,transcriber's note3 ,table of ,contents
 added by ,transcriber4                 
,,contents        ,the ,modern ,occult  
#ddi    ,birds ,as ,flying ,machines    
#dgc    ,electric ,automobiles          
#dgi    ,the ,human ,body ,as an ,engine
                 #dia    ,chapters on   
the ,stars                       #ejj   
,the ,psychology of ,red4 7,,ii47       
#eag    ,the ,expenditure of the        
,working ,classes      #ebg    ,the     
,conquest of the ,tropics               
#edj    ,discussion and ,correspondence 
#edf    ,scientific ,literature         
#eej    ,the ,progress of ,science      
#eee            ,,the    ,,popular      
,,science    ,,monthly      ,,edited    
,,by    ,j4 ,mc,k,e,e,n ,,cattell       
,,vol4 ,,lvii    ,,may ,,to ,,october1  
#aijj      ,,new ,,york ,,and ,,london  
,mc,c,l,u,r,e1 ,,phillips ,,and         
,,company    #aijj                      
,,copyright1 #aijj1    ,,by             
,mc,c,l,u,r,e1 ,,phillips ,,and         
,,company4          ,,the ,,popular     

,,science ,,monthly4    ,,september1    
#aijj4          ,,the ,,modern ,,occult4
    ,,by ,,professor ,,joseph ,,jastrow1
    ,,university ,,of ,,wisconsin4      
,if that imaginary individual so        
convenient for literary illustration1  a
 visitor from ,mars1 were to alight upon
 our planet at the present  time1 and if
 his intellectual interests induced him 
to take a survey  of mundane views of   
what is 8in heaven above1 or on the     
earth beneath  or in the waters under   
the earth10 of terrestrial opinions in  
regard  to the great problems of mind   
and matter1 of government and society1  
of life and death--our ,martian observer
 might conceivably report  that a       
limited portion of mankind were guided  
by views that were the  outcome of      
accumulated toil1 and generations of    
studious devotion1  representing a slow 
and tortuous1 but progressive growth    
through error  and superstition1 and at 
the cost of persecution and bloodshed2  
that  they maintained institutions of   

learning where the fruits of such       
thought could be imparted and the seeds 
cultivated to bear still more  richly1  
but that outside of this respectable yet
 influential minority  there were       
endless upholders of utterly unlike     
notions and of widely  diverging        
beliefs1 clamoring like the builders of 
the tower of ,babel in  diverse tongues4
    ,it is well at least occasionally to
 remember that our conceptions of       
science and of truth1 of the nature of  
logic and of evidence1 are not  so      
universally held as we unreflectingly   
assume or as we hopefully  wish4 ,almost
 every one of the fundamental and       
indisputable tenets of  science is      
regarded as hopelessly in error by some 
ardent would-be  reformer4 ,one ,hampden
 declares that the earth is a motionless
 plane  with the ,north ,pole as the    
center2 one ,carpenter gives a hundred  
remarkable reasons why the earth is not 
round1 with a challenge to  the         
scientists of ,america to disprove them2

 one ,symmes regarded the  earth as     
hollow and habitable within1 with       
openings at the poles which  he offered 
to explore for the consideration of the 
8patronage of this  and the new worlds02
 while ,symmes1 ,jr41 explains how the  
interior is  lighted1 and that it       
probably forms the home of the lost     
tribes of  ,israel2 and one ,teed       
announces on equally conclusive evidence
 that the  earth is a 8stationary       
concave cell 444 with people1 ,sun1     
,moon1 ,planets  and ,stars on the      
inside10 the whole constituting an      
8alchemico-organic  structure1 a        
,gigantic ,electro-,magnetic ,battery40 
,if we were to pass  from opinions      
regarding the shape of the earth to the 
many other and  complex problems that   
appeal to human interests1 it would be  
equally  easy to collect #8ideas'       
comparable to these in value1 evidence  
and  eccentricity4 ,with the            
conspicuously pathological outgrowth of 
brain-functioning--although its         

representatives in the literature of my 
topic are neither few nor far           
between--,i shall not specifically deal2
  and yet the general abuse of logic1   
the helpless flounderings in the  mire  
of delusive analogy1 the baseless       
assumptions1 which characterize  insane 
or #8crank' productions1 are readily    
found in modern occult  literature4     
,the occult consists of a mixed         
aggregate of movements and doctrines1   
which may be the expressions of kindred 
interests and dispositions  but present 
no essential community of content4 ,such
 members of this  cluster of beliefs as 
in our day and generation have attained 
a  considerable adherence or still      
retain it from former generations       
constitute the modern occult4 ,the      
prominent characteristic of the  occult 
is its marked divergence in trend and   
belief from the recognized  standards   
and achievements of human thought4 ,this
 divergence is one  of attitude and     
logic and general perspective4 ,it is a 

divergence of  intellectual temperament 
that distorts the normal reactions to   
science  and evidence and to the general
 significance and values of the factors 
of our complicated natures and our      
equally complicated environment4  ,at   
least it is this in extreme and         
pronounced forms2 and shades  from it   
through an irregular variety of tints to
 a vague and often  unconscious         
susceptibility for the unusual and      
eccentric1 combined  with an instability
 of conviction regarding established    
beliefs that  is more often the         
expression of the weakness of ignorance 
than of the  courage of independence4   
,occult doctrines are also likely to    
involve  and to proceed upon mysticism  
and superstition2 and their theme       
centers  about such problems as the     
nature of mental action1 the conception 
of life and death1 the effect of cosmic 
conditions upon human events  and       
endowment1 the delineation of character1
 the nature and treatment  of disease1  

or indeed about any of the larger or    
smaller realms of  knowledge that       
combine with a strong human and possibly
 a practical  interest1 a considerable  
complexity of basal principles and      
general  relations4    ,in surveying the
 more notable instances of the modern   
occult1 it  is well while bearing in    
mind the particular form of occultism or
  mysticism1 or it may be merely of     
superstition and error1 which one or    
another of the occult movements         
exhibits1 to emphasize the importance   
of the intellectual motive or           
temperament that inclines to the occult4
  ,it is important to inquire not only  
what is believed1 but what is the       
nature of the evidence that induces     
belief1 what attracts and then  makes   
converts1 what the influences by which  
the belief spreads4 ,two  classes of    
motives or interests are conspicuous2   
the one prominently  intellectual or    
theoretical1 the other moderately or    
grossly practical4  ,movements in which 

the former interest dominates contain   
elements  that command respect even when
 they do not engage sympathy2 they      
frequently appeal1 though it may be     
unwisely1 to worthy impulses  and lofty 
aspirations4 ,amongst the movements     
presenting prominent  practical aspects 
are to be found instances of the most   
irreverent and  pernicious1 as well as  
of the most vulgar1 ignorant and        
fraudulent  schemes which have been     
devised to mislead the human mind4 ,most
 occult  movements1 however1 are of a   
mixed character1 and in their career the
  speculative and the practical change  
in importance at different times  or in 
different lands1 or at the hands of     
variously minded leaders4 ,few  escape  
and some seem especially designed for   
the partisanship of that  class who are 
seeking whom they may devour2 and       
stimulated by the greed  for gain or the
 love for notoriety1 set their snares   
for the eternally  gullible4            
,fortunately1 it must be added that the 

interest in the occult  is under the    
sway of the law of fashion1 and many a  
mental garment  which is donned in spite
 of the protest of reason and propriety1
 is  quietly laid aside when the dictum 
of the hour pronounces it unbecoming4   
,historically considered1 the occult    
points back to distant epochs  and      
foreign civilizations2 to ages when the 
facts of nature were but  weakly        
grasped1 when belief was largely        
dominated by the authority  of          
tradition1 when even the ablest minds   
fostered or assented to  superstition1  
when the social conditions of life were 
inimical to  independent thought and the
 mass of men were cut off from          
intellectual  growth of even the most   
elementary kind4 ,pseudo-science        
flourished in  the absence of true      
knowledge1 and imaginative insight and  
unfounded  belief held the office       
intended for inductive reason4          
,ignorance  inevitably led to error and 
false views to false practices4 ,in a   

sympathetic environment of this kind the
 occultist flourished and  displayed the
 impressive insignia of exclusive       
wisdom4 ,his attitude was  that of one  
seeking to solve an enigma1 to find the 
key to a strange  puzzle2 his search was
 for some mystic charm1 some talismanic 
formula1  some magical procedure1 which 
shall dispel the mist that hides the    
face of nature and expose her secrets to
 his ecstatic gaze4 ,by one             
all-encompassing1 masterful effort the  
correct solution was to be  discovered  
or revealed2 and at once and for all1   
ignorance would give  place to true     
knowledge1 science and nature become as 
an open book1  doubt and despair be     
replaced by the serenity of perfect     
wisdom4 ,as our  ordinary senses and    
faculties are obviously insufficient to 
accomplish  such ends1 supernatural     
powers must be appealed to1 a           
transcendental  sphere of spiritual     
activity must be cultivated capable of  
perceiving  through the hidden symbolism

 of apparent phenomena1 the underlying  
relations of cosmic structure and final 
purposes4 ,long periods of  training and
 devotion1 seclusion from the world1    
contemplation of inner  mysteries1 lead 
the initiate through the various stages 
of adeptship up  to the final plane of  
communion with the infinite and the     
comprehension  of truth in all things4  
,this form of occultism reaches its     
fullest  and purest expression in       
,oriental wisdom-religions4 ,these vie  
in  interest to the historian with the  
mythology and philosophy of ,greece  and
 ,rome2 and we of the ,occident feel    
free to profit by their ethical  and    
philosophical content1 and to cherish   
the impulses which gave  them life4 ,but
 when such views are forcibly           
transplanted to our age  and clime1 when
 they are decked in garments so unlike  
their original  vestments1 particularly 
when they are associated with dubious   
practices  and come into violent        
conflict with the truth that has        

accumulated  since they first had birth1
 their aspect is profoundly altered and 
they  come within the circle of the     
modern occult4           99       99    
99       99       99    ,of this        
character is ,theosophy1 an occult      
movement brought into recent  prominence
 by the works and personality of ,mme4  
,blavatsky4 ,the story  of the checkered
 career of that remarkable woman is     
fairly accessible4  ,born in ,russia in 
#ahca as ,helen ,petrovna1 daughter of  
,colonel ,hahn1 of  the ,russian army1  
she was married at the age of seventeen 
to an elderly  gentleman1 ,m4           
,blavatsky4 ,she is described in        
girlhood as a person of  passionate     
temper and wilful and erratic           
disposition4 ,she separated  or escaped 
from her husband after a few months of  
married life and  entered upon an       
extended period of travel and adventure1
 in which  #8psychic' experiences and   
the search for unusual persons and      
beliefs  were prominent4 ,she absorbed  

,hindu wisdom from the adepts of ,india2
  she sat at the feet of a thaumaturgist
 at ,cairo2 she journeyed to  ,canada to
 meet the medicine man of the ,red      
,indians1 and to ,new ,orleans  to      
observe the practices of ,voodoo among  
the negroes4 ,it is difficult  to know  
what to believe in the accounts prepared
 by her enthusiastic  followers4        
,violations of physical laws were       
constantly occurring in her  presence1  
and 8sporadic outbreaks of rappings and 
feats of impulsive  pots1 pans1 beds and
 chairs insisted on making themselves   
notorious40  ,in #ahgc she came to ,new 
,york and sat in #8spiritualistic'      
circles1  assuming an assent to their   
theories1 but claiming to see through   
and  beyond the manifestations the      
operations of her theosophic guides in  
astral projection4 ,at one of these     
sances she met ,colonel ,olcott and     
assisted him in the foundation of the   
,theosophical ,society in ,new ,york  in
 ,october1 #ahge4 ,mme4 ,blavatsky      

directed the thought of this society  to
 the doctrines of ,indian occultism1 and
 reported the appearance in  ,new ,york 
of a ,hindu ,mahatma1 who left a turban 
behind him as evidence  of his astral   
visit4 ,later ,mme4 ,blavatsky and      
,colonel ,olcott 7who  remained her     
staunch supporter1 but whom she referred
 to in private as  a #8psychologized    
baby'7 went to ,india and at ,adyar     
established a shrine  from which were   
mysteriously issued answers to letters  
placed within  its recesses1 from which 
inaccessible facts were revealed and a  
variety  of interesting marvels         
performed4 ,discords arose within her   
household  and led to the publication by
 ,m4 and ,mme4 ,coulomb1 her            
confederates1 of  letters illuminating  
the tricks of the trade by which the    
miracles had  been produced4 ,mme4      
,blavatsky pronounced the letters to be 
forgeries1  but they were sufficiently  
momentous to bring ,mr4 ,hodgson to     
,india to  investigate for the ,society 

for ,psychical ,research4 ,he was able  
to  deprive many of the miracles of     
their mystery1 to show how the #8shrine'
  from which the ,mahatma's messages    
emanated was accessible to ,mme4        
,blavatsky by the aid of sliding panels 
and secret drawers1 to show that  these 
messages were in style1 spelling and    
handwriting the counterpart  of ,mme4   
,blavatsky's1 to show that many of the  
phenomena were the result  of planned   
collusion and that others were created  
by the limitless  credulity and the     
imaginative exaggeration of the         
witnesses--#8domestic  imbeciles1' as   
madame confidentially called them4 ,the 
report of  the society convicted #8the  
,priestess of ,isis' of 8a long         
continued  combination with other       
persons to produce by ordinary means a  
series  of apparent marvels for the     
support of the ,theosophic movement02   
and  concludes with these words3 8,for  
our own part1 we regard her neither  as 
the mouthpiece of hidden seers nor as a 

mere vulgar adventuress2 we  think that 
she has achieved a title to permanent   
remembrance as one of  the most         
accomplished1 ingenious and interesting 
impostors in history40  ,mme4 ,blavatsky
 died in #ahia1 and her ashes were      
divided between ,adyar1  ,london and    
,new ,york4    ,the ,theosophic movement
 continues1 though with abated vigor1   
owing  partly to the above-mentioned    
disclosures1 but probably more to the   
increasing propagandism of other cults1 
to the lack of a leader  of ,mme4       
,blavatsky's genius1 or to the          
inevitable ebb and flow of  such        
interests4 ,mme4 ,blavatsky continued to
 expound ,theosophy after  the          
exposures1 and ,mrs4 ,besant1 ,mr4      
,sinnett and others were ready  to take 
up the work at her death4 ,however1     
miracles are no longer  performed1 and  
no immediately practical ends are       
proclaimed4 ,individual  development and
 evolution1 mystic discourses on        
adeptship and ,karma  and ,maya and     

,nirvana1 communion with the higher ends
 of life1 the  cultivation of an        
esoteric psychic insight1 form the goal 
of present  endeavor4 ,the ,mahatmas are
 giving 8intellectual instructions1     
enormously more interesting than even   
the exhibition of their abnormal        
powers40 444 ,the modern ,theosophist   
seeks to appeal to men and women  of    
philosophical inclinations1 for whom an 
element of mysticism has  its charm1 and
 who are intellectually at unrest with  
the conceptions  underlying modern      
science and modern life4 ,such persons  
are quite  likely to be well-educated1  
refined and sincere4 ,we may believe    
them  intellectually misguided2 we may  
recognize the fraud to which their      
leader resorted to glorify her creed1   
but we must equally recognize  the      
absence of many pernicious tendencies in
 their teachings which  characterize    
other and more practical occult         
movements4    ,spiritualism1 another    
member of the modern occult family1     

presents  a combination of features     
rather difficult to portray2 but its    
public career of half a century has     
probably rendered its tenets and        
practices fairly familiar4 ,for1 like   
other movements1 it presents both       
doctrines and manifestations1 and1 like 
other movements1 it achieved  its       
popularity through its manifestations   
and emphasized the doctrines  to        
maintain the interest and solidarity of 
its numerous converts4  ,deliberate     
fraud has been repeatedly demonstrated  
in a large number of  alleged           
#8spiritualistic' manifestations2 in    
many more the very nature  of the       
phenomena and of the conditions under   
which they appear is so  strongly       
suggestive of trickery as to render any 
other hypothesis  of their origin       
improbable and unnecessary4 ,unconscious
 deception1  exaggerated and distorted  
reports1 defective and misleading       
observation  have been demonstrated to  
be most potent reagents1 whereby alleged

  miracles are made to throw off their  
mystifying envelopings and to  leave a  
simple deposit of intelligible and often
 commonplace fact4 ,that  the methods of
 this or that medium have not been      
brought within the  range of such       
explanation may be admitted1 but the    
admission carries  with it no bias in   
favor of the spiritualistic hypothesis4 
,it may be  urged1 however1 that where  
there is much smoke there is apt to be  
some  fire2 yet there is little prospect
 of discovering the nature of the  fire 
until the smoke has been completely     
cleared away4 ,perhaps it has  been     
snatched from heaven by a materialized  
,prometheus2 perhaps it may  prove to be
 the trick of a ridiculus mus gnawing at
 a match4 ,however1  the main point to  
be insisted upon with regard to such    
manifestations  is that their           
interpretation and their explanation    
demand technical  knowledge and         
training1 or at least special           
adaptability to such  pursuits4 8,the   

problem cannot be solved and settled by 
amateurs1 nor by  #8common sense' that  
,delivers brawling judgments all day    
long1    ,on all things unashamed40     
,spiritualism represents a              
systematization of popular beliefs and  
superstitions1 modified by echoes of    
religious and philosophical  doctrines2 
and is thus not wholly occult4 ,its main
 purpose was to  establish the reality  
of communication with departed spirits2 
the  means which at first spontaneously 
presented themselves and later  were    
devised for this purpose were in large  
measure not original4  ,the rappings are
 in accord with the traditional         
folk-lore behavior of  ghosts1 though   
their transformation into a signal code 
may have been  due to the originality of
 the ,fox children2 the planchette has  
its  analogies in ,chinese and ,european
 modes of divination2 clairvoyance  was 
incorporated from the phenomena of      
artificial somnambulism1 as  practiced  
by the successors of ,mesmer2 the       

#8sensitive' or #8medium'  suggests the 
same origin as well as the popular      
belief in the gift of  supernatural     
powers to favored individuals2 others of
 the phenomena  such as #8levitation'   
and #8cabinet performances' have        
counterparts  in ,oriental magic2       
#8slate-writing1' #8form                
materializations1'  #8spirit-messages'  
and #8spirit photographs' are1 in the   
main1 modern  contributions4 ,these     
various phenomena as ordinarily         
presented breed  the typical atmosphere 
of the sance chamber1 which resists     
precise  analysis1 but in which it is   
easy to detect morbid credulity1 blind  
prepossession and emotional contagion2  
while the dependence of the  phenomena  
on the character of the medium offers   
strong temptation  alike to shrewdness1 
eccentricity and dishonesty4 ,on the    
side of his  teachings the spiritualist 
is likewise not strikingly original4    
,the  relations of his beliefs to those 
that grew about the revelations of      

,swedenborg1 to the speculations of the 
,german #8pneumatologists' and  to other
 philosophical doctrines1 though perhaps
 not intimate1 are  yet traceable and   
interesting2 and in another view the    
#8spiritualist'  is as old as man       
himself and finds his antecedents in the
 necromancer  of ,chaldea1 or in the    
,shaman of ,siberia1 or the ,angekok of 
,greenland1  or the spirit-doctor of the
 ,karens4 ,the modern mediums are simply
  repeating with new costumes and       
improved scenic effects the mystic      
drama of primitive man4    ,spiritualism
 thus appeals to a deep-seated craving  
in human nature1  that of assurance of  
personal immortality and of communion   
with the  departed4 ,just so long as a  
portion of mankind will accept material 
evidence of such a belief1 and will even
 countenance the irreverence1  the      
triviality and the vulgarity surrounding
 the manifestations1 just  so long as   
these persons will misjudge their own   
powers of detecting  how the alleged    

supernatural appearances were really    
produced and  remain unimpressed by the 
principles upon which alone a consistent
  explanation is possible1 just so long 
will spiritualism and kindred  delusions
 flourish4    ,as to the present-day    
status of this cult it is not easy to   
speak  positively4 ,its clientle has    
apparently greatly diminished2 it still 
numbers amongst its adherents men and   
women of culture and education  and many
 more who cannot be said to possess     
these qualities4 ,there  seems to be a  
considerable class of persons who       
believe that natural  laws are          
insufficient to account for their       
personal experiences and  those of      
others1 and who temporarily or          
permanently incline to a  spiritualistic
 hypothesis in preference to any other4 
,spiritualists  of this intellectual    
temper can1 however1 form but a small   
portion of  those who are enrolled under
 its creed4 ,if one may judge by the    
tone  and contents of current           

spiritualistic literature1 the rank and 
file to  which ,spiritualism appeals    
present an unintellectual occult        
company1  credulously accepting what    
they wish to believe1 utterly regardless
  of the intrinsic significance of      
evidence or hypothesis1 vibrating  from 
one extreme or absurdity to another1 and
 blindly following a  blinder or more   
fanatic leader or a self-interested     
charlatan4 ,while  for the most         
extravagant and unreasonable expressions
 of ,spiritualism  one would probably   
turn to the literature of a few decades 
ago1 yet  the symptoms presented by the 
,spiritualism of to-day are unmistakably
  of the same character1 and form a     
complex as characteristic as the        
symptom-complex of hysteria or epilepsy1
 and which1 faute de mieux1  may be     
termed occult4 ,it is a type of         
occultism of a particularly  pernicious 
character because of its power to lead a
 parasitic life upon  the established   
growths of religious beliefs and        

interests1 and at  the same time to     
administer to the needs of an           
unfortunate but widely  prevalent       
passion for special signs and omens and 
the interpretation  of personal         
experiences4 ,it is a weak though       
comprehensible nature  that becomes     
bewildered in the presence of a few     
experiences that seem  homeless among   
the generous provisions of modern       
science1 and runs off  panic-stricken to
 find shelter in a system that satisfies
 a narrow  personal craving at the      
sacrifice of broadly established        
principles1  nurtured and grown strong  
in the hardy and beneficent atmosphere  
of  science4 ,it is a weaker and an     
ignorant nature that is attracted to    
the cruder forms of such beliefs1 be it 
by the impulsive yielding to  emotional 
susceptibility1 by the contagion of an  
unfortunate mental  environment1 or by  
the absence of the steadying power of   
religious  faith or of logical vigor or 
of confidence in the knowledge of       

others4  ,spiritualism finds converts in
 both camps and assembles them under the
  flag of the occult4,a        ,a ,to   
prevent misunderstanding it is well to  
repeat that          ,i am speaking of  
the general average of thorough-going   
spiritualists4 ,the fact that a few     
mediums have engaged          the       
attention of scientifically minded      
investigators has          no bearing on
 the motives which lead most persons to 
make          a professional call on a  
medium1 or to join a circle4            
,the further fact that these            
investigators have at times             
found themselves baffled by the medium's
 performances1          and that a few  
of them have announced their readiness  
to          accept the spiritualistic   
hypothesis is of importance in          
some aspects1 but does not determine the
 general trend          of the          
spiritualistic movement in the direction
 in which          it is considered in  
the present discussion4 ,it may also    

prevent misunderstanding of other parts 
of my presentation          to continue 
this footnote by adding that ,i desire  
to          distinguish sharply between 
the occult and what has                 
unwisely been termed ,psychical         
,research--unwisely because             
such research is either truly           
psychological and requires no           
differentiation from other allied and   
legitimate research1          or it is  
something other than psychological which
 is          inaptly expressed by       
calling it #8psychical4' ,i admit and   
emphasize that the majority of such     
research is the result          of a    
scientific motive and is far removed    
from the occult4          ,i therefore  
shall say nothing of ,psychical         
,research and          regret that it is
 necessary even to deny its possible    
inclusion in the occult4 ,such inclusion
 is1 however1          suggested by much
 that is talked of and written under the
          name of ,psychic ,research1   

and there can be no doubt that          
the interest of many members of ,psychic
 ,research ,societies          and of   
readers of their publications1 is       
essentially of          an occult       
nature4 ,whatever in these publications 
seems to          favor mystery and to  
substantiate supernormal powers is      
readily absorbed1 and its bearings      
fancifully interpreted          and     
exaggerated2 the more critical and      
successfully          explanatory papers
 meet with a less extended and less     
sensational reception4 ,unless most     
wisely directed1 ,psychic               
,research is likely1 by not letting the 
right hand know          what the left  
hand is doing1 to foster the undesirable
          propensities of human nature  
as rapidly as it antagonizes            
them4 ,like indiscriminate alms-giving  
it has the          possibilities of    
affording relief and of making paupers  
at          the same time4 ,while ,i    
regard the acceptance of telepathy      

as an established phenomenon1 as        
absolutely unwarranted and          most
 unfortunate1 and while ,i feel a keen  
personal regret          that men whose 
ability and opinions ,i estimate highly 
have          announced their belief in 
a spiritualistic explanation of         
their personal experiences with a       
particular medium1 yet          my      
personal regret and my logical          
disapproval of these                    
conclusions have obviously no bearing   
upon the general          questions     
under discussion4 ,the scientific       
investigation of          the same      
phenomena which have formed the subject 
matter of          occult beliefs1 is   
radically different in motive1 method   
and result from the truly occult4       
,the wane in the popularity of          
,spiritualism may be due in part to     
frequent exposures1 in part to the      
passing of the occult interest to       
pastures new1 and in part to other and  
less accessible causes4 ,such  interest 

may again become dominant by the success
 or innovations  of some original medium
 or by the appearance of some unforeseen
  circumstances2 at present there is a  
disposition to take up #8spiritual      
healing' and #8spiritual readings of the
 future' rather than mere  assurances   
from the dead1 and thus to emulate the  
practical success  of more recently     
established rivals4 ,the history of     
,spiritualism1 by  its importance and   
its extravagance of doctrine and        
practice1 forms  an essential and an    
instructive chapter in the history of   
belief2 and  there is no difficulty in  
tracing the imprints of its footsteps on
 the  sands of the occult4    ,the      
impress of ancient and medival lore upon
 latter-day occultism  is conspicuous in
 the survivals of ,alchemy and          
,astrology4 ,phrenology  represents a   
more recent pseudo-science1 but one     
sufficiently obsolete  to be considered 
under the same head1 as may also        
,palmistry1 which has  relations both to

 an ancient form of divination and to a 
more modern  development after the      
manner of ,physiognomy4 ,the common     
characteristic  of these is their       
devotion to a practical end4 ,alchemy   
occupies a  somewhat distinct position4 
,the original alchemists sought the     
secret  of converting the baser metals  
into gold1 in itself a sufficiently     
alluring and human occupation4 ,there is
 no reason why such a problem  should   
assume an occult aspect1 except the     
sufficient one that ordinary  procedures
 have not proved capable to effect the  
desired end4 ,it is a  proverbial fault 
of ambitious inexperience to attack     
valiantly large  problems with endless  
confidence and sweeping aspiration4 ,it 
is well  enough in shaping your ideas to
 hitch your wagon to a star2 yet the    
temporary utility of horses need not be 
overlooked2 but shooting arrows  at the 
stars is apt to prove an idle pastime4  
,if we are willing to  forget for the   
moment that the same development of     

logic and experiment  that makes        
possible the mental and material        
equipment of the modern  chemist makes  
impossible his consideration of the     
alchemist's search1  we may note how far
 the inherent constitution of the       
elements1 to say  nothing of their      
possible transmutation1 has eluded his  
most ultimate  analysis4 ,how           
immeasurably farther it was removed from
 the grasp of  the alchemist can hardly 
be expressed4 ,but this is a scientific 
and  not an occult view of the matter2  
it was not by progressive training  in  
marksmanship that the occultist hoped to
 send his arrows to the  stars4 ,his was
 a mystic search for the magical        
transmutation1 the  elixir of life or   
the philosopher's stone4 ,one might     
suppose that  once the world has agreed 
that these ends are past finding out1   
the  alchemist1 like the maker of stone 
arrow-heads1 would have found his       
occupation gone and have left no        
successor4 ,his modern representative1  

however1 is an interesting and by no    
means extinct species4 ,he seems  to    
flourish in ,france1 but may be found in
 ,germany1 in ,england and in  this     
country4 ,he is rarely a pure alchemist 
7although so recently as  #ahed one of  
them offered to manufacture gold for the
 ,french mint71 but  represents the pure
 type of occultist4 ,he calls himself a 
,rosicrucian2  he establishes a         
university of the higher studies and    
becomes a  ,professor of ,hermetic      
,philosophy4 ,his thought is mystic1 and
 symbolism  has an endless fascination  
for him4 ,the mystic significance of    
numbers1  extravagant analogies of      
correspondence1 the traditional hidden  
meanings of the ,kabbalah fairly        
intoxicate him2 and verbose accounts of 
momentous relations and of              
unintelligible discoveries run riot in  
his  writings4 ,his science is not a    
mere ,chemistry1 but a                  
,hyper-,chemistry2  his transmutations  
are not merely material but spiritual4  

,like  all followers of an esoteric     
belief1 he must stand apart from his    
fellow-men2 he must cultivate the higher
 #8psychic' powers so that  eventually  
he may be able by the mere action of his
 will to cause the  atoms to group      
themselves into gold4    ,the modern    
alchemist is1 however1 a general        
occultist2 he may be also  an astrologer
 or a magnetist or a theosophist4 ,but  
he is foremost  an ardent enthusiast for
 exclusive and unusual lore--not the    
common  and superficial possessions of  
misguided democratic science4 ,he goes  
through the forms of study1 remains     
superior to the baser practical  ends of
 life1 and finds his reward in the      
self-satisfaction of  exclusive wisdom4 
,in ,paris1 at least1 he forms part of a
 rather  respectable salon1 speaking    
socially1 or a #8company of educated    
charlatans1' speaking scientifically4   
,his class does not constitute a  large 
proportion of modern occultists1 but    
they present a prominent  form of its   

intellectual temperament4 8,there are   
also people10 says  ,mr4 ,lang1 8who so 
dislike our detention in the prison     
house of old  unvarying laws that their 
bias is in favor of anything which may  
tend  to prove that science in her      
contemporary mood is not infallible4 ,as
  the ,frenchman did not care what sort 
of a scheme he invested money in1       
provided that it annoys the ,english1 so
 many persons do not care what  they    
invest belief in1 provided that it      
irritates men of science40 ,of  such is 
the kingdom of alchemists and their     
brethren4    ,astrology1 phrenology1    
physiognomy and palmistry have in common
 a  search for knowledge whereby to     
regulate the affairs of life1 to        
foretell the future1 to comprehend one's
 destiny and capabilities4 ,they  aim to
 secure success or at least to be       
forearmed against failure by  being     
forewarned4 ,this is a natural1 a       
practical1 and in no essential  way1 an 
occult desire4 ,it becomes occult1 or   

better1 superstitious1  when it is      
satisfied by appeals to relations and   
influences which  do not exist1 and by  
false interpretation of what may be     
admitted  as measurably and vaguely true
 and about equally important4 ,when  not
 engaged in their usual occupation of   
building most startling  superstructures
 on the weakest foundations1 practical  
occultists are  like ,dr4 ,holmes'      
katydid1 8saying an undisputed thing in 
such a solemn  way40 ,they will not     
hearken to the experience of the ages   
that success  cannot be secured nor     
character read by discovering their     
mystic  stigmata2 they will not learn   
from physiology and psychology that the 
mental capabilities1 the moral and      
emotional endowment of an individual    
are not stamped on his body so that they
 may be revealed by half an  hour's use 
of the calipers and tape-measure2 they  
will not listen when  science and common
 sense unite in teaching that the       
knowledge of mental  powers is not such 

as may be applied by rule of thumb to   
individual  cases1 but that like much   
other valuable knowledge1 it proceeds by
  the exercise of sound judgment1 and   
must as a rule rest content with        
suggestive generalizations and          
imperfectly established correlations4   
,an educated man with wholesome         
interests and a vigorous logical sense  
can consider a possible science of      
character and the means of aiding  its  
advance without danger and with some    
profit4 ,but this meat is sheer  poison 
to those who are usually attracted to   
such speculations1 while  it offers to  
the unscrupulous charlatan a most       
convenient net to spread  for the       
unwary4 ,in so far as these occult      
mariners1 the astrologists  and         
phrenologists and id genus omne are     
sincere1 and in so far  represent       
superstition rather than commercial     
fraud1 they simply ignore  through      
obstinacy or ignorance the light-houses 
and charts and the  other aids to modern

 navigation1 and persist in steering    
their craft  by an occult compass4 ,in  
some cases they are professedly setting 
out1  not for any harbor marked on      
terrestrial maps1 but their expedition  
is  for the golden fleece or for the    
apples of the ,hesperides2 and with     
loud-voiced advertisements of their     
skill as pilots1 they proceed to  form  
stock companies for the promotion of the
 enterprise and to sell  the shares to  
credulous speculators4    ,it would be a
 profitless task to review the alleged  
data of astrology  or phrenology or     
palmistry except for the illustrations  
which they  readily yield of the nature 
of the conceptions and the logic which  
command a certain popular interest and  
acceptance4 ,the interest in  these     
notions1 is1 as ,mr4 ,lang argues about 
ghosts and rappings and  bogles1 in how 
they come to be believed rather than in 
how much or how  little they chance to  
be true4 ,in examining the professed    
evidence  for the facts and laws and    

principles 7sit venia verbis7 that      
pervade astrology or phrenology or      
palmistry or dream-interpretation1  or  
beliefs of that ilk1 we find the        
flimsiest kind of texture that  will    
hardly bear examination and holds       
together only so long as it is  kept    
secluded from the light of day4         
,far-fetched analogy1 baseless          
assertion1 the uncritical assimilation  
of popular superstitions1 a  great deal 
of prophecy after the event--it is      
wonderful how clearly  the astrologer   
finds the indications of ,napoleon's    
career in his  horoscope1 or the        
phrenologist reads them in the          
,napoleonic cranial  protuberances--much
 fanciful elaboration of detail1 ringing
 the  variations on a sufficiently      
complex and non-demonstrable            
proposition1  cultivating a convenient  
vagueness of expression together with an
  apologetic skill in providing for and 
explaining exceptions1 the  courage to  
ignore failure and the shrewdness to    

profit by coincidences  and             
half-assimilated smatterings of science2
 and with it all an  insensibility to   
the moral and intellectual demands of   
the logical  decalogue1 and you have the
 skeleton which clothed with one flesh  
becomes astrology1 and with another     
phrenology and with another  palmistry  
or solar biology or descriptive         
mentality or what not4  ,such           
pseudo-sciences thrive upon that        
widespread and intense craving  for     
practical guidance of our individual    
affairs1 which is not  satisfied with   
judicious applications of general       
principles1 with due  consideration of  
the probabilities and uncertainties of  
human life1 but  demands an impossible  
and precise revelation4 ,not all that   
passes for1  and in a way is1 knowledge1
 is or is likely soon to become         
scientific2  and when a peasant parades 
in an academic gown the result is likely
 to  be a caricature4    ,to achieve    
fortune1 to judge well and command one's

 fellow-men1 to  foretell and control   
the future1 to be wise in worldly lore1 
are  natural objects of human desire2   
but still another is essential to       
happiness4 ,whether we attempt to       
procure these good fortunes by going    
early to bed and early to rise1 or by   
more occult procedures1 we  wish to be  
healthy as well as wealthy and wise4    
,the maintenance of  health and the     
perpetuity of youth were not absent from
 the medival  occultist's search1 and   
formed an essential part of the benefits
 to  be conferred by the elixir of life 
and the philosopher's stone4 ,a  series 
of superstitions and extravagant systems
 are conspicuous in  the antecedents and
 the bye-paths of the history of        
medicine1 and  are related to it much as
 astrology is to astronomy or alchemy to
  chemistry2 and because medicine in    
part remains1 and to previous           
generations was conspicuously an        
empirical art rather than a science1  it
 offers great opportunity for practical 

error and misapplied partial  knowledge4
 ,it is not necessary to go back to     
early civilizations or  to primitive    
peoples1 among whom the medicine-man and
 the priest were  one and alike         
appealing to occult powers1 nor to early
 theories of  disease which beheld in   
insanity the obsession of demons and    
resorted  to exorcism to cast them out2 
it is not necessary to consider the     
various personages who acquired         
notoriety as healers by laying on of    
hands or by appeal to faith1 or who like
 ,mesmer introduced the system  of      
,animal ,magnetism1 or like some of his 
followers1 sought directions  for       
healing from the clairvoyant dicta of   
somnambules2 it is not  necessary to    
ransack folk-lore superstitions and     
popular remedies for  the treatment of  
disease2 for the modern forms of        
#8irregular' healing  offer sufficient  
illustrations of occult methods of      
escaping the ills  that flesh is heir   
to4    ,the existence of a special term 

for a medical impostor is doubtless  the
 result of the prevalence of the class  
thus named1 but quackery and  occult    
medicine though mutually overlapping1   
can by no means be held  accountable for
 one another's failings4 ,many forms of 
quackery proceed  on the basis of       
superstitions or fanciful or exaggerated
 notions  containing occult elements1   
but for the present purpose it is wise  
to  limit attention to those in which   
this occult factor is distinctive2  for 
medical quackery in its larger relations
 is neither modern nor  occult4 ,occult 
healing takes its distinctive character 
from the theory  underlying the practice
 rather than from the nature of the     
practice4  ,it is not so much what is   
done as why it is done or pretended to  
be  done or not done1 that determines   
its occult character4 ,a factor of      
prominence in modern occult healing is  
indeed one that in other forms          
characterized many of its predecessors  
and was rarely wholly absent  from the  

connection between the procedure and the
 result2 this is the  mental factor1    
which may be called upon to give        
character to a theory  of disease1 or be
 utilized consciously or unconsciously  
as a curative  principle4 ,it is not    
implied that #8mental medicine' is      
necessarily  and intrinsically occult1  
but only that the general trend of      
modern  occult notions regarding disease
 may be best portrayed in certain       
typical forms of #8psychic' healing4    
,the legitimate recognition of  the     
importance of mental conditions in      
health and disease is one of  the       
results of the union of modern          
psychology and modern medicine4  ,an    
exaggerated and extravagant as well as  
pretentious and illogical               
over-statement and misstatement of this 
principle may properly be  considered as
 occult4    ,among such systems there is
 one which by its momentary prominence  
overshadows all others1 and for this    
reason as well as for its  more explicit

 or rather extended statement of        
principles1 must be  accorded special   
attention4 ,i need hardly say that ,i   
refer to that  egregious misnomer1      
,christian ,science4 ,this system is    
said to have  been discovered by or     
revealed to ,mrs4 ,mary ,baker ,glover  
,eddy in #ahff4  ,several of its most   
distinctive positions 7without their    
religious  setting7 are to be found in  
the writings and were used in the       
practice  of ,mr4 or ,dr4 ,p4 ,p4       
,quimby 7#ahjb-ahff71 whom ,mrs4 ,eddy  
professionally  consulted shortly before
 she began her own propagandum4 ,on its 
theoretical side the system presents a  
series of quasi-metaphysical            
principles1 and also a professed        
interpretation of the ,scriptures2 on   
its practical side it offers a means of 
curing or avoiding disease and  includes
 under disease also what is more        
generally described as sin  and         
misfortune4 ,with ,christian ,science as
 a religious movement ,i shall  not     

directly deal2 ,i wish1 however1 to     
point out that this assumption  of a    
religious aspect finds a parallel in    
,spiritualism and ,theosophy  and       
doubtless forms one of the most potent  
reasons for the success  of these occult
 movements4 ,it would be a most         
dangerous principle to  admit that the  
treatment of disease and the right to   
ignore hygiene  can become the          
perquisite of any religious faith4 ,it  
would be equally  unwarranted to permit 
the principles which are responsible for
 such  beliefs to take shelter behind   
the ramparts of religious tolerance2 for
  the essential principles of ,christian
 ,science do not constitute a form  of  
,christianity any more than they        
constitute a science2 but in so far  as 
they do not altogether elude            
description1 pertain to the domain over 
which medicine1 physiology and          
psychology hold sway4 ,as ,david ,harum1
  in speaking of his church-going       
habits1 characteristically explains1    

