,transcriber's note3 ,table of ,contents
 added by ,transcriber4                 
,,contents        ,address of the       
,president ,before the ,british         
,association    #efa    ,the ,bubonic   
,plague    #egf    ,gasoline            
,automobiles    #eic    ,some           
,scientific ,principles of ,warfare     
#fje    ,modern ,mongols    #fah        
,religious ,beliefs of the ,central     
,eskimo    #fbd    ,mental ,energy      
#fcb    ,chapters on the ,stars    #fch 
,discussion and ,correspondence    #ffj 
,scientific ,literature    #ffb    ,the 
,progress of ,science    #ffd    ,index 
#ffi            ,,the    ,,popular      
,,science    ,,monthly      ,,edited    
,,by    ,j4 ,mc,k,e,e,n ,,cattell       
,,vol4 ,,lvii      ,,may ,,to ,,october1
 #aijj      ,,new ,,york ,,and ,,london 
,mc,c,l,u,r,e1 ,,phillips ,,and         
,,company    #aijj                      
,,copyright1 #aijj1    ,,by             
,mc,c,l,u,r,e1 ,,phillips ,,and         
,,company4          ,,the ,,popular     

,,science ,,monthly4    ,,october1      
#aijj4          ,,address ,,of ,,the    
,,president ,,before ,,the ,,british    
,,association4,a    ,,by ,,sir ,,william
 ,,turner1 ,f4 ,r4 ,s41    ,,university 
,,of ,,edinburgh4        ,a ,given at   
,bradford on ,september #e1 #aijj4      
,twenty-seven years ago the ,british    
,association met in ,bradford1  not at  
that time raised to the dignity of a    
city4 ,the meeting was  very successful1
 and was attended by about two thousand 
persons--a  forecast1 let us hope1 of   
what we may expect at the present       
assembly4  ,a distinguished chemist1    
,prof4 ,a4 ,w4 ,williamson1 presided4   
,on this  occasion the association has  
elected for the presidential chair one  
whose attention has been given to the   
study of an important department  of    
biological science4 ,his claim to       
occupy1 however unworthily1 the         
distinguished position in which he has  
been placed1 rests1 doubtless1  on the  
fact that1 in the midst of the          

engrossing duties devolving  on a       
teacher in a great university and school
 of medicine1 he has  endeavored to     
contribute to the sum of knowledge of   
the science which  he professes4 ,it is 
a matter of satisfaction to feel that   
the success  of a meeting of this kind  
does not rest upon the shoulders of the 
occupant of the presidential chair1 but 
is due to the eminence and  active      
coperation of the men of science who    
either preside over  or engage in the   
work of the nine or ten sections into   
which the  association is divided1 and  
to the energy and ability for           
organization  displayed by the local    
secretaries and committees4 ,the        
programme  prepared by the general and  
local officers of the association shows 
that no efforts have been spared to     
provide an ample bill of fare1 both  in 
its scientific and social aspects4      
,members and associates will1 ,i  feel  
sure1 take away from the ,bradford      
meeting as pleasant memories as  did our

 colleagues of the corresponding        
,association ,franaise1 when1 in        
friendly collaboration at ,dover last   
year1 they testified to the common      
citizenship of the ,universal ,republic 
of ,science4 ,as befits a leading       
center of industry in the great county  
of ,york1 the applications of  science  
to the industrial arts and to           
agriculture will form subjects of       
discussion in the papers to be read at  
the meeting4    ,since the association  
was at ,dover a year ago1 two of its    
former  presidents have joined the      
majority4 ,the ,duke of ,argyll presided
  at the meeting in ,glasgow so far back
 as #ahee4 ,throughout his long  and    
energetic life1 he proved himself to be 
an eloquent and earnest  speaker1 one   
who gave to the consideration of public 
affairs a mind  of singular             
independence1 and a thinker and writer  
in a wide range of  human knowledge4    
,sir ,j4 ,wm4 ,dawson was president at  
the meeting in  ,birmingham in #ahhf4   

,born in ,nova ,scotia in #ahbj1 he     
devoted himself to  the study of the    
,geology of ,canada1 and became the     
leading authority on  the subject4 ,he  
took also an active and influential part
 in promoting  the spread of scientific 
education in the ,dominion1 and for a   
number of  years he was ,principal and  
,vice-,chancellor of the ,mc,gill       
,university1  ,montreal4                
,,scientific ,,method4    ,edward       
,gibbon has told us that diligence and  
accuracy are the only  merits which an  
historical writer can ascribe to        
himself4 ,without doubt  they are       
fundamental qualities necessary for     
historical research1  but in order to   
bear fruit they require to be exercised 
by one whose  mental qualities are such 
as to enable him to analyze the data    
brought  together by his diligence1 to  
discriminate between the false and the  
true1 to possess an insight into the    
complex motives that determine  human   
action1 to be able to recognize those   

facts and incidents which  had exercised
 either a primary or only a secondary   
influence on the  affairs of nations1 or
 on the thoughts and doings of the      
person whose  character he is depicting4
    ,in scientific research1 also1      
diligence and accuracy are fundamental  
qualities4 ,by their application new    
facts are discovered and tabulated1     
their order of succession is ascertained
 and a wider and more intimate          
knowledge of the processes of nature is 
acquired4 ,but to decide on  their true 
significance a well-balanced mind and   
the exercise of  prolonged thought and  
reflection are needed4 ,william ,harvey1
 the father  of exact research in       
physiology1 in his memorable work1 #8,de
 ,motu ,cordis  et ,sanguinis1'         
published more than two centuries ago1  
tells us of the  great and daily        
diligence which he exercised in the     
course of his  investigations1 and the  
numerous observations and experiments   
which  he collated4 ,at the same time he

 refers repeatedly to his cogitations   
and reflections on the meaning of what  
he had observed1 without which  the     
complicated movements of the heart could
 not have been analyzed1  their         
significance determined and the         
circulation of the blood in a           
continuous stream definitely            
established4 ,early in the present      
century1  ,carl ,ernst von ,baer1 the   
father of embryological research1 showed
 the  importance which he attached to   
the combination of observation with     
meditation by placing side by side on   
the title page of his famous  treatise  
#8,ueber ,entwickelungsgeschichte der   
,thiere' 7#ahbh7 the words  ,beobachtung
 und ,reflexion4    ,though ,i have     
drawn from biological science my        
illustrations of the  need of this      
combination1 it must not be inferred    
that it applies  exclusively to one     
branch of scientific inquiry2 the       
conjunction  influences and determines  
progress in all the sciences1 and when  

associated with a sufficient touch of   
imagination1 when the power of  seeing  
is conjoined with the faculty of        
foreseeing1 of projecting the  mind into
 the future1 we may expect something    
more than the discovery  of isolated    
facts2 their cordination and the        
enunciation of new  principles and laws 
will necessarily follow4    ,scientific 
method consists1 therefore1 in close    
observation1 frequently  repeated so as 
to eliminate the possibility of         
erroneous seeing2  in experiments       
checked and controlled in every         
direction in which  fallacies might     
arise2 in continuous reflection on the  
appearances and  phenomena observed1 and
 in logically reasoning out their       
meaning and  the conclusions to be drawn
 from them4 ,were the method followed   
out in  its integrity by all who are    
engaged in scientific investigations1   
the  time and labor expended in         
correcting errors committed by ourselves
  or by other observers and             

experimentalists would be saved1 and the
  volumes devoted annually to scientific
 literature would be materially         
diminished in size4 ,were it applied1 as
 far as the conditions of life  admit1  
to the conduct and management of human  
affairs1 we should not  require to be   
told1 when critical periods in our      
welfare as a nation  arise1 that we     
shall muddle through somehow4 ,recent   
experience has  taught us that wise     
discretion and careful provision are as 
necessary  in the direction of public   
affairs as in the pursuit of science1   
and in  both instances1 when properly   
exercised1 they enable us to reach with 
comparative certainty the goal which we 
strive to attain4      ,,improvements   
,,in ,,means ,,of ,,observation4        
,while certain principles of research   
are common to all the sciences1  each   
great division requires for its         
investigation specialized  arrangements 
to insure its progress4 ,nothing        
contributes so much to the  advancement 

of knowledge as improvements in the     
means of observation1  either by the    
discovery of new adjuncts to research1  
or by a fresh  adaptation of old        
methods4 ,in the industrial arts1 the   
introduction  of a new kind of raw      
material1 the recognition that a mixture
 or  blending is often more serviceable 
than when the substances employed  are  
uncombined1 the discovery of new        
processes of treating the articles  used
 in manufactures1 the invention of      
improved machinery1 all lead  to the    
expansion of trade to the occupation of 
the people1 and to  the development of  
great industrial centers4 ,in science1  
also1 the  invention and employment of  
new and more precise instruments and    
appliances enable us to appreciate more 
clearly the signification of  facts and 
phenomena which were previously obscure1
 and to penetrate  more deeply into the 
mysteries of nature4 ,they mark fresh   
departures in  the history of science1  
and provide a firm base of support from 

which a  continuous advance may be made 
and fresh conceptions of nature can be  
evolved4    ,it is not my intention1    
even had ,i possessed the requisite     
knowledge1  to undertake so arduous a   
task as to review the progress which has
  recently been made in the great body  
of sciences which lie within  the domain
 of the ,british ,association4 ,as my   
occupation in life  has required me to  
give attention to the science which     
deals with  the structure and           
organization of the bodies of man and   
animals--a  science which either        
includes within its scope or has        
intimate and  widespread relations to   
comparative anatomy1 embryology1        
morphology1  zology1 physiology and     
anthropology--,i shall limit myself to  
the  attempt to bring before you some of
 the more important observations  and   
conclusions which have a bearing on the 
present position of the  subject4 ,as   
this is the closing year of the century 
it will not1 ,i  think1 be out of place 

to refer to the changes which a hundred 
years  have brought about in our        
fundamental conceptions of the structure
 of  animals4 ,in science1 as in        
business1 it is well from time to time  
to  take stock of what we have been     
doing1 so that we may realize where we  
stand and ascertain the balance to our  
credit in the scientific ledger4    ,so 
far back as the time of the ancient     
,greeks it was known that the  human    
body and those of the more highly       
organized animals were not  homogeneous1
 but were built up of parts1 the partes 
dissimilares 7    ta anomoia mer7 of    
,aristotle1 which differed from each    
other in form1 color1 texture1          
consistency and properties4 ,these parts
  were familiarly known as the bones1   
muscles1 sinews1 blood-vessels1  glands1
 brain1 nerves and so on4 ,as the       
centuries rolled on1 and  as observers  
and observations multiplied1 a more and 
more precise  knowledge of these parts  
throughout the animal kingdom was       

obtained1  and various attempts were    
made to classify animals in accordance  
with  their forms and structure4 ,during
 the concluding years of the last       
century and the earlier part of the     
present1 the ,hunters1 ,william and     
,john1 in our country1 the ,meckels in  
,germany1 ,cuvier and ,st4 ,hilaire in  
,france1 gave an enormous impetus to    
anatomical studies1 and contributed     
largely to our knowledge of the         
construction of the bodies of animals4  
,but whilst by these and other observers
 the most salient and1 if ,i may  use   
the expression1 the grosser characters  
of animal organization had  been        
recognized1 little was known of the more
 intimate structure or  texture of the  
parts4 ,so far as could be determined by
 the unassisted  vision1 and so much as 
could be recognized by the use of a     
simple  lens1 had indeed been           
ascertained1 and it was known that      
muscles1  nerves and tendons were       
composed of threads or fibers1 and the  

blood  and lymph-vessels were tubes1    
that the parts which we call fasci and  
aponeuroses were thin membranes and so  
on4    ,early in the present century1   
,xavier ,bichat1 one of the most        
brilliant  men of science during the    
,napoleonic era in ,france1 published   
his  #8,anatomie ,gnrale1' in which he  
formulated important general            
principles4 ,every animal is an         
assemblage of different organs1 each of 
which discharges a function1 and acting 
together1 each in its own way1  assists 
in the preservation of the whole4 ,the  
organs are1 as it were1  special        
machines situated in the general        
building which constitutes  the factory 
or body of the individual4 ,but1        
further1 each organ or  special machine 
is itself formed of tissues which       
possess different  properties4 ,some1 as
 the blood-vessels1 nerves1 fibrous     
tissues1 etc41  are generally           
distributed throughout the animal body1 
whilst others1  as bones1 muscles1 and  

cartilage1 etc41 are found only in      
certain  definite localities4 ,while    
,bichat had acquired a definite         
philosophical  conception of the general
 principles of construction and of the  
distribution of the tissues1 neither he 
nor his pupil ,bclard was in a  position
 to determine the essential nature of   
the structural elements4  ,the means and
 appliances at their disposal and at    
that of other  observers in their       
generation were not sufficiently potent 
to complete  the analysis4    ,attempts 
were made in the third decennium of this
 century to improve  the methods of     
examining minute objects by the         
manufacture of compound  lenses1 and1 by
 doing away with chromatic and spherical
 aberration1 to  obtain1 in addition to 
magnification of the object1 a          
relatively large  flat field of vision  
with clearness and sharpness of         
definition4 ,when  in ,january1 #ahcj1  
,joseph ,jackson ,lister read to the    
,royal ,society his  memoir 8,on ,some  

,properties in ,achromatic              
,object-,glasses ,applicable to  the    
,improvement of ,microscopes10 he       
announced the principles on which       
combinations of lenses could be         
arranged1 which would possess these     
qualities4 ,by the skill of our         
opticians1 microscopes have now for more
  than half a century been constructed  
which1 in the hands of competent        
observers1 have influenced and extended 
biological science with results         
comparable to those obtained by the     
astronomer through improvements in  the 
telescope4    ,in the study of the      
minute structure of plants and animals1 
the  observer has frequently to deal    
with tissues and organs1 most of  which 
possess such softness and delicacy of   
substance and outline  that1 even when  
microscopes of the best construction are
 employed1  the determination of the    
intimate nature of the tissue1 and the  
precise relation which one element of an
 organ bears to the other  constituent  

elements1 is1 in many instances1 a      
matter of difficulty4  ,hence additional
 methods have had to be devised in order
 to facilitate  study and to give       
precision and accuracy to our           
observations4 ,it is  difficult for one 
of the younger generation of biologists1
 with all  the appliances of a          
well-equipped laboratory at his command1
 with  experienced teachers to direct   
him in his work1 and with excellent     
text-books1 in which the modern methods 
are described1 to realize the           
conditions under which his predecessors 
worked half a century ago4              
,laboratories for minute biological     
research had not been constructed1  the 
practical teaching of histology and     
embryology had not been  organized1     
experience in methods of work had not   
accumulated2 each  man was left to his  
individual efforts1 and had to puzzle   
his way  through the complications of   
structure to the best of his power4     
,staining and hardening reagents were   

unknown4 ,the double-bladed knife       
invented by ,valentin1 held in the hand1
 was the only improvement on  the       
scalpel or razor for cutting thin1 more 
or less translucent slices  suitable for
 microscopic examination2 mechanical    
section-cutters and  freezing           
arrangements had not been devised4 ,the 
tools at the disposal  of the           
microscopist were little more than      
knife1 forceps1 scissors1  needles2 with
 acetic acid1 glycerine and ,canada     
balsam as reagents4  ,but in the        
employment of the newer methods of      
research care has to be  taken1 more    
especially when hardening and staining  
reagents are used1  to discriminate     
between appearances which are to be     
interpreted as  indicating natural      
characters1 and those which are only    
artificial  productions4                
,notwithstanding the difficulties       
attendant on the study of the  more     
delicate tissues1 the compound          
achromatic microscope provided          

anatomists with an instrument of great  
penetrative power4 ,between the  years  
#ahcj and #ahej a number of acute       
observers applied themselves with  much 
energy and enthusiasm to the examination
 of the minute structure  of the tissues
 and organs in plants and animals4      
,,cell ,,theory4    ,it had1 indeed1    
long been recognized that the tissues of
 plants were  to a large extent composed
 of minute vesicular bodies1 technically
  called cells 7,hooke1 ,malpighi1      
,grew74 ,in #ahca the discovery was made
  by the great botanist1 ,robert ,brown1
 that in many families of plants a      
circular spot1 which he named areola or 
nucleus1 was present in each  cell2 and 
in #ahch ,m4 ,j4 ,schleiden published   
the fact that a similar  spot or nucleus
 was a universal elementary organ in    
vegetables4 ,in  the tissues of animals 
also structures had begun to be         
recognized  comparable with the cells   
and nuclei of the vegetable tissues1 and
 in  #ahci ,theodore ,schwann announced 

the important generalization that  there
 is one universal principle of          
development for the elementary  part of 
organisms1 however different they may be
 in appearance1 and  that this principle
 is the formation of cells4 ,the        
enunciation of the  fundamental         
principle that the elementary tissues   
consisted of cells  constituted a step  
in the progress of biological science   
which will  forever stamp the century   
now drawing to a close with a character 
and  renown equalling those which it has
 derived from the most brilliant        
discoveries in the physical sciences4   
,it provided biologists with the        
visible anatomical units through which  
the external forces operating  on1 and  
the energy generated in1 living matter  
come into play4 ,it  dispelled forever  
the old mystical idea of the influence  
exercised by  vapors or spirits in      
living organisms4 ,it supplied the      
physiologist and  pathologist with the  
specific structures through the agency  

of which  the functions of organisms are
 discharged in health and disease4 ,it  
exerted an enormous influence on the    
progress of practical medicine4 ,a      
review of the progress of knowledge of  
the cell may appropriately enter  into  
an address on this occasion4            
,,structure ,,of ,,cells4    ,a cell is 
a living particle1 so minute that it    
needs a microscope for  its examination2
 it grows in size1 maintains itself in a
 state of  activity1 responds to the    
action of stimuli1 reproduces its kind  
and in  the course of time it           
degenerates and dies4    ,let us glance 
at the structure of a cell to determine 
its constituent  parts and the rle which
 each plays in the function to be       
discharged4  ,the original conception of
 a cell1 based upon the study of the    
vegetable tissues1 was a minute vesicle 
inclosed by a definite wall1  which     
exercised chemical or metabolic changes 
on the surrounding  material and        
secreted into the vesicle its           

characteristic contents4 ,a  similar    
conception was at first also entertained
 regarding the cells  of animal tissues2
 but as observations multiplied1 it was 
seen that  numerous elementary          
particles1 which were obviously in their
 nature  cells1 did not possess an      
inclosing envelope4 ,a wall ceased to   
have a  primary value as a constituent  
part of a cell1 the necessary vesicular 
character of which therefore could no   
longer be entertained4    ,the other    
constituent parts of a cell are the cell
 plasm1 which forms  the body of the    
cell1 and the nucleus embedded in its   
substance4  ,notwithstanding the very   
minute size of the nucleus1 which even  
in  the largest cells is not more than  
one-five-hundredth of an inch in        
diameter1 and usually is considerably   
smaller1 its almost constant  form1 its 
well-defined sharp outline and its power
 of resisting the  action of strong     
reagents when applied to the cell1 have 
from the  period of its discovery by    

,robert ,brown caused histologists to   
bestow  on it much attention4 ,its      
structure and chemical composition2 its 
mode  of origin2 the part which it plays
 in the formation of new cells1 and  its
 function in nutrition and secretion    
have been investigated4    ,when        
examined under favorable conditions in  
its passive or resting  state1 the      
nucleus is seen to be bounded by a      
membrane which separates  it from the   
cell plasm and gives it the             
characteristic sharp contour4  ,it      
contains an apparently structureless    
nuclear substance1 nucleoplasm  or      
enchylema1 in which are embedded one or 
more extremely minute  particles called 
nucleoli1 along with a network of       
exceedingly fine  threads or fibers1    
which in the active living cell play an 
essential  part in the production of new
 nuclei within the cell4 ,in its        
chemical  composition the nuclear       
substance consists of albuminous plastin
 and  globulin2 and of a special        

material named nuclein1 rich in         
phosphorus  and with an acid reaction4  
,the delicate network within the nucleus
  consists apparently of the nuclein1 a 
substance which stains with  carmine and
 other dyes1 a property which enables   
the changes1 which  take place in the   
network in the production of young      
cells1 to be more  readily seen and     
followed out by the observer4    ,the   
mode of origin of the nucleus and the   
part which it plays in the  production  
of new cells have been the subject of   
much discussion4  ,schleiden1 whose     
observations1 published in #ahch1 were  
made on the  cells of plants1 believed  
that within the cell a nucleolus first  
appeared1 and that around it molecules  
aggregated to form the nucleus4         
,schwann again1 whose observations were 
mostly made on the cells of  animals1   
considered that an amorphous material   
existed in organized  bodies1 which he  
called cytoblastema4 ,it formed the     
contents of cells1  or it might be      

situated free or external to them4 ,he  
figuratively  compared it to a mother   
liquor in which crystals are formed4    
,either in  the cytoblastema within the 
cells or in that situated external to   
them1  the aggregation of molecules     
around a nucleolus to form a nucleus    
might  occur1 and1 when once the nucleus
 had been formed1 in its turn it would  
serve as a center of aggregation of     
additional molecules from which  a new  
cell would be produced4 ,he regarded1   
therefore1 the formation  of nuclei and 
cells as possible in two ways--one      
within prexisting  cells 7endogenous    
cell-formation71 the other in a free    
blastema lying  external to cells 7free 
cell-formation74 ,in animals1 he says1  
the  endogenous method is rare1 and the 
customary origin is in an external      
blastema4 ,both ,schleiden and ,schwann 
considered that after the cell was      
formed the nucleus had no permanent     
influence on the life of the cell1  and 
usually disappeared4    ,under the      

teaching principally of ,henle1 the     
famous ,professor of  ,anatomy in       
,gttingen1 the conception of the free   
formation of nuclei  and cells in a more
 or less fluid blastema1 by an          
aggregation of  elementary granules and 
molecules1 obtained so much credence1   
especially amongst those who were       
engaged in the study of pathological    
processes1 that the origin of cells     
within prexisting cells was to  a large 
extent lost sight of4 ,that a parent    
cell was requisite for  the production  
of new cells seemed to many             
investigators to be no  longer needed4  
,without doubt this conception of free  
cell-formation  contributed in no small 
degree to the belief1 entertained by    
various  observers1 that the simplest   
plants and animals might arise1 without 
prexisting parents1 in organic fluids   
destitute of life1 by a process  of     
spontaneous generation2 a belief which  
prevailed in many minds  almost to the  
present day4 ,if1 as has been stated1   

the doctrine of  abiogenesis cannot be  
experimentally refuted1 on the other    
hand it has  not been experimentally    
proved4 ,the burden of proof lies with  
those who  hold the doctrine1 and the   
evidence that we possess is all the     
other  way4      ,,multiplication ,,of  
,,cells4    ,although von ,mohl1 the    
botanist1 seems to have been the first  
to  recognize 7#ahce7 in plants a       
multiplication of cells by division1  it
 was not until attention was given to   
the study of the egg in  various animals
 and to the changes which take place in 
it1 attendant  on fertilization1 that in
 the course of time a much more correct 
conception of the origin of the nucleus 
and of the part which it  plays in the  
formation of new cells was obtained4    
,before ,schwann had  published his     
classical memoir in #ahci1 von ,baer and
 other observers  had recognized within 
the animal ovum the germinal vesicle1   
which  obviously bore to the ovum the   
relation of a nucleus to a cell4 ,as the

  methods of observation improved1 it   
was recognized that1 within the         
developing egg1 two vesicles appeared   
where one only had previously  existed1 
to be followed by four vesicles1 then   
eight1 and so on in  multiple           
progression until the ovum contained a  
multitude of vesicles1  each of which   
possessed a nucleus4 ,the vesicles were 
obviously cells  which had arisen within
 the original germ-cell or ovum4 ,these 
changes  were systematically described  
by ,martin ,barry so long ago as #ahci  
and #ahdj in two memoirs communicated to
 the ,royal ,society of ,london1  and   
the appearance produced1 on account of  
the irregularities of the  surface      
occasioned by the production of new     
vesicles1 was named by him  the         
mulberry-like structure4 ,he further    
pointed out that the vesicles  arranged 
themselves as a layer within the        
envelope of the egg or zona  pellucida1 
and that the whole embryo was composed  
of cells filled  with the foundations of

 other cells4 ,he recognized that the   
new cells  were derived from the        
germinal vesicle or nucleus of the ovum1
 the  contents of which entered into the
 formation of the first two cells1  each
 of which had its nucleus1 which in its 
turn resolved itself  into other cells1 
and by a repetition of the process into 
a greater  number4 ,the endogenous      
origin of new cells within a prexisting 
cell  and the process which we now term 
the segmentation of the yolk were       
successfully demonstrated4 ,in a third  
memoir1 published in #ahda1 ,barry      
definitely stated that young cells      
originated through division of  the     
nucleus of the parent cell1 instead of  
arising1 as a product of                
crystallization1 in the fluid           
cytoblastema of the parent cell or in a 
blastema situated external to the cell4 
,in a memoir published in #ahdb1 ,john  
,goodsir advocated the view that  the   
nucleus is the reproductive organ of the
 cell1 and that from it1  as from a     

germinal spot1 new cells were formed4   
,in a paper1 published  three years     
later1 on nutritive centers1 he         
described cells1 the nuclei  of which   
were the permanent source of successive 
broods of young cells1  which from time 
to time occupied the cavity of the      
parent cell4 ,he  extended also his     
observations on the endogenous formation
 of cells  to the cartilage cells in the
 process of inflammation and to other   
tissues undergoing pathological changes4
 ,corroborative observations on         
endogenous formation were also given by 
his brother1 ,harry ,goodsir1  in #ahde4
 ,these observations on the part which  
the nucleus plays by  cleavage in the   
formation of young cells by endogenous  
development from  a parent center--that 
an organic continuity existed between a 
mother  cell and its descendants through
 the nucleus--constituted a great  step 
in advance of the views entertained by  
,schleiden and ,schwann1  and showed    
that ,barry and the ,goodsirs had a     

deeper insight into the  nature and     
functions of cells than was possessed by
 most of their  contemporaries1 and are 
of the highest importance when viewed in
 the  light of recent observations4     
,in #ahda ,robert ,remak published an   
account of the presence of two nuclei   
in the blood corpuscles of the chick and
 the pig1 which he regarded as  evidence
 of the production of new corpuscles by 
division of the nucleus  within a parent
 cell2 but it was not until some years  
afterwards 7#ahej  to #ahee7 that he    
recorded additional observations and    
recognized that  division of the nucleus
 was the starting-point for the         
multiplication  of cells in the ovum and
 in the tissues generally4 ,remak's view
 was  that the process of cell division 
began with the cleavage of the          
nucleolus1 followed by that of the      
nucleus1 and that again by cleavage  of 
the body of the cell and its membrane4  
,klliker had previously1 in  #ahdc1     
described the multiplication of nuclei  

in the ova of parasitic  worms1 and drew
 the inference that in the formation of 
young cells  within the egg the nucleus 
underwent cleavage1 and that each of    
its divisions entered into the formation
 of a new cell4 ,by these  observations1
 and by others subsequently made1 it    
became obvious that  the multiplication 
of animal cells1 either by division of  
the nucleus  within the cell1 or by the 
budding off of a part of the protoplasm 
of the cell1 was to be regarded as a    
widely spread and probably a  universal 
process1 and that each new cell arose   
from a parent cell4    ,pathological    
observers were1 however1 for the most   
part inclined  to consider free         
cell-formation in a blastema or         
exudation by an  aggregation of         
molecules1 in accordance with the views 
of ,henle1  as a common phenomenon4     
,this proposition was attacked with     
great  energy by ,virchow in a series of
 memoirs published in his #8,archiv1'   
commencing in ,vol4 #a1 #ahdg1 and      

finally received its death-blow in his  
published lectures on ,cellular         
,pathology1 #aheh4 ,he maintained that  
in pathological structures there was no 
instance of cell development  de novo2  
where a cell existed1 there one must    
have been before4  ,cell-formation was a
 continuous development by descent1     
which he  formulated in the expression  
omnis cellula e cellul4                 
,,karyokinesis4    ,while the descent of
 cells from prexisting cells by division
 of the  nucleus during the development 
of the egg1 in the embryos of plants and
  animals1 and in adult vegetable and   
animal tissues1 both in healthy and     
diseased conditions1 had now become     
generally recognized1 the mechanism  of 
the process by which the cleavage of the
 nucleus took place was  for a long time
 unknown4 ,the discovery had to be      
deferred until the  optician had been   
able to construct lenses of a higher    
penetrative  power1 and the microscopist
 had learned the use of coloring agents 

capable of dyeing the finest elements of
 the tissues4 ,there was reason  to     
believe that in some cases a direct     
cleavage of the nucleus1 to  be followed
 by a corresponding division of the cell
 into two parts1  did occur4 ,in the    
period between #ahgj and #ahhj          
observations were made  by ,schneider1  
,strasburger1 ,btschli1 ,fol1 van       
,beneden and ,flemming1  which showed   
that the division of the nucleus and the
 cell was due to  a series of very      
remarkable changes1 now known as        
indirect nuclear and  cell division1 or 
karyokinesis4 ,the changes within the   
nucleus are of  so complex a character  
that it is impossible to follow them in 
detail  without the use of appropriate  
illustrations4 ,i shall have to content 
myself1 therefore1 with an elementary   
sketch of the process4    ,i have       
previously stated that the nucleus in   
its passive or resting  stage contains a
 very delicate network of threads or    
fibers4 ,the first  stage in the process

 of nuclear division consists in the    
threads  arranging themselves in loops  
and forming a compact coil within the   
nucleus4 ,the coil then becomes looser1 
the loops of threads shorten and        
thicken1 and somewhat later each looped 
thread splits longitudinally  into two  
portions4 ,as the threads stain when    
coloring agents are  applied to them1   
they are called chromatin fibers1 and   
the loose coil  is the chromosome       
7,waldeyer74    ,as the process         
continues1 the investing membrane of the
 nucleus  disappears1 and the loops of  
threads arrange themselves within the   
nucleus so that the closed ends of the  
loops are directed to a common  center1 
from which the loops radiate outwards   
and produce a starlike  figure 7aster74 
,at the same time clusters of extremely 
delicate lines  appear both in the      
nucleoplasm and in the body of the cell1
 named the  achromatic figure1 which has
 a spindle-like form with two opposite  
poles1 and stains much more feebly than 

the chromatic fibers4 ,the loops  of the
 chromatic star then arrange themselves 
in the equatorial plane  of the spindle1
 and bending round turn their closed    
ends towards the  periphery of the      
nucleus and the cell4    ,the next stage
 marks an important step in the process 
of division of  the nucleus4 ,the two   
longitudinal portions1 into which each  
looped  thread had previously split1 now
 separate from each other1 and whilst   
one part migrates to one pole of the    
spindle1 the other moves to the         
opposite pole1 and the free ends of each
 loop are directed toward its  equator  
7metakinesis74 ,by this division of the 
chromatin fibers1 and  their separation 
from each other to opposite poles of the
 spindle1 two  starlike chromatin       
figures are produced 7dyaster74    ,each
 group of fibers thickens1 shortens1    
becomes surrounded by a  membrane1 and  
forms a new or daughter nucleus         
7dispirem74 ,two nuclei  therefore have 
arisen within the cell by the division  

of that which had  previously existed1  
and the expression formulated by        
,flemming--omnis  nucleus e nucleo--is  
justified4 ,whilst this stage is in     
course of  being completed1 the body of 
the cell becomes constricted in the     
equatorial plane of the spindle1 and1 as
 the constriction deepens1 it  separates
 into two parts1 each containing a      
daughter nucleus1 so that  two nucleated
 cells have arisen out of a prexisting  
cell4    ,a repetition of the process in
 each of these cells leads to the       
formation of other cells1 and1 although 
modifications in details are  found in  
different species of plants and animals1
 the multiplication of  cells in the egg
 and in the tissues generally on similar
 lines is now a  thoroughly established 
fact in biological science4    ,in the  
study of karyokinesis1 importance has   
been attached to the  number of         
chromosomes in the nucleus of the cell4 
,flemming had seen  in the ,salamander  
twenty-four chromosome fibers1 which    

seems to be a  constant number in the   
cells of epithelium and connective      
tissues4  ,in other cells1 again1       
especially in the ova of certain        
animals1 the  number is smaller1 and    
fourteen1 twelve1 four and even two only
 have  been described4 ,the theory      
formulated by ,boveri that the number of
  chromosomes is constant for each      
species1 and that in the karyokinetic   
figures corresponding numbers are found 
in homologous cells1 seems to  be not   
improbable4    ,in the preceding        
description ,i have incidentally        
referred to the  appearance in the      
proliferating cell of an achromatic     
spindle-like  figure4 ,although this was
 recognized by ,fol in #ahgc1 it is only
 during  the last ten or twelve years   
that attention has been paid to its more
  minute arrangements and possible      
signification in cell-division4    ,the 
pole at each end of the spindle lies in 
the cell plasm which  surrounds the     
nucleus4 ,in the center of each pole is 

a somewhat opaque  spot 7central body7  
surrounded by a clear space1 which1     
along with the  spot1 constitutes the   
centrosome of the sphere of attraction4 
,from  each centrosome extremely        
delicate lines may be seen to radiate in
 two  directions4 ,one set extends      
towards the pole at the opposite end of 
the  spindle1 and1 meeting or coming    
into close proximity with radiations    
from it1 constitutes the body of the    
spindle1 which1 like a perforated       
mantle1 forms an imperfect envelope     
around the nucleus during the  process  
of division4 ,the other set of          
radiations is called the polar  and     
extends in the region of the pole       
towards the periphery of the cell4      
,the question has been much discussed   
whether any constituent part of  the    
achromatic figure1 or the entire figure1
 exists in the cell as a  permanent     
structure in its resting phase2 or if it
 is only present  during the process of 
karyokinesis4 ,during the development of

 the  egg the formation of young cells1 
by division of the segmentation         
nucleus1 is so rapid and continuous that
 the achromatic figure1 with  the       
centrosome in the pole of the spindle1  
is a readily recognizable  object in    
each cell4 ,the polar and spindle-like  
radiations are in  evidence during      
karyokinesis1 and have apparently a     
temporary endurance  and function4 ,on  
the other hand1 van ,beneden and ,boveri
 were of  opinion that the central body 
of the centrosome did not disappear     
when the division of the nucleus came to
 an end1 but that it remained  as a     
constituent part of a cell lying in the 
cell plasm1 near to  the nucleus4       
,flemming has seen the central body with
 its sphere in  leucocytes1 as well as  
in epithelial cells and those of other  
tissues4  ,subsequently ,heidenhain and 
other histologists have recorded similar
  observations4 ,it would seem1         
therefore1 as if there were reason to   
regard the centrosome1 like the nucleus1

 as a permanent constituent  of a cell4 
,this view1 however1 is not universally 
entertained4 ,if not  always capable of 
demonstration in the resting stage of a 
cell1 it is  doubtless to be regarded as
 potentially present1 and ready to      
assume1  along with the radiations1 a   
characteristic appearance when the      
process  of nuclear division is about to
 begin4    ,one can scarcely regard the 
presence of so remarkable an appearance 
as the achromatic figure without        
associating with it an important        
function in the economy of the cell4 ,as
 from the centrosome at the pole  of the
 spindle both sets of radiations        
diverge1 it is not unlikely  that it    
acts as a center or sphere of energy and
 attraction4 ,by  some observers the    
radiations are regarded as substantive  
fibrillar  structures1 elastic or even  
contractile in their properties4        
,others1  again1 look upon them as      
morphological expressions of chemical   
and  dynamical energy in the protoplasm 

of the cell body4 ,on either theory  we 
may assume that they indicate an        
influence1 emanating1 it may be1  from  
the centrosome and capable of being     
exercised both on the cell  plasm and on
 the nucleus contained in it4 ,on the   
contractile theory1  the radiations     
which form the body of the spindle1     
either by actual  traction of the       
supposed fibrill or by their pressure on
 the nucleus  which they surround1 might
 impel during karyokinesis the dividing 
chromosome elements toward the poles of 
the spindle1 to form there the  daughter
 nuclei4 ,on the dynamical theory1 the  
chemical and physical  energy in the    
centrosome might influence the cell     
plasm and the nucleus  and attract the  
chromosome elements of the nucleus to   
the poles of the  spindle4 ,the radiated
 appearance would therefore be          
consequent and  attendant on the        
physico-chemical activity of the        
centrosome4 ,one or  other of these     
theories may also be applied to the     

interpretation of  the significance of  
the polar radiations4      ,,cell       
,,plasm4    ,in the cells of plants1 in 
addition to the cell wall1 the cell body
  and the cell juice require to be      
examined4 ,the material of the cell     
body1 or the cell contents1 was named by
 von ,mohl 7#ahdf7 protoplasm1  and     
consisted of a colorless tenacious      
substance which partly lined the  cell  
wall 7primordial utricle7 and partly    
traversed the interior of  the cell as  
delicate threads inclosing spaces       
7vacuoles7 in which the  cell juice was 
contained4 ,in the protoplasm the       
nucleus was embedded4  ,ngeli1 about the
 same time1 had also recognized the     
difference between  the protoplasm and  
the other contents of vegetable cells1  
and had  noticed its nitrogenous        
composition4    ,though the analogy with
 a closed bladder or vesicle could no   
longer  be sustained in the animal      
tissues1 the name #8cell' continued to  
be  retained for descriptive purposes1  

and the body of the cell was spoken  of 
as a more or less soft substance        
inclosing a nucleus 7,leydig74 ,in      
#ahfa ,max ,schultze adopted for the    
substance forming the body of the       
animal cell the term #8protoplasm4' ,he 
defined a cell to be a particle  of     
protoplasm in the substance of which a  
nucleus was situated4 ,he  regarded the 
protoplasm1 as indeed had previously    
been pointed out by  the botanist       
,unger1 as essentially the same as the  
contractile sarcode  which constitutes  
the body and pseudopodia of the ,amba   
and other  ,rhizopoda4 ,as the term     
#8protoplasm1' as well as that of       
#8bioplasm'  employed by ,lionel ,beale 
in a somewhat similar though not        
precisely  identical sense1 involves    
certain theoretical views of the origin 
and  function of the body of the cell1  
it would be better to apply to it the   
more purely descriptive term            
#8cytoplasm' or #8cell plasm4'          
,schultze defined protoplasm as a       

