,,british ,,canals ,illustration3 ,,aqueduct ,,at ,,pontcysyllte 7,,in ,,the ,,distance74 7,constructed by ,telford to carry ,ellesmere ,canal over ,river ,dee4 ,opened #ahjc4 ,cost #dg1jjj4 ,length1 #ajjg feet47 ,frontispiece4 ,,british ,,canals3 ,,is ,,their ,,resuscitation ,,practicable8 ,,by ,,edwin ,a4 ,,pratt ,,author ,,of ,,railways ,,and ,,their ,,rates1 ,,the ,,organization ,,of ,,agriculture1 ,,the ,,transition ,,in ,,agriculture1 ,,etc4 ,,london ,,john ,,murray1 ,,albemarle ,,street1 ,w4 #aijf ,,preface ,the appointment of a ,royal ,commission on ,canals and ,waterways1 which first sat to take evidence on ,march #ba1 #aijf1 is an event that should lead to an exhaustive and most useful enquiry into a question which has been much discussed of late years1 but on which1 as ,i hope to show1 considerable misapprehension in regard to actual facts and conditions has hitherto existed4 ,theoretically1 there is much to be said in favour of canal restoration1 and the advocates thereof have not been backward in the vigorous and frequent ventilation of their ideas4 ,practically1 there are other all-important considerations which ought not to be overlooked1 though as to these the ,british ,public have hitherto heard very little4 ,as a matter of detail1 also1 it is desirable to see whether the theory that the decline of our canals is due to their having been captured and strangled by the railway companies--a theory which many people seem to believe in as implicitly as they do1 say1 in the ,multiplication ,table--is really capable of proof1 or whether that decline is not1 rather1 to be attributed to wholly different causes4 ,in view of the increased public interest in the general question1 it has been suggested to me that the ,appendix on ,the ,british ,canal ,problem in my book on ,railways and their ,rates1 published in the ,spring of #aije1 should now be issued separately2 but ,i have thought it better to deal with the subject afresh1 and at somewhat greater length1 in the present work4 ,this ,i now offer to the world in the hope that1 even if the conclusions at which ,i have arrived are not accepted1 due weight will nevertheless be given to the important--if not 7as ,i trust ,i may add7 the interesting--series of facts1 concerning the past and present of canals alike at home1 on the ,continent1 and in the ,united ,states1 which should still represent1 ,i think1 a not unacceptable contribution to the present controversy4 ,,edwin ,a4 ,,pratt4 ,london1 ,april #aijf4 ,,contents ,,chap4 ,,page ,i4 ,,introductory #a ,,ii4 ,,early ,,days #ab ,,iii4 ,,railways ,,to ,,the ,,rescue #bc ,,iv4 ,,railway-,,controlled ,,canals #cb ,v4 ,,the ,,birmingham ,,canal ,,and ,,its ,,story #eg ,,vi4 ,,the ,,transition ,,in ,,trade #gd ,,vii4 ,,continental ,,conditions #ic ,,viii4 ,,waterways ,,in ,,the ,,united ,,states #ajd ,,ix4 ,,english ,,conditions #aai ,x4 ,,conclusions ,,and ,,recommendations #adb ,,appendix--,,the ,,decline ,,in ,,freight ,,traffic ,,on ,,the ,,mississippi #aea ,,index #aeg ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations ,,and ,,maps ,,half-,,tone ,,illustrations ,,aqueduct ,,at ,,pontcysyllte 7in the distance7 ,frontispiece ,,what ,,canal ,,widening ,,would ,,mean3 ,,cowley ,,tunnel ,,and ,,embankments ,to face page #cb ,,locks ,,on ,,the ,,kennet ,,and ,,avon ,,canal ,,at ,,devizes #db ,,warehouses ,,and ,,hydraulic ,,cranes ,,at ,,ellesmere ,,port #dh ,,what ,,canal ,,widening ,,would ,,mean3 ,,shropshire ,,union ,,canal ,,at ,,chester #gj ,,from ,,pit ,,to ,,port3 ,,prospect ,,pit1 ,,wigan #hb ,,the ,,shipping ,,of ,,coal3 ,,hydraulic ,,tip ,,on ,g4,w4,r41 ,,swansea #hh ,a ,,cargo ,,boat ,,on ,,the ,,mississippi #aaj ,,successful ,,rivals ,,of ,,mississippi ,,cargo ,,boats #aad ,,water ,,supply ,,for ,,canals3 ,,belvide ,,reservoir1 ,,staffordshire #abh ,,maps ,,and ,,diagrams ,,independent ,,canals ,,and ,,inland ,,navigations #ed ,,canals ,,and ,,railways ,,between ,,wolverhampton ,,and ,,birmingham #ef ,,some ,,typical ,,british ,,canals #ih ,,british ,,canals ,,chapter ,i ,,introductory ,the movement in favour of resuscitating1 if not also of reconstructing1 the ,british canal system1 in conjunction with such improvement as may be possible in our natural waterways1 is a matter that concerns various interests1 and gives rise to a number of more or less complicated problems4 ,it appeals in the most direct form to the ,british trader1 from the point of view of the possibility of enabling him to secure cheaper transit for his goods4 ,every one must sympathise with him in that desire1 and there is no need whatever for me to stay here to repeat the oft-expressed general reflections as to the important part which cheap transit necessarily plays in the development of trade and commerce4 ,but when from the general one passes to the particular1 and begins to consider how these transit questions apply directly to canal revival1 one comes at once to a certain element of insincerity in the agitation which has arisen4 ,there is no reason whatever for doubt that1 whereas one section of the traders favouring canal revival would themselves directly benefit therefrom1 there is a much larger section who have joined in the movement1 not because they have the slightest idea of re-organising their own businesses on a water-transport basis1 but simply because they think the existence of improved canals will be a means of compelling the railway companies to grant reductions of their own rates below such point as they now find it necessary to maintain4 ,individuals of this type1 though admitting they would not use the canals themselves1 or very little1 would have us believe that there are enough of other traders who would patronise them to make them pay4 ,in any case1 if only sufficient pressure could be brought to bear on the railway companies to force them to reduce their rates and charges1 they would be prepared to regard with perfect equanimity the unremunerative outlay on the canals of a large sum of public money1 and be quite indifferent as to who might have to bear the loss so long as they gained what they wanted for themselves4 ,the subject is1 also1 one that appeals to engineers4 ,as originally constructed1 our ,british canals included some of the greatest engineering triumphs of their day1 and the reconstruction either of these or even of the ordinary canals 7especially where the differences of level are exceptionally great71 would afford much interesting work for engineers--and1 also1 to come to commonplace details1 would put into circulation a certain number of millions of pounds sterling which might lead some of those engineers1 at least1 to take a still keener interest in the general situation4 ,there is absolutely no doubt that1 from an engineering standpoint1 reconstruction1 however costly1 would present no unsurmountable technical difficulties2 but ,i must confess that when engineers1 looking at the problem exclusively from their own point of view1 apart from strictly economic and practical considerations1 advise canal revival as a means of improving ,british trade1 ,i am reminded of the famous remark of ,sganerelle1 in ,molire's ,l',amour ,mdecin--,vous tes orfvre1 ,m4 ,josse4 ,the subject strongly appeals1 also1 to a very large number of patriotic persons who1 though having no personal or professional interests to serve1 are rightly impressed with the need for everything that is in any way practicable being done to maintain our national welfare1 and who may be inclined to assume1 from the entirely inadequate facts which1 up to the present1 have been laid before them as to the real nature and possibilities of our canal system1 that great results would follow from a generous expenditure of money on canal resuscitation here1 following on the example already set in ,continental countries4 ,it is in the highest degree desirable that persons of this class should be enabled to form a clear and definite opinion on the subject in all its bearings1 and especially from points of view that may not hitherto have been presented for their consideration4 ,then the question is one of very practical interest indeed to the ,british taxpayer4 ,it seems to be generally assumed by the advocates of canal revival that it is no use depending on private enterprise4 ,england is not yet impoverished1 and there is plenty of money still available for investment where a modest return on it can be assured4 ,but capitalists1 large or small1 are not apparently disposed to risk their own money in the resuscitation of ,english canals4 ,their expectation evidently is that the scheme would not pay4 ,in the absence1 therefore1 of any willingness on the part of shrewd capitalists--ever on the look-out for profitable investments--to touch the business1 it is proposed that either the ,state or the local authorities should take up the matter1 and carry it through at the risk1 more or less1 either of taxpayers or ratepayers4 ,the ,association of ,chambers of ,commerce1 for instance1 adopted1 by a large majority1 the following resolution at its annual meeting1 in ,london1 in ,february #aije3-- ,this ,association recommends that the improvement and extension of the canal system of the ,united ,kingdom should be carried out by means of a public trust1 and1 if necessary1 in combination with local or district public trusts1 and aided by a ,government guarantee1 and that the ,executive ,council be requested to take all reasonable measures to secure early legislation upon the subject4 ,then ,sir ,john ,t4 ,brunner has strongly supported a nationalisation policy4 ,in a letter to ,the ,times he once wrote3 ,i submit to you that we might begin with the nationalisation of our canals--some for the most part sadly antiquated--and bring them up to one modern standard gauge1 such as the ,french gauge4 ,another party favours municipalisation and the creation of public trusts1 a ,bill with the latter object in view being promoted in the ,session of #aije1 though it fell through owing to an informality in procedure4 ,it would be idle to say that a scheme of canal nationalisation1 or even of public trusts with ,government guarantee 7whatever the precise meaning of that term may be7 involving millions of public money1 could be carried through without affecting the ,british taxpayer4 ,it is equally idle to say that if only the canal system were taken in hand by the local authorities they would make such a success of it that there would be absolutely no danger of the ratepayers being called upon to make good any deficiency4 ,the experiences that ,metropolitan ratepayers1 at least1 have had as the result of ,county ,council management of the ,thames steamboat service would not predispose them to any feeling of confidence in the control of the canal system of the country by local authorities4 ,at the ,manchester meeting of the ,association of ,chambers of ,commerce1 in ,september #aijd1 ,colonel ,f4 ,n4 ,tannett ,walker 7,leeds7 said1 during the course of a debate on the canal question3 ,personally1 he was not against big trusts run by local authorities4 ,he knew no more business-like concern in the world than the ,mersey ,harbour ,board1 which was a credit to the country as showing what business men1 not working for their own selfish profits1 but for the good of the community1 could do for an undertaking4 ,he would be glad to see the ,mersey ,boards scattered all over the country4 ,but1 even accepting the principle of canal municipalisation1 what prospect would there be of ,colonel ,walker's aspiration being realised8 ,the ,mersey ,harbour ,board is an exceptional body1 not necessarily capable of widespread reproduction on the same lines of efficiency4 ,against what is done in ,liverpool may be put1 in the case of ,london1 the above-mentioned waste of public money in connection with the control of the ,thames steamboat service by the ,london ,county ,council4 ,if the municipalised canals were to be worked on the same system1 or any approach thereto1 as these municipalised steamboats1 it would be a bad look-out for the ratepayers of the country1 whatever benefit might be gained by a small section of the traders4 ,then one must remember that the canals1 say1 from the ,midlands to one of the ports1 run through various rural districts which would have no interest in the through traffic carried1 but might be required1 nevertheless1 to take a share in the cost and responsibility of keeping their sections of the municipalised waterways in an efficient condition1 or in helping to provide an adequate water-supply4 ,it does not follow that such districts--even if they were willing to go to the expense or the trouble involved--would be able to provide representatives on the managing body who would in any way compare1 in regard to business capacity1 with the members of the ,mersey ,harbour ,board1 even if they did so in respect to public spirit1 and the sinking of their local interests and prejudices to promote the welfare of manufacturers1 say1 in ,birmingham1 and shippers in ,liverpool1 for neither of whom they felt any direct concern4 ,under the best possible conditions as regards municipalisation1 it is still impossible to assume that a business so full of complications as the transport services of the country1 calling for technical or expert knowledge of the most pronounced type1 could be efficiently controlled by individuals who would be essentially amateurs at the business--and amateurs they would still be even if assisted by members of ,chambers of ,commerce who1 however competent as merchants and manufacturers1 would not necessarily be thoroughly versed in all these traffic problems4 ,the result could not fail to be disastrous4 ,i come1 at this point1 in connection with the possible liability of ratepayers1 to just one matter of detail that might be disposed of here4 ,it is certainly one that seems to be worth considering4 ,assume1 for the sake of argument1 that1 in accordance with the plans now being projected1 7#a7 public trusts were formed by the local authorities for the purpose of acquiring and operating the canals2 7#b7 that these trusts secured possession--on some fair system of compensation--of the canals now owned or controlled by railway companies2 7#c7 that they sought to work the canals in more or less direct competition with the railways2 7#d7 that1 after spending large sums of money in improvements1 they found it impossible to make the canals pay1 or to avoid heavy losses thereon2 and 7#e7 that these losses had to be made good by the ratepayers4 ,i am merely assuming that all this might happen1 not that it necessarily would4 ,but1 admitting that it did1 would the railway companies1 as ratepayers1 be called upon to contribute their share towards making good the losses which had been sustained by the local authorities in carrying on a direct competition with them8 ,such a policy as this would be unjust1 not alone to the railway shareholders1 but also to those traders who had continued to use the railway lines1 since it is obvious that the heavier the burdens imposed on the railway companies in the shape of local rates 7which already form such substantial items in their working expenses71 the less will the companies concerned be in a position to grant the concessions they might otherwise be willing to make4 ,besides1 apart from monetary considerations1 the principle of the thing would be intolerably unfair1 and1 if only to avoid an injustice1 it would surely be enacted that any possible increase in local rates1 due to the failure of particular schemes of canal municipalisation1 should fall exclusively on the traders and the general public who were to have been benefited1 and in no way on the railway companies against whom the commercially unsuccessful competition had been waged4 ,this proposition will1 ,i am sure1 appeal to that instinct of justice and fair play which every ,englishman is 7perhaps not always rightly71 assumed to possess4 ,but what would happen if it were duly carried out1 as it ought to be8 ,well1 in the ,chapter on ,taxation of ,railways in my book on ,railways and their ,rates1 ,i gave one list showing that in a total of eighty-two parishes a certain ,british railway company paid an average of #fjbe per cent4 of the local rates2 while another table showed that in sixteen specified parishes the proportion of local rates paid by the same railway company ranged from #ffi per cent4 to #hfa per cent4 of the total1 although in twelve parishes out of the sixteen the company had not even a railway station in the place4 ,but if1 in all such parishes as these1 the railway companies were very properly excused from having to make good the losses incurred by their municipalised-canal competitors 7in addition to such losses as they might have already suffered in meeting the competition71 then the full weight of the burden would fall upon that smaller--and1 in some cases1 that very small--proportion of the general body of ratepayers in the locality concerned4 ,the above is just a little consideration1 en passant1 which might be borne in mind by others than those who look at the subject only from a trader's or an engineer's point of view4 ,it will help1 also1 to strengthen my contention that any ill-advised1 or1 at least1 unsuccessful municipalisation of the canal system of the country might have serious consequences for the general body of the community1 who1 in the circumstances1 would do well to look before they leap4 ,but1 independently of commercial1 engineering1 rating and other considerations1 there are important matters of principle to be considered4 ,great ,britain is almost the only country in the world where the railway system has been constructed without ,state or municipal aid--financial or material--of any kind whatever4 ,the canals were built by private enterprise1 and the railways which followed were constructed on the same basis4 ,this was recognised as the national policy1 and private investors were allowed to put their money into ,british railways1 throughout successive decades1 in the belief and expectation that the same principle would be continued4 ,in other countries the ,state has 7#a7 provided the funds for constructing or buying up the general railway system2 7#b7 guaranteed payment of interest2 or 7#c7 has granted land or made other concessions1 as a means of assisting the enterprise4 ,not only has the ,state refrained from adopting any such course here1 and allowed private investors to bear the full financial risk1 but it has imposed on ,british railways requirements which may certainly have led to their being the best constructed and the most complete of any in the world1 but which have1 also1 combined with the extortions of landowners in the first instance1 heavy expenditure on ,parliamentary proceedings1 etc41 to render their construction per mile more costly than those of any other system of railways in the world2 while to-day local taxation is being levied upon them at the rate of #e1jjj1jjj per annum1 with an annual increment of #bej1jjj4 ,this heavy expenditure1 and these increasingly heavy demands1 can only be met out of the rates and charges imposed on those who use the railways2 and one of the greatest grievances advanced against the railways1 and leading to the agitation for canal revival1 is that these rates and charges are higher in ,great ,britain than in various other countries1 where the railways have cost less to build1 where ,state funds have been freely drawn on1 and where the ,state lines may be required to contribute nothing to local taxation4 ,the remedy proposed1 however1 is not that anything should be done to reduce the burdens imposed on our own railways1 so as to place them at least in the position of being able to make further concessions to traders1 but that the ,state should now itself start in the business1 in competition1 more or less1 with the railway companies1 in order to provide the traders--if it can--with something cheaper in the way of transport6 ,whatever view may be taken of the reasonableness and justice of such a procedure as this1 it would1 undoubtedly1 represent a complete change in national policy1 and one that should not be entered upon with undue haste4 ,the logical sequel1 for instance1 of nationalisation of the canals would be nationalisation of the railways1 since it would hardly do for the ,state to own the one and not the other4 ,then1 of course1 the nationalisation of all our ports would have to follow1 as the further logical sequel of the ,state ownership of the means of communication with them1 and the consequent suppression of competition4 ,from a ,socialist standpoint1 the successive steps here mentioned would certainly be approved2 but1 even if the financial difficulty could be met1 the country is hardly ready for all these things at present4 ,is it ready1 even in principle1 for either the nationalisation or the municipalisation of canals alone8 ,and1 if ready in principle1 if ready to employ public funds to compete with representatives of the private enterprise it has hitherto encouraged1 is it still certain that1 when millions of pounds sterling have been spent on the revival of our canals1 the actual results will in any way justify the heavy expenditure8 ,are not the physical conditions of our country such that canal construction here presents exceptional drawbacks1 and that canal navigation must always be exceptionally slow8 ,are not both physical and geographical conditions in ,great ,britain altogether unlike those of most of the ,continental countries of whose waterways so much is heard8 ,are not our commercial conditions equally dissimilar8 ,is not the comparative neglect of our canals due less to structural or other defects than to complete changes in the whole basis of trading operations in this country--changes that would prevent any general discarding of the quick transit of small and frequent supplies by train1 in favour of the delayed delivery of large quantities at longer intervals by water1 however much the canals were improved8 ,these are merely some of the questions and considerations that arise in connection with this most complicated of problems1 and it is with the view of enabling the public to appreciate more fully the real nature of the situation1 and to gain a clearer knowledge of the facts on which a right solution must be based1 that ,i venture to lay before them the pages that follow4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,early ,,days ,it seems to be customary with writers on the subject of canals and waterways to begin with the ,egyptians1 to detail the achievements of the ,chinese1 to record the doings of the ,greeks1 and then to pass on to the ,romans1 before even beginning their account of what has been done in ,great ,britain4 ,here1 however1 ,i propose to leave alone all this ancient history1 which1 to my mind1 has no more to do with existing conditions in our own country than the system of inland navigation adopted by ,noah1 or the character of the canals which are supposed to exist in the planet of ,mars4 ,for the purposes of the present work it will suffice if ,i go no further back than what ,i would call the pack-horse period in the development of transport in ,england4 ,this was the period immediately preceding the introduction of artificial canals1 which had their rise in this country about #agfj-gj4 ,it preceded1 also1 the advent of ,john ,loudon ,mc,adam1 that great reformer of our roads1 whose name has been immortalised in the verb to macadamise4 ,born in #agef1 it was not until the early days of the nineteenth century that ,mc,adam really started on his beneficent mission1 and even then the high-roads of ,england--and especially of ,scotland--were1 as a rule1 deplorably bad1 being at once loose1 rough1 and perishable1 expensive1 tedious and dangerous to travel on1 and very costly to repair4 ,pending those improvements which ,mc,adam brought about1 adapting them to the better use of stage-coaches and carriers' waggons1 the few roads already existing were practically available--as regards the transport of merchandise--for pack-horses only4 ,even coal was then carried by pack-horse1 the cost working out at about #bs4 #f;d4 per mile for as much as a horse could carry4 ,it was from these conditions that canals saved the country--long1 of course1 before the locomotive came into vogue4 ,as it happened1 too1 it was this very question of coal transport that led to their earliest development4 ,there is quite an element of romance in the story4 ,francis ,egerton1 third and last ,duke of ,bridgewater 7born #agcf71 had an unfortunate love affair in ,london when he reached the age of twenty-three1 and1 apparently in disgust with the world1 he retired to his ,lancashire property1 where he found solace to his wounded feelings by devoting himself to the development of the ,worsley coal mines4 ,as a boy he had been so feeble-minded that the doubt arose whether he would be capable of managing his own affairs4 ,as a young man disappointed in love1 he applied himself to business in a manner so eminently practical that he deservedly became famous as a pioneer of improved transport4 ,he saw that if only the cost of carriage could be reduced1 a most valuable market for coal from his ,worsley mines could be opened up in ,manchester4 ,it is true that1 in this particular instance1 the pack-horse had been supplemented by the ,mersey and ,irwell ,navigation1 established as the result of ,parliamentary powers obtained in #agcc4 ,this navigation was conducted almost entirely by natural waterways1 but it had many drawbacks and inconveniences1 while the freight for general merchandise between ,liverpool and ,manchester by this route came to #abs4 per ton4 ,the ,duke's new scheme was one for the construction of an artificial waterway which could be carried over the ,irwell at ,barton by means of an aqueduct4 ,this idea he got from the aqueduct on the ,languedoc ,canal1 in the south of ,france4 ,but the ,duke required a practical man to help him1 and such a man he found in ,james ,brindley4 ,born in #agaf1 ,brindley was the son of a small farmer in ,derbyshire--a dissolute sort of fellow1 who neglected his children1 did little or no work1 and devoted his chief energies to the then popular sport of bull-baiting4 ,in the circumstances ,james ,brindley's school-teaching was wholly neglected4 ,he could no more have passed an examination in the ,sixth ,standard than he could have flown over the ,irwell with some of his ducal patron's coals4 ,he remained to the last illiterate1 hardly able to write1 and quite unable to spell4 ,he did most of his work in his head1 without written calculations or drawings1 and when he had a puzzling bit of work he would go to bed1 and think it out4 ,from the point of view of present day ,board ,school inspectors1 and of the worthy magistrates who1 with varied moral reflections1 remorselessly enforce the principles of compulsory education1 such an individual ought to have come to a bad end4 ,but he didn't4 ,he became1 instead1 the father of inland navigation4 ,james ,brindley had served his apprenticeship to a millwright1 or engineer2 he had started a little business as a repairer of old machinery and a maker of new2 and he had in various ways given proof of his possession of mechanical skill4 ,the ,duke--evidently a reader of men--saw in him the possibility of better things1 took him over1 and appointed him his right-hand man in constructing the proposed canal4 ,after much active opposition from the proprietors of the ,mersey and ,irwell ,navigation1 and also from various landowners and others1 the ,duke got his first ,act1 to which the ,royal assent was given in #agfb1 and the work was begun4 ,it presented many difficulties1 for the canal had to be carried over streams and bogs1 and through tunnels costly to make1 and the time came when the ,duke's financial resources were almost exhausted4 ,brindley's wages were not extravagant4 ,they amounted1 in fact1 to #a a week--substantially less than the minimum wage that would be paid to-day to a municipal road-sweeper4 ,but the costs of construction were heavy1 and the landowners had unduly big ideas of the value of the land compulsorily acquired from them1 so that the ,duke's steward sometimes had to ride about among the tenantry and borrow a few pounds from one and another in order to pay the week's wages4 ,when the ,worsley section had been completed1 and had become remunerative1 the ,duke pledged it to ,messrs ,child1 the ,london bankers1 for #be1jjj1 and with the money thus raised he pushed on with the remainder of the canal1 seeing it finally extended to ,liverpool in #aggb4 ,altogether he expended on his own canals no less than #bbj1jjj2 but he lived to derive from them a revenue of #hj1jjj a year4 ,the ,duke of ,bridgewater's schemes gave a great impetus to canal construction in ,great ,britain1 though it was only natural that a good deal of opposition should be raised1 as well4 ,about the year #agfe numerous pamphlets were published to show the danger and impolicy of canals4 ,turnpike trustees were afraid the canals would divert traffic from the roads4 ,owners of pack-horses fancied that ruin stared them in the face4 ,thereupon the turnpike trustees and the pack-horse owners sought the further support of the agricultural interests1 representing that1 when the demand for pack-horses fell off1 there would be less need for hay and oats1 and the welfare of ,british agriculture would be prejudiced4 ,so the farmers joined in1 and the three parties combined in an effort to arouse the country4 ,canals1 it was said1 would involve a great waste of land2 they would destroy the breed of draught horses2 they would produce noxious or humid vapours2 they would encourage pilfering2 they would injure old mines and works by allowing of new ones being opened2 and they would destroy the coasting trade1 and1 consequently1 the nursery for seamen4 ,by arguments such as these the opposition actually checked for some years the carrying out of several important undertakings1 including the ,trent and ,mersey ,navigation4 ,but1 when once the movement had fairly started1 it made rapid progress4 ,james ,brindley's energy1 down to the time of his death in #aggb1 was especially indomitable4 ,having ensured the success of the ,bridgewater ,canal1 he turned his attention to a scheme for linking up the four ports of ,liverpool1 ,hull1 ,bristol1 and ,london by a system of main waterways1 connected by branch canals with leading industrial centres off the chief lines of route4 ,other projects followed1 as it was seen that the earlier ventures were yielding substantial profits1 and in #agij a canal mania began4 ,in #agib no fewer than eighteen new canals were promoted4 ,in #agic and #agid the number of canal and navigation ,acts passed was forty-five1 increasing to eighty-one the total number which had been obtained since #agij4 ,so great was the public anxiety to invest in canals that new ones were projected on all hands1 and1 though many of them were of a useful type1 others were purely speculative1 were doomed to failure from the start1 and occasioned serious losses to thousands of investors4 ,in certain instances existing canals were granted the right to levy tolls upon new-comers1 as compensation for prospective loss of traffic--even when the new canals were to be #d or #e miles away--fresh schemes being actually undertaken on this basis4 ,the canals that paid at all paid well1 and the good they conferred on the country in the days of their prosperity is undeniable4 ,failing1 at that time1 more efficient means of transport1 they played a most important rle in developing the trade1 industries1 and commerce of our country at a period especially favourable to national advancement4 ,for half a century1 in fact1 the canals had everything their own way4 ,they had a monopoly of the transport business--except as regards road traffic--and in various instances they helped their proprietors to make huge profits4 ,but great changes were impending1 and these were brought about1 at last1 with the advent of the locomotive4 ,the general situation at this period is well shown by the following extracts from an article on ,canals and ,rail-roads1 published in the ,quarterly ,review of ,march #ahbe3-- ,it is true that we1 who1 in this age1 are accustomed to roll along our hard and even roads at the rate of #h or #i miles an hour1 can hardly imagine the inconveniences which beset our great-grandfathers when they had to undertake a journey--forcing their way through deep miry lanes2 fording swollen rivers2 obliged to halt for days together when 'the waters were out'2 and then crawling along at a pace of #b or #c miles an hour1 in constant fear of being set down fast in some deep quagmire1 of being overturned1 breaking down1 or swept away by a sudden inundation4 ,such was the travelling condition of our ancestors1 until the several turnpike ,acts effected a gradual and most favourable change1 not only in the state of the roads1 but the whole appearance of the country2 by increasing the facility of communication1 and the transport of many weighty and bulky articles which1 before that period1 no effort could move from one part of the country to another4 ,the pack-horse was now yoked to the waggon1 and stage coaches and post-chaises usurped the place of saddle-horses4 ,imperfectly as most of these turnpike roads were constructed1 and greatly as their repairs were neglected1 they were still a prodigious improvement2 yet1 for the conveyance of heavy merchandise the progress of waggons was slow and their capacity limited4 ,this defect was at length remedied by the opening of canals1 an improvement which became1 with regard to turnpike roads and waggons1 what these had been to deep lanes and pack-horses4#a ,but we may apply to projectors the observation of ,sheridan1 ',give these fellows a good thing and they never know when to have done with it1' for so vehement became the rage for canal-making that1 in a few years1 the whole surface of the country was intersected by these inland navigations1 and frequently in parts of the island where there was little or no traffic to be conveyed4 ,the consequence was1 that a large proportion of them scarcely paid an interest of one per cent41 and many nothing at all2 while others1 