8the one ,i stay away from when ,i don't
 go's the ,prespyteriun10 so the        
doctrines which ,christian ,science     
#8stays away from' are those over  which
 recognized departments of academic     
learning have the authority to  decide4 
,mrs4 ,eddy's magnum opus serving at    
once as the text-book of the  #8science'
 and as a revised version of the        
,scriptures--,science and  ,health1 with
 ,key to the ,scriptures--has been      
circulated to the extent  of one hundred
 and seventy thousand copies4 ,i shall  
not give an account  of this book nor   
subject its more tangible tenets to a   
logical review2  ,i must be content to  
recommend its pages as suggestive       
reading for the  student of the occult  
and to set forth in the credentials of  
quotation  marks some of the dicta      
concerning disease4 ,yet it may be due  
to the  author of this system to begin  
by citing what are declared to be its   
fundamental tenets1 even if their       
connection with what is built upon  them

 is far from evident4        8,the      
fundamental propositions of ,christian  
,science are summarized      in the four
 following1 to me self-evident          
propositions4 ,even      if read        
backward1 these propositions will be    
found to agree in      statement and    
proof3        #a4 ,god is ,all in all4  
#b4 ,god is good4 ,good is ,mind4       
#c4 ,god1 ,spirit1 being all1 nothing is
 matter4        #d4 ,life1 ,god1        
omnipotent ,good1 deny death1 evil1 sin1
      disease--,disease1 sin1 evil1     
death1 deny ,good1 omnipotent ,god1     
,life40        8,what is termed disease 
does not exist40 8,matter has no being40
      8,all is mind40 8,matter is but   
the subjective state of what is here    
termed mortal mind40 8,all disease is   
the result of education1      and can   
carry its ill-effects no farther than   
mortal mind maps      out the way40     
8,the fear of dissevered bodily members1
 or a belief      in such a possibility1
 is reflected on the body1 in the shape 

of headache1 fractured bones1 dislocated
 joints1 and so on1 as      directly as 
shame is seen rising to the cheek4 ,this
 human error      about physical wounds 
and colics is part and parcel of the    
delusion      that matter can feel and  
see1 having sensation and substance40   
8,insanity implies belief in a diseased 
brain1 while physical      ailments     
7so-called7 arise from belief that some 
other portions      of the body are     
deranged4444 ,a bunion would produce    
insanity as      perceptible as that    
produced by congestion of the brain1    
were it      not that mortal mind calls 
the bunion an unconscious portion of    
the body4 ,reverse this belief and the  
results would be different40      8,we  
weep because others weep1 we yawn       
because they yawn1 and we      have     
small-pox because others have it2 but   
mortal mind1 not matter1      contains  
and carries the infection40 8,a         
,christian ,scientist never      gives  
medicine1 never recommends hygiene1     

never manipulates40      8,anatomy1     
,physiology1 ,treatises on ,health1     
sustained by what is      termed        
material law1 are the husbandmen of     
sickness and disease40      8,you can   
even educate a healthy horse so far in  
physiology that      he will take cold  
without his blanket40 8,if exposure to a
 draught      of air while in a state of
 perspiration is followed by chills1    
dry cough1 influenza1 congestive        
symptoms in the lungs1 or hints      of 
inflammatory rheumatism1 your           
,mind-remedy is safe and sure4      ,if 
you are a ,christian ,scientist1 such   
symptoms will not follow      from the  
exposure2 but if you believe in laws of 
matter and their      fatal effects when
 transgressed1 you are not fit to       
conduct your      own case or to destroy
 the bad effects of belief4 ,when the   
fear      subsides and the conviction   
abides that you have broken no law1     
neither rheumatism1 consumption nor any 
other disease will ever      result from

 exposure to the weather40 8,destroy    
fear and you end      the fever40 8,to  
prevent disease or cure it mentally let 
spirit      destroy the dream of sense4 
,if you wish to heal by argument1       
find the type of the ailment1 get its   
name and array your mental      plea    
against the physical4 ,argue with the   
patient 7mentally1 not      audibly7    
that he has no disease1 and conform the 
argument to the      evidence4 ,mentally
 insist that health is the everlasting  
fact1 and      sickness the temporal    
falsity4 ,then realize the presence of  
health      and the corporeal senses    
will respond1 so be it40 8,my           
publications      alone heal more       
sickness than an unconscientious student
 can begin      to reach40 8,the        
quotient when numbers have been divided 
by a fixd      rule1 are not more       
unquestionable than the scientific tests
 ,i have      made of the effects of    
truth upon the sick40 8,i am never      
mistaken      in my scientific diagnosis

 of disease40 8,outside of ,christian   
,science all is vague and hypothetical1 
the opposite of ,truth40      8,outside 
,christian ,science all is error40      
,surely this is a remarkable product of 
mortal mind6 ,it would perhaps  be an   
interesting tour de force1 though hardly
 so entertaining as  #8,alice in        
,wonderland1' to construct a universe on
 the assertions and  hypotheses which   
,christian ,science presents2 but it    
would have less  resemblance to the     
world we know than has ,alice's         
,wonderland4 ,for any  person for whom  
logic and evidence are something more   
real than ghosts  or myths1 the feat    
must always be relegated to the airy    
realm of the  imagination and must not  
be brought in contact with earthly      
realities4  ,and yet the extravagance of
 ,mrs4 ,eddy's book1 its superb disdain 
of  vulgar fact1 its transcendental     
self-confidence1 its solemn assumption  
that reiteration and variation of       
assertion somehow spontaneously         

generate proof or self-evidence1 its    
shrewd assimilation of a  theological   
flavor1 its occasional successes in     
producing a presentable  travesty of    
scientific truth--all these distinctions
 may be found in  many a dust-covered   
volume1 that represents the intensity of
 conviction  of some equally            
enthusiastic and equally inspired       
occultist1 but one  less successful in  
securing a chorus to echo his refrain4  
,i cannot dismiss #8,eddyism' without   
illustrating the peculiar structures    
under which1 in an effort to be         
consistent1 it is forced to take        
shelter4 ,since disease is always of    
purely mental origin1 it follows  that  
disease and its symptoms cannot ensue   
without the conscious  coperation of the
 patient2 since 8,christian ,science    
divests material  drugs of their        
imaginary power10 it follows that the   
labels on the  bottles that stand on the
 druggist's shelves are correspondingly 
meaningless4 ,and it becomes an         

interesting problem to inquire how  the 
consensus of mortal mind came about that
 associates one set of  symptoms with   
prussic acid1 and another with alcohol1 
and another  with quinine4 ,inhaling    
oxygen or common air would prepare one  
for the  surgeon's knife1 and prussic   
acid or alcohol have no more effect than
  water1 if only a congress of nations  
would pronounce the former to be        
ansthetic and promulgate a decree that  
the latter shall be harmless4           
,christian ,science does not flinch from
 this position4 8,if a dose of  poison  
is swallowed through mistake and the    
patient dies1 even though  physician and
 patient are expecting favorable        
results1 does belief1  you ask1 cause   
this death8 ,even so1 and as directly as
 if the poison  had been intentionally  
taken4 ,in such cases a few persons     
believe the  potion swallowed by the    
patient to be harmless2 but the vast    
majority  of mankind1 though they know  
nothing of this particular case and this

  special person1 believe the arsenic1  
the strychnine1 or whatever the  drug   
used1 to be poisonous1 for it has been  
set down as a poison by  mortal mind4   
,the consequence is that the result is  
controlled by  the majority of opinions 
outside1 not by the infinitesimal       
minority  of opinions in the sick       
chamber40 ,but why should the opinions  
of    hoi polloi be of influence in such
 a case1 and the enlightened  minorities
 be sufficient to effect the marvellous 
cures in all the  other cases8          
,christian ,scientists do not take cold 
in draughts in  spite of the contrary   
opinions or illusions of misguided      
majorities4  ,the logical ,christian    
,scientist need not eat1 8for the truth 
is food  does not affect the life of    
man10 and should not renounce his faith 
by adding1 8but it would be foolish to  
venture beyond our present              
understanding1 foolish to stop eating1  
until we gain more goodness  and a      
clearer comprehension of the living     

,god40 ,and if he is a mental  physician
 he must be a mental surgeon1 too1 and  
not plead that1 8,until  the advancing  
age admits the efficacy and supremacy of
 mind1 it is  better to leave the       
adjustment of broken bones and          
dislocations to the  fingers of         
surgeons40 ,but it is unprofitable to   
consider the weakness  of any occult    
system in its encounters with actual    
science and actual  fact4 ,it is simply 
as a real and prominent menace to       
rationality that  these doctrines       
naturally attract consideration4 ,as    
illustrations of  present-day occult    
beliefs we are naturally tempted to     
inquire what  measure of 7perverted7    
truth they may contain2 but the more    
worthy  question is1 ,how do such       
perversions come to find so large a     
company of  #8supporting listeners'8    
,for to any one who can read and be     
convinced  by the sequence of words of  
this system1 ordinary logic has no      
power1  and to him the world of reality 

brings no message4 ,no form of the      
modern occult antagonizes the           
foundations of science so brusquely as  
this one4 ,the possibility of science   
rests on the thorough and absolute      
distinction between the subjective and  
the objective4 ,in what measure a  man  
loses the power to draw this distinction
 clearly and as other men  do1 in that  
measure he becomes irrational and       
insane4 ,the objective  exists2 and no  
amount of thinking it away1 or thinking 
it differently1  will change it4 ,that  
is what is understood by ultimate       
scientific  truth2 something that will  
endure unmodified by passing ways of    
viewing  it1 open to every one's        
verification who can come equipped with 
the  proper means to verify--a permanent
 objective to be ascertained by  careful
 logical inquiry1 not to be determined  
by subjective opinion4  ,logic is the   
language of science2 ,christian ,science
 and what sane men  call science can    
never communicate because they do not   

speak the same  language4           99  
99       99       99       99    ,it    
would be unfortunate if in emphasizing  
the popular preminence  of ,christian   
,science1 one were to overlook the      
significance of the  many other forms of
 #8drugless healing' which bid for      
public favor by  appeal to ignorance and
 to occult and superstitious instincts4 
,some  are allied to ,christian ,science
 and like it assimilate their cult to a 
religious movement2 others are          
unmistakably the attempts of charlatans 
to lure the credulous by noisy          
advertisements of newly discovered and  
scientifically indorsed systems of      
#8psychic force1' or some personal      
#8ism4' ,for many purposes it would be  
unjust to group together such  various  
systems1 which in the nature of things  
must include sinner  and saint1 the     
misguided sincere1 the half-believers   
who think #8there  may be something in  
it1' or #8that it is worth a trial1'    
along with  scheming quacks and adepts  

in commercial fraud4 ,they illustrate   
the  many and various roads traveled in 
the search for health by pilgrims  who  
are dissatisfied with the highways over 
which medical science goes  its steady1 
though it may be1 uncertain gait4 ,among
 them there is both  plausible          
exaggeration and ignorant perversion and
 dishonest libel  of the relations that 
bind together body and mind4 ,among the 
several  schisms from the ,mother       
,church of ,christian ,science there is 
one that  claims to be the #8rational   
phase of the mental healing doctrine1'  
that  acknowledges the reality of       
disease and the incurability of serious 
organic disorders and resents any       
connection with the 8half-fanatical     
personality worship0 of ,mrs4 ,eddy as  
quite as foreign to its tenets  as would
 be the views of the #8,free ,religious 
,association' to the  #8,pope of ,rome4'
 #8,divine ,healing' exhibits its       
success in one notable  instance1 in the
 establishment of a school and college1 

a bank1 a land  and investment          
association1 a printing and publishing  
office and sundry  ,divine ,healing     
,homes2 and this prosperity is now to be
 extended by the  foundation of a city  
or colony of converts who shall be      
united by the  common bond of faith in  
divine healing as transmitted in the    
personal  power of their leader4 ,the   
official organ of this movement         
announces  that the personification of  
their faith 8makes her religion a       
business  and conducts herself upon     
sound business principles40 ,with       
emphatic  protest on the part of each   
that he alone holds the key to          
salvation1  and that his system is quite
 original and unlike any other1 comes   
the  procession of ,metaphysical ,healer
 and ,mind-,curist and ,viticulturist   
and ,magnetic ,healer and ,astrological 
,health ,guide and ,phrenopathist  and  
,medical ,clairvoyant and ,psychic      
,scientist and ,mesmerist and           
,occultist4 ,some use or abuse the      

manipulations of ,hypnotism2 others     
claim the power to concentrate the      
magnetism of the air and to excite  the 
vital fluids by arousing the proper     
mental vibrations1 or by some  equally  
lucid and demonstrable procedure2 some  
advertise magnetic cups  and positive   
and negative powders and absent         
treatment by outputs  of #8psychic      
force' and countless other imposing     
devices4 ,in truth1  they form a motley 
crew1 and with their #8,colleges of     
,fine ,forces' and  #8,psychic ,research
 ,companies1' offering diplomas and     
degrees for a three  weeks' course of   
study or the reading of a book1         
represent the slums  of the occult4 ,an 
account of their methods is likely to be
 of as much  interest to the student of 
fraud as to the student of opinion4     
,there can be no doubt that many of     
these systems have been stimulated  into
 life or into renewed vigor by the      
success of #8,christian ,science'2  this
 is particularly noticeable in the      

introduction of absent  treatment as a  
plank in their diverse platforms4 ,this 
ingenious method  of restoring the      
health of their patients and their own  
exchequers  appealed to all the band of 
healing occultists from ,spiritualist to
  ,vibrationist1 as easily adaptable to 
their several systems4 ,in much the     
same way ,mesmer1 more than a hundred   
years ago1 administered to the  practice
 which had exhausted the capacity of his
 personal attention by  magnetizing     
trees and selling magnetized water4 ,the
 absent treatment  represents the occult
 #8extension movement'2 and unencumbered
 by the  hampering restrictions of      
physical forces1 superior even to       
wireless  telegraphy1 carries its       
influence into the remotest homes4 ,from
 ocean  to ocean and from ,north to     
,south these absent healers set apart   
some  hour of the day when they mentally
 convey their healing word to the       
scattered members of their flock4 ,on   
the payment of a small fee you  are made

 acquainted with the #8soul-communion   
time-table' for your  longitude and may 
know when to meet the healing vibrations
 as they pass  by4 ,others disdain any  
such temporal details and assure a cure 
merely  on payment of the fee2 the      
healer will know sympathetically when   
and  how to transmit the curative       
impulses4 ,poverty and bad habits as    
well  as disease readily succumb to the 
magic of the absent treatment4 ,here  is
 the hysterical edict of one of them3   
#8,join the ,success ,circle4' 444      
8,the ,centre of that ,circle is my     
omnipotent ,,word4 ,daily ,i speak it4  
,its  vibrations radiate more and more  
powerfully day by day4444 ,as the sun   
sends out vibrations 444 so my ,,word   
radiates ,success to #aj1jjj lives as   
easily as to one40    ,it is impossible 
to appreciate fully the extravagances of
 these occult  healers unless one makes 
a sufficient sacrifice of time and      
patience  to read over a considerable   
sample of the periodical publications   

with  which ,american occultism is      
abundantly provided4 ,and when one has  
accomplished this task he is still at   
sea to account for the readers  and     
believers who support these various     
systems so undreamt of in our           
philosophy4 ,it would really seem that  
there is no combination of ideas  too   
absurd to fail entirely of a following4 
,carlyle without special  provocation   
concluded that there were about forty   
million persons in  ,england1 mostly    
fools2 what would have been his comment 
in the face  of this vast array of human
 folly6 ,if it be urged in rejoinder    
that  beneath all this rubbish heap a   
true jewel lies buried1 that the        
wonderful cures and the practical       
success of these various systems        
indicate their dependence upon an       
essential and valuable factor in  the   
cure of disease and the formation of    
habits1 it is possible with  reservation
 to assent and with emphasis to demur4  
,such success1 in  so far as it is      

rightly reported1 exemplifies the truly 
remarkable  function of the mental      
factor in the control of normal as of   
disordered  physiological functions4    
,this truth has been recognized and     
utilized  in unobtrusive ways for many  
generations1 and within recent years has
  received substantial elaboration from 
carefully conducted experiments  and    
observations4 ,specifically the         
therapeutic action of suggestion1  both 
in its more usual forms and as hypnotic 
suggestion1 has shown  to what          
unexpected extent such action may       
proceed in susceptible  individuals4    
,the well-informed and capable physician
 requires no  instruction on this point2
 his medical education furnishes him    
with  the means of determining the      
symptoms of true organic disorder1 of   
functional derangement and of the       
modifications of these under the more   
or less unconscious interference of an  
unfortunate nervous system4 ,it  is     
quite as human for the physician as for 

other mortals to err1 and  there is     
doubtless as wide a range among them as 
among other pursuits1  of ability1 tact 
and insight4 #8,but when all is said and
 done' the  fundamental fact remains    
that the utilization of the mental      
factor in  the alleviation of disease   
will be best administered by those who  
are  specifically trained in the        
knowledge of bodily and mental symptoms 
of  disease4 ,such application of an    
established scientific principle may    
prove to be a jewel of worth in the     
hands of him who knows how to cut  and  
set it4 ,the difference between truth   
and error1 between science  and         
superstition1 between what is beneficent
 to mankind and what is  pernicious1    
frequently lies in the interpretation   
and the spirit as  much as or more than 
in the fact4 ,the utilization of mental 
influences  in health and disease       
becomes the one or the other according  
to the  wisdom and the truth and the    
insight into the real relations of      

things  that guide its application4 ,as 
far removed as chemistry from alchemy1  
as astronomy from astrology1 as the     
doctrine of the localization of         
function in the brain from phrenology1  
as #8animal magnetism' from  hypnotic   
suggestion1 are the crude and perverse  
notions of ,christian  ,scientist or    
,metaphysical ,healer removed from the  
rational application  of the influence  
of the mind over the body4    ,the      
growth and development of the occult    
forms an interesting problem  in the    
psychology of belief4 ,the motives that 
induce the will to  believe in the      
several doctrines that have been passed 
in review are  certainly not more easy  
to detect and to describe than would be 
the  case in reference to the many other
 general problems--philosophical1       
scientific1 religious1 social1 political
 or educational--on which the  right to 
an opinion seems to be regarded as an   
inalienable heritage  of humanity or at 
least of democracy4 ,professor ,james   

tells us that  often 8our faith is faith
 in some one else's faith1 and in the   
greatest  matters this is most the      
case40 ,certainly the waves of          
popularity of  one cult and another     
reflect the potent influence of         
contagion in the  formation of opinion  
and the direction of conduct4 ,when we  
look upon  the popular delusions of the 
past through the achromatic glasses     
which  historical remoteness from       
present conditions enables us to adjust 
to  our eyes1 we marvel that humanity   
could have been so grossly misled1  that
 obvious relations and fallacies could  
have been so stupidly  overlooked1 that 
worthless and prejudiced evidence could 
have been  accepted as sound and        
significant4 ,but the opinions to which 
we incline  are all colored o'er with   
the deep tinge of emotional reality1    
which  is the living expression of our  
interest in them or our inclination     
toward them4 ,what they require is a    
more vigorous infusion of the pale  cast

 of thought2 for the problem of the     
occult and the temptations to  belief   
which it holds out are such as can be   
met only by a vigorous  and critical    
application of a scientific logic4 ,as  
logical acumen  predominates over       
superficial plausibility1 as belief     
comes to be  formed and evidence        
estimated according to its intrinsic    
value rather  than according to its     
emotional acceptability1 the propagandum
 of the  occult will meet with greater  
resistance and aversion4    ,the        
fixation of belief proceeds under the   
influence of both general and  special  
forces2 the formation of a belief is at 
once a personal and a  social           
reaction--a reaction to the evidence    
which recorded and personal  experience 
presents and to the beliefs current in  
our environment1 and  this reaction is  
further modified by the temperament of  
the reagent4  ,and although individual  
beliefs1 however complex1 are neither   
matters  of chance nor are their causes 

altogether past finding out1 yet some of
  their contributing factors are so     
vague and so inaccessible that they  are
 most profitably considered as          
particular results of more or less      
clearly discerned general principles2   
and in many respects there is  more     
valid interest in the general principles
 than in the particular  results4 ,it is
 interesting and it may be profitable to
 investigate why  this area is wooded   
with oak and that with maple1 but it is 
somewhat  idle to speculate why this    
particular tree happens to be a maple   
rather than an oak1 even if it chances  
to stand on our property1 and  to have  
an interest to us beyond all other      
trees4 ,it is this false  concentration 
of the attention to the personal and    
individual result  that is responsible  
for much unwarranted belief in the      
occult4 ,it  is likely that no single   
influence is more potent in this        
direction  than this unfortunate        
over-interest in one's own personality  

and  the consequent demand for a precise
 explanation of one's individual        
experiences4 ,this habit seems to me a  
positive vice1 and ,i am glad to  find  
support in ,professor ,james3 8,the     
chronic belief of mankind that  events  
may happen for the sake of their        
personal significance is an             
abomination40 ,carried over to the field
 of subjective experiences1 this  habit 
sees in coincidences peculiarly         
significant omens and portents1  not    
definitely and superstitiously1 it may  
be1 but sufficiently to  obscure the    
consideration of the experience in any  
other than a  personal light4 ,the      
victim of this habit will remain        
logically unfit  to survive the struggle
 against the occult4 ,only when the     
general  problem is recognized as more  
significant for the guidance of belief  
than the attempted explicit personal    
explanations will these problems  stand 
out in their true relations4 ,it is     
interesting to note that  the partaking 

of mince-pie at evening may induce bad  
dreams1 but it  is hardly profitable to 
speculate deeply why my dream took the  
form  of a leering demon with the       
impolite habit of squatting on my chest4
  ,the stuff that dreams are made of is 
not susceptible of that type of         
analysis4 ,the most generous allowance  
must be made for coincidences  and      
irrelevancies1 and it must be constantly
 remembered that the  obscure phenomena 
of psychology1 and1 indeed1 the         
phenomena of more  thoroughly           
established and intrinsically more      
definite sciences1 cannot  be expected  
to pass the test of detailed and        
concrete combinations  of circumstances4
 ,in other classes of knowledge the     
temptation to  demand such explicit     
explanations of observations and        
experiences is  not so strong because of
 the absence of an equally strong       
personal  interest2 but that clearly    
does not affect the logical status of   
the  problem4 ,the reply to this        

argument ,i can readily anticipate2 and 
,i  confess that my admiration of       
,hamlet is somewhat dulled by reason of 
that ill-advised remark to ,horatio     
about there being more things in  heaven
 and earth than are dreamt of in our    
philosophies4 ,the occultist  always    
seizes upon that citation to refute the 
scientist4 ,he prints  it as his motto  
on his books and journals1 and regards  
it as a slow  poison that will in time  
effect the destruction of the rabble of 
scientists and reveal the truth of his  
own ,psycho-,harmonic ,science  or      
,heliocentric ,astrology4 ,it is one    
thing to be open-minded and to  realize 
the incompleteness of scientific        
knowledge and to appreciate  how often  
what was ignored by one generation has  
become the science  of the next2 and it 
is a very different thing to be         
impressed with  coincidences and dreams 
and premonitions1 and to regard them as 
giving  the keynote to the conceptions  
of nature and reality1 and to look  upon

 science as a misdirected effort4 ,such 
differences of attitude  depend         
frequently upon a difference of         
temperament as well as upon             
intellectual discernment2 the man or the
 woman who flies to the things  not     
dreamt of in our philosophy quite       
commonly does not understand the  things
 which our philosophy very creditably   
accounts for4 ,the two types  of mind   
are different1 and 7,i am again citing  
,professor ,james7 8the                 
scientific-academic mind and the        
feminine-mystical mind shy from each    
other's facts just as they fly from each
 other's temper and spirit40    ,certain
 special influences combine with these  
fundamental differences  of attitude to 
favor the spread of belief in the       
occult2 and of these  the character of  
the beliefs as of the believers furnish 
some evidence4  ,at various stages of   
the discussion ,i have referred to the  
deceptive  nature of the argument by    
analogy2 to the dominating sympathy with

  a conclusion and the resulting        
assimilation and overestimation of      
apparent evidence in its favor2 to the  
frequent failure to understand  that the
 formation of valid opinion and the     
interpretation of evidence  in any field
 of inquiry require somewhat of expert  
training and special  aptitude1         
obviously so in technical matters1 but  
only moderately  less so in matters     
misleadingly regarded as general2 to    
bias and  superstition1 to the weakness 
that bends easily to the influences of  
contagion1 to unfortunate educational   
limitations and perversions and1  not   
the least1 to a defective grounding in  
the nature of scientific  fact and      
proof4 ,the mystery attaching to the    
behavior of the magnet  led ,mesmer to  
call his curative influence #8animal    
magnetism'--a  conception that still    
prevails among latter-day occultists4   
,the  principle of sympathetic          
vibration1 in obedience to which a      
tuning-fork  takes up the vibrations of 

another in unison with it1 is violently 
transferred to imaginary brain          
vibrations and to still more imaginary  
telepathic currents4 ,the ,x-ray and    
wireless telegraphy are certain  to be  
utilized in corroboration of unproven   
modes of mental action1  and will be    
regarded as the key to clairvoyance and 
rapport1 just as  well-known electrical 
phenomena have given rise to the notions
 of  positive and negative temperaments 
and mediumistic polar attraction and    
repulsion4 ,all this results from the   
absurd application of analogies2  for   
analogies even when appropriate are     
little more than suggestive  or at least
 corroborative of relations or          
conceptions which owe their  main       
support to other and more sturdy        
evidence4 ,analogy under careful        
supervision may make a useful           
apprentice1 but endless havoc results   
when the servant plays the part of the  
master4    ,no better illustrations     
could be desired of the effects of      

mental  prepossession and the resulting 
distortion of evidence and of logical   
insight1 than those afforded by         
,spiritualism and ,christian ,science4  
,in  both these movements the           
assimilation of a religious trend has   
been of  inestimable importance to their
 dissemination4 ,surely it is not merely
  or mainly the evidences obtainable in 
the sance chamber1 nor the  irresistible
 accumulation of cures by argument and  
thought-healings1  that account for the 
organized gatherings of ,spiritualists  
and the  costly temples and thriving    
congregations of ,christ ,scientist4 ,it
 is  the presentation of a practical    
doctrine of immortality and of the      
spiritual nature of disease in          
conjunction with an accepted religious  
system1 that is responsible for these   
vast results4 ,the #8,key to the        
,scriptures' has immeasurably reinforced
 the #8,science and ,health1'  and      
brought believers to a new form of      
,christianity who never would  have been

 converted to a new system of medicine  
presented on purely  intellectual       
grounds4 ,rationality is doubtless a    
characteristic  tendency of humanity1   
but logicality is an acquired possession
 and one  by no means firmly established
 in the race at large4 ,so long as we   
are  reproved by the discipline of      
nature and that rather promptly1 we tend
  to act in accordance with the         
established relations of things2 and    
that  is rationality4 ,but the more     
remote connections between antecedent   
and  consequent and the development of  
habits of thought which shall lead to   
reliable conclusions in complex         
situations2 and again1 the ability to   
distinguish between the plausible and   
the true1 the firmness to support       
principle in the face of paradox and    
seeming non-conformity1 to think        
clearly and consistently in the absence 
of the practical reproof of             
nature--that is logicality4 ,it is only 
as the result of a prolonged and        

conscientious training aided by an      
extensive experience and a knowledge  of
 the historical experience of the race1 
that the inherent rational  tendencies  
develop into established logical habits 
and principles of  belief4 ,for many    
this development remains stunted or     
arrested2 and  they continue as children
 of a larger growth1 leaning much on    
others1  rarely venturing abroad alone  
and wisely confining their excursions   
to familiar ground4 ,when they          
unfortunately become possessed with the 
desire to travel1 their lack of         
appreciation of the sights which their  
journeys bring before them gives to     
their reports the same degree of        
reliability and value as attaches to the
 much ridiculed comments of the         
philistine nouveaux riches4    ,for     
these sufficient reasons it is ,utopian 
to look forward to the day  when the    
occult shall have disappeared1 and the  
lion and the lamb shall  feed and grow  
strong on the same nourishment4         

,doubtless new forms and  phases of the 
occult will arise to take the place of  
the old as their  popularity declines2  
and the world will be the more          
interesting and  more characteristically
 a human dwelling-place for containing  
all  sorts and conditions of minds4     
,none the less it is the plain duty and 
privilege of each generation to utilize 
every opportunity to dispel  error and  
superstition1 and to oppose the         
dissemination of irrational  beliefs4   
,it is particularly the obligation of   
the torch-bearers of  science to        
illuminate the path of progress and to  
transmit the light  to their successors 
with undiminished power and brilliancy2 
this flame  must burn both as a         
beacon-light to guide the wayfarer along
 the  highways of advance and as a      
warning against the will-of-the-wisps   
that shine seductively in the bye-ways4 
,the safest and most efficient  antidote
 to the spread of the pernicious        
tendencies inherent in the  occult lies 

in the cultivation of a wholesome and   
whole-souled interest  in the genuine   
and profitable problems of nature and of
 life1 and  in the cultivation with it  
of a steadfast adherence to common sense
  and to a true logical perspective of  
the significance and value of  things4  
,these qualities1 fortunately for our   
forefathers1 are not the  prerogative of
 the modern2 and1 fortunately for       
posterity1 are likely  to remain        
characteristic of the scientific and    
antagonistic to the  occult4            
,,birds ,,as ,,flying ,,machines4       
,,by ,,frederick ,a4 ,,lucas4      ,from
 the day of ,solomon onward the way of a
 bird in the air has been  a subject of 
general interest1 and the attention     
given to the problem  of aerial         
navigation of late years has caused the 
flight of birds to  be carefully studied
 in the hope that it might throw some   
light on the  subject4 ,there have been 
many conceptions1 not to say            
misconceptions1  regarding the flight of

 birds2 it has been assumed that their  
muscles  exerted a power quite beyond   
that of other animals1 that the air     
sacs of some birds and the hollow bones 
of others gave them a degree  of        
lightness quite unattainable by the use 
of ordinary materials1  while some have 
even gone so far as to suggest the      
presence of some  mysterious power1     
something like ,stockton's negative     
gravity1 whereby  birds could set at    
naught the law of gravitation and rise  
at will like  a balloon4 ,the strength  
of a bird's muscles1 of some birds'     
muscles at  least1 is not to be         
underrated2 a hawk will plant its talons
 in a bird  of nearly its own size and  
weight and bear the victim bodily away1 
and  an osprey will carry a fish for a  
long distance4 ,but a tiger has been    
known to fell a bullock with a single   
blow of the paw1 to carry a man  as a   
cat would carry a rat and to drag an    
,indian buffalo heavier than  himself4  
,on the other hand1 some of the petrels1

 birds which can pass  a day or so on   
the wing with ease1 cannot rise from the
 water after a  hearty meal1 and the    
humming-bird1 unsurpassed in aerial     
evolutions1  may be trapped in a        
spider's web4 ,this shows no great      
power1 and  long ago ,marey found that  
the pulling force of a hawk's great     
breast  muscle1 applied through the     
humerus1 amounted to #a1bih grams per   
square  centimeter1 something like seven
 pounds to the square inch2 not a very  
heavy pull4 ,so it seems fair to assume 
that while the power exerted  by a bird 
is great1 it is very far from marvelous1
 probably far less  in proportion to    
size than the engine of ,maxim's great  
aeroplane1 or  the naphtha motor of     
,professor ,langley1 which weighs less  
than ten  pounds per horse power4 ,we   
may get a fair idea of what this means  
by  remembering that a bald eagle weighs
 from nine to fifteen pounds and  that  
he exerts but a small fraction of a     
horse power4    ,turning to the question

 of the part played by the air sacs it  
may  be said that their value is not    
proved2 some of the fastest birds  get  
along without them1 while birds of the  
most labored flight are  sometimes well 
provided4 ,in birds like the gannet and 
brown pelican  the air sacs and cellular
 tissue about the body undoubtedly serve
 as  buffers to break the shock of a    
headlong plunge into the water from  a  
height of a hundred to a hundred and    
fifty feet4 ,or1 again1 they  equalize  
the internal and external pressure when 
a soaring bird drops  suddenly from a   
great height1 or still more often aid in
 oxygenating  the blood4    ,the hollow 
bones of birds are frequently cited as  
beautiful instances  of providential    
mechanics in building the strongest and 
largest  possible limb with the least   
expenditure of material1 and this is    
largely true4 ,and yet birds like ducks1
 which cleave the air with the  speed of
 an express train1 have the long bones  
filled with marrow or  saturated with   

fat1 while the lumbering hornbill that  
fairly hurtles  over the tree tops has  
one of the most completely pneumatic    
skeletons  imaginable1 permeated with   
air to the very toe tips2 and the       
ungainly  pelican is nearly as well off4
 ,still it is but fair to say that the  
frigate bird and turkey buzzards1       
creatures which are most at ease when   
on the wing1 have extremely light and   
hollow bones1 but comparing one  bird   
with another the paramount importance of
 a pneumatic skeleton to a  bird is not 
as evident as that of a pneumatic tire  
to a bicycle4    ,while it may not be   
easy to disprove ,herr ,gtke's assertion
 that birds  sustain themselves in the  
air by the exercise of some power beyond
 our  own1 it is pretty safe to assume  
that they do not1 and it would seem     
that the burden of proof should lie with
 those who take the affirmative  side of
 the question4    ,if we have nothing to
 learn from birds in the way of building
 an engine  that shall exert great power

 for its size and weight we may still   
have  something to gain in the matter of
 speed1 although here the popular  idea 
is apt to be exaggerated4 ,we often read
 that ducks fly at the rate  of a mile a
 minute1 or that the swallow has a speed
 of two hundred  miles an hour1 but it  
is very difficult to lay hands upon any 
facts  that will sustain these          
assertions4    ,so1 too1 homing pigeons 
are frequently stated to have travelled 
for  long distances at the rate of sixty
 miles an hour1 but some of the         
published records show that one hundred 
and twenty miles in two hours  and a    
quarter is unusually fast traveling1 and
 this is at the rate of  only           
nine-tenths of a mile per minute1 a     
speed not unusual for express  trains4  
,however1 it may be said that actual    
observations show that  ducks do travel 
from forty to fifty miles an hour1 and  
any sportsman  will readily believe that
 under some conditions they attain a    
velocity  of a mile and a quarter a     

minute1 although a confession of faith  
is not  a demonstration of an assured   
fact4    ,so far the lesson taught by   
the bird is that a machine of low power 
may  attain a very considerable speed   
and it remains to be seen if there is   
anything to be learned concerning       
methods of flight4 ,broadly speaking1   
there are two1 possibly three1 distinct 
modes of flight1 by repeated  strokes of
 the wings and by soaring or sailing1   
although we find every  intermediate    
stage between the two1 or combinations  
of flapping and  sailing1 and as a      
matter of fact no bird can entirely     
dispense with  strokes of the wing4     
,the humming-bird represents the        
perfection of one method1 the frigate   
bird of the other1 and in his own line  
each is unrivaled4 ,these two  modes of 
flight are associated with equally      
distinct modifications  of structure1   
and just as we have every intermediate  
state of flight  between flapping and   
soaring so the two structural extremes  

are merged  into one another4 ,the      
humming-bird flies as the ,irishman     
played the  fiddle1 by main strength1   
the frigate bird relies on his skill in 
taking advantage of every varying       
current of air1 and the skeleton of  the
 one indicates great muscular power     
while that of the other shows  its      
absence4 ,no other bird has such        
proportionately great muscles as  the   
humming-bird1 the keel of the sternum or
 breast bone from which  these muscles  
arise runs from one end of the body to  
the other while  at the same time it    
projects downward like the keel of a    
modern racing  yacht4 ,these muscles    
drive at the rate of several hundred    
strokes a  minute a pair of small1 rigid
 wings1 the outermost bones of which are
  very long while the innermost are very
 short1 a feature calculated to  give   
the greatest amount of motion at the tip
 of the wing with the  least movement of
 the bones of the upper arm1 to which   
the driving  muscles are attached4      

