,transcriber's ,notes3 ,this e-text is a translation of ,august ,bebel's 8,die ,frau und der ,sozialismus04 ,table column headings that have been supplied by the transcriber are enclosed in square brackets4 ,bold text is denoted by tilde1 italic text by underscores1 and gesperrt 7spaced-out text7 by pound signs4 ,,woman ,,and ,,socialism ,,by ,,august ,,bebel ,jubilee ,decor3 #ejth ,edition ,,authorized ,,translation ,,by ,,meta ,l4 ,,stern 7,,hebe7 ,,socialist ,,literature ,,co4 #ae ,spruce ,street1 ,new ,york #aiaj ,copyright1 #aiaj by the ,,socialist ,,literature ,,company ,new ,york ,printer's ,logo ,the ,co-,operative ,press1 #ae ,spruce ,st41 ,new ,york ,,contents ,page ,introduction #c ,,woman ,,in ,,the ,,past4 ,chapter ,i4--,the ,position of ,woman in ,primeval ,society #i #a4 ,chief ,epochs of ,primeval ,history #i #b4 ,family ,forms #ad #c4 ,the ,matriarchate #bj ,chapter ,,ii4--,conflict between ,matriarchate and ,patriarchate #bh #a4 ,rise of the ,patriarchate #bh #b4 ,traces of the ,matriarchate in ,greek ,myths and ,dramas #cd #c4 ,legitimate ,wives and ,courtesans in ,athens #cg #d4 ,remnants of the ,matriarchate in the ,customs of ,various ,nations #dd #e4 ,rise of the ,state--,dissolution of the ,gens in ,rome #ej ,chapter ,,iii4--,christianity #ef ,chapter ,,iv4--,woman in the ,mediaeval ,age #fc #a4 ,the ,position of ,women among the ,germans #fc #b4 ,feudalism and the ,right of the ,first ,night #ff #c4 ,the ,rise of ,cities--,monastic ,affairs--,prostitution #fi #d4 ,knighthood and the ,veneration of ,women #ge ,chapter ,v4--,the ,reformation #gh #a4 ,luther #gh #b4 ,results of the ,reformation--,the ,thirty ,years' ,war #hc ,chapter ,,vi4--,the ,eighteenth ,century #hh #a4 ,court ,life in ,germany #hh #b4 ,commercialism and the ,new ,marriage ,laws #ij #c4 ,the ,french ,revolution and the ,rise of ,industry #ic ,,woman ,,at ,,the ,,present ,,day4 ,chapter ,,vii4--,woman as a ,sex ,being #if #a4 ,the ,sexual ,impulse #if #b4 ,celibacy and the ,frequency of ,suicide #ajj ,chapter ,,viii4--,modern ,marriage #ajd #a4 ,marriage as a ,profession #ajd #b4 ,decline of the ,birthrate #ajf #c4 ,mercenary ,marriage and the ,matrimonial ,market #aaj ,chapter ,,ix4--,disruption of the ,family #aaf #a4 ,increase of ,divorce #aaf #b4 ,bourgeois and ,proletarian ,marriage #abd ,chapter ,x4--,marriage as a ,means of ,support #acb #a4 ,decline of the ,marriage ,rate #acb #b4 ,infanticide and ,abortion #ace #c4 ,education for ,marriage #adj #d4 ,the ,misery of ,present ,day ,marriages #adg ,chapter ,,xi4--,the ,chances of ,matrimony #aec #a4 ,the ,numerical ,proportion of the ,sexes #aec #b4 ,obstacles to ,marriage--,the ,excess of ,women #afd ,chapter ,,xii4--,prostitution a ,necessary ,social ,institution of ,bourgeois ,society #agd #a4 ,prostitution and ,society #agd #b4 ,prostitution and the ,state #agh #c4 ,the ,white ,slave ,trade #ahh #d4 ,the ,increase of ,prostitution--,illegitimate ,motherhood #aic #e4 ,crimes ,against ,morality and ,sexual ,diseases #bjd ,chapter ,,xiii4--,woman in ,industry #bji #a4 ,development and ,extension of ,female ,labor #bji #b4 ,factory ,work of ,married ,women--,sweatshop ,labor and ,dangerous ,occupations #bbb ,chapter ,,xiv4--,the ,struggle of ,women for ,education #bcc #a4 ,the ,revolution in ,domestic ,life #bcc #b4 ,the ,intellectual ,abilities of ,women #bci #c4 ,differences in ,physical and ,mental ,qualities of ,man and ,woman #bde #d4 ,darwinism and the ,condition of ,society #bec #e4 ,woman and the ,learned ,professions #beh ,chapter ,,xv4--,the ,legal ,status of ,women #bgb #a4 ,the ,struggle for ,equality ,before the ,law #bgb #b4 ,the ,struggle for ,political ,equality #bhj ,,the ,,state ,,and ,,society4 ,chapter ,,xvi4--,the ,class-,state and the ,modern ,proletariat #cjg #a4 ,our ,public ,life #cjg #b4 ,aggravation of ,social ,extremes #cae ,chapter ,,xvii4--,the ,process of ,concentration in ,capitalistic ,industry #cai #a4 ,the ,displacement of ,agriculture by ,industry #cai #b4 ,increasing ,pauperization--,preponderance of ,large ,industrial ,establishments #cbc #c4 ,concentration of ,wealth #ccc ,chapter ,,xviii4--,crisis and ,competition #cch #a4 ,causes and ,effects of the ,crises #cch #b4 ,intermediate ,trade and the ,increased ,cost of ,living #cdc ,chapter ,,xix4--,the ,revolution in ,agriculture #cdg #a4 ,transatlantic ,competition and ,desertion of the ,country #cdg #b4 ,peasants and ,great ,landowners #cdi #c4 ,the ,contrast ,between ,city and ,country #ceh ,,the ,,socialization ,,of ,,society4 ,chapter ,,xx4--,the ,social ,revolution #cfc #a4 ,the ,transformation of ,society #cfc #b4 ,expropriation of the ,expropriators #cff ,chapter ,,xxi4--,fundamental ,laws of ,socialistic ,society #cgj #a4 ,duty to ,work of ,all ,able-bodied ,persons #cgj #b4 ,harmony of ,interests #cge #c4 ,organization of ,labor #chj #d4 ,the ,growth of the ,productivity of ,labor #chc #e4 ,removal of the ,contrast between ,mental and ,manual ,work #cib #f4 ,increase of ,consumption #cif #g4 ,equal ,duty to ,work for ,all #cii #h4 ,abolition of ,trade--,transformation of ,traffic #dje ,chapter ,,xxii4--,socialism and ,agriculture #djg #a4 ,abolition of the ,private ,ownership of ,land #djg #b4 ,the ,amelioration of ,land #dji #c4 ,changed ,methods of ,farming #dad #d4 ,agriculture on a ,large and ,small ,scale--,electric ,appliances #dae #e4 ,vine-,culture of the ,future #dbd #f4 ,measures to ,prevent ,exhaustion of the ,soil #dbg #g4 ,removal of the ,contrast between ,city and ,country #dca ,chapter ,,xxiii4--,abolition of the ,state #dcd ,chapter ,,xxiv4--,the ,future of ,religion #dcg ,chapter ,,xxv4--,the ,socialist ,system of ,education #ddj ,chapter ,,xxvi4--,literature and ,art in ,socialistic ,society #dea ,chapter ,,xxvii4--,free ,development of ,individuality #dee #a4 ,freedom from ,care #dee #b4 ,changes in the ,methods of ,nutrition #deg #c4 ,the ,communistic ,kitchen #dfa #d4 ,transformation of ,domestic ,life #dfc ,chapter ,,xxviii4--,woman in the ,future #dff ,chapter ,,xxix4--,internationality #dgc ,chapter ,,xxx4--,the ,question of ,population and ,socialism #dgh #a4 ,fear of ,over-,population #dgh #b4 ,production of ,over-,population #dha #c4 ,poverty and ,fecundity #dhd #d4 ,lack of ,human ,beings and ,abundance of ,food #dhg #e4 ,social ,conditions and ,reproductive ,ability #did ,conclusion #ejj ,introduction4 ,we are living in an age of great social transformations that are steadily progressing4 ,in all strata of society we perceive an unsettled state of mind and an increasing restlessness1 denoting a marked tendency toward profound and radical changes4 ,many questions have arisen and are being discussed with growing interest in ever widening circles4 ,one of the most important of these questions and one that is constantly coming into greater prominence1 is the woman question4 ,the woman question deals with the position that woman should hold in our social organism1 and seeks to determine how she can best develop her powers and her abilities1 in order to become a useful member of human society1 endowed with equal rights and serving society according to her best capacity4 ,from our point of view this question coincides with that other question3 ,in what manner should society be organized to abolish oppression1 exploitation1 misery and need1 and to bring about the physical and mental welfare of individuals and of society as a whole8 ,to us then1 the woman question is only one phase of the general social question that at present occupies all intelligent minds2 its final solution can only be attained by removing social extremes and the evils which are a result of such extremes4 ,nevertheless1 the woman question demands our special consideration4 ,what the position of woman has been in ancient society1 what her position is to-day and what it will be in the coming social order1 are questions that deeply concern at least one half of humanity4 ,indeed1 in ,europe they concern a majority of organized society1 because women constitute a majority of the population4 ,moreover1 the prevailing conceptions concerning the development of woman's social position during successive stages of history are so faulty1 that enlightenment on this subject has become a necessity4 ,ignorance concerning the position of woman1 chiefly accounts for the prejudice that the woman's movement has to contend with among all classes of people1 by no means least among the women themselves4 ,many even venture to assert that there is no woman question at all1 since woman's position has always been the same and will remain the same in the future1 because nature has destined her to be a wife and a mother and to confine her activities to the home4 ,everything that is beyond the four narrow walls of her home and is not closely connected with her domestic duties1 is not supposed to concern her4 ,in the woman question then we find two contending parties1 just as in the labor question1 which relates to the position of the workingman in human society4 ,those who wish to maintain everything as it is1 are quick to relegate woman to her so-called 8natural profession10 believing that they have thereby settled the whole matter4 ,they do not recognize that millions of women are not placed in a position enabling them to fulfill their natural function of wifehood and motherhood1 owing to reasons that we shall discuss at length later on4 ,they furthermore do not recognize that to millions of other women their 8natural profession0 is a failure1 because to them marriage has become a yoke and a condition of slavery1 and they are obliged to drag on their lives in misery and despair4 ,but these wiseacres are no more concerned by these facts than by the fact that in various trades and professions millions of women are exploited far beyond their strength1 and must slave away their lives for a meagre subsistence4 ,they remain deaf and blind to these disagreeable truths1 as they remain deaf and blind to the misery of the proletariat1 consoling themselves and others by the false assertion that it has always been thus and will always continue to be so4 ,that woman is entitled1 as well as man1 to enjoy all the achievements of civilization1 to lighten her burdens1 to improve her condition1 and to develop all her physical and mental qualities1 they refuse to admit4 ,when1 furthermore1 told that woman--to enjoy full physical and mental freedom--should also be economically independent1 should no longer depend for subsistence upon the good will and favor of the other sex1 the limit of their patience will be reached4 ,indignantly they will pour forth a bitter endictment of the 8madness of the age0 and its 8crazy attempts at emancipation40 ,these are the old ladies of both sexes who cannot overcome the narrow circle of their prejudices4 ,they are the human owls that dwell wherever darkness prevails1 and cry out in terror whenever a ray of light is cast into their agreeable gloom4 ,others do not remain quite as blind to the eloquent facts4 ,they confess that at no time woman's position has been so unsatisfactory in comparison to general social progress1 as it is at present4 ,they recognize that it is necessary to investigate how the condition of the self-supporting woman can be improved2 but in the case of married women they believe the social problem to be solved4 ,they favor the admission of unmarried women only into a limited number of trades and professions4 ,others again are more advanced and insist that competition between the sexes should not be limited to the inferior trades and professions1 but should be extended to all higher branches of learning and the arts and sciences as well4 ,they demand equal educational opportunities and that women should be admitted to all institutions of learning1 including the universities4 ,they also favor the appointment of women to government positions1 pointing out the results already achieved by women in such positions1 especially in the ,united ,states4 ,a few are even coming forward to demand equal political rights for women4 ,woman1 they argue1 is a human being and a member of organized society as well as man1 and the very fact that men have until now framed and administered the laws to suit their own purposes and to hold woman in subjugation1 proves the necessity of woman's participation in public affairs4 ,it is noteworthy that all these various endeavors do not go beyond the scope of the present social order4 ,the question is not propounded whether any of these proposed reforms will accomplish a decisive and essential improvement in the condition of women4 ,according to the conceptions of bourgeois1 or capitalistic society1 the civic equality of men and women is deemed an ultimate solution of the woman question4 ,people are either unconscious of the fact1 or deceive themselves in regard to it1 that the admission of women to trades and industries is already practically accomplished and is being strongly favored by the ruling classes in their own interest4 ,but under prevailing conditions woman's invasion of industry has the detrimental effect of increasing competition on the labor market1 and the result is a reduction in wages for both male and female workers4 ,it is clear then1 that this cannot be a satisfactory solution4 ,men who favor these endeavors of women within the scope of present society1 as well as the bourgeois women who are active in the movement1 consider complete civic equality of women the ultimate goal4 ,these men and women then differ radically from those who1 in their narrow-mindedness1 oppose the movement4 ,they differ radically from those men who are actuated by petty motives of selfishness and fear of competition1 and therefore try to prevent women from obtaining higher education and from gaining admission to the better paid professions4 ,but there is no difference of class between them1 such as exists between the worker and the capitalist4 ,if the bourgeois suffragists would achieve their aim and would bring about equal rights for men and women1 they would still fail to abolish that sex slavery which marriage1 in its present form1 is to countless numbers of women2 they would fail to abolish prostitution2 they would fail to abolish the economic dependence of wives4 ,to the great majority of women it also remains a matter of indifference whether a few thousand members of their sex1 belonging to the more favored classes of society1 obtain higher learning and enter some learned profession1 or hold a public office4 ,the general condition of the sex as a whole is not altered thereby4 ,the female sex as such has a double yoke to bear4 ,firstly1 women suffer as a result of their social dependence upon men1 and the inferior position alloted to them in society2 formal equality before the law alleviates this condition1 but does not remedy it4 ,secondly1 women suffer as a result of their economic dependence1 which is the lot of women in general1 and especially of the proletarian women1 as it is of the proletarian men4 ,we see1 then1 that all women1 regardless of their social position1 represent that sex which during the evolution of society has been oppressed and wronged by the other sex1 and therefore it is to the common interest of all women to remove their disabilities by changing the laws and institutions of the present state and social order4 ,but a great majority of women is furthermore deeply and personally concerned in a complete reorganization of the present state and social order which has for its purpose the abolition of wage-slavery1 which at present weighs most heavily upon the women of the proletariat1 as also the abolition of sex-slavery1 which is closely connected with our industrial conditions and our system of private ownership4 ,the women who are active in the bourgeois suffrage movement1 do not recognize the necessity of so complete a transformation4 ,influenced by their privileged social position1 they consider the more radical aims of the proletarian woman's movement dangerous doctrines that must be opposed4 ,the class antagonism that exists between the capitalist and working class and that is increasing with the growth of industrial problems1 also clearly manifests itself then within the woman's movement4 ,still these sister-women1 though antagonistic to each other on class lines1 have a great many more points in common than the men engaged in the class struggle1 and though they march in separate armies they may strike a united blow4 ,this is true in regard to all endeavors pertaining to equal rights of woman under the present social order2 that is1 her right to enter any trade or profession adapted to her strength and ability1 and her right to civic and political equality4 ,these are1 as we shall see1 very important and very far-reaching aims4 ,besides striving for these aims1 it is in the particular interest of proletarian women to work hand in hand with proletarian men for such measures and institutions that tend to protect the working woman from physical and mental degeneration1 and to preserve her health and strength for a normal fulfillment of her maternal functions4 ,furthermore1 it is the duty of the proletarian woman to join the men of her class in the struggle for a thorough-going transformation of society1 to bring about an order that by its social institutions will enable both sexes to enjoy complete economic and intellectual independence4 ,our goal then is1 not only to achieve equality of men and women under the present social order1 which constitutes the sole aim of the bourgeois woman's movement1 but to go far beyond this1 and to remove all barriers that make one human being dependent upon another1 which includes the dependence of one sex upon the other4 ,this solution of the woman question is identical with the solution of the social question4 ,they who seek a complete solution of the woman question must1 therefore1 join hands with those who have inscribed upon their banner the solution of the social question in the interest of all mankind--the ,socialists4 ,the ,socialist ,party is the only one that has made the full equality of women1 their liberation from every form of dependence and oppression1 an integral part of its program2 not for reasons of propaganda1 but from necessity4 ,for there can be no liberation of mankind without social independence and equality of the sexes4 ,all ,socialists will probably agree with the fundamental principles herein expressed4 ,but the same cannot be said in regard to the manner in which we picture the realization of our ultimate aims1 that is1 in regard to the particular form that institutions should take to bring about that desired independence and equality for all4 ,as soon as we forsake the firm foundation of reality1 and begin to depict the future1 there is a wide field for speculation4 ,a difference of opinion immediately arises as to what is probable or improbable4 ,whatever1 therefore1 is stated in this book concerning future probabilities1 must be regarded as the personal opinion of the author1 and eventual attacks must be directed against his person1 because he assumes full responsibility for his statements4 ,attacks1 that are honestly meant and are objective in character1 will be welcome2 those that distort the contents of this book or are founded upon an untruthful interpretation of their meaning1 will be ignored4 ,it remains to be said1 that in the following chapters all conclusions should be drawn which become necessary for us to draw1 as a result of our investigation of facts4 ,to be unprejudiced is the first requirement for a recognition of the truth1 and only by expressing without reserve that which is and that which is to be1 can we attain our ends4 ,woman in the ,past4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,the ,position of ,woman in ,primeval ,society4 #a4--;,chief ,epochs of ,primeval ,history4 ,it is the common lot of woman and worker to be oppressed4 ,the forms of oppression have differed in successive ages and in various countries1 but the oppression itself remained4 ,during the course of historic development the oppressed ones have frequently recognized their oppression1 and this recognition has led to an amelioration of their condition2 but it remained for our day to recognize the fundamental causes of this oppression1 both in regard to the woman and in regard to the worker4 ,it was necessary to understand the true nature of society and the laws governing social evolution1 before an effective movement could develop for the purpose of abolishing conditions that had come to be regarded as unjust4 ,but the extent and profoundness of such a movement depend upon the amount of insight prevailing among those strata of society affected by the unjust conditions1 as also upon the freedom of action possessed by them4 ,in both respects woman1 owing to custom1 education and lack of freedom1 is less advanced than the worker4 ,moreover1 conditions that have prevailed for generations finally become a habit1 and heredity as well as education make them appear 8natural0 to both parties concerned4 ,that explains why women accept their inferior position as a matter of course1 and do not recognize that it is an unworthy one1 and that they should strive to obtain equal rights with men1 and to become equally qualified members of society4 ,but whatever similarities exist between the position of woman and that of the workingman1 woman has one precedence over the workingman4 ,she is the first human being which came into servitude4 ,women were slaves before men4 ,all social dependence and oppression is rooted in the economic dependence of the oppressed upon the oppressor4 ,woman--so we are taught by the history of human development--has been in this position since an early stage4 ,our understanding of this development is comparatively recent4 ,just as the myth of the creation of the world1 as taught by the ,bible1 could not be maintained in face of innumerable and indisputable facts founded upon modern1 scientific investigation1 it also became impossible to maintain the myth of the creation and development of man4 ,not all phases of the history of evolution have as yet been elucidated4 ,difference of opinion still exists among scientists in regard to one or another of the natural phenomena and their relation to each other2 but1 on the whole1 clearness and a general consension of opinion prevails4 ,it is certain that man has not made his appearance upon the earth as a civilized being--as the ,bible asserts of the first human pair--but that in the long course of ages he gradually evolved from a mere animal condition1 and that he passed through various stages during which his social relations as well as the relations between man and woman experienced many transformations4 ,the convenient assertion that is resorted to daily by ignorant or dishonest people1 both in regard to the relation between man and woman as also in regard to the relation between the rich and the poor--the assertion that it has always been thus and will always continue to be so--is utterly false1 superficial and contrary to the truth in every respect4 ,a cursory description of the relations of the sexes since primeval days is of special importance for the purpose of this book4 ,for it seeks to prove that1 if in the past progress of human development1 these relations have been transformed as a result of the changing methods of production and distribution1 it is obvious that a further change in the methods of production and distribution must again lead to a new transformation in the relation of the sexes4 ,nothing is eternal1 either in nature or in human life2 change is the only eternal factor4 ,as far as we can look backward along the line of human evolution1 we see the horde#a representing the first human community4 ,only when the horde increased in numbers to such an extent that it became difficult to obtain the necessary means of subsistence1 which originally consisted of roots1 seeds and fruit1 a disbanding of the members resulted1 and new dwelling places were sought for4 ,we have no written records of this almost animal-like stage1 but studies of the various stages of civilization among extinct and living savages prove that such a stage has at one time existed4 ,man has not stepped into life as a highly civilized being1 upon a command from the ,creator1 but has passed through a long1 infinitely slow process of evolution1 and in the ups and downs of wavering periods of development1 and in a constant process of differentiation1 in all climes and in all quarters of the globe1 has passed through many stages until finally climbing the height of his present civilization4 ,and while in some parts of the globe great nations represent the most advanced stage of civilization1 we find other peoples in various places representing varied stages of development4 ,these present to us a vivid picture of our own past1 and point out to us along which roads humanity has traveled in its long course of evolution4 ,if we shall at some time succeed in establishing general and definite aspects according to which sociological investigations shall be conducted1 an abundance of facts will result1 destined to cast a new light upon the relations of men in the past and the present4 ,events will then seem comprehensible and natural1 that at present are quite beyond our comprehension1 and that superficial critics frequently condemn as irrational1 sometimes even as immoral4 ,scientific researches1 commenced by ,backofen1 and since continued by a considerable number of learned men as ,taylor1 ,mac,lennon1 ,lubbock and others1 have gradually lifted the veil from the earliest history of our race4 ,these investigations were elaborated by ,morgan's able book1 and to this again ,frederick ,engels has added a number of historic facts1 economic and political in character4 ,recently these researches have been partly confirmed and partly corrected by ,cunow4#b ,the clear and vivid descriptions given by ,frederick ,engels in his splendid work1 that is founded upon ,morgan's investigations1 have cast a flood of light upon many factors in the histories of peoples representing various stages of development2 factors that until that time had seemed irrational and incomprehensible4 ,they have enabled us to obtain an insight into the gradual upbuilding of the social structure4 ,as a result of such insight we perceive that our former conceptions in regard to marriage1 family and state1 have been founded upon utterly false premises4 ,but whatever has been proven concerning marriage1 family and state1 is equally true in regard to the position of woman1 which1 in the various stages of social development1 has differed radically from what is supposed to be woman's 8eternal0 position4 ,morgan divides the history of mankind--and this division is also adopted by ,engels--into three chief epochs3 savagery1 barbarism and civilization4 ,each of the two earlier periods he subdivides into a lower1 a medium and a higher stage1 because these stages differ in regard to fundamental improvements in the method of obtaining the means of subsistence4 ,those changes which occur from time to time in the social systems of nations as a result of improved methods of production1 ,morgan considers one of the chief characteristics in the progress of civilization1 which is quite in keeping with the materialistic conception of history as laid down by ,karl ,marx and ,frederick ,engels4 ,thus the lowest stage in the period of savagery represents the childhood of mankind4 ,during this stage men still were tree-dwellers1 and fruit and roots constituted their chief nourishment2 but even then articulated language began to take form4 ,the medium stage of savagery begins with the consumption of small animals such as fish1 crabs1 etc41 for food1 and with the discovery of fire4 ,men begin to manufacture weapons1 clubs and spears made of wood and stone1 and this means the inception of the hunt and probably also of war among neighboring hordes1 who contended with one another for the sources of nourishment and the most desirable dwelling places and hunting grounds4 ,at this stage also cannibalism appears1 which is still met with among some tribes in ,africa1 ,australia and ,polynesia4 ,the higher stage of savagery is characterized by the invention of the bow and arrow2 the invention of the art of weaving2 the making of mats and baskets from bast and reeds1 and the manufacture of stone implements4 ,as the beginning of the lowest stage of barbarism1 ,morgan denotes the invention of pottery4 ,man learns the domestication of wild animals with the resultant production of meat and milk1 and thereby obtains the use of hides1 horns and furs for the most varied purposes4 ,hand in hand with the domestication of animals1 agriculture begins to develop4 ,in the western part of the world corn is cultivated2 in the eastern part1 almost all kinds of grain1 with the exception of corn1 is grown4 ,during the medium stage of barbarism we find an increasing domestication of useful animals in the ,east1 and in the ,west we find an improved cultivation of nourishing plants with the aid of artificial irrigation4 ,the use of stones and sun-dried bricks for building purposes is also originated at this time4 ,domestication and breeding favor the formation of herds and flocks and lead to a pastoral life1 and the necessity of producing larger quantities of nourishment for both men and animals leads to increased agriculture4 ,the result is a more sedentary mode of life with an accompanying increase in provisions and greater diversity of same1 and gradually cannibalism disappears4 ,the higher stage of barbarism has been reached with the smelting of iron ore and the invention of alphabetical writing4 ,the invention of the iron plough gives a new impetus to agriculture2 the iron axe and spade and hoe make it easier to clear the forest and to cultivate the soil4 ,with the forging of iron a number of new activities set in1 giving life a different shape4 ,iron tools simplify the building of houses1 ships and wagons4 ,the malleation of metals furthermore leads to mechanical art1 to an improvement in the manufacture of arms1 and to the building of walled cities4 ,architecture is developed1 and mythology1 poetry and history are conserved and disseminated by means of alphabetical writing4 ,the ,oriental countries and those situated about the ,mediterranean ,sea--,egypt1 ,greece and ,italy--are the ones in which this mode of life was especially developed1 and here the foundation was laid to later social transformations that have had a decisive influence upon the development of civilization in ,europe and1 in fact1 in all the countries of the globe4 #a 8,the theory of natural rights and the doctrine of the social contract1 which places an isolated human being at the beginnings of human development1 is an invention utterly foreign to reality1 and is therefore worthless for the theoretical analysis of human institutions as it is for a knowledge of history4 ,man should1 on the contrary1 be classed with gregarious animals2 that is1 with those species whose individuals are combined into permanent groups40--7,edw4 ,meyer3 8,the ,origin of the ,state1 in ,its ,relation to ,tribal and ,national ,association40 #aijg47 #b ,backofen's book was published in #ahfa4 ,it was entitled1 8,the ,matriarchate2 ,studies of the ,gynocratic ,customs of the ,old ,world in ,their ,religious and ,legal ,aspects40 ,publishers1 ,krais ,hoffmann1 ,stuttgart4 ,morgan's fundamental work1 8,ancient ,society1 or ,researches in the ,lines of ,human ,progress from ,savagery ,through ,barbarism to ,civilization10 was published in #ahgg by ,henry ,holt ,co4 8,the ,origin of the ,family10 by ,frederick ,engels1 founded upon ,morgan's investigations1 was published by ,j4 ,h4 ,w4 ,dietz1 ,stuttgart1 as was also 8,relationship ,organizations of the ,australian ,negro2 a ,contribution to the ,history of the ,family10 by ,henry ,cunow1 which appeared in #ahid4 #b4--;,family ,forms4 ,the periods of savagery and barbarism were characterized by singular social and sex relations1 that differ considerably from those of later times4 ,backofen and ,morgan have thoroughly investigated these relations4 ,backofen carried on his investigations by a profound study of ancient writings1 with the purpose of gaining an understanding of various phenomena presented in mythology and ancient history1 that impress us strangely and yet show similarity with facts and occurrences of later days1 even down to the present time4 ,morgan carried on his investigations by spending decades of his life among the ,iroquois ,indians in the ,state of ,new ,york1 whereby he made new and unexpected observations of the modes of family life and system of relationship prevailing among them1 and these observations served as a basis to place similar observations1 made elsewhere1 in the proper light4 ,backofen and ,morgan discovered1 independently from one another1 that in primeval society the relations of the sexes differed vastly from those prevalent during historic times and among modern1 civilized nations4 ,morgan discovered1 furthermore1 as a result of his long sojourn among the ,iroquois of ,north ,america1 and his comparative studies to which these observations led him1 that all existing primitive peoples have family relations and systems of relationship that differ markedly from our own1 but which must have prevailed generally among all peoples at a remote period of civilization4 ,at the time when ,morgan lived among the ,iroquois1 he found that among them existed a monogamous marriage1 easily dissolved by either side1 termed by him the 8pairing family40 ,but he also found that the terms of relationship as father1 mother1 son1 daughter1 brother1 sister1 although there could be no doubt in our minds as to whom such terms should apply1 were not used in their ordinary sense4 ,the ,iroquois addresses as sons and daughters not only his own children1 but also those of all his brothers1 and these--his brothers' children--call him father4 ,on the other hand1 the ,iroquois woman does not only call her own children sons and daughters1 but also those of all her sisters1 and again all her sisters' children call her mother4 ,but the children of her brothers she calls nephews and nieces1 and these call her aunt4 ,children of brothers call one another brothers and sisters1 and so do children of sisters4 ,but the children of a woman and her brother call each other cousins4 ,the curious fact then presents itself that the terms of relationship are not determined by the actual degrees of relationship1 but the sex of the relative4 ,this system of kinship is not only fully accepted by all ,american ,indians as well as by the aborigines of ,india1 the ,dravidian tribes of ,deckan and the ,gaura tribes of ,hindostan1 but similar systems must have existed everywhere primarily1 as has been proven by investigations that were undertaken since those of ,backofen4 ,when these established facts shall be taken as a basis for further investigations among living savage or barbaric tribes1 similar to the investigations made by ,backofen among various peoples of the ancient world1 by ,morgan among the ,iroquois and by ,cunow among the ,australian ,negroes1 it will be shown that social and sex relations constituted the foundation for the development of all nations of the world4 ,morgan's investigations have revealed still other interesting facts4 ,while the 8pairing family0 of the ,iroquois is in contradiction to the terms of relationship employed by them1 it was shown that in the ,sandwich ,islands 7,hawaii7 there existed up to the first half of the nineteenth century a family form which actually corresponded to that system of kinship that among the ,iroquois existed only in name4 ,but the ,hawaiian system of kinship again did not agree with the family form prevailing there at the time1 but pointed to another form of the family1 still more remote1 and no longer in existence4 ,there all the children of brothers and sisters1 without exception1 were regarded as brothers and sisters1 and were considered the common children1 not only of their mother's and her sisters' or their father's and his brothers'1 but of all the brothers and sisters of both their parents4 ,the ,hawaiian system of kinship then corresponded to a degree of development that was still lower than the prevailing family form4 ,we are thus confronted by the peculiar fact1 that in ,hawaii as among the ,north ,american ,indians1 two different systems of kinship were employed that no longer corresponded to existing conditions1 but had been superseded by a higher form4 ,morgan expresses himself on this phenomenon in the following manner3 8,the family is the active element2 it is never stationary1 but progresses from a lower to a higher form in the same measure in which society develops from a lower to a higher stage4 ,but the systems of kinship are passive4 ,only in long intervals they register the progress made by the family in course of time1 and only then are they radically changed when the family has done so40 ,the prevalent conception that the present family form has existed since times immemorial and must continue to exist lest our entire civilization be endangered--a conception that is vehemently defended by the upholders of things as they are--has been proven faulty and untenable by the researches of these scientists4 ,the study of primeval history leaves no doubt as to the entirely different relation of the sexes at an early period of human development from their present relation1 and when viewed in the light of our present-day conceptions1 they seem a monstrosity1 a mire of immorality4 ,but as each stage in social development has its own methods of production1 thus each stage also has its own code of morals1 which is only a reflection of its social conditions4 ,morals are determined by custom1 and customs correspond to the innermost nature1 that is1 to the social necessities of any given period4 ,morgan arrives at the conclusion that in the lowest stage of savagery unrestricted sexual intercourse existed within the tribe1 so that all the women belonged to all the men and all the men belonged to all the women2 that is1 a condition of promiscuity4 ,all men practice polygamy1 and all women practice polyandry2 there is a common ownership of wives and husbands as also a common ownership of the children4 ,strabo relates 7#ff ,b4 ,c47 that among the ,arabs brothers have sexual intercourse with their sisters and sons with their mothers4 ,incest was originally a requirement to make it possible for human beings to multiply4 ,this explanation must especially be resorted to if we accept the biblical story of the origin of man4 ,the ,bible contains a contradiction in regard to this delicate subject4 ,it relates that ,cain1 having killed his brother ,abel1 fled from the presence of the ,lord and lived in the land of ,nod4 ,there ,cain knew his wife and she conceived and bore a son unto him4 ,but whence came his wife8 ,cain's parents were the first man and woman4 ,according to the ,hebrew tradition1 two sisters were born to ,cain and ,abel1 with whom they begot children4 ,the ,christian translators of the ,bible appear to have suppressed this unpleasant fact4 ,that promiscuity prevailed in a prehistoric stage1 that the primeval horde was characterized by unrestricted sexual intercourse1 is also shown in the ,indian myth that ,brama wedded his own daughter ,saravasti4 ,the same myth is met with among the ,egyptians and in the ,norse 8,edda40 ,the ,egyptian god ,ammon was the husband of his mother and boasted of the fact1 and ,odin1 according to the 8,edda0 was the husband of his own daughter ,frigga4#c ,dr4 ,adolf ,bastian relates3 8,in ,swaganwara the daughters of the ,rajah enjoyed the privilege of freely choosing their husbands4 ,four brothers who settled in ,kapilapur made ,priya1 the eldest of their five sisters1 queen mother and married the others40#d ,morgan assumes that from the state of general promiscuity1 a higher form of sexual relation gradually developed1 the consanguine family4 ,here the marriage groups are arranged by generations2 all the grandfathers and grandmothers within a certain family are mutually husbands and wives2 their children constitute another cycle of husbands and wives1 and again the children of these when they have attained the proper age4 ,in differentiation then from the promiscuity prevailing at the lowest stage1 we here find one generation excluded from sexual intercourse with another generation4 ,but brothers and sisters and cousins of the first1 second and more remote grades are all brothers and sisters and also husbands and wives4 ,this family form corresponds to the system of kinship that during the first half of the last century still existed in ,hawaii in name but no longer in fact4 ,according to the ,american and ,indian system of kinship1 brother and sister can never be father and mother to the same child1 but according to the ,hawaiian system they may4 ,the consanguine family also prevailed at the time of ,herodotus among the ,massagetes4 ,of these he wrote3 8,every man marries a woman but all are permitted to have intercourse with her40#e ,similar conditions ,backofen proves to have existed among the ,lycians1 ,etruscans1 ,cretans1 ,athenians1 ,lesbians and ,egyptians4 ,according to ,morgan1 the consanguine family is succeeded by a third1 higher form of family relations1 which he calls the 8,punaluan family0--8punaluan0 meaning 8dear companion40 ,morgan's conception that the consanguine family1 founded upon the formation of marriage classes according to generations1 which preceded the ,punaluan family1 was the original form of family life1 is opposed by ,cunow in his book referred to above4 ,cunow does not consider the consanguine family the most primitive form of sexual intercourse discovered1 but deems it an intermediary stage leading to the true gentile organization1 in which stage the generic classification in strata of different ages belonging to the so-called consanguine family1 runs parallel for a while with the gentile order4#f ,cunow says1 furthermore3 ,the class division--every man and every woman bearing the name of their class and their totem--does not prevent sexual intercourse among relations on collateral lines1 but it does prevent it among relations of preceding and succeeding lines1 parents and children1 aunts and nephews1 uncles and nieces4 ,terms as uncle1 aunt1 etc41 denote entire groups4 ,cunow furnishes proof in regard to the points in which he differs from ,morgan4 ,but though he differs from ,morgan in many respects1 he clearly defends him against the attacks of ,westermarck and others4 ,he says3 8,although some of ,morgan's theories may be proven to be incorrect1 and others partly so1 to him still is due the credit of having been the first to discover the identity existing between the totem-groups of the ,north ,american ,indians and the gentile organizations of the ,romans4 ,he1 furthermore1 was the first to show that our present family form and system of relationship is the outcome of a lengthy process of evolution4 ,we1 therefore1 are indebted to him for having made further research possible1 for having laid the foundation upon which we may continue to build40 ,in the introduction to his book he also states explicitly that his work is partly a supplement to ,morgan's book on ancient society4 ,westermarck and ,starcke1 to whom ,dr4 ,ziegler especially refers1 will have to accept the fact that the origin and evolution of the family are not in keeping with their bourgeois prejudices4 ,cunow's refutations should enlighten the most fanatical opponents of ,morgan as to the value of their opposition4 #c ,dr4 ,ziegler1 professor of zoology at the university of ,freiburg1 ridicules the idea of attaching any historical importance to myths4 ,this conception only proves the biased judgment of the scientist4 ,the myths contain a profound meaning1 for they have sprung from the soul of the people and are founded upon ancient customs and traditions that have gradually disappeared but continue to survive in the myths glorified by the halo of religion4 ,if facts are met with that explain the myth1 there is good ground for attaching historical importance to the same4 #d ,dr4 ,adolf ,bastian1 8,travels in ,singapore1 ,batavia1 ,manila and ,japan40 #e ,backofen3 8,the ,matriarchate40 #f ,in the gentile order each gens has its totem1 as lizard1 opossum1 emu1 wolf1 bear1 etc41 from which the gens derives its name4 ,the totem animal is held sacred1 and members of the gens may not kill it or eat its flesh4 ,the significance of the totem was similar to that of the patron saint among the medieval guilds4 #c4--,the ,matriarchate4 ,according to ,morgan1 the ,punaluan family begins with the exclusion of brothers and sisters on the mother's side4 ,wherever a woman has several husbands1 it becomes impossible to determine paternity4 ,paternity becomes a mere fiction4 ,even at present1 with the institution of monogamous marriage1 paternity--as ,goethe said in his 8,apprenticeship10 8depends upon good faith40 ,but if paternity is dubious in monogamous marriage even1 it is surely beyond the possibility of determination where polyandry prevails4 ,only descent from the mother can be shown clearly and undeniably2 therefore1 children1 during the term of the matriarchate1 were termed 8spurii10 seed4 ,as all social transformations are consummated infinitely slow upon a low stage of development1 thus also the transition from the consanguine family to the ,punaluan family must have extended through a great length of time1 and many retrogressions must undoubtedly have occurred that could still be perceived in later days4 ,the immediate1 external cause for the development of the ,punaluan family may have the necessity of dividing the greatly increased group for the purpose of finding new soil for agricultural purposes and for the grazing of herds4 ,but it is also probable that with increasing development1 people gradually came to understand the harmfulness and the impropriety of sexual intercourse between brother and sister and close relatives1 and that this recognition led to a different arrangement of marriage relations4 ,that this was the case is shown by a pretty legend that1 as ,cunow tells us1 was related to ,gason among the ,dieyeris1 a tribe of ,southern ,australia4 ,this legend describes the origin of the 8,murdu10 the gentile organization1 in the following manner3 8,after the creation fathers1 mothers1 brothers1 sisters and other closely related persons married indiscriminately among themselves1 until the evil consequences of such marriages were clearly seen4 ,thereupon the leaders held a council to consider what could be done1 and finally they begged ,muramura1 the great spirit1 to bid them what to do4 ,muramura bade them divide the tribe into many branches and to name these after animals and inanimate objects to distinguish them from one another2 for instance1 ,mouse1 ,emu1 ,lizzard1 ,rain1 etc4 ,the members of each group should not be permitted to marry among themselves1 but should choose their mates from another group4 ,thus the son of an ,emu should not marry the daughter of an ,emu1 but he might marry the daughter of a ,mouse1 a ,lizard1 a ,rain1 or any other family40 ,this tradition is more plausible than the biblical one1 and shows the origin of gentile organization in the simplest manner4 ,paul ,lafargue showed in an article published in the ,german periodical1 8,neue ,zeit10 that names like ,adam and ,eva did not originally denote individual persons1 but were the names of gentes in which the ,jews were constituted in prehistoric days4 ,by his argumentation ,lafargue elucidates a number of otherwise obscure and contradictory points in the first book of ,moses4 ,in the same periodical ,m4 ,beer calls attention to the fact that among the ,jews a superstition still prevails according to which a man's mother and his fiancee must not have the same name1 lest misfortune1 disease and death be brought upon the family4 ,this is a further proof of the correctness of ,lafargue's conception4 ,gentile organization prohibited marriage between persons belonging to the same gens4 ,according to the gentile conception1 then1 the fact that a man's mother and his fiancee had the same name1 proved their belonging to the same gens4 ,of course1 present-day ,jews are ignorant of the connection existing between their superstition and the ancient gentile organization which prohibited such marriages4 ,these prohibitory laws had the purpose of avoiding the evils resulting from close intermarriage1 and though gentile organization among the ,jews has gone out of existence thousands of years ago1 we still see traces of the ancient tradition preserved4 ,early experiences in the breeding of animals may have led to a recognition of the dangers of inbreeding4 ,how far such experiences had been developed may be seen from the first book of ,moses1 chapter #cj1 #cb stanza1 where it is told how ,jacob cheated his father-in-law ,laban by providing for the birth of spotted lambs and goats that were to be his1 according to ,laban's promise4 ,thus ancient ,israelites were applying ,darwin's theories in practice long before ,darwin's time4 ,since we are discussing conditions that existed among the ancient ,jews1 it will be well to quote a few further facts which prove that in antiquity maternal law actually prevailed among them4 ,although in the first book of ,moses1 #c1 #af1 is written in regard to woman3 8,and thy desire shall be to thy husband and he shall rule over thee10 in the first book of ,moses1 #b1 #bd1 we find the lines3 8,therefore shall a man leave his father and his mother and shall cleave unto his wife and they shall be one flesh40 ,the same wording is repeated in ,matthew1 #ai1 #e2 ,mark1 #aj1 #g1 and in the epistle to the ,ephesians1 #e1 #ca4 ,this command then is rooted in maternal law1 for which interpreters of the ,bible had no explanation and1 therefore1 presented it incorrectly4 ,maternal law is likewise shown to have existed in the fourth book of ,moses1 #cb1 #da4 ,there it is said that ,jair had a father of the tribe of ,juda1 but his mother came from the tribe of ,manasseh1 and ,jair is explicitly called the son of ,manasseh and became heir to that tribe4 ,in ,nehemiah1 #g1 #fc1 we find still another example of maternal law among the ancient ,jews4 ,there the children of a priest who married one of the daughters of ,barzillai1 a ,jewish clan1 are called the children of ,barzillai4 ,they are1 accordingly1 not called by their father's but by their mother's name4 ,in the ,punaluan family1 according to ,morgan1 one or more series of sisters of one family group married one or more series of brothers of another family group4 ,a number of sisters or cousins of the first1 second and more remote degrees were the common wives of their common husbands1 who were not permitted to be their brothers4 ,a number of brothers or cousins of various degrees were the common husbands of their common wives1 who were not permitted to be their sisters4 ,as inbreeding was thereby prohibited1 this new form of marriage was favorable to higher and more rapid development1 and gave those tribes that had adopted this family form an advantage over those who maintained the old form of sex relations4 ,the following system of kinship resulted from the ,punaluan family3 ,the children of my mother's sisters are her children1 and the children of my father's brothers are his children1 and all are my brothers and sisters4 ,but the children of my mother's brothers are her nephews and nieces and the children of my father's sisters are his nephews and nieces1 and all are my cousins4 ,the husbands of my mother's sisters are still her husbands and the wives of my father's brothers are still his wives1 but the sisters of my father and the brothers of my mother are excluded from the family group1 and their children are my cousins4#g ,with increasing civilization sexual intercourse among brothers and sisters is put under the ban1 and this is gradually extended to all collateral relatives on the mother's side4 ,a new consanguine family1 the gens1 is evolved that originally consists of natural and remote sisters and their children1 together with their natural or remote brothers on the mother's side4 ,the gens has a common ancestress to whom the groups of female generations trace their descent4 ,the men do not belong to the gens of their wives1 but to the gens of their sisters4 ,but the children of these men belong to the gens of their mothers1 because descent is traced from the mother4 ,the mother is considered the head of the family4 ,thus the matriarchate was evolved that for a long time constituted the foundation of family relations and inheritance4 ,while the maternal law prevailed1 women had a voice and vote in the councils of the gens1 they helped to elect the sachems and leaders and to depose them4 ,when ,hannibal formed an alliance with the ,gauls against the ,romans1 he decided that in case disputes should arise among the allies1 the ,gallic matrons should be intrusted with the mission of arbitrating2 so great was his confidence in their impartiality4 ,of the ,lycians who recognized maternal law ,herodotus tells us3 8,their customs are partly ,cretan and partly ,carian4 ,but they have one custom that distinguishes them from all other nations in the world4 ,if you ask a ,lycian who he is1 he will tell you his name1 his mother's name1 and so on in the line of female descent4 ,moreover1 when a free woman marries a slave1 her children remain free citizens4 ,but if a man marries a foreign woman or takes unto himself a concubine1 his children are deprived of all civic rights1 even though he be the most eminent man in the state40 ,at that time 8matrimonium0 was spoken of instead of 8patrimonium10 8mater familias0 was said instead of 8pater familias10 and one's native country was referred to as the motherland4 ,just as the earlier family forms1 the gens was founded on the common ownership of property1 that is1 it was a communistic form of society4 ,woman was the leader and ruler in this kinship organization and was highly respected1 her opinion counting for much in the household as well as in the affairs of the tribe4 ,she is peacemaker and judge1 and discharges the duties of religious worship as priestess4 ,the frequent appearance of queens and women rulers in antiquity1 and the power wielded by them even when their sons were the actual rulers1 which was the case in ,egypt1 for instance1 was an outcome of the matriarchate4 ,during that period mythological characters are chiefly feminine1 as seen from the goddesses ,astarte1 ,demeter1 ,ceres1 ,latona1 ,isis1 ,frigga1 ,freya1 ,gerda1 and many others4 ,woman is invulnerable2 matricide is deemed the most dreadful crime that calls upon all men for vengeance4 ,it is the common duty of all the men of the tribe1 to avenge an injury inflicted upon any member of their kinship by a member of any other tribe4 ,defense of the women incites the men to highest bravery4 ,thus the influence of the matriarchate was perceived in all social relations of the ancient peoples1 among the ,babylonians1 the ,egyptians1 the ,assyrians1 the ,greeks before the heroic age1 the ,italic tribes before the founding of ,rome1 the ,scythians1 the ,gauls1 the ,iberians1 the ,cantabrians1 the ,germans1 and others4 ,at that time woman held a position in society as she has never held since4 ,tacitus says in his 8,germania03 8,the ,germans believe that within every woman dwells something holy and prophetic2 therefore they honor woman's opinion and follow her advice40 ,diodorus1 who lived at the time of ,csar1 was quite indignant over the position of women in ,egypt4 ,he had heard that in ,egypt not sons but daughters supported their aged parents4 ,he therefore spoke disparagingly of the hen-pecked men at the ,nile1 who granted rights and privileges to the weaker sex that seemed outrageous to a ,greek or a ,roman4 ,under maternal law comparatively peaceful conditions prevailed4 ,social relations were simple and narrow and the mode of life was a primitive one4 ,the various tribes kept aloof from one another and respected each other's domain4 ,if one tribe was attacked by another the men took up arms for defense and were ably supported by the women4 ,according to ,herodotus1 the women of the ,scythians took part in battles2 virgins--so he claims--were not permitted to marry until they had slain an enemy4 ,taken all in all1 the physical and mental differences between man and woman were not nearly as great in primeval days as they are at present4 ,among almost all savage and barbarian tribes1 the differences in the size and weight of brains taken from male and female individuals1 are smaller than among civilized nations4 ,also the women of these tribes are not inferior to the men in physical strength and skill4 ,proof of this is furnished not only by the writers of antiquity in regard to peoples living under maternal law1 but also by the ,amazon regiments of the ,ashantis and the ,king of ,dahome in ,western ,africa1 that excel in ferocity and courage4 ,what ,tacitus relates in regard to the women of the ancient ,germans1 and ,csar's opinion of the women of the ,iberians and the ,scots1 furnish additional proof4 ,columbus was attacked near ,santa ,cruz by a troop of ,indians in a small sloop in which the women fought as bravely as the men4 ,this conception is furthermore confirmed by ,havelock ,ellis3 8,among the ,andombies on the ,congo1 according to ,mr4 ,h4 ,h4 ,johnstone1 the women1 though working very hard as carriers and as laborers in general1 lead an entirely happy existence2 they are often stronger than the men and more finely developed1 some of them1 he tells us1 having really splendid figures4 ,and ,parke1 speaking of the ,manyuema of the ,arruwimi in the same region1 says that they are fine animals and the women very handsome2 they carry loads as heavy as those of the men and do it quite as well4 ,in ,north ,america again an ,indian chief said to ,hearne3 ,women were made for labor2 one of them can carry or haul as much as two men can do4 ,schellong1 who has carefully studied the ,papuans in the ,german protectorate of ,new ,guinea from the anthropological point of view1 considers that the women are more strongly built than the men4 ,in ,central ,australia again1 the men occasionally beat the women through jealousy1 but on such occasions it is by no means rare for the woman1 single-handed1 to beat the man severely4 ,at ,cuba1 the women fought beside the men and enjoyed great independence4 ,among some races of ,india1 the ,pueblos of ,north ,america1 the ,patagonians1 the women are as large as the men4 ,so among the ,afghans1 with whom the women in certain tribes enjoy a considerable amount of power4 ,even among the ,arabs and ,druses it has been noted that the women are nearly as large as the men4 ,and among ,russians the sexes are more alike than among the ,english or ,french40#h ,in the gens women sometimes ruled with severity1 and woe to the man who was too lazy or too clumsy to contribute his share to the common sustenance4 ,he was cast out and was obliged either to return to his own gens1 where he was not likely to be received kindly1 or to gain admission into another gens where he was judged less harshly4 ,that this form of matrimony has been maintained by the natives of ,central ,africa to this very day was experienced by ,livingstone1 to his great surprise1 as related by him in his book1 8,missionary ,travels and ,researches in ,southern ,africa40 ,at the ,zambesi he encountered the ,balonda1 a strong and handsome ,negro tribe1 engaged in agricultural pursuits1 and was soon able to confirm the reports made to him by ,portugiese1 which he had at first declined to believe1 that the women held a superior position among them4 ,they are members of the tribal council4 ,when a young man marries1 he must migrate from his village into the one in which his wife resides4 ,he must at the same time pledge himself to provide his mother-in-law with kindling wood for lifetime4 ,the woman1 in turn1 must provide her husband's food4 ,although minor quarrels between man and wife occasionally occurred1 ,livingstone found that the men did not rebel against female supremacy4 ,but he found1 on the other hand1 that when men had insulted their wives1 they were severely punished--by their stomachs4 ,the man--so ,livingstone relates--comes home to eat1 but is sent from one woman to another and is not given anything4 ,tired and hungry1 he finally climbs upon a tree in the most populous part of the village and exclaims1 with a woe-begone voice3 8,hark1 hark6 ,i thought ,i had married women1 but they are witches6 ,i am a bachelor2 ,i have not a single wife6 ,is that just and fair to a lord like myself860 #g ,frederick ,engels3 8,origin of the ,family40 #h ,havelock ,ellis3 8,man and ,woman40 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,conflict between ,matriarchate and ,patriarchate4 #a4--,rise of the ,patriarchate4 ,with the increase in population a number of sister gentes arose that again brought forth several daughter gentes4 ,the mother gens was distinguished from these as the phratry4 ,a number of phratries constituted the tribe4 ,so strong was this social organization that it still constituted the unit of military organization in the states of antiquity1 when the old gentile constitution had already been abandoned4 ,the tribe was subdivided into several branches1 all having a common constitution and in each of which the old gens could be recognized4 ,but as the gentile constitution prohibited intermarriage among remote relatives even on the mother's side1 it undermined its own existence4 ,a social and economic development made the relation of the various gentes to one another more and more complicated1 the interdict of marriage between certain groups became untenable and ceased to be observed4 ,while production of the necessities of life was at its lowest stage of development1 and destined to satisfy only the simplest demands1 the activities of men and women were essentially the same4 ,but with increasing division of labor there resulted not only a diversity of occupations1 but a diversity of possessions as well4 ,fishing1 hunting1 cattle-breeding and agriculture1 and the manufacture of tools and implements1 necessitated special knowledge1 and these became the special province of the men4 ,man took the lead along these lines of development and accordingly became master and owner of these new sources of wealth4 ,increasing population and the desire for an extensive ownership of land for agricultural and pastoral purposes1 led to struggles and battles over the possession of such land2 it also led to a demand for labor-power4 ,an increase in labor-power meant greater wealth in produce and flock4 ,to procure such labor-power the rape of women was at first resorted to1 and then the enslavement of vanquished men1 who had formerly been killed4 ,thus two new elements were introduced into the old gentile constitution that were incompatible with its very nature4 ,still another factor came into play4 ,the division of labor and the growing demand for tools1 implements1 weapons1 etc41 led to a development of handicraft along distinct lines apart from agriculture4 ,a special class of craftsmen arose1 whose interests in regard to the ownership and inheritance of property diverged considerably from those of the agricultural class4 ,as long as descent was traced from female lineage1 members of the gens became heirs to their deceased relatives on the mother's side4 ,all property remained within the gens4 ,under the changed conditions the father had become owner of flocks and slaves1 weapons and produce1 but being a member of his mother's gens he could not will his property to his children1 but had to leave same to his brothers and sisters or to his sisters' children4 ,his own children were disinherited4 ,a strong desire for changing this state of affairs therefore began to manifest itself1 and it was changed accordingly4 ,polygamy and polyandry gave way to the pairing family4 ,a certain man lived with a certain woman1 and the children born from this relation were their children4 ,these pairing families developed gradually1 being hampered by the marriage interdicts of the gentile constitution1 but favored by the above enumerated economic causes4 ,the old household communities were not in keeping with the idea of private property4 ,class and occupation became determining factors in the choice of a place of residence4 ,an increased production of commodities gave rise to commerce among neighboring and more widely separated nations and necessitated the development of finance4 ,man was the one to conduct and control this development4 ,his private interests1 therefore1 were no longer harmonious to the old gentile organization2 on the contrary1 they were frequently diametrically opposed to it4 ,therefore this organization became of less and less importance1 and finally all that remained of the gens was the conducting of a number of religious rites within the family group4 ,the economic significance was lost and the final dissolution of the gentile constitution only remained a question of time4 ,with the breaking up of the old gentile organization the power and influence of woman rapidly declined4 ,the matriarchate disappeared and the patriarchate took its place4 ,man1 being an owner of private property1 had an interest in having legitimate children to whom he could will his property1 and he1 therefore1 forced upon woman the prohibition of intercourse with other men4 ,but for himself he reserved the right of maintaining as many concubines as his means would permit beside his legitimate wife or wives1 and their offspring were regarded as legitimate children4 ,the ,bible furnishes important evidence on this subject in two instances4 ,in the first book of ,moses1 #af1 #a and #b1 it says3 8,sarai1 ,abram's wife1 bore him no children2 and she had an handmaid1 an ,egyptian1 whose name was ,hagar4 ,and ,sarai said unto ,abram3 ,behold now1 the ,lord hath restrained me from bearing2 ,i pray thee1 go in unto my maid2 it may be that ,i may obtain children by her4 ,and ,abram hearkened to the voice of ,sarai40 ,the second noteworthy evidence is found in the first book of ,moses1 #cj1 #a2 it reads as follows3 8,and when ,rachel saw that she bore ,jacob no children1 ,rachel envied her sister1 and said unto ,jacob3 ,give me children or else ,i die4 ,and ,jacob's anger was kindled against ,rachel and he said3 ,am ,i in ,god's stead who has withheld from thee the fruit of the womb8 ,and she said3 ,behold my maid1 ,billah1 go in unto her2 and she shall bear upon my knees that ,i may also have children by her4 ,and she gave him ,billah1 her handmaid1 to wife1 and ,jacob went in unto her40 ,thus ,jacob was not only married to two sisters1 the daughters of ,laban1 but both also gave him their handmaids to wives1 a custom that was not immoral according to the moral conceptions of the time4 ,his two chief wives he had married by purchase1 having served their father ,laban seven years for each of them4 ,at that time it was the general custom among the ,jews to purchase wives1 but besides they carried on a widespread robbery of women from nations conquered by them4 ,thus1 for instance1 the ,benjamites robbed the daughters of ,shiloh4 ,the captured woman became a slave1 a concubine4 ,but she could be raised to the position of a legitimate wife1 upon fulfillment of the following command3 ,she had to cut her hair and nails and exchange the garments in which she was captured with others given to her by her captors4 ,thereupon she had to mourn for her father and mother during an entire month1 her mourning being destined to signify that her people were dead to her4 ,these regulations having been complied with1 she could enter into wedlock4 ,the greatest number of women were owned by ,king ,solomon1 who1 according to the first book of ,kings1 chapter #aa1 had no less than #gjj wives and #cjj concubines4 ,as soon as the patriarchate1 that is1 paternal descent1 was established in the gentile organization of the ,jews1 the daughters were excluded from inheritance4 ,later this rule was modified in cases when a father left no sons4 ,this is shown in the fourth book of ,moses1 #bg1 #b-h4 ,there it is told that when ,zelophehad died without leaving sons1 his daughters complained bitterly that they should be excluded from their father's inheritance that was to pass to the tribe of ,joseph4 ,moses decides that in this case the daughters should be heirs to their father4 ,but when1 according to an old custom1 they decide to choose husbands from another tribe1 the tribe of ,joseph complain that thereby they are losing an heritage4 ,thereupon ,moses decides that the heiresses may choose freely1 but that they must make their choice from among the men in their father's tribe4 ,so it was in behalf of property that the old marriage laws were annulled4 ,as a matter of fact1 in the days of the old ,testament1 i4 e41 in historical times1 the patriarchal system was prevalent among the ,jews1 and the clan and tribal organization were founded on descent in the male line1 as was the case with the ,romans4 ,according to this system the daughters were excluded from inheritance4 ,thus we read in the first book of ,moses1 #ca1 #ad and #ae1 the complaint of ,lea and ,rachel1 daughters of ,laban3 8,is there yet any portion or inheritance for us in our father's house8 ,are we not counted of him strangers8 ,for he hath sold us and hath quite devoured also our money40 ,among the ancient ,jews1 as among all other nations where the matriarchate was succeeded by the patriarchate1 women were utterly devoid of rights4 ,marriage was a purchase of the woman4 ,absolute chastity was demanded of her2 but not so of the man1 who moreover was entitled to have several wives4 ,if the man had cause to believe that the woman had lost her virginity prior to marriage1 he was not only entitled to cast her off1 she might also be stoned to death4 ,the same punishment was meted out to the adulteress2 but the man was subjected to the same punishment only then when he committed adultery with a ,jewish matron4 ,according to the first book of ,moses1 #bd1 #a-d1 a man was entitled to cast off a woman he had just married if she found no favor in his eyes1 even though