judiciously conducted over populous1 commercial1 and manufacturing districts1 have not only amply remunerated the parties concerned1 but have contributed in no small degree to the wealth and prosperity of the nation4 ,yet these expensive establishments for facilitating the conveyance of the commercial1 manufacturing and agricultural products of the country to their several destinations1 excellent and useful as all must acknowledge them to be1 are now likely1 in their turn1 to give way to the old invention of ,rail-roads4 ,nothing now is heard of but rail-roads2 the daily papers teem with notices of new lines of them in every direction1 and pamphlets and paragraphs are thrown before the public eye1 recommending nothing short of making them general throughout the kingdom4 ,yet1 till within these few months past1 this old invention1 in use a full century before canals1 has been suffered1 with few exceptions1 to act the part only of an auxiliary to canals1 in the conveyance of goods to and from the wharfs1 and of iron1 coals1 limestone1 and other products of the mines to the nearest place of shipment4444 ,the powers of the steam-engine1 and a growing conviction that our present modes of conveyance1 excellent as they are1 both require and admit of great improvements1 are1 no doubt1 among the chief reasons that have set the current of speculation in this particular direction4 ,dealing with the question of vested rights1 the article warns the projectors of the intended railroads 444 of the necessity of being prepared to meet the most strenuous opposition from the canal proprietors1 and proceeds3-- ,but1 we are free to confess1 it does not appear to us that the canal proprietors have the least ground for complaining of a grievance4 ,they embarked their property in what they conceived to be a good speculation1 which in some cases was realised far beyond their most sanguine hopes2 in others1 failed beyond their most desponding calculations4 ,if those that have succeeded should be able to maintain a competition with rail-ways by lowering their charges2 what they thus lose will be a fair and unimpeachable gain to the public1 and a moderate and just profit will still remain to them2 while the others would do well to transfer their interests from a bad concern into one whose superiority must be thus established4 ,indeed1 we understand that this has already been proposed to a very considerable extent1 and that the level beds of certain unproductive canals have been offered for the reception of rail-ways4 ,there is1 however1 another ground upon which1 in many instances1 we have no doubt1 the opposition of the canal proprietors may be properly met--we mean1 and we state it distinctly1 the unquestionable fact1 that our trade and manufactures have suffered considerably by the disproportionate rates of charge upon canal conveyance4 ,the immense tonnage of coal1 iron1 and earthenware1 ,mr ,cumming tells us1#b 'have enabled one of the canals1 passing through these districts 7near ,birmingham71 to pay an annual dividend to the proprietary of #adj upon an original share of #adj1 and as such has enhanced the value of each share from #adj to #c1bjj2 and another canal in the same district1 to pay an annual dividend of #afj upon the original share of #bjj1 and the shares themselves have reached the value of #d1fjj each4' ,nor are these solitary instances4 ,mr ,sandars informs us#c that1 of the only two canals which unite ,liverpool with ,manchester1 the thirty-nine original proprietors of one of them1 the ,old ,quay1#d have been paid for every other year1 for nearly half a century1 the total amount of their investment2 and that a share in this canal1 which cost only #gj1 has recently been sold for #a1bej2 and that1 with regard to the other1 the late ,duke of ,bridgewater's1 there is good reason to believe that the net income has1 for the last twenty years1 averaged nearly #ajj1jjj per annum6 ,in regard1 however1 to the supersession of canals in general by railways1 the writer of the article says3-- ,we are not the advocates for visionary projects that interfere with useful establishments2 we scout the idea of a general rail-road as altogether impracticable4444 ,as to those persons who speculate on making rail-ways general throughout the kingdom1 and superseding all the canals1 all the waggons1 mail and stage-coaches1 post-chaises1 and1 in short1 every other mode of conveyance by land and water1 we deem them and their visionary schemes unworthy of notice4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,railways ,,to ,,the ,,rescue ,it is not a little curious to find that1 whereas the proposed resuscitation of canals is now being actively supported in various quarters as a means of effecting increased competition with the railways1 the railway system itself originally had a most cordial welcome from the traders of this country as a means of relieving them from what had become the intolerable monopoly of the canals and waterways6 ,it will have been seen that in the article published in the ,quarterly ,review of ,march #ahbe1 from which ,i gave extracts in the last ,chapter1 reference was made to a ,letter on the ,subject of the ,projected ,rail-road between ,liverpool and ,manchester1 by ,mr ,joseph ,sandars1 and published that same year4 ,i have looked up the original ,letter1 and found in it some instructive reading4 ,mr ,sandars showed that although1 under the ,act of ,parliament obtained by the ,duke of ,bridgewater1 the tolls to be charged on his canal between ,liverpool and ,manchester were not to exceed #bs4 #f;d4 per ton1 his trustees had1 by various exactions1 increased them to #es4 #b;d4 per ton on all goods carried along the canal4 ,they had also got possession of all the available land and warehouses along the canal banks at ,manchester1 thus monopolising the accommodation1 or nearly so1 and forcing the traders to keep to the trustees1 and not patronise independent carriers4 ,it was1 ,mr ,sandars declared1 the most oppressive and unjust monopoly known to the trade of this country--a monopoly which there is every reason to believe compels the public to pay1 in one shape or another1 #ajj1jjj more per annum than they ought to pay4 ,the ,bridgewater trustees and the proprietors of the ,mersey and ,irwell ,navigation were1 he continued1 deaf to all remonstrances1 to all entreaties2 they were actuated solely by a spirit of monopoly and extension1 and the only remedy the public has left is to go to ,parliament and ask for a new line of conveyance4 ,but this new line1 he said1 would have to be a railway4 ,it could not take the form of another canal1 as the two existing routes had absorbed all the available water-supply4 ,in discussing the advantages of a railway over a canal1 ,mr ,sandars continued3-- ,it is computed that goods could be carried for considerably less than is now charged1 and for one-half of what has been charged1 and that they would be conveyed in one-sixth of the time4 ,canals in summer are often short of water1 and in winter are obstructed by frost2 a ,railway would not have to encounter these impediments4 ,mr ,sandars further wrote3-- ,the distance between ,liverpool and ,manchester1 by the three lines of ,water conveyance1 is upwards of #ej miles--by a ,rail-road it would only be #cc4 ,goods conveyed by the ,duke and ,old ,quay ,mersey and ,irwell ,navigation are exposed to storms1 the delays from adverse winds1 and the risk of damage1 during a passage of #ah miles in the tide-way of the ,mersey4 ,for days together it frequently happens that when the wind blows very strong1 either south or north1 their vessels cannot move against it4 ,it is very true that when the winds and tides are favourable they can occasionally effect a passage in fourteen hours2 but the average is certainly thirty4 ,however1 notwithstanding all the accommodation they can offer1 the delays are such that the spinners and dealers are frequently obliged to cart cotton on the public high-road1 a distance of #cf miles1 for which they pay four times the price which would be charged by a ,rail-road1 and they are three times as long in getting it to hand4 ,the same observation applies to manufactured goods which are sent by land-carriage daily1 and for which the rate paid is five times that which they would be subject to by the ,rail-road4 ,this enormous sacrifice is made for two reasons--sometimes because conveyance by water cannot be promptly obtained1 but more frequently because speed and certainty as to delivery are of the first importance4 ,packages of goods sent from ,manchester1 for immediate shipment at ,liverpool1 often pay two or three pounds per ton2 and yet there are those who assert that the difference of a few hours in speed can be no object4 ,the merchants know better4 ,in the same year that ,mr ,sandars issued his ,letter1 the merchants of the port of ,liverpool addressed a memorial to the ,mayor and ,common ,council of the borough1 praying them to support the scheme for the building of a railway1 and stating3-- ,the merchants of this port have for a long time past experienced very great difficulties and obstructions in the prosecution of their business1 in consequence of the high charges on the freight of goods between this town and ,manchester1 and of the frequent impossibility of obtaining vessels for days together4 ,it is clear from all this that1 however great the benefit which canal transport had conferred1 as compared with prior conditions1 the canal companies had abused their monopoly in order to secure what were often enormous profits2 that the canals themselves1 apart from the excessive tolls and charges imposed1 failed entirely to meet the requirements of traders2 and that the most effective means of obtaining relief was looked for in the provision of railways4 ,the value to which canal shares had risen at this time is well shown by the following figures1 which ,i take from the ,gentleman's ,magazine for ,december1 #ahbd3-- ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,canal4 ,shares4 ,price4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- s4 d4 ,trent and ,mersey #ge #j #j #b1bjj ,loughborough #aig #j #j #d1fjj ,coventry #dd #j #j 7and bonus7 #a1cjj ,oxford 7short shares7 #cb #j #j #hej ,grand ,junction #aj #j #j #bij ,old ,union #d #j #j #ajc ,neath #ae #j #j #djj ,swansea #aa #j #j #bej ,monmouthshire #aj #j #j #bde ,brecknock and ,abergavenny #h #j #j #age ,staffordshire ,worcestershire #dj #j #j #ifj ,birmingham #ab #aj #j #cej ,worcester and ,birmingham #a #aj #j #ef ,shropshire #h #j #j #age ,ellesmere #c #aj #j #ajb ,rochdale #d #j #j #adj ,barnsley #ab #j #j #ccj ,lancaster #a #j #j #de ,kennet and ,avon #a #j #j #bi ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,these substantial values1 and the large dividends that led to them1 were due in part1 no doubt1 to the general improvement in trade which the canals had helped most materially to effect2 but they had been greatly swollen by the merciless way in which the traders of those days were exploited by the representatives of the canal interest4 ,as bearing on this point1 ,i might interrupt the course of my narrative to say that in the ,house of ,commons on ,may #ag1 #ahcf1 ,mr ,morrison1 member for ,ipswich1 made a speech in which1 as reported by ,hansard1 he expressed himself clearly of opinion that ,parliament should1 when it established companies for the formation of canals1 railroads1 or such like undertakings1 invariably reserve to itself the power to make such periodical revisions of the rates and charges as it may1 under the then circumstances1 deem expedient2 and he proposed a resolution to this effect4 ,he was moved to adopt this course in view of past experiences in connection with the canals1 and a desire that there should be no repetition of them in regard to the railways then being very generally promoted4 ,in the course of his speech he said3-- ,the history of existing canals1 waterways1 etc41 affords abundant evidence of the evils to which ,i have been averting4 ,an original share in the ,loughborough ,canal1 for example1 which cost #adb1 #ags4 is now selling at about #a1bej1 and yields a dividend of #ij or #ajj a year4 ,the fourth part of a ,trent and ,mersey ,canal share1 or #ej of the company's stock1 is now fetching #fjj1 and yields a dividend of about #cj a year4 ,and there are various other canals in nearly the same situation4 ,at the close of the debate which followed1 ,mr ,morrison withdrew his resolution1 owing to the announcement that the matter to which he had called attention would be dealt with in a ,bill then being framed4 ,it is none the less interesting thus to find that ,parliamentary revisions of railway rates were1 in the first instance1 directly inspired by the extortions practised on the traders by canal companies in the interest of dividends far in excess of any that the railway companies have themselves attempted to pay4 ,reverting to the story of the ,liverpool and ,manchester ,railway--the projection of which1 as ,mr ,sandars' ,letter shows1 represented a revolt against the exorbitant and unjust charges of the water-carriers--the ,bill promoted in its favour was opposed so vigorously by the canal and other interests that #gj1jjj was spent in the ,parliamentary proceedings in getting it through4 ,but it was carried in #ahbf1 and the new line1 opened in #ahcj1 was so great a success that it soon began to inspire many similar projects in other directions1 while with its opening the building of fresh canals for ordinary inland navigation 7as distinct from ship canals7 practically ceased4 ,there is not the slightest doubt that1 but for the extreme dissatisfaction of the trading interests in regard alike to the heavy charges and to the shortcomings of the canal system1 the ,liverpool and ,manchester ,railway--that precursor of the railway mania--would not have been actually constructed until at least several years later4 ,but there were other directions1 also1 in which the revolt against the then existing conditions was to bring about important developments4 ,in the pack-horse period the collieries of ,nottinghamshire and ,leicestershire respectively supplied local needs only1 the cost of transport by road making it practically impossible to send coal out of the county in which it was raised4 ,with the advent of canals the coal could be taken longer distances1 and the canals themselves gained so much from the business that at one time shares in the ,loughborough ,canal1 on which #adb had been paid1 rose1 as already shown1 to #d1fjj1 and were looked upon as being as safe as ,consols4 ,but the collapse of a canal from the ,leicestershire coal-fields to the town of ,leicester placed the coalowners of that county at a disadvantage1 and this they overcame1 in #ahcb1 by opening the ,leicester and ,swinnington line of railway4 ,thereupon the disadvantage was thrown upon the ,nottinghamshire coalowners1 who could no longer compete with ,leicestershire4 ,in fact1 the immediate outlook before them was that they would be excluded from their chief markets1 that their collieries might have to be closed1 and that the mining population would be thrown out of employment4 ,in their dilemma they appealed to the canal companies1 and asked for such a reduction in rates as would enable them to meet the new situation2 but the canal companies--wedded to their big dividends--would make only such concessions as were thought by the other side to be totally inadequate4 ,following on this the ,nottinghamshire coalowners met in the parlour of a village inn at ,eastwood1 in the autumn of #ahcb1 and formally declared that there remained no other plan for their adoption than to attempt to lay a railway from their collieries to the town of ,leicester4 ,the proposal was confirmed by a subsequent meeting1 which resolved that a railway from ,pinxton to ,leicester is essential to the interests of the coal-trade of this district4 ,communications were opened with ,george ,stephenson1 the services of his son ,robert were secured1 the ,midland ,counties ,railway was duly constructed1 and the final outcome of the action thus taken--as the direct result of the attitude of the canal companies--is to be seen in the splendid system known to-day as the ,midland ,railway4 ,once more1 ,i might refer to ,mr ,charles ,h4 ,grinling's ,history of the ,great ,northern ,railway1 in which1 speaking of early conditions1 he says3-- ,during the winter of #ahdc-dd a strong desire arose among the landowners and farmers of the eastern counties to secure some of the benefits which other districts were enjoying from the new method of locomotion4 ,one great want of this part of ,england was that of cheaper fuel1 for though there were collieries open at this time in ,leicestershire1 ,nottinghamshire1 and ,derbyshire1 the nearest pits with which the eastern counties had practicable transport communication were those of ,south ,yorkshire and ,durham1 and this was of so circuitous a character that even in places situated on navigable rivers1 unserved by a canal1 the price of coal often rose as high as #djs4 or even #ejs4 a ton4 ,in remoter places1 to which it had to be carted #aj1 #bj1 or even #cj miles along bad cross-roads1 coal even for house-firing was a positive luxury1 quite unattainable by the poorer classes4 ,moreover1 in the most severe weather1 when the canals were frozen1 the whole system of supply became paralysed1 and even the wealthy had not seldom to retreat shivering to bed for lack of fuel4 ,in this particular instance it was ,george ,hudson1 the ,railway ,king1 who was approached1 and the first lines were laid of what is now the ,great ,northern ,railway4 ,so it happened that1 when the new form of transport came into vogue1 in succession to the canals1 it was essentially a case of ,railways to the ,rescue4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,railway-,,controlled ,,canals ,both canals and railways were1 in their early days1 made according to local conditions1 and were intended to serve local purposes4 ,in the case of the former the design and dimensions of the canal boat used were influenced by the depth and nature of the estuary or river along which it might require to proceed1 and the size of the lock 7affecting1 again1 the size of the boat7 might vary according to whether the lock was constructed on a low level1 where there was ample water1 or on a high level1 where economy in the use of water had to be practised4 ,uniformity under these varying conditions would certainly have been difficult to secure1 and1 in effect1 it was not attempted4 ,the original designers of the canals1 in days when the trade of the country was far less than it is now and the general trading conditions very different1 probably knew better what they were about than their critics of to-day give them credit for4 ,they realised more completely than most of those critics do what were the limitations of canal construction in a country of hills and dales1 and especially in rugged and mountainous districts4 ,they cut their coat1 as it were1 according to their cloth1 and sought to meet the actual needs of the day rather than anticipate the requirements of futurity4 ,from their point of view this was the simplest solution of the problem4 ,illustration3 ,,what ,,canal ,,widening ,,would ,,mean4 7,cowley ,tunnel and ,embankments1 on ,shropshire ,union ,route between ,wolverhampton and the ,mersey47 ,to face page #cb4 ,but1 though the canals thus made suited local conditions1 they became unavailable for through traffic1 except in boats sufficiently small to pass the smallest lock or the narrowest and shallowest canal en route4 ,then the lack of uniformity in construction was accompanied by a lack of unity in management4 ,each and every through route was divided among1 as a rule1 from four to eight or ten different navigations1 and a boat-owner making the journey had to deal separately with each4 ,the railway companies soon began to rid themselves of their own local limitations4 ,a ,railway ,clearing ,house was set up in #ahdg1 in the interests of through traffic2 groups of small undertakings amalgamated into great companies2 facilities of a kind unknown before were made available1 while the whole system of railway operation was simplified for traders and travellers4 ,the canal companies1 however1 made no attempt to follow the example thus set4 ,they were certainly in a more difficult position than the railways4 ,they might have amalgamated1 and they might have established a ,canal ,clearing ,house4 ,these would have been comparatively easy things to do4 ,but any satisfactory linking up of the various canal systems throughout the country would have meant virtual reconstruction1 and this may well have been thought a serious proposition in regard1 especially1 to canals built at a considerable elevation above the sea level1 where the water supply was limited1 and where1 for that reason1 some of the smallest locks were to be found4 ,to say the least of it1 such a work meant a very large outlay1 and at that time practically all the capital available for investment in transport was being absorbed by new railways4 ,these1 again1 had secured the public confidence which the canals were losing4 ,as ,mr ,sandars said in his ,letter3-- ,canals have done well for the country1 just as high roads and pack-horses had done before canals were established2 but the country has now presented to it cheaper and more expeditious means of conveyance1 and the attempt to prevent its adoption is utterly hopeless4 ,all that the canal companies did1 in the first instance1 was to attempt the very thing which ,mr ,sandars considered utterly hopeless4 ,they adopted a policy of blind and narrow-minded hostility4 ,they seemed to think that1 if they only fought them vigorously enough1 they could drive the railways off the field2 and fight them they did1 at every possible point4 ,in those days many of the canal companies were still wealthy concerns1 and what their opposition might mean has been already shown in the case of the ,liverpool and ,manchester ,railway4 ,the newcomers had thus to concentrate their efforts and meet the opposition as best they could4 ,for a time the canal companies clung obstinately to their high tolls and charges1 in the hope that they would still be able to pay their big dividends4 ,but1 when the superiority of the railways over the waterways became more and more manifest1 and when the canal companies saw greater and still greater quantities of traffic being diverted from them by their opponents1 in fair competition1 they realised the situation at last1 and brought down their tolls with a rush4 ,the reductions made were so substantial that they would have been thought incredible a few years previously4 ,in the result1 benefits were gained by all classes of traders1 for those who still patronised the canals were charged much more reasonable tolls than they had ever paid before4 ,but even the adoption of this belated policy by the canal companies did not help them very much4 ,the diversion of the stream of traffic to the railways had become too pronounced to be checked by even the most substantial of reductions in canal charges4 ,with the increasing industrial and commercial development of the country it was seen that the new means of transport offered advantages of even greater weight than cost of transport1 namely1 speed and certainty of delivery4 ,for the average trader it was essentially a case of time meaning money4 ,the canal companies might now reduce their tolls so much that1 instead of being substantially in excess of the railway rates1 as they were at first1 they would fall considerably below2 but they still could not offer those other all-important advantages4 ,as the canal companies found that the struggle was1 indeed1 utterly hopeless1 some of them adopted new lines of policy4 ,either they proposed to build railways themselves1 or they tried to dispose of their canal property to the newcomers4 ,in some instances the route of a canal1 no longer of much value1 was really wanted for the route of a proposed railway1 and an arrangement was easily made4 ,in others1 where the railway promoters did not wish to buy1 opposition to their schemes was offered by the canal companies with the idea of forcing them either so to do1 or1 alternatively1 to make such terms with them as would be to the advantage of the canal shareholders4 ,the tendency in this direction is shown by the extract already given from the ,quarterly ,review2 and ,i may repeat here the passage in which the writer suggested that some of the canal companies would do well to transfer their interests from a bad concern into one whose superiority must be thus established1 and added3 ,indeed1 we understand that this has already been proposed to a very considerable extent1 and that the level beds of certain unproductive canals have been offered for the reception of rail-ways4 ,this was as early as #ahbe4 ,later on the tendency became still more pronounced as pressure was put on the railway companies1 or as promoters1 in days when plenty of money was available for railway schemes1 thought the easiest way to overcome actual or prospective opposition was to buy it off by making the best terms they could4 ,so far1 in fact1 was the principle recognised that in #ahde ,parliament expressly sanctioned the control of canals by railway companies1 whether by amalgamation1 lease1 purchase1 or guarantee1 and a considerable amount of canal mileage thus came into the possession1 or under the control1 of railway companies1 especially in the years #ahde1 #ahdf1 and #ahdg4 ,this sanction was practically repealed by the ,railway and ,traffic ,acts of #ahgc and #ahhh4 ,by that time about one-third of the existing canals had been either voluntarily acquired by1 or forced upon1 the railway companies4 ,it is obvious1 however1 that the responsibility for what was done rests with ,parliament itself1 and that in many cases1 probably1 the railway companies1 instead of being arch-conspirators1 anxious to spend their money in killing off moribund competitors1 who were generally considered to be on the point of dying a natural death1 were1 at times1 victims of the situation1 being practically driven into purchases or guarantees which1 had they been perfectly free agents1 they might not have cared to touch4 ,the general position was1 perhaps1 very fairly indicated by the late ,sir ,james ,allport1 at one time ,general ,manager of the ,midland ,railway ,company1 in the evidence he gave before the ,select ,committee on ,canals in #ahhc4 ,i doubt 7he said7 if ,parliament ever1 at that time of day1 came to any deliberate decision as to the advisability or otherwise of railways possessing canals2 but ,i presume that they did not do so without the fullest evidence before them1 and no doubt canal companies were very anxious to get rid of their property to railways1 and they opposed their ,bills1 and1 in the desire to obtain their ,bills1 railway companies purchased their canals4 ,that1 ,i think1 would be found to be the fact1 if it were possible to trace them out in every case4 ,i do not believe that the ,london and ,north-,western would have bought the ,birmingham ,canal but for this circumstance4 ,i have no doubt that the ,birmingham ,canal1 when the ,stour ,valley line was projected1 felt that their property was jeopardised1 and that it was then that the arrangement was made by which the ,london and ,north-,western ,railway ,company guaranteed them #d per cent4 ,the bargains thus effected1 either voluntarily or otherwise 7and mostly otherwise71 were not necessarily to the advantage of the railway companies1 who might often have done better for themselves if they had fought out the fight at the time with their antagonists1 and left the canal companies to their fate1 instead of taking over waterways which have been more or less of a loss to them ever since4 ,considering the condition into which many of the canals had already drifted1 or were then drifting1 there is very little room for doubt what their fate would have been if the railway companies had left them severely alone4 ,indeed1 there are various canals whose continued operation to-day1 in spite of the losses on their wholly unremunerative traffic1 is due exclusively to the fact that they are owned or controlled by railway companies4 ,independent proprietors1 looking to them for dividends1 and not under any statutory obligations 7as the railway companies are7 to keep them going1 would long ago have abandoned such canals entirely1 and allowed them to be numbered among the derelicts4 ,as bearing on the facts here narrated1 ,i might mention that1 in the course of a discussion at the ,institution of ,civil ,engineers1 in ,november #aije1 on a paper read by ,mr ,john ,arthur ,saner1 ,waterways in ,great ,britain 7reported in the official ,proceedings of the ,institution71 ,mr ,james ,inglis1 ,general ,manager of the ,great ,western ,railway ,company1 said that his company owned about #baf miles of canal1 not a mile of which had been acquired voluntarily4 ,many of those canals had been forced on the railway as the price of securing ,acts1 and some had been obtained by negotiations with the canal companies4 ,the others had been acquired in incidental ways1 arising from the fact that the traffic had absolutely disappeared4 ,mr ,inglis further told the story of the ,kennet and ,avon ,canal1 which his company maintain at a loss of about #d1jjj per annum4 ,the canal1 it seems1 was constructed in #agid at a cost of #a1jjj1jjj1 and at one time paid #e per cent4 ,the traffic fell off steadily with the extension of the railway system1 and in #ahdf the canal company1 seeing their position was hopeless1 applied to ,parliament for powers to construct a railway parallel with the canal4 ,sanction was refused1 though the company were authorised to act as common carriers4 ,in #ahea the canal owners approached the ,great ,western ,railway ,company1 and told them of their intention to seek again for powers to build an opposition railway4 ,the upshot of the matter was that the railway company took over the canal1 and agreed to pay the canal company #g1ggc a year4 ,this they have done1 with a loss to themselves ever since4 ,the rates charged on the canal were successively reduced by the ,board of ,trade 7on appeal being made to that body7 to #a-a_/d;d41 then to #a;d41 and finally #a_/b;d4 per ton-mile2 but there had never been a sign1 ,mr ,inglis added1 that the reduction had any effect in attracting additional traffic4#e ,to ascertain for myself some further details as to the past and present of the ,kennet and ,avon ,navigation1 ,i paid a visit of inspection to the canal in the neighbourhood of ,bath1 where it enters the ,river ,avon1 and also at ,devizes1 where ,i saw the remarkable series of locks by means of which the canal reaches the town of ,devizes1 at an elevation of #dbe feet above sea level4 ,in conversation1 too1 with various authorities1 including ,mr ,h4 ,j4 ,saunders1 the ,canals ,engineer of the ,great ,western ,railway ,company1 ,i obtained some interesting facts which throw light on the reasons for the falling off of the traffic along the canal4 ,dealing with this last mentioned point first1 ,i learned that much of the former prosperity of the ,kennet and ,avon ,navigation was due to a substantial business then done in the transport of coal from a considerable colliery district in ,somersetshire1 comprising the ,radstock1 ,camerton1 ,dunkerton1 and ,timsbury collieries4 ,this coal was first put on the ,somerset ,coal ,canal1 which connected with the ,kennet and ,avon at ,dundas--a point between ,bath and ,bradford-on-,avon--and1 on reaching this junction1 it was taken either to towns directly served by the ,kennet and ,avon 7including ,bath1 ,bristol1 ,bradford1 ,trowbridge1 ,devizes1 ,kintbury1 ,hungerford1 ,newbury and ,reading7 or1 leaving the ,kennet and ,avon at ,semmington1 it passed over the ,wilts and ,berks ,canal to various places as far as ,abingdon4 ,in proportion1 however1 as the railways developed their superiority as an agent for the effective distribution of coal1 the traffic by canal declined more and more1 until at last it became non-existent4 ,of the three canals affected1 the ,somerset ,coal ,canal1 owned by an independent company1 was abandoned1 by authority of ,parliament1 two years ago2 the ,wilts and ,berks1 also owned by an independent company1 is practically derelict1 and the one that to-day survives and is in good working order is the ,kennet and ,avon1 owned by a railway company4 ,another branch of local traffic that has left the ,kennet and ,avon ,canal for the railway is represented by the familiar freestone1 of which large quantities are despatched from the ,bath district4 ,the stone goes away in blocks averaging #e tons in weight1 and ranging up to #aj tons1 and at first sight it would appear to be a commodity specially adapted for transport by water4 ,but once more the greater facilities afforded by the railway have led to an almost complete neglect of the canal4 ,even where the quarries are immediately alongside the waterway 7though this is not always the case7 horses must be employed to get the blocks down to the canal boat2 whereas the blocks can be put straight on to the railway trucks on the sidings which go right into the quarry1 no horses being then required4 ,in calculating1 therefore1 the difference between the canal rate and the railway rate1 the purchase and maintenance of horses at the points of embarkation must be added to the former4 ,then the stone could travel only a certain distance by water1 and further cost might have to be incurred in cartage1 if not in transferring it from boat to railway truck1 after all1 for transport to final destination2 whereas1 once put on a railway truck at the quarry1 it could be taken thence1 without further trouble1 to any town in ,great ,britain where it was wanted4 ,in this way1 again1 the ,kennet and ,avon 7except in the case of consignments to ,bristol7 has practically lost a once important source of revenue4 ,a certain amount of foreign timber still goes by water from ,avonmouth or ,bristol to the neighbourhood of ,pewsey1 and some ,english-grown timber is taken from ,devizes and other points on the canal to ,bristol1 ,reading1 