,another peculiar feature is that the   
outermost  feathers1 the flight feathers
 or primaries1 are long and strong1     
while  the innermost1 those attached to 
the forearm1 are few and weak2 so far   
as flight is concerned the bird could   
dispense with these secondaries  and not
 feel their loss4 ,finally the heart1   
which we may look upon  as the boiler   
that supplies steam for this machinery1 
is large and  powerful1 as is necessary 
for such a high-pressure engine as the  
little humming-bird4 ,it is hardly to   
him that we would look for aid in       
constructing a flying machine1 the      
expenditure of force is too great  for  
the results attained1 the space required
 for boiler and engine  leaves no room  
for carrying freight4    ,as just       
intimated the frigate bird is exactly   
the reverse of his tiny  relative2 the  
body is a mere appendage to a pair of   
wings1 while the  breast muscles are so 
small as to show at a glance that of all
 flying  creatures the frigate bird is  

the one which has most successfully     
solved the problem of the conservation  
of energy and can obtain the  greatest  
amount of power with the least          
expenditure of muscle4    ,there is also
 a great difference between the hummer  
and the frigate  bird1 or between       
flapping and sailing birds generally1 in
 the  complexity of what may be termed  
the muscles of adjustment1 the little   
muscles that run from the shoulder to   
the elbow and forearm and1 among  other 
duties1 are concerned in keeping free   
from wrinkles that portion  of the wing 
which lies between the shoulder and the 
wrist1 forming a  triangular flap with  
the base forming the front edge of the  
wing and  the apex lying in the elbow   
joint4    ,the wing of the frigate bird1
 too1 is quite the opposite of that of  
the hummer1 for it is the inner portion 
of the wing1 the upper arm and  forearm1
 which is elongated1 and instead of the 
six feeble secondaries  of the          
humming-bird there are no less than     

twenty-four2 instead of  a short1 stiff1
 rounded wing we have one that is long1 
flexible and  pointed4 ,instead of a    
wing driven at the rate of several      
hundred  strokes a minute there is a    
wing that may be held outstretched and  
apparently motionless for minutes at a  
time1 the muscles of the frigate  bird  
being almost as constantly in repose as 
those of the other are  perpetually in  
motion4    ,if the frigate bird         
represents the highest type of soaring  
flight  two more familiar birds1 the    
turkey buzzard and albatross1 are not   
far behind1 and these represent two     
methods of sailing flight and  two      
distinct modifications in the type of   
wings4 ,the albatross is  continually on
 the move1 ever quartering the water as 
a well-trained  setter does the ground1 
and yet with all this movement rarely   
mounting  higher than fifty feet above  
the water and never wheeling in great   
circles in mid-air4 ,this bird has that 
type of wing which best fulfills  the   

conditions necessary for an aeroplane1  
being long and narrow1  so that while a 
fully grown albatross may spread from   
ten to twelve  feet from tip to tip1    
this wing is not more than nine inches  
wide4  ,this spread of wing1 like that  
of the frigate bird1 is gained by the   
elongation of the inner bones of the    
wing and by increasing the number  of   
secondaries1 there being about forty of 
these feathers in the wing  of the      
albatross4    ,the turkey buzzard is    
emphatically a high flyer1 wheeling     
slowly about1  half a mile or a mile    
above the earth1 while his cousin1 the  
condor1 so  ,humboldt tells us1 has been
 seen above the summit of ,chimborazo4  
,if any  bird knows how to utilize every
 breath of wind to the utmost that bird 
is the albatross1 and it is equally a   
delight and a marvel to see this  bird  
apparently setting at naught all natural
 laws as he sails with  outstretched    
pinions almost into the eye of the wind 
or hangs just off  the lee quarter of a 

ship reeling off ten or twelve knots an 
hour4 ,in  this last trick1 however1 the
 gull is almost equally expert1         
evidently  making use of the draft from 
the sails as well as of the eddies      
caused  by the passage of the vessel4   
,it has long been evident that if man is
 to navigate the air it must  be done   
after the method of the albatross rather
 than that of the  humming-bird1 by the 
aeroplane and not by any device to      
imitate the  strokes of a bird's wings1 
for not only do the largest birds and   
those of the longest flight for the most
 part sail or soar1 but it  is apparent 
that the limit of size in a vibrating   
wing must soon be  reached1 since in a  
strong wind with its varying eddies it  
would be  quite out of the question to  
manipulate such a piece of mechanism4   
,but in spite of the fact that sailing  
flight calls for the exercise  of       
comparatively little muscular power1 the
 structure of the  skeleton suggests    
that the wing of a soaring or sailing   

bird needs a  particularly strong point 
of support1 for birds which sail or soar
 have  the bones which sustain the      
direct pull of the wing strengthened or 
braced as other birds do not4 ,the      
shoulder joint of a bird is formed  by  
the shoulder blade and coracoid1 this   
last being the bone which is  attached  
to the breast bone and on which comes   
the direct pull of the  wing1 and in    
front of the coracoids1 running         
downwards towards the  sternum1 is the  
wishbone or furcula1 corresponding to   
our collar bones  or clavicles4 ,it is  
evident that the greater the length of  
the coracoid  the less able would it be 
to resist the strain brought upon it1   
and it  is also evident that the        
simultaneous downward stroke of the     
wings must  have a tendency to force the
 coracoids inwards1 or towards one      
another4  ,obviously the greater the    
strain the greater the need of          
strengthening  or bracing the coracoid  
to resist it1 and there are in the      

shoulder  girdle of a bird various      
devices looking towards this end4 ,in   
some  birds1 the albatross1 for example1
 the coracoid is short and stout1  while
 in others extra bracing is obtained    
from the wishbone4    ,in the           
humming-bird the wishbone is light and  
weak and so short that it  does not come
 near the sternum2 the pigeon1 a bird of
 powerful flight1  is little better off1
 for the wishbone is so long and slender
 that it  does little or nothing towards
 strengthening the shoulder joint1 and  
in both these birds which fly by rapid  
wing strokes the entire pull  of the    
wing is taken by the coracoid4 ,in the  
frigate bird1 on the  contrary1 the     
wishbone is not only strong1 but it     
rests upon and is  firmly soldered to   
the breastbone1 while at its upper end  
it fuses with  the coracoid1 thus making
 the firmest possible support to the    
wing4 ,the  cranes1 which soar well1    
also have the wishbone united with      
sternum1  and in the albatrosses and    

petrels the wishbone touches the        
breastbone  and is so curved forward as 
to gain strength in this way while1 as  
previously noted1 the strength of the   
coracoid is increased by its  shortness4
 ,the turkey buzzard and birds of prey1 
some of which both  soar and flap1 have 
the wishbone strengthened by having more
 material  added to make the furcula    
thick and strong while at the same time 
it is  shaped like a wide ,u instead of 
a ,v4    ,either there is more force    
exerted in sailing than is at first     
sight  apparent or else extra strength  
is called for in making sudden turns1   
or when it becomes necessary1 as it does
 more or less frequently1 to  take a    
sudden wing stroke4 ,as wings are levers
 of the third order the  longer the wing
 the more force is required to move it  
and more strength  is needed at the     
fulcrum or shoulder joint1 and since    
sailing birds  have long wings the need 
of strength is evident4    ,neither     
birds nor any creatures that live or    

have lived afford us any  criterion as  
to the limit of size that must be placed
 on an aeroplane4  ,the largest of      
whales is weak and insignificant beside 
an ocean liner1  and the condor and     
albatross1 with their spread of ten or  
twelve feet  and weight of ten to twenty
 pounds1 tell us nothing of what may be 
the  possibilities of size and weight4  
,among the various problems confronting 
the would-be navigator of the  air is   
that of at times making headway against 
a medium moving at the  rate of ten1    
twenty1 or thirty miles an hour1        
sometimes even more1 a  difficulty that 
neither locomotive nor steamer is called
 upon to meet4  ,true1 an aeroplane     
would1 to use a technical term1 probably
 lie within  two and one-half points of 
the wind and could thus advantageously  
beat  to windward1 but any deviation    
from a straight course means loss of    
time1 and nowadays time is everything4  
,the mode of propulsion may be1         
undoubtedly will be1 as entirely        

different from a wing as the propeller  
is unlike the tail of a fish1  and as   
the study of fish has thrown little or  
no light on the problems  of the proper 
form or best motor for a ship1 it is    
doubtful if the  study of birds will do 
more for the aerodrome4 ,nor does it    
seem likely  that a study of the bird   
will suggest any new devices in the way 
of  joints1 braces1 or rudders1 for what
 must be discouraging to those  engaged 
in solving the problems of flight is the
 utter inadequacy of  the bird's wing1  
from a mechanical standpoint1 for the   
work it is  called upon to do1 for in   
all its articulations there is a freedom
  of movement1 an amount of play that   
would be inadmissible in any  machine4  
,the shoulder1 elbow and wrist joints   
are but loose affairs1  depending for   
their efficiency on the pull of the     
muscles2 subtract  the element of life  
from the wing of a bird and it becomes  
at once  limp and useless4 ,and herein  
is the key to the bird's success as a   

flying machine2 it has life1 and while  
the wing may reveal certain  principles 
of balancing1 it cannot teach us all the
 art1 for it is  done instinctively4    
,the bird has back of it untold ages of 
experience  and its actions during      
flight demand no thought2 the muscles   
respond  instinctively to each change in
 the pressure and direction of the wind1
  and the bird need take no thought as  
to how it shall fly4    ,mr4 ,chanute   
has taken the greatest step yet made    
towards overcoming  the difficulty of   
responding to changes in the velocity of
 the fickle  air1 but whether or not it 
will be possible to construct apparatus 
that  will not only adjust itself to    
changes in the force of the wind1 but   
to eddies and changes in direction as   
well1 remains to be seen1 the  more that
 it must act not on planes six feet in  
length1 but on surfaces  infinitely     
larger4 ,the proper method of           
constructing the wings of an  aeroplane 
so as to insure stability and utilize   

the power of the wind  to the best      
advantage1 and some hints as to         
balancing and steering are  the main    
assistance that we seem likely to gain  
from a study of the  structure and      
flight of birds4          ,,electric    
,,automobiles4    ,,by ,,wm4 ,,baxter1  
,,jr4      ,as electricity has been so  
successful in the street railway1 where 
it  has superseded all other forms of   
motive power1 it might naturally  be    
supposed that it would do equally well  
in the automobile2 but  when the        
difference in the conditions is taken   
into consideration it  will be found    
that such a conclusion is not justified4
 ,in the street  railway systems the    
cars run continuously over the same     
route1 and on  that account the electric
 current required to operate the motors 
can  be conveyed to them from a central 
power station by means of wires4  ,with 
the automobile the case is very         
different2 the vehicle has no  fixed    
course1 but is required to go           

everywhere1 and the current must  be    
supplied from a source carried by it4   
,if primary batteries could  be made so 
as to furnish electric currents at a low
 cost1 then the  electric carriage would
 be in the same position as those       
operated by  steam or gasoline1 and it  
could go wherever the proper chemicals  
to  renew the battery could be obtained4
 ,but as there are no such primary      
batteries1 the only way in which the    
current can be supplied is by the  use  
of storage batteries1 and these cannot  
give out any more energy  than is put   
into them1 and in practice cannot give  
quite as much4 ,thus  if the capacity of
 the battery is sufficient to run the   
vehicle forty  miles when this distance 
has been traversed the propelling power 
will  be exhausted1 and the batteries   
will have to be recharged before the    
carriage can go any further4 ,if the    
recharging could be done in a few       
minutes1 the storage battery would be as
 good as a primary battery that  would  

generate electricity economically2 but  
as it requires three or  more hours1 the
 electrical vehicle cannot be used for  
long runs1 unless  the user is willing  
to make long stops each time the battery
 has to  be recharged4 ,even then an    
electric vehicle could not go           
everywhere1  for it would be compelled  
to follow routes along which facilities 
for recharging the batteries could be   
found4 ,from this fact it can  be seen  
that the electric automobile carriage   
cannot cover the same  field as the     
steam or the gasoline 7in the present   
state of electrical  development74      
,within the limits to which it is       
applicable1 however1 it  can perform its
 work in the most satisfactory manner1  
and1 in fact1  no possible objection can
 be raised against it4 ,its operation is
  noiseless and vibration of the vehicle
 is impossible4 ,there is no heat  to   
inconvenience the passengers1 no        
disagreeable smell1 no escaping  steam4 
,any desired speed can be obtained1     

although1 of course1 a heavy  delivery  
wagon cannot be used also as a racer4   
,the power can be made  sufficient to   
propel any desired load up any grade1   
including grades  far steeper than any  
to be encountered on streets or         
highways4    ,the only point in which   
the electric vehicle suffers in         
comparison  with the others is in the   
weight4 ,the capacity of a storage      
battery is  proportional to its weight1 
and if it is made light1 the power      
derived  from it will be small or the   
time during which it is furnished will  
be short4 ,to furnish one horse power   
for one hour requires about one  hundred
 pounds of battery1 so that if the      
average consumption of energy  is at the
 rate of two horse power1 one thousand  
pounds of battery will  keep the vehicle
 in motion for five hours4 ,the weight  
of batteries used  in automobiles ranges
 from four or five hundred to about two 
thousand  pounds1 and the distance      
traversed without recharging varies from

  twenty-five to ninety miles1 so that  
the radius of action of electric        
vehicles can be said to vary from about 
twelve to forty-five miles from  the    
charging station4    ,illustration3     
,,fig4 #a4 ,,general ,,arrangement ,,of 
,,an ,,electric ,,carriage4    ,the     
general arrangement of an electric      
carriage can be understood  from ,fig4  
#a4 ,the rectangle shown in broken lines
 at ,a represents  the storage battery4 
,the circle ,b under the seat represents
 the  controlling switch4 ,the motor is 
at ,c and imparts motion to the axle  or
 wheels through the gearing contained in
 the casing ,d4 ,when the  carriage is  
stopped the controller ,b is turned into
 such a position  that all electrical   
connections between the battery and the 
motor ,c  are broken4 ,to start the     
vehicle the controller ,b is turned so  
as to  make the necessary electrical    
connections between the battery ,a and  
the motor ,c1 and then the electric     
current passes from the battery  through

 the controlling switch to the motor1   
and thence back to the  controller and  
the battery4 ,the heavy broken lines    
indicate the path  of the current and   
the arrows show the direction4 ,the     
velocity of the  motor and the speed of 
the carriage are varied by varying the  
strength  of the current1 and this is   
effected by the movement of the         
controlling  switch ,b4 ,there are many 
ways in which the movement of this      
switch  can vary the strength of the    
current1 but an explanation of any one  
of them would be dry and rather         
technical2 hence it is sufficient to    
say that whatever the arrangement of the
 connections of the controller  with the
 other parts of the system1 their       
relation is such that by the  movement  
of the switch handle the speed of the   
motor is changed from  zero to the      
maximum velocity4    ,illustration3     
,,fig4 #b4 ,,double ,,reduction4        
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4 ,,single      
,,reduction4    ,in the majority of     

,american vehicles the motion of the    
motor is  transmitted to the wheels by  
means of spur gearing4 ,in some cases a 
single motor is used1 in others two2 and
 in one or two designs that  have come  
to public notice1 four motors are       
employed1 one for each  wheel of the    
carriage4 ,fig4 #b illustrates what is  
commonly called a  double reduction gear
 for single motor equipment4 ,the       
outline ,a  represents the motor1 ,b    
being the shaft4 ,upon this shaft is    
mounted  a small pinion which meshes    
into a larger wheel on the intermediate 
shaft ,c4 ,this shaft carries a pinion  
which meshes into the wheel ,d  mounted 
upon the axle of the vehicle4    ,fig4  
#c illustrates a single reduction double
 motor equipment1 the  motors being     
located at ,,aa4 ,in this arrangement   
the pinion on the  end of the motor     
shaft meshes directly into a large gear 
secured to  the carriage wheel1 thus    
dispensing with the intermediate shaft  
,c  of the previous figure4 ,the single 

reduction gear is the more simple  in   
construction1 but the motors run at a   
lower velocity1 and on that  account    
must be larger for the same capacity4   
,with the double motor  construction    
each wheel is driven independently and  
the axle ,c1  in ,fig4 #c1 remains      
stationary1 as in any ordinary vehicle2 
but in a  single motor equipment1       
arranged as in ,fig4 #b1 the wheels are 
fastened  to the axle and the latter    
rotates4 ,when a carriage runs round a  
short  curve the outer wheels will      
revolve faster than the inner ones1 if  
free to move independently1 as in ,fig4 
#c4 ,if they are rigidly attached  to   
the axle1 as in ,fig4 #b1 one or the    
other will have to slide over  the      
ground1 and this is decidedly           
objectionable with rubber tires4 ,to    
prevent this slipping of the wheels in  
rounding curves1 the axles1 in  designs 
following the construction of ,fig4 #b1 
are made in two parts1  and the gear ,d 
is arranged so as to drive the two      

halves1 imparting  to each one the      
proper velocity4 ,gear wheels of this   
kind are called  compensating gears2    
they are made in many designs1 but the  
most common  form is that illustrated in
 ,fig4 #d4 ,in this drawing ,a is the   
gear ,d  of ,fig4 #b1 and ,,bb are bevel
 gears which are mounted upon studs ,c1 
which are virtually the spokes of wheel 
,,aa4 ,large bevel gears ,e and  ,f are 
placed on either side of ,a ,e1 being   
secured to ,g1 which  is one-half of the
 axle1 and ,f and ,h1 which is the other
 half4 ,if  the carriage is running in a
 straight line1 the two parts of the    
axle  ,g and ,h will revolve at the same
 velocity and the gears ,,bb will  not  
revolve around the studs ,c1 but in     
rounding a curve one of the  halves of  
the axle will revolve faster than the   
other and then the  gears ,b will rotate
 round the studs ,c4 ,the compensating  
gear is not  a feature peculiar to      
electric vehicles2 it is used on all    
kinds of  automobiles when the          

construction is such as to require it4  
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4 ,,compensating
 ,,gears4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4  
,,single ,,motor ,,equipments4    ,if a 
compensating gear is placed upon the    
axle the latter1 instead of  supporting 
its end of the vehicle1 will itself have
 to be supported1  for as it is cut in  
two at the center1 it has no supporting 
strength4  ,by placing the compensating 
gear on another shaft this difficulty   
can  be overcome4 ,fig4 #e shows the    
construction used by the ,columbia      
,company  in its single motor equipment4
 ,in this arrangement the motor casing  
is  made of sufficient length to reach  
from one side of the vehicle to the     
other4 ,the armature and field magnets  
of the motor1 which are the parts  that 
develop the power1 are located at ,a and
 the compensating gear  is placed at ,b4
 ,the motor armature is mounted upon a  
hollow shaft1  which is connected with  
the compensating gear4 ,the shafts ,d   
and ,c1  upon which are mounted the     

pinions ,e and ,f1 are turned by the    
side wheels of the compensating gear1   
and therefore will run at such          
velocities as the motion of the carriage
 wheels may require4    ,illustration3  
,,fig4 #f4 ,a ,,columbia ,,victoria4    
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4 ,,columbia    
,,vehicle ,,with ,,double ,,motor       
,,equipment4    ,fig4 #f shows a        
,columbia ,victoria provided with a     
single motor equipment  arranged in     
accordance with the diagram1 ,fig4 #e4  
,fig4 #g shows another  ,columbia       
vehicle in which a double motor         
equipment is employed4 ,the  position of
 the motor1 with reference to the       
carriage wheel1 in the  single motor    
design1 is shown in ,fig4 #h4 ,the gear 
attached to the  carriage wheel is used 
also as a brake wheel1 a friction band  
being  located so as to bear against the
 periphery1 while the pinion on the  end
 of the motor shaft meshes into teeth on
 the inner side of the  rim4 ,this      
single motor design is also used in the 

omnibus made by the  ,columbia ,company1
 a number of which are now in regular   
service on ,fifth  avenue1 ,new ,york4  
,these omnibuses1 which are illustrated 
in ,fig4 #i1  seat eight passengers1 and
 are able to carry as many as are       
willing  to crowd into them4 ,one       
feature of the electric motor which fits
 it  admirably for automobile service is
 the fact that for a short time it  can 
put forth an effort far greater than its
 normal capacity1 and it  can do this at
 all times1 without any special         
preparation4 ,owing to  this feature it 
is practically impossible to stall the  
vehicle4 ,if the  wheels run into a rut 
or sink into a mud hole1 the motor will 
be able  to turn them around1 and if    
they do not slip the carriage will be   
moved  ahead4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4  
#h4 ,,position ,,of ,,motor ,,in ,,the  
,,single ,,motor ,,design4    ,the      
management of the vehicle is exceedingly
 simple and entirely free  from care1   
the driver having nothing to tax his    

mind but the steering  lever and the    
handle of the controlling switch4 ,as   
the moving parts  all have a rotatory   
motion and are perfectly balanced1 there
 is no  possibility of vibration1 and   
there is an entire absence of heat or   
disagreeable odors4    ,illustration3   
,,fig4 #i4 ,a ,,columbia ,,omnibus4     
,any one who has observed the action of 
a two-horse team will have  noticed     
that1 unless the pavement is very       
smooth1 the tongue  continually swings  
from side to side1 and occasionally with
 a  considerable amount of violence4 ,it
 will be evident from this fact  that if
 the front axle of an automobile were   
the same as that of a  horse vehicle1   
the driver would have an unpleasant     
task1 to say the  least1 in holding the 
steering lever in position1 and should  
one of  the wheels drop into a rut1 the 
handle would be jerked violently out  of
 his hand and the vehicle would sheer   
off to one side1 possibly  with serious 
results4 ,to avoid this difficulty the  

front wheels of  horseless carriages are
 arranged so as to swing round on a     
center close  to the hub1 if not        
actually within it4 ,the most common    
construction  is illustrated in ,fig4   
#aj1 the first being a view of the axle 
and  wheels as seen from the front1 and 
the second a view from above4 ,on  the  
left-hand side of ,fig4 #aj1 ,a is the  
axle proper1 and ,,bb are  the portions 
upon which the wheels are placed4 ,the  
central part ,a is  held rigidly to the 
body of the vehicle or to the truck     
which carries  it1 and the ends ,,bb are
 swung round the studs ,,pp in a manner 
more  clearly indicated on the          
right-hand side4 ,here the levers ,,cc  
are  shown1 and these extend from the   
side of ,,bb4 ,the right-angle lever  ,e
 is connected with the steering lever ,g
 by means of rod ,f1  hence1 when ,g is 
moved1 rod ,d moves1 and thus levers    
,,cc are  rotated round the studs ,,pp1 
and in that way the supporting studs    
,,bb which carry the wheels are turned4 

,as the studs ,,pp are not  exactly in  
line with the plane passing through the 
center of the rim of  the wheel1 there  
is a slight tendency to jerk the        
steering handle round  when a wheel     
drops into a hole in the pavement1 but  
the leverage of ,b  being very short1   
this tendency is so small as to be      
hardly noticeable4    ,illustration3    
,,fig4 #aj4 ,,arrangement ,,of ,,axles  
,,and ,,wheels4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4
 #aa4 ,,front ,,axle4    ,illustration3 
,,fig4 #ab4 ,,front ,,axle ,,wheels4    
,fig4 #aj illustrates the general       
principle upon which the front axle is  
designed1 but the construction of the   
swivel joints ,p is far more  elaborate1
 as can be seen from ,fig4 #aa1 which   
illustrates the actual  design employed 
in the vehicles just described4 ,looking
 at ,fig4 #i1  it will be noticed that  
the front axle consists of two bars1 one
 of  which runs in a straight line from 
side to side1 while the other is  curved
 with the convex side upward4 ,in ,fig4 

#aa ,b is the end of the  upper curved  
rod and ,c is the lower straight one4   
,these two rods  are secured into the   
casting ,a1 which holds the part ,d upon
 which  the wheel is carried1 ,d being  
the part ,b at the left side of ,fig4   
#aj4 ,the end ,e which is broken off in 
the drawing extends through  the hub of 
the wheel and is provided with ball     
bearings so as to run  without friction4
 ,the upper end ,f1 of ,d1 is arranged  
so as to be  held by a ball bearing1 as 
shown1 against the end of ,j4 ,by means 
of  an adjusting screw ,i at the lower  
end1 the parts are brought into  proper 
position with reference to each other4  
,the shaded portion ,h is  the lever ,c 
at the right side of ,fig4 #aj4    ,the 
left-hand end of ,fig4 #ab shows a      
design for front axle wheels  which is  
one of the many modifications of the    
general arrangement just  described4 ,in
 this construction the wheel swings     
round the stud ,c1  which is placed     
within the hub1 and in a line1 or nearly

 so1 with  the center of the rim4 ,the  
rod ,a is the axle and ,f is the lever  
extending from the inner part of the    
wheel hub by means of which the         
steering is effected4 ,the left-hand    
side of ,fig4 #ab is a view as seen     
from the front and the right-hand side  
shows the device as seen from  above4   
,in this last drawing it will be        
observed that as the lever ,f  is       
attached to the inner portion of the    
wheel hub1 if it is moved to  one side  
or the other of axle ,a1 by pulling or  
pushing on rod ,g1  the wheel will be   
swung round4 ,the advantage of designs  
of this type  is that there is no strain
 whatever brought to bear upon the      
steering  handle1 and the objection is  
that the wheel hub is made much larger  
and  the whole construction is somewhat 
more complicated4    ,illustration3     
,,fig4 #ac4 ,,constructions ,,showing   
,,power ,,applied ,,to ,,front          
,,wheels4    ,the arrangement of the    
front axle1 so as to swing the wheels   

round a  center close to the hub or     
within it1 as described in the foregoing
  paragraphs1 is used on all types of   
automobiles and is not a  distinguishing
 feature of the electric carriage4 ,in  
some of the lighter  vehicles the front 
wheels are held in forks of a design    
substantially  the same as that of the  
front wheel of the ordinary bicycle1 the
 tops  of the forks being connected with
 each other by means of a rod1 as in    
the lower part of ,fig4 #aj1 so as to   
obtain simultaneous movement of the  two
 wheels by the movement of a single     
steering handle4    ,in the majority of 
electric vehicles the power is applied  
to the rear  axle1 but some are made    
with the motors geared to the front     
axle4 ,in  a few of these designs the   
wheels and axle are made the same as in 
an  ordinary carriage1 so as to swing   
round a pivot or king bolt located  at  
the center of the axle and reinforced by
 a fifth wheel4 ,when this  construction
 is used the steering gear is made so as

 to hold the axle  in position more     
firmly than in the other designs2 but   
even with this  assistance the driver   
has a harder task than with the         
independently  swinging wheels4 ,the    
advantage derived from swinging the     
whole axle  is that the carriage can be 
turned round in a very small space1 and 
on  that account the construction is    
well adapted to cabs4    ,several       
arrangements have been devised by means 
of which the power can  be applied to   
the front wheels1 while these may at the
 same time swing  round independent     
centers4 ,one of these constructions is 
illustrated  in ,fig4 #ac1 the first    
drawing presenting the appearance when  
seen from  above1 the second being a    
view from the front4 ,in the first      
diagram  the motor is shown at ,a1 and  
by means of pinion ,b and gear ,c1      
motion is transmitted to the axle1 which
 is shown more clearly in the           
right-hand figure4 ,on the ends of the  
axle are bevel gears ,,ff1 and  these   

mesh into other bevel gears which       
revolve round the vertical  studs ,d4   
,through this train of gearing the bevel
 wheels ,e are  driven1 and these are   
attached to the hubs of the carriage    
wheels4 ,from  the first diagram of     
,fig4 #ac it can be seen at once that   
the gears ,,ee  can swing round ,d in   
either direction without in any way     
interfering  with the transmission of   
motion from gears ,,ff4 ,the levers ,,hh
 are  secured to the sleeves ,,gg which 
swing round the studs ,,dd1 hence1 by   
connecting these with the rod ,j and    
moving the latter to one side or  the   
other by means of the steering handle1  
the wheels are turned in any  direction 
desired4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ad4  
,,krieger ,,coup4    ,while this        
construction renders the carriage as    
easy to steer as those  in which the    
motors are connected with the rear axle1
 it sacrifices  the advantage derived   
from applying the power to the front    
wheels1  namely1 the ability to turn    

round in a small space4    ,another     
design for driving the front wheels     
which allows them to swing  round       
independent pivots1 is shown in ,fig4   
#ad1 which is a coup made  by ,krieger  
in ,france4 ,the power is supplied by   
two motors1 one being  mounted on each  
swivel point4 ,the construction can be  
understood by  considering that in the  
lower part of ,fig4 #ac the motor would 
be  secured to a suitable support at the
 end of the frame ,l1 being held  in    
such a position that the shaft would    
replace pivot ,d and a pinion  mounted  
thereon would gear into wheel ,e4 ,what 
the advantage of this  construction may 
be1 the writer is not able to point out2
 it certainly  shows1 however1 that     
there are many ways in which the object 
sought may  be accomplished4            
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ae4 ,,jenatzy    
,,dog-,,phaeton4    ,american           
manufacturers of electric vehicles1 at  
least the great  majority of them1      
resort to spur-gearing to transmit the  

motion of the  motor to the driving     
wheels1 but with the ,french designers  
the chain  and sprocket appears to be in
 great favor4 ,fig4 #ae shows a ,jenatzy
  vehicle 7,french71 in which the chain 
is used4 ,this construction would  not  
be received with favor by ,americans1   
who as a rule desire to  have the       
mechanical part of the apparatus hidden 
from view as much  as possible4 ,in the 
,jenatzy vehicle two chain gears are    
used1 one on  each side of the body1 and
 from the engineering point of view this
  is the most desirable arrangement1 as 
with it the driving wheels are          
independently operated and a            
compensating gear need not be placed    
upon the axle4 ,the ,american designer1 
however1 would in most cases be         
controlled more by the artistic         
appearance and would use a single chain 
which would be placed under the body of 
the carriage1 and thus as much  out of  
sight as possible4    ,fig4 #af shows an
 ,english design of electric dog cart4  

,the mechanism  consists of a single    
motor which is connected with the axle  
by means of  spur gearing1 this being so
 arranged that several different speeds 
can  be obtained for the vehicle with   
the same velocity for the motor4 ,to    
obtain variable speeds by means of      
gearing it is necessary to introduce  a 
considerable amount of complication1 and
 in this country the opinion  of most   
designers appears to be that the gain   
effected thereby is  not sufficient to  
compensate for the increased            
complication1 and  differential speed   
gearing is not often used4              
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #af4 ,,the        
,,electric ,,motive ,,power ,,company',s
 ,,dog ,,cart4    ,a comparison of      
,figs4 #ad and #af with #f and #i will  
clearly show that in  so far as artistic
 effect is concerned1 our manufacturers 
of electric  vehicles have little to    
learn from ,europeans1 although the     
industry  here is much younger than     
abroad4 ,as to the operative merits1 all

 that  can be said is that the ,american
 carriages run so well and possess such 
endurance that it is probable that they 
are not second to any in these          
respects4          ,,the ,,human ,,body 
,,as ,,an ,,engine4    ,,by ,,professor 
,e4 ,b4 ,,rosa4      ,there is no more  
interesting subject for scientific      
investigation  than the structure and   
operation1 the anatomy and physiology of
 the  human body4 ,that it is an        
amazingly complex and delicate          
mechanism1  performing a multitude of   
functions in a wonderfully perfect      
manner1  is1 of course1 an old story4   
,that in the assimilation of its        
nourishment and in the growth and repair
 of its tissue the body obeys  the laws 
of chemistry has long been understood4  
,but that the body  obeys in everything 
the fundamental law of physics1 namely1 
the law  of the conservation of energy1 
has not been so generally recognized4   
,for some years the writer was engaged  
in some investigations upon  this       

subject4,b ,the development of the      
complex apparatus and unique  methods of
 the research required years of patient 
labor and study4 ,one  of the features  
of the apparatus was an air-tight       
chamber1 in which  a man1 as the subject
 of the experiment1 could be confined   
for any  desired period1 eating1        
sleeping1 working and living while under
 minute  observation4 ,the experiments  
usually continued four or five days1 but
  were sometimes prolonged to eight or  
ten days1 and the observations  were    
made and recorded day and night         
continuously for the entire period4     
,b ,the work was done at ,wesleyan      
,university1 in collaboration           
with ,prof4 ,w4 ,o4 ,atwater1 under the 
patronage of the          ,university   
and the ,u4 ,s4 ,department of          
,agriculture4    ,the atmosphere within 
the chamber was maintained sufficiently 
pure  to make a prolonged sojourn within
 its walls entirely comfortable4  ,a    
current of fresh air1 displacing as it  

entered an equal quantity  of air which 
contained the products of respiration1  
was maintained  continuously4 ,the      
respired air was analyzed and measured1 
and the  products of respiration from   
lungs and skin accurately determined4   
,the ventilating air current was        
maintained by a pair of measuring  air  
pumps1 driven by an electric motor4 ,the
 air was dried1 both  before entering   
and after leaving the chamber by        
freezing out its  moisture4 ,this was   
done by passing it through a            
refrigerator where its  temperature was 
reduced far below the freezing point4   
,the refrigerator  was operated by an   
ammonia machine1 driven by an electric  
motor4 ,the  quantity of air was        
automatically recorded by the pumps4    
,the chamber was so constructed and     
fitted with electrical and other        
devices as to afford the means of       
measuring the quantity of heat which    
the subject of the experiment gave off  
from his body4 ,and in order to  keep   

the temperature of the room constant    
this heat was absorbed and  carried away
 by a stream of cold water1 the latter  
flowing through a  series of copper     
pipes within the chamber1 and coming out
 considerably  warmer than it entered4  
,so delicate were the regulating devices
 that  the temperature could be         
maintained constant1 hour after hour1 to
  within one or two hundredths of a     
degree4 ,in some cases the man under    
investigation worked regularly eight    
hours a day1 the work done being        
measured by apparatus designed for the  
purpose4    ,food and drink were passed 
into the chamber three times a day      
through  an air-tight trap4 ,both were  
accurately weighed1 their temperature   
recorded and samples reserved for       
chemical analysis4 ,solid and liquid    
excreta were likewise weighed and       
analyzed4 ,the observations1 analyses   
and computations of a single experiment 
thus involved a vast amount of  labor   
and expense1 which was only justified by

 the importance of the  question under  
investigation4 ,in order to be able to  
understand just  what this question is1 
let us see what is meant by the         
conservation of  matter and energy in   
the physical world4    ,the             
impossibility of creating or destroying 
matter is very generally  recognized4   
,its forms or properties may be altered1
 chemical and  physical changes may be  
effected1 it may1 indeed1 vanish from   
sight1  but its quantity remains        
unchanged4 ,thus ice may turn to water  
and  water to invisible steam1 but the  
total quantity or mass of the  substance
 remains constant2 and if by            
refrigeration the steam be  brought to  
the condition of ice again1 there will  
be precisely the same  amount as before4
 ,these are physical changes and are    
easily effected4  ,we simply apply heat 
to melt the ice and then more heat to   
vaporize the  water4 ,conversely1       
withdrawing heat will condense the vapor
 to water1  when a further subtraction  

of heat will change the water into ice4 
,again1 wood disappears when burned and 
seems to be destroyed4 ,and yet  we know
 that the weight of the resulting smoke 
and ashes is exactly  equal to that of  
the wood4 ,the matter has been changed  
in form and  composition1 but its mass  
cannot be altered4 ,it is not so easy to
 bring  the smoke and ashes into        
combination again and so restore the    
matter to  its original form as in the  
case of ice and steam4 ,but this is done
 by  nature4 ,ashes go to the soil1     
smoke into the atmosphere4 ,the forces  
of  nature bring these elements together
 again in plant and tree1 and so  it    
comes about that the materials resulting
 from the burning of wood  again become 
wood1 and over and over again the cycle 
is repeated as  time rolls on4 ,many    
other examples might be cited to show   
what is meant  by the indestructibility 
of matter1 or the conservation of       
matter2 but  these will suffice to show 
that the one essential fact is that the 

matter or stuff of a body cannot be     
destroyed4    ,although matter is       
protean and its transformations         
limitless1 there  are certain changes   
which cannot be made4 ,iron cannot be   
turned into  silver1 nor silver into    
gold1 nor oxygen into nitrogen4 ,there  
appear to  be indeed about seventy or   
eighty distinct kinds of matter1 and so 
far  as we know one cannot be converted 
into another4 ,they may be united in    
countless combinations1 but each is     
itself not only indestructible but      
unchangeable4 ,why this is so is an     
interesting subject of speculation4  ,we
 do not positively know4    ,that energy
 is also something which cannot be      
created or destroyed is  not so         
generally recognized4 ,transformations  
of energy from one form  to another are 
constantly occurring before our very    
eyes2 and yet we  seldom stop to think  
what the conservation of energy means in
 any given  case4 ,energy itself is     
often defined as that which has the     

capacity for  doing work1 and work is   
done when force or resistance is        
overcome4 ,a  hod carrier does work     
when1 overcoming the force of gravity   
upon his  body and his hod of brick1 he 
climbs to the top of a ladder2 and the  
work done is a measure of the energy    
expended4 ,energy stored up in his  body
 has been transferred to the brick in   
their elevated position1 and  if they   
are allowed to fall to the ground their 
energy is turned into  heat1 developed  
by their impact upon the ground4 ,again1
 work is done  by a windmill in pumping 
water up into an elevated reservoir1 and
 the  so-called #8potential' energy     
which the water possesses in its        
elevated  position has all been         
transferred to the water from the wind  
which  drove the mill4 ,if the water be 
allowed to flow down to the ground      
again through a water motor the latter  
could drive machinery and so do  work2  
and the work it could do plus the heat  
produced by friction would  exactly     

equal the work done in pumping the water
 up to its elevated  position4 ,thus is 
the energy conserved1 and not destroyed4
 ,more or less  of it is dissipated by  
friction1 and lost1 so far as useful    
effect may  go4 ,but it all remains in  
existence1 somewhere4    ,again1 coal is
 burned under the boiler of a steam     
engine4 ,heat is  produced1 steam is    
generated1 the engine does work4 ,the   
coal possessed  a store of energy1      
potentially4 ,that is1 the coal had the 
capacity of  uniting with the oxygen of 
the air and setting free a store of     
energy4  ,this energy1 potential or     
latent in the coal1 becomes kinetic and 
evident in the heat of the boiler and   
the work of the engine4 ,moreover1  the 
work done by the engine added to the    
heat given off by the boiler  and engine
 is exactly equal to the total store of 
energy possessed by  the coal4 ,and if  
from a store of energy1 either in the   
body of a man or  horse1 or in a pile of
 wood or coal1 a certain portion is     

