,illustration ,america's ,great ,men and ,their ,deeds4 ,american ,inventions and ,inventors ,by ,william ,a4 ,mowry1 ,a4,m41 ,ph4,d4 and ,arthur ,may ,mowry1 ,a4,m4 ,authors of ,first ,steps in the ,history of our ,country1 and ,a ,history of the ,united ,states1 for ,schools4 ,illustration ,silver1 ,burdett and ,company ,new ,york ,boston ,chicago ,,for ,,the ,,study ,,of ,,american ,,history ,,first ,,steps ,,in ,,the ,,history ,,of ,,our ,,country4 ,by ,,william ,a4 ,,mowry1 ,a4,m41 ,,ph4,d41 and ,,arthur ,,may ,,mowry1 ,a4,m4 ,pp4 #cbj1 profusely illustrated4 ,the narrative of our country as told in the stories of #ci great ,americans4 ,introductory price1 #fj cents4 ,a ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,united ,,states1 for ,schools4 ,by ,,william ,a4 ,,mowry1 ,a4,m41 ,,ph4,d41 and ,,arthur ,,may ,,mowry1 ,a4,m4 ,pp4 #dff1 highly illustrated4 ,accurate in statement1 clear and graphic in style1 patriotic and unpartisan in spirit4 ,introductory price1 #a4jj4 ,,historical ,,geography ,,of ,,the ,,united ,,states4 ,by ,,townsend ,,maccoun1 ,a4,m4 ,pp4 #dh1 #dc colored maps with text4 ,introductory price1 #ij cents4 ,,historical ,,charts ,,of ,,the ,,united ,,states4 ,by ,,townsend ,,maccoun1 ,a4,m4 #bj charts1 #chx#dj inches1 containing #bf progressive maps1 in high colors1 for school and lecture-room use4 ,introductory price1 with supporter1 #ae4jj4 ,both the ,historical ,geography and the ,historical ,charts portray the appearance of the map of our country after each of its changes until the present4 ,copyright1 #aijj ,,by ,,silver1 ,,burdett ,,and ,,company ,,preface4 ,a school history should set forth such facts1 and in such an order1 as to show the progress of civilization4 ,the great lessons of history are found in that line of events in the past which exhibits the progress of mankind--the uplift of humanity4 ,the record of no other country can present a more startling array of forward movements and upward tendencies than that of our own land1 and in no one direction does this upward movement appear quite so clearly as in the line of inventions4 ,man's efforts are1 first1 to overcome nature4 ,food1 shelter1 and clothing are his primary wants4 ,after these are supplied1 he rises to higher realms of thought and action4 ,then he nourishes his intellect1 exercises his sensibilities1 and provides nutriment for his soul1 that it1 also1 may grow4 ,in this book the above logical order is followed4 ,it is painfully evident that many schoolchildren dislike the study of history4 ,the authors of this book believe that this need not be4 ,it is clear that the study should be undertaken at an earlier age than is usually the case in our public schools4 ,it is not necessary1 and oftentimes not desirable1 that the books of history should be studied as text-books4 ,frequently they should be used as reading books4 ,such use is more likely to develop in the minds of the younger children a love for history4 ,this book1 while adapted to older persons1 has been prepared with special reference to the needs and capacities of children from ten to twelve years of age4 ,it is commended to teachers and parents with full confidence that they will find it useful1 and that the children will be both interested and profited by its perusal4 ,,contents4 ,,heat4 ,,chapter ,,page ,i4 ,,fire1 #aa ,,ii4 ,,indian ,,homes1 #ag ,,iii4 ,,colonial ,,homes1 #bd ,,iv4 ,,chimneys1 #ca ,v4 ,,fuel1 #cg ,,vi4 ,,coal1 #dd ,,vii4 ,,matches1 #ea ,,light4 ,i4 ,,torches1 #fa ,,ii4 ,,candles1 #fg ,,iii4 ,,whale ,,oil1 #gb ,,iv4 ,,kerosene1 #gg ,v4 ,,illuminating ,,gas1 #ha ,,vi4 ,,electric ,,lighting1 #he ,,vii4 ,,lighthouses1 #ij ,,food4 ,i4 ,,uncultivated ,,foods1 #ii ,,ii4 ,,cultivated ,,foods1 #ajd ,,iii4 ,,implements ,,for ,,planting1 #aaa ,,iv4 ,,implements ,,for ,,harvesting1 #aag ,v4 ,,soil1 #abd ,,vi4 ,a ,,modern ,,dinner1 #aca ,,clothing4 ,i4 ,,colonial ,,conditions1 #adc ,,ii4 ,,the ,,cotton ,,gin1 #adh ,,iii4 ,,cotton1 #aec ,,iv4 ,,wool1 #aeh ,v4 ,,leather1 #afd ,,vi4 ,,needles1 #agb ,,vii4 ,,the ,,steam ,,engine1 #agh ,,travel4 ,i4 ,,by ,,land1 #ahg ,,ii4 ,,by ,,water1 #aid ,,iii4 ,,stagecoaches1 #bjj ,,iv4 ,,steamboats1 #bjg ,v4 ,,canals1 #bae ,,vi4 ,,railroads1 #bbc ,,vii4 ,,modern ,,water ,,travel1 #bbi ,,viii4 ,,modern ,,land ,,travel1 #bce ,,letters4 ,i4 ,,language1 #bdg ,,ii4 ,,the ,,printing ,,press1 #beb ,,iii4 ,,the ,,postal ,,system1 #beh ,,iv4 ,,signaling1 #bfe ,v4 ,,the ,,telegraph1 #bgj ,,vi4 ,,the ,,atlantic ,,cable1 #bgh ,,vii4 ,,the ,,telephone1 #bhf ,,viii4 ,,conclusion1 #bib ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations4 ,frontispiece ,,page ,count ,rumford #i ,a ,new ,england ,kitchen ,one ,hundred ,years ,ago #aj ,a ,train ,leaving the ,station #aa ,a ,vestal ,virgin #ad ,iroquois ,long ,house #bj ,indian ,method of ,broiling #bb ,plying the ,axe #be ,a ,colonial ,fireplace #bg ,hauling in a ,backlog #bi ,cooking in a ,colonial ,kitchen #cj ,a ,franklin ,stove #cd ,in a ,coal ,mine #db ,blacksmith at ,his ,forge #dh ,thomas ,carrying ,fire #eb ,tinder ,box1 ,flint1 and ,matches #ec ,thomas ,a4 ,edison #ei ,minot ,ledge ,light1 ,massachusetts ,bay #fj ,indians ,traveling at ,night #fb ,ancient ,lamps #fe ,franklin ,making ,candles #fi ,reading by ,candlelight #gj ,whale ,fishing #gc ,oil ,wells #gi ,a ,gasometer #hc ,edison's ,heroic ,act #hf ,grace ,darling #id ,cyrus ,h4 ,mc,cormick #ig ,cutting ,sugar ,cane in the ,hawaiian ,islands #ih ,indians ,hunting ,game #ajb ,the ,corn ,dance #ajd ,captain ,john ,smith #ajf ,an ,ancient ,plow #aji ,mowing with ,scythes #aah ,a ,reaper and ,binder #abj ,the ,mc,cormick ,reaper #aba ,threshing with ,flail #abc ,colonists in a ,shallop #abd ,an ,irrigating ,trench #abh ,a ,rice ,field #abi ,a ,dinner ,party #aca ,loading ,fish at ,gloucester #acd ,a ,cattle ,train #acf ,drying ,coffee in ,java #aci ,eli ,whitney #ada ,a ,quilting ,bee in the ,olden ,time #adb ,tailor and ,cobbler #ade ,flax ,wheel #adf ,an ,old-,fashioned ,loom #adg ,a ,cotton ,field #adi ,a ,cotton ,pod #aej ,the ,cotton ,gin #aea ,president ,jackson and ,mr4 ,slater #aef ,the ,interior of a ,modern ,cotton ,mill #aeg ,sheep-,shearing #afb ,dr4 ,whitman ,starting on ,his ,journey #afh ,sewing by ,hand #agc ,an ,old ,windmill #agh ,a ,corliss ,engine #aha ,robert ,fulton #ahe ,an ,ocean ,steamer #ahf ,a ,man and ,his ,wife ,traveling on ,horseback #aia ,the ,bay-,path #aic ,pilgrim ,exiles #aie ,a ,birch-,bark ,canoe #aig ,old-,style ,calashes #bjb ,an ,old-,fashioned ,stagecoach #bjd ,munroe ,tavern1 ,lexington1 ,mass4 #bje ,fitch's ,steamboat #bji ,collision of the ,clermont and the ,sloop #bag ,the ,erie ,canal #bba ,old-,style ,railroad ,train #bbg ,a ,river ,tunnel #bcd ,a ,pullman ,sleeper #bcg ,brooklyn ,bridge #bci ,the ,boston ,subway #bdb ,electric ,car1 ,new ,york ,city #bdc ,samuel ,f4 ,b4 ,morse #bde ,modern ,printing ,presses #bdf ,ancient ,implements of ,writing #bdi ,an ,ancient ,scribe #bea ,a ,franklin ,press #bee ,postage ,stamps #bfa ,assorting ,mail on the ,train #bfb ,signaling by ,beacon ,fires #bff ,electric ,wires #bgj ,morse ,hears of ,his ,success #bgd ,laying an ,ocean ,cable #bhb ,the ,great ,eastern #bhc ,a ,telephone #bhg ,alexander ,bell ,using a ,long-,distance ,telephone #bhh ,illustration3 ,,count ,,rumford4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,new ,,england ,,kitchen ,,one ,,hundred ,,years ,,ago4 ,,american ,,inventions ,,and ,,inventors4 ,,section ,i4--,,heat ,,chapter ,i4 ,,fire4 ,all aboard6 cries the conductor1 and slowly the long train draws out of the ,san ,francisco station on its way to ,chicago and the ,atlantic coast4 ,three sleepers1 two chair coaches1 passenger1 baggage1 and mail cars1 loaded with travelers1 trunks1 and pouches of letters and papers2 we are familiar with the sight of these heavy cars and the puffing engine which draws them4 ,but what makes the train move8 ,what power is great enough to do this8 ,it is the power of steam1 and steam is made from water by means of fire4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,train ,,leaving ,,the ,,station4 ,now the long journey across the continent is over1 and we are standing on the dock in ,new ,york ,city4 ,here we see the steamboat ,puritan1 thronged with passengers1 ready to steam away from the wharf on its regular night trip to ,fall ,river4 ,for hours1 perhaps1 we have been watching the longshoremen as they have rushed back and forth1 loading the great vessel with freight for ,new ,england4 ,a few minutes later1 as we see the majestic steamer1 hundreds of feet long--larger than most city business buildings--slowly1 but gracefully moving away from the dock1 we say to ourselves1 ,can it be that steam1 caused by fire1 has power enough to make the steamboat move through the water like this8 ,while we watch the steamer glide around ,castle ,garden into ,east ,river1 evening begins to come on2 we must hasten uptown4 ,as we pass along ,broadway1 lights flash out in the darkness and our thoughts are again turned to fire and steam4 ,we have heard that the source of the electric light is in the dynamo1 and that steam power is used to turn that great machine4 ,the enormous engine1 the mammoth boat1 the brilliant light--all need the power of steam1 and nothing but fire will produce this steam4 ,what1 then1 is fire8 and is its only use that of changing quiet1 liquid water into powerful steam8 ,let us see4 ,did you notice that machine shop which we passed when we were in ,cleveland a few days ago8 ,did you see those furnaces with the huge volumes of flame bursting out of the open doors8 ,you know that great heat is necessary to make tools and other implements of iron1 and all the instruments of everyday life that are formed out of metals4 ,our pens and needles1 our hoes and rakes1 our horseshoes1 our stoves and furnaces1 our registers and the iron of our desks--all depend upon heat for their production4 ,fire can do much for us4 ,to change water into steam is but one of its powers4 ,fire and heat are behind most of the operations of modern life4 ,as we open the door of the house we are met by a current of warm air rushing out into the chilly evening4 ,it is the last of ,october1 and in the middle of the day windows and doors have been left wide open to let in all the light and warmth of the bright sunshine4 ,but it is evening now1 and the sun has long since sunk below the horizon2 it no longer gives us any of its heat4 ,all night the air will grow colder and colder1 and were we unprotected by clothing we should suffer from the chill atmosphere4 ,even coverings are not sufficient to keep the heat of our bodies from passing off into the air1 just as the warm air rushed out through the open hall door4 ,it has been found necessary to warm the air in our houses so that the bodily heat1 which we need to sustain life1 may not so easily be lost4 ,the heat which the sun furnishes us is called natural heat2 that which is produced by the skill of man is called artificial heat4 ,this artificial heat is used for a fourth purpose also4 ,as we have seen1 it makes steam for the locomotive1 the steamboat1 and other engines2 it is necessary in the manufacture of tools and various utensils out of iron and other metals2 and it warms our houses and schools1 our offices and stores4 ,it is also used everywhere and by everybody in cooking4 ,had we no fires or artificial heat of some sort we should have to eat our meat and fish raw2 we could only mix our meal and flour with cold water1 which would not be palatable to most of us2 our vegetables1 uncooked1 would fail to satisfy us2 and many of us would find ourselves limited to fruits and nuts1 which would be hardly sufficient to keep us in good health1 to say the least4 ,have you ever thought that men or human beings are very much like other animals8 ,have you ever tried to find out the important differences between man and what are called the lower animals8 ,one of these differences comes right in the line of our present thought4 ,dogs are fond of meat1 and so are most people2 but dogs do not need to have their meat cooked as we do4 ,horses whinny for their oats at night and morning2 but they would not care for our favorite breakfast dish of cooked oatmeal4 ,bears are partly protected from the cold by their thick1 shaggy coverings of fur2 but even in very cold regions they have no warm fire around which to gather4 ,man is the only fire-making animal1 and to this fact he owes much of his power4 ,if we read the history of the world1 and especially the story of the earlier life of the different nations and peoples1 we shall find that fire was considered by them all to be one of the greatest blessings belonging to man4 ,they thought that the gods whom they worshipped also treasured fire4 ,the ,romans offered sacrifices to ,vesta1 the goddess of the fireplace1 and it was the duty of the vestal virgins to keep a fire always burning on her altar4 ,among the ,greeks the hearth or fireplace itself was an object of worship4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,vestal ,,virgin4 ,these early peoples regarded the blessing of fire as so great that they believed it must have originally belonged to the gods alone4 ,many of them had traditions that the gods did not permit men in the earliest ages to have any knowledge or use of fire4 ,myths or stories have been found among the people of ,australia1 ,asia1 ,europe1 and ,america1 telling how fire had been stolen from the gods and brought down to men4 ,the best of these stories is that of the ,greek1 ,prometheus1 whose name means forethought4 ,this ancient mythical hero was supposed to have been the great friend and benefactor of mankind4 ,but of all his gifts to men the most valuable was the gift of fire4 ,according to the old myth1 ,prometheus went up into ,olympus1 the ,greek heaven1 and was welcomed by the gods4 ,while there he examined the fire of the gods and thought what a blessing it would be to mankind4 ,acting under the advice of ,athene1 the goddess of wisdom1 he stole some fire from the sun god1 concealed it in a hollow reed1 and brought it back with him to earth4 ,in early times there were no matches1 and if a fire went out it was not easy to kindle it again4 ,probably the people wondered how the fire was made for the first time4 ,they knew that it must have been obtained somehow1 from somewhere2 and out of this grew the story of ,prometheus among the ,greeks1 and of the other fire stealers1 the heroes of other peoples in all parts of the globe4 ,but all these stories of the fire of the gods and the way in which human beings were able to get hold of this priceless blessing we now know to be only myths4 ,students of early history are agreed that all men1 everywhere1 and at all times1 have had the knowledge and the use of fire4 ,great differences exist between civilized and uncivilized people2 the savages of interior ,africa seem almost to belong to a different species of being from the cultured people of ,europe and ,america2 but all are able to warm themselves and to cook their food by means of burning fuel4 ,civilized man has better arrangements for kindling his fire1 better means of obtaining more good from it1 and better ways for avoiding the smoke and other unpleasant features than has uncivilized man4 ,a savage would not understand the modern chimney nor a kitchen range4 ,he would be utterly at a loss to comprehend our modes of heating by the hot-air furnace or the coils of steam pipes4 ,the forest provides him with all the wood that he needs for his fire1 and he has little or no knowledge of coal or oil or gas4 ,thus you and ,i are far in advance of the poor1 half clad1 half warmed savage2 we are also in far more comfortable circumstances than were our ancestors who came from ,europe to ,america two or three hundred years ago4 ,in all the ages of the past until within a few hundred years little advance had been made in the methods of obtaining artificial heat4 ,but since ,columbus set sail from ,spain1 since ,john ,cabot first saw the shores of this continent1 since ,john ,smith made friends with the ,indians in ,virginia1 and ,william ,bradford guided the lives of the ,pilgrims at ,plymouth1 discoveries and inventions have changed most of our habits and customs as well as our surroundings4 ,the methods of heating our houses and cooking our food have altered greatly1 and we cannot fail to be interested in comparing the simple wood fires of long ago with the complex ways in which heat is now evenly distributed wherever it is wanted4 ,for a little while1 then1 let us turn our thoughts to the primitive forms of heating and cooking which were common three centuries ago1 and see in what ways the modern systems of providing artificial heat have been developed4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,indian ,,homes4 ,our homes and their surroundings are so familiar to us that it is hard for us to realize that our country was not always as it is now4 ,let us think about it4 ,have you seen any changes near where you live since you can remember8 ,have any new houses been built8 ,do you know of any old buildings that have been torn down in order that larger or better ones might take their places8 ,have you watched men making a new street or road1 or1 perhaps1 working upon an old road to make it better8 ,if you have1 then you can think back to a time when some house that you can see to-day was not there2 a time when there were not so many roads nor such good streets as now4 ,can you think back still further to a time when the house in which you live had not been built8 when the street in front of your house had not been made8 ,can you imagine a time1 still further back1 when none of the houses in your city or village were standing8 when there were no streets at all within sight of the place where you live8 ,then it will not be so very hard to think of the time1 four hundred years ago1 when there were no houses of wood1 brick1 or stone1 such as we now see1 anywhere in this country2 when there was not a carriage road nor a street of any kind in the whole ,united ,states4 ,we will try to imagine how this country looked before any white people lived in it1 and before the cities and towns and villages and farms and ranches1 that are so familiar to us1 had been begun4 ,four hundred years ago ,john ,cabot sailed across the ,atlantic ,ocean and saw this country for the first time4 ,as his little vessel moved along the coast1 he looked upon bays and mouths of rivers which were very much as they are to-day4 ,the peninsulas1 the capes1 and the islands were in the same places that they now are4 ,they were1 however1 almost entirely covered with woods4 ,here and there were fields of grass1 through which blue streams were flowing2 but the larger part of what is now ,new ,england and the other ,atlantic ,states was covered with thick forests4 ,the trees were large and close together2 their branches had never been cut off1 and grew close to the ground4 ,shrubs and bushes filled all the space that was left between the larger trees1 and made it almost impossible for any one to pass through4 ,wild animals had made paths for themselves1 but if people had attempted to use these paths they would have been obliged to get down on their hands and knees and crawl through them4 ,the rivers and the smaller streams of water were the best roads in those days2 for unless they were shallow or flowed too swiftly down the rapids1 boats could quite easily be pushed up stream as well as be carried down by the current4 ,in this country1 covered with forests1 were there only wild animals8 ,were there no human beings3 no men1 nor women1 nor children8 ,no white men lived in ,new ,england2 the city of ,new ,york had not even been thought of2 ,baltimore and ,savannah were impassable forests2 and the great ,west was only a hunting ground4 ,but the red men or ,american ,indians did live in this country and were its only owners4 ,the ,indians did not live in many roomed houses of wood or brick or stone2 they never built roads or streets2 nor did they ride in carriages4 ,if they wished to go from one place to another they used canoes on the rivers as far as they could2 if they wished to cross the land from one stream to another they made a foot path1 called a trail4 ,sometimes a trail was broad enough to permit a canoe to be carried4 ,thus the ,indians could travel long distances without growing tired from much walking4 ,the ,indians must have had dwelling places to protect them from the cold and the storms which were as common then as now4 ,many tribes of ,indians were in the habit of moving frequently from place to place1 and for this reason their homes were not built for permanent use1 but were made of materials that could be quickly put together4 ,the ,indians that lived in ,canada and ,new ,england were more roving than those of ,new ,york2 therefore their houses were very simple4 ,they were long and narrow1 with rounded roofs1 and covered on the tops and sides with matting that could be readily removed4 ,the ,iroquois1 dwelling south of ,lake ,ontario1 were a little more civilized than their neighbors1 and built more permanent houses4 ,their dwellings were very long1 from one to two hundred feet in length1 and usually about thirty feet wide4 ,the frames were made of long sticks or poles1 set firmly in the ground2 other poles formed the roof1 with two sloping sides1 over which were laid large strips of elm bark4 ,these houses had a door at each end1 with no windows1 and light entered only through the doors and the large openings in the roof4 ,the openings were made at frequent intervals to allow the escape of the smoke from the fires directly beneath4 ,although the ,indian dwellings varied greatly among the different tribes1 in none of them did a family live by itself ,usually twenty or more families dwelt together in each of the ,iroquois long houses4 ,a building planned for twenty families had ten stalls or open closets as they might be called1 arranged along each side4 ,an open passageway ran the entire length of the house from door to door1 in which were built five fires at equal distances4 ,each fire belonged to the four families whose stalls--two on each side--opened directly toward it4 ,illustration3 ,,iroquois ,,long ,,house4 ,now let us imagine ourselves in one of these long houses1 and let us try to see just how everything looked4 ,let us suppose that it is a little after sunset on a cold1 stormy winter evening4 ,we are glad to get under any covering in order to be somewhat protected from the biting wind and the stinging sleet4 ,we have been welcomed by the ,indians1 have been made the guests of one of the families1 and have been given something to eat4 ,supper over1 we are able to look about us and to think whether we should consider ourselves cosy and comfortable if this were our own home4 ,the first thing that we observe is the fire1 as it snaps and hisses4 ,how warm it is1 and how good it feels as we toast our cold hands and feet before it6 ,but somehow we begin to wish that we were back beside our own stove4 ,then our eyes would not ache from the smoke4 ,why does it not go out at the top8 ,it tries to1 but the wind blows it back into the house so that1 at times1 it fills every corner1 blinding our eyes1 stifling our breath1 and covering us with cinders from head to foot4 ,but as we sit1 ,turk fashion1 squatted before the fire1 we notice that we are being slowly covered up by something else than cinders4 ,although all the smoke does not go out at the opening1 it seems as if almost all the snow did come in4 ,at times it falls gently1 slowly sifting into every fold in our clothing1 into our eyes and ears1 and gradually covering everything with its mantle of white4 ,at other times a strong gust of wind sweeps down into the room1 almost putting out the fire1 and chilling us through and through in spite of the roaring blaze4 ,now cold shivers begin to run down our backs4 ,besides1 our limbs are growing tired from sitting so long in the unusual position4 ,so we think that we will try a change1 and we decide to lie down at full length with our faces to the fire4 ,it is not easy to move into the new position1 because our neighbors are crowded so close to us2 but we finally succeed4 ,in a very few minutes our feet begin to ache with the cold and our faces seem burning up with the heat4 ,shall we change again1 and for a time let our heads get cool while we warm our feet8 ,we cannot keep this up all night1 but we would need to do so if we tried to be really comfortable4 ,in this way the ,indians lived4 ,they had no beds1 no separate chambers1 no kitchen1 dining room1 nor parlor4 ,in this one room1 if it can be called a room1 all the families ate and slept4 ,around these fires they spent their time while in the house4 ,here they lay stretched out for sleep1 with skins of animals under them as a slight protection from the damp ground4 ,they did not spend much time in changing their clothes1 for they practically wore the same night and day4 ,they really needed only the roof to cover them and the fire to warm them4 ,though the fire warmed them unevenly1 though the smoke was uncomfortable1 though the cold1 the snow1 and the rain came in at the opening and all around the sides of the house1 yet the ,indians had a covering1 they had a fire1 and they were to a great degree contented and happy4 ,illustration3 ,,indian ,,method ,,of ,,broiling4 ,they were used to this life2 they knew no other4 ,even after the white men came and the ,indians had seen them in their houses1 they had no desire to change their mode of living4 ,ugh6 grunted an old redskin1 as he studied the white man's ways2--ugh6 ,injun make a little fire and set close to him2 white man make a big fire and set way off4 ,the ,indians needed food as well as covering4 ,their cooking must have been quite different from that which is done on a large modern kitchen range4 ,they had no domestic animals except the dog2 no cows nor pigs1 no hens nor turkeys4 ,they were compelled to hunt wild animals if they wanted meat4 ,this meat they usually broiled2 not on a broiler or a toaster1 but upon slats or strips of wood placed above the fire4 ,fish was cooked in the same way4 ,sometimes they boiled the meat4 ,for this they usually had wooden dishes1 which could not be put over the fire4 ,these were filled with water1 into which red hot stones were placed4 ,when the water had been heated the food was put in it to be cooked4 ,we should now have some idea of the manner of life among the ,indians4 ,we have learned a little about their houses and their habits2 we have seen how they made their fires and did their cooking2 we have heard about their trails and their canoes1 and the way in which they traveled from place to place4 ,thus lived the ,american ,indians or red men three or four hundred years ago1 and thus they would probably be living to-day if ,columbus or some one else had not discovered ,america2 if the ,english1 the ,french1 and the ,spaniards had not come across the ocean2 if farms and villages1 towns and cities had not sprung up all over the country2 if the white men had not taken much of the land over which the ,indians had roamed for centuries2 and if the ,indians had not learned much from the white men which has greatly changed their conditions4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,colonial ,,homes4 ,the ,indians1 seated in their long community houses around their wood fires1 ranging over their hunting ground seeking fresh meat1 or stealthily creeping through the forest hoping to surprise some human enemy1 at last found that they could no longer have this entire continent to themselves4 ,more than four hundred years ago ,europeans discovered the ,new ,world and began to explore it4 ,more than three hundred years ago the ,spaniards conquered the ,indians in ,mexico and made a settlement in ,florida4 ,nearly three hundred years ago the ,french began to build homes in ,canada1 the ,dutch in ,new ,york1 and the ,english in ,virginia and ,new ,england4 ,these white men1 with their wives and children1 crossed the ,atlantic ,ocean in the small vessels of those days1 and built villages and cleared the land for farms4 ,their settlements were generally near the seacoast or the great rivers4 ,the pioneers were thus nearer one another1 and could the more readily hasten to each other's assistance in case of need4 ,the newcomers were not alike in appearance or habits4 ,the ,french had different customs from the ,spaniards4 ,they not only spoke a different language1 but they wore different kinds of clothes1 tilled the soil in a different way1 and lived in houses of different styles4 ,the ,dutch were quite unlike the ,english4 ,then1 again1 the life of the ,english in ,virginia was different from life in ,new ,england3 in the former colony some of the settlers were wealthy1 owned large plantations1 and lived at long distances from one another2 in the latter the colonists had more nearly equal possessions1 occupied smaller farms1 and lived close together4 ,although the colonists thus had differing habits and customs1 in many respects they were much alike4 ,they had come to a country where everything was new4 ,no mills nor factories were run by the streams2 no shops made clothing or farming tools2 no stores sold furniture or groceries4 ,everything that the colonists needed must be either brought across the ocean or roughly made by themselves4 ,of course only the rich could afford the expense of bringing heavy articles three thousand miles in sailing vessels2 therefore a large part of what the colonists wore or ate or used for furniture or buildings was rude and of home manufacture4 ,a description of the mode of life in one section of the country will give something of an idea of how the colonists lived in other sections4 ,illustration3 ,,plying ,,the ,,axe4 ,almost the first thing that was necessary for the colonist to do1 as soon as he had determined where he was to live1 was to build his house2 he began at once to fell the trees4 ,the axe was one of the most important of his possessions and he soon learned to use it with great skill4 ,if he needed his house immediately he usually built it of rough1 unsplit logs1 filling the spaces with clay and covering the roof with thatch4 ,there is a story told of a log house which was built in the early part of one winter4 ,the trees were cut when their trunks were frozen1 and were laid in proper position to form the sides of the cabin4 ,the stone chimney was built1 and the house was ready4 ,day after day the great fireplace sent out its heat into the single room1 until the sap in the logs was melted and little shoots with tender leaves began to form1 which in time1 at the ends of the logs nearest the fire1 grew into long twigs4 ,the logs had remained frozen on the outside1 but had thawed within--a pleasant suggestion of the cheer and comfort found in a well warmed house4 ,if the newcomer had neighbors who could shelter his family for a time1 he would split the logs and make a house somewhat tighter and better protected from cold and storm4 ,after a time lumber mills were built and the logs were sawed into planks and boards4 ,many of the earliest ,new ,england houses contained but one room with an attic4 ,the house was entered directly from out-of-doors1 and was lighted by windows set with very small panes of glass or oiled paper4 ,in one corner was the staircase1 which sometimes was merely a ladder or perhaps a few cleats nailed on the framework4 ,the furniture was meagre and most of it rudely made4 ,can we see any improvement in this rough cottage over the ,indian long house8 ,it was more permanent2 it was tighter and warmer2 it was the abode of one family2 it was a real home4 ,in another respect the comfort of the log cabin was greatly increased3 it had an enclosed fireplace and a chimney4 ,some years ago fireplaces were seldom seen in our dwellings4 ,in many of the old houses1 in which the fireplaces were as old as the houses themselves1 they were never used and were either boarded up or carefully screened from view4 ,but more recently they have come into use again1 and now seldom is a well arranged house built without one or more open fireplaces4 ,we are then--most of us--acquainted with this small opening in the side or the corner of the room1 in which small logs of wood burn upon the andirons or a bed of coals upon the grate4 ,however1 this modern grate or hearth is very unlike the huge fireplace of one and two centuries ago4 ,in the houses in which your great-grandmother and her mother and grandmother and great-grandmother lived the fireplace was not confined to a corner of the room1 nor did it burn sticks fifteen or eighteen inches long4 ,in the oldest house now standing in ,rhode ,island the fireplace was nearly ten feet long and about four feet in depth4 ,its back and sides were of stone1 nearly two feet thick1 and the chimney1 thirteen feet by six1 did not begin to narrow1 as it went upward1 until it reached the roof4 ,this fireplace made an excellent play-house when the fire was out1 and children found great delight in watching the stars from their seat in the chimney corner4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,colonial ,,fireplace4 ,at first this open fireplace1 with the fire burning in the centre1 was the only means for cooking which our ancestors possessed4 ,when they were able to build larger houses1 with two1 four1 or eight rooms1 even two stories high1 they still had the great hearths2 not one alone1 but one in each of the principal rooms1 and sometimes in the chambers4 ,as time went on1 stone or brick ovens were built by the side of the fireplaces1 and frequently tin or ,dutch ovens were brought across the ocean and used in case of need4 ,let us look into one of these old houses on a ,saturday1 or baking day1 and notice some of the pleasures and inconveniences of cooking in olden time4 ,when ,mother ,brown rises at half past four in the morning she dresses quickly1 for the coals1 which had been carefully covered up1 have given out little heat during the bitter1 cold night4 ,before she can wash her hands and face she must start up the fire1 for all the water in the house is frozen4 ,she carefully rakes off the ashes from the coals which are still alive1 deftly lays on them a few shavings and pieces of bark1 and1 when they begin to burn brightly1 piles upon them small and then larger sticks of wood4 ,now ,father ,brown and ,john1 the hired man1 who have come in from doing the chores1 lift on to the fire one of the six foot logs1 three or four feet in circumference1 which have been previously brought in4 ,then ,mother ,brown calls the children4 ,ruth1 the eldest1 is already nearly dressed2 ,mehitable1 just in her teens1 is soon ready2 while ,polly1 the baby1 nearly eight years old1 finds it hard work to crawl out from between the sheets4 ,the boys are even harder to rouse1 for mother has to call ,nathaniel1 aged eleven1 three times before he appears1 and ,joseph1 two years younger1 is slower still4 ,we will not stop to notice the breakfast1 which is eaten1 and the dishes washed1 long before the sun rises4 ,now the outside door opens and in comes the old white horse1 hauling a great backlog4 ,john unhitches the chain and rolls the log upon the fire4 ,this done1 the horse goes out at the door opposite the one he entered4 ,father ,brown brings in several armfuls of brush and heavier sticks1 and throws them down near the fireplace4 ,as this is baking day1 the oven must be made ready ,the great brick oven1 one side of which makes also one side of the fireplace1 is filled with the brush and light wood1 which is soon burning briskly4 ,for an hour the fire is kept up1 new wood being thrown in when necessary2 then it is allowed to go out4 ,meanwhile ,mother ,brown and ,ruth are busy--mixing and rolling1 sifting rye and ,indian meal1 stirring up eggs1 and adding milk and butter4 ,by the time the oven is heated the cooks are ready to use it2 and ,mehitable rakes out the coals and ashes with a long stick1 shaped like a shepherd's crook4 ,illustration3 ,,hauling ,,in ,a ,,backlog4 ,first the pans of rye 'n' ,injun bread are laid in the oven1 away back at the farther end4 ,then the pandowdy or great apple pudding and the ,injun pudding are placed in front of the bread4 ,while the bread and the puddings are baking1 two tin ovens are brought in and prepared for use4 ,these ,dutch ovens are mere sheets of metal curved around into more than half a circle1 with the opening placed toward the fire4 ,a long iron rod runs through from side to side of the oven on which the meat for roast is to be spitted4 ,mother ,brown removes one of the spits and thrusts it through a piece of beef1 and in the same way spits a fat turkey on the other4 ,here is work for little ,polly1 upon whom rests the task of frequently turning the spit so that the meat is evenly roasted4 ,later in the day1 when the bread is baked1 the oven is heated again and filled with pies--apple1 mince1 squash1 and pumpkin4 ,by the time these are baked the day is done4 ,the coals on the hearth are covered with ashes and the tired cooks gladly retire for the night4 ,illustration3 ,,cooking ,,in ,a ,,colonial ,,kitchen4 ,on other days meat is boiled in pots that are hung from the crane1 a long1 swinging1 iron rod which reaches directly over the fire or may be turned out into the room4 ,upon the hearth potatoes are baked1 corn is roasted1 and other primitive forms of cooking are used4 ,we have made a long step from the ,indian's open fire and his simple cooking to the brick and tin ovens and the metal pots and kettles of our ancestors2 but is it not a longer step to the coal1 oil1 and gas ranges of to-day8 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,chimneys4 ,remembering our experience in the ,indian long house--the discomfort of the smoke and the opening in the roof--we shall understand another great improvement in the colonist's house4 ,even the log cabin had its chimney4 ,the rising column of hot air from the fire1 carrying the smoke with it1 is confined between walls of stone or brick1 and the room is fairly free from smoke4 ,why did not the ,indian build a chimney8 ,the temporary nature of his dwelling may have been a partial reason2 but the red man's lack of civilization was doubtless the most effective cause4 ,even many so-called civilized nations built their houses without chimneys1 and in fact this convenience is but a few centuries old4 ,the ancient ,greeks are praised for their high civilization1 and yet they were little better off than the savage ,indians of the ,new ,world in the methods of heating their houses4 ,neither the ,greeks nor the ,romans had chimneys for their dwellings4 ,it is true that ,greece and ,italy are warmer countries than ,england or most of the ,united ,states1 and doors and windows could be left open with less discomfort than with us4 ,much of the smoke might thus escape1 but enough doubtless remained to be unpleasant4 ,the ,greeks refrained from carving the rooms in which fires were built1 for they realized that such ornamentation would soon be discolored by soot4 ,after ,greece had been conquered by the ,romans and ,rome had been overthrown by the ,germanic tribes1 much of the ancient civilization was lost and the ,dark ,ages followed4 ,during this period the people throughout ,europe made their fires in holes in the centre of the room1 under an opening in the roof--just as we have seen that the ,indians did4 ,when the family went to bed at night they covered the hole in the roof with a board and also threw ashes over the coals1 to prevent the wooden house from catching fire while they slept4 ,it was the custom in every town1 for many centuries1 to ring the curfew or cover-fire bell each night1 warning the inhabitants to cover their fires1 put out their lights1 and go to bed4 ,the first chimneys were probably built in ,northern ,italy about seven hundred years ago4 ,the story is told that the ,lord of ,padua went to ,rome in #acfh and found no chimney in his hotel4 ,the ,romans still held to the custom of kindling their fires in openings in the ground in the middle of the room4 ,the ,lord of ,padua1 longing for the comforts to which he was accustomed1 sent to ,padua for carpenters and masons1 and had them build two chimneys like those at home4 ,on the top of these he had his coat of arms affixed4 ,gradually chimneys came into use throughout ,europe1 and when the colonists came to ,america they built them as a matter of course4 ,as we have seen1 the fireplaces were mammoth1 and the chimneys therefore were also of great size2 and for this reason1 although the discomfort from the smoke was less than in the ,indian long houses1 it was not wholly avoided4 ,for centuries1 however1 people had been used to the smoke1 which occasionally poured back into the room instead of going up the chimney1 and it did not occur to them1 any more than to the red men1 that it could be avoided4 ,not until a ,new ,england boy1 who was then living in ,england1 began to study into the cause of smoking chimneys was any relief obtained4 ,benjamin ,thompson was born in ,woburn1 ,massachusetts1 and had just come to manhood when the ,american ,revolution broke out4 ,partly owing to certain family connections1 he took the side of ,king ,george ,,iii41 and went to ,england4 ,after the war was over he went to ,bavaria1 entered the service of the king1 and became his chamberlain4 ,he rose through various positions until he became minister of war1 and was made ,count ,rumford4 ,he remained in ,bavaria a few years1 then lived for a time in ,england1 and spent his last days in ,paris4 ,both in ,bavaria and in ,england1 ,count ,rumford devoted himself to science and the improvement of the conditions of his fellow men4 ,it would be interesting to know the steps that he took and the good that he did1 but we can here notice only some of his improvements in the methods of heating houses4 ,as a scientist he was asked to cure smoking chimneys1 and he succeeded so well that he once said he had cured more than five hundred in ,london alone4 ,he found out the simple fact that smoke will readily go up a chimney1 unless there is something to stop it4 ,all that was necessary was to discover the trouble and remove it4 ,in nearly all of the five hundred chimneys nothing more was needed than to make the lower part of the chimney and the fireplace of the right form and size4 ,one firm of builders was kept constantly employed carrying out his suggestions4 ,not only did he cure the chimneys1 but he also prevented the waste of much heat4 ,in accordance with his directions the square fireplace was changed so that the sides made a greater angle with the back and would therefore reflect more heat into the room4 ,he also made the space about the fire smaller1 thus rendering the air hotter and therefore more ready to rush up the chimney1 carrying more of the smoke with it4 ,count ,rumford's ideas have been generally followed since his day1 and now fireplaces seldom give out smoke into the room while they furnish more heat4 ,count ,rumford next took up the problem of improving stoves4 ,before we consider his improvements1 however1 we must note something about the first stoves4 ,another ,massachusetts boy1 born nearly half a century before ,benjamin ,thompson1 also became a scientist1 inventor1 and discoverer4 ,benjamin ,franklin was a traveler and in many other respects was like ,count ,rumford4 ,but he chose to go with the colonies when they revolted from ,great ,britain1 and he gave all his services to his fellow countrymen4 ,a few years before the birth of ,thompson1 ,franklin made an invention which was the first improved method of heating rooms4 ,there had been so-called ,german stoves before his day1 but they were not much used in this country4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,franklin ,,stove4 ,it was in #agdb that ,franklin1 while in ,philadelphia1 devised the ,franklin stove or ,pennsylvania fireplace4 ,it consisted of iron sides1 back and top1 and was entirely open in front4 ,a flue was arranged in the back which connected with the chimney to carry off the smoke4 ,this movable fireplace was designed to burn wood1 comparatively small logs being used4 ,it had many advantages over the stone fireplace4 ,it was set up nearer the middle of the room1 thus sending heat out in all directions and warming the entire room4 ,it saved much of the heat which had previously passed directly up the chimney and been lost4 ,in the ,pennsylvania fireplace this heat warmed the iron on the top of the stove and at the back1 as well as the flue itself1 all of which warmed the air in the room4 ,saving the heat saved wood also4 ,franklin himself said3 ,my common room1 ,i know1 is made twice as warm as it used to be1 with a quarter of the wood ,i formerly consumed there4 ,franklin was offered a patent for his device by the governor of ,pennsylvania1 but he declined it4 ,he declared that inasmuch as we enjoy great advantages from the inventions of others1 we should be glad of an opportunity to serve others by any invention of ours4 ,unfortunately1 however1 the people did not obtain from his generosity all the advantages that ,franklin expected1 for a ,london iron manufacturer made some slight changes in the pattern1 not improving the stove in the least1 and obtained a patent4 ,from the sale of these stoves he made what was called a small fortune4 ,franklin's fireplace was but the first in a long series of inventions that have brought to us the stove of to-day4 ,the great merit in his work was the idea of giving up the stone fireplace for one of iron4 ,changes in the form and shape of the stove have followed as a matter of course4 ,no special credit is due to any one else1 unless it be to ,count ,rumford1 who1 after curing the chimneys1 made a cook stove with an oven4 ,then1 for the first time since men knew how to cook over a fire1 cooking could be carried on and the cook be protected from the direct heat of the fire4 ,thus we come to the modern house with its modern stoves4 ,no longer have we but one method of heating a dwelling4 ,sometimes a stove is set up in each of the rooms4 ,sometimes a larger stove is placed in the cellar1 and this furnace heats air that is carried by large pipes or flues to the rooms1 where the heated air comes out through registers4 ,sometimes a furnace in the cellar heats water1 and hot water or steam is sent through small pipes1 and passing through coils or radiators gives out heat4 ,besides1 the cooking range is found in most kitchens4 ,all these systems of heating houses exist instead of the old-fashioned fireplace4 ,even when the modern grate is built1 it is usual to find a register or steam coil on the opposite side of the room1 because the open fire is apt to warm one side of the room only4 ,it is pleasant1 however1 to look into a blazing fire1 and we are sometimes almost willing to have the heat unevenly distributed if only we can watch the flames4 ,some form of the stove1 however1 is our main dependence1 and its various developments have been due1 generally1 to the desire of being freed from the discomforts of the old time methods4 ,perhaps also the growing scarcity of wood and the discovery of coal have had some effect upon the development of the stove2 but that we must leave to another chapter4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,fuel4 ,what do you burn in the stoves in your houses8 was asked of a class of schoolchildren in a small ,pennsylvania town4 ,hands went up in every direction2 one said kerosene oil2 two others shouted gas2 a few replied wood2 most of the class answered coal4 ,then the teacher made further inquiries to learn why these different substances were used4 ,the three who answered gas and oil agreed that coal was burned in other stoves in their houses1 but that oil and gas stoves were used also because they were so convenient4 ,when the question was asked why coal was used1 instantly the answer was given that coal was the best thing to burn2 everybody burned it4 ,now this was not quite true1 but ,miss ,turner1 the teacher1 instead of immediately correcting the error1 turned to the pupils who had answered wood1 and inquired why they used wood4 ,one said1 ,we haven't any coal2 another thought that it was because wood kindled more easily than coal2 a third was sure that he was right--,we don't have to buy wood2 coal costs money4 ,now this boy had the correct idea4 ,he lived in the country1 though near the town4 ,his father owned a large farm1 a part of which was still forest land2 he could cut his own wood1 and therefore did not buy coal4 ,after a few more questions the teacher discovered that all those who burned wood lived some little distance from town4 ,then she turned to the class again and asked them if they could now tell why the town families used coal instead of wood4 ,one said1 ,we do not own forests4 ,another thought that it was because there were not trees enough4 ,a third shook his hand wildly and shouted1 ,coal is cheaper than wood6 ,a shy little girl ventured to suggest1 ,because coal is better than wood2 it lasts longer4 ,you have each of you given a good reason1 ,miss ,turner answered4 ,coal is cheaper than wood here in the town because wood is growing more and more scarce4 ,many of your parents prefer coal because with it the fire needs less attention4 ,but the coal dealers charge more to carry coal out into the country1 and those who still own forests find it cheaper to burn their own wood4 ,what sort of replies would ,i have received if ,i had asked the same questions of children in ,pennsylvania ,colony1 or in any of the colonies1 one hundred and fifty or two hundred years ago8 ,the children had studied history somewhat4 ,they knew the story of ,columbus and his discoveries2 they had read of the ,pilgrims and the ,puritans2 they could have answered questions concerning ,john ,smith and ,henry ,hudson2 and they were especially familiar with ,william ,penn and the ,quakers1 with ,george ,washington and ,braddock's defeat4 ,but not one of them remembered that he had ever been told anything about the fires of the colonists4 ,there was a pause for a time2 then one boy asked1 ,didn't they burn just what we burn8 ,after another pause the shy little girl asked1 ,didn't they have more forests then than now8 ,before the teacher could reply1 a boy said1 ,perhaps they did not have any coal4 ,the children had thus thought it out for themselves1 and they were right4 ,miss ,turner then told them that it was many years after the time of ,columbus or ,hudson or ,penn before coal mines were discovered in this country or coal used4 ,she added that almost all the country1 from ,maine to ,georgia and westward across the ,alleghany ,mountains1 was covered with thick forests when the colonists crossed the ,atlantic ,ocean4 ,what do you suppose our ancestors thought of these forests8 ,were they glad to see them1 or did they wish that they covered less ground8 asked the teacher4 ,most of the children answered that the forests must have been of great value to the colonists2 they would not have to pay anything for fuel4 ,can you raise vegetables or grain in the woods8 was ,miss ,turner's next question4 ,then the pupils began to see that the forests were hindrances as well as helps4 ,the teacher told them that they gave the colonists more wood than was needed for fires and for lumber4 ,she added that every acre of ground that they wished to plant with ,indian corn or rye1 with potatoes or squashes1 must first be freed from the trees4 ,before the land could be plowed it must be cleared4 ,if1 then1 the trees furnished more wood than could be used1 it was natural for the farmer to burn the trees and stumps in the fields4 ,if there had been but few settlers and if they had been widely scattered over a large territory1 no harm would have resulted4 ,but the colonists came over by the thousands and had large families of children4 ,by the time the country had been settled a hundred years1 great gaps had been made in the forests4 ,a few of the most foresighted of the colonists began to think about the future and to wonder what they would do for fuel if the wood should give out4 ,in fact1 trees began to be scarce in the neighborhood of the larger towns1 and firewood as well as lumber became expensive4 ,suppose that all the forests in this country had been destroyed1 the class was asked1 what would the people have done for fuel8 ,used coal1 replied a boy from a back seat4 ,yes1 said ,miss ,turner1 if there were any coal1 and if the colonists knew where to find it and how to use it4 ,but what is this coal and where does it come from8 ,we owe all our knowledge of the origin of coal to the geologists1 who have made a careful study of the surface of the earth1 continued ,miss ,turner4 ,they tell us that there was a time when human beings did not live on the earth2 when not even animals that need to breathe the air could exist4 ,the atmosphere which surrounded the earth in those days was different from the air which we breathe4 ,we need the oxygen that is in our air to sustain life2 poor ventilation in our rooms or halls soon renders them uncomfortable and often causes our heads to ache4 ,the reason for this is the presence in the air of too large a quantity of a gas called carbonic acid gas2 an extra amount of it makes the air unfit to breathe1 but a certain amount is necessary to sustain plant life4 ,in the coal-forming or carboniferous age the atmosphere around the earth contained less oxygen than at present and great quantities of carbonic acid gas4 ,for this reason1 as ,i have said1 animals did not exist1 but plants--large shrubs1 great ferns1 and huge trees--lived and grew vigorously4 ,if we have ever seen thick woods we need only imagine all the bushes and trees of the forest to be of enormous size in order to have some idea of the vegetable growth of the carboniferous age4 ,the earth was preparing vast quantities of fuel to be ready1 thousands of years later1 for the millions of men that were to come4 ,the growth of the forests was but one step in the preparation of coal4 ,the second step was the submerging of the forests1 covering them with water as if at the bottom of the sea4 ,then the streams brought gravel1 