring woodbine twines its green tendrils and sweetly-scented blossoms6 ,in like manner did the elegantly disposed grounds of ,overton ,lodge at once announce the classic taste and fostering presence of a refined and highly cultivated family4 ,the house1 which was in the ,ionic style of architecture1 was situated on the declivity of a hill1 so that the verdant lawn which was spread before its southern front1 after retaining its level for a short distance1 gently sloped to the vale beneath1 and was terminated by a luxuriant shrubbery1 over which the eye commanded a range of fair enclosure1 beautified by an irregularly undulating surface1 and interspersed with rich masses of wood4 ,the uniformity of the lawn was broken by occasional clumps of flowering shrubs1 so artfully selected and arranged1 as to afford all the varied charms of contrast2 while1 here and there1 a lofty elm flung its gigantic arms over the sward beneath1 and cast a deep shade1 which enabled the inhabitants of the ,lodge to enjoy the air1 even during the heat of a meridian sun4 ,the shrubbery1 which occupied a considerable portion of the valley1 stretched for some distance up the western part of the hill2 and1 could ,shenstone have wandered through its winding paths and deep recesses1 his favourite ,leasowes might have suffered from a comparison4 ,here were mingled shrubs of every varied dye2 the elegant foliage of white and scarlet acacias was blended with the dark-green-leaved chestnut2 and the stately branches of the oak were relieved by the gracefully pendulous boughs of the beech4 ,at irregular intervals1 the paths expanded into verdant glades1 in each of which the bust of some departed poet or philosopher announced the genius to which they were severally consecrated4 ,from a description of one or two of these sequestered spots1 the reader will readily conceive the taste displayed in those upon which our limits will not allow us to dwell4 ,after winding1 for some distance1 through a path so closely interwoven with shrubs and trees1 that scarcely a sunbeam could struggle through the foliage1 a gleam of light burst through the gloom1 and displayed a beautiful marble figure1 which had been executed by a ,roman artist1 representing ,flora in the act of being attired by ,spring4 ,it was placed in the centre of the expanse formed by the retiring trees1 and at its base were flowering1 at measured intervals1 a variety of those plants to which ,linnus has given the name of ,equinoctial flowers1 since they open and close at certain and exact hours of the day1 and thus by proper arrangement constitute the ,,horologe ,,of ,,flora17#a7b or ,nature's time-piece4 ,it had been constructed1 under the direction of her mother1 by ,louisa ,seymour4 ,the hour of the day at which each plant opened1 was represented by an appropriate figure of nicely trimmed box2 and these1 being arranged in a circle1 not only fulfilled the duty1 but exhibited the appearance of a dial4 ----- ,footnote #b3 ,these figures refer to the additional notes at the end of the work4 ----- ,from this retreat several winding paths threaded their mazy way through the deep recesses of the wood2 and the wanderer1 quitting for a while the blaze of day1 was refreshed by the subdued light which everywhere pervaded the avenue1 except where the hand of taste had1 here and there1 turned aside the boughs1 and opened a vista to bring the village spire into view1 or to gladden the sight by a rich prospect of the distant landscape4 ,after having descended for some way1 the path1 losing its inclined direction1 proceeded on a level1 and thus announced to the stranger his arrival at the bottom of the valley4 ,what a rich display of woodland scenery was suddenly presented to his view6 ,a rocky glen1 in which large masses of sandstone were grouped with picturesque boldness1 terminated the path1 and formed an area wherein he might gaze on the mighty sylvan amphitheatre1 which gradually rose to a towering height above him1 and seemed to interpose an insuperable barrier between the solitude of this sequestered spot and the busy haunts of men2 not a sound assailed the ear1 save the murmur of the summer breeze1 as it swept the trembling foliage1 or the brawling of a small mountain stream1 which gushed from the rock1 and1 like an angry chit1 fretted and fumed as it encountered the obstacles that had been raised by its own impetuosity4 ,this was the favourite retreat of ,mr4 ,seymour1 and he had dedicated it to the genius of geology2 here had he erected a temple to the memory of ,werner1 and every pillar and ornament bore testimony to the refined taste of its architect4 ,it consisted of a dome1 constructed of innumerable shells and corallines1 and surmounted by a marble figure of ,atlas1 bearing the globe on his shoulders1 upon which the name of ,,werner was inscribed4 ,the dome was supported by twelve pillars of so singular and beautiful a construction as to merit a particular description3 the ,corinthian capital of each was of ,pentelican marble2 the column consisted of a spiral of about six inches in breadth1 which wound round a central shaft of not more than two inches in diameter2 upon this spiral were placed specimens of various rocks1 of such masses as to fill up the outline1 and to present to the eye the appearance of a substantial and well-proportioned pillar4 ,these specimens were arranged in an order corresponding with their acknowledged geological relations2 thus1 the ,diluvial productions occupied the higher compartments2 the ,primitive strata1 the lower ones2 and the ,secondary and ,transition series found an intermediate place4 ,the tessellated floor presented the different varieties of marble1 so artfully interspersed as to afford a most harmonious combination2 the ,unicoloured1 variegated1 ,madreporic1 the ,lumachella1 ,cipolino1 and ,breccia marbles1 were each represented by a characteristic and well-defined specimen4 ,the alcoved ceiling was studded with ,rock ,crystal1 calcareous ,stalactites1 and beautiful ,calcedonies4 ,a group of figures in basso relievo adorned the wall which enclosed about a third part of the interior of the temple1 and its subject gave evidence of the ,wernerian devotion of ,mr4 ,seymour2 for it represented a contest between ,pluto and ,neptune1 in which the watery god was seen in the act of wresting the burning torch from the hand of his adversary1 in order to quench it in the ocean4 ,mr4 ,seymour had studied in the school of ,freyburg1 under the auspices of its celebrated professor2 and1 like all the pupils of ,werner1 he pertinaciously maintained the aqueous origin of our strata4 ,but let us return to the happy party at the ,lodge1 whom the reader will remember we left at their repast4 ,this having been concluded1 and all those various subjects discussed1 and questions answered1 which the school-boy1 who has ever felt the satisfaction of returning home for the holidays1 will more easily conceive than we can describe1 ,tom enquired of his father1 whether his old friend1 ,mr4 ,twaddleton1 the ,vicar of ,overton1 was well1 and at the ,parsonage4 8,he is quite well10 replied ,mr4 ,seymour1 8and so anxious to see you1 that he has paid several visits1 during the morning1 to enquire whether you had arrived4 ,depend upon it1 that many hours will not elapse before you see him40 ,in that wish did ,tom and the whole juvenile party heartily concur2 for the vicar1 notwithstanding his oddities1 was the most affectionate creature in existence1 and never was he more truly happy than when contributing to the innocent amusement of his little 8playmates10 as he used to call ,tom and his sisters4 ,it may be here necessary to present the reader with a short sketch of the character of a person1 who will be hereafter found to perform a prominent part in the little drama of ,overton ,lodge4 ,the ,rev4 ,peter ,twaddleton1 ,master of ,arts1 and ,fellow of the ,society of ,antiquaries1 for we must introduce him in due form1 was about fifty-two years of age1 twenty of which he had spent at ,cambridge1 as a resident ,fellow of ,jesus ,college4 ,he had not possessed the vicarage of ,overton above eight or nine years2 and1 although its value never exceeded a hundred and eighty pounds a year1 so limited were his wants1 and so frugal his habits1 that he generally contrived to save a considerable sum out of his income1 in order that he might devote it to purposes of charity and benevolence3 his charity1 however1 was not merely of the hand1 but of the heart2 distress was unknown in his village2 he fed the hungry1 nursed the sick1 and cheered the unfortunate2 his long collegiate residence had imparted to his mind several peculiar traits1 and a certain stiffness of address and quaintness of manner which at once distinguish the recluse from the man of the world2 in short1 as ,shakspeare expresses it1 8he was not hackneyed in the ways of men40 ,his face was certainly the very reverse to everything that could be considered 8good-looking10 and yet1 when he smiled1 there was an animation that redeemed the irregularity of his angular features2 so benevolent was the expression of his countenance1 that it was impossible not to feel that sentiment of respect and admiration which the presence of a superior person is wont to inspire2 but his superiority was rather that of the heart than of the head2 not that we would insinuate any deficiency in intellect1 but that his moral excellencies were so transcendent as to throw into the shade all those mental qualities which he possessed in common with the world4 ,he entertained a singular aversion to the mathematics1 a prejudice which we are inclined to refer to his disappointment in the senate-house2 for1 although he was known at ,cambridge as one of those 8pale beings in spectacles and cotton stockings10 commonly called 8reading men10 yet1 after all his exertions1 he only succeeded in obtaining the 8wooden spoon10 an honour which devolves upon the last of the 8junior optimes40 ,whether his failure arose from an exuberant or a deficient genius1 or1 to speak phrenologically1 from an excess in his number of bumps1 or a defect in his bump of numbers1 we are really unable to state1 never having had an opportunity of verifying our suspicions by a manual examination of his cranium2 he was1 however1 well read in the classics1 and so devoted to the works of ,virgil that he never lost an opportunity of quoting his favourite poet2 and it must be admitted1 that1 although these quotations so generally pervaded his conversation as to become irksome1 they were sometimes apposite1 and now and then even witty4 ,but notwithstanding the delight which he experienced in a lusus verborum in a learned language1 of such contradictory materials was he compossed1 that his antipathy to an ,english pun was extravagant and ridiculous4 ,this peculiarity has been attributed1 but we speak merely from common report1 to a disgust which he contracted for that species of spurious wit1 during his frequent intercourse with the ,johnians1 a race of students who have1 from time immemorial1 been identified with the most profligate class of punsters2 be this1 however1 as it may1 we are inclined to believe that a person who resides much amongst those who are addicted to this vice1 unless he quickly takes the infection1 acquires a sort of constitutional insusceptibility1 like nurses1 who pass their lives in infected apartments with perfect safety and impunity4 ,his favourite1 and we might add his only pursuit1 beyond the circle of his profession1 was the study of antiquities2 he was1 as we have already stated1 a ,fellow of the ,society of ,antiquaries2 had collected a very tolerable series of ancient coins1 and possessed sufficient critical acumen to distinguish between ,attic rugo1 and the spurious verdure of the modern counterfeit4 ,often had he undertaken an expedition of a hundred miles to inspect the interior of an ancient barrow1 or to examine the mouldering fragments of some newly-discovered monument2 indeed1 like the connoisseur in cheese1 blue-mould and decay were the favourite objects of his taste1 and the sure passports to his favour2 for he despised all living testimony1 but that of worms and maggots4 ,a coin with the head of a living sovereign passed through his hands with as little resistance as water through a sieve1 but he grasped the head of an ,antonine or ,otho with insatiable and relentless avarice4 ,mr4 ,twaddleton's figure exceeded the middle stature1 and was so extremely slender as to give him the air and appearance of a tall man4 ,he was usually dressed in an old-fashioned suit of black cloth1 consisting of a single-breasted coat1 with a standing collar1 and deep comprehensive cuffs1 and a flapped waistcoat2 but so awkwardly did these vestments conform with the contour of his person1 that we might have supposed them the production of those ,laputan tailors who wrought by mathematical principles1 and held in sovereign contempt the illiterate fashioners who deemed it necessary to measure the forms of their customers2 although it was whispered by certain censorious spinsters in the village that the aforesaid mathematical artists were better acquainted with the angles of the ,seven ,dials1 than with the squares of the west end4 ,they farther surmised that the vicar's annual journey to ,london1 which in truth was undertaken with no other objects than those of attending the anniversary of the ,society of ,antiquaries1 on ,saint ,george's day1 and of inspecting the cabinets of his old crony1 the celebrated medallist of ,tavistock-street1 was for the laudable purpose of recruiting his wardrobe4 ,if the aforesaid coat1 with its straggling and disproportioned suburbs1 possessed an amplitude of dimensions which ill accorded with the slender wants of his person1 this misapplied liberality was more than compensated by the rigid economy exhibited in the nether part of his costume1 which evidently had not been designed by a contemporary artisan2 not so his shoes1 which1 for the accommodation of those unwelcome parasites1 vulgarly called corns1 were constructed in the form of a battledore1 and displayed such an unbecoming quantity of leather1 that1 as ,ned ,hopkins1 a subaltern wit of the village alehouse1 observed1 8however economical their parson might appear1 he was undoubtedly supported in extravagance40 ,nor did the natural association between tithes and 8corn-bags0 escape his observation1 but was repeated with various other allusions of equal piquancy1 to the no small annoyance of the reverend gentleman1 and1 as he declared1 to the disparagement of his cloth4 ,after the social repast had been concluded1 ,tom proposed a ramble through the shrubbery4 ,he was anxious to revisit the scene of his former sports2 and ,louisa readily met his wishes1 for she was also desirous of showing him the botanical clock1 which had been planned and completed since his absence4 ,mr4 ,seymour accompanied his children1 and1 as they walked across the lawn1 ,tom asked his father whether he remembered the promise he had made him on quitting home for school1 that of furnishing him with some new amusements during the holidays4 8,i perfectly remember10 said his father1 8the promise to which you allude1 and ,i hope that you equally well recollect the conditions with which it was coupled4 ,when your mamma gave you a copy of ,mrs4 ,marcet's instructive ,dialogues on ,natural ,philosophy1 ,i told you that1 after you had studied the principles which that work so admirably explains1 you would have but little difficulty in understanding the philosophy of toys1 or the manner in which each produced its amusing effects2 and that1 when the midsummer holidays commenced1 ,i would successively supply you with a new amusement1 whenever you could satisfactorily explain the principles of those you already possessed4 ,was not that our contract80 8,it was10 exclaimed ,tom1 with great eagerness1 8and ,i am sure ,i shall win the prize1 whenever you will try me1 and ,i hope my mamma and sisters will be present40 8,certainly10 replied ,mr4 ,seymour1 8and ,i trust that ,louisa and ,fanny1 who are of an age to understand the subject1 will not prove uninterested spectators4 ,john1 too1 will profit by our scheme2 for1 as ,i shall necessarily require1 for illustration1 certain toys which can scarcely afford any amusement to a boy of your age and acquirements1 it is but fair that they should be transferred into his hands2 our little philosopher1 ,matthew1 will also1 ,i am sure1 enter into the spirit of our pastimes with the greatest satisfaction40 8,thank you6 thank you6 dear papa10 was simultaneously shouted by several voices1 and the happy children looked forward to the morrow with that mixed sensation of impatience and delight which always attends juvenile anticipations4 ,on the following morning1 the vicar was seen approaching1 and ,tom and his sisters immediately ran forward to greet him4 8,my dear boy10 exclaimed the vicar1 8,i am truly rejoiced to see you2--when did you arrive from school8--,how goes on ,virgil8--,hey1 my boy8--,you must be delighted with the great ,mantuan bard2--now confess1 you little ,trojan1 can you eat a cheesecake without being reminded of the ,harpy's prophecy1 and its fulfilment1 as discovered by young ,ascanius3-- ,heus6 etiam mensas consumimus1 inquit ,iulus4 ,n4 vii4 #aaf4 8,but1 bless me1 how amazingly you have grown6 and how healthy you look60 ,tom took advantage of this pause in the vicar's address1 which had hitherto flowed in so uninterrupted and rapid a stream as to preclude the possibility of any reply to his questions1 to inform him that his father was on the lawn1 and desirous of seeing him4 8,mr4 ,twaddleton10 exclaimed ,mr4 ,seymour1 8you are just in time to witness the commencement of a series of amusements1 which ,i have proposed for ,tom's instruction during the holidays40 8,amusement and instruction10 replied the vicar1 8are not synonymous in my vocabulary2 unless1 indeed1 they be applied to the glorious works of ,virgil2 but let me hear your scheme40 8,i have long thought10 said ,mr4 ,seymour1 8that all the first principles of natural philosophy might be easily taught1 and beautifully illustrated1 by the common toys which have been invented for the amusement of youth40 8,a fig for your philosophy10 was the unceremonious and chilling reply of the vicar4 8,what have boys10 continued he1 8to do with philosophy8 ,let them learn their grammar1 scan their hexameters1 and construe ,virgil2 it is time enough to inflict upon them the torments of science after their names have been entered on the ,university boards40 8,i differ from you entirely1 my worthy friend2 the principles of natural philosophy cannot be too early inculcated1 nor can they be too widely diffused4 ,it is surely a great object to engage the prepossessions on the side of truth1 and to direct the natural curiosity of youth to useful objects40 8,hoity toity60 exclaimed the reverend gentleman1 8such principles accord not with my creed2 heresy1 downright heresy2 that a man of your excellent sense and intelligence can be so far deceived6 ,but the world has run mad2 and much do ,i grieve to find1 that the seclusion of ,overton ,lodge has not secured its inmates from the infection4 ,i came here1 ,mr4 ,seymour1 to receive your sympathy1 and to profit by your counsel1 but1 alas6 alas6 ,i have fallen into the camp of the enemy4 #8,medios delapsus in hostes1' as ,virgil has it40 8,you astonish me--what can have happened80 asked ,mr4 ,seymour4 8,there is ,tom ,plank1 the carpenter10 said the vicar1 8soliciting subscriptions for the establishment of a philosophical society4 ,i understand that this mania--for by what other1 or more charitable term can ,i express such conduct8--has seized this deluded man since his return from ,london1 where he has been informed that all the #8hewers of wood and drawers of water' are about to associate themselves into societies for the promotion of science4 ,preposterous idea6 as if a block of wood could not be split without a knowledge of the doctrine of percussion1 nor a pail of water drawn from the well without an acquaintance with hydrostatics2 but1 as ,i am a ,christian priest1 ,i solemnly declare1 that ,i grieve only for my flock1 and raise my feeble voice for no other purpose than that of scaring the wolf from the fold3 to be angry1 as ,pope says1 would be to revenge the faults of others upon ourselves2 but ,i am not angry1 ,mr4 ,seymour1 ,i am vexed1 sorely vexed40 8,take it not thus to heart1 my dear vicar10 replied his consoling friend2 8#8,solve metus1' as your poet has it4 ,science1 ,i admit1 is both the ,pallas and ,pandora of mankind2 its abuse may certainly prove mischievous1 but its sober and well-timed application cannot fail to increase the happiness of every class of mankind1 as well as to advance and improve every branch of the mechanical arts2 so thoroughly am ,i satisfied upon this point1 that ,i shall subscribe to the proposed society with infinite satisfaction40 8,mr4 ,seymour6 ,mr4 ,seymour6 you know not what you do4 ,would you scatter the seeds of insubordination8 manure the weeds of infidelity8 fabricate a battering-ram to demolish our holy church8 ,such1 indeed1 must be the effect of your ,utopian scheme1 for truly may ,i exclaim with the immortal ,maro-- ,in nostros fabricata est machina muros40#c 8,come1 come1 my good friend1 all this is declamation without argument40 8,without argument6 ,many are the sad instances which ,i could adduce in proof of the evil effects which have already accrued from this abominable system4 ,i am not in the habit1 ,sir1 of dealing in empty assertion2 already has the aforesaid ,tom ,plank ventured to question the classical knowledge of his spiritual pastor1 and1 as ,i understand1 has openly avowed himself1 at the sixpenny club1 as my rival in antiquarian pursuits40 8,and why should he not80 said the mischievous ,mr4 ,seymour2 8,i warrant you he already possesses many an old saw2 ay1 and of a very great age1 too1 if we may judge from the loss of its teeth40 ,during this remonstrance1 ,mr4 ,twaddleton had been occupied in whirling round his steel watch-chain with inconceivable rapidity1 and1 after a short pause1 he burst out into the following exclamation3-- 8,worthy ,sir6 if you persist in asserting1 that a man whose occupation is to plane deal1 is prepared to dive into the sacred mysteries of antiquity1 ,i shall next expect to hear that0-- 8,a truce1 a truce10 cried ,mr4 ,seymour1 interrupting the vicar1 8to all such hackneyed objections2 and let us deal plainly with your planer of deals3 you assert that the carpenter cannot speak grammatically1 and yet he gains his livelihood by mending stiles2 you complain of his presumption in argument1 would it not be a desertion of his post to decline railing8 and then1 again1 with respect to his antiquarian pretensions1 compare them with your own2 you rescue saws from the dust1 he obtains dust from his saws40 8,what madness has seized my unfortunate friend8 ,infelix6 qu tanta animum dementia cepit8 as ,virgil has it3--,but let it pass1 let it pass1 ,mr4 ,seymour2 my profession has taught me to bear with humility and patience the contempt and revilings of my brethren2 ,i forgive ,tom ,plank for his presumption1 as in that case ,i alone am the sufferer2 but ,i say to you1 that envy1 trouble1 discontent1 strife1 and poverty1 will be the fruits of the seeds you would scatter4 ,i verily believe1 that unless this #8march of intellect1' as it has been termed1 is speedily checked1 ,overton1 in less than twelve months1 will become a deserted village2 for there is scarcely a tradesman who is not already distracted by some visionary scheme of scientific improvement1 that leads to the neglect of their occupations1 and the dissipation of the honest earnings which their more prudent fathers had accumulated2 #8,meliora pii docuere parentes1' as the poet has it4 ,what think you of ,sam ,corkington1 who proposes to erect an apparatus in the crater of ,mount ,vesuvius1 in order to supply every city on the continent with heat and light2 or of ,billy ,spooner1 who is about to establish a dairy at ,spitzbergen1 that he may furnish all ,europe with ice-cream from the milk of whales6 #8,o1 viveret ,democritus6'0 ,the vicar was about to proceed with his lamentations1 but the thread of his discourse was suddenly snapped asunder1 and his ideas thrown into the wildest confusion1 by the explosion of a most audacious pun1 which in mercy to ,mr4 ,seymour1 as well as to our readers1 we will not repeat4 8,mr4 ,seymour10 exclaimed the incensed vicar1 8we will1 if you please1 terminate our discourse2 ,i perceive that you are determined to meet my remonstrances with ridicule2 when ,i had hoped to bring an argument incapable of refutation1 ,tum vari illudunt pestes1 as ,virgil has it40 8,pray1 allow me to ask10 said ,mr4 ,seymour1 8whether my puns1 or your quotations1 best merit the title of pestes80 8,that you should compare the vile practice of punning with the elegant and refined habit of conveying our ideas by classic symbols1 does indeed surprise and disturb me4 ,pope has said that words are the counters by which men represent their thoughts2 the plebeian10 continued the vicar1 8selects base metal for their construction1 while the scholar forms them of gold and gems1 dug from the richest mines of antiquity4 ,but to what vile purpose does the punster prostitute such counters8 ,not for the interchange of ideas1 but1 like the juggler1 to deceive and astonish by acts of legerdemain40 8,how fortunate is it that you had not lived in the reign of ,king ,james10 remarked ,mr4 ,seymour2 8for that singular monarch1 as you may1 perhaps1 remember1 made very few bishops who had not thus signalised themselves40 8,to poison our ears by quibbles and quirks did well become him who sought to deceive our senses and blind our reason--the patron of puns and the believer in witchcraft were suitably united10 replied the vicar4 8,well10 said ,mr4 ,seymour1 8as this is a subject upon which it is not likely that we should agree1 ,i will pass to another1 where ,i hope to be more successful2 ,i trust ,i shall induce you to view with more complacency my project of teaching philosophy by the aid of toys and sports40 8,mr4 ,seymour1 the proposal of instructing children in the principles of natural philosophy1 is really too visionary to require calm discussion2 and can be equalled only in absurdity by the method you propose for carrying it into effect40 8,come1 come1 my dear vicar1 pray chain up your prejudices1 and let your kind spirit loose for half an hour3 let me beg that you will so far indulge me10 said ,mr4 ,seymour1 8as to listen patiently to the plan by which it is my intention to turn sport into science1 or1 in other words1 toys into instruments of philosophical instruction40 8,and is it then possible10 said the vicar1 in a tone of supplication1 8that you can seriously entertain so wild1 and1 ,i might even add1 so cruel a scheme8 ,would you pursue the luckless little urchin from the schoolroom into the very playground1 with your unrelenting tyranny8 a sanctuary which the most rigid pedagogue has hitherto held inviolable4 ,is the buoyant spirit so forcibly1 though perhaps necessarily1 repressed1 during the hours of discipline1 to have no interval for its free and uncontrolled expansion8 ,your science1 methinks1 ,mr4 ,seymour1 might have taught you a wiser lesson2 for you must well know that the most elastic body will lose that property by being constantly kept in a state of tension40 8,a fine specimen of sophistry1 upon my word10 cried ,mr4 ,seymour1 8which would1 doubtless1 raise every nursery-governess and doating grandmother in open rebellion against me3 but let me add1 that it ill becomes a man of liberal and enlarged ideas1 to suffer his opinions to be the sport of mere words2 for1 that our present difference is an affair of words1 and of words only1 ,i will undertake to prove1 to the satisfaction of any unprejudiced person4 ,play and work--amusement and instruction--toys and tasks--are invariably but most unjustifiably employed as words of contrast and opposition2 an error which has arisen from the indistinct and very indefinite ideas which we attach to such words4 ,if the degree of mental exertion be said to constitute the difference between play and work1 ,i am quite sure that the definition would be violated in the first illustration2 for let me ask1 when do boys exert so much thought as in carrying into effect their holiday schemes8 ,the distinction may1 perhaps1 be made to turn upon the irksome feelings which might be supposed to attend the drudgery of study1 but this can never happen except from a vicious system of education that excludes the operations of thought2 a school that locks in the body1 but locks out the mind3 depend upon it1 ,mr4 ,twaddleton1 that the human mind1 whether in youth or manhood1 is ever gratified by the acquisition of information2 every occupation soon cloys1 unless it be seasoned by this stimulant4 ,is not the child idle and miserable in a nursery full of playthings1 and to what expedient does he instinctively fly to relieve his ennui8 ,why1 he breaks his toys to pieces1 as ,miss ,edgeworth justly observes1 not from the love of mischief1 but from the hatred of idleness1 or rather from an innate thirst after knowledge2 and he becomes1 as it were1 an enterprising adventurer1 and opens for himself a new source of pleasure and amusement1 in exploring the mechanism of their several parts4 ,think you1 then1 ,mr4 ,twaddleton1 that any assistance which might be offered the boy1 under such circumstances1 would be received by him as a task8 ,certainly not4 ,the acquisition of knowledge then1 instead of detracting from1 must heighten the amusement of toys2 and if ,i have succeeded in convincing you of this truth1 my object is accomplished40 ,thus did ,mr4 ,seymour1 like an able general1 assail his adversary on his own ground2 he drove him1 as it were1 into a corner1 and by seizing the only pass through which he could make his escape1 forced him to surrender at discretion4 8,why1 truly10 replied the vicar1 after a short pause1 8,i am ready to admit that there is much good sense in your observations2 and1 if the scientific instruction upon these occasions be not carried so far as to puzzle the boy1 ,i am inclined to coincide with you40 8,therein lies the whole secret10 said ,mr4 ,seymour3 8when an occupation agreeably interests the understanding1 imagination1 or passions of children1 it is what is commonly understood by the term play or sport2 whereas that which is not accompanied with such associations1 and yet may be necessary for their future welfare1 is1 properly enough1 designated as a task40 8,i like the distinction10 observed the vicar4 8,then may ,i hope that you will indulge me so far as to listen to the scheme by which it is my intention to turn #8,sport into ,science1' or1 in other words1 ,toys into instruments of ,philosophical ,instruction80 ,the vicar nodded assent4 ,mr4 ,seymour proceeded--8,in the first place1 ,i would give the boy some general notions with regard to the properties of matter1 such as its gravitation1 vis inerti1 elasticity1 c4 ,what apparatus can be required for such a purpose1 beyond some of the more simple toys8 ,indeed1 ,i will undertake to demonstrate the three grand laws of motion by a game at ball2 while the composition and resolution of forces may be beautifully exemplified during a game of marbles1 especially that of #8ring-taw2' but in order that you may more clearly comprehend the capability of my plan1 allow me to enumerate the various philosophical principles which are involved in the operation of the several more popular toys and sports4 ,we will commence with the ball2 which will illustrate the nature and phenomena of elasticity1 as it leaps from the ground2--of rotatory motion1 while it runs along its surface2--of reflected motion1 and of the angles of incidence and reflection1 as it rebounds from the wall2--and of projectiles1 as it is whirled through the air2 at the same time the cricket-bat may serve to explain the centre of percussion4 ,a game at marbles may be made subservient to the same purposes1 and will farther assist us in conveying clear ideas upon the subject of the collision of elastic and non-elastic bodies1 and of their velocities and direction after impact4 ,the composition and resolution of forces may be explained at the same time4 ,the nature of elastic springs will require no other apparatus for its elucidation than ,jack in the box1 and the numerous leaping-frogs and cats with which the nursery abounds4 ,the leathern sucker will exemplify the nature of cohesion1 and the effect of water in filling up those inequalities by which contiguous surfaces are deprived of their attractive power2 it will1 at the same time1 demonstrate the nature of a vacuum1 and the influence of atmospheric pressure4 ,the squirt will afford a farther illustration of the same views1 and will furnish a practical proof of the weight of the atmosphere in raising a column of water4 ,the theory of the pump will necessarily follow4 ,the great elasticity of air1 and the opposite property of water1 ,i shall be able to show by the amusing exhibition of the #8,bottle ,imps4'0 8,bottle ,imps6--#8,acheronta movebis1'0 muttered the vicar4 ,mr4 ,seymour continued--8,the various balancing toys will elucidate the nature of the centre of gravity1 point of suspension1 and line of direction3 the seesaw1 rocking-horse1 and the operation of walking on stilts1 will here come in aid of our explanations4 ,the combined effects of momentum and a change in the centre of gravity of a body may be beautifully exemplified by the action of the ,chinese ,tumblers4 ,the sling will demonstrate the existence and effect of centrifugal force2 the top and tetotum will prove the power of vertiginous motion to support the axis of a body in an upright position4 ,the trundling of the hoop will accomplish the same and other objects4 ,the game of bilboquet1 or cup and ball1 will show the influence of rotatory motion in steadying the rectilinear path of a spherical body1 whence the theory of the rifle-gun may be deduced4 ,for conveying some elementary ideas of the doctrine of oscillation1 there is the swing4 ,the flight of the arrow will not only elucidate the principles of projectiles1 but will explain the force of the air in producing rotatory motion by its impact on oblique surfaces3 the revolution of the shuttlecock may be shown to depend upon the same resolution of forces4 ,then comes the kite1 one of the most instructive and amusing of all the pastimes of youth1--the favourite toy of ,newton in his boyish days3#d--;its ascent at once developes the theory of the composition and resolution of forces1 and explains various subordinate principles1 which ,i shall endeavour to describe when we arrive at the subject4 ,the see-saw will unfold the general principle upon which the ,mechanical ,powers are founded2 and the boy may thus be easily led to the theory of the lever1 by being shown how readily he can balance the heavier weight of a man by riding on the longer arm of the plank4 ,the theory of colours may be pointed out to him as he blows his soap-bubbles2#e an amusement which will1 at the same time1 convince him that the air must exert a pressure equally in all directions4 ,for explaining the theory of sound1 there are the whistle1 the humming-top1 the whiz-gig1 the pop-gun1 the bull-roarer1 and sundry other amusements well known in the play-ground2 but it is not my intention1 at present1 to enumerate all the toys which may be rendered capable of affording philosophical instruction2 ,i merely wish to convince you that my plan is not quite so chimerical as you were at first inclined to believe40 8,upon my word10 said the vicar1 8no squirrel ever hopped from branch to branch with more agility1--you are the very counterpart of ,cornelius ,scriblerus2 but ,i must confess that your scheme is plausible1 very plausible1 and ,i shall no longer refuse to attend you in the progress of its execution4 ,cedo equidem1 nec1 nate1 tibi comes ire recuso1#f as ,virgil has it40 ,mr4 ,seymour1 however1 saw very plainly that1 although the vicar thus withdrew his opposition1 he was nevertheless very far from embarking in the cause with enthusiasm1 and that1 upon the principle already discussed1 he would perform his part rather as a task than a pastime4 ,nor was the line which ,mr4 ,twaddleton had quoted from the neid calculated to efface such an impression4 ,it was true1 that1 like ,anchises1 he no longer refused to accompany him in his expedition2 but1 if the comparison were to run parallel1 it was evident that he would have to carry him as a dead weight on his shoulders4 ,this difficulty1 however1 was speedily surmounted by an expedient1 with which the reader will become acquainted by the recital of what followed4 8,i rejoice greatly10 said ,mr4 ,seymour1 8that we have at length succeeded in enlisting you into our service2 without your able assistance1 ,i fear that my instruction would be extremely imperfect2 for you must know1 my dear sir1 that ,i am ambitious of making ,tom an antiquary as well as a philosopher1 and ,i look to you for a history of the several toys which ,i shall have occasion to introduce40 ,this propitiatory sentence had its desired effect4 8,most cheerfully shall ,i comply with your wishes10 exclaimed the delighted vicar2 8and ,i can assure you1 sir1 that1 with regard to several of the more popular toys and pastimes1 there is much very curious and interesting lore40 ,mr4 ,seymour had upon this occasion succeeded in opening the heart of the vicar1 just as a skilful mechanic would pick a patent lock2 who1 instead of forcing it by direct violence1 seeks to discover the secret spring to which all its various movements are subservient4 8,to-morrow1 then10 cried the vicar1 in a voice of great exultation1 8we will commence our career1 from which ,i anticipate the highest satisfaction and advantage2 in the mean time10 continued he1 8,i will refresh my memory upon certain points touching the antiquities of these said pastimes1 or1 as we used to say at college1 get up the subject4 ,i will also press into our service my friend and neighbour ,jeremy ,prybabel1 whose etymological knowledge will greatly assist us in tracing the origin of many of the words used in our sports1 which is frequently not very obvious40 ,mr4 ,seymour cast an intelligible glance at his wife1 who was no less surprised at the sudden change in the vicar's sentiments than she was pleased with the skill and address by which it had been accomplished4 ,illustration3 ,kite with a smiling face1 on a table with various other toys4 ----- ,footnote #c3 8,an engine's raised to batter down our walls40--,n4 ii4 #df4 ,footnote #d3 ,sir ,isaac ,newton is said to have been much attached to ,philosophical sports when a boy2 he was the first to introduce paper kites at ,grantham1 where he was at school4 ,he took pains to find out their proper proportions and figure1 and the proper place for fixing the string to them4 ,he made lanterns of paper crimpled1 which he used to go to school by in winter mornings with a candle1 and he tied them to the tail of his kites in a dark night1 which at first frightened the country people exceedingly1 who took his candles for comets4--,thomson's ,hist4 of ,r4,s4 ,footnote #e3 ,the colours which glitter on a soap-bubble are the immediate consequence of a principle the most important from the variety of phenomena it explains1 and the most beautiful from its simplicity and compendious neatness in the whole science of ,optics4--,herschel's ,preliminary ,discourses4 ,footnote #f3 8,i yield1 my son1 and no longer refuse to become your companion40--,n4 ii4 #gjd4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,illustration3 ,seven people gathered around a well4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,on ,gravitation4--,weight4--,the ,velocity of ,falling ,bodies4--,at what ,altitude a ,body would lose its ,gravity4--,the ,tower of ,babel4--,the known ,velocity of ,sound affords the means of calculating ,distances4--,an ,excursion to ,overton ,well4--,an ,experiment to ascertain its ,depth4--,a ,visit to the ,vicarage4--,the ,magic ,gallery4--,return to the ,lodge4 ,it was about two o'clock1 when ,mr4 ,twaddleton1 in company with ,mr4 and ,mrs4 ,seymour1 joined the children on the lawn4 8,tom10 said his father1 8are you prepared to commence the proposed examination80 8,quite ready1 papa40 8,then you must first inform me10 said ,mr4 ,seymour1 taking the ball out of ,rosa's hand1 8why this ball falls to the ground1 as soon as ,i withdraw from it the support of my hand80 8,because every heavy body that is not supported1 must of course fall40 8,and every light one also1 my dear2 but that is no answer to my question2 you merely assert the fact1 without explaining the reason40 8,oh6 now ,i understand you2 it is owing to the force of gravity2 the earth attracts the ball1 and the consequence is1 that they both come in contact2--is not that right80 8,certainly2 but if the earth attract the ball1 it is equally true that the ball must attract the earth2 for you have1 doubtless1 learnt that bodies mutually attract each other2 tell me1 therefore1 why the earth should not rise to meet the ball80 8,because the earth is so much larger and heavier than the ball40 8,it is1 doubtless1 much larger1 and since the force of attraction is in proportion to the mass1 or quantity of matter1 you cannot be surprised at not perceiving the earth rise to meet the ball1 the attraction of the latter being so infinitely small1 in comparison with that of the former1 as to render its effect wholly nugatory2 but with regard to the earth being heavier than the ball1 what will you say when ,i tell you that it has no weight at all80 8,no weight at all60 ,tom begged that his father would explain to him how it could possibly be that the earth should not possess any weight4 8,weight1 my dear boy1 you will readily understand1 can be nothing more than an effect arising out of the resisted attraction of a body for the earth3 you have just stated1 that all bodies have a tendency to fall1 in consequence of the attraction of gravitation2 but if they be supported1 and prevented from approaching the earth1 either by the hand1 or any other appropriate means1 their tendency will be felt1 and is called weight40 ,tom understood this explanation1 and observed1 that 8since attraction was always in proportion to the quantity of matter1 so1 of course1 a larger body must be more powerfully attracted1 or be heavier1 than a smaller one40 8,magnitude1 or size1 my dear1 has nothing whatever to do with quantity of matter3 will not a small piece of lead weigh more than a large piece of sponge8 ,in the one case1 the particles of matter may be supposed to be packed in a smaller compass2 in the other1 there must exist a greater number of pores or interstices40 8,i understand all you have said10 observed ,louisa1 8and yet ,i am unable to comprehend why the earth cannot be said to have any weight40 8,cannot you discover10 answered ,mr4 ,seymour1 8that1 since the earth has nothing to attract it1 it cannot have any attraction to resist1 and1 consequently1 according to the ordinary acceptation of the term1 it cannot be correctly said to possess weight8 although ,i confess that1 when viewed in relation to the solar system1 a question will arise upon this subject1 since it is attracted by the sun40 ,the children declared themselves satisfied with this explanation1 and ,mr4 ,seymour proceeded to put another question3 8,since10 continued he1 8you now understand the nature of that force by which bodies fall to the earth1 can you tell me the degree of velocity with which they fall80 ,tom asserted that the weight of the body1 or its quantity of matter1 and its distance from the surface of the earth1 must1 in every case1 determine that circumstance2 but ,mr4 ,seymour excited his surprise by saying1 that it would not be influenced by either of those conditions2 he informed them1 for instance1 that a cannon-ball1 and a marble1 would fall through the same number of feet in a given time1 and that1 whether the experiment were tried from the top of a house1 or from the summit of ,saint ,paul's1 the same result would be obtained4 8,i am quite sure10 exclaimed ,tom1 8that1 in the ,conversations on ,natural ,philosophy1 it is positively stated1 that attraction is always in proportion to the quantity of matter40 8,yes10 observed ,louisa1 8and it is moreover asserted1 that the attraction diminishes as the distances increase40 ,mr4 ,seymour said1 that he perceived the error under which his children laboured1 and that he would endeavour to remove it4 8,you cannot1 my dears10 continued he1 8divest your minds of that erroneous but natural feeling1 that a body necessarily falls to the ground without the exertion of any force3 whereas1 the greater the quantity of matter1 the greater must be the force exerted to bring it to the earth3 for instance1 a substance which weighs a hundred pounds will thus require just ten times more force than one which only weighs ten pounds2 and hence it must follow1 that both will come to the ground at the same moment2 for1 although1 in the one case1 there is ten times more matter1 there is1 at the same time1 ten times more attraction to overcome its resistance2 for you have already admitted that the force of attraction is always in proportion to the quantity of matter4 ,now let us only for an instant1 for the sake merely of argument1 suppose that attraction had been a force acting without any regard to quantity of matter1 is it not evident that1 in such a case1 the body containing the largest quantity would be the slowest in falling to the earth80 8,i understand you1 papa10 cried ,tom3 8if an empty waggon travelled four miles an hour1 and were afterwards so loaded as to have its weight doubled1 it could only travel at the rate of two miles in the same period1 provided that in both cases the horses exerted the same strength40 8,exactly10 said ,mr4 ,seymour2 8and to follow up your illustration1 it is only necessary to state1 that ,nature1 like a considerate master1 always apportions the number of horses to the burthen that is to be moved1 so that her loads1 whatever may be their weight1 always travel at the same rate2 or1 to express the fact in philosophical instead of figurative language1 gravitation1 or the force of the earth's attraction1 always increases as the quantity of matter1 and1 consequently1 that heavy and light bodies1 when dropped together from the same altitude1 must come to the ground at the same instant of time40 ,louisa had listened with great attention to this explanation2 and although she thoroughly understood the argument1 yet it appeared to her at variance with so many facts with which she was acquainted1 that she could not give implicit credence to it4 8,i think10 papa1 said the archly-smiling girl1 8,i could overturn this fine argument by a very simple experiment40 8,indeed6 ,miss ,sceptic3 then pray proceed2 and ,i think we shall find1 that the more strenuously you oppose it1 the more powerful it will become3 but let us hear your objections40 8,i shall only10 replied she1 8drop a shilling1 and a piece of paper1 from my bed-room window upon the lawn1 and request that you will observe which of them reaches the ground first2 if ,i am not much mistaken1 you will find that the coin will strike the earth before the paper has performed half its journey40 ,tom appeared perplexed1 and cast an enquiring look at his father4 8,come10 said ,mr4 ,seymour1 8,i will perform this experiment myself1 and endeavour to satisfy the doubts of our young sceptic2 but ,i must first take the opportunity to observe1 that ,i am never better pleased than when you attempt to raise difficulties in my way1 and ,i hope you will always express them without reserve40 8,here1 then1 is a penny piece2 and here10 said ,tom1 8is a piece of paper40 8,which10 continued ,mr4 ,seymour1 8we will cut into a corresponding shape and size40 ,this having been accomplished1 he held the coin in one hand1 and the paper disc in the other1 and dropped them at the same instant4 8,there6 there60 cried ,louisa1 with an air of triumph2 8the coin reached the ground long before the paper40 8,i allow10 said ,mr4 ,seymour1 8that there was a distinct interval in favour of the penny piece20 and he proceeded to explain the cause of it4 ,he stated that the result was not contrary to the law of gravitation1 since it arose from the interference of a foreign body1 the air1 to the resistance of which it was to be attributed2 and he desired them to consider the particles of a falling body as being under the influence of two opposing forces1--gravity1 and the air's resistance4 ,louisa argued1 that the air could only act on the surface of a body1 and as this was equal in both cases 7the size of the paper being exactly the same as that of the penny piece71 she could not see why the resistance of the air should not also be equal in both cases4 8,i admit10 said ,mr4 ,seymour1 8that the air can only act upon the surface of a falling body1 and this is the very reason of the paper meeting with more resistance than the coin2 for the latter1 from its greater density1 must contain many more particles than the paper1 and upon which the air cannot possibly exert any action2 whereas almost every particle of the paper may be said to be exposed to its resistance1 the fall of the latter must therefore be more retarded than that of the former body40 ,at this explanation ,louisa's doubts began to clear off1 and they were ultimately dispelled on ,mr4 ,seymour performing a modification of the above experiment in the following manner4 ,he placed the disc of paper in close contact with the upper part of the coin1 and1 in this position1 dropped them from his hand4 ,they both reached the ground at the same instant4 8,are you now satisfied1 my dear ,louisa80 asked her father4 8,you perceive that1 by placing the paper in contact with the coin1 ,i skreened it from the action of the air1 and the result is surely conclusive40 8,many thanks to you1 dear papa2 ,i am perfectly satisfied1 and shall feel less confident for the future40 ,tom was delighted2 for1 as he said1 he could now understand why ,john's paper parachute descended so deliberately to the ground2 he could also explain why feathers1 and other light bodies1 floated in the air4 8,well then10 said ,mr4 ,seymour1 8having settled this knotty point1 let us proceed to the other question1 viz4 #8that a body will fall with the same velocity1 during a given number of feet1 from the ball of ,st4 ,paul's as from the top of a house4' ,you maintain1 ,i believe1 that1 since the attraction of the earth for a body diminishes as its distance from it increases1#g a substance at a great height ought to fall more slowly than one which is dropped from a less altitude40 ,neither ,tom nor ,louisa could think otherwise4 ,mr4 ,seymour told them that1 in theory1 they were perfectly correct1 but that1 since attraction acted from the centre1 and not from the surface of the earth1 the difference of its force could not be discovered at the small elevations to which they could have access3 8for what10 said he1 8can a few hundred feet be in comparison with four thousand miles1 which is the distance from the centre to the surface of our globe8--,you must therefore perceive that1 in all ordinary calculations respecting the velocity of falling bodies1 we may safely exclude such a consideration40 8,but suppose10 said ,tom1 8it were possible to make the experiment a thousand miles above the earth1 would not the diminished effect of gravity be discovered in that case80 8,undoubtedly10 replied his father1 8indeed it would be sensible at a much less distance3 for instance1 if a lump of lead1 weighing a thousand pounds1 were carried up only four miles1 it would be found to have lost two pounds of its weight40 7#b7 8,this discussion10 observed ,mr4 ,twaddleton1 8reminds me of a problem that was once proposed at ,cambridge1 to find the elevation to which the ,tower of ,babel could have been raised1 before the stones would have entirely lost their gravity40 8,its solution10 said ,mr4 ,seymour1 8would require a consideration which ,tom could not possibly understand at present1 viz4 the influence of the centrifugal force40 8,i am fully aware of it10 replied the vicar1 8and in order to appreciate that influence1 it would1 of course1 be necessary to take into account the latitude of the place2 but1 if my memory serves me1 ,i think that under the latitude of #cj1 which ,i believe is nearly that of the plains of ,mesopotamia1 the height would be somewhere about twenty-four thousand miles40 ,mr4 ,seymour now desired ,tom to inform him1 since all bodies fall with the same velocity1 what that velocity might be4 8,sixteen feet in a second1 papa2--,i have just remembered that ,i had a dispute with a school-fellow upon that subject1 and in which1 thanks to ,mrs4 ,marcet1 ,i came off victorious1 and won twelve marbles40 8,then let me tell you1 my fine fellow1 that unless your answer exclusively related to the first second of time1 you did not win the marbles fairly2 for1 since the force of gravity is continually acting1 so is the velocity of a falling body continually increasing1 or it has what is termed an #8accelerating velocity2' it has accordingly been ascertained by accurate experiments1 that a body descending from a considerable height falls sixteen feet1 as you say1 in the first second of time2 but three times sixteen in the next2 five times sixteen in the third2 and seven times sixteen in the fourth2 and so on1 continually increasing according to the odd numbers #a1 #c1 #e1 #g1 #i1 #aa1 c4 so that you perceive10 continued ,mr4 ,seymour1 8by observing the number of seconds which a stone requires to descend from any height1 we can discover the altitude1 or depth1 of the place in question40 ,louisa and ,fanny1 who had been attentively listening to their father's explanation1 interchanged a smile of satisfaction1 and1 pulling ,tom towards them1 whispered something which was inaudible to the rest of the party4 8,come1 now10 exclaimed ,mr4 ,seymour1 8,i perceive by your looks that you have something to ask of me3 is ,louisa sceptical again80 8,oh dear no10 replied ,tom2 8,louisa merely observed1 that we might now be able to find out the depth of the village well1 about which we have all been very curious2 for the gardener has told us that it is the deepest in the kingdom1 and was dug more than a hundred years ago40 ,mr4 ,seymour did not believe that it was the deepest in the kingdom1 although he knew that its depth was considerable2 and he said that1 if ,mr4 ,twaddleton had no objection1 they should walk to it1 and make the proposed experiment4 8,objection6 my dear ,mr4 ,seymour1 when do ,i ever object to afford pleasure to my little playmates1 provided its indulgence be harmless8 ,let us proceed at once1 and on our return ,i hope you will favour me with a visit at the vicarage2 ,i have some antiquities which ,i am anxious to exhibit to yourself and ,mrs4 ,seymour40 ,tom and ,rosa each took the vicar's hand1 and ,mr4 and ,mrs4 ,seymour followed with ,louisa and ,fanny4 ,the village well was about half a mile distant2 the road to it led through a delightful shady lane1 at the top of which stood the vicarage-house4 ,mr4 and ,mrs4 ,seymour and her daughters had lingered in their way to collect botanical specimens2 and when they had come up to ,tom and the vicar1 they found them seated on the trunk of a newly-felled oak1 in deep discourse4 8,what interests you1 ,tom80 said ,mr4 ,seymour1 who perceived1 by the enquiring and animated countenance of the boy1 that his attention had been excited by some occurrence4 8,i have been watching the woodman10 said ,tom1 8and have been surprised that the sound of his hatchet was not heard until some time after he had struck the tree40 8,and has not ,mr4 ,twaddleton explained to you the reason of it80 asked ,mr4 ,seymour4 8,he has10 replied ,tom1 8and he tells me that it is owing to sound travelling so much more slowly than light40 8,you are quite right2 and as we are upon an expedition for the purpose of measuring depths1 it may not be amiss to inform you1 that this fact furnishes another method of calculating distances40 ,the party seated themselves upon the oak1 and ,mr4 ,seymour proceeded--8,the stroke of the axe is seen at the moment the woodman makes it1 on account of the immense velocity with which light travels27#c7 but the noise of the blow will not reach the ear until some time has elapsed1 the period varying1 of course1 in proportion to the distance1 because sound moves only at the rate of #aadb feet in a second1 or about #ac miles in a minute2 so that you perceive1 by observing the time that elapses between the fall of the hatchet and the sound produced by it1 we can ascertain the distance of the object40 ,mr4 ,seymour fixed his eye attentively on the woodman1 and1 after a short pause1 declared that he was about half a quarter of a mile distant4 8,why1 how could you discover that80 cried ,louisa2 8you had not any watch in your hand40 8,but10 said ,mr4 ,seymour1 8you might have perceived that ,i placed my finger on my wrist1 and as my pulse beats about #ge strokes in a minute1 ,i was able to form a tolerable estimate of the interval1 although ,i confess that it is a very rough experiment1 but sufficiently accurate for the purpose of illustration4 ,in the same manner we can readily ascertain the distance of a thundercloud1 or that of a vessel at sea firing a cannon4 ,if we do not hear the thunder till half a minute after we see the lightning1 we are to conclude the cloud to be at the distance of six miles and a half4 ,but let us proceed to the well40 ,after a walk of a few minutes1 the party reached the place of destination4 ,on their arrival ,mr4 ,seymour enquired who would count the time4 8,be that office mine10 said ,mr4 ,twaddleton1 as he extracted a large silver time-piece from the dark abyss of his watch-pocket2 8and let ,tom10 continued he1 8find a pebble40 8,here is one10 cried ,louisa4 8,very well3 now1 then1 how will you proceed80 asked ,mr4 ,seymour4 8,i shall drop the stone10 replied ,tom1 8into the well1 and observe how many seconds it will be before it touches the water1 and ,i shall then set down the number of feet it will fall in each second1 and add up the numbers40 8,that10 said ,mr4 ,seymour1 8would certainly accomplish your object2 but ,i can give you a neater1 as well as a shorter rule for performing the sum3 you shall1 however1 first work it in your own way2--but you have not yet informed me how you propose to ascertain the moment at which the stone reaches the water40 8,by the sound1 to be sure1 papa2 and you will find that a very loud one will be produced40 8,if the depth of the well be considerable1 such a plan will not answer the purpose1 since1 in that case1 there must necessarily be a perceptible interval between the fall of the stone and the sound produced by it1 as you have just seen exemplified by the woodman1 which1 unless taken into account17#d7 will vitiate the result40 ,tom observed that he had not thought of that difficulty1 and did not know how he could get over it4 ,his father told him1 that he must look at the surface of the water1 and mark the moment it was disturbed by the stone4 8,now1 ,mr4 ,twaddleton10 exclaimed ,mr4 ,seymour1 8are you ready to count the seconds80 8,quite ready40 8,then drop the stone40 8,one1--two1--three1--four--0 8,there10 said ,tom1 8it touched the water40 8,and there1 there10 cried several voices1 8what a noise it made60 8,facilis descensus ,averni10 exclaimed the vicar2 8the stone descended in four seconds40 8,now1 my boy1 make your calculation40 ,mr4 ,seymour furnished pencil and paper1 and ,tom proceeded2--8,sixteen feet for the first second1--,i put that down40-- 8,well10 said his father1 8and three times sixteen for the second80 8,forty-eight10 cried ,tom4-- 8,put it down40 8,five times sixteen1 for the third80 8,eighty40-- 8,down with it40 8,and seven times sixteen1 for the fourth80 8,one hundred and twelve40 8,now1 cast up these numbers10 said ,mr4 ,seymour4 8,two hundred and fifty-six feet10 cried ,tom1 8is the depth of the well40 ,a shout of delight1 from the whole juvenile party1 announced the satisfaction which they felt at the success of their first experiment in ,,natural ,,philosophy4 ,louisa observed1 that she could not distinguish any interval between the actual contact of the stone with the water and the sound which it produced4 8,at so small a distance as two hundred and fifty-six feet10 said her father1 8the interval could not have exceeded in duration the fourth part of a second1 and was1 consequently1 imperceptible3 we might therefore1 in the present instance1 have accepted the sound as a signal of the stone's arrival at the water1 without prejudice to the result of the experiment40 ,mr4 ,seymour told his son1 that the method which he had pursued was unobjectionable when the experiment did not extend beyond a few seconds3 but that1 if a case occurred in which a greater space of time were consumed1 he would find his plan tedious3 8,now10 continued he1 8,i will give you a general rule that will enable you to obtain the answer in a shorter time without the details of addition4 #8,the spaces described by a falling body increase as the squares of the times increase4' ,i conclude that you already know that the square of a number is the sum obtained by multiplying the number into itself40 8,certainly10 answered ,tom2 8the square of #d is #af2 that of #c1 #i1 and so on40 8,this1 then1 being the case1 you have only to square the number of seconds1 and then multiply that product by #af1 being the space described by the falling body in the first second1 and you will have the required answer3 apply this rule to the present case2 the stone fell to the bottom in four seconds2 square this number1 #ddaf2 multiply this by #af1 and we obtain #bef40 8,that10 said ,tom1 8is certainly much more simple than my method40 8,and it has the advantage10 continued ,mr4 ,seymour1 8of being more portable for the memory40 8,should any of the villagers observe us10 said ,mrs4 ,seymour1 8they will take us for a party of fortune-tellers40 8,of fortune-tellers60 repeated ,louisa1 with surprise4 8,yes1 my dear10 replied ,mrs4 ,seymour1 8there is a foolish superstition attached to this1 and ,i believe to many other wells in the neighbourhood of remote villages1 that by dropping pebbles into it1 and observing whether they produce a loud1 or only a slight sound1 and noticing the number of times they rebound from the sides before they reach the bottom1 and other absurd distinctions1 a person can predict whether good or evil awaits them40 7#e7 ,mrs4 ,seymour now proposed the party's return to the ,lodge2 but ,mr4 ,twaddleton expressed a hope that they would first favour him with a visit at the vicarage2 to which proposition they readily assented4 ,his antiquated residence1 mantled in ivy1 and shaded by cypress1 stood on the confines of the church-yard1 from which his grounds were merely separated by a dwarf hedge of sweet-brier and roses2 so that the vicar might be said to reside amidst the graves of his departed parishioners1 and the turf-clad heap evinced the influence of his fostering care by a grateful return of primroses and violets4 ,around the house the reverend antiquary had arranged several precious relics1 which were too cumbrous for admission within its walls2 amongst these was an ancient cross1 raised upon a platform on four steps1 which from the worn appearance of the stones had evidently been impressed with the foot of many a wandering pilgrim4 ,these mouldering monuments of ancient days cast a shade of solemnity around the dwelling1 and announced its inmate as a person of no ordinary stamp4 ,annette1 the vicar's trusty servant1 had watched the approach of the squire and his family1 and1 anticipating the honour of a passing visit1 was busily engaged in removing the chequed covers from the cumbrous oaken chairs1 and the various other bibs and tuckers with which his curiosities were invested1 when the party entered the study4 ,lucky was it for the vicar's repose1 that the notice had been so short1 or the tidy housewife would1 without doubt1 have scoured some of the antique commodities1 and destroyed a crop of sacred verdure1 which ages could not have replenished4 ,as matters stood1 nothing was left for poor ,annette1 but to defend her character at the expense of her master1 who she declared treated her as though she was an old witch1 whenever she was seen with a broom4 8,why1 papa10 exclaimed ,tom1 as he cast his eyes around the study1 8all these curiosities have been put up since ,i went to school40 8,the boy is right10 said the vicar2 8,i have only just completed their arrangement1 and ,i believe10 continued he1 addressing himself to ,mr4 ,seymour1 8that there are several rich morsels of antiquity which you have not yet seen3 but ,i must1 in the first place1 introduce my young friends to the wonders of my magic gallery2 wherein they may converse with the spirits of departed emperors1 heroes1 patriots1 sages1 and beauties2--contemplate1 at their leisure1 the countenances of the ,alexanders1 ,csars1 ,pompeys1 and ,trajans2--behold a legion of allegorical and airy beings1 who have here1 for the first time1 assumed appropriate and substantial forms3--examine the models of ancient temples and triumphal arches1 which1 although coeval with the edifices they represent1 are as perfect as at the first moment of their construction1 while the originals have long since crumbled into dust4 ,they shall also see volumes of history1 condensed into a space of a few inches1 and read the substance of a hundred pages at a single glance40 8,how extraordinary60 said ,tom3 8why we never read anything more wonderful in our ,fairy ,tales40 8,and what renders it more wonderful10 replied the vicar1 8is its being all true40 ,so saying1 the antiquary took a key of pigmy dimensions from the pocket of his waistcoat1 and proceeded to a cumbrous ebony cabinet which stood in a deep recess1 and displayed an antique structure1 and curiously carved allegorical devices1 in strict unison with that air of mystery with which the vicar had thought proper to invest its contents4 ,it was supported by gigantic eagles' claws2 its key-hole was surrounded by hissing snakes2 while the head of ,cerberus1 which constituted the handle1 appeared as if placed to guard the entrance4 ,the children were upon the tiptoe of expectation and impatience--the vicar applied the key with the wonder-stirring exclamation of 8,,open ,,sesama60--the lock yielded1 and the doors flew open4 ,disappointment and chagrin were visibly depicted on the countenances of the brother and sisters4 8,and so10 exclaimed ,tom1 8this fine magic gallery turns out to be nothing more than a box full of rusty halfpence60 8,i am sure10 said ,louisa1 8it was quite unnecessary to have engaged ,cerberus as a sentinel over such rubbish40 8,hush60 cried the vicar2 8you talk like one not initiated in the mysteries of enchantment3 have you not read1 that under its spells the meanest objects have assumed forms of splendour and magnificence80 #h 8,like the fabled touch of the ,phrygian monarch10 said ,mrs4 ,seymour1 8which we are told transmuted the meanest materials into gold40 8,in like manner1 then1 may treasures of the greatest value appear to ordinary eyes as mean and worthless40 8,this cabinet10 continued ,mr4 ,twaddleton1 8is under the influence of a potent magician2 by the touch of her wand1 it would become irradiated as with celestial light1 and these rusty coins would be transformed into all those various objects of interest and delight which ,i had promised to show you40 ,tom and ,louisa looked at the coins1 then at the vicar1 and afterwards at ,mr4 ,seymour1 to whom they cast an enquiring glance4 8,then pray10 exclaimed ,tom1 8wave this mighty wand of your enchantress1 and fulfil your promise40 8,the enchantress10 replied the vicar1 8is not disposed to grant her favours to those by whom she has not been propitiated40 8,and what ceremony does she require80 enquired ,louisa4 8,the perusal of sundry mystic volumes2 and the consumption of a midnight lamp at her altar10 replied the vicar4 8,do you not comprehend the allegory80 said ,mr4 ,seymour4 8,the enchanted gallery is no other than a collection of antique medals2--the potent enchantress1 ,,erudition1 or that classical learning1 without which they appear of less value than so many rusty halfpence40 8,you are right10 cried ,mr4 ,twaddleton3 8the poetical import of a device can be alone felt and appreciated by those who are acquainted with the classical subjects to which it alludes2 for1 as ,addison forcibly observes1 there is often as much thought on the reverse of a medal as in a canto of ,spenser2 besides1 how frequently do you meet with hints and suggestions in an ancient poet1 that give a complete illustration to the actions1 ornaments1 and antiquities which are found on coins6--,in short1 the person who examines a collection of medals1 without a competent knowledge of the classics1 is like him who would explore a subterranean cavern without the aid of a torch40 8,i have already learned one fact10 said ,louisa1 8with which ,i was certainly unacquainted2 that the ancients possessed a much greater variety of money than modern nations40 7#f7 8,of that1 my dear10 replied the vicar1 8there is some doubt2--the learned are divided upon the question3 some authors maintain that every medal1 and even medallion1 had its fixed and regular price in payments1 while others1 on the contrary1 assert that we are not in the possession of any real money of the ancients1 and that the medals never had any currency as coins4 ,the truth probably is between these two extremes40 8,if these medals were not used as money10 observed ,louisa1 8for what purposes could they have been coined80 8,to perpetuate the memory of great actions2 and1 faithful to its charge of fame1 the medal has transmitted events1 the history of which must1 otherwise1 have long since perished4 ,nay1 more10 exclaimed the vicar1 his voice rising as he became warmed by his subject1 8the lamp of history has been often extinguished1 and the medalist has collected sparks from the ashes of antiquity which have rekindled its flame4 ,you perceive1 therefore10 continued the reverend antiquary1 8that such collections are of the highest importance1 and if your papa will allow you to pass a morning in their examination1 ,i shall easily bring you to admit1 that ,i have not exaggerated the wonders of my magic gallery4 ,i will convince you1 that it contains a series of original miniature portraits of the greatest heroes of antiquity2 a compendious chart of history1 chronology1 and heathen mythology2 a system of classic architecture2 and an accurate commentary upon the more celebrated poems of ,greece and ,rome4 ,ay1 and ,i will show you a faithful resemblance of the very ship that carried neas to ,italy1 and of the lofty poop from which the luckless ,palinurus fell into the ocean40 ,mr4 ,twaddleton then favoured ,mr4 and ,mrs4 ,seymour with a sight of some of those rarer medals1 which he considered as constituting the gems of his collection4 8,you do not mean to say10 exclaimed ,tom1 as he seized a small coin1 8that this brass piece is of more value than the large coin of gold that lies next to it80 8,mercy upon us60 cried the vicar1 in a tone of agony1 8how the boy handles it6--restore it to its place--gently--gently--that #8little brass piece1' as you call it1 is gold1 and although it might not have been worth one guinea fifteen hundred years ago1 is now valued at a hundred4 ,it is a coin of ,ptolemy the #hth of ,egypt4 ,on the obverse is the portrait of the king beautifully raised2 on the reverse a cornucopia4 ,i do not believe that the coin was known to ,pinkerton when he wrote his ,essay40 8,there is1 certainly10 said ,mr4 ,seymour1 8something very inexplicable in the tastes and enthusiastic feelings of you patrons of antiquity40 8,the antiquary10 observed the vicar1 8does not regard a cabinet of medals as a treasure of money1 but of knowledge2 nor does he fancy any charms in gold1 but in the figures that adorn it2 it is not the metal1 but the erudition1 that stamps it with value40 ,mr4 ,twaddleton now passed on to a different compartment of his cabinet1 observing1 that he must exhibit a few of his ,roman treasures4 8,behold10 said he1 8two gems of unappreciable value2 never do ,i look upon them but with feelings of the purest delight4 ,let my young friends come nearer1 and inspect them minutely4 ,this is a large brass coin of ,tiberius1 and was current when ,christ was upon the earth2 next to it lies a silver ,denarius of the same ,emperor2 its value was about equal to seven-pence of our money1 and was the coin that tempted ,judas to betray his master40 8,i think10 said ,mrs4 ,seymour1 8,i have heard you speak of some ,english coins of rarity and interest40 8,true1 ,madam1 very true1 but they are in another cabinet3 before ,i close the present one1 ,i will1 with your permission1 give you a glimpse at my ,sulphurs ,paduans1 and ,beckers40 8,paduans and ,beckers60 exclaimed ,mr4 ,seymour1 8and pray what may they be8 ,i never before heard the terms40 8#8,my poverty but not my will consents1' ,the antiquary who is poor in purse10 observed the vicar1 8must needs be contented with being rich in counterfeits1 or1 ,i ought rather to have said1 in possessing copies instead of originals4 ,becker was an artist of ,frankfort1 who excelled in imitating ancient coins1 but he never used his skill for the purpose of deception1 but honestly sold his productions as avowed copies1 which are admitted into the cabinets of the curious under the name of ,beckers4 ,the ,paduans10 the vicar added1 8derived their name from two brothers at ,padua1 celebrated for the accuracy with which they imitated large ,roman coins4 ,here are the ,english coins you alluded to10 said the antiquary to ,mrs4 ,seymour4 8,this is a shilling of ,henry ,,vii4 curious as being the first shilling ever struck2 it was presented to me by a college friend some years ago1 and ,i have been lately informed that it is so rare as to fetch twenty-five pounds2 but let me beg you to examine attentively this curious little treasure10 said the vicar1 his eyes twinkling with pleasure as he placed the dainty morsel in the hand of ,mrs4 ,seymour2 8it is10 continued he1 8a silver groat of ,perkin ,warbeck2 on one side are the ,royal arms1 but without a name2 they are surmounted1 you perceive1 with an arched crown1 and placed between a fleur de lis and a rose40 8,what is the inscription80 asked ,mrs4 ,seymour4 8,say legend1 ,madam1 if you please2 the words are1 #8,domine1 salvum fac regem1' the date #adid4 ,the coin is supposed to have been struck by the order of the ,duchess of ,burgundy for ,perkin ,warbeck1 when he set out to invade ,england40 8,pray10 said ,tom1 8have you got a ,queen ,anne's farthing80 8,it is really curious10 observed the vicar1 8that well-informed persons should still continue to be deceived with regard to the value of this coin4 ,the absurd notion of its being worth #ajjl4 arose from an advertisement of an old lady1 who had lost one1 stating it to be one of the only three known in the world1 and worth at least #ajjl4 ,the truth is1 ,i understand from my much valued friend of ,tavistock-,street1 that these farthings generally fetch from five to twenty shillings each2 there are several different types of them1 but the only one intended for currency is that bearing the date of #agad2 all the others were struck as patterns4 ,this is certainly scarce1 in consequence of the death of the ,queen taking place before the coinage was finished4 ,the farthing and sixpence of ,oliver ,cromwell are much more scarce and valuable1 the one generally brings #ajl4 the other as much as #bel4 ,it appears that1 after ,oliver had stamped his head upon them1 he was afraid to issue them as current coins1 which accounts for the few which have been handed down to us40 8,you remind me10 said ,mr4 ,seymour1 8of a story ,i lately heard of a crown-piece of ,oliver selling at a public auction for as much as two hundred guineas--can it be possible80 8,you labour under a mistake10 answered the vicar2 8the coin you allude to is known amongst collectors by the name of the ,petition crown of ,charles the ,second1 and it is undoubtedly a most inimitable piece of workmanship4 ,the story is this3 ,simon1 the artist1 had been employed by ,oliver ,cromwell1 and at the ,restoration1 in order to obtain the patronage of ,charles1 executed the crown-piece in question4 ,it resembles in its general appearance the common milled five-shilling piece1 but on the edging there are two lines of letters beautifully executed4 ,the words are #8,thomas ,simon most humbly prays your ,majesty to compare this his tryal piece with the ,dutch1 and if more truly drawn and embossed1 more gracefully ordered1 and more accurately engraven1 to relieve him4'0 8,and what said ,charles to it80 enquired ,mrs4 ,seymour4 8,charles10 said the vicar1 8took no notice of him1 on account of his having worked for ,cromwell1 and the poor artist shortly afterwards died of a broken heart40 8,well10 exclaimed ,mr4 ,seymour1 8his manes must be surely appeased1 if his crowns now sell for two hundred guineas each40 ,the party1 soon after this exhibition1 quitted the vicarage1 highly gratified1 and returned to the ,lodge1 where1 after the usual ceremonies at the toilet1 they sat down to dinner2 in the enjoyment of which we will now leave them1 and put an end to the present chapter4 ,illustration3 ,stone cross4 ----- ,footnote #g3 ,gravity1 or the tendency of a body to approach the earth1 is proportioned to the square of the distance2 that is1 if a body be attracted by the earth at a certain distance1 with a certain force1 and be afterwards removed to twice the distance1 it will now be attracted1 not half us much1 but only one-fourth as much as it was before2 and if it be removed to three times the first distance1 it will be attracted not one-third as much1 but one-ninth1 as much as before2 four being the square of two1 and nine the square of three4 ,footnote #h3 ,in the legends of ,scottish superstition1 the magic power of imposing upon the eye-sight was termed ,glamour4 8,it had much of glamour might3 ,could make a ladye seem a knight2 ,the cobwebs on a dungeon wall1 ,seem tapestry in lordly hall2 ,a nutshell seem a gilded barge1 ,a sheeling seem a palace large1 ,and youth seem age1 and age seem youth3-- ,all was delusion1 nought was truth40 ,lay of the ,last ,minstrel4--,canto #c4 ix4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,motion--absolute and relative4--,uniform1 accelerated1 and retarded ,velocity4--,the times of ,ascent and ,descent are equal4--,vis inerti4--,friction4--,action and ,reaction are equal and in opposite directions4--,momentum defined and explained4--,the ,three ,great ,laws of ,motion4 8,the table-cloth is removed10 cried ,tom1 as he cast a sly glance through the open window of the dining-room4 8,it is1 my boy10 replied ,mr4 ,twaddleton2 8,diffugere nives1 as the poet has it40 8,et redeunt jam gramina campis10 added ,mr4 ,seymour1 archly1 as he pointed to the green cloth with which the table was covered4 8,et decrescentia flumina10 continued the vicar1 with a smile2 8but1 psha6 enough of wine and quotation4 ,come1 let us join the children40 ,mr4 ,twaddleton1 accompanied by ,mr4 and ,mrs4 ,seymour1 and ,louisa1 rose from the table1 and proceeded to the lawn4 8,the gravitation of ,tom's ball10 said ,mr4 ,seymour1 8furnished an ample subject for our morning's diversion2 let us try whether its other motions will not suggest further objects of enquiry40 8,i well remember10 observed ,louisa1 8that ,mrs4 ,marcet extols that apple1 the fall of which attracted the notice of ,sir ,isaac ,newton1 above all the apples that have ever been sung by the poets3 and she declares1 that the apple presented to ,venus by ,paris2 the golden apples by which ,atalanta won the race2 nay1 even the apple which ,william ,tell shot from the head of his own son1 cannot be brought into comparison with it40 8,well said6 ,mrs4 ,marcet10 exclaimed ,mr4 ,seymour2 8upon my word1 had the mother of mankind used but half such eloquence in praise of an apple1 we cannot wonder at its influence40 8,what honours1 then10 continued ,louisa1 8shall we decree to ,tom's ball1 if it instructs us in the first principles of philosophy80 8,we are trifling10 observed ,mr4 ,seymour1 and so saying1 he took the ball from ,tom's hand1 and rolling it along the ground1 exclaimed1 8there it goes1 performing1 as you may perceive1 two different kinds of motion at the same time2 it turns round1 or revolves on its axis2 and goes straight forward1 or1 to speak more philosophically1 performs a rectilinear motion40 ,tom said that he did not exactly comprehend what was meant by the axis47#g7 ,his father1 therefore1 informed him that the axis of a revolving body was an imaginary line1 which was itself at rest1 but about which all its other parts turned1 or rotated3 8,but10 continued he1 8can you tell me whether you understand what is meant by the word motion80 8,if he can10 exclaimed the vicar1 8he is a cleverer fellow than the wisest philosopher of antiquity1 who1 upon being asked the very same question1 is said to have walked across the room1 and to have replied1 #8,you see it1 but what it is ,i cannot tell you4'0 8,your ancient acquaintances10 observed ,mr4 ,seymour1 8entertained some very strange notions touching this said subject of motion4 ,if ,i remember right1 ,diodorus denied its very existence2 but we are told that he did not himself remain unmoved1 when he dislocated his shoulder1 and the surgeon kept him in torture while he endeavoured to convince him1 by his own mode of reasoning1 that the bone could not have moved out of its place3 we have1 however1 at present1 nothing to do with the ancients2 the philosophers of our own times agree in defining motion to be #8the act of a body changing its situation with regard to any other2' and you will therefore readily perceive1 that this may actually happen to a body while it remains absolutely at rest40 8,well1 that beats all the paradoxes ,i ever heard10 cried ,tom2 8a body then may be in motion1 while it is at rest80 8,certainly10 replied ,mr4 ,seymour2 8it may be relatively in motion1 while it is absolutely at rest40 8,how can a body change its place10 said ,louisa1 8except by moving80 8,very readily10 answered her father2 8it may have its relative situation changed with respect to surrounding objects2 there is your ball1 and here is a stone1 has not each of them a particular situation with respect to the other2 and by moving one1 do ,i not change the relative situation of both80 8,i perceive your meaning10 said ,tom4 8,to prevent confusion1 therefore1 in our ideas1 it became necessary to distinguish these two kinds of motion from each other by appropriate terms2 and1 accordingly1 where there has been an actual change of place1 in the common meaning of the term1 the motion which produced it is termed ,,absolute motion2 whereas1 on the contrary1 when the situation has been only relatively changed1 by an alteration in the position of surrounding bodies1 the motion is said to be ,,relative40 8,surely1 papa10 said ,louisa1 8no person can ever mistake relative for absolute motion2 what then is the use of such frivolous distinctions8 ,when a body really moves1 we can observe it in the act of changing its place1 and no difficulty can arise about the matter40 8,nothing1 my dear1 is more fallacious than our vision2 the earth appears motionless1 and the sun and stars seem as if they revolved round it2 but it is scarcely necessary for me to inform you that our globe is constantly moving with considerable velocity1 while the sun remains at rest4--,mr4 ,sadler1 the famous aronaut10 continued ,mr4 ,seymour1 8informed me1 that he was never sensible of the motion of the balloon in any of his excursions1 but that1 as he ascended into the air1 the earth always appeared as if sinking beneath him1 and as he descended1 as if rising to meet him40 ,mr4 ,twaddleton here observed1 that he had heard a very curious anecdote1 when he was last in ,london1 which fully confirmed the truth of ,mr4 ,sadler's statement4 8,an aronaut10 said he1 8whose name ,i cannot at this moment recollect1 had recently published a map of his voyage1 and1 instead of proceeding in any one line of direction1 his track absolutely appeared in the form of circles1 connected with each other like the links of a chain3 this occasioned considerable astonishment1 and1 of course1 some speculation1 until it was at length discovered1 that his apparent journey was to be attributed to the rotatory motion of the balloon1 which the voyager1 not feeling1 had never suspected40 8,and what10 asked ,tom1 8could have been the reason of his not having felt the motion80 ,his father explained to him1 that we are only conscious of being in motion when the conveyance1 in which we are placed1 suffers some impediment in its progress4 8,if10 said he1 8you were to close your eyes1 when sailing on calm water1 with a steady breeze1 you would not perceive that you were moving3 for you could not feel the motion1 and you could only see it by observing the change of place in the different objects on the shore2 and then it would be almost impossible1 without the aid of reason and experience1 to believe that the shore itself was not in motion1 and that you were at rest2 ,i shall1 however1 be able to explain this subject more clearly by an optical toy which ,i have in preparation40 ,mrs4 ,seymour here repeated the following passage from that interesting novel 8,anastasius10 which she observed was beautifully descriptive of the illusive appearance to which their papa had just referred3-- 8,the gradually increasing breeze carried us rapidly out of the ,straits of ,chio4 ,the different objects on the shore1--mountains1--valleys1--villages1- -and steeples1--seemed in swift succession1 first advancing to meet us1 then halting an instant alongside our vessel1 as if to greet us on our passage1 and1 lastly1 again gliding off with equal speed2 till1 launched into the open main1 we saw the whole line of coast gradually dissolve in distant darkness40 8,that is indeed a beautiful and very apposite illustration10 said ,mr4 ,seymour2 8and ,i think ,louisa will now admit1 that it is not quite so easy1 as she at first imagined1 to distinguish between ,absolute and ,relative motion40 ,as the children now understood what was meant by the term ,motion1 their father asked them whether they could tell him what produced it4 8,i can make a body move by various means10 answered ,tom4 8,but they may all be reduced to one10 said ,mr4 ,seymour2 8viz4 some exertion which is called ,force2 thus the force of my hand put your ball in motion2 while gravitation was the force which made it fall to the earth2 and ,i must1 moreover1 inform you1 that a body always moves in the direction of the force which impels it1 and with a velocity1 or rate of motion1 which is proportional to its degree1 or strength2 and1 were there no other forces in action but that which originally produced the motion1 the body would proceed onwards in a right line1 and with a uniform velocity for ever40 8,for ever60 exclaimed ,louisa4 8,ay1 my dear1 for ever3 but we will discuss that question presently2 you must first tell me whether you understand what is meant by uniform velocity40 8,i suppose that uniform velocity is that which is regular1 and of an equal rate throughout40 8,philosophers10 replied her father1 8call the motion of a body uniform1 when it passes over equal spaces in equal times4--,now1 ,tom1 it is your turn to answer a question4 ,can you describe the meaning of the terms ,accelerated and ,retarded motion80 8,i conclude that motion is said to be accelerated when it moves every moment quicker and quicker2 and to be retarded when it moves slower and slower40 8,you are perfectly right2 and gravity may either act in occasioning the one or the other2 our experiment at the well this morning afforded you an example of gravity producing a regularly accelerated motion4 ,i did not fully explain the fact at the time1 because ,i was desirous of avoiding too many new ideas at once2 we must win our way slowly and cautiously through the mazes of philosophy3 ,i will1 however1 now endeavour to give you as clear an explanation as the subject will allow4--,it is1 ,i think1 evident1 that if1 at the moment you dropped the stone from your hand1 the force of gravity could have been suspended1 it would have descended to the bottom of the well with a uniform velocity2 because there could have been nothing either to accelerate or retard its motion4 ,but this was not the case1 for the power of gravity was in constant operation2 and1 if you keep this fact in mind1 you will readily understand how the velocity became accelerated3 for1 suppose the impulse given by gravity to the stone1 during the first instant of its descent1 be equal to one1 the next instant we shall find that an additional impulse gives the stone an additional velocity equal to one1 so that the accumulated velocity is now equal to two2 the following instant1 again1 increases the velocity to three1 and so on till the stone reaches the bottom40 ,mr4 ,twaddleton observed1 the fact might be shortly expressed by saying1 that 8the effects of preceding impulses must be added to subsequent velocities40 ,mr4 ,seymour then remarked that the same explanation would apply to retarded velocity4 8,if10 said he1 8you throw a stone perpendicularly upwards1 the velocity will be as much retarded1 as it was in the other case accelerated1 by gravity2 the consequence of which is1 that it will be exactly the same length of time ascending that it was descending40 8,i should have thought the very reverse10 cried ,louisa1 8and that it would have fallen quicker than it rose40 8,you have forgotten to take into account the force with which the stone is projected upwards1 and which is destroyed by gravity before it begins to descend40 8,certainly10 answered ,louisa2 8but the force given to a stone in throwing it upwards1 cannot always be equal to the force of gravity in bringing it down again2 for the force of gravity is always the same1 while the force given to the stone is entirely optional4 ,i may throw it up gently or otherwise1 as ,i please40 8,if you throw it gently10 said her father1 8it will not rise high1 and gravity will soon bring it down again2 if you throw it with violence1 it will rise much higher1 and gravity will be longer in bringing it back again to the ground4 ,suppose1 for instance1 that you throw it with a force that will make it rise only sixteen feet2 in that case1 you know1 it will fall in one second of time4 ,now it is proved by experiment1 that an impulse requisite to project a body sixteen feet upwards1 will make it ascend that height in one second of time2 here1 then1 the times of ascent and descent are equal4 ,but1 supposing it be required to throw a stone twice that height1 the force must be proportionally greater4 ,you see1 then1 that the impulse of projection1 in throwing a body upwards1 is always equal to the action of the force of gravity during its descent2 and that it is the greater or less distance to which the body rises that makes these two forces balance each other40 8,thank you1 dear papa1 for the pains you have taken in explaining this subject to us40 8,nay10 replied ,mr4 ,seymour1 8bestow your thanks upon those to whom they are more justly due2 ,mrs4 ,marcet is entitled to the merit of this explanation2 for ,i obtained it from her #8,conversations4' ,before ,i quit this subject1 ,i would just observe that1 when we come to the consideration of the bow and arrow1 you will1 by the application of the law ,i have endeavoured to expound1 be enabled to ascertain the height to which your arrow may ascend1 with the same facility as you discovered the depth of the well3 for1 since the times of ascent and descent are equal1 you have only to determine the number of seconds which intervene between the instant at which the arrow quits the bow to that at which it falls to the ground1 and halving them1 to make the usual calculation4--,but let us proceed to another subject4 ,roll the ball hither1 ,tom2 roll the ball hither1 ,i say6 you stand as if you thought it would advance to us of its own accord40 8,i know a little better than that1 too10 cried ,tom2 8no body can move without the application of some force40 8,nor stop1 either10 added ,mr4 ,seymour1 8when it is once in motion2 for matter is equally indifferent to both rest and motion40 8,and yet1 papa10 cried ,louisa1 8unfortunately for your assertion1 the ball stopped just now1 and ,i am sure that no force was used to make it do so40 8,and pray1 ,miss ,pert1 why are you so sure that no force was opposed to its progress8 ,i begin to fear that my lesson has been thrown away upon you1 or you would not1 surely1 have concluded so falsely40 ,the vicar here interposed1 observing that1 simple as the question might appear to those who had studied it1 the fact was so contrary to everything that passed before us1 that ,mr4 ,seymour ought not to feel any surprise at the scepticism of his daughter2 he begged to remind him that the truth1 apparent as it doubtless now was1 lay hid for ages before the sagacity of ,galileo brought it to light4 ,mr4 ,seymour admitted the justice of this remark1 and proceeded in his explanation4 8,i think10 said he 8you will readily allow that matter cannot1 in itself1 possess any power of changing its condition3 it can1 therefore1 no more destroy1 than it can originate its own motion2 when it is at rest1 it must ever remain so1 unless some force be applied that can impart to it activity2 and1 when once in motion1 it must continue to move until some counteracting force stops it4 ,to believe otherwise you must suppose that matter possesses in itself a power to alter its condition1 which is perfectly absurd40 8,and yet10 said ,tom1 8when ,i see my ball or marble stop of its own accord1 how can you blame me for believing it possible80 8,your difficulty arises from your ignorance of the existence of certain forces which act upon the rolling ball or marble4 ,its progress1 as it rolls along1 is impeded and ultimately stopped by the rubbing1 or friction1 occasioned by its passage over the ground2 and this will be greater or less1 according to the degree of roughness of the surface2 if it be small1 the ball will continue for a longer time in motion2 you must have observed1 that your marble has always rolled much farther on a smooth pavement than on a rough gravel walk40 8,certainly10 said ,tom1 8and ,i well remember1 that when we played at ring-taw last winter on the ice1 we were obliged1 for this very reason1 to extend the usual boundaries40 8,is it not evident1 then1 that the motion of a body is stopped by some opposing force2 and that1 if this could be entirely removed1 the body would continue to move for ever80 8,what a provoking thing this friction is10 said ,tom1 8it is always interfering with our experiments40 8,provoking1 is it8 ,i fancy10 said ,mr4 ,seymour1 8that you would be much more provoked by the loss of it3 without it1 you could not walk1 nor even hold an object in your hands2 and yet everything around you would be in perpetual motion1 performing one universal and interminable dance40 8,i can readily understand1 from what you have said1 that1 if friction were removed1 motion might continue2 but pray how is it that we should be unable to walk1 or to hold anything in our hands80 enquired ,louisa4 8,it is the friction of the ground which1 at every step we take1 prevents the foot from sliding back1 and thus enables us to push the body forwards4 ,everybody must have felt how difficult it is to walk on ice1 where the friction is only diminished1 not entirely removed10 answered her father2 8and as to holding any object10 continued he1 8it is the friction of the body to which we apply our hands that enables us to hold it firmly40 8,to be sure10 exclaimed the vicar2 8why1 my boy1 you must surely remember1 that in ancient combats it was the custom to rub the body with oil1 that the adversary might not be able to keep his grasp40 8,well10 said ,tom1 8our houses1 ,i suppose1 would remain firm1 and we might sit quietly in our chairs1 at all events40 8,not so10 replied ,mr4 ,seymour1 8for even granting that you had houses and chairs1 which1 without the existence of friction would never exist1 the stability of the structures could never be secured2 the slightest breath would be sufficient to make the stones or bricks slide off from each other1 and to reduce your dwellings into dancing ruins40 ,tom and ,louisa1 after some farther discussion1 both admitted the justness of the argument2 but1 at the same time1 would have been better satisfied if the fact could have been proved by actual experiment4 ,mr4 ,seymour told them that the perpetual revolution of the earth and heavenly bodies1 where no friction whatever existed1 afforded a proof which ought to satisfy them2 and1 especially1 since it agreed with those views which were proved to be true by an examination of what took place on the surface of our own globe4 ,we will1 therefore1 with the permission of our readers1 consider this point as settled1 and proceed with the young philosophers to the investigation of some other topics connected with the doctrine of motion4 8,since a body at rest10 said ,mr4 ,seymour1 8can only be set in motion1 or1 when in motion1 be brought to rest1 by the impression of some force1 it must follow1 that it can only move in the direction in which such a force may act2 and1 moreover1 that the degree of motion1 or the velocity1 must1 other things being equal1 be in proportion to the degree of force used40 8,why1 truly10 cried the vicar1 8my young friends must of necessity admit that fact2 for the body1 not having any will of its own1 as you say1 must needs1 if it move at all1 go the road it is driven40 8,yes10 added ,mr4 ,seymour1 8and it must go with a velocity in proportion to the force with which it is driven40 8,doubtless1 doubtless10 cried the vicar1 8you admit that also2 do you not1 my young friends and playmates80 ,it is hardly necessary to state1 that the children instantly assented to these propositions4 ,the vicar had placed them in so clear and popular a point of view1 as to be intelligible to the lowest capacities4 8,with these admissions1 then1 my dear children10 said their father1 8,i shall have but little difficulty in convincing you of the truth of the other laws by which the direction of moving bodies is governed4 ,at present1 however1 it is not my intention to enter upon this subject2 you have some preliminary knowledge to acquire before you can understand what is termed the ,composition and ,resolution of ,forces40 8,i shall not easily forget10 said ,louisa1 8that matter is perfectly passive1 and that it can neither put itself in motion when at rest1 nor stop itself when in motion40 8,this indifference to rest or motion10 replied ,mr4 ,seymour1 8has been termed the ,vis ,inerti of matter40 8,a very objectionable term1--a very puzzling expression10 exclaimed the vicar2--8to denote a mere state of passive indifference by the term ,vis1 or power1 does appear to me1 who have been in the habit of connecting words with ideas1 as excessively absurd40 8,i allow10 said ,mr4 ,seymour1 8that the simple word ,inertia would have been more correct2 but we are bound to receive an expression which has been long current4 ,i suppose1 however1 you know that the addition of ,vis originated with ,kepler1 who1 like my boy ,tom1 could not help thinking that the disposition of a body to maintain its motion1 or state of rest1 indicated something like power2 but we will not waste our time upon verbal disquisitions4 ,it is clear1 that matter1 at rest1 resists being put in motion2 the degree of that resistance is always in proportion to the degree of force applied to put it in motion2 or1 to speak more philosophically1 that ,action and ,reaction are equal1 and in opposite directions40 8,you1 surely1 do not mean to say10 exclaimed ,tom1 8that if ,i strike my marble1 the marble strikes my hand1 with the same force in return80 8,precisely2 that is my meaning40 8,what60 cried ,louisa1 8if a man strikes another on the face with his hand1 do you seriously maintain that both parties suffer the same pain80 8,oh1 no1 no10 said ,tom1 8papa can never intend to say that2 ,i am quite sure1 if it were the case1 ,mr4 ,pearson would not be so fond of boxing our ears40 ,mr4 ,seymour answered this question1 by observing that1 if the hand possessed the same degree of feeling as the face1 they would both suffer equally under the conflict4 8,if10 continued he1 8you strike a glass bottle with an iron hammer1 the blow will be received by the hammer and the glass2 and it is quite immaterial whether the hammer be moved against the bottle at rest1 or the bottle be moved against the hammer at rest1 yet the bottle will be broken1 though the hammer be not injured2 because the same blow which is sufficient to shiver the glass is not sufficient to break or injure a lump of iron4 ,in like manner1 the blow that is sufficient to pain your sensitive face1 and make your ears tingle1 will not occasion the least annoyance to the obtuse hand of your preceptor4 ,the operation of this law10 continued ,mr4 ,seymour1 8will be exemplified in every step of our progress4 ,when the marble1 as it rolls along1 strikes any obstacles1 it receives1 in return1 a corresponding blow1 which will be found to influence its subsequent direction4 ,the peg of the top1 as it rubs on the ground1 is as much influenced by the friction1 as if a force were actually applied to it when in a state of rest2 and when we consider the forces by which the kite is made to ascend into the air1 you will learn1 from the same law1 the nature of that advantage which you derive from running with it40 ,the vicar observed that the subject of ,momentum might be introduced1 and advantageously explained1 upon this occasion4 8,momentum10 said ,tom2 8and pray what is that80 8,it is a power10 replied his father1 8intimately connected with motion2 and1 therefore1 as your friend1 the vicar1 justly remarks1 may be very properly introduced before we quit that subject4--,it is the force with which a body in motion strikes against another body40 8,that10 observed ,tom1 8must of course depend upon the velocity of the body's motion40 8,undoubtedly1 my dear2 the quicker a body moves1 the greater must be the force with which it would strike against another body2 but we also know that the heavier a body is1 the greater also will be its force2 so that momentum1 you perceive1 must have a relation to both these circumstances1 viz4 velocity1 and weight2 or1 to speak more correctly1 the momentum of a body is composed of its quantity of matter1 multiplied by its quantity of motion3 for example1 if the weight of a body be represented by the number #c1 and its velocity also by #c1 its momentum will be represented by #c x #c #i2 so that1 in producing momentum1 increased velocity will always compensate for deficiency of matter1 and a light body may thus be made a more effective force than a heavy one1 provided that its velocity be proportionally increased2 thus1 a small ball weighing only two pounds1 and moving at the rate of five hundred feet in a second1 will produce as much effect as a cannon ball of ten pounds in weight1 provided it moved only at the rate of one hundred feet in the same time40 8,let me see10 cried ,tom1 8whether ,i understand your statement4 ,we must multiply1 as you say1 the weight by the velocity2 the weight of the small ball you state at two pounds1 and it travels at the rate of five hundred feet in a second2 then its momentum must be a thousand4 ,the weight of the great ball is ten pounds1 its velocity only a hundred feet1 then its momentum must also be a thousand2 because1 in both cases1 the sums multiplied into each other will give the same product40 8,exactly3 and thus you perceive that the small ball becomes an exact balance to the larger one2 the first making out in motion what it wanted in matter1 while the latter makes out in matter what it wanted in motion4 ,i wish you to keep this law of ,momentum in your remembrance2 upon it depends the action of all the mechanical powers7#h71 as they are termed40 8,i have heard10 said ,louisa1 8that a feather might be made to produce as much havoc as a cannon shot1 if you could give it sufficient velocity40 8,unquestionably3 but there is a practical difficulty in the attempt1 from the resistance of the air1 which increases1 as you have already seen in the experiment of the paper and penny-piece 7p4 #cj71 as the weight of a body decreases4 ,were it not for this resistance of the air1 a hailstone falling from the clouds would acquire such a momentum1 from its accelerated velocity1 as to descend like a bullet from a gun1 and destroy every thing before it2 even those genial showers which refresh us in the spring and summer months1 would1 without such a provision1 destroy the herbage they are so well calculated to cherish4 ,had the elephant possessed the mobility of the beetle1 it would have overturned mountains4 ,from this view of the subject of ,momentum10 continued ,mr4 ,seymour1 8you will easily understand why the immense battering rams1 used by the ancients1 in the art of war1 should have given place to cannon balls1 of but a few pounds in weight4 ,suppose1 for example1 that the battering ram of ,vespasian weighed #ajj1jjj pounds1 and was moved1 we will admit1 with such a velocity1 by strength of hands1 as to pass through #bj feet in one second of time1 and that this was found sufficient to demolish the walls of ,jerusalem1 can you tell me with what velocity a #cb-pounder must move to do the same execution80 8,i will try10 said ,tom1 as he took out his pencil and pocket-book1 to make the calculation4 8,the momentum of the battering ram must be estimated by its weight1 multiplied into the space passed over in a second of time2 which is #ajj1jjj multiplied by #bj2 that will give #b1jjj1jjj4 ,now1 if this momentum1 which must also be that of the cannon ball1 be divided by the weight of the ball1 it will give the velocity required1 which ,i make out to be #fb1ejj feet40 8,admirably calculated10 said ,mr4 ,seymour3 8and ,i will take care1 my dear ,tom1 that your intelligence shall be suitably rewarded40 ,mr4 ,twaddleton here observed1 that he thought 8his young friends and playmates0 must have received1 for that day1 as much philosophy as they could conveniently carry away without fatigue4 ,mr4 ,seymour concurred in this observation2 and the more readily1 as the path they had to travel was rugged1 and beset with difficulties4 8,i will1 therefore10 said he1 8not impose any farther burthen upon them2 but ,i will assist them in tying1 into separate bundles1 the materials which they have collected in their progress1 in order that they may convey them away with greater ease and security4 ,know then1 my dear children10 said the affectionate parent1 8that you have this day been instructed in the three great ,laws of ,motion1 viz4 ,i4 ,that every body will continue in a state of rest1 until put into motion by some external force applied to it1 and if that force be single1 the motion so produced will be rectilinear1 i4e4 in the direction of a straight line4 ,,ii4 ,change of motion is always proportional to the moving force impressed1 and is always made in the direction of the right line in which the force acts4 ,,iii4 ,action and ,reaction are equal in equal quantities of matter1 and act in contrary directions to each other40 ,illustration3 ,two men on the ice1 falling in opposite directions4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,a sad accident turned to a good account4--,one example worth a hundred precepts4--,the ,centres of ,magnitude and ,gravity4--,the ,point of ,suspension4--,the ,line of ,direction4--,the stability of bodies1 and upon what it depends4--,method of finding the centre of gravity of a body4--,the art of the ,balancer explained and illustrated4--,various balancing toys4 ,just as ,mr4 ,seymour was1 on the following morning1 stepping upon the lawn1 with the intention of joining his children1 ,rosa and ,fanny both made their appearance completely drenched with water1 and dripping like mermaids4 8,heyday60 exclaimed their father1 8how has this misfortune happened80 8,do not be angry1 papa10 said ,tom2 8indeed1 indeed1 it was an accident4 ,fanny1 observing the water-cart in the garden1 had just begun to wheel it forward1 when the water rushed over her like a wave of the sea1 and1 upon stopping the cart1 it flew over with equal force on the opposite side1 and deluged poor ,rosa1 who was walking in front of it40 8,well1 well1 lose no time in changing your clothes1 and meet me again in half an hour40 ,at the appointed time the children reassembled on the lawn4 8,and so then10 said their father1 8,i perceive that my philosophical lesson of yesterday has been entirely lost upon you40 ,the children were unable to comprehend the meaning of this rebuke2 but ,mr4 ,seymour proceeded3-- 8,i trust1 however1 that the accident of this morning will serve to impress it more forcibly upon your memory3 one example is better than a hundred precepts40 ,tom was more puzzled than ever4 8,you have met