and intermediate places2 grain is carried from ,reading to mills within convenient reach of the canal1 and there is also a small traffic in mineral oils and general merchandise1 including groceries for shopkeepers in towns along the canal route2 but1 whereas1 in former days a grocer would order #cj tons of sugar from ,bristol to be delivered to him by boat at one time1 he now orders by post1 telegraph1 or telephone1 very much smaller quantities as he wants them1 and these smaller quantities are consigned mainly by train1 so that there is less for the canal to carry1 even where the sugar still goes by water at all4 ,speaking generally1 the actual traffic on the ,kennet and ,avon at the western end would not exceed more than about three or four boats a day1 and on the higher levels at the eastern end it would not average one a day4 ,yet1 after walking for some miles along the canal banks at two of its most important points1 it was obvious to me that the decline in the traffic could not be attributable to any shortcomings in the canal itself4 ,not only does the ,kennet and ,avon deserve to rank as one of the best maintained of any canal in the country1 but it still affords all reasonable facilities for such traffic as is available1 or seems likely to be offered4 ,instead of being neglected by the ,great ,western ,railway ,company1 it is kept in a state of efficiency that could not well be improved upon short of a complete reconstruction1 at a very great cost1 in the hope of getting an altogether problematical increase of patronage in respect to classes of traffic different from what was contemplated when the canal was originally built4 ,illustration3 ,,locks ,,on ,,the ,,kennet ,,and ,,avon ,,canal ,,at ,,devizes4 7,a difference in level of #bci feet in #b-a_/b miles is overcome by #bi locks4 ,of these1 #ag immediately follow one another in direct line1 pounds being provided to ensure sufficiency of reserve water to work boats through47 ,photo by ,chivers1 ,devizes4 ,to face page #db4 ,within the last year or two the railway company have spent #c1jjj or #d1jjj on the pumping machinery4 ,the main water supply is derived from a reservoir1 about #i acres in extent1 at ,crofton1 this reservoir being fed partly by two rivulets 7which dry up in the summer7 and partly by its own springs2 and extensive pumping machinery is provided for raising to the summit level the water that passes from the reservoir into the canal at a lower level1 the height the water is thus raised being #dj feet4 ,there is also a pumping station at ,claverton1 near ,bath1 which raises water from the river ,avon4 ,thanks to these provisions1 on no occasion has there been more than a partial stoppage of the canal owing to a lack of water1 though in seasons of drought it is necessary to reduce the loading of the boats4 ,the final ascent to the ,devizes level is accomplished by means of twenty-nine locks in a distance of #b-a_/b miles4 ,of these twenty-nine there are seventeen which immediately follow one another in a direct line1 and here it has been necessary to supplement the locks with pounds to ensure a sufficiency of reserve water to work the boats through4 ,no one who walks alongside these locks can fail to be impressed alike by the boldness of the original constructors of the canal and by the thoroughness with which they did their work4 ,the walls of the locks are from #c to #f feet in thickness1 and they seem to have been built to last for all eternity4 ,the same remark applies to the constructed works in general on this canal4 ,for a boat to pass through the twenty-nine locks takes on an average about three hours4 ,the #ci-a_/b miles from ,bristol to ,devizes require at least two full days4 ,considerable expenditure is also incurred on the canal in dredging work2 though here special difficulties are experienced1 inasmuch as the geological formation of the bed of the canal between ,bath and ,bradford-on-,avon renders steam dredging inadvisable1 so that the more expensive and less expeditious system of dragging has to be relied on instead4 ,altogether it costs the ,great ,western ,railway ,company about #a to earn each #ajs4 they receive from the canal2 and whether or not1 considering present day conditions of trade and transport1 and the changes that have taken place therein1 they would get their money back if they spent still more on the canal1 is1 to say the least of it1 extremely problematical4 ,one fact absolutely certain is that the canal is already capable of carrying a much greater amount of traffic than is actually forthcoming1 and that the absence of such traffic is not due to any neglect of the waterway by its present owners4 ,indeed1 ,i had the positive assurance of ,mr ,saunders that1 in his capacity as ,canals ,engineer to the ,great ,western1 he had never yet been refused by his ,company any expenditure he had recommended as necessary for the efficient maintenance of the canals under his charge4 ,i believe1 he added1 that any money required to be spent for this purpose would be readily granted4 ,i already have power to do anything ,i consider advisable to keep the canals in proper order2 and ,i say without hesitation that all the canals belonging to the ,great ,western ,railway ,company are well maintained1 and in no way starved4 ,the decline in the traffic is due to obvious causes which would still remain1 no matter what improvements one might seek to carry out4 ,the story told above may be supplemented by the following extract from the report of the ,great ,western ,railway ,company for the half-year ending ,december #aije1 showing expenses and receipts in connection with the various canals controlled by that company3-- ,,great ,,western ,,railway ,,canals1 for half-year ending #cast ,december #aije4 ,canal4 ,to ,canal ,expenses4 ,by ,canal ,traffic4 ,bridgwater and ,taunton #a1iia #b #h #ffd #h #i ,grand ,western #aig #g #a #aai #aj #aj ,kennet and ,avon #e1fjd #j #i #b1jcd #ah #h ,monmouthshire #a1eeg #c #c #hhf #af #h ,stourbridge ,extension #dej #ai #d #gfe #g #a ,stratford-upon-,avon #a1cdi #aa #c #gbd #a #d ,swansea #a1fdc #ae #g #a1chf #ad #i -------------- -------------- #ab1gic #ai #aa #f1eha #ah #a -------------- -------------- ,the capital expenditure on these different canals1 to the same date1 was as follows3-- ,brecon #fa1bag #ai #j ,bridgwater and ,taunton #gc1ihi #ab #d ,grand ,western #cj1fbi #h #g ,kennet and ,avon #bji1eji #ai #c ,stourbridge ,extension #di1dcf #ae #j ,stratford-on-,avon #agb1ech #i #g ,swansea #adh1gaa #ag #f -------------- ,total1 #gdf1jcd #a #c --------------- ,these figures give point to the further remark made by ,mr ,inglis at the meeting of the ,institution of ,civil ,engineers when he said1 ,it was not to be imagined that the railway companies would willingly have all their canal property lying idle2 they would be only too glad if they could see how to use the canals so as to obtain a profit1 or even to reduce the loss4 ,on the same occasion1 ,mr ,a4 ,ross1 who also took part in the debate1 said he had had charge of a number of railway-owned canals at different times1 and he was of opinion there was no foundation for the allegation that railway-owned canals were not properly maintained4 ,his first experience of this kind was with the ,sankey ,brook and ,st ,helens ,canal1 one of wide gauge1 carrying a first-class traffic1 connecting the two great chemical manufacturing towns of ,st ,helens and ,widnes1 and opening into the ,mersey4 ,early in the seventies the canal became practically a wreck1 owing to the mortar on the walls having been destroyed by the chemicals in the water which the manufactories had drained into the canal4 ,in addition1 there was an overflow into the ,sankey ,brook1 and in times of flood the water flowed over the meadows1 and thousands of acres were rendered barren4 ,mr ,ross continued 7,i quote from the official report73-- ,the ,london and ,north-,western ,railway ,company1 who owned the canal1 went to great expense in litigation1 and obtained an injunction against the manufacturers1 and in the result they had to purchase all the meadows outright1 as the quickest way of settling the question of compensation4 ,the company rebuilt all the walls and some of the locks4 ,if that canal had not been supported by a powerful corporation like the ,london and ,north-,western ,railway1 it must inevitably have been in ruins now4 ,the next canal he had to do with1 the ,manchester and ,bury ,canal1 belonging to the ,lancashire and ,yorkshire ,railway ,company1 was almost as unfortunate4 ,the coal workings underneath the canal absolutely wrecked it1 compelling the railway company to spend many thousands of pounds in law suits and on restoring the works1 and he believed that no independent canal could have survived the expense4 ,other canals he had had to do with were the ,peak ,forest1 the ,macclesfield and the ,chesterfield canals1 and the ,sheffield and ,south ,yorkshire ,navigation1 which belonged to the old ,manchester ,sheffield and ,lincolnshire ,railway4 ,those canals were maintained in good order1 although the traffic was certainly not large4 ,on the strength of these personal experiences ,mr ,ross thought that if a company came forward which was willing to give reasonable compensation1 the railway companies would not be difficult to deal with4 ,the ,shropshire ,union is a railway-controlled canal with an especially instructive history4 ,this system has a total mileage of just over #bjj miles4 ,it extends from ,wolverhampton to ,ellesmere ,port on the river ,mersey1 passing through ,market ,drayton1 ,nantwich and ,chester1 with branches to ,shrewsbury1 ,newtown 7,montgomeryshire71 ,llangollen1 and ,middlewich 7,cheshire74 ,some sections of the canal were made as far back as #aggj1 and others as recently as #ahdj4 ,at one time it was owned by a number of different companies1 but by a process of gradual amalgamation1 most of these were absorbed by the ,ellesmere and ,chester ,canal ,company4 ,in #ahdf this company obtained ,acts of ,parliament which authorised them to change their name to that of ,the ,shropshire ,union ,railways and ,canal ,company1 and gave them power to construct three lines of railway3 7#a7 from the ,chester and ,crewe ,branch of the ,grand ,junction ,railway at ,calveley to ,wolverhampton2 7#b7 from ,shrewsbury to ,stafford1 with a branch to ,stone2 and 7#c7 from ,newtown 7,montgomeryshire7 to ,crewe4 ,not only do we get here a striking instance of the tendency shown by canal companies to start railways on their own account1 but in each one of the three ,acts authorising the lines mentioned ,i find it provided that it shall be lawful for the ,chester and ,holyhead ,railway ,company and the ,manchester and ,birmingham ,railway ,company1 or either of them1 to subscribe towards the undertaking1 and hold shares in the ,shropshire ,union ,railways and ,canal ,company4 ,experience soon showed that the ,shropshire ,union had undertaken more than it could accomplish4 ,in #ahdg the company obtained a fresh ,act of ,parliament1 this time to authorise a lease of the undertakings of the ,shropshire ,union ,railways and ,canal ,company to the ,london and ,north-,western ,railway ,company4 ,the ,act set forth that the capital of the ,shropshire ,union ,company was #dhb1ibd1 represented by shares on which all the calls had been paid1 and that the indebtedness on mortgages1 bonds and other securities amounted to #had1bjg4 ,under these adverse conditions1 it has been agreed1 the ,act goes on to say1 between the ,shropshire ,union ,railways and ,canal ,company and the ,london and ,north-,western ,railway ,company1 with a view to the economical and convenient working of the three railways authorised1 that a lease in perpetuity of the undertaking of the ,shropshire ,union ,railways and ,canal ,company should be granted to the ,london and ,north-,western ,railway ,company1 and accepted by them1 at a rent which shall be equal to 444 half the rate per cent4 per annum of the dividend which shall from time to time be payable on the capital stock of the ,london and ,north-,western ,railway ,company4 ,illustration3 ,,warehouses ,,and ,,hydraulic ,,cranes ,,at ,,ellesmere ,,port4 ,to face page #dh4 ,we have in this another example of the way in which a railway company has saved a canal system from extinction1 while under the control of the ,london and ,north-,western the ,shropshire ,union ,canal is still undoubtedly one of the best maintained of any in the country4 ,there may be sections of it1 especially in out-lying parts1 where the traffic is comparatively small1 but a considerable business is still done in the conveyance of sea-borne grain from the ,mersey to the ,chester district1 or in that of tinplates1 iron1 and manufactured articles from the ,black ,country to the ,mersey for shipment4 ,for traffic such as this the canal already offers every reasonable facility4 ,the ,shropshire ,union is also a large carrier of goods to and from the ,potteries district1 in conjunction with the ,trent and ,mersey4 ,so little has the canal been strangled1 or even neglected1 by the ,london and ,north-,western ,railway ,company that1 in addition to maintaining its general efficiency1 the expenditure incurred by that company of late years for the development of ,ellesmere ,port--the point where the ,shropshire ,union ,canal enters the ,manchester ,ship ,canal--amounts to several hundred thousand pounds1 this money having been spent mainly in the interest of the traffic along the ,shropshire ,union ,canal4 ,deep-water quay walls of considerable length have been built2 warehouses for general merchandise1 with an excellent system of hydraulic cranes1 have been provided2 a large grain dept1 fully equipped with grain elevators and other appliances1 has been constructed at a cost of #hj1jjj to facilitate1 more especially1 the considerable grain transport by canal that is done between the ,river ,mersey and the ,chester district2 and at the present time the dock area is being enlarged1 chiefly for the purpose of accommodating deeper barges1 drawing about #g feet of water4 ,another fact ,i might mention in regard to the ,shropshire ,union ,canal is in connection with mechanical haulage4 ,elaborate theories1 worked out on paper1 as to the difference in cost between rail transport and water transport1 may be completely upset where the water transport is to be conducted1 not on a river or on a canal crossing a perfectly level plain1 but along a canal which is raised1 by means of locks1 several hundred feet on one side of a ridge1 or of some elevated table-land1 and must be brought down in the same way on the other side4 ,so1 again1 the value of what might otherwise be a useful system of mechanical haulage may be completely marred owing to the existence of innumerable locks4 ,this conclusion is the outcome of a series of practical experiments conducted on the ,shropshire ,union ,canal at a time when the theorists were still working out their calculations on paper4 ,the experiments in question were directed to ascertaining whether economy could be effected by making up strings of narrow canal boats1 and having them drawn by a tug worked by steam or other motive power1 instead of employing man and horse for each boat4 ,the plan answered admirably until the locks were reached4 ,there the steam-tug was1 temporarily1 no longer of any service4 ,it was necessary to keep a horse at every lock1 or flight of locks1 to get the boats through1 so that1 apart from the tedious delays 7the boats that passed first having to wait for the last-comers before the procession could start again71 the increased expense at the locks nullified any saving gained from the mechanical haulage4 ,as a further illustration--drawn this time from ,scotland--of the relations of railway companies to canals1 ,i take the case of the ,forth and ,clyde ,navigation1 controlled by the ,caledonian ,railway ,company4 ,this navigation really consists of two sections--the ,forth and ,clyde ,navigation1 and the ,monkland ,navigation4 ,the former1 authorised in #agfh1 and opened in #agij1 commences at ,grangemouth on the ,firth of ,forth1 crosses the country by ,falkirk and ,kirkintilloch1 and terminates at ,bowling on the ,clyde4 ,it has thirty-nine locks1 and at one point has been constructed through #c miles of hard rock4 ,the original depth of #h feet was increased to #aj feet in #ahad4 ,in addition to the canal proper1 the navigation included the harbours of ,grangemouth and ,bowling1 and also the ,grangemouth ,branch ,railway1 and the ,drumpeller ,branch ,railway1 near ,coatbridge4 ,the ,monkland ,canal1 also opened in #agij1 was built from ,glasgow vi ,coatbridge to ,woodhall in ,lanarkshire1 mainly for the transport of coal from the ,lanarkshire coal-fields to ,glasgow and elsewhere4 ,here the depth was #f feet4 ,the undertakings of the ,forth and ,clyde and the ,monkland ,navigations were amalgamated in #ahdf4 ,prior to #ahfe1 the ,caledonian ,railway did not extend further north than ,greenhill1 about #e miles south of ,falkirk1 where it joined the ,scottish ,central ,railway4 ,this undertaking was absorbed by the ,caledonian in #ahfe1 and the ,caledonian system was thus extended as far north as ,perth and ,dundee4 ,the further absorption of the ,scottish ,north-,eastern ,railway ,company1 in #ahff1 led to the extension of the ,caledonian system to ,aberdeen4 ,at this time the ,caledonian ,railway ,company owned no port or harbour in ,scotland1 except the small and rather shallow tidal harbour of ,south ,alloa4 ,having got possession of the railway lines in ,central ,scotland1 they thought it necessary to obtain control of some port on the east coast1 in the interests of traffic to or from the ,continent1 and especially to facilitate the shipment to the ,continent of coal from the ,lanarkshire coal-fields1 chiefly served by them4 ,the port of ,grangemouth being adapted to their requirements1 they entered into negotiations with the proprietors of the ,forth and ,clyde ,navigation1 who were also proprietors of the harbour of ,grangemouth1 and acquired the whole undertaking in #ahfg1 guaranteeing to the original company a dividend of #f-a_/d per cent4 ,since their acquisition of the canal1 the ,caledonian ,railway ,company have spent large sums annually in maintaining it in a state of efficiency1 and its general condition to-day is better than when it was taken over4 ,much of the traffic handled is brought into or sent out from ,grangemouth1 and here the ,caledonian ,railway ,company have more than doubled the accommodation1 with the result that the imports and exports have enormously increased4 ,all the same1 there has been a steady decrease in the actual canal traffic1 due to various causes1 such as 7a7 the exhaustion of several of the coal-fields in the ,monkland district2 7b7 the extension of railways2 and 7c7 changes in the sources from which certain classes of traffic formerly carried on the canal are derived4 ,in regard to the coal-fields1 the closing of pits adjoining the canal has been followed by the opening of others at such a distance from the canal that it was cheaper to consign by rail4 ,in the matter of railway extensions1 when the ,caledonian took over the canal in #ahfg1 there were practically no railways in the district through which it runs1 and the coal and other traffic had1 perforce1 to go by water4 ,but1 year by year1 a complete network of railways was spread through the district by independent railway companies1 notwithstanding the efforts made by the ,caledonian to protect the interests of the canal-efforts that led1 in some instances1 to ,parliament refusing assent to the proposed lines4 ,those that were constructed 7over a dozen lines and branches altogether71 were almost all absorbed by the ,north ,british ,railway ,company1 who are strong competitors with the ,caledonian ,railway ,company1 and have naturally done all they could to get traffic for the lines in question4 ,this1 of course1 has been at the expense of the canal and to the detriment of the ,caledonian ,railway ,company1 who1 in view of their having guaranteed a dividend to the original proprietors1 would prefer that the traffic in question should remain on the canal instead of being diverted to an opposition line of railway4 ,other traffic which formerly went by canal1 and is now carried on the ,caledonian ,railway1 is of a character that would certainly go by canal no longer1 and for this the ,caledonian and the ,north ,british ,companies compete4 ,the third factor in the decline of the canal relates to the general consideration that1 during the last thirty or forty years1 important works have no longer been necessarily built alongside canal banks1 but have been constructed wherever convenient1 and connected with the railways by branch lines or private sidings1 expense of cartage to or from the canal dock or basin thus being saved4 ,on the ,forth and ,clyde ,canal a good deal of coal is still carried1 but mainly to adjoining works4 ,coal is also shipped in vessels on the canal for transport to the ,west ,highlands and ,islands1 where the railways cannot compete2 but even here there is an increasing tendency for the coal to be bought in ,glasgow 7to which port it is carried by rail71 so that the shippers can have a wider range of markets when purchasing4 ,further changes affecting the ,forth and ,clyde ,canal are illustrated by the fact that whereas1 at one time1 large quantities of grain were brought into ,grangemouth from ,russian and other ,continental ports1 transhipped into lighters1 and sent to ,glasgow by canal1 the grain now received at ,glasgow comes mainly from ,america by direct steamer4 ,that the ,caledonian ,railway ,company have done their duty towards the ,forth and ,clyde ,canal is beyond all reasonable doubt4 ,it is true that they are not themselves carriers on the canal4 ,they are only toll-takers4 ,their business has been to maintain the canal in efficient condition1 and allow any trader who wishes to make use of it so to do1 on paying the tolls4 ,this they have done1 and1 if the traders have not availed themselves of their opportunities1 it must naturally have been for adequate reasons1 and especially because of changes in the course of the country's business which it is impossible for a railway company to control1 even where1 as in this particular case1 they are directly interested in seeing the receipts from tolls attain to as high a figure as practicable4 ,i reserve for another chapter a study of the ,birmingham ,canal system1 which1 again1 is railway controlled2 but ,i may say here that ,i think the facts already given show it is most unfair to suggest1 as is constantly being done in the ,press and elsewhere1 that the railway companies bought up canals--of malice aforethought1 as it were--for the express purpose of killing such competition as they represented--a form of competition in which1 as we have seen1 public confidence had already practically disappeared4 ,one of the witnesses at the canal enquiry in #ahhc even went so far as to assert3 ,the railway companies have been enabled1 in some cases by means of very questionable legality1 to obtain command of #a1gag miles of canal1 so adroitly selected as to strangle the whole of the inland water traffic1 which has thus been forced upon the railways1 to the great interruption of their legitimate and lucrative trade4 ,the assertions here made are constantly being reproduced in one form or another by newspaper writers1 public speakers1 and others1 who have gone to no trouble to investigate the facts for themselves1 who have never read1 or1 if they have read1 have disregarded1 the important evidence of ,sir ,james ,allport1 at the same enquiry1 in reference to the ,london coal trade 7,i shall revert to this subject later on71 and who probably have either not seen a map of ,british canals and waterways at all1 or else have failed to notice the routes that still remain independent1 and are in no way controlled by railway companies4 ,illustration3 ,,independent ,,canals ,,and ,,inland ,,navigations ,,in ,,england ,which are not controlled by railway companies #a4 ,river ,ouse ,navigation 7,yorkshire74 #b4 ,river ,wharfe ,navigation4 #c4 ,aire and ,calder ,navigation4 #d4 ,market ,weighton ,navigation4 #e4 ,driffield ,navigation4 #f4 ,beverley ,beck ,navigation4 #g4 ,leven ,navigation4 #h4 ,leeds and ,liverpool ,canal4 #i4 ,manchester ,ship ,canal4 #aj4 ,bridgewater portion of ,manchester ,ship ,canal4 #aa4 ,rochdale ,canal4 #ab4 ,calder and ,hebble ,navigation4 #ac4 ,weaver ,navigation4 #ad4 ,idle ,navigation4 #ae4 ,trent ,navigation ,co4 #af4 ,aucholme ,navigation4 #ag4 ,caistor ,canal4 #ah4 ,louth ,canal 7,lincolnshire74 #ai4 ,derby ,canal4 #bj4 ,nutbrook ,canal4 #ba4 ,erewash ,canal4 #bb4 ,loughborough ,navigation4 #bc4 ,leicester ,navigation4 #bd4 ,leicestershire ,union ,canal4 #be4 ,witham ,navigation4 #bf4 ,witham ,navigation4 #bg4 ,glen ,navigation4 #bh4 ,welland ,navigation4 #bi4 ,nen ,navigation4 #cj4 ,wisbech ,canal4 #ca4 ,nar ,navigation4 #cb4 ,ouse and ,tributaries 7,bedfordshire74 #cc4 ,north ,walsham ,canal4 #cd4 ,bure ,navigation4 #ce4 ,blyth ,navigation4 #cf4 ,ipswich and ,stowmarket ,navigation4 #cg4 ,stour ,navigation4 #ch4 ,colne ,navigation4 #ci4 ,chelmer and ,blackwater ,navigation4 #dj4 ,roding ,navigation4 #da4 ,stort ,navigation4 #db4 ,lea ,navigation4 #dc4 ,grand ,junction ,canal4 #dd4 ,grand ,union ,canal4 #de4 ,oxford ,canal4 #df4 ,coventry ,canal4 #dg4 ,warwick and ,napton ,canal4 #dh4 ,warwick and ,birmingham ,canal4 #di4 ,birmingham and ,warwick ,junction ,canal4 #cj4 ,worcester and ,birmingham ,canal4 #ea4 ,stafford and ,worcester ,canal4 #eb4 ,severn 7,lower7 ,navigation4 #ec4 ,gloucester and ,berkeley ,ship ,canal4 #ed4 ,lower ,avon ,navigation4 #ee4 ,stroudwater ,canal4 #ef4 ,wye ,navigation4 #eg4 ,axe ,navigation4 #eh4 ,parrett ,navigation4 #ei4 ,tone ,navigation4 #fj4 ,wilts and ,berks ,canal4 #fa4 ,thames ,navigation4 #fb4 ,london and ,hampshire ,canal4 #fc4 ,wey ,navigation4 #fd4 ,medway ,navigation4 #fe4 ,canterbury ,navigation4 #ff4 ,ouse ,navigation 7,sussex74 #fg4 ,adur ,navigation4 #fh4 ,arun and ,wey ,canal4 #fi4 ,portsmouth and ,arunder ,canal4 #gj4 ,itchen ,navigation4 ,to face page #ed4 ,i give1 facing p4 #ed1 a sketch which shows the nature and extent of these particular waterways1 and the reader will see from it that they include entirely free and independent communication 7a7 between ,birmingham and the ,thames2 7b7 from the coal-fields of the ,midlands and the ,north to ,london2 and 7c7 between the west and east coasts1 vi ,liverpool1 ,leeds1 and ,goole4 ,to say1 therefore1 in these circumstances1 that the whole of the inland water traffic has been strangled by the railway companies because the canals or sections of which they obtained command were so adroitly selected1 is simply to say what is not true4 ,the point here raised is not one that merely concerns the integrity of the railway companies--though in common justice to them it is only right that the truth should be made known4 ,it really affects the whole question at issue1 because1 so long as public opinion is concentrated more or less on this strangulation fiction1 due attention will not be given to the real causes for the decay of the canals1 and undue importance will be attached to the suggestions freely made that if only the one-third of the canal mileage owned or controlled by the railway companies could be got out of their hands1 the revival schemes would have a fair chance of success4 ,certain it is1 therefore1 as the map ,i give shows beyond all possible doubt1 that the causes for the failure of the ,british canal system must be sought for elsewhere than in the fact of a partial railway-ownership or control4 ,some of these alternative causes ,i propose to discuss in the ,chapters that follow my story of the ,birmingham ,canal1 for which 7inasmuch as ,birmingham and district1 by reason of their commercial importance and geographical position1 have first claim to consideration in any scheme of canal resuscitation7 ,i would beg the special attention of the reader4 ,,chapter ,v ,,the ,,birmingham ,,canal ,,and ,,its ,,story ,what is known as the ,birmingham ,canal is really a perfect network of waterways in and around ,birmingham and ,south ,staffordshire1 representing a total length of about #afj miles1 exclusive of some hundreds of private sidings in connection with different works in the district4 ,illustration3 ,map of the ,canals ,railways between ,,wolverhampton ,,birmingham ,to face page #ef4 ,the system was originally constructed by four different canal companies under ,acts of ,parliament passed between #agfh and #ahah4 ,these companies subsequently amalgamated and formed the ,birmingham ,canal ,navigation1 known later on as the ,birmingham ,canal ,company4 ,from ,march #ahaf to ,march #ahah the company paid #cf per annum per share on #a1jjj shares1 and in the following year the amount paid on the same number of shares rose to #dj per annum4 ,in #ahbc #bd per annum per share was paid on #b1jjj shares1 in #ahch #i to #af on #h1jjj1 in #ahdd #h on #h1hjj1 and from ,may #ahde to ,december #ahdf #d per annum per share on #ag1fjj shares4 ,the year #ahde was a time of great activity in railway promotion1 and the ,birmingham ,canal ,company1 who already had a canal between that town and ,wolverhampton1 proposed to supplement it by a railway through the ,stour ,valley1 using for the purpose a certain amount of spare land which they already owned4 ,a similar proposal1 however1 in respect to a line of railway to take practically the same route between ,birmingham and ,wolverhampton1 was brought forward by an independent company1 who seem to have had the support of the ,london and ,birmingham ,railway ,company2 and in the result it was arranged among the different parties concerned 7#a7 that the ,birmingham ,canal ,company should not proceed with their scheme1 but that they and the ,london and ,birmingham ,railway ,company should each subscribe a fourth part of the capital for the construction of the line projected by the independent ,birmingham1 ,wolverhampton1 and ,stour ,valley ,railway ,company2 and 7#b7 that the ,london and ,birmingham ,railway ,company should1 subject to certain terms and conditions1 guarantee the future dividend of the ,canal ,company1 whenever the net income was insufficient to produce a dividend of #d per share on the capital1 the ,canal ,company thus being insured against loss resulting from competition4 ,the building of the ,stour ,valley ,line between ,birmingham and ,wolverhampton1 with a branch to ,dudley1 was sanctioned by an ,act of #ahdf1 which further authorised the ,birmingham ,canal ,company and the ,london and ,birmingham ,railway ,company to contribute each one quarter of the necessary capital4 ,the canal company raised their quarter1 amounting to #aij1jhg1 by means of mortgages4 ,in return for their guarantee of the canal company's dividend1 the ,london and ,birmingham ,railway ,company obtained certain rights and privileges in regard to the working of the canal4 ,these were authorised by the ,london and ,birmingham ,railway and ,birmingham ,canal ,arrangement ,act1 #ahdf1 which empowered the two companies each to appoint five persons as a committee of management of the ,birmingham ,canal ,company4 ,those members of the committee chosen by the ,london and ,birmingham ,railway ,company were to have the same powers1 etc41 as the members elected by the canal company2 but the canal company were restricted from expending1 without the consent of the railway company1 any sum which shall exceed the sum of five hundred pounds in the formation of any new canal1 or extension1 or branch canal or otherwise1 for the purpose of any single work to be hereafter undertaken by the same company2 nor1 without consent of the railway company1 could the canal company make any alterations in the tolls1 rates1 or dues charged4 ,in the event of differences of opinion arising between the two sections of the committee of management1 the final decision was to be given by the railway representatives in such year or years as the railway company was called upon to make good a deficiency in the dividends1 and by the canal representatives when no such demand had been made upon the railway company4 ,in other words the canal company retained the deciding vote so long as they could pay their way1 and in any case they could spend up to #ejj on any single work without asking the consent of the railway company4 ,in course of time the ,stour ,valley ,line1 as well as the ,london and ,birmingham ,company1 became part of the system of the ,london and ,north-,western ,railway ,company1 which thus took over the responsibilities and obligations1 in regard to the waterways1 already assumed2 while the mortgages issued by the ,birmingham ,canal ,company1 when they undertook to raise one-fourth of the capital for the ,stour ,valley ,railway1 were exchanged for #abf1gbe of ordinary stock in the ,london and ,north-,western ,railway4 ,the ,birmingham ,canal ,company was able down to #ahgc 7except only in one year1 #ahfh1 when it required #hce from the ,london and ,north-,western ,company7 to pay its dividend of #d per annum on each share1 without calling on the railway company to make good a deficiency4 ,in #ahgd1 however1 there was a substantial shortage of revenue1 and since that time the ,london and ,north-,western ,railway ,company1 under the agreement already mentioned1 have had to pay considerable sums to the canal company1 as the following table shows3-- ,year #ahgd #aj1ebh #ah #j #ahge nil4 #ahgf #d1gif #aj #i #ahgg #cfa #g #i #ahgh #aa1cgj #e #g #ahgi #bj1bbe #j #e #ahhj #ac1ecd #ai #f #ahha #ae1jbh #i #c #ahhb #f1hbf #g #a #ahhc #h1hgi #d #g #ahhd #ad1aif #g #i #ahhe #be1dfj #ai #aj #ahhf #ce1afi #i #f #ahhg #ca1dia #ad #a #ahhh #ae1cej #aj #aa #ahhi #e1cda #ai #c #ahij #bb1jfi #i #h #ahia #ag1fbf #b #c #ahib #bi1ejh #d #b #ahic #ca1fah #ai #d #ahid #bg1ice #h #i #ahie #ci1jfe #ae #b #ahif #bb1iid #j #aj #ahig #aj1ahf #ai #g #ahih #aj1bhf #ac #c #ahii #ah1dgj #ah #a #aijj #cd1jge #ai #f #aija #fb1fdd #b #h #aijb #bg1fde #b #c #aijc #cd1jdg #d #f #aijd #cg1hcb #e #h #aije #ci1hfj #ac #j ,the sum total of these figures is #fhe1bfe1 #bs4 #aa;d4 ,it will have been seen1 from