,title3 ,children ,above #ahj ,,iq ,stanford-,binet3 ,origin and ,development ,author3 ,leta ,s4 ,hollingworth ,original publisher3 ,world ,book ,company ,copyright #aidb4 ,about the online edition4 ,italic text is represented as italics4 ,underlined text is represented as underline4 ,subscripts are represented as subscripts4 ,footnotes are collected at the end of each chapter4 ,transcriber's notes and translations1 in letters1 have been added and collected at the end of the chapter1 after the footnotes4 ,single-brackets in the original text have been changed to double-brackets to distinguish from edits within this version of the text4 ,single pound signs in the original text have been changed to double pound signs1 to distinguish from subscript text4 ,,children ,,above #ahj ,,iq ,,stanford-,,binet3 ,,origin ,,and ,,development ,,foreword ,shortly after the year #aibd ,leta ,s4 ,hollingworth prepared a manuscript on ,children above #ahj ,,iq 7,stanford-,binet7 in which she surveyed the material on the topic available up to that date and added accounts of five cases which she had studied individually4 #a ,as the years went by she held back the manuscript from publication and one by one she found seven more cases to be included in her list4 ,at the time of her death in #aici she had begun to revise this manuscript1 bringing the survey up to date and adding the new cases4 ,the present book gives as much of this revision from her own hand as is available4 ,the ,preface and ,chapters #a1 #b1 and #c are as she wrote them4 ,the accounts of the first five cases are given just as she originally wrote them up1 but to them editorial supplements have been added in which an endeavor has been made to present for each case such data as have been found in her files1 with little in the way of discussion or interpretation4 ,the seven new cases which the original author had intended to include in the manuscript she had not yet written up4 ,for these1 therefore1 it has been necessary to study the data she had accumulated for each child1 to secure additional data when and where possible1 and to present such an account of each as she might herself have written1 patterned after her reports of the earlier cases4 ,much is lost that would have been contributed had the author lived to complete her project4 ,she knew these cases intimately and at first hand4 ,some of them she had followed for as long as twenty years1 taking a personal interest in the individual children and their problems1 advising them1 assisting them1 continuously observing them1 and frequently testing and measuring them4 ,particularly inadequate must be the accounts of the later development of the individuals herein described1 for many of the details well known to the author she not committed to paper1 since she fully expected to complete the manuscript herself4 ,it is to be regretted that a follow-up study of these recent developments could not have been undertaken1 and a hope is expressed that this may yet be done4 ,the chapters summarizing the group of twelve new cases are wholly without ,leta ,s4 ,hollingworth's touch4 ,it seemed desirable1 however1 to give such a summary as could be made under the circumstances4 ,had the original author been able to complete her book1 we know that penetrating light would have been thrown on many of the more personal difficulties of these children of rare intelligence4 ,this experience and insight can no longer be recovered4 ,it must suffice to put on record chiefly the factual data now available1 leaving it for future workers to follow up1 if it should seem desirable1 the subsequent career and destiny of the individuals whose early development and background are herein reported4 ,identification of these children is not made in this book1 but the necessary facts for this purpose are on file and identification can be made at any time in the interests of educational research4 ,the third section of this book as originally outlined by ,leta ,s4 ,hollingworth was to have dealt with general principles and with the social and educational implications of the study of children of very high intelligence4 ,up to the time of her death nothing of this character had been written by her explicitly1 but throughout the years in which her projected book was developing she wrote a number of papers and reports bearing on the subject1 and these were published from time to time in technical journals4 ,it is well known that the content of these papers was dictated by her study of such cases as are herein reported1 by her familiarity with the reports of other students in this field1 and by her own very concrete and long experience in the organization and conduct of two experimental projects in the schools of ,new ,york ,city4 ,it is1 in fact1 likely that the final chapters she had in mind for this book would have been a reorganization of the conclusions set forth in these articles4 ,consequently1 the last five chapters of this book1 instead of being an attempt to guess at what the author might have said in them1 are all from her own hand4 ,they are either selections from or complete reproductions of papers she had published on what she considered to be the implications of her observations of children of rare intelligence4 ,the publication of this book has been made possible by funds granted by the ,carnegie ,corporation of ,new ,york4 ,that ,corporation is not1 however1 the author1 owner1 publisher1 or proprietor of this publication1 and it is not to be understood as approving by virtue of its grants any of the statements or views expressed herein4 ,harry ,l4 ,hollingworth ,barnard ,college ,columbia ,university1 ,new ,york #a ,chapter #i of ,gifted ,children1 published in #aibf1 bears the title ,children ,who ,test above #ahj ,,iq 7,stanford-,binet74 ,some of the cases described more fully in the monograph manuscript are also sketched in that chapter4 ,,contents ,,preface ,,part ,i3 ,,orientation #a4 ,,the ,,concept ,,of ,,intellectual ,,genius ,concepts of the ,ancients1 ,dictionary ,definitions1 ,concepts of ,genius1 ,miscellaneous ,observations ,tending to ,define ,characteristics of ,genius1 ,speculation and ,comment ,concerning ,genius #b4 ,,early ,,scientific ,,study ,,of ,,eminent ,,adults ,origin of ,eminent ,adults1 ,yoder's ,study1 ,terman's ,inferences from ,biography #c4 ,,published ,,reports ,,on ,,tested ,,children ,modern ,approach to the ,study of ,ability1 ,binet's ,method1 ,the ,range of ,intellect above #ahj ,,iq1 ,children ,observed before the ,era of ,binet1 ,children ,who ,test above #ahj ,,iq by ,binet-,simon ,tests1 ,children ,who ,test above #ahj ,,iq by ,stanford-,binet ,tests1 ,generalizations ,,part ,,ii3 ,,twelve ,,cases ,,new ,,to ,,literature ,,concerning ,,tested ,,children #d4 ,,child ,a ,family ,background1 ,preschool ,history1 ,school ,history1 ,judgments of ,teachers1 ,mental ,measurements1 ,traits of ,character1 ,physical ,measurements and ,health1 ,miscellaneous ,characteristics #e4 ,,child ,b ,family ,background1 ,preschool ,history1 ,school ,history1 ,traits of ,character1 ,judgments of ,teachers1 ,mental ,measurements1 ,physical ,measurements1 ,miscellaneous ,characteristics #f4 ,,child ,c ,family ,background1 ,preschool ,history1 ,school ,history1 ,traits of ,character1 ,mental ,measurements1 ,physical ,measurements1 ,later ,school ,history #g4 ,,child ,d ,family ,background1 ,preschool ,history1 ,traits of ,character1 ,mental ,measurements1 ,physical ,measurements and ,health1 ,miscellaneous ,characteristics1 ,school ,history #h4 ,,child ,e ,family ,background1 ,early ,history1 ,school ,achievement1 ,mental ,measurements1 ,social ,habits1 ,tastes1 etc41 ,later ,mental ,measurements1 ,later ,physical ,measurements1 ,later ,scholastic ,records1 ,extracurricular ,activities1 ,teachers' ,comments1 ,summary up to #aiba1 ,eventual ,scholastic ,records1 ,researches of ,e1 ,summary of ,development #i4 ,,child ,f ,family ,background1 ,preschool ,history1 ,early ,school ,history1 ,early ,test ,scores1 ,home ,rating1 ,miscellaneous ,characteristics1 ,later ,educational ,career #aj4 ,,child ,g ,family ,background1 ,educational ,history1 ,early ,mental ,tests1 ,later ,test ,records1 ,traits of ,character1 ,physical ,measurements1 ,high ,school ,record1 ,g's ,brother's ,record #aa4 ,,child ,h ,family ,background1 ,preschool ,history1 ,mental ,measurements1 ,physical ,measurements1 ,intellectual ,ability #ab4 ,,child ,i ,family ,background1 ,preschool ,history1 ,early ,educational ,history1 ,mental ,measurements1 ,physical ,measurements and ,health1 ,miscellaneous ,characteristics #ac4 ,,child ,j ,family ,background1 ,childhood ,characteristics1 ,later ,mental ,tests #ad4 ,,child ,k ,family ,background1 ,early ,development1 ,mental ,measurements1 ,physical ,measurements1 ,later ,educational ,progress #ae4 ,,child ,l ,family ,background1 ,early ,history1 ,achievement at ,speyer ,school1 ,high ,school ,record to ,date of ,writing1 ,later ,tests and ,inventories #af4 ,,summaries ,,of ,,heredities ,,and ,,early ,,behavior ,family ,history and ,background1 ,physical and ,behavioral ,development #ag4 ,,scholastic ,,achievement ,,and ,,creative ,,activity ,scholastic ,achievement and ,educational ,adjustment1 ,creative ,work1 ,general ,statement ,,part ,,iii3 ,,general ,,principles ,,and ,,implications4 #ah4 ,,adult ,,status ,,and ,,personality ,,ratings4 ,adult ,status of ,highly ,intelligent ,children1 ,critique of the ,concept of ,genius as ,applied in ,terms of ,,iq1 ,application of ,bernreuter ,inventory of ,personality to ,highly ,intelligent ,adolescents #ai4 ,,the ,,development ,,of ,,personality ,,in ,,highly ,,intelligent ,,children ,general ,considerations1 ,the ,part ,played by ,physique1 ,problem of ,leadership1 ,problems of ,adjustment to ,occupation1 ,learning to ,suffer ,fools ,gladly1 ,the ,tendency to ,become ,isolated1 ,the ,concept of ,optimum ,intelligence1 ,conclusion #bj4 ,,the ,,child ,,of ,,very ,,superior ,,intelligence ,,as ,a ,,special ,,problem ,,in ,,social ,,adjustment ,the ,quality of ,gifted ,children1 ,the ,problem of ,work1 ,the ,problem of ,adjustment to ,classmates1 ,the ,problem of ,play1 ,special ,problems of the ,gifted ,girl1 ,problems of ,conformity1 ,the ,problems of ,origin and of ,destiny1 ,general ,considerations #ba4 ,,the ,,elementary ,,schooling ,,of ,,very ,,bright ,,children ,considerations in ,planning the ,curriculum1 ,enrichment ,units at ,speyer ,school1 ,special ,work1 ,emotional ,education1 ,matters of ,general ,policy #bb4 ,,problems ,,of ,,relationship ,,between ,,elementary ,,and ,,secondary ,,schools ,,in ,,the ,,case ,,of ,,highly ,,intelligent ,,pupils ,the ,elementary ,school1 ,transition from ,elementary to ,secondary ,school1 ,consideration of the ,questions ,arising1 ,what about ,genius8 ,,preface ,this study is founded upon the work of ,francis ,galton1 on the one hand1 and of ,albert ,binet1 on the other4 ,it goes back to ,galton's ,hereditary ,genius1 read as a prescribed reference in the courses of ,professor ,edward ,l4 ,thorndike1 in #aiab2 and to the publication in #aiaf of ,professor ,lewis ,m4 ,terman's ,stanford ,revision of the ,binet-,simon ,scale for ,measuring ,intelligence4 ,it comprises observations1 measurements1 and conversations covering a period of twenty-three years1 during which acquaintanceships and friendships1 every one of them delightful1 have been formed and maintained with the twelve individuals who form the basis of the study4 ,it was in ,november1 #aiaf1 shortly after taking appointment as instructor in educational psychology at ,teachers ,college1 ,columbia ,university1 that ,i saw for the first time a child testing above #ahj ,,iq 7,s-,b74 ,i was teaching a course in the psychology of mentally deficient children1 and it seemed to me that my class should if possible observe under test conditions one bright child for the sake of contrast4 ,accordingly1 ,i asked whether any teacher present could nominate a very intelligent pupil for demonstration4 ,miss ,charlotte ,g4 ,garrison and ,miss ,agnes ,burke1 teachers in the ,horace ,mann ,school1 ,teachers ,college1 ,new ,york ,city1 thereupon nominated the child who is called ,e in this monograph4 ,e was presented at the next meeting of the class4 ,it required two full classroom periods to test this child to the limits of the ,stanford-,binet ,scale1 which had just then been published4 ,e exhausted the scale without being fully measured by it1 achieving an ,,iq of at least #ahg4 ,he was on that date #h years #d months old4 ,this ,,iq of at least #ahg placed ,e in ,galton's ,class ,x of able persons2 i4e41 more than six grades removed from mediocrity4 ,taking #a ,,pedis as one grade1 it placed him at least plus #aa ,,pe from the norm2 for #a ,,pe 7,probable ,error7 equals #h ,,iq1 according to ,terman's original distribution of #ije school children4 #a ,this appeared as sufficiently striking to warrant permanent recording1 since it would rate ,e as one in a million for statistical frequency1 assuming zeal and power of working to be also abundantly present4 ,i did not at that time have any expert knowledge of highly intelligent children4 ,i had been working for some years in the hospitals of ,new ,york ,city with persons presented for commitment to reformatories1 prisons1 and institutions for mental defectives4 ,i had tested thousands of incompetent persons1 a majority of them children1 with ,goddard's ,revision of the ,binet-,simon ,scale1 scarcely ever finding anyone with an ,,iq rating as high as #ajj4 ,this thoroughgoing experience of the negative aspects of intelligence rendered the performance of ,e even more impressive to me than it would otherwise have been4 ,i perceived the clear and flawless working of his mind against a contrasting background of thousands of dull and foolish minds4 ,it was an unforgettable observation4 ,i then began to look for children like ,e1 to observe them with reference to the principles of education4 ,this search has been conducted in a desultory manner1 in odd moments1 ever since #aiaf4 ,at times1 as in #aibb-aibc and in #aice-aicf1 when pupils were being sought for special classes at ,public ,school #afe1 ,manhattan1 or at ,public ,school #ejj1 ,manhattan1 the search has been systematic4 ,usually1 however1 the quest has been quite otherwise1 for in the course of long searching ,i have learned that it is nearly useless to look for these children1 because so few of them exist4 ,in twenty-three years' seeking in ,new ,york ,city and the local metropolitan area1 the densest center of population in this country and at the same time a great intellectual center attracting able persons1 ,i have found only twelve children who test at or above #ahj ,,iq 7,s-,b74 ,this number represents the winnowing from thousands of children tested1 hundreds of them brought for the testing because of their mental gifts4 ,of course there were and are others who have not been found1 since this search has never been exhaustive4 ,the most interesting part of this research is yet to come1 in the form of a record of the mature performances of these gifted persons observed in childhood4 ,however1 ,i propose to make a report now of origin and development2 to be followed1 if ,i live so long1 by further reports of adult status4 ,such researches require more than the life span of one investigator1 since time is of the essence of the task4 ,universities should make provision for institutional prosecution of these long-time studies as distinguished from individual prosecution4 ,in any case1 ,i shall try to leave the records to some younger student who will comprehend them1 and who will amplify them if ,i prove unable to do so myself4 ,galton1 in his efforts to understand ability1 was limited to the study of the eminent adult1 dead and gone4 ,the only test he could use was that of reputation1 for at the time he was at work on the problem1 mental measurement had not yet been developed as a technique4 ,he wished for a more valid method of gauging ability1 and he fully realized that it would be of greater advantage to study the living individual4 ,is reputation a fair test of natural ability8 he asked4 ,it is the only one ,i can employ 4 4 4 am ,i justified in using it8 ,how much of a man's success is due to his opportunities1 and how much to his natural power of intellect8 ,galton's work was finished before ,binet's studies made it possible to measure natural ability apart from reputation2 and what is most essential of all1 to measure natural ability in childhood4 ,it was ,binet's great and original service that he rendered it possible to determine accurately the permanent intellectual caliber of an undeveloped human being4 ,it has always been possible to appraise the ability of people forty or fifty years old1 after they have met the tests of life1 but for the pursuit of education and social science it is not very practically useful to know what a person is like only at the end of his life4 ,it is essential1 rather1 to know with a high degree of precision and certainty the mental endowment of persons at the beginning of their lives if anything is to be done in the matter of special training for special children4 ,the facts derived from the study of the twelve exceptional persons herein described1 and from the study of others like them1 and the principles deduced from these facts1 are of that order of importance for social science which ,galton ascribed to them4 ,nevertheless1 to hear of the tremendous differences between the dullest and the most intelligent individual1 between the average man and the person who falls more than #aj ,,pe away from him in mental ability1 is extremely tedious to the typical ,american listener4 ,this is only too well known to one who has long tried to interest foundations and moneyed persons in the education of gifted children4 ,there is an apparent preference among donors for studying the needs and supporting the welfare of the weak1 the vicious1 and the incompetent1 and a negative disregard of the highly intelligent1 leaving them to shift for themselves4 ,perhaps a wider dissemination of facts such as have been adduced in the studies of ,professor ,lewis ,m4 ,terman and other educators1 and in this study1 may eventually bring about a more constructive point of view1 one more conducive to a recognition of national welfare involved in educational plans for the unusual student4 ,it is desirable in this introduction to make known some of the etiquette and ethics involved in the scientific study of very gifted children4 ,this is a new area in the field of human relationships and the investigator who works within it comes rather frequently upon certain questions of good manners which do not arise in any other field of psychological research4 ,for instance1 persons who test above #ahj ,,iq 7,s-,b7 are almost sure to read and recognize in books and articles whatever has been written about them1 no matter how anonymously they may have been described4 ,this is true of them even as children4 ,when the book ,gifted ,children was published1 in #aibf1 ,child ,a1 who is described therein as well as in these pages1 was thirteen years old4 ,he read the book within two weeks of publication2 for1 as he said in mentioning the matter to the author1 ,i go every week to the ,public ,library and look first at the shelf of new books4 ,the problem always in the foreground is how to present the whole truth about such matters as family history1 social-economic status1 and character1 without invading the privacy of those described and without identifying them to the general public or to curious persons4 ,those who test above #ahj ,,iq 7,s-,b7 are characterized by a strong desire for personal privacy4 ,they seldom volunteer information about themselves4 ,they do not like to have attention called to their families and homes4 ,they are reluctant to impart information concerning their plans1 hopes1 convictions1 and so forth4 ,the question arises1 then1 how to avoid presumption2 for it is by no means easy for a young person politely to evade an older person who can lay claim to having known one all one's life4 ,thus1 in this study1 in order to preserve the privacy of those concerned1 some items have been omitted from the histories which would have been of interest to students of child psychology4 ,let it be understood at once1 however1 that the omissions include nothing discreditable to any of the twelve individuals studied2 rather1 many of these items are highly creditable4 ,there have been acts of moral courage1 acts of skill1 and acts of self-sustaining heterodoxy that if told at all should be told only by those who performed the actions4 ,perhaps autobiographies may some day be written by these persons1 telling whatever they may wish to tell4 ,in the matter of the attitude of people in general toward gifted children1 there are1 of course1 a majority who are kindly and understanding and helpful1 but it is a melancholy fact that there are also malicious and jealous people who are likely to persecute those who are formally identified as being unusual4 ,it may prove a handicap rather than a help to a gifted youngster to have been identified in book or article or school as extraordinary4 ,some of the children herein described have suffered considerably from the malice of ill-mannered persons1 even their instructors1 who have felt the impulse to take them down a peg4 ,specific instances of such persecution can be cited from public prints1 and reference will be made to them in the course of this monograph4 ,it would be of interest to present a photograph of each child herein observed1 to show how in personal appearance they are diametrically opposite to the popular stereotype of the highly intelligent child2 but photographs would tend to identification4 ,these questions of what is right and what is wrong1 what is permissible and what is forbidden1 in reporting the origin and development of the gifted cannot be fully determined here4 ,the policies pursued in this study have been discussed from time to time with gifted children and their parents1 and ,i have been guided by their advice4 ,everything has been presented that is consistent both with scientific interest and with the preservation of personal privacy4 ,the work as it stands has taken hundreds of hours of the time of these children and of their parents and teachers1 over a period of twenty years4 ,they are all very busy people1 yet they have given time and energy for tests1 measurements1 and interviews as requested4 ,it is obvious that without this coperation no study could have been made4 ,leta ,s4 ,hollingworth ,teachers ,college ,columbia ,university ,new ,york ,city #a ,,editorial ,,note4 ,the larger and better sampling of subjects tested for the #aicg ,stanford ,revision showed a wider variability than the #aiaf group and indicates that the true ,,pe of the ,,iq distribution of unselected children is in the neighborhood of #aa ,,iq points1 according to ,terman4 #b ,all such records have been deposited in the psychological laboratory of ,barnard ,college1 ,columbia ,university4 ,,part ,i ,,orientation ,,chapter ,,one ,,the ,,concept ,,of ,,intellectual ,,genius ,it would be an ambitious project to find and discuss all the definitions of genius that have ever been offered in writing4 ,to do this is beyond our present purpose1 which is1 rather1 to illustrate the various concepts that have been formulated and to take guidance from them in the consideration of children of great ability4 ,it will perhaps be many years before it will be apparent whether the children studied herein are geniuses or not4 ,perhaps this can never be determined1 as the word genius may eventually be found to have no meaning that can be agreed upon4 ,all we know about the status of the subjects of the present study is that they test above #ahj ,,iq 7,s-,b7 and are thus more than #aj ,,pe removed from mediocrity in general intelligence4 #a ,it may be possible to arrive at some comparison between their characteristics and performances on the one hand1 and the concepts of genius that have been offered on the other4 ,,concepts ,,of ,,the ,,ancients ,the concept of the genius is very ancient4 ,ovid 7#ab71 #b referring to ,caesar and his preparations to complete the conquest of the world1 notes the manner in which a genius acts in advance of his years3 ,though he himself is but a boy1 he wages a war unsuited to his boyish years4 ,oh1 ye of little faith1 vex not your souls about the age of the gods6 ,genius divine outpaces time1 and brooks not the tedium of tardy growth4 ,hercules was still no more than a child when he crushed the serpent in his baby hands4 ,even in the cradle1 he proved himself a worthy son of ,jove4 ,the ,greeks called that person's daemon which directed and inspired his creative work4 ,dictionaries refer to the ,roman concept of genius as a spirit presiding over the destiny of a person or a place2 a familiar spirit or a tutelary4 ,the genie was one of the powerful nature demons of ,arabian and ,mohammedan lore1 believed to interfere in human affairs and to be sometimes subject to magic control4 ,thinkers in any and every field1 no matter how remote from that of psychology1 have confidently discussed the nature of genius4 ,philosophers1 poets1 litterateurs1 physicians1 physiologists1 psychiatrists1 anthropometrists1 lexicographars1 encyclopedists-- all have offered definitions1 each according to his light4 ,it has been deemed a subject on which anyone might legitimately express an opinion4 ,the result is1 as might be expected1 an interesting miscellany of contradictions4 ,,dictionary ,,definitions ,by derivation the word genius means to beget or to bring forth1 coming from genere1 gignere4 ,samuel ,johnson's ,dictionary--from which ,galton took his point of departure in choosing the word genius for the title of his work on ability--defines a genius as ,a man endowed with superior faculties4 ,funk and ,wagnall's ,dictionary offers the following definition3 ,very extraordinary gifts or native powers1 especially as displayed in original creation1 discovery1 expression1 or achievement4 ,webster's ,new ,international ,dictionary defines genius as ,extraordinary mental superiority2 esp4 unusual power of invention or origination of any kind2 as1 a man of genius4 ,the ,dictionary of ,psychology defines genius in part in terms of ,,iq1 but at the same time denies the word any special meaning as a recognized scientific term3 ,genius--a very superior mental ability1 especially a superior power of invention or origination of any kind1 or of execution of some special form1 such as music1 painting1 or mathematics4 4 4 4 ,it has no special technical meaning1 but has occasionally been defined as equivalent to an intelligence quotient 7,,iq7 of #adj or above4 ,generally speaking1 then1 dictionaries define genius as a superior or superlative degree of intellectual capacity1 and avoid claiming it for any concept of an added1 different1 or abnormal element in human faculty4 ,,concepts ,,of ,,genius ,as a manifestation of abnormal psychology4 ,a number of thinkers in fields allied to psychology have laid emphasis upon a supposed connection between genius and nervous instability or insanity4 ,this idea is embodied in the statement by ,pascal3 ,l'extrme esprit est voisin de l'extrme folie4 ,lamartine refers to la maladie mentale qu'on appelle gnie4 ,lombroso 7#aj7 is perhaps the most widely quoted among those who have held or who hold this point of view4 ,as constituting a different species4 ,the idea has been expressed by thinkers other than professed psychologists--and at times by psychologists themselves--that men of genius are a separate species1 partaking of qualities not shared in any degree by persons at large4 ,this concept is at one with that which would regard the idiot and the imbecile as distinct in kind1 not in degree only1 from the mass of mankind4 ,genius would thus be not merely more of the same but a different sort altogether4 ,thus ,hirsch 7#g7 specifically declares3 ,the genius differs in kind from the species1 man4 ,genius can be defined only in terms of its own unique mental and temperamental processes1 traits1 qualities1 and products4 ,genius is another psychobiological species1 differing as much from man1 in his mental and temperamental processes1 as man differs from the ape4 ,as a hypertrophied and highly specialized aptitude for specific performance4 ,the thought has been advanced that intellectual genius is a matter of specialization2 that the mind of a genius will not1 typically1 work on all data with superior results1 but that it is adapted only or primarily to certain kinds of intellectual performance4 ,in other words1 the genius is thought to lack general ability4 ,a recent statement by ,carrel 7#b7 seems to express in part at least this theory3 ,there is also a class of men who1 although disharmonious as the criminal and the insane1 are indispensable to modern society4 ,they are the men of genius4 ,they are characterized by a monstrous growth of some of their psychological activities4 ,a great artist1 a great scientist1 a great philosopher1 is rarely a great man4 ,he is generally a man of common type1 with one side over-developed4 ,as a combination of traits4 ,galton 7#f7 thought of genius as that which qualifies a person for eminence1 and he believed that achieved eminence must be founded on a combination of no less than three essentials4 ,he wrote3 ,by natural ability ,i mean those qualities of intellect and disposition which urge and qualify a man to perform acts that lead to reputation4 ,i do not mean capacity without zeal1 nor zeal without capacity1 nor even a combination of both of them1 without an adequate power of doing a great deal of very laborious work4 ,but ,i mean a nature which1 when left to itself1 will1 urged by an inherent stimulus1 climb the path that leads to eminence1 and has strength to reach the summit 4 4 4 one which1 if hindered or thwarted1 will fret and strive until the hindrance is overcome1 and it is again free to follow its labour-loving instinct4 ,it is almost a contradiction in terms to doubt that such men will generally become eminent4 ,again1 ,galton says3 ,we have seen that a union of three separate qualities--intellect1 zeal1 and power of work--are necessary to raise men from the ranks4 ,lehman 7#i7 has recently expressed this same idea1 as a result of a statistical study of the most productive years of intellectual workers3 ,indeed1 it is doubtful that genius is solely the fruit of any single trait4 ,it is the belief of the writer that the fruits of genius are1 on the contrary1 a function of numerous integers1 including both the personal traits of the individual worker1 environmental conditions that are not too hostile1 and the fortunate combination of both personal traits and external conditions4 ,as quantitative4 ,galton 7#f7 was the first to place the study of genius on the basis of quantitative statement1 so that comparisons might be made and vertifications be effected4 ,galton formulated the theory that genius 7great natural ability7 is nothing more nor less than a very extreme degree in the distribution of a combination of traits--intellect1 zeal1 and power of working-- which is shared by all in various grades or degrees4 ,reasoning thus1 ,galton applied for the first time in human thought the mathematical concepts of probablity to the definition of genius4 ,quetelet 7#ac71 drawing objects from congeries of known composition1 had elaborated the form which the probabilities take of drawing a given combination4 ,this form1 with the law of deviation from the average governing it1 is now1 of course1 a commonplace in psychological laboratories1 so that it is hard to realize that when ,galton made the mental leap from this curve to the abilities of men1 no one had ever thought of human minds as fitting the curve drawn by ,quetelet4 ,such a fit had already been thought of in connection with measurements of physique1 and had been demonstrated for measurements of the shrimp 7#af7 and for physical traits of persons4 ,but that natural ability should be susceptible to the probability curve and the curious theoretical law of deviation from an average as length is among shrimps1 or as circumference of the chest is among ,scottish soldiers 7as shown by ,quetelet71 was not conceived4 ,with the modern methods of mental measurement it is easy enough to perceive the truth of this4 ,but ,galton was working in the dark1 entirely without instruments of precision2 and his table of frequency for the classification of men according to their natural gifts must be regarded as one of the most prescient statements in the history of social science4 ,working with the tables devised by ,quetelet1 ,galton proposed the tabular classification of men according to their natural gifts shown below4 ,,classification ,,of ,,men ,,according ,,to ,,their ,,natural ,,gifts ,,grades ,,of ,,natural ,,numbers ,,of ,,men ,,comprised ,,in ,,the ,,several ,,grades ,,of ,,natural ,,ability1 ,,whether ,,in ,,respect ,,ability1 ,,separated ,,to ,,their ,,general ,,powers ,,or ,,to ,,special ,,aptitudes ,,by ,,equal ,,intervals ,below ,above ,proportionate2 ,in ,each ,million ,in ,total ,male ,population of the ,united ,kingdom1 ,say ,average ,average viz41 ,one in of the ,same ,age #ae ,millions1 of the ,undermentioned ,ages #bj-cj #cj-dj #dj-ej #ej-fj #fj-gj #gj-hj a ,a #d #bef1gia #fea1jjj #die1jjj #cia1jjj #bfh1jjj #aga1jjj #gg1jjj b ,b #f #afa1bgi #dji1jjj #cab1jjj #bdf1jjj #afh1jjj #ajg1jjj #dh1jjj c ,c #af #fc1efc #afa1jjj #abc1jjj #ig1jjj #ff1jjj #db1jjj #ai1jjj d ,d #fd #ae1fif #ci1hjj #cj1cjj #bc1ijj #af1djj #aj1djj #d1gjj e ,e #dac #b1dbc #f1ajj #d1gjj #c1gjj #b1ebj #a1fjj #gbi f ,f #d1cjj #bcc #eij #dej #cee #bdc #aee #gj g ,g #gi1jjj #ad #ce #bg #ba #ae #i #d x ,all grades ,all grades below g above ,g #a1jjj1jjj #a #c #b #b #b #j #j ,interpreting this theoretical tabulation1 ,galton 7#f7 wrote3 ,it will be seen that more than half of each million is contained in the two mediocre classes a and ,a2 the four mediocre classes a1 b1 ,a1 ,b1 contain more than four fifths1 and the six mediocre classes more than nineteen twentieths of the entire population4 ,thus1 the rarity of commanding ability and the vast abundance of mediocrity is no accident1 but follows of necessity from the very nature of these things4 ,on decscending the scale1 we find by the time we have reached f that we are already among the idiots and imbeciles4 ,we have seen that there are #djj idiots and imbeciles to any million of persons living in this country2 but that #cj per cent of their number appear to be light cases1 to whom the name of idiot is inappropriate4 ,there will remain #bhj true idiots and imbeciles to every million of our population4 ,this ratio coincides very closely with the requirements of class f4 ,no doubt a certain proportion of them are idiots owing to some fortuitous cause 4 4 4 but the proportion of accidental idiots cannot be very large4 ,hence we arrive at the undeniable but unexpected conclusion that eminently gifted men are raised as much above mediocrity as idiots are depressed below it2 a fact that is calculated to enlarge considerably our ideas of the enormous difference of intellectual gifts between man and man4 ,,miscellaneous ,,observations ,,tending ,,to ,,define ,,characteristics ,,of ,,genius ,in addition to the formulation of the rather definite concepts of genius which have been discussed1 there are to be found in the literature of this topic a large number of general observations ascribing certain characteristics to persons of genius4 ,there are also many remarks as to the conditions of living1 of education1 of genetics1 and so forth1 which are alleged to foster or to hinder the development of genius4 ,many of these observations and remarks emanate from others than professed psychologists1 some of the most interesting coming from litterateurs and philosophers4 ,one of the most penetrating discussions of genius by a litterateur is that of ,shaw 7#ae7 in his ,preface to ,saint ,joan4 ,shaw regards ,saint ,joan as a young genius1 and in introducing his readers to this point of view he says3 ,let us be clear about the meaning of the terms4 ,a genius is a person who1 seeing farther and probing deeper than other people1 has a different set of ethical values from theirs1 and has energy enough to give effect to this extra vision and its valuations in whatever manner best suits his or her specific talents4 ,here is brought out the tendency to heterodoxy which characterizes genius and is the source of much of its difficulty4 ,shaw dwells upon these difficulties in saying3 ,but it is not so easy for mental giants who neither hate nor intend to injure their fellows to realize that nevertheless their fellows hate mental giants and would like to destroy them1 not only enviously because the juxtaposition of a superior wounds their vanity1 but quite honestly because it frightens them4 ,fear will drive men to any extreme2 and the fear inspired by a superior being is a mystery which cannot be reasoned away4 ,being immeasurable it is unbearable when there is no presumption or guarantee of its benevolence and moral responsibility2 in other words1 when it has official status4 ,this is the same trend of thought which ,mill 7#aa7 follows in his ,essay on ,liberty1 noting the originality that characterizes genius and the troubles that result from it1 and insisting upon freedom for genius in the interests of the general welfare4 ,it would not be denied by anybody that originality is a valuable element in human affairs4 ,there is always need of persons not only to discover new truths1 and point out when what were once truths are true no longer1 but also to commence new practices1 and set the example of more enlightened conduct1 and better taste and sense in human life4 4 4 4 ,it is true that this benefit is not capable of being rendered by everybody alike2 there are but few persons in comparison with the whole of mankind1 whose experiments1 if adopted by others1 would be likely to be any improvement on established practice4 ,but these few are the salt of the earth2 without them1 human life would become a stagnant pool4 4 4 4 ,persons of genius1 it is true1 are and are always likely to be1 a small minority2 but in order to have them1 it is necessary to preserve the soil in which they grow4 ,genius can only breathe freely in an atmosphere of freedom4 ,persons of genius are1 ex vi termini1 more individual than any other people 4 4 4 less capable1 consequently1 of fitting themselves1 without hurtful compression1 into any of the small number of moulds which society provides in order to save its members the trouble of forming their own character4 ,if from timidity they consent to be forced into one of these moulds1 and to let that part of themselves which cannot expand under the pressure remain unexpanded1 society will be little better for their genius4 ,if they are of strong character1 and break their fetters1 they become a mark for the society which has not succeeded in reducing them to common-place1 to point with solemn warning as wild1 erratic1 and the like2 much as if one should complain of the ,niagara ,river for not flowing smoothly between its banks like a ,dutch canal4 ,mill says further3 ,i insist thus emphatically on the importance of genius1 and the necessity of allowing it to unfold itself freely both in thought and in practice1 being well aware that no one will deny the position in theory1 but knowing also that almost everyone1 in reality1 is totally indifferent to it4 ,mill1 indeed1 had much to say about the conditions under which the exceptional individual contributes to social change and progress1 which bears immediately upon the education of highly exceptional children4 ,bearing further upon the persecution to which genius is often subject as a penalty for nonconformity1 ,havelock ,ellis 7#e7 after studying a large number of ,british men of genius says3 ,it is practically impossible to estimate the amount of persecution to which this group of preminent persons has been subjected1 for it has shown itself in innumerable forms1 and varies between a mere passive refusal to have anything to do with them or their work and the active infliction of physical torture and death4 ,there is1 however1 at least one form of persecution1 very definite in character1 which it is easy to estimate1 since the national biographers have probably in few cases passed over it4 ,i refer to imprisonment4 ,i find that at least #afj1 or over #af per cent1 of our #ige eminent men were imprisoned1 once or oftener1 for periods of varying length1 while many others only escaped imprisonment by voluntary exile4 ,this is a conclusion reached by one investigating the condition of genius among what are probably the most liberal people in the world--the ,british1 a nation of protestants4 ,another condition of genius frequently alleged is that of personal isolation4 ,shaw makes ,saint ,joan say1 ,i was always alone4 ,schopenhauer 7#ad7 says3 ,it is often the case that a great mind prefers soliloquy to the dialogue he may have in the world4 ,hirsch 7#g7 dwells at some length upon isolation3 ,the genius is constantly forced to solitude1 for he early learns from experience that his kind can expect no reciprocation of their generous feelings4 4 4 4 ,solitude can best be defined as the state in which friends are lacking or absent1 rather than as the opposite of sociability4 4 4 4 ,solitude is but a refuge of genius1 not its goal4 ,time after time one detects1 from the lives or writings of genius1 that solitude is not its destiny but only a retreat2 not the normal fruition of its being1 but an empty harbor sheltering it from the tortures1 griefs1 and calumnies of the world4 4 4 4 ,it is a grievous error to credit the genius with an innate inclination to shun men4 ,but in his youth he learns by experience that solitude is preferable to suffocation1 stupefaction1 or surrender4 ,alger 7#a7 sees isolation as a necessary corollary of the insistence upon perfection and accuracy which characterizes genius3 ,a passion for perfection will make its subject solitary as nothing else can4 ,at every step he leaves a group behind4 ,and when1 at last1 he reaches the goal1 alas1 where are his early comrades8 ,these references to the early experience of the genius in meeting the uncordial response of the world as constituted1 with its resultant tendency to isolation1 connect themselves with an account found in the ,apocryphal ,new ,testament1 in a portion called the ,hebrew ,gospels4 ,and ,joseph1 seeing that the child was vigorous in mind and body1 again resolved that he should not remain ignorant of the letters1 and took him away1 and handed him over to another teacher4 ,and the teacher said to ,joseph3 ,i shall teach him the ,greek letters1 and then ,hebrew4 ,he wrote out the alphabet and began to teaching him in an imperious tone1 saying3 ,say ,alpha4 ,and he gave him his attention for a long time and he made no answer1 but was silent4 ,and he said to him3 ,if thou art really a teacher1 tell me the power of the ,alpha and ,i will tell thee the power of the ,beta4 ,and the teacher was enraged at this1 and struck him4 ,,speculation ,,and ,,comment ,,concerning ,,genius ,the ecology of genius has evoked speculation and comment4 ,thus ,churchill 7#c7 says3 ,mountain regions discourage the budding of genius because they are areas of isolation1 confinement1 remote from the great currents of men and ieas that move along river valleys4 ,they are regions of much labor and little leisure1 of poverty today and anxiety for the morrow1 of toil-cramped hands and toil-dulled brains4 ,in the fertile alluvial plains are wealth1 leisure1 contact with many minds1 large urban centers where commodities and ideas are exchanged4 ,the origins of genius have also engaged the attention of speculative thinkers4 ,for instance1 ,dixon 7#d7 and also ,hirsch 7#g7 offer the hypothesis that racial mixture is an antecedent of genius4 ,kretschmer 7#h7 would by inference subscribe to this theory1 since he holds that genetically genius results from the union of unlike elements1 to which he refers as bastardization3 ,the investigation of the family history of highly talented individuals demonstrates very clearly the effect of biological bastardization1 and shows why it may lead to the production of genius4 4 4 4 ,it results in a complicated psychological structure1 in which the components of two strongly opposing germs remain in polar tension throughout life4 4 4 4 ,this polar tension acts as an effective and dynamic factor and produces in the genius the labile equlibrium1 the effective super-pressure1 that continuous1 restless impulsiveness1 which carries him far beyond placid1 traditional practice and the simple satisfaction of life4 ,on the other hand1 in regard to his intellectual abilities1 the polar tension creates in the genius his wide mental horizon1 the diverse and complicated wealth of his talent1 the all-embracing personality4 ,kretschmer also allies himself with those who hold the concept of genius as closely related to insanity1 quoting selected cases in proof3 ,bastardization produces internal contrasts and conflicts1 affects tensions1 highly strung and uncompensated passions1 and a spiritual lability4 ,it consequently creates a predisposition to genius 4 4 4 but also points to psycho-pathological complications4 ,thus the research on bastardization becomes closely interwoven with the old1 familiar questions1 leading us back to the problem3 ,genius and ,insanity4 ,,bibliography #a4 ,,alger1 ,,william4 ,the ,genius of ,solitude1 page #add4 #b4 ,,carrel1 ,,alexis4 ,man the ,unknown4 ,see pages #adj-ada4 ,harper ,brothers1 ,new ,york2 #aice4 #c4 ,,churchill1 ,,ellen ,,semple4 ,the ,influence of ,geographic ,environment on the ,basis of ,ratzel's ,system of ,anthropogeography4 ,houghton ,mifflin ,company1 ,boston2 #aiji4 #d4 ,,dixon1 ,,roland ,b4 ,the ,racial ,history of ,man4 ,charles ,scribner's ,sons1 ,new ,york2 #aibc4 #e4 ,,ellis1 ,,havelock4 ,a ,study of ,british ,genius4 ,constable1 ,london2 #aibg4 #f4 ,,galton1 ,,francis4 ,hereditary ,genius4 ,the ,macmillan ,company1 ,london2 #aiad4 #g4 ,,hirsch1 ,n4 ,d4 ,m4 ,genius and ,creative ,intelligence4 ,sci-,art ,publisher1 ,cambridge1 ,massachusetts2 #aica4 #h4 ,,kretschmer1 ,e4 ,the ,psychology of ,men of ,genius4 ,translated by ,r4 ,b4 ,cattell4 ,harcourt1 ,brace ,co41 ,inc41 ,new ,york2 #aica4 #i4 ,,lehman1 ,,harvey ,c4 ,the ,creative ,years in ,science and ,literature4 ,scientific ,monthly 7,august1 #aicf74 #aj4 ,,lombroso1 ,c4 ,the ,man of ,genius4 ,scott1 ,london2 #ahia4 #aa4 ,,mill1 ,,john ,,stuart4 ,essay on ,liberty4 ,see page #gf ff4 ,the ,macmillan ,company1 ,new ,york2 #aibf ,ed4 #ab4 ,,ovidius ,,naso1 ,,publius4 ,ars ,amatoria 7,the ,love ,books of ,ovid74 ,translated by ,j4 ,lewis ,may4 ,privately printed for the ,rarity ,press1 ,new ,york2 #aicj4 #ac4 ,,quetelet1 ,m4 ,letters on ,probability4 ,translated by ,downes4 ,layton ,co41 ,london2 #ahdi4 #ad4 ,,schopenhauer1 ,,arthur4 ,essay on ,genius1 in ,the ,art of ,literature1 ,essays of ,arthur ,schopenhauer4 ,willey ,book ,company1 ,new ,york4 #ae4 ,,shaw1 ,,george ,,bernard4 ,saint ,joan4 ,dodd1 ,mead1 ,co41 ,inc41 ,new ,york2 #aibd1 #aicf4 #af4 ,,weldon1 ,w4 ,f4 ,r4 ,certain ,correlated ,variations in ,crangdon ,vulgaris1 ,proceedings of ,the ,royal ,society1 ,vol4 #ea1 page #b 7#ahib74 #a ,see endnote #a in ,preface4 #b ,numbers in parentheses refer to correspondingly numbered references in the ,bibliography at the end of each chapter4 ,,chapter ,,two ,,early ,,scientific ,,study ,,of ,,eminent ,,adults #a ,because1 strictly speaking1 the present study is limited in its interest and data to childhood1 no attempt will be made to review in detail the somewhat numerous studies of exceptional adults4 ,,origin ,,of ,,eminent ,,adults ,such studies as those undertaken by ,galton 7#aa1 #ab71 ,de ,candolle 7#i71 ,ellis 7#aj71 ,odin 7#ag71 and ,cattell 7#d1 #e7 show that those who1 as adults1 become eminent in intellectual work1 are in disproportionately great numbers the children of the upper 7nobler or professional7 classes2 and that they are usually born either in cities or on large country estates 7in ,france1 in the chateaux74 ,very few eminent adults have originated in the families of laborers1 and relatively few have been born in agricultural districts1 in countries long settled4 ,beyond these facts of origin1 the investigators of eminence in adults have not given much information about their subjects of inquiry in respect to childhood4 ,,yoder',s ,,study ,we shall begin our detailed reference to previous observations with ,yoder's study1 published in #ahih4 ,yoder 7#be7 made a systematic attempt to gather data about the boyhood of very eminent men4 ,he thus tracked down certain facts about fifty great persons concerning whom he could find data bearing on their childhood4 ,from these he was able to make the following generalizations3 #a4 ,the child who will become a great man may be born at any time1 over a very wide range of the productive period in the lives of parents4 ,the mothers of the fifty great persons studied ranged in age from #ah to #dd years1 when the great man was born1 with a median of #bi4h years4 ,the fathers ranged in age from #bc to #fj years1 with a median of #cg4g years4 #b4 ,the average number of siblings of these persons was #e1 not including half brothers and sisters4 #c4 ,in families of more than one child1 there was found to be a strong tendency 7chances of nearly #b to #a7 for the great man to be in the elder half of the siblings4 #d4 ,of those listed1 #ag were only sons1 either by order of birth or by death of other sons born4 7,this is not to say that they were only children47 #e4 ,there was found no evidence that the great were sickly or physically weak in childhood1 to a more marked extent than average4 #f4 ,there appeared a tendency to great height among them than among persons in general1 though the tendency is not very marked4 #g4 ,play interests were keen among these children1 though the play was often of an unusual kind4 ,solitary play is repeatedly described4 ,of ,emerson1 his biographer says3 ,i don't think he ever engaged in boys' plays1 not because of any physical disability1 but simply because from earliest years he dwelt in a higher sphere4 ,others are said to have been disinclined to general intercourse4 ,instead of joining in the usual childish games1 ,newton preferred to play with his machines1 ,darwin with his collections1 ,shelley to read1 ,stevenson to make clay engines1 and ,edison to mix his chemicals4 ,of ,byron it was written3 ,the love of solitude and of meditation is already traceable in the child4 ,he loves to wander at night among the dark and solitary cloisters of the abbey4 ,to quote ,yoder3 ,solitude seems to have played a rather striking role in the lives of these great men4 ,either by nature or by opportunity1 they have stayed a great deal alone4 ,nevertheless1 many of the fifty persons studied by ,yoder enjoyed physical activity4 ,washington loved outdoor sports1 ,schiller was a leader in athletics1 ,byron was an enthusiastic swimmer and rider1 and ,lincoln was the champion wrestler and woodcutter of his neighborhood4 #h4 ,the popular idea that great men owe their success to their mothers' influence upon their education does not receive verification from a study of these cases4 ,the mother's place seems very often to have been filled by some other person1 frequently an aunt1 either because the mother had died1 or because there were many other children to care for4 ,the role of the aunt stands out prominently4 #i4 ,these great persons were1 in the decided majority of cases1 derived from well-to-do families4 ,most of them were privately educated1 by tutors or in private schools4 ,very few were self made4 ,,terman',s ,,inferences ,,from ,,biography ,terman 7#bj7 has effected an interesting advance over ,yoder's method1 in the interpretation of evidence from the biography of adults4 #b ,by analyzing data in the biography of ,francis ,galton1 and by relating these data to modern knowledge of mental tests1 ,terman derives that the ,,iq of ,francis ,galton in childhood must have been not far from #bjj4 ,as ,terman has elsewhere pointed out1 these attempts to study genius in childhood by inference from the biography of adults are very unsatisfactory4 ,in the first place1 only those whose potentialities have been realized are included in such study4 ,since factors other than innate intellectual power act also as determinants of eminence1 we cannot be sure whether equal capacity for selective thinking may have existed in persons who died before the age of achievement1 who were younger sons1 who were girls1 or who were the children of the poor4 ,moreover1 such evidence as can be gleaned concerning those who have achieved eminence is comparatively unsystematic and unreliable as regards childhood4 ,most clearly related to our present study are the previously reported observations of children made directly1 during childhood1 by trained investigators4 ,the modern development of mental tests has now enabled psychologists to identify young children who deviate from average in the direction of superiority as regards selective thinking1 and to follow their development for some years4 ,eventually1 therefore1 it will be known how to recognize those children who can become great1 and whether extreme deviation in mental tests is a basis of prophecy4 ,,bibliography #a4 ,,binet1 ,a4 ,psychologie des grandes calculateurs et joieurs d'checs4 ,hachette1 ,paris2 #ahid4 #b4 ,,brimhall1 ,d4 ,family ,resemblances among ,american ,men of ,science1 ,american ,naturalist1 ,vol4 #ef 7#aibb7 and ,vol4 #eg 7#aibc74 #c4 ,,castle1 ,c4 ,s4 ,statistical ,study of ,eminent ,women4 ,archives of ,psychology1 ,vol4 ,,iv1 ,no4 #bg 7#aiac74 #d4 ,,cattell1 ,j4 ,mc,k4 ,a ,statistical ,study of ,eminent ,men4 ,popular ,science ,monthly 7#aijc74 #e4 ------ ,families of ,american ,men of ,science4 ,popular ,science ,monthly1 ,vol4 #hf1 pages #ejd-eae 7#aiae74 #f4 ,,clark1 ,e4 ,l4 ,american ,men of ,letters3 ,their ,nature and ,nurture4 ,columbia ,university ,press1 ,new ,york2 #aiaf4 #g4 ,,cox1 ,c4 ,m4 ,the ,early ,mental ,traits of ,three ,hundred ,geniuses4 ,genetic ,studies of ,genius3 ,vol4 #b4 ,stanford ,university ,press1 ,stanford ,university1 ,california2 #aibf4 #h4 ,,davies1 ,g4 ,r4 ,a ,statistical ,study of the ,influence of the ,environment4 ,quarterly ,journal of the ,university of ,north ,dakota 7#aiad74 #i4 ,,de ,,candolle1 ,a4 ,histoire des ,sciences et des ,savants depuis ,deux ,sicles4 ,geneva1 ,switzerland2 #ahgc4 #aj4 ,,ellis1 ,,havelock4 ,a ,study of ,british ,genius4 ,hirst and ,blackett1 ,london2 #aijd4 #aa4 ,,galton1 ,,francis4 ,english ,men of ,science4 ,the ,macmillan ,company1 ,london2 #ahgd4 #ab4 ------ ,hereditary ,genius4 ,the ,macmillan ,company1 ,new ,york1 #aiad4 7,original edition1 ,london2 #ahfi47 #ac4 ,,lehman1 ,,harvey ,c4 ,the ,creative ,years in ,science and ,literature4 ,scientific ,monthly1 ,vol4 ,,xliii1 pages #aea-afb 7#aicf74 #ad4 ,,lombroso1 ,c4 ,the ,man of ,genius4 ,scott1 ,london2 #ahie4 #ae4 ,,middleton1 ,w4 ,c4 ,the ,propensity of ,genius to ,solitude4 ,journal of ,abnormal and ,social ,psychology1 ,vol4 #cj1 pages #cbe-ccb 7#aice74 #af4 ,,mitchell1 ,f4 ,d4 ,mathematical ,prodigies4 ,american ,journal of ,psychology1 ,vol4 #ah1 pages #fa-adc 7#aijg74 #ag4 ,,odin1 ,a4 ,gense des ,grands ,hommes des ,lettres ,franais ,modernes4 ,paris et ,lausanne2 #ahie4 #ah4 ,,raskin1 ,e4 ,comparison of ,scientific and ,literary ,ability3 ,a ,biographical ,study of ,eminent ,scientists and ,men of ,letters of the ,nineteenth ,century4 ,journal of ,abnormal and ,social ,psychology1 ,vol4 #ca1 pages #bj-ce 7#aice74 #ai4 ,,schuster1 ,e4 ,the ,promise of ,youth and the ,performance of ,manhood4 ,eugenics ,laboratory ,memoirs1 ,vol4 #c1 pages #af ff4 ,london2 #aijg4 #bj4 ,,terman1 ,,lewis ,m4 ,the ,,iq of ,francis ,galton in ,childhood4 ,american ,journal of ,psychology1 ,vol4 #bh1 pages #bji-bae 7#aiag74 #ba4 ,,visher1 ,s4 ,s4 ,a ,study of the ,type of ,place of ,birth and of the ,occupation of ,father of ,subjects of ,sketches in ,who's ,who in ,america4 ,american ,journal of ,sociology1 #aibe4 #bb4 ------ ,the ,comparative ,rank of the ,american ,states4 ,american ,journal of ,sociology1 ,vol4 #cf1 pages #gce-geg 7,march1 #aica74 #bc4 ,,white1 ,r4 ,k4 ,note on the ,psycho-pathology of ,genius4 ,journal of ,social ,psychology1 ,vol4 #a1 pages #caa-cae 7#aicj74 #bd4 ------ ,the ,versatility of ,genius4 ,journal of ,social ,psychology1 ,vol4 #b1 pages #dfj-dhi 7#aica74 #be4 ,,yoder1 ,g4 ,e4 ,a ,study of the ,boyhood of ,great ,men4 ,pedagogical ,seminary1 ,vol4 #c1 pages #acd-aef 7#ahid74 #a ,,editorial ,,note4 ,no revision of this chapter has been found among the author's papers4 ,in the earlier manuscript reporting but five cases1 there was a brief section entitled ,inferences from the ,study of ,adults1 and in the incompletely revised manuscript a list of references is given for this chapter which had not yet been written4 ,the earlier sections and the revised bibliography are1 therefore1 all that is available for this chapter4 ,the bibliography will be sufficient to guide any reader who may be further interested in the details of the scientific study of adults4 #b ,,editorial ,,note4 ,had these pages been written at a later date1 or revised by the author1 of course the more recent work of ,c4 ,m4 ,cox 7#g71 inspired by ,terman1 would have been considered4 ,,chapter ,,three ,,published ,,reports ,,on ,,tested ,,children ,galton and those who built directly upon his pioneer thought about ability were limited to the study of those who had passed the tests of life itself1 the study of the old and the dead1 upon whom developing theories and processes of education have no bearing4 ,today one of the principal reasons for obtaining knowledge concerning able persons is that they and others like them may be properly educated for the social functions which they alone can perform4 ,inferences from study of eminent adults are1 therefore1 of negligible importance compared to the identification and education of today's gifted children4 ,,modern ,,approach ,,to ,,the ,,study ,,of ,,ability ,in #aije ,binet and ,simon 7#c71 announcing their scale for the measurement of intelligence in children1 rendered it possible to know at the beginning of a human being's existence where--within narrow limits of error--he or she1 in comparison with all others1 grades in caliber of general intelligence4 ,this work1 relating itself to work done also by others--notably ,spearman 7#ba7 and ,thorndike 7#bh1 #cj7--;created a new epoch in the study of ability and inaugurated the so-called modern1 or present-day1 approach to the subject4 ,,binet',s ,,method ,no extended discussion of what general intelligence is will be undertaken in these pages1 as it would not be germane to the purposes of this monograph4 ,it will be sufficient to refer to the concept which ,binet had in mind in standardizing his scale 7#d73 ,it seems to us that there is a fundamental faculty1 the alteration or the lack of which is of the utmost importance for practical life4 ,it is this fundamental faculty which ,binet named judgment that is the variable upon which rests the extreme position of the children who are to be studied herein4 ,the quantitative methods which make possible the study of the status of these children when they have reached adulthood are those developed in recent years by ,thorndike 7#cj7 and his students4 ,as the children identified years ago by ,binet's method grew to adulthood1 there were developed in the various laboratories of ,columbia ,university methods of measuring the intelligence of superior adults1 based on the fundamental principles which are the same for mental measurement at all periods of development4 ,methods have thus been made available for making quantitative statements of the status of these individuals both during development and at maturity4 ,,the ,,range ,,of ,,intellect ,,above #ahj ,,iq ,it is pertinent to inquire what are the limits of variation in terms of standard use in respect to human intelligence4 ,how far superior to the average person are the most highly intelligent individuals currently produced8 ,galton's 7#i7 ,x grade of man was defined in terms of incidence as one in a million4 ,but this ,x man was not a product of one variable4 ,galton's ,x man resulted from an intellect in combination with zeal and power of working4 ,the incidence of this combination of traits would probably be less than the incidence of intellect alone in degree sufficient for ,x4 ,our purpose in this chapter will be to consider investigations1 made by direct methods1 of the origin and development of children of a type extremely rare in occurrence1 incidence being based on one variable only2 i4e41 intelligence measured in terms of ,,iq 7,s-,b74 ,for this purpose the line might be drawn at any point farther than #g ,,pe or #h ,,pe from the mean4 ,a choice of #ahj ,,iq 7,s-,b7 as a minimum insures a degree of plus deviation very rarely found even in metropolitan cities and their suburbs1 as is clear from the reports of mental surveys conducted during the present century4 ,the choice of #ahj ,,iq 7,s-,b71 instead of #agi or #aha or some other amount of ,,iq in the extreme upper range1 is obviously arbitrary and is adopted merely for the purpose of defining a point at and above which there are very few children who score4 ,frequency of occurrence4 ,just how often does a child testing above #ahj ,,iq 7,s-,b7 appear in the juvenile population of the ,united ,states8 ,we cannot tell exactly until we know more about the spread of the distribution of ,,iq 7,s-,b74 ,in terms of ,,pe 7#a ,,pe #h ,,iq71 according to ,terman's original findings 7#bd7 we should come upon a deviate of #aj ,,pe only once in more than a million times1 provided the distribution of ,,iq corresponds exactly or even rather closely to ,quetelet's 7#ag7 curve of probability as respects spread2 for on this curve cases above or below #e ,,pe approach zero in frequency4 ,it is certain1 however1 even from existing data1 that the distribution of ,,iq extends for at least #aj ,,pe 7even assuming that wider data will define #a ,,pe as #aj instead of #h as found by ,terman4 ,it is probable that children who test above #ahj ,,iq are actually present in our juvenile population in greater frequency than at the rate of one in a million4 ,this does not mean that intellect when finally measured in true units may not conform in variability to the mathematics of chance2 it means only in terms of ,,iq 7in terms of ratio and not of absolute units7 the conformity is probably not exact1 as respects the law of deviation4 ,there may be one1 or two1 or three1 or more children among every million born in the ,united ,states under present conditions who test at or above #ahj ,,iq 7,s-,b74 ,in any case1 however1 they are extremely rare1 and the study of their origin and development is of correspondingly great interest4 ,in the course of discovering about #ajjj children testing at or above #adj ,,iq 7,s-,b7 in the state of ,california1 ,terman 7#bf7 found #ae who tested at or above #ahj ,,iq 7,s-,b74 ,children who test at and above #adj ,,iq 7,s-,b7 are as #a in #bej of children in large ,california cities and environs4 ,thus #adj ,,iq 7,s-,b7 defines a frequency of about #d in #ajjj of urban juvenile population in ,california4 ,about #a4e per cent1 therefore1 of those children who are as #d in #ajjj reach the status of which we are here treating2 i4e41 #ahj ,,iq 7,s-,b74 #a ,nor can we take the children of ,california urban districts as a true sample of the population of the ,united ,states at large1 since there is reason to believe that among urban children there is an uncommon proportion of intelligent individuals 7#h74 ,also it should be conceded that ,california has a total population that is above the average of the ,united ,states in general as regards mental ability 7#cg74 ,in any case1 it may be guessed with some degree of approximation to fact how very few there are among ,american children who test at or above #ahj ,,iq 7,s-,b74 ,,children ,,observed ,,before ,,the ,,era ,,of ,,binet ,scattered observations of children estimated by more or less competent persons as very unusual are to be found dating from quite early years4 ,in this period the literature of child psychology was still in the state of narrative4 ,the earliest of these narrations bears the date of #agbf 7#a7 and concerns the child ,heineken4 ,christian ,heinrich ,heineken4 ,born ,february #f1 #agba1 the ,little ,heineken1 of ,lbeck1 was the son of an artist4 ,when the child was #aj months old1 his elders first noticed that he was looking with sustained attention at the figures wrought in gold on a grotesque that decorated the walls of his room and that were also on a white stove that stood therein4 ,den #c ,dezember #agba bemerkte man zuerst1 dass das kind diese ,figuren hin und her1 eine ,zeitlang ohne ,unterlass ansah und seine ugelchen auf eine derselben gleichsam anklebte4 ,man sagte ihm daher die ,namen dieser ,figuren1 das sei eine ,katze1 das ein ,turm1 ein ,schfchen1 ein ,berg4 ,den andern ,tag1 den #d ,dezember1 fragte man es wieder1 wo die ,katze1 der ,berg1 das ,schfchen wre und siehe da1 das ,kind deutete mit seinen kleinen ,fingerchen hin und traf immer das rechte ,bild1 das man ihm genannt hatte4 ,noch mehr1 nun gab es sich ,mhe1 die ihm vorgesagten ,wrter3 ,katze1 ,berg1 ,turm selbst nachzusprechen3 es sah daher mit unverwandten ,blicken dem ,redendend nach dem ,munde1 gab auf die ,bewegung der ,lippen und der ,zunge desselben bestndig acht1 lallte das ,wort nach und wiederholte dies so oft1 bis es endlich eine ,silbe nach der andern herauspresste4 a ,by the time this child was #ad months old he had learned all the stories in the ,new ,testament4 ,at this age he was still not weaned from the breast of his nurse1 and had an antipathy to other foods4 ,in order to get him accustomed to other forms of food1 the family took him to sit with them at meals1 but instead of eating he did nothing but learn4 ,when he saw the various appurtenances he asked persistently how the dishes were named1 where they came from1 what else could be made from the things1 and did not rest until he had discussed every piece of information4 ,in this mode of life the child remained always happy and in good humor4 ,he was lovable4 ,only when at times he was refused answers to his questions1 because it was feared that he might be injured by too many remembrances1 the child was sorely grieved4 ,the extent of his learning in the fourth year of life was as follows3 ,es konnte gedruckte und geschriebene ,sachen lateinisch und deutsch lesen4 ,schreiben konnte es noch nicht1 seine ,fingerchen waren zu schwach dazu4 ,das ,einmaleins konnte es in und ausser der ,ordnung hersagen4 ,auch numerieren1 subtrahieren1 addieren und multiplizieren vermochte es4 ,in ,franzsischen kam es soweit1 dass es ganze ,historien in dieser ,sprache erzhlen konnte4 ,in ,latein lernte es ber #aejj gute ,sprche aus lateinischen ,autoren4 ,plattdeutsch hatte das ,kind von seiner ,amme1 von der es nicht lassen wollte1 gelernt4 ,in der ,geographie fuhr es fort1 das ,merkwrdigste eines jeden auf der ,landkarte steheneden ,ortes zu fassen4 b ,on a journey across the sea to ,copenhagen1 undertaken for the boy's