with an accident2 ,i will endeavour to convert it into a source of instruction1 by showing you how the principles of natural philosophy may be brought to bear upon the most trivial concerns of life4 ,you learned yesterday1 that a body at rest offers a resistance to any force that would put it in motion1 and that1 when in motion1 it equally opposes a state of rest2 now let us apply this law for the explanation of the accident that has just befallen you4 ,the butt was full of water2 when you attempted to wheel it forward1 the water resisted the motion thus communicated to the vessel1 and from its vis inerti1 or effort to remain at rest1 rose up in a direction contrary to that in which the vessel moved1 and consequently poured over2 by this time1 however1 the mass of fluid had acquired the motion of the cart1 when you suddenly stopped it1 and the water in endeavouring to continue its state of motion1 from the same cause that it had just before resisted it1 rose up on the opposite side1 and thus deluged poor ,rosa40 ,louisa was quite delighted with this simple and satisfactory application of philosophy1 and observed1 that she should not herself mind a thorough soaking1 if it were afterwards rewarded by a scientific discovery4 8,i will give you1 then1 another illustration of the same law of motion10 said ,mr4 ,seymour1 8which1 instead of explaining an accident1 may1 perhaps1 have the effect of preventing one4 ,if1 while you are sitting quietly on your horse1 the animal starts forward1 you will be in danger of falling off backward2 but if1 while you are galloping along1 it should stop suddenly1 you will inevitably be thrown forward over the head of the animal40 8,i clearly perceive10 said ,louisa1 8that such would be my fate under the circumstances you state40 8,now1 then1 my dear children1 since our friend the vicar cannot attend us at present1 suppose we retire to the library1 where ,i have an interesting experiment to perform1 and a new toy ready for your inspection40 ,in compliance with their father's wishes1 the children cheerfully returned to the library1 when ,mr4 ,seymour presented ,louisa with a ,,bandilor4 ,most of our readers are1 doubtless1 acquainted with this elegant toy4 ,it consists of two discs of wood1 united to each other by a small axis1 upon which a piece of string is affixed4 ,when this string is wound round the axis1 and the bandilor is suffered to run down from the hand1 the end of the string being held by a loop on the fore finger1 its momentum winds up the string again1 and thus it will continue for any length of time to descend from1 and ascend to1 the hand4 ,it affords a good example of the operation of vis inerti1 or what may1 with equal propriety1 be termed the momentum of rotatory motion4 ,its action may be compared to that of a wheel1 which1 running down a hill1 acquires sufficient momentum to carry it up another4 ,there are several toys which owe their operation to the same principle1 of which we may particularize the windmill1 whose fliers are pulled round by a string affixed to the axis of the sails4 ,in playing with the bandilor1 a certain address is required to prevent the sudden check which the toy would otherwise receive when it arrived at the end of the string1 and which would necessarily so destroy its momentum as to prevent its winding itself up again4 ,mr4 ,seymour now informed his young pupils that he had an experiment to exhibit1 which would further illustrate1 in a very pleasing manner1 the truth of the doctrine of vis inerti4 ,he accordingly inverted a wine-glass1 and placed a shilling on its foot2 and1 having pushed it suddenly along the table1 the coin flew off1 towards the operator1 or in a direction opposite to that in which the glass was moving4 ,he then replaced the shilling1 and imparted to the glass a less sudden motion2 and1 when it had acquired sufficient velocity1 he checked it1 and the coin darted forward1 leaving the glass behind it4 ,louisa1 upon witnessing this experiment1 observed that she felt satisfied of the correctness of her father's statement1 when he told her that1 if the horse suddenly started forward1 when she was at rest1 she would be thrown off behind1 and that if it should suddenly stop on the gallop1 she would be precipitated over its head4 ,the children now arranged themselves around the table1 in order to consider several curious toys which ,mr4 ,seymour had collected for the purpose of explaining the nature of the ,centre of ,gravity4 8,but1 in the first place10 said ,mr4 ,seymour1 8can you tell me1 ,tom1 what is meant by ,the ,centre of ,gravity80 8,its central point10 answered the boy4 8,certainly not2 the central point is termed its centre of magnitude1 not that of gravity2 and it is only when a body is of uniform density1 and regular figure1 that these centres of magnitude and gravity coincide1 or fall in the same spot40 8,i now remember10 cried ,tom1 8that the centre of gravity is that point1 about which all the parts of a body exactly balance each other40 8,now you are right2 it is1 in other words1 that point in which the whole weight1 or gravitating influence1 of a body is1 as it were1 condensed or concentrated1 and upon which1 if the body be freely suspended1 it will rest with security2 and consequently1 as long as this centre is supported1 the body can never fall2 while1 in every other position1 it will endeavour to descend to the lowest place at which it can arrive40 8,have all bodies1 whatever may be their shape1 a centre of gravity80 asked ,louisa4 8,undoubtedly40 8,and you say10 continued ,louisa1 8that every body will fall1 if this point is not supported40 8,infallibly4 ,and now1 ,tom10 said ,mr4 ,seymour1 8can you tell me what is meant by the line of direction80 ,the young philosopher was unable to answer this question1 and his father1 therefore1 informed him that1 if a perpendicular line were drawn from the centre of gravity of a body to the centre of the earth1 such a line would be termed the line of direction2 along which every body1 not supported1 endeavours to fall2 and he was also informed that1 if this said line fell within the base of a body1 such a body was sure to stand2 but never otherwise4 ,louisa observed that she was not quite sure she understood her papa's meaning1 and therefore begged for further explanation4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aj4 ,overloaded cart with plumb line hanging from its center of gravity to outside its base of support4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aa4 ,properly loaded cart with plumb line hanging from its center of gravity to inside its base of support4 8,i will exemplify it then10 replied ,mr4 ,seymour1 8by a drawing4 ,fig4 #aj represents a load of stones in a cart moving upon the sloping road ,c ,d ,e2 this load1 being low down in the cart1 ,b will represent its centre of gravity1 and ,b ,f its line of direction1 which1 you perceive1 falls much within the supporting or lower wheel ,g2 and there cannot1 therefore1 be any danger of such a cart being overturned2 but in fig4 #aa1 the centre of gravity is raised from its former position to ,h1 and ,h ,i is now the line of direction2 which1 falling without the base1 or wheel ,k1 the load will not be supported1 and must consequently fall4 ,these figures10 added ,mr4 ,seymour1 8will also explain a fact which you must have frequently observed1 that a body is stable or firm in proportion to the breadth of its base2 hence the difficulty of sustaining a tall body1 like a walking stick1 upon its narrow base2 of that of balancing a hoop upon its edge1 or a top upon its point2 while1 on the contrary1 it is almost impossible to upset the cone or the pyramid1 since1 in the latter cases1 the line of direction falls within the middle of the base1 the centre of gravity of the body being necessarily low40 8,i suppose10 observed ,louisa1 8that this is the reason why carriages1 when too much loaded1 are so apt to upset40 8,say1 when too much loaded on their tops1 and you will be right4 ,as you now1 ,i trust1 understand this part of the subject1 let us proceed a step farther3 if you take any body1 with a view to suspend it1 is it not evident1 that if it be suspended by that point in which the centre of gravity is situated1 it must remain at rest in any position indifferently80 8,i thought10 said ,tom1 8we had already settled that question40 8,true1 my dear boy2 but there is another question of great importance arising out of it1 and which you have not yet considered3 tell me1 should the body be suspended on any other point1 in what position it can rest80 8,i do not exactly understand the question40 8,there are10 replied his father1 8only two positions in which it could rest1 either where the centre of gravity is exactly above1 or exactly below1 the point of suspension2 so that1 in short1 this point shall be in the line of direction4 ,where the point of suspension is below the centre of gravity1 it is extremely difficult to balance or support a tall body by such a method1 because the centre of gravity is always endeavouring to get under the point of support4 ,look at this diagram1 and you will readily comprehend my meaning4 ,k is the centre of gravity of the diamond-shaped figure1 which may be supported1 or balanced1 on a pin passing through it at ,m1 as long as the centre of gravity ,k is immediately over the point of suspension ,m3 but if that centre is removed in the slightest degree1 either to the right or left of its place ,k1 the body will no longer retain its erect position ,i ,k ,l1 but it will revolve upon ,m1 and place itself in the situation indicated by the dotted lines beneath the point ,m3 and its centre of gravity will now be removed to ,n1 directly under ,m1 and in the line ,k ,l1 which1 as you well know1 is the line of direction4 ,have ,i rendered myself intelligible80 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ab4 ,diagram of a kite's center of gravity4 8,i understand it perfectly10 answered ,tom4 8,and do you also1 my dear ,louisa80 ,louisa's answer was equally satisfactory1 and ,mr4 ,seymour went on to state that the information they had now acquired would enable them to ascertain the situation of the centre of gravity of any plane surface which was portable1 notwithstanding it might possess the utmost irregularity of shape4 8,you shall1 for example10 continued he1 8find the centre of gravity in your kite40 8,i cannot say10 observed ,tom1 8how ,i should set about it40 8,well1 fetch your kite1 and ,i will explain the method40 ,tom soon produced it1 and the tail having been removed1 ,mr4 ,seymour proceeded as follows3-- ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ac4 ,kite viewed right side up4 8,i now10 said he1 8suspend the kite by the loop at its bow1 and since it is at rest1 we know that the centre of gravity must be exactly below the point of suspension2 if1 therefore1 we draw a perpendicular line from that point1 which may be easily done by a plumb-line1 with a weight attached to it1 such a line will represent the line of direction 7as indicated by ,a ,b in fig4 #ac704 8,it is clear enough10 said ,tom1 8that the centre of gravity must lie in the line ,a ,b1 but how are we to find in what part of it80 8,by suspending the kite in another direction10 answered ,mr4 ,seymour1 who then hung it up in the position represented at fig4 #ad1 8and then by drawing another perpendicular from the new point of suspension40 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ad4 ,kite viewed at a diagonal4 8,the centre of gravity10 said ,louisa1 8will in that case be in the line c d1 as it was before in that of a b40 8,in both the lines60 exclaimed ,tom1 with some surprise2 8it cannot be in two places40 8,and therefore10 added ,mr4 ,seymour1 8it must be in that point in which the lines meet and cross each other30 so saying1 he marked the spot g with his pencil1 and then told his little scholars1 that he would soon convince them of the accuracy of the principle4 ,he accordingly placed the head of his stick upon the pencil mark1 and the kite was found to balance itself with great exactness4 8,true1 papa10 said ,tom1 8that point must be the centre of gravity1 for all the parts of the kite exactly balance each other about it40 8,it is really10 observed ,louisa1 8a very simple method of finding the centre of gravity40 8,it is10 said ,mr4 ,seymour2 8but you must remember that it will only apply to a certain description of bodies3 when they are not portable1 and will not admit of this kind of examination1 their centres of gravity can only be ascertained by experiment or calculation1 in which the weight1 density1 and situation of the respective materials must be taken into the account4 ,having proceeded thus far1 you have next to learn that the centre of gravity is sometimes so situated as not to be within the body1 but actually at some distance from it40 8,why1 papa60 exclaimed ,tom1 8how can that possibly happen80 8,you shall hear4 ,the centre of gravity1 as you have just said1 is that point about which all the parts of a body balance each other3 but it may so happen that there is a vacant space at this point4 ,where1 for example1 is the centre of gravity of this ring8 ,must it not be in the space which the ring encircles80 8,i think it must10 said ,tom2 8and yet how can it be ever supported without touching the ring80 ,illustration3 ,one ring supported by a string1 and another ring balanced on a finger4 8,that point cannot be supported10 answered his father1 8unless the ring be so held that the line of direction shall fall within the base of the support1 which will be the case whether you poise the ring on the tip of your finger1 or suspend it by a string1 as represented in the figures which ,i have copied from the #8,conversations on ,natural ,philosophy4' ,i need scarcely add1 that it will be more stably supported in the latter position1 because the centre of gravity is below the point of suspension2 whereas in the former the base is extremely narrow1 and it will1 consequently1 require all the address of the balancer to prevent the centre of gravity from falling beyond it4 ,as you are now in possession of all the leading principles upon which the operations of the centre of gravity depend1 ,i shall put a few practical questions to you1 in order that ,i may be satisfied you understand them4 ,tell me1 therefore1 why a person who is fearful of falling1 as1 for instance1 when he leans forward1 should invariably put forward one of his feet1 as you did the other day1 when you looked into ,overton well80 8,to increase his base10 answered ,tom2 8whenever ,i lean greatly forward1 ,i should throw the line of direction beyond it1 did ,i not at the same instant put out one of my feet1 so as to extend my base1 and thus to cause the line to continue within it40 8,rightly answered2 and1 for the same reason1 a porter with a load on his back leans forward1 to prevent his burthen from throwing the line of direction out of the base behind4 ,so the horse1 in drawing a heavy weight1 instinctively leans forward1 in order to throw the whole of his weight as a counterbalance2 and yet10 observed ,mr4 ,seymour1 8we are in the habit of ignorantly restraining him by a bearing rein1 in consequence of which he has to call in the aid of his muscles1 by which a very unnecessary exhaustion of strength is produced4 ,thus is it that ,german and ,french horses draw heavy weights with apparently greater ease to themselves1 because the ,germans tie a horse's nose downwards1 while the ,french1 more wisely1 leave them at perfect liberty4 ,but to proceed4 ,did you ever observe the manner in which a woman carries a pail of water80 8,to be sure10 said ,tom2 8she always stretches out one of her arms40 8,the weight of the pail10 continued ,mr4 ,seymour1 8throws the centre of gravity on one side1 and the woman1 therefore1 stretches out the opposite arm1 in order to bring it back again into its original situation2 did she not do this1 she must1 like the ,english draught horses1 exert her muscles as a counteracting force1 which would greatly increase the fatigue of the operation3 but a pail hanging on each arm is carried without difficulty1 because they balance each other1 and the centre of gravity remains supported by the feet40 8,i see10 said ,louisa1 8that all you have said about the woman and her pail must be true2 but how could she have learned the principle which thus enabled her to keep the centre of gravity in its proper place80 8,by experience4 ,it is very unlikely that she should ever have heard of such a principle1 any more than those people who pack carts and waggons1 and yet make up their loads with such accuracy as always to keep the line of direction in1 or near1 the middle of the base4 ,but to proceed to another example--have ,i not frequently cautioned you against jumping up suddenly in a boat8 ,can you tell me upon what principle such an operation must be attended with danger80 8,i suppose10 said ,tom1 8for the very same reason that a waggon is more likely to be overturned when its top is too heavily laden2 it would elevate the centre of gravity1 and thereby render the line of direction liable to be thrown beyond the base1 and so upset the boat40 ,mr4 ,seymour observed1 that after this lesson he thought the balancing which ,tom and ,louisa had witnessed at ,astley's theatre1 last year1 would cease to appear so miraculous4 ,louisa declared that she had now discovered the whole mystery4 8,you have doubtless perceived10 said her father1 8that the art entirely consists in dexterously altering the centre of gravity upon every new position of the body1 so as constantly to preserve the line of direction within the base4 ,rope-dancers effect this by means of a long pole1 the ends of which are loaded by weights1 and which they hold across the rope4 ,if you had paid sufficient attention to their movements1 you must have perceived how steadily they fixed their eyes on some object near the rope1 so as to discover the slightest deviation of their centre of gravity to one or the other of its sides1 which they no sooner detect1 than they instantly rectify it by a countervailing motion of their pole1 and are thus enabled to preserve the line of direction within the narrow base4 ,this very same expedient is frequently practised by ourselves2 if we slip or stumble with one foot1 we naturally extend the opposite arm1 making the same use of it as the rope-dancer does of his pole4 ,many birds1 also1 by means of their flexible necks1 vary the position of their centre of gravity in the same manner4 ,when they sleep1 they turn it towards the back1 and place it under the wing1 in order to lay the greatest weight on the point above the feet40 8,what an interesting subject this is10 cried ,louisa1 8and how many curious things it is capable of explaining60 8,indeed is it2 and ,i shall take an opportunity of pointing out several specimens of art 7#i7 which are indebted for their stability to the scientific application of the principle we have been considering2--but ,i have now a paradox for you1 ,tom40 8,let us hear it1 papa40 8,how comes it that a stick1 loaded with a weight at the upper extremity1 can be kept in equilibrio1 on the point of the finger1 with much greater ease than when the weight is near the lower extremity1 or1 for instance1 that a sword can be balanced on the finger much better when the hilt is uppermost80 8,that is indeed strange4 ,i should have thought10 replied ,louisa1 8that the higher the weight was placed above the point of support1 the more readily would the line of direction have been thrown beyond the base40 8,in that respect you are perfectly right2 but the balancer will be able to restore it more easily in one case than in the other2 since1 for reasons which you will presently discover1 the greater the circle which a body describes in falling1 the less will be its tendency to fall4 ,look at the sketch which ,i have prepared for the explanation of this fact1 and ,i think you will readily comprehend the reason of it4 ,illustration3 ,man balancing a sword in each hand1 hilt up in one1 hilt down in other1 showing arc of centres of gravity for each4 8,when the weight is at a considerable distance from the point of support1 its centre of gravity1 in deviating either on one side or the other from a perpendicular direction1 describes a larger circle1 as at a1 than when the weight is very near to the centre of rotation or the point of support1 as at b4 ,but1 in a large circle1 an arc of any determinate extent1 such as an inch1 for example1 describes a curve which deviates much less from the perpendicular than if the circle were less2 as may be seen by comparing the positions of the sword at d and e2 and the sword at d will not have so great a tendency to deviate farther from the perpendicular1 as that at e2 for its tendency to deviate altogether from the perpendicular is greater1 according as the tangent to that point of the arc1 where it happens to be1 approaches more to the vertical position4 ,you see then that it is less difficult to balance a tall1 than a shorter pole2 and it is for the same reason that a person can walk with greater security on high than on low stilts40 8,that is very clear10 said ,louisa1 8although1 before your explanation1 ,i always associated the idea of difficulty with their height40 8,i suppose10 added ,tom1 8that the whole art of walking on stilts may be explained by the principles you have taught us40 8,undoubtedly it may2 for the equilibrium is preserved by varying the position of the body1 and thus keeping the centre of gravity within the base40 8,it must be a great exertion10 observed ,louisa4 8,before custom has rendered it familiar2 after which1 there is no more fatigue in walking on stilts1 than in walking on our feet4 ,there is a district in the south of ,france1 near ,bourdeaux1 called the ,desert of ,landes1 which runs along the sea coast between the mouths of the ,adour and ,gironde1 where all the shepherds are mounted on stilts2 on which they move with perfect freedom1 and astonishing rapidity2 and so easily does habit enable them to preserve their balance1 that they run1 jump1 stoop1 and even dance1 with ease and security40 8,how very odd60 said ,tom2 8what can be their motive for such a strange habit80 8,its objects10 replied his father1 8are important3 to keep the feet out of the water1 which1 during the winter1 is deep on the sands2 and to defend them from the heated sand during the summer2 in addition to which1 the sphere of vision over so perfect a flat is materially increased by the elevation1 and the shepherds are thus enabled to see their flocks at a much greater distance4#i ,they cannot1 however1 stand perfectly still upon their stilts1 without the aid of a long staff1 which they always carry in their hands2 this guards them against any accidental trip1 and1 when they wish to be at rest1 forms a third leg that keeps them steady40 8,i suppose10 said ,louisa2 8that the habit of using these stilts is acquired while they are very young40 8,it is1 my dear3 and it appears that1 the smaller the boy is1 the higher are his stilts2 a fact which affords a practical proof of the truth of what ,i have just stated40 8,the stork is said1 in my work on ,natural ,history1 to be always walking on stilts10 said ,louisa2 8and yet it does not appear to fatigue him40 8,that is very true10 replied the father2 8but you must remember1 that nature has furnished the bird with a provision1 by which the legs are kept extended without any exertion of the muscles1 in the manner of certain springs2 a structure which enables it to pass whole days and nights on one foot1 without the slightest fatigue4 ,if you will visit the cook the next time she trusses a fowl1 you will at once perceive the nature and utility of this structure2 upon bending the legs and thighs up towards the body1 you will observe that the claws close of their own accord2 now1 this is the position of the limbs in which the bird rests upon its perch1 and in this position it sleeps in safety1 for the claws do their office in keeping hold of the support1 not by any voluntary exertion1 but by the weight of the body drawing the strings tight40 8,but1 papa10 said ,tom1 8,i have yet some more questions to ask you on the subject of balancing4 ,i am not at all satisfied about many of the tricks that we saw last year2 indeed1 ,i cannot believe1 that many of those astonishing feats can be explained by the rules you have just given us40 8,i very well know to what you allude10 replied ,mr4 ,seymour4 8,many singular deceptions are certainly practised by removing the centre of gravity from its natural into an artificial situation1 or by disguising its place2 thus1 a cylinder placed upon an inclined surface may be made to run up1 instead of down hill4 ,i can even appear to balance a pailful of water on the slender stem of a tobacco-pipe3 but ,i shall be enabled to explain the nature of these deceptions by some toys which ,i have provided for your amusement1 and which ,i must say you are fully entitled to possess1 as a reward for the clear and satisfactory manner in which you have this day answered my questions4 ,but see6 here comes ,mr4 ,twaddleton3 he would really seem to possess an instinct that always brings him to the ,lodge whenever ,i am preparing some amusement for you40 ,the vicar smiled as he entered the room1 but1 unwilling to interrupt the lesson1 he placed his fore finger on his lip1 and1 with a significant nod1 silently took a seat at the table4 ,the children laughed aloud at this cautious demeanour2 and ,tom exclaimed1 8,why1 ,mr4 ,twaddleton1 our lesson is over1 and we are going to receive some new toys as a reward40 8,i have here10 said ,mr4 ,seymour1 as he opened a large wooden box1 8a collection of figures1 which will always raise themselves upright1 and preserve the erect position2 or regain it1 whenever it may have been disturbed40 ,he then arranged these figures in battalion on the table1 and striking them flat by drawing a rod over them1 they immediately started up again1 as soon as it was removed4 8,these figures10 continued he1 8were bought at ,paris some years ago1 under the title of ,prussians40 8,i declare10 exclaimed the vicar1 8they remind me of the rebellious spirits whom ,milton represents as saying that ascent is their natural1 and descent their unnatural1 motion40#aj 8,i have seen skreens similarly constructed10 said ,mrs4 ,seymour1 8which always rose up1 of themselves1 upon the removal of the force that had pressed them down40 8,i will explain their principle10 said ,mr4 ,seymour4 8,suppose we first examine the construction of the figure10 observed the vicar4 8,bless me6 why it is like ,philotus the poet1 who was so thin and light1 that lead was fastened to his shoes to prevent his being blown away40 ,illustration3 ,toy soldier mounted on the flat part of a hemisphere4 8,the figure10 said ,mr4 ,seymour1 8is made of the pith of the elder-tree1 which is extremely light1 and is affixed to the half of a leaden bullet2 on account1 therefore1 of the disproportion between the weight of the figure and that of its base1 we may exclude the consideration of the former1 and confine our attention to the latter4 ,the centre of gravity of the hemispherical base is1 of course1 in its axis2 and therefore tends to approach the horizontal plane as much as possible1 and this can never be accomplished1 until the axis becomes perpendicular to the horizon4 ,whenever the curved surface is in any other position1 the centre of gravity is not in the lowest place to which it can descend1 as may be seen by the diagram which ,i have just sketched4 ,if the axis a b be removed to c d1 it is evident that the centre of gravity will be raised1 and that1 if left alone1 it would immediately descend again into its original position40 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ad4 ,hemisphere shown in two positions using solid and dotted lines4 8,i understand it perfectly10 said ,tom4 8,when the axis a b is perpendicular1 the centre of gravity will be in its lowest point1 or as near the earth as it can place itself2 when1 therefore1 the figure is pressed down1 the centre of gravity is raised1 and1 consequently1 on the removal of that pressure1 it will descend to its original position1 and thus raise the figure40 ,illustration3 ,toy man with sword1 turban1 and shield1 mounted on a candlestick with weights jutting out and down from both sides4 8,i see you understand it4 ,here1 then10 continued ,mr4 ,seymour1 8is another toy in further illustration of our subject4 ,it consists of a small figure1 supported on a stand by a ball1 which is quite loose2 and yet it is made to turn and balance itself in all directions1 always recovering its erect position1 when the force applied to it is removed4 ,the two weights1 in this case1 bring the centre of gravity considerably below the point of suspension or support1 and therefore maintain the figure upright1 and make it resume its perpendicular position1 after it has been inclined to either side2 for the centre of gravity cannot place itself as low as possible1 without making the figure stand erect40 8,that is very evident10 cried ,louisa4 8,i shall next exhibit to you10 continued ,mr4 ,seymour1 8a toy that furnishes a very good solution of a popular paradox in mechanics2 viz4 ,a body having a tendency to fall by its own weight1 how to prevent it from falling1 by adding to it a weight on the same side on which it tends to fall40 8,that is indeed a paradox60 exclaimed ,louisa4 8,the next time ,i see the gardener sinking under the load of a heavy sack1 ,i shall desire him to lighten his burden by doubling its weight40 ,illustration3 ,toy horse with its back legs on a ledge1 with a weight attached to its belly with a wire which curves back and down under the ledge4 8,will you1 indeed1 ,miss ,pert8 ,i do not think so1 after you have seen the operation of the toy ,i am now about to exhibit4 ,here1 you perceive1 is a horse1 the centre of gravity of which would be somewhere about the middle of its body2 it is1 therefore1 very evident that1 if ,i were to place its hinder legs on the edge of the table1 the line of direction would fall considerably beyond the base1 and the horse must be precipitated to the ground2 you will1 however1 perceive that there is a stiff wire attached to a weight which is connected with the body of the horse1 and by means of such an addition1 the horse prances with perfect security at the edge of the precipice3 so that the figure which was incapable of supporting itself is actually prevented from falling1 by adding a weight to its unsupported end60 ,the children admitted the truth of this statement1 and were not immediately prepared to explain it4 8,the weight1 indeed1 appears to be added on that side2 but1 in reality1 it is on the opposite side10 said the vicar4 8,in order to produce the desired effect10 observed ,mr4 ,seymour1 8the wire must be bent1 so as to throw the weight far back1 under the table2 by which contrivance1 since the centre of gravity of the whole compound figure is thrown into the leaden weight1 the hind legs of the horse thus become the point of suspension1 on which the ball may be made to vibrate with perfect security40 8,now ,i understand it10 cried ,tom2 8instead of the weight supporting the horse1 the horse supports the weight40 8,exactly so4 ,you perceive1 therefore1 from these few examples1 that the balancer1 by availing himself of such deceptions1 and combining with them a considerable degree of manual dexterity1 may perform feats1 which1 at first sight1 will appear in direct opposition to the laws of gravity4 ,there is also another expedient of which the balancer avails himself1 to increase the wonder of his performances1 and that is the influence of rotatory motion1 which1 you will presently see1 may be made to counteract the force of gravity40 8,i remember that the most surprising of all the tricks ,i witnessed was one1 in which a sword was suspended on a key1 which turned round on the end of a tobacco-pipe2 on the top of the sword a pewter-plate was1 at the same time1 made to revolve with great velocity40 8,i well remember the trick to which you allude4 ,the rotatory motion prevented the sword from falling1 just as you will hereafter find the spinning of the top will preserve it in an erect position4 ,there is also another effect produced by rotatory motion1 with which it is essential that you should become acquainted4 ,you1 no doubt1 remember that momentum1 or the velocity of a body1 will compensate for its want of matter4 ,a number of bodies1 therefore1 although incapable of balancing each other when in a state of rest1 may be made to do so1 by imparting to them different degrees of motion4 ,i believe that you are now acquainted with all the principles upon which the art of balancing depends2 and ,i have little doubt1 should we again witness a performance of this kind1 that you will be able to explain the tricks which formerly appeared to you so miraculous40 ,illustration3 ,three boys using stilts4 ----- ,footnote #i3 ,in ,scotland stilts are used to pass rivers4 ,footnote #aj3 ,a ,the vicar here alludes to the speech of ,moloch 7,paradise ,lost1 b4 ii4 #a4 #ge73-- 8,that in our proper motion we ascend ,up to our native seat3 descent and fall ,to us is adverse40 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,illustration3 ,a man holding a balloon with a face on it1 blown up1 and six people laughing at the sight4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,the ,chinese ,tumblers1 illustrating the joint effects of change in the centre of gravity of a body1 and of momentum4--,mr4 ,twaddleton's arrival after a series of adventures4--,the ,dancing ,balls4--,the ,pea-shooter4--,a figure that dances on a fountain4--,the ,flying ,witch4--,elasticity4--,springs4--,the game of 8,ricochet10 or ,duck and ,drake4--,the ,rebounding ,ball4--,animals that leap by means of an elastic apparatus4--,a new species of puffing1 by which the ,vicar is made to change countenance4 ,early on ,monday morning did the young group assemble in the library2 they had been told by ,mrs4 ,seymour that their father had received a new toy of a very interesting and instructive nature1 and we can easily imagine the eagerness with which they anticipated the sight of it4 8,i trust10 said ,mr4 ,seymour1 8that after our late discussion1 the subject of the centre of gravity is thoroughly understood by you all4 ,i have also reason to think that the nature and effects of what is termed momentum have been rendered intelligible to you40 8,i certainly understand both those subjects10 answered ,tom2 and so thought the rest of the party4 8,well1 then1 ,i will put your knowledge to the test10 observed ,mr4 ,seymour1 8for you shall explain to me the mechanism of these ,chinese ,tumblers40 ,upon which he produced an oblong box1 which1 by opening1 formed a series of stairs or steps1 and took from a drawer at its end two grotesque figures 7,clown and ,pantaloon71 which were connected with each other by two poles1 which they appeared in the attitude of carrying1 pretty much in the way that the porters carry the poles of a sedan-chair4 ,the foremost figure was then placed upon the top step1 when1 to the great astonishment of the whole party1 the figures very deliberately descended the several stairs1 each turning over the other in succession4 8,there was a period in our history10 observed ,mrs4 ,seymour1 8when so marvellous an exhibition would have subjected the inventor to the penalties of sorcery40 8,that10 remarked ,mr4 ,seymour1 8may be said of most of the other inventions which ,i have yet in store to illustrate the powers conferred upon us by a knowledge of natural philosophy2 but1 as far as mechanical skill is concerned1 ,i doubt whether the ancients did not even surpass us1 especially in the art of constructing automata2 and as quicksilver was known in the remotest ages1 ,i think it not improbable that it was one of the agents employed by them on such occasions4 ,if ,i remember right1 ,aristotle describes a wooden ,venus1 which moved by means of #8liquid silver2' then1 again1 the moving tripods which ,apollonius saw in the ,indian temples--the walking statues at ,antium1 and in the temple of ,hierapolis1 and the wooden pigeon of ,archytas1#aa ought1 undoubtedly1 to be regarded as evidences of their mechanical resources4 ,but let us reserve these literary questions for the better judgment of our worthy friend the vicar1 and proceed to consider the mechanism of the toy before us4 ,tom10 continued he1 8take the figures in your hand and examine them40 ,no sooner had the young philosopher received the figures from the hand of his father than he declared that the tubes were hollow1 and that he felt some liquid running backwards and forwards in them4 8,you are quite right1 my boy10 said ,mr4 ,seymour1 8they contain quicksilver40 8,now then ,i understand it10 cried ,tom2 8the quicksilver runs down the tubes and alters the centre of gravity of the figures1 and so makes them tumble over each other40 8,well1 ,i acknowledge that is no bad guess as a beginning1 and will certainly explain the first movement2 but you will be pleased to recollect that the instant a new centre of gravity is thus produced the figures must remain at rest--how1 then1 will you explain their continued motion80 8,you said something1 ,i think1 about momentum2 did you not1 papa80 8,certainly2 and to its agency the continuance of the motions is to be ascribed3 but ,i will explain the operation more fully40 ,mr4 ,seymour then proceeded to point out the mechanism and movements of the toy in a manner which we shall endeavour to convey to our readers by the aid of the annexed engraving4 ,illustration3 ,two jokers connected by poles and strings and in the process of descending some steps4 8,as soon as the figure ,a is placed upon the step ,d1 in the position ,a ,b1 the quicksilver1 by running down the inclined tubes1 swings the figure ,b round to ,c2 and the centre of gravity having been thus adjusted1 the whole would remain at rest but for the contrivance to be next described4 ,besides their connexion with the poles by means of pivots1 the figures are connected with each other by silken strings1 which keep the figure ,b steadily in its position1 while it traverses the arc until it arrives at ,c1 when their increased tension has the effect of capsizing it1 and of thus producing a momentum1 which1 by carrying its centre of gravity beyond the line of direction1 causes it to descend upon the step ,e1 when the quicksilver1 by again flowing to the lowest part of the tubes1 places the figures in the same position1 only one step lower1 as they were at the commencement of their action2 and thus1 by successive repetitions of the same changes1 it is quite evident that the figures must continue to descend as long as any steps remain for their reception40 8,i understand it perfectly10 observed ,louisa1 with a smile of satisfaction4 8,i need scarcely say10 continued ,mr4 ,seymour1 8that there are some niceties in the adjustment of the minuter parts of the apparatus1 without which the effect could not be accomplished2 the quantity of quicksilver1 for instance1 must bear its proper proportion to the weight and dimensions of the figure3 and in order to prevent its too rapid passage along the inclined tubes1 strings are stretched across their interior to retard the stream4 ,then1 again1 some management is necessary with regard to the silken strings1 in order to ensure a necessary degree of tension4 ,i will now show you10 said he1 8a single tumbler1 which will perform the same motions without the assistance of any tubes40 8,but not without quicksilver10 observed ,tom1 8which1 ,i suppose1 must1 in this case1 be put into the body of the figure40 8,you are quite right2 and it is made to pass from one extremity of its body to the other through a small orifice1 which has the same effect as the strings in the tubes1 in breaking the current and preventing its too rapid motion4 ,in all other respects1 the principle is the same as in the double figures40 ,just as ,mr4 ,seymour had terminated his exhibition of #8,le petit ,culbuteur1' the welcome appearance of the vicar infused fresh spirits into the little party4 8,my dear friends10 said ,mr4 ,twaddleton1 8,i have been most provokingly detained by that tiresome etymologist ,jeffrey ,prybabel4 ,i made many efforts to escape1 but ,i was as a fly in a cobweb40 8,he is the greatest bore in all ,christendom2 ,i knew him well10 observed ,mr4 ,seymour1 8when he practised as a ,conveyancer in ,gray's-,inn1 and went by the nickname of the ,riot ,act2 for1 in such horror was he held1 that1 if a number of persons were congregated1 his approach was sure to disperse them4 ,but what has been the subject of your discourse8--was the etymologist merely airing his vocabulary1 or did he propose some difficult question for discussion8 ,be this1 however1 as it may1 ,i will venture to say that he was1 as usual1 loquacious on the subject of mutes--dry on the use of liquids1 and descanting without end on the importance of a termination80 8,mr4 ,seymour1 ,i am really and truly ashamed of you2 punning1 under any circumstances1 is a most disgraceful habit1 but when employed to distort the meaning of language it becomes absolutely criminal40 ,to turn the subject of this discourse1 the vicar proceeded to inform ,mr4 ,seymour that he had no sooner escaped from the fangs of ,prybabel than he encountered ,polyphemus4 ,our readers may1 perhaps1 wonder who this ,polyphemus could have been2 we must1 therefore1 inform them that ,mr4 ,twaddleton1 whose ideas were always tinctured with classical colouring1 had bestowed this appellation upon the renowned ,dr4 ,doseall1 the ,esculapius of ,overton1 because1 as he said1 his practice was like the ,cyclops1 strong but blind2 and ,mr4 ,seymour declared that the similitude was even more perfect than the vicar had contemplated1 for he observed that he certainly fattened upon the unhappy victims who fell within his clutches4 ,with all our respect for the liberality of ,mr4 ,seymour and the kind-heartedness of the vicar1 we must1 in justice to this respectable son of ,apollo1 express our disapprobation at so unprovoked a sarcasm4 ,we acknowledge that ,dr4 ,doseall1 by the aid of low bows and high charges--of little ailments and large potions1 had contrived to secure a very comfortable balance on the creditor side of his worldly ledger4 ,we also admit1 that after the example of other celebrated physicians1 he had one sovereign remedy1 which he administered in every disease4 ,but what of that8 he was often successful in his cures--that is to say1 his patients sometimes recovered after they had taken his physic2 and is not that the test conventionally received in proof of the skill or ignorance of greater physicians than ,dr4 ,doseall8 ,nor can we persuade ourselves into the belief1 that a doctor who faithfully adheres to one single remedy1 is less likely to be right than those restless spirits who are eternally coquetting with all the preparations of the ,pharmacopia without ever remaining steady to any one of them4 ,it has been truly remarked1 that the clock which stands still and points steadfastly in one direction1 is certain of being right twice in the twenty-four hours1 while others may keep going continually1 and as continually going wrong4 ,being ourselves no doctors1 we merely throw out this hint for the consideration of those who are learned in such matters3 but we beg pardon of our readers for this digression4 8,well10 said ,mr4 ,seymour1 8,i am1 at all events1 rejoiced to see our ,trojan in safety1 after such perilous adventures2 and ,i hope that he is now prepared to set sail again with us1 on a new voyage of discovery4 ,i have been engaged10 continued he1 8in explaining still farther the nature of momentum1 and ,i now propose to exhibit an experiment of a different kind1 in order to illustrate the same subject4 ,you1 no doubt1 remember10 continued ,mr4 ,seymour1 8that velocity makes up for weight3 although1 therefore1 a fluid1 as air1 or water1 may1 in a state of quiescence1 be unable to support a body1 yet1 by giving it a certain velocity1 it may acquire a sustaining power4 ,i have here several gilded pith-balls1 through one of which ,i have run two pins1 at right angles to each other3 the naked points1 you perceive1 are defended with sealing-wax1 to prevent any mischief that might arise from their accidentally coming into contact with your face4 ,by means of this brass tube1 7the stem of a tobacco-pipe will answer the same purpose17 ,i shall produce a current of air by my breath1 and you will observe that the little ball will continue to dance1 as if unsupported40 ,mr4 ,seymour then placed the pith-ball at the end of the pipe1 and1 inserting its other extremity in his mouth1 blew out the ball1 which immediately rose in the air1 and continued to float about for several seconds3 he then drew in his breath1 and caught it with much address on one of its points2 and in this manner1 alternately floating and catching it1 did he continue to delight the wondering group for several minutes4 ,tom received the tube and ball from the hand of his father1 and soon succeeded in playing with it4 ,observe1 gentle reader1 the address with which the boy manages it4 ,illustration3 ,tom keeping the pith-ball aloft by blowing into the tube4 8,this reminds me of my pea-shooter10 said ,tom1 as he removed the tube from his mouth1 8with which ,i have often shot a pea across the play-ground40 8,exactly2 and you will now understand the nature of the force by which your pea was projected4 ,the air blown from the lungs1 gains such momentum from the contracted channel in which it flows1 as to impart considerable velocity to the pea placed within the influence of its current40 ,mrs4 ,seymour observed1 that she had lately read in ,waterton's 8,wanderings in ,south ,america10 a very interesting account of the ,indian blow-pipe1 which the natives of ,guiana employ as an engine for projecting their poisoned arrows1 and which owes its power to the principle of which ,mr4 ,seymour had just spoken1 and its unerring accuracy to the skilful address of the ,indian who uses it47#aj7 8,mr4 ,seymour10 said the vicar1 8,i much like your experiment with the pith-balls2 but do tell me the use of the pins that are passed through them40 8,they are not absolutely necessary for the success of the experiment3 indeed1 ,i ought to have stated1 that their only use is to ensure the elevation of the ball to a certain distance above the orifice of the tube1 before it is set adrift40 8#8,ne turbata volent rapidis ludibria ventis1' as ,virgil has it4 ,i duly appreciate the contrivance2 but if the ball was set off at a distance from the orifice1 such an expedient would be unnecessary40 8,certainly10 answered ,mr4 ,seymour2 8,i will soon convince you that1 under the condition you propose1 the pins are not essential40 ,so saying1 he placed the tube in his mouth1 and by carefully holding the ball at a distance of about half an inch from its orifice1 he was enabled to consign it at once to a continuous and steady stream of air1 which can never be commanded at the point from which the air issues2 and he thus succeeded in sustaining the ball in motion1 in the same manner as he did in the preceding experiment4 8,we will now proceed to the orchard10 said ,mr4 ,seymour1 8where ,i have prepared another pleasing exhibition of a similar description40 ,the party accordingly left the ,lodge1 and when they had arrived at the fountain1 their father produced a small wooden figure1 of which the annexed is a sketch4 ,within its base was fixed a hollow sphere1 or ball of thin copper1 which1 when properly adjusted on a fountain1 or jet d'eau1 was sustained by the momentum produced by the velocity of the stream2 so that the whole figure was balanced1 and made to dance on the fountain1 as the pith-ball had been made to play in the current of air4 ,illustration3 ,man sitting at the top of a fountain's stream of water4 ,the children were much gratified at witnessing so curious an exhibition4 ,mr4 ,twaddleton laughed heartily at the ludicrous effect it produced1 and observed that1 although he had never before seen the experiment1 he had frequently heard of it2 and he added1 that he understood it to be a very common toy in ,germany and ,holland4 8,i have for some time10 said ,mrs4 ,seymour1 8been trying to construct a light figure of this kind1 which shall dance on a current of air2 and ,i believe ,i have at length succeeded4 ,the head ,i have formed of the seed vessel of the ,antirrhinum1 which has a striking resemblance to a face1 and possesses1 moreover1 the indispensable condition of lightness4 ,the dress is made of silver paper1 stretched over a cone of the same material4 ,from its appearance ,i have named it the ,flying ,witch40 8,i admire your ingenuity10 said ,mr4 ,seymour1 8and ,i have no reason to doubt the success of your enterprise40 8,i found it convenient10 continued ,mrs4 ,seymour1 8to place a stage of card below the orifice of the tube1 in order to steady the figure as she rises1 and to receive her as she falls40 8,your principal care10 observed her husband1 8must be to throw the centre of gravity of the figure as low as possible40 ,on the party returning to the library1 ,mr4 ,seymour expressed a wish that1 before they suspended their morning's recreations1 they should take into consideration a peculiar property of matter1 which they had not yet discussed4 8,and what may that be80 asked ,louisa4 8,,elasticity10 replied her father2 8and ,i wish to hear whether ,tom can explain to us the meaning of the term40 ,tom very well knew what was meant by ,elasticity2 but he was like many a merchant with a bill of exchange1 who1 although well acquainted with its value1 has not sufficient small change to cash it4 ,tom wanted words to enable him to furnish a clear definition2 his father1 therefore1 kindly relieved his embarrassment1 by informing him that 8it was a property inherent in certain bodies1 by which they possessed a disposition to have their form altered by force or pressure1 and to recover it on the removal of that pressure1 throwing off the striking body with some degree of force3 for example10 continued he1 8the cane which ,i hold in my hand can be bent to a certain extent1 and then1 if ,i let it go1 it will immediately return to its former condition with considerable force40 ,louisa inquired whether bending and pressing upon a body were the same thing4 ,mr4 ,seymour replied1 that the form of an elastic body might be altered either by compression or distension1 and that bending was1 in fact1 only a combination of these two methods2 8,for10 said he1 8when a straight body1 like my cane1 is bent1 those particles of it which are on the one side are compressed1 while those on the other are distended4 ,but let us proceed with the subject4 ,i have said that elastic bodies1 on returning to their original form1 throw off the striking body with some degree of force4 ,i have here10 continued ,mr4 ,seymour1 taking out of his pocket a wooden image of a cat1 8a toy which ,i intend as a gift to ,john2 it will serve to illustrate our subject4 ,the tail1 you perceive is movable1 one of its ends being tied to a piece of catgut1 which is a highly elastic substance4 ,when ,i bend the tail under the body of the animal1 ,i necessarily twist the string2 and by pressing the other end of the wooden tail upon a piece of wax1 ,i can retain it for a few seconds in that situation40 ,mr4 ,seymour having fixed the tail in the manner above described1 placed the wooden image on the ground1 when1 in a few seconds1 it suddenly sprang forward1 to the great delight of the younger children4 8,can you explain this action80 asked ,mr4 ,seymour4 8,the wax10 answered ,tom1 8was incapable of holding the end of the tail longer than a few seconds2 and as soon as it was let loose1 the elasticity of the catgut enabled it to return to its former condition2 in doing which the tail struck with force against the ground1 which threw off the body of the cat and produced the leap40 8,very well explained2 and you1 no doubt1 will readily perceive that the operation of steel springs depends upon the same principle of elasticity3 a piece of wire or steel1 coiled up1 may be made to set a machine in motion by the endeavour it makes to unbend itself4 ,this is the principle of the spring in a watch4 ,when our watches are what is termed down1 this steel has uncoiled itself2 and the operation of winding them up1 is nothing more than that of bending it again for action47#aa7 ,if the elasticity of a body be perfect10 added ,mr4 ,seymour1 8it will restore itself with a force equal to that with which it was compressed4 ,as ,i have given ,john a toy1 it is but fair that ,i should reward you1 ,tom3 open that box1 and examine the gift which it contains40 ,tom received the present from his father1 and proceeded to open the lid1 when1 to his great astonishment1 the figure of an old witch suddenly sprang upwards4 ,mr4 ,seymour explained its mechanism1 by stating 8that the figure contained a wire coiled up like a corkscrew1 and which1 upon the removal of the pressure of the lid which confined it1 immediately regained its original form407#ab7 ,tom inquired what kind of bodies was most elastic4 ,he was informed that the air was the most elastic of all known substances1 and had1 for that reason1 been distinguished by the name of an elastic fluid4 ,hard bodies were so in the next degree2 while soft substances which easily retain impressions1 such as clay1 wax1 c4 might be considered as possessing but little elasticity4 8,i should have thought10 said ,louisa1 8that neither clay nor wax had possessed any elasticity40 8,my love1 we know not any bodies that are absolutely1 or perfectly1 either hard1 soft1 or elastic2 since all partake of these properties1 more or less1 in some intermediate degree4 ,liquids are certainly the least elastic of all bodies2 and1 until lately1 water was regarded as being perfectly inelastic2#ab but recent experiments have shown it capable of compression1 and of restoring itself to its original bulk1 as soon as the pressure is removed2 it must1 therefore1 possess some elasticity4 ,indeed10 said ,mr4 ,seymour1 8we might have anticipated such a result from the effects which present themselves in the well-known game of #8,ricochet1' or ,duck and ,drake40 8,duck and ,drake60 exclaimed ,louisa2 8for goodness' sake1 what can that game be80 8,i dare say your brother will not have any difficulty in explaining it to you40 ,tom informed her that it was a game in which any number of boys threw a stone1 or a flat piece of tile1 into the water2 and that he whose stone rebounded the greatest number of times was the conqueror4 8,it is a very ancient game10 said ,mr4 ,seymour1 8and had the vicar been present1 we should have heard a learned disquisition upon it2 as he1 however1 is unfortunately absent1 ,i must tell you all ,i know upon the subject4 ,it was called by the ,greeks ,epostrakismos1#ac and was anciently played with flat shells4 ,now it is evident that the water must possess some degree of elasticity1 or the stone could not rebound7#ac72 but ,i shall have occasion to revert to the subject hereafter40 8,and are my marbles elastic80 asked ,tom4 8,undoubtedly2 but not to the same extent as your ball4 ,there10 said ,mr4 ,seymour1 throwing his ball against the wall1 8see how it rebounds40 8,the return of the ball10 observed ,tom1 8was1 ,i suppose1 owing to its elasticity2 and ,i now understand why one filled with air rebounds so much better than one stuffed with bran or wool40 8,you are quite right2 and the return of the ball1 after having struck the wall1 affords an example of what is termed reflected motion1 upon which ,i shall have to remark when we come to the interesting subject of #8,compound ,forces2' but at present1 my only wish is to render the property of elasticity intelligible to you4 ,it is a force of very extensive application2 there is scarcely a machine wherein the elasticity of one or more solids is not essentially concerned4 ,nature1 also1 avails herself of this property to accomplish many of her purposes4 ,fleas and locusts are enabled to jump two hundred times the height of their own bodies by means of a springy membrane1 easily visible by a microscope2 so that1 supposing the same relative force to be infused into the body of a man six feet high1 he would be enabled to leap three times the height of ,st4 ,paul's3 and the regular dispersion and sowing of the seeds of several plants is effected by a spring1 which is wound sometimes round the outside1 and at others1 round the inside1 of the case in which the seeds are contained407#ad7 8,i suppose10 said ,tom1 8that it is by some such spring shrimps are enabled to leap to the tops of cataracts1 as ,i have read in my work on ,natural ,history40 8,many species of fish are thus enabled to leap1 by bending their bodies strongly1 and then suddenly unbending them with an elastic spring2 and the long-tailed crayfish1 and the common shrimp1 leap by extending their tails1 after they have been bent under their bodies3--but the most striking example of this kind is the leap of the salmon2 just under the cataract1 and against the stream1 he will rush for some yards1 and rise out of the spray six or eight feet2 and1 amidst the noise of the water1 he may be heard striking against the rock with a sound like the clapping of hands2 if he find a temporary lodgment on the shelving rock1 he will lie quivering and preparing for another summerset1 until he reaches the top of the cataract2 thus at once exhibiting the elasticity of his bones and the power of his muscles40 8,we will now conclude our diversions10 said ,mr4 ,seymour1 8with an exhibition of a very striking description4 ,here10 cried he1 as he removed a small piece of apparatus from a box which stood on the table1 8is a toy1 at which the sternest philosopher1 nay1 even ,heraclitus1 of weeping memory1 could not refrain from laughing40 ,he then displayed a small ball of ,indian rubber1 on which was painted an exact resemblance of the worthy vicar1 executed under the direction of ,mr4 ,seymour1 by that inimitable artist1 ,george ,cruikshank4 ,the ball was connected with an air syringe1 by which it was easily distended4 ,it gradually increased in magnitude1 swelling1 like the gourd of ,jonah1 as the inflation proceeded1 and the countenance of the vicar progressively enlarged to the size of the full moon1 without the least alteration in the character or expression of its features4 8,i declare10 said ,mr4 ,seymour1 8the vicar improves upon acquaintance40 8,it must be acknowledged that you have puffed him into consequence10 observed ,mrs4 ,seymour4 ,the countenance had1 after a short time1 swelled to ten times its original dimensions3 the children deafened ,mr4 ,seymour with their shouts1 and the good-humoured clergyman was actually convulsed with laughter4 ,the stop-cock was now turned2 the elastic bladder became smaller and smaller1 and the features underwent a corresponding diminution1 until they once again assumed their original dimensions4 8,you perceive1 my dear ,sir1 that ,i make you look small again40 8,that is by no means an unusual effect of your jokes10 replied the vicar4 8,now1 ,tom10 said his father1 8it is for you to explain the nature of the exhibition you have just witnessed40 ,tom proceeded accordingly4 8,the bladder was highly elastic1 and therefore readily yielded to the pressure of the air1 and became distended4 ,as soon1 however1 as the pressure was removed1 the air was driven out again with force1 and the particles of the ,indian rubber returned to their former condition4 ,but ,i observed one circumstance which ,i do not understand10 said ,tom3 8when you first turned the stop-cock1 the air rushed out with great violence1 and the ball diminished very rapidly2 but it gradually slackened1 until1 at last1 the bladder could scarcely be seen to contract40 8,i rejoice to find that you were so observant10 said his father3 8the effect you noticed depended upon a general law of elasticity4 ,elastic bodies1 in the recovery of their forms from a state of compression1 after the removal of the compressing force1 exert a greater power at first than at last1 so that the whole progress of restoration is a retarded motion40 ,the vicar1 who had listened with profound attention to the explanation which the boy had offered1 rushed forward at its conclusion1 and clasping him in his arms1 declared1 that a first-class man of ,trinity could not have succeeded better4 8,but let us now1 if you please1 ,mr4 ,seymour1 suspend our researches3 recollect10 said the vicar1 8that your birds are1 as yet1 scarcely fledged2 and they will1 therefore1 make greater advances by short flights frequently repeated1 than by uninterrupted progression40 ,we heartily concur in this opinion1 and shall1 therefore1 terminate the chapter4 ----- ,footnote #aa3 ,upon this subject1 ,dr4 ,brewster's ,introductory ,letter on ,natural ,magic will be read with interest and advantage4 ,footnote #ab3 ,the comparative inelasticity of water will be shown hereafter4 ,footnote #ac3 ,pollux1 lib4 ix4 c4 #g4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,the arrival of ,major ,snapwell1 and the bustle it occasioned4--,the ,vicar's interview with the stranger4--,a curious discussion4--,a word or two addressed to ,fox-hunters4--,verbal corruptions4--,some geometrical definitions4--,an enigma4 ,as the ladies of ,overton were regaling themselves with a sociable dish of tea and chat1 the conversation was abruptly interrupted by the appearance of a chariot-and-four1 that passed along the road with luxurious speed1 and which1 as ,miss ,kitty ,ryland declared1 announced1 by the dignified suavity of its roll1 that the personage it conveyed must be of superior rank4 8,those10 exclaimed she1 8who cannot at once distinguish such #8spirit-stirring' sounds from the discordant rattle of a plebeian chaise1 deserve to wear the ears of ,midas40 ,this extraordinary subtlety of ,miss ,ryland's ears is said to have been conferred upon them by those universal promoters of bodily vigour1 air and exercise1 of which they had received the combined advantage by the ingenious habit of listening to whispers through a certain pneumatic apparatus1 familiarly termed a key-hole4 ,in farther proof of the fidelity and alertness of her auditory establishment1 we may just state1 that1 on passing ,doseall's shop1 she never failed to distinguish1 by the sound of the mortar1 whether the medicines under preparation were designed for the stomachs of the rich or the poor4 ,the vicar even admitted the correctness of her discrimination1 for he had himself observed that the pestle beat dactyls in one case1 and spondees in the other4 ,while the carriage was passing the window1 the maiden companions were breathless with wonder1 each catching a glance from the countenance of her neighbour1 which heightened1 as it were1 by reflection1 the surprise depicted on her own4 8,overton10 exclaimed ,miss ,noodleton1 8is doubtless by this time honoured by the arrival of some distinguished stranger2 but who he is1 or what may be the object of his visit1 ,i am at a loss to divine40 8,pooh60 cried ,miss ,puttle2 8what a fuss is here about a green carriage and four hack horses6 ,i doubt not but that it has conveyed some visitor to the vicar3 had the ,seymours expected any company1 ,i must have heard of it yesterday40 8,to the vicar60 exclaimed ,miss ,phillis ,tapps2 8and pray1 ,miss ,puttle1 allow me to ask whether you ever heard of the peacock nestling with the crow80 8,or of the eagle taking up its abode in an ivy-bush80 vociferated ,miss ,ryland4 ,conjectures were vain1 and the party determined to resolve itself into a committee of inquiry4 ,in the first place1 it was judged expedient to see and question ,ralph ,spindle1 whom ,dr4 ,doseall employed on the arrival of a stranger1 as certain insects are said to use their #8feelers' to discover the approach of any prey that may serve them as food4 ,the stranger was soon discovered to be a ,major ,snapwell1 a rich and eccentric old bachelor1 who had served in various campaigns in different parts of the globe1 and received a competent number of wounds1 in the defence of his king and country4 ,his income was reported to be large1 and it was said1 that he had not any near relative to enjoy the reversion1 since his nephew had perished about two years before by shipwreck4 ,the circumstances that led to this disastrous event were believed to have so affected the veteran1 as to have occasioned a very serious illness1 and a consequent state of despondency1 for which his physicians advised a constant change of scene2 so that he had been rambling about the ,continent during the last year and a half1 accompanied only by his faithful servant1 ,jacob ,watson1 who was as much attached to the ,major1 as was ever a ,newfoundland dog to his master4 ,such was the information derived from ,annette1 the vicar's housekeeper3 what proportion of fiction was mingled with its truth1 the reader will probably soon be able to discover4 8,well1 ,jacob10 said the ,major1 as his trusty but asthmatic valet was leisurely buttoning on the long gaiters of his master the morning after his arrival1 8what do you hear about this village of ,overton8 ,are there any sociable neighbours8 ,i like the country2 it is beautiful1 ,jacob1 and the air appears mild3 it promises to be the very place to kindle the sparks of my expiring constitution2 and should you1 at the same time1 get your broken-winded bellows mended1 my vital flame might1 perhaps1 burn a little brighter4 ,but tell me1 what do you hear of it1 ,jacob80 8,why1 and please you1 ,major1 ,i just now met an old crony of mine1 ,mrs4 ,annette ,brown1 at the ,devil and the ,bag of ,nails----0 8,and pray1 ,jacob10 exclaimed the ,major1 8who taught you to speak thus irreverently of the village blacksmith80 8,the village blacksmith6 ,lord love you1 it is the sign of the village alehouse60 8,then it is a very odd one2 but go on with your story40 8,as ,i was saying1 ,major1 ,i met an old acquaintance who is housekeeper to ,mr4 ,twaddleton1 a bachelor gentleman1 and the vicar of the parish4 ,she tells me her master is downright adored in the place3 though he must needs be a queer mortal1 for she says he is so fond of antics that he won't suffer a mop or broom in his house1 lest1 ,i suppose1 it should spoil the hopping of the fleas1 and put an end to the fly's rope-dance upon a cobweb40 8,jacob1 ,jacob1 you are a wag1 and had better go and offer your services to this merry parson2 although1 ,i fear1 your asthmatic pipes would prove but a sorry accompaniment to his capering4 ,but pshaw6--fiddlestick6--stuff and nonsense6--who ever heard of a vicar being fond of antics6--you are imposed upon1 ,jacob40 8,i am sure that how ,annette told me as much4 ,ay1 and she said he had all sorts of curiosities in his parlour--such as grinning faces1 dogs with three heads1 rusty swords1 and ,i do not know what besides40 8,i see it6--see it all plainly60 exclaimed the ,major2 8and your story has so delighted me that ,i could almost dance myself40 ,this respectable clergyman1 thought he1 is1 doubtless1 an antiquary1 a virtuoso--what a delightful companion will he prove6 ,and a bachelor like myself6--what tte--ttes do ,i anticipate6 8,jacob10 exclaimed the ,major1 8you should have said that the vicar was fond of1 or1 to speak more correctly1 devoted to antiques1 not to antics4 ,but1 tell me whether there are any other agreeable persons in this village80 8,there's the squire and his family10 answered the valet4 8,the name1 the name1 ,jacob80 8,squire ,seymour1 and please you1 ,major40 8,seymour1 ,seymour60 repeated the ,major2 8,i seem to know that name--let me remember40 ,the ,major's cogitations1 however1 were abruptly cut short by the entrance of the servant-maid1 who informed him that ,mr4 ,vicar ,twaddleton had called4 8,i beg that ,mr4 ,twaddleton may be admitted4--,jacob1 place a chair40 8,mr4 ,twaddleton10 said the ,major1 as he advanced towards the door to meet his visitor1 8,i feel obliged and honoured by your kind attention4 ,as a perfect stranger1 ,i could scarcely have expected this civility2 but your village1 surrounded as it is by all the softer charms of ,nature1 is calculated to impress the hearts of its inhabitants with a kindred amenity4 ,the inhabitants are1 doubtless1 much attached to their country40 8,proverbially so3 never was ,ulysses more attached to his ,ithaca6 ,allow me1 also1 to say that we all rejoice at the arrival of visitors2 and1 as vicar of the parish of ,overton1 ,i should consider myself criminally deficient in my duty were ,i to suffer a respectable stranger to depart from us without his having received the mark of my respect1 and the tender of my humble but cordial hospitality4 ,i am an old-fashioned person1 ,major ,snapwell1 and am well aware that these antiquated notions do not altogether accord with the cold and studied forms of the present day40 8,mr4 ,twaddleton10 exclaimed the delighted ,major1 8,i thank thee1 most heartily thank thee1 in the name of all those whose hearts have not yet been benumbed by worldly indifference4 ,sit thee down--,i abhor ceremony--and let me beg of you not to take offence at a question to which ,i am most anxious you should give me an answer4 ,are you1 my dear ,sir1 as ,i have just reasons for supposing1 an ,,antiquary80 8,i am undoubtedly attached to pursuits which might have favoured such a report40 8,i thought so2 ,i guessed as much4 ,then give me your hand2 we must be friends and associates4 ,if there be a pursuit on earth to which ,i am devotedly attached1 it is to that of antiquities2 and1 let me add10 continued the ,major with increasing animation1 for1 like bottled beer1 he was the brisker for warmth1 8that if there be a literary character to whom the professor of arms ought to feel superior gratitude1 it is to the antiquary4 ,how many victories1 what valiant deeds1 must have perished in the memory of mankind but for the kind offices of the virtuoso6 under whose vivifying touch the laurels of the victor have bloomed with renovated vigour6 and when the scythe of ,time has left them to wither1 and to be scattered on the wings of the wind1 he collects their remains1 and piously deposits them in a splendid mausoleum1 in order to preserve them to the latest posterity60 ,it were difficult to say1 whether astonishment at the ,major's warmth1 delight at the congenial sentiments he had expressed1 or admiration at the language in which they had been conveyed1 was the feeling predominant in the vicar's mind1 nor do we deem it necessary to inquire2 suffice it to say1 that1 from the conversation of a few minutes1 these two gentlemen felt incited to a mutual regard by sympathy and congeniality of soul2 so true is it that1 while we may be strangers with the companions of years1 we may become friends with the strangers of yesterday6 8,major ,snapwell10 said the vicar1 8,i may truly mark this day in the diary of my life in red letters2 your society will add to my happiness1 by extending the sphere of my literary intercourse4 ,when may ,i expect the pleasure of your company at the vicarage8 ,i am really impatient to show you my coins and a few dainty morsels of virt40 8,i shall be at your service to-morrow10 answered the ,major2 8but ,i must now say something about my plans1 for it is possible that you may assist me in carrying them into execution40 8,command me10 said the vicar4 8,for my present purpose1 it is only necessary to state1 that ,i have a nephew whom ,i have adopted as my son2 ,i superintended his education2 he arrived at manhood1 and became an accomplished scholar and a polished gentleman4 ,naturally anxious to visit the ancient mistress of the world1 he readily obtained my approbation of his plan4 ,he embarked at ,marseilles2 but1 meeting with one of those treacherous gales so characteristic of the ,mediterranean1 he was shipwrecked in the bay of ,genoa4 ,for three years did ,i mourn him as dead1 and it was only by a train of circumstances of the most extraordinary description that ,i at length discovered him to be living4 ,i will not now trouble you with the details of this most singular history2 suffice it to say he is now well1 and about to be married to a young lady for whom he has long entertained the purest attachment4 ,i am in search of a country residence for them1 and hearing that a ,sir ,thomas ,sotherby1 a resident1 ,i understand1 in your neighbourhood1 is most desirous of disposing of ,osterley ,park1 and offers many advantages to any one who will take it off his hands1 and as ,i have both the inclination and the means to become its possessor1 ,i have travelled hither for the purpose of inspecting it4 ,so now you have my history40 8,it is perfectly true10 said the vicar1 8that ,sir ,thomas is willing to make a considerable sacrifice in order to obtain an immediate purchaser4 ,the health of her ,ladyship is in so precarious a state that her physicians have ordered her to proceed1 without delay1 to ,madeira4 ,sir ,thomas1 ,major1 is a fox-hunter1 and ,i will venture to say that no one will miss him but the doctor and the foxes--the one will lose a profitable friend1 the other a relentless enemy--#8,gaudet equis et canibus1' as the poet has it40 8,indeed6 but ,i am no fox-hunter1 and ,i therefore fear that1 in the opinion of the country1 ,osterley ,park will not exchange its proprietor to advantage4 ,pray1 vicar1 may ,i ask whether you are addicted to field-sports80 8,addicted to field-sports60 repeated the reverend antiquary3 8,i am surprised1 mortified1 absolutely shocked6 ,i--,i addicted to field-sports60 8,nay1 ,mr4 ,twaddleton10 observed the ,major1 8,i am really sorry that ,i should have unintentionally excited your indignation4 ,i am not aware that there is anything in the innocent pastime to which ,i have alluded inconsistent with your station and acquirements4 ,as an antiquary1 ,i need hardly remind you that the fathers of the ,church were amongst the keenest sportsmen4 ,do you not remember the amusing portrait which ,chaucer has given us of a sporting monastic in the #adth century1 and which1 by the by1 was the model from which ,sir ,walter ,scott drew the character of his ,abbot in #8,ivanhoe8' ,then again1 need ,i call to your recollection the fame of ,walter1 ,archdeacon of ,canterbury1 who was promoted to the see of ,rochester in #aadg1 and who is said not only to have spent the whole of his time in hunting1 but to have been as keen a sportsman at eighty as he was at twenty years of age8 ,then again1 there was ,reginald ,brian1 translated to the see of ,worcester in #aceb2 and ,william de ,clowne1 whom his biographer celebrated as the most amiable ecclesiastic that ever filled the abbot's throne of ,st4 ,mary in ,leicestershire1 the most knowing sportsman after a hare in the kingdom2 insomuch1 indeed1 that ,richard ,,ii4 and his son allowed him annual pensions for his instructions in the art80 8,major ,snapwell1 antiquity can no more privilege error1 than novelty can prejudice truth10 exclaimed the vicar3 8but1 to be serious10 continued he1 8,i never could discover the principle upon which the pleasure of this said diversion of ,diana can depend2 and yet ,i do assure you1 sir1 that ,i have not failed to submit the question to a logical examination4 ,thus1 for instance3--the fox emits from his body certain odorous particles2--that is my major1 and ,i say concedo3 very well2 ,i proceed4 ,the structure of the olfactory organs of the canine species enables them to perceive this said odour3 that is my minor1 and ,i say again concedo4 ,but ,i should much like to be informed how any logician can defend the consequence which is deduced from these premises4 ,to speak more syllogistically1 why am ,i pleased to put my neck in jeopardy1 because my dogs happen to perceive a smell80 ,the ,major laughed heartily at the very ludicrous point of view in which the worthy vicar had thought proper to represent the subject4 ,their discourse now took a different turn4 ,the ,major inquired what might be the origin of the singular sign of the village inn--,the ,devil and the ,bag of ,nails8 8,satan10 continued the ,major1 8is unquestionably the patron of the public-house2 but why he should be represented as holding in his hand a bag of nails1 ,i cannot divine1 unless1 indeed1 in reference to the old adage1 that #8,every glass of spirit is a nail in your coffin4'0 8,ha6 ha6 ha6 whimsical enough10 cried the vicar2 8but1 unfortunately1 your explanation is not the true one4 ,the sign10 observed ,mr4 ,twaddleton1 8is not quite so uncommon as you seem to suppose2 it was originally #8,pan and his ,bacchanals1' but1 by a very natural transition1 the figure of the sylvan deity1 which is certainly terrific#ad enough to sanction the mistake1 has passed into that of the evil tempter2 while the word ,bacchanals1 by one of those verbal corruptions so common in all languages1 has been converted into the bag of nails40 8,very true10 said the ,major2 8whenever the vulgar are incapable of understanding the meaning of a word1 they are sure to substitute for it some one which has the nearest resemblance to it in sound1 and which is more familiar to them4 ,i had but just now an excellent instance of this kind3 my blundering servant ,jacob insisted upon it that you were fond of antics2 and before ,i left ,london1 on sending him out to purchase a ,court ,calendar1 what do you suppose he brought home8--a ,quart ,colander60 ,the vicar was much amused by the absurdity of the mistake4 8,i lately heard10 continued the ,major1 8of a ,welsh squire1 who1 upon being questioned whether ,socinianism or ,arianism prevailed in his district1 replied1 that he could not answer that question1 but that he knew there had been a great deal of ,rheumatism40 ,but the good company of the ,major and his newly acquired friend must not detain us any longer from our duty4 ,mr4 ,seymour and his young family have reassembled in the library1 and it is necessary that we should immediately join them4 ,some of our readers may1 perhaps1 decline accompanying us upon this occasion2 for the subject to be discussed1 however necessary it may be1 is certainly not so entertaining as many of those which have engaged our attention4 ,if this be the case1 they may make a short cut1 and join us again at the beginning of the following chapter4 ,the children had arranged themselves around the table1 when their father observed1 that it would be necessary for their future progress1 to devote an hour or two to the consideration of several mathematical figures and terms4 8,as to mathematical figures10 said ,tom1 8if you allude to squares1 circles1 and figures of that description1 and to parallel lines1 angles1 and so on1 ,i can assure you that ,i am already well acquainted with them2 for the work you have given us on ,,papyro-,,plastics#ae has fully instructed me in those particulars40 8,if that be the case10 replied ,mr4 ,seymour1 8you will not have any difficulty in answering my questions2 but we must1 nevertheless1 go regularly through the subject1 for the sake of your sisters1 who may not be equally proficient in this elementary part of geometry3 tell me1 therefore1 in the first place1 what is meant by a parallelogram40 8,a four-sided figure10 answered ,tom4 8,that is true2 but are there not some other conditions annexed to it80 8,yes2 its opposite sides are parallel40 8,and what do you understand by the term parallel80 8,lines are said to be parallel10 said ,tom1 8when they are always at the same distance from each other1 and which1 therefore1 can never meet1 though ever so far continued40 8,you are quite right4 ,what is a square80 8,a four-sided figure1 in which the sides are all equal1 and its angles all right angles40 8,good again3 but let me see whether you have a correct notion of the nature of an angle40 8,an angle is the opening formed by two lines meeting in a point40 ,mr4 ,seymour here acknowledged himself perfectly satisfied with his son's answers1 and said1 that he should accordingly direct his attention more particularly to ,louisa and ,fanny2 and1 taking his pencil1 he sketched the annexed figure4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4 ,circle with two lines running through it4 8,you perceive1 ,louisa10 said her father1 8that the line ,a ,c makes two angles with the line ,b ,d1 viz4 the angle ,a ,c ,d and the angle ,a ,c ,b2 and you perceive that these two angles are equal to each other40 8,how can they be equal80 cried ,fanny1 8for the lines are of very different lengths40 8,an angle1 my dear girl1 is not measured by the length of the lines1 but by their opening40 8,but surely10 said ,louisa1 8that amounts to the same thing3 for the longer the lines are1 the greater must be the opening between them40 8,take the pair of compasses10 replied her father1 8and describe a circle around these angles1 making the angular point ,c its centre40 8,to what extent am ,i to open them80 8,that is quite immaterial2 you may draw your circle of any magnitude you please1 provided it cuts both the lines of the angles we are about to measure4 ,all circles1 of whatever dimensions1 are supposed to be divided into #cfj parts1 called degrees2 the size1 but not the number1 of such degrees will therefore increase with the magnitude of the circle4 ,and since the opening of an angle is necessarily a portion of a circle1 it must embrace a certain number of degrees2 and two angles are1 accordingly1 said to be equal1 when they contain an equal number of them40 8,now ,i understand it10 said ,louisa3 8as the dimensions of an angle depend upon the number of degrees contained between its lines1 it evidently must be the opening1 and not the length of the lines1 that determines the measure of the angle40 8,say1 rather1 the value of the angle1 for that is the usual expression3 but ,i perceive you understand me2 tell me1 therefore1 how many degrees are contained in each of the two angles formed by one line falling perpendicularly on another1 as in the above figure40 8,i perceive that the two angles together are just equal to half the circle2 and1 since you say that the whole circle is divided into #cfj degrees1 each angle must measure #ij of them1 or the two together make up #ahj40 8,you are quite right1 and ,i beg you to remember1 that an angle of #ij degrees1 is called a right angle1 and that1 when one line is perpendicular to another1 it will always form1 as you have just seen1 a right angle on either side40 8,i now understand10 said ,louisa1 8what is meant ,,by lines being at right angles to each other3 ,but1 papa10 continued she1 8what are obtuse and acute angles1 of which ,i have so often heard you speak80 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4 ,an acute 7,a7 and an obtuse 7,b7 angle4 ,mr4 ,seymour replied1 that he could better explain their nature by a drawing1 than by any verbal description4 8,here10 said he1 8is an acute angle1 ,a2 and here an obtuse one1 ,b3 the former1 you perceive1 is one that contains less than #ij degrees2 the latter1 one which contains more1 and is consequently greater than a right angle40 ,louisa fully comprehended the explanation1 and observed1 that she should remember1 whenever an angle measured less than a right angle1 that it was acute1 and when more1 obtuse4 8,but you have not yet explained to me10 she continued1 8the meaning of a triangle40 8,that is a term denoting a figure of three sides1 and angles4 ,i dare say ,tom can describe the several kinds of triangles40 ,tom accordingly took the pencil1 and drew a set of figures1 of which the annexed are faithful copies4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c4 ,three triangles1 labeled ,a1 ,b1 and ,c4 8,a10 said he1 8is an ,equi-lateral triangle2 its three sides being all equal4 ,b is a ,right-angled triangle1 having one right angle4 ,c represents an ,obtuse-angled triangle1 it having one obtuse angle4 ,an ,acute-angled triangle is one in which all the three angles are acute1 as represented in figure ,a40 8,as you have succeeded so well in your explanation of a triangle1 let us see whether you can describe the nature of a circle40 8,it is a round line1 every part of which is equally distant from the centre40 8,and which round line10 said ,mr4 ,seymour1 8is frequently called the circumference4 ,what is the diameter80 8,a straight line drawn through the centre1 and terminating in the circumference on both sides40 8,and an arc80 said ,mr4 ,seymour4 8,any portion of the circumference40 8,now let me ask you1 what name is given to a line which joins any two opposite angles of a four-sided figure80 8,the diagonal1 papa40 8,you are quite right10 said ,mr4 ,seymour2 and1 turning towards the girls1 he desired them to remember that term1 as they would frequently hear it mentioned during their investigation into the nature of 8,compound ,forces40 8,i really think10 continued their father1 8that ,tom is as capable of instructing you in these elementary principles as myself2 ,i shall1 therefore1 desire you1 my dear boy1 to conclude this lecture during my absence2 remember1 that by teaching others we always instruct ourselves3 but before ,i quit you1 ,i will give you a riddle to solve1 for ,i well know that you all delight in an enigma40 8,indeed do we10 said ,louisa4 8,pray let us hear it1 papa10 cried ,fanny4 ,mr4 ,seymour then recited the following lines1 which he had hastily composed2 the point having1 no doubt1 been suggested on the instant1 by the remark he had just offered4 8,here's a riddle for those who delight in their gold1 ,which they p'rhaps may explain1 when my story is told2 ,no treasure's so precious1 and yet those who gain me1 ,though they give me away1 will always retain me6 ,indeed1 if they wish to increase their rich store1 ,by giving away1 they will only add more66 ,to ,fancy's quick eye1 in what forms have ,i risen1 ,and ,poets declare that my birth was in heaven2 ,to some as a flame1 as a stream1 or a fountain1 ,to others ,i seem as a tower or mountain4 ,should these hints not betray me1 ,i only can say1 ,you do not possess me--,i hope that you may40 8,why10 cried ,tom1 8what can that be1 of which the more we give away1 the more we have left80 8,ay10 added ,louisa1 8and that we actually increase the store1 by giving away a part of it60 8,it is some word1 ,i think10 observed ,fanny2 8do you not remember that mamma asked us what that was1 from which we might take away some1 and yet that the whole would remain80 8,to be sure10 cried ,tom1 8,i remember it well2 it was the word wholesome40 ,mr4 ,seymour here assured them1 that the enigma they had just heard1 did not depend upon any verbal quibble2 and that as the object of its introduction was to instruct1 rather than to puzzle them1 he would explain it1 and leave them to extract its moral1 and profit by its application4 8,it is ,,knowledge10 said he4 8#8,no treasure's so precious1'0 repeated ,louisa2 8certainly none2--#8and yet those who gain me1 though they give me away1 will always retain me2'--to be sure10 added she4 8,how could ,i have been so simple as not to have guessed it8 ,we can certainly impart all the knowledge we possess1 and yet not lose any of it ourselves40 8,by instructing others10 said ,mr4 ,seymour1 8we are certain1 at the same time1 of instructing ourselves1 and thus to increase our store of knowledge4 ,let this truth be impressed upon your memory1 and1 after our conversations1 examine each other as to the knowledge you have gained by them3 you will thus not only fix the facts more strongly in your recollection1 but you will acquire a facility of conversing in philosophical language40 ----- ,footnote #ad3 ,to the terror-inspiring power of ,pan we owe the word 8,panic40 ,footnote #ae3 8,,papyro-,,plastics10 or the ,art of ,modelling in ,paper2 from the ,german1 by ,boileau1 ,london1 #ahbe4 ,the ,author strongly recommends this interesting little work1 as opening a new source of instructive amusement4 ,his own children have derived from it many hours of rational recreation4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,compound ,forces4--,the ,composition and ,resolution of ,motion4--,rotatory ,motion4--,the ,revolving ,watch-glass4--,the ,sling4--,the ,centrifugal and ,centripetal ,forces4--,theory of ,projectiles4--,a ,geological conversation between ,mr4 ,seymour and the ,vicar4 ,on the following morning1 ,mr4 ,seymour proceeded to explain the nature of 8,,compound ,,forces40 ,the young party having assembled as usual1 their father commenced his lecture by reminding his auditors1 that the motion of a body actuated by a single force was always in a right line1 and in the direction in which it received the impulse4 8,do you mean to say1 papa1 that a single force can never make a body move round1 or in a crooked direction2 if so1 how is it that my ball1 or marble1 will frequently run along the ground in a curved direction8 ,indeed1 ,i always find it very difficult to make it go straight40 8,depend upon it1 my dear1 whenever the direction of a moving body deviates from a straight line1 it has been influenced by some second force40 8,then ,i suppose that1 whenever my marble runs in a curved line1 there must be some second force to make it do so40 8,undoubtedly2 the inequality of the ground may give it a new direction2 which1 when combined with the original force which it received from your hand1 will fully explain the irregularity of its course4 ,it is to the consideration of such compound motion that ,i am now desirous of directing your attention3 the subject is termed the 8,,composition ,,of ,,forces40 ,here is a block of wood1 with two strings1 as you may perceive1 affixed to it3 do you take hold of one of these strings1 ,louisa2 and you1 ,tom1 of the other4 ,that is right4 ,now place the block at one of the corners or angles of the table3 and while ,tom draws it along one of its sides1 do you1 ,louisa1 at the same time1 draw it along the other40 ,the children obeyed their father's directions4 ,illustration3 ,a piece of wood with two strings attached to it1 and two hands pulling the strings in diagonal directions4 8,see60 said ,mr4 ,seymour1 8the block obeys neither of the strings1 but picks out for itself a path which is intermediate4 ,can you tell me1 ,tom1 the exact direction which it takes80 8,if we consider this table as a parallelogram1 ,i should say1 that the block described the diagonal40 8,well said1 my boy2 the ablest mathematician could not have given a more correct answer4 ,the block was actuated by two forces at the same time2 and1 since it could not move in two directions at once1 it moved under the compound force1 in a mean or diagonal direction1 proportioned to the influence of the joint forces acting upon it4 ,you will1 therefore1 be pleased to remember1 it is a general law1 that where a body is actuated by two forces at the same time1 whose directions are inclined to each other1 at any angle whatever1 it will not obey either of them1 but move along the diagonal4 ,in determining1 therefore1 the course which a body will describe under the influence of two such forces1 we have nothing more to do than to draw lines which show the direction and quantity of the two forces1 and then to complete the parallelogram by parallel lines1 and its diagonal will be the path of the body4 ,i have here a diagram which may render the subject more intelligible4 ,suppose the ball ,b were1 at the same moment1 struck by two forces ,x and ,y in the directions ,b ,a and ,b ,d4 ,it is evident that the ball would not obey either of such forces1 but would move along the oblique or diagonal line ,b ,c40 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #d4 ,force diagram for a ball moving in a diagonal direction4 8,but10 said ,tom1 8why have you drawn the line ,b ,d so much longer than ,b ,a80 8,i am glad you have asked that question4 ,lines are intended1 not only to represent the direction1 but the momenta1 or quantities of the forces3 the line ,b ,d is1 as you observe1 twice as long as ,b ,a2 it consequently denotes that the force ,y acting in the direction ,b ,d1 is twice as great as the force ,x acting in the direction ,b ,a4 ,having learned the direction which the body will take when influenced by joint forces of this kind1 can you tell me the relative time which it would require for the performance of its diagonal journey80 ,tom hesitated2 and ,mr4 ,seymour relieved his embarrassment by informing him1 that it would pass along the diagonal in exactly the same space of time that it would have required to traverse either of the sides of the parallelogram1 had but one force been applied4 ,thus1 the ball ,b would reach ,c in the same time that the force ,x would have sent it to ,a1 or the force ,y to ,d4 8,i will endeavour to prove this fact beyond all doubt4 ,it is1 ,i think1 evident1 that the force which acts in the direction ,b ,a can neither accelerate nor retard the approach of the body to the line ,d ,c1 which is parallel to it2 hence it will arrive at ,c in the same time that it would have done had no motion been communicated to it in the direction ,b ,a4 ,in like manner1 the motion in the direction ,b ,d can neither make the body approach to nor recede from ,a ,c2 and it therefore follows1 that1 in consequence of the two motions1 the body will be found both in ,a ,c and ,c ,d1 and will therefore be found in ,c1 the point of intersection40 ,louisa seemed to express by her looks the irksomeness of such demonstrations2 and which did not pass unobserved4 8,this may appear tedious and uninteresting10 said ,mr4 ,seymour1 8but the information is absolutely essential to our future progress3 if you would reap1 you must sow40 ,tom and ,louisa both expressed themselves willing to receive whatever instruction their father might consider necessary2 and they farther declared1 that they understood the demonstration he had just offered them4 8,is it not then evident10 proceeded ,mr4 ,seymour1 8that the composition of forces must always be attended with loss of power2 since the diagonal of a parallelogram can never1 under any circumstances1 be equal to two of its sides8 and is it not also evident1 that the length of the diagonal must diminish as the angles of the sides increase3 so that the more acute the angle at which the forces act1 the less must be the loss by composition8 ,but ,i shall be better able to explain this law by a diagram4 ,if ,b ,a1 ,a ,c be the sides of a parallelogram1 representing the direction of two forces1 and ,a ,d the diagonal path of the body1 is it not evident that the line ,a ,d will shorten as the angle ,b ,a ,c increases80 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #e4 ,three parallelograms1 beginning with a square and ending with a narrow diamond1 all sharing one side4 8,we see that at once10 cried ,tom1 8from the diagram before us40 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #f4 ,a square and a rectangle with a common diagonal4 8,then we will proceed to another fact connected with the same subject4 ,look at this diagram2 is not the diagonal ,a ,d common to both the parallelograms inscribed about it1 viz4 of ,a ,b ,c ,d1 and ,a ,e ,f ,d80 8,to be sure it is40 8,then it is equally clear1 that a body may be made to traverse the same path ,a ,d1 by any pair of forces represented by the adjacent sides of either of such parallelograms40 8,undoubtedly40 8,i request you to keep that fact in your recollection40 8,i have now to inform you10 continued he1 8that a single force may be resolved into any number of forces1 and may1 in fact1 be regarded as compounded of innumerable oblique ones4 ,in order1 however1 to render this fact more intelligible1 ,i must refer you to fig4 #f1 from which it will appear that the motion of a body1 along the line ,a ,d1 will be the same whether it arise from one single force acting in that direction1 or from two forces impressed upon it in the directions ,a ,b1 ,a ,c1 or in those of ,a ,e1 ,a ,f2 and1 consequently1 although the motion may1 in reality1 be the effect of a single force1 yet it may be considered as compounded of two or more in other directions1 since the very same motion would arise from such a composition40 ,tom acknowledged the truth of this statement2 and ,mr4 ,seymour assured him1 that1 when they came to play at ball and marbles1 he should be able to give him a practical demonstration of the fact2 for he would show him1 that whenever a body strikes a surface obliquely1 or in an inclined direction1 such a resolution of force will actually take place3 8and now1 ,tom10 said his father1 8give me a marble2 for ,i wish to explain the reason why it turns round1 or revolves on its axis1 as it proceeds forward40 8,i suppose10 said ,tom1 8it depends upon the action which ,i give to it by my thumb and finger when ,i shoot it out of my hand40 8,you are1 undoubtedly1 capable of thus giving to your marble a certain spinning motion1 the effect of which we shall have to consider hereafter2 but ,i fancy you would be greatly puzzled to make it proceed without revolving1 give it what impulse you might by your hand40 8,i have sometimes tried10 said ,tom1 8to make it do so by pushing it along with a flat ruler1 but it always rolled in spite of me40 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #g4 ,diagram for marble's motion4 8,then it is clear1 from your own experiment1 that its rotation cannot arise from the cause you would assign to it4 ,if you will attend to this diagram10 continued his father1 8,i will endeavour to explain the operation4 ,it is evident that1 as the marble moves along the ground ,b ,d1 the motion of the point ,b will be retarded by the resistance occasioned by its rubbing on the ground2 while the point ,c1 which does not meet with any such resistance1 is carried forward without opposition1 and it consequently must move faster than the point ,b2 but since all the parts of the marble cohere or stick together1 the point ,c cannot move faster than ,b1 unless the marble revolves from ,c to ,e2 and as the several points of the marble which are successively applied to the floor are retarded in their motion1 while the opposite points move freely1 the marble during its progressive motion must continue to revolve40 8,but you said1 papa1 that whenever a body moved in any direction1 except that of a straight line1 it must have been acted upon by more than one force2 and yet the marble not only runs along the ground1 but turns round2 at the same time1 by the simple force of my hand40 8,the revolution of the marble1 my dear boy1 is brought about by no less than three forces3 look attentively at the diagram1 and you will easily comprehend my explanation4 ,there is1 in the first place1 the rectilinear motion given to it by your hand2 then there is the friction of the ground3 since1 however1 this latter acts in a contrary direction1 it merely tends to lessen or counteract the velocity with which the under-surface proceeds1 and consequently to give a relatively-increased progressive motion to its upper part2 then comes that force by which its several parts cohere1 and which may be represented by ,c ,h2 so that the two forces producing the revolution of the point ,c1 are justly expressed by the lines ,c ,g1 ,c ,h3 but these are in the direction of the two sides of a parallelogram1 the point will therefore move along the diagonal ,c ,e4 ,i have here a toy for you1 which will serve to explain still farther the causes of rotation to which ,i have alluded40 ,mr4 ,seymour produced a watch-glass1 in the hollow of which stood a dancing-figure of thin card1 as here represented4 ,illustration3 ,toy man standing on the flat part of a convex piece of glass4 ,he placed it upon a black japanned waiter1#af which he held in an inclined position1 when it immediately slided down the inclined plane1 as might have been expected4 ,he next let fall a drop of water upon the waiter1 and placed the watch-glass in it4 ,under this new arrangement1 instead of sliding1 the watch-glass began to revolve as soon as an inclination was given to the surface2 and it continued to revolve with an accelerated velocity1 obeying the inclination and position of the plane1 as directed by the hand of the operator4 8,what a very pretty effect is produced by the rapid revolution of the figure60 observed ,louisa4 8,its use in the arrangement10 said her father1 8is to render the accelerated motion more obvious40 8,i perceive it revolves faster and faster1 or1 ,i suppose ,i ought to say1 with an accelerated velocity10 said ,tom4 8,certainly10 answered ,mr4 ,seymour2 8whenever a force continues to act1 the motion produced by it must be accelerated for the reason already given you#ag--;but let me explain the operation of the drop of water1 which1 as you have just seen1 converted the sliding into the revolving motion4 ,in the first place1 in consequence of the cohesion of the water to the two surfaces1 a new force was introduced1 by which an unequal degree of resistance was imparted to different portions of that part of the watch-glass in contact with the plane1 and1 consequently1 in its effort to slide down1 it necessarily revolved4 ,now1 if you will attentively observe the change of figure which the drop of water undergoes during the revolution of the glass1 you will perceive a species of vortex2 a film of water1 by capillary action1 is drawn to the foremost portion of the glass1 while1 by the centrifugal force1 a body of water is thrown under the hinder part of it2 the effect of both these actions is to accelerate the rotatory motion4 8,i shall now dismiss the subject for the present1 but on some future occasion ,i shall probably revert to it2 for it may be made to afford a simple illustration of the rotatory and progressive motions of the earth round the sun2 and it may also give us the means of producing some optical effects of a very curious kind407#ae7 ,mrs4 ,seymour here suggested that1 as it was past one o'clock1 the children should be dismissed to their more active sports in the garden4 8,we will instantly proceed to the lawn10 replied ,mr4 ,seymour1 8and ,tom may try his skill with the sling2 an amusement which ,i have provided as a reward for his industry1 and which will1 at the same time1 convey some farther information concerning the nature of those forces we have been just considering4 ,the sling10 continued his father1 as he advanced upon the lawn1 8consists1 as you perceive1 of a leathern thong1 broadest in the middle1 and tapering off gradually towards both ends4 ,to each extremity is affixed a piece of string4 ,i shall now place a stone in the broad part of the leather1 and introduce my middle finger into the loop formed in one of the strings1 and hold the other extremity between my fore-finger and thumb40 ,he then whirled it round1 and when it had gained sufficient impetus1 he let go his hold of the string1 and the stone instantly shot forth with amazing velocity4 8,see6 see6 there it goes10 exclaimed ,tom2 8to what a height it ascended60 8,and to what a distance has it been projected60 observed ,louisa1 who had attentively watched its descent4 8,now1 ,tom10 said his father1 8can you explain the operation you have just witnessed80 8,not exactly1 papa40 8,then attend to me4 ,have you not learned that circular motion is always the result of two forces80 8,undoubtedly10 replied ,tom2 8of one force which attracts it to the centre around which it moves1 and of another which impels it to move off in a right line40 8,certainly2 the former of these forces is1 therefore1 termed the centripetal1 because it draws the body towards the centre1 while the latter is called the centrifugal force1 since its influence disposes the body to fly off from the centre4 ,in circular motion1 these two forces constantly balance each other2 otherwise it is evident that the revolving body must either approach the centre or recede from it1 according as the one or the other prevailed4 ,when ,i whirled round the sling1 ,i imparted a projectile force to the stone1 but it was prevented from flying off in consequence of the counteracting or centripetal force of the string2 but the moment ,i let go my hold of this1 the stone flew off in a right line3 having been released from confinement to the fixed or central point1 it was acted upon by one force only1 and motion produced by a single force is1 as you have just stated1 always in a right line40 8,but10 observed ,louisa1 8the stone did not proceed in a straight1 but in a curved line3 ,i watched its direction from the moment it left the sling till it fell to the ground40 8,you are perfectly correct10 replied ,mr4 ,seymour1 8it described a curve1 which is called a parabola2 but that was owing to the influence of a new force which came into play1 viz4 that of gravity1 the effect of which ,i shall have to explain hereafter40 8,i cannot understand10 said ,tom1 8why the stone should not have fallen out of the sling when you whirled it round over your head40 8,because1 my dear1 it was acted upon by the centrifugal force1 which counteracted that of gravity3 but ,i will render this fact more evident1 by a very simple and beautiful experiment4 ,i have here a wine-glass1 around the rim of which ,i shall attach a piece of string so as to enable me to whirl it round4 ,i will now fill it with water1 and although during one part of its revolution it will be actually inverted1 you will find that ,i shall not spill a single drop of water40 ,mr4 ,seymour then whirled round the glass1 and the young party were delighted with the confirmation thus afforded to their father's statement4 8,i see10 said ,tom1 8how it happened3 when the glass was inverted the water could not fall out1 because it was influenced by the centrifugal force which opposed gravity40 8,exactly4 ,have you ever observed what happens during the trundling of a mop8 ,the threads which compose it fly off from the centre1 but being confined to it at one end they cannot part from it3 while the water which they contain being unconfined1 is thrown off in right lines40 8,i have certainly observed what you state10 said ,louisa2 8the water flies off in all directions from the mop40 8,yes10 added ,tom1 8the water was not acted upon by the centripetal force as the threads were1 and consequently1 there was nothing to check the centrifugal force1 which carried the water off in a straight line from the centre40 8,you are not quite correct10 said ,mr4 ,seymour2 8the water does not fly off in a right line from the centre1 but in a right line in the direction in which it was moving at the instant of its release2 the line which a body will always describe under such circumstances1 is called a tangent1 because it touches the circumference of the circle1 and forms a right-angle with a line drawn from that point of the circumference to the centre3 but ,i will render this subject more intelligible by a diagram4 8,suppose a body1 revolving in the circle1 was liberated at a1 it would fly off in the direction ab2 if at c1 in that of cd2 and if at e1 in that of ef2 and so on4 ,now1 if you draw lines from these several points to the centre of the circle1 you will perceive that such lines will form1 in each case1 a right-angle4 ,in the experiment which you have just witnessed1 the surface of the water must have formed1 during its revolution1 a right-angle with the string1 and consequently could not have fallen out of the wine-glass4 ,a knowledge of this law10 continued ,mr4 ,seymour1 8will explain many appearances which1 although familiar1 ,i dare say1 have never been understood by you4 ,you may remember accompanying me to the pottery1 to see the operation of the turning-lathe2 it was owing to the centrifugal force produced by the rotation of the wheel1 that the clay1 under a gentle pressure1 swelled out so regularly2 from a similar cause1 the flour is thrown out of the revolving mill as fast as it is ground2 and ,i shall presently show you that you are indebted to this same force for the spinning of your top and the trundling of your hoop4 ,but let us quit this subject for the present1 and pursue the stone in its course after it is liberated from the sling4 ,louisa has justly observed that it described a curve2 can you explain why it should deviate from a straight line80 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #h4 ,diagram for centrifugal force4 8,let me see10 said ,tom1 thoughtfully2 8it would be acted upon by two forces1 one carrying it forward in a right line1 the other bringing it to the earth2 it would1 therefore1 not obey either1 but describe a diagonal3 but why that diagonal should be a curve ,i cannot exactly explain40 8,then ,i will give you the reason10 said his father4 8,a stone projected into the air is acted upon by no less than three forces2 the force of projection1 which is communicated to it by the hand or the sling2 the resistance of the air through which it passes1 and which diminishes its velocity without changing its direction2 and the force of gravity1 which ultimately brings it to the ground4 ,now1 since the power of gravity and the resistance of the air will always be greater than any force of projection we can give a body1 the latter must be gradually overcome1 and the body brought to the ground2 but the stronger the projectile force1 the longer will those powers be in subduing it1 and the farther will the body go before it falls4 ,a shot fired from a cannon1 for instance1 will go much farther than a stone thrown from your hand4 ,had the two forces which acted upon the stone1 viz4 those of projection and gravity1 both produced uniform motion1 the body must certainly have descended