,transcriber's note3 ,table of ,contents
 added by ,transcriber4                 
,,contents        ,rhythms and ,geologic
 ,time                                  
#cci    ,the ,photography of ,sound     
,waves                                  
#ced    ,the ,psychology of ,red        
#cfe    ,chapters on the ,stars         
#cgf    ,colonies and the ,mother       
,country 7,,iii7                        
#cij    ,causes of ,degeneration in     
,blind ,fishes                          
#cig    ,the ,evolution and ,present    
,status of the ,automobile              
#djf    ,scientific ,results of the     
,norwegian ,polar ,expedition1          
#ahic-ahif    #dbj    ,discussion and   
,correspondence                         
#dcf    ,scientific ,literature         
#dci    ,the ,progress of ,science      
#ddb            ,,the    ,,popular      
,,science    ,,monthly      ,,edited    
,,by    ,j4 ,,mckeen ,,cattell          
,,vol4 ,,lvii    ,,may ,,to ,,october1  
#aijj        ,,new ,,york ,,and ,,london

    ,,mcclure1 ,,phillips ,,and         
,,company    #aijj                      
,,copyright1 #aijj1    ,,by ,,mcclure1  
,,phillips ,,and ,,company4             
,illustration3 ,,professor ,r4 ,s4      
,,woodward1    ,,president ,,of ,,the   
,,american ,,association ,,for ,,the    
,,advancement ,,of ,,science4           
,,the ,,popular ,,science ,,monthly4    
,,august1 #aijj4          ,,rhythms     
,,and ,,geologic ,,time4,a    ,,by ,g4  
,k4 ,,gilbert1    ,,united ,,states     
,,geological ,,survey4        ,a ,read  
to the ,american ,association for the   
,advancement of          ,science1 at   
,new ,york1 ,june #bf1 #aijj1 as the    
address of the          retiring        
,president4      ,custom dictates that  
in complying with the rule of the       
association ,i  shall address you on    
some subject of a scientific character4 
,but before  doing so ,i may be         
permitted to pay my personal tribute to 
the honored  and cherished leader of    
whose loss we are so keenly sensible on 

this  occasion4 ,his kindly personality1
 the charm which his earnestness and    
sincerity gave to his conversation1 the 
range of his accomplishment1  are       
inviting themes2 but it is perhaps more 
fitting that ,i touch  this evening on  
his character as a representative       
president of this  body4 ,the           
association holds a peculiar position   
among our scientific  organizations of  
national or continental extent4 ,instead
 of narrowing  its meetings by          
limitations of subject matter or        
membership1 it  cultivates the entire   
field of research and invites the       
interest and  coperation of all4 ,it is 
thus not only the integrating body for  
professional investigators1 but the bond
 of union between these and the  great  
group of cultured men and women--the    
group from whose ranks the  professional
 guild is recruited1 through whom the   
scientific spirit  is chiefly           
propagated1 and through whose interest  
scientific research  receives its       

financial support4 ,its aims and form of
 organization  recognize1 what pure     
science does not always itself          
recognize1 that  pure science is        
fundamentally the creature and servant  
of the material  needs of mankind1 and  
it thus stands for what might be called 
the  human side of science4 ,edward     
,orton1 throughout his career as teacher
  and investigator1 was conspicuous for 
his attention to the human side  of     
science4 ,his most abstract work was    
consciously for the benefit  of the     
community1 and he ever sought           
opportunity to make its results         
directly available4 ,in promoting the   
interests of the people of his  adopted 
,state he incidentally accomplished much
 for a larger community  by helping it  
to an appreciation of the essential     
beneficence of the  scientific study of 
nature and man4 ,as an individual he was
 a diligent  and successful laborer in  
the field which the association         
cultivates1  and when the association   

selected him as its standard-bearer it  
made  choice of one who was peculiarly  
its representative4    ,the subject to  
which ,i shall invite your attention    
this evening is by  no means novel1 but 
might better be called perennial or     
recurrent2 for  the problem of our      
earth's age seems to bear repeated      
solution without  loss of vigor or      
prestige4 ,it has been a marked         
favorite1 moreover1  with presidents and
 vice-presidents1 retiring or otherwise1
 when called  upon to address assemblies
 whose fields of scientific interest are
  somewhat diverse--for the reason1 ,i  
imagine1 that while the specialist      
claims the problem as his peculiar theme
 of study1 he feels that other  denizens
 of the planet in question may not lack 
interest in the early  lore of their    
estate4    ,the difficulty of the       
problem inheres in the fact that it not 
only  transcends direct observation1 but
 demands the extrapolation or  extension
 of familiar physical laws and processes

 far beyond the  ordinary range of      
qualifying conditions4 ,from whatever   
side it is  approached1 the way must be 
paved by postulates1 and the resulting  
views are so discrepant that impartial  
onlookers have come to be  suspicious of
 these convenient and inviting stepping 
stones4    ,that vain expectation may   
not be aroused1 ,i admit at the outset  
that  ,i have not solved the problem and
 shall submit to you no estimates4  ,my 
immediate interest is in the preliminary
 question of the available  methods of  
approach1 and it leads to the           
consideration of the ways1  or the      
classes of ways1 in which the           
measurement of time has been            
accomplished or attempted4    ,of the   
artificial devices employed in practical
 horology there are two  so venerable   
that their origins are lost in the      
obscurity of legendary  myth4 ,these are
 the clepsydra and the taper4 ,in the   
clepsydra advantage  is taken of the    
approximately uniform rate at which     

water escapes  through a small orifice1 
and time is measured by gaging the loss 
of  water from a discharging vessel or  
the gain in a receiving vessel4  ,the   
hour-glass is one of its latest forms1  
in which sand takes the  place of water4
 ,the taper depends for its value as a  
timepiece on the  approximate uniformity
 of combustion when the area of fuel    
exposed to  the air is definitely       
regulated4 ,it survives chiefly in the  
prayer  stick and safety fuse1 but the  
graduated candle is perhaps still used  
to regulate monastic vigils4    ,the    
pendulum1 a comparatively modern        
invention1 excelling the clepsydra  and 
taper in precision1 has altogether      
supplanted them as the servant  of      
civilization4 ,its accuracy results from
 the remarkable property  that the      
period in which it completes an         
oscillation is almost exactly  the same1
 whatever the arc through which it      
swings4 ,it regulates the  movements not
 only of our clocks1 watches and        

chronometers1 but of  barographs1       
thermographs and a great variety of     
other machines for  recording events and
 changes in their proper order and      
relation in  respect to time4    ,i must
 mention also a special apparatus       
invented by astronomers and  called a   
chronograph4 ,it consists ordinarily of 
a revolving drum about  which a paper is
 wrapped and against which rests a pen4 
,as the drum  turns the pen draws a line
 on the paper4 ,through an electric     
circuit  the pen is brought under the   
influence of a pendulum in such a way   
that at the middle of each swing of the 
pendulum the pen is deflected1  making a
 mark at right angles to the straight   
line4 ,the series of  marks thus drawn  
constitutes a time scale4 ,the electric 
arrangements  are so made that the pen  
will also be disturbed in consequence of
  some independent event1 such as the   
firing of a gun or the transit of  a    
star2 and the mark caused by such       
disturbance1 being automatically        

platted on the time scale1 records the  
time of the event4    ,no attempt has   
been made to characterize these various 
timepieces with  fullness1 because they 
are already well known to most of those 
present1  and1 in fact1 the chief motive
 for giving them separate mention is    
that  they may serve as the basis of a  
classification4 ,in the use of the      
clepsydra and taper1 time is measured in
 terms of a continuous movement  or     
process2 in the use of the pendulum time
 is measured in terms of a  movement    
which is periodically reversed4 ,the    
classification embodies  the fundamental
 distinction between continuous motion  
and rhythmic  motion4    ,passing now   
from the artificial to the natural      
measures of time1 we  find that they are
 all rhythmic4 ,it is true that the     
spinning of the  earth on its axis is in
 itself a continuous motion1 but it     
would  yield no time measure if the     
earth were alone in space1 and so soon  
as the motion is considered in relation 

to some other celestial body  it becomes
 rhythmic4 ,as viewed from1 or compared 
with1 a fixed star1  the period of its  
rhythm is the sidereal day2 compared    
with the sun1  it is the solar day1     
nearly four minutes longer2 and compared
 with  the moon1 it is the lunar day1   
still longer by #di minutes4 ,as the    
sun supplies the energy for most of the 
physical and all the vital  processes of
 the earth's surface1 the rhythm of the 
solar day is  impressed in multitudinous
 ways on man and his environment1 and he
  makes it his primary or standard unit 
of time4 ,he has arbitrarily  divided it
 into hours1 minutes and seconds1 and in
 terms of these units  he says that the 
length of the sidereal day is a little  
more than #bc  hours1 #ef minutes and #d
 seconds1 and the average length of the 
lunar  day is a little less than #bd    
hours and #di minutes4 ,the lunar day   
finds  expression in the tides and is of
 moment to maritime folk1 but the       
sidereal is known only to astronomers4  

,next in the series of our natural time 
units is the month1 or the  rhythmic    
period of the moon regarded as a        
luminary4 ,by our savage  ancestors1 who
 credited the moon with powers of great 
importance  to themselves1 much use was 
made of this unit1 but as progress in   
knowledge has shown that the influence  
of the satellite had been vastly        
overrated1 less and less attention has  
been paid to the returning  crescent1   
and it is only in ecclesiastic calendars
 that the chronology  of civilization   
now recognizes the natural month4 ,its  
shadow survives1  without the substance1
 in the calendar month2 and the week    
possibly  represents an early attempt to
 subdivide it4    ,in passing to our    
third natural unit1 the year1 we again  
encounter  solar influence1 and find the
 rhythm of the earth's orbit echoed and 
reechoed in innumerable physical and    
vital vibrations4 ,as the attitude  of  
the earth's axis inclines one hemisphere
 toward the sun for part  of the year   

and the other hemisphere for the        
remainder1 the whole  complex drama of  
climate is annually enacted1 and the    
sequence of man's  activities is made to
 assume an annual rhythm4 ,the year is  
second only  to the day as a terrestrial
 unit of duration2 and as the day is    
man's  standard for the minute division 
of time1 so the year is his standard    
for larger divisions1 and the decade1   
the century and the millenium are  its  
multiples4    ,but the rhythms of day   
and night1 of summer and winter1 are not
  the only tides in the affairs of men4 
,at birth we are small1 weak  and       
dependent1 we grow larger and stronger1 
we become mature and  independent1 and  
then by reproducing our kind we complete
 the cycle1  which begins again with our
 children4 ,the cycle of human life is  
the  generation1 a time unit of somewhat
 indefinite length and varying  in phase
 from family to family1 but holding a   
place1 nevertheless1 in  human          
chronology4    ,still less definite is  

the rhythm of hereditary rulership1     
progressing  from vigor through luxury  
to degeneracy1 and closing its cycle in 
usurpation2 yet it makes an epoch in the
 life of a nation or empire1  and so the
 dynasty is one of the units of the     
historian4    ,the generation and the   
dynasty are of waning importance in     
human  chronology1 and they can claim no
 connection with the problem of         
geologic time2 but here again ,i have   
turned aside for a moment in order  to  
illustrate a principle of               
classification4 ,the daily rhythm of    
waking  and sleeping1 of activity and   
rest1 does not originate with man1 but  
is  imposed on him by the rhythm of     
light and darkness1 and that in turn    
springs from the turning of the earth in
 relation to the shining sun4  ,the     
yearly rhythm of sowing and harvesting1 
of the fan and the furnace1  does not   
originate with man1 but is imposed on   
him by the rhythm of the  seasons1 and  
that in turn springs from certain       

motions of the earth in  relation to the
 glowing sun4 ,but the rhythm of the    
generation and the  rhythm of the       
dynasty have origin in the nature of man
 himself4 ,the  rhythms of human        
chronology may thus be grouped according
 to source in  two classes1 the imposed 
and the original2 and the same          
distinction  holds for other rhythms4   
,the lunar day is an original rhythm of 
the  earth as seen from the moon2 the   
ground swell is an original rhythm  of  
the ocean2 but the tide is an imposed   
rhythm of the ocean1 being  derived from
 the lunar day4 ,the swing of the       
pendulum is an original  rhythm1 but the
 regular excursion of the chronograph   
pen1 being caused  by the swing of the  
pendulum1 is an imposed rhythm4    ,in  
giving brief consideration to each of   
the more important ways by  which the   
problem of the earth's age has been     
approached1 ,i shall  mention first     
those which follow the action of some   
continuous process1  and afterward those

 which depend on the recognition of     
rhythms4    ,the earliest computations  
of geologic time1 as well as the        
majority of  all such computations1 have
 followed the line of the most familiar 
and  fundamental of geologic processes4 
,all through the ages the rains1 the    
rivers and the waves have been eating   
away the land1 and the product  of their
 gnawing has been received by the sea   
and spread out in layers  of sediment4  
,these layers have been hardened into   
rocky strata1 and  from time to time    
portions have been upraised and made    
part of the  land4 ,the record they     
contain makes the chief part of geologic
 history1  and the groups into which    
they are divided correspond to the ages 
and  periods of that history4 ,in order 
to make use of these old sediments  as  
measures of time it is necessary to know
 either their thickness  or their       
volume1 and also the rate at which they 
were laid down4 ,as  the actual process 
of sedimentation is concealed from view1

 advantage  is taken of the fact that   
the whole quantity deposited in a year  
is  exactly equalled by the whole       
quantity washed from the land in the    
same  time1 and measurements and        
estimates are made of the amounts       
brought to  the sea by rivers and torn  
from the cliffs of the shore by waves4  
,after  an estimate has been obtained of
 the total annual sedimentation at the  
present time1 it is necessary to assume 
either that the average rate in  past   
ages has been the same or that it has   
differed in some definite  way4    ,at  
this point the course of procedure      
divides4 ,the computer may  consider the
 aggregate amount of the sedimentary    
rocks1 irrespective  of their           
subdivisions1 or he may consider the    
thicknesses of the  various groups as   
exhibited in different localities4 ,if  
he views the  rocks collectively1 as a  
total to be divided by the annual       
increment1  his estimate of the total is
 founded primarily on direct            

measurements  made at many places on the
 continents1 but to the result of such  
measurements he must add a postulated   
amount for the rocks concealed  by the  
ocean1 and another postulated amount for
 the material which has  been eroded    
from the land and deposited in the sea  
more than once4    ,if1 on the other    
hand1 he views each group of rocks by   
itself1 and  takes account of its       
thickness at some locality where it is  
well  displayed1 he must acquire in some
 way definite conceptions of the  rates 
at which its component layers of sand1  
clay and limy mud were  accumulated1 or 
else he must postulate that its average 
rate of  accretion bore some definite   
ratio to the present average rate of    
sedimentation for the whole ocean4 ,this
 course is1 on the whole1 more          
difficult than the other1 but it has    
yielded certain preliminary  factors in 
which considerable confidence is felt4  
,whatever may have  been the absolute   
rate of rock building in each locality1 

it is  believed that a group of strata  
which exhibits great thickness in many  
places must represent more time than a  
group of similar strata which is        
everywhere thin1 and that clays and     
marls1 settling in quiet waters1  are   
likely to represent1 foot for foot1     
greater amounts of time than  the       
coarser sediments gathered by strong    
currents2 and studying the  formations  
with regard to both thickness and       
texture1 geologists have  made out what 
are called time ratios--series of       
numbers expressing  the relative lengths
 of the different ages1 periods and     
epochs4 ,such  estimates of ratios1 when
 made by different persons1 are found to
 vary  much less than do the estimates  
of absolute time1 and they will serve   
an excellent purpose whenever a         
satisfactory determination shall have   
been made of the duration of any one    
period4    ,reade has varied the        
sedimentary method by restricting       
attention to the  limestones1 which have

 the peculiarity that their material is 
carried  from the land in solution2 and 
it is a point in favor of this procedure
  that the dissolved burdens of rivers  
are more easily measured than  their    
burdens of clay and sand4    ,an        
independent system of time ratios has   
been founded on the principle  of the   
evolution of life4 ,not all formations  
are equally supplied with  fossils1 but 
some of them contain voluminous records 
of contemporary  life2 and when account 
is taken of the amount of change from   
each full  record to the next1 the steps
 of the series are found to be of       
unequal  magnitude4 ,though there is no 
method of precisely measuring the steps1
  even in a comparative way1 it has yet 
been found possible to make  approximate
 estimates1 and these in the main lend  
support to the time  ratios founded on  
sedimentation4 ,they bring aid also at a
 point where  the sedimentary data are  
weak1 for the earliest formations are   
hard to  classify and measure4 ,it is   

true that these same formations are     
almost  barren of fossils1 but biologic 
inference does not therefore stop4 ,the 
oldest known fauna1 the ,eocambrian1    
does not represent the beginnings  of   
life1 but a well-advanced stage1        
characterized by development along  many
 divergent lines2 and by comparing      
,eocambrian life with existing  life the
 paleontologist is able to make an      
estimate of the relative  progress in   
evolution before and after the          
,eocambrian epoch4 ,the only  absolute  
blank left by the time ratios pertains  
to an azoic age which  may have         
intervened between the development of a 
habitable earth crust  and the actual   
beginning of life4    ,erosion and      
deposition have been used also1 in a    
variety of ways1  to compute the length 
of very recent geologic epochs4 ,thus1  
from  the accumulation of sand in       
beaches ,andrews estimated the age of   
,lake ,michigan1 and ,upham the age of  
the glacial lake ,agassiz2 and  from the

 erosion of the ,niagara gorge the age  
of the river flowing  through it has    
been estimated4 ,but while these        
discussions have  yielded conceptions of
 the nature of geologic time1 and have  
served to  illustrate the extreme       
complexity of the conditions which      
affect its  measurement1 they have      
accomplished little toward the          
determination  of the length of a       
geologic period2 for they have pertained
 only to a  small fraction of what      
geologists call a period1 and that      
fraction was  of a somewhat abnormal    
character4    ,wholly independent       
avenues of approach are opened by the   
study of  processes pertaining to the   
earth as a planet1 and with these the   
name  of ,kelvin is prominently         
associated4    ,as the rotation of the  
earth causes the tides1 and as the tides
 expend  energy1 the tides must act as a
 brake1 checking the speed of rotation4 
,therefore the earth has in the past    
spun faster than now1 and its rate  of  

spinning at any remote point of time may
 be computed4 ,assuming that  the whole 
globe is solid and rigid1 and that the  
geologic record could  not begin until  
that condition had been attained1 there 
could not have  been great checking of  
rotation since consolidation4 ,for if   
there had  been1 it would have resulted 
in the gathering of the oceans about the
  poles and the baring of the land near 
the equator1 a condition very  different
 from what actually obtains4 ,this line 
of reasoning yields an  obscure outer   
limit to the age of the earth4    ,on   
the assumption that the globe lacks     
something of perfect rigidity1  ,g4 ,h4 
,darwin has traced back the history of  
the earth and the moon to  an epoch when
 the two bodies were united1 their      
separation having been  followed by the 
gradual enlargement of the moon's orbit 
and the gradual  retardation of the     
earth's rotation2 and this line of      
inquiry has also  yielded an obscure    
outer limit to the antiquity of the     

earth as a  habitable globe4    ,one of 
the most elaborate of all the           
computations starts with the  assumption
 that at an initial epoch1 when the     
outer part of the earth  was            
consolidated from a liquid condition1   
the whole body of the planet  had       
approximately the same temperature2 and 
that as the surface  afterward cooled by
 outward radiation there was a flow of  
heat to the  surface by conduction from 
below4 ,the rate of this flow has       
diminished  from that epoch to the      
present time according to a definite    
law1 and  the present rate1 being known 
from observation1 affords a measure of  
the age of the crust4 ,the strength of  
this computation lies in its            
definiteness and the simplicity of its  
data2 its weakness in the fact  that it 
postulates a knowledge of certain       
properties of rock--namely1  its        
fusibility1 conductivity and            
viscosity--when subjected to pressures  
and temperatures far greater than have  

ever been investigated  experimentally4 
,a parallel line of discussion pertains 
to the sun4 ,great as is the  quantity  
of heat which that incandescent globe   
yields to the earth1 it  is but a minute
 fraction of the whole amount with which
 it continually  parts1 for its         
radiation is equal in all directions1   
and the earth is  but a speck in the    
solar sky4 ,on the assumption that this 
immense loss  of heat is accompanied by 
a corresponding loss of volume1 the sun 
is  shrinking at a definite rate1 and a 
computation based on this rate has  told
 how many millions of years ago the     
sun's diameter should have been  equal  
to the present diameter of the earth's  
orbit4 ,manifestly the  earth can not   
have been ready for habitation before   
the passage of that  epoch1 and so the  
computation yields a superior limit to  
the extent of  geologic time4    ,before
 passing to the next division of the    
subject--the computations  based on     
rhythms--a few words may be given to the

 results which have  been obtained from 
the study of continuous processes4      
,realizing that  your patience may have 
been strained by the kaleidoscopic      
character of  the rapid review which has
 seemed unavoidable1 ,i shall spare you 
the  recitation of numerical details and
 merely state in general terms that  the
 geologists1 or those who have reasoned 
from the rocks and fossils1  have       
deduced values for the earth's age very 
much larger than have  been obtained by 
the physicists1 or those who have       
reasoned from earth  cooling1 sun       
cooling and tidal friction4 ,in order to
 express their  results in millions of  
years the geologists must employ from   
three  to five digits1 while the        
physicists need but one or two4 ,when   
these  enormous discrepancies were first
 realized it was seen that serious      
errors must exist in some of the        
observational data or else in some of   
the theories employed2 and geologists   
undertook with zeal the revision  of    

their computations1 making as earnest an
 effort for reconciliation  as had been 
made a generation earlier to adjust the 
elements of the  ,hebrew cosmogony to   
the facts of geology4 ,but after        
rediscussing the  measurements and      
readjusting the assumptions so as to    
reduce the time  estimates in every     
reasonable way--and perhaps in some that
 were not so  reasonable--they were     
still unable to compress the chapters of
 geologic  history between the narrow   
covers of physical limitation2 and there
  the matter rests for the present4     
,the rocks which were formed as         
sediments show many traces of rhythm4   
,some are composed of layers1 thin as   
paper1 which alternate in color1  so    
that when broken across they exhibit    
delicate banding4 ,in the time  of their
 making there was a periodic change in  
the character of the mud  that settled  
from the water4 ,others are banded on a 
larger scale2 and  there are also       
bandings of texture where the color is  

uniform4 ,many  formations are divided  
into separate strata1 as though the     
process of  accretion had been          
periodically interrupted4 ,series of    
hard strata are  often separated by     
films or thin layers of softer material4
 ,strata of  two kinds are sometimes    
seen to alternate through many          
repetitions4  ,borings in the delta of  
the ,mississippi show soils and remains 
of trees  at many levels1 alternating   
with river silts4 ,the rock series in   
which  coal occurs are monotonous       
repetitions of shale and sandstone4     
,belgian  geologists have been so       
impressed by the recurrence of short    
sequences  of strata that they have     
based an elaborate system of rock       
notation  upon it4    ,passing to still 
greater units1 the large aggregates of  
strata  sometimes called systems show in
 many cases a regular sequence1 which   
,newberry called a 8circle of           
deposition40 ,when complete1 it         
comprises  a sandstone or conglomerate1 

at base1 then shale1 limestone1 shale   
and  sandstone4 ,this sequence is       
explained as the result of the gradual  
encroachment1 or transgression1 as it is
 called1 of the sea over the  land and  
its subsequent recession4    ,in certain
 bogs of ,scandinavia deep accumulations
 of peat are traversed  horizontally by 
layers including tree stumps in such way
 as to indicate  that the ground has    
been alternately covered by forest and  
boggy  moss4 ,the broad glaciers of the 
,ice age grew alternately smaller  and  
larger--or else were repeatedly         
dissipated and reformed--and  their     
final waning was characterized by a     
series of halts or partial  readvances1 
recorded in concentric belts of         
ice-brought drift4 ,of these  belts1    
called moraines of recession1 ,taylor   
enumerates seventeen in a  single       
system4    ,in explanation of these and 
other repetitive series incorporated in 
the  structure of the earth's crust1 a  
variety of rhythmic causes have been    

adduced2 and mention will be made of the
 more important1 beginning with  those  
which have the character of original    
rhythms4    ,a river flowing through its
 delta clogs its channel with sediment1 
and from time to time shifts its course 
to a new line1 reaching the  sea by a   
new mouth4 ,such changes interrupt and  
vary sedimentation in  neighboring parts
 of the sea4 ,storms of rain make       
floods1 and each  flood may cause a     
separate stratum of sediment4 ,storms of
 wind give  destructive force to the    
waves that beat the shore1 and each     
storm  may cause the deposit of an      
individual layer of sediment4 ,varying  
winds may drive currents this way and   
that1 causing alternations in           
sedimentation4    ,to explain the forest
 beds buried in the ,mississippi silts  
it has  been suggested that the soft    
deposits of the delta from time to time 
settled and spread out under their own  
weight4 ,various alternations of        
strata1 and especially those of the coal

 measures1 have been ascribed  to       
successive local subsidences of the     
earth's crust1 caused by the  addition  
of loads of deposit4 ,it has been       
suggested also that land  undergoing    
erosion may rise up from time to time   
because relieved  of load1 and the      
character of sediment might be changed  
by such  rising4 ,subterranean forces1  
of whatever origin1 seemingly slumber   
while strains are accumulating1 and then
 become suddenly manifest in            
dislocations and eruptions1 and such    
catastrophes affect sedimentation4    ,a
 more general rhythm has been ascribed  
to the tidal retardation of  rotation   
and the resulting change of the earth's 
form4 ,if the body  of the earth has a  
rather high rigidity1 we should expect  
that it  would for a time resist the    
tendency to become more nearly          
spherical1  while the water of the ocean
 would accommodate itself to the        
changing  conditions of equilibrium by  
seeking the higher latitudes4           

,eventually1  however1 the solid earth  
would yield to the strain and its figure
  become adjusted to the slower         
rotation1 and then the mobile water     
would return4 ,thus would be caused     
periodic transgressions by the sea1     
occurring alternately in high and low   
latitudes4    ,another general rhythm   
has been recently suggested by          
,chamberlin in  connection with the     
hypothesis that secular variations of   
climate are  chiefly due to variations  
of the quantity of carbon dioxide in the
  atmosphere4,b ,the system of          
interdependent factors he works out is  
too  complex for presentation at this   
time1 and ,i must content myself with   
saying that his explanation of the      
moraines of recession involves the      
interaction of a peculiar atmospheric   
condition with a condition of           
glaciation1 each condition tending to   
aggravate the other1 until the          
cumulative results brought about a      
reaction and the climatic pendulum      

swung in the opposite direction4 ,with  
each successive oscillation the         
momentum was less1 and an equilibrium   
was finally reached4        ,b ,an      
attempt to frame a working hypothesis of
 the cause of          glacial periods  
on an atmospheric basis4 ,journ4 ,geol41
          ,vol4 ,,vii41 #ahii4    ,few  
of these original rhythms have been used
 in computations of  geologic time1 and 
it is not believed that they have any   
positive  value for that purpose4       
,nevertheless1 account must be taken of 
them1  because they compete with imposed
 rhythms for the explanation of  many   
phenomena1 and the imposed rhythms1     
wherever established1 yield  estimates  
of time4    ,the tidal period1 or the   
half of the lunar day1 is the shortest  
imposed rhythm appealed to in the       
explanation of the features of          
sedimentation4 ,it is quite conceivable 
that the bottom of a quiet  bay may     
receive at each tide a thin deposit of  
mud which could be  distinguished in the

 resulting rock as a papery layer or    
lamina4 ,if one  could in some way      
identify a rock thus formed1 he might   
learn how many  half-days its making    
required by counting its lamin1 just as 
the years  of a tree's age are learned  
by counting its rings of growth4    ,the
 next imposed rhythm of geologic        
importance is the year4 ,there are      
rivers1 like the ,nile1 having but one  
notable flood in each year1  and so     
depositing annual layers of sediment on 
their alluvial plains  and on the sea   
beds near their mouths4 ,where oceanic  
currents are  annually reversed by      
monsoons1 sedimentation may be regularly
 varied1  or interrupted1 once a year4  
,streams from a glacier cease to run in 
winter1 and this annual interruption may
 give a definite structure to  resulting
 deposits4 ,it is therefore probable    
that some of the lamin  or strata of    
rocks represent years1 but the          
circumstances are rarely  such that the 
investigator can bar out the possibility

 that part of  the markings or          
separations were caused by original     
rhythms of unknown  period4    ,the     
number of rhythms existing in the solar 
system is very large1 but  there are    
only two1 in addition to the two just   
mentioned1 which seem  competent to     
write themselves in a legible way in the
 geologic record4  ,these are the       
rhythms of precession and eccentricity4 
,because the earth's orbit is not quite 
circular and the sun's position  is a   
little out of the center1 or eccentric1 
the two hemispheres into  which the     
earth is divided by the equator do not  
receive their heat  in the same way4    
,the northern summer1 or the period     
during which  the northern hemisphere is
 inclined toward the sun1 occurs when   
the  earth is farthest from the sun1 and
 the northern winter occurs when  the   
earth is nearest to the sun1 or in that 
part of the orbit called  perihelion4   
,these relations are exactly reversed   
for the southern  hemisphere4 ,the      

general effect of this is that the      
southern summer is  hotter than the     
northern1 and the southern winter is    
colder than the  northern4 ,in the      
southern part of the planet there is    
more contrast  between summer and winter
 than in the northern4 ,the sun sends to
 each  half the same total quantity of  
heat in the course of a year1 but the   
difference in distribution makes the    
climates different4 ,the physics of  the
 atmosphere is so intricate a subject   
that meteorologists are not  fully      
agreed as to the theoretic consequences 
of these differences of  solar heating1 
but it is generally believed that they  
are important1  involving differences in
 the force of the winds1 in the velocity
 and  course of ocean currents1 in      
vegetation1 and in the extent of        
glaciers4    ,now1 the point of interest
 in the present connection is that the  
astronomic relations which occasion     
these peculiarities are not  constant1  
but undergo a slow periodic change4 ,the

 relation of the  seasons to the orbit  
is gradually shifting1 so that each     
season in  turn coincides with the      
perihelion2 and the climatic            
peculiarities  of the two hemispheres1  
so far as they depend on planetary      
motions1  are periodically reversed4    
,the time in which the cycle of change  
is  completed1 or the period of the     
rhythm1 is not always the same1 but     
averages #ba1jjj years4 ,it is commonly 
called the precessional period4,c       
,c ,strictly speaking1 #ba1jjj years is 
the period of the          precession of
 the equinoxes as referred to           
perihelion2 but          the perihelion 
is itself in motion4 ,as referred to a  
fixed          star the precession of   
the equinoxes has an average period     
of about #be1gjj years4    ,assuming    
that the climates of many parts of the  
earth are subject  to a secular cycle1  
with contrasted phases every #aj1ejj    
years1 we  should expect to find records
 of the cycle in the sediments4 ,a moist

  climate would tend to leach the       
calcareous matter from the rock1        
leaving an earthy soil behind1 and in a 
succeeding drier climate the  soil would
 be carried away2 and thus the adjacent 
ocean would receive  first calcareous   
and then earthy sediments4 ,the increase
 of glaciers  in one hemisphere would   
not only modify adjacent sediments      
directly1  but1 by adding matter on that
 side1 would make a small difference in 
the position of the earth's center of   
gravity4 ,the ocean would move  somewhat
 toward the weighted hemisphere1        
encroaching on some coasts  and drawing 
down on others2 and even a small change 
of that sort would  modify the          
conditions of erosion and deposition to 
an appreciable  extent in many          
localities4    ,blytt ascribed to this  
astronomic cause the alternations of bog
 and  forest in ,scandinavia1 as well as
 other sedimentary rhythms observed  in 
,europe2 and it has seemed to me        
competent to account for certain        

alternations of strata in the           
,cretaceous formations of ,colorado4    
,croll  used it to explain interglacial 
epochs1 and ,taylor has recently applied
  it to the moraines of recession4      
,the remaining astronomic rhythm of     
geologic import is the variation of     
eccentricity4 ,at the present time our  
greatest distance from the sun  exceeds 
our least distance by its thirtieth     
part1 but the difference  is not usually
 so small as this4 ,it may increase to  
the seventh part  of the whole distance1
 and it may fall to zero4 ,between these
 limits  it fluctuates in a somewhat    
irregular way1 in which the property of 
periodicity is not conspicuous4 ,the    
effect of its fluctuation is            
inseparable from the precessional       
effect1 and is related to it as a       
modifying condition4 ,when the          
eccentricity is large the precessional  
rhythm is emphasized2 when it is small  
the precessional effect is weak4    ,the
 variation of eccentricity is connected 

with the most celebrated  of all        
attempts to determine a limited portion 
of geologic time4 ,in  the elaboration  
of the theory of the ,ice age which     
bears his name1  ,croll correlated two  
important epochs of glaciation with     
epochs of  high eccentricity computed to
 have occurred about #ajj1jjj and       
#baj1jjj  years ago4 ,as the analysis of
 the glacial history progresses1 these  
correlations will eventually be         
established or disproved1 and should    
they be established it is possible that 
similar correlations may be  made       
between events far more remote4    ,the 
studies of these several rhythms1 while 
they have led to the  computation of    
various epochs and stages of geologic   
time1 have not yet  furnished an        
estimate either of the entire age of the
 earth or of any  large part of it4     
,nevertheless1 ,i believe that they may 
profitably be  followed with that end in
 view4    ,the system of rock layers1   
great and small1 constituting the record

  of sedimentation1 may be compared to  
the scroll of a chronograph4 ,the       
geologic scroll bears many separate     
lines1 one for each district where      
rocks are well displayed1 but these are 
not independent1 for they are  labeled  
by fossils1 and by means of these labels
 can be arranged in  proper relation4   
,in each time line are little           
jogs--changes in kind  of rock or breaks
 in continuity--and these jogs record   
contemporary  events4 ,a new mountain   
was uplifted1 perhaps1 on the           
neighboring  continent1 or an old uplift
 received a new impulse4 ,through what  
,davis  calls stream piracy a river     
gained or lost the drainage of a tract  
of  country4 ,escaping lava threw a dam 
across the course of a stream1 or  some 
,krakatoa strewed ashes over the land   
and gave the rivers a new  material to  
work on4 ,the jogs may be faint or      
strong1 many or few1 and  for long      
distances the lines may run smooth and  
straight2 but so long  as the jogs are  

irregular they give no clue to time4    
,here and there1  however1 the even line
 will betray a regularly recurring      
indentation or  undulation1 reflecting a
 rhythm and possibly significant of a   
remote  pendulum whose rate of vibration
 is known4 ,if it can be traced to such 
a pendulum there will result a          
determination of the rate at which the  
chronograph scroll moved when that part 
of the record was made2 and  a moderate 
number of such determinations1 if well  
distributed1 will  convert the whole    
scroll into a definite time scale4      
,in other words1 if a sufficient number 
of the rhythms embodied in  strata can  
be identified with particular imposed   
rhythms1 the rates  of sedimentation    
under different circumstances and at    
different times  will become known1 and 
eventually so many parts of geologic    
time will  have become subject to direct
 calculation that the intervals can be  
rationally bridged over by the aid of   
time ratios4    ,for this purpose there 

is only one of the imposed rhythms of   
practical  value1 namely1 the           
precessional2 but that one is1 in my    
judgment1 of  high value4 ,the tidal    
rhythm can not be expected to           
characterize any  thick formation4 ,the 
annual is liable to confusion with a    
variety of  original rhythms1 especially
 those connected with storms4 ,the      
rhythm  of eccentricity1 being          
theoretically expressed only as an      
accentuation  of the precessional1 can  
not ordinarily be distinguished from it4
 ,but  none of these qualifications     
apply to the precessional4 ,it is not   
liable to confusion with the tidal and  
annual because its period is  so much   
longer1 being more than #b1jjj times    
that of the annual4 ,it has  an         
eminently practical and convenient      
magnitude1 in that its physical         
manifestation is well above the         
microscopic plane1 and yet not so large 
as to prevent the frequent bringing of  
several examples into a single  view4   