sand1 and mud into this ocean1 and these were hardened into clay and sandstone by the pressure of the water1 perhaps aided by the heat of the earth itself4 ,the trees and ferns were bent down and pressed together and driven into the most compact condition possible4 ,but again earthquakes came and the water disappeared4 ,the layer of clay and sandstone was covered with soil which became dry enough to produce other forests1 growing as rank as the first4 ,these were again overwhelmed and covered first with water1 then with rocks and soil1 only to be lifted again for another growth4 ,this process was repeated in some cases many times1 as we can see with a little study4 ,here ,miss ,turner stopped and said3 ,next ,saturday1 if it is pleasant1 we will have our annual spring picnic4 ,we will go to a new place this time4 ,we will try ,howland's ,grove1 and then in the afternoon we will go down into the ,jefferson mine and see what it is like4 ,we have not time to read about the picnic1 nor of the interest that the class showed before the appointed ,saturday1 as well as all the forenoon of that day4 ,nor can we tell how the children went down the shaft of the mine1 and how they were at first so quiet that hardly a word was said4 ,the teacher showed them a layer of coal in the mine which was about three feet thick4 ,just above it was a rock which was different from the coal4 ,this they were told was sandstone1 the hardened sand which had been heaped upon the forests so many thousand years before4 ,then below the coal was another rock which was entirely unlike either the coal or the sandstone4 ,this was the seat-stone1 the rock made out of the soil in which the forest had grown4 ,then below this they found three more layers1 sandstone1 coal1 and seat-stone1 and so on until the bottom of the mine was reached4 ,by this time the children were ready to ask questions4 ,oh1 ,miss ,turner1 what is this curious-looking thing in this part of the seat-stone8 asked one of the boys4 ,miss ,turner replied3 ,that is a fossil4 ,it is part of a root of a tree1 and has retained its shape and appearance all these thousands and thousands of years4 ,illustration3 ,,in ,a ,,coal ,,mine4 ,one of the miners who had been listening to the conversation said3 ,if you will step this way1 madam1 ,i can show you the whole of a tree-trunk in the coal4 ,the children eagerly crowded around as the miner showed the fossilized trunk of a tree still standing just as it grew1 with its roots in the seat-stone and its top in the sandstone above the coal--for here the layer of coal was several feet in thickness4 ,a few minutes afterward1 as the children were looking carefully at the sides of the mine to see if they could find more fossils1 the shy little girl said quietly to the teacher3 ,i think that ,i have found something1 ,miss ,turner2 won't you please see8 ,she led the way to a trunk which showed the various stages in the process of change4 ,one end was still almost like wood1 the middle part was a very soft brown coal1 while the other end was true coal4 ,that helps us to understand more about the way in which the forests were changed to coal1 said ,miss ,turner4 ,now here is one more proof that coal was formed out of wood4 ,the teacher picked up a piece of coal and broke it with a hammer4 ,then she showed on the new surface some patches of a black substance4 ,does not that look like charcoal8 she asked4 ,you know that charcoal is wood partly burned4 ,thus the class learned how nature1 ages and ages ago1 began to prepare for the use of man a fuel which seems inexhaustible1 is superior to wood in many respects1 and is freely distributed in various portions of the world4 ,this coal1 which has taken the place of wood to a great extent in furnishing heat for our houses and stores1 is found in large quantities in the ,united ,states1 but was not mined or used here until the middle of the last century4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,coal4 ,the use of coal for heating purposes is so familiar to every one nowadays that probably few have ever thought about the time when it was unknown4 ,coal was as plentiful three thousand years ago as it is now4 ,layers and beds of the fuel existed just under the surface of the ground1 and in many places cropped out through it4 ,but the stones were merely black rocks1 and the idea that rocks would burn was too absurd to occur to any one4 ,we may well wonder how it was first discovered that coal would burn4 ,professor ,greene suggests a possible explanation of this discovery4 ,there is in coal a hard1 yellow1 brassy mineral which flies in the fire and not infrequently startles the circle that has gathered around its cheerful blaze4 ,when exposed to damp air this mineral undergoes chemical change1 and during the process heat is given out1 sometimes in sufficient quantities to set the coal alight4 ,in this way it occasionally happens that seams of coal1 when they lie near the surface1 take fire of their own accord4 ,one day a savage on a stroll was startled by finding the ground warm beneath his feet1 and by seeing smoke and sulphurous vapors issuing from it4 ,he laid it first to a supernatural cause2 but curiosity getting the better of superstition1 he scraped away the earth to find whence the reek came4 ,then he saw a bed of black stone1 loose blocks of which he had already noticed lying about2 parts of this stone were smouldering1 and as soon as air was admitted burst into a blaze4 ,whether coal was thus discovered or not1 its first discovery must have occurred early in the history of the world4 ,more than twenty centuries ago the ,greek scholar1 ,theophrastus1 wrote of the coals which were used by blacksmiths4 ,there are indications that coal was mined in ,england before that country was conquered by the ,romans4 ,but not until the twelfth century was enough of the mineral mined in ,newcastle1 the great coal region of ,england1 to warrant its being carried to ,london4 ,as this coal was brought in vessels to the metropolis it received the name of sea-coal1 and it was thus called for several centuries4 ,how strange it is that opposition always arises to every new thing6 ,people are always to be found who think that anything with which they are not familiar cannot be good4 ,so it was in ,london4 ,a cry began to arise that the use of coal was injurious to health4 ,the coal was soft or bituminous1 and burned with considerable flame and a dense smoke4 ,this was before the common use of chimneys1 and therefore the air in the rooms where it was burned became filled with an unpleasant odor4 ,the belief was general that the use of coal rendered the air unfit to breathe1 and ,parliament was requested to put a stop to it4 ,king ,edward ,i4 issued a proclamation forbidding any but blacksmiths to burn sea-coals1 and directing that buildings from which coal-smoke was seen to come should be torn down4 ,though the law was repealed under a later king1 coal was but little used for household purposes until the eighteenth century4 ,most of the coal beds in the ,united ,states are situated at some distance from the ocean2 therefore the first colonists1 settling along the coast1 were for a long time ignorant of their existence4 ,the first white man to discover coal was ,father ,hennepin1 who more than two hundred years ago1 while exploring the ,mississippi ,river1 found it in ,illinois4 ,the first mines worked were the ,richmond fields in ,virginia1 where coal was taken out a century and a half ago4 ,there is a tradition that a boy left home one morning to go fishing4 ,after trying his luck for a time he found that his bait was gone4 ,accordingly he began to hunt for crawfish1 and while searching stumbled over some black stones which attracted his attention4 ,he had found the outcrop of a coal bed1 and on his return he made known his discovery4 ,a rich vein of coal was soon disclosed1 and mining on a small scale was begun4 ,we must remember that this story is only tradition and may not be true4 ,we might wonder1 perhaps1 how the boy knew that the stones were any different from other rocks except in being black4 ,the way in which a twelve-foot vein was discovered in ,pennsylvania is told in ,forest and ,stream1 and is probably quite true4 ,elias ,blank1 living in ,western ,pennsylvania in the latter part of the last century1 was called to his door one night and found there ,lewis ,whetzell1 a famous ,indian fighter1 and ,jonathan ,gates1 commonly called ,long ,arms4 ,friend ,lewis1 said ,mr4 ,blank1 where have thee and our friend been1 and where bound8 ,i want to get out of here at once1 said ,whetzell1 and ,long ,arms is of the same opinion4 ,this country's bewitched1 and ,long ,arms and ,i are nearly scared to death4 ,friend ,lewis1 thee must not tell such stories to me1 said old ,elias4 ,thee knows ,i am thy friend1 and ,i have saved thee when a price was on thy head4 ,i know thou art a man of courage1 and friend ,jonathan ,gates1 whom some call ',long ,arms1' fears nothing on earth1 and ,i'm fearful nothing anywhere else2 and yet thou tellest me that he and thee are scared even almost to death4 ,shame on thee so to declare before thy friend1 who loves ye both as he were thy father6 ,no1 no1 ,elias1 said ,whetzell1 dropping into the ,quaker speech4 ,i tell thee no lie4 ,we are scared4 ,yesterday afternoon we were in hiding about a mile from ,dunkard ,creek1 and in the evening we built a fire under the bank very carefully2 and we got some black rocks to prop up a little kettle1 and put them beside the fire rather than in it2 and the black rocks took fire and burned fiercely1 with a filthy smoke and a bright light2 and ,long ,arms said the devil would come if we stayed2 and we grabbed the kettle and poured out the water1 and made our way here1 leaving the black rocks to burn4 ,elias ,blank was much interested4 ,he did not tell ,whetzell what the black rocks were1 but he found out exactly where the men had made their fire1 and the next day hunted up the camping-ground1 found the black rocks in one of the river-hills1 and opened a coal bank4 ,thus1 a little here and a little there1 coal was discovered and used4 ,at first it was mingled with wood1 and then burned alone on the hearth4 ,this coal was easily kindled1 for it was bituminous or soft2 it was not necessary to provide an extra draft1 or to spend much more time in lighting it than had been customary with wood4 ,not many years passed1 however1 before a variety of coal was found that was hard and would not kindle easily4 ,accordingly it was thrown aside as useless4 ,this was anthracite coal1 and it is now generally preferred to the bituminous because of this very quality4 ,being hard1 it does not burn away so rapidly2 besides1 it needs less attention and gives out much less smoke4 ,just before the ,revolution1 ,obadiah ,gore1 a blacksmith in the ,wyoming valley in ,pennsylvania1 tried hard coal in his forge4 ,at first1 even with his great bellows1 he was unable to make it burn4 ,he continued the experiment1 however1 and after a time the lumps began to yield and flames darted from them4 ,he thus discovered that pieces of anthracite coal could be kindled and burned if there was a strong current of air1 as he said1 sent through them by the bellows2 without that ,i could do nothing with them4 ,mr4 ,gore thus used anthracite coal in his forge1 but even he did not burn it at home4 ,not until the beginning of this century was hard coal used for domestic purposes4 ,oliver ,evans in #ahjc successfully burned it in a grate4 ,many years passed1 however1 before hard coal came into common use4 ,a few people purchased anthracite coal1 but they could not burn it2 they used it just as they had been accustomed to use soft coal4 ,after that1 great difficulty was experienced in persuading any one to try the new coal4 ,nicholas ,allen in ,pennsylvania discovered anthracite coal and got out several wagonloads of it4 ,he tried in vain to sell it4 ,no1 said the people1 we have tried that once1 and we do not propose to be cheated again4 ,mr4 ,allen became discouraged and sold his interest to his partner1 ,colonel ,shoemaker1 who took the coal to ,philadelphia4 ,here he praised it so highly that at last a few people bought a little for trial4 ,they continually punched the coal and stirred up the fire1 but they did not succeed in making it burn4 ,they became enraged with ,colonel ,shoemaker1 and procured a warrant for his arrest as a common impostor4 ,the colonel heard of the warrant1 quietly left the city1 and drove thirty miles out of his route in order to avoid the officer4 ,fortunately a firm of iron factors who had purchased some of the coal succeeded in making it burn4 ,they announced the fact in the ,philadelphia newspapers1 and other iron-workers tried the coal4 ,soon all the furnaces were using it4 ,illustration3 ,,blacksmith ,,at ,,his ,,forge4 ,both anthracite and bituminous coal are freely mined in various sections of the ,united ,states4 ,there is coal enough underground to last for many centuries4 ,it used to be said that ,england was the great coal-mining country1 for her coal fields are nearly as extensive as those of all the rest of ,europe4 ,but the ,united ,states has a supply of coal that will apparently be hardly diminished when that of the ,british ,islands is entirely used4 ,the single ,state of ,pennsylvania has a greater store of coal than all ,europe1 and her part is less than one-tenth of the stock of coal in the ,united ,states4 ,even if the forests of the entire country should be destroyed1 we should not want for fuel4 ,but let us remember that not only would the loss of our forests deprive us of wood for other purposes than merely to keep us warm1 but it would also cause great injury to the farming interests of the country4 ,if we would have good crops we must have proper rainfalls2 without forests the rain would do greater and greater injury and less and less good4 ,we ought to do all in our power to help preserve our forests1 and as far as we can to increase the number of trees4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,matches4 ,thomas6 ,thomas6 ,the fire is out6 ,get right up and go over to neighbor ,wallace's and borrow some fire4 ,it was a cold morning1 eight degrees below zero1 and ,mr4 ,wallace lived three-quarters of a mile away4 ,the sun would not rise for two hours2 but1 when mother called1 the boys instantly obeyed4 ,thomas hurriedly dressed1 snatched a shovel which was standing by the hearth1 and hastily shutting the outside door1 ran as fast as he could to the nearest neighbor's4 ,of course he hurried1 for was not mother all dressed and not a bit of fire in the house8 ,the fire must have died down too much the evening before2 and although the coals had been carefully covered with ashes before father and mother went to bed1 mother could not find a tiny spark anywhere under the ashes in the morning4 ,thomas kept up his run until he was tired1 and then fell into a brisk walk4 ,when he reached neighbor ,wallace's1 he was glad to warm his numbed fingers over the raging fire in the fireplace4 ,but he knew that he must not stop long1 so he stated his errand1 and ,mrs4 ,wallace placed some live coals on his shovel and thoroughly covered them with ashes4 ,thomas rested a moment longer and then hastened home2 for if those coals should be out when he reached the house he would have to make the trip over again4 ,this disaster did not befall him1 however1 and soon his mother had placed the coals on the hearth and had laid upon them a few shavings4 ,these kindled at once2 small sticks were soon ablaze1 and in a very short time the fire was burning as vigorously as the neighbor's had been4 ,illustration3 ,,thomas ,,carrying ,,fire4 ,the boys of two centuries ago fully realized what it meant to have the fire go out4 ,perhaps the nearest neighbors were not always so far distant1 but it was no pleasant task to be sent for coals any distance on a winter morning4 ,if1 however1 no neighbors were near and coals could not be borrowed1 how under circumstances like these could a new fire be kindled8 ,if we wanted a fire nowadays we might say1 ,strike a light1 because we should obtain the light by striking a match2 but1 before matches were invented1 the expression used would probably have been1 ,rub a light4 ,an early method of producing a light1 and from this a fire1 was by rubbing two sticks together4 ,if this process be continued long enough the wood will become heated and sparks will fly off4 ,then1 in order to start the fire1 it is only necessary to catch one of these sparks upon something that will burn easily4 ,this method was used thousands of years ago1 and is still common among the savages in various parts of the globe4 ,this seems simple enough1 but if you try it you will find that it is no easy task4 ,it requires considerable muscular power to rub a light from two sticks of wood1 and almost any other process is preferable4 ,the most important thing in this method of kindling a fire is the rapidity with which the sticks are rubbed together4 ,some one of the savages more keen than the others conceived the idea that he could save labor and at the same time increase the rapidity with which the stick moved4 ,he took his bow and twisted the cord once around a stick4 ,then he placed one end on a piece of wood1 and by moving the bow back and forth twisted the stick with great rapidity4 ,soon the shavings which he had placed at the point of contact were ablaze4 ,little by little this drill was improved1 and now among some of the ,american ,indians it furnishes a comparatively easy way of kindling a fire4 ,illustration3 ,,tinder ,,box1 ,,flint1 ,,and ,,matches4 ,most children have seen a spark caused by the shoe of a horse striking a stone in the road4 ,sometimes if one stone strikes another a spark is produced4 ,all this was perceived even in the earliest times1 and the best substances to be used became well known4 ,the stone called flint was found to be the best for one of the two substances1 and steel is usually preferred for the other4 ,when steel and flint strike each other1 if a spark falls upon some vegetable matter a fire is soon kindled4 ,perhaps the most common substance used to catch the spark was touchwood1 a soft1 decayed wood carefully broken into small fragments4 ,after a time1 in place of the touchwood1 tinder was used1 which was made by scorching old linen handkerchiefs4 ,later the tinder box was invented1 in which a steel wheel was spun like a top upon a piece of flint set in tinder4 ,after the discovery of gunpowder1 flint and steel were used in guns4 ,a hammer of flint struck an anvil of steel1 and the spark produced fell into a pan of gunpowder1 causing the flash which fired the gun4 ,before the ,american ,revolution1 and even into the present century1 the process of kindling a fire was not a simple one4 ,the most frequent means employed1 as has been seen1 was the borrowing of coals from a neighbor4 ,less often1 recourse was had to the long and difficult process of rubbing a spark from two pieces of wood4 ,sometimes1 among the well-to-do1 the tinder box was used2 but it was seldom satisfactory4 ,for these reasons the fire was always most carefully watched2 every precaution was taken to prevent it from going out4 ,seldom could the house be left by the whole family for any length of time1 and all because of the lack of a match4 ,matches are a result of the study of chemistry4 ,during the ,dark ,ages a few scholars were interested in what they called alchemy2 but they spent most of their time and thought in trying to discover two things--how to change iron into gold1 and how to keep themselves eternally young4 ,about two hundred years ago these two foolish desires came to be considered unpractical1 and since then chemists have been constantly seeking to discover ways of benefiting mankind4 ,for many years students in different countries tried to find certain chemicals that could be so combined as to render the tinder box unnecessary4 ,several of these attempts to make a light seemed successful1 but most of them were dangerous and all were expensive4 ,an account of one of these trials may be of interest4 ,about seventy years ago a young man named ,lauria1 in ,lyons1 ,france1 watched his professor pound some sulphur and chlorate of potash together4 ,the resulting flash and sharp crack set him thinking1 and he went home and began to experiment4 ,he had a few sticks of pine wood which had been partly dipped in sulphur1 and a few glass tubes1 and he obtained more sulphur and some chlorate4 ,he tried melting and mixing1 only to meet with many accidents4 ,finally he dipped the end of one of the sticks into sulphur and then into the chlorate4 ,he observed that some of the chlorate remained on the stick4 ,then he rubbed this prepared end on the wall where there happened to be a little phosphorus2 the stick immediately blazed4 ,he had discovered for himself the principle of the match2 all he needed besides was something which would make the chlorate always stick to the sulphured wood4 ,however1 this match was not satisfactory and was never manufactured for sale4 ,phosphorus was dangerous1 and it was not safe to have it spread upon a wall or any other surface4 ,the first matches of practical use were made in #ahcc1 and were invented by six different men in six different countries4 ,these were the original ,lucifer matches1 which did not require the use of phosphorus4 ,they were made of thin sticks of wood partly covered with sulphur4 ,the ends of these sticks were then dipped into a compound of chlorate of potash1 sulphite of antimony1 and gum4 ,when used these matches were drawn through a bent piece of sandpaper4 ,they were costly1 frequently selling for a cent apiece4 ,a few years later a famous chemist discovered the red form of phosphorus1 which is not dangerous to handle4 ,since that time most matches have contained this substance in the mixture1 although during the last half century hundreds of different combinations have been invented4 ,to-day hardly any article is manufactured that is so common and inexpensive as the match4 ,without it we should feel almost lost1 and surely it would seem to us that the ,dark ,ages had returned4 ,we are told that the inhabitants of the ,united ,states use on an average more than a thousand matches a year each4 ,there are more than forty manufactories in this country1 most of them being in ,california1 ,connecticut1 ,new ,york1 and ,pennsylvania1 yet the entire business is principally controlled by one great company4 ,during the last two hundred years chimneys have been improved1 stoves have been invented and developed1 coal has been discovered1 and matches have come into universal use4 ,the log cabins of our ancestors have been replaced by the well-built houses of to-day4 ,the mammoth fireplaces1 sending much heat up the chimney and much smoke into the room1 have given way to the stoves and furnaces that render life comfortable4 ,no longer is it necessary to freeze our backs while roasting our faces4 ,cranes1 pot-hooks and trammels1 and ,dutch ovens are chiefly to be seen in museums1 and the kitchen range saves the cook much needless labor4 ,nowadays we seldom find the fires out on a winter's morning and the water frozen in the pitcher4 ,instead of hastening through the cold and the snow to a neighbor to borrow fire1 we simply strike a match4 ,we all of us live in comfort that would have seemed luxury to the wealthiest families two centuries ago4 ,can we look forward to the changes that may come in the future in the methods of heating our houses and cooking our food8 ,already railroad cars are being heated by steam from the engines and electric cars are heated by electricity4 ,already oil stoves and gas stoves have come into common use and are found to possess many advantages3 ,no ashes need removal2 the fire may be started without delay2 the room is less heated than with a coal fire2 and the blaze may be turned out when no longer needed4 ,already in some parts of the country natural gas is led by pipes directly from the wells into houses for cooking and for heating purposes4 ,already experiments in heating houses and cooking food by means of electricity are common and to some extent successful4 ,it would seem that the inventions and improvements of the next hundred years may render the homes as much more comfortable than those of to-day as ours surpass those of our ancestors4 ,illustration3 ,,thomas ,a4 ,,edison4 ,illustration3 ,,minot',s ,,ledge ,,light1 ,,massachusetts ,,bay4 ,,section ,,ii4--,,light4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,torches4 ,wood and coal1 gas and oil1 electricity even1 aid us in our demand for warm houses4 ,in winter we should suffer greatly were it not for our fireplaces1 our stoves1 and our furnaces4 ,the sun then shines but a short time every day1 and sends us little heat4 ,in summer the great orb of day remains many hours in the heavens1 and warms us through and through4 ,we have little desire then for artificial heat2 natural heat is sometimes more than sufficient4 ,the sun shines over all the world4 ,his going forth is from the end of the heaven1 and his circuit unto the ends of it3 and there is nothing hid from the heat thereof4 ,the sun does much more for us than send us its heat-rays3 all day long we rejoice in the bright sunshine4 ,but at night1 when the sun has set1 we ask for artificial light4 ,how shall we get it8 ,how did our ancestors obtain it8 ,we have in our day the electric light2 we can use illuminating gas2 kerosene is easily obtained2 if necessary1 we can resort to candles4 ,yet there was a time when the electric light had not been discovered4 ,earlier still1 gas had not been made and kerosene was not known4 ,indeed1 long1 long ago even candles had not been seen by men4 ,what did the people do for light on a dark night in those times8 ,after the sun had set and night had settled down upon them1 what could they do during the long winter evenings without some method of lighting up the darkness8 ,illustration3 ,,indians ,,traveling ,,at ,,night4 ,as we looked to the ,american ,indians for the simplest and rudest methods of obtaining heat1 so we can also learn something from them of the primitive modes of lighting4 ,much of the time the red men found sufficient light for all their wants in the wood fire4 ,they needed no candles to read by1 for they had no books nor papers4 ,they cared for no lamp to dress by2 they sought no illumination for halls or churches or theatres4 ,what little need they had for artificial light was practically satisfied by that which came from the blazing logs4 ,if1 however1 on any special occasion they wished to light up their long houses more brightly1 the ,indians used pitch-pine knots4 ,in case they were traveling by night and did not care to proceed stealthily or secretly1 these fagots of pitch pine gave them all the light they wanted4 ,the light from these sticks was dim2 it flickered so as to hurt the eyes2 more smoke was given out than light2 but the savage was fully content4 ,long before the red men were known1 however1 the burning fagot was used by the people of ,europe and ,asia to lessen the darkness of the night4 ,an interesting story is told of ,hannibal when he was leading the ,carthaginian army against ,rome4 ,in the course of his journey he marched his whole force into a valley which was entirely surrounded by high mountains very difficult to cross4 ,fabius1 his ,roman opponent1 placed his own army in the pass and enclosed ,hannibal in the valley4 ,hannibal was apparently caught in a trap1 but he was a shrewd commander1 and he quickly devised a trick to make ,fabius withdraw his legions4 ,early in the day he sent out a large detail from his army to gather fagots4 ,what was he about to do with such great quantities of pine knots8 ,in the afternoon1 by ,hannibal's orders1 these fagots were bound to the horns of oxen which had been driven along during the march for food for the army4 ,at nightfall the fagots were lighted and the oxen were driven directly up the steep side of one of the mountains4 ,fabius naturally supposed that the lights moving up the mountain-side must be carried by soldiers1 and he thought that ,hannibal and all his army were trying to escape in that direction4 ,accordingly he quickly withdrew his troops from the pass in order to attack the enemy when they came down the opposite side of the mountain4 ,hannibal then quietly marched his army through the pass1 meeting with no opposition4 ,long1 long centuries before ,hannibal the torch was known4 ,in that strange story of ,gideon and his three hundred men who overcame the ,midianites1 the torch or lamp was one of the weapons used4 ,the vast host of the ,midianites1 fearing no hostile attack1 was spread over a great valley4 ,gideon placed his little band of men on the hills around the enemy's camp1 each man at a considerable distance from the next1 so that they made a line nearly surrounding the entire valley4 ,every man had a trumpet in one hand1 and a lamp or torch covered by an upturned pitcher in the other4 ,this arrangement of the lamp and the pitcher allowed a little light to be thrown upon the ground directly beneath4 ,the men could thus avoid stepping upon dry sticks and making a noise which might alarm the guards around the camp of the ,midianites4 ,at the same time the light was concealed from the eyes of their enemies4 ,when all was ready a shout was raised1 ,the sword of the ,lord and of ,gideon6 and the pitchers were thrown with a great crash upon the ground4 ,the sudden noise of voices and of the breaking pitchers awoke the ,midianites from a deep sleep2 the trumpets and the shouts turned their eyes to the hills4 ,all along the line of the three hundred men spread out in a circle around them blazed the three hundred torches4 ,as it was the custom in those days to have a torch or a lamp indicate the headquarters of a general1 the ,midianites in their sudden terror naturally thought that an immense army was surrounding them4 ,they imagined that ,gideon had hired vast forces from ,egypt and elsewhere1 for they supposed that each of the several hundred torches indicated a general with all his followers4 ,their only thought1 therefore1 was to flee as quickly as possible4 ,they ran against each other1 and1 unable in the darkness to distinguish friend from foe1 they killed their own men4 ,the entire army of one hundred and thirty-five thousand men perished4 ,it is not certain whether the lights which were covered by the pitchers came from lamps or torches4 ,gideon lived three thousand years ago1 and at that time both torches and lamps were used4 ,he was a general of the ,israelites1 and they certainly had lamps when in ,egypt many years before the time of ,gideon4 ,lamps were also used by the ,greeks and the ,romans4 ,the lamp of these ancient times was merely a small vessel like a modern cup or bowl1 usually having a handle4 ,this was filled with oil1 generally olive1 or sometimes only with grease4 ,in this cup was placed a small piece of cloth hanging over the side1 which when lighted served as a wick4 ,it was the simplest arrangement possible4 ,illustration3 ,,ancient ,,lamps4 ,the pitch-pine knot and the cup of grease have been more or less used since these early times4 ,when our ancestors came to this country their houses were generally lighted by candles4 ,in many cases1 however1 the light from the fireplace was all that was used except on rare occasions4 ,the settlers who gradually moved westward to take up new lands retained nearly all the inconvenient methods of the earlier colonists4 ,in the newer settlements of the ,ohio and ,mississippi valleys and on the great ,western plains the logs on the hearth were frequently the only means for lighting the house during the evenings4 ,on ,knob ,creek1 in the new ,state of ,kentucky1 a little school was kept nearly eighty-five years ago4 ,among the pupils was a small boy not seven years of age4 ,one of his schoolmates afterward said of him that he was an unusually bright boy at school1 and made splendid progress in his studies4 ,he would get spice-wood brushes1 hack them up on a log1 and burn two or three together for the purpose of giving light by which he might pursue his studies4 ,it does not surprise us to learn that this boy who thus in his earliest years showed such eagerness to learn as to utilize the light of the kitchen fire was ,abraham ,lincoln1 afterward the famous ,president of the ,united ,states4 ,many men are now living who do not remember to have seen in their boyhood days any better light than the grease lamp4 ,one of these primitive lamps was easily made4 ,an old button was covered with cloth1 which was tied with a string close to the button1 the edges of the cloth hanging free4 ,this covered button was placed upon lard in a saucer or other similar vessel1 and a light applied4 ,the lard around the cloth melted1 the button acted as a wick1 and a rude lamp was the result4 ,the hearth fire1 the fagot or pitch-pine knot1 and the pot of grease or lard with a simple wick were the earliest methods of artificial lighting4 ,these1 though still in use in newly settled communities1 gave place1 in the main1 centuries ago to the candle4 ,as this was the first improved method for lighting houses1 churches1 and other buildings1 it should next be considered4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,candles4 ,nobody can tell when candles were invented4 ,candlesticks are often spoken of in the ,bible1 but those doubtless held oil and burned a wick which hung over the side like the ,roman lamps of later time4 ,these lamps appear to have been used by the ,romans in their worship1 and after the ,christian religion was established at ,rome1 candles were introduced into the ,christian service4 ,during all the centuries since that time the candle has been used in ,catholic churches and cathedrals4 ,the ,romans on the second day of ,february burned candles to the goddess ,februa1 the mother of ,mars1 the ,roman god of war1 and ,pope ,sergius adopted the custom and established rites and ceremonies for that day in the offering of candles to the ,virgin ,mary4 ,this was called ,candlemas day4 ,the common people supposed that these candles would frighten away the devil and all evil spirits not only from the persons who burned them1 but from the houses in which they were placed4 ,there is an ancient tradition about ,candlemas day which seems to have traveled all over ,europe and found its way into this country2 if the weather is fine on that day--,february #b;d--it indicates a long winter and a late spring4 ,the ,scotch state the legend in this way3 ,if ,candlemas day is fair and clear1 ,there'll be two winters in the year4 ,for several centuries past candles have been used all over the world for lighting purposes4 ,we have a variety of candles even in these days1 as they are now made of tallow1 stearin1 bleached wax1 spermaceti1 and paraffine4 ,those commonly used by the early colonists were dipped candles1 often roughly made at home4 ,for the wicks a loose1 soft1 fibrous substance was taken1 generally cotton4 ,these were hung upon a frame and dipped in melted tallow1 taken out1 suffered to cool1 and dipped again and again until the required thickness was obtained4 ,moulded candles were cast in a series of tubes1 the wicks first being adjusted in the middle of the tubes and melted tallow poured in4 ,the best candles were made of wax4 ,these were neither dipped nor moulded4 ,the wicks were warmed1 and melted wax poured over them until they acquired the proper thickness1 then they were rolled between flat pieces of wet1 hard wood4 ,it is related of ,benjamin ,franklin that when a young man he received an invitation from ,gov4 ,william ,burnet1 of ,new ,york1 to call upon him4 ,the governor was delighted with his conversation1 and was surprised to hear him quote from ,locke on the ,understanding4 ,the governor asked him at what college he had studied ,locke4 ,why1 sir1 said ,franklin1 it was my misfortune never to be at any college1 or even at a grammar school1 except for a year or two when ,i was a child4 ,here the governor sprang from his seat1 and staring at ,ben1 cried out3 ,well1 and where did you get your education1 pray8 ,at home1 sir1 in a tallow-chandler's shop4 ,in a tallow-chandler's shop6 exclaimed the governor4 ,yes1 sir2 my father was a poor old tallow chandler with fifteen children1 and ,i the youngest of all4 ,his father had1 later1 two other children1 both girls4 ,at eight he put me to school2 but finding he could not spare the money from the rest of the children to keep me there1 he took me home into the shop1 where ,i assisted him by twisting candlewicks and filling the moulds all day1 and at night read by myself4 ,so ,benjamin ,franklin spent two years of his life1 between the ages of ten and twelve1 in making candles for the good people of ,boston4 ,illustration3 ,,franklin ,,making ,,candles4 ,the candles gave but a poor light compared with the lights which we have to-day4 ,the combustion was only partial1 and there was constant trouble from the necessity of snuffing the candle1 that is1 cutting off the burnt wick4 ,in those days1 in every well-regulated house1 on the little centre-table stood the candlestick1 and by its side upon a small tray made for the purpose could always be found the snuffers--a singular instrument1 something like a pair of scissors1 with a small semi-circular pocket in which to hold the snuff taken from the candle4 ,illustration3 ,,reading ,,by ,,candlelight4 ,let us imagine an early ,new ,england family on a winter's evening sitting before the blazing fire of the open fireplace4 ,they are gathered around a small table upon which is a solitary candle1 giving a feeble1 sickly flame4 ,by its light the mother is sewing and the father is reading from the ,bible1 ,the ,pilgrim's ,progress1 or it may be ,bacon's ,essays1 or ,locke on the ,understanding4 ,the children are listening and trying to get interested in what is being read to them1 while occasionally one or another of them snuffs the little candle4 ,by and by the candle burns down to the socket1 and goes out4 ,the mother rises and goes to the pantry to get another1 but finds to her dismay that she has used her last one4 ,the family must therefore see by the light of the fire or retire for the night1 and to-morrow the good wife must dip some more candles4 ,when the children go to bed they have no brightly burning lamp to light them to their several bedrooms1 but they climb the ladder to the open1 unfinished loft with no light except what comes to them from the embers upon the hearth4 ,then the father covers up the coals with a great body of ashes1 hoping to keep the fire till morning4 ,what a marked contrast between the life of those people and the customs of to-day in the same country and among the grandchildren and the great-grandchildren of those same pioneer settlers6 ,in the colonial days for an evening service the churches must be lighted with candles4 ,occasionally you will find even now in some ancient church the antique candelabra or chandelier4 ,sometimes in wealthy churches these were made of glass1 and were of beautiful construction4 ,in the old meeting-house of the first ,baptist church in ,providence1 ,rhode ,island1 which was founded by ,roger ,williams and others in #afci1 there is one of these ancient glass candelabras4 ,it is of immense proportions1 hanging from the ceiling by a long1 stout chain1 and arranged for a large number of candles4 ,it has not been used for many years1 but it is a beautiful ornament and a suggestive reminder of the method by which our ancestors lighted their churches in the early times4 ,in these days of brilliant electric lights1 how small appears the light of the ancient candles6 ,have we gained in knowledge and manner of living as greatly as in heating and lighting our houses8 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,whale ,,oil4 ,no one knows when the whale fishery began4 ,eight hundred years ago whales were caught off the coast of ,france and ,spain1 and before the ,pilgrim fathers landed at ,plymouth the whale fishery had been carried on to such an extent on the west coast of ,europe that the supply of whales had begun to fail4 ,the ,american whale fishery began with the earliest settlers4 ,they found it profitable to catch whales and try out the oil for use in their lamps4 ,it has been said that one of the arguments for settling on ,cape ,cod was the presence along the coast of large whales of the best kind for oil and whalebone4 ,the first whale fishery in ,america was carried on from ,cape ,cod1 ,nantucket1 and ,martha's ,vineyard by large rowboats4 ,a company of hardy pioneers would row out from the coast into deep water1 wait for the appearance of a whale1 strike their harpoons into his side1 and let him run4 ,sometimes it would be days before death would result4 ,often he would sink and later rise and float upon the surface4 ,the fishermen would then pull him to the shore and try out the oil4 ,many whales thus harpooned would be lost to those who had wounded them4 ,a story is told that in the town of ,southampton1 ,long ,island1 before the year #afej1 the men divided themselves into squads to watch night and day for whales that might come ashore1 and this became in a few years a regular industry4 ,after a time whaling vessels were fitted up and sent out for the capture of whales4 ,these vessels cruised in all waters4 ,they coasted along ,greenland and into the ,arctic ,ocean4 ,they traversed the ,south ,seas1 and sailed upon the ,pacific through all latitudes from ,patagonia to ,bering ,sea4 ,great vessels--barks1 brigs1 and full-rigged ships--manned with large crews of stalwart men1 with supplies for a three-years' voyage or more1 would leave home for a cruise in foreign waters after these monsters of the deep4 ,illustration3 ,,whale ,,fishing4 ,when the whale is killed its body is towed alongside the vessel and is made fast by the ship's chains4 ,the fat of the whale is cut into slices1 and these slices taken in between decks4 ,this cutting up--or1 as the sailors call it1 cutting in--occupies the entire ship's company for hours4 ,the fat or blubber1 as they call it1 is cut into smaller cubical pieces1 heated in a large pot1 and the oil strained off4 ,this is called trying out4 ,the oil is stored in casks to be conveyed home4 ,a large whale will give two or three tons of blubber4 ,it is estimated that a ton of blubber will yield nearly two hundred gallons of oil4 ,sometimes a single whale will produce oil and whalebone to the value of #c1jjj or #d1jjj4 ,it will readily be seen that whale fishing is both a laborious and a dangerous occupation4 ,the wounded whale is accustomed to strike violently with its tail in the endeavor to destroy its enemies4 ,here is a true story about the experiences of one family engaged in the whale fishery4 ,long before the year #ahjj and after that date for almost half a century1 ,new ,bedford1 ,nantucket1 ,martha's ,vineyard1 and ,provincetown in ,massachusetts1 with ,warren and ,bristol in ,rhode ,island1 engaged very largely in this hazardous but profitable business4 ,in one of these towns an industrious and enterprising man of more than ordinary ability followed this occupation for half a century and amassed a small fortune4 ,he had several sons4 ,when the oldest grew to manhood he very naturally followed in the footsteps of his father4 ,he went to sea on a whaling vessel and was lost during his first voyage4 ,the second son shipped on a whaler4 ,in the ,arctic waters he was one day pursuing a whale that had already been wounded1 rowing with all his might4 ,the whale in his anger struck at the boat with his huge tail1 hit the oar with which the young man was rowing1 and drove the end of it into his mouth1 breaking the bones and crushing in the very interior4 ,still the young man lived4 ,he was tenderly cared for by his shipmates1 and finally reached home4 ,then he was turned over to the doctors4 ,skillful surgery supplied him with a false lower jaw1 a gold roof to his mouth1 and a false palate4 ,he lived many years and was a successful business man4 ,had you met him on the street he would have talked with you like any other man1 and you would have observed nothing unusual except the scars of two cuts on the upper lip4 ,the third son when eighteen years of age also left home on a whaling voyage4 ,at the end of three years his ship returned with a full cargo of excellent oil4 ,the heavily freighted vessel anchored in the bay1 and the captain went up to the town in a rowboat to announce his arrival1 and to tell the people of the success of the voyage and that all were well on board4 ,just as the captain was leaving for the shore some young men in the crew1 wishing to celebrate their safe return1 proposed firing the ship's swivel-gun4 ,as the captain started over the side of the vessel he cautioned them1 saying that the gun was rusty and that it would not be safe to fire it4 ,but it was our young friend's birthday4 ,he would risk the old gun4 ,they ran it out on deck1 loaded it up1 and touched it off4 ,there was a terrific explosion4 ,the gun burst and blew off both hands of the young man who was celebrating his birthday4 ,another boat was pushed off for the shore and carried the wounded man to his home4 ,nothing could save his hands2 they were both amputated at the wrists4 ,through a long life he wore wooden hands covered with kid gloves4 ,he was accustomed frequently to mourn that he had not at least one thumb4 ,if he could have had a single thumb he could have done many things4 ,was it not ,emerson who said that the thumb is the symbol of civilization8 ,man could never have attained his present position without a thumb4 ,for many years this man1 thus maimed for life1 kept a store and sold groceries and ship supplies4 ,a visitor one day saw him weigh out for a lady customer a quarter of a pound of pepper4 ,it was at the noon hour1 when the clerks were all away at dinner4 ,the customer came and asked for a quarter of a pound of pepper4 ,the storekeeper pulled out the drawer1 placed it on the counter1 put a piece of paper in the hopper1 adjusted the scale to the quarter pound1 slipped one of his wooden fingers through the handle of the little tin scoop1 and scattered the pepper upon the paper until the full weight was made4 ,he then returned the drawer to its place1 took off the hopper and laid it upon the counter1 pulled out the paper and the pepper1 doubled the paper over on one side and back from the other side1 doubled over one end and then the other1 picked it up between his two wooden hands1 and handed it to the customer4 ,she placed the money on the back of his hand4 ,with the other hand he pulled open the money drawer and tossed the money in4 ,with both hands he took off his hat1 picked up the change with his lips1 placed the change upon the back of his hand1 and passed it to the lady4 ,three unfortunate experiences in one family would seem to have been enough1 so the next son never went to sea4 ,we may now ask what was the object of all this whale fishery8 ,man had made a new invention4 ,he had not only discovered the value of whale oil as a material for furnishing artificial light1 he had also invented the modern lamp4 ,in the candle the burning material1 whether tallow or something else1 is solidified around the wick4 ,the heat from the burning wick melts the tallow and the combustion gives light4 ,in the modern lamp the simple device of a tube or two tubes to hold the wick is all that is needed over and above those used in ancient times4 ,tin tubes are placed in the top of the lamp and the wicks run up through the tubes4 ,the lamp then being filled with oil1 capillary attraction will bring the oil up to the top of the wick4 ,the lamp when lighted will burn until the supply of oil is exhausted4 ,the invention of this modern lamp1 though very simple1 has been of great value4 ,at first it was made of metal--lead1 block tin1 ,britannia1 brass--and finally of glass4 ,lamps of various patterns and different sizes became common4 ,for a long while very little change was made in this new mode of obtaining light4 ,this method continued in common use until about the middle of the nineteenth century4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,kerosene4 ,it was a long step from the smoky and ill-smelling whale-oil lamp to the clear and brilliant kerosene burner4 ,at the present time the best illumination is furnished by gas and electricity1 but in the country and to a large extent in the cities the kerosene lamp is still in common use1 and doubtless will remain so for a long time to come4 ,this lamp with its recent important improvements is mainly of ,american origin and development4 ,kerosene for lighting purposes has some advantages over gas or electricity4 ,the light produced from it is steady2 therefore it is less harmful to the eyes than the flickering light of illuminating gas1 and even better than the electric light4 ,it is far cheaper than either4 ,it has a third advantage1 since it can be used in a hand lamp which can be carried from place to place4 ,a large portion of our population consider it so valuable that they would rather give up the gaslight altogether1 or indeed the electric light1 than be obliged to lose the kerosene lamp4 ,kerosene is a form of petroleum which is obtained from the earth by deep wells4 ,it is only within the last fifty years that this oil has been pumped in sufficient quantities to make it a valuable industry1 though petroleum was obtained here and there in small quantities far back in the early ages4 ,it seems a little singular that the people of ,japan and ,persia should have dug oil wells centuries ago4 ,herodotus1 who wrote history five hundred years before ,christ1 tells us of the springs of ,zante1 one of the ,ionian ,islands in the ,mediterranean ,sea1 from which oil flowed4 ,it is said that these springs are still flowing4 ,china seems to have been the first country to draw oil from artesian wells4 ,we proud ,americans are accustomed to think ourselves a little ahead of all other people4 ,when an ,american boy in ,san ,francisco1 for instance1 meets a ,chinese lad1 he is quite apt to look down upon him and to think that this little ,chinese boy came from a country hardly civilized and certainly far behind the universal ,yankee nation2 yet we are constantly finding traces of a civilization in ,china much earlier than our own4 ,the first successful oil well in this country was made by ,col4 ,e4 ,l4 ,drake1 near ,titusville1 ,pennsylvania4 ,in #ahed the ,pennsylvania ,rock-,oil ,company was organized for the purpose of procuring petroleum in ,oil ,creek4 ,four years later this company employed ,colonel ,drake to drill an artesian well4 ,on the #bith of ,august1 #ahei1 he struck oil only sixty-nine feet below the surface of the ground4 ,the next day this well was found to be nearly full of petroleum4 ,oil is now found in large quantities in various sections of ,pennsylvania1 ,new ,york1 ,indiana1 and ,kentucky1 and it has recently been discovered in ,california1 ,wyoming1 ,colorado1 and other portions of our land4 ,the largest part of the oil used in commerce is from ,pennsylvania4 ,at the present time more than fifty million barrels of petroleum are produced annually in the ,united ,states alone1 which is more than half of the entire product of the world4 ,a single well has been known to yield forty thousand gallons a day1 flowing freely without the slightest use of pumping apparatus4 ,the product of these wells after a time greatly diminishes and sometimes ceases altogether4 ,in such cases it is customary to explode torpedoes at the bottom of the well4 ,this is done by placing there several gallons of nitroglycerine with a fulminating cap on top4 ,this cap is exploded by dropping a piece of iron upon it4 ,the explosion opens the seams and crevices around the bottom of the well so as to renew the flow of oil4 ,illustration3 ,,oil ,,wells4 ,it is now about forty years since the first introduction of kerosene as an article of commerce4 ,to-day it is in almost universal use throughout the civilized world4 ,it gives a convenient light at a moderate expense1 and has therefore proved a great blessing to mankind4 ,meantime the whale fishery has largely diminished2 indeed1 it would seem to be almost destroyed4 ,the reasons for this are not difficult to find4 ,in the first place1 the number of whales is much less than formerly1 so that this business is far less profitable than it used to be4 ,in the second place1 the rapid development of the kerosene industry has so cheapened the product that people cannot afford to light their houses with whale oil1 especially as they find the kerosene not only cheaper1 but more convenient and satisfactory4 ,common whale oil previous to #ahej had been furnished at an average cost of perhaps fifty cents a gallon1 while the sperm oil1 which is of superior quality1 cost as much as one dollar a gallon4 ,the people of the whole country east of the ,rocky ,mountains feed their lamps to-day with kerosene at a cost of from eight cents to twelve cents a gallon4 ,a few persons have made great fortunes from the oil wells4 ,on the other hand1 it should not be forgotten that the modern processes of purifying kerosene could not have been put in operation without the aid of large fortunes4 ,a cheap and satisfactory light has been furnished to all the people of the ,united ,states only by means of the great capital employed in its production4 ,so you see civilization is progressing1 and we are all enjoying more blessings and conveniences than our fathers had4 ,in the earlier times every one had to labor diligently to secure food1 clothing1 and shelter4 ,as civilization advances these require less time and expense1 and we have greater opportunities to attend to the development of our higher natures1 the acquisition of knowledge1 the pursuit of science1 and the elevation of the race4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,illuminating ,,gas4 ,thus far our various methods of artificial lighting have been very simple4 ,at first men burned the pitch from the pine1 and it produced a flame2 then they burned olive oil through a wick1 and