homogeneous1 glassy1 tenacious          
material1 of a jelly-like or somewhat   
firmer consistency1 in which  numerous  
minute granules were embedded4 ,he      
regarded it as the part  of the cell    
especially endowed with vital energy1   
whilst the exact  function of the       
nucleus could not be defined4 ,based    
upon this  conception of the jelly-like 
character of protoplasm1 the idea for a 
time prevailed that a structureless1    
dimly granular1 jelly or slime          
destitute of organization1 possessed    
great physiological activity1 and  was  
the medium through which the phenomena  
of life were displayed4    ,more        
accurate conceptions of the nature of   
the cell plasm soon began  to be        
entertained4 ,brcke recognized that the 
body of the cell was  not simple1 but   
had a complex organization4 ,hemming    
observed that the  cell plasm contained 
extremely delicate threads1 which       
frequently  formed a network1 the       
interspaces of which were occupied by a 

more  homogeneous substance4 ,where the 
threads crossed each other1 granular    
particles 7milkrosomen7 were situated4  
,btschli considered that he  could      
recognize in the cell plasm a           
honeycomb-like appearance1 as if  it    
consisted of excessively minute chambers
 in which a homogeneous  more or less   
fluid material was contained4 ,the polar
 and spindle-like  radiations visible   
during the process of karyokinesis1     
which have  already been referred to1   
and the presence of the centrosome1     
possibly  even during the resting stage 
of the cell1 furnished additional       
illustrations of differentiation within 
the cell plasm4 ,in many cells  there   
appears also to be a difference in the  
character of the cell  plasm which      
immediately surrounds the nucleus and   
that which lies at  and near the        
periphery of the cell4 ,the peripheral  
part 7ektoplasma7  is more compact and  
gives a definite outline to the cell1   
although  not necessarily               

differentiating into a cell membrane4   
,the inner part  7endoplasma7 is softer 
and is distinguished by a more distinct 
granular  appearance and by containing  
the products specially formed in each   
particular kind of cell during the      
nutritive process4    ,by the researches
 of numerous investigators on the       
internal  organization of cells in      
plants and animals1 a large body of     
evidence  has now been accumulated1     
which shows that both the nucleus and   
the  cell plasm consist of something    
more than a homogeneous1 more or less   
viscid1 slimy material4 ,recognizable   
objects in the form of granules1        
threads1 or fibers can be distinguished 
in each4 ,the cell plasm and  the       
nucleus respectively are therefore not  
of the same constitution  throughout1   
but possess polymorphic characters1 the 
study of which in  health and the       
changes produced by disease will for    
many years to come  form important      
matters for investigation4      7,to be 

concluded47          ,,the ,,bubonic    
,,plague4    ,,by ,,frederick ,g4       
,,novy1 ,,sc4,d41 ,m4,d41    ,,junior   
,,professor ,,of ,,hygiene ,,and        
,,physiological ,,chemistry ,,in ,,the  
,,university ,,of ,,michigan4      ,the 
province of ,yunnan in ,china adjoins   
,french ,tonkin and ,british  ,burmah4  
,it is of interest to the student of    
epidemiology because from  this         
mountainous and difficultly accessible  
region there has issued but  recently a 
disease which has been considered as    
practically extinct4  ,frightful as have
 been the ravages of the pest in the    
middle ages1 it  is noteworthy that     
during the past hundred years1 with the 
exception of  two slight outbreaks      
7,noja in ,italy in #ahae1 and          
,vetlianka in ,russia  in #ahgh71 the   
disease has been unknown in ,europe4    
,during this time the  pest has not been
 extinct1 but has existed to a greater  
or less extent  in certain parts of     
,asia and in ,africa4 ,four and possibly

 five of these  endemic foci are known  
to-day4 ,the province of ,yunnan is one 
of these  regions4 ,the mountainous     
district of ,gurhwal1 lying along the   
southern  slope of the ,himalayas1 is   
another center where the pest has       
continued  to prevail4 ,the recent      
travels of ,koch in eastern ,africa have
 brought  to light a third region about 
,lake ,victoria1 in the ,british        
province of  ,uganda1 and the ,german   
,kisiba1 where the plague has existed   
from time  immemorial1 cut off as it    
were from the outer world4 ,only last   
year  ,sakharoff called attention to a  
fourth focus in northeastern ,china1 and
  it is quite likely that a fifth focus 
exists in ,arabia4 ,these regions  are  
of great importance in so far as the    
existence of permanent endemic  foci    
sheds not a little light upon the       
development and spread of those  great  
epidemics which1 like great tidal waves1
 have in the past swept  over whole     
countries and even continents4    ,it is

 not known when or from whence the pest 
was first introduced into  ,yunnan4     
,unquestionably1 it has existed in the  
extreme western parts of  the province  
for many decades4 ,eventually the       
disease spread throughout  the province1
 and frightful ravages are known to have
 occurred in  #ahga-gc4 ,repeated       
visitations of this dread disease have  
taught the  natives of ,yunnan1 as well 
as those of ,gurhwal and of ,uganda1 to 
desert  their villages as soon as an    
unusual mortality is found to prevail   
among the rats4 ,in spite of the        
frequent recurrence of the plague1 it   
did not spread to neighboring provinces1
 largely because of the fact  that      
little or no communication exists       
between ,yunnan and the adjoining       
,chinese states4 ,recently1 however1 the
 plague did succeed in crossing  the    
frontier1 and1 in so doing1 it has given
 rise to an epidemic  which1 as will be 
presently seen1 has already made an     
unenviable record  and has a future that

 no one can foretell4    ,the way in    
which the disease spread from ,yunnan   
has been quite clearly  established4    
,along the ,tonkin frontier1 throughout 
the provinces of  ,quan-si and ,yunnan1 
the ,chinese maintain a large number of 
military  posts4 ,mule supply-trains for
 these posts passed from province to    
province over the difficult mountain    
paths4 ,the mule-drivers were  natives  
of ,yunnan4 ,in #ahib the plague existed
 in ,yunnan1 and it was in  the summer  
of #ahic that the disease appeared at   
,long-,cheou in ,quansi  among the      
,yunnan mule-drivers4 ,these drivers    
arriving at the post of  ,lieng-,cheng1 
after one of their journeys from        
,yunnan1 repaired to the  city of       
,long-,cheou1 about ten miles distant4  
,during their sojourn in  this city the 
muleteers developed the first known     
cases of the plague4  ,from these men   
the disease spread throughout the city  
and to the  neighboring posts and       
villages4    ,from ,long-,cheou the     

plague descended the ,canton ,river and 
reached  ,naning-,phu4 ,from thence it  
followed overland to the seaport        
,pakhoi1  some hundred and fifty miles  
distant4 ,a few months later1 in        
,february1  #ahid1 it reached ,canton1  
either by descending the river from     
,naning-,phu  or by boat from ,pakhoi4  
,that the plague at ,canton1 in #ahid1  
had not  lost any of its old-time       
destructiveness is seen in the fact that
 it is  estimated to have caused not    
less than one hundred thousand deaths in
  ,canton in the short space of two     
months4    ,from ,canton the plague     
spread to ,hong ,kong in ,april1 #ahid4 
,it was  during the existence of this   
epidemic that the first bacteriological 
studies of the disease were made and    
resulted in the discovery of the  plague
 bacillus4 ,in the fall of #ahid1 the   
disease died out in ,hong  ,kong1 but it
 reappeared in #ahie and #ahif4         
,considering the fact that  ,hong ,kong 
is one of the most important maritime   

centers1 it is not  surprising to find  
that in the spring of #ahif the plague  
was carried  by shipping to the ,island 
of ,formosa4 ,it is quite certain that  
about  the same time the plague was     
carried from ,hong ,kong to ,bombay4 ,at
 all  events1 the existence of this     
disease was recognized in ,bombay in    
,september1 #ahif1 by ,doctor ,viegas4  
,previous to this date1 the mortality   
in ,bombay was abnormally high1         
undoubtedly due to the very unsanitary  
condition of the overcrowded city4      
,the existence of famine in ,india1     
together with the filthy1 overcrowded   
condition of the population1 enabled the
 plague to gain a firm foothold  in a   
relatively short time4 ,indeed1 there   
can be no doubt but that the  disease   
was well established at the time it was 
first recognized4 ,it  is no wonder1    
then1 that in spite of the most         
stringent precautions1  it spread like  
wildfire1 so that in a short time the   
weekly deaths  from the plague rose to  

nearly #b1jjj4 ,in the face of such a   
relentless  enemy1 it is but natural    
that a large proportion of the          
population  should seek safety in       
flight4 ,it is believed that fully      
#cjj1jjj people  left ,bombay shortly   
after the plague developed4 ,there can  
be no doubt  but that these refugees1   
directly or indirectly1 carried the     
disease  to the neighboring villages1   
and thus contributed to the enormous    
dissemination of the pest throughout    
,western ,india4 ,in the ,presidency  of
 ,bombay there were reported1 in less   
than three years1 more than  #bbj1jjj   
cases1 with more than #afd1jjj deaths4  
,when it is furthermore  recognized that
 the natives concealed the existence of 
the disease  as much as possible1 it    
will be evident that these figures      
reveal a  partial but1 nevertheless1 a  
grim truth4    ,with ,bombay and the    
surrounding country thus seriously      
infected1 it  became merely a question  
of time when the disease would be       

carried to  other ports and countries1  
by vessels and by overland routes4 ,in  
spite  of the sanitary perfection which 
we may flatter ourselves on having      
attained in recent years1 it is         
nevertheless a fact that the disease  is
 slowly but steadily and1 as it were1   
stealthily invading port after  port4   
,that the sanitary methods1 however1 are
 not at fault is seen  in the fact that 
when an early and prompt recognition    
occurred1 the  disease has been held in 
check4 ,the insidious spread of the     
disease is  rather due to the enormous  
development of commerce and to the rapid
  means of communication with distant   
countries4    ,from ,bombay the plague  
has spread to ports on the ,persian     
,gulf1 on  the ,red ,sea1 and has       
reached ,alexandria4 ,aden1 ,djeddah1   
,port ,said1  ,cairo1 have all had      
outbreaks of the disease4 ,beirut and   
,smyrna have  each developed straggling 
cases4 ,isolated cases have been met    
with  in ,london1 at ,st4 ,petersburg   

and in ,vienna4 ,however1 only three    
appreciable outbreaks have as yet       
occurred on ,european soil4 ,the first  
was that at ,oporto in ,portugal1 where 
one hundred and sixty cases1  with      
fifty-five deaths1 have developed up to 
the present time4 ,the  second outbreak 
occurred at ,kolobovka1 a village near  
,astrakhan4 ,of  the twenty-four cases  
that developed there in ,july and       
,august1 #ahii1  twenty-three died4 ,the
 last outbreak is that at ,glasgow1     
where the  disease made its appearance  
but a few weeks ago4    ,in addition to 
following the great international       
highway of ,suez1  the disease has      
insidiously spread to the countries of  
,east ,africa4  ,mauritius and          
,madagascar1 with the adjoining mainland
 of ,mozambique and  ,lorenzo ,marquez1 
have become more or less infected1 and1 
if reports  are to be credited1 it has  
also appeared in one of the ,boer towns 
and also on the ,ivory ,coast in        
,western ,africa4 ,last fall the disease

  reached ,south ,america4 ,it          
apparently was first recognized at      
,santos1  in ,brazil1 during ,october1  
although early in ,september1 according 
to  reports1 a peculiar disease1 causing
 swelling of the glands and death       
within forty-eight hours1 was reported  
at ,asunion1 the capital of  ,paraguay4 
,at the present time ,rio ,janeiro is   
infected4 ,the sanitary  condition of   
these ,south ,american cities is far    
from being the best1  and1 consequently1
 there is but little hope that the      
disease will be  eradicated or even held
 in check4 ,with ,south ,america more or
 less  thoroughly infected1 it is       
evident that the ,united ,states1 as    
well as  ,europe1 are now threatened    
from all sides4 ,the gravity of the     
situation  is seen in the fact that     
already last ,november two cases of the 
plague  were found in ,new ,york harbor 
aboard a coffee ship from ,santos4      
,several  cases have also developed on  
ships bound from the latter city for    

,mediterranean ports4    ,the ,united   
,states is threatened not merely from   
the ,east ,atlantic  and ,south         
,atlantic1 but also from the ,pacific4  
,as a matter of fact1  the danger to our
 ,pacific ports is greater1 owing to the
 direct  communication with the ,orient4
 ,it has been already indicated that    
,hong ,kong has continued to be infected
 ever since #ahid4 ,on several          
occasions it disappeared during the     
winter months1 only to reappear in      
spring4 ,with the more or less constant 
prevalence of the plague at this  great 
seaport1 it necessarily will lead       
directly or indirectly to a             
dissemination of the disease along the  
entire ,pacific4 ,already it has        
prevailed at ,amoy1 and has even        
extended to other ,chinese ports as far 
as ,niu-,chwang4 ,for several years it  
has already persisted on the island  of 
,formosa4 ,japan was invaded last fall  
at ,kobe and at ,osaka1 and  although it
 disappeared during the winter1 yet only

 a few weeks ago it  has reappeared at  
the latter city4 ,sidney in ,australia1 
and ,noumea in  ,new ,caledonia1 are    
also infected at the present time4      
,manila1 ,honolulu and ,san ,francisco  
have successively become infected4  ,in 
all these places the disease1 with but  
very few exceptions1 has  attacked the  
native or ,oriental population4 ,the    
extinction of the  plague in the        
,hawaiian ,islands since the end of     
,march is a splendid  demonstration of  
what energetic1 vigorous measures can   
accomplish4 ,the  presence of the plague
 since ,march #h in ,chinatown1 in ,san 
,francisco1 is  readily recognized as a 
most serious condition1 especially after
 the  courts have granted an injunction 
restraining the health officers from    
carrying out the necessary vigorous     
preventive measures4    ,a few words    
should be given here to the overland    
dissemination of the  disease4 ,europe  
is not merely threatened by infected    
ships which may  come from ,china1      

,india1 ,eastern ,africa or ,south      
,america4 ,the overland  routes from    
,china and ,india are fully as grave a  
source of danger4  ,indeed1 as will be  
presently shown1 these are the routes   
along which  the great epidemics of     
cholera and plague have always traveled 
in the  past4    ,one of these great    
caravan routes leads from ,lahore in    
,punjab through  ,afghanistan into the  
,russian province of ,turkestan1 where  
it meets the  ,trans-,caspian railway4  
,this railway begins at ,samarcand in   
,turkestan1  and passes through         
,bokhara1 ,merv1 ,askabad and ends at   
,uzun ,ada on the  ,caspian ,sea        
opposite ,baku4 ,early in #ahii an      
outbreak of the plague  occurred near   
,samarcand1 undoubtedly brought up from 
,india4 ,the  precautions taken to      
prevent the spread were entirely        
successful1 and  although no accounts   
have been officially published as to the
 means  employed1 nevertheless it will  
be seen that the radical procedure      

employed by ,loris ,melikoff some twenty
 years ago was again resorted  to4      
,inasmuch as the entire village was said
 to be afflicted it was  surrounded by  
troops1 and no one was allowed to enter 
or leave4 ,the  village and all that it 
contained was destroyed by fire4 ,with  
this  route open continually it is      
evident that fresh importation must be  
expected sooner or later4    ,apparently
 a new plague focus1 independent of that
 in ,yunnan and ,hong  ,kong1 has been  
recently discovered in ,manchuria4 ,the 
plague seems  to have existed in this   
province for more than ten years under  
the  name of ,tarabagan plague1 and is  
believed to be spread by a rodent1  the 
,arctomis cobuc1 which is subject to a  
hemorrhagic pneumonia4 ,the  presence of
 such an independent endemic focus in   
,manchuria indicates  the possibility of
 the spread of the disease by caravan to
 ,lake ,baikal1  and thence by the      
,siberian railroad to ,russia4 ,indeed1 
the epidemic  of pneumonic type which   

began ,july1 #ahii1 at ,kolobovka1 in   
,astrakhan1  while it may have been     
imported from ,persia1 might also owe   
its origin  to the ,mongolian focus4    
,russia1 however1 is not the only       
country endangered by the overland      
transmission of the disease4 ,there are 
commercial highways which lead  from    
,northwestern ,india through            
,baluchistan and ,persia to the         
,caucasus1  and through ,turkey to      
,constantinople4 ,grave danger threatens
 from this  source1 and more especially 
from the cities along the ,persian      
,gulf4 ,two  important cities here are  
already infected1 namely1 ,bushire1 in  
,persia1  and ,bassorah on the ,tigris1 
in ,turkey4 ,it would appear as if      
,turkey and  ,persia would escape with  
difficulty from a visitation of this    
dread  disease4    ,such1 then1 is the  
geographical distribution of the present
 outbreak  of the plague4 ,this1 an     
apparently extinct disease1 has suddenly
  reappeared and given evidence of its  

power to spread death and  desolation4  
,fortunately1 however1 modern sanitary  
precautions are quite  able to restrict 
its progress1 provided they be applied  
at the proper  time and place4 ,filth   
and overcrowding1 protracted wars and   
famine1  have been the powerful allies  
of the plague in the past4 ,through     
their  aid this disease has made a deep 
impression upon the pages of history4   
,it may not be out of place1 therefore1 
to turn from the present  outbreak of   
the disease and trace its grewsome past4
    ,in ancient writings references are 
found which would seem to indicate  the 
existence of the plague at a very early 
date4 ,the ,bible contains  several such
 references 7,deuteronomy1 ,chapter #bh1
 paragraph #bg4 ,samuel  ,i1 ,chapter   
#e1 paragraphs #f1 #i74 ,the latter     
especially deals with the  plague which 
attacked the ,philistines after they    
took the ark4 ,the  rle of rats in the  
dissemination of the disease is1 as some
 believe1  apparently referred to in the

 trespass offering of 8five golden      
emerods  and five golden mice40 ,the    
return of the ark1 together with this   
trespass offering1 brought also the     
plague1 8because they had looked  into  
the ark of the ,lord1 even he smote of  
the people fifty thousand  and          
threescore and ten men40 ,poussin's     
painting of this ,philistine  plague1   
exhibited in the ,louvre1 shows several 
dead rats on the  streets4 ,it is       
evident that the susceptibility of the  
rat to the plague  had been noticed even
 at this early date4 ,the plague of     
boils visited  upon the ,egyptians as   
related in ,exodus 7,chapter #i1        
paragraphs #i and  #aj7 has also been   
taken to indicate the pest of today1 but
 neither of  these scriptural references
 can be said to be sufficiently         
definite4    ,the ,attic plague1 which  
ravaged the ,peloponnesus #dcj years    
before  ,christ1 has been accurately    
described by an eye-witness1 the        
historian  ,thucydides4 ,his narration  

may be considered the earliest exact    
record  of an epidemic4 ,like all the   
great epidemics of subsequent ages1 it  
was  ushered in by the overcrowding1 the
 misery and the famine consequent  upon 
prolonged wars4 ,the combustible        
material was there1 and all that        
necessary was the spark to begin the    
work of death and devastation4 ,it  is  
noteworthy that the origin of the pest  
was traced by ,thucydides to  ,egypt or 
,ethiopia1 from whence it spread        
gradually overland to ,asia  ,minor and 
thence by boat to ,athens4 ,the nature  
of this first great  historic epidemic  
is and will remain uncertain4 ,there are
 those who  consider the ,attic         
pestilence as one of bubonic plague1 but
 the fact  that in the very careful     
description of the disease no mention is
  made of buboes and the statement that 
death occurred from the seventh  to the 
ninth day would indicate that the       
disease was something else4  ,buboes are
 characteristic1 it is true1 of the     

plague1 but it should  be remembered    
that outbreaks of the pneumonic form1   
with little or no  glandular enlargement
 are not uncommon4 ,death1 however1 in  
the case of  plague is very common on   
the second or third day1 and is less    
liable  to occur in more protracted     
cases4 ,these facts lead to the commonly
  accepted belief that the ,attic pest  
was not the bubonic plague4 ,it may     
have been typhus fever1 possibly        
smallpox4    ,the great pestilence which
 devastated ,rome and its dependencies  
in #aff1  ,anno ,domini1 is known as the
 plague of ,antoninus or of ,galen4     
,this  prolonged epidemic was brought to
 ,rome by the returning legions from    
,seleucia4 ,it was not characterized by 
buboes1 and it is very probable  that it
 was largely smallpox4 ,on the other    
hand1 the plague of ,saint  ,cyprian1   
which prevailed from #bea to #bff ,anno 
,domini1 may have been  partly bubonic  
in nature1 since1 it prevailed during   
the fall and  winter months and ceased  

during the hot summer4 ,the disease was 
said  to be communicated by means of    
clothing and by the look4 ,it spread    
from  ,ethiopia to ,egypt and thence    
through the known world4    ,although   
the above early epidemics cannot be     
identified with the  bubonic plague1    
there is nevertheless excellent evidence
 of the  existence of this disease in   
remote antiquity4 ,the first undoubted  
testimony on this point is that         
furnished by ,rufus of ,ephesus1 who    
lived in the first century of the       
,christian era4 ,the writings of this   
author are no longer extant1 but they   
are quoted by ,oribasius1 the  physician
 and friend of ,julian the ,apostate1   
who lived in the fourth  century4 ,the  
writings of ,oribasius were discovered  
in the ,vatican  ,library and were      
published early in this century by      
,cardinal ,mai4  ,in the forty-fourth   
8,book of ,oribasius0 occurs the extract
 taken  from ,rufus of ,ephesus1 from   
which it appears that 8the so-called    

pestilential buboes are all fatal and   
have a very acute course1  especially   
when observed in ,libya1 ,egypt and in  
,syria4 ,dionysius  mentions it4        
,dioscorides and ,posidonius have       
described it at length in  their        
treatise upon the plague which prevailed
 during their time in  ,libya40 ,the    
description which then follows of the   
buboes and of the  disease is an exact  
counterpart of the present plague4 ,the 
writings  of the authors quoted by      
,rufus are no longer extant1 but one    
thing  is certain1 and that is that the 
,dionysius referred to lived not  later 
than #cjj years before ,christ4 ,the    
other two physicians lived in           
,alexandria contemporaneous with the    
birth of ,christ4 ,it may1 therefore1   
be considered as an established fact    
that the plague existed in ,egypt1      
,libya and ,syria as early as #cjj years
 before ,christ4 ,this is of  especial  
interest in view of the recent discovery
 by ,koch of an endemic  plague focus in

 ,british ,uganda and ,german ,kisiba1  
at the headwaters of  the ,nile4        
,whether it ever invaded ,european      
territory prior to the sixth  century is
 unknown4    ,the great plague of       
,justinian which broke out in #edb1     
,anno ,domini1  appeared first in       
,egypt1 and from thence it spread east  
and west  throughout the known world and
 persisted for more than a half century4
  ,so unknown was the plague in ,europe 
at that time that the physicians  of    
,constantinople considered it a new     
disease4 ,procopius1 who was an         
eye-witness of the plague at            
,constantinople1 states that the daily  
mortality in that city was at times over
 #aj1jjj4    ,the pandemic of ,justinian
 resulted in the distribution of the    
plague  for the first time throughout   
the length and breadth of known ,europe4
  ,from that time on the early          
chroniclers make repeated mention of    
devastating plagues consequent upon the 
miseries of war and famine4  ,the       

descriptions of these pestilences are1  
as a rule1 insufficient  to identify    
them with the bubonic plague4 ,typhus1  
scurvy1 smallpox  and other diseases    
undoubtedly alternated in the work of   
destruction4  ,of the scores of         
epidemics thus recorded during the eight
 centuries  following this first        
visitation few1 indeed1 can be          
identified to a  certainty with the     
bubonic plague1 and yet there can be no 
doubt but  that this disease occupied no
 second rank during the dreary darkness 
of the middle ages4 ,this era in history
 may be said to have been  ushered in by
 the ,justinian plague1 and it was      
closed by an even more  disastrous      
outbreak of this same disease4 ,all the 
ravages and slaughter  consequent upon  
the great historic battles1 when taken  
together1 pale  into insignificance on  
comparison with that dread visitation of
 the  fourteenth century1 the #8black   
death'4    ,it is noteworthy that this  
great historic epidemic did not         

originate  in ,egypt1 as did many of its
 predecessors4 ,without exception the   
contemporaneous writers ascribe its     
origin to ,cathay1 or the ,china of     
today4 ,this fact is of interest when it
 is borne in mind that at the  present  
time we know of the existence of two    
endemic foci in ,china1  besides that of
 ,gurhwal in ,india1 of ,beni ,cheir in 
,arabia and of ,uganda  and ,kisiba in  
,africa4 ,whatever may have been its    
source1 the fact is  that it advanced   
from the ,orient along the three        
principal routes of  travel4 ,one of    
these led from the ,persian ,gulf       
through ,bassorah and  ,bagdad along the
 ,euphrates1 across ,arabia to ,egypt   
and ,northern ,africa4  ,another route  
passed from ,india through ,afghanistan1
 and skirting the  southern borders of  
the ,caspian and ,black ,seas1          
eventually reached ,asia  ,minor4 ,a    
third route from ,turkestan and ,china  
led around the northern  shore of the   
,caspian ,sea to ,crimea1 and thence to 

,constantinople4 ,it  was along these   
several routes that the plague advanced 
and spread over  most of ,western ,asia 
and ,northern ,africa4    ,the ,european
 black death1 however1 can be traced    
with accuracy to the  ,crimean          
peninsula4 ,gaffa1 a town in ,crimea1   
now known as ,theodosia1  had been      
founded and fortified by the ,genoese4  
,it1 as well as other  cities along the 
,black ,sea1 was largely populated by   
,italians4 ,one  of these1 ,gabriel de  
,mussis1 a lawyer in ,gaffa1 has left a 
faithful  account of his experience and 
share in the introduction of the plague 
into ,europe4 ,in #acdf in the ,orient  
numberless ,tartars and ,saracens  were 
attacked with an unknown disease and    
sudden death4 ,in the city  of ,tanais1 
through some excess1 a racial struggle  
ensued between the  ,tartars and the    
,italian merchants4 ,the latter         
eventually escaped and  took refuge in  
,gaffa1 which in time was besieged by   
the ,tartars4 ,during  the siege1 which 

lasted three years1 the ,tartar hordes  
were attacked  by the plague1 which     
daily carried off many thousands4 ,the  
besiegers1  despairing of reducing the  
city by direct attack1 attempted to do  
so  in another way4 ,by means of their  
engines of war they projected the  dead 
bodies into the beleaguered city1 which1
 as a result1 soon became  infected4    
,the ,christian defenders took to their 
ships1 and abandoning  ,gaffa1 sailed   
westward1 touching at ,constantinople1  
,greece1 ,italy and  ,france4           
,wherever the infected vessels touched  
they left the plague4  ,constantinople  
thus became infected early in #acdg4    
,during the summer  ,greece1 ,sardinia1 
,corsica and parts of the ,italian coast
 developed  the disease4 ,in the fall it
 reached ,marseilles4 ,the following    
year it  spread inland into ,italy1     
,france1 ,spain1 and even into ,england4
 ,in  another year or two it spread over
 ,germany1 ,russia1 and crossed to the  
,scandinavian peninsula4 ,within four   

years it had completed the circuit  of  
,europe1 spreading untold death and     
misery4 ,no greater catastrophe  has    
been recorded in the history of the     
world4    ,the rapidity with which the  
disease spread among the fugitives from 
,gaffa1 and in the cities visited by    
their ships1 is despairingly  narrated  
by ,de ,mussis1 who1 returning in one of
 the ships to ,genoa1  says3 8,after    
landing we entered our homes4 ,inasmuch 
as a grave disease  had befallen us1 and
 of the thousands that journeyed with us
 scarcely  ten remained1 the relatives1 
friends and neighbors hastened to greet 
us4 ,woe to us who brought with us the  
darts of death1 who scattered  the      
deadly poison through the breath of our 
words40 ,according to this  writer      
#dj1jjj died in ,genoa1 leaving scarcely
 a seventh of the original  population4 
,venice was said to have lost #ajj1jjj1 
,naples #fj1jjj1 ,sienna  #gj1jjj1      
,florence #ajj1jjj4 ,all told1 ,italy   
lost half of its population4    ,of the 

contemporaneous writers none has printed
 the horrors of the  plague more vividly
 than does ,boccaccio in his            
introduction to the  #8,decameron4'     
8,what magnificent dwellings1 what      
notable palaces were then depopulated   
to the last person6 ,what families      
extinct6 ,what riches and vast          
possessions left1 and no known heir to  
inherit6 ,what numbers of both  sexes in
 the prime and vigor of youth1 whom in  
the morning either  ,galen1             
,hippocrates1 or sculapius himself but  
would have declared in  perfect health1 
after dining with their friends here    
have supped with  their departed friends
 in the other world60    ,from          
,marseilles the plague spread through   
,provence with disastrous  results4 ,in 
some monasteries not even a single      
survivor was left4 ,in  one of these    
,petrarch's brother buried thirty-four  
of his companions4  ,at ,avignon1 the   
seat of the ,pope1 #a1hjj deaths        
occurred in three days4  ,in ,paris more

 than fifty thousand died of the plague4
    ,in ,england the black death        
appeared in ,august1 #acdh1 and         
continued  till the autumn of #acdi1    
when it disappeared4 ,london1 which at  
that  time probably had a population of 
#de1jjj1 had a mortality of about       
#bj1jjj4 ,no exact statement can be made
 of the relative mortality in  ,england1
 although many undoubtedly extravagant  
guesses are recorded by  contemporaneous
 writers4    ,it is estimated that the  
population of ,europe previous to the   
outbreak  of the black death was about  
one hundred and five millions4 ,one     
quarter  of the population1 or about    
twenty-five millions1 are said to have  
died of the plague4 ,this may be but a  
mere estimate1 it may be grossly        
inaccurate1 but it nevertheless         
indicates the deadly character of the   
pestilence4 ,according to a report made 
to ,pope ,clement ,,vi1 the total       
mortality for the known world was placed
 at forty-three millions4  ,one-half the

 population of ,italy succumbed4 ,the   
,order of ,minorites in  ,italy lost    
#cjj1jjj members4 ,the ,order of        
,capuchins in ,germany lost  #abf1jjj   
members1 while the total of deaths in   
,germany was placed at  #a1bjj1jjj4     
,the invasion of ,europe by the black   
death was sudden and rapid4 ,the  seeds 
of the disease1 once planted on         
,european soil1 persisted1 as  might be 
expected1 for no little time4 ,although 
the great epidemic was  said to have    
lasted till #acfj1 it must not be       
inferred that it then  ceased           
altogether4 ,diverse localities retained
 the infection1 and1 as  a result1 new  
outbreaks1 though to a less extent1     
continued to outcrop  during the        
following years4 ,from that time on     
every decade or two  witnessed more or  
less pronounced outbreaks of the disease
 in ,france1  ,england and ,italy4 ,the 
chroniclers of those local outbreaks    
during the  latter half of the          
fourteenth and during the entire        

fifteenth century  did not always make  
it clear that the pestilence described  
was the  real plague4 ,it was but       
natural to include typhus and other     
diseases  under the dreaded term of     
pest4 ,nevertheless1 the frequency of   
these  outbreaks indicates the          
persistence and the wide dissemination  
of the  plague during those years4      
,during the sixteenth century the plague
 apparently began to show a  decrease in
 its frequency1 although during this    
period1 as before1  other epidemic      
diseases were mistaken for it4 ,germany1
 ,holland1 certain  cities in ,france1  
and especially in ,italy were scourged  
by the plague  during this century4 ,the
 noteworthy outbreak in ,italy in       
#aege-gg was  due to fresh importation  
from the ,orient4 ,the disease spread   
throughout  ,italy1 and the devastation 
it caused was not inferior to that of   
the  great plague two centuries before4 
,for example1 in #aegf in ,venice       
#gj1jjj died of the disease4    ,during 

the seventeenth century the plague      
asserted itself with great  severity4   
,following a famine1 it prevailed in    
,russia in #afja-afjc1 and  some idea of
 its destructiveness may be gained when 
it is stated that  in ,moscow alone     
#abg1jjj lives were taken4 ,during the  
following decade  even greater epidemics
 prevailed in ,western ,europe4 ,france 
and ,england  were invaded1 and in      
,switzerland it even penetrated to the  
highest  ,alps4 ,basel in #afji-afaa had
 #d1jjj deaths1 while ,london in #afjc  
yielded  #cc1jjj4    ,the terrible      
epidemic which ravaged ,northern ,italy 
in #afbi-afca  deserves more than a     
passing notice4 ,during those years more
 than a  million died of the disease4   
,scarcely a town in ,northern ,italy    
escaped4  ,the city which1 perhaps1     
suffered the most was ,milan1 where1 in 
#afcj1  the deaths from all diseases are
 said to have amounted to #ahf1jjj4     
,the ,milan outbreak has been           
graphically described by ,manzoni1 in   

his  celebrated #8,i ,promessi ,sposi4' 
,unrecognized1 the disease entered      
,milan in ,october1 #afbi4 ,the mild    
cases which were met with during  the   
winter months lulled the fears of the   
people and encouraged the  mass of      
physicians to deny the existence of the 
plague4 ,but in ,april  the disease     
began to assert itself in terrible      
earnest4 ,the frenzied  populace1 blind 
to the contagiousness of the disease1   
were possessed  with the strange        
hallucination that obtained during      
former plague  epidemics in other       
,italian cities1 that the pest spread   
because of  poison scattered about by   
evil-minded persons4 ,suspicious        
strangers  were1 as a result1 stoned in 
the streets1 imprisoned and even put to 
death by legal process because of such  
fanatical beliefs4 ,to offset  the      
growing pestilence1 the people demanded 
of the ,archbishop that  a solemn       
religious procession be held1 and that  
the holy relics of  ,saint ,charles be  

exposed4 ,at first this was refused1 but
 eventually  it was granted4 ,the       
procession bearing the saintly body was 
solemnly  held on the #aath of ,june4   
,the fanatical security which these     
devotions  engendered was rudely        
shattered when1 a few days later1 the   
disease  burst forth with renewed       
activity among all classes in all parts 
of the  city4 ,nevertheless1 as ,manzoni
 observes1 the faith was such that none 
recognized that the procession itself   
was directly the cause of the new       
outburst of the disease by facilitating 
the spread of the contagion4  ,again the
 belief asserted itself that the        
#8untori1' or poisoners1 mixed  with the
 crowd and with their unguents and      
powders had infected as  many as        
possible4 ,from that day the fury of the
 contagion continued  to grow to such an
 extent that scarcely a house remained  
exempt from  the disease4 ,the number of
 patients in the pesthouse rose from    
#b1jjj  to #ab1jjj1 and later reached   

#ag1jjj4 ,the daily mortality rose from 
#ejj  to #a1bjj1 then #a1ejj1 and is    
even said to have reached #c1ejj4       
,milan1  before the epidemic1 was said  
to have had a population of from        
#bjj1jjj  to #bej1jjj4 ,the loss by     
death has been variously estimated at   
from  #adj1jjj to #ahf1jjj4 ,all these  
deaths were not due to the plague4      
,thus1  large numbers of children died  
as a result of starvation consequent    
upon the death of their parents from the
 plague4    ,the horrors attendant upon 
such a dreadful visitation can well be  
imagined4 ,scarcity of help in removing 
the dead and in taking care  of the sick
 made itself felt1 to say nothing of the
 lack of food4  ,enormous trenches1 one 
after another1 were filled with the     
bodies of  the victims1 carried thither 
by the hardened monatti1 the counterpart
  of the ,florentine becchini1 so well  
portrayed by ,lord ,lytton in his       
#8,rienzi4' ,these bearers of the sick  
and dead were naturally recruited  from 

the lowest criminal classes1 and it can1
 therefore1 cause but  little wonder    
that an epidemic of the worst of crimes 
was associated  with that of the plague4
    ,in #afef ,italy was again invaded  
by the plague1 and on that occasion     
,genoa lost #fe1jjj of its population by
 death4 ,about the same time  terrible  
epidemics of the disease ravaged        
,russia1 ,turkey and ,hungary4          
,london1 in #affe1 suffered dreadfully  
from the plague4 ,the disease  appears  
to have been imported from ,holland1    
where it was known to have  existed for 
some time4 ,the progress of the disease 
in ,london has been  vividly portrayed  
by ,defoe in the #8,journal of the      
,plague ,year' and in  the #8,due       
,preparations for the ,plague4'    ,it  
is supposed that the pest had been      
imported in bales of goods from  ,smyrna
 into ,holland in #affc4 ,from thence it
 crossed over to ,london1  where the    
first deaths were reported about the    
first of ,december in  #affd4 ,toward   

the end of that month another death     
occurred in the same  house1 but during 
the following six weeks no new case     
developed4 ,about  the middle of        
,february1 however1 a person died of the
 plague in another  house4 ,from that   
time only occasional cases of plague    
were reported1  although the weekly     
mortality was rapidly rising and was    
greatly in  excess of the usual rate4   
,thus1 while the ordinary weekly        
mortality  ranged from two hundred and  
forty to three hundred1 this was        
gradually  increased1 so that in the    
third week in ,january it had risen to  
four  hundred and seventy-four4 ,after a
 slight remission1 the mortality again  
rose1 so that early in ,may plague cases
 were reported more frequently4  ,it    
soon became evident that the plague1 as 
in ,milan in #afcj1 had  slowly but     
surely gained a firm foothold4 ,the     
increased mortality was  undoubtedly due
 to unsuspected plague cases of either  
the pneumonic or  the septicemic type4  