through the diagonal2 but since gravity1 as you have already learned1 is an accelerating force1 the body is made to describe a curve instead of a straight line4 8,this law1 however1 will require the aid of a diagram for its explanation4 ,let ,x represent the ball at its greatest altitude1 ,x ,y the force of gravity drawing it downward2 and ,x ,z that of projection4 ,we have here1 then1 two forces acting in the direction of the two sides of a parallelogram4 ,in passing on to ,z1 the ball will perform the diagonal ,x a2 and in the next equal space of time1 will descend through three times the distance ,z a1 and will consequently be found at b2 while in the next period it will fall through five equal spaces1 and pass to c2 and in the next period1 again1 as it must fall seven such spaces1 it will reach the ground at d1 having described a portion of a curve from ,x to d1 or during the time that the two forces were in simultaneous operation4 ,the same principle will explain the curved ascent of the ball1 substituting only the laws of retarded for those of accelerated motion2 for it is clear1 that the body during its ascent1 will be retarded in the same degree in which it was accelerated during its descent40 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #i4 ,diagram of a parabolic flight path4 8,your explanation10 said ,louisa1 8appears very clear and satisfactory40 8,the curve which ,projectiles 7that is to say1 bodies projected into the air7 describe1 is termed a ,parabola 7#af71 although the resistance of the air1 which is not recognised in the theory1 produces a considerable influence on the practical result40 ,the children now proceeded to amuse themselves with the sling4 ,louisa challenged ,tom to a trial of skill4 ,she fancied that she could hurl a stone with greater accuracy than her brother2 but after several contests she acknowledged herself vanquished1 for ,tom had succeeded in striking the trunk of an old tree at a considerable distance1 while his sister was never able to throw the stone within several yards of the mark4 8,well done1 ,tom60 exclaimed ,mr4 ,seymour2 8why you will soon equal in skill the ancient natives of the ,balearic ,islands60 8,and were they famous for this art80 asked ,louisa4 8,with such dexterity10 replied her father1 8did they use the sling1 that we are told their young children were not allowed any food by their mothers1 except that which they could fling down from the beam where it was placed aloft4 ,i fancy1 however1 ,tom1 that you would become very hungry before you could strike an object in yonder poplar40 8,at all events1 ,i will try10 said ,tom4 ,he accordingly whirled round his sling1 and discharged stone1 which flew forward with great velocity1 but in a direction very wide from the mark at which it was aimed4 ,in the next moment a violent hallooing was heard3 it was from the vicar1 who had narrowly escaped the boisterous salutation of the falling stone1 which1 in its anxiety to throw itself at the feet of the reverend gentleman1 struck the beaver penthouse that defended his upper story1 and by a resolution of forces which we have endeavoured to explain1 darted off in the direction of the side of a parallelogram1 and was thus averted from the equally sensitive antipodes of his venerable person1 the brains in his head1 and the corns in his shoes4 8,upon my word1 young gentleman60 cried the vicar1 8,i expected nothing less than the fate of the giant of ,gath40 8,my dear ,mr4 ,twaddleton10 exclaimed ,tom1 in a tone of alarm1 8,i sincerely hope that you have not been struck80 8,o no6 thanks to my clerical helmet1 ,i have escaped the danger which threatened me3 but1 tell me1 what new game is engaging your attention80 ,mr4 ,seymour said that he had been explaining the scientific principle of the sling1 and that he hoped the vicar was prepared to afford them some information respecting its invention and history4 8,the sling80 repeated the vicar2 8why1 bless me6 ,i left you discoursing upon elasticity2 you really stride over province after province as rapidly as if you were gifted with the seven-leagued boots of the ,ogre3--but to the point in question4 ,the art of slinging1 or casting stones1 is one of the highest antiquity1 and was carried to a great degree of perfection amongst the ,asiatic nations4 ,it was well known and practised at a very early period in ,europe2 and our ,saxon ancestors appear to have been very expert in the use of this missile40 ,mr4 ,twaddleton1 being desirous of communicating history of ,major ,snapwell1 begged that ,mr4 and ,mrs4 ,seymour would allow him a few minutes' conversation2 observing that the attention of the children would be agreeably occupied during their absence by their newly-acquired amusement4 8,we will then1 if you please1 vicar10 replied ,mr4 ,seymour1 8walk to the ,geological ,temple1 where ,i have lately deposited some specimens which you have not yet seen40 8,to speak sincerely10 said the vicar1 8,i cannot participate in that high satisfaction which you appear to feel in collecting such hoards of broken rocks and pebbles3 where can lie the utility of such labour8 unless1 indeed1 in pursuance of your ,utopian plans1 you intend to ,mac-adamise all the roads of science40 8,is it nothing1 my dear ,mr4 ,twaddleton1 to discover the structure of different countries80 8,which the geologist infers10 replied the vicar1 8from a few patterns1 picked up at random on the road side60 8,mr4 ,twaddleton10 said ,mr4 ,seymour1 8,i will meet you on your own ground3 you are an antiquary2 if an ancient monument of art be so inestimable1 is not a knowledge of the antiquity of the globe itself1 at least1 of equal interest80 8,i understand you3 you would infer that the scriptural account of the ,deluge is disproved by those ,sciolists1 who pretend to discover the antiquity of the globe by penetrating its caverns1 with as much ease as the jockey ascertains the age of a horse by looking into its jaws40 8,you speak too flippantly of a class of philosophers who have united their efforts to investigate a sublime subject upon the true principles of science2 were you to attend the meetings of the ,geological ,society1 and hear the discussions of its members1 you would cease to talk thus irreverently40 8,although ,i may be unknown to your genii of the mountains1 ,i am1 at all events1 acquainted with a kindred class of philosophers who rival them in industry1 if not in talents2 and notwithstanding the limited range of their observations--being confined to the mountainous districts they inhabit--,i have little doubt but that their labours have proved as acceptable to the world as those of the disciples of ,hutton or ,werner4 ,i once visited this district1 and although the language of its inhabitants was entirely unknown to me1 ,i soon discovered1 by the aid of a glass1 that they were in serious discourse with each other2 and one of the elders of the fraternity1 who was seated on a craggy precipice that overhung an extensive valley covered with rich verdure1 appeared1 from his gestures1 as if pointing out to his fellow-labourers1 who were digging in all directions in search of treasure1 the danger of an approaching convulsion4 ,while ,i was yet gazing1 the fatal catastrophe actually occurred2 immense masses of the tottering strata rolled with precipitous haste into the valley1 involving in its ruin hundreds of its inhabitants4 ,it was extraordinary to behold the effects of this shock upon those who were beyond the reach of its more destructive influence2 hundreds were seen scaling heights that appeared inaccessible2 others1 stumbling--falling down frightful precipices--rising again--helping1 or pushing each other on--the foremost serving as so many stepping-stones to those behind1 who1 in their turn1 hauled up the clusters over whose backs they had so unceremoniously vaulted40 8,how awful60 cried ,mrs4 ,seymour2 8,i never heard of any modern catastrophe of such fearful extent3 where did it occur80 8,the vicar doubtless alludes to the terrible earthquake of ,messina1 or perhaps to that of ,lisbon40 8,i neither allude to the one nor to the other10 cried ,mr4 ,twaddleton2 8and yet1 in some respects1 the catastrophe which ,i have described resembled that of ,lisbon2 for during the dreadful disaster human beings seen to take advantage of the confusion to murder many of the inhabitants1 and to pillage their territories407#ag7 8,for goodness' sake60 cried ,mrs4 ,seymour1 8tell us at once where this terrible event occurred40 8,in a fine ,cheshire cheese60 exclaimed the vicar1 8which had furnished abundant food to the miniature republic of mites that occupied its deep ravines and alpine heights4 ,i think now10 continued the reverend gentleman1 8,i am amply revenged for the allegorical jokes in which ,mr4 ,seymour has so often indulged at my expense40 8,i am well satisfied10 said ,mr4 ,seymour2 8for by repeating your allegory to my children1 ,i shall be enabled to convey a striking lesson of wisdom4 ,they will learn from it that there is not any pursuit1 however exalted1 that may not be assailed by the weapons of ridicule1 especially when wielded by those penurious philosophers whose ideas of utility are circumscribed within the narrow limits of direct and immediate profit40 8,it is too true10 cried ,mrs4 ,seymour1 8that we are all apt to depreciate those branches of knowledge which do not bear directly upon the comforts or necessities of life2 and the applications of geology are1 perhaps1 so remote as scarcely to be discovered by the mass of mankind40 8,there ,i must differ with you10 replied her husband3 8to say nothing of the practical advantages which have accrued to the miner from this study1 it has been the means of bringing hundreds of acres into cultivation in districts where never a blade of grass had before grown27#ah7 and if scholastic researches have thrown additional light on scriptural subjects1 they are no more to be compared with those of the geologist on these occasions1 than is the light of the glow-worm to that of the sun40 8,hey-day6 what do ,i hear80 exclaimed the vicar4 8,would you compare the testimony of the ,apamean medal with that of an unshapen flint80 8,i would rest my faith upon a rock10 replied ,mr4 ,seymour2 8the caves of ,buckland7#ai7 have done more towards supporting the ,mosaic account of the ,deluge than all the medals of the virtuoso4 ,fossils1 in truth1 are to the geologist what medals are to the antiquary1 preserving a record of events which must otherwise have perished in the stream of time40 ,mr4 and ,mrs4 ,seymour and the vicar by this time arrived at the ,wernerian ,temple1 where1 having discussed several points connected with its objects1 ,mr4 ,twaddleton gave an account of ,major ,snapwell1 whose history created considerable interest1 and determined ,mr4 ,seymour to call at ,ivy ,cottage1 and invite its inmate to the ,lodge4 ,illustration3 ,rock teetering on a ledge4 ----- ,footnote #af3 ,footnote #af3 ,a common plate will answer the purpose2 but the black surface gives the advantage of exhibiting more perfectly the motion of the water during the progress of the experiment4 ,footnote #ag3 ,see page #ed4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,illustration3 ,two boys rolling hoops along the ground using sticks4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,the subject of ,rotatory ,motion continued4--,a ,ball1 by having a peculiar spinning motion imparted to it1 may be made to stop short1 or to retrograde1 though it meets not with any apparent obstacle4--,the rectilinear path of a ,spherical ,body influenced by its rotatory motion4--,bilboquet1 or ,cup and ,ball4--,the joint forces which enable the ,balancer to throw up and catch his ,balls on the full gallop4--,the ,hoop4--,the ,centre of ,percussion4--,the ,whip and ,peg-top4--,historical ,notices4--,the power by which the ,top is enabled to sustain its vertical position during the act of spinning4--,the sleeping of the ,top explained4--,the force which enables it to rise from an oblique into a vertical position4--,its gyration4 8,tom1 do you remember that ,i told you a few days ago10 said ,mr4 ,seymour1 8that1 by giving a revolving body a peculiar spinning motion1 certain effects were produced1 which ,i should1 on some future occasion1 take into consideration80 8,to be sure ,i do10 replied ,tom4 8,well1 then1 attend to me40 ,mr4 ,seymour took a marble1 and1 placing it on the ground1 gave it an impulse forward by pressing his forefinger upon it3 the marble darted forward a few paces1 after which it rolled back again4 8,that is most extraordinary60 cried ,tom2 8the marble came back to your hand1 as it were1 of its own accord1 and without having met with any obstacle40 8,and you1 no doubt10 said ,mr4 ,seymour1 8regard it as contrary to the well known law1 that a body once put in motion1 in any direction1 will continue to move in that direction until some foreign cause oppose it40 8,it really would appear so40 8,it is1 however1 far otherwise2 the force which ,i imparted to the marble communicated to it two kinds of motion2 the one projecting it forward1 the other producing a rotatory motion round its axis1 in a direction opposite to that of its rectilinear course2 and the consequence was simply this1 that when the former motion1 on account of the friction of the marble on the ground1 was destroyed1 the rotatory motion continued1 and by thus establishing an action in an opposite direction1 caused the marble to retrograde4 ,if1 however1 you will fetch your hoop1 ,i will demonstrate the fact on a larger scale40 ,tom accordingly produced the hoop2 and ,mr4 ,seymour projected it forward1 giving to it1 at the same instant1 a spinning motion in an opposite direction4 ,the hoop proceeded forward to a certain distance1 when it stopped1 and then ran back to the hand4 8,let me beg you10 said ,mr4 ,seymour1 8to treasure this fact in your memory2 you perceive by it how greatly the progressive direction of a body may be influenced by a rotatory motion around its axis2 and1 indeed1 the theory of the rifle gun7#bj7 is easily deduced from it4 ,it will also explain the effect which a rotatory motion produces in steadying or disturbing the direction of a projectile4 ,it is for such a reason that the balancer constantly whirls round his balls or oranges1 as he throws them into the air1 with the intention of catching them again2 and that in playing at ,bilboquet1 or cup and ball1 you find it necessary to give a spinning motion to the ball1 in order to catch it on the spike--but we will consider this subject presently4 ,i am now desirous of laying down a few propositions upon the subject of rotation1 the knowledge of which is essential for the explanation of the motions of revolving bodies40 ,mr4 ,seymour proceeded to state that every body had three principal axes upon which it might revolve1 but that the shortest was the only one upon which it could permanently and steadily rotate--that should it1 in consequence of the impulse given to it1 begin to spin upon any other than the shortest axis1 it would1 during its revolutions1 be constantly showing a tendency to approach it2 whence it followed that1 under such circumstances1 it would be unsteady and wabbling in its motions4 ,in order1 however1 to make this proposition intelligible to the children1 ,mr4 ,seymour performed the following simple experiment4 ,illustration3 ,two rings1 labeled #a and #b4 ,having tied some string to a common curtain ring1 as represented by figure #a1 he twisted it round by means of his thumb and finger1 until it acquired considerable velocity1 when the ring was seen to rise gradually into the position represented by fig4 #b4 ,thus1 in the simplest manner1 was a revolving body shown to exchange its longer for its shorter axis4 ,the children declared that they perfectly comprehended the subject1 and ,tom observed that1 in future1 whenever he wished to make a ball spin steadily1 he should take care to make it turn on its shortest axis4 8,you are quite right1 ,tom10 said ,mr4 ,seymour2 8and the skilful bowler at cricket1 in order to give his ball a steady axis of rotation1 always holds it with the seam across1 so that the tips of his fingers may touch1 and he takes care to hold it only with such a grasp as may be sufficient to steady it1 for by a turn even of the wrist it may be made to proceed unsteadily2 and this leads me to consider another equally important proposition--viz4 that the axis of rotation should coincide with the direction in which it is moving forward1 or1 in other words1 with its line of motion4 ,now1 where this is not the case1 it is evident that the unequal action of the air will cause the body to deviate from its straight course1 since its two sides1 having different velocities 7the rotatory and progressive motions conspiring on one side1 while they are in opposition on the other71 will be differently affected by such resistance2 the resistance1 of course1 increasing with the velocity4 ,it is upon this principle10 continued ,mr4 ,seymour1 8that ,sir ,isaac ,newton has explained the irregular motion of the tennis-ball40 8,but do explain to us1 papa10 said ,louisa1 8why it is so necessary to spin the ball in order to catch it on the spike80 8,rotatory motion1 my dear1 when directed according to the principles ,i have endeavoured to enforce1 will always steady the course of a body4 ,in playing at bilboquet1 your object is so to throw up the ball that its hole may descend perpendicularly upon the spike which is held for its reception2 and in order to accomplish this1 you make the ball spin upon an axis1 at the extremity of which is the hole2 the consequence is obvious40 ,louisa observed1 that she well remembered an allusion to this game in ,miss ,edgeworth's ,essays on ,education2 and that1 unless she was much deceived1 the advantage to be gained by spinning the ball was referred to centrifugal force1 and its effect in preserving the 8parallelism of motion40 8,i do not recollect the passage10 answered her father1 8but ,i will admit that the centrifugal force is indirectly instrumental to the effect1 although1 in my view of the subject1 it is more philosophical to refer it at once to the creation of an appropriate axis of rotation40 8,i well remember10 observed ,tom1 8that the rider at ,astley's whirled round the oranges as he threw them into the air40 8,and ,i hope that you are now not only acquainted with the principle which rendered such a rotatory motion necessary1 but that which must make the shorter the more eligible axis for effecting his purpose2--but can you tell me how it could have happened1 that the oranges1 which were thrown perpendicularly upwards while the horseman was on the full gallop1 should have fallen again into his hand80 8,ay10 said ,louisa1 8that puzzled me exceedingly2 ,i should have thought he would have ridden away from them1 and that they must have fallen several feet behind him40 8,what say you1 ,tom1 to that80 enquired ,mr4 ,seymour4 8,i suppose10 replied ,tom1 8that the rider calculated upon the distance he would pass forward before they could fall1 and projected them accordingly40 8,no1 indeed2 there is no calculation in the case1 nor is any art used to throw the oranges in advance3 they are projected perpendicularly from the hand2 and if you will only recall to your mind the subject of the #8,composition of ,forces1' the mystery will vanish40 8,i see it all clearly10 cried ,tom2 8the orange partakes of the progressive motion of the rider2 when1 therefore1 he throws it upwards1 it is influenced by two forces which are in the direction of the two sides of a parallelogram1 and it consequently describes the diagonal40 8,you are quite right2 but you doubtless will perceive that1 instead of a straight line1 the orange will describe a parabolic curve40 8,for the same reason1 ,i suppose10 said ,tom1 8that the stone from the sling described a curve80 8,certainly2 but see1 ,i have a diagram which will explain the subject more clearly40 ,illustration3 ,a man on a moving horse demonstrates progressive motion with an orange4 8,the orange1 as it is thrown into the air1 is influenced by two forces3 the one arising from the progressive motion of the rider1 the other from the projectile force imparted to it4 ,these two forces are in the direction of the adjacent sides of a parallelogram1 and were it not for the operation of gravity1 the body would accordingly describe its diagonal in the same space of time as it would have described one of the sides4#ah ,the influence of gravity1 however1 not only deflects it from a right line into a curve1 but diminishes its force1 so that instead of arriving at the opposite angle of the parallelogram a1 its greatest altitude will be short of that point2 it will then descend through a similar curve2 and1 since the times of ascent and descent are equal1#ai it will reach the hand of the rider at the very moment he is prepared to receive it2 for the orange will have traversed the parabolic curve in the same space of time as the horseman required for passing from one extremity of the curve to the other40 ,mr4 ,seymour having concluded this explanation1 much to the satisfaction of the young party1 observed that the present occasion was an appropriate one for the introduction of some remarks on the favourite pastime of the ,,hoop4 8,it is a classical pastime10 exclaimed the vicar1 8and was as common with the ,greeks and ,romans as it is with boys of the present generation40 8,and it has the advantage10 added ,mr4 ,seymour1 8of sending the tide of life in healthful currents through the veins40 ,tom began to trundle his hoop along the gravel walk4 8,stop1 stop1 my dear boy10 cried his father1 8you seem to have forgotten our compact1 that every toy should be fairly won before it was played with4 ,come upon the lawn1 and let me ask you some questions relative to the motions of the hoop4 ,can you make it stand still upon its edge80 8,not readily10 was ,tom's reply4 8,and yet10 continued ,mr4 ,seymour1 8during its progressive motion1 it rolls on its edge without any disposition to fall3 how happens that80 8,it is owing to the centrifugal force1 which gives it a motion in the direction of a tangent to the circle1 and1 consequently1 overcomes the force of gravity40 8,your answer is pat10 replied his father3 8as long as you give your hoop a certain degree of velocity1 the tangential1 or centrifugal force1 overcomes gravity1 in the manner you have already witnessed2#bj but1 when that is slackened1 the hoop will fall on its side2 not1 however1 until it has made several complete revolutions4 ,now1 answer me another question4 ,why is it so difficult to make the hoop proceed straight forward1 without turning to the right or left80 8,i suppose it arises from the same cause as that which altered the direction of my marble as it ran along--the inequality of the ground40 8,that10 replied his father1 8would undoubtedly have its influence2 but it is principally to be referred to the impossibility of your constantly giving a straight blow by the stick4 ,when it is moving forward1 a slight inclination towards either side will cause the parts to acquire a motion towards that side1 those which are uppermost being most affected by it2 and this lateral1 or sideway motion1 assisted sometimes by the irregular curvature of the hoop1 causes its path to deviate from a rectilinear direction2 so that1 instead of moving straight forward1 it turns to that side towards which it began to incline2 and1 in this position1 its tendency to fall is still farther counteracted by the centrifugal force4 ,it is from a similar cause that the bullet1 unless rifled1 will have a tendency to go to the right or left1 from any unequal impulse which it may have received at the moment of its exit from the barrel4 ,i have yet one other question1 and1 as its answer will lead us into the consideration of a mechanical subject of some importance1 ,i must beg you to bestow all your attention4 ,in trundling your hoop1 have you not often observed that1 although the blow inflicted upon it by your stick might have been violent1 yet the effect produced by it was comparatively small1 in consequence of the hoop having been struck by a disadvantageous part of the stick80 8,certainly6 ,i have frequently observed that1 if the hoop is struck by the stick either too near the hand1 or too near the end1 much of its force is lost2 and ,i have also noticed the same thing in striking the ball with my cricket-bat40 8,the fact is10 said ,mr4 ,seymour1 8that every striking body has what is termed its centre of percussion1 in which all the percutient force of a body is1 as it were1 collected2 thus1 a stick of a cylindrical figure1 supposing the centre of motion at the hand1 will strike the greatest blow at a point about two-thirds of its length from the wrist4 ,i may1 perhaps1 at some future time1 return to this subject1 and explain several mechanical effects which are dependent upon it47#ba7 ,now away with you1 and trundle your hoop1 or spin your top2 as soon as the vicar arrives ,i will rejoin you40 ,in the course of an hour ,mr4 ,seymour and his reverend friend proceeded to the play-ground1 where they found the children busily engaged in their several diversions4 8,i rejoice to find you at so classical a pastime10 said the vicar1 as he approached ,tom1 who was busily engaged in spinning his top4 8,the top1 my boy1 is a subject which the great ,mantuan bard did not consider beneath the patronage of his muse3 but1 hey-day6 this is not the #8volitans sub verbere turbo' of the immortal ,virgil2 the top of antiquity was the whip-top1 the peg-top is a barbarous innovation of modern times3 a practical proof of the degeneracy of the race4 ,even boys1 forsooth1 must now-a-days have their activity cramped by inventions to supersede labour3 well may we regard the weapons1 which our sturdy ancestors wielded as instruments rather calculated for giants than men1 if such pains be taken to instil into the minds of youth the mischievous spirit of idleness40 8,my dear sir10 said ,tom1 who was always grieved at displeasing the vicar1 8if it will gratify you1 ,i will spin my whip-top1 for ,i have an excellent one which my papa has lately given me40 8,well said6 my dear boy4 #8,puer bon spei4'--,what a pity would it be to damp so noble a spirit2 get your whip-top40 ,tom accordingly placed the ,virgilian top upon the ground1 and as the boy plied the whip1 so did the vicar lash the air with his quotation2 running round the top in apparent ecstasy1 while he repeated the well-known lines from the seventh neid3-- 8,ille actus habena ,curvatis fertur spatiis2 stupet inscia turba1 ,impubesque manus1 mirata volubile buxum3 ,dant animos plag40#ba ,as ,mr4 ,twaddleton thus gave vent to that fervour which was ever kindled by collision with ,virgil1 ,tom gave motion to his top1 which swaggered about with such an air of self-importance1 that1 to the eye of fancy1 it might have appeared as if proudly conscious of the encomiums that had been so liberally lavished upon it4 8,the ,grecian boys1 as ,suidas informs us1 played also with this top10 continued the vicar4 8,and pray1 may ,i ask10 said ,mr4 ,seymour1 8whether it was not introduced into this country by the ,romans80 8,probably10 replied the vicar4 8,figures representing boys in the act of whipping their tops first appear in the marginal paintings of the manuscripts of the fourteenth century2 at which period1 the form of the toy was the same as it is at present1 and the manner of impelling it by the whip can admit of but little if any difference4 ,in a manuscript1#bb at the ,british ,museum1 ,i have read a very curious anecdote which refers to ,prince ,henry1 the eldest son of ,james the ,first2 with your permission ,i will relate it to you40 ,here the vicar extracted a memorandum-book from his pocket1 and read the following note3-- 8,the first tyme that he1 the prince1 went to the towne of ,sterling to meete the king1 seeing a little without the gate of the towne a stack of corne1 in proportion not unlike to a topp1 wherewith he used to play1 he said to some that were with him1 #8,loe there is a goodly topp3' whereupon one of them saying1 #8,why doe you not play with it then8' he answered1 #8,set you it up for me1 and ,i will play with it4'0 8,was not that a clever retort of the young prince80 said the vicar1 as he returned the manuscript into his memorandum-book2 8and ,i think it must have confounded the courtier who could have asked so silly a question40 8,well1 ,tom10 said ,mr4 ,seymour1 8let us see whether you can set up your own top1 so that it shall stand steadily on its point40 8,i have often tried that experiment10 answered ,tom1 8but could never succeed in keeping the line of direction within its narrow base40 8,and yet1 when in rotatory motion1 its erect position is maintained without difficulty2 how is that80 8,is it not owing to the centrifugal force80 asked ,tom4 8,undoubtedly3 but as the subject is highly interesting1 ,i will endeavour to explain it more fully4 ,you must1 however1 first obtain permission from the vicar to spin your humming-top1 for that will better illustrate the phenomena which it is my wish to examine40 8,if your object is the exercise of the body1 let us spin the whip-top10 replied the vicar2 8but if you wish to exercise the boy's mind1 ,i cannot object to your selecting the top best calculated to fulfil that desire40 ,tom1 having accordingly prepared his top1 pulled the string1 and set the wooden machine spinning on the floor4 8,now1 ,tom1 ,i will explain to you the reason of the top being able to sustain its vertical position4 ,you have already learned1 from the action of the sling1 that a body cannot move in a circular path1 without making an effort to fly off in a right line from the centre2#bc so that1 if a body be affixed to a string1 and whirled round by the hand1 it will stretch it1 and in a greater degree according as the circular motion is more rapid40 8,certainly10 said ,tom4 8,the top1 then1 being in motion1 all its parts tend to recede from the axis1 and with greater force the more rapidly it revolves3 hence it follows that these parts are like so many powers acting in a direction perpendicular to the axis2 but1 as they are all equal1 and as they pass all round with rapidity by the rotation1 the result must be that the top is in equilibrio on its point of support1 or on the extremity of the axis on which it turns4 ,but see1 your top is down40 8,and what is the reason10 asked ,tom1 8of its motion being stopped80 8,i can answer that question1 papa10 said ,louisa2 8is it not owing to the friction of the ground80 8,certainly2 that has1 doubtless1 its influence3 but the resistance of the air is also a powerful force upon this occasion4 ,a top has been made to spin in vacuo as long as two hours and sixteen minutes4#bd ,but come1 ,tom1 spin your top once more4 ,observe10 exclaimed ,mr4 ,seymour1 8how obliquely the top is spinning4 ,it is now gradually rising out of an oblique position2--now it is steadily spinning on a vertical axis2--and now its motion is so steady1 that it scarcely seems to move40 8,it is sleeping1 as we call it10 said ,tom4 8,its centre of gravity is now situated perpendicularly over its point of support1 which is the extremity of the axis of rotation3 but attend to me10 continued ,mr4 ,seymour1 8for ,i am about to attempt the explanation of a phenomenon which has puzzled many older and wiser philosophers than yourselves4 ,it is evident that the top1 in rising from an oblique to a vertical position1 must have its centre of gravity raised2 what can have been the force which effected this change80 8,was it the centrifugal force80 asked ,tom4 8,certainly not10 said ,mr4 ,seymour1 8as ,i will presently convince you40 8,then it must have been the resistance of the air10 said ,louisa4 8,no2 nor was it the resistance of the air10 replied her father3 8for the same effect takes place in vacuo40 8,then pray inform us1 by what means the top was raised40 ,illustration3 ,a toy top1 diagonal to a surface4 8,it entirely depended upon the form of the extremity of the peg1 and not upon any simple effect connected with the rotatory or centrifugal force of the top4 ,i will first satisfy you that1 were the peg to terminate in a fine1 that is to say1 in a mathematical point1 the top never could raise itself4 ,let ,a ,b ,c be a top spinning in an oblique position1 having the end of the peg1 on which it spins1 brought to a fine point4 ,it will continue to spin in the direction in which it reaches the ground1 without the least tendency to rise into a more vertical position2 and it is by its rotatory or centrifugal force that it is kept in this original position3 for if we conceive the top divided into two equal parts ,a and ,b1 by a plane passing through the line ,x ,c1 and suppose that at any moment during its spinning1 the connection between these two parts were suddenly dissolved1 then would any point in the part ,a fly off with the given force in the direction of the tangent1 and any corresponding point in the part ,b with an equal force in an opposite direction2 whilst1 therefore1 these two parts remain connected together1 during the spinning of the top1 these two equal and opposite forces ,a and ,b will balance each other1 and the top will continue to spin on its original axis4 ,having thus shown that the rotatory or centrifugal force can never make the top rise from an oblique to a vertical position1 ,i shall proceed to explain the true cause of this change1 and ,i trust you will be satisfied that it depends upon the bluntness of the point4 ,let ,a ,b ,c be a top spinning in an oblique position1 terminating in a very short point with a hemispherical shoulder ,p a ,m4 ,it is evident that1 in this case1 the top will not spin upon a the end of the true axis ,x a1 but upon ,p1 a point in the circle ,p ,m1 to which the floor ,i ,f is a tangent4 ,instead1 therefore1 of revolving upon a fixed and stationary point1 the top will roll round upon the small circle ,p ,m on its blunt point1 with very considerable friction1 the force of which may be represented by a line ,o ,p at right angles to the floor ,i ,f1 and to the spherical end of the peg of the top3 now it is the action of this force1 by its pressure on one side of the blunt point of the top1 which causes it to rise in a vertical direction4 ,produce the line ,o ,p till it meets the axis ,c2 from the point ,c draw the line ,c ,t perpendicular to the axis a ,x1 and ,t ,o parallel to it2 and then1 by a resolution of forces1 the line ,t ,c will represent that part of the friction which presses at right angles to the axis1 so as gradually to raise it in a vertical position2 in which operation the circle ,p ,m gradually diminishes by the approach of the point ,p to a1 as the axis becomes more perpendicular1 and vanishes when the point ,p coincides with the point a1 that is to say1 when the top has arrived at its vertical position1 where it will continue to sleep1 without much friction1 or any other disturbing force1 until its rotatory motion fails1 and its side is brought to the earth by the force of gravity40 ,illustration3 ,a top diagonal to a surface1 with a diagram describing its rotation4 8,i think ,i understand it10 said ,tom1 8although ,i have some doubt about it2 but if you would be so kind as to give me the demonstration in writing1 ,i will diligently study it40 8,most readily10 said ,mr4 ,seymour4 8,indeed ,i cannot expect that you should comprehend so difficult a subject1 without the most patient investigation2 and1 in the present state of your knowledge1 ,i am compelled to omit the relation of several very important circumstances1 to which ,i may1 hereafter1 direct your attention4 ,when1 for instance1 you have become acquainted with the elements of astronomy1 ,i shall be able to show you that the gyration of the top depends upon the same principles as the precession of the equinoxes407#bb7 ,illustration3 ,two boys spin a top with whips4 ----- ,footnote #ah3 ,see page #aai4 ,footnote #ai3 ,see page #ed4 ,footnote #bj3 ,see page #abf4 ,footnote #ba3 8,the wooden engine flies and whirls about1 ,admired1 with clamours1 of the beardless rout3 ,they lash aloud2 each other they provoke1 ,and lend their little souls at every stroke40--,,dryden4 ,footnote #bb3 ,harl4 lib4 i4 marked #fcia4 ,footnote #bc3 ,page #abf4 ,footnote #bd3 ,short on #8,serson's ,horizontal ,top4' ,phil4 ,trans4 xlvii4 #ceb4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,illustration3 ,a boy playing on a swing between two trees4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,trap and ,ball4--,gifts from the ,vicar4--,an ,antiquarian ,history of the ,ball4--,the ,see-saw4--,the ,mechanical ,powers4--,the ,swing4--,the ,doctrine of ,oscillation4--,galileo's ,discovery4--,the ,pendulum4--,an interesting letter4--,mr4 ,seymour and the ,vicar visit ,major ,snapwell4 ,mr4 ,seymour1 having observed his children busily engaged at the game of ,trap and ,ball1 determined1 as usual1 to make it subservient to scientific instruction4 ,with this view he hastily sketched a diagram1 and proceeded with it to the scene of sport4 8,now1 ,tom1 let me see how far you have profited by our late conversation4 ,i have some questions to ask you about the action of your ,trap and ,ball10 said his father4 8,i do not suppose there is much philosophy in the game10 observed ,tom4 8,of that we shall judge presently4--,can you tell me the direction which the ball takes after it flies from the spoon of the ,trap1 in consequence of the blow of the bat upon the trigger80 8,it flies upwards1 to be sure1 and allows me to strike it with my bat10 answered the boy4 8,very true2 but at what angle8--,i see you hesitate1 look therefore at the diagram ,i have prepared1 and attend to my explanation of it40 ,mr4 ,seymour produced the sketch which we here present to our readers4 ,illustration3 ,sketch of ,trap4 8,a ,b represent the spoon and trigger in their quiescent position4 ,upon striking the end ,b with the bat1 they are brought into the position ,c ,d4 ,the spoon will thus have described the small arc ,a ,c1 when it will be suddenly stopped by the end of the trigger ,d coming into contact with the shoe4 ,the motion of the ball1 however1 will not be arrested1 and it will consequently be projected forward out of the spoon40 8,exactly10 exclaimed ,louisa1 8in the same manner as the shilling flew off the wine glass1 or a person on a galloping horse would be thrown over the head by its suddenly stopping40 8,i thank you1 ,louisa2 your memory1 ,i perceive1 has not suffered from the drenching you received from the water-cart2#be--;but can you tell me10 continued ,mr4 ,seymour1 8the direction which the ball will take after its release from the spoon80 ,this was a step beyond ,louisa's knowledge1 and her father1 in order to assist her1 begged her to consider in what direction it was moving before it left the spoon4 8,you have just told us10 said ,tom1 8that it described an arc1 or portion of a circle40 8,very well10 said ,mr4 ,seymour2 8and did not the philosophy of your sling teach you that1 when a body revolving in a circle is suddenly disengaged1 it will fly off in a right line in the direction in which it was moving at the instant of its release8--the ball therefore will describe the tangent ,c ,e40 8,it is all clear enough to me now10 said ,tom1 evidently vexed that he had overlooked a principle which had been so lately explained to him by the action of his sling4 8,i now see1 too10 added ,tom1 8why the ball seldom flies off at the same angle in every trap40 8,that10 said his father1 8must of course depend upon the extent of the arc described by the spoon1 and which will of course vary in different traps40 8,before we conclude the subject1 let me ask you whether there is not some one point in the bat1 at which you can most effectually strike the ball80 8,to be sure10 answered ,tom1 8in the same way tha there is a point in my hoop-stick at which ,i can give the strongest blow--and that point is termed the ,centre of ,percussion40 8,enough10 said ,mr4 ,seymour2 8see1 here comes the vicar40 ,true to the hour appointed1 did ,mr4 ,twaddleton make his appearance1 just at the conclusion of the discussion above described2 and1 as he approached the party1 ,louisa observed that he was carrying a canvass bag in his hand4 8,what have you there80 asked ,mr4 ,seymour4 8,a sack of sugar-plums80 8,no1 no2 spheres of larger diameter4 ,here10 said the vicar1 as he opened his bag1 8is a foot-ball for you1 ,tom2 and here is a hand-ball for you1 ,louisa40 ,he then presented each of the other children with a similar present1 exclaiming-- #8,nemo ex hoc numero mihi non donatus abibit4'#bf as ,virgil has it40 8,perhaps10 said ,mr4 ,seymour1 8you will enhance the value of this favour1 by giving us an antiquarian history of the ball1 which will be very acceptable to us at this time1 as we have just concluded a philosophical enquiry upon that subject40 ,to this request the vicar readily assented1 and proceeded as follows3-- 8,the ,greeks appear to have played with four kinds of ball3 viz4 the little ball1 the great ball1 the empty ball 7 71 which was blown up with air1 like our foot-ball1 and the leathern ball 7 71 which was suspended from the ceiling1 and stuffed with bran or sand1 as those who tossed it were robust or delicate4 ,the ,romans10 continued the vicar1 8had also four kinds of pil1 or balls4 ,the follis1 a large ball made of leather and blown up with air1 like our foot-ball2 the larger kinds of which were struck with the arm1 the smaller ones with the fist4 ,suetonius tells us that ,augustus ,csar greatly delighted in the amusement2 and in truth it was a glorious sport1 an exercise equally adapted for the young and old2 or as ,martial has it1-- #8,folle decet pueros ludere1 folle senes4'8#bg 8,and yet10 said ,mr4 ,seymour1 8neither ,horace nor ,virgil played at it2 do not you remember the lines in the fifth satire8-- #8,lusum it ,mcenas1 dormitum ego ,virgiliusque2 ,namque pil lippis inimicum et ludere crudis4'0#bh 8,many thanks1 ,mr4 ,seymour1 many thanks for brushing up my recollection2 but ,i am a little doubtful about the game at which ,mcenas played at ,capua3 ,i have1 by-the-by1 lately read#bi an account of a peculiar game of ball for which the city of ,sierra is celebrated1 and it is supposed to be that referred to by ,horace--#8,it is played in the foss1 which has a very high wall1 and it is not unlike a tennis-court2 the ball is very large1 and appears to be inflated with air2 the arm is defended by a wooden guard or shield2 at certain periods of the game1 one of the players runs down a spring-board1 and throwing the whole of his weight1 momentum1 and strength upon the ball1 as it is thrown towards him1 he strikes it to an astonishing distance4' ,the second kind of ball10 continued the vicar1 8was termed trigonalis1 which is conjectured to have been nearly the same as our tennis-ball4 ,it derived its name from the position of the three persons who played with it2 they were placed in a triangle1 and alternately caught and tossed the ball1 and he who first let it fall to the ground was the loser4 ,the third kind of ball was the paganica1 as being much used in country villages4 ,some authors state it to have been constructed of leather and stuffed with feathers1 while others conjecture it to have been a large kind of follis4 ,the fourth was the harpastum2 a small ball1 so called because the gamesters endeavoured to snatch it from each other40 8,it seems10 observed ,louisa1 8to be a sport better adapted to boys than girls40 8,in that supposition you are quite mistaken10 replied the vicar2 8on the contrary1 the hand-ball would seem to have been originally a female sport1 for ,homer has restricted the pastime to the princess and young maidens of ,corcyra2 at least1 he has not mentioned its ever having been practised by the men4 #8,o'er the green mead1 the sporting virgins play1 ,their shining veils unbound2 along the skies1 ,toss'd and re-toss'd1 the ball incessant flies4'0#cj ,mr4 ,seymour said that1 as the vicar had satisfied them of the high antiquity of the ball1 he hoped he would now afford them some information respecting its use in ,england4 8,the game of hand-ball10 said the vicar1 8called by the ,french palm-play1 because the exercise consisted originally in receiving the ball1 and driving it back again with the palm of the hand1 was formerly a favourite pastime among the youth of both sexes2 and in many parts of the kingdom it was customary for them to play at this game during the ,easter holidays for tansy cakes4 ,in ancient times1 the mayor and aldermen of ,newcastle used to go in state at the feasts of ,easter and ,whitsuntide1 to a little mall of the town1 to witness this game4 ,it was originally played with the naked hand2 then with a glove1 which in some instances was lined2 afterwards1 cords and catgut strings were bound upon the hand to make the ball rebound more forcibly40 8,that custom10 observed ,mr4 ,seymour1 8doubtless1 gave origin to the racket40 8,it did10 replied the vicar2 8and the places where this game was played were called tennis-courts1 and the game itself obtained the name of tennis1 from the ,french word tenez#ca 7take it1 hold it71 frequently used during the exercise4 ,the pastime1 ,i believe1 was introduced amongst our ancestors about the year #abbb1 the sixth year of ,henry ,,iii1 by persons of superior rank and family1 who erected courts or oblong edifices for the performance of the exercise40 8,i long to hear something about foot-ball10 exclaimed ,tom4 8,that is a pastime10 said the vicar1 8which was formerly in great vogue in ,england1 but of late years it has fallen into disrepute4 ,it derives its name1 as you may suppose1 from the circumstance of the ball being driven with the foot1 in preference to the hand4 ,when a match is made1 two parties1 equal in numbers1 take the field1 and stand between two goals1 which are placed at the distance of eighty or a hundred yards from each other4 ,the ball1 which is commonly a blown bladder1 cased with leather1 is delivered in the midst of the ground1 and the object of either party is to drive it through the goal of their opponents1 by which the game is won4 ,the abilities of the performers are best displayed in attacking and defending the goals1 whence the pastime is more frequently called a goal1 than a game at foot-ball4 ,in this attack and defence1 the exercise becomes exceedingly violent2 the players kick each other's shins without the least ceremony2 and this occasioned ,james ,i4 to speak of foot-ball as #8meeter for laming than making able the users thereof4'0 8,i believe10 said ,mr4 ,seymour1 8that the ancient game of goff is still much practised in ,scotland40 8,it is10 replied the vicar4 8,in the reign of ,edward ,,iii4 the ,latin name cambuca1 a crooked club1 or staff1 was applied to this pastime1 because it was played with such an instrument4 ,the bat was also styled a bandy1 from its being bent2 and hence the game itself is frequently called bandy-ball40 8,and how is it played80 asked ,tom4 8,it is played on a smooth common1 by driving forward two small hard balls1 with the bandy ,i have just described1 into very distant holes in the ground1 about a foot deep1 and nine inches over3 and the party whose ball is driven into these holes with the fewest strokes1 is the victor40 8,but come10 said ,mr4 ,seymour1 8it is high time to think of our dinner2 the children must require some refreshment4 ,i am not1 my dear vicar1 one of those philosophers who believe that play was invented by the ,lydians#cb as a remedy against hunger2 nor do ,i subscribe to the opinion of the elder ,scriblerus1 that it was on such an account wisely contrived by ,nature1 that children who have the keenest appetites should1 at the same time1 be those who are most addicted to sport40 8,whether you believe or not that the ,lydians invented sports shall not be a subject of contest between us10 said the reverend antiquary2 8but10 continued he1 8one thing is quite certain1 that the ,lydian games were at first called ,lydi by the ,romans2 and afterwards1 by corruption1 ,ludi2 a presumption ,i must needs say in favour of the ,lydian claim2 but enough of this3 to what do you propose we should next turn our attention8 ,i doubt not you have some new sport for our recreation as well as our instruction10 added the vicar4 8,we will1 if you please1 attend the children to their see-saw1 which the gardener has lately constructed for them10 said ,mr4 ,seymour4 ,the party accordingly walked to the grove1 in which a plank had been placed across a wooden post3 and upon which ,tom and ,john had been riding for some time in the earlier part of the morning4 ,the boys again mounted their new hobby2 and1 after amusing themselves for some minutes1 ,mr4 ,seymour desired them to stop1 in order that ,tom might explain the principle upon which the see-saw acted4 ,tom replied1 that he was not aware of any principle which could apply to riding on a plank4 8,have ,i not often told you1 my dear boy1 that the principles of ,natural ,philosophy may be brought to bear on the most trivial acts of life8 ,listen1 therefore1 and you shall find that your present amusement teems with instruction4 ,you are already well acquainted with the nature and operations of the centre of gravity2 tell me1 therefore1 whereabouts it lies in the plank upon which you are riding40 8,i should think10 replied ,tom1 8that in this instance1 the centres of gravity and magnitude must coincide1 or be very nearly in the same point40 8,the centre of gravity must1 as you say1 be very nearly in the middle of the board2 and if that be the case1 you will allow that1 supposing those who ride upon it are of equal weight1 the plank must be supported in the centre to make the two arms equal2 but you and ,john are of unequal weight1 so that you perceive the plank must be drawn a little farther over the prop to make the arms unequal2 and ,john1 who is the lightest1 must be placed at the extremity of the largest arm4 ,thus arranged1 you will exactly balance each other2 and as each of you1 on your descent1 touches the ground with your feet1 the reaction affords you a spring1 which destroys the equilibrium1 and enables you to oscillate in arcs about the centre of motion40 ,illustration3 ,two children on a see-saw1 with circles drawn around them to show their motion4 8,do we then describe the arcs of a circle as we ascend and descend80 8,undoubtedly you must4 ,look at this diagram10 said ,mr4 ,seymour1 8and you will see at once that the plank can only move round its centre of motion2 for how could you rise1 or your brother fall1 perpendicularly in a straight line8 ,you must1 in rising1 and he1 in descending1 describe arcs of your respective circles4 ,it is equally evident that his velocity must be very superior to yours2 for1 if you could swing quite round1 you would each complete your respective circles in the same time40 8,it would really appear so10 said ,tom2 8and ,i have myself observed1 that the lighter person has the better ride1 as he moves both farther and quicker1 and ,i now understand the reason of it2 it is because being farther from the centre of motion1 he describes a larger arc40 8,the greater velocity with which your little brother moves1 renders his momentum equal to yours4 ,you have the most gravity1 he the greatest velocity2 so that1 upon the whole1 your momenta are equal3 for you1 no doubt1 remember that momentum is weight multiplied into velocity4#cc ,you have here then a striking instance of mechanical advantage gained by opposing motion to matter1 or velocity to weight2 for ,i think you will readily admit1 that without the aid of the plank1 your little brother could never have raised you from the ground40 8,that is clear enough10 said ,tom4 8,the plank1 then1 thus arranged10 continued his father1 8constitutes what has been termed a mechanical power1 to which the name of lever has been given2 it is not1 however1 my intention at present to enter into the history of these powers1 of which there are six distinct kinds2 the one presented to you1 in the instance of the see-saw1 is perhaps the most simple1 and not the least important of them40 8,it is very curious10 observed the vicar1 8to reflect upon what a simple1 and apparently trifling fact1 the powers of civilized man may be said to depend4 ,the single truth you have just announced1 of making velocity a compensation for weight1 has supplied his weak arm with the means of controlling the very elements407#bc7 8,it is very true10 said ,mr4 ,seymour1 8and we might go so far as to say that1 had it been the will of the ,almighty ,creator of the universe to have withheld from matter that property which we have been discussing1 man must have remained the most helpless and forlorn of his creatures4 ,i now propose10 added ,mr4 ,seymour1 8to accompany the children to their swing2 the present is a suitable opportunity for giving them some idea of the doctrine of oscillation1 or the theory of the pendulum40 8,let us proceed1 then1 to the ,icarian ,game10 exclaimed the vicar4 ,as the party walked along1 ,mr4 ,twaddleton explained the meaning of the above allusion1 with which the reader will be hereafter made acquainted4 ,the children had commenced the sport1 and ,mr4 ,seymour informed ,tom and ,louisa1 who were attentively watching the motions of the swing1 that its vibrations1 like those of the pendulum of a clock1 were produced by its effort to fall1 from the force of gravity1 and its power of ascending through an arc similar and opposite to that through which it has descended1 from the momentum acquired during its descent4 8,like the bandilor1 ,i suppose10 said ,louisa4 8,exactly1 my dear1 that is a very good comparison2 for as the bandilor1 having descended along the string by its gravity1 acquires such a momentum as to enable it to ascend the same string1 and thus1 as it were1 to wind itself up2 so does the pendulum or swing1 during its descent1 acquire a force that carries it up in an opposite arc to an equal height as that from which it had fallen4 ,but tell me1 ,tom1 whether you have not discovered that the motion of your new swing differs from that which you experienced in your former one80 8,the ropes of our present swing are so much longer than those which we formerly used1 that the motion is much pleasanter40 8,is that all80 said ,mr4 ,seymour4 8,have you not observed that you also swing much slower80 8,i have certainly noticed that10 said ,tom4 8,it is a law which ,i am desirous of impressing upon your memory1 that the shorter the pendulum1 or swing1 the quicker are its motions1 and vice vers2 indeed1 there is an established proportion between the velocity and the length1 which ,i shall1 hereafter1 endeavour to explain to you4 ,galileo1 the celebrated philosopher1 and mathematician to the ,duke of ,florence1 accordingly proposed a method of ascertaining the height of the arched ceiling of a church by the vibrations of a lamp suspended from it4 ,the solution of the problem was founded on the law to which ,i have just alluded1 viz4 that the squares of the times of the vibrations are as the lengths2 so that a pendulous body1 four times the length of another1 performs vibrations which last twice as long4 ,now it is known that1 in the latitude of ,london1 a pendulum1 if #ci inches and two tenths in length1 will vibrate seconds1 or make #fj swings in a minute2 by observing1 therefore1 how much the pendulous body deviates from this standard1 we may1 by the application of the above rule1 find its length2 if the distance from the bottom of the lamp to the pavement be then measured1 which may be done by means of a stick1 and added to the former result1 the sum will give the height of the arch above the pavement3 but ,i will show you the experiment the next time we go into ,overton church2 the vicar can tell us the exact height of the roof1 and ,i will try how nearly ,i can approach the truth1 by observing with a stop-watch how many seconds one vibration of the chandelier continues40 8,but1 papa1 why surely the duration of its vibration must depend upon the force which you may happen to give to the chandelier80 8,not in the least2 and this brings us at once to the consideration of the most curious and important fact in the history of the pendulum1 and for a knowledge of which we are also indebted to ,galileo4#cd ,it is termed isochronous#ce property1 or that by which all its vibrations1 whether great or small1 are performed in exactly the same period of time2 but that you may be better able to comprehend this subject1 attend to the diagram which ,i have prepared for your instruction4 ,suppose that the swing or pendulum ,a ,b be raised to ,c1 it will1 in effect1 be raised the perpendicular height ,e ,c1 and in falling will describe the arc ,c ,b2 and1 in the point ,b1 it will have that velocity which is acquired by descending through ,c ,b1 or by a body falling freely through the perpendicular ,c ,e4 ,this velocity will be sufficient to cause it to ascend through an equal arc ,b ,d1 to the same height from whence it fell at ,c2 and since the times of ascent and descent are equal1 it will describe both these arcs in exactly the same space of time4 ,having lost all its motion at ,d1 it will again begin to descend by its own gravity2 and in the lowest point ,b it will acquire the same velocity as before1 which will cause it to reascend to ,c2 and thus1 by ascending and descending1 it will perform continual vibrations in the circumference ,c ,b ,d2 and1 were it not for the resistance of the air1 and the friction at the centre of motion ,a1 the vibrations would never cease3 but from these obstructions1 though small1 it happens1 that the velocity of the mass of matter at ,b is a little diminished in every vibration2 and consequently it does not return precisely to the same points ,c or ,d1 but the arcs described continually become shorter and shorter1 till at length they grow insensible2 and yet the very same time is required for the performance of the shorter as the longer arcs2 for1 although in the one case the body passes over less space1 still its velocity is proportionally decreased4 ,you perceive1 then1 that in an attempt to ascertain the height of a ceiling by the vibrations of a chandelier1 the extent of its swing cannot alter the time which may be required for its completion4 ,and1 if you will place your little brother in the swing1 you will perceive that he will return to your hand in nearly the same space of time1 whether he describes a large or small arc2 although this experiment must be considered as extremely rude1 since there are many disturbing causes for which the theory cannot possibly make any allowance4 ,i must1 moreover1 warn you that where the arc described is very considerable1 the difference in the time will be greater2 for1 in order to ensure this property of vibrating through unequal arcs in equal times1 it is necessary that the path of the body should describe a peculiar curve1 called a cycloid7#bd71 and not the segment of a circle2 at present1 however1 it is not possible for us to enter into this difficult branch of science1 although ,i trust that at some future period ,i shall be justified in an attempt to explain it40 ,illustration3 ,drawing of a pendulum and its movements4 ,mr4 ,seymour having concluded his lecture1 was about to return to the ,lodge1 when ,mrs4 ,seymour approached the party1 carrying in her hands a letter1 which the smile on her countenance announced to contain agreeable intelligence4 8,i have just received10 said ,mrs4 ,seymour1 8a letter from ,miss ,villers1 whom you must all remember as a most delightful person4 ,i am informed that she is about to be married to the nephew of a gentleman who is at present in our neighbourhood in search of a country residence40 8,does she mention the gentleman's name80 inquired the vicar4 8,mr4 ,henry ,beacham10 said ,mrs4 ,seymour4 8,the nephew of ,major ,snapwell1 ,i declare10 exclaimed the delighted vicar4 ,the whole party participated in the pleasure which their excellent friend expressed at this discovery1 and ,mr4 ,seymour immediately accompanied ,mr4 ,twaddleton to ,ivy ,lodge1 to congratulate the major1 and to make such arrangements as might expedite the purchase of ,osterley ,park1 and the consequent introduction of a family into the neighbourhood of ,overton1 from whose society the ,seymours anticipated the highest satisfaction4 ,at the same time ,mrs4 ,seymour hastened to dispatch a letter to ,miss ,villers1 in order to solicit her immediate presence at ,overton ,lodge4 ----- ,footnote #be3 ,see page #fe4 ,footnote #bf3 8,not one amongst you shall depart without a gift from me40 n4 v4 #cje4 ,footnote #bg3 ,lib4 xiv4 epig4 #dc4 ,footnote #bh3 8,mcenas goes to tennis1 hurtful game ,to a weak stomach1 and to tender eyes1 ,so down to sleep with ,virgil1 ,horace lies40--,,francis4 ,footnote #bi3 8,two ,hundred and ,nine ,days10 or 8,the ,journal of a ,traveller on the ,continent10 by ,jefferson ,hogg3 ,london1 #ahbg4 ,footnote #cj3 ,pope's ,odyssey1 lib4 v4 ,footnote #ca3 ,this etymology has been disputed1 and it has been said that the holding or keeping possession of the ball is no part of the game2 for1 during the play1 the ball is in continual motion1 or passing from one to another4 ,others seek the etymology of the name1 and the origin of the game1 in a place in ,france called ,tennois2 or1 by a change of one letter1 ,sennois1 in the district of ,champagne1 where balls were first made1 and the game1 as it is said1 first introduced4 ,footnote #cb3 ,herodotus speaks of the inhabitants of ,lydia having successfully had recourse to gaming as a partial substitute for food1 during a famine of many years' continuance4 ,footnote #cc3 ,see page #fa4 ,footnote #cd3 ,this discovery was published at ,paris1 in a treatise called 8,l',usage du ,cadran1 ou de l',horloge ,physique ,universelle10 in the year #afci2 from which may be dated the invention of the pendulum4 ,footnote #ce3 ,compounded of the ,greek words equal1 and time4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,illustration3 ,three people looking at a diagram drawn on the ground4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,marbles4--,antiquity of the game4--,method of manufacturing them4--,ring-taw4--,mr4 ,seymour1 the ,vicar1 and ,tom1 enter the lists4 ,the defeat of the two former combatants2 the triumph of the latter4--,a philosophical explanation of the several movements4--,the subject of ,reflected ,motion illustrated4--,the ,vicar's apology1 of which many grave personages will approve4 ,in our last chapter we left ,mr4 ,seymour and his reverend friend on their way to ,ivy ,cottage2 it is only necessary to state that the major received them with that satisfaction and gratitude which the nature of their visit could not fail to produce4 ,plans were proposed1 and arrangements concluded for the furtherance of the object we have announced2 in short1 in the brief space of an hour1 the major had determined the course of his future life1 and had framed schemes of happiness1 and visions of domestic peace1 which he impatiently sought to realize4 ,the vicar was detained by the major1 but ,mr4 ,seymour quitted ,ivy ,lodge and returned to his family4 ,he found the children engaged in playing at marbles4 ,tom was displaying to his sisters many instances of his adroitness and skill in shooting at and hitting marbles4 8,why1 ,tom60 exclaimed ,mr4 ,seymour1 8how came you possessed of such a multitude of marbles80 8,by luck2 good luck1 papa2 ,i won them all before the holidays2 and ,i can assure you that my school-fellows acknowledge me as one of the best players at ring-taw in the school40 8,justly1 then1 has your merit been rewarded10 said the father4 8,have you not read of the skilful ,roman1 who could blow peas through a quill1 and deposit them with such nicety on the point of a pin1 placed at some distance1 as rarely to miss his aim80 8,and what was his reward80 asked ,tom4 8,a bushel of peas1 my boy1 which the emperor commanded to be presented to him4 ,but do not misunderstand me1 far be it from my wish to disparage your skill2 whatever we undertake1 we should endeavour to accomplish2 ,i am1 therefore1 well pleased to find that you can play at marbles with so much success40 8,i wonder who invented marbles80 said ,tom4 8,that question1 my dear1 must be addressed to ,mr4 ,twaddleton1 who1 ,i have no doubt1 will immediately answer it40 ,scarcely had these words been spoken1 when the vicar appeared on the lawn4 ,mr4 ,seymour informed him of the subject of their conversation1 and added1 that he had just told the children he was sure he would readily answer their question4 8,not so readily as you may imagine10 replied the vicar2 8but ,i will tell you all ,i know upon the subject4 ,it appears to be a very ancient game2 for it is stated by ,suetonius1 that ,augustus1 when a youth1 spent many hours in the day in playing with little ,moorish boys #8cum nucibus1' that is1 with nuts1 which appear to have been then used in the very way in which you now play with your marbles4 ,in later times1 round stones1 picked out of gravel1 were introduced for this purpose4 ,the marbles which you now hold in your hand are substitutes of still more modern invention4 ,the best of them are imported from ,holland1 where1 as ,i have been informed1 they are manufactured by grinding fragments of alabaster and of other stones1 in an iron mill of a peculiar construction1 in which there are several partitions furnished with rasps1 which turn with great velocity1 by means of a stream of water2 and thus1 having rounded the stones1 project them out of different holes for which their size may adapt them4 ,thus manufactured1 they are brought down the ,rhine1 and from thence dispersed throughout ,europe2 immense quantities are also exported to ,india and ,china4 ,there are1 however1 as you well know1 inferior kinds1 which are of home manufacture1 and consist of potter's clay covered with a glaze1 and burnt in a furnace40 8,i have often wondered what is the meaning of the words taw and ally10 observed ,tom4 8,why1 your taw is a brown marble1 and your ally1 if ,i remember rightly1 a very white one2 is it not so80 asked the vicar4 8,to be sure10 said ,tom4 8,very well1 then10 said the vicar1 8the words are clearly abbreviations of tawny and alabaster40 8,now then10 said ,mr4 ,seymour1 8for a game2 what is it to be1 ,tom80 8,ring-taw for ever60 cried ,tom2 8it is the only game of marbles worthy of being played40 8,it is really so long since ,i left school10 observed his father1 8that ,i must beg you to refresh my memory1 and give me some instructions about this favourite game of yours40 8,i will tell you all about it4 ,we must first draw a circle1 on which each player is to put a certain number of marbles to be previously agreed upon2 we then make a mark at some distance1 which is called the offing1 and from which we are to shoot at the marbles in the ring40 8,that is all very intelligible10 observed his father2 8and ,i suppose the object of the player is to shoot a marble out of the ring1 which not only gives him that marble1 but entitles him to shoot again at another1 and so on1 until he misses1 or all the marbles are won40 8,that is right1 papa40 8,and a good marksman10 observed the vicar1 8who has the first shot1 may easily win the game1 before any other player can gain the opportunity of shooting at a single marble40 8,i see that clearly10 said ,mr4 ,seymour2 8he may strike out a marble from the circle1 and then shoot at another1 and in this manner traverse the whole ring2 ,i therefore conclude1 that good players will always demand a large ring1 or else there would not be much chance for any one1 except for him who played first40 8,that is the game2 but ,i must tell you10 said ,tom1 8that if the player should leave his own marble in the ring1 he is at once put out2 and should it be within a certain distance on the outside1 an adversary may shoot at it1 and by hitting it1 put him also out of the game40 8,i believe that ,i am now a perfect master of the subject10 said ,mr4 ,seymour2 8what say you1 vicar80 8,i understand it2 and it appears to me to be capable of some scientific calculation2 but the practical results must1 of course1 differ very widely from the theory1 for the unevenness of the ground1 and the inaccurate construction of the marble1 are circumstances which never can be duly estimated40 8,certainly not10 replied ,mr4 ,seymour2 8these difficulties even exist at the game of billiards7#be71 where the table is smooth and perfectly horizontal3 but we do not require perfect accuracy1 an approximation to it will be sufficient for the purposes of illustration2 we will1 therefore1 if you please1 proceed at once to the game1 and ,i will endeavour to point out to ,tom the nature and direction of the several forces by which each marble will be influenced40 ,tom1 accordingly1 like the son of ,cornelius ,scriblerus1 converted his legs into a pair of compasses1 and described1 with the toe of his shoe1 the necessary circle upon the ground4 ,each party1 by agreement1 placed two marbles upon the ring1 and it fell to the lot of the vicar to open the campaign4 ,mr4 ,twaddleton then advanced1 and with the assumed air of a true knight-errant1 approached the ring1 exclaiming with a loud voice1 and with a gesture of inexpressible drollery1 8,i demand gracious leave that ,i may be delivered of my vow1 and forthwith combat in the lists20 so saying1 he unfurled his red banner1 and sounded a trumpet2 or in more humble phraseology1 he extracted his hand-kerchief from his pocket1 and applying it to his nasal organs1 produced a loud and thrilling blast1 which frightened every sparrow from its resting-place4 ,after this preliminary ceremonial1 he marshalled his limbs into the most appropriate attitude1 and thrusting one hand behind the exuberant tail of his coat1 he1 with the other1 shot forth his missile at the largest marble opposite to him4 ,his taw faithfully delivered its errand1 and inflicted such a blow upon the paunch of his antagonist1 that although nearly twice the size of its assailant1 like a true bully1 it skulked off1 and retreated several feet beyond the lists2 but1 alas6 the little marble of the vicar1 unlucky wight6 was so stunned by the operation1 that it staggered1 and reeled backwards into the ring1 and thus1 according to the established law of the field1 completed by one act the total defeat of its luckless commander4 8,your marble is left in the ring60 exclaimed ,tom1 with a shout of triumph4 8,i see how it happened10 said ,mr4 ,seymour2 8the vicar struck the marble plump1 or #8played a full ball1' as we say at billiards1 and the result easily admits of explanation4 ,you already know that a marble possesses elasticity2 when1 therefore1 the one in the ring was struck1 it went off with a velocity equal to that with which the striking marble approached it1 while the latter1 in return1 received a blow equal to that it gave1 which destroyed its motion4 ,when we go back into the library1 ,i will exhibit a very pretty experiment in farther elucidation of this philosophical truth407#bf7 ,it was now ,mr4 ,seymour's turn to enter the lists4 ,he carefully applied his knuckles to the ground1 and taking aim at a little marble which he had selected as his victim1 gallantly shot the missile from his thumb and finger2 but1 alas6 alas6 the goddess1 whatever may be her name1 who presides over this species of tournay1 doubtless saw the impending fate of her favourite1 and1 after the example of ,venus1 who turned aside the weapon from neas1 assumed the shape of a small pebble1 and thus arrested the fatal course of the marble1 and gave it a new direction1 which sent it curveting through the ring1 without committing one single act of devastation4 8,bravo6 bravo60 exclaimed ,tom1 8it is now my turn40 ,the boy1 according to the usage of the field1 might at once have won the game by striking his father's marble2 but he was too magnanimous to take such an advantage1 and too eager to display his own skill1 to cut the game short by a manuvre3 he had determined to win his laurels by hard fighting and generalship4 ,he accordingly proceeded to strike a ring marble2 in effecting which he had1 like the vicar1 challenged a gigantic knight as his antagonist2 but1 instead of striking it plump1 he struck its upper quarter1 so that it was rolled out of the ring1 while the striking marble1 imparting only a portion of its momentum1 continued to move forward after the impact4 ,this course was greeted with the acclamations of ,mr4 ,seymour and the vicar1 the latter of whom declared it to have been 8nobly run10 and gallantly accomplished2 and extracting a sixpence from his waistcoat pocket1 exclaimed1 after the manner of chivalry1 8,largesse1 largesse1 glory to the sons of the brave6 glory to the invincible knight of the taw60 ,the boy had not only struck the marble out of the ring1 but he had1 at the same time1 contrived to place his own marble in the most favourable position for his future operations2 and1 indeed1 it may be here observed1 that in this consists the art of playing the game4 ,it is almost unnecessary to add that ,tom won every marble in succession4 ,mr4 ,seymour then proceeded to explain the laws of impact1 by which the movement of each marble was directed4 ,he observed1 that the subject embraced two propositions1 viz4 the direction of the object marble after having been struck1 and that of the striking marble after the stroke4 ,he said that1 if a straight line were drawn between the centres of the striking and object marbles1 it would necessarily pass through their point of contact1 and1 if continued1 would represent the path of the latter after the blow4 ,in order to find the direction of the striking marble after the shock1 he told him that he must imagine a tangent to the path of the object ball drawn from its centre1 and then a line parallel to it1 from the centre of the striking marble2 the latter of which would be the required path4 ,mr4 ,seymour now inquired whether there was any other game of marbles at which they could amuse themselves4 8,the game which we call #8lagging out1'0 replied the boy1 8is amusing enough4 ,it consists in striking your marble against the wall1 and making it rebound1 so as to hit any other marble that is placed at a certain distance from it1 or to come within a span of it40 8,i understand10 said his father1 8and1 like ring-taw1 it may be made subservient to our purpose of illustrating the doctrine of forces2 although ,i think that the principle of reflected motion may be more readily explained by the rebounding ball40 ,mr4 ,seymour here took the elastic ball1 and threw it obliquely against the wall1 from which it rebounded in an opposite and equally oblique direction4 ,he then sketched the annexed figure1 and proceeded as follows3--8,when ,i threw the ball against the wall ,b1 in the direction ,a ,b1 having struck it1 it glanced off1 making an angle1 in its passage back again1 equal to that which it made in its approach to the wall4 ,if ,i draw the perpendicular ,b ,d1 this fact will be rendered more apparent1 and you will perceive that the angle ,a ,b ,d is equal to the angle ,c ,b ,d3 the former is termed the angle of incidence1 the latter the angle of reflection2 and these angles1 remember1 are always equal1 provided the ball under experiment be perfectly elastic40 ,illustration3 ,diagram showing the physics of rebounding4 8,do you mean to say10 asked ,tom1 8that the more obliquely ,i throw the ball against the wall1 the more obliquely it will rebound80 8,exactly2 that is my meaning3 and see whether you cannot explain the fact1 for it depends on the composition and resolution of the forces1 a subject which ,i should hope you thoroughly understand40 ,tom pondered for some time over the drawing1 and at length observed1 that there was one difficulty which he could not immediately surmount4 8,state your difficulty10 said ,mr4 ,seymour4 ,he proceeded to observe1 that the force acting in the direction ,a ,b would certainly be resolved into two others1 viz4 one in the direction ,f ,b1 and another in that of ,d ,b2 8because10 continued he1 8these lines are the adjacent sides of the parallelogram1 of which ,a ,b is the diagonal2 and ,i well know that whenever a force strikes obliquely1 it is thus resolved40 8,that is all very well explained10 replied his father2 8pray proceed40 8,now comes the difficulty10 continued ,tom2 8for the force ,d ,b will of course be destroyed by the wall1 and that represented by ,f ,b1 which is the only one that can remain1 would carry the ball to ,e40 8,it certainly would do so10 answered his father1 8if the ball were perfectly devoid of elasticity2 but remember that1 in consequence of this property1 the force ,d ,b will be exchanged for one in an opposite direction1 ,b ,d40 8,i had entirely overlooked the elasticity10 said ,tom2 8,i now see my way clearly1 for in that case there must be two forces acting in the directions ,b ,d1 ,b ,e1 which will1 of course1 drive the ball down the diagonal ,b ,c40 8,your demonstration is perfectly correct1 my boy2 and ,i think you will now admit that ,i could not have adduced a more beautiful instance of the composition and resolution of forces2 for1 in the first place1 you resolve the diagonal force into two others1 and then you recompound these again to produce another diagonal one40 8,but ,i think you told us that the angles of incidence and reflection were only equal when the rebounding body was perfectly elastic40 ,illustration3 ,diagram showing more physics of rebounding4 8,clearly so2 the force ,d ,b must be exchanged for an equal one ,b ,d1 or else the angle ,a ,b ,d cannot be equal to the angle ,d ,b ,c2 but ,i will render this fact still farther intelligible by another diagram4 ,let ,b1 as in the former case1 represent the wall1 upon which the imperfectly elastic body impinges in the direction ,a ,b4--,the force will of course be resolved into two others1 viz4 into ,d ,b and ,f ,b2 the force ,d ,b1 however1 instead of being replaced by the opposite one ,b ,d1 will now be represented by the shorter line ,b ,g2 or that of ,b ,h or ,b ,i1 according to the degree of elasticity4 ,if we1 therefore1 complete the parallelogram1 ,b ,c1 ,b ,k1 or ,b ,m will be the diagonal path of the body2 making1 as you perceive1 the angle of reflection ,d ,b ,c1 greater than that of incidence ,a ,b ,d2 and where the body is perfectly inelastic1 the force ,d ,b will be wholly destroyed1 and1 the force ,b ,e alone surviving1 the body will be carried along the line ,b ,e4 ,i have now10 continued ,mr4 ,seymour1 8explained to you the principal laws which govern those forces by which your ball or marbles are actuated4 ,it is true that in practice you cannot expect the results should accurately coincide with the theory1 because1 in the first place1 you cannot obtain marbles that are of equal density and elasticity1 and of true figure2 and1 in the next1 there will be obstacles against which it is impossible to guard4 ,the spinning of the marble will also have a material influence on its motion1 as we have already discovered4 ,in the game of billiards1 where every obstacle is removed1 as far as art can assist1 the theory and practice are often strangely discordant4 ,but we have dwelt sufficiently upon the subject2 we will1 therefore1 return to the library1 where ,i intend to exhibit an experiment in farther elucidation of the subject of collision40 ,the party accordingly proceeded on their return4 8,i hope10 said ,mr4 ,seymour1 addressing himself to ,mr4 ,twaddleton1 who was walking a few paces before him1 8that the maiden ladies have not espied their vicar at a game of marbles2 if they should1 what a chuckling would there be at their next tea-party60 8,a fig for the spinsters60 exclaimed the vicar1 as he hastily turned round1 and arrested the progress of the party by his gesture4 8,you really speak1 ,mr4 ,seymour1 as though it were derogatory to my character to descend from the more austere pursuits to the simple but innocent amusements of youth4 ,let me remind you1 sir1 that the ,persian ambassadors found ,agesilaus1 the ,lacedmonian monarch1 riding on a stick40 8,true10 replied ,mr4 ,seymour2 8and the ambassadors found ,henry the ,fourth playing on the carpet with his children2 and it is said1 that ,domitian1 after he had possessed himself of the ,roman empire1 amused himself by catching flies2 but these were kings3 now ,i admit that philosophers are monarchs1 but monarchs are not always philosophers2 you must1 therefore1 produce some less objectionable authority1 if you stand in need of such a sanction4 ,let me see whether ,i cannot assist you2 there was ,socrates1 if tradition speaks truly1 who was partial to the recreation of riding on a wooden horse1 for which1 as ,valerius ,maximus tells us1 his pupil ,alcibiades laughed at him40 8,i care not who laughs at me10 exclaimed the vicar2 8,i enjoy the amusements of youth1 and agree with ,dr4 ,paley1 in regarding the pleasure which they are made to afford1 as a striking instance of the beneficence of the ,deity2 and should you so far relax as to put your plan into execution1 of writing a work upon juvenile sports1 ,i hope you will call upon me to compose a eulogy1 by way of preface40 8,i shall not forget your offer1 depend upon it40 8,did not ,archytas10 resumed the vicar1 8#8,he who would scan the earth1 and ocean's bound1 ,and tell the countless sands that strew the shore1' as ,horace says1 invent the children's rattle8--,toys1 my dear sir1 have served to unbend the wise1 to occupy the idle1 to exercise the sedentary1 to moralize the dissipated10-- 8,and10 interrupted ,mr4 ,seymour1 8to instruct the ignorant40 8,i will also convince you10 continued the vicar1 8that the tournaments were indebted for their origin to the ,troy game 7ludus ,troj71 first introduced into ,italy by young ,ascanius40 ,the foregoing episode having been concluded1 the party proceeded1 without any farther interruption1 to the ,lodge4 ,on their arrival1 ,mr4 ,seymour produced a piece of apparatus1 for the purpose of exhibiting the experiment he had promised1 in illustration of the doctrine of the ,collision of ,elastic ,bodies4 ,illustration3 ,two balls1 labeled ,a and ,b1 hanging by strings from a rod and bouncing against each other4 8,here are two ivory balls10 said he1 8suspended by threads2 ,i shall draw one of them1 ,a1 a little on one side2 now ,i let it go1 it strikes1 you see1 against the other ball1 ,b1 and drives it off to a distance equal to that through which the first ball fell2 but the motion of ,a is stopped1 because1 when it struck ,b1 it received in return a blow equal to that it gave1 and its motion was consequently destroyed4 ,to extend the experiment1 here are six ivory balls hanging in a row2 ,i will draw the first out of the perpendicular1 and let it fall against the second2 see6 see6 none of the balls appear to move except the last1 which you perceive flies off as far as the first ball fell4 ,i should like to hear you explain this40 ,illustration3 ,six balls hanging by strings from a rod and bouncing against each other1 but with only the two balls on the ends moving4 ,tom observed1 that when the first ball struck the second1 it received a blow1 in return1 which destroyed its motion2 and that the second ball1 although it did not appear to move1 must have struck against the third1 the reaction of which set it at rest2 that the action of the third ball must have been destroyed by the reaction of the fourth1 and so on1 until motion was communicated to the last ball1 which not being reacted upon flew off4 ,mr4 ,seymour commended ,tom for his explanation2 but he begged him to understand that such an effect only occurred when the balls were elastic2 and he proceeded to exhibit the difference between elastic and inelastic bodies by another experiment4 8,when you raise one of these inelastic balls1 made of clay1 out of the perpendicular1 and let it fall against the other1 ,e1 the action and reaction not being augmented by the force of elasticity1 are insufficient to destroy the motion of the former2 only part of the motion ,d will1 therefore1 be communicated to ,e1 and the two balls will move together to d e1 which are less distant from the vertical line than the ball ,d was before it fell40 ,illustration3 ,two suspended1 inelastic balls1 labeled ,d and ,e 1 showing positions after ,d collides with ,e ,before we close this chapter1 we cannot resist the pleasure of informing our readers that ,major ,snapwell1 in company with his legal adviser1 had quitted ,overton1 for the purpose of making such preliminary arrangements as the purchase of an estate must necessarily require4 ,it is not our intention to accompany them2 nor shall we travel over the plains of parchment1 nor wade through the rivers of ink1 which separate the confines of verbal agreement and legal possession2 but claiming the prerogative of authors1 we shall dip our wing in the cup of inspiration1 and by a single flourish of our feathered talisman1 at once put the worthy ,major in the undisturbed possession of his newly purchased mansion1 and instal him in one of ,daw's most comfortable elbow-chairs1 surrounded by all the luxuries of polished life4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,illustration3 ,two boys causing havoc by upsetting a washerwoman4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,mr4 ,seymour and his family visit the ,major at ,osterly ,park4--,a controversy between the ,vicar and the ,major4--,the sucker4--,cohesive attraction4--,pressure of the atmosphere4--,meaning of the term suction4--,certain animals attach themselves to rocks by a contrivance analogous to the sucker4--,the limpet4--,the ,walrus4--,locomotive organs of the house-fly4--,a terrible accident4--,a scene in the village1 in which ,dr4 ,doseall figures as a principal performer4--,the ,vicar's sensible remonstrance4--,the density of the atmosphere at different altitudes4--,the pop-gun4--,the air-gun4--,an antiquarian discussion1 in which the ,vicar and ,major ,snapwell greatly distinguish themselves4 ,in the course of the ensuing week ,mr4 and ,mrs4 ,seymour proceeded to offer their congratulations to the new proprietor of ,osterley ,park4 ,on being ushered into the library1 they were not a little surprised and startled by the loud voice of the major1 who1 addressing ,mr4 ,twaddleton1 exclaimed1 8,never will ,i again suspect the antiquity of your rarities1 nor question the rarity of your antiquities40 8,mr4 and ,mrs4 ,seymour10 said the major1 8welcome to ,osterley ,park4 ,you find me1 as usual1 engaged with our friend in a learned controversy1 and ,i begin to fear that my warmth may have offended him40 8,offended me60 exclaimed the vicar1 8oh no4 ,no1 indeed1 my dear ,major ,snapwell2 a difference of opinion on an antiquarian subject may excite my regret1 and in some cases1 as in the present instance1 awaken my pity2 but it cannot offend me2 it can never occasion any feeling like anger3 that would be to visit the folly of others upon myself40 8,what is the subject of your difference1 gentlemen80 asked ,mr4 ,seymour4 8,the evidences of druidical rites1 as deducible from certain cavities to be found in granitic rocks1 and which have received the appellation of rock basins10 replied the major4 8,and of which10 exclaimed ,mr4 ,twaddleton1 8,i have a most unquestionable specimen1 collected by no less a geologist than the curator of the cabinet at ,penzance1 from that ancient metropolis of the druids1 ,carn-bre hill40 8,i admit10 said the major1 8that ,i never before saw so perfect a specimen2 it is as spheroidal internally1 as if it had been actually shaped by a turning-lathe40 8,and yet1 in spite of such evidence10 replied the vicar1 8you question its sacred origin1 and deny its ever having been used as a pool of lustration40 ,mr4 ,seymour here interposed4 8,upon a subject of purely historical difficulty1 ,i might feel diffident in offering myself as an umpire between such learned antiquaries2 but1 as the origin of #8rock basins' involves a geological question1 ,i will venture to deliver an opinion4 ,depend upon it1 vicar1 that you are maintaining a position that cannot be defended2 these uncouth cavities1 together with all the fancied statuary of ,borlase7#bg71 never been shaped by any chisel but the tooth of time1 nor have any artists but the elements been engaged in their formation40 8,what say you to that1 vicar80 triumphantly exclaimed the major4 8,oh1 impiety1 impiety60 cried the vicar2-- 8#8,hostis habet muros1 ruit alto a culmine ,troja1' as ,maro has it4 ,that such glorious monuments1 which have so long braved the tempests1 should fall under the hammer of these ,philistines6 ,geology1 ,mr4 ,seymour1 is infidelity in masquerade2 remember the mites in the ,cheshire cheese1 ,mr4 ,seymour1 #8consider their ways and be wise4'0 8,philistines as we are1 in your opinion10 replied his opponent1 8our forges have served to sharpen your weapons against the attacks of infidelity40 8,come1 come1 gentlemen10 said ,mr4 ,seymour1 8the continuance of this discussion can neither amuse nor instruct us4 ,i have1 however1 some intelligence to communicate which will soothe every feeling of irritation4 ,we have received a letter from ,isabella ,villers1 in answer to an invitation to ,overton1 and she graciously accepts it1 and proposes being with us on ,wednesday next40 ,the major was delighted1 and conversed upon various points connected with the intended union of his nephew with that lady1 which we do not think it necessary to relate in this place4 ,the vicar and major shook hands1 and it was proposed that they should dine at ,overton ,lodge the following day1 and1 as a specific overture1 that the major should visit the vicarage in his way1 and again inspect some of the disputed antiquities of the reverend collector4 ,the following morning was occupied with the consideration of those different toys which are indebted for their operation to the pressure of the atmosphere4 8,tom10 said ,mr4 ,seymour1 8fetch hither your leathern sucker40 8,john is1 at this moment1 amusing himself in the garden with the one which ,i brought with me from school10 replied ,tom4 8,then you shall construct another for yourself4 ,here is leather and string40 8,this leather is too stiff2 but ,i may1 perhaps1 make it answer the purpose by first soaking it40 ,having allowed it to remain in water for a short time1 the leather became sufficiently pliable for his purpose2 he therefore cut it into a circular shape1 and affixed a string through its centre4 ,the juvenile party now hastened to the lawn1 and having once again dipped his newly-constructed sucker into the water1 the ingenious boy placed it upon a stone1 pressed down the leather with his foot1 and succeeded in making it raise the weight4 8,well done1 my boy6 ,now1 then1 explain the reason of the leather's adhesion to the surface1 and of its being thus capable of retaining its hold1 notwithstanding the gravity of the stone40 8,in the first place10 answered ,tom1 8the edges of the wet leather1 from being closely pressed1 stuck with sufficient firmness to the smooth surface of the stone1 to resist the force of the string as ,i pulled it upwards2 the consequence was1 that a hollow was formed in the middle part of the leather2 and1 as that hollow place cannot contain any air1 it is called a vacuum40 8,very well10 replied his father1 8so far you are right2 but you have not informed me in what manner a vacuum acts in preventing the stone from quitting the leather40 8,it makes it adhere to it by some kind of suction1 but ,i confess that ,i do not exactly understand the subject40 8,then let us proceed cautiously and deliberately in the explanation4 ,in the first place1 you have said1 and said correctly1 that the edges of the leather adhere to the stone2 but what is the nature of the power to which this adhesion is to be referred8 ,i perceive you are puzzled by the question3 attend1 then1 to my explanation3 you must know that there exists a tendency in all bodies to adhere together1 provided the contact of their surfaces be sufficiently perfect2 this property is termed cohesion1 or cohesive attraction1 from the ,latin word cohreo1 which ,i need not inform you signifies to stick together4 ,the dry leather will not adhere to a smooth surface1 because1 in that case1 the contact cannot be rendered sufficiently perfect2 but1 when saturated with water1 the interstices of the leather are filled with that fluid1 and the inequalities of the surface1 which must always prevent close contact1 are removed4 ,if two bodies1 when placed together1 be not sufficiently smooth1 or polished1 it will be vain to make any attempt to produce their cohesion2 since the particles will1 in such a state1 touch each other only in a few points2 it is for this reason that carpenters1 when they intend to glue pieces of wood together1 plane the surfaces perfectly smooth1 before they apply the glue40 ,tom here acknowledged that he had not before understood the reason of the leather's adhesion to the stone4 8,having1 then1 settled this point to your satisfaction10 continued ,mr4 ,seymour1 8let us proceed4 ,your idea of a vacuum being formed in the hollow part of the leather is perfectly correct3 for1 as you draw up the central part by the string1 the hollow thus produced must necessarily be a vacuum1 since the air cannot pass through the leather to supply it2 in this state1 therefore1 the atmosphere presses upon the exterior of the leather1 and like any other weight prevents its rising from the stone40 ,fanny and ,louisa here expressed some surprise on hearing of the weight of the atmosphere2 the former observed1 that she did not feel any pressure from it4 ,their father explained the reason of their not being conscious of the weight1 by informing them that their bodies contained air1 which1 by its elasticity1 counteracted the pressure from without2 but that1 if it were possible to remove all the air which the body contained1 the pressure of the atmosphere would not be counteracted2 and the consequence would be1 that we should be flattened like a pancake by its weight1 which had been ascertained by experiment to be equal to fifteen pounds upon every square inch of surface1 or1 as much as forty thousand pounds upon the body of a man of ordinary size4 8,until your explanation10 said ,tom1 8,i really believed that the leather adhered to the stone by some kind of suction1 just as the back of my hand adheres to my lips1 whenever ,i place it to my mouth1 and draw in my breath40 ,mr4 ,seymour here expressed a doubt whether his son was even yet a perfect master of the subject3 he told him that there was no such operation in nature as suction2 that it was merely a popular term to denote the action of the air upon a vacuum4 8,your hand10 said he1 8adheres to your mouth1 in consequence of your forming a vacuum within it1 by forcibly drawing in your breath1 and the resistance which is opposed to its removal arises entirely from the pressure of the atmosphere upon it4 ,many are the effects which may be explained upon a similar principle4 ,i dare say you well remember the astonishment which you expressed at the force with which the limpets attached themselves to the rocks40 8,o yes1 papa10 exclaimed ,louisa1 8,i well remember1 when we walked on the sea-shore1 that1 on first touching the limpets1 they appeared loose and moveable1 but before ,i had time to remove them1 they fastened themselves as firmly as though they had been a part of the rock upon which they were fixed2 how could that happen80 ,mr4 ,seymour replied1 that these sea-insects possessed the power of converting their whole bodies into suckers2 and he informed them1 that many other animals were endowed with a similar faculty4 ,he instanced the claws of the polypus1 which are furnished with many such suckers1 by means of which the animal is enabled to hold to whatever it attaches itself1 with very considerable force4 8,have you never observed10 asked ,mr4 ,seymour1 8the security and ease with which flies frequently walk upon a smooth wall1 or a pane of glass1 or even along the ceiling1 with their bodies downward80 8,to be sure10 replied ,tom2 8but are not their legs provided with some sticky matter1 which enables them to preserve themselves from falling80 8,that is a popular error1 my dear2 the fact is1 that their feet are provided with little cups1 or suckers1 which they alternately exhaust and fill with air2 by which means they are enabled to walk in every position1 over the most slippery surfaces47#bh7 ,in like manner1 the walrus1 or seal1 a painting of which you may remember to have seen in the ,panorama of ,spitzbergen1 is capable of climbing the masses of slippery ice with perfect security40 ,at this moment1 ,tom's stone fell from the sucker4 ,louisa enquired how it could have happened4 8,the circumstance is to be easily explained10 said her father4 8,the atmosphere1 by its pressure1 ultimately forced its way through the edges of the sucker2 its interior1 therefore1 became filled with air1 and it consequently balanced the external weight1 which had before confined it40 8,i think10 said the vicar1 8that ,tom must now surely understand the theory of the leathern sucker2 what say you1 my boy8 ,cannot you exclaim with ,persius1 #8,intus et in cute novi4'0 8,which ,i suppose10 observed ,mr4 ,seymour1 8you would construe1 #8,well do ,i know the nature of the cavity1 and the operation of the leather4'0 8,exactly10 answered the vicar4 8,then never more protest against the vice of punning1 for a more atrocious specimen of the lusus verborum was never sported by the most incorrigible ,johnian3 but1 to your classical fancy1 any object enclosed in a ,latin shrine appears as a deity40 ,the vicar had just drawn up his person into a suitable attitude for combat1 and would1 no doubt1 have defended himself against this unexpected attack with his usual address1 had not a circumstance occurred1 which put an abrupt termination to the discourse4 8,see6 see60 exclaimed ,louisa2 8what can have happened8 ,there is ,jerry ,styles1 with a crowd of villagers1 running towards us in the greatest state of agitation and alarm40 8,jerry ,styles8 ,it is1 indeed1 as you say1 my faithful clerk10 cried the vicar4 8,bless me1--bless me1 what can have happened6 ,is the vicarage on fire8 ,has the old roof at last tumbled into the chancel80 8,oh1 sir6--oh1 my dear sir60 vociferated the terrified servant of the church1 whose blanched cheeks made his red nose appear like a volcano burning amidst a desert of snows1 8poor ,tom ,plank has blown the roof off his house1 and is so dreadfully wounded that it is impossible for him to survive long1 if1 indeed1 he is not already dead40 8,how did it happen80 exclaimed several voices4 8,from a speriment6 a speriment6 it all came from a flossical speriment60 replied the breathless clerk2 8but1 pray1 gentlemen1 come directly to the village2 for mercy's sake1 gentlemen1 don't delay a moment40 ,the vicar and ,mr4 ,seymour instantly proceeded with the terrified ,jerry ,styles towards the house of the unfortunate 8planer of deals20 they had not gone far before they met several other villagers1 who informed them that ,dr4 ,doseall was in attendance upon the wounded man1 and had pronounced him to be in the greatest danger4 ,on their arrival at the house1 the roof of which they at once perceived had not suffered in the fray1 they learned that ,tom ,plank had been engaged in some experiments for producing a vacuum1 in the prosecution of his new scheme of propelling passengers through a funnel2 and that1 in firing a mixture of oxygen and hydrogen gases1 he had neglected the usual precaution1 and blown up his apparatus2 the stop-cock had been unceremoniously expelled through the window1 and1 in its passage1 had ungraciously flown in the face of its master1 and left the traces of its indignation in the form of a very slight scratch upon his forehead2 this accident1 with a burn of the fingers1 was the only personal injury he had sustained4 8,come1 come10 said ,mr4 ,seymour1 8no mischief has occurred1 and the accident will1 ,i trust1 teach you more caution for the future4 ,you are not the first adventurer who has burned his fingers by bubble speculations1 and in vain attempts to raise the wind40 ,dr4 ,doseall1 however1 with a countenance of stern composure1 and a portentous shake of the head1 maintained that the accident was by no means so trifling as ,mr4 ,seymour appeared to suppose2 and1 in conformity with this view of the case1 he had prudently bled his patient largely1 and directed sundry mixtures and lotions1 together with a quantum sufficit of laudanum1 in order1 as he said1 8to keep down the swelling and puffing of the head10 although there were those present who were uncharitable enough to hint1 that the swelling and puffing related rather to the ,doctor's bill and character1 than to the patient's pericranium4 ,after a short interval1 engaged in answering the numerous enquiries of the anxious spectators1 the doctor1 with an air of awful solemnity1 advanced to the sufferer1 and offered him a bolus of no ordinary size2 upon the virtues of which he descanted in most touching language4 8,avaunt60 exclaimed ,mr4 ,seymour1 8do you suppose that ,tom ,plank has the throat of the great dragon which the ,indians believe to swallow the moon1 and thus to produce the phnomena of lunar eclipses8 ,away with thy treacle and pipe-clay2 there cannot be the least pretext for this parade of remedies2 ,i warrant you that ,dame ,nature1 unless she be put out of humour by your officious interference1 will heal the scratch before to-morrow's sunrise40 ,the doctor1 as our readers will readily imagine1 was very justly incensed at this ex-professional interference4 ,his first determination was to treat the matter as a joke1 and to turn the laugh against the unmannerly intruder2 but the abortive smile was strangled in its birth1 and suffused the hue of death over his visage4 ,never did a countenance1 in the focus of his blue window bottle1 by candle-light1 exhibit a more ghastly pallor2 and we can scarcely predict what might have been the consequence1 had he not instantly administered a consoling cordial to his nostrils2 for1 be it known1 that the doctor took snuff in the same extravagant proportion as his patients took physic4 ,having by these means recovered his self-possession1 he instantly seized his cane1 and waving it with as much dignity as ,jove is said to brandish his thunder1 he departed in deep dudgeon1 which was betrayed by a snarl1 not unlike that of a hungry dog who is unexpectedly despoiled of a savory bone1 and by a contortion of the face1 similar to that we have observed in a child who has unfortunately mistaken ,aloes for ,liquorice4 ,no sooner had the man of wrath and phials retreated from the field of blood1 than ,mr4 ,twaddleton advanced to the suffering artist1 deeming the moment of bodily fear as affording a favourable opportunity for an attempt to reclaim him from the error of his ways4 8,tom ,plank10 said he1 in a mild tone1 8hadst thou given ear to the warning voice of thy spiritual pastor1 and1 instead of ridiculing his advice at the sixpenny club1 hadst1 like a true ,christian and worthy parishioner1 given heed unto it1 thou wouldst not1 at this time1 have been placed in such bodily peril4 ,mr4 ,seymour has consoled thee by his opinion2 sincerely shall ,i pray that his judgment may be confirmed by the result1 and that the visitation may have a salutary influence upon thy future conduct4 ,quit the pursuit of these bubbles1 and leave wiser men to investigate the secrets of nature2 let me exhort thee to return to thy craft1 sow where thou canst reap2 we cannot have figs from thorns1 nor grapes from thistles2 remember the proverb1 #8an emmet may work its heart out1 but can never make honey4' ,one word more and ,i have done--suffer not the artist whose profit it is to furnish thee with materials1 to flatter and cajole thee--#8the dog wags his tail1 not for thee1 but for thy bread4'0 ,as the party left the house1 they met ,mrs4 ,seymour1 with ,tom and ,louisa1 whose looks sufficiently testified the anxiety they had suffered4 8,is it all over8 ,is he dead80 asked ,mrs4 ,seymour4 8,no1 no2 he is quite safe2 it was an extremely slight accident1 although ,doseall wished us to believe that it was likely to terminate in some dreadful manner4 ,the vicar thinks that it may prove the means of driving science out of ,tom ,plank's head1 and ,i intend to make it subservient to driving it still farther into ours40 8,what do you mean80 cried ,tom4 8,i mean that it was an extremely apposite accident for illustrating the subject upon which we were engaged at the moment of interruption40 8,this is the second accident then10 observed ,louisa1 8that will have served us in our scientific studies4 ,what a philosopher10 continued she1 8must ,dr4 ,doseall become1 if he profit by every accident he witnesses60 8,knowledge1 my dear girl1 is not promoted by the opportunity of seeing1 but by the faculty of skilfully observing1 and reflecting upon what we see2 were it otherwise1 the merit of a traveller might be at once estimated by the number of shoes he had worn out4 ,whenever1 therefore1 you hear of a discovery having been made by accident1 do not1 on that account1 depreciate the merits of its author4 ,it is certainly true1 that many an important truth has been brought to light from some casual observation7#bi71 but the dexterity with which such observation was applied constitutes the merit of the discoverer4 ,well1 but to show in what manner the accident of ,tom ,plank bears upon the subject under discussion3--,he had ignorantly fired a quantity of oxygen and hydrogen gases in a tin vessel2 the consequence of the combustion was the immediate formation of a vacuum3 and what happened8 ,why1 the pressure of the external air1 not being any longer balanced by elastic matter in the interior of the apparatus1 crushed it with violence1 as any other enormous weight might have done2 and so ended the accident1 which report magnified into a most awful catastrophe40 ,as the party proceeded on their way home1 they continued to discourse on the subject of the air's pressure4 8,if the atmosphere exerts so enormous a pressure1 and has so much weight10 observed ,louisa1 8it is strange that it should not fall down on the earth40 ,mr4 ,seymour replied1 8that the air was a peculiar fluid1 which1 from its elastic properties1 was distinguished by the term of an elastic fluid1 the particles of which were too far distant from each other to exert any cohesive attraction amongst themselves40 8,but ,i suppose10 said ,tom1 8that it gravitates1 or is attracted by the earth2 what then can be the reason1 as ,louisa says1 that it does not fall1 like any other body1 to the ground80 8,and so it actually does10 replied ,mr4 ,seymour4 8,the lower stratum of the atmosphere rests upon the ground1 but the strata above it do not fall1 because they are supported by the particles beneath them1 in the same manner as the water at the surface of a basin is supported by that at the bottom3 the only difference in these two cases arises from the one being an elastic1 and the other an inelastic fluid2 so that the air after compression resumes its original dimensions2 and since the atmosphere1 by the action of gravity1 is always in a state of compression1 so is it always endeavouring to expand itself40 8,if1 then1 the force of gravity were diminished10 observed ,louisa1 8the air would become much lighter1 and ,i suppose that is the true reason of its being so much less dense in the upper regions40 8,scarcely10 replied her father4 8,have you forgotten the explanation#cf which ,i lately gave you1 of the diminution in the weight of bodies at a distance from the earth's surface80 8,i recollect it perfectly10 exclaimed ,tom2 8and it explained to us the reason that a marble fell from the top of a house1 and from the ball of ,st4 ,paul's with the same velocity40 8,and yet ,i am quite sure10 said ,louisa1 8that ,i have lately read an account of the air being so extremely light upon the top of a high mountain as to affect the breath and occasion great uneasiness40 8,i do not deny the fact1 my dear2 ,i only question your explanation of its cause4 ,can it not1 think you1 be accounted for upon some other principle than that of the diminished force of gravity80 ,louisa was unable to suggest any other probable reason4 8,the fact1 then10 said her father1 8is simply this2 since the air is elastic1 or capable of yielding to pressure1 so1 of course1 the lower parts must be more dense1 or in a greater state of compression than those which are above them4 ,in a pile of fleeces of wool1 are not the lower fleeces pressed together by the weight of the superior ones1 and do they not lie light and loose1 in proportion as they approach the uppermost fleece1 which receives no external pressure1 and is confined merely by the force of its own gravity80 8,clearly10 said ,louisa4 8,well then1 we will suppose1 for example1 that the whole column of the atmosphere were divided into a hundred parts1 and that each of these parts weighed an ounce2 would not the earth1 and all things on its surface1 be1 in such a case1 pressed upon with the whole hundred ounces80 8,no one can deny that10 said ,tom4 8,the lowest stratum of air10 continued ,mr4 ,seymour1 8would be pressed upon by the ninety-nine ounces above it2 the next by ninety-eight2 and so on1 until we arrived at the ninety-ninth stratum from the bottom1 which would1 of course1 be subjected to no more