expended in  doing work1 the amount     
remaining is exactly the difference     
between that  expended and the original 
amount4 ,in short1 energy can be        
measured1  stored up and expended1 just 
as truly as merchandise or money4       
,thus the conservation of energy means  
that energy cannot be created  or       
destroyed2 but it may be transferred    
from one body to another or  transformed
 from one form to another4 ,heat may be 
converted into work  and work into heat4
 ,the chemical energy of a zinc rod may 
be expended  to generate an electric    
current1 and the latter passing through 
a coil  of wire or the filament of a    
lamp gives up its energy to produce heat
  and light4 ,the last form of this     
energy is equal in quantity to the      
first4    ,niagara represents a vast    
store of energy4 ,millions of tons of   
water  falling #afj feet could do a vast
 amount of mechanical work if properly  
applied through water wheels4 ,more than
 #ej1jjj horse power of useful  work is 

actually derived from ,niagara's waters1
 but this is only a  small fraction of  
the total4 ,the energy is1 however1     
given up in  falling1 even though no    
useful work is done4 ,in fact1 the water
 is  slightly heated by the impact1 and 
the amount of heat produced is  exactly 
equivalent to the mechanical energy lost
 by the water4    ,a cannon ball        
receives a large amount of kinetic      
energy from the  exploded powder as it  
leaves the muzzle of a great gun4 ,if it
 be  suddenly stopped by a rigid target 
its mechanical or mass energy is at     
once converted into heat2 that is1 into 
the vibratory motion of the  molecules4 
,ball and target are highly heated4     
,indeed1 lead bullets are  often melted 
by the heat of impact4 ,meteors flying  
through space come  into our atmosphere 
and their speed is checked by its       
resistance4 ,part  or all of their      
kinetic energy is thus converted into   
heat4 ,both air  and meteor are heated2 
heated to so high a temperature that the

 meteor  becomes brilliantly luminous1  
and we call it a shooting star4 ,the    
idea  of heat due to frictional         
resistance is common enough4 ,the exact 
equivalence between the mechanical      
energy lost and the heat produced  is   
the thing to be especially noticed here4
    ,let us now take as a final example 
a locomotive engine4 ,it takes on a     
store of fuel and water and1 directed by
 its engineer1 sets out for  a day's    
duty4 ,the coal to be burned possesses a
 definite amount of  energy4 ,let us say
 every pound has one unit of energy1 and
 suppose  #e1jjj pounds of coal are     
taken4 ,what becomes of these #e1jjj    
units of  energy1 appearing as heat when
 the coal is burned8    #a4 ,a large    
amount of heat is required to keep the  
boiler and engine  hot1 due to the loss 
of heat to the atmosphere4 ,the engine  
cylinders1  as well as fire box and     
boiler1 must be kept very hot2 other    
parts of  the engine become more or less
 heated4 ,all parts therefore           

continually  give off heat1 and a large 
part of the heat produced by the burning
  coal is thus expended4    #b4 ,a      
second portion is expended in doing     
work4 ,if our locomotive  hauls a       
#ejj-ton train up a one-per cent4 grade 
for #ajj miles it would  be doing       
#b1fdj1jjj foot-tons of work in addition
 to that required  to overcome the      
friction of the rails and the resistance
 of the  atmosphere4 ,this would require
 nearly #ejj units of energy which would
  come from the heat of the coal4 ,the  
work is done through the agency  of     
steam1 but the energy of the steam comes
 from the burning coal4 ,a  small amount
 of work is also done in pumping water  
from the tank on  the tender into the   
boiler and in pumping air into the      
reservoir for  the use of the air       
brakes4 ,this may be called the internal
 work of the  engine4 ,a second portion 
of the heat is therefore expended in    
internal  and external work4    #c4 ,the
 steam after expanding in the cylinders 

of the engine escapes  into the         
atmosphere4 ,although it has been cooled
 somewhat by expansion1  it is still    
hot1 and carries a large amount of heat 
away with it4  ,moreover1 the smoke and 
hot air which pass out through the      
smokestack  carry away a large quantity 
of heat4 ,hot ashes likewise carry away 
heat4 ,hence a third portion of heat is 
lost through smoke and steam and  ashes4
 ,and this is the largest portion of the
 total quantity of heat  generated by   
the burning coal4    ,when coal is      
burned1 oxygen of the air unites        
chemically with the  carbon and hydrogen
 of the coal to form carbonic acid1 or  
carbon  dioxid1 as it is technically    
called1 and water vapor4 ,the           
incombustible  mineral matter of the    
coal remains as ashes4 ,hence smoke     
contains  carbonic acid gas and water   
vapor in addition to fine particles of  
unburned coal carried away in the draft 
of air4    ,when the grade is steep a   
great deal of work must be done by the  

locomotive1 much steam is required1 and 
the quantity of fuel burned is  large in
 proportion4 ,when the road is level    
fuel burns less rapidly1  and when the  
train stops1 still more slowly4 ,at     
night the locomotive  rests1 fires are  
banked and combustion is very slow4     
,this process so  briefly and           
incompletely sketched1 is more          
interesting as one examines  it closer1 
and a locomotive seems almost living    
when one considers  minutely its        
wonderful performance4    ,but          
interesting and instructive though the  
operation of the locomotive  may be1 it 
is not for its own sake that ,i have    
mentioned it4 ,it  is rather in order to
 point out a remarkable parallel between
 its  operation and that of a human     
body4 ,a parallel1 indeed1 between the  
operation of a complex inanimate engine 
of iron and steel1 and a still  more    
complex living engine of flesh and bone 
and blood2 both obeying  the law of the 
conservation of energy1 as well as the  

other laws of  physics and chemistry4   
,consider now a human body as a living  
engine4 ,that man is more than  matter  
is1 of course1 conceded4 ,but we here   
regard only the animal  body1 guided by 
the brain as its engineer4 ,the day     
begins1 as with  the locomotive1 by     
taking a store of fuel and water1       
namely1 food  and drink4 ,food is not1  
however1 burned in the body in a        
confined  receptacle1 like coal in the  
fire box of an engine1 but is digested1 
assimilated and distributed through the 
body by means of the  circulating blood4
 ,and while some of it goes to repair   
bodily waste1  becoming tissue1 other   
portions are oxidized or burned to      
produce  heat4 ,non-digestible parts of 
the food pass away from the body as     
refuse1 like ashes from the fire box of 
the engine4 ,that the body  fat and     
muscular tissue are also burned1        
producing heat1 is literally  true4 ,a  
hibernating animal keeps his body warm  
all winter by burning  up his autumnal  

store of body fat4 ,even a well-fed body
 is constantly  wearing away1 or burning
 away1 and hence requires constant      
repair4  ,thus we see two distinct      
functions for food1 which should be     
carefully  distinguished4    ,in the    
first place1 as already indicated1 food 
repairs waste and builds  up the body4  
,it makes blood1 bone and muscular      
tissue4 ,herein we see a  departure from
 the parallel with the steam engine4 ,a 
locomotive is a  machine which runs in a
 way determined by its builder4 ,but it 
cannot  grow nor repair wear and tear4  
,it requires a whole machine shop plus  
skilful mechanics to do that4 ,the body1
 on the other hand1 not only  runs like 
a complex mechanism when supplied with  
energy1 but also  builds itself up and  
repairs waste4 ,we express this by      
saying that it  possesses vital force or
 life1 but in just what vital force     
consists  is a matter of speculation and
 controversy4 ,the raw material which is
  employed in this work of repairing and

 building up is found in the  food4 ,but
 not all food can be so utilized4 ,only 
those materials which  contain nitrogen1
 the so-called proteids1 as lean meat1  
the casein of  milk and gluten of wheat1
 can be made use of in this most        
important  work of growth and repair4   
,in the second place1 food is the fuel  
of the body and is just as truly  burned
 as is coal in a furnace4 ,moreover1 the
 quantity of heat which  a piece of meat
 or a slice of bread yields when burned 
in the body is  just the same as if it  
had been burned in a stove4 ,complete   
combustion  yields a definite amount of 
heat wherever and whatever may be the   
place  and manner of burning4 ,any kind 
of food may serve as fuel for the body1 
but those which consist mainly of sugar1
 starch and fat1 which contain  no      
nitrogen and so cannot build up the     
body1 are used chiefly as fuel4  ,these 
fuel foods form the bulk of our daily   
ration1 comparatively  little being     
required for purposes of growth and     

repair4    ,we are hearing a good deal  
recently about alcohol as a food4 ,when 
it is  remembered that alcohol contains 
no nitrogen it will be seen that it     
cannot serve the first function of food1
 namely1 the purpose of growth  and     
repair4 ,it can1 however1 serve as fuel 
food1 for when taken into  the body in  
small quantities it is assimilated and  
burned up1 producing  the same amount of
 heat as if burned in a lamp4 ,in       
sickness this may be  beneficial1 at    
times when the body cannot assimilate   
other foods4 ,but  the injurious effects
 of alcohol upon the digestive and      
nervous systems  are so important and   
far-reaching that its value as a fuel   
food sinks  into insignificance in      
comparison4    ,the process of          
combustion or burning in the fire box of
 our locomotive  consists1 as has been  
said1 in oxygen of the air uniting with 
the  carbon and hydrogen of the coal1   
forming carbonic acid and water1 and    
setting free a definite quantity of heat

 for every pound of fuel so  burned4    
,so1 in exactly the same way1 oxygen1   
which has been taken up by  the blood   
from the air in the lungs1 unites with  
carbon and hydrogen  in the tissues of  
the body and forms carbonic acid and    
water1 yielding  precisely the same     
amount of heat as though the combustion 
had occurred  in a furnace4 ,this idea  
of food1 that it is literally fuel1 is a
 very  suggestive one4 ,and as fuels    
differ in the quantity of ash contained 
and the amount of heat produced1 so food
 materials differ in the  quantity of   
undigestible residue and in their       
heat-producing power4    ,remembering   
the analogy of the steam engine1 let us 
now inquire what  becomes of the energy 
supplied to the body in the fuel foods  
eaten1  and which is turned into heat by
 this process of combustion constantly  
going on4    #a4 ,a large amount of heat
 is constantly being expended in keeping
 the  body warm4 ,like the locomotive1  
the body is warmer than the surrounding 

air1 and is constantly losing heat to   
the atmosphere4 ,unlike the  locomotive1
 however1 the body has a nearly uniform 
temperature  throughout1 namely1 #ih    
degrees ,fahr4 ,the delicate regulation 
of  temperature which is automatically  
maintained in the animal body is one  of
 the wonders of physiology4    #b4 ,a   
second portion of energy is required to 
do the mechanical work of  the body4    
,when a locomotive hauls a loaded train 
up grade1 or steams  up grade alone1 it 
is doing work in proportion to the total
 weight  and the height to which it is  
carried4 ,so when a man walks up hill or
  climbs a ladder he is lifting his body
 against the force of gravity1  and     
hence doing work4 ,if his weight be #bjj
 pounds he is doing twice  as much work 
as though he weighed only #ajj pounds4  
,if a man weighing  #aej pounds climbs  
,bunker ,hill ,monument 7#bbj feet71    
#cc1jjj foot-pounds  of work will then  
be done2 and if he succeeds in making   
the ascent in  one minute1 he would be  

doing work at the rate of one full horse
 power  for that minute4 ,if he climbs a
 mountain two miles high in three hours 
and twelve minutes he would be doing    
work in so lifting his body at  the rate
 of one quarter of a horse power4 ,this 
is1 of course1 a faster  rate of work   
than an average man could maintain4 ,in 
all the functions  of daily life the    
body is necessarily doing some          
mechanical work4 ,even  dressing and    
eating require a certain expenditure of 
energy1 and in  ordinary business and   
manual labor the amount of mechanical   
work done  is considerable4 ,moreover1 a
 large amount of work is done by the    
heart  in pumping the blood through the 
circulatory system1 and by the chest  in
 respiration4 ,this1 then1 the internal 
and external work done1 as in  the      
locomotive1 represents the second       
portion of energy derived from  the food
 eaten4    #c4 ,the warm air1 carbonic  
acid gas and water vapor passing away   
from  the lungs in respiration carry    

with them a large amount of heat4 ,this 
corresponds to the loss of heat in the  
locomotive through the smoke  passing   
out the smokestack1 and in both cases   
the loss is greater when  work is being 
done and less during inaction4 ,the     
refuse products of the  body 7as the    
ashes of the locomotive7 also carry away
 heat4 ,this is the  third portion of   
heat and is a large one4    ,work is    
done in the locomotive by the expanding 
steam in the cylinders  of the engine4  
,the steam is cooled as it expands4     
,hence heat disappears  when work is    
done2 that is1 is converted into        
mechanical energy1 and a  steam engine  
is hence called a heat engine2 an engine
 for converting  heat into work1        
according to the law of the conservation
 of energy4  ,as the pistons are pushed 
to and fro by the tremendous pressure of
  the expanding steam1 the reciprocating
 motion is communicated to  the great   
drivers of the engine by strong arms of 
steel4 ,but how is  work done in the    

body8 ,that is a question of prime      
importance and  of surpassing interest4 
,when muscle contracts and force is     
exerted1  as when the body is lifted or 
an oar is pulled1 muscular tissue 7or   
material stored in muscular tissue7 is  
oxidized2 that is1 burned1 and  heat is 
produced2 yet not as much heat appears  
as would have appeared  on the          
combustion of the same amount of body   
material if no work had  been done4     
,apparently1 then1 heat has been        
converted into work4 ,but we  cannot    
trace the process with the same         
clearness as in the cylinder of  a steam
 engine4 ,whether the potential energy  
of the body material is  directly       
converted into work1 or whether         
combustion first produces heat  and a   
part of this heat is then converted into
 work1 we do not know4 ,in  other words1
 we do not know whether the animal body 
as a machine for  doing mechanical work 
is a heat engine or some other kind of  
engine4  ,this is a fundamental         

question1 as well as a very difficult   
one1 and  to a student of thermodynamics
 and physiology it prompts all sorts of 
speculation4    ,when one tries to      
picture to himself how the potential    
energy of food  or body tissue can be   
directly converted into mechanical work1
 he is  apt to turn to the other        
alternative and imagine that in some way
 the  body is a heat engine4 ,for we    
know that heat results from the         
oxidation  of tissue1 and we also know  
how heat can be converted into          
mechanical  work4 ,but we are at once   
confronted with a difficulty4 ,one of   
the  fundamental laws of thermodynamics 
requires that when heat is converted    
into work there shall be a difference of
 temperature between the source  of heat
 and the place to which the heated      
material employed passes  after doing   
the work4 ,in other words1 in a heat    
engine1 whatever the  mechanism1 there  
must be a fall of temperature1 which is 
greater as the  relative amount of work1

 or efficiency1 is greater4 ,in the     
human body  the efficiency perhaps      
surpasses that of the best steam        
engines2 hence  there should be a fall  
of temperature comparable with that     
between  the boiler and condenser of a  
steam engine4 ,this may be #ajj degrees 
or more1 and we do not know of any such 
difference of temperature in  the body4 
,indeed1 we know1 on the contrary1 that 
the temperature of  the body is         
remarkably uniform1 as already stated4  
,it is possible1  however1 that there   
are molecular differences of large      
amount4 ,in other  words1 if we could   
make an ultra-microscopic survey of     
temperature  in a muscle during         
contraction1 there might be found places
 of high  temperature where combustion  
was occurring1 and all the requirements 
of  a heat engine of molecular          
dimensions fulfilled4 ,but this is a    
matter  of speculation4 ,the process may
 yet be found to be electrical1 or      
something else quite different from that

 of a steam engine4    ,we thus find    
between the animal body and a locomotive
 engine a striking  parallel4 ,in many  
particulars the chemical and physical   
processes going  on in the latter are   
found also in the former4 ,in both1 the 
fundamental  law of the conservation of 
energy is strictly observed4            
,nevertheless1  the animal body         
considered simply as a machine is far   
more complex in  its structure and      
operation than the engine1 and far more 
of mystery  envelops its working4 ,much 
remains for the chemist and physicist   
and  physiologist to reveal1 and no more
 fascinating field of research  exists4 
,,chapters ,,on ,,the ,,stars4    ,,by  
,,professor ,,simon ,,newcomb1 ,u4 ,s4  
,n4      ,,the ,,spectra ,,of ,,the     
,,stars4    ,the principles on which    
spectrum analysis rests can be stated so
  concisely that ,i shall set them forth
 for the special use of such  readers as
 may not be entirely familiar with the  
subject4 ,every one  knows that when the

 rays of the sun pass through a         
triangular prism  of glass or other     
transparent substance they are unequally
 refracted1  and thus separated into    
rays of different colors4 ,these colors 
are not  distinct1 but each runs into   
the other by insensible gradations1 from
  deep red through orange1 yellow1 green
 and blue to a faint violet4    ,this   
result is due to the fact that the light
 of the sun is composed of  rays of an  
infinite number of wave-lengths1 or1 as 
we might express it1  of an infinite    
number of shades of color1 since to     
every wave-length  corresponds a        
definite shade4 ,such a spreading out of
 elementary  colors in the form of a    
visible sheet is called a spectrum4 ,by 
the  spectrum of an incandescent object 
is meant the spectrum formed by the     
light emitted by the object when passed 
through a refracting prism1  or         
otherwise separated into its elementary 
colors4 ,the interest and  value which  
attach to the study of spectra arise    

from the fact that  different bodies    
give different kinds of spectra1        
according to their  constitution1 their 
temperature and the substances of which 
they are  composed4 ,in this manner it  
is possible1 by a study of the spectrum 
of  a body1 to reach certain inferences 
respecting its constitution4    ,in     
order that such a study should lead to a
 definite conclusion1 we  must recall   
that to each special shade of color     
corresponds a definite  position in the 
spectrum4 ,that is to say1 there is a   
special kind of  light having a certain 
wave-length and therefore a certain     
shade which  will be refracted through a
 certain fixed angle1 and will therefore
  fall into a definite position in the  
spectrum4 ,this position is1 for  every 
possible kind of light1 expressed by a  
number indicating its  wave-length4     
,if we form a spectrum with the light   
emitted by an ordinary  incandescent    
body1 a gaslight for example1 we shall  
find the series of  colors to be        

unbroken from one end of the spectrum to
 the other4 ,that  is to say1 there will
 be light in every part of the spectrum4
 ,such a  spectrum is said to be        
continuous4 ,but if we form the spectrum
 by means  of sunlight1 we shall find   
the spectrum to be crossed by a great   
number  of more or less dark lines4     
,this shows that in the spectrum of the 
sun  light of certain definite          
wave-lengths is wholly or partly        
wanting4  ,this fact has been observed  
for more than a century1 but its true   
significance was not seen until a       
comparatively recent time4    ,if1      
instead of using the light of the sun1  
we form a spectrum with  the light      
emitted by an incandescent gas1 say     
hydrogen made luminous  by the electric 
spark1 we shall find that the spectrum  
consists only  of a limited number of   
separate bright lines1 of various       
colors4 ,this  shows that such a gas1   
instead of emitting light of all        
wave-lengths1  as an incandescent solid 

body does1 principally emits light of   
certain  definite wave-lengths4    ,it  
is also found that if we pass the light 
of a luminous solid through  a          
sufficiently large mass of gas1 cooler  
than the body1 the spectrum1  instead of
 being entirely continuous1 will be     
crossed with dark lines  like that of   
the sun4 ,this shows that light of      
certain wave-lengths is  absorbed by the
 gas4 ,a comparison of these dark lines 
with the bright  lines emitted by an    
incandescent gas led ,kirchhoff to the  
discovery of  the following fundamental 
principle3    ,every gas1 when cold1    
absorbs the same rays of light which it 
emits  when incandescent4    ,an        
immediate inference from this law is    
that the dark lines seen in  the        
spectrum of the sun are caused by the   
passage of the light through  gases     
either existing on the sun or forming   
the atmosphere of the  earth4 ,a second 
inference is that we can determine what 
these gases are  by comparing the       

position of the dark lines with that of 
the bright  lines produced by different 
gases when they are made incandescent4  
,hence arose the possibility of spectrum
 analysis1 a method which has  been     
applied with such success to the study  
of the heavenly bodies4    ,so far as   
the general constitution of bodies is   
concerned1 the canons  of spectrum      
analysis are these3    ,firstly1 when a 
spectrum is formed of distinct bright   
lines1 the light  which forms it is     
emitted by a transparent mass of glowing
 gas4    ,secondly1 when a spectrum is  
entirely continuous the light emanates  
from an incandescent solid1 from a body 
composed of solid particles1  which may 
be ever so small1 or from a mass of     
incandescent gas so large  and dense as 
not to be transparent through and       
through4    ,thirdly1 when the spectrum 
is continuous1 except that it is crossed
  by fine dark lines1 the body emitting 
the light is surrounded by a  gas cooler
 than itself4 ,the chemical constitution

 of this gas can be  determined by the  
position of the lines4    ,fourthly1 if1
 as is frequently the case1 a spectrum  
is composed of an  irregular row of     
bright and shaded portions1 the body is 
a compound  one1 partly gaseous and     
partly solid4    ,it will be seen from  
the preceding statement that1 in        
reality1 a mass  of gas so large as not 
to be transparent cannot be             
distinguished from  a solid4 ,it is     
therefore not strictly correct to say1  
as is sometimes  done1 that an          
incandescent gas always gives a spectrum
 of bright lines4  ,it will give such a 
spectrum only when it is transparent    
through and  through4,c        ,c ,as   
this principle is not universally       
understood1 it may be          well to  
remark that it results immediately from 
,kirchoff's          law of the         
proportionality between the radiating   
and          absorbing powers of all    
bodies for light of each separate       
wave-length4 ,when a body1 even if      

gaseous in form1 is of          such    
great size and density that light of no 
color can          pass entirely through
 it1 then the consequent absorption     
by the body of light of all colors shows
 that throughout          the region    
where the absorption occurs there must  
be an          emission of light of     
these same colors4 ,thus light from all 
parts of the spectrum will be emitted by
 the entire mass4    ,a gaseous mass1 so
 large as to be opaque1 would1 if it    
were of the  same temperature inside and
 out1 give a continuous spectrum1       
without  any dark lines4 ,but the laws  
of temperature in such a mass show that 
it will be cooler at the surface than in
 the interior4 ,this cooler  envelope   
will absorb the rays emanating from the 
interior as in the  case when the latter
 is solid4 ,we conclude1 therefore1 that
 the fact  that the great majority of   
stars show a spectrum like that of the  
sun1 namely1 a continuous one crossed by
 dark lines1 does not throw  any light  

on the question whether the matter      
composing the body of  the star is in a 
solid1 liquid or gaseous state4 ,the    
fact is that  the most plausible        
theories of the constitution of the sun 
lead to  the conclusion that its        
interior mass is really gaseous4 ,only  
the  photosphere may be to a greater or 
less extent solid or liquid4 ,the  dark 
lines that we see in the solar spectrum 
are produced by the  absorption of a    
comparatively thin and cool layer of gas
 resting upon  the photosphere4 ,analogy
 as well as the general similarity of   
the  spectra lead us to believe that the
 constitution of most of the stars  is  
similar to that of the sun4             
,,classification ,,of ,,stellar         
,,spectra4    ,when the spectra of      
thousands of stars were recorded for    
study1 such a  variety was found that   
some system of classification was       
necessary4 ,the  commencement of such a 
system was made by ,secchi in #ahfc4 ,it
 was based  on the observed relation    

between the color of a star and the     
general  character of its spectrum4     
,arranging the stars in a regular       
series1 from blue in tint through  white
 to red1 it was found that the number   
and character of the  spectral lines    
varied in a corresponding way4 ,the blue
 stars1 like  ,sirius1 ,vega and        
,aquil1 though they had the ,f lines    
strong1 as well  as the two violet lines
 ,h1 had otherwise only extremely fine  
lines4  ,on the other hand1 the red     
stars1 like  ,orionis and  ,scorpii1    
show  spectra with several broad bands4 
,secchi was thus led to recognize  three
 types of spectra1 as follows3    ,the  
first type is that of the white or      
slightly blue stars1 like  ,sirius1     
,vega1 ,altair1 ,rigel1 etc4 ,the       
typical spectrum of these stars  shows  
all seven spectral colors1 interrupted  
by four strong1 dark  lines1 one in the 
red1 one in the bluish green1 and the   
two others in  the violet4 ,all four of 
these lines belong to hydrogen4 ,their  

marked  peculiarity is their breadth1   
which tends to show that the absorbing  
layer is of considerable thickness or is
 subjected to a great pressure4         
,besides these broad rays1 fine metallic
 rays are found in the brighter  stars  
of this type4 ,secchi considers that    
this is the most numerous  type of all1 
half the stars which he studied         
belonging to it4    ,illustration3      
,,fig4 #a4 ,,spectrum ,,of ,,sirius4    
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4 ,,spectra ,,of
  ,,aurig ,,and ,,sun4    ,illustration3
 ,,fig4 #c4 ,,spectra ,,of  ,,bootis    
,,and  ,,geminorum4    ,the second type 
is that of the somewhat yellow stars1   
like ,capella1  ,pollux1 ,arcturus1     
,procyon1 etc4 ,the most striking       
feature of the  spectrum of these stars 
is its resemblance to that of our sun4  
,like  the latter1 it is crossed by very
 fine and close black rays4 ,it would   
seem that the more the star inclines    
toward red1 the broader these  rays     
become and the easier it is to          

distinguish them4 ,we give a figure     
showing the remarkable agreement between
 the spectrum of ,capella1 which  may be
 taken as an example of the type1 and   
that of the sun4    ,the spectra of the 
third type1 belonging mostly to the red 
stars1 are  composed of a double system 
of nebulous bands and dark lines4 ,the  
latter are fundamentally the same as in 
the second type1 the broad  nebulous    
bands being an addition to the spectrum4
  ,herculis  may be taken as an example 
of this type4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4  
#g4 ,,spectrum ,,with ,,both ,,bright   
,,and ,,dark ,,lines4    ,it is to be   
remarked that1 in these progressive     
types1 the brilliancy  of the more      
refrangible end of the spectrum         
continually diminishes  relatively to   
that of the red end4 ,to this is due the
 gradations of  color in the stars4     
,to these three types ,secchi           
subsequently added a fourth1 given by   
comparatively few stars of a deep red   
color4 ,the spectra of this class       

consist principally of three bright     
bands1 which are separated by dark      
intervals4 ,the brightest is in the     
green2 a very faint one is in the  blue2
 the third is in the yellow and red1 and
 is divided up into a  number of others4
    ,to these types a fifth was         
subsequently added by ,wolf and ,rayet1 
of  the ,paris ,observatory4 ,the       
spectra of this class show a singular   
mixture of bright lines and dark bands1 
as if three different spectra  were     
combined1 one continuous1 one an        
absorption spectrum1 and one an         
emission spectrum from glowing gas4     
,less than a hundred stars of this  type
 have been discovered4 ,a very          
remarkable peculiarity1 which we  shall 
discuss hereafter1 is that they are     
nearly all situated very near  the      
central line of the ,milky ,way4        
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4 ,,spectra ,,of
  ,,cygni ,,and  ,,tauri4               
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4 ,,spectrum    
,,of  ,,orionis4    ,illustration3      

,,fig4 #f4 ,,spectrum ,,of  ,,cassiopei 
,vogel proposed a modification of       
,secchi's classification1 by            
subdividing each of his three types into
 two or three others1 and  including the
 ,wolf-,rayet stars under the second    
type4 ,his definitions  are as follows3 
,type ,i is distinguished by the        
intensity of the light in the more      
refrangible end of the spectrum1 the    
blue and violet4 ,the type may be       
divided into three subdivisions1        
designated a1 b and c3    ,in ,ia the   
metallic lines are very faint1 while the
 hydrogen lines are  distinguished by   
their breadth and strength4    ,in ,ib  
the hydrogen lines are wanting4    ,in  
,ic the lines of hydrogen and helium    
both show as bright lines4  ,stars      
showing this spectrum are now known as  
helium stars4    ,according to ,vogel1  
the spectra of type ,,ii are            
distinguished by having  the metallic   
lines well-marked and the more          
refrangible end of the  spectrum much   

fainter than in the case of type ,i4 ,he
 recognizes two  subdivisions3    ,in   
,,iia the metallic lines are very       
numerous1 especially in the yellow  and 
green4 ,the hydrogen lines are strong1  
but not so striking as in  ,ia4    ,in  
,,iib are found dark lines1 bright lines
 and faint bands4 ,in this  subdivision 
he includes the ,wolf-,rayet stars1 more
 generally classified  as of the fifth  
type4    ,the distinguishing mark of the
 third type is that1 besides dark lines1
  there are numerous dark bands in all  
parts of the spectrum1 and the  more    
refrangible end of the latter is almost 
wanting4 ,there are two  subdivisions of
 this type3    ,in ,,iiia the broad     
bands nearest the violet end are sharp1 
dark and  well-defined1 while those near
 the red end are ill-defined and faint4 
,in ,,iiib the bands near the red end   
are sharp and well-defined2 those       
toward the violet faint and ill-defined4
 ,the character of the bands is         
therefore the reverse of that in        

subdivision a4    ,this classification  
of ,vogel is still generally followed in
 ,germany  and elsewhere4 ,it is found1 
however1 that there are star spectra  of
 types intermediate to all these        
defined4 ,moreover1 in each type  the   
individual differences are so           
considerable that there is no           
well-defined limit to the number of     
classes that may be recognized4 ,at  the
 ,harvard ,observatory a classification 
quite different from that of  ,vogel has
 been used1 but it is too detailed for  
presentation here4 ,the  stars of type  
,,ii are frequently termed ,capellan    
stars1 or ,solar stars4  ,certain stars 
of type ,i are termed ,orion stars1     
owing to the number  of stars of the    
type found in that constellation4 ,the  
stars which  show the lines of helium   
are known as helium stars4 ,we mention  
these  designations because they        
frequently occur in literature4 ,it     
would1  however1 be outside the object  
of the present work to describe all     

these classifications in detail4 ,we    
therefore confine ourselves to a  few   
illustrations of spectra of the familiar
 types described by ,secchi  and ,vogel4
    ,there are many star spectra which  
cannot be included in any of the        
classes we have described4 ,up to the   
present time these are generally        
described as stars of peculiar spectra4 
,as the present chapter is confined to  
the more general side of the  subject1  
we shall not attempt any description of 
special spectra4  ,these1 especially the
 peculiar spectra of the nebul1 of new  
stars1 of  variable stars1 etc41 will be
 referred to1 so far as necessary1 in   
the  chapters relating to those objects4
    ,the most interesting conclusion    
drawn from observations with the        
spectroscope is that the stars are      
composed1 in the main1 of elements      
similar to those found in our sun4 ,as  
the latter contains most of the         
elements found on the earth and few or  
none not found there1 we may  say that  

earth and stars seem to be all made out 
of like matter4 ,it  is1 however1 not   
yet easy to say that no elements unknown
 on the earth  exist in the heavens4 ,it
 would scarcely be safe to assume that1 
because  the line of some terrestrial   
substance is found in the spectrum of a 
star1 it is produced by that substance4 
,it is quite possible that an  unknown  
substance might show a line in          
appreciably the same position  as that  
of some substance known to us4 ,the     
evidence becomes conclusive  only in the
 case of those elements of which the    
spectral lines are so  numerous that    
when they all coincide with lines given 
by a star1 there  can be no doubt of the
 identity4      ,,proper ,,motions ,,of 
,,the ,,stars4    ,we may assume that   
the stars are all in motion4 ,it is true
 that only  a comparatively small number
 of stars have been actually seen to  be
 in motion2 but as some motion exists in
 nearly every case where  observations  
would permit of its being determined1 we

 may assume the  rule to be universal4  
,moreover1 if a star were at rest at one
 time it  would be set in motion by the 
attraction of other stars4              
,statements of the motion from different
 points of view illustrate in  a        
striking way the vast distance of the   
stars and the power of modern           
telescopic research4 ,if ,hipparchus or 
,ptolemy should rise from their  sleep  
of #b1jjj years--nay1 if the earliest   
priests of ,babylon should  come to life
 again and view the heavens1 they would 
not perceive any  change to have taken  
place in the relative positions of the  
stars4 ,the  general configurations of  
the constellations would be exactly that
 to  which they were accustomed4 ,had   
they been very exact observers they     
might notice a slight difference in the 
position of ,arcturus2 but as a  general
 rule the unchangeability would have    
been manifest4    ,in dealing with the  
subject1 the astronomer commonly        
expresses the  motion in angular        

measurement as so many seconds per year 
or per  century4 ,the keenest eye would 
not1 without telescopic aid1 be able to 
distinguish between two stars whose     
apparent distance is less than #b  or   
#abj of arc4 ,the pair of stars known as
 77 ,lyr are #c apart2 yet1  to ordinary
 vision they appear simply as a single  
star4 ,to appreciate  what #a of arc    
means we must conceive that the distance
 between  these two stars is divided by 
#bjj4 ,yet this minute space is easily  
distinguished and accurately measured by
 the aid of a telescope of  ordinary    
power4    ,on the other hand1 if we     
measure the motions by terrestrial      
standards  they are swift indeed4       
,arcturus has been moving ever since the
 time of  ,job at the rate of probably  
more than #bjj miles per                
second--possibly  #cjj miles4           
,generally1 however1 the motion is much 
smaller1 ranging  from an imperceptible 
quantity up to #e1 #aj or #bj miles a   
second4 ,slow  as the angular motion is1

 our telescopic power is such that the  
motion  in the course of a very few     
years 7with ,arcturus the motion in a   
few  days7 can be detected4 ,as accurate
 determinations of positions of the     
stars have been made only during a      
century and a half1 no motions can  be  
positively determined except those which
 would become evident to  telescopic    
vision in that period4 ,only about      
#c1jjj stars have been  accurately      
observed so long as this4 ,in the large 
majority of cases the  interval of      
observation is so short or the motion so
 slow that nothing  can be asserted     
respecting the law of the motion4       
,the great mass of stars seem to move   
only a few seconds per century1  but    
there are some whose motions are        
exceptionally rapid4 ,the general  rule 
is that the brighter stars have the     
largest proper motions4 ,this  is what  
we should expect1 because in the general
 average they are  nearer to us1 and    
therefore their motion will subtend the 

greatest  angle to the eye4 ,but this   
rule is only one of majorities4 ,as a   
matter  of fact1 the stars of largest   
proper motion happen to be low in the   
scale of magnitude4 ,it happens thus    
because the number of stars of  smaller 
magnitudes is so much greater than that 
of the brighter ones  that the very     
small proportion of large proper motions
 which they offer  over-balances those  
of the brighter stars4    ,the discovery
 of the star of greatest known proper   
motion was made by  ,kapteyn1 of        
,groningen1 in #ahig1 coperating with   
,gill and ,innes1 of the  ,cape         
,observatory4 ,while examining the      
photographs of the stars made  at this  
institution1 ,kapteyn was surprised to  
notice the impression  of a star of the 
eighth magnitude which at first could   
not be found  in any catalogue4 ,but on 
comparing different star lists and      
different  photographs it soon became   
evident that the star had been          
previously  seen or photographed1 but   

always in slightly varying positions4   
,an  examination of the observed        
positions at various times showed that  
the  star had a more rapid proper motion
 than any other yet known4 ,yet1  great 
though this motion is1 it would require 
nearly #aej1jjj years for  the star to  
make a complete circuit of the heavens  
if it moved round  the sun uniformly at 
its present rate4    ,the fact that the 
stars move suggests a very natural      
analogy to the  solar system4 ,in the   
latter a number of planets revolve round
 the sun  as their center1 each planet  
continually describing the same orbit1  
while the various planets have different
 velocities4 ,around several  of the    
planets revolve one or more satellites4 
,were civilized men  ephemeral1         
observing the planets and satellites    
only for a few minutes1  these bodies   
would be described as having proper     
motions of their own1  as we find the   
stars to have4 ,may it not then be that 
the stars also  form a system2 that each

 star is moving in a fixed orbit        
performing  a revolution around some    
far-distant center in a period which may
 be  hundreds of thousands or hundreds  
of millions of years8 ,may it not be    
that there are systems of stars in which
 each star revolves around a  center of 
its own while all these systems are in  
revolution around a  single center8     
,this thought has been entertained by   
more than one contemplative  astronomer4
 ,lambert's magnificent conception of   
system upon system will  be described   
hereafter4 ,mdler thought that he had   
obtained evidence  of the revolution of 
the stars around ,alcyone1 the brightest
 of the  ,pleiades1 as a center4 ,but1  
as the proper motions of the stars are  
more carefully studied and their motion 
and direction more exactly  ascertained1
 it becomes very clear that when        
considered on a large  scale these      
conceptions are never realized in the   
actual universe as a  whole4 ,but there 
are isolated cases of systems of stars  

which are shown  to be in some way      
connected by their having a common      
proper motion4 ,we  shall mention some  
of the more notable cases4    ,the      
,pleiades are found to move together    
with such exactness that up  to the     
present time no difference in their     
proper motions has been  detected4 ,this
 is true not only of the six stars which
 we readily see  with the naked eye1 but
 of a much larger number of fainter ones
 made  known by the telescope4 ,it is an
 interesting fact1 however1 that a  few 
stars apparently within the group do not
 partake of this motion1  from which it 
may be inferred that they do not belong 
to the system4  ,but there must be some 
motion among themselves1 else the stars 
would  ultimately fall together by their
 mutual attraction4 ,the amount and     
nature of this motion cannot1 however1  
be ascertained except by  centuries of  
observation4    ,another example of the 
same sort is seen in five out of the    
seven  stars of ,urs ,major1 or ,the    