,it is also practically regular in      
period1 rarely deviating from  the      
average length by more than the tenth   
part4    ,from the greater number of    
original rhythms it is distinguished1   
just  as from the annual and tidal1 by  
magnitude4 ,the practical geologist     
would never confuse the deposit         
occasioned by a single storm1 for       
example1 with the sediments accumulated 
during an astronomic cycle  of #bj1jjj  
years4 ,but there are other original    
rhythms1 known or  surmised1 which might
 have magnitudes of the same general    
order1 and  to discriminate the         
precessional from these it is necessary 
to employ  other characters4 ,such      
characters are found in its regularity  
or  evenness of period1 and in its      
practical perpetuity4 ,the diversion of 
the mouth of a great river such as the  
,hoang ,ho or the ,mississippi  might   
recur only after long intervals2 but    
from what we know of the  behavior of   
smaller streams we may be sure that such

 events would be  very irregular in time
 as well as in other ways4 ,the         
intervals between  volcanic eruptions at
 a particular vent or in a particular   
district  may at times amount to        
thousands of years1 but their           
irregularity is  a characteristic       
feature4 ,the same is true of the       
recurrent uplifts  by which mountains   
grow1 so far as we may judge them by the
 related  phenomena of earthquakes2 and 
the same category would seem to hold    
also  the theoretically recurrent       
collapse of the globe under the strains 
arising from the slowing of rotation4   
,the carbon-dioxide rhythm1  known as   
yet only in the field of hypothesis1 is 
hypothetically a  running-down          
oscillation1 like the lessening sway of 
the cradle when  the push is no longer  
given4    ,but the precessional motion  
pulses steadily on through the ages1    
like  the swing of a frictionless       
pendulum4 ,its throb may or may not be  
caught by the geologic process which    

obtains in a particular province  and in
 a particular era1 but whenever the     
conditions are favorable and  the       
connection is made1 the record should   
reflect the persistence and  the        
regularity of the inciting rhythm4      
,the search of the rocks for records of 
the ticks of the precessional  clock is 
an out-of-door work4 ,pursued as a      
closet study it could have  no          
satisfactory outcome1 because the       
printed descriptions of rock  sequences 
are not sufficiently complete for the   
purpose2 and the closet  study of       
geology is peculiarly exposed to the    
perils of hobby-riding4  ,a student of  
the time problem cannot be sure of a    
persistent1 equable  sedimentary rhythm 
without direct observation of the       
characters of  the repeated layers4 ,he 
needs to avail himself of every         
opportunity  to study the series in its 
horizontal extent1 and he should view   
the  local problem of original versus   
imposed rhythm with the aid of  all the 

light which the field evidence can cast 
on the conditions of  sedimentation4    
,neither do ,i think of rhythm seeking  
as a pursuit to absorb the  whole time  
and energy of an individual and be      
followed steadily to a  conclusion2 but 
hope rather that it may receive the     
incidental and  occasional attention of 
many of my colleagues of the hammer1 as 
other  errands lead them among cliffs of
 bedded rocks4 ,if my suggestion  should
 succeed in adding a working hypothesis 
or point of view to the  equipment of   
field geologists1 ,i should feel that   
the search had been  begun in the most  
promising and advantageous manner4 ,for 
not only  would the subject of rhythms  
and their interpretations be advanced by
  reactions from multifarious individual
 experiences1 but the stimulus of       
another hypothesis would lead to the    
discovery of unexpected meanings  in    
stratigraphic detail4    ,it is one of  
the fortunate qualities of scientific   
research that its  incidental and       

unanticipated results are not           
infrequently of equal or  even greater  
value than those directly sought4       
,indeed1 if it were not  so1 there would
 be no utilitarian harvest from the     
cultivation of the  field of pure       
science4    ,in advocating the adoption 
of a new point of view from which to    
peer  into the mysterious past1 ,i would
 not be understood to advise the        
abandonment of old stand-points1 but    
rather to emulate the surveyor1  who    
makes measurement to inaccessible points
 by means of bearings from  different   
sides4 ,every independent bearing on the
 earth's beginning is  a check on other 
bearings1 and it is through the study of
 discrepancies  that we are to discover 
the refractions by which our lines of   
sight are  warped and twisted4 ,the     
three principal lines we have now       
projected  into the abyss of time miss  
one another altogether1 so that there is
 no  point of intersection4 ,if any one 
of them is straight1 both the others    

are hopelessly crooked4 ,if we would    
succeed we should not only take new     
bearings from each discovered point of  
vantage1 but strive in every  way to    
discover the sources of error in the    
bearings we have already  attempted4    
,,the ,,photography ,,of ,,sound        
,,waves4    ,,by ,,professor ,r4 ,w4    
,,wood1    ,,university ,,of            
,,wisconsin4      ,any one who has stood
 near a large naval gun during its      
discharge1  will1 ,i think1 be prepared 
to admit that the sound of the explosion
  affects not only the ears1 but the    
whole body as well1 which  experiences  
something not unlike a sudden blow4     
,this blow1 or  concussion1 as it is    
generally termed1 is merely the impact  
of the wave  of compressed air1         
spreading out in all directions around  
the gun4 ,in  the case of ordinary      
sounds1 the compression of the air in   
the wave is  so slight that only the    
delicate auditory nerves respond to the 
impact1  hence we naturally conclude    

that sounds are perceived only by the   
ear4  ,when dealing with sounds of very 
great intensity1 this notion must be    
somewhat modified1 for they certainly   
can be felt as well as heard4 ,in  some 
extreme cases1 in fact1 the sensation of
 feeling may be stronger  than that of  
hearing1 as in the case of which ,i     
shall speak presently4  ,is it also     
possible that we can perceive sound     
through the medium of  any other sense  
organ1 say the eye8 #8,to see a noise'  
certainly sounds  like an absurdity2 yet
 under certain conditions1 sound waves  
in air  can be made as distinctly       
visible as the ripples on a pond        
surrounding  the splash of a stone4     
,that they are not seen under ordinary  
conditions does not justify us in       
assuming them to be invisible4 ,we  all 
know that the currents of hot air rising
 from a stove1 while not  usually       
conspicuous1 can be made visible by     
properly regulating the  illumination1  
as by looking along the surface of the  

stove towards a  window4 ,the hot air is
 visible because in its optical         
properties it is  different from the    
cold air surrounding it4 ,the rays of   
light1 passing  through the unequally   
heated portions of the air1 are bent in 
different  directions1 causing a        
distortion of objects seen through the  
heated  currents4 ,what we see1 strictly
 speaking1 is not the hot air itself1   
but a wavering and swimming of the      
objects seen through it4 ,yet ,i think  
we are justified in saying that the eye 
perceives the hot air4    ,now sound    
waves in air1 which are merely regions  
where the air is  somewhat compressed1  
differ in their optical properties from 
the  uncompressed portions1 just as the 
hot air differs from the cold4  ,as the 
pictures illustrating this article      
testify1 they may be seen  and          
photographed under proper conditions of 
illumination as readily  as solid       
objects4 ,we must remember1 in the first
 place1 that a sound  wave travels with 

a velocity something greater than a     
thousand feet a  second1 rather less    
than the speed of a modern rifle ball1  
yet ten  times faster than the fastest  
express train4 ,the wave1 even if it    
were  stationary1 could be seen only by 
adjusting the illumination with far     
greater care than was necessary in the  
case of the hot air1 and we             
consequently can easily understand why  
we never see the waves under  ordinary  
conditions4    ,while it is true that   
laboratory appliances are generally     
required to  render them visible1 ,i    
should like at the outset to cite an    
example to  show that in the case of    
very loud sounds occurring in the open  
air  the wave can be perceived by the   
eye1 without the aid of any apparatus   
whatever4 ,i will quote from an article 
by ,prof4 ,c4 ,v4 ,boys1 which  appeared
 in #8,nature1' ,june #bd1 #ahig4 ,mr4  
,boys first cites the following  letter 
from ,mr4 ,e4 ,j4 ,ryves3 8,on ,tuesday1
 ,april #fth1 ,i had occasion1  while   

carrying out some experiments with      
explosives1 to detonate one  hundred    
pounds of a nitro-compound4 ,the        
explosive was placed on the  ground in  
the center of a slight depression1 and  
in order to view the  effect1 ,i        
stationed myself1 at a distance of about
 three hundred yards1  on the side of a 
neighboring-hill4 ,the detonation was   
complete1 and a  hole was made in the   
ground five feet deep and seven feet in 
diameter4  ,a most interesting          
observation was made during the         
experiment4 ,the sun  was shining       
brightly1 and at the moment of          
detonation the shadow of the  sound wave
 was most distinctly seen leaving the   
area of disturbance4  ,i heard the      
explosion as the shadow passed me1 and  
,i could follow it  distinctly in its   
course down the valley for at least half
 a mile2 it  was so plainly visible that
 ,i believe it would photograph well    
with a  suitable shutter40    ,professor
 ,boys at once made preparations for    

photographing the  phenomenon at the    
first opportunity4 ,on ,may #aith the   
experiment was  made4 ,one hundred and  
twenty pounds of a nitro-compound were  
exploded1  and an attempt made to       
photograph the sound shadow1 both with  
the  camera and the kinematograph1 the  
latter instrument designed and  operated
 by ,mr4 ,paul4 ,writing of the         
experiment1 ,professor ,boys says3  8,on
 the day on which ,i was present1 about 
one hundred and twenty pounds  of a     
nitro-compound were detonated1 and ten  
pounds of black powder  were added to   
make sufficient smoke to show on the    
plate4 ,as the  growth of the smoke     
cloud is far less rapid than the        
expansion of the  sound shadow1 no      
confusion could result from this4 ,at   
the time of the  explosion my whole     
attention was concentrated upon the     
camera1 and for  the moment ,i had      
forgotten to look for the #8,ryves      
ring1' as ,i think  it might be called2 
but it was so conspicuous that it forced

 itself  upon my attention4 ,i felt1    
rather than heard1 the explosion at  the
 moment that it passed4 ,we stationed   
ourselves as near as prudence  would    
allow1 at a distance of one hundred and 
twenty yards1 so that  only about one   
third of a second elapsed between the   
detonation and the  passage of the      
shadow4 ,the actual appearance of the   
ring was that of  a strong1 black1      
circular line1 opening out with terrific
 speed from  the point of explosion as a
 center4 ,it was impossible to judge of 
the  thickness of the shadow2 it may    
have been three feet1 or it may have    
been more at first1 and have gradually  
become less in thickness1 or  possibly  
in depth of shade40    ,unfortunately1  
,professor ,boys's apparatus did not    
work satisfactorily1  but a most        
interesting series of pictures was      
secured by the  kinematograph4 ,this    
instrument had been constructed         
especially for  taking pictures at a    
very high rate of speed1 viz41 eighty   

exposures  a second1 or four times the  
usual number4 ,the sound wave appears in
  the first dozen pictures as a hazy    
ring of light1 opening out from  the    
center of explosion4 ,the ring1 though  
not very conspicuous when  the pictures 
are viewed singly1 becomes a striking   
object when they  are projected in rapid
 succession on the screen4 ,we see the  
rush of  smoke along the ground to the  
box in which the explosion is confined  
7the smoke of the quick fuse72 then     
comes the burst of the explosion  with  
such startling reality that we          
involuntarily jump4 ,the image of  the  
sound wave flies out in the form of a   
white ring1 and is gone in  a moment2   
and there remain only the rolling clouds
 of smoke4 ,it is  interesting to       
observe the development of the explosion
 by running the  machine quite slowly1  
and by thus magnifying time to follow   
the changes  which ordinarily occur in  
such rapid succession that the eye is   
unable  to perceive them4    ,of this   

series of pictures1 ,professor ,boys    
says3 8,the kinematograph  fails to show
 any black ring2 and this is not        
surprising1 as with the  exposure of    
about one one hundredth of a second the 
shadow would have  to be at least eleven
 feet thick in order that some part     
should remain  obscured during the whole
 exposure4 ,as a fact1 there is clearly 
seen a  circular light shading1 which   
does--so far as one can judge from the  
supposed rate of working and the known  
distances--expand at about the  same    
rate as the observed shadow1 but it is  
lighter than the ground and  shaded1    
instead of being dark and sharp1 as seen
 by the eye40    ,illustration3         
,,kinetoscope ,,film ,,of ,,explosion4  
,so much for the visibility of sound    
under ordinary conditions4 ,in  the     
laboratory1 by means of an optical      
contrivance due to the ,german          
physicist ,toepler1 we can secure a     
means of illumination so sensitive  that
 the warm air rising from a person's    

hand appears like dense  black smoke4   
,moreover1 since we are working on a    
small scale1 we can  use the electric   
spark as the source of light1 and       
dispense with the  photographic shutter4
 ,this is a great advantage1 for the    
time of the  exposure is1 under these   
conditions1 only about one              
fifty-thousandth of  a second1 during   
which time the sound wave will move     
scarcely a quarter  of an inch4 ,during 
the past year ,i have made a very       
complete series  of photographs of sound
 waves1 which illustrate in a most      
beautiful  manner the fundamental       
principles of wave motion4 ,it is not   
practicable  to give here a full        
description of the apparatus used1 but a
 brief  outline may make the method     
intelligible4 ,the sound photographed in
  each case is the crack of an electric 
spark1 which is illuminated and         
photographed by the light of a second   
spark1 occurring a brief instant  later4
 ,in front of a large lens 7a telescope 

objective1 for example7  two brass balls
 are mounted1 between which the #8sound 
spark1' as ,i  shall call it1 passes4   
,the instant the spark jumps across the 
gap1 a  spherical wave of condensed air 
starts out1 which1 when it reaches  our 
ear1 gives the sensation of a snap4 ,the
 object is to photograph  this wave     
before it gets beyond the limits of the 
lens4 ,the camera is  mounted in front  
of the lens and focussed on the brass   
balls1 which  appear in line in the     
picture1 so that the sound spark is     
always hidden  by the front one4 ,the   
spark1 on jumping between the balls1    
charges a  ,leyden jar1 which instantly 
discharges itself between two wires     
placed  behind the lens1 producing the  
illuminating spark4 ,this second spark  
can be made to lag behind the first just
 long enough to catch the sound  wave   
when it is but a few inches in diameter1
 notwithstanding the fact  that the     
spherical wave is expanding at the rate 
of eleven hundred feet  a second4 ,the  

photographs show in every case the      
circle of the lens  filled up with the  
light of the illuminating spark1 the    
brass balls  7in line7 and the rods that
 support them1 and the sound wave1 which
  appears in the simplest case as a     
circle of light and shade surrounding   
the balls4 ,by placing an obstacle in   
the way of the wave we get the          
reflected wave or echo1 and we shall see
 that the form of this echo may  be very
 complicated4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4  
#a4 ,,sound ,,wave ,,reflected ,,from ,a
 ,,plane ,,surface4    ,it will be well 
at the outset to remind the reader of   
the close analogy  between sound and    
light4 ,a burning candle gives out      
spherical light  waves1 just as the     
snapping sparks give out sound waves4   
,the form of  the reflected light wave  
will be identical with that of a sound  
wave  reflected under similar           
conditions4 ,as we can not see the light
 waves  themselves1 we can only         
determine their form by calculation1 and

  it is interesting to see that the     
forms photographed are identical  in    
every case with the calculated ones4    
,the object in view was to  secure      
acoustical illustrations of as many of  
the phenomena connected  with light as  
possible4 ,we will begin with the very  
simplest case of  all3 the reflection of
 a spherical sound wave from a flat     
surface1  corresponding to the          
reflection of light from a plane mirror4
 ,it can be  shown by geometry that the 
reflected wave or echo will be a portion
 of  a sphere1 the center of which lies 
as far below the reflecting surface  as 
the point at which the sound originates 
is above it4 ,in the case of  light1    
this point constitutes the image in the 
mirror4 ,referring to the  photograph1  
we see the reflected wave in three      
successive positions1  the interval     
between the sound spark and the         
illuminating spark having  been         
progressively increased4 ,the brass     
balls are shown at ,a1 and  beneath them

 the flat plate ,b1 which acts as a     
reflector4 ,in the first  picture the   
sound wave ,c appears as a circle of    
light and shade1 and  has just          
intersected the plate4 ,the echo appears
 at ,d4 ,in the next  two pictures the  
original wave has passed out of the     
field1 and there  remains only the echo4
    ,it may1 perhaps1 be not out of     
place to remind the reader of the       
relation between rays of light and the  
wave surface4 ,what we term light  rays 
have no real existence1 the ray being   
merely the path traversed by  a small   
portion of consecutive wave surfaces4   
,since the wave surface  always moves in
 a direction perpendicular to itself1   
the rays are  always normal to it4 ,for 
instance1 in the above case of a        
spherical  wave diverging from a point1 
the rays radiate in all directions  from
 the point2 the same is true in the case
 of the echo1 the rays  radiating from  
the image point below the reflecting    
surface4 ,in all  subsequent cases the  

reader can1 if interested in tracing the
 analogy  between sound and light1 draw 
lines perpendicular to the reflected    
wave  surfaces representing the system  
of reflected waves4    ,we will now     
consider a second case of reflection4   
,we know that if a  lamp is placed in   
the focus of a concave mirror1 the rays1
 instead of  diverging in all           
directions1 issue from the mirror in a  
narrow beam4  ,the headlight of a       
locomotive and the naval searchlight are
 examples of  the practical use made of 
this property4 ,if the curvature of the 
mirror  is parabolical1 the rays leaving
 it are parallel2 consequently mirrors  
of this form are employed rather than   
spherical ones4 ,but what has  the      
mirror done to the wave surface which is
 obviously spherical when  it leaves the
 lamp1 and what is its form after       
reflection8 ,the wave  surface1 ,i have 
said1 is always perpendicular to the    
rays2 consequently  in cases where we   
have parallel rays we should expect the 

wave to be  flat or plane4              
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4 ,,spherical   
,,sound ,,wave4    ,examine the second  
photograph1 which shows a spherical1    
sound wave  starting at the focus of a  
parabolic mirror4 ,the echo appears as a
  straight line1 instead of a circle as 
in the previous case1 which  shows us   
that the wave surface is flat4    ,if   
now our mirror is a portion of a sphere 
instead of a paraboloid1  our reflected 
wave is not flat1 and the reflected rays
 are not all  parallel1 the departure   
from parallelism increasing as we       
consider  rays reflected from points    
farther and farther away from the center
  of the mirror4 ,a photograph          
illustrating the reflection of sound    
under these conditions is next shown1   
the echo wave being shaped like  a      
flat-bottomed saucer4 ,as the saucer    
moves upward the curved sides  converge 
to a focus at the edge of the flat      
bottom1 disappearing for  the moment 7as
 is shown in the fourth picture of the  

series71 and then  reappearing on the   
under side after passing through the    
focus1 the  saucer turning inside out4  
,if1 instead of having a hemisphere1 as 
in the last case1 we have a  complete   
spherical mirror1 shutting the wave up  
inside a hollow ball1  we get           
exceedingly curious forms2 for the wave 
can not get out1 and  is bounced back   
and forth1 becoming more and more       
complicated at each  reflection4 ,this  
is illustrated in our next photograph1  
the mirror  being a broad strip of metal
 bent into a circle4,d ,intricate as    
these wave surfaces are1 they have all  
been verified by geometrical            
constructions1 as ,i shall presently    
show4        ,d ,cylindrical mirrors    
have been used instead of spherical1    
for obvious reasons4 ,a sectional view  
of the reflected wave          is the   
same in this case as when produced by a 
spherical          surface4    ,another 
very interesting case of reflection is  
that occurring inside  an elliptical    

mirror4 ,when light diverges from one of
 the two foci of  such a mirror1 all the
 rays are brought accurately to the     
other focus4  ,if rays of light come to 
a focus from all directions1 it is      
evident  that the wave surface must be a
 sphere1 which1 instead of expanding1   
is collapsing4 ,this is very beautifully
 shown in the photographs4 ,the  sound  
wave starts in one focus and the        
reflected wave1 of spherical  form also1
 shrinks to a point at the other focus4 
7,see fig4 #e47    ,illustration3 ,,fig4
 #c4 ,a ,,wave ,,reflected ,,from ,a    
,,portion ,,of ,a ,,sphere4             
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4 ,a ,,wave     
,,from ,a ,,cylindrical ,,mirror4    ,in
 the next series the wave starts outside
 of the field of the lens1  and enters a
 hemispherical mirror4 ,we know that a  
concave mirror has  the power of        
bringing light to a focus at a point    
situated half-way  between the surface  
of the mirror and its center of         
curvature4 ,if the  light comes from a  

very distant point1 and the mirror is   
parabolic in  form1 the rays are brought
 accurately to a focus2 which means that
  the reflected wave is a converging    
sphere1--a condition the opposite of    
that in which spherical waves start in  
the focus of such a mirror4 ,if1        
however1 the mirror is spherical1 only a
 portion of the light comes to  a focus4
 ,on examining the pictures we see that 
the reflected wave has  a form          
resembling a volcanic cone with a       
bowl-shaped crater4 ,see the  third and 
fourth pictures of the series4 ,the bowl
 of the crater shrinks  to a point      
half-way between the surface of the     
mirror and its center  of curvature1 and
 represents that portion of the light   
which comes to  a focus1 while the sides
 of the cone run in under the collapsing
 bowl1  and eventually cross4 7,no4 #f  
of the series47 ,from now on the portion
  which has come to a focus diverges1   
uniting with the sides of the cone1  the
 whole passing out of the mirror in the 

form of a horseshoe4    ,illustration3  
,,fig4 #e4 ,a ,,wave ,,from ,,an        
,,elliptical ,,mirror4    ,illustration3
 ,,fig4 #f4 ,a ,,wave ,,starting        
,,outside ,,the ,,field ,,of ,,the      
,,lens4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4 ,a 
,,case ,,of ,,refraction4    ,we will   
now consider a case of refraction1 and  
show the slower velocity  of the sound  
wave in carbonic acid4 ,a narrow glass  
tank1 covered with  an exceedingly thin 
film of collodion1 was filled with the  
heavy gas  and placed under the brass   
balls4 ,when the sound wave strikes the 
collodion surface1 it breaks up into two
 components1 one reflected  back into   
the air1 the other transmitted down     
through the carbonic  acid4 ,an         
examination of the series shows that the
 reflected wave in air  has moved       
farther from the collodion film than the
 transmitted wave1  which1 as a matter  
of fact1 has been flattened out into a  
hyperboloid4  ,exactly the same thing   
happens when light strikes a block of   

glass4 ,we  have rays reflected from the
 surface1 and rays transmitted through  
the  block1 the waves which give rise to
 the latter moving slower than the  ones
 in air4    ,a complete discussion of   
all of the cases that have been studied 
in  this way would probably prove       
wearisome to the general reader4 ,prisms
  and lenses of collodion filled with   
carbonic acid and hydrogen gas  have    
been made1 and their action on the wave 
surface photographed4  ,diffraction1 or 
the bending of the waves around         
obstacles1 and the  very complicated    
effects when the waves are reflected    
from corrugated  surfaces1 are also well
 shown4 ,i shall1 however1 omit further 
mention  of them and speak of but one   
other case1 possibly the most beautiful 
of  all4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h4 ,a
 ,,musical ,,tone4    ,in all the cases 
that we have considered1 it must be     
remembered that  we have been dealing   
with a single wave--a pulse1 as it is   
called4  ,musical tones are caused by   

trains of waves1 the pitch of the note  
corresponding to the distance between   
the waves1 or to the rate  at which the 
separate pulses beat upon the drum of   
the ear4 ,for  studying the changes     
produced by reflection1 wave trains     
would have  been useless1 owing to the  
confusion which would have resulted from
  the superposition of the different    
waves4 ,moreover1 it is doubtful        
whether an ordinary musical tone could  
be photographed in this way2  for the   
distance between the waves1 even in the 
shrillest tones1 is  four or five       
inches1 and the abrupt change in        
density1 necessary for  the perception  
of the wave1 is not present4 ,it is     
possible1 however1  to create a wave    
train or musical tone which can be      
photographed4  ,the reader may perhaps  
have noticed that on a very still night1
 when  walking beside a picket fence or 
in front of a high flight of steps1  the
 sounds of his footsteps are echoed from
 the palings as metallic  squeaks4 ,each

 picket1 as the single wave caused by   
the footfall sweeps  along the fence1   
reflects a little wave2 consequently a  
train of waves  falls on the ear1 the   
distance between the waves corresponding
 to the  distance between the pickets4  
,the closer together the pickets1 the   
shriller the squeak4 ,in point of fact1 
the distance between the waves  in such 
a train is twice the distance between   
the palings1 since they  are not struck 
simultaneously by the footstep wave1 but
 in succession4    ,this phenomenon1 of 
the creation of a musical tone by the   
reflection  of a noise1 was reproduced  
by reflecting the crack of the spark    
from  a little flight of steps4 ,in the 
first picture the wave is seen half  way
 between its origin and the reflecting  
surface4 ,in the second it  has struck  
the top stair1 which is giving off its  
echo1 the first wave  of our            
artificially constructed musical tone4  
,in the third we find the  original wave
 at the sixth step1 with a              

well-developed train of five  waves     
rising from the flight4 ,the following  
three pictures show the  further        
development of the wave train4 ,the     
height of each step was  about a quarter
 of an inch2 consequently the distance  
between the waves  was half an inch4    
,this would correspond to a note about  
three octaves  above the highest ever   
used in music4    ,illustration3 ,,fig  
#i4 ,,the ,,reflection ,,inside ,,the   
,,hollow ,,sphere4    ,while            
experimenting with the complete circular
 mirror1 which1 it will  be remembered1 
gave the most complicated forms1 it     
occurred to me that  a very vivid idea  
of how these curious wave surfaces are  
produced  could be obtained by preparing
 a complete series in proper order on  a
 kinetoscope film1 and then projecting  
them in succession on the  screen4 ,the 
experimental difficulties were1 however1
 too great to make  it seem worth while 
to attempt to obtain a series of        
pictures of the  actual waves1 it being 

very difficult to accurately regulate   
the time  interval between the two      
sparks4 ,the easier method of making a  
large  number of geometrical            
constructions1 and then photographing   
them in  succession on the film1 was    
accordingly adopted4 ,three complete    
sets  of drawings1 to the number of     
about one hundred each1 were prepared   
for  three separate cases of            
reflection2--viz43 the entrance of a    
plane wave  into a hemispherical mirror1
 the passage of a spherical wave out    
from  the focus of a hemispherical      
mirror1 and the multiple reflection of a
  spherical wave inside of a complete   
spherical mirror4 ,special methods  were
 devised for simplifying the            
constructions1 and much less labor was  
required in the preparation of the      
diagrams than one would suppose4 ,the   
results fully justified the labor1 the  
evolutions of the waves being  shown in 
a most striking manner4 ,these films ,i 
exhibited before the  ,royal ,society in

 ,february last1 and a more complete    
description of the  manner of preparing 
them may be found in the ,proceedings of
 the ,society4    ,a portion of one of  
these series is reproduced1 about one in
 four or  five of the separate diagrams 
being given4 ,the series runs from left 
to  right in horizontal rows4 ,when     
projected on the screen1 the spherical  
wave is seen gradually to expand from   
the focus point1 like a swelling  soap  
bubble2 it strikes the surface1 and the 
bowl-shaped echo bounces  off and       
follows the unreflected portion across  
the field2 these two  portions are then 
reflected in turn1 and the curiously    
looped wave  flies back and forth across
 the mirror1 changing continuously all  
the  time1 and becoming more complicated
 at each reflection4 ,these diagrams    
should be compared with the photographs 
shown in the fourth series4    ,one must
 not suppose that these beautiful forms 
exist only in the  laboratory4 ,every   
time we speak1 spherical waves bounce   

off the floor1  ceiling and walls of the
 room1 while in any ordinary bowl or    
basin  the curious crater-shaped echoes 
are formed4 ,glance once more at the    
wave surfaces produced within a hollow  
sphere1 and try to imagine the          
complexity of the aerial vibrations     
caused by a fly buzzing around in  an   
empty water-caraffe6 ,the photographs   
enable us to realize what is  going on  
around us all the time--this our        
perceptions are fortunately  too dull to
 perceive4 ,life would be a nightmare if
 we were obliged to  see the myriads of 
flying sound waves bounding and         
rebounding about  us in every direction1
 and combining into grotesque and       
ever-changing  forms4 ,it is just as    
well1 on the whole1 that the light of   
the electric  spark and the delicate    
optical device of ,toepler are necessary
 to bring  them into view4              
,,the ,,psychology ,,of ,,red4    ,,by  
,,havelock ,,ellis4      ,among all     
colors1 the most poignantly emotional   

tone undoubtedly  belongs to red4 ,the  
ancient observation concerning the      
resemblance  of scarlet to the notes of 
a trumpet has often been repeated1      
though  it was probably unknown to the  
young ,japanese lady who1 on hearing a  
boy sing in a fine contralto voice1     
exclaimed3 8,that boy's voice is  red40 
,on the one hand1 red is the color that 
idiots most easily learn  to recognize2 
on the other hand1 ,kirchhoff1 the      
chemist1 called it  the most            
aristocratic of colors2 ,pouchet1 the   
zologist1 was inclined  to think that it
 was a color apart1 not to be paralleled
 with any  other chromatic sensation1   
and recalled that the retinal pigment is
  red2 ,laycock1 the physician1         
confessed that he preferred the gorgeous
  red tints of an autumn sunset to      
either musical sounds or gustatory      
flavors4 ,artists more cautious than men
 of science in expressing such  a       
preference--knowing that a color        
possesses its special virtue in         

relation to other colors1 and that all  
are of infinite variety--yet  easily    
reveal1 one may often note1 a           
predilection for red by  introducing it 
into scenes where it is not naturally   
obvious1 whether  we turn to a great    
landscape painter like ,constable or to 
a great  figure painter like ,rubens1   
who1 with the development of his genius1
  displayed even greater daring in the  
introduction of red pigments into  his  
work4    ,in all parts of the world red 
is symbolical of joyous emotion4 ,often1
  either alone or in association with   
yellow1 occasionally with green1  it is 
the fortunate or sacred color4 ,in lands
 so far apart as ,france  and           
,madagascar scarlet garments were at one
 time the exclusive  privilege of the   
royal family4 ,a great many different   
colors are  symbolical of mourning in   
various parts of the world2 white1 gray1
  yellow1 brown1 blue1 violet1 black can
 be so used1 but1 so far as ,i  am      
aware1 red never4 ,everywhere we find1  

again1 that red pigments and  dyes1 and 
especially red ochre1 are apparently the
 first to be used  at the beginning of  
civilization1 and that they usually     
continue to  be preferred even after    
other colors are introduced4 ,there is  
indeed  one quarter of the globe where  
the allied color of yellow1 which often 
elsewhere is the favorite after red1 may
 be said to come first4 ,in a  region of
 which the ,malay peninsula is the      
center and which includes a  large part 
of ,china1 ,burmah and the lower coast  
of ,india1 yellow is the  sacred and    
preferred color1 but this is the only   
large district which  presents us with  
any exception to the general rule1 among
 either higher  or lower races1 and     
since yellow falls into the same group  
as red1 and  belongs to a neighboring   
part of the spectrum1 even this         
phenomenon can  scarcely be said to     
clash seriously with the general        
uniformity4,e        ,e ,a further      
partial exception is furnished by the   

tendency to          prefer green which 
may be found in certain countries1 now  
or formerly ,mahommedan1 such as ,north 
,africa and to a large          extent  
,spain1 which have an arid and more or  
less desert          climate4    ,if we 
turn to ,australia1 whither the         
anthropologist often turns  in order to 
explore some of the most primitive and  
undisturbed  data of early human culture
 still available for study1 we find the 
preference for red very well marked4 ,in
 times of rejoicing the tribes  at ,port
 ,mackay1 ,curr remarked1 paint         
themselves red2 in times of  mourning1  
white4 ,in describing the paintings and 
rock carvings of the  ,australians1     
,mathews states that red1 white1 black  
and occasionally  yellow pigments were  
used1 precisely the four pigments which 
,karl von  den ,steinen found in use in 
,central ,brazil4 ,prof4 ,baldwin       
,spencer and  ,mr4 ,gillen1 in their    
valuable work on the natives of ,central
 ,australia1  have pointed out the      

significance and importance of red      
ochre4 ,one of  the most striking and   
characteristic features1 they say1 of   
,central  ,australians' implements and  
weapons is the coating of red ochre with
  which the native covers everything    
except his spear and spear-thrower4     
,the hair is greased and red-ochred1 and
 red ochre is the most striking  feature
 in decoration generally4 ,for ages past
 the ,australian native  has been       
accustomed to rub this substance        
regularly over his most  sacred objects1
 and then over ordinary objects4        
,there is1 however1 no need to go so far
 afield in order to illustrate  the     
primitive use of red ochre4 ,our own    
,european ancestors followed  exactly   
the same methods1 and the ,german woman 
of early ages used red  and yellow ochre
 to adorn her face and body1 while the  
finds of the  ice age at                
,schussenquelle1 described by ,fraas1   
included a brilliant  red paste 7oxide  
of iron with reindeer fat7 evidently    

intended for  purposes of adornment4    
,moreover1 the early artists of classic 
times had  precisely the same           
predilections in color as the aboriginal
 ,australian  artists4 ,red1 white1     
black and yellow are the dominant colors
 in the  ,iliad1 and ,pliny mentions    
that the most ancient pictures were     
painted  in various reds1 while at a    
later date red and yellow predominated4 
,he  also mentions that yellow was the  
favorite color of women for garments1   
and was specially used at marriages1    
while red being a sacred color  and apt 
to provoke joy1 was used at popular     
festivals1 in the form of  minium and   
cinnabar1 to smear the statues of       
,jupiter4    ,this well-nigh universal  
recognition of the peculiarly intense   
emotional tone of red is reflected in   
language4 ,the color words  of civilized
 and uncivilized peoples have been      
investigated with  interesting and on   
the whole remarkably harmonious results4
 ,it is only  necessary here to refer to

 them briefly in so far as they are     
related  to our present subject4 ,it    
seems that in every country the words   
for  the colors at the red end of the   
spectrum are of earlier appearance1     
more definite and more numerous1 than   
for those at the violet end4 ,on  the   
,niger it appears that there are only   
three color words1 red1 white  and      
black1 and everything that is not white 
or black is called red4 ,the  careful   
investigation of the natives of ,torres 
,straits and ,new ,guinea  by ,dr4 ,w4  
,h4 ,r4 ,rivers1 of the ,cambridge      
,anthropological ,expedition1  has shown
 that at ,murray ,island1 ,mabuiag and  
,kiwai there were definite  names for   
red1 less definite for yellow1 still    
less so for green1 while  any definite  
name for blue could not be found4 ,in   
this way as we pass  from the colors of 
long wave-length towards those of short 
wave-length  we find the color          
nomenclature becoming regularly less    
definite4 ,in  ,kiwai and ,murray       