,during ,may1 and especially during the 
hot weather in ,june1 the disease       
continued to spread4 ,at the same time1 
the panic-stricken people began  to     
leave the city in large numbers4 ,in    
,july the condition was truly           
deplorable4 ,to quote ,defoe3           
8,london might well be said to be all in
 tears2 the mourners did      not go    
about the streets1 indeed1 for nobody   
put on black or made      a formal dress
 of mourning for their nearest friends2 
but the      voice of mourning was truly
 heard in the streets4 ,the shrieks of  
women and children at the windows and   
doors of their houses1 where      their 
dearest relations were perhaps dying1 or
 just dead1 were      so frequent to be 
heard as we passed in the streets1 that 
it was      enough to pierce the        
stoutest heart in the world to hear     
them4      ,tears and lamentations were 
seen almost in every house1 especially  
in the first part of the visitation2 for
 toward the latter end      men's hearts

 were hardened1 and death was so always 
before their      eyes1 that they did   
not so much concern themselves for the  
loss of      their friends1 expecting   
that themselves should be summoned the  
next hour40    ,london at this time had 
a population of nearly half a million4  
,the  deaths from the plague during     
#affe1 as reported in the bills of      
mortality1 are #fh1eif4 ,by far the     
larger number of these occurred in      
,august1 ,september and ,october4 ,the  
weekly mortality from the disease  rose 
from a few cases in ,may to over #g1jjj 
per week in ,september4 ,it  may1       
indeed1 be close to the truth when      
,defoe states that #c1jjj were  said to 
have been buried in one night4    ,the  
great plague of ,london in #affe was by 
no means the only visitation  of that   
kind4 ,from the time of the black death 
in #acdh1 ,london had a  continuous     
record of plague infection4 ,on an      
average it had an epidemic  of plague   
every fifteen years4 ,some of these were

 fully as severe as  that of #affe4     
,thus1 in #afjc1 with a population of   
#bej1jjj1 there were  over #cc1jjj      
reported deaths from the plague4 ,in    
#afbe1 #da1jjj died of  pest out of a   
population of #cbj1jjj4    ,one of the  
most remarkable facts in connection with
 the great plague  is this--that it was 
the last in ,england4 ,the great fire of
 #afff is  supposed to have extinguished
 the plague1 but this cannot be said to 
be true4 ,the disease continued to a    
slight extent in #afff and isolated     
cases were reported as late as #afgi1   
but after that date it disappeared      
completely and from that time until this
 year ,england has been  absolutely free
 from the plague4 ,the sudden extinction
 of the plague in  ,england after it had
 become domesticated1 so to speak1 for  
nearly three  centuries1 is indeed      
difficult to explain4 ,creighton sees an
 inhibiting  influence in the growth of 
the practice of burial in coffins4 ,but 
the  absence of famine1 together with   

the cessation of domestic wars and      
strife and the abeyance of want and     
misery1 had not a little effect4 ,as    
will presently be seen1 the extinction  
of the plague in ,england was no  more  
remarkable than its disappearance from  
,western ,europe4    ,the history of    
plague in the seventeenth century does  
not close with  the ,london epidemic4   
,from #afge-afhd the disease ravaged    
,northern  ,africa1 ,turkey1 and from   
thence invaded ,austria and even reached
  ,southern ,germany4 ,the ,vienna      
outbreak of #afgi can be said to have   
been  no less terrible than that of     
,milan or of ,london4 ,the deaths from  
the  plague in ,vienna in that year have
 been variously estimated at from       
#gj1jjj to double that number4    ,from 
,vienna the plague reached ,prague1     
where in #ahfa it is said to  have      
caused no less than #hc1jjj deaths4 ,it 
is not to be wondered at  that a nation 
scourged by thirty years of relentless  
warfare1 by  religious persecution and  

finally tried thus severely by the      
plague  should inscribe upon the        
equestrian statue of their patron saint 
the  heart-rending appeal1 #8,lord1     
grant that we do not perish4'    ,the   
close of the seventeenth century saw the
 disappearance of the  plague from      
,western ,europe4 ,in ,eastern ,europe1 
however1 the disease  continued to exist
 even during the eighteenth century4    
,nevertheless1  a change had taken place
 for the better1 and as the years went  
on the  retrogression of the plague     
became more and more distinct4          
,during the first two decades of the    
eighteenth century the plague  was      
widely distributed in ,eastern ,europe4 
,it was present especially  in          
,constantinople and in the ,danubian    
provinces4 ,from the latter it  extended
 to ,russia 7,ukraine71 and from thence 
to ,poland4 ,the disastrous  invasion of
 ,russia by ,charles ,,xii4 of ,sweden1 
ending in his defeat at  ,poltawa in    
#agji1 led to its further dissemination 

to ,silesia1 ,eastern  ,prussia1 the    
,baltic provinces and seaports1 and even
 to ,scandinavia4  ,it was during this  
epidemic that ,dantzic1 in #agji1 lost  
#cc1jjj1 and  ,stockholm #dj1jjj by the 
plague4 ,during the years #agji and     
#agaj the  plague mortality in the      
,baltic provinces exceeded #cjj1jjj4    
,three years  later1 in #agac1 the      
plague spread up the ,danube and reached
 ,vienna1  ,prague and even ,bavaria4   
,during these two decades ,western      
,europe was entirely free from the      
dread disease4 ,in #agbj the disease    
suddenly developed in ,marseilles and   
extended from thence to neighboring     
towns and the country districts of      
,provence4 ,terrible as was this        
visitation it is of interest1 inasmuch  
as it was the last occurrence of the    
plague on ,french soil1 and the  last in
 ,western ,europe until the recent      
outbreak in ,portugal4    ,the plague   
was said to have been imported into     
,marseilles by a merchant  vessel1 the  

#8,grand ,saint ,antoine'1 from ,syria4 
,on its way to ,marseilles  several     
deaths occurred on shipboard1 but the   
cause was overlooked4  ,on the #beth of 
,may1 #agbj1 two days after the arrival 
of the vessel1  another death occurred  
among the crew4 ,the disease was still  
not  believed to be the plague1 and     
although quarantine was instituted1  new
 cases appeared among the crew and the  
dock laborers employed in  unloading the
 vessel1 and it was not until the       
disease reached the  city that its true 
nature was recognized4 ,the germs of the
 disease  had then been scattered       
broadcast4 ,unsanitary a city as        
,marseilles is  to-day1 it must have    
been vastly more so in #agbj4 ,the      
result of the  addition of plague germs 
to the want1 misery and filthy condition
 was  at once evident4 ,during ,august  
the mortality averaged four and even    
five hundred per day4 ,in ,september the
 daily mortality rose to #a1jjj4  ,so   
great was the terror of the populace    

that it became impossible to  secure    
bearers of the dead1 to obtain nurses   
and attendants4 ,the dead  were left in 
heaps upon the streets1 so that it      
became necessary to  transfer to the    
city #gjj galley slaves1 who were       
required to remove  the bodies4 ,these  
same galley slaves were even pressed    
into service  as nurses4 ,the diseased  
were abandoned by friends and relatives1
 and  under such conditions it need not 
be wondered at that they received       
little or no attention from others4     
,food and water were denied to the      
unfortunates1 and when food was         
administered to the pesthouses it was   
thrown into the windows by machinery4   
,the disease continued in ,marseilles   
until ,december1 #agba1 but isolated    
cases persisted until ,april1 #agbb4    
,during the fifteen months of its       
duration it carried off #dj1jjj of the  
population4 ,according to ,defoe1  there
 died of the plague in ,marseilles and  
within a league of its walls  #fj1jjj4  

,from ,marseilles the plague reached    
,aix1 and in the winter of #agbj and    
#agba it carried off #ah1jjj of its     
people4 ,it also reached ,arles1 where1 
in #agba1 out of a population of        
#bc1jjj1 #aj1jjj died 7forty-five per   
cent74 ,the same year1 in ,toulon1 which
 had a population of #bf1jjj1 the       
plague attacked #bj1jjj of the          
population1 and of these #ac1jjj1 or    
about  one-half of the original         
population1 died4    ,the country       
districts about ,marseilles were        
likewise invaded4 ,out of  a population 
of #bdh1jjj1 there died of the plague   
#hh1jjj1 or fully  thirty-five per cent4
    ,it is evident from this description
 that the plague of #agbj was in  nowise
 inferior to that of #acdh4             
,fortunately1 the disease did not       
spread beyond ,provence4 ,it is         
noteworthy that in many instances1 in   
,marseilles1 people secluded themselves 
in their houses1 avoiding all           
communication with the outer world1 and 

in this way escaped4 ,similar  isolation
 of cloisters1 insane asylums1 likewise 
resulted in freedom  from the disease   
which stalked so freely throughout the  
stricken city4  ,it was experience of   
this kind in isolation of the healthy   
which led  ,defoe to write his #8,due   
,preparations for the ,plague4'         
,toward the middle of the century the   
plague reasserted itself in the         
,danubian provinces1 the constant       
battleground between the ,turks and     
,russians and ,austrians4 ,in #agch it  
not only prevailed in ,russia but  also 
invaded ,hungary4 ,of more importance   
than this occurrence is the  outbreak of
 the plague in #agdc in ,sicily4 ,the   
last epidemic of plague  had occurred in
 ,messina in #afbd4 ,after a lapse of   
one hundred and  twenty years1 it       
reappeared with terrible results4 ,in   
,messina1 as in  ,marseilles and in     
,london1 the first cases were not       
recognized as plague  cases and1 as a   
result1 the infection spread until1 like

 a veritable  explosion1 the disease    
developed all over the city4 ,the       
plague1 with  its attendant misery of   
lack of food1 and even of water1 was in 
vain  combated by religious processions4
 ,the plague corpses were in heaps in   
the streets1 as in ,marseilles1 and     
cremation was resorted to in order  to  
effect their removal4 ,that year #cj1jjj
 died of plague in the city of          
,messina4 ,with the exception of a      
slight epidemic at ,noja in #ahae1 this 
outbreak in ,messina in #agdc was the   
last one to appear in ,italy4    ,in    
#agee1 the plague was introduced into   
,transylvania by an ,armenian  merchant 
from the ,black ,sea4 ,before it was    
extinguished1 #d1cjj deaths  were       
recorded4    ,next to that of           
,marseilles and of ,messina1 the most   
noteworthy outbreak  of plague was that 
which occurred in #agga in ,moscow4 ,the
 disease was  introduced by troops      
returning from the ,danubian provinces4 
,as so often  has been the history of   

plague1 the first cases were not        
recognized1  and the existence of pest  
was denied4 ,when the plague was        
demonstrated  to be present1 it is said 
by ,haeser that three-fourths of the    
populace  deserted the city4 ,the       
disease began early in ,march and       
increased  during the early summer      
months4 ,in ,august over #g1jjj deaths  
resulted1  while in ,september the      
records show that #ba1jjj died4 ,in     
,october the  plague decreased1 but     
still #ag1jjj deaths attested to its    
fearful  power4 ,early in ,january it   
became extinct1 after a duration of ten 
months1 and after having caused the     
death of more than #eb1jjj people4      
,toward the close of the eighteenth     
century1 at the time of the  ,napoleonic
 invasion of ,egypt and ,syria1 the     
,french armies came into  contact with  
the plague4 ,bonaparte's visit to the   
pest-stricken  soldiers at ,jaffa has   
been perpetuated in the historic canvas 
which is  to be seen at ,versailles4    

,during the nineteenth century the      
plague ravaged ,northern ,africa on     
diverse occasions4 ,constantinople was  
invaded in #ahjb1 #ahjc1 #ahjh4 ,it  was
 also present to a slight extent in the 
,caucasus and in ,astrakhan4  ,a notable
 plague epidemic appeared in ,egypt in  
#ahab1 and soon spread  through ,turkey 
and ,southern ,russia4 ,constantinople  
and ,odessa were  severely scourged4 ,in
 ,odessa out of a population of #bh1jjj 
there died  #ab1jjj4    ,it is a        
noteworthy fact that the ,napoleonic    
wars1 with all their  incident hardships
 and misery1 did not develop or spread  
the plague in  ,europe4 ,the outbreaks  
of the disease were limited during this 
period  to ,africa and to ,turkey1      
,bosnia1 ,roumania1 ,dalmatia and to    
,southern  ,russia4 ,two exceptions1    
however1 are to be noted4 ,in #ahab the 
,island  of ,malta was infected and more
 than #f1jjj of its people yielded to   
the disease4 ,the epidemic of #ahae at  
,noja1 in ,apulia1 was the first        

recurrence of the plague on ,italian    
soil since #agdc1 and thus far it  has  
been the last4    ,the ,balkan          
,peninsula and ,southern ,russia were   
visited from time to  time by the plague
 up to about #ahda4 ,for nearly forty   
years ,europe was  wholly free from the 
disease1 which1 however1 continued its  
existence  in ,northern ,africa1 in     
,mesopotamia and in ,india4 ,the        
,russo-,turkish  war of #ahgh brought   
the ,russian troops into contact with   
the disease  in the ,caucasus1 and the  
epidemic at ,vetlianka on the lower     
,volga was  unquestionably introduced by
 such returning soldiers4    ,such1     
then1 has been the history of the       
bubonic plague4 ,no other  epidemic     
disease can be traced authentically as  
far back as the #8,black  ,death4' ,the 
characteristic symptoms1 the rapid      
death1 the excessive  mortality are all 
features which have been noted through  
more than  twenty centuries4 ,the plague
 bacillus discovered in #ahid by        

,yersin1  judged by its effect1 is      
neither more nor less virulent than its 
early  progenitors4 ,it has often died  
out in a given locality or country1 it  
has even been forced back to its        
original ancestral home1 but still the  
same type1 the same species has         
perpetuated itself unchanged4 ,if the   
plague on its present world-wide journey
 does not cause such terrible  outbreaks
 as it has in the past1 it will be not  
because the germ has  been altered by   
time1 but because man has changed in so 
far as he has  slowly learned and       
profited by the lessons of previous     
epidemics4          ,,gasoline          
,,automobiles4    ,,by ,,william        
,,baxter1 ,,jr4      ,to understand the 
operation of a gasoline vehicle it is   
necessary to  be somewhat familiar with 
the principle on which gasoline motors  
act4  ,briefly stated1 it is as follows3
 ,the gasoline is converted into a      
vapor1 and in this state is mixed with a
 sufficient amount of air to  cause it  

to ignite when heated to a proper       
temperature4 ,this mixture  of air and  
vapor is admitted into a cylinder in    
which a piston moves  freely1 this part 
being substantially the same as in a    
steam engine4  ,by means of an electric 
spark or a hot tube1 the mixture is     
ignited1  burning so violently as to    
expand the products of the combustion   
with  such rapidity as virtually to     
become an explosion4 ,the force of this 
explosion pushes the piston to the      
further end of the cylinder1 and by     
means of a connecting rod and a crank   
this movement imparts a rotary  motion  
to a shaft4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4
 ,,gasoline ,,motor4    ,the entire     
operation is made perfectly clear by the
 aid of ,fig4 #a1  which is a simple    
diagram of a single cylinder motor4 ,the
 chamber ,r  contains the gasoline4 ,air
 enters this chamber through tube b1 as 
indicated by the arrow1 and passes out  
between the plate c and the  surface of 
the gasoline4 ,the float d keeps the    

plate c in the  proper position         
regardless of the amount of liquid in   
the reservoir4  ,the heated gases       
exhausted from the cylinder pass through
 the pipe  r1 and thus heat the gasoline
 so that it vaporizes freely and the    
air passing under c becomes charged with
 the necessary proportion of  vapor4    
,the mixed air and vapor enter a valve  
chamber ,s1 from which  the flow into   
pipe e is regulated by the movement of  
handle a4  ,in this chamber there is    
another valve1 operated by an           
independent  handle1 and by means of    
this more air can be admitted into the  
mixture  when desired4 ,through the pipe
 e and the valve f the vapor enters     
chamber ,q1 which connects with the top 
of the cylinder4 ,suppose the  shaft ,g 
is rotating1 then the piston will be    
drawn down from the  position in which  
it is shown and thus a vacuum will tend 
to form in  chamber ,q4 ,this action    
will cause the valve f to open and the  
mixture of air and vapor will flow into 

,q until the piston reaches  its lowest 
position and begins to ascend4 ,at this 
instant the valve f  will close1 and    
then the upward movement of the piston  
will compress  the mixture in the       
chamber ,q4 ,when the piston reaches the
 upper  position1 after completing the  
down and up strokes1 the lever l and    
the contact point p will come together1 
and an electric current  developed in   
the induction coil ,m will pass through 
the wires j  and k and produce a spark  
at i between the ends of the metallic   
terminals passing through the plug of   
insulating material1 which is  shown in 
dark shading4 ,this spark will cause the
 mixed air and vapor  to ignite1        
producing an explosion that will force  
the piston down for  the second time4   
,on the second upward movement of the   
piston the gases  produced by the       
combustion of the vapor will be forced  
out through the  valve h into the       
chamber ,t and the pipe r4 ,the valve h 
and the  lever l are operated by cams   

mounted on the shaft m1 and they are  so
 set that the spark at i occurs when the
 chamber ,q is full of the  explosive   
mixture and the piston is at the top of 
the cylinder4 ,the  valve opens when the
 piston begins to move upward after the 
explosion  has forced it to the bottom  
position4    ,as will be seen1 the      
piston must move down to draw in a      
supply of the  explosive mixture2 it    
then moves upward to compress it1 and on
 the  second down stroke it is pushed by
 the force of the explosion4 ,from  this
 action it can be clearly realized that 
the power developed by the  motor comes 
from the force exerted by explosions at 
every alternate  revolution of the      
shaft4 ,on that account the cams that   
move the valve  h and the lever l are   
placed on a separate shaft1 which is    
geared  to the main shaft in the ratio  
of two to one2 that is1 the wheel ,k is 
twice the diameter of the wheel ,j4 ,as 
the force of the piston acts  on the    
shaft only once in every two revolutions

 it is necessary to  provide a heavy fly
 wheel ,o1 which will store up enough   
momentum to  continue the rotation of   
the motor through the ineffective       
revolution4  ,before the motor can put  
forth an effort it is necessary for the 
piston  to move downward so as to draw  
in a supply of explosive gases and then 
to move up so as to compress them and   
produce an explosion2 therefore1  the   
motor will not start of its own accord1 
but must be set in motion4  ,in the act 
of starting the wheel ,o is turned by   
hand4    ,the combustion of the gasoline
 vapor within the chamber ,q and the    
upper end of the cylinder develops a    
large amount of heat1 and unless  means 
are provided for dissipating it the     
temperature will soon rise  to a point  
that will interfere with the proper     
action of the motor4  ,two ways are     
employed to carry off the heat4 ,one is 
by surrounding the  cylinder with a     
water jacket1 as shown in the diagram at
 ,,nn2 and the  other is to provide the 

exterior of the cylinder with numerous  
thin  ribs so as to increase the surface
 exposed to the air and thus increase   
the radiation4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4 
#b4 ,,petroleum ,,spirit ,,motor4       
,the electric spark is a very effective 
igniter for the explosive  mixture1 and1
 by properly setting cam n the explosion
 can be made  to take place just at the 
position of the piston that may be found
  the most desirable2 but the points at 
i are liable to get out of  order1 and  
the battery that actuates the induction 
coil ,m and the  coil itself can become 
a source of more or less trouble1 and on
 that  account the igniting is effected 
in some motors by means of a hot tube4  
,when this is used the cam n1 the lever 
l and the electrical parts  of the      
apparatus are not required4 ,in their   
stead a tube is placed  on the upper    
side of the chamber ,q and this tube is 
maintained at  a red heat by means of a 
flame impinging against its outer       
surface4  ,when the explosive mixture is

 compressed it rises in the interior of 
the hot tube1 and when it reaches the   
portion that is hot enough to  produce  
combustion an explosion takes place4 ,by
 many engineers this  arrangement is    
regarded as superior to the electric    
spark on account of  its simplicity4    
,gasoline motors are made with one1 two 
or more cylinders1 but in each  cylinder
 the action that takes place is that    
described above4 ,the  actual           
construction of a motor is not so simple
 as might be assumed  from the          
appearance of ,fig4 #a2 many details are
 required which are  not here shown4 ,a 
more perfect idea of the actual         
construction of a  gasoline motor can be
 had from ,fig4 #b1 which is a working  
drawing of a  recent ,european          
invention4 ,in this design it will be   
noticed that the  cylinder is cooled by 
radiation into the surrounding air1 the 
exterior  surface being increased by    
numerous circular ribs and also by      
extending  a hollow trunk from the upper

 side of the piston1 so as not only to  
increase the radiating surface1 but also
 to allow the hot air to escape  from   
the chamber ,t in which the crank discs 
revolve4 ,in this drawing  ,e is the    
explosion chamber1 corresponding to ,q  
in ,fig4 #a1 and the  valve s is the    
counterpart of f1 while s' corresponds  
to the  valve h4 ,the upper pipe t is   
the pipe e of ,fig4 #a and the lower    
pipe t' is the pipe r of the same       
figure4 ,although the crank discs1      
connecting rods and other details are   
different in shape1 it will  readily be 
seen that their relation to each other  
is the same4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4   
#c4 ,,reversing ,,mechanism4    ,since a
 gasoline motor cannot start of its own 
accord1 it is necessary  in vehicles in 
which they are used so to arrange the   
driving gear that  the motor may be kept
 in motion all the time and always in   
the same  direction1 hence1 to reverse  
the direction of the carriage1 reversing
  mechanism1 independent of the motor1  

must be provided4 ,the most simple      
mechanism for a gasoline vehicle        
employing spur gearing exclusively is   
shown in diagrammatic form in ,fig4 #c4 
,in this figure ,a represents  the      
cylinder of the motor1 ,b the crank disc
 chamber and ,m the  vaporizing         
receptacle1 which is generally called   
the carburator4 ,the  pinion ,c1 on the 
end of the motor shaft1 meshes into a   
gear ,d  which is mounted upon a sleeve 
,e which revolves freely round shaft    
,g4 ,this sleeve has its ends formed so 
as to engage with the gears  mounted    
upon shaft ,g1 and by means of a lever1 
which is not shown1  but which works in 
groove a1 the clutch either s or ss can 
be  thrown into engagement with its     
corresponding gear4 ,if s is thrown     
into gear1 as shown in the drawing1 the 
wheel ,f will turn ,h and the  pinion ,i
 will rotate the gear ,j which is       
mounted upon the axle of  the carriage4 
,if the clutch ss is thrown into        
engagement1 the gear  ,g will turn ,k   

and this wheel will turn l2 but1 as can 
be clearly  seen1 the direction in which
 l will revolve will be opposite to its 
motion when driven through ,f and ,h1   
therefore1 if when ,f drives  the       
carriage runs forward1 when ,g drives it
 will run backward1 and  when ,e is     
moved to the central position1 so that  
neither s nor ss  engages with their    
respective gears1 the vehicle will stand
 still1 but  the motor will continue to 
revolve4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4   
,,plan ,,and ,,elevation ,,of           
,,underberg ,,motor  ,,voiturette4      
,this diagrammatic arrangement is more  
simple than the gearing actually  used  
and is not as complete in action as many
 of the devices1 as it  only provides   
means whereby the direction of rotation 
of the axle may  be changed1 while in   
many carriages the gearing also varies  
the ratio  between the speed of the     
motor and the driving wheels4 ,it is    
also quite  common to combine in the    
train of gearing spur gears and sprocket

  wheels1 and in some instances even    
belts4 ,fig4 #d illustrates a ,french   
gasoline automobile made by ,underberg1 
of ,nantes4 ,the first figure is a  side
 view1 and the second is a plan of the  
truck and driving mechanism4            
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4 ,,cherrier    
,,two-,,speed ,,gear4    ,the motor1    
which is of the single cylinder type1   
cooled by radiation  into the air1 is   
located at ,n4 ,the pinion on the end of
 the motor  shaft engages with the wheel
 on the end of shaft ,a4 ,this shaft    
carries four gears1 which can be moved  
by means of lever ,c1 so as  to engage  
with corresponding gears on shaft ,b1   
thus providing four  different speeds4  
,the motion of ,b is transmitted to the 
rear axle  by means of a belt that runs 
over the pulleys p and ,p1 the latter   
being carried by a differential gear1 so
 as to run the two driving  wheels at   
proper velocities4 ,the circular ribs   
surrounding the motor  cylinder are well
 shown in the figure1 in which the      

carburator of ,c  is also seen4 ,the    
housing for the motor is open at the    
sides so as to  give air currents free  
access4 ,in ,fig4 #d the speed changing 
gears are  shown1 the reversing train   
being omitted2 but if it were also drawn
 in1  the diagram would be far more     
elaborate than ,fig4 #c4    ,another    
form of variable speed gear is shown in 
,fig4 #e4 ,this provides  for two       
speeds4 ,the large wheel ,e is on the   
carriage axle1 and it is  driven either 
by a pinion ,f1 or by ,j4 ,upon the     
shaft ,o there are  two friction        
clutches ,c ,d1 and when ,c acts the    
pinion ,f drives  ,e1 and when ,d acts  
the pinion ,g drives ,h1 which in turn  
drives  ,i1 and this wheel is mounted on
 the same shaft as ,j4    ,some of the  
best-known makers of gasoline vehicles  
do not employ  variable gears and depend
 for changes in the speed wholly upon   
variation in the velocity of the motor4 
,the ,de ,dion carriages are made  in   
this way1 the gearing being             

substantially as illustrated in ,fig4   
#c4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4        
,,panhard  ,,levassor ,,vehicle4        
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4 ,,motor ,,of  
,,vehicle4    ,fig4 #f shows a gasoline 
vehicle made by ,panhard  ,levassor1 who
 are  perhaps the best known ,french    
manufacturers of automobiles1 as their  
vehicles have been the winners in all   
the notable races held within the  past 
few years4 ,the motor they use is shown 
in ,fig4 #g1 and1 as can be  readily    
seen1 is of the two-cylinder type1      
cooled by a water jacket1  just as in   
,fig4 #a4 ,the explosion is produced by 
means of a hot tube1  as explained in   
connection with the last-named figure4  
,this motor is  placed under the body of
 the vehicle1 and is connected with the 
rear  axle by means of a train of       
gearing which terminates in sprocket    
wheels  and chains that connect with    
driving wheels1 each one being operated 
by a separate chain4 ,in ,fig4 #f the   
sprocket wheel and chain are well       

defined1 and forward of these can be    
seen the outline of the casing          
enclosing the gearing4    ,illustration3
 ,,fig4 #h4 ,,general ,,view ,,of       
,,renault ,,voiturette4                 
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i4 ,,plan ,,of   
,,the ,,truck4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4 
#aj4 ,,variable ,,speed ,,gear4    ,fig4
 #h shows another ,european design1 in  
which a variable-speed gear  is used4   
,the plan of the truck1 showing the     
general arrangement  of the mechanism1  
is presented in ,fig4 #i1 and the       
details of the  variable-speed gear are 
shown in ,fig4 #aj4 ,the motor is       
located at ,a1  and through a friction  
clutch ,b1 and the variable speed gear  
,c1 it  rotates the shaft ,h1 which runs
 lengthwise of the vehicle4 ,motion is  
imparted to the hind axle by means of   
bevel gears contained within the  casing
 ,d4 ,the large bevel gear on the axle  
is of the differential  type1 so as to  
drive the wheels ,r ,r at the proper    
velocities4    ,when a high speed is    

desired1 the variable speed gear1 ,fig4 
#aj1 is set  so that shaft ,m drives ,n 
direct1 the clutch at ,e being moved  so
 as to interlock4 ,n is the end of shaft
 ,h1 so that with this  connection the  
bevel pinion1 which meshes into the axle
 gear at ,d1  revolves at the same      
velocity as the motor shaft4 ,by moving 
the handle  ,v1 ,fig4 #i1 to the right1 
an intermediate speed is obtained1 and  
by  moving it to the left1 the carriage 
is run at the lowest velocity4 ,when    
the handle ,v is turned to the right1   
the ends ,m and ,n1 which form  the     
clutch ,e1 ,fig4 #aj1 are separated1 and
 at the same time the lower  shaft ,h is
 moved toward ,m1 so as to cause gear #a
 to mesh into gear  #b1 and also #c into
 #g4 ,by this means the end ,n of the   
axle-driving  shaft is rotated through  
the train of gears #a1 #b1 #c and #g4   
,if the  handle ,v is turned to the     
left1 the shaft ,i is moved toward ,m1  
so  as to cause gear #a to mesh into    
gear #d1 and gear #f into #h1 the latter

  being secured to end ,n of the        
axle-driving shaft4 ,the speeds obtained
  by these changes are in the ratio of  
nearly #a1 #b and #d4    ,illustration3 
,,fig4 #aa4 ,,plan ,,of ,,the           
,t,,rgan-,,foy ,,voiturette4    ,fig4   
#aa shows the plan of a light ,french   
carriage1 which is equipped  with a     
double cylinder motor1 set in a         
horizontal position above the  front    
axle1 and arranged to impart motion to  
the hind axle by means  of belts4 ,the  
motor1 which is located at ,a1 turns a  
vertical shaft1  and this1 through spur 
gears1 rotates a horizontal fly wheel1  
,b4 ,two  pulleys are mounted upon the  
motor shaft1 and from these belts run   
to tight and loose pulleys on a         
countershaft1 ,s4 ,from the latter  the 
rear axle is driven through two sets of 
spur gearing1 which give  two different 
speeds4 ,by means of the belts1 two     
other speeds are  obtained1 thus giving1
 in all1 four different velocities4 ,to 
stop and  start1 the belts are shifted  

from the tight to the loose pulleys by a
  belt-shifter1 f4 ,at h1 a muffling    
chamber is located1 into which  the     
motor exhausts1 so as to reduce the     
noise4    ,the elevation and plan of one
 of the celebrated ,french              
racing-machines1  the ,valle car1 is    
shown in ,fig4 #ab4 ,the motor of this  
machine is of  sixteen horse-power      
capacity1 has four cylinders1 and is    
connected so  as to impart motion to the
 hind axle by means of a single wide    
belt1  which is marked ,g in both the   
line drawings4 ,the driving-pulley on   
the motor shaft is located at ,h1 and   
the axle pulley at ,h'4 ,within  the    
latter there is a train of gears for    
reversing the direction  of rotation of 
the axle1 and also for obtaining the    
differential  velocities of the two     
driving wheels4 ,there is no mechanism  
for  variable speed1 this being obtained
 wholly by changes in the velocity  of  
the motor4 ,the motor speed can be made 
to vary through a wide  range by using  

four cylinders1 with which it is        
possible to reduce  the velocity so low 
that it would be likely to bring the    
machine to a  standstill if provided    
with one1 or even two1 cylinders4 ,the  
change  in the motor velocity is        
obtained in part by the action of a     
governor  located in a chamber at ,a1   
and in part by the action of the        
electric  ignition device which is      
arranged so that the time when the spark
 is  produced can be varied4 ,the rear  
axle is so held that it can be moved    
through a short distance1 horizontally1 
by manipulating the lever ,d1  and in   
this way the belt ,g can be made tight  
or loose1 thus affording  another means 
for varying the speed4 ,a brake is      
provided which presses  against the     
inner side of the axle pulley1 ,h4 ,this
 brake is used  ordinarily1 but in the  
case of an emergency another brake can  
be  operated which presses against the  
outside of the wheel in the space       
between the two sides of the belt4 ,it  

is claimed for this vehicle that  by the
 elimination of mechanical              
speed-changing devices1 a great deal  of
 weight is saved1 and that this is more 
than enough to compensate for  the extra
 weight of the motor1 arising from the  
use of four cylinders4  ,in most        
gasoline carriages it is necessary to   
provide a slow-speed gear  for          
hill-climbing1 as the motor cannot put  
forth a sufficient effort to  ascend a  
steep grade at the normal velocity4     
,with this racing-machine  such a gear  
is not required owing to the enormous   
power of the motor4    ,illustration3   
,,fig4 #ab4 ,,elevation ,,and ,,plan    
,,of ,,vallee ,,car4    ,there are quite
 a number of gasoline automobiles       
manufactured in this  country1 and1 as  
in the case of the steam and the        
electric carriages1  they compare most  
favorably with the best ,european       
products1 in so  far as the artistic    
effect is concerned4 ,that such is the  
case can  be realized at once by an     

examination of ,figs4 #ac and #ad4 ,we  
regret  our inability to illustrate the 
mechanism of these vehicles1 but  the   
truth is1 that the manufacturers appear 
to be unwilling to make  public the     
details of their designs4 ,in the       
phaeton shown in ,fig4 #ac1  a          
single-cylinder motor is used1 and it is
 so arranged that it can  run at        
different velocities1 so that no        
variable speed mechanism is  required1  
except a single train of gears1 which is
 thrown into action  when running       
uphill4 ,the motor itself can be run at 
any velocity from  #bjj to #hjj         
revolutions per minute1 thus giving a   
speed variation of  four to one4 ,a     
carriage of this make competed in the   
last international  automobile race from
 ,paris to ,lyons1 ,france1 and although
 it failed  to come in first1 it made a 
remarkable showing1 which might have    
been considerably improved if it had not
 been for an accident which  compelled  
it to retire from the contest4          

,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ac4 ,,winton     
,,phaeton4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ad4
 ,,oakman ,,vehicle4    ,the vehicle    
shown in ,fig4 #ad is of small size and 
light construction1  although amply     
strong for the purpose for which it is  
intended4 ,the  power of the motor1     
which is located under the seat1 is     
transmitted  through friction wheels4   
,in looking at the illustration it will 
be  noticed that the hind wheels have a 
circular rim attached to the inner      
side1 and of a diameter somewhat smaller
 than the wheel itself4 ,two  small     
friction wheels are placed so that      
either one may be pressed  against the  
inner surface of this rim4 ,the shape of
 the rim1 as well  as that of the small 
wheels1 is such that they hug each other
 firmly1  so that the rim is carried    
around in a direction which corresponds 
with the direction of rotation of the   
friction wheel4 ,in operating the       
carriage the motor is set in motion1 and
 then one or the other of the  two      

friction wheels is pressed against the  
rim on the driving wheel1  according to 
whether it is desired to run forward or 
backward4 ,while  this arrangement might
 not operate with entire success if     
applied to a  heavy vehicle1 it appears 
to be all that could be desired for a   
light  carriage4    ,three-wheel        
vehicles have been used1 but there is a 
difference of  opinion as to their      
value1 as the construction has          
disadvantages as  well as advantages4   
,it is evident that such a vehicle can  
be steered  with greater ease than one  
running on four wheels1 but on country  
roads1 where the wagon wheels roll down 
a smooth surface1 and leave  the space  
between in a rough condition1 it is     
equally evident that  the third wheel1  
in passing over this uneven surface1    
would jolt the  vehicle to a            
considerable extent4 ,on a smooth       
pavement the three-wheel  vehicle will  
run fully as well as the four-wheel2    
but1 on the other  hand1 on such a      

pavement the latter can be steered with 
as little  effort as the former1 so that
 the question of superiority of design  
is  one that probably depends upon      
individual taste4    ,from the          
descriptions of automobiles given in    
this and the two  preceding articles1 it
 will be seen that although many of them
  are used1 especially in ,france1 they 
are not entirely free from              
objectionable features4 ,the electrical 
vehicles are provided with the  most    
simple and durable machinery1 and1 being
 noiseless1 odorless and  free from     
smoke1 are all that could be desired in 
so far as their  operation is concerned2
 but they are heavy and can only be used
 in  places where the batteries can be  
recharged4 ,the steam vehicles are      
light1 have simple mechanism and can run
 anywhere2 but they exhaust  steam into 
the air1 which is clearly visible in    
cold or wet weather1  and the heat from 
the engine and boiler is an objection1  
at least in  summer time4 ,the gasoline 

vehicles run well1 but are noisy1 and   
the  odor of the gasoline is            
disagreeable as well4          ,,some   
,,scientific ,,principles ,,of          
,,warfare4    ,,by ,,william ,j4 ,,roe4 
,as in boxing1 fencing1 saber and       
bayonet exercises1 there are            
comparatively few postures1 guards1     
thrusts and strokes1 so in warfare1     
whether the numbers be large or small1  
the arms most modern or ancient1  there 
are just a few principles to whose      
steady adherence and skilful            
manipulation all success is due4 ,in    
order that these may become  apparent   
without irksome study of military       
details1 let us imagine a  command of   
say a thousand men1 fairly well drilled1
 of good ordinary  intelligence and     
engaged in a cause worthy of being      
fought for4 ,we have  been in camp for  
some time1 but an order has now come to 
join the main  army4 ,this is a long    
distance off1 the railway communications
 have been  broken1 and the intervening 

country1 though possessed of good roads1
 is  more or less in the hands of the   
enemy4    ,our scouts have kept us      
informed as to the condition of the     
country for  several miles around2 our  
first day's march is1 therefore1 not    
hampered  with any especial dread of    
surprise4 ,we move quickly and at ease4 
,safe  as everything appears to be1 the 
commander relaxes none of the needful   
precautions2 at least fifty men1 under  
command of an experienced  officer1 are 
sent quite far to the front1 the        
distance varying with the  nature of the
 country--the farther1 the more broken  
it may be4 ,the best  roads are         
followed2 the men are allowed to march  
at ease1 though always  preserving-their
 company organization1 while the        
officers are always  more or less on the
 alert4 ,there is a small rear guard1   
but it is upon  the advance that the    
main responsibility falls4 ,of the fifty
 thrown  forward1 about half will remain
 together2 the rest are scattered2 some 

far to the front along the highway2     
others on either side of the route1     
riding up the hills on either hand1     
making sure that no deep gorge1  dense  
growth of forest or thicket1 nor even a 
field of grain conceals  an enemy4 ,it  
is upon the alertness of those vedettes 
on front and  flanks that the safety of 
the force in great measure depends4     
,history  records many relaxations of   
this principle of precaution1 and for   
lack  of it sudden ambushes and         
deplorable disasters4 ,it was thus1 in  
spite  of ,washington's repeated        
warnings1 that ,braddock fell into a    
cunning  ambuscade1 and thus 7not to    
multiply examples7 that ,custer and his 
command were massacred to a man among   
the high ,rockies4    ,on the annexed   
map the men may be located at #8,a'     
marching from #8,d' in  the direction of
 the village1 #8,f'4 ,the advance is at 
#8,b'1 the rear  guard at #8,c'4 ,the   
commander rides with the main column1   
near the  front4 ,the black dots1 with  

pennons1 indicate the general position  
of  the vedettes at this point1 though1 
of course1 they are continually         
advancing4 ,the commander has noted on  
his map a foot path1 beginning at       
#8,d'1 leading over the rugged hills4   
,by taking this path a considerable     
distance could be saved2 but it is quite
 impracticable for the wagons1  and the 
troops1 therefore1 continue along the   
high road4 ,the valley is  gently       
undulating1 with a gradual slope from   
the low hills towards the  stream4      
,illustration    ,the projecting hills  
near the head of the column form an     
especially  dangerous point4 ,what      
easier than for an enemy to plant       
batteries  here on either side of the   
road4 ,a sudden1 heavy fire would throw 
a  negligent force at once into         
disorder2 a situation to be taken       
instant  advantage of by a vigorous     
adversary2 a charge of horse concealed  
behind the hill at #8,o'1 and nothing   
might be left except flight1 with  great

 loss of life1 and surrender with       
loss--if not of honor1 at least  of     
reputation as a safe leader4            
,happily1 we shall avoid both           
alternatives4 ,our scouts have explored 
most thoroughly every possible vantage  
ground4 ,they have not been  content    
with any mere glances2 their            
instructions are to take nothing  for   
granted4 ,that field1 marked #8,g'1     
looks innocent enough1 but the  tall1   
thick rye or corn may cover a skilfully 
placed battery4 ,the plot  marked #8,m' 
may be simply a vineyard2 but it does no
 harm to inquire4  ,the inhabitants of  
the country are friendly1 and1          
therefore1 the  chances are not         
favorable to this sort of surprise2 but 
in war it is  often not the likely1 but 
the unexpected that happens2 the        
commander  who knows his business guards
 against the remote possibility4        
,though we have imagined a force of a   
thousand1 it must not be lost  sight of 
that the same kind of precautions should

 be employed for very  much larger      
numbers2 indeed1 you need only alter the
 scale of the map1  imagine additional  
roads1 a railway line or two1 increase  
to thousands1  if necessary1 the fifty  
of our vanguard1 and the result is but  
an  application of the very first       
principle of warfare3 ,eternal vigilance
  is the price of safety as well as of  
liberty4    ,the troops have been in    
camp for some time2 their condition is  
excellent for a long march4 ,as the corn
 and rye are not yet gathered1  the time
 is early summer4 ,the roads are in     
prime condition4 ,they set  out by      
sunrise and halted for perhaps two hours
 at noon4 ,it is by thus  sparing his   
troops during the heat of the day that  
the colonel will  have a body of men    
fresh enough at nightfall to march1 if  
necessary1  all night4 ,but no such     
urgency exists2 it is nearing sunset1   
and  preparations are now being made to 
encamp4 ,by his map the colonel has     
informed himself in the matter of       

distances1 and has decided that they    
shall pitch their tents somewhere in the
 vicinity of the village 7#8,f'74  ,the 
scouts report an eligible location for  
camp at #8,s'1 and this is  finally     
chosen4 ,it has several advantages1     
being comparatively level1  and yet upon
 high ground1 and has in close proximity
 several wells of  good water4 ,the     
train containing provisions and         
ammunition is parked  in the safest     
locality1 the horses picketed1 and the  
guns--perhaps two  or three field pieces
 and machine guns--placed where they can
 be most  easily handled4    ,by all    
means1 give the men as good a supper as 
the neighborhood  affords4 ,it will be  
wise not to encroach upon the rations1  
but rather  draw supplies from the      
village2 there are1 no doubt1 purveyors 
of one  sort or another to be found     
ready enough to supply us1 the more so  
that  they will be amply paid4          
,refreshed by their supper the men are  
ready to turn in at tattoo2 by  the time