health1 a storm arose and the passengers were badly frightened1 all but the child1 who said1 smiling ,qui nescit orare1 discate navigare4 ,when subsequently the ship came safely to anchor1 he remarked1 ,anchora navis sistitur2 deserit ille suos nunquam1 qui cuncta gubernat4 ,when the boy was brought before the ,danish king1 he said of the diamond order that the king gave him to hold1 ,c'est l',ordre d',elephant1 garni de diamant4 ,and gazing at the diamonds1 he added1 ,les bijoux sont precieux1 mais la vie du ,roi est plus precieuse4 ,the little ,heineken died at the age of #d years #d months1 in accordance with the popular superstition that early death awaits the highly intelligent child1 a wonder for all time4 ,karl ,witte4 ,the father of ,karl ,witte 7#ce7 has furnished a somewhat elaborate account of his son's development1 from which we learn that the young ,karl could read fluently before his fourth birthday4 ,he learned to write soon thereafter4 ,at the age of #g years #aj months a public demonstration of his ability to read was given1 covering ,italian1 ,french1 ,greek1 and ,latin4 ,he passed tests of preparedness to matriculate at the ,university of ,leipsic ,leipzig when he was #i years old4 ,in the field of mathematics he pursued analytical geometry at #aa and calculus at #ab years of age4 ,at #ad he achieved the degree of ,doctor of ,philosophy1 and was awarded the degree of ,doctor of ,laws at #af4 ,at #bc he became full professor of jurisprudence at the ,university of ,breslau4 ,he was then called to ,halle1 and continued there for the remainder of his life1 teaching and writing4 ,at the age of #hc1 still vigorously engaged in mental tasks1 he died1 thus outliving the melancholy promise of early death which had often been prophesied to his father4 ,pastor ,witte1 who directed his son's education1 did not claim for him extraordinary intelligence4 ,any man normally well endowed can become a great man if properly educated1 he wrote 7#ce74 ,his special method of educating the boy seems to have been simply to afford him companionship4 ,he describes the child as strong1 healthy1 and playful1 without vanity or conceit4 ,from the total record one must conclude that ,karl ,witte's intelligence quotient in childhood was in excess of #ahj1 comparing his history with those studied in this monograph4 ,his performances in childhood compare favorably with those of the children we have known with ,,iq 7,s-,b7 in the range above #ahe4 ,otto ,phler4 ,,in #aiaj ,berkhan 7#b7 recorded the performance of ,otto ,phler1 the early reading child of ,braunschweig1 the son of a master butcher 7erstes und einziges ,kind der ,sclachtermeisters71 born ,august #bj1 #ahib4 ,this child learned to walk and talk and his teeth erupted at the right time4 ,at the age of #a year #c months1 when his grandmother led him forth on short neighborhood walks1 she would read to him from signs on the streets4 ,and at this period she wrote for him his name1 ,otto4 ,soon he could recognize the word ,otto1 when he saw it in the newspaper4 ,then the grandmother explained to him the alphabet1 and read him single words4 ,when ,otto was taken to ,dr4 ,berkhan1 he was #a year #i months old1 and he could read incidental matter1 such as ,april #bg1 written in ,latin across the calendar in ,dr4 ,berkhan's office4 ,otto ,phler1 geborn den #bj ,august #ahib zu ,braunschweig1 erstes und einziges ,kind des ,schlachtermeisters1 bekam zu rechter zeit ,zhne und lernte zu rechter ,zeit laufen und sprechen4 ,als er #e_/d ,jahre alt war1 fhrte ihn die ,grossmutter vor die ,tr und in die nchsten ,strassen und nannte ihm dabei die ,namen1 welche auf den ,haus- und ,strassenschildern standen1 auch hatten ihm ,angehrigen mehrfach seinen ,vornamen ,otto aufgeschrieben4 ,als das ,kind nun eine ,zeitung in die ,hnde bekam1 zeigte es den mehrfach in derselben gedruckten ,namen ,otto4 ,von da ab erklrte ihm die ,grossmutter die ,buchstaben und las ihm einzelne ,worte vor2 dabei ergab sich1 dass das ,kind ein ungeheures ,gedchtnis fr ,buchstaben1 ,worte1 und ,zahlen hatte4 ,als mir der kleine ,otto zugefhrt wurde1 war er wie ich vorhin anfhrte #a #c_/d ,jahre alt4 ,er tat sehr vertraut1 kletterte sofort mehrfach auf meine ,kniee1 zeigte sich berhaupt sehr beweglich und unruhig4 ,als er einen neben dem ,schreibtisch hngenden ,wandkalender erblickte1 las er unaufgefordert laut die auf demselben lateinisch gross gedruckte ,anzeige3 ,april #bg ,april zwei sieben4 4 4 4 ,im ,oktober1 #ahid1 stellte ich den jungen ,otto im ,alter von #b ,jahren und #b ,monaten dem rztlichen ,landesverein vor4 ,als derselbe nach ,beendigung meines ber ihn gehaltenen ,vortrags in den ,sitzungssaal gefhrt wurde1 zog einer der rzte den ,brnerschen ,medizinal-,kalender hervor mit der ,aufforderung1 die lateinische ,aufschrift zu lesen4 ,er las fliessend3 ,re--ichs ,medizinal-,kalender4 ,begrndet von ,dr ,pa--ul ,brnr4 ,eins acht neun vier4 c ,when ,otto was #d years old1 ,stumpf reported concerning him in the ,vossiche ,zeitung1 of ,january #aj1 #ahig1 describing him as not strongly yet not poorly developed1 physically4 ,the back of the skull was said to be conspicuous2 the face1 delicate2 and the eyes1 wise and alive1 taking on a remarkably concentrated expression in thinking4 ,the general impression was that made by a merry1 unspoiled youngster1 seeing the world4 ,his great passion was still for reading1 and the most important things in the world to him were history1 biography1 and geography4 ,er ist krperlich nicht stark1 aber auch nicht schlecht entwickelt4 ,auf den ersten ,blick fllt der lange ,schdel und der starke ,hinterkopf auf4 ,in dem zierlichen ,gesicht fesseln kluge1 lebhafte ,augen1 die beim ,nachsinnen einen merkwrdig ernsten konzentrierten ,ausdruck annehmen4 4 4 4 ,im ganzen macht er keineswegs den ,eindruck eines ungesunden1 abgematteten1 sondern eines noch ganz frisch und lustig in die ,welt schauenden ,jungen4 4 4 4 ,seine grsste ,leidenschaft ist noch immer das ,lesen1 und das ,wichtigste in der ,welt sind ihm historische1 biographische und geographische ,daten4 ,er kennt die ,geburts- und ,todesjahre vieler deutscher ,kaiser1 auch vieler ,feldherren1 ,dichter1 ,philosophen1 zumeist sogar auch ,geburtstag und ,geburtsort2 ferner die ,hauptstdte der meisten ,staaten1 die ,flsse1 an denen sie liegen u4 dergl4 ,er weiss ,bescheid vom ,anfang und ,ende des dreissigjhrigen und des siebenjhrigen ,krieges1 von den ,hauptschlachten dieser und anderer ,kriege4 ,das alles hat er sich nach ,aussage der ,mutter ohne fremdes ,zutun durch das emsige ,studium eines patriotischen ,kalenders und hnlicher im ,hause vorfindlicher ,literatur1 auch durch ,entzifferung von ,denkmalsinschriften in den ,stdten 7wofr er besondere ,leidenschaft hat7 angeeignet4 ,als ihm auf zwei verschiedenen ,blttern nacheinander #b zwlfstellige ,zahlen gezeigt wurden1 die sich nur durch eine der mittleren ,ziffern unterschieden1 las er sie sogleich als ,milliarden und konnte dann1 ohne die ,bltter wieder anzusehen1 mit ,sicherheit angeben1 worin der ,unterschied lag4 d ,stumpf further said3 4 4 4 ,dr4 ,placzek u4a4 die den ,knaben frher beobachteten1 den bestimmten ,eindruck gewannen eines besonders geweckten1 rasch und scharf denkenden und zugleich eines gutartigen1 durchaus liebenswrdigen ,kindes4 ,an den ,eltern und zumal an der ,mutter hngt er mit der grssten ,zrtlichkeit4 e ,when ,berkhan saw ,phler in ,july1 #aijg1 the boy was an ,obersekundaner in a gymnasium f4 ,in ,april1 #aiji1 aged #af years #h months1 he appeared as an intelligent1 wonderfully retentive1 cultured young man1 who oriented himself easily and who1 although favored over and above his contemporaries1 had kept a modest and lovable nature4 ,jetzt1 fast #ag ,jahre alt1 ist er ein intelligenter1 mit einem bewunderungswerten ,gedchtnis ausgestatteter1 kenntnisreicher1 sich auffallend leicht orientierender junger ,mann1 der1 obgleich in seiner ,weise vor der ,mitwelt bevorzugt1 sich ein bescheidenes1 liebenswrdiges ,wesen bewahrt hat4 g ,phler's plan1 when seen on this final occasion1 ,april1 #aiji1 was to go at ,easter1 #aiaj1 to the university1 to become a student of ,german history4 ,other cases4 ,general discussions of mental gifts in children which bear interestingly upon the subject here under discussion but fail to present any specific instances of individuals who exemplify extreme status1 are those by ,dolbear 7#g7 and by ,hartlaub 7#ab71 and the lectures given in #aicj before the ,hungarian ,society for ,child ,research and ,practical ,psychology 7#ca74 ,among the cases cited by ,waddle 7#cc7 there are none that belong to our study4 ,in the research of ,cox 7#f71 the following eminent persons were rated as having been in childhood at or above #ahj ,,iq 7,s-,b73 ,john ,stuart ,mill1 ,johann ,wolfgang ,goethe1 ,gottfried ,wilhelm ,leibniz1 ,blaise ,pascal1 ,thomas ,babington ,macauly1 and ,hugo de ,groot 7,grotius74 ,we would1 however1 venture to guess1 from what we have observed over a long period of the work of persons who in childhood tested from #ace to #bjj ,,iq 7,s-,b71 that a large number of the persons included in ,cox's study would have tested in childhood at or above #ahj ,,iq 7,s-,b72 and that the reasons why they failed of such rating as studied by ,cox were two3 7#a7 the data of childhood requisite for the valid rating were lacking2 7#b7 the raters were not sufficiently familiar with what is required in terms of ,,iq to make possible the evaluation of those studies1 because only a few children testing so high could have been seen by any rater1 and nothing was as yet known of the performance of tested children at any stage of maturity4 ,many of the persons studied by the methods of ,cox were rated at #adj1 #aej1 #aee ,,iq 7,s-,b71 whose performances in early maturity were far in excess of what can be expected of persons who represent nothing better than what the upper quarter of ,american college students can do 7#f74 ,it is only when children test at least as high as #agj ,,iq 7,s-,b7 that they render performance in early maturity that suggests anything like the achievements of the persons studied by ,cox4 ,,children ,,who ,,test ,,above #ahj ,,iq ,,by ,,binet-,,simon ,,tests ,after the publication of the ,binet-,simon tests 7#c71 a few cases of children testing very high by means of them were reported in the literature which resulted from the tests before they were revised by ,terman 7#bd74 ,at that time1 which was previous to the appearance of the ,stanford-,binet tests1 the ,,iq was not used in expressing mental status1 but we are able to calculate what this was from the data of ,mental ,age4 ,these early cases1 definitely measured1 are as follows3 ,bush's daughter1 ,b4 ,in #aiad ,bush 7#e7 reported upon the mental examination of his daughter1 ,b1 who at the age of #c years #f months tested at #f years by the ,binet tests of #aiaa4 ,her ,,iq would thus be proved at about #ahe1 calculated from her father's detailed record of responses4 ,this report was rendered primarily to show that the ,binet tests were too easy1 as no child could possibly be really so advanced mentally as was ,b4 ,b's state is in no wise extra-normal1 or beyond what it should be4 ,she represents the norm4 ,additional data concerning ,b are that she is of a happy disposition 4 4 4 strong and well of body1 and that her parents are both teachers4 ,this record clearly reveals a child of surpassing intelligence1 contrary to the father's belief that she represents the norm4 ,elizabeth1 recorded by ,langenbeck4 ,in #aiae ,langenbeck 7#ae7 contributed observations of a #e-year-old girl1 ,elizabeth1 who tested at a mental level of about #aa years by the ,binet-,simon tests of #aiaa1 administered in the ,psychological ,laboratory at ,john ,hopkins ,university4 ,this would yield an ,,iq of about #bbj 7assuming the tests of #aiaa to be approximately comparable with ,stanford-,binet in power to distribute intellect74 ,elizabeth is described as an only child4 ,at #af months she had a speaking vocabulary of #bbi words1 some ,english and some ,german1 as she had a ,german nurse4 ,at #e years of age she had a speaking vocabulary of #fhcg words1 which are inscribed in the record4 ,the observer writes of her as follows3 ,her quickness of thought and readiness with an instant and convincing answer were typified one dusty1 blustering day when we were out walking4 ,a cloud of dust enveloped us1 to her great indignation1 and being a very vehement character she exclaimed1 ,i should like to kill the dust6 ,in answer to my reproof1 ,do not be so foolish4 ,how can anyone kill the dust8 she replied1 ,very easily--pour a little water on it4 ,this was at the age of #d years4 4 4 4 ,she is highly imaginative1 and lives largely in a dream world of her own creation4 ,her games are nearly all pretense that she is someone else1 and that she is surrounded by companions1 sometimes purely fictitious1 though often characters out of books that have been read to her4 4 4 4 ,when being read to1 she asks the meaning of every unfamiliar word1 and rarely forgets it1 using it thereafter in its proper place4 4 4 4 ,many of her forebears have been distinguished men and women1 and on both sides her family have been people of more than average capacity and cultivation4 4 4 4 ,from an early age she has shown unusual muscular cordination1 using her fingers daintily and with precision4 ,from her eighth month she used a paper and pencil1 drawing recognizable figures4 ,at #d years she could illustrate a little story composed by herself4 4 4 4 ,the source of much of her knowledge is a mystery to her parents1 and can only be explained by her keen observation and retentive memory1 as well as by a power of comprehension much beyond her years4 ,however absorbed she may appear to be in her play1 talking vigorously to herself and to imaginary companions all the time1 she nevertheless hears everything that is said in her presence1 though months will often pass before she alludes to it4 4 4 4 ,she taught herself her letters from street signs and books1 and could print them all before she was three1 and during the next few months would write letters of several pages1 of her own composition1 having the words1 of course1 spelled for her4 4 4 4 ,she has an accurate ear and could sing a tune correctly before her second birthday1 and dances in excellent time4 4 4 4 ,every new thought or impression is at once associated with some previous idea4 ,hence1 doubtless1 her marvelous memory4 ,for example1 in a country walk she noticed a typical ,virginia snake fence1 having never seen one before4 ,after a single moment's hesitation she said1 ,you see that ,m or ,w fence8 4 4 4 ,at the age of five years she had coined twenty-three words-- e4g41 laten1 to make late2 neaten1 to make neat2 plak1 to pretend2 up-jar1 pitcher4 ,rusk's case1 from ,scotland4 ,in #aiag ,rusk 7#ai7 published an account of a ,scottish boy whose ,,iq1 calculated from ,rusk's detailed record1 was #aff on first test and about #bjj on second test given two and a half years later1 the ,binet-,simon tests of #aiaa being used4 ,this child was the son of a widow in ,dundee1 who lived and supported her two sons by letting rooms to lodgers4 ,the young brother of this boy was not judged to be remarkably intelligent1 but no test was given to substantiate this impression4 ,details of family history are not recorded4 ,the boy was brought to attention at the age of #e years by his teachers1 who noted particularly his aptitude for mathematics4 ,the mother was unaware of her son's extraordinary intelligence1 but she had noticed that he spent a considerable amount of time on the floor1 counting4 ,he would count such objects as cigarette coupons begged from lodgers4 ,also the mother observed that he had learned before going to school1 or being taught to read1 to recognize certain words4 ,,children ,,who ,,test ,,above #ahj ,,iq ,,by ,,stanford-,,binet ,,tests ,beatrice4 ,terman and ,fenton 7#be7 first described ,beatrice in #aiba under her own name4 ,in #aicj ,terman 7#bg7 again described this child1 under the name of ,beatrice 7evidently being then convinced that pseudonyms are to be preferred in designating children studied71 adding data about development4 ,the child's four grandparents were respectively of ,swedish1 ,german-,french1 ,english1 and ,scottish descent4 ,the mother is a woman of more than average intelligence1 and of considerable musical ability4 ,the father's line of ancestry includes several notables1 among them a ,lord ,mayor of ,london4 ,the father is a physician1 and the author of the ,ford ,stitch1 favorably mentioned in standard texts on surgery4 ,betty ,beatrice has no sisters or brothers4 ,beatrice was born in ,san ,francisco1 ,january #ba1 #aiab1 and was first tested six weeks before her eighth birthday1 by ,stanford-,binet1 yielding then a mental age of #ad years #aj months and an ,,iq of #ahh4 ,her speaking vocabulary was at that time #ac1jjj words4 ,a variety of mental tests gave nearly the same composite result as that achieved by ,stanford-,binet4 ,at the time of testing1 the child had never attended school but had been given a little private instruction at home4 ,her scores on standard tests of scholastic knowledge ranged1 nevertheless1 from fifth-grade norms 7in the four fundamental processes in arithmetic7 to second year of college 7in tests of poetic appreciation74 ,her median score in eight scholastic tests was about eighth grade 7where the median birthday age of pupils is about #ad years1 and where pupils have been in school on an average of eight years74 ,ratings for traits of character and for physique gave this child a score much above average in both respects4 ,she weighed #aa pounds and #ae ounces at birth1 and at the age of #h years #b months corresponded to the standard for #i years #f months in weight and for #aj years #f months in stature4 ,her hand grip at this time was equal to that of the average #aj-year-old4 ,she began to walk at #g months of age1 which is the earliest age of walking recorded for any of the children so far studied1 including those who are the special subjects of this monograph4 ,at #ai months she talked clearly and knew the alphabet2 and at the age of #d years #f months she was discovered reading ,heidi1 a book of about fourth-grade degree of difficulty4 ,her parents did not know that she could read1 and they have no idea when or how she learned4 ,by her eighth birthday ,beatrice had read approximately seven hundred books1 many of them twice4 ,at that age it was one of her favorite pastimes to write stories or poems and to illustrate them with original drawings4 ,her health was said by her parents to be excellent4 ,the measurements given show her to be large and strong for her age4 ,beatrice was not entered at school until she was #aa years old1 but studied at home under her mother's guidance4 ,there was little formal instruction--as a rule there was arithmetic1 from ten to twenty minutes daily4 ,at #aa years of age ,beatrice entered the ninth grade of a private school for girls1 which she attended for two years4 ,she entered the university when she was #ad years #h months old1 and graduated at #ag4 ,in college ,beatrice earned ,a and ,b grades in ,english and languages and ,c's in science4 ,she fell barely short of ,phi ,beta ,kappa ,election4 ,throughout her life she has had few playmates and few intimate friends4 ,her desire is for a literary career4 ,root's case1 ,,viii ,a4 ,in #aiba ,root 7#ah7 described a boy who at the age of #h years #j months scored at a ,mental ,age of #af years #j months1 with an ,,iq 7,s-,b7 of #bjj4 ,other tests agreed in placing this boy near an average adult level in processes of thought4 ,the stature of the child at this time was #d feet1 and the weight #ei pounds4 ,the ancestry in the case is predominantly ,english4 ,father and mother both graduated from high school4 ,the father was a railroad engineer4 ,two maternal aunts held prominent places in the public schools4 ,the family had all comforts but few luxuries4 ,the aunt who has guided the boy's education seems a rare combination2 her educational ideas are a happy union of radical1 common sense1 and practical factors4 ,nervous temperament is judged by ,root to be characteristic of the family on the mother's side4 ,this boy was an only child4 ,his mother stated that he had never been ill1 but it is to be considered that she was a ,christian ,scientist4 ,he was educated at home until he was #g years #f months old1 learning reading and arithmetical processes through multiplication4 ,he had read the ,young ,folks' ,cyclopaedia of ,common ,things over and over4 ,his chief interests were at this time games and reading and1 to a lesser degree1 animals and flowers4 ,the following is a letter from his aunt1 describing his home education3 ,at the age of three he learned his letters untaught by anyone apparently1 and was spelling words4 ,it was felt that this would interfere with his learning to read later on1 so he was taught to read by the phonic method4 ,this was done with no more time and personal attention than any first-grade teacher1 with ordinary numbers of pupils1 could give to each one1 provided she were generously supplied with different books1 and not limited to one or two sets--state series or otherwise4 ,a few months after his fourth birthday he was reading with independence and an almost perfect power to recognize new words4 ,his only noticed failures were such foreign words as ,chevrolet seen on billboards1 and unusual words like aisle1 used without context1 which he pronounced alicie4 ,his ease in reading was1 of course1 made possible1 or at least greatly facilitated1 by the fact that an effort had always been made to use an extended vocabulary in talking to him4 ,even at two1 he would surprise acquaintances and strangers with expressions which meant no greater effort to him than a child's baby-talk2 such as1 ,oh1 the spider has attached his web to the board4 ,this ability to read opened a new world1 for he read car-signs1 billboards1 newspapers1 magazines1 and books4 ,his books and magazines were carefully selected4 ,his access to newspapers1 especially the funny sheets1 had the most questionable results4 ,but ,the ,child's ,garden of ,verses and others proved a veritable dream world--as real as the everyday one4 ,he once asked his mother1 ,does ,robert ,louis ,stevenson know when ,i'm naughty8 ,at another time he wrote a letter to some of the characters in another book4 ,at the age of six he read ,swiss ,family ,robinson and ,champlin's ,cyclopedia of ,common ,things--the two books which have been and still are his favorites4 ,other books which he read before entering school at seven years were3 ,overall ,boys1 ,brownie ,book1 ,kipling's ,just-,so ,stories 7read over and over for two or three years71 ,swift's ,gulliver's ,travels1 ,kingsley's ,heroes1 ,aesop's ,fables1 ,tolstoy's ,stories for ,children1 ,grimm's ,fairy ,tales1 ,arabian ,nights1 ,barrie's ,peter ,pan and ,peter and ,wendy4 ,he entered school at seven and a half years and was put in the ,b#a 7beginner's7 class4 ,in the two days he was kept there1 he developed a distinct aversion to school since nobody discovered he could do anything and the class confinement and need for sitting still 7coupled with the fact that he did not find the toilet for over a week7 made school most disagreeable to him4 ,on the third day a member of the family intervened and the teacher very reluctantly allowed him to enter the second grade4 ,she insisted that he could not do the work1 as he did not know his sounds4 ,of course he did know his sounds1 but perhaps he refused to do such baby-work1 although he never expressed his unwillingness at home1 and seemed quite afraid of displeasing his teacher4 ,in the second grade he was forced to sit for #bj to #be minutes1 studying a reading book1 which he could have read through in that time4 ,at home he was told to take some work to school1 but the teacher refused to let him read in school1 even the ,cyclopedia of ,common ,things4 ,at the end of a week and a half he was in absolute rebellion and was taken out of school4 ,the family then took this child to a teacher of fourth grade1 who was personally acquainted with him1 and asked her to examine him for proper placement4 ,this resulted in a more appropriate adjustment4 ,by ,february of his first year in school he had reached ,grade #e;,a in school placement1 and had had thirteen different teachers1 including those for special subjects such as music1 nature study1 and the like4 ,his initial aversion to school lessened1 but he found no positive joy in attending4 ,root describes the temperament of the boy as somewhat irascible4 ,this case illustrates in extreme degree the maladjustment to school which is characteristic of children testing above #ahj ,,iq 7,s-,b74 ,twins ,a and ,b4 ,in #aibb ,gesell 7#aj7 reported the case of twin girls1 both of ,,iq #ahc 7,s-,b74 ,gesell was interested but incidentally in the ,,iq ratings of these girls1 his main interest centering in the condition of twinning4 ,measurements were taken with a view to comparing twins1 and therefore many details that would be of interest for our present purpose--for instance1 those of family history--are omitted from the report4 ,a and ,b were born by ,caesarean section1 somewhat prematurely1 weighing #d4c pounds and #e4c pounds1 respectively4 ,notwithstanding their premature birth1 in six months ,a was able to rise spontaneously to a sitting posture in her mother's lap1 and very soon thereafter ,b did likewise4 ,at #aa months both had begun to walk1 and to talk in sentences4 ,at the age of #c years they began the study of ,french1 and in less than a year from that time they were reading elementary ,english1 ,french1 and ,esperanto4 ,at the age of #d they could distinguish parts of speech4 ,they entered the third grade in school at the age of #f years1 and at the time of report they had achieved the seventh grade and were engaged in junior high school work at the age of #i years4 ,they are not prigs3 they are attractive1 animated1 sociable children1 with a bubbling sense of humor4 ,they are popular with their playmates4 ,they can take charge of a gymnasium class in which most of the members are two to four years their seniors1 and preserve excellent attention and discipline4 ,they speak mature but not pedantic ,english1 and they speak ,french with the fluency of a native4 ,they have read the ,book of ,knowledge in its entirety in ,french2 and a year ago embarked on ,russian4 ,they play duets on the piano1 but not with rare distinction4 ,they swim2 they ride horseback2 they write jingles2 and they read by the hour4 ,their school work does not tax them2 they do not worry about it2 and they are far from fastidious in regard to the form of their written work4 ,a complete family chart of the twin sisters1 ,a and ,b1 would show evidence of superior endowment in the immediate ancestry on both the maternal sides4 ,scientific and linguistic ability of high order and physical energy are some of the traits which are found in the two immediate generations4 ,the trait of twinning likewise has a hereditary basis in this instance1 for the mother also bore two boys1 twins who died in infancy4 ,measurements of physique show ,a and ,b to be slightly smaller than children of their age in good private schools1 but very well nourished4 ,the children have no living brothers or sisters4 ,elizabeth1 reported by ,hirt4 ,elizabeth was reported from the public schools of ,erie1 ,pennsylvania1 in #aibb1 by ,hirt 7#ac74 ,she was born ,january #af1 #aiad1 and was tested ,june #ad1 #aiba1 aged #g years #e months4 ,her ,mental ,age was found to be #ad years1 #j months1 yielding an ,,iq of #ahi 7,s-,b74 ,elizabeth's mother was a member of a large family of children brought from ,germany to ,america by their parents4 ,the father 7,elizabeth's maternal grandfather7 died soon after their arrival in ,america1 and the mother 7,elizabeth's maternal grandmother7 worked hard to keep her family together and to give them all an elementary school education4 ,elizabeth's father is of ,pennsylvania ,german descent4 ,he has a high school education1 and attended a business college4 ,his occupation in #aibb was that of a postal mail clerk4 ,this child weighed #aj pounds at birth1 #bb pounds at #f months1 #bh #a_/b pounds at #ab months1 and at the age of #g years #e months she weighed #fa pounds and was #ea inches tall4 ,superior size was thus consistently maintained from birth to the time of first report1 in #aiba4 ,two teeth erupted before she was #e months old4 ,she was not quite a year old when she began to repeat words4 ,he first sentence was1 ,open the door1 ,daddy1 uttered at the age of #ag months4 ,the parents remembered this sentence as a sudden transition from one-word communications into sentence structure4 ,the only illness ,elizabeth had ever had until she was #g years #d months old was mumps1 which came on at that age4 ,hirt's report continues as follows3 ,among ,elizabeth's first toys was a set of cubical blocks with letters and numbers on four sides4 ,one of the baby's favorite amusements was to hold up a block and point to one side after the other for her entertainer to tell what was on the side of the block indicated4 ,gradually the game changed1 and the baby held up the block and pointed to the picture called for by the entertainer4 ,at the age of #ae months she made no mistakes in finding the animals called for1 and very soon afterwards she could find the letters in the same way4 ,one of her first books was ,the ,story of the ,naughty ,piggies4 ,the child seemed never to tire of hearing the story read1 and by the time she was two and a half years old1 when she sat in the lap of the reader1 she could turn the page at just the right place in the story4 ,about that time the two leaves in the center of the book loosened and dropped out4 ,the ,german grandma made a mistake in sewing them in1 putting the second first4 ,elizabeth quickly discovered the mistake and was very unhappy about it4 ,she followed her grandmother about1 asking her to fix it4 ,the grandmother could not understand what the child meant1 and finally appealed to the child's mother1 who discovered what was wrong4 ,elizabeth was not yet three years old1 and they could not believe that the child detected the difference between these two pages of the book4 ,but after the grandmother ripped out the stitches and replaced the leaves in their proper sequence1 the little girl showed unmistakable satisfaction and content4 ,at three and a half years of age1 ,elizabeth was spelling everything she saw printed and asking what the letters spelled1 and she could recognize many words4 ,at four years1 she read the advertisements in the streetcars1 as well as everything in all the books she possessed4 ,during all this time there was no attempt on the part of the parents to make their daughter precocious4 ,they were pleased with her readiness to learn1 but they did not look upon her as an unusual child4 ,in ,september1 #aibj1 ,elizabeth was enrolled in the first grade1 in the public schools of ,erie1 ,pennsylvania4 ,she was then #f years1 #h months old4 ,on her second day in school her teacher discovered that should could read anything that was placed before her4 ,the principal put her in the second grade until she had time to investigate her case4 ,she spent forty-two days in the second grade1 during which time the principal observed her closely1 and decided to place her in the fourth grade4 ,elizabeth had no trouble in completing that grade in the remainder of the school year1 the principal giving her some special help in spelling and arithmetic4 4 4 4 ,elizabeth is not a skillful writer1 as far as penmanship goes1 but she seldom makes a mistake in either spelling or punctuation1 and the content of her letters and compositions is superior1 even for the advanced grade in which she is now working4 4 4 4 ,intellectually speaking1 this child takes everything to which she is exposed1 and she is not satisfied unless she understands the subject fully4 ,unfamiliar words or terms bring from her the question1 ,just what does that mean8 ,she has a cheery disposition1 and laughs often and heartily4 ,she is contented in any environment1 because her imagination makes it as she wishes it4 4 4 4 ,when she is reading or studying1 she becomes so engrossed that it is hard to attract her attention to anything outside her book4 4 4 4 ,she is slow in her written work1 and she is slow and rather awkward in some of her motor cordinations4 ,after less than a month in the fifth grade1 in ,september1 #aiba 7age #g years #h months71 ,elizabeth was promoted to the sixth grade1 where she is doing superior work4 ,in the examinations at the end of the last semester she ranked about the middle of the class1 due to the fact that she is still slow in her written work4 ,but in comprehension she easily leads the class4 ,thus far nothing has been done for this exceptional child except to move her along from grade to grade five times as rapidly as the average child can go4 ,when we see her at times very evidently bored while a teacher is trying to make a subject clear to pupils of average ability1 we wonder what would have happened if ,elizabeth were now in the second or third grade where most eight-year-old children are found4 ,in #aibe ,hirt again reported upon the child1 ,elizabeth1 as follows3 ,by ,february1 #aibc1 she had completed the work of the six elementary grades1 and she was promoted to the junior high school4 ,now1 at the end of her fifth year in school1 she is ready for the second semester's work in the ninth grade4 4 4 4 ,after her promotion to the junior high school1 some of her teachers complained that she was lazy2 others said that she was very inattentive2 and all declared that she was very silly4 ,the school psychologist had a conference with these teachers1 and it was decided that ,elizabeth should be given a heavier schedule1 and ,latin was added to her program4 ,she has been enthusiastic over this subject from the very first4 4 4 4 ,during the past year there has been a steady improvement in ,elizabeth's attitude toward her school work as well as in her behavior in general4 ,though some of her teachers still consider her silly1 they all recognize her unusual mental ability4 ,while they give her ,b and ,c grades in most of her subjects1 they realize that she could easily do ,a work in every subject if she cared to4 ,they say that she wastes much time1 though her mind seems always to be busy4 ,her mother says that when she is at home she writes1 and writes1 and writes1 covering reams of paper4 ,elizabeth has told her mother that she is writing a book and a play4 ,in the spring of #aibe1 when a friend asked ,elizabeth where she was going to spend her summer vacation1 the child replied1 ,why1 ,i expect to take a trip around the world4 ,then seeing the surprise in her friend's face1 she explained1 ,of course1 it is not probable that ,i shall go far from our porch swing1 but ,i find the swing a very satisfactory conveyance2 it is perfectly safe1 and it always takes me exactly where ,i want to go4 ,when ,elizabeth entered the tenth grade1 in senior high school1 in #aibf1 she was #ab years #h months old4 ,her social behavior was at about the level for this age1 and her teachers were coldly critical1 unable or unwilling to reconcile her conduct with her physical size and intellectual maturity4 ,she made very few friends4 ,she was graduated from high school in ,june1 #aibi1 with the reputation of being lazy4 ,she excelled in the languages1 but her work in other subjects was mediocre4 ,after she was graduated from high school1 funds were not available for ,elizabeth to attend college away from home or to pay tuition4 ,consequently1 because she must live at home she enrolled in a ,state ,teachers ,college1 though she had no desire to become a teacher4 ,she was #ae years #h months old at this time1 and her work was very uneven in excellence4 ,when the time arrived for practice teaching1 she was assigned to teach high school pupils of about her own age1 and failed in this branch of the work1 so that she was not graduated4 ,she received1 however1 an honorable discharge from the college4 ,during these years1 #aibi-aicc1 her situation was further complicated by the passing of a state law prohibiting students below #ag years of age from attending the ,state ,teachers ,college4 ,as ,elizabeth was then still below the age specified in the new law1 she was forced to withdraw and wait for time to pass1 resuming her studies as soon as she fell within the law4 ,when ,elizabeth was discharged from the ,teachers ,college1 interested friends made attempts to secure for her a subsistence and tuition scholarship at some good liberal arts college1 but no such opportunities were found4 ,one college otherwise interested in granting a tuition scholarship now found her too old1 she being then aged #ai years4 ,the scholastic history of ,elizabeth is too long to be told here in greater detail4 ,it affords an instructive and tragic example of the blindness of current educational practice in dealing with children who test in the highest ranges of intellect4 ,at #bb years of age ,elizabeth lives at home1 without suitable occupation1 writing poetry and helping with the tasks of the household4 ,her education as conducted has not provided her with any recognized equipment for enter for entering into the intellectual life of her world1 although she possesses one of the best intellects of her generation4 ,the case of ,j4 ,m4 ,the history of ,j4 ,m41 a #aj-year-old girl of ,,iq #aij 7,s-,b71 was presented by ,washburne 7#cd7 in #aibd4 ,this girl was a pupil in the public schools of ,winnetka1 ,illinois1 where the plan of individualized instruction is followed1 with individual subject promotions4 ,at the age of #aj years #f months1 ,j4 ,m4 was #ed4e inches tall and weighed #hh4e pounds4 ,this is decidedly in excess of the standards for average children1 as regards size4 ,she was doing work of good quality in the eighth grade1 and could have been in high school had not the school authorities checked her progress in the seventh grade by giving her a large amount of extra work to do4 ,her school record shows that she entered the public schools of ,chicago in the first grade1 in ,september1 #aiai4 ,the teacher of first grade immediately discovered that she knew too much for that grade and brought about her placement in the second grade4 ,there she remained until the following ,april1 when her family moved to ,winnetka4 ,in ,winnetka1 ,j4 ,m4 entered the second grade and was promoted in ,june4 ,her reading1 tested by the ,monroe and ,gray tests1 was up to fifth-grade standard when she reached third grade1 and had reached the sixth-grade standard by ,december1 #aibj4 ,her progress in other school subjects was such that in ,september1 #aiba1 she entered the fifth grade4 ,her rapid progress was halted somewhat1 as she was carrying a double language course1 finishing the fourth grade and beginning fifth-grade work simultaneously4 ,when in ,may1 #aibb1 she began the sixth-grade work1 she completed it in two weeks4 ,june1 #aibb1 found her1 therefore1 doing advanced sixth-grade reading1 through with sixth grade spelling1 almost through with sixth-grade arithmetic1 and promoted to the seventh grade in language4 ,she was then nine years old4 ,in the course of this progress1 the grade standard in penmanship was last to be achieved4 ,the perplexities which now arose in connection with this child's education are set forth as follows1 by ,washburne3 ,in spite of the fact that she was so clearly ready for seventh-grade work in the fall of #aibb1 we hesitated about having her come from the lower grade school to our junior high school4 ,she was smaller and younger than any of the children in the junior high1 and we felt that she was already so far advanced that still more progress was perhaps undesirable4 ,but she had formed a warm attachment for two girls a year or so older than herself1 both possessed of high ,,iq's1 and she felt that there would be nothing for her to do in the sixth grade if we held her back4 ,this was so obviously true that we admitted her to the junior high school with an agreement that she would remain there until she was twelve years old4 ,we felt that while she doubtless could do the work of the junior high school within a year1 or at the most in a year and a half1 since our junior high contains only the seventh and eighth grades1 she ought not to go to the senior high school too young4 ,we agreed to give her a widely enriched curriculum of electives and special courses1 to keep her active and happy for three years4 ,but it didn't work6 ,when she found that no effort on her part would get her through any sooner1 she stopped making effort4 ,the end of the first year 7,june1 #aibc7 found her with seventh-grade cooking1 seventh-grade art1 and seventh-grade pottery1 all incomplete4 ,she had taken up general science toward the end of the year1 and of course had not finished it either4 ,she had1 on the other hand1 completed all of the seventh-grade ,english and arithmetic1 including some advanced work2 had done exceptionally well in ,french4 ,in dramatics she first had a know-it-all attitude1 owing to her mother's success in amateur theatricals1 but later did very good work4 ,in social studies she had been inclined to superficiality1 trusting to her quick grasp on a single reading of the material 7,rugg's ,social ,science ,pamphlets7 and doing little real thinking4 ,but she was interested1 and finished the course within the year4 ,the general feeling of the teachers1 and of ,j4 ,m4 herself 4 4 4 was that she had loafed on the job a good deal1 had been over-confident1 and had let down generally when the stimulus of rapid advancement was taken away4 ,this gives us some inkling as to what would have happened to her in a regular school system1 where the class lockstep is the rule4 ,this year ,j4 ,m4 is taking a straight eighth-grade course with one elective1 and is tying up the loose ends left undone at the end of last year4 4 4 4 ,the child's strong desire to move forward with the children who are now her friends1 and the undesirable effect on her of our last year's experiment in holding her back regardless of her effort or ability to go forward1 have resulted in our decision to let her graduate this coming ,june4 ,her parents1 however1 have requested that we keep her in our junior high school for a postgraduate year1 because they feel that the influence of this school is needed by ,j4 ,m4 ,we shall1 therefore1 try to provide a special course for her next fall4 ,if we found out that it does not work out successfully1 we will enter her in the senior high school in ,february1 #aibe4 ,if1 on the other hand1 we find that we can give her the sort of education that will be helpful to her in our junior high school and that she responds rightly1 we shall hold her here until ,june1 letting her enter the senior high school at the age of twelve and one half years4 ,interpreting and summarizing our experience with ,j4 ,m43 ,our system of individual instruction has permitted her to make full use of her intellectual ability4 ,when we tried to depart from it to prevent her progress from becoming too rapid1 she showed a lack of interest and in some parts of her school work she did not work up to capacity1 and even became to a slight extent a discipline problem4 ,given1 however1 an incentive to first-class work and the training in social behavior which we are trying to give in our junior high school1 ,j4 ,m4 developed successfully and well4 ,on the whole1 our system has enabled us to deal with her flexibly and as an individual4 ,it has prevented us from prolonging our mistakes4 ,probably no system1 or uniform plan1 can be made to fit children of such exceptional mental endowments4 ,the most we can hope for is a flexibility which will enable us to deal with such children as individuals1 feeling our way as we go along4 ,as for family background1 ,j4 ,m4 originates from ancestors of very superior intelligence4 ,her parents were both tested by means of ,army ,alpha and both scored far above the generality of adults4 ,her father was educated as an electrical engineer but subsequently went into investment banking4 ,j4 ,m4's paternal grandfather was an architect1 trained in ,manchester ,school of ,science4 ,he also attended the ,university of ,edinburgh4 ,the paternal great-grandfather was an architect and shipbuilder1 expert in laying out factories1 and he was descended from a line of builders4 ,the paternal grandmother was an ,english woman1 educated by her aunt1 who had advanced ideas on what a girl should study4 ,the father of this grandmother was a dealer in building materials4 ,on the maternal side1 ,j4 ,m4's grandfather was first a teacher1 then a merchant1 who became very wealthy1 and a mayor of a ,southern town for eighteen years4 ,the line of his descent was through ,southern planters4 ,the maternal grandmother was the daughter of a college professor1 who in turn was the son of a physician and surgeon1 coming from a long line of physicians4 ,the mother of the maternal grandmother was descended from wealthy farmers4 ,it is of some interest that for three generations at least1 ,j4 ,m4 and her immediate progenitors were born when the parents were thirty years or older1 in some cases being more than sixty years old4 ,the case of ,e4 ,b4 ,this child was described in #aibd1 by ,stedman 7#bb71 as having the highest ,,iq yet reported4 ,exception was taken some years ago by the present writer to this description1 on the ground that the test by which ,e4 ,b4 registered an ,,iq of #bad was not first given to the child4 ,she had been tested previously by ,stanford-,binet1 at the age of #e years #i months1 earning an ,,iq of #age4 ,when tested in the ,psychological ,department of the ,los ,angeles city schools at the age of #h years #aa months1 ,e4 ,b4 made the record of a superior adult1 earning an ,,iq of #bad 7,s-,b74 ,the record is thus ambiguous1 and will be included here only because we cannot say how much allowance should be made for test wisdom on second test4 ,however1 subsequent history points to #age ,,iq as the more probably correct status for this child1 since when she was tested at the age of #ba years #a month1 by ,lorge and ,hollingworth 7#af71 using ,,cavd1 ,levels ,m1 ,n1 ,o1 ,p1 and ,q1 and other tests of cultural and specifically scientific knowledge1 the result placed her among individuals who in childhood had tested between #agj and #ahj ,,iq 7,s-,b74 ,e4 ,b4 was born on ,september #ba1 #aiac4 ,when #d years #f months old she was placed in a convent school on account of her mother's departure for ,france4 ,she was not enrolled as a pupil but was allowed to sit with the high first grade when she wished1 because her chum sat there4 ,in four months1 at the close of the school year1 it was discovered that she could read any page in the reader which had been used as a text1 and any page in the public school first reader1 which she had never seen before4 ,accordingly1 though not yet #e years old1 she was promoted to the second grade4 ,at the close of the next school year she was promoted to the fourth grade1 aged #e years #i months4 ,before ,e4,b4 was #f years old she had read practically every book listed by the public library at ,des ,moines for children of the first six grades4 ,at the age of #i years #d months she was doing eighth-grade and post-eighth grade work4 ,her favorite books at the age of #i years include ,barrie's ,the ,little ,minister1 ,sentimental ,tommy and ,tommy and ,grizel2 ,hugo's ,les ,misrables2 ,dickens's ,oliver ,twist1 ,our ,mutual ,friend1 and ,david ,copperfield2 ,eliot's ,silas ,marner and ,mill on the ,floss2 ,bunyan's ,pilgrim's ,progress2 ,hutchinson's ,if ,winter ,comes and ,this ,freedom4 4 4 4 ,until she entered the opportunity room1 ,e4 ,b4 never had a child companion1 and was unpopular with children4 ,she was friendly but shy1 and was unable to comply with the play standards of other children4 ,in the opportunity room she made better social adjustments4 ,she is cheerful1 affectionate1 and considerate to the point of self-denial4 ,she obeys implicitly1 but is forgetful in the commission of small duties1 perhaps because engrossed with more interesting matters4 ,she thinks along economic and political lines1 and can hold her own even with many adults in conversing on these subjects4 4 4 4 ,health is excellent4 ,she has had the usual children's diseases1 but has recuperated very quickly4 4 4 4 ,e4 ,b4 is of ,french1 ,english1 and ,scotch descent4 ,the father finished high school at #ac1 and was an ,a and ,b student at the ,university1 taking gold medals for original composition4 ,he is a writer and an editor4 4 4 4 ,the paternal grandfather is a lawyer1 teacher1 and author4 ,the paternal grandmother has mathematical ability4 ,e4 ,b4's mother entered school at #h years1 and completed high school at #ae4 ,she then entered business college1 and completed the course in less than three months4 ,she then entered college1 working her way through with consistently ,a records4 ,she was editor of a national magazine at #be1 and at the time of investigation was an editorial writer on ,screenland4 4 4 4 ,the maternal grandfather's history is unknown4 ,it is thought that he was average2 but the maternal great-grandfather was probably superior4 ,at #ba he could neither read nor write1 but just at this time a public school was established near his home4 ,he entered1 and finished the course for the entire eight grades in sixteen months4 4 4 4 ,e4 ,b4's mother states that ,e4 ,b4 first spoke words with meaning at #g or #h months of age1 and that she walked at #aj months4 ,when she was #c years old her parents discovered that she knew the alphabet1 which she seems to have learned by asking questions about printed signs4 ,she has had very little formal instruction at home1 for her mother has been active in newspaper work most of the time1 usually working at night4 ,e4 ,b4 entered college in a large city at #ab years #j months of age4 ,the girls in this college are very highly selected for intellect1 and ,e4 ,b4 did not do outstanding work among them4 ,she encountered many difficulties1 but graduated at the age of #af years #i months with a creditable rating4 ,at the age of #bj years she married1 holding also at that age a very responsible post in charge of cash for the metropolitan branch of one of the largest manufacturing and distributing companies in the ,united ,states4 ,it is her aim to become a writer4 ,verda4 ,in #aibe ,terman 7#bf7 reported two children not elsewhere described1 with ,,iq's above #ahj 7,s-,b71 ,verda and ,madeline below1 both discovered during the census of the gifted taken in ,california4 ,the occupational level among ,verda's male ancestors has been largely in the professions and in business4 ,her father is a successful life insurance salesman1 and shows musical1 mechanical1 and literary ability4 ,he is of ,scotch-,irish extraction4 ,her mother is of ,french and ,english ancestry1 a descendant in direct line from ,governor ,bradford1 of colonial ,new ,england1 and is related to many notables4 ,verda has no brothers or sisters4 ,the child's first words were articulated at #g months1 and she talked in sentences at #ae months4 ,she hummed a tune at #ag months' could name all the primary colors at #bb months2 could count to #ac at #be months4 ,her first poem 7said in rhyme and meter7 was composed at the age of #b years #i months4 ,this was recorded by her mother4 ,she did not herself put on paper her literary compositions until the age of #e years1 when she learned to print4 ,after this the stories she composed were no longer recorded by her mother4 ,soon after she was #d years old she brought a book to her parents and read to them4 ,up to that time she had had no formal instruction in reading but she had been read to4 ,verda did not enter school until she was #h years #g months old1 beginning in the high fourth grade4 ,her ,,iq was first determined at the age of #aa years #a month by an incomplete test1 made as a demonstration before by an incomplete test1 made as a demonstration before a group of teachers in the limited time of fifty minutes1 and was calculated at #age4 ,when at age #aa years #g months she was fully tested in a standard situation1 she passed every test provided on ,stanford-,binet1 proving at an ,,iq 7corrected #b7 of #ahf4 ,through four years of high school she received an ,a grade in every academic subject1 with the exception of one semester of ,french and one of biology1 in which the grade was ,b4 ,she was graduated from high school at age of #af years #i months4 ,according to her own testimony1 ,verda's usual amount of study during her senior year was only six hours a week outside of school hours4 ,she is fond of parties and dances1 and is very active in student life1 particulary through her literary contributions4 ,she rates herself as rather disliking study4 ,she would rather read1 play the piano1 compose music1 stories1 or plays1 or spend time with her friends4 7,in #aibf she won a gold medal in a piano-playing contest47 ,she has shown a wide margin of energy and ability over and above what is necessary for a straight ,a record in high school4 ,there is much more in the description of this child that is interesting1 but the case cannot here be quoted in full4 ,madeline4 ,at the age of #f years #g months ,madeline yielded an ,,iq of #aib 7,s-,b74 ,she was then in the third grade1 but her scores on ,stanford ,achievement ,tests corresponded to fifth- and sixth-grade norms4 ,at #g years of age1 her parents' chief concern in regard to her was to prevent her from reading too much4 ,at #g months of age ,madeline was able to distinguish all the pictures on the walls of her home when they were named to her4 ,she could identify the pictures of six ,american poets when she was a little over a year old4 ,she knew the common flowers by name before the age of #c4 ,her mother reported that reading seemed to be born in her4 ,she could count to #ajj at #c years1 played parchesi at #d years1 and carried the powers of #b mentally to the #bjth1 as a ,sunday afternoon pastime before the age of #f4 ,at #g years of age she was writing poetry with religious thought expressed4 ,entering school in the first grade at the age of #d years #aa months1 ,madeline was held in the ordinary course on account of her age and in order to improve in handwork1 in which she seemed deficient4 ,she was listless and bored at school1 and developed habits of procrastination and time-wasting4 ,in high school1 however1 she began to take an interest in the work offered1 and at the time of report she was finishing the ninth grade with ,a ratings in all except an occasional course which she regarded as uninteresting or meaningless4 ,often when she is sent out to the back yard at night to dispose of kitchen refuse1 she fails to return until her mother goes in search of her4 ,her mother always finds her studying the heavens4 ,madeline has recently developed a strong interest in astronomy1 has devoured several books on the subject1 and is planning to become an astronomer4 ,the health of this child has always been good4 ,she has had the usual children's diseases1 and contracts colds1 but has never been seriously ill4 ,madeline's ancestry is very superior4 ,on the paternal side1 the grandfather was of ,english-,irish descent2 the grandmother1 of ,scottish-,french descent4 ,teaching and preaching have been the usual occupations4 ,on the maternal side1 the grandfather was of ,german-,dutch descent2 the grandmother1 of ,english descent4 ,the child's parents are both university graduates1 and they have done graduate work4 ,she has two younger sisters1 of #afg and #afb ,,iq 7,s-,b71 respectively4 ,the family is in very moderate financial circumstances1 having taken responsibility in the care of relatives4 ,rosemarie4 ,in #aibh1 ,schorn 7#bj7 reported upon a girl aged #d years #f months1 who tested at #h years ,mental ,age in the ,psychologisches ,institut at ,wrzberg4 ,this report gives her an ,,iq of #ahd4 ,she was brought to attention because she could read fluently at the age of #c years #f months1 without having been schooled4 ,the case of this child illustrates some of the points of misunderstanding of such children by those who have not seen several like them4 ,because she could not perform motor tasks in advance of her years1 it was concluded that she was not generally bright4 ,the case of ,k4 ,in #aicd ,goldberg 7#aa7 described the case of ,k1 a boy who achieved an ,,iq of #aif 7,s-,b7 when tested at the age of #f years #g months4 ,k was born ,june #be1 #aibg1 in ,new ,york ,city1 of ,jewish parents1 and is an only child4 ,the parents state from memory that ,k started to walk at #ad months of age1 and could talk rather fluently at the age of #a year #f months4 ,dentition began at #h months of age4 ,his health has been very good1 and he has had no serious illnesses4 ,when ,k was #bj months old1 he knew his alphabet and within a short while after that he was able to recite it backwards4 ,at about the same time he had a set of blocks1 which offered him additional opportunity for developing a well-nigh astounding feat4 ,he could by looking at one of the figures on a given block call off from memory the other five objects on the remaining sides4 ,this he was able to do for almost the entire set4 ,at about #b years of age ,k knew his own name and address and what is more significant the addresses and telephone numbers of the entire family1 numbering about a dozen4 ,by studying a calendar he learned to tell on what particular day a certain date would fall4 ,for example1 if he were asked on what day of the week ,july #af would fall he would indicate ,thursday4 4 4 4 ,k began to read at about #d years of age4 ,he was given no formal training in the beginning mechanics of reading4 ,the only assistance he received was a suggestion that he pronounce words by syllables4 ,at this time he was already reading simple words easily4 ,k is of ,jewish origin4 ,mr4 ,k at the time of ,k's birth was #cb years of age1 and ,mrs4 ,k was #ce4 ,neither ,k's mother nor his father has had the benefit of college training4 ,they are for the most part self-educated4 ,mr4 ,k is a proprietor of a small retail business4 ,at the age of #f years #g months ,k's height with shoes was #dg4c inches1 and his weight was #eb pounds4 ,he is well nourished1 and his physical condition was found negative for all unfavorable indications4 ,when asked for the year1 in the test at year ,,ix 7,s-,b71 ,k said1 ,it is #aicd1 but if you believe in the ,jewish calendar1 it is #efid4 ,the case of ,b4 ,witty and ,jenkins 7#cf7 have reported the case of ,b1 a gifted ,negro girl1 who was tested at the age of #i years #d months1 earning an ,,iq of #bjj 7,s-,b71 corrected score1 and of #ahg1 uncorrected score4 #c ,at the time of testing1 ,b was in the low fifth grade at school1 her mental age being #ag years #e months at least 7uncorrected score74 ,she had received but one double promotion though others were offered by the school1 because ,b's mother is afraid that the child will get too far from her age group4 ,b was discovered by asking a teacher to nominate the most intelligent and best student among children in her class4 ,b was nominated as best student1 while a girl four years older1 whose ,,iq turned out to be below #ajj1 was nominated as most intelligent4 ,this circumstance is illustrative of the lack of insight which necessarily exists in relation to such children where teachers have no special instruction in regard to them4 ,the report continues3 ,the following items were secured from ,b's baby book1 and from the mother's reports4 ,b1 an only child1 was born ,november #ah1 #aibd4 ,the mother was then #bg years of age1 and the father #ca4 ,b weighed #f #c_/d pounds at birth1 #ad pounds at #c months1 and #ag #a_/b pounds at #i months4 ,at #i years and #e months1 ,b weighed #fj pounds and was #ej inches in height2 this is normal for a child of her height and age 7,baldwin-,wood norms74 ,b walked a few steps at #h months 7under the excitement of running after a dog71 but walked no more till she was #ab months old4 ,she employed short sentences when she was about #af months of age4 ,her mother reports that ,b expressed her thought in sentences1 rather than in isolated words1 almost from the beginning of language development2 she excited considerable comment among friends by displaying an extensive vocabulary and by using nursery rhymes at age #b4 ,b was taught to read by her mother at age #d1 by the picture-story method4 7,she knew the alphabet long before47 ,a few lessons only were given her and thereafter ,b read and has continued to read independently4 ,b has had no serious illnesses or accidents2 her health history appears normal and her physical condition at the present time is excellent4 ,furthermore1 she seems unusually well balanced from the standpoint of mental hygiene4 ,b exhibits regularity in habits1 sleeps soundly1 seldom reports dreams1 displays no unusual fears1 and adapts herself quickly and successfully to the demands of her child-group4 ,b's parents appear distinctly above the average both in intelligence and in academic training4 ,the mother finished a two-year normal course and taught for a number of years in a metropolitan school system4 ,the father is an electrical engineer1 a graduate of ,case ,college of ,applied ,science2 he has pursued graduate studies at ,cornell ,university1 and has done some college teaching4 ,at present he is a practicing electrical engineer4 4 4 4 ,her maternal great-grandfather 7who is still active and robust at age #hb7 was private secretary to each of four executives of a large railroad system4 4 4 4 ,her paternal grandfather was an inventor and manufacturer of polishes and waxes4 4 4 4 ,the mother reports ,b to be of pure ,negro stock4 ,there is no record of any white ancestors on either the maternal or paternal side4 ,b has not much ability or interest in music4 ,her favorite subject is science1 and chemistry attracts her to the extent that she wishes to become a chemist4 ,child ,r4 ,in #aicf1 ,zorbaugh and ,boardman 7#ch7 described a boy1 ,r1 of ,,iq #bjd 7,s-,b74 ,they mention also three other children of ,,iq above #ahj1 tested at ,new ,york ,university's ,clinic for the ,social ,adjustment of the ,gifted1 but ,r is the only one described4 ,r was brought to the ,clinic when he was #h years old1 and at that time he had on the ,stanford-,binet an ,,iq of #bjd4 ,his father1 an engineer1 is a well-known writer in the scientific field4 ,his mother holds a doctor's degree in physical chemistry from a foreign university4 ,neither the father nor the mother has been tested1 but they are both persons of very unusual mental ability4 ,r's two younger brothers are also of very superior mentality4 ,the family is of ,jewish origin and both the father and the mother were born in a foreign country4 ,r1 their first child1 was born when the mother was thirty and the father was thirty-five4 ,his early development was exceedingly precocious4 ,his first tooth erupted at five months of age2 he began to walk at nine months and was running at eleven months2 he was talking in sentences at eleven months2 he learned to read at four years of age1 and was reading omnivorously before he entered school4 ,when he entered school he had an unusual vocabulary1 using such words as casuistry and disproportionate4 ,at the age of #b he was modeling in clay1 and at the age of #c he began to design and make machines4 ,he applied through his father to the ,united ,states ,patent ,office for two patents before he was #h years old4 ,at #h years of age he had a large library in his home composed mostly of books of science1 history1 and biography1 which he had catalogued himself1 on the ,dewey decimal system4 ,at this age he was writing a book on electricity4 ,also at the age of #h he had a small machine shop in which he was working on his machines4 ,at the age of #f he enjoyed discussing philosophy4 ,at the age of #g he would debate on the significance of religion in world development4 ,the day he first came to the ,clinic1 ,claudel's experiments on developing power by raising the colder water from the lower levels of the sea had just been reported in the scientific section of the ,new ,york ,times4 ,r explained the theory involved much more clearly than had the scientific writer of the ,times4 ,r is well developed physically1 above average in height1 and considerably above average in weight1 likes the outdoors1 especially hiking and riding horseback4 ,at the age of #i he showed the first symptoms of the approach of puberty4 ,r is well adjusted to his school and his playmates1 plays on their soccer and baseball teams1 is well liked1 and is a leader in many of their activities4 ,other cases4 ,in addition to these children who have been somewhat fully described1 a few others testing above #ahj ,,iq 7,s-,b7 have been mentioned in the literature of gifted children or their records have appeared in tabulations4 ,in #aibc ,dvorak told of a boy of ,,iq #ahc 7,s-,b7 who was examined at the ,university of ,minnesota4 ,this boy was conspicuously maladjusted at school4 ,he hated school1 and did poor work there4 ,he was #h years #g months old at the time of examination1 and passed the tests at a mental level of #ae years #i months4 ,the educational authorities were unsympathetic and resistant to advice1 but finally placed the child in the fifth grade1 where both work and conduct improved greatly4 ,this observer also mentions a boy of #ahi ,,iq 7,s-,b7 who was tested at the same ,university4 ,cyril ,burt1 writing of mental tests in the schools of ,london1 cites an ,english boy of #aij ,,iq1 but does not give a description of him4 ,the value of these mere mentions is slight because there is no elaboration and no subsequent history of the cases which would be useful for purposes of generalizations4 ,,generalizations ,the preceding cases describe in some detail #ai cases rating #ahj ,,iq or better1 if those be included 7#c cases7 that were reported before the ,stanford ,revision came into use4 ,although the reports are lacking in uniformity and vary in emphasis1 it is possible to glean from them a few generalizations concerning origin and development among the gifted4 ,origin is extremely varied as regards racial stock4 ,in describing the #ad ,american children1 ,german descent is mentioned #c times1 ,french #c1 ,scottish #e1 ,english #e1 ,swedish #a1 ,scotch-,irish #a1 ,dutch #a1 ,jewish #a1 ,negro #a4 ,there is one ,german child4 ,the occupational status of the fathers all fall in ,class #a or ,class #b of ,taussig's rating--professional1 clerical1 or business proprietors4 ,social-economic status wherever mentioned is said to be moderate4 ,none is stated to be very wealthy or very poor4 ,age of parents at birth of the exceptional child covers a wide range4 ,development is decidedly ahead of schedule for the group in all respects4 ,reported age of walking 7#g cases stated7 ranges from #g months to #ad months4 ,talking in sentences1 in the #aj cases in which it is given1 ranges from #h months to #ai months4 ,in #ac cases the age of reading is assigned1 this being always #c4e or #d years4 ,general health is1 whenever mentioned1 always reported as good1 and except for the twins1 