than one ounce of pressure1 or to the weight of the last and highest stratum40 ,the children were perfectly satisfied with this simple explanation2 and ,tom enquired whether1 for the same reason1 the water at the bottom of the sea must not be very dense1 and unlike that we are accustomed to observe on the surface3 his father1 however1 corrected this notion1 by stating that water1 not being1 like air1 elastic and compressible1 would not suffer any material diminution in volume1 although pressed even by the enormous weight of the superincumbent ocean47#cj7 8,i have before alluded to the relative compressibility of air and water1 and the present appears a good opportunity for proving the fact by an amusing experiment4 ,see6 here are the #8,bottle ,imps1' vicar1 which you may remember ,i promised to introduce to your respectful notice10 said ,mr4 ,seymour4 8,in this jar of water1 carefully closed1 as you may perceive1 by parchment1 are two little enamelled figures1 which shall be made to rise and fall1 by alternately pressing upon and removing the hand from the cover3 thus40 ,illustration3 ,two devil-like figures within an upturned bottle bouncing about4 8,why1 the spirit of ,simon ,magus must surely possess thee60 exclaimed the vicar4 ,the children1 as may be readily imagined1 were much astonished at so singular an effect1 and expressed much anxiety to be informed by what mechanism it was produced4 ,their father accordingly proceeded with the following explanation4 8,i have here10 said he1 8a figure exactly similar to those in the bottle1 which we will now examine4 ,you will observe1 that in its centre there is a cavity terminating in a small orifice in the lower part2 this cavity may be made to contain any quantity of air1 so as to give the required buoyancy to the figure3 now mark6--,i press my hand upon the parchment cover1 and the figure1 you perceive1 descends2 ,i now remove the pressure1 and see1 it immediately reascends4 ,the water in the bottle1 as ,i have told you1 is incompressible2 when1 therefore1 ,i press upon the surface1 it rises into the interior of the figure1 and1 consequently1 by compressing the air into a less space1 renders it less buoyant2 but no sooner is the hand removed1 than the enclosed air resumes its former volume1 and expels the intruding water2 in consequence of which the figure regains its former lightness1 and reascends4 ,do you understand me80 asked ,mr4 ,seymour4 8,perfectly10 said ,tom1 8and many thanks for the explanation20 and in this opinion did the whole party concur4 8,well1 then10 continued ,mr4 ,seymour1 8you will now understand the use of the air-bladder in fish1 for it is constructed upon a precisely similar principle4 ,when the fish desires to descend1 it presses upon the bladder by means of its muscles1 and thus condenses the included air into a smaller volume40#cg 8,i now also perceive why the water at the bottom of the sea cannot be much more dense than that on the surface2 but1 if we could dig a pit to the centre of the earth1 the air1 in that case1 would be highly dense1 because1 unlike water1 it is compressible10 said ,tom4 8,the density of the air10 replied his father1 8would1 undoubtedly1 materially increase as we descended4 ,it has been calculated that1 at the distance of thirty miles below the surface1 the air would have the same density as water2 and1 at the depth of forty-two miles1 that of quicksilver2 while1 at the centre1 it would be more solid than any substance of which we have any idea1 for its density would be thousands of millions of times greater than that of mercury40 ,mr4 ,seymour then informed his young pupils1 that after the lesson they had just received1 they would never again be puzzled by the motions of the barometer1 which had so often excited their wonder4 8,as the quicksilver is contained in a closed tube1 ,i do not exactly understand how the air can act upon it2 and if the tube were not closed1 it would of course run out from its weight10 observed ,louisa4 8,you are altogether in error10 said her father4 8,in the first place10 he continued1 8,i will show you that the bulb at the lower extremity of the tube is open1 in order that the quicksilver may freely communicate with the atmosphere1 upon which1 indeed1 its action entirely depends2 while the upper space is a perfect vacuum1 so as to obviate any counteracting pressure4 ,as to the quicksilver running out1 have you so soon forgotten that the air presses upon every body on the surface of the earth1 in the proportion of about fifteen pounds upon every square inch8 ,now it is from this circumstance that the column of quicksilver is sustained in the tube1 the ascent and descent of which thus indicates the varying pressure of the atmosphere2 so that1 when the barometer falls1 we know the air presses less heavily upon the earth1 and the contrary when it rises40 8,that ,i understand3 but what can cause the pressure of the air to vary at different times80 asked ,tom4 8,cannot you imagine the atmosphere to be an airy ocean1 and to be therefore thrown into enormous waves1 so that we may sometimes have a longer column of air above us than at other times2 this is one explanation1 there may be other causes not so intelligible10 answered ,mr4 ,seymour4 8,but enough of this for the present4 ,now1 before we quit the subject of the air's elasticity1 let us consider the philosophy of the pop-gun2 an amusement with which1 ,i have no doubt1 you are well acquainted40 8,indeed ,i am1 papa2 but do you allude to the quill1 or to the wooden pop-gun80 8,the principle in both is the same2 tell me1 therefore1 the origin and nature of the force which enables you to shoot your pellet to so considerable a distance40 8,it depends upon the action of the air10 replied ,tom4 8,undoubtedly3 but your answer is too general2 ,i wished you to state1 in precise terms1 the changes which the air undergoes upon this occasion4 ,you first ram in your pellet to the further end of the tube1 do you not80 8,to be sure2 and then ,i drive in a second pellet1 and on forcing this forward1 the first flies out with prodigious force40 8,very well3 now examine what takes place2 on propelling forward your second pellet1 you condense the air which is enclosed between the two1 until its elastic force becomes so great as to overcome the friction of the first pellet2 thus released1 the air expands with considerable force1 and imparts a rapid motion to the pellet40 8,i have frequently heard of the air-gun10 said ,louisa2 8,i suppose it depends upon a similar principle40 8,it does2 and it affords a very striking example of the surprising force which air is capable of exerting1 when condensed to a considerable degree2 for1 by means of this instrument1 bullets may be propelled with a force very nearly equal to that of gunpowder40 8,it is a curious fact10 observed the vicar1 8that although the air-pump is a modern invention1 yet the air-gun1 which is so nearly allied to it in the construction of its valves and condensing syringe1 should have existed long antecedent to it2 for it is recorded that an air-gun was made for ,henry ,,iv4 by ,marin1 of ,lisieux1 in ,normandy1 as early as #adjh2 and another was preserved in the armoury at ,schmetau1 bearing the date of #adgd40 8,but the air-gun of the present day10 said ,mr4 ,seymour1 8is very different from that which was formerly made1 and which1 like the pop-gun1 discharged but one bullet1 and that after a long and tedious process of condensation1 while it is now made to discharge five or six without any visible variation of force1 and will even act upon a dozen1 but with less effect40 8,i feel very curious to learn something more about this air-gun10 said ,tom4 8,there is a reservoir for the condensed air10 replied ,mr4 ,seymour1 8which is secured by a nicely constructed valve1 and which is made to open by pulling the trigger of the gun1 so that a portion only of the air is disengaged1 which1 rushing into the barrel1 gives motion to the ball40 8,but how is the condensed air introduced into the reservoir80 asked ,tom4 8,by means of a condensing syringe10 replied his father2 8but ,i will take an opportunity of exhibiting the instrument in operation40 ,the reader will be pleased to recollect that the major agreed to pay a passing visit to the vicarage2 it now becomes our duty to record what happened upon that memorable occasion2 and we1 perhaps1 cannot better represent the nature of the discussion that took place than by relating the account as it was given by the belligerent parties themselves in conversation with ,mr4 ,seymour4 8,well1 gentlemen10 said ,mr4 ,seymour1 8is it peace or war8 ,i trust you have amicably adjusted all your differences40 8,upon my word10 answered the vicar1 8,i have just reason to complain of the major's unjustifiable scepticism upon points that are perfectly unquestionable40 8,you continue then to smart under the major's stinging criticisms1 #8majore sub hoste4' ,there is a ,latin pun for your consolation10 said ,mr4 ,seymour4 8,the vicar alludes1 ,i suppose10 said the major1 8to the doubt ,i expressed respecting the authenticity of his leathern money80 8,that is one of the many subjects upon which1 ,i must say1 you have betrayed a deficiency in historical knowledge4 ,seneca informs us that there was anciently stamped money of leather2 and the same thing was put in practice by ,frederick ,,ii4 at the siege of ,milan2 to say nothing of an old tradition amongst ourselves1 that1 in the confused times of the barons' wars1 the same expedient was practised in ,england40 8,you strangely mistake me10 replied the major2 8,i never questioned the truth of these historical statements2 ,i know full well that numerous substances have1 at different times1 and in different countries1 been adopted in exchange1 as conventional representatives of property4 ,i have already stated that cattle were employed as the earliest measure of value 7#ca74 ,we find1 for instance1 in ,homer1 that the golden armour of ,glaucus was valued at a hundred1 and that of ,diomedes1 at ten oxen4 ,among the ,indians1 cowries1 or small shells1 are used2 and the ,abyssinians employ salt1 bricks1 and beads for this very purpose2 the ancient ,britons are said to have circulated iron rings as money4 ,the ,hollanders1 we know1 coined great quantities of pasteboard in the year #aged2 and ,numa ,pompilius certainly made money both of wood and leather40 8,and yet you doubt the authenticity of my leathern money1 which ,i am fully persuaded was coined in #acfj1 by ,john1 king of ,france1 who1 having agreed to pay our ,edward the ,third the sum of #c1jjj1jjj golden crowns for his ransom1 was so reduced as to be compelled to a coinage of leather for the discharge of his household expenses40 8,i have only questioned the authenticity of that specimen which ,i saw in your cabinet10 replied the major3 8and so must any person who views it through a medium unclouded by prejudice4 ,i will stake my whole library to a horn-book1 that our friend ,mr4 ,seymour will agree with me in pronouncing it a fragment of the heel of an old shoe3 let him observe the perforation1 and say1 if he can1 that it has not been produced by a nail or peg4 ,but really1 my dear ,mr4 ,twaddleton1 you have forced me1 much against my inclination1 into this controversy40 8,very good1 sir6 very good6 the heel of an old shoe1 forsooth6 ,but ,i thank you1 ,major ,snapwell10 exclaimed the vicar with some warmth2 8,i thank you1 sir4 ,your assertion1 while it evinces your own want of historical information1 establishes1 beyond doubt1 the authenticity of my treasure1 and the triumph of my opinion40 8,assuredly10 said ,mr4 ,seymour1 with a wicked smile2 8,i dare say there may be numerous holes in this leathern coin2 for many have been the antiquaries who have1 doubtless1 pinned their faith upon it40 8,psha1 psha60 cried the vicar2 8for once1 at least1 ,mr4 ,seymour1 let me entreat you to be serious2 the subject1 sir1 is important1 and merits your respect4 ,it is from that very hole that ,i am enabled to identify the coin3 yes1 major1 from that very hole1 which you affect to despise1 ,i am enabled to derive its principal claim to antiquity4 ,are we not expressly informed1 that the leathern money of ,john of ,france had a little nail of silver driven into it80 8,well1 then10 continued the major1 8what say you to that tell-tale stitch1 which ,i so unfortunately picked out with my penknife80 8,admirable ingenuity6 most refined sophistry6 provoking perversion60 exclaimed the vicar4 8,it is really amusing to observe the address with which the prejudiced observer distorts every fact to his own advantage4 ,why1 bless me1 sir1 that stitch is strong enough to drag fifty such opponents out of the slough of unbelief40 8,do explain yourself10 said ,mr4 ,seymour4 8,explain myself6 the stitch speaks for itself1 sir4 ,were not these leathern coins strung together in different numbers1 to facilitate payments8 ,for1 you will admit1 that it would have been extremely inconvenient to have coined single pieces of leather1 of different denominations4 ,but stop1 sir1 stop2 look at this1 look at it1 major1 with care and attention4 ,that10 said the vicar1 as he drew a small coin out of his waistcoat pocket with an air of imperturbable gravity and self-satisfaction1 8is a current halfpenny1 in lead1 of ,james ,,ii2 and if your eyes are not hoodwinked by prejudice1 you may probably perceive a piece of copper in its centre1 which1 we are told1 was thus introduced for the purpose of rendering the currency lawful40 ,the dinner was announced before the conclusion of the discussion2 and as the reader will probably agree with us in thinking that a question of such grave historical importance ought not to be decided without due care and deliberation1 we shall afford the disputants a reasonable time for reflection1 and put an end to the chapter4 ----- ,footnote #cf3 ,see page #bh4 ,footnote #cg3 ,in the cod-fish the air bladder is familiarly called the sound4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,illustration3 ,two boys blowing bubbles from tobacco-pipes4 ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,the ,soap-,bubble4--,the ,squirt4--,the ,bellows2 ,an ,explanation of their several parts4--,by whom the instrument was invented4--,the sucking and lifting1 or common ,pump4 8,tom10 said his father1 8bring me a saucer with some hot water2 a piece of soap1 and a tobacco-pipe4 ,i have promised to teach ,john the art of blowing soap-bubbles40 ,tom immediately proceeded to execute his commission1 and shortly rejoined the party on the lawn1 bringing with him all the necessary implements for bubble-blowing4 ,john1 under the direction of his brother1 made the lather2 and ,mr4 ,seymour1 turning towards the elder children1 asked them whether they understood the philosophy of the operation they had just witnessed2 they were1 however1 unable to return a satisfactory answer1 and their father1 therefore1 proceeded as follows3-- 8,most liquids1 by agitation1 exhibit the appearance of froth1 in consequence of the escape of the air in small bubbles1 which had been forced into them by the operation4 ,if1 however1 the liquid be viscid and tenacious1 like soap and water1 the air is1 as it were1 imprisoned in the mass1 producing the appearance which is commonly called lather40 ,louisa here enquired 8,whether the air did not escape with more or less readiness1 according to the degree of resistance it met with in the liquid80 8,i thank you10 said ,mr4 ,seymour1 8for having so kindly assisted me in the explanation40 ,louisa smiled at this mark of her father's approbation1 and ,mr4 ,seymour proceeded1--8,it is on that very account1 that spirit1 after it has been shaken1 so soon regains its transparency3 for1 in consequence of the superior lightness of that fluid1 and the little cohesion which subsists between its particles1 the air makes a rapid escape4 ,in like manner we may account for the spongy appearance which gives such superiority to our bread2 in that case1 the air disengaged during the fermentation of the dough cannot escape through so viscid a mass2 it therefore remains1 and thus produces the eyes or bubbles1 which you may always observe in every well-baked loaf40 8,see1 papa10 exclaimed ,tom1 8the bubbles which ,john has blown in the lather1 are not round1 but angular figures--they appear to be like the hexagons which we used to cut out for our papyro-plastics40 8,they are certainly hexagonal10 replied ,mr4 ,seymour2 8and the form arises from the pressure of the bubbles upon each other4 ,the same appearance is to be seen in the pith of vegetables1 when examined by the microscope1 and is the result of the general reaction of the solid parts upon each other3 but let us proceed to blow some bubbles4 ,plunge the bowl of the tobacco-pipe into the lather40 ,tom obeyed his father's directions1 and blowing through the stem produced a bubble4 8,see6 see60 cried ,louisa1 8what a beautiful bubble6 but there is a quantity of soap hanging to its under part40 8,i will take it off with my finger10 said ,mr4 ,seymour4 8,there it goes60 exclaimed ,tom4 8,what beautiful colours it displays6 as bright and gaudy as those of the rainbow60 observed his sister4 8,it has burst60 cried ,louisa4 8,ah6 my dear children10 murmured the vicar1 with an air of pensive gravity1 8#8,tenues secessit in auras1' as the poet has it4 ,even thus is it with all the full-blown bubbles of our fancy1 raised by the breath of hope2 the moment they appear most vivid and promising to our imagination1 they vanish #8into air1 into thin air1' like the gaudy and unsubstantial soap-bubble you have just witnessed3 but proceed to blow another40 8,there is one60 exclaimed ,louisa2--8see1 it is of an oblong shape1 like an egg6--there it goes6--but ,i declare it is now perfectly round66--what can be the reason of its changing its figure80 8,i am glad you have asked that question1 because my answer will serve to illustrate an important property of air1 and which1 indeed1 is common to all fluids4 ,while the upper part of the bubble was attached to the bowl of the pipe1 its gravity being resisted1 drew it into an elliptical form2 but the instant it was detached1 the contained air pressed equally in all directions1 and the bubble1 in consequence1 became a perfect sphere40#ch 8,i do not exactly understand what you mean #8by pressing equally in all directions4'0 8,the expression is surely sufficiently intelligible4 ,did you not learn in our conversation of yesterday1 that air has weight1 and exerts a pressure as much upwards as downwards and laterally8 ,were this not the case1 how could the air in the interior of our bodies counteract the pressure of the atmosphere8 ,the form of the bubble proves the same fact in a different way2 for1 had the air in its cavity pressed more in any one direction than in another1 the bubble could not have been round1 or1 to speak more correctly1 a sphere40 8,what are you musing about80 cried the vicar1 who had observed the attention of the boy riveted upon the bowl of the tobacco-pipe3 8,i am sure1 from your countenance1 that some circumstance is puzzling you40 8,you are right1 my dear sir2 ,i was just then thinking how it can possibly happen1 that the bubble should not have a hole in its upper part2 for1 while ,i am blowing it up1 there must1 of course1 be a communication between my mouth and its interior1 or else how could the air pass into it80 8,true10 said his father2 8but the act of throwing it off from the bowl of the pipe will unite this breach2 for there exists a strong cohesive attraction between the attenuated particles of the lather2 you will1 therefore1 perceive that1 on this account1 the bubble will be more readily and securely separated by a lateral than a perpendicular motion of the pipe40 8,i wish10 said ,tom1 8that ,i could discover some method of preventing their bursting so soon1 for there is scarcely time to examine them before they vanish4 ,what can be the cause of their short duration80 8,consider1 my dear boy1 the frailty of their structure1 and ,i think that the precarious tenure of their existence will cease to astonish you2 indeed1 the wonder is1 that they should endure so long4 ,the film of which they consist is inconceivably thin1#ci so that the slightest impulse will be apt to rupture them2 besides which1 there must be a considerable evaporation going on from their surface1 while the contraction of the contained air1 from change of temperature1 must also tend to limit their duration4 ,you must likewise remember that the soap-lather will have a tendency to gravitate towards the depending part of the bubble1 and1 consequently1 by quitting the upper portion1 to render it of still greater tenuity4 ,this last effect might1 perhaps1 be obviated1 in some measure1 by giving a rotatory motion to the bubble around its axis2 but this1 again1 would accelerate the evaporation3 which1 after all1 is the principal cause of the shortness of its duration2 so that1 unless this latter effect could be remedied1 ,i despair of suggesting any expedient by which the frail existence of our airy structure could be protracted4 ,you must1 therefore1 seek1 from a succession of bubbles1 the prolongation of an amusement which no single one can afford you40 8,and could not the evaporation be prevented80 asked ,tom4 8,if the bubble were blown in a glass vessel1 and the latter immediately closed after the operation1 it would remain for some time2 ,i remember having once preserved a bubble in this manner for a very considerable period40 ,tom1 however1 did not appear to relish this scheme2 as1 he said1 the great sport arose from watching the movements of the floating bubble2 the boy1 accordingly1 determined to pursue the amusement in the usual manner4 ,his father1 however1 observed1 that by mixing a solution of isinglass with the soap lather1 larger1 as well as more lasting bubbles might be blown2 and ,tom accordingly determined to make the experiment4 ,during this dialogue1 little ,john had succeeded1 for the first time1 in launching the airy bauble4 ,imagination always tinges the objects of our first efforts with brilliant tints3 no wonder1 therefore1 that ,john1 with a shout of ecstasy1 should have pronounced it to have been the most beautiful bubble he had ever seen3 in truth1 the sun was shining brightly1 and the colours thus produced very justly excited the admiration of all present4 8,i cannot understand the cause of these beautiful colours10 said ,louisa4 ,mr4 ,seymour expressed a fear that1 in their present state of knowledge1 they would be scarcely able to understand the explanation he should afford them4 8,but10 said he1 8,i believe you know that a ray of light is divisible into seven colours1 and that when it passes through certain media1 or is reflected from certain surfaces1 this division is effected1 and the various colours produced7#cb74 ,the film of the soap bubble is one amongst the latter bodies2 but ,i must refer you1 for farther information upon this subject1 to ,mrs4 ,marcet's beautiful account of #8,refraction and ,colours4'0 8,now1 ,tom10 said his father1 8fetch your squirt1 for we have not yet finished our enquiry into the effects of the air's pressure40 ,the squirt was produced2 but it was out of repair3 for1 on attempting to fill it with water1 the instrument entirely failed in the performance of its office4 8,i see the defect10 said ,mr4 ,seymour1 8which a little string will easily remedy40 ,a piece of string was instantly produced from that universal depot1 the breeches pocket of a school-boy4 ,mr4 ,seymour said he should bind a portion of it around the end of the piston4 8,what do you mean by the piston80 enquired ,tom4 8,the rod which moves up and down in the cylinder1 or tube2 and1 unless its end fit so exactly as to prevent the admission of air1 it is clear that the squirt cannot draw any water4 ,it was for the purpose of making this part fit tightly that ,i wanted the string1 and you will now perceive that the instrument is ready for use3--fetch me a vessel of water40 ,tom soon produced the water1 and1 on placing it on the ground1 requested that he might be allowed to fill the squirt4 ,this he accordingly effected without difficulty1 and1 on pressing down the handle1 he projected a stream of water to a considerable distance4 8,i perceive10 said ,tom1 8that the stream describes a curve1 like my ball40 8,to be sure2 it is under the joint influence of the same forces1 viz4 that of projection and of gravity4 ,but explain the operation of the squirt40 8,as soon as ,i raised the piston1 an empty space was left in the lower part of the cylinder1 which ,i suppose would have remained as a vacuum1 had not the water rushed into it40 8,and why did the water rush into it80 ,tom hesitated4 8,was it not1 think you1 owing to the pressure of the atmosphere upon the surface of the water8 ,when you raised the piston1 the air above it was also raised1 and ultimately driven out by the force of the ascending piston2 and since the air could not find any entrance from below as long as the point was under the water1 the interior of the squirt would necessarily have remained quite empty1 or have been a vacuum1 had it not been for the weight of the atmosphere1 which1 not having any counteracting pressure1 drove the water into the tube1 and thus filled it2 and which1 by pressing down the piston1 you again expelled with considerable force40 8,your explanation10 cried ,louisa1 8is so clear and intelligible1 that ,i feel quite confident ,i could now explain any machine that owes its action to the exhaustion of the air1 and the pressure of the atmosphere40 8,if that be your belief10 said ,mr4 ,seymour1 8,i will not lose a moment in putting your knowledge to the test4--,tom1 do you run into the house1 and fetch hither the kitchen bellows40 ,the bellows were produced1 and ,louisa having been desired by her father to explain the manner in which they received and expelled the air1 proceeded as follows3 8,upon raising the upper from the under board1 the interior space of the bellows is necessarily increased1 and immediately supplied with an additional quantity of air1 which is driven into it by the pressure of the atmosphere2 when1 by pressing down the upper board1 it is again expelled through the iron tube or nosle40 8,to be sure10 said ,tom1 8in the same manner that the water was expelled from my squirt1 when ,i pushed down the handle40 8,so far you are quite correct10 said ,mr4 ,seymour2 8but you have not yet told us the use of the hole in the under-board1 and which is covered1 as you perceive1 with a movable flap of leather3 it is termed a valve1 or #8wind-clap4'0 8,that10 replied ,tom1 8is for the purpose of admitting the air1 when we raise up the board40 8,exactly so2 and also to prevent the air from passing out again1 when you press it down4 ,i wish to direct your attention particularly to this contrivance1 because1 simple as it may appear1 its action will teach you the general nature of a valve4 ,without it1 the operation of filling the bellows with air would have been so tedious as to have destroyed the utility of the instrument2 for the air could1 in that case1 have only found admission through the nosle1 and that1 again1 would have been attended with the additional disadvantage of drawing smoke and other matter into its cavity2 when1 however1 you raise up the board1 the air1 by its external pressure1 opens the wind-clap inwards1 and thus finds an easy entrance for itself2 and when you press the board downwards1 the air1 thus condensed1 completely shuts the valve1 and its return through that avenue being prevented1 it rushes out through the tube40 ,the children were much pleased with the simplicity of this invention1 and ,tom enquired of the vicar who first thought of it4 8,we are informed by ,strabo10 replied ,mr4 ,twaddleton1 8that ,anacharsis1 the ,scythian philosopher1 who lived in the time of ,solon1 about six hundred years before ,christ1 invented the bellows1 as well as the anchor1 and potter's wheel2 but10 he added1 8there is some reason to doubt the truth of this statement4 ,the bellows1 however1 were certainly known to the ,greeks2 and the great poet ,virgil alludes to them in his fourth ,georgic3#dj ----#8,alii taurinis follibus auras ,accipiunt redduntque4'0 ,mr4 ,seymour now proposed that they should proceed to consider the structure and operation of the pump4 8,i suppose10 said ,louisa1 8that the pump raises water in the same manner as the squirt40 8,exactly upon the same principle10 replied her father2 8but the machinery is a little more complicated1 since its object is not to force the water out of the pump at the same end of the pipe at which we draw it in4 ,we will1 however1 proceed to the stableyard1 and examine the pump2 and do you1 ,tom1 provide a piece of chalk1 in order that ,i may make a sketch of some of its principal parts40 ,the party immediately proceeded2 and1 as they walked along1 ,mr4 ,seymour desired the children to remember that the weight of the atmosphere was estimated as being equal to that of fifteen pounds upon every square inch of surface2 and that the moment the water arrived at such a height as to balance that pressure1 it could ascend no higher3 he added1 that the altitude at which such a balance took place was about #cb or #cc feet above the surface4 8,if that be the case10 said ,louisa1 8the pump1 of course1 can never raise water from any well of greater depth than that which you state40 8,not without some additional contrivance1 which ,i shall afterwards explain to you10 replied ,mr4 ,seymour4 ,the party had1 by this time1 arrived at the pump2 its door was opened1 and as much of the apparatus exhibited as could be conveniently exposed4 ,mr4 ,seymour then chalked the annexed sketch upon the stable door4 ,illustration3 ,diagram of a water-pump's mechanism4 8,is that a pump80 asked ,tom3 8,i should certainly never have guessed what you intended to represent40 8,it is not a perspective drawing1 my dear1 but a representation of the different parts as they would appear1 were it possible to cut the pump in halves1 from top to bottom1 without disturbing any of its arrangements4 ,a drawing of this kind1 which is frequently used for the sake of explanation1 is termed a section40 ,mr4 ,seymour here took an apple from his pocket1 and having cut it in two1 observed that the surfaces thus exposed presented sections of the fruit4 ,this illustration was understood by all present1 and ,mr4 ,seymour continued1 8,i have here1 then1 a section of the common household pump4 ,a ,b is the cylinder or barrel2 ,p the air-tight piston which moves or works within it1 by means of the rod2 ,q is the #8suction1' or #8feeding pipe1' descending into a well1 or any other reservoir2 ,s the valve1 or little door1 at the bottom of the barrel1 covering the top of the feeding pipe2 and there is a similar valve in the piston1 both of which1 opening upwards1 admit the water to rise through them1 but prevent its returning4 ,as this part of the apparatus is no less ingenious than it is important1 ,i will sketch the valve1 or clack1 as it is termed by the engineer1 on a larger scale40 ,their father then chalked the annexed figure2 from which its construction was rendered perfectly intelligible to the children4 ,illustration3 ,open valve4 ,mr4 ,seymour proceeded3 8,when the pump is in a state of inaction1 the two valves are closed by their own weight2 but1 on drawing up the piston ,p1 from the bottom to the top of the barrel1 the column of air1 which rested upon it1 is raised1 and a vacuum is produced between the piston and the lower valve1 ,s2 the air beneath this valve1 which is immediately over the surface of the water1 consequently expands1 and forces its way through it2 the water then ascends into the pump4 ,a few strokes of the handle totally exclude the air from the body of the pump1 and fill it with water3 which1 having passed through both valves1 runs out at the spout40 8,i understand how water may be thus raised to the elevation of #cb feet1 but ,i have yet to learn the manner in which it can be raised above that distance10 said ,louisa4 8,it is undoubtedly true that1 if the distance from the surface of the water to the valve in the piston exceed #cb feet1 water can never be forced into the barrel2 but you will readily perceive that1 when once the water has passed the piston valve1 it is no longer the pressure of the air which causes it to ascend2 after that period1 it is raised by lifting it up1 as you would raise it in a bucket1 of which the piston formed the bottom2 and water1 having been so raised1 cannot fall back again1 in consequence of the valve1 which is kept closed by its pressure4 ,all1 therefore1 that is necessary1 is to keep the working barrel within the limits of atmospheric pressure2 we have then only to fix a continued straight pipe to the top of the barrel1 and to lengthen the piston rod in the same proportion1 and the water will continue to rise at each successive stroke of the pump1 until at length it will flow over the top of the pipe1 or through a spout inserted in any part of its side4 ,the common pump1 therefore1 is properly called the sucking and lifting pump40 ,the party expressed themselves fully satisfied2 and ,tom enquired who invented the machine4 8,it is an instrument of great antiquity10 replied his father3 8its invention is generally ascribed to ,ctesebes of ,alexandria1 who lived about #abj years before ,christ2 but the principle of its action was not understood for ages after its invention4 ,the ancients entertained a belief that #8,nature abhorred a vacuum2' and they imagined that1 when the piston ascended1 the water immediately rushed forward to prevent the occurrence of this much dreaded vacuum4 ,in the seventeenth century a pump was constructed at ,florence1 by which it was attempted to raise water from a well to a very considerable altitude1 but it was found that no exertion of this machine could be made to raise it above #cb feet from its level4 ,this unexpected embarrassment greatly puzzled the engineer1 until ,galileo suggested that the pressure on the water below must cause its ascent into the pump1 and that1 according to this theory1 when it had risen #cb feet1 its pressure became equivalent to that of the atmosphere1 and could1 therefore1 not rise any higher2 and as they did not1 at that time1 understand the construction of the piston valve1 the design was abandoned4 ,it is now time to conclude your lesson4 ,to-morrow ,i hope we shall be able to enter upon the subject of ,,the ,,kite40 ----- ,footnote #ch3 ,a scientific friend observed to the author1 that1 as the globe possesses less surface than any other figure of equal capacity1 it is of all forms that which is best calculated to allow the closest approximation of the particles of soap and water2 and as there must exist amongst such particles a strong cohesive tendency1 after having been forcibly stretched out1 as it were1 by the air blown into the bubble1 it follows that1 did no other cause operate1 the bubble would assume the spherical form4 ,footnote #ci3 ,not exceeding the two millionth part of an inch4 ,footnote #dj3 ,line #aga4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,illustration3 ,two boys causing havoc by upsetting a washerwoman4 ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,the ,kite4--,its construction4--,the ,tail4--,an ,author's meditations among the catacombs of ,paternoster ,row4--,works in their winding sheets4--,how ,mr4 ,seymour strung puns as he strung the ,kite's tail4--,the ,vicar's dismay4--,the ,weather1 with the hopes and fears which it alternately inspired4--,kites constructed in various shapes4--,the figure usually adopted to be preferred4--,the flight of the ,kite4--,a philosophical disquisition upon the forces by which its ascent is accomplished4--,the ,tail4--,a ,discourse on the theory of flying4--,the structure and action of the wings of birds4--,a series of kites on one string4--,a ,kite ,carriage4--,the ,messenger4--,the causes and velocity of wind explained4 ,the children were summoned into the library1 and informed by their father that he was at leisure to explain the philosophy of the kite2 a subject with which ,tom had repeatedly expressed some impatience to become acquainted4 8,it is a beautiful day10 exclaimed the boy joyously2 8and there is such a delightful breeze1 that ,i should really call it a complete kite-day40 8,gently1 my fine fellow10 replied ,mr4 ,seymour3 8the bird must be fledged1 ere it can fly4 ,we have not1 as yet1 any kite3 for you know that the one you possess is shattered beyond the possibility of repair40 8,true1 papa2 but could not ,robert just step into the village and buy one8 ,i saw several kites in the shop of ,peg ,robson yesterday40 8,i do not doubt it1 my boy2 but the kites which are to be found in the toy-shop are made to sell1 rather than to fly2 and to raise the wind1 for the benefit of the vender1 rather than to be raised by it1 for the amusement of the purchaser3 we must1 therefore1 construct one for ourselves2 and see1 ,i have1 accordingly1 prepared all the necessary materials for the purpose4 ,i have here1 as you perceive1 a straight lath of deal1 about three-quarters of an inch wide1 and less than a quarter of an inch thick1 and about four feet in length2 this is quite ready for forming the standard1 or back-bone of the kite3 and now for the bow4 ,the cooper has complied with my directions1 and sent an unbent hoop1 as free as possible from knots2 you observe that it is about the same length as the lath1 but it will be necessary to pare it down a little at each end1 in order to make it bend more readily to the required shape40 ,illustration3 ,diagram of a kite1 labeled a through f4 ,this having been accomplished1 ,mr4 ,seymour proceeded to form the framework of the kite in the following manner4 ,he first ascertained the central point of the bow1 by balancing it on his fore-finger2 he then affixed that point1 by means of string1 to the lath1 at c1 about an inch and a half from its upper extremity2 a notch was next cut in each end of the hoop1 or bow1 a d2 having fixed the string in the notch1 a1 he drew it through another1 e1 previously cut in the bottom of the lath1 and carried it to the opposite end of the bow d2 the skeleton now presented the usual form1 of the kite4 ,the next point1 therefore1 was to ascertain whether the two sides of the bow were in equilibrio1 which he determined by balancing the lath on the finger1 and observing whether it remained horizontal1 or dipped on either side4 ,this adjustment having been accomplished1 ,mr4 ,seymour next continued the string from d across the skeleton to the opposite notch a1 giving it one turn round the lath in its way2 from a it was carried to f1 and wound round the top of the lath1 and then again fastened at d2 from d it was extended rather more than midway down the lath1 and having been secured at b1 was finally carried to1 and secured in the notch a4 ,the framework was now pronounced by ,mr4 ,seymour to be complete4#da ,the next part of the process was to cover it with paper4 ,mr4 ,seymour observed1 that the best kind which could be employed for this purpose was that known amongst stationers by the name of fan paper1 so called from its being manufactured for the use of the fanmaker2 its merits1 he said1 depended upon the size of its sheets1 as well as upon the thinness and firmness of its texture3 this1 however was not at hand2 he was therefore obliged to rest satisfied with its best substitute1 viz4 folio sheets of large thin post4 ,the party now went 8ding-dong0 to work2 paper1 paste1 and scissors were immediately put in requisition4 ,sheets of paper were laid smooth on the table1 and so arranged that each sheet overlapped its neighbour about half an inch4 ,the skeleton of the kite was then placed upon them1 and the paper was cut to its figure2 a margin1 of about three-quarters of an inch1 having been left around it1 except over the bow1 where the margin was extended to an inch in width3 this arrangement was for the purpose of allowing the paper to turn over the framework1 when pasted to it4 ,this part of the work having been completed1 and a sufficient time allowed for the drying of the paste1 ,mr4 ,seymour proceeded to fix the string1 usually termed the belly-band3 for this purpose two holes were drilled through the lath1 at equal distances from its edges2 the upper one about a fifth part of the length of the kite from the top1 the lower hole rather more than the same distance above its extremity4 ,the last1 and by far the most important point1 was to make the loop in the belly-band4 ,if the kite be accurately constructed1 its proper place may be easily found by extending the band1 right or left1 on the surface of the kite1 and then marking the string at a point which lies in a line drawn from one end of the bow to the other2 the loop must be made a little above such a point4 ,if the kite be now suspended by this loop1 the two ends of the bow ought to preserve a balance1 and the lower extremity should dip below the upper part of the kite4 ,as ,louisa observed the extreme care with which her father adjusted this part of the machine1 she enquired into its use4 8,i was myself about to put the same question10 said her mother2 8for its adjustment would appear to require as much accuracy as that of the sash of a girl of sixteen40 ,mr4 ,seymour informed them1 they would hereafter find that the steady ascent of the kite into the air entirely depended upon such accuracy4 8,have you not seen1 ,tom10 asked he1 8a kite rise sideways1 or plunge1 as it is called80 ,tom said he had often experienced that difficulty at school1 but that he had attributed it to some defect in the tail4 8,an error in the construction of the tail may1 certainly1 be occasionally the cause of such an accident1 but it is more generally referable to an improper position of the loop3 if the kite plunges1 you may conclude that this loop is placed too high2 and should it whirl round in the air1 you may infer that it is too low40 ,during this conversation ,mr4 ,twaddleton entered the apartment2 ,tom was anxious to show him his newly-constructed kite1 and1 while the party were asking him numerous questions1 ,mr4 ,seymour observed1 that the vicar would be more profitably employed in making bobs for the string of the tail1 than in finding answers for their string of questions4 ,mrs4 ,seymour1 and her daughters1 with ,tom and the vicar1 were1 accordingly1 placed round the table1 for the purpose of carrying this project into effect1 by a suitable division of labour4 ,it was arranged that ,mrs4 ,seymour should cut the paper1 the vicar fold it1 and ,mr4 ,seymour tie it on the string4 8,how long ought the tail to be80 asked ,tom4 8,and of what shape should the papers be cut80 enquired ,louisa4 8,and at what distances are they to be placed from each other on the string80 said ,mrs4 ,seymour4 8,i will answer all your queries10 replied the father1 8by giving you a dissertation upon this part of our machine40 8,we shall now have an harangue10 exclaimed the vicar1 8as long as the tail itself2 but pray proceed40 8,the tail should never be less than twelve1 and should it even amount to twenty times the length of the kite1 its appearance in the air will be more graceful2 this1 however1 must be regulated by the weight of the string1 and by the length and thickness of the pieces of paper of which the tail is composed4 ,the length of each ought to be about three inches and a quarter1 and an inch and a half in breadth1 and it should be folded four times longitudinally2 each of these bobs1 as they are called1 must be placed at regular intervals of three inches40 8,and with respect to the size of the wings80 asked the vicar4 8,i should not recommend any wings2 if the kite be well made1 there cannot be any advantage from such appendages4 ,having now answered your several questions1 let us proceed with our work40 8,but where is the paper80 asked ,mrs4 ,seymour4 8,apropos10 answered her husband2 8the box in which the ,london toys were packed contains a quantity that will answer our purpose40 ,the box was accordingly placed on the table4 8,why1 what a most extraordinary miscellany60 cried the vicar2 8the army of ,mithridates could not have consisted of a more incongruous mixture4 ,i perceive10 added he1 as his enquiring eyes glanced from sheet to sheet1 8we have here a fragment of almost every description of literary and scientific work40 8,the market10 observed ,mr4 ,seymour1 8is supplied with waste paper from the catacombs of ,paternoster ,row1 which may be truly said to #8level all distinctions4' ,without intending any offence by a pun1 my good vicar1 what a tale will this box unfold6 ,i never open a magazine of this waste paper1 without feeling a deep sympathy for the melancholy fate of authors3 to see the strange transmigrations1 and vile purposes1 to which their works are destined1 is really heart-rending4 ,that the lights of science should be consigned to the tallow-chandler6 the works of the moralist1 so well calculated to purify the world1 to the soap-seller6 that such a book as #8,laennec on the ,chest1' with ,dr4 ,forbes's valuable ,cases in the bargain1 should be packed off to the trunk-maker6 are events which cannot fail to furnish food for melancholy reflection4 ,nay1 more1 ,i have myself 7can you believe it1 ,mr4 ,twaddleton87 actually received a quantity of ureic acid in a ,review of ,dr4 ,thomson's ,chemistry6 and ,i only yesterday learned1 with horror1 that a piece of fat bacon was positively wrapped up in a page of #8,paris on ,diet2' while a ,cheshire cheese came encased in ,kitchener's #8,chart of the ,moon4'0 8,oh1 shameful6 shameful660 exclaimed the vicar3 8but ,i can assure you1 that this unfeeling conduct of the publisher had not escaped my notice and indignation2 for ,i lately received a work against the slave-trade1 in the fragment of a tract on #8the ,progress of ,cant2' and a ,copy of ,irving's ,orations1 in an act of #8,much ,ado about ,nothing2' and what was still worse10 continued the reverend divine1 8a little work on the art of ,prognosticating the ,weather1 was forwarded to me in a chapter of ,daniel's ,prophecies40 8,but let us quit these melancholy reflections for the present1 and proceed with our occupation40 8,if you compose the tail of your kite with these papers10 said the vicar1 8it will certainly vie with that of ,scriblerus himself2 you will have a knot of divinity1--a knot of physic1--a knot of logic1--a knot of philosophy1--a knot of poetry1--and a knot of history40 8,never mind1 my dear sir2 ,i wager an edition of ,virgil1 that ,i shall be able to discover in each page1 with which you may present me1 some apposite allusion to the tail1 of which it is to form a part40 8,apposite allusion6 impossible2 as well might you attempt to connect the scattered leaves of the ,sibyl3 for example1 here is an ,epitome of the ,roman ,history40 8,very well10 said ,mr4 ,seymour1 8and pray is not that curtail80 ,the vicar dropped the paper in dismay2 the treacherous design of his friend now1 for the first time1 flashed across his brain with a painful conviction1 and he hastily retreated to a distant corner of the library1 or 8turned tail10 as ,mr4 ,seymour jocosely expressed it1 in order that he might find shelter from the pelting of a pitiless storm of puns1 which he saw1 too clearly1 was about to burst on his devoted head4 ,on the vicar's retiring from the table1 ,mrs4 ,seymour approached the fatal box1 observing1 8that it was now her turn to explore the ,sibylline cave40 8,here10 said she1 8is a list of the prices of some newly published works40 8,that10 replied her husband1 as he cast a sly glance at the vicar1 8is retail3 pray1 proceed40 8,we have next1 ,i perceive1 a prospectus for publishing all the speeches in the late parliament40 8,that is detail40 ,here a deep groan from ,mr4 ,twaddleton arrested the progress of the proceedings1 and threw the whole party into a fit of laughter4 ,as soon as tranquillity was restored1 ,mrs4 ,seymour again dipped her hand into the box1 and drew forth the fragments of a work on ,real ,property4 8,that10 said ,mr4 ,seymour1 8is entail2 pray1 cut it off1 and give it to me40 8,we have here10 continued the lady1 8the ,memoirs of an ,italian ,bandit40 8,then prepare him for his fate2 ,i have a noose quite ready for his reception40 8,here is a poem1 entitled ,waterloo40 8,i will patronise it10 said her husband2 8and ,i warrant you that1 under my auspices1 the muse will soar to a greater height than she ever could otherwise have attained40 8,we have here1 ,i declare1 a part of 99 99 99 99 sic pamphlet40 8,then ,i have lost my wager10 exclaimed ,mr4 ,seymour1 8for ,i defy the power of man to make either head or tail of it40 ,thus did ,mr4 and ,mrs4 ,seymour proceed2 the one cutting paper1 the other cutting jokes2 nor did the former cease stringing puns1 until he had finished stringing the tail4 8,i must now conclude by making a knot that shall not be in danger of becoming untied in the breeze10 said ,mr4 ,seymour3 8but stop1 stop one moment6 ,i still require one more piece of paper to complete my task1 and let it be double40 8,here then is a piece of paper1 which1 from its texture1 appears to be well adapted to your purpose4 ,let me see1 what is it8 ,i declare it is the titlepage of an ,essay on ,matrimony40 8,capital60 cried her husband2 8a strange coincidence1 truly2 you have1 indeed1 furnished me with a knot that cannot be easily untied1 however stiff may be the breeze2 hand it over to me1 for it will afford a very legitimate finish1 and is generally the conclusion of every tale3 but where is the vicar8 ,what1 ho6 ,mr4 ,twaddleton40 ,the reverend gentleman had so contrived to conceal his person in the corner of the room1 behind a large folio which he had placed on a desk before him1 that several moments elapsed before he was discovered2 at length1 however1 a long-drawn sigh betrayed him in his retreat4 8,upon my word10 exclaimed he1 as he pushed aside the huge folio1 8your volatility1 ,mr4 ,seymour1 is wholly inconsistent with the gravity of a scientific instructor40 8,but1 at present10 replied ,mr4 ,seymour1 8,i am the manufacturer of a kite's tail2 and1 surely1 upon such an occasion1 flightiness ought not to be urged to my disparagement40 ,the party1 shortly after this discussion1 separated3 ,mr4 ,seymour retired to his own room2 the vicar proceeded to the church to bury a patient of ,doseall's2 and the children ran into the garden to enjoy their rural sports4 ,on the following day1 before the wings of the lark had brushed away the morning dew1 ,tom and his sisters1 buoyant with expectation1 had descended into the garden1 in order to ascertain the state of the weather and the direction of the wind2 but the sky was sullen and calm1 not a breath disturbed the susceptible leaves of the aspen2 all was repose--8a dread repose40 8,no kite-day this10 sighed ,tom1 with a countenance as lowering as the morning clouds4 8,have patience10 said ,louisa2 8the wind may yet rise1 it is only just six o'clock40 ,thus did the minds of the children continue to hover between hope and despair1 until after breakfast1 when they determined to seek the gardener1 and hold a grave consultation with that acknowledged judge of the elements2 he told them that showers might be expected1 but he thought it probable that the wind might rise after mid-day4 8,i will1 however10 said he1 8consult my oracles27#cc7 after which1 ,i shall be able to give you a satisfactory opinion40 ,so saying1 he left them2 and1 on his return1 observed that 8as the ,siberian sow-thistle had closed itself the preceding evening1 and the ,african marigold continued shut after seven o'clock in the morning1 he had thought there would be rain2 but10 he added1 8that upon inspecting the poor-man's weatherglass1 the ,anagallis arvensis1 or red pimpernel1 two hours ago1 he had found it open1 from which he concluded that the day would have been fine40 8,there1 ,louisa2 it will be a fine day1 after all10 exclaimed her delighted brother4 8,no1 indeed10 continued the gardener2 8on returning just now to the flower1 which never deceives us1 ,i found it had closed itself1 so that rain is inevitable40 ,nor was this opinion erroneous2 for before the brother and sister could reach the lodge1 the heavy clouds began to discharge their watery burthen1 and the rain continued in one incessant shower for more than two hours2 it then gradually abated1 and the children1 who had been anxiously watching it at the library window1 were suddenly relieved from their anxiety by the appearance of the vicar1 whom they espied slowly winding his way through the dripping shrubbery4 8#8,heu6 quianam tanti cinxerunt thera nimbi8' as ,virgil has it10 exclaimed the vicar1 as he approached the portico1 where ,mr4 ,seymour and his family had assembled to salute him4 8,we are under the influence of ,st4 ,swithin1 vicar10 said ,mrs4 ,seymour1 8and ,i fear there is but slender hope of its becoming fair40 8,psha6 who cares for ,st4 ,swithin87#cd7 ,my barometer is rising rapidly1 and ,i place more confidence in that classical deity1 ,mercury1 than in a saint of so very questionable a character40 ,at this moment1 ,phbus1 as if delighted by the compliment thus bestowed upon his heathen brother1 cast a sly glance from behind a dark cloud1 and illumined the spot upon which the vicar was standing4 ,in short1 after the lapse of half an hour1 the sun broke through the gloom1 and a brisk gale followed2 the countenances of the children sympathised with the face of the heavens1 and the expression of hope lighted them up1 in proportion as the sun illumined the departing clouds with its radiance4 8,it is now quite fair1 papa10 cried ,tom1 in a voice of triumph1 8and there is a most delightful wind2 shall we not proceed at once to the common80 8,presently10 answered his father3 8the ground is yet extremely wet40 ,in the course of an hour this objection had been removed1 and the party prepared to set off on their kite-flying expedition4 8,bring me the kite1 and let me sling it properly over ,tom's shoulder10 said ,mr4 ,seymour4 8,i will carry the string10 exclaimed ,louisa2 8how nicely it is wound round the stick40 ,as the party walked forwards1 the vicar asked ,tom whether he knew from whence the name of the kite originated4 8,a kite is a bird of prey10 answered the boy1 8which soars a great height2 and from remaining stationary in the air1 was1 ,i suppose1 thought to resemble the paper kite40 8,that is a very good explanation10 said the vicar2 8or it may1 perhaps1 have derived its name from the circumstance of its having been originally constructed in the shape of a bird of this description4 ,in ,china the flying of kites is much more practised than in this country2 and ,i understand that their shape is always that of some bird40 8,in the ,london toy-shops you may constantly meet with them in such forms1 as well as in many other fantastic shapes10 observed ,mr4 ,seymour2 8and10 continued he1 8,i remember to have seen1 some years ago1 a kite which resembled a man4 ,it was made of linen cloth1 cut1 and painted for the purpose1 and stretched on a light frame1 so constructed as to resemble the outline of the human figure4 ,it stood upright1 and was dressed in a sort of jacket4 ,its arms were disposed like handles on each side of its body1 and its head being covered with a cap1 terminating in an angle1 favoured the ascent of the machine1 which was twelve feet in height2 but to render it easier to be transported1 it could be folded double1 by means of hinges adapted to the frame4 ,the person who directed this kind of kite was able to raise it1 though the weather was calm1 to the height of nearly five hundred feet2 and1 when once raised1 he maintained it in the air by giving only a slight motion to the string4 ,the figure1 by these means1 acquired a kind of libration1 like that of a man skaiting on the ice4 ,the illusion1 occasioned by this spectacle1 did not fail1 as you may readily suppose1 to attract a great number of spectators40 8,i believe1 however10 observed the vicar1 8that the figure commonly adopted1 is the one best calculated for the purpose40 8,undoubtedly10 replied ,mr4 ,seymour1 8and for obvious reasons2 the curvature of the bow enables it to escape the resistance of the air1 as it rises2 which1 after having struck it1 slides off1 just as the current is more effectually turned aside by the gently curved prow1 than by that which has a sharp outline2 for the same reason1 the mast of a ship1 though it has a conical shape1 is more easily drawn through the water with its broad1 than with its narrow end1 foremost2 for although the primary obstruction is1 no doubt1 greater in the former case1 yet the water heaped1 as it were1 on the front1 is made to stream off with a slight divergency1 and therefore does not hang on the sides of the mast1 as it would in the latter case4 ,this shape of the kite1 moreover1 presents the largest surface at the point upon which the wind can act with the greatest effect1 while the whole is lightened by the removal of parts that would obstruct its action4 ,the tail has also a greater control over a figure of such a description40 ,mr4 ,seymour asked the vicar1 8whether he could explain the origin of the ,french term for the kite1 viz4 cerf volant1 or flying stag2 ,i never can believe10 continued he1 8that the kite could ever have been constructed in the shape of that animal40 8,i am unable to clear up the difficulty10 replied the vicar2 8and yet ,i have taken some pains upon the subject4 ,the earliest notice of the kite1 which ,i have been able to discover1 is in a short ,english and ,french ,dictionary1 by ,miege1 which was published in the year #afij1 and it is there described under the name of cerf volant40 8,i wonder10 cried ,tom1 8who invented the kite80 8,in1 that1 again10 answered ,mr4 ,twaddleton1 8,i am unable to furnish you with any satisfactory information4 ,the pastime appears to be of very ancient date in ,china1 and was1 probably1 first imported into ,europe from that country40 8,at what period1 do you suppose80 8,strutt1 who was very assiduous and correct in all his antiquarian researches1 was of opinion that its introduction into ,england could not be dated farther back than a hundred and fifty years40 ,the party had1 by this time1 reached ,overton heath2 the weather was favourable2 and the kite impatiently fluttered in the breeze1 while ,tom was eagerly engaged in unwinding its streaming tail1 and preparing the paper machine for ascent4 8,is the string fixed to the belly-band80 asked ,mr4 ,seymour4 8,all is ready10 replied the vicar2 8and ,i will hold it up1 while ,tom runs with it against the wind4 ,had ,king ,eric set his cap for us1 we could not have had a more favourable breeze40 8,there is not the least occasion to raise the kite from the ground10 observed ,mr4 ,seymour2 8let its point rest on the grass1 and place its tail in a straight line in front of it2 ,i warrant you it will rise1 as soon as ,tom begins to run40 ,tom immediately set off1 and the kite rose majestically into the air4 8,give it string--give it string--gently1 gently--now stop2 there is no occasion for your running any farther but let out the cord1 as long as the kite carries it off vigorously1 and keeps it fully stretched2 but wind it up the moment its tension is relaxed40 8,it is rising very fast10 cried the breathless boy1 8but the string burns my hand as it passes through it2 ,i shall not be able to endure the heat40 8,be patient1 and let it pass more slowly2 put on your glove10 said his father4 8,ay1 ay2 put on your glove10 repeated the vicar2 8even ,xenophon himself1 who declaimed so warmly against the effeminacy of the ,persians1 for wearing gloves1 would scarcely have refused his consent to their use on such an occasion40 8,what is it that produces so much heat80 enquired ,louisa4 8,the friction of the string10 replied her father4 8,do you not know that carriages frequently catch fire from the friction of their wheels1 unless it be prevented by the application of grease80 8,yes10 said ,tom2 8and ,i have heard that the natives of some countries kindle their fires by rubbing pieces of wood together40 8,the original inhabitants of the new world10 observed his father1 8throughout the whole extent from ,patagonia to ,greenland1 procured fire by rubbing pieces of hard and dry wood against each other1 until they emitted sparks1 or burst into flame2 some of the people to the north of ,california produced the same effect by inserting a kind of pivot in the hole of a very thick plank1 and causing it to revolve with extreme rapidity3 the same principle will explain how immense forests can have been consumed2 for it is evident1 that the violent friction of the branches against each other1 from the agitation of the wind1 would be fully adequate to the production of such an effect40 8,you have also an excellent example of the effect of friction in producing heat10 said the vicar1 8in the history of the whale fishery2 for1 in harpooning the fish1 unless the sailors observe the greatest caution in letting out the rope1 its friction upon the side of their boat will be sure to set it on fire40 8,and how do they manage it80 asked ,louisa4 8,as soon as the whale dives17#ce7 after having been wounded1 it draws out the line or cord of the harpoon1 which is coiled up in the boat1 with very considerable velocity4 ,in order1 therefore1 to prevent any accident from the violence of this motion1 one man is stationed with an axe to cut it asunder1 if it should become entangled2 while another1 with a mop1 is constantly cooling with water the channel through which it passes40 8,the kite is now at a considerable height10 observed ,tom2 8but look at the string1 how bent it is6 ,i have repeatedly endeavoured to pull it straight1 but without success40 8,how could you have expected to succeed in the attempt8 ,consider the weight of such a long line of string40 8,then it is not the pressure of the atmosphere which gives it that curved form80 8,assuredly not3 have you so soon forgotten that the air presses equally in all directions1 and would therefore tend to straighten1 as much as to give a curved direction to the string8 ,but1 as you now appear to have let out the whole of your string1 suppose you allow the kite to enjoy its airing1 while we proceed to consider the philosophy of its ascent1 and the nature and direction of those forces by which it is effected40 8,the kite pulls so amazingly hard10 cried ,tom1 8that unless ,i fix the string securely around the tree1 we shall run the chance of losing it40 8,i am well aware of the force it exerts10 replied his father4 8,dr4 ,franklin has said1 that1 with a good kite1 a man unable to swim might be sustained in the water1 so as to pass from ,dover to ,calais2 but ,i agree with him in thinking1 that a packet would be a much safer1 as well as a pleasanter mode of conveyance40 8,now1 then1 for your explanation of the kite's ascent4 ,unless ,i am mistaken1 you will find the subject much more complicated than you imagine10 said the vicar4 8,not at all2 ,tom1 who1 ,i trust1 has a perfect acquaintance with the composition and resolution of forces1 will very readily understand the explanation ,i propose to offer4 ,i admit1 however1 that there are some few points in the enquiry1 which cannot be successfully treated without a knowledge of the higher branches of the mathematics2 but ,i shall1 of course1 avoid all such difficulties4#db ,can you tell me1 ,tom1 what advantage is gained by your running with the kite80 asked ,mr4 ,seymour4 8,i suppose that you thus obtain more force from the wind40 8,certainly3 action and reaction are equal4 ,by running1 therefore1 with your kite against the wind1 you strike the air1 and thus produce a reaction1 which is equal to the force of the blow given to it4 ,when the wind is high1 and its action is not intercepted by surrounding objects1 there cannot exist any necessity for such an expedient40 8,the principle is the same as that which enables the bird to rise into the air by flapping its wings10 observed the vicar4 8,unquestionably10 replied ,mr4 ,seymour4 8,does the kite1 then1 rise in the air1 from the same causes that enable a bird to fly80 asked ,tom4 8,we are not1 at present1 considering the ascent of the kite1 but the advantage which is obtained by running with it3 this latter1 as the vicar has properly observed1 undoubtedly depends upon the same principle as that which enables the bird to rise1 by the motion of its wings1 and which constitutes the third law of motion1#dc viz4 that action and reaction are equal2 that is to say1 whenever one body exerts a force upon another1 the second body opposes the first1 with equal force1 in an opposite direction4 ,if1 then1 the bird strikes the air below it with a force which is equal to its weight1 then must there be a reaction of the air1 upwards1 exactly equal to it2 and the bird1 being acted upon by two equal forces1 in opposite directions1 will1 necessarily1 rest between them40 8,that is clear enough2 but the bird rises10 answered ,tom4 8,because the force of the stroke is greater than the weight of the bird1 and it therefore rises with the difference of these two forces2 were the stroke less than its weight1 then would it sink with the difference4 ,suppose1 for example1 a bird weighs twelve ounces1 and it strikes the air with a force equal to sixteen1 is it not clear that it must rise with a force equal to four8 and is it not evident that1 if it strikes the air with a force equal only to eight1 that it must sink with a force equal to four80 8,so far ,i understand it perfectly2 but ,i was thinking that1 as the wing flaps up and down1 what was gained by striking the air downwards must be counterbalanced when the bird raised her wing again1 and thus struck the air in the contrary direction10 observed ,tom4 8,i give you no small degree of credit for that remark10 said his father2 8for it is undoubtedly true that1 if the flapping of the wings in flight were no more than the motion of the same surface upwards and downwards1 the bird must lose as much by one motion as she could gain by the other2 the skylark could never ascend by such an action1 for1 as you have so justly remarked1 although the stroke upon the air by the under side of her wing would carry her up1 the stroke from the upper side1 when she raised her wing again1 would bring her down2 but1 if you will attentively examine the structure of the wing1 you will at once perceive1 from its external convexity1 the disposition1 and more particularly the overlapping of its larger feathers1 that when the wing is drawn up1 its surface is contracted1 and when let down fully expanded--or1 in other words1 that the feathers strike the air downwards with their flat side1 but rise from the stroke slantwise1 just as the rower in a boat1 after having given the stroke1 turns his oar so as only to present its edge1 an operation which is termed feathering1 from its resemblance to this very action of the wing in flight40 8,it appears to me that flying is an easy process10 said ,tom2 8could we not contrive some sort of flapper1 by which we might be able to rise into the air80 8,your opinion1 my dear boy1 is by no means singular2 hundreds have entertained the same belief before you2 and so confident was the famous ,bishop ,wilkins1 that he declared it to be his conviction1 that1 in future ages1 it will be as usual to hear a man call for his wings1 as it is now to call for his boots40 8,yes10 said the vicar2 8and if my memory is correct1 ,william of ,malmesbury1 in his account of the ,conquest of ,england by the ,normans1 mentions a ,benedictine monk1 by the name of ,elmer1 who having affixed wings to his hands and feet1 ascended a lofty tower whence he took his flight1 but he fell to the ground and broke both his legs40 8,i do not see the difficulty10 exclaimed ,tom4 8,the weight of our bodies is so great1 that we have not sufficient muscular strength to impart a blow to the air that shall be equal to it4 ,now are you satisfied80 said his father4 8,i am perfectly satisfied1 if that be the case1 that we can never hope to fly40 8,the principle1 however1 which ,i have just explained10 observed ,mr4 ,seymour1 8although it will fail us in our attempts to construct wings1 is nevertheless extensively applicable in mechanics4 ,a vane or fly1 for instance1 by resisting the air as it spins round1 becomes the regulator of machinery4 ,the intervals between the strokes on the bell of a clock are thus regulated1 and the fly1 on this occasion1 is so contrived that this interval may be altered1 or the clock made to strike faster or slower1 by presenting the arms of it more or less obliquely to the direction in which they move4 ,the same kind of fly is the regulator used in musical boxes1 as ,i will presently show you1 and indeed in almost all mechanical toys4 ,let us now return to the subject of the kite2 for1 as yet1 we have merely considered the effect of increasing the wind upon its surface2 we have next to enquire how the wind operates in raising it into the air4--,do you not remember1 when ,i adjusted the noose in the belly-band1 ,i stated that much depended upon this part of the apparatus8 ,you will1 at once1 perceive that it will influence the angle which the kite forms with the earth1 and ,i am about to prove to you1 that the theory of the kite's ascent is materially connected with the value of this angle2 but1 in order to render my explanation intelligible1 ,i have prepared a diagram1 to which ,i am desirous of directing your attention4 ,illustration3 ,diagram of a kite labeled with ,a1 ,b1 ,o1 ,s1 ,t1 ,w1 and ,y4 8,the kite here appears in the act of rising from the ground2 the line ,w will represent the direction of the wind blowing upon it1 all the currents of which we will suppose united in one2 it is evident1 from what has been already stated1 that as it falls upon an oblique surface1 it will be resolved into two forces1 viz4 into one parallel with it1 and into another perpendicular to that surface2 of which the force represented by the line ,y will alone produce any effect1 carrying the kite along the line ,o ,a1 or in a direction parallel to itself2 and you must have observed that this was the direction in which the kite was impelled1 when you suffered it to rise1 without checking its progress by the string40 8,i remember that well10 said ,tom2 8and ,i also observed that1 when ,i pulled my string1 the kite immediately rose more perpendicularly40 8,to be sure it did2 because1 by that operation1 you called a new force into action2 which ,i have represented in the diagram by the line ,s ,t4 ,the kite was therefore under the influence of the two forces ,o ,a and ,s ,t1 and1 since these are in the direction of the two sides of a parallelogram1 it would not obey either1 but ascend through ,o ,b1 its diagonal40 8,notwithstanding ,mr4 ,twaddleton's doubts upon the subject10 said ,tom1 8,i am sure that ,i perfectly understand your explanation2 and ,i think ,i may also answer for my sister3 but you have not yet told us any thing about the tail2 ,i suppose1 however1 that it acts like the rudder of a ship1 or the tail of a bird40 8,before ,i answer that question1 let me inform you how the tail of a bird differs1 in its action and uses1 from the rudder of a ship4 ,in the first place1 the rudder is so fixed that it can but move in one horizontal plane1 and can therefore only turn the vessel to the right or left1 which1 indeed1 is all that is required27#cf7 but the tail of the bird1 in addition to this motion1 can be placed in a diagonal direction1 and when expanded will offer a considerable surface to the air1 so as to fulfil some of the offices of a third wing4 ,have you never watched the manuvres of the rook1 as he gambols through the air8 ,after flying in the ordinary way1 you will observe his wings at rest1 and that he glides along apparently without the least exertion in his descent4 ,in this case1 his expanded wings act as a parachute2 then1 again1 you will observe him wheeling round1 a manuvre which is partly produced by the oblique position of his tail1 and which is readily explained upon the principle of the resolution of forces ,i have just described with reference to the action of the wind upon the surface of the kite47#cg7 ,i ought also to state1 that the tail serves to poise the body of the bird40 8,does the bird1 then1 never use its wings for the purpose of directing its course80 asked ,louisa4 8,undoubtedly it does10 answered her father2 8the tail is only to be considered as a supplementary organ3 it is by means of the wings that it generally directs its course1 for it is evident1 that it can easily turn1 either to the right or left1 by flapping the opposite wing with increased force1 just as a boat is turned about to the right1 by a brisk application of the left oar4 ,in like manner the irregular flight of the butterfly1 now up and now down1 now to the right and now to the left1 is no doubt effected by the wings striking the air one after the other1 or perhaps with an alternate and unequal force4 ,the object of such an action is obviously to baffle the pursuit of birds which fly in a right line1 whereas you see the butterfly does just the contrary407#ch7 8,how very wonderful10 said ,louisa1 8is the action of the wings of insects4 ,i have often watched them during their flight1 and their rapidity is such as to surpass the power of vision40 8,i shall have occasion to advert to that subject hereafter10 said ,mr4 ,seymour2 8at present1 ,i shall only observe1 that a gnat's wing1 in its ordinary flight1 beats many hundred times in a second40 8,but you have not yet answered ,tom's question10 said the vicar4 8,of what use is the tail of the kite8 ,does it assist its ascent1 or is it merely an appendage of ornament80 8,in the first place1 it keeps the head of the kite to the wind2 and in the next1 it lowers its centre of gravity1 and throws it towards its extremity1 which not only prevents the chance of the machine being upset in the air1 but so poises and regulates the position of the kite as to maintain the angle which it is necessary for the string to make with the surface40 ,mr4 ,twaddleton here enquired what might be the most advantageous angle for the kite to form with the horizon1 in order that the paper machine should rise to the greatest altitude4 8,if the wind be horizontal10 answered ,mr4 ,seymour1 8it is evident that the inclination of the kite's surface ought to be the same as that which the rudder of a ship should make with the keel1 in order that the vessel may be turned with the greatest facility2 supposing the currents of water1 which impel it1 to have a direction parallel to the keel40 8,and what ought that angle to be80 enquired the vicar4 8,fifty-four degrees1 and forty-four minutes10 replied ,mr4 ,seymour2 8and let me here remark10 continued he1 8as we have already considered the philosophy of the flight of a bird1 that its pinions are so set upon the body as to bring down the wings in an oblique direction towards the tail2 so that in their action upon the air1 we have the same resolution of forces as in that of the wind upon the surface of the kite1 by which the body of the bird is not only supported1 or raised perpendicularly1 but carried forward407#ci7 ,tom here interrupted the dialogue1 by expressing a regret that he should have been provided with so small a quantity of cord4 8,i do not believe1 my dear boy1 that any advantage could be gained by an additional quantity of string10 said his father4 8,is there1 then1 any reason why the kite should not ascend1 even above the clouds1 provided that my string were sufficiently long and strong80 8,yes2 indeed is there a most unanswerable reason4 ,remember that the kite is made to rise by the operation of two forces2 the one afforded by the wind1 the other by the action of the string2 now it is quite evident that1 when the weight of the string1 added to that of the kite itself1 becomes equal to the force of the wind1 acting upon the surface of the machine1 a general balance1 or equilibrium1 of forces will be established1 and the kite can no longer continue to ascend40 8,will it1 then1 remain stationary under these circumstances80 asked ,louisa4 8,it must do so1 unless the force of the wind should abate2 for it is a proposition in mechanics1 which ,i shall hereafter endeavour to demonstrate7#dj71 that1 if a body be acted upon by three forces1 which are proportional to1 and in the direction of1 the three sides of a triangle1 it will be kept at rest4 ,the kite is exactly in this predicament1 for its weight1 the force of the wind1 and the action of the string1 fulfil these conditions1 and consequently keep the kite stationary40 8,then ,i must give up my intention of trying to raise the kite above the clouds10 said ,tom4 8,although you may not be able to raise any single kite to the altitude you may desire1 it is easy to accomplish your plan by a series of kites2 the string of the first being attached to the back of the second1 and so on40 8,how1 papa8 ,i do not exactly understand you40 8,your kite10 said ,mr4 ,seymour1 8is now as high in the air1 as the force of the wind is capable of raising it2 suppose you were to fix the end of the string you hold in your hand to the back of another kite1 would not this second kite ascend as high as your first1 by the same force1 and your first kite therefore rise to double the altitude it is at present4 ,in like manner you might attach a third kite1 and so on40 8,now ,i comprehend it2 and ,i should much like to try the experiment10 said ,tom4 8,you shall certainly witness the effect ,i have described2 but you must provide yourself with some stout string1 for the force which the kites exert when thus arranged1 is greater than you can easily imagine2 indeed ,i question whether you would be able to hold them10 observed his father4 ,mr4 ,twaddleton here informed the young party that he had himself witnessed a carriage containing three persons that had been drawn along the road by kites1 at the rates from fifteen to twenty miles an hour4 8,i have seen the account of it10 said ,mr4 ,seymour1 8and if ,i remember right1 the principal kite was preceded at the distance of about #abj feet by a smaller pilot one1 which served to direct it away from any obstacles1 such as trees1 houses1 c4 with which it might otherwise have come in contact40 8,but how was the pilot kite made obedient to the will of the driver80 asked ,louisa4 8,by means of strings so attached to it that its surface was easily made to alter its angular position10 answered ,mr4 ,seymour4 8,if my twine should snap10 said ,tom1 whose attention was suddenly drawn to his kite from a slight unsteadiness in its motion1 arising from a gust of wind1 8we could easily recover it1 that is one good thing2 for it is hovering over the open field at the end of the heath40 8,if you imagine that the kite1 under such circumstances1 would fall upon the spot directly under it1 you are much deceived3 recollect that1 if the string should snap1 the kite would be abandoned to two forces1 those of the wind1 and its own gravity2 and you will perceive that1 under such circumstances1 it could not obey either of them1 but would fall in an intermediate or diagonal direction4 ,this fact will be rendered apparent by the annexed diagram4 ,b ,a may be supposed to represent the force and direction of the wind acting upon the kite1 and ,b ,d those of its gravity2 then it is evident that1 under the influence of these joint forces1 it would describe the diagonal1 and1 for reasons already explained1 that line must necessarily be the curve ,b ,f40 ,illustration3 ,diagram showing arc of fall trajectory4 8,come10 said the vicar1 8before ,tom draws down his kite1 let us send up a messenger40 8,what may that be80 asked ,louisa4 8,a piece of paper or pasteboard1 which1 on being introduced upon the string1 is blown along the line up to the kite40 ,the messenger was accordingly prepared1 and being placed upon the string1 it ascended as ,mr4 ,seymour had anticipated4 ,while this operation was in progress1 the vicar stood earnestly gazing upon the kite1 and1 at length1 burst forth in the following animated soliloquy3-- 8,assuredly1 this must be acknowledged as a most beautiful and imposing toy6 ,fastidious or insensible must be that person1 who does not feel exhilarated as he gazes on the kite1 proudly floating under the canopy of heaven1 and reflecting the departing smiles of the evening sun1 after it has ceased to cheer us below40 8,it has been said10 observed ,mr4 ,seymour1 8to the disparagement of kite-flying1 that as soon as the machine has been raised into the air1 and all the string let out1 the excitement of the sport is at an end1 and that as nothing further can be achieved1 the interest of the performer from that moment begins to languish2 now at this period the messenger will open a new source of pleasure and instruction1 and may1 by a little ingenuity1 be made to afford a great diversity of amusement4 ,i have therefore provided myself with several varieties of this machine4 ,here is one in the form of a dragon1 which1 as it ascends1 produces a very striking and almost magical effect4 ,see1 there it goes60 ,the children were delighted1 for the string upon which it was carried became at a certain height invisible2 so that the figure appeared like a monster hovering in the air4 8,i will now show you a winged variety of this apparatus1 which we will name the ,brompton ,messenger4#dd ,it consists of a hollow cylinder of stiff pasteboard1 or thin wood1 the diameter of which is sufficiently large to allow its free revolution round the string of the kite4 ,to this cylinder are attached several flappers1 or sails1 in an oblique direction1 like those of a windmill1 each of which is covered with paper of a different colour4 ,the action of the wind upon those oblique surfaces necessarily occasions a rapid rotation1 upon a principle which ,i shall presently explain2 and the beautiful effect thus produced1 as the whirling body ascends1 must be seen before it can be appreciated4 ,i have some other contrivances of a similar nature1 which it is my intention to prepare for your future amusement407#da7 8,has the kite ever been applied to any useful purposes80 asked ,tom4 8,certainly10 answered his father4 8,it was by means of the kite that ,dr4 ,franklin was enabled to demonstrate the identity of electricity and the cause of lightning1 and thus to disclose one of the most awful mysteries of nature40 8,pray do tell us something about this electrical kite1 papa10 said ,louisa4 8,not at present1 my love2 it would divert us too much from the subjects in which we are engaged3 at some future period ,i shall have much pleasure in introducing you into these fairy regions of philosophy40 8,i just now remember reading in ,miss ,edgeworth's ,harry and ,lucy10 said ,louisa1 8something about a kite and ,pompey's pillar40 8,i am glad that you have reminded me of that story10 replied ,mr4 ,seymour3 8,i will relate it to you4 ,some ,english sailors laid a wager1 that they would drink a bowl of punch on the summit of ,pompey's pillar4 ,now1 that pillar is almost a hundred feet high1 and it is quite smooth1 so that there was no way of climbing to the top1 even for sailors1 who are such experienced climbers3 so they flew their kite exactly over the pillar1 and when it came down on the opposite side1 the string lay across the top of the capital4 ,by means of this string1 they pulled a small rope over1 and by this a larger one1 that was able to bear the weight of a man2 a pulley was then fastened to the end of the large rope1 and drawn close up to the upper edge of the capital2 and then1 you perceive1 they could easily hoist each other up4 ,they did more1 for they hoisted the ,english flag on the top1 and then drank the bowl of punch1 and won their wager40 8,that is a very good story10 said the vicar2 8but ,i cannot help regretting that so much ingenuity and labour should not have had a nobler end to accomplish40 8,there is some truth in that observation10 said ,mr4 ,seymour1 8and ,i will1 therefore1 relate another story which shall be more congenial to your heart1 and in which the kite will present itself in a more interesting point of view2 for1 instead of enabling the sailors to drink a bowl of punch at an altitude otherwise inaccessible1 we shall find it engaged in rescuing them from the horrors of shipwreck40#de 8,pray proceed1 papa40 8,no1 my dear1 upon reflection1 ,i think it will be better that we should postpone the story1 until your return to the lodge1 when you shall read it in #8,harry and ,lucy4' ,i will also point out to you1 in the same work1 an account of a new and useful application of the messenger1 which will prove to you how successfully the faculties of youth may be increased and improved by those very amusements which are too generally regarded as idle and unprofitable3 ,i shall at the same time exhibit one or two experiments in illustration of the nature and causes of wind40 8,shall we not return immediately80 8,no1 my dear2 it would not be in my power to attend you at present2 but join me in the library after dinner2 ,mr4 ,twaddleton will now accompany me to the village1 and do you remain and enjoy the amusement of your kite40 ,it was not until the evening1 that ,tom and his sisters requested their father to fulfil the promises he had made them in the morning4 8,you told us10 said ,louisa1 8that you would give us some information about the wind2 the subject has been puzzling me ever since1 for ,i cannot make out the cause of it40 8,wind1 my love1 is nothing more than air in motion2 and is produced by a large volume of it flowing in a current1 or stream1 from one place1 or region1 to another1 and with different velocities40 8,and what can produce these currents80 asked ,tom4 8,after the explanation of the action of the pump1 ,i do not think that ,i shall have much difficulty in making you understand the nature of the operations by which wind is occasioned4 ,suppose a partial vacuum should be formed in any region1 would not the neighbouring air immediately rush in to supply the deficiency and restore the balance80 8,undoubtedly2 from the pressure of the air behind it40 8,heat10 continued ,mr4 ,seymour1 8will produce a partial vacuum1 by rarefying the air1 and thus rendering it lighter2 in consequence of which1 it will ascend1 and the colder air will rush in to supply its place40 8,i do not exactly see why the rarefied air should ascend10 observed ,louisa4 8,it appears to offer an exception to the general law of gravity40 8,not at all2 on the contrary1 its ascent is occasioned by the force of gravity3 in the first place1 however1 to prove the fact that heated air does actually ascend1 we have only to observe the direction of smoke1 as it issues from the chimney2 this consists of minute particles of fuel carried up1 by a current of heated air1 from the fire below2 and as soon as this current is cooled by mixing with that of the atmosphere1 the minute particles of coal fall1 and produce the small black flakes which render the air1 and every thing in contact with it1 so dirty in a populous city40 8,but ,i want to know1 papa1 what it is which causes the hot air to ascend80 8,the greater weight of the cold air above it1 which gets1 as it were1 beneath the lighter air1 and obliges it to rise2 just in the same way as a piece of cork1 at the bottom of an empty vessel1 is made to rise to the surface of the water which may be poured into it40 8,now ,i understand it2 pray1 therefore1 proceed with your account of the wind4 ,you have just said that heat rarefies the air1 and causes it to ascend40 8,and thus produces a current of air1 or a wind40 8,is heat1 then1 the cause of wind1 papa80 asked ,tom4 8,it is one great cause2 but there are1 probably1 several others2 ,i will1 however1 exemplify this subject by an experiment40 ,so saying1 ,mr4 ,seymour produced a water-plate1 a large dish1 and a jug filled with cold water4 ,the bell was rung1 and the servant entered with a tea-kettle of boiling water4 ,the large dish was then filled with the cold1 and the water-plate with the boiling fluid4 8,let this large dish represent the ocean10 said ,mr4 ,seymour1 8and this water-plate1 which ,i will now place in its centre1 an island in that ocean2 for the land1 from receiving the rays of the sun1 will be more heated than the water1 and will consequently rarefy the air above it4--,now1 ,tom1 light me the wax taper40 8,i have done so40 8,then now blow it out40 8,i cannot imagine what you are about1 papa2--#8,light the candle1 and then blow it out6'--but it still smokes1 shall ,i put the extinguisher over it80 8,by no means2 give it to me1 and observe what will happen when ,i carry it round the edge of the dish40 8,the smoke goes to the centre10 exclaimed ,tom4 8,showing1 thereby1 the existence of a current towards the water-plate1 or island2 in consequence of the air above it having been heated1 and therefore rarefied4 ,this explains in a very satisfactory manner1 a fact which may be constantly observed in our own climate1 viz4 a gentle breeze blowing from the sea to the land in the heat of the day4 ,upon the same principle it is1 that most of the winds in different parts of the globe may be readily accounted for407#db7 8,i suppose10 said ,tom1 8that the air must rush with great velocity1 in order to produce wind40 8,a very general error prevails upon this subject10 replied his father2 8the rate of motion has been greatly exaggerated4 ,in a brisk gale1 even1 the wind does not travel with such velocity1 but that it may be easily traced by the eye2 and the sailor is able to watch its progress by the ripple which it produces on the sea40 8,has1 then1 the rate of its motion ever been estimated80 asked ,louisa4 8,when its velocity is about two miles per hour1 it is only just perceptible4 ,in a high wind1 the air travels thirty or forty miles in the same period4 ,in a storm1 its rate has been computed as being from sixty to eighty miles4 ,it has also been ascertained1 by experiment1 that the air1 as it rushes from a pair of blacksmith's bellows1 has not a velocity above that of five and forty miles in the hour40 8,at what rate should you think the air travelled this morning1 when we flew our kite80 enquired ,louisa4 8,i should think at about five miles an hour1 for it was a pleasant but gentle breeze40 ----- ,footnote #da3 ,the author has been thus minute1 in order to afford his young friends clear directions for constructing a kite1 and which1 as far as he knows1 are not to be found in any work hitherto published2 and he will also avail himself of this opportunity to state1 that the thin glazed linen of various colours1 commonly known to haberdashers by the name of lining1 has been found to be the best material as a covering for the kite4 ,it is not only more durable than paper1 defying the most boisterous wind1 but superior to it as being secure from the effects of a shower of rain4 ,footnote #db3 ,those readers1 who are inclined to enter more deeply into the subject1 may consult1 with advantage1 a memoir on the kite1 by ,euler1 published in the ,transactions of the ,academy of ,berlin for the year #agef4 ,footnote #dc3 ,see p4 #fj4 ,footnote #dd3 ,from associations of an interesting nature connected with the residence of the author's children4 ,footnote #de3 ,transactions of the ,society for the ,encouragement of ,arts1 vol4 xli42 and ,miss ,edgeworth's ,harry and ,lucy1 vol4 iv4 p4 #bhh4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,illustration3 ,children playing with paddles and a shuttlecock4 ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,a short discourse4--,the ,shuttlecock4--,the solution of two problems connected with its flight4--,the ,windmill4--,the ,smoke-jack4--,a toy constructed on the same principle4--,the ,bow and ,arrow4--,archery4--,the arrival of ,isabella ,villers4 ,mr4 ,twaddleton1 on his arrival at the lodge1 on the following morning1 was informed that ,miss ,villers was expected at ,overton in the evening4 8,your account of that young lady10 observed the vicar1 8has greatly prepossessed me in her favour2 ,i only hope that she is not too blue40 8,i care not how blue the stockings of a lady may be10 said ,mr4 ,seymour1 8#8provided her petticoats be long enough to hide them2' and from my knowledge of ,miss ,villers1 ,i can assure you1 exalted as are her attainments1 they are so veiled by feminine delicacy and reserve1 that they may insidiously win1 but will never extort our homage40 8,ay1 ay10 exclaimed the vicar2 8,i perfectly agree with you in your idea of feminine perfection--short tongues and long petticoats1 ,mr4 ,seymour4--,but where are my little playmates80 8,i left ,tom and ,fanny on the terrace1 a short time since10 replied ,mr4 ,seymour1 8very busily engaged in the game of shuttlecock and battledoor40 8,the shuttlecock is an ancient sport10 observed ,mr4 ,twaddleton4 8,it is represented in a manuscript as far back as the fourteenth century3 and it became a fashionable game amongst grown persons in the reign of ,james the ,first40 8,it is a very healthy pastime10 said ,mr4 ,seymour1 8and1 in my opinion1 is admirably calculated for females2 for1 it expands the chest1 while it creates a graceful pliancy of the limbs40 8,i entirely agree with you2 it is the only game with which ,i am acquainted1 in which muscular exercise is gained without compromising gracefulness4 ,but see1 here come the two young rogues40 8,papa10 exclaimed ,tom1 8,i have been considering whether there is any philosophy in the game of shuttlecock40 8,there are two circumstances connected with its flight10 replied his father1 8which certainly will admit of explanation upon scientific principles2 and ,i should much like to hear whether you can apply them for that purpose4 ,the first is its spinning motion in the air2 the second1 the regularity with which its base of cork always presents itself to the battledoor2 so that1 after you have struck it1 it turns round1 and arrives at your sister's battledoor in a position to be again struck by her1 and sent back to you40 8,i perfectly understand what you mean2 but ,i really am not able to explain the motions to which you allude10 said ,tom4 8,the revolution of the shuttlecock1 about its axis1 entirely depends upon the impulse of the wind on the oblique surfaces of its feathers2 so that it is often necessary to trim the feathers of a new shuttlecock1 before it will spin40 8,i understand you1 papa2 the force of the wind1 by striking the oblique feathers1 is resolved into a perpendicular and parallel force1 as you explained to us1 when we considered the action of the wind upon the kite40 8,exactly2 every oblique direction of a motion is the diagonal of a parallelogram1 whose perpendicular and parallel directions are the two sides4 ,having settled this point1 let us consider the second2 viz4 how it happens that the cork of the shuttlecock always presents itself to the battledoor40 8,i should think10 said ,tom1 8that the cork points to the battledoor for the same reason that the weathercock always points to the wind40 8,admirably illustrated60 exclaimed his father2 8the cork will always go foremost2 because the air must exert a greater force over the lighter feathers1 and therefore retard their progress4 ,while we are upon this subject1 ,i will introduce to your notice some contrivances which are indebted to this same principle for their operation4 ,in the first place1 there is the arrow2 can you tell me1 ,louisa1 the use of the feathers which are placed round its extremity80 8,to make its head proceed foremost in the air1 by rendering its other end lighter1 and therefore more sensible to the resistance of the air10 replied ,louisa4 8,very well answered2 that is1 unquestionably1 one of the objects of the wings of an arrow2 but there is also another1 that of rifling it1 or steadying its progressive motion1 by causing it to revolve around its axis4 ,if you will look at this arrow1 you will perceive that the feathers are placed nearly1 but not quite1 in planes passing through it2 if the feathers were exactly in this plane1 the air could not strike against their surfaces when the arrow is in motion3 but1 since they are not perfectly straight1 but always a little aslant1 the air necessarily strikes them1 as the arrow moves forward2 by which force the feathers are turned round1 and with them the arrow or reed2 so that a motion is generated about its axis2 and its velocity will increase with the obliquity of the feathers4 ,you will therefore observe that1 in order to enable the feathers to offer a necessary resistance to the air1 they must possess a certain degree of stiffness or inflexibility4 ,it was on this account that ,roger ,ascham1#df and other skilful artists in the days of archery1 preferred the feathers of a goose of two or three years old1 especially such as drop of themselves1 for pluming the arrow2 and the importance1 as well as the theory of this choice1 is confirmed by a curious observation of ,gervase ,markham1#dg who says that #8the peacock feather was sometimes used at the short butt2 yet1 seldom or ever1 did it keep the shaft either right or level6'07#dc7 8,that is intelligible enough10 said ,tom1 8the feather of the peacock must have been so flexible as to have yielded to the slightest breath of air2 and now1 as we are upon the subject of the arrow1 do explain to us the action of the bow40 8,i shall readily comply with your request1 before we part2 but ,i am desirous1 at present1 of following up the subject before us1 and of taking into consideration some other instruments which owe their motions to the action of the air upon oblique surfaces40 8,suppose10 said the vicar1 8you explain to them the action of the wind upon the sails of the mill40 8,i should like to hear something about the windmill10 observed ,tom2 8and1 perhaps1 ,mr4 ,twaddleton can tell us who invented the machine40 8,the invention is not of very remote date10 replied the vicar4 8,according to some authors1 windmills were first used in ,france in the sixth century2 while others maintain that they were brought to ,europe in the time of the crusades1 and that they had long been employed in the ,east1 where the scarcity of water precluded the application of that powerful agent to machinery40 8,i had intended10 said ,mr4 ,seymour1 8to have entered very fully upon the subject of the windmill2 for1 although it is a very common machine1 its construction is much more ingenious than is generally imagined2 it must also be allowed to have a degree of perfection1 to which few of the popular engines have yet arrived3 but to do ample justice to my subject1 ,i should require several models which are not yet in readiness2 besides1 ,tom's holidays have nearly passed away2 ,i must therefore postpone the examination of the mill to some future opportunity1 and content myself1 at present1 with an explanation of its sails40 8,and let me tell you10 observed the vicar1 8that if you succeed in this one object1 you will accomplish a task which has occupied years of mechanical research4 ,the angle which the surface of the sails ought to make with their axis1 in order that the wind may have the greatest effect1 or the degree of weathering1 as the millwrights call it1 is a matter of nice enquiry1 and has much engaged the thoughts of the mathematicians40 8,my remarks upon that subject will be very general10 said ,mr4 ,seymour2 8,i shall explain the principle1 without entering into the minuti of its applications4 ,the vertical windmill1 which is the kind in most common use1 consists1 as you well know1 of an axis1 or shaft1 placed in the direction of the wind1 and usually inclining a little upwards from the horizontal line4 ,at one end of this1 four long arms1 or yards1 are fixed perpendicular to the axis1 and across each other at right angles2 these afford a surface1 on which a cloth can be spread to receive the action of the wind4 ,to conceive why these sails should revolve by the force of the wind1 we must have recourse to the theory of compound motion4 ,it is very evident that1 if a mill exposed directly to the wind should have its four sails perpendicular to the common axis in which they are fitted1 they would receive the wind perpendicularly1 an impulse which could only tend to overturn them2 there is a necessity1 therefore1 to have them oblique to the common axis1 that they may receive the wind obliquely1 when their effort to recede from it causes them to tarn round with the axis2 and the four sails being all made oblique in the same direction1 thus unite their efforts for the common object40 8,you have not yet told us what degree of obliquity the sail ought to make with the wind10 said the vicar4 8,the same as the kite ought to make1 fifty-four degrees and forty-four minutes10 replied ,mr4 ,seymour4 8,do you not remember1 papa1 when we were last in ,london1 you pointed out to us a curious mill on the banks of the river1 which went without any sails80 8,you allude to the horizontal mill at ,battersea40 8,i remember it was at ,battersea10 observed ,louisa2 8and ,i dare say1 papa1 that you recollect the strange story which the waterman1 who rowed us down the river1 told ,tom and myself4 ,he said #8that1 when the ,emperor of ,russia was in ,london1 he took a fancy to the neat little church at ,battersea1 and determined to carry it off to ,russia2 and that for this purpose he had sent a large packing-case2 but1 as the inhabitants refused to let the church be carried away1 the case remained on the spot where it was deposited4'0 8,it is not a bad story10 said her father2 8for the mill certainly1 both in size and figure1 may be imagined to resemble a gigantic packing-case4 ,the mill1 of which you are speaking1 has been taken down1 in consequence of its use having been superseded by the introduction of steam4 ,it was erected by ,captain ,hooper1 who also built a similar one at ,margate4 ,it consisted of a circular wheel1 having large boards or vanes fixed parallel to its axis1 and arranged at equal distances from each other4 ,upon these vanes the wind could act1 so as to blow the wheel round2 but had it acted upon the vane at both sides of the wheel1 at once1 it is evident that it could not have had any tendency to turn it round2 hence1 one side of the wheel was sheltered1 while the other was submitted to the full action of the wind4 ,for this purpose it was enclosed within a large cylindrical framework1 furnished with doors or shutters1 on all sides1 to open at pleasure and admit the wind1 or to shut and stop it4 ,if all the shutters on one side were open1 whilst all those on the opposite side were closed1 the wind1 acting with undiminished force on the vanes at one side1 whilst the opposite vanes were under shelter1 turned the mill round2 but whenever the wind changed1 the disposition of the blinds was altered1 to admit the wind to strike upon the vanes of the wheel in the direction of a tangent to the circle in which they moved40 8,well2 have you any other machine to explain to your scholars80 asked the vicar2 8for10 continued he1 8,i am anxious to present them with a bow and arrow which ,i have provided for their amusement40 8,i will1 if you please1 first describe to them the mechanism of the smoke-jack2 and ,i am desirous of doing so1 as ,i have a very pleasing experiment to exhibit1 which is founded upon the same principle40 ,mr4 ,seymour then described the more common form of this machine4 ,it consisted1 he said1 of a number of vanes1 of thin sheet-iron1 arranged in a circle1 as here represented1 but all set obliquely at a proper angle of inclination4 ,its action was explained in the following manner3--,when a fire is kindled in the chimney1 the air which1 by its rarefaction1 immediately tends to ascend1 strikes on the surfaces of the inclined vanes1 and by a resolution of forces1 similar to that already explained1 causes the spindle1 to which they are affixed1 to turn round1 and consequently communicates the same motion to the spit4 ,the brisker the fire becomes1 the quicker will the machine move1 because in that case1 the air ascends with greater rapidity4 ,illustration3 ,smoke-jack4 8,i will now exhibit to you a mechanical amusement which is founded on the same principle10 said ,mr4 ,seymour4 8,fetch me the piece of pasteboard which lies on the library table40 ,illustration3 ,simple spiral shape4 ,the pasteboard was produced1 and ,mr4 ,seymour described upon it a spiral1 similar to that which is represented in the annexed figure4 ,the spiral was cut out1 and extended1 by raising the centre above the first revolution4 ,it was then suspended upon a small spit of iron1 which had been previously prepared2 by applying the centre or summit of its spiral to its point4 ,the whole was now placed on the top of a warm stove1 7the application of a lamp would have answered the same purpose17 and the machine1 to the great delight and astonishment of the children1 soon put itself in motion1 and turned without the assistance of any apparent agent4 ,the agent1 however1 in this case1 was the air1 which being rarefied by the contact of a warm body1 ascended1 and thus produced a current4 ,the accompanying sketch may render this experiment more intelligible to the reader4 ,illustration3 8,mechanical amusement0 described above4 ,the vicar observed that1 to him1 the experiment was perfectly novel2 although he remembered having seen what he now supposed must have been a similar contrivance1 but which1 until that moment1 he had always considered as the effect of clockwork4 8,and what might that have been80 asked ,mr4 ,seymour4 8,the revolution of a serpent1 which ,i noticed in several windows in ,london1 during a late illumination40 8,undoubtedly2 it was nothing more than a spiral1 so painted as to resemble that reptile1 and which owed its motion to the action of air heated by a lamp placed beneath it40 8,now1 then10 exclaimed the vicar1 8let us direct our attention to the bow and arrow2 see the present ,i have provided for you1 ,tom60 ,so saying1 the worthy clergyman produced a bow and a number of arrows1 together with a target2 which1 at his desire1 had been sent from ,london4 8,i think10 observed ,mr4 ,seymour1 8that you should accompany your gift with some account of archery1 or the art and exercise of shooting with the bow and arrow40 8,that will ,i readily do10 replied ,mr4 ,twaddleton2 who accordingly proceeded as follows3-- 8,the bow is the most ancient and universal of all weapons1 and has been found to obtain amongst the most barbarous and remote nations4 ,in the days of ,david the practice of the bow would appear to have been so general1 that it was not unfrequently made use of as a figure of speech4 ,israel1 when blessing his sons1 says of ,joseph1 #8the archers have sorely grieved him1 and shot at him1 and hated him2 but his bow abode in strength1 and the arms of his hands were made strong1 by the hands of the mighty ,god of ,jacob4'0 8,its earliest application was probably for the purpose of obtaining food10 observed ,mr4 ,seymour4 8,your conjecture has the weight of testimony10 replied the vicar2 8when ,isaac sent ,esau to the forest1 he said1 #8,take1 ,i pray thee1 thy weapons1 thy quiver1 and thy bow1 and go out to the field1 and take me some venison3'#dh and it is even a question1 whether the ,saxon bow was ever used by the ,anglo-,saxons and ,danes for any other purpose than that of procuring food1 or pastime2 for the representation of this bow1 in an ancient manuscript#di of the tenth century1 shows it to have been very differently constructed from what one might expect in a military weapon2 in size1 too1 it was a mere toy1 compared with the bow of succeeding ages40 8,there can be no doubt that the bow and arrow were employed for the purpose of killing animals for food from the earliest times2 but its principal interest is derived from its military applications2 will you1 therefore1 give us a sketch of its history1 and confine yourself to its practice as a warlike instrument in ,england80 8,and may ,i also beg of you1 my dear sir10 added ,mrs4 ,seymour1 8to explain the different terms which are employed to denote its parts and applications2 such information will be1 just now1 highly acceptable to me1 as ,i am reading some romances1 in which those terms are constantly occurring40 8,you shall be obeyed1 madam10 replied the vicar1 with a courteous smile4 8,we are1 probably1 indebted to the ,norman conquest for the introduction of the bow and arrow as a hostile weapon2 but1 before ,i enter upon that subject1 it is necessary to state1 that the bows in use in ,england1 have been of two kinds1 the common or long bow1 and the cross bow4 ,the former does not require any description from me1 the latter1 or ,arbalet1 as it was called1 7from ,arbalesta1 i4 e4 arcu-balista1 a bow with a sling17 consists of a steel bow1 fastened upon a stock1 and is discharged by means of a catch1 or trigger1 which probably gave rise to the lock upon the modern musket40 8,excuse the interruption10 said ,mrs4 ,seymour1 8but do allow me to ask whether ,arquebusade does not derive its name from its having been formerly applied to wounds inflicted by the cross-bow or ,arbalet80 8,i thank you1 madam2 that etymology is entirely new to me1 and will explain the medical name1 ,aqua vulneraria1 which has been applied to that spirit40 ,the vicar now proceeded without further interruption4 8,the invention of cross-bows is said by ancient writers to have come from the ,sicilians4 ,they were first used in ,england by the ,normans at the battle of ,hastings2 and a quarrel or bar-bolt 7which is