,,dent',s ,,modern ,,language ,,series4 ,,general ,,editor3 ,,walter ,,rippmann1 ,m4,a4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,special ,,note4 ,a complete descriptive catalogue 7#cb pp47 of the books issued in this ,series may be had1 post free1 on application to ,messrs4 ,j4 ,m4 ,dent ,sons1 ,ltd41 ,bedford ,street1 ,london1 ,w4,c4 ,applicants may have re-issues of this ,list1 from time to time1 upon furnishing their name and address to the publishers4 ,all books are ,extra ,fcap4 #hvo4 ,cloth ,bound1 unless otherwise noted4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,french ,,courses4 ,,dent',s ,,french ,,primer4 ,by ,w4 ,e4 ,m4 ,,llewellyn1 ,b4,a41 ,b4,sc4 ,part #a1 ,phonetic ,text2 ,part #b1 ,transition ,spelling4 ,price #h;d4 each4 ,designed as an introduction to ,alge and ,rippmann's ,first ,french ,book4 ,twenty-second ,edition 7completing #bjj1ejj copies74 ,,dent',s ,,first ,,french ,,book4 ,by ,s4 ,,alge and ,,walter ,,rippmann4 ,cr4 #hvo1 #bs4 ,we know of no better book to start ,french on4 --,the ,journal of ,education4 ,the early lessons of the ,first ,french ,book in the transcription of the ,international ,phonetic ,association are issued separately at #f;d4 net1 for teachers who prefer to begin with phonetic script only4 ,for ,wall ,pictures to accompany the ,first ,french ,book see ,french ,life and ,ways4 ,fifth ,edition1 ,enlarged and ,revised4 ,,hints ,,on ,,teaching ,,french4 ,with a ,running ,commentary to ,dent's ,first ,french ,book and ,second ,french ,book4 ,by ,,walter ,,rippmann4 #as4 #f;d4 net4 ,ninth ,edition 7completing #de1jjj copies74 ,,dent',s ,,second ,,french ,,book4 ,by ,s4 ,,alge and ,,walter ,,rippmann4 #bs4 ,,french ,,grammar ,,composition4 ,,premi,,re ,,grammaire ,,fran,,aise4 ,by ,h4 ,e4 ,,berthon1 ,taylorian ,lecturer in ,french at the ,university of ,oxford4 #bs4 ,seventh ,edition1 ,revised4 ,,dent',s ,,first ,,exercises ,,in ,,french ,,grammar4 ,by ,miss ,f4 ,m4 ,s4 ,,batchelor4 #as4 #d;d4 ,fourth ,edition4 ,,dent',s ,,further ,,exercises ,,in ,,french ,,grammar4 ,by ,miss ,f4 ,m4 ,s4 ,,batchelor4 #as4 #d;d4 ,key #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,outlines ,,of ,,french ,,historical ,,grammar4 ,with ,representative ,french ,texts4 ,by ,prof4 ,a4 ,t4 ,,baker1 ,m4,a4 7,camb471 ,ph4,d4 7,heidelberg74 #cs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,dent',s ,,school ,,grammar ,,of ,,modern ,,french4 ,with ,special ,sections dealing with the ,language of the ,seventeenth ,century4 ,by ,g4 ,h4 ,,clarke1 ,m4,a41 and ,c4 ,j4 ,,murray1 ,b4,a4 ,crown #hvo1 #cs4 #f;d4 net4 ,second ,edition4 ,a ,,french ,,verb ,,exercise ,,book4 ,by ,miss ,c4 ,f4 ,,shearson1 ,m4,a4 ,crown #dto1 ,wrappered1 #i;d4 net4 ,,easy ,,free ,,composition ,,in ,,french4 ,by ,miss ,l4 ,m4 ,,bull4 #as4 #d;d4 ,second ,edition4 ,,free ,,composition ,,and ,,essay ,,writing ,,in ,,french4 ,by ,a4 ,,pratt and ,,antoine ,,philibert4 #as4 #d;d4 ,second ,edition4 ,,phonetics4 ,,french ,,speech ,,and ,,spelling4 ,by ,s4 ,a4 ,,richards1 ,b4,a4 ,a ,first ,guide to ,french ,pronunciation4 #h;d4 ,,elements ,,of ,,french ,,pronunciation ,,and ,,diction4 ,by ,b4 ,,dumville1 ,b4,a4 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,a ,,french ,,phonetic ,,reader4 ,by ,s4 ,a4 ,,richards1 ,b4,a4 #as4 #f;d4 ,,elements ,,of ,,phonetics--,,english1 ,,french1 ,,and ,,german4 ,translated and adapted by ,,walter ,,rippmann1 from ,professor ,,vi,,tor's ,kleine ,phonetik4 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,fifth ,edition1 ,revised4 ,,the ,,sounds ,,of ,,english4 ,,les ,,sons ,,du ,,fran,,ais4 ,,deutsche ,,laute4 ,three ,charts1 size #cj by #cj inches4 ,unmounted1 #as4 net each4 ,mounted on ,linen1 #bs4 #f;d4 net2 ,mounted on ,linen and ,rollers1 #cs4 #f;d4 net4 ,small reproductions of each chart are sold in packets of #cj1 price #as4 ,a ,,set ,,of ,,sound ,,charts4 ,showing ,tongue and ,lip ,positions4 ,designed by ,d4 ,,jones1 ,m4,a4 and ,f4 ,,rausch4 ,per ,set of #i ,charts1 #abs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,short ,,french ,,readers4 #dh pp4 #d;d4 each vol4 ,,second ,,year ,,french ,,readers-- ,,contes ,,de ,,perrault4 ,vol4 ,i4 ,,yvon ,,et ,,finette4 ,vol4 ,,ii4 ,,poucinet4 ,,la ,,mule ,,du ,,pape 7and ,other ,stories74 ,,les ,,quatorze ,,saints4 ,,third ,,year ,,french ,,readers-- #dh pp4 #d;d4 per vol4 ,l',l,,phant ,,blanc4 ,,un ,,pisode ,,sous ,,la ,,terreur4 ,,daudet1 ,,contes4 ,,le ,,monde ,o ,l',,on ,,se ,,bat4 ,l',,affaire ,,des ,,contrebandiers4 ,,le ,,tr,,sor ,,du ,,vieux ,,seigneur4 ,,fourth ,,year ,,french ,,readers-- #fd pp4 #f;d4 per vol4 ,,le ,x,i,xme ,,si,,cle4 ,,la ,r,,volution ,,fran,,aise4 ,,un ,,merle ,,blanc4 ,t,l,,maque4 ,,le ,,bienvenu 7,,jean ,,valjean74 ,,longer ,,french ,,readers4 ,,les ,p,,lerins ,,de ,,la ,,tamise4 ,with ,notes and ,exercises by ,,christine ,,boyd4 #as4 #f;d4 ,,pour ,,la ,,patrie ,,et ,,autres ,,contes4 ,by ,,jetta ,s4 ,,wolff4 #as4 #d;d4 ,l',,homme ,,vert1 et ,autres ,contes de ,fes4 ,by ,,jetta ,s4 ,,wolff4 #as4 #d;d4 ,,une ,,joyeuse ,,nich,e4 ,by ,madame ,,de ,,pressens4 ,edited1 with ,exercises and a ,glossary1 by ,s4 ,,alge4 ,illustrated by ,c4 ,e4 ,brock4 #as4 #i;d4 ,third ,edition4 ,,fables ,,de ,,la ,,fontaine4 ,with ,notes1 ,exercises1 etc41 by ,,thomas ,,keen 7,the ,high ,school1 ,glasgow74 #as4 #f;d4 ,,les ,,feuilles ,d',,automne ,,de ,,victor ,,hugo4 ,edited by ,h4 ,c4 ,,norman1 ,b4,a4 #as4 #d;d4 ,,dialogues ,,and ,,plays4 ,,fables ,,en ,,action4 ,by ,,violet ,,partington4 #as4 ,,tableaux ,,mouvants4 ,by ,,lilian ,c4 ,,ping4 #as4 #d;d4 ,,episodes ,,en ,,action4 ,with a ,phonetic ,transcript4 ,by ,j4 ,,stuart ,,walters4 #as4 #d;d4 ,l',,entente ,,cordiale ,,la ,,campagne4 ,by ,,cl,,mence ,,saunois4 #as4 #f;d4 ,,three ,,short ,,plays4 ,by ,,souvestre4 ,edited by ,,marguerite ,,ninet4 #as4 #f;d4 ,,the ,,best ,,french ,,plays4 ,edited by ,,walter ,,rippmann1 ,m4,a4 ,fcap4 #hvo1 cloth4 ,,sedaine3 ,,le ,,philosophe ,,sans ,,le ,,savoir4 #c;d4 ,,musset3 ,,ou ,,ne ,,saurait ,,passe ,a ,,tout4 #c;d4 ,,mme4 ,,de ,,girardin3 ,,la ,,joie ,,fait ,,peur4 #c;d4 ,,labiche3 ,,le ,,grammaire4 #c;d4 ,,labiche ,,et ,,martin3 ,,le ,,voyage ,,de ,m4 ,,perrichon4 #c;d4 ,,marivaux3 ,,le ,,jeu ,,de ,l',,amour ,,et ,,du ,,hasard4 #c;d4 ,,dent',s ,,longer ,,french ,,texts4 ,,la ,,bruyere3 ,,caract,,res4 ,notes by ,h4 ,o',,grady4 ,fcap4 #hvo1 cloth1 #as4 #f;d4 ,,octave ,,feuillet3 ,,le ,,roman ,d',,un ,,jeune ,,homme ,,pauvre4 ,,profils ,,anglais3 ,,sainte-,,beuve4 ,notes by ,h4 ,o',,grady4 ,,dumas3 ,,la ,,tulipe ,,noire4 ,notes by ,h4 ,o',,grady4 ,fcap4 #hvo1 cloth1 #bs4 ,,french ,,life ,,and ,,ways4 ,,features ,,of ,,french ,,life4 ,by ,f4 ,r4 ,,robert4 ,parts ,i4 and ,,ii4 #as4 each volume4 ,,tony ,,et ,,sa ,s,,ur ,,en ,,france4 ,rcit de ,voyage avec notes et appendices sur les gens et les choses4 ,by ,j4 ,,duhamel4 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,see end of ,book for continuation4 ,j4 ,m4 ,,dent ,,sons1 ,limited4 ,dent's ,modern ,language ,series ,,edited ,,by ,,walter ,,rippmann1 ,m4,a4 ,,the ,,sounds ,,of ,,spoken ,,english ,all rights reserved ,illustration3 ,,the ,,organs ,,of ,,speech4 ,plate ,,iii4 in ,a4 v4 ,luschka's ',der ,schlundkopf des ,menschen1' reproduced by permission of the ,publishers1 ,messrs ,h4 ,laupp ,co41 ,tbingen4 ,,the ,,sounds ,,of ,,spoken ,,english ,a ,,manual ,,of ,,ear ,,training ,,for ,,english ,,students ,,by ,,walter ,,rippmann ,illustration ,,london3 ,j4 ,m4 ,,dent ,,sons1 ,,ltd4 ,,bedford ,,street1 ,w4,c4 ,,mcmx ,first ,edition 7#cjjj copies71 ,january #aijf ,second ,edition 7#bejj copies71 ,november #aijg ,third ,edition 7#cjjj copies71 ,may #aiji ,fourth ,edition 7#djjj copies71 ,december #aiaj ,messrs ,j4 ,m4 ,,dent ,,sons also publish the following ,books on ,phonetics3-- ,extra fcap4 #hvo1 #as4 net ,,specimens ,,of ,,english ,,spoken1 ,,read ,,and ,,recited ,this is a companion volume to the ,sounds of ,spoken ,english4 ,it contains a carefully graduated selection of passages in prose and verse1 transcribed with the signs of the ,international ,phonetic ,association1 and supplied with exercises4 ,these and parallel passages for practice are also given in ordinary type4 ,the ,sounds of ,spoken ,english and ,specimens can also be obtained in one volume1 price #bs4 net ,extra fcap4 #hvo1 #bs4 #f;d4 net ,,elements ,,of ,,phonetics ,,english1 ,,french ,,and ,,german ,translated and ,adapted by ,,walter ,,rippmann from ,professor ,vitor's ,kleine ,phonetik ,extra fcap4 #hvo1 #bs4 #f;d4 net ,,elements ,,of ,,french ,,pronunciation ,,and ,,diction ,by ,b4 ,,dumville1 ,b4,a4 ,extra fcap4 #hvo1 #bs4 ,a ,,phonetic ,,french ,,reader ,by ,s4 ,a4 ,,richards1 ,b4,a4 ,extra fcap4 #hvo1 #h;d4 ,,french ,,speech ,,and ,,spelling ,a ,first ,guide to ,french ,pronunciation ,by ,s4 ,a4 ,,richards1 ,b4,a4 ,,rippmann',s ,,sound ,,charts ,,the ,,sounds ,,of ,,english--,,les ,,sons ,,du ,,fran,,ais--,,deutsche ,,laute ,size #cj #cj inches4 ,price1 ,unmounted1 #as4 net2 ,mounted on ,linen1 #bs4 #f;d4 net1 with ,rollers1 #cs4 #f;d4 net ,small reproductions of the charts1 with a table of keywords3 #cj copies for #as4 ,the alphabet of the ,international ,phonetic ,association adopted in these books is also used in ,dent's ,first ,english ,book1 ,first ,french ,book1 ,first ,german ,book1 ,first ,spanish ,book1 ,first ,latin ,book1 and other volumes of ,dent's ,modern ,language ,series4 ,,note ,as the title of this book is ambitious1 and the sub-title may not suffice to indicate its limitations1 it is well to warn the reader that he will find no exhaustive treatment of ,english speech sounds4 ,that would have required knowledge greater than mine1 and more space than was at my disposal4 ,the little book is an attempt to gain fellow-workers in a field which is unduly neglected1 yet full of promise4 ,fascinating indeed are the problems afforded by the speech of those around us2 perplexing often1 stimulating to further inquiry4 ,it was in teaching the pronunciation of foreign languages that ,i first realised how important it is to acquire a knowledge of the sounds of the mother tongue4 ,before the learner can acquire the fresh habits of speech peculiar to the foreign language1 his teacher must know clearly what distinguishes the new sounds from those familiar in the mother tongue1 for only then can the foreign pronunciation be imparted in a methodical way4 ,it has been shown convincingly that it is vain to trust altogether to imitation1 however correct and clear may be the pronunciation of the teacher4 ,the book may therefore be useful to the teacher of foreign languages2 but it is intended also for a larger circle4 ,in our ,training ,colleges1 noted for earnest work1 the importance of the spoken language has long been felt1 and much attention has been devoted to the cultivation of the voice4 ,my object has not been to write on voice production1 though occasional reference to the subject has been made4 ,it has not been my aim to say how the language ought to be spoken1 to improve upon the ordinary speech of our day1 but to represent it to the best of my ability1 and to enable others to distinguish speech sounds when they hear them4 ,if it be desirable to improve upon our speech1 its present condition and tendencies must first be determined4 ,the difficulties of the undertaking have been considerable2 ,i confess that ,i have often given my impressions rather than the well-substantiated results of observation4 ,i am confident that particularly those who have had no phonetic training will regard as slipshod some of the pronunciations which ,i state to be usual4 ,i can only ask them to put aside all preconceived notions of what is correct1 and to listen carefully to the unconstrained speech of their friends4 ,if they still find that the facts do not bear out what is here stated1 they will do me a service by sending me their corrections4 ,the learned critic who chances to take up this book may feel offended that ,i should have treated phonetics in so conversational a tone1 and disappointed at finding little or nothing with which he is not well acquainted4 ,my endeavour has been to put things very simply1 and to make the beginner in phonetics hear for himself4 ,it is only a first step2 but ,i am not without hope that some will be induced to take a second step and a third1 until the number of students is far larger than at present4 ,the teachers in our schools have had scant opportunities for ear-training1 and the mother tongue has sadly suffered4 ,i have been much encouraged in my work by the generous help of friends2 to ,prof4 ,a4 ,t4 ,baker1 ,mr ,w4 ,osborne ,brigstocke1 ,principal ,a4 ,burrell1 ,dr ,e4 ,r4 ,edwards1 ,miss ,e4 ,fogerty1 ,mr ,w4 ,w4 ,greg1 ,dr ,h4 ,f4 ,heath1 ,dr ,r4 ,j4 ,lloyd1 ,mr ,r4 ,b4 ,mc,kerrow1 and ,prof4 ,g4 ,c4 ,moore ,smith1 ,i am much indebted for useful and suggestive criticisms4 ,,walter ,,rippmann ,,london #ast ,november #aije ,i am glad to say that it has not been necessary to make any far-reaching changes in the later editions4 ,that the book has aroused interest is evident2 and if its readers have not agreed with it in every detail1 that is what ,i fully anticipated and even desired1 for its object was to render students more critical in their consideration of the spoken language4 ,to make a dogmatic pronouncement on all points would have been misleading4 ,this book has now been supplemented by a volume of ,specimens of ,english1 in which ,i have given1 in the phonetic transcription1 a number of passages ranging in style from the careful and elevated to the colloquial and familiar4 ,w4 ,r4 ,december #aiaj4 ,,contents ,,sect4 ,,page ,,introduction #a #a4 ,purpose of the ,book #a #b4 ,different ,ways of ,approaching the ,subject of ,spoken ,english #b #c4 ,standard ,speech #c ,,the ,,organs ,,of ,,speech #f #d4 ,breathing #f #e4 ,good ,air #g #f4 ,the ,vocal ,chords #i #g4 ,voice #ab #h4 ,the ,velum2 ,nasalising #ad #i4 ,the ,mouth ,passage2 ,vowel and ,consonant #af #aj4 ,continuants #ag #aa4 ,stops #ag #ab4 ,place of ,closure or ,narrowing #ah #ac4 ,the ,epiglottis #ah #ad4 ,good ,hearing #ai #ae4 ,shouting #bj #af4 ,,the ,,representation ,,of ,,speech ,,sounds #bj #ag4 ,the ,inadequacy of the ,spelling2 its ,causes #ba #ah4 ,spelling ,reform #bc #ai4 ,the ,need of a ,phonetic ,alphabet #bd #bj4 ,the ,sounds of ,standard ,english #bd ,,the ,,sounds ,,considered ,,separately #bh #ba4 ,stops #bh #bb4 ,lip ,stops #bi #bc4 ,the ,tongue and its ,parts #cj #bd4 ,teeth ,stops #ca #be4 ,front and ,back ,stops #cb #bf4 ,continuants2 ,lip ,continuants #ce #bg4 ,lip ,teeth ,continuants #cf #bh4 ,teeth ,continuants #cg #bi4 ,the ,hushing ,sounds #ch #cj4 ,the ,hissing ,sounds #dj #ca4 ,the ,lisping ,sounds #db #cb4 ,the ,liquids2 the r ,sounds #dc #cc4 ,the l ,sounds #df #cd4 ,front and ,back ,continuants #dh #ce4 ,the h ,sounds #ej #cf4 ,vowels #ec #cg4 ,the a ,sounds #ec #ch4 a and #ee #ci4 ,the ,front ,vowels1 and #eg #dj4 ai and au #ei #da4 ,middle and ,close e #fj #db4 ,the i ,sounds #fa #dc4 ,the ,back ,vowels2 ,open o #fc #dd4 ,middle and ,close o #fg #de4 ,the u ,sounds #fh #df4 ,,sounds ,,in ,,connected ,,speech #gb #dg4 ,strong and ,weak ,forms #gb #dh4 ,unstressed ,lax i #gd #di4 ,assimilation #gd #ej4 ,simplification of ,consonant ,groups #gg #ea4 ,stress of the ,word #hj #eb4 ,sonority2 the ,syllable #hc #ec4 ,stress of the ,sentence2 ,scanning #he #ed4 ,stress #hg #ee4 ,pitch #hh ,,conclusion #hi #ef4 ,importance of ,ear-,training #hi #eg4 ,public ,speaking #ij 99 99 99 99 99 ,,appendices-- ,i4 ,exercises #ic ,,ii4 ,lists of ,words with ,phonetic ,transcription #ig ,a4 ,general #ih ,b4 ,proper ,names #aaa ,,iii4 ,on the ,teaching of ,reading #abj ,,iv4 ,diagrams #aba ,,introduction #a4 ,that a book dealing with ,english pronunciation in quite a simple way should yet be intended for ,english readers rather than for foreigners may seem to require some explanation4 ,have ,i not been talking ,english all my life8 the reader may ask2 why should ,i concern myself with the pronunciation of my mother tongue8 ,if he is quite satisfied with the way in which he speaks1 and needs no help in teaching others to speak1 then this little book is indeed superfluous--for him2 but experience has shown that there are many who are groping about in darkness1 anxious for light on the subject4 ,it is above all the teacher who is constantly brought face to face with some difficulty on the part of a pupil4 ,he realises that something is wrong in the pronunciation of a word1 but he cannot clearly tell where the fault lies2 he trusts that improvement will follow if he repeatedly utters the word correctly pronounced and gets the pupil to say it after him4 ,to his distress the pupil still says the word in the old way1 and at last the teacher gives up in despair4 ,when a foreign language is attempted1 the difficulties become even more apparent2 but these we do not propose to consider here1 except in so far as they throw light on our immediate subject1 the pronunciation of ,english4 #b4 ,there are several ways of approaching the question4 ,we may turn our attention mainly to the requirements of the public speaker--clergyman1 actor1 singer1 lecturer1 reciter1 or politician2 this is the province of the teachers of elocution4 ,it must be confessed that these have rarely had a scientific training2 in many cases they base their teaching on their own experience as reciters and on what their powers of observation have enabled them to learn from their pupils2 and they frequently hand on traditions obtained from their own teachers1 which may have nothing but old age to recommend them4 ,it is to be feared that the majority of those professing to teach elocution are little better than quacks2 and by no one is this more readily acknowledged than by the few who have made an earnest study of the art of public speaking and singing4 ,the physicist considers the production of sounds from another point of view2 he measures the waves of sound with delicate instruments4 ,the physiologist1 again1 studies the organs of speech in a state of health and sickness4 ,from all these the phonetician derives assistance4 ,his concern is the spoken language generally4 ,he seeks to ascertain how sounds are produced1 and how they are represented in writing2 he traces the changes which sounds undergo according to time and place2 he attempts to determine the standard of speech for his own time and his own surroundings2 he considers how the pronunciation is best imparted to the young and to foreigners4 ,when the reader has come to the end of this little book1 he will see how complicated these problems are1 and how much yet awaits solution2 he may also have acquired some interest in these problems and desire to give his help4 ,such help is urgently needed2 the number of serious students is distressingly small1 and real progress can only be made if their number grows considerably4 #c4 ,reference has been made to the question of standard speech2 it is convenient to discuss this at once1 as the standard selected naturally affects the way in which the subject of ,english pronunciation is treated4 ,it is generally agreed that there are two principal types of ,english speech3 ,southern ,english1 of which ,dr ,h4 ,sweet is the best known exponent2 and ,northern ,english1 which ,dr ,r4 ,j4 ,lloyd has described in an excellent book4 ,southern ,english may be defined as the ,english spoken in ,london4 ,the definition will at once strike the reader as requiring some modification--for what form of ,english is not spoken in ,london8 and the dialect 7or rather set of dialects7 peculiar to ,london and known as cockney is certainly not to be set up as the standard4 ,the object of speech is to communicate what is in the mind of the speaker to others2 the more adequately it attains this end1 the better it is4 ,if there is anything in the manner of speech which attracts attention to itself 7for example1 talkin' in place of talking1 or 'ot for hot71 then our attention is distracted from the subject discussed2 we say that such faulty speech jars upon us4 ,the same is true if the pronunciation is indistinct1 or the voice pitched too high1 or if the speaker stammers2 we then suffer from the strain of listening1 and again the object of speech1 to communicate thought1 is not attained with the least amount of effort4 ,it follows naturally from what has been said that it is our duty towards our fellows to speak in such a way that nothing jars on their ear1 nothing strains their attention4 ,to retain certain peculiarities of speech which we know to differ from general usage is nothing short of rudeness4 ,in a great man we may overlook it1 in acknowledgment of the services he has rendered to mankind2 but we who are in a humbler position must endeavour to render it as easy and pleasant as possible for others to follow what we say4 ,we are now able to give a better definition of standard speech as considered in this book3 it is that form of spoken ,english which will appear to the majority of educated ,londoners as entirely free from unusual features4 ,this speech will be acceptable not only in ,london1 but throughout the south of ,england2 there is reason to believe that it is spreading and nowhere will it be unintelligible or even objectionable4 ,it must be confessed that on some points there is uncertainty1#a and these will be discussed later4 ,language is always changing1 and the younger generation does not speak exactly as the older generation does4 ,the standard of to-day will no longer be the standard a hundred years hence4 ,nevertheless1 it is well to inquire what may be regarded as the best speech of our own day1 with a view to conforming to this speech and teaching its use to our pupils4 ,the question may here be raised whether we are to rest content with the standard speech as here defined1 or should strive to improve it1 for instance by aiming at simple vowels instead of diphthongs1 or by carefully uttering consonants which are now commonly dropped4 ,even if it be desirable1 it may