born prematurely1 physique is superior4 ,in the array of #ai cases there are #ab girls and #g boys1 whereas of the #ab cases to be later reported in this study only #d are girls4 ,in the grand total there are #af girls and #ae boys4 ,,bibliography #a4 ,,berkhan1 ,,oswald4 ,das ,wunderkind ,christian ,heinrich ,heineken4 ,zeitschrift fr ,kinderforschung1 ,vol4 #ae1 pages #bbe-bbi 7#aiaj74 #b4 ------ ,otto ,phler1 ,das ,frhlesende ,braunschweiger ,kind4 ,zeitschrift fr ,kinderforschung1 ,vol4 #ae1 pages #aff-aga 7#aiaj74 #c4 ,,binet1 ,a41 et ,,simon1 ,,th4 ,new ,methods for the ,diagnosis of the ,intellectual ,level of ,subnormals4 ,l',anne ,psychologique1 #aije1 pages #aia-bdd4 #d4 ------ ,the ,development of ,intelligence in the ,child4,l',anne ,psychologique1 #aijh1 pages #a-ij4 #e4 ,,bush1 ,a4 ,d4 ,binet-,simon ,tests of a ,thirty-nine-,months-,old ,child4 ,psychological ,clinic1 #aiad4 #f4 ,,cox1 ,c4 ,m4 ,the ,early ,mental ,traits of ,three ,hundred ,geniuses4 ,genetic ,studies of ,genius3 ,vol4 #b4 ,stanford ,university ,press1 ,stanford ,university1 ,california2 #aibf4 #g4 ,,dolbear1 ,k4 ,e4 ,precocious ,children4 ,pedagogical ,seminary1 ,vol4 #ai1 pages #dfa-dia 7#aiab74 #h4 ,,duff1 ,f41 and ,,thomson1 ,,godfrey ,h4 ,the ,social and ,geographical ,distribution of ,intelligence in ,northumberland4 ,british ,journal of ,psychology 7#aibc74 #i4 ,,galton1 ,,francis4 ,hereditary ,genius4 ,the ,macmillan ,company1 ,london2 #ahib4 7,first ,ed41 #ahfi47 #aj4 ,,gesell1 ,,arnold4 ,mental and ,physical ,correspondence in ,twins4 ,scientific ,monthly 7#aibb74 #aa4 ,,goldberg1 ,,samuel4 ,a ,clinical ,study of ,k1 #aif ,,iq4 ,journal of ,applied ,psychology1 ,vol4 #ah1 pages #eej-efj 7#aicd74 #ab4 ,,hartlaub1 ,g4 ,f4 ,der ,genius im ,kinde4 ,hirt1 ,breslau2 #aicj4 #ac4 ,,hirt1 ,,zoe ,i4 ,a ,gifted ,child4 ,training ,school ,bulletin1 ,vol4 #ai1 pages #di-ed 7#aibb74 #ad4 ,i4 ,e4 ,r4 ,intelligence ,scale ,,cavd1 ,levels ,a to ,q4 ,printed in #e parts4 ,teachers ,college1 ,columbia ,university1 ,new ,york2 #aibe4 #ae4 ,,langenbeck1 ,m4 ,a study of a ,five-,year-,old ,child4 ,pedagogical ,seminary 7#aiae74 #af4 ,,lorge1 ,i41 and ,,hollingworth1 ,l4 ,s4 ,the ,adult ,status of ,highly ,intelligent ,children4 ,journal of ,genetic ,psychology1 ,vol4 #di1 pages #bae-bbf 7#aicf74 #ag4 ,,quetelet1 ,m4 ,letters on ,probability4 ,translated by ,downes4 ,layton ,co41 ,london2 #ahdi4 #ah4 ,,root1 ,w4 ,t4 ,a ,socio-,psychological ,study of ,fifty-three ,supernormal ,children4 ,psychological ,monographs1 #aiba1 #bi1 ,no4 #acc1 pages #acd ff4 #ai4 ,,rusk1 ,r4 ,r4 ,a ,case of ,precocity4 ,child ,study1 #aiag4 #bj4 ,,schorn1 ,m4 ,zur ,psychologie des ,frhbegabten ,kindes4 ,zeitschrift fr ,psychologie1 pages #aje1 #cjb-caf 7#aibh74 #ba4 ,,spearman1 ,g4 ,general ,intelligence ,objectively ,determined and ,measured4 ,american ,journal of ,psychology1 ,vol4 #ae1 pages #bja-bic 7#aijd74 #bb4 ,,stedman1 ,l4 ,m4 ,education of ,gifted ,children4 ,world ,book ,company1 ,yonkers-on-,hudson1 ,new ,york2 #aibd4 #bc4 ,,terman1 ,,lewis ,m4 ,a ,new ,approach to the ,study of ,genius4 ,psychological ,review1 ,vol4 #bi1 pages #caj-cah 7#aibb74 #bd4 ------ ,the ,measurement of ,intelligence4 ,houghton ,mifflin ,company1 ,boston2 #aiaf4 #be4 ,,terman1 ,,lewis ,m41 and ,,fenton1 ,j4 ,c4 ,preliminary ,report on a ,gifted ,juvenile ,author4 ,journal of ,applied ,psychology1 ,vol4 #e1 pages #afc-agh 7#aiba74 #bf4 ------ et al4 ,mental and ,physical ,traits of a ,thousand ,gifted ,children4 ,genetic studies of ,genius3 ,vol4 #a4 ,stanford ,university ,press1 ,stanford ,university1 ,california2 #aibe4 #bg4 ------ et al4 ,ibid41 ,genetic ,studies of ,genius3 ,vol4 #c4 ,stanford ,university ,press1 ,stanford ,university1 ,california2 #aicj4 #bh4 ,,thorndike1 ,e4 ,l4 ,an ,introduction to the ,theory of ,mental and ,social ,measurements4 ,science ,press1 ,new ,york2 #aijd4 #bi4 ------ ,animal ,intelligence4 ,psychological ,review ,monograph ,supplements1 ,vol4 #b1 ,no4 #h 7#ahih74 #cj4 ------ ,the ,measurement of ,intelligence4 ,bureau of ,publications1 ,teachers ,college1 ,columbia ,university1 ,new ,york2 #aibf4 #ca4 ,tehetsegproblemak 7,problems of ,talent74 ,thirteen lectures by various authors1 delivered before the ,hungarian ,society for ,child ,research and ,practical ,psychology1 ,budapest2 #aicj4 #cb4 ,,von ,,sch,,neich1 ,,christian4 ,taten1 ,reisen und ,tod eines sehr klugen und sehr artigen #d-;jhrigen ,kindes1 ,christian ,heinrich ,heineken aus ,lbeck4 ,zweite vernderte ,auflage4 ,gttingen1 #aggi 7,erste ,auflage1 #agbf74 #cc4 ,,waddle1 ,c4 ,w4 ,case ,studies of ,gifted ,children1 ,part ,i4 ,twenty-third ,yearbook1 pages #ahe-bjg1 ,national ,society for the ,study of ,education4 ,public ,school ,publishing ,company1 ,bloomington1 ,illinois2 #aibd4 #cd4 ,,washburne1 ,c4 ,w4 ,case ,history of ,j4 ,m41 ,part #a4 ,twenty-third ,yearbook1 ,national ,society for the ,study of ,education4 ,public ,school ,publishing ,company1 ,bloomington1 ,illinois2 #aibd4 #ce4 ,,witte1 ,k4 ,the ,education of ,karl ,witte4 7,translated by ,l4 ,wiener47 ,bruce ,publishing ,company1 ,milwaukee1 ,wisconsin2 #aiad4 #cf4 ,,witty1 ,p4 ,a41 and ,,jenkins1 ,m4 ,d4 ,the ,case of ',b'--a ,gifted ,negro ,girl4 ,journal of ,social ,psychology1 ,vol4 #f1 pages #aag-abd 7#aice74 #cg4 ,,yerkes1 ,r4 ,m4 7,editor74 ,psychological ,examining in the ,united ,states ,army4 ,memoirs of the ,national ,academy of ,sciences1 ,vol4 #ae 7#aiba74 #ch4 ,,zorbaugh1 ,h4 ,w4 and ,,boardman1 ,,rhea ,k4 ,salvaging ,our ,gifted ,children4 ,journal of ,educational ,sociology1 ,vol4 #aj1 pages #ajj-ajh 7#aibf74 #a ,it is not absolutely clear from ,terman's text whether the #ae children above #ahj ,,iq 7,s-,b7 are to be thought of as representing the #fdc children statistically treated in ,genetic ,studies of ,genius3 ,vol4 ,i1 or whether they rest upon the nearly one thousand as a base1 who were located4 ,in a personal communication ,professor ,terman writes that it was #ae out of #fdc4 #b ,correction is attempted according to a formula for records exceeding the top of ,s-,b1 but this formula has never been actually validated4 #c ,see previous footnote4 a ,on ,december #crd1 #agba1 someone first noticed that the child watched these figures here and there for a long time without stopping1 and his little eyes at the same time stuck upon them4 ,someone said to him the names of these figures3 that would be a cat1 that a tower1 a little sheep1 a mountain4 ,the following lit4 other day1 the #dth of ,december1 someone asked him again1 where the cat1 the mountain1 the little sheep were and to look there2 the child indicated with his little tiny fingers there1 and always hit upon the right picture1 that they had named to him4 ,even more1 now he gave effort himself to repeat the previously said words3 cat1 mountain1 tower3 hence1 he saw with unrelated glances likely1 unrelated to the figures he was previously transfixed on the speaking from the mouth likely1 of whoever named the objects1 got the movement of the lips and the tongue with the same steady attending1 slurred the word afterward and repeated this so often1 until he finally pressed out one syllable after another4 b ,he pronoun is literally it1 derived from neut4 case noun das ,kind i4e41 the child could read printed things in ,latin and ,german4 ,he could not also write them2 his little fingers were too weak to do so4 ,he could recite times tables both in and out of order4 ,he could also count1 subtract1 add1 and multiply4 ,in ,french1 he got so far1 that he could recount entire histories in this language4 ,in ,latin1 he learned over #a1ejj good sayings from ,latin-language authors4 ,he learned ,low ,german from his nurse1 of whom he didn't want to let go4 ,in geography1 he continued to grasp the most curious things on each of the maps of existing places4 c ,otto ,phler1 born the #bjth of ,august1 #ahib to ,braunschweig1 first and only child of a master butcher1 got teeth at the correct time and learned to walk and speak at the right time4 ,when he was five fourths of a year old1 his grandmother led him outside the door and into the next streets and in the course of this named to him the names which were on the house and street signs1 and also relatives wrote down him first name1 ,otto1 multiple times4 ,when the child then got a newspaper in his hands1 he showed the same printed name1 ,otto4 ,from then on1 the grandmother explained to him the letters and read aloud to him single words2 in the process1 it resulted that the child had a prodigious memory for letters1 words1 and numbers4 ,when the little ,otto was brought to me1 he was1 as ,i previously cited1 #ac_/d years old4 ,he was very conversant1 climbed immediately multiple times onto my knees1 showed himself1 overall1 very mobile and restless4 ,when he caught sight of one of the hanging wall calendars next to the writing table1 he read loudly1 unprompted1 the large-print1 ,latin display on the same 7,april #bg73 ,april two-seven444 ,in ,october1 #ahid1 ,i brought the young ,otto1 at the age of #b years and #b months1 before the physician's country club4 ,when the end of my delivered lecture about him came1 which was led in the boardroom1 one of the doctors showed the ,brner's ,medicinal-,calendar1 with the request to read the ,latin inscription4 ,he read fluently3 ,imperial ,medicinal-,calender4 ,founded by ,pa-ul ,brner4 ,one1 eight1 nine1 four4 d ,he is not physically strong1 but also not badly developed4 ,at first glance the long skull and the strong back of the head stand out4 ,in the delicate face clever1 expressive eyes are captivating1 which1 with pondering1 take on at first a curiously serious1 concentrated expression4 ,in the whole1 he does not at all make an impression of an unhealthy1 jaded child1 but rather of a boy with a completely fresh and merry view of the world4 ,his biggest passion is still always reading1 and the most important thing in the world to him are historic1 biographic1 and geographic dates4 ,he knows the birth and death years of many ,german ,kaisers1 also many generals1 poets1 philosophers1 mostly also birthdays and places of birth2 furthermore the capitals of most states1 rivers on which they lie and the like4 ,he knows decisions of the beginning and end of the ,thirty ,year's and ,seven ,year's ,wars1 of the main battles of these and other wars4 ,from statements of the mother1 everything he picked up on without outside help1 through the diligent study of a patriotic calendar and similarly discoverable literature in the house1 also through the deciphering of monument inscriptions in the cities 7for which he especially has passion74 ,when two different pages with two #ab-;digit numbers were shown to him in succession1 the numbers of which differed by one of the middle digits1 he read them as far as the billons and could then1 without looking at the pages again1 with certainty1 specify wherein the difference lay4 e ,dr4 ,placzek et al4 who earlier observed the boy1 the definitive impression prevailed of a specially aroused1 rapid1 and sharp-thinking and1 at the same time1 a benign1 quite loveable child4 ,with the parents and particularly with the mother he's involved with the greatest affection4 f ,an ,obersekundaner is a pupil in seventh year of a ,german secondary school4 ,gymnasium here means secondary school4 g ,now1 almost #ag years old1 he is an intelligent1 young man1 equipped with an admirable memory1 full of knowledge2 a young man easily getting noticed1 orienting1 who1 although in his way preferred before his contemporaries1 has proven to have a humble1 lovable nature4 ,,part ,,ii ,,twelve ,,cases ,,new ,,to ,,literature ,,concerning ,,tested ,,children ,,chapter ,,four ,,child ,a ,child ,a is a boy1 born ,june #ah1 #aiad4 ,he was brought by his parents to ,teachers ,college1 ,columbia ,university1 in the latter weeks of #aibj1 for mental tests4 ,this was on the advice of the principal of the school ,a attended1 for the boy was a school problem4 ,he did not adjust himself readily to the work of the classroom in the second grade where he was at that time placed1 at the age of #f years #f months4 ,the school had found ,a ready for work beyond the second grade in reading and arithmetic1 but because of his age and size it had decided to place him in second grade4 ,the record made at that time and subsequently reads as follows3 ,,family ,,background ,a is descended from ,german ,jews on both sides of his family4 ,his parents are not related by blood so far as can be known4 ,he is of the third generation to be born in the ,united ,states4 ,the paternal grandfather is living #aibj and well1 a tailor by trade4 ,he is very handy in making helpful devices to use in his shop4 ,the paternal grandmother is living #aibj and well1 a competent housewife1 who has evinced no noticeable intellectual interests4 ,no dependent or incompetent relatives of the father are known4 ,it is usual for the progenitors in the paternal branch to die between the ages of #hj and #ajj years4 ,the paternal great-grandfathers of ,a died aged #hf and #hi years1 respectively4 ,the paternal great-grandmothers both died at #dj years4 ,the paternal great-great-grandmothers died at #aja and #ajb years1 respectively4 ,there have been no constitutional diseases in the ancestry4 ,a's father has but one sibling1 ,a's paternal uncle1 who is a successful dentist4 ,he married a teacher1 and has two young daughters1 ,a's cousins4 ,one of these1 about #f months older than ,a1 has twice been tested by ,stanford-,binet1 her ,,iq's being #agj and1 a year later1 #afa4 ,at the age of #h years1 this girl had reached the fifth grade in public school4 ,she now #aibj attends a special class organized for children of her age who test over #aej ,,iq4 ,the other of these cousins was tested by ,stanford-,binet on ,november #i1 #aibc1 yielding an ,,iq of #abi4 ,these two girls are the only first cousins ,a has4 ,a's maternal grandfather is living #aibj and well4 ,he is a cloth salesman1 but he has always seemed dissatisfied with this vocation4 ,he had to go to work at an early age4 ,the maternal grandmother is living #aibj and well1 a competent housewife1 not especially interested in intellectual pursuits4 ,no dependent or mentally incompetent relatives of the mother are known4 ,all are self-sustaining4 ,there are no constitutional diseases in the maternal ancestry4 ,it is usual for the progenitors on the maternal side to die between the ages of #fj and #gj years1 but one of ,a's maternal great-grandmothers lived to the age of #ij years4 ,a's mother has but one sibling1 ,a's maternal uncle1 a salesman1 who is unmarried4 ,father4 ,a's father is a large1 strong man1 now following the profession of organization engineer4 ,he is a high school graduate and a graduate of ,webb ,academy1 holding a diploma from the latter as marine engineer and marine architect4 ,he has invented and patented a complete combustion furnace1 and has designed a set of torpedoes which were used in the ,japanese-,russian war4 ,during the war of #aiad-aiah1 he participated in the development of a fleet destroyer1 and designed a boat superior to previous models for transporting nitrocellulose4 ,he made the original layout for one of the largest steel plants in the ,united ,states4 ,his rating on ,army ,alpha is #ahj points4 ,his grip is #gj kg4 in the right hand and #fd kg4 in the left hand 7,smedley's dynamometer74 ,he was #bi years old when ,a was born4 ,mother4 ,a's mother was graduated from high school at the age of #ah years4 ,before marriage she was in business1 as an executive in charge of advertising for one of the largest drug concerns in this country4 ,she has handled business affairs involving large sums for a tobacco company4 ,she also did some newspaper work4 ,formerly she had excellent health1 but she has not been entirely well since the birth of her children4 ,she was #bg years old when ,a was born4 ,noteworthy relatives4 ,in the paternal branch these include cousins who founded the ,banking ,house of ,tuch1 in ,london4 ,the father's maternal grandfather 7,a's great-grandfather71 a tailor1 devised and patented a union suit1 said to have been the first union suit4 ,he also invented an improved buckle for adjusting men's vests in the back4 ,it was said of him1 ,he was always trying to invent things4 ,noteworthy relatives of the mother include the founder of the ,lemaire ,optical ,goods firm4 ,this firm has an international reputation for fine lenses4 ,a cousin of the mother is a judge4 ,another relative was a leader of ,jewish reform movements4 ,immediate family4 ,a is the first-born child4 ,he has one brother1 three years younger than himself4 ,this brother is large1 strong1 and handsome4 ,his ,,iq on repeated tests1 at intervals of a year1 has stood at #ade1 #aeb1 #ade1 #afa4 ,he too displays the special interest in mathematics which characterizes ,a4 ,for instance1 at the age of #e years he set himself the project of counting all his footsteps until he had counted a million consecutive steps4 ,this project he carried out1 his parents submitting to the numerous inconveniences incident to it4 ,the growth of this brother affords an interesting comparison with that of ,a1 since we have here two children1 both of extremely superior intelligence1 of the same ancestry1 and living under the same school and home conditions1 one of whom is nevertheless as superior to the other--in terms of ,,iq--as that other is superior to the average child4 ,,preschool ,,history ,the preschool history of ,a has been elicited from the parents and from the baby book kept by them4 ,a was born at full term1 and the birth was normal in all respects4 ,he weighed #g pounds #i ounces1 and was breast fed for the first several months of life4 ,he began to articulate words at #aj months1 and at #ad months could pick out letters on the typewriter at command4 ,at #ab months he could say the alphabet forward1 and at #af months he could say it backward as well4 ,his parents had no idea that he could reverse the alphabet until one day he announced that he was tired of saying the letters forward and guessed he would say them backward4 ,the concepts of forward and backward had thus been developed by the age of #af months4 ,at #ab months he began spontaneously to classify his blocks according to the shape of the letters on them1 putting ,v ,a ,m ,w ,n together1 ,q ,p ,o ,g ,d together1 and so forth4 ,this love of classifying has remained one of his outstanding characteristics4 ,as an infant1 he would for hours thus amuse himself with his alphabet blocks4 ,when #ah months old he was able to carry out simple errands involving not more than three or four items4 ,by the time ,a was #cj months old he could copy all the colored designs possible with his kindergarten blocks4 ,before the age of #c years he enjoyed rhymes1 and would amuse himself rhyming words together4 ,from the time he was old enough to be taken out to walk1 he would point out letters on billboards and signs with keen interest and delight1 crying1 ,oh1 see ,d6 ,there's ,j1 ,mother6 ,there's ,k and ,o6 ,also before the age of #c years ,a objected to stories containing gross absurdities4 ,for instance1 he rejected the story of the gingham dog and the calico cat who ate each other up4 ,a pointed out that this could not be1 because one of their mouths would have to get eaten up before the other mouth1 and no mouth would be left to eat that mouth up4 ,he was irritated by this obvious lapse from logic and requested that the story be read to him no more4 ,a learned to read for himself during the third year of life1 and read fluently before he entered school4 ,the photograph in ,figure #a not included shows one of ,a's amusements at the age of #aj months--balancing and rolling simultaneously a large ball between his hands and another between his feet as he lay on his back in his crib4 ,this activity illustrates his power of motor cordination in infancy1 and it is especially interesting in connection with the errors of judgment made by ,a's teachers to the effect that ,a is below average in control of his body4 ,,fig4 #a4 ,,child ,a ,,at ,,the ,,age ,,of #aj ,,months4 ,,school ,,history ,first year4 ,a has always attended private schools4 ,he started school at the age of #e years1 in ,philadelphia4 ,here he was placed in the kindergarten1 though the question was raised by teachers as to the greater advisability of placement in the first grade4 ,after a few months in this school the family moved to ,new ,york1 where ,a entered an excellent private school at the age of not quite #f years4 ,by this time he had developed many numerical processes by himself4 ,on one occasion the mother went to speak to the teacher regarding the advisability of teaching such advanced processes to so young a child at school1 and the teacher replied in great surprise that she had been on the point of asking the parents not to teach so young a child these matters4 ,second year4 ,in the autumn of #aibj1 ,a entered a private school which he attended for several years4 ,it was here that he was considered to be a school problem4 ,it was recognized that he was ready scholastically for a grade much beyond his age and size4 ,as a compromise he was placed in the second grade4 ,soon the teacher of the second grade advised that he be considered for the third grade1 as he did not fit into second-grade work4 ,thereupon he was brought to ,teachers ,college for educational guidance4 ,the report stated that ,a stood far ahead of the other second-grade children in reading and arithmetic but that he was poor in carrying out projects1 and did not seem interested in the activities of the second grade4 ,after mental examination of ,a1 revealing an intelligence level of #ab years #b months1 it was explained that there had never been worked out an established appropriate procedure for variants of such rare occurrence4 ,the advice given was to place ,a in the third grade2 for although his ,mental ,age was then more than #ab years 7his physical age at this time was #f years #f months71 many of the #h-year-olds in this school would approximate ,a's mental capacity1 since the median ,,iq of the pupils there was about #abj4 ,a was accordingly placed in the third grade1 where he had the good fortune to meet a teacher of extraordinary knowledge and ability4 ,at the end of that year he was promoted to the fourth grade4 ,third year4 ,in the autumn of #aiba ,a was in the fourth grade1 with the same teacher he had had in the third grade4 ,outside of school hours he took special work in sports and games with a group of young boys4 ,at the end of that year he was promoted to the fifth grade1 and placed in a special fifth-grade group which had been formed of the brightest children of this status in the school4 ,during this time a special effort was made to develop ,a in social activities and to interest him in group projects1 with the result that he became much more a member of the group4 ,nevertheless1 he still liked to lie down on his back and look up at the ceiling1 instead of joining common projects4 ,his mind often seems to be miles away4 ,fourth year4 ,in the autumn of #aibb ,a was in the fifth grade1 composed of the special group referred to above1 with classmates about two years older than himself1 whose ,,iq's ranged above #adj4 ,at the end of that year he was promoted to the sixth grade1 at age #i years4 ,he seemed happy and contented during his fourth year in school but displayed many characteristics which might well try the patience of any but a very wise teacher4 ,the tendency to become absorbed in his own line of thought continued1 giving an impression at times of indifference1 absent-mindedness1 and non-coperation4 ,also1 he was slow to take advice4 ,he decided1 for instance1 not to learn ,french1 as he was not interested in it4 ,he persisted in this attitude until it was clearly explained to him that people who go to college must know ,french1 whereupon he applied himself and learned the language4 ,the relative difficulty in handwriting1 shopwork1 and other manual tasks which such a child experiences in comparison with older classmates is also a problem for the teacher4 ,fifth ,year4 ,in the autumn of #aibc ,a entered the sixth grade4 ,he was at this time #i years old4 ,,judgments ,,of ,,teachers ,teachers' judgments of ,a show the usual disagreements and errors4 ,his superior intelligence has been recognized to some extent by nearly all4 ,one teacher1 however1 has felt his superiority to be merely for reading and arithmetic4 ,several teachers have judged ,a to be inferior in respect to manual dexterity and motor cordination1 forgetting that their comparison was based always on older children1 ,a's classmates4 ,only one teacher bore this fallacy of judgment in mind in reporting her estimates4 ,for instance1 one of the supervisors who had observed ,a1 reported that he was below the average child of his age in penmanship4 ,a was then #f years old4 ,this supervisor seemed not to recall that the average child of that age has no penmanship whatever4 ,direct quotation from teachers' estimates will best show how ,a has been appraised4 ,he was quite a desirable pupil1 and we should have been glad to keep him4 ,from the headmaster of the school ,a first entered4 ,though ahead of the class in arithmetic and reading1 he reasons like a child of #f4 ,he has undeveloped judgment4 ,from a teacher1 in #aibj4 ,he seems to like the third grade1 and the children like him4 ,intellectually he is able to carry the work of the grade1 and while he is not yet very responsive in manual work1 ,i think he can gain the muscular control he needs here as well as in a lower grade4 ,he has made a splendid effort in the matter of penmanship4 ,he is still very imperfectly adjusted to the school situation1 but in time will find himself able to meet the requirements1 ,i am sure4 ,from a report of a classroom teacher1 for ,february #a to ,march #ah1 #aiba4 ,although ,a still has lapses of inattention during class lessons1 in general he complies with class requirements and he has learned to use his free time without direction4 ,his gain in penmanship has been marked4 ,from report of a classroom teacher1 for ,march #ba to ,may #bg1 #aiba4 ,he is doing well1 but needs handwork4 ,from report of a special teacher1 #aiba4 ,he is slow to take advice but has shown big improvement over last term4 ,he seemed to go ahead suddenly4 ,from report of a special teacher1 #aiba4 ,he has got little from the playground4 ,doesn't get into the game1 and is a trial to his mates4 ,from report of a teacher in charge of playground1 #aiba4 ,manifests considerable musical ability4 ,lovely voice1 and true to pitch4 ,from report of a music teacher1 #aiba4 ,a is making excellent progress both socially and in his work4 ,mr4 ,w reports that his shopwork is good1 considering his age1 and that it is improving4 ,miss ,c says there is continued improvement in art4 ,i find that his writing of figures is improving more than written ,english4 ,he does not like to write1 and is apt to neglect written homework4 ,from report of a classroom teacher1 for ,november #ag1 #aiba1 to ,january #ca1 #aibb4 ,a is the youngest child in his group 7he is #g and in the fourth grade1 in which the average age is about #i74 ,it is difficult to classify him in general terms as the first in scholastic standing1 as he is with a group which numbers nine or ten superior children with ,,iq's running from #adj to #age2 but in scholastic standing1 with the exception of written work1 he is among the best4 ,if one compares his age with that of the others1 his ability is of course most marked4 ,even in this group he is conspicuous for his accuracy and lucidity of statement and for the clear thinking this indicates4 ,one noticeable indication of his intelligence is his ability to criticize his own concepts2 unless he understands every detail of a subject1 he does not consider that he understands it4 ,his ability in academic work seems well distributed1 though strongest in mathematics4 ,for this grade he is markedly low in art and industrial work2 but he would be average in second grade1 where his age would under ordinary circumstances place him4 ,his artistic feeling is all for music and literature4 ,he is moderately interested in drawing1 but doesn't like modeling and does not want to draw unless it is for some special purpose1 or because everybody else is doing so and it is the social thing to do4 ,for example1 he has made posters and designs for holiday cards1 which1 while very crude1 had an idea to express and were suitable for their purpose4 ,he enjoys shopwork and here does better technically than in other types of handwork4 ,i think he is rather clumsy with his hands1 even for his age1 though not much below the average child4 ,with his mental ability he can learn to do anything in which his interest is aroused4 ,this ability to attack any sort of problem is shown in his physical work4 ,he makes an excellent effort and comprehends what is to be done1 but in bodily cordination1 in muscular strength1 and in rhythmic response he would rank in the lower half of a second grade4 ,from a specially requested report of a classroom teacher1 ,june #bj1 #aibb4 ,in short1 ,i am fully convinced that ,a requires most of all training which will develop a proper harmony and rhythm between mind and body4 ,from the report of the instructor in the special boys' group1 to which ,a belonged1 outside of school1 ,april #ai1 #aibb4 ,a's teachers seem to hold the universal opinion that he is not doing well in his work unless prodded or specially urged4 ,it was to be expected that the handwork1 such as art and shopwork1 would be hard for him1 but he seems to do poor work and at the same time to be entirely satisfied with it1 his teachers say4 ,miss ,b finds he is not an observer of nature1 but rather inclined to tell what he has read in books4 ,however1 on the academic side1 in ,french and the regular classroom studies1 he seems to require the same prodding4 ,his sleepiness and inattention are quite marked at times4 ,when aroused1 ,i find him capable of good thinking1 and excellent memory work4 ,i have been afraid to overstimulate him1 but in order to accomplish the work of the fifth grade creditably we must develop in him more of a feeling of responsibility on his own account4 ,his immaturity shows rather clearly in some of these respects4 ,of course his work is more than passing1 because of the fine coperation at home and his own vigorous response when sufficiently urged4 ,from a report of a classroom teacher1 for ,september #ah1 #aibb1 to ,january #ca1 #aibc4 ,it is still a problem to get ,a to make contributions to the work of the class4 ,his mind works along lines of special interest at the time4 ,although urged by the parents to push ,a a little harder1 ,i have hesitated to do much urging4 ,one fears to stimulate unduly4 ,and yet ,i find that ,a is learning in many ways all the time4 ,there are still1 of course1 some definite needs4 ,mr4 ,p reports no marked improvement on the physical side4 ,however1 on the side of participation in the sports of the group1 ,i find a great improvement in ,a4 ,he appears to be enjoying himself during a ball game1 and even catches a ball occasionally4 ,miss ,b says she hopes that ,a will have some real country and nature during the summer4 ,he needs a chance to roam and think and observe for himself rather than to learn facts from books or other people4 ,in the ,french class his interest and attitude have improved4 ,from report of a classroom teacher1 for ,february #a to ,june #ae1 #aibc1 on the occasion of ,a's promotion to the sixth grade4 ,these remarks from teachers bring clearly to notice some of the difficulties in adjustment to school procedure when a child has a #ab-year-old capacity for thinking and the body of a #g- or #h-year-old1 combined with the life of a #f-year-old4 ,motor control is1 of course1 far behind abstract thinking2 writing is slow and feeble1 while reading is rapid and fluent2 shopwork is poor but arithmetic is excellent2 he can surpass #h- and #i-year-olds--even those of superior intelligence--in the classroom1 but in playing with them he cannot catch a ball and is always the last to be selected when sides choose up1 because he is a handicap in any playground competitions4 ,from these remarks and estimates it is also easy to see how such a child may provoke adverse comments from teachers1 may be found unsuited to school organization1 and eventually even be reputed stupid or foolish4 ,fortunately for ,a1 most of his teachers have had unusual training and have been rigidly selected1 besides1 for insight and personality4 ,if you have read ,edison's biography1 you will recall that under teachers less highly selected young ,thomas did not get on in school1 was regarded as foolish1 and eventually was removed from school by his mother1 who educated him at home1 she herself being a teacher4 ,these difficulties of discrepancy between mental development and physical development are seen to be greatest in the earliest years of childhood4 ,the judgments show that as ,a grew from his sixth birthday to his ninth birthday1 he became less and less conspicuous in his poor penmanship and in his inaptitude at games4 ,,mental ,,measurements ,general intelligence tests of ,a have been made as follows3 ,,date ,,birthday ,,stanford-,,binet ,,army ,,alpha ,,age ,,of ,a ,,ma ,,iq ,,points ,a ,norm ,a ,norm ,a ,norm ,dec4 #cj1 #aibj #f-f #ab-b #f-f #ahg #ajj 7,not given7 ,jan4 #b1 #aibb #g-f #ad-d #g-f #aia #ajj #gf #j 7,form #e7 ,apr4 #bb1 #aibb #a #g-aj #ad-h #g-aj #ahg #ajj 7,not given7 ,feb4 #bb1 #aibc #h-h 7,not given7 #ie #j 7,form #g7 #b ,mechanical skill4 ,on ,january1 #b1 #aibb 7aged #g years #f months71 ,a was given the ,stenquist ,assembling ,tests of ,general ,mechanical ,ability and he made a score of #g points only4 ,he could tell what mechanisms were to be constructed from the materials in five out of the ten instances1 but he was not handy enough to put them together4 7,the test depends very much upon size and strength of hands and upon the degree to which motor cordination is developed4 ,young children1 therefore1 of whatever degree of intelligence1 are unable to succeed in it74 ,musical sensitivity4 ,on ,february #bb1 #aibc1 ,seashore's ,tests of ,musical ,sensitivity yielded results as follows1 using the figures for eighth-grade children for comparison1 because of ,a's ,mental ,age3 ,,test ,,percentile 7,,eighth ,,grade7 ,,percentile 7,,adults7 ,a ,a',s ,,father ,consonance ,below #bgth #cfth ,pitch #iast #hast ,intensity #dast #bfth ,time ,below #agth #ghth ,tonal memory #gjth #ith ,design4 ,on ,january #b1 #aibb1 the examiner made the following note in reference to ,a's performance with ,milton ,bradley color cubes 7with which he always asks to play when he comes to the laboratory73 ,the child can construct the most complicated designs with ,milton ,bradley's color cubes in less than three minutes each1 from memory--the design being exposed to vision and studied for one minute4 ,three colors are involved--red1 blue1 yellow1 and white4 ,,traits ,,of ,,character ,a has not been rated by any scale for traits of character as1 for instance1 were the children reported by ,terman4 ,there are at hand only statements by persons who know ,a4 ,the parents both say that ,a has no troublesome traits of character except a tendency to fail to take his own part in a fight4 ,if a child strikes him1 he often does not strike back but simply does nothing4 ,his parents feel that this indicates a lack of give and take that is essential to getting along in the world4 ,the parents describe him as especially honest1 truthful1 reliable1 affectionate1 kind1 generous1 and modest1 with strong control of his emotions4 ,traits of ,a which are faulty from the point of view of teachers are absentmindedness1 lack of interest in group activities1 untidiness1 and obstinacy4 ,one teacher estimated him as a little bit selfish4 ,the desirable traits most often mentioned by teachers are kindliness1 amiability1 affection1 good humor1 reticence1 and precision in treating the data of thought4 ,the following are quotations from teachers3 ,i am so sorry about ,a's coat4 ,i laid it on his desk1 as he was cooking when it came4 4 4 4 ,evidently he didn't notice it on his desk when he came in later4 ,knowing ,a's absent-minded habits1 ,i ought to have called his attention to the coat4 ,a is not neat nor orderly4 ,a still has lapses of inattention during class lessons4 ,he is slow to take advice4 ,he is affectionate and kindly1 while not over-demonstrative4 ,the class in which he has been for a year and three months was slow in accepting him1 but now they appreciate his intellect and his good humor1 and treat him with the kindly tolerance of older brothers and sisters4 ,a responds to this attitude well and loves to fool and frolic with the others1 somewhat kitten fashion4 ,in the goal ball games he wants to play though he is simply a figurehead1 and he knows enough to obey the rules and not get in anyone's way4 ,in working with a group1 ,a is inclined either to be dictatorial or to insist upon doing everything himself4 ,this may be because of youth or because he sees so clearly what is to be done1 but ,i think he is a little selfish and obstinate4 ,a is a very lovable child with a tender heart and a good deal of emotional capacity1 generally kept hidden1 so he is not difficult to manage4 ,it is difficult1 however1 to make him assume responsibilities about material or work which is irksome1 such as writing1 and he is very untidy4 ,it has been a pleasure to have ,a in my class4 ,he has been friendly and pleasant in his relations with his teachers as well as with his classmates4 ,the physician who attended ,a when his ankle was twisted in an accident 7mentioned later in this account7 rated him very high for courage4 ,the character traits which have stood out repeatedly and most noticeably in the course of visits to the laboratory for mental tests appear to the present writer to be amiability1 reticence1 emotional control in the face of mishaps 7such as falling off a chair in a strange place and bumping his head severely71 and obstinacy in pursuit of his plans and activities4 ,he does not seek advice1 and does not take it readily4 ,he is easily bored by unnecessary repetitions of matter once presented4 ,for instance1 in certain mental tests1 where the standard procedure demands that the same question be asked several times 7,stanford-,binet fables1 ,what lesson does that teach us871 ,a grew more and more restive at each repetition1 and finally said1 ,we don't need that every time1 do we8 ,the nickname is an important datum in estimating a child4 ,a's nickname among the children at school is ,sleeping ,beauty4 ,this name was given1 the teacher thinks1 because of ,a's abstraction and because he was never ready in games4 ,,physical ,,measurements ,,and ,,health ,physique measurements4 ,the following measurements were made by the present writer1 using the standard scales and stadiometer of the ,teachers ,college ,laboratory4 ,the measurement of cranial circumference was made with a reinforced fabric tape4 ,,part #a ,,of #b ,,date ,,wt4 ,,ht4 7,,stand41 7,,lbs47 ,,in47 ,a ,norm ,a ,norm ,jan4 #a1 #aiba #ef4j #dd4h #dh4j #df4f ,sep4 #ag1 #aiba #c #eh4j #abh cm ,jan4 #b1 #aibb #ff4e #ea4g #ej4c #dh4c ,feb4 #bb1 #aibc #fh4g #ee4i #eb4g #ej4a ,,part #b ,,of #b ,,ht4 7,,stand41 ,,ht4 ,,ht4-,,wt4 ,,cranial ,,in47 7,,sit41 ,,in47 ,,coeff4 ,,cir4 7,,in47 ,a ,norm ,a ,a ,norm ,a #dh4j #df4f #be4e #a4ja 4#if #abh cm #ej4c #dh4c #bf4e #a4bf #a4jg #eb4g #ej4a #bh4a #a4bd #a4ab #ba4c ,in the case of the measurements made in clothing1 subtracting 4#e inch1 the height of heels1 from standing height1 and #d pounds for clothing from weight1 we see that in all measurements of physique taken1 ,a decidedly exceeds ,baldwin's norms for the selected children in good private schools4 ,grip measurements4 ,grip in the hand has been repeatedly measured with ,smedley's dynamometer1 with the following results3 ,,grip 7,,kg47 ,,date ,right ,hand ,left ,hand ,a ,norm ,a ,norm ,january #a1 #aiba #ac4j #aj4j #aj4j #i4j ,february #bb1 #aibc #af4j #ac4j #ad4j #ab4j ,the superior size of ,a is1 therefore1 accompanied by superior strength of hand4 ,growth curves of ,a and his brother compared4 ,in the case of ,a and his young brother1 we have two boys of the same ancestry1 living in the same school and home environment1 both falling into the highest one per cent of the population as respects intelligence1 yet very widely separated in terms of ,,iq4 ,the repeated measurements show that the children do not become either more alike or more different as time passes1 but that each remains a constant1 maintaining a static relationship to the other in mind and body4 ,the pressure of the similar environment does not bring them closer together in ability4 ,nervous stability4 ,the supervisor who judged ,a's penmanship to be inferior to that of the average child of #f years1 also interpreted this difficulty in writing to be a symptom of nervousness1 especially when considered in connection with his abstraction and general maladjustment to work of the second grade4 ,for this reason the parents obtained statements from two physicians who knew ,a well1 as to the child's nervous stability4 ,the physician who removed ,a's tonsils wrote as follows3 ,i am glad to state that he is as free from any nervous stigmata as is possible for any child of his age4 ,because of his brightness1 he was treated as an older child before his tonsil operation1 and what was about to be done was explained to him1 and he underwent the anesthesia in a perfectly natural manner4 ,his convalescence was unusually rapid1 and at no time did he show the slightest indication of any neurosis4 ,from careful observation ,i can truthfully say that ,a would pass the severest tests1 and show no abnormality4 ,the other physician wrote3 ,at the time ,i examined ,a in #aiag ,i found no neuropathic stigmata4 ,in fact1 he impressed me as a boy who was rather well developed physically4 ,by physically ,i mean inclusive of his nervous system4 ,a's parents rate him as well balanced4 ,the present writer would rate him as far above the average child of his years in nervous stability4 ,organic condition4 ,physical examinations reveal no defect except a serious degree of progressive myopia4 ,to correct this1 glasses are worn and the use of eyes is limited4 ,medical history4 ,a has always been healthy4 ,he has never been subject to a chronic disorder4 ,he sleeps well and has a keep appetite for food4 ,as an infant there was never any trouble in feeding him4 ,he cried very little1 and was easy to care for4 ,when he was #c years #f months old he was almost run over by an automobile1 but escaped with a twisted ankle4 ,after that1 for about a year1 he had a series of boils4 ,at the age of #e years ,a was threatened with a mastoid infection and the drum of his right ear was pierced1 liberating a large quantity of pus4 ,hearing was not1 however1 impaired4 ,adenoids and tonsils were removed at the age of #f years4 ,these had never been especially troublesome1 but the parents decided on the operation because ,a breathed through the mouth4 ,he has not had children's diseases1 and except for the incidents narrated1 his medical history is negative4 ,,miscellaneous ,,characteristics ,diversions4 ,at the age of #e to #f years ,a had much difficulty in playing with children of his own age because he could not be satisfied with play involving merely sensory stimulation and diffuse motor activity4 ,he always tried to diver the play to some planned end1 to organize it1 in ways not appreciated by others of his age4 ,when he was #f years old1 boys of #ab to #ad years of age were preferred by ,a as playmates1 and he would join them whenever they would accept his company4 ,however1 he had and continued to have chums of approximately his own age4 ,at the age of #f years #f months ,a's favorite diversions were reading1 playing games of intellectual skill 7like geographical ,lotto71 and playing in sand 7building74 ,at the age of #h years #h months his favorite diversions were reading1 chess1 and pinochle4 ,imaginary land4 ,at the age of #c to #f years ,a had an imaginary land which he called ,center ,land4 ,this fantasy appears to have started when his brother was born4 ,when this event occurred ,a asked just how it happened4 ,his mother thereupon gave him the real physiological facts4 ,to these he made no immediate comment4 ,several days later he said he had no doubt his brother did come into the world in just that way1 but that he1 ,a1 did not4 ,he1 ,a1 originated in ,center ,land1 where he chose his father and mother4 ,thereafter1 the imaginary land developed rapidly4 ,in this land children stayed up all night4 ,they could play with fire whenever they wished4 ,he lived there in a hundred story house1 with an elevator he could run by himself4 ,two playmates1 ,katharine and another child1 lived there also4 ,by the age of #f1 this imaginary country had almost ceased to engage him1 and at the age of #i he no longer thinks of it4 ,religious experiences4 ,between the ages of #f and #h years 7,mental ,ages #ab to #ae years7 ,a became very religious4 ,prayer was regarded as extremely sacred1 and ,god was much reverenced4 ,now1 at the age of #i years 7,mental ,age beyond the limits of ordinary maturity71 he is no longer seen to devote himself to these observations4 ,career ideas4 ,at the age of #f years #f months ,a wanted to become an eye doctor4 ,i like to tend to mother's eye4 ,i like to tend to people's eyes4 ,at the age of #h years #h months1 in answer to the question1 ,what will you be when you grow up8 ,a replied1 ,i will do something with arithmetic in it2 whatever has the most mathematics in it4 ,reading interests4 ,to the question1 ,what do you like to read8 ,a gave the following responses3 7,age #f years #f months7 ,true books1 like ,the ,fall of ,jerusalem-- that's the best one1 and ,burgess ,animal ,books1 ,burgess ,bird ,books1 ,our ,first ,flag1 ,the ,arabian ,nights4 7,age #h years #h months7 ,books about people who really lived4 ,a has always preferred books of fact to books of fancy--true books1 as he called them2 but now he enjoys fairy tales more than he did when he was younger4 ,this may be because the fact behind the fancy now makes a stronger appeal4 ,the following list represents six months' reading1 from the age of #g years #j months to #g years #f months1 some of the books being read to ,a1 to reduce eyestrain4 #d ,on ,plymouth ,rock ,s4 ,a4 ,drake ,four ,great ,americans ,j4 ,baldwin ,stories of ,new ,york ,a4 ,t4 ,lovering ,the ,children's ,city ,e4 ,singleton ,the ,burgess ,bird ,book ,thornton ,burgess ,the ,burgess ,animal ,book ,the ,empire ,state ,j4 ,w4 ,redway ,around the ,world with the ,children ,f4 ,g4 ,carpenter ,east o' the ,sun and ,west o' the ,moon ,g4 ,w4 ,dasent ,miles ,standish ,h4 ,w4 ,longfellow ,the ,wreck of the ,hesperus ,h4 ,w4 ,longfellow ,fables ,bulfinch ,aesop's ,fables ,tales and ,teachings from the ,pentateuch ,m4 ,m4 ,joseph ,the ,little ,gray ,grandmother ,carolyn ,s4 ,bailey ,stories of the ,bible ,louise ,m4 ,pleasanton ,the ,pied ,piper of ,hamelin ,r4 ,browning ,tanglewood ,tales ,n4 ,hawthorne ,first ,jungle ,book ,r4 ,kipling ,second ,jungle ,book ,r4 ,kipling ,poems ,j4 ,w4 ,riley ,poems ,eugene ,field ,poems ,r4 ,l4 ,stevenson ,the ,wonder ,book of ,knowledge ,the ,blue ,bird ,m4 ,maeterlinck ,historic ,boyhoods ,r4 ,s4 ,holland ,the ,friendly ,stars ,m4 ,e4 ,martin ,this list gives an idea of the reading preferences of ,a1 at the age of #g years4 ,within the year following1 the preference for biography and autobiography developed4 ,interest in astronomy4 ,because other very young children of more than #ahj ,,iq known to the present writer had been especially interested in astronomy--particularly ,child ,e--it was desired to observe what would be the reaction of ,a if knowledge of astronomy were made accessible to him4 ,books which had interested ,child ,e at the age of #f to #g years were therefore made accessible to ,a4 ,he at once became interested in the heavenly bodies and their movements4 ,tendency to classify and diagram4 ,a's love of classifying-- first noted at the age of about #ab months--is a conspicuous characteristic4 ,he classifies events1 objects1 names1 numbers1 and other data of experience4 ,he can think in terms of diagrams and sometimes draws a diagram to clarify or condense his meaning4 ,lightning calculation4 ,a's keenest intellectual interest is probably in numbers1 and he has responded very readily to his father's instruction in short-cut methods of calculation4 ,by ,march1 #aibb1 he could very quickly square any number up to #ajj2 multiply any two numbers of a sum not to exceed #bjj2 square any number up to #ajjj ending in #e such as #hfe1 #ice1 etc472 square any number up to #aj1jjj1 ending in #ee or in #eee2 solve problems in proportion1 such as #i 3 #ba 33 #ba 3 x1 #h #db 33 x #ba1 #h 3 #i 33 #aj 3 x1 subtract the square of one number ending in #e from the square of another number ending in #e1 where the difference between the two numbers is #aj1 or #bj1 or #cj 7e4g41 #bbee or #bbde or #ccde or #ccbe74 ,also at that age he could calculate series of operations1 thus3 ,take #b1 square it1 square that1 divide by #d1 cube it1 add #ag1 take the square root1 add #g1 square it1 square it1 give the result1 his calculations taking about five seconds each4 ,,editor',s ,,supplement ,the author's original write-up of ,child ,a ends with the above1 written early in #aibc4 ,from records in the author's files the following further data concerning later development may be added3 ,december #bf1 #aibc ,,age3 #i years #f months ,,school ,,grade3 ,sixth ,,test ,,record3 ,given ,stanford-,binet by ,l4 ,s4 ,h4 with ,mental ,age of #af-aa4 ,this would give ,,iq #agh1 but the comment is made1 ,can no longer be measured by ,stanford-,binet4 ,on this day also given ,army ,alpha1 with a score of #abh points1 this being the score assigned to chronological age #ag years #h months4 ,,physical ,,measurements3 ,standing height #ed4b inches ,sitting height #bg4i inches ,weight #gd4c pounds ,head circumference #ba4e inches ,right grip #ad1 #ag1 #ah ,left grip #ad1 #ab1 #ad ,,teachers' ,,reports4 7,private school1 ,september #bb-;,december #ai1 #aibd7 ,a's reports show that he has attained high credit in mathematics and history2 low credit in ,french1 shopwork1 art1 music1 and physical training2 average credit in other subjects4 ,his written work shows improvement4 ,he presents the usual problem of the unadjusted4 ,there is now more alertness in his manner1 but still a lack of the will to do work because it is a group demand4 ,something more of maturity has come to him with his greater freedom4 ,he has started the manual-training problem with some sense of self-discipline4 ,if he will now attack his work with the mental grip of which he must be capable1 and give to the group the benefit of his ability1 it will be a joy to have him among us4 ,december #bb1 #aibd ,,age3 #aj years #f months ,,school ,,grade3 ,seventh ,,test ,,record3 ,on ,stanford-,binet1 passed #d of the #f ,superior ,adult ,tests1 failing on ,tests #a and #d4 ,alpha score1 #aff points4 ,,physical ,,measurements3 ,standing height #ef4b inches ,sitting height #bi4d inches ,weight #hj4e pounds ,head circumference #ba4e inches ,right grip #ah1 #ah1 #af ,left grip #ai1 #ag1 #ae ,december #bb1 #aibe ,,age3 #aa years #f months ,,school ,,grade3 ,eighth ,,test ,,record3 ,passed all tests on ,superior ,adult level1 ,stanford-,binet4 ,took two forms of ,army ,alpha4 ,form #g1 #afb points1 and on ,form #e1 #afh points4 ,,physical ,,measurements3 ,norm ,standing height #eh4a inches #ef4g inches ,sitting height #bi4d inches ,weight #hh4h pounds #ge4e pounds ,head circumference #ba4g inches ,november #ah1 #aibf ,,age3 #ab years #e months ,,test ,,record3 ,score on ,army ,alpha1 #age points ,,physical ,,measurements3 ,norm ,standing height #fj4j inches #eg4h inches 7in shoes7 ,sitting height #cj4j inches ,weight 7without coat7 #ic4j pounds #hd4f pounds ,january #ab1 #aibi ,,age3 #ad years #g months ,,school ,,grade3 ,third ,year ,high ,school ,,test ,,record3 ,score on ,army ,alpha1 #aid points ,,physical ,,measurements3 ,norm ,standing height #fd4b inches #fb4b inches ,sitting height #cb4e inches ,weight 7clothed7 #aah pounds #ih4i pounds 7stripped7 #aad pounds ,october1 #aibi1 to ,february1 #aicj ,,school ,,grades3 ,english ,literature ,c ,english ,composition ,c ,german ,b- ,geometry ,b ,trigonometry ,b ,science ,b ,january and ,june1 #aica ,,age3 #af years #f months to #ag years ,,school ,,grade3 ,now a freshman in college ,,test ,,record3 ,was given ,,cavd test1 ,levels ,m1 ,n1 ,o1 ,p1 ,q1 at two different sittings--one in ,january1 the other in ,june4 ,score #dbb points4 7,according to available information #djj points is twelfth-grade college entrance score in high-type colleges1 while #dba points is the upper quartile score of candidates for advanced degrees in ,teachers ,college1 ,columbia ,university1 the median being #dae47 ,january #bj1 #aicb ,at the age of #ag years #g months1 in the third year of college1 he scored #bjd points on ,army ,alpha1 ,form #h1 a score made only by the top one per cent of college juniors1 seniors1 and graduate students4 ,november #bc1 #aici ,notice was received of ,a's marriage4 #a ,demonstration test before a class of teachers4 #b ,the score of #ie points on ,army ,alpha1 ,form #g1 on ,february #bb1 #aibc1 corresponds to a mental level of #af years1 #j months by ,stanford-,binet4 ,this 7if translatable into ,,iq7 would result in an ,,iq of #ahd4 #c ,measurements were made without clothing1 by ,dr4 ,herman ,schwartz4 #d ,the ,burgess books had been read often before4 ,,chapter ,,five ,,child ,b ,child ,b is a girl1 born ,november #be1 #aiab4 ,she was discovered in a private school in the course of a systematic survey made by ,dr4 ,e4 ,h4 ,malherbe1 who was at the time a graduate student at ,teachers ,college1 ,columbia ,university4 ,to ,dr4 ,malherbe the present writer is indebted for introduction to this child1 and also for data on first tests as well as for other information4 ,,family ,,background ,child ,b is descended from colonial settlers in this country4 ,her ancestors came chiefly from the ,british ,isles1 as set forth in her family history4 ,her parents are not related by blood so far as can be known4 ,the paternal grandfather was of ,english descent2 the paternal grandmother of ,irish descent4 ,no dependent or incompetent relatives of the father are known4 ,all are self-sustaining4 ,the maternal grandfather was of ,irish-,spanish blood4 ,the maternal grandmother was of ,irish descent4 ,no incompetent or dependent relatives are known4 ,father4 ,child ,b's father was born in ,vermont and was #db years old when ,b was born4 ,he is a high school graduate and a graduate of the ,united ,states ,military ,academy at ,west ,point4 ,he passed the entrance examinations for the latter institution at the age of #af years and was at that time the youngest student ever admitted to the ,academy4 ,he has held posts of extraordinary trust in the pursuit of his profession1 and is at the time of this writing an officer of high rank in the ,united ,states ,army4 ,mother4 ,child ,b's mother is a graduate of a ,catholic parochial high school and of the ,college of ,mount ,st4 ,vincent4 ,she was married at an early age and her career has been that of housewife and mother1 no profession having been followed previous to marriage4 ,although she is the mother of seven children and mistress of a large household1 ,b's mother found time to attend courses in law and economics at ,columbia ,university while the family lived in ,new ,york4 ,she was #ci years old when ,b was born4 ,noteworthy relatives4 ,relatives of note in the paternal branch include ,b's great-grandfather1 who was a physician1 founder of the ,vermont ,academy of ,medicine in the early years of the nineteenth century1 and a professor of surgery there4 ,there are also among relatives an admiral of the ,united ,states ,navy1 #a a physician of wide reputation1 a commander of the ,united ,states ,navy1 #b and a practical tin- and coppersmith who was an inventor4 ,this family branch as a whole finds its average level of achievement in the professions4 ,the maternal branch includes a woman of extraordinary business ability1 a priest who was a scholar and organizer of marked ability1 and a mining engineer of unusual achievement4 ,the performance level of the family lies1 on the average1 in business and the professions4 ,immediate family4 ,b is the sixth born of seven siblings4 ,of these children1 two--the brother born two years before ,b and the brother born five years after ,b--have had mental tests4 ,the older brother was measured in the course of the mental survey made by ,dr4 ,malherbe4 ,his ,,iq 7,s-,b7 at the age of #aj years #f months was #afg4 ,this is not a full measure of his brother1 as he passed many tests at the highest levels of performance provided by the scale4 ,a still older brother passed the entrance examinations for the ,columbia ,college1 from which may be inferred intelligence above the average4 ,the younger brother's ,,iq 7,s-,b7 at the age of #f years #aj months was #ach4 ,,preschool ,,history ,the preschool history of ,b has been elicited from the parents4 ,she cut her first tooth at #g months4 ,she began to talk at #i months of age and to walk at #ae months4 ,as soon as she was able to walk out with her nurse or her mother1 at about the age of #bd months1 ,b began to notice the letters on billboards and to spell out words4 ,by the time she was in the third year of life she could read fluently in simple books4 7,the brother whose ,,iq is referred to above as #afg did not read until he was about #d years #f months of age47 ,,school ,,history ,b has always attended private schools4 ,she began her school life in kindergarten1 at the age of #c years1 and attended the same school until the age of nearly #i years4 ,at the age of #h years #d months she had reached only the fourth grade1 whereas in the battery of educational tests given as a part of the school survey she passed at that age the seventh-grade standards for public schools4 ,in appraising the great discrepancy between school progress and ability in this case1 it is necessary to bear in mind that children in some private schools are highly selected as regards intellect4 ,the median ,,iq in this particular school was shown by the survey to be much above #ajj2 so that ,b was not so hopelessly misplaced in the fourth grade there as would have been the case had she attended public school4 ,the fact of competition with selected children reduces the discrepancy1 although it is still very great4 ,at the age of #h years #i months1 ,b entered a private school in ,washington1 ,d4 ,c4 ,here she was placed in the sixth grade1 skipping the fifth grade4 ,her school reports have always been very excellent1 almost always ,e in every subject4 ,in the autumn of #aibb ,b entered the seventh grade1 aged #i years #i months4 ,she was the youngest pupil in a class of about #bj children1 and held first rank4 ,she leads in every regular subject except catechism1 geography1 and history4 ,b likes all subjects except catechism1 giving first place1 at the age of #i years1 to arithmetic4 ,her school marks for #aibb-aibc are as follows1 the marks indicating as is usual3 #ajj1 perfect2 #ij1 very good2 #hj1 good2 #gj1 fair2 #fj1 deficient4 ,b',s ,,marks1 ,,grade ,,vii4 ,,age #i ,,years #aj ,,months4 ,,subject #aibb #aibb #aibc #aibc ,oct4 #ca ,dec4 #ae ,jan4 #ca ,mar4 #bg ,catechism #ie #ij #hj #id ,grammar #ib #id #he #ij ,composition #hg #hh #he ,spelling #ic #ie #ajj #ih ,letter writing #he #he #hj ,american history #he #hj #hh #ij ,geography #id #hg #ij #id ,arithmetic #ij #ij #ajj #ij ,oral ,french #ie #ie #if #ie ,penmanship ,d ,c #ge ,reading #ij #ia #he ,choral singing #hj #hj #ie ,drawing #ij #ij #ij ,plain sewing #hj #he #he ,rules of observance #ij #ajj #ig #id ,bible history #id #ij #hf #ic ,at the age of #aa years ,b entered high school and is doing good work there1 but without much stimulus of competition1 as there are but a few pupils in her grade4 ,unlike several of the children who have an ,,iq of more than #ahj1 ,b has never been a school problem4 ,she has always been a good mixer with children of her school grade1 and has taken part in their activities4 ,being a very large1 strong child1 she has not been so much out of it in motor skill as to be conspicuous among older schoolmates4 ,as evidences of unusual manual dexterity the following may be mentioned3 at the age of #e years ,b knitted on steel needles a pair of socks which were worn by her little brother2 at #f years she made edible rice puddings2 at #g years of age she made cookies4 ,,traits ,,of ,,character ,no one among parents and teachers has mentioned any character trait considered faulty4 ,the virtues most frequently mentioned and emphasized are modesty1 reliability1 self-direction1 poise1 good humor1 amiability1 and being a good sport4 ,,judgment ,,of ,,teachers ,it is remarkable that no adverse comments have been offered by any of ,b's teachers4 ,all teachers have rated ,b high in character and intellect4 ,the chief error in judgment lies in not ranking her as high as she really stands4 ,this error arises partly from the fact that teachers in the private schools ,b attended deal with selected children whom they may come to think of as representing the average of child ability4 ,the judgments of ,b's teachers may be quoted as follows3 ,remembered in our kindergarten chiefly for her vivid imagination4 ,from the head mistress of the school4 ,one of the most popular children in the school4 ,from a teacher4 ,it is some time since ,i had ,b as a pupil1 but ,i am glad to tell you my impressions of the child as ,i remember her4 ,she was a very quiet1 unassuming member of the class4 ,she had remarkable powers of concentration1 always finished her work well in advance of the others and then found work for herself until the class was ready to go on with a new subject4 ,with the children in both work and play she made no effort to lead them1 and although they recognized the fact that her work was superior to theirs1 they showed no resentment toward ,b because she never made them feel her superiority4 ,b showed a mental poise that ,i have rarely1 if ever1 found in a child4 ,it was not so much a matter of a sudden keen grasp of a subject1 which might or might not be permanent4 ,she seemed to have the power1 which is usually met only in mature minds1 of weighing1 reasoning1 and then placing for permanent use the matter with which she was dealing4 #c ,always ,b appealed to me as a normal child1 with unusual mental poise4 ,she was not at all uncanny or tiresomely intelligent4 ,from a former classroom teacher4 ,,mental ,,measurements ,measurements of general intelligence of ,b have been made as follows3 ,,date ,,birthday ,,stanford ,,army ,,alpha ,,age -,,binet ,,points ,,of ,b ,,ma ,,iq ,b ,norm ,mar4 #c1 #aiba #h-c #ae-h #ahi ,apr4 #h1 #aibb #i-d #ag-f #ahh #hd 7,form #e7 #j ,dec4 #bi1 #aibd #ab-a #adb 7,form #e7 ,,physical ,,measurements ,b was measured at the age of #i years #d months and again at the age of #ab years #a month1 in light indoor clothing1 with the following results3 ,height and weight4 ,,part #a ,,of #b ,,date ,,wt4 7,,lbs47 ,,height 7,,in47 ,b ,norm #d ,b ,norm #e ,april #h1 #aibb #ajf4j #fa4e #ef4j #eb4j ,december #bi1 #aibd #abc4j #hb4h #fa4f #eg4g ,,part #b ,,of #b ,,height 7,,in47 ,,ht4-,,wt4 ,,coeff4 ,,cranial ,,cir4 7,,in47 ,b ,norm #e ,b ,norm ,b #ef4j #eb4j #a4hh #a4ah #bb4d #fa4f #eg4g #a4ii #a4dd #bb4e ,b greatly surpasses ,badlwin's norms 7making the usual allowance for heels and clothing74 ,grip measurements4 ,measured with ,smedley's dynamometer1 ,b's hand grip scores as follows3 ,,date ,,grip 7,,kg47 ,right ,hand ,left ,hand ,april #h1 #aibb #ac4j #aa4j ,december #bi1 #aibd #bj4j #ah4j ,superior size is therefore accompanied by superior strength4 ,,miscellaneous ,,characteristics ,diversions4 ,at the age of #i years ,b listed her favorite diversions thus3 ,all sorts of outdoor games2 then reading2 then drawing2 then playing with dolls1 sometimes4 ,imaginary land4 ,when ,i was #h years old my imaginary countries were generally of grownupness1 where ,i figured as chief actress and queen4 ,career ideas4 ,at the age of #i years ,b was asked1 ,what will you be when you grow up8 ,b responded promptly1 ,a doctor4 ,then she added1 ,i will learn to sing1 too4 ,perhaps ,i'll sing to the patients4 ,there are so many things to do4 ,i'll try to combine several things4 ,now1 at the age of #ab #aibe1 she is ambitious to become a celebrated authoress1 actress1 artist1 and musician4 ,reading interests4 ,when asked how many books she had read 7,april #h1 #aibb71 ,b replied1 ,oh1 hundreds and hundreds4 ,we have plenty of books4 ,it is characteristic of her that she reads over and over again a book that especially pleases her4 ,thus she had read nearly all of ,louisa ,alcott's books twice each1 and had read ,lady ,luck--at that date her favorite book--several times4 ,she had read a great many books written for boys1 and remarked1 in trying to describe her preferences1 ,i like boys' books best4 ,they have more in them than girls' books4 ,tendency to organize other children4 ,b is the only one of the children here reported who shows any success or interest in leading or organizing fellow children4 ,she organizes clubs and games4 ,when shown the ,civil ,war code1 in the course of mental tests1 she remarked1 ,i must remember that1 for it will be fine for my ,clip-,clap-,club4 #a ,rear ,admiral ,john ,w4 ,phillip4 7,callahan1 ,e4 ,w4 ,list of ,officers of the ,united ,states ,navy and of the ,marine ,corps4 ,hamersley ,co41 ,new ,york2 #aija47 #b ,commander ,e4 ,t4 ,woodward4 #c ,at this time ,b's intelligence was about that of the average adult1 according to mental tests1 though the teacher made this comment without having that knowledge4 #d ,baldwin's norms for children #i years #f months old4 ,transcriber's note3 ,the second row is clearly from a different1 and likely the corresponding1 age norm4 #e ,without shoes4 ,,chapter ,,six ,,child ,c ,child ,c is a boy1 born ,june #ae1 #aiac4 ,he was brought to the writer's attention by the principal of ,public ,school #aeg1 ,manhattan1 who wrote as follows1 requesting an examination in the laboratory at ,teachers ,college1 ,columbia ,university3 ,i have in the #e;,a grade of this school a boy 4 4 4 who seems to be somewhat of an infant prodigy4 ,his verbal memory1 especially1 is phenomenal1 but he is underdeveloped on the physical side1 takes no interest in ,manual ,work1 and does not like to play with other children4 ,,family ,,background ,child ,c is descended1 in both lines1 from ,german ,jews4 ,his parents are not related by blood4 ,the paternal grandfather was a successful businessman4 ,the paternal grandmother was a competent housewife4 ,a paternal uncle is a judge in ,new ,york ,city4 ,no incompetent relative in this branch is known2 on the other hand1 there is no one of great eminence4 ,on the maternal side1 one of ,c's mother's brothers is a physician1 a cousin is a writer1 and another cousin is a judge4 ,no incompetent relatives are known in this branch4 ,father4 ,c's father is an accountant4 ,he did not graduate