his displeasure be only a whim4 ,then he might write her a bill of divorcement1 give it in her hand and send her out of his house4 ,a further proof of the degraded position of woman among the ,jews may be gathered from the fact that to this day women attend services in the synagogue in a space separated from the men1 and are not included in the prayer4#i ,according to the ,jewish conception1 woman is not a member of the congregation2 in religion and politics she is a mere cipher4 ,when ten men are assembled they may hold services1 but women are not permitted to do so1 no matter how many of them are assembled4 ,in ,athens1 ,solon decreed that a widow should marry her nearest relation on her father's side1 even if both belong to the same gens1 although such marriages were forbidden by an earlier law4 ,solon likewise decreed that a person holding property need not will it to his gens but might1 in case he were childless1 will it to whomsoever he pleased4 ,we see1 then1 that man1 instead of ruling his property1 is being ruled by it4 ,with the established rule of private property the subjugation of woman by man was accomplished4 ,as a result of this subjugation1 woman came to be regarded as an inferior being and to be despised4 ,the matriarchate implied communism and equality of all4 ,the rise of the patriarchate implied the rule of private property and the subjugation and enslavement of woman4 ,the conservative ,aristophanes recognized this truth in his comedy1 8,the ,popular ,assembly of ,women10 for he has the women introduce communism as soon as they have gained control of the state1 and then proceeds to caricature communism grossly in order to discredit the women4 ,it is difficult to show how the details of this great transformation were accomplished4 ,this first great revolution that took place in human society was not accomplished simultaneously among all the civilized nations of antiquity1 and has probably not developed everywhere along the same lines4 ,among the tribes of ,greece1 the new order of things attained validity primarily in ,athens4 ,frederick ,engels holds the opinion that this great transformation was brought about peaceably1 and that1 all preliminary conditions making such a change desirable being given1 a mere vote on the matter in the gentes sufficed to put the patriarchal system in place of the matriarchal system4 ,backofen1 on the other hand1 believes--his opinion founded on ancient writers--that the women vehemently opposed this social transformation4 ,he considers many myths of the ,amazon kingdoms that are met with in the histories of ,oriental countries1 in ,south ,america and ,china1 proofs of the struggle and opposition of women against the new order4 ,with the rise of male supremacy the women were deprived of their former position in the community4 ,they were excluded from the council and lost their determining influence4 ,men compelled women to be faithful in marriage without recognizing a similar duty on their part4 ,when a woman is faithless1 she commits the worst deception to which a citizen of the new order can fall a victim2 she brings another man's children into his house to become the heirs of his property4 ,that is why among all the ancient peoples adultery1 when committed by a woman1 was punishable by death or slavery4 #i ,in the oldest quarter of ,prague is an old synagogue1 built during the sixth century1 the oldest synagogue in ,germany4 ,upon descending about seven steps into the dusky chamber1 the visitor beholds a row of small loop-holes on the opposite wall leading into an utterly dark room4 ,upon inquiry we are told by the guide that this is the woman's room1 where the women attended services4 ,modern synagogues are less gloomy1 but the separation of men and women is still maintained4 #b4--,traces of the ,matriarchate in ,greek ,myths and ,dramas4 ,although the women were thus deprived of their former influential position1 the customs connected with the ancient cults continued to dominate the minds for centuries2 only their deeper meaning was gradually lost1 and it remained for the present time to investigate them4 ,thus it was customary in ,greece that women appealed for advice and help to the goddesses only4 ,the annual celebration of the ,thesmophoria clearly derived its origin from matriarchal times4 ,even in later days ,greek women still celebrated this festival in honor of ,demeter1 which lasted for five days1 and in which no man was allowed to participate4 ,a festival of the same character was held annually in ,rome in honor of ,ceres4 ,demeter and ,ceres were the goddesses of fecundity4 ,in ,germany1 similar festivals were observed up to the ,christian middle ages4 ,these were consecrated to ,frigga1 the ancient ,german goddess of fecundity1 and here also men were excluded from participation4 ,in ,athens1 the matriarchate had to make way to the patriarchate at an early period1 but apparently not without strong opposition on the part of the women4 ,the tragedy of the transformation is pathetically presented in the 8,eumenides0 by ,aeschylus4 ,the following is a synopsis of the story3 ,agamemnon1 ,king of ,mycenae1 husband of ,klytaemnestra1 on his expedition to ,troy1 sacrifices his daughter ,iphigeneia1 in obedience to a command of the oracle4 ,the mother is enraged over the sacrifice of her child that1 in accordance with natural law1 does not belong to her husband1 and during ,agamemnon's absence she accepts ,aeghistus as her husband1 thereby not committing any objectionable act according to the ancient laws4 ,when ,agamemnon returns to ,mycenae1 after an absence of many years1 he is murdered by ,aeghistus1 whom ,klytaemnestra has incited to this deed4 ,orestes1 son of ,agamemnon and ,klytaemnestra1 upon a command from ,apollo and ,minerva1 avenges his father's death by killing his mother and ,aeghistus4 ,the ,eumenides1 representing the old maternal law1 prosecute ,orestes for the murder of his mother4 ,apollo and ,minerva--the latter1 according to the myth1 not having been born by a mother1 since she sprang from the head of ,zeus in full armor--defend ,orestes1 for they represent the new paternal law4 ,the case is brought before the areopagus and the following dialogue ensues in which the two conflicting views are expressed3 ,eumenides3 ,the prophet 7,apollo7 bade thee then become a matricide8 ,orestes3 ,aye2 and ,i never yet my destiny regretted4 ,eumenides3 ,when judgment will be given thou wilt not speak thus4 ,orestes3 ,perhaps4 ,but from his grave my father will send aid4 ,eumenides3 ,what hopest from the dead thou1 who hast killed thy mother8 ,orestes3 ,she had been guilty of a double1 bloody crime4 ,eumenides3 ,how so8 ,explain unto the judges what you mean4 ,orestes3 ,she killed her husband and she thereby killed my father4 ,eumenides3 ,her crime she expiated now1 but you still live4 ,orestes3 ,why did you fail to prosecute her while she lived8 ,eumenides3 ,she was no blood relation to the man she killed4 ,orestes3 ,but ,i1 so you assert1 am of my mother's blood4 ,eumenides3 ,did she1 thou bloody one1 not bear thee 'neath her heart8 ,wouldst thou thy mother's sacred blood deny8 ,the ,eumenides accordingly do not recognize the right of the father and husband4 ,they proclaim maternal law4 ,that ,klytaemnestra caused the murder of her husband seems unimportant to them1 for he was a stranger to her4 ,but they demand punishment of the matricide1 for by killing his mother1 ,orestes committed the most unpardonable crime that could be committed under the dominance of the gentile organization4 ,apollo1 on the other hand1 holds the opposite point of view4 ,upon a command from ,zeus he has induced ,orestes to murder his own mother to avenge the patricide1 and before the judges he thus defends the deed3 ,then say ,i1 listen ye unto my word of justice3 ,the mother is not procreatrix to her child2 ,she only the awakened life doth keep and bear4 ,the father is the procreator2 she but keeps ,the forfeit for her friend1 unless a god destroy it ,i will submit a proof that cannot be denied4 ,for one can have a father1 yet no mother have4 ,minerva1 daughter of the great ,olympian ,zeus1 ,within the darkness of a mother's womb ne'er rested1 ,and yet no goddess e'er gave birth to fairer offspring4 ,according to ,apollo1 then1 procreation gives the father a superior right1 while the view that had prevailed until then proclaimed the mother1 who gives life to the child by her own blood1 the child's sole possessor1 and deemed the child's father a mere stranger to her4 ,therefore1 the ,eumenides reply to the views of ,apollo3 ,thou overthrowest forces of remotest days4444 ,thou1 the young god1 wouldst us1 the ancient ones1 dethrone4 ,the judges prepare to pronounce their verdict2 half of them favor the old law and the other half favor the new1 giving an equal number of votes to both sides4 ,there ,minerva seizes a ballot from the altar and casting it into the urn she exclaims3 ,mine is the right to utter final judgment here1 ,and for ,orestes ,i cast in the urn this stone2 ,for unto me no mother was who gave me birth1 ,therefore with all my heart all manly things ,i praise ,excepting marriage4 ,for ,i am my father's quite4 ,less criminal ,i deem the murder of this woman1 ,because her husband she has killed1 the home's maintainer4 ,though even be the vote1 ,orestes is victorious4 ,another myth depicts the fall of the matriarchate in the following manner3 ,during the rule of ,cecrops1 a double miracle occurred4 ,simultaneously an olive-tree sprang from the earth at one place1 and a well at another4 ,the frightened king sent a messenger to ,delphi to question the oracle concerning the meaning of these miracles4 ,the reply was3 ,the olive-tree represents ,minerva1 the water represents ,neptune1 and the citizens may decide after whom of the two deities they choose to name their city4 ,cecrops summoned the popular assembly1 in which both men and women were entitled to vote4 ,the men voted for ,neptune1 and the women for ,minerva1 and since the women had a majority of one vote1 ,minerva was victorious4 ,thereupon ,neptune became infuriated and let the sea flood the lands of the ,athenians4 ,to appease the fury of the god1 the ,athenians then inflicted threefold punishment upon their women4 ,they were to be disfranchised1 their children were no longer to bear their mother's name1 and they themselves should no longer be called ,athenians4#aj ,thus the new order was established4 ,the father became the head of the family4 ,the patriarchate conquered the matriarchate4 #aj ,backofen3 8,the ,matriarchate40 #c4--,legitimate ,wives and ,courtesans in ,athens4 ,just as the transition from the matriarchate to the patriarchate was accomplished in ,athens1 it was accomplished elsewhere as soon as a similar degree of development had been attained4 ,woman was restricted to her home and isolated in special rooms1 known as 8gynacontis10 in which she dwelt4 ,she even was excluded from social intercourse with the men who visited the house2 in fact1 this was the special object of her isolation4 ,in the ,odyssee we find this change in customs expressed4 ,thus ,telemachus forbids his mother to be present among her suitors1 and utters this command3 ,but go now to the home1 and attend to thy household affairs2 ,to the spinning wheel and the loom1 and bid thy maids be assiduous ,at the task that to them were allotted4 ,to speak is the privilege of men1 ,and mine is especially this privilege1 for ,i am the lord of the house6#aa ,this was the prevailing conception in ,greece at the time4 ,even widows were subjected to the rulership of their nearest male relatives1 and were not even free to choose a husband4 ,weary of the long waiting imposed upon them by the clever ,penelope1 the suitors send to ,telemachus their spokesman1 ,antonioos1 who thus voices their demand3 ,see now1 the suitors inform thee that thou in thy heart mayest know it ,and that all the ,achans may of the fact be informed4 ,send thy mother hence1 and command her to take as her husband ,whom she chooses to take1 and whom her father selects4#ab ,at this period woman's freedom has come to an end4 ,when she leaves the house she must veil her face--not to waken the desires of some other man4 ,in the ,oriental countries where sexual passions are stronger1 as a result of the hot climate1 this method of isolation is still carried to the extreme4 ,among the ancients1 ,athens served as a pattern of the new order4 ,the woman shares the man's bed1 but not his table4 ,she does not address him by his name1 but calls him master2 she is his servant4 ,she was not allowed to appear in public anywhere1 and when walking upon the streets was always veiled and plainly dressed4 ,when she committed adultery she was1 according to ,solon's law1 condemned to pay for her sin either with her life1 or with her liberty4 ,her husband was entitled to sell her as a slave4 ,the position of ,greek women of those days is powerfully expressed in ,medea's lamentation3 8,of all creatures that have soul and life ,we women are indeed the very poorest4 ,by our dowery we're obliged to purchase ,a husband--and what then is far worse still1 ,henceforward our body is his own4 ,great is the danger2 will his nature be ,evil or good8 ,divorce is to the woman ,a deep disgrace4 ,yet she may not say nay ,unto the man who was betrothed to her4 ,and when she comes to lands with unknown customs1 ,she has to learn--for no one teaches her-- ,to understand the nature of her husband4 ,and when we have succeeded in all this1 ,and our loved one gladly with us dwells1 ,then our lot is fair4 ,but otherwise ,i'd rather far be dead4--,not so the man4 ,if in his home he is not satisfied1 ,he finds outside the home what pleases him1 ,with friends and with companions of his age2 ,but we must always seek to please but one4 ,they say that we in peace and safety dwell1 ,while they must go forth to the battlefield4 ,mistaken thought6 ,i rather thrice would fight1 ,than only once give birth unto a child60 ,very different was the man's lot4 ,while the man compelled the woman to abstain absolutely from relations with other men1 for the purpose of insuring the legitimacy of his heirs1 he was not inclined to abstain from relations with other women4 ,courtesanship developed4 ,women noted for their beauty and intellect1 usually foreigners1 preferred a free life in the most intimate association with men to the slavery of marriage4 ,nor was their life deemed a loathsome one4 ,the name and the fame of these courtesans who associated with the foremost men of ,greece and took part in their intellectual discussions and in their banquets1 have come down to us through history1 while the names of the legitimate wives are lost and forgotten4 ,one of these was ,aspasia1 the friend of the famous ,pericles1 who later made her his wife4 ,phryne had intimate relations with ,hyperides1 and served ,praxiteles1 one of the foremost sculptors of ,greece1 as a model for his statue of ,venus4 ,danae was the mistress of ,epicure1 ,archanassa was ,plato's4 ,lais of ,corynth1 ,gnethanea and others were equally famous courtesans4 ,every one of the famous ,greeks had intercourse with these courtesans4 ,it was part and parcel of their life4 ,the great orator ,demosthenes in his oration against ,neaera thus characterized the sexual relations of ,athenian men3 8,we marry women to have legitimate children and to have faithful guardians of our homes1 we maintain concubines for our daily service and comfort1 and courtesans for the enjoyment of love40 ,the wife was only destined to bear offspring and1 like a faithful dog1 to guard her master's house4 ,but the master himself lived to suit his pleasure4 ,in many cases it is so still4 ,to satisfy the demand for mercenary women1 especially among the younger men1 prostitution developed1 an institution that had not been known during the dominance of the matriarchate4 ,prostitution differs from free sexual intercourse by the fact that the woman yields her body in return for material gain1 be it to one man or to a number of men4 ,prostitution exists wherever a woman makes the selling of her charms a trade4 ,solon1 who formulated the new laws for ,athens and is famed as the founder of these laws1 introduced the public brothel1 the 8deikterion40 ,he decreed that the price should be the same to all visitors4 ,according to ,philemon this was one obolus1 about #f cents in ,american money4 ,the 8deikterion0 was a place of absolute safety1 like the temples in ,greece and ,rome and the ,christian churches in the middle ages4 ,it was under the immediate protection of the public authorities4 ,until about #aej ,b4 ,c4 the temple in ,jerusalem was the general rallying-point of the prostitutes4 ,for the boon bestowed upon ,athenian men by his founding of the 8deikterion10 one of ,solon's contemporaries thus sings his praise3 8,solon1 be praised6 ,for thou didst purchase public women for the welfare of the city1 to preserve the morals of the city that is full of strong1 young men1 who1 without thy wise institution1 would indulge in the annoying pursuit of the better class women40 ,we will see that in our own day exactly the same arguments are being advanced to justify the existence of prostitution and its maintenance as an institution sanctioned by the state4 ,thus the state laws approved of deeds committed by men as being their natural right1 while the same deeds were branded as criminal and despicable when committed by women4 ,it is a well-known fact that even to-day there are a great many men who prefer the company of a pretty offendress to the company of their wife and who1 nevertheless1 enjoy the reputation of being 8pillars of society0 and guardians of those sacred institutions1 the family and the home4 ,to be sure1 the ,greek women frequently seem to have taken vengeance upon their husbands for their oppression4 ,if prostitution is the complement of monogamic marriage on the one hand1 adultery of wives and cuckoldom of husbands are its complements on the other4 ,among the ,greek dramatists1 ,euripides seems to have been the most pronounced woman-hater1 since in his dramas he preferably holds up the women to ridicule and scorn4 ,what accusations he hurls at them can best be seen from a passage in 8,the ,thesmophoria0 by ,aristophanes1#ac where a ,greek woman assails him in the following manner3 ,with what calumny doth he 7,euripides7 not vilify us women8 ,when e'er hath silent been the slanderer's tongue8 ,where there's an audience1 tragedy and chorus1 ,we are described as man-mad traitoresses1 ,fond of the cup1 deceitful1 talkative4 ,we're wholly bad1 to men a tribulation4 ,therefore1 when from the play our husbands come1#ad ,they look distrustfully at us and search about ,if somewhere not a lover is concealed1 ,and henceforth we no longer are permitted ,to do what harmlessly we did before4 ,such wicked things he tells the men about us1 ,that when a woman only makes a garland1 ,they think she is in love2 or when at home ,she works about and dropping something1 breaks it1 ,the husband promptly asks3 8,for whom this broken glass8 ,quite evidently for the guest from ,corinth40 ,it is not surprising that the eloquent ,greek woman thus serves the defamer of her sex4 ,but ,euripides could hardly have made such accusations nor would they have found belief among the men1 had it not been well known that they were justified4 ,judging by the final sentences of the above quoted harangue it seems that the custom1 well known in ,germany and other countries1 whereby the master of the house honors his guest by placing his own wife or daughter at the guest's disposal1 did not prevail in ,greece4 ,of this custom1 that was still observed in ,holland in the fifteenth century1 ,murner says3 8,it is the custom in the ,netherlands that whosoever hath a dear guest1 unto him he giveth his wife in good faith40#ae ,the increasing class struggle in the ,greek states and the deplorable conditions that existed in many of these small communities led ,plato to an investigation of the best constitution of the state and its institutions4 ,in his 8,state10 that he conceives as an ideal one1 he demands that among the highest class of citizens1 the guardians1 women should hold a position of absolute equality4 ,like the men1 they should take part in military exercises and should perform all civic duties1 only should the lighter tasks be alloted to them on account of the weakness of their sex4 ,he holds that the natural abilities are the same with both sexes1 that woman is only weaker than man4 ,he further demands that the women should belong to all the men in common as should also the children1 so that no father might know his child nor a child its father4#af ,the views of ,aristoteles are more in keeping with the bourgeois conceptions4 ,according to his 8,politics10 every woman should have the right of freely choosing her husband4 ,she should be subservient to him1 yet she should have the privilege of giving him good advice4 ,thucydides expresses a view that meets with the approval of all ,philistines4 ,he says3 8,to that wife is due the highest praise of whom one speaks neither well nor ill outside of her home40 ,while such views prevailed women were bound to sink lower and lower in the esteem of men4 ,a fear of excess of population even led men to avoid intimate intercourse with women4 ,an unnatural satisfaction of sexual desires was the result4 ,the ,greek states consisted mainly of cities having very limited landed property1 and it therefore was impossible to maintain the population at their accustomed nourishment beyond a given number4 ,this fear of excess of population caused ,aristotle to advice the men to shun their wives and to indulge in sodomy instead4 ,before him ,socrates had already extolled sodomy as a mark of superior culture4 ,finally the foremost men of ,greece indulged in this unnatural passion4 ,the esteem of woman sank to its lowest level4 ,bawdy houses containing male prostitutes were maintained1 beside those containing female prostitutes4 ,it was in such a social atmosphere that ,thucydides could say of woman that she was worse than the sea raging in storm1 worse than the fire's fierce glow and the mountain torrent's rushing stream4 8,if it is a god who invented woman1 whoever he be1 let him know that he is the nefarious originator of the greatest evil40 ,while the men of ,greece practiced sodomy1 the women drifted into the opposite extreme1 indulging in the love of their own sex4 ,this was especially the case among the inhabitants of the island of ,lesbos1 wherefore this aberration was called ,lesbian love and is still called so1 since it is by no means extinct but continues to exist among us4 ,the chief representative of this 8love0 was the celebrated poetess ,sapho1 8the ,lesbian nightinggale10 who lived about #fjj ,b4 ,c4 ,her passion is fervently expressed in her ,ode to ,venus3 8,thou who rulest all1 upon flowers enthroned1 ,daughter of ,zeus born of foam1 o thou artful one1 ,hark to my call6 ,not in anguish and bitter suffering1 ,o goddess1 ,let me perish6--0 ,still more passionate is the sensuality expressed in the ode to the beautiful ,athis4 ,while in ,athens and other ,greek states the patriarchal system prevailed1 in ,sparta1 ,athens' greatest rival1 we still find the matriarchate1 a condition which had become entirely foreign to most ,greeks4 ,tradition has it that one day a ,greek asked a ,spartan how the crime of adultery was punished in ,sparta2 whereupon the ,spartan replied3 8,stranger1 there are no adulterers in our midst40 8,but if there should be one80 quoth the stranger4 8,then10 said the ,spartan mockingly1 8his penalty would be to give an ox1 so tall that he could stretch his neck across the ,taygetus and drink from the ,eurotas40 ,upon the astonished query of the stranger how an ox could be so tall1 the ,spartan laughingly replied3 8,how can there be an adulterer in ,sparta860 ,the dignified self-consciousness of the ,spartan women finds expression in the reply given to a stranger by the wife of ,leonidas4 ,the stranger said to her3 8,you ,lacedemonian women are the only ones who rule over men40 ,to this she replied3 8,and we are the only women who bring forth men40 ,the freedom enjoyed by women during the matriarchate heightened their beauty and increased their pride1 their dignity and their self-reliance4 ,there is a uniformity of opinion among ancient writers that these attributes were highly developed in women during the matriarchal period4 ,the condition of servitude that followed naturally had a deteriorating influence4 ,the change is manifested even in the difference of dress that marks the two periods4 ,the dress of the ,doric woman hung loosely from her shoulders1 leaving her arms and the lower part of her legs uncovered4 ,it is the dress worn by ,diana as she is represented in our museums1 a free and daring figure4 ,but the ,ionic dress covers the figure completely and restrains the motions4 ,the manner in which women dress was and is to this day a proof of their dependence and a cause of their helplessness to a far greater extent than is generally assumed4 ,the style of dress worn by women to this day makes them clumsy and gives them a feeling of weakness that is expressed in their carriage and their character4 ,the ,spartan custom of permitting girls to go about naked until maturity--a custom that was made possible by the climate of the country--had the effect1 so an ancient writer tells us1 of teaching them simplicity of taste and regard for the care of their bodies4 ,according to the views of the time1 this custom did not shock the sense of decency or arouse physical passions4 ,the girls also took part in all physical exercises just like the boys4 ,thus a strong1 self-respecting race was reared1 conscious of their worth1 as is shown in the reply given to the stranger by the wife of ,leonidas4 #aa ,homer's 8,odyssee40 #ab ,homer's 8,odyssee40 #ac 8,comedies by ,aristophanes40 #ad ,the theatre1 to which ,greek women were not admitted4 #ae 8,german ,history of ,manners and ,civilization10 by ,johann ,scherr4 ,sudermann deals with the same subject in his drama1 8,honor40 #af ,plato3 8,the ,state40 #d4--,remnants of the ,matriarchate in the ,customs of ,various ,nations4 ,certain customs are closely linked with the vanished matriarchate that modern writers have erroneously termed 8prostitution40 ,in ,babylon1 for instance1 it was a religious duty for young girls upon reaching maturity to go to the temple of ,mylitta and there yield to some man1 making a sacrifice of their virginity4 ,similar customs were observed in the ,serapis of ,memphis1 in honor of the goddess ,anaitis in ,armenia1 in ,tyrus and ,sydon in honor of ,astarte or ,venus4 ,the ,egyptian festivals of ,isis were accompanied by the same religious rites4 ,this sacrifice of virginity was deemed an atonement to the goddess for the exclusiveness of surrender to one man in marriage4 8,for woman is not endowed with all the beauties nature has bestowed upon her1 to fade in the arms of a single man4 ,the law of substance condemns all restrictions1 hates all fetters1 and considers exclusiveness a crime against its divinity40#ag ,the continued good will of the goddess must be purchased by this sacrifice of virginity to a stranger4 ,in conformity with this conception the ,libyan maidens earned their dowery by their surrender4 ,according to the matriarchate they enjoyed sexual liberty before marriage1 and the men1 far from taking offense at this pursuit1 in choosing a wife gave preference to the girl who had been most desired4 ,the same condition existed among the ,thracians at the time of ,herodotus4 8,they do not guard the maidens1 but give them complete freedom to have relations with whomever they choose4 ,but the married women are closely guarded4 ,they buy them from their parents for a large portion40 ,the ,hierodules in the temple of ,venus in ,corynth were far famed4 ,there more than a thousand girls were assembled1 constituting the chief attraction for ,greek men4 ,of the daughter of ,king ,cheops of ,egypt the legend relates1 that she had a pyramid built from the proceeds obtained by the abandonment of her charms4 ,we still find similar conditions in existence in the ,marquesas ,islands1 in the ,philippines and ,polynesia1 and1 according to ,waitz1 among various ,african tribes4 ,another custom1 which was maintained on the ,balearic ,islands up to recent times and that expressed the right of all men to every woman1 was that in the bridal night all the men related to the bride1 were admitted to her successively in accordance with their ages4 ,the groom came last4 ,among other peoples this custom has been changed to that effect1 that one man representing the others1 the high priest or chieftain of the tribe1 exercises this privilege with the bride4 ,the ,claimars in ,malabar engage putamares 7priests7 to deflour their wives4 ,it is the duty of the chief priest 7namburi7 to render this service to the king 7zamorin7 upon his marriage1 and the king pays for it with fifty pieces of gold4#ah ,in ,india and on various islands of the ,pacific either the priests or the tribal chiefs 7kings7 perform this office4#ai ,it is the same in ,senegambia1 where the tribal chief practices the defloration of virgins as one of his official duties and receives presents in return4 ,among other peoples the defloration of the virgin--sometimes even of female babies--is accomplished by idols constructed for this purpose4 ,we may assume that the 8jus primae noctis0 7right of the first night71 which was in practice in ,europe until far into the middle ages1 derived its origin from the same tradition4 ,the landlord1 considering himself master over his serfs1 practiced the right of the tribal chief that had come down to him4 ,we will return to this subject later on4 ,remnants of the matriarchate are also seen in a peculiar custom of ,south ,american tribes1 that has likewise been met with among the ,basques1 a people that have preserved many ancient customs and practices4 ,here the father takes to his bed1 instead of the mother1 after the birth of a child1 feigns being in labor-pain1 and lets the woman care for him4 ,the custom designates that the father recognizes the newly born child as his own4 ,the same custom is said to exist among several tribes of mountaineers in ,china1 and it existed until a recent date in ,corsica4 ,in the records of ,german colonies submitted to parliament 7during its session #aijd-je7 there is a report of the ,south-,west-,african region that contains the following passage3 8,the tribal chief in a ,herero village cannot decide upon the slightest matter without the advice of his council1 and not only the men but generally the women also give their advice40 ,in the report of the ,marshall ,islands it says3 8,rulership over all the islands of the ,marshall groups was never concentrated upon a single chief4444 but as there is no female member of this class 7,the ,irody7 living1 and the child inherits nobility and station from the mother only1 ,the ,irodies will become extinct with the death of their chiefs40 ,the manner of expression and description used by the informants shows how utterly foreign the conditions they describe are to them and that they fail to understand them4#bj ,dr4 ,henry ,weislocky1 who for many years lived among the ,gypsies of ,transylvania and finally was adopted into one of their tribes1 reports1#ba that two of the four tribes in whose midst he lived1 the ,ashani and the ,ishale1 observed maternal law4 ,if the migratory ,gipsy marries1 he enters the clan of his wife1 and to her belong all the furnishings of the ,gipsy household4 ,whatever wealth she has belongs to her and to her clan1 the man is a stranger4 ,in accordance with maternal law the children also remain in their mother's clan4 ,even in modern ,germany remnants of the matriarchate survive4 ,the 8,westdeutsche ,rundschau0 7published in ,westphalia7 reports in the issue of ,june #aj1 #aijb1 that in the parish of ,haltern the laws of inheritance were still subject to the old maternal law of the gentes4 ,the children inherit from their mother4 ,until now all attempts at reforming this antiquated custom had failed4 ,how little the present family form and monogamic marriage can be regarded as eternal or exceedingly ancient1 can furthermore be gathered from the wide-spread existence of marriage by purchase1 marriage by rape1 polygamy and polyandry4 ,in ,greece1 too1 woman became an article of purchase4 ,as soon as she entered the house of her lord and master she ceased to exist for her family4 ,this was symbolically expressed by burning before her husband's house the gaily decorated carriage that had brought her there4 ,among the ,ostiaks in ,siberia the father still sells his daughter and bargains with the envoys of the groom over the sum that is to be paid4 ,among several ,african tribes the custom still exists--as in ,jacob's day--that a man wooing a maiden enters the service of his prospective mother-in-law4 ,marriage by purchase still exists in our very midst1 in fact1 in bourgeois society it is more generally established than at any other time4 ,the money marriages1 so prevalent among our propertied classes1 are nothing more than marriage by purchase4 ,as a symbol of the purchase whereby the woman becomes the man's property1 the bridal gift1 which it is customary for the man to give his fiancee1 may also be regarded4 ,beside marriage by purchase we find marriage by rape4 ,robbery of women was practiced not only by the ancient ,jews1 but practically by all nations of antiquity4 ,the best-known historical example is the rape of the ,sabines1 by the ,romans4 ,robbery of women became the custom quite naturally wherever women were scarce or where polygamy existed1 as everywhere in the ,orient4 ,there especially this custom was wide-spread during the duration of the ,arabian realm from the seventh to the twelfth century before ,christ4 ,in a symbolical way marriage by rape is still practised among the ,araucanians in the southern part of ,chile4 ,while the would-be bridegroom's friends bargain with the girl's father1 the man himself slinks about the house and tries to catch the girl4 ,as soon as he has grasped her he lifts her on his horse and carries her away toward the forest4 ,thereupon men1 women and children set up a loud clamor and try to prevent the flight4 ,but as soon as the man has succeeded in reaching the shelter of the forest the woman is considered his wife4 ,this is the case even if the robbery was perpetrated against the parents' will4 ,similar customs are met with among ,australian tribes4 ,among civilized nations the custom of wedding journeys still serves as a reminder of the ancient rape of women2 the bride is abducted from her paternal hearth4 ,in the same way the exchange of wedding rings is a symbol of the old submissiveness of woman and her being chained to the man4 ,this custom originated in ,rome4 ,the bride received an iron ring from her husband to signify that she was chained to him4 ,later on this ring was made of gold1 and much later still the exchange of rings was introduced to signify the mutual bond4 ,polygamy has existed and still exists among the ,orientals2 but owing to the limited number of women that are at a man's disposal1 and owing to the expense of their maintenance1 it is at present practised only by the privileged and propertied classes4 ,the counter-part of polygamy is polyandry4 ,this is found especially among the mountaineers of ,thibet1 the ,garras living at the boundary of ,india and ,china1 the ,baigas in ,godwana1 the ,nairs in the southernmost part of ,india1 and also among the ,eskimos and ,aleuts4 ,descent is determined on the mother's side--as must needs be the case--and the children belong to her4 ,the woman's husbands usually are brothers4 ,if an oldest brother marries1 the other brothers thereby become husbands to his wife4 ,but she has the right to take other husbands beside these4 ,the men also are entitled to several wives4 ,from what conditions polyandry sprang is as yet unexplained4 ,as the tribes practising polyandry without exception live either in mountainous regions of a high altitude or in the frigid zone1 polyandry may perhaps be explained by a phenomenon that ,tarnowsky has pointed out4#bb ,tarnowsky was told by reliable travelers that a lengthy sojourn on high altitudes greatly diminishes sexual desire1 which reawakens with renewed vigor upon descending4 ,this diminution of sexual desire1 so ,tarnowsky believes1 might explain the slow increase in population in mountainous regions1 and by becoming hereditary might be one of the symptoms of degeneration leading to perversity4 ,continuous living in high altitudes or in frigid zones might in the same manner signify that polyandry did not make extraordinary demands on women4 ,women themselves are influenced accordingly by their nature1 since among ,eskimo girls menstruation1 as a rule1 does not set in until the nineteenth year1 while in the torrid zone it sets in with the ninth or tenth year1 and in the temperate zone between the fourteenth and sixteenth year4 ,it is generally known that hot countries have a stimulating effect upon sexual desire2 that is why polygamy is especially prevalent in hot countries4 ,in the same way cold lands1 and high altitudes having a similar climate1 may have a restrictive influence4 ,it is also a matter of experience that conception is less frequent when a woman has cohabitation with several men4 ,the increase in population is1 therefore1 weak where polyandry exists1 and is adapted to the difficulty of obtaining food in cold climes and high altitudes4 ,this goes to show that even in regard to this strange custom of polyandry1 the relations of the sexes are in the last instance determined by the methods of production4 ,it still remains to be investigated whether the frequent killing of female infants is practised among the tribes living in mountainous regions or in the frigid zone1 as has been reported of ,mongolian tribes living in the mountainous regions of ,china4 #ag ,backofen3 8,the ,matriarchate40 #ah ,k4 ,kautsky3 8,origin of ,marriage and the ,family40 ,kosmos1 #ahhc4 #ai ,mantagazza3 8,love in ,human ,society40 #bj ,similar conditions are still met with in ,camerun and in other parts of ,western ,africa4 ,a ,german naval surgeon who studied the land and people from his own observations sends us the following information3 8,among a great many tribes the right of inheritance is founded on maternity4 ,paternity is a matter of indifference1 only children of the same mother consider one another brothers and sisters4 ,a man does not will his property to his own children1 but to his sisters' children1 his nephews and nieces1 who can be shown to be his nearest blood relations4 ,a chief of the ,way tribe explained to me in broken ,english3 #8,my sister and ,i surely are blood relations1 for we are children of the same mother4 ,my sister again surely is the blood relation of her son4 ,so her son is my heir1 and when ,i die he will be king of my town4' #8,and your father8' ,i asked4 #8,i do not know what that is1 my father1' he replied4 ,when ,i then went on to ask him whether he had no children of his own1 he was convulsed with laughter and replied that with them not men but only women had children4 ,i can assure you10 our informant goes on to say1 8that even the heir of ,king ,bell in ,camerun is not his son1 but his nephew4 ,the children of ,bell1 many of whom are being trained in ,german cities1 are but the children of his wives1 while their fathers are unknown4 ,one of them ,i might lay claim to myself40--,how are the people who deny the existence of maternal law impressed by this description of present-day conditions86 ,our informant is a keen observer who goes to the bottom of things4 ,but few who live among these savages do so4 ,therefore we are given such false descriptions of the alleged 8immorality0 of the natives4 #ba ,h4 v4 ,weislocky3 8,sketches of the ,life of the ,transylvanian ,gypsies40 #bb ,tarnowsky3 8,pathological ,phenomena of ,sexual ,desire40 #e4--,rise of the ,state4--,dissolution of the ,gens in ,rome4 ,after the dissolution of the matriarchal gens1 the patriarchal gens took its place with considerably diminished functions4 ,the chief function of the patriarchal gens was the strict observation of common religious and funeral rites and mutual aid and protection4 ,it entailed the right1 and sometimes the duty1 to marry within the gens2 the latter being the case especially in regard to rich heiresses and orphans4 ,the gens also controlled all the remaining common property4 ,with the rise of private property and the right of inheritance connected with it1 class distinctions and class antagonism came into existence4 ,in the course of time the propertied members made common cause against the propertyless ones4 ,the former sought to gain control of the administrative positions and to make them hereditary4 ,finance had become a necessity and entailed conditions of indebtedness that had previously been unknown4 ,struggles against external enemies1 internal conflicts of interest1 and the varied interests and relations created by agriculture1 industry and trade1 necessitated a complicated system of laws and the formation of public bodies destined to keep the social machine in orderly motion and to settle disputes4 ,the same was true concerning the relations of masters and slaves1 debtors and creditors4 ,thus a power was needed to control all these relations1 to conduct1 regulate1 arbitrate1 protect and punish4 ,the state came into existence as a necessary product of the new social order based on conflicting interests4 ,its direction naturally was assumed by those who had the greatest interest in its founding and who1 thanks to their social power1 were most influential3 the propertied classes4 ,thus aristocracy of wealth and democracy opposed one another1 even where complete equality of political rights was maintained4 ,during the old matriarchal system no written law existed4 ,conditions were simple and custom was hallowed4 ,in the new1 far more complicated order1 written law became one of the urgent necessities and special officials were needed for its administration4 ,but as the legal relations became more and more complicated1 a special class of persons arose1 devoted exclusively to the study of law and having a special interest in still further complicating them4 ,the jurists1 the lawyers1 came into existence1 and owing to the importance of the law to the body social1 they soon became one of the most influential estates4 ,the new civic jurisprudence in the course of time found its most classic expression in the ,roman state1 that explains the influence exerted by ,roman law down to the present time4 ,we see then that the state organization is the natural outcome of a society divided into a great variety of occupations and having varied1 frequently opposing and contending1 interests4 ,an inevitable result was oppression of the weaker members4 ,this truth was recognized by the ,nabataeans1 an ,arabian tribe1 who1 according to ,diodorus1 issued the command neither to sow nor to plant1 to drink no wine1 and to build no houses1 but to live in tents1 for if they did all these things they might be compelled to obey by a superior power 7the state74 ,among the ,rechabites1 the descendants of the father-in-law of ,moses1 we find similar decrees4#bc ,in fact1 ,mosaic law is framed in a manner destined to prevent the ,jews from developing beyond the stage of an agricultural society1 because their lawmakers feared that it might bring about the downfall of their democratic1 communistic organization4 ,for the same reasons the 8holy land0 was selected in a territory that was bounded on the one side by a mountain range which was difficult of access1 the ,libanon1 and on the other1 especially in the ,east and ,south1 by barren lands and a desert1 making isolation possible4 ,for the same reasons1 moreover1 the ,jews were kept at a distance from the sea1 which is favorable to commerce1 colonization and the acquirement of wealth4 ,for the same reasons there were strict laws forbidding mingling and intermarriage with other nations2 and the poor laws1 the agrarian laws1 the year of jubilee1 all were institutions destined to prevent the acquirement of great fortunes by individuals4 ,the ,jews were to be prevented from becoming a state-forming nation4 ,that is why the old gentile constitution founded on tribal organization was maintained by them until their dissolution1 and has left its traces among them even to-day4 ,apparently the ,latin tribes who participated in the foundation of ,rome had already superseded the matriarchal development4 ,as previously stated1 they robbed the women who were wanting among them from the tribe of the ,sabines and called themselves ,quirites after these4 ,at a much later date the ,roman citizens in the popular assembly were still addressed as ,quirites4 8,populus ,romanus0 designated the free population of ,rome generally2 but 8populus ,romanus quiritium0 designated ,roman citizenship by descent4 ,the ,roman gens was patriarchal2 the children inherited from their natural parent4 ,in case there were no children the property fell to relatives on the man's side1 and if these were wanting1 it fell to the gens4 ,by marriage the woman lost all rights of inheritance to her father's property and that of her father's brothers4 ,she withdrew from her gens1 and thus neither she nor her children could inherit from her father or his brothers4 ,otherwise the hereditary portion would have been lost to the paternal gens4 ,the division into gentes and phratries for centuries remained the foundation of military organization and the enactment of civic rights4 ,but with the decay of the patriarchal gentes and the decline of their significance1 conditions became more favorable to ,roman women4 ,they not only obtained the right of inheritance1 they also obtained the right to control their own fortunes2 they accordingly held a far more favorable position than their ,greek sisters4 ,this freer position gradually won by them1 gave the elder ,cato--born #bcd ,b4 ,c4--cause for the following complaint3 8,if the head of each family1 following the example of his ancestors1 would seek to maintain his wife in proper submissiveness1 the entire sex would not give so much trouble publicly40 ,when a few tribunes in the year #aie ,b4 ,c41 moved to repeal a law enacted previously1 for the purpose of restricting the luxury of women in dress and personal adornment1 he stormed3 8,if each of us had maintained his manly authority with his own wife1 we would have less bother here with all the women4 ,our power that has been shattered in the home1 now is being broken and trampled upon in the forum too by the unruliness of women1 and because we are incapable of resisting them individually1 we fear them all together4 ,our ancestors decided that women should not even attend to their private affairs without the control of a guardian1 that they should be subject to their fathers1 brothers1 husbands4 ,but we submit to it that they take possession of the republic and interfere with the popular assembly4 ,if you give free reign to the imperious natures of these unruly creatures1 do not imagine that they will recognize any limits of their tyranny4 ,the truth is that they desire freedom1 nay1 dissoluteness1 in all things1 and when they have begun to be our equals1 they will soon be our superiors40 ,at the time ,cato delivered this speech the father was guardian to his daughter during his lifetime1 even when she was married1 unless he appointed another guardian4 ,when the father died the nearest male relative assumed the guardianship4 ,the guardian had the right to transfer this guardianship to whomever and whenever he pleased4 ,originally then the ,roman woman had no will of her own before the law4 ,the forms of marriage ceremonies were varied and underwent many changes in the course of the centuries4 ,the most ceremonious marriage ceremony was performed by the high priest in the presence of at least ten witnesses1 whereupon the bridal pair ate a cake made of flour1 salt and water as a symbol of their union4 ,this ceremony has a strong resemblance to the eating of the sacramental wafer at the celebration of the ,lord's ,supper4 ,a second form of marriage was merely by taking possession4 ,if a woman had lived with her chosen husband under the same roof for one year1 with the consent of her father or guardian1 the marriage was legalized4 ,a third form was a sort of mutual purchase4 ,the man and woman exchanged some coins and promised to be husband and wife4 ,at the time of ,cicero#bd free divorce to both partners in the marriage contract was already established1 and it was even denied that an announcement of the divorce was necessary4 ,but the 8lex ,julia de adulteriis0 prescribed that a divorce must be solemnly announced4 ,this law was caused by the frequent occurrence that women1 having committed adultery and then having been called to account1 claimed to have divorced their husbands4 ,justinian 7,the ,christian7#be prohibited divorce1 except when both parties wished to enter a monastery4 ,but his successor1 ,justinian ,,ii41 found it necessary to introduce it again4 ,as ,rome grew in wealth and power1 vice and licentiousness of the worst kind replaced the moral austerity of its early days4 ,rome became the center from which lewdness1 debauchery and sensual finesse spread over the entire civilized world of that period4 ,especially during the time of the emperors1 and frequently encouraged by the emperors themselves1 the debauchery assumed forms that could only have been inspired by insanity4 ,men and women vied with each other in immorality4 ,the number of public brothels increased rapidly1 and besides the 8,greek love0 7sodomy7 was practised more and more by the men4 ,at one time the number of male prostitutes in ,rome was greater than the number of female prostitutes4 ,the courtesans appeared in great pomp1 surrounded by their admirers1 on the streets and the promenade1 in the circus and theater1 sometimes reclining on couches carried by ,negroes1 holding a mirror in their hand1 decked with jewels1 partly nude1 fanned by slaves1 surrounded by a swarm of boys1 eunuchs and flute-players1 with grotesque dwarfs bringing up the rear4 ,these debaucheries assumed such dimensions in the ,roman empire1 that they threatened its very existence4 ,the bad example set by men1 was followed by women4 ,there were women1 so ,seneca#bf reports1 who did not count years by the consuls1 as was customary1 but by the number of their husbands4 ,adultery was general1 and in order to escape the severe penalties attached to it1 women had themselves registered as prostitutes4 ,even some of the most aristocratic ladies of ,rome were among these4 ,besides these debaucheries1 civil wars and the system of the latifundia caused such a marked decline of the marriage and birth-rate1 that the number of ,roman citizens and patricians was greatly diminished4 ,in the year #af ,b4 ,c4 ,augustus enacted the so-called ,julian law2#bg that placed a penalty upon the unmarried state of ,roman citizens and patricians1 and rewarded them for having children4 ,whoever had children was deemed of higher station than childless or unmarried persons4 ,unmarried persons could not inherit property from anyone except their nearest relatives4 ,people who had no children could only claim half of an inheritance1 the other half was turned over to the state4 ,women who had been convicted of adultery1 were compelled to give a part of their dowery to their deceived husbands4 ,this provision caused some men to marry with a desire for adultery on the part of their wives4 ,that caused ,plutarch to remark3 8,romans do not marry to have heirs1 but to become heirs40 ,later on the ,julian law was still increased in severity4 ,tiberius issued an edict that no woman whose grandfather1 father or husband had been or was a ,roman knight1 might prostitute herself4 ,married women1 who had their names entered in the lists of prostitutes1 should be banished from ,italy4 ,for the men1 of course1 no such punishments existed4 ,as ,juvenal reports1 husband-murder by poison was a frequent occurrence in ,rome of his day4 #bc 8,mosaic ,law10 by ,john ,david ,michaelis4 #bd ,born #ajf ,b4 ,c4 #be ,from #ebg to #efe ,a4 ,d4 #bf ,seneca lived from #b to #fe ,a4 ,d4 #bg ,augustus1 the adopted son of ,caesar1 was by adoption a member of the ,gens ,julia1 from which the ,julian law derived its name4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,christianity4 ,while in the ,roman empire the marriage and birthrate were permitted to decline more and more1 the ,jews maintained far different customs4 ,the ,jewess was not entitled to choose her own husband2 he was chosen for her by her father4 ,but she regarded marriage as a duty which she faithfully performed4 ,the ,talmud advises3 8,when thy daughter has attained maturity1 set one of thy slaves free and betroth her to him40 ,the ,jews likewise faithfully obeyed the commandment of their ,god3 8,be fruitful and multiply40 ,accordingly the ,jews have steadily increased in spite of persecution and oppression2 they are staunch opponents of ,malthusianism4 ,tacitus said of them3 8,they firmly hold together and readily assist one another1 but are hostile and full of hatred against all others4 ,they never eat or sleep with enemies1 and though very much inclined to sensual passion1 they refrain from pairing with foreign women4 ,yet they are eager to increase their tribe4 ,to destroy their offspring is a sin to them2 and the souls of those who have been killed in battle or executed1 they consider immortal4 ,therefore they combine love for propagation with a contempt for death40 ,but ,tacitus hated and despised the ,jews because they1 regardless of their paternal creed1 eagerly accumulated wealth4 ,he calls them 8the meanest people10 8an ugly nation40 ,under ,roman rule1 the ,jews became more and more closely linked with one another1 and during the long time of suffering they were doomed to endure from this time on through the entire middle ages1 that intimate family life developed among them1 which still is regarded as a sort of model by bourgeois society4 ,in ,roman society meanwhile1 that process of decay and dissolution took place that brought the empire to an end4 ,the debauchery bordering on madness was opposed by the opposite extreme1 rigorous self-denial4 ,asceticism now assumed religious forms1 as the debaucheries had previously done4 ,eccentric fanaticism made propaganda for it4 ,the boundless luxury and extravagance of the ruling classes was in striking contrast with the want and misery of the millions and millions of people who were brought to ,italy into servitude by the conquering ,romans from all the countries of the world known at that time4 ,among these there also were ever so many women1 torn from their homes1 their parents1 their husbands and children1 who were most deeply afflicted by their misfortune and longed for liberation4 ,many ,roman women who were thoroughly disgusted by what was going on about them1 were in a similar mental state4 ,any change in their position seemed desirable4 ,a profound longing for change1 for redemption1 manifested itself in wide circles1 and the ,redeemer seemed to approach4 ,the conquest of the ,jewish realm and ,jerusalem by the ,romans1 resulted in the destruction of national independence1 and brought forth idealists among the ascetics of that country who predicted the coming of a new kingdom with freedom and happiness for all4 ,christ came and ,christianity developed4 ,it personified opposition against the beastly materialism that prevailed among the rich and mighty ones in the ,roman empire2 it represented rebellion against the oppression and disdain of the masses4 ,but since it sprang from ,judaism that knew woman only as an oppressed being1 and since it was biased by the biblical conception that she is the source of all evil1 it preached the disdain of woman2 it preached abstinence and destruction of the flesh1 that was sinning so much at the time1 and with ambiguous expressions pointed to a coming kingdom--conceived by some as a celestial1 by others as an earthly kingdom--that would bring universal peace and justice4 ,in the mire of the ,roman realm1 the seeds of these doctrines were planted in fertile soil4 ,woman1 hoping for liberation and redemption from her position like all the other unfortunates1 gladly and eagerly embraced the new faith4 ,until this day no great and important movement has taken place in all the world in which women did not figure as heroines and martyrs4 ,they who praise ,christianity as a great achievement of civilization1 should not forget that to woman it owed many of its victories4 ,her eagerness to make converts played an important part both in the ,roman empire and among the barbarian peoples of the middle ages4 ,through her efforts those in power often were converted4 ,thus1 for instance1 it was ,chlotilde who induced ,chlodwig1 ,king of the ,franks1 to embrace ,christianity4 ,it was ,bertha1 ,queen of ,kent1 and ,gisela1 ,queen of ,hungary1 who introduced ,christianity in their countries4 ,the conversion of many prominent men was due to the influence of women4 ,but ,christianity rewarded woman poorly4 ,its doctrines contain the same disdain of woman that is met with in all the religions of the ,orient4 ,it commands her to be an obedient servant to man1 and even to-day women must promise obedience to their husbands before the marriage altar4 ,let us hear how the ,bible and ,christianity speak of woman and marriage4 ,the ten commandments of the old testament are addressed exclusively to the man4 ,in the ninth commandment the woman is mentioned together with the domestic servants and domestic animals4 ,the man is warned not to covet his neighbor's wife1 nor his man-servant1 nor his maid-servant1 nor his ox1 nor his ass1 nor anything that is his neighbor's4 ,woman then is an object1 a piece of property1 that man should not desire if in someone else's possession4 ,jesus1 who belonged to a sect that maintained rigorous asceticism and practised voluntary emasculation1 when asked by his disciples whether it were well to marry1 replied3 ,all men cannot receive this saying save they to whom it is given4 ,for there are some eunuchs1 which were so born from their mother's womb2 and there are some eunuchs which were made eunuchs of men2 and there be eunuchs which have made themselves eunuchs for the kingdom of heaven's sake4 ,according to this1 then1 emasculation is agreeable to ,god1 and renunciation of love and marriage is a worthy deed4 ,st4 ,paul1 who may be called the founder of ,christianity even more so than ,jesus himself1 ,st4 ,paul1 who removed this creed from the narrow ,jewish sectarianism and gave it its international character1 writes to the ,corynthians3 ,now concerning the things whereof ye wrote unto me3 it is good for a man not to touch a woman4 ,nevertheless1 to avoid fornication1 let every man have his own wife and let every woman have her own husband4 8,matrimony is a degraded station2 to marry is good1 not to marry is better40 8,walk in the spirit and resist the temptations of the flesh40 8,the flesh conspires against the spirit and the spirit conspires against the flesh40 ,they1 whom ,christ has won1 have crucified their flesh with all its passions and desires4------ ,he was true to his own views and refrained from marriage4 ,this hatred of flesh is the hatred of woman1 but also the fear of woman1 who is represented as man's seducer4 ,in this spirit the apostles and fathers of the church preached2 in this same spirit the church used its influence during the entire middle ages1 by establishing monasteries and introducing celibacy of priests1 and it is still using its influence in the same direction4 ,according to ,christianity woman is impure4 ,she is the seducer who brought sin into the world and wrought man's destruction4 ,therefore the apostles and fathers of the church regarded marriage as a necessary evil1 as prostitution is regarded at present4 ,tertullian exclaims3 8,woman1 you ought to go about clad in mourning and rags1 your eyes filled with tears of remorse1 to make us forget that you have been mankind's destruction4 ,woman1 you are the gate to hell60 ,and3 8,celibacy must be chose1 even though the human race should perish40 ,hieronymus says3 8,matrimony is always a vice1 all that can be done is to excuse it and to sanctify it2 therefore it was made a religious sacrament40 ,origines declares3 8,matrimony is impure and unholy2 a means of sensual passion40 ,to escape the temptation he emasculated himself4 ,augustin teaches3 8,the married people will shine in heaven like radiant stars1 while their parents 7their procreators7 will be like dark stars40 ,eusebius and ,hieronymus are agreed that the teaching of the ,bible3 8,be fruitful and multiply10 is no longer suited to the times1 and does not concern ,christians4 ,hundreds of similar sayings by the most influential teachers of the church might be quoted1 to prove that they all taught in the same spirit4 ,by their continuous teaching and preaching they have disseminated those unnatural views about everything pertaining to sex and the sex relation1 which after all is a law of nature1 and the fulfillment of which is one of the most important duties in the plan of life4 ,modern society is still suffering from the effects of these doctrines1 and is but slowly recovering from them4 ,st4 ,peter exclaims with energy3 8,wives1 obey your husbands60 ,st4 ,paul writes to the ,ephesians3 8,the husband is the head of the wife1 as ,christ also is the head of the church40 ,and to the ,corinthians3 8,the man is the image and glory of ,god2 but woman is the glory of the man40 ,according to this any fool of a man may deem himself better than the most excellent woman1 and as a matter of fact it has been so in practice until this day4 ,against the higher education of women ,st4 ,paul also raises his voice4 ,in the first ,epistle to ,timothy #b1 #aa1 etc41 he says3 8,let a woman learn in quietness with all subjection4 ,but ,i permit not a woman to teach1 nor to have dominion over a man1 but to be in quietness02 and in the ,epistle to the ,corinthians1 #ad1 #cd and #ce3 8,let the women keep silence in the churches2 for it is not permitted unto them to speak4 ,but let them be in subjection as also saith the law4 ,and if they would learn anything let them ask their own husbands at home2 for it is shameful for a woman to speak in the church40 ,st4 ,thomas of ,aquino 7#abbg to #abgd7 says3 8,woman is a rapidly growing weed1 an imperfect being4 ,her body attains maturity more rapidly only because it is of less value1 and nature is engaged less in her making4 ,women are born to be eternally maintained under the yoke of their lords and masters1 endowed by nature with superiority in every respect1 and therefore destined to rule40 ,such doctrines are not characteristic of ,christianity only4 ,as ,christianity is a mixture of ,judaism and ,greek philosophy1 and as both are rooted in the more ancient civilizations of ,india1 ,babylon and ,egypt1 the inferior position alloted to woman by ,christianity was common to all the civilized nations of antiquity after the passing of the matriarchate4 ,in the ,indian book of laws of ,manu we find the following3 8,the cause of dishonor is woman2 the cause of hostility is woman2 the cause of worldly things is woman2 therefore woman should be shunned40 ,beside the degradation of woman1 the fear of woman is repeatedly naively expressed4 ,thus it is further stated in ,manu3 8,women are ever inclined by nature to seduce men2 therefore a man should never1 even in the company of his closest female relative1 sit in a lonely spot40 ,the ,indian conception1 the old testament1 and the ,christian conception1 all unite in declaring woman the seducer4 ,every condition of oppression entails the degradation of the oppressed4 ,the oppression of woman has been maintained until this day2 but among the ,oriental peoples1 whose social development has been retarded1 it has been maintained more rigorously than among the ,christian nations4 ,yet the factor that made for improvement in the position of women among ,christian nations was not ,christianity itself1 but the civilization of the ,western countries attained in the struggles against the ,christian conception4 ,christianity is not the cause that woman's position is superior to-day to what it had been at the time of the origin of ,christianity4 ,only reluctantly has it been compelled to abandon its true attitude toward woman4 ,they who are enthusiastic over the 8redeeming mission of ,christianity10 of course1 hold a different view4 ,they claim that ,christianity has liberated woman from her former degraded position1 and they base this claim especially upon the cult of the ,holy ,virgin1 which they consider a token of respect for woman4 ,the ,catholic ,church which maintains this cult1 might hardly share this opinion4 ,the above-quoted sayings of the saints and the fathers of the church which could easily be multiplied1 all express hostility to woman and marriage4 ,the ,council at ,macon during the sixth century1 which indulged in serious discussion as to whether woman had a soul1 and finally decided in her favor by a majority of one1 also disproves the claim that ,christianity was favorable to women4 ,the introduction of celibacy of priests by ,gregory ,,vii1#bh the purpose of which was to create a power by having an unmarried priesthood that would not be withdrawn from the service of the church by any family interests1 was made possible only by that fundamental view of the church1 that all desires of the flesh are sinful4 ,many reformers1 especially ,calvin and the ,scotch ministers1 have raved so vehemently against the 8lust of the flesh10 that they left no doubt in regard to the hostile attitude of ,christianity toward women4#bi ,by introducing the cult of the ,virgin ,mary1 the ,catholic ,church1 with wise calculation1 merely put this cult in place of the cult of the ancient goddesses1 that existed among all the peoples who were converted to ,christianity at that time4 ,mary replaced ,cybel1 ,mylitta1 ,aphrodite and ,venus among the ,southern nations1 and ,freia1 ,frigga and others among the ,german tribes4 ,she was only endowed with a ,christian1 spiritual idealism4 #bh ,among others the parish priests of the ,diocese of ,mayence thus protested against this ordinance3 8,you bishops and abbots possess great riches1 elegant hunting outfits and enjoy royal banquets2 we poor1 simple priests have but a wife for our comfort4 ,abstinence may be a virtue1 but it is forsooth severe and hard40--,yves ,guyot1 8,les ,thories sociales du ,christianisme40 #bi ,a great many instances in evidence of this are furnished by ,buckle in his 8,history of ,civilization in ,england40 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,woman in the ,mediaeval ,age4 #a4--,the ,position of ,women among the ,germans4 ,the robust1 physically healthy1 coarse but unsophisticated peoples that during the first centuries after ,christ came from the ,north and ,east1 flooding like mighty ocean waves the enervated ,roman empire in which ,christianity had gradually come into power1 vehemently resisted the ascetic teachings of the ,christian preachers1 who were obliged to make allowances for these healthy natures4 ,the ,romans were surprised to find that the customs of these peoples differed considerably from their own4 ,tacitus takes note of this fact in regard to the ,germans1 of whom he thus expresses his approval3 8,their marriage laws are severe and none of their customs are more laudable than this one1 for they are practically the only barbarians who content themselves with one wife4 ,among this numerous people one rarely hears of adultery1 and when it does occur1 it is promptly punished1 the men themselves being permitted to inflict the punishment4 ,naked1 her hair clipped1 thus the man drives the adulteress out of the village before the eyes of her relatives1 for a sin against virtue is not condoned4 ,there nobody laughs over vice and to seduce and being seduced are not considered a sign of good breeding4 ,the youths marry late2 therefore they maintain their strength4 ,the maidens1 too1 are not married off hastily1 and they are of the same stature as the men1 and present the same healthful glow of youth4 ,of equal age1 equally strong1 they wed1 and the strength of the parents is transmitted to the children40 ,evidently ,tacitus depicted the matrimonial relations of the ancient ,germans in a somewhat too rosy hue1 to set them before the ,romans as an example4 ,they indeed severely punished the woman who committed adultery1 but the punishment was not inflicted upon the man who committed adultery4 ,at the time of ,tacitus1 the gens still flourished among the ,germans4 ,tacitus1 being accustomed to the more advanced ,roman conditions that made the old gentile organization and its foundations seem strange and incomprehensible to him1 wonderingly relates that among the ,germans a mother's brother regards his nephew as a son1 and that some considered the bond of blood relation between an uncle on the mother's side and his nephew as being even more sacred than the bond between father and son4 ,for this reason1 so he furthermore relates1 when hostages were asked for1 it was considered a stronger security when a man gave his sister's son instead of his own4 ,upon this subject ,engels remarks3 8,when the member of a gens gave his own son as a hostage and he was sacrificed by a breach of the agreement1 it was the father's own concern4 ,but if his sister's son had been sacrificed a sacred gentile right had been violated4 ,the nearest gentile relation by duty bound to protect the boy or youth1 had caused his death4 ,he should either not have pledged him1 or should have kept his agreement40#cj ,engels shows that in other respects among the ,germans at the time of ,tacitus1 the matriarchate had already been replaced by the patriarchate4 ,the children inherited from their father4 ,in the absence of children1 brothers and uncles on both the father's and mother's side were the lawful heirs4 ,that the mother's brother was admitted to a share in the inheritance1 although