it gave forth a flame4 ,the tallow in the candle was burned through a wick1 and it made a light2 the whale oil in the lamp was burned by means of a wick1 and a light was the result4 ,in the same way refined petroleum1 which we call kerosene1 was burned by means of a wick1 and that gave a strong light4 ,these methods of lighting were all very similar4 ,we come now to a real invention4 ,what would a boy of the year #ahjj1 could he return to the earth1 say to see you strike a match1 turn a stopcock1 and light the gas as you do to-day8 ,he has never seen a match4 ,he is just as ignorant of a stopcock1 and surely it would be difficult for him to understand the burning of the gas4 ,many things would need to be explained to this boy of a hundred years ago4 ,he must be told all about the production of illuminating gas1 the storing of that gas under pressure1 the transportation of it to the place where the light is wanted1 and the proper apparatus for turning it on1 setting it on fire1 and regulating its pressure so as to produce a steady1 uniform light4 ,before the year #agjj ,dr4 ,john ,clayton1 an ,englishman1 prepared gas from bituminous coal1 collected it1 and burned it for the amusement of his friends4 ,an ,english bishop in #agfg showed how gas could be produced from coal and how it might be conveyed in tubes4 ,these were the first two steps toward our present almost universal illumination by gas3 making gas and conveying it in tubes4 ,the real inventor of practical gas-lighting was ,william ,murdoch1 of ,cornwall1 ,england1 who sometime before the year #ahjj carried pipes through his house and office1 and lighted the various rooms with gas which he had made from coal4 ,indeed1 ,murdoch did more than this3 he lighted with his new gas a small steam carriage in which he rode to and from his mines4 ,in #ahjb he first publicly exhibited this gas-lighting in ,ayrshire1 ,scotland1 and showed two immense flames from coal gas4 ,nor did he stop here1 for in #ahje he succeeded in lighting some cotton mills by the same method4 ,in our country various experiments were made1 but without any practical result until #ahba1 when illuminating gas was successfully manufactured and used in ,baltimore4 ,in #ahbg the ,new ,york ,gaslight ,company introduced this new method into many houses and sold the gas to the people for lighting purposes4 ,that was over seventy years ago4 ,what a change has been made within these seventy years6 ,in cities and large towns almost every new house is piped for gas4 ,gas companies are formed for supplying this illuminating product to the inhabitants4 ,gas meters have been perfected which measure the quantity of gas1 so that one pays for no more than he uses4 ,moreover1 the towns and cities put up street lights which burn this same gas in the night1 making it easy1 convenient1 and safe to traverse the streets at any hour4 ,bituminous or soft coal is used in the manufacture of illuminating gas1 as anthracite contains less of the needed materials4 ,gases are easily driven off from bituminous coal whenever it is heated1 if air is kept from it4 ,at the works1 therefore1 the coal is placed in large closed ovens1 called retorts4 ,these are directly over furnace fires1 which are kept vigorously burning4 ,the gases pass out of the coal and1 rising1 enter a series of long pipes4 ,the coal which is left in the retorts is called coke4 ,this process is called distillation4 ,many substances pass off with the gas1 from which it must be cleaned4 ,tar and ammonia become liquids when cooled1 and are left behind as the gas passes through cold water4 ,the series of iron pipes in which this process is carried on is called the condenser4 ,then the gas is carried through the purifier1 in which all other impurities are removed4 ,when thoroughly purified the gas passes into the gasometer4 ,this usually consists of two round iron cylinders of nearly the same size1 one inside of the other4 ,the outside cylinder has no roof2 the inside has no floor4 ,the sides of the inner one go down into a trench filled with water4 ,its top is held up by the gas1 which comes into it from the purifier4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,gasometer4 ,the roof of the inner cylinder presses down heavily upon the gas1 pushing it into the large main pipes1 which run from the gasometer through the principal streets4 ,smaller mains connect with these and the gas is pushed into the service pipes1 which enter the houses4 ,when a stopcock is opened in any house the pressure of the gasometer pushes the gas through1 it may be1 miles of pipes1 and out through the burner1 where it may be lighted4 ,many houses have a simple electric-lighting attachment1 so that by merely turning a stopcock the gas is turned on and by pulling a chain an electric spark sets the gas on fire1 flooding the room with light4 ,within a few years illuminating gas has greatly diminished in price4 ,it costs a little more than kerosene1 but it is more convenient in many ways4 ,the danger of carrying lamps from room to room is avoided1 as well as the disagreeable task of filling them4 ,still the gas flame is less steady than that of the kerosene lamp1 and is therefore less serviceable for reading4 ,for the poor man the kerosene light is a great blessing1 while for all who can afford the extra cost the gaslight is a greater convenience4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,electric ,,lighting4 ,the electric light differs widely from all modes of artificial light previously invented4 ,it is the latest method that man has discovered for the production of light4 ,in its practical form this invention is quite recent4 ,in ,england the arc light was produced in lecture-room experiments as early as #ahjb4 ,prof4 ,michael ,faraday1 a learned ,englishman and celebrated chemist1 experimented many years in electricity and magnetism in the ,royal ,institution at ,london4 ,he continued his studies and experiments in developing the science of electricity through his whole life1 but he died1 an old man1 before a single electric arc was seen in the streets of ,london4 ,in ancient times an invention was frequently the result of one man's efforts1 but at the present time it is often quite otherwise4 ,many men are now engaged in the development of electric lighting4 ,charles ,francis ,brush was a farmer's boy in ,ohio4 ,he pushed himself through the ,cleveland ,high ,school and graduated at the ,university of ,michigan4 ,he established a laboratory in ,cleveland and turned his attention to the invention of apparatus for electric lighting4 ,he was one of three or four great ,american inventors who successfully put into operation the dynamo and furnished electricity for the electrical lamp4 ,this dynamo is a machine which produces electric currents by mechanical power4 ,brush's dynamo at the outset was so perfect and complete that for many years it has continued in regular use with but very little change4 ,elihu ,thomson graduated at the ,central ,high ,school in ,philadelphia and taught chemistry in that school4 ,he studied with great care the subject of electricity1 giving special attention to lighting4 ,he organized the ,thomson-,houston ,electric ,company1 and has patented nearly two hundred inventions relating to electric lighting and other applications of electricity4 ,he was also the inventor of the system of electric welding4 ,among the great ,american inventors in electrical science is ,thomas ,alva ,edison4 ,he was an ,ohio boy whose ,scotch mother taught him to read4 ,when he was twelve years old he was a newsboy on the ,grand ,trunk ,railroad4 ,here he acquired the habit of reading4 ,he studied chemistry and conducted chemical experiments on the train4 ,he learned to set type1 and edited and printed a newspaper in the baggage car4 ,he was constantly noticing the telegraph stations along the road1 and he soon began to study electricity4 ,illustration3 ,,edison',s ,,heroic ,,act4 ,one day the little child of a station master was playing on the track just as a freight car was moving down toward him4 ,almost as swift as lightning itself young ,edison dashed out1 stepped in front of the coming car1 and at the risk of his own life snatched the child from danger4 ,in gratitude the station master1 knowing the boy's interest in the telegraph1 taught him how to use a machine4 ,after that he acquired great skill in this art and operated in many sections of the country1 perfecting himself in the subject4 ,for over twenty years he has had a large establishment1 with an immense workshop and many mechanics1 at ,menlo ,park1 ,n4 ,j41 where he has devoted his whole attention to inventing4 ,he has perfected his system of duplex telegraphy and invented the carbon telephone-transmitter1 the phonograph1 the platinum burner1 and the carbon burner for the incandescent light4 ,he has patented very many inventions1 and his system of electric lighting for houses is now in general use4 ,edison's whole life is an interesting study for young people4 ,at the present time the two methods of lighting by electricity are the arc light and the incandescent light4 ,the arc light is used for lighting large buildings like churches1 halls1 and railway stations1 and for lighting the streets of a city4 ,the incandescent light1 or the glow-lamp as it is called in ,england1 is in general use for lighting dwelling houses4 ,this lamp consists of a glass bulb from which air has been excluded so that it is almost a perfect vacuum and in which is inserted a looped filament of carbon4 ,the electricity is made to pass through this carbon wire1 which is thereby heated to a white heat and thus furnishes the light4 ,being in a vacuum1 the carbon is but slightly burned4 ,it therefore can be subjected to this heat for a long time without breaking or wearing out4 ,at first ,edison used a platinum wire in the little electric lamp4 ,he wanted something better4 ,he needed some form of bamboo or other vegetable fibre4 ,he sent a man to explore ,china and ,japan for bamboo4 ,he sent another1 who traveled twenty-three hundred miles up the ,amazon ,river and finally reached the ,pacific coast1 searching for bamboo4 ,he sent a third to ,ceylon to spend years in a similar search4 ,eighty varieties of bamboo and three thousand specimens of other vegetable fibre were brought him4 ,he tested them all2 three or four were found suitable4 ,this system of incandescent lights has been rapidly extended within a few years4 ,there are millions of these lights now in use in this country4 ,they are used not only for lighting the rooms of hotels and private houses1 but also for lighting steamships1 railway trains1 and street cars1 and for nearly all indoor illumination4 ,this light is not as cheap as kerosene or gaslight1 but it is so convenient and so simple1 requiring no daily care1 that it is rapidly coming into use in all towns and cities4 ,among its advantages may be named the four following points4 ,matches are not needed in making a light4 ,thus the danger from accidental fires1 which have so frequently occurred from the careless use of matches1 is avoided4 ,very little heat results from an electric light1 while from kerosene lamps and gaslight much heat is produced4 ,in warm weather this freedom from heat is agreeable4 ,the burning lamp and the gas jet make the air of the room impure and unfit for breathing4 ,this is not true of the electric light4 ,in the use of kerosene and of illuminating gas there is frequently danger of explosion4 ,not so with the electric light4 ,it will be seen that we are thus using to-day for lighting purposes occasionally the candle1 quite largely the kerosene lamp1 and to a great extent in towns and cities the gaslight1 and best of all--the cleanest1 the neatest1 giving the brightest light1 requiring the least attention from the consumer1 and manifesting the highest development of man's inventive genius thus far--the electric light4 ,here at present man's invention in this direction has stopped4 ,what the next step will be1 no one can tell4 ,slowly through the ages man has been developing4 ,gradually he has grown in mental power and advanced morally and spiritually4 ,it is very clear that although he is an animal and has the nature and desires of an animal1 he has high mental capacity and is endowed with a spiritual nature1 a soul4 ,at the very beginning of creation we are told1 ,god said1 ,let there be light3 and there was light4 ,how and whence it came we cannot tell4 ,it would almost seem that man in his effort to create light has kept step with his own development4 ,the first light was produced from the simplest substances1 solids3 wood on the hearth1 the pitch-pine knot1 and the candle4 ,then followed light produced from liquids3 olive oil1 whale oil1 refined petroleum4 ,afterward the inventive genius of man extracted from coal an invisible gas which would burn and give a bright1 clear light4 ,rising higher and higher1 man soars above all solids1 liquids1 and gases1 and with a sudden bound leaps almost out of the realm of matter and produces the electric light1 which is merely a form of motion4 ,how clearly the progress of man1 his elevation1 his civilization1 his increased conveniences and luxuries of life are made to appear in this study of his methods of obtaining artificial light6 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,lighthouses4 ,we have seen that artificial light is needed at night not only in houses1 churches1 and public halls1 but also in the streets of large towns and cities for the benefit of those who have occasion to travel after dark4 ,still further1 it has been found necessary to light the shores of the great sea1 so that vessels may not run upon the rocks in the darkness and be stove to pieces4 ,the building of lighthouses has chiefly developed during the present century1 although a few lighthouses were known to the ancients4 ,the full history of lighthouses1 if we could trace it1 would be very interesting4 ,if you were asked where the first lighthouse was built you would be quite likely to guess right the first time1 because you know that the first ships and the first sailors were around the eastern part of the ,mediterranean ,sea4 ,you would certainly say somewhere along the eastern coast of that sea4 ,now as a matter of fact there was a lighthouse on the island of ,pharos1 just in front of the city of ,alexandria1 which was built over three hundred years before ,christ4 ,this was one of the most celebrated towers of antiquity2 in fact1 it is classed among the ,seven ,wonders of the ,world4 ,it is quite likely1 however1 that this was not the first lighthouse4 ,probably there were towers on the ,dardanelles1 the ,sea of ,marmora1 and the ,bosphorus which may have preceded the ,pharos of ,alexandria4 ,the ,romans built lighthouses at ,ostia1 ,ravenna1 ,puteoli1 and other ports4 ,all these ancient lighthouses were towers on the top of which wood was burned at night1 and the blaze of the burning wood furnished the light which was to guide the mariner4 ,two or three centuries ago many lighthouses were built along the shores of ,france and ,england4 ,the first lighthouse on the coast of our country was ,boston ,light1 at the entrance to ,boston harbor1 which was erected in the year #agaf4 ,ever since the ,united ,states government has been established1 much attention has been paid to our system of lighthouses4 ,in #aheb a lighthouse board was established within the department of the ,united ,states ,treasury4 ,great skill and engineering ability are needed in the construction of lighthouses4 ,our country has long ,atlantic1 ,pacific1 and lake coasts to be protected1 besides numerous rivers extending over thousands of miles4 ,all along these coasts and rivers our government has established and maintains lighthouses4 ,we have nearly a thousand lights on the ,atlantic coast1 nearly two hundred upon the ,pacific1 and several hundred along the shores of the ,northern ,lakes4 ,the ,united ,states has also many fog signals and almost innumerable buoys4 ,great sums of money are necessary to build these lighthouses1 many of which are now of iron4 ,twelve of our most famous lighthouses have cost a total sum of upward of #c1jjj1jjj for their construction4 ,each year witnesses a steady improvement in the method of construction and of lighting this multitude of lighthouses4 ,at first1 fires burning at the tops of lighthouses were the only signals and guides at night4 ,then came the use of oil in lamps1 with reflectors constructed for the purpose4 ,at first in this country fish oil was used1 and after that sperm oil4 ,within the last ten years refined petroleum has been almost universally adopted for lighthouses in the ,united ,states4 ,at present about a million gallons are used in a year4 ,we have only a few electric lights1 though two are now in use on the ,atlantic coast and two or three upon the lakes4 ,in late years commerce has been rapidly extended4 ,the merchant marine of the nations has grown to gigantic proportions4 ,the amount of travel not only coastwise but across the ocean for pleasure and profit has become enormous4 ,the nations are coming closer together and becoming better acquainted with each other4 ,all this promotes civilization1 and will ere long1 it is to be hoped1 operate to prevent international wars4 ,england has many famous lighthouses4 ,great ,britain is an island and her coast shows a continuous series of indentations4 ,perhaps the most famous of her lighthouses is the ,eddystone ,light1 a few miles off from ,plymouth4 ,if you will look on your map of ,great ,britain you will find that the county of ,northumberland is the extreme northern end of ,england1 bordering on the ,north ,sea and adjoining the southeast corner of ,scotland4 ,off that coast you will see a little group of islands called the ,farne ,islands4 ,at low tide there are twenty-five of them4 ,on one of these little islands1 early in the present century1 stood the ,longstone ,lighthouse4 ,it was a solitary place1 and sometimes weeks would pass without any communication with the mainland4 ,the keeper of this light was ,william ,darling1 a man of intelligence1 who gave a fair education to each of his large family of children4 ,one of these was a daughter whose name was ,grace4 ,think what the youth of an intelligent girl would be on one of the ,farne ,islands4 ,they are extremely desolate1 are covered with rocks1 and have very little vegetation and very little animal life except sea fowl4 ,through the channels between these islands the sea rushes with great force1 and many a brave ship has gone down1 dashed to pieces upon the rocks4 ,in #ahch a large steamer named the ,forfarshire struck these rocks and was broken in two within sight of ,longstone ,lighthouse4 ,this steamer had on board more than forty passengers and twenty officers and crew4 ,three persons only were in the lighthouse--,mr4 ,darling1 his wife1 and ,grace4 ,the storm was furious1 the sea was running high1 and through the mist1 with the aid of his glass1 ,mr4 ,darling could make out the figures of the sufferers who were still clinging to the broken vessel4 ,the lighthouse-keeper shrank from attempting their rescue1 but ,grace insisted that they must make the effort to save them from certain death4 ,even the launching of the boat was extremely hazardous4 ,the old lighthouse-keeper thought it impossible1 but he could not resist the pleadings of his daughter4 ,the mother helped to launch the boat2 the father and daughter entered it and each took an oar4 ,it was a terrible undertaking to row the frail boat1 and it required not only great muscular power but the most determined courage4 ,the rescuers succeeded in reaching the rocks1 but found great difficulty in steadying the boat to prevent it from being destroyed on the sharp ridges4 ,there were nine persons clinging to the broken vessel4 ,these nine were all rescued4 ,by tremendous energy1 great skill1 and almost superhuman efforts they were rowed back to the lighthouse in safety4 ,this heroic deed of a young woman scarcely twenty-three years of age was heralded abroad until she became well known all over ,europe1 and the lonely lighthouse was soon the centre of attraction to thousands of curious and sympathizing persons4 ,the ,humane ,society sent her a most flattering vote of thanks1 and a public subscription was raised amounting to about thirty-five hundred dollars4 ,testimonials of all kinds were showered upon her1 which produced in her mind only a sense of wonder and grateful pleasure4 ,illustration3 ,,grace ,,darling4 ,this brief outline of ,grace ,darling is here given because her heroism served to call the attention of the world to the importance of lighthouses and the isolated life of the keepers and their families4 ,you will find a picturesque account of the life of ,grace ,darling in the first volume of ,chambers's ,miscellany4 ,this story does not stand alone in lighthouse annals1 but again and again has it been matched in later times and in our own country4 ,one of the most famous lighthouse heroines in ,america was ,miss ,ida ,lewis1 whose father kept the ,limestone ,lighthouse at the entrance to the harbor of ,newport1 ,r4 ,i4 ,this lighthouse-keeper's daughter very early in life became skilled in rowing and swimming4 ,one day1 when she was eighteen years of age1 four young men were upset in a boat in the harbor4 ,ida quickly launched her own skiff1 pushed off1 rescued them1 and brought them safely to shore4 ,at another time three drunken soldiers had stove a hole in their boat not far from the lighthouse4 ,two swam ashore and ,ida reached their boat in season to save the third4 ,two years afterward a sheep was being driven down the wharf when the animal plunged into the water4 ,three men running along the shore in pursuit found a boat and pushed out after the sheep4 ,a heavy sou'wester was blowing and the boat was carried away into deep water4 ,ida ,lewis1 in spite of the high wind1 rowed out in her little skiff and brought them safely ashore4 ,one winter a young scapegrace stole a sailboat from the wharf and put out to sea4 ,about midnight the gale drove the boat upon the ,limestone rocks a mile from the light1 but the boy clung to the mast all night4 ,in the morning ,ida ,lewis found him1 as she said1 shaking and ,god-blessing me and praying to be set on shore4 ,by these and other instances in which ,miss ,lewis rescued those in danger she became famous1 and her praises were heralded in the newspapers and spoken at many firesides4 ,the citizens of ,newport presented her with a boat as a token of their admiration of her bravery4 ,these famous instances and many more that could be added to them would seem to indicate that life in a lighthouse1 with the mind constantly running out to the sea1 becoming familiar with the storms that rise1 and observing the dash of the waves and the roar of the wind--life inured to hardship1 but shut up within the safe keeping of the solid walls of the little tower high above the raging waves--it would seem that such a life is calculated to give courage1 strength1 and fortitude1 and to endue the heart with a heroic forgetfulness of self4 ,how important is the position of a lighthouse-keeper6 ,many lives are in his hands1 and on his fidelity depends the safety of millions of dollars of property4 ,boats and ships of all kinds1 steamers great and small1 sail away from one shore of the vast sea to the opposite shore1 or along the coast1 all in comparative safety because of the various beacon lights4 ,indeed1 is not the lighthouse itself a great lesson in morals8 ,every one of us--every one of the seventy million people of the ,united ,states has a part in the lighthouse4 ,it is we1 the people1 who are furnishing the government with its resources1 and it is the great government of our country that builds the lighthouses to warn mariners of danger4 ,the modern lighthouse is the symbol of benevolence4 ,it carries with it the lesson of loving thy neighbor as thyself4 ,this is the lesson of the lighthouse to the people of the land1 though its service is performed for the people of the sea4 ,illustration3 ,,cyrus ,h4 ,mc,c,o,r,m,i,c,k4 ,illustration3 ,,cutting ,,sugar ,,cane ,,in ,,the ,,hawaiian ,,islands4 ,,section ,,iii4--,,food4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,uncultivated ,,foods4 ,heat and light--each is necessary for our bodily comfort and well-being4 ,we have seen that much time and thought have been spent during the past three hundred years in providing the most satisfactory methods for heating and lighting our houses4 ,we have found that wood and coal in our fireplaces1 stoves1 and furnaces have given us the best heat4 ,we have learned that kerosene and gas made from coal are the most common sources of light4 ,even electricity1 the latest means for producing light and heat1 usually needs the power of steam for its development2 and heat is necessary to produce steam4 ,we have a common name for the wood1 the coal1 the gas1 and the oil1 from the burning of which heat and light result2 this name is fuel4 ,another form of fuel is even more necessary than coal and wood4 ,in the winter we warm our rooms so that we may not suffer from the cold2 but the stove does not warm us when out of doors4 ,then we put on our heavy winter wraps1 but these give us no warmth3 they merely keep in the heat of the body or keep out the cold blasts of the wind4 ,we all know that the body is warm of itself2 that there is something within us that produces heat1 like a fire4 ,when our fingers become chilled by the frosty air we may warm them with our breath4 ,the temperature of a room may be seventy degrees or less1 but if we place the bulb of a thermometer beneath the tongue we shall find that the mercury rises to ninety-eight degrees4 ,the fire in the body and the fire in the stove act very much alike4 ,if the draughts of the stove are closed tight and no air is admitted1 the fire dies down and goes out4 ,if the air which enters the body is foul1 the fire feels the effect and our health is injured4 ,if the lungs are filled with water or anything else which keeps out the air1 the fire goes out and life is lost4 ,the fuel which we call food is just as necessary for the fire in our body as is wood or coal for the fire in the stove4 ,three times a day or oftener we take this food-fuel into our bodies2 thus we keep the fire steadily burning which makes us warm and keeps us alive4 ,on the other hand1 fuel for the body must be very different from fuel for a stove4 ,in the stove heat alone is wanted2 therefore one form of fuel is enough4 ,in the body bones must be enlarged and strengthened1 muscles must be developed1 fat must be provided in sufficient quantities1 and brain-matter must be produced4 ,therefore the food-fuel must provide not only heat but also the different materials of which the body is made4 ,one kind of food is necessary for the bones1 another for the blood1 another for the flesh1 and another for the nerves4 ,thus while in studying common fuel we have only to learn about wood1 either in the form of trees or pressed into the form of coal1 in studying food-fuel we find that the kinds are almost numberless4 ,meat and vegetables1 fish and fruit1 roots and nuts1 in their infinite varieties1 are all included in the word food4 ,we are told that all matter belongs to one of three kingdoms--the animal1 the vegetable1 and the mineral kingdoms4 ,from two of these three divisions we obtain most of our food4 ,food may be divided into two classes then--animal food and vegetable food4 ,in animal food we have the meat of wild animals and of domestic animals4 ,in early days1 when the number of people was small1 the supply of wild animals was large4 ,a great part of the food in those days was obtained by hunting and fishing4 ,to-day most of the meat comes from domestic animals1 so that the keeping of herds and flocks is one of the great industries of the time4 ,fish are still important in our lists of foods1 but the flesh of wild animals is less and less used for meat4 ,three hundred years ago the ,indians had this country to themselves4 ,they were few in number and were scattered over a vast territory4 ,the forests abounded in wild game and the lakes and rivers were filled with fish4 ,love of hunting and fishing held the first place in the pleasures of the red man4 ,the hunting grounds extended far and wide in every direction4 ,each tribe had its own hunting and fishing grounds1 and it was considered an act of war for any tribe of ,indians to encroach upon the territory of other tribes4 ,such places as they chose for their abode1 says ,hubbard's ,history1 were usually at the falls of great rivers1 or near the seaside1 where was any convenience for catching such fish as every summer and winter used to come up the coast4 ,at such times they used1 like good fellows1 to make all common1 and then those who had entertained their neighbors at the seaside expected the like kindness from them again up higher in the country4 ,the kinds of wild animals that the ,indians hunted were very numerous4 ,one man describes the appearance of an ,indian's room of skins4 ,he says3 ,there they showed me many hides and horns1 both beasts of chase of the stinking foot--such as roes1 foxes1 jackals1 wolves1 wildcats1 raccoons1 porcupines1 skunks1 muskrats1 squirrels1 and sables--and beasts of chase of the sweet foot--buck1 red deer1 reindeer1 moose1 bear1 beaver1 otter1 hare1 and martin4 ,captain ,john ,smith tells of the fowl that the red men hunted4 ,he mentions eagles1 hawks1 cranes1 geese1 ducks1 sheldrakes1 teal1 gulls1 and turkeys4 ,illustration3 ,,indians ,,hunting ,,game4 ,the variety of fish caught by the ,indians was also very large4 ,higher up at the falls of the great rivers they used to take salmon1 shad1 and alewives1 that used in great quantities1 more than cartloads1 in the spring1 to pass up into the fresh-water ponds and lakes4 ,in ,march1 ,april1 ,may1 and half ,june1 says ,john ,smith1 here is cod in abundance2 in ,may1 ,june1 ,july1 and ,august1 mullet and sturgeon2 herring1 if any desire them2 ,i have taken many4 ,again he writes of whales1 grampuses1 hake1 haddock1 mackerel1 sharks1 cunners1 bass1 perch1 eels1 crabs1 lobsters1 mussels1 and oysters4 ,we may also divide vegetable food into two classes--that which nature provides without the aid of man1 or wild vegetables1 and that which requires cultivation1 or cultivated vegetables4 ,many forms of nuts1 berries and fruits1 and some forms of common ground vegetables grow wild4 ,the red men found these in great abundance4 ,john ,smith found in ,new ,england currants1 mulberries1 gooseberries1 plums1 walnuts1 chestnuts1 and strawberries1 besides other fruits of which he did not know the names4 ,he made a journey up the ,potomac ,river1 and reported that the hills yielded no less plenty and variety of fruit than the river furnished abundance of fish4 ,smith also described acorns whose bark was white and sweetish2 he added that these acorns1 when boiled1 afforded a sweet oil that the red men kept in gourds to anoint their heads and joints4 ,the ,indians also ate the fruit of this acorn1 made into bread4 ,there were plums of three kinds and cherries4 ,smith discovered also a great abundance of vines that climb the tops of the highest trees in some places4 ,where they are not overshadowed from the sun1 they are covered with fruit1 though never pruned nor manured4 ,hunting and fishing are carried on in much the same way to-day as they were centuries ago4 ,the gun has taken the place of the bow and arrow1 and fishing implements have been somewhat improved4 ,but to capture and kill is now1 as formerly1 all that is needed to obtain this form of food1 if the wild animals themselves can be found4 ,wild vegetables may be gathered to-day in just the way that our ancestors gathered them1 though they are not found in so great quantities because of the increase of cultivation4 ,in studying the changes in the modes of living that have occurred in this country during the last three hundred years1 we find that almost all the improvements in the production of food have been in the planting1 cultivating1 and harvesting of food1 and the bringing it to market4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,cultivated ,,foods4 ,hunting and fishing did not furnish either sufficient or satisfactory food for the ,indians4 ,a portion of their time was spent in cultivating certain products of the soil4 ,black ,hawk1 a famous ,indian chief1 writes3 ,when we returned to our village in the spring from our hunting grounds we would open the caches and take out corn and other provisions which had been put up in the fall1 and then commence repairing our lodges4 ,as soon as this is accomplished we repair the fences around our fields and clean them off ready for planting corn4 ,this work is done by our women4 ,the men1 during this time1 are feasting on dried venison1 bear's meat1 wild fowl and corn4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,corn ,,dance4 ,our women plant the corn1 and as soon as they get done we make a feast and dance the corn dance4 ,at this feast our young braves select the young woman they wish to have for a wife4 ,when this is over we feast again and have our national dance4 ,when our national dance is over1 our corn-fields hoed1 and every weed dug up1 and our corn about knee high1 all our young men would start in a direction toward sundown to hunt deer and buffalo1 and the remainder of our people start to fish4 ,every one leaves the village and remains away about forty days4 ,they then return1 the hunting party bringing in dried buffalo and deer meat1 the others dried fish4 ,this is a happy season of the year2 having plenty of provision1 such as beans1 squashes1 and other produce1 with our dried meat and fish1 we continue to make feasts and visit each other until our corn is ripe4 ,when the corn is fit for use another great ceremony takes place1 with feasting and returning thanks to the ,great ,spirit for giving us corn4 ,we continue our sport and feasting until the corn is all secured4 ,we then prepare to leave our village for our hunting grounds4 ,thus we see that the most important crop among the ,indians was maize or ,indian corn4 ,this grain is specially suited to the climate and soil of a large portion of the country2 it was wholly unknown to the ,europeans who first came to ,america4 ,john ,smith in ,virginia and ,roger ,williams in ,new ,england were much interested in the ,indian corn4 ,it is from their writings that we learn how the red men cultivated and used this strange product of the ,new ,world4 ,as corn was the ,indians' main dependence1 they ate it at all times and in various ways4 ,they roasted the green ears in the ashes2 sometimes they cut the kernels from the cob and boiled them with beans1 making a kind of succotash4 ,meal was made by pounding the kernels in a wooden mortar2 if the corn was old it was soaked over night and pounded in the morning4 ,this meal also was cooked in different ways4 ,sometimes it was wrapped in corn husks and boiled2 at other times it was mixed with water and made into cakes1 which were baked in the ashes of the fire4 ,often a pudding was made from the meal1 in which blackberries were placed4 ,when the ,indians travelled1 they were accustomed to carry enough of this meal to last several days1 either in a small basket or a hollow leathern girdle4 ,such was life among the ,indians4 ,usually food was plenty and feasting was common1 but at times food was scarce and fasting was necessary4 ,if the ,indian had sufficient for to-day1 he cared little for to-morrow4 ,if the corn crop failed or if the hunting expedition turned out badly1 the red man accepted it as a necessary evil and made no complaint4 ,illustration3 ,,captain ,,john ,,smith4 7,from the history of ,virginia1 by ,captain ,john ,smith47 ,the first ,englishmen to learn of the foods that could be obtained in the ,new ,world were two captains sent out by ,sir ,walter ,raleigh to explore the ,atlantic coast of ,america4 ,they returned full of enthusiasm for the fertile soil and the delightful climate of ,virginia4 ,they praised also the kindness of the ,indians1 who provided them with the best of food--deer1 hares1 fish1 walnuts1 melons1 cucumbers1 peas1 and corn4 ,apparently there was an abundance of food in the ,new ,world--flesh1 fish1 fruits1 nuts1 vegetables1 and grain4 ,the sailors were not farmers1 however2 nor were the colonists who came over the next year4 ,they had no knowledge of the labor necessary to till the soil and raise the food1 and after a year on ,roanoke ,island they returned to ,england4 ,twenty years later the colonists at ,jamestown were no more ready to labor at farming than those at ,roanoke had been4 ,numbers died from hunger during the first summer1 but the leader1 ,john ,smith1 was able1 from his own strength of character1 to hold survivors to the work until a fair abundance of corn had been obtained4 ,meanwhile ,smith managed to buy or borrow provisions from the ,indians4 ,the settlers at ,plymouth arrived in early winter and found a climate much colder than that of ,england or ,holland4 ,they could not hope to harvest a crop before the next autumn1 and they also were dependent upon the red men for many months4 ,soon after the ,mayflower arrived in ,provincetown harbor an expedition was sent out to search for the best spot to build a village4 ,they followed the tracks of ,indians1 but could not find them nor their dwellings4 ,the first sign of human life was a piece of clear ground which had been planted some years before4 ,going a little farther they found a field in which the stubble was new1 showing that the ground had been recently cultivated4 ,finally they came upon heaps of sand newly paddled with their hands4 ,led by curiosity the ,pilgrims digged in these places and found several baskets filled with corn4 ,this grain seemed to the ,pilgrims a very goodly sight1 though they had never seen corn before4 ,they carried the grain back to the ship1 and when the ,indians who owned the corn were found1 the ,pilgrims gladly paid them its full value4 ,when spring came the colonists at ,plymouth began making preparations for planting4 ,an ,indian1 named ,squanto1 who had previously been carried to ,england and had learned to speak some ,english1 showed himself very friendly4 ,he taught them how to prepare the fish which must be put in every hill for a fertilizer4 ,he directed the planting and cultivating of the fields4 ,as a result they had a good increase4 ,they were not so successful in other ways1 for their barley crop was very light and their peas dried up with the sun4 ,a curious story is found in some old records4 ,the dogs in a ,plymouth colony town caused the farmers great trouble by digging up the alewives which they were accustomed to place in the hills4 ,therefore a law was passed that required the owner of every dog either to keep him securely tied for forty days after the fields were prepared1 or to tie a forepaw to his head so that it would be impossible for the dog to dig in the newly prepared hill4 ,two years later the ,pilgrims are said to have had nearly sixty acres of ground well planted with corn1 and many gardens filled with fruits and vegetables4 ,however1 the crop was light1 mainly because the colonists had been too weak1 from lack of food1 properly to attend to it4 ,a famine would have followed for the third time had not a vessel arrived from ,england1 in ,august1 bringing provisions sufficient for the winter4 ,for several years the ,pilgrims were compelled to live partly upon wild game and fish4 ,one summer their main support was obtained by the use of the only boat that remained1 with which they caught large quantities of bass4 ,they also obtained clams when they could not get fish1 used ground-nuts in place of bread1 and caught many wild fowl in the creeks and marshes4 ,the colonists had no milk1 butter1 nor cheese for the first three years in ,plymouth4 ,there were no domestic animals in ,new ,england until1 in the spring of #afbc1 a vessel arrived bringing the first cows4 ,in time beef and veal were added to the list of foods1 and soon other domestic animals were brought over4 ,by the middle of the fourth summer the village of ,new ,plymouth was reported to have nearly two hundred inhabitants1 with some cattle and goats1 and many swine and poultry4 ,illustration3 ,,an ,,ancient ,,plow4 ,the tools used by the early colonists were1 like their houses and furniture1 of the rudest manufacture4 ,agriculture1 such as exists in the ,united ,states to-day1 was entirely unknown two centuries ago4 ,the plow was little used and the few plows among the colonists were inconvenient1 heavy tools4 ,the important planting and cultivating implement used by the farmers was the hoe4 ,the village or plantation blacksmith made the tools for the farmers1 and they were rudely formed and shaped4 ,in harvest time the hoe was again called into use1 as well as the roughly constructed scythes and pruninghooks4 ,the muscle-developing flail separated the grain from the straw1 and the miller ground it into meal1 or flour1 taking toll for his pay--that is1 a fixed fraction of the product4 ,how the system of agriculture has changed during these two centuries1 or rather during the last century1 for few of the improvements are yet a hundred years old6 ,as in the methods of producing heat and light1 inventions have done wonders in providing us with a greater amount and a larger variety of food at a reduced cost4 ,formerly all farm-work was done by the use of great muscular power4 ,only a strong man can wield the hoe for hours at a time4 ,to walk behind a plow1 guiding the horse and holding the plow in place1 is no light task4 ,to swing a scythe from early morning until late in the day severely taxes the strength4 ,to thresh grain upon the barn floor with a flail day after day needs much physical endurance4 ,the labor of many men was required to manage even a comparatively small farm4 ,to-day all these conditions are changed4 ,at the present time the most desirable farm-hand is the man with the cunning brain who can get the most work out of a machine without breaking it4 ,the farm laborer finds himself advanced to the ranks of skilled labor4 ,the man who plows uses his muscle only in guiding the machine4 ,the man who operates the harrow has half a dozen levers to lighten his labor4 ,the sower walks leisurely behind a drill and works brakes4 ,the reaper needs a quick brain and a quick hand--not necessarily a strong arm nor a powerful back4 ,the threshers are merely assistants to a machine4 ,the men who heave the wheat into the bins only press buttons4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,implements ,,for ,,planting4 ,george was determined to be a farmer4 ,he was but twelve years of age1 yet he felt sure that he knew his own mind4 ,he said to himself and to his friends that life out of doors1 life on a farm1 was the best and healthiest kind of life4 ,he declared that to raise the food of the world was the most important service that man could do for his fellow-beings4 ,the boy lived in a city4 ,he had always lived in a city and had never seen a farm4 ,he had never been away from home4 ,his home was a flat1 or apartment1 occupying a portion of one floor of a ten-story block4 ,his knowledge of life was limited entirely to city life4 ,he had been to the park2 he had seen there trees and shrubbery1 grass and flowers4 ,yet he had never visited the park alone2 he had never seen any of the work needed in caring for the trees and flowers4 ,he knew absolutely nothing about gardening or farming2 he could not tell the difference between a hoe and a rake2 he would not be able to answer the simplest questions about farm life4 ,yet ,george had decided to be a farmer1 and he had made up his mind to study the subject of farming at once4 ,he proposed to ask ,uncle ,ben all sorts of questions every chance he could get4 ,he intended to obtain books from the library that would tell him what he needed to know4 ,oh1 could he only go into the country1 try for himself life upon a farm1 and see with his own eyes what a farmer had to do6 ,so ,george went to work4 ,he did not neglect his school duties1 but carefully prepared his daily lessons4 ,when these were done he was ready to study agriculture4 ,he did not know where to begin with books1 so he asked questions4 ,uncle ,ben1 he said one evening as the family was gathered around the library lamp1 how does it happen that a farmer sometimes raises tomatoes and sometimes potatoes8 ,what does he do if he wants one rather than the other8 ,well1 ,george1 was the laughing reply1 ,i think that you have much to learn before you make a successful farmer4 ,don't you know that if he wants potatoes he plants potatoes8 ,why1 ,i suppose so1 said ,george4 ,then if he desires apples1 does he plant apples8 ,hardly1 said his uncle4 ,seeds would be better than entire apples4 ,george was started and for the rest of the evening he asked no more questions1 his whole attention being turned to the large encyclopedia on his knee4 ,when next he plied his uncle with questions it was evident that he had already learned something4 ,when a farmer plants a potato1 he puts it in a hole and covers it up4 ,i have read that he plows the ground first4 ,what does he do that for8 ,for two reasons1 ,i suppose1 replied ,uncle ,ben4 ,the roots and sprouts grow better in a soil that has been softened4 ,when the ground is unplowed1 it is baked hard4 ,besides1 plowing turns the soil over1 brings new dirt to the top1 and generally mixes it all together4 ,oh1 yes6 said ,george4 ,then ,i must learn about plowing first4 ,george obtained as good a knowledge of plows and tillage as was possible from books4 ,in order fully to understand the subject1 it would be necessary to see the plows and use them4 ,but that could not come yet4 ,the books told him that the earliest and simplest way to till the soil was with a spade4 ,from them ,george learned1 what most boys and girls know1 what a spade was1 and that a spade was all that was absolutely needed to soften the soil and prepare it for planting4 ,to spade a piece of ground is slow work2 it is also hard work4 ,could not some method be devised so that the spading or tilling could be done by horses or oxen8 ,this led to the invention of the plow4 ,this was made thousands of years ago4 ,the kooloo plow1 still in use in ,india1 was one of the earliest and was very rude4 ,it was made entirely of wood1 the sharp part of the plow being like a thorn in shape1 but very thick and strong4 ,as the centuries went on1 iron began to be used2 and early in the history of iron it was applied to plows4 ,they were still made of wood1 but iron plates were placed over the wood1 where the instrument tore into the ground4 ,later the plow itself was made of iron1 leaving the handles still formed of wood4 ,this iron plow would sometimes become covered with soil and so be almost useless4 ,this was corrected by the use of steel shares instead of iron4 ,this brought ,george to the modern plow4 ,george was not content with simply obtaining an idea about plows2 he wished to know all that he could about them4 ,he obtained books that gave complete accounts of the varieties of plows1 the ways in which they were used1 and the work which they should do4 ,he learned that a plow should be fitted to its task4 ,it should be as light as possible1 easily drawn1 and it should run with even steadiness1 at a uniform depth4 ,it should not only turn the soil over1 but should thoroughly powder it and bury the weeds4 ,to his great surprise ,george also learned that some of the modern plows were as much superior to the ordinary plow as that was to the spade4 ,the sulky plow is easier for the horses than the common plow2 it makes furrows of different depths2 and it has a seat for the farmer4 ,sometimes several plowshares are placed side by side and drawn by a large number of horses4 ,this is called a gang plow4 ,steam and wind and water and even electricity are coming into use to furnish power for plows1 in place of the animal power of horses4 ,well1 ,uncle ,ben1 said ,george one evening1 now ,i understand something about plowing and tillage4 ,the next thing a farmer does in the spring is to plant his potatoes and corn1 is it not8 ,yes1 was the reply4 ,well1 then1 said ,george1 that will not take me long to learn4 ,all there is to do is to dig a hole1 put in the potato1 and cover it with earth4 ,i am afraid that you will find that the job is not quite so simple as that4 ,has the farmer nothing to plant but potatoes8 asked the uncle4 ,yes1 said the boy4 ,corn and turnips and oats and wheat and pumpkins and lots of other things4 ,would you plant a kernel of corn in just the same way that you would a potato8 ,no1 ,i suppose not1 was the reply4 ,and do you think that every farmer does all his planting by hand8 ,does he not have tools to help him8 ,thus ,george was started on a new line of thought4 ,he read of the sower1 as he slowly walks the length of the field1 throwing the grain right and left4 ,even this work is better and more quickly done by machinery4 ,the hand sower is a little machine which the farmer straps to his shoulders4 ,the hopper of the sower is filled with grain and1 as the handle is turned1 the grain is scattered broadcast to as great a distance as possible4 ,more saving of labor still is the horse sower1 which is simply the hand sower on a larger scale4 ,sometimes the seed is inserted in the ground by means of grain drills1 which deposit the grain more evenly and at the same time cover it with earth4 ,after learning how to sow seed1 ,george began to inquire into the subject of planting4 ,many machines have been invented for this purpose which save much labor4 ,the most important are the corn planter and the potato planter4 ,machines for planting other vegetables are much like these4 ,the hand corn planter1 which is used on small farms1 is carried in the hand of the farmer4 ,at each place where he wishes a hill of corn he strikes into the ground the planter1 which leaves the kernels at the proper depth and covers them with soil4 ,the horse corn planter is a form of grain drill1 which does the same work as the hand planter4 ,the potato planter is a simple machine1 though it does a variety of work4 ,it cuts the potatoes into slices and drops them through a tube into a furrow which the plow-like part of the planter makes4 ,the slices are dropped at regular spaces and are covered with dirt by the machine itself4 ,in other words1 the farmer puts potatoes in the hopper and drives the machine the length of the field4 ,the planter does the rest of the work1 saving the farmer the labor of slicing the potatoes1 digging the hole1 dropping the vegetable and covering it with earth4 ,all this and much more ,george learned during the next two weeks4 ,then he showed that he was ready for a new subject by asking his uncle what the farmer did between seedtime and harvest4 ,i suppose1 said the boy1 that most farmers get their planting done almost before summer begins4 ,then it must be some time before they begin to harvest the grain and dig the potatoes4 ,what do they do all summer8 ,i think1 replied his uncle1 that you will have to go into the country and see some things for yourself4 ,as the school term is nearly finished1 ,i believe that you must visit a good farmer and spend the summer and autumn with him4 ,then you will know something of a real farmer's life and work4 ,but to answer your question by asking another1 ,did you ever hear of weeds8 ,after that ,george asked few questions4 ,he began to think that he was showing too much ignorance4 ,from that evening until the end of ,june he had no thoughts but of the farm4 ,he read but little and waited to study his subject at close hand4 ,but he did discover that a farmer's life is not too easy in the summer4 ,he learned that the ground must be kept free from weeds and continually loosened4 ,he found that the farmer uses his hoe in deadly hostility to the weeds2 that he makes his horse do a part of the work of hoeing2 that the harrow and the cultivator keep the soil loose between the rows4 ,when the summer came1 ,george felt that he had some knowledge of tillage1 of sowing and planting1 and of weeding2 this was book knowledge4 ,now he hoped to get into the inside and learn something of the farmer's methods of harvesting4 ,then1 he thought1 ,i can be a farmer4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,implements ,,for ,,harvesting4 ,george awoke the first morning at the farm to hear the roosters crowing1 the cows mooing1 the sheep bleating1 and the men cheerily whistling as they hurried about the chores4 ,no thought of turning over for another nap entered his head1 but in quick time he was dressed and ready for the morning meal4 ,breakfast over1 ,george hastened out of doors and was soon eagerly watching ,tom1 who had been directed to cut the grass around the edges of one of the fields which had been previously mowed4 ,here for the first time he saw a scythe and learned its use4 ,for a while ,george watched ,tom's steady swing of the scythe as he slowly cut a swath the length of the field4 ,then he hastened to another field where the mowing machine was steadily moving across the lot4 ,what an improvement6 ,what a saving of labor6 ,how easily those knives moved through the grass1 laying every spire low as soon as it was touched6 ,how much more even the cut1 though ,tom was skilled with the scythe6 ,the horses drew the machine with ease and the driver had a comfortable seat4 ,however1 it was plain that he must keep his head clear and his eyes open1 to properly attend to every part of the instrument4 ,when noon came ,george was tired and heated1 and he gladly remained in the house after dinner4 ,here he found his favorite encyclopedia and was soon hunting up the history of the invention of the mower4 ,he was surprised to learn how short a time it had been in use4 ,from the beginning of history the crooked sickle and the straighter scythe had been almost the only tools used for cutting grass and grain4 ,not until about the middle of the present century had practical mowing machines come into use4 ,but now1 except on very small or rocky farms1 the