synonymous with the arrow of the long-bow7 was the immediate cause of ,harold's death4 ,in the reign of ,stephen1 in #aaci1 the second council of ,lateran prohibited their use2 and some historians assert1 that they were not again used in this country till the reign of ,richard ,i41 whose death1 occasioned by one at ,chaluz1 was considered as a judgment on his impiety4 ,from the death of ,richard till the splendid victories of ,edward ,,iii41 we hear little of the cross-bow as a military weapon4 ,its use appears to have been principally confined to the sieges of fortified places1 and to sea-fights4 ,in #acdf1 at the battle of ,cressy1 a large body of ,genoese soldiers1 who were particularly expert in its management1 were in the service of the ,french2 but at the commencement of the action1 a sudden shower wetted the strings1 and prevented the archers from doing their usual execution1 while the ,english were still capable of annoying their enemies by the long-bow with complete success3 both this victory and that of ,poictiers1 ten years afterwards1 were chiefly ascribed by the ,english to their archers4 ,in #adjc1 at the battle of ,shrewsbury1 where ,hotspur was slain1 the archers on both sides did terrible execution2 and the victory of ,agincourt1 in #adag1 was entirely owing to their skill4 ,under ,edward ,,iv4 an ordinance was made1 that every ,englishman and ,irishman1 dwelling in ,england1 should have a bow of his own height1 to be made of yew1 wych1 hazel1 ash1 or any other seasonable tree1 according to their power4 ,by ,henry ,,vii4 and his son ,henry ,,viii4 the use of the cross-bow was entirely forbidden2 and a penalty of ten pounds was to be inflicted on every man in whose house one might be found4 ,from this time they seem to have been chiefly used for killing deer4#ej ,henry ,,viii4 compelled every father to provide a long-bow and two arrows for his son at seven years old4 ,edward ,,vi41 ,elizabeth1 and ,james1 all encouraged archery3 ,john ,lyon1 who founded ,harrow school in #aeij1 two years before his death1 drew up rules for its direction1 whereby the amusements of the scholars were confined to #8driving a top1 tossing a hand-ball1 running1 and shooting4' ,the last mentioned diversion is in a manner insisted on by the founder1 who requires all parents to furnish their children with bow-strings1 shafts1 and tresters1 to exercise shooting4 ,a silver arrow used some years ago to be shot for by the young gentlemen of that school40 ,the vicar concluded1 and received the thanks of the party for the interesting information he had afforded them4 8,there is one circumstance connected with the military history of the long-bow10 said ,mrs4 ,seymour1 8which has somewhat surprised me2 and that is1 why it should so long have continued in estimation after the use of gunpowder40 8,that circumstance10 replied her husband1 8will cease to astonish you1 when you remember that1 until the last century1 muskets were very unwieldy instruments2 they were never used without a rest2 had no bayonets1 and could not be so frequently discharged as they are at present40 8,come10 said the vicar1 8,i perceive that the children are impatient to try their skill with their new instrument2 let us walk out1 and ,i will play the ,scythian#ea upon this occasion40 8,now1 ,tom10 cried ,mr4 ,twaddleton2 8we must have an object4 ,let me see4 ,shall it be the #8but1' #8pricke1' or #8roaver8'#eb ,come1 try whether you can hit yonder gate-post4 ,take your bow1 and here is an arrow40 ,tom took the bow1 and placing the arrow on the string1 was about to draw the latter1 when the vicar exclaimed1 8,stop--stop--you must pull back your hand to your right ear1 in order to shoot the arrow2 whereas you have placed the bow directly before you1 and are about to return your hand to the right breast40 8,i thought10 said ,tom1 8that was the proper position2 for ,i remember reading of the ,amazonian women1 who are said to have parted with their right breasts1 lest they should prove an impediment to their using the bow40 8,i do not mean to assert10 replied the vicar1 8that there is not ample classical authority for your proceeding4 ,the ,amazons undoubtedly shot their arrows in such a position2 and so1 in truth1 did the primitive ,grecians2 although the ancient ,persians drew the arrow to the ear1 according to the fashion of later ages1 and which ,i greatly prefer for its superior convenience4 ,you may also recollect1 as you have been lately reading #8,the ,tales of a ,grandfather1' that the superiority of the ,english archers was ascribed to this mode of using their bows2 the words of ,sir ,w4 ,scott1 if ,i rightly recollect1 are these1 #8,the archers of ,england were taught to draw the bow-string to their right ear1 while other ,european nations only drew it to the breast4' ,now10 continued the vicar1 8if you try the difference of these postures1 you will find that a much longer arrow can be drawn to the ear than to the breast1 because the right arm has more room40 ,the party now amused themselves for some time2 each shooting in his turn at the mark which was chosen for the trial2 and with a success which1 considering it was their first attempt1 the vicar declared to be 8quite marvellous40 ,at the conclusion of the sport1 ,mr4 ,twaddleton informed his friends1 that parochial duties required his attendance at the vestry1 but ,mr4 ,seymour told him that he should expect his company in the evening4 ,it was just six o'clock1 when the sound of the porter's bell1 and the rolling of carriage-wheels1 announced the approach of some important stranger to the lodge4 ,it was ,miss ,villers4 ,were this a romance rather than an instructive history1 we should1 at once1 charge our pencil with the glowing hues of the rainbow1 and proceed to colour the outline which the imagination of the reader must have already sketched3 but the character of the present composition fortunately renders such a task unnecessary2 we say 8fortunately10 for the magazines of romance have actually become insolvent from the numerous and heavy drafts of the novel-writer2 the regions of fancy have been so despoiled of their blossoms1 that scarcely a flower can be culled by him who would entwine a garland for the brow of his heroine2 and such even as may have escaped the grasp of this voracious horde1 will be found to have faded under the withering influence of those insects of literature1 which1 fluttering or creeping about their petals1 have rendered their fragrance pestilential1 and turned their honey into bitterness4 ,where can be found the emblem of that damask lip which1 arched like the bow of ,cupid1 shot an unerring dart1 whenever a smile relaxed its tension8 ,we might describe the perfect symmetry of her form1 but what language could convey to the mind's eye the witcheries with which the graces had surrounded it8 ,we might depict the features of her countenance1 but how could we catch and fix the varying expressions which lighted it up with the magic glow of intelligence8 ,we must1 therefore1 exercise the judgment of ,timanthes1 and leave the reader to the sway of his own imagination4 ----- ,footnote #df3 ,toxoph4 ed4 #aega4 folio #aff4 ,footnote #dg3 ,markham's ,art of ,archerie1 #afcd4 ,footnote #dh3 ,gen4 xlix4 #bc1 #bd4 ,footnote #di3 ,,ms4 ,cott4 ,claud4 ,b4 ,,iv4 ,footnote #ej3 ,see ,shakspeare's ,henry ,,vi4 ,footnote #ea3 ,the ancient nobility of ,greece were instructed by the ,scythians in the use of the bow1 which in those days passed for a most princely education4 ,potter1 ,arch4 ,grc4 tom4 ii4 #a4 iii4 cap4 #d4 ,aquin4 ,lex4 ,milit4 ii4 #bfj4 ,footnote #eb3 ,the #8but' was a level mark2 the #8pricke1' a mark of compass1 but certain in its distance2 the #8roaver1' was a mark of uncertain length4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,a curious dialogue between the ,vicar and ,miss ,villers4--,an enigma4--,the riddles of ,samson and ,cleobulus4--,sound4--,how propagated by arial vibration4--,music4--,a learned discussion touching the superior powers of ancient ,music4--,the magic of ,music1 a game which the author believes is here described for the first time4--,adventures by ,moonlight4--,spirits of the ,valley4 ,on the following morning1 ,miss ,villers1 accompanied by her friends1 proceeded to ,osterley ,park1 to pay her compliments to ,major ,snapwell1 and to add her entreaties to those of ,mr4 and ,mrs4 ,seymour to induce the venerable ,major to spend a few days at ,overton ,lodge4 ,the children1 of course1 had a holiday2 but was it a holiday8 ,tom and his sister have been frequently heard to declare that they never passed a more dull and listless day2 and on resuming their scientific sports1 their manner sufficiently testified that increased pleasure which always accompanies our return to an agreeable occupation4 8,mr4 ,twaddleton10 said ,miss ,villers1 addressing the worthy vicar as he entered the library at ,overton1 8,i am happy to say that ,major ,snapwell has consented to pass a few days with us1 and ,i learn from him that you have been most delightfully engaged in promoting a new scheme of scientific instruction2 it is a subject which greatly interests me1 and ,i shall be most happy in being allowed to become one of your party4 ,to the merits of this system ,i am no stranger10 continued the lady1 8nor am ,i unacquainted1 sir1 with the advantages which your antiquarian knowledge has conferred2 you have garnished the intellectual banquet with some of the choicest flowers of literature40 8,you do me far too much honour1 madam10 said the vicar1 as a gracious smile flitted over his countenance2 8but ,i rejoice to find that you attach a becoming importance to the researches of the antiquary4 ,may ,i be allowed to hope that you will favour me with a visit at the vicarage1 and inspect my poor collection of antiques80 8,i anticipate a great treat1 ,i do assure you10 said ,miss ,villers2 8but you speak too humbly of a collection which the major informs me contains some of the rarest relics of ancient days40 8,the major1 madam1 is no doubt a judge1 an excellent judge1 although he is occasionally----but no matter--no matter4 ,i certainly1 as he justly says1 do possess some few remarkable specimens4 ,i have1 for instance1 an undoubted specimen of the leathern money coined by ,john of ,france2 some very tolerable samples of tapestry of the #8high and low warp2' a series of sigilla or seals2 as well as an interesting collection of impressions in wax1 taken from grants of ,william the ,conqueror1 and what is curious1 the colour of these waxen impressions is1 without any exception1 green1 with a view1 as it has been said1 to signify that the acts should for ever continue fresh and in force4 ,let me consider10 continued the vicar1 8what other curiosities can ,i display for your delight and approbation8 ,rock-basins2 yes1 the rock-basins from ,carn-breh4 ,ay1 madam1 you will be quite astonished at a specimen which--0 ,at this instant1 ,mr4 and ,mrs4 ,seymour1 followed by the children1 entered the apartment1 and abruptly cut the thread of the vicar's harangue4 8,what do ,i hear80 exclaimed ,mr4 ,seymour4 8,rock-basins6 for mercy's sake1 my dear vicar1 let us not again dive into those horrid basins of ,druidism2 do but consider the martyrdom ,i have suffered on account of those pools of lustration40 8,well1 well10 replied the vicar pettishly1 8,i will consent to reserve the question for ,miss ,villers's opinion1 who1 ,i have no doubt1 will readily assent to their authenticity4 ,but ,i have another treasure lately obtained from ,cornwall1 which you have not yet seen--a ,sepulchral stone6--#8,in vestibulo astat1' as the poet has it40 8,why ,i never observed it as ,i passed through the entrance10 said ,mr4 ,seymour4 8,excuse me10 observed the vicar1 8the ,vestibule1 if you please4 ,you doubtless know it was a custom amongst the ,romans to have an altar sacred to ,vesta in the entrance of their houses1 and hence the term2--but ,i beg a thousand pardons--#8venia sit dicto'--,i am perhaps too critical40 8,not only pardon1 but thanks1 my dear sir1 for the information you have afforded us10 said ,mr4 ,seymour4 ,miss ,villers was now invited to be present at one of the scientific conversations4 8,i shall be grateful to you for so pleasing a privilege10 observed the young lady2 8and10 continued she1 8may ,i be allowed to ask whether you have not been lately teaching my young friends the operation of those various toys1 which act by the force of the air2 the object ,i have in view in asking this question you shall presently hear40 8,papa has lately taught us the reason of the kite's ascent1 and the action of the squirt1 sucker1 and pump10 said ,tom4 8,so ,i understood2 and before you proceed with your sportive philosophy1 ,i hope your papa will allow you to try whether you can solve an enigma ,i have composed for you40 8,a riddle60 exclaimed ,louisa2 8how delightful6 ,pray read it1 papa1 and let us try to discover its meaning40 ,her father then opened the paper with which ,miss ,villers had presented him1 and read as follows3-- 8,mortal1 wouldst thou know my name1 ,scan the pow'rs ,i proudly claim4 ,o'er this globe's capacious round ,with fairy sprightliness ,i bound2 ,to ev'ry clime1 to ev'ry soil1 ,with equal hand ,i give my toil4 ,o'er sea and land my power extends1 ,to ev'ry herb my care descends4 ,did ,i withhold my vital breath1 ,nature's forms would sink in death4 ,when confin'd1 or swiftly driven ,by angry spirits in the heaven1 ,my wrath in thunders ,i make known1 ,and discord claims me as her own4 ',tis love of freedom makes me wild1-- ,when uncontroll'd1 my nature's mild2 ,and oft the nymph1 in dewy grot ,seeks solace from my plaintive note2 ,o'er lovers' graves ,i waft a sigh1 ,and breathe the sound of sympathy4 ,and know1 ye sons of ,albion's isle1 ,that when the ,hero of the ,nile1 ,midst crowds with mournful pomp array'd1 ,in the cold lap of ,earth was laid1 ,i sympathis'd with ,britain's tear1 ,and waved the banner o'er his bier4 ',tis ,i who from the trembling lyre1 ,breathe tones of love and soft desire2 ',tis ,i1 the spirit of the shell1 ,who fill with notes the listening dell2 ,and1 when the war-trump sounds alarms1 ',tis ,i who summon men to arms4 ,to man a slave1 though free as air1 ,i grind his corn1 his food prepare2 ,should he to foreign climes proceed1 ,he yokes me like the neighing steed1 ,and1 by my quick but easy motion1 ,he traverses the stormy ocean4 ,his children1 too1 my presence court1 ,to give them toys1 and make them sport3 ,without my aid1 their kites would lie ,as useless weights that ne'er could fly2 ,their humming tops would soundless spin1 ,unless ,i breath'd a spell within4 ,the modest maid1 without my power1 ,would wither like her kindred flower4 ,unless my cup of sweets she sips1 ,where are the rubies of her lips8 ,unless my glowing rouge she seeks1 ,where are the roses of her cheeks8 ,what art again can strew her tresses ,with half the grace my skill possesses8 ,ev'n goddesses are represented ,in draperies which ,i invented4 ,sometimes1 'tis true1 ,i am so frail ,as ruffian-like to raise your veil1 ,and thus to curious man reveal ,the charms you modestly conceal4 ,revenge the deed4 ,announce my ,name1 ,for now you know the powers ,i claim40 8,it is extremely pretty10 exclaimed ,louisa4 8,it is beautiful10 said ,tom2 8but ,i should like to find out the riddle it contains4 ,what can that be which grinds our corn1 and carries our ships across the sea8 ,canvass8 ,yes2 canvass clothes the sails of the windmill and forms those of the ship40 8,and therefore visits every clime2 while1 as long as the sails remain fixed1 they are quite tractable and steady10 added ,louisa4 8,it will not do1 ,louisa2 it cannot be canvass3 for the sail is never boisterous when it is controlled2 but when let loose1 it shivers in the wind and is very unruly2 whereas it is said in the riddle1 #8,when uncontroll'd my nature's mild1' which is quite the reverse4 ,let me see4 ,can it be string8 ,my top could not hum without string40 8,how can string prevent the modest maid from fading like a flower8 ,what says the vicar80 asked ,louisa4 8,davus sum1 non dipus10 exclaimed ,mr4 ,twaddleton4 ,at this moment ,miss ,villers whispered in the ear of her little favourite1 who shortly afterwards exclaimed1 8,i have it1 ,tom1--it is ,,air40 ,the juvenile group now attentively perused the enigma1 in order to discover whether its different parts would admit of such an interpretation4 ,as soon as they arrived at the passage in which was described the waving of the banners over the bier of ,nelson1 ,tom declared that his sister must be wrong2 and was proceeding to offer his reasons1 when ,mr4 ,seymour interrupted him1 by observing1 it was that passage which first suggested to his mind the solution of the enigma2 and satisfied him that ,louisa was perfectly right4 8,it so happened10 continued he1 8that ,i was present during the awful ceremony of ,nelson's interment in ,st4 ,paul's2 and never shall ,i forget the thrilling effect which was produced on the assembled multitude1 by the solemn movement of the banners in the dome1 as the bier slowly advanced along the aisle of the cathedral2 and which was accidentally occasioned by a current of air from the western entrance1 although1 to the eye of fancy1 it seemed as if some attendant spirit had directed the colours1 under which the hero had bled and conquered1 to offer this supernatural testimony of respect and sorrow40 ,miss ,villers observed1 that ,louisa had unquestionably solved the riddle4 8,and pray1 my dear ,mr4 ,twaddleton10 said ,mrs4 ,seymour1 8what say you to these puzzles and rhyming conundrums8 ,do you hold them in as much horror as you would so many puns80 8,by no means1 my good madam4 ,an enigma is a perfectly orthodox species of composition2 and is1 indeed1 sanctioned by the highest authorities of antiquity40 8,i believe10 observed ,mr4 ,seymour1 8that the pastime of riddle-making was extremely popular amongst the ,grecians4 ,plutarch1 if ,i remember correctly1 has told us that the girls of his time worked at netting or sewing1 and that the most ingenious amongst them #8made riddles4'0 8,the most ancient riddle on record10 replied the vicar1 8is to be found in the fourteenth chapter of the book of ,judges40 8,and ,samson said unto them1 #8,i will now put forth a riddle unto you2 if ye can certainly declare it me within the seven days of the feast1 and find it out1 then ,i will give you thirty sheets and thirty changes of garments4' ,and they said unto him1 #8,put forth thy riddle that we may hear it4' ,and he said unto them1 #8,out of the eater came forth meat1 and out of the strong came forth sweetness4'0 8,and did they find it out80 asked ,tom4 8,my dear boy10 replied the vicar1 8you must read the chapter to which ,i have alluded1 and you will thence learn all about this enigma40 8,we have also numerous riddles in prophane writers of ancient date10 observed ,mr4 ,seymour4 8,did you ever read of that invented by ,cleobulus1 one of the seven wise men of ,greece1 who lived #egj years before ,christ80 enquired the vicar4 8,pray be so kind as to relate it10 said ,tom4 ,mr4 ,twaddleton1 in compliance with this request1 proceeded as follows3-- 8,there is a father with twice six sons2 these sons have each thirty daughters1 who are parti-coloured1 having one cheek white1 the other black4 ,they never see each other's faces1 nor live above twenty-four hours40 8,a very strange and unsociable family60 observed ,louisa4 8,i should never guess it10 said ,tom1 8if ,i were to dedicate a year to it40 8,you have1 nevertheless1 my boy1 just pronounced the name of the said father1 and that1 too1 after a single moment's consideration10 replied the vicar4 8,the name of the father6--how8--where80 8,it is a ,,year60 8,a year60 exclaimed the astonished boy4 8,a year60 echoed ,louisa2 8to be sure it is2 ,i now see it all clearly4 ,his #8twice six sons' are the twelve months2 the #8thirty daughters' the days of each month2 and1 since one day must necessarily pass away before the next can arrive1 they may be truly said never to see each other's faces40 8,admirably expounded60 cried the vicar4 8,and each day10 added ,tom1 8is certainly #8parti-coloured1' as it is made up of light and darkness40 8,good1 again6 ,the quick apprehension of these my little playmates10 said ,mr4 ,twaddleton1 as he turned towards ,miss ,villers1 8is highly interesting2 their minds1 from well-regulated discipline1 have acquired the faculty1 if ,i may be allowed the use of the metaphor1 of winnowing a subject1 so as completely to separate the grain from the chaff40 8,it is my intention to proceed this morning with the consideration of those toys which have the property of producing sound10 said ,mr4 ,seymour4 8,i suppose you mean the whistle1 whiz-gig1 and humming-top10 observed ,tom4 8,your papa1 no doubt1 alludes to those instruments10 said the vicar1 8and ,i greatly approve of the arrangement2 since our last lecture embraced the operations of the atmosphere1 a subject with which the nature of sound is certainly intimately connected40 8,we have lately considered the phenomenon of wind1 as produced by the motions of the atmosphere1 and ,i now propose to investigate another species of agitation of which the air is susceptible1 a kind of vibratory or tremulous motion1 which1 striking on the drum of the ear1 produces ,,sound40 8,is it the air which produces sound60 said ,louisa1 with much surprise2 8,i thought it was always occasioned by the vibrations of solid bodies4 ,well do ,i remember1 when ,tom struck the finger-glass1 that you immediately silenced the sound by placing your hand upon it1 and which you told us stopped the vibration of the glass1 and so destroyed the sound40 8,you speak the truth1 but not the whole truth10 replied her father4 8,sound is undoubtedly the result of certain motions1 or vibrations1 produced in sonorous bodies1 but these vibrations are communicated to the air1 and from thence to the ear1 in a manner which ,i shall presently explain40 8,do you mean to say1 papa1 that1 if air were entirely excluded1 bodies would be incapable of producing sound when struck80 8,not exactly4 ,air is the usual conductor of sound1 and unless some other medium be substituted1 the removal of it would prevent a sonorous body from communicating any sensation to the ear4 ,liquids1 however1 are capable of conveying the vibratory motion to the organ of hearing2 for sound can be heard under water4 ,solid bodies will also convey it1 and in a much more perfect and rapid manner7#dd72 thus the slightest scratch with a pin1 upon one end of a long piece of timber1 will be distinctly heard on applying the ear to its opposite extremity4 ,the tramping of a horse is to be perceived at a greater distance by listening with the ear in contact with the ground1 than by attending to the sound conveyed through the air2 and hence1 amongst many eastern tribes1 it is a common practice to ascertain the approach of an enemy1 by applying the ear to the ground4 ,upon the same principle1 if we place our ear against a long brick wall1 and desire a person at a considerable distance to strike it once with a hammer1 it will be heard twice1 the first sound travelling along the wall1 the second through the air40 8,i thank you for that hint10 said the vicar4 8,i now understand the principle of a new instrument which ,dr4 ,doseall employs for examining the pulsations of the heart4 ,he places the end of a wooden rod upon the breast1 and applying the other extremity to his ear1 declares that the sounds1 thus conveyed to it1 enable him to form the most accurate opinion in cases of diseased chest40 8,in the same manner10 observed ,mrs4 ,seymour1 8that you may hear the boiling of the tea-kettle1 by placing the end of the poker on the vessel1 and applying your ear to the handle40 8,i do not exactly understand what you mean by a sonorous body4 ,will not every body produce a sound when struck80 asked ,fanny4 8,those bodies are called sonorous1 which produce clear1 distinct1 regular1 and durable sounds1 such as a bell1 a drum1 musical strings1 wind instruments1 and so on40 8,and upon what does this peculiar property depend80 enquired ,tom4 8,before ,i answer that question1 ,i must explain the supposed nature of those vibrations of the air1 upon which sound depends2 you will then readily perceive why one species of matter should be better calculated than another for exciting them4 ,it is generally believed that sound is conveyed through air by a succession of pulsations similar to those which are occasioned on the surface of smooth water by throwing a pebble into it4 ,this at first produces a small circular wave round the spot in which the stone falls2 the wave spreads1 and gradually communicates its motion to the adjacent waters1 producing similar waves to a considerable extent4 ,the same kind of waves are produced in the air by the motion of a sonorous body1 which will of course be in the centre1 and the waves or pulsations will diminish in strength as they recede from that centre1 until at last they become too weak to produce any effect on the ear40 8,when ,i strike a bell1 then do ,i produce exactly the same motion in the air1 that ,i do in the water by throwing a stone into it80 asked ,louisa4 8,with this difference10 replied her father1 8that as air is an elastic fluid1 the motion does not consist of regularly extending waves1 but of vibrations1 which are composed of a motion forwards and backwards2 the undulations of the air differ also from those of the water1 in not being confined to a plane1 but in diverging in all directions from the centre2 or1 in other words1 the arial undulations are spherical40 8,it is a very puzzling subject10 cried ,tom4 8,i cannot understand10 said ,louisa1 8how the motion of the air can extend so as to convey sound to a distance1 if1 as papa says1 the air moves backwards as well as forwards40 8,i see your difficulty1 and will endeavour to remove it2 attend to me4 ,the first set of undulations which are produced immediately around the sonorous body1 by pressing against the contiguous air1 condense it4 ,the condensed air1 though impelled forward by the pressure1 re-acts on the first set of undulations1 driving them back again4 ,the second set which have been put in action1 in their turn1 communicate their motion1 and are themselves driven back by reaction4 ,thus there is a succession of waves in the air1 corresponding with the succession of waves in the water40 8,now ,i understand why sound requires some time to travel from a distant object to the ear1 as you explained to us upon a former occasion10#ec said ,louisa4 8,but you have not yet told us what renders a body sonorous10 observed ,tom4 8,its elasticity3 a ball of damp clay1 which does not possess this property1 will produce no other sound1 when struck1 but that which arises from the condensation of the small portion of air between the clay and the hammer which strikes it4 ,a hollow ball of brass will produce more sound1 because it is elastic2 but still very little effect will arise from this1 since a ball is the worst shape for admitting of vibration1 on account of its forming an arch or dome1 in every direction1 so that one part stiffens and sustains the other2 but if such a ball be divided1 and the edge of one half of it struck1 a loud1 clear1 and distinct tone will be produced2 because a hemisphere will admit of the exertion of elasticity1 or of momentary change of figure1 which is conducive to the perfection of sound2 and accordingly the bells used for clocks1 and for musical purposes1 have generally such a figure40 8,i see clearly10 said ,louisa1 8that it is the vibration of a sonorous body that communicates the necessary motions to the air2 and ,i suppose that a body vibrates in proportion to its elasticity40 8,certainly it does3 but to render this subject still more intelligible1 ,i have prepared a diagram40 ,mr4 ,seymour then exhibited a figure1 of which the annexed is a copy1 and proceeded to explain it in the following manner3-- ,illustration3 ,diagram of a string vibrating4 8,you are well aware that an elastic body1 after having been struck1 not only returns to its former situation1 but having acquired momentum by its velocity1 like the pendulum or swing1#ed springs out on the opposite side4 ,if1 then1 ,i draw the string ,a ,b1 which is made fast at both ends1 to ,c1 it will not only return to its original position1 but proceed onwards to ,d4 ,this is the first vibration1 at the end of which it will retain sufficient velocity to bring it to ,e1 and back again to ,f1 which constitutes its second vibration2 the third vibration will carry it only to ,g and ,h1 and so on1 till the resistance of the air destroys its motion40 8,that is exactly like the swing or pendulum10 said ,tom4 8,as you are struck with the resemblance1 take care and preserve the remembrance of it2 for ,i shall1 hereafter1 have occasion to revert to it40 8,as ,i now understand how sound is produced and carried to a distance1 ,i should much like to learn the cause of different tones10 said ,louisa4 8,fond as you are of music1 my dear ,louisa1 ,i am not surprised at the wish you have just expressed to become acquainted with the nature of musical sounds2 ,i shall1 therefore1 endeavour to convey1 in as simple a manner as possible1 the theory which has been proposed for their explanation4 ,i think you will immediately perceive that1 if the arial waves which ,i have endeavoured to describe1 should be irregular1 or run into each other1 there must arise a confusion of sounds2 thus discords may be readily imagined to be produced whenever a second vibration shall commence before the first is finished1 so as to meet it half-way on its return1 and interrupt it in its course4 ,in like manner may we conceive the general nature of those arrangements upon which unison and concord depend3 where the vibrations are performed in equal times1 the same tone is produced by both1 and they are said to be in unison2 but concord1 as you well know1 is not confined to unison1 for two different tones harmonize in a variety of cases4 ,if1 for example the particles of one sonorous body vibrate in double the time of another1 the second vibration of the latter will strike the ear at the same instant as the first vibration of the former2 and this is the #8concord of an octave4' ,when the vibrations are as #b to #c1 the coincidence will be at every third vibration of the quickest1 which1 therefore1 is the next degree of perfection1 and is called a #8diapente1' or #8fifth2' while the vibration of #c to #d will produce the #8diatessaron1' or #8fourth2' but this1 and the next which follow in order1 are not so agreeable to the judicious ear1 and are therefore called #8imperfect concords4'0 ,louisa here enquired whether the difference in the acuteness of a sound did not depend upon the nature of the vibrations2 and her father1 in reply1 stated that it depended entirely upon the degree of quickness with which the vibrations were performed3 the slower the vibration1 the graver the tone2 the quicker1 the more acute4#ee 8,but1 if ,i strike any one note of the instrument repeatedly1 whether quickly or slowly1 it always gives the same tone10 observed ,louisa4 8,to understand that fact10 replied her father1 8you must remember that the vibrations of bodies are regulated by laws very similar to those of the pendulum2 consequently the duration of the vibrations of strings or chords depends upon their length1 and thickness2 for if two strings of equal magnitude1 but with their lengths as #b to #a1 be equally stretched1 their vibrations will be in the same ratio2 therefore the shortest will make two vibrations1 while the longest makes one3 but the vibrations of the same string will always be the same whether it be struck quickly or slowly1 upon the principle of the isochronous property of the pendulum1 already described40 8,upon my word1 ,mr4 ,seymour10 cried ,mr4 ,twaddleton1 8you are getting out of your depth2 pray let us take leave of this subject1 for ,i am quite sure that my young friends have already received more than they can carry away40 8,i submit1 my good sir2 and in return for my compliance10 said ,mr4 ,seymour1 8use your influence over ,miss ,villers1 and induce her to favour us with a practical illustration of our subject upon the piano-forte40 8,most cheerfully2 but my intercession is quite unnecessary1 for ,i am sure that our fair friend is no disciple of ,tigellius40#ef 8,i am ever ready1 sir1 to comply with the wishes of those ,i respect4 ,i consider the caprice which our sex too often displays upon these occasions1 as not only a breach of good manners1 but an evidence of unpardonable vanity40 8,pray1 ,miss ,villers1 may ,i be allowed to ask whether you have ever directed your enquiries into the nature of ancient music8 it must have been very superior to that of modern ages10 said ,mr4 ,twaddleton4 8,upon a question of such doubt and difficulty1 ,i feel that it would ill become a person of my very limited knowledge to offer an opinion2 although ,i am willing to confess that the subject has often engaged my attention2 and you could not afford me a greater gratification than by clearing up some of those doubts which have perplexed me4 ,it is1 ,i believe1 admitted1 that we are unable to ascertain the real nature of ancient music3 but it is evident that it was an art with which mankind was extremely delighted2 for not only the poets1 but the historians and philosophers1 of the best ages of ,greece and ,rome1 are as diffuse in its praises1 as of those arts concerning which sufficient remains have descended to evince the truth of their panegyrics40 8,nothing1 as you very justly observe1 is now left us1 but conjecture10 said the vicar2 8and yet it is impossible to read the accounts of the extraordinary effects produced by the different #8modes' of ancient music1 without entertaining a strong conviction of its great superiority over that of modern times4 ,what have we1 my dear ,miss ,villers1 to compare with the soft #8,lydian1' the grave #8,dorian1' or the furious #8,phrygian2' to say nothing of the subaltern modes of ,aristides ,quintilianus and others2 such1 for example1 as the #8erotic1' #8comic1' and #8encomiastic8' ,what modern strains can produce the effects which are recorded to have followed the performance of ,timotheus1 the director of the music of ,alexander the ,great8 ,one day1 while the prince was at table1 the musician performed an air in the ,phrygian mode1 which made such an impression on him1 that1 being already heated with wine1 he flew to his arms1 and was going to attack his guests1 had not ,timotheus immediately changed the style of his performance to the sub-,phrygian1 or ,lydian4 ,this mode calmed the impetuous fury of the monarch1 and induced him to resume his place at table4 ,music10 continued the vicar1 8has1 in modern times1 so fallen from this degree of majesty and power1 as to induce some persons to doubt the truth of the historical statements40 8,i confess1 ,mr4 ,twaddleton10 said ,miss ,villers1 8that ,i have always been inclined to regard ancient music as the mere vehicle of poetry2 and to attribute to the power of the latter that influence which you appear to refer exclusively to the former40 8,i am willing to admit10 replied the vicar1 8that in the ancient theatre1 music always accompanied her sister science1 assisting1 animating1 and supporting her2 in short1 that she was1 in all respects1 her friend and fellow labourer4 #8,qualem decet esse sororem1' as the poet has it3 but does not this rather prove that poetry1 in itself1 was insufficient to produce its effects without the aid of music8 ,in farther proof of the power of ancient music1 permit me to remind you that ,plato has said1 #8,no change can be made in music without affecting the constitution of the state2' and ,aristotle1 who seems to have written his ,politics only to oppose the sentiments of ,plato1 nevertheless agrees with him1 concerning the power which music has over mortals2 and has not the judicious ,polybius told us that music was necessary to soften the manners of the ,arcadians8 ,in short1 madam1 music has lost its power over the passions of mankind1 and this can only have happened in consequence of its having degenerated from its ancient purity and grandeur4 ,if any one should have the hardihood to deny this my position1 let him attend a modern rout in ,london4 ,i have seen1 my dear ,miss ,villers1 a party at a whist-table1 a dozen persons in tte--ttes1 and as many solitary individuals1 sitting like automatons1 not one of them being moved by the concord of sweet sounds1 with which some lady has been endeavouring to delight them4 ,had ,timotheus appeared amongst them6 hey1 ,miss ,villers8 ,i think ,i see the party at the whist-table1 as his lyre successively changed from the ,lydian to the ,phrygian mode4 ,i must1 however1 in justice state1 that ,i once did see a lady lay down her cards in an apparent state of ecstasy1 as a chorus of ,handel suddenly burst upon her ear40 8,and what might that chorus have been80 said ,mr4 ,seymour1 8#8,blest be the hand8' ,but1 joking apart1 you appear to have satisfied your mind upon a point which all the learning of ,europe has left in a state of doubt and perplexity40 8,i have merely delivered an opinion1 sir2 you perhaps will favour us with your judgment40 8,the subject under discussion1 my good sir1 is one upon which no person can ever deliver a judgment40 8,and pray1 ,mr4 ,seymour1 why not80 8,for this plain reason1 that it is not possible we can hear both sides40 8,psha6 will you never cease to sully the pure stream of enquiry with the dregs of ridicule80 8,well1 then1 to be serious2 ,i agree with ,miss ,villers1 that ancient music1 whatever might have been its powers1 was wholly indebted to the poetry which accompanied it for its influence over the feelings of mankind4 ,it could not have been otherwise4 ,the ancient instruments1 as represented in sculpture1 appear so simple as to be apparently incapable of producing great effects2 and1 indeed1 amongst the writings of ,aristoxenus1 the oldest musical author1 we cannot discover a trace of melody or harmony1 such as we understand by air accompanied with different parts40 8,to that very simplicity am ,i disposed to refer the charm of ancient music10 said the vicar2 8it was addressed to the ear1 sir1 whereas modern music is addressed to the eye2 dexterity of execution is1 now-a-days1 more valued than beauty of composition2 the sweetest shepherd that ever piped on his ,doric reed1 would be less applauded than he who can make his pipe squeak for the space of five minutes without respiration4 ,the ancients knew better than to suffer the energy and accentuation of their rhythm to be so destroyed2 and only mark1 sir1 the extreme jealousy with which they regarded every attempt to injure this simplicity2 it even became a subject of legislation2 and you no doubt remember the decree issued against ,timotheus2 which1 as well as ,i recollect1 ran thus1 #8,whereas ,timotheus the ,milesian1 coming to our city1 has dishonoured our ancient music1 and despising the lyre of seven strings1 has1 by the introduction of a greater variety of notes1 corrupted the ears of our youth2 and1 by the number of his strings and the novelty of his melody1 has given to our music an effeminate and artificial dress1 instead of the plain and orderly one in which it has hitherto appeared2 rendering melody infamous1 by composing in the chromatic1 instead of the enharmonic4 ,the kings and the ephori have1 therefore1 resolved to pass censure upon ,timotheus for these things2 and farther1 to oblige him to cut all the superfluous strings of his eleven1 leaving only the seven tones1 and to banish him from our city1 that men may be warned for the future not to introduce into ,sparta any unbecoming customs4'0 8,and now1 my dear vicar1 have you done8 ,have you said all you think necessary1 in defence of ancient music8 ,if so1 hear me1 as the advocate of modern harmony4 ,in the first place1 there is not an anecdote which can be adduced in support of your side of the question1 that may not be met with one parallel1 and equally strong1 in defence of mine4 ,you cite the authority of ,plato1 to show that the constitution of a state may be affected by changing its national music4 ,what said the great ,lord ,chatham8--#8,give me the making of the national ballads1 and ,i care not who makes the laws2' and the effects produced on the ,english people by ,dibdin's songs1 fully justified the maxim3 but remember ,mr4 ,twaddleton1 it was not the music1 but the poetry of those songs1 which kindled the patriotic feelings which saved our country2 and ,i apprehend that this has been the case in all ages1 where the power of music has been said to excite the feelings of the populace4 ,we know that the ancient bards of our own country called forth the emotions of their hearers by the poetry of their songs2 and with what success they practised their calling we may imagine from the fact that ,edward the ,first1 in his conquest of ,wales1 had recourse to the barbarous expedient of murdering all the bards1 from the many obstacles they threw in his way1 by the strong hold which they had over the minds of the people4 ,you have told us a story of ,timotheus1 and the influence of his harp over a drunken monarch4 ,if this is adduced in proof of the power of ancient music1 you must1 at least1 admit that modern times have also had a ,timotheus1 who could excite or calm1 at his pleasure1 the most impetuous emotions4 ,henry ,,iii4 king of ,france1 says #8,le ,journal de ,sancy1' having given a concert on occasion of the marriage of the ,duke de ,joyeuse1 ,claudin le ,jeune1 a celebrated musician of that period1 executed certain airs1 which had such an effect on a young nobleman1 that he drew his sword1 and challenged every one near him to combat2 but ,claudin1 equally prudent as ,timotheus1 instantly changed to an air1 sub-,phrygian1 or ,lydian1 ,i suppose1 which appeased the furious youth4 ,but what shall we say of ,stradella1 the celebrated composer1 whose music made the daggers drop from the hands of his assassins8 ,stradella was attacked by three desperadoes1 who had been hired to assassinate him2 but1 fortunately1 they had an ear sensible to harmony4 ,while waiting for a favourable opportunity to execute their purpose they entered the church of ,st4 ,john de ,lateran1 during the performance of an oratorio1 composed by the person whom they intended to destroy1 and were so affected by the music1 that they abandoned their design1 and even waited on the musician to apprise him of his danger4 ,stradella1 however1 was not always so fortunate2 other assassins1 who apparently had no ear for music1 stabbed him some time afterwards at ,genoa40 8,and thus afforded a practical illustration of a passage of ,shakspeare10 exclaimed the vicar1 8#8,the man that hath no music in himself1 ,nor is not mov'd with concord of sweet sounds1 ,is fit for treasons1 stratagems1 and spoils2 ,the motions of his spirit are dull as night1 ,and his affections dark as ,erebus3 ,let no such man be trusted4'0 8,are you satisfied80 asked ,mr4 ,seymour2 8if not1 ,i will proceed to tell you how ,palma1 a ,neapolitan1 induced a creditor who came to arrest him1 not only to remit his debt1 but to contribute a sum for his support4 ,i will also relate an anecdote of ,farinelli the actor1 who having a pathetic air to sing on the stage to a tyrant who had taken him prisoner1 the person who performed the part of the tyrant1 and was to have refused his request1 was so affected by the music1 that he actually melted into tears1 and clasped the captive in his arms40 8,enough1 enough60 exclaimed the vicar4 8,i see plainly that you believe not in the power of music40 8,in that you wrong me4 ,i certainly do not believe that the ancients were better skilled than ourselves in music2 and ,i have been anxious to convince you that there are as many modern as ancient stories1 in proof of the influence of harmony over our feelings2 but no one will deny that music is capable of producing extraordinary effects4 ,let us only interrogate ourselves1 and examine what have been our sensations on hearing a majestic or warlike piece of music1 or a tender and pathetic air sung or played with expression4 ,who does not feel that the latter tends as much to melt the soul and dispose it to pleasure1 as the former to animate and exalt it8 ,there is a celebrated air in ,switzerland1 which1 ,i have no doubt1 ,miss ,villers will presently play to us1 called #8,rans des ,vaches1' and which had such an extraordinary effect on the ,swiss troops in the ,french service1 that they always fell into a deep melancholy whenever they heard it4 ,louis ,,xiv1 therefore1 forbade it ever to be played in ,france1 under the pain of a severe penalty4 ,we are also told of a ,scotch air1 #8,lochaber no more1' which had a similar effect on the natives of ,scotland4 ,never shall ,i forget the effect produced upon myself by the impressive requiem of ,jomelli1 as performed at the chapel of the ,portuguese embassy to the memory of the late king of ,portugal4 ,the movement with which it commenced was a deep and hollow murmur1 that seemed to swell from the tomb1 and with which the voices of spirits imperceptibly rose1 and intermingled2--a brilliant movement interposed1--it was a ray of hope that pierced the gloom of the sepulchre60 8,i think10 said ,miss ,villers1 8that ,i can exactly appreciate the nature and extent of ,mr4 ,seymour's opinion upon the question at issue4 ,he does not deny the charm which the simple music of the ancients must have exercised over the hearer1 although he attributes much of the effect to the poetry1 of which it may certainly be said to have been the vehicle2 and he evidently concurs with you1 ,mr4 ,twaddleton1 in thinking that1 owing to the intricate combinations of modern harmony1 our astonishment at the execution of the artist too frequently overcomes the influence of the musical tones upon our passions4 ,i perceive1 however1 from the expression of our friend's countenance10 continued the young lady1 8that1 like a true antiquary1 he clings to his subject1 though his support be no stronger than a cobweb2 under such circumstances ,i may be permitted to declare my sentiments upon the occasion1 and ,i shall avail myself of this opportunity to express my humble testimony of gratitude1 for the information and pleasure which ,i have just derived from your conversation4 ,i believe then1 gentlemen1 that the language of modern music is no less forcible and expressive than that of ancient days2 and if you will only allow me to exemplify this truth by an experiment1 ,i feel convinced that the vicar will become my proselyte40 8,indeed1 madam6 ,well1 ,i will consent to trust the cause in your hands10 said ,mr4 ,twaddleton4 8,allow me then to ask you1 sir1 whether you have ever heard of a game1 which is justly entitled to the appellation of the ,,magic ,,of ,,music80 8,never10 replied the vicar2 8nor can ,i imagine either the nature1 or objects of such a game40 8,its object is to display the power of music as an expressive language2 the manner in which ,i propose to exemplify it1 ,i will1 with your permission1 explain in a few words4 ,the musical performer shall place herself at the harp1 or piano-forte1 surrounded by the party who are desirous of witnessing the pastime2 the person to be operated upon must retire from the apartment1 until the service which1 under the direction of the music1 it is determined he shall perform1 is duly agreed upon and arranged4 ,such person is then to be re-admitted2 not a word1 look1 or gesture1 is to escape from any one present2 by the expression of the music alone is he to receive his instructions1 and1 unless ,i am much deceived1 you will find that this is amply sufficient for the purpose40 8,my dear madam1 the thing is utterly impossible10 exclaimed the vicar4 8,it cannot be done2 unless1 indeed1 you really possess the secret of the ancient #8modes1' which were not even known to ,meibomius1 the learned commentator upon the ,greek musician ,alypius2 nay1 ,isaac ,vossius himself1 the expounder of rhythm1 were he now alive1 would never credit it40 8,are you willing to make the experiment10 said ,miss ,villers2 8if so1 be so kind as to leave the room for a few minutes40 ,the vicar accordingly prepared to depart1 casting at the same time1 upon his fair companion1 a look which sufficiently expressed the scepticism he felt upon the occasion4 8,but you have not told me10 said he1 8by what signal ,i am to return1 and submit to the proposed ordeal40 8,the music will inform you1 if you pay sufficient attention to its language10 replied ,miss ,villers4 ,the door having been carefully closed1 the company were consulted1 in a whisper1 as to the service they should require the vicar to perform4 8,i should propose10 said ,miss ,villers1 8that ,mr4 ,twaddleton be directed to take a rose out of the basket of flowers on the chimney-piece1 and having smelt it1 to carry it to the harp40 8,and do you propose to express all these different movements by the aid of music8 ,if you succeed1 there must be an end to the vicar's scepticism10 observed ,mr4 ,seymour4 8,if ,i fail upon this occasion1 it will be the first time10 said ,miss ,villers3 8but you must all promise to be silent1 and to maintain the most absolute command over your countenances40 ,miss ,villers seated herself at the piano-forte1 and played off an elegant and sparkling overture1 which so delighted ,mrs4 ,seymour that she involuntarily exclaimed1 8,if music can be made to speak an intelligible language1 it must be under the guidance of ,miss ,villers40 8,hush10 cried the performer1 in a half whisper3 8,i am now about to summon the vicar into the room1 and we must be as silent as ,carthusians40 ,she accordingly1 with exquisite taste and address1 introduced the air of 8,open the door1 ,lord ,gregory10 into which she infused so much expression1 that the vicar must have been as dull as ,midas had he not instantly caught its meaning4 ,nor were the lady's hopes disappointed4 ,mr4 ,twaddleton entered1 and appeared as if anxious to address the performer2 but an intelligible glance from ,mr4 ,seymour recalled him to his duty1 and hermetically sealed his lips4 ,his intention had been1 doubtless1 to enquire whether his appearance were seasonable2 but the question was anticipated by ,miss ,villers1 who immediately on his entrance struck up the air of 8,see the conquering ,hero comes10 which1 at once1 satisfied his doubts1 and conveyed1 in language not to be misunderstood1 the sanction of the enchantress1 to whose spells he had so unreservedly intrusted himself4 ,the vicar had been told that he was to perform certain acts on his re-admission into the room2 but1 thought he1 how am ,i to discover the thread which is to guide me through so perplexing a maze8 ,i can discover at this moment nothing but a concord of sweet sounds1 that would rather dispose me to listen in profound repose1 than to enter upon any service of exertion4 ,miss ,villers saw and guessed the nature of his embarrassment1 and changing the melody1 struck into the air of 8,hearken and ,i will tell thee how40 ,she then1 by a succession of well-selected chords1 which were now played #8piano1' and now #8forte1' convinced the vicar that she commanded an instrument fully capable of readily and forcibly expressing encouragement and repulse in all its degrees4 8,thus much then is certain10 mentally ejaculated the vicar1 8that she is enabled1 by the aid of music1 to signify her approbation1 or disapprobation1 of any act which ,i may attempt to perform4 ,i accordingly predicate of this said music1 that it is1 bon fide1 a logical weapon2 inasmuch as it can affirm and deny4 ,it1 therefore1 only remains for me1 knowing as ,i do that ,i have some act to perform1 to ascertain the #8locus' or #8ubi1' for the act in question1 whatever it may be1 must of necessity be done or accomplished #8in proprio loco1' or in some definite part of the room40 ,with this determination1 founded1 as he believed it to be1 on the unerring basis of ,aristotelian logic1 he advanced towards the table2 but the loud and discordant sounds of the instrument at once convinced him1 that1 however correct his notions might be with reference to the #8substance' or first #8predicament1' they were evidently erroneous as to the #8accidents1' of #8time1' #8place1' and #8relation2' at least1 such were the ideas that floated through the categorical organ of his cranium1 and he accordingly faced about1 and made a retreat towards the window2 but the notes now became still more clamorous1 and increased in vehemence4 ,ay1 ay1 thought he1 it is quite evident that ,i am receding from the theatre of action2 and with this conviction he diverted his steps into a different direction1 and1 in a slow pace1 tracked the path by his ear1 with as much sagacity as a dog follows his prey by his nose4 ,as he approached the fire-place1 the storm of sounds gradually subsided1 until a peaceful murmur breathed around1 which finally died away as the vicar placed his hand upon the chimney-piece4 ,so then it appears1 after all1 that ,i have some service to perform at the fire-side4 ,it is1 doubtless1 to sit down1 thought he1 as he espied the elbow-chair1 which1 at that moment1 appeared to his fancy1 as if stretching forth its hospitable arms to receive him2 but scarcely had he answered the imaginary invitation of his old friend1 by presenting the nether part of his person to its luxurious lap of down1 than a sudden sforzato1 or crash in the minor key1 made him rebound upon his legs1 as nimbly as though the cushion had been a bed of thorns4 ,miss ,villers now resolved the discord1 and dexterously dashed into an allegro movement1 in which she introduced the air of 8,how sweet are the flowers that grow60 ,the vicar's face mantled with a smile1 as the bouquet on the chimney-piece met his eye1 and harmonised with the sounds that floated in his ear4 ,it is evident1 thought he1 that those flowers are the objects of my pursuit1--but what was he to do with them8 ,the musician solved the question1 by tastefully exchanging the former air for that of 8,ask if yon damask rose be sweet40 ,no sooner had these notes delivered their melodious errand to the subtle ear of the vicar1 than he instantly seized the rose1 and carried it in triumph to his olfactory organs2 at the same moment the music ceased4 ,the pause1 however1 was but of short duration2 for ,miss ,villers1 by resuming her labours1 intimated that some farther service was expected4 ,was he to return the rose8 ,certainly not2 for the attempt was marked by strong disapprobation4 ,was he to take it out of the room8 ,the music put a decided negative upon that movement2 for the vicar had scarcely measured half the distance of the apartment before the air of 8,fly not yet0 arrested his steps4 ,by a continuation of the same varying style of expression1 and strongly marked rhythm1 the vicar was shortly led to affix the rose upon the harp4 8,upon my word10 exclaimed the vicar1 8,i shall no longer hesitate to credit the story related in #8,peter ,simple1' of a certain lady who played so exquisitely1 that upon introducing an imitation of thunder1 the cream for tea became sour1 besides three casks of beer in the cellar60 ,in closing our account of this interesting scene1 it is scarcely necessary to describe the delight and mirth of the juvenile party4 ,it was1 in truth1 a very extraordinary exhibition2 and when the reader considers that1 beyond what was furnished by the expressive language of music1 the vicar did not receive a single hint for his guidance1 he may1 perhaps1 cherish some scepticism upon the subject2 but we can assure him that we have repeatedly witnessed1 not only a similar but a still more complicated performance of the same kind1 and with equal success47#de7 ,the evening of the day on which this musical divertisement was performed1 was one of those which so frequently occur in ,august1 when sultry heat is succeeded by refreshing coolness4 ,isabella ,villers possessed a quick sensibility to the beauties of nature1 and she quitted the drawing-room to enjoy1 without interruption1 that pensive quiet which maintained an undisputed dominion4 ,the moon had but just risen1 tipping the summits of the wood with silver1 while it left the mass of foliage in deeper shadow4 ,never was there a fairy scene better calculated to awaken the emotions of the heart1 or to kindle the energies of the imagination4 ,the hour too was propitious to the indulgence of that undefined species of reverie which is the refinement of intellectual pleasure4 ,having traversed the winding path of the wood for some distance1 she found herself in one of those sequestered glades we have formerly described4 ,she seated herself on a rustic bench1 tastefully formed out of an aged oak1 whose venerable figure was bending under the hand of ,time1 and her mind was gratefully lulled into a pensive calm by the review of past events1 as the ear is soothed by the murmur of wild and distant music4 ,a sudden breath of wind1 as it swept the foliage1 aroused her from her reverie1 and turned the current of her ideas from past scenes to future prospects4 ,the moon1 as if in sympathy1 suddenly peered through the sylvan avenue1 and threw her rays upon one of those statues which we have already described as giving such an air of classic sanctity to these secluded glades4 ,it was the figure of ,,time1 which in the gloom of the wood had hitherto escaped her observation4 ,to a mind of exuberant fancy1 a leaf cannot fall to the ground1 nor a zephyr waft the fragrance of the violet on its dewy pinions1 without conveying some beautiful emblem of morality4 ,isabella rose from her seat1 and approached the figure1 whose hoary countenance appeared as if lighted up into a placid smile by the beams of the moon1 which fell directly upon it2 her eye glanced from his face to his scythe2 its blade was hidden in a cluster of roses--,were ,i susceptible of a superstitious impression1 thought ,isabella1 did ever a circumstance present itself better calculated to justify its indulgence8 ,on the pedestal of the figure was a basso relievo1 in which ,time appeared in the act of shivering into pieces the club of ,hercules with a crutch4 ,in a few minutes1 she quitted the scene1 which1 in spite of her better reason1 she could not wholly divest of its prophetic influence1 and proceeding along the winding path1 at length descended into the valley4 ,the moon was at this time shrouded in dark clouds1 and although1 by a painful effort1 ,isabella ,villers summoned all the powers of her vision1 the objects around her remained invisible1 until the eye had so far accommodated itself to the gloom1 as to recognise the white foam of the waterfall4 ,the moon now gave a coy and furtive glance1 the water for an instant sparkled in her beams1 and then was lost in deeper shadow4 ,a spectre of human form1 but of gigantic stature1 arose from the spot to which the eyes of ,isabella had been directed--was it the spirit of the ,fountain8 ,it appeared to advance1 but the moon once again shining forth in splendour1 it vanished4 8,and what seem'd corporal melted ,as breath into the wind40 ,the courage of ,isabella was destined to sustain another trial1 for scarcely had the vision disappeared than she distinctly heard her own name pronounced2 and since1 from the direction of the sound1 she well knew that the spot from which it issued was inaccessible1 we ought not to feel surprised at her having at the instant referred it to a supernatural origin--it was1 however1 but the illusion of the moment1 and she determined to return to the house and submit the events of the evening to the judgment of ,mr4 ,seymour4 ,we shall not trespass any longer upon the patience of the reader1 than to state that ,miss ,villers arrived safely at the lodge1 and very shortly afterwards retired to rest4 ,with your permission1 gentle reader1 we will follow her example2 for1 to say the truth1 our lamp--that midnight sun which illumines the path of the author1 is dimmed by the dark clouds that lower at its setting2 our ,pegasus1 the pen1 which has raced for so many hours over the snowy plains of foolscap1 is fairly 8done up10 and refuses any longer to sip of that spring which can alone sustain its powers1 and impart utility to its movements4 ,ecce6 ,illustration3 ,a feather4 ----- ,footnote #ec3 ,see p4 #ce4 ,footnote #ed3 ,see page #afc1 et seq4 ,footnote #ee3 ,the number of vibrations made by the wings of insects1 as before stated1 has been ingeniously deduced from the tone which they produce4 ,footnote #ef3 ,horat4 ,sat4 lib4 i4 sat4 #c4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,origin of the ,crescent as the ,turkish ,ensign4--,apparitions dispelled by ,philosophy4--,musical instruments classed under three divisions4--,mixed instruments4--,theory of wind instruments4--,the ,jew's ,harp4--,the ,statue of ,memnon4--,an interesting experiment4--,the ,flute4--,the whiz-gig1 etc4--,echoes4--,the ,whispering ,gallery in the ,dome of ,st4 ,paul's4--,the ,speaking ,trumpet4--,the ,invisible ,girl4--,other ,acoustic ,amusements4 ,on entering the library on the following morning1 ,mr4 ,seymour informed ,miss ,villers1 that ,major ,snapwell had taken his departure1 in order to breakfast with the vicar1 and that he had invited ,tom and ,louisa to accompany him1 for the sake of inspecting the cabinet of medals2 but he added1 that he expected the return of the party at two o'clock1 when he proposed to give them a lecture upon the philosophy of the several toys which are indebted for their action to atmospheric vibrations4 8,suppose1 then10 said ,miss ,villers1 8that we walk towards ,forest ,lane1 and meet them on their return4 ,this arrangement10 she added1 8will afford me an opportunity of communicating to you the history of some adventures ,i encountered last evening1 and of taking your opinion upon them40 8,you well know10 answered ,mr4 ,seymour1 8that you may always command my services--but you have really raised my curiosity3 what can be the nature of the adventures you speak of80 ,miss ,villers then entered into a particular account of all she saw and heard the preceding evening2 with which the reader is already acquainted4 ,mr4 ,seymour1 however1 suggested the propriety of abstaining from any discussion upon the subject until the children were present to hear it2 for1 said he1 8,i am most desirous that they should be familiarized with those natural sources of illusion which enlighten the wise1 while they minister to the superstitious fears of the ignorant40 ,they had not reached the entrance of ,forest ,lane1 before they perceived the vicar with ,tom and ,louisa1 followed by the ,major4 8,papa10 cried ,tom1 as he ran to meet his father1 8we have had a most delightful morning2 amongst other things1 do you know we have found out the meaning of the crescent which the ,turks always wear1 and use as their ensign40 8,indeed6 well1 then1 let me hear your explanation10 said his father4 ,major ,snapwell and the vicar had by this time joined the party1 and with their assistance ,tom was enabled to offer the following account of it4--,the crescent appears on the early coins of ,byzantium1 and was intended to commemorate the defeat of ,philip of ,macedon1 who1 as he was about to storm it on a cloudy night1 was discovered by the sudden light of the moon4 ,when the ,turks entered ,constantinople1 they found this ancient badge in various parts of the city1 and suspecting that it might possess some magical power1 they assumed the symbol and its power to themselves2 so that the crescent became1 and still continues to be1 the chief ,turkish ensign4 8,well1 ,i must own that you have given me a new and very curious piece of historical information1 and ,i thank you for it10 said ,mr4 ,seymour4 8,medals1 then1 are occasionally of some little use10 remarked the vicar1 with a sarcastic smile2 for if the truth must be told1 the reverend antiquary had been a little nettled as usual by the freedom with which ,major ,snapwell had criticised some of his rarities2 but let that pass4 ,as soon as the party reassembled after the excursion of the morning1 the circumstances which so greatly astonished ,miss ,villers on the preceding evening1 were again related by her4 8,my dear young lady10 observed ,mr4 ,seymour1 8,i never heard a better story for illustrating the illusions to which the senses are exposed2 and if you will read the second letter on #8,natural ,magic1' by ,sir ,david ,brewster1 you will obtain a ready explanation of your vision--but let us examine it philosophically4 ,in the first place you acknowledge that your imagination had been previously excited during your ramble through the wood1 and more especially by your reverie at the statue of ,time2 now it is well known that such a condition of the mind prepares and adapts the organs of vision for those illusions which ,i am about to explain4 ,you have told us that1 on your descent into the valley1 the moon had withdrawn its light1 and several minutes had elapsed before an object became visible1 and that was the white foam of the waterfall40 8,if ,i rightly remember1 ,brewster has stated that the spectres that are conjured up by the imagination are always white1 because no other colour can be seen at night10 observed ,mrs4 ,seymour4 8,undoubtedly10 replied her husband2 8and as these spectres are formed out of objects whose different parts reflect different degrees of light1 their fainter parts will appear and disappear with the ever varying degree of illumination which is occasioned by the moon shining through a veil of clouds1 and a change even of shape will be thus produced which will impart to the object in question the semblance of a living form4 ,the actual state of the eye itself will also greatly assist in completing such an illusion2 for1 in consequence of the small degree of light1 the pupil expands to nearly the whole width of the iris1 in order to collect every ray1 and in such a condition it cannot accommodate itself to see near objects distinctly1 so that the form of a body actually becomes more shadowy and confused when it comes within the very distance at which we count upon obtaining the best view of it40 8,you have certainly explained the reason why bodies seen under a faint illumination may appear distorted and caricatured2 indeed1 ,i now remember that ,sir ,walter ,scott1 in his 8,pirate10 has given us a very good illustration2 for ,cleveland when abandoned on ,coffin bay is said to have seen many a dim and undefined spectre in the misty dawn4 ,but ,i am still at a loss to understand how the vision ,i witnessed in the valley could have been conjured up10 said ,miss ,villers4 8,it was the doubtful and flickering light of the clouded moon upon the mass of white sandstone10 said ,mr4 ,seymour4 8,it is a great law of the imagination1 that a likeness in part tends to become a likeness of the whole4 ,the sandstone presented1 in the first instance1 a form somewhat resembling the human figure1 or some part of it1 when your active imagination immediately completed the outline2 just in the same way as we trace images in the fire1 or castles in the clouds1 or grotesque figures of men and animals on damp walls407#df7 8,i am satisfied10 said ,miss ,villers1 8and ,i thank you1 and ,sir ,david ,brewster1 for the lecture2 and now10 continued the lady1 8how will you explain the circumstance of my name having been so audibly pronounced1 and from a spot which made it impossible that it should have come from any human being80 8,it was the solitary spirit of the dell10 said ,mr4 ,seymour1 with a smile2 8a rural spirit who is disposed to become very loquacious whenever the repose of her habitation is disturbed4 ,i can assure you10 added he1 8that you are not the first person whom her gambols have surprised and terrified in the shades of evening4 ,i presume you have discovered that ,i allude to that unseen musician of the air--,,echo40 8,indeed1 ,mr4 ,seymour1 the sound could not have been the effect of an echo1 for ,i never spoke10 replied ,miss ,villers4 8,very likely1 but ,i happen to know that ,mrs4 ,seymour called you by name at the orchard gate40 8,nor will that explain it10 observed ,miss ,villers1 8for in that case ,i must certainly have heard her1 whereas the sound came in a very different direction1 from the inaccessible rocks of sandstone40 8,young lady10 said ,mr4 ,seymour1 8you must forgive me for telling you that your philosophy is at fault4 ,it is as possible to hear an echo1 without recognising the direct sound which produced it1 as it is for two persons to be so placed as to see each other in a looking-glass1 although objects might obstruct the direct view of themselves4 ,did you never walk between an irregular wall and a row of houses1 or along a valley intercepted by houses during the ringing of a peal of bells8 ,nothing is more common under such circumstances1 for the sound instead of arriving at the ear1 in its true direction1 to be reflected in one that is opposite to it2--now before we quit the subject of optical illusion1 let me relate an incident which occurred to myself4 ,i presume you are all acquainted with the appearance in the grass1 called a ,fairy-ring80 8,to be sure10 said ,tom1 8a very dark circle of grass1 around which there is generally a ring that looks as if the ground had been burnt40 8,very well1--and we are now satisfied that this appearance is the consequence of the growth and decay of certain fungi7#dg71 although the common people still believe that the ring is produced by the gambols of fairies--now then for my story4 ,it was on a moonlight night1 last ,august1 when strolling along a neighbouring meadow1 enjoying the beauties of the evening1 that ,i met a young farmer1 an intelligent person1 although a little inclined to a belief in the marvellous1 who1 on approaching with a hasty step1 thus accosted me2--#8,you have often ridiculed my belief in fairies1 and of their being the cause of those rings which go by their name2 you may now1 if you please1 satisfy yourself of their reality1 if you will only return with me to the elm close1 which1 as you know1 abounds with fairy-rings4 ,within the last few minutes ,i have actually seen them at their gambols under the great elm2 they are1 sir1 tiny beings which1 as far as ,i could judge at a distance1 cannot be more than a few inches in height2 but there they are1 frisking away most merrily3 pray1 sir1 do let us return1 and satisfy yourself as well as me4'--,you may readily suppose that ,i lost no time in complying with my friend's request2 and sure enough there they were40 8,what1 the fairies60 exclaimed ,louisa1 in astonishment4 8,have patience1 my dear1 and you shall hear4 ,i confess10 continued ,mr4 ,seymour1 8that at the first glance1 ,i was almost startled into a belief in the reality of my friend's assertion1 but on approaching1 the ,fairy ,queen and her court were changed into a circle of fungi1 to which the shadowy play of the leaves of the neighbouring tree had1 in the light of the moon1 given the appearance of a fantastic motion4 ,the illusion1 ,i will admit1 was very extraordinary1 and one well calculated to impose upon the credulous countrymen40 ,the young party were much amused by the anecdote1 and the vicar took this opportunity to explain1 on natural principles1 several superstitious appearances recorded in ancient legends4 ,mr4 ,seymour now proposed to dedicate an hour to the explanation of the several toys which owe their action to atmospheric vibration2 8,i shall then10 said he1 addressing ,miss ,villers1 8be at your service to interrogate the spirit of the valley2 and the children1 whom ,i intend to accompany us1 will be thus better prepared to comprehend the theory of the echo40 8,musical instruments1 amongst which ,i include the toys to which ,i have alluded1 may be classed under three heads3--stringed instruments1 such as the harp1 violin1 c42 wind instruments1 as the flute and trumpet2 and instruments of percussion1 as the tabor and drum40 8,and which kind do you consider the most ancient80 asked ,miss ,villers4 8,wind instruments1 madam1 most unquestionably10 cried ,mr4 ,twaddleton4 8,diodorus ascribed their invention to the accidental notice of the whistling of the wind in the reeds1 on the banks of the ,nile2 and the poet ,lucretius maintained a similar opinion40 8,i really1 my dear ,sir1 cannot see any good reason for giving this preference1 in point of antiquity1 to wind instruments10 said ,mr4 ,seymour4 8,the lyre1 or harp1 is1 surely1 as ancient as any instrument on record4 ,the mythologist ascribes the idea of producing sound by the vibration of a string1 to ,apollo2 which is said by ,censorinus to have suggested itself to him1 on his hearing the twang of the bow of his sister ,diana4 ,with respect to instruments of percussion1 it may be reasonably supposed that the sonorous ringing of hollow bodies1 when struck1 must have very soon suggested their invention to mankind2 but ,i really consider any research into a question of such obscurity as uninteresting as it must be hopeless2 let us rather devote our attention to the philosophy of these instruments4 ,i have stated that they may be referred to three principal classes2 but ,i must at the same time observe that1 in some cases1 the vibrations of solid bodies are made to co-operate with those of a given portion of air2 for example1 trumpets and various horns may be said to be mixed wind instruments1 since their sound is produced by the joint vibrations of the air and a solid body2 and in certain stringed instruments1 as in the violin1 the immediate effect of the strings is increased by means of a sounding-board1 which appears to be agitated by their motion1 and to act more powerfully on the air than the strings could have done alone40 8,i apprehend that this mixture must obtain more or less in all instruments10 said the vicar4 8,not at all4 ,the flute1 flageolet1 humming-top1 and the cavity of the mouth in whistling1 may be considered as simple wind instruments1 in which the quality of the sound is alone determined by the vibrations of the air4 ,i have already explained the manner in which the oscillations of a string excite arial undulations1 and thus produce sound2 and you have seen that the nature of these sounds is determined by the length and thickness of such strings3 the theory equally applies to wind instruments1 in which case1 a column of air corresponds with the string1 the volume and length of which determines the sound4 ,in the harp1 the strings are constructed of different lengths and dimensions2 and so1 in the ,syrinx1 or ,pan's pipes1 is the volume of air adjusted to the respective notes by the size and length of the reeds2 but1 in the violin1 the lengths of the strings are altered at pleasure by pressing them down on the finger-board2 and1 in like manner1 the effective length of the flute is changed by the opening or shutting the holes made at proper distances in them2 the opening of a hole at any part being the same in effect as if the pipe were cut off a little beyond it40 ,mr4 ,seymour and the vicar then entered into a long discussion1 with which it is not our intention to swell our history1 or to exhaust the patience of the reader2 we shall1 however1 with his permission1 collect from the mass some of the more interesting facts1 and present them in as condensed a form as may be consistent with perspicuity4 ,in speaking of the ,jew's harp1 a little instrument with which every school-boy is well acquainted1 the vicar stated that its origin was lost in the long lapse of time2 but that it was in very common use throughout ,europe1 and more especially in the ,netherlands and the ,tyrol1 where it was the delight of the peasants and their families4 ,he also said that it was known in ,asia1 and that the ,greeks of ,smyrna called it1 in imitation of its sound1 biambo4 ,the name by which it is now known1 he observed1 was evidently derived from the ,jews1 who were formerly the great venders of it1 and of other toys throughout ,europe1 although he stated that his friend ,mr4 ,prybabel was of opinion that it was a corruption of jaw's harp4 ,mr4 ,seymour described its construction1 and the theory of its action4 ,illustration3 ,jew's harp4 ,it is composed of two parts1 the body and the tongue3 the former has some resemblance to the handle of a certain kind of corkscrew2 the latter consists of a little strip of steel1 joined to the upper part of the body1 and bent at its extremity1 so that the fingers may touch it more readily4 ,this tongue1 or elastic plate1 produces1 in itself1 only a sound which serves as a drone1 although it appears to act like the motion of the bow of a violin in exciting other sounds1 by breaking the current of air from the mouth1 the acuteness or gravity of which will be determined by the pressure of the lips1 and the magnitude of the cavity of the mouth4 ,to understand1 however1 this part of its operation1 it is necessary that the reader should become acquainted with the nature and effects of what have been termed ,resonances1 and ,reciprocated ,vibrations of ,columns of ,air4 ,this property of sounding bodies1 which to the ignorant must appear as an inexplicable species of sympathy1 will be more fully explained in a note7#dh72 at present we shall merely give one or two examples of its effects4 ,a singer has been known to break into pieces a large tumbler glass by the power of his voice2 and a violin suspended against a wall may be heard to yield the same notes as those produced by a performer on a similar instrument in the same room4 ,to produce such an effect1 however1 one condition is indispensable1 that the body to be put in vibration must be in unison1 or agreeing in pitch1 with the one communicating the sound4 ,hence the necessity of so adapting the capacity of the mouth in playing the ,jew's harp1 as to make the column of air which it contains to reciprocate the sound of its tongue4 ,the subject was agreeably concluded by some anecdotes which were related by ,miss ,villers1 in proof of the astonishing powers of this little instrument when directed by the skill of a master4 ,for the sake of those who may be curious upon this subject we have introduced an account of two great performers1 in an additional note7#di74 ,in speaking of the flute1 ,mr4 ,twaddleton took occasion to observe1 that its name was derived from fluta1#eg a lamprey1 or small ,sicilian eel1 which has seven holes on each side2 an etymology which will probably be as new to our readers as it was to ourselves4 ,the children also received their share of instruction and amusement upon this occasion4 ,tom1 for the first time1 became acquainted with the use of the pea in the whistle1 which1 he was told1 was to agitate and break the current of air1 and thus to produce a succession of quick vibrations upon which the acuteness of its sound depended4 ,louisa exhibited her whiz-gig1 which1 for the information of the unlearned reader1 we may state to consist of a hollow disc of wood1 having an opening in its side1 like that in the humming-top2 by the alternate coiling and uncoiling of the cord upon which it is strung it receives a circular motion1 the rapidity of which produces1 by means of its opening1 an arial vibration that gives a loud ringing sound4 8,i should very much like to hear your opinion of that ,egyptian wonder1 the statue of ,memnon10 said the vicar4 8,its history10 answered ,mr4 ,seymour1 8is involved in considerable doubt and difficulty4 ,authors of credit agree in stating that it certainly saluted the rising sun with a musical sound2 but doubts are still entertained as to the cause which produced it1 whether it was the effect of mechanism1 or a juggle of the ,egyptian priests4 ,an ,english traveller1 ,sir ,a4 ,smith1 informs us that he visited the statue1 and actually heard the sounds at six o'clock in the morning2 but he believes that they proceeded1 not from the figure1 but from the pedestal1 and he considers that they may arise from the impulse of the air upon the stones of which it is constructed4 ,others have supposed that the heat of the sun's rays1 concentrated by a mirror1 may have acted upon plates of metal so as to produce the effect4 ,it is not my intention to argue this point2 but ,i will show you an experiment1 by which you will1 ,i think1 be convinced that a statue might easily be constructed like the ,memnon to yield musical sounds by the application of heat1 whether derived from the solar rays1 or from any other source40 ,illustration3 ,the 8piece of apparatus0 described below4 ,mr4 ,seymour produced a piece of apparatus1 of which we here present the reader with a sketch4 ,it consists of an oblong block of copper1 one surface of which is flat1 the other formed by two planes meeting at an obtuse angle1 and having a groove at the point of junction ,a4 ,to this block a handle is affixed4 ,mr4 ,seymour having thus described the form of the instrument1 and stated that its construction was solely directed with a view of making it oscillate freely on any plain surface1 thrust the block in the fire1 and when sufficiently heated1 placed it on its angular surface1 upon a flat piece of lead4 ,it immediately began to vibrate1 producing at first1 a kind of singing noise1 not unlike that of the simmering of a teakettle1 but the vibrations became more and more rapid until a distinct musical sound was produced1 which from time to time varied in its pitch1 and gave rise to an effect scarcely inferior to that of the ,eolian harp4 8,how extremely beautiful60 said ,miss ,villers4 8,and how admirably does it illustrate the theory of musical sounds10 observed ,mr4 ,seymour4 8,we have here1 you perceive1 a series of impulses communicated to our ears by the air1 at first in slow succession1 and by degrees more and more rapidly2 at first we hear a rattling noise1 then a low murmur1 and then a hum1 which by degrees acquires the character of a musical note1 rising higher and higher in acuteness4 ,it is evident1 therefore1 from this experiment alone1 by showing the correspondence which exists between the pitch of the note and the rapidity of the succession of the vibrations1 that our sensation of the different pitches of musical notes originates in the different rapidities with which their impulses are communicated to our ears40 8,pray explain to us the manner in which the block of metal is thus made to vibrate10 said ,miss ,villers4 8,it depends10 replied ,mr4 ,seymour1 8upon the alternate contraction of the two opposite edges of the metal from the loss of heat2 one of the edges coming in contact with the cold lead contracts1 and by destroying the balance of the block1 causes its opposite edge to come into contact with the lead1 and to undergo the same change2 and it is by this alternate action that a rapid vibration is produced1 occasioning1 as you will now readily understand1 the musical sounds you have just heard40 ,the lecture having been concluded1 ,mrs4 ,seymour proposed that the party should1 at once1 proceed to the valley1 but the vicar suggested the propriety of first explaining to the children the principle upon which the echo depended4 ,mr4 ,seymour concurred in this opinion1 and immediately afforded the following explanation3--8,an echo is nothing more than a reflected sound4 ,when the arial vibrations strike against any obstacle of sufficient magnitude1 they are reflected back to the ear1 and produce a repetition of the sound1 which will appear to proceed from the point whence they are reflected1 so that the apparent direction of the voice becomes completely changed by an echo4 ,a considerable extent of level wall will sometimes produce it in great perfection2 for a smooth surface reflects sounds much better than a rough one3 but the circumstance which1 perhaps1 contributes more than any other to the perfection of an echo1 is the form of the reflecting surface2 a convex surface is a very bad reflector of sound1 a flat one reflects very well1 but a small degree of concavity is the form best adapted to the purpose40 8,i believe10 observed the vicar1 8that fluid bodies will also1 under certain circumstances1 so reflect sound as to produce echoes40 8,undoubtedly4 ,the surface of water1 especially at the bottom of a well2 and sometimes even clouds will produce this effect40 8,do you mean to say1 papa10 asked ,tom1 8that sound is reflected from an obstacle to the ear1 in the same manner as my ball is reflected after striking the wall80 8,certainly3 supposing1 of course1 that your ball is perfectly elastic2 and in that case1 you no doubt remember the direction it will follow40 8,it will always make the angle of reflection equal to the angle of incidence10#eh said ,tom4 8,undoubtedly2 and so it is with sound1 since air1 as you know1 is perfectly elastic4 ,if1 therefore1 the vibrations fall perpendicularly on the obstacle1 they are reflected back in the same line2 if obliquely1 the sound returns obliquely in the opposite direction1 the angle of reflection being equal to that of incidence4 ,you will1 therefore1 readily perceive10 continued ,mr4 ,seymour1 addressing his conversation more particularly to ,miss ,villers1 8that a person situated at an appropriate angle may hear an echo1 as it is returned from the reflecting surface1 without hearing the original sound which produced it4 ,m4 ,genefay has described1 as existing near ,rouen1 a curious oblique echo which is not heard by the person who emits the sound4 ,a person who sings hears only his own voice1 while those who listen hear only the echo40 8,as a smooth and concave surface is capable of producing an echo1 how does it happen that we so rarely meet with one in a room80 asked ,louisa4 8,echoes1 my dear1 are1 in fact1 produced in every room1 by the reverberation of sound from its walls2 but on account of the velocity with which it travels1 they are imperceptible in small chambers1 because the sound occupies no sensible period of time in moving from the mouth to the walls1 and in returning back to the ear again1 consequently the original sound and its echo become so blended and incorporated1 as to appear but one sound4 ,as the dimensions of the apartment increase1 the defect will increase with it2 and1 in buildings for music or public speaking1 it is often highly inconvenient1 and difficult of prevention4 ,breaking the surface1 or rendering it uneven by mouldings and ornaments1 appears to be the most effectual method of curing the evil40 8,i perceive then1 papa1 that in order to produce a perfect echo1 the person who speaks must be at a considerable distance from the obstacle that reflects the sound10 said ,louisa4 8,it cannot be otherwise10 replied her father2 8and if you will only consider the rate at which sound travels1 you will readily understand the necessity of such an arrangement4 ,in order to produce a distinct echo of one syllable1 or of a single sound1 the reflecting obstacle must be at least #gj feet from the sound1 so that it may have to pass through a distance of #gj feet to get to the reflector1 and #gj more to return to the ear1 making a total passage of #adj feet1 which it will accomplish in rather less than one-eighth of a second2 a period of time so small1 that1 if it were diminished1 it is evident the echo must be assimilated with the sound itself40 8,but the echo in the valley10 observed ,mrs4 ,seymour1 8will repeat four or five syllables40 8,undoubtedly4 ,if we make the experiment at a sufficient distance from the sandstone rocks which act as the reflector40 8,it would appear1 then1 that the farther the reflecting object is off1 the greater number of syllables will the echo repeat2 and ,i should think that this fact might enable us to compute the distance of the reflector10 said ,mrs4 ,seymour4 8,in a moderate way of speaking1 about three and a half syllables are pronounced in one second1 or seven syllables in two seconds2 when an echo1 therefore1 repeats seven syllables1 we may infer that the reflecting object is #aadb feet distant40 8,but1 my dear ,mr4 ,seymour1 this must surely depend upon the nature of the syllables10 said the vicar4 8,pray excuse the interruption2 but you will admit that there must exist a great difference between the echo of dactyles and spondees4 ,suppose an echo should be able to return ten syllables2 thus-- #8,tityre1 tu patul recubans--' ,i will be bound for it1 that if you were to try its powers in slow heavy spondees1 as monstrum horrendum1 a return of not more than four or five syllables could be observed40 8,i will not dispute that point10 said ,mr4 ,seymour4 ,louisa here remarked that she had often heard of some very extraordinary echoes in different parts of the world1 to which her father had not alluded2 she mentioned1 for instance1 those which are said to repeat the same sound several times in succession4 8,from the explanation which ,i have already given of the nature of echoes10 said ,mr4 ,seymour1 8it will be easily conceived that a vast variety of effects may be produced by varying the form1 the shape1 the distance1 and the number of reflecting surfaces3 and hence we hear of various surprising echoes in different places4 ,it is not difficult1 for instance1 to understand the nature of compound1 or tautological echoes2 in which case the expression of one ha will appear like a laughter4 ,addison mentions an extraordinary instance of this kind near ,milan1 which will return the sound of a pistol fifty-six times40 8,i have understood that the echoes on the lakes of ,killarney are of this multiplied description10 said the vicar4 8,they are particularly calculated to produce reflections of sound1 from the height of the mountains1 and the expanse of water10 replied ,mr4 ,seymour1 8which latter circumstance always assists the conveyance of reflected1 as well as direct sound4 ,i believe that there is a certain spot on the shore of ,ross island1 where the sound of a bugle produces an echo which far exceeds any other to be met with amongst the lakes2 the first echo is returned from the castle1 the second from the ruined church of ,aghadoe1 the third from ,mangerton1 and afterwards innumerable reverberations are distinguished1 which1 like the faded brilliancy of an extremely multiplied reflection1 are lost by distance and repetition40 8,there is an admirable echo10 said the vicar1 8behind my old college at ,cambridge2 and often have ,i1 while walking on the road to ,chesterton1 on a calm evening1 distinctly heard twelve repetitions of the voice4 ,lord ,bacon1 if ,i remember correctly1 mentions an instance of sixteen1 in some ruined church near ,paris40 8,it was in the church of ,pont-,charenton1 on the ,seine10 replied ,mr4 ,seymour2 8in which place that great philosopher discovered the inability of an echo to return the letter ,s1 for having pronounced the word satan1 the echo replied va-t-en1 which in ,french signifies away2 from which circumstance1 the ,parisians concluded1 that some guardian spirit prevented the walls of the sacred edifice from pronouncing the name of satan40 8,and will not an echo repeat the letter ,s80 asked ,louisa4 8,not always10 answered her father2 8the hissing or sibilant noise of the letter1 when at the commencement of a word1 is generally lost1 unless the echo be extremely perfect40 ,the party now set off on their excursion to the valley4 ,mr4 ,seymour disposed them in such situations as were best calculated to display the powers of the echo1 and to illustrate the several effects which he had endeavoured to explain4 ,the vicar performed his experiment with dactyles and spondees1 and was highly gratified to find that their results proved1 in a most satisfactory manner1 the correctness of his conjecture4 ,the attention of ,miss ,villers was particularly directed to the effect of the voice of ,mrs4 ,seymour from the orchard gate1 and which1 she said1 convinced her that the sound she had heard on the preceding evening must have arisen from the cause assigned to it4 ,after the party had fairly tired themselves by their converse with the airy and unsubstantial being1 they descended to the sandstone rocks1 which ,mr4 ,seymour pointed out as the local habitation of the solitary spirit4 ,these were duly examined by ,louisa and ,tom1 and their operation as a reflecting screen was pointed out to them by their father4 ,they now returned into the geological temple2 its singularly beautiful pillars very naturally attracted the attention of ,miss ,villers1 and she expressed a wish that ,mr4 ,seymour should describe the plan of their construction2 for it was very evident1 as she said1 from the disposition of the specimens1 that the arrangements had been directed with some view to geological illustration4 ,mr4 ,seymour felt gratified by this request1 and promised to comply with her wishes1 as soon as he had finished the investigation of those laws by which the reflection of sound was governed4 8,why1 bless me60 exclaimed the vicar1 8the revels of our airy companion are ended2 and ,i maintain1 that nothing can be more appropriate than the consideration of the objects for which ,miss ,villers has expressed so much interest4 ,in truth1 the history of ,echo is classically associated with that of geology3 by diving into the recesses of the rock1 we do but pursue her descent from air to earth2 for you1 no doubt1 remember that after she had been deprived of her loquacity by ,juno1 she became enamoured of ,narcissus1 pined away1 and was transformed into stone40#ei 8,i cannot but admire the ingenuity with which you embellish every subject with classical decorations10 replied ,mr4 ,seymour4 8,you1 however1 must well know that ,i require no such allurement on the present occasion4 ,i shall be most willing to afford ,miss ,villers the information she requires1 as soon as ,i have explained to my young pupils the principle of the whispering gallery in ,st4 ,paul's2 as well as some recreations which are indebted for their effects to the reflection of sound40 8,i ought to apologise for the interruption ,i have occasioned10 said ,miss ,villers2 8but ,i was not1 until this moment1 aware of the extent to which you intended to carry your illustrations40 ,mr4 ,seymour commenced with the subject of the 8whispering gallery10 at the foot of the dome of ,st4 ,paul's cathedral2 and in order to render intelligible the manner in which sound is concentrated1 and thereby magnified in that hollow hemisphere1 he produced a diagram1 of which the annexed cut is a copy4 ,illustration3 ,diagram of sound magnification4 ,he explained it as follows3-- 8,m shows the situation of the mouth of the speaker1 and ,e that of the ear of the hearer4 ,now1 since sound radiates in all directions1 a part of it will proceed directly from ,m to ,e1 while other rays of it will proceed from ,m to u1 and from ,m to z1 c42 but the ray that impinges upon u will be reflected to ,e1 while that which first touches z will be reflected to y1 and from thence to ,e2 and so of all intermediate rays1 which are omitted in the figure1 to avoid confusion4 ,it is evident1 therefore1 that the sound at ,e will be much stronger than if it had proceeded immediately from ,m without the assistance of the dome2 for1 in that case1 the rays at z and u would have proceeded in straight lines1 and consequently could never have arrived at the point ,e40 8,i have understood that a similar effect may be witnessed in the stone recesses on ,westminster-bridge10 said the vicar4 8,that is the fact10 replied ,mr4 ,seymour4 8,the recesses to which you allude are semi-domes2 and if a person whispers in the focus of one of them1 he will be distinctly heard by another stationed in the focus of the opposite one4 ,two inanimate busts may be thus made to appear as if holding a conversation1 by placing them in the foci of two large concave mirrors constructed of pasteboard1 and arranged opposite to each other2 when a whisper uttered to the one will seem to proceed from the other by the reflection of sound40 ,mr4 ,seymour now removed a shell from a group of corallines which decorated a part of the temple1 and desired ,tom to place it to his ear4 8,i hear a noise which appears to me to resemble that of the sea10 cried ,tom4 8,ay10 said the vicar1 8and there is a popular belief that it is the murmur of the sea1 which the shell actually sends forth1 betraying1 as it were1 its marine origin40 8,and what produces the sound80 inquired ,louisa4 8,the interior of the shell merely concentrates1 and thus magnifies the sounds around us1 so as to render them audible3 a goblet applied to the ear will be found to produce the same effect10 replied her father4 8,i suppose it is upon the same principle that the speaking-trumpet is made to convey sound to a distance10 remarked ,louisa4 8,since sound radiates in all directions1 it follows that1 if such radiation be prevented by confining it in tubes1 it may be carried to a great distance with very little diminution of its effect2 and hence the use and application of those trumpets1 or tin speaking-pipes1 which are now commonly used for conveying intelligence from one part of a house to another4 ,the trumpet used by deaf persons acts on the same principle2 but as the voice enters the trumpet at the large instead of the small end of the instrument1 it is not so much confined1 nor is the sound so much increased40 8,i believe10 said ,mrs4 ,seymour2 8that the experiment exhibited some time since in ,london under the title of the ,invisible ,girl1 and which excited such general curiosity1 was discovered to depend upon an arrangement of this kind40 8,i expected that you would allude to that exhibition10 said ,mr4 ,seymour2 8and as ,i was anxious to provide my young pupils with some new amusement1 as a reward for their industry1 ,i have directed ,tom ,plank to construct the necessary apparatus for exhibiting and explaining the deception4 ,on our return to the lodge1 ,i have no doubt we shall find that every arrangement for the performance has been completed40 ,miss ,villers was now gratified by a view of the more interesting specimens in the geological temple4 ,mr4 ,seymour also explained the design of the pillars which had so greatly excited her curiosity4 ,on the return of the party1 ,mr4 ,seymour found1 as he had anticipated1 that the necessary apparatus for the experiment of the 8,invisible ,girl60 had been duly arranged1 and that ,tom ,plank was in attendance to afford any assistance which might be farther required4 ,we shall proceed to describe all the visible mechanism1 as it appeared to the children on entering ,mr4 ,seymour's study1 and of which we here present the reader with a perspective sketch4 ,illustration3 ,apparatus for ,invisible ,girl experiment4 ,it consisted of a wooden frame1 not very unlike a bedstead1 having four upright posts1 a a a a1 and a cross-rail at top and bottom to strengthen them4 ,the frame thus constructed stood upon a low table1 and from the top of each of the four pillars sprang four bent brass wires1 which converged to the point c4 ,from these wires a hollow copper ball was suspended by ribands1 so as to cut off all possible communication with the frame4 ,the globe was supposed to contain the invisible being1 as the voice apparently proceeded from the interior of it2 and for this purpose it was equipped with the mouths of four trumpets1 placed around it in a horizontal direction1 and at right angles to each other1 as shown in the annexed section1 in which the globe is represented in the centre2 d d d d are the trumpets1 and b b b b the frame surrounding them1 at the distance of about half an inch from their mouths4 ,such as we have described was the apparatus1 which had been constructed under the direction of ,mr4 ,seymour1 who informed the party that1 if any of them would ask a question of his little fairy1 and direct the voice into one of the trumpets1 an answer would immediately be returned from the ball4 ,illustration3 ,top of the ,invisible ,girl apparatus4 8,let me interrogate her10 exclaimed ,louisa1 as she advanced towards the railing4 8,tell me1 mysterious being1 the name of the person who now addresses you40 8,miss ,louisa ,seymour10 answered a voice sufficiently audible to ,louisa1 whose ear was near the mouth of the trumpet1 and yet so distant and feeble1 that it appeared as if coming from a very diminutive being1 and thus heightened the deception4 ,each of the party successively asked some question2 and the surprise of the children may be more easily imagined than described4 ,tom examined the ball1 the trumpets1 and the framework2 but he was unable to discover any clue by which he could unravel the mystery4 ,at length ,mr4 ,seymour proceeded to the explanation4 ,he told them that the mechanism owed its effects to the combined operation of two principles with which they were already acquainted2 the concentration and conveyance of sound by means of a speaking-pipe1 and its reflection from an appropriate surface so as to change its apparent direction1 by producing an artificial echo4 ,he then showed them the pipe which was concealed in one of the legs of the frame1 and explained in what manner the voice of ,tom ,plank1 who had been stationed in an adjoining room1 was conveyed to the mouth of the trumpet1 and thence reflected to the ear of the observer4 ,by means of the annexed section1 we shall hope to render this subject as intelligible to our readers1 as did ,mr4 ,seymour to his little pupils4 ,illustration3 ,side view of ,invisible ,girl apparatus1 with secret pipe shown4 b b represent two of the legs of the frame1 one of which1 as well as half the rail1 is made into a tube1 the end of which opens immediately opposite to the centre of the trumpet4 ,this hole is very small1 and concealed by mouldings2 the other end communicates by a tin pipe1 p p1 which passes1 in a concealed manner1 along the floor of the room1 into an adjoining closet1 where the confederate is concealed4 ,it is evident that any sound1 directed into the mouth of the trumpet1 will be immediately reflected back to the orifice of the tube1 and distinctly heard by a person who places his ear to the mouth of the funnel m2 while the answer returned by him1 travelling along the tin funnel1 p p1 will issue from its concealed orifice1 and striking upon the concave surface of the trumpet1 be returned to the ear as an echo1 and thus appear as if it had proceeded from the interior of the ball4 ,the vicar observed1 8that this deception of the ,invisible ,girl1 which had formerly created so much interest1 was little more than the revival of the old and well-known mechanism of the speaking bust1 which consisted of a tube1 from the mouth of a bust1 leading to a confederate in an adjoining room1 and of another tube to the same place1 ending in the ear of the figure2 by the latter of which1 a sound whispered in the ear of the bust was immediately carried to the confederate1 who instantly returned an answer by the other tube1 ending in the mouth of the figure1 which therefore appeared to utter it4 ,the ,invisible ,girl10 continued the vicar1 8evidently only differs from that contrivance in this single circumstance1 that an artificial echo is produced by means of the trumpet1 and thus the sound no longer appears to proceed in its original direction40 8,your remark is perfectly correct1 my dear vicar10 said ,mr4 ,seymour4 ,tom ,plank1 with an air of self-satisfaction1 at this moment emerged from his retreat1 and enquired whether his performance had not met with the approbation of his employer4 8,gentlemen10 said ,tom ,plank1 8as ,i am now fully satisfied that any plan of propelling live and dead luggage through funnels can never succeed1 ,i propose to employ tubes for conveying sounds to a great distance1 so as to do away with the use of telegraphs80 8,why that plan is more practicable1 but less novel1 than the one you have just abandoned10 answered ,mr4 ,seymour4 8,at the latter end of the last century1 a man of the name of ,gautier conceived a method of transmitting articulate sounds to an immense distance4 ,he proposed the construction of horizontal tunnels that should widen at their extremities1 by means of which the ticking of a watch might be heard more distinctly at the distance of two hundred feet than when placed close to the ear4 ,i think he calculated that a succession of such tunnels would transmit a verbal message nine hundred miles in an hour407#ej7 8,only think of that60 ejaculated ,tom ,plank2 8to make a communication from ,london to ,edinburgh in about twenty-five minutes60 8,true1 my friend2 but what would you say1 were ,i to suggest a method of communicating information to any distance without the loss even of a single second of time407#ea7 8,there now10 cried the vicar1 8you have supplied ,tom ,plank with some fresh barm to set his brains working40 8,he is an indefatigable fellow1 ,i must allow10 said ,mr4 ,seymour4 ,after this discourse the vicar rose from his seat1 and on walking across the room1 the creaking of his shoes excited the attention of ,mr4 ,seymour1 who1 with his accustomed gaiety1 observed1 that 8the vicar had music in his sole40 8,mr4 ,seymour60 exclaimed ,mr4 ,twaddleton1 with a look which we should in vain endeavour to describe1 8the infirmity of my shoes1 crepitus crepid1 is at all events sanctioned by high antiquity2 for we are told by ,philostratus1 in his ,epistles1 that ,vulcan1 being jealous of ,venus1 made her creaking shoes1 in order that he might hear whenever she stirred40 ,so ludicrous an appeal to antiquity would have overcome ,heraclitus himself1 no wonder then that the whole party enjoyed a hearty laugh at the worthy vicar's expense4 8,well1 ,mr4 ,twaddleton1 if1 as you say1 ,i have brought down philosophy to account for the most familiar occurrences1 it is but just that ,i should return the compliment1 by declaring that you are equally prepared to throw a classical interest around the humblest as well as the most dignified subject1 capite usque ad calcem10 observed ,mr4 ,seymour4 8,now1 ,tom1 as you have so lately been instructed in the different sources of sound1 do tell your good friend1 the vicar1 the cause of the creaking of his shoes10 said his father4 8,the dryness of the leather1 ,i suppose10 answered the young philosopher4 8,a certain state of dryness is certainly a necessary condition1 or else the cohesion between the inner and outer sole would exclude the air4 ,correctly speaking1 the creaking depends upon the sudden compression of the air contained between the two surfaces of leather2 just as a sound is produced by the clapping of the hands by the air thus set in vibration4 ,shoes with single soles1 therefore1 never creak1 and by interposing a piece of oil-silk between the two soles1 you will so far ensure the contact of their surfaces as to obviate the sound10 said ,mr4 ,seymour4 8,that is at all events a piece of practical philosophy worth knowing2 and ,i shall accordingly instruct my operator1 ,jerry ,styles1 upon this point10 observed the vicar4 8,so you see1 my dear sir1 ,i am no bad shoemaker1 although ,i have never yet made a shoe10 said ,mr4 ,seymour4 8,to be sure--to be sure10 exclaimed the vicar2 8for as ,horace has it-- ----8,sapiens crepidas sibi nunquam ,nec soleas fecit3 ,sutor tamen est sapiens40#fj 8,you never made a happier quotation10 exclaimed ,mr4 ,seymour4 8,i have only one other remark to make10 continued he1 8which the consideration of this subject has very naturally suggested--that the various strange sounds1 which have from time to time alarmed the superstitious1 may be readily explained upon the simple principles we have been discussing4 ,i well remember a whole family having been thrown into a state of terror1 by a mysterious sound which regularly recurred every evening2 when it was at length discovered to arise from the crawling of snails over the window2 their slimy surfaces1 as they moved along1 produced a friction1 which occasioned a vibration of the glass40 8,and ,i never recall to my recollection1 without some degree of terror10 said the vicar1 8the night ,i passed in an old oaken chamber which had the reputation of being haunted4 ,a bright fire cheerfully blazed in the grate as ,i entered the apartment1 and casting its ruddy light around1 in some measure dissipated the prejudice which had been raised to the disparagement of my dormitory2 but awaking in the night1 my fire was out1 and a succession of the most extraordinary noises ,i ever heard assailed me40 8,all which are easily explicable10 said ,mr4 ,seymour4 8,the old oaken materials were expanded by the heat of your fire1 and on the apartment cooling1 they again contracted1 and gave origin to all the sounds you describe40 8,how unsparingly does science clip the wings of imagination60 observed ,miss ,villers4 ,the party now dispersed4 ,miss ,villers retired into the drawing-room1 to afford ,louisa some musical instruction2 the vicar took his departure for the sake of visiting a sick parishioner2 and ,major ,snapwell to make arrangements for an important event1 with the nature of which the reader will very shortly be made acquainted4 ----- ,footnote #eg3 8,murn optim flut sunt in ,sicilia40 ,varr4 ,r4 ,r4 ii4 #f4 #b4 ,footnote #eh3 ,the reader is requested to turn to page #agd2 for all that is there said respecting the principle of reflected motion will apply to the theory of the echo4 ,footnote #ei3 ,ovid's ,metamorph4 #c4 #ceh4 ,footnote #fj3 8,for though the wise nor shoes nor slippers made1 ,he's yet a skilful shoemaker by trade40 ,hor4 ,sat4 #c ,lib4 #a4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,chapter ,,xvii4 ,an interesting communication1 from which the reader may learn