the facts already narrated1 that for a period of over twenty years from the date of the agreement the canal company continued to earn their own dividend without requiring any assistance from the railway company4 ,meantime1 however1 various local1 in addition to general1 causes had been in operation tending to affect the prosperity of the canals4 ,the decline of the pig-iron industry in the ,black ,country had set in1 while though the conversion of manufactured iron into plates1 implements1 etc41 largely took its place1 the raw materials came more and more from districts not served by the canals1 and the finished goods were carried mainly by the railways then rapidly spreading through the district1 affording facilities in the way of sidings to a considerable number of manufacturers whose works were not on the canal route4 ,then the local iron ore deposits were either worked out or ceased to be remunerative1 in view of the competition of other districts1 again facilitated by the railways2 and the extension of the ,bessemer process of steel-making also affected the ,staffordshire iron industry4 ,these changes were quite sufficient in themselves to account for the increasing unprofitableness of the canals1 without any need for suggestions of hostility towards them on the part of the railways4 ,in point of fact1 the extension of the railways and the provision of railway basins brought the canals a certain amount of traffic they might not otherwise have got4 ,it was1 indeed1 due less to an actual decrease in the tonnage than to a decrease in the distance carried that the amount received in tolls fell off1 that the traffic ceased to be remunerative1 and that the deficiencies arose which1 under their statutory obligations1 the ,london and ,north-,western ,railway ,company had to meet4 ,the more that the traffic actually left the canals1 the greater was the deficiency which1 as shown by the figures ,i have given1 the railway company had to make good4#f ,the condition of the canals in #ahgd1 when the responsibilities assumed by the ,london and ,north-,western ,railway ,company began to fall more heavily upon them1 left a good deal to be desired1 and the railway company found themselves faced with the necessity of finding money for improvements which eventually represented a very heavy expenditure1 apart altogether from the making up of a guaranteed dividend4 ,they proceeded1 all the same1 to acquit themselves of these responsibilities1 and it is no exaggeration to say that1 during the thirty years which have since elapsed1 they have spent enormous sums in improving the canals1 and in maintaining them in what--adverse critics notwithstanding--is their present high state of efficiency1 considering the peculiarities of their position4 ,one of the greatest difficulties in the situation was in regard to water supply4 ,at ,birmingham1 portions of the canal are #dec feet above ordnance datum2 ,wolverhampton1 ,wednesfield1 ,tipton1 ,dudley1 and ,oldbury are higher still1 for their elevation is #dgc feet1 while ,walsall1 ,darlaston1 and ,wednesbury are at a height of #djh feet4 ,on high-lands like these there are naturally no powerful streams1 and such is the lack of local water supplies that1 as every one knows1 the city of ,birmingham has recently had to go as far as ,wales in order to obtain sufficient water to meet the needs of its citizens4 ,in these circumstances special efforts had to be made to obtain water for the canals in the district1 and to ensure a due regard for economy in its use4 ,the canals have1 in fact1 had to depend to a certain extent on water pumped from the bottom of coal pits in the ,black ,country1 and stored in reservoirs on the top levels2 the water1 also1 temporarily lost each time a canal boat passed through one of the many locks in the district being pumped back to the top to be used over again4 ,to this end pumping machinery had already been provided by the old canal companies1 but the ,london and ,north-,western ,railway ,company1 on taking over the virtual direction of the canals for which they were financially responsible1 substituted new and improved plant1 and added various new pumping stations4 ,thanks to the changes thus effected--at1 ,i need hardly say1 very considerable cost--the average amount of water now pumped from lower to higher levels1 during an average year1 is #be1jjj1jjj gallons per day1 equal to #a1jjj locks of water4 ,on occasions the actual quantity dealt with is #ej1jjj1jjj gallons per day1 while the total capacity of the present pumping machinery is equal to about #ajb1jjj1jjj gallons1 or #d1jhj locks1 per day4 ,there is absolutely no doubt that1 but for the special provisions made for an additional water supply1 the ,birmingham ,canal would have had to cease operations altogether in the summer of #aije--probably for two months--because of the shortage of water4 ,the reservoirs on the top level were practically empty1 and it was solely owing to the company acquiring new sources of supply1 involving a very substantial expenditure indeed1 that the canal system was kept going at all4 ,a canal company with no large financial resources would inevitably have broken down under the strain4 ,then the ,london and ,north-,western ,company are actively engaged in substituting new pumping machinery--representing all the latest improvements--for old1 the special aim1 here1 being the securing of a reduction of more than #ej per cent4 over the former cost of pumping4 ,an expenditure of from #ae1jjj to #af1jjj was1 for example1 incurred by them so recently as #aije at the ,ocker ,hill pumping station4 ,in this way the railway company are seeking both to maintain the efficiency of the canal and to reduce the heavy annual demands made upon them in respect to the general cost of operation and shareholders' dividend4 ,for reasons which will be indicated later on1 it is impossible to improve the ,black ,country canals on any large scale2 but1 in addition to what ,i have already related1 the ,london and ,north-,western ,railway ,company are constantly spending money on small improvements1 such as dredging1 widening waterway under-bridges1 taking off corners1 and putting in side walls in place of slopes1 so as to give more space for the boats4 ,in the latter respect many miles have been so treated1 to the distinct betterment of the canal4 ,all this heavy outlay by the railway company1 carried on for a series of years1 is now beginning to tell1 to the advantage alike of the traders and of the canal as a property1 and if any scheme of ,state or municipal purchase were decided on by the country the various substantial items mentioned would naturally have to be taken into account in making terms4 ,another feature of the ,birmingham ,canal system is that it passes to a considerable extent through the mining districts of the ,black ,country4 ,this means1 in the first place1 that wherever important works have been constructed1 as in the case of tunnels1 7and the system passes through a number of tunnels1 three of these being #c1agb yards1 #c1jbg yards1 and #c1ghe yards respectively in length7 the mineral rights underneath have to be bought up in order to avoid subsidences4 ,in one instance the railway company paid no less than #bh1ejj for the mining rights underneath a short length 7#ged yards7 of a canal tunnel4 ,in other words1 this #bh1ejj was practically buried in the ground1 not in order to work the minerals1 but with a view to maintain a secure foundation for the canal4 ,altogether the expenditure of the company in this one direction1 and for this one special purpose alone1 in the ,black ,country district1 must amount by this time to some hundreds of thousands of pounds4 ,actual subsidences represent a great source of trouble4 ,there are some parts of the ,birmingham ,canal where the waterway was originally constructed on a level with the adjoining ground1 but1 as more and more coal has been taken from the mines underneath1 and especially as more and more of the ribs of coal originally left to support the roof have been removed1 the land has subsided from time to time1 rendering necessary the raising of the canal4 ,so far has this gone that to-day the canal1 at certain of these points1 instead of being on a level with the adjoining ground1 is on an embankment #cj feet above4 ,drops of from #aj to #bj feet are of frequent occurrence1 even with narrow canals1 and the cost involved in repairs and restoration is enormous1 as the reader may well suppose1 considering that the total length of the ,birmingham ,canal subject to subsidences from mining is about #ij miles4 ,i come next to the point as to the comparative narrowness of the ,birmingham ,canal system and the small capacity of the locks--conditions1 as we are rightly told1 which tell against the possibility of through1 or even local1 traffic in a larger type of boat4 ,such conditions as these are generally presented as one of the main reasons why the control should be transferred to the ,state1 to municipalities1 or to public trusts1 who1 it is assumed1 would soon get rid of them4 ,the reader must have fully realised by this time that the original size of the waterways and locks on the ,birmingham ,canal was determined by the question of water supply4 ,but any extensive scheme of widening would involve much beyond the securing of more water4 ,during the decades the ,birmingham ,canal has been in existence important works of all kinds have been built alongside its banks1 not only in and around ,birmingham itself1 but all through the ,black ,country4 ,there are parts of the canal where almost continuous lines of such works on each side of the canal1 flush up to the banks or towing path1 are to be seen for miles together4 ,any general widening1 therefore1 even of the main waterways1 would involve such a buying up1 reconstruction of1 or interference with extremely valuable properties that the expenditure involved--in the interests of a problematical saving in canal tolls--would be alike prodigious and prohibitive4 ,there is the less reason for incurring such expenditure when we consider the special purposes which the canals of the district already serve1 and1 ,i may even say1 efficiently serve4 ,the total traffic passing over the ,birmingham ,canal system amounts to about #h1jjj1jjj tons per annum1#g and of this a considerable proportion is collected for eventual transport by rail4 ,every few miles along the canal in the ,black ,country there is a railway-basin put in either by the ,london and ,north-,western ,railway ,company1 who have had the privilege of finding the money to keep the canal going since #ahgd1 or by the ,great ,western or the ,midland ,railway ,companies4 ,here1 again1 very considerable expenditure has been incurred by the railway companies in the provision alike of wharves1 cranes1 sheds1 etc41 and of branch railways connecting with the main lines of the company concerned4 ,from these railway-basins narrow boats are sent out to works all over the district to collect iron1 hardware1 tinplates1 bricks1 tiles1 manufactured articles1 and general merchandise1 and bring them in for loading into the railway trucks alongside4 ,so complete is the network of canals1 with their hundreds of small special branches1 that for many of the local works their only means of communication with the railway is by water1 and the consignments are simply conveyed to the railway by canal boat1 instead of1 as elsewhere1 by collecting van or road lorry4 ,the number of these railway-basins--the cost of which is distinctly substantial--is constantly being increased1 for the traffic through them grows almost from day to day4 ,the ,great ,western ,railway ,company1 for example1 have already several large transhipping basins on the canals of the ,black ,country4 ,they have one at ,wolverhampton1 and another at ,tipton1 only #e miles away2 yet they have now decided to construct still another1 about half-way between the two4 ,the matter is thus referred to in the ,great ,western ,railway ,magazine for ,march1 #aijf3-- ,the ,directors have approved a scheme for an extensive dept adjoining the ,birmingham ,canal at ,bilston1 the site being advantageously central in the town4 ,it will comprise a canal basin and transfer shed1 sidings for over one hundred and twenty waggons1 and a loop for made-up trains4 ,a large share of the traffic of the district1 mainly raw material and manufactured articles of the iron trade1 will doubtless be secured as a result of this important step--the railway and canal mutually serving each other as feeders4 ,the reader will see from this how the tendency1 even on canals that survive1 is for the length of haul to become shorter and shorter1 so that the receipts of the canal company from tolls may decline even where there is no actual decrease in the weight of the traffic handled4 ,in the event of ,state or municipal purchase being resorted to1 the expenditure on all these costly basins and the works connected therewith would have to be taken into consideration1 equally with the pumping machinery and general improvements1 and1 also1 the purchase of mining rights1 already spoken of2 but ,i fail to see what more either ,government or ,county ,council control could1 in the circumstances1 do for the ,birmingham system than is being done already4 ,far more for the purposes of maintenance has been spent on the canal by the ,london and ,north-,western ,railway ,company than had been so spent by the canal company itself2 and1 although a considerable amount of traffic arising in the district does find its way down to the ,mersey1 the purpose served by the canal is1 and must necessarily be1 mainly a local one4 ,that ,birmingham should become a sort of half-way stage on a continuous line of widened canals across country from the ,thames to the ,mersey is one of the most impracticable of dreams4 ,even if there were not the question of the prodigious cost that widenings of the ,birmingham ,canal would involve1 there would remain the equally fatal drawback of the elevation of ,birmingham and ,wolverhampton above sea level4 ,in constructing a broad cross-country canal1 linking up the two rivers in question1 it would be absolutely necessary to avoid alike ,birmingham and the whole of the ,black ,country4 ,that city and district1 therefore1 would gain no direct advantage from such a through route4 ,they would have to be content to send down their commodities in the existing small boats to a lower level1 and there1 in order to reach the ,mersey1 connect with either the ,shropshire ,union ,canal or the ,trent and ,mersey4 ,one of these two waterways would certainly have to be selected for a widened through route to the ,mersey4 ,assume that the former were decided upon1 and that1 to meet the present-day agitation1 the ,state1 or some ,trust backed by ,state or local funds1 bought up the ,shropshire ,union1 and resolved upon a substantial widening of this particular waterway1 so as to admit of a larger type of boat and the various other improvements now projected4 ,in this case the crux of the situation 7apart from ,birmingham and ,black ,country conditions71 would be the city of ,chester4 ,for a distance of #a-a_/b miles the ,shropshire ,union ,canal passes through the very heart of ,chester4 ,right alongside the canal one sees successively very large flour mills or lead works1 big warehouses1 a school1 streets which border it for some distance1 masses of houses1 and1 also1 the old city walls4 ,at one point the existing canal makes a bend that is equal almost to a right angle4 ,here there would have to be a substantial clearance if boats much larger than those now in use were to get round so ugly a corner in safety4 ,this bend1 too1 is just where the canal goes underneath the main lines of the ,london and ,north-,western and the ,great ,western ,railways1 the gradients of which would certainly have to be altered if it were desired to employ larger boats4 ,illustration3 ,,what ,,canal ,,widening ,,would ,,mean4 7,the ,shropshire ,union ,canal at the ,northgate1 ,chester1 looking ,east47 ,to face page #gj4 ,the widening of the ,shropshire ,union ,canal at ,chester would1 in effect1 necessitate a wholesale destruction of1 or interference with1 valuable property 7even if the city walls were spared71 and an expenditure of hundreds of thousands of pounds4 ,such a thing is clearly not to be thought of4 ,the city of ,chester would have to be avoided by the through route from the ,midlands to the ,mersey1 just as the canals of ,birmingham and the ,black ,country would have to be avoided in a through route from the ,thames4 ,if the ,shropshire ,union were still kept to1 a new branch canal would have to be constructed from ,waverton to connect again with the ,shropshire ,union at a point half-way between ,chester and ,ellesmere ,port1 leaving ,chester in a neglected bend on the south4 ,on this point as to the possibility of enlarging the ,shropshire ,union ,canal1 ,i should like to quote the following from some remarks made by ,mr ,g4 ,r4 ,jebb1 engineer to the ,shropshire ,union ,railways and ,canal ,company1 in the discussion on ,mr ,saner's paper at the ,institution of ,civil ,engineers3-- ,as to the suggestion that the railway companies did not consider it possible to make successful commercial use of their canals in conjunction with their lines1 and that the ,london and ,north-,western ,railway ,company might have improved the main line of the ,shropshire ,union ,canal between ,ellesmere ,port and ,wolverhampton1 and thus have relieved their already overburdened line1 as a matter of fact about twenty years ago he went carefully into the question of enlarging that particular length of canal1 which formed the main line between the ,midlands and the sea4 ,he drew up estimates and plans for wide canals1 of different cross sections1 one of which was almost identical with the cross section proposed by ,mr ,saner4 ,after very careful consideration with a disposition to improve the canal if possible1 it was found that the cost of the necessary works would be too heavy4 ,bridges of wide span and larger headway--entailing approaches which could not be constructed without destroying valuable property on either side--new locks and hydraulic lifts would be required1 and a transhipping dept would have been necessary where each of the narrow canals joined4 ,the company were satisfied1 and he himself was satisfied1 that no reasonable return for that expenditure could be expected1 and therefore the work was not proceeded with4444 ,he was satisfied that whoever found the money for canal improvements would get no fair return for it4 ,the adoption of the alternative route1 vi the ,trent and ,mersey1 would involve 7#a7 locking-up to and down a considerable summit1 and 7#b7 a continuous series of widenings 7except along the ,weaver ,canal71 the cost of which1 especially in the towns of ,stoke1 ,etruria1 ,middlewich1 and ,northwich1 would attain to proportions altogether prohibitive4 ,the conclusion at which ,i arrive in regard to the ,birmingham ,canal system is that it cannot be directly included in any scheme of cross-country waterways from river to river2 that by reason alike of elevation1 water supply1 and the existence of a vast amount of valuable property immediately alongside1 any general widening of the present system of canals in the district is altogether impracticable2 that1 within the scope of their unavoidable limitations1 those particular canals already afford every reasonable facility to the real requirements of the local traders2 that1 instead of their having been strangled by the railways1 they have been kept alive and in operation solely and entirely because of the heavy expenditure upon them by the ,london and ,north-,western ,railway ,company1 following on conditions which must inevitably have led to collapse 7with serious disadvantages to the traders dependent on them for transport7 if the control had remained with an independent but impoverished canal company2 and that very little1 if anything1 more--with due regard both for what is practical1 and for the avoidance of any waste of public money--could be done than is already being done1 even if ,state or municipal authorities made the costly experiment of trying what they could do for them with their own 'prentice hands4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,the ,,transition ,,in ,,trade ,of the various causes which have operated to bring about the comparative decay of the ,british canal system 7for1 as already shown1 there are sections that still retain a certain amount of vitality71 the most important are to be found in the great changes that have taken place in the general conditions of trade1 manufacture and commerce4 ,the tendency in almost every branch of business to-day is for the trader to have small1 or comparatively small1 stocks of any particular commodity1 which he can replenish speedily at frequent intervals as occasion requires4 ,the advantages are obvious4 ,a smaller amount of capital is locked up in any one article2 a larger variety of goods can be dealt in2 less accommodation is required for storage2 and men with limited means can enter on businesses which otherwise could be undertaken only by individuals or companies possessed of considerable resources4 ,if a draper or a grocer at ,plymouth finds one afternoon that he has run short of a particular article1 he need only telegraph to the wholesale house with which he deals in ,london1 and a fresh supply will be delivered to him the following morning4 ,a trader in ,london who wanted something from ,dublin1 and telegraphed for it one day1 would expect as a matter of course to have it the next4 ,what1 again1 would a ,london shopkeeper be likely to say if1 wanting to replenish his limited stock with some ,birmingham goods1 he was informed by the manufacturer3--,we are in receipt of your esteemed order1 and are sending the goods on by canal4 ,you may hope to get them in about a week8 ,with a little wider margin in the matter of delivery1 the same principle applies to those trading in1 or requiring1 raw materials--coal1 steel1 ironstone1 bricks1 and so on4 ,merchants1 manufacturers1 and builders are no more anxious than the average shopkeeper to keep on hand stocks unnecessarily large1 and to have so much money lying idle4 ,they calculate the length of time that will be required to get in more supplies when likely to be wanted1 and they work their business accordingly4 ,from this point of view the railway is far superior to the canal in two respects1 at least4 ,first1 there is the question of speed4 ,the value of this factor was well recognised so far back as #ahbe1 when1 as ,i have told on page #be1 ,mr ,sandars related how speed and certainty of delivery were regarded as of the first importance1 and constituted one of the leading reasons for the desired introduction of railways4 ,but speed and certainty of delivery become absolutely essential when the margin in regard to supplies on hand is habitually kept to a working minimum4 ,the saving in freight effected as between1 on the one hand1 waiting at least several days1 if not a full week1 for goods by canal boat1 and1 on the other1 receiving them the following day by train1 may be more than swallowed up by the loss of profit or the loss of business in consequence of the delay4 ,if the railway transport be a little more costly than the canal transport1 the difference should be fully counterbalanced by the possibility of a more rapid turnover1 as well as the other advantages of which ,i have spoken4 ,in cases1 again1 where it is not a matter of quickly replenishing stocks but of effecting prompt delivery even of bulky goods1 time may be all-important4 ,this fact is well illustrated in a contribution1 from ,birmingham1 published in the ,engineering ,supplement of ,the ,times of ,february #ad1 #aijf1 in which it was said3-- ,makers of wheels1 tires1 axles1 springs1 and similar parts are busy4 ,of late the ,south ,african colonies have been larger buyers1 while ,india and the ,far ,eastern markets1 including ,china and ,japan1 ,south ,america1 and some other shipping markets are providing very good and valuable indents4 ,in all cases1 it is especially remarked1 very early execution of contracts and urgent delivery is impressed by buyers4 ,the leading firms have learned a good deal of late from ,german1 ,american1 ,belgian1 and other foreign competitors in the matter of rapid output4 ,by the improvement of plant1 the laying down of new and costly machine tools1 and by other advances in methods of production1 delivery is now made of contracts of heavy tonnage within periods which not so long ago would have been deemed by these same producers quite impossible4 ,in no branch of the engineering trades is this expedition more apparent than in the constructional engineering department1 such as bridges1 roofs1 etc41 also in steam boiler work4 ,now where1 in cases such as these1 urgent delivery is impressed by buyers1 and the utmost energy is probably being enforced on the workers1 is it likely that even the heavy goods so made would be sent down to the port by the tediously slow process of canal boat1 taking1 perhaps1 as many days as even a goods train would take hours8 ,alternatively1 would the manufacturers run the risk of delaying urgent work by having the raw materials delivered by canal boat in order to effect a small saving on cost of transport8 ,certainty of delivery might again be seriously affected in the case of canal transport by delays arising either from scarcity of water during dry seasons1 or from frost in winter4 ,the entire stoppage of a canal system1 from one or other of these causes1 for weeks together1 especially on high levels1 is no unusual occurrence1 and the inconvenience which would then result to traders who depended on the canals is self-evident4 ,in ,holland1 where most of the goods traffic goes by the canals that spread as a perfect network throughout the whole country1 and link up each town with every other town1 the advent of a severe frost means that the whole body of traffic is suddenly thrown on the railways1 which then have more to get through than they can manage4 ,here the problem arises3 ,if waterways take traffic from the railways during the greater part of the year1 should the railways still be expected to keep on hand sufficient rolling stock1 etc41 not only for their normal conditions1 but to meet all the demands made upon them during such periods as their competitors cannot operate8 ,there is an idea in some quarters that stoppage from frost need not be feared in this country because1 under an improved system of waterways1 measures would be taken to keep the ice on the canals constantly broken up4 ,but even with this arrangement there comes a time1 during a prolonged frost1 when the quantity of broken ice in the canal is so great that navigation is stopped unless the ice itself is removed from the water4 ,frost must1 therefore1 still be reckoned with as a serious factor among the possibilities of delay in canal transport4 ,secondly1 there is the question of quantities4 ,for the average trader the railway truck is a much more convenient unit than the canal boat4 ,it takes just such amount as he may want to send or receive4 ,for some commodities the minimum load for which the lowest railway rate is quoted is as little as #b tons2 but many a railway truck has been run through to destination with a solitary consignment of not more than half-a-ton4 ,on the other hand1 a vast proportion of the consignments by rail are essentially of the small type4 ,from the goods dept at ,curzon ,street1 ,birmingham1 a total of #a1fae tons dealt with1 over a certain period1 represented #f1aaj consignments and #ea1aad packages1 the average weight per consignment being #e cwts4 #a qr4 #d lbs41 and the average weight per package1 #b qrs4 #ad lbs4 ,at the ,liverpool goods depts of the ,london and ,north-,western ,railway1 a total weight of #c1hie tons handled consisted of #e1jdi consignments and #gi1eac packages1 the average weight per consignment being #ae cwts4 #a qr4 #bj lbs41 and the average weight per package #c qrs4 #bf lbs4 ,from the dept at ,broad ,street1 ,london1 #ijf tons represented #f1bja consignments and #bc1jfg packages1 with an average weight per consignment of #b cwts4 #c qrs4 #ai lbs41 and per package1 #c qrs4 #d lbs42 and so on with other important centres of traffic4 ,there is little room for doubt that a substantial proportion of these consignments and packages consisted partly of goods required by traders either to replenish their stocks1 or1 as in the case of tailors and dressmakers1 to enable them to execute particular orders2 and partly of commodities purchased from traders1 and on their way to the customers4 ,in regard to the latter class of goods1 it is a matter of common knowledge that there has been an increasing tendency of late years to eliminate the middleman1 and establish direct trading between producer and consumer4 ,just as the small shopkeeper will purchase from the manufacturer1 and avoid the wholesale dealer1 so1 also1 there are individual householders and others who eliminate even the shopkeeper1 and deal direct with advertising manufacturers willing to supply to them the same quantities as could be obtained from a retail trader4 ,for trades and businesses conducted on these lines1 the railway--taking and delivering promptly consignments great or small1 penetrating to every part of the country1 and supplemented by its own commodious warehouses1 in which goods can be stored as desired by the trader pending delivery or shipment--is a far more convenient mode of transport than the canal boat2 and to the railway the perfect revolution that has been brought about in the general trade of this country is mainly due4 ,business has been simplified1 subdivided1 and brought within the reach of small men to an extent that1 but for the railway1 would have been impossible2 and it is difficult to imagine that traders in general will forego all these advantages now1 and revert once more to the canal boat1 merely for the sake of a saving in freight which1 in the long run1 might be no saving at all4 ,here it may be replied by my critics that there is no idea of reviving canals in the interests of the general trader1 and that all that is sought is to provide a cheaper form of transport for those heavier or bulkier minerals or commodities which1 it is said1 can be carried better and more economically by water than by rail4 ,now this argument implies the admission that canal resuscitation1 on a national basis1 or at the risk more or less of the community1 is to be effected1 not for the general trader1 but for certain special classes of traders4 ,as a matter of fact1 however1 such canal traffic as exists to-day is by no means limited to heavy or bulky articles4 ,in their earlier days canal companies simply provided a water-road1 as it were1 along which goods could be taken by other persons on payment of certain tolls4 ,to enable them to meet better the competition of the railways1 ,parliament granted to the canal companies1 in #ahdf1 the right to become common carriers as well1 and1 though only a very small proportion of them took advantage of this concession1 those that did are indebted in part to the transport of general merchandise for such degree of prosperity as they have retained4 ,the separate firms of canal carriers 7by-traders7 have adopted a like policy1 and1 notwithstanding the changes in trade of which ,i have spoken1 a good deal of general merchandise does go by canal to or from places that happen to be situated in the immediate vicinity of the waterways4 ,it is extremely probable that if some of the canals which have survived had depended entirely on the transport of heavy or bulky commodities1 their financial condition to-day would have been even worse than it really is4 ,but let us look somewhat more closely into this theory that canals are better adapted than railways for the transport of minerals or heavy merchandise1 calling for the payment of a low freight4 ,at the first glance such a commodity as coal would claim special attention from this point of view2 yet here one soon learns that not only have the railways secured the great bulk of this traffic in fair and open competition with the canals1 but there is no probability of the latter taking it away from them again to any appreciable extent4 ,some interesting facts in this connection were mentioned by the late ,sir ,james ,allport in the evidence he gave before the ,select ,committee on ,canals in #ahhc4 ,not a yard1 he said1 of the series of waterways between ,london and ,derbyshire1 ,nottinghamshire1 part of ,staffordshire1 ,warwickshire and ,leicestershire--counties which included some of the best coal districts in ,england for supplying the metropolis--was owned by railway companies1 yet the amount of coal carried by canal to ,london had steadily declined1 while that by rail had enormously increased4 ,to prove this assertion1 he took the year #aheb as one when there was practically no competition on the part of the railways with the canals for the transport of coal1 and he compared therewith the year #ahhb1 giving for each the total amount of coal received by canal and railway respectively1 as follows3-- #aheb #ahhb ,received by canal #cc1jjj tons #g1ijj tons railway #cag1jjj #f1edf1jjj ,the figures quoted by ,sir ,james ,allport were taken from the official returns in respect to the dues formerly levied by the ,city of ,london and the late ,metropolitan ,board of ,works on all coal coming within the ,metropolitan ,police ,area1 representing a total of #gjj square miles2 though at an earlier period the district in which the dues were enforced was that included in a #bj-mile radius4 ,the dues were abolished in #ahhi1 and since then the statistics in question have no longer been compiled4 ,but the returns for #ahhi show that the imports of coal1 by railway and by canal respectively1 into the ,metropolitan ,police ,area for that year were as follows3-- ,,by ,,railway ,tons4 ,cwts4 ,midland #b1fdg1eed #j ,london and ,north-,western #a1gce1jfg #ac ,great ,northern #a1cfj1bje #j ,great ,eastern #a1jgg1ejd #ac ,great ,western #idj1hbi #j ,london and ,south-,western #ha1caa #b ,south-,eastern #bg1ggf #ah ------------------ ,total by ,railway #g1hgj1bdh #f ------------------ ,,by ,,canal ,grand ,junction #ab1fja #ae ---------------------- ,difference #g1heg1fdf #aa ---------------------- ,if1 therefore1 the independent canal companies1 having a waterway from the colliery district of the ,midlands and the ,north through to ,london 7without1 as already stated1 any section thereof being controlled by railway companies71 had improved their canals1 and doubled1 trebled1 or even quadrupled the quantity of coal they carried in #ahhi1 their total would still have been insignificant as compared with the quantity conveyed by rail4 ,illustration3 ,,from ,,pit ,,to ,,port4 7,prospect ,pit1 ,wigan ,coal and ,iron ,company4 ,raised to the surface1 the coal is emptied on to a mechanical shaker1 which grades it into various sizes--lumps1 cobbles1 nuts1 and slack4 ,these sizes then each pass along a picking belt--so that impurities can be removed--and fall into the railway trucks placed at the end ready to receive them4 ,the coal can thus be taken direct from the mouth of the pit to any port or town in ,great ,britain47 ,to face page #hb4 ,the reasons for this transition in the ,london coal trade 7and the same general principle applies elsewhere7 can be readily stated4 ,they are to be found in the facilities conferred by the railway companies1 and the great changes that1 as the direct result thereof1 have taken place in the coal trade itself4 ,not only are most of the collieries in communication with the railways1 but the coal waggons are generally so arranged alongside the mouth of each pit that the coal1 as raised1 can be tipped into them direct from the screens4 ,coal trains1 thus made up1 are next brought to certain sidings in the neighbourhood of ,london1 where the waggons await the orders of the coal merchants to whom they have been consigned4 ,at ,willesden1 for example1 there is special accommodation for #b1jjj coal waggons1 and the sidings are generally full4 ,liberal provision of a like character has also been made in ,london by the ,midland1 the ,great ,northern1 and other railway companies in touch with the colliery districts4 ,an intimation as to the arrival of the consignments is sent by the railway company to the coal merchant1 who1 in ,london1 is allowed three free days at these coal sidings in which to give instructions where the coal is to be sent4 ,after three days he is charged the very modest sum of #f;d4 per day per truck4 ,assuming that the coal merchant gives directions1 either within the three days or later1 for a dozen trucks1 containing particular qualities of coal1 to be sent to different parts of ,london1 north1 south1 east and west1 those dozen trucks will have to be picked out from the one or two thousand on the sidings1 shunted1 and coupled on to trains going through to the stated destination4 ,this represents in itself a considerable amount of work1 and special staffs have to be kept on duty for the purpose4 ,then1 at no fewer than one hundred and thirty-five railway stations in ,london and the suburbs thereof1 the railway companies have provided coal depts on such vacant land as may be available close to the local sidings1 and here a certain amount of space is allotted to the use of coal merchants4 ,for this accommodation no charge whatever is made in ,london1 though a small rent has to be paid in the provinces4 ,the ,london coal merchant gets so many feet1 or yards1 allotted to him on the railway property2 he puts up a board with his name1 or that of his firm2 he stores on the said space the coal for which he has no immediate sale2 and he sends his men there to fetch from day to day just such quantities as he wants in order to execute the orders received4 ,with free accommodation such as this at half a dozen1 or even a score1 of suburban railway stations1 all that the coal merchant of to-day requires in addition is a diminutive little office immediately adjoining each railway station1 where orders can be received1 and whence instructions can be sent4 ,not only1 also1 do the railway companies provide him with a local coal dept which serves his every purpose1 but1 after allowing him three free days on the great coal sidings1 to which the waggons first come1 they give him1 on the local sidings1 another seven free days in which to arrange his business4 ,he thus gets ten clear days altogether1 before any charge is made for demurrage1 and1 if then he is still awaiting orders1 he has only to have the coal removed from the trucks on to the dept1 or wharf as it is technically called1 so escaping any payment beyond the ordinary railway rate1 in which all these privileges and advantages are included4 ,if canal transport were substituted for rail transport1 the coal would first have to be taken from the mouth of the pit to the canal1 and1 inasmuch as comparatively few collieries 7except in certain districts7 have canals immediately adjoining1 the coal would have to go by rail to the canal1 unless the expense were incurred of cutting a branch of the canal to the colliery--a much more costly business1 especially where locks are necessary1 than laying a railway siding4 ,at the canal the coal would be tipped from the railway truck into the canal boat1#h which would take it to the canal terminus1 or to some wharf or basin on the canal banks4 ,there the coal would be thrown up from the boat into the wharf 7in itself a more laborious and more expensive operation than that of shovelling it down1 or into sacks on the same level1 from a railway waggon71 and from the wharf it would have to be carted1 perhaps several miles1 to final destination4 ,under this arrangement the coal would receive much more handling--and each handling means so much additional slack and depreciation in value2 a week would have to be allowed for a journey now possible in a day2 the coal dealers would have to provide their own depts and pay more for cartage1 and they would have to order particular kinds of coal by the boat load instead of by the waggon load4 ,this last necessity would alone suffice to render the scheme abortive4 ,some years ago when there was so much discussion as to the use of a larger size of railway waggon1 efforts were made to induce the coal interests to adopt this policy4 ,but the #h-ton truck was so convenient a unit1 and suited so well the essentially retail nature of the coal trade to-day1 that as a rule the coal merchants would have nothing to do with trucks even of #ae or #bj tons4 ,much less1 therefore1 would they be inclined to favour barge loads of #bjj or #bej tons4 ,exceptions might be made in the case of gas works1 or of factories already situated alongside the banks of canals which have direct communication with collieries4 ,in the ,black ,country considerable quantities of coal thus go by canal from the collieries to the many local ironworks1 etc41 which1 as ,i have shown1 are still actively served by the ,birmingham ,canal system4 ,but these exceptions can hardly be offered as an adequate reason for the nationalisation of ,british canals4 ,the general conditions1 and especially the nature of the coal trade transition1 will be better realised from some figures mentioned by the chairman of the ,london and ,north-,western ,railway ,company1 ,lord ,stalbridge1 at the half-yearly meeting in ,february #aijc4 ,notwithstanding the heavy coal traffic--in the aggregate--the average consignment of coal1 he showed1 on the ,london and ,north-,western ,railway is only #ag-a_/b tons1 and over #hj per cent4 of the total quantity carried represents consignments of less than #bj tons1 the actual weights ranging from lots of #b tons #ad cwts4 to close upon #a1jjj tons for shipment4 ,but1 the reader may say1 if coal is taken in #a1jjj-ton lots to a port for shipment1 surely canal transport could be resorted to here6 ,this course is adopted on the ,aire and ,calder ,navigation1 which is very favourably situated1 and goes over almost perfectly level ground4 ,the average conditions of coal shipment in the ,united ,kingdom are1 however1 much better met by the special facilities which rail transport offers4 ,of the way in which coal is loaded into railway trucks direct from the colliery screens ,i have already spoken2 but1 in respect to steam coal1 it should be added that anthracite is sold in about twelve different sizes1 and that one colliery will make three or four of these sizes1 each dropped into separate trucks under the aforesaid screens4 ,the output of an anthracite colliery would be from #bjj to #cjj tons a day1 in the three or four sizes1 as stated1 this total being equal to from #bj to #cj truck-loads4 ,an order received by a coal factor for #b1jjj or #c1jjj tons of a particular size would1 therefore1 have to be made up with coal from a number of different collieries4 ,the coal1 however1 is not actually sold at the collieries4 ,it is sent down to the port1 and there it stands about for weeks1 and sometimes for months1 awaiting sale or the arrival of vessels4 ,it must necessarily be on the spot1 so that orders can be executed with the utmost expedition1 and delays to shipping avoided4 ,consequently it is necessary that ample accommodation should be provided at the port for what may be described as the coal-in-waiting4 ,at ,newport1 for example1 where about #d1jjj1jjj tons of coal are shipped in the course of the year 7independently of bunkers17 there are #ej miles of coal sidings1 capable of accommodating from #dj1jjj to #ej1jjj tons of coal sent there for shipment4 ,a record number of loaded coal trucks actually on these sidings at any one time is #c1gaf4 ,the daily average is #b1hjj4 ,now assume that the coal for shipment from ,newport had been brought there by canal boat4 ,to begin with1 it would have been first loaded1 by means of the colliery screens1 into railway trucks1 taken in these to the canal1 and then tipped into the boats4 ,this would mean further breakage1 and1 in the case of steam coal especially1 a depreciation in value4 ,but suppose that the coal had duly arrived at the port in the canal boats1 where would it be stored for those weeks and months to await sale or vessels8 ,space for miles of sidings on land can easily be found2 but the water area in a canal or dock in which barges can wait is limited1 and1 in the case of ,newport at least1 it would hardly be equal to the equivalent of #c1jjj truck-loads of coal4 ,there comes next the important matter of detail as to the way in which coal brought to a port is to be shipped4 ,nothing could be simpler and more expeditious than the practice generally adopted in the case of rail-borne coal4 ,when a given quantity of coal is to be despatched1 the vessel is brought alongside a hydraulic coal-tip1 such as that shown in the illustration facing this page1 and the loaded coal trucks are placed in succession underneath the tip4 ,raised one by one to the level of the shoot1 the trucks are there inclined to such an angle that the entire contents fall on to the shoot1 and thence into the hold of the ship4 ,brought to the horizontal again1 the empty truck passes on to a viaduct1 down which it goes1 by gravitation1 back to the sidings1 the place it has vacated on the tip being at once taken by another loaded truck4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,shipping ,,of ,,coal3 ,,hydraulic ,,tip ,,on ,g4,w4,r41 ,,swansea4 7,the loaded truck is hoisted to level of shoot1 and is there inclined to necessary angle to tip the coal1 which falls from shoot into hold of vessel4 ,empty truck passes by gravitation along viaduct1 on left1 to sidings47 ,to face page #hh4 ,substitute coal barges for coal trucks1 and how will the loading then be accomplished8 ,under any possible circumstances it would take longer to put a series of canal barges alongside a vessel in the dock than to place a series of coal trucks under the tip on shore4 ,nor could the canal barge itself be raised to the level of a shoot1 and have its contents tipped bodily into the collier4 ,what was done in the ,south ,wales district by one colliery some years ago was to load up a barge with iron tubs1 or boxes1 filled with coal1 and placed in pairs from end to end4 ,in dock one of these would be lifted out of the barge by a crane1 and lowered into the hold1 where the bottom would be knocked out1 the emptied tub being then replaced in the barge by the crane1 and the next one to it raised in turn4 ,but1 apart from the other considerations already presented1 this system of shipment was found more costly than the direct tipping of railway trucks1 and was consequently abandoned4 ,although1 therefore1 in theory coal would appear to be an ideal commodity for transport by canal1 in actual practice it is found that rail transport is both more convenient and more economical1 and certainly much better adapted to the exigences of present day trade in general1 in the case alike of domestic coal and of coal for shipment4 ,whether or not the country would be warranted in going to a heavy expense for canal resuscitation for the special benefit of a limited number of traders having works or factories alongside canal banks is a wholly different question4 ,i take next the case of raw cotton as another bulky commodity carried in substantial quantities4 ,at one time it was the custom in the ,lancashire spinning trade for considerable supplies to be bought in ,liverpool1 taken to destination by canal1 and stored in the mills for use as required4 ,a certain proportion is still handled in this way2 but the ,lancashire spinners who now store their cotton are extremely few in number1 and represent the exception rather than the rule4 ,it is found much more convenient to receive from ,liverpool from day to day by rail the exact number of bales required to meet immediate wants4 ,the order can be sent1 if necessary1 by post1 telegraph1 or telephone1 and the cotton may be expected at the mill next day1 or as desired4 ,if barge-loads of cotton were received at one time1 capital would at least have to be sunk in providing warehousing accommodation1 and the spinner thinks he can make better use of his money4 ,the day-by-day arrangement is thus both a convenience and a saving to the trader2 though it has one disadvantage from a railway standpoint1 for cotton consignments by rail are1 as a rule1 so small that there is difficulty in making up a paying load for particular destinations4 ,as the further result of the agitation a few years ago for the use of a larger type of railway waggons1 experiments have been made at ,liverpool with large trucks for the conveyance especially of raw cotton4 ,but1 owing to the day-by-day policy of the spinners1 it is no easy matter to make up a #bj-ton truck of cotton for many of the places to which consignments are sent1 and the shortage in the load represents so much dead weight4 ,consignments ordered forward by rail must1 however1 be despatched wholly1 or at any rate in part1 on day of receipt4 ,any keeping of them back1 with the idea of thus making up a better load for the railway truck1 would involve the risk of a complaint1 if not of a claim1 against the railway company1 on the ground that the mill had had to stop work owing to delay in the arrival of the cotton4 ,if the spinners would only adopt a two- or three-days-together policy1 it would be a great advantage to the railways2 but even this might involve the provision of storage accommodation at the mills1 and they accordingly prefer the existing arrangement4 ,what hope could there be1 therefore1 except under very special circumstances1 that they would be willing to change their procedure1 and receive their raw cotton in bulk by canal boat8 ,passing on to other heavy commodities carried in large quantities1 such as bricks1 stone1 drain-pipes1 manure1 or road-making materials1 it is found1 in practice1 that unless both the place whence these things are despatched and the place where they are actually wanted are close to a waterway1 it is generally more convenient and more economical to send by rail4 ,the railway truck is not only 7once more7 a better unit in regard to quantity1 but1 as in the case of domestic coal1 it can go to any railway station1 and can often be brought miles nearer to the actual destination than if the articles or materials in question are forwarded by water2 while the addition to the canal toll of the cost of cartage at either end1 or both1 may swell the total to the full amount of the railway rate1 or leave so small a margin that conveyance by rail1 in view of the other advantages offered1 is naturally preferred4 ,here we have further reasons why commodities that seem to be specially adapted for transport by canal so often go by rail instead4 ,there are manufacturers1 again1 who1 if executing a large shipping order1 would rather consign the goods1 as they are ready1 to a railway warehouse at the port1 there to await shipment1 than occupy valuable space with them on their own premises4 ,assuming that it might be possible and of advantage to forward to destination by canal boat1 they would still prefer to send off #be or #cj tons at a time1 in a narrow boat 7and #be to #cj tons would represent a big lot in most industries71 rather than keep everything back 7with the incidental result of blocking up the factory7 until1 in order to save a little on the freight1 they could fill up a barge of #bjj or #cjj tons4 ,so the moral of this part of my story is that1 even if the canals of the country were thoroughly revived1 and made available for large craft1 there could not be any really great resort to them unless there were1 also1 brought about a change in the whole basis of our general trading conditions4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,continental ,,conditions ,the larger proportion of the arguments advanced in the ,press or in public in favour of a restoration of our own canal system is derived from the statements which are unceasingly being made as to what our neighbours on the ,continent of ,europe are doing4 ,almost every writer or speaker on the subject brings forward the same stock of facts and figures as to the large sums of money that are being expended on waterways in ,continental countries2 the contention advanced being1 in effect1 that because such and such things are done on the ,continent of ,europe1 therefore they ought to be done here4 ,in the ,engineering ,supplement of ,the ,times1 for instance--to give only one example out of many--there appeared early in #aijf two articles on ,belgian ,canals and ,waterways by an engineering contributor who wrote1 among other things1 that1 in view of the well-directed efforts now being made with the object of effecting the regeneration of the ,british canal system1 the study of ,belgian canals and other navigable waterways possesses distinct interest2 and declared1 in concluding his account thereof1 that if the necessary powers1 money1 and concentrated effort were available1 there is little doubt that equally satisfactory results could be obtained in ,great ,britain4 ,is this really the case8 ,could we possibly hope to do all that can be done either in ,belgium or in ,continental countries generally1 even if we had the said powers and money1 and showed the same concentrated effort8 ,for my part ,i do not think we could1 and these are my reasons for thinking so3-- ,taking geographical considerations first1 a glance at the map of ,europe will show that1 apart from their national requirements1 enterprises1 and facilities1 ,germany1 ,belgium1 and ,holland are the gateways to vast expanses producing1 or receiving1 very large quantities of merchandise and raw materials1 much of which is eminently suitable for water transport on long journeys that have absolutely no parallel in this country4 ,in the case of ,belgium1 a good idea of the general position may be gained from some remarks made by the ,british ,consul-,general at ,antwerp1 ,sir ,e4 ,cecil ,hertslet1 in a report 7,miscellaneous ,series1 #fjd7 on ,canals and other ,navigable ,waterways of ,belgium1 issued by the ,foreign ,office in #aijd4 ,referring to the position of ,antwerp he wrote3-- ,in order to form a clear idea of the great utility of the canal system of ,belgium1 it is from its heart1 from the great port of ,antwerp1 as a centre1 that the survey must be taken4444 ,antwerp holds a leading position among the great ports of the world1 and this is due1 not only to her splendid geographical situation at the centre of the ocean highways of commerce1 but1 also1 and perhaps more particularly1 to her practically unique position as a distributing centre for a large portion of ,north-,eastern ,europe4 ,thus the canals and waterways of ,belgium do not serve merely local1 domestic1 or national purposes1 but represent the first or final links in a network of water communications by means of which merchandise can be taken to1 or brought from1 in bulk1 a large portion of ,north-,eastern ,europe4 ,much of this traffic1 again1 can just as well pass through one ,continental country1 on its way to or from the coast1 as through another4 ,in fact1 some of the most productive of ,german industrial centres are much nearer to ,antwerp or ,rotterdam than they are to ,hamburg or ,bremen4 ,hence the extremely keen rivalry between ,continental countries having ports on the ,north ,sea for the capture of these great volumes of trans-,continental traffic1 and hence1 also1 their low transport rates1 and1 to a certain extent1 their large expenditure on waterways4 ,comparing these with ,british conditions1 we must bear in mind the fact that we dwell in a group of islands1 and not in a country which forms part of a ,continent4 ,we have1 therefore1 no such transit traffic available for through barges as that which is handled on the ,continent4 ,traffic originating in ,liverpool1 and destined say1 for ,austria1 would not be put in a canal boat which would first go to ,goole1 or ,hull1 then cross the ,north ,sea in the same boat to ,holland or ,belgium1 and so on to its destination4 ,nor would traffic in bulk from the ,united ,states for the ,continent--or even for any of our ,east ,coast ports--be taken by boat across ,england4 ,it would go round by sea4 ,traffic1 again1 originating in ,birmingham1 might be taken to a port by boat4 ,but it would there require transhipment into an ocean-going vessel1 just as the commodities received from abroad would have to be transferred to a canal boat--unless ,birmingham could be converted into a sea-port4 ,if ,belgium and ,holland1 especially1 had had no chance of getting more than local1 as distinct from through or transit traffic--if1 in other words1 they had been islands like our own1 with the same geographical limitations as ourselves1 and with no trans-,continental traffic to handle1 is there the slightest probability that they would have spent anything like the same amount of money on the development of their waterways as they have actually done8 ,in the particular circumstances of their position they have acted wisely2 but it does not necessarily follow that we1 in wholly different circumstances1 have acted foolishly in not following their example4 ,it might further be noted1 in this connection1 that while in the case of ,belgium all the waterways in1 or leading into1 the country converge to the one great port of ,antwerp1 in ,england we have great ports1 competing more or less the one with the other1 all round our coasts1 and the conferring of special advantages on one by the ,state would probably be followed by like demands on the part of all the others4 ,as for communication between our different ports1 this is maintained so effectively by coasting vessels 7the competition of which already powerfully influences railway rates7 that heavy expenditure on canal improvement could hardly be justified on this account4 ,however effectively the ,thames might be joined to the ,mersey1 or the ,humber to the ,severn1 by canal1 the vast bulk of port-to-port traffic would probably still go by sea4 ,then there are great differences between the physical conditions of ,great ,britain and those parts of the ,continent of ,europe where the improvement of waterways has undergone the greatest expansion4 ,portions of ,holland--as everybody knows--are below the level of the sea1 and the remainder are not much above it4 ,a large part of ,belgium is flat2 so is most of ,northern ,germany4 ,in fact there is practically a level plain right away from the shores of the ,north ,sea to the steppes of ,russia4 ,canal construction in these conditions is a comparatively simple and a comparatively inexpensive matter2 though where such conditions do not exist to the same extent--as in the south of ,germany1 for example--the building of canals becomes a very different problem4 ,this fact is well recognised by ,herr ,franz ,ulrich in his book on ,staffeltarife und ,wasserstrassen1 where he argues that the building of canals is practicable only in districts favoured by ,nature1 and that hilly and backward country is thus unavoidably handicapped4 ,much1 again1 of the work done on the ,continent has been a matter either of linking up great rivers or of canalising these for navigation purposes4 ,we have in ,england no such rivers as the ,rhine1 the ,weser1 the ,elbe1 and the ,oder1 but the very essence of the ,german scheme of waterways is to connect these and other rivers by canals1 a through route by water being thus provided from the ,north ,sea to the borders of ,russia4 ,further south there is already a small canal1 the ,ludwigs ,canal1 connecting the ,rhine and the ,danube1 and this canal--as distinct from those in the northern plains--certainly does rise to an elevation of #fjj feet from the ,river ,main to its summit level4 ,a scheme has now been projected for establishing a better connection between the ,rhine and the ,danube by a ship canal following the route either of the ,main or of the ,neckar4 ,in describing these two powerful streams ,professor ,meiklejohn says1 in his ,new ,geography3-- ,the two greatest rivers of ,europe--greatest from almost every point of view--are the ,danube and the ,rhine4 ,the ,danube is the largest river in ,europe in respect of its volume of water2 it is the only large ,european river that flows due east2 and it is therefore the great highway to the ,east for ,south ,germany1 for ,austria1 for ,hungary1 and for the younger nations in its valley4 ,it flows through more lands1 races1 and languages than any other ,european river4 ,the ,rhine is the great water-highway for ,western ,europe2 and it carries the traffic and the travellers of many countries and peoples4 ,both streams give life to the whole ,continent2 they join many countries and the most varied interests2 while the streams of ,france exist only for ,france itself4 ,the ,danube runs parallel with the mighty ranges of the ,alps2 the ,rhine saws its way through the secondary highlands which lie between the ,alps and the ,netherlands4 ,the construction of this proposed link would give direct water communication between the ,north ,sea and the ,black ,sea1 a distance1 as the crow flies1 and not counting river windings1 of about #a1cjj miles4 ,such an achievement as this would put entirely in the shade even the present possible voyage1 by canal and river1 of #cjj miles from ,antwerp to ,strasburg4 ,what are our conditions in ,great ,britain1 as against all these8 ,in place of the great lowland plain in which most of the ,continental canal work we hear so much about has been done1 we possess an undulating country whose physical conditions are well indicated by the canal sections given opposite this page4 ,such differences of level as those that are there shown must be overcome by locks1 lifts1 or inclined planes1 together with occasional tunnels or viaducts4 ,in the result the construction of canals is necessarily much more costly in ,great ,britain than on the aforesaid great lowland plain of ,continental ,europe1 and dimensions readily obtainable there become practically impossible here on account alike of the prohibitive cost of construction and the difficulties that would arise in respect to water supply4 ,a canal connecting the ,rhine1 the ,weser1 and the ,elbe1 in ,germany1 is hardly likely to run short of water1 and the same may be said of the canals in ,holland1 and of those in the lowlands of ,belgium4 ,this is a very different matter from having to pump water from low levels to high levels1 to fill reservoirs for canal purposes1 as must be done on the ,birmingham and other canals1 or from taking a fortnight to accomplish the journey from ,hull to ,nottingham as once happened owing to insufficiency of water4 ,illustration3 ,,some ,,typical ,,british ,,canals4 ,to face page #ih4 ,there is1 also1 that very important consideration1 from a transport standpoint1 of the length of haul4 ,assuming1 for the sake of argument 7#a7 that the commercial conditions were the same in ,great ,britain as they are on the ,continent2 7#b7 that our country1 also1 consisted of a great lowland plain2 and 7#c7 that we1 as well1 had great natural waterways1 like the ,rhine1 yielding an abundant water supply2--assuming all this1 it would still be impossible1 in the circumscribed dimensions of our isles1 to get a length of haul in any way approaching the barge-journeys that are regularly made between1 say1 ,north ,sea ports and various centres in ,germany4 ,the geographical differences in general between ,great ,britain and ,continental countries were thus summed up by ,mr ,w4 ,h4 ,wheeler in the discussion on ,mr ,saner's paper at the ,institution of ,civil ,engineers3-- ,there really did not seem to be any justification for ,government interference with the canals4 ,england was in an entirely different situation from ,continental countries4 ,she was a sea-girt nation1 with no less than eight first-class ports on a coast-line of #a1hbj miles4 ,communication between these by coasting steamers was1 therefore1 easy1 and could be accomplished in much less time and at less cost than by canal4 ,there was no large manufacturing town in ,england that was more than about #hj miles in a direct line from a first-class seaport2 and taking the country south of the ,firth of ,forth1 there were only #db-a_/b square miles to each mile of coast4 ,france1 on the other hand1 had only two first-class ports1 one in the north and the other in the extreme south1 over a coast-line of #a1cfj miles4 ,its capital was #ajj miles from the nearest seaport1 and the towns in the centre of the country were #bej to #cjj miles from either ,havre or ,marseilles4 ,for every mile of coast-line there were #afb square miles of country4 ,belgium had one large seaport and only #ej miles of coast-line1 with #bbg square miles of country to every square mile4 ,germany had only two first-class ports1 both situated on its northern coast2 ,frankfort and ,berlin were distant from those ports about #bej miles1 and for every mile of coast-line there were #bca square miles of country4 ,the necessity of an extended system of inland waterways for the distribution of produce and materials was1 therefore1 far more important in those countries than it was in ,england4 ,passing from commercial and geographical to political conditions1 we find that in ,germany the ,state owns or controls alike railways and waterways4 ,prussia bought up most of the former1 partly with the idea of safeguarding the protective policy of the country 7endangered by the low rates charged on imports by independent railway companies71 and partly in order that the ,government could secure1 in the profits on railway operation1 a source of income independent of ,parliamentary votes4 ,so well has the latter aim been achieved that a contribution to the ,exchequer of from #aj1jjj1jjj to #ae1jjj1jjj a year has been obtained1 and1 rather than allow this source of income to be checked by heavy expenditure1 the ,prussian ,government have refrained from carrying out such widenings and improvements of their ,state system of railways as a ,british or an ,american railway company would certainly have adopted in like circumstances1 and have left the traders to find relief in the waterways instead4 ,the increased traffic the waterways of ,germany are actually getting is mainly traffic which has either been diverted from the railways1 or would have been handled by the railways in other countries in the natural course of their expansion4 ,whatever may be the case with the waterways1 the railways of ,prussia1 especially1 are comparatively unprogressive1 and1 instead of developing through traffic at competitive rates1 they are reverting more and more to the original position of railways as feeders to the waterways4 ,they get a short haul from place of origin to the waterway1 and another short haul1 perhaps1 from waterway again to final destination2 but the greater part of the journey is done by water4 ,these conditions represent one very material factor in the substantial expansion of water-borne traffic in ,germany--and most of that traffic1 be it remembered1 has been on great rivers rather than on artificial canals4 ,the latter are certainly being increased in number1 especially1 as ,i have said1 where they connect the rivers2 and the ,government are the more inclined that the waterways should be developed because then there will be less need for spending money on the railways1 and for any interference with the revenue-producing machine which those railways represent4 ,in ,france the railways owned and operated by the ,state are only a comparatively small section of the whole2 but successive ,governments have advanced immense sums for railway construction1 and the ,state guarantees the dividends of the companies2 while in ,france as in ,germany railway rates are controlled absolutely by the ,state4 ,in neither country is there free competition between rail and water transport4 ,if there were1 the railways would probably secure a much greater proportion of the traffic than they do4 ,still another consideration to be borne in mind is that although each country has spent great sums of money--at the cost of the general taxpayer--on the provision of canals or the improvement of waterways1 no tolls are1 with few exceptions1 imposed on the traders4 ,the canal charges include nothing but actual cost of carriage1 whereas ,british railway rates may cover