horse mower is an absolute necessity4 ,illustration3 ,,mowing ,,with ,,scythes4 ,the next day ,george again visited the fields to see the next step in the process of making hay4 ,first he found ,tom1 with a fork1 turning over the grass which he had mowed the day before4 ,then he went to the other field1 where he saw the same work being done by a machine4 ,the mower had left the grass in heaps so that the sun could reach only the surface4 ,it is necessary that hay should be thoroughly dried as quickly as possible4 ,across the field and back again went the hay tedder1 its forks picking up the grass and tossing it in every direction4 ,one horse only was needed1 and the driver was a boy4 ,the third day ,george was again in the field4 ,once more the grass was turned4 ,then in the late afternoon it was prepared for the barn4 ,tom could only use the small hand rake1 for his work was close to the fence2 he was simply cleaning up what the machines had failed to reach4 ,but in the field where ,george had watched the mower and the tedder1 machinery and horse power were again in use4 ,a horse went back and forth1 drawing a horse rake behind him4 ,now and then1 at regular intervals1 up came the rake1 a pile of hay was left1 and on went the horse4 ,then a hay sweep passed along at right angles to the rake and soon the hay was in piles4 ,as the field was very smooth and free from stones1 a hay loader was used to place the hay upon the wagon4 ,a boy drove the horses1 two men laid the load1 and soon the wagon was started for the barn4 ,the old-fashioned1 slow1 hard work of lifting the hay by the forkful into the barn was no longer necessary4 ,hay forks1 run by horse power1 grappled the hay1 and lifted the load4 ,conveyers carried the hay to the right point and dropped it in the mow4 ,such was the work done during the first three days that ,george spent on the farm4 ,he saw the old-fashioned hand work and the modern use of labor-saving machinery4 ,then he studied his books4 ,in them he found that the hand labor of cutting1 drying1 and housing the hay used to cost about five dollars a ton1 and that now1 with the best of modern machines1 it need cost not more than one dollar a ton4 ,this machinery is of great value to the farmer and also to those who buy the hay2 for the farmer can sell his hay at a lower price1 since it costs him less to make it4 ,this was the last of the haying4 ,for several weeks ,george watched the hoes and the harrows1 as they kept the gardens and fields in good condition4 ,then came harvest-time4 ,potatoes were first in ,george's thoughts1 and when he learned that they were to be dug on the morrow he was thoroughly aroused4 ,but he met with a sore disappointment4 ,the potatoes were not dug by machinery4 ,the common hoe or the specially shaped potato hoe were the only tools4 ,then the back-aching work of picking up potatoes added to his disgust1 and he declared that he never would raise many potatoes4 ,he learned that plows sometimes help the hoes1 but that potato-digging machines have never come into general use1 though good ones have been invented4 ,at last grain harvest-time came4 ,this was the time to which ,george had long looked forward4 ,now he could see the wheat cut and threshed4 ,this he was sure was the best work of the farmer4 ,but when he saw ,tom take the short1 crooked sickle1 cut some grain with that1 gather it in his arms1 and tie a cord around it1 he could scarcely control himself4 ,is that the way grain is harvested8 he said4 ,then when he saw the grain laid on the barn floor and struck rapidly by flails in the hands of two men1 he declared1 ,if that is what the farmer has to do to get a little grain1 then ,i do not want to be a farmer4 ,well1 said ,mr4 ,miller1 that is just what all farmers had to do until within fifty years4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,reaper ,,and ,,binder4 ,but ,george soon saw a different method4 ,this first hand-work had been merely to harvest a small amount of early grain2 a few days later the machines were brought out4 ,now ,george was happy4 ,at last he saw a reaping machine and a combined reaper and binder4 ,this interested him the most4 ,he watched the machine as the horses drew it along the edge of the standing grain4 ,he saw the grain cut and laid upon a platform1 carried up into the machine1 taken by two arms called packers1 gathered by them into bundles1 bound by cords and thrown to the ground4 ,what more could be asked of any machine8 ,and yet there is a new type of harvester that has been used in ,san ,joaquin valley1 ,california4 ,it cuts a swarth fifty-two feet in width4 ,it not only cuts the grain but it threshes it as well4 ,it makes the sacks and fills them as it travels over the field4 ,it is said to cut an area of a hundred acres a day1 and at the same time thresh the grain and fill fifteen hundred sacks4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,mc,c,o,r,m,i,c,k ,,reaper4 ,later in the autumn came the thresher4 ,that belonging to ,farmer ,miller was run by horse power4 ,two horses stood upon a platform1 constantly stepping forward but not moving from their position4 ,instead the platform moved backward and this turned the machinery4 ,the men placed the grain stalks in the hopper and the threshed grain came out of the machine1 flowing into sacks1 which when filled were tied by the men and set aside ready for the market4 ,the reaper and the thresher seemed to ,george the greatest of inventions4 ,he obtained a book on inventions1 and for many days he was buried in it4 ,he read of the ,englishman1 ,henry ,ogle1 whose reaper1 made in #ahbb1 aroused the anger of the working people1 who threatened to kill the manufacturers if they continued to make the machines2 of ,patrick ,bell's invention1 which1 though successful1 was forgotten for twenty or thirty years2 of ,cyrus ,h4 ,mc,cormick1 the ,american1 whose reaper first obtained a lasting success4 ,most of all he was interested in the account of the first trial of reapers in ,england1 at the time of the world's fair in #ahea4 ,what a joke it was for the ,london ,times to poke fun at the ,mc,cormick machine1 as it was exhibited in the ,crystal ,palace6 ,how the great newspaper did wish that it had kept quiet when a few days later it was compelled to report the complete success of the ridiculed reaper6 ,the trial took place in ,essex1 about forty-five miles from ,london4 ,two hundred farmers were present1 ready to laugh at failure or to accept any successful machine4 ,the wheat was not ripe2 the crop was heavy2 and the day was rainy4 ,the ,hussey reaper was first tried but was soon clogged by the green1 wet grain4 ,the judges proposed to discontinue the trial1 as the conditions were so unfavorable4 ,but the agent of the ,mc,cormick reaper protested4 ,his machine would work under any conditions2 he wished that the gentlemen who had taken the pains to come to the trial should have a chance to see the ,mc,cormick4 ,accordingly it was brought forward and1 in spite of everything1 it went steadily forward1 cutting all before it4 ,success was evident1 and the ,english farmers gave three hearty cheers for the ,american reaping-machine4 ,another trial1 at which the reaper was timed1 showed that it could cut twenty acres a day with ease4 ,even the laboring men realized that the machine would come at once into use2 one1 who was among the interested spectators1 took the sickle1 which he happened to have with him1 and broke it in two across his knee2 he said that he would no longer need that4 ,four years later a trial took place in ,france also4 ,here three ,american1 two ,english1 and two ,french machines were tested4 ,mc,cormick's reaper easily came out ahead1 with the other ,american machines close behind4 ,at the same time four threshing machines were tested4 ,six men with their flails1 working as hard as they could1 obtained fifty-four quarts of wheat in half an hour2 the ,american thresher gave out six hundred and seventy-three quarts in the same time6 ,illustration3 ,,threshing ,,with ,,flail4 ,we have spent much time on farming machinery4 ,we must now leave ,george to a further study of farm life and farm work4 ,so far he has only examined tools and machinery4 ,he has learned from experience1 however1 that a modern farmer has much more than this to learn1 and much work to do that cannot be done by machinery4 ,he realizes that much study is needed to make a successful farmer4 ,he finds that nearly every ,state in the ,union has one or more agricultural colleges1 and that the ,united ,states does its share in giving aid and information to farmers4 ,he still desires to be a farmer1 but he is glad that it is a modern farmer that he must be4 ,he goes back to school1 eager to prepare himself to enter the best agricultural college that he can find1 in order that he may be ready for intelligent farming as soon as opportunity comes4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,soil4 ,a little boat was sailing along the north shore of ,massachusetts bay4 ,it was a shallop belonging to the fishing hamlet of ,cape ,ann4 ,in it were ,gov4 ,roger ,conant and a few of his friends4 ,after a sail of a dozen miles the boat was turned to the westward and entered a harbor4 ,on it went until it reached a point of land which separated two little rivers4 ,upon this peninsula1 which the ,indians called ,naumkeag1 ,conant landed4 ,he walked across from one stream to the other2 he carefully examined the trees1 the weeds1 the grass1 and the remains of an ,indian cornfield4 ,then he sailed back to the cape4 ,illustration3 ,,colonists ,,in ,a ,,shallop4 ,a few weeks later ,governor ,conant and fourteen companions moved from ,cape ,ann to ,naumkeag1 now ,salem4 ,for three years the hamlet on the cape had been struggling for life4 ,the colonists had at last become disheartened and had abandoned the settlement4 ,but what better fortune could they expect at ,naumkeag8 ,conant's study of the little peninsula had taught him that here was a fertile soil from which he could raise food enough for the colonists4 ,cape ,ann had not proved fertile4 ,it was a stern and rock-bound coast4 ,the entire cape seemed to be one vast ledge of granite rock1 and only here and there could grain and vegetables be grown4 ,the settlement of ,salem was four years earlier than that of ,boston1 and but six years after the ,pilgrims arrived in ,plymouth4 ,thus early in the history of the colonies was it found necessary to seek fertile soils for settlements4 ,as these grew and the number of the colonists increased1 the need of more land and better soil became apparent4 ,ten years after ,conant went to ,naumkeag1 the population of three entire towns near ,boston moved1 through woods1 over hills and valleys1 and across streams1 to the fertile valley of the ,connecticut ,river4 ,farms spread out in every direction until1 before the middle of the eighteenth century1 nearly all of southern ,new ,england was dotted with them4 ,the ,french and ,indian ,war came1 and at its close the valley of the ,ohio ,river was placed in the hands of the ,english4 ,then followed the ,american ,revolution1 and the ,northwest ,territory became a part of the ,united ,states4 ,the ,new ,england farmers had become crowded by this time1 and many were eager for more land4 ,a new migration followed4 ,farmers from ,new ,england1 ,new ,york1 and ,pennsylvania began to journey westward and to settle the ,northwest ,territory4 ,ohio soon had sufficient population to be made a ,state4 ,indiana and ,illinois followed1 then ,michigan and ,wisconsin4 ,meanwhile the ,united ,states purchased the great province of ,louisiana1 and ,iowa1 ,minnesota1 and ,nebraska were settled by the ,eastern farmers and others who had come across the ocean from ,europe4 ,never in the history of the world had there been such a rapid settlement of new lands4 ,it has continued even up to the present time4 ,a few years ago the new territory of ,oklahoma was opened to farmers1 and its growth has been remarkable4 ,the principal reason for this rapid settlement of ,western land may be found in the excellent character of the soil4 ,for ages it had lain uncultivated1 waiting for the coming of the white man4 ,unlike the rocky portions of ,new ,england1 the ground seldom contains a large stone4 ,unlike the hills and valleys of the coast ,states1 the interior territory is prairie land1 level as far as the eye can see4 ,here the gang plows can be run2 here the mowing machines and the mammoth harvesters can be used to great advantage4 ,thus grew the northern part of the ,united ,states4 ,in the ,south the westward movement was not so rapid4 ,the conditions of agriculture were different4 ,the climate of ,south ,carolina was unlike that of ,massachusetts2 the cold of ,new ,york was unknown in ,georgia4 ,in ,new ,england small farms were the rule2 on these the work was done by the owner1 with the aid of his sons or perhaps a hired man or two4 ,in ,virginia large plantations were common2 here the proprietor lived at his ease and the land was cultivated by slaves4 ,in ,connecticut the crops raised were used for the most part by the farmer's family or sold in the immediate neighborhood4 ,in ,north ,carolina the products of the plantations were exported in great quantities4 ,in time1 however1 these ,southern people became dissatisfied with their early territory1 as their ,northern brothers had been1 and gradually new ,states were formed to the westward4 ,kentucky and ,tennessee were followed by ,louisiana2 ,alabama and ,mississippi were formed on one side of the great river1 but a few years before ,missouri and ,arkansas were on the other4 ,state after ,state was admitted to the ,union as soon as a sufficient number of people had flocked into them1 and the number of ,territories was steadily diminishing4 ,at the farther end of the continent1 the ,oregon country1 saved to us by the heroism of ,dr4 ,marcus ,whitman1 added a large territory of extremely fertile soil4 ,south of ,oregon the great ,state of ,california was added to the ,union1 as a result of ,marshall's discovery of gold at ,sutter's ,fort4 ,yet ,california to-day is a ,state for the farmer as well as the miner4 ,thus finally1 the ,atlantic coast1 the region of the ,great ,lakes1 the ,ohio valley1 the ,gulf ,states1 the valley of the ,father of ,waters1 and the ,pacific slope--in fact1 almost all sections of the ,united ,states--were well peopled by farmers1 drawing from the rich virgin soil immense crops of food1 more than sufficient for our own people4 ,but we were not satisfied4 ,in the very heart of the country1 between ,kansas1 ,nebraska1 and the ,dakotas on the east1 and ,california1 ,oregon1 and ,washington on the west1 lay a great region which had no attractions for the farmer4 ,let him properly plow and cultivate the soil1 let him add to it soil-food or fertilizers as much as he pleases1 let the spring and the summer come1 and let the hot sun add its part to change the seed into growing grain--in spite of all the farmer's efforts no crop could be obtained4 ,the grain dried up almost as soon as planted4 ,there was no water4 ,for month after month no rain fell upon this region4 ,it was called the ,great ,american ,desert4 ,the first attempt to make this desert soil yield a suitable return for the labor of the farmer was made at ,salt ,lake ,city4 ,fifty years ago a band of earnest men braved cold and famine1 and the even more deadly ,indians1 crossed the great region west of the ,mississippi ,river1 and made a settlement in the very midst of the desert country4 ,to-day the desert of ,utah blooms like a garden2 the soil is fertile and yields large returns to the industrious inhabitants4 ,what has made the change8 ,nothing but water4 ,if the heavens refuse to send rain to moisten the parched ground1 cannot the needed water be obtained in some other way8 ,the pioneer settlers of ,salt ,lake led the way in teaching mankind that the ground may be irrigated by human means4 ,water may be carried to the fields where1 flowing along the surface of the ground1 it soaks in until it reaches the roots of the crops4 ,the water may be pumped out of the ground or it may be brought from the mountains in trenches or pipes4 ,this method of helping nature by providing water where rain is scarce is called irrigation4 ,illustration3 ,,an ,,irrigating ,,trench4 ,in the same way many other sections of the great ,west have been reclaimed4 ,southern ,california1 formerly fit only for the raising of vast herds of cattle1 is now the great orchard of the country4 ,large portions of ,new ,mexico and ,arizona now add to the general stock of food4 ,irrigation bids fair to be of vast benefit to the country as1 little by little1 barren lands are rendered fertile4 ,at present the principal grain region of our country is the great ,northwest1 the twelve ,states west of ,pennsylvania4 ,the principal grain is corn1 and two-thirds of the entire crop of this country is grown in the seven ,states of ,ohio1 ,indiana1 ,illinois1 ,iowa1 ,nebraska1 ,kansas1 and ,missouri4 ,the banner corn ,state is ,iowa4 ,the wheat crop is more valuable to the world than the corn4 ,the ,united ,states raises one-quarter of all the wheat grown in the world1 and the great ,northwest produces two-thirds of that4 ,wheat can be profitably raised in a cooler climate than is suitable for corn2 therefore the five ,northern ,states ,michigan1 ,wisconsin1 ,minnesota1 ,north and ,south ,dakota add their quota to the wheat grown in the seven great corn ,states4 ,minnesota leads in the production of wheat4 ,not all the wheat comes from this region1 however1 for two ,pacific ,states1 ,california and ,oregon1 produce one-eighth of the entire crop of our country1 and ,pennsylvania gives a large share4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,rice ,,field4 ,iowa leads in the production of oats as well as of corn2 more than two-thirds of the oat crop comes from the ,northwest4 ,new ,york and ,pennsylvania add their quota1 about one-eighth of the total crop4 ,the ,northwest thus provides two-thirds of the grain1 on much less than one-half of the cultivated land of the ,united ,states4 ,though grain is the great agricultural product1 it is not the only crop that we raise in large quantities4 ,ten of the ,southern ,states furnish each year more than sixty thousand tons of rice1 a large portion of which comes from ,louisiana and ,south ,carolina4 ,the ,united ,states is just beginning to take rank as a sugar-producing country4 ,we now raise about one-eighth of the sugar that we use each year4 ,at present most of the sugar comes from sugar cane1 which is grown mainly in ,louisiana2 but the central ,states and ,california have recently begun the manufacture of sugar from beets1 and beet-growing is becoming an important industry4 ,the recent annexation of islands in the ,west ,indies and the ,pacific ,ocean greatly increases our sugar production4 ,two other crops which are obtained from the soil must not be forgotten1 although they are neither of them foods4 ,the ,gulf ,states furnish nine-elevenths of all the cotton raised in the world1 and the ,states north of them produce a large portion of the world's tobacco4 ,kentucky leads in the production of the latter staple1 raising each year nearly one-half of the tobacco grown in the ,united ,states4 ,grain1 cotton1 tobacco1 rice1 and sugar are the main products of the soil in the ,united ,states4 ,each of these is produced in its own special region1 depending upon the character of the soil and the climate4 ,the value of our agricultural exports is rapidly increasing1 and the world is looking more and more to the ,united ,states to furnish a large part of the food necessary for all mankind4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,a ,,modern ,,dinner4 ,george ,baxter and his wife returned to ,new ,york1 after a winter spent in ,california just a week before ,mrs4 ,baxter's sister and her husband were preparing to start for a second summer in ,europe4 ,a third sister1 ,alice ,smith1 decided to give the travelers a small dinner1 to which only the family should be invited4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,dinner ,,party4 ,when the evening arrived1 eleven members of the ,atwood family gathered about the table in ,mr4 ,smith's capacious dining room1 the seat of honor being given to the mother1 ,mrs4 ,atwood4 ,besides the three married couples1 ,frank and ,alice ,smith1 ,albert and ,mary ,fremont1 and ,george and ,lucy ,baxter1 there were the four unmarried children4 ,james1 the oldest son1 was a banker in the city2 ,walter1 next younger than ,lucy1 was a student fitting for ,columbia ,university2 ,fred and ,mabel were still classed as school children4 ,after the trim waiter had brought on the soup1 the moment's quiet was broken by ,george ,baxter1 who said to the hostess3 ,how good to get back to ,new ,york once more1 if only to get a soup that one can eat without burning the mouth with the sharp condiments4 ,you have no seasoning at all in the soup1 have you1 ,alice8 ,oh1 yes1 replied the hostess1 it is a very simple soup1 but there is the usual pepper and salt4 ,what have you been in the habit of having8 ,i am sure that ,i could tell what we did not have in some of our ,mexican soups much easier than what we did have4 ,i should think that there must have been both kinds of pepper1 ginger1 garlic1 mustard1 horseradish1 ,worcestershire sauce1 and everything else4 ,i cannot understand why people living in the tropics want to season their food with such hot stuff4 ,what do you mean by two kinds of pepper1 brother ,george8 asked ,mabel4 ,cayenne pepper and black pepper1 was the reply4 ,oh1 yes1 ,i know6 said ,fred4 ,cayenne pepper comes from ,cayenne in ,french ,guiana4 ,but where do we get black pepper8 ,nearly all of it comes from ,sumatra1 said ,mary4 ,do you know where ,sumatra is1 ,mabel8 ,sumatra is one of the large islands south and southeast of ,asia1 which are called the ,east ,indies1 replied the schoolgirl4 ,the conversation had now become general1 and ,mr4 ,smith called attention to the distance that these condiments travel in reaching us4 ,sumatra is almost exactly on the opposite side of the earth from us1 said he4 ,fred1 how would the black pepper be brought to ,new ,york from ,sumatra8 ,across the ,indian ,ocean and the ,red ,sea1 through the ,suez ,canal and the ,mediterranean ,sea1 ,i suppose4 ,but ,i do not know whether it would then come straight across the ,atlantic ,ocean1 or first go to ,england4 ,usually1 said ,mr4 ,smith1 it would go to ,england first4 ,alice1 broke in ,mabel1 what else is in the soup beside pepper8 ,oh1 ,i know1 salt4 ,is salt also brought half-way round the world8 ,i know where salt comes from1 said ,fred2 up ,state4 ,it is dug out of the ground near ,syracuse4 ,that is right1 ,fred1 said ,james4 ,but ,new ,york ,state does not supply all the salt used in this country4 ,for years many ships and barks have come yearly into ,gloucester harbor from ,sicily1 bringing salt for the fishing-schooners4 ,steamers even are being used to bring salt from the ,mediterranean ,sea1 in order that the ,gloucester fishermen may send salt fish all over our country4 ,we must not forget1 said ,mrs4 ,smith1 that there is rice in our soup also4 ,that comes from ,south ,carolina4 ,just then the plates were removed and the fish was brought on4 ,this is a rarity1 said the hostess4 ,can you tell us what it is1 ,james8 ,i think so4 ,it is halibut1 is it not8 ,why do you call it a rarity8 asked ,mary4 ,this halibut came from the ,grand ,banks1 said ,mrs4 ,smith4 ,i do not understand how they get it here so fresh4 ,james1 who seemed to be quite familiar with the ,gloucester fisheries1 said3 ,the fishermen brought their load of halibut to the ,gloucester wharves last night and immediately loaded it upon the ,boston steamer4 ,three o'clock in the morning was its time for sailing1 and at six it was being unloaded in ,boston4 ,the six-hour trains brought some of it to ,new ,york in time for our dinner4 ,illustration3 ,,loading ,,fish ,,at ,,gloucester4 ,steamers and railroad trains seem necessary for our dinner1 do they not8 said ,albert4 ,but this fish sauce contains only articles from nearer home1 ,i am sure4 ,do not be too certain of that1 said ,mr4 ,smith4 ,alice1 what is there in this sauce8 ,first1 there are eggs4 ,those came from our ,long ,island farm1 of course1 said her husband4 ,then there is olive oil4 ,that comes from ,italy1 said ,mr4 ,smith4 ,that is not a home product4 ,the olives that you are eating are1 of course1 from ,italy also4 ,i doubt that1 said ,george4 ,i was just about to remark that these olives had come from ,california4 ,i can easily detect the taste4 ,yes1 the hostess added4 ,these olives ,i bought just to see if ,george and ,lucy would notice that they were not our usual queen olives4 ,they are said to have come from ,pomona4 ,that is a great olive center1 said ,george4 ,what else is there in the sauce1 ,alice8 asked her husband4 ,pepper and salt1 vinegar---- ,cider vinegar1 ,i suppose1 broke in ,mrs4 ,baxter4 ,how much nicer apple vinegar is than grape vinegar6 ,most of the vinegar that we had in ,california was made from wine4 ,that ,state is becoming a great grape-producing region4 ,but do you know1 ,frank1 where the apples were grown8 ,no1 said ,mr4 ,smith1 but probably they were raised either in ,vermont or ,new ,hampshire4 ,last year the ,new ,york apple orchards gave but a poor yield1 while those of ,new ,england did much better4 ,probably this season will prove an off year for ,vermont apples1 but we shall have all that we can use in our own ,state4 ,a little lemon ends the list1 said the hostess4 ,lemons from ,sicily1 ,i suppose1 remarked ,mr4 ,baxter4 ,have you tried the ,california lemons yet8 ,yes1 said ,mr4 ,smith4 ,we can sometimes get very fine lemons from ,california1 but not always4 ,if the growers of lemons were more particular about the quality of the fruit that they send out1 there would be a better trade in ,california lemons4 ,while this conversation was going on1 the fish was removed and a roast of beef was placed on the table1 and with it the vegetables4 ,the different members of the family had become quite interested in the discussion by this time1 and it was continued as a matter of course4 ,this is a good piece of beef1 remarked ,james ,atwood4 ,what are we going to do for meat when the natural increase in the amount of land devoted to cultivation uses up all the grazing regions8 ,you need not fret about that1 said ,mr4 ,baxter2 that will not come in your day4 ,you ought to take a trip through ,texas1 ,new ,mexico1 and ,arizona1 through ,wyoming and ,montana1 or other sections of the ,rocky ,mountain region1 and you would not fear for our cattle-raising interests4 ,here1 again1 the railroads are important1 said ,mr4 ,fremont4 ,what numbers of long freight trains daily come east1 loaded with cattle for ,new ,york and ,boston1 and even for ,great ,britain and the ,continent4 ,the ,european consumption of our cattle is of great and rapidly growing importance4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,cattle ,,train4 ,these new potatoes came from the ,bermudas1 remarked the host4 ,and the peas from ,maryland1 added the hostess4 ,do you not think that these are remarkably fresh after having been brought so far8 ,how about the lettuce8 asked ,james4 ,that must have come from some greenhouse4 ,without doubt1 though ,i did not inquire1 replied ,mrs4 ,smith4 ,not willing to leave anything out of the conversation1 ,mabel here inquired about the macaroni and tomatoes4 ,the macaroni comes from ,italy1 replied her sister ,mary4 ,much of it is shipped from ,genoa1 the city which claims to have been the birthplace of ,columbus4 ,you would find it interesting1 ,mabel1 to read about the production and preparation of macaroni4 ,the tomatoes were canned on our farm last autumn1 said ,mrs4 ,smith4 ,we think them much superior to any that we can buy4 ,after this the conversation turned upon the bread4 ,there were two kinds1 white and brown4 ,one of the ladies remarked that she never ate white bread2 bread from whole wheat flour was so much more wholesome4 ,another said that graham bread was good enough for her4 ,they talked about the white flour1 made in ,minneapolis1 from ,dakota wheat4 ,they spoke of the ,indian meal made from corn grown in ,iowa4 ,they wondered why so little rye was used in this country1 since it is the staple grain in ,russia4 ,they then inquired concerning the other substances used in making the two kinds of bread4 ,where does the butter come from8 asked ,mrs4 ,fremont4 ,this particular box is marked from ,delaware ,county1 ,new ,york1 replied the hostess4 ,most of the creameries that send butter to ,new ,york ,city are located at some distance from the railroads4 ,the farms nearer the railroads send all their milk to the city4 ,but the farmers that are too remote profitably to send in the milk make the cream into butter and cheese4 ,they then feed the buttermilk to the pigs4 ,that is a new thought to me1 said ,james4 ,so it seems that some products are made only where there are no railroads4 ,or where there is no great city within a few hundred miles1 added ,walter4 ,i suppose there is molasses in this brown bread1 said ,lucy ,baxter4 ,molasses comes from ,porto ,rico1 said ,mabel1 who was studying the ,west ,indies just at this time in her geography lessons at school4 ,some of it1 said her oldest sister4 ,but most of the sugar comes from ,cuba4 ,but not all1 said ,james4 ,this sugar has been traveling for nearly two weeks to reach ,new ,york4 ,first a sea voyage of more than two thousand miles1 and then a railroad journey of more than three thousand miles1 and yet the section where it grew is a part of the ,united ,states4 ,it must have come from ,honolulu then1 said ,walter4 ,i wonder whether the ,sandwich ,islands1 being now a part of the ,united ,states1 will interfere with the raising of sugar cane in our ,southern ,states8 ,very little probably1 but now that the ,united ,states possesses ,hawaii and ,porto ,rico1 it will scarcely be necessary for us to import any sugar and molasses1 said ,fred4 ,when the dessert and fruit were brought on1 new subjects for conversation were found4 ,what do you call this pudding1 ,alice8 asked her husband4 ,it is a peach-tapioca pudding1 was the reply4 ,the peaches are from ,delaware2 canned1 of course4 ,here1 again1 the ,west ,indies are represented1 said ,james2 the tapioca came from ,hayti4 ,and the ,east ,indies also1 added ,walter1 for ,i taste nutmeg1 which comes from the ,molucca ,islands4 ,these islands furnish such an amount of spice that they are commonly called the ,spice ,islands4 ,the discussion of foods continued throughout the dinner4 ,the oranges1 almost the last of the season1 had been brought from ,california4 ,florida oranges were scarce that year4 ,the bananas were from ,mexico and almost a luxury4 ,the war with ,spain had destroyed trade with ,cuba1 from which island the great bulk of bananas had usually come4 ,among the nuts were almonds that had been imported from ,italy1 filberts that had been sent across the ocean from ,england1 and walnuts that had come from ,california4 ,finally the coffee was from the island of ,java4 ,illustration3 ,,drying ,,coffee ,,in ,,java4 ,before the dinner party broke up1 ,mr4 ,smith reviewed the facts which had been learned in the conversation4 ,he especially called attention to the small number of articles that are not profitably raised in the ,united ,states4 ,we should miss our coffee very much1 he said1 if our country were blockaded at any time4 ,the loss of the banana would be the loss of a luxury4 ,had we no macaroni or tapioca we should still have enough to eat4 ,perhaps our taste would become more natural were we deprived of pepper4 ,no other of the foods on this table should we be entirely deprived of1 even were we separated wholly from the rest of the world4 ,california could furnish us with olives1 lemons1 and almonds1 as well as ,italy does4 ,we need not go to ,england for filberts1 and even if we had not of late obtained new colonies1 we could produce in time all the sugar we needed to supply the entire country4 ,no other nation in the world is so well prepared to furnish its own food4 ,illustration3 ,,eli ,,whitney4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,quilting ,,bee ,,in ,,the ,,olden ,,time4 ,,section ,,iv4--,,clothing4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,colonial ,,conditions4 ,you all know that the ,united ,states of ,america was formed out of thirteen ,english colonies scattered along the ,atlantic coast4 ,virginia was the first of these colonies to be founded1 dating from #afjg4 ,massachusetts was settled in #afbj1 ,new ,york in #afbc1 and so on until the last of the thirteen1 ,georgia1 was established in #agcc4 ,from the time of these settlements until the ,declaration of ,independence in #aggf1 these colonies were subject to ,great ,britain and under her rule and control4 ,the independence of these ,american colonies was a great loss to the ,british government1 but it created a new nation of the same race which1 together with the mother country1 to-day holds the destiny of the world in its hands4 ,great ,britain for centuries has been largely a manufacturing country4 ,it was the policy of the ,british government to control so far as possible manufactures and commerce for all her provinces and colonies4 ,hence during our colonial period the home government took every possible measure to prevent the introduction of manufactures into the colonies4 ,we were dependent upon the mother country for cotton and woolen goods1 cutlery1 iron ware1 and1 indeed1 almost everything that could be profitably manufactured in ,england and shipped to this country4 ,even after we had secured out independence1 the strictest care was taken by the officials of ,england that drawings and models of machinery should not be brought to ,america4 ,as late as #ahaf an ,american manufacturer of cotton cloth visited ,england4 ,although he carried letters of introduction which caused him to be treated with great courtesy and attention1 he was refused permission to enter any of the cotton mills4 ,the manufacturers suspected his purpose1 which was to learn the construction of the double speeder4 ,nevertheless he persisted1 and one day1 without permission and in spite of the sign ,positively no ,admittance1 he entered the carding-room1 accompanied by a skilled mechanic4 ,they proceeded as rapidly as possible to examine the machine1 which was in full operation1 but were soon ordered out by the overseer4 ,they had1 however1 seen enough of its construction to enable them to make one4 ,after their return to this country they made a machine and set it up in the gentleman's cotton mill in the ,state of ,new ,york4 ,the news of its successful operation reached ,england and aroused a jealous feeling among manufacturers4 ,in their anger they planned a wicked scheme to destroy the life of the ,american manufacturer4 ,a box containing an infernal machine was sent as freight on a packet ship bound for ,new ,york4 ,fortunately1 when the crew was discharging the cargo1 the box slipped from the car hook and fell with a crash upon the wharf4 ,this caused it to explode1 but without injury to any one4 ,in colonial times the condition of society was such as to make it almost impossible for the people to engage to any great extent in manufactures4 ,the country was new and the principal business must be agriculture4 ,after comfortable shelter for the families had been provided1 every exertion must be put forth to secure food4 ,cloth could only be obtained from the mother country4 ,cotton and linen cloth were imported for shirts and sheets1 woolen goods for clothing1 a few silks for wedding dresses now and then1 and leather for the shoes of all the people4 ,illustration3 ,,tailor ,,and ,,cobbler4 ,in the early times the tailor1 with his goose and his shears1 plied his trade from house to house1 staying with each family long enough to make up the clothes necessary for the season4 ,in like manner the shoemaker traveled about the country1 with his kit upon his back1 stopping with each household to make the shoes needed for the father1 mother1 and children4 ,these were the pioneer days1 but1 before we became a nation1 the houses of the people had greatly improved in style of architecture and in comfort4 ,considerable wealth had been secured by many1 and but little poverty was found anywhere4 ,the mechanic arts were beginning to improve1 and manufacturing1 after a long and tedious waiting1 was gradually making progress4 ,at an early date sawmills had been established upon the streams1 using the water as motive power4 ,gristmills had sprung up for grinding the grain raised by every farmer4 ,the spinning wheel and the hand loom had found their place slowly but steadily in all parts of the country4 ,it is difficult to comprehend the great differences between the industries of those early days and the methods of doing business among us to-day4 ,now almost everything seems to be done by machinery1 and the division of labor has been carried to such an extent that each laborer seems only an assistant to a machine4 ,you press the button1 the machine does the rest4 ,in the early days of our country1 it was customary for the different members of a family to do almost everything that the necessities or comfort of the household required4 ,everywhere the farmer raised sheep1 sheared them1 carded the wool1 spun it and wove it1 all this being done upon the home farm4 ,a well-to-do farmer would produce all the woolen cloth needed for clothing for himself and his family4 ,illustration3 ,,flax ,,wheel4 ,the sheep grazed upon the hills and their wool was clipped in the spring of the year4 ,this wool was scoured1 carded1 spun by the family in the farmhouse1 and then woven into cloth for the winter's wear4 ,all this was done within the walls of the house1 and the cloth was made up into clothing for the different members of the family by the itinerant tailor4 ,what a contrast from the present system1 which raises wool upon our ,western hills and prairies1 makes it into cloth in the large factories1 and fashions it into trousers1 vests1 and coats in the great wholesale clothing establishments4 ,in some sections of the country the farmers raised flax1 and from it made the purest white linen cloth4 ,the writer of this chapter has in his possession a beautiful piece of white linen1 woven upon the farm where he was born1 from thread which was spun from flax raised upon the same farm4 ,the flax wheel and the loom were also made by the father of the family4 ,illustration3 ,,an ,,old-,,fashioned ,,loom4 ,if you could look into that old kitchen what a sight you would see6 ,how quaint it would appear to each one of you6 ,the kitchen makes an ell to the main house4 ,this ell was an old house1 built more than a century and a half ago1 and moved up to the new house for a kitchen4 ,in one corner stands the large spinning wheel2 near it is the smaller flax wheel2 in another corner stands the great wooden loom with its huge beam for the warp and its shuttle which must be thrown back and forth by hand4 ,no carpet1 not even an oil-cloth1 is upon the floor1 which is covered with pure white sand4 ,it would seem very strange to us if we were obliged to live surrounded by these primitive conditions4 ,how much stranger would it appear to those who lived at that day if they could witness the improvements of our time6 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,the ,,cotton ,,gin4 ,in the quiet times that followed the ,french and ,indian ,war1 two years after the ,treaty of #agfc1 ,eli ,whitney was born in ,worcester ,county in ,massachusetts4 ,during the ,revolutionary ,war he was busy making nails by hand1 the only way in which nails were made in those days4 ,he earned money enough by this industry and by teaching school to pay his way through college4 ,but it was a slow process1 and he was nearly twenty-seven years of age when he was graduated at ,yale4 ,immediately upon his graduation he went to ,georgia1--a long distance from home in those days1--having made an engagement to become a private tutor in a wealthy family of that ,state4 ,on his arrival he found that the man who had engaged his services1 unmindful of the contract1 had filled the position with another tutor4 ,the widow of the famous ,gen4 ,nathaniel ,greene had a beautiful home at ,mulberry ,grove1 on the ,savannah ,river4 ,mrs4 ,greene invited young ,whitney to make her house his home while he studied law4 ,she soon perceived that he had great inventive genius4 ,he devised several articles of convenience which ,mrs4 ,greene much appreciated4 ,at that time the entire cotton crop of this country might have been produced upon a single field of two hundred acres4 ,cotton then commanded a very high price1 because of the labor of separating the cotton fibre from the seed4 ,the cotton clung to the seed with such tenacity that one man could separate the seed from only four or five pounds of cotton in a day4 ,at that rate it would take him three months to make up a bale of clear cotton4 ,already inventions in machinery for the making of cotton cloth had made the production of cotton a necessity4 ,some means must be provided for a more rapid separation of cotton from the seed in order to make manufacturing profitable4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,cotton ,,field4 ,one day1 one of ,mrs4 ,greene's friends was regretting1 in conversation with her1 that there could be no profit in the cultivation of cotton4 ,mrs4 ,greene had great faith in the inventive powers of young ,whitney1 and she suggested that he be asked to make a machine which would separate the seed skillfully and rapidly1 for1 said she1 ,eli ,whitney can make anything4 ,when the workmen in the deep mines of ,england needed a safety lamp to shield them from the explosions of the damp1 they applied to the great chemist1 ,sir ,humphrey ,davy1 and he invented one4 ,so1 these cotton raisers appealed to ,mr4 ,whitney to invent for them a cotton engine or gin4 ,he knew nothing about either raw cotton or cotton seed4 ,could he be expected to invent a machine that would separate the cotton seed which he had never seen from the raw cotton which also he had never seen8 ,but ,whitney was an inventor4 ,trifles must not stand in his way4 ,he secured samples of the cotton and the seed2 even this was not an easy thing to do1 for it was not the right season of the year4 ,he began to work out his idea of the cotton gin1 but met with many obstacles4 ,there were no wire manufactories in the ,south and he could not obtain wire even in ,savannah4 ,therefore he had to make his wire himself4 ,still further1 he was obliged to manufacture his own iron tools4 ,step by step he overcame all obstacles1 until he had a machine that he thought would answer the purpose4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,cotton ,,ball4 ,accordingly1 one day1 he entered the room where ,mrs4 ,greene was conversing with friends and exclaimed1 ,the victory is mine6 ,all the guests1 as well as the hostess1 went with the inventor to examine the machine4 ,he set the model in motion4 ,it consisted of a cylinder four feet in length and five inches in diameter4 ,upon this was a series of circular saws half an inch apart and projecting two inches above the surface of the revolving cylinder4 ,the saws passed through narrow slits between bars2 these bars might be called the ribs of the hopper4 ,at once the saw teeth caught the cotton which had been placed in the hopper and carried it over between the bars4 ,the seed was left behind1 as it was too large to pass through4 ,the saws revolved smoothly and the cotton was thoroughly separated from the seed4 ,but after a few minutes the saws became clogged with the cotton and the wheels stopped4 ,poor ,whitney was in despair4 ,victory was not yet his4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,cotton ,,gin4 ,mrs4 ,greene came to the rescue4 ,her housewifely instincts saw the difficulty at once and the remedy as well4 ,here's what you want6 she exclaimed4 ,she took a clothes brush hanging near by and held it firmly against the teeth of the saws4 ,the cylinder began again to revolve1 for the saws were quickly cleaned of the lint1 which no longer clogged the teeth4 ,madam1 said the grateful ,whitney1 you have perfected my invention4 ,the inventor added a second1 larger cylinder1 near the first4 ,on this he placed a set of stiff brushes4 ,as the two cylinders revolved1 the brushes freed the saw teeth from the cotton and left it in the receiving pan4 ,thus the cotton gin was invented by the ,yankee schoolmaster1 ,eli ,whitney4 ,though improved in its workmanship and construction1 it is still in use wherever cotton is raised4 ,one man with a ,whitney cotton gin can clean a thousand pounds of cotton in place of the five pounds formerly cleaned by hand4 ,when a safety lamp was needed1 ,davy invented it4 ,when faster water travel was demanded1 ,fulton constructed the steamboat4 ,when the world needed vast wheat fields1 ,mc,cormick devised his reaper4 ,when the time had come for the telegraph1 ,morse studied it out4 ,in the fullness of time1 ,bell1 ,edison1 and others invented the telephone4 ,when a cotton gin was needed1 ,eli ,whitney made it4 ,here again the law holds that necessity is the mother of invention4 ,when a great invention is made1 everybody wants the benefit of it1 and people seem to think that the inventor has no rights which they are bound to respect4 ,whitney secured a patent upon his machine1 but1 unmindful of that1 a great many persons began to make cotton gins4 ,he was immediately involved in numerous legal contests4 ,before he secured a single verdict in his favor he had sixty lawsuits pending4 ,after many delays he finally secured the payment of #ej1jjj which the ,legislature of ,south ,carolina had voted him4 ,north ,carolina allowed him a percentage on all cotton gins used in that ,state for five years4 ,tennessee promised to do the same1 but did not keep her promise4 ,mr4 ,whitney struggled along1 year after year1 until he was convinced that he should never receive a just return for his invention4 ,seeing no way to gain a competence from the cotton gin he determined to continue the contest no longer1 removed to ,new ,haven and turned his attention to the making of firearms4 ,here he eventually gained a fortune4 ,he made such improvements in the manufacture of firearms as to lay his country under permanent obligation to him for greatly increasing the means of national defense4 ,robert ,fulton once said3 ,arkwright1 ,watt1 and ,whitney were the three men that did the most for mankind of any of their contemporaries4 ,macaulay said3 ,what ,peter the ,great did to make ,russia dominant1 ,eli ,whitney's invention of the cotton gin has more than equaled in its relation to the power and progress of the ,united ,states4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,cotton4 ,almost exactly in the center of ,england is the ,county of ,derby4 ,a few miles north of the city of ,derby1 on a small river called ,derwent1 a branch of the ,trent1 is the little town of ,belper4 ,this town was noted for its early manufacture of cotton and silk goods4 ,here1 about the time of the ,american ,revolution1 ,richard ,arkwright and ,jedediah ,strutt were successfully engaged in cotton spinning4 ,in this town1 in #agfc1 was born ,samuel ,slater4 ,as the lad grew up1 his father1 a well-to-do farmer1 sent him to school where he received the advantages of a good ,english education4 ,his school days1 however1 ended when he was fourteen years of age4 ,he was greatly interested in machinery4 ,the hum of the spinning frame was music to his ears4 ,therefore1 he was apprenticed to ,mr4 ,strutt to learn the business of cotton spinning1 and gained a thorough mastery of the process of carding and spinning cotton1 and even while an apprentice he made many improvements in machinery4 ,at the close of the ,revolutionary ,war1 the ,constitution of the ,united ,states was adopted and ,george ,washington became ,president4 ,we have already seen that ,england did not permit her ,american colonies to engage to any great extent in manufacturing4 ,but now1 the very first ,congress under ,washington passed an act to encourage manufactures1 and one or two of the ,states offered bounties for the introduction of cotton machinery4 ,young ,slater1 now about twenty-one years of age1 determined to emigrate to ,america4 ,since the laws of ,england did not permit him to take drawings or models with him1 he had to trust entirely to his memory to construct new machinery when he should arrive in this country4 ,he landed in ,new ,york in ,november1 #aghi1 and soon after wrote to ,moses ,brown1 a wealthy merchant of ,providence1 ,rhode ,island1 telling him what he could do and asking his help4 ,mr4 ,brown immediately replied3 ,if thou canst do this thing1 ,i invite thee to come to ,rhode ,island and have the credit of introducing cotton manufactures into ,america4 ,so it happened that on the #bast of ,december1 #agij1 ,samuel ,slater1 representing the business firm of ,almy1 ,brown and ,slater1 set up at ,pawtucket three eighteen-inch carding machines1 with the necessary drawing heads1 roving cases1 winders1 and spinning frames1 with seventy-two spindles4 ,here1 in an old fulling mill1 and by water power1 was started machinery for the making of cotton yarn4 ,mr4 ,slater had been obliged to prepare all the plans of this machinery1 and either to construct it with his own hands or to teach others how to do it4 ,from the first the enterprise was successful4 ,an excellent quality of yarn was manufactured1 quite equal to the best quality then made in ,england4 ,no attempts were made to use water power in weaving the yarn into cloth4 ,this was still done by hand looms in the farmhouses of the country4 ,a second cotton factory was started in the year #ahjj1 and within ten years from that date there were many of them in different parts of the land4 ,when ,mr4 ,slater came to ,america1 he left at his father's house in ,belper a little brother4 ,in #ahje this brother1 now grown to manhood1 came to ,america1 and went to ,pawtucket to find his brother ,samuel4 ,here he found ,mr4 ,wilkinson1 a brother-in-law of ,mr4 ,slater4 ,mr4 ,wilkinson took him to his brother's house and said3 ,i have brought one of your countrymen to see you2 can you find anything for him to do8 ,mr4 ,slater asked from what part of ,england he came4 ,he replied3 ,derbyshire4 ,what part of ,derbyshire8 said ,mr4 ,slater4 ,i came from the town of ,belper1 said ,john4 ,belper1 the town of ,belper8 ,well1 that is where ,i came from4 ,what may ,i call your name8 ,john ,slater4 ,the boy had changed so much that his older brother did not know him4 ,the interview was a delightful one to both2 it was like the meeting of ,joseph and ,benjamin4 ,questions and answers flew rapidly4 ,is my mother yet alive8 ,how are my brothers and sisters8 ,how is my old master1 ,mr4 ,strutt8 ,is the old schoolmaster ,jackson living8 ,the next year the two brothers built a cotton mill in ,smithfield1 ,rhode ,island1 and in #ahjh a large stone mill was erected at ,blackstone1 ,massachusetts4 ,so the business continued to increase4 ,the power loom was invented1 and soon the manufacture of cotton cloth became one of the leading interests of ,new ,england4 ,the mills of ,lowell became famous4 ,manchester1 in ,new ,hampshire1 ,lawrence and ,fall ,river1 in ,massachusetts1 were soon dotted with great mills turning out cloth of all varieties by the million yards4 ,the falls upon the rivers of ,new ,england were utilized1 by means of the water wheel1 to furnish power for moving all the machinery used in the making of cotton goods4 ,the song of the picker1 the hum of the spinning frame1 and the whack1 whack of the loom are now heard in a thousand mills in various parts of our country4 ,mr4 ,slater was visited at one time by ,andrew ,jackson while he was ,president4 ,it is related that the following conversation took place between them3 ,i understand1 said the ,president1 that you have taught us how to spin so as to rival ,great ,britain and that it is you who have set all these thousands of spindles at work1 which ,i have been so delighted to see1 and which are making so many people happy by giving them employment4 ,yes sir1 said ,mr4 ,slater1 ,i suppose that ,i gave out the ,psalm1 and they have been singing the tune ever since4 ,illustration3 ,,president ,,jackson ,,and ,,mr4 ,,slater4 ,samuel ,slater died in #ahce1 leaving a large fortune to his family4 ,john ,slater died a few years after the death of his brother4 ,it was his son1 ,john ,f4 ,slater1 who in #ahhb placed #a1jjj1jjj in the hands of a board of trustees1 the interest of which was to be used for the education of the freedmen of the ,south and their descendants4 ,the great ,rhode ,island orator1 ,tristam ,burgess1 said in ,congress on one occasion3 ,if manufacturing establishments are a benefit and a blessing to the ,union1 the name of ,slater must ever be held in grateful remembrance by the ,american people4 ,it would be next to impossible to give any adequate account of the improvements which have been made in ,american machinery for the manufacture of cotton cloth4 ,beginning with the cotton gin and the introduction of the carding machine and the spinning frame by ,slater1 we should have to record the great success of the double speeder1 the modern drawing-frame1 the ,crompton and the ,whitin looms1 and especially the ring traveler spinning frame and the self-operating cotton mule4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,interior ,,of ,a ,,modern ,,cotton ,,mill4 ,in #agia1 #bjj1jjj pounds of cotton were exported1 very little being used in this country4 ,in #ahia1 the cotton produced in ,america reached more than #c1ejj1jjj1jjj pounds4 ,this cotton is now grown in the ,southern ,states upon more than #bj1jjj1jjj acres of ground4 ,the mills of ,america to-day are using more than #b1jjj1jjj bales of cotton per year4 ,in #agic1 ,samuel ,slater started seventy-two spindles to spin cotton2 in #ahic1 there