that the most important events are not those which absorb the greatest portion of time in their recital4--,major ,snapwell communicates to ,mr4 ,seymour and the ,vicar1 his determination to celebrate the marriage of his nephew by a fte at ,osterly ,park4--,an antiquarian discussion of grave importance4--,an interview with ,ned ,hopkins1 during which the wit displayed both cunning and humour4--,the ,thaumatrope4--,its improved construction4--,philosophy of its action4--,another optical toy4--,the nature of ,optical ,spectra illustrated and explained4--,the ,spectral ,cross of ,constantine4 ,for some time had ,major ,snapwell been occupied in making arrangements for an event1 which he hailed not only as the accomplishment of his most ardent wishes1 but as the guarantee of his future happiness4 ,we did not think it right to impart this secret to our readers1 until the period should arrive when1 in conformity with the usage of the world1 the subject might be referred to without reserve or impropriety4 ,to such a period has our history arrived1 and we shall therefore at once communicate the whole story1 by relating the substance of a conversation which took place between ,major ,snapwell and the ,vicar1 in the presence of ,mr4 and ,mrs4 ,seymour1 in the library of ,overton ,lodge4 8,your hand1 my dearest friend6 your hand1 and with it the congratulations of your heart10 exclaimed the ,major1 as he approached ,mr4 ,twaddleton2 8our friends here10 added he1 as he bowed to ,mr4 and ,mrs4 ,seymour1 8are already acquainted with the proposed union between my worthy nephew1 ,henry ,beecham1 and the charming ,isabella ,villers2 and may ,heaven shed the dew of its blessing upon them60 8,amen60 ejaculated the vicar4 8,well1 sir1 ,i am most anxious that the ceremony should take place at ,overton1 and that you should officiate upon the occasion40 8,most cheerfully shall ,i comply with your request2 #8connubio jungam stabili1' as the immortal poet has it10 was the vicar's reply4 8,i have also to inform you10 continued the major1 8that it is my wish to diffuse a portion of that delight1 which this event will impart to me1 over the neighbourhood in which ,i shall probably pass the days that may be yet spared to me2 listen1 therefore1 to the plan which ,i have devised for carrying this into effect4 ,i design to give a public entertainment1 upon a plan as novel as its scale shall be extensive2 it shall not be a mere blaze of the spirits1 but the recreation of the mind1 and the jubilee of reason40 8,an entertainment60 muttered the vicar1 whose countenance afforded any thing but encouragement to such a scheme4 8,ay1 vicar2 an entertainment which shall be conducted with every regard to ancient usage1 and classical correctness10 said the major1 as he cast a sly glance at ,mr4 ,seymour4 ,the countenance of the vicar brightened2 and he begged his worthy friend to be more explicit1 and to state the nature of his intended fte4 8,you already know that this boy of mine is shortly to conduct ,miss ,villers to the temple of ,hymen2 ,i would seize that happy occasion for giving a rural fte1 in my park1 to the inhabitants of ,overton and its neighbourhood2 and1 as there are no less than three events which ,i am anxious to celebrate1 ,i propose that this same fte shall be continued through three successive days4 ,on the first shall be commemorated the providential escape of my nephew from shipwreck2 on the second1 his marriage2 and on the third1 my purchase and occupation of ,osterley ,park--,what think you of my plan80 8,why1 truly1 it would admit of much appropriate pageantry1 and the arrangement is1 doubtless1 countenanced by classical authority4 ,augustus triumphed three days1 for the purpose of commemorating three great events2 the first of which was the defeat of the ,pannonians and ,dalmatii2 the second1 the battle of ,actium2 and the third1 the reduction of ,egypt4 ,then1 again1 we have the ,ludi ,magni of the ,romans1 and the solemn ,athenian feast1 ,apaturia1 which lasted during three days2 and above all1 the ,secular ,games1 which were continued through the same period4 ,in the face of such authorities1 it would certainly ill become me to offer any objection2 although1 as vicar of the parish1 ,i cannot conscientiously close my eyes against the evils which might possibly arise from such protracted revelry4 ,i would1 therefore1 with submission1 propose that the three events to which you allude1 should be celebrated by three distinct festivals on one and the same day40 ,the major saw plainly that the vicar might be made to approve of1 or dissent from1 any plan1 by the dexterous use of classical authority2 he therefore determined to use it as a talisman for the accomplishment of his purpose4 8,i like your proposition10 replied the major1 8but ,i greatly fear that you will not be able to support it by any classical authority2 and remember1 that every thing must be conducted in the strictest accordance with ancient usage40 8,i respect your intention10 answered the vicar1 8and will immediately search the writings of ,lipsius for a precedent2 an author who has collected fifteen laws of the ,roman entertainments2 or1 perhaps1 the ,pandects of ,franciscus ,modius1 who has so ably treated of nuptial ceremonies1 will furnish the desired information40 ,mr4 ,seymour here interrupted the conversation1 by enquiring of the major the plan of those amusements which he proposed to provide4 8,i will convert the elm meadow at ,osterley ,park into a fair10 replied the major1 8wherein every species of amusement shall be exhibited3 ,i will engage that vagabond ,punch1 who1 like a snail1 travels about the country with his house at his back1 to display his hereditary wit1 and mimic drolleries2 tumblers1 rope-dancers1 conjurors1 fire-eaters1 and1 in short1 the whole merry train of ,comus1 shall be pressed into our service4 ,after these exhibitions1 the company may weave the mazy dance1 for platforms shall be erected for their accommodation2 ,i will arrange orchestras for music1 and ornamented tents for refreshments4 ,the vicar10 observed the major1 with an arch smile1 8shall open the ball with the bride40 8,had ,i numbered a few olympiads less1 major1 ,i might not have declined so flattering a distinction10 replied ,mr4 ,twaddleton1 evidently not displeased with the compliment4 8,find some classical authority for the measure1 and let your age sanction the propriety of my proposal10 said the major4 8,your suggestion merits attention1--let me see--,i have it1 major4 ,socrates learned to dance very late in life1 and ,cato1 with all his severity of manners1 disdained not1 at the age of sixty1 to practise it4 ,i will1 therefore1 comply with your desire1 and certainly lead the bride down the first dance40 8,the canal10 continued the major1 8shall1 for the first time1 float the proud emblems of ,british glory on its glassy bosom2 and when the shades of evening fall1 my ,lilliputian ships shall engage--such cannonading6 such nautical evolutions66 ,mr4 ,seymour40 8,how charming6 how very delightful60 exclaimed ,louisa and ,fanny3 8but pray1 papa1 do allow ,tom to return from school to witness all these amusements40 8,fear not10 said the major2 8,i shall make that a condition2 and ,i trust your papa will not refuse the request40 8,certainly not10 replied the father2 8,i shall be anxious to seize so favourable an opportunity for explaining to my children the various tricks they will witness1 and the machinery by which the numerous deceptions will be accomplished2 thus shall ,i convert that which1 to the common eye1 will appear as a scene of idle revelry1 into a school of philosophy1 and in accordance with my favourite plan1 #8turn sport into science4'0 8,upon my word1 ,mr4 ,seymour1 you are a perfect alchymist1 and extract gold from every thing you touch2 you have already derived scientific information from the most miscellaneous and trifling amusements1 and will1 no doubt1 upon this occasion1 convert our very pies and puddings into instruments of instruction2 thus verifying the old adage1 #8that there is reason in roasting of eggs1'0 said the major4 8,i perceive that the major is not aware of the philosophy which suggested that adage10 observed the vicar4 8,nor am ,i10 said ,mr4 ,seymour1 8and therefore pray enlighten us upon that point40 8,you doubtless know that there is a little air bag at the large end of every egg1 called the folliculus aeris1 and which1 as we are told1 is designed to furnish a supply of air to the growing chick2 if1 therefore1 an egg be exposed to the temperature of hot embers1 this air will be suddenly expanded1 the shell burst1 and its contents scattered into the ashes4 ,to prevent such an occurrence1 the careful house-wife pricks the blunt end of the shell with a needle1 so as to allow the expanded air to escape1 and thus to prevent the accident ,i have just explained2 from which it appears that there is reason1 or philosophy1 in roasting an egg40 8,capital1 upon my word60 exclaimed ,mr4 ,seymour4 8,well1 but1 papa1 we have interrupted the major in his delightful description2 he had not concluded the account of his proposed fte10 said ,louisa4 8,pray go on10 cried ,fanny3 8let me see1 where did you leave off8 ,oh1 ,i remember1 you were interrupted in a temporary tent1 which ,i hope you intend to decorate with garlands40 8,leave all that to the vicar1 young lady2 he will1 no doubt1 display his classical taste in the emblematical appointments40 8,i shall terminate the festivities of the day by a grand display of fire-works2 the arrangements of which will necessarily fall under my own more immediate direction4 ,the vicar10 added the major1 8will perhaps allow me to proclaim him as master of the revels2 for he is1 as we all well know1 deeply versed in ancient customs1 and ,i am especially anxious that every department should be conducted with classical taste40 8,i willingly accept the office10 said ,mr4 ,twaddleton1 with a gracious smile1 8since there is authority for my acquiescence4 ,the ,romans1 in their entertainments1 usually appointed a person whom they styled king1 and held responsible upon such occasions4 ,i accept it also1 on a different ground2 that my presence may check the enthusiasm of the people1 and restrain the hilarity of the evening within the boundary of rational decorum40 8,if in the arrangement of your banquet1 my assistance can prove of any service1 command me10 said ,mrs4 ,seymour4 8,believe me sincere1 my dear madam1 when ,i say1 that the kind manner in which you receive my plan1 and offer to promote its execution1 affords me the highest gratification2 if ,i decline your services1 it is only from a fear of usurping the sovereignty of our master of the ceremonies10 replied the major4 8,what6 am ,i to descend into the lower regions1 and hold converse with your ancient ,sibyl1 the cook8 ,would you call upon me to marshal the dishes8 ,am ,i1 at once1 to perform the offices of #8,dapifer1' #8,lardrenius1' #8,magister ,coquorum1' and #8,prgustator8'0 cried the horrified vicar4 8,have ,i not declared that every part of my entertainment shall be strictly classical8 and ought not each dish to convey some moral device1 some allegorical design8 ,are we to feed with as little discrimination as the dogs that devoured the sacred ,apis80 ,the knowledge which the reader must have already collected of ,mr4 ,twaddleton's character will have satisfied him that1 in every action of his life1 he was more or less influenced by the spell of ancient authority2 but we doubt whether he may not yet have to learn the extent to which the reverend gentleman carried this enthusiasm4 ,we shall1 accordingly1 beg to state a few instances1 which will serve to illustrate this circumstance4 ,be it known1 then1 that the very first act which announced the preferment of the ,reverend ,peter ,twaddleton to the dignity of ,vicar of ,overton1 was not1 as some might suppose1 an increased rate of compensation for the tithes2 nor was it a rate levied for the repairs of his house2 but the removal of the vane from the spire of the church1 which1 as it consisted of a simple cross piece of iron1 seemed to the vicar's imagination to be wriggling about1 without any consciousness of its ancient origin and dignity4 ,he therefore1 at his own expense1 replaced it by the figure of a cock1 which he caused to be duly executed after an authentic model4 ,it will be remembered that the crowing of the cock warned ,peter2 for which reason the monks first placed the figure of that bird on their churches1 as an emblem to call the people to prayers2 and1 since the image was made to revolve with the wind1 it soon acquired the name of the weathercock4 ,with respect to the arrangement of his table1 he displayed an equal veneration for ancient forms4 ,he perpetuated the use of the wassail bowl1 which was scrupulously prepared with apples and ale1 according to the most orthodox receipt4 ,his mince-pies at ,christmas were fabricated with the same inflexible adherence to ancient authority2 he maintained that the introduction of meat into their composition was a scandalous heresy2 that the choicest productions of the ,east ought alone to be admitted1 since the custom was originally intended to allegorise the offerings made by the wise men who came from afar to worship1 bringing spices1 c4 ,he was also as critical with respect to the shape1 as he was with regard to the composition of these dainty inventions2 he insisted upon the ancient or coffin shape1 which he stated to have been in imitation of the cratch1 or manger1 wherein the infant ,jesus had lain4 ,his table was1 with the same antiquarian correctness1 punctually supplied at ,easter with a gammon of bacon2 a custom1 which would1 perhaps1 have been more honoured in the breach than in the observance1 since it was evidently founded on the abhorrence our forefathers thought proper to express towards the ,jews1 at the season of commemorating the resurrection4#fa ,the idea was in direct opposition to the liberal sentiments of the vicar1 but1 being an ancient custom1 he never ventured to question its propriety4 ,in like manner1 his tranquillity would have been sadly disturbed1 had ,annette ever forgotten the pancakes on ,shrove-,tuesday2 for he was decidedly of opinion that it was a dish which had derived its origin from the heathen ,fornacalia1 a festival instituted by ,numa1#fb in honour of the goddess ,fornax2 and was intended to commemorate the making of bread before the invention of ovens4 ,upon the subject of cross-buns he displayed great profundity2 he observed1 that the word bun was derived from boun1 a species of sacred bread described by ,hesychius1 and which was anciently offered to the gods2 in support of which opinion he quoted ,julius ,pollux and ,diogenes ,laertius2 nor did he relinquish the subject1 until he had ably descanted upon the address with which heathen customs had been1 as it were1 naturalized1 and perpetuated as ,christian observances4 ,the boun1 he would say1 lost its idolatrous impurity by receiving the sign of the cross2 in the same manner that ,druidical idols1 and stones erect1 by having crosses cut upon them1 continued to receive a justifiable reverence1 even as late as the seventh century4 ,in short1 the extent to which our excellent but eccentric vicar was carried1 on such occasions1 can scarcely be credited1 except by those who are acquainted with the extravagant whimsies of a genuine antiquary4 ,we have never contemplated this part of his character without congratulating the rising generation at ,overton on the circumstance of the offices of village schoolmaster and vicar of the parish not having centered in the same individual2 for we have not the shadow of a doubt1 so great was his veneration for ancient usages1 but he would have whipped up every child within his jurisdiction1 on the morning of ,childermas-day1 or that of the ,holy ,innocents1 as we are informed was the ancient custom1 8in order that the memorial of ,herod's murder of the ,innocents might stick the closer40 ,on the other hand1 he would readily have forgiven any offence had the boy only cited a few lines from a favourite classic2 for often had he been heard to relate with much satisfaction the well-known story of the ,athenian ,captives1 whose lives were preserved in ,sicily1 from their being able to repeat portions of the dramas of ,euripides4 ,whether1 in spite of the censure and remonstrance of ,st4 ,austin1 he would have ventured to continue the half-holiday on a ,thursday1 it is difficult to say2 although the high antiquity of a custom originally established in honour of ,jupiter1 would1 doubtless1 have produced its influence upon the judgment of the antiquary4 ,one more anecdote1 and we trust our illustrations of the vicar's character will be perfect4 ,the reader will remember1 that to ,dr4 ,doseall1 the renowned ,esculapius of the village1 he had given the title of ,polyphemus3 this might appear inconsistent with his acknowledged kindness1 and we are therefore bound to state his justification4 8,was it not10 he asked1 8a notorious custom in ,athens to give nicknames expressive of personal peculiarities8 ,do we not learn from ,aristophanes1 that the poet ,theognis1 from the deficient warmth of his compositions1 went by the name of ,snow8 and moreover1 did not the ,athenians1 as a body1 from their passion for news1 and their habit of swallowing open-mouthed the flying rumours of the day1 receive the soubriquet of ,gapers1 just as the ,london inhabitants of the present day rejoice in that of ,cockneys80 ,we have thought it right to relate these few anecdotes1 in order to vindicate the propriety of the major's choice1 and to convince the reader that a better qualified master of the ceremonies could not possibly have been provided4 ,having1 therefore1 paid this homage to the judgment of the major1 and to the antiquarian lore of the vicar1 we shall return to the party1 whom we had rather abruptly quitted1 and continue our relation of the conversation which followed4 8,so1 then1 you have determined that the vicar shall superintend the banquet10 said ,mrs4 ,seymour4 8,there is1 however1 one part of the ceremony which ,i shall certainly not feel disposed to resign into his hands1 the ordering and disposition of the bridal cakes2 the genius of ,gunter shall be invoked to produce one of the most triumphant specimens of his art40 8,psha1 nonsense6 you surely would not countenance that ice-clad mountain1 through whose dark regions the demon of indigestion holds undisputed sway40 8,why1 zounds1 vicar1 do you expect me to submit to such vagaries8--a wedding without a cake6--it cannot be tolerated4 ,i shall next hear of an ,english feast without roast-beef10 vociferated the major4 8,you shall1 doubtless1 have your cake2 but let it be the true ,roman bride-cake1 made after the receipt which ,cato has given in his work1 ,de ,re ,rustica1 chapter #aba4 ,you must be aware1 ,mr4 ,seymour1 that the mustacea of the ,romans1 the species of cake used at weddings1 consisted of meal1 aniseed1 cummin1 and several other aromatic ingredients40 8,and do you seriously believe that any of us will swallow such a medicated farrago80 said the major4 8,the unenlightened may1 perhaps1 refuse it2 and should the children prefer your modern combination1 they might stand excused1 since classical inspiration rarely descends upon a boy1 until he has construed a ,greek chorus10 observed the vicar4 8,were ,i to swallow a grain of it10 said ,mrs4 ,seymour1 8,i verily believe ,i should be ill for a week40 8,mere prejudice1 madam2 the object of the mustacea was actually to remove or prevent the indigestion which might be occasioned by eating too copiously at the marriage entertainment2 and it must1 ,i think1 be acknowledged that the compound was better adapted for such a purpose than the modern bride-cake1 to which it gave origin40 8,with respect to the roast-beef1 to which the major has just alluded10 continued the vicar1 8,i shall only observe1 that it was not until the reign of ,henry ,,viii4 that it appears to have taken its part in the formation of our national character40 8,i would beg to enquire to whom the selection and arrangement of the comic entertainments are to be intrusted4 ,unless the major should have already found a competent person1 ,i think ,i can recommend to his notice an individual who is eminently qualified for the duties10 said ,mr4 ,seymour4 8,i am1 at this moment1 in quest of such a director10 said the major4 8,ned ,hopkins1 then1 who has for some time past taken up his abode at our village alehouse1 is the very person1 of all others1 whom you seek4 ,i have no doubt that for a trifling consideration he will undertake the office2 and ,i feel equally confident that he will execute its duties to your satisfaction40 8,ned ,hopkins60 exclaimed the vicar1 with some surprise4 8,to be sure2 and who better understands the trim of those itinerant sons of ,comus8 ,was not his father a mountebank doctor1 and a professor of the art of legerdemain80 8,i value not ,ned ,hopkins the less on that account2 the immortal ,virgil was the son of a servant1 or assistant1 to a wandering astrologer1 or #8,medicus ,magus1' as ,juvenal has it2 and the mother of ,euripides was a cabbage-woman1 for which ,aristophanes so unjustifiably ridicules him4 ,but my dislike to ,ned ,hopkins is founded upon his own dissipated habits1 his disgusting jokes1 and ,bacchanalian buffoonery40 8,ay10 continued ,mr4 ,seymour1 8and his bad puns1 vile quotations1 and hackneyed proverbs2 and yet you must confess that1 after all1 he is a very clever fellow40 8,sir10 observed the vicar1 8,satan does not usually select a fool as his ambassador40 8,upon my word1 gentlemen1 this must needs be a very amusing fellow2 and you have so far excited my curiosity1 as to make me desirous of hearing something farther of his history and habits10 said the major4 8,he is one of those loose spirits10 replied ,mr4 ,seymour1 8who live upon expedients2 and measuring their consciences by their wants1 derive a revenue from sources1 of which those who jog on quietly through the beaten paths of life have not the most remote conception4 ,he commenced his career under the tutelage of the first fire-eater of the day1 but having clumsily scalded his mouth1 he lost his reputation1 and found it advisable to seek some other stage for the display of his abilities4 ,possessed of a very considerable degree of native humour and caustic shrewdness1 he engaged himself as a #8mercenary1' or literary drudge1 to a popular publisher of comic song books1 sanguinary murders1 magical magazines1 amorous valentines1 oracles of health1 and plans for the liquidation of the national debt2 which occupations have1 as ,i have been credibly informed1 produced for him during a successful season1 some twenty or thirty pounds in the lawful coin of the realm3 but ,ned1 like many a great genius1 was better pleased with an hour of idleness than a week of study2 and1 strange to say1 would at any time have preferred a cup of wine to a bucketful of the finest water from ,helicon2 no sooner1 therefore1 had he collected a few pounds1 than he descended from his high literary station1 a lofty garret2 and1 taking up his abode at some hedge alehouse1 would enjoy a life of happy leisure1 until every particle of that worldly substance which he had gained by inspiration from above1 was gratefully returned to the skies in the form of tobacco fumes4 ,for some months past10 added ,mr4 ,seymour1 8he has been a constant resident at the ,bag of ,nails1 where1 as ,i am led to believe1 he pays for nothing but his tobacco2 the worthy hostess having found him a very profitable bait for customers1 is too willing to barter the drippings of the kitchen for his wit1 and the leakage of the tap-room for his songs40 8,i am very curious to become acquainted with this comical being10 said the major4 8,suppose we walk into the village10 said ,mr4 ,seymour2 8we shall be certain of finding him smoking his pipe on a bench before the alehouse door2 where he is as regularly stationed by his patroness1 to catch customers1 as the saucer of treacle is placed in the window of a pastry-cook to attract flies40 8,you will excuse my accompanying you10 cried ,mr4 ,twaddleton2 8,i cannot relish his stale jokes and potted stories40 ,the gentlemen accordingly directed their route through ,forest ,lane1 and took leave of the vicar at the entrance of the church-yard4 ,on arriving within twenty yards of the public-house1 ,mr4 ,seymour noticed a column of smoke which curled in wreaths about its porch4 8,there sits ,ned10 cried he2 8,i knew we should find him at his post40 8,hopkins6 ,hopkins60 cried ,mr4 ,seymour1 8,i fear you have not taken the worthy vicar's advice40 8,an old dog cannot alter its way of barking1 sir2 nor is it easy to straight in the oak the crook that grew in the sapling40 8,i am to presume1 then1 to speak courteously1 that you are still1 #8a man of leisure4'0 8,ay1 verily am ,i2 as idle1 sir1 as a chimney in the dog-days10 replied the wag of the tap-room4 8,that1 by the by1 is not a very happy simile of yours1 when applied to a man who is smoking all day long10 observed ,mr4 ,seymour4 8,i admit it10 said ,ned1 8so here's another for you1--as lazy as ,ludlam's dog1 that leaned his head against the wall to bark4 ,but1 after all1 ,mr4 ,seymour1 a day of leisure is to me a golden age1 and ,i am of my ,lord ,peterborough's way of thinking1 who used to say1 #8a golden age was that in which every one might pipe when and where he pleased4'0 ,the wag1 at this instant1 gave such a practical illustration of his theme1 as would have suffocated the major1 had not his military habits rendered him smoke proof4 8,in short1 gentlemen10 continued ,ned1 8a pipe is the solace of my life and the mainspring of my spirits2 knock out my pipe and you knock out my brains4 ,i verily believe that1 if ,i could not obtain the #8furies' frankincense1' as they have been pleased to call tobacco1 ,i should be like ,vicar ,breedon1 who1 according to ,william ,lilly1 cut the bell-ropes and smoked them40 ,so saying1 he gave another puff1 and then removing the pipe from his mouth1 sang the following ditty3-- 8,little tube of magic power1 ,charmer of an idle hour1 ,object of my warm desire1 ,lip of wax1 and eye of fire2 ,and thy snowy taper waist1 ,with my finger gently braced40 c4 c4 8,always merry1 ,ned10 cried ,mr4 ,seymour4 8,lord bless you1 sir1 what is life but a jest8 ,i jest to live1 and ,i live but to jest4 ,and so ,i shall continue to do1 until ,i am put to bed by the shovel40 8,your father was a reputed jester1 was he not80 asked ,mr4 ,seymour4 8,he was1 ,god bless his memory6 and it was his constant prayer that his son ,neddy might turn out as sharp a man as his father2 and if there be any truth in the adage that #8dogs bark as they are bred1' ,i certainly had as good a chance of success as most people4 ,momus rocked my cradle2 ,i ate fire before ,i was seven years old2 and so anxiously did my father superintend my education1 that he never suffered me to cut a morsel1 until ,i had cut a joke4 #8,neddy1' he used to say1 #8,i perceive you are like my bagpipes1 never audible except your pouch is full of wind2 for after a good meal you are as mum as a mouse in a mill2 so remember1 my lad1 no joke no pudding4' ,thus schooled1 ,i became1 through necessity1 a wit1 and earned every mouthful by a pun2 in short1 after a little time1 my genius illumined every dish1 and1 like the fire of ,london1 blazed from ,pudding ,lane to ,pie ,corner40 8,and you afterwards appeared on the stage1 as a candidate for popular applause1 which you were fortunate enough to obtain2 how came you to desert your calling80 said the major4 8,he who licks honey from thorns pays too dearly for it10 replied the wit4 8,so ,i packed my wardrobe in a pocket handkerchief1 and trudged off to ,cockneyshire40 8,and what was your object80 asked the major4 8,to carry my wit to a better market2 and instead of retailing it at country fairs1 to offer it wholesale to some of the great publishers1 from whom ,i immediately received considerable orders4 ,the profit which rewarded my poetry soon convinced me1 notwithstanding all that had been said to the contrary1 that there were still some gold mines in ,parnassus4 ,i lived for the first week on liquid blacking4 ,i well remember it was winter1 and although ,i contrived by my eulogies of the jet polish1 to obtain a daily meal from a neighbouring chop-house1 ,i was compelled to sit in my chamber at night without fire or candle1 until the publication of my song1 #8,ah let my muse a flame inspire1' lighted a cheerful blaze in my grate1 and enabled me to purchase a few pounds of rush-lights4 ,in short1 gentlemen1 without exhausting your patience with a long recital of my adventures1 suffice it to say1 that ,i have always been able to keep my pipe smoking by my puffs1 my pot boiling by the ebullition of my wit1 and my grate blazing by the fire of my genius2 while paste and scissors have never failed to secure a constant supply of cabbage1 upon which ,i have thrived like any caterpillar40 ,here ,hopkins returned to the porch1 and took a draught as deep as ever ,bitias drank1 or the ,athenian ,diotimus1 nicknamed the ,funnel1 ever swallowed4 8,did ,i not say10 resumed the wag1 8that my pipe was the nurse of wit8 ,i ought to have called her the dry nurse4 ,it is a hard case1 gentlemen1 but ,i am in the situation of the flying-fish1 incapable of keeping myself up1 unless ,i occasionally moisten my wings40 8,if you persist in this dreadful habit10 said ,mr4 ,seymour1 8you will assuredly destroy the coat of your stomach60 8,the coat of my stomach60 replied ,ned2 8if that is all1 my stomach must even be contented to do what its master has so often done before it--go in its waistcoat1 with the understanding that it shall have an additional glass to keep it warm4 ,the stomach had better give up its coat than its master his habit40 8,but suppose ,i could prove1 that by giving up this system1 you would lengthen your days10 observed ,mr4 ,seymour4 8,lengthen my days4--you are quite right1 ,mr4 ,seymour2 being rather low in cash1 ,i was compelled to forego my comfort for one whole day1 and it was the longest day ,i ever knew in my life2 you are quite correct1 sir40 8,you are incorrigible1 ,ned4 ,but come1 what say you to a profitable engagement80 asked ,mr4 ,seymour4 8,why1 as to that1 sir1 ,i have always a ready mouth for a ripe cherry40 8,you must know1 then1 that my friend1 ,major ,snapwell1 proposes to give a grand rural fte to the inhabitants of ,overton2 and1 as he intends to convert his grounds into a fair upon the occasion1 he is desirous of finding some person acquainted with comic entertainments1 who would undertake the office of manager1 to contract with the necessary performers1 and superintend all the arrangements40 8,i am the lad for the major's silver10 said the delighted wag2 8for without vanity1 ,i may say that few persons better understand the art of mixing up the motley ingredients of fun and frolic2 there is1 besides1 that in the major's face which ,i would willingly call master40 8,and were ,i to judge from your frontispiece10 said the major1 8,i should say that every day in your calendar was a red-lettered one--the painting of that red nose of yours must have cost a trifle40 8,cannot tell2 it is not yet finished10 retorted the wit4 ,major ,snapwell1 with the assistance of ,mr4 ,seymour1 now entered more fully into the nature and extent of the exhibitions which he wished ,hopkins to provide2 but as he was1 at present1 unable to fix the exact period for the fte1 he directed him to take such steps only as might be necessary for securing the performers1 and to hold himself in readiness for active service4 ----- ,footnote #fa3 ,drake's ,shakspeare and his ,times4 ,footnote #fb3 ,ovid4 ,fast4 #b4 v4 #ebe4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,illustration3 ,man using a ,thaumatrope with a boy and girl looking on4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,chapter ,,xviii4 ,the ,thaumatrope4--,a great improvement effected in its construction4--,another toy upon the same optical principle4 ,tom's holidays were now drawing to a close1 and the children were summoned into the library to receive their last lesson in philosophy4 8,you have lately witnessed an experiment10 said ,mr4 ,seymour1 8which must have convinced you how liable the ear is to be deluded with respect to the nature and direction of sound2 ,i shall now show you that the eye has also its sources of fallacy40 8,if you proceed in this manner1 you will make us all ,cartesians10#fc exclaimed the vicar4 8,i shall illustrate my subject by means of a new toy which ,i have lately invented10 said ,mr4 ,seymour1 8and unless ,i am much mistaken1 it will afford as much amusement to the elder as to the younger members of our party1 although the vicar may perhaps regard it as a more hostile instrument than even that of the wooden horse which filled unhappy ,troy with an armed enemy4 ,it is a small machine10 continued ,mr4 ,seymour1 8which is well calculated to furnish us with some capital puns40 8,with puns60 exclaimed the horrified vicar1 who no sooner heard this appalling declaration1 than like another ,laocoon1 he deprecated the introduction of the 8donum exitiale0 within the walls of ,overton ,lodge4 ,but his hostility was soon disarmed1 not by the circumvolutions of a snake around the body of the enraged orator1 but by the embraces of little ,rosa1 who threw her arms around the neck of the vicar1 with such supplicating grace1 that at length he exclaimed1 8,well1 well2 if it be the decree of the ,fates1 ,i must submit40 ,during this altercation1 ,mr4 ,seymour had procured the 8wooden engine0 from his study4 8,i will first10 said he1 8exhibit the toy in its original state1 and then show you the improvements which have been effected in it40 8,let us hear the account of its operation10 said the major1 8which ,i perceive is enclosed within the box40 8,true10 replied ,mr4 ,seymour2 8and ,i think you will agree that ,i have given a very plausible explanation of its effects40 8,plausible10 muttered the vicar1 8plausible enough1 no doubt2 oh the ,sinon60 ,mr4 ,seymour then proceeded4 8,this toy is termed the ,,thaumatrope40 8,of ,grecian origin60 observed the vicar4 8#8,timeo ,danaos et dona ferentes1' as ,virgil has it40 8,what is the meaning of the term80 asked ,louisa4 ,the vicar explained to her that it was compounded of the ,greek words1 1 and 2 the former of which signified wonder1 the latter to turn4 8,exactly10 replied ,mr4 ,seymour4 8#8,a ,wonder-turner1' or a toy which performs wonders by turning round3 but let me proceed in the explanation40 ,he then continued to read as follows3 8,this philosophical toy is founded upon the well-known optical principle1 that an impression made on the retina of the eye lasts for a short interval after the object which produced it has been withdrawn4 ,during the rapid whirling of the card1 the figures on each of its sides are presented with such quick transition1 that they both appear at the same instant1 and thus occasion a very striking and magical effect4 ,on each of these cards a device is introduced1 with an appropriate motto1 or epigram2 the point of which is answered1 or explained1 by the change which the figure assumes during the rapid whirling of the card40 8,it may be very clever10 said the vicar1 8but ,i do not understand it40 8,but you shortly will2 look at one of the cards40 ,mr4 ,seymour then displayed a pasteboard circle1 on the one side of which was figured a rat1 and on the other1 a cage2 two strings were fastened in its axis1 by which the card could easily be made to revolve1 by means of the thumb and finger4 ,fearing that some of our readers may be as dull of comprehension as the vicar1 we have introduced a sketch of the apparatus1 in which both sides of the card are exhibited1 with the strings by which it is whirled round4 ,illustration3 ,two circular cards with strings attached1 one with an empty cage and one with a rat4 ,no sooner had ,mr4 ,seymour put the card in motion1 than the vicar1 in a tone of the greatest surprise1 exclaimed1 8,magic6 magic6 ,i declare the rat is in the cage660 8,and what is the motto80 asked ,louisa4 8,why is this rat like an opposition member in the ,house of ,commons1 who joins the ministry80 replied ,mr4 ,seymour4 8,ha1 ha1 ha6--excellent60 cried the major1 as he read the following answer3 8because by turning round he gains a snug berth1 but ceases to be free40 8,the very reverse to what occurred in ancient ,rome1 where the slave became free by turning round10 observed the vicar4 ,the vicar1 no doubt1 alluded to the custom of making a freeman1 as described by ,persius2 from which it appears1 that the clapping a cap on the head1 and giving him a turn on the heel1 were necessary circumstances4 ,a slave thus qualified became a citizen of ,rome1 and was honoured with a name more than belonged to any of his forefathers1 which ,persius has repeated with a great deal of humour in his #eth satire3-- 8----,heu steriles veri1 quibus una ,quiritem ,vertigo facit60 8,that false enfranchisement with ease is found2 ,slaves are made citizens by turning round40 ,,dryden4 8,show us another card10 said ,tom1 eagerly4 8,here then is a watch-box2 when ,i turn it round1 you will see the watchman comfortably sleeping at his post40 8,very good6 ,it is very surprising10 said the vicar4 8,yes10 observed the major2 8and to carry on your political joke1 it may be said that1 like most worthies who gain a post1 by turning round1 he sleeps over his duty40 8,the epigram which accompanies it is not deficient in point10 said ,mr4 ,seymour4 8,the caprice of this watchman surpasses all bound ,he ne'er sits in his box1 but when going his round ,while he no sooner rests1 'tis a strange paradox6 ,than he flies from his post1 and turns out of his box40 8,what have you there80 exclaimed the vicar2 8arms and legs1 without a body80 8,yes10 replied ,mr4 ,seymour2 8and which1 on turning round1 will present the figure of a king1 invested with all the insignia of royalty40 8,it is indeed a king4 ,look at his crown and sceptre60 cried ,louisa4 8,now for the epigram10 said the major1 who then read the following lines3-- 8,head1 legs1 and arms1 alone appear2 ,observe that nobody is here2 ,napoleon-like ,i undertake ,of nobody a king to make40 ,the next card presented a laughing face1 which on being turned round1 was instantly changed into a weeping one4 ,the motto--,the sweetest things turn sour4 8,the device is capital60 exclaimed the vicar1 8,i question whether ,peter of ,cortona ever produced a more striking metamorphosis40#fd ,the other cards were now exhibited in succession1 of which the box contained eighteen1 and the whole party1 not even excepting the vicar1 were highly gratified with the amusement4 8,but ,i have not yet read to you the author's address to the public2 and which1 ,i must say1 contains a succession of very happy puns40 8,spare me6 spare me60 cried the vicar3 8,i like your toy1 but cannot discover the advantage of alloying amusement with such spurious wit1 and of associating science with buffoonery40 ,mr4 ,seymour1 however1 was relentless1 and thus proceeded3 8,it is well known that the ,laputan philosopher invented a piece of machinery1 by which works could be composed by a mechanical operation2 and the ,quarterly ,review has asserted1 that a certain ,english poem was fabricated in ,paris1 by the powers of a steam-engine2 but the author of the present invention claims for himself the exclusive merit of having first constructed a hand-mill1 by which puns and epigrams may be turned with as much ease as tunes are played on the hand-organ1 and old jokes so rounded and changed1 as to assume all the airs of originality4 ,the inventor confidently anticipates the favour and patronage of an enlightened and liberal public1 on the well-grounded assurance1 that #8one good turn deserves another2' and he trusts that his discovery may afford the happy means of giving activity to wit that has been long stationary2 of revolutionising the present system of standing jokes1 and of putting into rapid circulation the most approved bon-mots40 8,why1 vicar1 what ails thee80 exclaimed the major4 8,our subject has given him a turn2 let him alone1 and he will soon come round10 observed ,mr4 ,seymour4 ,the whole party1 with the exception of ,mr4 ,twaddleton1 laughed heartily2 the vicar1 however1 did not relax a feature of his countenance4 ,as soon as this ebullition had subsided1 the major enquired of ,mr4 ,seymour1 what was the nature of the improvement to which he had alluded4 8,my proposed improvements refer both to the subjects exhibited on the cards1 and to the mechanism by which their changes are effected10 replied ,mr4 ,seymour4 8,in the first place1 it has occurred to me that this amusing toy might be made instrumental in impressing classical subjects upon the memory of young persons40 ,this observation delighted the vicar1 who said that he would patronise such an attempt with all his heart4 8,why can we not10 continued he1 8thus represent the ,metamorphoses of ,ovid2 or what say you1 vicar1 to converting the fleet of neas into sea-nymphs1 as ,virgil has it80 8,an elegant thought6 upon my word2 a most elegant conception60 exclaimed ,mr4 ,twaddleton4 8,what have we here80 interrupted the major1 who had1 for the first time1 noticed the superscription on the cover of the box3 8had ,i seen this before1 ,i should have augured favourably of the toy3 it is like the sign of an inn1 which is held out to announce good entertainment within40 ,he then read the following3-- ,the ,thaumatrope2 being ,rounds of ,amusement1 or ,how to please and surprise ,by ,turns4 ,mr4 ,seymour now proceeded to explain more fully the optical theory of the instrument1 which neither ,louisa nor ,tom could1 as yet1 thoroughly understand4 ,he told them that an object was seen by the eye1 in consequence of its image being delineated on the retina1 or optic nerve1 which is situated on the back part of the eye2 and that it had been ascertained1 by experiment1 that the impression which the mind thus receives1 lasts for about the eighth part of a second after the image is removed4 8,it is1 therefore1 sufficiently evident10 said ,mr4 ,seymour1 8that if any point1 as a lighted stick1 be made to revolve1 so as to complete the circle in that period1 we shall not see a fiery point1 but a fiery circle2 because the impression made by it in every point of its circuit will remain until it comes round again to the spot from which it set out2--but we will1 at once1 exemplify this fact by an experiment40 ,tom was accordingly directed to procure a piece of stick and a candle2 and as soon as they were brought into the room1 ,mr4 ,seymour ignited the end of the stick and whirled it round1 when a bright circle1 without any intervals of darkness1 was seen by the whole party4 8,never until this instant10 exclaimed the vicar1 with an expression of high satisfaction1 8did ,i fully appreciate the beauty of that passage in ,milton1 wherein the poet evidently describes the rapidity of ,satan's flight1 as well as the refulgence of his appearance-- 8#8,sprung upward like a pyramid of fire4' 8,now to take in the full meaning of this figure10 continued ,mr4 ,twaddleton1 8we must imagine ourselves in chaos1 and that a vast luminous body is rising near the spot where we may be supposed to be standing1 so swiftly as to appear a continued track of light1 and lessening to the view1 according to the increase of distance1 until it ends in a point1 and then disappears2 and all this must be supposed to strike our eye at one instant40 8,it is very probable10 said ,mr4 ,seymour1 8that the poet had such an idea in view1 and that he intended by it to convey the immense rapidity of ,satan's flight4 ,homer makes use of the same figure to express the velocity of the javelin1 1 the #8long shadowed' javelin4 ,we shall have ample proof of the effect of this power in the eye of retaining impressions1 and of thus converting points into lines and circles1 during the exhibition of your fire-works2 and which1 in fact1 derive the greater part of their magical effect from it40 8,the pin wheel is certainly nothing more than a fiery circle produced by the rapid revolution of a jet of flame10 said the vicar4 8,and the rocket10 added ,mr4 ,seymour1 8is a column of light occasioned by the same rapid movement of a burning body in a rectilinear or curved direction40 8,i perfectly understand all that you have said10 observed ,tom4 8,then you will not have any difficulty in explaining the action of the ,thaumatrope1 for it depends upon the same optical principle2 the impression made on the retina by the image1 which is delineated on one side of the card1 is not erased before that which is painted on the opposite side is presented to the eye2 and the consequence is1 that you see both sides at once40 8,or1 you might put it in this way10 said the major3 8that as the image remains the eighth of a second on the retina1 after it has been withdrawn from the eye1 a revolution of eight times in a second will secure its uninterrupted continuance40 8,on turning round the card10 observed ,louisa1 8,i perceive that every part of the figure is not equally distinct40 8,because every part of the card does not revolve with the same velocity10 said her father2 8and this fact offers a good illustration of what ,i formerly stated1#fe that in circular motion1 the parts more remote from the axis of rotation are those which move with the greater velocity4 ,this toy will also be found capable of exemplifying another truth to which ,i have before alluded1 that #8the axis of motion remains at rest while all the parts revolve round it4'0#ff 8,i remember that very well10 exclaimed ,tom4 8,then take the card1 and spin it between yourself and the window1 and tell me what you observe10 said his father4 8,i see a dark line across the window2 and what is very strange1 the other parts of the card appear transparent2 for they do not obstruct the view of the window1 as they would if the card were at rest40 8,the dark line you see is the axis of rotation1 which being stationary1 necessarily excludes the light2 the other parts being in motion do not remain a sufficient time to obliterate the image made on the eye by the window4 ,it is true that the card disc passes between your eye and the light1 but as it does not continue at any one point for more than the eighth of a second1 there is no more apparent intermission of the light than what occurs during the winking of the eyes40 8,you allude to a very curious fact10 observed the vicar1 8that1 although we are perpetually covering the eyeballs with our eyelids1 we are not conscious of the intervals of darkness40 8,the reason of which must surely be obvious from the explanation ,i have just offered10 said ,mr4 ,seymour3 8the sensation of light is not exchanged for that of darkness in so short a period as the twinkling of the eye40 8,i admit the plausibility of your theory10 said the vicar2 8but it appears to me that objects frequently linger on the sight for a longer period than that which you assign to them4 ,i well remember seeing the flame of a candle for several seconds after it had been suddenly withdrawn from the apartment40 8,i admit that strong lights frequently continue for some time thus visible in the #8mind's eye2' and it is well known that such impressions are often followed by images of similar shape1 but of various colours4 ,in passing from sunshine to a dark room1 we frequently witness the appearance of stars and circles of vari-coloured light2 but this phenomenon is very distinct from that of the ,thaumatrope1 and is to be explained upon very different principles40#fg 8,i know exactly to what you allude10 said the major3 8and ,i do not doubt but that many of those illusive appearances1 which have been described1 might be referred to the operation of the same natural cause4 ,it is easy to imagine that a person who has steadfastly fixed his eyes upon an illuminated object1 may1 for some minutes afterwards1 see the same figure in shade2 it was from such a cause1 no doubt1 that ,constantine saw the image of a cross in the sky4 ,you are1 probably1 acquainted with the opinions of ,eusebius1 ,fabricius1 and ,dr4 ,lardner1 upon this alleged miracle40 8,yes10 exclaimed the vicar1 8and ,i also know1 that this miracle for the conversion of ,constantine gave origin to the ,catholic custom of illuminating the cross at ,st4 ,peter's in ,rome40 8,sir ,david ,brewster1 in his late work on ,natural ,magic1 has given us a beautiful illustration of the same principle2 it is as follows10 said ,mr4 ,seymour4 8,a figure dressed in black and mounted upon a white horse1 was riding along exposed to the bright rays of the sun1 which through a small opening in the clouds was throwing its light only upon that part of the landscape4 ,the black figure was projected against a white cloud1 and the white horse shone with particular brilliancy by its contrast with the dark soil against which it was seen4 ,a person interested in the arrival of such a stranger1 had been for some time following his movements with intense anxiety2 but upon his disappearance behind a wood1 was surprised to observe the spectre of the mounted stranger in the form of a white rider upon a black steed1 and this spectre was seen for some time in the sky1 or upon any pale ground to which the eye was directed40 8,i cannot understand why the spectre should be opposite in colour to the real image10 observed ,tom4 8,it is a law of vision which you must for the present take for granted10 answered his father2 8that such is the fact1 however10 continued he1 8,i will satisfy you by a very simple experiment40 ,mr4 ,seymour here placed three different coloured wafers in a triangular form on a piece of white paper1 and instructed his son to fix his eyes steadily upon them for a minute2 this having been performed1 he next directed him to turn them from the wafers to a blank part of the paper1 and to tell him what he saw4 8,i see10 exclaimed ,tom1 8three spectral wafers1 but the colours are different2 the red wafer is represented by a green1 the violet by a yellow1 and the orange by a blue40 8,you now then understand what is meant by the spectral or accidental colour of a body3--,but let us return to the subject of the ,thaumatrope10 said ,mr4 ,seymour4 8,behold60 continued he1 8the ,trojan ships60 8,ay1 ay1 sure enough10 said the vicar2 8but let me see1 are their forms according to ancient authority8 ,very well indeed1 ,mr4 ,seymour4 ,very well2 the poops have the bend so accurately described by ,ovid and ,virgil--#8puppesque recurv1' as the poet has it4 ,and there is the triton2 but is its size in proportion to the vessel8 ,yes1 sir1 you are doubtless correct1 the figure is generally represented of considerable magnitude on ancient medals2 and ,silius ,italicus1 if my memory serves me1 alludes to the weight of the image having on some occasions contributed to the wreck of the vessel40 8,spin them round10 said ,mr4 ,seymour4 ,the vicar complied2 exclaiming at the same moment1 8#8,vos ite solut4 ,ite de pelagi4' ,they are positively converted into sea-nymphs4 #8,mirabile monstrum6'0 cried ,mr4 ,twaddleton4 8,here is another classical device2 the representation of ,eurydice1 as she fell lifeless at the moment ,orpheus turned round to gaze on her10 said ,mr4 ,seymour4 8,charming6 charming6 ,i perceive that it is a copy from the splendid print of ,didot in the ,paris edition of ,virgil40 8,turn it round1 vicar40 8,see6 see6 she revives1 she opens her eyes1 and throws her arms around the neck of her frantic lover3 truly1 ,mr4 ,seymour1 this is a most interesting toy10 said ,mr4 ,twaddleton4 ,mr4 ,seymour here observed that he had written an epigram to accompany the subject they had just witnessed1 and he trusted that he had given to it a classical turn4 8,by all means read it2 the subject admits of much classical decoration10 observed the vicar4 ,louisa received the epigram from the hands of her father1 and read as follows3-- 8,by turning round1 'tis said1 that ,orpheus lost his wife2 ,let him turn round again1 and she'll return to life40 ,it could not be expected that ,mr4 ,twaddleton should have admired lines so burdened with puns2 but he quietly observed1 8,i should have preferred a quotation from the fourth ,georgic1 so beautifully descriptive of the fable40 ,the next card that was presented for inspection exhibited the metamorphosis of ,daphne into a laurel4 ,as the figure revolved1 the leaves were seen sprouting from her fingers1 and her arms lengthening into branches4 8,come now10 said ,mr4 ,seymour1 8let us exhibit the figure which has been designed at my request3 the change which it will undergo during its revolution may1 ,i trust1 on some day be realised2 ,i only regret that it is not in my power to give the vicar so good a turn40 8,really1 if like ,crambe1 in ,martinus ,scriblerus1 thou hadst a word for every day in the year1 ,i should certainly say that you were this day under the dominion of the word turn40 8,you know this resemblance80 said ,mr4 ,seymour1 as he showed the figure1 painted on one side of the card1 to his daughter4 8,it is the vicar60 exclaimed ,louisa4 ,it was1 indeed1 a portrait of that most excellent character1 represented in the costume in which he usually appeared4 8,turn it round10 said ,mrs4 ,seymour4 ,louisa twirled the cord1 and the effect of the rotation was to convert the humble vicar into the dignified bishop2 his meagre form was instantly changed into a corpulent figure1 which was still farther inflated by the addition of the episcopal robe and lawn sleeves1 while his angular features were softened by the graceful curves of an immense wig4 8,i will give you a motto for it10 said the major1 8and may it be prophetic6--,,rapid ,,preferment40 8,i will now show you the improvement which has been effected in the construction and use of this toy10 said ,mr4 ,seymour4 8,it consists in altering the axis of rotation while the card is in the act of revolving1 in order that the images on its opposite sides may be brought in different positions with respect to each other40 8,there cannot be any doubt that such would be the effect1 were it possible to change the axis in the way you propose1 but how is this to be effected80 asked the vicar4 8,at first ,i attempted to produce the change by the addition of several other strings1 but ,i soon found1 that1 in order to avail myself of this expedient1 ,i should be obliged to stop the card before ,i could alter the axis1 whereas my great object1 as ,i have just stated1 was to produce the change while the card was in the act of spinning10 answered ,mr4 ,seymour4 8,and ,i shrewdly suspect that such must necessarily be the case1 adopt whatever expedient you may10 observed the major4 8,no indeed2 ,i have at length succeeded to my entire satisfaction1 and that too by a most simple scheme1 after having tried without success many very complicated contrivances40 ,the party were very desirous of witnessing this triumph of skill1 and ,mr4 ,seymour produced the card1 with its appendages1 of which we shall here present our readers with an engraving3-- ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4 ,circular card with bottle and another with man's torso4 ,in all respects the card is constructed like the common ,thaumatrope2 the subject1 it will be perceived1 is that of a man drinking1 the bottle being placed on one side1 and the head on the other2 upon revolving the card1 in the ordinary manner1 the two images will appear together as represented in3 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4 ,man with bottle halfway to his mouth4 ,the improvement consists in inserting in one1 or1 if a still greater change be desired1 in both sides of the card1 two strings1 as seen in ,fig4 #a2 viz4 ,a ,d and ,a ,e1 which united at ,a1 form a common string for twirling the card4 ,the cord ,a ,d is elastic1 while the string ,a ,e is incapable of being stretched4 ,if1 therefore1 while the card is in the act of spinning1 the cord ,a ,d be pulled with an increased force1 it will take the position ,d ,c1 while the inelastic string ,a ,e will at the same time assume that of ,e ,c4 ,the consequence of which will be that1 instead of the card spinning on an axis in the direction ,a ,b1 it will now spin on that which is in the direction ,c ,b1 and we shall accordingly see the images on the opposite sides of the card in different positions1 with respect to each other2 at one moment the bottle will be seen in the hand of the drinker as represented in ,fig4 #b1 and in the next1 at his mouth as shown in the cut below3 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c4 ,man with bottle at his mouth4 while1 by alternately tightening and relaxing the string1 the figure will be seen in the very act of raising and lowering the bottle4 ,mr4 ,seymour having explained the principle of his improvement as we have above related1 proceeded to exemplify it by a series of different subjects4 ,we shall select two or three of them for the sake of illustration4 ,a card with a jockey on one side and a horse on the other1 on spinning round presented the combined figure2 upon tightening the string1 in the manner we have described1 the card changed its axis1 without the slightest halt or hesitation in its rotation1 and the rider was in an instant canted over the head of his charger2 in a moment1 however1 he appeared remounted2 after which1 by pulling the string1 with different degrees of force1 he was made to stand on the saddle1 and to exhibit a number of different movements4 ,the figure of an ,indian juggler was represented in the act of throwing up two balls2 on spinning the card1 and1 at the same time1 altering the position of the circle1 in the manner already described1 three1 and afterwards four1 became visible4 ,when the card revolved upon its original axis1 two of the balls on the reverse side coincided with the two painted on the front1 so that during the revolution they fell upon the same spot on the retina1 and therefore produced a single impression2 but as soon as the position of the card was changed1 these spots were brought upon different points1 and consequently produced separate and independent images4 ,by alternately tightening and relaxing the strings1 the balls were seen in motion1 arising from and falling into the hand of the juggler4 ,the next subject which we shall describe produced a considerable degree of merriment4 ,the vicar inspected the drawing1 and observed that he saw a pulpit placed on the banks of a pond2 the card was made to spin1 when a tailor was seen haranguing from the former1 and a goose1 at the same instant1 fluttering over the water4 ,the circle was now suddenly shifted1 and the vicar was desired to state what he saw3--8,why1 bless me60 exclaimed ,mr4 ,twaddleton1 8the tailor is justly served1 he is ducked in the pond1 while the goose has taken his place in the pulpit40 ,fearing that we may have exhausted the patience of our reader1 we shall only relate one more example4 ,it was a ,turk1 who1 by means of the expedient we are illustrating1 was made to draw his sabre1 and cut off the head of his antagonist1 which immediately fell into the hands of the decapitated person1 who1 like ,st4 ,denys1 appeared as if walking off with perfect indifference4 8,you must admit that these effects are no less novel than they are extraordinary1 and that they are capable of almost endless variation10 said ,mr4 ,seymour4 8,i admit it all10 replied ,mr4 ,twaddleton1 8and ,i have only to express a hope that1 amidst all your improvements1 you will never lose sight of your first and most laudable design1 that of rendering your toy subservient to classical illustration3 your triumph will then be complete1 and ,i shall willingly acknowledge that there is not only philosophy but literature in your sport40 8,i must not quit this subject10 said ,mr4 ,seymour1 8until ,i have exhibited another toy1 which1 like the ,thaumatrope1 is indebted for its effect to the optical principle1 which ,i trust is now well understood by all present1 viz4 that an impression made on the retina lasts for a certain period after the object itself has been withdrawn40 ,the annexed wood-cut represents the instrument to which ,mr4 ,seymour alluded4 ,illustration3 ,a blackened tin plate with slit1 mounted on stand1 in view ,a2 the image of a star as seen1 in view ,b4 ,it consists of a disc of blackened tin plate1 which is made to revolve on its axis in the manner above exhibited4 ,a narrow opening extends from the circumference to the centre as seen at ,a4 ,if a device of any kind1 as a star 7which for increasing the beauty of the experiment ought to be transparent1 and illuminated with a lamp7 be placed behind the disc1 it is evident that1 as long as the circle remains at rest1 no other part of the figure can be visible than that which is immediately behind the slit ,a1 but the instant it is put into rapid motion1 the whole of the star will be seen1 as exhibited in figure ,b4 ,mr4 ,seymour observed that the explanation of the phenomenon was obvious2--each successive portion of the figure seen through the opening remains on the eye1 until the circle has completed its entire revolution4 8,this experiment10 continued ,mr4 ,seymour1 8admits of a very curious modification1 which ,i shall now proceed to exhibit40 ,three coloured wafers were then placed1 at equal distances from each other1 on the disc1 and the instrument having been arranged before a looking-glass1 the party were desired to observe the reflected image as the circle revolved4 8,the wafers are blended into one continuous zone10 observed ,mrs4 ,seymour4 8,to be sure10 said ,louisa2 8upon the same principle that the ignited stick appears as a fiery circle40 8,it would be very strange1 after the different experiments we have seen1 if we were not able to explain the present appearance10 observed ,tom4 8,the fiery circle produced by the revolving stick is a much better illustration of the principle2 ,i do not see what object ,mr4 ,seymour has in thus multiplying his experiments10 said the vicar4 8,gently1 if you please1 ,mr4 ,twaddleton1 and1 before you favour us with your criticism1 wait until ,i have concluded my experiment4 ,you have seen that the reflected image of the revolving wafers appears as a continuous zone1 and you have very correctly explained the reason of such an appearance2 but ,i must now request you to inspect the reflected image through the slit in the disc1 as it revolves1 and say what new effect you observe40 8,how very strange60 exclaimed ,tom2 8,i see the three wafers very distinctly1 and perfectly at rest40 8,impossible10 exclaimed the vicar--8let me have a peep4 ,why1 ,i declare1 they appear1 as you say1 stationary1 although ,i know them to be in rapid motion2 as sure as fate ,i shall become a ,cartesian40 ,the ,major1 ,louisa1 and ,mrs4 ,seymour1 were all equally surprised1 and incapable of giving any explanation of the phenomenon they had witnessed4 8,let us remember10 said ,mr4 ,seymour1 8that in viewing the image through the slit in the revolving disc1 we catch but a momentary glance as it passes before the eye1 and that the image thus produced on the retina is retained until the next revolution again brings the slit into the same position4 ,now it is evident1 that before the eye can ascertain a body to be in motion1 it must observe it in two successive portions of time1 in order to compare its change of place2#fh but in the experiment under consideration1 the glance is momentary1 the wafer is no sooner seen than it passes away2 its figure alone is impressed upon the retina1 and this impression is continued without any change1 until the circle completes its round1 and consequently the image must appear at rest40 8,i understand you2 the figure1 but not the motion1 of the wafer1 is discernible in the short period during which it is visible through the slit10 observed the vicar4 8,i lately witnessed a beautiful illustration of this subject at the ,royal ,institution10 said ,mr4 ,seymour4 8,a number of cogged wheels1 cut out of pasteboard1 were set in motion in a perfectly dark room1 when occasional flashes of light from an electric battery1 displayed their forms most distinctly1 and yet although whirling round at the time1 they appeared to the spectator as motionless as so many solid blocks of marble4 ,in like manner1 in a storm during the darkness of midnight1 the rolling ship and waves1 when rendered visible by flashes of lightning1 will appear as completely at rest1 as a representation of them upon the canvass4#fh;a ,i may at some future time extend this interesting subject1 by exhibiting some optical illusions produced by the revolution of wheels in different directions1 and at different velocities1 for the knowledge#fi of which we are indebted to ,mr4 ,faraday1 and in mentioning that distinguished philosopher10 added ,mr4 ,seymour1 addressing himself more particularly to the vicar1 8,i cannot avoid remarking1 that if ,philosophy in ,sport can be made ,science in ,earnest1 the juvenile lectures delivered by that professor have established the converse proposition1 that the sternness of ,science may be relaxed into the engaging aspect of ,sport40 8,before quitting this subject10 continued he1 8,i have yet another toy in store for your amusement2 it is founded upon the optical principle which ,i have every reason to believe you now thoroughly understand40 ,a square box was then produced containing a number of card discs1 the edges of which exhibited a series of notches corresponding with the figures delineated on their margins4 ,that the reader may better understand their construction1 as well as the explanation of ,mr4 ,seymour1 the following representation has been introduced4 ,illustration3 ,as explained above4 ,figure is a dark-skinned man jumping in the air4 8,to exhibit the magical effects of this toy10 said ,mr4 ,seymour1 8,i will1 by means of the spindle to which it is attached1 cause it to revolve rapidly before the looking-glass1 and you shall view the reflection through the openings40 ,each member of the party obeyed in succession the direction thus given1 and severally expressed the great astonishment they felt1 at observing the figures in constant motion1 and exhibiting the most grotesque attitudes4 8,now10 said ,mr4 ,seymour1 8attend to my explanation4 ,each figure is seen through the aperture1 and as it passes and is succeeded in rapid succession by another and another1 differing from the former only in attitude1 the eye is cheated into the belief of its being the same object successively changing the position of its body4 ,consider what takes place in an image on the retina when we actually witness a man in motion2 for instance1 a man jumping over a gate1 in the first moment he appears on the ground1 in the next his legs are a few inches above it1 in the third they are nearly on a level with the rail1 in the fourth he is above it1 and then in the successive moments he is seen descending as he had previously risen4 ,a precisely similar effect is produced on the retina1 by the successive substitution of figures in corresponding attitudes1 as seen through the orifices of the revolving disc2 each figure remaining on the retina long enough to allow its successor to take its place without an interval that would destroy the illusion40 8,nothing can be more satisfactory than your explanation of this very extraordinary toy10 observed the vicar4 8,i am now about to exhibit what ,i consider a great improvement in its construction1 inasmuch as we thus get rid of the mirror1 and enable two persons to witness the deception at the same time10 said ,mr4 ,seymour4 8,for this purpose ,i have a spindle1 at each end of which a disc is placed1 and which ,i hold in my hand40 ,we deem it expedient to illustrate this arrangement by a wood-cut4 ,illustration3 ,two-sided phantasmascope4 8,by revolving the spindle1 you perceive that both cards are made to turn round with equal velocity4 ,tom10 said his father1 8look through the orifices of the disc1 on my right hand1 and ,louisa1 do the same on my left40 ,the children obeyed1 and simultaneously expressed their wonder at what they witnessed4 8,the figures are all dancing60 cried ,tom2 8,the horses are all prancing60 exclaimed ,louisa4 8,you have not yet told us the name of this toy10 observed the vicar4 8,it has received several names10 answered ,mr4 ,seymour1 8as ,phantasmascope1 ,phenakistiscope1 c4 derived1 as you no doubt perceive1 from the ,greek40 ,it is scarcely necessary to observe1 that the appearances thus produced may be infinitely varied--heads opening their mouths1 and distorting their countenances2 creeping serpents1 and machinery in active operation1 are amongst the subjects that have excited the greatest admiration4 ,the party now dispersed1 not less gratified than they had been instructed by the lesson of the morning4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the mighty magician of the ,north has compared the course of a narrative to the progress of a stone rolled down hill by an idle truant boy1 8which at first moveth slowly1 avoiding by inflection every obstacle of the least importance2 but when it has attained its full impulse1 and draws near the conclusion of its career1 it smokes and thunders down1 making a rood at every spring1 clearing hedge and ditch like a ,yorkshire huntsman1 and becoming most furiously rapid in its course when it is nearest to being consigned to rest for ever3 even such10 says he1 8is the course of a narrative2 the earlier events are studiously dwelt upon2 but when the story draws near its close1 we hurry over the circumstances1 however important1 which your imagination must have forestalled1 and leave you to suppose those things which it would be abusing your patience to relate at length40 ,let the reader of the present work accept this explanation1 as an apology for the abrupt and rapid manner in which we shall now accelerate our narrative4 ,since the last lecture1 our history has advanced nearly three weeks1 during which interval the major had made every arrangement for the approaching marriage4 ,it was finally agreed that the ceremony should be performed at ,overton church2 and as the 8happy couple0 expressed a wish to pass their 8honey moon0 in a retired part of ,yorkshire1 the major consented to postpone his fte until after their return2 nor was he displeased at such an arrangement1 as it afforded time for getting up his entertainment on a more liberal scale than could otherwise have been accomplished4 ,we shall now avail ourselves of that peculiar ,lethean property which has been often ascribed to the pen of the author1 and commit the reader to the arms of ,morpheus1 where it is our intention that he shall remain until the morning of the nuptials4 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,reader1 awake6 the sun has risen1 and ,nature is robing herself in her most gorgeous apparel for the approaching ceremony2 the family of the lodge have been already roused from their slumbers by the attendance of minstrels1 whom the vicar had directed to salute the bridal party at break of day4----,but hark6 while we are thus trifling1 the village of ,overton is in a bustle2 the marriage ceremony is over2 the bells of the church are ringing right merrily their festive peals2 many a handkerchief is waving from the cottage windows1 while the doors are decorated with garlands2 the vicarage is ornamented with fragments of ,venetian tapestry2 the peasants1 dressed in their holiday garments1 are carrying nosegays in their hands1 to present to the bride as an offering of their respect1 or to strew in her path1 as an emblematic expression of their wishes4 ,the party having reached ,osterley ,park1 we were proceeding to describe the banquet which had been prepared1 and the various devices and emblems with which it had been decorated1 under the classical direction of the vicar1 when alas6 our publishers1 like the harpies of old1 unexpectedly pounced upon us1 and warned us from the feast--8diripiuntque dapes10 as ,virgil has it4 8,you have already exceeded the prescribed limits--you must close the scene--remember that you have engaged to condense the work into one volume10 said they4 ,we remonstrate1 but in vain4 ,we request but a few pages1 in order that we may give our characters a dramatic exit2 but they reply to us in the words of ,sneer1 in the ,critic1 8,o never mind6 so as you get them off the stage1 ,i'll answer for it the reader won't care how40 ,you see then1 gentle reader1 how vain it would be to struggle against such arbitrary and tasteless masters2 we shall1 therefore1 without any farther apology1 ring the manager's bell1 and drop the curtain4 ----- ,footnote #fc3 ,the ,cartesians maintained that the senses were the great sources of deception2 that everything with which they present us ought to be suspected as false1 or at least dubious1 until our reason has confirmed the report4 ,footnote #fd3 ,ferdinand1 ,duke of ,tuscany1 was once struck with the picture of a child crying2 the artist 7,peter of ,cortona71 who was at work upon the head1 wishing to give a proof of his skill1 by a few judicious touches converted the crying into a laughing face4 ,the ,duke was in astonishment2 the painter1 to show himself master of the human countenance1 restored his first touches1 and the ,duke again saw the child weeping4 ,footnote #fe3 ,page #afa4 ,footnote #ff3 ,page #di4 ,footnote #fg3 ,those who are desirous of gaining farther information upon this subject may consult the chapter on 8,ocular ,spectra1 or ,accidental colours10 in ,brewster's ,natural ,magic1 p4 #ba2 and ,edinburgh ,encyclopdia1 ,art4 ,accidental ,colours4 ,footnote #fh3 8,our knowledge of motion is a deduction of reasoning1 not a perception of sense2 it is derived from the comparison of two positions2 the idea of a change of place is the result of that comparison attained by a short process of reasoning40--,lord ,brougham4 ,footnote #fi3 ,see ,journal of the ,royal ,institution1 ,no4 #b4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,chapter ,,xix4 ,preparations for the approaching fte4--,the procession of the bridal party to ,osterley ,park4--,the ,major and his visitors superintend the arrangements in the meadow4--,the curious discussions which took place on that occasion4--,the origin of the ,swing4--,merry ,andrews4--,trajetours1 c4--,the dinner at the ,hall4--,the learned controversy which was maintained with respect to the game of ,chess4 ,a month had nearly elapsed since the bridal pair had quitted ,overton2 and during this period1 the greatest activity had been displayed by the itinerant corps of ,momus1 under the superintendence of their manager1 ,ned ,hopkins4 ,the various show-booths had been erected by their respective owners with an expedition that might have put many a prouder architect to shame2 the marquees and the temporary rooms had been completed under the management of ,tom ,plank2 and for those1 whose appetite might hold precedence of the senses of sight and hearing1 ample funds of gratification had been provided by the accomplished hostess of the 8,bag of ,nails10 whose grim troop of kettles and stew-pans had1 during the whole of the week1 been chirping and chuckling over the kitchen range1 the very cheeks of which had cracked from yawning4 ,the major now anxiously awaited the arrival of every post1 in expectation of a letter that might announce the day upon which ,henry ,beacham and his bride would return to ,osterley ,park4 ,at length the long anticipated intelligence was received1 that they might be expected at ,overton by four o'clock on the day after the morrow4 ,the vicar was immediately summoned to a council1 and on his arrival1 retired with the major for the purpose of consulting the chronicles of ,holinshed and ,froissart1 touching certain points of ceremonial that might guide them in their arrangements for receiving the bride4 ,the vicar pleaded in favour of the forms that were observed on the occasion of the public entrance of ,queen ,isabella into the city of ,paris1 but the major objected to the plan1 on account of the pageant representing the siege of ,troy2 a point upon which the vicar1 as may be readily imagined1 most pertinaciously insisted2 so that the gentlemen separated without having arrived at any satisfactory conclusion upon the subject1 and the question was transferred to another jurisdiction4 ,no sooner had it become known that ,mr4 and ,mrs4 ,beacham were shortly to arrive1 than the more respectable yeomen of the parish assembled at the village inn1 to concert a plan for receiving them with all due honour1 when it was finally arranged1 that the village should be decorated with garlands1 and the ,may-pole erected on the spot1 where its gaudy streamers had for so many ages annually floated on the breeze of spring4 ,it was farther resolved1 that every person who could furnish himself with a horse1 should attend at a certain spot by the hour of three1 in order to advance in procession1 and escort the happy couple through ,overton to ,osterley ,park4 ,the major1 upon receiving these resolutions1 issued such orders as might be necessary for carrying them into effect2 he also signified his desire1 that those musicians who had lately arrived for the impending festivities should be in attendance at the place and hour that had been fixed upon4 ,the friends of ,major ,snapwell had already arrived at the ,park2 and ,overton ,lodge was overflowing with visitors4 ,tom had also joined his family circle4 ,at three o'clock on the appointed day1 twenty signal guns were discharged from the ,park--the village bells struck up a festive peal--the flag was hoisted on the spire of the church2 and upwards of forty respectable yeomen1 farmers1 and tenants1 mounted on their horses and decorated with ribands and flowers1 had assembled as an escort4 ,the church clock chimed the quarter past three1 as the carriages of ,major ,snapwell and ,mr4 ,seymour1 and those of their guests1 drawn by highly decorated horses1 entered the village2 the peasants immediately drew back1 so as to form an avenue through which the party might pass1 while shouts of gladness rent the air4 ,each horseman had provided a large bough of oak or elm1 so that the cavalcade in motion appeared like a moving grove1 and reminded ,mrs4 ,seymour of the advance of 8,birnam ,wood to ,dunsinane40 ,the carriages1 preceded by a band of music1 occupied the van of the procession2 then came about fifty village maidens1 each carrying in her hand a basket of flowers2 next followed the horsemen2 and the procession was closed by a dense group of peasants1 who had come from all the country round4 ,the vicar appeared on horseback1 bustling in all directions1 now conversing with the major1 now with ,mr4 ,seymour2 at one time moderating the pace of the horsemen1 and at another1 keeping back the pedestrians1 whose eagerness to push forward created an inconvenient crowd in the foremost ranks4 ,mr4 ,twaddleton held in his right hand a wand decorated with ivy leaves1 and which resembled in appearance the thyrsus of ,bacchus1 except that the cone on its summit had been replaced by a bunch of roses4 ,this was a classical conceit2 and he fully explained to the major the reason of his having adopted such a device for his wand of office4 8,the rose10 said he1 8was dedicated by ,cupid to ,harpocrates1 the god of silence1 to engage him to conceal the secrets of ,venus2 hence has this flower ever since been considered as the symbol of silence2 for which reason it was customary to hang a rose over the banqueting-table1 to signify that what was there spoken should be kept private1 or #8under the rose2' whence1 also1 to present1 or hold up1 this flower to any person in discourse served1 instead of an admonition1 to intimate that it was time for such person to hold his peace4 ,in like manner10 continued the antiquary1 8you will observe that1 by virtue of my wand1 ,i shall impress the obligation of silence upon the crowd1 and easily calm any undue clamour that may arise40 ,the cavalcade had advanced little more than half a mile1 when the major suggested the propriety of halting1 until his nephew and niece should arrive2 to this proposition the vicar readily acceded1 and accordingly issued the necessary orders4 ,they had not1 however1 remained stationary above five minutes1 when a carriage and four were seen at the brow of the hill1 advancing in full speed4 ,a general and simultaneous shout burst from the crowd2 upon which the vicar raised his wand1 and all was hushed4 ,how far such an effect might be attributed to the influence of his wand1 we shall leave the sagacious reader to determine2 but the party smiled at so striking an instance of classical credulity2 and ,mr4 ,twaddleton1 highly gratified by his triumph1 rode forward to the chariot1 which was not more than two hundred yards distant4 ,it contained ,mr4 and ,mrs4 ,beacham1 whom the vicar no sooner perceived1 than he again raised his wand1 and again witnessed the influence of its spell4 ,the chariot instantly stopped1 and1 in the next moment1 ,mr4 ,twaddleton was seen in earnest conversation with the travellers4 ,he informed them that the group they saw was a cavalcade of villagers1 who had been awaiting their arrival on the road1 in order to escort them in rural triumph to ,osterley ,park4 ,he then presented ,mr4 ,beacham with a bag of nuts1 8that the bridegroom10 as he said1 8might be enabled to comply with the ancient ,roman custom#gj of throwing nuts amongst the boys to be scrambled for2--sparge1 marite1 nuces1 as ,virgil has it2--da nuces pueris1 as ,catullus sings40 ,mr4 ,beacham held the vicar in too much respect to laugh at his eccentricities1 and he therefore accepted the bag1 with a determination to gratify his wishes in so harmless a whim4 ,jerry ,styles was now directed to forward the two messengers to ,osterley ,park2 and he accordingly opened a basket1 from which flew two carrier pigeons1 who immediately soared into the air1 and having attained their greatest altitude1 and remained apparently stationary for a few seconds1 darted off in the direction of ,osterley ,park2 every eye was steadfastly fixed upon the bird sic2 and a murmur of satisfaction and wonder ran through the ranks1 as the sagacious animals lessened in the distance47#eb7 ,the musicians struck up a grand march2--the whole cavalcade was in motion4 ,mr4 ,beacham's chariot having been drawn on one side of the road1 the carriages and horsemen proceeded to take their stations in the rear2 the company in the former kissing their hands1 and waving their handkerchiefs1 while the latter lowered their branches1 and cheered1 as they passed4 ,the damsels1 in advance of ,mr4 ,beacham's carriage1 opened their baskets1 and strewed the road with flowers as they moved forward4 8,hark60 exclaimed the major3 8the pigeons have arrived at the park1 and my orders have been faithfully obeyed3 they are firing a salute40 8,and it has been heard at the village10 said the vicar2 8for the bells have just commenced their peal of welcome40 ,but we are exhausting the patience of our readers with the details of a ceremony1 in which it is very probable they may feel but little interest2 although we freely confess that1 to ourselves1 few pageants have such attractive charms as those innocent and simple manifestations of genuine feeling which are to be met with in rural life1 where the heart has not yet been chilled by that benumbing influence of what has been termed 8the progress of civilisation20 and which has exchanged the free and warm impulses of our nature for cold and studied forms1 or for an artful display of factitious sentiment4 ,during the progress of the procession through the village1 ,mr4 ,beacham had not been unmindful of the vicar's request2 he poured a shower of nuts amongst the boys1 which occasioned much frolic1 and good-humoured contention2 while the peasants caught and cracked them1 without any suspicion of the ,roman custom they were assisting to perpetuate4 ,having arrived at ,osterley ,park1 the horsemen formed a double line1 through which the several carriages passed4 ,the gates were then closed2 and the vicar1 stepping forward1 thus addressed the assembled multitude3-- 8,well-beloved friends and parishioners1 ,i am desired by ,major ,snapwell to inform you that refreshments have been prepared in the village1 of which you may all partake on your return4 ,your admission into the park this evening would interfere with those arrangements which are in progress for to-morrow's jubilee3 let me1 therefore1 request that you will all retire peaceably40 ,in compliance with this intimation1 the whole assembly1 8,with tongues all loudness1 and with eyes all mirth10 after having given three hearty cheers1 retired to the village1 where several barrels of beer had been disposed in readiness for the libation4 ,the vicar1 having completed his harangue1 rejoined the party at the park1 where its hospitable owner had prepared a sumptuous dinner4 ,it was1 however1 proposed that the vicar1 with the major1 and such of his guests as wished to inspect the preparations1 should previously walk round the grounds4 ,tom and his sisters begged that they might be included in the party2 a request which their father readily granted1 as he said that some opportunity might occur for explaining the nature of those exhibitions which they were to witness on the following day4 ,the same feeling induced ,mr4 and ,mrs4 ,beacham and several other visitors to join the party1 hoping that they also might profit from the discourse which ,mr4 ,seymour intended to hold for the instruction of his children4 ,the reader will probably be induced1 for similar reasons1 to accompany them4 ,if he has attentively read the preceding pages of this work1 we hope he has become convinced that the lessons of youth may occasionally convey instruction as well as amusement to those of riper years4 ,ned ,hopkins having been summoned to attend the party1 and receive the final orders of the vicar1 they proceeded to the elm-meadow1 where the grand fair was to be held1 and in which were disposed a long line of booths for the motley exhibitions to which they were dedicated4 8,what have we here80 exclaimed the major1 as he entered the meadow2 8a row of poles60 8,ned ,hopkins10 cried the vicar1 8how has it happened that the ropes have not been affixed to these poles8 ,have ,i not said that every arrangement must be completed this evening8 ,those poles10 continued the vicar1 addressing himself to ,major ,snapwell1 8are intended for swings1 from which the younger peasants will1 doubtless1 derive much amusement1 while their sires are engaged1 in the adjoining field1 by the more manly exercises of quoits1 foot-racing1 wrestling1 hurling1 c4 ,you are1 of course1 aware1 gentlemen1 that in admitting the swing amongst the pastimes of the day1 ,i have the support of classical authority3 its origin may be traced to the ,icarian games1 the celebration of which consisted in persons balancing themselves on cords attached to two trees2 or in other words1 in swinging4 ,they were instituted in commemoration of the death of ,erigone1 who no sooner discovered the murder of her father ,icarus1 than she piously hung herself at his tomb40 8,it is certainly very curious10 said the major1 8to observe how frequently a popular ceremony or custom has survived the tradition of its origin2 it is thus1 for instance1 that the fond mother still suspends the coral toy around the neck of her infant1 without being in the least aware of the superstitious belief from which the custom sprang 7#ec72 and ,i have little doubt but that we shall to-morrow hear the chorus of #8,derry-down' re-echoed by those who probably never heard of the ,druids1 and much less of the choral hymns with which their groves resounded1 at the time of gathering the misletoe40 8,you need not go so far back as the ,druids10 said ,mr4 ,seymour2 8does not the housewife place the poker across the grate to draw up the fire1 without ever suspecting that the custom originated from the superstitious belief that1 by thus forming a cross with the bars1 the fire was protected from the malignant influence of witches8--,but let us proceed2 for what has yonder stage been erected80 8,that is the hoistings1 sir10 exclaimed ,ned ,hopkins1 8from which ,giles ,gingerly1 the celebrated ,american merry-andrew1 will exhibit his buffoonery1 and vend his nostrums40 8,hoistings6 why1 ,ned1 you pronounce the word as though your mouth were filled with hot pudding10 said the major4 8,i ask your pardon1 sir10 replied ,ned2 8but my father would never suffer me to pronounce it in any other manner2 for he always maintained that hustings was a corruption for hoistings1 it being a stage upon which the actor is hoisted or elevated above the surrounding crowd40 8,i believe he is right10 muttered the vicar4 8,papa10 said ,tom1 8pray tell me what is a merry-andrew40 8,ask the vicar10 replied his father4 8,the mountebank1 who united the professions of joculator and physician1 was of ancient date1 and during the two last centuries has figured away with considerable success4 ,he usually appears on a temporary stage1 and prefaces the vending of his nostrums with a pompous harangue2 and1 the better to attract the notice of the gaping spectators1 he displays some of the performances practised by the jugglers1 while his inseparable companion1 the bourdour1 exhibits numerous tricks1 and puts the populace in good humour by wit and raillery4 ,the medical fraternity1 known in ,england by the name of ,merry-andrews1 and who are the companions of the mountebank1 derived their foundation from ,dr4 ,andrew ,boorde1 who lived in the reigns of ,henry ,,viii4 ,edward ,,vi4 and ,queen ,mary1 and was constantly in the habit of frequenting fairs and markets1 at which he harangued the populace3 his speeches were extremely humorous1 and occasioned considerable mirth2 but1 notwithstanding the infallibility of his nostrums1 like ,paracelsus1 he died with a bottle of his elixir in his pocket4 ,his successors in the same line naturally endeavoured to emulate the humour of their master1 and hence this whole class of vagabond tinkers of flesh and bone acquired the generic appellation of #8,merry-andrews'40 8,and pray what are nostrums80 asked ,louisa4 8#8,nostrum1' my dear1 signifies our own1 and is applied to any medicine which is prepared by a secret process1 and sold for the private advantage of an individual2 but1 since secrecy is never used on such occasions except as a cloak for imposture1 the word very generally conveys an expression of ridicule or contempt40 ,the company proceeded in their inspection4 8,what have we there1 ,ned ,hopkins80 said ,mr4 ,seymour1 as he pointed to a booth of larger dimensions than those which surrounded it4 8,in that booth1 #8the ,emperor of all the ,conjurors' will perform his wonderful art of #8sleight-of-hand1'0 replied ,ned4--8,look at his card of invitation10 continued the wag--8 ,,walk ,,in--,,walk ,,in--,,ladies ,,and ,,gentlemen4 ,,here ,,are ,,miracles ,,in ,,any ,,quantity ,,to ,,be ,,seen ,,for ,,two-,,pence1 ,,and ,,believed ,,in ,,for ,,nothing6660 8,a lineal descendant of the ,tragetour of the fourteenth century10 observed the vicar2 8a class of artists who1 with the assistance of dexterity of execution1 and various kinds of machinery1 deceived the eyes of the spectators1 and produced such illusions as were usually supposed to be the effect of enchantment2 on which account they were frequently ranked with magicians1 sorcerers1 and witches4 ,they were greatly encouraged in the middle ages1 and travelled in large companies1 carrying with them such machinery as was necessary for the performance of their deceptions40 8,and what may be the etymology of tragetour80 asked ,mr4 ,seymour4 8,a late ingenious writer supposes it to be derived from trebuchet1 or trap-door1 of which he made frequent use during his performance40 ,the company passed to the next booth4 8,there10 said ,ned1 8will be exhibited vaulting1 tumbling1 jumping through hoops1 balancing1 grotesque dances by the clown1 and dancing upon the tight-rope40 8,the tragetour rarely executed this part of the performance himself10 said the vicar1 8but left it to some of his confederates40 8,and yet ,i should have thought it the most profitable department of the art10 observed the major2 8for it was so patronised as to secure the reception of its professors into the houses of the nobility4 ,in the reign of ,edward ,,ii4 a tumbler rode before the ,king1 and so delighted his ,majesty1 that he rewarded him with a gratuity of twenty shillings1 a very considerable sum in those days40 ,the whole party1 having expressed their satisfaction at the genius which ,ned ,hopkins had displayed in selecting and arranging the various kinds of amusement1 were conducted by the vicar to a small enclosure at a short distance from the fair1 which he had appropriated to the youths of the village1 who had been trained to perform the 8,ludus ,troj10 according to the description left us by ,virgil in the fifth neid4 8,i shall be curious to witness the sport10 said the major1 8for ,lazius asserts1 in his commentaries upon the ,roman ,republic1 that the jousts and tournaments1 so much in fashion about two or three hundred years ago1 were indebted for their origin to this game2 and that #8,tournamenta' is but a corruption of #8,trojamenta4'0 8,undoubtedly10 replied the vicar2 8and the learned and noble ,du ,fresne entertains the same opinion3 by some the word has been derived from the ,french tourner1 to turn round with agility2 yet the exercises have so much resemblance1 as to prove the one an imitation of the other40 8,come1 come1 my good friend10 exclaimed the honest major1 8all these preparations are highly laudable1 and will1 no doubt1 afford satisfaction to the spectators1 for whose amusement they have been designed2 but there are other senses1 besides the eye and ear1 to be gratified upon this occasion4 ,i have not yet observed any arrangements for the dinner40 8,fear not1 major2 the awning which has been erected for that purpose is within sight3 observe you not the banners which are floating yonder80 said the vicar4 8,ay1 ay1 to be sure ,i do2 and let me tell you1 that you have taken up a very snug position40 ,tables had been arranged1 under an awning of canvass1 in the form of a cross1 and were capable of accommodating about two hundred persons4 ,on a platform1 somewhat elevated1 was another table appropriated to the major and his guests1 on which covers were laid for forty4 8,you perceive1 major10 said ,mr4 ,twaddleton1 as they approached the scene of future action1 8that the fare which has been provided is simple but substantial1 and ,i trust will be considered as no less according with ,english hospitality1 than with classical propriety40 8,the beef certainly predominates10 said the major2 8and ,i observe that most of the joints are roasted40 8,quite correct1 sir2 the ox is the animal most frequently spoken of1 as furnishing food for ancient heroes2 and you will remember that ,homer rarely mentions any other than roasted meat40 8,i perceive that you have been more miscellaneous in your arrangement of the upper table40 8,i have placed before you a chine of beef1 because ,menelaus set that dish before ,telemachus at the marriage-feast of his son40 8,and ,i rejoice to see a salad for its neighbour10 said the major4 8,ay1 truly an ,attic salad1 with garlic1 leeks1 and cheese3 you no doubt remember that the poetical salad served up in the comedy of the ,peace of ,aristophanes was of this composition10 added the vicar4 8,i wish to know what seats are to be appropriated to my young friends the little ,seymours80 said the major4 8,i regret extremely to say1 that they cannot with propriety join our party10 replied the vicar1 gravely4 8,not join the party6 zounds1 sir1 but ,i insist upon it2--not join the party60-- 8,be calm1 major2 and believe me that ,i shall feel the privation as keenly as yourself2 but would you countenance a measure1 which is decidedly in opposition to every classical authority8 ,never1 as ,suetonius has expressly declared1 did the young ,csars1 ,caius and ,lucius1 eat at the table of ,augustus1 until they had assumed the toga virilis40 8,a fig for ,suetonius2 he is not to be trusted3 has it not been said1 that1 while he exposed the deformities of the ,csars1 he wrote with all the licentiousness and extravagance with which they lived8 ,besides1 can we trust the opinion of a man1 on a subject of etiquette1 who was banished from the court for want of attention and respect to the ,empress ,sabina8 ,you must produce some better authority1 my dear ,mr4 ,twaddleton3 search the ,grecian writers2 depend upon it that some direct or implied sanction to the plan is to be discovered2 the oracles of old may generally be so interpreted as to meet the wishes of the translator40 8,gently1 ,major ,snapwell2 speak not so irreverently of the luminaries of antiquity2 nor expect me to distort passages from their original and intended significations4 ,an idea1 however1 has just struck me1 which may1 possibly1 be turned to your advantage2 and yet there are many difficulties2 for it cannot be that this feast has been conducted with the utmost frugality2 and1 therefore1 must not be compared with the ,lacedemonian #8,syssitia1' or public entertainments1 whither the youths were obliged1 by the lawgiver1 to repair as to schools of temperance and sobriety1 and where1 by the example and discourse of the elder men1 they were trained to good manners and useful knowledge40 8,a case exactly in point10 exclaimed the major4 8,must not the classical character of our entertainment convey instruction8 ,i vow it runs parallel in every particular with the ,syssitia of ,lacedemon2 and ,i therefore affirm1 that it would be illegal1 according to the law of ,lycurgus1 to prevent the presence of the young ,seymours40 8,your argument has colour1 major2 ,i must admit that ,mr4 ,seymour's lessons are too valuable to be lost3 well1 ,i consent2 it shall be a ,lacedemonian entertainment1 and my young friends shall be accordingly accommodated with seats40 ,on their return from the banqueting-tables1 the party inspected the preparations for the fire-works1 and the ships constructed for the naumachia2 we shall1 however1 at present decline offering any description1 as we prefer explaining them in operation4 ,the reader will now be pleased to imagine that the party having returned to the mansion1 had partaken of the hospitable repast which the major had provided for them2 he may farther suppose that tea had been served up1 and the amusements of the evening commenced2 for it is at this moment that the course of our narrative is resumed4 ,mrs4 ,beacham was delighting the assembly by a splendid display of her musical talents2 the major and ,mr4 ,seymour were engaged in a game of chess4 8,there you sit1 gentlemen10 exclaimed the vicar1 8so absorbed in your game1 as to have remained quite insensible to the sweet sounds with which ,mrs4 ,beacham has been charming us2 but you stand excused1 for ,seneca admits the fascinating power of the #8ludus latrunculorum1' or game of chess4 ,you no doubt remember the story that he tells us of one ,canius ,julius1 who1 having been sentenced to death by ,caligula1 was found by the centurion1 when he came to conduct him to execution1 so interested in a game of the #8latrunculi1' as at first to be insensible to the summons1 and that he did not prepare to depart until he had counted his men1 and desired the centurion to bear witness to his having one more piece on the board than his adversary1 so that the latter might not boast of a victory after his death40 8,indeed60 said the major2 8but unfortunately for your story1 the ancients were not acquainted with the game of chess40 8,what absurd proposition am ,i next to expect80 cried ,mr4 ,twaddleton4 8,you surely cannot have read the poem to ,piso1 which some will have to be ,ovid's1 others ,lucian's3 but no matter2 it is an ancient poem1 and accurately describes the game of #8latrunculi4' ,i myself believe1 from a particular line in ,sophocles1 that chess was invented by ,palamedes1 at the siege of ,troy2 although ,seneca attributes it to ,chilon1 one of the seven ,grecian sages4 ,my friend ,mr4 ,seymour1 who is1 upon all occasions1 desirous of imparting wisdom through the medium of games1 and of #8turning sport into science1' will no doubt agree with those who fancy that it was contrived by ,pyrrhus1 ,king of ,epirus1 as a method of instructing his soldiers in the military art2 and ,i must admit that the game expresses the chance and order of war so very happily1 that no place can lay so just a claim to its invention as the camp3 #8ludimus effigiem belli1'#ga as ,vida says40 8,check to your king60 cried the major2 8while you are considering of the best way to get his majesty out of the scrape1 ,i will endeavour to extricate the vicar out of the quagmire in which he is floundering4 ,my dear ,mr4 ,twaddleton10 continued the major1 8you speak as if it were an admitted fact that the #8ludus latrunculorum' was synonymous with our chess4 ,i admit that it was a game played with ,tesser or squares1 and ,calculi or pieces2 but it does not follow that it must have been chess2 indeed1 the learned ,dr4 ,hyde1 whose researches into ,oriental games are as much distinguished for accurate discrimination as for profound scholarship1 considers it to have resembled our draughts40#gb 8,you are to move1 major10 said ,mr4 ,seymour4 8,then ,i shall take your castle1 and open a fresh battery upon the vicar10 replied ,major ,snapwell4 8,so you may10 cried ,mr4 ,twaddleton1 8but you will not easily drive me from my position2 supported as ,i am by ,vossius and ,salmasius1 and an army of valiant combatants40 8,the learned ,hyde has endeavoured to prove that chess was first invented in ,india1 and passed from thence to ,persia and ,arabia47#ed7 ,fabricius considered it a ,persian game1 and ,i must say that ,i am inclined to coincide with him4 ,the terms in present use may evidently be traced to an ,oriental source4 ,schach1 in the ,persian language1 signifies king1 and schachmat1 whence our check-mate1 the king is dead1 the original words having been transformed by progressive changes2 thus we have schach1 echecs1 chess2 and by a whimsical concurrence of circumstances1 have arisen the ,english words check1 and exchequer40 8,i take your queen10 cried ,mr4 ,seymour4 8,ay2 and ,i take a bishop in return10 said the major4 8,well10 observed the vicar1 8if an ,oriental nation really gave origin to the game1 it could not1 at all events1 have been ,china2 since the policy of that people is to exclude females from every kind and degree of influence and power1 whereas the queen at chess is a powerful and important piece40 8,you must not lay too much stress upon the names of the several pieces10 observed the major1 8since they have varied in different ages and countries4 ,the castle is sometimes called the rook1 from the ,italian word rocca1 which signifies a fortress placed on a rock3 the piece which we call the ,bishop has been termed by ,english writers alphan1 aufin1 c4 from an ,arabic word1 signifying an elephant2 sometimes it was named an archer2 by the ,germans1 the hound or runner2 by ,russians and ,swedes1 the elephant2 by ,poles1 the priest2 and by the ,french1 at a very early period1 the fou or fool2 the reason of this last appellation seems to be1 that as this piece stands on the sides of the king and queen1 some wag of the times styled it the fool1 because anciently royal personages were commonly thus attended1 from want of other means of amusing themselves40 8,you cannot thus account for our term bishop10 observed ,mr4 ,seymour1 8as our kings and queens have never had such attendants40 8,nor is it very easy to ascertain the period at which it was introduced10 replied the major2 8in ,caxton's time it was styled the elphyn4 ,i should think it probable that the change of name took place after the ,reformation40 8,it is probable that the pieces not only underwent changes in name1 but changes in value or power10 observed ,mr4 ,seymour1 8as the game descended through different ages and countries40 ,mrs4 ,beacham1 who had been for some time listening with much interest to the curious discourse we have just related1 here ventured to ask a question4 8,as you appear to have taken some trouble to ascertain the origin of this game1 you can perhaps inform me at what period it was introduced into ,england40 ,the major replied1 that the learned ,hyde supposed it to have been first known in our country about the time of the ,conquest2 but that ,mr4 ,barrington believed it to have been introduced during the thirteenth century1 upon the return of ,edward ,i4 from the ,holy ,land1 where he continued so long1 and was attended by so many ,english4 8,it is certain that our ancestors played much at chess before the general introduction of cards10 observed the vicar1 8as no fewer than twenty-six ,english families have emblazoned chess-boards and chess-rooks in their arms1 and it must therefore have been considered a valuable accomplishment40 8,cards10 observed the major1 8must have been known in ,england previous to the time of ,edward ,,iv42 since a statute was passed in that reign against their importation2 but they did not become general for many years1 and the progress of the custom appears to have been extremely slow40 8,check1--and mate60 exclaimed ,mr4 ,seymour4 8,upon my word1 ,i have lost the game4 ,mr4 ,twaddleton1 ,i lay this to your account10 said the major2 8you ought not1 sir1 to have intruded your antiquarian discussions at such a time40 8,you have lost the game1 major1 because1 like ,charles ,,xii4 of ,sweden1#gc you are too fond of advancing your king2 but it is quite natural that you should feel mortified by your defeat3 a person never likes to be beat at chess1 because it is a trial of skill and address2 chance has no place1 and no one1 therefore1 loses except in consequence of the superiority of adversary4 ,you may remember that ,william the ,conqueror1 upon being check-mated by the ,prince of ,france1 knocked the chess-board about his pate1 an event which became the source of much future enmity4 ,i must say10 continued the vicar1 8that this1 in my view of the matter1 is an imperfection in the game2 for1 if it be the type or representative of a military campaign1 fortune should have some share in deciding the fate of the day2 and1 if ,i remember correctly1 ,sir ,william ,jones has stated that the use of dice1 to regulate the moves1 was formerly introduced in the ,east40 8,i will give the major his revenge whenever he pleases10 said ,mr4 ,seymour2 8but as ,i well know how dearly the vicar loves an antiquarian anecdote1 if he will listen ,i will furnish him with one that will be probably new to him4 ,do you observe the form of the chess-board1 resembling1 as you perceive1 two folio volumes80 said ,mr4 ,seymour4 8,the origin of it was this3 ,endes1 bishop of ,sully1 forbade his clergy to play at chess4 ,as they were resolved1 however1 not to obey the command1 and yet did not dare to have a chess-board seen in their houses or cloisters1 they had them bound and lettered as books1 and called them their wooden gospels4 ,these same monks had also drinking vessels bound to resemble the breviary1 and were found drinking when it was supposed they were at prayers40 ----- ,footnote #gj3 ,many reasons have been assigned for this custom2 the more commonly received opinion is1 that it was intended as a token of the bridegroom having left off childish diversions1 and entered on a more serious state of life2 whence nucibus relictis1 has passed into a proverb4 ,this conjecture is favoured by ,catullus3-- 8,satis diu ,lusisti nucibus4 ,lubet ,jam servire ,thalassio40 ,we have already stated1 that nuces were played with like our marbles2 the custom1 therefore1 might be intended to express that the bridegroom had deserted his playthings4 ,footnote #ga3 8,war's harmless shape we sing1 and boxen trains ,of youth1 encount'ring on the cedar plains4 ,how two tall kings1 by different armour known1 ,traverse the field1 and combat for renown40 ,footnote #gb3 #8,ludus ,latrunculorum2' ludus1 anglice dicitur ,draughts1 trahendo calculos4--,,hyde de ,ludis ,orientalium4 ,oxon1 #afid4 ,footnote #gc3 ,voltaire tells us that ,charles ,,xii4 always lost the game at chess1 from his eagerness to move his king1 and to make greater use of him than of any of the other pieces4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,chapter ,,xx4 ,the arrival of the populace at ,osterley ,park4--,the commencement of the festivities4--,dancing on the ,tight and ,slack ,rope4--,balancing4--,conjuring4--,optic al illusions4--,various games4--,the ,penthalum4--,the ,banquet4--,grand display of ,fire-works4--,conclusion4 ,never had the rosy fingers of ,aurora shown so much reluctance in unbarring the gates of the ,east1 as on the morning of the ,osterley ,jubilee2 at least1 so thought about half a score peasants1 who1 fevered by anxiety and expectation1 had arisen from their beds long before the break of day4 ,at length1 however1 the sun arose2 but indignant no doubt at the accusations he had so unjustly suffered1 he immediately veiled his fiery countenance in dark and lowering clouds3 here1 then1 was a fresh source of doubt and anxiety2 would the day be rainy8 ,the gardener at ,overton ,lodge was immediately sought and consulted2 and cheering as were his