from elementary school but went to work at an early age4 ,he was #dj years old when ,c was born4 ,mother4 ,c's mother is a high school graduate4 ,she was #ce years old when ,c was born4 ,she is a housewife1 and had no paid occupation before marriage4 ,c is an only child1 never having had any siblings4 ,,preschool ,,history ,the following information was gathered from ,c's mother4 ,the child cut his first tooth at the age of #i months4 ,he began to walk at the age of #a year #c months1 and to talk fluently at the age of #a year #d months4 ,he learned to read almost as soon as he talked1 and at the age of #c years could read simple matter4 ,when he was #d years old1 ,c went one day into a store with his father4 ,while the latter was making his purchases the child took a book from the shelf and began to scan it4 ,the shopkeeper noticed the child looking attentively at the book and said1 for a joke1 ,boy1 if you will read me that book1 ,i'll give it to you4 ,instantly ,c began to read fluently and carried the book away from the astonished merchant4 ,on another occasion1 when he was about #e years old1 a woman noticed ,c searching about the house and said to him1 ,are you hungry8 ,his reply was1 ,yes1 ,i'm hungry for a book4 ,apparently ,c has never had an imaginary land4 ,his favorite recreation has always been reading4 ,,school ,,history ,c's school life began at the age of #f years4 ,he did not attend kindergarten4 ,his teachers recognized him as out of the ordinary--but not in any appreciative way4 ,they thought him queer and odd4 ,in spite of perfect work1 he was advanced only a little more than the usual rate1 being placed in ,grade #e;,b at the age of #i years #e months4 ,his obvious misplacement and unhappiness here caused the principal of the school to seek advice regarding ,c's education4 ,after mental tests had revealed the mental level of a superior adult1 ,c was invited to enter the ,special ,opportunity ,class then just organized at ,public ,school #afe1 ,manhattan4 ,here he was associated with twenty-five classmates of his own age whose ,,iq's ranged from #aej to #age1 the median of the group being about #afd ,,iq4 ,in this class ,c gradually became adjusted to the work in such a way that at the end of the school year 7#aibc71 when asked whether he would prefer to stay in the ,special ,opportunity ,class or go on to high school1 he unhesitatingly chose to stay with the special class4 ,it will be more interesting1 he said4 ,he therefore finished elementary school at the age of #ab years1 although at #aj he was judged by his teachers to be fully prepared in knowledge to enter senior high school4 ,there is no doubt that he could have been made ready to enter college at the age of #ab years4 ,when asked at the age of #i what he would be when he grew up1 the following conversation took place3 ,q4 ,what do you think is the most interesting vocation8 ,what would you like to be when you grow up8 ,a4 ,well1 the answer to those two questions is not the same one4 ,q4 ,then tell us first what you think is the most interesting vocation4 ,a4 ,science1 especially astronomy4 ,q4 ,and what vocation would you like to follow when you grow up8 ,a4 ,to be a medical doctor4 ,q4 ,but why not be what is most interesting8 ,a4 ,because a person cannot make much money being an astronomer4 ,i never heard of anyone at the ,lick ,observatory earning fifty thousand dollars a year4 ,q4 ,but do medical doctors earn fifty thousand dollars a year8 ,a4 ,it is possible for one to do it4 ,some of them do4 ,q4 ,do you think being a medical doctor is the most lucrative occupation8 ,a4 ,no4 ,it would be more lucrative to get into ,standard ,oil4 ,q4 ,then why not go into ,standard ,oil8 ,a4 ,because it isn't so interesting as being a medical doctor4 ,q4 ,which is the more useful occupation--medical doctor or astronomer8 ,a4 ,medical doctor4 ,because a man does not care much for a blazing star a million miles away if his wife is sick4 ,anyone cares more for a person two feet away than for a thing a trillion miles away4 ,the ambition to become a medical doctor has persisted for three years and gives an impression of permanency4 #a ,scores of anecdotes could be cited to illustrate the interests and the fine intelligence of this boy4 ,in walking through the halls of the college with him1 on one occasion when he had come for a mental test1 the present writer saw what seemed to be an exhibition of ,chinese costumes in a glass case1 and called ,c's attention to it1 saying1 ,look at this exhibition of ,chinese work4 ,c looked closely at the exhibit for several moments without comment1 and then said1 ,well1 ,i believe it is ,japanese work1 isn't it8 ,he then proceeded to point out certain minute differences which are found between the work of ,japanese and ,chinese and which were later verified by an authority on the subject4 ,when he went with his class to visit a new high school building in the city1 he was missed as the others began to move from one corridor to another4 ,after search1 he was found in the chemical laboratory copying in a notebook the names of all the chemicals in the bottles as they appeared on the labels4 ,in the ,opportunity ,class ,c was appreciated by these children of more than #aej ,,iq as he had never been by the unselected children in the regular classes4 ,they recognized his encyclopedic knowledge and respected it4 ,they eventually elected him to two posts of responsibility among them4 ,these were totally new experiences for ,c4 ,another new experience for the boy was that of being equaled by another child in an intellectual performance4 ,although ,c led the special class in marks1 as would be expected1 he was nevertheless occasionally equaled or surpassed in one or two subjects in the month's record4 ,he learned for the first time how to adjust himself to successful competitors in his own particular field4 ,,traits ,,of ,,character ,a few faulty character traits in ,c have been noted by teachers4 ,one teacher said1 ,he is somewhat of a prig4 ,this impression appears to have been based partly on his lack of desire to play with children of his own age and partly on his use of long words4 ,soon after ,c entered the ,special ,opportunity ,class for gifted children1 another boy equaled him in an assignment and put out his hand to ,c1 saying cordially1 ,let's shake4 ,c had never had the experience of being equaled by a fellow pupil and he turned away1 refusing to shake hands4 ,however1 he has now learned to react most cordially to those who equal him1 though he bitterly dislikes to be equaled or passed in mental work4 ,never in any sense a leader or guide among the unselected children of the school from which he came1 ,c was soon elected to the position of monitor by the children of median ,,iq #afd4 ,they were heard to say3 ,c is just2 ,c can make us behave4 ,one child 7,,iq #afd7 exclaimed in admiration1 ,c knows everything4 ,on the other hand1 ,c arouses some feelings of jealousy and antagonism as well as admiration because he does not hesitate to contradict erroneous statements or to rectify imperfections in what others say or do4 ,he is not very tactful in human relationships4 ,the virtues most frequently ascribed to ,c by those who know him well are reliability1 honesty1 bravery1 and loyalty4 ,he is a stickler for the exact2 no statement is right unless it is exactly right4 ,it is easy to see how this trait might antagonize average children of ,c's age1 and even teachers and others in authority4 ,,mental ,,measurements ,measurements of general intelligence of ,c have been made as follows3 ,,date ,,birthday ,,stanford-,,binet ,,army ,,alpha ,,points ,,age ,,of ,c ,,ma ,,iq ,on ,october #cj1 #aibb1 ,sept4 #bf1 #aibb #i-c #ag-g #aij he scored #adf points ,april #ah1 #aibc #i-aj #ah-f #ahh 7,form #i7 ,,physical ,,measurements ,measurements of ,c's physique have been made as follows3 ,,date ,,wt4 ,,ht4 ,,cranial 7,,lbs47 7,,stand41 ,,in47 ,,cir4 7,,in47 ,sept4 #bf1 #aibc #fj4e #ec4i 4 4 4 ,jan4 #h1 #aibd 4 4 4 4 4 4 #bj4g ,c is one of the few of the bright children studied who does not exceed ,baldwin's norms in physique4 ,however1 at the age of #aa years #g months he was #eg inches tall and weighed #fi4i pounds4 ,his appetite for food has never been very satisfactory1 but in spite of this his general health has been good4 ,,editor',s ,,supplement ,the author's original write-up of ,child ,c terminated at this point1 in #aibc4 ,but during the following #af years she remained in constant contact with ,c1 interviewing him and testing him periodically1 and in many ways sponsoring his secondary1 collegiate1 and professional education4 ,many pages of these records are in her files1 accompanied by collections of ,c's work1 newspaper notices1 correspondence1 photographs1 and data from further interviews with the parents4 ,it seems best to summarize these records chronologically1 and with some brevity1 since it would not be at all feasible to reproduce the material in full4 ,october #ae1 #aibc ,c filled out an ,interest ,blank at ,p4 ,s4 #afe1 ,manhattan1 where he was then in the eighth grade1 at the age of #aj years #d months4 ,he was at this time1 or had been1 class monitor and editor of the class paper4 ,likes and dislikes were expressed1 strongest preference of subjects1 and judgment of what is easiest4 ,liked very much were literature1 reading1 spelling1 mathematics1 ,french1 games and sports1 and geography4 ,most disliked were painting1 water colors1 etc42 penmanship2 composition4 ,easiest and also best liked was ,english literature4 ,preferred kind of reading was encyclopedias1 biography1 current events1 and history4 ,things most like to do were studying1 general reading1 sedentary games1 playing alone4 ,most disliked things to do were using tools or working with apparatus and machinery1 drawing1 dancing1 practicing music4 ,this dislike for manual activities remained with ,c4 ,in later years1 although his drawings in science courses were admirable1 he made an unsatisfactory laboratory assistant when set to using the typewriter or mimeograph1 or to drawing graphs and charts not for his own use4 ,,fig4 #b4 ,a ,,sketch ,,by c4 ,the sketch is a bit of a doodle1 headed by the word ,,gossip1 followed by the first row1 which begins with a pair of shoes set toe-to-toe 7the phrase1 ,,of ,,shoes is set to the right of them71 and a large steam ship 7,,and ,,ships1 to the left74 ,the next row consists of a stick of wax 7labeled ,,wax1 with ,,and ,,sealing ,,wax above it74 ,the last row beings with an open head of cabbage 7,,and ,,cabbages to the right71 and has a crown at the end 7,,and ,,kings1 is set to the left of it74 ,,fig4 #c4 ,a ,,page ,,from ,,one ,,of ,c',s ,,notebooks4 ,this figure shows two biological diagrams of what appears to be a cross-section of the mucus membrane of the esophagus4 ,the following regions of the first are labeled 7in descending order73 tunica mucosa2 tela submucosa2 tunica muscularis2 and tunica adventitia4 ,the following areas of these regions are labeled 7also in descending order73 papilla of tunica propria2 epitheum1 tunica propria2 lamina muscularis mucosae2 ducts of deep oesophageal gland2 blood vesses of submucuous layer2 portion of myenteric plexus1 showing ganglion cells2 smooth muscle2 striated muscle2 and branch of vagus nerve4 ,it conforms with modern diagrams of the esophagus4 ,the second diagram appears to be a cross-section of the intestinal wall1 and is horizontally oriented4 ,the left region is labeled gastric pit1 and the right region1 ,tubule of gland4 ,areas of the left region are labeled ,lumen1 ,mucus 7goblet7 epithelial cells1 and ,tunica propria4 ,the right region has labels of parietal cells1 chief cells and also a separate cross-sectional picture labeled tubule cut transversely4 ,it conforms with modern diagrams of this area of the intestinal wall4 ,february1 #aibd ,at this time the ,special ,opportunity ,class teacher 7,p4 ,s4 #afe1 ,manhattan7 rated ,c1 on a school information blank1 for a long array of physical1 mental1 social1 and moral traits1 using a #g-step rating scale 7#a being the highest scale74 ,ratings of #a were given for-- ,truthfulness ,common sense ,desire to know ,general intelligence ,originality ,ratings of #b or #c were given for-- ,prudence and forethought ,conscientiousness ,self-confidence ,permanency of moods ,will power and persever- ,desire to excel ance ,cheerfulness and optimism ,freedom from vanity and ,leadership egotism ,sensitiveness to approval or ,sympathy and tenderness disapproval ,ratings of below #c 7average or below7 were given for-- ,health ,fondness for large groups ,physical energy ,popularity with other children ,musical appreciation ,generosity and unselfishness ,appreciation of beauty ,mechanical ingenuity ,sense of humor ,september #ae1 #aibd ,at this time the author 7,l4 ,s4 ,h471 who had known ,c for two years1 independently rated him on this same array of traits by the same rating scale technique4 ,ratings of #a were given for-- ,prudence and forethought ,sympathy and tenderness ,self-confidence ,conscientiousness ,will power and persever- ,truthfulness ance ,desire to know ,appreciation of beauty ,originality ,sense of humor ,common sense ,desire to excel ,general intelligence ,ratings of #b or #c were given for-- ,cheerfulness and optimism ,sensitiveness to approval or ,permanency of moods disapproval ,leadership ,freedom from vanity or ego- ,popularity with other chil- tism dren ,mechanical ingenuity ,ratings of below #c 7average or less7 were given for-- ,health ,generosity and unselfishness ,physical energy ,fondness for large groups ,musical appreciation ,the only striking differences between the two sets of ratings are in sense of humor and appreciation of beauty1 in which ,c was rated low by the teacher and high by the author4 ,it appears to the ,editor1 who also has a more or less intimate acquaintance with ,c1 that a composite of these ratings1 made when the child was #aa years old1 gave an adequate portrayal of him as an adult of #bg4 ,april #ah1 #aibe ,at the age of #aa years #aj months1 ,c was again given the ,stanford-,binet examination by ,l4 ,s4 ,h4 ,his score was #ah years #f months1 and he was recorded as being no longer measured by this test4 ,january #af1 #aibf ,at this time ,c was in a private high school1 being then #ab years #g months old4 ,on these data his score in ,army ,alpha 7,form #e7 was #aie points4 ,he was given an early form of the ,,ier ,test for ,superior ,adults1 ,,cavd1 and the score is given as #dc4e 7perhaps this should be #dce74 ,the comment of the scorer in the ,institute of ,educational ,research was3 ,this puts the boy well into the college graduate class4 ,he excels about #ge per cent of the ,yale ,law freshmen4 ,january #bf1 #aibg ,c was now age #ac years #g months1 and he was in the second year of high school4 ,he was given the ,,ier ,scale ,,cavd for ,superior ,adults in two installments1 beginning ,january #cj and finishing ,february #ac4 ,the score was #dce points1 and the comment is1 ,as good as best ,yale ,law ,school freshmen and as high as top #d per cent to #e per cent of ,teachers ,college candidates for ,m4 ,a4 degree4 ,also in ,january1 #aibg1 in the psychological laboratory of ,barnard ,college1 ,c was given by the present ,editor an array of tests for which norms were available for ,barnard freshmen1 from the work of ,f4 ,e4 ,carothers 7,psychological ,examination of ,college ,students74 ,the scores made are in the following tabulation expressed in terms of the ,,pe of the distribution of #ajj ,barnard freshmen4 ,,scores ,,made ,,by ,c ,,at ,,age of #ac ,,years #g ,,months ,,in ,,terms ,,of ,,pe ,,of ,,distribution ,,of #ajj ,,barnard ,,freshmen ,unless otherwise indicated1 the score is plus4 ,,test ,c's ,,score ,word ,building 7,,aeirlp7 #c4bb ,,pe ,completion 7,trabue ,a7 #c4ji ,directions 7,woodworth-,wells7 #b4gh ,word ,recall 7,mulhall7 #b4gb ,analogies 7,woodworth-,wells7 #a4ff ,logical ,recall 7,proverbs7 #j4di ,naming ,opposites 7,woodworth-,wells7 #j4af ,substitution 7,digit-,form7 #j4jg ,color ,naming 7,woodworth-,wells7 -#j4jf ,cancellation 7,digits7 -#j4ae ,word ,recognition 7,mulhall7 -#j4bg ,logical ,recognition 7,proverbs7 -#j4fd ,number ,checking -#j4ha ,verb-,object ,associations -#j4hf ,on those of the above subtests most nearly like the content of present general intelligence examinations1 ,c is clearly above the standard for the freshmen group1 being in fact at the very top of the list1 about #c ,,pe above average4 ,most of the things on which ,c scored 7slightly7 below average are simple and more or less mechanical4 ,this result may perhaps be confirmed by his score in ,stenquist ,assembling ,test1 ,series ,i1 given on the same day4 ,his ,t-score was #eh1 placing him only a little above average 7#fgth centile7 among #ac-year-old children4 ,it will be recalled that ,c was uniformly rated low in mechanical ability and also expressed a lack of interest in working with machinery4 ,on this day ,c was also given the ,rosanoff ,high ,standard ,frequency ,test 7,word ,association7 based on ,class ,a words only4 ,the available standards 7,rosanoff7 and also ,c's score are given in the following3 ,fifth grade1 total value #ae ,first year high school #ajj ,first year college #cge ,master's degree #fjj ,starred men of science #hjj ,c's score #hbc ,august #bc1 #aica ,at the age of #ah years #b months1 ,c was in his third year of college 7,columbia74 ,on this date he was again given ,,ier ,intelligence ,scale ,,cavd1 ,levels ,m1 ,n1 ,o1 ,p1 ,q1 and his score was #ddf points1 which is as high as any score recorded on this scale4 ,december #bf1 #aicb ,at the age of #ai years #f months1 in the fourth year of college1 ,c scored #baj points on ,army ,alpha1 ,form #h1 a score equaled only by the top #a per cent of college seniors4 ,,later ,,school ,,history ,subsequent to the ,special ,opportunity ,class1 in #aibc1 in ,p4 ,s4 #afe1 ,manhattan1 ,c completed his high school work1 first in a private school and later in a public high school 7,george ,washington7 in ,new ,york ,city4 ,during these years he received various academic honors and prizes1 or medals1 for proficiency4 ,in the high school from which he was graduated in #aibi1 he was vice-president of the ,french ,club4 ,he won a city-wide contest in ,french composition1 for which he received a medal4 ,he was elected to ,arista1 the high school honor society1 and ranked third in his class upon graduation1 with an average grade of #id 7the two better were #if and #id4e74 ,in connection with his high school work he was awarded a state scholarship of #aej4 ,upon graduating from high school1 ,c applied for and competed for a ,pulitzer scholarship1 and he was awarded a scholarship as the highest-ranking boy among the competitors4 ,this enabled him to enter ,columbia ,college1 to which he was admitted in #aibi4 ,he was graduated from ,columbia1 taking the premedical course1 in #aicc1 being elected to ,phi ,beta ,kappa4 ,during the previous year he also won a current events contest conducted by a metropolitan newspaper1 with a prize of #aej4 ,c was admitted to the ,new ,york ,university ,medical ,college1 from which he was graduated with the degree of ,m4,d4 ,he is now 7#aidj7 serving his internship in hospitals in ,new ,york ,city4 #a ,c is now1 #ag years after the recording of this comment1 engaged in the profession of medicine4 ,,editor ,,chapter ,,seven ,,child ,d ,child ,d is a boy1 born ,march #i1 #aiaj4 #a ,he was first described by ,terman1 who tested him in #aiag4 ,d1 like ,e1 was brought to the attention of the writer by the principal of the ,horace ,mann ,kindergarten 7,teachers ,college1 ,columbia ,university7 as being a child of remarkable endowment4 ,he was at that time #g years #d months old and had a ,mental ,age of #ac years #g months1 with an ,,iq of #ahd 7,s-,b74 ,,family ,,background ,d is descended from ,russian ,jews in the paternal branch and from ,english ,jews in the maternal branch4 ,father4 ,d's father immigrated to ,america at an early age4 ,he is a high school graduate and was a student of engineering but abandoned these studies in the third year to do newspaper work1 and later entered the advertising business in a large city4 ,his leisure is spent in writing1 and he has published a number of books1 including three novels and a philosophical drama dealing with religion4 ,his first book1 a novel1 was published when he was #ba years old4 ,he was #bh when ,d was born4 ,mother4 ,d's mother went to school for only a few weeks and has been largely self-taught4 ,before marriage she was statistician and registrar in a large philanthropic organization4 ,she has published stories1 reviews1 and poems1 and a book on education4 ,she has always taken part personally in the education of ,d4 ,she was #bf years old when ,d was born4 ,d is an only child4 ,noteworthy relatives4 ,noteworthy relatives beyond the first degree of kinship include the following3 a chief rabbi of ,moscow1 who was exiled for aiding the ,nihilists2 a distinguished lawyer2 a man who by his own efforts became a millionaire2 a concert pianist2 a composer and virtuoso2 a writer2 and a relative decorated for science in ,poland4 ,the maternal great-grandfather was a famous rabbi who compiled and published a ,jewish calendar covering a period of #dad years4 ,this calendar contains1 in regular order1 the exact period of every new moon's appearance1 the sabbaths1 festivals with scriptural portions for each1 and the equinoxes of the solar year according to the prescribed and authorized ,jewish laws and corresponding to dates in the common era4 ,the tabulations have been carefully compiled from various works of ancient rabbinical astronomers1 with annotations in ,hebrew and ,english4 ,this rabbi was also the great-grandfother of the four first cousins of ,d1 whose intelligence quotients have been taken1 and who rated #aef1 #aej1 #acj1 and #abb1 respectively4 ,a second cousin in the maternal line yielded at the age of #f years an ,,iq of #aeg4 ,,preschool ,,history ,d cut his first tooth at #d months of age4 ,he could say words at #h months and talked in sentences at #aa months4 ,in ,november1 #aiaj 7#h months71 he said little boy when his shadow appeared on the wall4 ,d could stand1 holding to chairs1 at #i months of age1 and he walked alone at #aa to #ab months4 ,at the age of #ah months1 while sitting on his mother's lap as she sat before a typewriter1 he learned to read by looking at the letters4 ,the records kept by the mother indicate that he learned to read and count in #aiaa4 ,one such record reads1 ,october #aa1 counts all day long4 ,at #h months of age ,d strung in succession #e yellow and #e red balls and then began on blue1 when the activity was interrupted4 ,in ,march1 #aiab1 he was using words to express relationships1 such as will and shall 7correctly71 but1 and1 my1 mine4 ,at #b years #f months his vocabulary 7incomplete7 was #afij words4 ,d's earliest memory goes back to #b years of age1 when he saw a rat and thought it was a little brownie4 ,an example of the quality of the questions asked by ,d in the first #cf months of life is one he asked in ,october1 #aiaa 7#ai months73 ,has every door two knobs8 ,why8 ,his mother reports3 ,he was always asking unexpected questions4 ,this child was not placed in school at the usual age because he did not fit into the school organization4 ,at the time he should have entered kindergarten ,d could read fluently and could perform complicated arithmetical processes4 ,his intellectual interests were far beyond those of even the highly selected children of a private kindergarten4 ,therefore1 his parents kept him out of school and obtained the companionship of other children for him by sending him to a playground4 ,d was first seen by the present writer ,l4 ,s4 ,h4 while he was attending this playground1 in the year #aiaf-aiag4 ,it is very interesting to note how ,d made social contacts with the other children while pursuing his own interests4 ,for instance1 he published a playground newspaper called ,the ,weekly ,post4 #b ,he composted1 edited1 and typed this paper1 issued at intervals1 and it had a regular playground circulation4 ,,traits ,,of ,,character ,no faulty traits of character have been ascribed to ,d by parents or teachers interviewed4 ,he was rated for character by ,terman's method under ,terman's direction1 with a result of #a4ic from parents' estimates and #a4ij from teachers' estimates 7the median score1 for comparison with average children1 being #c4jj74 ,d is thus rated by parents and teachers alike as well above the average in character4 ,the desirable traits most often mentioned are refusal to lie1 loyalty to standards once adopted1 readiness to admit just criticisms1 unselfishness1 and amiability4 ,,mental ,,measurements ,general intelligence tests of ,d show the following results3 ,,date ,,birthday ,,stanford- ,,army ,,alpha ,,thorndike ,,test ,,age ,,binet ,,points ,,for ,,freshmen ,,of ,d 7,,points7 ,,ma ,,iq ,d ,norm ,d ,norm ,aug41 #aiag1 #g-d #ac-g #ahd ,jan4 #bi1 #aiba #aj-aa ,passed all #ahe -- for ,super4 7,form #e7 ,june1 #aibb #ab-c ,adult4 #ajf #gj-hj ,it is thus seen how greatly ,d suprasses the average child in mental tests4 ,in the five years which have elapsed since ,d's first test there has been no tendencey to become mediocre4 ,at the age of #g years he showed an ,,iq of #ahd2 at the age of #aa years he exceeded by a wide margin on ,army ,alpha the median score for postgraduate students in first-rate universities2 at #ab years he far exceeded the median score of college freshmen on ,thorndike's test for that group4 ,the validity of these scores is consistently borne out by the school history4 ,,physical ,,measurements ,the following measurements1 as of ,may1 #aibb1 were made in the gymnasium of the high school attended by ,d3 #c ,,weight 7,,lbs47 ,,height 7,,in47 ,,ht4-,,wt4 ,,coeff4 ,d ,,norm ,d ,,norm ,d ,,norm #gf4j #hb4h #fd4j #eg4g #a4ai #a4dd ,d's health has always been excellent and no physical defects are known to his parents4 ,he is rated as very stable nervously4 ,his slenderness has been rated as a defect by one examiner2 although he greatly exceeds the norm in height1 he falls below in weight4 ,he is therefore very tall and slender in appearance1 which is characteristic of his father and uncles4 ,,miscellaneous ,,characteristics ,diversions4 ,at the age of #g years ,d's favorite amusements were skating1 ,mechano1 reading1 playing ball1 writing1 tabulating1 solitaire1 chess1 and numerical calculation in all its forms4 ,as development has proceeded1 he has continued most of these recreations1 turning more and more1 however1 to games of intellectual skill4 ,he likes other children and likes to be with them2 he has established relations with them by editing newspapers for them1 teaching them about nature1 and the like4 ,play in the sense of mere purposeless sensorimotor activity has not been enjoyed by him4 ,imaginary land4 ,from the age of about #d years to about the age of #g1 ,d was greatly interested in an imaginary land which he called ,borningtown4 ,he spent many hours peopling ,borningtown1 laying out roads1 drawing maps of its terrain1 composing and recording its language 7,bornish71 and writing its history and literature4 ,he composed a lengthy dictionary--scores of pages--of the ,bornish language4 ,the origin of the words ,borningtown and ,bornish is not known4 ,it seems possible that ,d's imaginary land may have arisen out of the mystery of being born4 ,gift for music4 ,d has had piano lessons for several years1 and he has displayed remarkable ability to deal with the mathematical aspects of music4 ,a sample is shown of his musical composition1 illustrating his understanding of musical symbols and his ability to interpret through this medium4 ,he composed music before he had any instruction in playing musical instruments4 ,he read certain booklets which came with ,ampico and decided to compose4 ,he can compose music which he cannot himself play4 ,,fig #d4 ,,part ,,of ,a ,,composition ,,by ,d ,,at ,,age #h ,,years #g ,,months4 ,the composition is titled ,op4 #a1 ,dog's ,dance1 in ,a ,major1 with a ,tempo #ge1 ,moderato1 in #h_/h time4 ,the composition is marked by #afth-note flourishes1 eighth-note triplets1 each stave occasionally briefly changing from their original clef to opposite clef 7e4g41 from treble to bass clef or vice versa7 and back again1 a dedication 7,dedicaded sic to ',brutus' my aunt's dog171 and the following directions to the pianist1 mirroring the dog's activity1 appearing under the bass clef3 ,asleep 7#ast measure71 ,bell rings 7#bnd measure71 ,gets up and barks 7#crd measure7 scampers 7#dth measure71 scampers back 7#fth measure71 rests 7measures #g #h71 ,hears footsteps 7#ith measure71 trots 7end of #ajth measure71 ,ball is thrown and ,scampers after it 7#aath measure71 ,ball stops 7#acth measure71 ,he foosle-woosles it 7#adth measure71 ,trots back and ,drops it 7#aeth measure71 ,regrets it and ,trots 7#afth measure71 and ,drops it 7#agth measure74 ,there are very few errors in notation for a hand-written composition of this complexity2 the errors that are made appear to be simple oversights1 such as using quarter-notes in a triplet instead of eighth notes1 using a half note when only a quarter beat remains in the measure1 and the like4 ,gifts for form and color in drawing4 ,d's talent for color1 for drawing and design1 has been marked from the time he could wield a pencil4 ,his drawings1 paintings1 and designs would fill a book by themselves4 ,a sample of his original work at the age of #aj years is reproduced4 ,,fig4 #e4 ,,drawn ,,by ,d ,,at ,,age #i ,,years #i ,,months4 ,this is a drawing of a small bird4 ,the beak is somewhat elongated1 the legs straight1 and the eye quite large1 appearing similar to simplified _/ stylized animals on a crest4 ,this conventionalized bird is a fragment from his decoration for the chest in which he kept his scientific work at that time4 ,this oblong chest he painted ,chinese red1 with three figures on the front4 ,these were the conventionalized bird here shown1 a conventionalized nest with eggs1 and a conventionalized butterfly-- all painted in striking combinations of yellow1 blue1 green1 and red4 ,d loves color1 and one of his favorite playthings has been a sample folder of silk buttonhole twists of three hundred shades4 ,between the ages of #h and #i years he would go over and over these1 classifying the colors in various ways1 scoring them for beauty1 and renaming them to satisfy his appreciation of them4 ,some of these names will give an idea of his appreciation3 spotted pale dark darking green darkling green regular green shame blue paper white spoiled pink apron blue soft light pink beau yellow meadow beauty pink visitor's green cat black alien white royalest red feeling blue ,one of his favorite games 7aged #h to #i years7 was to assign a numerical value to each of the #cjj shades and then to list them for highest honors4 ,royalest red nearly always won in these contests4 ,origination of new concepts and new words4 ,from earliest childhood ,d has felt a need for concepts and for words to express them that are not to be found in dictionaries4 ,his occupation in this field he calls wordical work4 ,some examples are recorded by his mother in the following note dated ,december1 #aiaf4 ,was having his dinner and being nearly finished said he didn't care to eat any more1 as he had a pain in his actum pelopthis4 ,he explained that his actum pelopthis1 actum quotatus1 serbalopsis1 and boobalicta are parts of the body where you sometimes have queer feelings2 they don't serve any purpose4 ,he said he also had a place called the boobalunksis1 or source of headaches2 that the hair usually springs out from around the herkadone2 that the perpalensis is the place where socks end1 and the bogalegus is the place where legs and tummy come together4 ,he also named one other part1 the cobaliscus or smerbalooble1 whose function is not explained4 ,the definitions are exactly as he gave them in each instance4 ,on ,february #bc1 #aiag1 his mother wrote3 ,he has not referred to these places since4 ,i do not know where he got the idea for such names1 unless possibly from ,the ,water ,babies4 ,he would probably refer them to some ,bornish source4 ,the invention and classification of the ,bornish language already referred to is another example of ,d's wordical work4 ,he has also invented hundreds of words which have not been included as ,bornish4 ,an example of his hand-writing1 illustrative of words he has invented1 classified1 and recorded for pleasure1 is here shown4 ,,fig #f4 ,,one ,,of ,d',s ,,verbal ,,inventions4 ,the word defined is written as ,ob7b7iquicki7e7us 7the e is circled1 perhaps suggesting a later revision to combine the o and e7 ,the definition which follows is3 ,obiquickeous is a cube sensibilitant word4 ,one of the most important words4 ,it is an adj4 and a noun4 ,invention of games4 ,d has invented many games4 ,to illustrate this aspect of his mental capacity1 there are his designs for three-handed and four-handed checkers4 #d ,d held that these would be better games than two-handed checkers because they are more complicated4 ,a description of the games invented by ,d1 together with his mathematical calculations concerning the chances and probabilities in each1 would fill many pages4 ,calculation and mathematical ingenuity4 ,it is difficult to say that ,d is more gifted in one mental function or group of functions than in others1 for his ability is so extraordinary in all performances that without means of measurement one cannot tell in which he deviates farthest from the average4 ,however1 it is to be observed that the quantitative aspects of experience have always played a very striking role in all his performances4 ,even in dealing with color he turned to mathematics and made his values quantitative4 ,throughout childhood he spent hours playing with numerical relationships4 ,these calculations cover hundreds of pages4 ,there is reproduced here a sample of such work1 chosen at random from scores of like material4 ,there is no doubt in the mind of the present writer ,l4 ,s4 ,h4 that ,d could1 by practice with short-cut methods1 easily become a lightning calculator4 ,by age of #ab years ,d had finished college entrance requirements in arithmetic1 algebra1 geometry1 and trigonometry1 all with high marks4 ,,fig4 #g4 ,playing with numbers1 ,child ,d1 age #g1 to find what number under #ajj has the greatest number of factors1 counts up factors in each and awards highest honors to #if4 ,this figure lists the numbers #hf-ajj1 and shows the numbers factored4 ,the winning numbers he included are #if 7#f factors71 #dh 7#e71 #bd 7#d71 and #af 7#d74 ,it appears that he ranked the winning numbers not according to the actual numbers of the places 7i4e41 #ast1 #bnd1 #crd1 and #dth places71 but rather by the order of the primes representing them1 i4e41 #b is first place1 #c is second place1 #e third1 and #g fourth4 ,additionally1 the notes ,h4 ,c4 ,f and ,l ,c4 ,m4 are to the left of the #if and #af1 respectively1 likely indicating highest common factor and lowest common multiple of the factors of the winning numbers4 ,tendency to classify and diagram4 ,to classify the data of experience has always been one of ,d's chief interests4 ,one such tabulation was of parts of speech in various stories and poems4 #e ,figure #h is a sample taken from many pages of reclassification of birds4 ,the caption1 ,proper ,scientific ,name1 represents the name considered by ,d to be better than those now recognized by ornithologists4 ,his classifications of words1 numbers1 colors1 musical notes1 objects1 and so forth would fill a large volume4 ,he often constructs diagrams to clarify or condense meaning4 ,,fig4 #h4 ,a ,,sample ,,of ,d',s ,,classifications ,,part #a ,,of #b1 ,columns #a-c4 ,classification of birds seen in summer #aiah4 ,classified in ,feb41 #aiai4 ,proper ,scientific ,name is the improved name given by ,d--4 ,found ,name ,genus or1 ,scientific ,here 7,popular7 ,species1 etc4 ,n a m e 99 ,towhee ,species ,erythopthalmus ,x ,wh4-eyed towhee ,sub-,species ,e4 ,alleni ,x ,green-tailed ,genus ,oreospiza ,x ,blue ,grosbeak ,species ,caerulea 99 ,indigo ,bunting ,cyanea ,x ,painted ,ciris ,x ,lark ,bunting ,calamospiza ,melanocorys 99 ,barn ,swallow ,erythrogastra 99 ,tree ,genus ,iridoprocne 99 ,red-eyed ,vireo ,species ,olivacea ,wood ,warblers ,family ,mniotiltidae 99 ,black ,white ,warbler ,species ,varia 99 ,yellow ,warbler ,species ,astiva 99 ,sh4-,billed ,marsh ,wren ,genus ,cistothorus 99 ,red-br4 ,nuthatch ,species ,canadensis ,,fig4 #h4 ,a ,,sample ,,of ,d',s ,,classifications ,,part #b ,,of #b1 ,columns #a-d 7,scientific name repeated74 ,scientific ,name ,proper ,scientific name ,equal ,erythopthalmus ,pipilo ,eryth4 99998 ,e4 ,alleni ,p4 ,leucophtalmus 999999 ,oreospiza ,pipilo 99998 ,caerulea ,cyanea 999999 ,cyanea ,caerulea 999999 ,ciris ,pictus 99998 ,calamospiza ,melanocorys ,melanospiza ,leucoptera 999999 ,erythrogastra ,leucurus 999999 ,iridoprocne ,hirundo 999999 ,olivacea ,erythropthalmus ,yes ,mniotiltidae ,dendroicidae 99998 ,varia ,striata 99998 ,astiva ,xantho or ,auro ,yes ,cistothorus ,telmatotytes 8 ,canadensis ,borealis ,yes no previous columns ,erythrogastra 99998 ,interest in science4 ,by the age of #aj years ,d's chief interest had come to center in science and it continued to center there4 ,his classifications of moths1 birds1 and the like and his observations of their life cycles are monumental4 ,there are volumes of these recorded observations as in ,figure #i4 ,,fig #i4 ,,one ,,of ,d',s ,,records ,,of ,,observations4 ,,life ,,cycles ,,of ,,birds4 ,here1 the species of birds are listed in a column1 with months of the year listed and spread out horizontally1 with the first1 #aeth1 and last days of the month underneath each month1 and sometimes the #ajth and #bjth also4 ,the species include3 ,holbcel's ,grebe2 ,horned ,grebe2 ,pied ,billed ,grebe2 ,loon2 ,loon ,black-,thr42 ,loon ,red-,thr42 ,puffin2 ,black ,guillenot2 ,murre2 ,murre ,brunnich's2 ,razor-billed ,ank2 ,dovekie2 ,skua2 ,jaeger ,pomarine2 ,jaeger1 ,parasitic2 ,jaeger1 ,long-tailed2 ,gull1 ,ivory2 ,gull1 ,kittawake2 ,gull1 ,glaucous2 ,gull1 ,iceland2 ,gull1 ,kumliens2 ,gull1 ,gr4 ,bl4-,backed2 ,gull1 ,herring2 ,gull1 ,ring-,bileed2 ,gull1 ,laughing2 ,gull1 ,bonaparte's2 ,gull1 ,little-,casual2 ,gull1 ,sabine2 ,tern1 ,gull-,billed2 ,tern1 ,caspian2 ,tern1 ,royal2 ,tern1 ,cabot's2 ,tern1 ,trudeau's2 ,tern1 ,forster's2 ,tern1 ,common2 ,tern1 ,arctic2 ,tern1 ,roseate2 ,tern1 ,least2 ,tern1 ,sooty2 ,tern1 ,black4 ,each bird has a line or lines to the right of its name1 corresponding to the times of year4 ,figures #aj and #aa illustrate his interest in physical science4 ,they have been taken from his notebooks and state problems which occurred spontaneously to him and for which he tried experimentally to find solutions4 ,during a series of experiments to determine the path of a tack1 it is reported that the house was full of tacks which had been used in attempting solutions4 ,,fig4 #aj4 ,,copy ,,of ,,work ,,done ,,by ,d ,,for ,,fun1 ,,march #bh1 #aiba1 ,,aged #aa ,,years #a ,,month4 of the problem3 ,determine the appearance of a finger1 ,f1 to two eyes1 ,e,r and ,e,l1 focussed on a pole ,r at point ,p,s along lines ,e,r,r and ,e,l,r4 ,diagram of solution4 ,thru sic ,r pass plane ,,pl _/_/ to the plane of the eyes4 ,draw a line from ,e,l 7which is nearer to ,f than ,e,r7 to ,f1 cutting ,,pl in ,o4 ,draw ,e,r,o2 thru ,f pass a plane _/_/ to ,,pl and crossing ,e,r,o in ,a4 ,thru ,a pass ,f' _/_/ ,f4 ,f' and ,f are the positions of ,f to ,e,r and ,e,l4 ,d4 ,so it can be shown that #b other eyes would see ,f in positions ,f and ,f''4 4'4 #d eyes focused on ,r see ,f as ,f1 ,f1 ,f' and ,f''4 ,d4 ,,fig4 #aa4 ,,the ,,path ,,of ,a ,,tack4 ,,work ,,done ,,by ,d ,,at ,,age #aa ,,years4 ,discussion of the determination of the course of a freed tack1 ,t1 connected with other tacks by rubber bands4 ,a4 ,fig4 #a4 ,diagram including points ,t1 ,t'2 band ,b2 and ray ,l4 ,when connected to a tack ,t' by band ,b4 ,draw ,t1 ,t'1 or ,l4 ,t freed will travel along ,l1 answer4 ,b4 ,fig4 #b4 ,diagram including points ,t1 ,t'1 ,t''2 bands ,b1 ,b'2 and ray ,l4 ,when connected to #b tacks ,t' and ,t'' by #b bands ,b and ,b'4 ,answer3 ,along ,l1 the bisector of ,t' and ,,ttt''4 ,c4 ,fig4 #c4 ,diagram including points ,t1 ,t'1 ,t''2 band ,b2 and ray ,l4 ,the same as ,b1 but only #a band ,b4 ,answer same as to ,b4 ,d4 ,fig4 #d4 ,diagram including points ,t1 ,t#a1 ,t'1 ,t''2 and ray ,l4 ,when connected to #c tacks by any number of bands4 ,draw ,t',t#a1 and treat as in ,b and ,c4 ,d4 ,,school ,,history ,in the ,september following his ninth birthday ,d entered upon formal instruction in the junior high school4 ,in the autumn following his tenth birthday he entered senior high school1 from which he was graduated at the age of #ab years1 with a scholastic record which won for him two scholarships4 ,he was admitted to a large ,eastern college at the age of #ab years #f months 7#aibb-aibc71 and made a superior record throughout the course4 ,it was very interesting to see that ,d continued to discover means of obtaining social contacts in spite of the great difficulties due to his extreme youth and his intellectual deviation4 ,thus it is not easy to plan how a #ab-year-old boy might successfully participate in college athletics when the median age of college freshmen is over #ah years1 but this problem was not too difficult for ,d4 ,he presented himself to compete for the post of coxswain on the freshmen crew where1 other things1 being equal1 light weight is an advantage4 ,he was graduated from college1 with ,phi ,beta ,kappa honors1 in #aibf1 at the age of #af years #b months4 ,at that time he was ambitious for a career in science4 ,,editor',s ,,supplement ,d undertook graduate work1 with distinction1 in the field of chemistry4 ,he became an industrial chemist with an important position in the research phases of the motion-picture industry4 ,word has been received of his death in ,september1 #aich4 #a ,this child was described in some detail in ,chapter ,,ix of ,gifted ,children1 #aibf1 and the earlier part of the present account is taken from that chapter4 ,in the later part additional items are given1 taken from the author's #aibd manuscript1 and there are a few editorial additions4 #b ,a facsimile of a page from this paper is reproduced on page #bdd of the author's book1 ,gifted ,children 7,the ,macmillan ,company1 ,new ,york2 #aibf74 #c ,a note shows that on ,march #af1 #aibf1 at just #af years of age1 ,d's height was #ga4e inches and his weight #aae pounds1 stripped4 ,,editor #d ,see ,gifted ,children1 pages #bdf-bdg4 #e ,ibid41 page #bde4 ,,chapter ,,eight ,,child ,e ,child ,e when first seen was a boy #h years #d months of age4 ,he was born ,june #ag1 #aijh1 and the first psychological measurements were made ,november #d1 #aiaf4 ,the circumstances that led to acquaintance with him were as follows3 ,a child of exceptional intelligence was desired for demonstration before a class at ,teachers ,college1 ,columbia ,university1 engaged in the study of the psychology and treatment of exceptional children4 #a ,e was suggested because of his remarkable school record4 ,the consent of the parents was secured and the psychological examination was made before a class of about thirty students4 ,this was not1 of course1 the ideal circumstance under which to perform a mental test for scientific record4 ,the presumption would be that the audience would tend to reduce the child's performance1 so that whatever error there might be from this source would be in the direction of making the child appear less exceptional than he really was4 ,of course no one knew beforehand that such a phenomenal record was about to be made2 for had such an unusual result been expected this child would have been kept for examination under more favorable laboratory conditions4 #b ,for an account of this testing1 see under ,mental measurements1 this chapter4 ,,family ,,background ,little or nothing is known of ,e's paternal relatives4 ,his father was separated from them before age of recollection4 ,of ,e's maternal ancestry fairly complete genealogical records are available4 #c ,five persons bearing the surname of the mother settled in ,new ,england before #afej4 ,these were probably all related to each other4 ,the individual who was ,e's direct ancestor first appeared in ,new ,england in #afci and settled at ,cambridge1 ,massachusetts4 ,this family attained great distinction in the six generations recorded in the ,new ,england genealogy4 ,a son of the first ancestor in ,america was a royal councilor and the greatest merchant of his day in ,new ,england4 ,a grandson was royal governor of ,massachusetts1 and later of ,new ,jersey2 he was also a patron of learning4 ,a great-grandson was chief justice and lieutenant governor of ,nova ,scotia4 ,a great-great-grandson was a royal councilor of ,nova ,scotia2 some of his children settled again in ,england1 of whom a son was a distinguished naval officer1 attaining the rank of rear admiral in the ,british navy4 ,these genealogical records1 and other records of ,new ,england families which intermarried with this family1 have not been brought up to date4 ,the maternal surname appears first about #aagf in the records of ,england1 and was apparently ,norman-,french in origin4 ,the remote male ancestor #d from whom the mother of ,e derives the middle part of her maiden name was born in ,providence1 ,rhode ,island1 ,march #aa1 #agec1 a descendant of early colonial settlers in ,america4 ,he was graduated from ,rhode ,island ,college 7now ,brown ,university7 in #aggc and later took a medical degree at the ,university of ,pennsylvania4 ,in #aghc he was appointed ,professor of ,materia ,medica and ,botany at ,brown4 ,in #ahai he was elected a delegate from the ,rhode ,island ,medical ,society1 of which he was vice president1 to the convention which formulated the ,national ,pharmacopoeia4 ,he took an active part in the organization and proceedings of the ,rhode ,island ,society for the ,encouragement of ,domestic ,industry4 ,in #ahbd1 with his son1 ,william1 he published ,the ,farmer's ,guide1 a comprehensive work on husbandry and gardening4 ,he participated in the ,proceedings of the ,american ,academy of ,arts and ,sciences1 and delivered many lectures on botany4 ,he died at the age of #ha years1 leaving among descendants a large proportion of persons in the learned professions4 ,father4 ,e's father1 while still a college undergraduate1 produced a ,latin play which was performed in a ,boston theater4 ,since graduation from college he has maintained a keen interest in educational matters4 ,he organized a special library of insurance in ,boston which is now used as a reference library all over the world4 ,he is at present #aici engaged in business2 has written several books2 is a university lecturer on insurance2 has served on many important city commissions4 ,unusual mental endowment is clearly indicated by the fact that he rose entirely by his own direction and effort to a post of honor in an intricate field of knowledge4 ,he was #de years old when ,e was born4 ,mother4 ,e's mother was a qualified physician and a specialist in bacteriology4 ,for some years she held a position as bacteriologist in one of the municipal departments of ,new ,york ,city4 ,after the birth of her son she devoted a great deal of attention to his education and welfare1 keeping records of his development1 supervising his health1 and acting as his teacher4 ,she often accompanied him to school1 sometimes registered for courses along with him1 or herself took courses calculated to make her more useful in his training4 ,she gave an exceptional amount of attention to his formal educational program and cultivated with him numerous extracurricular intellectual activities4 ,during ,e's college career the two were often seen together on the campus4 ,,early ,,history #e ,e was his parents' fourth child1 three girls having been born before him1 all having died4 ,birth was difficult4 ,he was bottle fed4 ,his parents were both in middle life at the time of his birth4 ,he cut his first tooth at #h months--a lateral incisor4 ,he walked at thirteen months4 ,up to the age of #b years ,e did not say a word4 ,he then began to talk1 and before he was #c years old was able to read such books as ,peter ,rabbit4 ,conversation with him was carried on in ,german1 ,french1 ,italian1 and ,english equally4 ,when he did begin to talk he could say in these four languages all the words he knew4 ,health4 ,e's health has been exceptionally good from infancy4 ,he has had no disorders or diseases except measles1 and an occasional attack of indigestion4 ,he is exceptionally free from colds4 ,physical measurements4 ,the figures given below as averages are for a boy of #h years #d months who is the same height as ,e4 ,the average height for a boy of this age is #di4g inches4 ,the measurements here given for ,e were transcribed from the gymnasium records of the school he was then attending4 ,,child ,e ,,average ,,for ,,measurements ,,october ,,age #h ,,years #d ,,months #cj1 #aiaf ,,at ,,height #ed4c ,,inches ,weight #hi4c pounds #gj4e pounds ,height #ed4c inches #ed4c pounds ,girth of chest #ca4h inches #be4f inches ,girth of chest1 expanded #cb4d inches #bf4h inches ,lung capacity #ajj cubic inches #aab4j cubic inches ,strength1 right forearm #cj4i pounds #ci4g pounds ,strength1 left forearm #bb4j pounds #cg4e pounds ,it will thus be seen that ,e is considerably larger than the average boy of his age1 though of less lung capacity and forearm strength4 ,other characteristics4 ,e has clear1 well-molded features4 ,he does not like physical exercise of any kind but has had special attention along this line1 such as lessons in swimming1 dancing1 and horseback riding4 ,he sleeps eleven hours and goes to sleep immediately upon going to bed4 ,,school ,,achievement ,e went to kindergarten from the age of #c years to the age of #e years4 ,from #e to #f he was out of school on account of school organization 7he could not be accepted in the first grade74 ,from #f to #g years he attended an open-air1 ungraded school and did the work of the second to the fourth grades4 ,from #g to #h years he was in the fourth grade in regular school classes1 and at the time of first observation by the writer1 when he was #h years old1 he was in the sixth grade4 ,he was thus three full years accelerated in school grading1 according to age-grade norms1 but was still three years retarded in school according to his ,mental ,age4 7,terman makes special note of the fact that superior children are almost invariably retarded in school grading according to ,mental ,age47 ,his mother stated that under private tutors ,e had at this time covered the work of the seventh and nearly all the work of the eighth grade4 ,his school standing1 on his last report preceding this initial account1 was as follows 7the highest attainable rating is #a1 the lowest1 #d73 ,courtesy #a ,composition #b ,penmanship #c ,promptness #a ,grammar or ,industrial ,arts #a #g ,system #a ,language #b ,fine ,arts #d #h ,spelling #b ,mathematics #c #f ,music #b ,reading or ,geography #a ,physical ,educa- ,literature #a ,history #a tion #d ,science #a ,in addition to his regular school work ,e1 by the time he was #h years old1 had covered the following special work in language and mathematics1 either with a tutor or with his mother3 ,mathematics3 ,algebra as far as equations2 geometry4 ,latin3 ,partial knowledge of the four declensions 7he has been taught by the direct1 informal method1 and reads easy ,latin74 ,greek3 ,worked out the alphabet for himself from an astronomical chart1 between the ages of #e and #f years4 ,french3 ,equal to about two years in the ordinary school4 ,german3 ,ordinary conversation4 ,spanish3 ,attended class with his mother--reads and understands4 ,italian3 ,reading knowledge and simple conversation4 ,portugese3 ,asked his mother to take this course at the ,columbia ,summer ,school because he could not be registered himself4 ,hebrew3 ,a beginning4 ,anglo-,saxon3 ,a beginning4 ,astronomy3 ,he has worked out all the constellations from ,mac,cready1 and displays a very great interest in this subject4 ,one evening this winter he noticed a new planet near the ,twins4 ,he said it was ,saturn but his mother thought it was ,mars4 ,e went home1 worked the position out from the chart and found it to be ,saturn4 ,miscellaneous3 ,he has a great interest in nature1 wherever found1 and is already able to use ,apgar intelligently4 ,his writing is not equal to his other accomplishments4 ,he is very slow at it and for this reason dictates most of his home work to a stenographer4 ,history is his chief and absorbing interest among school subjects4 ,,mental ,,measurements ,at the time ,e was first tested1 at ,teachers ,college1 ,columbia ,university1 in ,november1 #aiaf1 the ,stanford revision of the ,binet-,simon measuring scale was used for the determination of the child's mental level4 ,general intelligence4 ,the examiner ,l4 ,s4 ,h4 began with the ball-in-the-field test4 ,e responded at once with the superior solution1 thus giving a preliminary cue to the quality of his mind1 and the examiner proceeded immediately with the other tests at the #ab-year level of intellect4 ,e passed all the #ab-year tests with facility and ease1 giving responses of excellent quality4 ,from the #ab-year level the examiner then worked forward in all the higher levels through ,superior ,adult4 ,this is1 of course1 a long examination1 and in view of the actual age of the child it was deemed best to give the tests at two separate sittings1 when it was seen that he would cover the whole upper range of the scale4 ,the examination was therefore accomplished in two sittings of about fifty minutes each4 ,the final record of ,e shows that he measures on the scale as follows3 ,levels #a year to #g years ,,years ,,months #h #i #aj #ab #ab #ad #af ,adult #ae ,superior ,adult #ab --- ---- ,total #ae #g ,since his actual age is #h years #d months and his ,mental ,age is #ae years #g months1 his ,,iq is #ahg4 ,on the curve of the distribution of intellect he stands eleven times the probable error 7#aa ,,pe7 removed from the norm1 a position occupied by but one child in more than a million4 ,he stands as far removed from the average in the direction of superiority as an idiot stands removed from the average in the direction of inferiority4 ,an analysis of his performance shows that ,e had extraordinary appreciation of the exact use of words and of the shades of difference between words4 ,he gave correct meanings for #fd words out of the #ajj in the vocabulary test4 ,his vocabulary thus includes #aa1ebj words4 ,the score of the ,average ,adult is #fe words4 ,thus he just missed scoring on this ,average ,adult test4 ,samples of his definitions are as follows3 scorch--is what happens to a thing when exposed to great heat4 quake--is a kind of movement1 unintended4 ramble--is a walk taken for pleasure4 nerve--is a thing you feel by--for instance1 cold4 majesty--is a word used to address a king--your majesty4 ,mars--is a planet4 peculiarity--is something you do that nobody else does4 mosaic--is a picture made by many small pieces of marble4 bewail--is to be extremely sorrowful4 tolerate--is to allow others to do what you don't like yourself4 lotus--is a kind of flower4 harpy--is a kind of half-bird1 half-woman1 referred to in ,virgil4 fen--is a kind of marsh4 laity--is not clergy4 ambergris--it comes from a whale4 straw--the stalk of a cereal plant4 lecture--someone giving a very long talk about something to an audience4 ,e also has a prodigious ability for comprehending and formulating abstract ideas1 and for working with symbols4 ,he gave the differences between the abstract concepts under ,average ,adult as follows3 a--laziness and idleness4 ,laziness is that you don't want to work2 idleness is that you can't1 for a while4 b--evolution and revolution4 ,evolution is making things from the beginning2 revolution is changing them4 c--poverty and misery4 ,poverty is when you don't have anything2 misery is how you feel when someone insults you4 d--character and reputation4 ,character is what he really is2 reputation is what they think he is4 ,e succeeded in reversing the clock hands three times without any error in less than a minute for each trial4 ,he was able to reproduce the thought from the selection beginning ,many opinions have been given about the value of life as well as a ,superior ,adult4 ,he solved the three mental arithmetic problems under ,,xiv1 #e1 in less than a minute each1 absolutely without error4 ,these performances serve to illustrate his precocious power over symbols and over abstractions4 ,his attention1 concentration1 and capacity for sustained effort are illustrated by the fact that he was able to repeat five digits backwards twice out of three trials absolutely without error1 before a class of thirty adults4 ,his memory span for digits repeated forward is at least #h4 7,he was not tried with more than #h digits47 ,during the examination he showed neither embarrassment nor any tendency to show off4 ,he was alert1 interested1 and gave his attention strictly to the business in hand4 ,he always knew when he had failed on a test1 and gave up with great reluctance4 ,for example1 he was unable to solve the problems under ,,xviii1 #f1 in the time allotted2 but he carried these data away in his head1 and held to them tenaciously till he had solved the problems4 ,in several instances after he had given his reply he recast it in better form4 ,in short1 he exemplified in remarkable degree all the characteristics which ,binet finally chose as symptomatic of intellectual power2 i4e41 7#a7 the ability to make and maintain a given direction2 7#b7 the capacity to make adaptations for the purpose of obtaining a desired end2 and 7#c7 the power of auto-criticism4 ,special tests4 ,following the procedure described by ,seashore1 and using the set of forks recommended by him1 ,e was tested for pitch discrimination1 being given seven trials with the whole series of forks4 ,his record was as follows1 meaning a correct answer and -- meaning a false one4 ,,vibration ,,differences #cj #bc #ag #ab #h #e #c #b #a 4#e ,series #a #b -- -- -- #c -- -- -- #d -- -- -- #e -- -- #f -- -- #g -- -- ,his threshold for pitch discrimination would thus seem to be not greater than five vibrations1 and would probably be found to be as low as three if a more complete test were possible4 ,this is a very good record1 according to ,seashore's standards4 ,e gave free associations to the first #ej words of the ,kent-,rosanoff list of words1 both stimulus and response words being oral4 ,the stimulus words and responses follow3 ,,stimulus ,,response ,,stimulus ,,response ,,stimulus ,,response table dinner smooth surface needle slim dark night command army red color music soft chair cushion sleep fast sickness fatal sweet sugar anger sick man tall whistle blew carpet bagger deep ocean woman lady girl pretty soft couch cold coal high mountain eating dinner slow train working people mountain snowcapped wish ,i sour lemon house brick river ,hudson earth big black dog white color trouble great mutton beef beautiful dress soldier brave comfort your window glass cabbage green hand dirty rough surface hard surface short man citizen ,u4 ,s4 eagle swift fruit orange foot bare stomach ache butterfly moth spider black ,at once after giving some of these responses ,e explained why he had given them4 ,thus he explained that carpet bagger had to do with ,civil ,war history4 ,after giving beef in response to mutton he smiled and said1 ,that's a joke1 isn't it8 ,when asked why he thought it a joke he replied that he thought very few people would give that answer4 ,after the test he was told that #ig people in a thousand gave beef in response to mutton1 and he at once said1 ,ten per cent1 that's not so very many4 ,it was impossible1 for lack of time1 to give ,e the complete list of #ajj words usually given in this test4 ,using the #ej as a basis for calculation1 #gh per cent of the responses are common responses in the ,kent-,rosanoff sense of the word1 a number of common responses which children do not usually show until after the age of #aj years4 ,his median of community 7a measure not yet standardized for age levels7 is #a4d per cent4 ,e was given the ,pintner form of the ,knox ,cube ,test1 and achieved #aa of the #ab lines arranged by ,pintner4 ,the average record for the #af-year-old is only #h lines1 and this is the highest level for which this test is yet standardized4 ,the usual tapping test was given1 tapping continuously with the right hand1 with the stylus1 for one minute4 ,the record was #bci taps only1 which is lower than the average #h-year-old record4 ,given three minutes in which to make up words out of the letters ,a-,e-,i-,r-,l-,p1 ,e made the following3 a1 rip1 pie1 lie1 ale4 ,he was given thirty minutes in which to put together the pieces in the ,stenquist ,construction ,box ,,ii1 and was not able to put any of the pieces together4 ,he began at one end of the box1 examined each set of materials in turn1 tried to put them together in an indiscriminate way1 put them back1 and went on to the next set of materials4 ,he remarked1 ,i don't seem to be able to put any of them together4 ,it seems that all ,i can do is found out what each of the things is for4 ,he recognized that various sets of pieces were a mousetrap1 a lock1 a bell1 etc41 but made a zero score from the point of view of construction4 ,at the end of twenty minutes he gave up and turned away from the materials4 ,it is interesting to compare the child's record in construction tests and his comments regarding these tests1 with his school record in industrial arts and fine arts4 ,e receives the best possible rating in industrial arts because he has keen insight into processes and can explain how to construct a mechanism or perform an operation clearly and minutely1 though he is unable to carry out his own instructions4 ,for instance1 he can tell exactly how to make a boat1 but he cannot make the boat himself4 ,there is thus an interesting distinction here between constructive ability and manual dexterity4 ,similarly1 in fine arts ,e has many ideas for decorative schemes1 but he is unable to execute these ideas with his hands4 ,,social ,,habits1 ,,tastes1 ,,etc4 ,e does not care to play1 and would never do so unless forced4 ,he is very impersonal and agreeable in his attitude toward other children4 ,his chief diversion is reading and his favorite book at the age of #h is ,ivanhoe4 ,he has no hobbies at this age4 ,in the spring of #aiaf1 after careful and thoughtful preparation1 he was confirmed in the ,episcopal church4 ,his desire is to be a clergyman and to become a missionary4 ,when asked what he would consider the most fun in life1 he replied ,to have statistics of my imaginary country4 ,this country is on ,venus4 ,it is inhabited by people and has a navy like ours4 ,e does not volunteer much information about his interests4 ,all these items had to be elicited by questioning4 ,,later ,,mental ,,measurements ,in the spring of #aibj ,e took the ,thorndike ,mental ,tests for ,freshmen1 for entrance to ,columbia ,college4 ,an official letter from the ,director of ,admissions at ,columbia ,college states that1 ,in the ,freshmen ,tests he was number two1 out of #dhc entering ,columbia ,college4 ,he was at this time #ab years #j months old2 the median age of his competitors was about #ah years4 ,,on ,september #bi1 #aiba1 ,e was examined by means of the ,army ,alpha 7,forms #e and #f1 ,examiner ,l4 ,s4 ,h47 for the purpose of recording his mental development4 ,on ,alpha1 ,form #e1 he made a score of #aid points1 finishing several of the tests1 without error1 before the time limit4 ,on ,form #f1 which was taken subsequently1 on the same afternoon1 his score was #bja points2 and with these1 too1 some of the tests were finished in about two thirds of the time allowed1 without error4 ,as the method of scoring ,alpha does not provide for a time bonus1 this cannot be taken into account in the formal score4 ,in ,april1 #aibg1 at the request of the writer ,l4 ,s4 ,h4 ,e took the tests of the ,,ier ,intelligence ,scale ,,cavd1 ,levels ,m-,q4 ,this series of tests is described in a recent publication4 #i ,briefly it may be said here that this instrument was chosen for the purpose in hand because it is the most thorough method available for approximating in quantitative terms the intelligence of the best among college graduates4 ,e's score on this test1 at ,levels ,m-,q1 was #dda points4 ,the score of the average adult is not yet known1 but the median score of college graduates in professional schools of first-rate standards is #dae points1 with an upper quartile at #dba points4 ,the best scores yet made by college graduates hover about #ddj points4 #aj ,thus ,e rates plus #d ,,pe in relation to college graduates in first-rate professional schools1 ranking with the best minds revealed in any group so far tested4 ,these groups may each be expected to include some of the best intellects existing4 ,the comparative groups are1 of course1 older than ,e4 ,some of them are composed of persons over #cj years of age on the average1 while all are past #bj years4 ,e was #ah years #i months of age on the date when he took the test1 in comparison with these groups4 ,the number of years lived in an intellectual environment1 other things being equal1 probably affects results to some extent in favor of those who have lived longer4 ,a score of #dda points on the ,,ier ,scale corresponds to a score of about #aaf points on the more widely known ,thorndike ,tests for ,college ,freshmen4 ,the top one per cent of college graduates make a score of #ajh or better on the latter test4 ,e1 therefore1 surely rates at least in the top one quarter of one per cent of college graduates4 ,e1 it will be noted1 was at this time at the average age of college freshmen4 ,at the age of #h years ,e rated plus #aa ,,pe in general intelligence 7by ,stanford-,binet7 as compared with the generality of #h-year-olds4 ,it seems likely that in these later measurements he rated at about the same status1 in relation to the generality of #ah-year-olds1 since his status is plus #d4c ,,pe in relation to highly selected groups of college graduates4 ,e1 at the age of #ah1 was probably mature--or nearly mature-- intellectually4 ,however1 in view of recent findings in regard to the growth of intelligence among pupils in high schools1 we cannot be sure that at this age he has quite reached the maximum of possible accretions of power from inner growth4 #aa ,,later ,,physical ,,measurements ,on ,september #bi1 #aiba1 ,e's physical measurements were as follows3 ,standing height #fd4b inches ,sitting height #ca4g inches ,weight 7summer clothing7 #aff pounds ,at this time his health continued to be excellent2 in fact1 he has never had a serious illness of any kind4 ,e was measured again in ,october1 #aibf4 ,by this time he had probably achieved his maximum stature4 ,his age was then #ah years #d months4 ,he was still in excellent health1 the only illness in the intervening five years being a light case of scarlet fever4 ,at this time the measurements were3 ,standing height #f feet #a inch ,weight 7stripped7 #aid4ge pounds ,,later ,,scholastic ,,records ,in the spring of #aiag ,e finished the sixth1 seventh1 eighth1 and ninth grade work at the ,horace ,mann ,school1 ,new ,york ,city4 ,he was then just #i years old4 ,thereafter he attended the ,friends ,seminary1 ,new ,york ,city1 and was graduated from the high school there in the spring of #aibj1 with an excellent record and excess credits1 at the age of #aa years #aj months4 ,by this time ,e had also passed the comprehensive examinations of the ,college ,entrance ,board for ,harvard ,college4 ,the official communication from ,harvard authorities1 making statement to this effect1 has been seen by the writer4 ,e's maternal ancestors had attended ,harvard 7one of them having graduated from there at the age of #ah years1 according to records71 but ,e expressed a desire to attend ,columbia and received permission to take the mental tests with the applicants of #aibj4 ,he was admitted to ,columbia ,college with the freshmen of #aibj1 with #ad points of advance credit toward a ,b4,a4 degree4 ,there is at hand an official statement of ,e's academic status on ,june #a1 #aiba1 at the age of not quite #ac years4 ,he had then #df points of academic credit toward a ,b4,a4 degree in ,columbia ,college4 ,during his freshman year he made #cb points1 maintaining consistently a grade of ,b1 except in two subjects4 ,in physical education his rating was ,c1 and in contemporary civilization he made ,a the first semester4 #ab ,e attended the summer session of #aiba at ,columbia1 making five credit points1 all ,a grade1 and in ,september1 #aiba1 was a sophomore with many points of credit in advance of minimum sophomore status4 ,in addition to having passed the comprehensive examinations for college entrance1 he had passed the examinations in trigonometry1 solid geometry1 chemistry1 and physics1 and was at this time #ac years #c months of age4 ,,extracurricular ,,activites ,e was of course a conspicuous freshman because of his extreme youth1 and he was hazed by the sophomores for refusing to wear a prescribed necktie4 ,one of the ,new ,york newspapers commented on his conduct under hazing as follows3 ,he has demonstrated that he is nevertheless a regular fellow4 ,he did it first by bringing about a conflict in which he himself was the much buffeted prize of battle1 and then by glorying in his bruises instead of making them the basis of a grievance4 ,he is a good sport as well as a good scholar1 and being both he ought to go far4 ,e also participated in the class play1 given in #aiba1 humorously consenting to impersonate himself4 ,manual work had no more charm for him at this date than it had when he was #h years old4 ,that he can work with his hands and with materials when motivated is suggested by an incident connected with the ,liberty ,bond drive4 ,his teacher relates that ,e wanted to pay for his own bond2 so he made jelly1 working at it until very good jelly was made1 and sold it for the purpose specified4 ,in recent years ,e has developed a keen interest in detective stories4 ,,teachers' ,,comments ,comments from ,e's teachers during the last five years up to this date #aiba are indicative of their estimates3 ,the regular course of study has been so easy that he has1 in several subjects1 notably ,english and history1 accomplished a great amount of voluntary work outside the course4 ,an excellent mixer with other students4 ,his weekly visits have been a pleasure and anticipation1 and his ability to understand without ,english the spoken ,latin and the authors as ,i have read them aloud to him has been extraordinary4 ,has done very remarkable work in science1 particularly in theory4 ,i predict for him a great scholastic record in college4 ,i consider it a privilege to have had something to do with teaching him4 ,possesses a power in ,latin that few persons ten years his senior can boast4 ,has shown devotion to the best interests of the school4 ,,summary ,,up ,,to #aiba ,in the five years which have elapsed since ,e was first tested mentally he has shown no tendency to become mediocre4 ,his gifts have not grown less2 he maintains his superior status in mental tests4 ,as for achievement1 he has passed during this interval from the sixth grade of the elementary school1 half through the second year of college4 ,average children1 the country over1 born when this child was born1 and measuring #ajj ,,iq when he measured #ahg ,,iq1 are now in the seventh grade of the elementary schools4 ,e still wishes to be a clergyman and to go abroad as a missionary4 ,to this end he interests himself especially in history1 the languages1 and anthropology4 ,it is an interesting theoretical question as to how far human intelligence may vary from the norm in the direction of superiority4 ,the case of this child has been placed on record largely because it seems probable that such cases represent very nearly the extreme possible limit of variation in the human species as it now exists4 ,at #h years of age his ,,iq stood at plus #aa ,,pe 7#a ,,pe being1 according to ,terman1 equal to #h ,,iq #ac 74 ,the probabilities are usually regarded as slight that cases beyond #e ,,pe will occur4 ,perhaps the range in human intellect is much greater than probabilities would lead us to guess4 ,since the initial report of this child's qualities1 readers have occasionally asked with what meaning the word prodigious was used in reference to him4 ,it was used in the dictionary sense of wonderful1 extraordinary4 ,in these reports there is no intention to approve or to disapprove the educational regimen pursued4 ,who knows what should be the educational treatment of a child standing at #aa ,,pe in intellect8 ,the sole intention is to record the identification and development of a deviation so extreme that the chances are theoretically almost nil that it would occur at all4 ,,eventual ,,scholastic ,,records ,in ,june1 #aibc1 ,e was graduated from ,columbia ,college1 with the degree of ,b4,a4 ,he took general honors1 ,phi ,beta ,kappa honors1 and the ,english ,seminary ,prize1 awarded by the ,society for ,promoting ,religion and ,learning for the best essay in sermon form on an assigned topic4 ,he was within eleven days of his fifteenth birthday when he was graduated4 ,he was elected to ,phi ,beta ,kappa at the age of #ad years1 probably the youngest person ever elected to that organization4 ,e was graduated with excess credit 7#h points7 toward the ,m4,a4 degree4 ,this degree was awarded him in ,june1 #aibd1 when he was not quite #af years of age1 more than enough work for it having been accomplished4 ,he was matriculated for the ,ph4,d4 degree before he was #af years old1 and by the age of #ah years #i months had practically finished all the requirements for that degree except completing the dissertation4 ,the dissertation topic had been then approved1 in the field of history1 and ,e was at work on the material4 ,in ,october1 #aibf 7aged #ah years #d months71 ,e entered upon his professional studies for the ministry in the theological seminary of his choice4 ,since the age of #ae he had done special work at the seminary4 ,he had read prayers in one of the city churches as a lay reader since the age of #af and was at this time a candidate for ordination as deacon1 but this ordination could not take place before the twenty-first birthday4 ,in the initial report of ,e it will be found that he had decided before he was #e years old to be clergyman4 ,it now appeared that his professional course toward that end would be completed in #aibi4 ,,fig4 #ab4 ,a ,,memorandum ,,from ,e4 ,professional course will be finished in #aibi4 ,the subject of the thesis on which ,i am now working1 is definitely approved and published 7decided ,june1 #aibe72 the other requirements are practically finished4 ,apollonius1 ,diocetes8 of ,egypt 7#crd century ,b4,c4 ,egyptian history1 #aibc7 ,worked on order of ,pliny's letters 7#aibd-be7 ,at present reading ,greek papyri4 ,making my illegible in ,modern ,european ,history1 worked on ,irish constitutional history 7#aibd-aibe7 ,,researches ,,of ,e ,when ,e was #aj years old he made an original contribution in connection with the ,pentateuch1 and was made a member of ,the ,oriental ,society of ,research in ,jerusalem4 ,at #ac years of age ,e was first admitted to the ,bodleian ,library1 at ,oxford1 for purposes of research4 ,in #aibc ,e presented his ,m4,a4 essay--,appolonius1 ,diocetes of ,egypt--which pertains to ,egyptian history of the third century ,b4,c4 and is on file in the ,library of ,columbia ,university4 ,e has also done research 7#aibd-aibe7 on the order of ,pliny's letters2 on ,irish constitutional history 7#aibd-aibe72 and was in #aibf and #aibg reading ,greek papyri4 ,the subject of his dissertation to be submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements of the ,ph4,d4 was reported as ,feudal ,estates in ,byzantine ,egypt4 #ad ,,summary ,,of ,,development ,a summary of ,e's development over the period from #aiaf to #aibg1 given in the table below1 shows clearly that the superior magnitudes1 both of mental caliber and of physical size1 so markedly present at the age of #h years1 are maintained as growth terminates4 ,,child ,e ,,norms ,,for ,,private ,,schools #ae ,born ,june #ag1 #aijh1 as shown by birth certificate and hospital records4 ,november #d1 #aiaf ,height #ed4c inches #di4e inches ,weight #hi4c pounds #ed4b pounds ,intellect ,,iq #ahg 7,s-,b7 ,,iq #ajj 7,s-,b7 ,scholastic status #fth grade1 #c;d grade1 elementary elementary ,september #bi1 #aiba ,height #fd4b inches #eh4b inches ,weight #aff4j pounds #hi4e pounds ,intellect #aid points1 ,army #dg points1 ,alpha1 ,form #e ,alpha ,army ,scholastic #dth semester1 #hth grade1 status college elementary school ,october #bf1 #aibf ,height #gc inches #fg inches ,weight #aid4g pounds #aej pounds ,april #a1 #aibg ,intellect #dda points1 ,,ier ,not yet known ,tests ,scholastic status ,b4,a4 #aibc ,has left ,m4,a4 #aibd school to ,ph4,d4 candidate go to work ,also finishing first year in ,theological ,seminary ,,editor',s ,,supplement ,although no follow-up inquiry has been made since the year #aibg1 a few items gleaned from clippings found in the author's files are relevant4 ,these are newspaper accounts1 chiefly in connection with ,e's being ordained as deacon1 and later elevated to the ,protestant ,episcopal priesthood4 ,these articles recite that ,e-- ,received his ,b4,a4 at the age of #ae years4 ,received his ,m4,a4 degree the following year4 ,was ordained deacon on ,december #ba1 #aibi1 at the age of #ba4 ,received his ,ph4,d4 the following year at the age of #bb4 ,also received the degree ,bachelor of ,sacred ,theology1 in ,june1 #aibi4 ,was elevated to the priesthood in the ,protestant ,episcopal ,church at the age of #bd 7,june #ai1 #aicb7 at a special ordination service at the ,cathedral of ,st4 ,john the ,divine1 ,new ,york ,city4 ,as a graduate student too young for the priesthood1 he had held a fellowship in the ,general ,theological ,seminary1 teaching ,greek and history4 ,there is also an announcement of his marriage in ,september1 #aici4 ,see also ,editor's ,note on publications1 footnote #ad4 #a ,see ,preface1 paragraphs #b-e4 #b ,,editor',s ,,note4 ,this child was observed by ,leta ,s4 ,hollingworth over a period of nearly a quarter century4 ,she published three accounts of his development1 and the present chapter is in the main a composite of these three reports1 to which are added such supplementary items as are available4 ,the articles referred to are as follows3 ,garrison1 ,burke1 and ,hollingworth4 ,the ,psychology of a ,prodigious ,child4 ,journal of ,applied ,psychology 7,june1 #aiag74 ,hollingworth1 ,garrison1 and ,burke4 ,subsequent ,history of ,e------ ,five ,years after the ,initial ,report4 ,journal of ,applied ,psychology 7,june1 #aibb74 ,hollingworth1 ,leta ,s4 ,subsequent ,history of ,e------ ,ten ,years after the ,initial ,report4 ,journal of ,applied ,psychology 7,october1 #aibg74 #c ,bartlett1 ,j4 ,g4 ,the ,belcher ,families in ,new ,england4 ,new ,england ,history and ,general ,register1 ,vol4 #fj1 pages #abe-acf1 #bdc-bef1 #ceh-cfd4 ,belcher1 ,jonathan4 ,the ,belcher ,papers4 ,collection of the ,massachusetts ,historical ,society1 ,vols4 #f and #g4 ,appleton's ,cyclopedia of ,american ,biography1 ,vol4 #a 7#ahhg74 7,jonathan ,belcher47 #d ,drowne1 ,henry ,r4 ,family ,record of ,solomon ,drowne4 ,new ,york ,genealogical and ,biographical ,record1 ,vol4 #e1 ,no4 #ce1 pages #aga-agb4 ,new ,york2 #aijd4 ,drowne1 ,henry ,t4 ,genealogy of the ,family of ,solomon ,drowne1 ,m4 ,d41 of ,providence1 ,rhode ,island1 with ,notice of ,his ,ancestors2 #afdf-ahgi4 ,providence ,press ,company1 ,providence1 ,rhode ,island2 #ahgi4 #e ,developmental history and history of personal health were elicited from the mother1 who1 being a physician1 is especially competent to speak on these points4 ,the family history and the facts concerning his extra-school linguistic achievements were also given by the mother4 #f ,private tutors grade ,e as #a in mathematics4 #g ,in industrial arts credit is given for knowing industrial processes1 as well as for ability to carry out the processes4 #h ,in fine arts credit is given for manual dexterity only4 #i ,thorndike1 ,e4 ,l4 ,the ,measurement of ,intelligence4 ,bureau of ,publications1 ,teachers ,college1 ,columbia ,university1 ,new ,york2 #aibg4 #aj ,i am indebted to ,dr4 ,ella ,woodyard and to ,professor ,ralph ,b4 ,spence of ,teachers ,college1 ,columbia ,university1 for this information4 #aa ,thorndike1 ,e4 ,l4 ,on the ,improvement of ,intelligence ,scores from ,fourteen to ,eighteen4 ,journal of ,educational ,psychology 7#aibc74 #ab ,it is worth saying that in contemporary civilization the final examination had been objectively standardized by ,dr4 ,b4 ,d4 ,wood1 expert in educational measurement1 and did not depend on the estimate of instructors4 ,e's score on the objective examinations of both terms was in the highest tenth of the highest percentile 7,b4 ,d4 ,w474 ,the instructor's estimate1 as well as the result of the objective examination1 enters into the term grade and1 indicated above1 in this course2 so that the final grade in the second semester is but ,b4 #ac ,see note #a1 preface4 #ad ,,editor',s ,,note4 ,this dissertation was published in #aica by the ,columbia ,university ,press under the title ,large ,estates of ,byzantine ,egypt4 ,among later publications1 of which there is record in the files1 are3 ,national ,elements in the ,career of ,st4 ,athanasius1 ,church ,history1 pages #c-aa 7,december1 #aicc74 ,dura--,an ,ancient ,city of the ,east1 ,natural ,history 7,the ,journal of the ,american ,museum of ,natural ,history71 ,vol4 ,,xxxiv1 ,no4 #h1 pages #fhe-gja 7,december1 #aicd74 ,militant in ,earth4 ,pages #bee4 ,oxford ,university ,press1 ,new ,york2 #aidj4 ,a book which shows how ,christianity has presented a spiritual and social front against opposing phases of civilization1 whatever they may have been during #bjjj years4 #ae ,norms for height1 weight1 and scholastic status are taken from ,b4 ,t4 ,baldwin1 as established at ,horace ,mann ,school1 ,francis ,parker ,school1 and the elementary and high schools of the ,university of ,chicago4 ,,chapter ,,nine ,,child ,f ,child ,f was a boy whose ability was identified as the result of a mental survey made with group tests in ,p4,s4 #ad1 ,manhattan4 #a ,his score in these tests was unbelievable1 and he was summoned for testing with the idea that he must have been coached4 ,an individual ,stanford-,binet test1 however1 showed a phenomenal record similar to all other tests given him1 including an ,army ,alpha4 ,he was referred to a ,special ,opportunity ,class at that time being organized in ,p4,s4 #afe1 ,manhattan4 ,,family ,,background ,although detailed study of ,f's ancestry is available1 a brief summary of the facts appears to be all that is here needed1 for the ancestry throws little light on the boy's extraordinary mental ability4 ,f's paternal grandfather was of ,scottish parentage1 born in ,canada4 ,he was a reasonably successful worker in the printing trade1 appears to have been well balanced and socially adjusted1 and showed no exceptional traits4 ,he had little education and no special interests4 ,he died of apoplexy at #ea years of age4 ,f's paternal grandmother1 born in ,albany1 ,new ,york1 had a public school education 7probably74 ,she is still living #aibd1 clerking in a store after her husband's death4 ,she appears to have no special interests outside her home life2 is said to be quick and nervous1 easily excited1 and prone to worry4 ,f's maternal grandfather was born in ,new ,york ,state1 of ,german parentage4 ,he is still alive #aibd1 at the age of #gj1 and is very active4 ,his education was limited1 but he is an excellent reader and is well informed4 ,he is fond of music1 is an active churchman and a choir leader4 ,he is said to be quick-tempered1 impulsive1 and affectionate4 ,he mixes well with people1 and has some leadership qualities4 ,he has always worked as a paper hanger and painter1 his business being on a small scale4 ,f's maternal grandmother was born in ,new ,york ,state2 the nationality of her parents is not recorded4 ,she had a public school education4 ,her interests are limited to home and ,red ,cross activities4 ,she is friendly and sociable1 impulsive1 affectionate in disposition1 and has a keen sense of humor4 ,f has several uncles and aunts1 none of whom presents any qualities of striking interest4 ,all appear to be normally effective and well adjusted1 competent on a small-town scale1 enjoying their homes1 and taking part in local activities and organizations4 ,f has one brother1 younger than himself1 born ,april #b1 #aibj4 ,he was given a ,stanford-,binet examination1 ,may #ac1 #aibd1 by ,leta ,s4 ,hollingworth1 being then #d years #a month of age4 ,his ,mental ,age was #f-j1 yielding an ,,iq of #adg4 ,this brother has strong musical inclinations1 was a choir boy1 and subsequently took instruction in singing4 ,father4 ,the father of ,child ,f was born in ,albany1 ,new ,york4 ,he had a high school education and business college training4 ,he has always done clerical and office work1 especially bookkeeping4 ,he is fond of athletics1 reads only newspapers and magazines1 is quick1 alert1 and active1 has an even temperament1 is seldom worried4 ,he has no interest in clubs or organized activities4 ,seems to take an interest in his children4 7,in later years the father lost the balance and evenness of temperament here reported and became unemployed much of the time4 ,he died in ,march1 #aice1 at the age of #da1 apparently accidentally drowned47 ,mother4 ,the mother of ,f went to high school for two years and earned a teacher's certificate4 ,she taught two years in rural schools but disliked this work and had no patience with children4 ,she liked music1 however1 and studied piano and voice for a short time1 but now pays little attention to it4 ,she has always regretted going to high school1 believing that if she had devoted that time to music1 she might have had some success in it4 ,her interests are limited to home affairs4 ,she says she has few friends and does not mix well with people4 ,she appears calm and does not worry1 is sensible in her dealings with her children1 takes no part in organized activities1 but always sends the children to ,sunday ,school4 ,she is a very good home manager1 and runs things effectively on small resources4 ,,preschool ,,history ,f was born in upper ,new ,york ,state1 ,november #ad1 #aiad4 ,the period of gestation was of normal length2 at birth he weighed according to the father #i pounds1 according to the mother #aa4e pounds4 ,no records of early infancy were kept1 so that many such details are given from memory1 either by the father or by the mother4 ,the child was the mother's first-born4 ,she reports that much of the infant's weight at birth was due to his enormous head1 which necessitated instrument birth4 ,birth was difficult1 the mother was severely injured1 and the child's head was so distorted from the instruments that it was weeks before it could be molded into normal shape4 ,f was bottle fed from birth to one year4 ,his first teeth appeared at about #aj months4 ,he talked 7short sentences7 at about #ab months1 learned to walk alone 7several steps7 at #ad months1 learned to read at between #d and #e years of age4 ,his childhood illnesses were measles1 whooping cough1 chicken pox1 and scarlet fever1 all between #f and #h years of age4 ,cried little as a baby4 ,his mother says he was a lovely baby to take care of4 ,no sensory defects or signs of physical weakness4 ,adenoids were present1 to be removed shortly after the initial interview in #aibd 7age #aj years74 ,he sleeps soundly4 ,,early ,,school ,,history ,f started school at the age of #e years #aj months1 in a two-room rural school in upstate ,new ,york in the town where he was born4 ,he could already read well at that time2 it was first noticed that he could read when he was around #e years of age4 ,riding in streetcars1 he would take words apart and put them together again4 ,he had learned the letters before his third year4 ,at school he was received in the first grade4 ,it was soon found that he was memorizing his reader and the teacher gave him a more advanced book4 ,this school was a practically ungraded one2 the first four grades were together in one room1 and grades five to eight were in the other room4 ,the teacher did not know what to do with ,f2 so he was allowed to go into the second room and listen1 in an orderly manner1 to the fifth to eighth grades4 ,when he entered ,new ,york ,city schools at the age of #g years #aj months1 the rural teacher gave ,f a transfer for the fifth grade4 ,the mother presented the letter of transfer to the ,manhattan principal1 who pooh-poohed the idea that the boy could belong in the fifth grade at that age4 ,he refused to accept the recommendation from the ungraded school and placed ,f in the third or fourth grade4 ,after the first week the boy's teacher reported that he did not belong in that grade4 ,when the principal insisted that ,f could not go into the fifth grade1 the boy himself spoke up and said if they would give him an examination they would see that he could do it4 ,the principal ordered him to keep still and not to talk so much4 ,he was1 however1 eventually placed in the fifth grade in the year in which his eighth birthday occurred4 ,at the end of that year he was promoted to ,grade #f;,a1 then into #f;,b1 and he was shortly after received into the ,special ,opportunity ,class at ,p4,s4 #afe4 ,he had always been fond of school up to this time1 although he later developed a distaste for it and became a chronic truant4 ,he spent much of his time helping the teachers1 carrying books1 and running errands1 in order to keep occupied4 ,when his mother requested his transfer to the ,special ,opportunity ,class1 the principal of the school he was attending1 at first refused1 saying that he liked to have bright pupils in his classes too4 ,after futilely arguing for half an hour1 the mother finally threatened to move to another part of town1 thus forcing a transfer1 whereupon the principal relented and gave the transfer4 ,f said he liked the new school because he was allowed there to say what he thought4 ,in his early school years he once won a prize1 which was to be a book4 ,several books1 supposedly of interest to boys1 were offered him from which to choose4 ,he looked them over and then said if it made no difference to the teacher1 he would rather have a dictionary instead4 ,this volume was given him1 and it was used constantly thereafter4 ,,early ,,test ,,scores ,in ,march1 #aibd1 at the age of #i years #d months1 ,f was given a mental test1 using ,army ,alpha1 by ,l4 ,m4 ,potter4 ,he was then in ,grade #f;,b1 ,p4,s4 #ad1 ,manhattan4 ,his score was recorded as #abd points4 ,but there is also a copy of an ,army ,alpha ,test1 ,form #g1 given ,f in the fall of #aibd upon his entrance to ,p4,s4 #afe1 on which the score is #afc points4 ,on ,april #ad1 #aibd1 at the age of #i years #e months1 ,f was given a ,stanford-,binet test by ,m4 ,v4 ,cobb1 in ,p4,s4 #afe1 ,manhattan4 ,his ,mental ,age shown at that time was #ae-b1 and an ,,iq of #afb was reported4 ,strength of grip measures were also recorded as of ,may #ae1 #aibd4 ,these were made by ,leta ,s4 ,hollingworth1 three trials for each hand4 ,the records were 7median of three71 right1 #aj4e2 left1 #i4 ,on ,april #bb1 #aibe1 at the age of #aj years #e months1 ,f was given a ,stanford-,binet examination by ,leta ,s4 ,hollingworth as a demonstration before a class of #fj adults4 ,his ,mental ,age was #ai-j1 and the ,,iq is recorded as over #ahb1 unmeasured by the scale4 ,on ,may #h1 #aibf1 at the age of #aa years #f months1 ,f was again tested with the ,stanford-,binet by ,l4 ,s4 ,h44 ,he passed at this time all the ,superior ,adult tests and was thus unmeasured4 ,he was at this time in his first year of senior high school4 ,january #g1 #aicc1 at the age of #ah-b1 while a college freshman1 his score on ,army ,alpha1 ,form #h1 was #aih points4 ,music tests4 ,f showed no active musical interests but became very fond of listening to good music1 being particularly fond of string quartets4 ,as was the case in every field to which his interests turned1 he quickly acquired a fund of information about it which he took pleasure in exhibiting4 ,f was given the ,seashore ,music ,tests four times by ,l4 ,s4 ,h4 over a period of #aa years4 ,perhaps the record of these successive examinations will have some intrinsic interest1 and such a tabulation is here provided4 ,,seashore ,,tests ,,of ,,musical ,,talent ,,score 7,per ,cent ,correct7 ,,may #g1 ,,december ,,june ,,june #aibd #bc1 #aibd2 #ah1 #aibe2 #ad1 #aice2 #i ,,years #aj ,,years1 #aj ,,years #bj ,,years #f ,,months #a ,,month #g ,,months #g ,,months ,pitch #gi #hb #gh #ha ,intensity #gf -- #id #id ,time #ga #fb -- #gj ,tonal memory #hj -- #hh #ih ,consonance #fd -- #gd #gf ,rhythm #gb -- #hh #hf ,character rating4 ,after six months' acquaintance1 on ,september #ad1 #aibd1 when ,f was about #aj years old1 he was rated by ,leta ,s4 ,hollingworth for various estimated traits on a #g-point rating scale as follows3 ,extraordinarily good 7,grade #a7 ,prudence and foresight1 will power and perseverance1 appreciation of beauty1 sense of humor1 sensitiveness to approval or disapproval1 desire to excel1 freedom from vanity and egotism1 conscientiousness1 desire to know1 originality1 common sense1 general intelligence4 ,decidedly superior 7,grade #b7 ,self-confidence1 musical appreciation1 leadership1 popularity with other children1 sympathy and tenderness1 truthfulness4 ,rather superior 7,grade #c7 ,cheerfulness and optimism1 permanency of moods1 generosity and unselfishness1 mechanical ingenuity4 ,average 7,grade #d7 ,health1 amount of physical energy4 ,rather weak 7,grade #e7 ,fondness for large groups4 ,although there is no formal record of the fact1 it is known that fifteen years later this rater would have made different judgments on most of these traits not relating to strictly cognitive characteristics4 ,other judges acquainted with ,f rather unanimously disagreed with the high ratings here accorded such traits as prudence and forethought1 will power and perseverance1 sensitiveness to approval or disapproval1 freedom from vanity or egotism1 common sense1 leadership1 popularity1 sympathy and tenderness1 truthfulness1 generosity and unselfishness1 and these ratings are as a matter of fact inconsistent with ,f's subsequent history4 ,,home ,,rating ,on ,may #f1 #aibd1 the home of ,f was visited by a social worker trained in the use of the ,whittier ,scale for ,home ,rating4 ,the rating was reported as #ba1 with a possible score of #be4 ,neighborhood was average1 in a fair section of ,new ,york ,city4 ,details were as follows3 ,necessities4 ,father bookkeeper with steady1 small salary1 adequate only for necessities4 ,food and clothing of good quality1 conditions neat and clean but plain4 ,heat1 light1 sleeping facilities fair4 ,grade #d4 ,neatness4 ,sanitary conditions good2 rooms well kept and clean2 apartment rear1 second floor1 little view4 ,considering the equipment1 household run in an efficient manner4 ,grade #d4 ,size4 ,four small rooms and bath for two adults and two children4 ,conditions crowded4 ,grade #d4 ,parental condition4 ,parents socially adaptable2 there appears to be harmony in home2 parents have too few outside interests4 ,mother practically always at home2 father at home evenings4 ,grade #e4 ,parental supervision4 ,parents keenly interested in development of children4 ,their own education is limited1 which is a handicap in directing and educating the children4 ,little need of discipline in home1 though mother is lax about carrying out threats4 ,parental example good4 ,grade #d4 ,,miscellaneous ,,characteristics ,play interests4 ,f preferred playmates of his own age and sex4 ,he would spend hours at a time using marbles for soldiers and working out military formations4 ,being with older children in school1 he was somewhat backward in joining in their outdoor games4 ,reading interests4 ,from #f to #aj years of age ,f read a great variety of books1 particularly geography and history and averaging probably #bj hours weekly4 ,he was especially interested in dictionaries and encyclopedias2 would always look up new words in detail4 ,most of his leisure time was preferably spent in reading4 ,,later ,,educational ,,career ,as already recorded1 ,f was transferred in #aibd1 at the age of #aj years1 to the ,special ,opportunity ,class in ,p4,s4 #afe1 ,manhattan1 then being organized for experimental purposes connected with the education of children of rare intelligence4 ,he graduated from this class into senior high school4 ,he and another boy 7,child ,c1 ,chapter #f7 led this highly selected group of children in achievement tests4 ,as he was at this time1 ,leta ,s4 ,hollingworth wrote of him3 ,i have never met with a more interesting child than he was1 and the same creativeness and inexorable logic which characterized him then have always continued4 ,he entered1 after a brief experience in a progressive private school1 a public high school in ,new ,york ,city1 in #aibe4 ,his high school career was a checkered one1 typical in some respects of his later educational history4 ,for one thing1 he was a constant truant1 and he refused to do the required work in physical education4 ,he had always been averse to physical activity and loathed manual work to the end of his career4 ,he said that the gymnasium work always left him feeling worse1 gave him colds1 and was of no use to him4 ,perhaps his subsequent medical history throws some light on the reasons for these observations4 ,his truant hours were spent partly in the public library1 where he read continuously in technical volumes in a great variety of fields and accumulated an amazing fund of general information and esoteric lore4 ,law1 theology1 history1 science1 and literature were some of his favorite fields4 ,when not in the library1 he would usually be at a chess club to which he had been granted access and where he had learned the game4 ,he rapidly developed into an expert chess and bridge player1 and in ,eastern chess tournaments is said to have achieved the ranking of seventh in the national list4 ,he always managed to appear at high school to take the necessary examinations1 and passed all his subjects with good standing and even with phenomenal records4 ,but his inexplicable truancy and his refusal to do the required work in physical education baffled the educational authorities4 ,they finally refused to graduate him with his class-- although his record was among the best--until he had redeemed himself by doing the gymnasium work in a fifth year4 ,in #aicj he did this1 and also carried some additional courses and thus was allowed to finish high school1 requiring longer than the conventional period for this because of his refusal to accommodate his own interests and ideas to the regular routine4 ,in spite of irregular attendance1 ,f took some part in high school activities4 ,his main activities1 of the extracurricular sort1 were chess club1 chess team1 poetry club1 debating society1 mathematics club1 board of publications1 program committee4 ,he was executive member of the debating society and of the law society1 vice president of the poster club1 and two or three times section president4 ,his record1 of course1 shows no athletic history and no physical activities engaged in4 ,for the four years following #aicj ,f continued to frequent the public library1 the chess club1 and the bridge games4 ,at one time a patron friend made it financially possible for him to enter college at the ,college of the ,city of ,new ,york4 ,he quit before the end of the first term1 again because he hated the required gymnasium work and said he always got a cold and felt bad after such exercise4 ,although he was again and again urged by people who knew his ability not to waste it at chess and bridge1 he showed no apparent interest in going on with college4 ,he replied that he could always make a living some way or other4 ,uncongenial home circumstances and the general unemployment situation prevailing at the time perhaps heightened this indisposition and lack of ambition4 ,while other boys who had been in the same grade school and high school classes with him were finding part-time employment and working their way through college1 ,f was contented with his chess games1 with an occasional bit of money won at cards1 and with his hours in the public library4 ,in #aicd he was asked to take the ,,cavd tests by the ,institute of ,educational ,research at ,teachers ,college1 ,columbia ,university1 to help determine the highest scores to be expected on this scale4 ,he and another boy1 both selected because of their known phenomenal range of information and intellectual alertness1 went through the ceiling on this scale1 thus again confirming the earlier records of his mental level so far as intelligence was concerned4 ,on the same occasion he was given the ,coperative ,general ,culture ,test1 by ,dr4 ,lorge4 ,in this his score exceeded that of superior college graduates4 ,in ,september1 #aicd1 ,f was again persuaded1 through financial assistance practically forced upon him1 and after much urging and long discussion1 to try college4 ,he enrolled in ,columbia ,college1 once more a freshman4 ,he carried a heavy program1 tried to do certain outside jobs as assistant provided for him1 and probably overworked4 ,he had declined one patron's offer to give him a stipulated sum of money for the year if he would abstain from chess for that period4 ,in fact1 only vigorous prodding led him to go to college at all at this time1 even with the way opened for him4 ,the outcome appeared to be another fiasco4 ,in ,january1 as the examination period drew near1 he became ill1 developed pneumonia1 and for the second time withdrew from college before completing a term of work4 ,in this instance his illness appeared to justify the act4 ,in the autumn of #aice1 having been nursed back to reasonable health through patrons interested in his case1 he was urged by them to make a fresh start and to try the ,university of ,chicago plan1 under which students could progress as rapidly as they were able to satisfy the requirements through comprehensive examinations4 ,he entered the ,university of ,chicago that fall1 for the third time a college freshman1 agreeing to do this without any great enthusiasm of his own but as part of what was called an educational experiment4 ,of his record on entrance the following comment was made by the chief examiner3 ,the examiners have called my attention to a freak case in our records for the incoming students4 4 4 4 ,his performance seems almost unbelievable4 ,on the freshman classification tests his performance was as follows3 first in the vocabulary test2 first in the reading test2 second in the ,intelligence ,test of the ,american ,council2 third in the ,english placement test2 third in the physical science placement test 4 4 4 in the freshman class of about #gej students4 ,in addition1 he also took four ,comprehensives with the following grades3 ,biological ,science1 ,a2 ,humanities1 ,b2 ,social ,sciences1 ,a2 ,physical ,sciences1 ,d4 ,the year at ,chicago was not without episode4 ,f was held up by two gunmen1 engineered the capture of one of these1 and was advised to disappear for a time during the excitement4 ,impetuously1 and without resources except the provisions made by his sponsor for his own subsistence1 he married a young ,jewish girl4 ,but the ,chicago ,plan kept its word1 and by the end of the year ,f had passed all the ,comprehensives required to give him his ,b4,a4 degree4 ,in doing this he acquired a good deal of newspaper and popular magazine notoriety1 and his photograph1 and that of his young wife1 were often reproduced in the public prints4 ,although he fancied he would like to be a lawyer1 ,f finally decided to go in for graduate work4 ,some uncertainties prevailed in connection with his acceptance by some of the graduate schools because1 although he had been three times a college freshman 7a point never brought out in the newspaper accounts of his educational progress71 he had completed but one year of college residence4 ,eventually he was awarded a graduate fellowship in ,teachers ,college1 ,columbia ,university1 for study toward the ,ph4,d4 degree in education1 and he completed a year of work there1 accomplishing1 in addition to the class work1 a minor experimental study1 a report of which was subsequently published4 ,for the following year he was appointed ,assistant in ,psychology at ,barnard ,college4 ,at the last moment1 just before the beginning of the new term1 he decided to shift to law1 which was one of his boyish ambitions4 ,he was enabled to return to ,chicago for this purpose4 ,chess1 bridge1 and racing continued to intrude themselves into his activities1 although he was pledged to abstain from them4 ,his marital affairs did not run smoothly2 contrary to his promises he incurred additional indebtedness2 but he continued to carry on his law studies with passable records4 ,then he suddenly became seriously ill and was discovered to have an inoperable abdominal cancer4 ,again his educational career was interrupted and he returned to ,new ,york for care and treatment4 ,before another year was over1 in ,december1 #aich1 he died of this affliction1 at the age of #bd years4 ,in spite of a brilliant mental endowment1 early discovery1 much educational encouragement1 and material assistance1 a ,bachelor's degree and a few chess prizes and bridge victories represent ,f's final achievement4 ,the chief causes of this relative failure to make the most of his potentialities appeared externally in the form of character traits4 ,his parents said of him that it was never necessary to stimulate his desire to learn2 they also reported him to be willful and head-strong4 ,these unpropitious traits were as a matter of fact apparent in his early school days4 ,they became magnified as he was given freer opportunity for self-expression and activity4 ,we know so little about the identification and genesis of character traits that the case makes little or no contribution to our understanding in this direction4 ,it is not known how early the physical disability that finally terminated the picture had been operating2 it may even have been at the bottom of what appeared socially as a personality defect4 #a ,this chapter was written by ,h4 ,l4 ,h4 ,,chapter ,,ten ,,child ,g ,child ,g is a boy1 born in ,brooklyn1 ,new ,york1 ,may #bf1 #aibc4 ,records of his test scores that are available date from #aicj1 at which time he was #f years #f months old4 ,a record of his development has been kept by his parents1 who take an unusual interest in educational problems4 ,they have freely and intelligently coperated in the frequent objective examination of ,g1 and have consulted with teachers concerning problems of adjustment and educational development4 ,,family ,,background ,g is of ,hebrew parentage1 and all four of his grandparents attended ,hebrew school4 ,his paternal grandfather was a tailor1 his maternal grandfather an installment dealer4 ,g's father is a lawyer2 in an ,army ,alpha test he made a score of #agh points4 ,his mother1 before her marriage1 was a typist and stenographer4 ,there are among the relatives a doctor1 a lawyer1 a rabbi1 a college professor4 ,a cousin stood highest in a city-wide achievement test given to public school pupils in ,new ,york ,city4 ,his only brother1 younger than he and the only sibling1 has an ,,iq of #aej-aee 7see below1 ,g',s ,,brother',s ,,record74 ,,educational ,,history ,in ,january1 #aicd1 ,edna ,w4 ,mc,elwee published a preliminary account of ,g's school achievement up to that time4 #a ,a few months later ,g's father published an account of the boy's reading interests4 #b ,data recorded in these two reports have been made use of in the present chapter4 #c ,g learned to read before going to school1 but at this time his parents did not realize that he was exceptional4 ,after a term in kindergarten he was promoted to ,grade #a;,a1 after a few weeks to #a;,b1 and then to #b;,a4 ,at the end of the term he was placed in #c;,a4 ,then he was doubly promoted each term for a time1 entering the #f;,a grade at the age of #h years #f months4 ,the principal reported3 ,he absorbed information easily and quickly and1 regardless of the grade in which he was placed or the length of time he had been in the grade1 his work and his ratings were always much beyond those of his classmates4 ,during these early years ,g preferred being alone with his books to playing with other children4 ,his parents intelligently sought advice on the correction of this and encouraged him1 successfully1 to play with other children1 first with those younger than he1 and then with children of his own age4 ,he made a ready adaptation1 and in time had a group of boys with whom he played and who were sometimes invited by his father to accompany them on ,saturday afternoon excursions4 ,he developed an interest in all sorts of ball games and became a good swimmer4 ,g read widely1 and his parents from the beginning exercised some supervision over the character of the books provided for him1 and they read to him at bedtime1 about an hour daily4 ,there were included in his reading not only a large selection of children's books and stories but also books of history1 mythology1 biography1 poetry1 science and art4 ,the ,saturday excursions to places of interest were a regular institution1 and these interests were readily tied to ,g's reading4 ,among the places thus visited were the zoo1 botanical gardens1 aquarium1 navy yard1 fleet1 airport1 museums1 art galleries1 ,hall of ,fame1 numerous factories and industrial plants1 fire department1 public utilities1 observatories4 ,plays and concerts were attended1 and good taste in music was encouraged4 ,educational use was made of radio programs4 ,g learned to play the violin and joined the school orchestra4 ,at his own request he was given private instruction in ,hebrew and made good progress4 ,at an early age--#g or #h years--,g became interested in chemistry1 and was provided with a chemical outfit for his own use4 ,with this he busied himself a great deal1 and he kept his classmates provided with ink of his own manufacture4 ,he has collected both stamps and coins and also ,popular ,science magazines4 ,there is in the files a large collection of his remarks in childhood1 recorded by his parents4 ,they show early thoughtfulness1 curiosity1 and judicious discrimination4 ,of ,g's later educational experience ,miss ,mc,elwee wrote as follows3 ,at eight and a half years of age he was transferred to ,p4,s4 #bjh1 ,brooklyn1 where he entered the #f;,a group of the ,individual ,progress class1 which had been organized for superior children4 ,the method of instruction had been modified and the course of study enriched to meet the needs of the pupils4 4 4 4 ,tests of educational achievement given in ,october1 #aica1 soon after he entered the class1 showed that his grade placement was #g4d and his achievement quotient #hf4 ,similar tests given in ,may1 #aicb1 indicated that his grade placement was then #aj4c and his achievement quotient #ig4 ,in those seven months he had completed three years of work4 4 4 4 ,by ,january1 #aicc1 he had gained another year and a half1 and was maintaining his achievement quotient4 ,in other words1 at #i years of age he was doing as well as a junior in high school4 ,his father wrote to the school at this time3 ,we are happy to tell you that ,g is full of his school work and is very contented with the present curriculum4 ,inasmuch as he has always complained until this term of lack of work at school and always considered his school work a necessary evil1 we feel very grateful to you for his increased interest and happiness4 ,,early ,,mental ,,tests ,the first recorded measurement of ,g's mental ability is found in a report from the ,educational ,clinic of the ,college of the ,city of ,new ,york1 where he had been taken by his father for a private examination4 ,the report is made by ,elise ,s4 ,mustor1 ,assistant ,director1 as of ,january1 #aicj4 ,g was then #f years #g months old4 ,his ,mental ,age was found to be #aj-i1 and his ,,iq is reported as #afc4 ,this report also gives numerous other details which may be summarized in the following tabulation4 ,,report ,,of ,g1 ,,january1 #aicj ,chronological ,age #f-g ,mental ,age #aj-i ,intelligence ,quotient #afc ,height 7with shoes7 #dh4e inches 7,about #c inches above the median for his age7 ,height #ei pounds 7,about #e pounds above the median for his height7 ,reading comprehension ,median of #eth ,grade ,arithmetic reasoning ,median of #d;,b ,grade ,arithmetic fundamentals ,median of #c;,a ,grade ,perception of form and physi- ,ranges from #gth- to cal relationships #abth-year level ,auditory rote memory #aj-year level ,vocabulary #aj-year level ,physical condition3 ,well nourished4 ,tonsils and adenoids removed4 ,breathing unobstructed4 ,teeth good4 ,no defects of heart1 lungs1 acuity of vision or hearing4 ,at the clinic his social responses were good4 ,he was well poised and unassuming2 showed very fine effort and application4 ,,later ,,test ,,records #aica4 ,g was given a ,stanford-,binet examination by ,leta ,s4 ,hollingworth in ,may1 #aica1 within a few days of his eighth birthday4 ,he achieved an ,,iq of #aib4 ,the following comment is included in the record3 ,the increase over the ,,iq obtained at the age of #f is not unusual for a very young1 very bright child1 although it would be very unusual for an average child4 ,i shall be glad to test ,g again when he is about #ab years old1 and when he is #af years old4 ,also his little brother4 #aicc4 ,on ,april #e1 #aicc1 at the age of #i years #aj months1 ,g was again tested by ,leta ,s4 ,hollingworth1 perhaps as a class demonstration4 ,he was then in ,grade #g;,b and his ,,iq is recorded as #agf plus4 ,the following comment is made3 ,children of ,g's present age can no longer be reliably measured in terms of ,,iq by any existing test if they have previously scored above #ahe ,,iq4 4 4 4 ,the ,,iq of #agf plus merely informs us that the test has begun to run down in his case4 4 4 4 ,next time we test him we shall have to use a test scoring in points only1 which will place him on the centile scale for adults4 4 4 4 ,his physical measurements correspond closely to the norms for boys of about #aa years4 #aicd4 ,there is in the files a ,stanford-,binet record of ,g taken by ,leta s4 ,hollingworth1 ,march #ai1 #aicd4 ,his age was then #aj years #aj months and he was in ,grade #h;,b in ,p4,s4 #bjh1 ,brooklyn4 ,he passed without error all the tests in the scale 7,average ,adult and ,superior ,adult74 ,miscellaneous records4 ,in the ,mc,elwee report already cited the following scores are recorded1 on a variety of scales1 covering a two-year period 7#aica-aicc74 ,,date ,,test ,,age ,,score ,may #e1 #aica ,stanford-,binet #h-j #aib ,oct4 #g1 #aica ,porteus ,maze #h-e #ab years ,healy ,picture ,completion #ac years ,porteus ,form and ,assemblying #h years ,thorndike-,mc,call ,reading3 ,form ,b #f;,b ,grade ,stanford ,achievement ,test3 ,form ,a1 ,arithmetic ,computation #h;,a ,grade ,trabue ,language ,completion1 ,alpha #ae-aj years ,may #ah1 #aicb ,elementary ,reading1 ,los ,angeles1 ,form #c #i-j #ab;,a ,grade ,arithmetic ,fundamentals1 ,los ,angeles1 ,form #d #i;,a ,grade ,woody-,mc,call ,spelling1 ,list #e #i;,b ,grade ,trabue ,language ,completion1 ,beta #af-d years ,jan4 #f1 #aicc ,new ,stanford ,achievement ,test ,form ,v #i-h #ah years ,apr4 #ab1 #aicc ,powers ,general ,science ,test3 ,form ,a 7#be per cent of first-year high school pupils exceed this score #i-aa #fb points at end of one year instruction in general science47 ,apr4 #bf1 #aicc ,kent-,rosanoff ,association ,test #i-aa #i ,individual ,reactions ,woody-,cady ,questionnaire indicates supersensitiveness--thinks people look at him1 make remarks about him1 find too much fault with him1 etc4 ,the ,new ,stanford ,achievement ,test score of #ah years of ,educational ,age1 achieved at the ,chronological ,age of #i years #h months1 broken down into detailed sections1 was as follows3 ,,educational ,,age ,paragraph ,meaning #ag-h ,word ,meaning #ah-h ,dictation #af-j ,language ,usage #ag-b ,literature #af-h ,history and ,civics #ai-b ,geography #bj-d ,physiology and ,hygiene #ah-e ,arithmetic ,reasoning #ai-b ,aritmentic ,computation #ag-h ,average #ag years #aa months ,the examiner remarks3 ,using the ,,iq of #aib1 his ,mental ,age would now be #ah years #e months4 ,this would give him an ,achievement ,quotient of #ig4c per cent4 ,,traits ,,of ,,character ,at the age of #aj years ,g was described by his school supervisor and parents as prudent and self-reliant1 with will power1 desire for knowledge1 wish to excel1 and originality4 ,he was conscientious1 truthful1 cheerful1 sympathetic1 and had a sense of humor4 ,he was modest about himself and his achievements1 did not like bragging1 and reproved his younger brother for such conduct4 ,at this time he wore glasses for an error of refraction1 had a slight speech impediment and a nervous mannerism4 ,he always wanted to do things as well as possible4 ,he set out to improve his poor penmanship by learning manuscript writing4 ,he was full of questions about scientific aspects of the things and processes he saw about him4 ,he had a reliable and alert memory1 even for incidental observations4 ,,physical ,,measurements ,the physical measurements referred to in the #aicc mental test ,,later ,,test ,,records1 #aicc are as follows3 ,g ,,norms ,standing height 7in stocking feet7 #ec4h inches #ec4f ,sitting height #bg4g inches ,weight 7ordinary indoor clothing except coat7 #gh pounds #ff4i ,right grip #ad1 #aa1 #aj kg4 ,left grip #i1 #i1 #i kg4 ,on ,august #b1 #aicg1 there is a record of height and weight at the age of #ad years #b months1 as follows3 ,g ,,norms ,height 7stocking feet7 #fc4g inches #fa4j ,sitting height #cc inches ,weight 7no coat or shoes7 #aba4e pounds #id4i ,,high ,,school ,,record ,by ,february1 #aicg1 ,g was finishing his sixth term in ,erasmus ,hall ,high ,school1 ,brooklyn4 ,in the first five terms his work had averaged #ij-ie4 ,regents' marks to that date were3 ,french1 two years #ie ,plane ,geometry #ajj ,intermediate ,algebra #ih ,european ,history #ia ,in ,june of #aice he had won first prize in an algebra contest for the entire grade of his school4 ,during the first four terms he had ranked fifth in scholarship and in the fifth term he tied for second place4 ,a letter from his father records that3 ,in ,june1 #aicd1 he scored #agd on the ,terman ,group ,intelligence test which was given to #bg1egc boys and girls1 graduates of the elementary schools1 public and parochial1 who applied for admission to the high schools in ,new ,york ,city1 this score being the highest reached1 and was referred to1 though of course not by name1 in ,john ,l4 ,tildsley's ,the ,mounting ,waste of the ,american ,secondary ,school1 at page #c thereof4 ,a letter from ,g dated ,july #e1 #aich1 records his graduation from high school at the age of #ae years4 ,he there says3 ,at present my interest lies along abstract lines2 mathematics1 chemistry1 and physics are my favorite subjects4 ,the occupation ,i would like most to enter when my schooling shall be finished would be mathematics4 ,however1 ,i see no chance for a job in this field for research work as there is in1 say1 chemistry4 ,hence ,i feel uncertain as to whether ,i shall make mathematics my life work or whether ,i should specialize in one field or another of chemistry1 my second love4 ,there is a copy of the principal's statement ,in ,re ,qualifications of ,g1 ,candidate for ,scholarship1 at the close of his high school career4 ,it is worth quoting here as a record of the judged characteristics of this #ae-year-old boy whose thoughtful letter1 just quoted from1 shows his serious concern over the theoretical and practical possibilities of the various fields of his interest4 ,,principal',s ,,statement ,,in ,,re ,,qualifications ,,of ,g1 ,,candidate ,,for ,,scholarship ,native ability4 ,intelligence ,quotient #agd on ,terman ,test given at ,erasmus ,hall1 the highest ever reached here2 ranks fourth in a grade of #gab in scholarship4 ,personality4 ,pleasant and helpful2 well liked and respected by students and faculty2 always agreeable1 willing1 eager to help others4 ,loyalty4 ,loyalty is unquestioned2 fine home background contributes to high ideals2 his good example has inspired loyalty in others4 ,coperation4 ,has given much time to clubs1 to tutoring students1 and to giving clerical assistance in offices4 ,integrity4 ,commended highly by teachers for uprightness4 ,leadership4 ,an active leader in many school activities2 has strong initiative and unusual resourcefulness4 ,thoroughness4 ,class and extracurricular work characterized by unusual care and thoroughness2 carried through many long-term assignments with a minimum of supervision4 ,originality4 ,outstanding characteristic2 while working in his grade adviser's office he devised a new and superior arrangement for finding the official classes of any one of #hjj students in the grade4 ,partial list of activities and honors4 ,program ,committee1 five terms2 ,office ,service1 seven terms2 ,little ,symphony1 two terms2 ,orchestra1 five terms2 ,arista1 four terms2 ,junior ,arista1 three terms2 ,string ,ensemble1 two terms2 ,dutchman ,staff2 ,,xyz ,mathematics ,tutoring ,club1 three terms2 prize1 ,geometry ,contest2 prize1 ,safety ,essay contest2 medal1 ,algebra contest4 ,comments by teachers4 ,very efficient and reliable4 ,very good assistant4 ,fine work on ,arista ,membership ,committee4 ,fine boy1 earnest1 and willing worker4 ,brilliant mind4 ,diligent worker4 ,in ,june1 #aich1 upon graduation from high school1 ,g was awarded a scholarship in ,harvard ,university1 which he entered in the ensuing academic year4 ,g',s ,,brother',s ,,record ,a brother younger than ,g and his only sibling was tested at the age of #e years #f months at the ,educational ,clinic1 ,college of the ,city of ,new ,york4 ,his ,,iq 7,s-,b7 was #aea4 ,other scores were3 ,goodenough ,drawing #f4j years ,porteus ,maze #e-f ,pintner-,patterson ,performance #f-f ,stenquist ,mechanical ,assembly #f-j ,gates ,primary ,reading ,scale #a;,b ,grade ,stanford ,achievement3 ,arithmetic #a;,b ,grade ,this child was also measured by ,leta ,s4 ,hollingworth in ,february1 #aicc1 when he was at age #f-aj1 and the ,stanford-,binet ,,iq was #aeb4 ,other measures made at that time were3 ,standing height #ej4ge inches ,sitting height #bg4ge inches ,weight #gh4be pounds ,found left-handed ,a letter from the father dated ,june #bd1 #aich1 reports that ,g's brother graduated from public school this week 7age #aa years #f months74 ,he was awarded one of two history medals given in a class of #acd4 ,in the ,terman ,group ,test given to about #ajjj applicants he scored #aec1 which is the fourth in the group4 ,the first one in the group was #aef4 #a ,mc,elwee1 ,edna ,willis4 ,seymour1 a ,boy with #aib ,,iq4 ,journal of ,juvenile ,research1 ,vol4 ,,xviii 7,january1 #aicd71 pages #bh-ce4 #b ,the ,reading of a ,gifted ,child4 ,by his ,father4 ,journal of ,juvenile ,research1 ,vol4 ,,xviii1 ,no4 #b 7,april #aicd71 pages #ajg-aaa4 #c ,this chapter was written by ,h4 ,l4 ,h4 ,,chapter ,,eleven ,,child ,h ,child ,h1 at the time this account is written1 #a is a girl of #ag years1 but the data on record terminate with her tenth year4 ,she was born ,march #be1 #aibd1 in ,new ,york ,city4 ,her parents have kept a diary of her development1 and an aunt with special educational interests has made various observations and records of her and has also familiarized herself with the parents' records4 ,,family ,,background ,her grandparents on both sides were ,austrian ,hebrews4 ,the maternal grandfather was a rabbi and did some writing4 ,the maternal grandmother is said to have shown some unusual mental alertness1 a surprising and almost untutored aptness in numerical calculation4 ,at #fe years of age she learned to play bridge very well1 and in her old age continued to show lively interests4 ,parents4 ,h's father is a newspaper reporter4 ,he attended college for three years4 ,he was #bi when ,h was born4 ,her mother is a high school graduate and before marriage was a stenographer4 ,she was #bh when ,h was born4 ,,preschool ,,history ,h is reported as a healthy child1 of average stability4 ,she is a first-born child4 ,she began to walk at #ad months and to talk at #af months1 according to the parents4 ,she cut her first tooth at #i4e months4 ,h did not learn to read until after she was #d years old4 ,at this age she was fond of play and her playmates were children ranging in age from #c to #i years4 ,her favorite recreations were sedentary--drawing1 painting1 mosaic blocks1 and the like4 ,at #b years of age she was given a box of wooden beads for stringing4 ,she very quickly learned the art of holding the string in the right hand and the bead in the left1 and became very much absorbed in her work4 ,suddenly she looked up and said1 ',beads1 onions4' ,the record continues3 ,alternatives seem a preferred mode of expression at present1 so that she wants 'soup1 not peas'2 her hands are 'clean1 not dirty4' ,at #b years #aj months1 upon seeing a picture of a little girl mailing a letter1 she told herself the following story3 ,once upon a time there was a little girl and she wanted to mail a letter4 ,she went out and looked for a letter box and found one near the drug store4 ,she mailed the letter and it came to ,wawarsing and ,sheve received it4 7,sheve was an aunt living at ,wawarsing47 ,storytelling and writing plays and verses became a favorite pastime in later childhood4 ,at this time ,h had imaginary companions4 ,for several days ,mr4 ,parkey 7an invented character7 was her very close friend4 ,she played with him1 conversed with him1 loved him1 killed him1 and brought him to life again4 ,she also invented new names for her dolls--,flossie became ,woozie and ,alice became ,katch4 ,at #b years #aa months she asked the meaning of the words excitement1 guarantee1 and neatness4 ,she constantly asked about the meaning of words4 ,she sang songs to herself1 such as ,go into the next room1 where there's no steam heat4 ,at this age she asked how babies are made4 ,where do they come from8 ,how do they come out8 ,why8 ,will a baby grow in my belly when ,i'm a big lady8 ,at #c years she wanted to know if people wear out like brushes and combs4 ,she purchased for an imaginary house an extrola1 a gate-legged table1 a gate-legged bookcase1 and gate-legged chairs4 ,at #c years #j months1 waiting for her cereal to cool1 a lump of butter put into it is slowly melting4 ,h remarks1 her eyes on the butter1 ,now it's a baby--baby died--no more baby4 ,and noting the snow1 she said1 ,my muffler is as white as the snow4 ,she looks again at snow and muffler4 ,no1 it's a different white4 ,there is on record a vocabulary compiled by the mother when ,h was #c years old 7,may #bc1 #aibg74 ,it was based on a count of all the words used by ,h regardless of whether she could tell exactly what they mean4 ,tenses of verbs are given but no plurals of nouns4 ,the list includes about #adjj words1 approximately classifiable as follows3 ,nouns #gde ,pronouns #ag ,verbs #dja ,prepositions #ae ,adjectives #afa ,conjunctions #e ,adverbs #fc ,interjections #i ,,mental ,,measurements ,march #bd1 #aibg4 ,age #c years4 ,stanford-,binet examination given by ,dr4 ,ella ,woodyard1 with the following results3 ,mental ,age1 #e-f2 ,,iq1 #ahc4 ,march #h1 #aicj4 ,age #e years #aa months4 ,stanford-,binet examination given by ,leta ,s4 ,hollingworth1 with the following results3 ,mental ,age1 #h-i2 ,,iq1 #adh4 ,at this time ,h was in ,grade #a;,a4 ,april #ba1 #aicc4 ,age #i years #a month4 ,stanford-,binet examination given by ,alice ,m4 ,holmes1 with the following results3 ,mental ,age1 #ag-b2 ,,iq1 #ahi4 ,at this age she was in ,grades #e;,a and #f;,b1 ,p4,s4 #bjf1 ,manhattan1 and is described as a quiet and unassuming person1 but most responsive4 ,she would like to be with children her own mental age1 for then she would get a mental stimulus and a social life that seems to be denied her now4 ,in this same month 7,april1 #aicc7 the ,new ,stanford ,achievement ,test3 ,advanced ,battery3 ,form ,v1 given by ,alice ,m4 ,holmes1 showed scores as follows3 ,paragraph ,meaning #aji ,geography #aje ,word ,meaning #ajc ,physiology and ,hygiene #ij ,dictation #hg ,arithmetic ,reasoning #id ,language ,usage #ia ,arithmetic ,computation #aaj ,literature #ia ,average score #ig4h ,history and ,civics #ih ,september #aa1 #aicd4 ,age #aj years #f months4 ,h was given ,army ,alpha1 ,form #h1 by ,leta ,s4 ,hollingworth4 ,her score was #ace points1 which is median for college sophomores4 ,h was then in ,grade #g;,b4 ,it is noted that ,this result is just what would have been predicted from tests made by us when ,h was #c years old4 ,november #i-ag1 #aicd4 ,age #aj years #g months4 ,during this week ,h was given a number of tests by ,leta ,s4 ,hollingworth1 with the following results3 ,stanford-,binet3 ,mental ,age3 #ah-f2 ,,iq1 over #agd1 unmeasured by the test4 ,intelligence ,scale ,,cavd ,levels ,i-,m ,score #cid ,levels ,m-,q ,score #cib ,coperative ,general ,science ,test for ,college ,students3 ,score1 #ag2 ,percentile1 #aa4 ,,physical ,,measurements ,march #h1 #aicj ,h ,,norm ,standing height #dg inches #de4b ,sitting height #bd inches ,weight #dh4be pounds #da4g ,april #ba1 #aicc ,h ,,norm ,standing height #ed4e inches #ea4a ,weight #ff4e pounds #eg4e ,,intellectual ,,ability ,there is a collection of many records showing ,h's reactions and opinions from infancy up to the age of #i or #aj4 ,these contain apt comments1 sage remarks1 and discriminating judgments4 ,they reveal a lively intellectual curiosity and a socialized attitude4 ,h's parents have preserved copies of poems and short plays that ,h has written4 ,a collection of the best ones1 selections written between #e4e and #h4e years of age1 covers seventeen typewritten pages4 ,among them are the following4 ,if ,i had ,aladdin's lamp1 you see1 ,i'd give one wish to you and me4 ,and then we'd wish for every toy1 ,that every child should have some joy4 ,age #e years #f months ,on the clover fields he roams1 ,in the mountains1 ,at the homes1 ,makes the trees and flowers grow1 ,and manufactures pure1 white snow4 --,god-- ,age #h years #f months ,there was an old soldier ,he was all dressed in brown ,this soldier had an honor-- ,he was known all over town4 ,this old soldier had a misfortune1 ,that was known too4 ,his beard it covered his medal1 ,and people couldn't see through4 ,age #h years #f months ,there are in the collection brief stories1 continued tales1 short verses1 longer poems1 dialogues1 and plays divided into scenes1 with appropriate stage instructions4 ,from after the tenth year there is an undated poem1 submitted to the examiner ,september #ai1 #aici1 by the aunt of ,h4 ,this poem1 entitled ,the ,gospel of ,intolerance1 won a prize in a poetry contest4 ,of it the aunt writes3 ,it was fished out from the wastebasket by my sister4 ,to the question why she had thrown away the ,gospel of ,intolerance1 ,h answered that she did not think it was worth keeping1 that she had no particular idea in mind when writing it1 and that she was just practicing on the typewriter and thought of the phrase ,they said no1 and then the rest just came by itself4 ,incidentally1 ,h has never read the ,bible4 ,the ,gospel of ,intolerance occupies a full single-spaced typewritten page4 ,it begins as follows3 ,the ,gospel of ,intolerance ,they said no ,and who shall but hear the whisper of command shall without question don his uniform and go out upon the field of death in obedience ,and who shall lie asleep in the sun must be roused ,and who shall sit in lavender chairs eating of the earth shall drop his spoon ,and who shall lie with the woman shall turn from his passion ,and all this shall be done without words as the answer to the whisper of that which is calling and that which is in command ,and he who shall stuff his ears with cotton must needs be twice called #a ,by ,h4 ,l4 ,h4 ,,chapter ,,twelve ,,child ,i ,this child1 a girl1 was born in ,palo ,alto1 ,california1 ,june #ag1 #aibi4 ,she is the daughter of one of the male children studied by ,terman and reported in ,genetic ,studies of ,genius4 ,she was first observed when1 in ,september1 #aicg1 she entered a special class for rapid learners established by ,leta ,s4 ,hollingworth at ,speyer ,school1 ,p4,s4 #ejj1 ,manhattan4 #a ,this experimental group was made up of fifty children chosen from the public schools of the city on the basis of intelligence1 and their range in ,,iq was from #acj to #bjj4 ,of these fifty selected children1 ,child ,i was one of three whose ,,iq's exceeded #ahj4 ,,family ,,background ,child ,i's paternal grandfather was still living in #aici1 aged #fi4 ,he had a ,normal ,school education 7,south ,dakota7 and was teacher1 farmer1 and small-town merchant4 ,his education was superior to that usually achieved by farm boys4 ,his special interests were church1 travel1 and repair work on his own properties4 ,he is described by his son as stubborn1 thrifty1 and industrious1 with uncompromising attitudes toward worldliness4 ,i's paternal grandmother died when ,i's father was #i years old4 ,she had been a teacher of music and kindergarten1 and a housewife4 ,she was educated in a ,normal ,school and a ,conservatory of ,music4 ,she was an active leader in her community1 established her own kindergarten1 and was socially and musically active in local ways4 ,her home was in ,south ,dakota and her father was first ,land ,commissioner of ,dakota ,territory4 ,he had led a group of homesteaders into that region about #ahfj4 ,he was politically and educationally active--,commissioner of ,immigration1 ,commissioner of ,education1 in the ,territory4 ,no mentally defective or otherwise generally incompetent relatives on the father's side are known4 ,the great-grandmother of ,i1 on her father's side1 is said to have been a relative of ,phillips ,brooks4 ,i's maternal grandfather was born in ,texas of ancestry half ,french-,huguenot and the rest ,german-,english4 ,he was