were #ae1jjj1jjj spindles4 ,to such great proportions has this industry grown from the small beginnings of ,samuel ,slater's bold attempt to bring over from ,england in his memory the machinery necessary to its manufacture4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,wool4 ,as civilization has advanced1 the clothing of man has improved4 ,to-day a great variety of material is necessary to make up the proper wardrobe for civilized man4 ,our clothing is nearly all fabricated--that is1 manufactured from the raw material into what we call fabrics4 ,we have cotton1 woolen1 silk1 and linen fabrics4 ,the two principal articles used for our clothing1 however1 are wool and cotton4 ,cotton and linen are more largely used in warm weather and in warm climates1 while woolen has come into general use for wear in colder climates and in colder seasons4 ,the making of woolen cloth is one of the oldest industries4 ,in the early ages the coarse wool of the sheep was spun into long threads1 then woven and made into rude garments for the clothing of man4 ,the dyeing of these cloths1 by which brilliant colors were produced1 was one of the earliest of the fine arts4 ,many centuries ago the ,egyptians1 the ,persians1 the ,greeks1 and the ,romans made shawls and robes of beautiful texture and brilliant colors4 ,they also made mats1 rugs1 tent cloths1 curtains1 and tapestry hangings4 ,during the last four hundred years steady progress has been made in the construction of woolen fabrics4 ,long ago ,england became famous for the manufacture of worsted goods1 carpets1 and broadcloths4 ,machinery for making woolen cloth was introduced into ,england during the latter half of the last century4 ,the spinning jenny came into use a little after #agej1 and the power loom was invented near the close of the century4 ,no machinery for making woolen cloth1 except by hand spinning and hand weaving1 was introduced into our country until about the year #ahjj4 ,how do you suppose our forefathers and foremothers managed to make the cloth needed before the introduction of machinery and the building of factories8 ,a single incident may explain how it was done4 ,rev4 ,dr4 ,eliphalet ,nott was president of ,union ,college1 ,schenectady1 ,new ,york1 for more than sixty years4 ,he was born in ,connecticut just before the ,american ,revolution4 ,his father was very poor1 but a conscientious1 godly man4 ,he lived on a farm four miles from the village and the church4 ,during the early boyhood of ,eliphalet his father had no horse1 and in bad weather1 when the family could not walk to church1 they were drawn over the rough and hilly roads of that long four miles by their only cow4 ,yet they were always at church4 ,one winter1 ,mr4 ,nott's overcoat had become so shabby that ,mrs4 ,nott told her husband it was not fit to be worn to church any longer4 ,he had no money to buy a new one4 ,should he stay away from divine service8 ,not he6 ,to this proposition neither he nor his wife would assent4 ,soon1 however1 the good woman devised a plan to free them from the difficulty4 ,she suggested to her husband that they should shear their only cosset lamb1 and that the fleece would furnish wool enough for a new overcoat4 ,what6 said the old man1 shear the cosset in ,january8 ,it will freeze4 ,ah1 no1 it will not1 said the wife1 ,i will see to that2 the lamb shall not suffer4 ,she sheared the cosset and then wrapped it in a blanket of burlaps1 well sewed on1 which kept it warm until its wool had grown again4 ,this fleece ,mrs4 ,nott carded1 spun1 and wove into cloth1 which she cut and made into a garment for her husband1 and he wore it to church on the following ,sabbath4 ,the first attempt to manufacture woolen cloth other than by hand was made at ,newburyport1 ,massachusetts1 by two ,englishmen1 ,arthur and ,john ,scholfield4 ,they had learned the business in ,england1 and now put in operation the first carding machine for wool made in the ,united ,states4 ,upon this they made the first spinning rolls turned out by machinery4 ,the same year they built a factory1 three stories high and one hundred feet long1 in the ,byfield district1 at ,newburyport4 ,the two brothers carried on the factory for a company of gentlemen who were the stockholders4 ,arthur was overseer of the carding2 ,john was in charge of the weaving room4 ,this application of machinery to the making of woolen cloth created much interest in the country1 and wool was brought from long distances4 ,people visited the factory from far and near4 ,these visitors became so numerous that an admission fee of ten cents was charged4 ,during the first winter after the factory was opened sleighing parties came from all the neighboring towns4 ,some years ago an old lady1 ninety years of age1 wrote1 in ,reminiscences of a ,nonagenarian1 that she had seen row after row of sleighs pass over ,crane-neck ,hill1 enlivening the bright cold days by the joyous tones of their merry bells4 ,she describes the impression made upon her own mind the first time she visited the factory3 ,never shall ,i forget the awe with which ,i entered what then appeared the vast and imposing edifice4 ,the large drums that carried the bands on the lower floor1 coupled with the novel noise and hum1 increased this awe1 but when ,i reached the second floor where picking1 carding1 spinning1 and weaving were in process1 my amazement became complete4 ,the machinery1 with the exception of the looms1 was driven by water power4 ,the weaving was by hand4 ,most of the operatives were males1 a few young girls being employed in splicing rolls4 ,after this ,john ,scholfield established a factory in ,montville1 ,connecticut4 ,subsequently ,arthur ,scholfield removed to ,pittsfield1 ,massachusetts1 where he passed the remainder of his life1 and not only carried on the woolen manufacture himself1 but also built carding machines and set them up for others to operate4 ,within the next twelve years several woolen factories had been built in ,massachusetts1 ,new ,hampshire1 ,rhode ,island1 and ,new ,york4 ,the new industry had become so firmly established that when ,president ,madison was inaugurated1 ,march #d1 #ahji1 he wore a suit of black broadcloth of ,american manufacture4 ,but ,washington ,irving tells us that ,washington1 our first president1 was inaugurated twenty years earlier1 dressed in a suit of dark-brown cloth of ,american manufacture4 ,from time to time the woolen industry has been protected by various tariff bills passed by ,congress4 ,this industry to-day is of gigantic proportions4 ,the woolen factories in our country are now using about five hundred million pounds of wool per year4 ,more than half of this is raised in our own country1 and nearly all of the cloth produced is retained in the country for home consumption4 ,let us see now if we can understand how woolen cloth is made4 ,the father of ,dr4 ,nott had in those early days a single sheep4 ,some farmers would have half a dozen1 others twenty-five or fifty4 ,now times are changed4 ,we have but few sheep in the older settled country along the ,atlantic coast4 ,those who raise wool to-day are apt to make it their sole business1 doing nothing else4 ,most of the sheep of this country are raised upon the great plains and in the great valleys of the ,western country4 ,many flocks of sheep1 numbering from five hundred to several thousand1 may be seen in ,texas1 ,new ,mexico1 ,utah1 and ,wyoming4 ,there are to-day in ,texas more than three million sheep2 about an equal number in ,wyoming2 nearly as many in ,new ,mexico1 ,oregon1 ,california1 and ,ohio4 ,we have in our country at the present time more than forty million sheep4 ,illustration3 ,,sheep-,,shearing4 ,let us visit one of these sheep ranches4 ,it is in the spring of the year4 ,the warm weather has come4 ,the sheep have had their thick fleeces to keep them warm through the cold winter4 ,in the summer these thick1 shaggy coats would be as burdensome to them as a winter overcoat would be to us4 ,the ranchmen round up the flock1 and taking them one by one1 cut off with a huge pair of shears the long wool4 ,the wool is sold to the dealers1 and sent away to the market4 ,it finds its way to the woolen mill4 ,it is sorted1 washed1 and scoured4 ,it is then carded4 ,the cards straighten out the long fibres of wool so that they may be readily spun4 ,the mule or the spinning jenny spins it into yarn1 twisting this yarn like a rope or thread so that it will be strong and will hold together4 ,a part of the yarn is then arranged upon a great beam for the warp4 ,the warp is the threads that run lengthwise of the cloth4 ,the rest of it is wound upon little bobbins to be put into shuttles4 ,the shuttle is thrown back and forth across the warp1 thus weaving in the filling4 ,this is done by means of what is called a harness4 ,this harness holds up the alternate threads of the warp and presses down the other threads1 so that when the shuttle is thrown through it carries the thread of the filling under and over2 that is1 under one-half of the warp threads and over the other half4 ,after the cloth is woven1 it is put through the fulling mill1 which beats it up thick and firm4 ,after this come the various processes of finishing3 shearing the surface so as to leave it smooth2 brushing it so as to set the nap all one way and give it a smooth1 even1 glossy appearance4 ,the quality of the cloth depends upon the quality of the wool used1 the quality of the machinery which makes the cloth1 and the skill of the workmen4 ,a great deal of experience is necessary in making first-class goods4 ,we are now using the very best machinery in the world in the manufacture of our woolen goods4 ,possibly in the making of broadcloth and a few varieties of the better class of goods we may not yet be quite up to the older manufactories of ,europe1 but in cassimeres1 worsted goods1 blankets and carpets we are already able to compete with the products of the ,old ,world4 ,although the price of labor in ,european countries is less than in ,america1 our workmen do more work in a day and our machinery is of such improved patterns that we are generally able to compete in price4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,leather4 ,in the colonial days1 as we have seen1 the traveling shoemaker was abroad in the land4 ,he was accustomed to travel through his section of the country with a kit of tools and bits of leather on his back4 ,he was familiarly called ,crispin1 from the patron saint of his craft1 and ofttimes proved a character much appreciated by the farmers and their families4 ,sometimes these traveling mechanics were quiet1 silent men1 doing their work and going on intent only on obtaining their living2 but sometimes they were jolly1 social people1 facetious1 even witty4 ,good mornin'1 neighbor ,heyday1 said a ,crispin to a farmer4 ,i hope you and the madam and the childers are all very well1 the day4 ,eh1 purty fair4 ,the woman is ailin' some4 ,she wants buildin' up1 buildin' up4 ,well1 well1 said ,crispin1 the ,lord has laid ,his hand of blessing heavily upon ye1 so ,he has that4 ,what is the meanin' of that speech8 said the farmer4 ,eh1 sorry is it for the joker when he has to explain his own joke4 ,hasn't ,he filled your quiver full of childers8 and isn't that the greatest blessing the ,almighty can bestow on man that is a sinner8 ,but ,i have only six childers4 ,yes1 yes1 ,i see1 but the eldest counts less years than the clock tell hours2 and ,i wish ye had a dozen instead of half as many4 ,are ye givin' 'em all good healthy understandin'8 ,well1 them that's old enough goes to school1 if that's what you mean8 ,well1 there it is again4 ,a man has to interpret his own wit4 ,i mean1 have they all good soles on which to keep their bodies healthy8 ,the good ,lord gives 'em the souls and their parents are responsible only for the bodies4 ,blunderin' again it is that ,i am4 ,i mean are ye'r shoes all in a good1 healthy condition1 so that the brats will not take cold and be carried off by a stout1 lung fever1 that the doctors call newmony8 ,well1 they've worn no shoes all summer except what the ,lord gave 'em1 and that's the skin of their feet4 ,well1 now1 it's a full twelvemonth since ,i was around here afore1 and do ye want me to make up their winter shoes for 'em8 ,so the conversation went on until they had struck a bargain1 that the ,crispin should board with the farmer and make up the shoes for himself and the children1 the farmer paying for the leather and so much by the week for the man's work4 ,the shoemaker then made a strong pair of cowhide boots for the father of the family2 a pair of kid shoes for the good wife2 two pairs of calfskin shoes for the two girls2 two pairs of ingrain boots for the older boys2 and two pairs of kid shoes for the younger boys4 ,the silver jingled in the pocket of the ,crispin when his task was completed1 and he traveled onward to the next farm4 ,he had appropriated to himself a certain section of villages and country1 and he would treat the matter as a serious misdemeanor should any other ,crispin trespass upon his territory4 ,the ,crispins of those days were honest and faithful in their work4 ,slow they were1--that cannot be denied4 ,even as late as the early half of this century a good shoemaker has been known to labor from morning till night through the six days of the week on one pair of fine1 sewed1 calfskin boots1 and the entire price which the customer paid for them was #e1 which included both labor and material4 ,what a contrast from the ancient method the present system furnishes6 ,not long since a wedding was to occur in ,salem1 ,massachusetts4 ,a telegram was sent at ten o'clock in the morning to ,lynn1 ordering a pair of ladies' slippers made from white kid1 to be worn at the ceremony that afternoon4 ,the shoes were cut out and made up complete and forwarded to ,salem by the two o'clock train4 ,miss ,sarah ,e4 ,wiltse in her stories for children tells how little ,alice was drinking her cup of milk one night when she asked her father to tell her a story about the good cow1 for her third finger4 ,she said3 ,the cow does three things for me now4 ,here is milk for my thumb1 butter for the pointer1 cheese for ,mr4 ,tallman1 and now my third finger1 ,mr4 ,feebleman1 wants something4 ,what can the cow give me for my third finger8 ,her father then told her the story of a king in the long1 long ago1--,i think it must have been in the pre-historic times1--a king who put into one pile the things which he knew1 and into another pile the things which he did not know4 ,now the pile which this foolish king did not know was a great deal larger than the pile of things which he did know4 ,neither he nor his people knew much about making houses or dishes or even clothes for themselves4 ,they went barefooted and bareheaded all the time4 ,one day the king's horse fell dead and he was obliged to walk a long distance4 ,the sharp stones cut his feet1 and the briars and brambles pricked them and tore them4 ,then the king told his people to put down a carpet for him to walk on4 ,so they all went to work to make coarse carpets for the king to walk upon4 ,they had hard work to make carpets enough to lay down in advance of the king1 day after day1 as he traveled across the country4 ,at length one of his servants went away by himself and worked all night4 ,the next morning he came and knelt before the king and said3 ,sire1 ,i have a carpet for the whole earth1 though none but the king may walk upon it4 ,upon this carpet thou canst climb mountains and thy feet be not bruised2 thou canst wander in the valleys and thy feet never be torn by brambles2 thou canst tread the burning desert and thy feet remain unscorched4 ,then the king said3 ,bring me that priceless carpet and half my kingdom shall be thine4 ,the servant brought to the king a pair of shoes which he had made in the night4 ,this was a new carpet for the king2 and so this was the fourth good thing which the cow gave to ,alice2 the milk she put down for the thumb1 the butter for the first finger1 the cheese for the middle finger1 and now she put leather for the third finger4 ,what great changes have taken place in the process of making boots and shoes since this witty servant made the carpet for the king's feet6 ,let us trace briefly the history of leather and the evolution of a pair of shoes4 ,in the early colonial days the skins of animals were widely used for clothing4 ,caps were made for the men and boys from bear skins1 wolf skins1 and the skins of the catamount4 ,overcoats with sleeves and hoods were made of skins of wild animals properly dressed1 with the hair on4 ,moccasins for winter service were from the same material4 ,buckskin breeches with fringed edges were in common use4 ,these costumes in the newly settled regions of our ,western country continued until fifty or sixty years ago4 ,illustration3 ,,dr4 ,,whitman ,,starting ,,on ,,his ,,journey4 ,in the winter of #ahdb-dc ,dr4 ,marcus ,whitman made his memorable journey from ,oregon across the country to the ,states4 ,on a later occasion he described the dress which he wore on that remarkable horseback ride4 ,he said3 ,i wore buckskin breeches1 fur moccasins1 a blue duffle coat1 a buffalo overcoat with hood1 and a bearskin cap4 ,rather a fantastic garb for a missionary1 wasn't it8 ,inventions and machinery have done much to improve the processes of tanning leather4 ,tanning itself is a curious process4 ,it changes raw hides into a condition in which the skins are useful in the arts and manufactures4 ,this process renders the skins nearly impervious to water1 and makes them so tough that they can withstand the ravages of time and remain firm and strong even for centuries4 ,it is said that specimens of leather have been discovered in ,china which are surely three thousand years old4 ,they had been tanned by the process which is called alum tannage4 ,when ,columbus discovered ,america he found1 in possession of the ,indians1 skins that had been tanned4 ,their process of tanning1 too1 was practically the alum method4 ,sir ,edwin ,arnold found a pair of slippers in a sarcophagus in ,india1 and nothing else was present except a small heap of dust4 ,in the huts of the ,rock ,dwellers in ,arizona tanned leather has been found4 ,in ancient ,babylon they had a process of tanning1 and nearly two thousand years ago the ,russians and ,hungarians were skilled in the art4 ,the ancient ,romans knew how to tan leather with oil1 alum1 and bark4 ,most of the early tanning1 however1 was without bark4 ,the process was accomplished with oil1 clay1 sour milk1 and smoke4 ,later1 nutgalls and leaves began to be used4 ,oak bark is the principal material now employed throughout the world in tanning4 ,besides the oak bark1 the barks of hemlock1 pine1 birch1 and willow are utilized4 ,when the texture of the skin has been so changed by this tanning process as to become tough and durable1 then the name leather is given to it4 ,in the days of the ,crispins six months was as short a time as the tanner thought needful for the proper curing of the hides4 ,the process was crude1 long1 and laborious2 but the leather1 ah6 the leather--it was strong and would wear like iron4 ,even the children did not need copper toes4 ,to-day the methods have changed greatly2 in no way more noticeably than in the shorter time required4 ,the modern process must be considered an improvement1 even though the leather is not as strong as formerly4 ,the skins of most animals may be used to make leather ,the domestic animals1 cows1 calves1 and sheep1 are first called upon to give their skins for leather4 ,glazed kid is made from goat skins4 ,kangaroo leather is much used for shoes4 ,considerable use is made of alligator leather for satchels and bags and even for shoes4 ,skins of lizards1 snakes1 and seals are used2 walrus hides are tanned1 and the leather used for polishing knives and tools4 ,patent leather is made principally of cowhide1 horsehide1 and calfskin4 ,horsehide leather is very tough and durable1 but is too elastic for some purposes4 ,harness leather is made from steer and cow hides4 ,russia leather1 formerly made only in ,russia1 has been a favorite material for the choicest kinds of pocketbooks and satchels4 ,bookbinders prefer it for binding their most costly volumes4 ,marshall ,jewell was a ,new ,hampshire boy4 ,he learned the trade of tanning and worked at it with his father4 ,while yet a young man1 he removed to ,hartford1 ,connecticut4 ,there1 at first with his father and afterward alone1 he carried on a large business in manufacturing leather belting4 ,he was three times governor of the ,state4 ,the year after leaving the governor's chair he was appointed ,minister to ,russia4 ,while in that country1 through his intimate knowledge of the methods of tanning1 he discovered the secret of the ,russian process4 ,it had never been known before in our country4 ,under his direction it was introduced here1 and within the last twenty-five years it has come into very extensive use4 ,the process is quite simple4 ,it is thus described3 ,steep the leather in a solution of fifty pounds each of oak and hemlock bark and sumach1 one pound of willow bark and nine hundred gallons of water2 heat by steam1 and immerse the leather till struck through1 and while the material is still damp smear on the outer side a solution of oil of birch bark dissolved in a little alcohol and ether4 ,this imparts to the leather its odor and its pliability4 ,a boot or shoe consists principally of two parts3 the sole1 made of thick1 tough1 strong leather1 and the uppers1 made of a softer1 more pliable leather4 ,by the old process the boot or the shoe was made throughout by a single person4 ,by the modern process1 one person cuts out the shoe1 another binds it1 and a third puts it upon the last2 still another manages the machine which sews the sole and the upper together1 a different person trims the edges1 some one else attends to the next process in the division of labor1 until1 it may be1 a dozen persons have done something to the making of one shoe4 ,the modern improved machines for sewing on the soles of shoes are wonderful instruments4 ,upon one machine a good workman will sew eight hundred pairs of women's shoes in ten hours4 ,a great part of the boots and shoes worn by the people of this country are made with this improved machinery in large establishments in ,new ,york1 ,philadelphia1 ,baltimore1 and other large cities1 and particularly in several towns in ,massachusetts1 ,new ,hampshire1 and ,maine4 ,the most important seat of this manufacture is ,lynn1 ,massachusetts1 but great quantities of shoes are made in ,brockton1 ,haverhill1 ,milford1 ,marblehead1 ,danvers1 and ,worcester in ,massachusetts1 ,portland1 ,auburn1 and ,augusta in ,maine1 and ,dover and ,farmington1 in ,new ,hampshire4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,needles4 ,in the earlier times what was the mantle that covered the human person8 ,how was it made8 ,how was it held together8 ,with what was the sewing thereof8 ,when was thread first used for the seam8 ,how early in human history was the eye made for the needle8 ,from the beginning of history we find references to sewing1 even earlier than to weaving4 ,we might naturally suppose that leather was sewed before cloth1 and that stout leathern thongs served for thread4 ,the leather string for thread and the awl for the needle must have been in use long1 long ago4 ,the stout moccasin1 the wolfskin cap1 the buckskin breeches were sewed by punching holes and laboriously pulling a leather string through them4 ,by and by1 however1 some skillful inventor produced the needle4 ,perhaps the first needles were made of bone or ivory4 ,then metal was used4 ,what a great invention was the eye of the needle6 ,no one knows who was the inventor1 but we have reason to bless the unknown personage who first devised this ingenious arrangement4 ,would you not like to see the needles that were in use hundreds of years ago8 ,they were not like the finely finished needles of to-day4 ,crude and coarse were they1 and only adapted to the crude and coarse sewing which could then be performed4 ,to-day the needle-woman is often an artist4 ,embroidery is done with the needle4 ,the plain seam1 the hem1 the gather1 the back stitch1 are simply so many forms of the work of an artist4 ,century after century our needle-makers have been improving in the manufacture of this simple but effective little machine4 ,in the complicated civilization of the present time we have an almost infinite variety of needles3 the ordinary sewing needle for the making of garments2 smaller needles for lace work1 the hemming of delicate handkerchiefs and the seam of fine silk goods2 and coarse and heavy needles for carpet sewing1 bagging1 and leather work4 ,illustration3 ,,sewing ,,by ,,hand4 ,all this relates to sewing by hand1 with a single needle and one thread4 ,it is stitch by stich1 first one1 then another2 it is like the brook1--it goes on forever4 ,it is like the clock that repeats its tick tock1 tick tock by the hour1 by the day1 by the week1 by the year4 ,perhaps many seamstresses would not recognize the duty of blessing the man who invented the needle4 ,the poet ,hood has told this side of the story in his famous poem1 ,the ,song of the ,shirt4 ,with fingers weary and worn4 ,with eyelids heavy and red1 ,a woman sits in unwomanly rags1 ,plying her needle and thread-- ,stitch6 ,stitch6 ,stitch6 ,in poverty1 hunger1 and dirt4 99 99 99 99 99 ,work6 ,work6 ,work6 ,while the cock is crowing aloof6 ,and work--work--work1 ,till the stars shine through the roof6 99 99 99 99 99 ,band and gusset and seam1 ,seam and gusset and band1 ,till the heart is sick1 ,and the brain benumbed ,as well as the weary hand4 ,indeed1 the time had come long ago when some ingenious device was needed by which the seamstress could sew with less wear and tear of nerve and muscle4 ,efforts were made in ,england for machine sewing nearly one hundred and fifty years ago1 but they were not successful4 ,a sewing machine was invented by ,thomas ,saint about one hundred years ago which had some of the features of the sewing machine of to-day4 ,it was left1 however1 for ,american inventors to produce machines that would do the work easily and successfully2 the machines themselves had such simplicity and were so nicely adapted that they were not likely to get out of repair but would remain serviceable during a long period of years4 ,sewing machines in large numbers were invented during the period from #ahcj to #ahfj4 ,as early as #ahah a sewing machine was invented by ,rev4 ,john ,adams ,dodge1 of ,vermont4 ,he used a needle pointed at each end with the eye in the middle4 ,this machine would make a good backstitch and sew a seam straight forward4 ,it was not patented and did not get into use to any considerable extent4 ,in #ahcb ,walter ,hunt1 of ,new ,york1 brought out a machine which used two threads1 one being carried by a shuttle and the other by a curved needle with the eye in the point4 ,this machine also was not patented4 ,ten years later1 ,j4 ,j4 ,greenough patented a machine for sewing leather and other heavy material1 but this also did not acquire any extended use4 ,about the same time ,george ,h4 ,corliss invented a strong1 heavy machine for sewing leather1 using two needles with the eyes near the points2 this machine was evidently an improvement on previous attempts4 ,mr4 ,corliss soon turned his attention to improvements of the steam engine and did not continue his efforts to perfect his sewing machine4 ,hence it was that the first really successful sewing machine was that of ,elias ,howe1 patented in #ahdf4 ,the first form of ,howe's machine was far from satisfactory1 but it was an improvement on all previous machines4 ,howe could not induce the people to appreciate the value of his invention1 and he went to ,england and there secured patents4 ,but in ,england also he became discouraged1 and sold out his rights for that country and returned home4 ,meantime others had pirated his invention and were making his machines and placing them upon the market4 ,howe immediately asserted his rights and1 after a series of suits in court1 he succeeded in establishing them1 so that finally his machine came into extended use and its inventor reaped a large pecuniary reward from his genius and skill4 ,improvements now came forward rapidly4 ,patents were soon issued to ,allen ,b4 ,wilson of ,pittsfield1 ,massachusetts1 ,isaac ,m4 ,singer of ,new ,york1 and ,william ,o4 ,grover of ,boston4 ,later1 the ,weed1 the ,florence1 the ,wilcox ,gibbs1 the ,remington1 ,domestic1 ,american1 ,household1 and many others were added to the list of successful machines4 ,it is unnecessary to describe the difference in these machines and the various ways in which the stitch is made4 ,some of them make the lock stitch1 others the double loop stitch1 and still others the single chain stitch4 ,the best machines make also a special buttonhole stitch and have particular devices by which they gather and ruffle1 tuck1 hem1 bind1 and whatever else is required to be done with thread4 ,one machine or another can be used for almost any kind of sewing4 ,with them we sew shoes and boots1 heavy woolen goods like beaver1 several thicknesses of duck1 or1 on the other hand1 the very finest and nicest muslin4 ,sewing machines are used in the making of gloves1 pocketbooks1 traveling bags1 and other articles of this character4 ,special machines sew seams on water hose1 leather buckets1 bootlegs1 and other articles which require the seam to be made in a circle4 ,no other country has so many factories or such large ones for making sewing machines as the ,united ,states4 ,the establishments which manufacture sewing machines have a combined capital of more than twenty million dollars1 and the value of their annual product aggregates about fifteen million dollars4 ,meanwhile the price of sewing machines has diminished so that they are now sold for less than one-half1 and sometimes as low as one-fourth1 of the original price4 ,in #ahcj a ,frenchman1 ,barthlemy ,thimmonier1 constructed of wood eighty machines which made a chain stitch of great strength4 ,these were used for making clothing for the ,french army4 ,laborers were so incensed at this invention1 which they thought was contrary to their interests1 that they raised a riot and destroyed all of the machines4 ,a few years later this inventor made other machines constructed of metal1 and these were also destroyed by a mob4 ,many times it has happened that laborers have supposed that they would be great losers from the invention of labor-saving machines4 ,instead of this proving to be true1 it would seem that laborers are benefited by the inventions4 ,there is much evidence showing that while inventions greatly diminish the amount of labor necessary to accomplish a certain result1 on the other hand they open up new lines of industry which fully compensate laborers for the loss which would otherwise fall upon them4 ,it is to be noted also that1 in our country at least1 the wages of laborers have increased in the period during which labor-saving machines have been invented4 ,the modern sewing machine is an inestimable blessing to a family4 ,in former days1 the mother of half a dozen children would be obliged to ply the needle night after night until the small hours in order to keep her little ones properly clad4 ,now1 with the little iron machine standing upon its small table on one side of the room1 the good mother can make up the necessary garments for her children in quick time1 leaving her far more hours for sleep1 recreation1 and social life than would be possible under the old method4 ,many a one can now call down blessings not only upon the man who invented sleep1 but upon the man who invented the sewing machine which gives one time to sleep4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,the ,,steam ,,engine4 ,at the very summit of a mountain near ,pasadena1 ,california1 stands a huge windmill1 which may be seen for many miles in all directions4 ,here the wind blows almost constantly1 and the great arms of the windmill are employed to lift water from a well in the valley below to irrigate the orange groves on the hillsides4 ,thus the wind has been harnessed by man to serve his purpose4 ,illustration3 ,,an ,,old ,,windmill4 ,nature has not only furnished wind for a motive force1 but it has also provided man with water power4 ,the water wheel1 with its accompanying dam across the stream1 has been in general use from the time of the earliest settlements4 ,the weight of the water turned a wheel1 thus developing a force which was employed for sawing lumber or grinding grain4 ,when cotton and woolen manufactories were first introduced1 water power was almost universally used4 ,after wind and water came steam4 ,a very simple steam engine was devised by ,hero more than two thousand years ago1 but it was of little practical value and was soon forgotten4 ,not until the beginning of the eighteenth century was a machine invented which could successfully produce motion by steam4 ,this engine1 made by an ,englishman named ,newcomen1 was very wasteful and was used only to pump water from mines4 ,less than one hundred and fifty years ago a young ,scotchman named ,james ,watt set himself to the task of improving the ,newcomen engine and of making a steam engine that would furnish power for different purposes4 ,he devoted his whole thought to his work1 and after twenty years of study he succeeded4 ,the ,watt steam engine is the basis of all engines to-day4 ,james ,watt did not discover steam power1 but he made the steam engine of real value4 ,many of the first engines used in this country for manufacturing purposes were made by ,boulton and ,watt in ,birmingham4 ,the first steam engines made in ,america were rough and crude1 but the improvement in their construction was rapid4 ,at the present time engines of the finest construction1 with the latest improvements and adapted to all kinds of work1 are made in many establishments all over our land4 ,engines are made for marine purposes--steamboats1 yachts1 and war-vessels1--stationary engines for all sorts of manufactures1 and locomotives for the railroads4 ,perhaps the greatest improvements in the manufacture of steam engines have been the result of the talent and genius of ,george ,h4 ,corliss4 ,in #ahbe1 when ,george was only eight years of age1 his father moved to ,greenwich1 ,new ,york1 where the boy grew up to manhood4 ,here he went to school1 was clerk in a country store1 and was employed in the first cotton factory built in that ,state4 ,little did the people of that country village think that this quiet boy had in him such wonderful mechanical genius as he afterward displayed4 ,his father's house was situated near the bank of a small stream which was much swollen every springtime by the freshets from the melting snows above4 ,a bridge which spanned this stream was carried away one year by the freshets4 ,young ,corliss1 then twenty-one years of age1 proposed to build a cantilever bridge4 ,everybody said that the scheme was impossible2 he could not do it1 it would be a failure4 ,nevertheless he succeeded1 and the bridge was built4 ,it proved entirely successful4 ,it withstood the freshets and was in service1 scarcely needing repairs1 for many years4 ,he went to ,providence when he was twenty-seven years of age1 and before he was thirty he had established himself as the head of the firm of ,corliss1 ,nightingale and ,company1 for the manufacture of steam engines4 ,he was but a little over thirty years old when he patented his great improvements1 applied to the steam engine4 ,these improvements were such as to produce uniformity of motion and to prevent the loss of steam4 ,by connecting the valve with an ingenious cut-off1 which he invented1 he made the engine work with such uniformity that1 if all but one of a hundred looms in a factory were suddenly stopped1 that one would go on working at the same rate of speed as before4 ,the improvements which ,mr4 ,corliss effected at once revolutionized the construction of the steam engine4 ,he immediately began the erection of immense buildings for his machine shops1 where now are employed more than a thousand men4 ,in #ahef the ,corliss ,steam ,engine ,company was incorporated1 and ,mr4 ,corliss1 purchasing the interest of his partners1 soon owned all the stock of this company and was both president and treasurer4 ,during a long period of more than forty years ,mr4 ,corliss1 who was a large-hearted1 benevolent man interested in public affairs relating to city1 ,state1 and nation1 devoted himself with great industry to the development of his inventions4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,corliss ,,engine4 ,perhaps the most conspicuous work which more than anything else carried his name to all the nations of the earth was the construction of the great engine which furnished the motive power for all the machinery in operation in ,machinery ,hall1 at the ,centennial ,exhibition in ,philadelphia in #ahgf4 ,of this engine ,m4 ,bartholdi1 in his report to the ,french ,government1 said3 ,it belonged to the category of works of art by the general beauty of its effect and its perfect balance to the eye4 ,professor ,radinger1 of the ,polytechnic ,school in ,vienna1 pronounced the engine one of the greatest works of the day4 ,this engine stood in the center of ,machinery ,hall upon a platform #ef feet in diameter4 ,the two working beams were #dj feet above the platform1 and were seen from all parts of the building1 being the most conspicuous objects in the hall4 ,the fly-wheel was #cj feet in diameter with a face of #bd inches4 ,this engine carried eight main lines of shafting1 each line being #fej feet in length1 and the larger part of this shafting was speeded to #abj revolutions a minute1 while one line1 used principally for wood-working machines1 made #bdj revolutions per minute4 ,the engine weighed #g1jjj tons1 and its power was equivalent to #a1djj horse-power4 ,the entire cost1 about #bjj1jjj1 was borne by ,mr4 ,corliss4 ,the engine is now in active service1 furnishing the motive power for the entire works of the ,pullman ,car ,company4 ,during the later years of ,mr4 ,corliss's life he devoted much time and thought to inventing improved pumps to be used in connection with city waterworks1 for forcing water to higher levels4 ,he made for the city of ,providence a rotary pump for high service which worked automatically1 keeping the pipes in the upper sections of the city full at all times whether much or little water was used4 ,this ingenious pump was visited by mechanics from all parts of the world4 ,only a few years before his death ,mr4 ,corliss built another pump1 an account of which was published some years ago4 ,this account included the following incident3 ,i went down to ,pettaconsett1 the other day1 to see the foundations of the building that ,mr4 ,corliss is putting up there for the new pumping engine which he has engaged to put in for this city4 ,i found that1 in digging for the foundations1 they came upon a deep bed of quicksand4 ,mr4 ,corliss1 ever fertile in expedients to overcome obstacles1 instead of driving down wooden piles1 sunk in this quicksand great quantities of large cobblestones4 ,these were driven down into the sand with tremendous force by a huge iron ball weighing four thousand pounds4 ,i said3 ',mr4 ,corliss1 why did not you drive wooden piles on which to build your foundation8' ',don't you see1' said he1 'that the piles have no discretion1 and that the cobblestones have8' ',i don't think ,i understand you1 ,mr4 ,corliss1' was my reply4 ',if you drive a pile1' said he1 'it goes where you drive it1 and nowhere else2 but a cobblestone will seek the softest place and go where it is most needed4 ,it therefore has discretion1 and better answers the purpose4' ,i went away musing that the wooden 'piles' and the 'cobblestones' represent two classes of boys4 ',the piles1' said ,mr4 ,corliss1 'have no discretion1 and go only where they are driven4' ,i think ,i have seen boys who represented this quality4 ',but the cobblestones go where they are the most needed4' ,when boys fit themselves to go where they are the most needed1 they will be pretty likely to meet with tolerably good success in life4 ,the great service ,mr4 ,corliss has rendered to the world through his inventions is shown by the awards made to him from the highest scientific authorities4 ,at the ,paris ,exposition 7#ahfg7 he received the highest competitive prize in competition with more than a hundred engines4 ,a great ,english engineer1 one of the ,british commissioners at the ,exposition1 said3 ,the ,american engine of ,mr4 ,corliss everywhere tells of wise forethought1 judicious proportion1 sound execution1 and exquisite contrivance4 ,the ,american ,academy of ,arts and ,sciences in #ahgj awarded to ,mr4 ,corliss the ,rumford ,medal4 ,this medal was presented by ,dr4 ,asa ,gray1 who said3 ,no invention since ,watt's time has so enhanced the efficiency of the steam engine as this4 ,at the ,vienna ,exhibition in #ahgc ,mr4 ,corliss sent neither engine nor machinery1 nor had he any one there to represent him2 but the grand diploma of honor was awarded to him4 ,this was done because foreign builders had sent their engines1 which they themselves claimed were built on his system1 and they had placed his name on their productions4 ,the steam engine to-day is of vastly greater importance than it has ever been before1 especially in its use for furnishing the motive power for cotton and woolen factories1 and for all kinds of manufacturing establishments4 ,what should we do to-day without the steam engine8 ,long before the beginning of this century ,erasmus ,darwin sang as follows3 ,soon shall thy arm1 unconquered steam6 afar ,drag the slow barge1 or drive the rapid car4 ,all this has long been fulfilled4 ,how long will it be before his next two lines will also prove a reality8 ,or on wide-waving wings expanded bear ,the flying chariot through the field of air4 ,illustration3 ,,robert ,,fulton4 ,illustration3 ,,an ,,ocean ,,steamer4 ,i carry the wealth and the lord of earth1 the thoughts of his godlike mind2 ,the wind lags after my going forth1 the lightning is left behind4 ,,section ,v4--,,travel4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,by ,,land4 ,well1 ,charles1 how do you purpose to go to the city to-day8 ,the paper this morning contains some news that ought to interest you4 ,there was a washout at ,turk's ,bridge last evening1 and it will be several hours yet before trains can run4 ,this question was asked by ,mrs4 ,barlow1 one morning during the great street-car strike when the motormen and conductors had refused to run cars until their demands were granted4 ,i see but one way left open for me1 replied her husband4 ,the roads must be very muddy1 and ,i cannot go on my bicycle4 ,i suppose that ,i shall be compelled to walk4 ,that was the original mode of traveling1 and ,i imagine that in this case of necessity ,i can try it again4 ,i am not used to so long a walk1 but ,i see no other way4 ,in one respect ,i am better off than my ancestors were1 for ,i have good level side-walks1 most of them paved1 instead of rough paths1 partly trodden down4 ,i will start to walk1 anyway4 ,mr4 ,barlow did not own a horse1 and could not drive to the city4 ,he did not feel able to hire a public carriage1 as1 since the street-car strike began1 so many desired to ride that the drivers charged very high prices4 ,but he felt that he must attend to his business in the city that day1 and immediately after breakfast he started on his five-mile walk4 ,he was very tired before he reached the office1 and the walk home in the afternoon wearied him still more4 ,he was therefore greatly pleased the next morning to find that the strike was over1 the railroad bridge repaired1 the muddy roads nearly dry1 and a choice open to him to travel either by steam cars1 electric street cars1 or bicycle4 ,mr4 ,barlow learned an interesting lesson by this one day's experience4 ,he obtained something of an idea of the life of his ancestors1 who were compelled to walk whenever they had business to transact4 ,he realized more than ever before what improvements had been made in the last three centuries in the means for travel4 ,his thoughts were turned directly to these changes1 and for several weeks he studied histories and scientific works to learn the ways in which these improvements came about4 ,let us note some of the results of his study4 ,nearly three hundred years ago1 ,captain ,newport1 with a few small vessels1 sailed up the ,james ,river1 in ,virginia4 ,after some weeks the fleet returned to ,england1 leaving about one hundred men1 the colonists of ,jamestown1 the first permanent ,english settlement in ,america4 ,here was a little village1 with the ,atlantic ,ocean1 thousands of miles wide1 separating the colonists from all their friends and acquaintances4 ,the great forest which covered the entire ,atlantic coast contained now this clearing on the banks of the ,james ,river4 ,north of the settlement dense woods extended in every direction2 no white men lived nearer than the ,french colonies of ,quebec and ,nova ,scotia4 ,to the south also spread the forest2 the nearest ,european settlement was the ,spanish colony of ,saint ,augustine4 ,westward for hundreds and thousands of miles the almost uninhabited wilderness extended to the ,pacific ,ocean1 the very existence of which was scarcely suspected by white men4 ,thus was the ,jamestown colony almost entirely shut off from the world of civilization1 a feeble band of ,europeans surrounded by savage red men4 ,what interest had these colonists in travel8 ,tossed on the ocean as they had been for many weeks1 worn with seasickness and lack of nourishing food1 few had any desire to see more of the world4 ,besides1 if they had wished to travel1 where could they have gone8 ,roads through the forests were unknown2 rivers were spanned by no bridges2 swamps and marshes extended in every direction4 ,the most remote houses were at easy walking distance4 ,the little church was not far even from the last house in the village4 ,if need for firewood or lumber led any one into the forest1 he must go afoot4 ,if any necessity arose for communication with the ,indians1 the journey must be made on foot4 ,thus we see that in the early days of ,virginia what travel there was by land was limited to walking4 ,thirteen years after the building of ,jamestown a second ,english colony was planted in ,america4 ,another band of a hundred persons began a settlement at ,plymouth in ,new ,england4 ,the colony of ,virginia had become well established by this time1 yet it could be of but little help to ,plymouth4 ,many hundred miles distant1 it seemed hardly nearer than old ,england itself4 ,the ,pilgrims at ,plymouth lived by themselves1 as had the ,virginia colonists1 and for some years what travel they had was also on foot4 ,time passed on in both colonies4 ,new settlers came over the ocean to ,virginia1 and other villages were built at some distance from ,jamestown4 ,thus arose reasons for journeys--desire to see friends in other villages--necessities of trade or commerce between the settlements4 ,at first1 of course1 as travel by foot within a village was common1 so journeys between villages were made in the same way4 ,an easier means of communication was provided when horses were brought over from ,england4 ,these came in small numbers at first2 there were but six horses in ,virginia when the settlers had been there nine years4 ,thousands of years ago wild horses ranged in great numbers over the whole continent of ,america4 ,but1 for some reason or other1 these had all perished1 and when ,columbus discovered the new world the red men were wholly unacquainted with these animals or their use4 ,therefore1 when the white settlers in ,america desired horses they found it necessary to bring them in vessels from ,europe4 ,to the first and most common mode of travel1 by foot1 was thus added the second method1 namely1 on horseback4 ,in the old world this use of horses had existed for thousands of years4 ,in fact1 three hundred and four hundred years ago1 at the time of the discovery and settlement of ,america1 it was almost the universal means for land travel4 ,it was natural then that it should be the first form taken up in ,america4 ,besides1 the making of a bridle path through the woods1 that is1 a path wide enough for a man on horseback1 was a comparatively simple matter4 ,to build a carriage road would have been a much more difficult task4 ,in ,new ,england1 as well as in ,virginia1 the population rapidly increased4 ,the ,plymouth colonists began to build other villages4 ,a new colony was founded on the coast of ,massachusetts ,bay1 but thirty miles from ,plymouth4 ,here were established the towns of ,salem1 ,charlestown1 ,roxbury1 ,dorchester1 ,newtown1 and ,boston4 ,other towns were soon built and clearings were made in every direction4 ,travel by horseback became common among those who could afford to keep horses4 ,those who were too poor must still travel on foot4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,man ,,and ,,his ,,wife ,,traveling ,,on ,,horseback4 ,most of the traveling was done by men4 ,we read that ,queen ,elizabeth was an accomplished horsewoman2 but as a rule few women were accustomed to hold the reins1 and few side-saddles were in use4 ,the horses of those days were very strong4 ,they were trained to carry heavy burdens on their backs rather than to draw loaded wagons4 ,they frequently carried more than one person2 it was not unusual to see a man riding horseback1 and behind him his wife1 sitting sideways and holding on to her husband to keep from slipping off4 ,for her comfort a pillion was used1 which was a pad or cushion fastened to the saddle4 ,not only was ,massachusetts ,bay rapidly settled1 but villages were built fifty and even a hundred miles from ,boston4 ,providence1 ,newport1 and ,portsmouth were founded1 forming the colony of ,rhode ,island and ,providence ,plantations4 ,hartford1 ,wethersfield1 and ,windsor were established on the ,connecticut4 ,dover and ,portsmouth in ,new ,hampshire1 ,new ,haven and ,saybrook in ,connecticut were built1 and the village of ,agawam1 now ,springfield1 was founded4 ,all of these new settlements needed some connection with ,boston1 or the ,old ,bay ,colony as it was called4 ,the roads were mere paths1 however1 and over them carriages could not have passed1 if there had been any4 ,in a story written by ,j4 ,g4 ,holland1 called ,bay-,path1 he described life in ,agawam more than two and a half centuries ago1 and his description of the roads and travel in those days is well worth reading4 ,the principal communication with the ,eastern settlement was by a path marked by trees a portion of the distance1 and by slight clearings of brush and thicket for the remainder4 ,no stream was bridged1 no hill graded1 and no marsh drained4 ,the path led through woods which bore the marks of centuries1 and along the banks of streams that the seine had never dragged4 ,the path was known as 'the ,bay-,path1' or the path to the bay4 ,it was wonderful what a powerful interest was attached to the ,bay-,path4 ,it was the channel through which laws were communicated1 through which flowed news from distant friends1 and through which came long1 loving letters and messages4 ,that rough thread of soil1 chopped by the blades of a hundred streams1 was a bond that radiated at each terminus into a thousand fibers of love and interest and hope and memory4 ,the ,bay-,path was charmed ground--a precious passage--and during the spring1 the summer1 and the early autumn hardly a settler at ,agawam went out of doors or changed his position in the fields1 or looked up from his labor1 or rested his oars upon the bosom of the river1 without turning his eyes to the point at which that path opened from the brow of the wooded hill upon the ,east4 ,and when some worn and wearied man came in sight upon his half-starved horse1 or two or three pedestrians1 bending beneath their packs and swinging their sturdy staves1 were seen approaching1 the village was astir from one end to the other4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,bay-,,path4 ,the ,bay-,path became better marked from year to year as settlements began to string themselves upon it as upon a thread4 ,every year the footsteps of those who trod it hurried more and more until1 at last1 wheels began to be heard upon it--heavy carts creaking with merchandise4 ,a century passed away and the wilderness had retired4 ,there was a constant roll along the ,bay-,path4 ,the finest of the wheat and the fattest of the flocks and herds were transported to the ,bay1 whose young commerce had already begun to whiten the coast4 ,the dreamy years passed by1 and then came the furious stagecoach1 traveling night and day--splashing the mud1 brushing up the dust1 dashing up to inns1 and curving more slowly up to post-offices4 ,the journey was reduced to a day4 ,and then--miracle of miracles--came the railway and the locomotive4 ,the journey of a day is reduced to three hours4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,by ,,water4 ,when the ,virginia colonists reached the shores of ,america1 they sailed up the ,james ,river until they found a peninsula extending into the river and there they built ,jamestown4 ,when the ,pilgrims completed their explorations of the shores of ,cape ,cod ,bay1 they chose the harbor of ,plymouth as the best situation for their colony4 ,lord ,baltimore established the ,maryland colony at ,st4 ,mary's on an arm of the ,chesapeake ,bay4 ,the ,dutch founded ,new ,amsterdam on the island of ,manhattan1 at the mouth of the ,hudson ,river4 ,the first settlements in each of the colonies were made on the shores of the ,atlantic ,ocean1 or but a few miles up large rivers4 ,why8 ,the colonists had come to this new world in ,european vessels which could only bring them to the shore4 ,here they chose the most convenient place and built their town4 ,thus these settlers were in the very beginning familiar with travel by water4 ,but what a poor1 inconvenient means of travel it was6 ,the ,jamestown