,island the same word was applied to    
blue and black1  and at ,mabuiag there  
was a word 7for sea-color7 which could  
be applied  either to blue or green1    
while ,australian natives from ,fitzroy 
,river  seemed limited to words for red1
 white and black4 ,in a neighboring     
region of ,northern ,queensland ,dr4    
,walter ,roth has reached almost        
identical results1 the tribes having    
distinct names for red and yellow1  as  
applied to ochre1 while blue is         
confounded in nomenclature with  black4 
,in ,brazil1 again1 while all tribes use
 separate words for red1  yellow1 white 
and black1 only one had a word for blue 
and green4 ,even  so sthetic a people as
 the ,japanese have no general words for
 either  blue or green1 and apply the   
same color word to a green tree and the 
unclouded sky4    ,here again we may    
trace similar phenomena in ,europe2 the 
same greater  primitiveness1 precision  
and copiousness of the color vocabulary 
at the long wave end of the spectrum are

 found among ,europeans as  well as     
among the lowest savages4 ,the vagueness
 of the ,greek color  vocabulary1       
especially at the violet end of the     
spectrum1 has led to  much controversy4 
,latin was especially rich in synonyms  
for red and  yellow1 very poor in       
synonyms for green and blue4 ,the ,latin
 tongue  had even to borrow a word for  
blue from ,teutonic speech2 caeruleus   
originally meant dark4 ,even in the     
second century ,a4 ,d4 ,aulus ,gellius1 
who knew seven synonyms for red and     
yellow1 scarcely mentions green and     
blue4 ,magnus has pointed out that a    
preference for the colors at the  violet
 end of the spectrum coincided with the 
spread of ,christianity1  to which we   
owe it1 he believes1 that yellow ceased 
to be popular and  was treated with     
opprobrium4,f ,modern ,english bears    
witness that our  ancestors1 like the   
,homeric poets1 resembled the           
,australian aborigines  in identifying  
the color of the short wave end of the  

spectrum  with entire absence of color1 
for #8blue' and #8black' appear to be   
etymologically the same word4        ,f 
,in this connection ,i may mention that 
the preference          for green1      
which1 as ,i have shown elsewhere 78,the
 ,color          ,sense in ,literature10
 ,contemporary ,review1 ,may1 #ahif71   
developed in ,english literature with   
the rise of ,puritanism          in the 
seventeenth century4    ,at this point  
we come across an interesting and once  
warmly debated  question4 ,it was       
maintained some twenty years ago by     
writers who had  been impressed by the  
defectiveness of the color vocabulary at
 the  short wave-length end of the      
spectrum1 that primitive man generally1 
and early ,hellenic man in particular1  
were insensitive to the colors  at that 
end of the spectrum1 and unable to      
distinguish them4 ,on  investigation of 
individuals belonging to savage races it
 appeared1  however1 that no marked     
inferiority in color discrimination     

could  be demonstrated4 ,hence it became
 clear that the vague and defective     
vocabulary for blue and green must be   
due to some other cause than  vague and 
defective perception1 and that sensation
 and nomenclature  were not sufficiently
 parallel to enable us to argue from one
 to the  other4    ,that1 in the main1  
is a conclusion which still holds good4 
,in all parts  of the world it has been 
found that color discrimination1 even   
amongst  the lowest savages1 is far more
 accurate than color nomenclature4 ,thus
  of an ,african ,bantu tribe1 the      
,mang'anja1 ,miss ,werner states that   
they can discriminate all varieties of  
blue in beads1 but call them  all black4
 ,the sky is black2 so is any green1    
brown or grey article1  though a very   
bright grey counts as white4 ,violet or 
purple is black4  ,yellow is either red 
or white4 ,a word supposed sometimes to 
mean green  really means raw1 unripe or 
even wet4 ,thus the ,mang'anja only have
  three colors--black1 white and red4   

,in quite a different region1 the       
,zulus1 more advanced in color          
nomenclature1 have not only black1 white
  and red1 but a word which may mean    
either green or blue1 and another  which
 means yellow1 buff or grey1 or some    
shade of brown4 ,at the same  time it   
now appears that the earlier scientific 
writers on this subject  were not       
entirely wrong in stating that among    
savages there is some  actual failure of
 perception at the short wave end of the
 spectrum1  although they were wrong in 
arguing that it was necessarily involved
  in the defects of color vocabulary1   
and in imagining that it could  be as   
extensive as that hypothesis demanded4  
,it now appears that the  conclusions   
reached by ,hugo ,magnus of ,breslau1 as
 expressed in #ahhc  in his study       
#8,ueber ,ethnologische ,untersuchungen 
des ,farbensinnes1'  fairly answer to   
the facts4 ,in large measure relying on 
the examination  of #cjj ,chukchis made 
by ,almquist during the ,nordenskiold   

,expedition1  ,magnus concluded that    
although the color vision of the        
uncivilized has  the same range from red
 to violet as that of the civilized and 
all the  colors can usually be          
separately distinguished1 there is      
sometimes a  certain dullness1 a        
diminished energy of sensation1 as      
regards green  and blue1 the shorter and
 more refrangible waves of the spectrum1
 while  the colors at the other end are 
perceived with much greater vividness4  
,stephenson1 more recently1 among over  
one thousand ,chinese1 examined at      
various places1 found only one case of  
color blindness1 but a frequent         
tendency to confuse green and blue and  
also blue and purple1 while  ,dr4 ,adele
 ,fielde1 of ,swatow1 ,china1 among     
#a1bjj ,chinese of both sexes  examined 
by ,thomson's wool test1 found that more
 than half mixed up  green and blue1 and
 many even seemed to be quite blind to  
violet4  ,ernest ,krause also has argued
 that primitive man was most sensitive  

to  the red end of the spectrum1 hence  
setting about to obtain red pigments    
and acquiring definite names for them1  
an explanation which is accepted  by    
,karl von den ,steinen to account for   
the phenomena among the ,central        
,brazilians4 ,the recent investigations 
of ,rivers at ,torres ,straits have     
confirmed the conclusions of ,magnus4   
,he found that1 corresponding  to the   
defect of color terminology1 though to a
 much less degree1  there appeared to be
 an actual defect of vision for colors  
of short  wave-length2 in testing with  
colored wools no mistake was ever made  
with reds1 but blues and greens were    
constantly confused1 as were blue  and  
violet4    ,it may even be argued that  
the same defect exists to a minor degree
  not only among the peoples of ,eastern
 ,asia whose sthetic sense is  highly   
developed1 but among civilized          
,europeans when any kind of  color      
blindness is altogether excluded4 ,this 
was noted long since by  ,holmgren1 who 

remarked that some persons1 though able 
to distinguish  between blue and green  
wools when placed together1 were liable 
to call  the blue wool green1 and the   
green blue1 when they saw them          
separately4  ,magnus also showed that   
such an inability is apt to appear at a 
very  early stage in some persons when  
the illumination is diminished1         
although the perception of red and      
yellow remains perfectly distinct4  ,he 
further showed that blue and green at   
certain distances are often  much more  
difficult to recognize than red4 ,most  
people probably are  conscious of       
difficulty in distinguishing blue and   
green pigments  with diminished light   
and find that blue easily passes into   
black4  ,violet also appears for many   
people to be merely a variety of blue2  
the word itself1 we may note1 is recent 
in our language1 and plays  a very small
 part in our poetic literature1 and in  
fact the color  itself1 if we rigidly   
exclude purple1 is extremely rare in    

nature4 ,it  is a noteworthy fact in    
this connection that in normal persons  
the  color sense may be easily educated2
 this is not merely a fact of daily     
observation1 but has been exactly       
demonstrated by ,fr1 who by means of    
his chromoptoscopic boxes1 containing   
very dilute colored solutions1  found   
that with practice it was possible to   
recognize solutions which  had          
previously seemed uncolored4 ,it is also
 noteworthy that in the  achromatopsia  
of the hysterical1 as ,charcot showed   
and as ,parimand has  since confirmed1  
the order in which the colors usually   
disappear is  violet1 green1 blue1 red2 
sometimes the paradoxical fact is found 
that  red will give a luminous sensation
 in a contracted visual field when  even
 white gives no luminous sensation4     
,this persistence of red vision  in the 
hysterical is only one instance of a    
predilection for red which  has often   
been noted as very marked among the     
hysterical4 ,red also  exerted a great  

fascination over the victims of the     
medival hysterical  epidemics of        
tarantism in ,italy1 while the victims  
of the ,german  medival epidemic of ,st4
 ,vitus's dance imagined that they were 
immersed  in a stream of blood which    
compelled them to leap up4    ,it may be
 noted that red and perhaps yellow have 
been stated to  be the only colors      
visible in dreams2 this is possibly due 
to the  blood-vessels4 ,such an         
explanation is probable with regard to  
the  various subjective visual          
sensations which constitute an aura in  
epilepsy1 among which1 as ,gowers notes1
 red and reddish yellow are most        
frequently found4 ,fr has further noted 
that in various emotional  states       
somewhat resembling epilepsy1 and even  
in mystic exaltation1  red may be       
subjectively seen4 ,simroth has gone so 
far as to argue  that not only is red   
fundamental in human color psychology1  
but that  in living organisms generally1
 even as a pigment1 red is the most     

primitive of colors1 that since the alg 
at the greatest sea-depths  are red it  
is possible that protoplasm at first    
only responded to rays  of long         
wave-length1 and that with increased    
metabolism colors became                
differentiated1 following the order in  
the spectrum4    ,if it is really the   
case that in the evolution of the race  
familiarity  with the red end of the    
spectrum has been earlier and more      
perfectly  acquired than with the violet
 end1 and that red and yellow made a    
more  profound impression on primitive  
man than green and blue1 we should      
expect to find this evolution reflected 
in the development of the  individual1  
and that the child would earlier acquire
 a sensitiveness  for red and orange and
 yellow than for green and blue and     
violet4 ,this  seems actually to be the 
case4 ,the study of the color sense in  
children  is1 indeed1 even more         
difficult than in savages2 and many     
investigators  have probably succumbed  

to the fallacies involved in this study4
  ,doubtless we may thus account for    
some discrepancies in the attempts  to  
ascertain the facts of color perception 
and color preference in  children1 while
 doubtless also there are individual    
differences which  discount the value of
 experiments made on only a single      
child4 ,a few  careful and elaborate    
investigations1 however1 especially that
 of  ,garbini on #fjj ,north ,italian   
children of various ages1 have thrown   
much  light on the matter4 ,there is    
fairly general agreement that red is the
  first color that attracts young       
children and which they recognize4 ,that
  is the result recorded by ,uffelmann  
in ,germany1 while ,preyer found  yellow
 and red at the head2 ,binet in ,france 
concluded that red comes  first2 ,wolfe 
in ,america reached the same result1 and
 ,luckey noted that  his own children   
seemed to enjoy red1 orange and yellow  
very much  earlier than they could      
perceive blue1 which seemed to come     

last4  ,baldwin1 indeed1 found in the   
case of his own child that blue seemed  
more attractive than red2 his methods   
have1 however1 been criticised1  and his
 experiments failed to include yellow4  
,mrs4 ,moore found that  her baby1      
between the sixteenth and forty-fifth   
weeks1 nearly always  preferred a yellow
 ball to a red ball2 this was doubtless 
not a  matter of color1 but of          
brightness1 for there is no reason to   
suppose  chromatic perception at so     
early an age4 ,red1 orange and yellow1  
it may  be added1 are perceived by a    
slightly lower illumination than green1 
blue and violet1 the last being the most
 difficult of all to perceive1  so that 
it is not surprising that the colors at 
the violet end should  be inconspicuous 
to young infants4 ,garbini1 whose       
experiments are worth  noting in more   
detail1 found that the order of         
perception is red1  green1 yellow1      
orange1 blue and violet1 and as he      
experimented with a  large number of    

children and used methods which so      
competent a judge as  ,binet regards as 
approaching perfection1 his results may 
be considered  a fair approach to the   
truth4 ,he found that for the first few 
days  after birth the infant shuns the  
light2 then1 about the fourteenth  day1 
he ceases to be photophobic and begins  
to enjoy the light1 as is  shown by his 
being quieted when brought into a bright
 light and crying  when taken from it2  
this may sometimes begin even about the 
fifth  day4 ,between the fifth week and 
the eighteenth month children show      
signs of distinguishing white1 black and
 grey objects4 ,it is not until  after  
the eighteenth month that their         
chromatic perception begins1  any       
preference for red and yellow objects at
 an earlier age being due  merely to    
their greater luminosity4 ,garbini      
considers that it is the  center of the 
retina1 or the portion most sensitive to
 red and yellow1  which is most         
exercised in young infants4 ,between the

 second and third  years children1 both 
boys and girls1 were found to be most   
successful  in the recognition of red1  
then of green1 but they very often      
confused  orange with red1 and mixed up 
yellow1 blue1 violet and green2 he      
thinks  they tend to confuse a color    
with the preceding color in spectral    
order4 ,under the age of three children 
may be said to be color-blind1  and they
 are liable to confuse rosy tints with  
green4 ,between the ages  of three and  
five they are able to distinguish red in
 any gradation1  green nearly always1   
with an occasional confusion with red1  
while  yellow is sometimes confused with
 orange1 orange sometimes replaced  by  
rose1 blue often not recognized in its  
gradations1 and violet  often selected  
in place of blue4 ,at this age1 also 7as
 in hysterical  ansthesia of the        
retina71 blue seems dark or black4 ,in  
the fifth and  sixth years red1 green   
and yellow are always correctly chosen2 
orange  gradations are not always       

recognized1 and blue and violet come    
last1  being sometimes confused4 ,in the
 sixth year children are perfecting     
their knowledge of orange1 blue and     
violet and completing their  knowledge  
of color designations4 ,garbini has     
reached the important  result that color
 perceptions and verbal expression of   
the perceptions  follow exactly parallel
 paths1 so that in studying verbal      
expression  we are really studying      
perception1 with the important          
distinction  that the expression comes  
much later than the perception4,g ,these
  investigations of ,garbini are very   
significant1 and there can be little    
doubt that the evolution of the child's 
color sense repeats that of the  race4  
,g ,garbini1 8,evoluzione del senso     
cromatico nella infanzia10              
,archivio per l',antropologia1 #ahid4   
,i4    ,in dealing with the color       
perceptions of savages and children we  
are1  of course1 to some extent dealing 
more or less unconsciously with their   

color preferences4 ,there is some       
interest from our present point of  view
 in considering the conscious color     
preferences of young and adult          
civilized persons4 ,red1 as we have     
seen1 is the color that fascinates  our 
attention earliest1 that we see and     
recognize most vividly2 it  remains the 
color that attracts our attention most  
readily and that  gives us the greatest 
emotional shock4 ,it by no means        
necessarily  follows that it is the most
 pleasurable color4 ,as a matter of     
fact1  such evidence as is available    
shows that very often it is not4 ,there 
seems reason to think that after the    
first early perception of red1  and     
early pleasure in it1 yellow or orange  
is frequently the favorite  color1 the  
preference often lasting during several 
years of childhood2  ,preyer's child    
liked and discriminated yellow best1 and
 ,miss ,shinn was  inclined to think    
that it was the favorite color of her   
niece1 who in  the twenty-eighth month  

showed a special fondness for daffodils 
and  for a yellow dress4 ,barnes found  
that in children the love of yellow     
diminishes with age4 ,binet's child was 
specially preoccupied with  orange4     
,aars in an elaborate and frequently    
varied investigation into  the color    
preferences of eight children 7four of  
each sex71 between  four and seven years
 of age1 found that with the boys the   
order of  preference was blue and yellow
 7both equal71 then red1 lastly green2  
while with the girls the order was      
green1 blue1 red and yellow2 in         
combinations of two colors it was found 
that combinations of blue come  first1  
then of yellow1 then green1 lastly red4 
,it was found 7as ,j4 ,cohn  has found  
among adults and cultivated people7 that
 the deepest and most  saturated color  
was most pleasing2 and also that the    
love of novelty  and of variety was an  
important factor4 ,it will be observed  
that at  this age green was the girls'  
favorite color and that least liked by  

the boys1 whose favorite color1 in      
combination1 was blue2 the number  of   
individuals was1 however1 small4 ,this  
was in ,germany4 ,in ,america1  among   
#a1jjj children1 probably somewhat older
 on the average 7though ,i  have not    
details of the inquiry71 ,mr4 ,earl     
,barnes found1 like ,dr4 ,aars1  that   
more boys than girls selected blue1     
while the girls preferred red  more     
frequently than the boys2 ,barnes       
considers that with growing years  there
 is a growing tendency to select red2 as
 is well known1 girls are  more         
precocious than boys4 ,among #ajj       
students at ,columbia ,university1  the 
order of preference was found to be blue
 7#cd per cent71 red 7#bb4g  per cent71 
and then at a more considerable distance
 violet1 yellow1  green4 ,it is         
noteworthy that among #ajj women        
students at ,wellesley  ,college the    
order of preference was not very        
different1 being blue  7#ch per cent71  
red 7#ah per cent71 yellow1 green1      

violet2 in a later  investigation the   
order remained the same1 there being    
only some  increase in the preference   
for red2 it was considered that         
association  accounted for the          
preference for blue1 while more         
conscious as well as  more emotional    
elements entered into the preference for
 red4    ,by far the most extensive     
investigation of color preference was   
that  carried on at ,chicago by         
,professor ,jastrow on #d1ejj persons1  
mostly  adults1 of both sexes and       
various nationalities4,h ,blue was found
  to be the favorite color1 less than   
half as many persons preferring  red2 of
 every thirty men ten voted for blue and
 three for red1 while  of every thirty  
women five voted for red and four for   
blue4 ,the men  also liked violet and on
 the whole confined their choice to but 
few  colors1 the women also liked pink1 
green 7very seldom chosen by men7  and  
yellow1 and showed a tendency to choose 
light and dainty shades4  ,there was on 

the whole a decided preference for dark 
shades2 the least  favorite colors were 
yellow and orange4 ,it is evident that1 
as we  should expect1 within the        
elementary field of popular sthetics1   
women  show a more trained feeling for  
color than men4        ,h ,j4 ,jastrow1 
8,the ,popular sthetics of ,color10     
,popular          ,science ,monthly1    
#ahig4    ,it is not quite easy to      
cordinate the various phenomena of color
  predilection4 ,careful and extended   
observations are still required4 ,it    
seems to me1 however1 that the facts1 as
 at present ascertained1 do  suggest a  
certain order and harmony in the        
phenomena4 ,it is difficult  not to     
believe that there really is1 both among
 many uncivilized  peoples and also many
 children at an early age1 even to a    
slight extent  among civilized adults1 a
 relative inability1 by no means usually
  absolute1 to recognize and distinguish
 the tones of color at the more         
refrangible end of the spectrum4 ,the   

earliest writers on the subject  were   
wrong when they supposed that color     
nomenclature at all accurately          
corresponded to color perception1 and it
 is well recognized that there  are no  
peoples who are wholly unable to        
distinguish between green  and blue and 
black4 ,but as ,garbini has clearly     
shown1 there really  is a parallelism   
between color nomenclature and color    
recognition1  and ,garbini's wide       
investigation has confirmed the         
experiments of  ,preyer on a single     
child by showing that there is a certain
 hesitancy  and uncertainty in          
recognizing the colors at the more      
refrangible  end of the spectrum1 long  
after children are familiar with the    
less  refrangible end4 ,in the same way 
the important investigations of  ,rivers
 have confirmed the earlier observations
 of ,magnus and ,almquist  in showing   
that savages in many cases exhibit a    
certain difficulty  in recognizing and  
distinguishing blue and green1 such as  

they never  experience with red and     
yellow4 ,the vagueness of color         
nomenclature  as regards blue and green 
thus indicates1 though grossly          
exaggerating1  a real psychological     
fact1 and in this way we have an        
explanation of  the curious fact that in
 widely separated parts of the world 7at
 ,torres  ,straits1 among the           
,esthonians at ,rome1 etc47 as          
civilization progressed  it was found   
necessary to borrow a word for blue from
 other languages4    ,there is almost   
complete harmony among a number of      
observers1 now very  considerable1 in   
many countries1 showing that the colors 
children first  take notice of and      
recognize are red and yellow1 most      
observers putting  red first4 ,there is 
no true predilection for these colors at
 this early  age because the other      
colors do not yet seem to have been     
perceived4  ,at first1 doubtless1 all   
colors appear to the infant as light or 
dark1  white or black4 ,that this is so 

is indicated by the experience of ,dr4  
,george ,harley1 who at one period of   
his life1 in order to cure an  injury to
 the retina caused by overwork at the   
microscope1 resolutely  spent nine      
months in absolutely total and          
uninterrupted darkness4 ,when  he       
emerged he found that1 like an infant1  
he was unable to appreciate  distance by
 the eye1 while he had also lost the    
power of recognizing  colors2 for the   
first month all light colors appeared to
 him perfectly  white and all dark      
colors perfectly black4 ,he fails to    
state the order  in which the colors    
reappeared to him4 ,it is well          
recognized1 however1  that eyes long    
unexposed to light become color-blind   
for all colors  except red4 ,preyer's   
child in the fourth year was surprised  
that in the  twilight her bright blue   
stockings looked grey1 while for some   
time  longer she always called dark     
green black4 ,by the sixth year all     
colors  are seen and known with fair    

correctness4 ,among young children at   
this  age1 so far as the evidence yet   
goes1 red is rarely the preferred       
color1 this being more often yellow1    
green or blue4 ,there is doubtless  room
 here for a great amount of individual  
difference1 but on the whole  it appears
 that children prefer those colors which
 they have most  recently learnt to     
recognize1 the colors which have all the
 charm of  novelty and newly-won        
possession4 ,it is probable1 too1 that  
7as ,groos  has also suggested7 the     
stimulation of red is too painfully     
strong  in this stage of the development
 of the color sense to be altogether    
pleasurable1 in the same way that       
orchestral music is often only a        
disturbing noise to children4    ,one   
may note in this connection that        
hypersthesia to color is nearly  always 
an undue sensibility to red and very    
rarely to any other color4  ,the case   
has been recorded of a highly neurotic  
officer who1 for more  than thirty      

years1 was intolerant of red-colored    
objects4 ,the dazzling  produced by     
scarlet uniforms1 especially in bright  
sunshine1 seriously  interfered with the
 performance of his duties1 and in      
private life red  parasols1 shawls1     
etc41 produced similar effects2 he was  
often overcome  in the streets by       
giddiness1 sometimes almost before he   
realized that  he was looking at a red  
object4 ,many years ago ,laycock        
referred to the  case of a lady who     
could not bear to look at anything red1 
and ,elliston  also had a lady patient  
to whom red was very obnoxious1 and who1
 when  put into a room with red         
curtains1 drank seven quarts of fluid a 
day4  ,i am not aware that any such     
hypersthesia exists in the case of other
  colors4 ,it is also noteworthy that   
the morbid affection in which color  is 
seen when it does not exist is most     
usually a condition in which  red is    
seen 7erythropsia71 yellow being the    
color most frequently seen  after red 7a

 condition called xanthopsia72 the other
 colors are very  rarely seen1 and      
,hilbert1 in his monograph on the       
pathology of the  color sense1 considers
 that this is due to the fact that red  
and yellow  make the most intense effect
 on the sensorium1 which thus becomes   
liable not only to direct but to        
reflected irritation1 in the absence  of
 any external color stimulus4 ,there are
 other facts which show that  of all    
colors red is that which acts as the    
most powerful stimulus on  the organism4
 ,mnsterberg1 in some interesting       
experiments which he  made to illustrate
 the motor power of visual impressions  
as measured  by their arresting action  
on the eye-muscles1 found that red and  
yellow have considerably more motor     
power in stimulating the eye than  the  
other colors4 ,it may be added also     
that1 as ,quantz has found1 we          
overestimate the magnitude of colors of 
the less refrangible part of  the       
spectrum and underestimate the others4  

,after puberty blue seems still to      
maintain its position1 but red has  now 
come more to the front1 while yellow has
 definitely receded2  although so       
favorite a color in classic antiquity1  
it is rarely the  preferred color among 
ourselves4 ,j4 ,cohn in ,germany found  
that among a  dozen students it was     
never in any degree of saturation the   
preferred  color1 while at ,cornell     
,major found that all the subjects      
investigated  considered yellow and     
orange either unpleasant or among the   
least  pleasant colors4    ,while blue  
seems to be the color most usually      
preferred by men1 red  is more commonly 
preferred by women1 who also show a more
 marked  predilection for its           
complementary green4 ,whether the       
feminine love  of red shows a fine      
judgment we could better decide if we   
knew among  what classes of the         
population red lovers and blue lovers   
respectively  predominate2 it may be    
noted1 however1 that the necessities of 

dress  give the most ordinary woman an  
acquaintance with the elementary        
sthetics of color which the average man 
has no occasion to acquire4 ,in  any    
case it might have been anticipated     
that1 even though the typically  #8cold'
 color should appeal most strongly to   
men1 the most emotional of  colors      
should appeal most strongly to women4   
,,chapters ,,on ,,the ,,stars4    ,,by  
,,professor ,,simon ,,newcomb1 ,u4 ,s4  
,n4      ,,constellations ,,and ,,star  
,,names4    ,in ancient times the       
practice was adopted of imagining the   
figures of  heroes and animals to be so 
outlined in the heavens as to include in
  each figure a large group of the      
brighter stars4 ,in a few cases some    
vague resemblance may be traced between 
the configurations of the stars  and the
 features of the object they are        
supposed to represent2 in  general1     
however1 the arrangement seems quite    
arbitrary4 ,one animal or  man could be 
fitted in as well as another4 ,there is 

no historic record  or trace as to the  
time when the constellations were mapped
 out1 or of  the process by which the   
outlines were traced4 ,the names of     
heroes1  such as ,perseus1 ,cepheus1    
,hercules1 etc41 intermingled with the  
names  of goddesses1 show that the      
constellations were probably mapped out 
during the heroic age4 ,no maps are     
extant showing exactly how each  figure 
was placed in the constellation2 but in 
the catalogue of stars  given by        
,ptolemy in his #8,almagest1' the       
positions of particular stars  on the   
supposed body of the hero1 goddess or   
animal are designated with  such        
precision as he had at command1 in some 
fairly precise position of  the figure4 
,for example1 ,aldebaran is said to have
 formed the eye of  the ,bull4 ,two     
other stars marked the right and left   
shoulders of ,orion1  and a small       
cluster marked the position of his head4
 ,a row of three  stars in a horizontal 
line showed his belt1 three stars in a  

vertical  line below them his sword4 ,in
 this way the position of the figure can
  be reproduced with a fair degree of   
certainty4    ,in the well-known        
constellation ,ursa ,major1 the ,great  
,bear1  familiarly known as the ,dipper1
 three stars form the tail of the       
animal1 and four others a part of his   
body4 ,this formation is not  unnatural1
 yet the figure of a dipper fits the    
stars much better than  that of a bear4 
,in ,cassiopeia1 which is on the        
opposite side of the  pole from the     
,dipper1 the brighter stars may easily  
be imagined to form  a chair in which a 
lady may be seated without further      
difficulty4 ,as a  general rule1        
however1 the resemblances of the stars  
to the figure are  so vague that the    
latter might be interchanged to any     
extent without  detracting from their   
appropriateness4    ,in any case1 it was
 impossible so to arrange the figures   
that they  should cover the entire      
heavens2 blank spaces were inevitably   

left  in which stars might be found4 ,in
 order to include every star in  some   
constellation1 the figures have been    
nearly ignored by modern  astronomers1  
and the heavens have been divided up1 by
 somewhat  irregular lines1 into        
patches1 each of which contains the     
entire figure  as recognized by ancient 
astronomers4 ,but all are not agreed as 
to the  exact outlines of these extended
 constellations1 and1 accordingly1 a    
star is sometimes placed in one         
constellation by one astronomer and in  
another constellation by another        
astronomer4    ,the confusion thus      
arising is especially great in the      
southern  hemisphere1 where it has been 
intensified by the subdivision of one   
of the old constellations4 ,the ancient 
constellation ,argo covered  so large a 
region of the heavens1 and included so  
many conspicuous  stars1 that it was    
divided into four1 representing various 
parts of a  ship--the sail1 the poop1   
the prow and the hull4    ,dr4 ,gould1  

while director of the ,cordoba          
,observatory1 during the years  #ahgj to
 #ahhj1 constructed the #8,uranometria  
,argentina1' in which all  the stars    
visible to the naked eye more than #aj  
degrees south of the  celestial equator 
were catalogued and mapped4 ,he made a  
revision of the  boundaries of each     
constellation in such a way as to       
introduce greater  regularity4 ,the rule
 generally followed was that the        
boundaries should1  so far as possible1 
run in either an east and west or a     
north and south  direction on the       
celestial sphere4 ,they were so drawn   
that the smallest  possible change      
should be made in the notation of the   
conspicuous  stars2 that is1 the rule   
was that1 if possible1 each bright star 
should  be in the same constellation as 
before4 ,the question whether this new  
division shall replace the ancient one  
is one on which no consensus of  view   
has yet been reached by astronomers4    
,simplicity is undoubtedly  introduced  

by ,gould's arrangement2 yet1 in the    
course of time1 owing  to precession1   
the lines on the sphere which now run   
north and south  or east and west will  
no longer do so1 but will deviate almost
 to any  extent4 ,the only advantage    
then kept will be that the bounding     
lines  will generally be arcs of great  
circles4    ,when the heavens began to  
be carefully studied1 two or three      
centuries  ago1 new constellations were 
introduced by ,hevelius and other       
astronomers to fill the vacant spaces   
left by the ancient ones of  ,ptolemy4  
,to some of these1 rather fantastic     
names were given2 the ,bull  of         
,poniatowski1 for example4 ,some of     
these new additions have been  retained 
to the present time1 but in other cases 
the space occupied  by the proposed new 
constellation was filled up by extending
 the  boundaries of the older ones4     
,at the present time the astronomical   
world1 by common consent1  recognizes   
eighty-nine constellations in the entire

 heavens4 ,in this  enumeration ,argo is
 not counted1 but its four subdivisions 
are taken  as separate constellations4  
,,names ,,of ,,the ,,stars4    ,a glance
 at the heavens will make it evident    
that the problem of  designating a star 
in such a way as to distinguish it from 
all its  neighbors must be a difficult  
one4 ,if such be the case with the      
comparatively small number of stars     
visible to the naked eye1 how must  it  
be with the vast number that can be seen
 only with the telescope8  ,in the case 
of the great mass of telescopic stars we
 have no method  of designation except  
by the position of the star and its     
magnitude2  but with the brighter stars1
 and1 indeed1 with all that have been   
catalogued1 other means of              
identification are available4    ,it is 
but natural to give a special name to a 
conspicuous star4  ,that this was done  
in very early antiquity we know by the  
allusion  to ,arcturus in the ,book of  
,job4 ,at least two such names1 ,castor 

and  ,pollux1 have come down to us from 
classical antiquity1 but most of the    
special names given to the stars in     
modern times are corruptions of  certain
 ,arabic designations4 ,as an example we
 may mention ,aldebaran1 a  corruption  
of ,al ,dabaran--,the ,follower4 ,there 
is1 however1 a tendency  to replace     
these special names by a designation of 
the stars on a  system devised by ,bayer
 early in the seventeenth century4      
,this system of naming stars is quite   
analogous to our system of  designating 
persons by a family name and a          
,christian name4 ,the family  name of a 
star is that of the constellation to    
which it belongs4 ,the  ,christian name 
is a letter of the ,greek or ,roman     
alphabet1 or a number4  ,as a number of 
men in different families may have the  
same ,christian  name1 so the ,greek    
letter or number may be given to a star 
in any  number of constellations without
 confusion4    ,the work of ,bayer was  
published under the title of            

#8,uranometria1' of  which the first    
edition appeared in #afja4 ,this work   
consists mainly  of maps of the stars4  
,in marking the stars with letters on   
the map1  the rule followed seems to    
have been to give the brighter stars the
  earlier letters in the alphabet4 ,were
 this system followed absolutely1  the  
brighter stars should always be called 2
 the next in order 1  etc4 ,but this is 
not always the case4 ,thus in the       
constellation  ,gemini1 the brighter    
star is ,pollux1 which is marked 1 while
  is  the second brightest4 ,what       
system1 if any1 ,bayer adopted in detail
  has been a subject of discussion1 but 
does not appear to have been            
satisfactorily made out4 ,quite likely  
,bayer himself did not attempt  accurate
 observations on the brightness of the  
stars1 but followed the  indications    
given by ,ptolemy or the ,arabian       
astronomers4 ,as the number  of stars to
 be named in several constellations     
exceeds the number of  letters in the   