inheritance was determined by descent on the father's side1 can be explained by the fact that the old law had but recently disappeared4 ,memories of the old law also caused that profound respect of the ,german for the female sex1 which so greatly surprised ,tacitus4 ,he also observed that the courage of the men was kindled to the utmost by the women4 ,the thought of seeing their women led into captivity and servitude was most terrible to the ancient ,germans and impelled them to the utmost resistance4 ,but the women also were animated by a spirit that greatly impressed the ,romans4 ,when ,marius would not permit the captured ,teuton women to become priestesses of ,vesta 7the goddess of virgin chastity7 they committed suicide4 ,at the time of ,tacitus the ,germans possessed fixed abodes4 ,there was an annual division of the soil1 which was determined by lot1 and the wood1 the streams and the pasture-ground were considered common property4 ,their mode of life was extremely simple2 their wealth consisted mainly of cattle2 coarse woolen cloaks or the hides of animals constituted their clothing4 ,women and some men of rank wore linen under-garments4 ,metal tools and weapons were manufactured only by those tribes who lived in too remote parts for the importation of ,roman products of industry4 ,in minor matters decisions were rendered by the council of chiefs2 in more important matters by the popular assembly4 ,originally the chiefs were elected1 though usually from one particular family4 ,but the transition to the patriarchal system favored the heredity of the position1 and finally led to the formation of a hereditary nobility that later on developed into kingship4 ,as in ,greece and ,rome1 the ,german gens perished by the rise of private property1 the development of industry and commerce1 and intermarriage with members of foreign tribes and nations4 ,the gens was replaced by the mark community1 a democratic organization of free peasants that constituted a firm bulwark against the encroachments of church and nobility for many centuries1 and did not quite disappear even then when the feudal state had come into power and the free peasants had been forced into a condition of servitude4 ,the mark community was represented by the heads of the families4 ,wives1 daughters and daughters-in-law were excluded from the council4 ,the times had passed in which women conducted the affairs of the tribe--an incident which greatly amazed ,tacitus1 and which he describes with remarks of scorn4 ,in the fifth century the ,salic law repealed the right of inheritance of women to patrimonial estates4 ,every male member of the mark community was entitled1 upon marriage1 to share in the common soil4 ,usually grandparents1 parents and children lived under one roof in a household community1 and so it frequently occurred that for the purpose of obtaining an additional share1 a son who had not yet attained the marriageable age was joined in wedlock with some maiden of marriageable age by proxy1 the father acting as husband in place of the son4#ca ,newly married couples were given a cartload of beachwood and wood to build a log cabin4 ,upon the birth of a daughter1 parents also received one cartload of wood2 upon the birth of a son they received two4 ,the female sex accordingly was considered worth only half as much as the male sex4 ,the marriage ceremony was simple4 ,religious rites were unknown4 ,a mutual agreement was sufficient1 and as soon as the couple had entered the nuptial bed1 the marriage was contracted4 ,only in the ninth century that custom arose according to which a religious ceremony was necessary to legalize a marriage1 and as late as the sixteenth century1 marriage was made a sacrament of the ,catholic ,church by a decision of the council of ,trent4 #cj ,engels3 8,origin of the ,family40 #ca ,the same custom was met with in ,russia during the rule of ,mir4 #b4--;,feudalism and the ,right of the ,first ,night4 ,with the rise of the feudal state the position of a great many commoners became considerably worse4 ,the victorious leaders of the army abused their power by taking possession of large tracts of land4 ,they considered themselves entitled to the common property1 and did not hesitate to distribute it among their followers1 slaves1 serfs or freed men1 either for temporary use or with the right of inheritance4 ,thereby they created for themselves a court and military nobility1 devoted to them in all things4 ,the establishment of a large realm of the ,franks destroyed the last traces of gentile organization4 ,the council of the chiefs was replaced by the leaders of the army and the newly created nobility4 ,gradually the great mass of the commoners were driven into a condition of exhaustion and pauperism1 as a result of the continuous wars of conquest and the disputes of their rulers1 for which they had to bear the heaviest burdens4 ,they could no longer serve in the militia4 ,in their place the lords and noblemen recruited vassals1 and the peasants placed themselves and their possessions under the protection of a worldly or spiritual lord--for the church had succeeded in becoming a great power within a few centuries--in return for which they paid rent and taxes4 ,thus the free farms were transformed into leased property1 and as time went by new duties were constantly imposed4 ,having once come into this dependent position1 it was not long before the peasants were deprived of their personal liberty as well4 ,bondage and serfdom expanded more and more4 ,the feudal lord held almost unrestricted sway over his serfs4 ,his was the right to compel any man who had attained the eighteenth and any girl who had attained the fourteenth year1 to become married4 ,he could prescribe to both men and women whom they were to marry1 even in the case of widows and widowers4 ,as lord of his subjects1 he considered himself entitled to sexual intercourse with his female serfs1 and his power was expressed in the 8jus primae noctis0 7the right of the first night74 ,this right might also be practiced by his representative 7major domo7 unless the right were waived upon payment of a tax4 ,the terms 8bed-tribute10 8virgin's tribute10 etc41 betray the nature of these taxes4 ,it has frequently been denied that this right of the first night existed4 ,the knowledge of its existence is uncomfortable to some people1 because it was still practiced at a time that they like to represent as a model for virtuousness and piety4 ,we have already shown that this right of the first night was a custom which had its origin in the time of the matriarchate4 ,when the old gentile organization disappeared1 the custom of surrendering the bride in the bridal night to the members of her kinship was still maintained4 ,but in the course of time the right was restricted and finally practiced only by the chief or priest4 ,it was transferred upon the feudal lord as a result of his power over the people who lived upon the land owned by him1 and he might practice this right if he so chose1 or waive it in return for a payment in kind or in money4 ,how real was this right of the first night may be seen by the following passage from a tale by ,jacob ,grimm3 8,the groom shall invite the manager of the estate to the wedding and he shall also invite the manager's wife4 ,the manager shall bring a cartload of wood to the wedding1 and his wife shall bring a quarter of a roasted pig4 ,when the wedding is over1 the groom shall let the manager lie with his wife for the first night1 or he shall redeem her with five shillings and six pence40 ,sugenheim#cb holds the opinion that the right of the first night was given to the feudal lord because his serfs1 in order to marry1 needed his consent4 ,in ,barn this practice led to the custom that all first-born children of marriages in which the 8jus primae noctis0 had been practiced1 were regarded as of free estate4 ,later on this right was generally redeemable by the payment of a tax4 ,according to ,sugenheim1 the bishops of ,amiens stubbornly maintained this tax until the beginning of the fifteenth century4 ,in ,scotland the right of the first night was declared redeemable by payment of a tax by ,king ,malcolm ,,iii at the close of the eleventh century4 ,in ,germany it existed much longer4 ,according to the records of the ,swabian monastery ,adelberg of the year #adif1 the serfs living in the community of ,boertlingen1 could redeem the right if the groom gave a bag of salt and the bride gave #a lb #g shillings in a dish 8large enough that she might sit in it40 ,in other localities the brides might redeem it by giving the feudal lord so much butter or cheese 8as was the size of their seat40 ,elsewhere they had to give a dainty leather chair 8in which they just fitted40 ,according to a description of the ,bavarian judge of the court of appeals1 ,mr4 ,welsh1 a tax for redeeming the jus primae noctis still existed in ,bavaria in the eighteenth century4 ,engels furthermore reports that among the ,scots and ,welsh the jus primae noctis was maintained thruout the middle age1 but since here the gentile organization continued to exist1 it was not the feudal lord or his representative who practiced this right1 but the chieftain of the clan1 and by him it was practiced as representative of all the husbands unless a tribute was paid4 ,so there can be no doubt as to the existence of the right of the first night1 not only in medieval days1 but even down to modern times1 and that it held a place in the feudal code of laws4 ,in ,poland noblemen arrogated the right to deflour any maiden who chanced to please them1 and if someone protested against this usage1 they condemned him to receive one hundred blows with a cane4 ,land-lords and their employees still consider the sacrifice of virginal honor to their lust a matter of course1 not only in ,germany1 but in the entire southern and south eastern portion of ,europe1 as is asserted by those who are acquainted with the land and the people4 ,during feudalism it was in the interest of the feudal lord that his serfs should become married1 for the children became his serfs also1 adding to the number of his workers and increasing his income4 ,therefore both worldly and spiritual masters encouraged marriage among their subjects4 ,the question assumed a different aspect tho as far as the church was concerned1 when an unmarried person was likely to will his property to the church4 ,but this only applied to free men of low estate1 whose conditions grew steadily worse as a result of the conditions described herein1 and who gave over their possessions to the church to seek protection and peace within the walls of the monasteries4 ,others again placed themselves under the protection of the church by paying a tax or by rendering services4 ,but in this way the fate they had sought to escape frequently befell their descendants2 they gradually came into bondage or were made novices for the monasteries4 #cb ,history of the abolition of serfdom in ,europe until the middle of the nineteenth century4 #c4--,the ,rise of ,cities4--,monastic ,affairs4--,prostitution4 ,the cities which had begun to flourish with the eleventh century1 favored the increase of population in their own interest by facilitating residence and marriage4 ,they became places of refuge to the rural population seeking to escape unbearable oppression1 and to fugitive serfs4 ,but at a later day these conditions changed again4 ,as soon as the cities had obtained power1 and a class of mechanics in comfortable circumstances had come into existence1 a feeling of hostility manifested itself against new-comers who tried to settle down as mechanics1 since they were regarded as undesirable competitors4 ,barriers were erected against the new-comers2 heavy taxes were levied upon them if they would obtain the right of residence and become qualified as master-workmen4 ,trades were limited to a certain number of master-workmen and their journeymen1 thereby forcing thousands into a condition of servitude1 celibacy and vagabondage4 ,when during the sixteenth century the cities began to decline1--owing to conditions that will be discussed later on1--it was quite in keeping with the narrow views of the time that residence and the right to independently practice a trade were made still more difficult4 ,the tyranny of the feudal lords constantly increased1 until many of their subjects preferred to abandon their miserable lives for the freer life of beggar1 tramp or robber1 the latter being favored by the large forests and the poor condition of the highways1 or1 making the most of the numerous warfares of the time1 they became mercenary soldiers1 selling their services wherever the pay was highest and the booty most promising4 ,male and female rabble flooded the country1 becoming a public nuisance4 ,the church helped to increase the general depravity4 ,the forced celibacy of the clergy alone led to sexual debauchery1 and this was still heightened by the constant association with ,italy and ,rome4 ,rome was not only the capital of ,christianity1 being the residence of the popes1 it was also1 true to its traditions under the heathen emperors1 a new ,babel1 the ,european high-school of immorality1 and the papal court was its most distinguished center4 ,the ,roman empire at its dissolution had left to ,christian ,europe all its vices4 ,these were cultivated in ,rome and from there penetrated into ,germany1 favored by association of the clergy with ,rome4 ,the numerous clergy1 consisting to a great extent of men whose sexual desires were increased to the utmost by a lazy and luxurious life1 and whom enforced celibacy drove to illegitimate or unnatural satisfaction of their desires1 transmitted this immorality to all strata of society4 ,the clergy became a pestilential danger to the virtue of women in cities and villages4 ,monasteries and nunneries1--and there were countless numbers of them1--frequently differed from public brothels only inasmuch as life within them was still more licentious and dissolute4 ,crimes1 especially infanticide1 were frequently committed there with impunity1 because only those were permitted to pass judgment who were more often than not connected with the crimes4 ,sometimes peasants tried to protect their wives and daughters from being seduced by clergymen1 by refusing to accept as pastor any one who would not consent to keeping a concubine4 ,this circumstance led a bishop of ,constance to impose a concubine tax upon the clergy of his diocese4 ,such conditions explain the historically authenticated fact1 that during the medival age described by one writer of romance as a pious and virtuous age1 for instance in #adad1 at the council of ,constance1 no less than #aejj prostitutes were present4 ,but these conditions by no means made their appearance only at the decline of the middle age4 ,they appeared at an early date and gave cause for constant complaints and ordinances4 ,thus ,charlemagne issued an ordinance in the year #hjb1 in which it says3 8the nunneries shall be closely guarded4 ,the nuns shall not roam about but shall be carefully watched1 neither shall they live in discord and quarrels with one another1 and under no circumstances shall they disobey their mothers superior4 ,where they have monastic rules they shall absolutely abide by them4 ,they shall not be given to covetousness1 drunkenness and prostitution1 but shall lead a just and temperate life4 ,neither shall any man enter their convent except to attend mass1 and then he shall immediately depart again40 ,another ordinance of the year #hfi declared3 8if priests keep several wives or shed the blood of ,christians or heathens1 or break the canonical law1 they shall be divested of their priesthood because they are worse than the laity40 ,the fact that in those days the priests were forbidden to have several wives1 shows that in the ninth century polygamy was not rare4 ,indeed there were no laws forbidding it4 ,even later1 at the time of the minnesingers1 during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries1 it was not considered objectionable to have several wives4 ,in a poem by ,albrecht of ,johansdorf in the collection 8,love-songs' ,springtime10 we find the following stanza3#cc ,particularly detrimental to the moral condition of the age were the crusades1 that kept tens of thousands of men away from their homes for years1 and led them to become acquainted with customs in the ,eastern ,roman empire that had until then been unknown in ,western ,europe4 ,the position of women became especially unfavorable1 not only as a result of the many hindrances to marriage and permanent residence1 but also because their numbers by far exceeded the male population4 ,the chief cause of this was the numerous wars and the fact that commercial traveling in those days was a dangerous undertaking4 ,moreover the death rate among men was higher than among women1 as a result of their intemperate living1 which was especially manifested during the plague that frequently ravaged the population in the middle age4 ,thus there were #cb plague years in the period from #acbf to #adjj2 #da from #adjj to #aejj1 and #cj from #aejj to #afjj4cd ,hosts of women roamed about on the highways as musicians1 dancers1 magicians1 in the company of wandering scholastics and priests1 and flooded the markets and fairs4 ,they formed special divisions in the troops of foot-soldiers where they were organized in guilds according to the spirit of the age1 and were assigned to the different ranks according to age and beauty4 ,by severe penalty they were forbidden to yield to any man outside of the prescribed circle4 ,in the camp they had to help the baggage-carriers to gather in hay1 straw and wood1 to fill up holes and ditches and to clean the camp4 ,during sieges it was their task to fill up the ditches with brushwood1 branches and tufts of grass to facilitate the attack2 they helped to place the guns in position and to drag them along when they became stuck in the muddy roads4#ce ,to give some relief to these numerous helpless women1 so called beguinages1 that were maintained by the municipality1 were erected in many cities from the middle of the thirteenth century on4 ,here the women were given homes and were encouraged to lead decent lives4 ,but neither their institutions nor the nunneries could shelter all those who sought help and protection4 ,the hindrances to marriage1 the journeys of noblemen and other worldly and spiritual lords who came into the cities with their hosts of knights and attendants1 the young men within the cities and1 last but not least1 the married men who were not troubled much by moral scruples but believed that variety was the spice of life1--all these created a demand for prostitutes in the medieval towns4 ,as every trade in those days was organized into guilds and submitted to definite regulations1 so also was prostitution4 ,in all the larger cities brothels were maintained that were municipal1 state or church property and whose profits went to fill these respective treasuries4 ,the women in these houses had a senior-mistress elected by themselves1 whose duty it was to maintain order and who was especially charged with the task of seeing to it that no competitors outside of the guild harmed the legitimate trade4 ,if such competitors were caught1 they had to pay a legal fine4 ,thus the inhabitants of a brothel in ,nuremberg complained to the magistrate about the competition of women who were not members of their guild3 8that other keepers also maintain women who go upon the streets at night and harbour married men and others1 and who ply their trade in a much coarser way1 and that such were a disgrace and should not be permitted in this praiseworthy town40#cf ,the brothels enjoyed special protection2 breach of the peace in their vicinity was punished more severely than elsewhere4 ,this female guild was also entitled to appear at festivals and in processions in which it was customary for all the guilds to participate4 ,they were even sometimes invited as guests to princely and official banquets4 ,the brothels were considered desirable 8for the protection of married women and the honor of virgins40 ,this was the same argument which was resorted to in order to justify the maintenance of brothels by the state in ,athens4 ,nevertheless barbarous persecutions of the prostitutes were met with1 that came from the same men whose demand and whose money maintained the prostitutes4 ,thus ,charlemagne decreed that a prostitute should be brought nude upon the market place and be flogged there4 ,he himself1 the 8most ,christian0 king and emperor had no less than six wives simultaneously4 ,his daughters1 evidently following their father's example1 were not models of virtue either4 ,their mode of life gave him many unpleasant hours1 and they brought several illegitimate children into his house4 ,alkuin1 a friend and advisor to ,charlemagne1 warned his pupils of 8the crowned doves who fly thru the ,palatinate at night10 meaning the emperor's daughters4 ,the same communities that officially organized and protected the brothels and granted all sorts of privileges to the prostitutes inflicted the hardest and most cruel punishments upon a poor forsaken girl who had gone wrong4 ,the infanticide who1 driven to despair1 had killed her own offspring was subjected to cruel death1 while no one bothered about the unscrupulous seducer4 ,perhaps he sat among the judges who pronounced the death sentence on the unfortunate victim4 ,the same is possible still4#cg ,adultery of wives was also severely punished2 to be put in the pillory was the least she might expect4 ,but adultery of husbands was concealed by the cloak of ,christian forbearance4 ,in ,wuerzburg it was customary for the brothel-keeper to take an oath before the magistrate1 pledging faith and allegiance to the city and that he would diligently enlist women4 ,similar oaths were taken in ,nuremberg1 ,ulm1 ,leipsic1 ,cologne1 ,frankfort1 and others4 ,in ,ulm the brothels were abolished in #aecg2 but in #aeea1 the guilds moved to reinstate them 8to avoid a worse state of affairs40 ,when strangers of note visited a city1 prostitutes were placed at their disposal at the city's expense4 ,when ,king ,ladislaus entered ,vienna in #adeb1 the magistrate sent a committee of public prostitutes to meet him1 clad in transparant gauze that disclosed their beautiful shapes4 ,emperor ,charles ,v1 upon entering ,antwerp1 was also received by a committee of nude girls1 a historic scene that ,hans ,makart depicted in a large painting which is now on exhibition in the museum at ,hamburg4 ,such occurrences created no scandal in those days4 #cc ,would he not be fickle ,who would choose to have a second wife ,beside his virtuous one8 ,speak1 ,sir1 would you8-- ,let it to men be granted but to women not6 #cd ,dr4 ,charles ,buecher3 8,the ,woman ,question in ,medival ,times40 #ce ,dr4 ,charles ,buecher3 8,the ,woman ,question in ,medieval ,times40 #cf ,joh4 ,scherr1 ,history of the ,german ,woman1 #dth ed4 ,leipsic1 #ahgi4 #cg ,leon ,richter in 8,la femme libre0 reports a case where a servant girl was convicted of infanticide by the father of her child1 a pious lawyer1 who was a member of the court4 ,after the girl's conviction it became known that the lawyer himself was the murderer and that she was innocent4 #d4--,knighthood and the ,veneration of ,women4 ,phantastic writers of romance and scheming persons have endeavored to depict the medival age as an especially virtuous one1 and as one imbued with a profound veneration of women4 ,the time of the minnesingers1 from the twelfth to the fourteenth century1 is dwelt upon to furnish proof to this assertion4 ,the poetic courtship of the knights1 that was first introduced by the ,moriscos in ,spain1 is supposed to prove that women were highly honored at that time4 ,but let a few facts be remembered4 ,firstly1 the knights only constituted a very small portion of the population1 and in the same way their ladies constituted a small portion of the women4 ,secondly1 only a very limited number of the knights practiced this knightly courtship2 and thirdly1 the true nature of this custom has been considerably misunderstood or distorted4 ,the time when knighthood was in flower1 was the age of the rule of brute force in ,germany2 it was the age in which all bonds of law and order were broken1 and the knights practiced extortion1 plundering and highway-robbery without restraint4 ,such an age of brute force is not one in which mild and poetic sentiments predominate4 ,on the contrary4 ,this age was destined to shatter the respect for the female sex that might still have remained4 ,the knights1 in the country as well as in the towns1 were mostly coarse1 brutal fellows1 whose chief passion1 besides warfare and excessive drinking1 was the unrestricted satisfaction of their sexual desires4 ,the chroniclers of that time tell of incessant acts of violence and ravishment committed by the nobility of town and country1 who controlled the municipal governments throughout the thirteenth1 fourteenth and into the fifteenth centuries4 ,because the knights conducted the courts in the towns1 and the feudal lords passed judgment in the rural districts1 the injured persons rarely obtained redress of their grievances4 ,it is a great exaggeration then to assume that their customs of courtship caused the ancient nobility to treat women with special respect and to regard them as superior beings4 ,a small minority of the knights seem to have been enthusiastic over feminine beauty1 but their enthusiasm was by no means platonic but pursued very material aims4 ,even that clown among the romantic admirers 8of lovely women10 ,ulrick of ,lichtenstein of ridiculous memory1 was a platonic lover only so long as he was compelled to be4 ,in the main1 this romantic worship of woman was nothing but deification of the mistress at the expense of the legitimate wife2 it was nothing but courtesanship1 as it has existed in ,greece at the time of ,pericles1 transplanted into medieval ,christianity4 ,the mutual seduction of wives was frequently practiced among the knights also1 as it is still practiced in certain circles of our bourgeoisie4 ,the open manifestation of sensuality1 characteristic of that age1 constituted a frank recognition of the fact that the natural desires implanted in every healthy1 adult human being rightfully seek satisfaction4 ,in that respect it expressed a victory of healthy nature over the ascetic teachings of ,christianity4 ,but on the other hand it must again be emphasized1 that this recognition came into consideration for the one sex only1 while the other sex was treated on the assumption that it could not and dare not have the same impulses4 ,the slightest transgression by women of the moral laws laid down for them by men1 was punished with unmerciful severity4 ,women1 as a result of constant oppression and a singular education1 have become so accustomed to the conception of their rulers1 that they still consider this condition quite natural4 ,were there not also millions of slaves who considered slavery a natural condition and who would never have liberated themselves had not the liberators sprung from the slave owning class8 ,when ,prussian peasants were to be emancipated from serfdom1 they petitioned the government not to emancipate them1 8for who should provide for them when they were aged or ill80 ,and do we not meet with the same situation in the modern labor movement8 ,how many workingmen still permit their exploiters to influence them and lead them at will6 ,the oppressed needs some one to animate and inspire him1 because he lacks the initiative for independence4 ,it was thus in the present day movement of the proletariat1 and it is the same in the struggle for the emancipation of women4 ,even the bourgeoisie1 that enjoyed a relatively more favorable position in its struggle for independence1 found its leaders and spokesmen among the nobility and clergy4 ,whatever the shortcomings of the middle ages may have been1 it possessed a healthy sensuality which sprang from the strong1 buoyant nature of the people1 and which ,christianity could not suppress4 ,the hypocritical prudery and concealed lasciviousness of our day1 that fears to call a spade a spade and to speak of natural things in a natural way1 was foreign to that age4 ,neither was it familiar with that piquant ambiguity to which we resort in speaking of what we dare not name1 because to be prudish and unnatural has become customary with us1 and which is all the more dangerous because such language allures1 but does not satisfy1 allows us to surmise but does not express clearly4 ,our social conversations1 our novels and our theaters abound with these piquant ambiguities1 and their effect is manifested4 ,this spiritualism of the rou1 concealed by religious spiritualism1 has a powerful influence4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,the ,reformation4 #a4--,luther4 ,the healthy sensuality of the middle ages found its classic exponent in ,luther4 ,we are here not so much concerned with the religious reformer1 but with ,luther1 the man4 ,in regard to all human relations1 ,luther's strong1 unsophisticated nature clearly manifested itself1 and caused him to express freely and without reserve his desire for love and enjoyment4 ,his position as a former ,roman clergyman had opened his eyes and had taught him from experience how contrary to all the laws of nature were the lives of monks and nuns4 ,therefore he roundly condemned the celibacy of priests and monks4 ,luther says3 8,unless specially endowed by a rare1 divine grace1 a woman can no more dispense with a man1 than she can dispense with food1 drink1 sleep and other natural needs4 ,in the same way a man cannot do without a woman4 ,the cause is that the desire to propagate the race is as deeply implanted by nature as the desire for food and drink4 ,therefore ,god has given unto the human body limbs1 veins1 circulation and all that serves this end4 ,he who opposes this1 and will not let nature take her course1 what does he do but seek to prevent nature from being nature1 fire from burning1 water from moistening1 human beings from eating1 drinking and sleeping80 ,in his sermon on marriage1 he says3 8,just as it is not within my power not to be a man1 so it is not in thy power to do without a man1 for it is not free will or advice but a natural necessity that every man must have a woman and that every woman must have a man40 ,but ,luther does not only express himself so strongly in favor of marriage and the necessity of sexual relations1 he also expresses himself as opposed to it that the church and marriage should have anything in common4 ,he says in regard to this3 8,know that marriage is something extrinsic as any other worldly action4 ,as ,i may eat1 drink1 sleep1 walk1 ride and deal with any heathen1 ,jew1 ,turk or heretic1 so to one of these ,i may also become and remain married4 ,do not observe the laws of fools that forbid such marriages4444 ,heathens are men and women1 well and wisely created by ,god1 just as well as ,st4 ,peter and ,st4 ,paul and ,st4 ,luke1 not to speak of any false and wanton ,christian40 ,luther furthermore1 like other reformers1 opposed all restrictions to marriage1 and favored permitting divorcees to marry1 which was opposed by the church4 ,he says3 8in regard to matters of marriage and divorce among us ,i say1 let the jurists dispose of them1 and let them be subject to worldly rule1 since matrimony is a worldly1 extrinsic thing40 ,in accordance with this view1 it was not until the end of the seventeenth century that a religious ceremony was considered essential to a legal marriage among ,protestants4 ,until then the so called conscience marriage sufficed1 that is1 a marriage founded upon the mutual agreement to regard one another as husband and wife and to live in matrimonial relations with one another4 ,according to ,german law such marriages were legal4 ,luther even went so far as to adjudge to the unsatisfied party in a marriage contract--even if the party were the woman--the right to seek satisfaction outside of marriage1 8in order to do justice to nature that can not be resisted40#ch ,in this matter ,luther sets forth opinions that would rouse many of our present day respectable men and women1 who always point to ,luther in their pious zeal1 to vehement indignation4 ,in his treatise 8on married life10 ,,ii1 #adf1 ,jena #aebb1 he says3 8if a healthy woman is joined in wedlock to an impotent man and could not nor would for her honor's sake openly choose another1 she should speak to her husband thus3 ,see1 my dear husband1 thou hast deceived me and my young body and endangered my honor and salvation1 before ,god there is no honor between us4 ,suffer that ,i maintain a secret marriage with thy brother or closest friend while thou remainest my husband in name4 ,that thy property may not fall heir to strangers2 willingly be deceived by me as you have unwillingly deceived me40 ,it should be the husband's duty1 ,luther goes on to say1 to consent to such arrangement4 8,if he will not she has the right to abandon him and go into another country and marry another man4 ,in the same way if a woman will not perform her conjugal duty1 the man has the right to seek another woman2 only he should first tell his wife40#ci ,we see1 the opinions set forth by the great reformer are very radical and even immoral1 when viewed in the light of our age1 abounding with prudery and hypocrisy4 ,but ,luther only expressed the popular conceptions of his age4 ,the following is told by ,jacob ,grimm3 8,if a man cannot satisfy his wedded wife1 let him take her gently upon his back and carry her to his neighbors4 ,there let him set her down softly1 without anger or rudeness but upon mutual agreement1 and let him appeal to his neighbors to help his wife in her need4 ,if they will not or can not1 then let him send her to the nearest fair4 ,there shall she appear1 becomingly dressed and adorned1 wearing a gold embroidered veil as a token that she may be wooed4 ,if after all she returns from the fair still unsatisfied1 then may the devil help her60 ,the peasant of the middle age primarily sought marriage for the purpose of having heirs1 and if he was unable to beget them himself1 being a practical man1 he left this pleasure to another without having particular moral scruples about it4 ,the main object was to attain his purpose4 ,we repeat3 ,man does not control his property1 he is controlled by it4 ,the above quotations from the writings and sermons of ,luther are of special importance because the views in regard to marriage expressed in them are diametrically opposed to those maintained by the church to-day4 ,luther and the other reformers went still further in matters pertaining to marriage but1 it must be admitted1 for opportunistic reasons1 in order to please such sovereigns whose lasting support and good will they sought to win and to maintain4 ,the landgrave of ,hessia1 ,philip ,i1 who was in sympathy with the reformation1 had a legal wife1 but fell in love with another woman who refused to yield to his entreaties unless he would marry her4 ,it was a delicate case4 ,to become divorced from his wife without good and sufficient reason would imply a great scandal2 to be married to two women simultaneously was a shocking occurrence with a ,christian sovereign of the newer era1 bound to create a still greater scandal4 ,nevertheless amorous ,philip chose the latter alternative4 ,it only was necessary to determine that this step was not in opposition to the teachings of the ,bible1 and to obtain the consent of the reformers1 especially ,luther and ,melanchton4 ,the landgrave then opened negotiations with ,butzer1 who consented to the plan and promised to win ,luther and ,melanchton4 ,butzer explained his view by pointing out that to have several wives simultaneously was not in conflict with the gospel1 since ,paul1 who had mentioned many who shall not inherit the kingdom of ,god1 had said nothing about those who have two wives4 ,paul had decreed that a bishop and his servants should not have more than one wife4 ,if it had been necessary that no man should have more than one wife1 he would have stated this and would have forbidden polygamy4 ,luther and ,melanchton declared themselves in accordance with these views and consented to the double marriage1 after the landgrave's wife had also given her consent under the condition 8that he should perform his conjugal duty toward her even more than heretofore40#dj ,luther had been previously troubled by the question whether bigamy was permissible when asked to give his consent to the double marriage of ,henry ,,viii of ,england4 ,that can be seen from a letter which he wrote to the ,saxon chancellor ,brink in ,january #aebd4 ,in this letter he wrote that on principle he1 ,luther1 could not object to bigamy since it was not in conflict with the ,holy ,scripture1#da but that he considered it offensive when occurring among ,christians1 for there were some things from which ,christians should refrain even if they were not forbidden4 ,after the marriage of the landgrave1 which actually took place during ,march #aedj1 he wrote 7,april #aj7 in reply to a letter of appreciation from him3 8,i am glad that ,your ,grace is pleased by the advice we have given2 but we should prefer to have secrecy maintained4 ,otherwise the coarse peasants1 seeking to follow the example set by the landgrave1 might present the same or even better causes1 which would give us no end of trouble40 ,melanchton probably had fewer scruples in giving his consent to the double marriage of the landgrave1 for he had previously written to ,henry ,,viii1 that every sovereign was entitled to introduce polygamy in his realm4 ,but the double marriage of the landgrave caused so much unpleasant notoriety in his country1 that in #aeda he had a pamphlet distributed in which polygamy was defended on the ground that it was not in opposition to the ,holy ,scripture4 ,but conceptions had been greatly modified since the ninth or twelfth century when polygamy was accepted without averse criticism4 ,the double marriage of the landgrave of ,hessia was however not the only one that gave offense to wide circles4 ,such princely double marriages were repeated both in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries as will be shown4 ,when ,luther declared the satisfaction of sensual desire to be a law of nature1 he only expressed what his contemporaries thought and what the men claimed as their privilege4 ,by the reformation1 which did away with the celibacy of the clergy and abolished the monasteries in the ,protestant countries1 he gave to hundreds of thousands of men and women the possibility to seek legitimate satisfaction of their natural desires4 ,hundreds of thousands of others1 of course1 remained excluded from this possibility by the existing forms of property and the laws founded upon them4 ,the reformation was the protest of the rising bourgeoisie against the constraint of feudal conditions in church1 state and society4 ,this rising bourgeoisie struggled for liberation from the narrow bonds of the guild1 the court and the papal anathema2 it strove for centralization of the powers of the state1 simplification of the extravagant church affairs1 and the abolition of the numerous abodes of idle persons1 the monasteries4 ,luther represented these endeavors of the bourgeoisie upon the religious field4 ,when he stood for the freedom of marriage1 it was the bourgeois marriage that was realized only in our day by the civil marriage laws1 and the freedom of migration and freedom of choice in trade and domicile4 ,we will see to what extent the position of woman was modified by these changes4 ,during the reformation this change of development had not yet been reached4 ,while on the one hand the reformation made marriage possible for many people1 on the other hand free sexual intercourse was subjected to the most bitter persecution4 ,while the ,catholic clergy had maintained a certain tolerance toward sexual excess1 the ,protestant clergy1 having been provided for itself1 declaimed against it with redoubled zeal4 ,war was waged against the public brothels that were declared to be the devil's dens4 ,prostitutes were persecuted as daughters of ,satan1 and every woman who had 8fallen0 was considered a paragon of wickedness and was subjected to relentless persecution4 ,the merry1 life loving townsman of the middle ages became a bigoted1 austere1 sombre philistine1 who lived miserly that his later day bourgeois descendants might live all the more extravagantly4 ,the honorable citizen with his stiff cravat1 his narrow intellectual horizon1 his severe but hypocritical morality1 became the prototype of society4 ,legitimate wives who had not favored the sensuality tolerated by the ,catholicism of the middle ages1 were generally better pleased by the ,puritan spirit of ,protestantism4 ,but other causes that had an unfavorable influence on conditions in ,germany generally1 also influenced the position of women unfavorably4 #ch ,dr4 ,carl ,hagen--,germany's ,literary and ,religious ,conditions during the ,reformation4 #ci ,dr4 ,carl ,hagen4 #dj ,john ,janssen--,history of the ,german ,people4 #da ,this is true and can be explained from the fact that the ,bible had its origin at a time when polygamy prevailed both among the ,eastern and ,western people2 but in the sixteenth century it nevertheless was in direct opposition to custom4 #b4--,results of the ,reformation4--,the ,thirty ,years' ,war4 ,transformations in the conditions of production1 exchange and finance1 that were brought about especially by the discovery of ,america1 and the discovery of the passage to ,india1 resulted in a great social reaction for ,germany4 ,germany ceased to be the center of ,european commerce4 ,the ,german trades and manufactures declined4 ,at the same time the religious reformation had destroyed the political unity of the nation4 ,under the cloak of the reformation1 the ,german princes sought to emancipate themselves from imperial rule4 ,on the other hand1 these princes oppressed the nobility and favored the cities to serve their own ends4 ,some of the cities voluntarily placed themselves under the rule of the princes1 driven to this step by conditions that were steadily growing worse4 ,the bourgeoisie upon seeing their income threatened1 tried to make the restrictions that were intended to guard them against undesirable competition more and more rigorous1 and the princes willingly conceded their demands4 ,the ossification of conditions increased1 but the general impoverishment increased likewise4 ,another result of the reformation were the religious struggles and persecutions--used by the princes to serve their own political and economic ends--that raged in ,germany with some interruptions for over a century1 and finally ended with its complete exhaustion at the end of the ,thirty ,years' ,war4 ,germany had become a vast field of corpses and ruins4 ,entire countries and provinces had been devastated1 hundreds of cities and thousands of villages partly or completely destroyed1 and many of them had been wiped from the surface of the earth forever4 ,in many places the population had been reduced to a third1 a fourth1 a fifth1 even an eighth or a tenth of its original number4 ,such was the case in ,nuremberg1 and in the entire ,franconian province4 ,in this utmost need1 in order to increase the population in the depopulated towns and villages1 the unusual measure was occasionally resorted to of permitting one man to have two wives4 ,men had been decimated by the wars1 but there was a superabundance of women4 ,on the #adth of ,february #afej1 the ,franconian district council at ,nuremberg decreed that 8men under #fj should not be admitted into monasteries02 it furthermore decreed that 8those clergymen who were not members of an order should become married40 ,moreover1 8every man should be permitted to wed two wives1 but the men should be frequently reminded and exhorted from the pulpits to employ good judgment and discretion1 that a married man who ventured to maintain two wives should not only provide well for both of them1 but should also endeavor to avoid ill feeling between them40 ,so even the pulpits were employed to make propaganda for the double marriage and to lay down rules of conduct for the men4 ,commerce and industry almost came to a standstill during this long period2 in many instances they were almost completely destroyed and picked up but very gradually4 ,a large portion of the population had become demoralized and brutalized and disaccustomed to all regular work4 ,during the wars1 troops of mercenary soldiers had crossed ,germany from one end to the other1 plundering1 destroying1 ravishing and murdering1 a terror alike to friend and foe4 ,after the wars countless numbers of beggars1 robbers and vagabonds maintained the population in constant terror and made commerce and all traffic difficult or impossible4 ,to the female sex especially it was a time of great suffering4 ,in this period of dissoluteness the contempt of woman had increased to the utmost1 and the general condition of unemployment weighed most heavily upon her shoulders4 ,like the male vagabonds1 thousands of women populated the highways and forests and filled the alms-houses and prisons4 ,all these sufferings were still increased by the forcible expulsion of numerous peasant families by the greedy nobility4 ,since the reformation the nobility had become more and more subjected to princely rule1 and by holding court and military positions their dependence on the princes had constantly increased4 ,now they tried to reimburse themselves for the losses sustained through the princes by robbing the peasants4 ,to the princes1 on the other hand1 the reformation offered the desired excuse to acquire the property of the church1 which they proceeded to do on a large scale4 ,prince ,august of ,saxony1 for instance1 had1 at the end of the sixteenth century1 acquired no less than #cjj ecclesiastical estates4#db ,his brothers and cousins1 the other ,protestant sovereigns1 above all those of the ,house of ,hohenzollern1 did likewise4 ,the nobility followed their example by appropriating the remaining communal property1 and by driving both free peasants and serfs from hearth and home and taking possession of their estates4 ,the unsuccessful peasant revolts during the sixteenth century gave them the desired pretext for such action1 and after the attempt had once succeeded1 new pretexts were constantly found to continue this forcible method4 ,various schemes and distortions of justice were resorted to1 made easy by the ,roman law which had been established in ,germany in the meantime1 to increase the property of the nobility by forcing the peasants to sell theirs at lowest prices1 or by simply expropriating them4 ,entire villages and the farms of entire districts were usurped in this manner4 ,to quote just a few examples3 ,of #ab1edc knightly peasant estates which still existed in the province of ,mecklenburg during the ,thirty ,years' ,war1 only #a1bac remained in the year #ahdh4 ,in the province of ,pomerania #ab1jjj farms were abandoned since #afbh4 ,the transformations in the methods of farming that took place during the seventeenth century gave a further impulse to the nobility to expropriate the peasants and to transform the last remnants of communal property into their private estates4 ,the rotation of crops had been introduced1 which provided for changes in the cultivation of the soil in definite periods of time4 ,tilled land was occasionally transformed into pasture which favored cattle-breeding and made it possible to diminish the number of workers4 ,in the cities conditions were not much better than in the country4 ,formerly women had been permitted to acquire the title of master-workman and to employ journeymen and apprentices without any opposition from the male craftsmen4 ,they were even compelled to join the guilds to force them to meet the same conditions of competition4 ,so there were independent women workers among the linen-weavers1 the cloth-weavers1 the carpet-weavers and tailors4 ,there were female gold-smiths1 girdle-makers1 harness-makers1 etc4 ,we find women employed as furriers in ,frankfort and the ,silesian cities2 as bakers in the cities along the ,rhine2 as girdle-makers and embroiders of coats of arms in ,cologne and ,strassburg2 as harness-makers in ,bremen2 as cloth-shearers in ,frankfort as tanners in ,nuremberg2 as gold-smiths in ,cologne4#dc ,but as the circumstances of the craftsmen grew more and more unfavorable1 a sentiment of ill will against the female competitors arose4 ,in ,france1 women were excluded from the trades at the close of the fourteenth century2 in ,germany1 not until the close of the seventeenth century4 ,at first they were forbidden to become master-workmen--with the exception of widows--later on they were also excluded from becoming assistants4 ,protestantism1 by abolishing the ostentatious ,catholic cult1 had seriously injured or entirely destroyed a number of artistic crafts1 and these were the very crafts in which many women had been employed4 ,the confiscation and secularization of church property resulted in a decline of charitable work1 and widows and orphans were the main sufferers4 ,the general economic decline that manifested itself during the sixteenth century1 as a result of all the enumerated causes1 and lasted through the seventeenth century1 caused the marriage laws to become more and more severe4 ,journeymen and people employed in menial service 7men and maid servants7 were prohibited entirely from marrying1 unless they could prove that there was no danger of their future families becoming a burden to the community in which they lived4 ,marriages contracted in opposition to the legal premises were punished frequently severely1 sometimes barbarously4 ,according to ,bavarian law1 for instance1 the penalties were imprisonment and public flogging4 ,illegal marriages1 that became more frequent as the marriage laws became more severe1 were subjected to especially violent persecution4 ,all minds were ruled by the prevailing fear of over-population1 and to diminish the numbers of beggars and vagabonds1 the various rulers enacted one law upon another1 and each was more severe than the preceding one4 #db ,john ,janssen--,history of the ,german ,people4 #dc ,dr4 ,carl ,buecher--,the ,woman ,question in the ,middle ,age4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,the ,eighteenth ,century4 #a4--;,court ,life in ,germany4 ,following the example set by ,louis ,,xiv4 of ,france1 most of the princely courts1 that were very numerous in ,germany in those days1 indulged in an extravagance of outward display1 especially in the maintenance of concubines1 that were in no relation to the size and productiveness of their small domains4 ,the history of the courts of the eighteenth century constitutes one of the ugliest chapters of history4 ,one ruler tried to excel the other in hollow conceit1 mad extravagance and costly military sport4 ,but it was especially in the affairs with their courtesans that the wildest excesses were indulged in4 ,it is hard to tell which of the many ,german courts excelled in this extravagant mode of living that had a corrupting influence on public life4 ,it was one to-day and another to-morrow4 ,none of the ,german states were spared this disgrace4 ,the nobility imitated the sovereigns and in the capitals the bourgeoisie imitated the nobility4 ,if the daughter of a bourgeois family was fortunate enough to please one of the gentlemen of the court or ,his ,serene ,highness himself1 in nineteen cases out of twenty she considered herself highly favored1 and the family willingly consented to her becoming a princely or royal concubine4 ,among the families of the nobility the same was the case if one of their daughters found favor with the sovereign4 ,wide circles were dominated by an utter lack of character and modesty4 ,it was worst of all in the two chief cities of ,germany1 ,vienna and ,berlin4 ,although during a great part of the century ,vienna was ruled by ,maria ,theresa1 known for her moral austerity1 she was powerless against the doings of the rich1 profligate nobility and an eagerly imitative bourgeoisie4 ,by establishing purity commissions1 that resulted in an extensive system of espionage1 she caused much bitterness and made herself ridiculous4 ,the results amounted to nothing4 ,in frivolous ,vienna during the second half of the eighteenth century1 proverbs were circulated like the following3 8one should love one's neighbor like meself2 that means1 one should love one's neighbor's wife like one's own02 or1 8,if the wife turns to the right the husband may turn to the left2 if she takes to herself a man servant1 let him take a lady friend40 ,how frivolously marriage and adultery were viewed at that time1 may be seen from a letter written by the poet ,christian von ,kleist to his friend ,gleim in #agea4 ,it contains the following passage3 8,i suppose you heard of the adventure of the landgrave ,henry4 ,he has sent his wife to his country seat and intends to get a separation from her because he found her with the ,prince of ,holstein4 ,the margrave would have acted more wisely if he had kept the affair secret instead of causing all ,berlin and half of the world to speak of him4 ,besides1 one should not judge a natural occurrence so severely1 especially one who is not over virtuous himself4 ,disgust is bound to result in matrimony1 and by their acquaintance with other amiable persons all men and women are induced to be faithless4 ,how can we be punished for something we have been forced to do80 ,in #aggb the ,british ambassador1 ,lord ,malmesbury1 wrote the following in regard to conditions in ,berlin3 8moral depravity prevails among both sexes of all classes4 ,to this is added a general insufficiency of means1 due partly to the heavy taxes imposed by the king1 and partly to the love of luxury introduced by his grandfather4 ,the men lead a dissolute life notwithstanding their limited means1 and the women are shameless harlots4 ,they deliver themselves up to the one able to pay the highest price2 modesty and true love are foreign to them40 ,the worst conditions existed in ,berlin during the rule of ,frederick ,william ,,ii4 from #aghf to #agig4 ,he set his people the worst possible example4 ,his court chaplain1 ,zoellner1 even degraded himself by marrying the king to his courtesan1 ,julie von ,voss1 although he had another wife2 and when she died soon after in childbirth1 ,zoellner again consented to marry the king to another one of his courtesans1 the ,countess ,sophie von ,doenhoff4 ,other rulers had set an equally bad example at the beginning of the century4 ,in ,july1 #agjf1 ,duke ,louis of ,wurtemberg married1 as an additional wife1 his courtesan1 ,gravenitz1 the 8corrupter of the country10 as she is still called in ,wurtemberg4 ,his cousin1 ,duke ,leopold1 still excelled him in profligacy1 for he had three wives simultaneously1 two of which were sisters4 ,of his thirteen children he joined two in marriage4 ,the doings of these sovereigns caused much comment among their subjects1 but that was all4 ,the marriage of the ,duke of ,wurtemberg with ,graevenitz was annulled by imperial intervention4 ,but she entered into a mock marriage with a profligate count1 and thereupon remained for twenty years more the duke's concubine and the 8corrupter of the country40 #b4--;,commercialism and the ,new ,marriage ,laws4 ,the increasing power of sovereigns and the formation of larger states had led to the institution of standing armies4 ,these standing armies and the extravagant mode of life indulged in at most of the courts1 could not be maintained without heavy taxation1 and to make such taxation possible a large1 taxable population was required4 ,therefore governments from the eighteenth century on1 especially those of the larger states1 adopted measures for increasing the population and for heightening the taxability of the inhabitants4 ,the foundation for such measures had been established by the social and economic transformations referred to above1 i4 e41 the discovery of ,america1 the discovery of the passage to ,india1 and the circumnavigation of ,africa4 ,this transformation first manifested itself in ,western ,europe1 but later in ,germany also4 ,the newly opened thoroughfare had created new commercial relations of an extent undreamt of until then4 ,portugal1 ,spain1 the ,netherlands and ,england were the first to profit by the transformation2 but ,france and eventually ,germany also were benefited by it4 ,of all these countries ,germany was most retarded in development1 as a result of the numerous religious wars and its political disunity4 ,the establishment of a world market and the constant opening of new markets for the products of ,european industry1 not only revolutionized the methods of production1 but also revolutionized the views1 sentiments and conceptions of the ,european nations and their governments4 ,the former mode of production1 destined to supply only the daily needs of a given center and its immediate vicinity1 was superseded by manufacture on a large scale1 which implies the employment of a large number of workers and an increased division of labor4 ,the merchants possessing large financial resources and broadness of perception1 became the leaders along these new lines of industry that partly replaced and partly abolished the old handicrafts and put an end to their guild organization4 ,thereby a period had been ushered in which made it possible for woman to resume her industrial activity4 ,the textile industries2 cloth manufactury and the manufacture of laces opened up to her new fields of activity4 ,at the close of the eighteenth century we already find #ajj1jjj women and #hj1jjj children employed in the textile and printing trades of ,england and ,scotland1 unfortunately under conditions1 both in regard to wages and hours of work1 that were simply appalling4 ,similar conditions prevailed in ,france at the same time1 where also tens of thousands of women were employed in various manufactures4 ,this economic development demanded more people1 and as the population had been greatly diminished by the wars of conquest in ,europe during the sixteenth1 seventeenth and eighteenth centuries1 and by the expeditions of discovery beyond the seas1 the more advanced governments found it necessary to facilitate marriage and the right of settling4 ,spain1 that by its imperialistic policy had become greatly depopulated1 was obliged as early as #afbc to pass a law exempting from taxes for a number of years all persons who became married between the ages of #ah and #be4 ,poor persons were even given a dowry from public funds4 ,parents who had six or more male children were entirely exempt from taxes4 ,spain also encouraged immigration and colonization4 ,king ,louis ,,xiv4 of ,france1 who had decimated his people by his numerous wars1 found it necessary to counteract this devastation by exempting from taxes for from four to five years all taxpayers1 who constituted a great majority of the population1 if they became married before the twentieth or twenty-first year of age4 ,complete exemption from taxes was1 furthermore1 guaranteed to all who had ten living children1 provided that none of these had become a priest1 a monk or a nun4 ,noblemen having the same number of children1 provided that none of them had become priests1 monks or nuns1 received an annual pension of from #a1jjj to #b1jjj livres4 ,citizens not subject to taxation under the same conditions received one-half of this amount4 ,marshal ,maurice of ,saxony even advised ,louis ,,xv4 not to permit marriages to be contracted for a longer period than five years4 ,in ,prussia1 by laws enacted in the years #afhh1 #agba1 #agbf and #agcf1 and by various government measures1 endeavors were made to encourage immigration2 especially were the immigrants welcomed who had been subjected to religious persecution in ,france and ,austria4 ,the theories in regard to population maintained by ,frederick the ,great were expressed with brutal frankness in a letter written by him to ,voltaire on the #bfth of ,august #agda4 ,he wrote3 8,i consider men as a herd of deer in the deer park of some great lord1 having no other task but to populate the park40 ,by his wars he certainly made it necessary to have his deer park repopulated4 ,in ,austria1 ,wurtemberg and ,brunswick immigration was also encouraged and there1 as in ,prussia1 emigration was forbidden4 ,furthermore1 in the course of the eighteenth century1 ,england and ,france removed all obstacles to marriage and settlement1 and other nations followed their example4 ,during three-fourths of the eighteenth century political economists as well as the governments considered a large population the greatest good fortune to the state4 ,only at the close of the eighteenth and the beginning of the nineteenth century a reversion of opinion took place4 ,this was due to economic crises and to warlike and revolutionary events1 that continued during the first half of the nineteenth century1 especially in ,germany and ,austria4 ,the age at which marriage was permitted was raised again1 and proofs were required showing that the contracting parties were assured of a certain amount of wealth or a secure income1 and could maintain a given standard of living4 ,to the destitute1 marriage was made impossible1 and the municipalities were given a great influence in determining under what conditions marriages might be contracted4 ,occasionally peasants were even forbidden to build their little homes1 or compelled to tear them down when they had been built without princely permission4 ,only in ,prussia and ,saxony the marriage laws remained comparatively liberal4 ,since human nature will not be suppressed1 the result of all these hindrances to marriage was1 that in spite of all the harassing and persecution1 illicit relations greatly increased1 and that in some ,german states the number of illegal children was almost as great as that of the legal ones4 ,such was the fruit of a paternal government that prided itself on its ,christian morality4 #c4--,the ,french ,revolution and the ,rise of ,industry4 ,in those days the married woman of the middle class lived in severe domestic retirement4 ,the number of her domestic duties was so large1 that it was necessary for the conscientious housewife to be at her post from morning till night1 and frequently she could accomplish all her tasks only with the aid of her daughters4 ,it was necessary to perform not only those daily domestic tasks that are still performed by the present-day housekeeper1 but also many others from which modern woman has been freed by the industrial development4 ,she had to spin1 weave and bleach1 cut and sew all the garments1 manufacture tallow-candles and soap1 and brew the beer4 ,she was indeed a perfect ,cinderella and her only relaxation was going to church on ,sunday4 ,marriages were contracted only within the same social circle4 ,a severe and ridiculous caste feeling dominated all social relations4 ,the daughters were educated in the same spirit and were maintained in close domestic confinement4 ,their education was insignificant1 and their intellectual horizon did not extend beyond the commonplace domestic relations4 ,to this was added an empty superficial formality1 that was supposed to make up for the lack of intellect and education1 making woman's life a sheer treadmill4 ,the spirit of the reformation had degenerated into the worst kind of pedantry2 the most natural human desires and the joy of life were crushed beneath a mass of apparently dignified1 but soul-killing rules of behavior4 ,emptiness and narrow-mindedness dominated the middle class1 and the lower classes lived under a leaden pressure and in wretched conditions4 ,then came the ,french revolution4 ,it swept away the old political and social order in ,france1 and also wafted a breath of its spirit to ,germany1 that could not long be resisted4 ,french rule especially had a revolutionizing effect upon ,germany2 it swept away what was old and decrepit or1 at least hastened its destruction4 ,though strenuous efforts were made during the reactionary period after #ahae to turn the course of development backward1 the new conceptions had become too powerful and were victorious in the end4 ,guild privileges1 lack of personal freedom1 market privileges and proscription were gradually laid on the shelf in the more advanced states4 ,new mechanical inventions and improvements1 especially the invention of the steam engine1 and the resultant cheapening of commodities1 provided employment for the masses1 including also the women4 ,capitalistic industry was born4 ,factories1 railroads and steamboats were built1 mines and foundries1 the manufacture of glass and china1 the textile industry in its various branches1 manufacture of tools and machinery1 the building trades1 etc41 rapidly developed4 ,universities and polytechnical institutes provided the intellectual forces required by this evolution4 ,the new class that had come into existence1 the capitalist class1 the bourgeoisie1 supported by all those who favored progress1 insisted upon the abolition of conditions that had become untenable4 ,what had been shaken by the revolution from below during the movement of #ahdh and #ahdi1 was finally abolished by the revolution from above in #ahff4 ,political unity1 according to the desire of the bourgeoisie1 was established1 and this was followed by the final overthrow of all the remaining economic and social barriers4 ,freedom of trade1 right of settlement and emigration1 and the repeal of laws restricting marriage followed1 creating those conditions that capitalism needed for its development4 ,besides the workingman1 woman was the one to profit chiefly by this new development1 since it opened up to her new avenues and brought her greater freedom4 ,even before the new order had been introduced by the transformations of the year #ahff1 several ,german states had removed a number of the old1 rigid barriers1 which caused pedantic reactionaries to predict the destruction of decency and morality4 ,in #ahfc the ,bishop of ,mayence1 von ,ketteler1 lamented that 8to abolish the existing barriers to marriage meant the destruction of marriage itself1 since now married couples were enabled to leave each other at will40 ,this lament contains the unintentional confession that in modern marriages the moral bonds are so weak1 that man and wife can be kept together only by force4 ,since marriages now were contracted much more frequently than before this period1 a rapid increase of population resulted4 ,this fact1 and the fact that the new1 rapidly developing industrial system created social problems that had not previously existed1 caused the fear of over-population to spring up again1 as it did in former periods4 ,it will be shown what this fear of over-population amounts to2 we will test its true value4 ,woman at the ,present ,day4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,woman as a ,sex ,being4 #a4--,the ,sexual ,impulse4 ,in present-day bourgeois society woman holds the second place4 ,man leads2 she follows4 ,the present relation is diametrically opposite to that which prevailed during the matriarchal period4 ,the evolution from primitive communism to the rule of private property has primarily brought about this transformation4 ,plato thanked the gods for eight favors they had bestowed upon him4 ,the first was that he had been born a free-man instead of a slave1 and the second was that he had been born a man instead of a woman4 ,a similar thought is expressed in the morning prayer of the ,jews4 ,they pray3 8,be thou praised ,god our ,lord and ,lord of the earth1 who hast not created me a woman40 ,in the prayer uttered by the ,jewish women the corresponding passage is worded3 8,who hast created me according to thy will40 ,the contrast in the respective positions of the sexes could not be more forcibly expressed than in this utterance of ,plato and the prayer of the ,jews4 ,man is the real human being according to numerous passages in the ,bible1 and both the ,english and ,french languages furnish proofs of this conception1 since the word 8man0 denotes both male and human being4 ,when speaking of the people we usually think of men only4 ,woman is a factor of slight importance1 and man is her master4 ,men generally consider this state of affairs quite proper1 and the majority of women still accept it as a divine ordinance4 ,in this prevailing conception the present position of woman is reflected4 ,regardless of the question whether woman is oppressed as a proletarian1 we must recognize that in this world of private property she is oppressed as a sex being4 ,on all sides she is hemmed in by restrictions and obstacles unknown to the man4 ,many things a man may do she is prohibited from doing2 many social rights and privileges enjoyed by him1 are considered a fault or a crime in her case4 ,she suffers both socially and as a sex being4 ,it is hard to say in which respect she suffers more1 and therefore it only seems natural that many women wish they had been born men instead of having been born women4 ,of all the natural desires that are a part of human life1 beside the desire for food in order to live1 the sexual desire is strongest4 ,the impulse of race preservation is the most powerful expression of the 8will to live40 ,this impulse is deeply implanted in every normally developed human being1 and upon attaining maturity its satisfaction is essential to physical and mental welfare4 ,luther was right when he said3 8,he who would thwart the natural impulse1 seeks to prevent nature from being nature1 fire from burning1 water from moistening1 man from eating and drinking and sleeping40 ,these words ought to be engraved above the portals of our churches in which the 8sinful flesh0 is so vehemently denounced4 ,no physician or physiologist could more accurately express the necessity of satisfying the human desire for love4 ,if the human organism is to develop normally and healthfully it is essential that no portion of the human body should be neglected1 and that no natural impulse should be denied its normal satisfaction4 ,every organ should perform the functions which it