predictions1 they scarcely succeeded in dispelling the gloom which shaded many a fair countenance4 ,the apprehension of disappointment was1 however1 suddenly relieved2 for between nine and ten o'clock the sun re-appeared1 beaming in all his glory1 and shedding the brightest refulgence on the scene of the approaching festivities4 ,at this period hundreds of villagers1 dressed in their holiday attire1 were seen pouring along the high road1 or winding their way through the verdant valleys4 ,so admirable had been the arrangements for the admission of the populace into the park1 that great as was the concourse of spectators1 not the slightest impediment occurred during their entrance4 ,at half-past ten o'clock the whole population of the country had assembled2 the various performers were on their respective stages2 and the arrival of ,major ,snapwell and his guests was eagerly expected1 as a signal for the commencement of the festivities of the day4 ,at length a distant murmur was heard in the direction of the house1 which gradually increased as it approached the meadow1 until it swelled into one grand and universal chorus4 ,the vicar appeared with his wand of office1 which he no sooner waved in the air than the murmur gradually subsided4 ,major ,snapwell and his friends1 ,harry ,beacham and his bride1 and the ,seymours with their children1 and numerous visitors1 followed4 ,the several bands1 stationed on the platforms erected before the show-booths1 simultaneously struck up the national anthem1 in which the whole multitude joined1 and produced one of the most surprising and thrilling effects ever witnessed4 ,there were eight booths appropriated to the exhibitions2 and it had been arranged that each should commence at the same time1 and repeat its performances eight times during the day2 so that by dividing the spectators into eight groups1 and delivering to each person a ticket distinguished by a particular number1 every spectator at once knew the booth into which he was to enter2 and having witnessed the exhibition1 he was directed to exchange his ticket2 by which means every chance of confusion was avoided1 and each person was enabled to witness1 successively1 every performance4 ,the vicar and the party entered the first booth1 and were followed by all those whose ticket was distinguished by ,no4 #a42 those of ,no4 #b4 at the same time entered the second booth1 and so on4 ,the first show was appropriated to the various exhibitions of vaulting1 tumbling1 balancing1 and rope-dancing4 ,the vicar expressed high delight on observing that the stage was decorated with branches4 8,in the ancient theatre10 said he1 8the stage was originally planted with trees to shade the actors2 hence scene1 so called from the ,greek word signifying a shade40#gd ,during the performances of the balancer1 ,tom ,seymour's attention was riveted on the artist2 he watched every movement1 and examined its effect in preserving the centre of gravity within the base4 8,papa10 cried the delighted boy1 8,i never experienced so much interest in a performance of this kind1 until ,i was capable of explaining the principles upon which it was conducted4 ,i have attentively followed every change of position1 and discovered the effect of such changes upon the line of direction40#ge ,as to the wire-dancing1 ,tom observed1 that he saw very plainly the swinging of the wire backwards and forwards diminished the difficulty1 and assisted the actor in keeping his equipoise4 ,mr4 ,seymour was highly delighted with these remarks2 and1 casting an intelligible look at ,mr4 ,twaddleton1 who was seated near him1 he exclaimed1 8,well1 vicar1 you will surely now admit that the pleasures which arise from sport are heightened by the admixture of science40 8,my dear ,mr4 ,seymour10 replied the vicar1 8you well know that ,i have long since become a convert to your principles2 ,i confess1 however1 had that not been the case1 the expression of satisfaction and delight which have just fallen from my little playmate1 ,tom1 would have removed all my prejudices40 8,see1 see60 exclaimed ,louisa1 8how very extraordinary6 ,i declare that the plate1 sword1 key1 and tobacco-pipe1 are all balanced as they revolve on the chin of the performer40 8,and do you not know1 ,louisa10 replied ,tom1 8that the revolution of the plate and sword1 which appears to render the execution so much more astonishing1 actually diminishes the difficulty of the performance80#gf ,thus did ,tom ,seymour continue to point out successively the philosophical principles upon which each of the tricks might be supposed to depend4 ,the next booth into which our party entered was that of ,crank ,smirky1 the celebrated conjuror1 who invited the company to witness his wonderful display of the art of legerdemain3 he was dressed as an astrologer1 with a loose gown of green velvet1 and a red cap2 he had a long grey beard1 and his nose was bestraddled by a pair of green spectacles4 8,ladies and gentlemen10 said the mystic professor1 8,i shall have the honour of convincing you this day1 that my single hand is more than a match for all the sharp eyes of ,overton4 ,you will admit that a beautiful eye makes silence eloquent1--a kind eye1 contradiction an assent1--and an enraged eye1 beauty deformed2 but my hand shall1 by its magic influence1 make eloquence dumb1 assent a contradiction1 and deformity beautiful40 ,so saying1 the professor beckoned a villager1 who sat near the stage1 to approach and assist him in the performance of his first grand trick4 8,dobby10 exclaimed his terrified wife1 8sit thee still2 that man has dealings with the old one2 ,i would not that he should touch your garment for all the gingerbread in the fair40 ,this exclamation of the terrified wife set the whole audience in a roar1 and produced a confusion which the skilful conjuror is always anxious to create1 when any sly work is to be performed4 ,in truth1 this scene had been previously concerted by the renowned ,crank ,smirky1 who had engaged this said ,dobby as his confederate4 ,a series of very amusing tricks were then performed with cards and counters2 such1 for instance1 as desiring some person to draw a card from the pack1 and having observed what it was1 to return it2 which card1 to the wonder of the company1 was immediately found in ,dobby's pocket4 ,mr4 ,seymour informed his children that the explanation of this trick would serve to show the manner in which most of the deceptions on cards were performed4 ,he said1 that the conjuror's pack of cards always contained a card1 technically termed a #8brief card1' or #8the old gentleman1' which is one made on purpose by the card-maker1 and is a little larger than any of the rest2 the performer always knows it by feeling it1 and can easily force it upon the unsuspecting drawer2 should he1 however1 attempt to take any other1 the conjuror1 under some pretence1 shuffles again1 till at length he induces him to take the one intended for him4 ,after the card has been introduced again into the pack1 the performer1 without any difficulty1 withdraws it1 and the confederate is called upon to produce the duplicate which had been previously placed in his pocket4 ,the children were told that the several deceptions with coin1 or counters1 which they had witnessed1 were accomplished by a species of dexterity acquired only by practice1 and termed #8palming2' it consisted in being able to retain a shilling1 halfpenny1 or counter1 in the palm of the hand1 while it remained extended2 thus the performer desires any one to reckon five pieces1 which are accordingly placed on the table before him1 the conjuror then takes them up1 and having dexterously palmed one1 he adds it to the number as he places it in the hand of the unsuspecting person4 ,tom and his sisters expressed themselves much pleased and surprised with the dexterity of the performer2 8,but10 added the intelligent boy1 8,i should be much more gratified by tricks that were indebted for their mystery to some philosophical principle40 ,mr4 ,seymour and the vicar again interchanged looks that strongly marked the feelings which had been excited by this observation4 ,the former turning to his son1 said1 that if he waited patiently1 he would shortly be gratified in that wish1 for he knew ,crank ,smirky was prepared to exhibit some recreations in divination1 that were founded on the science of numbers4 ,nor was ,mr4 ,seymour mistaken2 for after a few more specimens of his dexterity1 the conjuror requested ,mr4 ,twaddleton1 who was sitting directly in his front1 to take an even number of counters in one hand1 and an odd number in the other2 and he would tell him1 he said1 in which hand he held the even number4 ,mr4 ,twaddleton having complied with the request1 he was farther desired to multiply the number in the right hand by any even number he pleased1 as1 for instance1 #b2 and that in the left hand by an odd number1 as #c4 8,i have done so10 said the vicar4 8,then be pleased to add together the two products1 and tell me whether the sum be odd or even40 8,it is odd10 replied ,mr4 ,twaddleton4 8,if so10 said the conjuror1 8the even number of counters will be in your right hand40 ,the vicar exposed the counters1 and admitted the correctness of the conjuror's decision47#ee7 8,ladies and gentlemen10 exclaimed the man of mystery1 8,i now humbly crave your silent attention1 while ,i exhibit one of the most wonderful examples of my art4 ,here is a ring1--there a shilling1--and there a glove4 ,i shall presently request each of the three gentlemen before me1 to take one of those articles1 so secretly as to prevent the possibility of my discovering the choice he may have made4 ,i have here1 you perceive1 twenty-four counters2 one of which ,i shall give to you1 ,mr4 ,seymour2 two to you1 reverend sir2 and three to you1 my young philosopher2 the remaining eighteen shall remain on the table4 ,now1 gentlemen1 ,i shall retire1 and during my absence1 you will be so good as to distribute the three articles in any way you may think proper40 ,the professor1 accordingly1 walked off the stage2 when ,mr4 ,seymour took the ring2 the vicar the shilling2 and ,tom ,seymour the glove4 ,the conjuror1 on his return1 said that he had one more favour to request1 that the person who had the ring should take from the eighteen counters on the table as many as he already possessed2 the one with the shilling twice as many2 and the person with the glove1 four times as many as he before possessed4 ,the conjuror again retired1 in order that the distribution might be made without his observing it4 ,on returning1 the conjuror1 having first cast his eye upon the counters that remained on the table1 informed the company that ,mr4 ,seymour had taken the ring1 ,mr4 ,twaddleton the shilling1 and the young gentleman the glove4 ,the moment the parties assented to this decision1 the whole company expressed their satisfaction and astonishment by thunders of applause4 8,that is really very ingenious10 observed the vicar4 8,how could he perform it80 said ,tom3 8it is evident that his only guide was the number of counters left on the board40 8,i understand the process by which it was accomplished1 and will endeavour1 at some future time1 to explain it10 replied ,mr4 ,seymour47#ef7 ,a number of similar tricks followed1 all of which depended upon some algebraical calculation2 and the performance was concluded to the entire satisfaction of all present4 ,the next exhibition was of a very different character3 it consisted in a variety of optical representations and illusions4 ,the camera obscura presented a moving picture of the surrounding scene4 ,the phantasmagoria exhibited a variety of ghastly objects1 which alternately receding from1 and approaching the audience1 called forth shrieks of terror and amazement4 ,amongst the most appalling of these figures1 was the headless horseman of ,sleepy ,hollow1 so inimitably described in the ,sketch ,book3 it will be remembered that the body of this trooper having been buried in the church-yard1 its ghost was believed to ride forth every night in quest of its head1 and that the rushing speed with which he passed along the hollow1 like a midnight blast1 was owing to his being in a hurry to get back to the church-yard before day-break4 ,this rapid movement was admirably represented in the phantasmagoria3 at first the figure appeared extremely diminutive1 and at a great distance2 but almost immediately its size became gigantic1 and it seemed as if within a few feet of the audience1 and then suddenly vanished4 ,after an instant of utter darkness1 the figure was again visible at a great distance3 the schoolmaster1 ,crane1 was also seen belabouring the starveling ribs of his steed1 old ,gunpowder1 and quickening his pace towards the very spot where the spectre was stationed4 ,the whole audience were breathless with horror4 ,crane arrived at the bridge1 over which the headless figure opposed his passage4 8,mercy upon us60 cried a faint voice from one of the back seats1 8the ghost has found his head1 and is carrying it before him on the pommel of his saddle40--8,hush1 hush60 cried another voice2 ,crane's horse had taken fright2 away he dashed through thick and thin2 stones flying and sparks flashing at every bound4 ,crane's flimsy garments fluttered in the air1 as he stretched his long lank body away over his horse's head1 in the eagerness of his flight4 ,the goblin pressed hard upon him2 he was not more than a yard behind him1 when he was seen to take up his head1 and with gigantic force to hurl it at the pedagogue2 it encountered his cranium with a tremendous crash2 he was tumbled headlong in the dust2 the goblin whisked past like a whirlwind1 and the company were once again in total darkness4 8,upon my word10 exclaimed ,mr4 ,seymour1 8this is one of the most complete illusions ,i ever witnessed40 8,it is most ingeniously managed10 said the vicar4 8,papa10 cried ,tom1 8,i am quite impatient to learn how so extraordinary an effect can have been produced4 ,you told me this morning that a phantasmagoria was nothing more than an improved magic lantern2 but how is it possible for the slides to be so managed as to make the figures approach and retire from you1 and above all1 to make them move their bodies1 and throw their arms into different attitudes80 8,in the first place1 the figures only appear to approach you1 for they are thrown upon a surface which never changes its place2 the whole is therefore an optical illusion1 arising from the fact that we estimate the distance of an object by its apparent magnitude2 when1 therefore1 the figure began to diminish in size1 the mind instantly assumed that it was receding from the eye2 and the illusion was still farther heightened by the absence of all other objects#gg by which it might be compared40 ,at this moment ,mr4 ,seymour was interrupted by the appearance of the performer who announced his intention of submitting another optical illusion1 which1 he trusted1 would afford equal satisfaction4 8,papa10 cried ,tom1 8how much do ,i regret my ignorance of optics4 ,it is a great disappointment to me that ,i should witness so many curious exhibitions1 without being able to understand the principles upon which they depend40 8,i promise you1 my dear boy10 replied ,mr4 ,seymour1 8that you shall be instructed in this branch of science during the ,christmas vacation4 ,enjoy1 therefore1 the present amusements1 and instead of repining at your ignorance1 anticipate the pleasure which you will receive1 when you shall be able to explain them40 ,a series of extraordinary effects were now exhibited by means of concave mirrors4#gh ,arial images were produced1 so illusive in their appearance1 that the spectators could not believe in their immateriality1 until they attempted to grasp them4 ,in this manner were presented flowers1 fruit1 a human skull1 and a dagger2 the latter of which terrified the spectator by the sudden and violent manner in which its point approached him4 ,with this illusion the amusements concluded2 the light of day was admitted2 and the performer stepping forward1 announced the termination of his exhibition in the words of ,shakspeare3-- 8,our revels now are ended3 these our actors1 ,as ,i foretold you1 were all spirits1 and ,are melted into air1 into thin air40 ,the villagers1 as they poured out of the booth1 and mingled with their companions in the fair1 with their wonted propensity for the marvellous1 related1 in most exaggerated terms1 the wonders they had encountered in the region of shadows4 ,nothing is swallowed with more avidity than tales of mystery1 especially if spiced with a few grains of horror2 we cannot1 therefore1 be surprised at the anxiety so generally by those who had not yet witnessed the optical performances to exchange their tickets for such as would secure their admission into the popular booth4 ,the next entertainment was a display of ventriloquism1 by a pupil of the celebrated ,baron de ,mengen4 8,now10 said the vicar1 8we are to witness a deception upon the ear1 such as we have just seen practised on the eye40 ,mr4 ,twaddleton was quite correct in this observation2 for1 notwithstanding all the mystery with which the subject has been invested by credulity1 ventriloquism is nothing more than a skilful modulation of the voice1 so as to imitate the gradations of sound1 as they effect the ear in nature under all the circumstances of distance and obstruction2 in short1 imposing upon the ear as a perspective painting does upon the eye4 ,the crowd which had assembled round the spot was now dispersed by the appearance of a placard1 announcing the suspension of all the performances for two hours2 and informing the populace that the interval would be devoted to various sports and pastimes in the adjoining field4 ,the revellers accordingly hastened to the spot where the several sports were to take place1 and to which they were directed by the sound of a bugle4 ,we have stated that a small enclosure had been prepared for the youths of the village1 who were to perform the 8ludus ,troj10 or ,troy game4 ,the major and his party had taken possession of the seat1 placed for their accommodation under an awning2 and the boys1 classically dressed1 and furnished with little arms and weapons1 were mustered in circo4 ,each youth was mounted on a pony2 and the troop having rode round the ring1 and surveyed the spectators1 the vicar arose from his seat1 and1 like the sage ,epytides1 gave the signal of attack by a crack of the whip4 ,they now arranged themselves in two battalions1 and hurling their javelins with an air of proud defiance1 wheeled and charged1 and urged the sportive war2 at the conclusion of the game1 the vicar called the principal youth1 or 8princeps juventutis10 and presented him with a basket of fruit1 which he desired him to divide amongst his companions4 ,the populace now separated into different groups2 one party proceeded to witness a wrestling-match2 another to see the foot-race2 a third to be present at a match of quoits2 for the vicar had provided all these games1 in imitation of the ancient ,penthalum or ,quinquertium4 ,while observing the game of quoits1 the vicar displayed much classical erudition2 he said that ,homer had represented ,ajax and ,ulysses as greatly skilled in the sport2 and that ,ovid1 when he brings in ,apollo and ,hyacinth playing at it1 had given a very elegant description of the exercise4#gi ,scaliger1 he continued1 is of opinion1 that the throwing the discus1 or quoit1 is but an improvement of the old sport of casting the sheep-hook2 a conjecture which1 the vicar thought1 received some support from a passage in the fourth ,iliad4 8,mr4 ,twaddleton10 cried ,mr4 ,seymour1 8you look at every sport with the eye of a classic or antiquary2 ,i1 on the other hand1 as you well know1 cautiously examine every action1 to discover whether some scientific principle may not find an illustration4 ,on the present occasion1 ,i am desirous of directing the attention of the children to the manner in which yonder skilful player hurls his quoit40 8,i do not exactly comprehend the object they have in view in throwing the quoits10 said ,louisa4 8,do you not perceive that two iron pins1 or hobs1 are driven into the ground1 at the distance of eighteen or twenty yards asunder80 asked her father4 8,to be sure1 and ,i suppose that each player attempts to hit one of those pins40 8,the players stand at one of the hobs1 and throw an equal number of quoits at the other2 the nearest of them to the hob are reckoned towards the game4 ,when they have cast all their quoits1 the candidates go over to the point at which they have been throwing1 and when they have determined the state of the game1 they throw their quoits back again at the hob where they had before stood2 and thus continue to act1 on alternate sides1 till the game is ended40 8,i now understand it10 cried ,louisa4 8,you doubtless know1 ,mr4 ,twaddleton10 said ,mr4 ,seymour1 8that the casting of stones1 darts1 and other missiles1 was among the amusements practised in the twelfth century by the young ,londoners40 8,casting of the bar10 replied the vicar1 8was formerly a part of a hero's education2 and kings and princes were admired for their agility and grace in throwing #8the stone1 the bar1 and the plummet4' ,henry the ,eighth1 even after his accession to the throne1 retained the casting of the bar among his favourite amusements4 ,the sledge-hammer1 and1 among rustics1 an axle-tree1 were also used for the same purpose as the bar and the stone40 8,the game of quoits is certainly far superior to such pastimes10 said ,mr4 ,seymour1 8on account of its depending less on mere strength1 and more upon superior skill40 8,did not you say1 papa1 that its action would illustrate some principle of science8 ,i have been looking at the quoit1 which ,i perceive is a circular piece of iron with a hole in the middle1 but ,i cannot discover in what manner any scientific principle can be connected with its motion40 8,if you will attentively observe a skilful player1 you will perceive that he steadies the flight of the quoit1 by imparting to it a spinning motion2 were he not thus to rifle it1 you would find that it would fly very far from the mark40 8,upon the same principle1 ,i suppose1 that we impart to the ball a spinning motion at the game of bilboquet80 8,precisely so10 replied her father1 who also stated that the body was made to rotate on its shortest axis1 for the reasons before explained4#hj ,the 8penthalum0 having been concluded1 the populace retired into several booths which were appropriated to refreshments4 ,the shows then re-commenced2 those not already described were principally devoted to the exhibition of wild animals1 an entertainment which the vicar considered as sanctioned by the highest classical authority2 although he1 at once1 rejected a proposition made by the major1 to render the amusement still more in accordance with ancient custom1 by encouraging a fight between a lion and a tiger4 ,the hour had now arrived for the grand banquet2 and1 by the command of the major1 the band paraded the fair1 playing the inviting tune of 8,oh1 the roast beef of ,old ,england40 ,the populace hastened to the tent1 and each took his place according to the number upon his ticket4 ,we shall not detain our readers by an account of the dinner2 it will be sufficient to state1 in the language generally used upon such occasions1 that the whole went off with great eclat1 and gave universal satisfaction to the delighted guests4 ,for the amusement of his military friends1 the major had made arrangements for reviving the ancient game of quintain4 ,it may be necessary to state that the quintain is a pastime of high antiquity4 ,it was originally nothing more than the trunk of a tree1 or a post set up for the practice of young beginners in chivalry4 ,afterwards a staff1 or spear1 was fixed in the earth1 and a shield1 hung upon it1 was the mark to strike at4 ,the dexterity of the performer consisted in smiting the shield in such a manner as to break the fastening and to bring it to the ground4 ,in process of time1 this diversion was much improved2 instead of the staff and shield1 a grotesque wooden figure was introduced1 and it was so contrived to move upon a pivot1 that if it were struck unskilfully1 it would turn out and give the performer a severe blow4 ,the quintain which the major had prepared for the present occasion consisted of a wooden figure1 fixed upon a pivot1 and holding in its outstretched arm a bag of flower4 ,those who ran at it1 and missed it1 were of course laughed at2 while those who struck the figure full with his lance gave the beam a sudden whirl2 and unless he was very nimble1 was covered with flower from the bag which was thus brought into contact with him4 ,the reader must now be contented to retire from the scene of frolic1 and leave the villagers to the undisturbed enjoyment of their jollity4 ,the major and his party returned to the house1 where they remained until the hour approached at which the fire-works were to be discharged1 and the festivities of the day concluded4 ,mr4 ,seymour accompanied his children to the stage1 erected for the pyrotechnic exhibition1 in order that he might explain the construction of the fire-works before they witnessed them in action4 8,upon my word1 the major has provided most liberally for our entertainment60 exclaimed ,mr4 ,seymour1 as he ascended the steps which led to the platform4 8,i declare there is a forest of rockets6 and what magnificent ,pin-wheels1 ,tourbillions1 ,marroons1 ,pots des ,aigrettes1 ,gerbes1 ,courantins1 and ,roman ,candles40 8,are those paper cylinders1 with long sticks1 rockets80 enquired ,tom4 8,they are2 and if you will attend to me1 ,i will explain the principle of their construction4 ,they have ever been considered as holding the first place amongst single fire-works1 and deservedly so2 not only on account of the splendid appearance they present when fired by themselves1 but from their extensive application in increasing the beauty of other exhibitions4 ,the rocket1 you perceive1 consists of a strong paper cylinder1 which is filled with a suitable composition2 it is crowned with a head1 or #8pot1' as it is technically termed1 charged with various materials1 which throws out sparks1 stars1 and other decorations1 as soon as it takes fire in the air1 after the body of the rocket has been consumed4 ,you may observe that the head is made to terminate in a point1 which greatly facilitates its passage through the air4 ,the whole is affixed to a straight stick1 which1 like the rudder of a ship1 makes it turn to that side towards which it is inclined1 and consequently causes the rocket to ascend in a straight line40 8,but1 papa10 observed ,louisa1 8all the rockets have not straight rods2 see1 there is one1 with a crooked stick40 8,that is for the purpose of causing the rocket to ascend in the form of a screw3 the first effect of the bent rod will be to make the rocket incline towards that side to which it is bent2 but its centre of gravity bringing it afterwards into a vertical situation1 the result of these two opposite efforts will be1 that the rocket will ascend in a zig-zag or spiral form4 ,in this case1 however1 since it displaces a greater volume of air1 and describes a longer line1 it will not ascend so high as if it had been impelled in a straight direction2 but ,i think you will admit that1 on account of the singularity of this motion1 it produces a very agreeable effect40 8,and what causes the rocket to ascend into the air80 asked ,tom4 8,it is a subject which has engaged the attention of several most distinguished philosophers2 the explanation1 however1 offered by ,dr4 ,hutton appears to me to be the most satisfactory4 ,he says1 #8that at the moment when the powder begins to inflame1 its expansion produces a torrent of elastic fluid1 which acts in every direction2 that is1 against the air which opposes its escape from the cartridge1 and against the upper part of the rocket2 but the resistance of the air is more considerable than the weight of the rocket1 on account of the extreme rapidity with which the elastic fluid issues through the neck of the rocket to throw itself downwards1 and therefore the rocket ascends by the excess of the one of these forces over the other4'0 ,tom observed1 that he thought ,dr4 ,hutton's explanation very simple and plausible4 8,dr4 ,hutton adds10 continued ,mr4 ,seymour1 8that the rocket could not rise unless a sufficient quantity of elastic fluid were produced1 and hence arose the expedient of piercing the rocket with a conical hole1 so as to make the composition burn in conical strata1 which1 having much greater surface1 produce a much greater quantity of inflamed matter and elastic fluid4 ,without such a contrivance1 the composition would inflame only in circular coats of a diameter equal to that of the rocket2 and experience has shown that this is not sufficient for the purpose4 ,some years ago a plan was suggested for producing the propulsion of a vessel in this way2 by the force of a steam-engine1 a stream of water was to be shot out of the stern1 the impulse of which1 upon the water in the river1 was to push forward the boat4 ,it is a curious fact1 that ,nature has employed the same expedient for the motion of some aquatic insects4 ,the larva of the dragon-fly1 according to ,adams1 swims forward by ejecting water from its tail40 8,what are those fire-works1 attached to the lines80 asked ,tom4 8,those1 my dear1 are line-rockets1 or courantines1#ha and which1 instead of rising into the air1 run along the line1 to which they are attached by means of a hollow cylinder4 ,their motion is to be explained upon the same principle as that of the sky-rocket2 a force is generated by the escape of elastic matter1 and as the rocket is confined to the rope1 it is made to run along the line1 instead of ascending into the air40 8,that is clear enough10 said ,louisa2 8but see1 papa1 there is the figure of a dragon on yonder rope60 8,that is merely a runner for the courantine1 which is constructed in that form1 for the purpose of rendering the exhibition more surprising4 ,i dare say it is filled with various compositions1 such as golden rain1 and fires of different colours1 which will greatly heighten the effect3 indeed this pyrotechnic amusement may be infinitely varied40 8,are not those pin-wheels1 which are elevated above the railing80 said ,tom4 8,yes2 they are pin or ,catharine wheels1 and if you will look at them1 you will perceive that they are of very simple construction2 consisting merely of a long paper tube1 filled with inflammable matter1 and rolled round a small circle of wood1 so as to form a helix or spiral line40 8,the circle of wood1 ,i suppose1 is pierced in the middle for the purpose of receiving a pin1 by which the wheel is attached to the post10 said ,tom4 8,exactly so2 and the cause of their revolution is the same as that which produces the flight of the rocket2 the impulse of the air forces back the ignited part of the wheel1 which generates1 as it were1 a centrifugal force1 while the attachment of the pipe1 by preventing its obeying such a force1 may be said to represent the centripetal force1 and thus is the revolution of the wheel continued1 until the whole of the composition is consumed40 8,i think you told us1 when speaking of the thaumatrope1#hb it was the rapidity with which the flame revolved1 that occasioned the star-like appearance which is exhibited by this fire-work10 observed ,louisa4 8,undoubtedly1 my dear2 it cannot be otherwise40 ,the party now examined the remaining specimens of the pyrotechnic art4 ,mr4 ,seymour informed them that marroons were nothing more than small cubical boxes1 filled with a composition proper for making them burst1 and thence producing a loud report4 ,he said that they were principally used in combination with other pieces1 or to form a battery1 in which1 by different lengths of quick match1 they were made to explode at distinct intervals4 ,mr4 ,seymour added1 that when the cases were made cylindrical1 instead of being cubical1 they exchanged the name of marroon for that of saucisson4 ,louisa enquired the nature of certain cylindrical cases she observed on the stage1 and was informed that they were gerbes1 a species of fire-work1 which throws up a luminous and sparkling jet of fire1 and from a supposed resemblance to a water-spout1 has derived the appellation of gerbe4 ,mr4 ,seymour next pointed out to ,tom a row of ,roman candles1 some of which were fixed quite perpendicular1 others inclining at different angles1 so that the balls might be projected to various distances1 and thus produce a more varied effect4 ,he observed1 that1 to his taste1 it was by far the most beautiful fire-work ever exhibited4 8,i am quite impatient for the exhibition10 cried ,tom2 8pray1 papa1 what is the hour8 ,i think it was determined to let them off at ten o'clock40 8,it is now about eight o'clock2 we will1 therefore1 return to the house3 we shall1 however1 ,i suspect1 have a curious sight to witness in our way through the fair2 for by this time every booth is illuminated40 ,the scene was indescribably beautiful1 and might be said to resemble an enchanted island4 ,the trees were lighted up with an endless profusion of ,chinese lanterns1 of various colours1 and decorated with fantastic transparencies1 which produced an effect highly graceful and pleasing4 ,the booths were richly studded with lights2 and1 near the platform1 on which the villagers were enjoying the country dance1 was erected a pyramid1 which blazed with several hundred variegated lamps4 ,at ten o'clock the commencement of the fire-works was announced by a shower of rockets4 ,the music ceased2 and the dancers1 together with the spectators who had gathered around the platform1 hastened to the spot1 whither they were summoned by the sound of trumpets1 to witness the pyrotechnic entertainment which was to crown the festivities of the day4 ,the little ,seymours had been stationed by their father in the most favourable spot for seeing the exhibition2 and highly were the major and his party delighted with the observations which fell from the intelligent children on the occasion4 8,observe1 ,louisa1 the rocket as it ascends describes a parabola10#hc cried ,tom4 8,oh1 how extremely beautiful6 see1 the head has burst1 and is discharging a number of brilliant stars6 ,what is that red spark which is now falling to the ground1 papa80 8,that is the ignited stick of the rocket10 replied his father4 8,take care1 ,louisa1 do not hold your face up10 exclaimed ,tom2 8for as the rocket bursts over our heads1 the stick may fall upon us40 8,i scarcely expected such an observation from you1 ,tom10 said his father1 8after the sensible remark you just made respecting the parabolic path of the rocket2 do not you remember1 that when a projectile has reached its greatest altitude1 it will descend in a curve similar to that in which it ascended80 8,true1 true10 answered ,tom2 8,i see my error2 the stick must1 of course1 fall at a considerable distance from us40 8,look6 look66 ,there goes a courantine3 how it ran along the rope60 exclaimed ,louisa4 8,there goes another60 cried ,tom2 8and see1 it is the dragon2 and ,i declare there is another running in an opposite direction2--they meet4 ,look at the serpents which they discharge from their mouths6 ,now they return to the extremity of the line with great violence4 ,what an explosion6660 ,in like manner were next exhibited two ships1 which1 being filled with serpents1 were made to pour their broadsides at each other4 8,i never saw better courantines in my life10 said ,mr4 ,seymour2 8the major really conducts the exhibition with great skill2 it does him infinite credit as an engineer40 8,see--see1 papa6 what a large wheel of fire60 exclaimed ,tom1 8and the figure of a man in the centre40 8,a classical device of the vicar beyond all doubt4 ,it is ,ixion on a wheel encompassed by hissing serpents10 observed his father4 ,this conjecture was soon verified1 for the vicar with his usual animation was heard to exclaim-- 8tortosque ,ixionis angues1 ,immanemque rotam10 as ,virgil has it4 ,another shower of rockets succeeded1 and the air resounded with the applause of the populace4 7,bang7--7bang7--7bang7-- 8,there go the marroons10 said ,mr4 ,seymour4 ,the band now struck up a march1 and the major completely succeeded1 by having arranged different lengths of quick match1 in making them explode at appropriate intervals1 so as to mark correctly the commencement of each bar of the music which was performing4 8,bravo6 bravo60 exclaimed ,mr4 ,seymour2 8had ,handel witnessed such an effect1 he would have engaged the major as a performer in his grand choruses40 8,see6 what a beautiful fountain of fire--there6 now a most brilliant star is ejected60-- 8,it is a ,roman candle10 said ,mr4 ,seymour4 ,a variety of different rockets were next exploded2 such as 8,towering rockets10 so called from their ascending to a greater height than any others2 an effect which is produced by fixing a smaller rocket on the top of another of superior dimensions2 8,honorary rockets10 which1 when they attain their greatest height1 communicate fire to other rockets affixed to them in a transverse direction1 and thus produce a rapid revolution1 and represent1 on their return to the ground1 a spiral of descending fire2 8,caduceus rockets10 so called from their resemblance1 when in action1 to the rod borne by ,mercury3 the effect is produced by firing two rockets obliquely on the opposite sides of a rod1 so that they shall form in their flight two spiral lines4 ,it is not necessary to enumerate the series of beautiful exhibitions which succeeded2 we shall only add1 that the concluding fire-work was a ,catharine-wheel of imposing splendour4 ,after having repeatedly changed its device and colours during its revolution1 it at length exploded and threw out a group of serpents2 the dense volume of smoke which followed this explosion1 gradually cleared off1 and the appropriate motto of 8,,farewell10 appeared in brilliant letters of red fire4 ,in a few minutes1 the populace began to separate2 they had1 however1 scarcely arrived at the gate of the park1 when a large rocket ascended1 and bursting over their heads1 discharged a parachute1 to which was attached a brilliant light2 eight similar rockets were successively fired1 and with the same effect4 ,the major had ingeniously contrived1 by varying the angle1 to disengage the floating luminaries in the form of a crown or circle1 which threw a blazing light over the whole country2 nor did it fade until sufficient time had been allowed for the return of the villagers to their respective homes4 ,should our readers have fortunately been infected with a portion of that good humour and hilarity which elated the hearts of the spectators upon this memorable occasion1 we may conclude our labours with the cheering hope that they will receive a favourable reception at the tribunal of public opinion4 ,illustration3 ,floating luminary4 ----- ,footnote #gd3 ,footnote #ge3 ,see p4 #fi4 ,footnote #gf3 ,see p4 #hd4 ,footnote #gg3 ,it is to this latter circumstance that the ,panorama is principally indebted for its magical effects4 ,footnote #gh3 ,sir ,david ,brewster has enumerated various extraordinary illusions1 which may be thus produced1 in his ,work on ,natural ,magic4 ,footnote #gi3 ,ovid's ,metamorphoses1 #aj4 ,footnote #hj3 ,page #ach4 ,footnote #ha3 ,from the ,french term courant1 signifying running4 ,footnote #hb3 ,see page #cdd4 ,footnote #hc3 ,a scientific critic has offered the following just remark upon this passage4 8,the rocket ascends by a constantly acting force1 not by a momentary impulse1 as though it were shot from a gun4 ,supposing the force arising from combustion to be proportionate to the weight of the rocket1 as long as the force continues to be generated1 the rocket must move in a straight line2 after which1 having only its own momentum to oppose its gravitation1 it will proceed in a parabolic curve40 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,additional ,,notes2 ,,addressed ,,more ,,especially ,,to ,,parents ,,and ,,preceptors1 ,,or ,,to ,,those ,,advanced ,,in ,,science4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,contents ,,of ,,the ,,notes4 ,note ,page #a4 #dji4 ,horologe of ,flora4 #b4 #daj4 ,gravity and centrifugal force4 #c4 #daa4 ,velocity of light4 #d4 #dab4 ,velocity of falling bodies4 #e4 #dab4 ,hydromancy4 #f4 #dad4 ,coins and medals4 #g4 #dba4 ,why bodies revolve on the shorter axis4 -- #dba4 ,vis inerti4 #h4 #dbb4 ,mechanical powers4 #i4 #dbc4 ,centre of gravity4 #aj4 #dbc4 ,the ,indian blow-pipe4 #aa4 #dbe4 ,springs4 #ab4 #dbg4 ,elastic chairs and beds4 #ac4 #dbh4 ,duck and drake4 #ad4 #dbh4 ,vegetable elasticity4 #ae4 #dbh4 ,a simple orrery4 #af4 #dbi4 ,conic sections4 #ag4 #dbi4 ,earthquake of ,lisbon4 #ah4 #dbi4 ,geology applied to agriculture4 #ai4 #dcj4 ,buckland's researches4 #bj4 #dcf4 ,the rifle4 #ba4 #dch4 ,centre of percussion4 #bb4 #dch4 ,spinning of the top4 #bc4 #dci4 ,the mechanical powers4 #bd4 #ddf4 ,the cycloid4 #be4 #ddg4 ,billiards4 #bf4 #ddh4 ,collision of bodies4 #bg4 #dej4 ,druidical remains4 #bh4 #def4 ,animal suction4 #bi4 #dei4 ,accidental discoveries4 #cj4 #dfa4 ,weight of the superincumbent ocean4 #ca4 #dfb4 ,pecunia2 its derivation4 #cb4 #dfb4 ,cause of iridescence4 #cc4 #dfc4 ,vegetable barometers4 #cd4 #dfc4 ,st4 ,swithin4 #ce4 #dfd4 ,the whale4 #cf4 #dfe4 ,progressive motion in fishes4 #cg4 #dff4 ,flight of birds4 #ch4 #dff4 ,flight of insects4 #ci4 #dff4 ,obliquity of the wings of birds4 #dj4 #dfg4 ,a mechanical proposition4 #da4 #dfg4 ,kite messengers4 #db4 #dfg4 ,wind4 #dc4 #dgj4 ,ancient archery4 #dd4 #dgb4 ,sound conveyed by solids4 #de4 #dgc4 ,expressive music4 #df4 #dgc4 ,imaginary forms4 #dg4 #dgd4 ,fairy rings4 #dh4 #dge4 ,resonance4 #di4 #dgg4 ,jew's harp4 #ej4 #dgh4 ,verbal telegraph4 #ea4 #dgi4 ,electrical telegraph4 #eb4 #dgi4 ,carrier pigeons4 #ec4 #dha4 ,origin of popular ceremonies4 #ed4 #dhb4 ,chess4 #ee4 #dhc4 ,arithmetical trick4 #ef4 #dhd4 ,a problem in algebra4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,additional ,,notes ,,referred ,,to ,,by ,,figures ,,in ,,the ,,text4 --------------------- ,note #a1 p4 #d4--,,the ,,horologe ,,of ,,flora4 ,,the ,,horologe ,,of ,,flora is alluded to by ,pliny with his usual felicity of thought and expression4 8,dedi tibi herbas horarum indices2 et ut ne sole quidem oculos tuos a terra avoces1 heliotropium ac lupinum circumaguntur cum illo4 ,cur etiam altius spectas1 ipsumque clum scrutatis8 ,habes ante pedes tuos ecce ,vergilias40--,hist4 ,nat4 lib4 xviii4 c4 #bg4 ,linnus enumerates forty-six flowers which possess this kind of sensibility4 ,the following are a few of them1 with their respective hours of rising and setting1 as the ,swedish naturalist terms them4 ,he divides them into meteoric flowers1 which less accurately observe the hour of unfolding1 but are expanded sooner or later1 according to the cloudiness1 moisture1 or pressure of the atmosphere4 #bnd4 ,tropical flowers1 which open in the morning1 and close before evening every day2 but the hour of the expanding becomes earlier or later1 as the length of the day increases or decreases4 #crd4 ,equinoctial flowers1 which serve for the construction of ,flora's dial1 since they open at a certain and exact hour of the day1 and for the most part close at another determinate hour3 for instance1 the ,leontodon ,taraxacum1 dandelion1 opens at #e-f1 closes at #h-i2 ,hieracium ,pilosella1 mouse-ear hawkweed1 opens at #h1 closes at #b2 ,tragopogon pratensis1 yellow goat's-beard1 opens at sunrise1 and shuts at noon with such regularity1 that the husbandman who adopts it as the signal of dinner-time need not fear to have his pudding too much or too little boiled2 ,sonchus lvis1 smooth sow-thistle1 opens at #e1 closes at #aa-ab2 ,lactuca sativa1 cultivated lettuce1 opens at #g1 closes at #aj2 ,tragopogon luteus1 yellow goat's-beard1 opens at #c-e1 closes at #i-aj2 ,lapsana1 nipplewort1 opens at #e-f1 closes at #aj-aa2 ,nymphaalba1 white water-lily1 opens at #g1 closes at #e2 ,papaver nudicaule1 naked poppy1 opens at #e1 closes at #g2 ,hemerocallis fulva1 tawny day-lily1 opens at #e1 closes at #g-h2 ,convolvulus1 opens at #e-f2 ,malva1 mallow1 opens at #i-aj1 closes at l2 ,arenaria purpurea1 purple sandwort1 opens at #i-aj1 closes at #b-c2 ,anagallis1 pimpernel1 opens at #g-h2 ,portulaca hortensis1 garden purslain1 opens at #i-aj1 closes at #aa-ab2 ,dianthus prolifer1 proliferous pink1 opens at #h1 closes at #a2 ,cichoreum1 succory1 opens at #d-e2 ,hypocharis1 opens at #f-g1 closes at #d-e2 ,crepis1 opens at #d-e1 closes at #aj-aa2 ,picris1 opens at #d-e1 closes at #ab2 ,calendula ,africana1 opens at #g1 closes at #c-d1 c4 8,thus in each flower and simple bell1 ,that in our path betrodden lie1 ,are sweet remembrancers who tell ,how fast the winged moments fly40 ,in like manner may be formed a calendar of ,flora3 thus1 if we consider the time of putting forth leaves1 the honeysuckle protrudes them in the month of ,january2 the gooseberry1 currant and elder1 in the end of ,february1 or beginning of ,april2 the oak and ash in the beginning1 or towards the middle of ,may1 c4 ,note #b1 p4 #cb4--;,,gravity ,,and ,,centrifugal ,,force4 ,it may1 perhaps1 be asked how this decrease of weight could have been ascertained2 since1 if the body under examination decreased in weight1 the weight which was opposed to it in the opposite scale must also have diminished in the same proportion2 for instance1 that if the lump of lead lost two pounds1 the body which served to balance it must also have lost the same weight1 and therefore that the different force of gravity could not be detected by such means4 ,it is undoubtedly true that the experiment in question could not have been performed with an ordinary pair of scales1 but by using a spiral spring it was easy to compare the force of the lead's gravity at the surface of the earth1 and at four miles high1 by the relative degree of compression which it sustained in those different situations4 ,we may take this opportunity of observing1 that as the force of gravity varies directly as the mass1 or quantity of matter1 a body weighing a pound on our earth would1 if transferred to the sun1 weigh #bg-c_/d pounds2 if to ,jupiter1 #c-a_/aj pounds2 if to ,saturn1 #a-a_/i2 but1 if to the moon1 more than three ounces4 ,with respect to the effect of the centrifugal force as alluded to in the text1 it may be here observed1 that it has been found by calculation that1 at the equator1 the diminution of gravity occasioned by the centrifugal force arising from the rotation of the earth1 amounts to about the #bhith part4 ,but since this number is the square of #ag1 it follows1 that1 if our globe turned more than #ag times faster about her axis1 or performed the diurnal revolution within the space of #hd minutes1 the centrifugal force would predominate over the powers of gravitation1 and all the fluid and loose matters would1 near the equinoctial boundary1 have been projected from the surface4 ,on such a supposition the waters of the ocean must have been drained off1 and an impassable zone of sterility interposed between the opposite hemispheres4 ,by a similar calculation1 combined with that decreasing force of gravity at great distances from the centre1 it may be inferred1 that the altitude of our atmosphere could never exceed #bf1jjj miles4 ,beyond this limit1 the equatorial portion of air would have been shot into indefinite space4 ,if it were possible to fire off a cannon ball with a velocity of five miles in a second1 and the resistance of the air could be taken away1 it would for ever wheel round the earth1 instead of falling upon it2 and supposing the velocity to reach the rate of seven miles in a second1 the ball would fly off from the earth1 and be never heard of more4 ,note #c1 p4 #ce4--,,velocity ,,of ,,light4 ,it is scarcely possible so to strain the imagination as to conceive the velocity with which light travels4 8,what mere assertion will make any man believe10 asks ,sir ,w4 ,herschel1 8that in one second of time1 in one beat of the pendulum of a clock1 a ray of light travels over #aib1jjj miles1 and would therefore perform the tour of the world in about the same time that it requires to wink with our eyelids1 and in much less than a swift runner occupies in taking a single stride80 ,were a cannon ball shot directly towards the sun1 and it were to maintain its full speed1 it would be twenty years in reaching it1 and yet light travels through this space in seven or eight minutes4 ,note #d1 p4 #cf4--,,velocity ,,of ,,falling ,,bodies4 ,in order to perform this experiment with the highest degree of accuracy1 a body of considerable specific gravity should be selected1 such as lead or iron2 for a common stone experiences a considerable retardation in falling1 from the action of the air4 ,where the arrival of the body at the bottom of the cavern to be measured cannot be seen1 we must make allowance in our calculation for the known velocity of sound2 thus1 suppose a body were ascertained to fall in five seconds4 ,as a heavy body near the earth's surface falls about #af-a_/ab feet in one second of time1 or for this purpose #af feet will be sufficiently exact2 and as sound travels at the rate of #aadb feet per second1 multiply together #aadb1 #af1 and #e1 which will give #iacfj1 and to four times this product1 or #cfeddj1 add the square of #aadb1 which is #acjdafd1 and the sum will be #affifjd2 then if from the square root of the last number #abib the number #aadb be subtracted1 the remainder #aej divided by #cb will give #d4fi for the number of seconds which elapsed during the fall of the body2 if this remainder be subtracted from #e1 the number of seconds during which the body was falling and the sound returning1 we shall have #j4ca for the time which the sound alone employed before it reached the ear2 and this number multiplied by #aadb1 will give for product #ced feet equal the depth of the well4 ,this rule1 which1 it must be allowed1 is rather complex1 is founded on the property of falling bodies1 which are accelerated in the ratio of the times1 so that the spaces passed over increase in the square of the times4 ,the following is a more simple but less accurate rule4 ,multiply #aadb by #e1 which gives #egaj2 then multiply also #af by #e1 which gives #hj1 to which add #aadb1 this gives #abbb1 by which sum divide the first product #egaj1 and the quotient #d4fh will be the time of descent1 nearly the same as before4 ,this taken from #e1 leaves #j4cb for the time of the ascent2 which1 multiplied by #aadb1 gives #cfe for the depth1 differing but little from the former more exact number4 ,note #e1 p4 #ch4--;,,hydromancy4 ,this superstition still prevails in many parts of ,england1 especially in ,cornwall1 where the peasants on certain days of the year assemble at the springs1 or holy wells1 and1 in the manner stated in the text1 proceed to settle such doubts and enquiries as will not let the idle and anxious rest4 ,here1 therefore1 they come1 and1 instead of allaying1 deservedly feed their uneasiness2 the supposed responses serving equally to increase the gloom of the low-spirited1 the suspicions of the jealous1 and the passion of the enamoured4 ,the superstition1 however1 is sanctioned by the highest antiquity4 ,the ,castalian fountain1 and many others among the ,grecians1 were supposed to be of a prophetic nature4 ,by dipping a fair mirror into a well1 the ,patrans of ,greece received1 as they supposed1 some notice of ensuing sickness or health from the various figures portrayed upon the surface4 ,in ,laconia they cast into a pool1 sacred to ,juno1 cakes of bread-corn2 if they sank1 good was portended2 if they swam1 something dreadful was to ensue4 ,sometimes they threw three stones into the water1 and formed their conclusions from the several turns they made in sinking4 8,from the several waves and eddies which the sea1 river1 or other water exhibited10 says ,dr4 ,borlase1 8when put into agitation after a ritual manner1 the ancients pretended to foretell with great certainty the event of battles2 a way of divining recorded by ,plutarch in his life of ,csar1 and still usual among the vulgar in ,cornwall2 who go to some noted well1 at particular times of the year1 and there observe the bubbles that rise1 and the aptness of the water to be troubled1 or to remain pure1 on their throwing in pins or pebbles1 and thence conjecture what shall or shall not befall them4 ,the ,druids also1 as we have great reason to think1 pretended to predict future events1 not only from holy wells and running streams1 but from the rain and snow water1 which1 when settled1 and afterwards stirred1 either by oak-leaf or branch1 or magic wand1 might exhibit appearances of great information to the quick-sighted ,druid1 or seem so to do to the credulous enquirer1 when the priest was at full liberty to represent the appearances as he thought most for his purpose40--,,borlase',s ,antiquities of ,cornwall1 p4 #adj4 ,in the islands of ,scilly there is1 or was some years since1 a custom of propitiating fortune by certain ceremonies of this kind4 ,an old islander regretted to a friend of the author the want of care with which such ceremonies had of late been conducted1 and observed1 as the consequence1 that 8they had no luck at all in the islands2 not a wreck had taken place for many months40 ,note #f1 p4 #db4--;,,coins ,,and ,,medals4 ,the ,latin word moneta1 for money1 is probably more modern than pecunia1 and is said to be derived from moneo1 to advise or mark1 that is1 to show by some mark the weight and fineness of the metal of which coins were composed4 ,thus1 according to ,isidorus1 8,moneta ita appellatur1 quia monet n qua fraus in pondere vel metallo fiat40 ,the origin of money seems to have been coeval with the first regulations of civil society1 or1 at least1 it is too remote to be traced by any authentic history4 ,barter1 that is the exchange of one commodity for another1 was the ordinary mode of traffic in the earlier periods of the world2 a practice which must soon have been discovered extremely inconvenient1 and inadequate to the purposes of commerce2 and hence the invention of a common measure1 or standard1 according to which all other things should be estimated4 ,writers very generally agree in believing that the metals were first used for such a purpose1 as being almost the only substances whose goodness1 and as it were integrity1 were not injured by partition2 and which admitted of being melted1 and returned again into a mass of any size or weight4 ,at first1 it is probable that each person cut his metal into pieces of different sizes and forms1 according to the quantity to be given for any merchandize1 or according to the demand of the seller1 or the quantity stipulated between them2 to this end they went to market1 laden with metal1 in proportion to the purchase to be made1 and furnished with instruments for apportioning it1 and with scales for dealing it out1 according as occasion required4 ,by degrees it must have been found commodious to have pieces ready weighed2 and ,mr4 ,pinkerton observes1 that such were prepared without any stated form or impression1 but merely regulated to a certain weight2 for weight was the grand standard of ancient coinage1 so that all large sums were paid in weight1 even down to the ,saxon period of ,england4 ,as in ,greece the first estimation of money was merely by weight1 so was it in ,rome4 ,silver was the metal first used in ,grecian coinage1 but copper in the ,roman2 the former metal having been long known to the ,romans4 ,the first valuation of ,roman money was by the libra gravis ris1 or pound of heavy brass3 and when by the progress of their conquests they obtained silver and gold1 these were regulated in the same manner4 ,let us proceed one step farther in the history of coins2 it is easy to imagine that the growing commerce of money being disturbed with frauds1 both in the weight and the material1 the interposition of public authority became necessary1 and that hence arose the first stamps or impressions of money2 to which succeeded the names of the moneyers1 and at length the effigy of the prince1 the date1 legend1 and other precautions to prevent the alteration of the species2 and thus were coins completed4 ,gold and silver1 in their pure or unmixed state1 are too flexible to make coins sufficiently firm for general use2 and hence the necessity of mixing with them a certain proportion of some harder metal1 and this mixture is called the alloy4 ,the quality of this alloy has been always considered of great importance with respect to the durability of coins4 ,the most common metal used for this purpose is copper2 and sometimes1 for gold1 a mixture of silver and copper4 ,in all well-regulated governments1 there has been a standard fixed by law2 that is1 a certain proportion between the quantity of pure metal and its alloy4 ,in ,england the standard for gold is #aa_/ab1 that is eleven parts of pure metal1 and one part of alloy4 ,the standard for silver is #cg_/dj1 a proportion which is said to have been fixed in the reign of ,richard ,i4 by certain persons from the eastern parts of ,germany1 called ,easterlings2 and hence the word ,sterling1 which was afterwards the name given to the silver penny1 and which is now applied to all lawful money of ,great ,britain4 ,penny is derived by ,camden from pecunia1 but others suppose that the word is formed from pendo to weigh1 and the word has been sometimes written1 according to this origin1 pending4 ,the ancient ,english penny1 or penig1 or pening1 was the first silver coin struck in ,england1 and the only one current amongst our ,saxon ancestors4 ,until the time of ,edward ,i4 the penny was struck with a cross so deeply indented in it that it might be easily broken1 and parted into two pieces1 thence called half-pennies1 or into four1 called four-things1 or farthings2 but that prince coined it without indenture2 in lieu of which he first struck round half-pence and farthings4 ,by the term ,,medal1 we understand a piece of metal1 in the form of a coin1 destined to preserve to posterity the portrait of some great man1 or the memory of some illustrious action4 ,they are distinguished by their different sizes2 those of the larger size1 or volume1 are called medallions4 ,medallets is a name given by ,pinkerton to those small pieces1 or missilia1 scattered among the people on solemn occasions2 those struck for the slaves in the ,saturnalia1 private counters for gaming1 tickets for baths and feasts1 tokens in copper and lead1 and the like4 ,medallions were certainly never intended to become current coin1 as some medals probably were2 they were struck purely to serve as public monuments1 or to be presented by the emperor to his friends1 and by the mint-makers to the emperor1 as specimens of fine workmanship4 ,they were struck upon the commencement of the reign of a new emperor1 and other solemn occasions2 and frequently1 especially the ,greek medallions1 as monuments of gratitude1 or of flattery4 ,sometimes they were trial or pattern pieces1 testimonia probat monet2 and such abound after the reign of ,maximilian1 with the 8,tres monet0 on the reverse4 ,it is observed1 that all the ,roman pieces in gold1 exceeding the denarius aureus2 all in silver1 superior to the denarius2 and all in brass1 superior to the sestertius1 or what the medallist terms large brass1 are comprehended under the description of medallions4 ,mr4 ,pinkerton1 however1 thinks that the gold medallions1 weighing two1 three1 or four aurei only1 passed in currency according to their size4 ,medallions from the time of ,julius to that of ,adrian1 are very uncommon1 and of very high price2 from ,adrian to the close of the western empire they are1 generally speaking1 less rare4 ,the types of the ,roman medallions are often repeated upon common coin2 hence they appear of less importance than the ,greek2 impressions of which are frequently most uncommon1 and nowhere else to be found4 ,many ,roman medallions have ,s4,c41 as being struck by order of the senate2 those without these initials1 were struck by order of the emperor4 ,of ,augustus1 a noble medallion was found in ,herculaneum4 ,there are medallions of ,augustus and ,tiberius1 struck in ,spain2 and one of ,livia1 at ,patr in ,achaia4 ,one in brass1 of ,antony and ,cleopatra2 reverse1 two figures in a car1 drawn by sea-horses4 ,of ,tiberius there are many2 and also of ,claudius1 ,agrippina1 ,nero1 ,galba1 ,vespasian1 and ,domitian1 c4 ,the ,greek medallions of ,roman emperors are far more numerous than the ,roman2 with a few exceptions1 however1 all medallions are rare and of princely purchase4 ,even in the richest cabinet1 twenty or thirty specimens are esteemed a respectable proportion4 ,the parts of a medal are the two sides1 one whereof is called the face1 head1 or obverse2 the other the reverse4 ,on each side is the area1 or field2 the rim1 or border2 and the exergum1 which is beneath the ground1 whereon the figures represented are placed4 ,on the two sides are distinguished the type1 and the inscription1 or legend4 ,the type1 or device1 is the figure represented2 the legend is the writing1 especially that around the medal2 though in the ,greek medals the inscription is frequently on the area4 ,what we find in the exergum is1 generally1 no more than some initial letters1 whose meaning we are usually unacquainted with2 though1 sometimes1 they contain words that may be accounted an inscription4 ,the exergum sometimes contains the date of the coin1 expressing in what consulship of the emperor it was struck1 as ,cos4 ,,iii4 upon the reverse of an ,antoninus4 ,sometimes it signifies the place where it was struck1 and to which the coin properly belonged1 as ,s4 ,m4 ,,al4 for ,signata ,moneta ,alexandri1 upon the reverse of a ,licinius4 ,sometimes the name of a province1 the reduction of which the medal is designed to celebrate2 as ,juda on the reverse of a ,vespasian4 ,medals usually have their figures in higher relief than coins4 ,we have stated that medals are of great importance to the study of history4 ,they1 indeed1 furnish the principal proof of historic truth1 as their evidence reaches to the most remote ages1 as well as to the most remote countries4 ,vaillant1 in his learned history of the ,syrian kings1 printed at ,paris1 #afha1 first fixed the dates1 and arranged the order of events in ancient historians1 by means of these infallible vouchers4 ,thus he was enabled to ascertain the chronology and progress of events of three of the most important kingdoms of the ancient world2 viz4 those of ,egypt1 of ,syria1 and of ,parthia4 ,the study of the ,roman medals has1 in this respect1 an advantage over that of ,greek coins1 since they serve not only to illustrate the chronology of reigns1 but to aid us in the interpretation of particular events4 ,to this purpose1 besides the portrait of the prince1 and date of his consulship1 or of his tribunitian power1 we have a representation1 or poetical symbol1 of some grand event on the reverse4 ,in a word1 the series of ,roman coins presents the very best suite of documents relating to the ,roman ,history4 ,in addition to its historical importance1 the medal is frequently a useful guide to geography1 natural history1 architecture1 ancient monuments1 busts1 statues1 ceremonies1 and the like4 ,see ,addison's ,dialogues on the ,usefulness of ,ancient ,medals4 ,on this subject1 also1 ,pinkerton1 in his valuable work on medals1 has some interesting remarks2 he says that1 to a man of poetical imagination1 the ,roman coins must prove an ample source of intellectual delight1 by means of the fine personifications and symbols which are to be found on their reverse4 ,happiness has sometimes the caduceus1 or wand of ,mercury1 which ,cicero tells us was thought to procure the gratification of every wish4 ,in a gold coin of ,severus1 she has heads of poppy to express that our prime bliss lies in oblivion of misfortune4 ,hope is represented as a sprightly damsel1 walking quickly and looking straightforward4 ,with her left hand she holds up her garments1 that they may not hinder the rapidity of her pace2 while1 in her right hand1 she holds forth the bud of a flower1 an emblem infinitely more beautiful than the trite one of an anchor1 which is the symbol of ,patience1 not of ,hope4 ,abundance is imaged as a sedate matron1 with a cornucopi in her hands1 of which she scatters the fruits over the ground3 but does not hold it up1 and keep its contents to herself1 as many poets and painters have represented her4 ,security stands leaning on a pillar1 indicative of her being free from all designs and pursuits2 and the posture itself corresponds to her name4 ,coins also present us with countries and rivers admirably personified4 ,on the reverse of a colonial coin1 rude in execution1 of ,augustus and ,agrippa1 inscribed ,,imp4 and ,,divi4 ,f41 the conquest of ,egypt is represented by the apposite metaphor of the crocodile1 an animal almost peculiar to that country1 and at that period esteemed altogether so1 which is chained to a palm tree1 at once a native of the country1 and symbolic of victory4 ,moreover1 a cabinet of medals1 of which ,rubens is said to have possessed a very magnificent one1 may be considered as forming the classic erudition of a painter4 ,we may add1 that almost all the uses which connect the science of medals with painting1 render it also subservient to the art of the sculptor1 who cannot less than profit by the study of the ,greek coins in particular4 ,the connexion of the study of ancient coins with architecture1 consists in the views of many of the ancient edifices1 which are found in perfect preservation on medals4 ,froelich observes1 that the coins of ,tarsus are very remarkable for a kind of perspective in the figures4 ,on others are found triumphal arches1 temples1 fountains1 aqueducts1 amphitheatres1 circuses1 palaces1 columns1 obelisks1 baths1 sea-ports1 pharoses1 and the like4 ,the study of medals affords such a variety of amusement and of instruction1 that we may naturally suppose it to be nearly as ancient as medals themselves2 and yet ancient writers do not furnish us with a single hint of collections of this kind4 ,in the days of ,greece1 a collection of such coins as then existed would not be regarded as an acquisition of any great value1 because it must have consisted only of those that were struck by the innumerable little states which then used the ,greek characters and language1 and of course it would be considered as a kind of domestic coinage1 precluded from extension by the narrow limits of the intercourse that subsisted between different provinces and countries4 ,as soon as any communication was opened between the ,romans and the ,greeks1 the ,grecian coins were imitated by the ,roman workmen1 and preserved in the cabinets of their senators among the choicest treasures4 ,in a more advanced period of the ,roman empire1 individuals must have formed collections of ,roman coins2 for we find that a complete series of silver was lately found in our island1 containing inclusively all the emperors down to ,carausius4 ,from the decline of the ,roman empire1 most branches of science were enveloped in darkness1 till the revival of letters towards the end of the fifteenth century4 ,when literature began to be cultivated in ,italy1 the study of medals1 connected with that of ancient erudition1 began to engage attention4 ,accordingly ,petrarch1 who in modern times was amongst the first persons in ,europe that aspired to the celebrity of learning and genius1 was likewise the first to revive the study of medals4 ,this eminent man1 having been desired by the ,emperor ,charles ,v4 to compose a book that should contain a history of the coins of illustrious men1 and to place him in the list1 is said to have returned for answer1 that he would comply with his desire1 whenever the ,emperor's future life and actions deserved it4 ,availing himself of this circumstance1 he sent that monarch a collection of gold and silver coins of celebrated men4 8,behold60 said he1 8to what men you have succeeded6 ,behold whom you should imitate and admire6 to whose very form and image you should compose your talents6 ,the invaluable present ,i should have given to no one but yourself2 it was due to you alone4 ,i can only know or describe the deeds of these great men3 your supreme office enables you to imitate them40 ,in the next age1 ,alphonso1 king of ,arragon1 caused all the ancient coins that could be discovered throughout the provinces of ,italy to be collected1 which he placed in an ivory cabinet1 and always carried about with him1 that he might be excited to great actions by the presence1 as it were1 of so many illustrious men in their images4 ,to those who are desirous of gaining information upon this interesting branch of antiquarian research1 we strongly recommend ,mr4 ,pinkerton's ,essay on ,medals4 ,having been led to offer these observations on ancient medals1 we may1 perhaps1 be allowed to make one other digression on a subject naturally suggested by a visit to the vicarage of our reverend antiquary4 ,the reader has been told1 that 8around his house he had arranged several precious relics1 amongst which was an ancient cross1 raised upon a platform on three steps40 ,there is much obscurity with regard to the origin and uses of these stone crosses4 ,we are1 however1 not disposed to enter into a discussion of such difficulty2 but the reader may be gratified in having presented to him1 in one view1 a collection of such crosses as still exist in various parts of ,cornwall4 ,illustration3 ,two types of stone crosses4 ,illustration3 ,four more types of stone crosses4 ,note #g1 p4 #di4--;,,bodies ,,revolve ,,on ,,the ,,shorter ,,axis4 ,upon this subject1 the reader is requested to turn to page #ach1 where it is stated that a body will permanently rotate only on its shortest axis4 ,the philosophy of the fact is simply this--while a body revolves on its axis1 the component particles of its mass move in circles1 the centres of which are placed in the axis2 a centrifugal force therefore is generated1 which is resisted by the cohesion of the parts of the mass1 and this tendency of each particle to fly off is expended in exciting a pressure upon the axis2 and it is this strain which produces the effect in question1 the axis of no pressure being alone the permanent axis4 ,,vis ,,inerti1 p4 #ei4--,the criticism of the vicar upon this subject is scientifically judicious2 but the literary reader who has justly appreciated his character1 may be inclined to ask how it could have happened that he should have overlooked the classical authority by which the expression is countenanced2 we cannot answer the question1 but we will supply the deficiency4 ,the connecting two ideas1 which at first sight appear opposed to each other1 constituted a figure of speech much used both by the ,greeks and ,romans4 ,euripides delighted in it1 which was a sufficient reason for ,aristophanes to satirise it4 ,horace has given us several examples of it1 as 8,insaniens sapientia0--8,strenua inertia40 ,note #h1 p4 #fb4--,,the ,,mechanical ,,powers4 ,mechanical powers are simple arrangements by which we gain power at the expense of time2 thus1 if a certain weight can be raised to a certain height by unassisted strength1 and the same thing is afterwards done with one tenth part of the exertion1 through the use of a mechanic power1 it will be found to occupy ten times as much time4 ,in many cases1 however1 loss of time is not to be put in competition with the ability to do a thing2 and since the advantages which the mechanical powers afford to man1 by enabling him to perform feats which1 without their assistance1 would have been for ever beyond his reach1 are incalculably great1 the waste of time is overlooked1 and is much more than balanced in the general result4 ,it is true1 that if there are several small weights1 manageable by human strength1 to be raised to a certain height1 it may be full as convenient to elevate them one by one1 as to take the advantage of the mechanical powers in raising them all at once2 because the same time will be necessary in both cases3 but suppose we should have an enormous block of stone1 or a great tree1 to raise2 bodies of this description cannot be separated into parts proportionable to the human strength without immense labour1 nor1 perhaps1 without rendering them unfit for those purposes to which they are to be applied2 hence then the great importance of the mechanical powers1 by the use of which a man is able to manage with ease a weight many times greater than himself4 ,to understand the principle of a mechanical power1 we must revert to the doctrine of momentum4 ,it will be remembered1 that a small ball1 weighing only two pounds1 and moving at the rate of #ejj feet in a second1 will produce as much effect as a cannon ball of ten pounds in weight1 provided it only moved at the rate of #ajj feet in the same time2 in like manner a ball weighing one pound may be made to balance another of five pounds1 by placing it five times farther from the centre of motion2 for in such a case1 for every inch of space through which the large ball passes1 the small one will traverse five inches1 and will thus generate five times the momentum4 ,this may be rendered still more evident by turning to page #afa1 and note thereon1 where the see-saw is described1 which1 in fact1 is a true mechanical power4 ,it will be at once evident1 from an inspection of the figure1 that the lesser boy will pass over a much greater space1 in equal time1 than the greater boy1 and thus generate more momentum1 which compensates for his defect in weight1 and renders him a balance for his heavier companion4--,see note #bc4 ,note #i1 p4 #gf4--;,,centre ,,of ,,gravity4 ,those who have been in the habit of inspecting the works of the statuary1 must frequently have detected the art which he has displayed in imparting stability to his figures1 by lowering their centre of gravity4 ,the bronze figure of ,achilles1 in ,hyde ,park1 affords a very striking illustration of such ingenuity2 it is evident1 from the position and height of the figure1 that1 had not a mass of matter been added to its base1 its stability would have been extremely precarious1 since the slightest movement might have thrown its line of direction beyond the base2 but the addition at the base renders such an accident impossible1 by lowering its centre of gravity4 ,other examples of similar contrivance are presented in several celebrated statues1 wherein stability is ensured by the judicious distribution of the draperies4 ,in the celebrated statue of ,peter at ,st4 ,petersburgh1 the equilibrium of the mass is thus sustained by the introduction of a serpent twining upwards to his horse's tail4 ,the effect1 however1 is so unfortunate as to have given occasion for a wit to remark1 8,it is a very fine horse1 but what a pity that he should have worms60 ,nor have our celebrated painters overlooked a principle1 the neglect of which would have withheld from the most symmetrical figures the charms of beautiful proportion4 ,note #aj1 p4 #ic4--,,the ,,indian ,,blow-,,pipe4 8,when a native of ,macoushi goes in quest of feathered game1 or other birds1 he seldom carries his bow and arrows4 ,it is the blow-pipe he then uses4 ,this extraordinary tube of death is1 perhaps1 one of the greatest natural curiosities in ,guiana4 ,it is not found in the country of ,macoushi4 ,those ,indians tell you that it grows to the south-west of them1 in the wilds which extend betwixt them and the ,rio ,negro4 ,the reed must grow to an amazing length1 as the part the ,indians use is from ten to eleven feet long1 and no tapering can be perceived in it1 one end being as thick as the other4 ,it is of a bright yellow colour1 perfectly smooth both inside and out4 ,it grows hollow2 nor is there the least appearance of a knot or joint throughout the whole extent4 ,the natives call it ourah4 ,this1 of itself1 is too slender to answer the end of a blow-pipe2 but there is a species of palma1 larger and stronger1 and common in ,guiana1 and this the ,indians make use of as a case1 in which they put the ourah4 ,it is brown1 susceptible of a fine polish1 and appears as if it had joints five or six inches from each other4 ,it is called samourah1 and the pulp inside is easily extracted1 by steeping it for a few days in water4 ,thus the ourah and samourah1 one within the other1 form the blow-pipe of ,guiana4 ,the end which is applied to the mouth is tied round with a small silk-grass cord1 to prevent its splitting2 and the other end1 which is apt to strike against the ground1 is secured by the seed of the acuero fruit1 cut horizontally through the middle1 with a hole made in the end1 through which is put the extremity of the blow-pipe4 ,it is fastened on with string on the outside1 and the inside is filled up with wild bees-wax4 ,the arrow is from nine to ten inches long4 ,it is made out of the leaf of a species of palm-tree1 called coucourite1 hard and brittle1 and pointed as sharp as a needle4 ,about an inch of the pointed end is poisoned with the wourali4 ,the other end is burnt1 to make it still harder1 and wild cotton is put round it for about an inch and a half4 ,it requires considerable practice to put on this cotton well4 ,it must just be large enough to fit the hollow of the tube1 and taper off to nothing downwards4 ,they tie it on with a thread of the silk-grass to prevent its slipping off the arrow40 8,the ,indians have shown ingenuity in making a quiver to hold the arrows4 ,it will contain from five to six hundred444 8444,with a quiver of poisoned arrows slung over his shoulder1 and with his blow-pipe in his hand1 in the same position as a soldier carries his musket1 see the ,macoushi ,indian advancing towards the forest in quest of powises1 maroudis1 waracabas1 and other feathered game4 8,these generally sit high up in the tall and tufted trees1 but still are not out of the ,indian's reach2 for this blow-pipe1 at its greatest elevation1 will send an arrow #cjj feet4 ,silent as midnight he steals under them1 and so cautiously does he tread the ground1 that the fallen leaves rustle not beneath his feet4 ,his ears are open to the least sound1 while his eye1 keen as that of the lynx1 is employed in finding out the game in the thickest shade4 ,often he imitates their cry1 and decoys them from tree to tree1 till they are within range of his tube4 ,then1 taking a poisoned arrow from his quiver1 he puts it in the blow-pipe1 and collects his breath for the fatal puff4 ,about two feet from the end through which he blows1 there are fastened two teeth of the acouri1 and these serve him for a sight4 ,silent and swift the arrow flies1 and seldom fails to pierce the object at which it is sent4 ,sometimes the wounded bird remains in the same tree where it was shot1 and in three minutes falls down at the ,indian's feet4 ,should he take wing1 his flight is of short duration2 and the ,indian1 following the direction he has gone1 is sure to find him dead4 ,it is natural to imagine that1 when a slight wound only is inflicted1 the game will make its escape4 ,far otherwise2 the wourali poison almost instantaneously mixes with blood or water1 so that if you wet your finger1 and dash it along the poisoned arrow in the quickest manner possible1 you are sure to carry off some of the poison4 ,though three minutes generally elapse before the convulsions come on in the wounded bird1 still a stupor evidently takes place sooner1 and this stupor manifests itself by an apparent unwillingness in the bird to move40 444 8,the ,indian1 on his return home1 carefully suspends his blow-pipe from the top of his spiral roof2 seldom placing it in an oblique position1 lest it should receive a cast40--,,waterton',s ,wanderings in ,south ,america1 p4 #eh4 ,note #aa1 p4 #if4--,,pendulum ,,and ,,spring4 ,a clock is nothing more than a piece of machinery to maintain the action of the pendulum1 and at the same time to count and register the number of its oscillations2 and by that peculiar property1 that one vibration commences exactly where the last terminates1 no part of time is lost or gained in the juxtaposition of the units so counted4 ,if some extraneous force were not applied1 in a clock or watch1 to maintain or perpetuate the natural vibrations of a pendulum1 or oscillations of a balance1 they would soon come to rest1 by reason of friction in the mechanism1 and the resistance opposed by the air to the parts in motion4 ,this force1 in the larger clocks1 is usually a suspended weight2 but1 in the portable clock and watch1 it is a spring coiled in a metallic box1 that actuates the wheel-work by gradually unbending itself4 ,in the former of these cases1 the weight is suspended by a cord or chain that is coiled round a cylinder when wound up1 which cylinder being of uniform diameter throughout its length1 is acted on by the cord1 when fast at the interior end1 by a similar force in every situation2 and1 therefore1 imparts through the train1 connected with its great wheel1 invariable impulses to the escapement-wheel1 at every vibration of the pendulum2 which pendulum receives therefrom such a slight push1 as is just sufficient to restore the momentum which it loses from friction and the air's resistance1 and thus the uniform motion of the pendulum is perpetuated4 ,but when a spring is substituted for a weight1 it is clear that its agency cannot be uniform1 since1 as the reader will learn by turning to page #aja1 it is a general law that elastic bodies1 in the recovery of their form1 after the removal of the compressing force1 exert a greater power at first than at last1 so that the whole progress of restoration is a retarded motion4 ,it1 therefore1 became necessary to introduce some mechanical contrivance which might equalize such motion4 ,this correction is effected by an apparatus termed a ,,fusee1 and is nothing more than the application of the wheel and axle2 it is that conical barrel seen in most watches round which the chain coils in the act of winding up4 ,when the fusee is full of chain1 or the watch is wound up1 the spring1 through the medium of the chain1 will act upon its upper part1 which being very near the centre will give the spring but little power2 but1 as the spring uncoils and diminishes in strength1 it will act upon a larger part of the fusee1 until at last it gets to the bottom of it1 and consequently1 if the several increasing grooves upon it are made to increase in the same proportion as the power of the spring decreases1 an equable force must be obtained4 ,springs may be thus said to afford the means of packing up force1 to be used whenever it is required4 ,mr4 ,babbage observes that the half minute which we daily devote to the winding up our watches is an exertion by which we pack a quantity of force1 which is gradually expended during the ensuing twenty-four hours4 ,springs then will enable us to avail ourselves of inconstant and variable forces which must otherwise remain incapable of useful application1 and the period may arrive when force will thus become an article of traffic1 and machines be sent to the windmill to be wound up4 ,the manner in which force is constantly allowed to run to waste is quite extraordinary in the present advanced state of science4 ,we need only look at the working of the treadmill4 ,the public are little aware of the enormous sums annually expended in towing vessels by steam from the ,nore to the port of ,london2 were floating treadmills established1 the labour of those1 upon whom punishment has been awarded1 might be rendered available to the most important interests2 whereas1 with the present system1 not only is this labour entirely lost1 but is actually a source of expense1 for machines1 with all the accompaniments of engineers1 are provided to counterbalance the force so uselessly generated4 ,note #ab1 p4 #ig4--;,,elastic ,,chairs ,,and ,,beds4 ,the elastic property of iron springs has been lately exemplified in a very striking manner1 by the invention of ,pratt's elastic chairs and beds2 which1 instead of the usual stuffing of feathers1 are filled with iron wire666 which is twisted into spiral form4 ,down itself cannot be more gentle or springy2 it yields to pressure1 and yet never becomes lumpy3 beds thus constructed have the advantage of not heating the body2 and1 above all1 they never require to be shaken or 8made40 ,had ,vulcan fortunately made such a discovery before his ejectment from ,olympus1 his wife1 ,venus1 would surely never have treated him with that contempt which mythologists have recorded of her2 while her priestesses1 the housemaids1 must1 in gratitude1 have been bound to extend their protection to a benefactor1 who could save them so much daily labour4 ,for particulars of this curious invention1 the reader may consult the ,literary ,gazette for ,march #ag1 #ahbg4 ,note #ac1 p4 #ih4--;,,duck ,,and ,,drake4 ,the phenomenon has been explained as depending upon the inertia of the parts of matter1 which renders a certain time necessary in order to communicate to any body a sensible motion2 so that when a body1 moving with considerable velocity1 meets with another of much greater size1 it experiences almost as much resistance as if the latter were fixed4 ,nothing is easier to be divided than water2 yet1 if the palm of the hand be struck with some velocity against its surface1 a considerable degree of resistance1 and even of pain1 is experienced from it1 as if a solid body had been struck2 nay1 a musket ball1 when fired against water1 is repelled and even flattened by it4 ,in like manner1 if we load a musket with powder1 and1 instead of a ball1 introduce a candle1 and fire it against a board1 the latter will be pierced by the candle end1 as if by a ball4 ,the cause of this phenomenon1 no doubt1 is1 that the rapid motion with which the candle end is impelled1 does not allow it time to be flattened1 and therefore it acts as a hard body4 ,note #ad1 p4 #ii4--,,vegetable ,,elasticity4 ,impatiens1 or ,touch me not1 affords a good example4 ,the seed-vessel consists of one cell with five divisions2 each of these1 when the seed is ripe1 on being touched1 suddenly folds itself into a spiral form1 leaps from the stalk1 and disperses the seeds to a great distance by its elasticity4 ,the capsule of the geranium and the beard of wild oats are twisted for a similar purpose4 7,,darwin',s ,botanic ,garden47 ,the seed-vessel of ,euphorbia is extremely elastic1 projecting the seeds with great force4 ,an elastic pouch also serves to scatter the seeds of the ,oxalis4 ,note #ae1 p4 #abe4--;,a ,,simple ,,orrery4 ,a very instructive toy might be constructed by placing a taper in the centre of a japanned waiter1 to represent the sun1 and fixing in a watch glass an indian rubber ball1 with the parallels of latitude and meridians painted thereon1 with the other characters of the globe4 ,during its revolution around the candle1 in consequence of the tendency of its centre of gravity to its lowest position1 the diurnal and annual motions1 and also the parallelism of its axis1 will be represented1 together with the concomitant phenomena4 ,note #af1 p4 #acj4--;,,conic ,,sections4 ,if a cone1 or sugar-loaf1 be cut through in certain directions1 we shall obtain figures which are termed conic sections2 thus1 if we cut through the sugar-loaf in a direction parallel to its base1 or bottom1 the outline or edge of the loaf where it is cut will be a circle4 ,if the cut is made so as to slant1 and not be parallel to the base of the loaf1 the outline is an ellipse1 provided the cut goes quite through the sides of the loaf all round2 but if it goes slanting1 and parallel to the line of the loaf's side1 the outline is a parabola1 a conic section1 or curve1 to which this note more immediately relates4 ,this curve is distinguished by characteristic properties1 every point of it bearing a certain fixed relation to a certain point within it1 as the circle does to its centre4 ,note #ag1 p4 #acd4--;,,earthquake ,,of ,,lisbon4 ,during the dreadful earthquake of ,lisbon1 bands of wretches took advantage of the general consternation to commit the most atrocious acts of robbery and murder4 ,in fact1 a considerable part of the city was destroyed by incendiaries1 who1 during the disaster1 set fire to the houses1 that they might pillage them with greater impunity4 ,note #ah1 p4 #acd4--;,,geology ,,applied ,,to ,,agriculture4 ,soils consist of a mixture of different finely divided earthy matter1 with animal or vegetable substances in a state of decomposition4 ,in order1 therefore1 to form a just idea of their nature1 it is necessary to conceive different rocks decomposed1 or ground into parts and powder of different degrees of fineness2 some of their soluble parts dissolved by water1 and that water adhering to the mass1 and the whole mixed with larger or smaller quantities of the remains of vegetables and animals1 in different stages of decay4 ,hence it will follow1 that certain rocks will give origin to particular soils2 thus poor and hungry soils1 such as are produced from the decomposition of granite and sandstone1 remain very often for ages with only a thin covering of vegetation2 while soils from the decomposition of limestone1 chalk1 and basalt1 are often clothed by nature with the perennial grasses2 and afford1 when ploughed up1 a rich bed of vegetation for every species of cultivated plant4 ,in adverting to this subject1 ,dr4 ,buckland1 in his inaugural lecture1 very justly observes1 that it furnishes an instance of relation between the vegetable and mineral kingdoms1 and of the adaptation of one to the other1 which always implies design in the surest manner2 for had not the surface of the earth been thus prepared for their reception1 where would have been the use of all that admirable system of organization bestowed upon vegetables8 ,and it is no small proof of design in the arrangement of the materials that compose the surface of our earth1 that whereas the primitive and granitic rocks are least calculated to afford a fertile soil1 they are for the most part made to constitute the mountain districts of the world1 which1 from their elevation and irregularities1 would otherwise be but ill adapted for human habitation2 whilst the lower and more temperate regions are usually composed of derivative or secondary strata1 in which the compound nature of their ingredients qualifies them to be of the greatest utility to mankind by their subserviency to the purposes of luxuriant vegetation4 ,no doubt1 then1 can exist as to the important connexion between the geological structure of a country1 and its degree of fertility2 but the subject has not received the attention which it merits4 ,and in the hope that this note may meet the eye of some zealous geologist1 the author suggests the importance of commencing the enquiry in a primitive district2 for1 as we advance from a primitive to an alluvial district1 the relations to which we have alluded become gradually less distinct and apparent1 and are ultimately lost in the confused complication of the soil itself1 and in that general obscurity which necessarily envelopes every object in a state of decomposition3 we can1 therefore1 only hope to succeed in such an investigation1 by a patient and laborious examination of a primitive country1 after which we may be enabled to extend our enquiries with advantage through those districts which are more completely covered with soil1 and obscured by luxuriant vegetation2 as the eye1 gazing upon a beautiful statue1 traces the outline of the limbs1 and the swelling contour of its form1 through the flowing draperies which invest it4 ,note #ai1 p4 #ace4--;,,buckland',s ,,researches4 ,the geological researches of ,dr4 ,buckland have been long directed by a desire to accumulate facts to prove that there must have been an universal inundation of the earth2 and1 in his inaugural lecture1 he has presented us with a summary of such facts1 which1 to use his own expression1 whether considered collectively or separately1 present such a conformity of proofs1 tending to establish the universality of a recent inundation of the earth1 as no difficulties or objections that have hitherto arisen are in any way sufficient to overrule4 ,in the year #ahbb1 ,dr4 ,buckland read a memoir before the ,royal ,society1 announcing the discovery of a singular cave at ,kirkdale in ,yorkshire1 containing an assemblage of fossil teeth and bones of the elephant1 rhinoceros1 hippopotamus1 bear1 tiger1 and hyna1 and sixteen other animals2 with a comparative view of five similar caverns in various parts of ,england1 and others on the continent4 ,for this important paper the society awarded to its author their ,copley medal2 and it constitutes the basis of a later and much more extended work1 entitled 8,,reliqui ,,diluvian2 or ,observations on the ,organic ,remains contained in ,caves1 ,fissures1 and ,diluvial ,gravel2 and on other ,geological ,phenomena1 attesting the ,action of an ,universal ,deluge4 ,by the ,rev4 ,w4 ,,buckland1 ,b4,d4 ,f4,r4,s4 c40 ,let us explore the interior of this cavern4 ,it was not till the summer of #ahba1 that the existence of any animal remains1 or of the cavern containing them1 was suspected4 ,at this time1 in continuing the operations of a large quarry1 the workmen accidentally intersected the mouth of a long hole1 closed externally with rubbish1 and overgrown with grass and bushes4 ,as this rubbish was removed before any competent person had examined it1 it is not certain whether it was composed of diluvial gravel and rolled pebbles1 or was simply the debris that had fallen from the softer portions of the strata that lay above it3 the workman1 however1 who removed it1 and some gentlemen who saw it1 assured ,dr4 ,buckland that it was composed of gravel and sand4 ,in the interior of the cavern1 our indefatigable geologist could not find a single rolled pebble1 nor has he ever seen one bone1 or fragment of bone1 that bore the slightest mark of having been rolled by the action of water4 ,the original entrance is said to have been very small1 and1 having been filled up as above described1 there could not have been any admission of external air through it to the interior of the cavern4 ,nearly #cj feet of its outer extremity have now been removed1 and the present entrance is a hole in the perpendicular face of the quarry1 about three feet high and five feet broad1 which it is only possible for a man to enter on his hands and knees1 and which expands and contracts itself irregularly from two to seven feet in breadth1 and two to fourteen feet in height4 ,it is unnecessary to enter into farther details2 the reader1 if he wishes more minute information1 may consult ,dr4 ,buckland's work4 ,on entering the cave1 the first thing observed was a sediment of soft mud or loam1 covering entirely its whole bottom to the average depth of about a foot1 and concealing the subjacent rock1 or actual floor of the cavern4 ,not a particle of mud was found attached either to the sides or roof2 nor was there a trace of it adhering to the sides or upper portions of the transverse fissures1 or any thing to suggest the idea that it had entered through them4 ,the mud was covered by a stalagmitic crust1 which had been formed by the dripping of water impregnated with calcareous matter1 as is common in all the cavities of limestone2 but it is important to remark1 that there was not any alternation of mud with any repeated beds of stalagmite1 but simply a partial deposit of the latter on the floor beneath2 so that the mud was encased1 like meat in a pie1 with an upper and under crust4 ,it was chiefly in the lower part of the earthy sediment1 and in the calcareous matter beneath it1 that the animal remains were found4 ,in the whole extent of the cave1 only a very few large bones have been discovered that are tolerably perfect2 most of them are broken into small angular fragments and chips1 the greater part of which lay separately in the mud1 whilst others were wholly or partially invested with stalagmite1 and others again mixed with masses of still smaller fragments4 ,in some few places1 where the mud was shallow1 and the heaps of teeth and bones considerable1 parts of the latter were elevated some inches above the surface of the mud and its calcareous crust2 and the upper ends of the bones thus projecting1 like the legs of pigeons through a pie crust1 into the void space above1 have become thinly covered with calcareous drippings1 whilst their lower extremities have no such incrustation1 and have simply adhering to them the mud in which they have been imbedded4 ,the effect of the loam and stalagmite in preserving the bones from decomposition1 by protecting them from all access of atmospheric air1 has been very remarkable4 ,the workmen1 in first discovering the bones at ,kirkdale1 supposed them to have belonged to cattle that died by a murrain in this district a few years ago1 and they were for some time neglected1 and thrown on the roads with the common limestone2 they were1 at length1 noticed by ,mr4 ,harrison1 a medical gentleman in the neighbourhood1 and have since been collected and deposited in various private and public museums4 ,the teeth and bones which have been discovered in this cave appear to have belonged to the hyna1 tiger1 bear1 wolf1 fox1 weasel1 elephant1 rhinoceros1 hippopotamus1 horse1 ox1 deer1 hare1 rabbit1 water-rat1 mouse1 raven1 pigeon1 lark1 snipe1 and a small species of duck4 ,the bottom of the cave1 on first removing the mud1 was found to be strewed all over like a dog-kennel1 from one end to the other1 with hundreds of teeth and bones1 or rather broken and splintered fragments of bones1 of all the animals above enumerated2 scarcely a single bone has escaped fracture1 with the exception of some of the more solid and hard bones of the foot2 on some of these bones marks may be traced1 which1 on applying one to the other1 appear exactly to fit the form of the canine teeth of the hyna that occur in the cave4 ,the hyna's bones have been broken1 and apparently gnawed equally with those of the other animals4 ,heaps of small splinters1 and highly comminuted1 yet angular fragments of bone1 mixed with teeth of all the varieties of animals above enumerated1 lay in the bottom of the den1 occasionally adhering together by calcareous cement4 ,not one skull is to be found entire2 and it is so rare to find a large bone of any kind that has not been more or less broken1 that there is no hope of obtaining materials for the construction of a single limb1 and still less of an entire skeleton4 ,the jaw-bones1 also1 even of the hynas1 are broken to pieces like the rest4 ,it must already appear probable1 from the facts above described1 particularly from the comminuted and gnawed condition of the bones1 that the cave at ,kirkdale was1 during a long succession of years1 inhabited as a den by hynas1 and that they dragged into its recesses the other animals1 whose remains are found indiscriminately mixed with their own3 an hypothesis which is certainly strengthened by ,dr4 ,buckland having found the excrement of the animal in the same cave4 ,should it be asked why we do not find1 at least1 the entire skeleton of the one or more hynas that died last1 and left no survivors to devour them2 we find a sufficient reply to this question1 in the circumstance of the probable destruction of the last individuals by the waters of the deluge4 ,on the rise of these1 had there been any hynas in the den1 they would have rushed out1 and fled for safety to the hills2 and if absent1 they could not by any possibility have returned to it from the higher levels2 that they were extirpated by the catastrophe is obvious1 from the discovery of their bones in the diluvial gravel both of ,england and ,germany4 ,the accumulation of these bones1 then1 appears to have been a process of years1 whilst all the animals in question were natives of this country4 ,the general dispersion of bones of the same animals through the diluvial gravel of high latitudes1 over a great part of the northern hemisphere1 shows that the period in which they inhabited these regions was that immediately preceding the formation of this gravel1 and that they perished by the same waters which produced it4 ,m4 ,cuvier has1 moreover1 ascertained that the fossil elephant1 rhinoceros1 hippopotamus1 and hyna1 belong to species now unknown2 and as there is no evidence that they have at any time1 subsequent to the formation of the diluvium1 existed in these regions1 we may conclude that the period at which the bones of these extinct species were introduced into the cave at ,kirkdale was before the deluge4 ,thus the phenomena of this cave seem referable to a period immediately antecedent to the general deluge1 and in which the world was inhabited by land animals1 almost all bearing a generic1 and many a specific resemblance to those which now exist2 but so completely has the violence of that tremendous convulsion destroyed and remodelled the form of the antediluvian surface1 that it is only in caverns that have been protected from its ravages1 that we may hope to find undisturbed evidence of events in the period immediately preceding it4 ,the bones already described1 and the calcareous matter formed before the introduction of the diluvial mud1 are what ,dr4 ,buckland considers to be the products of the period in question4 ,it was indeed probable1 before the discovery of this cave1 from the abundance in which the remains of similar species occur in superficial gravel beds1 which cannot be referred to any other than a diluvial origin1 that such animals were the antediluvian inhabitants not only of this country1 but generally of all those northern latitudes in which their remains are found1 7but the proof was imperfect1 as it was possible they might have been drifted or floated hither by the waters from the warmer regions of the earth17 but the facts developed in this charnel-house of the antediluvian forests of ,yorkshire demonstrate that there was a long succession of years1 in which the elephant1 rhinoceros1 and hippopotamus had been the prey of the hynas1 which1 like themselves1 inhabited ,england in the period immediately preceding the formation of the diluvial gravel4 ,having thus far described the principal facts to be observed in the interior of this cave1 ,dr4 ,buckland proceeds to point out the chronological inferences that may be derived from the state of the bones1 and of the mud and stalagmite that accompany them1 and to extract the following detail of events that have been going on successively within this curious cave3-- ,first1 ,there appears to have been a period 7and1 if we may form an estimate from the small quantity of stalagmite now found on the actual floor of the cave1 a very short one17 during which this aperture in the rock existed in its present state1 but was not tenanted by the hynas4 ,the second period was that during which the cave was inhabited by the hynas1 and the stalactite and stalagmite were still forming4 ,the third period is that at which the mud was introduced and the animals extirpated1 viz4 the period of the deluge4 ,it has been already stated1 that there is not any alternation of this mud with beds of bone or of stalagmite1 such as would have occurred had it been produced by land floods often repeated2 once1 and once only1 it appears to have been introduced2 and we may consider its vehicle to have been the turbid waters of the same inundation that produced universally the diluvial gravel4 ,the fourth period is that during which the stalagmite was deposited which invests the upper surface of the mud4 ,in concluding this note1 we take the opportunity of recommending all those who feel interested in the researches of geology1 to read a work lately published1 entitled 8,,the ,,wonders ,,of ,,geology1 by ,gideon ,mantell1 ,,ll4,d4 ,f4,r4,s4 c40 ,note #bj1 p4 #acg4--,,the ,,rifle4 ,rifle guns are those whose barrels1 instead of being smooth on the inside1 like our common pieces1 are formed with a number of spiral channels1 resembling screws2 except only that the threads1 or rifles1 are less deflected1 making only one turn1 or a little more1 in the whole length of the piece4 ,this construction is employed for correcting the irregularity in the flight of balls from smooth barrels1 by imparting to the balls a rotatory motion perpendicular to the line of direction4 ,the same effect has lately been accomplished by an extremely simple and obvious contrivance1 and which will1 probably1 altogether supersede the necessity of rifling the barrel4 ,it consists in cutting a spiral groove in the bullet itself1 which1 when discharged1 is thus acted upon by the air1 and the same rotatory motion imparted to it as that produced by the furrows in the barrel4 ,but it is the rotatory motion which steadies the flight of the ball2 and by whichever method this is produced1 the theory of its action will be the same4 ,it has been long and generally known1 that when the common bullet is discharged from a plane barrel1 its flight is extremely irregular and uncertain2 it has1 for instance1 been found1 from the experiments of ,mr4 ,robins1 that1 notwithstanding the piece was firmly fixed1 and fired with the same weight of powder1 the ball was sometimes deflected to the right1 sometimes to the left1 sometimes above1 and at others below the true line of direction4 ,it has also been observed1 that the degree of deflection increases in a much greater proportion than the distance of the object fired at4 ,it is not difficult to account for these irregularities2 they1 doubtless1 proceed from the impossibility of fitting a ball so accurately to any plane piece1 but that it will rub more against one side of the barrel than another in its passage through it4 ,whatever side1 therefore1 of the muzzle1 the ball is last in contact with1 on quitting the piece1 it will acquire a whirling motion towards that side1 and will be found to bend the line of its flight in the same direction1 whether it be upwards or downwards1 to the right or left2 or obliquely1 partaking in some degree of both2 and1 after quitting the barrel1 this deflection1 though in the first instance but trifling and inconsiderable1 is still farther increased by the resistance of the air2 this being greatest on that side where the whirling motion conspires with the progressive one1 and least on that side where it is opposed to it4 ,thus1 if the ball1 in its passage out1 rubs against the left side of the barrel1 it will whirl towards that side2 and as the right side of the ball will1 therefore1 turn up against the air during its flight1 the resistance of the air will become greatest on the right side1 and the ball be forced away to the left1 which was the direction it whirled in4 ,it happens1 moreover1 from various accidental circumstances1 that the axis of the ball's rotation frequently changes its position several times during the flight2 so that the ball1 instead of bending its course uniformly in the same direction1 often describes a track variously contorted4 ,from this view of the causes of aberration in the flight of balls1 it will be evident that the only means of correcting it is by preventing the ball from rubbing more against one side of the barrel than another in passing through it2 and by giving to the bullet a motion which will counteract every accidental one1 and preserve its direction1 by making the resistance of the air upon the forepart continue the same during its whole flight2 that is1 by giving it a rotatory motion perpendicular to the line of direction4 ,the contrivance for this purpose is called rifling1 and consists1 as we have before stated1 in forming upon the inside of the barrel a number of threads and furrows1 either in a straight or spiral direction1 into which the ball is moulded2 and hence1 when the gun is fired1 the indented zone of the bullet follows the sweep of the rifle1 and thereby1 besides its progressive motion1 acquires a considerable one round the axis of the barrel1 which motion will be continued to the bullet after its separation from the piece1 so that it is constantly made to whirl round an axis coincident with the line of its flight4 ,many familiar examples of the utility and effect of rifling might be here adduced4 ,if the bricklayer1 while unroofing a house1 be observed1 he will be seen to give to the slates which he throws down a whirling motion1 at a certain angle1 which ensures their falling edgeways on the ground1 and thus preserves them from fracture4 ,in relation to the subject in the text1 to which this note refers1 may be introduced a notice of the 8,,bommereng10 a missile used by the natives of ,australia1 and thus described by ,major ,mitchell in his 8,journal of an expedition to the ,rivers ,darling and ,murray40 8,the bommereng1 a thin1 curved missile1 about two feet four inches long1 can be thrown by a skilful hand so as to rise upon the wind with a rotatory motion1 and in a crooked direction towards any given point with great precision1 and to return1 after a considerable flight1 to within a yard or two of the thrower2 or1 by striking the ground near him1 to bound so as to hit at a great1 distance1 8en ricochet0 any object behind a tree4 ,this singular weapon probably originated in the utility of such a missile for the purpose of killing ducks1 where they are very numerous1 as on the interior rivers and lagoons1 and where we accordingly find it much more in use than on the sea coast1 and better made1 being