,dipper4 ,the stars are those lettered 1
 1  1  and 4 ,all five have a proper    
motion in ,r4 ,a4 of nearly #h per      
century1 while in declination the       
movements are sometimes positive and    
sometimes negative2 that is to say1 some
 of the stars are apparently  lessening 
their distance from the pole1 while     
others are increasing  it4 ,but when we 
project the motions on a map we find    
that the actual  direction is very      
nearly the same for all five stars1 and 
the reason  why some move slightly to   
the north and others slightly to the    
south is  due to the divergence of the  
circles of right ascension4 ,it is      
worthy  of remark that the community of 
motion is also shown by spectroscopic   
observations of the radial motions      
described below4    ,the five stars in  
question are all of the second magnitude
 except 1  which is of the third4 ,it is
 a curious fact that no fainter stars   
than  these five have been found to     
belong to the system4    ,from a study  

of these motions ,hffler has concluded  
that the five  stars lie nearly in the  
same plane and have an equal motion in  
one  and the same direction4 ,from this 
hypothesis he has attempted to make  a  
determination of their relative and     
actual distances4 ,the result  reached  
in this way cannot yet1 however1 be     
regarded as conclusive4    ,there are   
three stars in ,cassiopeia1 1  and  each
 having a large  proper motion in so    
nearly the same direction that it is    
difficult to  avoid at least a suspicion
 of some relation between them4 ,the    
angular  motions are1 however1 so far   
from equal that we cannot regard the    
relation as established4    ,in the     
constellation ,taurus1 between          
,aldebaran and the ,pleiades1 most  of  
the stars which have been accurately    
determined seem to have a  common       
motion4 ,but these motions are not yet  
so well ascertained that  we can base   
anything definite upon them4 ,they show 
a phenomenon which  ,proctor very aptly 

designated as star-drift4    ,the       
systems we have just described comprise 
stars situated so far apart  that1 but  
for their common motion1 we should not  
have suspected any  relation between    
them4 ,the community of origin which    
their connection  indicates is of great 
interest and importance1 but the        
question belongs  to a later chapter4   
,,motions ,,in ,,the ,,line ,,of        
,,sight1 ,,or ,,radial ,,motions4    ,no
 achievement of modern science is more  
remarkable than the  measurement of the 
velocity with which stars are moving to 
or from us4  ,this is effected by means 
of the spectroscope through a comparison
 of  the position of the spectral lines 
produced by the absorption of any       
substance in the atmosphere of the star 
with the corresponding lines  produced  
by the same substance on the earth4 ,the
 principle on which the  method depends 
may be illustrated by the analogous case
 of sound4 ,it is  a familiar fact that 
if we stand alongside a railway while a 

locomotive  is passing us at full speed1
 and at the same time blowing a whistle1
  the pitch of the note which we hear   
from the whistle is higher as the       
engine is approaching than after it     
passes4 ,the reason is that the  pitch  
of a sound depends upon the number of   
sound beats per second4      ,a     ,b  
,x    99     4      4      4      4     
4      4      4          99     4      4
     4     4     4    4     4    ,now1  
we may consider the waves which form    
light when they strike our  apparatus as
 beats in the ethereal medium which     
follow each other  with extraordinary   
rapidity1 millions of millions in a     
second1 moving  forward with a definite 
velocity of more than #ahf1jjj miles a  
second4  ,each spectral line produced by
 a chemical element shows that that     
element1 when incandescent1 beats the   
ether a certain number of times  in a   
second4 ,these beats are transmitted as 
waves4 ,since the velocity  is the same 
whether the number of beats per second  

is less or greater1  it follows that1 if
 the body is in motion in the direction 
in which it  emits the light1 the beats 
will be closer together than if it is at
  rest2 if moving away they will be     
further apart4 ,the fundamental fact  on
 which this result depends is that the  
velocity of the light-beat  through the 
ether is independent of the motion of   
the body causing the  beat4 ,to show the
 result1 let ,a be a luminous body at   
rest2 let the  seven dots to the right  
of ,a be the crests of seven waves or   
beats1  the first of which1 at the end  
of a certain time1 has reached ,x4 ,the 
wave-length will then be one seventh the
 distance ,a ,x4 ,now1 suppose  ,a in   
motion toward ,x with such speed that1  
when the first beat has  reached ,x1 ,a 
has reached the point ,b4 ,then the     
seven beats made by ,a  while the first 
beat is traveling from ,a to ,x1 and ,a 
traveling from  ,a to ,b1 will be       
crowded into the space ,b ,x1 so that   
each wave will  be one seventh shorter  

than before4 ,in other words1 the       
wave-lengths  of the light emitted by   
any substance will be less or greater   
than  their normal length1 according to 
the motion of the substance in  the     
direction in which its light is         
transmitted1 or in the opposite         
direction4    ,the position of a ray in 
the spectrum depends solely on the      
wave-length  of the light4 ,it follows  
that the rays produced by any substance 
will  be displaced toward the blue or   
red end of the spectrum1 according  as  
the body emitting or absorbing the rays 
is moving towards or from  us4 ,this    
method of determining the motions of    
stars to or from us1 or  their velocity 
in the line of sight from us to the     
star1 was first put  into practice by   
,mr4--now ,sir ,william--,huggins1 of   
,london4 ,the method  has since been    
perfected by photographing the spectrum 
of a star1 or  other heavenly body1 side
 by side with that of a terrestrial     
substance1  rendered incandescent in the

 tube of a telescope4 ,the rays of this 
substance pass through the same         
spectroscope as those from the star1  so
 that1 if the wave-lengths of the lines 
produced by the substance  were the same
 as those found in the star spectrum1   
the two lines would  correspond in      
position4 ,the minute difference found  
on the photographic  plate is the       
measure of the velocity of the star in  
the line of sight4    ,it will be seen  
that the conclusion depends on the      
hypothesis that the  position of any ray
 produced by a substance is affected by 
no cause but  the motion of the         
substance4 ,how and when this hypothesis
 may fail is  a very important question4
 ,it is found1 for example1 that the    
position  of a spectral ray may be      
altered by compressing the gas emitting 
or  absorbing the ray1 and it may be    
inquired whether the results for  motion
 in the line of sight may not be        
vitiated by the absorbing  atmosphere of
 the star being under heavy pressure1   

thus displacing the  absorption line4   
,to this it may be replied that1 in any 
case1 the outer layers of the           
atmosphere1 through which the light must
 last pass1 are not under  pressure4    
,how far inner portions may produce an  
absorption spectrum we  cannot discuss  
at present1 but it does not seem likely 
that serious  errors are thus introduced
 in many cases4    ,these measures      
require apparatus and manipulation of   
extraordinary  delicacy1 in order to    
avoid every possible source of error4   
,the  displacement of the lines produced
 by motion is in fact so minute that    
great skill is required to make it      
evident1 unless in exceptional  cases4  
,the ,mills spectrograph of the ,lick   
,observatory in the hands of  ,professor
 ,campbell has1 notwithstanding these   
difficulties1 yielded  results of       
extraordinary precision4 ,quite a number
 of investigators  at some leading      
observatories of ,europe and ,america   
are pursuing the  work of determining   

these motions4 ,the determinations have 
almost  necessarily been limited to the 
brighter stars1 because1 owing to the   
light of the star being spread over so  
broad a space in the spectrum1  instead 
of being concentrated on a point1 a far 
longer exposure is  necessary to        
photograph the spectrum of a star than  
to photograph  the star itself4 ,the    
larger the telescope the fainter the    
star  whose spectrum can be             
photographed4 ,vogel1 of ,potsdam1 who  
has made  the most systematic sets of   
these measures that have yet appeared1  
included few stars fainter than the     
second magnitude4 ,with the largest     
telescopes the spectro of stars down to 
about the fifth magnitude may  be       
photographed2 beyond this it is         
extremely difficult to go4 ,the limit   
will probably be reached by the         
spectrograph of the ,yerkes             
,observatory1  which is now being put   
into operation by ,professors ,hale and 
,frost4      ,,the ,,motion ,,of ,,the  

,,sun4    ,when a star is found to be   
seemingly in motion1 as described in the
  last section1 we may ascribe the      
phenomenon to a motion either of the    
star itself or of the observer4 ,in fact
 no motion can be determined  or defined
 except by reference to some body       
supposed to be at rest4  ,in the case of
 any one star1 we may equally well      
suppose the star to  be at rest and the 
observer in motion1 or the contrary4 ,or
 we may  suppose both to have such      
motions that the difference of the two  
shall  represent the apparent movement  
of the star4 ,hence our actual result   
in the case of each separate star is a  
relation between the motion of  the star
 and the motion of the sun4    ,i say   
the motion of the sun and not of the    
earth1 because although the  observer is
 actually on the earth1 yet the latter  
never leaves the  neighborhood of the   
sun1 and1 as a matter of fact1 the      
ultimate result  in the long run must be
 a motion relative to the sun itself as 

if we  made our observations from that  
body4 ,the question then arises whether 
there is any criterion for determining  
how much of the apparent motion  of any 
given star should be attributed to the  
star itself and how much  to a motion of
 the sun in the opposite direction4     
,if we should find that the stars1 in   
consequence of their proper  motions1   
all appeared to move in the same        
direction1 we would naturally  assume   
that they were at rest and the sun in   
motion4 ,a conclusion of  this sort was 
first reached by ,herschel1 who observed
 that among the  stars having notable   
proper motions there was a general      
tendency to  move from the direction of 
the constellation ,hercules1 which is in
 the  northern hemisphere1 towards the  
opposite constellation ,argo1 in the    
southern hemisphere4    ,acting on this 
suggestion1 subsequent astronomers have 
adopted the  practice of considering the
 general average of all the stars1 or a 
position which we may regard as their   

common center of gravity1 to be  at     
rest1 and then determining the motion of
 the sun with respect to  this center4  
,here we encounter the difficulty that  
we cannot make any  absolute            
determination of the position of any    
such center4 ,the latter  will vary     
according to what particular stars we   
are able to include  in our estimate4   
,what we can do is to take all the stars
 which appear  to have a proper motion1 
and determine the general direction of  
that  motion4 ,this gives us a certain  
point in the heavens toward which the   
solar system is traveling1 and which is 
now called the solar apex1 or  the apex 
of the solar way4    ,the apparent      
motion of the stars due to this motion  
of the solar system  is now called their
 parallactic motion1 to distinguish it  
from the  actual motion of the star     
itself4    ,the interest which attaches 
to the determination of the solar apex  
has  led a great number of investigators
 to attempt it4 ,owing to the rather    

indefinite character of the material of 
investigation1 the uncertainty  of the  
proper motions1 and the additions       
constantly made to the number  of stars 
which are available for the purpose in  
view1 different  investigators have     
reached different results4 ,until quite 
recently1 the  general conclusion was   
that the solar apex was situated        
somewhere in  the constellation         
,hercules4 ,but the general trend of    
recent research  has been to place it in
 or near the adjoining constellation    
,lyra4 ,this  change has arisen mainly  
from including a larger number of stars1
 whose  motions were determined with    
greater accuracy4    ,former            
investigators based their conclusions   
entirely on stars having  considerable  
proper motions1 these being1 in general1
 the nearer to us4  ,the fact is1       
however1 that it is better to include   
stars having a small  proper motion1    
because the advantage of their great    
number more than  counterbalances the   

disadvantage of their distance4    ,the 
conclusions reached by some recent      
investigators of the position of  the   
solar apex will now be given4 ,we call  
,a the right ascension of the  apex2 ,d 
its declination4    ,prof4 ,lewis ,boss1
 from #bgc stars of large proper motion 
found      ,a  #bhc4c2 ,d  #dd4a4    ,if
 he excluded the motions of #bf stars   
which exceeded #dj per century  the     
result was      ,a  #bhh4g2 ,d  #ea4e4  
,a comparison of these numbers shows how
 much the result depends on the  special
 stars selected4 ,by leaving out #bf    
stars the apex is changed by  #e in ,r4 
,a41 and #g in declination4    ,it is to
 be remarked that the stars used by     
,boss are all contained in a  belt four 
degrees wide1 extending from #a to #e   
north of the equator4    ,dr4 ,oscar    
,stumpe1 of ,berlin1 made a list of #iif
 stars having proper  motions between   
#af and #abh per century4 ,he divided   
them into three  groups1 the first      
including those between #af and #cb2 the

 second  between #cb and #fd2 the third 
between #fd and #abh4 ,the number of    
stars in each group and the position of 
the apex derived from them are  as      
follows3      ,gr4 ,i1 #eea stars2 ,a   
#bhg4d2 ,d   #de4j       ,,ii1 #cci     
#bhb4b        #dc4e      ,,iii1 #ajf    
#bhj4b        #cc4e    ,porter1 of      
,cincinnati1 made a determination from a
 yet larger list of  stars with results 
of the same general character4    ,these
 determinations have the advantage that 
the stars are scattered  over the entire
 heavens1 the southern as well as the   
northern ones4  ,the difference of more 
than #aj between the position derived   
from  stars with the largest proper     
motions1 and from the other stars1 is   
remarkable4    ,the present writer1 in a
 determination of the precessional      
motion1  incidentally determined the    
solar motion from #b1ebg stars contained
 in  ,bradley's ,catalogue which had    
small proper motions1 and from about    
#fjj  more having larger proper motions4

 ,of the latter the declinations only   
were used4 ,the results were3      ,from
 small motions3 ,a  #bgd4b2 ,d   #ca4b  
,from large motions3     #bgf4i         
#ca4d    ,from all these results it     
would seem that the most likely apex of 
the  solar motion is toward the point in
      ,right ,ascension1 #bhj           
,declination1      #ch north4    ,this  
point is situated in the constellation  
,lyra1 about #b from the  first         
magnitude star ,vega4 ,the uncertainty  
of the result is more than  this        
difference1 four or five degrees at     
least4 ,we may therefore state  the     
conclusion in this form3    ,the apex of
 the solar motion is in the general     
direction of the  constellation ,lyra1  
and probably very near the star ,vega1  
the brightest  of that constellation4   
,it must be admitted that the wide      
difference between the position of  the 
apex from large and from small proper   
motions1 as found by ,porter1  ,boss and
 ,stumpe1 require explanation4 ,since   

the apparent motions of the  stars are  
less the greater their distance1 these  
results1 if accepted  as real1 would    
lead to the conclusion that the position
 of the solar  apex derived from stars  
near to us was much further south than  
when  derived from more distant stars4  
,this again would indicate that our  sun
 is one of a cluster or group of stars1 
having1 in the general  average1 a      
different proper motion from the more   
distant stars4 ,but  this conclusion is 
not to be accepted as real until the    
subject has  been more exhaustively     
investigated4 ,the result may depend on 
the  selection of the stars2 and there  
is1 as yet1 no general agreement  among 
investigators as to the best way of     
making the determination4    ,the next  
question which arises is that of the    
velocity of the solar  motion4 ,the data
 for this determination are more meagre 
and doubtful  than those for the        
direction of the motion4 ,the most      
obvious and direct  method is to        

determine the parallactic motion of the 
stars of known  parallax4 ,regarding any
 star #ij from the apex of the solar    
motion as  in a state of absolute rest1 
we have the obvious rule that the       
quotient  of its parallactic motion     
during any period1 say a century1       
divided  by its parallax1 gives the     
solar motion during that period1 in     
units  of the earth's distance from the 
sun4 ,in fact1 by a motion of the sun   
through one such unit1 the star would   
have an apparent motion in the  opposite
 direction equal to its annual parallax4
 ,if the star were not  #ij from the    
apex we can easily reduce its observed  
parallactic motion  by dividing it by   
the sign of its actual distance from the
 apex4    ,since every star has1        
presumably1 a proper motion of its own1 
we can  draw no conclusion from the     
apparent motion of any one star1 owing  
to  the impossibility of distinguishing 
its actual from its parallactic  motion4
 ,we should1 therefore1 base our        

conclusion on the mean result  from a   
great number of stars1 whose average    
position or center of mass  we might    
assume to be at rest4 ,here we meet the 
difficulty that there  are only about   
#fj stars whose parallaxes can be said  
to be determined2  and one-half of these
 are too near the apex1 or have too     
small a  parallax1 to permit of any     
conclusion being drawn from them4    ,a 
second method is based on the           
spectroscopic measures of the motion  of
 stars in the line of sight1 or the line
 from the earth to the star4  ,a star at
 rest in the direction of the solar apex
 would be apparently  moving toward us  
with a velocity equal to that of the    
solar motion4  ,assuming the center of  
mass of all the stars observed to be at 
rest1 we  should get the solar motion   
from the mean of all4    ,thus far1     
however1 there are only about #ej stars 
whose motions in the  line of sight have
 been used for the determination1 so    
that the data  are yet more meagre than 

in the case of the proper motions4 ,from
 them1  however1 using a statistical    
method ,kapteyn has derived results     
which  seem to show that the actual     
velocity of the solar system through    
space  is about #af kilometres1 or #aj  
statute miles1 per second4              
,,the ,,psychology ,,of ,,red4 7,,ii47  
,,by ,,havelock ,,ellis4      ,the facts
 and considerations we have passed in   
review fairly indicate  the             
physiological and psychological         
preminence of red among the colors  of  
the spectrum to which we are sensitive4 
,what is the cause of that  preminence8 
,it seems to me that two orders of      
causes have coperated to produce  this  
predominant influence1 one physical and 
depending on the special  effects of the
 long-waved portion of the spectrum on  
living matter1  the other psychological 
and resulting from the special          
environmental  influences to which man1 
and to some extent even the higher      
animals  generally1 have been subjected4

 ,it is possible that these two         
influences blend together and cannot at 
any point be disentangled2 it  is       
possible that acquired aptitude may be  
inherited or that what seem  to be      
acquired aptitudes are really           
perpetuated congenital variations2  but 
on the whole the two influences are so  
distinct that we may deal  with them    
separately4    ,on the physical side the
 influence of the red rays1 although    
there is  much evidence showing that it 
may be traced throughout the whole of   
organic nature1 is certainly most       
strongly and convincingly exhibited  on 
plants4 ,the characteristic greenness of
 vegetation alone bears  witness to this
 fact4 ,the red rays are life to the    
chlorophyll-bearing  plant1 the violet  
rays are death4 ,a meadow1 it has been  
justly said1 is  a vast field of tongues
 of fire greedily licking up the red    
rays and  vomiting forth the poisonous  
bile of blue and yellow4 ,an experiment 
of  ,flammarion's has beautifully shown 

the widely different reaction of  plants
 to the red and violet rays4 ,at the    
climatological station at  ,juvisy he   
constructed four greenhouses--one of    
ordinary transparent  glass1 another of 
red glass1 another of green1 the fourth 
of dark blue4  ,the glass was           
monochromatic1 as carefully tested by   
the spectroscope1  and dark blue was    
used instead of violet because it was   
impossible to  obtain a perfect violet  
glass4 ,these were all placed under     
uniform  meteorological and other       
conditions1 and from certain plants such
 as  the sensitive plant1 previously    
sown on the same day in the same soil1  
eight of each kind were selected1 all   
measuring #bg millimetres1 and  placed  
by two and two in the four greenhouses  
on the #dth of ,july4 ,on  the #aeth of 
,august there were notable differences  
in height1 color  and sensitiveness1 and
 these differences continued to become  
marked2  photographs of the plants on   
the #dth of ,october showed that while  

those under blue glass had made no      
progress1 those under red glass had     
attained extraordinary development1 red 
light acting like a manure4  ,while     
those under blue glass became           
insensitive1 under red glass the        
sensitive plants had become excessively 
sensitive to the least breath4  ,they   
also flowered1 those under transparent  
glass being vigorous and  showing buds1 
but not flowering4 ,the foliage under   
red glass was  very light1 under blue   
darkest4 ,similar but less marked       
effects were  found in the case of      
geraniums1 strawberries1 etc4 ,the      
strawberries  under blue glass were no  
more advanced in ,october than in ,may2 
though  not growing old their life was  
little more than a sleep4 ,it appears1  
however1 that the stimulating influence 
of red light fails to influence         
favorably the ripening of fruit4        
,zacharewiez1 professor of agriculture  
at ,vaucluse1 has found that red1 or    
rather orange1 produces the  greatest   

amount of vegetation1 while as regards  
fruit1 the finest and  earliest was     
grown under clear glass1 violet glass1  
indeed1 causing the  amount of fruit to 
increase but at the expense of the      
quality4    ,moreover1 the lowest as    
well as the highest plants participated 
in this  response to the red rays1 and  
in even a more marked degree1 for they  
perish altogether under the influence of
 the violet rays4 ,marshall ,ward  and  
others have shown that the blue1 violet 
and ultra-violet rays1 but  no others1  
are deleterious to bacteria4 ,finsen has
 successfully made  use of this fact in 
the treatment of bacterial skin         
diseases4 ,reynolds  ,green has shown   
that while the ultra-violet rays have a 
destructive  influence on diastase1 the 
red rays have a powerfully stimulating  
effect1 increasing diastase and         
converting zymogen into diastase4       
,while the influence of the red rays on 
the plant is thus so enormous  and      
easily demonstrated1 the physical       

effects of red on animals seem  to be   
even opposite in character1 although    
results of experiments are  somewhat    
contradictory4 ,bclard found that the   
larv of the flesh fly  raised under     
violet glass were three fourths larger  
than those raised  under green glass2   
the order was violet1 blue1 red1 yellow1
 white1  green4 ,in the case of         
tadpoles1 ,yung found that violet or    
blue was  especially favorable to the   
growth of frogs2 he also found that fish
  hatch most rapidly under violet light4
 ,thus the influence that is            
practically death to plants is that most
 favorable to life in animals4  ,both   
effects1 however1 as ,davenport truly   
remarks in his #8,experimental          
,morphology1' when summing up the       
results of investigations1 are due to   
the same chemical metabolic changes1 but
 while plants succumb to the  influence 
of the violet rays1 animals1 being more 
highly organized1 are  able to take     
advantage of them and flourish4    ,at  

the same time the influence of violet   
rays on animal tissue is by no  means   
invariably beneficial2 they are often   
too powerful a stimulant4  ,that the    
violet rays have an influence on the    
human skin which in  the first place1 at
 all events1 is destructive and harmful 
in a high  degree1 is now clearly       
established by the observations and     
experiments  of ,charcot1 ,unna1        
,hammer1 ,bowles and others1 while      
,finsen has made  an important advance  
in the treatment of disease based on    
this fact4  ,the conditions called      
#8sun-burn1' #8snow-burn1'              
#8snow-blindness1' for  instance1 which 
may affect even travelers on snow-fields
 and ,arctic  explorers1 are now known  
to be wholly due to the violet and not  
to the  red rays4 ,unna's device of     
wearing a yellow veil1 and ,bowles's    
plan of  painting the skin brown1 thus  
shutting off the violet rays1 suffice to
  prevent sun-burn4 ,the same effect is 
also obtained by nature1 which  under   

the stress of sunlight1 and largely     
through the irritation of the  violet   
rays themselves1 weaves a pigmentary    
veil of yellow and brown on  the skin1  
which thus protects from the further    
injurious influence of  the violet rays 
and renders the sunlight a source of    
less alloyed joy  and health4    ,that  
the presence of the red rays1 or at all 
events the exclusion  of the violet1 is 
of great benefit in many skin diseases  
seems to  be now beyond doubt4 ,this has
 been shown by ,finsen in his treatment 
of smallpox in red rooms2 it appears    
that it was also known in the  ,middle  
,ages as well as in ,japan1 ,tonquin and
 ,roumania1 red bed-covers1  curtains or
 carpets being used to obtain the       
effect4 ,under the  treatment by red    
light not only is the skin enabled to   
heal healthfully  without scarring1 but 
the whole course of the disease is      
beneficially  affected and abbreviated1 
the fever is diminished and also the    
risk  of complications4 ,another        

physician has discovered that a similar 
beneficial effect is produced by red    
light in measles4 ,a child with  a      
severe attack of measles was put into a 
room with red blinds and  a photographic
 lamp4 ,the rash speedily disappeared   
and the fever  subsided1 the child      
complaining only of the absence of      
light2 the  blinds were consequently    
removed1 and the fever1 rash and        
prostration  returned1 to disappear     
again when the blinds were resumed4     
,whether red light1 or the exclusion of 
violet1 exerts a beneficial  influence  
on the hmoglobin of the blood and on    
metabolism generally  has not been      
distinctly proved1 but it seems to me to
 be indicated by  such experiments as   
those of ,marti published a few years   
ago in the  ,atti dei ,lincei4 ,this    
investigator found that while feeble    
irritation  of the skin promotes the    
formation of blood corpuscles1 strong   
irritation diminishes the blood         
corpuscles and also the hmoglobin2  at  

the same time he found that darkness    
also diminishes the number  of red      
corpuscles1 while continued exposure to 
intense light 7even  at night the       
electric light1 which1 however1 is rich 
in violet rays7  favors increased       
formation of red corpuscles1 and in some
 degree of  hmoglobin4 ,finsen has shown
 that inflammation of the skin caused by
  chemical or violet light leads to     
contraction of the red corpuscles4      
,this brings us to the consideration of 
the influence of the red rays  on the   
nervous system4 ,from time to time      
experiments have been made  as to the   
influence of various colored lights1    
chiefly on the insane1  as first        
suggested by ,father ,secchi in #ahie4  
,even yet1 however1 the  specific mental
 influences of the various colors are   
not quite clear4  ,it has been found by 
some that the red rays are far more     
soothing and  comfortable1 less         
irritating1 than the total rays of      
uncolored light1  and ,garbini found    

that angry infants were soothed by the  
light through  red glass1 only slightly 
by that through green and not at all by 
other  colored light4 ,on the other     
hand1 it is stated that a well-known dry
  plate manufacturer at ,lyons was      
obliged to substitute green-colored     
glass in the windows of his large room  
for the usual red because the  work     
people sang and gesticulated all day and
 the men made love to the  women1 while 
under the influence of green glass      
7which also allows  yellow rays to pass7
 they became quiet and silent and seemed
 less  fatigued when they left off work4
 ,we need not attach much value to      
these statements1 but in this connection
 it is interesting to refer  to the     
results obtained some years ago by ,fr  
and recorded in his  #8,sensation et    
,mouvement4' ,experimenting on normal   
subjects as well  as on nervous         
subjects1 who were found more sensitive1
 with colored  light passed through     
glass or sheets of gelatine1 he found   

notable  differences in muscular power1 
measured by the dynamometer1 and in the 
circulation as measured by              
plethysmographic tracings of the forearm
  under the influence of different      
colors4 ,he found in this manner with   
one subject whose normal muscular power 
was represented by #bc that blue  light 
increased his power to #bd1 green to    
#bh1 yellow to #cj1 orange  to #ce and  
red to #db4 ,the dynamogenic powers of  
the different colors  were thus found to
 rank in the spectral order1 red        
representing the  climax of energy1 or1 
as ,fr puts it1 8the intensity of the   
visual  sensation varies as the         
vibrations40 ,fr found that colors need 
not  be perceived in order to show their
 influence1 thus proving the purely     
physical nature of that influence1 for  
in a subject who was unable to  see     
colors with one eye1 the color stimulus 
had the same dynamogenic  effect whether
 applied to the seeing or the defective 
eye4 ,increase of  volume of blood in   

the limbs1 measured by the              
plethysmograph1 so far as  we can rely  
on ,fr's experiments1 ran parallel with 
the influence on  muscular power1       
culminating with red1 so that no        
metaphor is involved1  ,fr remarks1 when
 we speak of red as a #8warm' color4 ,on
 the insane  the results attained by the
 use of colored glass do not seem to be 
quite coherent4 ,some of the earlier    
observers described the beneficial      
effects of blue glass in soothing       
maniacs4 ,pritchard ,davies1 however1   
was not able to find that red light had 
any beneficial effect1 though  on some  
cases blue had1 while ,roffegean found  
that1 in the case of a  somber and      
taciturn maniac who could rarely be     
persuaded to eat1 three  hours in a     
red-lighted room produced a markedly    
beneficial effect1 and  a man with      
delusions of persecution became quite   
rational and was even  in a condition to
 be sent home after a few days in the   
same room4 ,he  also found that a       

violent maniac wearing a strait jacket1 
after a few  hours in a room with blue  
glass windows became quite calm and gave
 no  further trouble4 ,osburne has      
found1 after many years' experience1    
that  in the absence of structural      
disease violet light 7for from three to 
six hours7 is most useful in the        
treatment of excitement1 sleeplessness  
and acute mania2 red he has found of    
some benefit1 though to a much  less    
degree in such cases 7it must be        
remarked that violet light as  usually  
applied is not free from red71 while he 
has not found any color  with which he  
has tried experiments 7red1 orange or   
violet7 of benefit  in melancholia4 ,the
 significance of these facts is not     
altogether  clear2 the influence1 as    
,pritchard ,davies concluded1 seems to  
be  largely moral1 though it may be that
 the colors of long wave-length are     
tonic and those of short wave-length    
sedative4    ,so far ,i have been       
chiefly concerned to point out that the 

immense  emotional impressiveness of red
 has a basis in physical laws1 being by 
no means altogether a matter of         
environmental associations4 ,it is true 
that the two groups of influences       
overlap1 and that we can not always     
distinguish them4 ,we can not be sure   
that the greater sensitiveness  to the  
red rays may not have been emphasized in
 the organism1 not  necessarily as the  
result of inherited acquirement1 but    
probably as  the perpetuation of a      
variation of sensibility1 found         
beneficial in  an environment where red 
was liable to be especially associated  
with  objects that were to be avoided as
 terrible or sought as useful4 ,in  this
 way the physical and environmental     
factors would run in a circle4    ,we   
have to bear this consideration in mind 
when we take into account  the          
susceptibilities of animals1 especially 
of the higher animals1  to red4 ,the    
color sense1 it is well known1 is widely
 diffused among  animals2 indeed this   

fact has been brought forward1          
especially by  ,pouchet1 to prove that  
there can have been no color evolution  
in man2  this it can scarcely be said to
 show1 since evolution does not run in a
  straight line1 and it is quite        
conceivable and even probable that the  
ancestors of man were less dependent    
than many lower animals1 for the  means 
of living1 on a highly developed color  
sense4 ,thus a color sense  that among  
some creatures is so highly developed as
 to include even the  ultra-violet rays1
 was among our own ape-like ancestors   
either never  developed or partially    
lost4    ,graber1 in his important      
investigation into the color sense of   
animals1  showed that of fifty animals  
studied by him forty showed strong color
  preferences in their places of abode4 
,in general he found1 without  being    
able to explain the fact1 that animals  
which prefer the dark are  red lovers1  
those which prefer the light are blue   
lovers4 ,the common  worm1 with head and

 tail cut off1 still preferred red to   
blue nearly  as much as when uninjured4 
7,this would seem to indicate the same  
kind  of susceptibility to unaccustomed 
violet rays which we have already       
encountered in the phenomenon of        
sun-burn47 ,the triton and cochineal1   
with eyes removed and heads covered with
 wax1 still had delicate sense  for     
color and brightness4 ,the flea         
infesting the dog had a finer color     
sense than the bee1 while nearly all the
 animals ,graber investigated  were more
 or less sensitive to the ultra-red     
rays4    ,among insects it scarcely     
appears1 nor should we expect that there
  would be any peculiarly marked        
predilection or aversion for red4       
,cockerell and ,f4 ,w4 ,anderson1 from  
observations in various parts of the    
,united ,states1 believe that yellow 7i4
 e41 the brightest color7 is  the most  
attractive to insects1 and the former   
doubts whether insects  can distinguish 
red from yellow4 ,among the higher      

animals1 and even  among fishes and     
birds1 there is not only a color sense1 
but a highly  emotionalized color sense1
 and red appears to be usually the color
  that arouses the emotion4 ,there is a 
proverb1 #8,women and mackerel  are     
caught by red1' and perch is also said  
to be caught by red bait4  ,sparrows    
appear to be repelled by red2 the case  
is reported of a hen  sparrow1 kept in  
captivity for ten years1 which though   
otherwise a  fearless bird #8would on   
seeing scarlet show painful signs of    
distress  and faint away4' ,the lady who
 records this observation has noted the 
same repugnance to red1 though in a less
 marked degree1 in other  sparrows1 one 
of which showed a predilection for blue 
objects1 and she  remarks that when     
feeding outdoor sparrows from the window
 they flew  away when she wore a red    
jacket1 while a blue jacket inspired    
them with  confidence2 other birds1 she 
found1 except a cockatoo1 were          
unaffected  by colors4 ,red1 it is well 

known1 is very obnoxious to turkey      
cocks1  while the fury aroused in       
various quadrupeds by red was known at a
 very  early period2 ,seneca referred to
 it in the case of the bull1 the most   
familiar example2 it is seen in         
buffaloes1 sometimes in horses1 and     
also1 it is said1 in the hippopotamus4  
,the phenomena of color aversion and    
color predilection among insects  may   
possibly be in some degree a matter of  
physical sensibility1  varying according
 to the creature's tissues1 habitat and 
needs1 but as  we approach the          
vertebrates and especially the mammals  
there can be  little doubt that it is   
mainly a matter of environment and      
association2  in other words1 that it is
 accounted for by the color of food1 the
  color of blood and the color of the   
chief secondary sexual characters4      
,let us1 however1 confine ourselves to  
man1 and consider what are the  chief   
colored objects that are of most vital  
concern to the human and  most closely  

allied species4    ,one of the earliest 
groups of such objects--some would say  
the most  important group in this       
connection--is that of ripe fruits4     
,certainly  among the frugivorous apes  
and among many races of primitive man1  
the  color of fruits must be a powerful 
factor in developing a sensibility  for 
red rays1 and in associating such       
sensibility with emotional              
satisfaction4 ,the color of fruits is   
most generally red1 orange or  purple1  
and since purple is largely made up of  
red1 it is clear that  the influence of 
fruits will almost exclusively bear on  
the rays  of long wave-length4 ,we may  
reasonably suppose that the search for  
fruits acted as an important factor in  
the development of a special            
sensibility for red4    ,a later factor 
in the predilection for the red1 orange 
and yellow  rays1 though scarcely a     
factor in their discrimination1 lies in 
the  fact that these are the colors of  
fire4 ,flame1 apart from its beauty1  on

 which certain poets1 ,shelley          
especially1 have often insisted1 is a   
source of massive physical satisfaction4
 ,even under the conditions of          
civilization we are often acutely       
sensitive to this fact1 while under  the
 conditions of primitive life1 in       
imperfect shelters1 caves or  tents1    
where no other source of artificial     
light and heat is known1 the            
satisfaction is immensely greater4 ,at  
the same time fire is associated  with  
food1 it is a protection from wild      
beasts and the accompaniment of  the    
festival4 ,it may even take on a sacred 
and symbolic character1 and  the ,roman 
goddess ,vesta was1 as ,ovid said1      
simply #8living flame4'    ,while fruit 
or fire would tend to make the emotional
 tone of red  pleasant1 another very    
powerful factor in its emotional        
influences1  though this time as much by
 causing terror as pleasure1 is the fact
  that it is the color of blood4 ,that  
#8the blood is the life' is a belief    

instinctively stamped even on the       
emotions of animals1 and it has not     
died even in civilized man1 for the     
sight of blood produces on many  persons
 a sickening and terrifying sensation   
which is only overcome  by habit and    
experience or by a very strong effort of
 will4 ,it is  not surprising that in   
some parts of the world1 and even in our
 own  ,indo-,european group of          
languages1 the name for red is          
#8blood-color4'    ,it is evident1      
however1 that at a very early period of 
primitive  culture the blood had ceased 
to be merely a source of terror1 or even
  of the joy of battle4 ,we find        
everywhere that blood is blended into   
complex ritual customs1 and thus        
associated with complex emotional       
states4 ,among the ancient ,arabians    
blood was smeared on the body  on       
various occasions1 and in modern ,arabia
 blood is still so used4  ,everywhere1  
even in the folk-lore of modern ,europe1
 we find that  blood is a medicine1 as  

it is also among the primitive          
aborigines of  ,australia1 so carefully 
investigated by ,baldwin ,spencer and   
,gillen4  ,among these latter primitive 
people we meet with a phenomenon of very
  great significance4 ,we find1 that is1
 that blood is the earliest  pigment4   
,there can be little doubt that the     
earliest paint used by  man--no doubt by
 man when in a much more primitive      
condition than even  the                
,australians--was blood4 ,in the        
initiation rites of the ,arunta  tribes1
 as described by ,spencer and ,gillen1  
the chief performer is  elaborately     
decorated with patterns in eagle-hawk   
down stuck to his  body with blood drawn
 from some member of the tribe4 ,it was 
estimated  that one man alone1 on one of
 these occasions1 allowed five          
half-pints  to be taken from him during 
a single day2 at the same time the blood
 is  not regarded as sufficient pigment 
and the down is also colored red and    
yellow with ochre4 ,red ochre1 ,spencer 

and ,gillen remark1 is frequently  a    
substitute for blood or is used with it4
 ,blood is a medicine1 and  when any one
 is ill he is first rubbed over with red
 ochre1 it being  obvious to the        
primitive mind that the ochre will share
 the remedial  properties of blood2 in  
the same way ceremonial objects may     
sometimes  be rubbed over with ochre    
instead of blood4 ,they associate this  
red  ochre especially with women's      
blood2 and it is said that once some    
women after long walking were so        
exhausted that hemorrhage came on and   
this gave rise to deposits of red ochre4
 ,other red ochre pits1 also1  they     
attribute to blood which flowed from    
women4 ,it appears also that  the blood 
with which sacred implements used in the
 ritual ceremonies of  these ,central   
,australians were smeared must be drawn 
from women4    ,far from ,australia1    
among the hill tribes of the ,central   
,indian hills1  we find the same blood  
ritual and the same tendency to         

substitute  pigments for blood4 ,among  
some of the ,bengal tribes1 says        
,crooke1 blood  is drawn from the       
husband's little finger1 mixed with     
betel and eaten  by the bride4 ,a       
further stage is seen among the allied  
,kurmis who mix  the blood with lac dye4
 ,lastly come the rites1 common to all  
these  tribes1 in which the bridegroom1 
often in secrecy1 covered by a sheet1   
rubs vermilion on the parting of the    
girl's hair1 while the women  relations 
smear their toes with lac dye4 ,it is a 
sacramental rite1 and  after the        
husband's death the widow solemnly      
washes off the red from  her hair1 or   
flings the little box in which she keeps
 the coloring  matter into running      
water4    ,some of the foregoing facts1 
both in ,australia and ,india1 suggest  
the  transition to another factor in the
 emotional potency possessed by red4    
,red is not only the color of fire and  
of war and of ritual pigment2 it  is the
 color of love4 ,this is certainly an   

ancient and powerful factor  in the     
emotional attitude towards red4         
,secondary sexual characters1  even     
among birds1 are often red2 many fishes1
 also1 at the epoch of  the oviposit    
show a red tint on the orifice of the   
sexual apparatus2  patches of red1      
sometimes very brilliant1 but only      
appearing when the  animal is mature1   
are perhaps the commonest adornments of 
monkeys4  ,in man the color of the hair 
and beard1 the most conspicuous of the  
secondary sexual characters1 is most    
usually brown1 or some other  variety of
 red4 ,the lips are crimson1 the mucous 
membrane generally a  dark red2 the     
scarlet of the blush1 among all fair    
races1 whatever  other sources it may   
have1 is always regarded as especially  
the  ensign of love4 ,the rose is the   
flower of love1 as the pale lily is  of 
virtue4 ,this association is quite      
inapt1 and many people who are          
sensitive in such matters feel that the 
lily and many white flowers  are far    

more symbolical of rapture and          
voluptuousness than the rose4  ,it is1  
however1 the color and not the scent or 
other qualities that  has exerted       
decisive influence on the choice of the 
symbol4 ,in the  ,teutonic symbolism of 
fourteenth century ,europe red was the  
color of  love1 as also1 with yellow1 it
 was the favorite color for garments4   
,in  more modern times this last        
tendency has survived4 ,sardou decides1 
it  is reported1 the color of the       
dresses to be worn in his plays1 on the 
ground that if he did not the actresses 
would all wear red to attract  attention
 to themselves1 as once occurred at the 
,odon4 ,eighteen  hundred years earlier1
 ,clement of ,alexandria had written3   
8,would it  were possible to abolish    
purple in dress1 so as not to turn the  
eyes  of the spectators on the faces of 
those that wear it60 ,he proceeds to    
lament that women make all their        
garments of purple 7the classic purple  
was really a red7 in order to inflame   

lust--those #8stupid and luxurious      
purples' which have caused ,tyre and    
,sidon and the ,lacedmonian ,sea  to be 
so much in demand for their purple      
fishes4 ,similar phenomena  are noted on
 the other side of the world4 ,thus the 
,japanese1 as the  ,rev4 ,walter ,weston
 informs us1 have a proverb3 #8,love    
flies with a  red petticoat4' ,married  
women are not there supposed to wear red
  petticoats1 for they are too          
attractive1 and a married woman should  
be  attractive only to her husband4 ,the
 sthetic ,japanese may be thought  to be
 specially sensitive to color1 but in   
,africa also1 in ,loango1 as            
,pechuel-,loesche mentions1 pregnant    
women are forbidden to wear red1 and  it
 would doubtless be possible to find    
many similar indications of this        
feeling in other parts of the world4    
,we have now passed in review all the   
influences which1 by force  of their    
powerful attraction or repulsion1 have  
during countless  ages impressed on man1

 and often on his ancestors1 the strong 
and  poignant emotions which accompany  
the sensation of the most vividly  and  
persistently seen of all colors4 ,we    
find evidence of the reality  of the    
influences we have traced--especially   
those of fire1 blood  and love--in      
,christian ecclesiastical symbolism1    
according to which  red variously       
signifies ardent love1 burning zeal1    
energy1 courage1  cruelty and           
bloodthirstiness4 ,to the antagonism and
 complexity of these  influences we must
 doubtless attribute the disturbing     
nature of the  emotion aroused by the   
group of red sensations and the         
fluctuations in  the predilection felt  
towards it4 ,it is at once the most     
attractive and  the most repulsive of   
colors4 ,to enjoy it we must use it     
economically4  ,the vision of poppies on
 a background of golden corn1 the glint 
of  roses embowered in green leaves1 the
 sudden flash of a scarlet flower  on a 
southern woman's dark hair--it is in    

such visions as these that  red gives us
 its emotional thrill altogether        
untouched by pain4 ,if the              
#8multitudinous seas' were indeed       
#8incarnadined' for us in #8one red1'   
if the sky were scarlet1 or all         
vegetation crimson1 the horror of the   
world would be painful to contemplate   
for nervous systems moulded  to our     
vision of nature4 ,our eyes have        
developed in a world where  the green   
and blue rays meet us at every step1 and
 where we have in  consequence been     
almost as dulled to them as we are to   
the weight of  the atmosphere that      
presses in on us on every side4 ,it is  
under the  clouded skies of northern    
lands that blue is counted the loveliest
 of  colors2 it is in the desert that   
green becomes supremely beautiful and   
sacred4          ,,the ,,expenditure    
,,of ,,the ,,working ,,classes,d4       
,,by ,,henry ,,higgs4        ,d ,address
 by the ,president to the ,economic     
,science and          ,statistics       