has been destined by nature to perform1 unless the whole organism is to suffer4 ,the laws of the physical development of man must be studied and observed as well as the laws of mental development4 ,the mental activity of a human being depends upon the physiological condition of his organs4 ,physical and mental vigor are closely linked4 ,an injury to one has a detrimental effect upon the other4 ,the so-called animal instincts are not inferior to mental requirements4 ,both are products of the same organism and are mutually interdependent4 ,this applies to both man and woman4 ,hence it follows that knowledge of the nature of the sexual organs is as necessary as that of all other organs1 and that the same attention should be bestowed upon their care4 ,we ought to know that organs and impulses implanted in every human being constitute a very important part of our existence1 that they as a matter of fact predominate during certain periods of life1 and that therefore they must not be objects of secrecy1 false shame and complete ignorance4 ,it follows furthermore that among both men and women knowledge of the physiology and anatomy of the various organs and their functions should be as widely diffused as any other branch of human knowledge4 ,endowed with an exact knowledge of his physical nature1 man would take a different view of many circumstances4 ,this knowledge would lead to the removal of many evils that society at present passes by silently1 in solemn awe1 but that nevertheless claim consideration in almost every family4 ,in regard to all other matters knowledge is considered a virtue2 it is regarded as the loftiest1 most desirable human aim4 ,but we decry knowledge pertaining to those matters that are most closely linked with our own 8ego0 and are at the bottom of all social development4 ,kant says3 8,man and woman together form the full and complete human being2 one sex supplements the other40 ,schopenhauer says3 8,the sexual impulse is the most complete expression of the will to live1 it is the concentration of will02 and long before these ,buddha thus expressed himself3 8,the sexual impulse is sharper than the prod by means of which wild elephants are tamed2 it is hotter than flames2 it is like an arrow driven into the soul of man40 ,such being the intensity of sexual impulse1 it is not to be wondered at that with both men and women sexual abstinence frequently leads to serious disorders of the nervous system1 and in some cases even to insanity and suicide4 ,of course1 not all natures manifest an equally strong sexual impulse4 ,it can also be restrained to a great extent by education and self-control1 especially by avoiding the stimulant of lewd conversation and literature1 alcoholism1 etc4 ,it is held that the sexual impulse is weaker among women than among men1 and that sometimes women even feel revulsion against sexual contact4 ,but these constitute a small minority whose physiological and psychological dispositions are peculiarly constituted4 ,we may say that the manner in which the natural desires of the sexes are expressed1 both in their organic and physical development1 in form and in character1 marks the degree of perfection of a human being1 be it man or woman4 ,each sex has attained its own highest development4 8,among civilized human beings10 says ,klenke in his essay on 8,woman as a ,wife10 8sexual intercourse is controlled by moral principles dictated by common sense4 ,but nothing could ever fully subdue the instinct of race preservation1 implanted by nature in both sexes4 ,wherever healthy male or female individuals failed to fulfill this duty1 it was not of their own free will1 though they may deceive themselves into believing it1 but was a result of social hindrances and restrictions4 ,these hindrances have impeded the laws of nature1 have stunted the organs1 and have transformed the whole organism into an atrophied type both in appearance and in character and have caused nervous disorders that bring about abnormal1 pathological conditions of body and mind4 ,the man becomes effeminate2 the woman becomes masculine in form and character1 because the sexual contrast has not been realized2 because such particular human being remained one-sided1 failing to attain his own integration1 the full height of his existence40 ,dr4 ,elizabeth ,blackwell says in her essay on 8,the ,moral ,education of the ,young in ,relation to ,sex03 8,sexual impulse exists as an inevitable condition of life and the foundation of society4 ,it is the greatest power in human nature4444 ,while undeveloped it is not an object of the thoughts1 but it remains nevertheless the central force of life4 ,this inevitable impulse is the natural guardian against all possibility of destruction40#dd ,practical ,luther has positive advice to offer4 ,he advises3 8,let him who has no desire for chastity look about him for work and turn to matrimony2 a boy at the latest when he is twenty1 a girl when she is fifteen or eighteen years of age4 ,then they are healthy and skillful and trust to ,god to provide for them and their children4 ,god gives them the children and he will provide for them40 ,unfortunately our social conditions make it impossible to follow ,luther's good advice1 and neither the ,christian state nor ,christian society believes in trusting to ,god to provide for the children4 ,science1 the views of the philosophers1 and ,luther's sound common sense1 all are agreed that man is entitled to normal satisfaction of those desires that are part and parcel of his very life4 ,if social institutions or prejudices make this impossible1 his development is hampered thereby4 ,the results are well known to our physicians1 and can be met with in hospitals1 insane asylums1 prisons1 and in thousands of disrupted families4 ,in a book published in ,leipsic we find the following thought expressed3 8,sexual impulse is neither moral nor immoral2 it is simply natural like hunger and thirst4 ,nature knows nothing of morality40 ,but organized society is very far from recognizing the truth of this sentence4 #dd ,e4 ,blackwell1 8,essays in ,medical ,sociology40 ,page #agg4 ,london1 #aijf4 #b4--;,celibacy and the ,frequency of ,suicide4 ,among physicians and physiologists it is generally assumed that even an imperfect marriage is preferable to celibacy1 and this assumption is substantiated by experience4 ,it is a striking fact that the rate of mortality is lower among married than among unmarried people 7comparing about #a1jjj married persons #cj years old with #a1jjj unmarried persons of the same age74 ,the difference is especially marked in the case of men4 ,during some periods of life the rate of mortality among unmarried men is almost twice as great as that among married men4 ,mortality is likewise very great among men who have become widowers while still young4#de ,it is furthermore claimed that the number of suicides are increased by unsound sexual relations4 ,in all countries suicides are much more frequent among men than among women4 ,the following table shows the ratio in various ,european countries3 ,among #ajj1jjj ,ratio of ,during --suicides4-- female to the years4 ,male4 ,female4 male suicides4 ,germany #ahii-aijb #cc4j #h4d #be4e ,austria #ahih-aija #be4d #g4j #bg4f ,switzerland #ahif-aijc #cc4c #f4d #ai4b ,italy #ahic-aija #i4h #b4d #bd4e ,france #ahhh-ahib #ce4e #i4g #bg4c ,netherlands #aija-aijb #i4c #c4j #cb4c ,england #ahia-aijj #ac4g #d4d #cb4a ,scotland #ahia-aijj #i4j #c4b #ce4f ,ireland #aija #b4c #a4b #eb4b ,norway #ahia-aijj #aj4j #b4e #be4 ,sweden #ahia-aijj #ba4a #h4f #dj4h ,finland #ahia-aijj #g4h #a4h #ba4a ,european ,russia #ahhe-ahid #d4i #a4f #cb4g ,during the years #ahih to #aijg we find the following ratio of suicides in the ,german ,empire3 ,year4 ,total4 ,male4 ,female4 #ahih #aj1hce #h1edd #b1bia #ahii #aj1gfa #h1dfj #b1cja #aijj #aa1cic #h1ihg #b1djf #aijb #ab1ccf #i1gfe #b1ega #aijd #ab1dfh #i1gjd #b1gfd #aijg #ab1ggg #i1gec #c1jbd ,for each #ajj male suicides there were female suicides3 ,during #ahih1 #bf4h2 during #ahii1 #bg4b2 during #aijj1 #bf4h2 during #aijd1 #bh4e2 during #aijg1 #ca4 ,but during the period of life from the fifteenth to the thirtieth year1 the rate of suicide is higher among women than among men4 ,the following table shows the ratio between the #aeth and #bjth1 and between the #bast and #cjth year3 ,during #aeth to #bjth year4 #bast to #cjth year4 the years4 ,male4 ,female4 ,male4 ,female4 ,prussia #ahif-aijj #e4c #aj4g #af4 #bj4b ,denmark #ahif-aijj #d4f #h4c #ab4d #ad4h ,switzerland #ahhd-ahii #c4c #f4g #af4a #ba4 ,france #ahhg-ahia #c4e #h4b #aj4i #ad4df ,the following table shows the ratio of male and female suicides in ,saxony between the #bast and #cjth year3 ,men4 ,women4 #ahed-ahfh #ad4ie #ah4fd #ahfh-ahhj #ad4ga #ah4gi #ahha-ahhh #ae4c #bb4c ,we find an increased number of suicides among widowed and divorced persons also4 ,in ,saxony among divorced men the rate of suicide is seven times as high1 among divorced women three times as high1 as the average rate of suicide among men and women4 ,also suicide is more frequent among those widowed or divorced men and women who are childless4 ,among the unmarried women who are driven to suicide between the #bast and #cjth year1 there are many who have been betrayed in love or have 8gone wrong40 ,statistics show that an increase of illegal births is generally accompanied by an increase of female suicides4 ,the rate of female suicides between the #afth and #bast year is exceptionally high1 which also points to the conclusion that ungratified sexual impulse1 love-sorrow1 secret pregnancy or the deceit of men constitute frequent causes4 ,in regard to the position of woman as a sex being1 we find the following thought expressed by ,professor ,krafft-,ebing#dg3 8,one source of lunacy among women that should not be underrated1 is their social position4 ,woman is by nature more desirous of love than man1 at least in the ideal sense1 and she has no honorable means of gratifying this desire except marriage 7,mandsley74 ,marriage is1 furthermore1 her only means of livelihood4 ,through countless generations her character has been developed in this direction4 ,even the little girl is mother to her doll4 ,modern life with its increased demands is constantly diminishing the prospects of satisfaction through marriage4 ,this is especially true of the upper classes where marriages are contracted less frequently and later in life4 8,while man owing to his greater physical and intellectual force and his free social position1 readily obtains satisfaction of his sexual impulse1 or at least finds an equivalent in some life's work that requires all his strength1 these paths are barred to the unmarried women of the upper classes4 ,this leads1 consciously or unconsciously1 to dissatisfaction with one's self and the world and to morbid brooding4 ,for some time compensation is sought in religion1 but in vain4 ,the religious fanaticism1 with or without masturbation1 leads to a number of nervous disorders that frequently culminate in hysteria or insanity4 ,this explains the fact that unmarried women fall victims to insanity most frequently between the #beth and #ceth year of life4 ,it is that period when the bloom of youth fades and hope fades with it2 while among men insanity most frequently occurs between the #ceth and #ejth year1 the period during which the struggle for existence makes its greatest demands upon their strength4 8,it is not a mere coincidence that with the decline in the marriage rate the question of the emancipation of women is becoming more and more urgent4 ,i regard it as a signal of distress showing that woman's position in modern society is steadily becoming more unbearable4 ,it is a just demand that woman should be given an equivalent for that which has been assigned to her by nature and of which she is being deprived by modern social conditions40 ,in speaking of the effect of ungratified sexual impulse on unmarried women1 ,dr4 ,h4 ,ploss says3 8,it is a noteworthy fact1 of interest not only to the physician but to the anthropologist as well1 that an infallible remedy exists whereby the process of fading bloom1 so manifest in old maids1 cannot only be arrested1 but the already vanished bloom of youth can even be reinstated1 partly at least1 if not in its entire charm4 ,unfortunately our social conditions rarely permit its application4 ,this remedy is a regular1 orderly1 sexual intercourse4 ,we can often observe that when an elderly girl is still fortunate enough to attain matrimony1 a marked change in her appearance takes place shortly after her marriage4 ,her shape obtains its former roundness1 the roses return to her cheeks1 and her eyes regain their former brightness4 ,marriage then is a real fountain of youth to the female sex4 ,thus nature has its fixed laws that inexorably demand obedience1 and every unnatural mode of life1 every attempt to adapt the organism to conditions of life that are not in keeping with the laws of nature1 inevitably leaves marked traces of degeneration4 ,this is true of both the animal and the human organism40 ,the question now presents itself3 ,does society fulfill the demands for a rational mode of life1 especially in the woman's case8 ,if it does not1 we are confronted by a second question3 ,can society fulfill them8 ,if this question also must be answered in the negative1 a third question ensues3 ,how can they be fulfilled8 #de ,dr4 ,g4 ,schnapper-,arndt3 8,social ,statistics10 ,leipsic1 #aijh4 #df ,h4 ,krose1 8,causes of the ,frequency of ,suicide40 ,freiburg1 #aijf4 #dg ,text-book of ,psychiatry--,stuttgart #ahhc4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,modern ,marriage4 #a4--,marriage as a ,profession4 8,marriage and the family are the foundations of the state4 ,whoever1 therefore1 attacks marriage and the family1 is attacking society and the state and undermining both40 ,thus exclaim the defenders of the present order4 ,monogamic marriage as has been sufficiently shown1 is the outcome of the system of gain and property that has been established by bourgeois society1 and therefore undoubtedly forms one of its basic principles4 ,but whether it is adapted to natural needs and to a healthy development of human society is a different question4 ,we will show that this marriage1 which depends upon the bourgeois system of property1 is a more or less forced relation1 having many disadvantages1 and frequently fulfilling its purpose only insufficiently or not at all4 ,we will1 furthermore1 show that it is a social institution which is and remains inattainable to millions of persons1 instead of being a free union founded on love1 the only union suited to nature's purposes4 ,john ,stuart ,mill says in regard to modern marriage3 8,marriage is the only real bondage recognized by law40 ,according to ,kant's conception man and woman together constitute the perfect human being4 ,upon a normal union of the sexes the healthy development of mankind depends4 ,satisfaction of the sexual impulse is essential to the sound physical and mental development of both man and woman4 ,but man has gone beyond the animal stage1 and so is not contented by the mere physical satisfaction of his sexual impulse4 ,he requires intellectual attraction as well1 and the existence of a certain harmony between himself and the person with whom he enters into union4 ,where such intellectual harmony fails to exist1 the sexual intercourse is purely mechanical and thereby becomes immoral4 ,men and women of refinement demand a mutual attraction that extends beyond their sexual relations1 and that shall have an ennobling effect upon the new beings which may spring from their union4#dh ,the fact that such a standard of ideals fails to exist in countless present-day marriages caused ,varnhagen von ,ense to write3 8,whatever we saw about us both of marriages already contracted1 and of marriages about to be contracted1 was not likely to implant in us a good opinion of such unions4 ,on the contrary2 the entire institution which is supposed to be founded on mutual love and respect and is instead founded on anything but that1 seemed coarse and despicable to us1 and we fully agreed with ,friedrich ,schlegel1 whose opinion on this subject we found expressed in the fragments of #8,atheneum'3 ,almost all marriages are concubinages2 they are at best remote approaches to the true marriage1 which should be a blending of two persons into one40 ,this is quite in keeping with the views of ,kant4 ,the joy in having progeny and the responsibility toward same makes the relation of love existing between two persons one of longer duration4 ,a couple desirous of entering marriage should therefore carefully consider whether their respective traits of character are suited to their union4 ,the answer to this grave question ought to be unbiased4 ,but that is only possible by the exclusion of every other interest that has no direct bearing on the purpose of the union1 satisfaction of the sexual impulse and propagation of one's own personality by means of propagation of the race1 guided by a certain measure of insight that controls blind passion4 ,as these conditions fail to be observed in a tremendous number of cases in present-day society1 it is evident that modern marriage frequently fails to fulfill its true object and that we are not justified in regarding it as an ideal institution4 ,how many marriages are contracted on an entirely different basis than the one described above cannot be demonstrated4 ,the parties concerned like to have their marriage appear different from what it really is4 ,here a condition of hypocrisy presents itself1 such as no previous social period has known in a similar degree4 ,the state1 the political representative of society1 has no inclination to institute investigations that would cast an unfavorable light upon society4 ,the state itself marries its officials and servants according to maxims that cannot be measured by the standard that should constitute the foundation of true marriage4 #dh 8,the sentiments and feelings with which husband and wife approach one another undoubtedly have a decisive influence upon the effects of sexual intercourse and transmit certain traits of character upon the being that is coming into existence40 ,dr4 ,elizabeth ,blackwell4 8,the ,moral ,education of the ,young in ,relation to ,sex40--,see also ,goethe's 8,affinity10 where he distinctly shows the effects of the feelings that prompt two human beings to intimate intercourse4 #b4--;,decline of the ,birthrate4 ,marriage1 in order to realize the purpose of nature1 should be a union founded on mutual love4 ,but this motive is rarely met with unalloyed under present conditions4 ,to the great majority of women1 marriage is a means of livelihood that they must obtain at any cost4 ,on the other hand1 a great many men regard marriage from a purely commercial point of view1 weighing and considering its material advantages and disadvantages4 ,even those marriages that are not based on selfish1 sordid motives1 are frequently marred and broken up by the harsh realities of life4 ,only rarely those hopes are realized that were held by a man and woman prior to their marriage4 ,that is only natural4 ,for in order to lead a contented married life not only mutual love and respect are required1 but economic security as well2 that is1 a certain measure of the necessities and comforts of life in order to satisfy the needs of man and wife and their children4 ,material cares and the cruel struggle for existence are destructive to marital contentment and happiness4 ,but these material cares increase with the increasing number of offspring2 in other words1 the better marriage fulfills its natural object1 the greater become these cares4 ,the peasant1 for instance1 takes pleasure in every new calf that his cow brings forth1 he cheerfully counts his suckling pigs and relates the good news of their arrival to his neighbors4 ,but he looks somber when a new baby is added to the number of children that he feels able to support without care--not a large number1 forsooth--and he looks doubly somber if the newly-born babe has the ill fortune of being a girl4 ,we may say then that both marriages and births are controlled by economic conditions4 ,this is especially evident in ,france where agriculture is carried on by a division of the land into small lots1 the products of which are not sufficient to support a large family4 ,the famous1 or notorious1 ,french system of having no more than two children1 a system that has developed into a social institution in ,france1 is the result4 ,in many provinces the population is accordingly almost stationary1 while in others there has been a marked decline4 ,the same results that the methods of farming have produced in the rural districts1 have been produced in the cities by industry4 ,in fact1 the birthrate is declining even more rapidly in the cities4 ,the number of births is constantly decreasing in ,france1 in spite of the fact that the number of marriages is increasing4 ,this is true not only of ,france1 but of the majority of civilized countries4 ,this fact points to a development produced by our social conditions that should make the ruling classes think4 ,in #ahha1 #icg1jeg children were born in ,france2 in #aijf1 #hjf1hdg1 and in #aijg1 only #ggc1ifi4 ,in #aijg1 #afc1jhh fewer children were born than in #ahha4 ,it is a noteworthy fact that the number of illegitimate births did not decrease4 ,there were #gj1jgi of these in #ahha2 during the period from #ahha to #ahij they attained their highest figure1 #ge1ged1 and in #aijf there still were #gj1hff4 ,the decline of the birthrate then was confined entirely to the legitimate births4 ,during the entire century a decline of the birthrate was noticeable4 ,the following table shows the number of births for every thousand inhabitants of ,france during more than a century3 #ahja-ahaj #ccb #ahaa-ahbj #caf #ahba-ahcj #cjh #ahca-ahdj #bij #ahda-ahej #bgc #ahea-ahfj #bfb #ahfa-ahgj #bfa #ahha-ahij #bci #ahia-aijj #bba #aije #bjf #aijf #bjf #aijg #aig ,this represents a decline of #ace births for every thousand inhabitants from #ahja to #aijg4 ,it is natural that this symptom is a cause of much concern to ,french statesmen and economists4 ,but the problem is not confined to ,france4 ,since a long time the same phenomenon may be observed in ,germany1 especially in ,saxony1 where the decline of the birthrate has been even more rapid4 ,in ,germany there were the following number of births for every thousand inhabitants3 #ahge #dbc #ahhj #cia #ahhe #che #ahij #cgj #ahie #cgc #aijj #cfh #aije #cdj #aijf #cda #aijg #ccb ,the majority of the other ,european countries present a similar condition1 as the following table shows3 ,for every #a1jjj inhabitants4 ---------------------------------------- #ahga #ahha #ahia #aija to #ahhj to #ahij to #aijj to #aije #aijg ,england ,wales #ce4d #cb4e #bi4i #bh4a #bf4c ,scotland #cd4i #cb4c #cj4b #bh4i #bg4 ,ireland #bf4e #bc4d #bc4 #bc4b #bc4b ,sweden #cj4e #bi4a #bg4b #bf4a #be4e ,italy #cf4i #cg4h #cd4i #cb4f #ca4e ,austria #ci4 #cg4i #cg4a #ce4h #ce4 ,hungary #dd4c #dd4j #dj4f #cg4b #cf4 ,belgium #cb4c #cj4b #ci4 #bg4g #be4g ,switzerland #cj4h #bh4a #bh4a #bh4a #bf4h ,netherlands #cf4b #cd4b #cb4e #ca4e #cj4 ,the decline of the birthrate then is a general one1 and though ,france and ,ireland show the lowest figures1 the decline is most rapid in ,england1 ,germany and ,scotland4 ,we meet with the same phenomenon in the ,united ,states and ,australia4 ,the fact presents itself still more strikingly if we proceed to compare the number of births with the number of married women between the #aeth and #dith year of age3 ,,legitimate ,,children ,,born ,,to #a1jjj ,,married ,,women ,,between ,,the ,,fifteenth ,,and ,,forty-,,ninth ,,year4 ,,decades -------------------------- #ahgf #ahhf #ahif to #ahhe to #ahie to #aije ---------------------------------------- ---- ,england and ,wales #bej #bei #bjc ,scotland #bga #bee #bce ,ireland #bej #bde #bfd ,denmark #bdd #bce #bag ,norway #bfb #bei #bdf ,sweden #bdj #bca #bai ,finland #bei #bdf #bdd ,austria #bdf #bej #bdb ,hungary #bcd #bce #baf ,switzerland #bci #bcj #bbe ,german ,empire #bfh #beh #bdc ,prussia #bgc #bfe #bej ,bavaria #bgf #bfc #bei ,saxony #bfg #bej #baf ,wurtemberg #bhh #bei #bfb ,baden #bff #bdh #bea ,netherlands #bic #bhf #bgb ,belgium #bfd #bcf #bac ,france #afg #aej #acb ,italy #bdh #bdi #bcb ---------------------------------------- ---- ,the above enumerated facts go to prove that the birth of a human being1 8,god's image10 as religious persons say1 is1 on an average1 estimated below the value of a newly-born domestic animal4 ,in many respects our views differ but slightly from those of barbarian people4 ,among the latter1 newly-born children were often killed4 ,this fate especially befell the girls4 ,among some living savages the same custom still prevails4 ,we do not kill the girls2 we are too civilized for that1 but frequently we treat them as parias4 ,man1 being the stronger1 everywhere represses woman in the struggle for existence1 and if she still persists in the struggle1 she is often persecuted by the stronger sex as an undesirable competitor4 ,men of the upper classes are especially bitter against female competition4 ,among workingmen the demand to exclude women from the trades is voiced only rarely4 ,when a resolution formulating such a demand was presented at a congress of ,french workingmen in #ahgf1 it was voted down by a large majority4 ,since that time the conviction that the working woman is a fellow being entitled to equal rights and privileges1 has grown among the class-conscious workingmen of all countries4 ,the resolutions passed by international workingmen's congresses prove this4 ,the class-conscious workingman knows that present industrial conditions compel woman to enter into competition with man4 ,he also knows1 that an attempt to exclude woman from industry would be as futile as an attempt to forbid the use of machinery4 ,therefore he endeavors to instruct woman in regard to her position in society and to enlist her aid in the struggle for freedom of the proletariat against capitalism4 #c4--,mercenary ,marriage and the ,matrimonial ,market4 ,modern society has undoubtedly advanced beyond any previous stage of development1 but our conceptions concerning the relation of the sexes has in many respects remained unchanged4 ,in #ahgf ,prof4 ,l4 v4 ,stein published a book on 8,woman in the ,field of ,political ,economy10 that is not suited to its title1 since it merely draws a very poetically tinted picture of marriage4 ,but this picture clearly shows the submissive position of woman in her relation to the 8lion10 man4 ,stein writes3 8,man desires a being who not only loves him but also understands him4 ,he seeks one who is not only devoted to him1 but whose soft hand smoothes the wrinkles on his forehead2 who brings into his life peace1 calm1 order1 gentle self-control1 and all the many little comforts of life to which he returns daily4 ,he needs some one to enhance all these things with the inexpressible charm of womanliness1 imparting warmth and joy to his home40 ,beneath this apparent praise of woman lurks her degradation and the egotism of man4 ,the professor depicts woman as a dainty creature1 endowed nevertheless with the needful knowledge of arithmetic to keep the household accounts well balanced1 caressing like a gentle spring breeze the master of the house1 the ruling lion1 and with her soft hand smoothing the wrinkles from his forehead1 that perhaps have appeared there from brooding over his own stupidity4 ,the professor depicts woman and marriage such as barely one among a hundred actually exist4 ,about the many thousand unhappy marriages1 about the great number of women to whom it is never given to attain marriage1 and about the millions of women who must slave beside their husbands from morning till night to earn their daily bread1 he seems to see and know nothing whatever4 ,all these marriages are stripped of poetry by the harsh reality of life1 more quickly than a careless hand strips the colored dust from a butterfly's wing4 ,one glance at those countless women sufferers would have greatly marred the professor's poetically tinted picture4 ,the women he observes only constitute a small minority1 and it is doubtful whether they represent an advanced type4 ,there is a frequently quoted saying1 that the degree of civilization attained by a nation may be measured by the position of its women4 ,we uphold the justice of this saying4 ,but upon applying this standard we find that our highly lauded civilization does not amount to much4 ,in his book on the 8,subjection of ,women0--the title shows the conception of the position of woman held by the author--,john ,stuart ,mill says3 8,men have become more domesticated4 ,increasing civilization has put more fetters on man in regard to woman40 ,that is true to some extent wherever an honest marriage relation exists between husband and wife4 ,but to a considerably large minority it does not apply4 ,intelligent men will recognize1 that it is to their own advantage1 if women are drawn out into the world from their narrow domestic sphere1 and are given an opportunity to become acquainted with the great problems of the day4 ,the 8fetters0 that are thereby placed on him1 are not hard to bear4 ,on the other hand1 the question arises whether modern life has not brought new factors into the matrimonial relation that are more apt to destroy marriage than any previously known4 ,marriage has become an object of material calculation in a marked degree4 ,the man who wishes to marry1 in seeking to obtain a wife1 also seeks to obtain property4 ,that was the chief reason why daughters1 who were at first excluded from the right of inheritance when the patriarchal system came into power1 were at an early period reinstated to this right4 ,but never before was the marriage market as openly and cynically displayed as to-day2 never before was marriage regarded in the same degree as a simple speculation1 a mere financial transaction4 ,at present match-making is frequently carried on so shamelessly1 that the often-repeated phrase about the 8sanctity of marriage0 becomes a farce4 ,still1 for this fact1 as for all others1 an explanation can be found4 ,at no previous time was it so difficult for the great majority of people to accumulate a modest fortune1 as it is at present1 and at no previous time was the striving for a decent livelihood and the enjoyment of life so general4 ,those who do not attain the aim they have set for themselves feel their disappointment all the more keenly1 because all believe to have the same right to enjoyment4 ,no formal difference of class or caste exists4 ,everyone hopes to attain some aim that seems attainable in accordance with his station in life4 ,but many are called and few are chosen4 ,in order that one may live in comfort1 twenty others must live in want2 and in order that one may revel in luxury1 hundreds or thousands must dwell in poverty4 ,but everyone is eager to be one of the favored few1 and accordingly resorts to all means that are likely to lead him to his goal4 ,one of the simplest and most accessible means of attaining a privileged social position is a mercenary marriage4 ,in this way the desire for money1 on the one side1 and the desire for social rank and title1 on the other1 obtain mutual satisfaction among the upper classes of society4 ,here marriage is degraded to a business transaction4 ,it becomes a conventional union that both sides respect outwardly1 while secretly both all too often follow their own inclinations4#di ,in every large city there are certain places where upon definite days members of the upper classes come together1 chiefly for the purpose of match-making4 ,rightly have these reunions been called the 8matrimonial market02 for just as on the stock market1 speculation and barter dominate1 and not infrequently fraud and deception enter into the dealings4 ,here we find officers of the army1 over head and ears in debt1 but possessing some ancient title of nobility2 rous1 weakened by a life of debauchery1 who seek a wife to nurse them and hope to mend their shattered health in marriage2 manufacturers1 merchants and bankers1 who are at the verge of bankruptcy1 sometimes at the verge of imprisonment and who wish to be saved1 and public officials who have prospects of promotion1 but are in need of money2 here they come as customers and conclude the marriage bargain4 ,in these marriages it frequently is deemed quite immaterial whether the future wife is young or old1 pretty or ugly1 well-built or deformed1 educated or ignorant1 pious or frivolous1 a ,christian or a ,jewess1 provided that she has money4 ,money redeems all faults and compensates for the lack of anything else4 ,according to the ,german law1 procurers are severely punished by imprisonment4 ,but when parents or guardians barter their children or relatives to some unloved man or woman for life1 for the sake of wealth1 social position or some other advantage1 no public prosecutor may interfere1 and yet a crime has been committed4 ,there are many well-organized matrimonial agencies1 and any number of procurers and procuresses who are searching candidates for the 8sacred wedded state40 ,these transactions are especially profitable when performed in the interest of members of the upper classes4 ,in #ahgh a procuress was tried in ,vienna who had been accused of being an accomplice in murder1 and was finally sentenced to fifteen years' imprisonment4 ,among other things the trial revealed that the former ,french ambassador to ,vienna1 ,count ,banneville1 had paid this woman #bb1jjj guilders for procuring a wife for him4 ,other members of the aristocracy were also involved in this trial4 ,for years the authorities had permitted this woman to ply her criminal trade unmolested4 ,in the capital of the ,german ,empire similar occurrences were reported4 ,they are met with wherever there are persons seeking to contract mercenary marriages4 ,during the last few decades the daughters and heiresses of ,american millionaires have become special objects of desire to the pauperized ,european nobility4 ,these ,american women1 on the other hand1 have exchanged their millions for the rank and title that are unknown in their own country4 ,a number of communications1 published in the ,german press during the fall of #ahhi1 contained some characteristic information on this subject4 ,according to this a ,german nobleman living in ,california had offered his services as a match-maker by advertising in ,german and ,austrian papers4 ,the offers he received in return clearly show the conceptions prevailing in the circles concerned1 in regard to the sanctity of marriage and its ethical side4 ,two ,prussian army officers1 members of an ancient nobility1 sought his services1 and frankly stated as the reason of their doing so1 the fact1 that together they owed over #ae1jjj dollars4 ,in their letter to the procurer they literally wrote3 8,it is self-understood that we cannot pay anything in advance4 ,you will receive your remuneration immediately after the wedding journey4 ,only recommend ladies to us whose families are in no wise objectionable4 ,we would also consider it very desirable to meet ladies who are particularly good-looking4 ,if required1 we will give your agent our photographs1 who can also give us further details1 show us the ladies' photographs1 etc4 ,we regard this whole transaction as an affair of honor 767 and expect the same of you4 ,we expect an early reply through your agent on this side4 8,baron v4 ,m44444444 8,baron v4 ,w44444444 8,berlin1 ,frederick ,st4 #ajg1 ,dec4 #ae1 #ahhi40 ,a young ,german nobleman1 ,hans v4 ,h444444 wrote from ,london that he were five foot ten1 of ancient nobility1 and employed in diplomatic service4 ,he confessed that his fortune had been greatly diminished by unsuccessful betting at the races1 and that he was therefore compelled to seek a rich wife4 8,i am prepared10 he wrote1 8to come to the ,united ,states immediately40 ,the ,german-,american nobleman asserted that besides a number of counts1 barons1 etc41 he had counted among his customers three princes and sixteen dukes4 ,some men who were not the proud possessors of a title bargained for ,american heiresses likewise4 ,an architect1 ,max ,w4 from ,leipsic1 asked for a fiance who must be rich1 beautiful and cultured4 ,a young manufacturer1 ,robert ,d41 from ,kehl on the ,rhine1 wrote that he would content himself with a fiance owning #ajj1jjj dollars1 and promised in advance that he would make her happy4 ,but we need not look far to find further instances of this sort4 ,we need but glance at the matrimonial advertisements in many of our capitalistic papers to recognize them as the outward signs of degrading views4 ,the prostitute who plies her trade as a result of bitter need is morally superior to these marriage seekers4 ,the editor of a ,socialist paper who should venture to publish such advertisements would be expelled from his party4 ,the capitalistic press does not hesitate to publish such advertisements1 because they pay4 ,but that does not prevent this same press from railing against the ,socialistic principles as being destructive of marriage4 ,no age has been more hypocritical than ours4 ,most of these newspapers are nothing more or less than matrimonial agencies4 ,one might fill entire pages with clippings taken from leading newspapers on a single day4 ,sometimes the interesting fact is revealed1 that even ministers are sought in this way and that ministers also resort to this method to seek wives4 ,sometimes the applicants even consent to overlook a moral blemish1 provided that the girl is rich4 ,the moral degradation of certain strata of society could not be more vividly exposed than by this sort of marriage4 #di ,for the sake of completeness we must also mention marriage for political reasons as contracted in the highest circles4 ,in these marriages the right is also silently conceded to the man to follow his own inclinations outside of his marriage4 ,there was a time when rulers considered it good form1 a sort of royal attribute1 to have at least one mistress4 ,thus1 according to ,sherr1 ,king ,frederick ,william ,i4 of ,prussia1 otherwise noted for his temperate life1 maintained an intimate relation with the wife of a general4 ,it is well known that ,king ,august of ,poland and ,saxony had almost #cjj illegitimate children1 and that ,king ,victor ,emanuel of ,italy left #cb illegitimate children4 ,in the picturesquely situated little capital of a ,german principality there still stood not many years ago about a dozen beautiful villas that had been erected by the ruler for his abdicated mistresses4 ,one might write volumes on this subject2 in fact1 an extensive collection of books exists that deal mainly with these piquant occurrences4 ,in view of these facts it is indeed very necessary that sycophantical historians should strive to present the various fathers and mothers of their countries as models of domestic virtue1 as faithful husbands and devoted mothers4 ,the augurs are not yet extinct1 they fatten1 as in the days of ,rome1 upon the ignorance of the masses4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,disruption of the ,family4 #a4--;,increase of ,divorce4 ,the part played by church and state in this sort of 8sacred marriage0 is not a worthy one4 ,the state official or the officiating clergyman whose task it is to perform the marriage ceremony1 never pauses to consider by what methods the couple he is about to join in wedlock have been brought together4 ,it may be quite evident1 that the two are in no wise mated either in regard to their ages or in regard to physical and mental qualities2 the bride may1 for instance1 be twenty and the groom seventy1 or vice versa2 the bride may be beautiful and full of vitality1 the groom may be old1 cross and inflicted with infirmities1 it makes no difference to the representative of state and church4 ,the marriage is consecrated1 and the consecration is most solemn in character where the monetary reward for this 8holy function0 is most generous4 ,but when such a marriage turns out to be an exceedingly unhappy one1 as could have been foreseen by anybody1 and frequently was foreseen by the unfortunate victim itself--the woman generally being the victim--and when one or the other party then seeks separation1 both church and state place the greatest difficulties in their way4 ,yet neither church nor state questioned in advance whether love and moral sentiments1 or shameless1 coarse egotism brought about the union4 ,moral revulsion is not considered sufficient cause for separation2 obvious proofs are demanded1 proofs that will degrade one or the other party in public opinion1 to make divorce possible4 ,that the ,catholic ,church does not permit divorce at all1 except by special permission from the pope1 which is very hard to obtain1 makes conditions particularly unfavorable among the ,catholic population4 ,the ,german code of civil law has also made divorce much more difficult4 ,thus divorce by mutual consent1 that had been permitted by ,prussian law1 was abolished4 ,many divorces had been granted under this law1 some for more serious reasons that were concealed out of regard for the guilty party4 ,in ,berlin1 for instance1 there were #e1fbc divorces from #ahhf until #ahib2 #a1djj of these1 approximately #be per cent41 were granted upon mutual consent4 ,in many cases divorce is granted only then1 when the party seeking divorce does so within six months after discovery of the cause for divorce4 ,according to ,prussian law1 the time limit is one year4 ,take1 for example1 that a young wife discovers soon after her marriage1 that she is tied to a man who is no husband to her at all4 ,it is asking a great deal that she should determine on divorce within six months1 a step that requires a considerable amount of moral strength4 ,to justify the increased difficulty in divorce1 the following argument is advanced3 8,only by making divorce increasingly difficult1 can the advancing disruption of the family be counteracted and the family bonds be strengthened40 ,this argument is a contradiction in itself4 ,a disrupted marriage is not made bearable by forcing husband and wife to continue living together in spite of their inward estrangement and mutual aversion4 ,a condition of this sort1 maintained by law1 is profoundly immoral4 ,the result is that in a large number of cases adultery is made a cause for divorce1 since this cause cannot be ignored by the law2 neither the state nor society are improved by this process4 ,it must also be regarded as a concession to the ,catholic ,church1 that in many cases separation takes the place of divorce which was formerly not the case according to civil law4 ,it is no longer considered a cause for divorce1 when through the fault of the one party1 a marriage remains childless4 ,the new ,german code of civil law contains the following paragraph3 8,the religious duties in regard to marriage are not touched upon in the rules laid down in this paragraph40 ,this likewise is a concession to the church4 ,it is merely ornamental in character1 but it is characteristic of the spirit still prevailing in ,germany at the beginning of the twentieth century4 ,for our purposes the admission is important1 that divorce was made more difficult to counteract the advancing disruption of the family4 ,human beings then remain chained to one another for lifetime against their will4 ,one party becomes a slave to the other and is forced in fulfillment of 8matrimonial duties10 to endure intimate embraces that perhaps seem more loathsome than harsh words and ill treatment4 ,rightly ,mantegazza says3 8,there is no greater torture than to suffer the caresses of an unloved person44440#ej ,is such marriage not worse than prostitution8 ,even the prostitute has a certain degree of liberty of withdrawing from her abominable trade1 and if she is not the inmate of a public brothel1 she may refuse herself to a man she does not wish for some reason or other4 ,but a woman sold in marriage must endure the embraces of her husband1 even though she have a hundred reasons to hate and despise him4 ,if the marriage has been contracted from the outset and by mutual understanding1 as a mere marriage of convenience1 matters are not quite as bad4 ,mutual obligations are considered and a bearable mode of life is found4 ,scandal is avoided1 especially out of consideration for the children1 where such exist2 and yet it must be said that the children are the ones to suffer most when their parents lead a cold1 indifferent life1 devoid of love1 even if it does not deteriorate into a life of open hostility4 ,more frequently yet an agreement is accomplished to avoid material loss4 ,usually the husband's misbehavior is the cause of trouble in marriage2 that may be seen from the divorce cases4 ,when a man remains dissatisfied with his marriage his domineering position enables him to find compensation elsewhere4 ,the woman is far less inclined to go astray1 firstly because physiological reasons make a transgression much more dangerous in her case1 and secondly because when she is the one to break the marital vow1 it is considered a crime that society will not condone4 ,the woman alone--be she wife1 widow or maiden--has 8fallen02 the man1 when he commits the same sin1 has1 at the worst1 behaved with impropriety4 ,the same action then is judged by entirely different standards1 according to whether it has been committed by a man or by a woman1 and the women themselves are often most bitter and unmerciful in their condemnation of a 8fallen0 sister4#ea ,as a rule1 women will seek divorce only in cases of flagrant infidelity or gross ill-treatment1 because they are in a dependent position and are obliged to regard marriage as a means of subsistence2 also because the social position of a divorced woman is not an enviable one4 ,she is regarded and treated more or less as a cipher4 ,if in spite of all this women constitute the majority of plaintives in divorce cases1 this goes to prove what moral tortures they must endure4 ,in ,france1 even before the introduction of the new divorce laws1 by far the most proceedings for separation were instituted by women4 ,until #ahhd a woman in ,france could sue for divorce only in case her husband brought the woman with whom he maintained an intimate relation into the domicile of his wife against her will4 ,thus proceedings for separation were instituted annually by3 ,women4 ,men4 #ahef-ahfa #a1gbi #ahd #ahfa-ahff #b1ace #bfj #ahff-ahga #b1eia #ccj #aija-aije #b1cfh #eia ,not only were the majority of proceedings instituted by women1 the figures also show that their number steadily increased4 ,by information gathered from reliable sources it may be seen1 that elsewhere also the greater number of actions for divorce and separation are instituted by women1 as the following table shows3#eb ,,percentage ,,of ,,number ,,of ,,plaintives4 ,,divorces4 ,during ,husbands the years4 ,husbands4 ,wives4 and wives4 ,austria #ahic-ahig #d4d #e4j #ij4f ,roumania #ahia-ahie #cj4f #fh4i #j4e ,switzerland #ahie-ahii #bf4d #de4d #h4b ,france #ahie-ahii #dj4j #ei4a 44 ,baden #ahie-ahii #cf4j #ei4a #d4i ,england ,wales #ahie-ahii #fj4d #ci4f 44 ,scotland #ahih-ahii #dc4c #ef4g 44 ,,separations4 ,austria #ahig-ahii #d4i #af4f #gh4e ,france #ahie-ahii #ae4i #hd4a 44 ,england ,wales #ahie-ahii #c4j #ig4j 44 ,scotland #ahih-ahii 44 #ajj4 44 ,in the ,united ,states1 where the divorce statistics cover a period of forty years1 we find the following ratio3 #ahfg-ahhf4 ,p4 ,c4 #ahhg-aijf4 ,p4 ,c4 #aijf4 ,p4 ,c4 ,men #aab1edj #cd4b #caf1adi #cc4d #bc1dee #cb4e ,women #baf1agf #fe4h #fbi1dgf #ff4f #dh1fjg #fg4e ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,total #cbh1gaf #ajj #ide1fbe #ajj #gb1jfb #ajj ,the above table shows that in more than two-thirds of all divorce cases women were the plaintiffs4#ec ,in ,italy we find a similar ratio4 ,during #ahhg there were #a1bba divorce cases2 #eic of these were instituted by wives1 #bad by husbands1 #dad by both husbands and wives4 ,in #aijd there were #b1ajc cases2 #a1adb by wives1 #ded by husbands1 and #ejg by both4 ,statistics teach us that the majority of divorces are sought by women1 and they furthermore teach us that the number of divorces is rapidly increasing4 ,since the introduction of the new divorce law in ,france in #ahhd1 the divorces have increased from year to year1 as follows3 ,years #ahhd4 #ahhe4 #ahij4 #ahie4 #aijj4 #aije4 #aijf4 #aijg4 ,divorces #a1feg #d1abc #f1eeg #g1gjj #g1hbj #aj1jai #aj1egc #aj1ich ,in ,switzerland1 too1 the divorce-rate is increasing4 ,from #ahhf to #ahij there were #hhb divorces4 ,from #ahia to #ahie there were #hih divorces2 in #ahig1 #a1jaa2 in #ahih1 #a1jah2 in #ahii1 #a1jia2 in #aije1 #a1bjf2 in #aijf1 #a1cdc4 ,in ,austria during #ahii there were #hef divorces and #acc separations4 ,in #aijj there were #a1caj divorces and #afc separations4 ,in #aije there were #a1hhe divorces and #bfb separations4 ,the number of divorces and separations have been doubled during a decade4 ,in ,vienna there were #adh divorces in #ahgj and #ahga2 they increased with each succeeding year until in #ahgh and #ahgi there were #cai cases4 ,vienna being a ,catholic city1 divorces are not easily obtained4 ,nevertheless1 a ,viennese judge exclaimed during the eighties3 8,the charge of broken marriage vows is as frequent as the charge of broken windows40 ,the following shows the increasing divorce-rate in the ,united ,states3 ,years #ahfg4 #ahhf4 #ahie4 #aijb4 #aijf4 ,divorces #i1icg #be1ece #dj1chg #fa1dhj #gb1jfb ,if the number of divorces in relation to the population had remained the same in #aije as in #ahgj1 the exact number of divorces in #aije would have been #bd1jjj1 and not #fg1gia1 as actually was the case4 ,the total number of divorces from #ahfg to #ahhf was #cbh1gaf2 from #ahhg to #aijf1 #ide1fbe4 ,the ,united ,states have the highest divorce-rate4 ,for every thousand marriages there were the following number of divorces3 ,in #ahgj1 #ha2 in #ahhj1 #ajg2 in #ahij1 #adh2 in #aijj1 #bjj4 ,why is divorce more frequent in the ,united ,states than in any other country8 ,firstly1 because in some of the states the divorce laws are less rigorous than in most of the other countries1 and1 secondly1 because women enjoy a freer1 more independent position than in any other country of the world1 and are accordingly less willing to submit to the tyranny of husbands4 ,the following shows the number of divorces in ,germany from #ahia to #aijj3 ,,key ,y3 ,years ,d3 ,divorces ,y #ahia4 #ahib4 #ahic4 #ahid4 #ahie4 #ahif4 #ahig4 #ahih4 #ahii4 #aijj4 ,d #f1fgh #f1eac #f1fid #g1ejb #h1cbf #h1fja #i1jje #i1adc #i1efc #g1ibh ,we see that from #ahii to #aijj1 the number of divorces have decreased by #a1fce1 because on the first of ,january1 #aijj1 the new code of civil law went into effect which made divorce more difficult4 ,but life is stronger than law4 ,after there was a decrease in the divorce-rate from #aijj to #aijb1 there has been a rapid increase ever since1 as the following table shows3 ,years #aija4 #aijb4 #aijc4 #aijd4 #aije4 #aijf4 #aijg4 ,divorces #g1ifd #i1jfi #i1icc #aj1hfh #aa1adg #ab1ahj #ab1dhi ,in ,saxony1 too1 in spite of various fluctuations1 there has been a steady increase1 as may be seen from the following table3 ,for each #a1jjj ,years4 ,divorces4 marriages4 #ahcf-ahdj #cef #aba #ahdf-ahej #cie #aba #ahga-ahge #eha #abb #ahia-ahie #iba #ach #ahif-aijj #a1acj #aea #aija-aije #a1che #afh ,for each thousand marriages in ,prussia there were the following number of divorces3 #ahha to #ahhe1 #fg4fb2 #ahhf to #ahij1 #hj4ee2 #ahia to #ahie1 #hf4gg2 #ahif1 #aja4ig2 #aije1 #ajf2 #aijh1 #aba4 ,that is a tremendous increase4 ,the increase of divorce is not a national but an international symptom4 ,for each thousand marriages there were the following number of divorces in3 ,at the close #ahgf-ahhj4 #ahha-ahhe4 #ahhf-ahij4 of the century4 ,austria 44 #ai4d #ai4g #ca4 ,hungary #ca4f #cj4d #cj4e #eh4 ,roumania #cg4c #eb4c #gc4a #ih4 ,italy #aa4h #aa4c #aj4f #ae4 ,france #cc4i #ge4i #hj4i #abi4 ,england ,wales #f4e #g4d #g4 #aj4f ,scotland #ab4c #ac4 #af4g #bf4 ,ireland #j4f #j4d #a4a #a4 ,belgium #be4e #ca4i #dc4 #gb4 ,netherlands 44 44 44 #gh4 ,norway #ac4i #ab4a #ai4c #cc4 ,sweden #bh4e #bh4f #ca4f #de4 ,finland #af4a #g4h #aj4j #bi4 ,switzerland #bbj4 #bjj4 #ahh4 #aii4i ,it would be a great mistake to draw conclusions from these widely diverging figures about the moral status of the various countries enumerated above4 ,no one would claim1 that cause for divorce is four times greater among the ,swedish people than among the ,english people4 ,the laws must be taken into consideration that make divorce more or less difficult as the case may be4#ed ,the moral status1 that is1 the causes making divorce appear desirable to either man or woman1 are a secondary consideration4 ,but the figures show1 that the divorce-rate is increasing more rapidly than the population2 that is increasing1 in fact1 while the marriage-rate is decreasing4 ,we will return to this phase of the question later on4 ,great differences of age between husband and wife play a considerable part in divorce4 ,that is shown by the following table gathered from official statistics in ,switzerland3 ,,number ,,of ,,divorces ,,for ,,each #a1jjj ,,marriages ,,with ,,same ,,difference ,,of ,,age4 #ahha-ahij4 #ahia-aijj4 ,man older2 #bf years and more #bga #cbh ,man older2 #aa to #be years #ahi #aih ,man older2 #a to #aj years #aic #aha ,husband and wife of same age #aie #aij ,man younger2 #a to #aj years #bbf #bbf ,man younger2 #aa to #be years #cfe #dca ,man younger2 #bf years and more #gei #hgj ,the following statistics from ,saxony during #aije and #aijf1 and from ,prussia from #ahie to #aije1 show the divorce-rate in its relation to the various strata of society3 ,,annual ,,divorces ,,for ,,each #ajj1jjj ,,married ,,men4 ,saxony4 ,prussia4 ,agriculture #ei #cd ,industry #bbj #aeh ,commerce #big #bbi ,public service and learned professions #cdf #afe ,in ,saxony divorces were most frequent among officials and professional men4 ,in ,prussia they were most frequent among those employed in commerce4 ,in ,saxony those employed in commerce came second2 in ,prussia1 officials and professional men4 ,men employed in industry come third2 #bbj in ,saxony1 and #aeh in ,prussia4 ,those employed in agriculture furnished the lowest figures4 ,when we compare the growing number of divorces in the cities with those among the rural population1 we are led to the conclusion that the rapid development of industry1 accompanied by an increasing instability of public life1 makes the marriage relation more unfavorable1 and adds to the factors that make for the disruption of marriage4 ,on the other hand1 the growing divorce-rate shows1 that the number of women are increasing who resolve to cast off a yoke that has become unbearable4 #ej ,the ,physiology of ,love4 #ea ,alexander ,dumas correctly says in 8,monsieur ,alphonse03 8,man has created two standards of morality3 one for himself1 and one for woman1 one that permits him to love all women1 and another that permits woman as a compensation for her lost freedom1 to be loved by but one man40 ,see also ,marguerite's self-accusation in 8,faust40 #eb ,george v4 ,mayer3 8,statistics and ,social ,science40 #ec ,marriage and ,divorce4 #ahhg-aijf4 ,bureau of the ,census1 ,bulletin #if1 p4 #ab4 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 #aijh4 #ed ,in ,england divorce is a privilege enjoyed by the rich4 ,the cost of a trial is so exorbitant1 that divorce becomes almost impossible to people of moderate means1 especially as it necessitates a journey to ,london4 ,in the whole country there is only one divorce court1 which is situated in ,london4 #b4--;,bourgeois and ,proletarian ,marriage4 ,the corruption of marriage increases at the same rate at which the struggle for existence grows more severe1 making matrimony more and more an object of mercenary speculation4 ,as it is becoming increasingly difficult to support a family1 many men choose to refrain from marrying1 and so the declamations about it being woman's duty to practice her natural profession of wifehood and motherhood1 are just so many meaningless phrases4 ,on the other hand1 these conditions are bound to foster illegitimate relations and to increase the number of prostitutes2 they also increase the number of those who fall victims to an unnatural satisfaction of the sexual impulse4 ,among the ruling classes the wife is frequently degraded1 just as she was in ancient ,greece1 to the mere functions of bearing legitimate children1 acting as housekeeper1 or serving as nurse to a husband ruined by a life of debauchery4 ,for his amusement1 or to gratify his desire for love1 the man maintains courtesans or mistresses who live in elegance and luxury4 ,others who do not have the means of maintaining mistresses1 associate with prostitutes during marriage as before marriage1 and a number of wives are sufficiently corrupted to consider such relations quite proper4#ee ,in the upper and middle classes of society the chief evil in marriage is its mercenary character4 ,but this evil is still heightened by the mode of life that prevails among these classes4 ,that applies to the women as well as to the men1 since they frequently lead lives of idleness or devote themselves to corrupting occupations4 ,the society woman's spiritual nourishment usually consists of the following3 ,reading ambiguous novels1 visiting frivolous plays1 enjoying sensuous music1 resorting to intoxicating stimulants1 and indulging in scandal-mongering4 ,idleness and ennui frequently entice her into love-intrigues1 that are sought more eagerly still by the men of her circles4 ,in the mad pursuit of pleasure she rushes from one banquet and entertainment to another1 and in summer she goes to watering-places and summer resorts to rest from the exertions of the winter and to seek new amusement4 ,scandals are a daily occurrence with this mode of life2 men seduce and women allow themselves to be seduced4 ,among the lower classes mercenary marriage is practically unknown4 ,the workingman generally marries for love1 but nevertheless many harmful and destructive influences exist in the proletarian marriage also4 ,blessed with many children1 cares and worries ensue1 and all too often bitter poverty prevails4 ,disease and death are frequent guests in the proletarian family1 and unemployment heightens the misery4 ,many are the factors that lessen the workingman's income and frequently deprive him of that meagre income altogether4 ,hard times and industrial crises throw him out of employment2 the introduction of new machinery or of new methods of production1 makes him superfluous2 wars1 unfavorable tariff and commercial treaties1 the imposition of new indirect taxes1 or black-listing by his employers as a result of his political convictions1 destroy his means of subsistence or gravely injure them4 ,from time to time one or another thing occurs that entails a longer or shorter period of unemployment with its accompanying misery and starvation4 ,uncertainty is the mark of his existence4 ,such vicissitudes are productive of ill temper and bitter feelings that most frequently lead to outbursts in domestic life where demands are made daily and hourly that cannot be satisfied4 ,this leads to quarrels and harsh words and eventually to a rupture in the marriage relation4 ,frequently both husband and wife must work for a living4 ,the children are left to themselves or to the care of older brothers and sisters1 who are still in need of care and education themselves4 ,the noon-day meal1 usually of the poorest quality1 is devoured in utmost haste1 provided that the parents have time to come home for this meal4 ,in the majority of cases this is impossible1 owing to the distances between homes and factories and to the brevity of the time allowed for rest4 ,weary and worn1 both parents return at night4 ,instead of a cheerful1 pleasant home to come to1 theirs is only a small1 unsanitary dwelling1 frequently wanting in fresh air and light and devoid of the most elementary comforts4 ,the scarcity of available lodgings with all the resulting evils1 is one of the darkest phases of our social system that leads to countless vices and crimes4 ,in spite of all attempts at relief1 the housing problem is becoming more serious every year in all the larger centers of industry2 and other strata of society1 such as professional people1 clerks1 officials1 teachers1 small dealers1 etc41 are affected by it4 ,the workingman's wife who returns to her 8home0 at night exhausted from a day's hard labor1 must begin work anew4 ,she must toil in feverish haste to attend to the most necessary details of housekeeping4 ,after the children have been put to bed1 she still continues to mend and sew until far into the night4 ,rest and recuperation are unknown to her4 ,the man often is ignorant and the woman still more so1 and the little they have to say to one another is quickly said4 ,the man goes to a saloon where he at least finds some of the comforts that he lacks at home2 he drinks1 and no matter how little he spends1 he is spending too much for his income4 ,sometimes he falls a victim to the vice of gambling1 that claims many victims in the upper strata of society also1 and then still loses more than he spends on drink4 ,meanwhile the woman is brooding at home full of grudge4 ,she must toil like a beast of burden1 there is no rest or recreation for her2 but the man enjoys the liberty that is his1 just because he had the good fortune of having been born a man4 ,thus discord arises4 ,if the woman is less conscientious2 if she1 too1 seeks pleasure and diversion when she has returned from a hard day of work1 to which she is surely entitled1 her household goes to ruin and the misery becomes greater still4 ,nevertheless1 we are living in 8the best of worlds40 ,thus marriage is constantly being disrupted among the proletariat also4 ,even favorable periods of employment often have a detrimental influence1 for they involve over-time work and sometimes also work on ,sunday1 thereby depriving the worker of the little time he is able to devote to his family4 ,often the distances from the workingmen's homes to their places of employment are so great1 that they must leave at day-break1 when the children are still soundly asleep1 and do not return until late at night when they are sleeping again4 ,thousands of workingmen1 especially those connected with the building trades1 remain away from home during the entire week and only return to their families on ,saturday night4 ,how can family relations prosper under such conditions86 ,at the same time the number of women workers is constantly growing1 especially in the textile industries1 for thousands of spinning-machines and power-looms are being tended by women and children1 whose labor is cheap4 ,here matrimonial relations have been reversed4 ,while the wife and the children go to the factory1 the unemployed man not infrequently1 remains at home performing the domestic duties4 8,in a number of cloth factories in ,chemnitz we find women who are employed there only during the winter months1 because their husbands who are road-builders1 masons or carpenters1 earn little or nothing in winter4 ,during the absence of the women1 the men attend to the housekeeping40#ef ,in the ,united ,states1 where capitalism has developed so rapidly1 that all its evils are manifest on a much larger scale than in the industrial countries of ,europe1 a characteristic name has been coined for this state of affairs4 ,industrial centers where women are mainly employed while men remain at home1 have been called 8she-towns40#eg ,at present it is generally conceded that women should be admitted to all trades4 ,capitalistic society in its mad chase of profits has long since recognized1 that women can be more profitably exploited than men1 since they are by nature more pliant and meek4#eh ,accordingly the number of trades in which women may find employment are increasing with every year4 ,the constant improvement of machinery1 the simplifying of the process of labor by an increased division of labor1 and the competitive warfare among individual capitalists1 as also among rival industrial countries--all favor the steady increase of woman labor4 ,the phenomenon is common to all industrially advanced countries4 ,as the number of women in industry increases1 the competition between them and the male workers grows more severe4 ,the reports of factory inspectors and statistical investigations prove this4 ,the position of women is especially unfavorable in those trades in which they predominate as1 for instance1 the clothing trades1 and particularly in those branches in which the workers perform the work in their own home4 ,investigations concerning the condition of women workers in the manufacture of underwear and the clothing trades1 were made in ,germany in #ahhf4 ,this investigation showed among other things that the miserable pay these workers received frequently drove them to prostitution4 ,our ,christian government1 whose ,christianity is sought in vain where it is really needful1 but is met with where it is superfluous--our ,christian government is like our ,christian bourgeoisie1 whose interests it serves4 ,this government finds it exceedingly difficult to decide upon the enactment of laws which would limit the work of women to a bearable degree and prohibit child-labor entirely4 ,this same government also fails to grant a normal work-day and sufficient rest on ,sundays to its own employees1 thereby harming their family relations4 ,frequently men employed in the mail and railroad service and in prisons must work many hours overtime without receiving adequate remuneration4 ,as the rents are also far too high in comparison with the incomes of the workers1 they must content themselves with the poorest quarters4 ,lodgers of one sex or the other1 sometimes of both1 are taken into the workingman's home4#ei ,old and young of both sexes live together in a small space and frequently witness the most intimate relations4 ,how modesty and decency fare under such conditions1 has been shown by horrible facts4 ,the increasing demoralization and brutalization of the young that is being discussed so much1 is partly due to these conditions4 ,child-labor1 too1 has the worst possible influence on children1 both physically and morally4 ,the increasing industrial activity of married women has the most detrimental effect during pregnancy and at child-birth and during the early babyhood of the children1 when they depend upon the mother for nourishment4 ,during pregnancy it may lead to a number of diseases that are destructive to the unborn child and harmful to the organism of the woman1 and bring about premature births and still-births4 ,when the child has been born1 the mother is compelled to return to the factory as soon as possible1 lest some one else take her place4 ,the inevitable result for the poor1 little babes is neglect and improper or insufficient nourishment4 ,they are given opiates to be kept quiet2 and as a further result of all this1 they perish in masses or grow up sickly and deformed4 ,it means race degeneration4 ,frequently the children grow up without ever having experienced real parental love4 ,thus proletarians are born1 live and die2 and society and the state marvel at it that brutality1 immorality and crime are increasing4 ,during the sixties of the last century the cotton industry in ,england almost came to a standstill1 as a result of the ,civil ,war that was being waged in the ,united ,states4 ,accordingly1 thousands of working-women were unemployed1 and among them physicians made the astounding observation1 that in spite of the existing want1 infant mortality was decreasing4 ,the reason was that the babies now were being nursed by their mothers and more care was bestowed on them than ever before4 ,during the crisis of the seventies of the last century similar observations were made in the ,united ,states1 especially in ,new ,york and ,massachusetts4 ,unemployment enabled the women to devote more time to their children4 ,the same fact was noted during the general strike in ,sweden in ,august and ,september of #aiji4 ,the mortality in ,stockholm and other large ,swedish cities had not been as low for many years as during the weeks of this giant strike4 ,one of the eminent medical authorities of ,stockholm declared that the low rate of mortality and the general state of good health was in close connection with the great strike4 ,he pointed out that the out-of-door life which was being led by the army of strikers was chiefly responsible for this satisfactory state of health1 for no matter how extensive the sanitary regulations might be1 the air in the factories and workshops was always more or less detrimental to the health of the workers4 ,the same medical authority pointed out1 furthermore1 that the prohibition of the sale of intoxicating drinks during the great strike1 also tended to improve the state of health4 ,domestic industry1 which is depicted so alluringly by the romancers among political economists1 is not more favorable to the workers4 ,here man and wife both toil from dawn to darkness and the children are trained as helpers from their earliest childhood on4 ,the entire family and perhaps some assistants live together in closest quarters among rubbish and disagreeable odors4 ,the bedrooms are similar to the workshop1 usually small1 dark spaces with insufficient ventilation1 detrimental to the health of the persons who are obliged to sleep in them4 ,the struggle for existence that is growing increasingly difficult1 also sometimes compels men and women to commit acts that they would loathe under different circumstances4 ,it was shown in #ahgg in ,munich that among the prostitutes entered on lists by the police1 there were no less than #bjc wives of workingmen and mechanics4 ,many more married women are driven to occasional prostitution by need1 without submitting to police control that deeply degrades all modesty and human dignity4 #ee ,in his book on 8,the ,woman ,question in the ,middle ,ages10 that ,i have frequently quoted1 ,buecher laments the dissolution of marriage and the family4 ,he condemns