well be doubted whether it is possible1 so subtle are the changes in our pronunciation1 and so unconsciously are they performed4 ,there is a deep-seated tendency to economy of effort1 which it would be idle to ignore4 ,it must always be remembered that the phonetician is primarily concerned with the question how people actually speak2 the determination of this must needs precede any attempt to decide how people ought to speak4 ,in the following pages we shall consider the organs of speech1 the various classes of sounds1 and how these are produced4 ,then we inquire into their combination to form words1 and the combination of words in sentences4 ,incidentally we notice colloquial tendencies1 the requirements of public speaking1 and other topics arising naturally from our subject4 ,,footnotes3 #a ,it might be thought that reference to a dictionary would be sufficient to settle disputed points4 ,however1 it may be said that no dictionary--not even the familiar ,webster or the great ,oxford ,english dictionary1 now in course of publication--can be implicitly trusted in matters of pronunciation4 ,,the ,,organs ,,of ,,speech #d4 ,for speaking we need breath4 ,in ordinary breathing we take about the same time to draw the breath into the lungs as to let it out4 ,in ,english speech we use only the breath which is let out2 and when we are speaking we accordingly draw it in quickly and let it out slowly4 ,this requires careful adjustment2 if we are not careful1 our breath gives out in the middle of a sentence4 ,this is one of the things that jar1 and must be avoided4 ,the more breath we can draw in 7or inhale7 at once1 the longer we can use it for speech as we let it out 7or exhale it74 ,it is therefore to our advantage to grow accustomed to taking deep breaths1 and thus to increase the capacity of the lungs4 ,deep breaths expresses exactly what is wanted4 ,the lungs are like two elastic bellows4 ,we may expand them only a little2 we can expand them a great deal4 ,the student should make himself familiar with the shape of the lungs4 ,they occupy the chest1 which is a kind of box with elastic sides and bottom4 ,the sides are held out by the ribs1 and when the two sets of ribs are drawn apart1 the sides of the box are made larger4 ,the bottom of the box 7called the diaphragm7 is not flat1 but rounded1 bulging upwards when the lungs are empty4 ,when1 however1 the diaphragm contracts so that breath is drawn into the lungs to their full capacity1 it becomes practically flat4 ,if at the same time we extend the ribs1 then we have a considerably increased space for the lungs4 ,often1 however1 there is the less satisfactory kind of breathing in which the ribs are not sufficiently active4 ,the descending diaphragm then presses on the soft parts underneath1 and this in turn leads to a pushing forward of the abdomen4#b ,good breathing is essential not only for the singer or the public speaker2 it is essential for every teacher and for every pupil4 ,it is necessary for good speech1 and it is necessary for good health4 ,the teacher should ascertain as soon as possible whether his pupils are breathing well2 a simple test is to determine how long they can hold their breath4 ,they should certainly all be able to do so for forty seconds1 and should gradually learn to emit a vowel sound for at least thirty seconds without a pause1 and with uniform pitch and volume4 ,breathing exercises should form a regular part of the pupils' physical training1 and the teacher should make a point of drawing the instructor's special attention to pupils whose breathing appears defective4 #e4 ,the teacher should also make sure that the air breathed is the best procurable under the conditions2 he must never relax in his care that the ventilation is good4 ,the results of recent research have not yet been sufficiently taken to heart1 and much weariness and ill-health are still due to quite avoidable causes4 ,it may be laid down as an absolute necessity that there should be a pause of at least five minutes in the winter1 and at least ten in the summer between consecutive periods of teaching1 the periods themselves not exceeding fifty minutes1 even in the case of the oldest pupils of school age4 ,during the interval the doors and windows should be thrown wide open1 and the room flushed with fresh air4 ,the floor should be either of hard wood treated with dustless oil or of cork linoleum4 ,the blackboard should be wiped with a damp cloth1 in order to prevent the chalk from vitiating the air4 ,in this way the microbes and particles of dust will be sensibly reduced in number1 and the proportion of oxygen in the air will remain satisfactory4 ,the seats and desks must be of such a kind that the pupils will naturally assume positions favourable for good breathing4 ,they must be graduated in size2 the seats must have suitably curved backs2 and there must be some adjustment by which the edge of the desk will overhang the edge of the seat when the pupils are writing1 whereas there is a clear space between them when the pupil stands4 ,this may be obtained either by making the desk as a whole1 or the lid of it1 move forward and backward2 or by making the seat movable4 ,it is not the place here to enter into further details with regard to these important matters2 it must suffice to remind the teacher that unceasing perseverance is required4 ,gently1 but firmly1 he must insist that his pupils hold themselves well2 not stiffly1 of course1 nor without variety of position4 ,to sit rigidly means a great strain for a child#c2 and it is very desirable that pupils should have frequent opportunities of changing their posture1 and especially of resting against the back of the seat4 #f4 ,it will often be found that a few minutes given to breathing exercises in the middle of a lesson will serve to freshen the pupils4 ,an excellent set of exercises is given in ,dr ,hulbert's ,breathing for ,voice ,production 7publ4 by ,novello71 which teachers will do well to read and to put into practice4#d ,many of the throat troubles of which teachers complain are directly due to bad breathing and bad ventilation4 ,singing and speaking in chorus1 if heartily done by all1 may be regarded as admirable breathing exercises1 apart from their use in other respects4 ,a few words with regard to chorus work may be useful to the teacher4 ,if well carried out1 it can be of great service4 ,the individual is encouraged to speak up well2 it is often found that the class speaking in chorus is better in pronunciation than the majority of those composing it4 ,when a child speaks alone1 self-consciousness may make it hesitate or prevent it from raising its voice4 ,but the chorus work must be guided with care and used with moderation4 ,nothing could surely be more objectionable than the monotonous sing-song into which the reading of a class is almost sure to degenerate if all or nearly all their reading is in chorus4 ,the teacher will guard against this by making the pupils feel what they read1 and thus insisting on expressive and therefore interesting speech4 ,illustration3 ,this diagram represents a vertical section through the larynx1 the hinder part of which is removed1 showing the narrowing through which the breath has to pass4 ,epiglottis4 ,left vocal chord4 ,right vocal chord4 ,cases of mouth-breathing1 usually due to adenoid growths1 cannot be cured by the teacher2 but it is his duty to take the earliest possible notice of such a case1 and to ensure that those in charge of the child are warned of the danger incurred by delay in consulting a medical man4 ,the breath on leaving the lungs passes through the windpipe--and in ordinary breathing there is nothing in its way4 ,in speaking1 however1 there is often something in its way3 a beautiful contrivance1 capable of the most varied and delicate adjustment1 and known as the vocal chords4 ,they are situated where1 in a man1 we see the ,adam's apple4 ,illustration3 ,view of the vocal chords opened to their widest extent1 showing the windpipe to its bifurcation4 ,the accompanying illustration will serve to explain their nature4 ,it will be seen that the vocal chords spring from both sides of the windpipe4 ,they are really rather of the nature of flexible ridges or shallow flaps than cords4 ,by means of muscles acting on certain cartilages they can be brought closely or lightly together4 ,they consist of a soft fleshy part at one end1 and a harder cartilaginous part at the other4 ,the position of the vocal chords1 in other words the nature of the glottis 7i4e4 the opening between the vocal chords71 modifies the breath in many ways4 ,when they are apart1 in what we may call the rest position1 the breath passes through unhindered4 ,when we want a particularly large supply of breath1 as in blowing1 we keep them still more apart4 ,when we wish to hold our breath1 we close them firmly4 ,when we wish to clear our throat1 we press them together and then let the breath come out in jerks2 if this is done violently and 7as a rule7 unintentionally1 a cough is produced2 sometimes we do it slightly before the opening vowel of a word spoken emphatically 7this is commonly the case in ,german1 and is known as the glottal stop74 ,we may also close only the fleshy ends1 and leave the cartilaginous ends open2 then we speak in a whisper4 #g4 ,if we neither leave the vocal chords apart nor bring them together quite closely1 but let them touch lightly1 then the air as it passes out will make them vibrate2 and breath accompanied by this vibration is voice#e in the narrower application of the word4 ,in ordinary speech this vibration is an essential part of all vowels and of many consonants4 ,they are accordingly called voiced#f sounds2 those produced without vibration of the vocal chords are voiceless4#g ,the vibration can be felt in several ways4 ,utter a long s and then a long z 7the sounds at the beginning of seal and zeal respectively71 again long s1 again long z1 and so on2 at the same time put your fingers to your throat1 or put your hands to both ears1 or lay your hand on the top of your head1 and you cannot fail to notice the vibration every time you utter z4 ,try it also with f v f v f v1 etc41 and with the sounds written s in sure and z in azure1 and the sounds written th in thistle and th in this4 ,then proceed to p and b1 t and d1 k and g 7as in go74 ,lastly1 utter a long ah with full voice1 and then whisper the same sound softly4 ,ascertain in each case which sound is accompanied by vibration of the vocal chords4 ,utter a long f and suddenly separate the lower lip from the upper teeth1 and nothing more will be heard2 but utter a long v and again suddenly separate the lip from the teeth1 and you will hear the voice1 with a sound like the described in #ch4 7,it is the sound uttered when we hesitate in our speech1 and is usually represented in writing by er 444 er47 ,it is important that the vibration should be good4 ,if it is slow1 the pitch will be low2 if it is quick1 the pitch will be high4 ,but whatever the pitch1 the vibration must be uniform4 ,to practise this1 dwell on various voiced sounds for a long time1 emitting the breath slowly and regularly4 ,only the voiced sounds can be produced with varying pitch2 they are musical1 the rest are noises4 ,notice1 in church for instance1 how the tune is carried by the voiced sounds2 the voiceless ones seem to break the course of the tune4 ,when the vocal chords are short they vibrate more quickly than when they are long1 and quicker vibrations give a higher pitch4 ,this explains why the average pitch of a woman's voice is higher than that of a man4 ,when a boy's voice breaks1 this is due to certain changes affecting his vocal chords2 it is important that the voice should not be subjected to any excessive strain when it is in this stage4 ,certain affections of the throat interfere with the action of the vocal chords1 and they become incapable of vibrating2 then we lose our voice4 ,when we lower the voice1 we make the vibrations slower1 and lower the pitch4 ,when we drop the voice to a whisper1 we are intentionally preventing them from vibrating4 ,this much diminishes the carrying power of the voice1 and we thereby ensure that our words are heard only by those who are quite close4 ,a peculiar variety is the stage aside1 when the actor tries to convey the impression that his words are not heard by those near him1 yet desires them to be heard by the spectators1 many of whom are much farther away4 ,this is a very loud whisper2 it naturally requires a considerable effort and is very tiring4 #h4 ,the breath which has passed between the vocal chords and issues from the windpipe passes through the mouth1 or through the nose1 or through both4 ,this is rendered possible by a soft movable flap which can at will be made to close the way through the nose1 or--hanging loosely--to leave both passages open4 ,take a small mirror and look at the inside of your mouth1 standing so that as much light as possible falls into it2 you will see this flap1 the velum1 hanging down with a kind of in the centre1 the lower extremity of which is known as the uvula4 ,still watching your mouth1 inhale through the nose and exhale through the mouth2 see how the velum moves as you do this4 ,after a little while try to move the velum1 closing and opening the nose passage1 without uttering a sound and without breathing4 ,in ,french there are four nasal vowels 7occurring in un bon vin blanc7 in which the velum hangs loose1 and breath passes through nose and mouth4 ,in standard ,english such vowels do not exist1 but another form of nasal vowel1 producing a twang1 is sometimes heard in many forms of what may be called dialect speech4 ,the ,londoner is often careless about closing the nose passage1 and some breath is allowed to pass out by that way so as to be perceptible to the ear in the form of friction1 and to impair the quality of the vowels4 ,the nasal twang is very noticeable in some forms of ,american ,english4 ,the nasalising tendency may also be observed in untrained singers and public speakers2 it is undoubtedly a means of increasing the carrying power of the voice1 and of reducing the effort of making oneself understood by a large audience4 ,the same effect can1 however1 be produced by training the muscles of the chest by means of breathing exercises1 and with more agreeable results to the ear4 ,pupils who show a tendency to nasalising can be cured by frequent exercises in uttering the mouth 7or oral7 vowels4 ,it is1 however1 maintained by some teachers of voice production that the best vowel sounds are produced when the velum does not quite prevent the passage of air through the nose4 ,in producing a nasal consonant 7such as m71 we stop the breath somewhere in the mouth 7e4g4 at the lips when we utter m71 and let it pass out through the nose4 ,a cold in the nose often prevents the breath from passing through it2 and this renders it impossible to produce the nasal consonants m1 n1 and ng 7as in sing71 the kindred sounds b1 d1 and g being substituted for them4 ,a similar difficulty is experienced by children with adenoid growths4 ,this is commonly called speaking through the nose2 it is just the reverse4 #i4 ,in speaking1 as a rule1 the passage to the nose is closed and the breath finds its passage through the mouth4 ,the shape of this passage can be modified in many ways1 because several organs of speech are movable4 ,the lower jaw can be moved up and down4 ,the lips can be closed1 or kept lightly touching1 or the lower lip may touch the upper teeth2 or the lips may be apart1 assuming various shapes1 from a narrow slit to a large or small circle4 ,they may also be thrust forward1 protruded4 ,the tongue is capable of an even greater variety of position4 ,again watch the inside of your mouth by means of your little mirror4 ,say e 7as in he71 a 7as in father71 o 7as in who71 and observe the movements of your tongue2 then make the same movements1 but without uttering the sounds4 ,you will soon feel how your tongue moves1 without needing to look at it4 ,this consciousness of the muscular action of your tongue is valuable1 and you must take pains to develop it4 ,watch the movements of your tongue as you utter other vowel sounds2 they will be treated systematically in due course4 ,by means of these movable organs of speech the mouth passage assumes various forms2 it may still be wide enough to leave a free course for the breath1 or it may be quite narrow1 or it may be closed at some point4 ,if the passage is free1 the result is a vowel2 if not1 it is a consonant4#h #aj4 ,if the passage is so narrow at some point that the breath cannot pass through without rubbing or brushing1 we have a continuant 7sometimes called a fricative74 ,thus when we say f or v1 the breath passes out through the teeth2 the only difference between the two sounds being that in saying v1 the breath is also engaged in setting the vocal chords vibrating4 ,say e 7as in he7 and gradually raise the tongue still further1 thus narrowing the passage2 you will reach a point when you no longer produce a vowel1 but a continuant1 namely the sound heard at the beginning of yes4 ,these sounds are called continuants1 because we can prolong them at will2 indeed1 we can dwell on them until no more breath is left in the lungs4 #aa4 ,if the passage is closed altogether at some point1 we have a stop2 the breath is stopped4 ,say hope or wit or luck and notice how in each case there is a closure at the end4 ,stops consist of two parts3 the closing of the passage1 and the subsequent opening of it2 this opening resembles a little explosion1 and stops are accordingly sometimes called plosives or explosives4 ,observe that the ear does not require to perceive both the closure and the opening2 one is enough to give the impression of the sound4 ,when you say hope or wit or luck1 you need only hear the closing of the passage2 you can leave your mouth shut1 yet to the ear the word will seem complete4 7,the sound will1 however1 carry further if you open the passage again2 and in public speaking it is therefore to be recommended47 ,similarly1 in uttering the words pain1 tell1 come1 only the opening of the passage is audible2 yet the ear is satisfied4 ,in the middle of a word like night-time1 carefully pronounced1 we hear both the closure and the opening2 and the interval between the two gives our ear the impression that there are two t's4#i ,in quick speech1 however1 the closure is usually inaudible in such words or1 more correctly1 the sounds overlap4 #ab4 ,the narrowing or closing of the passage may be effected at various points4 ,the lips may be partially or completely closed2 the lower lip may be pressed against the upper teeth2 different parts of the tongue may be pressed against the teeth1 or the gums1 or the palate4 ,pass your finger along the roof of your mouth1 and notice that only the front of it is hard2 we distinguish the hard palate and the soft palate4 #ac4 ,when we are eating or drinking1 the food passes down the gullet1 behind the windpipe4 ,to prevent food entering the windpipe1 which causes a choking sensation and coughing1 there is the epiglottis 7see the diagram on p4 #aj71 a cartilaginous flap which covers the top of it2 this flap is raised when we are breathing4 ,hence the wisdom of the rule1 not to speak while you are eating4 #ad4 ,in order that speech may have its full effect1 it is necessary that the hearer should hear well2 this is by no means so common as is generally supposed4 ,the importance of testing the eyesight is now recognised2 but the hearing is usually neglected4 ,attention must be drawn to this matter1 as teachers often regard pupils as inattentive and dull and reprimand them1 when they are really hard of hearing4 ,the teacher's mistake is to some extent pardonable1 because the defect is easily overlooked1 especially as a pupil may hear badly in one ear and not in the other1 and thus seem inattentive only when the teacher happens to be standing on the side of his defective ear4 ,further1 it is a defect which often varies in intensity from day to day1 according to the pupil's general condition of health4 ,these considerations point to the urgent necessity of instituting an inspection of the hearing in our schools4 ,the teacher can himself apply the simple test of seeing at what distance the pupil is able to hear whispered double numbers1 such as #ce1 #ha2 each ear should be tested separately1 a cloth being pressed against the other4 ,the teacher will note down the two distances for each pupil1 and will probably be surprised at the variations observed4 ,it is clear that defective hearing should constitute a strong claim for a front seat in the class-room1 more so than defective eyesight1 which can usually be rectified by the use of suitable spectacles4 ,it is hardly necessary to point out that lack of cleanliness in the ears may interfere with the hearing1 and that carelessness with regard to the teeth may lead to their loss and to defects of speech1 apart from other unpleasant consequences4 ,it is clear that anything in the nature of tight-lacing renders good breathing impossible2 and the fashion of letting the hair cover the ears is also to be discouraged1 as rendering the hearing more difficult4 ,in men1 tight collars and belts often interfere with the breathing4 #ae4 ,lastly1 teachers 7particularly male teachers7 require to be warned against shouting2 this only tires them and irritates the nerves of their pupils1 while the same object can be achieved by careful articulation4 ,where it is used to keep the class in order1 the teacher should earnestly consider how it is that others can keep order without shouting2 usually his difficulties in maintaining discipline are due to ill-health1 overstrain1 or general incapacity4 ,when the throat is relaxed1 a gargle with some astringent will be found a simple remedy2 a solution of alum in water may be recommended for this purpose1 or a bit of borax may be held in the cheek4 #af4 ,from a very early time the