a high school graduate4 ,he was in later life a merchant and real estate operator and active in community affairs4 ,i's maternal grandmother was born in ,oklahoma1 her ancestry being ,french-,huguenot1 ,welsh1 and ,irish4 ,in education she lacked a half year of completing the work for her ,b4,a4 in the ,university of ,new ,mexico4 ,after her marriage she devoted herself to her home and family4 ,she was talented in dramatics and was active in local church1 club1 and lodge affairs4 ,father4 ,i's father was born ,march #ba1 #aiji1 in ,south ,dakota4 ,he is mainly of ,english descent4 ,he has the degree of ,b4,a4 and also of ,m4,a4 from ,stanford ,university1 and he was a candidate for the degree of ,ph4,d4 in ,public ,law in an ,eastern university at the time of this inquiry4 ,he was for eight years a college instructor1 and later was connected with a government department at ,washington1 ,d4 ,c4 ,he has been active in his profession1 has written in the field of government1 and is a member of various academic societies4 ,he was one of the #ajjj children described by ,terman in ,genetic ,studies of ,genius4 ,he has been self-supporting since the age of #ai4 ,mother4 ,i's mother was graduated from high school in ,new ,mexico and attended the ,university of ,kansas for one year4 ,she then transferred to the ,university of ,new ,mexico1 receiving her ,b4,a4 degree in #aicj4 ,two years before 7#aibh71 when she was #bj years old1 she married ,i's father1 and continued her college course4 ,after graduation she managed her home and also took some graduate courses4 ,in high school she was class poet and in the ,honor ,society four years4 ,in her college years she was active in sorority life and on publications4 ,her major interests were debating1 dramatics1 and student government4 ,at the ,university of ,kansas she was on the ,dean's ,honor ,roll 7#aibe-aibf74 ,at ,new ,mexico she held various scholastic offices and was awarded several honors4 ,in more recent years ,i's mother has taken an active part in the ,league of ,women ,voters and in the ,faculty ,wives' ,club in the college where her husband has been teaching4 ,,preschool ,,history ,the following data have been supplied by ,child ,i's parents1 who kept a baby-book record of her development3 ,length of pregnancy1 #h4e months4 ,weight at birth1 #h pounds4 ,breast fed to #b4e months1 then bottle fed to #ah months4 ,first teeth appeared at #e months and first permanent teeth at #e years4 ,walked alone 7several steps7 at #aj4e months4 ,talked in short sentences at from #ah months to #b years4 ,childhood illnesses--measles1 whooping cough1 mumps1 chicken pox1 colds4 ,,early ,,educational ,,history ,at the age of about #b years ,child ,i had been observed in the ,institute of ,child ,development 7,teachers ,college1 ,columbia ,university7 and reported as being hyperactive and of high intelligence4 ,at the age of #c or #d years she was used as a demonstration case before a class in psychology in the ,university and the ,mental ,age of #g was assigned to her at that time4 ,shortly after1 she attended a kindergarten in the neighborhood of her home where they gave her extra work--,french and dancing4 ,she liked this school4 ,at the age of #e years she entered kindergarten at ,p4,s4 #aic1 ,manhattan1 for half-day sessions only1 although she wished to go all day4 ,at the age of #f years she was entered in the first grade at ,p4,s4 #ahf1 ,manhattan1 and in the second term was skipped to ,grade #b;,a4 ,she spent her spare time aimlessly drawing1 and was allowed to bring library books to school4 ,some of the time she sat with folded hands when her work was finished1 and she resented this4 ,,mental ,,measurements ,january #ad1 #aicg1 was the date of ,i's first examination1 at the age of #g years #g months1 and her ,stanford-,binet ,,iq was #ahd4 ,in ,september1 #aicg1 at the age of #h years #c months1 she was given ,intelligence ,examination ,,cavd1 ,levels ,h-,m4 ,her score was #cfa points4 ,the comment recorded by the examiner 7,leta ,s4 ,hollingworth7 is3 ,median seventh-grade child is close to this mark4 ,child ,i had at this time just come from a school in which she had been placed in the third grade4 ,records are available of several achievement tests ,child ,i took at different dates4 ,representative results are to be found in two ,stanford ,achievement tests given in ,december1 #aicg1 and in ,june1 #aich4 ,in the first of these she averaged an age rating of #ab-c and a grade of #f4c2 in the second1 her age rating was #ac-e and her grade #g4f4 ,in six months she had advanced a year and two months in ,educational ,age and had made a similar advance in grade status4 ,the following table gives the detailed results of these two examinations4 ,,age ,,age ,,grade ,,grade ,,subject ,,december1 ,,june ,,december1 ,,june1 #aicg #aich #aicg #aich ,paragraph ,meaning #ac-g #ae-h #g4h #i4g ,word ,meaning #ab-aa #ae-d #g4b #i4c ,dictation #i-aa #aa-g #d4a #e4g ,language #ad-d #ae-d #h4d #i4c ,literature #aa-aa #ae-f #f4a #i4e ,history and ,civics #ac-a #ac-g #g4d #g4h ,geography #ab-d #ad-h #f4f #h4g ,physiology and ,hygiene #ab-aa #ac-e #g4b #g4f ,arithmetic ,reasoning #aa-h #aa-c #e4h #e4d ,arithmetic ,computation #aj-e #aa-j #d4d #e4a ,average score #ab-b #ac-e #f4e #g4h ,child ,i left this experimental school a year after admission1 when her father was appointed to a position in another state1 to which the family moved4 ,in the new school she was placed in the fifth grade1 on the ground that she might make better social adjustments there1 although her achievements were clearly already better than those of average sixth-grade pupils4 ,it is unfortunate that no follow-up of this child has been possible4 ,her record and the variety of her abilities were striking4 ,she was one of the most outstanding and best-liked pupils in the group at ,speyer ,school4 ,in addition to her remarkable intelligence she possessed desirable supporting traits which led the teachers to predict that she might go farther than any other child in the selected group of fifty rapid learners4 ,the fairly complete account of ,i's background and early development has been here provided in the hope that it may be made of use by investigators at some later time4 ,,physical ,,measurements ,,and ,,health ,measurements1 as of ,january #af1 #aici1 age #i years #f months1 were as follows3 ,,child ,i ,,norm ,height #eh4e inches #eb ,weight #if pounds #fa4e ,chest circumference #bi inches ,head circumference #ba4a inches ,eye color brown ,hair color dark brown ,tonsils and adenoids caused trouble in #aicc and were removed in #aicd4 ,no visual defects noted4 ,occasional headaches usually from reading or remaining long periods indoors4 ,hearing excellent4 ,nutrition excellent4 ,no symptoms of general weakness4 ,parents report ,i to be at least very excitable1 and that she shows impulsive actions and extreme eagerness4 ,no sleep difficulties2 no muscular twitching2 no special fears4 ,sleeps nine hours1 fairly soundly4 ,,miscellaneous ,,characteristics ,her superior ability was first noticed by people from the ,university1 at #ae months1 because of comprehension beyond that expected at such an age4 ,she is interested in music and wrote the school song at ,speyer4 ,she has been very much interested in nature study and science since her second or third year1 and in her relationship to the world and the cosmos4 ,has asked questions frequently concerning origins and creation4 ,she has shown no special interests in mechanics1 drawing1 or painting1 but from her second year she has had active interests in recitation and in the dramatization of nursery rhymes1 etc4 ,she has played with imaginary companions4 ,she began making up rhymes at an early age4 ,she reasons logically and has a strong sense of justice4 ,a neatly bound volume of typed pages1 prepared by ,i as a ,christmas present1 #aicg1 for ,leta ,s4 ,hollingworth1 is entitled ,first ,poems4 ,there are in the collection a dozen short verses or longer poems1 each dated by ,i's age at the time of composition4 ,the ages range from #d4e to #h years4 ,a few samples follow4 ,,stars ,the stars are shining bright tonight ,i wonder why they shine so bright ,i guess to make it light at night4 ,age #e years ,,the ,,cave ,,man ,the cave man was a hunter1 ,a hunter brave and bold4 ,he wore the skins of those he killed ,to keep him from the cold4 ,and many ages later1 when he had passed away1 ,men found in caves the sharpened stones ,that he used every day4 ,age #g years #e months ,,flowers ,red and yellow tulips blooming on the lawn1 ,blooming in the woodland1 trampled by the fawn1 ,little yellow dandelions hiding in the meadows1 ,given to the cow to eat every time she bellows4 ,pretty red roses upon a bush ,like a little lady bursting with a blush4 ,white and purple lilacs on a bush of olive green ,as a birthday present were given to the queen4 ,age #g years #e months ,,searching ,a wandering stranger am ,i ,i believe in nothing but the great powers of the gods1 ,the whole world have ,i searched for their wisdom4 ,but such wisdom found have ,i not4 ,though ,i have searched the world over ,not a trace of such can be found4 ,i have searched on the hilltops1 in the valleys-- ,i wonder if such things there are in this wide world of wonder4 ,the rocks have ,i broken ,to find this great wisdom ,but the wonderous marvels are not to be found4 ,age #h years #a ,this chapter was written by ,h4 ,l4 ,h4 ,,chapter ,,thirteen ,,child ,j ,early in #aicg the principal of ,p4,s4 #ajg1 ,the ,bronx1 ,new ,york ,city1 referred one of her pupils to the ,bureau of ,educational ,guidance of ,teachers ,college1 ,columbia ,university4 #a ,this child was ,j1 a girl then about #g years #f months old1 born ,may #ah1 #aibi4 ,she was at this time in ,grade #e;,a1 and the principal and teachers had concluded that she was so superior in mental level that the ordinary school program could offer her no challenge4 ,examinations by the psychologists of the ,bureau showed clearly enough the correctness of this judgment4 ,at the age of #g years #aj months1 ,march #bb1 #aicg1 her ,mental ,age by ,stanford-,binet was #ae-e4 ,since she met with success on the ,superior ,adult level1 no actual upper limit of her ability was established4 ,she was reported1 therefore1 as having an ,,iq of #aig or better1 and was recommended for admission to the experimental class for quick learners in ,speyer ,school1 ,p4,s4 #ejj1 ,manhattan1 which she entered4 ,in connection with these tests at the ,bureau of ,child ,guidance a most instructive and detailed report was made by the psychologist 7,edna ,mann74 ,most of the items of the following description of ,j at this age are drawn from this report1 which fills three single-spaced typewritten pages4 ,,family ,,background ,both parents graduated from college4 ,the father is an instructor in ,english in a large ,eastern university4 ,in the interests of educational research he took1 on ,april #bj1 #aici1 ,,ier ,intelligence ,scale ,,cavd1 ,levels ,m-,q4 ,his score was #dde points1 which the examiner1 ,leta ,s4 ,hollingworth1 reports is included in the top #a per cent of college graduates and indicates an ,,iq of not less than #ahj in childhood4 ,the mother of ,j is a graduate of a large ,midwestern university and a former schoolteacher4 ,she also took the ,,cavd test at the same time that her husband did1 making a score of #dcf points4 ,this1 the examiner reported1 is included in the top #e per cent of college graduates and indicates an ,,iq of not less than #agj in childhood4 ,j has one sister1 four years younger than herself1 born ,may #a1 #aicc4 ,this sister was given a ,stanford-,binet test under distracting conditions following a trolley-car accident4 ,of the outcome1 the examiner 7,dr4 ,m4 ,c4 ,pritchard7 notes3 ,this was not a good test and perhaps should not even be included4 4 4 4 ,several times she asked to leave the room to see how her mother was4 ,she was obviously distracted throughout4 ,nevertheless1 the ,mental ,age found was #i-b at ,chronological ,age #g-j 7,,iq #aca74 ,in the routine test given to pupils in #a;,a grades of the public schools this sister is reported to have had a score of #adc 7presumably ,,iq1 by some group test74 ,,childhood ,,characteristics ,at the age of #g years #aj months ,j is described as poised1 competent1 self-controlled1 and with social and intellectual maturity strikingly advanced4 ,she had clear speech1 excellent diction1 fertile and pointedly expressed ideas4 ,she was a rather thin child1 with clear complexion and very bright blue eyes1 and was neatly dressed4 ,teeth were described as slightly protruding4 ,in the test she was interested and coperative4 ,her conversation revealed a rich cultural background4 ,she disliked the necessity in school of repeated drills in things she already knew1 and she did not need or wish repeated instructions for the tests1 even when standard practice called for them4 ,she was well-read1 and discussed with discrimination plays1 books1 and radio programs4 ,at #c years of age she had been reading books4 ,at #e she learned to write her name so that she could take out a library card4 ,at #g years #aj months she had read six ,shakespearean plays4 ,she read all kinds of books1 and used dictionaries and encyclopedias independently4 ,she was at that time composing1 with a playmate1 a ,jingles ,book4 ,at this age she liked to play with children two or three years older than herself4 ,she played vigorously and for several hours a day at many outdoor sports2 she did not need to do school homework4 ,her manner was natural1 free from conceit and from exhibitionism of her abilities4 ,she had good habits of work and enjoyed the challenge of the mental tests4 ,her vocabulary1 language responses1 and abstract thinking were clearly on an adult level4 ,she is credited by the examiner with remarkable degrees of mental control1 concentration1 constructive visual imagery1 and manipulation of mathematical and verbal concepts1 rote memory1 and inductive reasoning4 ,on a standardized test of reading ability she exhibited a ,reading ,age of #ad years #e months at this time 7#g years #aj months74 ,her writing was reported as excellent4 ,her earlier educational progress reflects her extraordinary ability4 ,in her first six months at school she completed four terms of work4 ,she was one term in ,grade #c;,a1 and then in one term passed through #c;,b1 #d;,a1 and #d;,b4 ,j's parents had from the beginning given intelligent attention to her adjustments in school and to her friendships4 ,she had been wisely guided1 motivated to make friends rather than to be in constant leadership1 and she was well liked and accepted by her classmates4 ,at this early age the psychological examiner was able confidently to predict3 ,in view of her exceptional intelligence1 her apparently good health1 her apparently excellent social adjustment1 she can be expected to attain distinction and to win leadership in higher educational and professional fields4 ,,later ,,mental ,,tests ,j was given a second ,stanford-,binet test by ,dr4 ,m4 ,c4 ,pritchard within three days of her tenth birthday1 on ,may #ae1 #aici1 using the #aicg ,revision1 ,form ,l4 ,a ,mental ,age of #bj years was achieved which1 if her limit had been reached1 would have meant an ,,iq of #bjj--very like the #aig plus attaned at the earlier ,chronological ,age4 ,on ,february #ag1 #aich1 at the age of #i years #i months1 ,j had also taken ,,ier ,intelligence ,scale ,,cavd1 ,levels ,i to ,m1 making a score of #chd points4 ,several records are available on the ,new ,stanford ,achievement ,tests given1 a different form each time1 to the pupils in the experimental class at ,speyer ,school at intervals of six months4 ,annual tests at the close of each school year1 for a period of three years1 may be used here to show ,j's ability and progress in these respects4 ,such scores are as follows3 ,,educational ,,age ,,function ,,form ,w ,,form ,y ,,form ,x ,,form ,w ,june #af1 ,june #a1 ,may #ca1 ,may #ah1 #aicg #aich #aici #aidj ,paragraph ,meaning #ag-j #ah-e ,unmeasured ,unmeasured ,word ,meaning #ae-i #af-aj #ag-b #ag-h ,dictation #af-f #ag-h #ah-b ,unmeasured ,language ,usage #af-e #ai-b #ah-aa ,unmeasured ,literature #af-j #af-b #ah-h ,unmeasured ,history and ,civics #ab-f #ab-aj #ae-aa #ag-d ,geography #aa-aa #af-b #ag-d #ah-e ,physiology and ,hygiene #ab-f #ad-f #af-aj #ah-e ,arithmetic ,reasoning #ac-a #af-f #ag-d #ag-f ,arithmetic ,computation #aa-aj #ad-f #ag-f #ag-f ,average score #ad-d #af-c #ag-h #ah-e ,grade status #h4d ,unmeasured ,unmeasured ,unmeasured ,the first of these achievement tests was given shortly after ,j entered the experimental class1 from the fifth grade in a public school1 at the age of about #g years #f months4 ,at that time her school achievement scores show her to have been between eighth- and ninth-grade status1 with an ,educational ,age just about twice her ,chronological ,age4 ,so far as ,educational ,age is concerned1 although the experimental program was half concerned with enrichment activities rather than with the conventional fundamentals1 ,j advanced one year and eleven months during the first school year there1 one year and five months during the second year1 and nine months during the last year4 ,by this time progress was practically impossible because after the first year most of her scores were unmeasured in grade status1 being above the standards for tenth grade4 ,as a matter of mere achievement scores1 ,j was ready for high school work at the age of being received from the fifth grade into the experimental classes at ,speyer ,school4 ,there are in the files several poems written by ,j while she was in ,speyer ,school1 before ,may1 #aici2 that is1 before her tenth birthday4 ,the following may be given as a representative sample of these compositions4 ,a ,,march ,,snowfall ,it's ,march1 yet snow is falling fast1 ,and one may hear the wintry blast4 ,a budding tree1 a sign of spring1 ,will to me great gladness bring4 ,when crocuses have put their heads1 ,above the softened garden beds1 ,and when in all the fields around ,lively little lambkins bound1 ,and green creeps up across the lawn ,i'll be glad the snow has gone4 #a ,this chapter was written by ,h4 ,l4 ,h4 ,,chapter ,,fourteen ,,child ,k ,child ,k is a boy1 born ,december #ai1 #aibb4 ,he first came to the attention of this series of researches in #aibi when his grandmother sought advice concerning his education from ,leta ,s4 ,hollingworth4 #a ,,family ,,background ,k's paternal grandparents are ,english and ,scotch-,irish4 ,the grandfather is said to write poetry and the grandmother to compose music for the verses4 ,k's maternal grandparents are of ,jewish origin1 both born in ,america4 ,the grandfather was a teacher1 the grandmother was in business4 ,this grandmother was the seventh of twelve children4 ,the youngest of these is said to be a brilliant woman of executive ability4 ,the eldest1 at the age of #gi1 reads all the papers1 compares notes1 etc4 ,one of the brothers in this group was a physician1 another a lawyer4 ,a cousin of ,k teaches in ,massachusetts ,institute of ,technology and was called during the ,first ,world ,war for special work in mathematics4 ,this man's sister is an archaeologist married to an archaeologist4 ,three of ,k's grandmother's sisters are teachers2 another is an artist4 ,no mentally deficient or totally incompetent persons are known among the ancestors4 ,k has two siblings1 brothers younger than himself4 ,both are reported to be bright4 ,father4 ,k's father is an electrician1 a graduate of high school and of ,cooper ,union4 ,he was born in ,antigua and was #cb or #cd years old when ,k was born4 ,one of his sisters is a high school teacher in ,brooklyn2 another is a nurse2 another1 a stenographer4 ,mother4 ,k's mother is recorded as of ,american-,jewish origin4 ,she was #cj or #ca years old when ,k was born4 ,she is a graduate of high school and of ,hunter ,college 7,a4,b471 ,new ,york ,city1 and holds a license to teach music in the ,new ,york ,city schools4 ,at the date of records she was actively in service1 teaching general subjects4 ,she had taken three maternity leaves of absence4 ,,early ,,development ,k's parents rate him as a child with excellent health1 sturdy but nervous4 ,he may have had measles1 but there were no other childhood illnesses except occasional colds4 ,when tiny1 he would wake up with great imaginings4 ,at a little older age he would cry with high tension2 he no longer does this4 ,according to parents1 ,k cut his first tooth at #f months4 ,he began to walk at about #bj months and to talk at about #b years4 ,he learned to read at about #c years4 ,while still a baby in his carriage he could read 'ice' and he would read the billboards4 ,before #c he would sit down with a book and read4 ,at #e years of age ,k wanted to discriminate in meaning between bluff1 joke1 and fake4 ,he is untiring in his attention to books4 ,he will sit with an ,american history1 an ,english history1 and ,godey's ,history of ,american ,beginnings in ,europe 7which goes into ,greece and ,rome7 and the dictionary around him1 and will work at these for hours4 ,at the age here reported ,k had no playmates4 ,his younger brothers played by themselves4 ,k did not like to play4 ,his favorite recreations were reading and transferring pictures1 and consulting almanacs and dictionaries4 ,he has a passion for accuracy4 ,he has as yet made no collections1 and has no pets4 ,he has no imaginary companions and no imaginary lands4 ,,mental ,,measurements ,on ,april #aj1 #aibi1 ,k was brought to ,teachers ,college1 ,columbia ,university1 for mental testing4 ,the ,stanford-,binet and other methods were employed4 ,he was then #f years #d months old and had not yet entered school4 ,on the ,stanford-,binet his ,mental ,age at that date was #i-a1 giving an ,,iq of #adc4 ,but the examiner added a note to the record to the effect that3 ,it is predicted that this child will test much higher later1 when examined under standard conditions1 alone with the examiner4 ,the conditions under which this test was taken are not recorded1 but it was probably a class demonstration4 ,on ,march #bf1 #aica1 at the age of #h years #c months1 ,k was again given a ,standard-,binet test by the same examiner4 ,he was then in ,grade #e;,a1 although only two years before he had not yet entered school4 ,this time his ,mental ,age was #ad-h1 giving him an ,,iq of close to #ahj4 ,the earlier prediction of an increase in ,,iq at a later age was fulfilled1 under standardized conditions4 ,although ,k was in ,grade #e;,a at this time1 it is noted that ,writing is only about third-grade ability4 ,in this manual cordination ,k's score was nearer to his ,chronological ,age than was his mental level4 ,he was also given ,trabue ,language ,completion ,scale ,a on this date1 with a score of ,grade #f4e1 a full year ahead of his actual1 though advanced1 school placement4 ,of such cases the examiner commented as follows3 ,the little boy scored a ,mental ,age of #ad years #h months4 ,only one or two eight-year-olds in a hundred thousand reach such a score4 ,these children are so far beyond the average that schools are not equipped to handle them adequately4 ,experts in education do not know what the best procedure is in regard to their placement in school1 but we hope to find out as time goes on4 4 4 4 ,i asked you to bring the little boy again for purely professional reasons--to learn how he is developing1 how he conducts himself1 and what his interests are4 ,we want to find out how to educate these children4 4 4 4 ,tell him ,i am sure he is going to have a good future if he learns to get self-control4 7,i mention this last because you spoke of his having emotional upsets47 ,,physical ,,measurements ,at the age of #f years #d months1 ,k's standing height was #dh4b inches and his weight was #ej4e pounds4 7,norms #df4j inches1 and #dd pounds47 ,at the age of #h years #c months1 ,k's standing height was #ec inches2 sitting height1 #bh4b inches2 weight1 #fb pounds4 ,in the two-year interval ,k had gained #e inches in height and #ab pounds in weight4 7,age norms #di4h inches1 and #ed4f pounds47 ,,later ,,educational ,,progress ,there is little record in the files of the subsequent career of this boy and no follow-up has been made possible4 ,a letter from his mother1 dated ,december #cj1 #aicc1 reports that ,k is now just eleven 7birthday this month7 and will graduate from public school next month4 ,this would mean completion of the eighth grade at the age of #aa years4 ,there is also a letter from his mother dated ,december #aj1 #aicg1 at which time ,k was nearly #ae years old4 ,in the following month he was to be graduated from ,theodore ,roosevelt ,high ,school1 ,new ,york ,city4 ,plans were being made and advice sought concerning college4 ,k had gone through high school an honor student4 4 4 4 ,his high school record is outstanding4 ,regents marks1 etc41 exceptionally high4 #a ,this chapter was written by ,h4 ,l4 ,h4 ,,chapter ,,fifteen ,,child ,l ,this exceptionally gifted boy1 born ,may #e1 #aibg1 was a member from the beginning of the experimental group for rapid learners established ,february1 #aicf1 in ,speyer ,school by ,leta ,s4 ,hollingworth4 #a ,in achievement as measured by standard tests from time to time he led that group of highly selected children1 his ,,iq being #bjj4 ,at the request of his parents he had been recommended for admission to the project by the principal of the public school he was then attending in ,brooklyn 7,p4,s4 #ce74 ,,family ,,background ,child ,l's ancestry is ,austrian-,hebrew4 ,of his paternal relatives1 an uncle and a cousin are rabbis1 and at the time this record was made a cousin was professor of mathematics in the ,university of ,krakow4 ,l's maternal grandfather was an ,austrian merchant and also a learned man1 who is said to have written several books4 ,the maternal grandmother of ,l was active in local circles to which she belonged4 ,at her death she left money for ,l's college education4 ,a maternal uncle is an architect4 ,l's mother's cousin is a physician4 ,no mentally defective or totally incompetent persons among ,l's ancestors are known4 ,father4 ,child ,l's father is a high school graduate4 ,he was #cc years of age when ,l was born4 ,his trade is that of jeweler1 but being unable to find work in this line he has taken employment in a factory making airplane precision instruments4 ,mother4 ,l's mother is a high school graduate4 ,she was #bi years of age when ,l1 her only child1 was born4 ,she was a dressmaker before her marriage4 ,,early ,,history ,l is rated by his parents as having good health and as being well-balanced4 ,he cut his first tooth at #i months1 began to talk at #i months1 according to his parents1 and to walk at #ae months4 ,he learned to read at #d years4 ,his playmates are several years older than he 7#aj-ab years74 ,l likes to play4 ,his favorite recreations are reading1 chess1 and checkers4 ,in ,january1 #aice1 at the age of #h years #e months1 he was in ,grade #e;,a#a4 ,his school ratings had been ,a for every term and he had accomplished four years' work in two years4 ,the ,otis ,self-,administering ,tests had been used in the school and ,l had been credited with an ,,iq of #aec--much lower than that subsequently found to characterize him4 ,it was at this time that he was recommended for the group of rapid learners at ,speyer ,school4 ,on ,september #bh1 #aicf1 at age #i years #e months1 a ,stanford-,binet test given ,l by ,donald ,mac,murray1 a graduate student1 showed him to have a ,mental ,age of between #ag-aj and #ah-d1 and an ,,iq of from #ahi to #aie4 ,on ,january #ah1 #aici1 a ,revised ,stanford-,binet 7#aicg form7 given ,l by another graduate student showed him to have a ,mental ,age of #ai-f1 his ,chronological ,age then being #aj-h4 ,the ,,iq thus determined was #ahc4 ,more dependable is a similar measure made ,may #e1 #aicg1 by an expert in the ,guidance ,laboratory at ,teachers ,college 7,rosalind ,blum74 ,at ,chronological ,age #aj-j1 with the ,revised ,stanford-,binet 7#aicg ,form #a7 ,l's score was ,mental ,age #ai-aa1 ,,iq #aii4 ,certain details in the report of this test are worth reproduction here4 ,,guidance ,,laboratory ,,report ,,of ,l ,date of birth3 ,may #f1 #aibg ,,ca #aj-j ,date of test3 ,may #e1 #aicg ,,ma #ai-aa ,test3 ,revised ,binet1 ,form ,l ,,iq #aii ,l earned a basal age at ,superior ,adult ,i ,level4 ,at ,superior ,adult ,,ii ,level he successfully completed all the items except interpretation of one of the proverbs4 ,at ,superior ,adult ,,iii ,level one more test was passed--,orientation4 ,l was friendly and coperative throughout the test4 ,although he had never seen the examiner before1 he made an excellent adjustment to the testing situation4 ,throughout the test he indicated a genuine desire to be as accurate as possible4 ,all his responses were given in great detail and he always told much more than was necessary in order to earn credit4 ,psychometrically ,l ranks in the top tenth of one per cent of the population4 ,his intellectual development is very superior4 ,his level of comprehension1 vocabulary1 memory1 and verbal ability are outstanding4 ,he displayed excellent insight into his work and spontaneously criticized his own performance4 ,when difficult items were presented1 he frankly admitted that he could not respond accurately4 ,he was persistent in his efforts and devoted excellent attention at all times4 ,he has a good understanding of the limits of his ability4 4 4 4 ,it is impossible to recommend appropriate school placement for this boy1 since such ability as he possesses appears in about one out of every million individuals4 4 4 4 ,his emotional1 educational1 and social adjustments will always be difficult because of his advanced intellectual development4 4 4 4 ,l has acquired a wealth of information4 ,we can be sure of one thing--no matter where this boy attends school1 no matter what the teaching devices are1 he will always learn new facts and instruct himself4 ,such intellectual curiosity as this boy possesses will always be satisfied because of his own drive to acquire both information and skills4 ,a further picture of ,l's ability at an early age is given by his scores in two ,,cavd ,intelligence ,scale records1 made under the supervision of ,leta ,s4 ,hollingworth4 ,the first of these was made by ,l in ,november-,december1 #aicf1 at the age of #i years #f months4 ,his score 7,levels ,m-,q7 was #cib points1 which is noted as equivalent to a good score for tenth-grade pupils who plan and are encouraged to go to a first-rate college4 ,the second ,,cavd score 7,levels ,m-,q7 was made in the spring of #aici1 at the age of #aa years #aj months4 ,his score was #daf points--a score which is median for ,teachers ,college ,m4,a4 candidates and also for ,yale ,law school freshmen4 ,such a score is at the #c;d decile of scores made by ,ph4,d4 candidates at ,teachers ,college1 ,columbia ,university4 ,it was made by ,l while he was still in the elementary grades4 ,,achievement ,,at ,,speyer ,,school ,a few records of scores on the ,new ,stanford ,achievement ,test will show the remarkable academic work of this boy from the age of #i years #f months to #ab years #f months4 ,,subject ,december #d1 ,december #f1 ,december #ab1 ,december #d1 #aicf #aicg #aich #aici ,age ,grade ,age ,grade ,age ,grade ,age ,grade ,paragraph ,meaning #ag-h #aa4g #ah-e ,,um ,,um ,,um ,,um ,,um ,word ,meaning #ae-h #i4g #ag-aa ,,um #ag-h ,,um #ah-h ,,um ,dictation #ae-f #i4e #ag-f ,,um #ag-h ,,um #ah-b ,,um ,language ,usage #ae-i #i4h #af-aj ,,um #ah-h ,,um #ai-b ,,um ,literature #ac-i #g4i #af-b ,,um #af-f ,,um #af-h ,,um ,history and ,civics #ad-d #h4d #ae-j #i4j #af-e ,,um ,,um ,,um ,geography #ag-f #aa4f #ai-b ,,um #ag-h ,,um ,,um ,,um ,physiology and ,hygiene #ae-d #i4c #ai-b ,,um ,,um ,,um ,,um ,,um ,arithmetic ,reasoning #ad-a #h4b #ai-b ,,um #ag-h ,,um ,,um ,,um ,arithmetic ,computation #ad-aj #h4i #ag-d ,,um #ag-aa ,,um ,,um ,,um ,average #ae-f #i4e #ag-f ,,um #ah-b ,,um ,,um ,,um ,at the time of the first of these achievement examinations1 age #i years #f months1 ,l's achievement already exceeded the status of high school freshmen4 ,after this his work could not be measured 7,,um7 by grade standards4 ,progress was still possible1 however1 in the subject in which his initial scores were relatively lower4 ,all but one of these were brought up to an unmeasurable point during the second year4 ,for such a child the time spent on drill in the fundamentals would be sheer waste--and yet he is too young to go to high school with children half again as old as he4 ,in ,speyer ,school he entered actively into the enrichment program and was intellectually easily the leader of the group4 ,the following chart shows1 through scores in ,modern ,school ,achievement ,tests as of ,february #ac1 #aicf1 ,l's comparative status with respect to normal expectations for his age and also with respect to the average status of the class of gifted children which he had just joined in the experimental school at ,speyer4 ,,fig4 #ac4 ,,comparative ,,educational ,,achievement4 ,the ,y axis is labeled ,grade1 while the ,x axis shows subjects4 ,line #a is ,l's scores1 ,line #b is the ,class ,median1 and ,line #c shows the ,average ,scores at ,l's ,age4 ,l's scores are always higher than the ,class ,median1 which are always higher than the average scores4 ,the scores for these #c are as follows 7respectively73 ,comprehension1 #i1 #f4e1 #c4b2 ,reading ,speed1 #f1 #e4e1 #c4b2 ,spelling1 #f4h1 #e4f1 #c4b2 ,language ,usage1 #i1 #e4h1 #c4b2 ,arithmetic ,computation1 #f4e1 #d1 #c4b2 ,arithmetic ,reasoning1 #g4e1 #d4e1 #c4b2 ,health ,knowledge1 #h1 #e4b1 #c4b2 ,elementary ,science1 #i1 #d4g1 #c4b2 ,history1 ,civics1 #g1 #c4g1 #c4b2 ,geography1 #h4f1 #c4e1 #c4b4 ,young ,l's erudition was astonishing4 ,his passion for scholarly accuracy and thoroughness set a high standard for accomplishment4 ,he was relatively large1 robust1 and impressive1 and was fondly dubbed ,professor4 ,his attitudes and abilities were appreciated by both pupils and teachers4 ,he was often allowed to lecture 7for as long as an hour7 on some special topic1 such as the history of timepieces1 ancient theories of engine construction1 mathematics1 and history4 ,he constructed out of odds and ends 7typewriter ribbon spools1 for example7 a homemade clock of the pendular type to illustrate some of the principles of chronometry1 and this clock was set up before the class during the enrichment unit on ,time and ,time ,keeping1 to demonstrate some of the principles of chronometry4 ,his notebooks were marvels of masterly exposition4 ,being discontented with what he considered the inadequate treatment of land travel in a class unit on ,transportation1 he agreed that time was too limited to do justice to everything4 ,but he insisted that at least they should have covered ancient theory4 ,as an extra and voluntary project he brought in elaborate drawings and accounts of the ancient theories of engines1 locomotives1 etc4 ,subsequent to a visit to the school by an assistant superintendent associated with its work1 ,l addressed to this dignitary the following communication4 ,he was at that time #aj years of age4 ,november #cj1 #aici ,dr4 ------ ------ ,assistant ,superintendent #ejj ,park ,avenue ,new ,york1 ,n4 ,y4 ,dear ,dr4 ------3 ,several of my classmates have informed me that you questioned them as to the relationship of ,archimides to our unit on ,music1 ,art1 and ,literature4 ,we are not confining ourselves to ,music1 ,art1 and ,literature1 but are also studying the background that helped to produce this culture4 ,we feel that the only way that we can acquire a full view of this is to study contemporary contributors to the advance of civilization4 ,i1 being greatly interested in mathematics1 volunteered to deliver a report on ,archimides who was famous for his mathematical research4 ,but this is not the only way ,archimides is related to our unit on ,music1 ,art1 and ,literature4 ,in the act of writing any great piece of music a knowledge of mathematics is essential4 ,also in any good work of art it enters into the form of perspective without which a drawing is apt to be void and lifeless4 ,therefore ,archimides has been included in our unit4 ,i hope that you will soon visit our classroom again for all the children enjoy the talks you often give them4 ,respectfully yours 7,signed7 ,,high ,,school ,,record ,,to ,,date ,,of ,,writing ,l entered ,bronx ,science ,high ,school in ,february1 #aidj4 ,this high school selects its students on the basis of a competitive examination4 ,no classification on the basis of ability is made after entrance to the school4 ,l's final grades for the first term1 closing ,june1 #aidj1 are3 ,english1 #ie2 ,social ,studies1 #ii2 ,mathematics1 #ajj2 ,science1 #ii2 ,average1 #ih4be4 ,the judgment of his supervisors and teachers is shown by the following quotations from comments about him1 as of ,june1 #aidj4 #b ,he is an excellent student4 ,my only criticism of the boy is that he is too mature4 ,he should be more of a nuisance4 ,as ,i see it1 our problem of adjustment here for ,l is to make him more of a real boy4 ,dr4 ,m1 ,administrative ,assistant4 ,he is a wonderful boy1 and that covers everything4 ,mr4 ,c41 ,social ,studies4 ,l is the best boy ,i have had in all of my teaching experience1 and ,i have taught in the ,new ,york ,city schools since #aiac4 ,he is the only boy ,i ever gave #ajj as a final mark4 ,he knows rules of trigonometry that he never has had in school4 ,mr4 ,w1 ,mathematics4 ,i first became acquainted with ,l when he walked into my office last term and introduced himself4 ,he said he was trying to make up his mind between ,science ,high ,school and ,townsend ,harris4 ,he had decided the most sensible way was for him to visit both schools and then make his decision4 ,he is a most unusual youngster4 ,we found he surpassed any child in the class4 ,i am going to discuss with his next term's teacher what modifications can be made of the required work4 ,it won't be a matter of skipping anything4 ,l needs to cover all the subject matter taught4 ,he can profit from experience in manipulative situations in the laboratory4 ,we may be able to arrange additional laboratory periods which will give him an opportunity to work out his own problems4 ,his classmates look upon ,l as something of a genius4 ,mr4 ,z41 ,head of ,science ,department4 ,l feels that the school he chose is a good one and is well suited to his purposes1 because the teachers are very good1 the school teaches the subjects he wants to learn1 and he is not hampered by the excessive size of the school4 ,by way of improvement he suggests ,more mathematics equipment and class formed according to students' ratings1 smartest ten1 say1 in first class1 etc4 ,in addition to his work in this school1 and to his earlier school work1 ,l has gone to ,hebrew school about nine hours a week for four years1 and has just been graduated therefrom with first honors4 ,he reports many hobbies and outside interests--such as making model airplanes1 doing science experiments at home1 reading1 using the microscope1 collecting early ,american ,money and stamps4 ,he does not do much outdoor playing--,not because ,i do not want to play outdoors but because ,i lack the time and the companions4 ,my favorite sport is swimming because it is both enjoyable and good exercise4 4 4 4 ,i very seldom take part in any organized athletic games except baseball for two reasons3 first1 ,i don't like to be disciplined and1 second1 ,i do not like games where a person's brawn is more important than a person's wit4 ,l and a friend have started a supply service in the high school1 buying at wholesale and selling to students at retail prices4 ,for this privilege1 #bj per cent of the profits they turn into the ,general ,organization carfare fund for needy students4 ,l's chief criterion in choosing his outside activities is their educational value4 ,by making model airplanes ,i can find out more about scientific principles of flying4 4 4 4 ,any experiments in science ,i make may help me to advance my scientific knowledge4 4 4 4 ,i am doing some experimenting in soilless gardening as a scientific hobby4 4 4 4 ,i believe that stamps should have real interest behind them and not money value alone4 4 4 4 ,i do not play any musical instruments although ,i was drafted into the high school glee club by the music teacher4 ,i would rather work on amateur radio if ,i had the money4 ,i like music but ,i can't make it4 ,l wants to take stenography and typing in night school4 ,it will come in handy in high school and when ,i get to college ,i may be able to get a job with some professor4 ,,later ,,tests ,,and ,,inventories ,in connection with the inquiry into ,l's adjustments upon entering high school1 ,dr4 ,pritchard has also given him several further tests and inventories1 the results of which are as follows4 ,on ,,cavd 7,levels 7,m-,q7 his score is now #dbg points1 which is in the #gth decile of the ,ph4,d4 ,matriculants at ,teachers ,college4 ,on the ,strong ,vocational ,interest ,blank ,l's ,a 7high7 interests coincided with those of physicians1 mathematics1 chemists1 psychologists1 and teachers of mathematics and physical science4 ,his ,c 7low7 interests were on most occupations dealing with large groups of people3 personnel manager1 social science high school teacher1 purchasing agent1 accountant1 sales manager1 real estate salesman1 life insurance salesman1 office worker1 ,y4,m4,c4,a4 secretary4 ,his first choice for an occupation is mathematics teacher on the college level4 ,he dislikes any occupation where there is little opportunity to discover new facts4 ,on the ,bernreuter ,personality ,inventory the following characteristics were indicated3 ,emotional adjustment better than average1 tends to be alone1 rarely asks for sympathy or encouragement1 tends to ignore advice of others1 seldom worries1 rarely substitutes daydreaming for action1 tends to dominate in face-to-face situations1 to be wholesomely self-confident1 well adjusted to environment1 solitary1 independent1 and non-social4 ,the following records were made on the ,sones-,harry ,high ,school ,achievement ,test3 ,language and ,literature1 #hc ,the #iith-percentile score for students completing the first-term high school ,english is #ge4 ,a score of #hc falls at the #hhth percentile on norms based on #idc graduates from a large cosmopolitan city high school4 ,mathematics1 #fd ,the score at the #iith percentile for first-term mathematics students is given as #cf4 ,a score of #fd exceeds the scores of #ih per cent of the #idc high school graduates cited above1 and #ii per cent of #aaef college entrants4 ,natural ,science1 #fa ,the #iith-percentile score for students who have had one term of high school science is #db4 ,a score of #fa exceeds the scores of #if per cent of the high school graduates4 ,social ,studies1 #fd ,the #iith-percentile score for students completing one term's work in social science is #fe4 ,a score of #fd exceeds #ij per cent of the scores of the high school graduates4 ,total ,score1 #bgb points ,a total score of #bgb points exceeds the score of #ie per cent of the group of high school graduates from a cosmopolitan city high school4 ,on his own initiative1 ,l is investigating the possibilities of scholarships with college work in mind4 ,he says3 ,i spend between two or three hours a night on homework4 ,i don't need to do this1 but ,i am aiming for a scholarship and taking it very seriously4 #a ,this chapter was written by ,h4 ,l4 ,h4 #b ,this section is an abbreviation of an account courteously provided by ,dr4 ,miriam ,c4 ,pritchard1 who made a follow-up study of ,l's first-term adjustments in high school4 ,,chapter ,,sixteen ,,summaries ,,of ,,heredity ,,and ,,early ,,behavior ,it is of course obvious that no very general conclusions can be drawn from data relating to a dozen instances of exceptional mental endowment such as those reported in this monograph4 ,such data may1 however1 be added to information in process of accumulation from similar studies1 the whole providing a respectable basis for judgment4 ,the facts concerning the group of individuals presented in this book are1 therefore1 summarized in the form of the following brief review4 #a ,,family ,,history ,,and ,,background ,the racial and national ancestry of the twelve children whose records have been presented in preceding pages may be chiefly a condition arising from the population in which they were found4 ,comparison with results from other population areas may serve to check certain implications suggested herein4 ,all these cases were found and studied in ,new ,york ,city and about half of them in the public schools4 ,among the ancestors whose origins are mentioned1 in the endeavor to go behind the simple statement of ,american parents1 the nationalities are given as ,jewish1 #ac2 ,british1 #i2 ,german1 #b2 ,french1 #b4 ,in most cases the ancestors are individually compound-- as ,austrian-,jew1 ,german-,american1 etc4 ,the activities of the more remote ancestors cover a wide range1 from farming and small-town storekeeping to the learned professions1 large business1 and political activity4 ,on the whole1 the remote ancestors appear to have been fairly successful people1 with the majority of them in the professions4 ,no cases of mental deficiency or total incompetence are recorded among them4 ,a few of these children were from families in economic distress4 ,these cases were largely instances in which the father was dead or incapacitated and the mother was struggling to carry on with slender resources4 ,but on the whole1 as in earlier cases cited from the literature of gifted children1 the socio-economic status was moderate4 ,the father's occupations are in #aj of the #ab cases in the professions4 ,they may be classified as3 ,engineer #a ,lawyer #a ,army officer #a ,college teacher #b ,accountant #b ,electrician #a ,journalist #b ,jeweler #a ,insurance #a ,the occupations of the mothers1 either before or after marriage1 when stated1 were3 ,advertising #a ,teacher #b ,housewife #c ,secretary #b ,statistician #a ,dressmaker #a ,scientist 7,m4,d47 #a ,all but #b of the fathers are known to be high school graduates2 #e went beyond this point in business or trade school2 #d are college graduates4 ,as for the mothers1 all but #b are high school graduates1 and #e hold college degrees4 ,ages of parent at time of birth of child1 when given1 are as follows3 ,father ,mother ,below #be #b #a ,from #be-cj #c #d #cj-ce #b #b #ce-dj #c #a ,median age of fathers1 #ca2 of mothers1 #bh4e4 ,of the #aa cases where the facts are known1 #e are only children2 #d have one sibling2 #a has #b siblings and #a has more than this4 ,in #e cases where the child in question is not an only child1 he or she is the eldest sibling4 ,that is1 in #aj of the #ab cases the child is a first-born1 so far as the records show4 ,in a few cases the ,,iq of the sibling 7or siblings7 is known4 ,such ,,iq's are invariably above #acj1 in most cases much higher but in no case so high as the #ahj that would have been required to admit them to the group here considered4 ,otherwise1 of course1 they would have been included in the study4 ,of the #ab cases here described1 #d are girls4 ,it has already been noted that among the #ai cases cited from the literature of gifted children there were #ab girls and #g boys4 ,the total of #ca cases which this study now makes available comprises #af girls and #ae boys--as equitable a division of the honors as an odd number makes possible4 ,,physical ,,and ,,behavioral ,,development ,no single item indicative of early developmental pace in physique and movement is given for all the #ab cases4 ,for most of them records are given on walking1 talking1 reading1 first tooth1 height1 and weight4 ,grip is recorded in #e cases1 weight at birth in #c only4 ,these data are summarized in the following table4 ,since height1 weight1 and grip were taken at varying ages on the different children1 all that is indicated in these columns is above normal 77 or below normal 7--74 ,,age ,,of ,,age ,,of ,,age ,,of ,,first ,,child ,,walking ,,talking ,,reading ,,tooth ,,height ,,weight ,,grip 7,,months7 7,,months7 7,,years7 7,,months7 ,a #aa #c ,b #ae #i #c #g ,c #ae #af #c #i -- -- ,d #ab #aa #a4e #d -- ,e #ac #bd #h ,normal -- ,f #ad #ab #d4e #aj ,g -- ,h #ad #af #d #i4e -- ,i #aj4e #ba #c #e ,j ,k #bj #bd #c #f ,l #ae #i #d #i ,median age of walking1 for the cases recorded1 is #ad months--a wholly normal age for children in general4 ,median age of talking is #ad months--considerably earlier than the norm usually recognized4 ,the range1 too1 is wide--from #i to #bd months4 ,first teeth normally begin to appear in the sixth to seventh month1 and the median here is close to that4 ,median age of reading here reported--#c years--is earlier even than that found in the #ai cases cited from previous literature 7#c4e to #d years74 ,all but one of the #aj cases for which stature is reported exceed the norms in this respect4 ,six are heavier than the age norm1 #a just at it1 and #c are lighter in weight4 ,the records of grip tests show nothing unusual4 ,in #c cases where weight at birth was recorded1 this was from #g to #aj pounds4 ,health is generally reported good4 ,talking and reading are the two developmental indices that most clearly differentiate these records from the norms4 ,these activities1 both involving the use and understanding of symbols1 are the earliest clear expressions of mental liveliness4 ,after they have appeared1 the gifted child's characteristics appear in those traits called understanding1 judgment1 learning1 discrimination1 and in the interest in and capacity for such linguistic and abstract activities as are provided by schoolwork4 ,it is1 therefore1 in the earlier scholastic activities and in social relations that these children most notably declare their quality under our prevailing system of child management4 ,,chapter ,,seventeen ,,scholastic ,,achievement ,,and ,,creative ,,activity ,the following brief summaries of the achievement and adjustment of these twelve children may serve to suggest a few general principles that are applicable to other cases as well4 #a ,,scholastic ,,achievement ,,and ,,educational ,,adjustment ,child ,a4 ,this boy showed signs of precocity before his second year1 reciting1 classifying1 and playing with words and letters2 and before the age of #c years showing interest in rhymes and stories4 ,from first school entrance suitable placement was a recognized problem1 and by the time ,a was #f years old he was brought to a college clinic for educational guidance4 ,throughout elementary school ,a was a trying problem1 lacking interest in the routine program4 ,he was behind his mental level in handwork and was not motivated to do his best work2 he fitted poorly into social activities4 ,character traits were highly approved1 except perhaps for independence and obstinacy4 ,he resorted to imaginary lands1 reading1 and science and mathematics as forms of play4 ,the case was not followed far enough to show his final educational achievement1 although it is known that he went through high school and entered college4 ,child ,b4 ,this girl was occupied with words by the time of her second year4 ,her ability was not early recognized by the schools she attended1 although she passed seventh-grade standards while still in the fourth grade and her marks were always high4 ,as she had marked social interests and aptitudes1 this educational misplacement caused no serious trouble4 ,when eventually skipped1 her size and poise kept her from being conspicuous1 although the youngest in the class4 ,she was apparently a natural leader1 and in addition to the usual preoccupation with reading she had as an outlet the groups and clubs she organized4 ,since she was followed only to high school1 her final educational adjustment is not known4 ,child ,c4 ,this boy learned to read almost as soon as he talked1 and read fluently before beginning school4 ,he was at once recognized as odd1 but in spite of perfect work he was not advanced and his ability was unappreciated by his teachers4 ,at #i years #f months1 with a mental age of #ah1 he was still in the fifth grade4 ,he was very unhappy until the principal sought educational advice on his case and he was admitted to a segregated experimental class for rapid learners1 where he quickly became adjusted and was an enthusiastic scholar4 ,personal traits made social adjustment faulty1 but he persisted in his educational career against heavy economic handicaps1 finished high school and college with honors1 and completed the medical training that admitted him to the profession that had been his ambition since childhood4 ,child ,d4 ,this boy was reading before he was #b years of age1 and was also interested in numbers and relationships4 ,he made social contacts even before entering school by publishing a playground newspaper4 ,as an exception to the prevailing rule1 this boy's ability was early appreciated by his parents and it was recognized by his teachers as early as kindergarten4 ,his educationally interested parents supervised his instruction and sought expert advice4 ,various side talents in which he was versatile were also cultivated4 ,mathematical and scientific interests appeared early and were encouraged4 ,progress through school was facilitated and he entered college at #ab years #f months of age1 graduating with honors at just over #af4 ,in the following twelve years he became a proficient and well-trained industrial chemist1 holding an important position in this field at the time of his death at the age of #bh4 ,child ,e4 ,this child's ability also was recognized by teachers and parents at an early age1 and this appreciation led to diligent supervision of his subsequent education4 ,when he began to talk he was equally conversant with four languages4 ,he was always accelerated in school and his superior size made this procedure feasible1 at least in childhood4 ,his whole bent was toward scholarly pursuits1 and much of his study was privately conducted4 ,e entered college at #ab years and his precocity was widely exploited on the campus and in the press4 ,his devotion to his work and his good sense and humor preserved him from social difficulties4 ,he even impersonated himself in a class play4 ,his subsequent intellectual progress was phenomenal and he speedily became a scholarly contributor and an influential and active leader in the field of his boyhood choice4 ,child ,f4 ,this boy was an educational problem even in his first years in an ungraded school4 ,afterward teachers refused to place him in grades high enough to keep him occupied4 ,a benign form of truancy that led him to the public library and to chess tournaments was his way out of his predicament4 ,but in the process he developed an aversion to educational processes and to authorities of all kinds4 ,he was appreciated neither by his parents nor by his teachers until he was discovered in a survey that sought for just such minds for an experimental project in the education of the gifted4 ,traits other than intellectual made his subsequent educational history take the form of spurts1 with intervening debacles4 ,he died before the outcome of this group of circumstances could materialize4 ,child ,g4 ,this is a third case of early recognition by teachers and of guidance by parents1 which led in childhood to an educational clinic for advice4 ,early interests in reading were fostered and directed1 and more extrovert and social activities were devised by his parents4 ,g was rapidly promoted1 and after entering an individual progress class he was a contented scholar4 ,in spite of the facilitation of his progress through the grades he was not through high school until #ae1 and there is every evidence of satisfactory personal and social adjustment4 ,the case record ends with his admission to college1 on a scholarship1 with definite and clearly defined aims and interests4 ,child ,h4 ,this girl's interest in words1 stories1 and relationships was noticed before her third year1 and early recognition of her gifts appears to have come through an aunt who had special educational insight4 ,although ,h resorted to imaginary companions1 she was socially minded enough to enjoy playmates4 ,since the record terminates with her tenth year1 there are no data on her later educational career4 ,but her story thus far appears placid and marked by good adjustment and intelligent guidance4 ,child ,i4 ,this case had the advantage of a parent who also had been studied by educational experts interested in the gifted4 ,also her parents were themselves teachers4 ,as early as #b years she had been identified as exceptional and her subsequent career appears to have been guided throughout with wisdom4 ,i's discontent with aimless activity in the first two school grades was solved by placing her in the special experimental class for rapid learners4 ,her excellent progress and adaptation here constitute a clear demonstration of the advantages of early identification and intelligent educational placement4 ,child ,j4 ,this child's ability was recognized by her teachers from the beginning4 ,she was accorded very rapid advancement1 which was probably the only solution available under the circumstances4 ,the parents1 themselves educators1 also contributed intelligent care and guidance in her development4 ,this favorable conjunction led to her prompt admission to an experimental group for children of her quality as soon as the regular teachers realized their inability to provide further stimulation for her4 ,the definite service provided in this case by the ,bureau of ,educational ,guidance is also an instructive part of the picture4 ,child ,k4 ,this boy's history is meagerly recorded4 ,his picture is the usual one of early reading and native interest in learning4 ,by his seventh year he had been appreciated by relatives who sought expert advice and guidance in his education4 ,such advice was then sought from time to time by his parents1 and the brief record shows no untoward developments in his subsequent education up to the end of high school4 ,child ,l4 ,achievement was so conspicuous in this case that as soon as ,l entered school he was given rapid promotion4 ,his recommendation to the special class for rapid learners was due to the joint action of his parents and the school principal4 ,once in this group1 ,l's educational problems vanished4 ,expert guidance also attended his entrance to high school4 ,as a result of these circumstances his further career appears to be propitiously launched4 ,the observations that seem most obviously to emerge from these brief summaries of educational history are as follows3 #a4 ,such children as are here presented constitute difficult educational problems from their entrance in school4 ,the problems are not only those of the teachers and educational authorities1 but they are chiefly1 perhaps1 the problems of the children themselves4 #b4 ,depending on the solution of these problems1 such children may either be well articulated to the work of school and society and thus their remarkable talents be socially capitalized1 or they may1 on the other hand1 develop distaste for such activities1 negativism toward social projects1 and personal obstinacy and recalcitrance1 perhaps accompanied by bitterness4 #c4 ,the advantages of early recognition1 appreciation and1 if possible1 measurement are apparent in the study of this small group of exceptionally intelligent children4 ,although all were identified fairly early in their lives1 there are very different degrees of adaptation to school and society1 ranging from opposition and truancy1 through indifference1 to rapt and enthusiastic preoccupation4 ,to a considerable extent these variations appear to have depended on the earliness of identification of the child's intellectual quality4 ,the valuable services of surveys1 guidance clinics1 and school psychologists are clearly manifested in this group of cases4 #d4 ,the cases that have achieved most contented and socially useful adaptation are those in which parents1 teachers1 and principals have made prompt use of special gift identification1 have sought educational guidance1 have personally fostered and supervised the child's development and the solution of his adjustment problems1 or have taken advantage of such experimental classes for exceptional children as the schools have offered at the time4 #e4 ,among the cases herein reported the clearest ones of easy and useful adjustment occurred when the exceptional child became a member of an experimental group comprised of others of his approximate kind4 ,in the dozen cases cited1 four different projects of this kind in the ,new ,york ,city schools have been referred to4 ,,creative ,,work ,is it true that children such as those herein described differ from those of less intelligence merely in having a readier and more tenacious memory8 ,are their distinctive achievements only the phenomenal reproduction of things they have learned--the recitation of answers they have been taught8 ,or do they also exhibit signs of originality and creativeness8 ,of their superior capacity for learning there is of course ample evidence4 ,is it this feature of their endowment that accounts for their high scores in conventionally standardized measures such as tests and examinations8 ,ordinary records and histories are perhaps not well suited to disclose originality in childhood unless it is obtrusive4 ,the child who devises a new way of tying his shoes1 of arranging his books1 of managing his pets1 of sharpening his skates1 may very easily get no clinical credit for these inventions4 ,no one1 indeed1 except the child himself may ever know of them1 and it may never occur to him that they are creative4 ,a boy who writes a poem1 draws a steamboat1 or devises a new game of checkers may immediately get credit for originality1 while one who invents a technique of his own for shaving the back of his own neck may remain unheralded as a creator4 ,our concept of creativeness has become standardized so as to suggest chiefly contributions to the conventional arts4 ,it may nevertheless be instructive to review these case histories1 looking in each for signs of activity that might in one way or another be construed as creative4 ,child ,a4 ,at #ab months he was classifying his blocks according to letter shapes4 ,before #af months of age ,a tired of saying the letters of the alphabet forward and guessed he would say them backward4 ,he made rhymes of his own by the third year4 ,he developed arithmetical principles unsuspected by either parents or teachers4 ,he had an elaborate imaginary land4 ,he did not play well with other children because he always wanted to introduce new methods of playing the games4 ,he devised elaborate schemes of his own for classifying events and objects4 ,there is very little of the conventional interest in drawing1 painting1 poetry1 mechanics1 or music in this account1 but it is clear enough that in his own way ,a had originality4 ,child ,b4 ,this child's early acquisition of the art of reading appears to have been untutored1 and her passion for organizing clubs showed at least a certain type of initiative4 ,but the record gives little evidence of other creative activity4 ,her chief distinction so far as noted was in the fields of excellent schoolwork and social adaptability4 ,child ,c4 ,this boy's earliest recognition was on the basis of what the teachers called his phenomenal memory4 ,but from early years his chief passion was for science1 and his main interest therein was the possibility of discovering new things4 ,there is1 however1 little evidence of ingenuity in the record1 and ,c was chiefly distinguished by the mass and facility of his knowledge1 learned chiefly from others4 ,child ,d4 ,the very curiosity of this boy might be said to have a creative or original character4 ,he was always asking unexpected questions4 ,his playground newspaper was an original project in spite of its conventional character4 ,so also was his passion for tabulation and calculation4 ,his imaginary land was a complicated creation1 as was the elaborate dictionary of its unique language4 ,musical composition was one of his pastimes1 and he had active native talent for drawing and design4 ,the invention of new words and new games was creative1 and he had original classifications for many varieties of natural objects4 ,his interest in science1 which became uppermost1 led to original experiments such as those on the path of a tack4 ,his final adoption of scientific work as a career is in keeping with this1 and the position held at the end of his brief life was one concerned with chemical research in a relatively new industry4 ,in a very real sense this boy's creative interests are fundamental in the picture of his development4 ,child ,e4 ,originality appears among ,e's characteristics even in his definitions of words in the vocabulary tests4 ,his life was1 however1 so harnessed to the organized pursuit of degrees that conventional fields of learning came to preoccupy him and there was little originality in his choice of an occupation1 to which he appears to have been guided by solicitous elders4 ,such originality as he has had appeared abstractly and verbally4 ,thus his constructive ability was good but his manual dexterity poor4 ,he had an imaginary country4 ,after his escape from the hierarchy of organized education he became an active and productive scholar in his field1 although it may be that theology is not a field in which creativeness is encouraged4 ,child ,f4 ,there is little evidence in the career of ,f of anything that could be called creative4 ,he was in many ways ingenious1 and he was socially nonconforming4 ,he was a storehouse of information but not sagacious in the use of his knowledge4 ,his ingenuity was not along original lines but in such conventionalized fields as chess1 bridge1 and dialectic4 ,his capacity for intellectual work was phenomenal1 but for the most part such activities were in prescribed fields1 and a temporary interest in science was deflected to law--like theology1 a field in which creativeness is not always an asset4 ,child ,g4 ,this boy's education was so scrupulously supervised and so sedulously recorded that he had little time for original projects4 ,his questions and remarks evince a lively curiosity1 and his abiding interests in chemistry and mathematics1 with a research turn1 perhaps point to creative trends that are poorly reflected in more elementary years4 ,there is little evidence of unusual proficiency in any of the creative arts4 ,child ,h4 ,the chief interests of ,h as a child were in drawing1 painting1 and mosaic blocks4 ,she developed imaginary companions4 ,she showed at an early age pronounced interests and aptitudes in stories and in versification4 ,she was a composer of creditable childhood songs1 poetry1 and plays4 ,she was followed only to her eleventh year and up to this point seems to have shown definite signs of constructive imagination4 ,child ,i4 ,this girl was versatile in many creative ways4 ,she developed imaginary companions1 wrote music and songs1 produced dramatizations1 wrote effective verses and longer poems4 ,so far as the brief record shows1 her creative interests remained close to the conventionalized arts1 except for the native curiosity