various other services1 in addition1 and have to be fixed on a scale that will allow of a great variety of charges and obligations being met4 ,not only1 both in ,germany and ,france1 may the waterway be constructed and improved by the ,state1 but the ,state also meets the annual expenditure on dredging1 lighting1 superintendence and the maintenance of inland harbours4 ,here we have further reasons for the growth of the water-borne traffic on the ,continent4 ,where the ,state1 as railway owner or railway subsidiser1 spends money also on canals1 it competes only1 to a certain extent1 with itself2 but this would be a very different position from ,state-owned or ,state-supported canals in this country competing with privately-owned railways4#i ,if then1 as ,i maintain is the case1 there is absolutely no basis for fair comparison between ,continental and ,british conditions--whether commercial1 geographical1 or political--we are left to conclude that the question of reviving ,british canals must be judged and decided strictly from a ,british standpoint1 and subject to the limitations of ,british policy1 circumstances1 and possibilities4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,waterways ,,in ,,the ,,united ,,states ,in some respects conditions in the ,united ,states compare with those of ,continental ,europe1 for they suggest alike powerful streams1 artificial canals constructed on 7as a rule7 flat or comparatively flat surfaces1 and the possibilities of traffic in large quantities for transport over long distances before they can reach a seaport4 ,in other respects the comparison is less with ,continental than with ,british conditions1 inasmuch as1 for the last half century at least1 the ,american railways have been free to compete with the waterways1 and fair play has been given to the exercise of economic forces1 with the result that1 in the ,united ,states as in the ,united ,kingdom1 the railways have fully established their position as the factors in inland transport best suited to the varied requirements of trade and commerce of to-day1 while the rivers and canals 7,i do not here deal with the ,great ,lakes1 which represent an entirely different proposition7 have played a rle of steadily diminishing importance4 ,the earliest canal built in the ,united ,states was that known as the ,erie ,canal4 ,it was first projected in #agfh1 with the idea of establishing a through route by water between ,lake ,erie and the ,river ,hudson at ,albany1 whence the boats or barges employed would be able to reach the port of ,new ,york4 ,the ,act for its construction was not passed1 however1 by the ,provincial ,legislature of the ,state of ,new ,york until #ahag4 ,the canal itself was opened for traffic in #ahbe4 ,it had a total length from ,cleveland to ,albany of #cfd miles1 included therein being some notable engineering work in the way of aqueducts1 etc4 ,at the date in question there were four ,north ,atlantic seaports1 namely1 ,boston1 ,new ,york1 ,philadelphia1 and ,baltimore1 all of about equal importance4 ,boston1 however1 had appeared likely to take the lead1 by reason both of her comparatively dense population and of her substantial development of manufactures4 ,philadelphia was also then somewhat in advance of ,new ,york in trade and population4 ,the effect of the ,erie ,canal1 however1 was to concentrate all the advantages1 for the time being1 on ,new ,york4 ,thanks to the canal1 ,new ,york secured the domestic trade of a widespread territory in the middle west1 while her rivals could not possess themselves of like facilities1 because of the impracticability of constructing canals to cross the ranges of mountains separating them from the valley of the ,mississippi and the basin of the ,great ,lakes--ranges broken only by the ,hudson and the ,mohawk valleys1 of which the constructors of the ,erie ,canal had already taken advantage4 ,so ,new ,york1 with its splendid harbour1 made great progress alike in trade1 wealth1 and population1 completely outdistancing her rivals1 and becoming1 as a ,state1 the ,empire ,state1 and1 as a city1 the financial and commercial centre of the ,western ,hemisphere4 ,while1 again1 the ,erie ,canal was one of the most efficient factors in bringing about these results1 it was also developing the north-west by giving an outlet to the commerce of the ,great ,lakes1 and during the second quarter of the nineteenth century it represented what has been well described as the most potent influence of ,american progress and civilisation4 ,not only did the traffic it carried increase from #a1bej1jjj tons1 in #ahcg1 to #c1jjj1jjj tons in #ahdg1 but it further inspired the building of canals in other sections of the ,united ,states4 ,in course of time the artificial waterways of that country represented a total length of #e1jjj miles4 ,with the advent of the railways there came revolutionary changes which were by no means generally appreciated at first4 ,the cost of the various canals had been defrayed mostly by the different ,states1 and1 though financial considerations had thus been more readily met1 the policy pursued had committed the ,states concerned to the support of the canals against possible competition4 ,when1 therefore1 private enterprise introduced railways1 in which the doom of the canals was foreseen1 there was a wild outburst of indignant protest4 ,the money of the taxpayers1 it was said1 had been sunk in building the canals1 and1 if the welfare of these should be prejudiced by the railways1 every taxpayer in the ,state would suffer4 ,when it was seen that the railways had come to stay1 the demand arose that1 while passengers might travel by rail1 the canals should have the exclusive right to convey merchandise4 ,the question was even discussed by the ,legislature of the ,state of ,new ,york1 in #aheg1 whether the railways should not be prevented from carrying goods at all1 or1 alternatively1 whether heavy taxes should not be imposed on goods traffic carried by rail in order to check the considerable tendency then being shown for merchandise to go by rail instead of by canal1 irrespective of any difference in rates4 ,the railway companies were further accused of conspiring to break down those great public works upon which the ,state has spent forty years of labour1 and so active was the campaign against them--while it lasted--that one ,new ,york paper wrote3--,the whole community is aroused as it never was before4 ,some of the laws which had been actually passed to protect the ,state-constructed canals against the railways were1 however1 repealed in #ahea1 and the agitation itself was not continued beyond #aheg1 from which year the railways had free scope and opportunity to show what they could do4 ,the contest was vigorous and prolonged1 but the railways steadily won4 ,in the first instance the ,erie ,canal had a depth of #d feet1 and could be navigated only by #cj-ton boats4 ,in #ahfb it was deepened to #g feet1 in order that boats of #bdj tons1 with a capacity of #h1jjj tons of wheat1 could pass1 the cost of construction being thus increased from #g1jjj1jjj to #ej1jjj1jjj4 ,then1 in #ahhb1 all tolls were abolished1 and the canal has since been maintained out of the ,state treasury4 ,but how the traffic on the ,new ,york canals as a whole 7including the ,erie1 the ,oswego1 the ,champlain1 etc47 has declined1 in competition with the railroads1 is well shown by the following table3--#aj ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,year4 ,total ,traffic on ,new ,york ,percentage on ,canals and ,railroads4 ,canals only4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,tons4 ,per cent4 #ahfj #g1aee1hjc #fe #ahgj #ag1dhh1dfi #ce #ahhj #bi1idc1fcc #ba #ahij #ef1cbg1ffa #i4c #aijj #hd1idb1ihh #d4a #aijc #ic1bdh1bii #c4i ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,the falling off in the canal traffic has been greatest in just those heavy or bulky commodities that are generally assumed to be specially adapted for conveyance by water4 ,of the flour and grain1 for instance1 received at ,new ,york1 less than #aj per cent4 in #ahii1 and less than #h per cent4 in #aijj1 came by the ,erie ,canal4 ,the experiences of the ,new ,york canals have been fully shared by other canals in other ,states4 ,of the sum total of #e1jjj miles of canals constructed1 #b1jjj had been abandoned by #ahij on the ground that the traffic was insufficient to cover working expenses4 ,since then most of the remainder have shared the same fate1 one of the last of the survivors1 the ,delaware and ,hudson1 being converted into a railway a year or two ago4 ,in fact the only canals in the ,united ,states to-day1 besides those in the ,state of ,new ,york1 whose business is sufficiently regular to warrant the inclusion of their traffic in the monthly reports of the ,government are the ,chesapeake and ,delaware 7connecting ,chesapeake and ,delaware ,bays1 and having an annual traffic of about #gjj1jjj tons1 largely lumber72 and the ,chesapeake and ,ohio 7from ,cumberland to ,georgetown1 owned by the ,state of ,maryland1 and transporting coal almost exclusively1 the amount depending on the state of congestion of traffic on the railroads74 ,it is ,new ,york that has been most affected by this decline in ,american canals4 ,when the railways began to compete severely with the ,erie ,canal1 ,new ,york's previous supremacy over rival ports in the ,eastern ,states was seriously threatened4 ,philadelphia and ,baltimore1 and various smaller ports also1 started to make tremendous advance4 ,then the ,gulf ports--notably ,new ,orleans and ,galveston--were able to capture a good deal of ocean traffic that might otherwise have passed through ,new ,york4 ,not only do the railway lines to those ports have the advantage of easy grades1 so that exceptionally heavy train-loads can be handled with ease1 and not only is there no fear of snow or ice blocks in winter1 but the improvements effected in the ports themselves--as ,i had the opportunity of seeing and judging1 in the winter of #aijb-c1 during a visit to the ,united ,states--have made these southern ports still more formidable competitors of ,new ,york4 ,while1 therefore1 the trade of the ,united ,states has undergone great expansion of late years1 that proportion of it which passes through the port of ,new ,york has seriously declined4 ,in less than ten years1 says a pamphlet on ,the ,canal ,system of ,new ,york ,state1 issued by the ,canal ,improvement ,state ,committee1 ,city of ,new ,york1 ,pennsylvania or some other ,state may be the ,empire ,state1 which title ,new ,york has held since the time of the ,erie ,canal4 ,so a movement has been actively promoted in ,new ,york ,state for the resuscitation of the ,erie and other canals there1 with a view to assuring the continuance of ,new ,york's commercial supremacy1 and giving her a better chance--if possible--of competing with rivals now flourishing at her expense4 ,at first a ship canal between ,new ,york and ,lake ,erie was proposed2 but this idea has been rejected as impracticable4 ,finally1 the ,legislature of the ,state of ,new ,york decided on spending #aja1jjj1jjj on enlarging the ,erie and other canals in the ,state1 so as to give them a depth of #ab feet1 and allow of the passage of #a1jjj-ton barges1 arrangements being also made for propulsion by electric or steam traction4 ,in addition to this particular scheme1 there are1 says ,mr ,f4 ,h4 ,dixon1 ,professor of ,economics1 ,dartmouth ,college1 in an address on ,competition between ,water and ,railway ,transportation ,lines in the ,united ,states1 read by him before the ,st ,louis ,railway ,club1 and reported in the ,engineering ,news 7,new ,york7 of ,march #bb1 #aijf1 many other proposals for canals in different sections of the country1 extending all the way from projects that have some economic justification to the crazy and impracticable schemes of visionaries4 ,but the general position in regard to canal resuscitation in the ,united ,states does not seem to be very hopeful1 judging from a statement made by ,mr ,carnegie--once an advocate of the proposed ,pittsburg-,lake ,erie ,canal--before the ,pittsburg ,chamber of ,commerce in #ahih4 ,such has been the progress of railway development1 he said1 that if we had a canal to-day from ,lake ,erie through the ,ohio ,valley to ,beaver1 free of toll1 we could not afford to put boats on it4 ,it is cheaper to-day to transfer the ore to #ej-ton cars1 and bring it to our works at ,pittsburg over our railway1 than it would be to bring it by canal4 ,turning from artificial to natural waterways in the ,united ,states1 ,i find the story of the ,mississippi no less instructive4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,cargo ,,boat ,,on ,,the ,,mississippi4 ,to face page #aaj4 ,this magnificent stream has1 in itself1 a length of #b1dhe miles4 ,but the ,missouri is really only an upper prolongation of the same river under another name1 and the total length of the two1 from mouth to source1 is #d1aij miles1 of which the greater distance is navigable4 ,the ,mississippi and its various tributaries drain1 altogether1 an area of #a1bdj1jjj square miles1 or nearly one-third of the territory of the ,united ,states4 ,if any great river in the world had a chance at all of holding its own against the railroads as a highway of traffic it should1 surely1 be the ,mississippi1 to which ,british theorists ought to be able to point as a powerful argument in support of their general proposition concerning the advantages of water over rail-transport4 ,but the actual facts all point in the other direction4 ,the earliest conditions of navigation on the ,mississippi are well shown in the following extract from an article published in the ,quarterly ,review of ,march #ahcj1 under the heading1 ,railroads and ,locomotive ,steam-carriages3-- ,as an example of the difficulties of internal navigation1 it may be mentioned that on the great river ,mississippi1 which flows at the rate of #e or #f miles an hour1 it was the practice of a certain class of boatmen1 who brought down the produce of the interior to ,new ,orleans1 to break up their boats1 sell the timber1 and afterwards return home slowly by land2 and a voyage up the river from ,new ,orleans to ,pittsburg1 a distance of about #b1jjj miles1 could hardly be accomplished1 with the most laborious efforts1 within a period of four months4 ,but the uncertain and limited influence1 both of the wind and the tide1 is now superseded by a new agent1 which in power far surpassing the raging torrent1 is yet perfectly manageable1 and acts with equal efficacy in any direction4444 ,steamboats of every description1 and on the most approved models1 ply on all the great rivers of the ,united ,states2 the voyage from ,new ,orleans to ,pittsburg1 which formerly occupied four months1 is accomplished with ease in fifteen or twenty days1 and at the rate of not less than #e miles an hour4 ,since this article in the ,quarterly ,review was published1 enormous sums of money have been spent on the ,mississippi--partly with a view to the prevention of floods1 but partly1 also1 to improve the river for the purposes of navigation4 ,placed in charge of a ,mississippi ,commission and of the ,chief of ,engineers in the ,united ,states ,army1 the river has been systematically surveyed2 special studies and reports have been drawn up on every possible aspect of its normal or abnormal conditions and circumstances2 the largest river dredges in the world have been employed to ensure an adequate depth of the river bed2 engineering works in general on the most complete scale have been carried out--in fact1 nothing that science1 skill1 or money could accomplish has been left undone4 ,the difficulties were certainly considerable4 ,there has always been a tendency for the river bed to get choked up by the sediment the stream failed to carry on2 the banks are weak2 while the variation in water level is sometimes as much as #aj feet in a single month4 ,none the less1 the ,mississippi played for a time as important a rle in the west and the south as the ,erie ,canal played in the north4 ,steamboats on the western rivers increased in number from #bj1 in #ahah1 to #a1bjj1 in #ahdh1 and there was a like development in flat boat tonnage4 ,with the expansion of the river traffic came a growth of large cities and towns alongside4 ,louisville increased in population from #d1jjj1 in #ahbj1 to #dc1jjj1 in #ahej1 and ,st ,louis from #d1ijj to #gg1jjj in the same period4 ,with the arrival of the railroads began the decline of the river1 though some years were to elapse before the decline was seriously felt4 ,it was the absolute perfection of the railway system that eventually made its competition irresistible4 ,the lines paralleled the river2 they had1 as ,i have said1 easy grades2 they responded to that consideration in regard to speedy delivery of consignments which is as pronounced in the ,united ,states as it is in ,great ,britain2 they were as free from stoppages due to variations in water level as they were from stoppages on account of ice or snow2 and they could be provided with branch lines as feeders1 going far inland1 so that the trader did not have either to build his factory on the river bank or to pay cost of cartage between factory and river4 ,the railway companies1 again1 were able to provide much more efficient terminal facilities1 especially in the erection of large wharves1 piers1 and depts which allow of the railway waggons coming right alongside the steamers4 ,at ,galveston ,i saw cargo being discharged from the ocean-going steamers by being placed on trucks which were raised from the vessel by endless moving-platforms to the level of the goods station1 where stood1 along parallel series of lines1 the railway waggons which would take them direct to ,chicago1 ,san ,francisco1 or elsewhere4 ,with facilities such as these no inland waterway can possibly compete4 ,the railways1 again1 were able1 in competition with the river1 to reduce their charges to what the traffic would bear1 depending on a higher proportion of profit elsewhere4 ,the steamboats could adopt no such policy as this1 and the traders found that1 by the time they had paid1 not only the charges for actual river transport1 but insurance and extra cartage1 as well1 they had paid as much as transport by rail would have cost1 while getting a much slower and more inconvenient service4 ,illustration3 ,,successful ,,rivals ,,of ,,mississippi ,,cargo ,,boats4 7#a7 ,illinois ,central ,freight ,train2 #dc cars2 #b1ajj tons4 7#b7 ,banana ,express1 ,new ,orleans to ,chicago2 #cd cars2 #dcc tons of bananas4 ,to face page #aad4 ,the final outcome of all these conditions is indicated by some remarks made by ,mr ,stuyvesant ,fish1 ,president of the ,illinois ,central ,railroad ,company 7the chief railway competitors of the ,mississippi steamboats71 in the address he delivered as ,president of the ,seventh ,session of the ,international ,railway ,congress at ,washington1 in ,may #aije3-- ,it is within my knowledge that twenty years ago there were annually carried by steamboats from ,memphis to ,new ,orleans over #ajj1jjj bales of cotton1 and that in almost every year since the railroads between ,memphis and ,new ,orleans passed under one management1 not a single bale has been carried down the ,mississippi ,river from ,memphis by boat1 and in no one year have #ejj bales been thus carried2 the reason being that1 including the charges for marine and fire insurance1 the rates by water are higher than by rail4 ,to this statement ,mr ,fish added some figures which may be tabulated as follows3-- ,,tonnage ,,of ,,freight ,,received ,,at ,,or ,,despatched ,,from ,,new ,,orleans4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- #ahij #aijj ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,by the ,mississippi ,river 7all sources7 #b1cjf1bij #dej1dih ,by rail #c1eeg1gdb #f1heb1jfd ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,decline of river traffic in ten years #a1hee1gib tons ,increase of rail #c1bid1cbb ,these figures bear striking testimony to the results that may be brought about in a country where railways are allowed a fair chance of competing with even the greatest of natural waterways--a chance1 as ,i have said1 denied them in ,germany and ,france4 ,looking1 too1 at these figures1 ,i understand better the significance of what ,i saw at ,memphis1 where a solitary ,mississippi steamboat--one of the survivals of those huge floating warehouses now mostly rusting out their existence at ,new ,orleans--was having her cargo discharged on the river banks by a few negroes1 while the powerful locomotives of the ,illinois ,central were rushing along on the adjoining railway with the biggest train-loads it was possible for them to haul4 ,on the general position in the ,united ,states ,i might quote the following from a communication with which ,i have been favoured by ,mr ,luis ,jackson1 an ,englishman by birth1 who1 after an early training on ,british railways1 went to the ,united ,states1 created there the rle of industrial commissioner in connection with ,american railways1 and now fills that position on the ,erie ,railroad3-- ,when ,i was in the ,west the question of water transportation down the ,mississippi was frequently remarked upon4 ,the ,mississippi is navigable from ,st ,paul to ,new ,orleans4 ,in the early days the towns along the ,mississippi1 especially those from ,st ,paul to ,st ,louis1 depended upon1 and had their growth through1 the river traffic4 ,it was a common remark among our railroad people that 'we could lick the river4' ,the traffic down the ,mississippi1 especially from ,st ,paul to ,st ,louis 7,i can only speak of the territory with which ,i am well acquainted7 perceptibly declined in competition with the railroads1 and the river towns have been revived by1 and now depend more for their growth on1 the railroads than on the river4444 ,figures do not prove anything4 ,if the ,erie ,canal and the ,mississippi ,river traffic had increased1 doubled1 trebled1 or quadrupled in the past years1 instead of actually dwindling by tonnage figures1 it would prove nothing as against the tremendous tonnage hauled by the trunk line railroads4 ,the ,erie ,railroad ,company1 ,new ,york to ,chicago1 last year carried #cb1jjj1jjj tons of revenue freights4 ,it would take a pretty good canal to handle that amount of traffic2 and the ,erie is only one of many lines between ,new ,york and ,chicago4 ,a canal1 paralleling great railroads1 to some extent injures them on through traffic4 ,the tendency of all railroads is in the line of progress4 ,as the tonnage increases the equipment becomes larger1 and the general tendency of railroad rates is downwards2 in other words1 the public in the end gets from the railroad all that can be expected from a canal1 and much more4 ,the railroad can expand right and left1 and reach industries by side tracks2 with canals every manufacturer must locate on the banks of the canal4 ,canals for internal commerce1 in my mind1 are out of date2 they belong to the 'slow4' ,nor do ,i believe that the traffic management of canals by the ,state has the same conception of traffic measures which is adopted by the modern managers of railroads4 ,canals affect rates on heavy commodities1 and play a part mostly injurious1 to my mind1 to the proper development of railroads1 especially on the ,continent of ,europe4 ,they may do local business1 but the railroad is the real handmaid of commerce4 ,by way of concluding this brief sketch of ,american conditions1 ,i cannot do better than adopt the final sentences in ,professor ,dixon's paper at the ,st ,louis ,railway ,club to which ,i have already referred3-- ,two considerations should1 above all others1 be kept in mind in determination of the feasibility of any project3 first1 the very positive limitations to the efficiency of rivers and canals as transportation agencies because of their lack of flexibility and the natural disabilities under which they suffer2 and secondly1 that water transportation is not necessarily cheap simply because the ,government constructs and maintains the channels4 ,nothing could be more delusive than the assertion so frequently made1 which is found in the opening pages of the report of the ,new ,york ,committee on ,canals of #ahii1 that water transportation is inherently cheaper than rail transportation4 ,such an assertion is true only of ocean transportation1 and possibly also of large bodies of water like the lakes1 although this last is doubtful4 ,by all means let us have our waterways developed when such development is economically justifiable4 ,what is justifiable must be a matter of judgment1 and possibly to some extent of experimentation1 but the burden of proof rests on its advocates4 ,such projects should be carried out by the localities interested and the burden should be borne by those who are to derive the benefit4 ,only in large undertakings of national concern should the ,general ,government be called upon for aid4 ,but ,i protest most vigorously against the deluge of schemes poured in upon ,congress at every session by reckless advocates who1 disregarding altogether the cost of their crazy measures in the increased burden of general taxation1 argue for the inherent cheapness of water transportation1 and urge the construction at public expense of works whose traffic will never cover the cost of maintenance4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,english ,,conditions ,i have already spoken in ,chapter ,,vii4 of some of the chief differences between ,continental and ,english conditions1 but ,i revert to the latter because it is essential that1 before approving of any scheme of canal restoration here1 the ,british public should thoroughly understand the nature of the task that would thus be undertaken4 ,the sections of actual canal routes1 given opposite page #ih1 will convey some idea of the difficulties which faced the original builders of our artificial waterways4 ,the wonder is that1 since water has not yet been induced to flow up-hill1 canals were ever constructed over such surfaces at all4 ,most probably the majority of them would not have been attempted if railways had come into vogue half a century earlier than they did4 ,looking at these diagrams1 one can imagine how the locomotive--which does not disdain hill-climbing1 and can easily be provided with cuttings1 bridges1 viaducts1 and tunnels--could follow the canal2 but one can hardly imagine that in ,england1 at least1 the canal would have followed the railway4 ,the whole proposition in regard to canal revival would be changed if only the surfaces in ,great ,britain were the same as they are1 say1 between ,hamburg and ,berlin1 where in #bcj miles of waterway there are only three locks4 ,in this country there is an average of one lock for every #a-a_/d mile of navigation4 ,the sum total of the locks on ,british canals is #b1cgg1 each representing1 on an average1 a capitalised cost of #a1cfj4 ,instead of a great central plain1 as on the ,continent of ,europe1 we have a great central ridge1 extending the greater length of ,england4 ,in the #af miles between ,worcester and ,tardebigge on the ,worcester and ,birmingham ,canal1 there are fifty-eight locks to be passed through by a canal boat going from the ,severn to ,birmingham4 ,at ,tardebigge there is a difference in level of about #bej feet in #c miles or so4 ,this is overcome by a flight of thirty locks1 which a #be-ton boat may hope to get through in four hours4 ,between ,huddersfield and ,ashton1 on the ,huddersfield ,narrow ,canal1 there are seventy-four locks in #bj miles2 between ,manchester and ,sowerby ,bridge1 on the ,rochdale ,canal1 there are ninety-two locks in #cb miles1 to enable the boats to pass over an elevation #fjj feet above sea level2 and at ,bingley1 on the ,leeds and ,liverpool ,canal1 five staircase locks give a total lift of #ei feet #b inches4 ,between ,london and ,liverpool there are three canal routes1 each passing through either ten or eleven separate navigations1 and covering distances of from #bdd to #bfg miles4 ,by one of these routes a boat has to pass through such series of locks as ninety in #ajj miles on the ,grand ,junction ,canal1 between ,paddington and ,braunston2 forty-three in #ag miles on the ,birmingham ,canal1 between ,birmingham and ,aldersley2 and forty-six in #ff miles on the ,shropshire ,union ,canal1 between ,autherley and ,ellesmere ,port4 ,proceeding by an alternative route1 the boat would pass through fifty-nine locks in #fg miles on the ,trent and ,mersey2 while a third route would give two hundred and eighty-two locks in a total of #bfg miles4 ,the number of separate navigations is ten by ,routes ,i4 and ,,ii41 and eleven by ,route ,,iii4 ,between ,london and ,hull there are two routes1 one #bhb miles with one hundred and sixty-four locks1 and the other #cje miles with one hundred and forty-eight locks4 ,on the journey from ,london to the ,severn1 a boat would pass through one hundred and thirty locks in #agg miles in going to the ,avonmouth ,docks 7this total including one hundred and six locks in #hf miles between ,reading and ,hanham1 on the ,kennet and ,avon ,canal72 and either one hundred and two locks in #aia miles1 or two hundred and thirty in #bai miles1 if the destination were ,sharpness ,docks4 ,between ,liverpool and ,hull there are one hundred and four locks in #ahg miles by one route2 one hundred and forty-nine in #aei miles by a second route2 and one hundred and fifty-two in #adi miles by a third4 ,in the case of a canal boat despatched from ,birmingham1 the position would be--to ,london1 one hundred and fifty-five locks in #adg miles2 to ,liverpool 7#a7 ninety-nine locks in #aad miles1 7#b7 sixty-nine locks in #id miles2 to ,hull1 sixty-six locks in #afd miles2 to the ,severn1 ,sharpness ,docks 7#a7 sixty-one locks in #ge miles1 7#b7 forty-nine locks in #hi miles4 ,early in #aijf a correspondent of ,the ,standard made an experimental canal journey from the ,thames1 at ,brentford1 to ,birmingham1 to test the qualities of a certain suction-producer gas motor barge4 ,the barge itself stood the test so well that the correspondent was able to declare3--,in the new power may be found a solution of the problem of canal traction4 ,he arrived at this conclusion notwithstanding the fact that the motor barge was stopped at one of the locks by a drowned cat being caught between the barge and the incoming butty boat4 ,the journey from ,london to ,birmingham occupied1 roughly1 six and a half days--a journey1 that is1 which ,london and ,north-,western express trains accomplish regularly in two hours4 ,the #bb-a_/b miles of the ,warwick and ,birmingham ,canal1 which has thirty-four locks1 alone took ten hours and a half4 ,from ,birmingham the correspondent made other journeys in the same barge1 covering1 altogether1 #cgj miles4 ,in that distance he passed through three hundred and twenty-seven locks1 various summits several hundred feet in height being crossed by this means4 ,at ,anderton1 on the ,trent and ,mersey ,canal1 there is a vertical hydraulic lift which raises or lowers two narrow boats #ej feet to enable them to pass between the canal and the ,river ,mersey1 the operation being done by means of troughs #ge feet by #ad-a_/b feet4 ,inclined planes have also been made use of to avoid a multiplicity of locks4 ,it is assumed that in the event of any general scheme of resuscitation being undertaken1 the present flights of locks would1 in many instances1 be done away with1 hydraulic lifts being substituted for them4 ,where this could be done it would certainly effect a saving in time1 though the provision of a lift between series of locks would not save water1 as this would still be required for the lock below4 ,hydraulic lifts1 however1 could not be used in mining districts1 such as the ,black ,country1 on account of possible subsidences4 ,where that drawback did not occur there would still be the question of expense4 ,the cost of construction of the ,anderton lift was #ej1jjj1 and the cost of maintenance is #ejj a year4 ,would the traffic on a particular route be always equal to the outlay8 ,in regard to inclined planes1 it was proposed some eight or ten years ago to construct one on the ,birmingham ,canal in order to do away with a series of locks at a certain point and save one hour on the through journey4 ,plans were prepared1 and a ,bill was deposited in ,parliament2 but just at that time a ,board of ,trade enquiry into canal tolls and charges led to such reductions being enforced that there no longer appeared to be any security for a return on the proposed expenditure1 and the ,bill was withdrawn4 ,in many instances the difference in level has been overcome by the construction of tunnels4 ,there are in ,england and ,wales no fewer than forty-five canal tunnels each upwards of #ajj yards in length1 and of these twelve are over #b1jjj yards in length1 namely1 ,standidge ,tunnel1 on the ,huddersfield ,narrow ,canal1 #e1def yards2 ,sapperton1 ,thames and ,severn1 #c1hjh2 ,lappal1 ,birmingham ,canal navigations1 #c1ghe2 ,dudley1 ,birmingham ,canal1 #c1fgb2 ,norwood1 ,chesterfield ,canal1 #c1ajb2 ,butterley1 ,cromford1 #c1jfc2 ,blisworth1 ,grand ,junction1 #c1jef2 ,netherton1 ,birmingham ,canal1 #c1jbg2 ,harecastle 7new71 ,trent and ,mersey1 #b1ibf2 ,harecastle 7old71 ,trent and ,mersey1 #b1hig2 ,west ,hill1 ,worcester and ,birmingham1 #b1gej2 and ,braunston1 ,grand ,junction1 #b1jdb4 ,the earliest of these tunnels were made so narrow 7in the interests of economy7 that no space was left for a towing path alongside1 and the boats were passed through by the boatmen either pushing a pole or shaft against the roof or sides1 and then walking from forward to aft of the boat1 or else by the legging process in which they lay flat on their backs in the boat1 and pushed with their feet against the sides of the tunnel4 ,at one time even women engaged in work of this kind4 ,later tunnels were provided with towing paths1 while in some of them steam tugs have been substituted for shafting and legging4 ,resort has also been had to aqueducts1 and these represent some of the best work that ,british canal engineers have done4 ,the first in ,england was the one built at ,barton by ,james ,brindley