attempt has been made to represent the spoken language by means of signs4 ,picture writing is a primitive and clumsy expedient4 ,it was a great step forward when signs were used to represent syllables1 a still further improvement when a separate sign was used for each separate sound4 ,at first writing was roughly phonetic1 in other words1 one sign was intended to represent one sound 7or set of sounds71 and one only2 and this is still what is required of an ideal alphabet4 ,it is a commonplace remark that the ,english alphabet largely fails to fulfil this requirement4 ,the same sign represents different sounds 7sign1 sure1 easy72 the same sound is represented by different signs 7catch1 kill1 queen1 lack74 ,some signs are superfluous 7c1 x72 sometimes a sound is written1 but not pronounced 7lamb1 knee72 sometimes two signs1 which separately express two sounds1 when used together designate a third sound altogether different from these two 7ch in chat and rich74 #ag4 ,how are we to explain this bewildering state of things8 ,it is due to two causes--the natural development of the language1 and the pedantic interference of the learned4 ,language is constantly changing4 ,the rate of change is not perhaps always the same1 but change there always is4 ,as we have seen above1 the older generation and the younger do not speak exactly alike4 ,now the changes in the spoken language are gradual1 and quite unconscious2 but a change in the recognised spelling of words is something tangible4 ,it conflicts with a habit we have acquired4 ,in medival times1 when there was no printing1 no daily paper1 no universal compulsory education1 there was a good deal of freedom in the spelling1 and people wrote very much as they pleased--phonetically1 if they were not spoilt by a little knowledge4 ,but the invention of printing and the dissemination of learning changed all this4 ,a uniform spelling came to be recognised2 the nation acquired the habit of regarding it as correct1 and would tolerate no deviation from it4 ,though it represents the pronunciation of a former age1 we still use it2 and we are quite upset when we read the spellings labor1 center1 therefor1 nay even when two words are1 contrary to our usage1 run together1 as in forever4 ,when our spelling received its present form not only was the language very differently pronounced1 but the pedantic had already been able to wreak their wicked will on it4 ,thus the learned men of medival ,france spelled parfaict1 though the c of ,latin perfectum had developed into the i of parfait1 and they did not pronounce the c which they introduced into the spelling4 ,the word passed into ,english1 and here also the c was at first only written2 later on it came to be pronounced4 ,the learned similarly introduced a b into the ,french words douter and dette 7because of the ,latin dubitare and debita71 but had the good sense to drop it2 we have it still in doubt and debt1 though we leave it unpronounced4 ,in later times we find something similar3 the learned force us to spell philosophy with ph and not f4 ,the word comes from ,greek through ,latin2 the ,greeks pronounced the ph actually as p plus h at the time when the ,romans took to spelling ,greek words in their language1 and these continued to spell ph even when the ,greeks no longer pronounced p plus h1 but f1 as we do now4 #ah4 ,the subject of spelling reform is not within the scope of this book2 but it presents itself naturally to all who take an intelligent interest in the language4 ,it seems probable that much good will be achieved by the ,simplified ,spelling ,society 7#dd ,great ,russell ,street1 ,london1 ,w4,c42 annual subscription from #as471 which has been recently established and will undoubtedly profit by the experience of the sister society in the ,united ,states4 ,such spellings as wel1 ful1 tho1 thoro1 bred1 plesure1 will surely commend themselves as soon as the eye of the man in the street has been made familiar with them and the etymological sentimentalist has realised the astounding weakness of his arguments4 ,however distant may be a complete reform1 it is certainly helpful to be conscious of the evil2 only thus can we neutralize some of its bad effects4 ,the most obvious of these is the lack of ear training in our schools1 where the mother tongue has been learnt on the basis of the written and not the spoken language4 ,the only method for teaching ,english reading and writing which can commend itself to the student of the language no less than to the student of childhood is the method identified with the name of ,miss ,dale4 ,apart from the sympathy and love of children pervading all her work1 it is of unusual importance because she has solved the problem of starting from the spoken language1 while avoiding all phonetic symbols4 #ai4 ,it is1 however1 convenient for the student of phonetics to have a set of generally accepted signs2 otherwise he would be unable to express in writing the pronunciation in such a way that other students could understand what he meant4 ,without phonetic symbols the designation of sounds becomes awkward4 ,it was one of ,miss ,dale's many happy thoughts to connect sounds and their written form with definite words1 for instance the moon oo and the fern er2 but however suitable that is for the little ones1 it is inconvenient for the grown-up student4 ,there are many phonetic alphabets2 all else being equal1 the one most widely used is clearly the most valuable4 ,we have therefore chosen for this book the alphabet of the ,association phontique internationale1 which is already well known in ,england owing to its use in a number of books for elementary instruction in ,french1 ,german1 and even ,latin4 ,it will commend itself to the student by its great simplicity4 ,what will really present difficulty is rather the determination of the actual nature of the spoken word1 than the representation of the sounds when once determined4 #bj4 ,we now give the sounds occurring normally in standard ,english1 and their phonetic signs2 the signs for consonants which are likely to be unfamiliar are enclosed4 ,consonants4 b as in bat rabble tab p as in pat apple tap m as in man hammer lamb d as in dab bidden bad t as in tap bitten pat n as in nut winner tun g as in gut waggle tug k as in cat tackle tack as in singer sing w as in wit #aj as in when v as in van never leave f as in fan stiffer leaf as in this leather clothe as in thistle ,ethel cloth z as in zeal easel lose s as in seal lesson lease as in leisure rouge as in shed ashes dash j as in yes r as in red very l as in lip pallor pill h as in hot ,vowels4 ,attention should be paid to the signs for these1 as many are unfamiliar4 ,the examples given will convey only a general idea of the sounds1 which are discussed in detail in #cf and foll4 ,the sign indicates length1 and half length4 i is the first vowel sound#aa in bead4 is the vowel sound in bit4 e is the first vowel sound#aa in braid4 e is the vowel sound in bet4 is the first vowel sound in fairy4 is the vowel sound in bat4 a is the first vowel sound#aa in bout1 bite4 is the first vowel sound in father4 is the first vowel sound in glory4 is the vowel sound in pot4 o is the first vowel sound#aa in boat4 u is the first vowel sound#aa in rude4 is the vowel sound in put4 is the vowel sound in burn4 is the second vowel sound in better4 is the vowel sound in but4 ,the following sentences written in the conventional and the phonetic spelling will give some idea of the use of this alphabet for representing connected speech as spoken 7a7 very carefully1 7b7 quite colloquially4 ,for purposes of convenience the and are not used in ordinary transcript1 as there is no danger of confusion4 7a7 ,the seriou student of phonetics soon grows sirjs stjuwdnt#ab v fonetiks#ac suwn grouz interested in the subject1 and every fresh speaker intrestid in sbdikt1 nd evri fre spijk#ab presents new materials for study4 prizents njuw mtirilz f stdi4 7b7 ,did you hear what he told me last night8 du hi wt i toul mi ls nait8 ,,footnotes3 #b ,another defective method of breathing consists in raising the shoulders for the purpose of increasing the capacity of the lungs4 ,the shoulders should1 however1 not be moved at all in breathing4 #c ,the custom of insisting on tightly-folded arms is not to be encouraged4 #d ,the exercises suggested by ,mr ,burrell in ,clear ,speaking and ,good ,reading 7p4 #af and foll47 are also recommended4 #e ,also called tone4 #f ,or1 toned4 #g ,or1 untoned1 breathed4 #h ,this definition has its drawbacks1 as will be seen later4 #i ,consider what happens in the case of such words as vintner1 lampman4 #aj ,it is doubtful whether this can be called a sound of standard ,english2 see #ca4 #aa ,it is most important that you should not confuse sound with letter4 ,thus in bead we have the letters e and a1 which represent vowels in bed and bad2 but the e in bead has quite a different value from the e in bed4 ,the two letters ea in bead together represent two sounds which are described in #db4 #ab ,in the ,specimens of ,english the diphthongs here represented by uw and ij are simply printed u and i4 #ac ,observe that the accent precedes the stressed syllable4 ,in the ,specimens of ,english the vowel of the stressed syllable is printed in this type4 ,,the ,,sounds ,,considered ,,separately ,consonants--stops4 #ba4 ,the sounds which present least difficulty to the student are the stops1 in producing which the flow of breath is completely checked4 ,we have already seen in #aa that every stop1 strictly speaking1 consists of three parts1 the closing and the opening of the passage and the pause between1 and that only the closing or only the opening need be heard for the ear to distinguish the sound4 ,the interval between the closure and the opening may be noticeable1 in which case we call the consonant double4 ,stops may be voiced or voiceless1 that is1 they may be produced with or without vibration of the vocal chords 7see #g74 ,stops may be produced by stopping the breath at some point in the mouth and then letting it burst through the obstacle2 these are oral stops4 ,the breath1 stopped at some point in the mouth1 may be allowed to pass out through the nose2 the sounds thus produced are called nasal4#ad ,utter the following sounds1 and determine whether they are voiced or voiceless1 oral or nasal3 p1 g1 n1 t1 b1 k1 m1 d1 4#ae ,according to the place of articulation we distinguish lip#af stops1 point#ag stops1 front 7palate7#ah stops and back 7palate7#ai stops4 #bb4 ,lip stops4--,when the breath is stopped at the lips1 three different sounds may be produced4 #a4 p1 when there has been no vibration of the vocal chords4 ,in precise or emphatic speech1 sufficient breath escapes after the opening of the passage to give the effect of h#bj2 thus ,pay1 pay6#ba pei1 pei4 ,this occurs mostly before accented vowels1 and sometimes finally#bb3 ,i hope ai houp4#bc p is written p or pp2 rarely ph 7as in a common pronunciation of diphtheria dipiri1 for which see #bg74 ,notice the spelling of hiccough hikp4 #b4 b1 when there has been vibration of the vocal chords4 b is written b or bb4 #c4 m1 when the velum is lowered and part of the breath passes out through the nose4 7,generally speaking1 this sound is voiced2 but when it is immediately followed by a voiceless sound1 it may be partly voiced1 then voiceless 7phonetic sign3 m74 ,then lamp is strictly lmmp4 ,we may say3 m is unvoiced or devocalized before a voiceless stop47 ,notice the difference in length of m in lamb1 hammer1 glum1 moon2 in which of these words is it short8 ,in comfort1 triumph the m is often labiodental3 the breath is stopped by the upper teeth and lower lip1 not by both lips4 ,in prism1 schism the m may have syllabic value2 it then does the work usually performed by a vowel4 ,we say prizm or prizm1 where m is the sign for syllabic m4 m is written m or mm4 #bc4 ,in the production of the lip stops the tongue plays no part1 except by leaving a free passage2 but it is active in the production of the stops we next have to consider4 ,this is therefore the right place to give the names by which we designate the various parts of the tongue4 ,we distinguish the point1 the blade 7above and behind the point when the tongue lies flat71 the front 7yet further behind71 and the back2 also the ridge or dorsum 7an imaginary line drawn along the middle of the top of the tongue from end to end71 and the rim 7running all round the edge of the tongue when it lies flat74 ,when the narrowing or closure of the passage is made by the front rim of the tongue1 we say it is of apical formation2 when it is made by the surface of the tongue behind the front rim1 we say it is of dorsal formation4 #bd4 ,point stops4#bd--,the breath is stopped by the action of the point of the tongue touching the teeth 7in which case we have true dentals7 or the upper gums 7this is known as alveolar articulation1 alveoli being the learned word for the gums74 ,in ,english the point of the tongue rarely touches the teeth2 usually it touches the upper gums1 sometimes the hard palate 7this should be avoided71 in which case it approaches k4 ,see the diagram on p4 #abf4 ,hence in careless speech at last sometimes becomes klst4#be ,little children are heard to say ikl for little2 compare also the change from ,latin tremere to ,french craindre4 ,three different sounds may be produced with this stoppage3 #a4 t1 when there has been no vibration of the vocal chords4 ,in precise or emphatic speech1 sufficient breath escapes after the opening of the passage to give the effect of h2 thus take it6 teik it4 ,this occurs mostly before accented vowels1 and sometimes finally2 he sent me such a charming note hi sent mi st tmi nout4#bf ,in certain kinds of uneducated southern ,english speech t is occasionally dropped between vowels1 in such words as water1 butter4 t is written t or tt2 d in the ed of verbs after voiceless sounds1 as in stopped stpt2 rarely th1 in words of foreign origin4 #b4 d1 when there has been vibration of the vocal chords4 d is written d or dd4 #c4 n1 when the velum is lowered and the breath passes out through the nose4 7,generally speaking1 this sound is voiced2 but when it is immediately preceded or followed by a voiceless sound1 it may become voiceless 7n7 in part4 ,then sneer is strictly snni1 hint hinnt47 ,notice the difference in length of n in mine1 own1 manner1 an1 name2 in which of these words is it long8 ,in month1 anthem the n is a true dental3 the tongue touches the teeth4 ,in listen1 open we may have syllabic n n4 ,compare what was said about syllabic m in #bb4 n is written n or nn4 #be4 ,front and back stops4--,the breath is stopped by some part of the ridge of the tongue meeting the front or hard palate1 giving front stops2 or the back or soft palate1 giving back stops4 ,say ku and then ki2 now whisper them4 ,in which case is the closure more forward in the mouth8 ,compare with these the place of closure when you say k4 ,from these examples it will be seen that the effect for the ear is very much the same1 and we shall here make use of the same signs for front and back stops4 ,in cockney speech there is a distinct tendency to make the closure so far forward that the k1 g are perceptibly modified4 7,this pronunciation is suggested by the spelling gyarden1 kyind1 employed by those who try to represent cockney speech47 ,the palatalizing tendency is not to be encouraged2 a more effective k is produced by distinctly backward articulation4 ,slight variations in the place of closure due to the place of articulation of neighbouring sounds in a word are inevitable4 ,three different sounds may be produced with this stoppage4 #a4 k1 when there has been no vibration of the vocal chords4 ,in precise or emphatic speech1 sufficient breath escapes after the opening of the passage to give the effect of h2 thus come1 come6 km1 km4 ,this occurs mostly before accented vowels1 sometimes finally1 give him a good shake6 giv im gud eik4#bg k is written c1 k1 ck1 cc 7as in accuse kjuwz71 ch 7as in chord kd71 q 7as in queen kwijn72 ks as ks1 cc1 x1 xc4 #b4 g1 when there has been vibration of the vocal chords4 ,sometimes g is pronounced with the tip of the tongue so that it sounds like d2 thus glory becomes dlory dlri4 ,the way in which l is produced 7see #cc7 explains this4 g is written g and gg2 rarely gh 7as in ghost goust74 ,for ks and gz written x see #cj4 #c4 1 when the velum is lowered and the breath passes out through the nose4 7,generally speaking1 this sound is voiced2 but when it is immediately followed by a voiceless sound1 it may be at first voiced1 then voiceless 2 the may be unvoiced 7see #bc1 #c7 before a voiceless stop4 ,then length is strictly le or lek47 ,notice the difference in length of in sing1 singer1 drink1 bang2 in which of these words is it short8 is written ng1 as in long l1 and n before g1 k1 or x1 as in longer lg1 lank lk1 lynx liks4 ,what does ng represent in singer8 in finger8 in ,english8 ,the dropping of g is really an incorrect term4 ,there is no g in the ending-ing i2#bh what does take place is the substitution of n for 4 ,this occurs in baby speech1 in vulgar speech1 and in the speech of some sections of society4 ,it is on no account to be tolerated4 ,the opposite mistake is made only by the uneducated1 who pronounce kitchen as kiti1 chicken as tiki1 and sudden as sdi4 ,notice the substitution of this sound by the uneducated for the unfamiliar palatal nasal in ,boulogne bul1 the uneducated bul1#bi and for the equally unfamiliar nasal vowel in the ,french word continent ktin1 the uneducated kntin4 ,for n becoming m or by assimilation1 see #di4 #bf4 ,consonants--continuants4 ,it will be seen that the articulations of these sounds are more difficult to analyse than those of the stops4 ,there is1 roughly speaking1 only one way of closing a passage entirely2 but there are various ways of closing it partially4 ,the continuants usually go in pairs1 one being voiceless1 the other voiced4 99 99 99 99 99 ,lip continuants4--,the breath passes between the two lips 7hence the term bilabials72 the tongue is in a position somewhat closer than the u position1 i4e4 bunched up at the back 7see #dc71 and we may therefore call these sounds lip-velar continuants4 ,the voiced sound w is that commonly used in standard ,english1 whether the spelling be w or wh4 ,in northern ,english and in ,scotch the voiceless is used where the ordinary spelling has wh4 ,it is very doubtful whether has a right to be regarded as a normal sound in standard ,english4 ,it is taught by professors of elocution1 and is therefore commonly heard at recitals and also at amateur theatricals4 ,on the regular stage it is by no means the rule1 and in the pulpit it is probably the exception4 ,if it comes naturally to pupils1 who bring it with them from the ,north1 they need not be interfered with2 there is certainly no good reason why it should be forced on speakers of southern ,english1 who generally produce a grossly exaggerated and quite ludicrous travesty of the northern sound4 ,which do you use yourself8 ,if 1 is it natural to you1 or acquired8 ,do the rest of your family use it8 ,any of your friends8 ,what proportion of children in your class8 ,it may be noted that after voiceless sounds sometimes takes the place of w1 even in standard ,english2 twenty is pronounced twenti or tenti and swim swim or sim4 ,sometimes also the sound is heard in where pronounced with great emphasis1 in the case of speakers who do not ordinarily use it4 ,it should be noted that these sounds are not continuants in the strict sense of the term1 for the lips are gradually brought nearer and gradually drawn apart4 ,the sounds do not continue in the same position at all2 hence they have been described as gliding1 not held4 ,the word conquer is sometimes pedantically pronounced kkw instead of kk2 but it is the rule to sound the w in conquest4 ,compare liquor lik1 exchequer ekstek4 ,a w has often influenced a following a4 ,consider the following cases3 was1 warm1 squabble1 quality1 quack1 quarrel1 quaff1 wasp1 water1 waft1 walk1 swallow4 #bg4 ,lip teeth continuants4--,the breath passes between the lower lip and the upper teeth 7also between the interstices of the upper teeth72 the sounds produced in this way are also called labiodentals4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the voiceless sound f is usually written f or ff1 also ph 7in words taken from ,greek72 note also the gh in laugh1 etc4 ,notice our reluctance to pronounce phth f1 as shown in the dropping of ph in phthisis1 and the frequent substitution of p for ph in diphtheria1 diphthong1 naphtha1 ophthalmia1 which is1 however1 avoided by careful speakers4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the voiced sound v is usually written v4 ,sounds very like f1 v can be produced with both lips4 ,though they do not ordinarily occur in ,english1 it will be good practice for you to produce them4 ,when v is final1 it is not voiced to the end1 but passes into whispered v 7symbol v71 which sounds very much like voiceless f2 in other words1 the vocal chords cease to vibrate before the breath ceases to pass between the lower lip and the upper teeth4 ,we may say3 final v is devocalised4 ,observe thief1 but thieves and to thieve2 loaf1 but loaves2 shelf1 but shelves and to shelve4 ,the ph in nephew is pronounced v1 but f is heard in dialects4 #bh4 ,point continuants4--,we have seen above 7 #bd7 that in ,english the tongue1 as a matter of fact1 rarely touches the teeth in the case of point stops4 ,similarly the narrowing of the passage which leads to the production of point continuants 7except 17 is not necessarily between the tongue and the teeth2 in some cases it is indeed a good deal farther back4 ,the point continuants include3 #a4 ,the hushing1 hissing1#cj and lisping sounds1 and the r sounds1 in which the place of articulation is along the middle line of the mouth 7medial formation72 and #b4 ,the l sounds1 the narrowing for which is between the side rim or