the employment of women in industry1 and demands that woman should return to her 8particular sphere10 the only one where she creates 8real values10 the home and the family4 ,the aims of the modern woman movement appear 8amateurish0 to him1 and he expresses the hope that 8a better way may be found40 ,but he fails to point out a successful way4 ,from his bourgeois point of view it would be impossible to do so4 ,the matrimonial conditions as also the position of women in general1 are not the result of wilful creation4 ,they are the natural product of social evolution1 and this social evolution is consummated in accordance with inherent laws4 #ef ,technics and ,political ,economy4 #eg ,the following clipping taken from an ,american newspaper in #ahic gives an adequate description of a 8she-town03 8,a singularity that is met with in the factory towns of ,maine1 is a class of men who may rightly be called housekeepers4 ,any one visiting some of these workers' homes shortly after the noon hour1 will find the men1 wearing an apron1 washing dishes4 ,at other hours of the day they may be seen making the beds1 dressing the children1 scrubbing or cooking4444 ,these men do the housekeeping for the simple reason that their wives can earn more in the factories than they1 and it is more economical for them to remain at home while the women work40 #eh 8,mr4 ,e41 a manufacturer1 informs me that he employs only women at his power-looms4 ,he prefers married women and especially those who have a family at home depending upon them4 ,they are much more attentive and docile than unmarried women1 and are obliged to exert themselves to the utmost in order to earn the necessary means of subsistence4 ,thus the peculiar virtues of woman's character are turned to her own detriment1 and the gentleness and decency of her nature become a means of her enslavement40 ,from an address by ,lord ,ashley on the ten-hour bill1 #ahdd4--,karl ,marx1 8,capital10 second edition4 #ei ,the ,prussian census of #aijj has shown that in ,prussia there are #c1dfg1chh persons not related to the families in whose midst they live4 ,in the entire state about one-quarter of these non-related members of the households consisted of strange boarders and lodgers2 in the rural districts they constituted only one-seventh1 but in the cities one-third1 and in the capital1 ,berlin1 more than one-half4--,g4 v4 ,mayer1 8,statistics and ,social ,science40 ,,chapter ,x4 ,marriage as a ,means of ,support4 #a4--;,decline of the ,marriage ,rate4 ,when we consider the conditions enumerated above1 it requires no further proof to recognize that a growing number of persons do not regard the wedded state as a desirable goal1 but hesitate to enter into it4 ,this explains the phenomenon1 that in most civilized countries the marriage rate is stationary or declining4 ,it was a matter of old experience1 that an increase in the price of grain had a detrimental effect on both the marriage and birth rates4 ,with the growing industrial development of any country the marriage and birth rates are influenced more and more by the ups and downs of the market4 ,economic crises and a lowering of the general economic standard have a lasting unfavorable influence4 ,this may be seen from the marriage statistics of various countries4 ,according to the latest census1 #ab1hcb1jdd marriages were contracted in the ,united ,states during the period from #ahhg to #aijf4 #ahhg #dhc1jif #ahia #efb1dab #ahib #egg1hgj #ahic #egh1fgc #ahid #eff1afa #aijb #gdf1gcc #aijc #ghf1acb #aijd #gha1ade #aije #hjd1ghg #aijf #hec1bcb ,these figures show that as a result of the crises during #ahic and #ahid1 the marriage rate declined by #ab1eab4 ,the same phenomenon recurs in #aijd1 during which year the marriage rate declined by #dihg4 ,the following table shows marriage statistics gathered in ,france3 #ahgc-ahgg #bii1jjj #ahgh-ahhb #bha1jjj #ahhc-ahhg #bhd1jjj #ahhh-ahib #bgi1jjj #ahic-ahig #bhh1jjj #ahih-aijb #bif1jjj #aijc-aijg #cjf1jjj ,the marriage rate attained its highest figure1 #cba1bch1 during the year #ahgc4 ,from that time on the marriage rate declined only to increase again with times of prosperity4 ,in ,france the highest marriage rate since #ahgc was attained in #aijg when it reached #cad1ijc4 ,to some extent this increase was due to a new law that went into effect on ,june #ba1 #aijg1 by which the legal formalities required in order to become married were simplified4 ,this increase was especially noticeable in the poorer districts4 ,the following table shows the number of marriages contracted for every thousand inhabitants in various ,european countries3 #ahga #ahgf #ahha #ahhf #ahia #ahif #aija ,,countries to to to to to to to #aijg #ahge #ahhj #ahhe #ahij #ahie #aijj #aije ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------- ,german ,empire #ah4hd #ae4fh #ae4dj #ae4fh #ae4hh #ag4hc #af #af4b ,prussia #ah4hh #ae4hf #ae4ib #af4cb #af4dj #af4hf #af4b #af4d ,bavaria #ah4ib #ad4fe #ac4fd #ac4if #ad4gf #af4ji #ae4b #ae4d ,saxony #ai4if #ag4gj #ag4fb #ah4fd #ag4eb #ah4gf #af4f #af4h ,austria #ah4cj #ae4eb #ae4hh #ae4dj #ae4gf #af4jd #ae4h #ae4h ,hungary #ba4ea #ai4cj #bj4bd #ag4gb #ag4ib #af4je #ag4b #ai4f ,italy #ae4ed #ae4jf #ad4jh #ag4fd #ad4if #ad4dj #ad4h #ae4d ,switzerland #af4jf #ad4ij #ac4hj #ad4jj #ad4gb #ae4ei #ae #ae4f ,france #af4jf #ae4af #ae4jd #ad4dh #ad4ij #ae4ad #ae4b #af ,england and ,wales #ag4jh #ae4cd #ae4ad #ad4gj #ae4af #af4ad #ae4f #ae4h ,scotland #ad4ih #aa4gf #ac4gf #ah4jb #ac4fh #ad4id #ad #ad ,ireland #i4gb #i4jd #h4ff #h4ff #i4dh #i4hg #aj4d #aj4b ,belgium #ae4dd #ac4id #ac4id #ad4cd #ae4bd #af4de #af4b #af4b ,netherlands #af4fd #ae4gf #ad4bh #ad4jd #ad4dh #ad4hh #ae #ae4b ,denmark #ae4hh #ae4ed #ae4ch #ac4id #ac4hd #ad4gi #ad4d #ae4b ,norway #ad4eh #ad4dj #ac4hb #ab4gf #ab4ib #ac4gc #ab4d #aa4h ,sweden #ad4jd #ac4bj #ab4hd #ab4bj #aa4de #ab4jd #aa4h #ab ,finland #ag4fh #ae4gb #ad4ij #ad4dj #ab4ih #ae4cd #ac #ac4f ,european ,russia excl4 the ,vistula province #ai4fb #ag4fb #ah4jf #ag4id #ag4jh #ag4hj -- -- ,bulgaria -- -- #ah4jd #ag4bd #af4jg -- -- -- ,servia #bb4hj #bc4cb #bb4ad #ba4gf #ai4hd -- -- -- ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------- ,that the marriage rate rises and sinks with the rise and decline of national prosperity is most strikingly noticeable in ,germany4 ,the largest number of marriages 7#dbc1ijj71 were contracted in ,germany in #ahgb1 the year after the close of the ,franco-,prussian war4 ,from #ahgc on1 the marriage rate declined until in #ahgi1 the year when the crisis was at its worst1 it attained its lowest figure 7#cce1acc74 ,then it gradually increased again until #ahij1 a year of prosperity1 to sink once more in #ahib and again to increase with the years of returning prosperity until with the height of prosperity the highest figures were attained 7#dgf1dia in #aijj1 and #dga1eai in #ahii74 ,the next crisis brought another decline4 ,in #aijb the number of marriages did not exceed #deg1bjh while in #aijf and #aijg it rose up again to #dih1ijj and #ejc1ifd4 ,but in general the statistics of most countries point to a decline of the marriage rate4 ,the highest numbers attained during the seventies were attained only in exceptional instances at the close of the nineties4 ,but not only the earnings have a strong influence on the marriage rate1 the conditions of property have so likewise4 ,statistics from the kingdom of ,wurtemberg show1 that with the increase of large estates the number of married men between #be and #cj years of age decreases and the number of unmarried men between #dj and #ej years of age increases4 ,small estates are favorable to the marriage rate1 because they enable a greater number of families to maintain a decent though modest livelihood1 while large estates are1 for obvious reasons1 unfavorable to the marriage rate4 ,with the growing industrial development of a country1 the number of marriages in urban trades and professions increases4 ,the following statistics from ,sweden during the years #aija to #aijd show the relation of marriage to occupation3 ,agriculture per #ajjj #d4gh ,industry 8 8 #g4ag ,commerce 8 8 #g4ge ,learned professions 8 8 #f4cc ,all these figures prove that not moral but economic causes are the determining factors4 ,the number of marriages like the moral status of a social group depend upon its material foundation4 #b4--;,infanticide and ,abortion4 ,fear of poverty and doubts as to whether it will be possible to bring up the children suitable to their station in life1 cause many women of all classes to commit deeds that are averse to the laws of nature and to the laws of organized society as well4 ,such deeds include the various methods to prevent conception1 and when this has occurred nevertheless1 artificial abortion4 ,it would be a mistake to assume that such methods are resorted to only by frivolous1 unscrupulous women4 ,they are1 on the contrary1 frequently resorted to by conscientious wives1 who feel that they must limit the number of offspring and rather submit to the dangers of abortion1 than to deny themselves to their husbands and thereby drive them to the devious paths4 ,other women again take this step to conceal a 8sin10 or because they abhor the discomforts of pregnancy1 child-birth and motherhood1 or because they fear that their physical beauty will be impaired and that they will accordingly seem less attractive to their husbands and to men in general4 ,these women readily obtain medical and surgical aid at high prices4 ,artificial abortion seems to be practiced more and more4 ,it was frequently practiced among the ancients and is practiced to-day among both civilized nations and savages4 ,the old ,greeks practiced it openly1 without any legal restraint4 ,plato regarded it as within the province of the midwife1 and ,aristotle permitted it to married people when a pregnancy that was not desired took place4#fj ,according to ,jules ,ronyer1 the women of ,rome practiced abortion for several reasons4 ,in the first place they wished to conceal the results of their illegitimate relations2 secondly they wished to indulge in uninterrupted excesses1 and thirdly they sought to avoid the detrimental effects of pregnancy and child-birth upon their beauty4#fa ,among the romans a woman was considered old when she attained the thirtieth year1 and the women therefore shunned everything that was likely to make them age more quickly4 ,during the mediaeval ages abortions were punishable by severe penalties1 in some instances even by capital punishment1 and a free woman who had practiced it became a serf4 ,at the present time abortions are practiced chiefly in ,turkey and in the ,united ,states4 8,the ,turks do not regard a foetus as being really alive until after the fifth month1 and have no scruple in causing its abortion4 ,even at later stages1 when the operation becomes criminal1 it is frequently practiced4 ,in #ahgb at ,constantinople1 more than three thousand cases of abortion were brought before the courts in a period of ten months40#fb ,more frequently yet it is practiced in the ,united ,states4 ,in all the large cities of the union institutions exist where women and girls can go to bring about premature birth4 ,many ,american newspapers contain advertisements of such places4#fc ,in some strata of ,american society an artificial abortion is discussed as openly as a regular confinement4 ,in ,germany and other ,european countries it is regarded in a different manner1 and according to ,german law both the perpetrator and the accomplice may be punished by imprisonment4 ,abortion is often followed by the worst results2 not infrequently it results in death1 and in many cases it means the permanent destruction of health4 8,dangers from the most unfavorable pregnancy and child-birth are less great than from artificial abortions40#fd ,sterility is the most frequent result4 ,nevertheless the practice is becoming more frequent in ,germany also4 ,the following number of persons were convicted of criminal abortion3 ,from #ahhb to #ahhf1 #hci2 from #ahig to #aija1 #aefe2 from #aijb to #aijf1 #bbcf4fe ,during recent years several cases of criminal abortions created a sensation1 because distinguished physicians and prominent society women figured in these cases4 ,judging by the advertisements in ,german newspapers1 there also is an increase of those places and institutions where married and unmarried women are given an opportunity to await the results of their wrong-doing in absolute secrecy4 ,the fear of a too numerous progeny in consideration of the economic status and the cost of education has caused the introduction of preventive measures among entire classes and nations and has gradually developed into a regular system that threatens to become a public calamity4 ,it is a wellknown fact that almost all strata of ,french society abide by the custom of limiting their offspring to two children4 ,few civilized countries have as high a marriage rate as ,france2 but notwithstanding this fact1 in no other country the birth rate is as low and the increase of population as gradual4 ,the ,french bourgeoisie1 the peasantry and the working class1 all abide by this custom4 ,in some parts of ,germany the conditions among the peasantry seem to have lead to a similar state of affairs4 ,in a picturesque region in the south-western part of ,germany1 a certain species of tree1 which furnishes an ingredient for an abortive remedy1 is grown on every farm4 ,in another region the peasants have long since followed the custom of limiting their offspring to two children2 they do not wish to divide up their farms4 ,another noteworthy fact is the marked increase in the publication and sale of literature discussing and recommending means for optional sterility4 ,of course1 these books are always clothed in 8scientific0 garb and invariably point to the threatening danger of excess of population4 ,besides the prevention of conception and artificial abortion1 crime also plays a part4 ,in ,france child exposure and infanticide have increased as a direct result of ,french civil law1 according to which it is interdicted to investigate paternity4 ,the 8,code civil0 provides that 8,la recherche de la paternit est interdite10 but 8la recherche de la maternit est admise40 ,this law forbids to search for a child's father but permits to search for its mother4 ,with brutal frankness it thus proclaims injustice to the unfortunate girl who has been seduced4 ,the men of ,france may1 by the provision of this law1 seduce as many girls and women as they please2 they are freed from all responsibility and do not have to contribute anything to the support of their illegitimate children4 ,this law was framed under the pretext that women must be deterred from seducing men4 ,we see1 everywhere it is the poor1 feeble man1--although his is the strong sex1--who never seduces but always is seduced4 ,the result of this paragraph of the 8,code civil0 was the framing of another paragraph which provides that 8,l'enfant conu pendant le marriage a pour pre le mari0 7the husband is father to every child conceived during marriage74 ,while it is forbidden to search after a child's father1 deceived husbands must regard children as their own1 that have sprung from illicit relations their wives may have maintained4 ,we must admit that the ,french bourgeoisie is at least consistent4 ,until now all attempts to repeal these obnoxious laws have failed4 ,on the other hand the ,french bourgeoisie seeks to atone somewhat for the cruelty of preventing women1 who have been deceived1 from seeking financial aid from the fathers of their children1 by establishing foundling institutions4 ,thus the new-born babe is deprived not only of its father but of its mother as well4 ,according to the ,french conception foundlings are orphans1 and the ,french bourgeoisie thus permits its illegitimate children to be reared as 8children of the nation0 at the expense of the state4 ,a wonderful institution6 ,lately ,french methods have been copied in ,germany4 ,the new ,german civil law contains provisions in regard to the legal status of illegitimate children1 that are in contradiction to the more humane laws that were in force heretofore4 ,one paragraph states that 8an illegitimate child and its father are not regarded as being related10 while ,emperor ,joseph ,,ii had already decreed that legitimate and illegitimate children should be equal before the law4 ,another paragraph states that 8an illegitimate child is fatherless if its mother maintained relations with several men at the time of conception40 ,the child is made to suffer for its mother's frivolousness1 weakness or poverty4 ,frivolous fathers are not taken into consideration by the law4 ,the law concerning illegitimate children furthermore provides3 8it is the mother's right and duty to care for the person of the illegitimate child4 ,the father of the illegitimate child is obliged to provide for same until the completion of its sixteenth year1 in accordance with the social status of the mother40 ,according to former ,prussian law1 the seducer was obliged to provide for the child in accordance with his own social status and wealth4 ,if the woman had been seduced with the promise of marriage1 she was entitled to all the rights of a divorced wife1 and in those cases the illegitimate children were regarded as legitimate before the law4 ,these more just and humane provisions have now been dispensed with4 ,the tendency of ,german legislation is a retrogressive one4 ,during the period from #ahca to #ahhj1 #hefh cases of infanticide were tried before the ,french court of assizes4 ,this number increased from #dga during the years #ahca to #ahce to #igj during the years #ahgf to #ahhj4 ,during the same period #ajcb cases of criminal abortion were tried1 #ajj of these during the single year #ahhj4 ,it goes without saying that only a small number of the artificial abortions actually practiced ever come to the notice of the courts4 ,as a rule only such cases are brought to public attention that result in severe illness or death4 ,the rural population furnished #ge percent of the infanticides1 and the urban population furnished #fg percent of criminal abortions4 ,the women residing in cities have more means at hand to prevent normal child-birth2 therefore the cases of abortion were numerous and the cases of infanticide relatively few4 ,in the rural districts the inverse ratio prevails4 ,in ,germany the following number of persons were convicted of infanticide3 from #ahhb to #ahhf1 #hhd2 from #ahig to #aija1 #hhg2 from #aijb to #aijf1 #gde4 ,this is the picture presented by present day society in regard to its most intimate relations4 ,it differs considerably from that picture which is usually drawn for us by poetic visionaries1 but it at least has the advantage of being true4 ,yet the picture is incomplete2 a few characteristic features must still be added4 #fj ,elie ,metchnikoff--,the ,nature of ,man4 #fa ,jules ,ronyer1 ,etudes mdicales sur l'ancienne ,rome4 ,paris #ahei4 #fb ,elie ,metchnikoff--,the ,nature of ,man4 #fc ,according to an official investigation1 #bjj persons were counted in ,new ,york who made a profession of artificial abortions4 #fd ,edw4 ,reich--,history of ,abortion and its ,dangers4 #fe ,criminal statistics of the ,german ,empire for the year #aijf4 #c4--;,education for ,marriage4 ,all parties are agreed that at the present time the female sex is1 on an average1 mentally inferior to the male sex4 ,balzac1 who by no means was an admirer of women1 nevertheless declared1 8a woman who has obtained the education of a man1 indeed possesses the most brilliant and fruitful qualities for establishing her own happiness and that of her husband40 ,goethe1 who was well acquainted with the types of men and women of his day1 uttered the following sharp remark in 8,the ,years of ,travelling of ,william ,meister0 7,confessions of a fair soul73 8scholarly women were held up to ridicule1 and educated women were not popular either1 probably because it was regarded as impolite to disgrace so many ignorant men40 ,but that does not alter the fact that women1 as a rule1 are mentally inferior to men4 ,this difference is bound to exist1 since the mental status of woman is but what man1 her master1 has made it4 ,the education of women has always been pitifully neglected1 even more than the education of the proletariat1 and even at the present time it is insufficient4 ,in our age the desire for the exchange of ideas is a growing one among all classes of society1 and accordingly we begin to recognize the neglected mental training of women as a great mistake1 one from which not only women1 but men also must suffer4 ,with men education is mainly directed upon the development of the intellect2 it is supposed to sharpen their reasoning powers1 to expand their knowledge and to strengthen their will-power4 ,with women1 especially among the upper classes1 education is mainly directed upon the development of their sentiments2 it chiefly consists of attaining various accomplishments that only tend to heighten their imaginative faculty and to increase their nervous irritability1 such as music1 literature1 art and poetry4 ,that is the greatest error in education that could possibly be committed4 ,it shows that educators have allowed themselves to be guided by their prejudices concerning the nature of woman and her narrow sphere in life4 ,the development of sentiment and imagination in women should not be artificially stimulated which only increases the tendency to become nervous4 ,with women1 as well as with men1 the mental faculties should be developed and they should be acquainted with the practical facts of life4 ,it would be the greatest advantage to both sexes if women were less sentimental and more rational2 if they displayed less nervousness and timidity1 and more courage and will-power2 if they possessed fewer accomplishments1 and a broader knowledge of the world and mankind and the natural forces of life4 ,until the present time the spiritual life of woman and her sentiments have been stimulated to the utmost1 while her intellectual development has been neglected1 hampered and repressed4 ,as a result she literally suffers from spiritual and sentimental hypertrophy1 which makes her susceptible to all sorts of superstitions and miracle-frauds1 an easy victim of religious and other swindles1 a willing tool of bigotry and reaction4 ,men in their short-sightedness frequently lament this fact2 but they do nothing to change it1 because the great majority of them are still deeply entrenched in their own prejudices4 ,as a result of this false education1 women generally regard the world very differently from men1 and thereby another great source of differences and misunderstandings between the sexes is established4 ,for every man in present day society1 participation in public life is one of the most essential duties2 that many men still fail to recognize this duty does not alter the fact4 ,but an ever widening circle of men has begun to recognize that public institutions directly affect the private relations of each individual1 and that the welfare of individuals and families depends far more upon the nature of public institutions than upon personal qualities and actions4 ,they have begun to recognize1 that even supreme efforts on the part of a single individual are powerless in combatting evils that are rooted in social conditions1 and influence his position accordingly4 ,moreover the struggle for existence necessitates far greater exertions to-day than formerly4 ,demands are made upon a man to-day1 that require more and more of his time and strength4 ,but the ignorant1 indifferent woman is usually incapable of comprehending his duties and interests4 ,we may even say that the differentiation between man and woman is greater to-day than it was formerly1 when conditions were more petty and narrow1 and therefore more within the range of woman's understanding4 ,occupation with public affairs to-day claims a greater number of men than formerly4 ,this expands their ideas1 but it also estranges them from their domestic circle4 ,thereby the woman feels neglected1 and one more source of differences has been created4 ,only in rare cases do men succeed in making themselves understood by their wives and in convincing them4 ,as a rule the man holds the opinion that his aims and interests do not concern his wife1 and that she is unable to understand them4 ,he does not take the trouble to instruct her4 8,you don't understand that10 is the usual reply when a woman complains to her husband that he is neglecting her4 ,the lack of understanding on the part of the women is still heightened by the lack of common sense on the part of the men4 ,among the proletariat the relation between husband and wife is more favorable1 when both recognize that they must follow the same path1 since one1 and one only leads to a better future for them and their children3 the complete reorganization of society that will make all men and women free4 ,as this recognition spreads among the women of the proletariat1 their wedded life becomes idealized in spite of misery and want4 ,for now both husband and wife have a common aim to strive for1 and their common struggle furnishes an inexhaustible source of inspiration in exchange of opinions4 ,the number of proletarian women who have awakened to this recognition is growing with each year4 ,here a movement is expanding that will be of vital importance to the future of mankind4 ,in other marriages the differences of education and conceptions1 that were overlooked in the beginning while passion was still strong1 become more and more noticeable with the advancing years4 ,but as sexual passion decreases1 it ought to be replaced by mental conformity4 ,quite disregarding the fact whether or not a man recognizes that he has social and civic duties1 and whether or not he fulfills these duties1 his business or profession alone suffices to keep him in constant touch with the outside world1 and to create an intellectual atmosphere about him that broadens his views4 ,contrary to the woman1 he is usually in a state of intellectual moulting2 but domestic activities require the woman's time and attention from morning till night1 and being deprived of opportunity for mental development1 she is apt to become dull and mentally stunted4 ,this domestic misery in which the majority of wives in present day society are obliged to live1 has been truly pictured by ,gerhard v4 ,amyntor in his book on 8,a ,commentary to the ,book of ,life40 ,in the chapter on 8,fatal ,stings0 he says3 8,it is not the terrible occurrences that no one is spared1--a husband's death1 the moral ruin of a beloved child1 long1 torturing illness1 or the shattering of a fondly nourished hope1--it is none of these that undermine the woman's health and strength1 but the little daily recurring1 body and soul devouring cares4 ,how many millions of good housewives have cooked and scrubbed their love of life away6 ,how many have sacrificed their rosy cheeks and their dimples in domestic service1 until they became wrinkled1 withered1 broken mummies4 ,the everlasting question3 #8what shall ,i cook to-day1' the ever recurring necessity of sweeping and dusting and scrubbing and dish-washing1 is the steadily falling drop that slowly but surely wears out her body and mind4 ,the cooking stove is the place where accounts are sadly balanced between income and expense1 and where the most oppressing observations are made concerning the increased cost of living and the growing difficulty in making both ends meet4 ,upon the flaming altar where the pots are boiling1 youth and freedom from care1 beauty and light-heartedness are being sacrificed4 ,in the old cook whose eyes are dim and whose back is bent with toil1 no one would recognize the blushing bride of yore1 beautiful1 merry and modestly coquettish in the finery of her bridal garb4--,to the ancients the hearth was sacred2 beside the hearth they erected their lares and household-gods4 ,let us also hold the hearth sacred1 where the conscientious ,german housewife slowly sacrifices her life1 to keep the home comfortable1 the table well supplied1 and the family healthy40 ,that is the only consolation that bourgeois society is able to offer those women who slowly perish as a result of the present order6 ,those women who enjoy a freer position as a result of their more favored social circumstances1 usually have a narrow1 superficial education that is manifested in connection with inherited1 female characteristics4 ,most of these women are interested only in external appearances2 dress and personal adornment are their chief concern1 and the satisfaction of their depraved tastes and their unbridled passions1 form their object in life4 ,they are not interested much in the children and their education2 that would mean too much trouble and annoyance4 ,therefore they willingly turn over their children to nurses and governesses and later on to boarding-schools4 ,at the most they regard it as their duty to make silly doll-women of their daughters1 and superficial1 extravagant dandies of their sons4 ,this class of young men1 who regard idleness and extravagance as a profession1 furnishes the seducers of the daughters of the people4 ,the conditions described above have lead to a number of traits of character peculiar to women1 that are more fully developed from generation to generation4 ,men seem to find satisfaction in ridiculing these traits1 but they forget that they themselves are to blame for them4 ,the following are some of these frequently condemned female traits of character3 talkativeness and scandal-mongering2 the inclination to discuss the most insignificant things at the greatest length2 the exaggerated interest in outward display2 the love of dress and coquetry2 envy and jealousy toward the members of her sex1 and the tendency of being dishonest and hypocritical4 ,these traits of character usually manifest themselves with the female sex at an early age2 they are general and only differ in degree4 ,these traits have developed under the pressure of social conditions1 and they have been further developed by heredity1 example and education4 ,one who has been brought up unwisely is not likely to bring up others wisely4 ,in order to understand the origin and development of traits of character common to an entire sex or to an entire people1 we must follow the same method that modern scientists apply to understand the origin and development of living beings and their characteristics4 ,the material conditions of life to a great extent imprint upon every living being its traits of character4 ,it is compelled to adapt itself to these existing material conditions1 until the adaptation becomes its nature4 ,human beings form no exception to that which holds true for all living beings throughout nature4 ,man is not exempt from natural laws4 ,viewed physiologically1 he is merely the most highly developed animal4 ,of course1 many persons refuse to admit this4 ,thousands of years ago ancient peoples1 although they knew nothing of modern science1 held more rational views in regard to many human problems1 than a great many of our contemporaries1 and1 what is more noteworthy still1 their views that were based on experience1 were put into practice4 ,we praise and admire the strength and beauty of the men and women of ancient ,greece2 but we forget that it was not the climate of this beautiful country that had such a favorable influence upon the nature and development of its population1 but the educational maxims that were consistently carried out by the state1 and that were destined to combine beauty1 strength and skill with mental sharpness and vigor4 ,indeed the mental development of woman was neglected even then1 but not so her physical development4#ff ,in ,sparta where physical culture of both sexes was most extensively practiced1 boys and girls went about naked until the age of puberty1 and together they joined in physical exercises1 games and wrestling-matches4 ,the display of the nude human body1 the natural treatment of natural things1 prevented the extreme sexual irritation that is mainly caused by an artificial separation of the sexes from childhood on4 ,the body of one sex was no mystery to the other4 ,no dallying with ambiguities could arise4 ,nature was regarded as such4 ,each sex took pleasure in the beauty of the other4 ,to a natural1 untrammeled relation of the sexes must mankind return2 we must cast aside the unsound spiritualistic conceptions concerning human affairs and create methods of education that shall bring about a physical and mental regeneration4 ,the prevailing conceptions in regard to education1 especially the education of women1 are still exceedingly reactionary4 ,that a woman should possess such qualities of character as strength1 courage and determination1 is decried as unwomanly1 and yet no one can deny that by means of such qualities she will be better enabled to protect herself4 ,but her physical development is hampered1 just like her mental development4 ,this is due in no small degree to the irrational mode of dress4 ,woman's dress not only interferes with her physical development1 it frequently does her direct bodily harm2 and yet there are few1 even among physicians1 who dare to oppose it4 ,fear of displeasing the patient causes them to be silent or even to flatter her follies4 ,the modern style of dress prevents women from freely exercising their strength1 hampers their physical development1 and creates a feeling of helplessness in them4 ,moreover1 woman's dress endangers the health of her environment1 for at home and on the street she is a walking generator of dust4 ,the physical and intellectual development of women is furthermore severely hampered by a rigorous separation of the sexes in school and in social intercourse1 that is quite in accordance with the spiritualistic conceptions implanted by ,christianity1 and is still sadly prevalent among us4 ,the woman who is given no opportunity to develop her abilities and talents1 who is maintained within a narrow sphere of ideas1 and rarely permitted to associate with members of the other sex1 cannot rise above the commonplace and trivial4 ,for her ideas are centered in the occurrences of her immediate environment4 ,verbose conversations over a mere nothingness and the tendency to gossip are fostered by this narrow life1 since the mental activities that reside in every human being must find expression somewhere4 ,men are frequently grievously annoyed and driven to despair by these qualities which they roundly condemn1 without pausing to consider that they1 8the lords of creation10 are chiefly to blame for them4 ,during recent years numerous attempts have been made to introduce more rational conceptions of life2 but they are merely a beginning1 and until now have been confined to a very small portion of society4 #ff ,plato1 in 8,the ,state01 demands that women should be given an education similar to men1 and ,aristoteles in 8,politics0 declares as a fundamental principle of education3 8first let the body be developed and then the mind40 #d4--,the ,misery of ,present ,day ,marriages4 ,as a result of our social and sexual relations1 woman is directed toward marriage by every fibre of her existence1 and naturally marriage constitutes a chief topic of her conversation and thought4 ,as woman is physically weaker than man1 and is subjected to him by custom and law1 her tongue is her chief weapon to be used against him1 and she naturally makes a liberal use of this weapon4 ,in the same way her much berated love of dress and personal adornment can be explained1 that leads to increasingly eccentric follies of fashion and often causes financial troubles and unpleasantness to fathers and husbands4 ,to man1 woman has chiefly been an object of enjoyment4 ,being socially and economically dependent1 she must regard marriage as a means of support1 and thus becomes subservient to man1 becomes his property4 ,her position is rendered more unfavorable still by the fact that the number of women usually exceeds the number of men2 we will return to this phase of the question later on4--,this disproportion increases the competition of women among themselves1 all the more so because1 for numerous reasons1 many men fail to marry4 ,woman is therefore compelled to enhance her personal charms1 in order to compete with the members of her own sex in the struggle for the possession of a man4 ,when we consider that this disproportion has existed through many generations1 it is not to be wondered at that these characteristics have gradually assumed their present1 extreme form4 ,we must consider moreover that at no time the competition among women for the possession of man was as severe as it is at present1 owing to causes1 some of which have already been1 and others that still are to be enumerated4 ,the increasing difficulty of obtaining a decent livelihood also directs woman more than ever to marriage as a means of support4 ,men do not object to these conditions1 since they are favorable to them4 ,it flatters their vanity and serves their interest to play the part of the ruler1 and as all rulers they are not easily accessible to reason4 ,it is all the more important therefore that women themselves should strive to bring about conditions that will liberate them from their present1 degraded position4 ,women can no more rely upon the aid of men1 than the workers can rely upon the aid of the bourgeoisie4 ,when we furthermore consider what traits of character are developed by competition along other lines1 how1 for instance1 industrial competition leads to hatred1 envy and calumny1 and how the competitors resort to the basest means1 we find an explanation for the fact that similar traits of character have been developed in women by their competition for the possession of a man4 ,it is due to this permanent competition that women1 as a rule1 cannot get along as well with one another as men can2 that even intimate friends are easily led to quarrel when the favor of a man enters into consideration4 ,this competition also explains what may be frequently observed1 that when two women meet1 even though they are utter strangers to one another1 they regard each other in a hostile way4 ,with a single glance they have summed up each other's shortcomings in the manner and style of their clothes1 and in the looks of each the verdict may be read3 8,i am better dressed than you are and am better able to attract attention to myself40 ,on the other hand woman is by nature more impulsive than man4 ,she is less given to reflection1 is more unselfish and naive1 and is more controlled by passion4 ,these traits of character are expressed in their most beautiful form by the unselfish self-sacrifice with which she serves her children and others who are near and dear to her and cares for them during illness4 ,but when angered1 her impassionate nature manifests itself in its ugliest form4 ,yet the fact remains that both good and evil qualities are fostered1 hampered or transformed1 by the social position4 ,the same propensity that may be harmful under unfavorable circumstances may1 under favorable circumstances1 become a source of happiness to oneself and others4 ,fourier has ably shown that the same human propensities may1 under different circumstances1 lead to opposite results4#fg ,beside the improper mental education1 the improper or insufficient physical education in regard to the purposes of nature1 remains to be considered4 ,all physicians are agreed that woman's education for her profession of motherhood is almost entirely neglected4 8,soldiers are trained in the use of their weapons1 and mechanics in the use of their tools4 ,every profession requires preliminary study4 ,even the monk has his noviceship4 ,only the woman is not educated for her serious maternal duties04#fh ,nine tenths of all maidens who are given an opportunity to marry1 enter matrimony in complete ignorance of motherhood and its duties4 ,the unpardonable prudery that prevents mothers from speaking to their grown daughters about the important functions of sex1 leaves them in a state of densest ignorance concerning their duties to their husbands and to themselves4 ,the entrance into marriage means to most women entrance into an utterly strange world4 ,their conceptions of marriage are purely imaginative1 drawn from novels of doubtful value1 and are usually very foreign to reality4#fi ,another source of differences may be found in the lack of practical knowledge of housekeeping that is still quite essential in present day marriage1 though women have been relieved of many domestic activities that were formerly inevitable4 ,some women are deplorably ignorant of household duties because they consider themselves superior to such work and regard it as a task for servants only4 ,others1 daughters of the proletariat1 are equally ignorant1 because the struggle for existence compelled them to toil in the factory from morning until night1 and they found no time to prepare for their future profession of housekeeper4 ,it becomes more and more evident that the trend of development makes individual housekeeping unpractical1 and that it can be maintained only by an irrational sacrifice of time and money4 ,there is still another cause that to many men destroys the purpose of marriage3 the physical enfeeblement of women4 ,the food we eat1 the manner in which we live1 the conditions of our work and the character of our amusements1 all tend to act more destructively than favorably upon our physical condition4 ,rightly is our age termed a nervous age4 ,but nervousness leads to physical degeneration4 ,anaemia and nervousness exist in an especially marked degree among women4 ,this physical degeneration is fast becoming a social calamity1 and if it would continue to exist for several generations more1 without our being able to procure more normal conditions of development1 it would ultimately lead to race destruction4#gj ,the female organism requires special care in consideration of its special sexual functions4 ,it requires good and sufficient nourishment and at certain periods it requires rest4 ,for the great majority of women such care does not exist1 nor can it be obtained under present-day conditions4 ,women have so accustomed themselves to self-denial that many women consider it a matrimonial duty to give their husbands the best morsels and to content themselves with insufficient food4 ,it also frequently happens that the boys of a family are better nourished than the girls4 ,it is generally assumed that women can content themselves with poorer and less nourishment than men4 ,young girls are therefore often a sad sight to professional authorities on hygiene and physical culture4#ga ,a great number of our young women are weak1 anaemic1 and extremely nervous4 ,the results are suffering during menstruation and diseases of the sexual organs that sometimes make it dangerous or impossible to give birth to children or to nurse them4 8,if the degeneration of our women continues to go on in the same manner as up to the present1 it will become doubtful whether civilized man may still be classified with the mammals40#gb ,instead of being married to a healthy1 cheerful companion1 a capable mother1 a wife attending to her domestic duties1 the man is burdened with a sickly1 nervous woman who cannot endure the slightest draught or the least noise and requires the constant attendance of a physician4 ,we need not dwell longer on this subject4 ,everyone knows of a number of such cases among his own friends and relatives4 ,experienced physicians assert that the majority of married women1 especially in the cities1 are in a more or less abnormal1 physical condition4 ,according to the degree of the ailment and the characters of husband and wife1 such marriages must be more or less unfortunate4 ,in accordance with public opinion they entitle the men to take liberties outside of their matrimonial relations1 and the knowledge of this fact must heighten the misery of the wives4 ,sometimes the sexual requirements of husband and wife also differ widely and give rise to profound disharmonies1 yet the much desired separation is not possible4 ,in connection with this1 the truth must not be concealed that in a great many cases the men are responsible for the severe physical sufferings that befall their wives in marriage4 ,as a result of their profligate lives1 many men suffer from chronic sexual diseases that they frequently treat lightly1 because they do not cause them much trouble4 ,but during sexual intercourse with their wives1 these fall victims to severe abdominal diseases that set in shortly after marriage and frequently result in sterility4 ,usually the unfortunate woman is ignorant of the true cause of the disease that mars her life and destroys the purpose of marriage1 and reproaches herself or is reproached for the condition that her husband has caused4 ,many a blooming young woman becomes a chronic invalid after she has barely entered marriage1--neither she nor her relatives are able to explain her condition1 and the physician must maintain silence4 ,recent investigations have shown that childless marriages are frequently due to sexual diseases of men2 while formerly the lords of creation maintained the convenient theory that the woman was always to blame when their marriages remained childless4#gc ,numerous are the causes that prevent present day marriage from being what it ought to be4 ,it is therefore a recommendation of doubtful value when even learned men seek to oppose the woman movement by pointing out to woman that marriage is their true vocation4 ,as a result of our social conditions marriage has become a carricature foreign to its true purposes4 #fg ,a4 ,bebel--8,charles ,fourier1 ,his ,life and ,his ,theories40 ,stuttgart1 #aijg4 ,j4 ,h4 ,w4 ,dietz4 #fh ,irma v4 ,troll-,borostyani--8,the ,mission of our ,century4 ,a ,study of the ,woman ,question40 #fi ,in 8,les ,femmes qui tuent et les femmes qui votent10 ,alexander ,dumas1 jr41 relates that an eminent ,catholic clergyman had told him that among hundred of his former female pupils who had become married1 at least eighty came to him after a few months had elapsed and told him that marriage was a disappointment to them and that they regretted having married4 ,that seems very plausible indeed4 ,the ,french bourgeoisie find it compatible with their conscience to have their daughters reared in convents4 ,they are influenced by the assumption that an ignorant woman is more easily guided than an enlightened one4 ,conflicts and disappointments in marriage are the inevitable result4 ,laboulaye even frankly advises to maintain the women in moderate ignorance1 for 8notre empire est dtruit si l'homme est reconnu40 7,our rule will be destroyed if man is recognized47 #gj ,softening of the brain has increased more rapidly among women than among men4 ,among every hundred patients admitted to asylums in ,prussia there were cases of softening of the brain3 ,women ,men #ahgf-ahgi #ag4j #c4g #ahhj-ahia #ag4c #e4d #ahib-ahid #ag4g #f4h #ahie-ahig #ah4e #g4f #ahih-aija #af4b #g4e #ga ,further details on this subject may be found in 8,the ,book of ,women10 by ,mrs4 ,h4 ,s4 ,adams1 ,m4 ,d41 ,stuttgart4 #gb ,dr4 ,f4 ,b4 ,simon1 8,the ,care of the ,health of ,women40 #gc ,dr4 ,f4 ,b4 ,simon discusses this subject and the analogous subject1 why so many young women become ill after marriage without being able to account for it1 at length4 ,his book is a glaring reflection upon the wrongdoings and vices of men4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,the ,chances of ,matrimony4 #a4--,the ,numerical ,proportion of the ,sexes4 ,the usual advice to women to seek their salvation in marriage1 this being their true profession1 is thoughtlessly approved of by the vast majority of men4 ,but it seems like mockery1 that many of those who give such advice and of those who applaud it1 refrain from marrying themselves4 ,schopenhauer1 the philosopher1 has only the conception of a philistine concerning woman and her position4 ,he says3 8woman is not called upon to perform great tasks4 ,her characteristic is not doing but suffering4 ,she pays her debt to life by the throes of child-birth1 care of her child and submissiveness to her husband4 ,the supreme expressions of vitality and perception are denied her4 ,her life should be more tranquil and insignificant than man's life4 ,woman is called upon to be the nurse and educator of childhood because she is childish herself2 because throughout life she remains a big child1 a sort of intermediary stage between child and man1 the true human being4444 ,girls should be reared to be domestic and submissive4444 ,women are the most thoroughgoing1 incurable philistines40 ,the work by ,lombroso and ,ferrero1 8,woman as a ,criminal and ,prostitute01 is also written in the spirit of ,schopenhauer4 ,we have never met with an equally extensive scientific book1--it consists of #eij pages1--that contains so little convincing material in regard to the subject it deals with4 ,the statistics from which the most daring conclusions are drawn1 are very inadequate4 ,sometimes a dozen cases have sufficed the author to form a weighty opinion4 ,it is a noteworthy fact that the material contained in the book which may be regarded as the most trustworthy has been furnished by a woman1 ,dr4 ,mrs4 ,tarnowskaya4 ,the influences of social conditions and social development are almost entirely disregarded4 ,all phenomena are judged from a narrow physiological and psychological point of view and much ethnological information concerning various peoples--is interwoven with the argumentation1 without any attempt being made to investigate the nature of this information4 ,according to the authors1 as according to ,schopenhauer1 woman is a big child1 an incarnate liar1 weak in her judgment1 fickle in love1 incapable of any heroic deed4 ,the inferiority of woman1--so they claim1--has been proven by a great many physical differences and characteristics4 8,woman's love is1 at the bottom1 nothing but a secondary character of motherhood4 ,all the sentiments of affection that bind a woman to a man are not derived from the sexual impulse but from instincts of devotion and submission acquired by adaptation40 ,but how these instincts were acquired the authors fail to examine4 ,if they did1 it would imply an investigation of the social position of woman during thousands of years which has made her what she is to-day4 ,the authors describe the dependence and enslavement of woman among different nations and during various periods of civilization1 but being blinded by a narrow conception of the ,darwinian theory1 they trace everything to physiological causes1 and disregard the social and economic causes that have had the strongest influence on woman's physiological and psychological development4 ,among other things the authors discuss the vanity of woman and express the view that among people at a low stage of development men are the vain sex1 which may be observed even to-day on the ,hebrides1 ,madagascar and among the tribes about the ,orinoco river1 as also on many islands of the ,polynesian ,archipelago and among a number of ,african and ,south ,sea ,island tribes2 while among nations of high stage of development1 women are the vain sex4 ,but why is this so8 ,the answer is simple4 ,among peoples at a low stage of development1 matriarchal conditions prevail or have been abandoned but recently4 ,here woman's position is such that she is relieved of the necessity of wooing man4 ,the man woos her1 and for this purpose he adorns himself1 he becomes vain4 ,among peoples at a higher stage of development1 especially among all civilized nations1 man does not woo woman1 but woman woos man4 ,it rarely occurs that woman takes the initiative and literally offers herself to a man2 modesty forbids that4 ,but the offer nevertheless is made by manner and dress1 the luxury of her personal adornment and her coquetry4 ,such conduct is forced upon her by the fact that there are more women than men and by the social necessity of regarding marriage as a means of support and as the only institution by means of which she may satisfy her sexual impulse and obtain social recognition4 ,here again we find purely economic and social causes bringing forth qualities1 now in the man and now in the woman1 that we are accustomed to regard as quite independent of social and economic causes4 ,from this we may draw the conclusion that when society has reached a state of development in which every form of dependence of one sex upon the other will cease1 vanity and the follies of fashion will disappear as will many other vices that we deem ineradicable to-day1 because we believe them to be inherent in human nature4 ,in regard to ,schopenhauer it must be said that he1 as a philosopher1 is as biased in his judgment of women as the majority of our anthropologists and medical men who regard her only as a sex being1 never as a social being4 ,schopenhauer had never been married4 ,he failed to contribute his share that one more woman might fulfill the purpose in life that he prescribed to women4 ,this leads us to another1 no more pleasant phase of the question4 ,it is generally known that many women remain unmarried because they are given no opportunity to become married4 ,custom forbids the woman to offer herself4 ,she must allow herself to be chosen2 she may not choose4 ,if she is not chosen she must join that great army of unfortunate women who have missed their purpose in life and who are frequently subjected to a life of poverty and want1 sometimes made more bitter still by ridicule4 ,but what causes the numerical disproportion of the sexes8 ,many are quick to reply3 too many girls are born4 ,the persons who make this statement are misinformed1 as we shall see4 ,others draw the conclusion that if women are in the majority in most civilized countries1 polygamy ought to be permitted4 ,but polygamy is not only averse to our customs1 it also entails the degradation of woman2 although that did not prevent ,schopenhauer from asserting that 8to the female sex in general polygamy is a boon40 ,many men do not marry because they believe that they are unable to support one woman and the children who are likely to be born according to their station in life4 ,only few men are able to support two women1 and among these1 many do have two or several wives3 one legitimate wife1 and one or several illegitimate wives4 ,those privileged by wealth allow nothing to prevent them from doing as they choose4 ,even in the orient where custom and law have suffered polygamy to exist for thousands of years1 relatively few men have more than one wife4 ,we speak of the degrading influence of life in ,turkish harems4 ,but we overlook the fact that only very few men belonging to the ruling class can afford to maintain a harem1 while the great mass of men live in monogamic marriage4 ,in the city of ,algiers at the close of the sixties of the last century1 there were among #ah1bhb marriages no less than #ag1cai with only one wife2 there were #hhh marriages with two wives1 and only #ge with more than two4 ,in ,constantinople1 the capital of the ,turkish empire1 conditions are probably quite similar4 ,among the rural population in the orient the conditions favoring monogamic marriage are still more striking4 ,in the orient1 as with us1 material conditions come into consideration that compel the majority of men to content themselves with one wife4#gd ,but if conditions were equally favorable to all men polygamy could still not be generally maintained because there are not enough women4 ,under normal conditions the numbers of persons of both sexes are almost equal1 which everywhere points to monogamic marriage4 ,the following table which has been published by ,buecher in the 8,general ,statistic ,records10 proves this assertion4#ge ,number ,number ,entire ,number of of male of female population women for persons persons every #ajjj men ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,europe #agj1hah1efa #agd1iad1aai #cde1gcb1fhj #a1jbd ,america #da1fdc1chi #dj1edj1chf #hb1ahc1gge #igc ,asia #agg1fdh1jdd #agj1bfi1agi #cdg1iag1bbc #ieh ,australia #b1aig1gii #a1hga1hba #d1jfi1fbj #heb ,africa #f1iid1jfd #f1gga1cfj #ac1gfe1dbe #ifh ---------------------------------------- --------------- #cii1cja1heg #cid1cff1hfe #gic1ffh1gbb #ihh ,the result of this compilation may1 to many people1 be a surprising one4 ,with the exception of ,europe where there are1 on an average1 #a1jbd female inhabitants for every #ajjj male inhabitants1 the male population predominates4 ,even if we may assume that the information is incomplete1 especially in regard to the female sex1 and that especially in countries with a ,mohammedan population the female population surpasses the given figures1 the fact remains that1 except in a few ,european countries1 the female population nowhere considerably exceeds the male population4 ,in the meantime the imperial bureau of statistics in ,berlin has published a new compilation of the census in ,european and non-,european countries which includes #hhc1jjj1jjj people4 8,when we take into consideration the census1 not included in this compilation1 of ,italy1 ,bosnia and ,herzegovina1 ,costa ,rica1 ,argentine ,republic1 the ,transvaal1 ,orange ,river ,colony1 ,cyprus1 ,formosa and ,pescadores1 the number of enumerated inhabitants of the earth attains #hhb1jjj1jjj with a general average of #iia female persons for every #ajjj male persons4 ,for the enumerated population of the earth we may therefore assume an almost equal representation of both sexes with a slight preponderance of the male40#gf ,in ,europe the conditions are different4 ,with the exception of the countries of ,south ,eastern ,europe1 ,bosnia1 ,herzegovina1 ,servia1 ,bulgaria1 ,rumania and ,greece1 the female population predominates4 ,the proportion is least unfavorable in ,hungary and ,italy where there are respectively #a1jji and #a1jaj female inhabitants for every #ajjj male inhabitants4 ,belgium comes next with #ajac female for every #ajjj male inhabitants4 ,portugal and ,norway show the most unfavorable proportion2 next to these ,great ,britain with #ajfc female for every #ajjj male inhabitants4 ,france1 ,germany1 ,austria and ,russia lie in the middle having for every #ajjj male inhabitants respectively #a1jcc1 #a1jcb1 #a1jce and #a1jbi female inhabitants4#gg ,in ,germany during the last two decades each census has shown a more favorable proportion4 ,on ,dec4 #a1 #ahhe1 the female population exceeded the male population by #ihh1cgf persons4 ,the census of ,dec4 #a1 #ahij1 still showed an excess of the female population of #iff1hjf persons4 #ahie--ieg1dja2 #aijj--hib1fhd1 and according to the census of ,dec4 #a1 #aije the excess of the female population had sunken to #hga1iaf persons 7#ajbi female for every #ajjj male inhabitants74 ,the decline of this difference may be chiefly accounted for by the decline of emigration in which the male sex is mainly concerned4 ,this may be clearly seen from the proportion of the sexes in the ,united ,states1 into which the stream of emigration is mainly directed1 and where the dearth of women is almost as great as the excess of women in ,germany4 ,in #aijj for every #ajjj men there were only #iec women4 ,this emigration from ,germany decreased from #bbj1ijb persons in #ahha to #bb1jgc persons in #aija and to #ai1hhc persons in #aijh4 ,the fact1 that more men than women emigrate1 accounts in the first place then for the difference between the numbers of persons of both sexes4 ,italy furnishes a good example2 for there the male population still predominated at the beginning of the forties of the last century1 while at present the female population predominates1 owing to the large emigration4 ,furthermore1 more men than women meet with accidents in agriculture1 industry1 commerce and traffic4 ,also more men are temporarily absent abroad as merchants1 sailors1 marines1 etc4 ,another fact that has been statistically proven and that constitutes an important factor is that women on an average attain a higher age than men and that therefore there are more old women than old men4 ,according to the census of #aijj the proportion of the sexes according to age in ,germany was the following3 ,more ,more ,excess ,,age ,male ,female male female of female population ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,under #aj years #f1ijd1gcb #f1hga1eii #cc1acc -- -- ,from #aj to #ae years #b1ibe1iah #b1iab1egc #ac1cde -- -- 8 #ae 8 #ba 8 #c1agi1hac #c1afb1ddh #ag1cfe -- -- 8 #ba 8 #cj 8 #d1bea1bjd #d1bic1gge -- #db1ega -- 8 #cj 8 #dj 8 #c1ffi1fef #c1gca1eef -- #fa1ijj -- 8 #dj 8 #ej 8 #b1ggj1dea #b1ibc1bbh -- #aeb1ggg -- 8 #ej 8 #fj 8 #b1jec1jhe #b1cbj1bgc -- #bfg1ahh -- 8 #fj 8 #gj 8 #a1cjj1fcg #a1ede1hjh -- #bde1aga -- 8 #gj years up #fha1gea #hfh1fga -- #ahf1ibj -- ---------------------------------------- ------------- #bg1gcg1bdg #bh1fbi1ica #fc1hde #ief1ebg #hib1fhd ,this table shows that up to the twenty-first year the number of boys exceeds the number of girls4#gh ,this excess of boys is due to the fact that everywhere more boys than girls are born4 ,the following number of boys and girls1 for instance1 were born in the ,german empire3 ,during the year #ahgb for #ajj girls #ajf4b boys 8 8 8 #ahhd 8 #ajj 8 #ajf4b 8 8 8 8 #aijj 8 #ajj 8 #ajf4j 8 8 8 8 #aije 8 #ajj 8 #ajf4c 8 8 8 8 #aijg 8 #ajj 8 #ajf4c 8 ,but the male sex dies younger than the female sex2 especially during infancy more boys than girls die4 ,our table shows that from the twenty-first year on the female population exceeds the male4 ,the following figures show the death-rate of male and female inhabitants in ,germany3 ,during the years ,male ,female #ahgb-ahge #bi4e #bf4c #ahgf-ahhj #bg4h #bd4e #ahha-ahhe #bg4c #bd4b #ahhf-ahij #be4h #bc4a #ahia-ahie #bd4f #bb4a #ahif-aijj #bb4f #bj4j #aija-aije #ba4j #ah4h #gi #gi ,hygienic and ethnological conditions of the ,german ,empire4 ,berlin1 #aijg--;,during the year #aijg for every #ajj female deceased there were #aji4c male4 ,the table on page #aei furthermore shows that at the true marriageable age1 between the twenty-first and fiftieth year the female sex exceeds the male sex by #beg1bdh persons 7in the year #ahij by #dbb1eai7 and between the fiftieth and seventieth year by #fii1bgi 7in the year #ahij by #eff1djj74 ,in ,germany as in ,england the number of old women increases each year4 ,a great disproportion1 that constantly increases1 is furthermore met with among widowed and divorced persons4 ,according to the census of #ahij and #aijj there were the following numbers of widowed persons in ,germany3 #ahij #aijj ,men #ggd1ifg #hji1bch ,women #b1aeg1hgj #b1ceb1iba ---------- ---------- ,more women than men #a1chb1ijc #a1edc1fhc ,these widowed persons were of the following ages3 #ahij #aijj ,men ,women ,men ,women #dj to #fj years #bbb1bhf #hdb1ibj #bbe1aia #ijj1ceg #fj years and older #ejf1cai #a1aeh1gab #ecg1aaf #a1bii1ije ,the number of divorced persons were during #ahij1 #be1bga men and #di1fja women4 ,during #aijj1 #ca1bgi men and #fj1gch women4 ,these were of the following ages3 #ahij #aijj ,men ,women ,men ,women #dj to #fj years #ac1hbe #bd1hdb #af1igf #cj1che #fj years and older #d1iag #g1bdd #e1gac #h1deb ,these figures show us that widowed and divorced women are excluded from remarriage1 even during the age best suited to marriage4 ,for during the years #ahij and #aijj there were respectively #df1cfb and #df1ica widowed men up to the fortieth year of age1 while during the same years there were respectively #aef1bce and #aeb1fhi widowed women4 ,there were divorced men in #ahij and #aijj respectively #feai and #heij and divorced women #ag1eae and #ba1ija4 ,here the disadvantage of divorce to the women is proved by figures4 ,the following shows the proportion of unmarried persons during #aijj3 ,men ,women #ae to #dj years #f1gjj1ceb #e1hbd1dfd #dj to #fj years #dbf1chh #ejc1djf #fj years and older #ada1daf #beb1acdhj ,among the unmarried persons between the fifteenth and fortieth year there are1 as above table shows1 #hge1hhh more men than women1 which appears to be very favorable to women4 ,but men between the fifteenth and twenty-first year of age1--at which age there are #c1age1dec men to #c1jfd1efg women1--are1 with very few exceptions1 unable to marry4 ,the same may be said of men between the twenty-first and twenty-fifth year of age1 the great majority of whom are unable to support a family1 while women of this age are all marriageable4 ,when we furthermore consider the fact that for diverse reasons a great many men do not marry at all1--the number of unmarried men over #dj years were #efg1hjd1--we find that the position of women in regard to marriage is a highly unfavorable one4 ,a great many women then1 under present-day conditions1 are compelled to deny themselves the legitimate satisfaction of the sexual impulse1 while men seek and find satisfaction in prostitution4 ,the position of women would become a far more favorable one1 as soon as a transformation of social conditions would abolish the obstacles that at present prevent hundreds of thousands of men from becoming married4 ,as already mentioned the disproportion in the numbers of the sexes is due to a great extent to emigration4 ,obligatory service in the army also drives many young men1 frequently the strongest1 to seek their fortune abroad4 ,according to official reports of the army1 #ace1afh men were convicted of illicit emigration1 and #ac1jee more cases were being investigated4 ,these figures include men up to the forty-fifth year4 ,this illicit emigration of men from ,germany causes a considerable loss4 ,emigration is especially large in the years following great wars2 that was seen after #ahff and during the years #ahga to #ahgd4 ,we furthermore have great losses of life among men by accidents4 ,in ,prussia during the period from #ahhc to #aije no less than #big1ihc persons were killed by accidents2 of these there were1 during the one year #aije1 #aa1gib men and #b1ibb women4 ,from #ahhf to #aijg1 #aej1gai persons were killed by accidents in industry1 agriculture and state or municipal employment2 only a small fraction of these were women4 ,another considerable portion of persons employed in these occupations become maimed or crippled for life and therefore unable to maintain a family4 7,there were #dj1gdd of these from #ahhf to #aijg47 ,others die young leaving their families in the neediest circumstances4 ,much loss of life among men is also connected with navigation4 ,from #ahhb to #aijg1 #b1hdh sea-going vessels were sunk1 entailing a loss of life of #d1iac members of the crew1--almost all men1--and #a1bge passengers4 ,only when the highest valuation of human life has been established1--which will be the case in a ,socialistic community1--will society be enabled to prevent a great majority of accidents on land and sea4 ,at present many persons are killed or maimed as a result of illapplied economy of employers4 ,in many other cases accidents are due to excessive speed or over-fatigue of workers4 ,human life is cheap4 ,when one workingman has been killed there are many others to take his place4 ,especially in navigation many preventable accidents occur4 ,by the revelations of ,plimsoll in the ,english parliament during the seventies1 the fact became generally known that many owners of unseaworthy vessels1 impelled by criminal greed1 insured these vessels at a high rate and then sent them with their crew to almost certain destruction1 in order to obtain the amount of insurance4 ,these are the so-called death-ships that are not unknown in ,germany either4 ,every year the marine bureaus are called upon to pronounce their verdicts in connection with a number of marine accidents1 and those verdicts usually show the accidents to be due to advanced age or overloading or improper condition of the vessel or insufficient equipment1 or a number of these causes combined4 ,in the cases of many sunken ships the causes of their sinking can never be determined1 because the disasters occur in mid-ocean and no one survives to tell the tale4 ,many crimes are committed in this way4 ,the stations for saving ship-wrecked persons established at the coasts1 are also very insufficient because they are chiefly maintained by private charity4 ,an organized society that will regard it as its highest duty to provide equally for all its members1 will succeed in making all these accidents of extremely rare occurrence4 ,but under the present predatory system1 where human lives are regarded as mere ciphers and the sole aim is to attain the highest possible profit1 a human life is sometimes sacrificed in order that a dollar may be gained4 #gd ,throughout ,india polygamy exists in only a moderate form4 ,according to the census of #aija which includes all religions1 there were for every #ajjj married men1 #a1jaa married women4 ,according to this the monogamic equilibrium is not seriously interfered with4--,d4 v4 ,mayer4 #ge ,karl ,buecher1 on the distribution of both sexes upon the earth2 lecture delivered on ,jan4 #f1 #ahib1 before the ,geographical and ,statistical ,society of ,frankfort on the ,main4 ,general ,statistic ,records published by ,dr4 ,george v4 ,mayer4 ,vol4 ,,ii4 ,tubingen1 #ahib4 #gf ,g4 v4 ,mayer--,dr4 ,g4 ,schnapper ,arndt in his book of ,social ,statistics arrives at the same conclusion4 8,taken all in all the proportion of both sexes is approximately equal40 #gg ,according to ,g4 ,schnapper ,arndt2 founded on recent census figures1 around the close of the century4 #gh ,according to the census of #ahij1 there was an excess of boys only up to the tenth year of age1 and according to the census of #ahie1 up to the sixteenth year4 #hj ,statistics of the ,german ,empire4 ,census of ,dec4 #a1 #aijj4 #b4--,obstacles to ,marriage4--,the ,excess of ,women4 ,there are still other causes that make marriage difficult or prevent it entirely4 ,a considerable number of men are prevented from marrying by the state4 ,people condemn the enforced celibacy of the ,catholic clergy1 but they do not mention the fact that a far greater number of soldiers are doomed to celibacy likewise4 ,when an officer of the army wishes to marry1 he not only requires the consent of his superiors1 he is also denied the free choice of a wife1 since it is prescribed that he must possess a certain