to carry the ,bridgewater ,canal over the ,irwell4 ,it was superseded by a swing aqueduct in #ahic1 to meet the requirements of the ,manchester ,ship ,canal4 ,but the finest examples are those presented by the aqueducts of ,chirk and ,pontcysyllte on the ,ellesmere ,canal in ,north ,wales1 now forming part of the ,shropshire ,union ,canal4 ,each was the work of ,telford1 and the two have been aptly described as among the boldest efforts of human invention of modern times4 ,the ,chirk aqueduct 7#gaj feet long7 carries the canal over the ,river ,ceriog4 ,it was completed in #ahja and cost #bj1hih4 ,the ,pontcysyllte aqueduct1 of which a photograph is given as a frontispiece1 carries the canal in a cast-iron trough a distance of #a1jjg feet across the valley of the ,river ,dee4 ,it was opened for traffic in #ahjc1 and involved an outlay of #dg1jjj4 ,another canal aqueduct worthy of mention is that which was constructed by ,rennie in #agif1 at a cost of #dh1jjj1 to carry the ,lancaster ,canal over the ,river ,lune4 ,these facts must surely convince everyone who is in any way open to conviction of the enormous difference between canal construction as carried on in bygone days in ,great ,britain--involving as it did all these costly1 elaborate1 and even formidable engineering works--and the building of canals1 or the canalisation of rivers1 on the flat surfaces of ,holland1 ,belgium1 and ,northern ,germany4 ,reviewing--even thus inadequately--the work that had been already done1 one ceases to wonder that1 when the railways began to establish themselves in this country1 the canal companies of that day regarded with despair the idea of practically doing the greater part of their work over again1 in order to carry on an apparently hopeless struggle with a powerful competitor who had evidently come not only to stay but to win4 ,it is not surprising1 after all1 that many of them thought it better to exploit the enemy by inducing or forcing him to buy them out6 ,the average reader who may not hitherto have studied the question so completely as ,i am here seeking to do1 will also begin by this time to understand what the resuscitation of the ,british canal system might involve in the way of expense4 ,the initial purchase--presumably on fair and equitable terms--would in itself cost much more than is supposed even by the average expert4 ,assuming1 says one authority1 ,mr ,thwaite1 that #c1ejj miles of the canal system were purchasable at two-thirds of their original cost of construction1 say #b1cej per mile of length1 then the capital required would be #h1bbe1jjj4 ,this looks very simple4 ,but is the original cost of construction of canals passing through tunnels1 over viaducts1 and up and down elevations of from #djj to #fjj feet1 calculated here on the same basis as canals on the flat-lands8 ,is allowance made for costly pumping apparatus--such as that provided for the ,birmingham ,canal--for the docks and warehouses recently constructed at ,ellesmere ,port1 and for other capital expenditure for improvements1 or are these omitted from the calculation of so much per mile of length8 ,items of this kind might swell even cost of construction to larger proportions than those assumed by ,mr ,thwaite4 ,that gentleman1 also1 evidently leaves out of account the very substantial sums paid by the present owners or controllers of canals for the mining rights underneath the waterways in districts such as ,staffordshire or ,lancashire4 ,this last-mentioned point is one of considerable importance1 though very few people seem to know that it enters into the canal question at all4 ,when canals were originally constructed it was assumed that the companies were entitled to the land they had bought from the surface to the centre of the earth4 ,but the law decided they could claim little more than a right of way1 and that the original landowners might still work the minerals underneath4 ,this was done1 with the result that there were serious subsidences of the canals1 involving both much loss of water and heavy expenditure in repairs4 ,the stability of railways was also affected1 but the position of the canals was much worse on account of the water4 ,to maintain the efficiency of the canals 7and of railways in addition7 those responsible for them--whether independent companies or railway companies--have had to spend enormous sums of money in the said mining districts on buying up the right to work the minerals underneath4 ,in some instances the landowner has given notice of his intention to work the minerals himself1 and1 although he may in reality have had no such intention1 the canal company or the railway company have been compelled to come to terms with him1 to prevent the possibility of the damage that might otherwise be done to the waterway4 ,the very heavy expenditure thus incurred would hardly count as cost of construction1 and it would represent money sunk with no prospect of return4 ,yet1 if the ,state takes over the canals1 it will be absolutely bound to reckon with these mineral rights as well--if it wants to keep the canals intact after improving them--and1 in so doing1 it must allow for a considerably larger sum for initial outlay than is generally assumed4 ,but the actual purchase of canals and mineral rights would be only the beginning of the trouble4 ,there would come next the question of increasing the capacity of the canals by widening1 and what this might involve ,i have already shown4 ,then there are the innumerable locks by which the great differences in level are overcome4 ,a large proportion of these would have to be reconstructed 7unless lifts or inclined planes were provided instead7 to admit either the larger type of boat of which one hears so much1 or1 alternatively1 two or four of the existing narrow boats4 ,assuming this to be done1 then1 when a single narrow boat came up to each lock in the course of the journey it was making1 either it would have to wait until one or three others arrived1 or1 alternatively1 the water in a large capacity lock would be used for the passage of one small boat4 ,the adoption of the former course would involve delay2 and either would necessitate the provision of a much larger water supply1 together with1 for the highest levels1 still more costly pumping machinery4 ,the water problem would1 indeed1 speedily become one of the most serious in the whole situation--and that1 too1 not alone in regard to the extremely scanty supplies in the high levels4 ,the whole question has been complicated1 since canals were first built1 by the growing needs of the community1 towns large and small having tapped sources of water supply which otherwise might have been available for the canals4 ,even as these lines are being written1 ,i see from ,the ,times of ,march #ag1 #aijf1 that1 because the ,london1 ,brighton and ,south ,coast ,railway ,company are sinking a well on land of their own adjoining the railway near the ,carshalton springs of the ,river ,wandle1 with a view to getting water for use in their ,victoria ,station in ,london1 all the public authorities in that part of ,surrey1 together with the mill-owners and others interested in the ,river ,wandle1 are petitioning ,parliament in support of a ,bill to restrain them1 although it is admitted that the railway company do not appear to be exceeding their legal rights4 ,this does not look as if there were too much water to spare for canal purposes in ,great ,britain2 and yet so level-headed a journal as ,the ,economist1 in its issue of ,march #c1 #aijf1 gravely tells us1 in an article on ,the ,new ,canal ,commission1 that the experience of ,canada is worth studying4 ,what possible comparison can there be1 in regard to canals1 between a land of lakes and great rivers and a country where a railway company may not even sink a well on their own property without causing all the local authorities in the neighbourhood to take alarm1 and petition ,parliament to stop them6#aa ,illustration3 ,,water ,,supply ,,for ,,canals4 7,belvide ,reservoir1 ,staffordshire1 ,shropshire ,union ,canal47 ,to face page #abh4 ,on this question of water supply1 ,i may add1 ,mr ,john ,glass1 manager of the ,regents ,canal1 said at the meeting of the ,institution of ,civil ,engineers in ,november #aije3-- ,in his opinion ,mr ,saner had treated the water question1 upon which the whole matter depended1 in too airy a manner4 ,considering1 for instance1 the route to ,birmingham1 it would be seen that to reach ,birmingham the waterway was carried over one summit of #djj feet1 and another of #chj feet1 descended #bjj feet1 and eventually arrived at ,birmingham1 which was about #cej feet above sea level4 ,the proposed standard lock1 with a small allowance for the usual leakage in filling1 would consume about #ej1jjj cubic feet of water1 and the two large crafts which ,mr ,saner proposed to accommodate in the lock#ab would carry together1 he calculated1 about #ejj tons4 ,supposing it were possible to regulate the supply and demand so as to spread that traffic economically over the year1 and to permit of twenty-five pairs of boats passing from ,birmingham to the ,thames1 or in the opposite direction1 on #cjj days in the year1 the empty boats going into the same locks as the laden boats1 it would be necessary to provide #a1bej1jjj cubic feet of water daily1 at altitudes of #cjj to #djj feet2 and in addition it would be necessary to have water-storage for at least #abj days in the year1 which would amount to about #aej1jjj1jjj cubic feet4 ,when it was remembered that the districts in which the summit-levels referred to were situated were ill-supplied with water1 he thought it was quite impossible that anything like that quantity of water could be obtained for the purpose4 ,canal-managers found that the insufficiency of water in all districts supplied by canals increased every year1 and the difficulty of acquiring proper water-storage became enhanced4 ,not only the ordinary waterway and the locks1 but the tunnels and viaducts1 also1 might require widening4 ,then the adoption of some system of mechanical haulage is spoken of as indispensable4 ,but a resort to tugs1 however propelled1 is in no way encouraged by the experiments made on the ,shropshire ,union1 as told on p4 #ej4 ,an overhead electrical installation1 with power houses and electric lighting1 so that navigation could go on at night1 would be an especially costly undertaking4 ,but the increased speed which it is hoped to gain from mechanical haulage on the level would also necessitate a general strengthening of the canal banks to avoid damage by the wash1 and even then the possible speed would be limited by the breadth of the waterway4 ,on this particular point ,i cannot do better than quote the following from an article on ,canals and ,waterways published in ,the ,field of ,march #aj1 #aijf3-- ,among the arguments in favour of revival has been that of anticipated rapid steam traffic on such re-opened waterways4 ,any one who understands the elementary principles of building and propulsion of boats will realise that volume of water of itself fixes limits for speed of vessels in it4 ,any vessel of certain given proportions has its limit of speed 7no matter what horse-power may be employed to move it7 according to the relative limit 7if any7 of the volume of water in which it floats4 ,our canals are built to allow easy passage of the normal canal barge at an average of #c to #c-a_/b miles an hour4 ,a barge velocity of even #e miles1 still more of #f or #g1 would tend to wash banks1 and so to wreck 7to public danger7 embankments where canals are carried higher than surrounding land4 ,a canal does not lie in a valley from end to end like a river4 ,it would require greater horse-power to tow one loaded barge #f miles an hour on normal canal water than to tow a string of three or even four such craft hawsered #ej or more feet apart at the pace of #c-a_/b miles4 ,the reason would be that the channel is not large enough to allow the wave of displacement forward to find its way aft past the advancing vessel1 so as to maintain an approximate level of water astern to that ahead1 unless either the channel is more than doubled or else the speed limited to something less than #d miles4 ,it therefore comes to this1 that increased speed on our canals1 to any tangible extent1 does not seem to be attainable1 even if all barges shall be screw steamers1 unless the entire channel can be reconstructed to far greater depth and also width4 ,what the actual cost of reconstruction would be--as distinct from cost of purchase--,i will not myself undertake to estimate2 and merely general statements1 based on the most favourable sections of the canals1 may be altogether misleading4 ,thus1 a writer in the ,daily ,chronicle of ,march #ba1 #aijf1 who has contributed to that journal a series of articles on the canal question1 from an expert point of view1 says3-- ,if the ,aire and ,calder navigation1 which is much improved in recent years1 be taken as a model1 it has been calculated that #a1jjj1jjj per #ajj miles would fit the trunk system for traffic such as is dealt with on the ,yorkshire navigation4 ,how can the ,aire and ,calder possibly be taken as a model--from the point of view of calculating cost of improvements or reconstruction8 ,let the reader turn once more to the diagrams given opposite p4 #ih4 ,he will see that the ,aire and ,calder is constructed on land that is almost flat1 whereas the ,rochdale section on the same trunk route between the ,mersey and the ,humber reaches an elevation of #fjj feet4 ,how can any just comparison be made between these two waterways8 ,if the cost of improving a canal of the model type of the ,aire and ,calder be put at the rate of #a1jjj1jjj per #ajj miles1 what would it come to in the case of the ,rochdale ,canal1 the ,tardebigge section of the ,worcester and ,birmingham ,canal1 or the series of independent canals between ,birmingham and ,london8 ,that is a practical question which ,i will leave--to the experts6 ,supposing1 however1 that the canals have been purchased1 taken possession of1 and duly improved 7whatever the precise cost7 by ,state1 municipalities1 or public trust1 as the case may be4 ,there will then be the almost exact equivalent of a house without furniture1 or a factory without machinery4 ,before even the restored canals could be adapted to the requirements of trade and commerce there would have to be a very considerable expenditure1 also1 on warehouses1 docks1 appliances1 and other indispensable adjuncts to mere haulage4 ,after all the money that has been spent on the ,manchester ,ship ,canal it is still found necessary to lay out a great deal more on warehouses which are absolutely essential to the full and complete development of the enterprise4 ,the same principle would apply to any scheme of revived inland navigation4 ,the goods depts constructed by railway companies in all large towns and industrial centres have alone sufficed to bring about a complete revolution in trade and commerce since the days when canals were prosperous4 ,there are many thousands of traders to-day who not only order comparatively small quantities of supplies at a time from the manufacturer1 but leave even these quantities to be stored locally by the railway company1 having delivered to them from day to day1 or week by week1 just as much as they can do with4 ,a certain free period is allowed for warehousing1 and1 if they remove the goods during that period1 they pay nothing to the railway company beyond the railway rate4 ,after the free period a small rent is charged--a rent which1 while representing no adequate return to the railway company for the heavy capital outlay in providing the depts1 is much less than it would cost the trader if he had to build store-rooms for himself1 or pay for accommodation elsewhere4 ,other traders1 as mentioned in the chapter on ,the ,transition in ,trade1 send goods to the railway warehouses as soon as they are ready1 to wait there until an order is completed1 and the whole consignment can be despatched2 while others again1 agents and commission men1 carry on a considerable business from a small office1 leaving all the handling of the commodities in which they deal to be done by the railway companies4 ,in fact1 the situation might be summed up by saying that1 under the trading conditions of to-day1 railway companies are not only common carriers1 but general warehousemen in addition4 ,if inland canals are to take over any part of the transport at present conducted by the railways1 they will have to provide the traders with like facilities4 ,so1 in addition to buying up and reconstructing the canals2 in addition to widenings1 and alterations of the gradients of roads and railways passed under2 and in addition to the maintenance of towing paths1 locks1 bridges1 tunnels1 aqueducts1 culverts1 weirs1 sluices1 cranes1 wharves1 docks1 and quay walls1 reservoirs1 pumping machinery1 and so on1 there would still be all the subsidiary considerations in regard to warehousing1 etc41 which would arise when it became a question with the trader whether or not he should avail himself of the improved water transport thus placed at his disposal4 ,for the purposes of reasonable argument ,i will assume that no really sensible person1 knowing anything at all of actual facts and conditions1 would attempt to revive the entire canal system of the country4#ac ,i have shown on p4 #ai1 that even in the year #ahbe it was recognised that some of the canals had been built by speculators simply as a means of abstracting money from the pockets of foolish investors1 victims of the canal mania1 and that no useful purpose could be served by them even at a time when there were no competing railways4 ,yet to-day sentimental individuals who1 in wandering about the country1 come across some of these absolutely useless1 though still1 perhaps1 picturesque survivals1 write off to the newspapers to lament over our neglected waterways1 to cast the customary reflections on the railway companies1 and to join their voice to the demand for immediate nationalisation or municipalisation1 according to their individual leanings1 and regardless of all considerations of cost or practicability4 ,derelicts of the type here referred to are not worth considering at all4 ,it is a pity they were not drained and filled in long ago1 and given1 as it were1 a decent burial1 if only out of consideration for the feelings of sentimentalists4 ,much more deserving of study are those particular systems which either still carry a certain amount of traffic1 or are situated on routes along which traffic might be reasonably expected to flow4 ,but1 taking even canals of this type1 the reader must see from the considerations ,i have already presented that resuscitation would be a very costly business indeed4 ,estimates of which ,i have read in print range from #bj1jjj1jjj to #ej1jjj1jjj2 but even these omit various important items 7mining rights1 etc471 which would certainly have to be added1 while the probability is that1 however high the original estimate in regard to work of this kind1 a good deal more would have to be expended before it was finished4 ,the remarks ,i have here made are based on the supposition that all that is aimed at is such an improvement as would allow of the use of a larger type of canal boat than that now in vogue4 ,but1 obviously1 the expenditure would be still heavier if there were any idea of adapting the canals to the use of barges similar in size to those employed on the waterways of ,germany1 or craft which1 starting from an inland manufacturing town in the ,midlands1 could go on a coasting trip1 or make a journey across to the ,continent4 ,here the capital expenditure would be so great that the cost would be absolutely prohibitive4 ,whatever the precise number of millions the resuscitation scheme might cost1 the inevitable question would present itself--,how is the money to be raised8 ,the answer thereto would be very simple if the entire expense were borne by the country--that is to say1 thrown upon the taxpayers or ratepayers4 ,the problem would then be solved at once4 ,the great drawback to this solution is that most of the said taxpayers or ratepayers would probably object4 ,besides1 there is the matter of detail ,i mentioned in the first ,chapter3 if the ,state or the municipalities buy up the canals on fair terms1 including the canals owned or controlled by the railways1 and1 in operating them in competition with the railways1 make heavy losses which must eventually fall on the taxpayers or ratepayers1 then it would be only fair that the railway companies should be excused from such direct increase in taxation as might result from the said losses4 ,in that case the burden would fall still more heavily on the general body of the tax or ratepayers1 independently of the railway companies4 ,it would fall1 too1 with especial severity on those traders who were themselves unable to make use of the canals1 but might have to pay increased local rates in order that possible competitors located within convenient reach of the improved waterways could have cheaper transport4 ,it might also happen that when the former class of traders1 bound to keep to the railways1 applied to the railway companies for some concession to themselves1 the reply given would be--,what you suggest is fair and reasonable1 and under ordinary circumstances we should be prepared to meet your wishes2 but the falling off in our receipts1 owing to the competition of ,state-aided canals1 makes it impossible for us to grant any further reductions4 ,an additional disadvantage would thus have to be met by the trader who kept to the railway1 while his rival1 using the canals1 would practically enjoy the benefit of a ,state subsidy4 ,the alternative to letting the country bear the burden would be to leave the resuscitated canal system to pay for itself4 ,but is there any reasonable probability that it could8 ,the essence of the present day movement is that the traders who would be enabled to use the canals under the improved conditions should have cheaper transport2 but if the twenty1 fifty1 or any other number of millions sterling spent on the purchase and improvement of the canals1 and on the provision of indispensable accessories thereto1 are to be covered out of the tolls and charges imposed on those using the canals1 there is every probability that 7if the canals are to pay for themselves7 the tolls and charges would have to be raised to such a figure that any existing difference between them and the present railway rates would disappear altogether4 ,that difference is already very often slight enough1 and it may be even less than appears to be the case1 because the railway rate might include various services1 apart from mere haulage--collection1 delivery1 warehousing1 use of coal dept1 etc4--which are not covered by the canal tolls and charges1 and the cost of which would have to be added thereto4 ,a very small addition1 therefore1 to the canal tolls1 in order to meet interest on heavy capital expenditure on purchase and reconstruction1 would bring waterways and railways so far on a level in regard to rates that the railways1 with the superior advantages they offer in many ways1 would1 inevitably1 still get the preference4 ,the revival movement1 however1 is based on the supposition that no increase in the canal tolls now charged would be necessary4#ad ,canal transport1 it is said1 is already much higher in this country than it is on the ,continent--and that may well be so1 considering 7#a7 that canals such as ours1 with their numerous locks1 etc41 cost more to construct1 operate and maintain than canals on the flat lands of ,continental ,europe2 7#b7 that ,british canals are still supposed to maintain themselves2 and 7#c7 that canal traffic as well as railway traffic is assessed in the most merciless way for the purposes of local taxation4 ,in the circumstances it is assumed that the canal traffic in ,england could not pay higher tolls and charges than those already imposed1 and that the interest on the aforesaid millions1 spent on purchase and improvements1 would all be met out of the expanded traffic which the restored canals would attract4 ,again ,i may ask--,is there any reasonable probability of this8 ,bearing in mind the complete transition in trade of which ,i have already spoken--a transition which1 on the one hand1 has enormously increased the number of individual traders1 and1 on the other1 has brought about a steady and continuous decrease in the weight of individual consignments--is there the slightest probability that the conditions of trade are going to be changed1 and that merchants1 manufacturers1 and other traders will forego the express delivery of convenient quantities by rail1 in order to effect a problematical saving 7and especially problematical where extra cartage has to be done7 on the tedious delivery of wholesale quantities by canal8 ,nothing short of a very large increase indeed in the water-borne traffic would enable the canals to meet the heavy expenditure foreshadowed1 and1 even if such increase were secured1 the greater part of it would not be new traffic1 but simply traffic diverted from the railways4 ,more probably1 however1 the very large increase would not be secured1 and no great diversion from the railways would take place4 ,the paramount and ever-increasing importance attached by the vast majority of ,british traders to quick delivery 7an importance so great that on some lines there are express goods trains capable of running from #dj to #fj miles an hour7 will keep them to the greater efficiency of the railway as a carrier of goods2 while1 if a serious diversion of traffic were really threatened1 the ,british railways would not be handicapped as those of ,france and ,germany are in any resort to rates and charges which would allow of a fair competition with the waterways4 ,in practice1 therefore1 the theory that the canals would become self-supporting1 as soon as the aforesaid millions had been spent1 must inevitably break down1 with the result that the burden of the whole enterprise would then necessarily fall upon the community2 and why the trader who consigns his goods by rail1 or the professional man who has no goods to consign at all1 should be taxed to allow of cheaper transport being conferred on the minority of persons or firms likely to use the canals even when resuscitated1 is more than ,i can imagine1 or than they1 probably1 will be able to realise4 ,the whole position was very well described in some remarks made by ,mr ,harold ,cox1 ,m4,p41 in the course of a discussion at the ,society of ,arts in ,february #aijf1 on a paper read by ,mr ,r4 ,b4 ,buckley1 on ,the ,navigable ,waterways of ,india4 ,there was1 he said1 a sort of feeling current at the present time in favour of spending large amounts of the taxpayer's money in order to provide waterways which the public did not want1 or at any rate which the public did not want sufficiently to pay for them1 which after all was the test4 ,he noticed that everybody who advocated the construction of canals always wanted them constructed with the taxpayer's money1 and always wanted them to be worked without a toll4 ,why should not the same principle be applied to railways also8 ,a railway was even more useful to the public than a canal2 therefore1 construct it with the taxpayer's money1 and allow everybody to use it free4 ,it was always possible to get plenty of money subscribed with which to build a railway1 but nobody would subscribe a penny towards the building of canals4 ,an appeal was always made to the government4 ,people had pointed to ,france and ,germany1 which spent large sums of money on their canals4 ,in ,france that was done because the ,french ,parliamentary system was such that it was to the interest of the electorate and the elected to spend the public money on local improvements or non-improvements4444 ,he had been asked1 ,why make any roads8 ,the difference between roads and canals was that on a canal a toll could be levied on the people who used it1 but on a road that was absolutely impossible4 ,tolls on roads were found so inconvenient that they had to be given up4 ,there was no practical inconvenience in collecting tolls on canals2 and1 therefore1 the principle that was applied to everything else should apply to canals--namely1 that those who wanted them should pay for them4 ,,chapter ,x ,,conclusions ,,and ,,recommendations ,taking into consideration all the facts and arguments here presented1 ,i may summarise as follows the conclusions at which ,i have arrived3-- 7#a7 ,that1 alike from a geographical1 physical1 and economic point of view1 there is no basis for fair comparison between ,british and ,continental conditions2 consequently our own position must be judged on its own merits or demerits4 7#b7 ,that1 owing to the great changes in ,british trade1 manufacture1 and commerce1 giving rise to widespread and still increasing demands for speedy delivery of comparatively small consignments for a great number of traders of every possible type1 canal transport in ,great ,britain is no longer suited to the general circumstances of the day4 7#c7 ,that although a comparatively small number of traders1 located in the immediate neighbourhood of the canals1 might benefit from a canal-resuscitation scheme1 the carrying out of such scheme at the risk1 if not at the cost1 of the taxpayers1 would virtually amount to subsidising one section of the community to the pecuniary disadvantage of other sections4 7#d7 ,that the nationalisation or the municipalisation of ,british canals would introduce a new principle inconsistent with the private enterprise hitherto recognised in the case of railways1 in which such large sums have been sunk by investors1 but with which ,state-aided canals would compete4 7#e7 ,that1 in view both of the physical conditions of our land 7necessitating an extensive resort to locks1 etc41 to overcome great differences in level7 and of the fact that many of the most important of the canals are now hemmed in by works1 houses1 or buildings1 any general scheme of purchase and improvement1 in regard even to main routes 7apart from hopeless derelicts71 would be extremely costly1 and1 in most instances1 entirely outside the scope of practicability4 7#f7 ,that such a scheme1 involving an expenditure of many millions1 could not fail to affect our national finances4 7#g7 ,that there is no ground for expecting so large an outlay could be recouped by increased receipts from the canals1 and that the cost would thus inevitably fall upon the community4 7#h7 ,that the allegation as to the chief canals of the country1 or sections thereof1 having been captured and strangled by the railway companies1 in the interests of their own traffic1 is entirely unsupported by evidence1 the facts being1 rather1 that in most cases the canals were more or less forced upon the railway companies1 who have spent money liberally on such of them as offered reasonable prospect of traffic1 and1 in that way1 have kept alive and in active working condition canals that would inevitably have been added to the number of derelicts had they remained in the hands of canal companies possessed of inadequate capital for the purposes of their efficient maintenance4 7#i7 ,that certain of these canals 7as1 for example1 the ,birmingham and the ,shropshire ,union ,canals7 are still offering to traders all reasonable facilities within the limitations of their surroundings and physical possibilities2 and that if such canals were required to bear the expense of extremely costly widenings1 of lock reconstruction1 of increased water supply1 and of general improvements1 the tolls and charges would have to be raised to such a point that the use of the canals would become prohibitive even to those local traders who now fully appreciate the convenience they still afford4 7#aj7 ,that1 in effect1 whatever may be done in the case of navigable rivers1 any scheme which aimed at a general resuscitation of canals in this country1 at the risk1 if not at the expense1 of the community1 is altogether impracticable2 and that1 inasmuch as the only desire of the traders1 in this connection1 is to secure cheaper transport1 it is desirable to see whether the same results could not be more effectively1 more generally1 and more economically obtained in other directions4 ,following up this last conclusion1 ,i beg to recommend3-- 7a7 ,the desirability of increasing the usefulness of the railway system1 which can go anywhere1 serve everybody1 and carry and deliver consignments1 great and small1 with that promptness and despatch which are all-important to the welfare of the vast majority of industries and enterprises1 as conducted under the trading conditions of to-day4 ,this usefulness1 some of the traders allege1 is marred by rates and charges which they consider unduly heavy1 especially in the case of certain commodities calling for exceptionally low freight1 and canal transport is now asked for by them1 as against rail transport1 just as the traders of #ahbe wanted the railways as a relief from the waterways4 ,the rates and charges1 say the railway companies1 are not unreasonable in themselves1 considering all the circumstances of the case and the nature of the various services represented1 while the actual amount thereof is due1 to a certain extent1 not so much to any seeking on the part of the companies to pay dividends of abnormal proportions1 akin to those of the canal companies of old 7the average railway dividend to-day1 on over one thousand millions of actual capital1 being only about #c-a_/b per cent471 but to a combination of causes which have increased unduly capital outlay and working expenses1 only to be met out of the rates1 fares1 and charges that are imposed on traders and travellers4 ,among these causes may be mentioned the heavy price the companies have had to pay for their land2 the cost of ,parliamentary proceedings2 various requirements imposed by ,parliament or by ,government departments2 and the heavy burden of the contribution that railway companies make to local rates4 7,see p4 #aj47 ,these various conditions must necessarily influence the rates and charges to be paid by traders4 ,some of them--such as cost