,section at the ,dover meeting of the   
,british          ,association for the  
,advancement of ,science4      ,the     
prime concern of the economist and of   
the statistician is  the condition of   
the people4 ,other matters which engage 
their  attention--particular problems1  
questions of history1 discussions of    
method1 developments of theory--all     
derive their ultimate importance  from  
their bearing upon this central subject4
 ,the statistician measures  the        
changing phenomena of the production1   
distribution and consumption  of wealth1
 which to a large extent reflect and    
determine the material  condition of the
 people4 ,the economist analyzes the    
motives of these  phenomena1 and        
endeavors to trace the connection       
between cause and  effect4 ,he is unable
 to push his analysis far without a firm
 mastery  of the theory of value1 the   
perfecting of which has been the chief  
stride made by economic science in the  
nineteenth century4 ,when we read  the  

#8,wealth of ,nations' we are forced to 
admit that in sheer sagacity  ,adam     
,smith is unsurpassed by any of his     
successors4 ,it is only when  we come to
 his imperfect and unconnected views    
upon value that we  feel the power of   
increased knowledge4 ,j4 ,s4 ,mill      
supposed in #ahdh  that the last word   
had been said on the theory of value4   
,in his third  book he writes3 8,in a   
state of society in which the industrial
 system  is entirely founded on purchase
 and sale 444 the question of value  is 
fundamental4 ,almost every speculation  
respecting the economical  interests of 
a society thus constituted implies some 
theory of value2  the smallest error on 
this subject infects with corresponding 
error all  our other conclusions1 and   
anything vague or misty in our          
conception of  it creates confusion and 
uncertainty in everything else40 ,and he
 adds3  8,happily1 there is nothing in  
the laws of value which remains for the 
present or any future writer to clear   

up2 the theory of the subject is        
complete40    ,we know now that he was  
wrong4 ,thanks in the main to economists
  still alive1 and especially to the    
mathematical economists1 we have  at    
length a theory of value so formally    
exact that1 whatever may be  added to it
 in the future1 time can take nothing   
from it2 while it is  sufficiently      
flexible to lend itself as well to a    
rgime of monopoly  as to one of         
competition4 ,yet our confidence in this
 instrument of  analysis is far from    
inspiring us with the assurance which   
has done so  much to discredit economics
 by provoking its professors to         
dogmatize  upon problems with the whole 
facts of which they were imperfectly    
acquainted4 ,given certain conditions of
 supply and certain conditions  of      
demand1 the economist should have no    
doubt as to the resulting  determination
 of value2 but he is more than ever     
alert to make sure  that he has all the 
material factors of the case before him2

 that he  understands the facts and     
their mutual relation before he ventures
  to pronounce an opinion upon any mixed
 question4 ,he must have the  facts     
before he can analyze them4 ,a small    
array of syllogisms1 which1  as ,bacon  
says1 8master the assent and not the    
subject10 are not an  adequate equipment
 for him4 ,he sees more and more the    
need for careful  and industrious       
investigation1 and prominent among the  
subjects which  await his trained       
observation are the condition of the    
people and the  related subject of the  
consumption of wealth4 ,training is1    
indeed1  indispensable4 ,every social   
question has its purely economic        
elements  for the skilled economist to  
unravel1 and when this part of his task 
has been achieved1 he is at an advantage
 in approaching the other parts  of it1 
while his habit of mind helps him to    
know what to look out for  and what to  
expect4    ,it is a curious paradox     
that1 busying ourselves as we do with   

the  condition of the people1 we are    
lamentably lacking in precision in our  
knowledge of the economic life and state
 of the ,british people in the  present 
day4 ,political economy has1 however1   
followed the lines of  development of   
political power4 ,at one time it was1 as
 the ,germans say1  cameralistic--an    
affair of the council chamber1 a        
question of the power  and resources of 
the king4 ,taking a wider but still     
restricted view of  society1 it became  
capitalistic1 identifying the economic  
interests of  the community to a too    
great extent with those of the          
capitalist class4  ,it has at length    
become frankly democratic1 looking      
consciously and  directly to the        
prosperity of the people at large4      
,thus1 then1 we have at once a more     
accurate theory1 a livelier sense  of   
caution as to its limitations in        
practice1 and the widest possible  field
 of study4 ,so far as most of us are    
concerned1 we might as well  spend our  

time in verifying the ready reckoner as 
in tracing and  retracing the lines of  
pure theory4 ,these tools are made for  
use4  ,economic science is likely to    
make the most satisfactory progress if  
we  watch the social forces that        
surround us1 detecting the operation of 
economic law in all its manifestations1 
and in observing1 cordinating  and      
recording the facts of economic life4   
,it is not enough1 to borrow  the       
language of the biologist 7part of which
 he himself borrowed from  the old      
economist71 to talk of the struggle for 
existence1 the survival  of the fittest 
and of evolution4 ,we want1 above all1  
his spirit and his  method--the careful1
 minute1 systematic observation of life 
as affected  by environment1 heredity   
and habit4 ,different problems are      
brought to  the front by different      
circumstances and appeal to different   
minds2  but at all times and to all     
economists the condition of the people  
is of chief interest1 and the           

consumption of wealth is so closely     
connected with it that it might seem    
superfluous to plead for its  study4    
,yet some such plea is necessary4 ,the  
arts of production improve  apace4 ,the 
victories of science are rapidly        
utilized by manufacturers  anxious to   
make a fortune4 ,even here the          
descriptive study of the  subject is    
hampered by the trade secrets involved  
in many processes1  and by a feeling    
that production may safely be left to   
the unresting  intelligence of captains 
of industry1 so that the onlooker is    
chiefly  concerned in this branch of the
 subject with solicitude for the health 
and safety of the workmen employed4 ,the
 departments of distribution  and       
exchange appeal especially to the pride 
of intellect4 ,the delicate  theorems of
 value in all their branches--wages1    
rent1 interest1  profits1 the problems  
of taxation1 the alluring study of      
currency1 the  mechanism of banking and 
exchange--have attracted the greatest   

share of  the economist's attention4 ,on
 the practical side of distribution the 
growth of trade unions1 the spread of   
education1 the improved standard  of    
living1 have increased the bargaining   
power of the working classes  and       
combined with other causes to effect a  
gratifying improvement in  the          
distribution of wealth1 so that they    
receive a growing share of the  growing 
national dividend4 ,the practical and   
the speculative aspects  alike of the   
consumption of wealth have received less
 consideration4  ,nobody sees his way to
 a fortune through the spread of more   
knowledge  of domestic economy in       
workmen's homes2 and the scientific     
observer  has curbed his curiosity      
before what might seem an inquisitorial 
investigation into the question1 what   
becomes of wages8 ,economists long  ago 
discovered the necessity of             
distinguishing between money wages and  
real wages4 ,it is now necessary for us 
to distinguish between real  wages and  

utilities--not to stop at the fact that 
so many shillings a  week might procure 
such and such necessaries1 comforts1 or 
luxuries1  but to ascertain how they are
 expended4 ,from the first we can deduce
  what the economic condition of the    
people might be2 from the second we     
shall know what it is4 ,and when we know
 what it is we shall see more  clearly  
what with more wisdom it might become4  
,wealth1 after all1 is a  means to an   
end4 ,it is not enough to maximize      
wealth2 we must strive  to maximize     
utilities4 ,and we can no more judge of 
the condition of  a people from its     
receipts alone1 than we can judge of the
 financial  condition of a nation from a
 mere statement of its revenues4    ,the
 condition of the people has1 of course1
 improved1 and is improving4  ,public   
hygiene has made great progress1 and    
houses are better and  more sanitary1   
though for this and other reasons rents 
have risen4  ,wages are higher4         
,commodities are cheaper4 ,coperation   

and the  better organization of retail  
business1 giving no credit1 have saved  
some of the profits of middlemen for the
 benefit of the consumer1  while        
authority fights without ceasing against
 frauds in weights  and measures1 and   
adulteration4 ,free libraries1 museums1 
picture  galleries1 parks1 public       
gardens and promenades have multiplied1 
and  it is almost sufficient to observe 
that no one seems to be too poor  to    
command the use of a bicycle4 ,but with 
all this progress it is to  be feared   
that housekeeping is no better          
understood than it was two  centuries   
ago--perhaps not even so well4 ,in the  
interval it has become  enormously      
simplified4 ,the complete housewife is  
no longer a brewer1  a baker1 a dyer1 a 
tailor and a host of other specialists  
rolled into  one4 ,but among the working
 classes the advent of the factory      
system  has increased the employment of 
women and girls away from home to  such 
an extent that many of them now marry   

with a minimum of domestic  experience1 
and are with the best intentions the    
innocent agents of  inefficiency and    
waste1 even in this simplified          
household4    ,if we were suddenly      
swallowed up by the ocean1 it appears   
probable that  the foreign student would
 find it easier to describe from        
existing  documents the life and home of
 the ,british craftsman in the middle   
ages than of his descendant of to-day4  
,in part1 no doubt1 our fiscal  system1 
with its few taxes upon articles of food
 and its light pressure  on the working 
classes1 is responsible for this        
neglect4 ,during the  ,napoleonic war   
,pitt sent for ,arthur ,young to ask him
 what were the  ordinary and necessary  
expenses of a workman's family1 and the 
question  would again become one of     
practical politics if any large addition
  were required in the proceeds of      
indirect taxation4 ,taxation has the    
one advantage of providing us with      
statistics4 ,we know tolerably well  the

 facts in the mass about the consumption
 of tea and coffee1 dried  fruits and   
tobacco1 and of alcohol1 while the      
income tax 7aided in  the near future by
 returns of the death duties7 may give  
us some idea  of the stratification of  
the wealthier classes4 ,but the details 
of  consumption are still obscure4 ,it  
has already been suggested that some    
restraint may arise from the sentiment  
that individuals are likely to  resent  
what they may regard as a prying into   
their affairs4 ,but when we  travel     
abroad we are curious to notice1 and do 
notice without giving  offence1 the     
dress1 the habits and the food of       
peasants and workmen2  and it is        
difficult to resist the conclusion that 
we are less observant  at home because  
these common and trivial details appear 
to us unworthy  of attention4 ,in his   
#8,principles of ,economics' ,professor 
,marshall says3  8,perhaps #ajj1jjj1jjj 
annually are spent1 even by the working 
classes1  and #djj1jjj1jjj by the rest  

of the population of ,england1 in ways  
that  do little or nothing towards      
making life nobler or truly happier40   
,and1 again1 speaking before the ,royal 
,statistical ,society in #ahic3         
8,something like the whole imperial     
revenue1 say #ajj millions a year1      
might be saved if a sufficient number of
 able women went about the  country and 
induced the other women to manage their 
households as they  did themselves40    
,these figures show1 at any rate1 the   
possibilities of  greatness in the      
economic progress which may result from 
attention to  the humblest details of   
domestic life4    ,economics1 like other
 sciences1 lies under a great debt of   
obligation  to ,french pioneers4 ,the   
physiocrats1 or conomistes1 of the      
eighteenth century1 were the first      
school of writers to make it worthy  of 
the name of a science4 ,in ,cournot1    
,france gave us a giant of  originality 
in pure theory4 ,in ,comte1 we have a   
philosopher fruitful  in suggestion to  

the narrower economist4 ,in ,le ,play1  
we have a writer  as yet little known in
 ,england1 but to whom recognition and  
respect  are gradually coming for his   
early perception of the importance of   
ascertaining the facts of consumption1  
and it is to ,le ,play's #8family       
budgets1' the receipts and expenses of  
workmen's families1 that ,i  desire     
especially to call attention4 ,i have   
given elsewhere an account  of his life 
and work4,e ,broadly speaking1 he sets  
himself by the  comparative study of    
workmen's families in different         
countries of  ,europe to arrive at the  
causes of well-being and of misery among
  the laboring classes4 ,the subject was
 too large to lead him in many          
directions to very precise conclusions4 
,we are reminded in reading  him of an  
incident at a dinner of the ,political  
,economy ,club in #ahgf1  when ,mr4     
,robert ,lowe propounded the question3  
8,what are the more  important results  
which have followed from the publication

 of the  #8,wealth of ,nations' just one
 hundred years ago80 ,some of the most  
enthusiastic admirers of ,adam ,smith   
were present1 ,mr4 ,gladstone and  ,m4  
,lon ,say among the number2 and ,mr4    
,lowe trenchantly declared that  it all 
came to this3 8,the causes of wealth are
 two1 industry and  thrift2 the causes  
of poverty are two1 idleness and waste40
 ,it was  left to ,mr4 ,w4 ,e4 ,forster 
to make the rugged remark3 8,you don't  
want  to go to ,adam ,smith for         
that--you can get that out of the       
,proverbs of  ,solomon40 ,and ,le       
,play's conclusions frequently go still 
further back1  to the ,decalogue4 ,there
 are1 however1 many observations1       
suggestive  and original1 upon the      
material facts1 the economic life1 of   
the  families he brought under review4  
,and we are now concerned rather with   
his method than with his conclusions4   
,given half a dozen ,le ,plays  applying
 their minds to the study of the        
consumption of wealth among  the working

 classes of ,england1 we might expect   
soon to see a greater  advance in       
comfort1 a greater rise in the standard 
of life1 than  improved arts of         
production alone are likely to yield in 
a generation4  ,certain ,english writers
 had1 indeed1 prepared family budgets   
before  ,le ,play arose4 ,but their     
method was usually incomplete except for
 the  specific purpose they had before  
them4 ,david ,davies and ,sir ,f4 ,eden 
were chiefly concerned with the poor    
law1 ,arthur ,young and ,cobbett with   
agricultural politics1 ,dudley ,baxter  
and ,leone ,levi with taxation4  ,le    
,play may fairly be called the father of
 the scientific family  budget4 ,his    
studies of four ,english families,f are 
the most complete  economic pictures of 
,english popular life to be found in    
literature4  ,with the aid of some local
 authority he chose what was thought a  
fairly typical family1 and then1 frankly
 explaining his scientific  object and  
securing confidence1 he set himself to  

study it4 ,nothing  of economic interest
 is too unimportant for him to record4  
,a minute  inventory and valuation of   
clothes1 furniture and household goods2 
a detailed account1 item by item1 of    
income from all sources and of          
expenditure upon all objects for a year1
 with the quantities and prices  of     
foods1 c42 a description of the family1 
member by member1 their  past history1  
their environment1 how they came to be  
where they are and  to earn their living
 as they do2 their resources in the     
present1 their  provision for the       
future2 their meals1 hygiene and        
recreations2 their  social1 moral1      
political and religious                 
observances--nothing escapes  him4 ,and 
the whole is organized1 classified1     
fitted into a framework  identical for  
all cases1 with the painstaking and     
methodical industry  of the naturalist4 
,contrasted with this the realism of    
novelists1 the  occasional excursions of
 journalists1 the observations of       

professed  economists1 are pitiably     
incomplete4 ,as early as #aheg ,le ,play
 found  one ardent admirer in ,england1 
,mr4 ,w4 ,l4 ,sargant1 whose 8,economy  
of  the ,laboring ,classes10 avowedly   
inspired by ,le ,play1 is a valuable and
  interesting piece of work4 ,since     
then1 however1 with the magnificent     
exception of ,mr4 ,charles ,booth1      
little has been done to throw light     
upon the mode of life of the            
wage-earners of ,england4 ,the ,board of
  ,trade heralded the formation of its  
,labor ,department by issuing a blue    
book--unhappily without sequel--entitled
 8,returns of ,expenditure by  ,working 
,men10 in #ahhi1 and the ,economic ,club
 has published a useful  collection of  
studies in #8,family ,budgets1' #ahif4  
,but we shall probably  still depend    
very much upon foreign observers for    
fuller knowledge of  the subject4 ,m4   
,ren ,lavolle1 an adherent who may      
almost be called  a colleague of ,le    
,play1 has devoted to ,england a whole  

volume of his  important work #8,les    
,classes ,ouvrires en ,europe3 tudes sur
 leur  situation matrielle et morale4',g
 ,m4 ,urbain ,gurin1 another member  of 
the ,socit d',economie ,sociale1 founded
 by ,le ,play to carry on his  work1 has
 recently added a study of a tanner's   
family in ,nottingham  to ,le ,play's   
gallery of portraits2 and some of the   
young members of  the ,muse ,social and 
the ,ecole ,libre des ,sciences         
,politiques have come  among us animated
 with the same scientific curiosity4 ,a 
vivid 7and1 so  far as ,newcastle is    
concerned1 a trustworthy7 sketch by a   
,german miner1  8,how the ,english      
,workman ,lives10 just translated into  
,english1 is our  latest debt to foreign
 observers4 ,it may be hoped that the   
,british  ,association1 largely attended
 as it is by persons who would shrink   
from  more ambitious scientific labors1 
will furnish some workers ready to do   
their country the very real service of  
recording such facts as they can        

collect about the economic habits of our
 own people1 and so helping us  to know 
ourselves4        ,e ,harvard ,quarterly
 ,journal of ,economics1 vol4 iv41      
#ahij2          ,journal of ,royal      
,statistical ,society1 ,march1 #ahic2   
,palgrave's ,dictionary of ,political   
,economy1 s4 v4 ,le          ,play1     
#ahif4        ,f ,les ,ouvriers         
,europeens1 ,paris1 folio1 #ahee4       
,g ,paris1 #ahif1 tom4 iii41 #fef pp41  
large #hvo4    ,consider1 for a moment1 
the consumption of food4 ,to the        
ordinary  ,english workman life would   
seem unendurable without white wheaten  
bread4 ,other forms of bread he knows   
there are1 but he has unreasoning       
prejudices against wholemeal bread--the 
food of workhouses and  prisons--and    
against rye bread or other kinds of     
bread1 the food of  foreigners4 ,but in 
many parts of ,europe the working       
classes have no  bread4 ,cereals of some
 sort1 prepared in some way1 they of    
course  employ4 ,wheat1 oats1 rye1      

barley1 maize1 buckwheat1 even          
chestnuts1 are  used indifferently in   
different places1 and rice and potatoes 
are among  the substitutes4 ,what is the
 relative value of these as foodstuffs1 
and  what is the best mode of preparing 
them8 ,the reasons which induced men  in
 the middle ages to consume the cereals 
of their own neighborhood  have been so 
much weakened by the cheapening of      
transport and the  international        
specialization of industries1 that the  
conservatism of  food habits is brought 
into strong relief when we find         
neighboring  peoples abandoning1 first  
in town and then in country1 marked     
distinctions of national costumes1 but  
clinging everywhere to national         
differences of food4 ,we are perhaps on 
the eve of considerable changes  here4  
,two years ago an ,american economist   
told me in ,boston that fruit  had been 
the great ally of the workmen in a      
recent severe strike4 ,there  had been  
an exceptionally large crop of bananas1 

which were sold at  one cent apiece1 and
 the strikers had sustained themselves  
and their  families almost entirely upon
 bananas at a trifling cost--very       
greatly  below their usual expense for  
food4 ,returning to ,london ,i found    
bananas  on sale in the streets for a   
halfpenny4 ,no doubt they were consumed 
here in addition to1 and not in         
substitution for1 ordinary food2 but    
they illustrate the fact that the foods 
of other latitudes are no  longer the   
sole luxury of the rich1 but are brought
 within the reach of  all classes1 and  
that our popular food habits need no    
longer be made  to conform to the narrow
 range of former days1 but may be put   
upon a  wider rational basis4 ,the      
vegetarians1 largely dependent upon     
other  countries1 have recognized this4 
,the chemist and the physiologist might 
give us great assistance in these       
matters4 ,most of the calculations      
which ,i have seen as to the            
constituents of foods1 their heat-giving

  and nutritive properties1 appear to   
ignore the greater or less facility     
with which the different foods are      
assimilated4 ,it is surprising that     
rice1 in some respects the most         
economical of all grains1 needing  no   
milling1 easily cooked and easily       
digested1 is not more largely  consumed 
by the poorer families in this country4 
,the effect upon our food habits of the 
introduction of railways and  the supply
 of comparatively cheap fuel to every   
household is almost  incalculable4 ,but 
for this the consumption of tea1 perhaps
 even of  potatoes where there is no    
peat1 would be very small4 ,the         
preference  of the ,french for liquid1  
and of the ,english for solid1 food1 has
  been attributed to the greater        
relative facilities which the ,french   
once enjoyed for making a fire1 though  
the persistence 7if not the  origin7 of 
our popular habits in this respect      
probably lies rather  in the fact that a
 ,frenchwoman's cookery makes greater   

demands upon  her time and attention4   
,one result of this preference is that  
the  essential juices of meat preserved 
by the ,french in soups and ragouts  are
 with us to a large extent absolutely   
wasted4 ,owners of small house          
properties complain that1 however well  
trapped their sinks may be1  the pipes  
are constantly choked1 and that the     
mysterious mischief is  almost          
invariably cured by liberal doses of    
boiling water1 which melt  the          
solidified fats cast away in a state of 
solution4 ,the number of  persons who   
died of starvation in the administrative
 county of ,london  in #ahih1 or whose  
death was accelerated by privation1     
amounted to #dh2  and we shall be pretty
 safe in estimating the total number in 
the  ,united ,kingdom at something less 
than #ejj4 ,the common and inevitable   
reflection is that they might have been 
easily relieved from the  superfluities 
of the rich2 but it is true also that   
their sufficient  sustenance was        

destroyed many times over through the   
ignorance of the  poor4 ,it would be    
difficult to find an ,english cookery   
book which a  workman's wife would not  
reject as too fanciful and ambitious to 
be  practical4 ,a little ,french        
treatise1 #8,la parfaite ,cuisinire1 ou 
l',art  d'utiliser les ,restes1' strikes
 in its title1 at any rate1 the keynote 
of the popular domestic economy of which
 we stand much in need in  ,england4    
,housekeeping1 even the humblest1 is a  
skilled business4 ,to  know what to buy1
 how to use it and how to utilize waste 
does not come  by the light of nature4  
,if more knowledge and more imagination 
were  devoted to the teaching of cookery
 in our board schools1 the family  meal 
might be made more varied1 more         
appetizing1 more attractive and  more   
economical1 leaving a larger margin for 
the comforts1 culture  and recreations  
which help to develop the best social   
qualities4 ,a  happy family is a family 
of good citizens4 ,it would be          

discourteous  to another section of this
 ,association to quote without reserve  
the  mot of ,brillat-,savarin3 8,he who 
discovers a new dish does more for  the 
happiness of mankind than he who        
discovers a new planet40 ,we must       
stipulate that the new dish effects an  
improvement in the economy of  the      
working classes4    ,take1 again1 the   
consumption of coal4 ,mr4 ,sargant says1
 8,it is  impossible to say how much of 
the superiority of ,english health  and 
longevity is owing to the use of open   
fireplaces02 probably a  considerable   
part is owing to it4 ,we all know how   
close and stifling  is the atmosphere of
 a room heated by a stove1 and how much 
more  difficult it is to keep a room    
perfectly ventilated in summer than it  
is in winter1 when the fire is          
constantly changing the air4 ,it may be 
true that three fourths of the heat of  
our fireplaces passes up the  chimney   
and is lost to us2 but we gain far more 
advantage by the fresh  air constantly  

introduced into the room4 ,now1 with    
improved grates and  improved fireplaces
 we may retain all the advantages of the
 open fire  without so great a waste    
either of the substance of the consumer 
or of  the national stock of coal2 and  
attention is already being devoted to   
this fact in middle-class households1   
but some time must yet elapse  before   
the advantage is reaped by the working  
classes4 ,at a former  meeting of this  
,association ,mr4 ,edward ,atkinson     
exhibited a portable  oven or           
cooking-stove1 which was a marvel of    
simplicity and economy4  ,he has        
described it at length in his #8,science
 of ,nutrition1' #ahib4  ,he argues that
 the attempts to combine cooking with   
the warming of a  room or house are     
absurdly wasteful2 that almost the whole
 of the fuel  used in cooking is wasted2
 and that nine tenths of the time       
devoted to  watching the process of     
cooking is wasted2 and he estimates the 
waste  of food from bad cooking in the  

,united ,states at #a1jjj1jjj1jjj a     
year4  ,i have not1 however1 heard of   
his oven being at all extensively used4 
,upon the thorny subject of dress it is 
perilous to venture2 but it  is         
impossible to be in the neighborhood of 
a ,london park on a ,sunday  afternoon  
without feeling that the efforts of     
domestic servants to  follow the rapidly
 changing vagaries of fashion are       
carried to a  pernicious degree of      
waste4 ,the blouse of the ,french       
workman and the  bare head of the       
,parisian factory-girl or flower-girl   
are infinitely  more pleasing than the  
soiled and frowsy woolens or the dowdy  
hats of  their ,english fellows1 nor    
does the difference of climate afford an
  adequate explanation of the difference
 of habit4 ,we must perhaps admit  a    
greater dislike in ,england to any      
external indication of a difference  in 
wealth by a costume different in kind4  
,m4 ,lavolle1 after referring  to the   
low price of the ready-made suits which 

the ,english factories  8fling by the   
million on the markets of the world1    
including their  own10 adds3 8,this     
extraordinary cheapness is1 however1 not
 always  without inconvenience to the   
consumer4 ,if the clothes he buys cost  
little1 they are not lasting1 and their 
renewal becomes in the long  run very   
burdensome4 ,this renewal is1 too1 the  
more frequent in that  the wife of the  
,english workman is in general far from 
skillful in  sewing and mending4        
,whether she lacks inclination1 or the  
necessary  training1 or whether the     
fatigues of a too frequent maternity    
make her  rle as a housewife too        
difficult for her to support1 the woman 
of  the people is generally1 on the     
other side of the ,channel1 a rather    
poor cook1 an indifferent needle-woman  
and a still more indifferent  hand at   
repairs40 ,as a consequence1 he says1   
the ,english workman has  often no      
alternative but to wear his garments in 
holes or to replace  them by others4    

,given an equal income1 there is        
probably no doubt that  a ,french       
working-class family will be better fed 
and better clad than a  corresponding   
,english family dealing in the same     
market1 and will lay  up a larger stock 
of the household goods1 and especially  
linen1 which  are the pride of the      
,french peasant4    ,the waste resulting
 from the immoderate use of alcohol and 
from the  widespread habit of betting1  
serious as it is1 need not detain me1 as
 ,i  wish to confine myself more        
particularly to waste which can hardly  
be  called intentional4 ,it is not      
suggested that every man should confine 
his expenditure to what is strictly     
necessary to maintain his social        
position4 ,the great ,german writer on  
finance1 ,professor ,wagner1 is         
accustomed to say that 8parsimony is not
 a principle40 ,it is sometimes1        
indeed1 a bad policy and a wasteful     
policy2 and life would be a very  dull  
business if its monotony were not       

relieved by amusement and  variety1 even
 at the occasional expense of thrift4   
,le ,play refers to  tobacco as 8the    
most economical of all recreations40    
,how else1 he asks1  could the ,hartz   
miner 8give himself an agreeable        
sensation0 a thousand  times in a year  
at so low a cost as #aj francs8 ,but    
nobody would wish to  see a free man    
using his tobacco like the ,russian     
prisoners described  to me by ,prince   
,krapotkin1 as chewing it1 drying and   
smoking it1 and  finally snuffing the   
ashes6 ,nor should we desire to         
eradicate from  society the impulses of 
hospitality1 and even of a certain      
measure of  display4 ,an austere and    
selfish avarice1 if generally diffused1 
may  strike at the very existence of a  
nation4    ,another respect in which    
,french example may be profitable to us 
is the  municipal management of funerals
 7pompes funbres74 ,many a struggling   
family of the working classes has been  
seriously crippled by launching  out    

into exaggerated expenses at the death  
of one of its members1 and  especially  
of a bread-winner4 ,the ,french system1 
while preserving the  highest respect   
for the dead1 has some respect for the  
living1 who are  frequently unable and  
unwilling at a time of bereavement to   
resist any  suggestion for expensive    
display1 which seems to them a last     
token of  affection as well as a proof  
of self-respect4    ,as regards housing 
the ,english cottage or artisan's house 
is regarded  on the ,continent rather as
 a model for imitation than as a subject
  for criticism2 but the pressure of    
population upon space in our large      
cities1 joined with a love of life in   
the town1 may possibly prove  too strong
 for the individualist's desire for a   
house to himself4  ,if we should be     
driven to what ,mrs4 ,leonard ,courtney 
has proposed  to call ,associated       
,homes1 the famillistre founded by ,m4  
,godin at  ,guise1 and rooted in the    
idea of ,fourier's phalanstre will show 

us  what has already been achieved in   
this direction4 ,dissociated from       
industrial enterprise it might easily   
become popular in ,england4 ,some  of   
its collective economies are certainly  
deserving of imitation1 and  the        
experience not only of the ,continent1  
but also of ,america1 may  soon bring us
 face to face with the question whether 
the preparation  of dinners1 in large   
towns1 should not--at least for the     
working  classes--be left to the outside
 specialist like the old-home industries
  of baking and brewing4 ,an excellent  
example of scientific observation  is   
#8,les ,maisons types1' by ,m4 de       
,foville1 the well-known master of the  
,french ,mint4 ,he describes in detail  
the various forms of huts1 cottages  and
 houses scattered over ,france in such a
 fashion that it is said the  traveler  
in a railway train may tell1 by reading 
the book1 through  what part of the     
country he is passing2 and he gives the 
reasons1  founded upon history or local 

circumstances1 for the peculiarities in 
architecture to be observed4 ,the book  
is a useful warning against rash        
generalizations as to the best type of  
house for a working man4    ,a          
well-informed writer shows1 in a recent 
article in the #8,times1'  that not less
 than about fifty million gallons of    
water a day might  be saved in ,london1 
8without withdrawing a drop from any    
legitimate  purpose1 public or private1 
including the watering of plants40 ,he  
says3  8,the detection of waste is      
carried out by means of meters placed on
  the mains1 which record automatically 
the quantity of water passing  hour by  
hour throughout the day and night4 ,the 
whole area served by a  given water     
supply is mapped out into small         
districts1 each of which  is controlled 
by one of these detective meters4 ,the  
chart traced by  the apparatus shows    
precisely how much water is used in each
 of the  twenty-four hours4 ,it records 
in a graphic form and with singular     

fidelity the daily life of the people4  
,it shows when they get up in the       
morning1 when they go to bed at night1  
when they wash the tea-things1  the     
children and the clothes2 it shows in a 
suburban district when  the head of the 
household comes from the city and starts
 watering his  flowers2 it shows when   
the watering-cart goes round2 but1 above
 all1 it  shows when the water is       
running away to waste1 and how much40   
,i quote this not to multiply examples  
of the waste of wealth1 but to          
illustrate the insight which a few      
figures1 such as those recorded by  this
 meter1 give us into the lives of the   
people4 ,how much more does  the        
account-book1 a detective meter of every
 economic action1 give us  an animated  
photograph of the family life4 ,nothing 
is so calculated to  stimulate social   
sympathy or to suggest questions for    
consideration4  ,like a doctor's notes  
of his patients the facts are not for   
publication  in any form which will     

reveal the identity of the subject2 but 
when we  have enough of them they will  
be of the highest scientific value4 ,we 
have at present too few to offer any    
useful generalizations4 ,all that  can  
be done is to serve as a finger-post to 
point the road along which  there is    
work to be done4    ,if nothing has been
 said about the waste and extravagance  
of the  wealthier classes1 it is because
 economy is with them of less moment4   
,they suffer little or no privation from
 extravagance1 and derive less          
advantage from checking it than those to
 whom every little is a help4  ,and so  
far as much of this waste is concerned1 
they sin against the  light4 ,it is one 
thing to point out a more excellent way 
to the unwary1  another to preach to    
those who1 seeing the better1 follow the
 worse4    ,but the expenditure of the  
working classes is also1 from a         
scientific  point of view1 vastly more  
important4 ,their expenses are more     
uniform1  less disturbed by fantasy1 or 

hospitality1 or expensive travel1 and   
will give us more insight into the      
hitherto inscrutable laws of demand4    
,the time is far removed when any       
reduction in the cost of living could   
be successfully made the pretext for a  
reduction in the rate of wages4  ,the   
,committee on the ,aged ,deserving ,poor
 recommends under certain  conditions   
pensions varying with the #8cost of     
living in the locality4'  ,the same     
factor1 we are told1 enters into the    
adjustment of postmen's  wages as       
between town and town4 ,how are we to   
know the comparative cost  of living    
without these details of expenditure8   
,how else can we measure  with any      
exactness the progress of civilization  
itself8 ,how else can  we discover the  
cohesive force of the family in holding 
together the  structure of society1 the 
mutual succor of young and old1 the     
strong  and the infirm or sick1 the     
well-to-do and the victim of accident or
  ill-luck8 ,to what department soever  

of economic life we turn our eyes  we   
find live men and women1 born into      
families1 living in families1  their    
social happiness and efficiency largely 
dependent on their family  lives1 and   
when we consider how greatly our        
knowledge and insight into  society will
 be increased by a more intimate        
acquaintance with the  economics of the 
family1 we may well cherish the highest 
hopes for the  future progress of our   
science4 ,the theory of this subject1 at
 any  rate1 is not #8complete4' ,it has 
not even been begun4    ,upon certain   
aspects of the spending or using of     
wealth as opposed  to the getting of    
wealth1 like the expenditure of central 
and local  governments1 it would hardly 
be proper for me to enlarge4 ,the first 
is  subject to the watchful control of  
the tax-payer1 of ,parliament1 and  of a
 highly trained civil service2 the      
second to the jealous criticism  of the 
rate-payer and his representative4 ,but 
there is some social  expenditure1 like 

the scandalous multiplication of        
advertisements  7which by a refinement  
of cruelty gives us no rest night or    
day71  which is wicked to a degree4 ,in 
all these matters of the consumption  of
 wealth1 individually and collectively1 
we are as yet1 it must be  again        
repeated1 too ignorant of the facts4 ,an
 unimaginative people as  we are1 we are
 fortunately fond enough of travel to   
have suggestions  constantly forced upon
 us by the different experiences and    
habits of  foreign countries4 ,and we   
are happy in a neighbor like ,france1   
with  her literary and social charms and
 graces1 her scientific lucidity  and   
inventiveness1 and the contrasts of her 
social genius to inspire  comparisons1  
and in many respects to set us examples4
 ,i have singled  out one of her many   
writers for attention1 precisely because
 of this  quality of suggestiveness4    
,other investigators have1 of course1   
attacked the subject4 ,in ,belgium and  
,switzerland1 ,germany1 ,italy and      