,greek alphabet1 ,bayer had recourse1   
after the ,greek  alphabet was          
exhausted1 to letters of the ,roman     
alphabet4 ,in this  case the letter ,a  
was used as a capital1 in order1        
doubtless1 that  it should not be       
confounded with the ,greek 4 ,in other  
cases smaller  italics are used4 ,in    
several catalogues since ,bayer1 new    
italic  letters have been added by      
various astronomers4 ,sometimes these   
have  met with general acceptance1 and  
sometimes not4    ,flamsteed was the    
first ,astronomer ,royal in ,england1   
and observed at  ,greenwich from #afff  
to #agae4 ,among his principal works is 
a catalogue  of stars in which the      
positions are given with greater        
accuracy than  had been attained by his 
predecessors4 ,he slightly altered the  
,bayer  system by introducing numbers   
instead of ,greek letters4 ,this had the
  advantage that there was no limit to  
the number of stars which could  be     
designated in each constellation4 ,he   

assigned numbers to all the  brighter   
stars in the order of their right       
ascension1 irrespective  of the letters 
used by ,bayer4 ,these numbers are      
extensively used to  the present day1   
and will doubtless continue to be the   
principal  designations of the stars to 
which they refer4 ,it is very common in 
our modern catalogues to give both the  
,bayer letter and the ,flamsteed  number
 in the case of ,bayer stars4    ,the   
catalogues by ,flamsteed do not include 
quite all the stars visible  to the     
naked eye1 but various uranometries have
 been published which  were intended to 
include all such stars4 ,in such cases  
the designations  now used frequently   
correspond to the numbers given in the  
uranometries  of ,bode1 ,argelander and 
,heis4    ,in recent times these        
uranometries have been supplemented by  
censuses  of the stars1 which are       
intended to include all the stars to the
 ninth  or tenth magnitude4 ,i shall    
speak of these in the next section2 at  

present it will suffice to say that     
stars are very generally designated  by 
their place in such a census4    ,there 
is still here and there some confusion  
both as to the boundaries  of the       
constellations and as to the names of a 
few of the stars in  them4 ,i have      
already remarked that1 in drawing the   
imaginary boundaries  on a star map1 as 
representing the celestial sphere1      
different  astronomers have placed the  
lines differently4 ,one of the regions  
in  which this is especially true is in 
the neighborhood of the north pole1     
where some astronomers place stars in   
the constellation ,cepheus which  others
 place in ,ursa ,minor4 ,hence in the   
,bayer system the same star may  have   
different names in different catalogues4
 ,again1 in extending the  names or     
numbers1 some astronomers use names     
which others do not regard  as          
authoritative4 ,the remapping of the    
southern constellation by ,dr4  ,gould  
changed the boundaries of most of the   

southern constellations in  a way       
already mentioned4    ,i have spoken of 
the subdivision of the great            
constellation ,argus  into four separate
 ones4 ,bayer having assigned to the    
principal  stars in this constellation  
the ,greek letters 1 1 1 etc41 the      
general practice among astronomers since
 the subdivision has been to  continue  
the designation of the stars thus marked
 as belonging to the  constellation     
,argo4 ,thus1 for example1 we have      
,argus1 which after  the subdivision    
belonged to the constellation ,carina4  
,the variable  star  ,argus also belongs
 to the constellation ,carina4 ,but in  
the  case of stars not marked by ,bayer1
 the names were assigned according to   
the subdivided constellations1 ,vela1   
,carina1 etc4 ,confusing though  this   
proceeding may appear to be1 it is not  
productive of serious  trouble4 ,the    
main point is that the same star should 
always have the  same name in successive
 catalogues4 ,still1 however1 it has    

recently  become quite common to ignore 
the constellation ,argus altogether and 
use only the names of its subdivisions4 
,the reader must therefore be  on his   
guard against any mistake arising in    
this way in the study of  astronomical  
literature4    ,in star catalogues the  
position of a star in the heavens is    
sometimes  given in connection with its 
name4 ,in this case the confusion       
arising  from the same star having      
different names may be avoided1 since a 
star can always be identified by its    
right ascension and declination4  ,the  
fact is that1 so far as mere            
identification is concerned1  nothing   
but the statement of a star's position  
is really necessary4  ,unfortunately1   
the position constantly changes through 
the precession  of the equinoxes1 so    
that this designation of a star is a    
variable  quantity4 ,hence the special  
names which we have described are the   
most  convenient to use in the case of  
well-known stars4 ,in other cases a     

star is designated by its number in some
 well-known catalogue4 ,but even  here  
different astronomers choose different  
catalogues1 so that there  are still    
different designations for the same     
star4 ,the case is one in  which action 
of uniformity of practice is            
unattainable4      ,,cataloguing ,,and  
,,numbering ,,the ,,stars4    ,a        
catalogue or list of stars is a work    
giving for each star listed its         
magnitude and its position on the       
celestial sphere1 with such other       
particulars as may be necessary to      
attain the object of the catalogue4  ,if
 the latter includes only the more      
conspicuous stars1 it is common  to add 
the name of each star that has one2 if  
none is recognized1 the  constellation  
to which the star belongs is frequently 
given4    ,the position of a star on the
 celestial sphere is defined by its     
right ascension and declination4 ,these 
correspond to the longitude  and        
latitude of places on the earth1 in the 

following way3 ,imagine a  plane passing
 through the center of the earth and    
coinciding with its  equator1 to extend 
out so as to intersect the celestial    
sphere4 ,the  line of intersection will 
be a great circle of the celestial      
sphere1  called the celestial equator4  
,the axis of the earth1 being also      
indefinitely extended in both the north 
and the south directions1 will  meet the
 celestial spheres in two opposite      
points1 known as the north  and south   
celestial poles4 ,the equator will then 
be a great circle #ij  from each pole4  
,then as meridians are drawn from pole  
to pole on the  earth1 cutting the      
equator at different points1 so         
imaginary meridians  are conceived as   
drawn from pole to pole on the celestial
 sphere4  ,corresponding to parallels of
 latitude on the earth we have parallels
  of declination on the celestial       
sphere4 ,these are parallel to the      
equator1 and become smaller and smaller 
as we approach either pole4 ,the        

correspondence of the terrestrial and   
celestial circles is this3    ,to       
latitude on the earth's surface         
corresponds declination in the  heavens4
    ,to longitude on the earth          
corresponds right ascension in the      
heavens4    ,a little study of these    
facts will show that the zenith of any  
point on  the earth's surface is always 
in a declination equal to the latitude  
of the place4 ,for example1 for an      
observer in ,philadelphia1 in #dj       
latitude1 the parallel of #dj north     
declination will always pass  through   
his zenith1 and a star of that          
declination will1 in the course  of its 
diurnal motion1 also pass through his   
zenith4    ,so also to an observer on   
the equator the celestial sphere always 
spans  the visible celestial hemisphere 
through the east and west points4    ,in
 the case of the right ascension1 the   
relation between the  terrestrial and   
celestial spheres is not constant1      
because of the  diurnal motion1 which   

keeps the terrestrial meridians in      
constant  revolution relative to the    
celestial meridians4 ,allowing for this 
motion1 however1 the system is the same4
 ,as we have on the earth's  surface a  
prime meridian passing from pole to pole
 through the  ,greenwich ,observatory1  
so in the heavens a prime meridian      
passes from  one celestial pole to the  
other through the vernal equinox4 ,then 
to  define the right ascension of any   
star we imagine a great circle  passing 
from pole to pole through the star1 as  
we imagine one to pass  from pole to    
pole through a city on the earth of     
which we wish to  designate the         
longitude4 ,the actual angle which this 
meridian makes  with the prime meridian 
is the right ascension of the star as it
 is the  longitude of the place on the  
earth's surface4    ,there is1 however1 
a difference in the unit of angular     
measurement  commonly used for right    
ascensions in the heavens and longitude 
on the  earth4 ,in astronomical         

practice1 right ascension is very       
generally  expressed by hours1          
twenty-four of which make a complete    
circle1  corresponding to the apparent  
revolution of the celestial sphere in   
twenty-four hours4 ,the reason of this  
is that astronomers determine  right    
ascension by the time shown by a clock  
so regulated as to read #j  hrs41 #j    
min41 #j sec4 when the vernal equinox   
crosses the meridian4 ,the  hour hand of
 this clock makes a revolution through  
twenty-four hours  during the time that 
the earth makes one revolution on its   
axis1 and  thus returns to #j hrs41 #j  
min41 #j sec4 when the vernal equinox   
again  crosses the meridian4 ,a clock   
thus regulated is said to show sidereal 
time4 ,then the right ascension of any  
star is equal to the sidereal  time at  
which it crosses the meridian of any    
point on the earth's  surface4 ,right   
ascension thus designated in time may be
 changed to  degrees and minutes by     
multiplying by #ae4 ,thus1 one hour is  

equal to  #ae2 one minute of time is    
equal to #ae of arc1 and one second of  
time  to #a of arc4    ,it may be       
remarked that in astronomical practice  
terrestrial longitudes  are also        
expressed in time1 the longitude of a   
place being designated  by the number of
 hours it may be east or west of        
,greenwich4 ,thus1  ,washington is said 
to be #e;h4 #hm4 #aes4 west of          
,greenwich4 ,this1 however1  is not     
important for our present purpose4      
,the first astronomer who attempted to  
make a catalogue of all the known  stars
 is supposed to be ,hipparchus1 who     
flourished about #aej ,b4,c4 ,there  is 
an unverified tradition to the effect   
that he undertook this work  in         
consequence of the appearance of a new  
star in the heavens1 and a  desire to   
leave on record1 for the use of         
posterity1 such information  respecting 
the heavens in his time that any changes
 which might take  place in them could  
be detected4 ,this catalogue has not    

come down to  us--at least not in its   
original form4    ,ptolemy1 the         
celebrated author of the #8,almagest1'  
flourished ,a4,d4  #aej4 ,his great work
 contains the earliest catalogue of     
stars which  we have4 ,there seems to be
 a certain probability that this        
catalogue  either may be that of        
,hipparchus adopted by ,ptolemy         
unchanged1 or may  be largely derived   
from ,hipparchus4 ,this1 however1 is    
little more than  a surmise1 due to the 
fact that ,ptolemy does not seem to have
 been a  great observer1 but based his  
theories very largely on the            
observations  of his predecessors4 ,the 
actual number of stars which it contains
 is  #a1jcj4 ,the positions of these are
 given in longitude and latitude1 and   
are also described by their places in   
the figure of the constellation  to     
which each may belong4 ,not unfrequently
 the longitude or latitude is  a degree 
or more in error1 showing that the      
instruments with which the  position was

 determined were of rather rough        
construction4    ,so far as the writer  
is aware1 no attempt to make a new      
catalogue of  the stars is found until  
the tenth century4 ,then arose the      
,persian  astronomer1 ,abd-,al-,rahman  
,al-,sufi1 commonly known as ,al-,sufi1 
who was  born ,a4,d4 #ijc and lived     
until #ihf4 ,nothing is known of his    
life except  that he was a man          
celebrated for his learning1 especially 
in astronomy4  ,his only work on the    
latter subject which has come down to us
 is a  description of the fixed stars1  
which was translated from the ,arabic   
by ,schjellerup and published in #ahgd  
by the ,st4 ,petersburg ,academy of     
,science4 ,this work is based mainly on 
the catalogue of ,ptolemy1 all  the     
stars of which he claimed to have       
carefully examined4 ,but he did  not add
 any new stars to ,ptolemy's list1 nor1 
it would seem1 did he  attempt to       
redetermine their positions4 ,he simply 
used the longitudes  and latitudes of   

,ptolemy1 the former being increased by 
#ab #db on  account of the precession   
during the interval between his time and
  that to which ,ptolemy's catalogue was
 reduced4 ,the translator says of  his  
work that it gives a description of the 
starry heavens at the time  of the      
author and is worthy of the highest     
confidence4 ,the main body  of the work 
consists of a detailed description of   
each constellation1  mentioning the     
positions and appearances of the stars  
which it  contains4 ,here we find the   
,arabic names of the stars1 which were  
not1  however1 used as proper names1 but
 seem rather to have been ,arabic  words
 representing some real or supposed     
peculiarity of the separate  stars1 or  
arbitrarily applied to them4    ,four   
centuries later arose the celebrated    
,ulugh ,beigh1 grandson of  ,tamerlane1 
who reigned at ,samarcand in the middle 
of the fifteenth  century4 ,bailey says 
of him3 8,ulugh ,beigh was not only a   
warlike and  powerful monarch1 but also 

an eminent promoter of the sciences and 
of learned men4 ,during his father's    
lifetime he had attracted to his        
capital all the most celebrated         
astronomers from different parts of  the
 world2 he erected there an immense     
college and observatory1 in  which above
 a hundred persons were constantly      
occupied in the pursuits  of science1   
and caused instruments to be constructed
 of a better form  and greater          
dimensions than any that had hitherto   
been used for making  astronomical      
observations40    ,his fate was one     
which so enlightened a promoter of      
learning little  deserved2 he was       
assassinated by the order of his own    
son1 who desired  to succeed him on his 
throne2 and in order to make his        
position the  more secure1 also put his 
only brother to death4 ,a catalogue of  
the  stars bears the name of this       
monarch2 he is supposed to have made    
many  or most of the observations on    
which it is founded4 ,posterity will  be

 likely to suppose that a sovereign used
 the eyes of others more  than his own  
in making the observations4 ,however    
this may be1 his  catalogue seems to    
have been the first in which the        
positions of the  stars given by        
,ptolemy were carefully revised4 ,he    
found that there  were twenty-seven of  
,ptolemy's stars too far south to be    
visible at  ,samarcand1 and that eight  
others1 although diligently looked      
after1  could not be discovered4 ,it is 
curious that1 like ,al-,sufi1 he does   
not  seem to have added any new stars to
 ,ptolemy's list4    ,next in the order 
of time comes the work of ,bayer1 whose 
method of  naming the stars has already 
been described4 ,the main feature of    
this  work consists of maps of all the  
constellations4 ,previous to his time1  
celestial globes1 made especially for   
the use of the navigator1 took  the     
place of maps of the stars4 ,the first  
edition of this book was  published in  
#afjc1 and is distinguished by the fact 

that a list of  stars in each           
constellation is printed on the backs of
 the maps4 ,bayer  did not confine      
himself to the northern hemisphere1 but 
extended his  list over the whole       
celestial sphere1 from the north to the 
south pole4    ,the catalogue of the    
celebrated ,tycho ,brahe1 prepared      
toward the end of  the sixteenth        
century1 though of great historic value1
 is of no special  interest to the      
general reader at the present time4 ,a  
supplement to  it1 continuing its list  
of stars to the south pole1 was         
published by  ,halley1 who made the     
necessary observations during a journey 
to ,st4  ,helena in #afgg4    ,the      
catalogue of ,hevelius1 published in    
#afij1 offers no feature of  special    
interest1 except the addition of several
 new constellations  which he placed    
between those already known4 ,having the
 aid of the  telescope1 he was able to  
include in his catalogue stars which had
 been  invisible to his predecessors4   

,modern catalogues of the stars may be  
divided into two classes3  ,those which 
include only stars of a special class1  
or stars of which  the observer sought  
to determine the position or magnitude  
with all  attainable precision2 and     
catalogues intended to include all the  
stars in any given region of the        
heavens1 down to some fixed order of    
magnitude4 ,it may appear remarkable    
that no attempt of the latter sort  was 
seriously made until more than two      
centuries after the telescope  had been 
pointed at the heavens by ,galileo4 ,a  
reason for the absence  of such an      
attempt will be seen in the vast number 
of stars shown by  the telescope1 the   
difficulty of stopping at any given     
point1 and the  seeming impossibility of
 assigning positions to hundreds of     
thousands  of stars4 ,the latter        
difficulty was overcome by the improved 
methods of  observation devised in      
modern times4    ,about the middle of   
the present century the celebrated      

,argelander  commenced the work of      
actually cataloguing all the stars of   
the  northern celestial hemisphere to   
magnitude #i4 ,this work was termed  a  
,durchmusterung of the northern heavens1
 a term which has been  introduced into 
astronomy generally to designate a      
catalogue in which  all the stars down  
to a certain magnitude are supposed to  
be mustered1  as if a census of them    
were taken4 ,the work fills three quarto
 volumes  and contains more than        
#caj1jjj stars1 of each of which the    
magnitude  and the right ascension and  
declination are given4 ,this work was   
extended by ,schnfeld1 ,argelander's    
assistant and successor1 to #bb of      
south declination4    ,in the latitudes 
in which most of the great observatories
 of the  world are situated1 that part  
of the celestial sphere within #dj or   
#ej of the south pole always remains    
below the horizon4 ,around this         
invisible region a belt of somewhat     
indefinite breadth1 #aj or more1  can be

 only imperfectly observed1 owing to the
 nearness of the stars  to the horizon1 
and the brevity of the period between   
their rising  and setting4 ,up to the   
middle of the nineteenth century1 the   
few  observatories situated in the      
southern hemisphere were too ill-endowed
  to permit of their undertaking a      
complete census of this invisible       
region4    ,the first considerable work 
emanating from the ,cordoba             
,observatory1  under ,gould1 was a      
catalogue of all the stars from the     
south pole  to #aj of north declination 
which could be seen with the naked eye4 
,another work1 which was not issued     
until after ,dr4 ,gould's death1 was    
devoted to photographs of southern      
clusters of stars4    ,the work of the  
,cordoba ,observatory1 with which we are
 more especially  concerned in the      
present connection1 consists of a       
#8,durchmusterung' of  the southern     
heavens1 commencing at #bb of south     
declination1 where  ,schnfeld's work    

ended1 and continued to the south pole4 
,this work  is still incomplete1 but two
 volumes have been published by ,thome1 
extending to #da of south declination4  
,it is expected that the third is       
approaching completion4 ,this catalogue 
is1 in one point at least1 more         
complete than that of ,argelander and   
,schnfeld1 as it contains all the  stars
 down to the tenth magnitude4 ,the two  
volumes give the positions  and         
magnitudes of no less than #cdj1jjj     
stars1 and therefore more than  the     
catalogue of ,argelander gives for the  
entire northern hemisphere4  ,if the    
remaining part of the heavens1 from #db 
to the south pole1 is  equally rich1 it 
will contain nearly half a million      
stars1 and the  entire work will        
comprise more than #hjj1jjj stars4      
,the ,royal ,observatory of the ,cape of
 ,good ,hope1 under the able and        
energetic direction of ,dr4 ,david      
,gill1 has undertaken a work of the     
same kind1 which is remarkable for being

 based on photography4 ,the  history of 
this work is of great interest4 ,in     
#ahhb ,gill secured the  aid of         
photographers at the ,cape of ,good     
,hope to take pictures of  the brilliant
 comet of that year1 with a large       
camera4 ,on developing  the pictures the
 remarkable discovery was made that not 
only all the  stars visible to the naked
 eye1 but telescopic stars down to the  
ninth  or tenth magnitude were also     
found on the negatives4 ,this remarkable
  result suggested to ,gill that here   
was a new and simple method of          
cataloguing the stars4 ,it was only     
necessary to photograph the heavens  and
 then measure the positions of the stars
 on the glass negatives1  which could be
 done with much greater ease and        
certainty than measures  could be made  
on the positions of the actual stars1   
which were in  constant apparent motion4
    ,as soon as the necessary           
arrangements could be made and the      
apparatus  put into successful          

operation1 ,gill proceeded to the work  
of  photographing the entire southern   
heavens from #ah of south declination   
to the celestial pole4 ,the results of  
this work are found in the #8,cape      
,photographic ,durchmusterung1' a work  
in three quarto volumes1 in which  the  
astronomers of all future time will find
 a permanent record of the  southern    
heavens towards the end of the          
nineteenth century4 ,the actual  work of
 taking the photographs extended from   
#ahhg to #ahia4 ,this1  however1 was far
 from being the most difficult part of  
the enterprise4  ,the most arduous task 
of measuring the positions of a         
half-million of  stars on the negatives1
 including the determining of the       
magnitude of  each1 was undertaken by   
,professor ,j4 ,c4 ,kapetyn1 of the     
,university of  ,groningen1 ,holland1   
and brought to a successful completion  
in the year  #ahii4    ,what the work   
gives is1 in the first place1 the       
magnitude and  approximate position of  

every star photographed4 ,the           
determining of  the magnitude of a star 
is an important and delicate question4  
,there  is no difficulty in determining1
 from the diameter of the image of the  
star as seen in the microscope1 what its
 photographic magnitude was  at the time
 of the exposure1 as compared with other
 stars on the same  plate4 ,but can we  
rely upon similar photographic          
magnitudes on a plate  corresponding to 
similar brightnesses of the stars8 ,in  
the opinion of  ,gill and ,kapetyn we   
cannot4 ,the transparency of the air    
varies from  night to night1 and on a   
very clear night the same star will give
 a  stronger image than it will when the
 air is thick4 ,besides1 slightly       
different instruments were used in the  
course of the work4 ,for these  reasons 
a scale of magnitude was determined on  
each plate by comparing  the            
photographic intensity of the images of 
a number of stars with the  magnitudes  
as observed with the eye by various     

observers4 ,thus on each  plate the     
magnitude was reduced to a visual scale4
    ,it does not follow from this that  
the magnitudes are visual1 and not      
photographic4 ,it is still true that a  
blue star will give a much  stronger    
photographic image than a red star of   
equal visual brightness4  ,in a general 
way1 it may be said that the catalogue  
includes all the  stars to very nearly  
the tenth magnitude1 and on most of the 
plates  stars of #aj4e were included4   
,in fact1 now and then is found a star  
of  the eleventh magnitude4    ,a       
feature of the work which adds greatly  
to its value is a careful  and          
exhaustive comparison of its results    
with previous catalogues of  the stars4 
,when a star is found in any other      
catalogue the latter is  indicated4     
,most interesting is a complete list of 
catalogued stars  which ought to be on  
the photographic negatives1 but were not
 found  there4 ,every such case was     
inexhaustibly investigated4 ,sometimes  

the  star was variable1 sometimes it was
 so red in color that it failed  to     
impress itself on the plate1 sometimes  
there were errors in the  catalogue4    
,the great enterprise of making a       
photographic map of the heavens  now    
being carried on as an international    
enterprise1 having its  headquarters at 
,paris1 is yet wider in its scope than  
the works we  have just described4 ,one 
point of difference is that it is       
intended to  include all the stars1     
however faint1 that admit of being      
photographed  with the instruments in   
use4 ,the latter are constructed on a   
uniform  plan1 the aperture of each     
being #cd centimetres1 or #ac4d inches1 
and  the focal length #cdc cm4 ,two sets
 of plates are taken1 one to include    
all the stars that the instrument will  
photograph near poles1 and the  other   
only to take in those to the eleventh   
magnitude4 ,of the latter  it is        
intended to prepare a catalogue4 ,some  
portions of the ,german and  ,english   

catalogues have already been published1 
and their results will  be made use of  
in the course of the present work4      
,,numbering ,,the ,,stars4    ,closely  
connected with the work of cataloguing  
the stars is that of  enumerating them4 
,in view of what may possibly be        
associated with  any one star--planets  
with intellectual beings inhabiting     
them--the  question how many stars there
 are in the heavens is one of perennial 
interest4 ,but beyond the general       
statement we have already made1 this    
question does not admit of even an      
approximate answer4 ,the question  which
 we should be able to answer is this3   
,how many stars are there  of each      
easily visible magnitude8 ,how many of  
the first magnitude1 of  the second1 of 
the third1 and so on to the smallest    
that have been  measured8 ,even in this 
form we cannot answer the question in a 
way  which is at the same time precise  
and satisfactory4 ,one magnitude  merges
 into another by insensible gradations1 

so that no two observers  will agree as 
to where the line should be drawn       
between them4 ,the  difficulty is       
enhanced by the modern system--very     
necessary1 it is  true--of regarding    
magnitude as a continuously varying     
quantity and  estimating it with all    
possible precision4 ,in adjusting the   
new system  to the old one1 it may be   
assumed that an average star of any     
given  magnitude on the old system would
 be designated by the corresponding     
number on the new system4 ,for example1 
an average star of the fourth  magnitude
 would be called #d4j2 one of the fifth1
 #e4j1 etc4 ,then the  brightest stars1 
which formerly were called of the fourth
 magnitude1  would now be1 if the       
estimate were carried to hundredths1    
#c4ej1 while  the faintest would be     
#d4ej4 ,what were formerly called stars 
of the  fifth magnitude would range from
 #d4ej to #e4ej1 and so on4 ,but we have
  meet with a difficulty when we come to
 the sixth magnitude4 ,on the  modern   

system1 magnitude #f4j represents the   
faintest star visible to  the naked eye2
 but the stars formerly included in this
 class would1  on the average1 be       
somewhat brighter than this1 because    
none could be  catalogued except those  
so visible4    ,the most complete       
enumeration of the lucid stars by       
magnitudes has been  made by ,pickering 
7#8,annals of the ,harvard              
,observatory1' ,vol4 ,,xiv74 ,the  stars
 were classified by half magnitudes1    
calling                         ,m4     
,m4    ,mag4 #b4j all from #a4ge to     
#b4be         #b4e all from #b4be to    
#b4ge         etc41             etc4    
,for the northern stars ,pickering used 
the ,harvard ,photometry2 for the       
southern1 ,gould's #8,uranometria       
,argentina4' ,a zone from the equator to
  #cj south declination is common to    
both2 for this zone ,i use ,gould4  ,the
 number of each class in the entire sky1
 north and south of the  celestial      
equator1 is as follows3                 

,northern     ,southern                 
,hemisphere4  ,hemisphere4              
,pickering4     ,gould4     ,total4     
#a              #i          #ad         
#bc    #b4j            #ag          #ae 
#cb    #b4e            #ag          #bd 
#da    #c4j            #cg          #da 
#gh    #c4e            #fa          #gd 
#ace    #d4j           #aad         #abf
         #bdj    #d4e           #bbh    
#bcd         #dfb    #e4j           #dej
         #dbf         #hgf    #e4e      
#ghg         #fha       #a1dfh    #f4j  
#ghi       #a1ahi       #a1igh          
-----       -----       -----    ,sum4  
#b1eji       #b1hbd       #e1ccc    ,it 
would seem from this that the number of 
lucid stars in the southern  celestial  
hemisphere is #cae greater than in the  
northern4 ,but this  arises wholly from 
a seemingly greater number of stars of  
magnitude #f4  ,in the zone #j to #cj   
,s41 ,pickering has #bad stars of this  
class fewer  than ,gould4 ,hence it is  
not likely that there is any really     

greater  richness of the southern sky4  
,the total number of lucid stars is thus
 found to be #e1ccc4 ,but it is  not    
likely that stars of magnitudes #f4a and
 #f4b should be included in  this class1
 though this is done in the above table4
 ,from a careful  study and comparison  
of the same data from ,pickering and    
,gould1  ,schiaparelli enumerated the   
stars to magnitude #f4j4 ,he found3     
,north pole to #cj ,s4     #c1aac stars4
    #cj ,s4 to south pole     #a1aij    
stars4                             -----
       ,total lucid stars     #d1cjc    
,for most purposes a classification by  
entire magnitudes is more  instructive  
than one by half magnitudes4 ,from the  
third magnitude  downward we may assume 
that #dj per cent4 of the stars of each 
half  magnitude belong to the magnitude 
next above1 and #fj per cent4 to that   
next below4 ,we thus find that of       
,total4    ,mag4 #j and #a there are #ba
 stars          #ba    ,mag4 #b there   
are       #eb stars          #gc        

,mag4 #c there are      #aeg stars      
#bcj    ,mag4 #d there are      #ejf    
stars         #gcf    ,mag4 #e there are
    #a1gdj stars       #b1dgf    ,mag4  
#f there are    #e1aga stars            
#g1fdg    ,here it is to be remarked    
that under magnitude #f are included    
many  other than the lucid stars1       
namely1 all down to magnitude #f4d4 ,the
 last  column gives the entire number of
 stars down to each order of magnitude4 
,it will be remarked that the number of 
stars of each order is rather  more than
 three times that of the order next     
higher4 ,how far does this  law extend8 
,argelander's #8,durchmusterung1' which 
is supposed to include  all stars to    
magnitude #i4e1 gives #cae1jci stars for
 the northern  hemisphere1 from which it
 would be inferred that the whole sky   
contains  #fcj1jjj stars to the ninth   
magnitude4 ,comparing this with the     
number  #g1fdg of stars to the magnitude
 #f4e1 we see that it is forty-fold1 so 
that it would require a ratio of about  

#c4e from each magnitude to the  next   
lower4 ,but it is now found that        
,argelander's list contains1 in the     
greater part of the heavens1 all the    
stars to the tenth magnitude4    ,on the
 other hand1 ,thome's ,cordoba          
#8,durchmusterung' gives #cdj1chj stars 
between the parallels -#bb and -#db4    
,this is #j4adgbe of the whole sky1  so 
that1 on ,thome's scale of magnitude1   
there are about #b1caa1jjj stars  to the
 tenth magnitude in the sky4 ,this is   
more than three times the  ,argelander  
number to the ninth magnitude4    ,it   
would1 therefore1 seem that the ratio of
 number for each magnitude  must exceed 
#c1 even up to the tenth4 ,if a ratio of
 only #c extends four  steps farther1   
the whole number of stars in the sky    
down to magnitude  #ad4e inclusive must 
approach #bjj millions4 ,until the      
international  photographic chart of the
 sky is subjected to a detailed         
examination1  it is impossible to make  
an estimation with any approach to      

certainty4          ,,colonies ,,and    
,,the ,,mother ,,country 7,,iii74       
,,by ,,james ,,collier4      ,the       
relations between a great state and its 
subject peoples will vary  according to 
the status of these1 as the relations   
between father and  son differ according
 as the latter is self-supporting or    
still under  tutelage4 ,roman provinces 
under the empire were classed as        
imperial  when they were directly       
controlled by the ,emperor1 or          
senatorial  when they were governed by  
the ,senate and possessed a simulacrum  
of  self-government4 ,the dual status in
 this mother country of nearly  the     
whole world foreshadows all subsequent  
relationships between a  mother country 
and its dependencies4 ,spain and        
,portugal governed their  colonies      
imperially1 appointing all officers1    
immediately or through  their           
representative mediately enacting all   
laws1 and leaving almost  as little     
freedom to their own countrymen as to   

the down-trodden  indigenes4 ,more      
humanely1 indeed1 but in spite of       
conceded ,french  citizenship and       
theoretical equality1 the ,french have  
ruled their  scattered dependencies with
 as little of the reality of public     
life4  ,the ,dutch colonies are         
similarly controlled4 ,the ,british     
,empire  presents a variegated picture  
where every color is blended and every  
form of policy known among men is       
displayed4 ,from it alone an ,aristotle 
might delineate the metaphysics of      
government or a ,spencer construct  its 
physics4 ,in ,egypt and ,crete1 with    
practical possession1 imperial  ,england
 is vassal to the ,sultan1 and she now  
holds the conquered  ,soudan jointly    
with ,egypt1 but acknowledges no        
suzerainty4 ,she is  herself suzerain of
 the two ,south ,african ,boer republics
 and regent of  ,zanzibar4 ,in her      
magnificent dependency of ,india1 #fib  
sovereignties and  chiefships form a    
#8protected' girdle around her own      

possessions1 or  interlace or approach  
them4 ,between these beneficent         
despotisms and the  free states of      
,australia1 ,south ,africa or ,north    
,america there seems to  be every       
possible variety of mingled absolutism  
and self-government4  ,certain          
territories are governed by chartered   
companies2 one 7,rhodesia7  by a        
chartered company under the control of  
the ,crown4 ,three native  territories  
are governed by officers under the ,high
 ,commissioner of  ,south ,africa2 four 
others by the officers of ,cape ,colony4
 ,the status  of ,crown colonies        
administered more or less directly by   
the ,imperial  ,government is almost as 
various4 ,one colony may be dependent on
  another1 as ,natal was for years on   
,cape ,colony4 ,others exhibit in an    
ascending scale the acquisition of the  
attributes of self-government4  ,the    
governor rules at first alone           
despotically1 then with an executive    
council1 next with a nominated          

legislative council1 further with the   
latter partly elected1 and finally with 
it wholly elective4 ,at these           
successive stages the colony is in a    
decreasing degree under the  control of 
the ,imperial ,government1 and a scale  
might be drawn showing  groups of       
colonies indefinitely arrested at one or
 another of them4  ,only colonies       
destined for complete freedom           
victoriously pass through  them all and 
emerge into full political manhood4     
,the duration of their infancy and youth
 is determined by internal and  external
 circumstances3 7#a7 ,when a colony is  
systematically founded  and quickly     
peopled it may rapidly traverse the     
period of dependence1  and 7like ,new   
,zealand or ,south ,australia7 be       
granted responsible  government in about
 fifteen years4 7#b7 ,convict colonies1 
like ,tasmania  and ,new ,south ,wales1 
may have fifty or sixty years of        
pupilage4 7#c7 ,a  colony of retarded   
growth1 like ,west ,australia1 may be   

nearly as long  a minor4 7#d7 ,colonies 
that have long to struggle with an      
overwhelming  mass of indigenes1 like   
,cape ,colony1 may take half a century  
to ripen1  and even then1 like ,natal1  
may retain traces of the earlier state4 
7#e7  ,when the mother country is       
herself despotically governed1 as       
,england  was under the ,stuarts1 the   
,commonwealth and the early             
,hanoverians1  colonies that possess    
every attribute qualifying them for     
freedom1  like many of the ,north       
,american colonies1 may be forcibly     
retained in  partial dependence4 7#f7   
,the ,new ,england colonies1 free from  
the start1  were connected with ,britain
 by a shadowy tie of nominal allegiance1
  tightened at times into real          
subjection4 ,lastly1 a colony may       
revert1  like ,jamaica1 after years of  
,parliamentary institutions1 to the     
dependent position of a ,crown colony4  
,so various and so intricate1 so weak   
here1 so strong there1 and withal  so   

marvelously compacted1 is the network of
 relations forming the  anatomy of the  
wonderful new type of social organism   
constituted by a  mother country1 its   
free and its subject colonies1 its      
protected states  and its dependencies4 
,the brain sometimes inhibits natural   
movements and enforces injurious        
actions1 as a morbid conscience often   
prescribes irksome duties and  forbids  
innocent pleasures4 ,fathers have       
misdirected the career of  their sons1  
and the unwisdom of mothers 7,lady      
,ashton1 in #8,the ,bride of            
,lammermoor1' is a tragic1 but far from 
a rare example7 has destroyed  the      
happiness of their daughters4 ,so       
governments inevitably hinder and       
blunder1 worry colonies by vexatious    
interferences or goad them into         
insurrection4 ,for more than thirty     
years ,bishop ,fonseca1 the president   
of the ,council of the ,indies1 lay like
 an incubus on the ,spanish  colonies in
 ,south ,america4 ,his main object      

seemed to be to throw  impediments in   
the way of the great discoverers and    
rulers--,columbus  and ,cortez4 ,when   
,cortez planned the conquest of ,mexico 
he experienced  protracted opposition   
from ,fonseca1 who 8discouraged         
recruits1  stopped supplies and         
sequestered the property0 ,cortez sent  
to ,spain4  ,the conqueror bitterly     
complained that he 8had found it harder 
to  contend against his own countrymen  
than against the ,aztecs40 ,the story   
of ,spain's ,south ,american colonies is
 one of injustice1 oppression  and      
downright robbery4 ,the natives         
naturally suffered most4 ,they were     
condemned to forced labor in the mines  
under circumstances of extreme          
barbarity1 in order that large sums of  
money might be sent annually  to ,spain4
 ,this insatiable demand neutralized all
 the efforts of the  best-intentioned   
viceroys and rendered all attempts at   
good government  nugatory4 ,the ,indians
 had further to submit to grinding      

oppression by  the local officials and  
to the exactions and tyranny of the     
priests4  ,the ,spanish colonists had   
their own grievances4 ,articles of      
commerce  were excluded1 or had their   
prices heightened by the monopoly of the
  ,cadiz merchants4 ,they were oppressed
 by the military despotism of  the      
government4 ,the political development  
of the colonies was made  impossible by 
the continued use of them for the       
purposes of the mother  country4 ,what  
,spain was for three centuries1 that was
 she till the  other day in her few     
remaining colonies4 ,lord ,brassey      
writes of ,cuba3  8,the casual visitor  
can not fail to be impressed with the   
evidences of  inefficient               
administration4 ,the fiscal policy is   
intensely exclusive4  ,the taxation is  
heavy1 and the government absolutely    
despotic4 ,the  police maintain a system
 of intolerable espionage4 ,every       
salaried  servant of the local          
government is a ,spaniard1 who regards  