 #8taps' have sounded most are soundly  
sleeping4 ,but some are  awake2 if doing
 their full duty1 wider awake than ever 
they are likely  to be in times of      
peace4 ,the same attention to the bodily
 comfort of  his men which impelled the 
colonel to give them a long rest at     
midday  and a comfortable meal1 applies 
with increased force to those detailed  
early in the morning for the night's    
guard2 during the march these  have been
 spared as far as possible1 even being  
allowed a lift now and  then in an      
ambulance4 ,such privileges are not     
granted by a commander  who knows his   
craft as a concession to the laziness1  
but rather as a  preparation for the    
effectiveness of his men4 ,this is a    
principle of  action1 and may apply to  
business as well as war1 that the strong
 head  never withholds reasonable and   
proper indulgence2 the better1 it may be
  said1 to enforce at needful times     
reasonable and proper exertions4    ,as 
soon as the camp is established the     

guards are posted4 ,if great            
precautions were needed during the day1 
much more are they by night4  ,if fifty 
were sufficient on the march we need a  
hundred during the  hours of darkness4  
,in the case of a large army an         
elaborate system of  night guards is    
necessary3 ,first1 #8advanced guards'1  
occupying strong  positions at some     
distance from the main body2 beyond     
these are the  picket guards2 further   
still towards the front what are called 
#8grand  guards'1 from which are thrown 
forward the outposts1 to which the line 
of sentinels is directly attached4 ,in  
case of alarm1 the sentinels fall  back 
upon the outposts2 these upon the grand 
guards2 they1 in turn1  if necessary1   
upon the pickets2 the necessities of the
 case and the  strength of the enemy's  
demonstration determining the movements 
of the  defense1 even perhaps to the    
#8long roll' and rousing of the entire  
army4    ,in our case1 no such elaborate
 system is possible2 we content         

ourselves  with outposts and the line of
 sentinels1 all that will be needed1 if 
vigilant1 to guard against surprise4    
,the colonel1 attended by the  officer  
in command of the guard1 will select the
 sites for outposts4  ,these1 five in   
number1 are marked by stars upon the    
map4 ,the direction  from which an      
attack is most probable is from the     
ridge 7#8,r'1 #8,r'74    ,the men are   
usually on the sentinel line for two    
hours at a time1 with  opportunity for  
four hours' sleep2 that is1 with shifts1
 or1 as they  are called1 #8reliefs' of 
three parties1 two hours on and four    
off4 ,this  is not1 however1 invariable1
 it being sometimes wiser to relieve the
  men oftener or not so often1 this     
being regulated by circumstances--the   
state of weather1 distance of posts     
apart1 fatigue of the men1 etc41  etc4  
,the sentinels will be posted on clear  
nights generally upon high  ground2 in  
bad or foggy weather the foot of the    
slope is preferable4  ,the officer will 

see that no obstacle prevents the       
sentinel from  retreating upon his      
outpost if attacked4 ,the men will be   
directed to  take advantage of any cover
 that offers1 always to keep in easy    
touch  with one another and watchful1   
never to raise a false alarm1 but       
quickly and decidedly a real one1 and   
while not failing to discover the       
meaning of anything unusual in their    
front1 never to expose themselves  from 
mere bravado4    ,what measures shall be
 taken in case of an attack in force    
must1 of  course1 depend entirely upon  
circumstances4 ,a night attack1 intended
  merely as an annoyance1 or #8feeler'1 
or at most to stampede some of the      
cattle1 or to gather information as to  
strength1 resources1 etc41 is  quite a  
different affair from one planned for   
the purpose of complete  victory1 either
 the destruction1 dispersal or capture  
of the command4    ,a mere night foray  
is generally executed by comparatively  
few4 ,the  opposing chief may be        

desirous of getting information         
concerning the  force that his scouts   
have reported is advancing down the     
valley4  ,a little expedition like ours 
sometimes serves as a disguise for a    
momentous strategical movement4 ,the    
chief determines to find out all  he can
 as to our purpose4 ,he has found us    
vigilant by day2 he resolves  to try    
what the night may disclose4 ,this sort 
of surprise is apt to  produce better   
results than the project of some dashing
 subaltern1  anxious for the bauble     
reputation4    ,for such an attack an   
hour near midnight is usually selected1 
that the  information may be gathered or
 the mischief done and a retreat        
effected  under cover of darkness4 ,a   
dark1 wet1 blustering1 or--if the time  
be  winter--an especially cold night is 
chosen4 ,the degree of success to be    
attained depends naturally upon the     
element of surprise4 ,unless this  be   
complete the attacking party will find  
their attempt usually quite  futile4    

,the other sort of attack--that which   
has for its object the capture  of the  
position--is usually planned to take    
place during the extreme  darkness just 
preceding daybreak4 ,the enemy has      
perhaps crawled on  hands and knees up  
the slopes towards the line of          
sentinels4 ,the van of  this force is   
composed entirely of picked men1        
officered by the coolest  heads4        
,signals are agreed upon1 exact times   
for action arranged1 and  everything    
calculated to a nicety to insure that   
suddenness which is  the very soul of   
success4    ,it is in the planning of   
such an expedition that true qualities  
of  generalship are shown4 ,it is the   
fashion rather to decry the military    
merits of ,washington2 yet ,i know of   
few events in history that show  more   
sagacity than the swift crossing of the 
wintry ,delaware and  the surprise of   
,trenton4 ,it was sagacious chiefly for 
the accurate  comprehension of the      
probabilities4 ,washington knew the     

convivial  habits of ,rahl's ,hessians1 
especially at ,christmas-tide2 he       
reckoned  upon finding them in the midst
 of carousals1 and the result proved the
  value of his forethought4    ,under   
ordinary circumstances1 on the march1 to
 quarter a command inside  four walls is
 never advisable4 ,the men are not as   
readily under the  eye of their         
officers2 in case of surprise they      
cannot be called into  the ranks as     
quickly2 discipline insensibly relaxes1 
and the machine  7for an armed force    
ought to be that1 however intelligent   
its units7  fails to respond            
instantaneously to the word of the      
chief4 ,in case  of a serious attack1   
however1 the village may serve a most   
important  purpose4 ,should the houses  
be substantial ones of stone or brick1  
each may become a most efficient1 if    
temporary fortification4 ,one           
consideration which might have prevented
 its occupation has now no  longer any  
weight4 ,apart from any natural feeling 

of good will for our  fellow citizens1  
how unwise it would be to unnecessarily 
exasperate  them4 ,but now in the face  
of the enemy1 it will be surprising if  
any  soul is churl enough to grudge a   
patriotic hospitality4 ,most of the     
denizens will1 indeed1 make haste to    
hide their precious persons in the      
cellar1 but will seldom grumble at the  
necessity4    ,with the utmost celerity 
the baggage and horses are moved to the 
most  sheltered spot2 the guns1 under   
strong guards1 posted where they may  be
 best utilized2 some of the men1        
previously detailed for just such  an   
emergency1 are engaged in throwing up   
earthworks1 piling logs1  stones1       
anything that can be utilized for       
barricades4 ,the officer  charged with  
that duty1 if possible a skilled        
engineer1 goes quickly  from place to   
place1 hurriedly indicating the lines of
 defense2 these  connecting the several 
buildings in such a manner as to enclose
 the  entire command within lines of    

quite formidable intrenchments4 ,all    
this  time the troops1 having taken     
possession of the houses1 have poured an
  uninterrupted fire upon the           
assailants1 obliging them to retire1 or 
at least giving the diggers--or sappers1
 as they are called--time to  complete  
their labor of defense4 ,surrounded by a
 force sufficiently  large to make      
resistance in the field quite hopeless1 
we are at least  in position to protract
 the struggle1 and one capable of       
defense1  except against an assault in  
overwhelming numbers1 or against heavy  
artillery4 ,the latter they are not     
provided with1 or the measures we  are  
taking might all go in the end for      
nothing4 ,several assaults are          
attempted during the day1 but are easily
 repulsed with no small loss4  ,the     
enemy at last withdraws1 and we now see 
that he is busy throwing  up            
intrenchments4 ,meanwhile1 we have not  
been idle4 ,to facilitate               
communication1 and to enable us to      

concentrate our forces under cover1     
passageways have been constructed       
between the various buildings1 inner    
partitions preventing free access from  
room to room within the houses  have    
been broken through1 and the dbris1     
together with beds broken up1           
mattresses and #8any old thing' capable 
of arguing with a bullet1 piled  in the 
window embrasures1 leaving loopholes    
here and there1 as occasion  offers1    
while galleries may be constructed with 
loopholes in the floor  to fire         
downwards4    ,illustration3 #b    ,one 
of the most important matters to be     
attended to is the securing of  as many 
good positions as possible1 from which  
fire may be concentrated  upon exposed  
points4 ,in a regular siege the points  
of attack selected  will always be those
 most exposed1 on account of their      
projecting  beyond the line of defense4 
,in the case of a village like this     
resisting an attempt at capture the     
principles are identical2 it will       

certainly be the points that project    
that will be danger spots and  which    
will therefore require especial         
attention4    ,illustration3 #c    ,you 
observe on the enlarged map of the      
village that there are  double lines    
between the outer buildings2 these are  
the improvised  intrenchments4 ,notice  
that they have not been constructed     
flush with  the face of the outer walls 
in any instance2 but always considerably
  retired4 ,the object of this          
arrangement is more effectually to      
defend  the barricades4 ,in the annexed 
sketch 7,no4 #c7 #8,a' and #8,b'        
represent  the two adjacent buildings   
and the lines #8,,cd' the breastwork4   
,in the  buildings are windows--#8,e'   
and #8,f'--from which a heavy fire can  
be  concentrated upon the assailants1 as
 may be seen from the direction  of the 
arrow heads4 ,on the outer line are     
several projecting1 and1  therefore1    
especially exposed points2 such as those
 at #8,a'1 #8,b'  and #8,c'4 ,the arrow 

heads show the direction of protective  
fire4 ,as  additional protection1 it    
might be wise to hold the two buildings 
7#8,h'1  #8,h'7 outside the village4 ,if
 not held1 they ought1 if possible to be
  destroyed1 as also those marked       
#8,,jj'1 not included in the defensive  
lines1 as they offer excellent cover for
 the enemy4 ,the utmost care  should be 
taken to provide a safe magazine for the
 ammunition and to  cover well the place
 selected for a hospital4 ,the wagons   
and horses  would be best protected in  
the space marked #8,,lll'4    ,should   
our defense prove too obstinate for     
direct assault1 it may be  that the     
enemy will construct regular            
intrenchments from which to dig  a      
trench deep enough to protect1 and large
 enough to hold a body of  troops1 thus 
enabling them to approach sufficiently  
near to assail  some weak point1 without
 too great risk4 ,the modern repeating  
rifle1  dangerous at a thousand yards1  
and fatal at a hundred1 has given the   

defense so great preponderance that it  
requires quick work indeed to  capture a
 stronghold4 ,observe the broken lines  
#8,,of and #8,,pf'2 these  show the     
direction of possible trenches dug by   
the enemy4 ,but #8,,of'  would be raked 
by the fire from the outlying house1    
#8,h'2 the other is1  therefore1 the    
only feasible mode of approach4    ,the 
principle of defense1 shown by the      
direction of the arrow heads in  the    
case of the beleaguered village1 is     
applicable to all conditions  where     
ramparts are used4 ,suppose the command 
whose fortunes we have  followed had    
been attacked while on the march at the 
point #8,a' on ,map  #a4 ,the opposing  
force was manifestly too strong for     
resistance in the  field2 they retreat  
to the rocky eminence #8,k' and there   
proceed to  fortify the position4 ,a    
glance at ,diagram #d will show what    
they will  try at least to accomplish4  
,in military language that shaded       
portion  of the work to be constructed  

is called a bastion2 it consists of two 
faces 7#8,,ax' and #8,,ay'71 and the two
 flanks 7#8,,jy' and #8,,hx'74 ,the     
faces of  this bastion are defended 7as 
the arrow heads indicate7 by the flanks 
of adjacent bastions2 that is1 the face 
#8,,ay' is swept by a raking fire  from 
#8,,ze'1 and the face #8,,ax' from      
#8,,fg'4 ,reciprocally1 #8,,hx' rakes   
the  face #8,,bg'1 and #8,,jy' the face 
#8,,ed'1 and so on round the            
intrenchment4    ,illustration3 #d      
,all that has been said as to protecting
 the ammunition and stores will  apply  
to this work as it did to the village4  
,if a spring of water can  be included1 
as at #8,o'1 this will be found of      
incalculable advantage4  ,of all forms  
of defensive ramparts the straight line 
is the worst2  if time does not permit a
 work with bastions1 however irregular1 
an  enclosure shaped somewhat like a    
star is serviceable 7shown in ,diagram  
#f1 ,figs4 #8,a'1 #8,b' and #8,c'74     
,should an enclosed work be             

impracticable1  the line should have its
 ends 7or #8flanks'7 strongly guarded1  
and be  broken up1 as in ,diagram #e    
#8,d' into short straight lines nearly  
at  right angles1 to serve for mutual   
support4 ,this principle of mutual      
support1 however achieved1 is called    
that of #8defensive relations'1 and  is 
capable of adaptation to all kinds of   
defensive works1 whether of  a few men  
beleaguered in an improvised            
fortification1 a considerable  number in
 a scientifically constructed           
work--permanent or field                
fortification--a fortress with an entire
 army behind its ramparts1 or a  cordon 
of forts surrounding a great city4      
,illustration3 #e1 #f    ,the ground    
plan of the work having been decided    
upon and staked out the  men start in   
with pick and shovel1 digging1 if       
possible1 a ditch1 and  throwing the    
material into the shape of the shaded   
portion of ,diagram  #g4 ,the ditch1    
outside the fort1 indicated by the      

figure #8,,fghj' serves  the twofold    
purpose of getting material for the     
parapet #8,,abcdef'1  and for           
embarrassing an enemy in any attempt at 
assault4 ,to further  embarrass him     
every sort of obstacle that may be at   
hand should be put  to use--trees1 butts
 turned our way1 boughs interlacing2    
stakes driven  deep into the soil close 
together2 barbed wires wound in and out2
 in  short1 every expedient that may    
delay his advance and keep him as long  
as possible exposed to our most         
effective fire4    ,illustration3 #g    
,the drawing 7#g7 was made with no      
attempt at exactness of proportion1  and
 simply to show the essentials2 the     
slope #8,,ef' is made as steep as  the  
nature of the soil will permit2 #8,,de' 
slopes enough to enable a  soldier      
standing upon #8,,bc' to fire upon an   
enemy entangled among the  obstacles at 
#8,j'1 but never enough to weaken the   
mass of earth at and  near #8,d'4       
,observe how common-sensible all these  

arrangements are2 not one too  many or  
too few2 just the things that a         
practical man1 if he could  think as he 
felt1 would do if suddenly called to    
command with an enemy  advancing upon   
him4 ,unfortunately1 perhaps1 for the   
purposes of a  patriotic and peaceful   
people1 men are inclined1 even though   
brave as  courage itself1 to get nervous
 or nerveless in the immediate presence 
of danger4 ,this is the reason1 rather  
than for any especial erudition         
involved in war's art1 that we need     
trained soldiers--men trained to  think 
mechanically and to act automatically   
amid the uproar of battle4              
,illustration3 #h    ,we have carefully1
 if briefly1 considered the requirements
 of the  first maxim of                 
strategy--,,caution--the need of it1 and
 the practical  methods of securing it2 
and also of the second                  
maxim--,,defensive  ,,relations--their  
necessity1 and how to secure them4 ,it  
now remains  to consider the meaning of 

that phrase1 #8turning a position'1 or  
#8flanking' an enemy1 as to which of    
late we read so much in the daily       
press4 ,the map 7marked #h7 gives an    
idea of a section of country where  two 
armed bodies meet under conditions that 
permit one flank to be  completely      
guarded from attack2 these are the left 
flank of the force  #8,a'1 and the right
 flank of #8,b'4 ,both rest upon a lake 
or broad river4  ,a steep precipice or  
deep morass1 as at #8,h'1 would serve as
 well4  ,suppose our force has advanced 
from the direction #8,c'1 the enemy     
down the road from #8,e' to #8,g'4 ,soon
 they form opposed lines facing  each   
other1 the reserve somewhat to the rear 
and sheltered by some  inequality of    
ground1 the #8thin blue line'1 almost1  
but not quite1  touching elbows1        
stretched along the crest of the ridge  
in front1  taking advantage of every    
chance to protect themselves--trees1    
stone  walls1 ditches2 kneeling1        
crawling1 lying face down1 eyes along   

the  rifle barrel1 finger on trigger1   
keen and murderous1 but prudent1  and   
parsimonious of life4 ,the solid        
formations1 such as went out of  vogue  
with old-time weapons1 would melt away  
before machine guns and                 
,krag-,jrgensens like frost before an   
,august sun4 ,it seems as if all        
chivalry had departed2 it has but       
changed its ways4    ,the object of     
#8flanking' a position is to so manage  
as to turn that  attenuated line into a 
mass of men upon which to let loose with
  dire effect either the quick-firing   
guns or the sharp edges of our          
horsemen's sabers4    ,notice those     
long1 bent1 black lines1 bending like   
fish hooks4 ,the  arrow heads indicate  
the direction of a flanking attack2 from
 #8,f'1  through the woods1 up the      
ravine1 to fall upon the exposed end of 
the enemy's front at #8,k'4 ,such would 
be our most feasible method of          
flanking2 the foe might1 however1 have  
anticipated us1 either by  providing a  

bloody hospitality somewhere in that    
ravine1 or by a flank  movement of his  
own1 as the bent black line shows1      
around the woods1 to  fall upon our     
right flank at #8,f'4 ,such an          
operation1 if successful for  them1     
would be utterly disastrous to us4      
,surprised by a sudden and unexpected   
attack upon the weakest point and       
unable to change front in time1 men lose
 heart1 forget discipline1  huddle in   
masses1 confused and disorganized1 or   
fly like sheep1 in  either case food for
 firearms1 gluttonous of such occasions4
 ,it  requires sometimes but a very     
small force upon a flank to produce     
great  results2 the appearance upon the 
field1 even at a distance1 of ,joseph   
,e4 ,johnston's corps at the first ,bull
 ,run was sufficient to demoralize  the 
whole ,union army1 and at the battle of 
,arcola1 ,bonaparte completely  flanked 
the ,austrians with a few flourishes of 
his trumpets4    ,so we have for a third
 maxim of war the necessity of          

,,protected ,,flanks4  ,if we know or   
think that a ,johnston lurks on either  
hand1 we ought to  be sure of our       
,pattersons2 if we apprehend an         
unfriendly visit from a  ,blucher1 we   
should see to it that our ,grouchy is   
trustworthy4    ,let us now broaden our 
view of operations1 that we may see how 
the  principles established for a       
limited number of men on the march1 in  
the field1 or behind fortifications1 may
 apply upon a larger scale4  ,to this   
end a brief study of the map 7#i7 will  
show four contiguous  countries--#8,a'1 
very populous1 powerful and wealthy1    
having a navy  capable of control of the
 high seas1 and a large and efficient   
army2  #8,c' represents a country even  
more populous1 but not aggressive1 #8,d'
  an insignificant power1 while #8,b' is
 a country considerable in extent1  but 
largely mountainous1 and sparsely       
inhabited by a rude but warlike  people4
    ,a cause of war comes up between    
#8,a' and #8,b'4 ,in ancient times the  

ruder nation would have been the        
aggressor1 tempted by the wealth and    
invited by the enervated populace of the
 larger civilization4 ,now the          
conditions are likely to be reversed4   
,however1 war begins2 the forces  of    
#8,a' move hastily towards the frontier1
 while his fleet blockades  #8,b's'     
solitary seaport at the point #8,e'4    
,the maxim of ,,caution now  naturally  
expands2 instead of information culled  
by a few daring  riders from a narrow   
circuit1 it should be made to embrace   
the widest  area of country and the     
utmost latitude of information--the     
condition  of the enemy as to armament1 
resources1 position of forces1 possible 
disaffection among the                  
people--everything4 ,in war no item     
comes  amiss4 ,the wealthier country    
will here have a manifest advantage2 it 
can afford to hire spies1 and can even  
7as ,england did during the             
,revolution7 purchase the treason of    
some disaffected chief4 ,caution  for   

the lesser country will--if good        
generalship prevails--take the  shape of
 occupying and strengthening the natural
 strategic positions4  ,these are       
nothing but flanks of a bastion on a    
large scale4 ,upon the  map round black 
dots represent strategic positions along
 the frontier4  ,they are points        
susceptible of thorough fortification   
which control  the several passes in the
 mountain range between the two nations2
 also  heads of valleys1 where several  
meet1 and from which attacks could be   
made at will in a number of directions4 
,this entire frontier1 which may  be    
hundreds of miles broad1 is mountainous1
 capable of being fortified  at         
countless points1 and having natural    
#8defensive relations' needing  only the
 art of warcraft to render them almost  
impregnable4 ,modern  murderous arms    
lend their services more readily to     
defense than to  offense4 ,it is even   
possible that the country #8,b'1 warned 
in due season  of the purposes of her   

powerful rival1 may have plotted out    
each rod of  ground among those mountain
 passes1 and that artillery service1    
once a  matter of gunnery1 has now      
become a matter of mathematics4         
,illustration3 #i    ,we now come to the
 fourth maxim of war2 it is that of     
efficient  ,,supply4 ,an army1 as the   
saying is1 moves on its belly4 ,an      
invading  force must ordinarily provide 
for all its needs from some safe place  
in  the rear1 called a #8base of        
operations'2 it must also provide that  
the  line of transit of its provisions  
and ammunition to the front shall not   
be liable to interference4 ,assuming    
that at #8,f' is a strongly fortified   
city1 the railway line or the adjacent  
rivers would furnish #8,a' with  a      
practical base2 his line of advance     
would be in the direction #8,,fg'1      
called the #8line of operations'2 #8,g'1
 a fortified pass1 the proximate1  and  
#8,j'1 the capital of #8,b'1 the        
ultimate objective point of the         

campaign4 ,but it will be noted with    
what facility a determined enemy  could 
fall upon #8,a's' communications from   
the point #8,h'1 which would  also be   
the case were the advance made from     
#8,k' towards #8,l'4    ,of course1 in  
the end1 the larger resources will      
prevail2 but it may be  that #8,a'1     
baffled and exasperated by a stubborn   
resistance1 and finding  that #8,b' is  
being supplied through the neutral and  
insignificant  country #8,d'1 may       
finally conclude1 8in the interests of a
 higher  civilization10 to violate their
 territory1 seize the port #8,m'1 and   
thus1 by a far-reaching and bold flank  
movement1 gain entrance into  #8,b's'   
country4 ,such devices are not unknown  
in the history of war4  ,such a course  
would be a distinct violation of the    
#8law of nations'2  but there would be  
apologies and ample indemnity to #8,d'1 
with which1  doubtless1 she would be    
satisfied4    ,in imagining such a      
campaign no account has been taken of   

the attitude  of the country #8,c'1 or  
of that of any foreign nation4 ,in war  
these  things must be reckoned with4    
,neutral nations are always liable1     
however disposed to maintain neutrality1
 to be touched at some  sensitive point 
by one or the other of the contending   
parties4          ,,modern ,,mongols4   
,,by ,f4 ,l4 ,,oswald1 ,m4,d41 ,a4,m4   
,the political supremacy of the         
,caucasian race was supposed to have    
been  decided by the fall of ,carthage1 
more than two thousand years ago1  but  
was thrice afterwards imperiled by an   
encounter with a rival of               
long-unsuspected resources4    ,the     
,scythians of ,strabo were probably not 
,tartars1 but ,slavs  7#8,sarmatians'71 
or1 like their allies1 the ,get1 ,slavs1
 mingled with  ,teutons4 ,parthia1 too1 
had a semi-,aryan population2 but the   
campaign of  ,attila gave the champions 
of ,europe a chance to measure their    
strength  with that of a new foe1 as    
shifty as the ,semites1 and of far      

greater  staying-power4 ,his ,huns were 
undoubtedly ,mongols1 and came so near  
overpowering the inheritors of ,roman   
strategy that at one time the fate  of  
western civilization hung upon the issue
 of a single battle4 ,the  western      
coalition triumphed1 yet its victory on 
the plains of ,chalons  7,october1      
#dea71 was due to the numerical         
inferiority of their enemies  as much as
 to the predominance of their own skill 
or valor4 ,the very  retreat of the     
vanquished chief established his claim  
to the prestige  of a superlative       
tactician4    ,again1 in #adjb1 only the
 accidental quarrel of two ,mongol      
conquerors  saved ,europe from the fate 
of its ravaged borders4 ,sultan ,bajazet
 had  vanquished all his western foes1  
and the union of his forces with  those 
of ,tamerlane would undoubtedly have    
sealed the doom of the  ,mediterranean  
coast lands1 if not all of ,christendom4
    ,a hundred years later the generals 
of ,solyman ,,ii4 came very near        

retrieving the neglected chance4 ,they  
vanquished ,austrian1 ,hungarian  and   
,italian armies1 and in #aefj defeated  
the combined armadas of the  ,christian 
sea-power at ,port ,jerbeh--so          
completely1 indeed1 that the  allies    
were eager to make peace by betraying   
each other4    ,and it would be a great 
mistake to ascribe these victories to a 
mere  triumph of brute strength4 ,that  
same ,solyman1 with all his fanaticism1 
was a patron of every secular science1  
and at a time when western  princes had 
to sign their names by proxy1 ,mohammed 
,baber ,khan1 the  conqueror of ,india1 
wrote essays in four different languages
 and  published memoirs abounding with  
shrewd comments on social and ethical   
questions and problems of political     
economy4 ,he was a poet1 too1 and       
liberal enough to compose a dirge in    
memory of a prince whom he had  slain in
 single combat4    ,ethnologically1     
there is1 therefore1 nothing abnormal in
 the outburst  of intellectual vigor    

that has lifted ,japan to the front rank
 of  civilized nations4 ,it is merely a 
revival1 analogous to the dambreak  of  
pent-up energies that followed the      
collapse of medival despotism4  ,instead
 of having to work out their salvation  
by tentative efforts1  the ,japanese1 it
 is true1 had the advantage of          
ready-made patterns1  but that          
difference has perhaps been more than   
offset by achievements  affecting the   
reforms of four centuries in as many    
decades1 and by  modifications which1 in
 more than one instance1 have improved  
upon  ,caucasian models4    8,the       
organization of the ,japanese transport 
system10 says a press  dispatch from    
,taku1 8was a revelation to western     
staff officers2 bodies  of troops1 with 
their equipments of stores and camping  
outfit1 were  landed without a hitch1 in
 quick succession1 and moved to the     
front  without a moment's loss of time4 
,no delay1 no confusion1 no blockades   
of wharf-boats and baggage carts2       

everything worked in smooth grooves  and
 in evident conformity with a           
prearranged and oft-rehearsed plan40    
,and in #ahig1 after the affront of the 
,russian intervention1 the  victorious  
islanders1 compelled to forfeit half the
 rewards of their  valor1 proceeded to  
make the very best of the other half1   
and their  provoked diplomats managed to
 preserve their dignity1 as well as     
their  complete presence of mind4 ,the  
,japanese police enforces law and order 
without waging ,blue-,law wars against  
harmless amusements2 there are no       
associations for the prosecution of     
bathing youngsters1 no anti-concert     
crusades1 no suppression of outdoor     
sports on the day when ninety-nine  of a
 hundred wage-earners find their only   
chance for leisure4    ,the #8,yankees  
of the ,orient' have a code of honor    
without duellos1  trade syndicates      
without #8trusts'1 giant cities and     
ghetto suburbs  without anarchists4     
,their labor riots are settled by a     

dispassionate  court of appeal4 ,their  
schools1 ,professor ,arnold informs us1 
are  hampered by #8fads' and experiment 
committees1 but not by boards of  bigot 
trustees4 ,in spite of ,buddhist        
conventicles1 the emergence of  the     
educated classes from the shadows of    
religious feudalism is a  complete      
emancipation4 ,the ,japanese #8,council 
of ,finance' has adopted  ,american     
custom-house methods and ,belgian       
systems of graded taxation4  ,there is1 
indeed1 a good deal of eclecticism in   
the supposed surrender  of indigenous   
institutions2 foreign methods have been 
adopted only on  the evidence of their  
efficiency1 and always with a view to   
making  them subservient to national    
purposes4 ,the key to the distinctive   
characteristics of the ,north ,mongols  
can be found in ,sir ,edwin  ,randall's 
definition of #8,perseverance combined  
with shiftiness4'  ,the ,asiatic        
,yankees can turn1 dodge and deviate    
while keeping a  pre-determined aim     

steadily in view1 and it is by no means 
improbable  that ,mongol influences have
 impressed similar peculiarities on the 
character of the northeastern ,slavs4   
,muscovy was a ,tartar ,khanate for a   
number of centuries1 and ,russian       
diplomats1 since the days of ,czarina   
,katherine1 have accommodated themselves
 to emerging circumstances  by crawling 
or strutting1 without ever losing sight 
of the road to  ,constantinople4    ,in 
the shaggy ,ainos of ,yesso 7probably   
the original home of our  #8,shetland'  
ponies71 that perseverance takes the    
form of mulish  stubbornness4 ,they     
strenuously object to foreign imports   
and stick to  their sheepskin cloaks    
like ,scotch ,highlanders to their      
kilts1 but  in stress of famine seem now
 to take an interest in the harpoon-guns
  of their ,russian neighbors1 and now  
and then sell specimens of their        
poodle-faced youngsters to the agents of
 a transpacific museum4    ,japan still 
produces athletes1 as well as unrivaled 

acrobats1 partly1  no doubt1 on account 
of bracing climatic influences1 but     
partly1 also1  of a vice-resisting      
worship of physical prowess4 ,about     
sixty years ago  the slums of the large 
seaport towns were expurgated by a      
national  revolt against the spread of  
the opium habit1 and the consequent     
reform  movement appears to have kept   
step with the ,swedish crusade against  
the  spread of the alcohol curse4       
,china may be forced into the arena of  
regeneration1 but thus far  seems to    
view the collapse of her ring-wall only 
as a blessing in a  rather effective    
disguise4 ,the policy of                
non-intercourse1 indeed1 had  the       
sanction of a physical necessity in the 
opinion of as shrewd a  statesman as the
 vizier of the great ,kooblai ,khan1 who
 conquered rebels  from ,mantchooria to 
,siam1 but recognized the hopelessness  
of ordinary  measures for protecting the
 peaceful toilers of the eastern        
provinces  against the predatory hordes 

of the northwest4 ,a standard army of   
home-guards1 he argued1 would have to be
 composed either of natives  who could  
not fight1 or of foreign auxiliaries who
 might revolt2 so1  all things          
considered1 it was deemed best to bar a 
foe that could not  be beaten4          
,strategically1 the plan succeeded1     
stone walls being then  so inexpugnable 
to spear-armed besiegers that the       
proprietors of a  stone-built robber    
castle could defy the wrath of the      
public for a  series of generations4    
,the ,tartar marauders were kept at bay1
 but so  were trading caravans and      
traveling philosophers2 the             
disadvantages  of all obstacles to free 
competition began to assert themselves4 
,the  nation1 as it were1 sickened in a 
marasmus of intellectual inbreeding4    
,protected incompetence propagated its  
species2 monopolies flourished4  ,the   
survival of the fittest no longer       
favored the brave2 cowards and          
weaklings could find refuge under the   

telamonian shield of the big wall4      
,within the last hundred years that     
process of degeneration has been        
hastened by two incidental              
afflictions--spring floods and summer   
droughts4 ,the rapid increase of        
population has driven home-seekers into 
the highlands of the far west1 and the  
destruction of land-protecting  forests 
avenged itself in the usual manner4     
,every heavy snowfall in  the mountains 
became a menace to the settlers of the  
lowlands2 a  sudden thaw was always apt 
to turn brooks into rivers and rivers   
into  raging seas4 ,the summers1 at the 
same time1 became warmer and drier4     
,famines1 such as only ,india had seen  
before1 crowded the cities with         
refugees4 ,charitable institutions were 
managed by agents of a paternal         
government1 and paupers were rarely     
suffered to perish in wayside  ditches1 
but hundreds of thousands were huddled  
together in parish  suburbs and fed on  
minimum rations of the cheapest         

available food4    ,it was then that the
 masses were forced to apostatize from  
the dietetic  tenets of ,buddhism2      
abstinence from animal food became      
impossible2  sanitary scruples had to be
 disregarded2 whole settlements of      
famine  victims were compelled to       
subsist exclusively on offal4           
,millions of mechanics had to fight to  
struggle for existence by  reducing     
their wants4 ,the prices of food had    
doubled1 and in order to  pay the cost  
of one daily meal all luxuries had to be
 relinquished4  ,sleep and oblivion of  
misery became the only alternatives of  
hopeless  toil1 and those who could save
 a few taels yielded to the temptation  
of supplementing those blessings by     
means of chemical anodynes4             
,opium-smoking became a national vice4  
,the #8opium war' did not rivet the yoke
 of that curse4 ,it merely  clinched the
 grip of a ,british trading company4    
,the ,chinese government  had attempted 
to cancel their franchise1 but only with

 a view to  diverting its profits into  
the pockets of their own speculators4   
,the  total suppression of the traffic  
would have been not only difficult1  but
 practically impossible4 ,we might as   
well try to prohibit tobacco in  ,north 
,america4    ,yet the results of these  
coperating factors of degeneracy have   
stopped  short of the extremes that     
might have been expected in a land of   
earth-despisers4 ,buddhism in its       
orthodox ,chinese form is radically     
pessimistic4 ,it inculcates a belief in 
the worthlessness of all  terrestrial   
blessings1 and considers life a disease1
 with no cure but  death4 ,and not death
 by suicide1 either2 the victims of     
misery must  drain life's cup to the    
dregs1 to cure the very love of         
existence1 and  thus prevent the risk of
 re-birth4    ,the value of health and  
wealth is thus depreciated in a manner  
that  might tend to aggravate the       
recklessness of life-weariness2 yet the 
,south ,mongol is conservative1 even in 

his vices4 ,an inalienable  instinct of 
thrift makes him shrink from senseless  
excesses4 ,tavern  brawls are less      
frequent in ,canton than in ,edinburgh2 
the topers of  the ,flowery ,kingdom get
 less efflorescent than ours1 their     
love-crazed  swains less extravagant4   
,absolute imbecility1 as a consequence  
of  poison habits1 is a rare phenomenon 
in ,mongoldom2 nine out of ten sots     
remain self-supporting2 the heritage of 
industrial habits is hardly  ever lost  
altogether4    ,nor should we forget to 
distinguish the primitive rustics of the
  inland provinces from the vice-worn   
population of the coast plains4         
,degeneration has not left its marks far
 above tide-water1 and has  hardly begun
 to affect the natives of the highlands1
 the ,yunan hunting  tribes1 for        
instance1 who1 though ,south ,mongols1  
have renounced the  tenets of ,buddha   
and adopted those of militant ,mohammed4
    ,their chieftains welcomed war for  
its own sake1 while the lowland         

conscripts were in the predicament of   
desert dwellers1 caught in  the flood of
 a sudden cloudburst4 ,thousands at     
first succumbed  almost without a       
struggle2 the levies drilled to oppose  
the ,japanese  invasion stood to be     
slaughtered like sheep1 being1 moreover1
 morally  handicapped by a misgiving    
that the war with the champions of the  
north  had been wantonly provoked4      
,discipline has begun to break the spell
 of that apathy1 but the  desperate     
valor that surprised the veterans of the
 allies at ,taku and  ,yangtsun had a   
very different significance4 ,fury      
supplied the defects  of military       
training2 the listless life-renouncers  
had at last been  goaded into a frenzy  
of nationalistic resentment4 ,it was the
 same  delirium of retributive wrath    
that rallied a million ,frenchmen around
  the standards of the invaded          
,republic1 and hurled a horde of        
,russian  volunteers into the           
bullet-storm of ,borodino4    #8,a      

united nation of fifteen millions is not
 vincible'1 wrote ,jean  ,jacques       
,rousseau1 in reply to an appeal of the 
,polish patriots4 ,south  ,mongols were 
supposed to be hardly worth an          
expedition of ,caucasian  regulars1 but 
even a world coalition might find use   
for intrenchments  if the vendetta rage 
of a war for national existence should  
arouse a  land of #che1jjj1jjj          
inhabitants4    ,whether that storm will
 purify the social atmosphere of the    
vast empire  or subside into the calm of
 exhaustion1 is a different question4   
,it  would even be premature to accept  
the appearance of a few able leaders  as
 a propitious omen of regeneration4 ,in 
a land ten times the size of  ,france   
the crisis of a fearful peril will      
always evolve a ,carnot1 a  ,danton and 
a ,dumouriez1 if not a storm-compelling 
,bonaparte4    ,the days of the ,west   
,mongol ,empire1 the dominion of the    
turbaned ,turk1  are undoubtedly        
numbered1 but not as a result of        

national decrepitude4  ,the successor of
 ,sultan ,bajazet will succumb1 not as a
 #8sick man'1 but  as a cripple2 an     
invalid worn out in a fight against     
hopeless odds4  ,within the last hundred
 years the stadtholders of the ,prophet 
had  to defend their throne against     
,russian1 ,austrian1 ,greek1 ,french and
  ,british attacks1 and more than once  
against a ,west-,european alliance1     
backed by ,african and ,asiatic         
insurgents4 ,within that period         
#c1jjj1jjj  ,mongol ,mussulmans have    
perished on the battlefield1 a million  
for every  generation of an impoverished
 and not specially reproductive race4   
,their empire will collapse1 but its    
defenders are still the hardiest        
soldiers of ,europe1 the most           
unconquerable by hardships1 wounds and  
hunger4 ,the burden-carriers of         
,constantinople are still the stoutest  
men of our latter-day world4 ,we might  
as well impeach the degeneracy  of the  
,circassian highlanders1 who resisted   

the power of the ,russian  monarchy for 
sixty-five years1 and in their last     
stronghold stood  at bay with drawn     
hunting knives--after blunting their    
sabres and  exhausting a stock of       
ammunition purchased by the sacrifice of
 their  herds and harvests4 ,for these  
heroic mountaineers1 too1 were ,mongols1
  kinsmen of the martial ,turkomans and 
chivalrous ,magyars4 ,the ,turanian     
race--a synonym of the                  
,pan-,mongolians--comprises as many     
different  types as the ,aryans and     
,semites taken together4    ,in #ahfc   
some twenty clans of the vanquished     
highlanders left the  ,caucasus en masse
 to settle in the mountains of the      
,turkish province  of ,adrianople4 ,they
 will share the fate of their           
protectors1 and may  soon be obliged to 
follow their flight across the          
,hellespont4    ,but the final expulsion
 of the ,west ,mongols will1 after all1 
mean  only that the ,caucasians have    
recovered lost ground1 and freed at     

least ,europe from an intrusive tribe of
 their most persistent and most         
formidable rivals4          ,,religious 
,,beliefs ,,of ,,the ,,central          
,,eskimo4,b    ,,by ,,professor ,,franz 
,,boas4        ,b ,a description of the 
religious beliefs of the ,central       
,eskimo1 based upon observations made by
 the writer1 was          published in  
the ,sixth ,annual ,report of the       
,bureau of          ,ethnology4 ,the    
following account embodies observations 
which ,capt4 ,james ,s4 ,mutch1 of      
,peterhead1 ,scotland1                  
following a suggestion of the writer1   
had the kindness to          make4 ,the 
material for this study was collected by
 ,capt4          ,mutch during a        
long-continued stay in ,cumberland      
,sound4      ,the ,eskimo who inhabit   
the coasts of ,arctic ,america subsist  
mainly by  the chase of sea-mammals1    
such as seals of various kinds1 walruses
 and  whales4 ,whenever this source of  
supply is curtailed1 want and famine    

set in4 ,the huts are cold and dark--for
 heat and light are obtained by  burning
 the blubber of seals and whales--and   
soon the people succumb  to hunger and  
to the terrors of the rigorous climate4 
,for this reason  the native does       
everything in his power to gain the     
good-will of the  sea-mammals and to    
insure success in hunting4 ,all his     
thoughts are bent  upon treating them in
 such a manner that they may allow      
themselves to  be caught4 ,on this      
account they form one of the main       
subjects of his  religious beliefs and  
customs4 ,they play a most important    
part in his  mythology1 and a well-nigh 
endless series of observances regulates 
their treatment4    ,the mythological   
explanation of all the prevailing       
customs in regard to  sea-mammals is    
contained in a tale which describes     
their origin3    8,a girl named         
,avilayuk refused all her suitors1 and  
for this reason she  was also called    
#8,she who does not want to marry4'     