often covered with good carving40 ,this instrument may now be purchased in most of the ,london toy-shops4 ,note #ba1 p4 #add4--;,,centre ,,of ,,percussion4 ,if a stick be held at one of its extremities1 and allowed to fall on the edge of a table1 the farther end will rebound1 or the hand will sustain a shock1 unless it be struck exactly on the centre of percussion1 in which case the stick will fall as a dead weight4 ,the repetition of this simple experiment will readily convey to the young philosopher an idea of the nature of what is termed the centre of percussion4 ,note #bb1 p4 #aej4--,,spinning ,,of ,,the ,,top4 ,it has been stated in the text1 that the gyrations of the top depend exactly upon the same principle as that which produces the precession of the equinoxes2 viz4 an unequal attractive force exerted upon the revolving mass4 ,in the one case1 this is known to arise from the action of the sun and moon on the excess of matter about the equatorial regions of the earth2 in the other1 from the parts of the top being unequally affected by gravity1 while it is spinning in an inclined or oblique position4 ,to those philosophers who have condescended to read the present work1 if there be any such1 and are thereby induced to pursue the investigation of a subject which has hitherto excited far too little attention1 we beg to submit the following remarks3-- ,if a top could be made to revolve on a point without friction1 and in a vacuum1 in the case of its velocity being infinite1 it would continue to revolve for ever1 in the same position1 without gyration4 ,if the velocity were finite1 it would for ever remain unchanged in position1 in the event of the centre of gravity being directly over the point of rotation4 ,in any other position 7supposing its velocity very great1 although not infinite7 there would arise a continued uniform gyration2 the line which passes through the point of rotation1 and the centre of gravity1 always making the same angle with the horizon1 or describing the same circle round the zenith4 ,but in all artificial experiments the circumstances are very remarkably changed2 if1 indeed1 the centre of gravity happens to be situated perpendicularly over the point of rotation1 the top will continue quite steady1 or sleeping1 as it is termed1 till nearly the whole of its velocity of rotation is expended4 ,in any other position the top begins to gyrate1 but reclining at all times on the outside of its physical point of gyration1 the top is uniformly impelled inwards2 and this 7when the velocity is considerable1 and the point broad7 acts with a force sufficient for carrying the top towards its quiescent or sleeping point2 but when the velocity is much diminished1 this power becomes feeble1 the gyrations increase in diameter1 and the top ultimately falls4 ,note #bc1 p4 #afa4--,,the ,,mechanical ,,powers4 ,the mechanical powers are all founded upon the principle that the lengths of circles are in proportion to their diameters2 for it is an immediate consequence of this property of the circle1 that if a rod of iron1 or beam of wood1 be placed on a point or pivot1 so that it may move round its prop1 the two ends will go through parts of circles1 each proportioned to that arm of the beam to which it belongs2 the two circles will be equal if the pivot is in the centre or middle point of the beam2 but if it is nearer one end than the other1 say five times1 that end will pass through a circular space1 or arc1 five times shorter than the circular space the other end goes through in the same time4 ,if1 then1 the end of the long beam goes through five times the space1 it must move with five times the swiftness of the short end1 since both move in the same time2 and1 therefore1 any force applied to the long end must overcome the resistance of five times that force applied at the opposite end1 since the two ends move in contrary directions2 hence one pound placed at the long end would balance five placed at the short end4 ,the beam we have been describing constitutes the first of the mechanical powers1 and is termed the ,,lever4 ,there are1 besides1 five others1 viz4 the wheel and axle2 the inclined plane2 the screw2 the pulley2 and the wedge2 out of the whole1 or a part of which1 it will be found that every mechanical engine or piece of machinery is constructed4 ,,the ,,lever being the simplest of all the mechanic powers1 is in general considered the first4 ,it is an inflexible rod or bar of any kind1 so disposed as to turn on a pivot or prop1 which is always called its fulcrum4 ,it has the weight or resistance to be overcome attached to some one part of its length1 and the power which is to overcome that resistance applied to another2 and1 since the power1 resistance1 and fulcrum admit of various positions with regard to each other1 so is the lever divided into three kinds or modifications1 distinguished as the first1 second1 and third kinds of lever4 ,that portion of it which is contained between the fulcrum and the power1 is called the acting part or arm of the lever2 and that part which is between the fulcrum and resistance1 its resisting part or arm4 ,in the lever of the first kind1 the fulcrum is placed between the power and the resistance4 ,a poker1 in the act of stirring the fire1 well illustrates this subject2 the bar is the fulcrum1 the hand the power1 and the coals the resistance to be overcome4 ,another common application of this kind of lever is the crow-bar1 or hand-spike1 used for raising a large stone or weight4 ,in all these cases power is gained in proportion as the distance from the fulcrum to the power1 or part where the men apply their strength1 is greater than the distance from the fulcrum to that end under the stone or weight4 ,a moment's reflection will show the rationale of this fact2 for it is evident that if both the arms of the lever be equal1 that is to say1 if the fulcrum be midway between the power and weight1 no advantage can be gained by it1 because they pass over equal spaces in the same time2 and1 according to the fundamental principle already laid down1 as advantage or power is gained1 time must be lost2 but1 since no time is lost under such circumstances1 there cannot be any power gained4 ,if1 now1 we suppose the fulcrum to be so removed towards the weight1 as to make the acting arm of the lever three times the length of the resisting arm1 we shall obtain a lever which gains power in the proportion of three to one1 that is1 a single pound weight applied at the upper end will balance three pounds suspended at the other4 ,a pair of scissors consists of two levers of this kind1 united in one common fulcrum2 thus the point at which the two levers are screwed together is the fulcrum2 the handles to which the power of the fingers is applied1 are the extremities of the acting part of the levers1 and the cutting part of the scissors are the resisting parts of the levers2 the longer1 therefore1 the handles1 and the shorter the points of the scissors1 the more easily you cut with them4 ,a person who has any hard substance to cut1 without any knowledge of the theory1 diminishes as much as possible the length of the resisting arms1 or cutting part of the scissors1 by making use of that part of the instrument nearest the screw or rivet4 ,snuffers are levers of a similar description2 so are most kind of pincers1 the power of which consists in the resisting arm being very short in comparison with the acting one4 ,in the lever of the second kind1 the resistance or weight is between the fulcrum and the power4 ,numberless instances of its application daily present themselves to our notice2 amongst which may be enumerated the common cutting knife1 used by last and patten makers1 one end of which is fixed to the work-bench by a swivel-hook4 ,two men carrying a load between them1 by one or more poles1 as a sedan chair1 or as brewers carrying a cask of beer1 in which case either the back or front man may be considered as the fulcrum1 and the other as the power4 ,every door which turns upon its hinges is a lever of this kind2 the hinges may be considered as the fulcrum1 or centre of motion2 the whole door is the weight to be moved1 and the power is applied to that side on which the handle is usually fixed4 ,nut-crackers1 oars1 rudders of ships1 likewise fall under the same division4 ,the boat is the weight to be moved1 the water is the fulcrum1 and the waterman at the oar is the power4 ,the masts of ships are also levers of the second kind1 for the bottom of the vessel is the fulcrum1 the ship the weight1 and the wind acting against the sail is the moving power4 ,in this kind of lever the power or advantage is gained in proportion as the distance of the power is greater than the distance of the weight from the fulcrum2 if1 for instance1 the weight hang at one inch from the fulcrum1 and the power acts at five inches from it1 the power gained is five to one2 because1 in such a case1 the power passes over five times as great a space as the weight4 ,it is thus evident why there is considerable difficulty in pushing open a heavy door1 if the hand is applied to the part next the hinges1 although it may be opened with the greatest ease in the usual method4 ,in the third kind of lever1 the fulcrum is again at one of the extremities1 the weight or resistance at the other2 and it is now the power which is applied between the fulcrum and resistance4 ,as in this case the weight is farther from the centre of motion than the power1 such a lever is never used1 except in cases of absolute necessity1 as in the case of lifting up a ladder perpendicularly1 in order to place it against a wall4 ,the man who raises it cannot place his hands on the upper part of the ladder2 the power1 therefore1 is necessarily placed much nearer the fulcrum than the weight2 for the hands are the power1 the ground the fulcrum1 and the upper part of the ladder the weight4 ,the use of the common fire-tongs is another example1 but the circumstance that principally gives this lever importance is1 that the limbs of men and animals are actuated by it2 for the bones are the levers1 while the joints are the fulcra1 and the muscles which give motion to the limbs1 or produce the power1 are inserted and act close to the joints1 while the action is produced at the extremities2 the consequence of such an arrangement is1 that although the muscles must necessarily exert an enormous contractile force to produce great action at the extremities1 yet a celerity of motion ensues which could not be equally well provided for in any other manner4 ,we may adduce one example in illustration of this fact4 ,in lifting a weight with the hand1 the lower part of the arm becomes a lever of the third kind2 the elbow is the fulcrum2 the muscles of the fleshy part of the arm the power2 and as these are nearer to the elbow than the hand1 it is necessary that their power should exceed the weight to be raised4 ,the disadvantage1 however1 with respect to power1 is more than compensated by the convenience resulting from this structure of the arm2 and it is no doubt that which is best adapted to enable it to perform its various functions4 ,from these observations it must appear1 that although this arrangement must be mentioned as a modification of the lever1 it cannot1 in strictness1 be called a mechanical power2 since its resisting arm is in all cases1 except one1 longer than the acting arm1 and in that one case is equal to it1 on which account it never can gain power1 but in most instances must lose it4 ,,the ,,wheel ,,and ,,axle is the next mechanical power to be considered2 it must be well known to every reader who has seen a village well2 for it is by this power that the bucket is drawn up1 although in such cases1 instead of a wheel attached to the axle1 there is generally only a crooked handle1 which answers the purpose of winding the rope round the axle1 and thus raising the bucket1 as may be seen in the engraving at the head of our third chapter4 ,it is evident1 however1 that this crooked handle is equivalent to a wheel2 for the handle describes a circle as it revolves1 while the straight piece which is united to the axle corresponds with the spoke of a wheel4 ,this power may be resolved into a lever2 in fact1 what is it but a lever moving round an axle8 and always retaining the effect gained during every part of the motion1 by means of a rope wound round the butt end of the axle2 the spoke of the wheel being the long arm of the lever1 and the half diameter of the axle its short arm4 ,the axle is not in itself a mechanical power1 for it is as impotent as a lever whose fulcrum is in the centre2 but add to it the wheel1 and we have a power which will increase in proportion as the circumference of the wheel exceeds that of the axle4 ,this arises from the velocity of the circumference being so much greater than that of the axle1 as it is farther from the centre of motion2 for the wheel describes a great circle in the same space of time that the axle describes a small one2 therefore the power is increased in the same proportion as the circumference of the wheel is greater than that of the axle4 ,those who have ever drawn a bucket from a well by this machine1 must have observed1 that as the bucket ascended nearer the top the difficulty increased3 such an effect must necessarily follow from the views we have just offered2 for whenever the rope coils more than once the length of the axle1 the difference between its circumference and that of the wheel is necessarily diminished4 ,to the principle of the wheel and axle may be referred the capstan1 windlass1 and all those numerous kinds of cranes which are to be seen at the different wharfs on the banks of the river ,thames4 ,it is scarcely necessary to add that the force of the windmill depends upon a similar power4 ,the treadmill furnishes another striking example4 ,the wheel and axle is sometimes used to multiply motion1 instead of to gain power1 as in the multiplying wheel of the common jack1 to which it is applied when the weight cannot conveniently have a long line of descent2 a heavy weight is in this case made to act upon the axle1 while the wheel1 by its greatest circumference1 winds up a much longer quantity of line than the simple descent of the weight could require1 and thus the machine is made to go much longer without winding than it otherwise would do4 ,,the ,,pulley is a power of very extensive application4 ,every one must have seen a pulley2 it is a circular and flat piece of wood or metal1 with a string which runs in a groove round it4 ,where1 however1 this is fixed1 it cannot afford any power to raise a weight2 for it is evident that1 in order to raise it1 the power must be greater than the weight1 and that if the rope be pulled down one inch1 the weight will only ascend the same space2 consequently1 there cannot be any mechanical advantage from the arrangement4 ,this1 however1 is not the case where the pulley is not fixed4 ,suppose one end of the rope be fastened to a hook in the ceiling1 and that to the moveable pulley on the rope a cask be attached1 is it not evident that the hand applied to the other extremity of the rope will sustain it more easily than if it held the cask suspended to a cord without a pulley8 ,experience shows that this is the fact1 and theory explains it by suggesting that the fixed hook sustains half the weight1 and that the hand1 therefore1 has only the other half to sustain4 ,the hook will also afford the same assistance in raising the weight as in sustaining it2 if the hand has but one half the weight to sustain1 it will also have only one half the weight to raise2 but observe1 says ,mrs4 ,marcet1 that in raising the weight1 the velocity of the hand must be double that of the cask2 for1 in order to raise the weight one inch1 the hand must draw each of the strings one inch2 the whole string is therefore shortened two inches1 while the weight is raised only one4 ,pulleys then act on the same principle as the lever1 the deficiency of strength of the power being compensated by its superior velocity4 ,it will follow1 from these premises1 that the greater the number of pulleys connected by a string1 the more easily the weight is raised1 as the difficulty is divided amongst the number of strings1 or rather of parts into which the string is divided by the pulleys4 ,several pulleys1 thus connected1 form what is called a system1 or tackle of pulleys4 ,they may have been seen suspended from cranes1 to raise goods into warehouses1 and in ships to draw up the sails4 ,,the ,,inclined ,,plane is a mechanic power which is seldom used in the construction of machinery1 but applies more particularly to the moving or raising of loads upon slopes or hills1 as in rolling a cask up or down a sloping plank into or out of a cart or cellar1 or drawing a carriage up a sloping road or hill1 all which operations are performed with less exertion than would be required if the same load were lifted perpendicularly4 ,it is a power which cannot be resolved into that of the lever3 it is a distinct principle1 and those writers who have attempted to simplify the mechanical powers1 have been obliged to acknowledge the inclined plane is elementary4 ,the method of estimating the advantage gained by this mechanical power is very easy2 for just as much as the length of the plane exceeds its perpendicular height1 so much is the advantage gained2 if1 for instance1 its length be three times greater than its height1 a weight could be drawn to its summit with a third part of the strength required for lifting it up at the end2 but1 in accordance with the principle so frequently alluded to1 such a power will be at the expense of time1 for there will be three times more space to pass over4 ,the reason why horses are eased by taking a zig-zag direction1 in ascending or descending a steep hill1 will appear from the preceding account of the action of the inclined plane1 because in this way the effective length of the inclining surface is increased while its height remains the same4 ,,the ,,wedge is rather a compound1 than a distinct mechanical power2 since it is composed of two inclined planes1 and in action frequently performs the functions of a lever4 ,it is sometimes employed in raising bodies2 thus the largest ship may be raised to a small height by driving a wedge below it2 but its more common application is that of dividing and cleaving bodies4 ,as an elevator1 it resembles exactly the inclined plane2 for the action is obviously the very same1 whether the wedge be pushed under the load1 or the load be drawn under sic the wedge4 ,but when the wedge is drawn forward1 the percussive tremor excited destroys1 for an instant1 the adhesion or friction at its sides1 and augments prodigiously the effect4 ,from this principle chiefly is derived the power of the wedge in rending wood and other substances4 ,it then acts besides as a lever1 insinuating itself into the cleft as fast as the parts are opened by the vibrating concussion4 ,to bring the action of the wedge1 therefore1 under a strict calculation1 would be extremely difficult1 if not impossible4 ,its effects are chiefly discovered by experience4 ,all the various kinds of cutting tools1 such as axes1 knives1 chisels1 saws1 planes1 and files1 are only different modifications of the wedge4 ,,the ,,screw is a most efficient mechanic power1 and is of great force and general application4 ,it is in reality nothing more than an inclined plane formed round a cylinder1 instead of being a continued straight line4 ,its power is1 therefore1 estimated by taking its circumference1 and dividing this by the distance between any two of its threads2 for what is taking the circumference of a screw1 but another mode of measuring the length of the inclined plane which wraps round it8 and taking the distance between one thread and the next to it1 is but measuring the rise of that inclined plane in such length2 and from the properties of the inclined plane1 it follows1 that the closer the threads of a screw are together in proportion to its diameter1 the greater will be the power gained by it4 ,note #bd1 p4 #afe4--,,the ,,cycloid4 ,a cycloid is a peculiar curve line2 and is described by any one point of a circle as it rolls along a plane1 and turns round its centre2 thus1 for instance1 the nail on the felly of a cart-wheel traces a cycloid in the air as the wheel proceeds4 ,this curve is distinguished by some remarkable properties1 the most important of which is that mentioned in the text1 viz4 that any body moving in such a curve1 by its own weight1 or swing1 will pass through all distances of it in exactly the same time2 and it is for such a reason that pendulums are made to swing in cycloids1 in order that they may move in equal times1 whether they go through a long or a short part of the same curve4 ,where the arc described is small1 a portion of the circle will be sufficiently accurate1 because it will be seen that such an arc will not deviate much from an equal portion of a cycloidal curve4 ,the cycloid is remarkable as being that path1 with the exception of the perpendicular1 through which a body will move with the greatest velocity2 suppose1 for example1 a body is to descend from any one point to any other1 by means of some force acting on it1 together with its weight3 a person unacquainted with mechanics would say at once1 that a straight line is the path it must take to effect this in the shortest possible time1 since that is the shortest of all lines that can be drawn between two points4 ,undoubtedly it is the shortest2 notwithstanding which1 however1 the body would be longer in traversing it1 than in moving through a cycloid4 ,if a body were to move through a space of fifty or a hundred yards1 by its weight and some other force acting together1 the way it must take to do this in the shortest possible time is by moving in a cycloid4 ,it is supposed that birds which build in the rocks possess an instinctive knowledge of this fact1 and drop or fly down from height to height in this course4 ,there is certainly a general resemblance between the curved path they describe on such occasions1 and the cycloid1 but it would be difficult to establish the fact by experiment4 ,man1 however1 has founded upon this principle some applications of great value in practical mechanics4 ,in ,switzerland1 and in several parts of ,germany1 for example1 slides have been constructed along the sides of mountains1 by which the timber felled near their summits is conducted with extreme rapidity to the distant valleys4 ,note #be1 p4 #aga4--;,,billiards4 ,this interesting game is of ,french origin 7billiard1 of bile1 and from the ,latin1 pila1 a ball74 ,it was hailed as a favourite diversion at the court of ,henry ,,iii4 of ,france2 and was thence communicated to all the courts of modern ,europe4 ,to the novice it may appear as a game of accidents and chances1 but experience has enabled us to determine the effects of the stroke given to a ball with wonderful precision2 and it is quite extraordinary to observe the accuracy with which an accomplished player can effect his object1 by measuring with his eye the angle at which he should make the stroke1 the position of the ball with respect to the cushion1 and the distance of the point of the ball from its centre1 at which it should be struck4 ,by such skilful management the ball may be made to take directions which would1 at first view1 be regarded as contrary to all the known laws of motion1 such1 for instance1 as passing round an object1 such as a hat placed on the table1 and to strike a ball behind it into a pocket4 ,upon this subject the reader should consult a work by ,m4 ,mingaud1 which has been translated and published by ,john ,thurston1 the celebrated billiard-table maker of ,catherine ,street1 ,strand4 ,we understand that a still more complete work may be expected from the same source4 ,note #bf1 p4 #agb4--;,,collision ,,of ,,bodies4 ,in investigating the effects produced upon bodies by collision1 it is necessary to distinguish between elastic and non-elastic substances1 since their motions after impact are governed by very different laws4 ,if two bodies1 void of elasticity1 move in one right line1 either the same or contrary ways1 so that one body may strike directly against another1 let the sum of their motions before the stroke1 if they move the same way1 and the difference of their motions1 if contrary ways1 be divided into two such parts as are proportional to the quantities of matter in the bodies1 and each of those parts will respectively exhibit the motion of each body after the stroke3 for example1 if the quantities of matter in the bodies be as two to one1 and their motions before the stroke as five and four1 then the sum of their motions is nine1 and the difference is one2 and therefore1 when they move the same way1 the motion of that body1 which is as two1 will1 after the stroke1 be six1 and the motion of the other1 three2 but1 if they move in contrary directions1 the motion of the greater body after the stroke will be two-thirds of one1 and of the lesser body one-third of one2 for1 since the bodies are void of elasticity1 they will not separate after the stroke1 but move together with one and the same velocity2 and1 consequently1 their motions will be proportional to their quantities of matter2 and it follows from the fact of action and reaction being equal1 that no motion is either lost or gained by the stroke when the bodies move the same way2 because1 whatever motion one body imparts to the other1 so much must it lose of its own2 and1 consequently1 the sum of their motions before the stroke is neither increased nor diminished by the stroke1 but is so divided between the bodies1 as that they may move together with one common velocity2 that is1 it is divided between the bodies in proportion to their quantities of matter3 but it is otherwise1 where the bodies move in opposite directions1 or contrary ways1 for then the smaller motion will be destroyed by the stroke1 as also an equal quantity of the greater motion1 because action and reaction are equal2 and the bodies1 after the stroke1 will move together equally swift1 with the difference only of their motions before the stroke2 consequently1 that difference is1 by means of the stroke1 divided between them in proportion to their quantities of matter4 ,the several particular cases1 concerning the collision of bodies1 may be reduced to four general ones2 viz4 #ast4 ,it may be1 that one body only is in motion at the time of the stroke4 #bnd4 ,they may both move one and the same way4 #crd4 ,they may move in direct opposition to each other1 and that with equal quantities of motion4 #dth4 ,they may be carried with unequal motions in directions contrary to each other4 ,as the bodies may be either equal or unequal1 each of these four general cases may be considered as consisting of two branches4 ,as to the first1 if a body in motion strikes another equal body at rest1 they will1 according to the proposition1 move together each of them with one half of the motion that the body had which was in motion before the stroke2 and since the quantity of motion in any body is as the product arising from the multiplication of its quantity of matter into its velocity1 the common velocity of the two bodies will be but one half of the velocity of the moving body before the stroke4 ,as to the second general case1 where both the bodies are in motion before the stroke1 and move one and the same way4 ,in order to find their common velocity after impact1 let the sum of their motions before the stroke be divided by the sum of the bodies1 and the quotient will express the common velocity4 ,as to the third general case1 where the bodies move in direct opposition to each other1 if they have equal quantities of motion1 they will upon the stroke lose all their motion1 and continue at rest2 for1 by the proposition1 the bodies after impact will be carried with the difference of their motions before the stroke2 which difference1 in such a case1 is nothing4 ,when two bodies meet with unequal quantities of motion1 if the difference of their motions be divided by the sum of the bodies1 the quotient will express their common velocity after the stroke2 for1 by the proposition1 the difference of their motions before the stroke is equal to the sum of their motions after the stroke2 consequently1 that difference divided by the sum of the bodies must give the velocity4 ,such are the principal laws which govern the collision of bodies devoid of elasticity4 ,the motions of elastic bodies are determined by different rules3 for when they are perfectly elastic1 the velocity gained by the body struck1 and the velocity lost by the striking body1 will be twice as great as if the bodies were perfectly inelastic4 ,in estimating1 therefore1 the motions of such bodies1 we may first consider what they would have been after impact1 had they been inelastic1 and thence deduce the desired conclusion4 ,see ,helsham's ,lectures1 a work in which the subject appears to be very clearly treated4 ,note #bg1 p4 #aha4--;,,druidical ,,remains4 ,karn-brh hill rises a little to the south-west of ,redruth in ,cornwall1 to an elevation of #fig feet4 ,its principal interest is derived from the speculations of the antiquary1 ,doctor ,borlase1 who regarded it as having been once the grand centre of druidical worship2 and he asserts1 in his ,antiquities of ,cornwall1 that1 at this very time1 the remains of those monuments which were peculiar to that priesthood may be discovered1 such as rock-basins1 circles1 rock-idols1 cromlechs1 karns1 caves1 religious enclosures1 logan stones1 a gorseddau1 or place of elevation1 whence the druids pronounced their decrees1 and the traces of a grove of oaks4 ,this is all very ingenious and imposing1 and may be easily believed by those who have either not visited the spot1 or1 having visited it1 not viewed the objects with geological eyes4 ,there is no ground whatever for considering the druidical monuments of ,dr4 ,borlase as the works of man3 on the contrary1 they are evidently the results of the operation of time and the elements1 the usual agents employed by ,nature in the decomposition of mountain masses3 but the age of antiquarian illusion is past2 the light of geological science has dispelled the phantoms created by the wizard ,fancy1 just as the rising sun dissolves the mystic forms which the most common object assumes in twilight1 when viewed through the medium of credulity and superstition4 ,the 8rock-basins0 of antiquaries are rounded cavities on the surface of rocks1 and are occasionally as spheroidal internally as if they had been actually formed by a turning-lathe4 ,it was this artificial appearance which first suggested the hypothesis concerning their origin1 and induced the antiquary to regard them as pools of lustration4 ,it may1 however1 be remarked1 in the first place1 that1 supposing them to have been the works of the druids1 these priests must have been indefatigable artists1 for there is scarcely a block of granite on which one or more of such pools are not visible1 although some are1 undoubtedly1 much more complete and imposing than others4 ,we shall introduce to the reader an account of these rock-basins in the words of their great defender1 and we think that he will be amused with the ingenuity and confidence with which the antiquary dwells upon every appearance1 and bends the facts to suit his favourite theory4 8,since no author has mentioned1 and attempted to explain these monuments1 let us see what light and assistance their shape and structure1 exposition1 number1 and place1 considered together with the customs and known rites of antiquity1 may afford us in this untrodden path4 ,of these basins there are two sorts2 some have lips or channels to them1 others have none2 and therefore1 as those lips are manifestly the works of design1 not of accident1 those that have so material a difference must needs have been intended for a different use1 and yet both these sorts seem to be the works of the same people1 for there is a multitude of these basins which have no lips or outlets1 as well as those which have1 to be seen on ,karn-brh hill1 and elsewhere1 on contiguous rocks4 ,their shape is not uniform2 some are quite irregular1 some oval1 and some are exactly circular4 ,their openings do not converge in the top as a jar or hogshead1 but rather spread and widen1 as if to expose the hollow as much as possible to the skies4 ,some have little falls into a larger basin1 which receives their tribute1 and detains it1 having no outlet4 ,other large ones intermixed with little ones have passages from one to another1 and1 by successive falls uniting1 transmit what they receive into one common basin1 which has a drain to it1 that serves itself and all the basins above it40 8,the lips do not all point in the same direction1 some tending to the south1 some to the west1 others to the north1 and others again to the intermediate points of the compass2 by which it seems as if the makers had been determined in this particular1 not by any mystical veneration for one region of the heavens more than another1 but by the shape and inclination of the rock1 and for the most easy and convenient outlet40 ,we must here beg the reader to pause4 ,the above remark is really too valuable to be suffered to pass without some notice4 ,and so the absence of all design and arrangement is adduced as a proof of their artificial origin6 ,what would ,dr4 ,borlase have said1 had all these lips been found to point in the same direction8 ,but to proceed3 8,the size of rock-basins is as different as their shape2 they are formed from six feet to a few inches in diameter4 ,many uses may suggest themselves to the imaginations of the curious from the description of these new1 and hitherto scarce-mentioned monuments2 in order1 therefore1 to obviate some prepossessions1 and prevent the mind from resting so far on groundless suppositions as may make it more difficult to embrace the truth1 ,i shall first consider what1 in all probability1 cannot have been the design of them40 ,the doctor then proceeds to show that they could never have been intended for evaporating salt2 nor for pounding tin ore1 nor for receiving obelisks1 or stone deities1 nor for altars2 and then suggests that they could be no other than vessels most ingeniously contrived for holding holy-water for the rites of washing and purification4 8,if10 adds the learned antiquary1 8fitness can decide the use--and where history is deficient1 it is all reason that it should--we shall not long be at a loss4 ,they are mostly placed above the reach of cattle1 frequently above the inspection of man2 nay1 the stones which have these basins on them1 do not touch the common ground1 but stand on other stones4--,wherefore8 but that the water might neither be really defiled by the former1 nor incur the imaginary impurity1 which touching the ground1 according to the druid opinion1 gave to every thing that was holy40 ,we do not know what ideas the druids entertained with respect to the purity of water1 but we have seen water in some of these pools so impregnated with the excrement of sea-birds1 that we must have been as thirsty as ,tantalus1 before we could have been induced to cool our tongues with it4 8,but10 adds ,dr4 ,borlase1 8there are some basins which have no lip or channel2 and1 therefore1 as they could not contribute any of their water to the common store1 they must have been appropriated to another use2 and since these are found in the same places with the others above-mentioned which have outlets or mouths to them1 they must have been subservient to the same system of superstition1 though in a different method40 8,these basins are sometimes found near twenty feet high from the common surface2 and1 therefore1 being so withdrawn from vulgar eyes1 so elevated from the ground1 which was supposed1 as ,i said before1 to defile all1 they had likely a proportionably greater degree of reverence1 and their waters accounted more holy1 and more efficacious40 ,we shall not trouble the reader with any further quotations from this learned antiquary1 except in concluding the history1 after the fashion of melo-dramatists1 with a splendid scene1 in which1 with the author's assistance1 we shall bring all the performers on the stage1 dressed in appropriate costume1 and surrounded by all the pomp of druidical worship4 8,from these basins10 says ,dr4 ,borlase1 8on solemn occasions the officiating druid1 standing on an eminence1 sanctified the congregation with a more than ordinarily precious lustration before he expounded to them1 or prayed for them1 or gave forth his decisions4 ,this water he drank1 or purified his hands in1 before it touched any other vessel1 and was consequently accounted more sacred than the other holy-water4 ,to these more private basins1 during the time of libation1 the priest might have recourse1 and be at liberty to judge by the quantity1 colour1 motion1 and other appearances in the water1 of future events1 of dubious cases1 without danger of contradiction from the people below4 ,this water might serve to mix their mistletoe withal1 as a general antidote3 for1 doubtless1 those who would not let it touch the ground1 would not mix this their divinity 7the mistletoe7 with common water4 ,oak leaves1 without which the druid rites did scarce ever proceed1 ritually gathered and infused1 might make some very medicinal or incantorial potion4 ,lastly1 libations of water were never to be made to their gods1 but when they consisted of this purest of all water1 as what was immediately come from the heavens1 and partly therefore thither to be returned1 before it touched any other water or any other vessel whatsoever1 placed on the ground40 8,as logan1 or rocking-stones1 were some of the pi fraudes of the druids1 the basins found on them might be used to promote the juggle2 by the motion of the stone the water might be so agitated1 as to delude the enquirer by a pretended miracle2 might make the criminal confess2 satisfy the credulous2 bring forth the gold of the rich2 and make the injured1 rich as well as poor1 acquiesce in what the druid thought proper40 ,sorry are we to destroy a web which has been so ingeniously woven by its author2 but the interests of truth admit not of compromise4 ,dr4 ,macculloch1 in an interesting paper1 published in the ,transactions of the ,geological ,society1 on the decomposition of the granite tors of ,cornwall1 has justly observed1 that the true nature of these rock-basins may be easily traced by inspecting the rocks themselves4 ,on examination1 they will always be found to contain distinct grains of quartz1 and fragments of the other constituent parts of the granite4 ,a small force is sufficient to detach from the sides of these cavities additional fragments1 showing that a process of decomposition is still going on under favourable circumstances4 ,the principal of these circumstances is the presence of water1 or rather the alternate action of air and water4 ,if a drop of water can only make an effectual lodgement on a surface of this granite1 a small cavity is sure to be sooner or later produced2 this will insensibly enlarge as it becomes capable of holding more water2 and the sides1 as they continue to waste1 will necessarily retain an even and rounded cavity1 on account of the uniform texture of the rock4 ,this explanation is sufficiently satisfactory3 in addition to which1 it may be stated1 that these very basins not unfrequently occur on the perpendicular sides of rocks1 as may be distinctly seen in the granite of ,scilly1 and in the gritstone rocks in the park of the late ,sir ,joseph ,banks1 in the parish of ,ashover1 in ,derbyshire2 a fact which at once excludes the idea of their artificial origin4 ,the other grotesque and whimsical appearances of rocky masses1 such as rock idols1 logan stones1 c4 are to be explained by the tendency which granite possesses of wearing more rapidly on the angles and edges than on the sides2 thus1 then1 upon simple and philosophical principles1 are such appearances to be satisfactorily accounted for1 and the phantasmagoria of ,borlase vanishes as the light penetrates the theatre so long dedicated to its exhibition4 ,we shall conclude this note with a few observations upon the celebrated logan1 or logging1 stone1 near the ,land's ,end1 ,cornwall1 of which we present our readers with a faithful sketch4 ,illustration3 ,mound of stone with a boulder balanced atop a point in the middle4 ,the foundation of this part of the coast is a stupendous group of granite rocks1 which rise in pyramidal clusters to a great altitude1 and overhang the sea4 ,the celebrated logan stone here represented is an immense block weighing above sixty tons4 ,the surface in contact with the under rock is of very small extent1 and the whole mass is so nicely balanced1 that1 notwithstanding its magnitude1 the strength of a single man applied to its under edge is sufficient to make it oscillate4 ,it is the nature of granite to disintegrate into rhomboidal and tabular masses1 which1 by the further operation of air and moisture1 gradually lose their solid angles1 and approach the spheroidal form4 ,the fact of the upper part of the cliff being more exposed to atmospheric agency than the parts beneath1 will sufficiently explain why these rounded masses so frequently rest on blocks which still preserve the tabular form2 and since such spheroidal blocks must obviously rest in that position in which their lesser axes are perpendicular to the horizon1 it is equally evident that1 whenever an adequate force is applied1 they must vibrate on their point of support4 ,although we are thus led to deny the druidical origin of this stone1 for which so many zealous antiquaries have contended1 still we by no means intend to deny that the druids employed it as an engine of superstition2 it is possible that1 having observed so curious a property1 they dexterously contrived to make it answer the purposes of an ordeal1 and1 by regarding it as the touch-stone of truth1 acquitted or condemned the accused by its motions4 ,mason poetically alludes to this supposed property in the following lines3-- 8,behold yon huge ,and unknown sphere of living adamant1 ,which1 poised by magic1 rests its central weight ,on yonder pointed rock2 firm as it seems1 ,such is its strange and virtuous property1 ,it moves obsequious to the gentlest touch ,of him whose heart is pure1 but to a traitor1 ,tho' e'en a giant's prowess nerved his arm1 ,it stands as fixed as ,snowdon40 ,note #bh1 p4 #ahf4--;,,animal ,,suction4 ,we are indebted to ,sir ,everard ,home for a description of that peculiar structure by which several species of animals are enabled to sustain their bodies in opposition to the force of gravity4 ,his first paper upon this subject is published in the #ajfth volume of the ,philosophical ,transactions1 in which he says1 he was not aware that any animal1 larger than the house-fly1 was endowed by nature with such a power1 so as to admit of examination1 until ,sir ,joseph ,banks mentioned that the lacerta gecko1 a species of lizard1 which is a native of the island of ,java1 comes out of an evening from the roofs of the houses1 and walks down the smooth1 hard1 and polished chinam walls1 in search of the flies which settle upon them1 and which are its natural food1 and then runs up again to the roof of the house4 ,sir ,joseph1 while at ,batavia1 amused himself with catching this animal1 by standing close to the wall1 at some distance from the lizard1 with a long flattened pole1 which being made suddenly to scrape the surface of the wall1 knocked the animal down4 ,he presented ,sir ,everard with a specimen weighing five ounces and three quarters1 avoirdupois1 which enabled him to ascertain the peculiar mechanism by which the feet of this animal can keep their hold of a smooth1 hard1 perpendicular wall1 and carry up so large a weight as that of its body4 ,the foot has five toes1 at the end of each of which1 except that of the thumb1 is a very sharp and much curved claw2 on the under surface of each toe are sixteen transverse slits1 leading to so many cavities or pockets1 the depth of which is nearly equal to the length of the slit that forms the orifice2 they all open forward1 and the external edge of each opening is serrated1 like the teeth of a small-toothed comb4 ,the cavities1 or pockets1 are lined with a cuticle1 and the serrated edges are also covered with it4 ,the structure just described is supplied with various muscles1 whose action is to draw down the claw1 open the orifices of the pockets1 and turn down the serrated edges upon the surface on which the animal stands4 ,upon examining attentively the under surface of the toes1 when the pockets are closed1 ,sir ,everard ,home was struck with their resemblance to the surfaces of that portion of the ,echineis remora1 or sucking fish1 by which it attaches itself to the shark1 or to the bottom of ships2 and it consequently suggested the probability of obtaining1 from an examination of this latter apparatus1 much useful information which might be applicable to the subject of the lizard1 more especially as the parts of which it is composed are so much larger1 and therefore more within the reach of anatomical examination4 ,the surface on the top of the head of this fish1 fitted for adhesion1 is of an oval form1 and bears a considerable proportion to the size of the whole animal2 it is surrounded by a broad1 loose1 movable edge1 capable of applying itself closely to the surface on which it is placed2 and it is evident that when the external edge is so applied1 and the cartilaginous plates are raised up1 the interstices must become so many vacua1 and the serrated edge of each plate will keep a sufficient hold of the substance on which it rests to retain it in that position1 assisted by the pressure of the surrounding water1 without a continuance of muscular exertion4 ,it thus appears that the adhesion of the sucking fish is produced by so many vacua being formed through an apparatus worked by the voluntary muscles of the animal1 and the pressure of the surrounding water4 ,from the similarity of the mechanism of the under surface of the toes of the lacerta gecko1 there can be no doubt that the purpose to which it is applied is the same3 but as in the one case the adhesion is to take place under water1 and is to continue for longer periods1 the means are more simple2 in the other1 where the mechanism is to be employed in air1 under greater disadvantages with respect to gravity1 and is to last for very short periods1 and then immediately afterwards to be renewed1 a more delicate structure of parts1 a greater proportional depth of cavities1 and more complex muscular structure1 become necessary4 ,having ascertained the principle on which an animal of so large a size as the lacerta gecko is enabled to support itself in its progressive motion against gravity1 ,sir ,e4 ,home felt himself more competent to inquire into the mechanism by which the common fly is enabled1 with so much facility1 to support itself in still more disadvantageous situations4 ,in the natural size the feet of the fly are so small1 that nothing can be determined respecting them2 ,keller was the first person who made a drawing of the fly's foot in a highly magnified state1 in which the concave surfaces are visible1 and which1 no doubt1 like those of the lizard above described1 are employed to form vacua1 which enable the fly to move under such disadvantageous circumstances4 ,mr4 ,bauer1 who has so greatly distinguished himself in microscopic researches1 was judiciously enlisted into the service of ,sir ,e4 ,home upon this occasion2 and he has shown that this principle1 on which progressive motion against gravity depends1 is very extensively employed by nature in the structure of the feet of insects2 and ,sir ,everard observes1 that1 now this structure is known1 it can be readily demonstrated by looking at the movement of the feet of any insect upon the inside of a glass tumbler1 through a common magnifying glass2 the different suckers are readily seen separately to be pulled off from the surface of the glass1 and reapplied to another part4 ,in consequence of the expedition to the polar regions1 ,sir ,e4 ,home was enabled to obtain and examine the foot of the walrus1 in which he detected a resemblance in structure to that of the fly2 and it is not a little curious that two animals so different in size should have feet so similar in their use4 ,in the fly the parts require to be magnified one hundred times to render the structure distinctly visible2 and in the walrus the parts are so large1 as to require being reduced four diameters1 to bring them within the size of a quarto page4 ,nor is progressive motion1 the only function in which ,nature avails herself of the pressure of the atmosphere for the accomplishment of her purposes4 ,the act of feeding is continually effected in this manner4 ,the operation of sucking is too familiar to require comment4 ,it may not1 perhaps1 be so generally known1 that it is by the very same process that bees reach the fine dust and juices of hollow flowers1 like the honeysuckle1 and some species of foxglove1 which are too narrow to admit them4 ,they fill up the mouth of the flower with their bodies1 and suck out the air1 or at least a large portion of it1 by which the soft sides of the flower are made to collapse1 and the juice and dust are squeezed towards the insect1 as completely as if the hand had pressed it externally4 ,it is by a similar process that the oyster is enabled to close its shell so firmly2 for1 if a hole be bored in it1 it may be opened without the least difficulty4 ,note #bi1 p4 #aia4--;,,accidental ,,discoveries4 ,those who are not acquainted with the operations by which the mind is enabled to arrive at truth1 are too apt to attribute to accident that which is the result of great intellectual labour and acuteness4 ,observation1 analogy1 and experiment are the three great stepping-stones by which the philosopher is enabled to ascend from darkness to light3 it is true that his foot may accidentally be placed upon the first1 but his own efforts are required to complete the ascent4 ,to the mass of mankind the preliminary step is obvious1 and they at once conclude that the succeeding ones are equally easy and simple4 ,in this view of the subject1 it was by accident that ,sir ,isaac ,newton discovered the laws of gravitation1 for his mind was directed to the investigation by the accidental fall of an apple from its tree2 it was by accident that ,galileo discovered the isochronous movement of the pendulum1 for it was suggested by the vibration of a chandelier3 but how many persons might have witnessed the fall of an apple1 or the vibration of a chandelier1 without arriving at similar truths8 ,it has been said that we are indebted for the important invention in the steam-engine1 termed hand gear1 by which its valves or cocks are worked by the machine itself1 to an idle boy of the name of ,humphrey ,potter1 who1 being employed to stop and open a valve1 saw that he could save himself the trouble of attending and watching it1 by fixing a plug upon a part of the machine which came to the place at the proper times1 in consequence of the general movement4 ,if this anecdote be true1 what does it prove8 ,that ,humphrey ,potter might be very idle1 but that he was1 at the same time1 very ingenious4 ,it was a contrivance1 not the result of accident1 but of acute observation and successful experiment4 ,glass is said to have been discovered by persons having accidentally kindled a fire on the sandy shore with sea-weed1 when the alkali from the ashes united with the silex of the sand2 and ,pliny tells us that minium1 or red lead1 was first recognised1 in consequence of a fire that took place at the ,pirus at ,athens1 where some ceruse1 which had been exposed to the fire1 had been found converted into a red substance4 ,a thousand such accidents might be related1 were we not affording a sample rather than a catalogue4 ,we are endeavouring to combat a popular but mischievous error2 and we are happy at finding the same feeling expressed in a work which1 from its extensive circulation1 must prove highly useful in correcting it4 8,very few discoveries10 says the author1 8have been made by chance and by ignorant persons2 much fewer than is generally supposed4 ,they are generally made by persons of competent knowledge1 and who are in search of them4 ,the improvement of the steam-engine by ,watt resulted from the most learned investigation of mathematical1 mechanical1 and chemical truths4 ,arkwright devoted many years1 five at least1 to his invention of spinning-jennies4 ,the new process of refining sugar1 by which more money has been made in a shorter time1 and with less risk and trouble1 than was perhaps ever gained by an invention1 was discovered by ,mr4 ,howard1 a most accomplished chemist1 and it was the fruit of a long course of experiments1 in the progress of which1 known philosophical principles were constantly applied1 and one or two new principles ascertained40--,library of ,useful ,knowledge4 ,note #cj1 p4 #aic4--,,weight ,,of ,,the ,,superincumbent ,,ocean4 ,if we include the pressure of the atmosphere1 a body at the depth of #ajj feet would sustain that of #fj pounds on the square inch2 while one at #d1jjj feet1 a depth by no means considerable1 it would be exposed to a pressure of about #a1hcj pounds4 ,we need not1 therefore1 feel surprised1 that on the foundering of a ship at sea1 though its timbers part1 not a spar floats to the surface2 for if the hull has sunk to a great depth1 all that is porous is penetrated with water or greatly compressed4 ,captain ,scoresby states that when1 by the entangling of the line of the harpoon1 a boat was carried down with the whale1 it required after it was recovered two boats to keep it at the surface4 ,sir ,j4 ,herschel has recorded a melancholy anecdote1 which may well be adduced in farther illustration of our subject3--8,after the invention of the diving-bell1 and its success in sub-aqueous processes1 it was considered highly desirable to devise some means of remaining for any length of time under water1 and rising at pleasure without any assistance4 ,some years ago an ingenious individual proposed a project by which this end was to be accomplished4 ,it consisted in sinking the hull of a ship made quite water-tight1 with the decks and sides strongly supported by shores1 and the only entry secured by a stout trap-door1 in such a manner1 that by disengaging from within the weights employed to sink it1 it might rise of itself to the surface4 ,to render the trial more satisfactory1 the projector himself made the first essay4 ,it was agreed that he should sink in twenty fathoms water1 and rise again without assistance at the expiration of twenty-four hours4 ,accordingly1 making all secure1 and provided with the means of making signals to indicate his situation1 this unhappy victim of his own ingenuity entered and was sunk4 ,no signal was made1 and the time appointed elapsed4 ,the pressure of the water at so great a depth had1 no doubt1 been completely under-estimated1 and the sides of the vessel being at once crushed in1 the unfortunate projector perished1 before he could even make the signal concerted to indicate his distress40 ,note #ca1 p4 #aii4 ,hence pecunia from pecus4 ,opes quasi ,oves4 ,see ,note #f4 ,note #cb1 p4 #bjg4--,,the ,,cause ,,of ,,iridescence4 ,if a soap-bubble be blown up1 and set under a glass1 so that the motion of the air may not affect it1 as the water glides down the sides and the top grows thinner1 several colours will successively appear at the top1 and spread themselves from thence in rings down the sides of the bubble1 till they vanish in the same order in which they appeared2 at last a black spot appears at the top1 and spreads till the bubble bursts4 ,hence it follows that the colours of a body depend in some degree upon the thickness and density of the particles that compose it2 and that1 if the density be changed1 the colour will likewise be changed4 ,that the production of colours depends upon the nature of the surfaces upon which light falls1 is beautifully exemplified by the iridescence of mother of pearl2 and which has been satisfactorily shown to depend upon a singular peculiarity in the structure of that substance4 ,on its surface1 which to the unassisted eye1 and even to the touch1 appears to be finely polished1 there are innumerable little lines1 or grooves1 in some places as many as two or three thousand in the space of an inch1 which1 lying parallel1 regularly follow each other in all their windings2 by the edges of which the rays of light are reflected1 and the continual change of colour arises from their continual bendings4 ,whatever doubts might have existed upon the subject1 some late experiments of ,dr4 ,brewster have dissipated them1 by showing that the colours which play so beautifully on the surface of mother of pearl1 may be communicated by pressure to sealing-wax and several other substances4 ,the discovery of this fact was in some measure accidental2 he had stuck a piece of mother of pearl on a cement made of rosin and bees-wax1 and on separating this cement he found that it had acquired the property of exhibiting colours4 ,several persons who witnessed the effect1 concluded that it arose from the presence of a thin film of the mother of pearl1 which might have scaled off and adhered to the wax3 but such an explanation was at once refuted1 by plunging the wax in acid1 which must have dissolved the mother of pearl1 had any been present2 but the acid had no effect1 and the colours of the impression remained unimpaired4 ,it is clear1 then1 that it is the grooves1 as ,dr4 ,brewster conjectured1 which occasion the iridescence in the mother of pearl1 as well as in the waxen impression4 ,in consequence of this curious discovery1 ,mr4 ,barton succeeded in producing the same appearance on glass1 and on different metals1 by simply cutting grooved lines on their surface4 ,these lines are so fine that1 without a microscope1 they are scarcely visible1 and the glass and the metal appear to retain their polish3 yet they and the colours also may be communicated by an impression1 like those from the mother of pearl1 to the wax4 ,in like manner the varying and delicate hues exhibited by the wings of certain butterflies1 arise from the action of light upon the parallel and equidistant stri upon their surfaces4 ,note #cc1 p4 #bbd4--,,vegetable ,,barometers4 ,the following are a few of those plants which indicate changes in the weather3-- ,chickweed is an excellent barometer4 ,when the flower expands fully1 we are not to expect rain for several hours2 should it continue in that state1 no rain will disturb the summer's day4 ,when it half conceals its miniature flower1 the day is generally showery2 but1 if it entirely shuts up1 or veils the white flower with its green mantle1 let the traveller take the hint and put on his great-coat4 ,the different species of trefoil always contract their leaves at the approach of a storm2 so certainly does this take place1 that these plants have acquired the name of the husbandman's barometer4 ,the tulip and several of the compound yellow flowers also close before rain4 ,there is1 besides1 a species of wood-sorrel1 which doubles its leaves before storms and tempests4 ,the bauhinia1 or mountain ebony1 cassia1 and sensitive plants1 observe the same habit4 ,note #cd1 p4 #bbe4--,,saint ,,swithin4 ,the popular adage of ,forty days' rain after ,st4 ,swithin1 is a tradition which seems to have derived its origin from the following circumstance4 ,swithin1 or ,swithum1 bishop of ,winchester1 who died in #hfh1 desired that he might be buried in the open church-yard1 and not in the chancel of the minster1 as was usual with other bishops2 and his request was complied with2 but the monks1 on his being canonized1 considering it disgraceful for the saint to lie in a public cemetery1 resolved to remove the body into the choir1 which was to have been done with solemn procession on the #aeth of ,july4 ,it rained1 however1 so violently for forty days together at this season1 that the design was abandoned4 8,now1 without entering into the case of the bishop10 says ,mr4 ,howard1 in his work on the ,climate of ,london1 8who was probably a man of sense1 and wished to set the example of a more wholesome1 as well as a more humble1 mode of resigning the perishable clay to the destructive elements1 ,i may observe1 that the fact of the hindrance of the ceremony by the cause related is sufficiently authenticated by tradition2 and the tradition is so far valuable1 as it proves that the summers in this southern part of our island1 were subject1 a thousand years ago1 to occasional heavy rains1 in the same way as at present40 ,mr4 ,howard has shown1 by a table1 that the notion commonly entertained on this subject1 if put strictly to the test of experience1 at any one station1 in this part of the island1 will be found fallacious2 he1 however1 very justly observes1 that 8the opinion of the people on subjects connected with ,natural ,history is commonly founded1 in some degree1 on fact or experience20 and to do justice to the popular observation in question1 he states that1 8in a majority of our summers1 a showery period1 which1 with some latitude as to time and local circumstances1 may be admitted to constitute daily rain for forty days1 does come on about the time indicated by this tradition2 not that any long space before is often so dry as to mark distinctly its commencement40 ,note #ce1 p4 #bcj4--,,the ,,whale4 ,did the whale know his own power1 he would easily destroy all the machinery which the art of man could devise for catching him2 it would be only necessary for him to swim on the surface in a straight line in order to break the thickest rope2 but the fish1 on being struck by the harpoon1 obeys a natural instinct1 which1 in this instance1 betrays him to his death4 ,sir ,h4 ,davy1 in his ,salmonia1 observes1 that the whale1 not having an air-bladder1 can sink to the lowest depths of the ocean1 and mistaking the harpoon for the teeth of a sword-fish1 or a shark1 he instantly descends1 this being his manner of freeing himself from these enemies1 who cannot bear the pressure of a deep ocean2 and from ascending and descending in small space1 he thus puts himself in the power of the whaler4--,see ,note #cj4 ,note #cf1 p4 #bce4--,,progressive ,,motion ,,in ,,fishes3 ,,boats ,,impelled ,,by ,,paddling1 ,,rowing1 ,c4 ,to render the subject to which this note refers farther intelligible1 we may show the means by which a fish moves forward in the water4 ,the accompanying diagram and demonstration are from ,dr4 ,roget's ,bridgewater ,treatise4 ,illustration3 ,diagram of fish's motion4 ,the tail is the principal instrument by which the progressive motion is effected4 ,thus--suppose that the tail is inclined to the right2 if1 in this situation1 the muscles of the left side1 tending to bring the tail in a right line with the body1 are suddenly thrown into action1 the resistance of the water1 by reacting against the broad surface of the tail in the direction ,p ,r1 perpendicularly to that surface1 will cause the muscular action to give the whole body an impulse in that direction2 and the centre of gravity1 ,c1 will move onwards in the direction ,c ,b1 parallel to ,p ,r4 ,this impulse is not destroyed by the farther flexion of the tail towards the left side1 because the principal force exerted by the muscles has already been expended in the motion from ,r to ,m1 in bringing it to a straight line with the body2 and the force which carries it on to ,l is much weaker1 and therefore occasions a more feeble reaction4 ,when the tail has arrived at the position ,l1 indicated by the dotted outline1 a similar action of the muscles on the right side will create a resistance and an impulse in the direction of ,k ,l1 and a motion of the whole body in the same direction1 ,c ,a4 ,these impulses being repeated in quick succession1 the fish moves forward in the diagonal ,c ,d1 intermediate between the direction of the two forces4 ,upon the same principle a boat is impelled by paddling2 and the action of the rudder of a ship in turning the vessel will be readily understood4 ,in this latter case1 however1 there is an additional mechanical advantage2 since the point round which the vessel turns1 is beyond the middle and towards the prow1 and hence the force applied at the extremity of the keel acts as by an arm of a lever4 ,note #cg1 p4 #bcf4--;,,flight ,,of ,,birds4 ,in appreciating the mechanical means by which a bird is enabled to direct its course1 we must not omit to take into account the power it possesses of changing the position of the centre of gravity of its body1 so that the reaction of the air may be modified with regard to each wing4 ,note #ch1 p4 #bcf4--;,,flight ,,of ,,insects4 ,the command possessed by insects in directing and changing their course1 seems more perfect even than that of birds4 ,many of them travel on their wings to immense distances1 and1 considering their comparative size1 they generally move through the air with greater velocity than that of birds4 ,bees have been known to fly great distances from their hive1 in search of food2 and the silk-worm moth has travelled more than a hundred miles in a very short space of time4 ,many of our readers have1 no doubt1 noticed with surprise the apparent facility with which gnats have accompanied them1 although they may have been advancing on horseback at a full gallop2 and the author during the last summer has been forcibly struck with the manner in which flies and other insects have kept up with a railway carriage1 alternately flying in and out of the vehicles1 as though they had been at perfect rest4 ,some species possess a remarkable power of poising themselves in the air1 and hovering for a length of time over the same spot1 without falling or rising1 advancing or retreating2 the ,dragon-fly affords a striking example of this fact4 ,note #ci1 p4 #bcg4--,,obliquity ,,of ,,the ,,wings ,,of ,,birds4 ,in consequence of the manner in which the wings are affixed to the scapula1 they give a stroke to the air in a direction both downwards and backwards2 so that while the former supports the bird1 the latter impels it forward4 ,it is curious to notice that the degree of this obliquity varies in different birds1 and is evidently adapted to their habits3 thus1 for instance1 birds of prey have a great obliquity of wing1 which better enables them to pursue their victims in a horizontal course2 while those birds which soar to a considerable elevation1 in a nearly vertical direction1 as the ,lark1 have scarcely any obliquity of wing1 but strike directly downwards4 ,note #dj1 p4 #bch4--;,a ,,mechanical ,,proposition4 ,this fact may be demonstrated by converting the triangle into a parallelogram1 of which one of the sides of the triangle will become its diagonal3 the other two sides will1 of course1 represent two forces equivalent to such diagonal1 which1 acting in opposition to it1 must produce a balance4 ,note #da1 p4 #bda4--,,kite ,,messengers4 ,the curious experiments of ,mr4 ,faraday upon the optical effects produced by the revolutions of different wheels1 might be exhibited by arrangements adjusted as messengers4 ,note #db1 p4 #bdf4--,,winds ,,and ,,storms4 ,the sea and land breezes which occur in the islands of the torrid zone1 very strikingly illustrate the position laid down in the text1 and afford a good explanation of the manner in which winds may be occasioned by a change of temperature in the air4 ,in these1 during the hottest part of the day1 the wind sets in from all quarters1 and appears to be blowing towards the centre of the island1 while in the night it changes its direction1 and blows from the centre of the land towards the sea2 for since the sun's rays produce much more heat by their reflection from land than they do from water1 that portion of air which is over the land will soon become heated1 and will ascend2 a rarefaction and diminution of the quantity of air over the central part of the land will be thus occasioned1 which must be supplied from the sides2 but1 as the land cools again during the night1 that portion of air which had been previously heaped up will begin to descend1 and by spreading and equalizing itself will produce a breeze blowing from the centre4 ,the trade-winds1 so called from the advantage which their certainty affords to trading vessels1 are another example of the same kind2 they are generally stated to blow from east to west over the equator1 and are occasioned by the rarefaction of the air by the sun's heat1 and the motion of the earth from west to east4 ,while writing the present note1 we have seen an essay upon the subject by ,captain ,basil ,hall1 published in an appendix to ,mr4 ,daniel's admirable work on ,meteorology3 the perusal of this paper has induced us to cancel what we had written1 and to refer the reader to the essay itself2 for it is quite impossible to do justice to the views it entertains1 in the limited space necessarily prescribed to us in this note4 ,on the coast of ,guinea1 the wind always sets in upon the land1 blowing westerly instead of easterly2 this exception arises from the deserts of ,africa1 which lie near the equator1 and being a very sandy soil1 reflect a great degree of heat into the air above them1 which being thus rendered lighter than that which is over the sea1 the wind continually rushes in upon the land to restore the equilibrium4 ,among the irregular winds1 or those which are not constant1 but accidental1 may be noticed the whirlwind1 the harmattan1 and the sirocco4 ,the first of these is occasioned by the meeting of two or more currents of wind from opposite directions1 and which can only be occasioned by some temporary but violent disturbance of equilibrium4 ,the harmattan is met with on the western coast of ,africa1 and is generally attended by great heat and fog2 it appears to be occasioned by a conflict between the heated sands of ,africa1 and the regular direction of the trade-winds over that continent1 and1 by disturbing their progress1 it is frequently the forerunner of a hurricane in the ,west ,indies4 ,the sirocco occurs in ,egypt1 the ,mediterranean1 and in ,greece1 and is chiefly characterised by its unhealthy qualities4 ,the air1 by passing over the heated sands of ,egypt1 becomes so dried and rarefied as to be scarcely fit for respiration1 and1 being thus prepared1 it absorbs so much humidity on passing the ,mediterranean as to form a suffocating and oppressive kind of fog4 ,mr4 ,daniel observes1 that the currents of a heated room1 in some measure1 exemplify the great currents of the atmosphere4 ,if the door be opened1 the flame of a candle held to the upper part will show1 by its inclination1 a current flowing outwards2 but1 if held near the floor1 it will be directed inwards4 ,if the door be closed suddenly from without1 it moves with the in-coming current1 and against the out-going1 and a condensation of air takes place in the room2 which is proved by the rattling of the windows1 and the bursting open of any door in the room1 if slightly closed4 ,if the door close from within1 it moves against the in-coming current1 and with the out-going1 and a rarefaction of the air in the room takes place2 which is evidenced by the rattling of the windows1 and the bursting open of another door in the contrary direction4 ,meteorology has been long considered the least perfect branch of natural knowledge2 so apparently capricious and irregular are its phenomena1 that philosophers had almost abandoned the idea of bringing them under the operation of any general laws4 ,brighter lights are1 however1 now dawning upon us4 ,mr4 ,whewell1 in his ,bridgewater ,treatise1 has explained the manner in which the various currents of the atmosphere maintain a necessary balance in the distribution of heat and moisture around the globe1 and has thus reduced to order and design phenomena which have hitherto been regarded as unconnected and fortuitous4 ,lieut4-,col4 ,reid1 by his late happy investigation of the law of storms1 will1 no doubt1 lead us into a novel path of the most important discoveries4 ,he has satisfactorily proved1 by a mass of evidence derived from numerous logbooks1 that storms obey fixed laws4 ,his attention was ardently directed to the subject by having been at ,barbadoes immediately after the great hurricane of #ahca1 which in the short space of seven hours killed upwards of #adjj persons on that island alone4 ,the discoveries of ,col4 ,reid may be thus briefly stated4--,that hurricanes are whirlwinds of great diameter1 always revolving according to an invariable law1 viz4 from right to left 7supposing yourself standing in the centre71 or in the opposite way to the hands of a watch1 in the northern hemisphere1 and in a contrary direction in southern latitudes2 at the same time they have a progressive motion in a curved line1 and as they advance their diameters appear to enlarge and their violence to diminish2 it has been also found that in the centre of the vortex there is a lull1 or calm4 ,col4 ,reid observes that the simplest mode of illustrating the subject is to cut out concentric circles1 so as to represent progressive whirlwinds1 by moving which over any tract1 the veering of the wind will be easily understood4 ,the reader may form a more familiar idea by causing the water to circulate in a basin1 which will represent the violent circular motion of the storm-wind1 with a calm in the centre of the vortex4 ,suppose this to be also moving onward at a rate of about seven miles an hour1 and he will have a correct notion of the subject4 ,since the storms expand in size and diminish in force as they proceed towards the poles1 and the meridians at the same time approach each other1 gales become huddled together2 and hence1 apparently1 the true cause of the very complicated nature of the winds in our latitude4 ,observations would also appear to render it probable that there exists an accordance of the force of storms with the law of magnetic intensity2 for example1 it is at its minimum at ,st4 ,helena1 where storms never occur2 on the contrary1 the lines of greatest intensity seem to correspond with the latitudes of typhoons and hurricanes4 ,to what important discoveries may not the pursuit of this enquiry lead us8 ,the practical importance of the foregoing facts must be obvious3 to use the expression of ,sir ,john ,herschel1 8they will teach seamen how to steer their ships1 and save thousands of lives40 ,they will thus learn on which side to lay-to a ship in a storm1 for1 by watching the veering of the wind1 they will ascertain the direction in which it is falling2 if violent1 and the changes sudden1 the ship will probably be near the centre of the vortex2 whereas1 if the wind blows a great length of time from the same point1 and the changes are gradual1 it may reasonably be supposed the ship is near the extremity of it4 ,the barometer also becomes a very important instrument upon these occasions2 the rapid rotatory motion of a column of the atmosphere necessarily occasions its fall1 and this fall is always greatest at the centre of the storm4 ,when it begins to rise1 the centre has passed1 and when the wind has sufficiently abated to enable a ship to make sail1 she may then bear away with safety2 but near the middle of the hurricane1 before the barometer begins to rise1 all square-sails must be dangerous4 ,note #dc1 p4 #bej4--;,,ancient ,,archery4 ,we are reminded1 upon this occasion1 of part of a stanza in the well-known ballad of ,chevy ,chace1 where an ,english archer aimed his arrow at ,sir ,hugh ,montgomery3-- 8,the grey goose wing that was thereon1 ,in his hearte's blood was wett40 ,the more ancient ballad1 however1 reads swane-feathers4 ,in the 8,geste of ,robyn ,hode10 among ,mr4 ,garrick's old plays1 in the ,museum1 the arrows of the outlaw and his companions are particularly described3-- 8,with them they had an hundred bowes1 ,the strings were well ydight2 ,an hundred shefe of arrows good1 ,with hedes burnish'd full bryght2 ,and every arrowe an ell longe1 ,with peacocke well ydight1 ,and rocked they were with white silk1 ,it was a semely sight40 ,and ,chaucer1 in the description of the squyer's yeoman1 says3-- 8,and he was clad in cote and hode of greene2 ,a sheafe of peacocke arrows bryght and shene1 ,under his belt he bare full thriftely1 ,well coude he dresse his tackle yemanly3 ,his arrowes drouped not with fethers lowe1 ,and in his hand he bare a mighty bowe40 ,prol4 to ,cant4 ,tales4 ,in order to show the dandyism displayed by the archers of former times1 it may be stated1 that1 in the wardrobe accounts of the #bh ,edw4 ,i4 p4 #cei1 is a charge for verdigrise to stain the feathers of the arrows green4 ,a wardrobe account of the #d ,edw4 ,,ii4 furnishes an entry for peacock arrows1 8,pro duodecim flecchiis cum pennis de pavone1 emptis pro rege de #ab den40 ,as this note has some connexion with the shuttlecock1#hd as well as the arrow1 we may take this opportunity of introducing a passage1 which was accidentally omitted in the text2 it refers to the method of playing this game at ,turon1 in ,cochin ,china2 and which is described by a traveller as follows3--8,instead of using a battledoor1#he as is the custom in ,england1 the players stood seven or eight in a circle2 and after running a short race1 and springing from the floor1 they met the descending shuttlecock with the sole of the foot1 and drove it up again with force high in the air4 ,the game was kept up with much animation1 and seldom did the players miss their stroke1 or give it a wrong direction4 ,the shuttlecock was made of a piece of dried skin rolled round1 and bound with strings4 ,into this skin were inserted three feathers1 spreading out at top1 but so near to each other1 where they were stuck into the skin1 as to pass through the holes1 little more than a quarter of an inch square1 which were always made in the centre of ,cochin copper coins4 ,we made one or two awkward attempts at the game1 not only to our own confusion1 but much to the amusement of the natives4 ,it must1 however1 be remembered1 that1 amongst these ingenious people1 the feet assist1 as auxiliaries to the hands1 in the exercise of many trades1 particularly that of boat-building40 ----- ,footnote #hd3 ,shuttlecock1 more correctly1 perhaps1 shuttle-cork1 although ,skinner thinks it is called a cock from its feathers4 ,footnote #he3 ,so called from door1 taken for a flat board2 and battle1 for striking1 i4 e4 a striking-board4 ----- ,note #dd1 p4 #bgj4--,,sound ,,conveyed ,,by ,,solid ,,bodies4 ,a beautiful experiment was lately instituted at ,paris1 to illustrate this fact1 by ,biot4 ,at the extremity of a cylindrical tube1 upwards of #cjjj feet in length1 a ring of metal was placed1 of the same diameter as the aperture of the tube2 and in the centre of this ring1 in the mouth of the tube1 was suspended a clock-bell and hammer4 ,the hammer was made to strike the ring and the bell at the same instant1 so that the sound of the ring would be transmitted to the remote end of the tube through the conducting power of the matter of the tube itself2 while the sound of the bell would be transmitted through the medium of the air included within the tube4 ,the ear being then placed at the remote end of the tube1 the sound of the ring1 transmitted by the metal of the tube1 was first distinctly heard2 and1 after a short interval had elapsed1 the sound of the bell1 transmitted by the air in the tube1 was heard4 ,the result of several experiments was1 that the metal of the tube conducted the sound with about ten and a half times the velocity with which it was conducted by the air2 that is1 at the rate of about #aa1hfe feet per second4 ,note #de1 p4 #bhh4--;,,expressive ,,music4 ,the biographer of ,josquin des ,prez1 the celebrated musician1 and maestro di capella to ,louis ,,xii4 ,king of ,france1 relates an anecdote which may be here told in connexion with the present subject4 ,when ,josquin was first admitted into the service of the ,french monarch1 he had been promised a benefice by his ,majesty2 but this ,prince1 contrary to his usual habits1 for he was in general both just and liberal1 forgot the promise he had made2 when ,josquin1 after suffering great inconvenience from the shortness of his ,majesty's memory1 ventured by the following expedient to remind him publicly of his promise without giving offence4 ,he had been commanded to compose a motet for the ,chapel ,royal1 on which occasion he selected part of the #aaith ,psalm1 8,memor esto verbi tui servo tuo0--8,oh think of thy servant1 as concerning thy word10 which he set in so supplicating and exquisite a manner1 that it was universally admired1 particularly by the ,king1 who was not only touched by the music1 but felt the words so effectually1 that he soon afterwards granted his petition1 by conferring on him the promised preferment4 ,for which act of justice and munificence1 ,josquin1 with equal felicity1 composed as a hymn of gratitude another part of the same ,psalm1--8,bonitatem fecisti cum servo tuo1 ,domine0--8,oh ,lord1 thou has dealt graciously with thy servant40 ,josquin1 among musicians1 was the giant of his time1 and seems to have arrived at universal monarchy and dominion over the affections and passions of the musical part of mankind2 indeed1 his compositions were as well known and as much practised throughout ,europe at the beginning of the sixteenth century1 as those of ,handel were in ,europe sixty years ago4 ,note #df1 p4 #bid4--;,,imaginary ,,forms4 ,the following case1 quoted by ,sir ,david ,brewster1 in his work on 8,natural ,magic10 from the life of ,peter ,heaman1 a ,swede1 who was executed for piracy and murder at ,leith in #ahbb1 will afford a very curious example of the influence of the imagination in creating distinct forms out of an irregularly shaded surface4 8,one remarkable thing was1 one day as we mended a sail1 it being a very thin one1 after laying it upon deck in folds1 ,i took the tar-brush and tarred it over in the places which ,i thought needed to be strengthened4 ,but when we hoisted it up1 ,i was astonished to see that the tar ,i had put upon it represented a gallows and a man under it without a head4 ,the head was lying beside him4 ,he was complete1 body1 thighs1 legs1 arms1 and in every shape like a man4 ,now1 ,i oftentimes made remarks upon it1 and repeated them to the others4 ,i always said to them all1 #8,you may depend upon it that something will happen4' ,i afterwards took down the sail on a calm day1 and sewed a piece of canvass over the figure to cover it1 for ,i could not bear to have it always before my eyes40 ,the curious effect of chance resemblance was particularly remarked by ,leonardo da ,vinci in the moss and stains on old stones4 ,and1 in our own times1 this faculty of the imagination has not unfrequently been enlisted into the service of the fortune-teller for purposes of fraud and imposition4 ,the following story is related on credible testimony4 8,a ,british officer1 in expectation of promotion1 and of being united to a lady in marriage1 sought a gipsy fortune-teller4 ,the sorceress1 no doubt1 had made herself well acquainted with these circumstances4 ,on entering the room1 she ordered a large glass of spring-water1 into which she poured the white of a newly-laid egg4 ,after shaking the mixture for some time1 she so far succeeded as to induce the credulous observer to declare that he saw most distinctly the image of the ship in which he was to hoist his flag1 the church in which he was to be married1 and his bride going with him into the church40--,the ,gipsies' ,advocate1 by ,j4 ,crabb4 ,note #dg1 p4 #bie4--;,,fairy ,,rings4 ,dr4 ,wollaston1 in a paper published in the ,philosophical ,transactions1 7#ahjg1 p4 #acc17 relates some interesting observations he made on the progressive changes of these rings1 and which satisfactorily explain their origin4 ,he observed1 that some species of fungi were always to be found at the exterior margin of the dark ring of grass if examined at the proper season4 ,the position of the fungi led him to believe1 that progressive increase from a central point was the probable mode of formation of the ring2 and he thought it likely that the soil which had once contributed to the support of fungi1 might be so exhausted as to be rendered incapable of producing a second crop4 ,the defect of nutriment on one side would occasion the new roots to extend themselves solely in the opposite direction1 and would cause the circle of fungi continually to proceed1 by annual enlargement1 from the centre outwards4 ,the luxuriance of the grass follows as a natural consequence1 as the soil of an interior circle is enriched by the decayed roots of fungi of the succeeding year's growth4 ,during the growth of fungi1 they so entirely absorb all nutriment from the soil beneath1 that the herbage is often for a while destroyed1 and a ring appears bare of grass1 surrounding the dark ring2 but1 after the fungi have ceased to appear1 the soil where they had grown becomes darker1 and the grass soon vegetates again with peculiar vigour4 ,dr4 ,wollaston had many opportunities of remarking1 that1 when two circles interfere with each other's progress1 they do not cross each other1 but are invariably obliterated between the points of contact4 ,the exhaustion occasioned by each obstructs the progress of the other1 and both are starved2 a circumstance which affords a strong confirmation of the above theory4 ,note #dh1 p4 #cjj4--,,resonance4 ,in order to comprehend the nature of reciprocated vibration1 or resonance1 let the reader keep in his remembrance the analogy between musical vibration1 and the oscillation of the pendulum1 as explained at page #bge4 ,if he well understands the phenomena of the latter1 he will readily comprehend those of the former4 ,galileo observed that a heavy pendulum might be put in motion by the least breath of the mouth1 provided the blasts were often repeated1 and made to keep time exactly with the vibrations of the pendulum3 from the same sympathetic communication of vibrations will two pendulum clocks fixed to the same wall1 or two watches lying upon the same table1 take the same rate of going1 though they would not agree with one another if placed in separate apartments4 ,mr4 ,ellicot indeed observed that the pendulum of one clock was even able to stop that of the other2 and that the stopped pendulum1 after a certain time1 would resume its vibrations1 and in its turn stop the vibrations of the other4 ,we have here a correct explanation of the phenomena of ,resonance2 for the undulations excited by a vibratory body are themselves capable of putting in motion all bodies whose pulses are coincident with their own1 and consequently with those of the primitive sounding body2 hence the vibrations of a string1 when another1 tuned in unison with it1 is made to vibrate4 ,upon the same principle does the resonance1 or reciprocated vibrations of columns of air1 depend4 ,we are much indebted to ,mr4 ,wheatstone for our knowledge of this branch of acoustics2 he has shown that1 if a tuning-fork or a bell be sounded before a tube inclosing a column of air of the necessary length1 the original sound will be augmented by the rich resonance of that air2 and that the sounds of tuning-forks1 if held before the cavity of the mouth1 may be reciprocated most intensely by adjusting the alterable volume of air contained within it to the pitch of the instrument2 by placing1 for instance1 the tongue1 c4 in the position for the nasal continuous sound of ng 7in song71 and then altering the aperture of the lips1 until the loudest sound was obtained1 he readily accomplished his object4 ,if two vibrating tuning-forks1 differing in pitch1 be held over a closed tube1 furnished with a moveable piston1 either sound may be made to predominate1 by so altering the piston as to obtain the exact column of air which will reciprocate the required sound4 ,the same result may be obtained by selecting two bottles 7which may be tuned with water7 each corresponding to the sound of a different tuning fork2 on bringing both tuning-forks to the mouth of each bottle alternately1 that sound only will be heard1 in each case1 which is reciprocated by the unisonant bottle2 or1 in other words1 by that bottle which contains a column of air susceptible of vibrating in unison with the fork4 ,among the ,javanese instruments brought to ,england by the late ,sir ,stamford ,raffles1 there is one called the gender1 in which the resonances of columns of air are employed to augment1 we might almost say to render audible1 the sounds of vibrating metallic plates4 ,under each of these plates is placed an upright bamboo1 containing a column of air of the proper length to reciprocate the lowest sound of such plate4 ,if the aperture of the bamboo be covered with pasteboard1 and its corresponding plate be struck1 a number of acute sounds only 7depending on the more numerous subdivisions of the plate7 will be heard2 but1 on removing the pasteboard1 an additional deep rich tone is produced by the resonance of the column of air within the tube4 ,it is only by a knowledge of this principle that the theory of the ,guimbarde1 or ,jew's harp1 can be well understood4 ,note #di1 p4 #cjj4--,,the ,,jew',s ,,harp4 ,the ,memoires of ,madame de ,genlis first made known the astonishing powers of a poor ,german soldier on the ,jew's harp4 ,this musician was in the service of ,frederick the ,great1 and finding himself one night on duty under the windows of the king1 played the ,jew's harp with so much skill1 that ,frederick1 who was a great amateur of music1 thought he heard a distinct orchestra4 ,surprised on learning that such an effect could be produced by a single man with two ,jew's harps1 he ordered him into his presence2 the soldier refused1 alleging that he could only be relieved by his colonel2 and that1 if he obeyed1 the king would punish him the next day for having failed to do his duty4 ,being presented the following morning to ,frederick1 he was heard with admiration1 and received his discharge and fifty dollars4 ,this artist1 whose name ,madame de ,genlis does not mention1 is called ,koch2 he has not any knowledge of music1 but owes his success entirely to a natural taste4 ,he has made his fortune by travelling about1 and performing in public and private2 and is now living retired at ,vienna1 at the advanced age of more than eighty years4 ,he used two ,jew's harps at once1 in the same manner as the peasants of the ,tyrol2 and produced1 without doubt1 the harmony of two notes struck at the same moment1 which was considered by the musically-curious as somewhat extraordinary1 when the limited powers of the instrument were remembered4 ,it was ,koch's custom to require that all the lights should be extinguished1 in order that the illusion produced by his playing might be increased4 ,it was reserved1 however1 for ,mr4 ,eulenstein to acquire a musical reputation from the ,jew's harp4 ,after ten years of close application and study1 this young artist has attained a perfect mastery over this untractable instrument4 ,in giving some account of the ,jew's harp1 considered as a medium for musical sounds1 we shall only present the result of his discoveries4 ,this little instrument1 taken singly1 gives whatever grave sound you may wish to produce1 as a third1 a fifth1 or an octave4 ,if the grave tonic is not heard in the bass ,jew's harp1 it must be attributed not to the defectiveness of the instrument1 but to the player4 ,in examining this result1 you cannot help remarking the order and unity established by nature in harmonical bodies1 which places music in the rank of exact sciences4 ,the ,jew's harp has three different tones2 the bass tones of the first octave bear some resemblance to those of the flute and clarionet2 those of the middle and high to the vox humana of some organs2 lastly1 the harmonical sounds are exactly like those of the harmonica4 ,it is conceived that this diversity of tones affords already a great variety in the execution1 which is always looked upon as being feeble and trifling1 on account of the smallness of the instrument4 ,it was not thought possible to derive much pleasure from any attempt which could be made to conquer the difficulties of so limited an instrument2 because1 in the extent of these octaves1 there were a number of spaces which could not be filled up by the talent of the player2 besides1 the most simple modulation became impossible4 ,mr4 ,eulenstein has remedied that inconvenience1 by joining sixteen ,jew's harps1 which he tunes by placing smaller or greater quantities of sealing-wax at the extremity of the tongue4 ,each harp then sounds one of the notes of the gamut1 diatonic or chromatic2 and the performer can fill all the intervals1 and pass all the tones1 by changing the harp4 ,that these mutations may not interrupt the measure1 one harp must always be kept in advance1 in the same manner as a good reader advances the eye1 not upon the word which he pronounces1 but upon that which follows4 ,note #ej1 p4 #caf4--,,verbal ,,telegraph4 ,this project has lately been revived2 in a late number of the ,revue ,encyclopdique there is a proposal to communicate verbal intelligence1 in a few moments1 to vast distances2 and this not by symbols1 as in the ,telegraph1 but in distinct articulate sounds uttered by the human voice4 ,the plan is said to have originated with an ,englishman1 ,mr4 ,dick1 according to whose experiments the human voice may be made intelligible at the distance of twenty-five or thirty miles4 ,it has been stated1 in ,note #dd1 that the celebrated ,biot had ascertained that sound travels more than ten times quicker when transmitted by solid bodies1 or through tubes1 than when it passes through the open air2 at the distance of more than half a mile the low voice of a man was distinctly heard4 ,father ,kircher relates in some of his works1 that the labourers employed in the subterranean aqueducts of ,rome heard each other at the distance of several miles4 ,the note which follows was published in the early edition of this work1 before the subject attracted any notice1 or any railroad had been completed4 ,it is therefore reprinted without alteration4 ,note #ea1 p4 #caf4--;,,electrical ,,telegraph4 ,it has often occurred to the author of these pages1 during his reveries1 that the means of conveying intelligence with immense rapidity may be hereafter invented by the ,electrician4--,should a system of railways be established throughout the country1 it might lead to some expedient by which such a desideratum could be accomplished through the medium of electrical discharges4 ,upon this subject we have accidentally fallen upon a curious notice in ,arthur ,young's ,travels in ,france 7vol4 i4 p4 #fe74 8,m4 ,lomond has made a very curious discovery in electricity2 you write two or three words on a paper1 he takes it with him into his room1 and there turns a machine inclosed in a cylindrical case1 at the top of which is an electrometer of pith balls2 by means of a wire1 a connexion is made with a similar cylinder and electrometer in a distant apartment1 and his wife1 by remarking the corresponding motions of the balls1 writes down the words they indicate2 from which it appears that he has formed an ,alphabet of ,motion4 ,as the length of the conducting wire makes no difference in the effect1 a correspondence might be carried on at any distance1 as1 for example1 within or without a besieged town2 or for purposes much more interesting and useful4 ,whatever the uses may be1 the invention is beautiful40 ,note #eb1 p4 #cfh4--;,,carrier ,,pigeons4 ,the carrier is a variety of the common domestic pigeon1 and which1 from the superior attachment that it shows to its native place1 is employed in many countries as the most expeditious courier4 ,the letters are tied under its wing1 it is let loose1 and in a very short space returns to the home it was brought from1 with its advices4 ,this practice was much in vogue in the ,east2 and at ,scanderoon1 till of late years1 it was used on the arrival of a ship1 to give the merchants at ,aleppo a more expeditious notice than could be done by any other means4 ,in our own country1 these aerial messengers have been employed for a very singular purpose1 having been let loose at ,tyburn at the moment the fatal cart was drawn away1 to notify to distant friends the departure of the unhappy criminal4 ,in the ,east1 the use of these birds seems to have been greatly improved1 by having1 if we may use the expression1 relays of them ready to spread intelligence to all parts of the country2 thus it is stated by ,ariosto 7canto #ae71 that the governor of ,damiata circulated the news of the death of ,orrilo4 8,as soon as the commandant of ,damiata heard that ,orrilo was dead1 he let loose a pigeon1 under whose wing he had tied a letter4 ,this fled to ,cairo1 from whence a second was despatched to another place1 as is usual2 so that1 in a very few hours1 all ,egypt was acquainted with the death of ,orrilo40 ,but the simple use of them was known in very early times4 ,anacreon tells us 7ode ix47 that he conveyed his billet-doux to ,bathyllus by a dove4 ,taurosthenes also1 by means of a pigeon he had decked with purple1 sent advice to his father1 who lived in the isle of gina1 of his victory in the olympic games1 on the very day he had obtained it4#hf ,and1 at the siege of ,modena1 ,hirtius without1 and ,brutus within the walls1 kept1 by the help of pigeons1 a constant correspondence2 baffling every stratagem of the besieger1 ,antony1 to intercept their couriers4 ,in the times of the crusades1 there are many more instances of these birds of peace being employed in the service of war3 ,joinville relates one during the crusade of ,saint ,louis1 and ,tasso another1 during the siege of ,jerusalem4--,pennant's ,british ,zoology4 ,the ,dutch variety is the most valuable2 a pair of the best kind being worth from five to eight pounds4 ,it is lighter than the ,english pigeon1 and flies nearly as fast again4 ,it proceeds at the rate of #fj miles an hour1 and has been known to complete a journey of #hjj miles1 but this2 it is presumed1 is not continuous1 but assisted by occasional rest4 ,the bird learns but one lesson2 it may carry from ,antwerp to ,london1 or to any other place1 but it will only pass between two such places4 ,it evidently travels by sight2 when tossed1 it circles1 then rises in a spiral1 observes its route and darts off4 ,it will not fly at night2 and1 should the day be foggy1 it is delayed1 and sometimes lost4 ,footnote #hf3 lian4 ,var4 ,hist4 lib4 ix4 c4 #b4 ,pliny1 lib4 x4 c4 #bd1 says that swallows have been made use of for the same purpose4 ,their rate of flight has been estimated at a mile in a minute1 for ten hours1 or #fjj miles per day4 ,note #ec1 p4 #cga4--,,origin ,,of ,,popular ,,ceremonies4 ,the soothsayers attributed many mystic properties to the coral2 and it was believed to be capable of giving protection against the influence of ,evil ,eyes3 it was even supposed that coral would drive away devils and evil spirits2 hence arose the custom of wearing amulets composed of it around the neck1 and of making crowns of it4 ,pliny and ,dioscorides are very loud in the praises of the medicinal properties of this substance2 and ,paracelsus says that it should be worn round the necks of infants1 as an admirable preservative against fits1 sorcery1 charms1 and even against poison4 ,it is a curious circumstance that the same superstitious belief should exist among the negroes of the ,west ,indies1 who affirm that the colour of coral is always affected by the state of health of the wearer1 it becoming paler in disease4 ,in ,sicily it is also commonly worn as an amulet by persons of all ranks2 as a security against an evil eye1 a small twisted piece1 somewhat resembling a horn1 is worn at the watch-chain1 under the name of ,buon ,fortuna1 and is occasionally pointed at those who are supposed to entertain evil intention4 ,his late ,sicilian ,majesty was celebrated for his faith in1 and frequent use of1 the buon fortuna4--,but to return to the coral usually suspended around the necks of children in our own country4 ,in addition to the supposed virtues of the coral1 it may be remarked that silver bells are usually attached to it1 which are generally regarded as mere accompaniments to amuse the child by their jingle2 but the fact is1 that they have a different origin1 having been designed to frighten away evil spirits4 ,for the same superstitious objects were bells introduced into our churches as a species of charm against storms and thunder1 and the assaults of ,satan4 ,in farther illustration of the truth1 that a custom has frequently survived the tradition of its origin1 it may be here observed1 that the common practice of persons who are unable to write1 making their mark or cross1 is derived from our ,saxon ancestors1 who affixed the sign of the cross1 as a signature to a deed1 whether they could write or not4 ,several charters still remain1 to which kings and persons of great eminence affix 8,signum ,crucis manu propri pro ignoranti literarum40 ,hence is derived the expression of signing instead of subscribing a paper4 ,in like manner1 the physician of the present day continues to prefix to his prescriptions the letter ,r1 which is generally supposed to mean ,recipe1 but which1 in truth1 is a relict of the astrological symbol of ,jupiter1 formerly used as a species of superstitious invocation4 ,note #ed1 p4 #cgi4--;,,invention ,,of ,,the ,,game ,,of ,,chess4 ,alphesadi1 an ,arabian writer1 quoted by ,montucla in his ,histoire des ,mathematiques1 expressly mentions the invention of chess as of ,indian origin1 and relates the following very curious ,indian tradition3--,ardschir1 ,king of the ,persians1 having invented the game of ,tric-,trac1 and being exceedingly vain of it1 a certain ,indian1 named ,sessa1 the son of ,daher1 invented the game of chess1 and presented his chess-board and chess-men to the king of the ,indies4 ,the sovereign was so much pleased1 that he desired ,sessa to name his reward1 when this man made the apparently modest request1 that he should receive as a gift so much corn as could be estimated by beginning with one grain1 and doubling as many times as there were squares upon the chess-board1 viz4 #fd4 ,the king felt displeased at having his munificence thus slighted by a request so limited and so unworthy to be a gift from royalty2 but1 as ,sessa remained firm1 orders were given to the chief minister that he should be satisfied3 when1 however1 the visir had by calculation ascertained the enormous quantity of corn which would be required1 he waited upon the king1 and with some difficulty convinced him of the fact2 upon which the king sent for ,sessa1--and said to him1 that he admired his powers of calculation even more than the ingenuity of the game which he had presented to him1 and1 in respect to his promise as to the corn1 he was compelled to acknowledge himself to be insolvent4 ,dr4 ,wallis1 the friend of ,sir ,isaac ,newton1 and ,savilian ,professor of ,oxford1 found that the quantity of corn would be such as to be capable of forming a pyramid1 the measurement of which would be nine ,english miles in height1 and nine similar miles for each of the four sides of the base4 ,after this1 ,montucla also states some elaborate calculations made by himself1 and proves1 amongst other remarkable facts1 that the quantity of corn in question would cover #afb1jjj square leagues to the depth of one foot1 ,french measure1 which would be at least three times the extent of the surface of ,france as it was about the year #agif1 and which he estimates at #ej1jjj square leagues4 ,note #ee1 p4 #chh4--;,,an ,,arithmetical ,,trick4 ,this problem is to be found in ,hutton's ,recreations1 and is stated as follows3-- 8,a person having in one hand an even number of shillings1 and in the other an odd1 to tell in which hand he has the even number40 8,desire the person to multiply the number in the right hand by any even number whatever1 and that in the left by any odd number2 then bid him to add together the two products1 and if the whole sum be odd1 the even number of shillings will be in the right hand1 and the odd number in the left2 if the sum be even1 the contrary will be the case4 ,by a similar process1 a person having in one hand a piece of gold1 and in the other a piece of silver1 we can tell in which hand he holds the gold1 and in which the silver4 ,for this purpose1 some value represented by an even number1 such as #h1 must be assigned to the gold1 and a value represented by an odd number1 such as #c1 must be assigned to the silver2 after which the operation is exactly the same as in the preceding example4 8,to conceal the artifice better1 it will be sufficient to ask whether the sum of the two products can be halved without a remainder2 for1 in that case1 the total will be even1 and in the contrary case odd4 8,it will be readily seen that the pieces1 instead of being in the two hands of the same person1 may be supposed to be in the hands of two persons1 one of whom has the even number1 or piece of gold1 and the other the odd number1 or piece of silver4 ,the same operations may then be performed in regard to these two persons1 as are performed in regard to the two hands of the same person1 calling the one1 privately1 the right1 and the other the left40 ,note #ef1 p4 #chi4--;,,an ,,algebraic ,,problem4 ,it is by discovering the number of counters left on the board that this trick is performed4 ,by means of a table the problem may be immediately solved2 but as such a reference would be inconvenient1 and1 indeed1 destructive to the magic of the trick1 a ,latin verse is substituted1 which may be easily carried in the memory1 and will be found to answer all the purposes of a table4 ,in order1 however1 that the reader may become thoroughly acquainted with the machinery of the trick1 we shall explain it in the words of its author4 ,the problem is stated as follows3 8,three things being privately distributed to three persons1 to guess that which each has got40 ,let the three things be a ring1 a shilling1 and a glove4 ,call the ring ,a1 the shilling ,e1 and the glove ,i2 and in your own mind distinguish the persons by calling them first1 second1 and third4 ,then take twenty-four counters1 and give one of them to the first person1 two to the second1 and three to the third4 ,place the remaining eighteen on the table1 and then retire1 that the three persons may distribute among themselves the three things proposed without your observing them4 ,when the distribution has been made1 desire the person who has the ring to take from the remaining eighteen counters as many as he has already2 the one who has the shilling to take twice as many as he has already1 and the person who has the glove to take four times as many2 according to the above supposition then1 the first person has taken one1 the second four1 and the third twelve2 consequently1 one counter only remains on the table4 ,when this is done1 you may return1 and1 by the number left1 can discover what thing each person has taken1 by employing the following words3---- #a #b #c #e #f #g ,salve certa anim semita vita quies4 ,to make use of these words1 you must recollect1 that in all cases there can remain only #a1 #b1 #c1 #e1 #f1 or #g counters1 and never #d4 ,it must likewise be observed1 that each syllable contains one of the vowels1 which we have made to represent the things proposed1 and that the first syllable of each word must be considered as representing the first person1 and the second syllable the second4 ,this being comprehended1 if there remains only one counter1 you must employ the first word1 or rather the two first syllables1 sal-ve1 the first of which1 that containing ,a1 shows that the first person has the ring represented by ,a2 and the second syllable1 that containing ,e1 shows that the second person has the shilling represented by ,e2 from which you may easily conclude that the third person has the glove4 ,if two counters should remain1 you must take the second word cer-ta1 the first syllable of which1 containing ,e1 will show that the first person has the shilling represented by ,e2 and the second syllable1 containing ,a1 will indicate that the second person has the ring represented by ,a4 ,in general1 whatever number of counters remain1 that word of the verse which is pointed out by the same number must be employed4 ,instead of the above ,latin verse1 the following ,french one might be used3-- #a #b #c #e #f #g ,par fer ,csar jadis devint si grand prince4 ,in using the above line1 it must be considered as consisting only of six words4 ,this problem might be proposed in a manner somewhat different1 and might be applied to more than three persons4 ,those of our readers who may be desirous of further information on the subject1 must consult ,bachet in the #beth of his ,problmes plaisantes et dlectables4 ,,the ,,end4 ,transcriber's ,notes ,in order to get illustrations close to long descriptions and discussions of them1 a few long paragraphs have been divided in two at logical places4 ,one obvious typographical error in punctuation was corrected4 ,all footnotes have been relocated at the ends of chapters4 ,descriptive captions have been added to the text version for many illustrations by the ,transcribers and are deemed by them to be in the public domain4