characteristic of most very bright children4 ,child ,j4 ,the data on ,j are so scant that little assurance as to her originality can be felt4 ,at #g she was in many ways an independent thinker4 ,she composed jingles at the same time that she was reading ,shakespearean plays1 and the examiner commented on her constructive imagery4 ,she wrote acceptable poems before her tenth birthday4 ,but for the most part she had been so occupied by rapid educational promotion that this is the most conspicuous feature in her description4 ,child ,k4 ,this boy has without doubt an enthusiasm for scholarly inquiry4 ,he made no spontaneous collections1 had no pets1 no imaginary companions or lands4 ,in a sense these traits which are lacking in ,k's personality are usually counted as originalities in children of such high intelligence4 ,but data are not at hand to enable a judgment to be made of the presence or absence of creativeness in this child4 ,child ,l4 ,this is the case of a boy who showed such independent zeal for acquiring information that this curiosity had itself a creative tone4 ,he is inventive and constructive even in mechanical ways--an exception in this particular group of cases4 ,his teachers find him possessed of knowledge in mathematics which he must have derived from his own reflection4 ,he also has marked initiative in using his knowledge1 is full of constructive suggestions1 makes many scientific experiments of his own1 has many hobbies1 and wants to do things to advance scientific knowledge4 ,although he shows know unusual proficiency in the conventional arts1 there can be no doubt that in affairs intellectual and scientific his mind is not only creative but also fertile4 ,,general ,,statement ,if a general statement be attempted on the basis of such data as the descriptions and these summaries afford1 it might be to the effect that one third of these highly intelligent children 7,a1 ,d1 ,h1 ,l7 show notable signs of creativeness4 ,another third 7,c1 ,e1 ,i1 ,j7 show such indications to a moderate degree4 ,in the remaining third 7,b1 ,f1 ,g1 ,k7 there is at least no indication of marked constructive originality provided by these descriptions4 ,certainly these creative dispositions are more conspicuous in these cases than in the general population of children4 ,how these very rare intelligences compare in this respect with those ranging from1 say1 #acj to #age ,,iq we cannot know4 ,creativeness even at best is infrequent enough4 ,in experiences of daily life of course such creativeness might be more often found in children in the middle range of high intelligences because there are so many more of these in the population4 ,on the other hand1 it may be that creativeness in marked degree appears in these higher ranges only4 ,under any circumstances it is not an all-or-none phenomenon1 and the problem of the correlation of originality with intelligence scores perhaps deserves more careful study than it has received4 ,it seems suggested at least by these few cases that very high intelligence may in some instances become directed along wholly conventional channels1 showing itself in the amount of work or the rate of progress1 with little or no manifestation of creative originality4 ,if this is the case1 it should be important to discover what extent this is a reflection of the regimentation of the occupation of such children by organized educational projects and close parental supervision1 and to what extent it is a characteristic that is native in the individual4 ,if it should be true that creativeness is closely dependent on such a high range of intelligence as that shown by this group of twelve children1 a social order that esteems creativeness should give serious thought to the conditions of its cultivation and its development4 ,in this connection it is of some significance that so far as these cases are concerned1 the best adjustments appear to have been made in educational arrangements that required the devotion of only one part of the child's time to established curricula1 thus leaving time and providing encouragement for individual initiative and enrichment4 #a ,this chapter was written by ,h4 ,l4 ,h4 ,,part ,,iii ,,general ,,principles ,,and ,,implications ,,chapter ,,eighteen ,,adult ,,status ,,and ,,personality ,,ratings ,observation of such cases as those described in the foregoing chapters suggests that children of exceptionally high intelligence do not regress toward mediocrity as they mature but maintain their initial distinguished status4 ,studies by other workers 7,kuhlmann1 ,baldwin and ,stechner1 ,terman7 confirm such a conclusion4 ,a further study of this point was reported by ,hollingworth and ,lorge in #aicf1 in which the following questions were investigated3 #a4 ,to what extent is status in ,,ier ,intelligence ,scale ,,cavd at maturity predictable from childhood scores in ,stanford-,binet8 #b4 ,how do those who tested above #ahj ,,iq in childhood differ at maturity from those at lower levels in measures of general culture and of scientific information8 #c4 ,is there discernable any consistent specialization in mental abilities from childhood to maturity8 #d4 ,at what degree of intelligence in terms of ,,iq 7,stanford-,binet7 is the word genius justifiable1 if at all8 #e4 ,at what point on the scale of ,,iq 7,stanford-,binet7 obtained in childhood will individuals later prove unmeasurable by available tests of adult intelligence8 ,in #aicd-aice a group of eighteen persons whose high ,,iq's had been measured tweleve or thirteen years earlier 7at ages #g to #i years7 were measured in these respects and to these were added three others whose childhood ,,iq's were known to have been over #agj4 ,the tests used1 to be reported here1 were3 ,,cavd ,intelligence ,scale1 ,levels ,n-,q2 the ,coperative ,general ,culture ,test 7,form #aicc or #aicd72 and the ,coperative ,general ,science ,test 7,form #aicc74 ,there were also available data on most of the individuals from ,army ,alpha tests taken at ages #af to #ai4 ,of the #ba cases thus studied1 nine had a childhood ,,iq over #agj2 eight over #aej to #agj2 the remaining four ranged down to #acc4 ,,adult ,,status ,,of ,,highly ,,intelligent ,,children #a ,the detailed data have been reported elsewhere and only the general results need to be recited here4 ,for these gifted individuals 7albeit there are so few studied7 superior status on the ,stanford-,binet at or near ages #g to #i years of age is highly predictive of status on ,army ,alpha at or near #af to #ai years of age1 and of status on ,,cavd at or near maturity4 4 4 4 ,it is clear that ,,cavd is more closely associated with ,general ,culture than with ,general ,science4 4 4 4 ,there obviously is a specificity of success for ,science as compared with general ,culture4 4 4 4 ,the results for the ,,cavd as interpreted through norms obtained on selected populations show that highly intelligent children 7of ,,iq #adj or above7 fall within the upper quartile of the college graduate population of the ,united ,states1 when they are at or near maturity4 ,such results are confirmed also by a study reported two years earlier1 in which over #ajj children had been re-measured with ,army ,alpha #aj to #ab years after their initial ,stanford-,binet measurements at ages #g to #i years4 #b ,all these children had ,,iq's over #acj1 and half of them were over #aej1 ranging up to #aij4 ,from this study the following conclusions had been drawn3 ,of #aaf children testing in the top centile of the distribution of school children by ,stanford-,binet1 #hb per cent were found when near maturity1 ten years later1 to rate in the top centile of the military draft by ,army ,alpha4 ,the remainder rated in high centiles4 ,no individual of either sex regressed to or nearly to the average4 4 4 4 ,girls regressed from the top centile somewhat more frequently than boys1 this regression being in part but not fully accounted for by the known sex difference between medians on ,army ,alpha4 ,this result affords a validation1 by means of elapsed time1 of the predictive power of available mental tests on the one hand2 and on the other1 a proof of the constancy of the intellectual development of gifted children in terms of centile status4 ,,critique ,,of ,,the ,,concept ,,of ,,genius ,,as ,,applied ,,in ,,terms ,,of ,,iq ,the term genius has been used by ,terman--and following him by many others--to denote children testing at or above #adj ,,iq 7,s-,b74 ,in the light of the developmental data herein presented1 it would appear that the term genius is thus misapplied1 unless we wish to define as geniuses persons who represent approximately the best fourth of all students being graduated from ,american colleges4 ,of individuals here followed to early maturity1 those who test at about #adj ,,iq 7,s-,b7 are found to define approximately the #geth percentile of college graduates1 taking the country over4 ,they are far from genius1 if by that term is to be meant the degree of mental ability that is capable of outstanding original intellectual achievement4 ,it is only when we have an ,,iq 7,s-,b7 of at least #afj in a child1 that we may begin to expect mildly noteworthy accomplishments1 such as winning honors in a first-class college4 ,very rarely are honors won in first-class colleges by those who test below this status in childhood4 ,the small sample of college graduates here presented is truly representative of the much larger sample in our files 7not tested by our end tests7 in this respect4 ,of primary interest to the present investigators is the subsequent history of those who in childhood have achieved the extremely infrequent rating of #ahj ,,iq or higher4 ,at maturity will these persons still stand out from their contemporaries in mental tests and in achievement8 ,this question is answered affirmatively by our data4 ,the five children here included1 #c who achieved ,,iq's 7,s-,b7 on first test in childhood of more than #ahj1 are they who find the tops on ,,cavd at maturity4 ,every one of these top-rank persons is noteworthy among contemporaries4 ,before the age of #bb in all cases1 one had prosecuted research in history1 one in mathematics1 one in chess1 and two had become established in learned professions4 ,one stood high in the national ranking for chess4 ,a long list of medals and prizes had been won by them4 ,all but one of those graduated from college had been elected to ,phi ,beta ,kappa4 ,these unusual achievements show how children testing above #ahj ,,iq rise above the generality of the college populations in adolescence and in early maturity4 ,none of those who tested in childhood around #adj1 #aej1 or #afj ,,iq 7,s-,b7 approaches these others at maturity in honors and prizes won1 or in test scores4 ,this is1 perhaps1 the most significant fact to be derived from our data3 that the children who test at and above #ahj ,,iq constitute the top among college graduates4 ,they are the students of whom one may confidently predict that they will win honors and prizes for intellectual work4 ,furthermore1 it is shown that at approximately #aij ,,iq 7,s-,b7 individuals go through the ceiling of available tests for adult intelligence by the time they are #ba years old4 ,we cannot at present distribute these persons at maturity4 ,perhaps this is the point at which the term genius begins to apply--i4e41 at or near ,,iq #ahj 7,s-,b7--if we adhere to the dictionary definition of the word1 ,exalted intellectual power1 marked by an extraordinary faculty for original creation1 expression1 or achievement which is beyond the reach of available modes of measurement in its maturity4 ,,application ,,of ,,bernreuter ,,inventory ,,of ,,personality ,,to ,,highly ,,intelligent ,,adolescents #d ,the data of the present study were obtained early in #aicc1 the subjects being #cf boys and #ai girls1 of the average age of #ah years #f months4 ,the ,,iq's 7,s-,b7 of all had been taken in early childhood4 ,the group ranged from #ace-aij ,,iq 7,s-,b7 with a median at about #aec ,,iq 7,s-,b74 ,all but four of these young persons were ,jewish1 a factor which must be considered as of possible consequence1 but which cannot be evaluated properly from any data at present in scientific literature4 ,the inventories were taken and scored by the investigators in person4 ,all subjects had been personally known since childhood to the senior investigator4 ,the method of scoring follows ,bernreuter1 three categories only being found of sufficient independence to warrant recording4 ,,shows ,,group ,,results ,,for ,,highly ,,intelligent ,,boys ,,and ,,girls1 ,,giving ,,evidence ,,that ,,such ,,groups ,,are ,,much ,,less ,,neurotic1 ,,much ,,more ,,self-,,sufficient1 ,,and ,,much ,,less ,,submissive ,,in ,,attitude ,,than ,,college ,,students ,,or ,,adults ,,in ,,general ,,are1 ,,according ,,to ,,the ,,categories ,,and ,,norms ,,set ,,up ,,by ,,bernreuter ,b#a-,n ,,neurotic ,,tendency ,b#a-,s ,,self-,,sufficiency ,b#a-;,d ,,dominance-,,submission ,statistical ,highly ,college ,adult ,highly ,college ,adult ,highly ,college ,adult categories intelligent norm norm intelligent norm norm intelligent norm norm boys group group boys group group boys group group ,number #cf #dbg #hf #cf #dbg #ii #cf #dbg #ajj ,mean -#ajd4i -#eb4i -#fi4c #ed4e #bd4i #ch4h #hg4d #df4c #eb4g #ef4g #he4b #gf4c #db4c #ed4j #eb4d #dd4f #fg4d #fa4h ,mean #i4d #d4a #h4b #g4j #b4f #e4c #g4d #c4c #f4b #f4g #b4i #e4h #e4j #a4h #c4g #e4b #b4c #d4d diff4 ms4 #aj4b #ab4e #g4e #h4h #h4a #i4f ,d ------ diff4 #e4a #b4h #c4i #b4a #e4a #c4f ,median -#aab4j -#gj4j -#ge4j #ed4e #be4j #ce4j #ih4a #de4j #ee4j ,girls ,girls ,girls ,number #ai #cag #abc #ai #cag #abf #ai #cag #acj ,mean -#de4j -#ci4f -#cd4b #eb4j #f4i #af4h #df4e #cc4a #ai4b #fe4g #gh4i #hj4f #ea4g #ee4g #ee4f #ee4e #fc4e #fe4e ,mean #ae4a #d4d #g4c #aa4i #c4a #e4j #ab4g #c4f #e4g #aj4g #c4a #e4a #h4d #b4b #c4e #i4j #b4e #d4a diff4 ms4 #ae4g #af4h #ab4c #ab4i #ac4b #ac4i ,d ------ diff4 4#jd 4#fd #c4g #b4g #a4j #a4if ,median -#db4f -#dj4j -#cj4j #eb4j #e4j #j4j #dj4g #cc4j #ae4j ,the summary of results shows that the highly intelligent are less neurotic1 more self-sufficient1 and less submissive1 as a group1 than are the populations with which they are comparable4 ,this divergence from the norms is found both for boys and for girls of the highly intelligent group1 but it is much more pronounced for boys4 ,to one who has been familiar with the characteristics and the careers of these persons for fifteen years1 the correspondence between what is found on the inventory and what is found in the actual lives is interestingly close4 ,boy #ac1 for instance 7extremely high score for self-sufficiency and dominance71 took ship on his own initiative as soon as he was twenty-one years old and sailed around the world as an ordinary seaman1 returning to his post in the financial district of ,new ,york ,city when the journey was completed4 ,boy #ce is a well-known player in metropolitan and sectional chess tournaments1 and was able to meet seasoned players when he was fifteen to seventeen years old 7high scores for self-sufficiency and dominance74 ,boy #bi entered college at #ad years of age1 held his own with the older students1 earned money throughout his course1 graduated at eighteen years of age with ,phi ,beta ,kappa1 and won a prize for research1 in competition1 in his junior year at medical school4 ,girl ,h won and held an appointment in public service1 against heavy odds of sex1 age1 and general economic depression4 ,the indication from these data is that adolescents who as children tested from #ace-aij ,,iq 7,s-,b7 are much less neurotic1 much more self-sufficient and much less submissive than college students in general1 or than adults of the mental caliber represented in the ,bernreuter norms4 ,it is to be noted in this comparison with the generality of college students that from data so far collected1 the median intelligence of the group here presented reaches about ,q#c for college students1 taking them the country over4 #a ,for a more detailed account see ,lorge and ,hollingworth's ,the ,adult ,status of ,highly ,intelligent ,children1 in ,journal of ,genetic ,psychology 7#aicf71 ,vol4 #di1 pages #bae-bbf4 #b ,hollingworth and ,kaunitz4 ,the ,centile ,status of ,gifted ,children at ,maturity4 ,journal of ,genetic ,psychology 7,september1 #aicd71 pages #ajf-abj4 #c ,study made by ,leta ,s4 ,hollingworth in previous years4 #d ,for detailed results see the paper by this title1 by ,hollingworth and ,rust1 ,journal of ,psychology 7#aicg71 ,vol4 #d1 pages #bhg-bic4 ,,chapter ,,nineteen ,,the ,,development ,,of ,,personality ,,in ,,highly ,,intelligent ,,children #a ,the children included in the term highly intelligent children cover a very wide range in intellectual variation--from an ,,iq of #acj 7,s-,b7 to the topmost limit of human diversity4 ,this topmost limit seems to define itself at approximately #bjj ,,iq4 ,the most extreme deviates reported in the literature as fully measured fall at or near this point4 ,a considerable number falling above #ahj ,,iq have been reported1 many of them not fully measured by ,stanford-,binet because of the limitations of the test4 ,it is therefore clear that children in the upper #a per cent are not all alike4 ,on the contrary1 the child at the top of this group exceeds the child who barely reaches the group by much more than the latter exceeds the average child4 ,the most able child in the upper #a per cent surpasses the least able in this group by as much as the average child surpasses a moron 7in terms of ,,iq74 ,the really difficult problems of adjustment to life and to people come to those who test above #agj ,,iq4 ,as there are so very few of these children1 parents and teachers are seldom called upon to consider their needs4 ,thus when one does appear1 he or she is the more likely to be misunderstood4 ,,general ,,considerations ,obviously1 it is not possible to discuss every aspect of personality in the limited number of pages of this book4 ,we shall confine ourselves1 therefore1 to a few of the more important phases of development which are unique in the case of gifted children2 particularly to such complexities as arise from the combination of immaturity and deviation1 these continuing for approximately twenty-one years4 ,this is the period when development is taking place as distinguished from the period of maturity4 ,it should be stated emphatically at the outset that children of very superior intelligence are not1 as a group1 socially annoying4 ,the problems of personality adjustment are those of the child1 not those of society as ordinarily understood4 ,if the gifted child should annoy society1 society would pay more attention to him4 ,society builds splendid institutions and provides expert care and guidance for vicious and feeble-minded children4 ,that society does not pay such attention to the gifted is in itself evidence of social acceptability4 ,the researches of ,terman1 #b of ,hartshorne and ,may1 #c and of ,haggerty1 #d among others1 have shown that highly intelligent children are more stable emotionally than are children in general1 are much more resistant to childish temptations1 and exhibit far less of undesirable behavior than is exhibited by the dull4 ,teachers do1 however1 report them for restlessness and lack of interest somewhat more often than they report children of #ajj ,,iq for these behaviorisms4 ,the researches of ,burt #e and of ,healy and ,bronner #f show few children testing above #acj ,,iq among delinquents1 in proportion to their frequency in the population as a whole4 ,with these facts as to generally superior adjustment before us1 let us inquire whether there are1 nevertheless1 special perplexities in the life of a gifted child1 and at what point in the range of intellect these perplexities begin4 ,is it possible that a child who varies as far above his contemporaries as an imbecile or an idiot varies below them1 will find only advantages and no special difficulties of development created for him by the fact of his wide deviation from the norm8 ,observation and measurement of gifted children as they have grown from early childhood to maturity have made it possible to formulate definitely some of the special problems of development which arise from being an extreme and infrequently occurring deviate4 ,the more intelligent the child1 the more likely he or she is to become involved in these puzzling difficulties4 ,let us consider some of these problems4 ,,the ,,part ,,played ,,by ,,physique ,the looks of a person has much to do with his social adjustment4 ,if highly intelligent children really resembled the cartoonist's idea of them1 there would be little chance of excellent development4 ,fortunately1 the researches of the past twenty years have proved that the popular notions about the poor physiques of the gifted and the weird ugliness of their physiognomies are not only erroneous but the exact opposite of the truth4 ,these are superstitions1 founded perhaps on the unconscious longing for a just nature which will distribute gifts somewhat equally instead of bestowing everything upon a few persons4 ,it has been amply proved1 by measurements1 that highly intelligent children are tall1 heavy1 strong1 healthy1 and fine looking as a group1 exceeding the generality of children in all these respects4 ,this does not mean that every individual among the gifted is physically superior1 but it does mean that a gifted child is more likely to have a fine body than is a child taken from the general population4 ,as for beauty of face1 in two separate series of photographs in which the faces of highly intelligent adolescents were compared with the faces of adolescents of ordinary mentality1 the faces of the former were found to be more beautiful4 ,this was the impression made upon nave judges who knew nothing concerning the comparative intelligence of those judged4 ,it may be that one reason why teachers often do not identify gifted children accurately1 is that they are looking for pupils who correspond to the cartoonist's picture1 and thus are led away from consideration of the beautiful and the well grown6 ,as gifted children approach and reach maturity1 they reap the benefits of superior vitality1 size1 and beauty4 ,however1 many of them suffer1 while growing up1 from feelings of inferiority connected with size and strength1 for typically they are somewhat accelerated in school status and they naturally choose children older than themselves as chums4 ,thus in physical competitions they are at a disadvantage4 ,observation shows that they tend to develop sedentary forms of play1 or forms of physical enjoyment that do not depend upon being included in a group2 such as swimming1 skating1 horseback riding1 and walking4 ,,problem ,,of ,,leadership ,also1 in all matters pertaining to leadership1 the competition with older classmates and friends exerts an influence1 particularly during adolescence4 ,the very young boy 7or girl7 in high school is not so likely to be elected to a post of leadership because of his comparative size1 his voice1 and the juvenility of his clothes4 ,thus a feeling may be engendered in him that he cannot gain the confidence of contemporaries2 and this1 in turn1 may impair his self-confidence4 ,if long continued1 this state of affairs may lead to emotional straining after social recognition4 ,in social gatherings1 size and physical maturity are important as absolute quantities and qualities1 and not in relation to age4 ,thus a child should not be placed too far out of his age-group4 ,a very gifted boy1 reaching at twenty years a stature of five feet nine inches1 remarked1 ,it is very odd to be as large as the people you're with6 ,being always the smallest member of a social group may develop attitudes which are hard to revise when eventually the boy or girl achieves adult stature and is as large as the people you're with4 ,this difficulty in assuming a normal place among more mature schoolmates arises especially in adolescence1 when association with members of the opposite sex makes its introduction4 ,being in high school or in college with much older classmates1 the boy of thirteen to sixteen finds himself at a disadvantage with the girls whom he meets4 ,the girls brought to parties by the older boys are too old for him1 and he feels unable to claim their attention4 ,many of these young boys show sufficient insight and sufficient management of their disadvantage to take care of it4 ,they know that the trouble lies in being too young1 and that later they will achieve standing with the girls4 ,in a few cases1 however1 this difficulty may lead to an unfortunate avoidance of girls1 even in more mature years4 ,in the case of girls1 adjustment to the society of older boys in high school and college seems to present no special difficulties1 since girls develop earlier than boys do1 and are taken seriously by boys who are older than themselves4 ,the inferiority complexes of gifted persons have been little studied1 but it is certain that many such persons do feel socially inferior and shy4 ,some of this may be due to the physical comparisons just suggested1 arising from prolonged association with older persons4 ,,problems ,,of ,,adjustment ,,to ,,occupation ,where the gifted child drifts in the school unrecognized1 working chronically far below his capacity 7even though young for his grade71 he receives daily practice in habits of idleness and daydreaming4 ,his abilities never receive the stimulus of genuine challenge1 and the situation tends to form in him the expectation of an effortless existence4 ,children with ,,iq's up to #aej get along in the ordinary course of school life quite well1 achieving excellent marks without serious effort4 ,but children above this mental status become almost intolerably bored with school work if kept in lockstep with unselected pupils of their own age4 ,children who rise above #agj ,,iq are liable to regard school with indifference or with positive dislike1 for they find nothing in the work to absorb their interest4 ,this condition of affairs1 coupled with the supervision of unseeing and unsympathetic teachers1 has sometimes led even to truancy on the part of gifted children4 ,on the other hand1 if a very gifted child is placed in the regular grades as far ahead of his age as his learning capacity warrants1 the evils of social dislocation may result1 as previously described4 ,experimental education is at present trying to solve the problem of how to secure right habits of work for the highly intelligent child1 and some progress has been made in recent years4 ,another problem of development with reference to occupation grows out of the versatility of these children4 ,so far from being one-sided in ability and interest1 they are typically capable of so many different kinds of success that they may have difficulty in confining themselves to a reasonable number of enterprises4 ,some of them are lost to usefulness through spreading their available time and energy over such a wide array of projects that nothing can be finished or done perfectly4 ,after all1 time and space are as limited for the gifted as for others1 and the life-span is probably not much longer for them than for others4 ,a choice must be made among the numerous possibilities1 since modern life calls for specialization4 ,the dangers in development with respect to work habits are1 therefore1 that the child may not develop any habits of sustained effort1 and that he may fail of success as a worker through being interested in too many things ever to accomplish very much at any one of them4 ,his problem as he goes into adolescence is to make a definite choice1 and to form the habit of effort4 ,,learning ,,to ,,suffer ,,fools ,,gladly ,a lesson which many gifted persons never learn as long as they live is that human beings in general are inherently very different from themselves in thought1 in action1 in general intention1 and in interests4 ,many a reformer has died at the hands of a mob which he was trying to improve in the belief that other human beings can and should enjoy what he enjoys4 ,this is one of the most painful and difficult lessons that each gifted child must learn1 if personal development is to proceed successfully4 ,it is more necessary that this be learned than that any school subject be mastered4 ,failure to learn how to tolerate in a reasonable fashion the foolishness of others leads to bitterness1 disillusionment1 and misanthropy4 ,this point may be illustrated by the behavior of a seven-year-old boy with an ,,iq of #agh4 ,he was not sent to school until the age of seven because of his advanced interest in reading4 ,at seven1 however1 the compulsory attendance law took effect and the child was placed in the third grade at school4 ,after about four weeks of attendance1 he came home from school weeping bitterly4 ,oh ,grandmother1 ,grand-mother1 he cried1 they don't know what's good6 ,they just won't read6 ,the fact came to light that he had taken book after book to school--all his favorites from his grandfather's library--and had tried to show the other third-grade pupils what treasures these were1 but the boys and girls only resisted his efforts1 made fun of him1 threw the treasures on the floor1 and finally pulled his hair4 ,such struggles as these1 if they continue without directing the child's insight1 may lead to complete alienation from his contemporaries in childhood1 and to misanthropy in adolescence and adulthood4 ,particularly deplorable are the struggles of these children against dull or otherwise unworthy adults in authority4 ,the very gifted child or adolescent1 perceiving the illogical conduct of those in charge of his affairs1 may turn rebellious against all authority and fall into a condition of negative suggestibility--a most unfortunate trend of personality1 since the person is then unable to take a coperative attitude toward authority4 ,a person who is highly suggestible in a negative direction is as much in bondage to others around him as is the person who is positively suggestible4 ,the social value of the person is seriously impaired in either case4 ,the gifted are not likely to fall victims to positive suggestion but many of them develop negativism to a conspicuous degree4 ,the highly intelligent child will be intellectually capable of self-determination1 and his greatest value to society can be realized only if he is truly self-possessed and detached from the influences of both positive and negative suggestion4 ,the more intelligent the child1 the truer this statement is4 ,it is especially unfortunate1 therefore1 that so many gifted children have in authority over them persons of no special fitness for the task1 who cannot gain or keep the respect of these good thinkers4 ,such unworthy guardians arouse1 by the process of redintegration1 contempt for authority wherever it is found1 and the inability to yield gracefully to command4 ,thus some gifted persons1 mishandled in youth1 become contentious1 aggressive1 and stubborn to an extent which renders them difficult and disagreeable in all human relationships involving subordination4 ,since subordination must precede posts of command in the ordinary course of life1 this is an unfortunate trend of personality4 ,cynicism and negativism are likely to interfere seriously with a life career4 ,happily1 gifted children are typically endowed with a keen sense of humor1 and are apparently able to mature beyond cynicism eventually in a majority of cases4 ,,the ,,tendency ,,to ,,become ,,isolated ,yoder #g noticed1 in studying the boyhood of great men1 that although play interests were keen among them1 the play was often of a solitary kind4 ,the same is true of children who test high4 ,the majority of children testing above #afj ,,iq play little with other children unless special conditions are provided1 such as those found in a special class4 ,the difficulties are too great1 in the ordinary course of events1 in finding playmates who are appropriate in size and congenial in mentality4 ,this fact was noted some years ago by the present writer4 ,terman #h in #aicj made a special study of the play of those in his group of children who tested above #agj ,,iq and found them generally more solitary in work and play than children clustering around #adj ,,iq4 ,these superior children are not unfriendly or ungregarious by nature4 ,typically they strive to play with others but their efforts are defeated by the difficulties of the case4 ,these difficulties are illustrated in the efforts of the seven-year-old boy already mentioned4 ,other children do not share their interests1 their vocabulary1 or their desire to organize activities4 ,they try to reform their contemporaries but finally give up the struggle and play alone1 since older children regard them as babies and adults seldom play during the hours when children are awake4 ,as a result1 forms of solitary play develop1 and these1 becoming fixed as habits1 may explain the fact that many highly intellectual adults are shy1 ungregarious1 and unmindful of human relationships1 or are even misanthropic and uncomfortable in ordinary social intercourse4 ,this difficulty of the gifted child in forming friendships is largely a result of the infrequency of persons who are like-minded4 ,the more intelligent a person is1 regardless of age1 the less often can he find a truly congenial companion4 ,the average child finds playmates in abundance who can think and act on a level congenial to him because there are so many average children4 ,adding to the conditions which make for isolation is the fact that gifted children are often only children1 or they have brothers and sisters who differ widely from them in age4 ,thus playmates in the home are less numerous for them than for children generally4 ,the imaginary playmate as a solution of the problem of loneliness is fairly frequent4 ,we know but little at present of the psychology of this invention of the unreal to fill real needs4 ,reasoning from the general principles of mental hygiene1 one would say that the pattern of companionship represented in the imaginary playmate is less valuable for personal development than a pattern founded on reality1 and that effort should be made to fill the real need with genuine persons1 if possible4 ,also1 the deep interest in reading which typifies the gifted child may further his isolation4 ,irwin believes that reading should be deferred in the education of the highly intelligent4 ,i believe it is especially important that intellectual children get a grasp on reality through real experiences in making and doing things before they are ever introduced to the wonders that lie within books4 ,from this point of view1 the development of the physical1 social1 and emotional aspects of personality would have first attention in the education of a gifted child1 the intellectual being fostered last of all because it comes of itself and is too likely to run away with the other three and lead to isolation4 ,this tendency to become isolated is one of the most important factors to be considered in guiding the development of personality in highly intelligent children1 but it does not become a serious problem except at the very extreme degrees of intelligence4 ,the majority of children between #acj and #aej ,,iq find fairly easy adjustment1 because neighborhoods and schools are selective1 so that like-minded children tend to be located in the same schools and districts4 ,furthermore1 the gifted child1 being large and strong for his age1 is acceptable to playmates a year or two older4 ,great difficulty arises only when a young child is above #afj ,,iq4 ,at the extremely high levels of #ahj and #aij ,,iq1 the problem of friendships is difficult indeed1 and the younger the person1 the more difficult it is4 ,the trouble decreases with age because as persons become adult1 they naturally seek and find on their own initiative groups who are like-minded1 such as learned societies4 ,,the ,,concept ,,of ,,optimum ,,intelligence ,all things considered1 the psychologist who has observed the development of gifted children over a long period of time from early childhood to maturity1 evolves the idea that there is a certain restricted portion of the total range of intelligence which is most favorable to the development of successful and well-rounded personality in the world as it now exists4 ,this limited range appears to be somewhere between #abe and #aee ,,iq4 ,children and adolescents in this area are enough more intelligent than the average to win the confidence of large numbers of their fellows1 which brings about leadership1 and to manage their own lives with superior efficiency4 ,moreover1 there are enough of them to afford mutual esteem and understanding4 ,but those of #agj ,,iq and beyond are too intelligent to be understood by the general run of persons with whom they make contact4 ,they are too infrequent to find many congenial companions4 ,they have to contend with loneliness and with personal isolation from their contemporaries throughout the period of immaturity4 ,to what extent these patterns become permanently fixed1 we cannot yet tell4 ,there is thus an optimum intelligence1 from the viewpoint of personal happiness and adjustment to society1 which is well below the maximum4 ,the exploration of this concept should yield truths of value for education1 and for social science as well4 ,the few children who test at the very top of the juvenile population have a unique value for society4 ,on them depends in large measure the advancement of learning4 ,if they fail of personal happiness and human contact1 their work for society as a whole may be impaired or lost4 ,,conclusion ,as far as observations go at present1 intellectually gifted children between #acj and #aej ,,iq seem to find the world well suited to their development4 ,as a group1 they enjoy the advantages of superior size1 strength1 health1 and beauty2 they are emotionally well balanced and controlled2 they are of good character2 and they tend to win the confidence of their contemporaries1 which gives them leadership4 ,this is the optimum range of intelligence1 if personal happiness is being considered4 ,if a parent would want his child to enjoy every advantage1 he could not do better than wish the child to be endowed with an ,,iq not lower than #acj or higher than #aej4 ,above this limit1 however--surely above #afj ,,iq--the deviation is so great that it leads to special problems of development which are correlated with personal isolation4 ,as one boy with an ,,iq of #aij has said3 ,it isn't good to be in college so awfully young 7twelve years of age74 ,it produces a feeling of alienation4 ,how to provide against alienation from contemporaries of both sexes1 and how to prevent the negativism that results from continuous living under inefficient or unreasonable authority1 are two of the important problems for education in its attempt to insure good adjustment of personality for children of extremely high intelligence4 #a ,for the original discussion of this topic see the paper by this title1 by ,leta ,s4 ,hollingworth1 in the ,fifteenth ,yearbook of the ,department of ,elementary ,school ,principals1 ,national ,education ,association 7,july1 #aicf71 pages #bgb-bha4 #b ,terman1 ,lewis ,m4 ,genetic ,studies of ,genius3 ,vol4 ,i4 ,stanford ,university ,press1 ,stanford ,university1 ,california2 #aibe4 #c ,hartshorne1 ,h41 and ,may1 ,m4 ,a4 ,studies in ,deceit4 ,the ,macmillan ,company1 ,new ,york2 #aibg4 #d ,haggerty1 ,melvin ,e4 ,evaluation of ,higher ,institutions4 ,university of ,chicago ,press1 ,chicago1 ,illinois2 #aicg4 #e ,burt1 ,c4 ,the ,young ,delinquent4 ,d4 ,appleton-,century ,company1 ,inc41 ,new ,york2 #aibd4 #f ,healy1 ,w41 and ,bronner1 ,a4 ,f4 ,criminals and ,delinquents3 ,their ,making and ,unmaking4 ,the ,macmillan ,company1 ,new ,york2 #aibh4 #g ,yoder1 ,g4 ,f4 ,a ,study of the ,boyhood of ,great ,men4 ,pedagogical ,seminary 7#ahid74 #h ,op4 cit4 ,,chapter ,,twenty ,,the ,,child ,,of ,,very ,,superior ,,intelligence ,,as ,a ,,special ,,problem ,,in ,,social ,,adjustment #a ,this discussion is limited to the problems that arise from the combination of immaturity and superiority4 ,thus the problems considered pertain chiefly to the period in the life of the gifted child before he is twenty years of age2 for the problems of the person of superior intellect tend to be less numerous as he grows older and can use his intelligence independently in gaining control of his own life4 ,it should be stated emphatically at the outset that children of very superior intelligence are not1 as a group1 socially annoying4 ,the problems presented are those of the child1 not those of society1 as ordinarily understood4 ,that this is so is sufficiently proved by the scant attention that organized society has bestowed upon the study of gifted children4 ,society studies that which is socially annoying4 ,the school attends to those who give it trouble4 ,thus feeble-minded children 7minus deviates1 as they are called in modern laboratories7 have long been studied4 ,millions of dollars have been spent in considering them1 and a voluminous literature has grown up through prolonged investigation of their maladjustments4 ,gifted children1 on the other hand1 have been studied hardly at all4 ,such investigations as we have are the result of intellectual interest on the part of a few educators and psychologists1 who in the course of mental surveys became interested in those children who test always at the top4 ,,the ,,quality ,,of ,,gifted ,,children ,such data as we now possess1 from the scientific study of the gifted as organisms1 show us that children of very superior intelligence are typically superior in other qualities also4 ,they are superior in emotional stability and control4 ,the old idea that the very bright child prodigy is likely to be nervous has been widespread1 and popular fallacy inclines to mention bright and high-strung in the same breath4 ,in fact1 we not infrequently hear people claiming to be high-strung as a kind of compliment to themselves1 implying that they are therefore also bright4 ,psychological researches of recent years have shown these ideas to be merely superstitions1 founded on nothing more substantial than the human craving for a just nature that will somehow penalize the lucky and equalize biological wealth4 ,the researches of ,terman #b1 particularly1 and of ,hartshorne and ,may #c1 have shown that highly intelligent children are more stable emotionally than are unselected controls age for age1 and are superior to controls in their resistance to temptation4 ,the researches of ,burt #d1 and of ,healy and ,bronner #e1 show among delinquents few children of the high degree of intelligence with which this paper deals4 ,the studies cited do not1 of course1 exhaust the recent scientific literature1 but they do fairly exemplify the results of concrete1 impersonal investigation1 as distinguished from the results of popular wishful thinking4 ,the child who tests above #acj ,,iq #f is typically 7though of course not invariably7 large and strong for his age1 healthier than the average1 contributes far less than his quota to juvenile misbehavior as socially defined1 and is emotionally stable in superior degree4 ,starting with these facts as to generally superior adjustment1 let us inquire whether there are1 therefore1 no special perplexities in the life of a gifted child4 ,is it possible that a child may vary as far in a plus direction from the average performance of his contemporaries as an imbecile varies in a minus direction1 and find no special problems created for him by this wide difference in mental power between himself and the average child of his age8 ,the psychologist who is professionally acquainted with children who test above #acj ,,iq will be able to formulate clearly certain special problems of adjustment1 observed in the case study of these children1 which arise primarily from the very fact that they are gifted4 ,let us attempt to state some of these problems4 ,the more intelligent the child1 the more likely he is to become involved in these puzzling situations4 ,,the ,,problem ,,of ,,work ,where the gifted child drifts in the school unrecognized1 held to the lock step which is determined by the capacities of the average1 he has little to do4 ,he receives daily practice in habits of idleness and daydreaming4 ,his abilities are never genuinely challenged1 and the situation is contrived to build in him expectations of an effortless existence4 ,children up to about #adj ,,iq tolerate the ordinary school routine quite well1 being usually a little young for grade through an extra promotion or two1 and achieving excellent marks without serious effort4 ,but above this status1 children become increasingly bored with school work1 if kept in or nearly in the lock step4 ,children at or above #ahj ,,iq1 for instance1 are likely to regard school with indifference1 or with positive distaste1 for they find nothing interesting to do there4 ,on the other hand1 if the child be greatly accelerated in grade status1 so that he is able to function intellectually with real interest1 he will be misplaced in other important respects4 ,a child of eight years graded with twelve-year-olds is out of his depth socially and physically1 though able to do intellectual work as well as they can4 ,these problems come out clearly when we consider that the seats and desks planned for twelve-year-olds will not fit him2 that he will always be the last one chosen in athletic contests2 that no one will know how to treat him at class parties2 that the teacher will be prone to complain of his manual work1 such as handwriting2 and that he will be emotionally immature in comparison with older classmates4 ,when he jumps up and down1 clapping his hands and shouting1 ,goody6 goody6 at an announcement from the teacher1 the older children will laugh at him1 and later may hang paper tails and other tokens of ignominy upon him2 whereas his childish glee would have constituted no violation of taste among eight-year-olds4 ,a thousand concrete instances might be described to show what these problems of adjustment are4 ,experimental education is trying to solve them4 ,at present1 the special class is being tried in populous centers1 wherein a whole group of the young gifted can be brought together 7as has long been done for the dull and slow74 ,in less populous communities1 a moderate degree of acceleration1 combined with enrichment of the curriculum for the individual1 is being tried4 ,we do not yet know how the problem of adjustment to school work can best be solved4 ,indeed1 we have just learned how to define this problem4 ,,the ,,problem ,,of ,,adjustment ,,to ,,classmates ,typically1 where there is no scientific recognition of the presence of the gifted1 these children1 by the time they are eight or nine years old1 are more or less accelerated in scholastic status and appear as the youngest in the class4 ,such a child is thus youngest in the fourth or fifth grade1 in a heterogeneous group in which the oldest are retardates1 thirteen or fourteen years old4 ,now1 in the case of boys especially1 it may happen that these dull adolescents lie in wait to bully and tease the young gifted boy1 whose book-learning they detest and whose immaturity suggests the term baby4 ,the present writer knows of instances in which these young children have valiantly suffered at the hands of dull1 bullying classmates1 protecting themselves as best they might by agility and wit1 since1 of course1 they could not possibly compete in size and strength4 ,the gross indignities and tortures thus suffered are directly a penalty of being gifted2 for little boys of like age1 in the grade proper to their age1 do not come into classroom contact with these over-age bullies to anything like the same extent1 and hence do not become targets for the latter4 ,one young gifted boy thus bullied said1 ,i rigged up a sling and was going to hit him the bully with a marble1 but got afraid ,i might shoot his eye out4 ,this simple statement tells volumes4 ,it would seem that the school should somehow take effective cognizance of this problem of the bully1 which is created for the gifted child directly as a result of the contacts forced upon both of them by the school4 ,segregation of pupils on the basis of mentality would go far to obviate such problems1 but except in cities1 homogeneous grouping is difficult4 ,at present1 compulsory education1 with heterogeneous classes1 forced upon gifted children situations that would be analogous to those arising if teachers and superintendents were compelled to consort daily1 unprotected1 with giant thugs and gangsters4 ,gifted adults are free to segregate themselves from thugs and gangsters1 and also to make explicit provision for police protection1 but the ,american school forces the dull bully upon the gifted child1 in daily contacts1 out of which lasting problems of mental hygiene may arise4 ,,the ,,problem ,,of ,,play ,reports by gifted children themselves show that they are1 as a group1 much interested in play1 and that they have more play knowledge than has the average child4 ,when their reports are compared item by item with reports similarly rendered by unselected children1 it appears that the gifted know more games of intellectual skill1 such as bridge and chess2 that they care less1 age for age1 for play which involves predominantly simple sensori-motor activity which is aimless2 and that gifted girls are far less interested in traditional girls' play1 as with dolls and tea sets1 than unselected girls are4 ,the gifted enjoy more complicated and more highly competitive games than the generality do1 age for age4 ,outdoor sports hold a high place with the gifted1 being almost as popular among them as is reading4 ,but although they love play1 and have much play knowledge1 the play of the highly intelligent works out in practice as a somewhat difficult compromise among their various powers4 ,they follow their intellectual interests as far as they can1 but these are checked in many ways by age1 by degree of physical immaturity1 and by tradition4 ,an eight-year-old of #afj ,,iq may1 for example1 be deeply interested in tennis1 but he is likely to be more or less kept from playing because his physical development is not yet equal to the demands of the game4 ,he may love to play bridge1 but others of his age who are available as playmates do not1 of course1 know how to play bridge1 and he is not allowed to sit up at night when his elders play4 ,by trial-and error experience1 the highly intelligent child has to work out an adjustment if he can1 but there is likely to be noticeable difficulty if he tests above #agj ,,iq4 ,in the ordinary course of events1 it is hard for such a child to find playmates who are congenial both in size and in mental interests4 ,thus many of those who test very high are finally thrown back upon themselves1 and tend strongly to work out forms of solitary1 intellectual play4 #g ,the same situation is discovered in studies of the childhood of eminent persons4 ,yoder #h1 in his study of the juvenile history of fifty very eminent persons1 concluded that their play was often of a solitary kind4 ,reading1 calculation1 designing1 compiling collections1 constructing an imaginary land1 evoking imaginary playmates--these forms of play stand out prominently among the recreational interests of such children4 ,since physical activity is hard to carry out interestingly alone1 their play tends to become habitually sedentary4 ,nevertheless1 they develop a high degree swimming1 skating1 and other forms of athletic enjoyment which do not depend upon being included in a group4 ,of six young children testing above #ahj ,,iq1 known to the present writer1 only one #i had no conspicuous difficulty in play1 during early childhood4 #aj ,the other five were all so divergent from the usual in play interests that parents and teachers noticed them4 ,they were unpopular with children of their own age because they always wanted to organize the play into a complicated pattern1 with some remote and definite climax as the goal4 ,as the mother of one six-year-old said1 ,he can never be satisfied just to toss a ball around1 or to run about pulling and shouting4 ,children of six years are ordinarily incapable of becoming interested in long-sustained1 complicated games which lead to remote goals1 but are1 on the contrary1 characteristically satisfied only by the kind of random activity which bored this child of #ahg ,,iq4 ,the playmates of ordinary intelligence naturally resented persistent efforts to reform them and to organize them for the attainment of remote goals4 ,furthermore1 they did not have in their vocabulary words that the gifted child knew well1 used habitually1 and took for granted4 ,literally1 they could not understand each other4 ,the result was that the child of #ahg ,,iq did not get along with those of his own age and size4 ,but when he sought to join the play of children of his own mental age 7above twelve years71 the six-year-old was rejected by them also1 as being a baby and too little to play with us4 ,the child1 thus thrown back upon himself1 developed elaborate mathematical calculation1 collecting1 reading1 and games with imaginary playmates1 as his chief forms of play4 ,these young children of extremely high intellectual acumen fail to be interested in child's play for the same reasons that in adulthood they will fail to patronize custard-pie movies or chute-the-chutes at amusement parks4 ,it is futile1 and probably wholly unsound psychologically1 to strive to interest the child above #agj ,,iq in ring-around-the-rosy or blind-man's-buff4 ,many well-meaning persons speak of such efforts as socializing the child1 but it is probably not in this way that the very gifted can be socialized4 ,the problem of how the play interests of these children can be realized is one that will depend largely on individual circumstances for solution4 ,often it can be solved only by the development of solitary play4 ,what1 if any1 effect the habitual evocation of imaginary playmates1 and the elaboration of the imaginary land1 may exert on character formation and habits of adjustment in adulthood is at present unknown4 ,psychologists should study the hygienic aspects of these methods of finding satisfaction outside of the real world4 ,since gifted children are1 as has been stated1 on the whole a stable and rational group1 perhaps no effects1 or good effects only1 result from this play of the imagination4 ,,special ,,problems ,,of ,,the ,,gifted ,,girl ,it has been mentioned that gifted girls are less interested in traditional girls' play than are unselected girls4 ,they show a preference for boys' books and boys' play1 and a greater community of interests with boys than the generality of girls display4 ,this merely means that girls of a high degree of intelligence are1 as a group1 more competitive1 aggressive1 and active than girls are supposed to be4 ,an illustrative case is that of a seven-year-old girl of ,,iq #agj1 whose mother wished to learn from psychology how to break her child of being a tomboy and how to rear her to be a lady4 ,the mother complained that the girl had never cared for dolls1 that she would not take an interest in her clothes1 and that she wanted to do nothing after school but read or play rough1 outdoor games4 ,how1 inquired the mother1 could ,i break her of the habit of climbing lampposts8 ,this child was active and competitive4 ,when asked why she did not play with dolls1 she replied1 ,they aren't real4 ,the doll that is supposed to be a baby doll is twice as big as the one that is made like a mother doll4 ,aside from their dissatisfaction with the play habits ordinarily associated with their sex1 gifted girls have various other problems to face which arise directly from the facts that they are able and that they are girls4 ,when they reach the stage of life-planning1 as they do very early1 they are confused in their self-seeking by the uncertainty in contemporary customs as to what a girl may become4 ,this difficulty is growing less and less1 to be sure1 but it is still something to be reckoned with1 especially in certain localities4 ,the intelligent girl begins very early to perceive that she is1 so to speak1 of the wrong sex4 ,from a thousand tiny cues1 she learns that she is not expected to entertain the same ambitions as her brother4 ,her problem is to adjust her ambitions to a sense of sex inferiority without1 on the one hand1 losing self-respect and self-determination1 and1 on the other1 without becoming morbidly aggressive4 ,this is never an easy adjustment to achieve1 and even superior intelligence does not always suffice to accomplish it4 ,the special problem of gifted girls is that they have strong preferences for activities that are hard to follow on account of their sex1 which is inescapable4 ,,problems ,,of ,,conformity ,judgments of teachers and parents indicate that highly intelligent children are1 on the whole1 more easily disciplined than children generally are4 ,nonetheless1 certain problems of discipline do arise1 which grow out of their intelligence4 ,first1 in the case of the schoolroom situation almost the only respect in which discipline is especially troublesome with these children is in the matter of orderly discussion when they are together in special classes4 ,it is hard for them to maintain silence when ideas press for utterance4 ,the tendency is for many to speak at once1 each striving to outspeak the others4 ,an atmosphere of confusion is thus created unless discipline can be imposed4 ,to hold his tongue1 to listen quietly and respectfully to others1 to speak according to some order of procedure1 and to restrain disappointment at failure to be heard at all--these habits seem especially difficult for gifted children to form4 ,only gradually do these children learn self-government in this respect4 ,also it has been noticed during the experimental education of the highly intelligent that they sometimes tend to slight routine drudgery in favor of more stimulating and more original projects4 ,the sheer drudgery involved in learning their multiplication table1 for example1 is likely to be waived in order to follow some absorbing story or experiment1 unless conformity be urged from without4 ,at home1 a special problem of discipline may arise occasionally due to the circumstance of that child1 while still very immature in years1 has come to exceed one parent or both in intelligence4 ,for the best discipline routine the parent must be more intelligent than the child or the child's respect for the opinions of the former will inevitably be lost4 ,with the most gifted children this may quite early become a problem1 since such children1 by the age of ten years or before1 are more intelligent than the average adult is4 ,very readily such a child perceives that in comparison with himself his parent is slow-witted and lacking in general information4 ,yet in self-control and in experience of life1 the child is still very immature4 ,thus quite unfortunate developments may ensue in the parent-child relationship4 ,the child may become the director of the parent's activities1 reversing the socially acceptable condition of affairs4 ,fortunately1 in the vast majority of cases at least one of the parents is a person of superior intelligence4 ,we seldom find a very intelligent child in a home where both parents are average or below average in mental power4 ,because he learns everything very quickly1 the highly intelligent child is especially quick to discover what forms of conduct on his part bring him satisfactions4 ,if the tantrum is rewarded by the parent with cookies1 company1 attention1 or other childish delights1 then the bright child may display even bigger and better tantrums than will those who are slower to learn4 ,if illness brings coddling1 release from undesired responsibility1 and other pleasures1 then the quick learner will readily perceive the value of headaches and other aches as means to ends4 ,on the other hand1 the very intelligent learn readily to refrain from undesirable behavior that is followed quickly and inevitably by punishment4 ,two or three experiences usually suffice for these excellent learners4 ,neglect and ostracism are good forms of punishment for them4 ,darwin tells us that he was cured of telling sensational fibs1 as a child1 simply by the chilling silence with which they were always received by his parents4 ,one more problem may be noted here4 ,there is with intelligent children a stronger tendency to argue about what is required of them than is found with the average child4 ,this tendency to argue as to the why and wherefore of a requirement is met both at home and at school1 and calls for thought in proper handling on the part of parents and teachers4 ,to find a golden mean between arbitrary abolition of all argument1 on the one hand1 and weak fostering of an intolerable habit of endless argumentation1 on the other1 is not always easy1 but it is always worth while as a measure for retaining the respect of the child4 ,,the ,,problems ,,of ,,origin ,,and ,,of ,,destiny ,early interest in origins and in destinies is one of the conspicuous symptoms of intellectual acumen4 ,where did the moon come from8 ,who made the world8 ,what is the very end of autumn leaves8 ,where did ,i come from8 ,what will become of me when ,i die8 ,why did ,i come into the world8 ,although these questions rise vaguely and intermittently in the minds of children in general1 they do not begin to require logically coherent answers until about the mental age of twelve or thirteen years4 ,then they begin to press for more or less systematic accounts4 ,from these circumstances of mental development1 the erroneous idea has long been promulgated1 even by psychologists1 that puberty in some mysterious manner leads to the rise of religious needs and convictions4 ,since among the generality a mental age of thirteen years is1 roughly1 coincident with the age of pubescence1 the two developments have been assumed to be casually related4 ,when we observe young gifted children1 we discover that religious ideas and needs originate in them whenever they develop to a mental level past twelve years mental age4 ,thus they show these needs when they are but eight or nine years old1 or earlier4 ,the higher the ,,iq the earlier does the pressing need for an explanation of the universe occur1 the sooner does the demand for a concept of the origin and destiny of the self appear4 ,in the cases of children who test above #ahj ,,iq observed by the present writer1 definite demand for a systematic philosophy of life and death developed when they were but six or seven years old4 ,similar phenomena appear in the childhood histories of eminent persons where data of childhood are available4 ,goethe1 for example1 at the age of nine constructed an altar and devised a religion of his own1 in which ,god could be worshiped without the help of priests4 ,much could be said of the special problems of the young gifted child in this period of immaturity when his intellectual needs are those of an adolescent while his emotional control and physical powers are still but those of a child4 ,it would be of great interest to study the reactions of older persons to the insistent questions and searchings of these young children4 ,you are too young to understand4 ,you can't know all that till you grow older4 ,you unnatural child6 ,these are responses that have been heard incidentally1 falling from the lips of undiscerning parents4 ,a girl of eight years1 of ,,iq #aej1 recently was heard to express a determination to join the ,agnostic ,church1 because she had asked1 ,what is it called when you can't make up your mind whether there is a ,god or not8 and had been told that this would be agnosticism4 ,part and parcel of these questionings concerning origin and destiny are those concerning birth and reproduction4 ,at a tender age these children ask for an account of sex and reproduction and suffer much at the hands of parents and guardians who are shocked at what thus emanates from the mouths of babes4 ,lifelong problems of mental hygiene may be thus engendered by parents who cannot understand why a child should be so unnatural as to weep over questions of birth and death at six or seven years of age4 ,in the same way problems of right and wrong become troublesome for these young children in a way that does not happen except for the very able4 ,for instance1 a six-year-old boy of ,,iq #ahg wept bitterly after reading how the ,north taxed the ,south after the ,civil ,war4 ,the problem of evil in the abstract thus comes to trouble these children almost in their cradles1 at an age when they are ill-suited to grapple with it from the point of view of emotional maturity4 ,special problems of mental hygiene are perhaps inherent in this situation which do not arise with the generality of children4 ,,general ,,considerations ,the list of problems that we have suggested here does not by any means exhaust the subject under discussion4 ,however1 the present writer believes that these are some of the more important problems of childhood that originate directly from the circumstance of being very highly intelligent among official guardians who are ignorant or careless of the fact4 ,these problems of adjustment do not arise unless a child is gifted intellectually4 ,they are conspicuous to the psychologist who studies children with test knowledge of them4 ,it is especially to be noted that many of these problems are functions of immaturity4 ,to have the intelligence of an adult and the emotions of a child combined in a childish body is to encounter certain difficulties4 ,it follows that 7after babyhood7 the younger the child1 the greater the difficulties1 and that adjustment becomes easier with every additional year of age4 ,the years between four and nine are probably the most likely to be beset with the problems mentioned4 ,the physical differences between a child of six whose ,,iq is #aej and children of nine years 7whose mental age corresponds to his7 are unabridgeable1 and so are the differences of taste1 due to differences in emotional maturity4 ,the child of six graded with nine-year-olds is out of his element physically and socially1 but the same thing is not true of a sixteen-year-old among nineteen-year-olds4 ,the difference between six and nine is very great4 ,the difference between sixteen and nineteen is small in terms of biological development4 ,moreover1 as the bright go forward in school1 they find work increasingly adapted to their powers by the automatic developments of the established curriculum4 ,senior high schools are1 we have discovered1 adapted only to adolescents of superior intelligence4 ,classmates become automatically more congenial through being more highly selected4 ,the dull bully1 with his crude horseplay1 has left school1 and in any case the gifted1 being older1 can defend themselves physically4 ,by the time a gifted person is physically mature1 many of the problems herein outlined automatically disappear as problems4 ,what after-effects there may be of the poor solution of these childish problems we do not know4 ,apparently these superior organisms tolerate well the strains put upon them by reason of their deviation from the average4 ,however1 that an organism stands strain well is no reason for putting or leaving strain unnecessarily upon it4 ,as the gifted