colonists1 one hundred and five in number1 were tossed upon the stormy ocean for more than four months1 enduring all the hardships of a severe winter in vessels that to-day would seldom venture upon the ocean1 even in coastwise trade4 ,compare the two months and more of life on the ,mayflower1 where the passengers were crowded into the closest quarters1 with the short six or seven days' trip to or from ,england to-day on the ocean steamers1 where travelers find comforts and conveniences almost greater than those they are accustomed to at home4 ,illustration3 ,,pilgrim ,,exiles4 ,although the emigrants suffered greatly in these voyages across the ,atlantic ,ocean1 the day of the return of the vessels to ,england was a sad one4 ,when the last glimpse of the receding ship had vanished1 the homesick watchers realized as never before their isolation--their separation from everybody and everything in which they were interested4 ,until vessels should again arrive from across the ocean they would be thrown entirely upon their own resources4 ,the settlers were thus very dependent upon the ships that crossed the ,atlantic so infrequently and with such difficulty4 ,soon after the settlement1 however1 some of the colonies began to build vessels of their own4 ,the forests provided lumber in great quantity and of the best quality4 ,the first vessel to be built by the ,massachusetts ,bay ,colony was launched at ,medford the next year after the settlement of ,boston4 ,this small vessel was owned by ,governor ,winthrop and was appropriately called the ,blessing of the ,bay4 ,the same year a ,dutch ship1 twenty times as large1 was constructed at ,new ,amsterdam4 ,a large part of the colonial shipbuilding was confined to ,new ,england1 the ,blessing of the ,bay being but a leader in a long line4 ,within two years a ship as large as the ,mayflower was built at ,boston1 and another twice as large at ,salem4 ,within thirty-five years ,boston had one hundred and thirty sail on the sea4 ,new ,york built fewer but larger ships4 ,philadelphia was a leading shipbuilding town1 and many vessels were constructed in the ,carolinas4 ,the activity of the colonists in thus providing means for travel by water was not limited to ocean shipbuilding4 ,the rivers1 the inland roads1 already prepared by nature1 were used from the very beginning4 ,as the settlements grew1 both in population and in numbers1 travel between them became more and more necessary1 and the rivers and streams came more and more into use4 ,the settlers were wise enough to follow the example of the ,indians and to make themselves at once familiar with canoes and small boats of every description4 ,the earliest form of water travel was1 perhaps1 the raft4 ,it was usually made of floating logs or bundles of brush tied together4 ,to-day1 even1 rafts of single logs1 merely pointed at the ends1 are found in ,australia1 as well as rafts of reeds4 ,on the coast of ,peru rafts seventy feet long and twenty feet broad are common1--large enough to use sails as well as paddles4 ,the next step was to use the single log1 made hollow by gradually burning it out or by slowly chipping away pieces with some sharp implement4 ,on the ,atlantic coast the most common form of canoe was the dugout1 made from the cedar log2 and singularly enough the same tree was most frequently used on the shores of the ,pacific ,ocean1 especially near ,puget ,sound4 ,these ,western boats were frequently of great size1 some on the ,alaskan coast being ninety feet in length and propelled by forty paddles4 ,the ,indians had found these dugouts very serviceable1 and as the ,european colonists began to travel over the same rivers and streams they patterned their river craft after those of the red men4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,birch-,,bark ,,canoe4 ,the lighter form of the canoe was preferred1 where serviceable1 to the dugout4 ,this was made of a light but strong framework covered by bark or skins4 ,that used by the ,esquimaux was of sealskin stretched over whalebone4 ,but the more common form was the ,indian birch-bark canoe1 which rapidly became very popular among the colonial hunters and trappers4 ,no better description of the birch canoe can be found than that which the children's poet1 ,longfellow1 gives in ,hiawatha4 ',give me of your bark1 ,o ,birch ,tree6 ,of your yellow bark1 ,o ,birch ,tree6 ,growing by the rushing river1 ,tall and stately in the valley6 ,i a light canoe will build me1 ,build a swift ,cheemaun for sailing1 ,that shall float upon the river1 ,like a yellow leaf in ,autumn1 ,like a yellow water-lily6 ',lay aside your cloak1 ,o ,birch ,tree6 ,lay aside your white-skin wrapper1 ,for the ,summer-time is coming1 ,and the sun is warm in heaven1 ,and you need no white-skin wrapper6' ,with his knife the tree he girdled2 ,just beneath its lowest branches1 ,just above the roots1 he cut it1 ,till the sap came oozing outward2 ,down the trunk1 from top to bottom1 ,sheer he cleft the bark asunder1 ,with a wooden wedge he raised it1 ,stripped it from the trunk unbroken4 ',give me of your boughs1 ,o ,cedar6 ,of your strong and pliant branches1 ,my canoe to make more steady1 ,make more strong and firm beneath me6' ,down he hewed the boughs of cedar1 ,shaped them straightway to a framework1 ,like two bows he formed and shaped them1 ,like two bended bows together4 ',give me of your roots1 ,o ,tamarack6 ,of your fibrous roots1 ,o ,larch ,tree6 ,my canoe to bind together1 ,so to bind the ends together ,that the water may not enter1 ,that the river may not wet me6' ,from the earth he tore the fibres1 ,tore the rough roots of the ,larch ,tree1 ,closely sewed the bark together1 ,bound it closely to the framework4 ',give me of your balm1 ,o ,fir ,tree4 ,of your balsam and your resin1 ,so to close the seams together ,that the water may not enter1 ,that the river may not wet me6' ,and he took the tears of balsam1 ,took the resin of the fir tree1 ,smeared therewith each seam and fissure1 ,made each crevice safe from water4 ,thus the ,birch ,canoe was builded ,in the valley1 by the river1 ,in the bosom of the forest2 ,and the forest's life was in it1 ,all its mystery and its magic1 ,all the lightness of the birch tree1 ,all the toughness of the cedar1 ,all the ,larch's supple sinews2 ,and it floated on the river ,like a yellow leaf in ,autumn1 ,like a yellow water-lily4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,stagecoaches4 ,both by land and by water the methods of travel among the early colonists were extremely rude4 ,from the early days of the settlements until the ,independence of the ,united ,states the improvement was very slow4 ,during the seventeenth century practically all of the long-distance traveling was by water4 ,schooners made regular trips from ,new ,england to ,virginia1 and smaller sloops or packets ran to ,new ,york from the different towns to the eastward4 ,these vessels were dependent1 of course1 upon the wind1 and the length of the journey varied greatly4 ,perhaps a packet might sail from ,new ,haven to ,new ,york in two days1 but calms or contrary winds might delay the trip1 and make it a week in going from port to port4 ,on land1 however1 the facilities for travel slowly but surely improved4 ,an interesting account of the rudeness and hardships of ,new ,england land journeys is furnished by the journal of ,sarah ,knight1 who went from ,boston to ,new ,york on horseback nearly two hundred years ago4 ,the roads were openings in the forest1 made by cutting down trees1 and were often blocked by fallen trunks4 ,the streams that must be crossed caused the most trouble4 ,we came1 she wrote1 to a river which they generally ride thro'2 but ,i dare not venture2 so the post got a ladd and cannoo to carry me to t'other side1 and he rid thro' and led my hors4 ,the cannoo was very small and shallow1 so that when we were in she seemed ready to take in water1 which greatly terrified mee and caused mee to be very circumspect1 sitting with my hands fast on each side1 my eyes stedy1 not daring so much as to lodg my tongue a hair's breadth more on one side of my mouth than t'other1 nor so much as think on ,lott's wife1 for a wry thought would have oversett our wherey4 ,for a woman to undertake such a journey was very unusual1 and after her return she wrote with a diamond on the glass of a window these lines3 ,through many toils and many frights1 ,i have returned1 poor ,sarah ,knights4 ,over great rocks and many stones ,god has preserved from fractured bones4 ,about the time that this long journey was made1 carriages began to come into use4 ,the most common of these were the large coach1 the calash1 and a lighter1 two-wheeled vehicle1 with a calash top1 similar to a chaise4 ,but these carriages were for a time only used within the towns themselves1 where the large number of houses required the building of better roads and streets4 ,comparatively few persons could afford to own private carriages1 and their use was therefore not general for many years4 ,before the middle of the eighteenth century1 however1 carriages became more common4 ,broader and better roads had been built1 and longer journeys could be made4 ,as early as #agbe1 carriages had been driven from the ,connecticut ,river to ,boston1 and overland travel began to be more customary4 ,the first roads that could be called suitable for carriage travel were for the most part toll roads4 ,instead of being made by the towns or counties1 or by the colonies1 they were built by corporations4 ,these companies were granted the privilege of charging toll from every traveler over their roads for the purpose of paying a profit to the members of the company1 as well as to keep the roads in repair4 ,in the same way corporations built bridges1 charging a small toll upon every one who crossed them4 ,thus travel was improved1 time was saved1 and less discomfort was caused the travelers4 ,illustration3 ,,old-,,style ,,calashes4 ,in the eighteenth century public carriages began to come into use4 ,previously if any one wished to travel by land1 he found it necessary to own or hire horses4 ,if he made a voyage by sea1 he could pay his fare on some vessel that made the trip he wished to take4 ,this means of public transportation1 this carrying a person or his goods for pay1 had been limited1 however1 to water travel4 ,there were no regular conveyances running from town to town by land which would carry passengers or freight4 ,the town of ,plymouth had been settled nearly a hundred years before the first line of stagecoaches in any part of the country was put in operation4 ,this stage wagon ran between ,boston and ,bristol ferry1 where it connected with the packet line to ,newport and ,new ,york4 ,three years later a stage line began to run from ,boston to ,newport1 making one trip each way every week4 ,the driver advertised to carry bundles of goods1 merchandise1 books1 men1 women1 and children4 ,travel was slow1 much slower than seems possible to-day4 ,the roads were still very poor1 in fact scarcely fit to be called roads4 ,little by little new stage lines were established1 nearly always in connection with some packet line4 ,up to the middle of the eighteenth century1 however1 opportunities to travel by stage were few and the time required great4 ,three weeks were needed to make the trip from ,boston to ,philadelphia1 even under the most favorable conditions4 ,less than three years before the battle of ,lexington1 the first stage was run between ,new ,york and ,boston4 ,the first trip was begun on ,monday1 ,july #acth1 and the journey's end was not reached until ,saturday1 ,july #beth4 ,thirteen days were thus required for a trip which may now be made in five or six hours4 ,as the amount of travel increased new lines were formed1 the roads were improved1 and stages were run more frequently and more rapidly4 ,sixty years after the first trip was made between ,new ,york and ,boston the time had been cut down from thirteen days to one day and five hours2 more than a hundred lines of coaches were then regularly running out of ,boston4 ,in spite1 however1 of every improvement1 travel by stage a hundred years ago was no simple or pleasant matter4 ,professor ,mc,master says3 ,the stagecoach was little better than a huge covered box mounted on springs4 ,it had neither glass windows nor door nor steps nor closed sides4 ,the roof was upheld by eight posts which rose from the body of the vehicle1 and the body was commonly breast-high4 ,from the top were hung curtains of leather1 to be drawn up when the day was fine and let down and buttoned when rainy or cold4 ,within were four seats4 ,without was the baggage4 ,when the baggage had all been weighed and strapped on the coach1 when the horses had been attached1 the eleven passengers were summoned1 and1 clambering to their seats through the front of the stage1 sat down with their faces toward the driver's seat4 ,illustration3 ,,an ,,old-,,fashioned ,,stagecoach4 ,the coach would set out from the inn with the horses on a gallop1 which would continue until a steep hill was reached4 ,then would follow the slow pacing up the hill1 the gallop down again1 the dragging through a stretch of muddy road1 the careful fording of a river1 the watering of the horses every few miles1 and the rapid gallop up to the next inn4 ,here the mail pouches would be taken out and in1 perhaps a change of coaches made or more frequently of horses only1 a delay for a little gossip1 and the stage would be off again4 ,this was all very exhilarating and agreeable in pleasant1 warm weather1 but how fatiguing in the cold and snows of winter1 and even during a chilly summer storm4 ,these public conveyances were used only when necessary4 ,private carriages were much preferred to the stagecoach1 as being a more comfortable as well as a safer mode of travel4 ,the story is told of one young lady who was visiting near ,boston1 eighty years ago4 ,she was very anxious to return to her home1 but her father was unable to come for her4 ,her mother wrote3 ,your papa would not trust your life in the stage4 ,it is a very unsafe and improper conveyance for young ladies4 ,many have been the accidents1 many the cripples made by accidents in these vehicles4 ,as soon as your papa can1 you may be sure he will go or send for you4 ,illustration3 ,,munroe ,,tavern1 ,,lexington1 ,,mass4 7,,built ,,in #afie47 ,whether the traveler went by stage or in his private carriage1 it was necessary to stop at the inns4 ,the taverns had a great deal to do with making journeys pleasant or disagreeable4 ,as a general rule1 the ,new ,england inns were kept by leading men1 and in most cases the innkeeper was required to obtain recommendations from the selectmen of the town before he could get a license or a permission to establish and keep the tavern4 ,even the smaller ,new ,england villages boasted of inns that compared favorably with the hotels of the large towns4 ,a ,frenchman1 traveling through the ,united ,states early in this century1 wrote in highest praise of the inns of ,new ,england1 whose windows were without shutters1 and whose doors had neither locks nor keys1 and yet where no harm ever came to the traveler4 ,he admired the great room1 with its low ceiling and neatly sanded floor2 its bright pewter dishes and stout-backed1 slat-bottomed chairs ranged along its walls2 its long table2 and its huge fireplace1 with the benches on either side4 ,he had less praise for the inns of the rest of the country4 ,the buildings were poor1 the fare was coarse1 and the beds were bad4 ,the roofs leaked1 the windows were sometimes mere openings in the wall2 the bedding was unclean and extremely uninviting4 ,if a traveler were compelled to stop at the ,southern inns1 he found his journey far from agreeable4 ,fortunately for him the ,southern planter was the most hospitable of persons4 ,at his home strangers were heartily welcome and nobly entertained4 ,some bade their slaves ask in any traveler that might be seen passing by4 ,some kept servants on the watch to give notice of every approaching horseman or of the distant rumble of a coming coach and four4 ,on the plantation the traveler was always treated as a most intimate friend1 and in the cheery comfort of the mansion he forgot1 for the time being1 the trials and hardships of travel by land4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,steamboats4 ,the idea of payment for transportation is very old4 ,thousands of years ago we read of vessels sailing upon the ,mediterranean ,sea prepared to transport persons or freight for sums of money4 ,where this idea originated is not known1 but it may have occurred to a savage for the first time in some such way as the following3 ,a hunter lived on the banks of a river in ,asia4 ,one day he shot a duck which fell to the ground on the opposite shore4 ,the hunter needed the bird1 for he was hungry1 but how was he to obtain it8 ,the river was very deep at this point1 and he could not swim4 ,he knew that there was a shallow place five miles up the stream1 where he might ford the river1 and another ford five miles below4 ,but to cross by either of these would require a journey of ten miles to the bird and ten miles back1 just to get across a narrow river4 ,he remembered that a big log lay upon a sand-bar in the river not far from where he was4 ,he took a pole1 pried off the log and rolled it into the water4 ,then seating himself on it he poled himself across1 obtained the duck1 and soon reached his home again4 ,here was the first water travel4 ,a few days later he heard a cry from over the river4 ,looking up1 he saw a man who desired to cross4 ,the stranger called to him to get his log and take him over1 as he had carried himself4 ,the hunter saw that the stranger had a deer on his shoulder4 ,he was hungry1 and therefore called out3 ,give me the hind leg and half the loin of your deer for my labor1 and ,i will bring you safely over4 ,the stranger promptly agreed1 and the hunter poled across the river4 ,in some such way doubtless was the first payment made for transportation1 and the idea soon became common that it was just and proper to charge a fare for carrying freight and passengers4 ,what powers have we found used in transportation up to a hundred years ago8 ,first there was human power1 either walking or plying oars or paddles4 ,this energy is limited2 walking is necessarily a slow process1 and rowing is seldom a rapid mode of travel4 ,then came horse power1 used first to carry travelers or goods and later to draw carriages and wagons1 conveying passengers and freight4 ,horse power is superior to human power both in speed and in endurance1 but it also has its limits and often fails at important times4 ,then use was made of the wind1 which1 blowing against stretches of canvas1 propelled vessels4 ,here was no human power to become wearied2 no horse power to fail at the wrong time4 ,vessels need not stop at night in order to sleep1 nor even at noon in order to take dinner4 ,but the wind is fickle2 it does not always blow2 it frequently blows from the wrong direction2 it often blows too much4 ,human power1 horse power1 wind power1 each was insufficient or unsatisfactory1 and the time was ripe for some power stronger and less fickle to produce more rapid transportation4 ,when the necessity of a new power became great1 the needed energy and a way to use it were soon found4 ,near the close of the eighteenth century a number of men1 unacquainted with each other's ideas1 began to experiment with steam as a means for propelling vessels4 ,why had they not begun earlier8 ,for two reasons4 ,the demand for quicker water travel had but just commenced1 and the fact that steam could practically be used as a motive power was only beginning to be understood4 ,it so happened that ,james ,watt's steam engine was perfected just as the treaty of peace with ,great ,britain acknowledged the independence of the ,united ,states4 ,now ,american inventors were able to make use of the steam engine to aid travel and transportation4 ,at once they began work4 ,samuel ,morey built a steamboat on the upper ,connecticut ,river2 ,james ,rumsey experimented on the ,potomac2 ,john ,fitch on the ,delaware1 and ,william ,longstreet on the ,savannah2 ,oliver ,evans was at work in ,philadelphia1 and ,john ,stevens on the ,hudson4 ,illustration3 ,,fitch',s ,,steamboat4 ,one of these boats used the steam engine to move oars2 another pumped water in at the bow and forced it out again at the stern2 a third had a wheel in the stern2 and a fourth had a paddle wheel on each side4 ,some of the vessels used upright1 and some horizontal engines4 ,most of these inventors succeeded in running their boats against the tide or the current of rivers1 and proved that steam could be thus used4 ,each may be said to have invented a steamboat4 ,but these men were all without means2 they did not succeed in awakening the interest of wealthy men2 and the public cared little about such inventions4 ,therefore each of these steamboats was given up in turn and soon forgotten2 the eighteenth century passed away1 and no practical result had appeared4 ,it is natural to have more interest in the account of an invention which proved of practical value than in the stories of even successful attempts which were given up almost as soon as made4 ,robert ,fulton was born in ,pennsylvania just as ,watt began his study of the steam engine4 ,almost as soon as ,watt had completed his improvements on the engine1 ,fulton came of age1 and went to ,england to study painting with ,benjamin ,west1 the famous ,american artist4 ,in the midst of his art studies he became interested in mechanical pursuits4 ,he attracted the attention of some ,english scientists1 and1 by their encouragement1 he abandoned painting and devoted himself to inventing4 ,but who knows how much assistance his skill in drawing may have been to him in his preparations of plans and models8 ,joel ,barlow1 a noted ,american poet1 was then living in ,france1 and upon his invitation ,fulton spent several years in his home in ,paris4 ,here he devoted his time to boats1 as he had already done in ,london4 ,his schemes were of various kinds4 ,he planned diving boats1 steamboats1 and canal boats1 and was particularly interested in a boat which he called a marine torpedo4 ,this boat he planned to be used to injure vessels in naval warfare4 ,for a time he neglected the steamboat1 and bent every energy to persuade the ,french ,government to adopt the torpedo4 ,afterward he urged his marine boats upon the ,english and ,american governments1 but in vain4 ,he did not realize the enormously greater future value of the steamboat4 ,in time1 however1 ,fulton finished his plans1 and a steamboat was built for him upon the river ,seine4 ,the next step was to enlist the coperation of some one with power and means by proving that the invention was valuable4 ,fulton accordingly sought to bring the boat to the attention of the ,french ,emperor4 ,he succeeded in awakening ,napoleon's interest4 ,it was just at the time that the emperor was planning to take his great army across the ,channel to attack ,england4 ,he saw that steamboats1 if of practical value1 would be serviceable to him in these plans4 ,accordingly he directed a scientific committee to attend a public trial of the boat4 ,a day was set for the examination4 ,fulton had worked steadily for weeks1 seeking to make every part as perfect as possible4 ,the night before the appointed day1 ,fulton retired for rest1 but sleep would not come to his eyes4 ,his thoughts were so completely fixed upon his invention and what the next day meant to him that he could not control them4 ,not until morning began to dawn did he catch a nap1 and then only to be immediately awakened by a knock at his door4 ,a messenger had come to tell him that his boat was at the bottom of the river4 ,the iron machinery had proved too heavy for the little sixteen-foot boat1 and had broken through4 ,fulton's hopes were at an end4 ,before he could build another boat and make another engine the opportunity would be past4 ,his disappointment was intense4 ,however1 he did not despair1 but was soon ready to try again4 ,doubtless the failure was a blessing in disguise4 ,the boat was probably too small to make a successful trip4 ,the next time he would have a larger vessel4 ,instead of again trying to arouse ,french interest1 he decided to make the next experiment at home4 ,robert ,r4 ,livingston1 our minister to ,france1 who together with ,james ,monroe purchased for the ,united ,states the great province of ,louisiana1 had long been interested in the possibilities of steam navigation4 ,he entered into ,fulton's plans and assisted him in every way4 ,soon after the disaster on the ,seine both men returned to ,america1 and the next six months were spent in building a boat and in putting into it a steam engine which they had especially ordered in ,birmingham1 ,england4 ,a grant had been obtained from the ,new ,york legislature which gave them the exclusive right to run steam vessels on any of the waters of the ,state4 ,the new boat was a hundred and thirty feet in length1 or eight times as long as that lost in the ,seine4 ,it was called the ,clermont1 after the country home of ,livingston4 ,it was a side-paddle steamboat1 with wheels fifteen feet in diameter and four feet wide4 ,the trial trip was announced for ,august #gth1 #ahjg1 and at one o'clock in the afternoon the ,clermont stood at the wharf in ,new ,york ready for the journey4 ,was the trial to succeed or fail8 ,to succeed1 the ,clermont must steam up the ,hudson ,river at a speed of1 at least1 four miles an hour4 ,the trip proposed was from ,new ,york to ,albany1 a distance of one hundred and fifty miles1 and return4 ,this trip was regularly made by sailing packets1 and the average time was four days4 ,could the ,clermont reach ,albany in thirty-seven hours1 or a day and a half8 ,unfortunately1 a north wind was blowing1 which would greatly decrease the speed4 ,fulton and ,livingston were confident that it could be done4 ,the steamboat left the wharf and slowly sailed up the river4 ,soon the faults natural to a new invention began to show themselves4 ,the rudder did not work as it ought2 the wheels were unprotected by a covering2 the vessel sank too far in the water4 ,but the trial1 in spite of all the odds against it1 was successful4 ,the one hundred and fifty miles were made in thirty-two hours1 with five hours to spare from the limit set4 ,if we subtract the time spent in stops1 but twenty-eight and a half hours were used1 making an average of more than five miles an hour4 ,the first long steamboat trip had been accomplished4 ,the indifference of the public at once changed to enthusiasm4 ,fulton was immediately urged to make regular trips1 and1 although the ,clermont needed many improvements1 he consented4 ,the next winter1 however1 the boat was removed from the river for repairs2 but in the spring regular trips were resumed1 and the steamboat became a new and permanent means of transportation4 ,there was abundant opportunity to improve the steamboat and develop its use4 ,at first ,fulton's ,clermont alone steamed up and down the ,hudson ,river4 ,soon1 however1 other steamboats were built to run in opposition to the sailing packets4 ,steamers began to ply on ,lake ,champlain and on the ,delaware ,river4 ,three years after the first voyage of the ,clermont1 a steamboat was making three trips a week from ,new ,york to ,new ,brunswick1 ,new ,jersey2 here the traveler took stage for ,bordentown on the ,delaware ,river1 whence another boat carried him to ,philadelphia4 ,two years later steam ferryboats ran between ,new ,york and the ,jersey shore4 ,the first river steamboat was launched at ,pittsburg1 and was sent down the ,ohio and the ,mississippi to ,new ,orleans in #ahaa4 ,three years later the tna steamed from ,pittsburg to ,new ,orleans1 and back to ,louisville4 ,the same year a steamboat was built on the ,lakes to run from ,buffalo to ,detroit1 and a company was organized to start a steamship line from ,new ,york to ,charleston4 ,five years afterward the steamship ,savannah1 using both steam and sails1 crossed the ,atlantic ,ocean4 ,she made but slow time1 and the great space required to hold the fuel left little room for freight4 ,year by year1 however1 improvements were made on the vessels and quicker time was the result4 ,finally1 anthracite coal came into general use1 and thirty years after the trial trip of the ,clermont1 the steamers ,sirius and the ,great ,western began regular trips between ,liverpool and ,new ,york4 ,the day of steam navigation had come1 and from that time on the vexatious delays due to fickle winds no longer need be a cause of trouble4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,canals4 ,ninety years ago1 two brothers1 ,james and ,john1 found it necessary to make the long journey from their home in ,new ,york ,city to ,kentucky4 ,they had frequently traveled through the country1 and were familiar with stages and packets4 ,this time they proposed to make their first trip on the steamboat1 since the ,clermont was again making its regular runs4 ,it was advertised to leave ,new ,york at one o'clock on ,wednesday4 ,the brothers felt no need of haste in their preparations for the journey1 and it was nearly two o'clock before they came in sight of the wharf4 ,just then ,john made the remark that they were very foolish to arrive so early4 ,we shall have to wait an hour or two1 he said2 the boat won't be ready to start before three o'clock at the earliest4 ,i am not so sure1 was the reply4 ,perhaps the steamboat will not be as late as the packets4 ,when they reached the wharf1 no steamboat was there4 ,far up the river they saw1 slowly moving off in the distance1 a vessel1 which they knew must be the ,clermont1 from the line of smoke that lay behind it4 ,immediately they began to inquire what it meant and were told1 ,oh6 that is one of ,fulton's notions4 ,he has given strict orders that the boat shall always leave the wharf exactly on advertised time4 ,this was a novelty almost as great as the steamboat itself4 ,sailing vessels had been dependent upon the wind1 and stages upon the conditions of the roads and the weather2 neither made any pretence of running upon schedule time4 ,fulton's idea of punctuality was new and caused much grumbling for a time2 but with the coming of the railroads it became an absolute necessity4 ,what were the two men to do8 ,but two things could be done4 ,they might take passage on a packet1 or wait for the next trip of the ,clermont4 ,they decided to wait1 as they were anxious to try the steamboat2 they had had enough experience with the slow sailing vessels1 and their poor accommodations4 ,they did not permit themselves to be late a second time4 ,in fact1 the clocks had hardly struck twelve when they stepped aboard the ,clermont4 ,the hour before the departure of the boat was spent in examining it from stem to stern4 ,the original ,clermont had been greatly improved4 ,the wheels were now properly protected2 a rudder1 specially adapted to the boat and the river1 had been constructed4 ,most noticeable were the accommodations for the passengers1 which were almost elegant when compared with the poor quarters of the packets4 ,in fact the ,clermont had become a floating palace1 gay with ornamental painting1 gilding1 and polished woods4 ,at one o'clock sharp the boat quietly left the wharf4 ,the wind was blowing freshly down the river and the tide was going out4 ,a packet started at the same moment from a neighboring pier4 ,the steamboat at once turned its prow up the stream1 but the packet headed for the ,jersey shore1 as it could sail against the wind only by making long tacks4 ,this greatly increased the distance it had to travel1 and before sunset the ,clermont had left the packet many miles behind4 ,the next morning everything was still going smoothly when the two passengers saw a little way ahead another packet1 which had left ,new ,york before the steamboat4 ,this sloop was making tacks like those they had watched the previous afternoon1 and the ,clermont was rapidly gaining on it4 ,suddenly ,john exclaimed1 ,what are they doing8 ,are they trying to run us down8 ,it was evident that the packet was coming straight for the steamboat2 but the captain of the ,clermont shut off steam at once and the packet passed its bow without doing harm4 ,illustration3 ,,collision ,,of ,,the ,,clermont ,,and ,,the ,,sloop4 ,soon a sloop was met coming down the river4 ,again came the exclamation from ,john1 ,they are surely trying to run into us6 ,he had hardly spoken when the crash came2 the packet struck the wheel box1 tore it open1 and then1 sliding along the side of the steamboat1 passed away down the river4 ,on inquiry ,john ascertained that this was merely an illustration of the envy of the owners of packets1 who feared that they would lose all their business4 ,no serious damage was done1 however1 and the steamboat proceeded on its way4 ,the ,clermont arrived at ,albany at seven o'clock ,thursday evening and the brothers spent the night at an inn4 ,the next morning1 after an early breakfast1 a stage was taken which in a few hours carried them to ,schenectady4 ,this part of the journey was quickly made1 as the road was one of the best in the country4 ,on reaching ,schenectady the travelers learned that they must wait till the next noon to take a boat up the ,mohawk ,river4 ,the hours slowly dragged along1 another night was spent at an inn1 and about three o'clock the next afternoon the slow trip up the ,mohawk began4 ,two days later they reached ,utica1 and another stage took them1 the next day1 to ,rome4 ,from this village two days' sail carried them across the ,oneida ,lake1 and down the ,oswego ,river to ,oswego on the banks of ,lake ,ontario4 ,after a delay of thirty-six hours a lake packet was found ready for them1 which in time arrived at ,lewiston at the mouth of the ,niagara ,river1 and so on they went1 by land to ,buffalo1 by water to ,erie1 by land again to one of the branches of the ,alleghany ,river1 and down this to ,pittsburg4 ,from ,pittsburg one of the flat-bottomed ,western river boats1 borne along by the current1 conveyed them to ,louisville1 at the ,falls of the ,ohio4 ,thus was made1 in several weeks1 a trip from ,new ,york to ,louisville1 which to-day requires scarcely more than twenty-four hours4 ,ten times had changes been made in the conveyances used4 ,a steamboat1 river rowboats1 lake packets1 ,western flatboats and stages1 were all needed1 and nights and days even were spent at inns4 ,slow and cumbrous was travel in those days and very expensive4 ,there was little traveling for pleasure1 and only the most important business was worth the hardships and discomforts of such travel4 ,if it was costly for passengers to travel1 it was even more expensive to carry freight4 ,enormous charges were placed upon all transportation of goods4 ,new and better roads were being built in all directions1 but these did little to reduce the cost of transporting goods4 ,the cheapest routes continued to be by the rivers1 as the expense of building good roads and keeping them in repair added to freight charges4 ,the charges for freight transportation were so great that it prevented entirely the moving of many goods4 ,the people in ,pennsylvania desired the salt which was obtained in ,new ,york1 but it cost #b4ej a bushel to carry salt three hundred miles4 ,citizens of ,philadelphia would have purchased flour which was raised about the sources of the ,susquehanna ,river had it not cost #a4ej a barrel to carry it to ,philadelphia4 ,hundreds of families were weekly moving westward into the new country across the ,alleghany ,mountains2 they could not afford to take their household goods with them4 ,the freight charges from ,new ,york to ,buffalo were #abj a ton2 from ,philadelphia to ,pittsburg1 #abe4 ,something new in the line of transportation was needed2 some way by which freight could be carried at less expense4 ,private companies were building new toll roads--but these did not accomplish the purpose4 ,different ,states expended money in improving the highways1 and still the expense of transportation was enormous4 ,the national ,government also took part in the work and constructed a highway from ,cumberland1 ,maryland1 to ,wheeling1 on the ,ohio ,river--but this was merely a single road over the mountains1 and freight charges were as high as ever4 ,what could be done8 ,of course the roads everywhere must be improved and new ones built--all of which would take many years4 ,but was there not some way to avoid carrying so much freight in wagons drawn by horses8 ,wherever there were rivers these could be used4 ,was it possible to make rivers1 or at least to make water-ways1 upon which boats might be used8 ,the people of the ,united ,states began to talk of canals1 and soon enthusiasm for canal building became universal4 ,what is a canal8 ,it is a trench cut in the ground1 filled with water deep enough for a well-laden boat1 and wide enough for boats to pass each other4 ,on one bank is a path1 called the towpath1 upon which horses or mules travel1 pulling a canal boat behind them by means of a long rope4 ,in most canals it is found necessary to lift the boats over higher land or up to a higher level4 ,this is done by locks1 which are built where the two levels of the canal come together4 ,these locks are shut off from each part of the canal by gates4 ,when the lower gates are shut and the upper gates open1 water is let into the lock from the upper canal until on a level with it4 ,then a canal boat from the upper canal enters the lock4 ,the upper gates are closed1 the lower gates opened1 and the water runs out of the lock4 ,the boat1 remaining on top of the water1 sinks to the lower level and is ready to proceed on its course4 ,in traveling the other way the process is turned about4 ,the boat enters the lock and rises with the water which is let in from above until it is on the upper level4 ,canals1 with their locks1 are simple and easily built4 ,the expense lies mainly in digging the trench4 ,when the canal is once finished the cost of running is very slight1 and freight can be carried much more cheaply than over roads1 or even by the natural rivers4 ,canal travel is very slow1 however1 as the boat is drawn by a horse at a slow walk4 ,therefore a canal is used1 for the most part1 to carry freight1 especially freight not very perishable4 ,garden vegetables1 fruit1 and meats1 for example1 are not carried on canals to any great distance2 on the other hand1 the length of time used in conveying salt1 or flour1 or household goods1 is not of so much importance4 ,plans for canals sprang up all at once throughout the country4 ,the ,middlesex canal in ,massachusetts and the ,blackstone canal between ,providence and ,worcester were among the first built4 ,the ,delaware and ,hudson canal in ,new ,york1 and the ,chesapeake and ,delaware in ,maryland were of early importance4 ,in time nearly every ,atlantic ,state had one or more canals as aids to transportation4 ,many of them were of additional importance because they connected neighboring bays1 and could furnish opportunities for water travel1 even when the harbors might be blockaded in time of war4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,erie ,,canal4 ,the greatest and by far the most important is the ,erie canal1 which connects ,buffalo on ,lake ,erie with ,albany on the ,hudson ,river4 ,this canal was due to the energy and persistence of ,governor ,de ,witt ,clinton1 who dug the first shovelful of earth in #ahag1 and made the first trip over the completed canal in #ahbe4 ,there was great opposition to building this canal at the expense of the ,state1 and the nickname of ,clinton's ,big ,ditch was frequently applied to it4 ,governor ,clinton was wiser1 however1 than his opponents4 ,every cent spent on this canal1 which is #cfc miles long1 #dj feet wide1 and #d feet deep1 was wisely spent4 ,on the day that it was finished the great prosperity of ,new ,york ,city began4 ,a large part of the trade and commerce between the ,east and the ,west was carried over the ,erie canal1 because it furnished the cheapest route4 ,freight charges between ,buffalo and ,albany fell at once to less than one-quarter their former rates1 and continued to decrease until they became less than #aj a ton4 ,thus far had travel and transportation improved4 ,from walking1 horseback riding1 and rowboats1 slow changes had led to stages1 packets1 steamboats1 and canals4 ,from the simple ,indian trail1 like the ,bay ,path1 had grown up the great highways1 like the ,national ,road4 ,from slow and difficult journeys between neighboring towns1 traveling had become easy from ,maine to ,florida1 and from the ,atlantic ,ocean to the ,mississippi ,river4 ,was there any chance for further improvement8 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,railroads4 ,up to this time progress had been more marked upon the water than upon the land4 ,on the land travelers were still limited to human power and horse power4 ,on the water1 however1 not only human power and wind were used1 but also horse power and even steam power4 ,the steamboat was thought to be the most rapid means of transit possible4 ,no energy was known greater than that of steam2 therefore no new source of power was expected4 ,if steam could aid water navigation1 could it not be used in land travel8 ,this question was ever present in the minds of inventors1 mechanics1 and travelers on both sides of the ocean4 ,little by little an answer was obtained1 and the field of steam was enlarged4 ,even before ,fulton's trial trip1 the first step in the direction of the railroad was taken1 though steam had nothing to do with this first practical experiment4 ,the city of ,boston was built upon three hills1 two of which have now been almost entirely moved away4 ,upon the third1 called ,beacon ,hill1 was built the ,state ,house4 ,early in this century the top of this hill was lowered by carrying away the gravel4 ,for this purpose a tramway was built4 ,this consisted of two sets of rails or tracks from the top to the bottom of the hill1 upon which cars were used4 ,the full car on one track ran down of its own weight1 pulling up the empty car on the other track4 ,this was the first use of rails in this country4 ,the first permanent tramway was built in ,pennsylvania4 ,thomas ,leifer owned a stone quarry about three-quarters of a mile from the nearest wharf on the ,delaware ,river4 ,he desired to carry his stone to tide water more easily than by the ordinary methods4 ,accordingly he built a tramway from the quarry to the wharf1 and placed upon the tracks an ordinary wagon4 ,to this he attached horses and had what we should call a horse car4 ,the rails made a smooth road over which his horses could draw five tons as easily as one ton over the common roads4 ,this tram was used regularly for eighteen years4 ,one-half of the steam railroad had now been invented4 ,the tramway was the railroad--now steam must be applied4 ,that was all4 ,but that was not so easy as it would seem now4 ,year after year passed and no one attempted it4 ,doubtless many persons felt certain that the steam railroads were coming some time and that they would be of value1 just as to-day many people expect that travel through the air is coming some time4 ,at the same time there were many who did not believe that steam could be used for land travel at all2 while others did not care to have it come for fear that travel would be made too speedy4 ,one of the leading ,english magazines took occasion to express its opinion concerning a proposed railway3 ,what can be more absurd and ridiculous than the prospect held out of locomotives traveling twice as fast as stage coaches6 ,we should as soon expect the people of ,woolwich to suffer themselves to be fired off upon one of ,congreve's rockets as trust themselves to the mercy of a machine going at such a rate4 ,we trust that ,parliament will1 in all railways it may sanction1 limit the speed to eight or nine miles an hour1 which is as great as can be ventured on with safety4 ,what would this writer say to the safety of the trains of to-day1 as they make forty fifty1 sixty1 and even seventy miles an hour8 ,many of the inventions which have done the most for mankind have been made by ,americans1 but we owe the locomotive to an ,englishman4 ,george ,stephenson from early boyhood devoted himself to the study of engines and machinery4 ,when but thirteen years of age he assisted his father in the care of an engine at a coal mine near ,newcastle4 ,working by day as an engineman1 and studying by night in a night school1 he prepared himself for his future work4 ,he won the confidence of his employers1 especially that of ,lord ,ravensworth1 who supplied him with funds to build a traveling engine to run on the rails of the tramroad between the mines and the shipping port1 nine miles distant4 ,july #beth1 #ahad1 ,stephenson made a successful trip with his locomotive1 ,my ,lord1 which pulled the coal cars at the rate of four miles an hour4 ,stephenson felt that this locomotive was but a beginning4 ,he told his friends that there was no limit to the speed of such an engine1 if the works could be made to stand4 ,he was still pursuing his studies and experiments when he was appointed engineer of a proposed railroad between ,stockton and ,darlington4 ,the directors of the road had planned to pull their cars by horses1 but they were won over by ,stephenson to agree to try an engine4 ,eleven years after the trial trip of his first engine1 ,stephenson was ready to exhibit a locomotive upon a railroad joining two towns for the purpose of transporting passengers and freight4 ,a short time before the trial trip1 ,stephenson made a prediction concerning the future of his invention4 ,i venture to tell you1 he said1 that ,i think that you will live to see the day when railways will supersede almost all other methods of conveyance in this country--when mail coaches will go by railway1 and railroads will become the great highways for the king and all his subjects4 ,the time is coming when it will be cheaper for a working man to travel on a railway than to walk on foot4 ,i know that there are great and almost insurmountable difficulties to be encountered1 but what ,i have said will come to pass as sure as you now hear me4 ,the ,stockton and ,darlington ,railway was three years in process of construction1 and the day of its opening1 ,september #bgth1 #ahbe1 was an important one in the history of travel4 ,imagine that first train load--the locomotive1 guided by ,stephenson himself1 six freight cars1 a car carrying distinguished guests1 twenty-one coal cars crammed with passengers1 and six more freight cars all loaded4 ,ahead of the train1 or procession1 as it might be called1 rode a man on horseback1 carrying a flag bearing the motto1 ,the private risk is the public benefit4 ,when the train started1 crowds of people ran along by its side1 for a time easily keeping up with it4 ,finally1 however1 ,stephenson called to the horseman to get out of the way and1 putting on steam1 drove the engine at the rate of fifteen miles an hour4 ,the future of the locomotive was assured4 ,americans were ready for new methods of traveling4 ,three years after the opening of the first passenger steam-railway in ,england1 the ,baltimore and ,ohio ,railroad began to construct a line from ,baltimore westward1 and in two years fourteen miles were opened to travel4 ,for a year1 however1 horses were used as motive power2 in #ahca1 the road advertised for locomotives4 ,meanwhile an engine1 called the ,stombridge ,lion1 was brought over from ,england1 in #ahbi1 and used on a line built by the ,delaware and ,hudson ,canal ,company4 ,it was found to be too heavy and was abandoned4 ,the second locomotive used in this country1 ,the ,best ,friend of ,charleston1 was built in ,new ,york ,city1 and was run on the ,south ,carolina ,railroad4 ,illustration3 ,,old-,,style ,,railroad ,,train4 ,the locomotive and the railroad had come1 such as they were4 ,the locomotive had its boiler and its smokestack1 its cylinders and driving wheels2 but it had no cab for the engineer and the fireman1 and no brake to stop the train4 ,the tender was but a flat car1 carrying fuel and water4 ,the cars were merely stagecoaches made to run on rails1 and in no way were the passengers protected from the smoke and cinders of the burning wood4 ,yet this poor1 inconvenient railroad was a great advance in itself1 and it foretold greater advances in the days to come4 ,in #ahce1 five years after the opening of the first steam railroad in the ,united ,states1 there were twenty-three roads and over a thousand miles of track4 ,after #ahce1 an average of nearly four hundred miles was built yearly until #ahdh4 ,from that time until the beginning of the ,civil ,war1 railroad construction proceeded with great rapidity1 nearly two thousand miles of railroad being built each year4 ,in #ahdi1 a continuous line of railroad was completed between ,new ,york and ,boston4 ,two years later two distinct lines were finished1 connecting ,new ,york and ,buffalo4 ,at the end of another two years1 through connection was had between ,new ,york and ,chicago4 ,at the same time railroads were being built in all sections east of the ,mississippi ,river4 ,after peace was restored in #ahfe1 came a great period of railroad building4 ,during ten years the number of miles of railroad more than doubled1 nearly four thousand miles being built each year4 ,this was the period when the continuous lines1 which had already reached the ,missouri ,river1 were continued across the continent4 ,after five years of labor the ,union ,pacific ,railroad1 starting at ,omaha1 ,nebraska1 met at ,ogden1 ,utah1 the ,central ,pacific1 which had been built from ,sacramento1 ,california4 ,may #ajth1 #ahfi1 the last spike was driven and the ,pacific coast was bound to the ,atlantic by bands of steel4 ,since the completion of the ,union and ,central ,pacific railroads1 four other through lines have been constructed across the ,rocky ,mountains1 within the territory of the ,united ,states1 and one in ,canada4 ,it is now possible to go from ocean to ocean in less than five days1 and to have such a choice of routes that neither the cold of winter nor the heat of summer need be troublesome4 ,at last the limit of rapid traveling seems to have been reached4 ,walking and horseback riding are indulged in only for pleasure and health2 stagecoaches are used only for short lines where the railroad has not yet come2 but all the long-distance traveling is now done behind the locomotive4 ,journeys of weeks have become trips of a few days1 days have been lessened to hours1 and the country has become knit together by rapid transit4 ,is there a chance for further improvement8 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,modern ,,water ,,travel4 ,james ,greenleaf arrived in ,duluth1 one bright ,june day1 four hundred and five years after the discovery of ,america4 ,for nearly forty years he had been a missionary among the ,indians of the ,british ,northwest1 but he had finally been persuaded to take a well-earned rest4 ,leaving his little settlement of red men1 and taking a canoe1 he had paddled up stream1 carried his canoe over a portage1 and paddled down a river until he reached ,lake ,superior1 where a small sailboat had taken him to the flourishing city at the western end of the lake4 ,at the hotel he found1 as he expected1 his nephew1 ,henry ,towne4 ,mr4 ,towne was a commercial traveler1 always on the road1 as he would say1 for a large furniture establishment in ,new ,york4 ,in a letter to his uncle he had stated that business would call him to ,minnesota at just that time1 and that he would make the journey with his uncle from ,duluth to ,new ,york4 ,the next day the two men started4 ,the nephew had made all the necessary arrangements1 having purchased tickets and engaged staterooms on the line of steamboats that connect ,duluth with ,buffalo4 ,the first sight of the steamboat caused ,mr4 ,greenleaf to exclaim at its size4 ,it is not much like the steamboat that ,i took on the ,hudson in the spring of #ahef1 he said4 ,i imagine1 however1 that ,i shall see greater differences than this1 the further ,i go4 ,as the two men made a tour through the steamboat1 the older gave expression to his thoughts in many ways4 ,we did not have the saloon in those old days1 when ,i did my traveling4 ,whenever we did not care to remain on the open deck there was no parlor to which we could go4 ,no orchestra helped to while away our hours4 ,no piano or organ added the charm of music to our journey4 ,but you had a state room to which you could retire1 replied his companion1 as they came to the rooms numbered #bdj and #bdb1 which numbers were on the keys that they had obtained at the purser's4 ,yes1 said his uncle1 a tiny room1 six feet by six1 with narrow little berths1 and two small stools4 ,i can assure you that it was nothing like these comfortable sleeping rooms1 brilliantly lighted1 with regulation beds1 convenient toilet arrangements1 and carpeted floors4 ,however1 ,i do not imagine that the machinery will let me sleep any better now than then4 ,the next morning1 as the travelers went down to breakfast1 the younger man asked1 ,well1 uncle1 how did you sleep8 ,never better1 was the reply4 ,i tell you1 ,henry1 ,i want to look at the machinery1 after breakfast4 ,it must be somewhat unlike the engine of my day1 or the boat1 large though it is1 would have more of a jar4 ,when the two men stood above the mammoth engine and noted the smooth working parts1 the regular and even motion of the great piston rods in and out of the cylinders1 the quietness and gentleness with which each movement took place1 the uncle said3 ,more improvements have been made on the engine of forty years ago than had then been made on that of the ,clermont4 ,and we used to think that the steamboats of our day were as much superior to ,fulton's boat as his was ahead of ,fitch's steam-moved paddles4 ,we cannot take note of all the novel sensations that came to the old missionary1 nor can we pause to relate many of the conversations between the two men4 ,we