amount of wealth4 ,in ,austria a captain of the army seeking to marry1 must give a security of #cj1jjj florins if he is under thirty years of age1 #bj1jjj florins if he is over thirty2 minor officers must give a security of #af1jjj florins4 ,in all cases the fiance of an army officer must have lead an immaculate life1 and her standard of living must be suited to his rank4 ,in ,germany1 officers of the army may seek permission to marry only when they can prove that they have an additional income4 ,the required size of this additional income varies with the different ranks4 ,these are striking proofs of the materialistic conception of marriage maintained by the state4 ,public opinion in general maintains1 that men should not marry until they have attained their twenty-fourth or twenty-fifth year of life4 ,this opinion is founded on the fact that few men are able to support a family before they have reached this age4 ,only persons who are fortunate enough not to be obliged to win an independent position1--persons of princely rank1 for instance1--form an exception4 ,in their case we regard it as quite proper that a man should become married at eighteen or nineteen1 and a maiden at fifteen or sixteen years of age4 ,princes come of age when they are eighteen years old1 and are considered competent to rule the most numerous people4 ,common mortals do not come of age until they are twenty-one years old4 ,this difference of opinion in regard to the age at which marriage is desirable1 shows that only social considerations are taken into account1 that have no bearing upon man as a sex being4 ,but nature will not be fettered by definite social conditions and the views that have sprung from these conditions4 ,as soon as a human being has attained maturity1 the sexual impulse manifests itself with all its vigor4 ,the advent of puberty with the female sex differs according to the individual1 the climate and the mode of life4 ,in the torrid zones it sets in as early as the ninth or tenth year1 and sometimes one meets women of that age with their first babes in their arms2 but they are faded when they have attained their twenty-fifth or thirtieth year4#ha ,in the temperate zones girls usually attain puberty at fourteen or sixteen years of age1 in some cases later still4 ,the age of puberty also differs with girls living in the country from those living in cities4 ,among the healthy1 robust country girls who work hard1 as a rule menstruation sets in later than among our poorly nourished1 effeminate1 ethereal young ladies in the cities1 who suffer from over-excitement of the nerves4 ,in the country puberty usually developes in the normal way4 ,in the city its normal development is an exception1 and not infrequently it is accompanied by various symptoms of disease that drive physicians to despair4 ,often physicians are obliged to say that the only certain cure would be marriage4 ,but in many cases this cure cannot be applied1 owing to the unsurmountable obstacles4 ,all these factors show where we must seek a change4 ,to begin with1 we need a complete revolution in our educational methods4 ,we need a system of education that takes both the physical and intellectual qualities into consideration4 ,furthermore1 we need an entirely different mode of living and working4 ,but both cannot be brought about except by a complete transformation of social conditions4 ,our social conditions have created a profound contradiction between man as a sex being and man as a social being4 ,this contradiction has never been so noticeable as in the present age1 and it leads to many evils and diseases to which women especially are subjected4 ,in the first place the woman's organism is far more influenced by her sex mission than man's organism 7for instance1 the regular recurrence of menstruation72 in the second place she is confronted by the greatest number of obstacles that prevent her from satisfying her strongest natural impulse in a natural way4 ,this contradiction between natural impulse and social constraint leads to anomalies1 to secret vices and excesses that are bound to undermine even strong constitutions4 ,unnatural satisfaction is frequently aided in a most shameless manner4 ,in the advertisements of newspapers and periodicals1 certain manufactures are recommended in a more or less veiled manner4 ,these advertisements appeal to the wealthy classes of society1 because the price of the manufactures are so high that a person of moderate means could not buy them4 ,besides we find advertisements of obscene pictures1 entire series of photographs1 and poetry and prose of a similar character1 whose very titles are intended to produce sensual excitement4 ,these matters ought to claim the attention of the police and public prosecutors4 ,but these gentlemen are too busy persecuting ,socialism1 8that will destroy the home and the family10 to give their full attention to such doings4 ,a part of our novels influence the sentiments of the reading public in the same direction4 ,it is really not to be wondered at if sexual debauchery1 artificially stimulated1 gradually becomes a social disease4 ,many women of the wealthy classes lead an idle1 self-indulgent life4 ,they stimulate their nerves by the most extraordinary means1 and indulge in a certain enjoyment of art that creates an exaggerated sentimentality and heightens their nervous irritability4 ,all this increases the sensual passions and naturally leads to excesses4 ,among poor people sexual irritability is frequently heightened by certain kinds of hard work1 especially such work that compels people to lead a sedentary life which creates congestion of the blood in the abdominal organs4 ,one of the most dangerous occupations in this respect is constant work at the sewing machine1 an occupation in which a great many women are employed at present4 ,this work is so detrimental to the health of women that ten to twelve hours of it daily will shatter the strongest constitution in a few years4 ,excessive sexual irritability is also brought about by long hours of work in a high temperature1 for instance in sugar refineries1 laundries1 printing establishments1 etc4 ,the same may be said of night work with artificial light in overcrowded work-shops1 especially where members of both sexes work together4 ,here again we are confronted by a number of evils that clearly show the unhealthful and irrational character of present-day conditions4 ,but these evils that are deeply rooted in our social conditions1 cannot be removed by moralizing or by resorting to palliative measures1 such as social and religious quacks always have in readiness4 ,it is necessary to strike the root of the evil4 ,the only redemption will be to bring about social conditions that shall enable all persons to obtain a natural education1 to lead a healthful mode of life and work1 and to find normal satisfaction of all natural and healthy desires4 ,many obstacles do not exist for the man that do exist for the woman4 ,owing to his position of rulership1 his free choice of a mate is in no wise hampered1 except by the social considerations enumerated above4 ,but the nature of marriage as a means of support1 the numerical superiority of women1 and custom1--all prevent the woman from asserting her wishes4 ,she is obliged to wait until someone seeks her4 ,as a rule she gladly avails herself of the first opportunity of finding a husband who will save her from the social disregard and indifference that are the usual portion of that unfortunate being1 the old maid4 ,many women look down with disdain upon those of their sisters who are possessed of sufficient human dignity not to sell themselves into the prostitution of marriage to the first man who comes along1 but prefer to walk on life's thorny path alone4 ,nevertheless the man who wishes to marry for love has social obstacles to consider4 ,he must ask himself3 can ,i support a wife and the children who are likely to come1 without being weighed down by financial cares8 ,if the man has an ideal conception of marriage1 if he is determined to let his choice be influenced by love only1 this question becomes all the more important4 ,at present conditions of earning and property are such1 that many men must answer this question in the negative1 and they accordingly prefer to remain unmarried4 ,many men do not acquire an independent position1 suited to their demands1 until late in life1 and are not able to support a wife according to her station in life unless she has a considerable fortune of her own4 ,it must be admitted of course1 that many young men have an exaggerated idea of what constitutes living according to their station2 but owing to the false education of many women and their social habits1 these young men must indeed be prepared that their wives will make demands upon them that will exceed their means4 ,they frequently do not make the acquaintance of the good1 modest women who are simple in their tastes1 because they are modest in their manners also and are not met with in society where men have accustomed themselves to seek wives1 while the women they do meet often are the kind who seek to fascinate a man by outward appearances and to deceive him in regard to their personal qualities and their material position4 ,when this type of woman has attained an age at which marriage becomes urgent1 lures of all sorts are resorted to all the more eagerly4 ,when such a woman has succeeded in capturing a man1 she has become so accustomed to outward show1 extravagance in dress and costly enjoyments that she wishes to maintain them in her married life4 ,here men find themselves on the verge of an abyss1 and many prefer to leave the flowers that bloom at this abyss unplucked4 ,they prefer to pursue their path alone and seek entertainment and enjoyment while maintaining their freedom4 ,deception and fraud are common practices in bourgeois society4 ,it is not surprising that they also play a part in the contracting of marriages and entail severe suffering of both parties4 ,statistics show that the educated and wealthy classes as a rule marry later in life than the lower classes4 ,according to ,westergaard the average age of marriage in ,copenhagen was3 among professional people1 merchants1 manufacturers and bankers1 #cb4b years2 among mechanics and small dealers1 #ca4b years2 among clerks and commercial employees1 #bi4g years2 among waiters and domestic servants1 #bh1 and among factory workers1 sailors and day-laborers1 #bg4e years4 ,in ,prussia from #ahha to #ahhf the average ages at which men married were3 miners1 #bg4f2 factory workers1 #bg4g2 metal workers1 #bh2 stone-masons1 #bh4b2 building trades1 #bh4f2 workers in wood1 #bh4g2 machinists1 #bi2 teaching1 #bi4a2 agriculture1 #bi4f2 railway service1 #cj2 commerce1 #cj4i2 physicians1 clergymen and officials1 #ca4h to #cc4d4 ,according to ,ansell the average age at which the well-to-do and educated classes married in ,england from #ahdj to #ahga1 was #bi4ie years2 but since then it has been raised4 ,from #ahhj to #ahhe1 the average ages at which men of different professions married1 were as follows3 years ,miners #bc4ef ,textile workers #bc4hh ,clothing trades #bd4db ,mechanics #bd4he ,day-laborers #be4jf ,clerks #be4ge ,merchants #bf4ag ,farmers #bh4gc ,professional men and capitalists #cj4gb ,these figures show how marriage is influenced by social position4 ,the fact that the average age of marriage in most ,european states has been somewhat lowered during the last decades1 is due to the general growth of industrialism4 ,this may be seen in ,germany1 ,austria and ,sweden where the increase of early marriages is in connection with the growing number of persons employed in industry4 ,in older industrial countries1 as ,france and ,england1 the average age of marriage has been raised4 ,russia forms an exception2 here the rise in the average age of marriage is due to the abolition of communal property4 ,the number of men who are prevented from marrying for numerous reasons is constantly increasing4 ,this applies especially to the men of the upper classes and the higher professions2 firstly because they are more pretentious1 and secondly because these men are best enabled to find companionship and pleasure outside of marriage4 ,conditions are especially unfavorable to women in places where there are many pensioners with their families1 and few young men4 ,there we find from twenty to thirty women among hundred who are unable to marry4 ,the lack of men seeking marriage is most severely felt by those women1 who have been accustomed by their social position to require a certain standard of life but who have no dowery4 ,this is especially true of the young girls of those numerous families that depend upon a fixed salary which leaves them socially respectable but poor4 ,these girls often become dangerous competitors to the working girls who earn their living by embroidery1 making underwear1 making artificial flowers1 hats1 gloves1 etc42 that is1 in all those trades in which the employers prefer to have the work done in the homes of the workers4 ,these ladies often work for the lowest wages because they are not obliged to earn their living entirely but only wish to add to the family income or to earn enough to pay for their clothes4 ,employers favor the competition of these ladies1 because it enables them to reduce the wages of the poor proletarian workers and to drive them to the utmost exertion of their strength4 ,many wives of government officials1 whose husbands are poorly paid and cannot maintain them according to their standard of living1 also employ their spare time in such sordid competition1 which means increased exploitation among large strata of female proletarians4 ,the agitation carried on by the bourgeois women's clubs to elevate women's work and to gain admission for women into the higher professions1 is especially destined to improve the position of women of the upper classes4 ,in order to do this successfully1 these clubs seek the patronage of ladies of high rank4 ,in this respect the bourgeois women only follow the example of the bourgeois men1 who also seek such patronage and become interested in such endeavors that only show small1 never large results4 ,in this way people waste a tremendous amount of effort1 and deceive themselves and others in regard to the necessity of thorough-going reform4 ,in these circles no doubt is permitted to arise as to the justice and wisdom of our present state and social order4 ,the conservative nature of such endeavors prevent clubs of this kind from being permeated by so-called destructive tendencies4 ,at a convention of women in ,berlin during the spring of #ahid1 a minority expressed the thought that it might be well if the bourgeois women would co-operate with the proletarian women1 that is1 the ,socialist women2 but with a majority of the delegates this suggestion called forth a storm of protest4 ,but the conservative tendencies of the bourgeois women will not accomplish the liberation of womankind4 ,how many women are excluded from marriage owing to the causes previously stated1 cannot be definitely determined4 ,the numerical superiority of women in ,germany is distributed very unevenly1 both in regard to the different countries and districts and in regard to age4 ,the following table has been compiled from the census of #aijj 7,statistic of the ,german ,empire73 ,number of women for every #ajjj men -------------------------------------- under #ae #ae to #dj #dj to #fj over #fj ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,berlin #ajab #ajdd #aaia #afei ,kingdom of ,saxony #ajae #ajcj #aajg #acfj 8 8 ,bavaria to the right of the ,rhine #ajae #ajbd #ajhc #aafc 8 8 ,bavaria to the left of the ,rhine #ihf #iig #ajgj #aaeg 8 8 ,wurtemberg #ajae #ajda #aacd #aagi ,baden #ajjj #igd #ajgi #aagc ,hamburg #iii #ajca #ajch #aded ,province of ,brandenburg #iic #ajae #ajhi #abgf 8 8 ,pomerania #ihi #ajce #ajii #abad 8 8 the ,rhine #iia #ied #ajjh #aabj ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,german ,empire #iie #ajjh #ajhg #abah ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,at the true marriageable age1 from #ae to #dj years1 the numerical superiority of women in the entire ,german ,empire is #h for every #a1jjj men4 ,the number of male inhabitants between #ae and #dj years of age is #aa1ajj1fgc2 the number of female inhabitants between #ae and #dj years of age is #aa1ahg1ggi4 ,so we have a super-abundance of #hg1ajf women4 ,in #aijj there were #aa1adf1hcc ,german women of child-bearing age 7#ah to #de years74 ,among these only #f1dcb1ggb 7#eg4ga percent7 were married2 #bhc1fbi 7#b4ed percent7 were widowed2 #ca1agf 7#j4bh percent7 were divorced1 and #d1cii1bhf 7#ci4dg percent7 were single4 ,the following table shows the proportion of the sexes in other countries3 ,in ,number of women for every #ajjj men the -------------------------------------- year under #ae #ae to #dj #dj to #fj over #fj ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,germany #aijj #iie #ajjh #ajhg #abah ,austria #ahij #ajje #ajdf #ajgi #aacj ,hungary #aijj #iih #ajbi #ihb #ajcc ,servia #ahif #ifi #ieb #ibe #hjd ,italy #ahha #ifc #ajba #ajje #ihj ,switzerland #ahhh #iii #ajei #aajc #aadh ,france #ahif #iih #ajab #ajbi #aajh ,louxembourg #aijj #iib #hec #ihh #ajfc ,belgium #ahij #iib #ihd #ajah #aaag ,netherlands #ahii #ihf #ajca #ajca #aade ,denmark #ahij #igh #ajhj #ajgc #aagi ,sweden #ahii #iga #ajaf #aadf #abeb ,england and ,wales #ahia #ajjf #ajge #ajif #abbg ,scotland #ahia #igc #ajgc #aafe #achi ,ireland #aija #ifh #ajcg #aajc #ajcb ,united ,states of ,america #aijj #igi #ifi #ihi #ihg ,egypt #ahig #idc #iif #idc #ajae ,japan #ahia #igh #ifb #iea #aadf ,new ,south ,wales #ahia #igh #hbg #fgi #ffe ,queensland #ahia #igf #fih #eei #faa ,tasmania #ahia #igg #hgg #hih #fcb ,new ,zealand #ahia #igi #ibg #ffa #fed ,cape of ,good ,hope #ahia #ihi #ajjh #ici #ajai ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,this table shows that in all countries having a similar economic structure1 similar conditions exist in regard to the proportion of the sexes4 ,in all these countries then a great many women1--apart from all other obstacles already mentioned1--have no prospect of becoming married4 ,in ,england in #aija among #a1jjj women over #ae years only #dif4d were married2 in ,scotland1 #ddb4h2 in ,ireland1 #cgj4i2 in ,sweden1 #dfh4b2 in ,norway1 #dfi4i4 ,how do these facts impress those persons who oppose the struggle of women for independence and equal rights by relegating them to marriage and the home8 ,it is not due to ill will on the part of the women if so many fail to marry4 ,but what becomes of these victims of our social conditions8 ,that nature has been sinned against is expressed in the peculiar features and traits of character by which old maids and ascetic old bachelors are distinguished from other persons in all countries and climates1 and goes to show the strong and harmful influence resulting from the suppression of natural instincts4 ,many forms of hysteria among women are due to this cause4 ,hysteria is also caused by dissatisfaction in marriage1 which sometimes results in sterility4 ,these are the general characteristics of modern marriage and its results4 ,from them we must draw the following conclusion3 ,present-day marriage is an institution that is closely connected with existing social conditions1 with which it must stand and fall4 ,but this marriage is in a state of decline and dissolution as bourgeois society itself4 ,which are the salient points that we have determined in regard to bourgeois marriage8 #a4--,the birth-rate is declining although the population is increasing1 which shows that the economic status of the family has deteriorated4 #b4--;,divorces are increasing more rapidly than the population is growing1 and in most cases women are the ones to seek divorce1 although they suffer most in consequence of it1 both economically and socially4 ,this shows that the unfavorable factors in marriage are increasing1 that marriage is in a state of dissolution4 #c4--,the marriage-rate is declining1 notwithstanding the fact that the population is increasing2 which proves that in the eyes of many persons marriage no longer accomplishes its social and moral purpose and is regarded as worthless or of doubtful value4 #d4--;,in almost all civilized states there is a disproportion in the number of the sexes1 the female sex predominating4 ,this is not due to natural causes1--since more boys than girls are born1--but to unfavorable social and political factors that are rooted in conditions of state and society4 ,as all these unnatural conditions that are especially harmful to women are established by the nature of bourgeois society and increase with the duration of its existence1 this society proves itself incompetent to abolish the evils and to liberate woman4 ,to accomplish this a different social order will be necessary4 #ha ,ely ,metschnikoff--,the ,nature of ,man4 ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,prostitution a ,necessary ,social ,institution of ,bourgeois ,society4 #a4--,prostitution and ,society4 ,marriage constitutes one phase of the sex relations of bourgeois society2 prostitution constitutes the other4 ,if men fail to find satisfaction in marriage1 they1 as a rule1 seek it with prostitution2 and those men who for one reason or another refrain from marrying1 seek satisfaction with prostitutes also4 ,to those men then1 who voluntarily or involuntarily lead an unmarried life1 and to those who do not find their expectations realized in marriage1 opportunities for satisfaction of the sexual impulse are far more favorable than to women4 ,men have always regarded it as their 8just0 privilege to employ prostitution4 ,but they are relentless in condemning a woman who is not a prostitute1 when she has 8fallen40 ,that natural impulses are implanted in women as well as in men and that these manifest themselves particularly strongly at certain periods of a woman's life1 does not alter their judgment4 ,by means of his ruling position man compels woman to suppress her most powerful instincts1 and makes chastity the condition of her social position and of marriage4 ,nothing can prove the dependent position of woman in a more emphatic and revolting way than these vastly differing conceptions in regard to the satisfaction of the same natural impulse4 ,man is especially favored by conditions4 ,the results of sexual intercourse have been assigned to the woman by nature1 while man has the enjoyment only without trouble or responsibility4 ,this natural advantage of men over women has fostered the unbridled lust which characterizes a great many men4 ,but as a great many causes prevent or limit the legitimate satisfaction of the sexual impulse the result is its illegitimate satisfaction4 ,prostitution thus becomes a necessary social institution of bourgeois society1 just as the police1 the standing army1 the church and the capitalist class4 ,this is no exaggeration2 we can prove it4 ,we have shown how prostitution was regarded as a necessary institution in ancient society and how it was organized by the state in both ,greece and ,rome4 ,we have also shown what views prevailed in regard to it during the ,christian middle ages4 ,even ,st4 ,augustin who was1 after ,paul1 the staunchest pillar of ,christianity and ardently preached asceticism1 could not refrain from exclaiming3 8,suppress the public prostitutes and the force of passion will overturn everything40 ,st4 ,thomas ,aquin1 who is still considered the greatest authority on theology1 has expressed the same opinion more forcibly still by saying3 8,prostitution in the cities is like the cess-pool in the palace2 if you remove the cess-pool the palace will become an unclean and evil smelling place40 ,the provincial council at ,milan in #affe held the same view4 ,but let us consult some modern opinions4 ,dr4 ,f4 ,s4 ,huegel says3 8,advancing civilization will gradually clothe prostitution in more pleasing forms1 but only with the destruction of the world will it come to an end60#hb ,that is a bold assertion1 but whoever cannot think beyond the form of bourgeois society1 whoever does not admit that society will transform itself to attain healthful and natural conditions1 must agree with ,dr4 ,huegel4 ,m4 ,rubner1 an authority on hygiene1 professor at the ,university of ,berlin1 and director of the ,hygienic ,institute1 expresses a similar opinion4 ,he says3 8,prostitution of women has existed at all times and among all peoples4 ,it is indestructable because it serves the sexual impulse and springs from human nature and because in many cases the tendency to prostitution is due to an innate vice of some women4 ,just as we find in every population geniuses beside idiots1 giants besides dwarfs1 and other abnormities1 so we also find by the chance of birth abnormities which must lead to prostitution40#hc ,none of the above-named conceive the thought that a different social order might remove the causes of prostitution1 and none seek to investigate the causes4 ,some who take up this problem faintly recognize that unfortunate social conditions1 weighing heavily upon countless women1 might be the chief cause why so many sell their bodies4 ,but they do not draw the conclusion that if this be the case1 it becomes necessary to bring about different social conditions4 ,among the few who recognize that economic conditions form the chief cause of prostitution is ,th4 ,bade4#hd ,he says3 8,the causes of the boundless moral degradation from which the prostitute girls emerge are founded on social conditions4 ,they are especially due to the decline of the middle classes1 particularly the artisan class1 among whom only very few continue to ply their trade independently40 ,bade concludes his observations by saying3 8,material need which has destroyed many middle class families and continues to destroy them also leads to their moral degradation1 especially to that of the female sex40#he ,but prostitution is not an institution of nature that1 as ,r4 ,schmoelder says3 8,will remain a constant companion of humanity10#hf it is a social institution without which we cannot conceive bourgeois society4 ,the police physician of ,leipsic1 ,dr4 ,j4 ,kuehn1 says3 8,prostitution is not only a bearable1 but a necessary evil4 ,it protects women from adultery 7which only men have a right to commit--the author7 and guards virtue 7of course the virtue of women because men are not required to be virtuous--the author7 against assault and destruction40#hg ,these words grossly characterize the incarnate selfishness of men4 ,kuehn maintains the correct position of a police physician1 whose duty it is to guard men against unpleasant diseases by the police surveillance of prostitution4 ,only the man is taken into consideration to whom celibacy is horrible and a torture1 but the millions of women doomed to celibacy must content themselves4 ,what is considered right in the man's case1 is considered wrong1 immoral and criminal in the woman's4 ,another interesting gentleman is ,dr4 ,fock1 who regards prostitution as a 8necessary correlation of our civilization40#hh ,he fears an overproduction of human beings if all persons should marry after having attained maturity1 and therefore considers it important that prostitution should be regulated by the state4 ,he considers police surveillance of prostitution justifiable1 and that the ,state should furnish men with prostitutes who are free from syphilis4 ,he declares himself in favor of closest surveillance of all women who can be convicted of leading a disorderly life4 ,but can this surveillance be carried out1 if ladies leading a disorderly life belong to the upper classes8 ,it is the old story4 ,dr4 ,fock also recommends that a tax should be levied upon prostitutes and that they should be confined to certain streets4 ,in other words1 the ,christian state should make prostitution a source of income by state organization and protection of vice in the interest of men4 ,dr4 ,henry ,severus1#hi who also favors legal recognition of prostitution maintains an original point of view4 ,he regards it as a useful institution1 because it is a necessary correlation of marriage1 and that without it the free choice in marriage would be impaired4 ,according to him prostitution is a sort of safety-valve of bourgeois society4 ,he claims3 8,much of the poverty that leads to such deplorable social conditions may be traced to the fact1 that marriages are recklessly contracted1 without questioning how the necessary means of livelihood might be obtained4 ,it is in the interest of the state1 that such marriages should not be contracted1 for the children that spring from them cannot be sufficiently provided for by their parents1 nor do they belong in the foundling hospital1 being legitimate children1 and thus become a peril to society4 ,prostitution10 he goes on to say1 8prevents that the force of natural instinct should lead to the contracting of marriages that result in an increase of those elements of the population who1 owing to lack of education and an unfortunate childhood1 developes sentiments that are hostile to the state and become enemies of society40 ,so according to this1 state regulation of vice furnishes a protection and a remedy against socialism--a view that may at least lay claim to originality4 ,so we may reiterate our assertion1 prostitution is a necessary social institution of bourgeois society1 just as the police1 the standing army1 the church and the capitalist class4 #hb ,f4 ,huegel4--,history1 ,statistics and ,regulation of ,prostitution in ,vienna1 #ahfe4 #hc ,max ,rubner--,text ,book of ,hygiene4 ,leipsic1 #aijg4 #hd ,th4 ,bade4 ,procurers and public dance halls4 #he ,statistics gathered by the ,berlin police in #ahga-gb concerning the parentage of #b1bbd enrolled prostitutes showed the following figures3 #a1jae equal #dg4i per cent4 came from the artisan class2 #dfg equal #bb4j per cent4 were daughters of factory laborers2 #cje equal #ad4d per cent4 of minor officials2 #bbb equal #aj4d per cent4 of merchants1 etc42 #cg equal #d4a per cent4 of farmers1 and #bf equal #a4b per cent of military men4 ,with #ajb the father's profession could not be determined4 #hf ,r4 ,schmoelder1 ,punishment of fornication as a trade4 #hg ,j4 ,kuehn4 ,prostitution in the nineteenth century from the standpoint of police sanitation4 #hh ,dr4 ,fock--,prostitution in its ethical and sanitary aspect4 #hi ,dr4 ,h4 ,severus--,prostitution and the state4 #b4--,prostitution and the ,state4 ,state supervision and organization of prostitution does not exist in the ,german empire as it does in ,france2 prostitution is merely tolerated4 ,disorderly houses are prohibited by law and procurers may be severely punished4 ,but notwithstanding these laws in many ,german cities1 among others in ,mayence1 ,magdeburg1 ,altona1 ,kiel1 ,nuremberg1 ,worms1 ,freiburg1 ,leipsic1 ,regensburg1 ,hamburg1 ,augsburg1 ,wuerzburg1 disorderly houses exist that are tolerated by the police4#ij ,this seems an incredible state of affairs and its contradiction to the laws must be well known to our government officials4 ,according to ,german law1 persons renting an apartment to a prostitute are subject to punishment4 ,on the other hand1 the police are obliged to tolerate thousands of prostitutes and to protect them in their trade if they submit to the prescribed rules1 for instance1 to regular examination by a physician4 ,but if the state makes concessions to prostitutes and supports them in the plying of their trade1 it is necessary for them to have a residence also2 in fact1 it becomes necessary to public health and order that their trade should be carried on in definite quarters4 ,what contradictions6 ,on the one hand the state officially recognizes prostitution2 on the other hand it persecutes and punishes prostitutes and procurers4 ,moreover1 this attitude of the state confirms1 that to modern society1 prostitution is a sphynx whose riddle it cannot solve4 ,religion and morality condemn prostitution1 the laws punish it1 and yet the state tolerates and protects it4 ,in other words1 our society that prides itself on its morality1 its piety1 its civilization and culture must suffer itself to be polluted by the slow poison of immorality and corruption4 ,still another conclusion follows from these conditions3 the ,christian state admits that marriage is insufficient and that the man is justified in seeking illegitimate satisfaction of the sexual impulse4 ,the woman is taken into consideration by this same state only1 inasmuch as she yields to the illegitimate satisfaction of male lust1 that is1 becomes a prostitute4 ,the police supervision and control of enlisted prostitutes does not include the men who mingle with the prostitutes1 which ought to be a matter of course if the medical surveillance were to be partly effective at least1 quite disregarding the fact that justice demands that the law should be equally applied to both sexes4 ,this protection of the man from the woman by the state overturns the nature of conditions4 ,it appears as if men were the weaker1 and women the stronger sex1 as if women were the seducer1 and poor1 weak man the seduced4 ,the myth of temptation of ,adam and ,eve in ,paradise continues to influence our conceptions and laws and sustains the ,christian assumption1 that 8woman is the great seducer1 the source of sin40 ,men ought to be ashamed of the pitiable and unworthy part they are playing1 but it is pleasing to them to be regarded as 8weak0 and as 8victims of seduction0 for the more they are protected the more they may sin4 ,wherever men come together in great numbers1 they do not seem to be able to enjoy themselves without prostitution4 ,that was seen among other instances by the occurrences at the rifle match in ,berlin during the summer of #ahij4 ,these occurrences caused #b1cjj women to sign a petition to the mayor of the ,german capital1 which read as follows3 8,we beg your honor to permit our quoting what has been reported in regard to this festival by the press and other sources4 ,these reports1 which we read with the greatest indignation and disgust1 among other things thus described the entertainments provided at the festival3 #8,first1 ,german ,herold1 greatest ,caf ,chantant of the world'2 hundred ladies and forty gentlemen2 besides small variety shows and rifle ranges from which exceedingly obtrusive women molested the men2 furthermore free concerts1 where lightly garbed waitresses boldly and unrestrained1 with seductive smiles forced their attentions alike on men and youths1 on college boys and fathers of families4 ,but the #8lady' who was almost nude and who invited them to visit the booths #8,the ,secrets of ,hamburg1 or a ,night in ,st4 ,pauli1' might at least have been removed by the police4 ,but the worst1 something that plain men and women from the provinces can hardly accredit to the far-famed capital of the empire1 was the fact that the committee on arrangements had permitted1 that instead of waiters1 young women in great numbers were engaged as waitresses and bar-maids without pay4 ,we ,german women1 as mothers1 wives and sisters1 frequently have occasion to send our brothers1 husbands1 sons and daughters to ,berlin in service of the fatherland1 and so we beg your honor1 trusting to your influence as chief executive of the national capital to investigate these occurrences and to prevent a repetition of these orgies1 especially at the forthcoming celebration of the victory at ,sedan40 ,during all large festivals1 including the national ones1 when men come together in great numbers1 similar scenes occur4#ia ,the ,german governments made frequent attempts to do away with the contradiction that exists between the legal theories and actual practice in regard to prostitution4 ,they introduced bills among other things1 which authorized the police to assign definite places of residence to the prostitutes4 ,it was admitted that prostitution could not be suppressed and that it would therefore be better to limit it to certain places and to control it4 ,such a law--on this all were agreed--would have reinstated the public brothels that had been officially abolished in ,prussia during the forties of the last century4 ,the introduction of these bills caused great excitement and aroused much protest4 ,it was stated that the state by extending protection to vice spread the opinion that prostitution was not averse to morality and was an officially sanctioned trade4 ,these bills that met with much opposition in ,parliament1 have until now1 remained unsettled4 ,but their very introduction shows the predicament of the state4 ,state regulation and control of vice not only create the belief among men that the state favors prostitution1 it also leads them to believe that this regulation protects them from disease1 and this belief makes men more reckless and increases the employment of prostitution4 ,public brothels do not diminish sexual diseases1 they promote them1 because men become more reckless and careless4 ,to what conceptions the official protection of brothels leads may be seen from the term applied to the licensed prostitutes in ,england1 who were called 8,queen's women0 because they had obtained official recognition through a law enacted by the queen4 ,experience has taught1 that neither the introduction of public brothels under police supervision nor regular medical examination insure safety from contagion4 ,to an inquiry from the woman's committee of ,vienna for combatting the state regulation of vice ,dr4 ,albert ,eulenburg wrote as follows3 8,in regard to the question of police supervision of prostitutes ,i fully share1 as a matter of principle1 the point of view set forth in your petition1 though1 of course ,i recognize the practical difficulty of its immediate application4 ,i regard this practice which has been introduced in most countries as unjust1 unworthy1 and moreover as entirely unsuited to attain the object stated with any certain degree of safety40 ,on ,july #bj1 #ahib1 the ,berlin ,medical ,society declared that the reinstatement of public brothels would be undesirable1 both from a hygienic and moral point of view4 ,the nature of these diseases is such that in many cases it cannot be recognized easily1 or at once1 and to attain a certain degree of safety several daily examinations would be necessary4 ,but this is impossible1 owing to the great number of women in question and the large expense it would entail4 ,where #cj to #dj prostitutes have to be examined in one hour1 the examination is nothing more than a farce1 and in the same way one or two weekly examinations are entirely insufficient4 ,dr4 ,blaschko#ib says3 8,the belief1 that control of prostitutes furnishes protection against contagion1 unfortunately is a widespread and detrimental error4 ,rather can it be asserted that everyone who associates with a prostitute or a frivolous girl faces a grave danger each time40 ,the success of these measures fails also because the men who carry the germs of disease from one woman to another remain entirely free from control4 ,a prostitute who has just been examined and found healthy may become infected by a diseased man in the very same hour1 and before the next examination takes place1 or before she herself has become aware of the disease1 she may have infected a number of other visitors4 ,the control is an imaginary one4 ,besides the obligatory examinations by male instead of female physicians deeply injure the sense of modesty and help to destroy it completely4 ,this statement is confirmed by a great many physicians who perform such examinations4#ic ,the same is admitted even in the official report of the ,berlin police department1 where it says it must be admitted that official enrollment still increases the moral degradation of those affected by it4#id ,the prostitutes do whatever they can to escape this control4 ,another evil result of these measures is1 that it is made very difficult1 indeed almost impossible to prostitutes1 to return to a decent means of livelihood4 ,a woman who has fallen into police control is lost to society2 as a rule she miserably perishes after a few years4 ,the fifth congress for combatting immorality1 held in ,geneva1 thus expressed itself forcibly and correctly against the state regulation of vice3 8,the obligatory medical examination of prostitutes is a cruel punishment to the woman1 for in those who are subjected to it the last remnant of modesty that may still exist in the most depraved1 is forcibly destroyed4 ,the state that seeks to regulate prostitution by police control forgets that it owes equal protection to both sexes1 it degrades and demoralizes the woman4 ,every system of official regulation of vice permits of arbitrary police rule and leads to the infringement of personal safety against arbitrary arrest and imprisonment1 against which even the lowest criminal is guarded4 ,as these encroachments occur only at the expense of the woman1 they lead to an unnatural inequality between her and the man4 ,the woman is degraded to a mere object and is no longer treated as a person4 ,she is excluded from the law40 ,how little police and medical control avail has been strikingly shown in ,england4 ,before the beginning of official regulation1 in the year #ahfg1 the number of venereal diseases in the army were1 according to a military report1 #ia per #a1jjj4 ,in #ahhf1 after the regulation had been in effect for nineteen years they were #aaj per #a1jjj4 ,in #ahib1 six years after the regulation laws had been repealed they were only #gi per #a1jjj4 ,among civilians the cases of syphilis were #aj per #a1jjj during the years #ahgi to #ahhb1 that was during the years of public regulation4 ,after the abolition of public regulation1 from #ahhe to #ahhi they were only #h4a per #a1jjj4 ,the prostitutes themselves were far more affected by the regulation laws than the soldiers4 ,in #ahff there were among #a1jjj prostitutes1 #aba cases of disease4 ,in #ahfh after the law had been in force for two years there were #bjb cases among #a1jjj4 ,after that the number gradually decreased1 but in #ahgd there still were #af cases more per thousand than in #ahff4 ,the death rate among prostitutes also increased appallingly during the reign of that law4 ,when at the close of the sixties of the last century the ,english government attempted to extend the regulation laws to include all ,english cities1 a storm of indignation arose among ,english women4 ,they regarded the law as an insult to their entire sex4 ,the habeas corpus1 they claimed1 that fundamental law which guaranteed protection to every ,english citizen1 was to be abolished for women2 every brutal police officer impelled by revenge or other base motives1 would be permitted to attack the most respectable woman if he suspected her of being a prostitute1 while the licentiousness of men would not be interfered with1 but would on the contrary be protected and fostered by law4 ,the fact that ,english women under the leadership of ,josephine ,butler championed the most degraded of their sex1 caused ignorant men to misconstrue their intentions and to make insulting remarks about them4 ,but regardless of these attacks they opposed the extension of the obnoxious law with utmost energy4 ,in newspaper articles and pamphlets arguments in favor of it and against it were fully discussed1 until its extension was prevented1 and in #ahhf is was repealed4#ie ,the ,german police has a similar power1 and sometimes cases have been called to public attention in ,berlin1 ,leipsic1 ,cologne1 ,hannover and many other places1 showing that abuses or 8misunderstandings0 easily occur with the exercise of this power1 but not much is heard among us of an energetic opposition to such transgressions4#if ,in ,norway1 brothels were prohibited in #ahhh1 and in the capital1 ,christiania1 the obligatory registration of prostitutes and the medical examination connected with it was abolished4 ,in ,january1 #ahic1 the same ordinance was enacted for the entire country4 ,very correctly ,mrs4 ,guillaume-,shack says in regard to state 8protection0 for men3 8,to what purpose do we teach our sons to respect virtue and morality if the state declares vice to be a necessary evil2 if young men1 before they have even attained intellectual maturity1 are given women stamped like commodities by the public authorities as playthings of their passions80 ,a man inflicted with a sexual disease may indulge in unbridled licentiousness and may infect any number of these unfortunate beings1 most of whom have been driven by seducers or by bitterest need into this abominable trade4 ,the law leaves him unmolested4 ,but woe to the poor1 diseased prostitute who does not immediately submit to medical treatment6 ,the garrison towns1 university towns and sea port towns1 where many strong1 healthy men aggregate1 are the chief centers of prostitution and its dangerous diseases1 which are disseminated all over the land and everywhere spread suffering and destruction4 ,the moral qualification of a great number of our students is described in the following manner in the 8,gazette for ,combatting ,public ,immorality0#ig3 8,among a majority of the students the views concerning moral questions are appallingly base1 almost depraved40 ,from these circles that boast about their 8,german spirit0 and 8,german morals10 our public officials1 prosecutors and judges are obtained4 ,how bad matters must be1 especially among students1 may be seen from the following3 ,in the fall of #aija1 a large group of professors and physicians1 among them leading men in their professions1 published an appeal to ,german students1 in which they called special attention to the deplorable results of sexual debauchery1 and also warned the young men of excessive indulgence in alcoholic drinks1 which in many cases have a stimulating influence on sexual debauchery4 ,at last people are beginning to recognize that the policy of silence is a mistaken one1 and that we must call a spade a spade1 if we would check an immeasurable disaster4 ,among other classes of society also this warning should not remain unheeded4 ,the ,biblical utterance that the sins of the fathers shall be visited upon their children applies in its fullest measure to the man afflicted with a sexual disease2 unfortunately also to his innocent wife4 8,apoplectic strokes among young men and women1 forms of paralysis of the spine and softening of the brain1 various nervous diseases1 weakening of the eye sight1 inflammation of the bowels1 sterility and general debility are frequently due to no other cause than a neglected case of syphilis1 that has1 for good reasons been kept secret4 ,as conditions are to-day ignorance and carelessness transform blooming daughters of the nation into weak and sickly creatures who must pay with chronic diseases for the extravagances of their husbands before and outside of marriage40#ih ,dr4 ,a4 ,blaschko says among other things3 8,epidemics like cholera1 small pox1 diphtheria and typhoid terrify the people1 because the suddenness of the results are clearly visible to everybody4 ,but syphilis is regarded by society with an appalling indifference4 ,and yet syphilis is far more widespread and much more terrible in its effects than any of the above-mentioned diseases40#ii ,the fact that we regard it as 8indecent0 to discuss such matters1 accounts for this indifference4 ,even the ,german diet could not bring itself to provide legally for the treatment of persons afflicted with sexual diseases by means of the sick benefit funds1 as in the case of other diseases4#ajj ,the poison of syphilis is the most tenacious and the hardest to eradicate of all poisons4 ,many years after the disease has been apparently cured the evil results frequently manifest themselves in the wife of the diseased or in his new-born children1 and countless sicknesses of married women and children are due to the sexual diseases of husbands and fathers4 ,in a petition addressed to the ,german ,parliament in the fall of #ahii by the society 8,jugendschutz0 7protection of the young7 it was stated that there are about #cj1jjj children in ,germany who are blind from birth due to contagion from gonorrhoea1 and that among #ej per cent of childless women1 sterility is due to the same cause4#aja ,as a matter of fact an alarmingly large number of marriages is childless1 and moreover the number of childless marriages is increasing4 ,feeble-mindedness and idiocy among children is also not infrequently due to the same cause1 and many instances have shown what disasters can be caused with vaccination by a single drop of blood inoculated with the poison of syphilis4 ,the great number of persons suffering from a sexual disease has caused several suggestions to be made for the enactment of a national law providing special treatment for persons so afflicted4 ,but until now no such step was taken1 probably because one feared the enormity of the evil that would then become manifest4 ,medical authorities have generally gained the conviction1 that gonorrhoea1 which was formerly regarded as harmless1 is one of the most dangerous of these diseases4 ,this disease continues to act upon the human system even after it has been apparently cured4 ,as ,dr4 ,blaschko reported in a lecture in ,berlin on the #bjth of ,february1 #ahih1 the medical examinations of prostitutes reveal only one-fourth1 or at best one-third of the actual number of cases4 ,as a matter of fact1 the overwhelmingly great majority of prostitutes are afflicted with this disease1 while only a small percentage of the cases are properly diagnosed4 ,of those in whom the disease is recognized it is again only a small percentage with whom a permanent cure is effected4 ,here society is confronted by an evil for which it has no remedy as yet1 but which is an imminent peril to mankind1 especially to its female half4 #ij ,paul ,kampffmeyer--,prostitution as a social class phenomenon and the social and political struggle against it4 #ia 8,when the ,farmers' ,association convenes in the ,circus ,bush1 or large conventions are being held in ,berlin1 there is a rise in price of human flesh40 ,satyr--,life at ,night in the ,friedrich ,strasse1 ,berlin1 #aijg4 #ib ,handbook of ,hygiene1 published by ,th4 ,weyl1 ,m4 ,d4 ,hygiene of ,prostitution and ,venereal ,diseases1 compiled by ,dr4 ,a4 ,blaschko1 ,berlin4 #ic 8,as a matter of fact the system of regulation does not successfully fight the venereal diseases1 nor even noticeably diminish them4 ,the delusive feeling of safety given to men makes them more reckless4 ,the increase in the number of correlation heightens the danger of contagion by at least as much as it has been diminished by the removal of a few who were seriously diseased40 ,august ,forel--,the ,sex ,question1 ,munich1 #aijg4 #id ,third report of the royal police department of ,berlin for the years #ahha to #ahij4 #ie ,the most reliable supporters of the women were the ,english workingmen4 ,in her famous publication on 8,the ,history of a ,crusade10 ,josephine ,butler says3 8,we resolved to appeal to the nation4 ,in the fall of #ahfi we sent personal letters to every member of ,parliament of both houses and to many other leaders of political and religious parties4 ,of all the replies received only very few expressed complete agreement with our point of view4 ,as we obtained so little encouragement from those circles whose interest we had hoped to win1 we turned to the working class population of the country4 ,i am conscious of the fact that the working class has its faults and is no less devoid of egotism than other classes of the population4 ,but ,i am firmly convinced that when the people are appealed to in the name of justice they almost invariably show a loyal and reliable conviction40 #if ,in #aija it occurred in ,vienna that a ,french lady was abused by the police agent1 ,newhofer1 amidst the shouts of a mob1 was imprisoned among prostitutes and subjected to a forcible medical examination4 ,this case led to five interpellations in the diet4 ,in #aijb in ,hamburg and ,kiel ladies were arrested as prostitutes and were treated with brutality4 ,these occurrences led to a gigantic meeting of protest in ,hamburg on ,september #h1 that was attended by members of all parties4 #ig ,august #ae1 #ahic1 ,berlin4 #ih ,the detrimental results of prostitution4 ,dr4 ,oscar ,lassar1 ,berlin1 #ahib1 ,august ,hirschwald4 #ii ,treatment of sexual diseases in sick benefit fund institutions and hospitals1 ,berlin1 #ahij4 #ajj ,the ordinance of the insurance laws which enabled communities to refuse the payment of sick benefits in cases of sexual diseases was repealed by a law on ,may #be1 #aijc1 that went into effect ,january #a1 #aijd4 #aja ,examinations in asylums for the blind showed that the following number of persons were blind from birth through infection3 ,berlin1 #ba4c2 ,vienna1 #ca2 ,breslau1 #ce4a2 ,budapest1 #dg4i2 ,munich1 #gc4h4--,th4 ,weyl1 ,social ,hygiene1 ,jena1 #aijd4 #c4--,the ,white ,slave ,trade4 ,as the number of men increases who refrain from marriage1 be it by choice or under the pressure of circumstances1 and who seek illegitimate satisfaction of the sexual impulse1 the temptations and opportunities for illegitimate satisfaction increase likewise4 ,because immoral enterprises yield high profits many unscrupulous persons are engaged in them1 and resort to the craftiest methods to attract customers4 ,every requirement of the patrons according to position and rank and means is taken into consideration4 ,if the public brothels could reveal their secrets1 it would become known that their inmates1 who are of lowly birth1 ignorant and uneducated1 but possessed of physical charms1 have intimate relations with educated and cultured men who occupy prominent social positions4 ,here they freely come and go1 public officials1 military men1 representatives of the people1 judges1 the aristocracy of birth and finance1 of commerce and industry4 ,many of these men are regarded as upholders of public morality and guardians of the sanctity of marriage and the family1 and some are leaders of ,christian charitable undertakings and members of organizations 8to combat prostitution40 ,in ,berlin1 the owner of one of these establishments serving immoral purposes even publishes an illustrated gazette1 in which the doings of his patrons are described4 ,in this establishment #djj persons can be seated1 and every evening a fashionable gathering assembles there1 among them 7so the gazette tells us7 many members of the aristocracy4 ,frequently well known actresses and famed belles of the demi-monde are present4 ,the merriment reaches its height when in the wee hours of the morning the proprietors arrange an eel-catching tournament4 ,then the fair patronesses squat about the tanks with their clothes tucked up and try to catch the eel1 and so forth4 ,the police is well aware of these doings1 but carefully refrains from interfering with the amusements of fashionable society4 ,the following circular1 sent by the management of a ,berlin dancing establishment to fashionable men1 is another shameless form of pandering4 ,it reads3 8,the undersigned management of the hunting establishment to whom you1 dear sir1 have been recommended as a passionate hunter1 beg to call your attention to a newly-opened hunting ground with a splendid stock of deer and to invite you to the first chase on ,august #bfth4 ,special circumstances make our new hunting grounds particularly convenient and pleasant3 they are located in the heart of the city and the game-laws are not enforced40 ,our bourgeois society is like a great masquerade in which all seek to deceive one another4 ,every one wears his official gown with dignity1 while inofficially he indulges his passions without restraint4 ,yet1 outwardly1 all feign decency1 religiousness and morality4 ,in no age was hypocrisy as widespread as in ours4 ,the supply of women for immoral purposes increases faster than the demand4 ,unfavorable social conditions1 poverty1 seduction1 and the fact that many women are attracted by the outward glitter of an apparently free life1 help to furnish victims from all strata of society4 ,in a novel by ,hans ,wachenhusen#ajb we find a characteristic description of the conditions that prevail in the ,german capital4 ,the author thus describes the purpose of his novel3 8,my book especially tells of the victims of the female sex and their increasing depreciation as a result of our unnatural social conditions1 partly through their own fault1 partly through a neglected education and the love of luxury4 ,it tells of the surplus of this sex that makes the lives of those1 who are born and grow up1 more hopeless each day4 ,i wrote as a public prosecutor might write1 who had gathered data from the life of a criminal to determine his guilt4 ,if a novel is supposed to be drawn from imagination1 then the following is not a novel1 but a faithful portrayal of life40 ,in ,berlin conditions are neither better nor worse than in other large cities4 ,whether orthodox ,st4 ,petersburg or ,catholic ,rome1 ,christian ,berlin1 or heathenish ,paris1 ,puritan ,london or frivolous ,vienna is more nearly like ancient ,babylonia1 it is hard to determine4 ,similar social conditions bring forth similar results4 8,prostitution has its written and unwritten laws1 its resources1 its various resorts from the lowliest1 to the glittering palace1 its countless degrees from the lowest to the most cultured and refined4 ,it has its special amusements and its special places of meeting1 its police1 its hospitals1 its prisons and its literature40#ajc 8,we no longer celebrate the festivals of ,osiris1 the ,bacchanalia and the ,indian orgies in the spring month1 but in ,paris and other large cities in the darkness of night behind the walls of public and private houses1 orgies and ,bacchanalia take place that beggar description40#ajd ,under such conditions the traffic in women assumes huge dimensions4 ,it is carried on in the midst of civilization on a large scale and in a well organized manner1 and is but rarely detected by the police4 ,an army of male and female jobbers1 agents and transporters carry on the trade in as cold-blooded a manner as if they were bartering a commodity4 ,certificates are made out that contain an exact description and qualification of the various 8pieces0 and are handed to the transporters as a bill of lading for the customer4 ,as with all merchandise1 the price varies according to the quality1 and the 8goods0 are assorted and shipped from different places and countries according to the taste and requirements of the customers4 ,by skilful manipulations the traders seek to escape the pursuit of the police1 and sometimes large sums are employed to bribe the guardians of law and order4 ,a number of such cases have been revealed in ,paris4#aje ,to ,germany belongs the deplorable reputation of being a market for women to half the world4 ,the rambling spirit1 which is innate in the ,german people1 also seems to affect a portion of the ,german women1 so that they furnish a larger quota to international prostitution than the women of other nations1 with the exception of ,austria and ,hungary4 ,german women populate the harems of the ,turks and the public brothels in the interior of ,siberia and as far as ,bombay1 ,singapore1 ,san ,francisco and ,chicago4 ,in his book on travel 8,from ,japan1 through ,siberia to ,germany10 the author1 ,w4 ,joest1 says the following about the ,german white-slave trade3 8,in our moral ,germany1 people often grow indignant over the slave trade carried on by some negra sovereign in western ,africa1 or over conditions in ,cuba or ,brazil1 while we ought to consider the beam in our own eye4 ,in no other country of the world white slaves are bartered to the same extent1 from no other countries are such large quantities of this living merchandise shipped as from ,germany and ,austria4 ,the course taken by these girls can be clearly traced4 ,from ,hamburg they are shipped to ,south ,america1 ,bahie1 ,rio de ,janeiro2 the greater part are bound for ,montevideo and ,buenos ,ayres1 while a few go through the ,straits of the ,magellan to ,valparaiso4 ,another stream is directed over ,england to ,north ,america1 but there competition with the domestic product is unfavorable to the trade1 so the girls are shipped down the ,mississippi to ,texas and ,mexico4 ,from ,new ,orleans the coasts down to ,panama are furnished4 ,other troops of girls are sent across the ,alps to ,italy and on to ,alexandria1 ,suez1 ,bombay1 even to ,hongkong and ,shanghai1 ,dutch ,india and eastern ,india1 especially ,japan are poor markets1 because ,holland will not tolerate white girls of this sort in its colonies1 and because in ,japan the native girls are far too pretty and cheap4 ,moreover1 the trade must reckon with ,american competition from ,san ,francisco4 ,russia is supplied by eastern ,prussia1 ,pomerania and ,poland4 ,the first station is ,riga4 ,here the dealers from ,st4 ,petersburg and ,moscow assort their merchandise and send it in great quantities to ,nishny ,novgorod across the ,ural ,mountains to ,irbit and ,krestowsky and even into the interior of ,siberia4 ,in ,tschita1 for instance1 ,i met a ,german girl who had been traded in this way4 ,this trade is thoroughly organized--agents and traveling salesmen carry on the negotiations4 ,if the foreign office of the ,german ,empire would ask its consuls for reports on this trade interesting tables might be compiled40 ,that this traffic is flourishing1 has been repeatedly stated by ,socialist deputies in the ,german ,parliament4 ,other centers of the white-slave trade are ,galicia and ,hungary1 from where women are sent to ,constantinople and other ,turkish cities4 ,especially many ,jewesses1 who are otherwise rarely met with in public brothels are bartered to the ,turks4 ,the prices for the journey and other expenses are usually paid to the agents in advance4 ,in order to deceive the public authorities1 fictitious telegrams1 that are not likely to attract attention1 are sent to the customer4 ,some of these telegrams read3 8,five kegs of ,hungarian wine will arrive in ,varna to-morrow10 meaning five beautiful girls2 or 8,have shipped three barrels of potatoes by ,s4 ,s4 ,minerva40 ,this refers to three less beautiful girls3 8,common goods40 ,another telegram reads3 8,will arrive next ,friday per ,s4 ,s4 ,kobra2 have two bales of fine silk on board40 #ajb 8,what the street engulfs40 ,social novel in #c vols41 ,berlin4 ,a4 ,hoffmann ,co4 #ajc ,dr4 ,elizabeth ,blackwell--,the ,moral ,education4 #ajd ,mantegazza--,l',amour ,dans ,l',humanit4 #aje ,the relation of the police to prostitution is an interesting one in more than one respect4 ,in #ahii it was shown in a trial in ,berlin that a police commissioner employed a prostitute to watch and question a student whom he suspected of being an anarchist4 ,in ,prague the wife of a common policeman had her license for maintaining a disorderly house revoked because her husband had ill-treated a prisoner4 ,so the police rewards its officers by giving them licenses for the maintenance of disorderly houses4 ,what lovely conditions6 #d4--,the ,increase of ,prostitution4--,illegitimate ,motherhood4 ,it is difficult to estimate the number of prostitutes--impossible to determine it exactly4 ,the police may approximately determine the number of women for whom prostitution is the sole or chief source of income1 but they can not determine the far greater number of those who resort to prostitution as a partial support4 ,nevertheless the numbers that have been determined are enormous4 ,according to ,oettingen at the close of the sixties of the last century the number of prostitutes in ,london was estimated to be #hj1jjj4 ,in ,paris on ,january #a1 #aijf1 the number of enrolled prostitutes was #f1aif1 but more than one-third of these manage to evade police and medical control4 ,in #ahib there were about #fj public brothels in ,paris1 harboring from #fjj to #gjj prostitutes2 in #aijj there were only #db4 ,their number is constantly decreasing 7,in #aheb there were #bag public brothels74 ,at the same time the number of private prostitutes has greatly increased4 ,an investigation1 undertaken by the municipal council of ,paris in #ahhi1 estimated that the number of women who sell their bodies had reached the enormous figure of #abj1jjj4 ,the chief of police of ,paris1 ,lfrine1 estimates the number of enrolled prostitutes at #f1jjj and the number of private prostitutes at #gj1jjj4 ,during the years #ahga to #aijc the police inhibited #gbe1jjj harlots and #aej1jjj were imprisoned4 ,during the year #aijf1 the number of those who were inhibited amounted to no less than #ef1aif4ajf ,the following numbers of prostitutes were enrolled with the ,berlin police3 ,in #ahhf1 #cjjf2 in #ahij1 #d1jci2 in #ahic1 #d1ffc2 in #ahig1 #e1jih2 in #ahii1 #d1edd1 and in #aije1 #c1bhg4 ,in #ahij six physicians were employed1 who performed examinations for two hours daily4 ,since then the number of physicians has been increased to twelve1 and since several years a female physician has been employed to perform these examinations1 notwithstanding the objections of many male physicians4 ,in ,berlin1 as in ,paris1 the enrolled prostitutes only constitute a small fraction of the entire number1 that authorities on this subject have estimated to be at least #ej1jjj4 ,in the single year #ahij there were #b1jbb waitresses in the cafs of ,berlin1 who1 with very few exceptions were given to prostitution4 ,the yearly increase in the number of harlots inhibited by the police also shows that prostitution in ,berlin is growing4 ,the numbers of those inhibited were3 ,in #ahha1 #aj1hgh2 in #ahij1 #af1fje2 in #ahif1 #bf1gjc3 in #ahig1 #bb1iae4 ,in the year #aijg #ag1jah harlots were brought to trial before the magistrates1 which was about #eg for each day the court was in session4 ,how large is the number of prostitutes throughout ,germany8 ,some claim that there are about #bjj1jjj4 ,stroehmberg estimates the number of enrolled and private prostitutes in ,germany to be between #ge1jjj and #ajj1jjj4 ,in #aijh ,kamillo ,k4 ,schneider attempted to determine the exact number of enrolled prostitutes4 ,his table for the year #aije includes #gi cities4 8,as besides these there are other large places in which a considerable number of girls may be found1 he believes #ae1jjj to be a fairly correct estimate of the entire number4 ,with a population of approximately #fj1fjj1jjj inhabitants that means one enrolled prostitute for #d1jdj inhabitants40 ,in ,berlin there is one prostitute for #fjh1 in ,breslau for #ead1 in ,hannover for #ebi1 in ,kiel for #ebg1 in ,danzig for #dhg1 in ,cologne for #cfi1 and in ,brunswick for #cfc inhabitants4 ,the number of enrolled prostitutes is constantly decreasing4#ajg ,according to various estimates the ratio of the number of public controlled prostitutes is to the number of private prostitutes1 as #a to #e1 or #a to #aj4 ,we are1 accordingly dealing with a vast army of those to whom prostitution is a means of subsistence1 and conformably great is the number of victims claimed by disease and death4 ,that the great majority of prostitutes grows thoroughly tired of their mode of life1 that it even becomes revolting to them1 is an experience on which all authorities are agreed4 ,but very few of those who have fallen victims to prostitution ever find an opportunity to escape from it4 ,in #ahii the ,hamburg branch of the ,british1 ,continental and ,general ,federation undertook an investigation among prostitutes4 ,although only few answered the questions put to them1 these answers are quite characteristic4 ,to the question 8,would you continue in this trade if you could find some other means of support80 one replied1 8,what can one do when one is despised by all people80 ,another replied1 8,i appealed for help from the hospital02 a third1 8,my friend released me by paying my debts40 ,all suffer from the slavery of their liabilities to the brothel keepers4 ,one gave the information that she owed her landlady #age4 ,clothes1 underwear1 finery1 everything is furnished by the keepers at fabulous prices2 they are also charged the highest prices for food and drink4 ,besides1 they must pay the keeper a daily sum for their room4 ,this rent amounts to #a4ej1 #b or #c daily4 ,one wrote that she was compelled to pay her procurer from #e to #f daily4 ,no keeper will permit a girl to depart unless she has paid her debts4 ,the statements made by these girls also cast an unfavorable light on the actions of the police1 who side more with the brothel keepers than with the helpless girls4 ,in short1 we here behold in the midst of ,christian civilization1 the worst kind of slavery4 ,in order to better maintain the interests of their trade1 the brothel keepers have even founded a trade paper that is international in character4 ,the number of prostitutes increases at the same rate at which the number of working women increases1 who find employment in various lines of trade at starvation wages4 ,prostitution is fostered by the industrial crises that have become inevitable in bourgeois society1 and to hundreds of thousands of families mean bitter need and desperate poverty4 ,a letter sent by the chief of police1 ,bolton1 to a factory inspector on ,october #ca1 #ahfe1 shows that during the crisis of the ,english cotton industry caused by the ,civil ,war in the ,united ,states1 the number of young prostitutes increased more than during the preceding twenty-five years4#ajh ,but not only working girls fall victims to prostitution4 ,its victims are also recruited from the 8higher professions40 ,lombroso and ,ferrero quote ,mac1#aji who says of ,paris3 8,the certificate of a governess of a higher or lower grade is far less an assignment to a means of support than to suicide1 theft and prostitution40 ,parent-,duchatelet has at one time compiled statistics which showed the following4 ,among #e1ahc prostitutes there were #a1dda who were driven to prostitution by utmost need and misery4 #a1bbe were orphans and poor4 #hf had become prostitutes to support old parents1 young brothers and sisters1 or their own children4 #a1dbe had been deserted by their lovers2 #djd had been seduced by officers and soldiers and had been carried off to ,paris4 #bhi had been servant girls who were seduced by their employers and subsequently discharged1 and #bhj had come into ,paris to seek employment4 ,mrs4 ,butler1 the ardent champion of the poorest and most unfortunate of her sex1 says3 8,accidental circumstances1 the death of a father or a mother1 unemployment1 insufficient wages1 poverty1 false promises1 seduction1 the laying of snares may have driven her into her misfortune40 ,very instructive is the information given by ,karl ,schneidt in a pamphlet on 8,the ,misery of ,waitresses in ,berlin10#aaj in regard to the causes that drive so many of them to prostitution4 ,he says that a surprisingly large number of servant girls become waitresses1 which means in nearly all cases that they become prostitutes4 ,among the answers ,schneidt received to his list of questions that he circulated among waitresses are the following3 8,because ,i became pregnant by my employer and had to support my child02 8because my book of references was spoiled02 8because ,i could not earn enough by sewing and such work02 8because ,i had been discharged from the factory and could not find other employment02 8because my father died and there were four younger ones at home10 etc4 ,that servant girls1 who have been seduced by their employers1 constitute a large quota of the prostitutes is a well known fact4 ,dr4 ,max ,taube#aaa makes some very incriminating statements concerning the great number of seductions of servant girls by employers or their sons4 ,the upper classes also furnish their quota to prostitution4 ,here poverty is not the cause1 but seduction1 the inclination to lead a frivolous life1 the love of dress and enjoyment4 ,a pamphlet on 8,fallen ,girls and ,police ,control0#aab contains the following statement in regard to the prostitutes from these classes3 8,horror stricken many a worthy citizen1 minister1 teacher1 public official or military man learns that his daughter is secretly addicted to prostitution4 ,if all these daughters could be named a social revolution would have to take place1 or the public ideas concerning virtue and morality would be seriously impaired40 ,the high class prostitutes1 the smart set among them1 are drawn from these circles4 ,a great many actresses also owing to a glaring disparity between their salary and the cost of their wardrobe1 are compelled to resort to this vile means of support4#aac ,the same is true of many other girls who are employed as salesladies and in similar positions4 ,many employers are so infamous that they seek to justify low wages by hinting at the assistance from 8friends40 ,seamstresses1 dressmakers1 milliners1 factory workers numbering many thousands are subjected to the same conditions4 ,employers and their assistants1 merchants1 landed proprietors1 etc41 frequently regard it as their privilege to make female workers and employees subservient to their lusts4 ,our pious conservatives like to point to the rural conditions in regard to morality as a sort of ideal compared to the large cities and industrial districts4 ,but whoever is acquainted with the conditions knows that they are not ideal4 ,we find this opinion confirmed by a lecture delivered by the owner of a knightly estate in the fall of #ahhi1 which newspapers in ,saxony reported in the following manner3 8,grimma4 ,dr4 v4 ,waechter1 owner of a knightly estate1 at a meeting of the diocese which was held here delivered a lecture on sexual immorality in our rural communities1 in which local conditions were depicted in no favorable light4 ,with great frankness the lecturer admitted that the employers themselves1 even the married ones1 frequently maintained intimate relations with their female employees1 and that the results of such relations were either atoned for by a payment of money or were hidden from the eyes of the world by a crime4 ,unfortunately it could not be denied1 that immorality was introduced into the rural districts not only by country girls who had been employed in the cities as wet nurses and by boys who had become demoralized while serving in the army1 but also by educated men1 by managers of the large estates and army officers1 who come into the country during manoeuvres4 ,dr4 v4 ,waechter claims that here in the country there actually are few girls who have attained their seventeenth birthday without having fallen40 ,the honest lecturer had to pay for his love of truth by being socially ostracised by the offended officers4 ,reverend ,dr4 ,wagner had a similar experience when he ventured to say some disagreeable truths to the landed proprietors in his book on 8,morality in the ,country40#aad ,the majority of prostitutes are driven into their unfortunate trade at an age at which they cannot be regarded as competent to judge their actions4 ,among the women who secretly prostituted themselves arrested in ,paris from #ahgh until #ahhg1 #ab1fae equal #df4g per cent4 were minors4 ,of those arrested from #ahhh-ahih1 #ad1jgb equal #dh4h per cent4 were minors4 ,le ,pilleurs gives the following resum of the prostitutes of ,paris1 which is as concise as it is pathetic3 8,defloured at #af1 prostituted at #ag1 afflicted with syphilis at #ah40aae ,among #hdf newly enrolled prostitutes in ,berlin in #ahih there were #bbi minors4 ,there were3 #g at the age of #ae #ba 8 8 8 8 #af #cc 8 8 8 8 #ag #ei 8 8 8 8 #ah #di 8 8 8 8 #ai #ff 8 8 8 8 #bjaaf ,in ,september1 #ahid1 a scandalous affair was revealed in ,budapest1 where it became known that about #djj girls not more than fifteen years of age had become the victims of rich libertines4 ,the sons of our 8propertied and cultured classes0 not infrequently consider it their right to seduce the daughters of the poor and then to forsake them4 ,these confiding1 inexperienced daughters of the poor1 whose lives are often devoid of all joy and who sometimes have no friend or relative to protect them1 easily fall victims to the art of the seducer1 who approaches them with all the temptations of pleasure and affection4 ,bitter disappointments and despair and eventually crime are the results4 ,among #b1jfj1igc children born in ,germany in #aijg #agi1agh were illegitimate4 ,one can imagine the amount of care and heart-ache that the births of these illegitimate children mean to their mothers1 even if some of them are legally married later on by the fathers of their children4 ,infanticide and the suicide of women are in a great many cases caused by the misery and need of forsaken women4 ,the trials for infanticide present a sombre but instructive picture4 ,in the fall of #ahid a young woman was on trial in ,krems1 ,austria4 ,eight days after her confinement she had been discharged from the lying-in hospital in ,vienna1 with her infant and penniless1 and being desperate she had killed her child4 ,she was condemned to death4 ,in the spring of #ahii the following was reported from the province of ,posen3 8,on ,monday last the #bb-year-old working girl1 ,katherine ,gorbacki1 from ,alexanderruh1 near ,neustadt was on trial for murder4 ,during the years #ahig and #ahih the defendant had been employed by the ,provost ,merkel in ,neustadt4 ,as a result of intimate relations with her employer1 she gave birth to a daughter in ,june last4 ,the child was placed with her relatives4 ,the provost paid #b for the child's board during each of the first two months1 but then refused to meet any further expenses4 ,as the girl could not meet the expenses for the child's maintenance1 she decided to do away with it4 ,on a ,sunday during ,september last she smothered the child with a pillow4 ,the jury convicted her of murder in the second degree and admitted extenuating circumstances4 ,the public prosecutor moved to inflict the maximum penalty1 five years imprisonment4 ,the judge sentenced her to three years in prison40 ,thus the seduced and forsaken woman1 disgraced and desperate1 is driven to the utmost1 and kills her own offspring4 ,then she is brought to trial and is sentenced to long periods of imprisonment1 or even to death4 ,but the real unscrupulous murderer is allowed to go unpunished4 ,perhaps shortly after the tragedy he will marry a girl from some good and righteous family1 and will become a highly honored and pious man4 ,many a man is held in great esteem who thus polluted his honor and his conscience4 ,if women had a voice in the making and administration of the laws things would be different4 ,evidently many cases of infanticide are never discovered4 ,in ,july1 #ahii1 in ,frankenthal on the ,rhine a servant girl was accused of having drowned her new-born1 illegitimate child in the ,rhine4 ,the public prosecutor asked all police departments along the ,rhine from ,ludwigshafen to the boundary of ,holland to report whether within a definite time the body of a child had been washed ashore4 ,the surprising result of this inquest was1 that the police departments within the stated time reported no less than #ch bodies of infants that had been fished from the ,rhine1 but whose mothers had not been found4 ,the most cruel system is resorted to1 as previously stated1 by the ,french legislation1 which forbids to seek the father1 but instead maintains foundling hospitals4 ,the law framed at the convention of ,june #bh1 #agic1 reads3 8,la nation se charge de l'ducation physique et morale des enfants abandonns4 ,dsormais1 ils seront dsigns sous le seul nom d'orphelins4 ,aucune autre qualification ne sera permis0 7,the nation undertakes the physical and moral education of abandoned children4 ,henceforward they will be known only by the name of orphans4 ,no other designation will be permitted474 ,that was a very convenient method to men1 for thereby they could turn over their individual obligations to the community and were spared from being publicly exposed4 ,national orphan and foundling asylums were erected4 ,in #ahcc the number of orphans and foundlings amounted to #acj1ide4 ,it was estimated that every tenth child was a legitimate one that its parents wished to get rid of4 ,as these children were not properly cared for1 their mortality was very great4 ,at that time #ei per cent4 died during the first year2 up to the twelfth year #gh per cent4 died2 so only #bb from #ajj children attained the twelfth year4 ,at the beginning of the sixties of the last century there were #age foundling asylums2 in #ahfa there were admitted into these #db1icd enfants trouvs 7foundlings71 #bf1aef enfants abandonns 7abandoned children7 and #i1gaf orphans2 together this made #gh1jff children who were maintained at public expense4 ,all in all the number of abandoned children has not decreased during recent decades4 ,foundling asylums maintained by the state were also established in ,austria and ,italy4 8,ici on fait mourir les enfants0 7here children are made to die72 a monarch is said to have suggested these words as a suitable inscription for foundling asylums4 ,in ,austria the foundling asylums are gradually disappearing4 ,at present only eight remain1 but at the close of the nineties of the last century these still contained over #i1jjj children1 while more than #cj1jjj children were placed outside of the asylums4 ,during recent years the number of foundlings has greatly decreased1 for in #ahhh there still were #dj1hfe children who were public charges in ,austria2 #aj1dff were in asylums2 #cj1cii were placed in private care4 ,their maintenance cost #a1hag1cgb florins4 ,mortality was not as great among the children placed in asylums as among those privately cared for2 this was especially so in the province of ,galicia4 ,here1 during the year #ahhh #ca4be per cent4 died in asylums--far more than in the asylums of other countries2 but of those who were privately cared for #hd4ba per cent4 died2 a wholesale butchery4 ,it seems as if ,polish mismanagement endeavored to kill off these poor1 little creatures as quickly as possible4 ,in ,italy #aah1eca children were admitted into asylums from #ahid to #ahif4 ,annual average3 #bi1fcc2 boys3 #eh1ija2 girls3 #ei1fcj2 illegitimate1 #aac1ada2 legitimate1 #e1cij 7only #e per cent474 ,how great the mortality has been may be seen from the following table4#aag #ahij-ahib #ahic-ahif #ahig ,number of children admitted #ia1edi #aji1hii #bf1ffa ,died during first year #cd1ahf #da1chf #i1gaa ,percentage #cg4c #cg4f #cf4d ,mortality of illegitimate children in ,italy #be4j #bg4b #bc4d ,mortality of legitimate children #ah4j #ag4e #ae4i ,the record was broken by the foundling asylum ,santa ,cosa dell',annunziata in ,naples1 where in #ahif of #hec infants #hej died4 ,in the year #aijg the foundling asylums admitted #ah1hif children4 ,during the years #aijb to #aijf the mortality of these unfortunate little ones was #cg4e per cent2 that means that more than one-third of the children maintained by the state die during the first year4#aah ,it is a generally known fact1 that the rate of mortality is always higher among illegitimate children than among legitimate ones4 ,according to ,prusian statistics the following number of deaths of infants occurred for every #aj1jjj births4 #ahha-ahhe #ahhf-ahij #ahia-ahie #ahif-aijj #aijd ,legitimate ,city #baa #baj #bjc #aie #agi ,country #ahf #ahg #ahg #ahe #agb ,illegitimate ,city #cih #cie #che #cgd #ccc ,country #cai #ccb #ccf #ccf #cjf 8,it is a striking fact which clearly shows the connection between prostitution and the unfortunate condition of servant girls and menials employed in the country1 that of #id1ggi illegitimate children born in #aijf1 #ba1afd were the children of servant girls and #ah1hfi were the children of girls otherwise employed in the country4 ,together this made #dj1jcc or #db per cent4 ,if servants employed in the country and female farm hands are taken together1 they constitute #cj per cent41 while girls industrially employed constitute #ad per cent 7#ac1dfj740aai ,the difference in the rate of mortality between legitimate and illegitimate children is especially marked during the first month1 when the mortality of illegitimate children is on an average three times as great as that of legitimate children4 ,lack of care during pregnancy and during the confinement and improper care of the child after birth are the simple causes of this great mortality of illegitimate children4 ,ill treatment and neglect help to increase the number of the victims4 ,the number of still-born children is greater among the illegitimate than among the legitimate also4 ,this is probably chiefly due to attempts on the part of the mother to bring about the death of the child during pregnancy4 ,to this must be added the cases of infanticide that are not found out because the murdered child is counted among the still-born4 ,bertillon claims1 that to the #bje cases of infanticide recorded in the legal documents of ,france1 should be added at least #a1ejj alleged still-births and #a1djj cases of intentional killing by starvation4#abj ,the following table shows the number of legitimate and illegitimate children in various ,european countries for every #ajj still-births4 ,during the years ,legitimate ,illegitimate ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,germany #ahia-aijj #c4ae #d4be ,prussia #aijj-aijb #c4jb #d4da ,saxony #ahia-aijj #c4ca #d4bd ,bavaria #ahia-aijj #b4ih #c4fa ,wurtemberg #ahia-aijj #c4cj #c4dh ,baden #ahia-aijj #b4fb #c4ce ,austria #ahie-aijj #b4fd #c4hf ,switzerland #ahig-aijc #c4dj #f4ad ,france #ahia-ahie #d4dj #g4ed ,netherlands #ahia-aijj #d4ch #h4ac ,denmark #ahic-ahid #b4dj #c4bj ,sweden #ahia-ahie #b4df #c4cj ,norway #ahia-aijj #b4dg #d4jf ,finland #ahia-aijj #b4ed #d4dc ,italy #ahia-ahif #c4hi #e4afaba ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,the survivors revenge themselves on society for the ill-treatment accorded them by furnishing an unusually high percentage of the criminals of all grades4 #ajf ,dr4 ,licard de ,planzoles--,la ,fonction ,sexuelle4 ,paris1 #aijh4 #ajg ,kamillo ,karl ,schneider--,the ,prostitute and ,society--a ,sociological and ,ethical ,study1 ,leipsic1 #aijh4 #ajh ,karl ,marx1 ,capital4 #aji ,ibid4 #aaj ,berlin1 #ahic4 #aaa ,max ,taube1 ,m4 ,d4--,protection of ,illegitimate ,children1 ,leipsic1 #ahic1 ,veit ,co4 #aab ,berlin1 #ahhi1 ,wm4 ,iszleib4 #aac ,in a pamphlet on 8,capital and the ,press10 ,berlin1 #ahia1 ,dr4 ,f4 ,mehring relates that a talented actress was employed at a well known theatre at a monthly salary of #be1 while the expenses for her wardrobe amounted to #bej in a single month4 ,the difference was made up by a 8friend40 #aad ,at the conference of the purity societies on ,september #bj1 #ahid1 at the instance of ,dr4 ,wagner an investigation was decided upon4 ,the results of this investigation have been published in two volumes1 entitled3 ,the ,sexual ,morality of ,protestant ,country ,people in the ,german ,empire1 #ahie-ahif4 #aae ,prof4 ,s4 ,bettman--,medical ,supervision of ,prostitutes4 ,handbook of the social science of medicine1 ,jena1 #aije4 #aaf ,ibid4 #aag ,s4 ,turcranji and ,s4 ,engel4 ,the ,foundling ,system in ,italy4 ,quarterly journal of public hygiene1 #aijc4 #aah ,encyclopedia of ,social ,science2 #c;d edition1 vol4 iv41 #aiji4 ,article3 ,foundling ,asylums4 #aai ,encyclopedia of ,social ,science1 #aiji4 #abj ,schnapper ,arndt4 #aba ,f4 ,prinzing--,the ,causes of ,still-,births4 ,general records of statistics1 #aijg4 #e4--;,crimes ,against ,morality and ,sexual ,diseases4 ,we must still briefly dwell upon another evil that is often met with4 ,an excess of sexual enjoyment is far more harmful than the want of same4 ,an organism abused by excesses is eventually destroyed4 ,impotence1 sterility1 idiocy1 feeble mindedness and other diseases result4 ,temperance in sexual intercourse is as necessary as temperance in eating and drinking1 and other human requirements4 ,but young men living in luxury seem to find it very difficult to be temperate4 ,therefore we often find senility among young men of the upper classes4 ,the number of old and young rous is large1 and because they are satiated and dulled by excesses1 they require special stimulants4 ,beside those in whom love for their own sex 7sodomy7 is innate1 there are many who succumb to this perversity of the ,greek age4 ,sodomy is far more widespread than most of us imagine2 the secret documents of many police departments might reveal appalling facts4#abb ,among the women1 too1 the perversities of ancient ,greece have been revived4 ,lesbian1 or ,sapphic love is1 so ,taxel claims1 prevalent to an enormous degree among the fashionable ladies of ,paris4 ,in ,berlin about a quarter of the prostitutes indulge in this perverse passion and it is not unknown among the fashionable women1 either4 ,another unnatural satisfaction of the sexual desire are the criminal assaults upon children that have greatly increased during the last decades4 ,the following numbers of persons were convicted of crimes against morality in ,germany3 ,in #ahie1 #aj1bci2 in #aije1 #ac1dcb2 in #aijf1 #ac1eeg4 ,among those were #eh persons in #aijb and #gb in #aijg1 who were convicted of criminal assaults upon children4 ,the following number was convicted of fornication with persons under fourteen3 ,in #aijb1 #d1jij2 in #aijf1 #d1edh2 in #aijg1 #d1cig4 ,in ,italy the number of crimes against morality was3 #ahhg to #ahhi1 #d1eij2 #aijc1 #h1dfa2 which is #ai4dd per cent4 and #be4fg per cent4 for every #ajj1jjj inhabitants4 ,the same fact has been observed in ,austria4 ,very correctly ,h4 ,herz says3 8,the rapid increase in crimes against morality during the period #ahhj-ahij shows that the present economic structure with its decrease in the marriage rate and its instability of employment is in no small degree the cause of the low standard of morality40#abc ,in ,germany members of the learned professions furnish about #e4f per cent of the criminals2 but they furnish about #ac per cent4 of those convicted of criminal assaults upon children4 ,this percentage would be higher still if members of those circles would not have ample means to conceal their crimes4 ,the terrifying revelations made by the 8,pall ,mall ,gazette0 at the close of the eighties of the last century concerning the criminal abuses of children in ,england1 have shown the widespread existence of frightful conditions4 ,concerning venereal diseases and their increase1 the following table1 showing the number of cases treated in ,german hospitals1 contains valuable information3 ,gonorrhoea ,syphilis #ahgg-ahgi #bc1cdd #fg1gej #ahhj-ahhb #bh1gjj #gi1bbj #ahhc-ahhe #cj1jch #fe1ihj #ahhf-ahhh #cb1bge #ec1ffd #ahhi-ahia #da1cha #fj1gic #ahib-ahid #ej1eda #gh1jic #ahie-ahig #ec1ehg #gd1jib #ahih-aija #hc1cgd #aja1bbe #aijb-aijd #fh1cej #gf1fgh ,if we take the average annual number of persons afflicted we find that within a period of #be years the cases of gonorrhoea have increased from #g1gha to #bb1gej and those of syphilis from #bb1ehc to #be1eei4 ,the population has increased only by #be per cent4 while the cases of gonorrhoea have increased by #ahb per cent and those of syphilis #ai per cent6 ,we have another statistic that does not cover many years1 but just one single day which shows how many patients afflicted with venereal diseases were under medical treatment on ,april #cj1 #aijj4 ,the ,prusian minister of public instruction has caused this investigation to be made4 ,a list of questions was sent to every physician in ,prussia4 ,although only #fc4e per cent4 of these replied1 the investigation showed that on ,april #cj1 #aijj1 there were about #da1jjj persons in ,prusia afflicted with venereal diseases4 #aa1jjj were newly infected with syphilis4 ,in ,berlin alone there were on this day #aa1fjj persons afflicted with venereal diseases1 among them #c1jjj fresh cases of syphilis4 ,for every #ajj1jjj adult inhabitants1 the following number were under medical treatment for venereal diseases4 ,men4 ,women4 ,in ,berlin #adai #deg 8 #ag cities having more than #ajj1jjj inhabitants #iii #deg 8 #db cities having #cj1jjj to #ajj1jjj #ehd #agf 8 #dg cities having less than #cj1jjj #dej #afi 8 other cities and rural communities #hj #bg ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,in the entire ,german ,empire #bhb #ib ,the cities mainly afflicted are those situated at harbors1 college and garrison towns and large industrial centers 7,in ,koenigsberg for every #ajj1jjj inhabitants1 #b1aeb men and #fai women are diseased2 in ,cologne #acji men and #djb women2 in ,frankfort #a1eje men and #cii women74 ,of ,berlin ,dr4 ,blaschko says3 8,in a large city like ,berlin annually of #a1jjj young men between #bj and #cj years1 almost #bjj1 about one-fifth1 become diseased with gonorrhoea and about #bd with syphilis4 ,but the time during which young men are exposed to venereal infection is much longer than one year4 ,for some it is five years1 for others ten years and more4 ,after five years of unmarried life then a young man will become diseased with gonorrhoea once and twice in ten years4 ,after five years every tenth young man1 after eight to ten years every fifth young man would acquire syphilis4 ,in other words1 of the men who marry after their thirtieth year every one would have had gonorrhoea twice1 and every fourth or fifth one would be inflicted with syphilis4 ,these figures have been compiled by careful calculation1 and to us physicians who learn of so many misfortunes that are concealed from the eyes of the world1 they do not appear exaggerated40 ,the results of the research of ,april #cj1 #aijj1 are confirmed by a careful study of this problem in connection with the ,prussian army compiled in #aijg by the surgeon-major1 ,dr4 ,schwiening4#abd ,it was shown that the various divisions of the army annually show about the same number of recruits afflicted with venereal diseases4 ,some divisions have a particularly large number of cases1 especially the division recruited from the province of ,brandenburg4 ,berlin is mainly to blame that #b per cent4 of these recruits are diseased4 ,dr4 ,schwiening's compilation of the percentage of diseased recruits from the various government districts clearly shows the extension of venereal diseases among civilians4 ,of #a1jjj enrolled recruits the following number was afflicted3 #aijc #aijd #aije ,berlin #dj4i #cg4b #de4b #bg cities having more than #ajj1jjj inhabitants #ad4i #af4g #ae4h #bf cities having #ej1jjj to #ajj1jjj inhabitants #aa4f #i4f #i4e #cc cities having #be1jjj to #ej1jjj inhabitants #h4b #f4h #i4a ,cities having less than #be1jjj inhabitants and rural communities #d4c #e4j #d4j ,state #g4f #h4a #g4h ,the greatest number of diseased recruits came from ,shoeneberg1 having #eh4d for every #a1jjj enrolled4 ,in large cities outside of ,prussia1 the following numbers were recorded3 ,hamburg1 #bi4h2 ,leipsic1 #bi4d2 ,dresden1 #ai2 ,chemnitz1 #ag4h2 ,munich1 #af4d4 ,according to ,g4 v4 ,mayer the increase of venereal diseases for every #a1jjj inhabitants from #aijc to #aijd was3 ,prussia1 #ai4f2 ,austria and ,hungary1 #fj4c2 ,france1 #bg4a2 ,italy1 #he4b2 ,england1 #abe2 ,belgium1 #bh4c2 the ,netherlands1 #ca4d2 ,russia1 #dj4e2 ,denmark1 #de4 ,the increase in venereal diseases is especially great in the navy4 ,in the ,german navy from #aije to #aijf the number of cases were3 ,on ship-board abroad1 #aac4f per thousand2 in domestic waters1 #eh4h2 on land1 #eg4h4 ,in the ,english navy there were in #aije #aba4ee cases and in #aijf #aba4id cases4 ,we have seen that our social conditions have produced all sorts of vices1 excesses and crimes that are constantly increasing4 ,the whole social organism is in a state of unrest by which the women are most deeply affected4 ,women are beginning to realize this more and more and to seek redress4 ,they demand in the first place economic independence4 ,they demand that women1 like men1 should be admitted to all trades and professions according to their strength and ability4 ,they especially demand the right to practice learned professions4 ,are these endeavors justified8 ,can their aims be realized8 ,will they bring relief8 ,these are the questions we must seek to answer4 #abb ,the trials of ,moltke1 ,lynar and ,eulenburg have since revealed a more revolting picture than one could suspect4 ,they have shown how widespread is this perversity among the higher strata of society1 especially among military men and in court circles4 #abc ,dr4 ,hugo ,herz--,crimes and ,criminals in ,austria1 ,tuebingen1 #aijh4 #abd ,director general of the army medical department1 ,dr4 ,chumburg1 ,the ,venereal ,diseases1 ,their ,nature and ,dissemination4 ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,woman in ,industry4 #a4--;,development and ,extension of ,female ,labor4 ,the endeavor of women to earn their own living and to attain personal independence is1 to some extent at least1 regarded as a just one by bourgeois society4 ,the bourgeoisie requires an unhampered release of male and female labor power in order that industry may attain its highest degree of development4 ,the perfection of machinery and the division of labor1 whereby each single function in the process of production requires less strength and mechanical training than formerly1 and the growing competition1 not only between individual manufacturers1 but also between entire manufacturing regions1 states and countries--causes the labor power of woman to be sought more and more4 ,the special causes which lead to an increased employment of female labor in a growing number of trades have been set forth in a previous chapter4 ,one reason why employers resort more and more to the employment of women beside men1 or instead of men1 is1 that women are accustomed to require less than men4 ,owing to their nature as sex beings1 women are obliged to offer their labor power cheaper than men4 ,they are1 as a rule1 more subjected to physical derangements that cause an interruption of their work1 and owing to the complication and organization of modern industry1 this may lead to an interruption in the whole process of production4 ,pregnancy and child-birth lengthen such periods of interruption4#abe ,the employer makes the most of this fact and finds ample indemnification for these occasional interruptions by the payment of considerably lower wages4 ,moreover the woman is tied to her particular abode or its immediate environment4 ,she cannot change her abode as men are enabled to do in most cases4 ,female labor1 especially the labor of married women workers appears particularly desirable to employers in still another way1 as may be seen from the quotation from 8,capital10 by ,karl ,marx on page #abi4 ,as a worker the married woman is 8far more attentive and docile0 than the unmarried one4 ,consideration for her children compels her to exert her strength to the utmost in order to earn what is needful for their livelihood1 and she therefore quietly submits to much that the unmarried working woman would not submit to1 far less so the working man4 ,as a rule working women rarely combine with their fellow workers to obtain better working conditions4 ,that also enhances their value in the eyes of the employers2 sometimes they even are a good means to subdue rebellious male workers4 ,women moreover are more patient1 they possess greater nimbleness and a more developed taste1 qualities that make them better suited to many kinds of work than men4 ,these womanly virtues the virtuous capitalist appreciates fully2 and so1 with the development of industry1 the field of woman's work is extended each year1 but--and this is the decisive factor--without materially improving her social condition4 ,where female labor power is employed1 it frequently releases male labor power4 ,but the displaced male workers must earn their living2 so they offer their labor power at lower wages1 and this offer again depresses the wages of the female workers4 ,the depression of wages becomes a screw set in motion by the constantly revolving process of developing industry1 and as this process of revolution by labor-saving devices also releases female workers1 the supply of 8hands0 is increased still more4 ,new branches of industry counteract this constant production of surplus labor power1 but not sufficiently to create better conditions of labor4 ,in the new branches of industry also1 as for instance in the electrical1 male workers are being displaced by female workers4 ,in the motor factory of the ,general ,electric ,company most of the machines are tended by girls4 ,every increase in wages above a certain standard causes the employer to seek further improvement of his machinery1 and to put the automatic machine in the place of human hands and human brains4 ,in the beginning of the capitalistic era only male workers competed with one another on the labor market4 ,now sex is arrayed against sex1 and age against age4 ,women displace men1 and women in turn are displaced by young people and children4 ,that is the 8moral regime0 of modern industry4 ,this state of affairs would eventually become unbearable if the workers1 by organization in their trade unions1 would not counteract it with all their might4 ,to the working woman1 too1 it is becoming a sheer necessity to join these industrial organizations1 for as an individual she has still far less power of resistance than the working man4 ,working women are beginning to recognize this necessity4 ,in ,germany the following numbers were organized3 in #ahib1 #d1cee2 in #ahii1 #ai1bhj2 in #aijj1 #bb1hhd2 in #aije1 #gd1daa2 in #aijg1 #acf1ibi2 in #aijh1 #ach1ddc4 ,in #ahib women constituted only #a4h per cent4 of all members of trade unions2 in #aijh they constituted #g4f per cent4 ,according to the fifth international report of the trade union movement the numbers of female members were in ,great ,britain1 #bja1gji2 in ,france1 #hh1ijf2 in ,austria1 #df1dja4 ,the endeavors of employers to lengthen the work day in order to extract larger profits from their workers is met with little resistance by women workers4 ,that explains why in the textile industry1 for instance1 in which more than half of the workers are women the work day is longest4 ,it was necessary therefore that government protection by limiting the hours of work should begin with this industry4 ,women being accustomed to an endless work day by their domestic activity1 submit to the increased demands upon their labor power without offering resistance4 ,,persons ,,employed ,,in ,,gainful ,,occupations4 ,,key 7,c7 ,,countries 7,y7 ,year of ,census ,ger3 ,german ,empire ,aus3 ,austria ,hun3 ,hungary ,rus3 ,russia ,ita3 ,italy ,swi3 ,switzerland ,fra3 ,france ,bel3 ,belgium ,net3 ,netherlands ,den3 ,denmark ,swe3 ,sweden ,nor3 ,norway ,en,w3 ,england and ,wales ,sco3 ,scotland ,ire3 ,ireland ,,gbi3 ,great ,britain and ,ireland ,,usa3 ,united ,states of ,america#abf ,entire ,population ------------------------------------ 7,c7 7,y7 ,male ,female ,both ---------------------------------------- ------ ,ger #aijg #cj1dfa1ajj #ca1bei1dbi #fa1gbj1ebi ,aus #aijj #ab1heb1fic #ac1bih1jae #bf1aej1gjh ,hun #aijj #i1ehb1aeb #i1fgb1djg #ai1bed1eei ,rus #ahig #fb1dgg1cdh #fc1afb1fgc #abe1fdj1jba ,ita #aija #af1aee1acj #af1cbj1abc #cb1dge1bec ,swi #aijj #a1fbg1jbe #a1fhh1dah #c1cae1dcc ,fra #aija #ah1iaf1hhi #ai1ecc1hii #ch1dej1ghh ,bel #aijj #c1cbd1hcd #c1cfh1gad #f1fic1edh ,net #ahii #b1ebj1fjc #b1ehc1ece #e1ajd1ach ,den #aija #a1aic1ddh #a1bef1jib #b1ddi1edj ,swe #aijj #b1ejf1dcf #b1fcj1jje #e1acf1dda ,nor #aijj #a1jff1fic #a1aed1ghd #b1bba1dgg ,en,w #aija #ae1gbh1fac #af1gii1bcj #cb1ebg1hdc ,sco #aija #b1agc1gee #b1bih1cdh #d1dgb1ajc ,ire #aija #b1bjj1jdj #b1beh1gce #d1deh1gge ,,gbi #aija #bj1ajb1djh #ba1cef1cac #da1deh1gba ,,usa #aijj #ci1jei1bdb #cg1bdd1ade #gf1cjc1chg ---------------------------------------- ------ ,persons gainfully employed in ,gainfully employed percentage of population ---------------------------------------- -------------- 7,c7 7,y7 ,male ,female ,both ,male ,female ,both ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,ger #aijg #ah1eii1bcf #i1dbi1hha #bh1jib1aag #fa4a #cj4d #de4e ,aus #aijj #h1beg1bid #e1hej1aeh #ad1ajg1deb #fd4b #dd4j #ec4i ,hun #aijj #f1afb1bih #b1ffh1fig #h1hcj1iie #fd4c #bg4f #de4i ,rus #ahig #be1iie1bcg #e1bgf1aab #ca1bga1cdi #da4f #h4d #bd4i ,ita #aija #aj1iih1dfb #e1bhd1jfd #af1bgb1ebf #fh4j #cb4d #ej4a ,swi #aijj #a1jeg1ahg #dih1gfj #a1eef1egg #fe4j #bi4e #df4i ,fra #aija #ab1iaj1efe #f1hjd1eaj #ai1gae1jge #fh4b #cd4h #ea4c ,bel #aijj #b1abc1jgb #idh1bbi #c1jga1cja #fc4h #bh4a #de4i ,net #ahii #a1dig1aei #dcc1edh #a1icj1gjg #ei4d #af4h #cg4h ,den #aija #geb1eei #cec1ihj #a1ajf1eci #fc4a #bh4b #de4b ,swe #aijj #a1dbb1igi #eea1jba #a1igd1jjj #ef4h #ba4j #ch4d ,nor #aijj #eii1jeg #bgg1fac #hgf1fgj #ef4a #bd4j #ci4e ,en,w #aija #aj1aef1igf #d1aga1gea #ad1cbh1gbg #fd4f #bd4h #dd4a ,sco #aija #a1cia1ahh #eia1fbd #a1ihb1hab #fd4j #be4h #dd4c ,ire #aija #a1dac1idc #edi1hgd #a1ifc1hag #fd4c #bd4c #dd4j ,,gbi #aija #ab1ifb1ajg #e1cac1bdi #ah1bge1cef #fd4e #bd4i #dd4a ,,usa #aijj #bc1ief1aae #e1cbi1hjg #bi1bhe1ibb #fa4c #ad4c #ch4d ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ #abf ,these figures include #ia1bai persons of the army and navy who were absent from the country while the census was taken4 ,in other trades1 such as millinery1 manufacture of artificial flowers1 etc41#abg they reduce their own wages and lengthen their own work day by taking home extra work4 ,they frequently do not even notice that thereby they become their own competitors and do not earn more in a sixteen hour day than they might in a well regulated ten-hour day4 ,the table on page #bab shows to what extent female labor has grown among various civilized nations1 both in relation to the other sex and in relation to the entire population4#abh ,our table shows that the number of women employed in gainful occupations constitutes a considerable percentage of the entire population4 ,the percentage is largest in ,austria1 ,france and ,italy4 ,this may be partly due to the manner of census-taking1 as not only those female persons are counted1 whose principal occupation is a gainful employment1 but also those who perform incidental work for wages4 ,the percentage is lowest in the ,united ,states4 ,it is also important to compare the growth of the laboring population with former periods4 ,let us begin with ,germany3 ,years ,persons gainfully in which ,entire ,population employed census ---------------------------------------- ------ was taken ,male ,female ,male ,female ---------------------------------------- ---------------- #ahhb #bb1aej1gdi #bc1jga1cfd #ac1dae1dae #e1eda1eag #ahie #be1dji1afa #bf1cfa1abc #ae1eca1hda #f1egh1cej #aijg #cj1dfa1ajj #ca1aei1dbi #ah1eii1bcf #i1dib1hha ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,persons gainfully ,years employed in percentage ,of #ajj persons in which of population gainfully employed census ---------------------------------------- --- was taken ,male ,female ,male ,female ---------------------------------------- ------------- #ahhb #fj4eg #bd4jb #ga4bd #bh4gf #ahie #fa4ac #bd4if #gj4be #bi4ge #aijg #fa4jf #cj4cg #ff4ba #cc4gi ---------------------------------------- ------------- ,this table shows firstly1 that the number of persons gainfully employed increases more rapidly than the population2 secondly1 that the growth of female labor still exceeds this increase2 thirdly1 that the male laboring population is relatively stationary1 while the female laboring population shows a relative and absolute growth1 and lastly1 that female labor at an increasing rate displaces male labor4 ,the number of persons gainfully employed has increased from #ahhb to #ahie by #af4f per cent42 the number of men1 by #ae4h per cent4 and #ai4ce per cent42 the number of women by #ah4g per cent4 from #ahhb to #ahie1 and by #dd4dd per cent4 from #ahie to #aijg4 ,the increase of the population from #ahhb to #ahie was only #ai4h per cent41 and from #ahie to #aijg only #ai4cd per cent4 ,so the entire number of persons gainfully employed has increased2 but as the growth of the number of men gainfully employed has approximately kept pace with the growth of the population1 the number of women gainfully employed has grown mostly4 ,this shows that the struggle for existence requires greater efforts than formerly4 ,from #ahhb to #ahie and from #ahie to #aijg we find the following increase 77 and decrease 77 among the population of ,germany3 ,from #ahhb to #ahie ,from #ahie to #aijg ,female persons gainfully employed #a1jje1bij #bc4fj per cent #b1igi1aje #ef4ei per cent ,male persons gainfully employed #b1acc1egg #ae4ie per cent #c1jgg1chb #ai4he per cent ,female servants #ca1edc #b4df per cent #fd1egd #d4ia per cent ,male servants #ag1aea #dj4ce per cent #i1ihg #ci4ch per cent ,the following table shows the number of persons gainfully employed in various trades3 ,,key ,agr3 ,agriculture1 ,forestry ,ind3 ,industry and ,mining ,com3 ,commerce and ,traffic ,lab3 ,various kinds of wage labor ,ser3 ,public service and learned professions ,arm3 ,army and ,navy #ahhb #ahie #aijg ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,male ,female ,male ,female ,male ,female ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,agr #e1gja1ehg #b1ecd1iji #e1eci1ech #b1gec1aed #e1bhd1bga #d1eih1ihf ,ind #e1bfi1dhi #a1abf1igf #f1gfj1ajb #a1eba1aah #i1aeb1ccj #b1ajc1ibd ,com #a1bgb1bjh #bih1aaj #a1geh1ijc #egi1fjh #b1edf1bec #ica1cgc ,lab #bac1gdf #ahc1hcf #aih1fbf #bcc1fhe #aej1gia #cbj1ijd ,ser #cgc1eic #aae1bgb #fah1cce #agf1fdh #gii1jbe #bhh1caa ,arm #edb1bhb -- #fcj1igh -- #fea1aid -- ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,the following table shows the increase and decrease in various trades3 ,,key ,agr3 ,agriculture1 ,forestry ,ind3 ,industry and ,mining ,com3 ,commerce and ,traffic ,lab3 ,various kinds of wage labor ,ser3 ,public service and learned professions ,arm3 ,army and ,navy ,tot3 ,total ,from #ahhb to #ahie ,from #ahie to #aijg ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,female ,male ,female ,male ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,agr #bah1bde #h4fj #afb1jdi #b4hj #a1hde1hcb #fg4jd #bee1bfg #d4fa ,ind #cid1adb #ce4jj #a1dij1fac #bh4cj #ehb1hjf #ch4ca #b1cib1bbh #ce4ci ,com #bha1dih #ih4dj #dhf1fie #ch4cj #cea1gfe #fj4fi #ghg1cej #dd4gf ,lab #ej1jbi #bg4bj #ae1abj #g4aj #hg1jci #cg4bb #dg1hce #bd4jh ,ser #fa1cgf #ec4be #aed1bhe #cc4be #aaa1ffc -- #ahj1fij -- ,arm -- -- #agi1aec #ci4fe -- -- #bj1baf -- ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,tot #a1jje1bij #bc4fj #b1acc1egg #ae4ij #b1igi1aje -- #c1jgg1chb -- ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,among the persons gainfully employed there were3 ,,key ,ind3 ,independent ,emp3 ,employees ,lab3 ,laborers1 etc41 excl4 servants ,tot3 ,total #ahie #aijg ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,female ,male ,female ,male ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,ind#a1jfi1jjg #bb4a #d1dje1jci #ca4ca1jeb1afe -- #d1dch1abc -- ,emp #ci1dah #j4ha #ehb1djg #d4a #aei1hhi -- #a1acj1hci -- ,lab#c1gde1dee #gg4ji #i1jga1jig #fd4ff1dbb1bbi -- #aa1dac1hib -- ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,tot#d1hec1hhjajj4jj #ad1jeh1edcajj4jjg1fcd1bhcajj4jj #af1ihb1hedajj4jj ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,the following shows the increase and decrease of women holding independent positions from #ahie to #aijg3 #aijg #ahie ,industry 7domestic industry7 #dgg1bij #eai1dib #db1bjb #h4aj ,commerce and traffic #bdf1fda #bjb1faf #dd1jbe #ba4gg ,agriculture #cbh1bcg #cdf1hif #ah1fei #i4jd ,the greatest number of female persons were employed in the following trades3 #aijg4 #ahie4 ,agriculture #d1ehe1gdi #b1gde1hdj ,clothing and cleaning #hhc1ahd #gac1jba ,commercial lines #ede1agg #bii1hbi ,textile industry #ebh1bce #dbg1ifa ,restaurants and cafs #cci1eee #bfa1dej ,articles of food and luxury #bdh1ifb #adj1ccc ,metal works #gc1jci #cf1baj ,stone and pottery #gb1bgj #ci1eee ,paper industry #fg1cbb #ci1bbb ,wood and carving industry #dh1jbh #cj1cdf ,the following are the trades in which more women than men are employed in ,germany3 ,women4 ,men4 ,agriculture #d1bag1acb #b1gcg1gfh ,textile industry #dff1baj #cij1cab ,clothing trades #djc1hgi #cjc1bfd ,cleaning trades #he1fhd #eh1jce ,restaurants and cafs #bff1icj #aci1jjb ,domestic service #bgi1bjh #cf1gia ,nursing #abi1aig #gh1ebj ,these figures clearly show us the prevailing state of affairs in ,germany4 ,although the number of persons gainfully employed has increased more rapidly than the population1 the growth of female labor still exceeds this increase4 ,the employment of women is rapidly growing in all lines of industry4 ,while the male laboring population is relatively stationary1 the female laboring population shows a relative and absolute growth4 ,in fact the increase in female labor constitutes the chief portion of the general increase of persons gainfully employed in the entire population4 ,the number of female members of families supported by men rank from #gj4ha per cent4 in #ahie to #fc4ij per cent4 in #aijg4 ,woman has become such a powerful factor in industry that the ,philistine saying1 the woman's place is in the home1 seems utterly void and ridiculous4 ,in ,england the following numbers of persons were industrially employed3 ,for every #ajj persons gainfully employed ,total ,male ,female ,male ,fem4 #ahga #aa1eic1dff #h1bgj1ahf #c1cbc1bhj -- -- #ahha #aa1ahg1efd #g1ghc1fdf #c1djc1iah #fi4ei #cj4da #ahia #ab1gea1iie #h1hhc1bed #d1jaf1bcj #fh4ji #ca4ia #aija #ad1cbh1gbg #aj1aef1igf #d1aga1gea #gj4ji #bi4ia ,within thirty years the number of men gainfully employed increased by #a1hhf1gij persons #bb4h per cent42 the number of women gainfully employed increased by #hdh1dga #be4e per cent4 ,it is especially noteworthy that during #ahha1 the year of a crisis1 the number of men emparent one1 since most of the wives and daughters of number of women employed increased by #hj1fch4 ,the relative decrease of female labor in #aija is only an apparent one1 since most of the wives and daughters of farmers are now counted as having no profession4 ,besides1 during the last twenty years those industries have grown mostly in which male labor is chiefly employed1 while the textile industry has relatively1 and since #ahia1 positively declined4 ,percentage ,female of workers #ahha #aija increase among these ,stone and pottery industry #ehb1dgd #hje1ahe #ec #e1jjf ,metal works and manufacture of machinery #hab1iae #a1bbh1ejd #eb #fa1bcc ,building trades #gfd1iaa #a1abh1fhj #dg #b1dhe ,textile trades #a1jid1fcf #a1aee1cig #e #ffc1bbb ,nevertheless female labor has again increased at the expense of male labor4 ,only the share in increase of female labor that was #ab4f per cent4 from #ahea to #ahfa and #g4f per cent4 from #ahga to #ahha was reduced to #a4h per cent4 from #ahia to #aija4 ,in the year #aijg the following numbers were counted in the textile industry3 #djg1cfj men #cf4f per cent4 and #fgi1hfc women #fc4d per cent4 ,in the clothing trades and in commerce female labor has increased much more4 ,but it is furthermore seen that older women are displaced by younger ones1 and as women under #be are mostly unmarried and the older ones are mostly married1 or widowed1 it is seen that women are displaced by girls4 ,the following are trades in which more women than men are employed in ,england3 ,women ,men ,domestic service #a1fij1fhf #abd1bfc ,clothing trades #gaa1ghf #dad1fcg ,textile trades #ffc1bbb #dib1age ,among these cotton #cbh1gic #aic1hcj wool and yarn #aec1caa #ajf1eih hemp and jute #ajd1ehg #de1gcb silk #bb1ehi #h1iff embroidery #bh1ifb #i1ehg ,in almost all the branches women receive considerable less pay than men for the same amount of work4 ,a recent inquiry showed that the average weekly wage in the textile industry was #bh shillings #a penny for men1 and only #ae shillings #e pence for women4#abi ,in the bicycle industry where female labor has rapidly increased as a result of the introduction of machinery1 women receive only from #ab to #ah shillings per week1 where men received from #cj to #dj shillings4#acj ,the same conditions are met with in the manufacture of paper goods and shoes and in binderies4 ,women are paid especially low wages for the manufacture of underwear2 #aj shillings per week is considered a good wage4 8,as a rule a woman earns half or one-third of a man's wage40#aca ,a similar difference in remuneration between men and women is met with in the postal service and in teaching4 ,only in the cotton industry in ,lancashire both sexes working an equal length of time earned almost equal wages4 ,in the ,united ,states we find the following development of female labor3 #ahhj #ahij #aijj ,agriculture #eid1eaj #fgh1hhd #igg1ccf ,learned professions #agg1bee #caa1fhg #dcj1eig ,domestic and personal service #a1aha1cjj #a1ffg1fea #b1jie1ddi ,commerce and transportation #fc1jeh #bbh1dba #ejc1cdg ,manufacture #fca1jcd #a1jbg1ibh #a1cab1ffh ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,total1 women #b1fdg1aeg #ad4g #c1iad1ega #ag4d #e1cai1cig #ah4h 8 men #ad1ggd1idb #he4c #ah1hba1jij #hb4f #bc1gec1hcf #ha4b ---------------------------------------- -------------- #ag1dbb1jii #ajj #bb1gce1ffa #ajj #bi1jgc1bcc #ajj ,here we see that the number of women gainfully employed has grown from #c1iad1ega in #ahij to #e1cai1cig in #aijj4 ,it has increased more rapidly than the population which increased from #fb1fbb1bej persons in #ahij to #gf1cjc1chg in #aijj2 only by #ba per cent4 ,in the same inexorable way the number of employed men is decreasing1 since they are being displaced by women4 ,now for #ajj persons gainfully employed there are #ah4h women1 while in #ahhj there were not more than #ad4g per cent4 ,of #cab occupations there are only #i in which no women are employed4 ,according to the census of #aijj1 we even find among them #e pilots1 #de engineers and firemen1 #ahe blacksmiths1 #ejh machinists1 #aa well-borers1 #h boilermakers4 8,of course these figures are not of great sociological importance1 but they show that there are very few occupations from which women are absolutely excluded1 either by their natural capacity or by law40#acb ,women are especially numerous in the following occupations3 ,servants and waitresses1 #a1bac1hbh2 dressmaking1 #cch1add2 farm labor1 #dig1hhf2 laundresses1 #ccb1ffe2 teachers1 #cbg1ije2 independent farmers1 #cjg1ghh2 textile workers1 #bca1deh2 housekeepers1 #adg1ajc2 salesladies1 #adf1bfe2 seamstresses1 #ach1gbd2 nurses and midwives1 #ajh1fia2 unqualified trades1 #ajf1iaf4 ,in these #ab occupations #c1ehc1ccc #gd4a per cent4 of all bread-earning women have been counted4 ,besides there are #he1jhf stenographers2 #hb1icf milliners2 #ha1jjj clerks2 #gb1hif bookkeepers1 etc41 together #ai occupations1 comprising over #ej1jjj women #hh4h per cent4 of all women breadwinners4 ,women predominate in the following trades3 ,for every #ajj persons employed4 ,manufacture of underwear ,women #ii4d ,men #j4f ,millinery 8 #ih4j 8 #b4j ,dressmaking 8 #if4h 8 #c4b ,manufacture of collars 8 #gg4f 8 #bb4d ,weaving 8 #gb4h 8 #bg4b ,manufacture of gloves 8 #fb4f 8 #cg4d ,bookbinding 8 #ej4e 8 #di4e ,textile trades 8 #ej4j 8 #ej4j ,housekeeping 8 #id4g 8 #e4c ,nursing 8 #hi4i 8 #aj4a ,laundry work 8 #hf4h 8 #ac4b ,domestic service 8 #ha4i 8 #ah4a ,boarding 8 #hc4d 8 #af4f ,stenographers 8 #gf4g 8 #bc4c ,teachers 8 #gc4d 8 #bf4f ,music teachers 8 #ef4i 8 #dc4a ,of #d1hcc1fcj women employed in gainful occupations aged #af years and more1 #c1adc1gab were single1 #gfi1dgg were married1 #heg1jje were widowed1 #fc1dcf were divorced4 ,the ,american report says3 8,the increase in the percentage of persons gainfully employed was greatest for the married women1 since it was by one-fourth greater in #aijj than in #ahij4 ,in #ahij there was only one married working woman among #bb2 in #aijj there was one among #ah40 ,the number of widowed and divorced women is very great1 both relatively and actually4 ,in #aijj among #b1gba1dch widowed women #heg1jje #ca4e were earning their living1 and among divorced women the percentage was still greater4 ,of #aad1ice1 these #di per cent4 were earning their own living in #ahij and #ee4c per cent4 in #aijj4 ,thus more women became self-supporting each year4 ,among the #cjc occupations in which women are employed there are3 #gi with less than #ajj women #ei 8 8 8 #ajj to #ejj 8 #ca 8 8 8 #ejj to #ajjj 8 #abe 8 more 8 #ajjj 8 #fc 8 8 8 #ejjj 8 ,among #ajj persons from #af years up we find the following wage-scale3 ,men ,women ,less than #g dollars #ah ,less than #g dollars #ff4c #g to #i dollars #ae4d #g to #i dollars #ai4f #i to #bj dollars #fj4f #i to #ae dollars #ac4b #bj to #be dollars #d4h #ae to #bj dollars #j4h ,more than #be dollars #b #bj to #be dollars #j4a ------ ------ ,average weekly wage #aa4af #f4ag ,we see that #fj4f per cent4 of the men earn more than #i1 while only #ac4b per cent4 of the women earn more than #i1 and more than two-thirds 7#ff4c per cent47 earn less than #g4acc ,the average weekly wage for men is #aa4af2 the average weekly wage for women #f4ag1 almost half of the man's wages4 ,among government employes the difference is equally great4 ,among #ahe1hgd persons engaged in civil service there were #agb1jec men #ib4f per cent41 and #ac1hba women--#g4d per cent4 ,in the ,district of ,columbia1 the seat of the national administration1 the percentage of female labor amounts to #bi per cent4 ,and yet #dg4b per cent4 of the women earn less than #gbj1 while only #af4g per cent4 of the men earn less than #gbj4acd ,in ,france1 according to the census of #aija1 the laboring population amounted to #ai1gae1jge persons1 #ab1iaj1efe men and #f1hjd1eaj women4 ,they are distributed among various trades as follows3 ,men4 ,per ,cent4 ,women4 ,per ,cent4 ,agriculture #e1eag1fag #gb #b1feh1ieb #bh ,commerce #a1acb1fba #fe #fhi1iii #ce ,dom'tic service #bbc1hfa #bc #gia1agf #gg ,learned prof4 #bbf1efa #fg #agc1bgh #cc ,industry #c1fie1bac #fc4e #b1abd1fdb #cf4e 8,the female laboring population amounts to one-half of the male laboring population40#ace ,as in all other countries1 fewest women are employed at those occupations that require greatest physical strength 7,in mining #b4jc women for #ajj men2 in quarries #a4fe2 in metallurgy1 #a4jf74 ,the greatest number of women are employed in the textile trades1 #aaf women for #ajj men--in the clothing trades1 in laundries1 #a1bdg women for #ajj men1 and in the manufacture of underwear #c1bhf women for #ajj men4#acf ,it generally holds true1 as ,mme4 ,c4 ,milhand states1 that the greatest number of women are employed in those industries where the hours of work are particularly long and wages particularly low4 8,it is a sad fact that while the industries1 where the hours of labor are short1 only employ a few thousand women1 those where the hours of work are long1 employs hundreds of thousands of them40#acg ,in regard to the wage scale ,e4 ,levasseur says that a woman's wage rarely amounts to two-thirds of a man's wage and more frequently only to one-half4#ach #abe ,a number of lists from sick-benefit funds1 compiled by the factory inspector ,schuler1 showed that female members were ill #g4ag days annually1 while male members were ill only #d4gh days annually4 ,the duration of each illness was #bd4h for female members and #ba4b for male members4 ,o4 ,schwartz1 ,the results of the employment of married women in factories from the standpoint of public hygiene4--,german quarterly gazette for public hygiene4 #abg 8,this is especially the case in the clothing trade1 but also in other industries such as the manufacture of toys1 underwear1 cigarettes1 paper goods etc40 ,r4 ,wilbrandt--,protection of working women and domestic industry4--,jena #aijf4 #abh ,encyclopedia of ,social ,sciences4--,h4 ,zahn1 ,statistics of professions and trades4 #abi ,textile ,trades in #aijf4 ,london1 #aiji4 #acj ,e4 ,cadbury1 ,c4 ,matheson and ,c4 ,shaun--,women's work and wages4 ,london1 #aijf4 #aca ,e4 ,cadbury and ,f4 ,shaun--,sweating4 ,london4 #aijg4 #acb ,statistics of women at work4 ,washington1 #aijh4 #acc ,earnings of wage-earners4 ,bulletin #ic1 page #aa4 ,washington1 #aijh4 #acd ,executive civil service of the ,united ,states4 ,washington1 #aijh4 #ace ,c4 ,milhand--,l'ouvrire en ,france4 ,paris1 #aijg4 #acf ,e4 ,levasseur--,questions ouvrires et industrielles en ,france sous la troisime rpublique4 ,paris1 #aijg4 #acg ,c4 ,milhand--,l'ouvrire en ,france4 ,paris1 #aijg4 #ach ,e4 ,levasseur--,questions ouvrires et industrielles en ,france sous la troisime rpublique4 ,paris1 #aijg4 #b4--;,factory ,work of ,married ,women4--,sweatshop ,labor and ,dangerous ,occupations4 ,married women form a large percentage of working women and their number is steadily increasing1 which means a serious problem in regard to the family life of the working class4 ,in #ahii1 ,german factory inspectors were instructed to investigate the work of married women and to inquire into the causes which lead them to seek employment4#aci ,this investigation showed that #bbi1ccd married women were employed in factories4 ,besides #a1jfc married women were employed in mining above the ground1 as was shown by the report of the ,prussian mining authorities4 ,in ,baden the number of married working women increased from #aj1hgh in #ahid to #ae1jdf in #ahii1 which is #ca4bg per cent4 of all adult female workers4 ,the following table shows the distribution of married women factory laborers among the various trades3 ,textile industry #aaa1aid ,articles of food and luxury #ci1jhj ,stone and pottery industry #ai1dge ,clothing and cleaning trades #ac1aef ,paper industry #aa1jdi ,metal works #aj1gci ,wood and carving industry #e1fce ,polygraphic trades #d1ggj ,manufacture of machinery #d1dic ,chemical industry #d1chj ,various #e1cfc ------- ,total #bbi1ccd ,besides the textile industry1 the manufacture of articles of food and luxury1 especially the manufacture of tobacco1 gives many married women employment4 ,then comes the paper industry1 especially employment in work shops for the assorting of rags1 and employment in brick yards4 8,married women are mainly employed in difficult occupations 7quarries1 brick yards1 dyeing establishments1 manufacture of chemicals1 sugar refineries1 etc471 implying hard and dirty work1 while young working girls under twenty-one find employment in porcelain factories1 spinning and weaving mills1 paper mills1 cigar factories1 and in the clothing trade4 ,the worst kinds of work1 shunned by others1 are taken up by the elder working women1 especially the married ones40#adj ,of the many replies in regard to the causes which lead married women to seek work only a few need to be mentioned4 ,in the district of ,potsdam the main reason given for the factory labor of married women was1 that the earnings of the men were insufficient4 ,in ,berlin according to the reports of two inspectors #ec4fb per cent4 of the women who helped to support their families stated1 that the earnings of their husbands were insufficient to support them4 ,similar information was given by the factory inspectors for the districts of western ,prussia1 ,frankfort on the ,oder1 ,franconia1 ,wurtemberg1 ,elsatia1 etc4 ,the inspector for ,magdeburg gives the same cause for the majority of married working women1 but also states that some married women must work because their husbands are dissolute and spend all their earnings on themselves4 ,others again1 it was reported1 worked as a matter of habit and because they had not been trained to be housekeepers4 ,it may be true that these causes hold good in a minority of cases2 but the great majority of these women work because they must4 ,the factory inspector for ,alsace states as the main cause for gainful employment of married women in modern industry1 the demand for cheap labor1 created by the means of transportation and by unrestricted competition4 ,he furthermore states that manufacturers like to employ married women because they are more reliable and steady4 ,the factory inspector for ,baden1 ,dr4 ,woerishoffer1 says3 8,the low wages paid to women workers is the main cause why employers resort to female labor wherever it can be made use of4 ,ample proof of this assertion can be found in the fact1 that wages are lowest in those industries in which the greatest number of women are employed4 ,as female labor can be employed to a great extent in these industries1 it becomes a necessity to the working class families that the women should seek employment40 ,the factory inspector for ,coblentz says3 8,women usually are more industrious and reliable than young girls4 ,young working girls generally have an aversion against disagreeable and dirty work1 which is accordingly left to the more unassuming married workers4 ,thus1 for instance1 dealers in rags frequently employ married women40 ,that the wages of working women are lower everywhere than those of workingmen1 even for equal work1 is a well known fact4 ,in this respect the private employer does not differ from the state or community4 ,women employed in the railroad and postal service receive less than men for the same kind of work4 ,in every community women teachers receive a lower salary than men teachers4 ,this may be explained by the following causes3 ,women have fewer needs and are1 above all1 more helpless2 their earnings are in many cases only additional to the incomes of fathers or husbands1 the main supporters of the families2 the character of female labor is amateurish1 temporary and accidental2 there is an immense reserve force of female workers which increases their helplessness2 there is much competition from middle class women in dressmaking1 millinery1 flower and paper goods manufactory1 etc42 women are usually tied to their place of residence4 ,all these causes make the hours of work longest for women unless they are protected by legislation4 ,in a report on the wages of factory laborers in ,mannheim in #ahic the late ,dr4 ,woerishoffer divides the weekly wages into three classes4#ada ,the lowest class comprises weekly wages up to #ae marks 7#c4ge71 the middle class from #ae to #bd marks 7#c4ge to #f71 and the high class above #bd marks 7#f74 ,these wages were distributed among the workers as follows3 ,low class ,middle class ,high class ,all the workers #bi4h per cent #di4h per cent #bj4d per cent ,male 8 #bj4i 8 #ef4b 8 #bb4i 8 ,female 8 #ii4b 8 #j4g 8 #j4a 8 ,the majority of the working women were paid starvation wages1 as the following table shows3 ,a weekly wage of less than #e marks 7#a4be7 was paid to #d4fb per cent 8 from #e to #f 8 7#a4be to #a4ej7 8 8 8 #e4dg 8 8 8 8 #f 8 #h 8 7#a4ej 8 #b4jj7 8 8 8 #dc4if 8 8 8 8 #h 8 #aj 8 7#b4jj 8 #b4ej7 8 8 8 #bg4de 8 8 8 8 #aj 8 #ab 8 7#b4ej 8 #c4jj7 8 8 8 #ab4ch 8 8 8 8 #ab 8 #ae 8 7#c4jj 8 #c4ej7 8 8 8 #e4cj 8 8 8 more than #ae 8 7#c4ge7 8 8 8 #j4gd 8 8 ,an inquiry by the department of factory inspection of ,berlin showed that the average weekly wages of working women was #aa4cf marks 7#b4hb72 #d4c per cent4 received less than #f marks2 #g4h per cent4 #f to #h marks2 #bg4f per cent4 #ab to #ae marks2 #aa4a per cent4 #ae to #bj marks1 and #a4a per cent4 #bj to #cj marks4 ,the majority 7#ge4g per cent7 earn from #h to #ae marks4 ,in ,karlsruhe the average weekly wages of all working women amounts to #aj4jb marks4#adb ,wages are lowest in the domestic industries for both men and women1 but especially for women1 and the hours of work are unlimited4 ,also domestic industry frequently implies the so-called sweating system4 ,a sub-contractor distributes the work among the workers and receives for his remuneration a considerable amount of the wages paid by the employer4 ,how wretchedly female labor is paid in these sweated trades1 may be seen from the following reports on conditions in ,berlin4 ,for men's colored shirts1 manufacturers paid from #b to #b marks in #ahhi4 ,in #ahic they obtained them for #a4bj mark4 ,a seamstress of medium ability must toil from dawn to darkness to finish from #f to #h shirts daily2 her weekly wages amounts to from #d to #e marks4 ,an apronmaker earns #b to #e marks weekly1 a tiemaker #e to #f marks1 a skillful shirt-waist maker #f marks1 a very skilled worker on boys' suits #h to #i marks1 a worker on coats #e to #f marks4 ,an experienced seamstress on fine men's shirts can earn #ab marks per week if the season is good1 and if she works from #e o'clock in the morning until #aj o'clock at night4 ,milliners who can copy models independently earn #cj marks monthly2 experienced trimmers who have been working at their trade for years earn #ej to #fj marks per month during the season4 ,the season lasts five months4 ,an umbrellamaker earns #f to #g marks weekly with a twelve-hour day4 ,such starvation wages drive working girls to prostitution1 for even with the most modest requirements no working girl can live in ,berlin for less than #i to #aj marks per week4 ,all these facts show that the modern development of industry draws away women more and more from the family and the home4 ,marriage and the family are being disrupted1 and so from the standpoint of these facts also it becomes absurd to relegate woman to the home and the family4 ,only they can resort to this argument who go through life blindly and fail to see the trend of development1 or do not wish to see it4 ,in many branches of industry1 women are employed exclusively2 in a great many they constitute the majority of workers1 and in most of the remaining branches women find more or less employment4 ,the number of working women is steadily growing and new lines of activity are constantly being opened to them4 ,by the enactment of the ,german factory laws of #ahia the work day of adult women workers in factories was limited to eleven hours1 but a number of exceptions were permitted4 ,night work for women was also prohibited1 but here too exceptions were made for factories that run day and night1 and for manufactures limited to certain seasons4 ,only after the international convention at ,bern on ,september #bf1 #aijf1 determined on a night's rest of eleven hours for factory workers1 and after ,socialists for many years energetically demanded the prohibition of night work for women and the establishment of an eight-hour day1 the government and the bourgeois parties are yielding at last4 ,the law of ,december #bh1 #aijh1 limits the hours of work for women to ten hours daily in all factories where no less than ten workers are employed4 ,on ,saturdays and on days preceding holidays the limit is eight hours4 ,women may not be employed for eight weeks prior to and after their confinement4 ,their readmission depends upon a medical certificate stating that at least six weeks have elapsed since their confinement4 ,women may not be employed in the manufacture of coke1 nor for the carrying of building materials4 ,in spite of the energetic opposition of ,socialists1 an amendment was accepted that the controlling officials may permit overtime work for #ej days annually4 ,especially noteworthy is the clause which constitutes a first interference with the exploitation by domestic industry4 ,this clause determines that women and minors may not be given work to take home on days when their hours of work in the factory have been as long as the law permits4 ,regardless of its imperfections the new law certainly means progress compared to the present state of affairs4 ,but women are not only employed in growing numbers in those occupations that are suited to their inferior physical strength1 they are employed wherever the exploiters can obtain higher profits by their labor4 ,among such occupations are difficult and disagreeable as well as dangerous ones4 ,these facts glaringly contradict that fantastic conception of woman as a weak and tender creature1 as described by poets and writers of novels4 ,facts are stubborn things1 and we are dealing with facts only1 since they prevent us from drawing false conclusions and indulging in sentimental talk4 ,but these facts teach us1 as has been previously stated1 that women are employed in the following industries3 ,the textile trades1 chemical trades1 metallurgy1 paper industry1 machine manufacture1 wood work1 manufacture of articles of food and luxury1 and mining above the ground4 ,in ,belgium women over #ba are employed in mining underground also4 ,they are furthermore employed in the wide field of agriculture1 horticulture1 cattle-breeding1 and the numerous trades connected with these occupations1 and in those various trades which have long since been their specific realm--dressmaking1 millinery1 manufacture of underwear1 and as salesladies1 clerks1 teachers1 kindergarten teachers1 writers1 artists of all kinds1 etc4 ,tens of thousands of women of the poorer middle class are employed in stores and in other commercial positions1 and are thereby almost entirely withdrawn from housekeeping and from the care of their children4 ,lastly1 young1 and especially pretty women1 find more and more employment as waitresses in restaurants and cafs as chorus girls1 dancers1 etc41 to the greatest detriment to their morals4 ,they are used as bait to attract pleasure-seeking men4 ,horrible conditions exist in these occupations from which the white slave traders draw many of their victims4 ,among the above-named occupations there are many dangerous ones4 ,thus danger from the effects of alkaline and sulphuric fumes exists to a great degree in the manufacture and cleaning of straw hats4 ,bleaching is dangerous owing to the inhalation of chloral fumes4 ,there is danger of poisoning in the manufacture of colored paper1 the coloring of artificial flowers1 the manufacture of metachromatypes1 chemicals and poisons1 the coloring of tin soldiers and other tin toys1 etc4 ,silvering of mirrors means death to the unborn children of pregnant workers4 ,in ,prussia about #bb per cent4 of all infants die during their first year of life2 but among the babies of working women employed in certain dangerous occupations we find1 as stated by ,dr4 ,hirt1 the following appalling death-rate3 mirror makers1 #fe per cent42 glass cutters1 #ee per cent42 workers in lead1 #dj per cent4 ,in #ahij it was reported that among #gh pregnant women who had been employed in the type founderies of the government district of ,wiesbaden1 only #cg had normal confinements4 ,dr4 ,hirt asserts that the following trades become especially dangerous to women during the second half of their pregnancy3 the manufacture of colored paper and flowers1 the finishing of ,brussels laces with white lead1 the making of metachromatypes 7transfer pictures71 the silvering of mirrors1 the rubber industry1 and all manufactures in which the workers inhale poisonous gases1 such as carbonic acid1 carbonic oxide1 sulphide of hydrogen1 etc4 ,the manufacture of shoddy and phosphoric matches are also dangerous occupations4 ,the report of the factory inspector for ,baden shows1 that the average annual number of premature births among working women increased from #ajci during the years #ahhb to #ahhf to #a1bdd during the years #ahhg to #ahia4 ,the number of births that had to be preceded by an operation were on an average #a1aah from #ahhb to #ahhf1 and #a1che from #ahhg to #ahia4 ,more serious facts of this sort would be revealed if similar investigations were made throughout ,germany4 ,but generally the factory inspectors in framing their reports content themselves with the remark3 8,particular injuries to women by their employment in factories have not been observed40 ,how could they observe them during their short visits and without consulting medical opinion8 ,that furthermore there is great danger to life and limb1 especially in the textile trades1 the manufacture of explosives and work at agricultural machinery has been shown4 ,moreover a number of enumerated trades are among the most difficult and strenuous1 even for men2 that can be seen by a glance at the very incomplete list4 ,it is very easy to say that this or that occupation is unsuited to a woman4 ,but what can she do if no other more suitable occupation is open to her8 ,dr4 ,hirt#adc gives the following list of occupations in which young girls ought not to be employed at all on account of the danger to their health3 ,manufacture of bronze colors1 manufacture of emery paper1 making of straw hats1 glass cutting1 lithographing1 combing flax1 picking horse hair1 plucking fustian1 manufacture of tin plate1 manufacture of shoddy and work at flax mills4 ,in the following trades young girls should be employed only if proper protection 7sufficient ventilation1 etc47 has been provided3 ,manufacture of wall paper1 porcelain1 lead pencils1 lead shot1 volatile oils1 alum1 prussiate of potash1 bromide1 quinine1 soda1 paraffine and ultramarine 