rims of the tongue and the side teeth 7lateral formation74 ,the r sounds and the l sounds are sometimes called liquids4 #bi4 ,the hushing sounds4--,for the production of the sh sounds the passage is narrowed between the blade 7see #bc7 of the tongue and the hard palate4 ,a broad current of air is broken against the edge of the teeth4 ,there is some friction between the tongue and the gums1 but that against the front teeth is more noticeable4 ,watch a ,frenchman uttering these sounds1 and see what he does with his lips4 ,do you use your lips in the same way8 99 99 99 99 99 ,the voiceless is usually written sh2 also s after consonants 7as in tension tenn1 censure sen74 ,it is written ss1 c or t before a front vowel 7e or i71 7as in passion pn1 capricious kpris1 station stein74 ,in all these cases arose from sj4 ,observe the colloquial pronunciation of this year as i j2 six years sik jz4 ,the combination t is very common1 and is usually written ch or tch4 ,in some cases it arises from tj1 when t follows the chief accent of the word and precedes either a front vowel 7e or i7 or u#ca which goes back to ju 7as in righteous raits1 nature neit74 ,the combination k similarly goes back to ksj in anxious ks 7notice anxiety 7g7zaiti74 ,luxury is lkri1 but luxurious is lgzuris or lgzjuris1 sometimes lguris4 ,the pronunciation of associate as sousieit1#cb officiate as ofisieit1 instead of souieit1 ofiieit1 is pedantic2 propisieit is also faulty for propiieit4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the voiced standing alone between vowels is not common in ,english1 being found only where s is followed by a front vowel1 or by u which goes back to ju4 ,here the development is from sj to zj and then to 4 ,examples are vision vin1 measure me4 ,the spelling z is found only in azure or eij1 sometimes ju4 ,observe the careless pronunciation of as usual as juwul1 praise ye the ,lord as prei jij ld4 ,india rubber is generally pronounced ind rb4 ,on the other hand1 the combination d is quite common4 ,this is written j 7as in jet det71 g before e or i4 7as in gem dem1 gin din1 age eid2 observe also gaol deil71 and sometimes dg 7as in edge ed74 ,it is spelled ch in ostrich1 sandwich1 ,greenwich1 ,harwich1 ,woolwich1 and in spinach4 ,what is the value of ng in the following words3--hang1 longing1 lounging1 language1 engage1 hunger1 hinge1 ungraceful8 #cj4 ,the hissing sounds4--,distinguish clearly the voiceless s as in seal and the voiced z as in zeal4 ,compare the manner of production of the hissing and the hushing sounds3 utter and s4 7,why will these show the distinction more clearly than and z87 ,you will find that the breath is more widely diffused when you utter 2 in producing s your tongue forms a narrow channel and the breath is thus directed against a point4 ,see the diagram on p4 #abf4 ,the usual spelling of both voiceless s and voiced z is s4 ,notice that #a4 ,the s of inflections is z after a voiced sound3 compare fills filz1 glances glnsiz1 dogs dgz1 faces feisiz1 but hits hits1 cats kts4 #b4 ,the final s of some words of one syllable is z3 as1 has1 is1 his1 was2 but this1 us4 #c4 ,sometimes the verb has z1 the substantive or adjective s3 use juwz use juws diffuse difjuwz diffuse difjuws close klouz close klous lose luwz loose luws 7,notice the difference in the length of the vowel47 #d4 ,notice also that we have z s in reserve in research disease disobey dissolve dissolvent1 dissolute presumption presuppose ,find other examples 7there are many74 ,how do you pronounce disarm8 #e4 x represents ks in exercise1 excellent1 and in extra1 exceed1 express1 extol1 but gz in exert1 examine1 anxiety1 exult1 exonerate1 exorbitant1 exotic4 ,do you agree with this statement8 ,try to find a rule for the pronunciation of x4 ,in exile both pronunciations of x may be heard1 ks being perhaps the more common4 ,for the dropping of h in compounds with ex- see #dg4 ,the voiceless s is usually written s1 but also ss1 and c or sc before e and i 7as in city1 scene1 but not in sceptic skeptik74 ,say which of the sounds 1 1 t1 d1 s1 z occur in the following words3 church1 machine1 ledger1 leisure1 seizure1 cease1 ease1 scissors1 chisel1 lesion1 legion1 singe1 excessive1 example4 ,notice that final z is unvoiced towards the end2 thus is is strictly izz2 compare what was said about final v in #bg4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the term lisping is given to various mispronunciations of the s sounds4 ,it may be due to a lasting or a passing malformation of the teeth1 palate1 or tongue1#cc or it may be simply a bad habit4 ,a slight habitual lisp is often heard1 and parents and friends have been known foolishly to encourage a child in the belief that the lisp is pretty2 it is important to drive this idea out of the child's head4 ,the treatment of lispers is varied2 generally they can produce the right sound after some experimenting4 ,when the right sound has been found and distinguished by the child1 the rest is entirely a matter of perseverance4 ,there must be frequent repetition in many combinations4 ,the exercises should be practised sparingly at first1 and gradually increased1 otherwise the strain may be too great and interfere with the child's regular work4 #ca4 ,the lisping sounds4--,distinguish clearly the voiceless as in thistle1 and the voiced as in this4 ,compare the manner of production of the lisping and the hissing sounds3 utter and s4 ,you will find that in the case of the breath is not passing through a narrow channel1 and issues between the tips of the upper teeth and of the tongue4 ,the tongue may be between the teeth1 and the sounds are accordingly sometimes called interdental2 but this is by no means essential4 ,our ,english lisping sounds are usually formed between the point of the tongue and the back of the front upper teeth2 part of the tongue fills up the small gap between the teeth1 without advancing beyond their back surface4 ,which of the following words have and which have 8 thorn1 thou1 bath991 baths991 bathe991 then1 think1 clothe991 cloth991 with1 father1 thump1 lethal1 leather1 lath1 lathe1 lithe1 loath991 loathe991 breath991 breathe991 heathen1 heath1 heaths1 wreathe991 wreath991 wreaths991 seethe1 truth991 truths994 ,what do you notice with regard to the words marked with an asterisk8 ,of what does it remind you in connection with the hissing sounds8 ,notice that final is unvoiced or whispered towards the end2 compare what has been said about final v and final z4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a fault1 common especially in bad southern ,english1 and found almost invariably in baby speech1 is the substitution of v1 f for 1 4 ,the baby says fm for m1 the cockney nafik for ni1 fev for fe4 ,this fault should on no account be tolerated2 the child 7we are of course not referring to the baby7 can produce the lisping sounds without difficulty4 ,it need only be told to place the tongue between the teeth4 ,when once the difference in the manner of production of f and is known1 the child can also hear the difference2 all that is now required is perseverance4 ,in careless speech h is sometimes substituted for 1 thus ,i think so becomes ai hik sou4 ,this also has its parallel in baby speech1 e4g4 hug for sugar4 #cb4 ,the liquids4--,this designation comprises the r sounds and the l sounds4 ,the sounds written r are extremely varied1 and are likely to give some trouble to the student4 ,he should in the first place ascertain from his friends 7we are assuming that these speak standard ,english7 whether they notice anything peculiar about his r4 ,if they do not1 it is probable that he uses the untrilled r4 7,the phonetic sign for this is 1 but it is customary to use r1 unless exceptional accuracy be desired47 ,this sound is produced by allowing the breath to pass between the raised point of the tongue and the ridge of the upper gums4#cd ,when the breath makes the tip of the tongue vibrate1 we have the trilled or rolled r4 ,can you roll your r8 ,does anyone you know habitually do so8 ,have you noticed whether ,frenchmen or ,germans ever do it8 ,another kind of r is that produced at the back of the mouth1 by the help of the uvula 7see #h71 and called the throat r or uvular r 7phonetic sign3 ,r71 as distinguished from the tongue or teeth r 7lingual or dental r74 ,it is not a normal sound in standard ,english1 but is occasionally found4 ,it used to be frequent in ,durham and ,northumberland 7the ,northumbrian burr71 but is dying out there now4 ,notice that after t and d the narrowing for r is particularly small1 and therefore the friction of the breath particularly noticeable4 ,say such words as dry1 drink1 droll1 try1 trill1 trap1 and carefully observe the nature of the r4 ,notice also that after voiceless sounds the r often becomes voiceless r1 as in praise1 try1 increase4 ,sometimes tried almost sounds like chide1 because the passage of the breath is not stopped and the vocal chords have not begun to vibrate4 ,try to utter a voiceless r by itself2 practise the series r r r r r4 ,there is also a peculiar variety of r found after g1 as in great1 green1 grass4 ,this r is a kind of palatal blade continuant1 and its use should be avoided1 as it is generally held to be affected4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in standard ,english the written r is only pronounced initially 7as in red71 between a consonant and a vowel 7as in bread1 angry71 and between vowels1 the second of which is not only written1 but actually pronounced 7as in very74#ce ,it is not pronounced between a vowel and a consonant 7as in arm1 lord71 nor when it is final in the spelling or followed by a vowel which is only written and not actually pronounced 7as in bar1 bare74 ,its place is in many cases taken by the neutral vowel 7see #ch74 ,observe that a final r is pronounced when the next word begins with a vowel4 7,is there anything like this in ,french87 ,thus we say better bet1 but betr n bet2 ever ev1 but fr evr nd ev2 here hi1 but hir n 2 stir up str p1 but st fai4 ,there is1 however1 nowadays a tendency to leave even this r unpronounced4 ,the fact that such words as better have two forms1 with and without r1 has led to the addition of r when there is no justification for it4 ,even educated people are often heard to pronounce the idea of it as i aidir v it2 ,the ,india ,office sometimes becomes i indjr fis2 china ornaments becomes tainr nmnts2 and clergymen have been known to say viktjr au kwijn4 ,similarly1 in vulgar speech windr iz oupn1 ppr z gn aut1 etc41 are quite common4 ,there is an affected pronunciation of this which makes it approximate to a deep 2 the comic papers represent my dear fellow as my deah fellah to indicate the speech of a swell4 ,the substitution of w for r is a mannerism which should not be tolerated2 it is the result of a bad habit1 not of any defect of the organs of speech4 ,when a word contains the letter r twice1 careless speakers incline to drop one of them2 ,february becomes febjuri1 temporarily temprili1 library laibri1 literary litri1 supernumerary sjuwpnjuwmri1 contemporary kntempri4 ,veterinary usually becomes vetnri or vetnri4 #cc4 ,in order to produce the sound of l1 we let the breath pass out between the side rims of the tongue and the side gums and teeth2 the point of the tongue touches the roof of the mouth somewhere along the middle line4 ,utter l with the point of the tongue drawn back as far as possible2 then utter l several times1 gradually bringing the point of the tongue forward1 until it eventually touches the teeth4 ,you will notice a difference in the quality of the sound3 the sound is dark#cf when the tongue is farther back1 clear when it is forward in the mouth4 ,notice that when the tongue is drawn back1 it is bunched up behind4 ,in standard ,english the l is frequently pronounced with the tongue fairly back in the mouth2 the darkness of the l is particularly noticeable when it comes at the end of a word4#cg ,excessive withdrawal of the tongue tip is not to be encouraged in children2 they should rather practise the clear l1 though they need not go so far as actually to let the tongue touch the teeth4 ,this is1 however1 a good rule1 and if instilled in the children will do something to counteract any tendency to darkness of the l4 ,it is not likely that they will acquire the habit of actually touching the teeth when they say l2 but a sufficiently clear l can be obtained if the point of contact is at the upper gums1 and even a little farther back than that4 ,it should be noted that the l may be dark1 even when the point of the tongue touches the teeth1 if the back of the tongue is raised4 ,in cockney speech the l is sometimes lost1 through no contact taking place2 tail is pronounced tj or something similar1 with a very open 7see #dc7 in place of l1 and after consonants also the final l1 as in giggle1 is very liable to disappear4 ,this recalls the treatment of final r in standard ,english4 ,in careless speech the l also disappears in only and in all right4 ,colonel is pronounced knl2 the older spelling coronel explains this4 ,notice that when l comes next to a voiceless sound1 it may become partly or wholly voiceless l4 ,thus clear becomes kli1 halt hlt4 ,the friction becomes noticeable then2 try to utter l and observe this4 ,the voiceless sound is the familiar ,welsh ll4 ,in bubble1 riddle1 etc41 we may have syllabic l l4 ,compare what was said about syllabic m in #bb1 and about syllabic n in #bd4 ,the l is not pronounced in calf1 half1 salve1#ch balk1 caulk1 chalk1 falcon1#ci folk1 stalk1 talk1 walk1 yolk1 almond1 alms1 balm1 calm1 palm1 psalm1 qualm1 salmon1 solder1 should1 would1 could 7where it is not etymologically justified72 golf is usually glf1 but also gf#c1 and rarely gf4#dj ,it was said above that for l we let the breath pass out at both sides of the mouth2 but1 as a matter of fact1 most people let it out only on one side4 ,on which side does it pass out in your own case8 ,is the same true of your whole family8 ,ascertain which is the usual side in the case of friends4 #cd4 ,front continuants4--,watch with your mirror what the tongue does when you utter the word he4 ,you see that it rises in front4 ,raise it a little more1 until the passage becomes quite narrow2 the vowel will pass into the sound which we have at the beginning of yes jes1 and which we also have in sue sjuw1 for which see #de4 ,as a rule the friction is very slight1 and indeed hardly perceptible to the ear2 but in the slowly uttered1 deliberate yes the friction can often be heard very distinctly4 ,the sound is also noteworthy as being1 like w and 1 gliding1 not held 7see #bf1 #cb74 ,in careless speech it sometimes passes into after d2 during is pronounced duwri instead of djuwri1 the dew becomes duw1 it made you start it mei du stt4 ,soldier is regularly pronounced sould1 not souldj2 and verdure1 grandeur1 have both pronunciations1 dj being preferred by careful speakers4 ,after voiceless sounds1 as in ,tuesday1 tube1 j occasionally passes into the corresponding voiceless 1 which is the consonant sound in the ,german ich2 and sometimes it even becomes 1 compare the careless pronunciation of don't you know dountnou1 last year ls ti1 he'll meet you hijl mijtu2 ,i shall hit you is in vulgar speech i l it4 ,for this development in unstressed syllables1 see #de4 99 99 99 99 99 ,back continuants4--,when we utter the vowel sound of who the back of the tongue is raised2 if we raise it a little higher1 there is friction1 and we obtain the back continuants4 ,these do not normally belong to standard ,english4 ,the voiceless x is1 however1 not uncommon in the pronunciation of words taken from ,scotch1 ,welsh1 or ,german2 even in such words k is generally substituted4 ,the ,scotch loch is pronounced lx or lk2 the ,german ,hoch7heimer7 is always spelt and pronounced hock hk4 ,in ,scotch x occurs normally4 99 99 99 99 99 ,throat r 7uvular r74--,this sound1 which does not normally belong to standard ,english1 has been referred to in #cb4 #ce4 ,the h sounds4--,we considered the glottis 7the interval between the vocal chords7 in #f4 ,we saw that when it is quite open1 the breath passes through without producing any audible sound4 ,when1 however1 the glottis is somewhat narrowed1 the breath brushes past the vocal chords1 and an h is produced2 this we may call a voiceless glottal continuant4#da ,now there may be various kinds of glottal h4 ,the passage between the vocal chords may be more or less narrow1 and it may remain uniform or gradually grow narrower or wider4 ,the current of breath may be strong or weak2 it may be of uniform force1 or gradually grow stronger or weaker4 ,when there is a strong current of breath1 and the opening is very narrow1 we call it wheezing4 ,in standard ,english the h is a glottal continuant only when there is precise and emphatic utterance4 ,ordinarily it is produced in the mouth passage4 ,when we say ha1 the vocal chords are not drawn together until the vowel is sounded2 the mouth1 however1 gets into position for uttering the vowel a little before the time1 and the breath as it passes through produces an h sound4 ,in h then1 we practically have a voiceless followed by the ordinary voiced 2 in he1 a voiceless i followed by the ordinary i vowel2 in who1 a voiceless u followed by the ordinary u4 ,whisper these words1 and also hay and hoe2 and after each1 whisper the h only4 ,notice that the ear detects an actual difference in these h sounds4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a good deal depends on the current of breath with which the h is uttered4 ,in standard ,english the current does not keep on growing in volume until the vowel is sounded2 it distinctly diminishes before the vowel appears4 ,this may be graphically represented by the signs h4 99 99 99 99 99 ,if the current of breath does not diminish in this way1 but starts weakly and does not reach its maximum force until the vowel is reached1 the ear does not receive the impression of a distinct h4 ,this sound may be written h or simply 4 ,this 7the soft breath7 precedes initial vowels in standard ,english2 it is the sound which in cockney speech commonly represents the more distinct h2 those who use it are said to drop their h's4 ,conscious of the defect1 they often prefix a full1 even an exaggerated h to words which have no h4 ,it need hardly be said that carelessness in the use of h is not to be tolerated4 ,it is interesting to note that no h is ever dropped in the speech of ,americans1 except in the weak forms of he1 him1 her4 h occurs in standard ,english only before stressed vowels4 ,initial h before unstressed vowels is only pronounced when preceded by a pause4 ,notice that3 #a4 ,written h is not pronounced in heir1 honest1 honour1 hour1 and words derived from these4 ,it is now pronounced in standard ,english in herb1 hospital1 humble1 humour 7a fair number of educated speakers still pronounce this word without h74 #b4 ,it is regarded as correct to say a history1 but an historical novel2 a habit1 but an habitual action2 many1 however1 pronounce the h in both cases4 #c4 ,certain words drop the h when they occur in an unstressed position in the sentence2 this is a regular feature of standard colloquial speech1 and does not convey the slightest suggestion of vulgarity4 ,it must be recognised that such words have two forms1 weak and strong1 according as they are used without or with emphasis4 ,compare the following sentences3 ,tom has been there4 ,has he though8 tm z bijn 7bin7 e4 hz i ou8 ,i gave her a book4 ,what1 to her8 ai geiv r buk4 wt1 tu h8 ,find as many words having strong and weak forms as you can by observing the ordinary speech of those around you4 ,then compare the list given in #dg4 ,for the dropping of h in the second part of compound words1 see #dg4 #cf4 ,,vowels ,we have considered the sounds produced when the passage through which the breath passes is closed 7stops7 or narrowed 7continuants72 we now have to consider the sounds produced when the passage is wide enough for the breath to pass through without audibly brushing against the sides4 ,these sounds are the vowels4 ,voice1 produced by the vibration of the vocal chords1 may be said to give body to the vowel2 the shape of the passage through which the breath passes determines the features that distinguish one vowel from another1 i4e4 its quality4 ,the shape of this passage is capable of almost infinite variation1 which leads to a corresponding variety of resonances1 and these determine the quality of the vowels4 ,picture to yourself the inside of the mouth1 and consider how the cavity may become larger or smaller1 according as you separate or draw together the jaws2 see what a difference it makes if you raise the tongue at the back1 or in the middle1 or in the front2 bear in mind that the position of the lips may also modify the sound1 as you will notice if1 for instance1 you utter u as in who1 first with the lips forming a long narrow slit1 and again with the lips forming a very small circle 7of the same size as the end of a lead pencil74 #cg4 ,of the well-defined vowels that which is articulated with least effort is 4#db ,it is the earliest vowel sound uttered by the baby1 before it has acquired control over the muscles of the tongue4 ,it is also common as an interjection4 ,utter it1 and watch the tongue with your mirror2 you will see that the middle of the tongue ridge is slightly raised4 ,the opening of the mouth is generally larger than in the case of the other vowels4 ,see the diagram on p4 #abe4 ,utter the standard ,english sound of a in hat1 for which the sign is 4 ,say several times and watch the tongue as you do so2 you will see that it moves forward and is a little higher in front and lower at back for 4 ,the opening of the mouth is often quite as large for as for 4 ,now try to produce the sound which lies between the two1 with the tongue occupying an intermediate position2 you will obtain the sound a1 which is the northern ,english vowel in hat1 and the vowel in