individual grows to maturity1 he or she can achieve control of his or her own life1 and can dispense to a relatively great extent with inadvertent cruelties and mistaken efforts of uninformed official guardians4 ,it is during childhood that the gifted boy or girl is at the mercy of guardians whose duty it is to know his nature and his needs much more fully than they now do4 #a ,reprinted from ,mental ,hygiene3 ,vol4 ,,xi1 ,no4 #a1 pages #c-af 7,january1 #aica74 ,read by ,leta4 ,s4 ,hollingworth at the ,first ,international ,congress of ,mental ,hygiene1 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 ,may #h1 #aicj4 #b ,terman1 ,lewis ,m4 ,genetic ,studies of ,genius3 ,vol4 ,i4 ,stanford ,university ,press1 ,stanford ,university1 ,california2 #aibe4 #c ,hartshorne1 ,h41 and ,may1 ,m4 ,a4 ,studies in ,deceit4 ,the ,macmillan ,company1 ,new ,york2 #aibg4 #d ,burt1 ,c4 ,the ,young ,delinquent4 ,d4 ,appleton-,century ,company1 ,inc41 ,new ,york2 #aibd4 #e ,healy1 ,w41 and ,bronner1 ,a4 ,f4 ,criminals and ,delinquents3 ,their ,making and ,unmaking4 ,the ,macmillan ,company1 ,new ,york2 #aibh4 #f ,the intelligence quotient is the ratio between the chronological age status achieved on tests by an individual and that achieved by the generality of the same chronological age4 #g ,hollingworth1 ,leta ,s4 ,gifted ,children3 ,their ,nature and ,nurture4 ,the ,macmillan ,company1 ,new ,york2 #aibf4 #h ,yoder1 ,g4 ,f4 ,a ,study of the ,boyhood of ,great ,men4 ,pedagogical ,seminary 7#ahid74 #i ,this child attended a private school where a number of the pupils tested above #adj ,,iq4 #aj ,this was written in #aica4 ,,chapter ,,twenty-,,one ,,the ,,elementary ,,schooling ,,of ,,very ,,bright ,,children ,in this chapter are presented selected relevant paragraphs from two of the later papers by the author3 ,an ,enrichment ,curriculum for ,rapid ,learners #a and ,what ,we ,know about the ,early ,selection and ,training of ,leaders4 #b ,this is neither the time nor the place for discussion of the techniques of mental measurement1 but rather for the discussion of results4 ,what1 first1 do we know about the selection of children who stand in the upper ranges of intelligence8 ,facts of much importance have been established since #aije4 ,in the first place1 we have proved that children who rate in the top one per cent of the juvenile population in respect to judgment1 as ,binet called it1 also possess much more often than others those additional qualities which thinkers have most frequently named as desirable in leaders4 ,there is a strong probability that a child who rates as only one in a hundred for intelligence will also be endowed in superior degree with integrity1 independence1 originality1 creative imagination1 vitality1 forcefulness1 warmth1 poise1 and stability4 ,these characteristics are identical with those set forth by ,harvard ,college as the additional traits desired in boys1 already proved by tests to be highly intelligent1 who are to receive ,national ,scholarships4 ,i believe no one would wish to delete from the list any trait thus stipulated4 ,i would1 however1 add to it audacity1 capacity for nonconformity1 love of beauty1 and cold courage1 as traits to cherish in leaders1 although these are often uncongenial to teachers in the elementary school1 and possibly to other educators4 ,we find all these qualities in superior measure among highly intelligent children1 according to the ratings of those who know them4 ,if one would call for a mathematical statement of the likelihood of finding these traits in combination with high intelligence1 we could give it4 ,i may say that the correlation coefficients hover around 4#ej4 ,this means that in selecting any child testing far up in the top one per cent--say at #afj ,,iq or above 7#ajj ,,iq being par7--there is far more than an even chance of having thus automatically selected a tall1 healthy1 fine-looking1 honest1 and courageous child1 with a great love of adventure and of beauty in his makeup4 ,with a correlation so far from unity as 4#ej1 however1 we cannot be at all certain of such a happy combination4 ,we shall find a minority of cases where fine judgment is combined with an unstable temper1 a crippled body1 an ugly face1 a ruthless disregard for others1 malign chicanery1 cowardice4 7,i would say there cannot be a very high intelligence without the love of beauty47 ,educational psychology works constantly to find ways of knowing how to identify these additional elements4 ,it will be a long time before we advance to a point where we can measure these as well as we can now measure intelligence4 ,some of these additional qualifications are undoubtedly as essential to leadership as intelligence is4 ,a rascal1 a coward1 a liar1 a tyrant1 a panderer1 a fanatic1 an invalid1 is not a desirable leader1 no matter whether his ,,iq is #bjj4 ,we must learn to select from among the highly intelligent those who have the greatest number of additional qualifications4 ,we must learn what these additional qualifications are4 ,one knows them when one sees them in action4 ,for example1 an eleven-year-old boy of ,,iq close to #ahj decided to run for the office of class president in the senior high school to which he had been accelerated4 ,his classmates were around sixteen years of age4 ,during the electioneering a proponent of a rival candidate arose to speak against the eleven-year-old1 and he said1 among other things1 ,fellows1 we don't want a president in knee pants6 ,in the midst of the applause following this remark1 the eleven-year-old arose1 and waving his hand casually in the direction of the full-length portrait of ,george ,washington on the wall1 he said1 ,fellows1 try to remember that when ,george got to be the ,father of our country he was wearing knee pants4 ,the eleven-year-old was elected by a large majority4 ,he gave evidence not only of an ,,iq of #ahj1 but also of the additional qualities of political leadership in highest degree3 audacity1 presence of mind1 good humor1 grace1 and1 above all1 the genuine desire to be a popular leader4 ,he knew how to bridge1 by a debonair gesture1 the great gap between him and those to be led4 ,this boy had qualities of political leadership4 ,this limiting adjective opens the large subject of the different kinds of leaders4 ,leaders of whom1 and for what ends8 ,observation of children suggests that there is a direct ratio between the intelligence of the leader and that of the led4 ,to be a leader of his contemporaries1 a child must be more intelligent1 but not too much more intelligent1 than those who are to be led4 ,there are rare exceptions to this principle1 as in the case we have cited4 ,but1 generally speaking1 a leadership pattern will not form--or it will break up--when a discrepancy of more than about #cj points of ,,iq comes to exist between the leader and the led4 ,this concept of an optimum which is not a maximum difference between the leader and the led has very important implications for selection and training4 ,we cannot do more than to point to it here1 in passing4 ,among school children--as among the peoples of all times--the great intellectual leaders are unrecognized1 isolated1 and even ridiculed by all but a few in the ordinary course of mass education4 ,they can develop leadership of their sort only when placed in special classes4 ,observation and investigation prove that in the matter of their intellectual work these children are customarily wasting much time in the elementary schools4 ,we know from measurements made over a three-year period that a child of #adj ,,iq can master all the mental work provided in the elementary school1 as established1 in half the time allowed him4 ,therefore1 one-half the time which he spends at school could be utilized in doing something more than the curriculum calls for4 ,a child of #agj ,,iq can do all the studies that are at present required of him1 with top marks1 in about one-fourth the time he is compelled to spend at school4 ,what1 then1 are these pupils doing in the ordinary school setup while the teacher teaches the other children who need the lessons8 ,no exhaustive discussion of time-wasting can be undertaken here1 except to say briefly that these exceptional pupils are running errands1 idling1 engaging in busy work1 or devising childish tasks of their own1 such as learning to read backward--since they can already read forward very fluently4 ,many are the devices invented by busy teachers to take up the extra time of these rapid learners1 but few of these devices have the appropriate character that can be built only on psychological insight into the nature and the needs of gifted children4 ,before education can discharge this most important task of all with economy and justice1 it must become a science4 ,the science which is fundamental to education is psychology4 ,psychology had to develop the methods of mental measurement before there could be accurate or humane dealing in a system of compulsory education4 ,we must take the measure of a man before we can know how to educate him2 and it remained for mental measurement to reveal the astonishing power of learning that is latent in an elementary school-child of ,,iq #agj or #ahj4 ,how shall such pupils be taught8 ,how shall we educate these rapid learners1 these subtle thinkers1 these children of potential genius in the elementary school8 ,,considerations ,,in ,,planning ,,the ,,curriculum #c ,at the outset we must realize and admit that no absolute criteria exist by which to select from all aspects of human experience those which are most valuable for a group of gifted children4 ,there is no body of revealed wisdom about this matter4 ,nevertheless1 we are not altogether at sea4 ,common sense1 accompanied by scientific facts of psychology1 comes to our assistance1 and we may note first such negative considerations as occur to us under this guidance4 ,it is useless to undertake extensive work in classical languages or in mathematics as general discipline for the minds of these rapid learners4 ,the education given should be such as will function specifically and uniquely in their lives4 ,it should afford them a rich background of ideas1 in terms of which they may perceive the significant features of their own times4 ,another definitely negative consideration applies to the avoidance of all subjects which they will have occasion to encounter in high school and college in later years4 ,these young children can learn algebra or ,latin grammar or chemistry easily enough1 but what is the use of having them do so8 ,the opportunity and the prescribed necessity for this will come later4 ,turning to positive considerations1 we know that these pupils--they and no others--will possess as adults those mental powers on which the learned professions depend for conservation and advancement4 ,also1 we know that they will be the literary interpreters of the world of their generation4 ,and they will be the ones who can think deeply and clearly about abstractions like the state1 the government1 and economics4 ,we know this because we have seen a group like this grow up over a period of fifteen years1 and we know what became of every one of them4 ,below an ,,iq of #acj no very large amount of effective thinking about complex abstractions can be done at any age4 ,that1 we are learning1 is about the median mental caliber of college students in first-class colleges1 taking it our country over4 ,in many highly selected1 first-class colleges1 the boy or girl of ,,iq #adj finds himself or herself merely a good average student1 steadily receiving ,c's4 ,in such colleges one must be a very good thinker in order to survive the course1 but no one would consider median students in our first-rate colleges to be geniuses4 ,the suggestion advanced about twenty years ago that #adj ,,iq represents genius or near-genius was premature4 ,and when we remember that #abj ,,iq and #aae ,,iq are well below these median students in mental power1 it becomes clear that at and below those levels conservation and advancement of the abstractions underlying the learned professions will be very inadequately handled4 ,really adequate conservation of the precious stores of knowledge laid up in medicine1 law1 theology1 education1 and the sciences depends on those not below #acj ,,iq4 ,as for originations1 whereby one generation progresses beyond another in control of the physical environment and of preventable evils1 we are learning that only a few in the topmost ranges can produce them in the realm of abstractions4 ,only a few in the top one per cent can contribute to actual progress4 ,as ,franklin ,k4 ,lane has said1 ,progress means the discovery of the capable4 ,they are our natural masters4 ,they lead because they have the right4 ,and everything done to keep them from rising is a blow to what we call our civilization4 ,to develop each according to his ability3 this is democracy at its ideal best4 ,the education of the best thinkers should be an education for initiative and originality4 ,effective originality depends1 first of all1 upon sound and exhaustive knowledge of what the course of preceding events has been4 ,to take their unique places in civilized society1 it would seem1 therefore1 that the intellectually gifted need especially to know what the evolution of culture has been4 ,and since at eight or nine years of age they are not as yet ready for specialization1 what they need to know is the evolution of culture as it has affected common things4 ,at present1 this is not taught to children or to adolescents1 except in fragmentary and casual ways4 ,persons typically graduate from elementary school1 high school1 and college1 and take postgraduate degrees without learning much1 if anything1 about the evolution of lighting1 of refrigeration1 of shipping1 of clothing1 of etiquette1 of trains1 of libraries1 and of a thousand things which have been contributed to the common life by persons in past times and which distinguish the life of civilized man from the existence of the savage4 ,these things are vaguely taken for granted even by the intelligent1 educated person4 ,no systematic knowledge of how they came into being enriches his understanding4 ,nor is he aware of the biographies of those who have made his comfort and his safety possible4 ,no more does he understand how dangerous and destructive forces came to be in the world4 ,of these vast fields the college graduate is typically ignorant1 as has frequently been proved4 ,the activities which make up the life of a civilized man may be variously organized and classified for purposes of study in the elementary school4 ,a number of the progressive schools have undertaken projects in these fields4 ,the pupils in such schools usually test at a median of about #aah ,,iq1 and the work they have done1 while it is helpful and suggestive1 is not what is needed for pupils of the caliber with which we are here dealing4 ,topical classifications which have suggested themselves as areas for study might be stated as follows3 food2 shelter2 clothing2 transportation2 sanitation and health2 trade2 time-keeping2 illumination2 tools and implements2 communication2 law2 government2 education2 warfare2 punishment2 labor2 recreation4 ,every one of these areas of human culture affords the opportunity and necessity for studying the evolution of common things1 satisfying the intellectual curiosity1 and challenging the power of learning of the children here considered4 ,,enrichment ,,units ,,at ,,speyer ,,school ,between the ages of seven and thirteen years1 the minds of these children are occupied primarily with exploration of the world in which they have recently arrived4 ,they are full of questions of fact1 not yet being distracted by the emotional and dynamic interests that come with adolescence and adulthood4 ,this is the golden age of the intellect4 ,why8 ,how8 ,when8 ,who8 ,where8 ,what8 are constantly on their tongues1 as any parent of a child in our classes will testify4 ,now1 in accordance with the philosophy and psychology which we have tried all too briefly to indicate1 a series of enrichment units is being worked out at ,speyer ,school day by day in our classrooms4 ,these are being published in the form of teachers' handbooks1 in a series designated ,the ,evolution of ,common ,things1 the first numbers of which have been published4 ,it will take five years to complete the series1 at the end of which time we shall know from experience how much knowledge along the lines indicated can be organized and learned by children above #acj ,,iq in the years of the elementary school4 ,the handbooks1 as they appear in published form1 will represent the actual work of the pupils themselves1 guided by the teacher4 ,the teachers did not discover and assemble the materials of instruction1 and give them out4 ,the children did this work4 ,in the end1 the teacher organized the total work into an orderly sequence1 and verbalized it in final form for presentation4 ,but no teacher would have the time or energy to carry on the work of the school and also collect and compile the materials contained in one of these units4 ,when an area of knowledge has been circumscribed by the children as one chosen for study by class discussion1 the teacher participating in the thinking but not leading it1 the pupils 7there are twenty-five in each class7 divide themselves into committees4 ,these various groups of three to five children each bring special knowledge to the class periods1 and all share in the sum total of facts and ideas thus assembled4 ,libraries are thoroughly utilized in this process4 ,ninety-five per cent of the pupils who were admitted to our classes in ,february1 #aicf 7they were then between the ages of seven and nine71 had and were using library cards from the ,new ,york ,public ,library4 ,they are taken by their teachers to the nearest branch of the ,public ,library on days arranged for1 and they look up their own materials1 following the topics listed4 ,librarians were at first skeptical as to the wisdom of admitting these very young children to the card indices and other facilities of the library4 ,but librarians are an open-minded group1 and they were persuaded to let the children try4 ,no difficulty at all has been experienced4 ,stedman showed long ago that elementary school children of ,,iq above #adj can use a library and consult reference books as well as students in the normal school do4 ,in addition to work in the ,public ,library1 the classes have the right to use books from the ,teachers ,college ,library2 and to the librarians of ,teachers ,college much credit is due for their effective coperation4 ,also1 the library facilities of the public schools are thoroughly utilized4 ,current periodical literature1 coming to the homes of the pupils1 makes a constant contribution4 ,it is surprising how few of the books found most useful were written by professed educators4 ,of the trips undertaken1 the visual aids supplied1 and other methods of instruction there is not space to tell here4 ,these are described fully in the units as they appear4 ,the ,evolution of ,common ,things is the chief enrichment project growing in our classes4 ,however1 much in addition to this work is incorporated in our curriculum4 ,these additions may be described as follows4 ,first may be mentioned the study of ,biography1 because it is very closely allied to ,the ,evolution of ,common ,things4 ,this is planned to continue for five years1 though not being done in every term continuously4 ,it is inevitable that it should become apparent to our pupils that all common things of the kind being studied have had their origins in the minds of people4 ,who these people were is answered by the study of biography4 ,the question ,who8 is constantly in the air4 ,during the year #aicf-aicg1 about one hundred persons were biografied #d by our pupils1 most of them persons who have given us very important common things4 ,the idea that biography is a study well suited to young gifted children was given trial experimentally fifteen years ago at ,public ,school #afe1 ,manhattan1 and its suitability was there proved4 ,at the ,speyer ,school we are able to build upon the previous experiment and to extend and improve the work1 mainly because of the astonishing improvement in the writing of biography which has taken place in the recent past4 ,the ,french language and literature will be taught for the full five years4 ,this is done for three reasons3 7#a7 the pupils with whom we are dealing will1 more than others1 have occasion to meet foreign peoples1 and to represent their country abroad in the realm of ideas2 7#b7 it is thought that the earlier a language is studied1 the more thoroughly it can be mastered1 especially as regards pronunciation2 7#c7 the teaching of a modern language enriches1 without anticipating1 the opportunities of the high school and college1 since the pupils will have occasion to take various languages later1 and may ultimately emerge with three1 instead of the usual two1 at their command4 ,french rather than ,german1 ,spanish1 or ,italian was chosen because teachers of the ,french language were available on our staff1 and we gladly adopted it4 ,another of the important enrichment projects is the formulation of a curriculum in the ,science of ,nutrition4 ,this1 also1 is a five-year plan1 in the course of which a curriculum in nutrition will be set up in terms of the vocabulary1 the concepts1 and the capacity of thinking which are proper to these children4 ,,special ,,work ,special work in general science has been carried on since the opening of the classes4 ,for a time the question-box method was tried4 ,a question-box dealing with science in any and all its aspects was opened once a week1 and the children's questions found in it were discussed by a special teacher4 ,through the courtesy of the ,music and ,arts ,high ,school1 special teachers of these subjects have been assigned1 and many projects have been carried through4 ,the pupils have made murals founded on their studies of common things4 ,they have learned ,french songs1 and have become familiar with many things in music4 ,another teacher of the staff of the ,speyer ,school is developing dramatics for our classes4 ,it is evident that a large opportunity for the development of the creative abilities of our pupils lies here4 ,handicrafts are taught at least once each week4 ,the handwork of the rapid learners is very superior1 contrary to the current superstition that highly intelligent children are poor with their hands4 ,during the year #aicf-aicg1 the pupils made airplanes from blueprints1 which involved very delicate operations with glue and small pieces of wood4 ,they were then seven to nine years old4 ,one afternoon each week1 the ,games ,club meets1 and there the children learn games of intellectual skill4 ,chess and checkers are the favorites4 ,it is believed that education for leisure time is a special responsibility of those who teach highly intelligent children4 ,the most intelligent tend to become isolates1 through not finding in the ordinary course of life recreations congenial both to themselves and to contemporaries4 ,a game like chess or checkers can be shared with pleasure1 irrespective of age1 by any two people who have a sufficient mental nearness4 ,hence they help a very gifted child to find company and enjoy himself in all age groups--a very important factor in the social development of such a child4 ,the interest in these games is kept within bounds by the restriction to one hour a week and to those pupils who are up to date in their school work4 ,possibly more time should be allowed for the ,games ,club as pupils grow older4 ,having followed our description of the enriched curriculum to this point1 readers who have no direct experience in the education of children of the caliber being considered may begin to be anxious for the welfare of reading1 writing1 and arithmetic4 ,let them be reassured4 ,mornings are devoted to the established curriculum of the elementary school1 the pupils working by contracts4 ,achievement tests are given at regular intervals to determine conventional grade status in the various subjects4 ,in ,june1 #aicg1 our pupils showed the educational age of pupils at the middle of the seventh grade of the elementary schools as measured by ,stanford ,achievement ,tests4 ,they were then nine years six months old1 on the median4 ,the regular grade status for them would have been the middle of the fourth grade4 ,the most intelligent tenth of the pupils were already through the ceiling of ,stanford ,achievement and of other standard achievement tests in ,june1 #aicg4 ,at this point1 it should be mentioned that our pupils do not have and never have had homework assigned to them4 ,the intellectual interest and capacity of young children who test from #afj to #bjj ,,iq is incredible to those who have had no experience with the teaching of such children4 ,we have in our classes about a dozen of such extreme deviates4 ,they are truly original thinkers and doers of their generation4 ,a book could be made of the incidents constantly occurring which denote the qualities of their minds4 ,it is these children who suffer most from ennui in the ordinary situation4 ,for instance1 recently in the discussion of the biography of ,madame ,curie1 the question was raised by a pupil as to what radium really is4 ,one suggested that radium is a stone4 ,another said that radium is a metal4 ,the person in charge of the class then said1 ,what is the difference between a stone and a metal8 ,a pupil of an extremely high degree of intelligence rose and said1 ,the main difference is that a metal is malleable and ductile1 and a stone is not4 ,he then enlarged very precisely upon what these properties are4 ,at the moment of this discussion1 this boy was nine years six months old4 ,the others listened attentively1 and understood the elucidation4 ,such incidents1 occurring daily1 give some idea of the level of minds being dealt with in our classes4 ,the boy who thought and said what is set forth above was placed in the sixth grade when his principal recommended him to our classes4 ,he had then been skipped to a point well out of his age group1 and yet he had nothing whatever to learn from the work of the sixth grade4 ,the pupils in the classes for rapid learners will go to senior high school when they are thirteen years old4 ,in the meantime1 they will be learning and thinking in the company of their contemporaries as regards age and social interests4 ,they will have proper intellectual training1 and will at no time idle their time away1 be practiced in habits of laziness1 or become the victims of boredom4 ,they will emerge into high school with a background of knowledge richer and fuller by far than that of pupils of equal mentality1 for whom no enrichment program has been provided4 ,,emotional ,,education ,much more might be said of the program of intellectual training1 but ,i must pass on to consider what may be even more important-- their training in attitudes1 emotions1 and drives2 in other words1 their emotional education4 ,how shall we avoid the conditions which1 under the prevailing system of mass education1 tend to produce emotional habits destructive of leadership8 ,of all the speical problems of general conduct which the most intelligent children face1 ,i will mention five1 which beset them in early years and may lead to habits subversive of fine leadership3 7#a7 to find enough hard and interesting work at school2 7#b7 to suffer fools gladly2 7#c7 to keep from becoming negativistic toward authority2 7#d7 to keep from becoming hermits2 7#e7 to avoid the formation of habits of extreme chicanery4 ,in the ordinary elementary school situation children of #adj ,,iq waste half of their time4 ,those above #agj ,,iq waste practically all of their time4 ,with little to do1 how can these children develop power of sustained effort1 respect for the task1 or habits of steady work8 ,i could entertain you for some time telling you the various sorts of bizarre and wasteful activities that were taking up the time of the most intelligent elementary school children in this nation yesterday in their classrooms1 but we must pass on to other things4 ,a lesson which many highly intelligent persons never learn as long as they live is that human beings in general are incorrigibly very different from themselves in thought1 action1 and desire4 ,many a reformer has died at the hands of a mob which he was trying to improve4 ,the highly intelligent child must learn to suffer fools gladly--not sneeringly1 not angrily1 not despairingly1 not weepingly--but gladly1 if personal development is to proceed successfully in the world as it is4 ,failure to learn how to tolerate in a reasonable fashion the foolishness of others less gifted leads to bitterness1 disillusionment1 and misanthropy1 which are the ruin of potential leaders4 ,every day at school the opportunity presents itself to learn this lesson4 ,especially hard for these intelligent children to bear is the foolishness of accepted authority4 ,for instance1 our pupils found it stated in their encyclopedia that ,mr4 ,orville ,wright is dead4 ,as is likely to be the case1 a child in the group immediately identified error4 ,mr4 ,orville ,wright is as much alive as ,i am1 declared this child4 ,this was subsequently verified by the class as a whole4 ,they wrote to ,mr4 ,wright1 fiercely protesting against the foolishness of the encyclopedia4 ,they wanted to throw the false authority out at once4 ,the teacher discussed the incident on the basis of glad suffering4 ,i can't take time to describe the conversation that pivoted on this incident1 but ,i can say that it was valuable as emotional education4 ,the pupils still have the offending encyclopedia4 ,as a form of failure to suffer fools gladly1 negativism may develop4 ,the foolish teacher who hates to be corrected by a child is unsuited to these children4 ,too many children of ,,iq #agj are being taught by teachers of ,,iq #abj4 ,into this important matter of the selection of the teacher we cannot enter1 except to illustrate the difficulty from recent conversation with a ten-year-old boy of ,,iq #afe4 ,this boy was referred to us as a school problem3 ,not interested in the school work4 ,very impudent4 ,a liar4 ,the following is a fragment of conversation with this boy3 ,what seems to be your main problem in school8 ,several of them4 ,name one4 ,well1 ,i will name the teachers4 ,oh1 boy6 ,it is bad enough when the pupils make mistakes1 but when the teachers make mistakes1 oh1 boy6 ,mention a few mistakes the teachers made4 ,for instance ,i was sitting in #e;,a and the teacher was teaching #e;,b4 ,she was telling those children that the ,germans discovered printing1 that ,gutenberg was the first discoverer of it1 mind you4 ,after a few minutes ,i couldn't stand it4 ,i am not supposed to recite in that class1 you see1 but ,i got up4 ,i said1 ,no2 the ,chinese invented1 not discovered1 printing1 before the time of ,gutenberg--while the ,germans were still barbarians4 ,then the teacher said1 ,sit down4 ,you are entirely too fresh4 ,later on she gave me a raking-over before the whole class4 ,oh1 boy6 ,what teaching6 ,it seemed to me that one should begin at once in this case the lesson about suffering fools gladly4 ,so ,i said1 ,ned1 that teacher is foolish1 but one of the very first things to learn in the world is to suffer fools gladly4 ,the child was so filled with resentment that he heard only the word suffer4 ,yes1 that's it4 ,that's what ,i say6 ,make 'em suffer4 ,roll a rock on 'em4 ,i quote this to suggest how negativistic rebels may seize on the wrong idea4 ,before we finished the conversation ,ned was straightened out on the subject of who was to do the suffering4 ,he agreed to do it himself4 ,i will cite another conversation1 this time with a nine-year-old1 of ,,iq #ahc4 ,what seems to be the main trouble with you at school8 ,the teacher can't pronounce4 ,can't pronounce what8 ,oh1 lots of things4 ,the teacher said ,magdalen ,college--at ,oxford1 you know4 ,i said1 ,in ,england they call it ,mdlin ,college4 ,the teacher wrote a note home to say ,i am rude and disorderly4 ,she does not like me4 ,just one more conversation1 this time with an eight-year-old1 of ,,iq #agh1 ,sent as a school problem3 ,what is your main trouble at school8 ,my really main trouble is not at school4 ,where is it1 then8 ,it is the librarian4 ,how is that8 ,well1 for instance1 ,i go to the library to look for my books on mechanics4 ,i am making a new way for engines to go into reverse gear4 ,the librarian says1 ,here1 where are you going8 ,you belong in the juvenile department4 ,so ,i have to go where the children are all supposed to go4 ,but ,i don't stay there long1 because they don't have any real books there4 ,say1 do you think you could get me a card to the other department8 ,this subject is inexhaustible1 but we must go on to speak of the psychological isolation of these children when they drift unrecognized4 ,the majority of children above #afj ,,iq play little with other children because the difficulties of social contact are almost insurmountable4 ,unless special facilities can be provided1 these children tend to become isolates1 a condition not conducive to leadership1 except perhaps of a few rare sorts1 later in life4 ,such children are ordinarily friendly and gregarious by nature1 but their efforts at forming friendship tend to be defeated by the scarcity of like-minded contemporaries4 ,the imaginary playmate as a solution of the problem of loneliness is fairly frequent1 but far inferior to the real playmate1 could one be found4 ,shaw makes ,saint ,joan say1 ,i was always alone4 ,this danger of becoming an isolate and a hermit is one that should be carefully studied in the interests of leadership4 ,to combat it we must somehow supply the highly intelligent in their early years with companions1 especially of their own age1 who can understand what they say1 and can answer4 ,this difficulty of communication is illustrated by ,voltaire's abortive attempt as an adult to get into contact with the peasants around him4 ,in ,the ,ignorant ,philosopher1 ,voltaire says1 ,i discovered such a wide difference between thought and nourishment1 without which ,i should not think that ,i believed that there was a substance in me that reasoned and another substance that digested4 ,nevertheless1 by constantly endeavoring that we are two1 ,i materially felt that ,i was only one3 and this contradiction gave me infinite pain4 ,i have asked some of my own likenesses1 who cultivate the earth1 our common mother1 if they felt that they were two8 ,if they had discovered by their philosophy that they possessed within them an immortal substance 4 4 4 acting upon their nerves without touching them1 sent expressly into them six weeks after their conception8 ,they thought that ,i was jesting and pursued the cultivation of their land without making me a reply4 ,even so1 the ten-year-old1 of ,,iq #age1 wishes to discuss with his own likenesses the events of medieval history1 but he finds that they make him no reply4 ,and if he persists1 they become annoyed1 hurling at him the dreadful epithet1 ,perfesser4 ,if he still persists1 they pull his hair1 tear his shirt from his back1 and hit him with a beer bottle4 7,i am speaking of real life47 ,turning now to habits of chicanery1 it would be a question for long and close debate1 as to whether a highly gifted leader can ever live and do his work among the mass of men without developing a technique of benign chicanery4 ,many of the great political leaders have been past masters of benign chicanery1 often exploiting the people for the good of the social order4 ,perhaps the arts of benign chicanery are absolutely necessary to a child of highest intelligence1 compelled to find his spiritual way through mass education4 ,certain it is that these children learn all sorts of devious ways to self-preservation4 ,for instance1 two of our pupils of ,public ,school #ejj came to us followed by notes from teachers1 saying they were hard-of-hearing4 ,both of them have very keen ears1 but they had learned not to hear the insupportable drill on things they had known for years1 and in self-defense they listened so little that their teachers thought them deaf4 ,at ,public ,school #ejj their hearing is good--almost too good6 ,guidance in regard to this matter of chicanery is absolutely necessary4 ,here we have one of the most delicate of all aspects of training of a leader4 ,by teaching these children that they should at all times act with complete candor and straightforwardness1 in all sorts of company1 shall we be educating them for self-destruction8 ,we could spend hours in discussing this4 ,we cannot do much more here than mention it4 ,,matters ,,of ,,general ,,policy ,i am unwilling to close these remarks without touching upon some matters of general policy1 which go beyond selection and training4 ,what of those children1 gifted for leadership1 who through accidents of fate are without means for the development of their gifts8 ,at our school we are compelled to witness daily the sight of children of fine quality1 who do not have enough to eat or wear1 to say nothing of having about them beauty or comfort4 ,it is thought by those who have given no precise attention to the matter that bright children will take care of themselves4 ,this is the routine answer given by foundations established to promote human welfare1 when requests are made for grants to study and meet the need of such children4 ,the concern of ,american philanthropy in the present state of public knowledge is for the chronic dependent1 forever incapable of development4 ,this criticism may be justly extended to include not only the leaders of philanthropy today1 but political1 educational1 and other kinds of leaders1 who would give all to the burdens of society and nothing to the burden-bearers4 ,to such tendencies of those in power today some halt should be called4 ,for a people to deny its natural aristocracy is a social error in the broader sense4 ,now the truth is that children of great ability are virtually as helpless as any others under authorities blind to their exceptionality4 ,it would be an impossibly strong and shrewd child who could today conduct his own education under the compulsory school laws2 make money to live on and accumulate funds for his own higher education under the child-labor laws--all in the first eighteen years of his life4 ,yet this seems to be what elderly society has vaguely in mind1 when reiterating that the bright will take care of themselves4 ,it is common to refer in this connection to the fact that ,mr4 ,john ,d4 ,rockefeller had earned and saved a large sum of money by the time he was sixteen years old4 ,however1 in this day and age ,mr4 ,rockefeller would have been arrested on the double charge of truancy and violation of the child-labor law1 and would have had no savings whatsoever at sixteen years of age4 ,it is shocking to think of ,mr4 ,rockefeller standing at ten years of age before the ,juvenile ,court1 but such would be his situation were he a ten-year-old child today instead of having been such nearly a hundred years ago4 ,in our day a ten-year-old acquires no merit by staying out of school and engaging in the egg business4 ,he acquires1 instead1 a court summons4 ,what is needed for the support and development of those children whom we see before us daily1 and who represent scores of others in the same economic condition1 is what we may call a revolving foundation4 ,by this is meant a fund from which the gifted young could draw at any age the means for their development1 with the moral 7not legal7 obligation to repay according to ability to do so1 after twenty years1 without interest4 ,by this plan the superior could invest in themselves2 very little money would actually be spent1 because it would come back again1 and the nation would always benefit in ways not now fully foreseeable4 ,the establishment of a revolving fund for the development of tested children would be another new thing under the sun4 ,it would be a great experiment in social science1 now rendered possible for the first time by inventions and discoveries in the field of child psychology4 #a ,teachers ,college ,record1 ,vol4 #ci1 ,no4 #d 7#aich71 pages #bif-cjf4 #b ,teachers ,college ,record1 ,vol4 #dj 7#aici74 ,also reprinted in ,public ,addresses of ,leta ,s4 ,hollingworth1 ,science ,press ,printing ,company1 ,lancaster1 ,pennsylvania2 #aidj4 #c ,the curriculum here described is that organized by ,leta ,s4 ,hollingworth and her collaborators in ,speyer ,school1 ,p4,s4 #ejj1 ,manhattan1 for two experimental classes of rapid learners4 ,for an early account of this project see ,the ,founding of ,public ,school #ejj1 ,teachers ,college ,record1 ,vol4 #ch1 ,no4 #b 7,november1 #aicf74 ,also ,what is ,going ,on at ,speyer ,school8 ,chapter #ba of ,public ,addresses of ,leta ,s4 ,hollingworth1 ,science ,press ,printing ,company1 ,lancaster1 ,pennsylvania2 #aidj4 #d ,a word coined by the pupils4 ,,chapter ,,twenty-,,two ,,problems ,,of ,,relationship ,,between ,,elementary ,,and ,,secondary ,,schools ,,in ,,the ,,case ,,of ,,highly ,,intelligent ,,pupils ,an address before the ,national ,committee on ,cordination of ,secondary ,education at a symposium on ,the ,education of ,pupils of ,high ,intelligence1 ,cleveland1 ,february #bg1 #aici #a ,i shall not dwell here upon the present knowledge of gifted children as organisms4 ,our findings in follow-up studies on tested children in ,new ,york ,city confirm in all particulars ,professor ,terman's researches on the ,pacific coast4 ,since these several studies have been carried on in complete independence1 one in the ,east1 the other in the ,west1 for nearly twenty years1 we may certainly feel justified in the conclusion that we are arriving at truth about the mental and physical traits and development of highly intelligent persons1 coming as we do to the same results4 ,my remarks here will deal1 rather1 with certain problems of the education of the highly intelligent4 ,i may say at the outset that my direct contacts with the education of gifted pupils have all been on the level of the elementary school4 ,i consider that the problems are most urgent on this level1 because it is in the primary and elementary school that the very intelligent child most especially needs a supplement to the standard curriculum4 ,the program of progress through the elementary grades is based on what pupils at1 or only very slightly above1 the average can master at given ages1 so that the extremely intelligent child has little or nothing to do there4 ,his interest is not engaged1 and his power is not challenged4 ,the situation of such children has been well exemplified in a recent biography #b which sets forth the sense of futility from which many of them suffer at school in the early years4 ,when the child reaches senior high school1 however1 the case is somewhat different4 ,the college preparatory course of the secondary school was originated with and for pupils of college caliber4 ,it is therefore based on what very intelligent adolescents1 and they only1 can learn4 ,hence it offers to the pupil at and above #acj ,,iq 7,s-,b7 tasks of sufficient interest and difficulty to engage his powers of learning4 ,laying aside1 for purposes of the moment1 argument as to whether the content of the college preparatory course is what it should be from all angles1 we maintain that it is sufficiently abstract1 complex1 and difficult to operate as an intellectual stimulus for quite highly intelligent adolescents4 ,i shall return to this point later1 raising it here merely to explain why it has seemed to me especially important to work in the elementary school4 ,one cannot work for long in the elementary school1 however1 without becoming involved in research which has to do with the secondary school4 ,there are many problems of cordination that require for their adequate study the joint efforts of both elementary and secondary school4 ,we are currently trying to find answers to these problems at ,public ,school #ejj1 ,manhattan1 for we shall begin sending pupils from there to the senior high schools in ,june1 #aici4 ,,the ,,elementary ,,school ,for some years1 beginning about #aiah1 experimentation has been sporadically undertaken in ,new ,york ,city on the initiative of individual principals to find out what should be done in the elementary school for highly intelligent children4 ,it was not1 however1 until ,january1 #aicf1 that the ,board of ,education itself took official action in cognizance of the presence of these pupils in the school system4 ,on ,january #bh1 #aicf1 ,public ,school #ejj1 ,manhattan 7,speyer ,school1 #c was founded by formal action of the ,board of ,education and ,teachers ,college1 jointly1 for the study of intellectual deviates1 other than the feeble-minded1 in the elementary school4 ,two classes for rapid learners were included in the setup of this school1 to accommodate twenty-five pupils each4 ,these classes have now 7#aici7 been in progress for three years4 ,their chief purpose has been to find experimentally and to establish a curriculum that would provide a genuine education for children of mental calibers above #acj ,,iq 7,s-,b72 an education that would extend their minds and interest them in the interests of society during the years of the elementary school4 ,pupils were selected for this experiment on the basis of three criteria3 7#a7 they must test at or above #acj ,,iq 7,s-,b72 7#b7 they must be at least #g years #j months old1 and at most #i years #f months old2 7#c7 they must be representative as a group of the various ethnic stocks composing the population of ,new ,york ,city4 ,this constitutes what we consider a perfectly democratic selection4 ,nothing counts toward selection except the tested quality of the pupil himself4 ,the organization is that of an #h;,b elementary school1 designed to run for five years as an experiment4 ,promotion to the ninth grade of the senior high schools at the age of #ac years was planned for our pupils4 ,the school also includes seven classes for slow learners 7,,iq #ge-ij71 the pupils of which mingle freely with those of the rapid learner classes except for purposes of classroom instruction4 ,the teachers were selected from a long list of applicants for the posts among licensed elementary-school teachers of ,new ,york ,city4 ,criteria for selection rested on personality1 degree of education1 and desire to undertake experimental work4 ,enrichment of the curriculum has been going forward for three years4 ,pupils at and above #acj ,,iq 7,s-,b7 need1 on the average1 about one half of their time in the elementary school for mastering the standard curriculum set up for all the children4 ,mastering here means not passing with a mark of #fe per cent1 but genuine mastery with marks of #ij per cent and above4 ,in the half day thus left to spare1 an enrichment curriculum has been pursued1 which has elsewhere been described in some detail4 #d ,the chief features of this enrichment curriculum are a series of units1 one each term in each class1 on ,the ,evolution of ,common ,things and the ,french language and literature4 ,,transition ,,from ,,elementary ,,to ,,secondary ,,school ,the time comes when pupils thus selected and educated are to pass to the ninth grade of the senior high school4 ,at this point questions arise which call urgently for discussion as a joint responsibility of both elementary and secondary schools4 ,some of these questions are as follows3 #a4 ,why is #ac years to be chosen as the optimum age for the transition8 #b4 ,why is junior high school omitted from the picture8 #c4 ,what ceremony1 if any1 should mark the transition to senior high school8 #d4 ,what items of cumulative record should accompany the pupil as he or she enters high school8 #e4 ,what differences are there in the demands of high school1 as compared with the elementary school1 which would affect the minimum ,,iq at which enrichment is needed in the high school8 ,is enrichment needed in the high school at #acj ,,iq 7,s-,b78 #f4 ,the point at which enrichment begins to be needed having been determined experimentally1 how should the secondary school organize to provide a genuine education for pupils at and above that level8 #g4 ,assuming an enrichment program for pupils above #aej ,,iq 7,s-,b7 desirable or imperatively necessary in high schools1 what matters shall be agreed upon to enter into the curriculum8 #h4 ,shall we guide all of our highly intelligent elementary-school pupils into the college preparatory courses8 ,or shall some of them be so guided that they will end high school without the credits for college8 #i4 ,what can and should public schools do for those few pupils who test at or above #agj ,,iq 7,s-,b71 for whom no experimental work so far done is of much real effect1 either in elementary or secondary school8 ,,consideration ,,of ,,the ,,questions ,,arising ,not all the foregoing questions proposed can be fully discussed here4 ,whatever is said1 however1 is an outgrowth of our own professional observations1 extending over the past seventeen years4 ,in particular these observations result from the current obligation at ,public ,school #ejj1 ,manhattan 7,speyer ,school71 to promote to senior high school our first group of children now reaching the thirteenth birthday4 ,it is obvious that we have to determine upon an age for promotion to the senior high school4 ,this must take into consideration the whole child4 ,we cannot isolate the intellect for this purpose4 ,body1 mind1 and soul must pass as a unit to secondary school4 ,the brightest of our pupils were fully ready for the scholastic work of the ninth grade when they were #h years old2 several others1 when they were #aj years old4 ,ability to pass examinations set for #h;,b pupils cannot1 therefore1 reasonably become our criterion for promoting these children1 unless we wish to assume responsibility for placing prepubescent1 #h-1 #i- and #aj-year-old children in a scholastic milieu that is determined by the physical size and social maturity of adolescents4 ,after much discussion1 we fixed upon #ac years as the age for transition to senior high school4 ,we came to this largely as a result of our pooled professional experience1 but not wholly on that basis4 ,we gave considerable weight to the follow-up study of pupils identified in #aibb1 and kept together for three years in special classes at ,public ,school #afe1 ,manhattan4 #e ,there were #ef of these children whom we promoted to the ninth grade at an average age of #aa years2 and the high-school careers of all of them were followed through sixteen different high schools4 #f ,in the course of this follow-up1 the question was repeatedly asked1 ,what would be the best age to enter the ninth grade8 ,sixty per cent of these pupils gave #ac years as the best age to enter high school1 and twenty-six per cent gave #ad years or older4 ,only one child gave an age younger than #ab years as optimum for entering high school4 ,this group1 as a whole1 would have preferred to enter the ninth grade at an age older than that at which they entered1 and gave cogent reasons for the preference during their high-school careers4 ,these ideas persisted through the college careers1 especially among the boys1 many of whom felt they were misplaced in college at #ae years of age4 ,entering high school near the thirteenth birthday1 a child saves time1 and yet is not made subject to the tensions which may result from trying to meet social and physical requirements for which he is too immature4 ,junior high school is omitted from the picture as ours was a five-year plan4 ,such a plan of curriculum enrichment as ours fits best into the #h;,b setup1 for such a program cannot be supervised if the pupils are scattered and the situation made subject to the transition from #f;,b to junior high school4 ,in the metropolitan situation it is not feasible to take the pupils for special classes until they are at least #g years old4 ,the infrequency of their occurrence makes it necessary to assemble them from several districts1 and they are not mature enough to come from a distance when they are #f years of age4 ,parents cannot assume the burden of accompanying them twice a day4 ,our pupils were #h years old1 on the median1 when they entered our rapid learner classes4 ,we have found it feasible to organize classes for #h-year-olds1 give them a five-year program of special studies1 and have them fully ready for senior high school at #ac years of age4 ,this plan has worked out well1 whereas1 if we had had to consider a transition to the junior high school in the midst of our work1 difficulties would have arisen1 and it is not clear how our program could have been carried out at all4 ,however1 a field for experimentation lies here for those who would be predisposed to favor the junior-high-school plan of school organization4 ,we decided that no ceremony of graduation should mark the promotion to senior high school4 ,our pupils will make the transition not in a body1 but a few at a time at the end of each term4 ,some informal social event may take place1 but no ceremony of graduation as such4 ,the question1 ,what items of cumulative record should accompany each child from the elementary school8 is one requiring much study4 ,here we are working quite experimentally4 ,the public schools of ,altoona1 ,elkins ,park1 and ,fort ,wayne1 ,pennsylvania1 are reported to have formulated a cumulative record card for rapid learners1 which we hope later to consult4 ,the records of mental tests1 the record of scholastic-achievement tests1 and a statement of teachers' ratings on a variety of character traits should no doubt be included with the health record and attendance record in the elementary school4 ,ideally1 the secondary school should receive these pupils already tested mentally1 with cumulative records2 but1 since in the existing state of affairs this is not possible1 because such tests have not been generally made1 the high schools are wondering what methods to use in selecting the highly intelligent as they arrive1 in the ordinary course of events1 for admission4 ,we must agree that we have1 in fact1 no method at present generally available of distributing the top percentile of the adolescent population4 ,the ,army ,alpha1 which strictly speaking pertains to adults1 is no doubt the most nearly appropriate instrument we have for distributing the top one per cent of adolescents4 ,no other group test has sufficient top for this purpose1 and no individual test has a ceiling high enough to prevent the best from going through4 ,two forms of ,army ,alpha combined will give as good an approximation as is at present available to a correct distribution of adolescents at and above #acj ,,iq 7,s-,b74 ,there exist tests of scholastic aptitude which pertain to adolescents of college caliber1 but these are not generally available1 being limited to the organizations which make specific use of them4 ,from observations of the progress of highly intelligent children tested at an early age1 ,i offer the hypothesis that pupils of #acj to #aej ,,iq 7,s-,b7 have quite enough to do in the truly efficient pursuit of the college preparatory curriculum of the senior high schools1 and do not need any enrichment of this curriculum as far as challenge to ability is concerned4 ,what these pupils need is merely freedom from the presence of great masses of classmates who are mentally unadapted to the college preparatory course1 and the opportunity to work unhampered1 in segregated groups1 such as are now being formed in many secondary schools under the concept of the honor school4 ,pupils above #aej ,,iq 7,s-,b7 are1 however1 probably in definite need of an enrichment of even the college preparatory course as it exists currently in senior high schools4 ,if experimental observation should prove this hypothesis to be true1 how should the secondary school set about it to provide for the genuine education of such pupils8 ,should the huge high schools of a great city1 like ,new ,york1 organize an enrichment curriculum within the honor schools for these extreme deviates8 ,should honor schools have faculties proper to them only8 ,assuming an enrichment program for pupils above #aej ,,iq 7,s-,b7 to be found desirable or necessary in secondary school1 what matters shall find place in such a curriculum8 ,the answers to these questions cannot be stated from the swivel chair or the arm chair4 ,years of realistic hard and intelligent work will have to be done1 by way of experiment with various groups of adolescents4 ,as regards the question pertaining to enrichment of curriculum1 ,i dare offer the suggestion that there are common things the evolution of which would be more properly worked out at the adolescent level than at the level of childhood by highly intelligent pupils4 ,thus at ,public ,school #ejj1 ,manhattan 7,speyer ,school71 we often find ourselves wishing that we might have our pupils at adolescence in order to take up with them the evolution of law and order1 of trade and money1 of warfare1 of punishment1 and many other things concerning which no systematic instruction is ever given outside of professional schools4 ,one may suggest that in the elementary school the enrichment curriculum might proceed by covering the evolution of common things which are concrete1 as we have been doing1 leaving for the secondary school those common things which are relatively abstract and involve especially concepts of social-economic consequence4 ,it is to be considered1 also1 that each of these pupils1 at and above #aej ,,iq 7,s-,b71 would have the capacity to master a manual trade1 in addition to mastering a profession1 if time were allowed during adolescence4 ,at #ac years of age1 the hand then being developed1 such pupils might be trained for skilled trades1 in their spare time1 as an enrichment of curriculum4 ,in a changing world it is perhaps a good thing for those who are capable of both profession and skilled manual craft to have both at their service as adults1 and to be capable of serving society and themselves in more than one specialized vocation1 as was and is actually the case with many able ,americans1 reared and educated under pioneering conditions of the nineteenth century and earlier4 ,to this point we have been speaking of enrichments accompanying and supplementing the college preparatory course for pupils testing above #aej ,,iq 7,s-,b74 ,but shall we guide all our highly intelligent pupils into college preparatory courses8 ,or shall some of them be positively guided so that they will end high school without the credits for college8 ,shall all whose circumstances tend to force them into vocational high schools be allowed to drift in that direction8 ,here is a question of fundamental importance for society1 which at this moment we hardly know enough to raise1 much less answer4 ,only one in every hundred tests at or above #acj ,,iq 7,s-,b74 ,what does society most need from this little handful of persons8 ,these can perform socially desired functions which none of the other ninety and nine can possibly perform4 ,they can be educated in ways which are forever out of the reach of all who test below them4 ,what should we1 as educators1 the publicly appointed guardians of their intellectual lives1 do with these children for their own and society's best interests8 ,there is no more serious question than this in all education4 ,how shall a democracy educate the most educable8 ,at present these children are to a great extent lost in the vast enterprises of mass education1 and are left to handle their special problems as they may1 by themselves1 while the energies of teachers are bent upon the main business of dealing with the ninety-nine per cent who test below #acj ,,iq 7,s-,b74 ,common sense would tell us that a child who tests as far above the average as a feeble-minded child tests below cannot escape having special problems under conditions of mass education4 ,we cannot go into this matter in detail here4 ,these problems have been set forth in another place4 #g ,it is for us to consider them carefully1 for educators are the sole group appointed by society to guard the interests of children4 ,we are their official guardians1 adding our guidance to that of their natural guardians1 parents1 who are often helpless either to recognize these children's abilities or to develop them4 ,,what ,,about ,,genius8 ,we come finally to what may be the most important point of all--the point to where we inquire into the responsibility of the public schools for children who are as far above those of #acj ,,iq 7,s-,b7 as the latter are above #ajj ,,iq 7,s-,b74 ,i refer to those very rarely occurring pupils who test at or above #agj ,,iq 7,s-,b74 ,these children are important for civilization in inverse ratio to their infrequency of occurrence4 ,they are the ones who can not only conserve thought in its abstract reaches1 but who can originate new thoughts1 new inventions1 new patterns1 and who can solve problems4 ,when1 about twenty years ago1 ,terman #h began to attempt classifications of high deviates1 on the basis of ,,iq1 he called #adj ,,iq 7,s-,b7 genius or near genius4 ,the intervening years have proved that this idea must be revised4 ,seniors in many of our first-rate colleges test at a median of #adj ,,iq 7,s-,b7 or even higher1 and about a quarter of all college graduates test at or above this level4 ,that point in the distribution of ,,iq where mental products suggestive of genius1 as defined by lexicographers1 begin to appear1 seems to be as far above #adj ,,iq as #adj ,,iq is above average4 ,somewhere between #agj and #ahj ,,iq 7,s-,b7 we begin to see merging in early adulthood that highly unusual power of invention or origination1 that original creative power1 frequently working through the imagination1 which is ordinarily called genius4 #i ,this element in our juvenile population1 so significant and so rarely found1 passes unrecognized at present through the public schools4 ,we have not even commenced to evolve an education suitable for a child who at #i or #aj years of age is able to think on a college level4 ,the idea that such children exist at all is even laughed at to scorn by teachers and principals who have a quarter of a century of experience behind them4 ,these children have no way of making themselves known4 ,the mental tests make them known4 ,they become known only to those educators who believe in mental tests4 ,the most interesting problem in education is to discover how these children1 testing above #agj ,,iq 7,s-,b7 can and should be educated2 to devise ways and means whereby these far deviates may get the full use of their abilities in school and society1 especially when they have no money4 ,the concept of democracy on which the ,united ,states was founded is one of equality of opportunity4 ,the intention of our educational policy is that every child should have a chance to develop as his natural abilities may entitle him to do1 all artificial distinctions being eliminated4 ,now at last psychological science has provided an effective instrument for achieving this democracy in education1 namely the mental test1 by means of which a child may be recognized for his own ability1 regardless of age1 sex1 race1 creed1 or economic condition4 ,how shall we as educators utilize this instrument of genuine democracy8 ,how shall we proceed under conditions in which the founding fathers are now mistaken by many citizens to have proclaimed and promised biological equality6 ,perhaps we should take another leaf from the book of the ,french ,republic1 where the delusion of biological equality has always been successfully avoided2 where the ,state continually reviews its attempt to secure equality of opportunity by explicit efforts to find and foster the natural lite1 and to know where the gifted are located in the ,french population4 #aa ,we may also consider the ,belgian policies1 with regard to subsidy of the gifted1 #ab ,ce principe fondamental3 ,que chaque enfant1 quelle que soit la situation de fortune des parents1 soit mis en tat d'acqurir par l'instruction tout le dveloppement intellectuel et professionnel dont il est capable4 ,all the questions here raised call for definite answers at the present time4 ,such questions could not be effectively raised prior to the twentieth century1 because psychologists had not previously advanced to a point of supplying a scientific method of determining intelligence in childhood4 ,it is the most significant contribution of psychology to education1 in this century--and perhaps in all centuries--that we are now enabled to know the mental caliber of a human being in his early years4 ,more and more it becomes clear that human welfare on the whole is much more a matter of the activities of deviates than it is a matter of what the middle mass of persons does4 ,those educators who make a joke of the genius and regard the dullard as a mere figment of the imagination of psychologists1 or who solve the educational problems which these children present by the simple device of not believing in them1 fiddle while ,rome burns4 ,it is the deviate who takes the initiative and plays the primary part in social determination4 ,how shall we1 then1 educate him in a democracy8 #a ,reprinted from ,the ,journal of ,educational ,sociology 7,october1 #aici71 pages #ij-ajb4 #b ,bridgman1 ,amy ,s4 ,my ,valuable ,time3 ,the ,story of ,paul ,bridgman ,boyd4 7#aji pages47 ,stephen ,daye ,press1 ,brattleboro1 ,vermont2 #aich4 #c ,hollingworth1 ,leta ,s4 ,the ,founding of ,public ,school #ejj3 ,speyer ,school1 ,teachers ,college ,record1 ,vol4 #cg 7,november1 #aicf71 pages #aai-abh4 #d ,hollingworth1 ,leta ,s4 ,an ,enrichment ,curriculum for ,rapid ,learners at ,public ,school #ejj3 ,speyer ,school1 ,teachers ,college ,record1 ,vol4 #ci 7,january1 #aich71 ,pages #bif-cjf4 ,see also ,chapter #ba of this book4 #e ,lamson1 ,e4 ,e4 ,a ,study of ,young ,gifted ,children in ,senior ,high ,school4 ,contributions to ,education ,no4 #dbd 7#aag pages74 ,bureau of ,publications1 ,teachers ,college1 ,columbia ,university1 ,new ,york2 #aicj4 #f ,lamson1 ,e4 ,e4 ,high ,school ,achievement of ,fifty-,six ,gifted ,children4 ,journal of ,genetic ,psychology1 ,vol4 #dg 7#aice71 pages #bcc-bch4 #g ,hollingworth1 ,leta ,s4 ,the ,child of ,very ,superior ,intelligence as a ,special ,problem in ,social ,adjustment4 ,proceedings of the ,first ,international ,congress on ,mental ,hygiene1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pages #dg-fi4 ,the ,international ,committee for ,mental ,hygiene1 ,inc41 ,new ,york2 #aicb4 #h ,terman1 ,lewis ,m4 ,the ,measurement of ,intelligence 7#cfb pages74 ,houghton ,mifflin ,company1 ,boston2 #aiaf4 ,also1 ,terman1 ,lewis ,m4 ,genetic ,studies of ,genius1 ,vol4 ,i 7#ffc pages74 ,stanford ,university ,press1 ,stanford ,university1 ,california2 #aibe4 #i ,webster's ,new ,international ,dictionary1 #aice4 #aj ,butler1 ,nicholas ,murray4 ,is ,thomas ,jefferson the ,forgotten ,man8 ,address delivered at the ,parrish ,art ,museum1 ,southampton1 ,september #a1 #aice4 ,published at #dje ,west #aagth ,street1 ,new ,york4 #aa ,bougl1 ,c4 ,enqutes sur le ,baccalaurat4 7#abj pages47 ,librairie ,hachette1 ,paris2 #aice4 #ab ,bauwens1 ,lon4 ,fonds des mieux dous4 7,cinquime dition1 #gg pages47 ,librairie ,albert ,dewit1 ,bruxelles2 #aibg4