,there was a stone  near the village    
where she lived4 ,it was speckled white 
and red4 ,the  stone transformed itself 
into a dog and took the girl to wife4   
8,she had many children1 some of whom   
became the ancestors of various         
fabulous tribes4 ,the children made a   
great deal of noise1 which annoyed      
,avilayuk's father1 so that he finally  
took them across the water to a  small  
island4 ,every day the dog swam across  
to the old man's hut to get  meat for   
his family4 ,his wife hung around his   
neck a pair of boots that  were fastened
 to a string4 ,the old man filled the   
boots with meat1 and  the dog took them 
back to the island4    8,one day1 while 
the dog was gone for meat1 a man came to
 the island in  his kayak,c and called  
the young woman4 #8,take your bag and   
come with  me1' he shouted4 ,he had the 
appearance of a good-looking1 tall man1 
and the woman was well pleased with him4
 ,she took her bag1 went down  to the   
kayak1 and the man paddled away with    

her4 ,after they had gone  some         
distance1 they came to a cake of        
floating ice4 ,the man stepped  out of  
the kayak on to the ice4 ,then she      
noticed that he was quite a  small man1 
and that he appeared large only because 
he had been sitting  on a high seat4    
,then she began to cry1 while he laughed
 and said1 #8,oh1  you have seen my     
seat1 have you8' ,according to another  
version1 he  wore snow-goggles made of  
walrus-ivory1 and he said1 #8,do you see
 my  snow-goggles8' and then laughed at 
her because she began to cry4 ,then  he 
went back into his kayak1 and they      
proceeded on their journey4        ,c   
,the one-man hunting canoe of the       
,eskimo4    8,finally they came to a    
place where there were many people and  
many  huts4 ,he pointed out to her a    
certain hut made of the skins of        
yearling  seals1 and told her that it   
was his1 and that she was to go there4  
,they  landed4 ,the woman went up to the
 hut1 while he attended to his kayak4   

,soon he joined her in the hut1 and     
staid with her for three or four  days  
before going out sealing again4 ,her new
 husband was a petrel4    8,meanwhile   
her father had left the dog1 her former 
husband1 at his  house1 and had gone to 
look for her on the island4 ,when he did
 not find  her1 he returned home1 and   
told the dog to wait for him1 as he was 
going in search of his daughter4 ,he set
 out in a large boat1 traveled  about   
for a long time1 and visited many a     
place before he succeeded in  finding   
her4 ,finally he came to the place where
 she lived4 ,he saw many  huts1 and1    
without leaving his boat1 he shouted and
 called his daughter  to return home    
with him4 ,she came down from her hut1  
and went aboard  her father's boat1     
where he hid her among some skins4      
8,they had not been gone long when they 
saw a man in a kayak following  them4   
,it was her new husband4 ,soon he       
overtook them1 and when he came         
alongside he asked the young woman to   

show her hand1 as he was very  anxious  
to see at least part of her body1 but   
she did not move4 ,then he  asked her to
 show her mitten1 but she did not       
respond to his request4  ,in vain he    
tried in many ways to induce her to show
 herself2 she kept  in hiding4 ,then he 
began to cry1 resting his head on his   
arms1 that  were crossed in front of the
 manhole of the kayak4 ,avilayuk's      
father  paddled on as fast as he could1 
and the man fell far behind4 ,it was    
calm at that time and they continued on 
their way home4 ,after some time  they  
saw something coming from behind toward 
their boat4 ,they could  not clearly    
discern it4 ,sometimes it looked like a 
man in a kayak4  ,sometimes it looked   
like a petrel4 ,it flew up and down1    
then skimmed  over the water1 and       
finally came up to their boat and went  
round and  round it several times and   
then disappeared again4 ,suddenly       
ripples  came up1 the waters began to   
rise1 and after a short time a gale was 

raging4 ,the boat was quite a distance  
away from shore4 ,the old man  became   
afraid lest they might be drowned2 and1 
fearing the revenge  of his daughter's  
husband1 he threw her into the water4   
,she held on  to the gunwale2 then the  
father took his hatchet and chopped off 
the  first joints of her fingers4 ,when 
they fell into the water they were      
transformed into whales1 the nails      
becoming the whalebone4 ,still she      
clung to the boat2 again he took his    
hatchet and chopped off the second      
joints of her fingers4 ,they became     
transformed into ground seals4 ,still   
she clung to the boat2 then he chopped  
off the last joints of her  fingers1    
which became transformed into seals4    
,now she clung on to the  boat with the 
stumps of her hands1 and her father took
 his steering-oar  and knocked out her  
left eye4 ,she fell backward into the   
water and he  paddled ashore4    8,then 
he filled with stones the boots in which
 the dog was accustomed  to carry meat  

to his family1 and only covered the top 
with meat4 ,the  dog started to swim    
across1 but when he was halfway the     
heavy stones  dragged him down4 ,he     
began to sink and was drowned4 ,a great 
noise was  heard while he was drowning4 
,the father took down his tent and went 
down to the beach at the time of low    
water4 ,there he lay down and  covered  
himself with the tent4 ,the flood tide  
rose and covered him1 and  when the     
waters receded he had disappeared40     
,this woman1 the mother of the          
sea-mammals1 may be considered the      
principal deity of the ,central ,eskimo4
 ,she has supreme sway over the         
destinies of mankind1 and almost all the
 observances of these tribes  are for   
the purpose of retaining her good-will  
or of propitiating her  if she has been 
offended4 ,among the eastern tribes of  
this region she  is called ,sedna1 while
 the tribes west of ,hudson ,bay call   
her ,nuliayuk4  ,she is believed to live
 in a lower world1 in a house built of  

stone and  whale-ribs4 ,in accordance   
with the myth1 she is said to have but  
one  eye4 ,she cannot walk1 but slides  
along1 one leg bent under1 the other    
stretched forward4 ,her father lives    
with her in this house1 and lies        
covered up with his tent4 ,the dog      
watches the entrance1 being stationed   
on the floor of the house4    ,the souls
 of seals1 ground seals and whales are  
believed to proceed  from her house4    
,after one of these animals has been    
killed its soul  stays with the body for
 three days4 ,then it goes back to      
,sedna's abode1  to be sent forth again 
by her4 ,if1 during the three days that 
the soul  stays with the body1 any taboo
 or prescribed custom is violated1 the  
violation becomes attached to the       
animal's soul4 ,although the latter     
strives to free itself of these         
attachments1 which give it pain1 it is  
unable to do so1 and takes them down to 
,sedna4 ,the attachments1 in some       
manner that is not explained1 make her  

hands sore1 and she punishes the  people
 who are the cause of her pains by      
sending to them sickness1 bad  weather  
and starvation4 ,the object of the      
innumerable taboos that are  in force   
after the killing of these sea animals  
is therefore to keep  their souls free  
from attachments that would hurt their  
souls as well  as ,sedna4    ,the souls 
of the sea animals are endowed with     
greater powers than those  of ordinary  
human beings4 ,they can see the effect  
of the contact with a  corpse1 which    
causes objects touched by it to appear  
of a dark color2  and they can see the  
effect of flowing blood1 from which a   
vapor rises  that surrounds the bleeding
 person and is communicated to every one
 and  every thing that comes in contact 
with such a person4 ,this vapor and  the
 dark color of death are exceedingly    
unpleasant to the souls of the  sea     
animals1 that will not come near a      
hunter thus affected4 ,the hunter  must 
therefore avoid contact with people who 

have touched a body1 or  with such as   
are bleeding4 ,if any one who has       
touched a body or who is  bleeding      
should allow others to come in contact  
with him he would cause  them to become 
distasteful to the seals and therefore  
also to ,sedna4  ,for this reason the   
custom demands that every person must at
 once  announce if he has touched a body
 or if he is bleeding4 ,if he does not  
do so1 he will bring ill luck to all the
 hunters4    ,these ideas have given    
rise to the belief that it is necessary 
to  announce the transgression of any   
taboo4 ,the transgressor of a custom  is
 distasteful to ,sedna and to the       
animals1 and those who abide with  him  
will become equally distasteful through 
contact with him4 ,for  this reason it  
has come to be an act required by custom
 and morals to  confess any and every   
transgression of a taboo1 in order to   
protect the  community from the evil    
influences of contact with the          
evil-doer4 ,the  descriptions of ,eskimo

 life given by many observers contain   
records of  starvation which1 according 
to the belief of the natives1 was       
brought  about by some one transgressing
 a law and not announcing what he had   
done4    ,i presume this importance of  
the confession of a transgression with a
  view to warning others to keep at a   
distance from the transgressor has      
gradually led to the idea that a        
transgression1 or we might say a sin1   
can be atoned for by confession4 ,this  
is one of the most remarkable  religious
 beliefs of the ,central ,eskimo4 ,there
 are innumerable tales  of starvation   
brought about by the transgression of a 
taboo4 ,in vain  the hunters try to     
supply their families with food2 gales  
and drifting  snow make their endeavors 
fruitless4 ,finally the help of the     
angakok,d  is invoked1 and he discovers 
that the cause of the misfortune of the 
people is due to the transgression of a 
taboo4 ,then the guilty one is  searched
 for4 ,if he confesses1 all is well1 the

 weather moderates1 and  the seals will 
allow themselves to be caught2 but if he
 obstinately  maintains his innocence1  
his death alone will soothe the wrath of
 the  offended deity4        ,d ,the    
medicine-man or shaman of the ,eskimo4  
,while thus the reason appears clear why
 the taboos are rigorously  enforced by 
public opinion1 the origin of the taboos
 themselves is  quite obscure4 ,it is   
forbidden1 after the death of a sea     
mammal or  after the death of a person1 
to scrape the frost from the window1 to 
shake the beds1 or to disturb the shrubs
 under the bed1 to remove  oil-drippings
 from under the lamp1 to scrape hair    
from skins1 to cut  snow for the purpose
 of melting it1 to work on iron1 wood1  
stone1 or  ivory4 ,women are1           
furthermore1 forbidden to comb their    
hair1 to wash  their faces and to dry   
their boots and stockings4    ,a number 
of customs1 however1 may be explained by
 the endeavors of the  natives to keep  
the sea mammals free from contaminating 

influences4 ,all  the clothing of a dead
 person1 more particularly the tent in  
which he  died1 must be discarded2 for  
if a hunter should wear clothing made of
  skins that had been in contact with   
the deceased1 these would appear  dark  
and the seal would avoid him4 ,neither  
would a seal allow itself to  be taken  
into a hut darkened by a dead body1 and 
all those who entered  such a hut would 
appear dark to it and would be avoided4 
,while it is customary for a successful 
hunter to invite all the men of  the    
village to eat of the seal that he has  
caught1 they must not take  any of the  
seal meat out of the hut1 because it    
might come in contact  with persons who 
are under taboo1 and thus the hunter    
might incur the  displeasure of the seal
 and of ,sedna4    ,it is very          
remarkable that the walrus is not       
included in this series of  regulations4
 ,it is explicitly stated that the      
walrus1 the white whale  and the narwhal
 are not subject to these laws1 which   

affect only the  sea animals that       
originated from ,sedna's fingers4 ,there
 is1 however1 a  series of laws that    
forbid contact between walrus1 seal and 
caribou4 ,it  is not quite clear in what
 mythical concept these customs         
originate4  ,there is a tradition       
regarding the origin of walrus and      
caribou which  is made to account for a 
dislike between these two animals4 ,a   
woman  created both these animals from  
parts of her clothing4 ,she gave the    
walrus antlers and the caribou tusks4   
,when man began to hunt them1 the       
walrus upset the boats with his antlers 
and the caribou killed the  hunter with 
his tusks4 ,therefore the woman called  
both animals back and  took the tusks   
from the caribou and gave them to the   
walrus4 ,she took  the antlers1 kicked  
the caribou's forehead flat and put the 
antlers  on to it4 ,ever since that     
time1 it is said1 walrus and caribou    
avoid  each other1 and the people must  
not bring their meat into contact4      

,they are not allowed to eat caribou and
 walrus meat on the same day  except    
after changing their clothing4 ,the     
winter clothing which is made  of       
caribou-skin must be entirely completed 
before the men will go to  hunt walrus4 
,as soon as the first walrus has been   
killed1 a messenger  goes from village  
to village and announces the news4 ,all 
work on  caribou-skins must cease       
immediately4 ,when the caribou-hunting  
season  begins1 all the winter clothing1
 and the tent that has been in use      
during the walrus-hunting season1 are   
buried1 and not used again until  the   
following walrus-hunting season4 ,no    
walrus hide1 or thongs made of  such    
hide1 must be taken inland1 where is the
 abode of the caribou4    ,similar laws1
 although not quite so stringent1 hold  
good in regard  to contact between seal 
and walrus4 ,the natives always change  
their  clothing or strip naked before   
eating seal during the walrus season4   
,the soul of the salmon is considered to

 be very powerful4 ,salmon must  not be 
cooked in a pot that has been used for  
boiling other kinds of  meat4 ,it is    
always cooked at some distance from the 
hut4 ,boots that  were used while       
hunting walrus must not be worn when    
fishing salmon1  and no work on         
boot-legs is allowed until the first    
salmon has been  caught and placed on a 
boot-leg4    ,the fact that these taboos
 are not restricted to caribou and      
walrus  suggests that the mythical      
explanation given above does not account
 for  the origin of these customs1 but  
must be considered as a later effort  to
 explain their existence4    ,the       
transgressions of taboos do not affect  
the souls of game alone4  ,it has       
already been stated that the sea mammals
 see their effect upon  man also1 who   
appears to them of a dark color1 or     
surrounded by a  vapor which is         
invisible to ordinary man4 ,this means1 
of course1 that  the transgression also 
affects the soul of the evil-doer4 ,it  

becomes  attached to it and makes him   
sick4 ,the shaman is able to see1 by the
  help of his guardian spirit1 these    
attachments1 and is able to free the    
soul from them4 ,if this is not done the
 person must die4 ,in many cases  the   
transgressions become attached also to  
persons who come in contact  with the   
evil-doer4 ,this is especially true of  
children1 to whose souls  the sins of   
their parents1 and particularly of their
 mothers1 become  readily attached4     
,therefore when a child is sick the     
shaman1 first of  all1 asks its mother  
if she has transgressed any taboos4 ,the
 attachment  seems to have a different  
appearance1 according to the taboo that 
has  been violated4 ,a black attachment 
is due to removing oil-drippings from   
under the lamp4 ,as soon as the mother  
acknowledges the transgression of  a    
taboo1 the attachment leaves the child's
 soul and the child recovers4    ,the   
souls of the deceased stay with the body
 for three days4 ,if a taboo  is        

violated during this time the           
transgression becomes attached to the   
soul of the deceased4 ,the weight of the
 transgression causes the soul  pain1   
and it roams about the village1         
endeavoring to free itself of  its      
burden4 ,it seeks to harm the people    
who1 by their disobedience to  custom1  
are causing its sufferings4 ,it causes  
heavy snows to fall and  brings sickness
 and death4 ,such a soul is called a    
tupilak4 ,toward the  middle of autumn  
it hovers around the doors of the huts4 
,when a shaman  discovers the tupilak he
 advises the people1 who assemble1 and  
prepare  to free it of its burden4 ,all 
the shamans go in search of it1 each a  
knife in hand4 ,as soon as they find it1
 they stab it with their knives1  and   
thus cut off the transgressions4 ,then  
the tupilak becomes a soul  again4 ,the 
knives with which it was stabbed are    
seen by the people to  be covered with  
blood4    ,the ,central ,eskimo believe 
that man has two souls4 ,one of these   

stays  with the body1 and may enter     
temporarily the body of a child which is
  given the name of the departed4 ,the  
other soul goes to one of the lands  of 
the souls4 ,of these there are several4 
,there are three heavens1 one  above    
another1 of which the highest is the    
brightest and best4 ,those  who die by  
violence go to the lowest heaven4 ,those
 who die by disease  go to ,sedna's     
house first1 where they stay for a year4
 ,sedna restores  their souls to full   
health and then she sends them up to the
 second  heaven4 ,those who die by      
drowning go to the third heaven4 ,people
 who  commit suicide go to a place in   
which it is always dark and where they  
go about with their tongues lolling4    
,women who have had premature  births go
 to ,sedna's abode and stay in the      
lowest world4    ,the other soul stays  
with the body4 ,when a child has been   
named after  the deceased1 the soul     
enters its body and remains there for   
about four  months4 ,it is believed that

 its presence strengthens the child's   
soul1  which is very light and apt to   
escape from the body4 ,after leaving the
  body of the infant1 the soul of the   
departed stays nearby1 in order  to     
re-enter its body in case of need4 ,when
 a year has elapsed since  the death of 
the person1 his soul leaves the grave   
temporarily and  goes hunting1 but      
returns frequently to the grave4 ,when  
the body has  entirely decayed it may   
remain away for a long time4            
,evidently the ,eskimo also believe in  
the transmigration of souls4 ,there  is 
one tradition in which it is told how   
the soul of a woman passed  through the 
bodies of a great many animals1 until   
finally it was born  again as an infant4
 ,in another story it is told how a     
hunter caught a  fox in a trap and      
recognized in it the soul of his        
departed mother4 ,in  still another tale
 the soul of a woman1 after her death1  
entered the  body of a huge polar bear  
in order to avenge wrongs done to her   

during  her lifetime4    ,almost the    
sole object of the religious ceremonies 
of the ,eskimo is  to appease the wrath 
of ,sedna1 of the souls of animals1 or  
of the  souls of the dead1 that have    
been offended by the transgressions of  
taboos4 ,this is accomplished by the    
help of the guardian spirits of the     
angakut4 ,the most important ceremony of
 the ,eskimo is celebrated in  the fall4
 ,at this time of the year the angakut1 
by the help of their  guardian spirits1 
visit ,sedna and induce her to visit the
 village1  and they endeavor to free her
 of the transgressions that became      
attached to her during the preceding    
year4 ,one angakok throws her  with his 
harpoon1 another one stabs her1 and by  
this means they cut  off all the        
transgressions4 ,the ceremony is        
performed in a darkened  snow-house4    
,after the ceremony the lamps are       
lighted again and the  people see the   
harpoon and the knife that were used in 
the ceremony  covered with blood4 ,if   

the angakut should fail to free ,sedna  
from the  transgressions1 bad weather   
and hunger would prevail during the     
ensuing  winter4 ,on the following day  
,sedna sends her servant1 who is called 
,kaileteta1 to visit the tribe4 ,she is 
represented by a man dressed in  a      
woman's costume and wearing a mask made 
of seal-skin4 ,on this day  the people  
wear attached to their hoods pieces of  
skin of that animal  of which their     
first clothing was made after they were 
born4 ,it seems  that the skins of      
certain animals are used for this       
purpose1 each month  having one animal  
of its own4 ,it is said that if they    
should not wear  the skin of the proper 
animal1 ,sedna would be offended and    
would punish  them4    ,the angakut also
 cure sick persons and make good weather
 with the help  of their guardian       
spirits4 ,they discover transgressions  
of taboos and  other causes of ill luck4
 ,one of the most curious methods of    
divination  applied by the angakut is   

that of #8head-lifting4' ,a thong is    
placed  around the head of a person who 
lies down next to the patient4 ,the     
thong is attached to the end of a stick 
which is held in hand by the  angakok4  
,then the latter asks questions as to   
the nature and outcome of  the disease1 
which are supposed to be answered by the
 soul of a dead  person1 which makes it 
impossible for the head to be lifted if 
the  answer is affirmative1 while the   
head is raised easily if the answer is  
negative4 ,as soon as the soul of the   
departed leaves1 the head can be  moved 
without difficulty4    ,amulets are     
extensively used as a protection against
 evil influences  and to secure good    
luck4 ,pregnant women wear the teeth of 
wolves on  the backs of their shirts4   
,these same teeth are fastened to the   
edge  of the infant's hood4 ,the string 
which passes under the large hood of    
the woman who carries her child on her  
back is fastened at one end  to a bear's
 tooth1 which serves to strengthen the  

child's soul4 ,when  the child begins to
 walk about1 this string and the bear's 
tooth are  attached to its shirt and    
worn as amulets4 ,pyrites1 when thrown  
upon a  spirit1 are believed to drive it
 away4    ,as compared with the beliefs 
of the ,greenlanders1 the beliefs of the
  ,central ,eskimo are characterized by 
the great importance of the ,sedna  myth
 and the entire absence of the belief in
 a powerful spirit called  ,tonarssuk1  
which seems to have been one of the     
principal features of  ,greenland       
beliefs4 ,there is an evident tendency  
among the ,central  ,eskimo to affiliate
 all customs and beliefs with the myth  
of the origin  of sea animals4 ,this    
tendency seems to have been one of the  
principal  causes that molded the       
customs and beliefs of the people into  
the form  in which they appear at the   
present time4          ,,mental         
,,energy4,e    ,,by ,,edward ,,atkinson4
        ,e ,presented before the ,new   
,york meeting of the ,american          

,association for the ,advancement of    
,science4      ,according to the common 
conception1 political economy is held to
 deal  with material forces only2 with  
land1 labor and capital2 with the       
production1 distribution and consumption
 of the materials of human  existence4  
,these are food1 clothing and shelter4  
,it1 therefore1 bears  the aspect of a  
purely material study of material       
forces4 ,yet no more  purely            
metaphysical science exists1 and there  
can be1 in my view of the  subject1 no  
more ideal conceptions than those which 
are derived from  the study of these    
purely material forces4 ,many of the    
errors commonly  presented under the    
name of the #8claims of labor' have     
arisen from the  limited and partial    
conception of the function of economic  
science4    ,we have become accustomed  
to deal with the so-called material     
forces of  nature and with the physical 
work and labor of man under the general 
term of #8,energy'4 ,what man does by   

his own labor or physical energy is  to 
convert the products of land and sea1 of
 mine and forest1 into new  forms from  
which he derives shelter1 food and      
clothing4 ,in a material  sense all that
 any one can get in or out of life1 be  
he rich or poor1  is what we call our   
board and clothing4 ,such being the     
fact1 what a man  consumes is his cost  
to the community2 what he spends yields 
to others  the means of buying the      
supplies for their own wants2 their     
consumption  is then their cost to the  
community4    ,the physical forces of   
nature are limited4 ,the earth is       
endowed with a  fixed quantity of       
materials that we call gaseous1 liquid  
and solid4 ,it  receives a certain      
amount of heat from the sun which1 for  
all practical  purposes1 may be         
considered a fixed quantity of energy1  
even if in  eons it may be exhausted4   
,the physical energy of man is devoted  
to the  transformation of these physical
 forces under the law of conservation2  

he can neither add to nor diminish the  
quantity4 ,he can transform solid  into 
gas and gas into liquid4 ,he can1       
according to common speech1  consume    
some of these products1 but his         
consumption is only another             
transformation4 ,his own body is but one
 of the forms of physical energy  on the
 way toward another form4 ,these        
elements of nature1 formerly  limited to
 earth1 air and water1 are now listed   
under many titles of  what are called   
elements2 ,i believe over sixty that    
have not yet been  differentiated1 but  
all may yet be resolved into a unit of  
force4    ,you will observe that in our 
arithmetic we have ten numerals which   
can be divided into fractions4 ,in our  
music we deal with seven notes  and     
their variants4 ,in our alphabet we have
 twenty-six letters4 ,these  factors    
correspond in some measure to what we   
call elements in nature4  ,there is a   
limit to the number of combinations that
 can be made of the  numerals and their 

fractions1 to the notes of music and    
their variants1  and of the letters of  
the alphabet2 but in each case this     
limit is so  remote as to be negligible1
 like the exhaustion of the heat of the 
sun4  ,may we not deal with the elements
 of nature in the same way8 ,can any    
one prescribe a limit to their          
conversion and reconversion to the use  
of mankind8 ,is it not in these         
processes of conversion that we derive  
our subsistence8    ,we make nothing4   
,all that we can do is to move          
something4 ,we move the  soil and we    
move the seed2 nature gives the harvest4
 ,we direct the  currents of falling    
water1 of heat and of steam2 nature     
imparts the  force or energy to which   
man has only given a new direction4 ,we 
are now  imparting new directions to the
 force that we call electricity1 and to 
what we call cold4 ,what is the force   
from which we derive this power of      
transforming physical energy8 ,may we   
not call it mental energy8 ,is not      

mental energy the factor in mankind by  
which he is differentiated from  the    
beast8 ,does not man only accumulate    
experience1 and is there any  limit to  
the power of mind over matter8    ,if   
these points are well taken1 mental     
energy is the fourth and  paramount     
factor in providing for material        
existence1 and the science  of political
 economy1 which deals with land1 labor  
and capital1 becomes  a purely          
metaphysical science when we admit the  
force of mental energy  into the        
combination4    ,we deal1 as ,i have    
said1 with sixty elements1 so-called1   
more or  less1 but the unity of nature  
is the most important fact ever proved  
by science2 the correlation of all forms
 of physical energy leading  logically  
from the idea of manifold forces or gods
 to the unity of  creation1 necessarily 
ending in the conception of unity of a  
creator1  or the one ,god4 ,this modern 
development of mental science is but the
  ,hebrew concept of the creation in a  

new form4 ,the ,hebrew race was  the    
first one of the historic races with    
whom the unity of creation  and the     
unity of the creator became an article  
of faith4 ,i doubt not  that it was in  
that concept and the power derived from 
it that the  ,hebrew intellect asserted 
its preminence in the history of the    
world4  ,according to that concept1 to  
man is given 8dominion over the fish of 
the sea and over the fowl of the air and
 over every living thing that  moveth   
upon the earth40 ,by what force does man
 hold dominion unless it  is through his
 mental energy and his capacity to      
accumulate experience8    ,all the      
industrial arts are antedated by the    
industries of animals4  ,the tailor     
finds his prototype in the tailor bird2 
the mason in the  wasp2 the farmer in   
the agricultural ant2 the bridge-builder
 in the  spider2 the weaver in the      
weaver bird2 the creator of water power 
in  the beaver1 and so on4 ,yet no other
 animal except man has developed or     

extended any of these arts4 ,no other   
animal except man has learned to  make  
and use fire and not to run away from   
it4    ,if1 then1 man by his power of   
mental energy converts the original and 
crude forces with which the earth is    
endowed into new forms1 and by  giving  
them new direction increases his power  
of production of the  means of his own  
subsistence and enjoyment of life1 does 
it not follow  that creation is a       
continuous procession in which man is a 
factor8  8,there is a divinity that     
shapes our ends1 rough hew them as we   
may40  ,the ideal of #8an honest ,god   
the noblest concept of man' becomes the 
converse of an honest man the noblest   
work of ,god--honest in a broad  sense  
in his dealings with the forces of      
nature2 true to his function4    ,there 
is a painful side to statistical and    
economic study4 ,the penalty  of being  
able to read what is written between the
 lines and the  columns of the figures  
is the conclusion that after we have all

 done  the best work that the present   
conditions of science will permit1 the  
entire product barely suffices to keep  
mankind in existence2 his fixed         
capital1 so-called1 is at the mercy both
 of time and of the inventor  who       
substitutes better methods which at less
 cost of effort or labor  yield more    
abundance to the community as a whole4  
,but on the other  hand1 no matter how  
hard the struggle for existence may be1 
we find  the promise of future abundance
 even in the insufficient product which 
has been derived from the application of
 science and invention up to  date4     
,witness the relative progress of the   
last century as compared  with all the  
previous centuries2 then attempt to     
conceive what will be  the condition of 
humanity a century hence1 knowing1 as we
 do1 that the  applications of science  
through mental energy now proceed in    
geometric  progression1 reversing the   
dogma of ,malthus and leading to the    
concept  of production unlimited1       

consumption limited4    ,if it be true  
that there is no conceivable limit to   
the power of mind  over matter or to the
 number of conversions of force that can
 be  developed1 providing in increasing 
measure for the wants of the human      
body1 it follows that pauperism is due  
to poverty of mental energy1 not  of    
material resources4    ,the next step in
 the development of this theory may be  
presented in  this form3 ,no man is paid
 by the measure in time or physical     
effort1  for the work or labor that he  
performs4 ,no man can claim payment in  
money or in kind on the ground that he  
has done a day's work of a  greater or  
less number of hours4 ,in all civilized 
countries we are  members one of        
another2 rich or poor2 whether we work  
with our hands  or our heads1 or both   
combined4 ,material existence is        
supported by  conversion of one form of 
physical energy into another4 ,social   
energy  is maintained by the exchange of
 one form of service for another4 ,the  

measure of compensation is not the      
number of hours of labor put into  the  
product or service4 ,the standard by    
which services are measured  is what the
 buyer is saved from doing1 not what the
 seller does4 ,each  of us might        
possibly be able to house1 clothe and   
feed ourselves if we  were cast upon an 
island possessing sufficient natural    
resources4 ,if a  hundred persons       
representing all the classes in society 
were wrecked  upon such an island1 each 
adult or each person above ten years old
  would probably find a way to house1   
feed and clothe himself4 ,why do we  not
 house1 feed and clothe ourselves1 and  
why would not the hundred               
representatives of different classes    
wrecked on an island each do his  own   
part of the work for himself only8      
,simply for the reason that men  are    
either endowed from birth with different
 aptitudes1 or different  aptitudes are 
developed in their environment4 ,each   
one finds out that  by delegating to    

another certain kinds of work he saves  
his own time  and energy4 ,each one     
finds out what he can do for the next   
man1 while  the next man finds out what 
he can do for him4    ,there is in every
 transaction of life an unconscious     
cerebration or  estimate of the services
 rendered to us1 saving each of us      
mental or  manual energy1 whenever we   
buy any product or service from another4
  ,that unconscious cerebration affects 
the minds or habits or acts of  both    
parties in every purchase and sale4     
,there may be errors in regard  to the  
service itself4 ,the ignorant man will  
buy quack medicines that  he had better 
let alone1 but what he pays under the   
false impression  of benefit to himself 
is his measure of what he hopes to save2
 while  the quack medicine vender1      
taking advantage of the ignorance of    
others1  filches from them the means of 
subsistence1 even of wealth1 under  the 
pretext of service4 ,as time goes on1   
however1 false measures of  service are 

eliminated with increasing intelligence1
 and true benefits  constitute more and 
more the vast proportion of the         
exchanges4    ,the same ignorance which 
leads the masses of the people of every 
country to submit to military dictation1
 even in a bad cause1 also  leads to the
 wars of tariffs among nations by which 
prejudice and  animosity are kept up4   
,the false conception that in           
international  commerce what one nation 
gains another must lose1 is promoted by 
the advocates of protection1 many of    
whom very honestly believe  that through
 the exclusion of foreign goods domestic
 industry may  be promoted1 wholly      
ignoring the fact that arts and         
industries are  developed by            
intelligence and not by legislation4    
,the advocates of bounties and of       
special legislation also ignore  the    
fact that in this country1 where mental 
energy is more nearly  free in its      
action than in any other1 manufactures  
and the mechanic  arts develop in due   

proportion according to the age and the 
natural  resources of the territory or  
state1 nine-tenths or more of the       
occupations which are listed under these
 titles being free in the  nature of    
things from any possibility of foreign  
competition through  the import of a    
product of like kind4    ,there may be  
nothing new in this essay1 but until my 
own observation  had led me to the      
conclusion that land1 labor and capital 
were alike  inert and incapable without 
the cordinating power of mental energy1 
the doubt continued to exist in my mind 
which is often expressed about  the     
possibility of economic science having  
any real existence or right  to the     
title4 ,also1 until my own observation  
led me to the conclusion  that the cost 
of a man to the community is what he    
consumes1 and not  what he secures in   
the way of income1 the correlation of   
wealth and  welfare had not been        
satisfactorily reconciled4 ,i think that
 a very  large part of what is written  

under the title of political economy    
would be greatly modified1 and perhaps  
never have been written1 had  these     
concepts been derived by the writers    
from experience1 as they  have been in  
my own observation4    ,i have not much 
patience with abstract or  priori       
theories1 my  own method being one of   
observation1 then referring to the      
various  authorities in order to find   
out whether my observations or their    
abstract theories have been shallow and 
superficial4    ,again1 ,i find in the  
ideal of the continuous miracle of      
creation in  which man is a factor the  
solution of many intellectual           
difficulties4  ,in the face of such a   
perception of the methods of the        
universe1 the  larger part of the dogmas
 that have been put forth under the name
 of  religion take their place with much
 of the historic rubbish which  passes  
under the name of history4 ,when it     
becomes plain that every man  has his   
place in the progress of continuous     

creation1 and is a factor  in it2 that  
nothing is constant but change2 that    
there is no such thing  as fixed        
capital2 all the doubts and fears       
regarding the future of  humanity vanish
 in the light of sure progress4    ,what
 greater stimulus can there be than for 
every man each in his own  way rendering
 service for service1 his objective     
point being only the  welfare of himself
 and his family1 when he attains the    
conviction  that by so much as his      
mental energy adds to the sum of the    
utilities  by which mankind lives1 so   
may that part which he consumes and     
which  represents his cost to the       
community be fully justified1 even      
though it  is earned with more apparent 
ease and less physical exertion than are
  called for from his poorer neighbors4 
,incomplete as his studies were1 ,i have
 always found in the #8,harmonies'  of  
,frederic ,bastiat the greatest         
encouragement and the greatest          
incentive to the work which ,i have     

undertaken under the name of  political 
economy1 leading more and more to the   
conviction that war  and warfare1       
whatever influence they may have had in 
developing  progress in the past1 are   
now due to ignorance and greed2 the war 
of  tariffs due to selfishness and      
stupidity2 and the contest of labor and 
capital due to the errors of the        
ignorant workman and the ignorant       
capitalist alike4 ,all interests are    
harmonious4 ,the evolution of  science  
and invention will surely bring them    
together on the lines of  righteousness1
 peace and material abundance4    ,this 
essay has been condensed from a lecture 
prepared and given before  a            
,clergymen's ,club some months ago4 ,in 
it ,i tried to show the necessary       
connection of religion and life as      
developed by economic study1 the law  of
 mutual service being the rule by which 
commerce lives and moves and  has its   
being4 ,this lecture has since been read
 to several clubs of  very different    

types of men1 and from the great        
interest excited ,i am  led to think    
there is something in it fit for the    
student of facts and  figures to say4   
,i may1 therefore1 venture to repeat the
 statement of two principles  which are 
presented in this treatise1 which ,i    
think have been seldom  if ever fully   
developed in any of the standard works  
upon political  economy4 ,to my own mind
 these are basic principles which when  
applied  may profoundly modify many of  
the concepts of students of economic    
science4 ,i join in the view that the   
family is the unit of society1  the home
 the center4 ,the end of all production 
is consumption4  ,nothing is constant   
but change1 and there is no such thing  
as fixed  material capital of any long  
duration in the progress of time4 ,the  
two  principles which ,i have endeavored
 to enforce are as follows3    ,first4  
,the cost of each person or head of the 
family is what he and his  immediate    
dependents consume4 ,his income1 whether

 measured in terms of  money or in      
products1 is1 therefore1 no measure of  
his cost2 what he  distributes in       
payment for service rendered being      
expended by those who  receive it in    
procuring the commodities which         
constitute their cost to  the community4
    ,second4 ,no person who is occupied 
or is in the employment or service of   
others is paid for what he does4 ,his   
work may occupy long hours and may  be  
applied to arduous manual labor1 or it  
may be done in a short number  of hours 
per day1 with but little physical       
effort4 ,neither the hours  nor the     
effort constitute any measure on which  
payment can be based4  ,the measure of  
payment is fixed by the measure of the  
work saved to him  who makes the        
payment1 consciously or unconsciously   
estimated4    ,these two precepts or    
principles1 coupled with the theory that
 there is  no conceivable limit to the  
power of mind over matter1 or to the    
number  of transformations of physical  

energy to which direction may be given  
in the material support of humanity1    
bring the visions of the ,utopians      
within the scope of a law of progress in
 material welfare to which no  limit can
 be put in time or space4               
,,chapters ,,on ,,the ,,stars4    ,,by  
,,prof4 ,,simon ,,newcomb1 ,u4 ,s4 ,n4  
,,variable ,,stars4    ,it is a curious 
fact that the ancient astronomers1      
notwithstanding  the care with which    
they observed the heavens1 never noticed
 that  any of the stars changed in      
brightness4 ,the earliest record of such
  an observation dates from #aeif1 when 
the periodical disappearance of         
,omicron ,ceti was noticed4 ,after this1
 nearly two centuries elapsed  before   
another case of variability in a star   
was recorded4 ,during the  first half of
 the nineteenth century ,argelander so  
systematized the  study of variable     
stars as to make it a new branch of     
astronomy4 ,in  recent years it has     
become of capital interest and          

importance through  the application of  
the spectroscope4    ,students who are  
interested in the subject will find the 
most complete  information attainable in
 the catalogues of variable stars1      
published  from time to time by         
,chandler in the #8,astronomical        
,journal4' ,his third  catalogue1 which 
appeared in #ahif1 comprises more than  
#cjj stars whose  variability has been  
well established1 while there is always 
a long  list of #8suspected             
variables'--whose cases are still to be 
tried4 ,the  number to be included in   
the established list is continually     
increasing  at such a rate that it is   
impossible to state it with any         
approximation  to exactness4 ,the       
possibility of such a statement has been
 yet  further curtailed by the recent   
discovery at the ,harvard ,observatory  
that certain clusters of stars contain  
an extraordinary proportion  of         
variables4 ,altogether at the time of   
the latest publication1 #eji  such stars

 were found in twenty-three clusters4   
,the total number of  these objects in  
clusters1 therefore1 exceeds the number 
known in the  rest of the sky4 ,they    
will be described more fully in a       
subsequent  chapter4 ,for the present we
 are obliged to leave this rich field   
out  of consideration and confine our   
study to the isolated variable stars    
which are found in every region of the  
heavens4    ,variable stars are of      
several classes1 which1 however1 run    
into each  other by gradations so slight
 that a sharp separation cannot always  
be  made between them4 ,yet there are   
distinguishing features1 each of which  
marks so considerable a number of these 
stars as to show some radical           
difference in the causes on which the   
variations depend4    ,we have first to 
distinguish the two great classes of    
irregular and  periodic stars4 ,the     
irregular ones increase and diminish in 
so fitful a  way that no law of their   
change can be laid down4 ,to this class 

belong  the so-called #8new stars'1     
which1 at various periods in history1   
have  blazed out in the heavens1 and    
then in a few weeks or months have      
again faded away4 ,it is a remarkable   
fact that no star of the latter  class  
has ever been known to blaze out more   
than once4 ,this fact  distinguishes new
 stars from other irregularly variable  
ones4    ,periodic stars are those which
 go through a regular cycle of changes  
in  a definite interval of time1 so     
that1 after a certain number of days1   
sometimes of hours1 the star returns to 
the same brightness4 ,but even  in the  
case of periodic stars1 it is found that
 the period is more  or less variable1  
and1 in special cases1 the amount of the
 variation  is such that it cannot      
always be said whether we should call a 
star  periodic or irregular4    ,the    
periodic stars show wide differences1   
both in the length of the  period and in
 the character of the changes they      
undergo4 ,in most cases  they rapidly   

increase in brightness during a few days
 or weeks1 and  then slowly fade away1  
to go through the same changes again at 
the end  of the period4 ,in other cases 
they blaze up or fade out1 from time  to
 time1 like the revolving light of a    
lighthouse4 ,some stars are             
distinguished more especially by their  
maximum1 or period of greatest          
brightness1 while others are more       
sharply marked by minima1 or periods  of
 least brightness4 ,in some cases there 
are two unequal minima in the  course of
 a period4    ,chandler's third         
catalogue of variable stars gives the   
periods of  #bhj of these objects1 which
 seem to have been fairly well made out4
  ,a classification of these periods1 as
 to their length1 will be  interesting4 
,there are1 of periods3      ,less than 
#ej days         #fc ,stars4    ,between
 #ej and #ajj days    #f   0       0    
#ajj  0  #aej  0      #i   0       0    
#aej  0  #bjj  0     #ah   0       0    
#bjj  0  #bej  0     #bi   0       0    