,cuba as a  vassal state1 over which    
,spain has unlimited rights1 without    
reciprocal  duties or obligations4 ,the 
system has already severed all her noble
  settlements in ,south ,america from   
the mother country4 ,in time it must    
involve the loss of ,cuba40    ,if it   
were the case that the genesis and      
growth of the myriad buds  formed round 
a prolific hydroid were accelerated by  
magnetic shoots  7so to speak7 from the 
parent zophyte1 and #8persons' were thus
  differentiated1 we should have a true 
analogue to a kind of action  exercised 
by the mother country on its colonies4  
,for it long supplies  them with the    
greater part of their brain power1      
governing force1  culture1 science and  
experience of all sorts1 and when these 
have  done their work a new political1  
intellectual and moral center is        
created1 which is henceforth            
self-subsistent2 the colony has received
 a  soul1 a mind1 a heart4 ,first1 the  
governor is usually sent out by the     

metropolis4 ,of six hundred and         
seventy-two rulers of ,south ,america1  
from its conquest to its independence1  
only eighteen were ,americans4  ,in     
,french and ,dutch colonies there are   
possibly no exceptions4 ,many  of the   
charter and proprietary colonies of     
,north ,america elected  their own      
governors1 and the insurrectionary      
governor of a ,crown  colony1 ,new      
,york1 was popularly elected4 ,the      
lieutenant-governors  of the provinces  
of the ,canadian ,dominion are locally  
appointed4  ,with these and one or two  
other exceptions1 the governor may be   
considered as symbolizing 7in so far as 
he has the capacity7 the entire         
civilization of the mother country4 ,he 
brings much or little to the  colony he 
comes to govern4 ,sometimes1 as in the  
case of ,sir ,george  ,gray1 he brings  
intellectual superiority1 and he may    
thus stimulate  its literary            
development1 but that is rare4 ,he      
oftener imparts an  aroma of gentility  

that is much appreciated by a certain   
class4 ,he  may be of practical utility 
by applying the experience of a military
  engineer1 as did ,sir ,william        
,jervois4 ,he may have had large        
colonial  experience1 like ,sir         
,hercules ,robinson1 and use that to    
solve the  intricate political problems 
of his colony4 ,if he is a collector1   
like  ,sir ,george ,gray1 he may enrich 
it by bequests of libraries and museums4
  ,if he possesses literary gifts and   
has passed through an eventful time1  he
 may enrich colonial history by         
dictating his biography1 like one       
colonial governor1 or writing his       
reminiscences1 like so many4 ,and       
lastly1 after returning to the          
mother-land1 he may continue to watch   
over the interests of the colony or     
colonies he ruled2 he may become        
president or member of the ,council of  
the ,indies1 like three viceroys  of    
,peru1 or ,parliamentary under-secretary
 for the colonies1 like ,sir  ,james    

,fergusson1 or even his former colony's 
agent-general1 like ,sir  ,w4 ,robinson4
 ,in ,crown colonies the chief legal and
 administrative  officials are imperial 
appointees1 and are only superseded by  
local  ministers when the colony is     
granted responsible government4 ,in  a  
unique case1 that of ,queensland1 after 
a constitution had been  conceded1 the  
first governor took out with him the    
first premier2 and  he too was          
afterwards able to safeguard its        
interests as permanent  under-secretary 
in ,london4    ,the ,greek metropolis   
sometimes sent priests to its colonies1 
and  bishops are long appointed by the  
mother church4 ,during the three        
centuries of ,peruvian dependence fully 
one in seven bishops--one  hundred and  
five against seven hundred and six--were
 native ,americans4  ,canada seems to   
have at length arrived at complete      
independence and  appoints ,canadians4  
,in ,australasia and ,south ,africa the 
metropolitans  and most of the          

suffragans are still nominated in       
,england2 a dean may  be transferred    
from one colony to another as a bishop2 
or a small and  poor diocese may elect  
one of its incumbents4 ,local jealousies
 and  possibly the absence of a         
commanding spirit combine with the      
desire  to have the best the home church
 can afford to give or the colonial     
church procure to dictate the extraneous
 selection4 ,the stream of              
ecclesiastical culture flows likewise   
through the immigration or  importation 
of ministers of all denominations4 ,it  
means1 among  ,catholics as among       
,protestants1 the periodical addition to
 the  spiritual wealth of the colonies  
of an amount of talent and high         
character which they would have been    
slow to acquire by natural growth4      
,university or collegiate professors are
 for quite as long appointed  by a      
committee of selection in the mother    
country4 ,such men--some  of them       
brilliant1 laborious1 enthusiastic--are 

a real acquisition  to communities      
immersed in material pursuits and cut   
off from the  movement of science in    
,europe1 and their position is          
deservedly high  and well remunerated4  
,doctors1 lawyers1 artists1 teachers1   
experts in  many departments1 place the 
colonies in the same position relatively
  to less-favored communities1 as the   
sons of a squire relatively to  the sons
 of an artisan4 ,in this respect1 as in 
most others1 a colony  follows the      
example of the mother country4 ,the     
introduction of  literature1 the        
sciences and the arts into the          
mother-land was to a  large extent at   
all stages in its history the work of   
aliens4 ,it is so  still2 the names of  
,bunsen1 ,rosen1 ,max ,mller1           
,goldstcker1 ,aufrecht1  and a score of 
others1 are proofs that men as well as  
things that are  #8made in ,germany' are
 still imported into ,england4 ,to      
descend to the  mechanical arts1 8the   
ranks of skilled workmen in ,america    

were and  are renewed from the more     
fertile soil of ,europe02 even the      
workmen  in the ,portland stone-quarries
 are imported from ,england4 ,the second
  mode in which foreign culture was     
introduced into the mother-land  in     
common with all others--visits made     
abroad for discipleship or              
instruction--has all along been1 and is 
now increasingly1 maintained4  ,colonial
 students go to ,europe to be trained in
 medicine and law4  ,experts go to      
become acquainted with advances in      
science and medicine1  or with recent   
improvements in mechanical processes4   
,the wealthier  colonists who spend     
occasional seasons in ,europe bring back
 new 7or  antiquated7 social or         
political notions1 and ,americans who   
thus try  to import into the ,united    
,states an aristocratic style of living 
have  to be ridiculed out of it4 ,the   
third method by which an infusion of    
foreign civilization may pass into      
another community is by books1 works  of

 plastic art1 music1 tools1 implements  
and instruments1 and into  this vast    
inheritance of the mother country the   
daughter colonies have  entered4 ,they  
participate in the advances made by     
other countries as  well4 ,the ,canadian
 colonies owe only less to the ,united  
,states than  to ,england1 and ,american
 railway cars1 agricultural implements  
and  household utensils are in use in   
,australasia4 ,in ,new ,zealand a       
,french  ,masonic lodge has struck root4
    ,the new colonial centers thus      
formed react on the father-land1 as we  
may conceive the daughter buds to react 
on the parent hydroid4 ,the  discovery  
of the ,new ,world and the successive   
entrance of the five  great maritime    
powers upon a long and fierce rivalry   
for its possession  transformed the     
politics of ,europe4 ,great wars were   
undertaken solely  with this object4    
,the political center of gravity was    
shifted from the  ,mediterranean to the 
,atlantic4 ,new industrial interests    

were created4  ,insular and stagnant    
powers1 isolated ,continental powers1   
received a  fresh lease of life1 and1   
along with warlike ,continental powers1 
were  expanded to the measure of the    
globe4 ,new sympathies were generated4  
,wider horizons were opened out4 ,the   
heart and brain of all were in a  manner
 enlarged4 ,the policy of the mother    
country is even now being  modified by  
its colonies4 8,the paramount object in 
legislating for  colonies should be the 
welfare of the parent state10 frankly   
avows the  law officer of the ,dutch    
,east ,india ,company at the ,cape of   
,good ,hope1  in #aggi4 ,the ,ashburton 
,treaty and the ,oregon ,agreement were 
entered  into as if ,england and the    
,united ,states were alone interested in
  their provisions4 ,treaties are now   
concluded in the interests of the       
colonies4 ,treaties are #8denounced' in 
order to allow them freedom to  tax     
foreign commodities4 ,they are          
represented by commissioners1 on an     

equal footing with those of ,britain1 at
 conferences preparatory to the         
conclusion of treaties1 and colonial    
conferences are summoned in order  that 
the general views of the colonies may be
 ascertained4    ,there is a more direct
 reaction1 resembling the adoption by an
  admiring father of the sentiments and 
opinions of a son who is rising  in the 
world4 ,the ,greek cities that had      
planted colonies imitated  the          
republican institutions of these and    
deposed their kings4 8,the  ,american   
colonists10 says ,bancroft1 8founded    
their institutions on  popular freedom  
and #8set an example to the nations4'   
,already the 444  ,anglo-,saxon         
emigrants were the hope of the world40  
,the filial free  colonies of ,britain  
are exerting an influence on the        
domestic policy  of the father-land4 ,an
 aged colonial ruler used to console    
himself  for exclusion from the ,english
 ,parliament by cherishing the belief   
that ideas and measures of his had      

passed into the public life of          
,england4 ,much of this is mere         
hallucination2 some of it is reality4   
,the  testimony of a sagacious and      
experienced statesman on this subject is
  decisive3        8,to the influence of
 the ,american ,union must be added that
 of      the ,british colonies4 ,the    
success of popular self-government in   
these thriving communities is reacting  
on political opinion at      home with a
 force that no statesman neglects1 and  
that is every      day increasing4      
,there is even a danger that the        
influence may go      too far4 ,they are
 solving some of our problems1 but not  
under our      conditions1 and not in   
presence of the same difficulties4      
,still1      the effect of colonial     
prosperity--a prosperity alike of       
admirable      achievement and boundless
 promise--is irresistible4 ,it imparts a
      freedom1 an elasticity1 an        
expansiveness1 to ,english political    
notions1 and gives our people a         

confidence in free institutions and     
popular government1 which they would    
never have drawn from the most          
eloquent assumptions of speculative     
system-mongers1 nor from any      other 
source whatever1 save practical         
experience carefully observed      and  
rationally interpreted40,i        ,i    
,morley1 #8,studies in ,literature1' pp4
 #abf-g4    ,the ,new ,zealand system of
 local government is a model which      
,great  ,britain1 at one time famous in 
that line1 has not been ashamed to      
imitate2 the ,english county councils   
have been molded on those of her        
colony4 ,from the same colony the mother
 country borrowed her ,first            
,offenders' act4 ,the restriction of    
electors to the exercise of a  single   
vote--unimportant excepting in principle
 in populous ,england1  but important in
 young countries where property is      
widely held--was  perseveringly         
proposed1 and at length carried1 by the 
aristocratic  leader of the democratic  

party in ,new ,zealand1 whence it is    
spreading  to the adjacent colonies2 it 
has been for some years adopted by the  
,british ,liberals as an article in     
their programme1 and it is also a  plank
 in the ,european socialist platform4   
,the general adhesion to an  eight      
hours' day in the ,australasian colonies
 is having an effect in  ,england and is
 probably the measure to which ,mr4     
,morley refers as  likely to be         
dangerous2 his opposition to it cost him
 his seat at  ,newcastle4 ,the adoption 
of female suffrage in two of these      
colonies  and the certainty of its      
adoption in others are habitually cited 
by  the advocates of the cause in       
,england as an argument for its adoption
  in ,england4 ,the nationalization of  
the land has been a popular notion  in  
these same colonies ever since ,henry   
,george's famous book was  published1   
and the large extent of private lands   
bought back by the  governments of ,new 
,zealand and ,queensland has            

strengthened the hands of  the          
land-nationalizers in ,europe4 ,the     
advanced government socialism of  most  
of these colonies1 made inevitable by   
the lack of private capital1  and its   
apparent success1 furnish socialists of 
the ,german type with  weapons and      
encourage them to prophesy #8the dawn of
 a revolutionary  epoch4'    ,the       
spiritual reaction of the colonies on   
the mother-land is much  less           
considerable1 yet is not nil4 ,one or   
two instances stand out  prominently4   
,jonathan ,edwards is one of the giants 
of ,british as  well as of ,american    
theology1 and his treatise on the       
freedom of the  will has counted for as 
much as ,butler's ,analogy in the       
development  of ,english theological    
thought4 ,sam ,slick has been the father
 or  foster-father of the portentous    
overgrowth of humor by which the ,united
  ,states balances the devouring        
activity of its public and the          
overstrain  of its private life1 but he 

has been practically inoperative on the 
very different quality of ,english      
humor4 ,from ,south ,africa have come   
influences of a sterner sort4 8,who     
could have foreseen10 asks ,mr4  ,stead1
 8that the new1 and in many respects the
 most distinctive1 note  of the         
literature of the last decade of the    
nineteenth century would  be sounded by 
a little chit of a girl reared in the   
solemn stillness  of the ,karoo1 in the 
solitude of the ,african bush8 ,the     
,cape has indeed  done yeoman's service 
to the ,english-speaking world4 ,to that
 pivot of  the empire we owe our most   
pronounced types of the imperial man and
 the  emancipated woman0--,cecil ,rhodes
 and ,olive ,schreiner4                 
,,causes ,,of ,,degeneration ,,in       
,,blind ,,fishes4    ,,by ,,professor   
,,carl ,h4 ,,eigenmann1    ,,indiana    
,,university4      ,it may now be       
profitable to take up the causes leading
 to the small  degree of degeneration   
found in ,chologaster1 the degenerations

 of the  eye in ,amblyopsis1            
,typhlichthys and ,troglichthys to a    
mere vestige1  together with the total  
disappearance of some of the accessory  
structures of the eye1 as the muscles4  
,in the outset of this consideration we 
must guard against the almost  universal
 supposition that animals depending on  
their eyes for food are  or have been   
colonizing caves1 or that the blind     
forms are the results  of catastrophes  
that have happened to eyed forms        
depending on their  eyesight for their  
existence4 ,this idea1 so prevalent1    
vitiates nearly  everything that has    
been written on the degeneration of the 
eyes of  cave animals4    ,another word 
of warning ought perhaps to be added4   
,the process of  degeneration found in  
the ,amblyopsid need not necessarily be 
expected  to be identical with the      
degeneration of the same organs in      
another  group of animals1 and1 however 
much the conditions in one group may    
illuminate the conditions in another1   

cross-country conclusions must be       
guarded against4    ,the degeneration of
 organs ontogenetically and             
phylogenetically has  received a variety
 of explanations3    #a4 ,the organ     
diminishes with disuse 7ontogenetic     
degeneration--,lamarck1  ,roux1         
,packard71 and the effect of this disuse
 appears to some extent in  the next    
generation 7phylogenetic                
degeneration--,lamarck1 ,roux1 ,packard1
  ,kohl74    #b4 ,through a condition of
 panmixia the general average maintained
  by selection is reduced to the birth  
mean in one generation                  
7ontogenetic--,romanes1 ,lankester1     
,lloyd ,morgan1 ,weismann7 to  the      
greatest possible degeneration in       
succeeding generations                  
7phylogenetic--,weismann71 or but little
 below the birth average of the  first  
generation 7,weismann's later view1     
,romanes1 ,morgan1 ,lankester74    #c4  
,through natural selection 7reversed71  
the struggle of persons1  the organ may 

be caused to degenerate either 7,a7 by  
the migration  of persons with highly   
developed eyes from the colony living in
 the  dark 7,lankester71 or 7,b7 through
 economy of weight and nutriment or     
liability to injury 7phylogenetic       
purely--,darwin1 ,romanes74    #d4      
,through the struggle of parts for room 
or for food an unused organ  in the     
individual may be crowded               
7ontogenetic--,roux74 ,this may lead  to
 the development of the used organ as   
against the disused through a           
compensation of growth 7,goethe1        
,saint-,hilaire1 ,roux72 this           
ontogenetic  result becomes phylogenetic
 through transmission of the acquired   
character 7,roux71 or is in its very    
nature phyloblastic 7,kohl74    #e4     
,through the struggle between soma and  
germ to produce the maximum  of         
efficiency of the former with the       
minimum expenditure to the latter       
7ontogenetic and                        
phylogenetic--,lendenfeld74    #f4      

,through germinal selection1 the        
struggle of the representatives of      
organs in the germ 7ontogenetic and     
phylogenetic--,weismann74    ,the idea  
of ontogenetic degeneration is          
intimately bound up with the  idea of   
phylogenetic degeneration4 ,logically we
 ought to consider first  the causes of 
individual degeneration1 and then the   
processes or causes  that led to the    
transmission of this4 ,practically it is
 impossible to  do so1 because many of  
the explanations are general4 ,only ,no4
 #d of  the above may be taken in the   
ontogenetic sense purely1 though it was 
certainly also meant to explain         
phylogenetic degeneration4 ,in many of  
the explanations of particular cases of 
degeneration more than one  of the above
 principles are invoked1 though only one
 was meant to be  used4 ,in most cases1 
however1 the discussions of degeneration
 have  been in general terms1 without   
direct bearing on any specific instance 
of degeneration in all its details4 ,it 

must be evident that such  discussions  
can only by accident lead to right      
results4    ,by the ,lamarckian         
ontogenetic degeneration is considered  
the result  of lack of use and          
consequent diminished blood supply4 ,the
 results of  the diminution caused by   
the lack of use during one generation   
are  transmitted in some degree to the  
next generation1 which thus starts at  a
 lower level4 ,a continuation of the    
same conditions leads finally to  the   
great reduction and ultimate            
disappearance of an organ4    ,no one1  
so far as ,i am aware1 has succeeded in 
accounting for  the degeneration of the 
eye by means of this view4 ,packard's,j 
explanations are evidently a mixture of 
,lamarckism and ,darwinism4        ,j   
,american ,naturalist1 ,september1      
#ahid1 vol4 xxviii1 p4 #gbg4    ,packard
 says3 8,when a number1 few or many1 of 
normal-seeing animals  enter a totally  
dark cave or stream1 some may become    
blind sooner than  others10 some having 

the eye slightly modified by disuse1    
while others  may have in addition      
physical or functional defects1         
especially in the  optic nerves and     
ganglia4 8,the result of the union of   
such individuals  and adaptation to     
their ,stygian life would be broods of  
young1 some  with vision unimpaired1    
others with a tendency to blindness1    
while  in others there would be noticed 
the first steps in degeneration of      
nervous power and nervous tissue40      
,packard evidently had invertebrates  in
 mind4 ,he clearly admits the cessation 
of selection or panmixia in  that those 
born with defects may breed with the    
others4 ,he supposes  that the blind    
fauna may have arisen in but few or     
several generations1  a supposition that
 may be applicable to invertebrates1 but
 certainly is  not to vertebrates4 ,at  
first those becoming so modified that   
they can  do without the use of their   
eyes would greatly preponderate over    
those  #8congenitally blind4' 8,so all  

the while the process of adaptation was 
going on1 the antenn and other tactile  
organs increasing in length  and in the 
delicacy of structures1 while the eyes  
were meanwhile  diminishing in strength 
of vision and their nervous force giving
  out1 after a few generations--perhaps 
only two or three--the number  of       
congenitally blind would increase1 and  
eventually they would1 in  their turn1  
preponderate in numbers40 ,packard seems
 here to admit the  principle of        
degeneration as the result of           
compensation of growth1 the  nervous    
force of the eye giving out with the    
increase of the tactile  and olfactory  
organs4 ,it is somewhat doubtful in what
 sense the term  #8congenitally blind'  
is used1 but it probably means born     
blind as  the result of transmitted     
disuse1 rather than blind as the result 
of  fortuitous variation4 ,the effects  
of disuse are thus supposed1 through    
their transmission1 to have given rise  
to generations of blind animals4  ,the  

continued degeneration is not discussed4
    ,romanes maintained that the        
beginning of degeneration was due to    
cessation of selection1 and continued   
degeneration to the reversal  of        
selection and final failing of the power
 of heredity4 ,selection  he supposed to
 be reversed because the organ no longer
 of use 8is  absorbing nutriment1       
causing weight1 occupying space and so  
on1  uselessly4 ,hence1 even if it be   
not also a source of actual danger1     
economy of growth will determine a      
reversal of selection against an  organ 
which is now not only useless1 but      
deleterious40 ,this process  will       
continue until the organ becomes        
rudimentary and finally  disappears4    
,roux,k attempted chiefly to explain    
degeneration in the individual4         
,degeneration is looked upon as the     
result of a struggle among the  parts   
for 7a7 room and 7b7 food4 ,without     
doubting that both these  principles are
 active agents in degeneration1 it may  

be seriously  doubted whether they are  
effective in the degeneration of the    
eyes in  question4 ,certainly there can 
be no question of a struggle for room1  
for the position and room formerly      
occupied by the eye is now filled  with 
fat1 which can not have been operative  
against the eye4 ,the  presence of this 
large fat mass in the former location of
 the eye1 the  large reserve fat mass in
 the body1 the uniformly good condition 
of  the fish and the low vitality1 which
 enables them to live for months        
without visible food1 all argue against 
the possibility that the  struggle for  
food between parts was an active agent  
in the degeneration  of the eyes4       
,k ,gesammelte ,abhandlungen1 #ahie4    
,kohl,l considers that 8,der ,grund und 
direkter oder indirekter ,anlass  zum   
,eintreten der ,entwickelungshemmung ist
 ,lichtmangel40 ,the method of          
operation of the lack of light he       
conceived to be as follows3        ,l   
,rudimentre ,wirbelthieraugen1 #ahic4   

,other organs were developed to         
compensate for the disuse of the  eye2  
and as the developmental force was used 
in the formation of  these organs1 each 
succeeding generation developed its eye 
less4 ,the  degeneration is thus        
explained as the result of a struggle of
 parts1  although this term is nowhere  
used1 acting through the principle of   
compensation4 ,the same objections may  
be offered to this explanation  of ,kohl
 as to all his theoretical              
discussions--they are based on the      
assumption of conditions and processes  
that have no existence4 ,the  high      
development of #8compensating' organs is
 not primarily the result  of the loss  
of the eye1 but the high development of 
the former organs  permitted the disuse 
and later degeneration of the latter4   
,his whole  process is a phylogenetic   
one1 without a preceding ontogenetic    
one1  though on this point he does not  
seem to be very clear himself1 for on   
one page we are told that degeneration  

leads to retardation1 and on  another   
that degeneration is a consequence of   
retardation4    ,ledenfeld,m endeavors  
to apply ,roux's ,kampf der ,theile1    
with  reversed selection1 to explain the
 conclusions reached by ,kohl on the    
processes and causes of degeneration4   
,the struggle is represented as  taking 
place between the germ and soma1 the    
former endeavoring to keep  the latter  
at the lowest efficient point as weapon 
for the germ4 ,if a  series of          
individuals get into the dark the organs
 of vision are of no  advantage and     
reversed selection will bring about     
their degeneration4  ,the saving in     
ontogeny appears first as a retardation 
and then as a  cessation of development4
        ,m ,zologischer ,centralblatt1  
#ahif4    ,weismann,n more recently     
accepts the view of ,romanes1 ,morgan   
and  ,lankester on the inadequacy of    
panmixia to explain the whole phenomena 
of degeneration1 and in his #8,germinal 
,selection' rejects the idea  of        

reversed selection1 and suggests a new  
explanation for what  ,romanes          
attributed to the failure of heredity   
and the ,lamarckians to  transmission of
 the effects of disuse4 ,the struggle of
 the parts of  ,roux has been crowded by
 him back to the representatives of     
these parts  in the germ4        ,n ,the
 ,monist1 #ahif1 pp4 #bej-bgd4    8,the 
phenomena observed in the stunting1 or  
degeneration1 of parts  rendered useless
 444 show distinctly that ordinary      
selection1 which  operates by the       
removal of entire persons--personal     
selection1 as ,i  prefer to call it--can
 not be the only cause of degeneration1 
for  in most cases of degeneration it   
can not be assumed that slight          
individual vacillations in the size of  
the organ in question have  possessed   
selective value4 ,on the contrary1 we   
see such retrogressions  effected       
apparently in the shape of a continuous 
evolutionary process  determined by     
internal causes1 in the case of which   

there can be no  question whatever of   
selection of persons or of a survival of
 the  fittest--that is1 of individuals  
with the smallest rudiments4 ,the       
gradual diminution continuing for       
thousands and thousands of years  and   
culminating in its final and absolute   
effacement0 can only be  accomplished by
 germinal selection4 ,germinal selection
 as applied to  degeneration is the     
formal explanation of ,romanes' failure 
of heredity  through the struggle of    
parts for food4 8,powerful determinants 
will  absorb nutriment more rapidly than
 weaker determinants4 ,the latter1      
accordingly1 will grow more slowly and  
will produce weaker determinants  than  
the former40 ,if an organ is rendered   
useless1 the size of this  organ is no  
longer an element in personal selection4
 ,this alone would  result in a slight  
degeneration4 ,minus variations are1    
however1  supposed to rest 8on the      
weaker determinants of the germ1 such as
  absorb nutriment less powerfully than 

the rest4 ,this will enable the         
stronger determinants to deprive them   
even of the full quantum of food        
corresponding to their weakened capacity
 of assimilation1 and their  descendants
 will be weakened still more4 ,inasmuch1
 now1 as no weeding  out of the weaker  
determinants of the hind leg or eye by  
personal  selection takes place on our  
hypothesis1 inevitably the average      
strength of this determinant must slowly
 but constantly diminish--that  is1 the 
hind leg or eye must grow smaller and   
smaller until it  finally disappears    
altogether4444 ,panmixia is the         
indispensable  precondition of the whole
 process2 for1 owing to the fact that   
persons  with weak determinants are just
 as capable of life as those with       
strong1 444 solely by this means is a   
further weakening effected in the       
following generations40    ,this theory 
presupposes the complex structure of the
 germ plasm  formulated by ,weismann and
 rejected by various persons for various

  reasons4 ,but granting ,weismann the  
necessary structure of the germ  plasm1 
can germinal selection accomplish what  
is claimed for it8 ,i  think not4       
,granting that variations occur about a 
mean1 would not all  the effects claimed
 for minus variations be counteracted by
 positive  variations8 ,eye             
determinants1 which1 on account of their
 strength1  secure more than their fair 
share of food1 and thereby produce eyes 
that are as far above the mean as the   
others are below1 and leave  descendent 
determinants that are still stronger    
than their ancestry  would balance the  
effect produced by weak-eye             
determinants4 ,it is  evident that a    
large1 really extravagant development of
 the eye  in such a fish as ,chologaster
 would not effect the removal of the    
individual by personal selection2 still 
less so in ,amblyopsis1 which  not only 
lives in comparative abundance1 but has 
lived for twenty  months in confinement 
without visible food1 and in which the  

eye is  minute4 ,it seems that all the  
admitted objections to degeneration by  
panmixia apply with equal force to      
germinal selection4 ,this1 however1     
would be changed were the effect of     
disuse admitted to affect the           
determinants1 and this it seems         
,weismann has unconsciously admitted4   
,so far we have considered germinal     
selection in the abstract only4 ,all    
its suppositions are found to be but a  
house of cards when the actual          
conditions of degeneration are          
considered4 ,we find that degeneration  
is not a horizontal process affecting   
all the parts of an organ  alike1 as    
,weismann presupposes1 not even a       
process in the reverse  order of        
phyletic development1 but the more      
vital1 most worked parts  degenerate    
first with disuse and panmixia2 the     
passive structures  remain longest4 ,the
 rate of degeneration is proportional to
 the past  activity of the parts1 and   
the statement that 8passively           

functioning  parts--that is1 parts which
 are not alterable during the individual
  life by function--by the same laws    
also degenerate when they become        
useless0 finds no basis in fact1 and is 
an example of the inexact  utterances   
abundant in the discussion of           
degeneration on which it is  entirely   
unsafe to build lofty theoretical       
structures4 ,as one example  of the     
unequal degeneration we need only call  
attention to the scleral  cartilages and
 the rest of the eye of ,troglichthys   
ros4    ,all are agreed that natural    
selection alone is insufficient to      
explain  all1 if any1 of the processes  
of degeneration4 ,all either consciously
  or not admit the principle of         
panmixia1 and all are now agreed that   
this process alone can not produce      
extensive degeneration4 ,all are  agreed
 that the important point is            
degeneration beyond the point  reached  
by panmixia1 the establishment of the   
degenerating process1  whatever it may  

be1 in the germ1 or1 in other words1 the
 breaking of  the power of heredity4 ,it
 is in the explanation of the latter    
that  important differences of opinion  
exist4    ,weismann attempts to explain 
the degeneration beyond the point which 
panmixia can reach by a process which   
not only is insufficient1 even  if all  
his premises are granted1 to produce the
 desired result without  the help of use
 transmission1 but has as its result a  
horizontal  degeneration which has no   
existence in fact4    ,romanes supposed 
degeneration1 beyond the point which may
 be reached  by panmixia1 to be the     
result of personal selection and the    
failure of  the hereditary force4 ,the  
former is not applicable to the species 
in  question1 and is denied by such an  
ardent ,darwinist as ,weismann to be    
applicable at all in accounting for     
degeneration4 ,moreover1 the process  as
 explained by ,romanes would result in a
 horizontal degeneration  which has no  
existence in fact4 ,the second          

assumption1 the failure of  hereditary  
force1 is not distinguishable1 as       
,morgan has pointed out1  from the      
effect of use transmission4             
,illustration3 ,,figs4                  
#a-f4--,photographs of the upper halves 
of the heads  of specimens of nearly the
 same length under the same             
magnification1 to  show the gradual     
decrease of the eye4 ,the dotted line   
leads to the eye  in all cases4         
,,fig4 #a4--,zygonectes notatus4        
,,fig4 #b4--;,chologaster papilliferus4 
,,fig4 #c4--;,chologaster ,agassizii4   
,,fig4 #d4--;,amblyopsis spelus4        
,,fig4 #e4--,troglichthys ros4    ,,fig4
 #f4--,typhlichthys subterraneus4       
,the struggle of parts in the organism  
has not affected the eye through  the   
lack of room1 since the space formerly  
occupied by the eye is now  filled by   
fat and not by an actively functioning  
organ4 ,it is not  affected by the      
struggle for food1 for stored food      
occupies the former  eye space4 ,it     

could only be affected by the more      
active selection  of specific parts of  
food by some actively functioning organ4
 ,it  is possible that this has in fact 
affected the degeneration of the  eye4  
,the theory explains degeneration in the
 individual1 and implies  that the      
effect in the individual should be      
transmitted to the next  generation4    
,this second part seems but the         
explanation of the workings  of the     
,lamarckian factor4    ,the ,lamarckian 
view--that through disuse the organ is  
diminished  during the life of the      
individual1 in part1 at least1 on       
account of  the diminution of the amount
 of blood going to a resting organ1 and 
that this effect is transmitted to      
succeeding generations--not only  would 
theoretically account for unlimited     
progressive degeneration1  but is the   
only view so far examined that does not 
on the face of it  present serious      
objections4 ,is this theory applicable  
in detail to the  conditions found in   

the ,amblyopsid8 ,before going further1 
objections  may again be raised against 
the universal assumption that the       
cessation  of use and the consequent    
panmixia was a sudden process4 ,this    
assumes  that the caves were peopled by 
a catastrophe4 ,but it is absolutely    
certain that the caves were not so      
peopled1 that the cessation of use  was 
gradual1 and the cessation of selection 
must also have been a  gradual process4 
,there must have been ever-widening     
bounds within which  the variation of   
the eye would not subject the possessor 
to elimination4    ,chologaster is in a 
stage of panmixia as far as the eye is  
concerned4  ,it is true the eye is still
 functional1 but that the fish can do   
without its use is evident by its       
general habit and by the fact that  it  
sometimes lives in caves4 ,the present  
conditions have apparently  existed for 
countless generations--as long as the   
present habits have  existed--and yet   
the eye still maintains a higher degree 

of structure  than reverse selection1 if
 operative1 would lead us to expect1 and
  a lower than the birth mean of fishes 
depending on their eyes1 the  condition 
that the state of panmixia alone would  
lead us to expect4  ,there is a staying 
quality about the eye with the          
degeneration1 and  this can only be     
explained by the degree of use to which 
the eye is  subjected4    ,the results  
in ,chologaster are due to panmixia and 
the limited degree  of use to which the 
eye is put4 ,chologaster ,agassizii     
shows the rapid  diminution with total  
disuse4    ,the difference in the       
conditions between ,chologaster and     
,amblyopsis1  ,typhlichthys and         
,troglichthys1 is that in the former the
 eyes are still  in use1 except when    
living in caves2 in the latter they have
 not been  in a position to be used for 
hundreds of generations4 ,the transition
  between conditions of possible use and
 absolute disuse may have been  rapid   
with each individual after permanently  

entering a cave4 ,panmixia1  as regards 
the minute eye1 continued4 ,reversed    
selection1 for economy1  can not have   
affected the eye for reasons already    
stated4 ,the mere  loss of the force of 
heredity1 unless this was caused by     
disuse1 or  the process of germinal     
selection1 can not have brought about   
the  conditions1 because some parts have
 been affected more than others4        
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4--;,head of a  
very young ,amblyopsis before all  the  
yolk is absorbed4    ,considering the   
parts most affected and the parts least 
affected1 the  degree of use is the only
 cause capable of explaining the        
conditions4  ,those parts most active   
during use are the ones reduced         
most--viz41  the muscles1 the retina1   
optic nerve and dioptric appliances1 the
 lens  and vitreous parts4 ,those organs
 occupying a more passive position1  e4 
g41 the scleral cartilages1 have been   
much less affected4 ,the lens  is one of
 the latest organs affected1 not at all 

during use1 possibly  because during use
 it would continuously be in use4 ,it   
disappears most  rapidly after the      
beginning of absolute disuse both       
ontogenetically  and phylogenetically4  
,all indications point to use and disuse
 as the  effective agents in molding the
 eye4 ,the process1 however1 does not   
give results with mathematical          
precision4 ,in ,typhlichthys            
subterraneus  the pigmented layer is    
affected differently from that of       
,amblyopsis4  ,the variable development 
of the eye muscles in different species 
would  offer another objection if we did
 not know of the variable condition  of 
these structures in different           
individuals4 ,chilton has objected  to  
the application of the ,lamarckian      
factor to explain degeneration1  on     
account of the variable effects of      
degeneration in various  invertebrates4 
,but such differences in the reaction   
are still less  explainable by any of   
the other theories4          ,,the      