can record a few only of the greater changes which were discussed as they continued their journey1 and mention some of the comments called forth by the scenes through which ,mr4 ,greenleaf was passing4 ,on the afternoon of the second day the steamboat passed through the locks of the canal at ,sault ,ste4 ,marie4 ,uncle1 remarked the drummer1 how does this canal compare with the ,delaware and ,hudson canal1 with which you were familiar8 ,how can they be compared8 replied his uncle4 ,that was a long trench1 hardly more than a scratch on the surface of the ground4 ,this is broad and deep1 though not long4 ,yes1 said ,mr4 ,towne1 but there is no new principle here4 ,this canal is somewhat wider and deeper2 its locks and gates are somewhat larger4 ,still it is only a canal4 ,but we could not make such a hole in our day4 ,we could not afford to hire men enough to dig it2 it must have required many years to make this excavation4 ,oh2 this canal was not made as large as this when it was first built4 ,it has been enlarged since4 ,but you know that we do not do all our digging now by hand4 ,steam shovels do the work for us4 ,that gives us a great advantage over the day laborer with his pick and shovel4 ,what strikes me as most noticeable1 said ,mr4 ,greenleaf1 is the number of vessels waiting on both sides of the lock4 ,what causes such a crowd to-day1 particularly8 ,this is no unusual number1 replied ,mr4 ,towne4 ,you do not realize what a traffic there is on the great lakes4 ,it is stated that the tonnage passing through this canal is greater than that through any other strait on the face of the globe4 ,this growth is very recent and very rapid4 ,but what causes the traffic and where are all the vessels going8 asked the missionary4 ,the great bulk of the freight1 answered the younger man1 is grain from the ,northwest1 and iron1 copper1 coal1 and lumber1 now being obtained in vast quantities south of ,lake ,superior4 ,so long as the steamboats can carry freight more cheaply than the steam cars1 grain and ores will take this route4 ,sometime we shall have canals large enough for ocean steamers1 which will connect the great lakes with the ,atlantic ,ocean4 ,then we can load our freight at ,chicago or ,duluth and not change it until it is unloaded at some ,english or ,european port4 ,the next day1 as the steamboat was lying at the wharf at ,detroit1 conversation was turned to the great ferryboats plying across the river4 ,i notice great changes in the steam ferries1 since last ,i crossed the ,north ,river at ,new ,york1 remarked ,mr4 ,greenleaf4 ,yes1 was the reply1 but you see only improvements4 ,the ferryboats are larger and you might almost say clumsier2 that is all4 ,i do not think so1 returned the missionary4 ,there must be some new invention to enable entire trains1 with cars filled with passengers1 to be carried across such a river as this4 ,of course1 said his nephew1 the boat must be strong and large4 ,however1 the ferry docks have been improved4 ,now1 when the boat is fastened1 the wharf can be raised and lowered1 until it is exactly on the level of the boat4 ,then not only passengers1 but wagons and steam cars can pass from one to the other almost without knowledge of the change4 ,how far have these cars come that ,i see on the ferry8 ,that1 said the drummer1 is one of the through trains from ,montreal to ,chicago4 ,the ferryboat next beyond1 going the other way1 bears a train containing cars bound for ,new ,york and ,boston4 ,well1 well6 ,this is convenient1 said the missionary4 ,the passengers are saved much trouble by not being required to gather up all their traveling bundles1 leave the cars for the boat1 and the boat for a new set of cars4 ,we should have thought this a great gain1 forty years ago4 ,but do you realize what an inconvenience this ferry causes8 ,much time is wasted1 not only because of the slow movement of the boats1 but also from the necessary delays in embarking and disembarking the cars4 ,yes1 ,i suppose so4 ,but what would you do8 ,here is the river and it is too wide for a bridge4 ,oh1 no6 replied ,mr4 ,towne4 ,the bridge could be built1 but it would be expensive and would not pay4 ,but what do you think of a tunnel8 ,a tunnel8 ,what do you mean8 said the other man1 with a touch of surprise in his voice for the first time4 ,a tunnel8 ,where8 ,not under the river8 ,yes1 answered his nephew1 a tunnel under the river4 ,there is one1 a few miles north1 at ,port ,huron4 ,there the train1 instead of being delayed hours by the ferry1 passes at almost full speed directly under the river1 proceeding on its way as though the river were not there4 ,is not that something new8 asked ,mr4 ,greenleaf4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,river ,,tunnel4 ,yes4 ,it was opened only a half-dozen years ago4 ,it is said to be the greatest river tunnel in the world4 ,it is a little over a mile long and is fifteen feet below the bed of the ,st4 ,clair ,river4 ,half a mile of it is directly under the water1 yet no one passing through it would realize that it was different from any one of the hundreds of tunnels through which the railroads of this country pass4 ,it is but a natural following out of such tunnels as the five-mile tunnel under the ,hoosac ,mountains in ,massachusetts1 or the three-quarter-mile tunnels in ,jersey ,city1 or the score of tunnels on the line of the ,southern ,railway over the ,blue ,ridge in ,north ,carolina4 ,it is a great tunnel to-day1 of course1 but when the ,north ,river tunnel is finished1 from ,new ,york to ,jersey ,city1 this will be of little account in comparison4 ,detroit was soon left1 ,lake ,erie was reached1 and night came on4 ,the next morning the steamboat reached its journey's end at ,buffalo4 ,our friends hastened across the city and were soon seated in a sleeper1 on the train for ,new ,york4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,modern ,,land ,,travel4 ,soon after the train had started from the ,buffalo station conversation began between ,mr4 ,greenleaf and his nephew4 ,the steam is the same as in my day1 remarked the former2 the steam pushes the piston in just the same way2 there is no change in this direction4 ,but all else is new4 ,yes1 said the drummer1 you must see great changes2 tell me some of them4 ,very well1 was the reply4 ,the most noticeable thing about a railroad train used to be the jerking motion4 ,we seemed to be going 'bump-i-ty-bump' all the time2 and starting and stopping a train would often throw us off our feet4 ,various improvements1 said ,mr4 ,towne1 have helped to produce this easy-riding motion4 ,the roadbeds are laid with much greater care--long experience and numerous experiments have provided us with the best rails2 but more especially the absence of jar is due to steel springs1 and also to the breaks and couplers4 ,when one car was attached to another by two bolts thrust through a ring1 nothing was firm1 as the bolts would slide forward and back with every motion of the car4 ,the new automatic couplers hold the two cars more firmly together4 ,again1 the old hand brakes have been replaced by the automatic air brake4 ,yes1 ,i have heard of that1 but ,i do not understand it4 ,can you explain it to me8 ,i think so4 ,george ,westinghouse1 ,jr41 about thirty years ago1 took out a patent for the air brake4 ,this alone has been enough to make him famous1 although he has twelve hundred patents issued in his name4 ,the ,westinghouse air brake is now almost universally used4 ,some of the surplus steam in the locomotive pumps air into tanks in the cars1 which air presses upon a piston1 that moves a rod against the brakes4 ,thus the brakes can be held against the wheels with great force at the will of the engineer4 ,well1 the next thing that ,i notice1 said the missionary1 is the improved comfort of the passengers4 ,the cinders filled the cars in the old days2 the air within was always bad2 the candles gave more smoke than light2 and in winter1 the stoves at the end of the cars gave no heat in the center4 ,yes1 all that is changed1 replied the younger man4 ,spark arresters keep out the cinders2 the overhead ventilators give us good air2 bright light1 almost like that of day1 surrounds us in the evening2 and1 when wanted1 the engine supplies steam in pipes running the entire length of the car1 which gives even and ample heat4 ,this car is wider than ours used to be1 is it not8 queried ,mr4 ,greenleaf4 ,yes1 was the reply4 ,when the first ,pullman sleeping car1 the ',pioneer1' was run on the ,chicago and ,alton ,railroad1 it was wider and higher than the ordinary coaches4 ,several bridges had to be raised to allow the car to pass under2 and all the station platforms were altered to permit it to pass4 ,since then1 as ,pullmans and ,wagners have come into use on so many roads1 many changes in bridges have been found necessary1 and station platforms have almost universally been cut down to the ground4 ,did ,i understand you to say that this is a sleeper8 asked ,mr4 ,greenleaf4 ,our sleeping cars1 few and far between as they were1 had berths or bunks three tiers high1 fitted in on each side of the car1 making it useless except to sleep in4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,pullman ,,sleeper4 ,that was the great feature of ,mr4 ,pullman's invention1 was the reply4 ,he saw that few railroad companies would care to go to the expense of running cars which could only be used for sleeping purposes4 ,he was familiar with the 'old-fashioned1 stuffy cars1 where men sat in stiff-backed seats and dozed and yawned and waited for morning4 ,by putting people to sleep this wide-awake man made a fortune4' ,you are sitting on the bed now4 ,but here comes the porter to make up the berths next to us4 ,the lady wishes to put her little boy to sleep4 ,with much interest ,mr4 ,greenleaf watched the porter make a sleeping room out of a sitting room4 ,in a trice the cushions in the seats and backs were twisted about and laid from seat to seat1 making a bed4 ,with a jump1 the porter stood on the arm of the seat1 and turned a knob in the roof4 ,down came another bed1 a few feet above the first4 ,from this was pulled a triangular board which was placed between the beds and the next seats4 ,sheets1 blankets1 and pillows1 which had been shut up in the roof1 were soon properly spread out1 and two good beds were the result4 ,curtains were found above the upper bed1 which1 hung upon poles1 shut the beds off from the car aisle4 ,behind these the mother undressed her child and put him to bed4 ,just at this moment a man went through the car crying ,first call for dinner4 ,mr4 ,towne immediately jumped to his feet and said1 ,let us go and get good seats4 ,you have forgotten your hat1 ,henry1 said his uncle4 ,i don't need it4 ,come1 hurry1 said ,henry4 ,perplexed1 the old man followed his nephew through three cars to the dining car1 where they were soon seated at a little table1 in front of a large window1 from which everything they passed could be seen4 ,it is not necessary to describe the dining room1 for it was merely a well-furnished restaurant4 ,the men ordered what they desired1 and settled back to wait until their dinner was brought on4 ,how is it1 ,henry1 that we did not feel the wind as we passed from car to car8 ,you hurried me so fast that ,i did not have time to notice4 ,don't you see1 said the drummer1 how attaching a dining car to a train required another change also8 ,there used to be a rule of every railroad company forbidding the passengers to go from car to car while the train was in motion4 ,when the company put on the 'diner1' it invited the people to break its own rule4 ,so vestibule cars came next4 ,side doors are built on the car platforms and with these closed the regular car doors can be left open4 ,thus one can walk the entire length of the train1 through sleeper1 parlor car1 dining car1 smoking saloon1 library1 bath room1 barber shop1 and writing room1 without once going out of doors4 ,this is a modern vestibule train4 ,one more interesting discussion took place the next morning as they were nearing ,new ,york ,city4 ,tell me something about modern bridges1 said ,mr4 ,greenleaf4 ,illustration3 ,,brooklyn ,,bridge4 ,oh6 ,i am afraid that is too long a story to tell during the time that we have left4 ,there seems to be no limit to the engineering skill of to-day4 ,the world-famous structures are being surpassed every little while by new ones4 ,to-morrow you must see the ,brooklyn ,bridge4 ,we have supposed that this great suspension bridge with its sixteen hundred feet from tower to tower was about the limit4 ,but the cantilever bridge over the ,forth in ,scotland has a span more than a hundred feet longer than the ,east ,river bridge4 ,when the ,north ,river bridge is built to ,jersey ,city1 with its proposed span of three thousand feet1 these other great bridges will be small in comparison4 ,our bridges are mostly of steel rather than wood nowadays1 he continued4 ,since the ,portage viaduct on the ,erie road1 which was eight hundred feet long and two hundred and thirty feet above the river1 and contained a million and a half feet of lumber1 was wholly burned in #ahge1 wooden bridges have usually been but temporary affairs4 ,in these days of frequent trains1 the engineer's skill is needed on the shorter bridges as well as on these enormous structures4 ,iron towers were put in place of stone towers1 and iron beams in place of wooden ones1 at the ,niagara ,suspension ,bridge1 without interfering with the trains4 ,i read the other day how a new iron bridge took the place of an old wooden one4 ,it was built across the river by the side of the railroad track2 during the night1 when there was less travel than during the daytime1 the old bridge was moved off1 the new one took its place1 and in a few minutes trains were running over it4 ,whatever engineering work is needed nowadays1 some one will soon be found prepared to provide it4 ,at last the train entered the long cut and series of tunnels1 which finally brought it to the ,grand ,central station on ,forty-,second ,street1 ,new ,york ,city4 ,hurried along by the crowd1 the aged sightseer hardly had an opportunity to make a remark about the immensity and grandeur of the brick station4 ,but this station is poor and far behind the times1 said ,mr4 ,towne4 ,you should see some of the more modern ones that have recently been erected1 or wait for the new ,new ,york station1 which must soon be built4 ,but let us hasten2 ,i want to get home4 ,the young drummer1 accustomed to travel of all kinds1 familiar with crowds1 and wont to make his way anywhere1 did not realize that his companion was having difficulty in keeping up with him as he hastened along the street4 ,receiving no answer to a question that he asked1 he glanced around to find that his uncle was not with him4 ,inwardly accusing himself of remissness in forgetting his companion's lack of experience1 he turned and rapidly retraced his steps4 ,he found his uncle standing on a corner1 not daring to cross the street2 to the relief of the latter1 he decided to take a horse car across town4 ,leaving the car at ,sixth ,avenue1 the two men climbed the stairs to the elevated road4 ,they had hardly purchased their tickets when a train drew up at the little station and a minute afterward they were off for ,harlem4 ,the horse-car ride1 followed by that on the elevated road1 started a discussion concerning street-car traffic4 ,the horse car was remembered by the old missionary1 who remarked that it came before the steam railroad4 ,mr4 ,towne replied1 ,yes4 ,but its day is nearly over4 ,new ,york ,city does not seem to have fully outgrown this slow street travel1 but elsewhere more rapid transit is the rule4 ,new ,york is coming to it1 however4 ,the elevated roads cannot carry all the travel--the horse cars are too slow--the size of the city demands something more than we now have4 ,what do you expect will be done8 asked ,mr4 ,greenleaf4 ,we shall have to build a tunnel1 an underground railway1 a subway4 ,of course our roads must be either above ground1 on the ground level1 or below ground4 ,the elevated roads have shown themselves to be unpleasant and annoying4 ,it is not agreeable to look into the upper-story windows of dwellings1 nor do people enjoy living on streets where the elevated road runs4 ,rapid transit is impossible in the street1 where cross streets continually delay the cars1 and where wagons and carriages of all sorts are regularly passing4 ,the subway is the best method1 the only decent way left open4 ,would not such a tunnel be dark and damp1 dirty and unhealthy in every sense8 asked his uncle4 ,oh6 no1 was the reply4 ,boston has recently completed a subway1 something like a mile and a half long1 with two branches1 which has proved its great advantages4 ,sheltered in winter1 cool in summer1 never blocked by teams nor interfered with by snow or ice1 brilliantly lighted1 with air wholesome and dry1 and less liable to accidents than any other device yet tested1 the ,boston ,subway is a great success4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,boston ,,subway4 ,did you say that there was no smoke8 again asked ,mr4 ,greenleaf4 ,no smoke at all4 ,the cars are run by electricity1 and cinders are therefore entirely absent4 ,are electric cars coming into general use8 was the next question4 ,yes2 throughout the country1 replied ,mr4 ,towne4 ,new ,york even now has its electric roads up town4 ,horse cars have been replaced by electric cars in almost every city4 ,cable cars are used in some places1 but the electric is preferred4 ,the last few years have seen a wonderful development in electricity in every way1 but in no respect greater than in the increase of electric railways4 ,for shorter lines they are competing with the steam cars1 and seem to be winning the day4 ,some steam roads are equipping their lines for electric service1 and report successful results so far as tried4 ,whether the electric car will wholly replace the steam car1 time only will tell4 ,what a relief it must be to ride in a street car and not be obliged to pity the poor horses as they tug and strain to pull the heavy loads6 added the old missionary4 ,you know1 ,i suppose1 replied the drummer1 that not only from the street cars1 but in other ways the horse is being retired4 ,the bicycle has supplanted the horse and buggy for use in thousands of families1 besides being where horses could never be afforded4 ,and now we have automobiles1 or horseless carriages1 run by gasoline1 naphtha1 or electric motors4 ,these are expensive1 and comparatively few can yet afford them for private use4 ,they are being used to a considerable extent in large cities1 especially here in ,new ,york1 for public service or for the delivery of goods from our large stores4 ,but the expenses will gradually lessen1 and perhaps the day when the horse is to rest has begun4 ,illustration3 ,,electric ,,car1 ,,new ,,york ,,city4 ,all this is wonderful1 remarked his uncle4 ,we may walk still1 if we wish4 ,we may ride a horse or drive a carriage4 ,we may take the stagecoach1 or a private coach1 or tally-ho4 ,we may journey across the continent in palace steam cars4 ,we may ride through a city on horse cars1 or cable cars1 or electric cars4 ,we may travel on elevated tracks or underground4 ,we may pedal our bicycles or ride in horseless carriages4 ,we find good carriage roads1 and excellent roadbeds for our railroads4 ,bridges and tunnels carry us over and under rivers1 across ravines and through mountains4 ,on the water1 the canoe and the rowboat1 the sailing vessel and the steamship1 are at our disposal4 ,naphtha launches and electric yachts glide across the water4 ,harbors are dredged1 lighthouses are erected1 breakwaters are constructed1 and canals are built1 all for the use of travelers and commerce4 ,the last years of the nineteenth century form an era in travel of which the world never dreamed4 ,illustration3 ,,samuel ,f4 ,b4 ,,morse4 ,illustration3 ,,modern ,,printing ,,presses4 ,,section ,,vi4--,,letters4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,language4 ,what is the difference between a dog and a boy1 or1 rather1 what is the difference between the brute creation and mankind8 ,it is as natural for a dog to think as for a boy2 he sees and hears and touches1 smells and tastes as well as does the boy2 he remembers and1 in a certain way1 he may be said to reason2 he loves and hates and fears2 he is pleased and frightened2 is revengeful2 has his likes and dislikes1 his tastes and prejudices2 indeed1 a dog1 or a horse1 or an elephant has many points of resemblance to a boy or a man4 ,but there are essential points of difference4 ,one of the most important differences is that man has the power of speech which is not possessed by the brute creation4 ,this power of speech is a great boon to mankind1 one held in common by all peoples in all ages4 ,talking or conversation suggests at least two persons1 the speaker and the hearer1 and involves the use of the vocal organs on the part of the talker and the ear1 the instrument of hearing1 on the part of the listener4 ,this power of communicating thought1 as has been said1 is universal with the human race4 ,in childhood one learns the language of his parents and of the people where he lives4 ,in this country1 ,great ,britain1 ,canada1 and ,australia1 most of the people speak the ,english language2 in ,france1 the ,french tongue2 in ,russia1 the ,russian2 in ,germany1 the ,german2 in ,turkey1 the ,arabic2 and so on4 ,this common speech forms a great bond of unity between all people of the same race1 and by means of it we communicate our ideas one to another4 ,there is another language differing widely from the gift of speech1 yet quite as important for the welfare of the human race4 ,barbarous and savage tribes are dependent upon speech alone1 but in civilized countries the people have acquired another art1 that of writing1 or of using a written language4 ,in speech arbitrary sounds represent ideas4 ,in writing arbitrary symbols or characters1 called letters and words1 are used4 ,they are observed by the eye and not by the ear4 ,this written language is as extended1 as sharp1 as definite1 as full and complete1 as is the language of speech4 ,moreover1 it has a great advantage over speech4 ,words can be spoken only to a person immediately present1 but words can be written and conveyed to one who is absent4 ,no matter how far apart two persons are1 each can communicate his ideas to the other just as well as if they were near4 ,this written language has still greater usefulness4 ,by means of it wise men of all countries who have had great thoughts1 thoughts of value to the whole human race1 have been enabled to put those thoughts into a permanent form4 ,thus they have been preserved and handed down from generation to generation1 so that we inherit to-day the wealth of all the ages4 ,we can make ourselves familiar with the great thoughts uttered by ,jesus1 by ,socrates1 ,aristotle1 ,shakespeare1 ,milton1 ,burke1 ,patrick ,henry1 ,daniel ,webster1 ,emerson1 ,longfellow1 and countless others1 so that they become our own property4 ,moreover1 when the eye gathers up these grand truths from the printed page1 they are not absorbed1 they still remain there4 ,they may be used and transmitted again and again in the same book and upon the same page1 even to future generations4 ,on one occasion ,king ,solomon said3 ,of making many books there is no end1 and much study is a weariness of the flesh4 ,the second part of this sentence is certainly very true1 but that is not saying anything against study1 for anything that is worth doing is a cause of weariness4 ,when we get weary the best thing is to get thoroughly rested1 and after that to work until we become weary again4 ,it does not injure a strong1 well person to get healthily tired2 on the contrary1 the weariness which comes from normal exercise of the hands or the brain is better than inactive ease4 ,illustration3 ,,ancient ,,implements ,,of ,,writing4 ,what did ,solomon mean when he made this sage remark1 ,of making many books there is no end8 ,under what circumstances was the remark made8 ,we may not be able to answer the last question literally1 but we may be permitted to imagine the circumstances4 ,let us suppose that the ,queen of ,sheba had made her famous visit to ,jerusalem4 ,she had heard in her own country of the acts and the wisdom of ,solomon1 and had come to the kingdom of ,israel to see1 with her own eyes1 if these reports were true4 ,she heard his wisdom from his own lips1 for he told her all her questions4 ,then the ,queen of ,sheba had said to ,solomon3 ,it was a true report which ,i heard in mine own land of thine acts1 and of thy wisdom3 howbeit1 ,i believed not their words1 until ,i came1 and mine eyes had seen it3 and1 behold1 the one half of the greatness of thy wisdom was not told me2 for thou exceedest the fame that ,i heard4 ,happy are thy men1 and happy are these thy servants1 which stand continually before thee1 and hear thy wisdom4 ,blessed be the ,lord thy ,god1 which delighted in thee to set thee on his throne1 to be king for the ,lord thy ,god4 ,the ,queen had gone home1 and early one morning ,solomon had risen from his couch and gone up to the flat roof of his house on ,mount ,zion just as the sun was rising4 ,there in his meditations he thought to himself that the ,queen of ,sheba had paid him great honor and that he ought in courtesy to send her a suitable present4 ,what should it be8 ,he was impressed with the idea that he would send her a copy of the sacred books then in the keeping of the high priest4 ,what present could be more appropriate1 more honorable to him1 more welcome to her1 or more acceptable to ,jehovah1 the ,god of his people ,israel8 ,if he sent her a copy of these books it surely ought to be a perfect copy4 ,books were not printed in those days2 they were written with the pen1 or rather with the stylus4 ,solomon called a servant and said to him1 ,send for the chief of the scribes4 ,bring him here4 ,he came1 and the king directed him to select only those scribes that could do perfect work1 and to set them at the task of making the finest possible copy of the books of ,moses and the other sacred books4 ,month after month went by1 until finally the work was finished and the scribes were ushered into the royal presence1 bearing in their arms the product of their long-continued labor4 ,roll after roll of the finest parchment was submitted to ,solomon for inspection4 ,each skin began with an illuminated letter1 and the whole work was done in the highest style of the art4 ,well pleased was ,solomon when these rolls were all properly packed1 secured from rain1 placed upon the backs of camels1 and the caravan1 with a military escort1 had set out for the distant land of ,sheba4 ,then again in the gray of the morning ,solomon was at his meditations upon the housetop4 ,again he called a messenger who should summon to his presence the chief of the scribes4 ,illustration3 ,,an ,,ancient ,,scribe4 ,what was the cost of making the copy of our sacred writings for the ,queen of ,sheba8 ,how many shekels have been paid to the scribes for their work8 ,when the chief scribe had found out he reported it to the king4 ,is it indeed so much8 said the king2 and when he had thought how many months it had taken for that large number of scribes to make a single copy of the sacred books1 then he exclaimed3 ,of making many books there is no end4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,the ,,printing ,,press4 ,the times have changed since ,king ,solomon's day4 ,the art of printing has been discovered4 ,now it would be possible to make not merely one copy but thousands of copies1 not only of the sacred books of the ,jews in the time of ,solomon1 but of the entire ,bible as we have it to-day4 ,not in the months required by the ,jewish scribes1 but in a single month1 thousands of copies of the whole ,bible could be printed from the type set in a single establishment in ,boston1 ,new ,york1 or ,philadelphia4 ,surely1 before the art of printing one might truly say1 ,of making books there is no end4 ,but to-day our modern press sends out its volumes by millions1 so that no longer is there any truth in this apparently wise statement of ,solomon4 ,it was true in his day1 but times have changed4 ,two visitors were wending their way through ,machinery ,hall at the ,centennial ,exhibition in ,philadelphia in #ahgf4 ,clatter1 clatter1 clatter--clatter1 clatter1 clatter--jigger1 jigger1 jigger--jigger1 jigger1 jigger4 ,what was that great machine that they were approaching8 ,it was the ,walter press1 invented in ,london for the ,london ,times1--,the ,thunderer4 ,well1 well6 the press does thunder1 literally1 does it not8 ,it was printing that day's issue of the ,new ,york ,times1 and there were coming from that press about twelve thousand copies of the double-size sheet in an hour4 ,well might it make a racket if it accomplished such a work as that4 ,after the visitors were done admiring it they passed on1 and a little beyond came suddenly upon another printing press which was doing its work in comparative silence4 ,before them stood a double ,hoe perfecting press1 printing the ,philadelphia ,times1 turning off thirty thousand copies per hour4 ,these came out from the machine1 folded ready for the wrappers or for the newsboy to take upon his arm and run out into the street to sell6 ,so marvelous was the work of the ,american press4 ,the original invention was surprising1 but the progress that has been made in making type1 setting it1 electrotyping and inking1 and making paper1 as well as in the presswork1 is beyond the power of description4 ,there are vague1 indefinite stories of printing by the ,chinese a thousand years before ,christ4 ,the ,greeks and ,romans made metal stamps with characters engraved in relief4 ,it was not1 however1 until about the middle of the fifteenth century that movable types were made with which books could be printed4 ,the period between #adej and #aejj witnessed a rapid advance of civilization in ,europe4 ,it was marked by a great revival of classical learning and art1 and announced the dawn of modern civilization4 ,at that time ,europe began to come out into the light of reason1 learning1 and both civil and religious liberty4 ,the mariner's compass had been invented2 gunpowder had been discovered2 and now the art of printing came into use4 ,it would seem that no one man invented this art in the way that ,stephenson invented the locomotive and ,whitney the cotton gin4 ,it grew up1 one man doing a little1 and another something more1 until the system was brought to its present wonderful efficiency4 ,it has been said that ,coster of ,haarlem1 ,holland1 invented wooden types about #adbh and metal types a little later4 ,about #addj ,john ,faust did a little printing1 and others also have claimed the invention4 ,john ,gutenberg is the only claimant who is known to have received honor during his life time as the true inventor4 ,the evidence would seem to show that he was engaged in his secret process before the year #addj4 ,he certainly had a printing office in #addh at ,mentz4 ,about this time ,faust came into possession of this printing office and managed it until his death4 ,among the earliest books printed were1 ,letters of ,indulgence1 two editions of the ,bible1 and a ,latin dictionary4 ,john ,baskerville1 an ,englishman1 devoted his life and fortune to the improvement of printing4 ,he was born in #agjf and died in #agge4 ,he published an edition of ,vergil in royal quarto1 which was then and is still considered a wonderful specimen of beautiful printing4 ,his ,english ,bible1 ,book of ,common ,prayer1 and editions of various classics are still admired and greatly sought4 ,a ,baskerville classic is difficult to find in these days and it commands a high price2 when one is found it shows great skill1 judgment1 and taste4 ,baskerville made types much superior in distinctness and elegance to any that had previously been used4 ,he improved greatly the lines of the letters1 their style and appearance1 making them as artistic as possible4 ,to this end he planned in detail the style of all type which he used4 ,he experimented also in the manufacture of ink to get that which had the most permanent color4 ,he superintended the manufacture of the paper he used in order to obtain a finished surface best adapted to receive the impressions of the type4 ,printing in ,america during the colonial days was subject to much difficulty4 ,the first printing press in our country was set up at ,cambridge in the house of the president of ,harvard ,college1 ,rev4 ,henry ,dunster1 in #afci4 ,eliot's ,bible in the ,indian language was printed upon this press between #affj and #affc4 ,this same printing establishment is still in existence and has been known for many years as the ,university ,press4 ,the first ,bible printed in ,america in any ,european language was a ,german ,bible issued in #agdc by ,christopher ,sower in ,germantown1 ,pennsylvania4 ,this was a wonderful work for those early days4 ,it was a large quarto ,bible1 consisting of #a1bhd pages1 and it took four years to complete the printing of it4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,franklin ,,press4 ,how quaint the early printing press would appear to us of to-day6 ,it was used with very little change for one hundred and fifty years4 ,the forms of type were placed upon wood or stone beds surrounded by frames called coffins1 moved in and out by hand with great labor1 and after each impression the platen which had pressed the paper down upon the type had to be screwed up again with a bar4 ,the presses which ,benjamin ,franklin used were made with wooden framework of the simplest possible construction4 ,iron frames were first used in ,england just one hundred years ago4 ,franklin1 in his ,autobiography1 tells the story of his attempt to set up a printing establishment in ,philadelphia4 ,at first he found it difficult to obtain any work1 but finally he was given the job of printing forty sheets of a ,history of the ,friends4 ,the price offered was low1 but ,franklin and his partner1 ,meredith1 decided to accept it as a beginning4 ,franklin set up the type for a sheet each day1 while ,meredith worked it off at the press the next day4 ,the type had to be distributed every evening in order that it might be ready for the next day's composition4 ,therefore it was often late at night before ,franklin finished his day's task1 perhaps eleven o'clock or even later4 ,other little jobs came in to delay the printers1 but ,franklin was determined to do a sheet a day of the history4 ,one night1 just as his work was done1 one of the forms was accidentally broken1 and two pages reduced to pi4 ,franklin1 late as it was1 distributed the pi and composed the form again before going to bed4 ,such industry and perseverance were sure to bring success in the end4 ,though1 in the clubs and markets1 every one was saying that the establishment must fail1 since the two other printers in town had barely enough to do1 yet ,dr4 ,baird was nearer right2 he used to say3 ,the industry of that ,franklin is superior to any ,i ever saw of the kind2 ,i see him at work when ,i go home from the club1 and he is at work again before his neighbors are out of bed4 ,to-day we have a great variety of printing presses which embody both science and art in skillful fashion4 ,these range from the smallest size of hand presses1 through numberless grades1 varying in size1 strength1 power1 rapidity1 and ease of running1 to the modern newspaper press and folder and the wonderful color printing press4 ,one of the newspaper presses will print at one impression1 from a single set of stereotype plates1 papers of four1 six1 eight1 ten1 twelve1 fourteen1 or sixteen pages1 at the rate of twelve thousand per hour1 all cut at the top1 pasted1 and folded1 with the supplement inserted at its proper place4 ,with duplicate sets of plates1 it will print sets of four1 six1 or eight page papers at the rate of twenty-four thousand per hour4 ,let us look for a moment at the method of inking the type4 ,until a comparatively recent date the inking was all done by hand1 by means of an inking pad4 ,the ink is now spread over the type with almost perfect regularity by means of flexible rollers4 ,great improvements have been made in typesetting4 ,several late inventions largely take the place of the old-fashioned setting by hand4 ,one of these which is much used in newspaper work1 and to some extent upon books and magazines1 is called the linotype4 ,by pressing the key of the proper letter upon a keyboard arranged something like a typewriter1 the letter is pushed down1 and when a line of letters and words has been completed1 and the words properly spaced1 this matrix is pressed down upon the melted type metal4 ,the line is already stereotyped for use4 ,the recent processes of stereotyping and electrotyping have added greatly to the cheapness1 accuracy1 and beauty of printing4 ,nearly all books formerly printed from movable type are now either stereotyped or electrotyped1 so that edition after edition may be printed from the same plates4 ,the art of printing has been called the ,divine ,art4 ,it is the art preservative of all arts4 ,to a large extent all civilization depends upon the art of printing4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,the ,,postal ,,system4 ,we have already seen that letters may be written and sent by mail to distant countries or cities4 ,to send a letter to any place in our own country will cost us but two cents2 to any country in ,europe1 but five cents4 ,indeed1 we may send a letter to any one of the countries within the postal league1--and this includes most of the countries of ,asia and ,south ,america1 some parts of ,africa and many islands of the sea1--for the same simple postage of five cents4 ,but the time was when nothing of the kind could have been done4 ,in the long ago there was no post-office system in any country2 no mails1 regular or irregular1 were sent from one place to another4 ,the modern postal system evidently grew out of the practice among kings of sending couriers to carry messages from one to another4 ,in the early times some powerful rulers organized a staff of government couriers4 ,after a time it came about that these government couriers began to carry letters from private individuals of high rank to their friends4 ,so1 in the process of time1 this grew into a permanent system2 that is1 the government couriers were accustomed to carry private correspondence as well as the missives of the king4 ,this transmission of letters by special couriers sent out by the king dates back to very early times4 ,explorations in ,egypt have brought to light specimens of these letters dating back to a period of two thousand and even three thousand years ago4 ,upon what do you suppose those letters1 sent so long ago and preserved to the present time1 were written8 ,they could not have been written upon paper1 for paper was not known in those days1 and could not have been preserved through so many ages2 neither were they written upon parchment or upon the skins of animals4 ,these letters which have stood the test of time for twenty or twenty-five centuries were written upon tablets of clay or of stone4 ,the development of the modern postal system seems to have been begun in ,great ,britain4 ,some of the account books of the kings of ,england who lived about six hundred years ago have been preserved to the present time4 ,in these are found records of letter-carrying on regular lines and at stated intervals4 ,from this beginning the ,english postal system increased in efficiency and importance2 when the colonists came to ,america they early made arrangements for the carrying of letters4 ,the records of the ,general ,court of ,massachusetts show that in #afci it was enacted that notice be given ,richard ,fairbanks that his house in ,boston is to be the place appointed for all letters which are brought from beyond the seas or are to be sent thither to be left with him1 and he is to care for them1 that they are to be delivered or sent according to the directions2 he is allowed for every letter a penny1 and must answer all mistakes from his own neglect of this kind4 ,in #afeg the colonial law of ,virginia required that every planter was to provide a messenger to convey the dispatches as they arrived1 to the next plantation and so on1 paying and forfeiting a hogshead of tobacco for default4 ,in #afgb it was agreed between some of the colonies along the coast that a post be sent once a month from ,new ,york to ,boston4 ,how should we be able to-day to transact business under such conditions8 ,now we have many mails a day between these two cities4 ,gradually the postal system was extended1 and in #agcj1 ,colonel ,spotswood of ,virginia was made ,postmaster-,general of the colonies by the ,british ,government4 ,in #agec1 ,dr4 ,franklin was made ,postmaster-,general4 ,franklin was very efficient in this office2 he visited nearly all of the offices in the country in person1 and introduced many improvements4 ,in #aggd1 by his loyalty to the colonies1 ,franklin incurred the enmity of the ,british ,government and was dismissed from the office4 ,the next year1 however1 he was appointed ,postmaster-,general by the ,continental ,congress4 ,in #agib1 regular rates of letter postage were fixed by ,congress1 based on the distance to be sent4 ,the writer remembers that when he was a boy he received a letter from his mother fifteen miles away for which he had to pay six cents postage4 ,at another time a letter was received from his sister who was a little over thirty miles away1 for which he had to pay eight cents2 and when a schoolmate who lived more than sixty miles distant sent him a letter1 he had to pay the postmaster ten cents in order to get it4 ,these letters were written on coarse1 heavy paper with quill pens4 ,the letter was folded1 and the fold of one side was tucked into the fold of the other side so as to leave but one thickness of paper outside of that fold4 ,the letter was sealed by a wafer or by sealing wax dropped upon the paper where the two edges came together1 and stamped with a seal4 ,on the opposite side the letter was properly addressed4 ,there were no envelopes in those days4 ,see what changes have taken place within the memory of persons still living4 ,to-day we write a letter1 fold it1 insert it in an envelope1 and place on it a two-cent stamp2 the carrier comes to the house1 puts the letter in his pouch1 carries it to the post office1 and it is sent to ,california or any of the ,united ,states1 ,mexico or ,canada1 and delivered to the person to whom it is addressed4 ,postage stamps were not used on mail matter by government direction until the year #ahdj1 and it was not until #ahdg that the ,government issued the first stamps for general use4 ,prior to that1 however1 individual postmasters1 on their own responsibility1 had printed and sold postage stamps4 ,within a few years their use became quite general in many countries4 ,illustration3 ,,postage ,,stamps4 ,about the year #ahej1 it was noticed that stamps of different colors and design were received in the mails from various parts of the world4 ,then the idea of collecting stamps came into vogue4 ,after a time children and young people generally began to collect and to study stamps4 ,every minute variation of paper1 with style of printing1 gum1 water mark1 and other differences was considered as making a different issue1 and in some cases as many as fifty distinct styles of a single stamp have been collected4 ,an extra fee of ten cents secures the immediate special delivery by messenger of any letter thus sent4 ,merchandise parcels can be sent as well as letters and papers4 ,there is a money order system and at the present time a great deal of thought is put upon the question of post-office savings banks1 which have already been successfully established in ,great ,britain and other countries of ,europe4 ,by the ,constitution of the ,united ,states1 ,congress has power to establish post-offices and post-roads4 ,before roads were common between one ,state and another1 the mail was carried on horseback4 ,later1 mail wagons were used to convey the mails from one office to another4 ,as stagecoaches multiplied they were used as mail wagons1 the ,government paying the stage company a sum of money for carrying the mail pouches4 ,illustration3 ,,assorting ,,mail ,,on ,,the ,,train4 ,the general introduction of railroads modified this system of mail carriage4 ,almost every railroad has become a postal road1 the mail being carried upon its trains4 ,most of the trains upon the main lines of railroads have each a postal car fitted up with the proper conveniences for receiving and delivering the mail at the various stations and sorting it while the train is moving4 ,suppose a mail pouch to be received at ,new ,haven2 before reaching ,bridgeport its contents are sorted2 all that is to go to ,bridgeport is put into a separate pouch and dropped off at that place2 that which is to go to ,greenwich is put into another pouch and left there1 and so on4 ,the mail of ,new ,york ,city is put into various pouches according to its destination4 ,the mail matter for the sub-offices1 like ,station ,a and ,station ,b1 is put into separate pouches and sent from the railroad station on #db;d ,street directly to these offices1 while that for the central office is so sorted that there is no delay in sending it out after its arrival at the office4 ,the letters for lock boxes are placed together by sections1 while those for carriers are put up in divisions so as to be delivered at once to the several carriers4 ,meantime mail matter which is to go beyond ,new ,york is put into proper pouches so that one can be dropped off at ,trenton1 another at ,philadelphia1 and so on4 ,it will readily be seen that vast improvements have been made in postal arrangements4 ,the condition of the ,united ,states postal system has been greatly improved each year4 ,it seems almost marvelous that the mail service is so reliable and that the transmission of mail matter is so expeditious and satisfactory4 ,if mail matter should happen to be lost1 which is very rarely the case1 the facilities for finding it are sometimes quite surprising1 as the following incident will show4 ,a young lady in ,iowa sent by mail a piece of crocheted edging to her cousin in ,dorchester1 which is a part of ,boston1 ,massachusetts4 ,the contents slipped out somewhere and the wrapper was delivered to its proper address1 but without the edging4 ,a letter had already been received in which the sending of the article was mentioned1 so that the receiver knew from whom the wrapper came4 ,she notified the sub-postmaster in charge of the ,dorchester office1 and he began the system of tracing by means of blanks prepared for that purpose4 ,he wrote out the description of the article and the facts of the case1 and sent these blanks to the postmaster at ,boston4 ,the ,boston postmaster forwarded them to ,chicago2 from ,chicago the blanks were sent to the several offices west of ,chicago until they reached the point of departure1 in ,iowa4 ,no trace was found to answer the description1 and the blanks came back to ,chicago4 ,they were then sent eastward4 ,at ,cleveland the missing article was found and forwarded to the postmaster at ,chicago1 whence the blanks had last been sent out4 ,the ,chicago postmaster forwarded the same to ,boston with the missing article2 from ,boston the description and the merchandise were sent to ,dorchester4 ,meantime the family had moved to ,salem1 and the ,dorchester postmaster forwarded them to ,salem4 ,the receiver secured the missing article and receipted for the same1 while the description with its various entries of travel1 from ,dorchester to ,boston1 from ,boston to ,chicago1 from ,chicago to the various offices in ,iowa1 then back to ,chicago1 thence to the different offices as far as ,cleveland1 and then from ,cleveland to ,chicago1 ,boston1 ,dorchester1 and ,salem1 furnished a document of considerable interest4 ,in #agij there were #gj post offices and #a1hge miles of post roads4 ,that year the number of letters and papers delivered did not exceed #b1jjj1jjj4 ,in #ahij1 one hundred years afterward1 there were more than #fe1jjj post offices and more than #cj1jjj mail routes4 ,during that year more than #aj1jjj1jjj1jjj pieces of mail matter were handled4 ,the receipts and expenditures of the post-office department in the ,united ,states amount annually to about #ge1jjj1jjj4 ,this rsum of the postal service plainly shows the energy1 enterprise1 and intelligence of our people1 the success attained by our ,government1 and the tremendous growth and development of our country4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,signaling4 ,the transmission of letters from one point to another always requires time4 ,even when a letter is dropped into the post office it will not go until the next regular mail4 ,it was long ago seen that occasions frequently arose when it was necessary to send messages quickly4 ,this was especially important in times of war1 when each army desired to know immediately the movements of the enemy4 ,this necessity led to various devices for transmitting messages instantaneously4 ,any form of signaling would be satisfactory if the signals were visible to the eye of the distant observer4 ,the earliest method of signaling was the use of the beacon fire or the sending of messages by light4 ,in the early colonial period in this country1 during the anxious times of ,indian hostilities1 beacon poles were here and there set up and from them large kettles were suspended which held combustible matter4 ,the burning of this material conveyed the intelligence that danger was at hand4 ,one of the earliest beacon poles was erected on ,beacon ,hill1 in ,boston1 about #afcd4 ,a watchman was constantly at the place to give the signal on the approach of danger4 ,that beacon pole was a tall mast1 firmly supported1 about seventy feet in height4 ,tree nails were driven into it to enable the watchman to ascend1 and near its top an iron crane projected which supported an iron skeleton frame4 ,in this frame was placed a barrel of tar to be fired when the occasion required the signal4 ,this beacon was more than two hundred feet above the sea level1 and the light of it1 therefore1 could be seen for a great distance inland4 ,many of the early settlements in ,new ,england were made upon the tops of hills in order that the people might the more quickly and easily see the approach of ,indians and signal the news to other settlements by bonfires4 ,illustration3 ,,signaling ,,by ,,beacon ,,fires4 ,a second method of signaling was by the use of the semaphore4 ,this was invented by ,claude ,chappe and was adopted by the ,french ,government in #agid4 ,it consists of an upright post1 which supports a horizontal bar or arm1 which can be put at various angles4 ,in order to carry out this system of signaling1 stations must previously be agreed upon and signal officers constantly on duty4 ,if the intelligence was to be conveyed to a considerable distance intermediate stations must be had4 ,the second station received the signal from the first and transmitted it to the third1 and so on4 ,this proved to be a very difficult operation and was never extensively used4 ,a third and successful form of signaling was by the motion of flags4 ,during our ,civil ,war the army made much use of military signals4 ,the system was devised by ,major ,myer and was continued through the war1 not only in the army but on naval vessels4 ,when the stations were less than five miles apart signaling was considered to be at very short range4 ,messages have been sent ten miles by means of a pocket handkerchief attached to a twelve-foot rod4 ,with the regular flags and staffs used by the signal corps during the war1 signals were often read twenty-five miles away1 and it is said that single words have been read at a distance of forty miles4 ,in the early spring of #ahfc ,general ,peck was in command of the ,union forces at ,suffolk1 ,virginia4 ,he had under him about ten thousand men and had thoroughly fortified the place by a connected system of forts1 redoubts1 and breast-works4 ,his outmost signal station was placed on an elevated plateau across the ,nansemond ,river4 ,this station was made by sawing off the top of a tall pine tree and placing thereon a small platform surrounded by a railing4 ,the signal officer would tie his horse at the foot of the tree and mount to the platform by a rope ladder4 ,early one morning in ,march1 this signal officer suddenly observed the head of a column of troops emerging from the woods in the rear4 ,this was the advance guard of two ,confederate corps under ,general ,longstreet4 ,instantly he caught up his signal flag and as quickly as possible signaled to the town the approach of the enemy4 ,picking up his signal book he hurried down the ladder1 mounted his horse and galloped away4 ,before he could reach his saddle1 however1 the ,confederates were within rifle range and fired at him4 ,they did not succeed in hitting him and he escaped safely to his friends4 ,the signal had been seen and was quickly repeated to all parts of the fortified town4 ,the drums instantly beat the long roll and1 within five minutes from the time his signal was given1 and before ,general ,longstreet could swing out his light battery and open fire1 the entire ,federal force was under arms and the artillery in the nearest battery had opened a raking fire4 ,the briskness of this fire from the ,federal battery soon obliged ,longstreet to withdraw his forces to the cover of the woods4 ,had it not been for the promptness of the signal officer it is possible that the town might have been captured4 ,a notable use of this system of army signals occurred in the campaign of ,general ,miles against the ,apaches in ,new ,mexico and ,arizona in #ahhf4 ,he established a system of thirteen signal stations in that country1 over which1 during a period of four months1 more than eighteen hundred messages were sent4 ,the savages were surprised and confounded by the way intelligence of