,austria1 and the ,united ,states1      
governments and individuals have        
recently undertaken the preparation of  
family budgets2 but in many  respects   
,le ,play's monographs are the first and
 greatest of all4 ,they  yield excellent
 material1 upon which science1 in its   
various branches1  has yet to do work   
which will benefit mankind in general2  
and promises  especially to benefit the 
people of this country4 ,the            
cosmopolitan  attitude of the older     
economists was largely due to their     
centering  their attention upon the     
problems of exchange4 ,to them the globe
 was  peopled by men like ourselves1    
producing the fruits of the earth1      
anxious to exchange them to the greatest
 mutual advantage1 but hindered  from   
doing so by the perversity of national  
governments4 ,the facts  of consumption1
 at any rate1 are local4 ,they are often
 determined by  geology1 geography1     
climate and occupation2 and1 however    
fully we may  admit the economic        

solidarity of the world1 and the        
advantage which one  part of it derives 
from the prosperity of another1 yet we  
may be easily  forgiven for thinking    
that our first duty lies to our own     
brethren2  that our natural work is that
 which lies at our own doors2 that1 as  
the old proverb says1 #8the skin is     
nearer than the shirt4' ,and we may     
fairly be excused if we attempt to make 
our contribution to the welfare  of the 
human family through the improvement of 
the consumption of  wealth and the      
condition of the people in our own land4
          ,,the ,,conquest ,,of ,,the   
,,tropics4    ,,by ,,dr4 ,,geo4 ,g4     
,,groff1 ,,late ,,major ,u4 ,s4 ,v41    
,,acting ,,commissioner ,,of            
,,education1 ,,porto ,,rico4      ,the  
most beautiful and the most fruitful    
portions of the earth are at  the       
present time in the possession of       
partially civilized1 or barbarous  and  
savage races1 to the exclusion of the   
more enlightened ,caucasian4  ,shall he 

ever remain unable to possess and occupy
 tropical lands to  the exclusion of    
dark-skinned and inferior races8 ,will  
the time never  come when he can rear a 
family of strong and vigorous children1 
of pure  blood1 under the equatorial    
sun8 ,is it true that the white man     
removing  to the ,tropics necessarily   
deteriorates8    ,the almost universal  
belief is that these questions must be  
answered in  the affirmative4 ,that1    
owing to the great heat1 and to evil    
influences  operating through the air1  
the water and the soil1 it will always  
be  impossible for white people to live 
in hot countries permanently1 and1  at  
the same time1 to retain the physical   
vigor of temperate latitudes1  and to   
rear healthy children4 ,but these       
persons do not take into  account       
certain recent great discoveries in the 
domain of science1  medicine and        
hygiene4 ,in the light of these         
discoveries1 it is not wise  to say that
 the white man will never conquer the   

,tropics4    ,white races have1 in the  
past1 reached a high degree of          
civilization  in hot countries4 ,egypt1 
where the first civilization arose1 is a
  land of tropical heat4 ,the valley of 
the ,euphrates1 where arose the         
civilization of ,babylon1 and much of   
,persia1 are both tropical or           
sub-tropical in temperature4 ,the people
 of ,egypt1 ,babylon and ,persia  were  
white4 ,it would seem that to originate 
a civilization is more  difficult than  
to maintain it4    ,many countries1 now 
most salubrious1 were once considered   
very  unhealthful4 ,health conditions   
were so bad in ,england1 after the      
withdrawal of the ,romans1 that for     
nearly a thousand years there was       
absolutely no increase in the           
population1 and the most dismal accounts
  of the reign of disease have come down
 to our times4 ,what was true in        
,england1 was in great part true of all 
of ,europe throughout the ,dark  ,ages4 
,scurvy1 rheumatism1 fevers and plagues 

held high carnival in  recurring        
epidemics every few years4 ,if we can   
believe the reports1 it  was fully as   
dangerous then to dwell in the most     
favorable portion of  ,europe as it is  
now in the most dreaded tropical        
regions4    ,new ,england was at first  
thought to be a very unhealthful land4  
,the  early settlers in ,massachusetts  
wrote to their friends in ,england      
imploring shipments of ale and beer1    
because the water was #8wholly  unfit to
 drink'4 ,what held concerning ,new     
,england was doubtless  maintained about
 every other portion of the ,continent  
settled by the  ,english1 and1 in some  
cases1 these views prevailed until      
recent times4    ,it is well known that 
our ancestors thought it would never be 
possible  for white people1 or1 indeed1 
for any people1 to live on the treeless 
prairies of the great ,west4 ,the       
earliest settlers always occupied  the  
wooded belts1 and only seventy years ago
 the prairies1 which now  sustain       

millions of happy and healthy whites1   
were looked upon probably  in much the  
same way as we regard the plains of the 
,amazon1 of the  ,orinoco1 or even the  
,sahara of ,africa4    ,many persons yet
 living can recall the terrible         
struggles with disease  which the first 
settlers passed through in ,ohio1       
,indiana1 ,illinois1  ,missouri1 and    
even in salubrious ,california4 ,the    
early settlers in  these ,states were   
doubtless as sallow1 as cadaverous      
looking1 and with  as little prospect of
 leaving vigorous descendants as the    
present white  inhabitants in ,cuba1    
,porto ,rico or the ,philippines4 ,the  
reputations of  ,florida1 ,louisiana and
 ,texas were no better4    ,adults can  
live without deterioration in the       
,tropics4 ,this has been  proven by     
,english and ,dutch officers in ,india1 
,ceylon1 ,java1 ,sumatra  and elsewhere4
 ,in the ,west ,indies are men from the 
,united ,states and  from all the       
countries of ,europe1 who have been in  

the islands twenty1  thirty1 forty1 and 
in some cases even fifty1 years1 who are
 to-day the  picture of good health1    
active and vigorous in their work4 ,the 
same is  true in all parts of the       
tropical world4 ,adults can live in good
 health  there4    ,children born in the
 ,tropics1 if educated in temperate     
latitudes1 can  return to the ,tropics1 
and this can continue indefinitely in   
the same  families without              
deterioration4 ,this has been found true
 in ,india1  ,java1 the ,sandwich       
,islands and in the ,west ,indies4      
,it has been assumed1 heretofore1 that  
the bracing climate of the  north-lands 
has produced vigorous constitutions in  
the children sent  from the ,tropics4   
,that this was of some value will not be
 denied1 but  it is insisted that of    
greater value is the education in the   
higher  ideals of the temperate         
latitudes4 ,in the ,tropics1 ideas of   
morality1  of sanitation1 of correct    
living1 are very crude4 ,a child born   

and  reared in the midst of low ideals  
unconsciously absorbs them1 and         
assimilates readily with the population 
around him4 ,the ,spanish idea  that    
everyone born in a tropical colony is   
necessarily a #8degenerate'  is         
practically true1 if he is also reared  
among #8degenerates4' ,the  custom which
 exists in these colonies of giving each
 child born a  #8degenerate' native     
child as a companion and playfellow1    
only makes  more sure the outcome4      
,isolated families exist in ,cuba and   
,porto  ,rico1 where1 high ideals having
 been maintained and inculcated in the  
children1 we now find vigorous          
descendants to the third and fourth     
generations4 ,there are many such       
families in ,porto ,rico1 and the same  
is true in the ,sandwich ,islands4      
,it is here maintained that it is the   
letting go1 little by little1 the       
correct views of living1 which causes   
the white race to deteriorate1  and not 
the climate4 ,the necessities of life   

are fewer and easier to  obtain in hot  
countries than in cold ones2 and this   
makes it easy for  men to become        
indolent1 to lose ambition and to sink  
to a low level of  living and thinking4 
,the ,tropics1 contrary to the usual    
view1 are healthful regions4 ,malaria   
exists in hot countries1 but so it does 
in temperate ones4 ,typhoid  fever and  
contagious diseases are no worse than in
 cold climes4  ,smallpox is regarded as 
a mild disease4 ,scarlet fever is said  
not to  exist at all4 ,where filth is   
allowed to accumulate disease prevails1 
but in lands well drained and free from 
decaying matter and filth1  there is1   
under ordinary care1 no more to be      
feared from disease than  in the most   
favored portions of the earth4 ,at      
present1 in hot countries  the people   
pay little attention to sanitation4 ,as 
a rule1 they are  unutterably dirty4    
,they live in their own filth1 and seem 
to enjoy it4  ,the germs of disease from
 one body are promptly taken into       

another  before they have time to die1  
or are cultivated in filth deposits     
until  the whole community is affected4 
,the ,tropics1 in themselves1 are no    
more and no less healthful than         
temperate regions4 ,but the people in   
cold countries have some respect  for   
sanitation1 while those in hot countries
 have very little or no  respect for    
decent cleanliness4 ,this is the whole  
explanation of this  matter4 ,people who
 have the latrine in the kitchen and    
uncleaned for  a century1 who sleep in  
rooms into which a breath of fresh air  
cannot  enter2 who seldom wash their    
bodies2 who use rum and tobacco instead 
of food2 who permit children to cohabit 
promiscuously1 can scarcely  hope to    
escape disease1 if any prevails in their
 neighborhood4 ,such  conditions are the
 rule with the masses in hot countries4 
,those who become #8acclimatized' will  
be able to live in hot countries4  ,it  
is doubtful whether or not there is any 
actual condition known as               

#8acclimatization1' although if the term
 means becoming accustomed to  filth1   
and to certain germs which live in      
filth1 there may be something  in the   
term4    ,instead of a bodily change1   
the individual gradually becomes        
educated  to his new environment4 ,he   
learns what to eat and drink1 what to   
wear  and where to sleep1 when and how  
much to work1 to come in out of the     
shower and to change his wet clothes1 to
 avoid the midday sun and the  damp air 
of the night4 ,when a man new to the    
,tropics has learned these  things1 he  
is #8acclimatized4' ,some learn them at 
once2 others are  years in learning1 and
 meanwhile suffer from sickness and     
distress4    ,new conditions must be met
 in every country new to the pioneer1   
whether  the country is in temperate or 
hot latitudes4 ,in opening up a new     
country to settlement1 it is the severe 
labors1 the exposure1 the  meagre diet1 
the anxiety1 the general hard conditions
 of life1 which  undermine the general  

system and make the body an almost      
unresisting  victim to the germs of     
malaria and other diseases4 ,it is not  
the  climate in new countries1 but the  
hard conditions of life1 which kill  the
 settlers4    ,so1 in the recent war    
with ,spain1 bad conditions in the      
northern camps1  uncleanliness of person
 due to lack of water1 over-exertion in 
practice  marches1 sleeping on the      
ground1 change of food1 overcrowding in 
tents  preventing restful sleep1        
unsanitary conditions on transports1    
caused  the men to be landed in the     
,tropics in an extremely bad condition  
of  body4 ,landing in the rainy season1 
opening the earth to form trenches  for 
defence and about their tents1 sleeping 
upon the damp ground1 with  a deficient 
and unbalanced ration1 with no change of
 clothes for nearly  three months1 it is
 no wonder that many became sick4 ,but  
the sickness  was not due to the climate
 at all4 ,it was due to the hard        
conditions  in the home camps1 and to   

hard conditions during the campaigns in 
the  islands4    ,it is said that the   
heat1 the rains and the insects of the  
,tropics are  certainly unbearable by a 
white person from the temperate         
latitudes4  ,but these things are       
magnified by the distance from which    
they are  viewed4 ,so far as the        
tropical lands recently acquired by the 
,united  ,states are concerned1 they are
 not elements to be dreaded4    ,these  
lands are all ,oceanic ,islands4        
,surrounded by immense areas of  water1 
they have an unvarying1 or slightly     
varying1 temperature4 ,they  are warm   
the whole year round1 while never hot4  
,in all these ,islands  the midday      
temperature is about #hj ,fahrenheit4   
,at night it falls to  #ge or even to   
#gj2 in the mountains still lower1      
depending upon the  elevation4    ,but  
this heat is moderated by sea breezes4  
,except for about an hour  in the       
morning1 there is a breeze the whole day
 long1 which tempers  the heat4         

,sunstroke is unknown4 ,no bad          
conditions arising from the  heat have  
been seen in ,porto ,rico4 ,the nights  
are always so cool that  refreshing     
sleep may be obtained1 and the effect of
 the sun is tempered  by clouds1 which  
shade the earth nearly all summer4      
,all the islands have mountains which   
may be reached in a few hours1  where   
the climate of the temperate latitudes  
may be enjoyed by those  desiring the   
change4    ,the tropical rains are no   
serious drawback4 ,they fall at a fixed 
time  each day1 usually from two to four
 o'clock in the afternoon4 ,they are    
much like heavy ,june showers in the    
,states1 unaccompanied by thunder  and  
lightning4 ,the ground soon dries off1  
and the rain has occasioned  no         
inconvenience of consequence to anyone4 
,the absence of thunder and  lightning  
is remarkable4 ,this is certainly true  
in ,porto ,rico4    ,the hurricanes and 
other great wind storms are probably no 
more  frequent nor more destructive than

 are cyclones in the ,states4 ,in ,porto
  ,rico there is a belief that a single 
severe hurricane occurs about once  in  
each hundred years4    ,insects are     
strangely few4 ,the mosquito is grown in
 the cisterns1 and  is abundant in the  
towns4 ,it is practically absent in the 
country4  ,the flea is found only in the
 towns1 where it is a sort of domestic  
animal4 ,a little attention to          
cleanliness would diminish the numbers4 
,the bedbug has not been seen in a year 
in ,porto ,rico1 though there is  no    
reason why it should not be here4       
,centipedes1 spiders and tarantulas  are
 so scarce that the natives expect about
 fifty centavos for each  large specimen
 which they catch4 ,indeed1 instead of  
an abundance of  insects1 these islands 
are remarkable for the small number of  
species  and individuals indigenous to  
them4    ,recent inventions and         
discoveries have made the conquest of   
the ,tropics  by the ,caucasian race    
possible4 ,there have been great        

discoveries made  in chemistry1 biology1
 bacteriology and medicine within recent
 years4  ,chemical discoveries have     
produced new and powerful remedies4     
,biology  and bacteriology have brought 
to light numerous microscopic forms of  
life1 traced their life histories1 and  
shown that beyond a doubt1 many1  if not
 all1 of the diseases designated        
communicable 7contagious and            
infectious7 are due to living beings    
called #8germs4' ,the experimental      
physician has discovered1 in some cases1
 remedies which will destroy  these     
germs after they have been introduced   
into the body1 while the  sanitarian has
 made vast studies in demonstrating how 
they may be  destroyed before entering  
the body4 ,thus1 sterilized food1 water 
and  clothing never convey diseases4    
,cities which are kept clean and have   
pure water supplies have little fear of 
epidemic diseases4 ,the draining  of    
lowlands1 the thorough cultivation of   
the soil1 the paving of  streets and the

 use of quinine cause malaria to retreat
 from its old  haunts4    ,biologists   
have shown that a tick conveys the      
,texas cattle fever2 the  tsetse fly in 
,africa spreads the #8fly disease' among
 the cattle in that  continent4 ,the    
house-fly spread typhoid fever among our
 soldiers last  summer1 and there is    
good reason for believing that the      
mosquito is in  large part the          
disseminator of malaria4 ,consumption1  
dysentery1 the  ,asiatic plague1        
leprosy1 typhoid fever1 are all germ    
diseases4 ,knowing  the causes of these 
diseases1 the life history of the germs1
 and the  remedies to apply1 it is hoped
 that in a very few years the biologist1
  the bacteriologist1 the sanitarian1   
all working together1 will make         
tropical diseases to be no more dreaded 
than are the diseases of  temperate     
regions4 ,as warm countries become      
better known1 physicians  will certainly
 become more skillful to treat the      
diseases peculiar to  them4    ,rapid   

transportation and rapid communication  
between the tropic and  temperate       
regions will rob the former of many     
terrors4 ,when a person  can communicate
 with his family every few days1 or by  
telegraph in a  few hours1 and when he  
knows he can reach his old home readily1
 one  element which disturbed former    
pioneers is removed4    ,rapid          
transportation and the discovery of the 
process of canning  fruits1 vegetables  
and meats1 together with the process of 
manufacturing ice1 and of cold storage  
methods1 make it possible for a  person 
in a hot country to enjoy the foods to  
which he was accustomed  in his old     
home4 ,this will be a great help until  
he has learned to use  native products4 
,education and good laws will remove    
from the ,tropics many undesirable      
features which now repel people from the
 ,north4 ,it has been already  remarked 
that the people in these islands have no
 knowledge of  sanitation1 and live in  
utter disregard of all the well-known   

rules  of hygiene4 ,some of the most    
striking examples of this are the living
  in their own excretions1 sleeping in  
air-tight compartments1 the lack  of a  
variety of food1 working long hours in  
the hot sun with an empty  stomach1     
using rum1 tobacco and coffee in place  
of food1 the utter  lack of any         
restraint of the sexual instinct by     
either men or women of  the lower       
classes and by the men of all classes1  
producing a well-nigh  universal        
corruption of blood4    ,these          
unsanitary and unhygienic conditions    
have dwarfed the tropical  dwellers in  
body and in mind4 ,these things cannot  
be laid to the  climate4 ,they are due  
to ignorance4 ,the same condition would 
produce  similar results in             
,pennsylvania or ,connecticut1 and such 
results were  seen a generation ago in  
,new ,mexico1 ,california and elsewhere4
    ,the laws under which these people  
have been living have been  monstrously 
bad4 ,marriage has in some cases been   

actually discouraged2  there was little 
opportunity and little inducement to    
accumulate  property4 ,there were few   
schools1 and they were of poor quality4 
,the  different races1 white1 ,indian   
and ,african1 have fully commingled1 and
  the result the world knows is bad4    
,the strongest arguments against the    
mixing of the ,caucasian and the        
,african are to be found in the ,west   
,india ,islands4 ,the mixed races will  
be much harder to deal with than  pure  
bloods of any race4    ,the climate in  
,cuba and ,porto ,rico--and the same is 
claimed for the  ,philippines--is equal 
to any in the ,states south of the      
,carolinas4 ,with  the masses educated  
and with wholesome laws1 these islands  
will all  become garden spots1 and will 
ultimately be occupied by pure-blooded  
,anglo-,saxons1 the present inhabitants 
disappearing before the stronger  and   
purer-blooded race4                     
,,discussion ,,and ,,correspondence4    
,,poetry ,,and ,,science4    ,in spite  

of the occasional croak of prophets of  
evil1 poetry is not in  danger of being 
crowded out of the hearts of men by the 
materialism  of science4 ,it is true    
that just now there are no poets of     
surpassing  genius with whom the reading
 public is popularly acquainted4 ,it is 
true that the development of our        
material civilization through the       
surprisingly rapid advance of scientific
 discovery is a thing which  engages    
attention to a very great degree4 ,it is
 true that the necessity  of dealing    
continually with practical1             
matter-of-fact details1 whether  of the 
office1 or the factory1 or the          
laboratory1 is not in itself  distinctly
 poetical4 ,it is true that planning    
practical uses for the  ,rntgen rays or 
liquid air is not essentially           
stimulating to a love for  poetry1 but  
this is only one aspect of the case4    
,a great deal of the appeal of poetry   
comes through what it suggests  of the  
unknown and mysterious1 suggestions1 not

 of the strange and  the fanciful1 but  
of the beautiful1 hints of a something  
beyond the  beauty to which our eyes    
have yet come1 a beauty to which1       
perhaps1 for  all our longing1 they may 
never come4 ,a man for whom the problems
 of  existence have ceased to be        
problems1 a man whose theology is a     
settled  thing1 who believes certain    
things definitely and rests with assured
  ease in his belief1 a man for whom the
 vague anticipations of a world  of     
doubt as yet beyond his ken 8make no    
purple in the distance10 such a  man can
 neither have appreciation for a wide   
range of poetry1 nor will  he write     
verse that can take any serious place as
 poetry for modern  readers4 ,the poetry
 of a primitive people1 dealing with    
primitive  emotions1 finds in more      
elementary things1 like the boy in      
,wordsworth's  8,intimations of         
,immortality10 hints and suggestions of 
a 8something  that is gone10 8the glory 
and the freshness of a dream40 ,these   

emotions  become our emotions           
sympathetically1 and not because they   
are quite the  normal feelings for the  
mature reader of poetry to-day4 ,the    
things that  were a wonder to the ,greek
 of ,homer's time have ceased to be a   
wonder  to us1 and if a poet would      
excite the same feelings in us he must  
employ other means4 ,science1 in giving 
us absolute knowledge in regard  to many
 things which not so long ago were full 
of strangeness for us1  has taken out of
 them the olden poetry and the trees    
have nymphs that  direct their growth no
 longer1 the streams that were once     
dmon-haunted  are now merely water      
courses1 and the other spirits of the   
earth and  air have gone far away into  
the world's forgetfulness4 ,but while we
  have been pushing out into the unknown
 and annexing portions of it to  the    
region of the known1 we have been merely
 enlarging the boundary1  not           
obliterating it4 ,more than this man    
never can do4 ,always beyond  the       

farthest vision of his telescope and    
microscope will lie the  unknowable1    
growing smaller1 perhaps1 but seeming   
larger as it gives  up some of its      
secret places for the inhabiting of the 
dwellers in the  known4 ,and this is the
 significant thing1 that1 as our        
knowledge grows1  our sense of what lies
 beyond that knowledge finds an         
increasing number  of things that may   
excite wonder4 ,every new scientific    
discovery1 at  least in certain         
departments of science1 simply acts as  
an index finger  pointing the way to    
related phenomena not yet understood4   
,and so it  will be ever4 ,the most     
learned man that the schools1 and the   
fields  and the sky aided by the finest 
instruments human skill can devise1  can
 produce1 will only find himself awed by
 the vast darkness of the  unknown into 
which his eyes cannot pierce4    ,there 
is another phase of the question that   
must not pass unnoticed4 ,as  the region
 of the unknown widens it offers more   

objects of interest and  may thereby    
more fully absorb attention4 ,when      
reality is sufficiently  rich in        
experience we do not care to indulge in 
dreams4 ,when the  present satisfies us 
and answers all our needs we are less   
inclined to  look forward to the future1
 whether that glows before us with the  
hues  of promise or darkens with the    
threat of coming storm4 ,but the fullest
  life may weary at times and wish1 for 
the mere rest of change1 to go  outside 
of itself and find in the strangeness of
 something new and not  yet known a     
relaxation and recreation for the tired 
hand and brain4  ,and so the            
strenuousness of modern life with its   
ceaseless outreaching  for new pleasures
 and new truths will be ready always for
 the soothing  restfulness of a poetry  
that gives the form of beauty to things 
just  beyond the wonderland of the      
known4    ,but how to make poetry of    
these things is the perplexing problem4 
,truth1 whether of the world of fact or 

of the world of imagination  reaching   
out into the spiritual realm1 is not    
poetry until in some  fashion it is made
 beautiful in its appeal to our         
sensibilities4 ,a  hundred years ago the
 things that were fitting subjects for  
poetic  treatment were much more        
elementary and as emotional stimulus    
they  reached consciousness in a much   
more immediate and direct fashion  than 
the themes that are fitted for poetry   
now4 ,the poet who would  achieve       
distinct success in the higher walks of 
poetry to-day must  be master of an art 
surpassing that of all but a few of his 
brethren  of the craft who have gone    
before him4 ,the world of the known is  
so  large1 comparatively1 now1 and the  
individual is so far removed from  the  
boundaries of the unknown1 save1        
perhaps1 at one point1 that more  art is
 required to induce him to travel the   
longer distance out of the  world of    
cold fact into the borderland of        
strangeness where suggestions  of new   

truth and new beauty may come to quicken
 aspirations4    ,it is true that there 
are themes that were new a thousand     
years ago  and will be new a thousand   
years hence1 but a poet to achieve      
distinct  success must strike a note not
 only individual1 but one closely       
attuned  to the thought and feeling of  
his time4 ,milton we know rather as a   
voice of ,puritan ,england than as a    
poetic genius4 ,we call ,wordsworth  a  
great poet and are conscious as we do   
so1 that he deserves the  distinction   
rather because he interpreted to men a  
new phase of thought  and feeling1 than 
because he knew how to make his verse   
wholly pure  poetry rather than bald    
prose4 ,even poets of such spiritual    
elevation  as ,shelley and ,coleridge   
caught the feeling and the tone of their
 time1  and the revolutionary spirit and
 the love of nature that was molding    
,wordsworth finds a distinct voice in   
them as well4 ,even ,burns1 isolated  as
 he was1 is not altogether an anomaly1  

and no one need be told that  ,byron was
 in an extreme degree the voice of the  
reactionary spirit of                   
post-revolutionary ,europe4 ,william    
,morris1 retelling old legends of       
,greek and ,saxon1 none the less        
informed his verse with the humanitarian
  and sthetic spirit of modern life1 and
 applied his sense of the  beautiful to 
the problems of nineteenth century      
existence4 ,swinburne1  too1 is         
democratic and in his vision the world  
moves on to new glories  even though the
 old be not wholly faded from the earth4
    ,robert ,browning is first and      
fundamentally a painter of character1 a 
student of the more subtle moods that   
dominate the individual1 and  toward    
this the reader of ,english fiction     
would hardly fail to see  that the      
development of literature has steadily  
been advancing for  two centuries4 ,even
 ,mrs4 ,browning through the somewhat   
morbid and  mawkish sentimentality and  
the overstrained art of 8,aurora        

,leigh10 in  the vague and uncertain way
 of a woman whose contact with reality  
was necessarily slight1 catches at the  
problems of nineteenth century  feeling4
 ,tennyson1 as all men know1 gave us    
poetry that was inwrought  of the latest
 word of science1 the last aspiration of
 religious hope1  the newest sure       
conclusion in the field of social       
endeavor for the  betterment of man4    
,and ,tennyson in 8,in ,memoriam10 as   
,browning in 8,paracelsus0 and ,lowell  
in 8,the ,cathedral10 has taught us that
 abstract truth may be made  into poetry
 and that of the loftiest and most      
vitalizing kind4 ,and to  such poetry   
the world is ready to give a willing    
ear1 though it will  not be satisfied   
with the mere tricking out in rhyme and 
meter of  scientific truth4 ,the        
difficulty for the poet to-day is not   
merely that  of new knowledge1 but that 
of a science advancing so rapidly that  
the  poet1 whose art is meditative1 can 
hardly avail himself of its latest      

revelations before their significance   
has vanished in the light of some  new  
and revolutionary discovery announced   
from some investigator's  laboratory4   
,this is so new a thing that literary   
conditions have not  yet been adjusted  
to it1 as we may fairly hope that they  
will be some  time in the not distant   
future4    ,a thing1 almost if not      
quite1 as distinctive of our time as the
  progress of scientific discovery is   
the growth of the democratic  spirit4   
,this latter has been a thing of common 
observation for over  a century1 and    
about that long ago ,wordsworth and     
,shelley1 ,burns and  ,byron voiced with
 glowing enthusiasm the new             
revolutionary gospel4  ,since then it   
has been the theme of other pens and has
 become a matter  of commonplace1 and   
yet1 though it has not lost interest    
because of  the fulfilment of the hopes 
of man1 it is not now a vital force in  
literature of the better class4 ,the    
reason for this is1 perhaps1 not  far to

 seek4 ,in the domain of politics the   
advance in thought and  feeling from a  
hundred years ago is a matter of no     
great moment4 ,the  poet who would voice
 for the world a message of brotherhood1
 thrilled  with the spirit of a new     
humanity1 inevitably finds himself      
harking  back2 he is compelled to repeat
 the sentiments of ,mrs4 ,browning's    
perfervid ,italian poems1 or ,whittier's
 simple songs1 or ,shelley's vague      
theorizing3 he ceases to be individual4 
,under present conditions1  strenuously 
vocal as the world is with the voices of
 those trying to be  heard1 failure to  
be distinctly and positively individual 
is failure to  gain attention4    ,and  
it is significant that we are           
approaching the solution of social      
problems in the scientific way4 ,the    
development of a better state of        
society is to come about1 as we now     
realize1 through the operation of       
natural laws1 and not by the sensational
 process of awakening in the  hearts of 

men a flashing enthusiasm for new forms 
of government4    ,benjamin ,kidd's     
#8,social ,evolution' indicates quite   
clearly the new  point of view from     
which all problems of society are to be 
considered1  and perhaps1 not less      
remarkable for a like significance is   
,henry  ,drummond's #8,ascent of ,man4' 
,as the laboratory gives up its secrets1
 as  the mysteries of biology and       
processes of growth in the organic world
  become less mysterious1 we are        
approaching nearer and nearer to a      
knowledge of the laws that are concerned
 in all growth1 whether of the  star    
fish or of the modern state4 ,assuming  
that man is the most vitally  concerned 
in the organization of society here in  
this present world1  and with the       
problem of another world1 whether real  
or imaginary1  whether a perfect state1 
or state of growth as that of earth1 one
  cannot escape the reflection that both
 these problems have become in  a       
measure problems of science1 rather than

 problems of intuition or  authority or 
emotional susceptibility4    ,and when  
science has come so close to all the    
inmost convictions and  aspirations of  
man1 there must follow a poetry of      
science1 fuller1  richer1 more          
vitalizing and more enduring than any   
that has gone before  it4 ,it will      
appeal to a nobler and loftier sense of 
beauty1 a finer  and more perfect       
conception of truth4 ,it will clothe its
 utterances in  an imagery as much more 
varied as the knowledge of to-day is    
fuller  than that of yesterday4 ,it will
 be artistic beyond the dreams of other 
days1 and its art will be something more
 than that of mere intuition4  ,it will 
glow with color1 but no crudeness of    
taste will guide the  artist's brush1   
and the intelligent1 sthetic sense of a 
broadly  cultured people will find      
inspiration in it1 as once heroes did in
 the  songs of the bards of old4        
,l4 ,w4 ,,smith4    ,tabor1 ,iowa4      
,,antiquity ,,of ,,the ,,chewing ,,gum  

,,habit4    ,in the letter of ,columbus 
on the discovery of ,america1 facsimile 
edition1 #ahib1 of the four ,latin      
editions belonging to the ,lenox        
,library1 the following occurs in the   
translation 7page #aa73 8,finally1  that
 ,i may compress in few words the brief 
account of our departure  and quick     
return1 and the gain1 ,i promise this1  
that if ,i am supported  by our most    
invincible sovereigns with a little of  
their help1 as much  gold can be        
supplied as they will need1 indeed1 as  
much of spices1 of  cotton1 of chewing  
gum 7which is only found in ,chios71    
also as much of  aloeswood1 and as many 
slaves for the navy as their majesties  
will wish  to demand40    ,the date of  
this letter is ,march #ad1 #adic1--over 
four hundred years  ago4 ,it will be    
seen by the above that the chewing gum  
habit is by no  means a modern or recent
 one1 and doubtless antedates ,columbus'
 letter  by many years4    ,the         
reference to ,chios1 an island in the   

,grecian ,archipelago1 is  presumably   
for the purpose of indicating the       
character of the #8gum4'  ,the ,chios   
#8gum' of the ancients has been         
described as an earth of a  compact     
character1 probably argillaceous1 and   
had the reputation of  possessing       
medicinal qualities4 ,its consistency   
and appearance may have  been such as to
 have led to its being popularly called 
#8gum4'    ,that the chewing of gum1 or 
some other article or waxy substance    
suitable for chewing1 was in vogue at   
the time1 there can be no doubt1  and   
that the discovery of such a substance  
would be regarded as an  important      
acquisition is implied by its being     
specially mentioned and  promised by    
,columbus4    ,years ago1 more than half
 a century1 shoemakers' wax1 so-called1 
,burgundy pitch and crude spruce-gum    
were chewed to a considerable  extent1  
as the writer clearly remembers4        
,betel chewing1 the leaves and the nut  
mixed in certain proportions  with lime1

 as practiced in ,asiatic countries1    
naturally occurs to the  mind in        
connection with the foregoing1 as well  
as occasional instances  of chewing     
slate pencils and lime mortar1 an       
interesting case of the  latter having  
been brought to my notice several years 
since by a  well-known physician of     
,newark1 ,n4 ,j4 ,but these are rather  
exceptional  and individual cases1      
therefore not to be regarded as general 
or  popular habits4 ,from the chewing of
 earthy substances to the eating  of the
 same1 would appear to be but a natural 
step4 ,the latter  habit1 so far as     
facts are available1 is of comparatively
 infrequent  occurrence and restricted  
to a much smaller number of persons4    
,beds of  white infusorial earth1       
resembling magnesia in appearance1 known
 as  ,bergmehl1 occur in ,lapland and   
,finland4 ,this is1 or has been used in 
seasons of scarcity1 mixed with flour   
made of some kind of grain or  ground   
birch-bark1 and clay-eating probably1 to

 a greater or less  extent1 still       
continues to be a habit in ,north       
,carolina as in the past4  ,the effect  
of this habit1 as any intelligent person
 would suppose1  is decidedly injurious 
to the individual that pursues it4 ,in  
several  cases that have come under my  
observation the results are exhibited in
  sallowness of complexion1 lack-lustre 
eyes1 distension of the abdomen  caused 
by engorgement or clogging of the liver1
 and other intestinal  derangement1     
listlessness and general debility4      
,,rob',t ,e4 ,c4 ,,stearns4    ,los     
,angeles1 ,cal4          ,,scientific   
,,literature4      ,a ,,grammar ,,of    
,,science4    ,the increasing           
specialization of the sciences and the  
consequent  occupation with the details 
and technical manipulations of a        
specialty  render it possible for many a
 student to secure the equipment needed 
for his immediate activity1 with but    
little appreciation of the general      
principles that give direction and      

solidarity to his science1 or of the    
more general and fundamental conceptions
 which the various sciences  and the    
spirit and progress of science as a     
whole have in common4 ,the  student runs
 the danger of gaining a certain        
familiarity with the  vocabulary and the
 usage of the language of science1 but  
of ignoring  its grammar4 ,one of the   
purposes met by ,prof4 ,karl ,pearson's 
#8,the  ,grammar of ,science' is to give
 the serious student an opportunity to  
acquaint himself with these underlying  
conceptions--cause and effect  and      
probability1 space and time1 motion and 
matter and the composition  of the      
physical and organic worlds4 ,it        
discusses with him and for him  the     
nature of the knowing process1 and      
demonstrates how the sciences           
stand--not for a literal copy of        
reality1 but represent a special        
abstraction and construction on the     
basis of experience1 which serve  the   
purposes of intelligibility and logical 

system4 ,a law of nature  is not an     
objective reality1 but 8a rsum in mental
 shorthand1  which replaces for us a    
lengthy description of the sequences of 
our  sense-impressions4 ,law in the     
scientific sense 444 owes its existence 
to the creative power of his man's      
intellect40 ,science is thus not  the   
mere reflection of perceptual           
experience1 but is dependent for its    
advance quite as much upon the formation
 of appropriate conceptions  by the     
exercise of insight and a keen logical  
analysis and synthesis4  ,hence1 the    
importance of the imagination as a      
requisite for scientific  discovery1    
which leads ,professor ,pearson to      
regard ,darwin and ,faraday  as superior
 in this quality to the best of the     
poets and novelists4  ,not only the     
content of the sciences but the spirit  
and the means that  guide its advance   
form part of the grammar of science4    
,the nature of  the scientific method1  
the appreciation that the scope of      

science is  really coincident with the  
scope of verifiable knowledge2 that     
science  represents a mode of approach  
and of inquiry1 and that the scientist  
or the scientifically-minded individual 
is characterized by a definite  logical 
attitude1 by a manner of entering into  
relation with his  surroundings and of  
dealing with reality2 that science      
discountenances  attempted short-cuts   
and inspired revelations1 or guesses of 
the  riddles of existence2 that it      
avoids metaphysic and impractical       
speculation2 that it justifies its      
existence and the energies which are    
expended on its behalf by the mental    
training it provides in education1  by  
its illumination of the problems of life
 and society1 by the  practical benefits
 it confers in the various fields of    
human activity1  as well as by the      
gratification it yields to some of the  
most permanent  and most worthy of our  
intellectual and sthetic impulses--these
  and other propositions are ably and   

interestingly presented and  constitute 
an essential portion of this very       
stimulating and clarifying  volume4 ,the
 success of the work is attested by the 
appearance of this  second edition2 the 
chief addition consists of a discussion 
of the  quantitative method as applied  
to biological phenomena1 which the      
readers of others of the author's works 
will recognize as one of his  favorite  
subjects of investigation4      ,,the   
,,teaching ,,of ,,elementary            
,,mathematics4    ,the book with the    
above title1 by ,david ,eugene ,smith1  
principal of  the ,state ,normal        
,school1 at ,brockport1 ,n4 ,y41        
contains much of value1  presented in a 
very readable and attractive manner4    
,the subjects  treated are arithmetic1  
algebra and geometry4 ,about half the   
book is  devoted to the first4 ,the     
author sketches the history of the      
teaching  of arithmetic from the        
earliest times1 gives a critical        
examination of  the different systems   

which have been tried and aims to       
discover the  correct general principles
 upon which the instruction should      
proceed4  ,he notices the tendency of   
many of our schools to follow too       
closely  the ,grube method1 or a        
modification of it4 ,the chapter on the 
present  teaching of arithmetic is full 
of valuable suggestions4 ,algebra and   
geometry are treated in the same way4   
,much useless lumber is cleared  away1  
and the whole discussion is marked by   
strong common-sense1 an  element not    
always present in discussions of this   
kind4 ,the extreme  differentiation in  
the teaching of these three branches    
which prevails  in so many schools is   
condemned4 ,it is urged that the        
blending of  algebraic method and       
notation with the higher parts of       
arithmetic1 and  the early introduction 
of the inductive study of geometric     
form1 both  contribute to the           
substantial progress and development of 
the student4  ,valuable references are  

given to other writings for fuller      
discussions  on special topics4 ,these  
references cover works in ,english1     
,french1  ,german and ,italian4         
,,geology4    ,professor ,suess's great 
work1 #8,das ,antlitz der ,erde1' has   
been  translated into ,french with      
emendations and annotations1 and thus   
becomes accessible to an enlarged number
 of readers4 ,no strictly  geological   
publication since the time of the first 
appearance of  ,sir ,charles ,lyell's   
#8,principles of ,geology' has brought  
together so  many data concerning the   
nature of the altitude of the continents
 in  relation to sea level4 ,geologists 
have generally assumed that it is  the  
land which rises or sinks when a change 
of level takes place in  relation to the
 sea4 ,professor ,suess attacks this    
view and endeavors to  show that the    
ocean has and has had its great         
movements1 now keeping  up its waters in
 the equatorial district1 now           
accumulating about the  poles and       

transgressing the low lands of its      
borders4 ,an exhaustive  review of the  
geological structure of the known parts 
of the earth1  particularly complete    
with regard to the borders of the oceans
 and the  the ,mediterranean1 is        
presented as a basis for discussing the 
evidence  of such changes as the sinking
 in modern geological times of lands or 
islands in what is now the ,north       
,atlantic4 ,by the sinking of the ocean 
floor1 it is held that the sea level is 
lowered around the earth1 thus  giving  
rise to emerged lands4 ,parts of these  
plateaus have in turn  sunk1 and so the 
earth has experienced varied and often  
sudden changes  of the relations of land
 and sea4 ,the work is entertainingly   
written1  despite the laborious         
compilation of geological details1 which
 is made  evident in its numerous       
chapters4 ,the geological explanation of
 the  ,noachian ,deluge is perhaps one  
of the most interesting sections of  the
 work4 ,aside from the theory which the 

work sets forth1 it affords  the best   
general survey of the earth's surface   
which is at present  available in any   
language4 ,it has been supplied with    
numerous recent  references by ,m4 de   
,margerie and his able assistants in the
 work of  translation4      ,a          
,,yearbook ,,of ,,biology4    ,l',anne  
,biologique for #ahig4--;,every year the
 number of biological  workers          
increases1 the number of repositories of
 researches is  multiplied and the      
difficulties of keeping informed of the 
results  obtained in even a restricted  
department of science are enhanced4     
,hence1 new bibliographical works are   
ever welcome1 especially if they  give  
not only titles but abstracts4 ,l',anne 
,biologique does not  only this1 but    
more1 for its abstracts are likewise    
critical reviews  indicating the true   
place in the science of the results     
given in any  paper4 ,it goes still     
further1 in that it summarizes the      
advance made  during the year in each   

subject1 and the contents of the volume 
are  rendered still more accessible by a
 thorough author-genus subject  index4  
,everything seems to be done that is    
possible to make the  results of general
 biological studies available4          
,occasionally figures  are reproduced   
and comprehensive1 synoptic articles on 
the recent  advances in one subject are 
printed4 ,in the present volume there is
 a  report on senile degenerescence1 by 
,elie ,metchnikov2 on the urinary       
tubules in vertebrates1 with seventeen  
figures1 by ,p4 ,vignon2 and on  the    
conditions of existence in and the      
bionomic divisions of fresh  waters by  
,g4 ,prouvot4 ,the reviews are all      
signed by the authors1 the  critical    
remarks being bracketed4 ,many of the   
reviews have the dignity  of distinct   
contributions to science1 as where a    
half-page abstract is  followed by a    
two-page discussion4 ,the reviewers1 or 
#8collaborators1'  are drawn from       
various countries1 ,america1 ,austria1  