#bej  0  #cjj  0     #dj   0       0    
#cjj  0  #cej  0     #dd   0       0    
#cej  0  #djj  0     #dd   0       0    
#djj  0  #dej  0     #ah   0       0    
#dej  0  #ejj  0      #f   0       0    
#ejj  0  #eej  0      #a   0       0    
#eej  0  #fjj  0      #a   0       0    
#fjj  0  #fej  0      #a   0    ,it will
 be seen from this that1 leaving out the
 cases of very short  period1 the       
greater number of the periods fall      
between #cjj and #djj  days4 ,from this 
value the number falls off in both      
directions4 ,only  three periods exceed 
#ejj days1 and of these the longest is  
#faj days4 ,we  infer from this that    
there is something in the constitution  
of these  stars1 or in the causes on    
which their variation depends1 which    
limits  the period4 ,this limitation    
establishes a well-marked distinction   
between the periodic stars and the      
irregular variables to be hereafter     
described4    ,returning to the upper   
end of the scale1 the contrast between  

the great  number of stars less than    
fifty days1 and the small number between
  fifty and one hundred1 seems to show  
that we have here a sharp line  of      
distinction between stars of long and   
those of short period4 ,but1  when we   
examine the matter in detail1 the       
statistics of the periods  do not enable
 us to draw any such line4 ,about eight 
periods are less  than one day1 and the 
number of this class known to us is     
continually  increasing4 ,about forty   
are between one and ten days1 and from  
this  point upwards they are scattered  
with a fair approach to equality  up to 
a period of one hundred days4 ,there is1
 however1 a possible  distinction1 which
 we shall develop presently4            
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,,the ,,law   
,,of ,,change ,,in ,a ,,variable ,,star4
    ,the law of change in a variable    
star is represented to the eye by a     
curve in the following way4 ,we draw a  
straight horizontal line ,a ,x to       
represent the time4 ,a series of        

equidistant points1 a1 b1 c1 d1  etc41  
on this will represent moments of time4 
,one of the spaces1 a1  b1 c1 etc41 may 
represent an hour1 a day1 or a month1   
according  to the rapidity of change4   
,we take a to represent the initial     
moment1 and erect an ordinate aa'1 of   
such length as to represent  the        
brightness of the star on some          
convenient scale at this moment4 ,at    
the second moment1 b1 which may be an   
hour or a day later1 we erect  another  
ordinate bb'1 representing the          
brightness at this moment4 ,we  continue
 this process as long as may be         
required4 ,then we draw a curve1        
represented by the dotted line1 through 
the ends of all the ordinates4  ,in the 
case of a periodic star it is only      
necessary to draw the curve  through a  
single period1 since its continuation   
will be a repetition of  its form for   
any one period4    ,we readily see that 
if a star does not vary1 all the        
ordinates will  be of equal length1 and 

the curve will be a horizontal straight 
line4  ,moreover1 the curve will take   
this form through any portion of time   
during which the light of the star is   
constant4    ,there are three of the    
periodic stars plainly visible to the   
naked eye  at maximum1 of which the     
variations are so wide that they may    
easily  be noticed by any one who looks 
for them at the right times1 and knows  
how to find the stars4 ,these stars are3
      ,omicron ,ceti1 called also ,mira 
,ceti4    ,beta ,persei1 or ,algol4     
,beta ,lyr4    ,it happens that each of 
these stars exemplifies a certain type  
or law  of variations4    ,omicron      
,ceti4 ,on ,august #ac1 #aeif1 ,david   
,fabricius noticed a star in  the       
constellation ,cetus1 which was not     
found in any catalogue4 ,bayer1  in his 
#8,uranometria'1 of which the first     
edition was published in #afja1  marked 
the star ,omicron1 but said nothing     
about the fact that it was  visible only
 at certain times4 ,fabricius observed  

the star from time to  time1 until      
#afji1 but he does not appear to have   
fully and accurately  recognized its    
periodicity4 ,but so extraordinary an   
object could  not fail to command the   
attention of astronomers1 and the fact  
was  soon established that the star     
appeared at intervals of about eleven   
months1 gradually fading out of sight   
after a few weeks of visibility4        
,observations of more or less accuracy  
having been made for more than  two     
centuries1 the following facts          
respecting it have been brought to      
light3    ,its variations are somewhat  
irregular4 ,sometimes1 when at its      
brightest1 it rises nearly or quite to  
the second magnitude4 ,this  was the    
case in ,october1 #ahih1 when it was    
about as bright as ,alpha  ,ceti4 ,at   
other times its maximum brightness      
scarcely exceeds the fifth  magnitude4  
,no law has yet been discovered by which
 it can be predicted  whether it shall  
attain one degree of brightness or      

another at maximum4    ,its minima are  
also variable4 ,sometimes it sinks only 
to the eighth  magnitude2 at other times
 to the ninth or lower4 ,in either case 
it is  invisible to the naked eye4      
,as with other stars of this kind1 it   
brightens up more rapidly  than it fades
 away4 ,it takes a few weeks from the   
time it becomes  visible to reach its   
greatest brightness1 whatever that may  
be4 ,it  generally retains this         
brightness for two or three weeks1 then 
fades  away1 gradually at first1        
afterward more rapidly4 ,the whole time 
of  visibility will1 therefore1 be two  
or three months4 ,of course1 it can  be 
seen with a telescope at any time4      
,the period also is variable in a       
somewhat irregular way4 ,if we          
calculate when the star ought to be at  
its greatest brightness on the          
supposition that the intervals between  
the maxima ought to be equal1  we shall 
find that sometimes the maximum will be 
thirty or forty days  early1 and at     

other times thirty or forty days late4  
,these early or  late maxima follow each
 other year after year1 with a certain  
amount of  regularity as regards the    
progression1 though no definable law can
 be  laid down to govern them4 ,thus1   
during the period from #aghb to #ahjj it
  was from thirteen to twenty-four days 
late4 ,in #ahab it was thirty-nine  days
 late4 ,from #ahde to #ahef it was on   
the average about a month too  early4   
,several recent maxima1 notably those   
from #ahie to #ahih1 again  occurred    
late4 ,formul have been constructed to  
show these changes1 but  there is no    
certainty that they express the actual  
law of the case4  ,indeed1 the          
probability seems to be that there is no
 invariable law  that we can discover to
 govern it4    ,argelander fixed the    
length of the period at #cca4i days4    
,more recently1  ,chandler fixed it at  
#cca4f days4 ,it would seem1 therefore1 
to have  been somewhat shorter in recent
 times4 ,it was at its maximum toward   

the end of ,october1 #ahih4 ,we may1    
therefore1 expect that future maxima    
will occur in ,july1 #aija2 ,june1      
#aijb2 ,may1 #aijc2 ,april1 #aijd1 and  
so  on1 about a month earlier each year4
 ,during the few years following  #aijc 
the maxima will probably not be visible1
 owing to the star being  near          
conjunction with the sun at the times of
 their occurrence4 ,the  most plausible 
view seems to be that changes of a      
periodic character1  involving the      
eruption of heated matter from the      
interior1 of the body  to its surface1  
followed by the cooling of this matter  
by radiation1  are going on in the star4
    ,the star ,algol1 or ,beta ,persei1 
as it is commonly called in             
astronomical language1 may1 in northern 
latitudes1 be seen on almost  any night 
of the year4 ,in the early summer we    
should probably see it  only after      
midnight1 in the northeast4 ,in late    
winter it would be seen  in the         
northwest4 ,from ,august until ,january 

one can find it at some  time in the    
evening by becoming acquainted with the 
constellations4  ,it is nearly of the   
second magnitude4 ,one might look at it 
a score  of times without seeing that it
 varied in brilliancy4 ,but at certain  
stated intervals1 somewhat less than    
three days1 it fades away to  nearly the
 fourth magnitude for a few hours1 and  
then slowly recovers  its light4 ,this  
fact was first discovered by ,goodrick  
in #aghc1 since  which time the         
variations have been carefully followed4
 ,the law of  variation thus defined is 
expressed by a curve of the following   
form3    ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4 ,,law
 ,,of ,,variation ,,of ,a ,,star ,,of   
,,the ,,algol ,,type4    ,the idea that 
what we see in the star is a partial    
eclipse caused by  a dark body revolving
 round it1 was naturally suggested even 
to the  earliest observers4 ,but it was 
impossible to test this theory until    
recent times4 ,careful observation      
showed changes in the period between    

the eclipses1 which1 although not       
conclusive against the theory1 might    
have seemed to make it somewhat         
unlikely4 ,the application of the       
spectroscope to the determination of    
radial motions1 enabled ,vogel1 of      
,potsdam1 in #ahhi1 to set the question 
at rest4 ,his method of reasoning  and  
proceeding was this3    ,if the fading  
out which we see is really due to an    
eclipse by a dark  body1 that body must 
be nearly or quite as large as the star 
itself1  else it could not cut off so   
much of its light4 ,in this case1 it is 
probably nearly as massive as the star  
itself1 and therefore would  affect the 
motion of the star4 ,both bodies would1 
in fact1 revolve  around their common   
center of gravity4 ,therefore1 when     
after the dark  body has passed in front
 of the star1 it has made one-fourth of 
a  revolution1 which would require about
 seventeen hours1 the star would  be    
moving towards us4 ,again1 seventeen    
hours before the eclipse1 it  ought to  

be moving away from us4    ,the         
measurement of six photographs of the   
spectrum1 of which four  were taken     
before the eclipses and two afterward1  
gives the following  results3           
,before eclipses3 ,velocity from the sun
 equals #ci km4 per second4             
,after eclipses3 ,velocity toward the   
sun equals #dg km4 per second4    ,these
 results show that the hypothesis in    
question is a true one1 and  afforded   
the first conclusive evidence of a dark 
body revolving around  a distant star4  
,a study of the law of diminution and   
recovery of the  light during the       
eclipse1 combined with the preceding    
motions1 enabled  ,vogel to make an     
approximate estimate of the size of the 
orbit and of  the two bodies4 ,the star 
itself is somewhat more than a million  
of  miles in diameter2 the dark         
companion a little less4 ,the latter is 
about the size of our sun4 ,their       
distance apart is somewhat more than    
three millions of miles2 the respective 

masses are about one-half and           
one-fourth that of the sun4 ,these      
results1 though numerically rather      
uncertain1 are probably near enough to  
the truth to show us what an            
interesting system we here have to deal 
with4 ,we can say with entire  certainty
 that the size and mass of the dark body
 exceed those of any  planet of our     
system1 even ,jupiter1 several hundred  
fold4    ,the period of the star is also
 subject to variations of a somewhat    
singular character4 ,these have been    
attributed by ,chandler to a motion  of 
the whole system around a third body1   
itself invisible4 ,this theory  is1     
however1 still to be proved4 ,quite     
likely the planet which causes  the     
eclipse is not the only one which       
revolves around this star4 ,the  latter 
may be the center of a system like our  
solar system1 and the  other planets    
may1 by their action1 cause changes in  
the motion of  the body that produces   
the eclipses4 ,the most singular feature

 of the  change is that it seems to have
 taken place quite rapidly1 about #ahdj4
  ,the motion was nearly uniform up to  
near this date2 then it changed1  and   
again remained nearly uniform until     
#ahij4 ,since then no available         
observations have been published4    ,it
 is found that several other stars vary 
in the same way as ,algol2  that is to  
say1 they are invariable in brightness  
during the greater  part of the time1   
but fade away for a few days at regular 
intervals4  ,this is a kind of variation
 which it is most difficult to discover1
  because it will be overlooked unless  
the observer happens to notice the  star
 during the time when an eclipse is in  
progress1 and is thoroughly  aware of   
its previous brightness4 ,one might     
observe a star of this  kind very       
accurately a score of times1 without    
hitting upon a moment  when the partial 
eclipse was in progress4 ,on the        
principle that like  effects are due to 
like causes1 we are justified in        

concluding that in  the cases of all    
stars of this type1 the eclipses are    
caused by the  revolution of a dark     
body1 now called #8,algol variables1'   
round the  principal star4    ,a feature
 of all the ,algol variables is the     
shortness of the periods4  ,the longest 
period is less than five days1 while    
three are less than  one day4 ,this is a
 result that we might expect from the   
nature of the  case4 ,the nearer a dark 
planet is to the star1 the more likely  
it  will be to hide its light from an   
observer at a great distance4 ,if1  for 
example1 the planet ,jupiter were nearly
 as large as the sun1 the  chances would
 be hundreds to one against the plane of
 the orbit being  so nearly in the line 
of a distant observer that the latter   
would ever  see an eclipse of the sun by
 the planet4 ,but if the planet were    
close  to the sun1 the chances might    
increase to one in ten1 and yet farther 
to almost any extent1 according to the  
nearness of the two bodies4    ,still1  

we cannot set any definite limit to the 
period of stars of this  type2 all we   
can say is that1 as the period we seek  
for increases1 the  number of stars     
varying in that period must diminish4   
,this follows not  only from the reason 
just given1 but from the fact that the  
longer the  interval that separates the 
partial eclipses of a star of the ,algol
  type1 the less likely they are to be  
detected4      ,,stars ,,of ,,the ,,beta
 ,,lyr ,,type4    ,the star ,beta ,lyr  
shows variations quite different in     
their nature  from those of ,algol1 yet 
having a certain analogy to them4       
,anyone  who looks at the constellation 
,lyr a few nights in succession and     
compares ,beta with ,gamma1 a star of   
nearly the same brightness in its       
neighborhood1 will see that while on    
some evenings the stars are of  equal   
brightness1 on others ,beta will be     
fainter by perhaps an entire  magnitude4
    ,a careful examination of these     
variations shows us a very remarkable   

feature4 ,on a preliminary study1 the   
period will seem to be six and  one-half
 days4 ,but1 comparing the alternate    
minima1 we shall find them  unequal4    
,hence the actual period is thirteen    
days4 ,in this period there  are two    
unequal minima1 separated by equal      
maxima4 ,that is to say1 the  partial   
eclipses at intervals of six and        
one-half days are not equal4  ,at the   
alternate minima the star is half as    
bright again as at the  intermediate    
minima4    ,it is impossible to explain 
such a change as this merely by the     
interposition of a dark body1 and this  
for two reasons4 ,instead of  remaining 
invariable between the minima1 the      
variation is continuous  during the     
whole period1 like the rising and       
falling of a tide4  ,moreever1 the      
inequality of the alternating minima is 
against the  theory4    ,pickering1     
however1 found from the doubling of the 
spectral lines that  there were two     
stars revolving round each other4 ,then 

,prof4 ,g4 ,w4  ,myers1 of ,indiana1    
worked out a very elaborate mathematical
 theory to  explain the variations1     
which is not less remarkable for its    
ingenuity  than for the curious nature  
of the system it brings to light4 ,his  
conclusions are these3    ,beta ,lyr    
consists of two bodies1 gaseous in their
 nature1 which  revolve round each      
other1 so near as to be almost touching4
 ,they are  of unequal size4 ,both are  
self-luminous4 ,by their mutual         
attraction  they are drawn out into     
ellipsoids4 ,the smaller body is        
somewhat darker  than the other4 ,when  
we see the two bodies laterally1 they   
are at their  brightest4 ,as they       
revolve1 however1 we see them more and  
more end  on1 and thus the light        
diminishes4 ,at a certain point one     
begins to  cover the other and hide its 
light4 ,thus the combined light         
continues  to diminish until the two    
bodies move across our line of sight4   
,then  we have a minimum4 ,at one       

minimum1 however1 the smaller and darker
 of  the two bodies is projected upon   
the brighter one1 and thus diminishes   
its light4 ,at the other minimum1 it is 
hiding behind the other1 and  therefore 
we see the light of the larger one      
alone4    ,this theory receives         
additional confirmation from the fact1  
shown  by the spectroscope1 that these  
stars are either wholly gaseous1 or  at 
least have self-luminous atmospheres4   
,some of ,professor ,myers's            
conclusions respecting the magnitudes   
are summarized as follows3    ,the      
larger body is about #j4d as bright as  
the smaller4    ,the flattening of the  
ellipsoidal masses is about #j4ag4      
,the distance of centers is about       
#a-g_/h the semi-major axis of the      
larger star1 or about #ej1jjj1jjj       
kilometers 7say #cj1jjj1jjj miles74     
,the mass of the larger body is about   
twice that of the smaller1 and #i  times
 the mass of the sun4    ,the mean      
density of the system is a little less  

than that of air4,f        ,f           
#8,astrophysical ,journal'1 ,vol4 ,,vii1
 ,january1 #ahih4    ,it should be      
remarked that these numbers rest on     
spectroscopic results1  which need      
further confirmation4 ,they are1        
therefore1 liable to be  changed by     
subsequent investigation4 ,what is most 
remarkable is that we  have here to deal
 with a case to which we have no analogy
 in our solar  system1 and which we     
should never have suspected1 had it not 
been for  observations of this star4    
,the gap between the variable stars of  
the ,algol type and those of  the ,beta 
,lyr type is1 at the present time1 being
 filled by new  discoveries in such a   
way as to make a sharp distinction of   
the two  classes difficult4 ,it is      
characteristic of the ,algol type proper
 that  the partial eclipses are due to  
the interposition of a dark planet      
revolving round the bright star4 ,but   
suppose that we have two nearly  equal  
stars1 ,a and ,b1 revolving round their 

common center of  gravity in a plane    
passing near our system4 ,then1 ,a will 
eclipse  ,b1 and1 half a revolution     
later1 ,b will eclipse ,a1 and so on  in
 alternation4 ,but1 when the stars are  
equal1 we may have no way of  deciding  
which is being eclipsed1 and thus we    
shall have a star of the  ,algol type1  
so far as the law of variation is       
concerned1 yet1 as a  matter of fact1   
belonging rather to the ,beta ,lyr type4
 ,if the velocity  in the line of sight 
could be measured1 the question would be
 settled  at once4 ,but only the        
brightest stars can1 so far1 be thus    
measured1 so  that the spectroscope     
cannot help us in the majority of cases4
    ,the most interesting case of this  
kind yet brought to light is that  of   
,tau ,cygni4 ,the variability of this   
star1 ordinarily of the fourth          
magnitude1 was discovered by ,chandler  
in ,december1 #ahhf4 ,the minima        
occurred at intervals of three days4    
,but in the following summer he  found  

an apparent period of #a d4 #ab h41 the 
alternate minima being  invisible       
because they occurred during daylight1  
or when the star was  below the horizon4
 ,with this period the times of minima  
during the  summer of #ahhh were        
predicted4    ,it was then found that   
the times of the alternate minima1      
which1  as we have just said1 were the  
only ones visible during any one        
season1 did not correspond to the       
prediction4 ,the period seemed to  have 
greatly changed4 ,afterward1 it seemed  
to return to its old  value4 ,after     
puzzling changes of this sort1 the      
tangle was at length  unraveled by      
,dunr1 of ,lund1 who showed that the    
alternate periods were  unequal4 ,the   
intervals between minima were one day   
nine hours1 one  day fifteen hours1 one 
day nine hours1 one day fifteen hours1  
and so  on1 indefinitely4 ,this law once
 established1 the cause of the anomaly  
became evident4 ,two bright stars       
revolve round their common center of    

gravity in a period of nearly three     
days4 ,each eclipses the other in       
alternation4 ,the orbit is eccentric1   
and1 in consequence1 one-half  of it is 
described in a less time than the other 
half4 ,if we could  distinguish the two 
stars by telescopic vision1 and note    
their relative  positions at the four   
cardinal points of their orbit1 we      
should see the  pair alternately single 
and double1 as shown in the following   
diagrams3                               
,a          ,b    ,position 7#a71 stars 
at pericenter        99          99     
,interval1 #af hours4      ,position    
7#b71 ,a eclipses ,b                    
99         ,interval1 #bj hours4        
,b          ,a    ,position 7#c71 stars 
at apocenter         99          99     
,interval1 #bj hours4      ,position    
7#d71 ,b eclipses                       
99         ,interval1 #af hours4        
,position 7#a7 is repeated              
99          99    ,u ,pegasi is a star  
which proved as perplexing as ,tau      

,cygni4 ,it was  first supposed to be of
 the ,algol type1 with a period of about
 two  days4 ,then it was found that a   
number of minima occurred during this   
period1 and that the actual interval    
between them was only a few hours4  ,the
 great difficulty in the case arises    
from the minuteness of the  variation1  
which is but little more than half a    
magnitude between the  extremes4 ,the   
observations of ,wendell1 at the        
,harvard ,observatory1 with  the        
polarizing photometer1 enabled          
,pickering to reach a conclusion  which1
 though it may still be open to some    
doubt1 seems to be the most  likely yet 
attainable4 ,the star is of the ,beta   
,lyr type2 its complete  period is #h   
hours #ei minutes #da seconds1 or #ai   
seconds less than nine  hours2 during   
this period it passes through two equal 
maxima1 each of  magnitude #i4c1 and two
 unequal minima #i4gf and #i4i1         
alternately4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4   
#c4 ,,light ,,curve ,,of ,u ,,pegasi1   

,,of ,,the ,,beta ,,lyr ,,type1  ,,from 
,,observations ,,by ,,wendell ,,at ,,the
 ,,harvard ,,observatory4 ,,magnitude   
,,at  ,,maximum1 #i4cb2 ,,at ,,principal
 ,,minimum1 #i4ij2 ,,at ,,secondary     
,,minimum1 #i4gf4  ,,period1 #i ,,hours4
    ,the difference of these minima1    
#jm4 #ad1 is less than the errors which 
really ordinarily affect measures of a  
star's magnitude with the best          
photometers4 ,some skepticism has1      
therefore1 been felt as to the  reality 
of the difference which1 if it does not 
exist1 would reduce the  periodic time  
below four and one-half hours1 the      
shortest yet known4  ,but ,pickering    
maintains that1 in observations of this 
kind upon a  single star1 the precision 
is such that the reality of the         
difference1  small though it be1 is     
beyond reasonable doubt4    ,taking     
,pickering's law of change as a basis1  
,myers has represented  the light-curve 
of ,u ,pegasi on a theory similar to    
that which he  constructed for ,beta    

,lyr4 ,his conclusion is that1 in the   
present case1  the two bodies which form
 the visible star are in actual contact4
 ,a  remarkable historic feature of the 
case is that ,poincar has recently      
investigated1 by purely mathematical    
methods1 the possible forms of          
revolving fluid masses in a condition of
 equilibrium1 bringing out a  number of 
such forms previously unknown4 ,one of  
these1 which he calls  the apiodal form1
 consists of two bodies joined into one1
 and it is  this which ,myers finds for 
,u ,pegasi4    ,quite similar to these  
two cases is that of ,zeta ,herculis4   
,this star1  ordinarily of the seventh  
magnitude1 was found1 at ,potsdam1 in   
#ahid1  to diminish by about one        
magnitude4 ,repeated observations       
elsewhere  indicate a period of very    
nearly four days4 ,actually it is now   
found  to be only ten minutes less than 
four days4 ,the result was that during  
any one season of observation the minima
 occur at nearly the same hour  every   

night or day4 ,to an observer situated  
in such longitude that they  occur      
during the day1 they would1 of course1  
be invisible4    ,continued observations
 then showed a secondary minimum1       
occurring  about half-way between the   
principal minima hitherto observed4 ,it 
was then found that these secondary     
minima really occur between one  and two
 hours earlier than the mid-moment1 so  
that the one interval  would be between 
forty-six and forty-seven hours and the 
other between  forty-nine and fifty4    
,the time which it takes the star to    
lose its  light and regain it again is  
about ten hours4 ,more recent           
observations1  however1 do not show this
 inequality1 so that there is probably a
 rapid  motion of the pericenter of the 
orbit4    ,it will be seen that this    
star combines the ,algol and ,beta ,lyr 
types4  ,it is an ,algol star in that   
its light remains constant between the  
eclipses4 ,it is of the ,beta ,lyr type 
in the alternate minima being  unequal4 

,from a careful study1 ,seliger and     
,hartwig derived the following          
particulars respecting this system3     
,diameter of principal star1 #ae1jjj1jjj
 kilometers4    ,diameter of smaller    
star1  #ab1jjj1jjj kilometers4    ,mass 
of the larger star1 #agb times sun's    
mass4    ,mass of the smaller star1 #id 
times sun's mass4    ,distance of       
centers1 #de1jjj1jjj kilometers4        
,time of revolution1 #c;d4 #bc;h4 #dim4 
#cb4gs4    ,it must be added that the   
data for these extraordinary numbers are
  rather slender and partly             
hypothetical4    ,beta ,lyr is always of
 the same brightness at the same hour of
 its  period1 and ,algol has always the 
same magnitude at minimum4 ,it is true  
that the length of the period varies    
slowly in the case of these stars4  ,but
 this may arise from the action of other
 invisible bodies revolving  around the 
visible stars4 ,this general uniformity 
is in accord with the  theory which     
attributes the apparent variations to   

the various aspects  in which we see one
 and the same system of revolving stars4
    ,another variable star showing some 
unique features is ,eta ,aquil4 ,what   
gives it special interest is that       
spectroscopic observations of its       
radial motion show it to have a dark    
body revolving round it in a very       
eccentric orbit1 and in the same time as
 the period of variation4 ,it  might    
therefore be supposed that we have here 
a star of the ,algol or  ,beta ,lyr     
type4 ,but such is not the case4 ,there 
is nothing in the law  of variation to  
suggest an eclipsing of the bright star1
 nor does it  seem that the variations  
can readily be represented by the       
varying  aspects of any revolving       
system4    ,the orbit of this star has  
been exhaustively investigated by       
,wright  from ,campbell's observations  
of the radial motion4 ,the laws of      
change  in the system are shown by the  
curves below1 which are reproduced1 in  
great part1 from ,wright's paper in the 

#8,astrophysical ,journal4'             
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4               
,,light-,,curve ,,and ,,radial          
,,velocity ,,of ,,eta ,,aquil4    ,the  
lower curve is the light-curve of the   
star during a period of #g4afg  days4   
,starting from a maximum of #c4e mag41  
it sinks1 in the course of #e  days1 to 
a minimum of #d4gm4 ,it was found by    
,schwab that the diminution  is not     
progressive1 but that a secondary       
maximum of #c4hm4 is reached  at the end
 of the second day4 ,after reaching the 
principal minimum it  rises rapidly to  
the principal maximum in #b days4       
,the upper curve shows the radial       
velocity of the star during the  period 
of variation4 ,it will be seen that the 
epoch of greatest  negative velocity1   
which referred to the center of mass of 
the system1  is #af4b km4 per second1   
occurs at the time of maximum           
brightness4 ,the  greatest positive     
velocity1 #bc4i km41 occurs during the  
sixth day of  the period just after the 

time of minimum brightness4    ,finally1
 the moments of inferior and superior   
conjunction of the dark  body with the  
bright one are neither of them an epoch 
of minimum  brightness1 which takes     
place half-way between the two4    ,the 
most plausible conclusion we can draw is
 that the light of the star  is affected
 by the action of the dark body during  
its revolution4 ,but  how the change may
 be produced we cannot yet say4         
,,classification ,,of ,,variable        
,,stars4    ,a classification of        
variable stars1 based on the period of  
variation  and the law of change1 was   
proposed by ,pickering4 ,it does not1   
however1  seem that a hard and fast line
 can yet be drawn between different     
types  and classes of these bodies1 one 
type running into another1 as we have   
found in the case of the ,algol and     
,beta ,lyr types4 ,yet the discovery  of
 the cause of the variation in these    
types makes it likely that a  division  
into two great classes1 dependent on the

 cause of variation1  is possible4 ,we  
should then have3    7#a7 ,stars1 or    
systems1 constituting to vision a single
 star1 of which  the apparent           
variability arises from the rotation of 
the system as a  whole1 or from the     
revolution of its components around each
 other4    7#b7 ,stars of which the     
changes arise from other and as yet     
unknown  causes4    ,the main feature of
 the stars of the first class is that we
 are under  no necessity of supposing   
any actual change in the amount of light
  which they emit4 ,their apparent      
variations are purely the effect of     
perspective1 arising from the various   
aspects which they present to us  during
 their revolution round each other4 ,if 
we could change our point  of view so   
that the plane of the orbit of ,algol's 
planet no longer  passed near our       
system1 ,algol would no longer be a     
variable star4  ,under the same         
circumstances the apparent variations in
 a star of the  ,beta ,lyr type would   

cease to be noticeable1 if they did not 
disappear  entirely4    ,the stars of   
this class are also distinguished by the
 uniformity and  regularity with which  
they go through their cycle of change4  
,the stars of the other class1 which we 
may call the ,omicron ,ceti type1  are  
different not only in respect to the    
length of the period1 but  in the       
character of the variation4 ,there are  
certain general laws of  variation and  
irregularities of brightness which stars
 of this class go  through4 ,starting   
from the time of the minimum1 the       
increase of light  is at first very     
slow4 ,it grows more and more rapid as  
the maximum is  approached1 in which    
time there may be as great an increase  
in two or  three days as there formerly 
was in a month4 ,the diminution of light
  is generally slower than the increase4
 ,the magnitude at corresponding  times 
in different periods may be very        
different4 ,thus1 as we have  already   
remarked1 ,omicron ,ceti is ten times as

 bright at some maxima as  it is at     
others4 ,the periods also1 so far as    
they have been made out1  vary more     
widely than those of stars of the other 
type4    ,the idea has sometimes been   
entertained that these variations of    
light are due to a revolution of the    
star on its axis4 ,a very little        
consideration will1 however1 show that  
this explanation cannot be  valid4      
,however bright a star might be on one  
side1 or however dark  on the other1 any
 one region of its surface would be     
visible to us  half the time and a      
change of brightness from different     
degrees of  brilliancy on different     
sides would be gradual and regular4     
,it is not impossible that the          
variability may be in some way connected
  with the action of a body revolving   
round the star4 ,this seems to be  the  
case with ,eta ,aquil4 ,the radial      
motion of this object shows the         
existence of a dark body revolving round
 it in the same period as that  of the  

star's variation4    ,from what has been
 said1 it will be seen that1 although a 
sharp line  cannot be drawn1 there seems
 to be some distinction between the     
stars  of short and long periods4 ,the  
number of stars which have been known to
  belong to the first class is quite    
small1 only about fifteen1 all told4    
,on the other hand1 there are still left
 some stars having a period less  than  
ten days1 which are otherwise not       
distinguishable from the ,omicron  ,ceti
 type4 ,it seems quite likely that the  
variations in the periods of  these     
stars are1 in some way1 connected with  
the revolution of bright  or dark bodies
 round them4    ,they also vary more    
widely than those of stars of the other 
two types4  ,this might easily happen in
 the case of stars really variable      
through  a cycle of changes going on in 
consequence of the action of interior   
causes4    ,the periodic stars of short 
period1 which have not been recognized  
as  of the ,algol or ,beta ,lyr type1   

form an interesting subject of study4   
,although the separation between them   
and the stars of long period is  not    
sharp1 it seems likely to have some     
element of reality in it4 ,but  no      
conclusions on the subject can be       
reached until the light-curves of  a    
large number of them are carefully      
drawn2 and this requires an amount  of  
patient and accurate observation which  
cannot be carried out for  years to     
come4      ,,suspected ,,variations ,,in
 ,,the ,,color ,,of ,,stars4    ,the    
question whether certain stars vary in  
color without materially  changing their
 brightness has sometimes been raised4  
,this was at one  time supposed to be   
the case with one of the stars of ,ursa 
,major4 ,this  suspected variation has  
not1 however1 been confirmed1 and it    
does not  seem likely that any such     
changes take place in the color of stars
 not  otherwise variable4               
,,possible ,,secular ,,variations ,,in  
,,the ,,brilliancy ,,of ,,stars4    ,all

 the variations we have hitherto        
considered take place with such         
rapidity that they can be observed by   
comparisons embracing but a short       
interval of time--a few days or months  
at the outside4 ,a somewhat  different  
question of great importance is still   
left open4 ,may not  individual stars be
 subject to a secular variation of      
brilliancy1  meaning by this term a     
change which would not be sensible in   
the course  of only one generation of   
men1 but admitting of being brought out 
by  a comparison of the brightness of   
the stars at widely distant epochs8  ,is
 it certain that1 in the case of stars  
which we do not recognize  as variable1 
no change has taken place since the time
 of ,hipparchus  and ,ptolemy8 ,this    
question has been investigated by ,c4   
,s4 ,pierce and  others4 ,the conclusion
 reached is that no real evidence of any
 change  can be gathered4 ,the          
discrepancies are no greater than might 
arise from  errors of estimates4        