the ,french word chat2 in standard ,english it occurs only as the first part of the diphthongs in bite bait and bout baut4#dc ,this a is sometimes called the clear a sound4 ,see the diagram on p4 #abc4 ,next1 draw the tongue a little back1 and you will obtain a variety of which is dark and has a suggestion of the vowel in all l4 ,this sound is commonly substituted for the pure or neutral in cockney speech1 so that fast is made to sound like fst1 park like pk4 ,this darkening of the a sound should not be permitted2 in order to counteract it1 it may be advisable to make the class utter singly and in chorus1 until they are quite clear as to the nature of the required sound4 ,it is sometimes found that precise speakers1 through an excessive desire to avoid any suspicion of cockney leanings in their speech1 substitute a for 1 saying1 for instance1 fa in place of f2 it is particularly ladies of real or would-be refinement who commit this mistake4 ,a mistake it is1 like every other deviation from what is generally recognised by the educated4 ,in other cases the clear pronunciation of a is often heard1 e4g41 in glass1 bath1 past1 answer1 demand1 grant1 everlasting4 ,both a and occur1 particularly in the speech of ladies4 ,what is the ,american pronunciation of half8 ,in standard ,english there is practically no short 1#dd but only the long 1 which should be neither dark nor clear4 ,if we analyse it carefully1 we often find#de that it is not a single vowel of uniform value1 only the first part being pure 1 the rest being a faint variant2 but for practical purposes we may regard it as uniform in quality1 as in good speech it is a pure long vowel4 #ch4 ,there is a short sound closely akin to it 7in position1 but not in sound71 which we have in but1 much1 etc41 and for which the sign is 4 ,the back of the tongue is raised a little in the production of this sound1 and sometimes the front also2 and in consequence there are several varieties of it4 ,it occurs only in syllables having some stress2 we have in teacup1 unfit1 until2 but not in welcome1 which is not felt to be a compound4 ,when it is unstressed1 it becomes the dull vowel 2 unstressed but is bt4 ,observe the vulgar pronunciation of just as dest4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the dull vowel occurs very commonly in ordinary speech2 most unstressed syllables contain this vowel or the variety of i mentioned below4 ,it is found1 for instance1 in the italicised syllables of vowel1 variety1 carpenter1 ordinary4 ,the long is variously written2 we have it in fern1 fir1#df fur1 word4 7,in northern ,english there is some variety in the 1 according to the written vowel which it represents47 ,notice the precise and the ordinary pronunciation of such words as paternal1 polite1 potato4 ,the uneducated often insert in such words as ,henry henri1 umbrella mbrel2 and sometimes they substitute i for 1 as in miracle1 wrongly pronounced mirikl1 philosopher1 wrongly pronounced filsif1 and in oracle1 pigeon4 ,the letters e1 i1 and y in unstressed syllables represent a very laxly articulated sound1 for which the sign i is used in this book4 ,it varies somewhat in different speakers2 several sounds intermediate between the open and the middle e may be heard4 ,this serves to explain the uncertainty of spelling in such cases as ensure and insure1 enquire and inquire4 ,sometimes the vowel disappears altogether1 as in business1 medicine1 venison4 ,the letter o in unstressed syllables preceding the chief stress is usually 1 but in precise speech an o-sound is heard in such words as conceive1 official1 possess4 ,after the chief stress is rarely heard2 but epoch ijpk and other uncommon words keep the 4 #ci4 ,the front vowels4--,utter the word he and notice what the tongue does4 ,you can do so by looking into your mirror1 or by putting a finger just inside your front upper teeth1 or by whispering the sound1 and feeling what happens4 ,you will generally find that you can analyse vowels best if you whisper them1 because the voice does not interfere with your appreciation of the mouth resonances4 ,by this time your muscular consciousness 7see #i7 should be considerably developed1 and you should be conscious of what your tongue1 lips1 etc41 are doing1 without having recourse to a mirror4 ,you will find that you are raising your tongue very high in front3 and i are extremes2 in the one case the front of the tongue is practically as low as it can be1 in the other it is raised as high as possible4 ,you might raise the tongue farther1 but the resulting sound would not be a vowel4 ,the passage would be too narrow1 there would be friction1 and a continuant would be the result 7see #cd74 ,utter a pure and gradually raise the front of the tongue until you reach i4 ,you may either keep your vocal chords vibrating all the time1 or you may whisper the sounds2 but see that the tongue moves slowly and steadily4 ,you will realise that very many sounds lie between and i2 as they are all produced with the raising of the front of the tongue1 they are called front vowels4 ,we have already noticed clear a1 and have met with 1 which is the vowel sound in hat ht4 ,when unstressed the gives place to 2 that t becomes t4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the uneducated sometimes substitute a closer sound 7the middle e7 for 2 they say keb for cab1 ket for catch1 eks for thanks1 bek for bank4 ,the same mistake may also be heard in the pronunciation of carriage1 radish1 ,january4 ,in any1 many the first vowel is always e4 ,what is it in manifold8 ,the sound is only found short4 ,there is a kindred long sound 1 as in fair1 for which the tongue is rather higher4 ,it is often called the open 1 being a still more open sound4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a difference in the formation of and must be noticed2 it is not confined to this pair of vowels4 ,in uttering a vowel sound we may adjust the articulations so favourably that the resulting sound is clear and decided2 this may be called tense articulation1 producing tense vowels4 ,if we do not trouble to adjust the articulations carefully1 if we have lax articulation1 we obtain lax vowels4 ,in standard ,english we do not articulate tensely1 except in precise and emphatic speech4 7,notice how tensely the ,french and the ,germans articulate their accented long vowels47 ,in teaching children the terms tight and loose may be used4 ,the articulation of is relatively tense1 that of is lax4 ,for see the diagram on p4 #abc4 ,notice that is always followed by a more or less distinct 2 there is 1 ,mary is m77ri4 ,consider the value of -ear- in bear and bearing4 ,there is a vulgar pronunciation of ,i dare say as ai desei1 instead of ai d sei4 #dj4 ,the diphthongs in bite and bout are pronounced by the uneducated in many ways not permissible in standard ,english4 ,the first element should be clear a4 ,a pure would not be offensive here1 though it is much less common2#dg but any pushing forward of the tongue beyond the a limit1 any substitution of for a1 is not to be tolerated4 ,the nasalising of these diphthongs adds to the unpleasant effect4 ,probably the best means of counteracting these tendencies is to insist on i and u2 if the pure has been practised1 as was suggested above1 it will form a stepping-stone to the acquisition of good diphthongs4 ,notice how a ,german pronounces these diphthongs2 you will find that he dwells much longer on the first element than we do1 and that it is more open4 ,the ending -ile in agile1 docile1 fertile1 futile1 hostile1 puerile is pronounced ail1 and not il as used to be the case4 #da4 ,the next sounds in the series1 obtained by raising the tongue a little higher than for 1 are middle e and close e4 ,the vowel in pen1 get1 fell is usually the middle e2 some speakers 7perhaps mostly ladies7 use the close e here1 but the very close e1 heard in ,french t1 is not found in standard ,english4 ,for ordinary purposes the sign e may serve to designate both e and e1 as they are so closely connected4 ,when unstressed1 the e gives place to 2 thus unstressed them is m4 ,notice that 'em really goes back to the old form hem4 ,for e see the diagram on p4 #abb4 ,observe the colloquial tendency to pronounce get as git4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a fairly close e is in standard ,english the first element of the diphthong in laid1 tame1 late1 etc4 ,there is not one uniform vowel sound in these words2 pronounce aid quite slowly1 and you will notice that the tongue rises before the consonant is reached4 ,the diphthong is long when a voiced sound follows it1 short before a voiceless sound4 ,thus laid leid is longer than late leit4 ,test this statement by finding other words containing the diphthong1 and pronouncing them to yourself or getting others to pronounce them4 ,what is the quantity of the ei when the diphthong is final8 99 99 99 99 99 ,in vulgar speech the first element of the diphthong tends to 1 sometimes almost to 4 ,listen to a foreigner's pronunciation of ,english words containing this diphthong2 what do you notice8 ,the vowel in says and said is short sez1 sed1 as also in ate et4 ,the pronunciation of -ain as ein in such words as fountain1 captain1 bargain1 is a pedantic affectation4 ,how do you pronounce villain1 curtain8 #db4 ,two front vowels remain to be considered1 the i sounds4 ,say bid and bead4 ,you recognise that one is longer than the other2 are they otherwise the same8 ,say bid and repeat it with the same vowel drawn out2 then say bead1 and repeat it with the vowel shortened4 ,if you are careful in each case to change only the length1 and not the quality of the vowel1 you will perceive that the vowels in bid and in bead are different4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the vowel in bid is laxly articulated and is known as the open 4 ,in unstressed syllables 7see #ch7 it is often very open indeed1 and when it is final1 as in very1 the tongue is raised very little higher than for close or even middle e4 ,the sign for this sound is e or 4 7,here means more close1 more open47 ,can you hear any difference between the two vowels of lily8 ,the great phonetician ,ellis remarked that the pronunciation of the i in six is the touchstone of foreigners1 especially of those belonging to the ,romance nations2 they usually articulate it too tensely4 ,ask a ,frenchman to say fini1 and compare his sounds with those in finny4 ,notice the frequent cockney pronunciation of -y as ei1 e4g41 in windy windei4 ,often is substituted for this sound1 as in unity1 ability1 pronounced juwnti1 bilti1 also in ,april1 visible2 but this is avoided by some speakers4 ,the i in the diphthongs ai and i1 as in buy1 boy1 is very low4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in bead we have not a single vowel1 but a kind of diphthong4 ,if you utter it slowly1 you will find that the tongue does not remain in a uniform position1 but rises a little towards the end1 the sound becoming closer4 ,it may begin close1 in which case the further rising reduces the passage so much that we have j2 bead in this case is bijd4 ,or the vowel may begin fairly open and rise to the close position2 then bead is bid4#dh ,when the diphthong is followed by a voiceless sound1 it is shortened2 beat bijt bit is shorter than bead4 ,compare also seed1 seat1 sit2 feed1 feet1 fit4 ,careful speakers pronounce been like bean1 not like bin2 most speakers1 however1 use the shortened form in ordinary speech4 ,for i see the diagram on p4 #abb4 ,in dear1 fear1 etc41 we have a rather open vowel1 of varying length1 followed by 2 we may write di1 but strictly it is d1 d,i and sometimes d,i4 ,before r1 as in dearest1 the becomes faint or disappears4 ,standard ,english contains no i as close as the ,french i and the ,german i4 ,convince yourself of this by asking foreigners to pronounce words containing these sounds1 in their own language or in ,english4 ,notice the frequent pronunciation of ear1 year1 as j1 and that of dear as dj4 99 99 99 99 99 ,we are now able to give the whole series of vowels from i to occurring in standard ,english4 close i 7diagram1 p4 #abb7 open close e 7diagram1 p4 #abb7 middle e open 7diagram1 p4 #abc7 more open clear a 7diagram1 p4 #abc7 7diagram1 p4 #abe7 ,it will be good practice for you to utter this series of sounds1 from to i and vice versa1 and long as well as short4 ,the raising of the tongue for the i sounds is best seen if the upper and lower teeth are kept well apart4 #dc4 ,the back vowels4--,when the front vowels have been carefully differentiated1 the back vowels will be found to present little difficulty4 ,owing to the fact that the back of the tongue does not admit of so much variety of movement as the front of the tongue1 the number of sounds in the series to u is smaller than in the series to i4 ,you will see that there is some resemblance between the sounds of the two series4 ,thus we had a lax and a tense in the front vowels2 and there are corresponding open o sounds when the tongue is raised a little at the back4 ,the articulation of these sounds is often unsatisfactory owing to the lower jaw not being moved down sufficiently1 the teeth being hardly separated4 ,the back vowels gain in quality 7cp4 #cf7 if they are produced with lip rounding4 ,the opening is large in the case of the sounds in which the tongue is only slightly raised2 as it rises higher1 the opening of the lips grows smaller1 until for u it is only the size of the end of an ordinary lead pencil4 ,this lip rounding is rare with southern ,english speakers who have not had special voice training2 they usually bring together or separate the lips without rounding4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the short vowel sound in not1 what1 etc41 is a laxly articulated1 open 1 much more open than any o in ,french or ,german1 with the front of the tongue even lower than for 4 ,it is lengthened a little before a voiced final consonant1 as in dog dg2 but it should never be made quite long4 ,the pronunciation gd for ,god is detestable4 ,before ss s1 st st1 sp sp1 th 1 and f1 ff1 or ph f1 the long sound is occasionally heard4 ,determine whether in the following words you use the long or the short sound3 loss1 ost1 froth1 cross1 cough1 soft1 coffee1 off1 officer1 cloth1 moss1 gospel4 ,extend the inquiry to your friends4 ,when the short is in an unstressed syllable it either disappears entirely 7as in lesson1 where the n is syllabic1 see #bd71 or it may become 1 as in minor main1 or it may become the sound 1 which will be explained in #dd4 ,thus ,october is ktoub or ktoub2 connect is knekt only in precise speech1 but usually knekt or knekt4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the long in law1 laud1 lord is rather tensely articulated1 certainly not so laxly as the short 4#di ,before voiceless sounds the vowel is somewhat shortened1 as in short 7compare shawl and shot74 ,it is in standard ,english the only sound of stressed or 7or oar7 before a consonant2#ej there is no difference in sound between laud and lord1 fought and fort1 stalk and stork1 cawed and cord4 ,it is true that some speakers try to make a distinction4 ,the long is not a simple long vowel1 but really a diphthong of which the second element is #ea2 and in words containing a written r1 these precise speakers somewhat lengthen the element4 ,thus they will say ld for laud1 and ld for lord4 ,it may be added that they generally do so only if the distinction has been spoken about1 and they have expressed their firm belief in its existence2 then1 for a while1 the may be heard4 ,a simple test1 which the student should apply to his friends1 is that of asking them to write down the word he utters4 ,if he says ft1 meaning fought1 most people will write down fort1 because the sound gives them no guidance1 and the substantive is likely to occur to them first4 ,similarly1 if he says ld1 meaning laud1 they will write down lord4#eb ,the word lore1 which hardly occurs in ordinary speech1 is often pronounced l in order to distinguish it from law1 the sound being much more distinct than in law1 more1 bore1 etc4 ,consider the value of -ore- in more water1 and in more ink4 99 99 99 99 99 ,there is much variation in the pronunciation of the words daunt1 flaunt1 gaunt1 gauntlet1 haunch1 haunt1 jaundice1 jaunt1 launch1 laundry1 paunch1 saunter1 staunch1 taunt1 vaunt4 ,the general tendency seems to be in favour of 1 not 4 99 99 99 99 99 ,when unstressed1 the sound is often shortened to or #ec2 thus autumnal becomes tmnl or tmnl2 or when stressed is 1 unstressed or or 4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a variety of the open 1 not equally open in all speakers of standard ,english1 is the first element in the diphthong found in boy bi4 ,the pronunciation bi#ec is also heard4 ,in vulgar speech i sometimes becomes i2 thus boil is pronounced bil4 ,only in choir 7also written quire7 is this pronunciation current in good speech4 #dd4 ,utter the sound usually called long o and found in bode1 boat1 etc12 you will observe that the sound is not uniform1 as the tongue rises a little before the consonant is reached4#ed ,indeed the action of the tongue is quite similar to what we noticed in the case of ei in #da2 and also to ij or ,ii in #db1 where1 however1 it is less obvious to the ear4 ,the diphthongal character of the long o is so essential1 that when a stranger merely says ono for oh no6 we at once recognise that he is not ,english4 ,the first element of this diphthong is a middle o1 sometimes a fairly close o2 in standard ,english the o is never so close as in ,french o or in ,german 4#ee 7,watch foreigners when they utter these sounds2 notice how tensely they articulate1 and how much more they round their lips than we do47 ,in cockney speech the first element is pronounced with the tongue lower and raised in front4--,the second is a u sound2 place a finger against the interval between the upper and lower teeth1 and notice how they are brought a little closer towards the end of the diphthong4 ,observe also the action of the lips4 ,the diphthong is longer before voiced than before voiceless continuants2 verify this statement by saying1 or getting others to say1 bode and boat1 goad and goat1 robe and rope1 brogue and broke4 ,in syllables that are weakly stressed1 the first part of the diphthong becomes o1 #ef or even 1 the second part disappearing altogether4 ,thus fellow is in precise speech felou1 but in ordinary speech felo1 fel1 and in careless 7but not necessarily vulgar7 speech fel4#eg ,in ladies' speech the occurs even in stressed syllables1 and may then be confidently described as a sign of affectation4 ,the prefix pro-1 when stressed1 is generally pronounced prou4 ,in process and progress pr is sometimes heard2 in the substantives project and produce it is the rule4 #de4 ,the u sounds are clearly parallel to the i sounds4 ,in both cases we have a laxly articulated short sound1 and a diphthong in which the tongue rises towards the end4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the short sound in would1 book1 etc41 is open1 and the sign for it is 4 ,do you notice any difference in the length of the vowel sound in the words should and put1 pull and cook8 ,observe others1 if you are uncertain in your own case4 7,you will sometimes find it hard to determine what is your natural1 instinctive way of pronouncing a word1 when once you have grown accustomed to watching your own speech47 ,when this is unstressed it becomes #eh or 1 or is dropped altogether4 ,thus helpful becomes helpfl1 helpfl1 and should becomes d1 d1 d1 t4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the vowel sound in who is not uniform4 7,see what was said about the corresponding i sound in #db74 ,it may begin as close u#ei1 in which case the further rising towards the end reduces the passage so much that we have w2 who in this case is huw4 ,or the vowel may begin fairly open and rise to the close position2 then who is h,uu4 ,when the diphthong is followed by a voiceless sound1 it is somewhat shortened2 hoot is huwt or hut2 compare root with rude4 ,a half-long vowel is now generally heard in room2 some speakers make it quite short4 ,in unstressed syllables the first element is shortened and often becomes 2 thus ,july is dwlai4 ,before the diphthong loses its second element2 cruel is krul4 ,when the represents a written r1 the first element often changes to a vowel with lower tongue position4 ,thus poor is pronounced p1 po1 and some educated speakers of southern ,english even say p1 riming with door1 floor2 but this can hardly be considered standard ,english4 ,notice also the various pronunciations of your1 sure4 ,before spoken r1 as in poorest1 enduring1 the becomes very faint or disappears4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the so-called long u in such words as due1 dew1 dude consists of three parts4 ,the second and third are the vowel sounds in do1 which have just been discussed2 the first is j1 which after voiceless sounds tends to become the voiceless and even 1 as was mentioned in #cd4 ,thus tune is in ordinary speech tjuwn1 and often tuwn2 in careless speech it may even become tuwn4 ,the -ture in nature1 creature1 forfeiture1 etc41 is generally pronounced t#fj2 the pronunciation tj or tj sounds affected in ordinary speech4 ,venture is usually vent1 sometimes ven1 ventj1 or ventj4 ,censure is always sen4 ,in allude1 99allusion1 lute1 lucent1 luminous1 99flute1 salute199absolute1 99absolution1 dissolute1 99dissolution1 99superstition1 99,susan both uw and juw may be heard2 uw is probably more common in the words marked with an asterisk4 ,precise speakers prefer juw in all the words given4 ,in assume1 presume juw is regularly heard4 ,as a rule j is not inserted after r1 1 1 or consonant plus l4 ,notice the pronunciation of casual kul or kwl1 sensual senul1 usual juwul or juwl1 visual vizjul4 ,educate is edjukeit or edukeit2 careful speakers prefer the former4 ,as the long u begins with a consonantal