,,evolution ,,and ,,present ,,status    
,,of ,,the ,,automobile4    ,,by        
,,william ,,baxter1 ,,jr4      ,in this 
closing year of a century which is      
marked by unparalleled  advances in     
science and its applications to the     
industrial arts1  we are very much      
inclined to take it for granted that    
none of the  inventions that are        
regarded by us as indicative of the     
highest order  of progressive tendency1 
could by any possibility have been      
thought  of by our forefathers2 and as  
the automobile is looked upon as an     
ultra-progressive idea1 no one who has  
not investigated the subject  would     
believe for a moment that its conception
 could antedate the  present generation1
 much less the present century4 ,the    
records1  however1 show that the subject
 engrossed the attention of inventive   
minds many hundreds of years ago4 ,in   
fact1 as far back as the beginning  of  
the thirteenth century a ,franciscan    
monk named ,roger ,bacon  prophesied    

that1 the day would come when boats and 
carriages would be  propelled by        
machinery4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4 
,,cugnot',s ,,steam ,,gun ,,carriage1   
,,made ,,in #agfc4    ,the first        
authentic record of a self-propelled    
carriage dates back to  the middle of   
the sixteenth century4 ,the inventor was
 ,johann ,haustach1  of ,nuremburg4 ,the
 device is described as a chariot       
propelled by the  force of springs1 and 
it is said that it attained a speed of  
two  thousand paces per hour1 about one 
mile and a quarter4 ,springs have  been 
tried by many inventors since that time1
 but always without  success from the   
simple fact that the amount of energy   
that can be  stored in a spring is      
practically insignificant4    ,in #agfc 
a ,frenchman by the name of ,cugnot     
devised a vehicle that  was propelled by
 steam1 and a few years after the date  
of his first  experiment1 constructed   
for the ,french ,government a gun       
carriage which  is shown in ,fig4 #a4   

,as will be seen1 the design was of the 
tricycle  type1 and it was intended to  
mount the gun between the rear wheels4  
,the  boiler1 which resembles a huge    
kettle1 hung over the front end and was 
apparently devoid of a smoke stack4     
,motion was imparted to the front  wheel
 by means of a ratchet4 ,although this  
invention is very crude1 it  must be    
regarded as meritorious if we consider  
that it was made before  the steam      
engine had been developed in a          
successful form for stationary          
purposes4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4  
,,symington',s ,,steam ,,coach1 ,,made  
,,in #aghd4    ,the next effort to solve
 the problem was made by ,w4 ,symington 
in the  year #aghd1 the carriage devised
 by him being illustrated in ,fig4 #b4  
,this coach1 although pretentious in    
appearance1 was crude mechanically1  but
 it actually ran4 ,the service1 however1
 was not what could be called           
satisfactory4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4  
#c4 ,,trevithick',s ,,steam ,,carriage1 

,,made ,,in #ahjc4    ,in #ahjc1        
,richard ,trevithick brought out the    
carriage shown in ,fig4  #c1 which could
 run1 but was artistically a failure4   
,moreover1 the  machinery was such as   
would soon give out1 even if well       
designed1 on  account of its exposed    
position4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4  
,,steam ,,coach1 ,,made ,,by ,,james    
,,and ,,anderson1 ,,about  #ahaj4       
,between #ahje and #ahcj1 quite a number
 of steam vehicles were invented  and   
put into practical operation4 ,fig4 #d  
shows a very elaborate coach  of this   
period1 which was invented by ,w4 ,h4   
,james1 and constructed with  the       
assistance of ,sir ,james ,anderson1    
,bart4 ,the machinery used in this      
design consisted of two powerful steam  
engines1 one being connected  with each 
one of the hind wheels in a manner      
similar to that employed  in locomotives
 at the present time4 ,the wheels were  
not fast upon the  axle1 hence they     
could revolve at different velocities in

 rounding  curves4 ,in this respect this
 invention embodied one of the features 
commonly used by automobiles of the     
latest design4 ,two boilers were        
provided1 one for each engine1 and the  
record says that with one boiler  the   
speed was six to seven miles per hour4  
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4 ,,steam       
,,omnibus1 ,,made ,,by ,,hancock4       
,fig4 #e shows an omnibus invented by   
,hancock4 ,this vehicle ran on a        
regular route1 carrying passengers from 
,pentonville to ,finsbury  ,square1     
,london4 ,fig4 #f shows a carriage      
invented by ,burstall and ,hiel1  which 
attracted a great deal of attention4 ,it
 was probably the most  complete and    
perfect mechanically of any invention   
that had been made  up to that time4    
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4 ,,burstall    
,,and ,,hiel',s ,,steam ,,carriage1     
,,made ,,prior  ,,to #ahbe4    ,fig4 #g 
shows a carriage invented by ,squire and
 ,maceroni1 who had  been for a long    
time in the service of ,goldsworth      

,gurney1 one of the  most noted         
experimenters of his day in steam       
propulsion4 ,a number of  carriages were
 made by these workers1 on designs      
similar to ,fig4 #g1 and  it is said    
that they ran at a high rate of speed1  
probably ten miles  per hour4           
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4 ,,steam       
,,carriage1 ,,made ,,by ,,squire ,,and  
,,maceroni4    ,fig4 #h illustrates an  
invention that is interesting from the  
fact that  it was to be operated by     
compressed air1 and perhaps was the     
first  effort to utilize this form of   
stored energy for the propulsion of     
vehicles4 ,it was not a success1 but its
 failure was due to the fact  that the  
inventor labored under the delusion that
 the laws of nature  could be           
circumvented by skillfully contrived    
mechanical devices so as  to obtain     
something from nothing4 ,the body of the
 carriage was used as  a reservoir for  
the compressed air1 and within the      
wheels were placed  a number of pumps1  

the short bars projecting from the      
peripheries  being the ends of the      
plungers4 ,the expectation was that as  
the wheels  revolved1 the plungers would
 be depressed1 and thus air would be    
pumped into the reservoirs and this air 
would operate the engine that  propelled
 the vehicle2 hence the apparatus would 
supply its own power1  and realize      
perpetual motion4 ,if this attempt to   
controvert the laws  of nature had not  
been relied upon1 better results might  
have been  obtained4    ,illustration3  
,,fig4 #h4 ,,compressed ,,air ,,wagon1  
,,made ,,about #ahaj4    ,the highly    
ornamental coach shown in ,fig4 #i was  
invented by ,dr4  ,church about #ahcb4  
,in addition to being ornamental1 it was
 of massive  construction and large     
capacity1 being able to accommodate     
fifty  passengers4 ,its operation is    
said to have been very satisfactory1 a  
high rate of speed being attained and   
all grades on ordinary roads  being     
easily mounted4 ,the inventor swamped   

himself in endeavoring to  compete with 
railroads4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i4 
,,side ,,view ,,of ,,dr4 ,,church',s    
,,steam ,,coach1 ,,made ,,in  #ahcb4    
,perhaps the most perfect of all the    
early automobiles was the one  devised  
by ,scott ,russell1 the celebrated      
designer of the ,great ,eastern4  ,this 
carriage is shown in ,fig4 #aj4 ,it was 
operated successfully1 and  was able to 
mount the steepest hills and to attain a
 high rate of  speed1 but as coal was   
used for fuel and the engines were of   
large  capacity1 it is probable that the
 smoke1 exhaust steam and noise of  the 
machinery were decidedly objectionable  
features4 ,a line of these  coaches was 
put in commission in ,glasgow in #ahdf1 
each one having a  seating capacity of  
twenty-six1 six inside and twenty on the
 top4 ,after  several months of         
successful operation1 the line was      
withdrawn on  account of the opposition 
of the authorities and of the general   
public4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i;,a4 

,,dr4 ,,church',s ,,steam ,,coach ,,on  
,,the ,,road4    ,these few examples of 
the early attempts to solve the problem 
of  mechanical propulsion of vehicles   
are sufficient to show that the         
automobile is not entirely a creation of
 the progressive mind of the  latter    
part of the nineteenth century1 but that
 it engrossed the  attention of         
inventors more than one hundred and     
thirty years ago4 ,the  success attained
 by the workers in this field at        
different periods was  directly in      
proportion to the degree to which the   
form of power used  had been perfected  
at the time4 ,the first inventors       
attained but slight  success1 owing to  
the fact that1 in their time1 the steam 
engine was in  a crude form1 but as the 
construction of the latter improved1 so 
did  that of the vehicles operated by   
it4    ,before the days of steam1 the   
power of wind mills was utilized to     
propel vehicles1 and with such success  
that in the sixteenth and  seventeenth  

centuries wind-propelled wagons or      
#8,charvolants1' as  they were called1  
were very numerous upon the flat plains 
of the  ,netherlands4    ,illustration3 
,,fig4 #aj4 ,,scott ,,russell',s ,,steam
 ,,carriage1 ,,made ,,in #ahde4    ,from
 #ahde up to the early nineties1 a      
period of nearly half a century1  very  
little was done in the way of developing
 the automobile4 ,from time  to time    
inventors in various parts of the world 
devoted themselves to  the subject1 but 
they were generally looked upon as      
visionary cranks1  and their work       
attracted little attention4 ,during this
 period there  was an almost universal  
prejudice against the use of any kind of
  mechanical power upon the streets or  
public highways1 and it is even         
possible that if during these years any 
one had invented a horseless  carriage1 
perfect in every way1 he would have     
failed to obtain proper  recognition4   
,prejudice against                      
mechanically-propelled vehicles has     

gradually worn away1 probably because of
 the introduction of cable  and trolley 
cars1 and at the present time the       
majority of people  desire to see the   
substitution of mechanical for animal   
power4 ,as a  result of this change in  
public opinion1 self-propelled vehicles 
are  accepted as entirely satisfactory1 
which a few years ago would have  been  
regarded as failures4 ,notwithstanding  
this tolerant feeling1  however1 it is  
very doubtful whether the cumbersome    
coaches of the  early part of the       
century would be received with favor at 
the present  time when taste and        
requirements are entirely different4    
,what is now  desired is a light1       
fast-running and attractive vehicle1    
which could  not be constructed along   
the lines followed by the inventors of  
former  days4 ,the automobile of to-day 
is a far more perfect device than its   
predecessors1 although it can not be    
said to have reached a state of         
perfection4 ,as motive power1 steam1    

gasoline and electricity are used4      
,which of the three is the best1 taking 
all things into consideration1  it would
 be difficult to say1 as each one has   
its defects as well as  its advantages1 
and the evident superiority of each one 
in a certain  direction is offset by    
deficiencies in other directions4    ,in
 every civilized country1 where the     
mechanic arts are far enough  advanced1 
automobiles are now being manufactured1 
but ,france is the  country where modern
 development first began1 and up to the 
present  time it has maintained its     
leading position1 although in quality of
  product1 other nations1 if not on a   
par with it1 are certainly not very  far
 behind4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa4  
,,serpollet ,,carriage1 ,a ,,modern     
,,steam ,,automobile  ,,of ,,french     
,,design4    ,the perfection to which   
the steam automobile has been developed 
in  these latter days is due mainly to  
the efforts of ,l4 ,serpollet1 a        
distinguished ,french engineer4 ,other  

highly successful steam carriages  are  
now manufactured in ,england and in this
 country1 as well as in  several        
,european nations1 but ,serpollet was   
the first to bring forth  a successful  
fast-running and attractive vehicle1 and
 the others have  profited by his work4 
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ab4 ,,side ,,view
 ,,of ,,serpollet ,,carriage1 ,,showing 
,,location ,,of ,,engine1 ,,boiler1     
,,condenser1 ,,etc4    ,one of the many 
designs of ,serpollet carriages is shown
 in ,fig4 #aa2  ,fig4 #ab shows more    
fully the arrangement and location of   
the machinery4  ,the engine used in     
these vehicles is made with four        
cylinders of the  single action type2   
that is1 they take steam at one end     
only4 ,by using  this construction1     
while the number of cylinders is        
increased1 the  other parts are greatly 
simplified1 as the piston rods1         
crossheads and  guides can be dispensed 
with4 ,in addition1 the whole engine can
 be made  very compact4                 

,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ac4 ,,showing    
,,details ,,of ,,the ,,boiler ,,of ,,the
 ,,serpollet  ,,carriage4    ,the boiler
 is of the flash type2 that is1 it      
carries no water  ordinarily1 but when  
the engine is in operation1 a pump      
injects into  the boiler at each stroke 
of the engine as much water as may be   
required to generate the steam necessary
 to propel the vehicle2 the  instant the
 water enters the boiler it is converted
 into steam4 ,as  the amount of steam is
 proportional to the amount of water1 it
 can  be seen that by regulating the    
water supply1 the power of the engine   
and thereby the speed of the carriage1  
can be controlled4 ,this is the  method 
actually employed to control the speed4 
,in starting1 a handle  is moved which  
connects the engine1 the boiler and the 
pump in the  proper relation2 and while 
under way the velocity is varied by the 
manipulation of a lever which controls  
the amount of water injected  into the  
boiler4 ,the fuel used is kerosene1     

which is vaporized and then  fed into a 
properly constructed burner4 ,the amount
 of oil supplied to  the burner is      
regulated by the same lever that        
regulates the supply of  water1 so that 
both are increased or reduced in the    
proper proportion4  ,the boiler is      
constructed of a number of steel tubes1 
which are about  two and a half inches  
in diameter1 and from three eighths to  
half an  inch thick4 ,these tubes are   
pressed into the form shown in ,fig4    
#ac1 the  dark line in the section      
marked ,a representing the interior     
space4 ,a  number of tubes collapsed in 
this form and bent into the shape ,b1   
are  assembled as shown at ,c4 ,the     
number of tubes depends upon the        
capacity  of the boiler4 ,as the tubes  
are very thick1 they can1 without any   
danger of bursting1 be heated to so high
 a temperature that the water  injected 
into them is at once turned into steam4 
,in ,fig4 #ab it will be seen that the  
engine is located under the body  of the

 carriage between the two axles1 and    
that motion is imparted to  the hind    
wheels by means of chains and sprocket  
wheels4 ,the boiler is  located at the  
back of the vehicle1 the lower part     
projecting some  distance below the rear
 axle4 ,a small smoke stack at the rear 
of the  body allows the gases of        
combustion to escape4 ,between the front
  wheels1 a compact condenser is        
located1 and into this the steam from   
the engine is exhausted4 ,the condenser 
serves two purposes2 it recovers  a     
portion of the water that would         
otherwise escape into the air1 and  thus
 increases the distance the carriage can
 run without a new supply1  and at the  
same time it lessens the noise produced 
by the exhaust1 and  also the volume of 
steam escaping into the atmosphere1     
which in cold or  rainy weather becomes 
plainly visible4    ,illustration3      
,,fig4 #ad4 ,,an ,,american ,,steam     
,,carriage ,,of #aijj4    ,although we  
have been rather slow in this country in

 taking up the  automobile1 inventors   
and manufacturers are now working at a  
pace that  will soon make up for lost   
time4 ,we already have a number of      
designs  of steam carriages whose       
operation is highly creditable4 ,fig4   
#ad  illustrates one of these4 ,the     
design of the engine1 boiler and other  
mechanism can be well understood from   
,fig4 #ae1 in which a portion of  the   
body is removed to expose the internal  
parts4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ae4    
,,sectional ,,view ,,of ,,fig4 #ad1     
,,showing ,,location ,,of  ,,engine1    
,,boiler ,,and ,,other ,,details4       
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ae;,a4 ,,plan    
,,of ,,steam ,,carriage ,,shown ,,in    
,,figs4 #ad ,,and  #ae4    ,the boiler  
is a very compact form of the upright   
type1 such as is used  in fire engines4 
,it is about fourteen inches in diameter
 and twenty  inches high4 ,to increase  
its strength1 it is surrounded with two 
layers  of piano wire4 ,the engine is of
 the locomotive type1 consisting of two 

cylinders1 the pistons of which are     
connected with cranks on the end  of the
 shaft1 these cranks being set at right 
angles1 so as to prevent  catching the  
engine on the dead center4 ,the         
direction of rotation  is reversed by   
means of the ordinary link motion4 ,the 
fuel used is  gasoline1 which is carried
 in the cylindrical tank located under  
the  front of the carriage4 ,the        
gasoline is vaporized and then1 mixed   
with a  proper proportion of air1 passes
 to a burner placed under the boiler4   
,the amount of steam generated is       
regulated by the amount of gasoline     
supplied to the burner1 and this supply 
in turn is regulated by the  pressure of
 the steam1 so that the action is       
entirely automatic4 ,the  cylinder ,h is
 a reservoir of compressed air1         
connected with tank ,i1 so  that the    
gasoline is under pressure1 and         
therefore is forced through  the pipe to
 the burner under the boiler4 ,between  
the burner and the  tank there is a     

valve controlled by the steam pressure1 
being opened  when the pressure is low  
and closed when it is high4 ,when the   
pressure  reaches a certain point the   
valve is closed entirely1 so that even  
if  the carriage is running very slowly1
 it is not possible to run the  pressure
 above the fixed limit4 ,the exhaust    
passes from the engine  cylinders into a
 muffler1 from which it escapes into the
 pipe ,k4 ,this  pipe projects downward 
into an opening through the center of   
the water  tank1 and the draught        
produced thereby draws the gases of     
combustion  through from the top of the 
boiler to the under side of the carriage
  body1 where they escape into the      
atmosphere4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4    
#af4 ,,engine ,,of ,,carriage ,,shown   
,,in ,,fig4 #ad4    ,directly in front  
of the exhaust muffler is seen the water
 gauge1  which is in such a position as 
to be outside of the carriage body1  as 
shown in ,fig4 #ad4 ,a mirror is placed 
at the front of the vehicle1  and by    

looking into this the water gauge can be
 seen4 ,fig4 #ad also  shows clearly the
 position of the operating levers at the
 side of the  carriage4    ,the actual  
construction of the engine is better    
shown in ,fig4 #af1 in  which ,a ,a are 
the cylinders1 ,b is the steam chest and
 ,g ,g are the valve  rods4 ,the piston 
rods connect with the crossheads ,c4    
,the connecting  rods ,d transmit motion
 from the latter to the cranks ,e1 and  
thus  rotate the shaft ,s4 ,the link    
motions1 by means of which the direction
  of rotation is reversed1 are at ,i ,i1
 and are operated by the lever ,g1      
which is mounted upon the shaft ,f ,f4  
,this shaft is directly connected  with 
the starting lever4 ,the boiler feed    
pump is located at ,m4 ,the  motion of  
the engine is transmitted to the rear   
axle of the carriage by  means of a     
chain that runs over the sprocket wheel 
,l located between  the eccentrics ,k   
,k4 ,in ,fig4 #ae1 this wheel is located
 at ,d1 and the  chain ,f connects it   

with the axle sprocket ,e4              
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ag4 ,,american   
,,steam ,,automobile ,,of #aijj4        
,fig4 #ag shows another ,american steam 
carriage4 ,in this vehicle the  running 
gear is a complete truck1 upon which the
 carriage body is  supported4 ,the      
appearance of the truck with the body   
removed is shown  in ,fig4 #ah4 ,the    
boiler is of the tubular type and the   
double cylinder  engine is secured to   
its side4 ,in this particular the       
construction  differs from that of the  
previously described carriage1 for in   
that the  engine is attached to the     
cross-framing of the body of the        
vehicle4  ,although the general         
appearance of the mechanism of these two
 carriages  is very similar1 there are  
many differences in the details of their
  construction4 ,in both1 vertical      
tubular boilers are used1 and the steam 
is generated by the use of gasoline1    
which is burned in the vaporized  state 
in specially constructed burners4 ,the  

engine in both cases is  of the vertical
 double cylinder type1 and motion is    
transmitted to  the hind axle by means  
of sprocket wheels and a chain2 but here
 the  similarity ends2 the minor        
details1 which it is not necessary to   
refer  to in this connection1 are with  
few exceptions very different4          
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ah4    ,a careful
 examination of ,figs4 #aa1 #ad and #ag 
will show that from  an artistic point  
of view these examples of steam         
carriages are  satisfactory4 ,in regard 
to their operation it can be said that  
they  have sufficient power to run up   
the steepest grades encountered on      
ordinary roads at a fair rate of speed1 
while on level ground their  velocity is
 more than enough to satisfy the average
 rider4 ,the danger  of explosion is so 
remote that it need not be considered4  
,the ,serpollet  boiler is practically  
inexplosive1 while those used in the    
,american  vehicles are so constructed  
that they can withstand a pressure far  

greater than any they can be subjected  
to in practice4 ,it might be  expected  
that the motion of the machinery would  
produce an unpleasant  vibration1 but on
 account of the lightness of the moving 
parts and  careful balancing1 this      
effect is much reduced4 ,the use of     
gasoline as  fuel1 in connection with   
automatic burners1 eliminates the smoke 
and  ashes incident to the use of coal1 
and in addition reduces the labor of    
handling the vehicle1 as no attention   
need be given to the mechanism  other   
than to see that the water in the boiler
 is maintained at the  proper level4 ,in
 the case of the ,serpollet carriages1  
not even this  point need be looked     
after1 as the feed of the boiler is     
perfectly  automatic4                   
,,scientific ,,results ,,of ,,the       
,,norwegian ,,polar ,,expedition1       
#ahic-ahif4,o    ,,by ,,general ,a4 ,w4 
,,greely1 ,u4 ,s4 ,,army4        ,o ,the
 ,norwegian ,north ,polar ,expedition1  
#ahic-ahif4 ,scientific                 

,results edited by ,fridtjof ,nansen4   
,vol4 ,i4 ,longmans1 ,green             
,co4 ,n4 ,y41 #aijj4 #a-af1 #c pl4      
#a-adg1 #c pl4 #a-bf1 #b pl4            
#a-ec pl4 #a-acg1 #cf pl4      ,few     
,arctic expeditions have done so much to
 increase the world's  knowledge as to  
the physical condition of large areas of
 the north  polar zone as has that of   
the ,fram1 initiated and commanded by   
,dr4  ,fridtjof ,nansen4    ,the        
expedition was unique in many respects4 
,the ,fram was a departure  from the    
accepted models of ,arctic ships2 the   
route followed was one  unindorsed by   
any ,arctic authority4 ,the ship was    
destined to drift  unprecedented        
distances1 beset by the enormous        
ice-pack of the ,arctic  ocean4 ,the    
commander himself was not only to attain
 the highest  north1 but was to make a  
most hazardous journey1 which was to    
have  a successful and unexpected issue 
partly through the aid of another  polar
 expedition whose location and existence

 were unknown to the  expeditionary     
forces of the ,fram4 ,electricity made  
the ,arctic ship a  glow of light1 a    
phonograph brought well-known voices to 
cheer their  hours of leisure4 ,indeed1 
every device that was deemed of value   
was  utilized4    ,the extent of the    
,arctic ocean traversed by the ,fram is 
indicated by  the simple fact that she  
passed over #abj degrees of longitude   
above the  eightieth parallel of north  
latitude1 a distance of one-third around
  the world on that parallel4    ,nansen
 and ,johansen1 in an attempt to reach  
the ,pole1 left the ,fram  ,march #ad1  
#ahie1 in about #hd ,n41 #ajj ,e41 but  
after an uneventful  journey with dogs1 
they were obliged to turn back on ,april
 #g1 #ahie1 in  latitude #hf #ad ,n4    
,they aimed to reach ,spitzbergen and   
after months  of weary effort and       
varying fortunes1 these two hardy men   
landed on  the east coast of the ,franz 
,josef archipelago4 ,coming winter      
forbade  further progress1 so they      

constructed a hut and subsisted on land 
and  sea game that was fortunately      
abundant4 ,in the spring of #ahif1      
turning  southward1 they attempted to   
reach by the kyak the east coast of     
,spitzbergen1 hoping to be picked up by 
,norwegian whalers who frequent  those  
waters4 ,fortunately for them1 they met 
in ,april1 #ahif1 ,jackson1  the        
commander of the ,jackson-,harmsworth   
expedition1 near ,cape ,flora4          
,meanwhile the ,fram1 continuing its    
westerly drift1 in which it  passed the 
most northerly point reached by ,parry  
in boats in #ahbg1  emerged from the    
ice-floe of the ,arctic ocean in the    
late summer  of #ahif and reached       
,norway on ,august #bj1 about ten days  
later than  ,nansen's own arrival with  
the ,english expedition from ,franz     
,josef ,land4  ,the ,fram returned with 
its frame uninjured and its             
expeditionary  force in health1 after   
having covered in its voyage across the 
unknown  ,polar sea an enormous area1   

estimated at fifty thousand square      
miles4    ,illustration3 ,,dr4          
,,fridtjof ,,nansen4    ,the most       
important discovery was the oceanic     
depth of the ,arctic ,sea1  where for   
hundreds of miles this unknown ocean    
disclosed a depth of  over two miles4   
,naturally the absence of land limited  
the phases of the  scientific work of   
the expeditionary force1 which devoted  
itself to  recording the phenomena of   
the air and the sea4    ,nansen in his  
separate journey utilized his brief     
opportunities in  ,franz ,josef ,land so
 successfully that his contributions to 
the geology  of that region are of no   
small importance4    ,the world has     
looked forward with a degree of         
impatience to the  publication of the   
scientific results of this expedition1  
and now is  favored with the first      
volume1 a beautiful quarto of some #dgi 
pages1  with #df fine plates4 ,it       
consists of a series of memoirs on the  
building  of the ship1 on the birds of  

the air1 on the crustacean forms of sea 
life and a geological study of the      
southern part of the archipelago  of    
,franz ,josef ,land4 ,it is a striking  
tribute to ,english-speaking  scientists
 that the work will appear in ,english  
text only4 ,although  printed in        
,christiana1 such has been the vigilance
 of the editors that  typographical     
errors are comparatively few4    ,the   
account by ,colin ,archer of the        
construction of the ,fram is not        
without interest1 in view of the fact   
that this vessel was built on  novel    
lines calculated to cause the ice to    
meet a sloping surface1 so  that1       
pressing down under the bilge1 it would 
cause the vessel to rise  and thus      
insure its immunity from destruction4   
,archer says3 8,in order to utilize this
 principle1 it was decided to  depart   
entirely from the usual deep-bilged form
 of section and to adopt  a shape which 
would afford the ice no point of attack 
normal to the  ship's side1 but would1  

as the horizontal pressure increased1   
force  the attacking floes to divide    
under the ship's bottom1 lifting her as 
described above4444 ,plane or concave   
surfaces were avoided as much as        
possible by giving her round and full   
lines4 ,this1 while increasing the      
power to resist pressure from outside1  
also had the advantage of making  it    
easy for the ice to glide along the     
bottom in any direction40    ,as great  
length is an element of weakness1 the   
,fram's length was cut  down as much as 
possible1 with a tendency to make its   
form circular  or oval4 ,various        
expedients were adopted to reduce the   
dead weight of  the ship by a judicious 
arrangement of materials4 ,while        
economizing  weight1 the cargo-carrying 
capacity of the ship could not be too   
much  reduced1 and the great strength of
 the ship must be preserved4 ,inasmuch  
as the broadside of the ship1 both      
structurally and from its shape1  is its
 weakest part1 it was necessary to adopt

 extraordinary measures  to strengthen  
it4 ,this was done largely by adding    
stays of yellow  pine placed nearly at  
right angles to the ship's sides1 and   
securely  fastened with wooden knees4   
,these were supplemented with upright   
stanchions tied by iron straps4         
,while experienced whalers strongly     
advocated the square rig1 ,archer       
decided to ignore their advice and      
rigged the ,fram as a fore-and-aft      
three-masted schooner1 which style of   
rig proved1 under the  circumstances1 to
 be most suitable4 ,the slight increase 
in leakage is  believed by ,archer to be
 due in part to the drawing of the oakum
 out of  the seams and in part to the   
expansion and contraction of the        
timbers4  ,while the ,fram was not      
subjected to such tremendous ice        
convulsions  as have been many other    
,arctic ships1 yet her experiences were 
very  severe and may be considered to   
prove that the design and system of     
construction adopted were the most      

efficient possible4    ,illustration3   
,,the ,,fram4    ,the most extensive1 if
 not the most important1 of the         
treatises that  form this volume1 relate
 to regions and investigations with     
which the  voyage of the ,fram were only
 incidentally connected4 ,reference is  
had to the papers on the geological     
formations of ,cape ,flora1 ,franz      
,josef ,land1 by ,professors ,nansen1   
,pompeckj and ,nathorst4 ,dr4 ,nansen   
most cordially acknowledges his great   
indebtedness to ,mr4 ,jackson and  ,dr4 
,reginald ,koettlitz1 respectively the  
leader and geologist of the             
,jackson-,harmsworth expedition to      
,franz ,josef ,land1 #ahid-ahif4 ,the   
latter of these gentlemen1 in a spirit  
of broad scientific generosity1         
accorded ,dr4 ,nansen full and equal    
access to his discoveries1 covering     
three years' work on ,northbrook        
,island1 among fossils and geological   
conditions of special interest4         
,illustration3 ,,map ,,showing ,,regions

 ,,traversed4    ,nansen confines       
himself to a brief geological sketch of 
,cape ,flora  and its neighborhood2     
,pompeckj treats fully the ,jurassic    
fauna1 while  ,nathorst briefly         
discusses the fossil plants4    ,nansen 
says3 8,through ,jackson's kindness and 
,koettlitz's valuable  assistance1 ,i   
was enabled to make a collection of     
fossils and rocks  from the ,jurassic   
deposits of this locality40             
87,koettlitz7 took me to places where1  
before my arrival1 he had already  found
 fossils1 or had observed anything of   
importance4 ,had it not been  for him ,i
 should certainly not have been able to 
do what little ,i did  during the few   
days at my disposal4 ,i agree with      
,koettlitz on all  essential points1 and
 have nothing new of importance to add  
to what he  has already said40    ,as   
,nansen elsewhere remarks1 the memoirs  
of ,pompeckj and ,nathorst  supplement  
the papers of ,koettlitz1 ,newton and   
,teall1 which appeared in  the          

,quarterly ,journal of the ,geological  
,society1 #ahig1 pp4 #dgg-eai1 and      
#ahih1 pp4 #fbj-fea4    ,pompeckj       
describes fully the various fossils1    
illustrates them with  wealth of detail1
 discusses their stratigraphical        
relations1 and  outlines the            
paleographical history of ,franz ,josef 
,land4    ,of the twenty-six species    
collected by ,nansen no less than       
seventeen  are new as compared with the 
,jackson-,harmsworth collection1 which  
contains five species lacking to        
,nansen4 ,there are representatives of  
single species only of echinoderms1     
vermes and gastropods1 the scarcity  of 
the last named being generally          
characteristic of the ,jurassic  fauna  
of the arctic regions1 whether in       
,siberia1 ,greenland1 or ,arctic        
,america4 ,on the other hand1 at ,cape  
,flora the cephalopods and the          
lamellibranchs predominate very largely4
 ,this fact makes most notable  the     
absence of the lamellibranch genus      

,aucella1 with all other forms  that are
 especially characteristic of the higher
 ,jura4    ,the following new species   
have been determined by ,pompeckj3      
,pseudomonotis ,jacksoni1 an ornamented 
shell of a remarkably large  ,aviculid  
form4 ,macrocephalites ,koettlitzi1 a   
shell with a very narrow  umbilicus and 
almost completely encircling whorls4    
,cadoceras ,nanseni1  an ammonite       
showing a flat disc-like growth1 with   
moderately thick  whorls of which       
cross-sections are nearly elliptical4   
,another ammonite  may possibly be a    
variety of ,c4 ,nanseni1 but ,pompeckj  
considers that  it is a separate species
 owing to its wider umbilicus1 less     
pronounced  involution and somewhat     
asymmetrical lobe-line4    ,pompeckj's  
outline of the paleontographical history
 of ,franz ,josef ,land  is worthy of   
careful consideration by all interested 
in this department  of science1 although
 many may differ from some of the       
conclusions  reached by him4 ,commenting

 on the stratigraphical studies of      
,prof4 ,e4  ,t4 ,newton1 ,pompeckj      
states that his own investigations      
compel him to  differ materially from   
the inferences drawn and theories       
advanced by  that scientist4            
,pompeckj says3 8,the occurrence of     
these three genera of ,ammonites  proves
 that the marine fauna of ,cape ,flora  
contain representatives of  the         
,callovian4 ,more recent marine horizons
 have certainly not been  formed at     
,cape ,flora1 as far as ,i can judge    
from the collection of  fossils before  
me4444 ,the ,oxfordian and all the more 
recent ,jurassic  horizons do not occur 
as marine deposits at ,cape ,flora40    
,he finds species pertaining to the     
,lower ,bajocian1 ,lower1 ,middle and   
,upper ,callovian horizons4 ,it is most 
interesting to note that only  one other
 part of the arctic regions1 ,prince    
,patrick ,island1 ,parry  ,archipelago1 
has produced fossils1 described by      
,haughton as ,lias1 that  are certainly 

older than the ,callovian4 ,it is1      
however1 recognized as  possible that   
,lundgreen's fossils from ,east         
,greenland may form another  exception4 
,pompeckj points out that while the     
,bajocian fauna of ,cape ,flora is      
without analogy in the arctic regions1  
it nevertheless presents  distinct      
affinities to the ,central ,european    
,jura1 and especially  resembles the    
,russian ,callovian4    ,moreover1 this 
,jurassic collection from ,cape ,flora  
is of special  importance in outlining  
the geographic distribution of that     
system4  ,pompeckj adds3 8,hence the    
existence of a ,bajocian sea in the     
north of  the ,eurasian ,jura continent 
is proved beyond all doubt4444 ,as early
 as  the ,bajocian period1 there existed
 a ,shetland ,straits1 which separated  
the ,eurasian continent1 existing       
through the ,lias period until the end  
of the ,bathonian1 from the nearctic    
,jura continent40    ,the comments      
relative to the transition of ,nova     

,zembla1 ,spitzbergen1  ,franz ,josef   
,land1 and possibly ,alaska1 from land  
to sea and sea to  land1 are of marked  
interest1 indicating as they do that    
large areas of  polar regions were      
exposed in the mesozoic period to       
repeated and very  considerable         
oscillations of the sea level4    ,the  
more interesting of the ,jurassic       
fossils1 found at ,cape ,flora1  are    
shown in the accompanying illustration4 
,cadocera ,nanseni 7n4  sp471 #a1 #b1   
#c1 #e1 #f4 ,cadoceras1 sp4 ex4 aff4    
,cad4 ,nanseni 7n4  sp471 #d4 ,cadoceras
 ,tchefkini1 d',orb1 #g4 ,cadoceras1 sp4
 indet41 #h4  ,quenstedoceras vertumnum1
 ,sintzow1 #i4 ,cadoceras ,frearsi1     
d',orb1 #aj4  ,macrocephalites1 #aa4    
,macrocephalites ,koettlitzi1 n4 sp41   
#ab4    ,the collections of fossil      
plants1 made by ,nansen in ,franz ,josef
 ,land  through the courtesy of the     
,jackson-,harmsworth expedition1 are of 
scientific value as indicating the      
fossil ,jurassic flora of ,franz  ,josef