,there is1 however1 an analogous        
question which is of great interest and 
has been much discussed in recent times4
 ,in several ancient writings  the color
 of ,sirius is described as red4 ,this  
fact would1 at first  sight1 appear to  
afford very strong evidence that1 within
 historic  times1 the color of the      
brightest star in the heavens has       
actually  changed from red to a bluish  
white4    ,two recent writers have      
examined the evidence on this subject   
most  exhaustively and reached opposite 
conclusions4 ,the first of these was    
,dr4 ,t4 ,j4 ,j4 ,see1 who collated a   
great number of cases in which ,sirius  
was mentioned by ancient writers as red 
or fiery1 and thus concluded  that the  
evidence was in favor of a red color in 
former times4 ,shortly  afterwards1     
,schiaparelli examined the evidence with
 equal care and  thoroughness and       
reached an opposite conclusion1 showing 
that the  terms used by the ancient     
authors1 which might have indicated     

redness  of color1 were susceptible of  
other interpretations2 they might mean  
fiery1 blazing1 etc41 as well as red in 
color1 and were therefore  probably     
suggested by the extraordinary          
brightness of ,sirius and the           
strangeness with which it twinkled when 
near the horizon4 ,in this  position a  
star not only twinkles1 but changes its 
color rapidly4 ,this  change is not     
sensible in the case of a faint star1   
but if one watches  ,sirius when on the 
horizon1 it will be seen that it not    
only changes in  appearance1 but seems  
to blaze forth in different colors4     
,it seems to the writer that this       
conclusion of ,schiaparelli is the  more
 likely of the two4 ,from what we know  
of the constitution of  the stars1 a    
change in the color of one of these     
bodies in so short  a period of time as 
that embraced by history is so          
improbable as  to require much stronger 
proofs than any that can be adduced from
  ancient writers4 ,in addition to the  

possible vagueness or errors of  the    
original writers1 we have to bear in    
mind the possible mistakes or           
misinterpretations of the copyists who  
reproduced the manuscripts4      ,,the  
,,parallaxes ,,of ,,the ,,stars4    ,it 
needs only the most elementary          
conceptions of space1 direction  and    
motion to see that1 as the earth makes  
its vast swing from one  extremity of   
its orbit to the other1 the stars1 being
 fixed1 must have  an apparent swing in 
the opposite direction4 ,the seeming    
absence of  such a swing was in all ages
 before our own one of the great        
stumbling  blocks of astronomy4 ,it was 
the base on which ,ptolemy erected his  
proof  that the earth was immovable in  
the center of the celestial sphere4 ,it 
was felt by ,copernicus to be a great   
difficulty in the reception of his      
system4 ,it led ,tycho ,brahe to suggest
 a grotesque combination of the         
,ptolemaic and ,copernican systems1 in  
which the earth was the center of       

motion1 round which the sun revolved1   
carrying the planets with it4    ,with  
every improvement in their instruments1 
astronomers sought to  detect the annual
 swing of the stars4 ,each time that    
increased accuracy  in observations     
failed to show it1 the difficulty in the
 way of the  ,copernican system was     
heightened4 ,how deep the feeling on the
 subject  is shown by the enthusiastic  
title1 ,copernicus ,triumphans1 given by
  ,horrebow to the paper in which1 from 
observations by ,roemer1 he claimed  to 
have detected the swing4 ,but1 alas1    
critical examination showed  that the   
supposed inequality was produced by the 
varying effect of the  warmth of the day
 and the cold of the night upon the rate
 of the clock  used by the observer1 and
 not by the motion of the earth4        
,hooke1 a contemporary of ,newton1      
published an attempt to determine the   
parallax of the stars1 under the title  
of 8,an ,attempt to ,prove the  ,motion 
of the ,earth10 but his work was as     

great a failure as that of  his         
predecessors4 ,had it not been that the 
proofs of the ,copernican  system had   
accumulated until they became           
irresistible1 these repeated  attempts  
might have led men to think that        
perhaps1 after all1 ,ptolemy  and the   
ancients were somehow in the right4     
,the difficulty was magnified by the    
philosophic views of the period4 ,it    
was supposed that ,nature must economize
 in the use of space as a farmer  would 
in the use of valuable land4 ,the       
ancient astronomers correctly  placed   
the sphere of the stars outside that of 
the planets1 but did not  suppose it far
 outside4 ,that ,nature would squander  
her resources by  leaving a vacant space
 hundreds of thousands of times the     
extent of  the solar system was supposed
 contrary to all probability4 ,the      
actual  infinity of space2 the          
consideration that one had only to      
enlarge his  conceptions a little to see
 spaces a thousand times the size of the

  solar system look as insignificant as 
the region of a few yards round a  grain
 of sand1 does not seem to have occurred
 to anyone4    ,considerations drawn    
from photometry were also lost sight of1
 because  that art was still            
undeveloped4 ,kepler saw that the sun   
might well be  of the nature of a star2 
in fact1 that the stars were probably   
suns4  ,had he and his contemporaries   
known that the light of the sun was more
  than ten thousand million times that  
of a bright star1 they would have  seen 
that it must be placed at one hundred   
thousand times its present  distance to 
shine as a bright star4 ,if1 then1 the  
stars are as bright  as the sun1 they   
must be one hundred thousand times as   
far away1 and  their annual parallax    
would then have been too small for      
detection with  the instruments of the  
time4 ,such considerations as this would
 have  removed the real difficulty4     
,the efforts to discover stellar        
parallax were1 of course1 still         

continued4 ,bradley1 about #agdj1 made  
observations on  ,draconis1 which       
passed the meridian near his zenith1    
with an instrument of an accuracy       
before unequalled4 ,he thus detected an 
annual swing of #bj on each  side of the
 mean4 ,but this swing did not have the 
right phase to be  due to the motion of 
the earth2 the star appeared at one or  
the other  extremity of its swing when  
it should have been at the middle point1
  and vice versa4 ,what he saw was      
really the effect of aberration1        
depending on the ratio of the velocity  
of the earth in its orbit to  the       
velocity of light4 ,it proved the motion
 of the earth1 but in a  different way  
from what was expected4 ,all that       
,bradley could prove was  that the      
distances of the stars must be hundreds 
of thousands of times  that of the sun4 
,an introductory remark on the use of   
the word parallax may preface a         
statement of the results of researches  
now to be considered4    ,in a general  

way1 the change of apparent direction of
 an object arising  from a change in the
 position of an observer is termed      
parallax4 ,more  especially1 the        
parallax of a star is the difference of 
its direction  as seen from the sun and 
from that point of the earth's orbit    
from  which the apparent direction will 
be changed by the greatest amount4 ,it  
is equal to the angle subtended by the  
radius of the earth's orbit1 as  seen   
from the star4 ,the simplest conception 
of an arc of one second is  reached by  
thinking of it as the angle subtended by
 a short line at a  distance of two     
hundred and six thousand times its      
length4 ,to say that  a star has a      
parallax of #a would therefore be the   
same thing as saying  that it was at a  
distance of a little more than two      
hundred thousand  times that of the     
earth from the sun4 ,a parallax of      
one-half a second  implies a distance   
twice as great2 one of one-third1 three 
times as  great4 ,a parallax of #jbj    

implies a distance of more than a       
million  times that of our unit of      
measure4    ,the first conclusive result
 as to the extreme minuteness of the    
parallax of the brighter stars was      
reached by ,struve1 at ,dorpat1 about   
#ahcj4 ,in the high latitude of ,dorpat 
the right ascension of a star  can be   
determined with great precision1 not    
only at the moment of its  transit over 
the meridian1 but also at transit over  
the meridian below  the pole1 which     
occurs twelve hours later4 ,he1         
therefore1 selected a  large group of   
stars which could be observed twice     
daily in this way  at certain times of  
the year1 and made continuous           
observations on them  through the year4 
,it was not possible1 by this method1 to
 certainly  detect the parallax of any  
one star4 ,what was aimed at was to     
determine  the limit of the average     
parallax of all the stars thus observed4
 ,the  conclusion reached was that this 
limit could not exceed one-tenth of a   

second and that the average distance of 
the group could not1 therefore1  be much
 less than two million times the        
distance of the sun2 if1  perchance1    
some stars were nearer than this1 others
 were more distant4    ,by a singular   
coincidence1 success in detecting       
stellar parallax was  reached by three  
independent investigators almost at the 
same time1  observing three different   
stars4    ,to ,bessel is commonly       
assigned the credit of having first     
actually  determined the parallax of a  
star with such certainty as to place the
  result beyond question4 ,the star     
having the most rapid proper motion on  
the celestial sphere1 so far as known to
 ,bessel1 was #fa ,cygni1 which  is1    
however1 only of the fifth magnitude4   
,this rapid motion indicated  that it   
was probably among the stars nearest to 
us1 much nearer1 in  fact1 than the     
faint stars by which it is surrounded4  
,after several futile attempts1 he      
undertook a series of measurements  with

 a heliometer1 the best in his power to 
make1 in ,august1 #ahcg1 and  continued 
them until ,october1 #ahch4 ,the object 
was to determine1 night  after night1   
the position of #fa ,cygni1 relative to 
certain small stars  in its             
neighborhood4 ,then he and his          
assistant1 ,sluter1 made a second       
series1 which was continued until #ahdj4
 ,all these observations showed         
conclusively that the star had a        
parallax of about #j4ce4    ,while      
,bessel was making these observations1  
,struve1 at ,dorpat1 made  a similar    
attempt upon ,alpha ,lyr4 ,this star1 in
 the high northern  latitude of ,dorpat1
 could be accurately observed throughout
 almost the  entire year4 ,it is one of 
the brightest stars near the ,pole and  
has  a sensible proper motion4 ,there   
was1 therefore1 reason to believe it    
among the nearest of the stars4 ,the    
observations of ,struve extended  from  
#ahce to ,august1 #ahch1 and were1      
therefore1 almost simultaneous  with the

 observations made by ,bessel on #fa    
,cygni4 ,he concluded that the  parallax
 of ,alpha ,lyr was about one-fourth of 
a second4 ,subsequent  investigations   
have1 however1 made it probable that    
this result was  about double the true  
value of the parallax4    ,the third    
successful attempt was made by          
,henderson1 of ,england1  astronomer at 
the ,cape of ,good ,hope4 ,he found from
 meridian  observations that the star   
,alpha ,centauri had a parallax of about
  #a4 ,this is a double star of the     
first magnitude1 which1 being only  #cj 
from the south celestial pole1 never    
rises in our latitudes4 ,its  nearness  
to us was indicated not only by its     
magnitude1 but also by its  considerable
 proper motion4    ,although subsequent 
investigation has shown the parallax of 
this body  to be less than that found by
 ,henderson1 it is1 up to the time of   
writing1 the nearest star whose distance
 has been ascertained4 ,the  extreme    
difficulty of detecting movements so    

slight as those we have  described1 when
 they take six months to go through     
their phases1 will  be obvious to the   
reader4 ,he would be still more         
impressed with it  when1 looking through
 a powerful telescope at any star1 he   
sees how it  flickers in consequence of 
the continual motions going on in the   
air  through which it is seen and how   
difficult it must be to fix any point   
of reference from which to measure the  
change of direction4    ,the latter is  
the capital difficulty in measuring the 
parallax4 ,how  shall we know that a    
star has changed its direction by a     
fraction of a  second in the course of  
six months8 ,there must be for this     
purpose some  standard direction from   
which we can measure4    ,the most      
certain of these standard directions is 
that of the earth's  axis of rotation4  
,it is true that this direction varies  
in the course  of the year1 but the     
amount of the variation is known with   
great  precision1 so that it can be     

properly allowed for in the reduction   
of the observations4 ,the angle between 
the direction of a star and  that of the
 earth's axis1 the latter direction     
being represented by  the celestial     
pole1 can be measured with our meridian 
instruments4 ,it  is1 in fact1 the north
 polar distance of the star1 or the     
complement  of its declination4 ,if1    
therefore1 the astronomer could measure 
the  declination of a star with great   
precision throughout the entire year1   
he would be able to determine its       
parallax by a comparison of the         
measures4 ,but it is found impossible in
 practice to make measures of so  long  
an arc with the necessary precision4    
,the uncertain and changing  effect of  
the varying seasons and different       
temperatures of day and  night upon the 
air and the instrument almost masks the 
parallax4 ,after  several attempts with 
the finest instruments1 handled with the
 utmost  skill1 to determine stellar    
parallax from the declinations of the   

stars1 the method has been practically  
abandoned4    ,the method now practiced 
is that of relative parallax4 ,by this  
method  the standard direction is that  
of a small star apparently alongside one
  whose parallax is to be measured1 but1
 presumably1 so much farther  away that 
it may be regarded as having no         
parallax4 ,in this assumption  lies the 
weak point of the method4 ,can we be    
sure that the smaller  stars are really 
without appreciable parallax8 ,until    
recent times it  was generally supposed 
that the magnitude of the stars afforded
 the  best index to their relative      
distances4 ,if the stars were of the    
same  intrinsic brilliancy1 the amount  
of light received from them would1 as   
already pointed out1 have been inversely
 as the square of the distance4         
,although there was no reason to suppose
 that any such equality really  existed1
 it would still remain true that1 in the
 general average1 the  brighter stars   
must be nearer to us than the fainter   

ones4 ,but when the  proper motions of  
stars came to be investigated1 it was   
found that the  amount of this motion   
afforded a better index to the distance 
than the  magnitude did4    ,the        
diversity of actual or linear motion is 
not so wide as that of  absolute        
brilliancy4 ,stars have1 therefore1 in  
recent times1 been  selected for        
parallax very largely on account of     
their proper motion1  without respect to
 their brightness4 ,it is now considered
 quite safe to  assume that the small   
stars without proper motion are so far  
away that  their parallax is insensible4
    ,ever since the time of ,bessel the 
experience of practical astronomers  has
 tended toward the conclusion that the  
best instrument for delicate            
measurements like these is the          
heliometer4 ,this is an equatorial      
telescope of which the object glass is  
divided along a diameter into  two      
semicircles1 which can slide along each 
other4 ,each half of the  object glass  

forms a separate image of any star at   
which the telescope  may be pointed4 ,by
 sliding the two halves along each      
other1 the images  can be brought       
together or separated to any extent4 ,if
 there are two  stars in proximity1 the 
image of one star made by one-half of   
the  glass can be brought into          
coincidence with that of the other star 
made  by the other half4 ,the sliding of
 the two halves to bring about this     
coincidence affords a scale of          
measurement for the angular distance of 
the two stars4    ,the most noteworthy  
forward steps in improving the          
heliometer are due  to the celebrated   
instrument-makers of ,hamburg1 the      
,messrs4 ,repsold1  aided by the        
suggestions of ,dr4 ,david ,gill1       
astronomer at the ,cape of  ,good ,hope4
 ,the latter1 in connection with his    
coadjutor1 ,elkin1 made an  equally     
important step in the art of managing   
the instrument and hence  in determining
 the parallax of stars4 ,the best       

results yet attained are  those of these
 two observers and of ,peter1 of        
,germany4    ,yet more recently1        
,kapteyn1 of ,holland1 has applied what 
has seemed to  be the unpromising method
 of differences of right ascension      
observed  with a meridian circle4 ,this 
method has also been applied by ,flint1 
at  ,madison1 ,wis4 ,through the skill  
of these observers1 as well as that  of 
,brnnow and ,ball1 in applying the      
equatorial telescope to the same        
purposes1 the parallax of nearly #ajj   
stars has been measured with some       
approach to precision4    ,a rival      
method to that of the heliometer has    
been discovered in  the photographic    
telescope4 ,the plan of this instrument1
 and its  application to such purposes  
as this1 are extremely simple4 ,we point
 a  telescope at a star and set the     
clock-work going1 so that the telescope 
shall remain pointed as exactly as      
possible in the direction of the  star4 
,we place a sensitized plate in the     

focus and leave it long enough  to form 
an image both of the particular star in 
view and of all the  stars around it4   
,the plate being developed1 we have a   
permanent record  of the relative       
positions of the stars which can be     
measured with a  suitable instrument at 
the observer's leisure4 ,the advantage  
of the  method consists in the great    
number of stars which may be examined   
for  parallax1 and in the rapidity with 
which the work can be done4    ,the     
earliest photographs which have been    
utilized in this way are those  made by 
,rutherfurd in ,new ,york during the    
years #ahfj to #ahge4 ,the  plates taken
 by him have been measured and discussed
 principally by  ,rees and ,jacoby1 of  
,columbia ,university4 ,before their    
work was done1  however1 ,pritchard1 of 
,oxford1 applied the method and         
published results  in the case of a     
number of stars4    ,one of the pressing
 wants of astronomy at the present time 
is a  parallactic survey of the heavens 

for the purpose of discovering all  the 
stars whose parallax exceeds some       
definable limit1 say #ja4 ,such a       
survey is possible by photography1 and  
by that only4 ,a commencement1  which   
may serve as an example of one way of   
conducting the survey1  has been made by
 ,kapteyn on photographic negatives     
taken by ,donner at  ,helsingfors4      
,these plates cover a square in the     
,milky ,way about two degrees on the    
side1 extending from #ce #ej in         
declination to #cf #ej1 and from #bj;h4 
#am4 in ,r4 ,a4 to #bj;h4 #ajm4 #bds4   
,three plates were used1 on each of     
which  the image of each star is formed 
twelve times4 ,three of the twelve      
impressions were made at the epoch of   
maximum parallactic displacement1  six  
at the minimum six months later1 and    
three at the following  maximum4 ,the   
parallaxes found on the plates can only 
be relative to the  general mean of all 
the other stars1 and must therefore be  
negative as  often as positive4 ,the    

following positive parallaxes1 amounting
 to #ja1  came out with some consistency
 from the measures3      ,star1 ,b4 ,d41
 #cigb  ,mag4 #h4f  ,r4,a4  #bj;h41 #bm4
  #js4  ,dec4 #ce4e        ,par4 #j4aa  
,star1 ,b4 ,d41 #chhc  ,mag4 #g4a       
,r4,a4  #bj;h41 #bm4  #cs4  ,dec4 #cf4a 
,par4 #j4ah      ,star1 ,b4 ,d41 #djjc  
,mag4 #i4b  ,r4,a4  #bj;h41 #dm4 #ehs4  
,dec4 #ce4d        ,par4 #j4aj          
,star1 ,b4 ,d41 #ciei  ,mag4 #g4j       
,r4,a4  #bj;h41 #im4 #ads4  ,dec4 #cf4c 
,par4 #j4aj    ,against these are to be 
set negative parallaxes of -#j4ji1      
-#j4jh and  several a little smaller1   
which are certainly unreal4    ,the     
presumption in favor of the actuality of
 one or more of the above  positive     
values1 which is created by their excess
 over the negative  values1 is offset by
 the following considerations3 ,the area
 of the  entire sky is more than #dj1jjj
 square degrees1 or #aj1jjj times the   
area  covered by the ,helsingfors       
plates4 ,we cannot well suppose that    

there  are #a1jjj stars in the sky with 
a parallax of #j4aj1 or more without    
violating all the probabilities of the  
case4 ,the probabilities of the  case   
are therefore against even one star with
 such a parallax being  found on the    
plates4 ,yet the cases of these four    
stars are worthy of  further            
examination1 if any of them are found to
 have a sensible proper  motion4    ,on 
an entirely different plan is a survey  
just concluded by ,chase with  the ,yale
 heliometer4 ,it includes such stars    
having an annual proper  motion of #j4je
 or more as had not already been        
measured for parallax4  ,the results1 in
 statistical form1 are these3       #b  
stars have parallaxes between #i4bj and 
#j4be4       #f stars have parallaxes   
between #j4ae and #j4bj4      #aa stars 
have parallaxes between #j4aj and #j4ae4
      #bd stars have parallaxes between 
#j4je and #j4aj4      #cd stars have    
parallaxes between #j4jj and #j4je4     
#h stars have parallaxes between -#j4je 

and  #j4jj4       #e stars have         
parallaxes between -#j4aj and -#j4je4   
#b stars have parallaxes between -#j4ae 
and -#j4aj4    --    #ib1 total number  
of stars4    ,it will be understood that
 the negative parallaxes found for      
fifteen of  these stars are the result  
of errors of observation4 ,assuming that
 an  equal number of the smaller        
positive values are due to the same     
cause1  and subtracting these thirty    
stars from the total number1 we shall   
have sixty-two stars left of which the  
parallax is real and generally  amounts 
to #j4je1 more or less4 ,the two values 
approximating to #j4be  seem open to    
little doubt4 ,we might say the same of 
the six next in the  list4 ,the first   
two belong to the stars #ed ,piscium and
 ,weisse1 #ag;h41  #cbb4                
,,discussion ,,and ,,correspondence4    
,,the ,,meetings ,,of ,,the ,,american  
,,association4    ,the ,american        
,association for the ,advancement of    
,science has a  membership ranging from 

#a1ijj to #b1jjj4 ,of this number       
probably at no  one time was there an   
aggregate of #cjj persons present at the
 recent  annual meeting in ,new ,york4  
,when the ,association meets in an      
,eastern city the attendance is         
generally twice if not three times as   
large as when it convenes in the  ,west4
 ,so little was made of the recent      
meeting1 locally or officially1  that an
 intelligent resident of the city       
remarked3 8,why1 ,i intended  to have   
attended some of the meetings1 but      
seeing no reference in the  daily       
papers1 it entirely escaped my mind40   
,of the #b1jjj members1 about #hjj are  
fellows2 the #a1bjj and more  registered
 as members are1 presumably1 persons    
devoting little or no  time to          
independent research along scientific   
lines1 but persons who  while not       
actively so engaged are more than       
ordinarily interested  in the discussion
 of scientific topics4 ,these have in   
the past paid  dues and attended the    

meetings of the ,association with more  
or less  regularity4 ,it is a question  
in the minds of some of the #a1bjj if   
their attendance at the meetings is     
desired4 ,their membership1 so far  as  
it relates to the five dollars          
initiation fee and three dollars  dues1 
is without question acceptable1 and to  
persons reading papers  in the various  
sections their presence is preferable to
 empty seats1  but in view of the fact  
that during recent years the management 
of the  ,association has eliminated1 so 
far as possible1 the popular features   
of the general programme1 the question  
is reasonably asked3 8,does the         
management desire the attendance of the 
#a1bjj1 or is their financial  support  
all that is desired80    ,it was stated 
some years ago that the purpose of the  
,association was to  furnish not only an
 occasion for scientists to present     
original papers1  but also to interest  
the public by holding the meetings      
annually in  different parts of the     

country2 but if attendance is not       
secured 7by  preparation and publication
 of interesting features of a programme7
 no  great interest will be awakened by 
a meeting held in any part of the       
country4    ,i should like to suggest   
the following ways of increasing the    
interest  of the meetings3    ,the      
general daily sessions might be made    
occasions of rare interest by  the      
introduction of prominent men of science
 who would make at least  brief remarks4
 ,this would make it possible for those 
who have limited  time to become        
familiar with the faces of those whom   
they would like to  know1 and the little
 #8sample' of scientific thought thrown 
out would  doubtless awaken desire for  
more4    ,it will be objected that the  
meetings of the council immediately     
preceding the general session prevent   
holding an official meeting  at that    
hour4 ,the public and the #a1bjj would  
care little whether  the session were   
official or unofficial so it were       

interesting and  instructive4    ,the   
officers of the several sections could  
easily secure distinguished             
representatives of their respective     
sciences to give brief addresses        
followed by discussion1 and thus the    
morning hour would prove an  attraction 
to citizens and others who might be     
unable to attend the  sessions          
following4    ,again1 citizens1 where   
the meetings are held1 would be pleased 
to  provide excursions to points of     
local interest and extend social        
courtesies1 if they were given in return
 the mental food in digestible  form1   
with which the ,association is so amply 
supplied4    ,it remains with the       
management to decide whether attendance 
shall be  restricted to the few actively
 engaged in scientific pursuits1 or     
whether it shall include the #a1bjj and 
more who would be glad to avail         
themselves of the benefits of a         
programme suited to average scholarship 
and intellectual capacity4    ,there is 

no better medium for discussion of the  
above views than  through the widely    
read pages of ,,the ,,popular ,,science 
,,monthly4          ,m4 ,e4 ,d4         
,,trowbridge4    ,detroit1 ,mich4       
,the questions brought up by our        
correspondent have been carefully       
considered by all those who are         
interested in the ,american ,association
  for the ,advancement of ,science4     
,when the ,association was founded      
fifty years ago there was no division   
into sections2 the papers and           
discussions were intelligible and       
interesting to all members4 ,at that    
time there were but few members1 the    
scientific life of the country was      
small1 and it was a privilege for a city
 to entertain the ,association4  ,but   
fifty years have brought changes in many
 directions4 ,specialization  in science
 has become essential for its further   
progress1 and it has  been necessary to 
divide the ,association into numerous   
sections and  to found special          

societies4 ,hospitality can now only be 
provided at  great expense1 and ,eastern
 cities no longer regard it as a        
privilege to  entertain the numerous    
societies that gather within their      
hotels4 ,the  newspapers do not regard a
 meeting of the ,association as an      
important  event and will not devote    
space to it4    ,the ,association must  
do the best it can to adapt itself to   
existing  conditions4 ,the recent       
meeting in ,new ,york had perhaps the   
largest  attendance of scientific men of
 any in the history of the ,association 
with the exception of the anniversary   
meeting two years ago1 but ,new  ,york  
,city1 especially in the month of ,june1
 is not a desirable place  for social   
functions4 ,it is not reasonable for a  
member interested in  science as an     
amateur to expect to purchase for three 
dollars a week's  entertainment4 ,his   
dues secure reduced railway and hotel   
rates2 he can  meet his friends and     
become acquainted with scientific men2  

he can  always find on the programme    
papers that are of interest2 he receives
  the annual volume of #8,proceedings'  
and the weekly journal1 #8,science1'    
the cost of which is five dollars per   
year4 ,but apart from these  direct     
returns1 he is surely repaid for        
membership by knowing that  he is one of
 those who are united for the           
advancement of science in               
,america4--,,editor1 ,,popular ,,science
 ,,monthly4      ,,the ,,color ,,red4   
,,to ,,the ,,editor ,,of ,,the ,,popular
 ,,science ,,monthly3 ,mr4 ,havelock    
,ellis1 in  your ,august number1 in     
#8,the ,psychology of ,red1' says1 #8,a 
great many  different colors are        
symbolical of mourning 444 but so far as
 ,i am  aware1 red never4' ,the         
following may possibly be of interest in
 this  connection3    8,our ,english    
,pliny1 ,bartholomew ,glantville1 who   
says after ,isydorus1  #8,reed clothes  
ben layed upon deed men in remembrance  
of theyr  hardynes and boldnes1 whyle   

they were in theyr bloudde4' ,on which  
his commentator1 ,batman1 remarks3 #8,it
 appereth in the time of the  ,saxons   
that the manner over their dead was a   
red cloath1 as we now use  black4 ,the  
red of valiauncie1 and that was over    
kings1 lords1 knights  and valyaunt     
souldiers2 white over cleargie men1 in  
token of their  profession and honest   
life1 and over virgins and              
matrons4'0--7,dr4  ,furness's ,variorum4
 ,merchant of ,venice1 p4 #ef47         
,,chas4 ,e4 ,,dana4    ,university of   
,pennsylvania4          ,,scientific    
,,literature4      ,,mental             
,,automatism4    ,a recent work by      
,prof4 ,th4 ,flournoy1 entitled #8,des  
,indes  la  ,plante ,mars1',g contains  
an account of a remarkable case of      
mental  automatism1 or sub-conscious    
personality4 ,the subject is a young    
woman  of about thirty years1 apparently
 in good health1 but always of a        
nervous and imaginative type4 ,she      
developed tendencies towards lapses  of 

consciousness1 hallucinations and       
automatic actions2 and these  developed 
later1 under the inspiration of         
spiritualistic sances1 into  a series of
 cycles1 or automatic dramas1 in which  
the medium speaks  or writes and acts   
under the influence of several diverse  
subordinate  personalities4 ,in one of  
these cycles--which1 it must be         
understood1  are continued from one     
sitting to another1 although in her     
intermediate  normal life she knows     
nothing of what she has said or done in 
the  trance--she becomes ,marie         
,antoinette1 and is said to act the part
  with unusual dramatic skill4 ,in      
another and far more elaborate cycle    
the scene is transferred to the planet  
,mars1 and the houses1 scenery1  plants 
and animals1 peoples1 customs and       
goings-on of the planet are  described2 
sketches are made1 and reproduced in the
 volume1 of these  extra-mundane        
appearances4 ,still more remarkable is  
the appearance of  the ,martian         

language1 which in successive sances the
 subject hears1  speaks1 sees before her
 in space1 and1 in the end1 even writes4
 ,from  the mystery of ,mars we are     
taken to the equally mysterious ,hindu  
cycle2  here the medium becomes an      
,indian princess of the fifteenth       
century1  reveals her history and that  
of her associates in the ,oriental life1
  tells of herself as ,simandini2 of    
,sivrouka1 her prince1 who reigned  over
 ,kanara and built in #adja the fortress
 of ,tschandraguiri4 ,wonderful  to     
relate1 these names are not fictitious1 
but are mentioned by one ,de  ,marls in 
a volume published in #ahbh2 the author1
 however1 does not  enjoy a high        
reputation as a historian4 ,when        
occasional utterances  of the ,hindu    
princess are taken down1 they are found 
in part to have  close resemblance to   
,sanskrit words2 while in her normal    
condition the  medium is as ignorant of 
,sanskrit as she is of any language     
except  ,french1 and is entirely        

ignorant of both ,de ,marls and the     
people  of ,india five hundred years    
ago4 ,surely this is a tale1 bristling  
with mystery and improbability1 which1  
if told carelessly or with a  purpose1  
we should dismiss as a willful          
invention6 ,m4 ,flournoy has been       
unusually successful in revealing the   
starting points of the several          
automatisms and of connecting them with 
intelligible developments of  the       
medium's mental life2 and the           
manifestations1 though they remain  as  
remarkable examples of unconscious      
memory and elaboration of ideas1        
nowhere transcend these limitations4    
,the sketches of ,martian scenery  are  
clearly ,japanesque or vaguely          
,oriental2 the ,martian language is     
pronounced an #8infantile' production1  
and is clearly modeled after the        
,french1 the characters being the result
 of an attempt to make them as  oddly   
different from our own as possible2 the 
,sanskrit goes no farther  than what one

 could get from a slight acquaintance   
with a ,sanskrit  grammar2 and while    
there is a copy of ,de ,marls in the    
,geneva ,library  7where the medium     
lives71 no connection can be established
 between  either ,de ,marls or the      
grammar and the subject of this study4  
,most  of this knowledge of these       
remarkable sub-conscious states would   
have  been impossible were it not for   
#8spirit control' of one ,leopold1 who1 
in accordance with the doctrine of      
reincarnation which permeates the       
several cycles1 was in his life the     
famous ,cagliostro4 ,by suitable        
suggestion1 ,leopold can be induced to  
make the entranced subject speak1       
write1 draw1 or interpret her strange   
messages from other worlds2 and  where  
,leopold says #8nay' all progress is    
stopped4 ,this case has many  analogies 
with other cases that have been         
recorded1 but goes beyond  most of them 
in the complexity and bizarre character 
of the unconscious  elaborations and in 

the feats of memory and creative        
imagination which  it entails4 ,these   
accomplishments1 it should be well      
understood1 never  appeared suddenly or 
fully developed1 but only after a       
considerable  period of subliminal      
preparation1 and then only hesitatingly1
 and  little by little1 just as is the  
case with the acquisitions of normal    
consciousness2 and all these            
acquisitions bear unmistakable marks of 
belonging to the same person4 ,the      
special value of this account thus  lies
 in the accuracy of the description and 
the success with which the  account has 
been made thoroughly intelligible and   
significant4        ,g ,the book has    
just been published by the ,harpers in  
an          ,english version1 under the 
title #8,she ,lived in ,mars4'          
,,the ,,mosquitoes ,,of ,,the ,,united  
,,states4    ,dr4 ,l4 ,o4 ,howard1 the  
entomologist of the ,united ,states     
,department of  ,agriculture1 has just  
published a bulletin entitled1 8,notes  

on the  ,mosquitoes of the ,united      
,states3 ,giving some ,account of their 
,structure  and ,biology1 with ,remarks 
on ,remedies40 ,the author has1 for some
 years1  been interested in the general 
subject of the biology of mosquitoes    
and of remedies to be used against them1
 and has brought together in  this      
bulletin all the published and          
unpublished notes which he has been     
collecting during this period4 ,the     
bulletin contains synoptic tables  of   
all ,north ,american mosquitoes1        
prepared by ,mr4 ,d4 ,w4 ,coquillett1   
and gives detailed facts regarding the  
geographical distribution of  the       
different species mentioned4 ,all the   
five ,north ,american genera  are       
illustrated and full1 illustrated       
accounts are given of the life  history 
of the two principal genera1 ,culex and 
,anopheles1 as studied  in ,culex       
pungens and ,anopheles quadrimaculatus4 
,the author calls  special attention to 
the two genera of large mosquitoes1     

,psorophora and  ,megarhinus1 and urges 
the importance of the study of these two
 genera1  especially by physicians in   
the ,south1 in regard to their possible 
relation to the spread of malaria4      
,considerable space is given to the     
subject of remedies1 the principal ones 
considered being kerosene  on breeding  
pools1 the introduction of fish in      
fishless ponds1 the  artificial         
agitation of water and general community
 work4 ,it is clearly  shown not only   
that the mosquito may be1 in many       
localities1 readily  done away with at  
comparatively slight expense1 but that  
by careful  work many malarious         
localities may be made healthy4 ,the    
subject of  mosquitoes and malaria is   
not discussed in the bulletin1 which    
contains  simply references to available
 papers on this subject1 like the       
article  by ,dr4 ,patrick ,manson1      
published in ,,the ,,popular ,,science  
,,monthly for  ,july1 the aim of the    
author being to bring together all      

available  facts about the mosquitoes of
 the ,united ,states1 in order to assist
  physicians who are studying the       
malarial relation from the point of     
view of local conditions4          ,,the
 ,,progress ,,of ,,science4      ,the   
,british1 ,french and ,german           
,associations for the ,advancement of   
,science have held their annual meetings
 in the course of the past  month4 ,in  
each of these countries and in most     
other ,european countries1  as well as  
in ,america1 there are migratory        
scientific congresses of the  same      
general character4 ,as these have grown 
up somewhat independently1  they        
evidently meet a common need4 ,science  
cannot be advanced by a  man working    
independently and in isolation4 ,the    
printing press was  essential to the    
beginnings of modern science1 while at  
the same time  it was usual for the     
scientific student to travel from place 
to place  that he might learn and teach4
 ,then in the seventeenth and eighteenth

  centuries1 as the cultivation of      
science became more general1 royal      
academies were founded4 ,the ,royal     
,society was established at ,london  in 
#affj under the patronage of ,charles   
,,ii41 the ,academy of ,sciences  at    
,paris in #afff under ,louis ,,xiv41 the
 ,royal ,academy at ,berlin in  #agjj   
under ,frederick ,i41 the ,imperial     
,academy at ,st4 ,petersburg in  #agbd  
under ,peter the ,great1 and in other   
cities similar academies  were founded  
under similar auspices4 ,then in the    
first half of the  present century1 as  
science continued to grow1 the more     
democratic  organizations for the       
advancement of science were established4
 ,the  ,society of ,german ,scientific  
,men and ,physicians was formed1 chiefly
  through the efforts of ,humboldt1 in  
#ahbb2 the ,swiss ,association in       
#ahbi1 and the ,british ,association in 
#ahca4 ,our own ,association was        
established in #ahdg1 but was then the  
intergrowth of a society dating  from   

#ahdj4 ,these associations are          
significant of the spread of science    
among all the people4 ,science is no    
longer the concern of a few men  under  
royal patronage1 but the two great      
movements of the present  century--the  
growth of democracy and the growth of   
science--have united  for their common  
good4           99       99       99    
99       99    ,the ,british            
,association held its annual meeting at 
,bradford1 beginning  on ,september #e1 
under the presidency of ,sir ,william   
,turner1 professor  of anatomy in the   
,university of ,edinburgh4 ,we are able 
to publish1  from a copy received in    
advance of its delivery1 his            
presidential  address1 which traces the 
growth during the present century of    
knowledge regarding fundamental         
biological problems4 ,the addresses of  
the presidents before the sections are  
usually written in a way that  can be   
readily understood by those who are not 
specialists1 and are  consequently of   

greater interest to a general audience  
than some of the  corresponding         
addresses before the ,american          
,association4 ,the addresses  at        
,bradford were3 ,before the section of  
mathematical and physical  science ,dr4 
,joseph ,larmor discussed recent        
developments of physics with  special   
reference to the extent to which        
explanation can be reduced  purely to   
description2 before the section of      
chemistry ,prof4 ,h4 ,w4  ,perkin argued
 that radical changes should be made in 
the methods of  teaching inorganic      
chemistry2 before the section of geology
 ,prof4 ,w4 ,j4  ,sollas spoke of the   
development of the earth1 including the 
different  critical periods in its      
history2 before the section of zology   
,dr4  ,r4 ,h4 ,traquair chose as his    
subject the bearing of fossil fishes on 
the doctrine of descent2 before the     
section of geography ,sir ,george       
,robertson considered certain           
geographical aspects of the ,british    

,empire  and the changes brought about  
by improved means of intercommunication2
  before the section of economic science
 and statistics ,major ,p4 ,g4  ,craigie
 spoke of the use of statistics in      
agriculture2 before  the section of     
mechanical science ,sir ,alexander      
,binnie traced the  historical          
development of science2 before the      
section of anthropology  ,prof4 ,john   
,rhys dealt with the ethnology of the   
,british ,isles1 with  special reference
 to language and folk-lore2 before the  
section of  botany ,prof4 ,sidney ,h4   
,vines reviewed the development of      
botany during  the present century4 ,in 
addition to these addresses1 evening    
discourses  were given by ,prof4        
,francis ,gotch on #8,animal            
,electricity1' and by ,prof4  ,w4       
,stroud on #8,range ,finders4' ,the     
usual lecture to workingmen was given   
by ,prof4 ,sylvester ,p4 ,thompson1 his 
subject being #8,electricity in the     
,industries4'           99       99     