sound it is correct to say a uniform1 a university1 a union1 a ,european1 a eulogy4 ,to write an before such words is a gross mistake4 ,we find the u element changed in unstressed syllables2 thus value becomes vlj1 regular becomes regjl1 regjl1 and1 very colloquially1 regl4 99 99 99 99 99 ,we are now able to give the whole series of vowels from u to occurring in standard ,english3 close u 7diagram1 p4 #abd7 _/ open _/ close o 7diagram1 p4 #abd7 _/ middle o _/ open 7diagram1 p4 #abe7 _/ dark ,practise this series1 as was suggested in #db1 in connection with the i to series4 ,,footnotes3 #ad ,for the sake of convenience the nasal sounds1 in producing which the breath does not also pass out through the mouth1 i4e4 which are not nasal vowels 7see #h71 are included under stops4 #ae ,sounds in phonetic transcript are enclosed in square brackets4 #af ,also called labial4 #ag ,also called dental4 #ah ,also called palatal4 #ai ,also called velar 7from velum1 for which see #h7 and more usually1 but less accurately1 guttural4 #bj ,an oral stop followed by h is called an aspirate4 ,aspirates are common in ,german1 but practically unknown in standard ,french4 #ba ,examples in the conventional spelling are printed in italics4 #bb i4e4 at the end of a word1 before a pause4 #bc ,when the aspiration is strongly marked1 it forms a characteristic of the speech of the lower middle class in ,london and some home counties4 #bd ,the point stops are also called teeth or dental stops4 #be ,on the other hand1 in ,somerset clean1 clod are sometimes pronounced with tl-4 #bf ,see footnote #h on page #bi4 #bg ,see footnote #h on page #bi4 #bh ,in standard ,english2 in certain dialects the ending-ing is always pronounced ig4 #bi ,the educated commonly say buloun2 bulin is also heard4 #cj ,the hushing and hissing sounds are also called sibilants4 #ca ,see also #de4 #cb ,some speakers say souieit but sousiein1 innieit but innsiein4 #cc ,in a great many cases lisping is due to an over-long tongue2 or the tongue may be tied1 in which case the ligature is easily cut4 #cd ,the back of the tongue may also be raised to some extent2 how does this explain the substitution of w for r which is sometimes heard8 #ce ,the rule may also be stated thus3 r is only heard when a vowel follows in the same or the next word4 ,vowel must here be taken to include j4 #cf ,the term dark here implies a deep and obscure resonance1 with little friction4 #cg ,contrast the l of will and willing 7where its position between front vowels leads to forward formation74 #ch ,some pronounce this word slv4 #ci ,some pronounce this word flkn4 #dj ,these are modifications of the ,scotch form of the word4 #da h is described as voiceless2 but it may also be produced with voice4 ,we have seen that the vocal chords consist of a fleshy and a cartilaginous part3 it is possible to let the former vibrate1 while the latter is left open1 and the breath passing through produces h4 ,try to utter this sound4 #db ,the neutral vowel 1 for which see #ch1 requires less effort4 #dc ,notice the faulty tendency to raise the tongue too high in uttering the first part of this diphthong2 see #dj4 #dd ,however1 there is a pronunciation of are1 intermediate between the emphatic and the unstressed 1 which may be described as short 4 ,the a in the unstressed prefix trans-1 and the second a of advantageous also have the sound of sometimes4 #de ,especially when it is final4 #df ,many cultivated people pronounce girl as gl2 but gl is to be preferred4 ,clerk1 sergeant have 1 not 2 also ,derby1 ,berkshire1 ,hertfordshire4 #dg ,it is heard on the stage and in public speaking generally2 in ordinary conversation it suggests the speech of a foreigner1 especially if the element of the diphthong is lengthened4 #dh ,the first part is still more open in a common vulgar pronunciation of tea1 please4 #di ,for see the diagram on p4 #abe4 #ej ,exceptions are borrow1 etc41 work1 attorney1 etc4 #ea ,to pronounce this distinctly in such words as law1 saw is a mistake4 #eb ,it is absurd to speak of fort and caught1 morn and dawn as cockney rimes2 they are perfectly good rimes in standard ,english2 and a southern ,englishman only shows ignorance by speaking of them as bad4 ,considering1 however1 that standard ,english is by no means universal1 the would-be poet is advised to avoid these rimes4 #ec ,for see the note on p4 #fh4 #ed ,in the case of this diphthong as well as in that in name1 pail1 etc4 7see #da71 untrained singers usually betray themselves by passing too soon to the second part of the diphthong4 #ee ,for o see the diagram on p4 #abd4 #ef is o pronounced with the whole body of the tongue more forward than usual4 ,to the ear it gives an effect like that of ,french eu or ,german 2 but for these sounds the lips are rounded4 #eg ,the pronunciations wind1 pil for window1 pillow are1 however1 avoided by educated speakers4 #eh is u pronounced with the whole body of the tongue more forward than usual4 ,to the ear it gives an effect like that of ,french u or ,german 2 but for these sounds the lips are rounded4 #ei ,for u see the diagram on p4 #abd4 #fj ,see also #bi4 ,,the ,,sounds ,,in ,,connected ,,speech #df4 ,let us take a familiar nursery rime as an example of simple conversational ,english2 it will serve to give us some idea of the problems which have to be considered when we deal with the sounds of connected speech4 ,this is the rime3 si s v sikspns pkit ful v rai fr n tenti blkbdzz beikt in pai wen pai wz opnd bdzz bign t si wzn7t7 t deinti di t set bif ki4 #dg4 ,pedantically precise speech is as much out of place in the nursery as vulgar speech2 therefore we do not say1 si e s v sikspens4 ,notice that the following words have strong and weak forms1 a weak form being regularly used when they are not stressed3-- weak strong a1 an 1 n ei1 n the 7before consonants7 ij i 7before vowels7 has hz1#fa z1 z hz have hv1#fa v1 v hv had hd1#fa d1 d hd is iz1 z1 s iz are 7r71 7r7 1 r was wz wz were w7r7 w7r71 w7r7 can kn1 kn kn shall l1 l1 l l will l1 l wil could kd kud should d1 d1 t1 d ud would wd1 d1 d wud he hi1#fb i hij she i ij her h7r71#fb 7r7 h7r7 him m him his z hiz we wi wij us s s you ju1 j juw them m1 7m7 em your j7r71 j7r71 j7r7 ju7r7 of v v from frm1 frm frm to t 7before consonants7 tu and nd1 nd1 n1 n nd or 7r71 7r7 7r7 ,the use of strong forms for weak ones in ordinary conversation is undoubtedly a fault1 and should be avoided2 much of the unnatural reading aloud in our schools is due to this cause4 ,foreigners who have lived long in ,england often fail in this respect when they have overcome almost all other difficulties4 ,it is also not uncommon in the speech of colonials4 99 99 99 99 99 ,notice pens1 but sikspns4 ,a word which forms the second part of a compound often changes in pronunciation1 a weaker form being substituted4 ,compare penny and halfpenny1 board and cupboard1 come and welcome1 day and yesterday1 ways and always1 fast and breakfast1 mouth and ,portsmouth1 land and ,england1 ford and ,oxford4 ,the first letter of the second part is sometimes dropped2 thus the w in housewife 7case for needles1 etc47 hzif1 ,greenwich1 ,harwich1 ,woolwich1 ,norwich1 ,keswick1 ,warwick is no longer pronounced1 nor the h in shepherd1 forehead1 ,clapham1 ,sydenham1 and in many words beginning with ex-1 e4g41 exhale1#fc exhaust1 exhibit1 exhilarate1 exhort4 ,the dropping of h in neighbourhood is vulgar4 ,sometimes there is a change in the first part of a compound word4 ,compare half and halfpenny1 three and threepence1 fore and forehead1 break and breakfast4 ,the stress of compounds like sixpence is discussed below 7blackbirds74 #dh4 ,in pocket the second vowel is not middle e1 but a very laxly articulated variety of 1 with the tongue only a little higher than for close e2 see #ch4 ,in the speech of elocutionists the middle e often appears here4 ,they tell of the gaden v ijden1 just as they succeed in pronouncing devl instead of devl1 thus avoiding all offence2 for devl is said by common people1 but devl only by the polite4 99 99 99 99 99 ,notice that in four-and-twenty the r is pronounced1 as it comes between vowels2 but it is mute in before the ,king1 where it comes before a consonant1 as in the word forth4 ,see #cb4 #di4 ,in and the d is dropped4 ,here it might be a case of assimilation2 that is to say the t which immediately follows1 and which is closely akin to it1 might have changed it to t1 and the two would have fallen together4 ,in sit down1 do you utter both t and d8 ,if you speak naturally1 you probably say sidaun or sitaun4 ,what is your pronunciation of hold tight1 less zeal8 ,in cupboard none but the absurdly precise pronounce the p4 99 99 99 99 99 ,assimilation of consonants is common in ,english1 and the more colloquial the speech is1 the more assimilation you are likely to find4 ,assimilation reduces the number of movements which have to be made1 and thus represents a saving of trouble2 and in colloquial speech we incline to take as little trouble as possible4 ,the general rule is1 that when two sounds come together1 those movements of articulation which are common to both are executed once only4 ,thus in don't1#fd the stopping of the passage for n also does duty for t2 it is the opening of the passage which constitutes the t4 ,in stamp the closure for m also does duty for p4 ,in witness the closure for t remains for n1 which merely requires the opening of the nose-passage and vibration of the vocal chords4 ,utter the word clean1 and observe whether you produce the k in the same way as in keen2 probably you will find that for the k of clean you open the closure only at the sides1 leaving the centre of the tongue in contact1 ready for the production of l4 ,see whether anything similar happens when you say the word atlas4 ,sometimes a voiced sound makes a neighbouring sound voiced1 or a voiceless sound makes a neighbouring sound voiceless4 ,examples in the nursery rime are bdzz and beikt2 find similar examples of the s of the plural#fe and the ed of the past participle1 and determine in each case whether the final sound is voiced or voiceless4 ,try to find pairs like lagged and lacked1 bids and bits4 ,utter the words apt1 act1 and notice carefully when you make the closure for t2 probably it is earlier than you would have thought4 ,do you make the n closure in open before or after the p opening8 ,in compound words1 and in neighbouring words which belong closely together1 assimilation is common4 ,when one word ends in a voiceless sound and the other begins with a voiced sound1 or vice versa1 it is usually the second which prevails4 ,observe cupboard kbd1 raspberry rzbri1 blackguard blgd1 bedtime betaim1 hold tight houltait4 ,consider the pronunciation of observe1 obstacle1 gooseberry1 absolve1 absolute4 ,in careless speech hu is heard for hsu1 ldbru grouv does duty for ,ladbroke ,grove1 and hsijn for has seen4 ,is she is regularly pronounced i i1 or ii in quick conversation4 ,the nasals frequently change to suit the place of articulation of the following sound1 as in congress kres1 congregation krigein1 anchor1 concave1 conclusion1 concourse1 concrete1 syncope1 tranquil1 unctuous1 pincushion pikun1 infamous imfms1 ,holland ,park hlmpk2 or of the preceding sound1 as in second single seksigl1 captain kpm1 open the door oupm d1 cup and saucer kpmss4 ,the examples from pincushion onwards occur only in distinctly careless speech4 ,the change of s to z in house1 houses haus1 hauziz1 shows a different kind of assimilation4 #ej4 ,the dropping of d in four-and-twenty might also be due to the desire to simplify a group of consonants2 and this will seem the more likely explanation if we notice that the d of and is generally dropped before a consonant1 but kept before a vowel4 ,compare you and ,ida1 bread and butter2 if you drop the d in the first instance1 or utter it in the second1 you are equally wrong4 ,such simplifying is fairly common in educated speech2 most people drop the t in often1 and the p in empty 7where it has no etymological justification71 and jumped2 in colloquial speech don't know is dnou4 ,in quite careless speech you may notice consonants dropped in such words as acts1 insects1 but this is clearly a licence which cannot be permitted in the class-room4 ,indeed these groups of consonants should be articulated with great care4 ,nothing so quickly gives an effect of slovenly speech as the slurring of consonants1 where it is not generally adopted4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in ordinary speech numerous instances occur of this tendency to simplify groups of consonants1 d and t being the sounds most frequently dropped4 d is not pronounced in handkerchief hktif1 handsome hnsm1 ,windsor winz1 ,guildford gilfd1 ,ingoldsby iglzbi1 ,wednesday wenzdi4#ff ,the d in friends1 grandfather is also often dropped2 and1 in very careless speech1 the d of such words as old1 cold1 child1 thousand1 kindness1 landlord4 t is not pronounced in christen krisn1 glisten glisn1 hasten heisn1 listen lisn1 moisten misn1 apostle psl1 bustle bsl1 castle ksl1 epistle ipisl1 gristle grisl1 hustle hsl1 ostler sl1 pestle pesl1 rustle rsl1 thistle isl1 trestle tresl1 whistle wisl1 wrestle resl1 99,westbourne wesbn1 99,westminster wesminst1 ,christmas krisms1 chestnut tesnt1 coastguard kousgd1 often fn1 soften sfn1 mortgage mgid1 99directly direkli1 99exactly igzkli1 postpone pouspoun1 waistcoat weiskt1 weskt1 bankruptcy bkrpsi4 ,in very careless speech the t of such words as slept1 swept1 wept is dropped2 also in acts1 facts1 insects1 sects4 ,notice the ,french rosbif1 bifteck4 th is not pronounced in asthma sm1 isthmus isms and 7carelessly7 in depths4 p is not pronounced in empty emti1 jumped dmt1 tempt temt1 attempt temt1 contempt kntemt1 peremptory premtri1 symptom simtm1#fg sapphire sfai1 ,sappho sfou4 c is not pronounced in corpuscle kpsl1 muscle msl1 victuals vitlz1 indict indait4#fh ,so many educated speakers say st for asked1 that this pronunciation must be regarded as no longer incorrect4 ,what is the usual pronunciation of next station8 ,in careful speech the simplifications marked with an asterisk are avoided1 as also such pronunciations as ail dssij for ,i'll just see1 difikl kwestnz for difficult questions4 ,the omission of k in the pronunciation of arctic and antarctic and of g in recognise is generally regarded as faulty4 99 99 99 99 99 ,unfamiliar groups of consonants at the beginning of words are simplified by dropping the first sound2 notice the simplification of bd in bdellium2 chth in chthonian2 gn in gnaw1 gneiss1 gnome1 gnostic2 gz 7x7 in ,xerxes zksijz1 ,xenophon2 kn in knee1 knit1 know1 etc42 mn in mnemonic2 phth in phthisis aisis1 also taisis2 pn in pneumatic1 pneumonia2 ps in psalm1 pseudo-1 ,psyche1 psychic saikik1 psychology1 etc42 pt in ptarmigan1 ,ptolemy2 sw becomes s in sword 7observe also answer72 wr in wreck1 write1 etc4 ,similarly1 an unfamiliar group at the end of a word is simplified1 usually by dropping the last sound2 notice-- ln in kiln 7some do not drop this n72 mb in bomb1 catacomb1 climb1 comb1 dumb1 hecatomb1 lamb1 limb1 plumber1 succumb1 tomb2 mn in autumn1 column1 condemn1 contemn1 hymn1 limn1 solemn4 7,the opposite tendency is found in vulgar speech1 where vmint is said for vermin1 draund for drown47 99 99 99 99 99 ,observe drachm drm1 yacht jt1 impugn impjuwn1 physiognomy fizinmi1 diaphragm daifrm1 paradigm prdaim1 phlegm flem1 sign sain1 feign1 reign1 foreign1 benign4 #ea4 ,in rai we have a diphthong4 ,it is worth noting that the ,english diphthongs ai1 au1 i1 ei1 ou1 etc41 all have the stress on the former element4 99 99 99 99 99 ,blackbirds and black birds3 in the spelling we distinguish these by writing the first as one word1 the second as two4 ,what difference is there in the sounds8 ,if you listen carefully1 you will find that the second vowel in the compound word is just a little shorter than in birds standing alone1 and that in blackbirds the opening of the closure for k is not heard1 while in black birds it may be audible4 ,the chief difference1 however1 lies in the stress of the compound word4 ,blackbirds is an example of descending stress 1 black birds is pronounced with level stress 1 perhaps with ascending stress 4 ,take the following compound words or groups1 and classify them according to their stress3-- ,sixpence1 rainbow1 good morning1 looking glass1 moonshine1 bravo61 twenty-four1 twenty-four men1 ,high ,street1 ,london ,road1 waterspout1 right of way1 undo1 ,mr ,jones1 ,park ,lane1 season ticket1 sunflower1 ,hongkong1 steel pen1 ,chinese1 hallo6 bill of fare1 earthquake1 sea wall1 ,bond ,street1 ,grosvenor ,square1 fourteen1 ,hyde ,park4 ,try to deduce some rules from these examples4 ,it has been said that level stress contrasts1 and uneven stress unites the ideas expressed by the compound words2 do you agree with this8 ,notice what difficulty our level stress gives to the ,german2 he will utter steel pen1 ,hyde ,park1 etc41 with descending stress4 ,do so yourself1 and observe how strange it sounds4 ,notice the difference in stress of ,substantive or ,adjective ,verb absent to absent accent to accent consort to consort converse to converse desert to desert prefix to prefix present to present ,substantive ,verb proceeds to proceed produce to produce project to project protest to protest rebel to rebel record to record refuse to refuse ,substantive ,adjective compact compact instinct instinct minute minute ,some words of two syllables have the stress on the first or the second syllable according to their place in the sentence4 ,consider the accent of the italicised words in the following sentences3 ,they sat outside4 ,an outside passenger4 ,among the ,chinese4 ,a ,chinese lantern4 ,his age is fifteen4 ,i have fifteen shillings4 ,some fell by the wayside4 ,a wayside inn4 ,try to find a rule governing these cases4 ,the stresses in a sentence are considered in #ed4 99 99 99 99 99 ,when would be pronounced as voiceless by some1 hardly by a southern ,english nurse saying the rime 7 #df74 ,notice how the tongue moves forward as the n passes over into the in when the4 ,was is in the weak form because it is quite unstressed2 but notice3 w ju rili 8 jes1 ai wz4 #eb4 ,in opened1 observe carefully how the consonants are articulated1 and put their action down in writing4 ,how many syllables are there in opened1 bubbles1 chasms1 mittens8 ,probably you have no difficulty in understanding and answering this question1 but if asked to describe a syllable you might hesitate1 for it is not easy4 ,utter and then t2 which carries farther1 which has greater fulness of sound or sonority8 ,if you wished to attract the attention of some one1 and were only allowed to utter one of these two sounds1 you would prefer without hesitation4 ,why is more sonorous than t8 ,because1 whereas t is only a brief noise1 in the current of breath is rendered musical by the vibration of the vocal chords1 and has a free passage through the wide open mouth4 ,indeed is the most sonorous of all sounds4 ,it is clear that voiced sounds are more sonorous than voiceless1 vowels than consonants1 continuants than stops4 ,the liquids and nasals stand between vowels and consonants in point of sonority2 they are voiced and with either a fair passage through the mouth or a free passage through the nose4 ,a good deal naturally depends on the force and the pitch of the sounds2 a whispered may not carry so far as a forcible s4 ,now if a sound with good carrying power has for its neighbours sounds that do not carry far1 it helps them to be heard2 notice how such weakly sonorous sounds as t or p occurring in the words of a song are quite clearly heard at the other end of a large concert hall4 ,they are carried along by the full sounding vowels1 as the greater volume of air employed causes more pressure1 and hence a more forcible and louder release4 ,it is the sounds of greater sonority that carry the syllable1 which term is also applied to a vowel standing alone1 or beside other vowels of practically equal sonority4 ,in ,english1 the syllable is generally carried by vowels2 sometimes also by liquids and nasals1 which are then called syllabic4#fi ,rules for dividing words into syllables are given in most grammars1 and are required for writing and printing2 but they do not always represent the actual state of things4 ,when a consonant comes between two vowels1 it really belongs to both syllables4 ,in leaving we pronounce neither lea-ving nor leav-ing4 ,from the phonetic point of view we may think of words and groups of words as consisting of a series of sounds of varying sonority4 ,we may indicate the sonority very roughly by lines2 if we connect their top ends1 we shall obtain a curve4 ,thus the word sonority might be represented as follows 7no attempt is here made at scientific accuracy74 ,illustration3 _/ _/ _/ s o n o r i t y ,the curves will represent a series of waves2 and each of these waves is a syllable4 99 99 99 99 99 ,began3 notice the quality of the vowel in the first1 unstressed syllable of this word4 ,it is higher than any real e sound1 and is very laxly articulated4 ,it occurs also in before1 enough1 inquire2 find other words in which it occurs4 ,is it the same sound as the second vowel in lily8 ,to sing3 read the sixth line quite naturally and see whether you say t or tu2 get friends to read it1 and find out what they say4 ,when you wish to ascertain how a friend pronounces some particular sound1 do not tell him what this sound is1 or he may pronounce it not naturally1 but in what he believes1 or has been told1 is the correct pronunciation4 ,try to ascertain the pronunciation of these sentences3 ,what are you going to do to-morrow morning8 ,i'm going to answer letters4 ,wasn't that3 was is here in the strong form 7 #dg72 are weak forms found at the beginning of a sentence8 ,notice the syllabic n2 also the simplification of the group of consonants by the omission of t4 ,what is the weak form of that8 ,when is it used8 ,the remaining words present