 ,land as compared with that of         
,spitzbergen4 ,these collections  fill  
in a not inconsiderable gap in the      
,arctic regions1 and ,nathorst's        
investigations serve to confirm the     
opinions and statements made by         
,professor ,heer1 whose five volumes of 
,flora ,fossilis ,arctica constitute  a 
monumental work4 ,as is well known1     
research has established the  fact that 
at one time ,spitzbergen was covered    
with a luxuriant  miocene               
vegetation--cypresses1 birches1 sequoi1 
oaks and planes4 ,it  moreover appears  
that this growth was coincident with the
 period when  ,spitzbergen1 ,greenland1 
,franz ,josef ,land and ,nova ,zembla   
experienced a  continental climate4     
,illustration3 ,,jurassic ,,fossils     
,,found ,,at ,,cape ,,flora4    ,as     
fossil collections accumulate1 one      
appreciates more and more  the masterly 
manner in which ,heer summed up the     
results of polar  exploration as regards
 ,arctic vegetable paleontology4 ,he was

 the  first to present to the world a   
clear idea of the vegetation of the     
,cretaceous land1 scarcely known to     
science until elucidated by him4  ,it   
developed that in ,heer's time1 among   
the fossil plants found in  ,spitzbergen
 alone were #g ginkos1 #h pines1 a short
 bamboo1 #g poplars1 #c  maples and a   
fossil strawberry4    ,dr4 ,nansen was  
fortunate in securing the co-operation  
of ,prof4 ,a4 ,g4  ,nathorst in the     
examination of the fossil plants        
collected in ,franz  ,josef ,land1 as he
 has devoted much time to the flora1    
present and past1  of various portions  
of the ,arctic regions1 especially      
,spitzbergen  and ,king ,charles ,land4 
,nathorst had the advantage of the notes
 of  ,newton1 ,j4 ,h4 ,steele and ,r4   
,curtis on the fossils of ,franz ,josef 
,land1  published in the ,quarterly     
,journal of ,geological ,science1       
,london1 vols4  #ec-ed1 #ahig-ahih4     
,most unfortunately1 the fossils were   
very fragmentary1 the leaves in         

themselves small and often              
indistinguishable in color from the     
rock1 so  that their examination was    
made almost entirely under the          
magnifying  lens4 ,while the organic    
substance of the plants was sometimes   
still  to be seen in a soft1 brownish   
variety of rock1 yet the harder         
yellowish varieties offered only        
impressions1 or cavities1 their  organic
 substance having entirely disappeared4 
,in cross fractures there  were         
sometimes cavities which were complete  
transverse sections of  coniferous      
leaves4    ,there were twenty-nine      
species1 of which the entire number are 
coniferous except one fungus1 one fern1 
two palms and one uncertain4            
,nathorst says3 8,the plant-bearing     
strata of ,franz ,josef ,land1 which are
  yet known to us1 all belong1 with the 
exception of those from ,cook's  ,rock  
and ,cape ,stephen1 the age of which is 
still uncertain1 to the  upper          
,jurassic1 or the transition beds to the

 cretaceous1 while as yet  no tertiary  
strata have been discovered40    ,in    
geological age1 while the ,franz ,josef 
flora resembles most the  previously    
known ,jurassic floras of ,siberia and  
,spitzbergen1 yet  ,nathorst considers  
the geological age different1 and       
naturally places  it between the two1 it
 being evidently younger than that of   
,siberia4    ,it is interesting to note 
that ,doctor ,koettlitz found in an     
isolated  basalt nunatak 7rock or hill  
protruding from a glacier7 fossil plants
  similar to those found by himself and 
,nansen on the north side of  ,cape     
,flora4 ,these nunatak plants1 which    
,koettlitz believed to be in  situ1 are 
identified by ,nathorst as ,upper       
,jurassic1 and came from an  elevation  
variously estimated as from six hundred 
to seven hundred and  fifty feet above  
the sea4    ,nansen agrees with         
,koettlitz in believing that tree-trunks
 found by  them1 charred into charcoal  
or partly silicified1 chiefly belonged  

to  conifers growing on the soil over   
which basalt flows were discharged      
during the ,upper ,jurassic or ,lower   
,cretaceous age1 and that they have     
been charred by a flowing mass of lava  
that overwhelmed them4    ,these fossil 
plants tell the story of tremendous     
physical changes which  have produced   
very important modifications in climatic
 conditions  in the ,arctic regions4    
,the changes in the types of vegetable  
life  are apparently as extensive in    
high as in low latitudes4 ,the lower    
cretaceous flora is almost tropical1 as 
is shown by the predominating  forms of 
this vegetation4 ,carboniferous         
formations obtain extensively  in the   
,arctic regions1 as they occur in the   
,parry ,archipelago1  ,spitzbergen and  
in ,siberia4 ,during the carboniferous  
age there was a  great extent of land   
near the ,north ,pole closely resembling
 that of  the temperate latitude of the 
same period1 as is shown by the small   
number of fossil plants that are        

peculiar to the ,arctic regions4 ,in the
  tertiary period miocene flora         
flourished in ,spitzbergen1 where even  
the lime1 the juniper and poplars have  
been found near latitude #gi ,n4  ,then 
also throve sequoias1 which closely     
resemble trees growing in the  southern 
part of the ,united ,states4 ,the       
miocene flora gives evidence  of a very 
great contrast between the climatic     
conditions at that epoch  between       
,europe and the ,arctic regions4    ,the
 cretaceous flora throws important light
 on the changes of climate  in the      
,arctic regions1 and1 as has been       
pointed out1 the tropical forms         
predominate in the vegetation of the    
,lower ,cretaceous flora4 ,heer's       
prediction that the plants found on the 
west coast of ,spitzbergen would  also  
be found on the ,east ,greenland coast  
has been fully verified4  ,miocene      
plants have been found from ,spitzbergen
 westward through  ,iceland and         
,greenland to ,banks ,land and in the   

,parry ,archipelago1 and  it is         
interesting to note that more than one  
fourth of the ,arctic  plants are common
 to the miocene of ,europe2 in          
,greenland and on  ,mc,kenzie the       
percentage is nearly one half4    ,in   
all probability1 the paper which is of  
the highest popular interest  is the    
account of the birds by ,robert ,collet 
and ,dr4 ,nansen4 ,the  full notes      
regarding ,arctic birds testify fully to
 the fact that  the observers had in    
view the principal points of            
ornithological  importance4 ,these      
comprise not only a mere record of the  
presence or  absence of certain species1
 but also additional observations       
regarding  them in their ,arctic        
habitat4    ,certainly the reproach can 
not be brought against the expedition of
 the  ,fram1 which has obtained in the  
case of many ,arctic expeditions1 that  
it has added nothing to ornithological  
,arctic data4    ,the account of the    
birds1 prepared by ,mr4 ,robert ,collet1

 has been  compiled from the various    
journals of the expeditionary force1    
supplemented by verbal comments of      
,nansen4 ,the memoir contains such      
specific data as enable students to     
determine not only the general          
character of the avifauna as one moves  
northward in the ,siberian ocean1  but  
also the arrival and departure of the   
migrants and the presence of            
stragglers4 ,among the birds of special 
interest which were observed  are the   
gray plover1 the gray phalarope1 the    
sabine gull and the  cuneate or ,ross's 
gull4    ,one of the greatest           
authorities on ,arctic birds1 ,prof4    
,alfred ,newton1  of the ,university of 
,cambridge1 has well said that in       
consideration of  the avifauna of any   
country its peculiarities can be        
determined only by  dismissing          
accidental stragglers from the          
discussion4 ,in elucidating  the great  
question of geographical distribution1  
one must confine  himself to either the 

birds that breed therein1 or to those   
species  which regularly frequent it for
 a considerable portion of the year4    
,considering the enormous area covered  
by the ,fram expedition and  its great  
diversity of physical conditions of sea 
and land1 it was  impossible to treat   
under a single heading the birds        
observed4    ,illustration3             
,,pseudalibrotus ,,nanseni1 ,g4 ,o4     
,,sars4    ,mr4 ,collet has1 therefore1 
been wise in dividing his notes into    
four  sections1 covering the ,asiatic   
coast1 the ,siberian ocean1 the sledge  
journey to ,franz ,josef ,land1 and the 
,arctic ,ocean to the north of ,franz   
,josef ,land and ,spitzbergen4 ,but for 
this division1 confusion would  have    
resulted from combining birds of regions
 so widely extended in  longitude and   
latitude4    ,the notes show            
conclusively what might have been       
anticipated1 that the  avifauna of the  
,siberian ,sea1 and especially that     
portion of the ,arctic  ,ocean to the   

north of ,franz ,josef ,land and        
,spitzbergen1 is strictly  limited4     
,including the species observed during  
the entire voyage1 there are only       
thirty-three recorded4 ,only twenty-one 
species pertain to the ,arctic  ,ocean1 
whether as regular migrants or          
stragglers1 after excluding the  twelve 
species which were observed near the    
,asiatic coast4 ,the presence  on the   
shores of the ,siberian ,sea of some of 
these twelve1 however1 is  of           
ornithological interest4 ,there may be  
specially mentioned the gray  goose     
7,anser segetum71 long-tailed duck      
7,harelda glacialis71 silver  gull      
7,larus argentatus71 snowy owl 7,nyctea 
scandiaca71 gray plover  7,squatarola   
helvetica7 and the red-necked phalarope 
7,phalaropus  hyperboreous74            
,confining ourselves to birds observed  
to the north of #ha #cj1 attention  is  
called to the abundant avifauna of the  
western as compared with the  eastern   
hemisphere4 ,in ,kennedy ,channel1      

,grinnell ,land1 there have been        
recorded no less than thirty-two species
 against twenty-one noted by  the ,fram 
in this voyage1 including those seen in 
,franz ,josef ,land4  ,this is not      
surprising1 however1 when it is         
considered that the drift  of the ,fram 
was across a deep ocean of large extent1
 which is covered  perpetually by an    
unbroken ice-pack1 unrelieved by any    
view of land  until the north coast of  
,spitzbergen was seen4    ,omitting the 
birds observed in ,franz ,josef ,land1  
the paucity of species  frequenting the 
great western ,arctic ,ocean is even    
more apparent4 ,the  striking           
dissimilarity of the four regions       
traversed by the ,fram  is plainly      
evident from the bird-life recorded4    
,while there were  observed nine species
 in the ,siberian ,sea1 fifteen in the  
,franz ,josef  ,archipelago1 eighteen in
 the ,arctic ,ocean and twenty-three on 
the  ,asiatic coast1 yet only five were 
common to all four regions1 viz43  the  

dovekie1 the glaucous gull1 the ivory   
gull1 the kittiwake and the  snow-bird4 
,the ,siberian ,sea presented a most    
limited avifauna1 as in addition to  the
 five common species1 there were        
recorded in the first summer in the  ice
 only the little auk1 the fulmar1 the   
roseate gull and a small skua4  ,the    
entire absence of land or shore birds   
that frequent ,arctic islands1  omitting
 a single straggling snow-bird1         
indicates clearly that the  ,siberian   
,sea extends far northward unbroken by  
any land area4    ,the eighteen species 
of birds that were found in the ,arctic 
,ocean1  far to the north1 naturally    
demand special comment4 ,the six        
following  species are doubtless        
stragglers3 the ringed plover           
7,aegialitis  hiaticula71 #hb #ei ,n41  
the most northerly shore-bird of        
,spitzbergen1  ,nordenskiold having     
observed it on ,seven islands1 #hj #de  
,n42 the  eider duck 7,somateria        
mollissima71 #hb #ee ,n41 near          

,spitzbergen2 the  arctic tern 7,sterna 
macrura71 #hd #cb ,n42 the puffin       
7,fratercula  arctica glacialis71 #hc   
#aa ,n41 near ,spitzbergen2 the         
black-backed  gull 7,larus marinus71 #hd
 #ce ,n4 #ge ,e41 and the ,sabine gull  
7,xema  ,sabini71 #hc ,n41 near         
,spitzbergen4    ,of other species1 the 
roseate gull 7,rhodostethia rosea71 #hd 
#da  ,n41 disappeared as the ,fram      
drifted west from the longitude of      
,franz ,josef ,land1 to be replaced as  
,spitzbergen was neared by a  wader     
7,crymophilus fulicarius71 #hc #ja ,n42 
forked-tailed skuas  7,stercorarius     
pomatorhinus71 #hb #eg ,n41 and         
,bruennich's guillemot  7,uria lomvia71 
#hc #aa ,n4 ,the glaucous gull 7,larus  
glaucus71 #hd  #dh ,n41 and long-tailed 
skua 7,stercorarius longicaudus71 #hd   
#dg ,n41  although seen both summers1   
were quite infrequent4 ,these data      
indicate  absence of land at any near   
distance to the north1 and disclose the 
interesting fact that only the six      

following species1 including the        
snow-bird who is more probably a        
straggler1 can be classed as regular    
summer migrants to the vast ice-fields  
which cover the ,arctic ,ocean to  the  
north of ,spitzbergen and ,franz ,josef 
,land4    ,illustration3 ,,rhodostethia 
,,rosea 7,,magg71 #ahbd4 ,,young ,,in   
,,first ,,plumage4    ,the little auk   
7,alle alle71 #hd #dh ,n41 was visible  
almost daily near  the #hc;d parallel in
 great numbers during the summer season1
 wherever  there were numerous water    
channels near the ,fram4 ,of #dj birds  
killed  at one time1 only ten were      
females4    ,the dovekie 7,cepphus      
mandti71 #hd #cb ,n41 with the little   
auk1 was  the most numerous of all birds
 in very high latitudes1 and nearly #aej
  were shot for the table4 ,out of #dj  
specimens only #ad were males4 ,the     
dovekie came early1 ,may #ac1 #ahif4    
,the ivory gull 7,pagophila eburnea7 is 
also present the entire  summer4 ,it was
 the first visitor in #ahie1 when on    

,may #ad it was seen  in #hd #ch ,n41   
and what is of special interest1 was    
flying from the  north-northeast4       
,the snow bunting 7,plectrophenax       
nivalis71 although a land-bird1 was     
seen both summers at somewhat infrequent
 intervals1 as far as #hd  #de ,n4 ,they
 fed on refuse near the ships1 but were 
also seen near  water-holes1 and        
appeared to be feeding on crustaceans4  
,two of three  specimens were males4    
,the first specimen in #ahie visited the
 ,fram  on ,may #bb in #hd #dj ,n41 and 
then flew towards the north4 ,in #ahif  
it  appeared on ,april #be1 the first   
bird of the year1 in #hd #ag ,n4    ,the
 kittiwake 7,rissa tridactyla7 was much 
less numerous than  the ivory gull4 ,it 
was seen in #hb #ed ,n4 ,they fed1 as a 
rule1 on  crustaceans1 although in one  
bird were found parts of a ,gadus saida 
about #gj mm4 in length4 ,a ,gadus about
 #abj mm4 in length was observed  on    
,july #af1 #ahie1 in #hd #db ,n41 the   
most northerly point at which any  fish 

has been found4    ,the fulmar          
7,fulmarus glacialis7 came early in     
#ahie1 on ,may #ac1 and in  #ahif on    
,may #bb4 ,this bold1 voracious bird fed
 on crustaceans usually1  and owing to  
its villainous smell was utilized       
principally as food for  dogs4 ,the last
 bird of #ahie1 a fulmar1 was seen on   
,september #ad1 when  the ,fram was in  
#he #je ,n41 #gi ,e4 ,this is the most  
northern latitude  in which any bird has
 ever been observed4    ,the fulmars and
 ivory gulls were very bold and noisy1  
the latter being  specially             
objectionable4 ,ivory gulls were seen at
 the winter hut in  ,franz ,josef ,land 
until ,october1 when all water had long 
been frozen  over1 and appeared again as
 early as ,march #ab1 #ahif4    ,the    
first roseate gulls were young birds    
observed ,august #c1 #ahid1 in  #ha #je 
,n41 #abj ,e41 about #ejj kilometres    
from the nearest land4 ,a  long and     
interesting description is given of     
these gulls in various  stages4 ,one of 

the beautiful plates1 which is          
imperfectly reproduced1  shows the      
plumage of a very young gull about a    
month old4 ,their food  consists        
exclusively of small fish and           
crustaceans1 of the latter the          
,hymenodora glacialis predominating4    
,large numbers of these beautiful  gulls
 were seen in #ahie to the northeast of 
,franz ,josef ,land1 which  points to   
their breeding in that locality4 ,one   
was seen by ,nansen on  ,july #aa1      
#ahie1 in #hb #jh ,n41 flying from the  
northeast4    ,the very full memoir on  
,crustacea is by ,dr4 ,g4 ,o4 ,sars1    
well known as  one of the editorial     
committee of the scientific work of the 
,norwegian  ,north ,atlantic            
,expedition4 ,as the greater number of  
marine vertebrate  animals collected by 
the ,norwegian ,north ,polar ,expedition
 belong to  the ,crustacea1 this memoir 
covers the greater part of the marine   
collection4    ,the ,copepoda are       
predominant1 especially those belonging 

to the  ,calanoid group1 having been    
taken at nearly every haul along the    
whole route of the ,fram4 ,the zological
 equipment of the ,fram was  based      
unfortunately on the supposition that   
the ,siberian basin was  shallow1 so    
that the enormous oceanic depths which  
were found were only  inadequately      
explored by an extemporized sounding    
apparatus4    ,while the results of the 
dredging operations indicate that there 
was  very little animal life at the     
bottom of the ocean1 on the other hand1 
it appears that the entire surface of   
the sea1 which consisted usually  of    
small temporary openings in the         
ice-pack1 was covered with abundant     
life throughout the entire year even to 
the most northern latitudes4            
,including surface and deep-sea         
specimens1 there were taken on ,october 
#ab1 #ahie1 no less than eleven species 
in latitude #he #ac ,n41 longitude  #gi 
,e4 ,on ,june #bh1 #ahie1 in #hd #cb    
,n41 #gf ,e41 there were taken from  the

 surface by tow net in a large          
water-channel fourteen species4 ,this   
indicates abundant marine life in the   
sea immediately near the ,north  ,pole4 
,the pelagic animals1 therefore1 were   
not found at the sea surface  alone1 but
 were also drawn from considerable      
depths4 ,many specimens  were obtained  
from strata at least #bej metres below  
the surface1 and in  a number of        
instances from depths ranging between   
#ejj and #a1jjj metres4  ,it is to be   
added that the imperfect development of 
the visual organs  of the peculiar      
amphipod1 ,cyclocaris ,guilelmi1        
,chevreux1 points to  abyssal habits1 as
 similar conditions do in the cases of  
other pelagic  animals4    ,in general  
pelagic fauna in the ,polar ,sea        
resembles that of the  northern         
,atlantic basin1 the greater number of  
species being common  to both4 ,while   
several heretofore unknown forms        
collected by this  expedition may be    
peculiar to the polar basin1 yet it is  

not improbable  that these forms also   
occur in the ,north ,atlantic4 ,this    
appears  probable1 since the western    
part of the ,fram's route lies on the   
border of the two basins1 where the     
fauna does not differ essentially  from 
that in the eastern part4    ,while the 
pelagic fauna of the ,polar ,sea1 even  
in the lowest depths1  resembles that of
 the ,atlantic basin1 the great salinity
 of its water  clearly indicates that it
 comes from the ,north ,atlantic1 and it
 is  therefore more than probable that  
the migration of pelagic animals to  the
 ,north ,polar ,sea is also from the    
west4    ,indeed1 ,doctor ,sars is of   
the opinion that the greater part of the
  pelagic life of the north-polar basin 
comes by the underlying easterly        
current from the ,north ,atlantic4 ,on  
the other hand1 it is evident that  the 
westerly-flowing surface current of the 
,siberian ,sea is of vital  importance  
as a means of supplying nourishment to  
the marine animals  of the western      

,arctic ,ocean4 ,this food supply1      
microscopic alg chiefly  ,diatomeae1    
while very abundant on the surface of   
the ,siberian ,sea1  diminishes         
gradually towards the west4 8,indeed10  
says ,sars1 8without  such a constant   
conveyance of nourishing matter1 there  
could be no such  rich animal life in   
the ,polar ,sea40    ,a very remarkable 
fact was the presence of certain pelagic
 ,copepoda1  which hitherto had only    
been observed in southern waters1 and a 
,calanoid of the genus ,hemicalanus     
,claus1 previously known only  from the 
,mediterranean and tropical parts of the
 ,atlantic and ,pacific  oceans4 ,two   
species of the genus ,oncoea1 which     
accord perfectly with  species in the   
,bay of ,naples1 were found in great    
abundance north of  the ,new ,siberian  
,islands4 ,another copepod1 of the genus
 ,lubbockia  ,claus1 heretofore only    
known in the ,mediterranean and tropical
 oceans1  was found in the same         
locality1 with which was a small        

perfectly  hyaline copepod of the very  
remarkable genus ,mormonilla1 of which  
heretofore only two species have been   
recorded1 both in the tropical  ,pacific
 and south of the equator4    ,perhaps  
the most remarkable forms are those     
mentioned by ,doctor ,sars1  when he    
says3 8,the very close and apparently   
genetic relationship  between the two   
polar species of the amphipodous genus  
,pseudalibrotos  and those occurring in 
the ,caspian ,sea1 is another remarkable
 instance  which seems fully to         
corroborate the correctness of the      
assumption  of geologists as to a direct
 connexion in olden times between this  
isolated basin and the ,north ,polar    
,sea40    ,both species1 taken near #he 
,n41 are regarded as the primitive types
  from which the ,caspian forms are     
descended4 ,the more remarkable of the  
,arctic forms1 ,p4 ,nanseni1 is         
reproduced on page #dcj4    ,to         
conclude1 this volume is a most valuable
 contribution to the  scientific        

literature of the ,arctic regions4 ,it  
has but one marked  objection1 its      
publication in such beautiful form and  
high price as  necessarily places this  
series beyond the means of many         
scientific  students4                   
,,discussion ,,and ,,correspondence4    
,,legislation ,,against ,,medical       
,,discovery4,p        ,p ,an open letter
 from ,president ,eliot of ,harvard     
,university          to the ,chairman of
 the ,senate ,committee on the ,district
 of          ,columbia4    ,,dear ,,sir3
 ,i observe that a new bill on the      
subject of vivisection has  been        
introduced into the ,senate1 ,bill ,no4 
#cd4 ,this bill is a slight  improvement
 on its predecessor1 but it is still    
very objectionable4 ,i  beg leave to    
state very briefly the objection to all 
such legislation4    #a4 ,to interfere  
with or retard the progress of medical  
discovery is an  inhuman thing4 ,within 
fifteen years medical research has made 
rapid  progress1 almost exclusively     

through the use of the lower animals1   
and what such research has done for the 
diagnosis and treatment of  diphtheria  
it can probably do in time for          
tuberculosis1 erysipelis1               
cerebro-spinal meningitis and cancer1 to
 name only four horrible  scourges of   
mankind which are known to be of germ   
origin4    #b4 ,the human race makes use
 of animals without the smallest        
compunctions as articles of food and as 
laborers4 ,it kills them1  confines     
them1 gelds them and interferes in all  
manner of ways with  their natural      
lives4 ,the liberty we take with the    
animal creation in  using utterly       
insignificant numbers of them for       
scientific researches  is infinitesimal 
compared with the other liberties we    
take with  animals1 and it is that use  
of animals from which the human race has
  most to hope4    #c4 ,the few medical 
investigators can not1 probably1 be     
supervised or  inspected or controlled  
by any of the ordinary processes of     

,government  supervision4 ,neither can  
they properly be licensed1 because there
 is no  competent supervising or        
licensing body4 ,the ,government may    
properly  license a plumber1 because it 
can provide the proper examination      
boards for plumbers2 it can properly    
license young men to practice  medicine1
 because it can provide the proper      
examination boards for that  profession1
 and these boards can testify to the    
fitness of candidates2  but the         
,government cannot provide any board of 
officials competent to  testify to the  
fitness of the medical investigator4    
#d4 ,the advocates of anti-vivisection  
laws consider themselves more  humane   
and merciful than the opponents of such 
laws4 ,to my thinking  these unthinking 
advocates are really cruel to their own 
race4 ,how  many cats or guinea pigs    
would you or ,i sacrifice to save the   
life  of our child or to win a chance of
 saving the life of our child8 ,the     
diphtheria-antitoxin has already saved  

the lives of many thousands  of human   
beings1 yet it is produced through a    
moderate amount of  inconvenience and   
suffering inflicted on horses and       
through the  sacrifice of a moderate    
number of guinea pigs4 ,who are the     
merciful  people--the few physicians who
 superintend the making of the antitoxin
  and make sure of its quality1 or the  
people who cry out against the          
infliction of any suffering on animals  
on behalf of mankind8    ,it is1 of     
course1 possible to legislate against an
 improper use of  vivisection4 ,for     
instance1 it should not be allowed in   
secondary  schools or before college    
classes for purposes of demonstration   
only2  but any attempt to interfere with
 the necessary processes of medical     
investigation is1 in my judgment1 in the
 highest degree inexpedient1  and is    
fundamentally inhuman4        ,yours    
very truly1          ,c4 ,w4 ,,eliot4   
,,hon4 ,,james ,,mcmillan4      ,,the   
,,higher ,,education ,,for ,,colored    

,,youth4    ,prof4 ,shaler's article in 
the ,june number of the ,,popular       
,,science  ,,monthly was in many ways   
sensible and timely1 but it seems to the
  writer that in common with many other 
people he is misleading in his  remarks 
about higher education for the negro4   
,one would think from  the great outcry 
against the higher education for young  
people of the  colored race1 that       
scarcely any other kind of education was
 being given  them4 ,on all sides we    
hear the familiar refrain3 8,the higher 
education  for the negro has been a     
failure40 ,now success is a relative    
term4 ,if  a mere handful of colored    
college graduates1 in a few years1 ought
 to  have settled the race problem1 and 
induced their white fellow-citizens  to 
treat these graduates and all members of
 their race fairly1 then  it has been a 
failure4 ,but if the higher education   
should simply  give added power of mind1
 enlarge the mental grasp and capacity  
for  usefulness1 lift up1 socially1     

morally1 religiously and financially1   
not only its disciples1 but also        
thousands who have been induced to  look
 upward by the force of their example1  
then the higher education  for colored  
youth has been a tremendous success4 ,is
 not the latter the  fair test8 ,of     
course the higher education of the few  
has not eliminated  crime4 ,it has not  
done that for the white race4 ,the      
writer is a colored  man and a college  
graduate4 ,he can not see that the      
higher education  has any different     
effect on the colored youth from what it
 has on the  white4 ,if there be any    
difference it is this3 ,it raises the   
colored  youth from a lower social      
level1 as a rule1 and places him on a   
social  plane1 relatively1 among his own
 people1 higher than it does in the     
case of the white youth4 ,the higher    
training1 therefore1 should be more     
valuable to the colored youth4    ,in a 
recent address before a graduating class
 at ,howard ,university1  the ,hon4 ,w4 

,t4 ,harris1 ,commissioner of           
,education1 submitted statistics  which 
showed that the proportionate number of 
secondary and higher  students to the   
whole number of children attending      
school in the ,united  ,states had      
increased from #b4bb per cent in #ahgi  
to #e4ja per cent in  #ahig1 nearly two 
and a half times2 while the proportion  
of colored  students in secondary       
schools and colleges had increased very 
little  indeed1 from #a per cent to only
 #a4af per cent4 ,but the story is not  
yet  half told4 ,according to the report
 of the ,commissioner of ,education1    
#ahig-ih1 ,vol4 #b1 page #b1jig1 the    
total number of students taking the     
higher education in the ,united ,states1
 as a whole1 was #add1dgg1 being  #a1ihj
 to each million of the total           
population4 ,the same report1 page      
#b1dhj1 gives the total number of       
colored students pursuing collegiate    
courses in these much discussed colored 
colleges as #b1dib4 ,this is only  #caj 

to the million of colored population1   
whereas the whole of the  ,united       
,states1 as shown above1 had #a1ihj to  
the million1 nearly six  and a half     
times as many in proportion to          
population4 ,this does not  look as if  
the entire colored population were      
rapidly stampeding to the  higher       
education1 or as if the labor supply in 
the ,southern ,states were  falling off 
from this cause4    ,this is an age of  
higher education for the masses4 ,the   
increase  in the number of students     
taking the secondary and higher         
education in the ,united ,states during 
the last ten years has been             
phenomenal--unprecedented4 ,is the      
person of color so much superior to  the
 white that he does not need so much    
educational training8 ,i think  not4 ,in
 view of the history and present        
condition of this race1 there  is an    
obvious necessity for a large number of 
educated and trained  teachers1         
ministers1 physicians1 lawyers and      

pharmacists2 and in view  of the fact   
that this race has only one fifth of its
 quota pursuing  studies above the      
elementary grades1 what fair mind will  
not say that  there is great need of    
more of the secondary and higher        
education for  colored youth1 instead of
 less of it8    ,according to the report
 above cited1 #afa academies and        
colleges for  colored youth in the      
,united ,states reported4 ,the total    
number enrolled  was #db1cbh1 of which  
#b1dib were reported in collegiate      
grades1 #ac1ffi  in secondary grades and
 #bf1afg in elementary grades4 ,even in 
these  colored colleges less than #f per
 cent of the students are pursuing      
collegiate courses4 ,of these1 perhaps  
not more than #b per cent are  pursuing 
a college course equal to that offered  
at ,howard4 ,nearly  two thirds of the  
total enrollment in these colored       
colleges are  receiving elementary      
instruction in the three ,r's4          
,classified by  courses of study1       

#a1gaa--bag in a million--were taking   
the classical  course2 #a1bjj--aej in a 
million--the scientific2 #d1ddi--eee to 
the  million--the normal course in      
preparation for teaching2 #a1bhe--afj in
  a million--professional courses2      
#i1gbd the ,english course1 and #bdd the
  business course4 ,in each of these    
courses the colored race has only  about
 one fifth or one sixth of its quota4   
,is there anything in these  figures to 
alarm the nation8    ,about one third of
 the total number of students in these  
#afa colored  schools and colleges are  
taking industrial training4 ,when we    
consider  the great demand for educated 
colored ministers1 teachers and         
physicians1 and the quick reward for    
ability in these lines1 on the  one     
hand1 and the exclusiveness of some     
trade-unions in shutting  out colored   
workmen1 on the other1 the wonder is    
that one third of  the total number of  
colored youth in these schools have     
chosen the  industrial course4 ,for it  

is by no means certain that they will be
  allowed to work at their trades after 
they have learned them4    ,the number  
of colored students who have had even a 
smattering of the  higher education has 
been shown to be ridiculously small1 and
 the total  number of colored graduates 
with the college degree proper does not 
at  the most liberal estimate exceed one
 thousand4 ,many of them are dead4  ,of 
the number now living1 almost every one 
can be located in some  useful and      
uplifting employment as ministers1      
teachers1 physicians1  lawyers1 business
 men1 or as wives presiding over happy1 
prosperous1  cultured homes which white 
persons seldom enter except on business4
  ,our critics seem to know nothing of  
these homes1 which1 as a rule1 are      
owned by their occupants4 ,for the most 
part these homes are scattered          
throughout the ,south1 and are centers  
of culture and refinement that  elevate 
the moral and social status of the      
entire community4    ,to deprive the    

youth of the colored race of the higher 
education is to  deprive them of all the
 nobler incentives to study1 to         
sacrifice1 to  struggle to get an       
education4 ,every thoughtful person     
knows that these  incentives are        
necessary for the white race2 they are  
equally necessary  for the colored race4
 ,neither the white youth nor the       
colored1 in large  numbers1 will toil   
and struggle and apply himself to get an
 education1  unless he sees that        
education brings power and a better     
living to its  possessors4    ,the      
colored race1 like every other part of  
our population1 needs all  kinds of     
education4 ,it is a sheer fallacy and a 
grievous wrong to them  to hold all of  
them down to the rudiments of an        
education1 with  industrial training4   
,all can not profit by the industrial   
training any  more than all can profit  
by the higher training4 ,there is no    
conflict  between the advocates of      
industrial training and the higher      

education4  ,both are right4 ,both are  
good in their respective spheres4 ,at   
any  rate1 it is not necessary to       
disparage the magnificent achievements  
of colored persons who have received the
 higher training to make an  argument in
 favor of training all of them in the   
manual trades1 or to  justify their     
elimination from politics4              
,,andrew ,f4 ,,hilger1    ,washington1  
,d4 ,c4          ,,scientific           
,,literature4      ,,geology4    ,in    
accordance with the general results of  
,mr4 ,g4 ,k4 ,gilbert's  investigation  
of recent earth movements in the ,great 
,lakes region--that  the whole district 
is being lifted on one side or depressed
 on the  other1 so that its plane is    
bodily canted toward the                
south-southwest1  and that the rate of  
change is such that the two ends of a   
line  one hundred miles long1 running in
 a south-southwest direction1  are      
relatively displaced four tenths of a   
foot in one hundred  years--certain     

general consequences ensue4 ,the waters 
of each lake are  gradually rising on   
the southern and western shores1 or     
falling on  the northern and eastern    
shores1 or both4 ,this change is not    
directly  obvious1 because masked by    
temporary changes due to inequalities of
  rainfall and evaporation and various  
other causes1 but it affects the  mean  
height of the lake surface4 ,in ,lake   
,ontario the water is advancing  on all 
shores1 the rate at any place being     
proportional to its distance  from the  
isobase through the outlet4 ,at         
,hamilton and ,port ,dalhousie  it      
amounts to six inches in a century4 ,the
 water also advances on all  shores of  
,lake ,erie1 most rapidly at ,toledo and
 ,sandusky1 where the  change is eight  
or nine inches a century4 ,all about    
,lake ,huron the  water is falling1 most
 rapidly at the north and northeast2 at 
,mackinac  the rate is six inches1 and  
at the mouth of ,french ,river ten      
inches  a century4 ,on ,lake ,superior  

the isobase of the outlet cuts the shore
  at the international boundary2 the    
water is advancing on the ,american     
shore1 and sinking on the ,canadian4 ,at
 ,duluth the advance is six  inches1 and
 at ,huron ,bay the recession is five   
inches a century4 ,the  shores of ,lake 
,michigan are divided by the ,port      
,huron isobase4 ,north  of ,oconto and  
,manistee the water is falling2 south of
 these places it  is rising1 the rate at
 ,milwaukee being five or six inches a  
century1  and at ,chicago nine or ten   
inches4 ,eventually1 unless a dam is    
erected  to prevent it1 ,lake ,michigan 
will again overflow to the ,illinois    
,river1 its discharge occupying the     
channel carved by the outlet of a       
,pleistocene glacial lake4 ,the summit  
in that channel is now about eight  feet
 above the mean level of the lake1 and  
the time before it will be  overtopped  
may be computed4 ,for the mean lake     
stage such discharge will  begin in     
about one thousand years1 and after     

fifteen hundred years  there will be no 
interruption4 ,in about two thousand    
years the ,illinois  ,river and the     
,niagara will carry equal portions of   
the surplus water  of the ,great ,lakes4
 ,in twenty-five hundred years the      
discharge of the  ,niagara will be      
intermittent1 failing at low stages of  
the lake1 and in  thirty-five hundred   
years there will be no ,niagara4 ,the   
basin of ,lake  ,erie will then be      
tributary to ,lake ,huron1 the current  
being reversed  in the ,detroit and ,st4
 ,clair channels4      ,,geography4     
,relating to the ,royal ,geographical   
,society the story of his exploration   
of the ,bolivian ,andes1 ,sir ,martin   
,conway spoke of his journey by way of  
the ,arequipa ,railroad1 ,peru1 to ,lake
 ,titicaca4 ,that remarkable sheet  of  
water is fourteen times the size of the 
,lake of ,geneva and twelve  thousand   
feet above the sea1 and might be        
regarded as the remnant of  a far       
greater inland sea1 now shrunk away4    