of land--belong to the past2 others--like the payments for local taxation--still continue1 and tend to increase rather than decrease4 ,in any case1 the power of the railway companies to concede to the traders cheaper transport is obviously handicapped4 ,but if1 to obtain such cheaper transport1 the country is prepared to risk 7at least7 from #bj1jjj1jjj to #ej1jjj1jjj on a scheme of canal reconstruction which1 as ,i have shown1 is of doubtful utility and practicability1 would it not be much more sensible1 and much more economical1 if the weight of the obligations now cast upon railways were reduced1 thus enabling the companies to make concessions in the interests of traders in general1 and especially in the interests of those consigning goods to ports for shipment abroad1 for whose benefit the canal revival is more particularly sought8 7b7 ,my second recommendation is addressed to the general trader4 ,his policy of ordering frequent small consignments to meet immediate requirements1 and of having1 in very many instances1 practically no warehouse or store-rooms except the railway goods depts1 is one that suits him admirably4 ,it enables him either to spend less capital or else to distribute his capital over a larger area4 ,he is also spared expense in regard to the provision of warehouse accommodation of his own4 ,but to the railway companies the general adoption of this policy has meant greater difficulty in the making up of paying loads4 ,to suit the exigencies of present-day trade1 they have reduced their minima to as low1 for some commodities1 as #b-ton lots1 and it is assumed by many of the traders that all they need do is to work up to such minima4 ,but a #b-ton lot for even an #h-ton waggon is hardly a paying load4 ,still less is a #aj-;cwt4 consignment a paying load for a similarly sized waggon4 ,where1 however1 no other consignments for the same point are available1 the waggon goes through all the same4 ,in ,continental countries consignments would be kept back1 if necessary1 for a certain number of days1 in order that the paying load might be made up4 ,but in ,great ,britain the average trader relies absolutely on prompt delivery1 however small the consignment1 or whatever the amount of working expenses incurred by the railway in handling it4 ,if1 however1 the trader would show a little more consideration for the railway companies--whom he expects to display so much consideration for him--he might often arrange to send or to receive his consignments in such quantities 7at less frequent intervals1 perhaps7 as would offer better loading for the railway waggons1 with a consequent decrease of working expenses1 and a corresponding increase in the ability of the railway company to make better terms with him in other directions4 ,much has been done of late years by the railway companies to effect various economies in operation1 and excellent results have been secured1 especially through the organisation of transhipping centres for goods traffic1 and through reductions in train mileage2 but still more could be done1 in the way of keeping down working expenses and improving the position of the companies in regard to concessions to traders1 if the traders themselves would co-operate more with the railways to avoid the disadvantages of unremunerative light-loading4 7c7 ,my third and last recommendation is to the agriculturists4 ,i have seen repeated assertions to the effect that improved canals would be of great advantage to the ,british farmer2 and in this connection it may interest the reader if ,i reproduce the following extract from the pamphlet1 issued in #ahbd1 by ,mr ,t4 ,g4 ,cumming1 under the title of ,illustrations of the ,origin and ,progress of ,rail and ,tram ,roads and ,steam ,carriages1 as already mentioned on p4 #ba3-- ,to the farming interests the advantages of a rail-way will soon become strikingly manifest2 for1 even where the facilities of a canal can be embraced1 it presents but a slow yet expensive mode of conveyance2 a whole day will be consumed in accomplishing a distance of #bj miles1 whilst by the rail-way conveyance1 goods will be carried the same distance in three or four hours1 and perhaps to no class of the community is this increased speed of more consideration and value than to the farmer1 who has occasion to bring his fruit1 garden stuff1 and poultry to market1 and still more so to such as are in the habit of supplying those great and populous towns with milk and butter1 whilst with all these additional advantages afforded by a rail-way1 the expense of conveyance will be found considerably cheaper than by canal4 ,notwithstanding the vast importance to the farmer of having the produce of his farm conveyed in a cheap and expeditious manner to market1 it is almost equally essential to him to have a cheap conveyance for manure from a large town to a distant farm2 and here the advantages to be derived from a rail-way are abundantly apparent1 for by a single loco-motive engine1 #ej tons of manure may be conveyed1 at a comparatively trifling expense1 to any farm within the line of the road4 ,in the article of lime1 also1 which is one of the first importance to the farmer1 there can be no question but the facilities afforded by a rail-way will be the means of diminishing the expense in a very material degree4 ,if railways were desirable in #ahbd in the interests of agriculture1 they must be still more so in #aijf1 and the reversion now to the canal transport of former days would be a curious commentary on the views entertained at the earlier date4 ,as regards perishables1 consigned for sale on markets1 growers obviously now want the quickest transport they can secure1 and special fruit and vegetable trains are run daily in the summer season for their accommodation4 ,the trader in the ,north who ordered some strawberries from ,kent1 and got word that they were being sent on by canal1 would probably use language not fit for even a fruit and vegetable market to hear4 ,as for non-perishable commodities1 consigned to or by agriculturists1 the railway is a much better distributer than the canal1 and1 unless a particular farm were alongside a canal1 the extra cost of cartage therefrom might more than outweigh any saving in freight4 ,if greater facilities than the ordinary railway are needed by agriculturists1 they will be met far better by light railways1 or by railway road-motors of the kind adopted first by the ,north-,eastern ,railway ,company at ,brandsby1 than by any possible extension of canals4 ,these road-motors1 operated between lines of railway and recognised depts at centres some distance therefrom1 are calculated to confer on agriculturists a degree of practical advantage1 in the matter of cheaper transport1 limited only by the present unfortunate inability of many country roads to bear so heavy a traffic1 and the equally unfortunate inability of the local residents to bear the expense of adapting the roads thereto4 ,if1 instead of spending a large sum of money on reconstructing canals1 the ,government devoted some of it to grants to ,county ,councils for the reconstruction of rural highways1 they would do far more good for agriculture1 at least4 ,as for cheaper rail transport for agricultural commodities in general1 ,i have said so much elsewhere as to how these results can be obtained by means of combination that ,i need not enlarge on that branch of the subject now1 further than to commend it to the attention of the ,british farmer1 to whom combination in its various phases will afford a much more substantial advantage than any possible resort to inland navigation4 ,these are the alternatives ,i offer to proposals which ,i feel bound to regard as more or less quixotic1 and ,i leave the reader to decide whether1 in view of the actualities of the situation1 as set forth in the present volume1 they are not much more practical than the schemes of canal reconstruction for which public favour is now being sought4 ,,appendix ,,the ,,decline ,,in ,,freight ,,traffic ,,on ,,the ,,mississippi ,whilst this book is passing through the ,press1 ,i have received from ,mr ,stuyvesant ,fish1 ,president of the ,illinois ,central ,railroad ,company--whom ,i asked to favour me with some additional details respecting the decline in freight traffic on the ,mississippi ,river--the following interesting notes1 drawn up by ,mr ,t4 ,j4 ,hudson1 ,general ,traffic ,manager of the ,illinois ,central3-- ,the traffic on the ,mississippi ,river was established and built up under totally different conditions from those now obtaining1 and when the only other means of travel and transportation was on horseback and by waggon1 methods not suitable in view of the great distances and the general impassibility of the country4 ,in those days the principal source of supply was ,st ,louis--and points reached through ,st ,louis--for grain1 grain products1 etc41 excepting that vehicles1 machinery1 and iron were brought down the ,ohio ,river from ,pittsburg and ,cincinnati by boat to ,cairo1 and trans-shipped there1 or to ,memphis1 and trans-shipped or re-distributed from that place4 ,the distributing points on the ,lower ,mississippi ,river were ,memphis1 ,vicksburg1 ,natchez1 ,bayou ,sara1 ,baton ,rouge and ,new ,orleans4 ,goods were shipped to these points and re-shipped from there over small railroads to short distances1 and also hauled by waggon and re-shipped on boats plying in local trade on the ,mississippi ,river and tributary streams4 ,for example1 there were ,boat ,lines making small landing points above and below ,memphis1 and above and below ,vicksburg2 also ,boat ,lines plying the ,yazoo and ,tallahatchie ,rivers on the east1 and the ,white1 ,arkansas and ,red ,rivers on the west1 etc4 ,all the goods shipped by steamboat were hauled by waggon or dray to the steamboat landing1 and1 when discharged by the boats at destination1 were again hauled by waggon from the landing to the stores and warehouses1 even in those cases in which re-shipment was made from points like ,memphis1 ,vicksburg1 etc4 ,when re-shipped by river1 the goods were again hauled to the steamboat landing1 and1 when reaching the local landing or point of final consumption1 after being discharged on the bank1 were again hauled by waggon or dray1 perhaps for considerable distances into the interior4 ,while the cost of water transportation is primarily low1 the frequent handling and re-handling made this mode of transportation more or less expensive1 and in some instances quite costly4 ,river transportation again is slow1 taking longer time in transit4 ,the frequent handlings1 further1 were damaging and destructive to the packages in the case of many kinds of goods4 ,transportation on the rivers was also at times interrupted or delayed from one cause or another1 such as high water or low water1 and the service was1 in consequence1 more or less irregular1 thus requiring dealers to carry large stocks on which the insurance and interest was a considerable item of expense4 ,with the development of the railroads through the country1 not only was competition brought into play to the distributing points along the river1 such as ,memphis1 ,vicksburg1 etc41 from ,st ,louis1 ,cincinnati1 and ,pittsburg1 but also from other initial sources of supply which were not located on rivers1 but were enabled by reason of the establishment of rail transportation to consign direct2 whereas under the old conditions it was necessary for them to consign to some river point and trans-ship4 ,what was still more important and effective in accomplishing the results since brought about was the material benefit conferred by the railroads on most of the communities situated back from the river4 ,these communities had previously been obliged to send their consignments perhaps many miles by road to some point on the river1 whence the commodities were carried to some other point1 there to be taken by waggon or dray to the place of consumption--another journey of many miles1 perhaps1 by road4 ,progress was slow1 and in some instances almost impossible1 while only small boats could be hauled4 ,then the construction of railroads led to the development of important distributing points in the interior1 such as ,jackson1 7,tennessee71 and ,jackson1 7,mississippi71 not to mention many others4 ,goods loaded into railroad cars on tracks alongside the mills1 factories and warehouses could be unloaded at destination into warehouses and stores which also had their tracks alongside4 ,by this means drayage was eliminated1 and the packages could be delivered in clean condition4 ,neither of these conditions was possible where steamboat transportation was employed4 ,interior points are now enabled to buy direct1 either in large or small quantities1 from initial sources of supply1 and without the delay and expense incident to shipment to river-distributing points1 and trans-shipment by rail or steamboat or hauling by waggon4 ,rail transportation is also more frequent1 regular1 rapid and reliable2 not to mention again the convenience which is referred to above4 ,the transportation by river of package-freight1 such as flour1 meal1 meat1 canned goods1 dry goods1 and other commodities1 has been almost entirely superseded by rail transportation1 except in regard to short-haul local landings1 where the river is more convenient1 and the railroad may not be available4 ,there is some south-bound shipment of wire1 nails1 and other iron goods from the ,pittsburg district to distributing points like ,memphis and ,new ,orleans1 but in these cases the consignments are exclusively in barge-load lots4 ,the only other commodity to which these conditions apply is coal4 ,this is taken direct from the mines in the ,pittsburg district1 and dropped into barges on the ,monongahela ,river2 and these are floated down the river1 during periods of high water1 in fleets of from fifty to several hundred barges at a time4 ,there is no movement of grain in barges from ,st ,louis to ,new ,orleans1 as was the case a great many years ago4 ,the grain for export vi ,new ,orleans is now largely moved direct in cars from the country elevators to the elevators at ,new ,orleans1 from which latter the grain is loaded direct into ships4 ,there is1 also1 some movement north-bound in barges of lumber and logs from mills and forests not accessible to railroads1 but very little movement of these or other commodities from points that are served by railroad rails4 ,lumber to be shipped on the river must be moved in barge-load quantities1 and taken to places like ,st ,louis1 where it has to be hauled from the barge to lumber yards1 and then loaded on railroad cars1 if it is going to the interior1 where a considerable proportion of the quantity handled will be wanted4 ,mills reached by railroad tracks can1 and do1 load in car-load quantities1 and ship to the final point of use1 without the delay incident to river transportation1 and the expense involved by transfer or re-shipment4 ,it is not to be inferred from the foregoing that all the distributing points along the river have dried up since the development of rail transportation4 ,in fact1 the contrary is the case1 because the railroads have opened up larger territories to these distributing points1 and in regard to many kinds of goods these river points have become1 in a way1 initial sources of supply as well as of manufacture4 ,memphis1 for example1 has grain brought to its elevators direct from the farms1 the same as ,st ,louis1 and can and does ship on short notice to the many towns and communities in the territory surrounding4 ,there are1 also1 flour and meal mills1 iron foundries1 waggon and furniture factories1 etc41 at ,memphis1 and at other places4 ,many of the points1 however1 which were once simply landings for interior towns and communities have now become comparatively insignificant4 ,to sum up in a few words1 ,i should say that the railroads have overcome the steamboat competition on the ,mississippi ,river1 not only by affording fair and reasonable rates1 but also because rail transportation is more frequent1 rapid1 reliable1 and convenient1 and is1 on the whole1 much cheaper4 ,,footnotes3 #a ,that canals also played their part in the transport of passengers a hundred years ago is shown by the following items of news1 which ,i take from ,the ,times of #ahjf3-- ,friday1 ,december #ai1 #ahjf4 ,the first division of the troops that are to proceed by the ,paddington ,canal for ,liverpool1 and thence by transports for ,dublin1 will leave ,paddington to-day1 and will be followed by others to-morrow and ,sunday4 ,by this mode of conveyance the men will be only seven days in reaching ,liverpool1 and with comparatively little fatigue1 as it would take them above fourteen days to march that distance4 ,relays of fresh horses for the canal boats have been ordered to be in readiness at all the stages4 ,monday1 ,december #bb1 #ahjf4 ,saturday the #hth ,regiment embarked at the ,paddington ,canal for ,liverpool1 in a number of barges1 each containing #fj men4 ,this regiment consists of #iej men4 ,the #gth ,regiment embarked at the same time in eighteen barges3 they are all to proceed to ,liverpool4 ,the ,dukes of ,york and ,sussex witnessed the embarkation4 ,the remainder of the brigade was to follow yesterday1 and ,friday next another and very considerable embarkation will follow4 #b ,illustrations of the ,origin and ,progress of ,rail and ,tram ,roads1 and ,steam ,carriages1 or ,locomotive ,engines4 ,by ,t4 ,g4 ,cumming1 ,surveyor1 ,denbigh1 #ahbd4 #c ,a ,letter on the subject of the projected ,rail-road between ,liverpool and ,manchester1 pointing out the necessity for its adoption1 and the manifest advantages it offers to the public2 with an exposure of the exorbitant and unjust charges of the ,water-,carriers4 ,by ,joseph ,sandars1 ,esq41 ,liverpool1 #ahbe4 #d ,mersey and ,irwell ,navigation4 #e ,another of the speakers1 ,mr ,gordon ,c4 ,thomas1 engineer to the ,grand ,junction ,canal ,company1 said that notwithstanding the generous expenditure on maintenance1 and the large sums recently spent upon improvements1 the through traffic on the ,grand ,junction was only one-half of what it was fifty years ago1 and now the through traffic was in many cases unable to pay as high a rate as the local traffic4 #f ,in the evidence he gave before the ,royal ,commission on ,canals and ,waterways on #bast ,march #aijf1 ,sir ,herbert ,jekyll1 ,assistant ,secretary to the ,board of ,trade1 said 7as reported in ,the ,times of #bbnd ,march73--,one remarkable feature was noticeable--that1 although the tonnage carried rather increased than diminished between #ahch and #ahdh1 the receipts fell off enormously1 pointing to the conclusion that the railway competition had brought about a large reduction in canal companies charges4 ,it was also noteworthy that on many canals the decrease in receipts had continued out of all proportion to the decrease1 if any1 in the tonnage carried4 #g ,in ,mr ,saner's paper the ,birmingham ,canal navigations are classed among the ,independently-,owned ,canals1 and ,mr ,saner says3--,there are #a1ach miles owned by railway companies1 which convey only #f1jji1hbj tons per annum1 and produce a net profit of only #dj per mile of navigation4 ,this1 he adds1 appears to afford clear proof that the railways do not attempt to make the most of the canals under their control4 ,but when the ,birmingham ,canal1 with its #h1jjj1jjj tons of traffic a year1 is transferred 7as it ought to be7 from the independently-owned to the railway-controlled canals1 entirely different figures are shown4 #h ,the fact that coal tipped into a canal boat would have a longer drop than coal falling from the colliery screen into railway waggons is important because of the greater damage done to the coal1 and the consequent decrease in value4 #i ,fuller information respecting traffic conditions in ,continental countries will be found in my book on ,railways and ,their ,rates4 #aj ,the figures for the years #ahfj to #ahij are taken from the ,report of the ,committee on ,canals of ,new ,york ,state1 #aijj1 ,general ,francis ,v4 ,greene1 chairman2 and those for #aijj and #aijc from the ,annual ,report of ,superintendent of ,public ,works1 ,new ,york ,state1 #aijc4 #aa ,the ,st ,lawrence ,river and the ,great ,lakes whose waters flow through it into the ,atlantic form a continuous waterway extending from the ,fond du ,lac1 at the head of ,lake ,superior1 to the ,straits of ,belle ,isle1 a distance of #b1chd miles4444 ,emptying into the ,st ,lawrence 444 are the ,ottawa and ,richlieu ,rivers1 the former bringing it into communication with the immense timber forests of ,ontario1 and the latter connecting it with ,lake ,champion in the ,united ,states4 ,these rivers were the thoroughfares in peace and the base lines in war for the ,indian tribes long before the white man appeared in the ,western ,hemisphere4444 ,the early colonists found them the convenient and almost the only channels of intercourse among themselves and with the home country4444 ,the ,st ,lawrence was navigable for sea-going vessels as far as ,montreal1 but between ,montreal and the foot of ,lake ,ontario there was a succession of rapids separated by navigable reaches4444 ,the head of navigation on the ,ottawa ,river is the city of ,ottawa4444 ,between this city and the mouth of the river there are several impassable rapids4 ,the ,richlieu was also so much obstructed at various points as to be unavailable for navigation4444 ,the canal system of ,canada 444 has been established to overcome these obstructions by artificial channels at various points to render freely navigable the national routes of transportation4--,highways of ,commerce1 issued by the ,bureau of ,statistics1 ,department of ,state1 ,washington4 #ab ,the use of a larger type of canal boat is generally regarded as an essential part of the resuscitation scheme4 ,but of the narrow boats now in active service in the canals of the ,united ,kingdom there are from #aj1jjj to #aa1jjj4 ,what is to be done with these8 ,if they are scrap-heaped1 and fresh boats substituted1 we increase still further the sum total of the outlay the scheme will involve4 #ac ,at the ,society of ,arts' ,conference on ,canals1 in #ahhh1 ,mr ,l4 ,f4 ,vernon-,harcourt said3--,the statistics show that great caution must be exercised in the selection of canal routes for improvement1 if they are to prove a commercial success1 and that the scope for such schemes is strictly limited4 ,any attempt at a general revival and improvement of the canal system throughout ,england cannot prove financially successful1 as local canals1 through thinly populated agricultural districts1 could not compete with railways4 ,these routes alone should be selected for enlargement of waterway which lead direct from the sea to large and increasing towns like the proposed canal from the ,bristol ,channel to ,birmingham1 or which1 like the ,aire and ,calder ,navigation and the ,leeds and ,liverpool ,canal1 are suitably set for the conveyance of coal and general bulky goods to populous districts4 ,one or two through routes to ,london from manufacturing centres1 or from coal-mining districts1 might have a prospect of success1 provided the existing canals along the route could be acquired at a small cost1 and the necessary improvement works were not heavy4 #ad ,there are even those who argue that the resuscitated canals should be toll free4 ,,index ,agriculture and canals1 #af1 #adg-aej ,aire and ,calder ,navigation1 #hf1 #acb1 #ace ,allport1 ,sir ,james1 #cg1 #ha ,aqueducts1 #abd ,association of ,chambers of ,commerce1 #d1 #e ,barnsley ,canal1 #bf ,belgium1 waterways in1 #ic-if1 #ig ,birmingham ,canal1 #bf1 #cg1 #eg-gc1 #abj1 #abe ,boats1 size of1 #cb1 #fi1 #acj ,brecknock and ,abergavenny ,canal1 #bf ,brecon ,canal1 #de ,bridgewater ,canal1 #ac-ae1 #ba1 #bc-bd1 #abd ,bridgewater1 ,duke of1 #ac-ae1 #bc ,bridgwater and ,taunton ,canal1 #de ,brindley1 ,james1 #ad-ae1 #af1 #abd ,brunner1 ,sir ,john ,t41 #d ,buckley1 ,mr ,r4 ,b41 #ada ,caledonian ,railway ,company1 #ej-ed ,canada1 waterways in1 #abh-abi ,canals1 earliest1 in ,england1 #ac-bb2 canal mania1 #af2 passenger traffic1 #ah-ai2 shares and dividends1 #ba1 #bf1 #bg2 tolls and charges1 #bc-be1 #bg-cj2 handicapped1 #cc2 attitude towards railways1 #cd-ch2 ,kennet and ,avon1 #ch-de2 ,shropshire ,union1 #dg-ej2 ,forth and ,clyde1 #ej-ed2 strangulation theory1 #ed-ee2 ,birmingham ,canal1 #eg-gc2 coal traffic1 #hd-hi2 canals and waterways on the ,continent1 #ic-ajc2 in the ,united ,states1 #ajd-aah2 in ,england1 #aai-ada2 in ,canada1 #abh-abi2 conclusions and recommendations1 #adb-aej ,capitalists1 attitude of1 #c ,carnegie1 ,mr1 #aaj ,chesapeake and ,delaware ,canal1 #aji ,chesapeake and ,ohio ,canal1 #aji ,chesterfield ,canal1 #df1 #abc ,child1 ,messrs1 #ae ,coal1 #ac1 #ba1 #bi-cj1 #dj1 #ea-ec1 #ha-hi ,consignments1 sizes of1 #gh ,continental conditions1 #aa1 #ic-ajc1 #aci1 #adj1 #ada ,cost of reconstruction1 #acb-acf ,cotton1 raw1 #hi-ia ,coventry ,canal1 #bf ,cox1 ,m4,p41 ,mr ,harold1 #adj ,cromford ,canal1 #abc ,cumming1 ,mr ,t4 ,g41 #ba1 #adg-adh ,dixon1 ,professor ,f4 ,h41 #aaj1 #aag ,dredging1 #dc ,electrical installations1 #acj ,ellesmere ,canal1 #bf1 #dg1 #abd ,engineers and canal question1 #b ,erie ,canal1 the1 #aje-aaa1 #aaf ,fish1 ,mr ,stuyvesant1 #aad-aae ,forth and ,clyde ,navigation1 #ej-ed ,france1 waterways in1 #ajj1 #ajb ,frost on canals1 #bd1 #cj1 #gg ,gentleman's ,magazine1 #bf ,geographical conditions1 #aa1 #id-if1 #ih-ajj ,germany1 waterways in1 #id1 #ig1 #ajj-ajb ,glass1 ,mr ,john1 #abi ,government guarantee1 #d ,grand ,junction ,canal1 #bf1 #ci1 #abj1 #abc ,grand ,western ,canal1 #de ,great ,northern ,railway1 #ca1 #hc ,great ,western ,railway ,company1 #ch-de1 #fg1 #fh1 #gj ,grinling1 ,mr ,c4 ,h41 #cj ,hertslet1 ,sir ,e4 ,cecil1 #id ,holland1 waterways in1 #gg1 #id1 #if ,huddersfield ,narrow ,canal1 #abj1 #abc ,hudson1 ,george1 #cj ,inglis1 ,mr ,j4 ,c41 #ch-ci1 #de ,jackson1 ,mr ,luis1 #aae-aag ,jebb1 ,mr ,g4 ,r41 #ga ,jekyll1 ,sir ,herbert1 #fb ,kennet and ,avon ,canal1 #bf1 #ch-de1 #aba ,lancashire and ,yorkshire ,railway ,company1 #df ,lancaster ,canal1 #bf1 #abd ,languedoc ,canal1 #ad ,leeds and ,liverpool ,canal1 #abj1 #ace ,leicester and ,swinnington ,railway1 #bi ,lift at ,anderton1 #abb-abc ,liverpool and ,manchester ,railway1 #ba1 #bc-bf1 #bh ,liverpool merchants1 petition from1 #be-bf ,local taxation1 #i-aj1 #aci1 #ade-adf ,locks1 #cb1 #cc1 #dc1 #ej1 #ff1 #abj-aba1 #abg ,london and ,north-,western ,railway ,company1 #cg1 #df1 #dh-di1 #ei-ga ,london1 ,brighton and ,south ,coast ,railway ,company1 #abh ,london ,county ,council1 #e ,loughborough ,canal1 #bf1 #bg1 #bi ,macclesfield ,canal1 #df ,manchester and ,bury ,canal1 #df ,manchester ,ship ,canal1 #acc ,mc,adam1 ,j4 ,l41 #ab-ac ,mechanical haulage1 #di-ej1 #aba-abb1 #acj-aca ,meiklejohn1 ,professor1 #ig ,mersey and ,irwell ,navigation1 #ac1 #ae1 #ba1 #bd ,mersey ,harbour ,board1 #e ,midland ,railway1 #cj1 #cg1 #fg1 #hc ,mining operations and canals1 #df1 #fe-ff1 #abf-abg ,mississippi1 the1 #aaa-aag ,monmouthshire ,canal1 #bf1 #de ,morrison1 ,mr1 #bg-bh ,manchester1 ,sheffield and ,lincoln ,railway ,company 7,great ,central71 #df ,municipalisation schemes1 #d-h1 #ace ,nationalisation of canals1 #d1 #aj1 #ace ,neath ,canal1 #bf ,north ,british ,railway1 #ec ,north-,eastern ,railway1 #adi ,old ,union ,canal1 #bf ,oxford ,canal1 #bf ,packhorse period1 the1 #ab1 #af1 #ah ,paddington ,canal1 #ah-ai ,physical conditions1 #aa1 #if-ii1 #aai ,political conditions1 #ajj-ajb ,principle1 questions of1 #i-aa ,private enterprise1 #i1 #ajf1 #adb ,profits on canals1 #ae1 #af1 #ba1 #bf1 #bg ,public trusts1 #d-f ,pumping machinery1 #db-dc1 #fc ,quarterly ,review1 #ag-bb1 #aaa ,railways1 position of companies as ratepayers1 #g-h2 cost of railway construction and operation1 #i-aj2 effect on railway rates1 #aj2 advent of1 #ag-bb2 ,liverpool and ,manchester ,railway1 #ba1 #be1 #bh2 ,leicester and ,swinnington ,railway1 #bi2 ,midland ,railway1 #cj2 ,great ,northern ,railway1 #ca2 attitude of canal companies towards1 #ce-ch2 control of canals1 #ch-ef1 #eg-gc2 railways in ,germany1 #ajj-ajb2 in ,france1 #ajb2 recommendations1 #ade-adf ,ratepayers1 liability of1 #g-h1 #acg ,rates1 regulation of1 on railways and canals1 #bg-bh ,regents ,canal1 #abi ,rennie1 #abd ,road-motors1 #adi ,rochdale ,canal1 #bf1 #abj1 #acb ,ross1 ,mr ,a41 #de-dg ,royal ,commission on ,canals and ,waterways1 #fb ,sandars1 ,mr ,joseph1 #ba1 #bc-be1 #cd1 #ge ,saner1 ,mr ,j4 ,a41 #ch1 #fg1 #abi ,sankey ,brook and ,st ,helen's ,canal1 #df ,saunders1 ,mr ,h4 ,j41 #ci1 #dd ,select ,committee on ,canals 7#ahhc71 #cg ,sheffield and ,south ,yorkshire ,navigation1 #df ,shropshire ,union ,canal1 #dg-ej1 #fi-gb1 #abj ,somerset ,coal ,canal1 #dj ,speed1 #abb1 #aca ,staffordshire and ,worcestershire ,canal1 #bf ,stalbridge1 ,lord1 #hf ,stephenson1 ,george1 #cj ,stephenson1 ,robert1 #cj ,stourbridge ,extension ,canal1 #de ,strangulation theory1 #ee1 #adc ,stratford-upon-,avon ,canal1 #de ,swansea ,canal1 #bf1 #de ,taxpayers1 how affected1 #c1 #e1 #acg ,telford1 #abd ,thames and ,severn ,canal1 #abc ,thames steamboat service1 #e ,thomas1 ,mr ,g4 ,c41 #ci ,thwaite1 ,mr1 #abe ,trade1 changes in1 #aa1 #dj-db1 #eb-ed1 #fa1 #gd-ib1 #acc-acd ,traders1 advice to1 #adf-adg ,trent and ,mersey ,navigation1 #af1 #bf1 #bg1 #di1 #fi1 #gb1 #abb1 #abc ,troops1 transport of1 by canal1 #ah-ai ,tunnels1 canal1 #abc ,ulrich1 ,herr ,franz1 #ig ,united ,states1 waterways in1 #ajd-aah ,vernon-,harcourt1 ,mr ,l4 ,f41 #ace ,walker1 ,colonel1 ,f4 ,n4 ,t41 #e ,water-supply for canals1 #bd1 #cb1 #cc1 #db-dc1 #fb-fd1 #ff1 #gg1 #ii1 #abg-acj ,wheeler1 ,mr ,w4 ,h41 #ii ,widenings1 #ff1 #gj1 #ga ,wilts and ,berks ,canal1 #dj ,worcester and ,birmingham ,canal1 #bf1 #abj1 #abc1 #acb ,,works ,,by ,,edwin ,a4 ,,pratt ,,the ,,transition ,,in ,,agriculture ,crown #hvo4 #cej pp4 ,illustrations and ,plans4 #es4 net4 ,a book of great value to all interested in farming4 ,discusses1 as correctly as possible1 the hopeful development of subsidiary branches of agriculture1 the prospects of co-operation1 and the principles on which small holdings may be increased4--,the ,outlook4 ,,the ,,organization ,,of ,,agriculture ,cheaper and ,enlarged ,edition4 ,paper covers4 #as4 net4 ,the first impression produced on the mind of the thoughtful reader by a perusal of ,mr ,pratt's book is that1 in one form or another1 agricultural co-operation is inevitable4444 ,to attempt to stand against the pressure of cosmopolitan conditions is as futile as ,mrs ,partington's attempt to keep back the ,atlantic with a mop4--,guardian4 ,,railways ,,and ,,their ,,rates ,,with ,,an ,,appendix ,,on ,,the ,,british ,,canal ,,problem ,cheap ,edition4 ,paper ,covers4 #as4 net4 ,a valuable book for railwaymen1 traders1 and others who are interested1 either theoretically or practically1 in the larger aspect of the economic problem of how goods are best brought to market4--,scotsman4 ,,our ,,waterways ,a ,,history ,,of ,,inland ,,navigation ,,considered ,,as ,a ,,branch ,,of ,,water ,,conservancy ,by ,,urquhart ,a4 ,,forbes ,of ,lincoln's ,inn1 ,barrister-at-,law2 ,,and ,w4 ,h4 ,r4 ,,ashford ,with a ,map especially prepared to illustrate the book4 ,demy #hvo4 #abs4 net4 ,the history of these canals and waterways1 and of the law relating to them1 is clearly set forth in the excellent work4 ,should become the standard work of reference upon the subject4--,the ,standard4 ,,municipal ,,trade ,,the ,,advantages ,,and ,,disadvantages ,,resulting ,,from ,,the ,,substitution ,,of ,,representative ,,bodies ,,for ,,private ,,proprietors ,,in ,,the ,,management ,,of ,,industrial ,,undertakings ,by ,major ,,leonard ,,darwin ,author of ,bimetallism4 ,demy #hvo4 #abs4 net4 ,this work should be carefully studied1 for there cannot be a better guide to the understanding and solution of a difficult problem4--,local ,government ,chronicle4 ,,modern ,,tariff ,,history ,,showing ,,the ,,origin ,,and ,,growth ,,of ,,tariffs ,,in ,,germany ,,france1 ,,and ,,the ,,united ,,states ,by ,,percy ,,ashley1 ,m4,a4 ,lecturer at the ,london ,school of ,economics in the ,university of ,london ,with an ,introduction by the ,rt4 ,hon4 ,r4 ,b4 ,,haldane1 ,,ll4,d41 ,k4,c41 ,m4,p4 ,demy #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 444 ,a careful1 fair1 and accurate review of the modern fiscal history of three countries4--,times4 ,,local ,,and ,,central ,,government ,a ,,comparative ,,study ,,of ,,england1 ,,france1 ,,prussia1 ,,and ,,the ,,united ,,states ,by ,,percy ,,ashley1 ,m4,a4 ,,the ,,british ,,trade ,,year-,,book ,,covering ,,the #be ,,years #ahhj-aijd1 ,,and ,,showing ,,the ,,course ,,of ,,trade ,by ,,john ,,holt ,,schooling ,with #aia tables1 each containing several sections of ,british or of ,international ,trade4 #df ,diagrams and various abstract ,tables4 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 ,this is the ,,only ,,book that shows the ,,course ,,of ,,trade4 ,we believe1 after careful examination1 that ,mr ,schooling has dealt in a strictly honest and impartial fashion with the material at his disposal4 ,readers of the book cannot fail to get much insight into the course of trade from ,mr ,schooling's clear-sighted methods4--,times4 ,,the ,,principles ,,and ,,methods ,,of ,,taxation ,by ,g4 ,,armitage ,,smith ,principal of ,birkbeck ,college4 ,crown #hvo4 #es4 ,,chapter ,i4--,the ,grounds and ,nature of ,public ,expenditure4 ,,ii4--,sources of ,imperial ,revenue1 and ,theories of ,taxation4 ,,iii4--,principles of ,taxation4 ,,iv4--,direct ,taxation--,taxes on ,property and ,income4 ,v4--,indirect ,taxation--,taxes on ,commodities and ,acts4 ,,vi4--,incidence of ,taxation4 ,,vii4--,national ,debts4 ,,viii4--,some other ,revenue ,systems4 ,,ix4--,local ,taxation4 ,,the ,,railways ,,and ,,the ,,traders ,a ,,sketch ,,of ,,the ,,railway ,,rates ,,question ,,in ,,theory ,,and ,,practice ,by ,w4 ,m4 ,,acworth1 ,m4,a4 7,oxon471 ,and of the ,inner ,temple1 ,barrister-at-,law4 ,new ,impression4 ,crown #hvo4 ,in ,paper ,covers4 #as4 net4 ,london3 ,,john ,,murray1 ,albemarle ,street1 ,w4 ,,printed ,,at ,,the ,,edinburgh ,,press1 #i ,,and #aa ,,young ,,street 99 99 99 99 99 ,,transcriber',s ,,notes ,minor punctuation and printer errors repaired4 ,italic text is denoted by underscores