,belgium1 ,england1  ,russia and        
,scotland being represented in addition 
to ,france4 ,this  periodical may be    
commended in the strongest terms to     
biologists and to  others interested in 
the results of biology4 ,it is          
surprising that the  work is still so   
little known in this country4           
,scientific men have a  right to take   
pride in the unremunerative efforts of  
the chief editor1  ,professor ,delage1  
to make accessible the literature of the
 science of  general biology in order to
 facilitate its advancement4            
,,astrophysics4    ,the #8,atlas of     
,representative ,stellar ,spectra1      
together with a  ,discussion of the     
,evolutional ,order of the ,stars1' by  
,sir ,wm4 ,huggins1  ,k4 ,c4 ,b41 and   
,lady ,huggins 7,wesley  ,son71 is not  
only a sumptuous  and beautifully       
illustrated volume1 but is also of great
 scientific  value4 ,sir ,wm4 ,huggins  
belongs to that group of men in ,england
 who1  unconnected with any university1 

devote themselves to research for the   
pure love of truth4 ,his distinguished  
services to science received            
recognition on the occasion of the      
,queen's diamond jubilee1 when with     
only two other scientific men he        
received the order of knighthood4 ,his  
accomplished wife1 who is his constant  
coadjutor1 was the only woman  mentioned
 in the list of ,jubilee honors4 ,sir   
,wm4 ,huggins may be said  to be the    
founder of the so-called #8,new         
,astronomy1' for scarcely more  than a  
quarter of a century ago his            
spectroscope1 turned upon a newly       
discovered star1 first revealed the     
cause of the sudden lighting up of      
these beacons in the heavens1 and turned
 upon the nebula showed them  to be of  
glowing gas4 ,since that time the       
telescope of the ,tulse ,hill           
,observatory1 armed with spectroscope   
and camera1 has been constantly  and    
laboriously analyzing the light of star1
 comet and nebula1 to solve  the mystery

 of their constitution4 8,we never go   
anywhere10 said ,lady  ,huggins2        
8astronomy1 at best1 is a heart-breaking
 object of devotion  beneath ,english   
skies1 and we are always at home to     
catch every gleam  between the clouds40 
,this book gives1 in charming narrative1
 which would be read with  interest by  
one previously ignorant of the subject1 
the history of the  pioneer work 8when  
nearly every observation revealed a new 
fact1 and  almost every night's work was
 red-lettered by some discovery40       
,there follow full details of later     
work1 especially of the first           
detection1 by the shifting of the lines 
of their spectra1 of the motion  of     
stars towards us or from us in the line 
of sight4 ,we learn also how            
terrestrial chemistry has been enriched 
by this study of the stars1 and  how the
 nature of long known elements like     
hydrogen and the existence  of          
undiscovered elements like helium have  
been first made out from  stellar       

spectra4    ,but1 as the supreme problem
 for the biologist is the development   
of man1 so the supreme problem for the  
astronomer is that of the  evolutional  
order of the stars4 ,this problem1 too1 
is discussed in the  light of the       
discoveries at ,tulse ,hill4 ,from the  
simple but beautiful  harmonic system of
 hydrogen lines which characterizes a   
white star like  ,vega1 we learn how we 
pass to the more developed star of a    
solar type1  like ,capella1 and thence  
to ,arcturus1 and ,belelgueze1 which    
indicate a  still later stage of        
development4 ,at least this is the      
theory of the  author4 ,aside from its  
great theme lucidly discussed the book  
deserves  to be upon every library table
 as a superb specimen of bookmaking4    
,for  once1 beautiful truth is          
promulgated in fitting guise4 ,lady     
,huggins is  an artist and archologist  
as well as an astronomer1 and the       
initial  letters of the chapters are    
illuminated with original sketches and  

designs from quaint old manuscripts1    
which make the book artistically  as    
well as astronomically worthy of the    
prize which it received from  the ,royal
 ,society as the most distinguished     
contribution to the  scientific         
literature of the year4                 
,,experimental ,,medicine4    ,anyone   
who wishes to gain a fairly adequate    
idea of what experiments  on living     
animals have accomplished for the       
welfare of the human race  and of other 
animals as well1 can now do so by       
reading #8,experiments  on ,animals1' by
 ,stephen ,paget4 ,mr4 ,paget has       
collected evidence  showing the part    
that animal experiments have played in  
the progress  of physiology1 pathology1 
bacteriology and therapeutics4 ,he has  
not  ventured to offer opinion or even  
statements unsupported by exact  and    
verifiable facts4 ,a large part of the  
book's space is filled  by original     
quotations from scientific workers1 from
 ,galen down to  the recent students of 

the malaria parasite4 ,it shows plainly 
that  knowledge of the processes of life
 in health and disease has throughout   
depended on experiments on living       
substances4 ,mr4 ,paget's book is not   
dependent for its interest solely on the
 laudable curiosity to know the  worth  
of animal experiments4 ,for these have  
been so important in the  science of    
medicine that their story is at the same
 time the history  of a great number of 
medical discoveries4 ,there is1 too1 a  
freshness  and biographical interest in 
the quotations from the famous past and 
present students of medical science     
which makes them very readable4         
,,ichthyology ,,for ,,anglers4    ,in   
his 8,familiar ,fish1 their ,habits and 
,capture10 ,mr4 ,eugene ,mc,carthy  has 
put forth a readable volume which       
doubtless will prove popular  among the 
disciples of ,izaak ,walton1 for it is  
essentially a book for  anglers1 written
 by an angler of experience4 ,a         
preliminary chapter1  devoted to        

fish-culture1 dwells on the destruction 
of eggs and fry in  nature and the      
necessity for artificial measures4 ,it  
is a fairly good  general outline of the
 subject1 although some of the methods  
described  are obsolete4 ,the many      
breeders of ornamental fish will wonder 
whether  the author is intentionally    
facetious in stating that the 8famous   
double-tailed goldfish frequently seen  
are raised in ,japan1 and are  produced 
by violently shaking the eggs in a pan40
    ,about a third of the book is       
devoted to brief accounts of the        
distribution1 food1 habits and          
peculiarities of the fresh-water fishes 
most sought by anglers1 the salmons1    
trouts1 basses and pikes naturally      
receiving most attention4 ,the remaining
 pages deal chiefly with the            
description of angling paraphernalia and
 methods1 camping1 boating and  useful  
data for sportsmen4 ,by far the best    
chapters are those treating  of the     
ouananiche and its capture1 as the      

author writes from ample  experience4   
,he gives it first rank among our game  
fishes and holds that  8pound for pound 
the ouananiche can greatly outfight the 
salmon1 and  none of the freshwater     
fishes can equal it in this respect2 the
 black  bass approaches it the nearest  
but never equals it40    ,the volume is 
freely illustrated with fishing scenes1 
angling apparatus  and twenty-five      
full-page figures of fishes1 all but one
 of which are  copied1 without credit1  
from the reports of the ,u4,s4 ,fish    
,commission4    ,the author submitted   
his manuscript to ,president ,jordan 8to
 be  justified in advancing the claim0  
that the descriptions of the  different 
fishes 8are absolutely reliable and     
correct10 and a prefatory  note by ,dr4 
,jordan is in that author's most        
pleasing style and adds  considerably to
 the literary excellence of the volume2 
but evidently  that distinguished       
ichthyologist did not believe any       
responsibility  attached to him1 for    

even a cursory glance by him over the   
manuscript  would have eliminated a     
number of ichthyological incongruities1 
such  as the inclusion of the white     
bass1 one of the ,serranid1 in the same 
family as the black basses              
7,centrarchid74 ,the author's conception
  of zological nomenclature and         
classification is decidedly novel4 ,in  
the final chapter1 on 8scientific names 
of fish mentioned10 the first  species  
referred to is ,salmo salar1 of which it
 is stated that 8the  word salmo is used
 in connection with a large variety of  
the trouts1  to designate the family or 
descent4 ,it is the first name given1 as
  is the case with all other kinds of   
fish1 being the specific name           
indicating the species4 ,the other names
 following are subspecific40 ,the       
land-locked salmon of the ,saguenay     
,river is by some systematic writers    
regarded as a variety of the sea salmon1
 and bears the name ,salmo  salar       
ouananiche ,mc,carthy4 ,strange to say1 

this is the only species  in the volume 
for which the name of the original      
describer is given1  and in explaining  
his own connection with the fish1 ,mr4  
,mc,carthy says3  8,mc,carthy1 so named 
from his first writing fully regarding  
the fish60    ,to the zologist the      
volume will be of no use1 as it embodies
 few new  observations on the fishes    
considered and is largely a compilation 
from other well-known works4 ,the       
author1 however1 deserves credit for    
bringing the subject to the attention of
 anglers in such an attractive  form2   
and1 as an attempt to extend the        
knowledge of the habits1  distribution  
and relationships of our game fishes    
among this large and  influential class 
of citizens1 the volume should be       
accorded a welcome4      ,,microscopy   
,,of ,,drinking-,,water4    ,mr4 ,g4 ,c4
 ,whipple1 ,director of the ,mount      
,prospect ,laboratory of the  ,brooklyn 
,waterworks1 has prepared a handbook for
 the water analyst  and the waterworks  

engineer1 with the title given above4   
,it deals  with the purposes1 methods   
and results of the biological           
examination  of drinking-water1         
affording means for the identification  
of the  microscopic life found in water 
supplies and suggesting means for the   
elimination or control of those         
organisms which disagreeably affect the 
color or odor of potable waters4 ,the   
construction of reservoirs1 the  storage
 of surface and of ground waters and the
 growth of organisms  in pipes are also 
discussed4 ,though the motive of the    
book is thus  technical1 the subject is 
developed by the author along broad     
lines  in a thoroughly scientific       
manner1 and he has brought together a   
great deal of information1 not only for 
the sanitary engineer1 but  also for the
 physicist1 the chemist and the         
biologist4 ,the problems  in limnology1 
such as the temperature1 stagnation and 
circulation of  reservoir waters2 the   
distribution and relative numbers of    

different  organisms and their relation 
to chemical analyses are discussed in   
the  light of the results of many years'
 investigation of water-supplies4  ,the 
seasonal succession of organisms1 their 
movements with respect  to light and    
other stimuli1 and their horizontal and 
vertical  distribution1 are in like     
manner fully treated4 ,the scope of the 
work  and the treatment of the subject  
make the book a valuable one alike for  
engineering and biological laboratories 
and for the general library4            
,,the ,,progress ,,of ,,science4        
,the summer laboratories and the        
scientific expeditions which are        
employing the vacation period of the men
 of science in this country  would make 
a long list4 ,a vacation from teaching  
means to the  scientific man a chance to
 work1 and at present there are numerous
  organized means of enabling him to    
profit by this chance4 ,the most        
definite form which such arrangements   
for summer work have taken is the       

summer laboratory or experiment station 
for biologists4 ,such a station  affords
 conveniently the mechanical appliances 
for scientific work in a  good locality 
for collecting material to work with4   
,the marine or other  forms of life are 
thus made accessible to those whose     
professional work  during the year keeps
 them in an unfavorable locality4       
,besides the  laboratory at ,woods      
,holl1 which is the nearest ,american   
representative  of ,professor ,dohrn's  
great laboratory at ,naples1 there is an
 important  summer station at ,cold     
,spring ,harbor1 ,long ,island1 under   
the auspices  of the ,brooklyn          
,institute1 and others cared for by     
,leland ,stanford1  ,jr4 ,university1   
the ,university of ,indiana1 the ,ohio  
,state ,university  and other           
institutions4 ,it is common to combine  
teaching with research  at these        
laboratories and in some cases they     
become essentially summer  schools1     
though generally giving courses of a    

higher order than the  ordinary summer  
school for nature study4 ,but research  
is often the  chief and sometimes the   
sole purpose of these stations1 and a   
vast  amount of work is done each year4 
,the most important of these summer     
stations is the ,woods ,holl ,marine    
,biological ,laboratory1 situated  on   
the southern coast of ,massachusetts1   
between ,buzzard's ,bay and  ,vineyard  
,sound4 ,this laboratory has been       
fortunate in having been  the summer    
home at one time or another of a        
majority of the leading  zologists of   
the country4 ,it has been usual for the 
advanced students  in universities to   
take courses or carry on research there1
 and ,woods  ,holl training has been a  
valuable recommendation4 ,the reason is 
not  far to seek4 ,the material         
advantages1 the spirit of zeal for      
concrete  fact1 the acquaintance with   
superior men in the science and with a  
large number of equals1 all help to give
 the best sort of professional          

training4 ,such a place also serves as a
 refinery where opinions and  theories  
may be purified by healthy criticism and
 by the subtler  influence of example4  
,there is a story of three eminent      
biologists who  got involved in a       
controversy over a disputed question4   
,they argued for  a while4 ,finally one 
of them said3 8,let us get the eggs in  
question  and study them together40     
,this was done1 and the three men spent 
the  afternoon over their microscopes   
patiently working out the problem       
together2 and they did work it out4 ,one
 of the great advantages of  summer     
laboratories is that they put           
fellow-students in a frame of mind  in  
which they can work things out together4
           99       99       99       99
       99    ,the ,woods ,holl          
,laboratory has a right to claim a large
 share in the  credit for three of the  
most important developments in biology  
in the  last decade--the study of #8cell
 lineage1' of regeneration of organs and

  of the influence of abnormal          
conditions on the development of        
embryos4  ,workers there have traced the
 development of the different cells into
  which the egg-cell divides and have   
discovered just what parts of the  body 
arise from each group of cells4 ,they   
have shown that the way in  which the   
egg divides and redivides is as         
constant1 is as much a part  of the     
nature of the animal1 as its adult form 
and structure are4 ,they  have replaced 
previous vague notions of the           
development of animals  by exact        
accounts of the cell-origin of different
 organs of the body4  ,others have      
studied the abilities of mutilated      
animals to reproduce the  parts lost and
 the conditions and limitations of such 
regeneration4  ,such studies have       
greatly broadened our views of the      
nature of animal  tissues4 ,others have 
investigated the results of artificial  
conditions  on the development of       
animals1 especially in the earliest     

stages4 ,for  instance1 from eggs broken
 into pieces there have been developed  
twins1  triplets and monsters of various
 sorts4 ,such experiments as these are  
producing data concerning the very      
fundaments of living matter and  are    
leading biology beyond the mere         
description of animal structures  and   
functions towards an insight into the   
elementary principles of  development4  
,among the numerous researches1 some    
seventy in all1 which  are being carried
 on at ,woods ,holl this summer1 those  
of the most  general interest are ,prof4
 ,c4 ,o4 ,whitman's study of hybrids and
 ,prof4  ,jacques ,loeb's study of      
artificial fertilization4 ,prof4        
,whitman has  been breeding pigeons of a
 large number of species for several    
years1  as a means of studying the      
phenomena of heredity shown in hybrid   
forms4  ,more or less incidentally1 he  
has discovered many notable facts about 
the instincts and habits of the birds   
and about various physiological         

functions connected with reproduction4  
,biologists everywhere are coming  to   
realize the necessity of systematic and 
continuous study of families  of animals
 through a number of generations4 ,prof4
 ,whitman's is the  most extensive of   
such studies in this country4 ,the      
detailed results  of ,prof4 ,loeb's     
continuation of his experiments on the  
action of  various salts on unfertilized
 eggs will naturally be awaited with    
great  interest4 ,we have already       
noticed his success in causing          
unfertilized  eggs of the sea-urchin to 
develop into normal individuals as far  
as  the pluteus stage4 ,he has this year
 succeeded in producing artificial      
parthenogenesis not only in starfish    
7,asterias71 but also in worms          
7,chaetopterus74 ,through a slight      
increase in the amount of ,k-ions  in   
the sea-water1 the eggs of the latter   
can be caused not only to  throw out the
 polar bodies as ,mead had already      
observed1 but also to  reach the        

,trochophore stage and swim about as    
actively as the larv  originating from  
fertilized eggs4           99       99  
99       99       99    ,in the courses 
of instruction offered at ,woods ,holl  
there are two of  more than ordinary    
interest4 ,professor ,loeb's course in  
physiology  departs from the traditional
 study of physiological functions in the
  frog and in some mammal1 and offers   
instead experimental work on the        
simpler invertebrate forms4 ,the        
phenomena of life are there presented   
in diagrammatic form1 and are           
interpreted as far as possible in terms 
of physics and chemistry4 ,the course in
 nature study1 given this year  for the 
first time1 offers to students without  
technical training a  chance to learn   
about animals and plants from           
specialists4 ,it has shown  clearly that
 the best science is popular1 that      
really scientific work  can be done     
without previous drill in terminology or
 technique4 ,a novel  feature of the    

course has been the systematic          
experimental study of  the instincts and
 intelligent performances of animals4   
,the method of  offering to intelligent 
men and women1 who wish to know about   
animal  life1 but have no time or need  
for special technical training or       
detailed anatomical work1 a chance to   
get something better than mere  book    
knowledge or haphazard personal         
observation1 should be widely  extended4
           99       99       99       99
       99    ,the laboratory of the     
,brooklyn ,institute of ,arts and       
,sciences1 situated  at ,cold ,spring   
,harbor1 ,long ,island1 is nearly as old
 as the ,woods ,holl  ,laboratory4      
,prof4 ,c4 ,b4 ,davenport1 its director1
 is probably the most  active worker in 
this country in the quantitative study  
of variation1  and one of the leading   
lines of research at ,cold ,spring      
,harbor is  now and will probably be for
 some years the attempt to get an exact 
estimate of normal variation in         

different animals1 of the production  of
 abnormal variations and of the laws of 
inheritance4 ,professor  ,davenport is  
himself breeding mice extensively and   
thus securing data4  ,of the courses    
offered two deserve special mention4    
,one is the course  for teachers of     
zology in high schools1 a chief feature 
of which is  the study of living        
animals4 ,the other is a course on      
#8,variation and  ,inheritance1' which  
gives advanced students a chance to     
study the most  important question of   
biology and by the most exact methods4  
,the ,cold  ,spring laboratory has been 
growing very rapidly of late and seems  
likely to continue to grow4 ,in general 
the evolution of the summer  laboratory 
is of interest4 ,an enthusiast or a     
modest association  gathers a few       
sympathetic workers at some favorable   
locality4 ,the  informality and personal
 contact are inspiring and the place    
becomes  famous for good work4 ,then    
come numbers and with numbers a rapid   

complication of the social life of the  
school4 ,the eminent leader is  replaced
 by a dozen different instructors2 one  
no longer knows every  one else2        
organization becomes complex and what   
was at first a sort  of scientific      
family may turn into a formal           
institution4 ,the summer  laboratory    
should not become a big summer college  
at the cost of its  single-mindedness4  
99       99       99       99       99  
,while special laboratories are open for
 work in biology1 and the  universities 
are extending their sessions through the
 summer1 the  common schools are also   
beginning to realize that they must     
adapt  themselves to an urban           
civilization4 ,country schools should   
adjourn in  the summer for obvious      
reasons1 but in the city nothing is     
gained by  turning the children from the
 schools into the streets4 ,the vacation
  or play schools now in session in ,new
 ,york ,city are in every way to be     
commended4 ,the only drawback is that   

they cannot hold half of those  who wish
 to attend4 ,set free from the          
traditional curriculum the  children    
learn more in the five weeks of #8play  
school' in the summer1  than in twice   
that period of #8work school' in the    
winter4 ,swimming1  open-air gymnastics1
 team games1 chess1 visits to parks1    
piers1 museums  and libraries1          
excursions in barges and into the       
country1 sketching1  whittling1 cooking1
 sewing and the rest do not lose their  
educational  value because the children 
like them4 ,such exercises will do a    
good  deal toward curing the indigestion
 caused by being fed for five years  on 
the three ,r's1 and toward correcting   
the anti-social atmosphere of  the      
ordinary school-room4 ,among the        
commonplaces of modern psychology  are3 
,it is not what a person knows but what 
he does that counts2 the  way to learn  
is to act2 progress follows from the    
pleasure of partial  success2 an        
individual only exists in his relations 

with others4 ,such  maxims seem to be as
 clearly kept in view by the ,new ,york 
,department  of ,education in the summer
 as they are forgotten in the winter4   
,the  committee on the ,new ,york ,play 
,schools consists of ,messrs4 ,seth ,t4 
,stewart1 ,john ,l4 ,n4 ,hunt and ,a4   
,p4 ,marble1 to whom and to the teachers
  who have carried out their plans much 
honor is due4 ,the report for  #ahii is 
an educational document of importance4  
,copies can probably be  obtained from  
the ,department of ,education of the    
,city of ,new ,york4           99       
99       99       99       99    ,the   
,paris ,exposition and its congresses   
may be regarded as a great  summer      
school4 ,the applications of science    
exhibited for amusement1  for           
instruction and for the advantage of    
commerce and manufactures  are          
bewildering in their multiplicity4 ,it  
is interesting to note that  the group  
#8,education' heads the catalogue of the
 ,exposition4 ,in the  exhibits         

representing higher instruction1 the    
,united ,states received  nine grand    
prizes and nine gold medals1 ranking    
second to ,france4 ,on  the motion of a 
,french juror1 three ,americans were    
mentioned as worthy  of special         
distinction3 ,prof4 ,h4 ,a4 ,rowland1   
,johns ,hopkins ,university2  ,prof4    
,nicholas ,murray ,butler1 of ,columbia 
,university2 ,director ,melvil  ,dewey1 
,university of the ,state of ,new ,york4
 ,more than one hundred  and fifty      
international congresses1 dealing with  
various subjects of  scientific1        
industrial and social importance1 are   
held this summer  in ,paris1 and form no
 small part of the interest of the      
,exposition1  supplementing as they do  
the exhibits1 furnishing the theory1 as 
the  exhibits set forth the             
accomplishments1 of art and industry4   
,the  magnitude of these congresses may 
be seen from the fact that the          
thirteenth ,international ,medical      
,congress had a registration of over    

six thousand members1 of whom over four 
hundred were from ,america4           99
       99       99       99       99    
,friends of scientific investigation and
 the teaching of science  will rejoice  
at the recent decision in the courts    
concerning the  ,fayerweather will case4
 ,for the eighth time the grant of      
#c1jjj1jjj to  the colleges has been    
confirmed4 ,the case will probably be   
appealed  to the ,supreme ,court of the 
,united ,states1 but the probability is 
large that ,mr4 ,fayerweather's wishes  
will in the end be carried out4  ,at the
 present time1 money left to colleges is
 likely to be used to  a very large     
extent to promote the progress of       
science4 ,required  courses in          
linguistics are decreasing1 and the     
extension of college  teaching and      
university research is largely along    
scientific lines4  ,new departments1    
such as those of physiography1 physical 
chemistry1  anthropology and            
experimental psychology are being       

established1 while  economics and       
sociology are becoming less speculative 
and more like the  natural sciences in  
their methods4 ,the college student of  
to-day gets  proportionately more       
training in the professedly natural     
sciences than  ever before1 and gets    
scientific training in connection with  
courses  which were once mere exercises 
in learning the opinions of more or less
  important people4           99        
99       99       99       99    ,we    
called attention last month to the      
completion of the plans for an          
international catalogue of scientific   
literature1 and stated that ,great      
,britain and ,germany had each          
subscribed for forty-five of the three  
hundred sets that must be sold in order 
to defray the cost4 ,it is  obvious that
 the ,united ,states1 with such a large 
number of libraries  and educational    
institutions1 should subscribe for its  
share of the  sets1 namely1 not less    
than forty-five4 ,the ,smithsonian      

,institution has  provisionally         
undertaken to represent the interests of
 the catalogue  in the ,united ,states1 
and will receive promises of            
subscriptions4 ,the  catalogue will be  
issued in seventeen volumes1 comprising 
the following  subjects3 ,mathematics1  
mechanics1 physics1 chemistry1          
astronomy1  meteorology 7including      
terrestrial magnetism71 mineralogy      
7including  petrology and               
crystallography71 geology1 geography    
7mathematical and  physical71           
palontology1 general biology1 botany1   
zology1 human  anatomy1 physical        
anthropology1 physiology 7including     
experimental  psychology1 pharmacology  
and experimental pathology7 and         
bacteriology4  ,at least one volume will
 be given to each subject1 and it is    
proposed  that not all the volumes shall
 be issued at once1 but in four groups1 
as soon as possible after the first of  
,january1 ,april1 ,july and  ,october1  
respectively4 ,the subscription price   

for a complete set of the  whole        
catalogue1 in seventeen volumes1 is #ag1
 say #he4 ,the volumes  will vary in    
price and can be obtained separately1   
but it is necessary  to secure the      
guarantee of the sale of forty-five sets
 in ,america  during the month of       
,september1 and all libraries used for  
scientific  research1 and those         
individuals who can afford the cost1    
should send  subscriptions to ,dr4      
,richard ,rathbun1 ,assistant ,secretary
 of the  ,smithsonian ,institution1     
,washington1 ,d4 ,c4           99       
99       99       99       99    ,in the
 ,july number of the ,,monthly ,dr4 ,h4 
,c4 ,bolton gave an account of  the     
radio-active substances which have been 
found in pitchblende1 the  chief ore of 
uranium4 ,the subject continues to      
excite the interest  of both chemists   
and physicists1 though just at present  
the largest  amount of work is being    
done by the chemists1 to whom the       
question is  of extraordinary interest  

as to whether these substances are or   
are not  real chemical elements4 ,bla   
von ,lengyel1 of ,budapest1 as ,dr4     
,bolton  explained1 has attacked the    
problem from the synthetic side1 and by 
fusing inactive barium nitrate with     
uranium nitrate1 he has obtained  a     
barium sulphate which has more or less  
radio-activity4 ,from this he  concludes
 it is probable that the radio-activity 
is due rather to a  peculiar state of   
the barium than to a new chemical       
element4 ,on the  other hand1 ,becquerel
 has in a somewhat analogous way mixed  
inactive  barium chlorid with uranium   
chlorid1 and from the solution has      
obtained  likewise a radio-active       
barium4 ,but he finds that the increased
  activity in the barium salt is        
attended by a corresponding decrease  in
 the radio-activity of the uranium4     
,hence it cannot be settled from  these 
experiments whether the uranium salts   
possess a radio-activity  of their own1 
which can by certain methods be         

communicated to barium  salts1 or       
whether the radio-activity is due to an 
impurity in the  uranium which has thus 
far eluded isolation4           99      
99       99       99       99    ,the   
director of the ,blue ,hill             
,meteorological ,observatory1 ,mr4 ,a4  
,lawrence ,rotch1 writes to #8,science' 
that the highest previous  kite-flight  
was exceeded on ,july #ai1 when1 by     
means of six kites  attached at         
intervals to four and three-quarters    
miles of steel wire1  the meteorograph  
was lifted #ae1agj feet above ,blue     
,hill1 or #ae1hjj  feet above the       
neighboring ocean4 ,at the time that the
 temperature was  #gh near the ground1  
it was about #cj at the highest point   
reached1  the air being very dry and the
 wind blowing from the northwest with  a
 velocity of twenty-six miles an hour4  
,the altitude reached in this  flight   
probably exceeds the greatest height at 
which meteorological  observations have 
been made with a balloon in ,america4   

,the highest  observations that have    
been published were made by the late    
,professor  ,hazen1 of the ,weather     
,bureau1 in an ascent from ,st4 ,louis1 
,june #ag1  #ahhg1 to a height of       
#ae1djj feet4           99       99     
99       99       99    ,the ,u4,s4     
consul at ,st4 ,gall1 ,mr4 ,du ,bois1   
sends to the ,department of  ,state the 
following account of the trial of the   
,zeppelin air-ship3 ,at  the invitation 
of ,count ,zeppelin1 ,i was present at  
the trial ascent of  his air-ship on the
 afternoon of ,july #b1 at ,manzell1 on 
,lake ,constance4  ,at seven o'clock the
 great ship1 #djg feet long and #ci feet
 in diameter1  containing seventeen     
separate balloon compartments filled    
with hydrogen  gas1 was drawn out of the
 balloon house securely moored to the   
float4  ,at the moment of the ascent the
 wind was blowing at a rate of about    
twenty-six feet per second1 giving the  
operators a good opportunity of  testing
 the ability of the air-wheels to propel

 the great ship against  the wind4 ,the 
cigar-shaped structure ascended slowly  
and gracefully  to about thirty feet    
above the raft4 ,the balances were      
adjusted so as  to give the ship an     
ascending direction4 ,the propellers    
were set in  motion1 and the air-ship1  
which has cost considerably over        
#bjj1jjj1  started easily on its        
interesting trial trip4 ,at first the   
ship moved  east against the wind for   
about two miles1 gracefully turned at an
  elevation of about #djj feet1 and1    
making a rapid sail to the westward  for
 about five miles1 reached an altitude  
of #a1cjj feet4 ,it was then  turned and
 headed once more east1 and1 traveling  
about a mile against  the wind blowing  
at the rate of twenty-six feet per      
second1 suddenly  stopped2 floating     
slowly backwards three miles to the     
west1 it sank  into the lake1 the       
gondolas resting safely upon the water4 
,the time of  the trip was about fifty  
minutes2 distance traveled1 about ten   

miles2  fastest time made1 five miles in
 seventeen and one-half minutes4 ,the   
cause of the sudden stoppage in the     
flight of the ship was proved to  be a  
slight mishap to the steering apparatus1
 but the colossus floated  gently with  
the wind until it settled upon the      
surface of the lake  without taking any 
water4 ,the raft was then brought up and
 the ship was  easily placed upon it and
 brought back to the balloon house4 ,the
 weight  is #bjj centners 7#bb1jjj      
pounds74           99       99       99 
99       99    ,a joint meeting of the  
,royal ,society and the ,royal          
,astronomical ,society  has been held in
 ,london to hear preliminary reports    
from several  ,british expeditions that 
went out to observe the recent eclipse  
of the  sun4 ,mr4 ,christie1 the        
astronomer royal1 first presented an    
account of  the observations made by    
himself and ,mr4 ,dyson at ,ovar1 in    
,portugal4  ,there totality lasted #hd  
seconds1 and though the sky was rather  

hazy  he secured some good photographs4 
,the corona seemed distinctly inferior  
in brightness1 structure and rays to    
that seen two years ago in ,india4  ,sir
 ,norman ,lockyer next described the    
observations made by the ,solar         
,physics ,observatory ,expedition and   
the officers and men of ,h4 ,m4 ,s4     
,theseus at ,santa ,pola4 ,professor    
,turner spoke of the observations he    
had made with ,mr4 ,h4 ,f4 ,newall in   
the grounds of the observatory near     
,algiers4 ,from observations on the     
brightness of the corona he concluded   
that it was many times brighter than the
 moon--perhaps ten times as  bright4    
,prof4 ,ralph ,copeland described the   
observations he made on  behalf of the  
joint committee at ,santa ,pola1        
endorsing ,sir ,n4 ,lockyer's  remarks  
as to the advantage of having the aid of
 a man-of-war4 ,mr4  ,evershed presented
 a preliminary report on his expedition 
to the  south limit of totality4 ,his   
reason for choosing a site at the limit 

of totality was that the flash spectrum 
was there visible very much  longer4    
,unfortunately1 he accepted the guidance
 of the ,nautical ,almanac  ,office1 and
 found himself outside the line of      
totality--about two  hundred meters     
according to his informants1 who said a 
small speck of  sunlight was visible all
 the time4 ,he was successful in        
obtaining some  fine photographs of the 
flash spectrum4           99       99   
99       99       99    ,during the last
 session of ,congress a law was enacted1
 commonly  known as the ,lacey ,act1    
which places the preservation1          
distribution1  introduction and         
restoration of game and other birds     
under the  ,department of ,agriculture2 
regulates the importation of foreign    
birds  and animals1 prohibiting         
absolutely the introduction of certain  
injurious species and prohibits         
interstate traffic in birds or  game    
killed in violation of ,state laws4     
,persons contemplating the  importation 

of live animals or birds from abroad    
must obtain a special  permit from the  
,secretary of ,agriculture1 and         
importers are advised to  make          
application for permits in advance1 in  
order to avoid annoyance  and delay when
 shipments reach the custom-house4 ,the 
law applies to  single mammals1 birds or
 reptiles1 kept in cages as pets1 as    
well as to  large consignments intended 
for propagation in captivity or         
otherwise4  ,permits are not required   
for domesticated birds1 such as         
chickens1  ducks1 geese1 guinea fowl1   
pea fowl1 pigeons or canaries2 for      
parrots  or for natural history         
specimens for museums or scientific     
collections4  ,permits must be obtained 
for all wild species of pigeons and     
ducks4 ,in  the case of ruminants       
7including deer1 elk1 moose1 antelopes  
and also  camels and llamas71 permits   
will be issued1 as heretofore1 in the   
form  prescribed for importation of     
domesticated animals4 ,the introduction 

of  the ,english or ,european house     
sparrow1 the starling1 the fruit bat or 
flying fox and the mongoose1 is         
absolutely prohibited1 and permits for  
their importation will not be issued    
under any circumstances4                
,transcribers' ,notes      ,punctuation1
 hyphenation1 and spelling were made    
consistent when a  predominant          
preference was found in this book2      
otherwise they were not  changed4       
,simple typographical errors were       
corrected2 occasional unbalanced        
quotation marks retained4    ,ambiguous 
hyphens at the ends of lines were       
retained4    ,page #dfc3 8fixd rule0 was
 printed that way4    ,page #dfd3 ,the  
,greek transliteration 8hoi polloi0 was 
added by  ,transcriber and enclosed in  
curly braces4    ,page #dff3 ,the       
opening quotation mark for              
8half-fanatical0 has no  matching       
closing mark2 ,transcriber added one    
after 8personality  worship04    ,page  
#die3 8carbon dioxid0 was printed that  

way4    ,page #eae3 8easily reduce0 may 
be a misprint for 8easily deduce02 8by  
the sign of0 may be an archaic spelling 
of 8sine04    ,page #ecf3 8pompes       
funbres0 is a misprint for 8funbres04   
,page #eec3 8,belelgueze0 was printed   
that way1 probably refers to            
8,betelgeuse04    ,page #eei3 8chlorid0 
was printed that way4