their movements became known hundreds of miles distant4 ,as early as #ahfa ,moses ,g4 ,farmer introduced a successful method of signaling which afterward was employed by the officers of the ,united ,states ,coast ,survey on ,lake ,superior4 ,this system was by means of mirrors which were able to reflect the sunlight between stations ninety miles apart4 ,this method is called the heliographic system4 ,the ,french have used it among the islands of the ,indian ,ocean where the stations are on mountain peaks sometimes #ace miles apart4 ,even this long-range signaling has been surpassed by our own ,signal ,corps1 which has succeeded in sending messages by our method from ,mount ,uncompahgre in ,colorado to ,mount ,ellen in ,utah1 a distance of #ahc miles4 ,during the siege of ,paris1 messages by the use of the calcium light1 concentrated and directed by lenses1 were sent from one point to another4 ,a very unique form of signaling was employed by ,new ,york ,state at the opening of the ,erie ,canal1 in #ahbe4 ,the cannon1 which had been captured by ,commodore ,perry at the time of his famous victory on ,lake ,erie1 were placed at intervals along the line of the canal4 ,when the first canal boat started from ,buffalo1 the first cannon was fired4 ,when the sound was heard at the second cannon1 that was discharged2 and so on1 the entire length of the canal4 ,two hours after the start at ,buffalo the news had reached ,new ,york4 ,all these various methods of communication at long range have proved more or less objectionable and unsatisfactory4 ,it was natural1 therefore1 that as soon as it was known that electricity could be conducted by wires from one place to another1 experiments should be begun in the hope of finding some possible means of conveying intelligence by it4 ,perhaps the earliest suggestion was in a letter published in ,the ,scots ,magazine1 of ,february1 #agec4 ,the letter was signed ,c4 ,m41 which probably meant ,charles ,morrison1 a young ,scotch surgeon4 ,he proposed to use as many insulated conductors as there were letters in the alphabet4 ,each wire was to represent one letter only1 and the message would be sent by charging the several wires in succession so that the operator in receiving it would be obliged to notice the order of movement among the wires4 ,from that simple beginning inventors proceeded to suggest first one thing and then another1 but they found so many difficulties that it seemed impossible to overcome them all4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,the ,,telegraph4 ,illustration3 ,,electric ,,wires4 ,on the second day of ,april1 #ahgb1 in the city of ,new ,york1 the life of a benefactor of his race1 an aged man who had seen more than fourscore years of mingled trial and triumph1 was ended4 ,that man was ,prof4 ,samuel ,finley ,breese ,morse1 the inventor of the electric telegraph4 ,his name is as widely known the world over as that of ,washington1 or ,csar1 or ,aristotle4 ,his long life had been extremely checkered4 ,he had passed through troubles1 trials1 anxieties1 disappointments1 bereavements2 he had been subject to persecutions1 losses1 poverty1 toil1 discouragements2 he had met with successes1 gains1 wealth1 luxury1 honors1 fame2 and finally the homage of republics1 kingdoms1 empires had been laid at his feet4 ,he was never cast down1 never unduly elated4 ,he bore all his poverty and disappointments and wore all his honors and wealth with the grace of a ,christian and the calmness of a philosopher4 ,professor ,morse was born at the foot of ,breed's ,hill in ,charlestown1 ,massachusetts1 ,april #bgth1 #agia4 ,he was the oldest of three brothers4 ,his father was a very distinguished man in his day2 for more than thirty years the pastor of a church in ,charlestown1 a noted preacher1 a good historian1 the author of many books1 and1 particularly1 the father of the science of geography in the ,united ,states4 ,professor ,morse inherited from both his father and his mother those traits of character which enabled him to succeed in his great life work1 in spite of discouragements1 obstacles1 and opposition4 ,his ancestors were all noted for their intelligence1 energy1 original thinking1 perseverance1 and integrity4 ,how we would like to step into the little schoolroom and see ,samuel at his first school4 ,he was four years of age4 ,his teacher was known as ,old ,ma'am ,rand1 an invalid who could not leave her chair4 ,she governed the uneasy little urchins with a long rattan that would reach across the small room where she kept her school4 ,at seven years of age ,samuel was sent to ,andover to a preparatory school1 kept by ,mr4 ,foster2 here he fitted for ,phillips ,academy and1 in that famous institution1 under the direction of ,mark ,newman1 he prepared for ,yale ,college1 where he was graduated in #ahaj4 ,while in college he was under the instruction of ,jeremiah ,day in natural philosophy and paid great attention to the subject of electricity1 getting everything that was known about it at that time4 ,professor ,day said3 ,morse was often present in my laboratory during my preparatory arrangements and experiments1 and thus was made acquainted with them4 ,on leaving college ,morse had a burning ambition to be a portrait painter4 ,he put himself under the instruction of ,washington ,allston1 and went with him to ,england to pursue his favorite study4 ,is it not a little singular that ,morse1 who invented the telegraph1 was a student under ,allston1 and that ,robert ,fulton1 who invented the ,american steamboat1 was a student under ,west1 another famous ,american painter8 ,one day ,mr4 ,allston introduced young ,morse to ,benjamin ,west1 whose fame at that time was as wide as the world of art4 ,west was in his studio painting his ,christ ,rejected4 ,after a time he began a critical examination of ,mr4 ,morse's hands and at length said3 ,let me tie you with this cord1 and take that place while ,i paint the hands of our ,saviour4 ,morse of course complied2 ,west finished his work and1 releasing him1 said1 ,you may say now1 if you please1 you had a hand in this picture4 ,morse had many interesting experiences in ,england during his four years' study under ,allston4 ,he returned to ,america in #ahae1 and from that time for about fifteen years devoted himself to painting and inventing4 ,he was for some time professor of the fine arts in the ,university of the ,city of ,new ,york1 and during all these years he paid much attention to the study of electricity4 ,after three years spent in ,europe1 he returned in #ahcb on the packet ship ,sully4 ,in the early part of the voyage1 one day at the dinner table1 the conversation turned to the subject of electro-magnetism4 ,professor ,morse remarked3 ,if the presence of electricity can be made visible in any part of the circuit1 ,i see no reason why intelligence may not be transmitted by electricity4 ,his mind could think of nothing else2 this one idea had taken complete possession of his soul2 all that he had learned in former years1 his experiments with ,professor ,day at ,yale ,college1 and his later studies1 were all revived and drawn upon for ways and means to accomplish the thing he had in mind4 ,he withdrew from the table and went upon deck4 ,he was in mid-ocean1 the sky everywhere above him1 the sea everywhere below him4 ,as the lightning comes out of the east and shines unto the west1 so swift and so far was that instrument to work which was taking shape in his mind4 ,he could not fail1 for patience1 perseverance1 and hope were hereditary traits in his character4 ,he was just at the maturity of manhood1 forty-one years of age2 from that time this one idea absorbed his mind4 ,all his powers were concentrated upon this one subject1 the electric telegraph4 ,now began a series of experiences such as probably no other man ever passed through4 ,scarcely did any one ever suffer so much1 endure so much1 fail so many times to accomplish his darling object1 as did ,morse4 ,he completed his invention2 he perfected it4 ,he devised his alphabet consisting of long and short marks and dots2 he obtained a patent for it2 but he had not the money to put the invention in operation4 ,years of trouble and even abject poverty followed4 ,he was so reduced at one time that he was without food for twenty-four hours4 ,he applied to ,congress again and again for a grant to enable him to build and put in operation a trial line between ,baltimore and ,washington4 ,on the morning of the #dth of ,march1 #ahdc1 as ,professor ,morse came down to breakfast1 at his hotel in ,washington1 a young lady met him and said3 ,i have come to congratulate you1 sir4 ,for what1 my dear friend8 asked the professor4 ,on the passage of your bill4 ,that bill was for the appropriation by ,congress of #cj1jjj for the purpose of constructing a line of electric-magnetic telegraph under the direction of ,professor ,morse4 ,the bill had passed the ,house some days before4 ,it had been favorably reported to the ,senate1 but there were a hundred and forty bills before it upon the calendar which were to be taken up in their regular order4 ,professor ,morse had remained in the ,senate chamber till late in the evening4 ,his friends informed him that it was impossible for the bill to be reached1 as the ,senate was to adjourn at midnight4 ,he had1 therefore1 retired to his hotel thoroughly discouraged4 ,imagine then1 if you can1 his surprise and his joy when ,miss ,ellsworth the daughter of his friend1 ,hon4 ,h4 ,l4 ,ellsworth1 of ,connecticut1 the commissioner of patents1 told him that in the closing moments of the session the bill had passed without a division4 ,illustration3 ,,morse ,,hears ,,of ,,his ,,success4 ,he had invented the recording electric telegraph eleven years before on board the packet ship ,sully1 upon his return voyage from ,europe4 ,he had spent eleven years in perfecting his plans1 and in striving to secure the means for placing this great invention before the ,american people4 ,during this time he had converted all his property into money and used all that money in pushing the enterprise4 ,his only hope now was the bill before ,congress4 ,that bill had passed6 ,with streaming eyes ,professor ,morse thanked ,miss ,ellsworth for her joyous announcement1 and promised her that she should dictate the first message which should be sent over the wires4 ,and so it came to pass that on the #bdth of ,may1 #ahdd1 these words furnished by ,miss ,ellsworth were telegraphed by ,professor ,morse from the ,capitol at ,washington1 to his friend and assistant1 ,mr4 ,alfred ,vail1 at ,baltimore1 and immediately repeated back again3 ,what hath ,god wrought6 ,well may we believe that the inventor spoke from the heart when he said years later3 ,no words could have been selected more expressive of the disposition of my own mind at that time1 to ascribe all the honor to ,him to whom it truly belongs4 ,a singular circumstance brought this invention to the attention of the people of the whole country as hardly anything else could have done4 ,the ,national ,democratic convention was in session at ,baltimore4 ,they had unanimously nominated ,james ,k4 ,polk for the ,presidency4 ,they then nominated ,silas ,wright as their candidate for ,vice-,president4 ,this information was immediately telegraphed by ,mr4 ,vail to ,professor ,morse and at once communicated by him to ,mr4 ,wright1 then in the ,senate chamber4 ,a few minutes later the convention was astonished by receiving a telegram from ,mr4 ,wright1 declining the nomination4 ,the members were incredulous and declared that it was a trick of ,mr4 ,wright's enemies4 ,they voted to send a committee to ,washington to interview ,mr4 ,wright1 and adjourned until the next morning4 ,on the return of this committee the truth of the message was corroborated1 and thus this new telegraph1 just completed1 with a line just open for public patronage1 was advertised through the delegates of this national convention to the people of every ,state in the ,union4 ,astonishment was the sensation of the hour4 ,the work bordered upon the miraculous4 ,ordinarily the motto is true that ,to see is to believe1 but this result staggered everybody4 ,although the invention was complete and now in practical operation1 yet ,professor ,morse's trials were not over4 ,he received the congratulations of his friends1 but he was also brought to the notice of his enemies4 ,let us pass over these trials and give attention to the more pleasant duty of considering his triumphs4 ,the telegraph rapidly came into general use between the great cities of the country4 ,nor was its use confined to ,america2 almost immediately it was successfully introduced into the various countries of ,europe4 ,in #ahed1 the ,supreme ,court of the ,united ,states decided unanimously in favor of ,professor ,morse on all points involving his right to the claim of having been the original inventor of the electro-magnetic telegraph4 ,in #ahdf1 ,yale ,college conferred upon him the degree of ,doctor of ,laws 7,,ll4,d474 ,he was made a member of various learned societies in ,france1 ,belgium1 and the ,united ,states4 ,he received a diamond decoration from the ,sultan of ,turkey1 a gold snuff box containing the ,prussian gold medal for scientific merit1 the great gold medal of ,arts and ,science from ,wrtemberg1 and the great gold medal of ,science and ,art from the ,emperor of ,austria4 ,other honors were conferred upon him by ,denmark1 ,spain1 ,portugal1 ,italy1 and ,great ,britain4 ,at the instance of ,napoleon ,,iii41 ,emperor of the ,french1 representatives from various countries met in ,paris in #aheh and decided upon a collective testimonial to ,professor ,morse1 and the result of their deliberations was a vote of #djj1jjj francs4 ,no invention in ancient or modern times has wrought such a revolution--a revolution in all business1 in commerce1 trade1 manufacturing and the mechanic arts1 in politics1 government1 and in religious affairs4 ,it is not given to mortal man to comprehend the greatness1 to duly appreciate the grandeur1 or to measure the utility of this remarkable invention4 ,over the mountains1 through the valleys1 under the seas flies the electric current1 conveying all-important items of news from place to place1 from country to country1 from continent to continent4 ,this electric chain from ,east to ,west ,more than mere metal1 more than mammon can1 ,binds us together--kinsmen1 in the best2 ,brethren as one2 and looking far beyond ,the world in an electric union blest4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,the ,,atlantic ,,cable4 ,the growth of the telegraph was very much like that of the railroad4 ,in #ahdd1 the first line was opened1 as we have seen1 between ,baltimore and ,washington1 a distance of forty miles4 ,within a few years lines were extended to the principal cities of the ,united ,states4 ,in #ahdg1 the ,morse telegraph was introduced into ,germany and rapidly spread over the entire continent of ,europe4 ,for the most part the wires were placed by the side of the railroad tracks1--wherever the railroad penetrated the telegraph went also4 ,before many years had passed time was in a sense obliterated4 ,whatever happened in ,new ,york might be immediately known in ,chicago4 ,incidents that took place in ,new ,orleans might be narrated in ,boston almost as soon as they occurred4 ,london and ,rome1 ,madrid and ,st4 ,petersburg1 were united by the lightning rapidity of the telegraphic current4 ,meanwhile ,london and ,new ,york were as far apart as ever4 ,news could be conveyed between the two hemispheres only by the comparatively slow-moving steamers4 ,the next step in the development of communication must be the connecting of ,europe with ,america by a telegraph wire4 ,the year before the passage of the act by which ,congress provided ,professor ,morse with the means for completing the first telegraph line1 he had stretched a wire under the water from ,castle ,garden1 ,new ,york ,city1 to ,governor's ,island in the harbor4 ,he had thus proved that telegraph messages could be sent under water4 ,ten years later a submarine telegraph was constructed1 connecting ,england with the continent of ,europe4 ,other short submarine cables were laid and successfully operated4 ,to undertake1 however1 to lay a cable from ,europe to ,america1 thousands of miles long and hundreds of fathoms below the surface of the ocean1 was an entirely different matter4 ,a few enthusiastic men1 among them ,professor ,morse1 believed that it could be done1 but the majority of people viewed it as an impossibility4 ,was there any other way to connect the two worlds by an electric wire8 ,might it not be possible to build a telegraph line from ,europe1 starting from some point in ,russia1 across ,northern ,asia1 to the ,behring ,straits8 ,might not a comparatively short cable be laid to ,russian ,america 7for ,alaska had not then been sold to the ,united ,states71 which could connect with a telegraph line to be erected across the continent to ,new ,york ,city8 ,think of the magnitude of this proposition6 ,in place of laying a submarine cable across the ,atlantic ,ocean it was proposed to traverse the entire circuit of the earth1 except the ,atlantic1 by a telegraph line4 ,it was proposed to construct across the wilds of ,siberia1 where no railroad had been built1 a telegraph line thousands of miles in length2 and1 besides laying a cable1 to build another line of great length from the ,aleutian ,islands to the ,pacific coast of the ,united ,states1 and thence across the ,rockies1 where at that time there was no railroad4 ,the undertaking was a great one1 but a company was formed for the purpose of erecting a ,russian-,american telegraph4 ,experienced men were selected from ,english and ,american telegraphers and sent to ,siberia to push the work4 ,the prospects of success for the great enterprise were favorable when the news arrived that the long-talked-of ,atlantic cable was at last laid and in complete working order4 ,the ,russian-,american telegraph could not hope to compete with the cable1 and the project was abandoned4 ,to ,cyrus ,w4 ,field belongs the honor of pushing forward to successful completion the ,atlantic cable4 ,at the early age of fifteen ,cyrus left the parsonage at ,stockbridge1 ,connecticut1 the home of his father1 ,rev4 ,david ,dudley ,field1 for ,new ,york4 ,on arriving in the city he obtained employment as an errand boy in the dry-goods establishment of ,a4 ,t4 ,stewart4 ,three years later1 when he decided to give up his place as clerk in the store1 the proprietor showed his appreciation of the boy's merits by urging him to remain1 making him a liberal offer if he would do so4 ,he decided to make a change1 however1 and was soon engaged with a brother in ,lee1 ,massachusetts4 ,when young ,field was twenty years of age he went into business for himself1 and for the next thirteen years was known as one of ,new ,york's successful merchants4 ,he then retired from active business1 but found it a difficult task to do nothing4 ,after a long voyage to ,south ,america1 he returned to ,new ,york1 where he gladly welcomed the opportunity that then came to busy himself4 ,the ,newfoundland ,electric ,telegraph ,company had been engaged for a year in the work of erecting a line on that island1 preparatory to connecting it with the mainland by a cable4 ,the company was compelled to stop work1 however1 for lack of the necessary means to continue4 ,the leading member of the company1 ,frederick ,n4 ,gisborne1 appealed to ,mr4 ,field for material assistance4 ,after several interviews1 in the course of which he became deeply interested in the scheme1 ,mr4 ,field came to the conclusion not only that the plan of connecting ,newfoundland with the ,united ,states was feasible1 but also that ,newfoundland was the best starting point for a cable to ,ireland4 ,with characteristic energy ,mr4 ,field went at once to work4 ,he formed a new company and obtained extensive privileges from the governments of ,newfoundland1 ,prince ,edwards ,island1 and the ,state of ,maine4 ,many months were spent in erecting the land telegraph across ,newfoundland1 over wild marsh and waste moor1 rocks1 hills1 and forests4 ,a cable1 obtained in ,england1 was unsuccessfully laid across the ,gulf of ,st4 ,lawrence in #ahee4 ,the next year a second attempt was successful4 ,the preliminary work was now completed4 ,more means and more influence were needed4 ,mr4 ,field organized in ,london the ,atlantic ,telegraph ,company1 and showed his own faith by personally subscribing for one-quarter of the stock4 ,the governments of ,great ,britain and the ,united ,states liberally aided the new company and furnished ships for laying down the cable4 ,on the #gth of ,august1 #aheg1 the ,niagara and the ,agamemnon sailed from ,ireland1 each carrying #a1bej miles of cable4 ,the ,niagara began paying out her line and all went well for three days4 ,at nine o'clock on the evening of the tenth1 however1 the cable ceased working4 ,three hours later the electric current returned1 to the intense relief of all2 but before morning came the cry1 ,stop her6 back her6 the cable has parted6 ,with flags at half-mast the ships returned to ,ireland4 ,half a million dollars had been lost already4 ,disheartened1 but not discouraged1 the company voted to increase its capital and try again the next year4 ,this time the two steamers sailed directly to mid-ocean1 spliced the two parts of the cable1 and sailed away from each other1 the ,agamemnon for ,ireland and the ,niagara for ,newfoundland4 ,on the #agth of ,august the extremities of the cable were connected with the instruments and the work was done4 ,in the space of thirty-five minutes there was flashed under the ocean the message3 ,europe and ,america are united by telegraph4 ,glory to ,god in the highest2 on earth peace2 good will toward men4 ,illustration3 ,,laying ,,an ,,ocean ,,cable4 ,messages and replies from the ,queen to the ,president of the ,united ,states and from the mayor of ,london to the mayor of ,new ,york followed4 ,the ,american people were wild with enthusiasm2 they declared the ,atlantic cable to be the greatest achievement of the age1 and they heaped boundless praise upon the head of the persistent and courageous ,field4 ,eighteen days afterward1 the signals became unintelligible and the first ,atlantic cable ceased to work4 ,was all the time and money so far spent thrown away8 ,no6 for this first experiment paved the way for another and successful attempt4 ,it is said also that one message1 sent during these few days1 saved the commercial world no less a sum than two hundred and fifty thousand dollars4 ,for the time being1 however1 the project of an ,atlantic cable was allowed to remain quiet4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,great ,,eastern4 ,mr4 ,field was financially ruined4 ,the ,civil ,war in the ,united ,states occupied the thoughts of all for several years4 ,but in time the company was ready to try again4 ,a newly prepared cable was made1 the twenty-three hundred miles of which weighed more than four thousand tons4 ,the largest vessel in the world1 the ,great ,eastern1 was employed to carry and lay it4 ,on ,july #bc;d1 #ahfe1 the steamer started from ,ireland and continued on its westward course until ,august #b;d2 then the cable parted1 more than a thousand miles from the starting point4 ,nine days were spent in attempts to grapple for the cable1 but all in vain4 ,the next year the ,great ,eastern again set sail1 with a new cable and with sufficient wire to complete the cable of the previous year1 if possible4 ,in fourteen days the steamer entered the harbor in ,newfoundland4 ,two months later the same steamer again reached ,newfoundland1 having captured the missing end of the other wire1 thereby completing two cables from ,europe to ,america4 ,july #bgth1 #ahff1 was a joyous day in the life of ,cyrus ,w4 ,field4 ,for thirteen years he had thought of little else but the submarine cable4 ,failure after failure had not discouraged him2 loss of property only stimulated him to further efforts4 ,now success had come4 ,the new cable was more substantial than the other of eight years before4 ,that had failed1 but this would succeed4 ,it did succeed4 ,from that day to this telegraphic communication between ,europe and ,america has been constant4 ,submarine cables are now in extensive operation in all parts of the world4 ,more than half a dozen cross the ,atlantic1 and lines have been constructed from ,england to ,india1 from ,india to ,australia1 and from the ,united ,states to ,mexico and ,south ,america4 ,at the present time there are perhaps two hundred cables belonging to companies1 and about five hundred belonging to government systems4 ,these cables1 all told1 cover a distance of nearly a hundred thousand miles4 ,a recent incident is told that shows something of the greatness of the telegraph4 ,in ,june1 #ahig1 a great celebration took place in ,london1 in honor of the sixty years that ,queen ,victoria had been upon the ,british throne4 ,the ,queen rode in a procession through streets packed with millions of people4 ,just as she left the palace she pressed an electric button4 ,instantly this message was sent to her colonies all over the world3 ,from my heart ,i thank my beloved people4 ,may ,god bless them4 ,victoria1 ,r4 ,i4 ,to forty different points in her empire sped the electric message4 ,in sixteen minutes a reply came from ,ottawa in ,canada2 then one by one answers came in from more remote provinces2 until1 before the ,queen reached ,london ,bridge1 the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 the ,gold ,coast of ,africa1 and the great continent of ,australia had sent responses to her message4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,the ,,telephone4 ,when the telegraph was invented1 years ago1 it seemed little less than a miracle that a message could be dictated in one city and received almost instantaneously in another city far distant from the sender4 ,scientists1 however1 began at once on the invention of something more wonderful4 ,the telegraph lacks in one respect4 ,by it messages must be sent exactly as dictated and cannot be corrected until the reply is received4 ,in a sense1 sending and receiving messages by telegraph is a form of conversation1 but a conversation at arm's-length4 ,to carry on a real conversation at long distances would be a great advance4 ,an instrument prepared for this purpose would be called a telephone4 ,in #ahge ,alexander ,graham ,bell invented the first successful electric telephone4 ,this was exhibited at ,salem1 ,massachusetts1 and at ,philadelphia at the ,centennial ,exhibition1 and a patent for it was obtained4 ,the apparatus of ,bell's telephone is very simple1 and practically consists of four parts3 the battery1 the wire which runs from the speaker to the hearer1 a diaphragm against which the vibrations of the air produced by the voice of the speaker strike1 and another diaphragm at the other end of the wire which reproduces similar vibrations and sends them to the ear of the listener4 ,elisha ,gray of ,boston made a similar invention and applied for a patent two hours after ,bell's application was filed4 ,the invention of ,mr4 ,bell has proved a decided success4 ,all telephonic operations1 since this invention1 have been based upon the instrument which he patented in #ahgf4 ,mr4 ,bell was the son of a distinguished ,scotch educator1 ,alexander ,melville ,bell4 ,the father is noted for the invention of a new method for improving impediments in speech4 ,this system of instruction is called ,bell's ,visible ,speech4 ,it is used with great success in teaching deaf-mutes to speak4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,telephone4 ,his son ,alexander was born in ,edinburgh in #ahdg and was educated at the ,university of ,edinburgh4 ,he removed to ,london when he was twenty years of age and was for a time in the ,university there4 ,three years later he went to ,canada with his father1 and at the age of twenty-five took up his residence in the ,united ,states1 and became professor of vocal physiology in ,boston ,university4 ,he had been in this country but three years when he made his great invention1 and its complete success gave him immense wealth4 ,later he invented the photophone1 in which a vibratory beam of light is substituted for a wire in conveying speech4 ,this instrument has attracted much attention but has not proved of practical use4 ,professor ,bell is a member of various learned societies and has published many scientific papers4 ,his present home is in ,washington4 ,within ten years the art of telephoning has rapidly developed4 ,this has stimulated inventions and brought into use a vast number of special contrivances for local and long-distance transmission4 ,the principal inventors of these new contrivances are ,bell1 ,berliner1 ,edison1 ,hughes1 ,dolbear1 ,gray1 ,blake1 and ,peirce4 ,nearly all of the telephone business of our country is carried on under licenses from the ,american ,bell ,telephone ,company4 ,the telephone lines at present in the ,united ,states would aggregate a distance of more than six hundred thousand miles1 and there are more than half a million instruments in our country alone4 ,the longest telephone line extends from ,portland1 ,maine1 via ,boston1 ,new ,york1 and ,chicago1 to ,milwaukee1 a distance of more than thirteen hundred miles4 ,illustration3 ,,alexander ,,bell ,,using ,a ,,long-,,distance ,,telephone4 ,let us consider for a moment the wonders of this marvelous invention1 as compared with another no less marvelous in its way4 ,in #ahfg ,anson ,burlingame was appointed by the ,chinese ,government special envoy to the ,united ,states and the great ,european governments1 with power to frame treaties of friendship with those nations4 ,this was an honor never before conferred on a foreigner4 ,mr4 ,burlingame accepted the appointment and1 at the head of a large mission of distinguished ,chinese officials1 arrived in this country early in #ahfh1 negotiated with our ,government the ,burlingame ,treaty1 proceeded the same year to ,england1 thence to ,france1 the next year to ,denmark1 ,sweden1 ,holland1 and ,prussia1 and finally reached ,russia early in #ahgj4 ,he died in ,st4 ,petersburg after a few days' illness1 on the #bc;d of ,february4 ,now see what the telegraph did4 ,his death occurred about half-past nine in the morning4 ,as soon as possible the fact was telegraphed to our minister in ,paris4 ,he forwarded the news to our minister in ,london2 by him it was cabled across the ,atlantic1 transmitted from the cable to ,washington and delivered to ,nathaniel ,p4 ,banks1 a member of the ,house of ,representatives from ,massachusetts4 ,general ,banks read the dispatch to the ,house1 and delivered offhand an extended eulogy upon the distinguished son of ,massachusetts4 ,that speech of ,general ,banks was written out1 sent to the telegraph office1 transmitted by the electric current to the various cities of the country1 put into type1 printed in the evening newspapers1 and the writer of this chapter read it at four o'clock in the afternoon of the same day that ,mr4 ,burlingame died4 ,this was done as early as #ahgj4 ,but what is that compared to the greater wonders of the telephone8 ,that a man can talk into the little instrument1 and his voice be heard and recognized1 and his words understood1 by his friend in a city five hundred or one thousand miles away1 is indeed a miracle4 ,consider for a moment what is done by means of the switchboard in the central telephone office of a great city4 ,every one of the thousands of subscribers has his own instrument for transmitting and receiving messages4 ,one of these subscribers rings a bell in his house or his business office which rings another bell at the central station2 the attendant inquires ,hello6 what number8 and receives a reply1 four1 naught1 eight1 ,tremont4 ,the attendant by a simple switch1 turned by a touch of the hand1 makes the connection and rings the bell of that subscriber whose number is #djh ,tremont4 ,number #djh ,tremont steps to the instrument and in a quiet voice says ,hello6 who is it8 ,thus these two persons are placed in direct communication1 and can talk with each other1 back and forth1 as long as they please4 ,this conversation is carried on between two different sections of the city where these two men live1 but the same conversation may with equal ease be carried on between ,boston and ,new ,york1 between ,boston and ,washington1 or between ,new ,york and ,chicago4 ,thus time and distance are annihilated and the whole world stands1 as it were1 face to face4 ,but the marvel does not end here4 ,the above conversation is carried on by means of a continuous wire which runs from one place to the other4 ,if there are parallel wires1 strange to say1 the vibrations carried on in the one wire are liable to create1 by induction1 similar vibrations in the parallel wire4 ,here is an illustration3 ,nearly twenty years ago1 soon after the invention came into use1 three gentlemen in ,providence1 ,rhode ,island1 put up a private line between their three houses1 making a circuit4 ,upon this line they carried on experiments and made a number of important discoveries4 ,the evening was the time when they principally used their private telephone line4 ,on a certain ,tuesday evening these three gentlemen1 conversing one with another1 suddenly found themselves listening to strains of music4 ,all three of them heard the same thing3 the sound of a cornet and of one or two other musical instruments2 then singing and a soprano voice4 ,they wrote down the names of the pieces that were sung and the tunes that were played upon the instruments4 ,they had no knowledge of the source of these sounds4 ,the next day1 and for days following1 these gentlemen went about the city inquiring of their friends everywhere if they knew of a concert on that ,tuesday night where such pieces were sung and such tunes were played4 ,nobody had any knowledge of the affair4 ,at length one of the gentlemen published an article in the ,providence ,journal1 describing what he had heard through his telephone wire on that ,tuesday evening1 giving the date1 and asking any one who could inform him what the concert was and where it was1 to give him the desired information4 ,then it transpired that this concert was a telephonic experiment4 ,the performers were at ,saratoga1 ,new ,york1 and they were connected by a telephone wire with friends in ,new ,york ,city4 ,the experiment had plainly demonstrated that the sounds made in singing and in playing numerous instruments could be clearly understood1 by means of the telephone1 from ,saratoga to ,new ,york ,city4 ,but it proved more than this4 ,the vibrations in that telephone wire between ,saratoga and ,new ,york induced the same vibrations in the parallel wire of the ,western ,union ,telegraph ,company4 ,these vibrations were continued through ,new ,york ,city to ,providence and onward4 ,the private telephone line of these gentlemen was parallel to the wire of the ,western ,union ,company which had been thus affected1 and these vibrations were picked off from the telegraph wire and conveyed by this parallel telephone wire to the receivers at these three houses4 ,what will be the next wonderful invention8 ,the telegraph transmits your thoughts and delivers them in writing2 the telephone transmits your thoughts and delivers them to the ear by sounds4 ,some day1 perhaps1 you may step into a cabinet in ,boston and have your photograph taken in ,new ,york ,city by aid of an electric wire1 the telephote4 ,just as the telephone transmits the sounds1 the telephote may transmit the light and give not only light and shade1 but the colors of the solar spectrum4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,conclusion4 ,we have now considered six groups of topics connected with the growth and development of our country4 ,we have looked into the houses of the ,indians and of the settlers in the colonial times1 and into the larger and more elaborate homes of to-day4 ,we have considered improved means of heating and better methods of lighting4 ,we have noticed improvements in machinery for planting1 cultivating1 and harvesting the products of the soil4 ,we have seen the great advance that has been made in the manufacture of our clothing1 through improved cotton and woolen machinery and the sewing machine4 ,we have traveled by land and by water1 at home and abroad1 on foot1 on horseback1 in stagecoaches1 by canals1 steamboats1 and railroads4 ,finally we have read and thought and studied about language1 the printing press1 our postal system1 the telegraph and the telephone4 ,we have seen our country when it was wholly east of the ,mississippi ,river1 whereas now it is extended even to the great western ocean4 ,a century ago our territory embraced about eight hundred thousand square miles2 now it is nearly five times as great1 with large areas of recently acquired ,spanish islands to be added to that4 ,the population of the ,united ,states in #agij was less than four millions2 a hundred years later it was sixty-three millions4 ,it is now probably between seventy and seventy-five millions4 ,our exports then were about fifty million dollars in value2 this year they are more than one thousand millions4 ,a century since1 we imported into this country goods to the value of about seventy million dollars4 ,this was largely in excess of our exports4 ,to-day our exports are of far greater value than our imports4 ,at the beginning of our national government we were almost altogether engaged in the pursuits of agriculture4 ,now our people are largely massed in cities and large towns1 while our mechanical and manufacturing interests are of immense proportions4 ,a hundred years ago the people speaking the seven principal languages of ,europe numbered about one hundred and fifty millions4 ,to-day they number about four hundred millions4 ,the present number is therefore almost three times that of a century ago4 ,at that time the ,english-speaking people ranked fifth among the seven1 and numbered but twenty millions4 ,to-day they lead the list1 and number one hundred and twenty millions2 there are six times as many people to-day using the ,english language as there were a century ago4 ,the inhabitants of our country outnumber all other ,english-speaking people in the whole world4 ,our country occupies1 all things considered1 the best portion of the world4 ,this includes the ,atlantic slope1 the great ,mississippi basin1 and the ,pacific slope1 and our whole territory1 except our new colonial possessions1 lies within the north temperate zone4 ,we therefore have a great variety of soil and climate2 the soil is the most fertile and the climate the most salubrious of the whole earth4 ,we have an almost infinite variety of productions and our people are engaged in the entire round of human industries4 ,the ,united ,states has made vast strides in industry1 in wealth1 in intelligence1 and in the comforts of life4 ,civilization has rapidly advanced during the whole of this century4 ,if the great contest of the future is to be between the ,anglo-,saxon race and the rest of the world1 surely this great republic must have the leading position in that contest4 ,the ,american people to-day form a nation of readers4 ,in newspapers1 magazines1 and books of all sorts and upon every subject the ,american press is prolific4 ,we have a system of public schools well established in every ,state and every ,territory of our ,union1 and supported by taxation1 and very generally the children are obliged by compulsory laws to attend school4 ,we are living in an age of great activity and rapid advancement4 ,the young people of our republic who are attending school to-day are to be congratulated upon their good fortune2 and it becomes them to magnify their opportunities1 to appreciate their advantages1 and to be especially loyal to their country1 its government1 and its institutions4 ,,index4 tna1 #bac ,air brakes1 #bcf ,,allen1 ,,nicholas1 #dh ,,allston1 ,,washington1 #bgb ,ancient writing1 #bdi ,arc light1 #hg ,,arnold1 ,,edwin1 #afi ,atlantic ,telegraph ,co41 #bha ,automobile1 #bdc ,axe1 #be ,baltimore and ,ohio ,railroad1 #bbf ,,baskerville1 ,,john1 #bed ,bay-,path1 #aib ,,bell1 ,,alexander ,,graham1 #bhf ,bicycle1 #bdc ,binder1 #abj ,blackstone canal1 #bba ,,boulton and ,,watt1 #agi ,brooklyn bridge1 #bci ,,brush1 ,,charles ,,francis1 #he ,,burlingame1 ,,anson1 #bhh ,cable1 ,atlantic1 #bgh ,cable cars1 #bdb ,cables1 submarine1 #bhd ,,cabot1 ,,john1 #ah ,calashes1 #bja ,canals1 #bae ,candelabra1 #ga ,candles1 #fg ,canoe1 #aig ,carrying fire1 #eb ,central ,pacific ,railroad1 #bbh ,,chappe1 ,,claude1 #bff ,chesapeake and ,delaware ,canal1 #bba ,chicago and ,alton ,railroad1 #bcf ,chimneys1 #ca ,,clayton1 ,,john1 #ha ,clermont1 #bab1 #bae ,clinton's big ditch1 #bba ,coal1 #dd2 anthracite1 #dg2 bituminous1 #dg2 sea1 #de ,coffee1 #aci ,colonial conditions1 #adc ,colonial cooking1 #bi1 #cj ,colonial homes1 #bd ,,conant1 ,,roger1 #abd ,cooking1 colonial1 #bi1 #cj ,,corliss1 ,,george ,h41 #age1 #agi ,corn1 ,indian1 #aje ,cotton1 #aej1 #aec ,cotton gin1 #adh-aea ,,darling1 ,,grace1 #ib-id ,delaware and ,hudson canal1 #bba ,dinner1 a modern1 #aca ,,dodge1 ,,john ,,adams1 #agd ,,drake1 ,e4 ,l41 #gh ,dugout1 #aig ,,dunster1 ,,rev4 ,,henry1 #bed ,dutch ovens1 #bg ,dynamo1 #he ,,edison1 ,,thomas ,a41 #hf ,electric cars1 #bdb ,electric lighting1 #he ,electrotyping1 #beg ,eliot's ,indian ,bible1 #bed ,,ellsworth1 ,,miss1 #bgd ,erie canal1 #bba ,,evans1 ,,oliver1 #bji ,,fabius1 #fc ,,fairbanks1 ,,richard1 #bei ,,faraday1 ,,michael1 #he ,,farmer1 ,,moses ,g41 #bfh ,,faust1 ,,john1 #bec ,,field1 ,,cyrus ,w41 #bhj ,fire1 #ad ,fire1 carrying1 #eb ,fireplace1 ,pennsylvania1 #cd ,fireplaces1 #bf ,fishing1 whale1 #gc ,,fitch1 ,,john1 #bji ,flail1 #aji1 #abj1 #abc ,flax1 #adg ,flint1 #ec ,foods1 uncultivated1 #ii ,fork1 #aah ,,franklin1 ,,benjamin1 #cd1 #fh ,franklin press1 #bee ,franklin stove1 #cd ,freight1 cost of transportation1 #bah ,fuel1 #cg ,,fulton1 ,,robert1 #baj1 #bgb ,furnaces1 #cf ,gang plow1 #aad ,gas1 illuminating1 #ha ,gasometer1 #hc ,,gideon1 #fc ,gin1 cotton1 #adh-aea ,,gore1 ,,obadiah1 #dh ,,greene1 ,,nathaniel1 #adh ,,greenough1 ,j4 ,j41 #age ,grist mills1 #ade ,,grover1 ,,william ,o41 #age ,,gutenberg1 ,,john1 #bed ,,hannibal1 #fc ,harvesting1 implements for1 #aag ,heat1 #aa ,,hennepin1 ,,father1 #df ,hoe1 #aji ,hoe perfecting press1 #bec ,homes1 colonial1 #bd ,homes1 ,indian1 #ag ,,hood1 ,,thomas1 #agc ,horseback1 #aia ,,howe1 ,,elias1 #age ,,hunt1 ,,walter1 #age ,illuminating gas1 #ha ,implements for harvesting1 #aag2 for planting1 #aaa ,incandescent light1 #hg ,indian ,bible1 ,eliot's1 #bed ,indian corn1 #aje ,indian homes1 #ag ,inns1 #bje ,iroquois1 #ai ,irrigation1 #abg1 #abh ,,jackson1 ,,andrew1 #aef ,,jewel1 ,,marshall1 #agj ,kerosene1 #gg ,kitchen1 a ,new ,england1 #aj ,,knight1 ,,sarah1 #bjj ,lamp1 modern1 #gf ,lamps1 ancient1 #fe ,language1 #bdg ,leather1 #afd ,,leifer1 ,,thomas1 #bbd ,letters1 #bdg ,,lewis1 ,,ida1 #id ,light1 arc1 #hg ,lighthouses1 #ij ,lighting1 electric1 #he ,linotype1 #beg ,,livingston1 ,,robert ,r41 #bab ,log cabin1 #bf ,,longstreet1 ,,william1 #bji ,loom1 #adg ,lord of ,padua1 #cb ,mail car1 #bfb ,matches1 #ea ,,mccormick1 ,,cyrus ,h41 #abb ,menlo ,park1 #hg ,message1 first1 across the ,atlantic1 #bhb ,middlesex canal1 #bba ,,miles1 ,,general1 in ,new ,mexico1 #bfh ,modern land travel1 #bce2 water travel1 #bbi ,money orders1 #bfa ,,morey1 ,,samuel1 #bji ,,morse1 ,,samuel ,f4 ,b41 #bgj2 his titles and honors1 #bgf ,mower1 #aag ,,murdoch1 ,,william1 #hb ,,myer1 ,,major1 #bff ,needles1 #agb ,,nott1 ,,eliphalet1 #aei ,,ogle1 ,,henry1 #abb ,oil wells1 #gi ,ovens1 ,dutch1 #bg ,padua1 ,lord of1 #cb ,,peck1 ,,general1 at ,suffolk1 #bfg ,pepper1 #acb ,pine knots1 #fb ,planter1 #aae ,planting1 implements for1 #aaa ,plow1 #aji1 #aab ,plow1 sulky1 #aad ,postage stamps1 #bfa ,postal system1 #beh ,postmaster-general1 #bfj ,power of speech1 #bdg ,printing press1 ,franklin1 #bee2 modern1 #bdf ,,prometheus1 #ae ,pruning hook1 #aji ,pullman sleeper1 #bcg ,queen of ,sheba1 #bdi ,railroad train1 old-style1 #bbg ,railroads1 #bbc ,rake1 #aah ,,raleigh1 ,,walter1 #ajf ,,rand1 ,,old ,,ma',,am1 #bga ,range1 #cf ,reaper1 #abj ,,rumford1 ,,count1 #cc-ce ,,rumsey1 ,,james1 #bji ,,scholfield1 ,,arthur1 #afj ,,scholfield1 ,,john1 #afj ,scots ,magazine1 #bfi ,scribe1 ancient1 #bea ,scythe1 #aji1 #aag ,sea coal1 #de ,sewing machines1 #age ,,shoemaker1 ,,colonel1 #dh ,signal station1 ,suffolk1 #bfg ,signaling1 #bfe ,,singer1 ,,isaac ,m41 #age ,,slater1 ,,john ,f41 #aef ,,slater1 ,,samuel1 #aec ,soil1 #abd ,,solomon1 #bdi ,sower1 #aad ,,sower1 ,,christopher1 #bee ,special delivery1 #bfa ,,spotswood1 ,,colonel1 #bfj ,,squanto1 #ajh ,stagecoaches1 #bjj ,steamboats1 #bjg ,steam engine1 #agh ,,stephenson1 ,,george1 #bbe ,stereotyping1 #beg ,,stevens1 ,,john1 #bji ,stockton and ,darlington ,railway1 #bbf ,stoves1 #cf ,subway1 ,boston1 #bdb ,sulky plow1 #aad ,sully1 packet ship1 #bgb ,suspension bridge1 ,niagara1 #bdj ,taverns1 #bjf ,telegraph1 #bgj ,telephone1 #bhf ,telephone incident1 #bij ,,thimmonier1 ,,barth,,lemy1 #agf ,,thompson1 ,,benjamin1 #cc ,,thompson1 ,,elihu1 #hf ,thresher1 #aba ,threshing1 #abc ,tinder box1 #ec ,torches1 #fa ,travel by horseback1 #aia2 by land1 #ahg2 by water1 #aid ,uncultivated foods1 #ii ,union ,pacific ,railroad1 #bbh ,united ,states post offices1 #bfd ,university press1 #bee ,vestal ,virgin1 #ad ,victoria ,jubilee1 #bhd ,vinegar1 #ace ,walter press1 #beb ,,watt1 ,,james1 #agi ,wells1 oil1 #gi ,,west1 ,,benjamin1 #bgb ,,westinghouse1 ,,george1 ,,jr41 #bcf ,whale fishing1 #gc ,whale oil1 #gb ,,whitman1 ,,marcus1 #afh ,,whitney1 ,,eli1 #adi ,,wilson1 ,,allen ,b41 #age ,wool1 #aeh ,,the ,,arnold ,,primer ,by ,,sarah ,,louise ,,arnold1 ,supervisor of ,schools1 ,boston2 joint author of ,stepping ,stones to ,literature4 ,cloth1 #abh pages4 ,artistically illustrated4 ,introductory price1 #cj;c4 ,illustration ,distinguishing ,features3 7#a7 ,the author's experience and standing4 7#b7 ,the book is made for children4 7#c7 ,it is naturally developed--not machine-made4 7#d7 ,the vocabulary is simple1 natural1 typical4 7#e7 ,phonics are treated in proper relations4 7#f7 ,attractive illustrations1 in harmony with text4 7#g7 ,it is a workable ,primer1 in city and country1 north and south1 east and west4 ,thoughtfully constructed in every detail1 mechanical as well as pedagogical1 ,,the ,,arnold ,,primer represents the highest achievement in the conception and execution of primary school text-books4 ,it is the exemplification of pronounced progress in education4 ,,for ,,detailed ,,information ,,address ,,the ,,nearest ,,office ,,of ,silver1 ,burdett ,company ,,new ,,york ,,boston ,,chicago ,,philadelphia ,,atlanta ,,san ,,francisco ,historic ,pilgrimages in ,new ,england4 ,,by ,,edwin ,m4 ,,bacon4 ,this is the vivid story of early ,new ,england1 told while standing upon the very spots where the stirring ,colonial drama was enacted4 ,the famous places where the ,puritans and ,pilgrims planted their first homes1 the ancient buildings1 and the monuments to the wise and dauntless founders of the great ,commonwealth are visited1 and1 while in the atmosphere of the associations1 the thrilling narrative of the past is recounted4 ,the connecting thread is the summer pilgrimage which a thoughtful young fellow from a western college makes to the country of his ancestors4 ,he is accompanied by his father's friend1 who talks entertainingly about the memorable facts which the hallowed soil suggests4 ,the boy's earnest curiosity stands for the interest which some millions of others feel in the same events and personalities and shrines4 ,of all the books which describe that country and set forth the significance of the deeds done there1--from the landing of the ,pilgrims to the first blow of the ,revolution1--this new volume combines1 perhaps1 the most that is of interest to lovers of ,yankee-land4 ,it is accurate4 ,it abounds in facts hitherto unpublished4 ,it gives snatches from early diaries and documents4 ,disputed stories are sifted until the fabulous elements are cut out4 ,the style is graphic from start to finish--even statistics are made picturesque4 #dge ,pages1 #aca ,illustrations4 ,uncut edges4 ,retail price1 #a4ej4 7,for introductory price of ,school ,edition send for ,circular47 ,for ,school ,libraries and ,reading ,circles1 this book appeals to a deep and constant taste4 ,for ,supplementary ,reading in the higher grades it is a mine of interest and delightful instructiveness4 ',historic ,pilgrimages' abundantly justifies its double purpose of serving both the student's needs of a graphic summary of the history of ,massachusetts ,bay1 and the stranger-visitor's need of a preparation for1 and a pleasant keepsake of1 his journeyings4--,boston ,journal4 ,silver1 ,burdett and ,company1 ,publishers1 ,boston4 ,new ,york4 ,chicago4 ,stepping ,stones to ,literature4 ,a ,unique ,series of ,eight ,school ,readers upon an entirely ,new ,plan1 ,brilliantly ,illustrated with ,masterpieces and ,original ,drawings4 ,by ,,sarah ,,louise ,,arnold1 ,supervisor of ,schools1 ,boston1 ,mass41 and ,,charles ,b4 ,,gilbert1 ,superintendent of ,schools1 ,newark1 ,n4 ,j4 ,illustration ,this series marks a new era in ,school ,readers4 ,it combines with the necessary technique of reading1 a real course in literature4 ,it has the sincere literary atmosphere4 ,the early volumes create the beginnings of a literary judgment4 ,the advanced volumes comprehend the whole range of the world's best writing4 ,the pupil1 at the end of the course1 knows what literature means4 ,in this achievement these ,readers stand absolutely alone4 ,they justify the following deliberate characterizations3 ,they are the most interesting ,readers ever published4 ,they surpass all other ,readers in wise technique4 ,they are superlative in stimulating thought and creating taste4 ,they are unequaled in attractiveness of illustration4 ,they give a better idea of the world's great literature1 and more of it1 than can be found anywhere else in the same space4 ,a ,mark of ,their ,acceptability4 ,in their first year they were adopted by ,boston1 ,new ,york1 ,brooklyn1 ,philadelphia1 ,chicago1 ,st4 ,louis1 ,baltimore1 ,atlanta2 by over a thousand smaller towns2 by hundreds of counties2 and by the ,state of ,virginia4 ,patriotism in ,these ,readers4 ,the entire series is peculiarly rich in selections and pictures closely connected with ,american history and ,american greatness1 well fitted to stimulate love of country in the pupil4 ,the ,reader for ,seventh ,grades1 is distinctively and wholly ,american1 and its tales1 poems1 historical extracts1 and illustrations are alive with a proud patriotism4 ,send for ,descriptive ,circular4 ,silver1 ,burdett and ,company1 ,publishers1 ,new ,york4 ,boston4 ,chicago4 ,arithmetic in the ,public ,schools ,,the ,,normal ,,course ,,in ,,number4 ,by ,,john ,w4 ,,cook1 ,president of ,northern ,illinois ,state ,normal ,school1 and ,,miss ,n4 ,,cropsey1 ,assistant ,superintendent ,city ,schools1 ,indianapolis1 ,indiana4 ,a ,course which has deserved its wide acceptance4 ,it has been characterized by a leading educator as ,correct in theory1 precise in definition1 logical in sequence1 and excellent in its problems4 ,the ,new ,elementary ,arithmetic4 7,with or without answers47 ,for the #c;d1 #dth and #eth grades of school work4 #caf pp4 #ej;c4 ,preminently practical in the concrete nature of its problems and the exactness of their gradation4 ,it happily combines the oral and the written1 and its simplicity makes the first steps in number a delight to the pupils4 ,abridged ,elementary ,arithmetic4 ,for #c;d and #dth year work4 #bbi pp4 #ch;c4 ,identical with the above save for the omission of ,fractions1 ,compound ,numbers1 ,percentage1 ,interest1 etc4 ,the ,new ,advanced ,arithmetic4 7,with or without answers47 #dje pp4 #fe;c4 ,the ,new ,advanced1 retaining and accenting all the superiorities of the other edition1 has added elementary process in ,algebra and ,geometry which bridge to higher mathematics4 ,answers to the ,new ,advanced ,arithmetic 7separate7 #cf;c4 ,key to the ,new ,advanced ,arithmetic4 ,for ,teachers only4 ,first ,steps in ,arithmetic4 ,by ,,ella ,m4 ,,pierce1 ,supervisor of ,primary ,grades1 ,public ,schools1 ,providence1 ,r4 ,i4 #afj pp4 #cf;c4 ,for the second school year4 ,accords closely with the methods of the ,normal ,course in ,number1 and is a preparation for ,the ,new ,elementary ,arithmetic4 ,in all numbers to #bj4 ,easy ,problems in the ,principles of ,arithmetic4 ,by ,,elizabeth ,t4 ,,mills4 #afh pp4 #a4jj4 ,furnishes teachers with a complete and carefully graded set of interesting supplementary problems4 ,valuable for auxiliary service4 ,practical ,tests in ,commercial and ,higher ,arithmetic4 ,by ,,ernest ,l4 ,,thurston1 ,c4 ,e41 ,head of ,department of ,business ,arithmetic in ,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 ,business ,high ,school4 #fh pp4 #db;c4 ,special preparation for the daily demands of business is the aim of this valuable little book2 supplementary to the regular course in arithmetic both in public and business high schools4 ,our text-books cover all the steps of education from the ,kindergarten to the ,university4 ,our ,educational ,catalogue is mailed free upon application4 ,silver1 ,burdett ,company ,boston 4 ,new ,york 4 ,chicago ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,transcriber's ,note3 ,minor typographical errors have been corrected without note4 ,punctuation and spelling were made consistent when a predominant form was found in this book2 otherwise they were not changed4 ,ambiguous hyphens at the ends of lines were retained4 ,mid-paragraph illustrations have been moved between paragraphs and some illustrations have been moved closer to the text that references them4 ,italicized words are surrounded by underline characters1 like this4 ,words in bold characters are surrounded by equal signs1 like this4 ,duplicated section headings have been omitted4 ,pp4 #agf and #bih3 ,marthlemy ,thimonier changed to ,barthlemy ,timmonier4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------