,driving from ,chililaya1 he  reached   
the snowy mountain called the           
,cordillera ,real--the backbone of      
,bolivia--which he had come especially  
to visit1 and in the region of  which he
 spent four months4 ,to the east the    
mountains fell very rapidly  to a low   
hill country and the fertile valleys    
that send their waters  to the river    
,beni4 ,on the other side lay a high    
plateau1 at a uniform  altitude of from 
twelve thousand to thirteen thousand    
feet1 from which  the tops of low rocky 
hills here and there emerged4 ,this     
plateau had  obviously been at one time 
submerged2 evidence was plentiful that  
in  ancient times the glaciers enveloped
 a large part of the slopes that  led   
down to it from the main ,cordilleras   
and reached down many miles  farther    
than now4 ,in the immense pile of dbris 
left by the glaciers  deep valleys were 
afterward cut by the action of water1   
and into these  valleys the glaciers of 
a second period of advance protruded    

their  snouts1 depositing moraines that 
could still be traced in situ as  much  
as four or five miles below the present 
limit of the ice4 ,contrary  to the     
apparently general impression that the  
peaks of the ,cordilleras  were         
volcanic1 the author had not been able  
to find any trace of  volcanic action   
along the axis of the range4 ,the       
,cordillera ,real had  been elevated by 
a great earth movement1 and the heart of
 the range  consisted of granites1      
schists and similar rocks4 ,the whole   
range might  be described as highly     
mineralized4 ,gold was found at several 
points1  but the chief auriferous       
valleys were those on the east side of  
the  range4 ,just below the snowy mass  
of ,cacaaca on the west was a really    
enormous vein of tin2 and antimony1     
cobalt and platinum have been found  in 
different parts4 ,the great copper      
deposits were not in this range1  but   
farther west4 ,the flora of the high    
regions of the ,cordillera  ,real was   

apparently sparse1 but is probably more 
abundant in the  rainy season4 ,bird    
life was more prolific and birds were   
numerous1 at  suitable places1 up to an 
altitude of seventeen thousand feet     
above the  sea4      ,,zoology4    ,the 
most recent elementary text-book in     
zology is from the press of  ,the       
,macmillan ,co4 ,professor and ,mrs4    
,charles ,b4 ,davenport are the joint   
authors4 ,it is recognized now-a-days   
that what the general high school  or   
elementary student in zology needs is   
not professional training  in that      
subject1 but rather an opportunity to   
view the field so that  he may have as  
wide an acquaintance as may be of the   
forms of animals  and of their doings4  
,this he needs that he may have an      
interest in  the things of nature and   
that he may be a more intelligent member
 of  society in the things pertaining to
 his welfare as affected by animals4    
,the book is therefore an attempt to    
restore the old natural history  in a   

newer garb4 ,the text is divided into   
twenty-one chapters4 ,the  first of     
these deals with #8,the ,grasshopper and
 its ,allies1' followed  by others upon 
the butterfly1 beetle1 fly1 spider1     
etc41 similarly  treated4 ,each chapter 
has one or two #8keys'--that is1        
arrangements  whereby the families of   
animals may be determined4 ,the book is 
richly  illustrated by means of         
half-tone and line reproduction2 a      
number of  photographs are from life1   
and one of these is a flash-light       
photograph  of a slug and an earthworm  
crawling upon a pavement at night6      
,outlines  for simple laboratory work   
and a list of books dealing with the    
classification and habits of ,american  
animals are to be found in an  appendix4
 ,many good things might be said of this
 contribution to  zological text-books4 
,this ought to be said1 that it will be 
a book  which will be of value to any   
person who1 while upon his holiday trip1
  wishes to learn about the animals he  

may come across4      ,,ornithology4    
,mr4 ,chapman is equally at home with   
camera or pen4 ,in #8,bird ,studies     
with a ,camera1 with ,introductory      
,chapters on the ,outfit and ,methods   
of the ,bird ,photographer1' he gives us
 some of his many experiences  from     
,central ,park to the swamps of ,florida
 and the bare rocks of the  ,gulf of    
,st4 ,lawrence4 ,the first two chapters 
are devoted to a brief  discussion of   
the outfit and methods of the bird      
photographer1 and  these any one        
thinking of taking up this branch of art
 will do well  to read carefully4 ,mr4  
,chapman considers that a #de plate is  
the size  best adapted for general      
purposes1 and notes that while a lens   
with  short focus may serve for         
photographing nests and eggs1 for the   
birds  themselves a rapid lens with     
focus of fourteen to eighteen inches    
should be used4 ,the rest of the book is
 for the general reader1 and  contains  
many facts of interest concerning the   

haunts1 habits1 and home  life of a     
number of birds from the well-known     
sparrow to the unfamiliar  pelican1 the 
accounts of the ,bird ,rock and ,pelican
 ,island being the  most interesting4   
,some of the illustrations are a little 
disappointing1  and emphasize the       
difficulties of photographing wild      
birds1 but  there is ample compensation 
for these in the excellence of others1  
particularly those devoted to ,perc1    
,bonaventure and ,bird ,rock4 ,this is  
equally true of birds and scenery1 the  
views of ,perc ,rock being the  finest  
that have fallen under our notice4 ,mr4 
,chapman's estimate of the  feathered   
population of ,great ,bird ,rock1 which 
he puts at #d1jjj1 is by  far the       
smallest yet made1 and probably has the 
soundest basis1 and  shows a sad        
diminution from the hosts of fifty years
 ago4           99       99       99    
99       99    #8,bird ,homes1' by ,a4  
,radclyffe ,dugmore1 seems well adapted 
for its  stated purpose of stimulating  

the love of birds1 helping the ordinary 
unscientific person to get some closer  
glimpses of them1 and aiding  in the    
study of their wonderfully adapted nests
 and beautiful eggs4  ,furthermore1 it  
will probably create a strong desire in 
the reader to  become a photographer of 
birds and their nests4 ,to further these
 aims  we have a first part containing  
half-a-dozen chapters devoted among     
other things to birds' nests and eggs1  
photographing nests and young  birds and
 the approximate dates when birds begin 
to nest1 this being  adapted to the     
vicinity of ,new ,york4    ,following   
this is the bulk of the volume1         
containing brief descriptions  of the   
birds1 their nests1 nesting places and  
eggs1 and here the author  has          
confessedly borrowed from ,bendire1     
,davie and other well-known             
authorities1 although one might wish    
that ,mr4 ,dugmore had introduced  more 
of his own observations1 since those    
given incidentally in the  first part   

are very interesting2 where he indulges 
in theory he is  less successful4 ,in   
place of the usual method of studying   
the nest  from the bird1 we have that of
 studying the bird from the nest1 and   
for this purpose the nests are grouped  
in classes1 a chapter being  devoted to 
each class2 thus we have nests open1 on 
the ground in open  fields1 marshes and 
generally open country2 open nests in   
trees2 nests  in bridges1 buildings1    
walls1 etc4 ,by this plan any one       
finding a nest  can1 with a little care 
and observation1 identify the bird that 
made  it4 ,the illustrations1 largely of
 nests and eggs1 are a noteworthy       
feature of the book1 although the       
three-color process which succeeded  so 
admirably in ,dr4 ,holland's ,butterfly 
,book1 is here as equally  distinct a   
failure1 the least bad of the colored   
plates being that  showing the nest of  
the yellow-breasted chat1 the worst that
 of the  nest of the ,baltimore oriole4 
,those in black and white1 however1     

merit  the highest praise1 and this     
includes the smaller cuts introduced as 
decorative features in the first portion
 of the book4 ,it would seem  difficult 
in a half-tone to improve on the plate  
of young crested  flycatchers for       
clearness of detail1 while among others 
that deserve  special mention for       
artistic effect is the wood thrush on   
nest1 and  the nests of the             
chestnut-sided1 yellow1 blue-winged and 
worm-eating  warblers4 ,the general     
#8get-up' of the book is excellent1 and 
the  printing of the plates separately  
permits the use of a deadfaced paper    
for the text1 which is pleasant to the  
eye4          ,,the ,,progress ,,of     
,,science4      ,we are able to publish 
in the present issue of the ,,monthly   
the address  given by ,mr4 ,g4 ,k4      
,gilbert as retiring president of the   
,american  ,association for the         
,advancement of ,science4 ,the problem  
that he  discusses is one of the most   
pressing for scientific workers1 while  

at  the same time it is of interest to  
everyone1 and the address is at once  an
 important contribution to the subject  
and an exposition that all can          
understand4 ,the mathematical physicists
 find that as an abode fitted  for life 
the earth can not be allowed a history  
indefinitely long--not  longer perhaps  
than #bj1jjj1jjj years--while the       
geologists with equally  strong         
arguments claim a much greater          
antiquity4 ,the biologists  are also    
concerned1 owing to the time taken up by
 the processes of  evolution1 and their 
facts and interests range them with the 
geologists  rather than with the        
physicists4 ,the man not versed in      
science would  also prefer to assign a  
long history to the earth1 for while he 
may  be ready to let the #8dead past    
bury its dead1' he looks forward even   
to the distant future1 and the shorter  
the past history of the earth  the less 
the time it will continue to be         
habitable4 ,we have thus a  question in 

the solution of which all the sciences  
are concerned1 and  one possessing a    
dramatic interest that appeals to       
everyone4 ,the unity  of science is well
 illustrated by such a problem4 ,it was 
the subject of  the address of the      
retiring president of the ,association1 
a geologist2  it might be taken as the  
subject for the address of the newly    
elected  president1 a biologist and     
student of the processes of evolution2  
and it is one to which the president of 
the meeting1 a mathematical  physicist1 
has given special attention4            
99       99       99       99       99  
,dr4 ,robert ,simpson ,woodward1 who    
presided over the ,new ,york meeting of 
the ,association1 is professor of       
mechanics and mathematical physics  and 
dean of the ,faculty of ,pure ,science  
in ,columbia ,university4 ,he  was born 
at ,rochester1 ,oakland ,county1        
,michigan1 ,july #ba1 #ahdi1  and spent 
his early life on a farm with the       
exception of about two  years of        

experience in mercantile and            
manufacturing pursuits4 ,he was         
prepared for college at the ,rochester  
,academy1 entered the ,university  of   
,michigan in #ahfh1 and was graduated in
 #ahgb with the degree of ,c4  ,e4      
,twenty years later the same institution
 conferred upon him the  degree of ,ph4 
,d4 ,while yet an undergraduate he      
entered the ,u4 ,s4 ,lake  ,survey1 and 
immediately after graduation he was     
appointed assistant  engineer in that   
service4 ,he was employed in the        
astronomical and  geodetic work of the  
,lake ,survey until its completion in   
#ahhb4 ,he then  accepted the position  
of assistant astronomer to the ,u4 ,s4  
,transit of  ,venus ,commission and     
accompanied the expedition of ,prof4    
,asaph ,hall1  ,u4 ,s4 ,n41 to ,san     
,antonio1 ,tex41 to observe the transit 
of ,december1  #ahhb4 ,he remained with 
the ,transit of ,venus ,commission until
 #ahhd1  when he resigned in order to   
take the position of astronomer in the  

,u4 ,s4 ,geological ,survey4 ,after four
 years of service in this bureau  he    
resigned to accept the position of      
assistant in the ,u4 ,s4 ,coast  and    
,geodetic ,survey4 ,this he held until  
#ahic1 when he retired from  the public 
service and accepted the call of        
,columbia ,university to  the chair of  
mechanics4 ,in #ahie1 and again in      
#aijj1 he was elected  to the deanship  
of the graduate faculty of pure science 
in that  institution4 ,professor        
,woodward has published many papers on  
subjects  in astronomy1 geodesy1        
mathematics and mechanics4 ,he edited1  
and  contributed several chapters to the
 final report of the ,u4 ,s4 ,lake      
,survey1 a volume of about one thousand 
quarto pages devoted chiefly to  a      
discussion of the geodetic work of the  
,survey done during the forty  years of 
its existence4 ,he is the author of     
several of the ,bulletins  of the ,u4   
,s4 ,geological ,survey1 and of a memoir
 on the ,iced ,bar and  ,long ,tape     

,base ,apparatus of the ,u4 ,s4 ,coast  
and ,geodetic ,survey4  ,these forms of 
apparatus1 devised and perfected by him1
 involve many  novel features and secure
 a much higher precision at a much      
smaller  cost than apparatus previously 
used4 ,he prepared for the ,smithsonian 
,institution a volume entitled          
#8,geographical ,tables1' being a manual
  for astronomers1 geographers1         
engineers and cartographers1 published  
in #ahid4 ,several of his most important
 mathematical papers relate to          
geophysics1 especially those bearing on 
the secular cooling and cubical         
contraction of the earth1 on the form   
and position of the sea surface1  and on
 the profoundly difficult problem       
presented by the recently  discovered   
phenomenon of the variation of          
terrestrial latitudes4  ,although most  
of his publications are necessarily of a
 highly technical  character1 his       
semi-popular addresses and reviews have 
been widely read  and appreciated4      

,professor ,woodward was an associate   
editor of the  #8,annals of             
,mathematics' from #ahhi to #ahii and   
has been an associate  editor of        
#8,science' since #ahid4 ,he has taken  
an active part in the  work of the      
scientific societies with which he is   
connected1 and in  addition to the      
official positions he holds in the      
,american ,association  for the         
,advancement of ,science1 he has been   
honored by election to the  presidency  
of the ,american ,mathematical ,society 
and to the presidency  of the ,new ,york
 ,academy of ,sciences4 ,professor      
,woodward represents  the highest type  
of the man of science4 ,eminent for his 
original  contributions to science1 a   
teacher of great intellectual and moral 
influence1 an administrator with        
unfailing tact and unerring judgment1   
he confers an honor on the ,association 
which has elected him to its  highest   
office4           99       99       99  
99       99    ,president ,low welcomed 

the ,american ,association to ,new ,york
 and to  ,columbia ,university in an    
address which recounted the increased   
recognition given to science by the city
 since the ,association met  there      
thirteen years ago and the great        
progress of science itself4 ,he         
concluded with the following words3 8,i 
am especially glad to welcome  you      
because you are an ,association for the 
,advancement of ,science4  ,that1 after 
all1 is what ought to make you feel at  
home in the  atmosphere of this         
university2 for a university that does  
not assist  the advancement of science  
has hardly a right to call itself by    
that  great name4 ,i heard ,phillips    
,brooks say1 in a sermon that ,i heard  
him  preach in ,boston when this        
,association met there twenty years ago1
  that you can get no idea of eternity1 
by adding century to century or  by     
piling on upon on2 but that1 if you will
 remember how little you  knew when you 
sat at your mother's knee to learn the  

alphabet1 and how  with every           
acquisition of knowledge which has      
marked the intervening  years you have  
come to feel1 not how much more you     
know1 but how much  more there is to be 
known1 all can get some idea of how long
 eternity  can be1 because all can      
understand that there never can be time 
enough  to enable any one to learn all  
that there is to know4 ,there is so     
much to be known1 that even the great   
advances of the last generation  do not 
make us feel that everything is         
discovered1 but they appeal  to new     
aspirations and awaken renewed energy in
 order to make fresh  discoveries in a  
region that teems with so much that is  
worthy of  knowledge4 ,i congratulate   
you upon your success1 and ,i bid you   
welcome  to ,columbia40           99    
99       99       99       99    ,in the
 course of his reply1 the president of  
the ,association1 ,professor  ,woodward1
 said3 8,but surprising and gratifying  
as have been the  achievements of       

science in our day1 their most important
 indication to  us is that there is     
indefinite room for improvement and     
advancement4  ,while we have witnessed  
the establishment of the two widest     
generalizations of science1 the doctrine
 of energy and the doctrine  of         
evolution1 we have also witnessed the   
accumulation of an appalling  aggregate 
of unrelated facts4 ,the proper         
interpretation of these must  lead to   
simplification and unification1 and     
thence on to additional                 
generalizations4 ,an almost inevitable  
result of the rapid developments  of the
 past three decades especially is that  
much that goes by the  name of science  
is quite unscientific4 ,the elementary  
teaching and  the popular exposition of 
science have fallen1 unluckily1 into the
  keeping largely of those who can not  
rise above the level of a purely        
literary view of phenomena4 ,many of the
 bare facts of science are so  far      
stranger than fiction that the general  

public has become somewhat              
over-credulous1 and untrained minds fall
 an easy prey to the tricks  of the     
magazine romancer or to the schemes of  
the perpetual motion  promoter4 ,along  
with the growth of real science there   
has gone on also  a growth of           
pseudo-science4 ,it is so much easier to
 accept sensational  than to interpret  
sound scientific literature1 so much    
easier to  acquire the form than it is  
to possess the substance of thought that
  the deluded enthusiast and the        
designing charlatan are not infrequently
  mistaken by the expectant public for  
true men of science4 ,there is1         
therefore1 plenty of work before us2 and
 while our principal business  is the   
direct advancement of science1 an       
important1 though less  agreeable duty1 
at times1 is the elimination of error   
and the exposure  of fraud40            
99       99       99       99       99  
,the meeting of the ,association in ,new
 ,york was of more than usual           

importance4 ,not only did the nine      
sections of the ,association hold  their
 daily sessions1 but there were also    
fifteen special scientific  societies   
meeting simultaneously at ,columbia     
,university4 ,men of science  came      
together from all parts of the country  
to present the results of  the year's   
research1 to gain profit and pleasure   
from association with  other workers1   
and to return to their homes with       
increased knowledge  and renewed        
interest4 ,it is obviously impossible to
 give here an  account of the hundreds  
of scientific papers presented1 or even 
to  report upon the general proceedings 
of the ,association4 ,two of the more   
important actions may1 however1 be      
mentioned4 ,it was decided to send      
#8,science1' our weekly journal of      
general science1 to all members of the  
,association without charge1 and a      
section devoted to physiology and       
experimental medicine was established4  
,it was thought that the receipt  of a  

journal such as #8,science' would       
increase the membership of the          
,association and lead to a greater      
interest in its work1 as even those  who
 are unable to attend the meetings will 
hereafter have a definite  return for   
membership4 ,the ,association will be   
greatly strengthened  by giving         
recognition to the great group of       
sciences--physiology1  experimental     
psychology1 anatomy1 embryology1        
histology1 morphology1  pathology1      
bacteriology and their                  
applications--which have developed  with
 such remarkable activity within the    
past few years4           99       99   
99       99       99    ,it is not      
possible to report on the scientific    
work of the meeting in  part owing to   
its magnitude--the papers would fill the
 volumes of this  journal for several   
years to come4 ,it is also true that    
each paper  taken singly is likely to be
 of interest only to the special        
student4  ,specialization in science is 

absolutely necessary for its advance1   
but the terminology required for        
exactness and economy makes the work  in
 each department scarcely intelligible  
to those not immediately  concerned1    
while the great detail necessary in     
careful research seems  almost trivial  
until we realize that it is upon such   
special work that  the general          
principles and the applications of      
science depend4 ,we all  know that our  
ways of thought and habits of life are  
chiefly based  on the results of modern 
science4 ,this has not been the result  
of a  sudden revelation1 but of a       
continual growth1 scarcely perceptible  
until viewed from a distance4 ,the      
importance of current political  events 
is magnified by the common interest they
 excite1 whereas in  art1 literature and
 science time is required before things 
can be  seen in their right perspective4
 ,we can1 however1 take the reports of  
the three committees of the ,association
 to which small grants were  made for   

research and use these as examples of   
the scientific work  described at the   
meeting4 ,these committees were on      
#8,anthropometry1' on  #8,the           
,quantitative ,study of ,variation' and 
on #8,the ,cave ,fauna of ,north        
,america4'           99       99        
99       99       99    ,the committee  
on anthropometry is undertaking to make 
measurements of  the physical and mental
 traits of members of the ,association1 
and to  encourage such work elsewhere4  
,at the present time there exists but   
little exact knowledge of how people    
differ from each other and of the       
causes and results of such differences4 
,much has been written regarding  men of
 genius1 criminals and other classes1   
but without an adequate  foundation of  
fact4 ,the members of a scientific      
society are a fairly  homogeneous class1
 regarding whose heredity1 education and
 achievements  correct information can  
be secured4 ,the measurements made at   
the ,new  ,york meeting1 determining    

such traits as size of head1 strength1  
eyesight1 quickness of perception1      
memory1 etc41 will supply the  standard 
type for scientific men and their       
variations from this type4  ,when other 
classes of the community have been      
measured1 comparisons can  be made and  
we shall know whether scientific men are
 more variable than  others1 have larger
 heads1 better memory and the like4     
,work of this  character has been       
carried on at ,columbia ,university for 
some years4  ,the freshmen1 both the men
 of ,columbia ,college and the women of 
,barnard  ,college1 are measured and    
tested with care1 equal attention being 
paid  to mental and physical traits4    
,then the measurements are repeated at  
the end of the senior year4             
,anthropometric work has also been done 
in  ,great ,britain under the auspices  
of ,dr4 ,galton and ,professor ,pearson1
  and we may perhaps hope that the time 
will come when we shall have as  exact  
knowledge about human differences as we 

now have about different  kinds of      
butterflies4           99       99      
99       99       99    ,although       
geologists and botanists have defined   
hundreds of thousands  of species1 they 
have not as a matter of fact until very 
recently  attempted to secure exact     
measurements of differences1 and the    
committee of the ,association on #8,the 
,quantitative ,study of ,variation1'  of
 which ,prof4 ,chas4 ,b4 ,davenport is  
the recorder1 aims to encourage  such   
work4 ,it is now over forty years since 
the facts and arguments  presented in   
,darwin's #8,origin of ,species' paved  
the way for general  acceptance of the  
doctrine of evolution4 ,but the         
objection is hardly  less valid to-day  
than it was then that the evidence for  
evolution  is almost wholly indirect4   
,over and over again naturalists have   
been  challenged to cite one case where 
a species in nature has changed  within 
historic times and repeatedly they have 
taken refuge in the  plea that the      

historic period is too short for a      
noticeable change to  have taken place4 
,this plea can be accepted1 however1    
only so long as  we have no exact way of
 measuring race change4 ,when we can    
express  quantitatively the condition of
 a community to-day1 we may hope to  be 
able to say whether any change has      
occurred after five1 ten1 or  a hundred 
years4 ,the committee of the            
,association has especially  concerned  
itself with a piece of work which may be
 considered typical4  ,in the headwaters
 of the ,tennessee ,river there lives a 
univalor mollusc  which is found nowhere
 else in the world and which belongs to 
a family  of molluscs that was early    
separated from its marine cogeners as a 
fluviatile species4 ,this genus1 ,io1   
varies greatly in different parts  of   
the ,tennessee basin4 ,in some places it
 is smooth2 in others1 spiny2  in       
others1 long drawn out4 ,under a grant  
of the ,association1 ,mr4 ,c4 ,c4       
,adams1 of ,bloomington1 ,ill41 visited 

this region2 travelled down one of  the 
tributaries in a boat1 collecting       
samples from every community of  ,ios2  
and went by train up a second river     
collecting at every stopping  place4    
,the results of this trip were1 in a    
word1 that in passing from  the mouth to
 the headwaters of the two parallel     
tributaries the shells  vary in parallel
 fashion and show a uniform1 continuous 
change from the  spiny1 elongated       
condition characteristic of the mouths  
of the rivers  to the smooth1 more      
globose condition characteristic of the 
headwaters4  ,the additional grant by   
the ,association of one hundred dollars 
will  assist ,mr4 ,adams in making      
further quantitative studies on         
variation in  the genus ,io4            
99       99       99       99       99  
,hardly any fact has excited more       
interest among evolutionists than the   
blindness of cave animals2 and various  
theories have been advanced  to explain 
the fact4 ,it is known that the blind   

condition is due to  a degeneration of  
formerly functional eyes4 ,the          
difficulty has been  to understand what 
advantage is gained by losing the eyes  
even in a  locality where eyes are of no
 use4 ,it has been affirmed that        
#8,nature  is economical' and will not  
expend energy in building an unnecessary
  organ4 ,weismann has suggested that   
the only reason why we have eyes at  all
 is because ,natural ,selection is      
constantly weeding out poor eyes4       
,withdraw the necessity for good eyes1  
and poor eyes and good eyes will  have  
an equal chance of surviving4 ,according
 to a third theory1 the  functional     
activity of any organ is essential to   
its maintenance4 ,just  as the unused   
arm withers so the unused eye           
degenerates4 ,of course all  these      
theories assume that the ancestors of   
the blind species--for  instance1 of the
 blind fishes--had originally no        
inherent tendency to  blindness or      
degeneration of the eyes4 ,this         

assumption has1 however1  been recently 
combatted by ,professor ,eigenmann1 who 
has shown that  although many kinds of  
fish are accidentally swept into caves1 
only  one kind has become blind2 of this
 kind the nearest allies which live  in 
open streams shun the light1 live in    
crevices and under stones1 and  have    
less perfect eyes than other fishes4    
,some of the allies of such             
light-shunning fishes have made their   
way into caves1 and have there  worked  
out their tendency to a reduction of    
eyes4 ,that has been the  history of    
eyeless fishes4 ,to continue the        
researches of ,professor  ,eigenmann1 so
 auspiciously begun1 the ,association   
last year granted  one hundred dollars  
to a committee on the cave vertebrates  
of ,north  ,america4 ,with the aid of   
the grant ,dr4 ,eigenmann has during the
 past  year penetrated into numerous    
caves and obtained much additional      
material for his researches4            
99       99       99       99       99  

,the ,american ,association will meet   
next year at ,denver1 beginning on      
,august #bfth4 ,the newly elected       
officers are3    ,president4    ,prof4  
,charles ,sedgwick ,minot1 ,harvard     
,medical ,school4    ,vice-,presidents4 
,mathematics and ,astronomy3 ,prof4     
,james ,mc,mahon1 ,cornell ,university4 
,physics3 ,prof4 ,d4 ,d4 ,brace1        
,university of ,nebraska4    ,chemistry3
 ,prof4 ,john ,h4 ,long1 ,northwestern  
,university4    ,mechanical ,science and
 ,engineering3 ,prof4 ,h4 ,s4 ,jacoby1  
,cornell  ,university4    ,geology and  
,geography3 ,prof4 ,c4 ,r4 ,van ,hise1  
,university of ,wisconsin4    ,zology3  
,president ,d4 ,s4 ,jordan1 ,leland     
,stanford ,jr4 ,university4    ,botany3 
,b4 ,t4 ,galloway1 ,u4 ,s4 ,department  
of ,agriculture1 ,washington1 ,d4  ,c4  
,anthropology3 ,j4 ,w4 ,fewkes1 ,bureau 
of ,ethnology1 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c4     
,economic ,science and ,statistics3     
,john ,hyde1 ,department of             
,agriculture1  ,washington1 ,d4 ,c4     

,permanent ,secretary4    ,l4 ,o4       
,howard1 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of         
,agriculture1 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c4      
,general ,secretary4    ,prof4 ,william 
,hallock1 ,columbia ,university1 ,new   
,york4    ,secretary of the ,council4   
,d4 ,t4 ,mc,dougal1 ,new ,york          
,botanical ,gardens4    ,secretaries of 
the ,sections4    ,mathematics and      
,astronomy3 ,prof4 ,h4 ,c4 ,lord1 ,ohio 
,state ,university4    ,physics3 ,j4 ,o4
 ,reed1 ,university of ,michigan4       
,chemistry3 ,prof4 ,w4 ,mc,pherson1     
,ohio ,state ,university4    ,mechanical
 ,science and ,engineering3 ,william ,h4
 ,jacques1 ,boston1 ,mass4    ,geology  
and ,geography3 ,dr4 ,r4 ,a4 ,f4        
,penrose1 ,pierce1 ,ariz4    ,zology3   
,prof4 ,h4 ,b4 ,ward1 ,university of    
,nebraska4    ,botany3 ,a4 ,s4          
,hitchcock1 ,manhattan1 ,kan4           
,anthropology3 ,g4 ,g4 ,mc,curdy1 ,yale 
,university4    ,economic ,science and  
,statistics3 ,miss ,c4 ,a4 ,benneson1   
,cambridge1 ,mass4    ,treasurer4       

,prof4 ,r4 ,s4 ,woodward1 ,columbia     
,university4           99       99      
99       99       99    ,the ,national  
,educational ,association1 which held   
its annual session  at ,charleston      
during the week beginning on ,july #ith1
 is the leading  representative of the  
many educational associations of the    
country4  ,its membership includes the  
ablest teachers of education in colleges
  and the most successful school        
superintendents and teachers4 ,its      
meetings give occasion for discussions  
of matters of educational  theory and   
practice in many ways comparable to the 
discussions in  scientific societies4   
,the program of the present meeting     
shows that  like the scientific         
associations1 the ,national ,educational
 ,association  has become differentiated
 into a number of practically isolated  
sections with differing interests4      
,there are separate departments of      
,kindergarten ,education1 ,manual       
,training1 ,child ,study1 ,normal       

,schools1  ,libraries1 etc4 ,the        
,department of ,superintendence now has 
a special  meeting at a different time  
and place4 ,there are also general      
sessions1  and these have not become    
mere formal business meetings4 ,the     
leading  topic for discussion this year 
seems to have been the proposed         
,national  ,university at ,washington4  
,the most obviously important service   
which  the ,association has rendered to 
educational endeavor has been its       
elaboration 7through efficient          
committees7 and publication of reports  
on ,secondary ,education1 ,elementary   
,education1 ,rural ,schools and ,college
  ,entrance ,requirements4 ,these       
reports represent if not demonstrable   
facts1 at least the well-considered     
opinion of competent judges and  they   
have had a highly beneficial influence4 
,dr4 ,j4 ,m4 ,green1 of  ,newark1 will  
preside over next year's meeting4 ,the  
decision in regard  to the place has    
been left to the executive committee1   

the claims of  ,detroit1 ,cincinnati and
 ,tacoma having been especially urged4  
99       99       99       99       99  
,the opening of a summer school at      
,columbia ,university and the           
attendance at ,harvard ,university of a 
large proportion of all the  school     
teachers of ,cuba are important steps   
towards increasing the  usefulness of   
our institutions for higher education4  
,the grounds1  buildings and equipment  
of ,columbia ,university have cost in   
the  neighborhood of #aj1jjj1jjj1 and to
 let these lie idle and rusting  for    
nearly one-third of the year is         
evidently wasteful4 ,but it is not  only
 a question of the most economical      
administration of these trust  funds    
that is at issue4 ,the teachers of the  
country1 perhaps #ejj1jjj  in number1   
have had just enough education to profit
 particularly by  attendance at a       
university4 ,they are engaged at their  
work during  three-fourths of the year1 
but their summers can be spent in no    

more  pleasant and useful way than by   
attending a university summer school4   
,it would be good business policy for   
school boards to send their  teachers to
 the summer schools1 except that the    
benefit might not be  reaped locally1 as
 each teacher would soon deserve a      
better position  than he now has4 ,it   
is1 however1 not only for teachers that 
university  sessions during the summer  
are needed4 ,the long vacation is       
largely a  tradition from the time when 
boys were most usefully occupied on the 
farm during the summer4 ,it is doubtful 
whether students now come back  to      
college in the autumn in an improved    
physical or moral condition4  ,they     
might spend their time to advantage1 but
 are not likely to do so  at the        
ordinary summer resort4 ,it is admitted 
by everyone that young  men are too old 
when they leave college and the         
professional schools4  ,reforms are     
needed in various directions1 but an    
obvious one is not to  take four years  

for three years' work4 ,though          
university professors1  who for the     
general good need freedom from routine  
teaching for other  work1 should be     
allowed leave of absence for a part of  
the year1 it  does not follow that they 
should all be away at the same time4 ,it
 seems  probable that the example set by
 the ,university of ,chicago1 which     
holds  four sessions extending through  
the year1 will be followed by all our   
universities4           99       99     
99       99       99    ,the third      
,international ,conference on a         
,catalogue of ,scientific  ,literature  
was held in ,london on ,june #abth and  
#acth4 ,it will be  remembered by those 
who are interested in the organization  
of science  that a conference on this   
subject was called by the ,royal        
,society in  #ahif at which it was      
proposed to undertake by international  
coperation  a catalogue of contributions
 to science4 ,certain details were      
arranged  and others were left to a     

committee of the ,royal ,society4 ,under
 the  auspices of this committee        
schedules of classification were drawn  
up  and estimates of the cost secured4  
,a second conference was held in  #ahih1
 and after various changes in the plans 
for the catalogue it  was at the recent 
,conference definitely decided to       
proceed with its  publication4 ,it is   
estimated that the cost will be covered 
by the sale  of three hundred sets1 and 
different governments or national       
agencies  have made themselves          
responsible for a certain number of     
sets1 ,germany  and ,great ,britain for 
example1 subscribing for forty-five     
sets1 each  costing #ag4 ,the ,catalogue
 will be published in seventeen volumes 
devoted to as many sciences1 and will be
 both an author's and a subject  index4 
,the collection of material is to       
commence from ,january #a1 #aija4       
,while all scientific men welcome       
improvements in cataloguing scientific  
literature1 the arrangements proposed by

 the ,royal ,society and by the         
different conferences have met with some
 criticism4 ,the serious mistake  has   
been made of entirely ignoring the      
catalogues and bibliographies  already  
existing for most of the sciences1 and  
it is not certain that  the elaborate   
and expensive machinery proposed will be
 as useful as  some plan would have been
 for unifying the existing agencies4    
,still  in the end there must be some   
international and uniform method for    
cataloguing scientific literature1 and  
it is to be hoped that our  ,government 
will do its share toward supporting the 
present undertaking4                    
,transcribers' ,notes      ,punctuation1
 hyphenation1 and spelling were made    
consistent when a  predominant          
preference was found in this book2      
otherwise they were not  changed4       
,simple typographical errors were       
corrected2 occasional unbalanced        
quotation marks retained4    ,ambiguous 
hyphens at the ends of lines were       

retained4    ,page #cdb3 8millenium0 was
 printed that way4    ,page #cff3 8to   
smear the statues of ,jupiter0 was      
misprinted as  8statutes04    ,page     
#chg3 8we have meet with a difficulty0  
was printed that way4    ,page #chg3    
8cm40 originally was printed as 8c4 m40