nothing of special interest4 #ec4 ,we may now consider the stress of the sentence4 ,for this purpose it is sufficient to consider the most sonorous part of each syllable1 generally speaking a vowel4 ,we may distinguish stress and absence of stress1 which we can designate by the signs _/ and 2 extra strong stress will be _/_/1 and secondary stress 4 ,the first line of ,sing a ,song of ,sixpence1 will then run3-- _/_/ _/ _/_/ ,here sing and six have the strongest stress2 song has ordinary stress4 ,secondary stress is given to that syllable of a word which is stressed1 but has not the chief stress2 thus the stresses in energetic may be written _/ 4 ,the nursery rhyme then shows the following stresses3-- _/_/ _/ _/_/ _/_/ _/ _/_/ _/_/ _/_/ _/_/ _/_/ _/_/ _/ _/_/ _/_/ _/ _/_/ _/_/ _/ _/_/ _/ _/_/ _/ _/_/ ,perhaps you do not read the poem in this way2 mark the stresses for yourself1 without looking at the book4 ,accept no statements without verifying them4 #ec;,a4 ,it will have struck you that you have really been scanning the poem4 ,hitherto you may have done it by means of the signs - and 1 taken from ,latin prosody1 where they stand for long and short4 ,consider the question which of these two systems of scansion is the more accurate and the more convenient4 #ec;,b4 ,it may also strike you that in reading the poem we do not make a pause at the end of each word2 and of course we do not read it all in one breath4 ,how many breaths do you require for reading it slowly8 for reading it quickly8 ,what guides you in finding places for your pauses8 ,take any dozen lines of prose and read them aloud2 notice where you pause for breath4 ,the words which are read together in one breath are called a breath group4 ,after considering several passages from this point of view1 you will realise that good reading depends to some extent on the choice of suitable places for taking breath4 ,let your friends read to you1 and observe how they manage their breath4 #ed4 ,we have spoken several times of stress1 and you have probably followed without difficulty4 ,what is stress8 ,utter the series of sounds atata1 then atata1 and atata4#gj ,you use more force for the stressed than for the unstressed vowels1 that is to say1 you put more breath into them4 ,place your hand close in front of your lips as you say the above sounds1 and you will notice a distinct increase of breath as the stressed syllable is uttered4 ,we use this stress for purposes of emphasis2 generally speaking1 we expend more breath on those syllables of a word1 or words of a sentence1 which are more important for the meaning4 ,we may say that ,english sentence stress is guided by logical considerations4 ,is this equally true of ,french8 of ,german8 ,has anything struck you about the stress in ,french1 or in ,english as spoken by a ,frenchman8 #ee4 ,stress1 due to force of breath1 is not the only means of accentuation at our disposal4 ,we can also produce various effects by changing the pitch of the voice4 ,when the pitch of a voice hardly varies at all1 we consider it monotonous4 ,certain clergymen have acquired the habit of reading the ,church service in monotone2 consider whether this has any advantage or disadvantage4 ,when there is very great and regular or monotonous variation of pitch in a voice1 we call it a sing-song4 ,in standard speech there is moderate variation of pitch2 it becomes considerable only in dramatic and oratorical declamation1 when a skilled use of pitch variations may produce a deeply moving or highly stirring effect1 somewhat resembling that produced by song4 ,observe the pitch changes in ordinary speech4 ,the most obvious case is the rise of pitch in questions1 in contrast with the tendency to lower the pitch in a statement4 ,even though we have the same order of words as in a statement1 this change of pitch alone suffices to show that a question is being asked4 ,say3 ,you are going out and ,you are going out8 ,try to say ,are you going out8 with the same falling pitch as in ,you are going out1 and observe the strange effect4 ,determine the changes of pitch in such questions as3 ,is your brother tall or short8 ,is your uncle's house in the town or in the country8 ,notice that joy or any great excitement leads to the use of a higher pitch than usual4 ,sometimes the pitch may rise or fall1 or rise and fall1 or fall and rise during the utterance of a single vowel4 ,say ,no in a doubtful1 a questioning1 a decided1 and a threatening tone1 and observe the pitch4 ,if you wish to represent it roughly1 you may use for fall in pitch1 _/ for a rise1 _/ for a rise and fall1 _/ for a fall and rise4 #ef4 ,we have devoted our attention mainly to standard ,english as it is spoken in ordinary life1 because it is important to train the ear so that it perceives the sounds and ceases to be misled by the conventional spelling4 ,only when we can hear what sounds our pupils actually utter1 only when we have a fair idea of the way in which they produce these sounds1 are we in a position to correct what is faulty in the mother tongue1 or to impart the sounds of a foreign language with any prospect of success4 ,hints have been given as to some of the faulty tendencies likely to be found2 the teacher whose ear has been trained in the manner here suggested will be able to add to their number without difficulty1 and probably with growing interest4 ,in this respect every county presents its own problems1 and many still require to be recorded2 every teacher can help by contributing his own observations4 ,no observer can fail to be struck by the different degrees of care with which most individuals speak ,english under different circumstances4 ,in their talk among themselves1 children1 especially young boys1 are often extremely careless2 at home we find various degrees of care1 much depending on the example set by the parents and the influence of governesses and nurses4 ,in talking to educated strangers1 we are usually careful in our pronunciation4 ,if we occupy a position which makes it necessary to speak to large numbers1 we must be particularly careful1 and that in several respects3 the voice must be pleasant1 carry far1 and have good staying power4 #eg4 ,a pleasant voice is to a certain degree a natural gift2 it depends on the quality of the vocal chords1 the shape of the roof of the mouth1 and so on4 ,many voices are spoilt by bad habits1 such as excessive nasalising1 or very high pitch4 ,the teacher of elocution often gives valuable criticism and help here4 ,listen attentively to any criticisms which your friends make about your voice4 ,the voice of a public speaker 7which includes the class teacher and college lecturer no less than the clergyman1 actor1 or politician7 must carry far4 ,his words must penetrate to every hearer1 even in a large hall4 ,if there is any straining to catch his words1 those words will not produce their best effect4 ,the chief requirement is not loudness1 but distinctness4 ,he must articulate more carefully than in ordinary conversation3 unstressed vowels will have greater importance and be less reduced1 consonants will never be slurred over4 ,the stressed vowels are the most important of all because they are the most sonorous sounds and help the others 7see #eb72 he will let the vocal chords vibrate longer for them1 to reinforce their value1 and he will produce them in such a way that they give their characteristic sound most clearly4 ,for this purpose he will find it best to articulate more tensely 7this applies also to the consonants7 than in ordinary speech2 and a distinct rounding of the lips for the back vowels will enable him to add to their value4 ,he will prefer to keep the tongue point well forward in the mouth for l4 ,this and other hints he may obtain from the teacher of elocution4 ,however pleasant a voice may be1 and however far it may carry1 it will yet be of little use if it tires soon2 it must have staying power4 ,this again is to some extent a natural gift2 the throat may be constitutionally weak4 ,training1 however1 can do very much to improve the powers of endurance4 ,above all1 good breathing is essential2 hints have been given in #d how this may be assured1 and the teacher cannot be recommended too warmly to give from #ae to #be minutes every morning to breathing exercises2 he will be amply repaid for the time spent in that way by the greater ease with which he gets through his teaching1 and by the inevitable improvement in his general health4 ,it has also been pointed out above that bad ventilation and dust are calculated to interfere with his voice4 ,another suggestion may be helpful3 to keep the tongue as forward in the mouth as possible4 ,the average tongue position in many southern ,english teachers is too far back in the mouth1 and this is found to lead to serious fatigue2 it may indeed be regarded as one of the main causes of teachers' sore throat4 ,it is in giving advice on the management of the voice for public speaking that trustworthy teachers of elocution are most helpful4 ,when they make dogmatic statements as to how a sound or word is or should be pronounced1 their guidance is not equally satisfactory1 and the student is earnestly recommended always to test their statements himself4 ,the same request is addressed to him with regard to the present book2 if it arouses interest1 there is no harm if it also arouses opposition4 ,,footnotes3 #fa ,these forms are found1 for instance1 at the beginning of questions2 thus have you been there8 is hv ju bijn 4 ,they are also found after vowels1 e4g41 ,i had done so1 ai hd dn sou4 #fb ,see the note on p4 #gb4 #fc ,when contrasted with inhale1 this word is also pronounced eksheil4 #fd ,the change in the quality of the vowel is interesting2 possibly don't preserves the old pronunciation of the vowel in do4 #fe ,strictly speaking the s of the plural was always voiced in the older language1 and it is in cats1 tips that we have assimilation4 #ff ,the first d is sometimes heard in the pronunciation of this word4 #fg ,it should1 however1 be noted that in passing from m to t there is a transitional sound or glide which has the value of a faint p4 #fh ,the c in victuals and indict has no etymological justification1 as may be seen from the middle ,english spelling 7vitaille1 endite74 #fi ,for syllabic m see #bb2 for syllabic n1 #bd2 for syllabic l1 #cc4 #gj ,the mark precedes the stressed syllable4 ,,appendix ,i ,exercises4 #a4 ,how is -ious pronounced in gracious1 bilious1 victorious8 #b4 ,how is -ion pronounced in motion1 onion1 criterion1 vision1 and ,ionian8 #c4 ,how is -ial pronounced in labial1 judicial1 martial1 partiality8 #d4 ,what difference in pronunciation1 if any1 do you make between hire and higher1 lyre and liar1 cure and 7s7kewer1 alms and arms8 #e4 ,consider the value of oar in roar and in roaring1 and the value of air in pair and in pairing4 #f4 ,determine the vowel sounds corresponding to the italicized letters in child1 children2 woman1 women2 read 7infinitive71 read 7past participle72 say1 says2 dream1 dreamed2 leap1 leaped2 hear1 heard2 can1 can't2 do1 don't2 gentleman1 gentlemen4 #g4 ,write in transcript the words italicized3 a4 ,i have learned much from this learned man4 b4 ,he has aged a good deal4 ,he is aged4 c4 ,i used to use it2 you used it too4 ,try to account for the pronunciation of used in the sense of was accustomed 7see #di74 #h4 ,transcribe your pronunciation of halfpenny1 twopence1 threepence4 ,show the difference between the ,english and the ,french pronunciation of franc1 and between the ,english and the ,german pronunciation of mark4 #i4 ,a waiter was heard to remark pathetically that he never could tell whether a customer wanted cold lamb or cold ham4 ,what caused his uncertainty8 #aj4 ,the pronunciation of the children of ,walworth attending the ,church schools has given much concern to ,canon ,horsley1 who says that in their speech ,i've been to take her home becomes binter tiker rome1 ,oh1 shake hands becomes ow shy cans1 and ,i've been having a game becomes binnavinagime4 ,consider the pronunciation suggested by this rough transcription1 transcribe it more carefully1 and comment on such features of the ,walworth dialect as it illustrates4 #aa4 ,you are familiar with the term alliteration1 and know that it is a favourite device of cheap journalism4 ,criticise the alliteration in the following scare-lines3 ,,city ,,clerk ,,chased4 ,,thief ,,taken4 ,,solicitor ,,shot4 #ab4 ,mention words in which the following letters are written but not sounded3 b1 g1 gh1 k1 l1 m1 n1 t1 w4 #ac4 ,comment on the following statement3 ,the letters l and r are called trills1 because there is a vibration in the sounds1 or in some part of the vocal apparatus by which we pronounce them4 #ad4 ,consider this statement3 ,the ai in fair1 ea in lead1 ie in field1 ei in receive1 are none of them true diphthongs2 they are more or less clumsy ways of showing the length of an elementary vowel-sound4 #ae4 ,english has two e sounds1 as in fed1 feed1 and four u sounds1 as in but1 pull1 fur1 fool4 ,do you agree with this8 #af4 ,why does crystal look nicer than kristle1 which represents the same sounds8 ,account for such spellings as ,edythe1 ,smythe1 ,whyte4 #ag4 ,say quickly but distinctly3 ,she sells sea-shells in a salt-fish shop4 ,is ,stephen ,smith's son a smith too8 ,how many houses had ,harry ,hall8 ,long and loudly little ,lily laughed4 ,the skilled dentist extracted the three teeth4 ,do you want the thick thread or the thin8 ,in silence he sat on the sands by the silvery sea4 ,a boat is floating over the ocean4 ,with a loud shout he came out of the house4 ,the first question ,charles asked was strange4 ,three grey geese in the green grass grazing4 #ah4 ,discuss the old-fashioned form of address mine host4 ,do you say an historical novel8 a 7or an7 hotel at ,folkestone8 ,how do you pronounce the ,grand ,hotel8 ,transcribe your pronunciation of ,i gave her her hat4 #ai4 ,what is the derivation of ventriloquist8 ,does the term correctly indicate the way in which ventriloquists produce their sounds8 ,which sounds do you think most likely to give them difficulty8 #bj4 ,in the ,french of the #abth century l under certain circumstances became a vowel2 thus altre became autre and chevals became chevaus4 ,how do you explain this change8 ,point to a similar change in ,english4 #ba4 ,how would you teach a foreigner to pronounce the ,english th sounds8 #bb4 ,little children say pease for please1 gamma or granma for grandma1 dess for dress1 tocking for stocking4 ,illustrate the tendency shown in these examples from the speech of grown-up people4 #bc4 ,comment on the little child's pronunciation of tsain for chain1 fee for three1 noder for another1 and bafyoom for bathroom4 #bd4 ,consider carefully the question1 why the pronunciation of a foreign language presents difficulties2 draw on any foreign language you know for illustrations4 #be4 ,the ,latin camera is our chamber1 numerus our number1 ,latin humilis our humble1 ,latin similare our 7re7semble4 ,account for the b in the ,english words4 #bf4 ,consider the value of ure in sure1 pure1 nature1 figure4 #bg4 ,what light is thrown on the pronunciation of the past by the following quotations3 7a7 ,while he1 withdrawn1 at their mad labour smiles1 ,and safe enjoys the ,sabbath of his toils4 7,dryden47 7b7 ,dreading even fools1 by flatterers besieg'd1 ,and so obliging that he ne'er oblig'd4 7,pope47 7c7 ,cntemplate is bad enough1 but blcony makes me sick4 7,rogers47 7d7 ,the dame1 of manner various1 temper fickle1 ,now all for pleasure1 now the conventicle4 7,colman47 7e7 ,there is little doubt that in the pronunciation of successor the antepenultimate accent will prevail4 7,walker47 7f7 ,to ketch catch him at a vantage in his snares4 7,spenser47 7g7 ,yet he was kind1 or1 if severe in aught1 ,the love he bore to learning was in fault4 7,goldsmith47 #bh4 ,determine which sounds are represented by ea in the following words3 bear1 beard1 bread1 bead1 yea1 create1 realm1 leap1 leapt1 hearken2 and by eo in the following words3 yeoman1 people1 leopard1 re-open4 #bi4 ,determine which sounds are represented by oi in the following words3 boil1 heroic1 choir1 tortoise1 turquoise1 coincide2 and by ou in the following words3 south1 southern1 mourn1 journal1 though1 thought1 uncouth4 #cj4 ,determine which sounds are represented by g in the following words3 gem1 goal1 gaol1 gill1 gibberish1 fatigue1 gnaw2 and by ough in the following words3 trough1 through1 thorough1 sough1 cough1 rough1 plough1 lough4 #ca4 ,a character in one of ,miss ,braddon's novels says3 ,supernumery--it's no use1 ,i don't think anybody ever did know how many syllables there are in that word4 ,what is it that leads to the shortening of this word in uneducated speech8 ,mention similar cases of shortening4 ,,appendix ,,ii ,lists of ,words with ,phonetic ,transcription4 ,,note4 ,the accent shows that the following syllable has the chief stress4 ,as these lists are intended for the use of ,english students1 it has been thought sufficient to let e represent the first vowel sound and i the second vowel sound in very4 ,the variation in length of ij and other diphthongs and of m1 n1 l1 etc41 has not been indicated4 ,words which have occurred in the text of the book are not repeated here4 ,when two pronunciations are given1 both may be considered as common2 the first is generally to be preferred4 ,if1 however1 a pronunciation is enclosed in brackets1 it is to be regarded as faulty4 ,a4 ,general4 abdomen1 bdoumn 7bdomn7 ab initio1 b iniiou1 -jou abscission1 bsin acacia1 kei accent 7subst471 ksnt1 ksent2 7verb7 ksent acclimatize1 klimtaiz1 klaimetaiz accolade1 kleid accoutre1 kuwt acetic1 sijtik1 -se- acoustics1 kaustiks 7kuwstiks7 acrobat1 krobt adage1 did adept1 dept1 dept adieu1 djuw ad infinitum1 d infinaitm admirable1 dmirbl admiration1 dmirein ad nauseam1 d nsim1 -jm ado1 duw adult1 dlt1 dlt ad valorem1 d vlrem advantageous1 dvnteids1 dvnteids advertisement1 dvtizmnt aegis1 ijdis aegrotat1 igroutt aerated1 reitid aerial1 eril1 iril aerie1 ri1 iri aeronaut1 ront aesthetics1 ijsetiks 7esetiks7 a fortiori1 ei fjrai again1 gen1 gein against1 genst1 geinst aged 7adj471 eidid aggrandizement1 grndizmnt aghast1 gst agile1 dail ague1 eigjuw aisle1 ail albeit1 lbijit algebra1 ldibr alibi1 libai alienate1 eiljneit allegiance1 lijdns allegro1 legrou1 -leig- allot1 lt alloy1 li ally1 lai almanac1 lmnk also1 lsou1 lsou always1 lwiz1 -wz1 -weiz amateur1 mt1 mtu amenity1 meniti among1 m 7m7 anmic1 nijmik anarchist1 nkist anarchy1 nki1 nki anchovy1 ntouvi anemone1 nemni angina1 ndain anglice1 glisi ant1 nt 7nt7 antipodes1 ntipodijz antique1 ntijk antithesis1 ntiisis aorist1 rist aperture1 pt aphasia1 feizj apophthegm1 poem apotheosis1 poiousis1 po- apparatus1 preits apparent1 prnt1 -pr- a priori1 ei prirai apropos1 propou arch-1 usually t archangel1 keindl archetype1 kitaip archi-1 ki-1 kj- archives1 kaivz arid1 rid arras1 rs artificer1 tifis artiste1 tijst1 -ist asaftida1 sfetid askance1 skns1 -ns aspirant1 spairnt assignee1 sinij atoll1 tl1 tl attorney1 tni avalanche1 vln awkward1 kwd awry1 rai ayah1 aj aye 7always71 ei aye 7yes71 ai baboo1 bbuw bacillus1 bsils bagatelle1 bgtel bakshish1 bkij balcony1 blkni ballet1 blei balsam1 blsm basalt1 bslt1 bslt bass 7voice71 beis because1 bikz1 bikz bedizen1 bidaizn begone1 bign belligerent1 belidrnt betroth1 bitrou bicycle1 baisikl 7baisaikl7 bigot1 bigt bijou1 bijuw billet-doux1 bileiduw bison1 baisn bitumen1 bitjumn1 bitjuwmn bizarre1 biz blancmange1 blmn7d7 blithe1 blai blouse1 blauz 7bluwz7 boatswain1 bousn bodega1 bodijg bombast1 bmbst1 bmbst bona fide1 boun faidi booth1 buw borough1 br 7brou7 bouquet1 bukei bourn1 bn1 bun bravado1 brveidou1 brvdou brazier1 brei1 breizj breeches1 britiz1 brij- brougham1 brum1 broum 7broum7 brusque1 brusk1 brsk buffet1 bufei bulwark1 bulwk bureau1 bjurou1 bjurou burgher1 bg cabal1 kbl cachet1 kei cadi1 keidi caesura1 sizjur cambric1 keimbrik campanile1 kmpnijli caon1 knjn cantata1 kntt cantonment1 kntuwnmnt1 -tn- caoutchouc1 kautuk cap--pie1 kppij capitalist1 kpitlist caprice1 kprijs capuchin1 kpjutin carouse1 krauz cashier1 ki casino1 ksijnou cathedra1 kidr 7kijdr7 cauliflower1 kliflau celibate1 selibt 'cello1 telou centenary1 sentenri1 sentenri cere 7-cloths1 -ments71 si- chagrin1 grijn1 grin chalybeate1 klibjet chamois 7leather71 mi chaperon1 proun charade1 rd1 reid charivari1 rijvrij charlatan1 ltn1 -n chastisement1 tstizmnt chauffeur1 ouf chaunt1 tnt chauvinist1 ouvinist chic1 ik chimera1 kaimir1 ki- chiro-1 kairo- chivalric1 ivlrik also chivalrous1 ivlrs with chivalry1 ivlri ti- choir1 kwai choleric1 klrik chough1 tf cicala1 sikl cicerone1 sisrouni cinque1 sik circuit1 skit circumstance1 skmstns clandestine1 klndestin clematis1 klemtis1 7klimeitis7 clique1 klijk coalesce1 koules cobalt1 koublt cochineal1 ktinijl cognisant1 kgnisnt coign7e71 kin coincide1 kouinsaid colonel1 knl combat1 combatant1 combative have km- or km- comely1 kmli commentary1 kmntri comparable1 kmprbl comrade1 kmrid1 kmrid conch1 kk condign1 kndain condolence1 kndoulns conger1 kg congeries1 knderiijz1 -dij- conjure 7sleight of hand71 knd conjure 7implore71 kndu connoisseur1 knis1 knisju consignee1 knsinij ,consols1 knslz constable1 knstbl1 knstbl construe1 knstruw1 knstruw contagion1 knteidn contemplate1 kntempleit 7kntempleit7 contemplative1 kntempltiv contents1 kntents1 kntents contumacy1 kntjumsi contumely1 kntjuwmili conversazione1 knvstsiouni corollary1 krlri1 krlri corps1 k coterie1 koutrij cotillon1 kotiljn counterfeit1 kauntfit courteous1 ktjs1 ktjs 7kts7 courtesy1 ktsi courtier1 ktj covetous1 kvits covey1 kvi coxswain1 kksn cozen1 kzn crayon1 krejn croup1 kruwp cui bono1 kai bounou cuirass1 kwirs1 kju- cuisine1 kwizijn cuneiform1 kjuwniifm cupola1 kjuwpol cynosure1 sainosju1 sainou1 sino- dais1 deis dandelion1 dndilain debauch1 dibt debonair1 debn debris1 debri decade1 dekd1 dekeid decadence1 dekdns decease1 disijs decorous1 dekrs1 dikrs dei gratia1 dijai greiiei demesne1 dimein demise1 