99       99       99    ,bradford is    
situated in the coal regions1 and is an 
industrial center  devoted especially to
 the manufacture of textiles4 ,more     
attention was  paid to local interests  
than is usual at the meetings of the    
,american  ,association4 ,an exhibit was
 arranged to show the development of the
  elaborate fabrics from the unwashed   
fleeces1 and another consisting  of a   
collection of carboniferous fossils     
found in the neighborhood4  ,a joint    
discussion was arranged between the     
sections of zology and  botany on the   
conditions which existed during the     
growth of the forests  which supplied   
material for the coal1 and there were a 
number of papers  devoted to the coal   
measures and the fossils which they     
contain4  ,another subject connected    
with the place of meeting was the report
 of  the committee on the underground   
water system in the carboniferous       
limestone4 ,by the use of chemicals the 
course of the underground  waters has   

been traced1 including their percolation
 through rock  fissures1 and excursions 
were made to the site of the            
experiments4 ,the  local industries     
received treatment from several sides4  
,among other  discussions of more than  
usual interest was that on #8,ions'     
before the  physical section and on     
#8,what is a ,metal8' before the        
chemical section4  ,features of popular 
interest were accounts of adventures in 
,asia1  ,africa and the ,antarctic      
regions1 by ,captain ,deasy1 ,captain   
,george and  ,mr4 ,borchgrevinck1       
respectively1 and ,major ,ross's paper  
on #8,malaria and  ,mosquitoes4'        
99       99       99       99       99  
,the ,french ,association met at ,paris 
in the month of ,august1 with the       
numerous other congresses4 ,general     
,sebert1 in his presidential address1   
reviewed the progress of the mechanical 
industries during the century  and      
devoted the last third of his time to a 
discussion of international             

bibliography1 but without mentioning the
 ,international ,catalogue which  now   
seems to be an accomplished fact4 ,the  
secretary of the ,association1  in his  
review of the year1 devoted special     
attention to the joint  meetings of the 
,british and ,french associations last  
summer at ,dover  and ,calais4 ,the     
treasurer was able to make a report that
 the treasurers  of other national      
associations will envy4 ,the capital is 
over #bej1jjj1  and the income from all 
sources about #ag1jjj1 of which about   
#c1jjj  was awarded for the prosecution 
of research and to defray the cost of   
publication of scientific monographs4   
,the national association for  the      
advancement of science of ,germany--the 
#8,gesellschaft deutscher               
,naturforscher und ,aerzte'--held its   
annual meeting at ,aachen toward the    
middle of ,september4 ,an account of the
 proceedings has not yet reached  us1   
but the congresses are always largely   
attended and the combination  of        

addresses of general interest1 of       
special papers before the numerous      
sections and of social functions1 is    
perhaps more effective than in  any     
other society4 ,it also appears to be a 
considerable advantage for  medical men 
and scientific men to meet together4    
99       99       99       99       99  
,while from the scientific point of view
 the present century has  been notable  
for the development of national         
associations for the  advancement of    
science1 its latter decades have        
witnessed a growth  of international    
scientific meetings which may be        
expected to become  dominant in the     
twentieth century4 ,there are at least  
one hundred  congresses1 having more or 
less reference to science1 meeting at   
,paris  during the present summer4      
,perhaps the most noteworthy of these1  
from  the point of view of the          
organization of science1 is the         
,international  ,association of         
,academies1 which was established last  

year at a  conference held at           
,wiesbaden4 ,in this ,association       
eighteen of the great  academies of the 
world1 including our own ,national      
,academy of ,sciences1  have been united
 to promote the interests of science4   
,literature is  also included--of the   
eighteen academies1 twelve include in   
their scope  both science and           
literature1 four are devoted to science 
only and two  to literature only4 ,it is
 planned to have a general meeting every
 three  years1 to which each academy    
will send as many delegates as it       
regards  as desirable1 though each      
academy will have but one vote4 ,in the 
interval between the general meetings1  
the business of the ,association  is to 
be directed by a committee1 on which    
each academy is represented4  ,the      
object of the ,association is to plan   
and promote scientific work of          
international interest which may be     
proposed by one of the constituent      
academies1 and generally to promote     

scientific relations between  different 
countries4 ,the ,royal ,society has     
proposed the measurement1 by            
international coperation1 of an extended
 arc of the meridian in the  interior of
 ,africa4           99       99       99
       99       99    ,the              
,international ,congress of ,physics    
marked an advance owing to the  fact    
that it met for the first time this     
year1 and it appears that  the          
proceedings were of unusual interest4   
,this was in a large measure  due to the
 arrangements of the ,french ,physical  
,society1 which did not  simply make up 
a programme from a mass of heterogeneous
 researches1  but secured some eighty   
reports on the present condition of     
physical  science4 ,these were prepared 
by many of the leading physicists of    
the world and when published--as they   
are about to be in three  volumes--will 
set forth the condition of the science  
with completeness  and authority4 ,there
 were in all seven sections4 ,in the    

first1 which  was concerned with        
measurement1 in addition to numerous    
reports  several propositions were      
brought forward in regard to units1     
which1  being international in          
character1 are specially fitted for     
discussion  at such a congress4 ,as the 
members1 however1 were not in most cases
  delegates from governments and        
scientific bodies1 no definite action   
was taken1 though some recommendations  
were made4 ,the decimalization  of time 
was not recommended1 nor was the        
proposal to give a name to  units of    
velocity and acceleration4 ,it was1     
however1 decided that the  #8,barrie' be
 adopted as the unit of pressure4 ,the  
other sections were  for mechanical     
physics1 for optics1 for electricity1   
for magneto-optics  and radio-activity1 
for cosmical physics and for biological 
physics4  ,among the reports and papers 
of commanding interest only two can be  
mentioned--the introductory address by  
,m4 ,poincar1 discussing the  relations 

between experimental and mathematical   
physics1 and one by  ,lord ,kelvin on   
the waves produced in an elastic solid  
traversed by  a body acting on it by    
attraction or repulsion1 in which1 from 
a  strictly mathematical point of view1 
he advanced the hypothesis of a  movable
 atom surrounded by an immovable ether4 
,in addition to various  receptions1 a  
session was held at the ,sorbonne1 where
 ,messrs4 ,becquerel  and ,curie gave   
demonstrations with radio-active        
substances1 and one at  the ,ecole      
,polytechnique1 where ,president ,cornu 
showed apparatus which  had been used in
 the determination of the velocity of   
light4 ,at the  close of the congress   
the foreign secretaries placed a crown  
on the  tomb of ,fresnel4           99  
99       99       99       99    ,while 
a physical congress was meeting at      
,paris this year for the  first time1   
the ,geological ,congress1 which was one
 of the first  international congresses 
to be organized1 held its eighth        

session1  beginning on ,august #af4     
,america1 in spite of the number and    
importance  of the inventions it has    
given to the world1 has not as yet done 
its share for the advancement of        
physical science1 but in geology  it    
occupies a foremost place4 ,it was      
natural1 therefore1 that while          
,american physicists were scarcely      
represented on the programme of the     
,physical ,congress1 they occupied a    
prominent place on the programme  of    
geological papers4 ,among the three     
hundred members present1 the            
representation from ,america included   
,messrs4 ,stevenson1 ,hague1 ,osborn1   
,ward1 ,willis1 ,white1 ,cross1 ,scott1 
,todd1 ,kunz1 ,choquette1 ,adams1       
,mathew  and ,rice1 and they presented a
 number of the more important papers4   
,m4  ,karpinsky1 the retiring president1
 gave the opening address1 which was    
followed by an address of welcome by ,m4
 ,gaudry1 the president of the          
congress4 ,a geological congress can    

offer special attractions in the  way of
 excursions1 and these were admirably   
arranged on the present  occasion--both 
the shorter excursions to the classic   
horizons in the  neighborhood of ,paris 
and the more extended ones that followed
 the  close of the meeting4 ,the guide  
for the twenty long excursions and      
numerous shorter trips1 prepared by the 
leading ,french geologists1 was  an     
elaborately illustrated volume          
representing the present condition of   
our knowledge of ,french geology4 ,the  
ninth geological congress will be  held 
at ,vienna three years hence4           
99       99       99       99       99  
,the ,international ,congress of        
,mathematics met for the second time at 
,paris1 though there had been a         
preliminary meeting on the occasion of  
the ,chicago ,exposition4 ,there were   
about two hundred and twenty-five       
mathematicians in attendance1 including 
seventeen from the ,united  ,states4 ,m4
 ,poincar presided1 and the             

vice-presidents1 some of whom  were not 
present1 were ,messrs4 ,czuber1 ,gordon1
 ,greenhill1 ,lindelf1  ,lindemann1     
,mittag-,leffler1 ,moore1               
,tikhomandritzky1 ,volterra1 ,zeuthen   
and ,geiser4 ,the sections and their    
presiding officers were as follows3     
7#a7 ,arithmetic and ,algebra3 ,hilbert2
 7#b7 ,analysis3 ,painlev2 7#c7         
,geometry3 ,darboux2 7#d7 ,mechanics and
 ,mathematical ,physics3 ,larmor2  7#e7 
,bibliography and ,history3 ,prince     
,roland ,bonaparte2 7#f7 ,teaching  and 
,methods3 ,cantor4 ,valuable papers were
 presented by ,m4 ,cantor  on works and 
methods concerned with the history of   
mathematics1  by ,professor ,hilbert on 
the future problems of mathematics and  
by  ,professor ,mittag-,leffler on an   
episode in the life of ,weierstrass1    
but the programme appears to have been  
not very full nor particularly          
interesting4 ,time was found for a      
half-day's discussion of a universal    
language1 but not to carry into effect  

the plans begun at ,zurich three  years 
ago for a mathematical bibliography4    
,the next congress will meet  four years
 hence in ,germany1 probably at         
,baden-,baden4           99       99    
99       99       99    ,the untimely   
death of ,james ,edward ,keeler1        
director of the ,lick  ,observatory1 is 
a serious blow to astronomy and to      
science4 ,born at  ,la ,salle1 ,ill41   
forty-three years ago1 he was educated  
at the ,johns  ,hopkins ,university and 
in ,germany4 ,when only twenty-one years
 old he  observed the solar eclipse of  
#ahgh1 and drew up an excellent report4 
,three years later he was a member of   
the expedition to ,mt4 ,whitney  under  
,professor ,langley1 whose assistant he 
had become at the ,allegheny            
,observatory1 and whose bolometric      
investigations owe much to him4 ,he     
became astronomer at the ,lick          
,observatory while it was in course of  
erection1 and in #ahia he succeeded     
,professor ,langley as director of the  

,allegheny ,observatory4 ,he was called 
to the directorship of the great  ,lick 
,observatory in #ahih4 ,keeler's work in
 astrophysics1 including  his           
photographs of the spectra of the red   
stars and his spectroscopic  proof of   
the meteoric constitution of ,saturn's  
rings1 demonstrated what  he could      
accomplish at a small observatory       
unfavorably situated4 ,at  ,mt4         
,hamilton he was able in the course of  
only two years to organize  thoroughly  
the work of the ,observatory1 and to    
adapt the ,crossley  reflector for his  
purpose1 taking photographs of the nebul
 that have  never been equalled4 ,his   
discovery that most nebul have a spiral 
structure is of fundamental importance4 
,it is not easy to overestimate  what   
might have been accomplished by ,keeler 
in the next twenty or  thirty years1    
both by his own researches and by his   
rare executive  ability1 for it must be 
remembered that his genius as an        
investigator  was rivaled by personal   

qualities which made his associates and 
acquaintances his friends4           99 
99       99       99       99    ,henry 
,sidgwick1 late ,knightbridge professor 
of moral philosophy at  ,cambridge1 died
 on ,august #bh1 at the age of sixty-two
 years4 ,there  are usually not many    
events to record in the life of a       
university  professor1 but ,sidgwick had
 an opportunity to prove his character  
when he resigned a fellowship in        
,trinity ,college because holding it    
implied the acceptance of certain       
theological dogmas4 ,liberalizing       
influences1 however1 were at work1 of   
which he himself was an important  part1
 and he was later elected honorary      
fellow of the same college1  and in     
#ahhc became professor of moral         
philosophy in the ,university4          
,sidgwick published three large         
works--#8,methods of ,ethics' 7#ahgd71  
#8,principles of ,political ,economy'   
7#ahhc7 and #8,elements of ,politics'   
7#ahia7--;in addition to a great number 

of separate articles4 ,all these  works1
 especially the #8,ethics1' show an     
intellect to a rare degree both  subtle 
and scientific4 ,there was a distinction
 and a personal quality  in what he     
wrote that made each book or essay a    
work of art1 as well  as a contribution 
to knowledge4 ,those who knew ,professor
 ,sidgwick--and  the writer of the      
present note regards it as one of the   
fortunate  circumstances of his life    
that he was for several years a student 
under him--realize that the qualities of
 the man were even more rare  than those
 of the author4 ,his hesitating         
utterance1 always ending in  exactly the
 right word1 but represented the caution
 and correctness of  his thought4       
,subtlety1 sincerity1 kindliness and    
humor were as happily  combined in his  
daily conversation as in his writings4  
,it is said that  he was never          
#8entrapped into answering a question by
 yes or no1' but  his deeds and his     
influence were positive without         

qualification or  limitation4           
99       99       99       99       99  
,friedrich ,wilhelm ,nietzsche1 who died
 on almost the same day as  ,sidgwick1  
was also a writer on ethics and once a  
university professor1  but the life and 
writings of the two men present a       
strange contrast4  ,where ,sidgwick's   
touch was light as an angel's1          
,nietzsche trampled like  a bull2 the   
one was the embodiment of reason1       
caution1 consideration  and kindliness1 
the other represented paradox1          
recklessness1 violence  and brute force4
 ,still ,nietzsche deserves mention     
here1 as his ethical  views1 based on   
the ,darwinian theory of the survival of
 the fit1 are  not unlikely to be urged 
hereafter by saner men1 and to become an
  integral part of ethics when ethics   
becomes a science4 ,as a matter  of     
fact1 after resigning his professorship 
at ,zurich1 and even while  writing his 
remarkable books1 ,nietzsche suffered   
from brain disease1  and during the past

 eleven years his reason was completely 
lost4          ,,index4    ,,names ,,of 
,,contributors ,,are ,,printed ,,in     
,,small ,,capitals4        ,academies1  
,international ,association of1 #fff4   
,academy1 ,national1 ,retiring          
,president of1 #bai2      ,work of the1 
#bai4      ,adirondacks1 ,birds of the1 
,,george ,,chahoon1 #dj4      ,agassiz's
 ,investigations on ,coral ,islands1    
#ajc4      ,agriculture1 ,u4 ,s4        
,department of1 ,appropriations for1    
#cce4      ,air1 ,liquid1 #ajb4         
,air-,ship1 ,count ,zeppelin's1 #eei4   
,aluminum1 ,how it is ,made1 #ajd4      
,american ,association1 #bbj2           
,president of the1 #ccb2      ,new ,york
 ,meeting of1 #ccb2      ,address of the
 ,retiring ,president1 #ddb2            
,president of ,new ,york ,meeting1 #ddb2
      ,proceedings1 #ddc2               
,officers1 #ddf2      ,meetings of the1 
,m4 ,e4 ,d4 ,,trowbridge1 #ffj4         
,animals ,helping ,one ,another1 #ajg4  
,anthropology1 #bag1 #dde4              

,anthropometry1 #dde4                   
,appropriations for the ,u4 ,s4         
,department of ,agriculture1 #cce4      
,argyll1 ,duke of1 ,death of1 #bbc4     
,assembly1 ,international1 #bbj4        
,association1 ,american1 #bbj2          
,president of the1 #ccb2      ,address  
of the ,retiring ,president1 #dci2      
,president of ,new ,york ,meeting1 #ddb2
      ,proceedings1 #ddc2               
,officers1 #ddf2      ,meetings of the1 
,m4 ,e4 ,d4 ,,trowbridge1 #ffj2         
,british1 ,french and ,german1 #ffd4    
,,atkinson1 ,,edward1 ,mental ,energy1  
#fcb4      ,atkinson's ,lessons in      
,botany1 #bae4      ,automatism1        
,mental1 #ffb4      ,automobiles1       
,evolution and ,present ,status of1     
,,william ,,baxter1 ,,jr41              
#djf2      ,steam1 #djf2      ,electric1
 #dgi2      ,gasoline1 #eic4            
,barisal ,guns1 #aje4      ,barnes's    
,outlines of ,plant ,life1 #bae4        
,,baxter1 ,,jr41 ,,william1 ,the        
,evolution and ,present ,status of the  

,automobile1 ,steam1 #djf2              
,electric ,automobiles1 #dgi2           
,gasoline ,automobiles1 #eic4           
,beach on the ,marine ,mollusca of ,cold
 ,spring ,harbor1 #ajf4      ,beagle1   
,the ,fate of the1 ,v4 ,,marshall ,,law1
 #hf4      ,bertrand1 ,joseph1 ,death   
of1 #bbb4      ,,bigelow1 ,,frank ,h41  
,the ,coming ,total ,eclipse of the     
,sun1 #a4      ,biltz on ,molecular     
,weights1 #bac4      ,biographical      
,sketch of an ,infant1 ,,charles        
,,darwin1 #aig4      ,biological1       
,lectures from the ,marine ,laboratory  
at ,wood's ,holl1 #cbi2                 
,laboratories1 ,marine1 #eee4           
,biologique1 ,l',anne1 #eea4            
,biology1 #cbi4      ,birds1 as ,flying 
,machines1 ,,frederic ,a4 ,,lucas1 #dgc2
      of the ,adirondacks1 ,,george     
,,chahoon1 #dj4      ,blind ,fishes1    
,structure of1 #dh2      ,causes of     
,degeneration in1 ,,carl ,h4            
,,eigenmann1 #cig4      ,,boas1 ,,franz1
 ,religious ,beliefs of the ,central    

,eskimo1 #fbd4      ,,bolton1 ,,henry   
,,carrington1 ,new ,sources of ,light   
and of ,rntgen ,rays1 #cah4             
,bootblack1 ,a ,mechanical1 #aje4       
,botanical ,garden1 ,the ,new ,york1 ,d4
 ,t4 ,mac,d,o,u,g,a,l1 #aga4            
,botany1 #bae1 #cbh4      ,british      
,association1 #ffd2      ,address of the
 ,president before the1 ,,sir ,,william 
,,turner1 #efa4      ,bruncken's ,north 
,american ,forests and ,forestry1 #baf4 
,bubble-blowing ,insect1 ,e4 ,s4        
,,morse1 #bc4      ,bubonic ,plague1    
,,frederick ,g4 ,,novy1 #egf4           
,catalogue of ,scientific ,literature1  
#ddh1 #eeh4      ,,chahoon1 ,,george1   
,birds of the ,adirondacks1 #dj4        
,chapman's ,bird ,studies with a        
,camera1 #ddj4      ,character1         
,national1 and ,scientific ,study1      
,,albert ,b4 ,,crowe1 #ij4              
,chemical1 ,fertilization1 #bbc2        
,research1 ,recent1 ,some ,phases of the
 ,earth's ,development in the           
,light of1 ,,edward ,,renouf1 #bie4     

,chemistry1 #bac2      ,a ,hundred      
,years of1 ,f4 ,w4 ,,clarke1 #ei4       
,chewing ,gum ,habit1 ,antiquity of1    
,,robert ,e4 ,c4 ,,stearns1 #edi4       
,city1 ,the ,most ,expensive in the     
,world1 ,,bird ,s4 ,,coler1 #af4        
,,clarke1 ,f4 ,w41 ,a ,hundred ,years of
 ,chemistry1 #ei4      ,cold ,spring    
,harbor ,biological ,laboratory1 #eef4  
,,coler1 ,,bird ,s41 ,the ,most         
,expensive ,city in the ,world1 #af4    
,,collier1 ,,james1 ,colonies and the   
,mother ,country1 #aci1 #bdh1 #cij4     
,colonies and the ,mother ,country1     
,,james ,,collier1 #aci1 #bdh1 #cij4    
,color1 ,red1 ,,charles ,e4 ,,dana1     
#ffa4      ,congresses of the ,paris    
,exposition1 #ecg4      ,conway1 ,sir   
,martin1 on the ,bolivian ,andes1 #dci4 
,coral ,islands1 ,agassiz's             
,investigations on1 #ajc4      ,crazes1 
,psychology of1 ,g4 ,t4 ,w4 ,,patrick1  
#bhe4      ,cytology1 #ccj4             
,,dana1 ,,chas4 ,e41 ,the ,color ,red1  
#ffa4      ,,darwin1 ,,charles1 ,a      

,biographical ,sketch of an ,infant1    
#aig4      ,davenport's ,elementary     
,zology1 #ddj4      ,,davis1 ,w4 ,m41   
,the ,physical ,geography of the ,lands1
 #aeg4      ,deaths1 #ajh1 #bbb1 #cce1  
#ffg4      ,degeneration in ,blind      
,fishes1 ,causes of1 ,,carl ,h4         
,,eigenmann1 #cig4      ,dugmore on     
,bird ,homes1 #dda4        ,earth's     
,developments1 ,some ,phases of1 in the 
,light of ,recent ,chemical             
,research1 ,,edward ,,renouf1 #bie4     
,eclipse1 #bbd1 #efj2      ,total1 of   
the ,sun1 ,,frank ,,bigelow1 #a2        
,solar of ,may #bh1 #aijj1 ,s4 ,p4      
,,langley1 #cjb4      ,education1 #cca2 
,technical1 in the ,massachusetts       
,institute of ,technology1 ,g4 ,f4      
,,swain1 #beg2      in the ,united      
,states1 #cca2      ,higher1 for        
,colored ,youth1 ,,andrew ,f4 ,,hilyer1 
#dcf4      ,educational1 and ,scientific
 ,institutions of ,new ,york ,city1     
#ccc2      ,association1 the ,national1 
#ddg4      ,,eigenmann1 ,,carl ,h41 ,the

 ,structure of ,blind ,fishes1 #dh2     
,causes of ,degeneration in ,blind      
,fishes1 #cig4      ,,eliot1 ,c4 ,w41   
,legislation against ,medical           
,discovery1 #dcf4      ,elliott and     
,ferguson's ,qualitative ,analysis1     
#bac4      ,ellis on the ,analysis of   
,white ,paints1 #bac4      ,,ellis1     
,,havelock1 ,psychology of ,red1 #cfe1  
#eag4      ,endowment of ,american      
,universities1 #ccc4      ,energy1      
,mental1 ,,edward ,,atkinson1 #fcb4     
,engine1 ,the ,human ,body as an1 ,e4   
,b4 ,,rosa1 #dia4      ,eskimo1         
,central1 ,religious ,beliefs of the1   
,,franz ,,boas1 #fbd4      ,ewart's     
,penycuik ,experiments1 #abf4           
,expenditure of the ,working ,classes1  
,,henry ,,higgs1 #ebg4        ,farm     
,homes for ,city ,children1 #ajf4       
,fauna1 ,cave1 of ,north ,america1 #ddf4
      ,fayerweather ,bequest1 #eeh4     
,fertilization1 ,chemical1 #bbc4        
,fiction and ,science1 #cbd1 #ccf4      
,fishes1 ,blind1 ,structure of1 ,,carl  

,h4 ,,eigenmann1 #dh2      ,causes of   
,degeneration in1 ,,carl ,h4            
,,eigenmann1 #cig4      ,flournoy's ,des
 ,indes  la ,plante ,mars1 #ffb4        
,flying ,machines1 ,birds as1 ,,frederic
 ,a4 ,,lucas1 #dgc4      ,french        
,association for the ,advancement of    
,science1 #ffd4        ,gas and ,gas    
,meters1 ,,hubert ,s4 ,,wynkoop1 #agi4  
,gasoline ,automobiles1 ,,william ,j4   
,,baxter1 ,,jr41 #eic4      ,geography1 
#dci2      ,physical1 of the ,lands1 ,w4
 ,m4 ,,davis1 #aeg4      ,geologic      
,time1 ,rhythms and1 ,g4 ,k4 ,,gilbert1 
#cci4      ,geology1 #dci2              
,international ,congress of1 #fff4      
,german ,association for the            
,advancement of ,science1 #ffd4         
,gibbs1 ,wolcott1 ,portrait of1 #aad2   
,works of1 #bai4      ,,gilbert1 ,g4    
,k41 ,rhythms and ,geologic ,time1 #cci4
      ,gilbert1 ,g4 ,k41 ,portrait of1  
#bbf2      ,work of1 #ccb2      on      
,recent ,earth ,movements1 #dci4        
,greatness1 ,comparative ,longevity and1

 ,,joseph ,,jastrow1 #bjf4              
,,greely1 ,a4 ,w41 ,scientific ,results 
of the ,norwegian ,polar ,expedition1   
#dbj4      ,,groff1 ,,george ,c41 ,the  
,conquest of the ,tropics1 #edj4        
,,haddon1 ,a4 ,c41 ,expedition to       
,torres ,straits1 #bag4      ,,haffkine1
 ,w4 ,m41 ,preventive ,inoculation1     
#aae1 #bdj4      ,,higgs1 ,,henry1      
,expenditure of the ,working ,classes1  
#ebg4      ,,hilyer1 ,,andrew ,f41      
,higher ,education of ,colored ,youth1  
#dcf4      ,hollick on ,geological      
,formations and ,forests in ,new        
,jersey1 #ajg4      ,homes1 ,farm1 for  
,city ,children1 #ajf4      ,howard on  
the ,mosquitoes of the ,united ,states1 
#ffc4      ,huggins's ,atlas of         
,representative ,stellar ,spectra1 #eeb4
      ,human ,body as an ,engine1 ,e4   
,b4 ,,rosa1 #dia4      ,humiliating     
,situation1 #ajj4      ,hydrogen1       
,solidification of1 #bbc4               
,importation of ,animals1 ,legislation  
regarding1 #efj4      ,infant1 ,a       

,biographical ,sketch of an1 ,,charles  
,,darwin1 #aig4      ,ingle's ,chemistry
 of ,fire and ,fire ,prevention1 #bad4  
,inoculation1 ,preventive1 ,w4 ,m4      
,,haffkine1 #aae1 #bdj4      ,insect1   
,bubble-blowing1 ,e4 ,s4 ,,morse1 #bc4  
,international ,assembly1 #bbj4         
,jackson's ,glossary of ,botanical      
,terms1 #cbh4      ,,jacoby1 ,,harold1  
,the ,sun's ,destination1 #aia4         
,,jastrow1 ,,joseph1 ,comparative       
,longevity and ,greatness1 #bjf2        
,the ,modern ,occult1 #ddi4      ,jesup1
 ,north ,pacific ,expedition1 #bag4     
,jones1 ,h4 ,c41 ,theory of             
,electrolytic ,dissociation1 #bac4      
,keane on ,man1 ,past and ,present1     
#bah4      ,keeler1 ,james ,edward1     
,death of1 #ffg4      ,keeler's ,bird   
,notes ,afield1 #bae2      ,our ,native 
,trees1 #cbh4      ,kingsley's          
,vertebrate ,zology1 #bad4      ,kite   
,flying1 ,scientific1 #eei4             
,laboratory1 ,national ,physical1 #bba4 
,lange's ,chemische-technische          

,untersuchungsmethoden1 #bad4           
,,langley1 ,s4 ,p41 ,solar ,eclipse of  
,may #bh1 #aijj1 #cjb4      ,law1       
,international1 and the ,peace          
,conference1 ,,james ,,harris           
,,vickery1 #gf4      ,,law1 ,v4         
,,marshall1 ,the ,fate of the ,beagle1  
#hf4      ,legislation1 against ,medical
 ,discovery1 ,c4 ,w4 ,,eliot1 #dcf2     
regarding the ,importation of ,animals1 
#efj4      ,light1 ,new ,sources of1 and
 of ,rntgen ,rays1 ,,henry ,,carrington 
,,bolton1 #caj4      ,liquid ,air1 #ajb4
      ,longevity1 ,comparative1 and     
,greatness1 ,,joseph ,,jastrow1 #bjf4   
,lounsberry's ,guide to the ,trees1     
#baf4      ,,lucas1 ,,frederic ,a41     
,birds as ,flying ,machines1 #dgc4      
,mc,carthy on ,familiar ,fish1 #eec4    
,mac,d,o,u,g,a,l1 ,d4 ,t41 ,the ,new    
,york ,botanical ,garden1 #aga4         
,mac,dougal's ,nature and ,work of      
,plants1 #baf4      ,mc,millan's        
,electro-metallurgy1 #bad4              
,malaria1 and the ,malarial ,parasite1  

,,patrick ,,manson1 #caj2      and      
,mosquitoes1 #ccf4      ,manson1        
,marsden1 ,mount ,tamalpais1 #fi4       
,,manson1 ,,patrick1 ,malaria and the   
,malarial ,parasite1 #caj4              
,massachusetts ,institute of            
,technology1 ,technical ,education in1  
,g4 ,f4          ,,swain1 #beg4         
,mathematical ,physics1 #cbg4           
,meat1 ,diseased1 in ,paris1 #ajd4      
,mental ,energy1 ,,edward ,,atkinson1   
#fcb4      ,milne-,edwards1 ,alphonse1  
,death of1 #bbb4      ,mineral          
,industry1 #bad4      ,mivart1 ,st4     
,george1 ,death of1 #bbc4      ,mongols1
 ,modern1 ,f4 ,l4 ,,oswald1 #fah4       
,,morse1 ,e4 ,s4 ,a ,bubble-blowing     
,insect1 #bc4      ,mosquitoes1 and     
,malaria1 #ccf2      of the ,united     
,states1 #ffc4        ,national         
,academy1 ,retiring ,president of1 #bai2
      ,work of the1 #bai4      ,negro1  
,the1 since the ,civil ,war1 ,n4 ,s4    
,,shaler1 #bi2      ,future of1 in the  
,united ,states1 ,n4 ,s4 ,,shaler1 #adg4

      ,nietzsche1 ,frederick1 ,death of1
 #ffh4      ,,novy1 ,,frederick ,g41    
,the ,bubonic ,plague1 #egf4            
,,newcomb1 ,,simon1 ,chapters on the    
,stars1 #bbg1 #cgf1 #ejj1 #fch4         
,newton's ,dictionary of ,birds1 #bae4  
,new ,york ,botanical ,garden1 ,d4 ,t4  
,mac,d,o,u,g,a,l1 #aga4      ,north's   
,catalogue of the ,nests and ,eggs of   
the ,birds of ,australia1 #bae4         
,norwegian ,polar ,expedition1          
,scientific ,results of the1 ,a4 ,w4    
,,greely1 #dbj4        ,occult1 ,the    
,modern1 ,,joseph ,,jastrow1 #ddi4      
,ornithology1 #ddj4      ,,oswald1 ,f4  
,l41 ,modern ,mongols1 #fah4            
,paget on ,experiments on ,animals1     
#eec4      ,parasite1 ,malarial1 and    
,malaria1 ,,patrick ,,manson1 #caj4     
,paris ,exposition and its ,congresses1 
#eeg4      ,parker and ,haswell's       
,manual of ,zology1 #bad4      ,parker's
 ,practical ,zology1 #bae4              
,,patrick1 ,g4 ,t4 ,w41 ,psychology of  
,crazes1 #bhe4      ,peace ,conference  

and ,international ,law1 ,,james        
,,harris ,,vickery1 #gf4      ,pearson's
 ,grammar of ,science1 #eej4            
,penycuik ,experiments1 ,professor      
,ewart's1 #abf4      ,pfeffer's ,plant  
,physiology1 #baf4      ,photographing  
,live ,fishes1 #ajf4      ,photography  
of ,sound ,waves1 ,r4 ,w4 ,,wood1 #ced4 
,physical ,geography of the ,lands1 ,w4 
,m4 ,,davis1 #aeg4      ,physical       
,laboratory1 ,national1 #bba4           
,physics1 ,mathematical1 #cbg2          
,international ,congress of1 #fff4      
,pitt-,rivers1 ,sir ,fox-,lane1 ,death  
of1 #cce4      ,plague1 ,bubonic1       
,,frederick ,g4 ,,novy1 #egf4           
,pneumatic ,dispatch ,tubes1 #ajc4      
,poetry and ,science1 ,l4 ,w4 ,,smith1  
#edf4      ,polar ,expedition1          
,norwegian1 ,scientific ,results of the1
 ,a4 ,w4          ,,greely1 #dbj4       
,preventive ,inoculation1 ,w4 ,m4       
,,haffkine1 #aae1 #bdj4      ,promotion 
of ,men of ,science1 #bba4              
,psychology1 of ,crazes1 ,g4 ,t4 ,w4    

,,patrick1 #bhe2      of ,red1          
,,havelock ,,ellis1 #cfe1 #eag4         
,quantitative ,study of ,variation1     
#dde4        ,radio-active ,substances1 
#eeh4      ,rayleigh1 ,lord1 ,scientific
 ,papers1 #cbg4      ,red1 ,psychology  
of1 ,,havelock ,,ellis1 #cfe1 #eag2     
,the ,color1 ,,chas4 ,e4 ,,dana1 #ffa4  
,reform1 ,school1 #baj4      ,religious 
,belief of the ,central ,eskimo1 ,,franz
 ,,boas1 #fbd4      ,,renouf1 ,,edward1 
,some ,phases of the ,earth's           
,development in the ,light          of  
,recent ,chemical ,research1 #bie4      
,research ,work and ,courses of         
,instruction1 #eef4      ,reynolds1     
,osborne1 ,papers on ,mechanical and    
,physical ,subjects1 #cbh4      ,rhythms
 and ,geologic ,time1 ,g4 ,k4 ,,gilbert1
 #cci4      ,,roe1 ,,william ,j4 ,some  
,scientific ,principles of ,warfare1    
#fje4      ,rntgen ,rays1 ,new ,sources 
of ,light1 and1 ,,henry ,,carrington    
,,bolton1 #caj4      ,,rosa1 ,e4 ,b41   
,the ,human ,body as an ,engine1 #dia4  

,rydberg's ,flora of ,montana and the   
,yellowstone ,park1 #cbi4        ,school
 ,reform1 #baj4      ,science1 ,study   
and ,national ,character1 ,,albert ,b4  
,,crowe1 #ij2      and ,fiction1 #cbd1  
#ccf2      and ,poetry1 ,l4 ,w4 ,,smith1
 #edf4      ,scientific1 ,societies1    
,meetings of1 #ccc2      and            
,educational ,institutions of ,new ,york
 ,city1 #ccc2      ,literature1         
,international ,catalogue of1 #ddh1     
#eeh4      ,,shaler1 ,n4 ,s41 ,the      
,negro since the ,civil ,war1 #bi2      
,the ,future of the ,negro in the       
,united ,states1 #adg4      ,sharp1     
,david1 on ,insects1 #bae4      ,sharpe1
 ,r4 ,bowdler1 ,nomenclature ,avium1    
#bae4      ,shelley's ,birds of ,africa1
 #bae4      ,sidgwick1 ,henry1 ,death   
of1 #ffh4      ,smith on the ,teaching  
of ,elementary ,mathematics1 #eej4      
,,smith1 ,l4 ,w41 ,poetry and ,science1 
#edf4      ,solar ,eclipse1 #bbd1 #efj1 
,,frank ,h4 ,,bigelow1 #a2      of ,may 
#bh1 #aijj1 ,s4 ,p4 ,,langley1 #cjb4    

,solidification of ,hydrogen1 #bbj4     
,sound ,waves1 ,photography of1 ,r4 ,w4 
,,wood1 #ced4      ,spencer and ,gillen 
on the ,native ,tribes of ,central      
,australia1 #bah4      ,sperber's       
,inorganic ,chemistry1 #bac4            
,stark1 on ,birds of ,south ,africa1    
#bae4      ,stars1 ,chapters on the1    
,,simon ,,newcomb1 #bbg1 #cgf1 #ejj1    
#fch4      ,state ,support and          
,individual ,gifts1 #ccd4               
,,stearns1 ,,robert ,e4 ,c41 ,antiquity 
of the ,chewing ,gum ,habit1 #edi4      
,stokes1 ,sir ,george1 ,memoirs         
,presented to1 #cbg4      ,suess's ,das 
,antlitz der ,erde1 #eea4      ,summer  
,schools1 ,university1 #ddg1 #eef4      
,sun1 ,total ,eclipse of the1 ,,frank   
,h4 ,,bigelow1 #a4      ,sun's          
,destination1 ,,harold ,,jacoby1 #aia4  
,,swain1 ,g4 ,f41 ,technical ,education 
in the ,massachusetts ,institute of     
,technology1 #beg4                      
,taka-,diastase1 #ajb4      ,tait's     
,scientific ,papers1 #cbg4              

,tamalpais1 ,mount1 ,marsden ,manson1   
#fi4      ,thoughts for the ,times1 #ii4
      ,,trowbridge1 ,m4 ,e4 ,d41        
,meetings of the ,american ,association1
 #ffj4      ,tropics1 ,conquest of the1 
,,george ,g4 ,,groff1 #edj4             
,tunnels1 ,ventilation of1 #aja4        
,,turner1 ,,sir ,,william1 ,address of  
the ,president before the ,british      
,association1 #efa4                     
,universities1 ,american1 ,endowment of1
 #ccc4      ,university ,summer         
,schools1 #ddg4        ,variation1 the  
,quantitative ,study of1 #dde4          
,ventilation of ,tunnels1 #aja4         
,,vickery1 ,,james ,,harris1            
,international ,law and the ,peace      
,conference1 #gf4        ,,walcott1     
,,charles ,d41 ,washington as ,explorer 
and ,surveyor1 #cbc4      ,walker's     
,introduction to ,physical ,chemistry1  
#bac4      ,war1 ,civil1 ,the ,negro    
since the1 ,n4 ,s4 ,,shaler1 #bi4       
,warfare1 ,some ,scientific ,principles 
of1 ,,william ,j4 ,,roe1 #fje4          

,washington as ,explorer and ,surveyor1 
,,charles ,d4 ,,walcott1 #cbc4          
,whipple on the ,microscopy of ,drinking
 ,water1 #eed4      ,wilson on the      
,cell1 #ccj4      ,winking1 #ajc4       
,,wood1 ,r4 ,w41 ,photography of ,sound 
,waves1 #ced4      ,wood's ,holl ,marine
 ,biological ,laboratory1 #eee4         
,,woodward1 ,r4 ,s41 ,portrait of1 #cch2
      ,work of1 #ddb4      ,working     
,classes1 ,expenditure of the1 ,,henry  
,,higgs1 #ebg4      ,,wynkoop1 ,,hubert 
,s41 ,gas and ,gas ,meters1 #agi4       
,zeppelin's ,air ,ship1 #eei4           
,zology1 #bad1 #ddj4                    
,transcribers' ,notes      ,punctuation1
 hyphenation1 and spelling were made    
consistent when a  predominant          
preference was found in this book2      
otherwise they were not  changed4       
,simple typographical errors were       
corrected2 occasional unbalanced        
quotation marks retained4    ,ambiguous 
hyphens at the ends of lines were       
retained4    ,text uses both 8angakok0  

and 8angakut02 both retained4    ,page  
#efa3 ,footnote #8,a' was not referenced
 in the text2 ,transcriber  attributed  
it to the title of the article4    ,page
 #efd3 ,transcriber's transliteration of
 ,greek text shown in curly  braces4    
,page #ege3 8milkrosomen0 was printed   
that way4    ,page #egg3 ,text uses both
 8,quan-si0 and 8,quansi02 both         
retained4    ,page #ehj3 8grewsome0 was 
printed that way4    ,page #ehh3 8where 
in #ahfa0 was printed that way1 but     
likely is a  misprint1 perhaps for      
8#afha01 as the next paragraph says that
 the  plague disappeared from ,europe in
 the eighteenth century4    ,pages #fja1
 #fjb3 use both 8,vallee0 and 8,valle02 
both retained4    ,page #fde3           
8,moreever0 was printed that way4       
,pages #ffi1 #fgb3 8,wood's ,holl0 was  
spelled that way when this issue of  the
 magazine was published4    ,page #fgb3 
,missing page reference 8#gf0 added to  
8,vickery0 entry1 based  on examination 
of the ,may1 #aijj issue4    ,the other 

five issues of ,volume #eg also are     
available at ,project  ,gutenberg4 ,the 
e,book numbers are #dgbai1 #dgbbg1      
#dgbch1 #dgbfa1 and #dgbha4