dimaiz demonstrate1 demnstreit demy 7paper71 dimai depot1 depou 7dijpou7 derelict1 derlikt desiderate1 disidreit design1 dizain designate1 dezigneit1 des- desist1 dizist desuetude1 deswitjuwd diresis1 daiirsis diapason1 daipeizn didactic1 didktik dilatory1 dilt77ri dilettante1 dilitnti diocese1 daiosis dis- 7before voiced sounds71 diz-2 7before voiceless sounds71 dis- dishabille1 disbijl disputant1 dispjutnt distich1 distik divan1 divn 7daivn7 divers1 daivs diverse1 divs divisible1 divizibl docile1 dousail1 dsail doctrinal1 dktrinl1 dktrainl doge1 doud dolorous1 dlrs domicile1 dmisail douche1 du1 duw doughty1 dauti dramatis person1 drmtis psounij draught1 drft drollery1 droulri dromedary1 drmidri drought1 draut 7drt7 dubiety1 djuwbaiti ducat1 dkt ductile1 dktail duteous1 djuwtjs 7djuwts7 dynasty1 dinsti1 dainsti dysentery1 disntri eau de ,cologne1 ou di kloun echelon1 eln eclat1 ekl1 ekl een1 ijn eer1 effete1 efijt eglantine1 eglntain either1 ai1 ij elicit1 ilisit elite1 elijt elixir1 iliks emaciated1 imeiieitid embrasure1 embrei enervate1 enveit enunciate1 innieit envelope1 nvloup1 enveloup environs1 envairnz epaulet1 eplet epitome1 ipitomi epoch1 ijpk 7epk7 equerry1 ekwri1 ekweri erase1 ireis erasure1 irei ere1 escheat1 estijt eschew1 estuw esoteric1 esoterik espionage1 espinid evasive1 iveisiv exchequer1 ekstek excise1 eksaiz1 eksaiz excuse 7verb71 ekskjuwz1 7subst47 ekskjuws expert1 ekspt expletive1 eksplijtiv exquisite1 ekskwizit extant1 ekstnt1 ekstnt extempore1 ekstempri extirpate1 ekstpeit extraordinary1 ekstrdnri1 ekstrdinri exude1 egzjuwd1 -ks- eyot1 ait faade1 fsd1 fseid facile1 fsil facsimile1 fksimili fakir1 fki1 feiki falchion1 fln fanatic1 fntik farinaceous1 frineis fealty1 filti fecund1 fijknd1 fe- feod1 fjuwd feoff1 fef fetish1 fijti1 fe- finance1 finns financier1 finn1 -sj finesse1 fines fissure1 fi flaccid1 flksid flamboyant1 flmbjnt fluor1 flu ftid1 fetid forfeit1 ffit fragile1 frdail franchise1 frn7t7aiz1 -iz frigate1 frigt frontier1 frnti1 frn- fuchsia1 fjuw fugue1 fjuwg furlough1 flou furore1 fjurri futile1 fjuwtail gala1 geil gallant 7polite71 glnt gambol1 gmbl gaol1 deil garish1 gri gaseous1 gsjs1 geijs gauche1 gou gauge1 geid generic1 denerik gesture1 dest gewgaw1 gjuwg geyser1 gais1 geis ghoul1 guwl gibberish1 gibri gibbet1 dibit gibbous1 gibs gig1 gig gigantic1 daigntik gill 7of fish71 gil2 7of liquid71 dil gillyflower1 diliflau gimlet1 gimlit gimp1 gimp gist1 dist gizzard1 gizd glacial1 gleil glacier1 glei1 glsj1 -i gladiolus1 gldails1 gldiouls glamour1 glm goitre1 git gondola1 gndl 7gndoul7 gosling1 gzli gouge1 guwd1 gaud gourd1 gud1 gd gravamen1 grveimn1 gr- greasy1 grijzi1 grijsi groat1 grout 7grt7 gross1 grous guerdon1 gdn guillotine1 giltijn gunwale1 gnl gutta-percha1 gtpt gyves1 daivz halberd1 hlbd halcyon1 hlsjn hautboy1 houbi heifer1 hef heigho1 heihou heinous1 heins hemorrhage1 hemorid heroine1 heroin heroism1 heroizm heterogeneous1 heterodijnjs hiatus1 haieits hierarch1 hairk hirsute1 hsjuwt hosier1 hou1 houzj housewife 7case for needles1 etc471 hzif hussar1 huz1 hz hussy1 hzi hygiene1 haidijn hygienic1 haidienik1 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7adj471 mainjuwt1 mi- mirage1 mir misanthrope1 misnroup miscellany1 miselni mischief1 mistif morose1 mrous myth1 mi1 mai mythology1 mildi naive1 neiv naivet1 neivtei nauseate1 njeit nauseous1 njes1 ns ne'er1 n neither1 nai1 nij nicety1 nais77ti niche1 nit nomenclature1 nomenklt noose1 nuwz1 nuws norse1 ns nuncio1 nniou nuptial1 npl oasis1 oueisis obeisance1 obeisns obese1 obijs obligatory1 bligtri1 bligtri1 bligeitri obloquy1 blkwi obsequies1 bsikwiz obtuse1 obtjuws occult1 oklt octopus1 ktps1 ktoups oligarchy1 ligki omniscient1 mnint1 -si- onerous1 nrs onomatopeia1 nmtpi operative1 prtiv1 preitiv orchestral1 kestrl1 ki- ordeal1 dil organization1 gnizein1 -nai- orison1 rizn1 -s- ormolu1 mluw ornate1 neit osier1 ou oust1 aust pageant1 peidnt1 pdnt palaver1 plv palfrey1 plfri 7plfri7 panacea1 pnsi panegyric1 pnidirik pan7n7ier1 pnj papyrus1 ppairs paradigm1 prdaim paraffine1 prfin pariah1 prj parochial1 proukjl parvenu1 pvnju pastel1 pstel1 pstl pastille1 pstijl1 pstil patent1 peitnt 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,demy 7,magdalen ,college1 ,oxford71 dimai ,denbigh1 denbi ,derby1 dbi ,deuteronomy1 djuwtrnmi ,dives1 daivijz ,donegal1 dnigl ,donoghue1 dnhuw ,doughty1 dauti ,drogheda1 drhd ,dvok1 dvk ,ecclesiastes1 iklijzistijz ,edinburgh1 edinbr1 -br ,eisteddfod1 aistevd ,elcho1 elkou ,elgin1 elgin ,elizabethan1 elizbijn ,elysian1 elizjn ,elysium1 elizjm ,elzevir1 elziv1 -vi ,euripides1 juripidijz ,europe1 jurp ,european1 juropin ,exmouth1 eksm ,faust1 faust ,faustus1 fsts ,fe7a7therstonhaugh1 festnh ,fildes1 faildz ,folkestone1 foukstn ,foulis1 faulz ,fowey1 fi ,froude1 fruwd ,gaelic1 glik 7,scotland71 geilik 7,ireland7 ,gairdner1 gdn ,galway1 glwei ,gawain1 gwein ,geddes1 gedis ,geikie1 gijki ,geoffrey1 defri ,geoghegan1 geign ,giaour1 dau ,gibraltar1 dibrlt ,giffen1 difn ,glamis1 glmz ,glasgow1 glsgou ,gloucester1 glst ,gomme1 gm ,goschen1 goun ,gough1 gf ,greaves1 greivz ,greenwich1 grinid ,grosvenor1 grouvn ,guildford1 gilfd ,gye1 gai ,hades1 heidijz ,haigh1 heig ,hamish1 heimi ,harcourt1 hkt ,harlech1 hlik ,hastings1 heistiz ,hawarden1 hdn1 heiwdn ,haweis1 hwis1 his ,headlam1 hedlm ,hebe1 hijbi ,heneage1 henid ,hercules1 hkjulijz ,hermione1 hmaioni ,herodotus1 herdts ,herschell1 hl ,hertford1 hfd ,hervey1 hvi ,hobart1 hbt ,holmes1 houmz ,holyhead1 hlihed ,hopetoun1 houptn ,horace1 hrs ,hough1 hf ,houghton1 htn1 hautn ,huguenot1 hjuwgnt ,huish1 hjuwi ,ian1 in ,iddesleigh1 idsli ,ingelow1 indlou ,iona1 aioun ,iroquois1 irokw ,israel1 izrl ,ithaca1 ik ,iveagh1 aivi ,ixion1 iksain ,jarus1 dairs ,jaques 7,as you like it71 deikwiz ,jean1 dijn ,jerusalem1 diruwslm ,jervaulx 7,abbey71 dvou ,jervis1 dvis ,jervois1 dvis ,jeune1 duwn ,johannesburg1 dohnisbg ,kaiser1 kaiz ,kearsarge1 kisg ,kedleston1 kelsn2 7,derbyshire71 kedlstn ,keighley1 kijli1 kaili1 kijli ,keightley1 kijtli ,keith1 kij ,keogh1 ,keough1 ,k,eogh1 ,kehoe1 kjou ,ker1 k1 k1 k ,keswick1 kezik ,keynes1 keinz ,khedive1 kedijv ,kirkby ,stephen1 kbi stijvn ,kirkcudbright1 kkuwbri ,knollys1 ,knowles1 noulz ,koran1 krn1 krn1 krn ,kough1 kjou ,laffan1 lfn1 lfn ,lama1 lm ,laocoon1 leioukon ,lares1 lrijz ,lascelles1 lslz ,lathom1 leim ,layard1 ld ,leamington1 lemitn ,lefevre1 lfijv ,lehmann1 leimn ,leicester1 lest ,leigh1 lij ,leighton1 leitn ,leitrim1 lijtrim ,leominster1 lemst ,le ,queux1 lkjuw ,leveson-,gower1 ljuwsng ,ley1 lij ,leys 7school71 lijz ,lisle1 lail ,llandudno1 lndidnou ,llewellyn1 luelin ,lochiel1 lkijl ,loughboro1 lfbr ,lovibond1 lvbnd ,lugard1 lugd ,luke1 luwk1 ljuwk ,lymington1 limitn ,lyons1 lainz ,lyveden1 livdn ,m',gee1 ,m',ghee1 mgij ,machiavelli1 mkjveli ,mackay1 ,m',kay1 mkai ,mackenzie1 mkenzi1 mkei ,maclean1 mklein ,mac,lehose1 mklhouz ,macleod1 mklaud ,macmahon1 mkmn ,mac,manus1 mkmns ,macnamara1 mknmr ,macneill1 mknijl ,maconochie1 mkki ,macquoid1 mkid ,magdalen7e7 7,college71 mdlin ,magna ,charta1 mgn kt ,magrath1 mgr ,maguire1 mgwai ,mahan1 mhn1 mn ,maharajah1 mhrd ,mahomet1 mhmit ,mahoney1 mni ,mainwaring1 mnri ,majendie1 mdndi ,malet1 mlit ,maori1 mori ,marazion1 mrzain ,marjoribanks1 mtbks ,marlborough1 mlbr ,marseillaise1 msleiz ,marylebone1 mribn ,masham1 mm1 msm ,massachusetts1 mstuwsits ,mather1 m ,maughan1 mn ,maurice1 mris ,medici1 mediti ,meiklejohn1 mikldn ,melhuish1 meli ,menpes1 mempis ,mentone1 mentouni ,menzies1 miiz1 meiz ,meux1 mjuwz1 mjuwks ,micheldever1 mitldev ,milan1 miln1 miln ,millard1 mild1 mild ,mivart1 maivt ,mohun1 muwn ,moleyns 7de71 mlinz ,molyneux1 mlinjuw ,momerie1 mmri ,monck1 mk ,monckton1 mktn ,monro7e71 mnrou ,montaigne1 mntein ,morant1 mornt ,moule1 muwl1 moul ,mowbray1 moubri1 muwbri ,naas1 neis ,napier1 neipj1 neipi ,neil1 nijl ,nemesis1 nemesis ,nepean1 nipijn ,nereid1 nijriid ,newnes1 njuwnz ,newquay1 njuwkij ,nice1 nijs ,nigel1 naidl ,nineveh1 ninivi1 -v ,nirvana1 nvn ,northcote1 nkt ,oban1 oubn ,o',callaghan1 oklhn ,oceania1 ouieinj ,oceanic1 ouinik ,odysseus1 odisjuws ,odyssey1 disi ,ogilvy1 ouglvi ,ohio1 ohaiou ,o',meara1 omr ,omega1 oumeg ,orion1 orain ,orpheus1 fjuws ,osbourne1 zbn ,ottawa1 tew ,oudh1 uwd ,ouless1 uwlis ,ouse1 uwz ,outram1 uwtrm ,paget1 pdit ,palgrave1 plgreiv ,pall ,mall1 pelmel1 plml ,paraguay1 prgwai ,paton1 peitn ,pegram1 pijgrm ,pembroke1 pembruk ,penelope1 penelopi ,penicuik1 penikuk ,pennefather1 penife ,penrhyn1 penrin ,pentateuch1 penttjuwk ,pepys1 pijps ,perowne1 proun ,persephone1 psefni ,persia1 p ,petrie1 pijtri ,pharaoh1 frou ,philippi1 filipai ,pigott1 pigt ,pinero1 pinrou ,pirbright1 pbrait ,pirie1 piri ,pleiades1 plaidijz ,poe1 pou ,pole1 puwl ,pole ,carew1 puwlkri ,ponsonby1 pnsnbi ,pontefract1 pntifrkt1 pmfrit 7cakes7 ,powell1 poul ,powis1 ,powys1 pouwis ,powlett1 plit ,praed1 preid ,prometheus1 promijjuws ,prowse1 prauz ,psyche1 saiki ,pugh1 pjuw ,puleston1 pilstn ,pulteney1 poultni ,punjab1 pndb1 -b ,pyramid1 pirmid ,pythagoras1 paigrs ,quixote1 kwikst ,rajah1 rd ,raleigh1 rli1 rli ,ralph1 reif1 rlf1 rlf ,rayleigh1 reili ,reay1 rei ,rehan1 rein ,renaissance1 rineisns ,reuter1 rit ,reynard1 rend ,rheims1 rijmz ,rhodesia1 roudijzj ,rhys1 rijs ,romney1 rmni ,rothesay1 rsi ,rouse1 ruwz1 raus ,rowton1 rtn ,roxburgh1 rksbr ,ruthven1 rivn ,sacheverell1 sevrl ,st ,clair1 sikl ,st ,john1 sindn ,st ,leger1 sntled1 silnd ,st ,maur1 sim ,st ,neots1 snijts ,st ,paul1 sntpl ,st ,roch1 sntrouk ,salisbury1 slzbri ,saltoun1 sltaun ,sandys1 sndz ,sanhedrin1 snhedrin ,sassenach1 ssenk ,saunders1 sndz ,scone1 skuwn ,scrymgeour1 skrimd ,searle1 sl ,selous1 sluws ,seneca1 senek ,seton1 ,setoun1 sijtn ,severus1 sivijrs ,shaughnessy1 nsi ,sherbourne1 bn -shire1 7i7 ,shrewsbury1 ruwzbri1 rouzbri ,sikh1 sijk ,slough1 slau ,somers1 smz ,somerset1 smset ,sophocles1 sfklijz ,southwark1 sk ,southwell1 sl ,sphynx1 sfiks ,stagirite1 stdirait ,stanton1 stntn ,stour1 stu ,strachan1 trn ,stranraer1 strnra ,symonds1 ,symons1 simnz ,teignmouth1 tinm ,telemachus1 telemks ,terpsichore1 tepsikori ,thames1 temz ,theobald1 ibld1 ijobld ,theseus1 ijsjuws ,thorold1 rld ,thucydides1 jusididijz ,tighe1 tai ,tintagel1 tintdl ,tollemache1 tlm ,towcester1 tist ,toynbee1 tinbi ,trafalgar1 trflg1 trflg ,tredegar1 tridijg ,trefusis1 trifjuwsis ,treloar1 tril ,trevelyan1 triviljn1 triveljn ,troubridge1 truwbrid ,tynemouth1 tinm ,tyrwhitt1 tirit ,urquhart1 kt ,uruguay1 jurgwai ,uttoxeter1 ksit ,valparaiso1 vlpraizou ,vanbrugh1 vnbr ,van ,dyck1 vndaik ,vaughan1 vn ,vavasour1 vvs ,venezuela1 venizweil ,vezin1 vijzin ,vitor1 fitr ,villiers1 vilz ,vinci1 vinti ,waldegrave1 wlgreiv ,walhalla1 vlhl ,waugh1 w ,weguelin1 weglin ,wemyss1 wijmz ,wesleyan1 wezlin ,willard1 wild ,wolseley1 wulzli ,worcester1 wust ,wylie1 ,wyllie1 waili ,xenophon1 zenfn ,xerxes1 zksijz ,yeames1 jeimz ,yeatman1 jeitmn ,yonge1 j ,yosemite1 josemiti ,zenana1 zinn ,zeus1 zjuws ,zouche1 zuw ,zuider ,zee1 zaid zei ,the above lists must be regarded as an experiment4 ,it is not to be expected that the selection of words and in some cases the pronunciation indicated will commend themselves to all readers4 ,suggestions and criticisms are earnestly invited1 so that it may be possible to improve the lists in subsequent editions4 ,,appendix ,,iii ,on the ,teaching of ,reading4 ,though the teaching of reading does not strictly come within the scope of this book1 a few hints may be given on the subject4 ,for the first stages the student is referred to the wholly admirable work of ,miss ,dale1 based throughout on a careful study of the spoken language4 ,later on it is important that the pupils should be able to read aloud with distinct articulation and an agreeable voice4 ,far the most helpful book is ,mr ,burrell's ,clear ,speaking and ,good ,reading 7published by ,longmans74 ,he dwells on the importance of good breathing and a good posture1 and gives suitable exercises for ensuring both4 ,he condemns all that is affected or stagy2 indeed his whole book is an eloquent plea for quiet and restraint4 ,he rightly advises the teacher to listen carefully to good speakers1 avoiding 7as a rule7 those of his own profession4 ,in dealing with phonetics he hardly appreciates the advantages attaching to a thorough study of the language as it is actually spoken2 but we can recommend without reserve the later chapters of his book 7vi4 ,the ,reading ,lesson2 vii4 ,reading and ,reciting2 viii4 ,specimen ,lessons in ,recitation2 ix4 ,on the ,higher ,study of ,reading and ,speaking74 ,,appendix ,,iv ,the following diagrams serve to show the position of the tongue in the formation of some of the vowels4 ,observe the different shapes of the mouth passage through which the breath passes4 7,these diagrams were originally prepared by ,dr4 ,r4 ,j4 ,lloyd47 ,illustration3 marine 7i7 ,illustration3 r,ein 7e7 ,illustration3 th,ere 77 ,illustration3 p,at 7a7 ,this diagram represents the vowel a4 ,in northern ,english it is found in words like pat2 in southern ,english it is the first part of the diphthong in house haus1 bite bait4 ,illustration3 br,ute 7u7 ,illustration3 n,ote 7o7 ,illustration3 ,all 77 ,illustration3 f,ather 77 ,the following diagrams are the result of experiments with an artificial palate1 covered with fine powder4 ,when certain sounds are uttered1 the tongue touches the palate and some of the powder is removed4 ,what is black in the diagrams indicates those parts of the hard palate which are touched by the tongue4 ,illustration3 ,these diagrams show where the tongue touches the palate in the production of and s respectively4 ,illustration3 ,english word toe ,french word tt 7to7 ,these diagrams are by ,mr ,dumville1 and are taken from his ,elements of ,french ,pronunciation and ,diction4 ,they illustrate the manner of production of the ,english and the ,french t4 ,it will be noticed that in the case of the ,english sound the tongue is farther back than in the case of the ,french sound4 ,,printed ,,by ,,turnbull ,,and ,,spears1 ,,edinburgh ,,french ,,life ,,and ,,ways4--,continued4 ,,dent',s ,,wall ,,pictures ,,of ,,the ,,four ,,seasons4 ,from ,drawings especially prepared by ,j4 ,a4 ,,symington4 ,printed in ,colours4 ,size #ee by #ce ins4 ,unmounted1 #bs4 #f;d4 net each2 ,mounted on ,linen and ,eyeletted1 #cs4 #f;d4 net each2 ,mounted on ,linen1 with ,rollers1 #fs4 net each4 ,,french ,,word ,,groups4 ,based on ,dent's ,wall ,pictures of the ,four ,seasons4 ,by ,r4 ,,guerra4 ,,rippmann',s ,,french ,,picture ,,vocabulary4 ,the ,first and ,second ,series now ready4 #as4 #d;d4 each vol4 ,,pierre ,,larousse',s ,,dictionnaire ,,complet ,,illustr ,,de ,,la ,,langue ,,fran,,aise4 ,with numerous ,illustrations in ,colour and ,line4 ,large fcap4 #hvo1 cloth1 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,german4 ,fourteenth 7,english7 ,edition1 completing #ee1bjj copies4 ,,dent',s ,,first ,,german ,,book4 ,by ,,walter ,,rippmann1 ,s4 ,,alge1 and ,s4 ,,hamburger4 #bs4 #f;d4 ,an excellent book 444 will be found well worth introducing into schools4--,athenum4 ,,dent',s ,,german ,,reader4 ,by ,s4 ,,alge and ,,walter ,,rippmann4 #cs4 ,fifth ,edition4 ,the same principles underlie the ,german ,reader as the ,first ,german ,book2 the ,reader can1 however1 quite well be taken with pupils who have not worked through the easier volume4 ,,german ,,grammar ,,and ,,word ,,formation4 ,exercises1 with an ,abstract of the ,essentials of ,german ,grammar4 ,by ,,walter ,,rippmann4 #as4 #h;d4 ,third and ,revised ,edition4 ,,hints ,,on ,,teaching ,,german4 ,with a running ,commentary to ,dent's ,first ,german ,book and ,dent's ,german ,reader4 ,by ,,walter ,,rippmann4 #as4 #f;d4 net4 ,particularly good and practical4--,athenum4 ,,german ,,daily ,,life4 ,by ,dr4 ,,kron4 ,fifth ,edition1 ,revised4 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,aus ,,dem ,,leben4 ,german ,scenes for the ,classroom4 ,by ,l4 ,,hirsch and ,j4 ,,stuart ,,walters4 #as4 #d;d4 ,,rippmann',s ,,german ,,picture ,,vocabulary4 ,the ,first and ,second ,series now ready4 #as4 #d;d4 each volume4 ,a ,,first ,,book ,,of ,,german ,,poetry4 ,compiled and ,annotated by ,,walter ,,rippmann4 #as4 #d;d4 ,,dent',s ,,andersen ,,in ,,german4 ,edited1 with ,exercises1 by ,,walter ,,rippmann4 ,with many beautiful ,pictures by ,thomas1 ,,charles1 and ,,william ,,robinson4 ,crown #hvo1 #as4 #d;d4 ,an ,edition is issued with a ,glossary at #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,der ,,goldene ,,vogel1 ,,and ,,other ,,tales4 ,a ,second ,year ,german ,reader4 ,edited by ,,walter ,,rippmann4 #as4 #d;d4 ,,eisenhans1 ,,and ,,other ,,tales4 ,a ,second ,year ,german ,reader4 ,edited by ,,walter ,,rippmann4 #as4 #d;d4 ,the exercises in ,der ,goldene ,vogel and ,eisenhans are typical of the latest advance in reform teaching4 ,they consist of questions based on the text1 and exercises in word-formation and applied grammar4 ,,easy ,,free ,,composition ,,in ,,german4 ,by ,,walter ,,rippmann1 ,m4,a4 #as4 #d;d4 ,,deutsche ,,laute4 ,a ,phonetic ,chart for use in ,class 7see under ,phonetics74 ,,english4 ,,the ,,sounds ,,of ,,spoken ,,english4 ,a ,manual of ,ear ,training for ,english ,students4 ,by ,,walter ,,rippmann4 #as4 #f;d4 net4 ,third ,edition4 ,the subject is treated in a pleasant and sympathetic manner quite without pedantry4 ,many useful hints are introduced on breathing1 voice-production1 and the elements of elocution4 ,mr4 ,rippmann is to be congratulated on the production of a fresh and interesting little work4--,the ,guardian4 ,an excellent manual that was much required4--,school ,world4 ,,specimens ,,of ,,english1 ,,read1 ,,spoken1 ,,and ,,recited4 ,by ,,walter ,,rippmann4 #as4 net4 ,second ,edition4 ,the ,first ,part of this companion volume to ,the ,sounds of ,spoken ,english consists of a number of carefully graded passages in prose and verse1 in phonetic transcription1 with exercises4 ,the same pieces appear in the ordinary spelling in the ,second ,part1 with numerous parallel passages for practice4 ,it may be confidently asserted that for class use as well as for the private student the ,sounds and the ,specimens together afford the best introduction to the study of ,english speech sounds that has yet appeared4 ,these two works may be had in one volume at #bs4 net4 ,,dent',s ,,first ,,english ,,book4 ,by ,,walter ,,rippmann4 ,well ,illustrated4 #bs4 net4 ,fourth ,edition4 ,the name of the author and his wide experience in teaching modern languages are guarantees of the excellence of his work4--,schoolmistress4 ,,the ,,teaching ,,of ,,english ,,composition4 ,by ,miss ,e4 ,e4 ,,covernton1 ,english ,mistress at ,st4 ,mary's ,college1 ,paddington4 #as4 #f;d4 net4 ,miss ,covernton is evidently an enthusiast on her subject1 and this book is pleasantly written and very suggestive4444 ,those who are still novices will gain many hints and avoid many pitfalls if they read this volume4--,modern ,language ,teaching4 ,,the ,,teaching ,,of ,,english ,,analysis4 ,by ,miss ,e4 ,m4 ,,dobbs4 #as4 net4 ,,the ,,sounds ,,of ,,english4 ,a ,phonetic ,chart for use in ,class4 7,see under ,phonetics47 ,,english ,,sounds4 ,a ,book for ,boys and ,girls1 by ,,walter ,,rippmann1 ,m4,a4 #as4 ,,spanish4 ,,dent',s ,,first ,,spanish ,,book4 ,by ,f4 ,r4 ,,robert4 ,with ,illustrations by ,j4 ,a4 ,,symington4 #bs4 net4 ,this book is exceptionally well written1 and forms a most interesting introduction to the study of ,spanish4 ,dent's ,classical ,series ,,on ,,the ,,lines ,,of ,,dents ,,modern ,,language ,,series4 ,,general ,,editor3 ,,walter ,,rippmann1 ,m4,a4 ,fifth ,edition1 completing #ad1fej copies4 ,,dent',s ,,first ,,latin ,,book4 ,by ,,harold ,w4 ,,atkinson1 ,m4,a41 and ,j4 ,w4 ,e4 ,,pearce1 ,m4,a4 ,with #ab ,coloured ,plates ,illustrative of ,roman ,life1 by ,m4 ,e4 ,,durham4 ,small crown #hvo1 cloth1 #cs4 ,effects for ,latin a compromise between the usual classical method and the reform method now frequently used in the teaching of modern languages4 ,the ,phonetic ,part of the ,first ,latin ,book is issued separately at #f;d4 ,,dent',s ,,latin ,,primer4 ,by ,e4 ,s4 ,,forster1 ,m4,a4 ,second ,edition1 #as4 ,this ,primer is intended for pupils who begin ,latin early1 whereas the ,first ,latin ,book is better suited for rather older pupils4 ,note4--,each of the above books contains a ,phonetic ,transcript of the ,roman ,pronunciation of passages in the ,reader4 ,,basis ,,latina4 ,an ,introduction to ,latin through the ,language to the ,literature4 ,by ,prof4 ,e4 ,v4 ,,arnold1 assisted by ,,walter ,,rippmann4 #as4 #f;d4 ,,forum ,,latinum4 ,a ,first ,latin ,book4 ,by ,dr4 ,e4 ,,vernon ,,arnold1 ,professor of ,latin at the ,university ,college of ,north ,wales4 ,small crown #hvo1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,aene ,,facta ,,et ,,fata4 ,a ,stepping-stone to ,virgil4 ,with ,notes and ,exercises on the text by ,dr4 ,e4 ,,vernon ,,arnold4 ,with numerous ,illustrations4 ,small crown #hvo1 #bs4 ,c,,sar ,,imperator4 ,an ,elementary ,latin ,reader4 ,with ,vocabulary and ,exercises on the ,text by ,j4 ,w4 ,e4 ,,pearce1 ,m4,a41 joint-author of ,dent's ,first ,latin ,book4 #as4 #d;d4 ,,dents ,,wall ,,pictures4 ,for ,teaching ,latin4 ,four ,coloured ,pictures enlarged from the ,first ,latin ,book4 ,size #cj by #bb ins4 ,unmounted1 #bs4 net each2 ,mounted on ,linen and ,eyeletted1 #cs4 net2 ,mounted on ,linen1 with ,rollers1 #es4 net4 ,rom1 ,sexti ,domus4 ,rom1 ,triumphus4 ,pompeiis1 ,ostium ,tabern et ,via ,strata4 ,in ,gallia1 ,proelium ,equestre et ,pedestre4 ,,classical ,,texts4 ,c,,sar',s ,,gallic ,,war4 ,book ,i4 #as4 #d;d4 ,books ,,ii4 ,,iii4 #as4 #d;d4 ,books ,,iv4 ,v4 #as4 #d;d4 ,,virgil',s ,,aeneid4 ,book ,i4 #as4 #d;d4 ,book ,,ii4 #as4 #d;d4 ,book ,x4 #as4 #d;d4 ,for list of ,editors1 see ,dent's ,educational ,catalogue1 obtainable1 post free1 on application to the ,publishers4 ,transcriber's ,notes3 ,simple spelling1 grammar1 and typographical errors were silently corrected4 ,punctuation normalized4 ,anachronistic and non-standard spellings retained as printed4 ,italics markup is enclosed in underscores4 ,bold markup is enclosed in equals4