7poisonous71 colored paper 7poisonous7 colored wafers1 metachromatypes1 phosphoric matches1#add ,paris green and artificial flowers4 ,further occupations on the list are the cutting and assorting of rags1 the assorting and cutting of tobacco leaves1 assorting of hair for brushes1 cleaning 7with sulphur7 of straw hats1 sulphurizing of ,india-rubber1 reeling wool and silk1 cleaning bed-feathers1 coloring and printing of goods1 coloring of tin soldiers1 packing of tobacco leaves1 silvering mirrors1 and cutting steel pins and pens4 ,it is certainly no pleasant sight to behold women1 even pregnant women1 working at the construction of railways1 together with men and drawing heavily loaded carts1 or helping with the building of a house1 mixing lime and serving as hod-carriers4 ,such occupations strip a woman of all womanliness1 just as1 on the other hand1 many modern occupations deprive men of their manliness4 ,such are the results of social exploitation and social warfare4 ,our corrupted social conditions turn the natural order upside down4 ,it is not surprising that workingmen do not relish this tremendous increase of female labor in all branches of industry4 ,it is certain that the extension of the employment of women in industry disrupts the family life of the working class1 that the breaking up of marriage and the home are a natural result1 and that it leads to a terrible increase of immorality1 degeneration1 all kinds of disease and infant mortality4 ,according to the statistics of the ,german ,empire1 infant mortality has greatly increased in those cities that have become centers of industry4 ,as a result infant mortality is also heightened in the rural districts owing to the greater scarcity and increased cost of milk4 ,in ,germany1 infant mortality is greatest in ,upper ,palatine1 ,upper ,bavaria and ,lower ,bavaria1 in some localities of the government districts of ,liegnitz and ,breslau and in ,chemnitz4 ,in #aijg of every #ajj infants the following percentage died during the first year of life3 ,stadtamhof 7,upper ,palatinate7 #dj4ad per cent42 ,parsberg 7,upper ,palatinate7 #dj4jf2 ,friedberg 7,upper ,bavaria7 #ci4bh2 ,kelheim 7,lower ,bavaria7 #cg4ga2 ,munich #cg4fc2 ,glauchau 7,saxony7 #cc4dh2 ,waldenburg 7,silesia7 #cb4di2 ,chemnitz1 #cb4di2 ,reichenbach 7,silesia71 #cb4ah2 ,annaberg1 #ca4da1 etc4 ,in the majority of large manufacturing villages conditions were still worse1 some of which had an infant mortality of from #dj to #ej per cent4 ,and yet this social development which is accompanied by such deplorable results means progress4 ,it means progress just as freedom of trade1 liberty of choosing one's domicile1 freedom of marriage1 etc41 meant progress1 whereby capitalism was favored1 but the middle class was doomed4 ,the workingmen are not inclined to support small trades people and mechanics in their attempts again to limit freedom of trade and the liberty of choosing one's domicile and to reinstate the limitations of the guild system in order to maintain industry on a small scale4 ,past conditions cannot be revived2 that is equally true of the altered methods of manufacture and the altered position of women4 ,but that does not preclude the necessity of protective legislation to prevent an unlimited exploitation of female labor and the employment in industry of children of school age4 ,in this respect the interests of the working class coincide with the interests of the state and the general humane interests of an advanced stage of civilization4 ,that all parties are interested in such protective measures has frequently been shown during the last decades1 for instance1 in ,germany in #ahic1 when an increase of the army made it necessary to reduce the required standard1 because our industrial system had greatly increased the number of young men who were unfit for military service4#ade ,our final aim must be to remove the disadvantages that have been caused by the introduction of machinery1 the improvement in the means of production and the modern methods of production1 and so to organize human labor that the tremendous advantages machinery gave to humanity and will continue to give may be enjoyed by all members of society4 ,it is preposterous and a crying evil that human achievements which are the product of social labor1 should only benefit those who can acquire them by means of their power of wealth1 while thousands of industrious workingmen and women are stricken by terror and grief when they learn of a new labor saving device1 which may mean to them that they have become superfluous and will be cast out4#adf ,what should be joyfully welcomed by all thereby becomes an object of hatred to some1 that in former decades frequently led workingmen to storm factories and demolish the machinery4 ,a similar hostile sentiment prevails to some extent at present between working men and working women4 ,this sentiment is unnatural4 ,we must therefore seek to bring about a state of society in which all will enjoy equal rights regardless of sex4 ,that will be possible when the means of production become the property of society1 when labor has attained its highest degree of fruitfulness by employing all scientific and technical improvements and advantages1 and when all who are able to work shall be obliged to perform a certain amount of socially necessary labor1 for which society in return will provide all with the necessary means for the development of their abilities and the enjoyment of life4 ,woman shall become a useful member of human society enjoying full equality with man4 ,she shall be given the same opportunity to develop her physical and mental abilities1 and by performing duties she shall be entitled to rights4 ,being man's free and equal companion no unworthy demands will be made upon her4 ,the present development of society is tending in this direction1 and the numerous and grave evils incidental to this development necessitate the introduction of a new social order4 #aci ,employment of married women in factories4 ,compiled from the annual reports of factory inspectors1 for the year #ahii in the ,home ,department4 ,berlin1 #aija4 #adj 8,in the centers of the weaving industry the percentage of married women among factory workers rises far above the average #bf per cent2 for instance1 in ,saxony-,altenburg to #ef per cent1 and in ,reuss to #eh per cent40--,r4 ,wilbrandt1 ,the weavers at the present time4 ,jena1 #aijf4 #ada ,woerishoffer--,the social status of factory workers in ,mannheim4 #adb ,mary ,baum--,three classes of women wage-earners in industry and commerce of the city ,karlsruhe4 #aijf4 #adc ,industrial activity of women4 #add ,by an international agreement between ,denmark1 ,germany1 ,france1 ,italy1 the ,netherlands and ,switzerland on ,sept4 #bf1 #aijf1 the use of white phosphorus in the manufacture of matches will be forbidden from ,january #a1 #aiaa4 ,in ,germany the manufacture of these goods has been prohibited since ,jan4 #a1 #aijg1 and since ,jan4 #a1 #aijh1 they may neither be sold nor otherwise distributed4 ,in ,england a similar law was enacted in #aiji4 #ade ,the following percentage of men examined were found fit for military service3 #aijb1 #eh4e2 #aijc1 #eg4a2 #aijd1 #ef4d2 #aije1 #ef4c2 #aijf1 #ee4i2 and #aijg1 #ed4i4 ,the following percentage had to be discharged owing to disability after they had been enrolled3 from #ahha to #ahhe1 #b4jg per cent2 from #ahia to #ahie1 #b4cj per cent2 from #aija to #aije1 #b4dg per cent4 ,w4 ,claassen--,the decrease of military efficiency in the ,german ,empire4 #adf ,in ,december #ahga1 factory inspector ,a4 ,redgrave delivered a lecture at ,bradford in which he said among other things3 8,my attention has recently been called to the changed appearance in the wool mills4 ,formerly they were full of women and children2 now the machines seem to do all the work4 ,upon my inquiry a manufacturer gave me the following information3 #8under the old system ,i employed #fc persons2 after the introduction of improved machinery ,i reduced my hands to #cc2 and recently1 as a result of further great improvements1 ,i was able to reduce them from #cc to #ac'40 ,within a few years then the number of workers was reduced by almost #hj per cent while the same amount of goods were produced4--,further interesting information on this subject may be found in ,capital by ,karl ,marx4 ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,the ,struggle of ,women for ,education4 #a4--,the ,revolution in ,domestic ,life4 ,although the change in the position of women is obvious to all who go through life with open eyes1 we still continue to hear the idle talk that the home and the family are woman's natural sphere4 ,this cry is most loudly raised wherever women attempt to enter the learned professions to become teachers at higher institutions of learning1 physicians1 lawyers1 scientists1 etc4 ,the most ridiculous objections are resorted to and defended in the guise of scientific arguments4 ,in this respect1 as in many others1 supposedly learned men base their arguments on science to defend what is most ridiculous and absurd4 ,their main objection is1 that women are intellectually inferior to men2 that in the realm of intellectual activity they cannot attain any noteworthy achievements4 ,most men are so prejudiced in regard to the professional abilities of women1 that whoever resorts to arguments of this sort is sure to meet with approval4 ,as long as the general status of culture and knowledge is as low as at present1 new ideas will always be met with rigorous opposition1 especially when it is in the interest of the ruling classes to limit culture and knowledge to their own strata4 ,therefore new ideas are at first upheld only by a small minority1 and this small group is subjected to ridicule1 slander and persecution4 ,but if the new ideas are good and rational1 if they have sprung up as a natural consequence of existing conditions1 they will be disseminated1 and the minority will eventually become the majority4 ,it was thus with every new idea in the course of human history1 and the idea of obtaining woman's true and complete emancipation will meet with the same success4 ,were not the believers in ,christian faith at one time a small minority8 ,was the reformation not ushered in by a small and persecuted group8 ,did not the modern bourgeoisie contend with overwhelmingly powerful opponents8 ,nevertheless they were victorious4 ,or was ,socialism destroyed in ,germany by twelve years of persecution by exceptional laws8 ,the victory of ,socialism was never more certain than when it was thought to be destroyed4 ,the assertion that housekeeping and child-rearing is woman's natural sphere is as intelligent as the assertion that there must always be kings1 because there have been kings as long as there has been a history4 ,we do not know how the first king originated1 just as we do not know where the first capitalist appeared4 ,but we do know that monarchy has been greatly transformed in the course of thousands of years1 that it is the tendency of evolution to diminish the power of kings more and more and that the time will come--and that time is not far distant--when kings will be quite superfluous4 ,just as monarchy1 so every institution of state and society is subjected to changes and transformations and ultimate destruction4 ,in the historical expositions of this book we have seen1 that the present form of marriage and the position of woman have by no means always been what they are to-day4 ,we have seen that both are the product of an historical line of development that is still in progress4 ,about #b1cej years ago ,demosthenes could assert that woman had no other vocation but to give birth to legitimate children and to faithfully guard the house4 ,to-day this conception has been overcome4 ,no one could dare to defend this standpoint to-day without being accused of contempt of women4 ,indeed there are some even to-day who secretly share the view of the ancient ,athenian1 but no one would dare to express publicly what one of the foremost men of ancient ,greece asserted freely and openly as a matter of course4 ,herein lies the progress4 ,now1 although modern development has undermined millions of marriages1 it has on the other hand influenced the evolution of marriage favorably4 ,only a few decades ago it was a matter of fact in every citizen's and peasant's home1 that women not only sewed1 knitted1 washed1 cooked1 etc41 but that they also baked the bread1 spun and weaved1 and bleached1 brewed beer and manufactured tallow candles and soap4 ,running water1 lighting and heating by gas--not to speak of electricity--besides numerous other modern housefurnishings were unknown in those days4 ,antiquated conditions persist even to-day1 but they are exceptions4 ,the majority of women are relieved from many occupations that were inevitable formerly1 because many things can be made better and cheaper industrially than by the individual housewife4 ,thus1 within a few decades a great revolution has taken place in our domestic life to which we pay so little heed1 only because we take it for granted4 ,people do not notice transformations even when they take place under their very eyes as long as they are not sudden and disturb the accustomed order1 but they resent new ideas that threaten to interfere with their treading of the beaten path4 ,this revolution in our domestic life that is still going on1 has considerably changed the position of woman in the family in still another respect4 ,our grandmother could not and would not think of visiting theatres1 concerts and places of amusement even on week days4 ,nor would any woman in the good old days have dared to bother about public affairs as so many do to-day4 ,at present women organize and join clubs pursuing the most varied1 aims1 they found newspapers1 subscribe to them and edit them and hold conventions4 ,as working women they organize industrially and attend the men's meetings4 ,in some localities of ,germany they even possessed the right to elect members to courts of trade1 but of this right the reactionary majority in the diet deprived them again in the year of the ,lord1 #ahij4 ,although these altered conditions have their dark sides too1 the bright sides predominate1 and not even any reactionary would wish to abolish them again4 ,the women themselves1 regardless of the conservative character of most of them1 have no inclination either to return to the old1 patriarchal conditions4 ,in the ,united ,states1 society is organized along bourgeois lines also1 but it is not burdened with old ,european prejudices and antiquated institutions1 and is therefore much more inclined to adopt new institutions and ideas if they hold promise of advantage4 ,there1 since quite some time1 the position of woman is regarded differently than in ,europe4 ,among wealthy circles women have been relieved not only of baking and brewing1 but of cooking as well1 and the one kitchen of an apartment hotel replaces many individual kitchens4 ,our army officers1 who are no ,socialists or ,communists1 have a similar method4 ,in their casinos they form a sort of housekeeping community1 appoint a manager1 whose business it is to purchase the food wholesale1 and to draw up the menus1 and the food is cooked by steam in the kitchen of the barracks4 ,they live far more cheaply than they could in a hotel1 and their food is at least as good4 ,thousands of wealthy families live in boarding houses or hotels all year or part of the year without missing their domestic cooking4 ,they1 on the contrary1 regard it as a great comfort to be relieved of the private kitchen4 ,the general aversion of rich and wealthy women against kitchen work does not seem to signify that this occupation is a part of woman's 8natural sphere40 ,indeed1 the fact that rich families and large hotels employ male cooks makes it appear as if cooking were man's work4 ,let these facts be noted by men who cannot conceive woman except surrounded by pots and pans4 ,nothing could be simpler than to combine a central laundry with a central kitchen--as has already been done in all large cities by wealthy private residents or speculators--and to make the institution general4 ,with the central kitchen1 central heating1 hot water supply1 etc41 might be connected1 and much troublesome work entailing a great waste of time and effort would be abolished4 ,large hotels1 many private houses1 hospitals1 schools1 barracks and other public buildings have these and other modern improvements1 as electric light1 bathing establishments1 etc4 ,the mistake is that only public institutions and wealthy persons profit by these improvements4 ,if made accessible to all1 they would save a tremendous amount of time1 effort1 labor and expense1 and would considerably heighten the general well being4 ,in the summer of #ahij ,german newspapers published reports of progress being made in the ,united ,states in regard to central heating and ventilation4 ,in these reports1 among other things1 the following was stated3 8,experiments that have recently been made1 especially in ,north ,america1 to heat entire blocks or portions of a city from one centrally located place1 have been successful in no small degree4 ,the construction has been so carefully planned and so practically applied1 that the favorable results and financial advantages will undoubtedly lead to an extension of this system4 ,recently further experiments have been made to provide not only the heating but also the ventilation of entire districts from centrally located places40 ,many of these contemplated improvements have since been realized and further improved4 ,narrow-minded philistines shrug their shoulders when such and similar plans are discussed2 and yet in ,germany1 too1 we are in the midst of a new industrial revolution1 whereby the individual kitchen and other housework will become as superfluous as labor by manual tools became superfluous by the introduction of modern machinery4 ,as late as the beginning of the nineteenth century1 even a ,napoleon could deride as a crazy idea the project of moving a vessel by steam4 ,people who were considered intelligent1 regarded the plan of building a railroad as an absurdity2 they claimed that no one could live in a vehicle travelling at such high speed4 ,in the same manner many new ideas are dealt with to-day4 ,if some one had told our women a century ago that they should get their water from a faucet in the kitchen instead of drawing it from the well1 he would have been accused of seeking to encourage laziness in housewives and servants4 ,but the great technical revolution along all lines is in full swing4 ,nothing can stay its progress4 ,it is the historical mission of bourgeois society that has ushered in this revolution1 to lead it to its climax1 and everywhere to bring to light the germs of transformation1 which a society organized on a new basis will merely need to generalize and to make the common property of all4 ,the development of our social life does not tend to lead woman back to the home and hearth1 a state that fanatics on domesticity desire1 and for which they clamor as the ,jews in the desert clamored for the lost flesh-pots of ,egypt4 ,it demands the release of woman from her narrow sphere of domestic life1 and her full participation in public life and the missions of civilization4 ,laveleye is right when he says#adg3 8,with the growth of what we call civilization1 the feelings of piety toward family life decrease and its bonds become looser and have less influence on the actions of men4 ,this fact is so general that it may be regarded as a law of social development40 ,not only has the position of woman in the family changed1 but also the position of son and daughter in their relation to the family4 ,they have gradually obtained a degree of independence that was unheard of formerly4 ,this is especially so in the ,united ,states1 where young persons are educated to become self-reliant and independent to a far greater extent than in ,europe4 ,the dark sides that are incidental to this form of development also are not necessarily connected with it1 but are rooted in the social conditions of our time4 ,bourgeois society does not produce any new and pleasing phenomena that do not have a dark side as well4 ,as ,fourier already pointed out with much perspicacity1 all its progress is double-edged4 ,like ,laveleye1 ,dr4 ,schaeffle also recognizes the changed nature of the modern family as a result of social development4 ,he says3#adh 8,thruout history we find the tendency of the family to return to its specific functions4 ,the family abandons one provisionally and temporarily maintained function after another and1 inasmuch as it only filled out the gaps in social functions1 it yields to the independent institutions of law1 order1 power1 divine service1 teaching1 industry1 etc41 as soon as such institutions are developed40 #adg ,original ,property4 ,chap4 ,,xx1 ,household ,community4 ,leipsic1 #ahgi4 #adh ,structure and ,life of the ,body ,social4 ,vol4 ,i4 ,tuebingen1 #ahgh4 #b4--,the ,intellectual ,abilities of ,women4 ,women are advancing1 tho at present only a small minority strives to advance1 and of these again only a few are fully conscious of their aims4 ,they not only wish to measure their strength with that of men industrially and commercially1 they not only wish to hold a more independent position in the family1 they also wish to employ their intellectual abilities in higher positions and in public life4 ,they are met time and again with the argument that they are unfit by nature for intellectual occupations4 ,the question of the practice of learned professions only concerns a small number of women in present-day society1 but it is important as a matter of principle4 ,the majority of men seriously believe that women must remain subjected to them intellectually also and that they have no right to seek equality2 therefore they are vehemently opposed to the intellectual ambitions of women4 ,the same men who do not object to women being employed in difficult and dangerous occupations that threaten their womanliness and injure their maternity1 would bar them from professions that are far less difficult and dangerous and far better suited to their physical abilities4 ,in ,germany1 the lively agitation for the admission of women to universities1 has called forth a great number of opponents who especially oppose the admission of women to the study of medicine4 ,among these are ,pochhammer1 ,fehling1 ,binder1 ,hegar1 and others4 ,j4 ,beerenbach seeks to prove that women are not qualified for scientific study1 by pointing out that no genius had as yet sprung up among women4 ,this argument is neither valid nor convincing4 ,geniuses do not drop from the sky2 they must have an opportunity for development1 and such opportunity women have been lacking1 for since thousands of years they have been oppressed and deprived of opportunity for intellectual development1 and thereby their mental abilities have become atrophied4 ,a considerable number of distinguished women exist even to-day1 and if one denies the existence of potential geniuses among them1 that is as far from being true as the belief that there were no more geniuses among men than those that were recognized as such4 ,every country schoolteacher knows how many able minds among his pupils are never developed because they lack opportunity for development4 ,indeed we all have in our day met persons in whom we recognized rare ability and who1 we felt1 would have become a credit to the community1 if circumstances had been more favorable to them4 ,the number of talents and geniuses among men is far greater than could be revealed until now4 ,the same is true of the abilities of women that have for thousands of years been far more hampered1 repressed and cramped than those of men4 ,we have no standard whereby we can measure the amount of intellectual strength and ability among men and women1 that would unfold if they could develop under natural conditions4 ,to-day it is in human life as in plant life4 ,millions of precious seeds never achieve development because the ground on which they are cast is unfertile or is already occupied1 and the young plant is thus deprived of air1 light and nourishment4 ,the same laws that apply to nature apply to human life4 ,if a gardener or farmer would claim that a plant could not be perfected without having made an attempt to perfect it1 his more enlightened neighbors would consider him a fool4 ,they would hold the same opinion of him if he would refuse to interbreed one of his female domestic animals with a male of more perfect breed to obtain more perfect stock4 ,there is no peasant to-day who is so ignorant not to recognize the advantage of a rational treatment of his vegetables1 fruit1 and cattle2 whether his means allow the application of advanced methods is another question4 ,only in regard to humanity even educated people will not admit what they regard as an irrefutable law with the rest of the organic world4 ,yet one need not be a scientist to derive instructive observations from life4 ,how is it that peasant children differ from city children8 ,how is it that children of the wealthier classes are1 as a rule1 distinguishable from the children of the poor by facial and bodily traits and by mental qualities8 ,it is due to the difference in their conditions of living and education4 ,the one-sidedness of training for a certain profession leaves its particular imprint upon a person4 ,as a rule a minister or a school teacher can easily be recognized by his bearing and the expression of his face1 as also a military man1 even in plain clothes4 ,a cobbler is easily distinguished from a tailor1 a carpenter from a locksmith4 ,twin brothers who greatly resembled each other in their youth1 will show marked differences in a more advanced age if their occupations have been very different from one another2 if1 for instance1 one is a manual laborer1 say a blacksmith1 and the other has studied philosophy4 ,heredity on the one hand and adaptation on the other1 are decisive factors in human development as well as in the animal kingdom1 and man1 moreover1 is the most adaptive of all creatures4 ,sometimes a few years of a different mode of life and a different occupation suffice to alter a person completely4 ,external changes are never more clearly seen than when a person is transplanted from poor and narrow circumstances to greatly improved ones4 ,his past can perhaps be disavowed least in his mental culture4 ,when people have attained a certain age1 they frequently have no ambition for intellectual improvement1 and often they do not need it either4 ,a parvenu rarely suffers from this shortcoming4 ,in our day money is the chief asset1 and people bow far more readily before the man with a great fortune than before the man of knowledge and great intellectual abilities1 especially if it is his ill fortune to be poor4 ,the worship of ,mammon was never greater than in our day4 ,yet we are living in the 8best of worlds40 ,our industrial districts furnish a striking example of the influence of decidedly different conditions of life and education4 ,even externally1 workers and capitalists differ to such an extent as if they were members of two different races4 ,these differences were brought home to us in an almost startling manner at the occasion of a campaign meeting during the winter of #ahgg in an industrial town of ,saxony4 ,the meeting1 in which a discussion with a liberal professor was to take place1 had been so arranged that an equal number of both parties were present4 ,the front of the hall was occupied by our opponents1 almost without exception healthy1 strong1 and some stately figures4 ,in the rear of the hall and on the galleries were the workingmen and small traders1 nine-tenths of them weavers1 mostly small1 narrow-chested1 hollow-cheeked figures whose faces bore the imprints of care and need4 ,the one group represented the well-fed virtue and morality of the bourgeois world1 the other represented the worker--bees and beasts of burden on whose labor the gentlemen waxed strong4 ,if one generation were reared under equally favorable conditions of life the differences would be greatly decreased and would quite disappear among their progeny4 ,it is usually more difficult to determine the social position among women than among men4 ,they easily accustom themselves to altered conditions and readily adopt more refined habits of life4 ,their adaptability is greater than that of the more clumsy man4 ,what good soil1 air and light are to the plant1 that to man are healthful social conditions1 which enable him to develop his physical and mental qualities4 ,the saying that 8man is what he eats0 expresses a similar thought somewhat too narrowly4 ,not only what a man eats1 but his entire standard of life and his social environment advance or hamper his physical and mental development1 and influence his feelings1 his thoughts and his actions favorably or unfavorably1 as the case may be4 ,we see every day that persons living in good financial circumstances go to ruin mentally and morally1 because outside of the narrow sphere of their domestic and personal relations1 unfavorable influences1 social in character1 were brought to bear upon them and gained such control over them that they were driven into evil ways4 ,the social conditions under which we live are even more important than the conditions of family life4 ,but when the social conditions of development will be the same for both sexes1 when there will be no restriction for either1 and when the general state of society will be a healthful one1 woman will rise to a height of perfection that we can hardly conceive to-day1 because until now no such conditions have existed in human evolution4 ,the achievements of individual women justify our highest expectations1 for these tower above the mass of their sex just as male geniuses tower above the mass of men4 ,if we apply the standard of rulership1 for instance1 we find that women have shown even greater talent for ruling than men4 ,to mention just a few examples3 ,there were ,isabella and ,blanche of ,castilia1 ,elizabeth of ,hungary1 ,katherine ,sforza1 ,countess of ,milan and ,imola1 ,elizabeth of ,england1 ,katherine of ,russia1 ,maria ,theresa1 and others4 ,basing his assertion on the fact that women have ruled well among all nations and in all parts of the globe1 even over the wildest and most turbulent hordes1 ,burbach is led to remark that according to all probability women would be better qualified for politics than men#adi4 ,when in #aija ,queen ,victoria of ,england died1 a large ,english newspaper made the suggestion to introduce female succession exclusively in ,england1 because the history of ,england showed that its queens ruled better than its kings4 ,many a great man of history would shrivel considerably if we always knew how much was due to his own efforts and how much he owed to others4 ,as one of the greatest geniuses of the ,french ,revolution1 ,german historians regard ,count ,mirabeau4 ,yet research has revealed the fact1 that he owed the preparation of almost all his speeches to the willing assistance of a few learned men who worked for him secretly and whose labor he skillfully made use of4 ,on the other hand1 women like ,sappho1 ,diotima1 at the time of ,socrates1 ,hypatia of ,alexandria1 ,madame ,roland1 ,mary ,wollstonecraft1 ,olympe de ,gouges1 ,madame de ,stal1 ,george ,sand1 and others1 merit our highest admiration4 ,many a male star pales beside them4 ,the influence of women as mothers of great men is also well known4 ,women have accomplished as much as they could accomplish under exceedingly unfavorable circumstances1 and that entitles us to great expectations for the future4 ,as a matter of fact1 women were admitted to competition with men in various realms of activity only during the second half of the nineteenth century4 ,the results obtained are very satisfactory4 ,but even should we take for granted that women1 as a rule1 are not as capable of development as men1 that there are no geniuses and philosophers among them1 we are nevertheless led to ask whether this factor was considered among men when they1 according to the wording of the laws1 were given complete equality with the geniuses and philosophers4 ,the learned men who deny the intellectual ability of women1 are inclined to do the same in the case of workingmen4 ,when persons of nobility pride themselves on their 8blue0 blood and their pedigree1 they smile and contemptuously shrug their shoulders2 but in the presence of the man of lowly birth they consider themselves an aristocracy that have achieved their favored position1 not through their more advantageous circumstances1 but only by their own peculiar talents4 ,the same men1 who are unprejudiced in one respect and have a poor opinion of persons who are not as liberal-minded as they1 become incredibly narrow-minded and fanatical when their class interests or personal conceit are involved4 ,men of the upper classes judge men of the lower classes unfavorably1 and in the same way almost all men judge women unfavorably4 ,the majority of men regard women only as a means to their comfort and enjoyment4 ,to regard them as beings endowed with equal rights is repugnant to their prejudiced minds4 ,woman should be modest and submissive2 she should confine her interests to the home1 and leave all other domains to the 8lords of creation40 ,woman should check every thought and inclination1 and wait patiently for what her earthly providence1 father or husband1 may decide4 ,if she lives up to this standard she is praised for her good sense1 modesty and virtue1 even tho she may break down under the burden of physical and moral suffering4 ,but if we speak of the equality of all human beings1 it is preposterous to wish to exclude half of humanity4 ,woman has the same right as man to develop her abilities and to employ them freely4 ,she is a human being as well as man and should have the freedom of disposing of her own body and mind and be her own master4 ,the chance of having been born a woman1 must not affect her human rights4 ,to exclude woman from equal rights because she has been born a woman and not a man--a fact of which both man and woman are innocent--is as unfair1 as to make rights and privileges depend upon religious or political opinion2 and it is as irrational as the belief that two persons are innate enemies because1 by the chance of birth1 they belong to different races or nationalities4 ,such views are unworthy of a free human being4 ,progress of humanity consists in removing whatever keeps one human being1 one class or one sex in slavery and dependence upon another4 ,no difference is justified except those differences established by nature to fulfill its purpose4 ,but no sex will overstep the natural limits1 because it would thereby destroy its own purpose in nature4 #adi ,dr4 ,havelock ,ellis4--,man and ,woman4 #c4--;,differences in ,physical and ,mental ,qualities of ,man and ,woman4 ,one of the chief arguments of the opponents of equal rights is1 that woman has a smaller brain than man and is less developed in other respects1 and that therefore her lasting inferiority is proven4 ,it is certain that man and woman are two human beings of different sex1 that each has different organs adapted to the sexual purpose1 and that1 owing to the fulfillment of the sexual function1 a number of differences in their physiological and psychological conditions exist4 ,these are facts that no one can nor will deny2 but they do not furnish any cause for social or political inequality between man and woman4 ,humanity and society consist of both sexes2 both are indispensable to their maintenance and development4 ,even the greatest man was born by a mother to whom he may owe his best qualities and abilities4 ,by what right1 then1 can woman be denied equality with man8 ,according to the opinion of eminent authorities1 the most marked differences in physical and mental qualities between man and woman are the following3 ,in regard to stature1 ,havelock ,ellis considers #agj centimeters the average height for men and #afj centimeters for women4 ,according to ,vierordt1 it is #agb and #afj1 and in northern ,germany1 according to ,krause1 #agc and #afc centimeters4 ,the proportion of man's stature to woman's is as #ajj to #ic4 ,the average weight of adult persons is #fe kilograms for men and #ed for women4 ,the greater length of the trunk in a woman's body is a well-known difference2 yet this difference is not as great as has been generally assumed1 as careful measurements have shown4 ,the legs of a woman of medium size are only by #ae millimeters shorter than those of a man of medium size1 and ,pfitzner doubts that this difference is noticeable4 8,the differences in the lengths of body and legs are influenced by the stature1 and are independent of sex40 ,but the female arm is decidedly shorter than the male arm 7as #ajj to #ia4e74 ,the male hand is broader and larger than the female hand1 and with men the ring-finger is usually longer than the index1 while the opposite is the case with women4 ,by this the male hand becomes more ape-like1 as the long arm also is a pithecoid 7ape-like7 characteristic4 ,in regard to the size of the head1 the proportion of the absolute height of male and female heads may be set down as #ajj to #id4 ,but the relative sizes 7in proportion to the size of the body7 are #ajj to #ajj4h4 ,so actually woman's head is somewhat smaller1 but in proportion to the size of her body1 it is somewhat larger than man's4 ,the bones of woman are smaller1 finer1 and more delicate in form and have a smoother surface1 for the weaker muscles require less rough surface to fasten upon4 ,the weaker muscular development is one of the most striking characteristics of woman4 ,each separate muscle of a woman's body is finer1 softer1 and contains more water4 7,according to v4 ,bibra the quantity of water contained in the muscles is #gb4e per cent4 with man1 and #gd4d per cent4 with woman47 ,in regard to the adipose membrane the opposite proportion exists2 it is much more amply developed with woman than with man4 ,the chest is relatively shorter and narrower4 ,other differences are directly connected with the sexual purpose4 ,the statements of various authors in regard to relative and absolute weight of the intestines1 are very contradictory4 ,according to ,vierordt the proportion of the weight of the heart to the weight of the body is as #a to #bae with men1 and as #a to #bjf with women4 ,according to ,clendinning it is as #a to #aeh and as #a to #adi4 ,taken all in all1 we may assume that the female intestines are absolutely smaller1 but relatively1 in proportion to the weight of the body1 heavier than the male4 ,the blood of women shows a larger percentage of water1 a smaller quantity of blood-globules1 and a smaller quantity of hemachrome4 ,with woman the smaller size of the heart1 the narrower vascular system1 and probably also the larger percentage of water in the blood1 cause a less intense assimilation of matter and an inferior nutrition4 ,this may also account for the weaker jaws4 8,it may thus be explained that even civilized man in many respects is more closely connected with the animal world1 especially the ape1 than woman1 that he possesses pithecoid traits which may be seen in the shape of the skull and the length of the limbs40 ,in regard to the differences of the skull of both sexes1 let it be stated that1 according to ,bartels1 there is no absolute indication whereby we could determine whether a skull belonged to a male or female person4 ,absolute comparison shows that the skulls of men are larger in all dimensions4 ,accordingly the weight is greater1 too1 and the interior space is larger4 ,as a medium weight of normally developed brains of adult persons1 ,grosser states #achh grammes for the man and #abeb grammes for the woman4#aej ,the great majority of male brains 7#cd per cent47 weigh between #abej and #aeej grammes1 and the great majority of female brains 7#ia per cent47 weigh between #aajj and #adej grammes4 ,but these weights are not subject to direct comparison since woman is smaller than man4 ,it is1 accordingly1 necessary to determine the weight of the brain in proportion to the body4 ,when we compare the weight of the brain with the weight of the body we find that with the man there are #ba4f grammes of the brain for every kilogram of the weight of the body1 and with the woman there are #bc4f grammes4 ,this outweighing is explained by the fact that woman's stature is smaller4#aea ,different results are obtained by a comparison of equally large individuals of both sexes4 ,according to ,marchand the weight of the female brain is1 without exception1 lighter than that of men of the same size4 ,but this method is as incorrect as a comparison with the size of the body4 ,it takes for granted what remains to be proven3 a direct relation between the size of the body and the weight of the brain4 ,blakeman1 ,alice ,lee and ,karl ,pearson have determined on the basis of ,english data and measurements1 that there is no noticeable relative difference in the weight of the brain between man and woman2 that is1 a man of the same age1 stature and skull measurements as the average woman1 would not differ from her in regard to the weight of his brain4#aeb ,even ,marchand points out that the smaller size of woman's brain may be due to the greater fineness of her nerves4 ,grosser says3 8,indeed1 this has not yet been determined by means of the microscope1 and would be difficult to determine4 ,but we must point to the analogy that the eye-ball and the cavity of the ear are also somewhat smaller with woman than with man1 yet these organs are no less fine and serviceable4 ,another1 perhaps the chief reason1 for the lighter weight of the woman's brain may be found in her weaker muscular development40#aec ,inasmuch as the differences are rooted in the nature of sex1 they can1 of course1 not be altered4 ,but to what extent these differences in blood and brain can be changed by a different mode of life 7nourishment1 physical and mental culture1 occupation1 etc47 cannot be definitely determined for the time being4 ,that modern woman differs from man to a greater extent than primitive woman or the woman of inferior races1 seems to be established1 and when we consider the social development of woman's position among civilized nations during the past #ajjj or #aejj years1 it seems only too obvious4 ,the following shows the capacity of the female skull according to ,havelock ,ellis 7assuming the capacity of the male skull to be #ajjj73 ,negro #ihd ,hottentot #iea ,hindu #idd ,eskimo #ica ,dutch #iac ,russian #hhd ,german #hch to #higaed ,chinese #hgj ,english #hfj to #hfb ,parisian1 #ai yrs4 #heh #aed ,according to five different authors3 #hch1 #hfd1 #hgh1 #hhc1 #hig4 ,for ,prussia 7,kupfer71 #iah2 for ,bavaria 7,rause71 #hic4 ,the conflicting statements among the ,germans show that the measurements have been taken among greatly differing material1 both in regard to quality and quantity1 and that therefore they are not absolutely reliable4 ,but the figures clearly show one thing3 that ,negroes1 ,hottentots and ,hindu women have a considerably larger capacity of the skull than the ,german1 ,english and ,parisian women2 and yet the latter are far more intelligent4 ,a comparison of the brain-weights of well-known deceased men shows similar contradictions and peculiarities4 ,according to ,professor ,reclam1 the brain of the scientist ,cuvier weighed #ahcj grammes2 that of ,byron1 #ahjg2 that of the famous mathematician ,gauss1 #adib2 of the philologist ,hermann1 #aceh2 of the ,parisian prefect ,hausmann1 #abbf4 ,it is said that the weight of ,dante's brain also was below the average weight of the male brains4 ,havelock ,ellis gives us similar information4 ,he reports that the brain of an unknown person1 weighed by ,bischoff1 had a weight of #bbbb grammes1 while the brain of the poet ,turgeniew weighed only #bjab grammes2 the third largest brain was that of an imbecile2 the brain of a plain workingman that was also examined by ,bischoff1 weighed #acbe grammes4 ,the heaviest female brains weighed between #agdb and #aehj grammes2 two of these were taken from women who had suffered from mental derangement4 ,on the congress of ,german anthropologists1 which was held in ,dortmund in ,august1 #aijb1 ,professor ,waldeyer stated that an examination of the skull of the philosopher ,leibnitz1 who died in #agaf1 had shown that its contents only measured #adej cubic centimeters1 which corresponds to a brain weight of #acjj grammes4 ,according to ,hausemann1 who examined the brains of ,mommsen1 ,bunsen and ,adolph v4 ,menzel1 ,mommsen's brain weighed #adbi4d grammes2 it accordingly did not exceed the average brainweight of an adult man4 ,menzel's brain weighed only #abih grammes and ,bunsen's less still--#abie grammes1 below the average male brainweight and not much above the brainweight of a woman4 ,those are striking facts that completely overthrow the old assumption that intellectual abilities could be measured by the capacity of the skull4 ,after an examination of the ,english data1 ,raymond ,pearl comes to the following conclusion3 8,there are no proofs of a close relation between intellectual abilities and brainweight40#aee ,the ,english anthropologist1 ,w4 ,duckworth1 says3 8,there is no proof that a heavy brainweight is accompanied by great intellectual ability4 ,neither the brainweight1 nor the capacity of the skull1 nor the circumference of the head1 where they could be determined1 have been of any use as a measure of intellectual abilities40#aef ,kohlbruegge1 who has during recent years published the results of the examinations of human brains of many races1 says3 8,intelligence and brainweight are entirely independent of one another4 ,even the greater brainweight of famous men is not sufficient proof1 since it exceeds the general medium weight1 but not that of the upper classes to which these men belonged4 ,but by these statements ,i do not seek to deny that brainweight can be increased1 especially by excessive study during youth1 which may account for the heavier brainweights and the greater skull capacity of the upper classes and of scholarly persons1 especially when--as is usually the case among the well-to-do--excessive nourishment is added4 ,this increase in weight by mental over-exertion has its dark sides also1 as is well known4 ,lunatics often have very heavy brains4 ,the main point is that it cannot be proven that intelligence 7something entirely different from productiveness7 has any relation to weight4 ,it is true of the external formation also1 that until now1 no connection could be shown between certain forms and higher mental development1 intelligence1 or genius40#aeg ,it is established1 then1 that we cannot draw conclusions from the brainweight as to mental qualities1 as little as we can draw conclusions from the size of the body as to physical strength4 ,the large mammals1 such as elephant1 whale1 etc41 have larger and heavier brains2 yet in regard to proportional brainweight they are excelled by most birds and small mammals4 ,we have some very small animals 7ant1 bee7 that are far more intelligent than much larger ones 7for instance1 sheep1 cow71 just as people of large stature often are mentally inferior to persons of small and insignificant appearance4 ,according to all probability the mass of the brain is not the determining factor1 but its organization and the practice and use of its powers4 8,in my opinion10 says ,professor ,l4 ,stieda1 8the difference in psychic functions can doubtlessly be accounted for by the finer construction of the gray matter1 the nerve cells1 the white matter1 the arrangement of the blood-vessels1 the construction1 form1 size and number of nerve-cells1 and last but not least1 their nutrition1 their metabolic assimilation40#aeh ,if the brain is to attain the full development of its faculties1 it must be exercised regularly1 and the brain must be properly nourished1 just as every other organ2 if this is left undone1 or if the training is a faulty one1 the normal development will be hampered1 even crippled4 ,one faculty is developed at the expense of another4 ,there are some anthropologists1 as ,manouvrier and others1 who even seek to prove that woman is morphologically more highly developed than man4 ,that is an exaggeration4 ,duckworth says3 8,when we compare the two sexes1 we find that there is no constant difference that lets one sex appear morphologically superior to the other40#aei ,havelock ,ellis only admits of one limitation4 ,he believes that female characteristics show fewer variations than the male4 ,but1 in an anticritique1 ,karl ,pearson has explicitly shown that this is only a pseudo-scientific superstition4#afj ,no one who is acquainted with the history of the development of woman can deny1 that woman has been sinned against4 ,if ,professor ,bischoff asserts that woman was enabled to develop her brain and her intelligence as well as man1 this assertion merely shows an incredible degree of ignorance upon the subject4 ,the description we have given in this book of the position of woman during the course of civilization1 makes it appear quite natural1 that thousands of years of male rule have brought about the difference in the physical and mental development of the sexes4 ,our scientists ought to recognize that the laws of their sciences apply fully to man also4 ,heredity and adaptation prevail with man as with every other living creature4 ,but if man constitutes no exception in nature1 the law of evolution must apply to him also1 whereby that becomes clear what otherwise remains wrapped in darkness1 and then becomes an object of scientific mysticism or mystic science4 ,the brain formation of the sexes has developed in accordance with their different educations4 ,indeed during a great portion of the past1 the word education could not be applied to woman at all4 ,physiologists are agreed that those parts of the brain which influence the intellect are situated in the fore-part of the head1 while those that specially influence feeling and sentiment1 are situated in the middle part4 ,the conception of beauty for man and woman has developed accordingly4 ,according to the ,greek conception1 which still prevails1 woman is supposed to have a low forehead1 while man is supposed to have a high and broad forehead4 ,this conception of beauty1 which is a symptom of her degradation1 has been so impressed upon our women1 that they consider a high forehead unbeautiful and seek to improve upon nature by combing their hair over their forehead to make it appear lower4 #aej ,the following average weights of male and female brains have been determined by the following scientists3 ,male brain4 ,female brain4 ,bischoff 7,bavaria7 #acfb #abai ,boyd 7,england7 #acbe #aahc ,marchand 7,hessia7 #acii #abdh ,retzius 7,sweden7 #achh #abeb #aea 8,men of genius as a rule are small of stature with a massy brain4 ,these are also the chief characteristics of the child1 and their general facial expression as also their temperament resemble the child's40--,havelock ,ellis1 ,man and ,woman4 #aeb ,j4 ,blakeman1 ,alice ,lee ,k4 ,pearson--,a ,study of the biometric constants of ,english ,brainweights4 ,biometrica1 #aije4 #aec ,dr4 ,otto ,grosser--,the structure of the female body in 8,man and ,woman40 ,stuttgart1 #aijg4 #aee ,raymond ,pearl--,variation or ,correlation in ,brainweight4 ,biometrika1 vol4 ,,iv4 ,june1 #aije4 #aef ,w4 ,duckworth--,morphology and ,anthropology4 ,cambridge1 #aijd4 #aeg ,kohlbruegge--,investigations of the furrows of the brain of human races4 ,journal of ,morphology and ,anthropology4 ,stuttgart1 #aijh4 #aeh ,l4 ,stieda--,the ,brain of the ,philologist4 ,journal of ,morphology and ,anthropology1 #aijg4 #aei ,duckworth 7as above74 #afj ,k4 ,pearson--,variation in ,man and ,woman in ,chances of ,death4 ,london1 #ahig4 #d4--;,darwinism and the ,condition of ,society4 ,it has accordingly not been proven1 that women are inferior to men as a result of the quantity of their brain2 yet the present intellectual status of women is not surprising4 ,darwin is surely right in saying1 that if a list of the ablest men on the subjects of poetry1 painting1 sculpture1 music1 science and philosophy were placed beside a list of the ablest women on the same subjects1 the two could not compare with one another4 ,but could it be otherwise8 ,it would be surprising if it were not so4 ,very correctly ,dr4 ,dodel 7,zurich7#afa says1 that it would be different if for a number of generations men and women would be similarly educated4 ,as a rule1 woman is physically weaker than man also1 which is by no means the case among many uncivilized peoples4#afb ,how much can be attained by practice and training from childhood on1 may1 for instance1 be seen with ladies of the circus and female acrobats1 who achieve most astounding things in regard to courage1 daring1 skill and strength4 ,as all these things are conditioned by the mode of life and education1 as they are--to use a scientific term--due to 8breeding10 it may be assumed as certain that the physical and intellectual life of man will lead to the best results1 as soon as man will consciously and expediently influence his development4 ,as plants and animals depend upon conditions of existence1 as they are fostered by favorable and hampered by unfavorable ones1 and as compulsory conditions force them to change their nature and character--provided that their influence does not destroy them--thus it is also with man4 ,the manner in which a human being obtains his means of subsistence not only affects his external appearance1 but also his feelings1 his thoughts and his actions4 ,if unfavorable conditions of existence--that is1 unfavorable social conditions--are the cause of insufficient individual development1 then it follows that by a change of his conditions of existence--that is1 his social condition--man himself will be changed4 ,the point in question1 then1 is1 so to organize social conditions that every human being will be given an opportunity for the untrammelled development of his nature2 that the laws of development and adaptation--called ,darwinism after ,darwin--may be consciously and expediently applied to all human beings4 ,but that will only be possible under ,socialism4 ,as a rational being1 capable of judgment1 man must so alter his social conditions and everything in connection with them1 that equally favorable conditions of existence prevail for all4 ,every individual shall be enabled to develop his talents and abilities to his own advantage as well as to the advantage of society1 but he must not have the power to harm other individuals or society at large4 ,his own advantage and the advantage of all shall coincide4 ,harmony of interests must supercede the conflict of interests that dominate present-day society4 ,darwinism1 like every true science1 is an eminently democratic science4#afc ,if some of its representatives claim that the opposite is true1 they fail to recognize the range of their own science4 ,its opponents1 especially the clergy1 who are always quick to perceive any advantage or disadvantage to themselves1 have recognized this1 and therefore denounce ,darwinism as being ,socialistic or atheistic4 ,in this respect ,professor ,virchow agrees with his most vehement opponents1 for at the congress of ,scientists1 held in ,munich in #ahgg1 he asserted in opposition to ,professor ,haeckel3 8,the ,darwinian theory leads to ,socialism40#afd ,virchow tried to discredit ,darwinism because ,haeckel demanded1 that the theory of evolution should be introduced into the school curriculum4 ,the suggestion to teach science in the schools according to ,darwin1 and the results of modern scientific investigations1 is vehemently opposed by all those who wish to maintain the present order4 ,the revolutionary effect of these doctrines is well known2 therefore it is deemed wiser to propagate them only among the chosen few4 ,but we contend that if the ,darwinian theories lead to ,socialism1 as ,virchow claims1 that is no argument against these theories1 but an argument in favor of ,socialism4 ,men of science should not question whether the consequences of a science lead to one form of the state or another1 whether one social condition or another is justified by them2 it is their sole duty to investigate whether the theories are in accordance with truth1 and if they are1 to accept them with all their consequences4 ,whoever acts otherwise1 be it for personal gain or favor or to serve class or party interest1 commits a despicable action and is no credit to science4 ,the representatives of corporate science1 especially at our universities1 can indeed only rarely lay claim to independence of character4 ,the fear of financial loss1 or the fear of being discredited with the powers that be and of being thereby deprived of title and rank and the opportunity of advancement1 causes most of these representatives to bow down and either to conceal their conviction1 or to say publicly the opposite of what they believe and know4 ,at a ceremony of homage to the ruler held at the ,university of ,berlin in #ahgj1 ,dubois-,reymond exclaimed3 8,the universities are institutions where the intellectual body-guards of the ,hohenzollern are trained40 ,if a ,dubois-,reymond could express himself in this manner1 we can imagine what conceptions in regard to the object of science are held by the majority of the others1 who are very inferior to this eminent scientist4#afe ,science is degraded to serve the purposes of the ruling powers4 ,it is only natural that ,professor ,haeckel and his adherents1 ,professor ,o4 ,schmidt1 v4 ,hellwald and others1 remonstrate energetically against the terrible accusation that ,darwinism leads to ,socialism4 ,they claim that the opposite is true1 that ,darwinism is aristocratic1 since it teaches that everywhere in nature the more highly organized and stronger living beings suppress the inferior ones2 and since1 according to their conception1 the propertied and educated classes constitute these more highly organized and stronger living beings in human society1 they consider the rule of these classes a matter of course1 since it is justified by the laws of nature4 ,these1 among our evolutionists1 are ignorant of the economic laws which dominate bourgeois society4 ,otherwise they would know that the blind rule of these laws does not raise to social pre-eminence either the best or the ablest or the most competent1 but frequently the worst and the most cunning1 who thereby are placed in a position of making the conditions of life and development most favorable to their progeny1 without the least effort on their part4 ,under no economic system did persons1 possessing good and noble human qualities1 have so little opportunity of attaining and maintaining an elevated position1 as under the capitalistic system4 ,without fear of exaggeration it may be said1 that this state of affairs increases with the development of this system4 ,lack of consideration for others and unscrupulousness in the choice and application of means to attain one's end1 prove far more effective than all human virtues combined4 ,only one who is ignorant of the nature of this society or who is so dominated by bourgeois prejudices that he cannot reason properly or draw correct conclusions1 could regard a social system based upon such conditions as a society of the 8fittest and best40 ,the struggle for existence is always present with all organisms4 ,it goes on without any knowledge on their part of the laws and conditions that shape it4 ,this struggle for existence prevails among men also and among the members of each social group from which solidarity has disappeared1 or where it has not yet been developed4 ,this struggle for existence changes its form according to the various relations of men to one another in the course of human development4 ,it assumes the character of class struggles on an ever higher scale4 ,but these struggles--and thereby man is distinguished from all other human beings--lead to a growing understanding of the nature of society1 and finally to a recognition of the laws which determine its development4 ,eventually man will but need to apply these laws to his social and political institutions and to transform them accordingly4 ,the difference is that man may be called a reasoning animal1 but the animal is not a reasoning human being4 ,this many ,darwinists fail to see1 owing to their biased conceptions1 and therefore arrive at false conclusions4#aff ,professor ,haeckel and his adherents also deny that ,darwinism leads to atheism4 ,thus1 after they have done away with the 8creator0 by all their scientific arguments and proofs1 they make desperate efforts to re-introduce him4 ,to attain this purpose a new sort of individual 8religion0 is formed1 that has been termed 8higher morality10 8moral principles10 etc4 ,in #ahhb at the congress of scientists in ,eisenach1 in the presence of the ,grand-duke of ,weimar and his family1 ,professor ,haeckel endeavored not only to save religion but also to represent his master1 ,darwin1 as being a religious man4 ,the attempt failed1 as anyone can affirm who read the lecture and the letter from ,darwin that was quoted in it4 ,darwin's letter expresses1 though in careful terms1 the opposite of what ,professor ,haeckel claimed it to express4 ,darwin was obliged to consider the piety of his fellow-countrymen1 the ,english1 therefore he never dared to express publicly his true views in regard to religion4 ,but he did so privately1 as became known shortly after the congress in ,weimar1 for he told ,dr4 ,l4 ,buechner that he had not believed since his fortieth year--since #ahdi--;because he had not been able to obtain proofs to justify belief4 ,during the last years of his life ,darwin also supported an atheistic newspaper1 which was published in ,new ,york4 #afa ,the ,newer ,history of the ,creation4 #afb ,proofs of this may be found in the previously quoted book by ,dr4 ,havelock ,ellis4 ,he relates that among many savage and semi-savage tribes woman is not only man's equal in regard to size and strength1 but even his superior4 ,ellis is agreed with others that the differences of brain between the sexes have increased with the development of civilization4 #afc 8,the hall of science is the temple of democracy40 ,buckle--,history of ,civilization in ,england4 ,vol4 ,,ii4 #afd ,ziegler denies that this was the sense of ,virchow's remarks1 but his own report of ,virchow's speech only confirms it4 ,virchow said3 8,now1 just picture how the theory of evolution is conceived even to-day by the brain of a ,socialist6 7,laughter7 ,yes1 gentlemen1 that may seem amusing to some of you1 but it is a very serious matter1 and ,i only hope the theory of evolution may not bring us such horrors as similar theories have brought about in our neighboring country4 ,if this theory is consistently followed out it is very hazardous1 and you cannot have failed to observe that ,socialism is in sympathy with it4 ,we should make this perfectly clear40--,well1 we have done what ,virchow feared1 we have drawn the conclusions of the ,darwinian theories that ,darwin himself and many of his followers either failed to draw or drew incorrectly1 and ,virchow warned against the dangers of these doctrines because he perceived that ,socialism would draw and would have to draw the conclusions that are involved in them4 #afe ,in reference to former attacks upon him1 ,dubois ,reymond repeated the sentence quoted above in ,february1 #ahhc1 during the commemoration of the birthday of ,frederick the ,great4 #aff ,enrico ,ferri published a book on 8,socialism and ,modern ,science1 ,darwin--,spencer--,marx10 in which he proves1 especially in answer to ,haeckel1 that ,darwinism and ,socialism are in complete harmony and that it is a grave error on ,haeckel's part to characterize ,darwinism as being aristocratic4 ,we do not agree with ,ferri's book in every respect4 ,we especially do not share his point of view in judging the qualities of women1 which is1 in the main1 the point of ,lombroso and ,ferrero4 ,ellis has shown in 8,man and ,woman0 that an existing difference in the qualities of man and woman does not imply the inferiority of one--a confirmation of ,kant's utterance1 that only man and woman together constitute the complete human being4 ,nevertheless ,ferri's book is a welcome one4 #e4--,woman and the ,learned ,professions4 ,women are justified in entering into intellectual competition with men1 instead of waiting until it pleases the men to develop their intellectual faculties and to clear the path for them4 ,the woman's movement is providing for this4 ,already women have removed many barriers and have entered the intellectual arena--in some countries with marked success4 ,the movement to obtain admission to the higher institutions of learning and to the practice of learned professions is1 in accordance with the nature of our conditions1 limited to the circles of bourgeois women4 ,the proletarian women are not directly concerned since1 for the time being1 these studies and the resulting positions are closed to them4 ,nevertheless1 this movement and its success is an object of general interest4 ,in the first place1 it is a matter of principle1 since it affects the general position of woman2 in the second place1 it is destined to show what women can accomplish even at present1 under conditions that are highly unfavorable to their development4 ,moreover1 all women are interested1 for instance1 in being able1 in case of sickness1 to be treated by physicians of their own sex1 if they so choose1 since many feel that they can confide with less reserve in a woman than in a man4 ,to a great many of our women female physicians are a blessing1 for the fact that they must turn to male physicians in the case of diseases or ailments connected with their sex functions1 frequently prevents them from seeking medical aid in time4 ,this leads to many troubles and serious results1 not only to the women themselves1 but to their husbands also4 ,there is hardly a physician who has not had some experience with this reticence of women1 that may sometimes be called almost criminal1 and their aversion against confessing to their ailments4 ,that is readily understood4 ,but it is inconceivable that the men1 and especially many physicians also1 will not recognize how justifiable it is1 therefore--indeed how necessary--for women to study medicine4 ,female physicians are no novel factor4 ,among most of the ancients1 especially among the ancient ,germans1 women practiced the art of healing4 ,there were female physicians and surgeons of note during the ninth and tenth centuries in the kingdom of the ,arabs1 especially in ,spain1 under the rule of the ,arabs 7,moors71 where they studied at the ,university of ,cordova4 ,the study of women at various ,italian universities1 as ,bologna and ,palermo1 was also due to ,moorish influence4 ,when the 8heathen0 influence ceased in ,italy1 these studies were prohibited4 ,in #acgg the faculty of the ,university of ,bologna issued the following decree3 8,as woman is the source of sin1 the devil's tool1 the cause of the expulsion from paradise1 and the cause of corruption of the old law1 and as therefore every conversation with her should be carefully avoided1 we distinctly forbid and interdict any one to venture to introduce any woman1 no matter how respectable she may be1 into this college4 ,should some one do so nevertheless1 the rector shall punish him severely40 ,one good result of the study of women is1 that female competition has a very stimulating influence on the studiousness of the male students1 which has left much to be wished for1 as has been affirmed by various sources4 ,that alone would be a great gain4 ,it would furthermore considerably improve their habits4 ,the drunkenness1 pugnacity1 and beer-saloon habit of our students would become greatly checked4 ,those places from which our statesmen1 judges1 public attorneys1 police officials1 ministers1 representatives of the people1 etc41 are chiefly recruited1 would become more worthy of the objects for which they were founded and are being maintained4 ,according to the impartial opinions of those competent to judge1 such an improvement is exceedingly needful4 ,the number of states that admit women to their high-schools and universities are rapidly increasing since a few decades4 ,none that lays claim to being a civilized state can offer continued resistance to this demand4 ,the ,united ,states took the lead and ,russia followed1 two states that are diametrically opposed to one another in every respect4 ,in the ,north ,american ,union women have been admitted to high-schools and universities in all the states2 in ,utah since #ahej2 in ,iowa since #ahfj2 in ,kansas since #ahff2 in ,wisconsin since #ahfh2 in ,minnesota since #ahfi2 in ,california and ,missouri since #ahgj1 and in ,ohio1 ,illinois and ,nebraska since #ahga4 ,since then all the other states followed4 ,quite in accordance with their opportunity for study1 the women in the ,united ,states have achieved their positions4 ,according to the census of #aijj there were3 #gcii female physicians and surgeons1 #eihi writers1 #ajda architects1 #cdje ministers1 #ajaj lawyers1 and #cbg1ije teachers4 ,in ,europe1 ,switzerland took the lead in opening its universities to women4 ,the following shows the number of male and female students at ,swiss universities3 ,enrolled ,total number of ,total female women attending students courses #ahif-ahig #gfgf #aejb #bgeg #aijj-aija #heba #aijd #caef #aije-aijf #daha #cia #gbh #aijf-aijg #ecja #hed #adbi ,during the term #aijf to #aijg the female students were distributed as follows among the various faculties3 law1 #ge2 medicine1 #aaha2 philosophy1 #fdh4 ,according to nationality there were #agb ,swiss women1 and #agcb foreigners4 ,the number of ,german women students in ,switzerland has decreased1 since they are admitted to ,german universities now1 although not without restrictions4 ,during the term #aijf to #aijg the number of regularly enrolled female students constituted about #cj per cent4 of all the students4 ,in ,england women are admitted to lecture at the universities1 but at ,oxford and ,cambridge they are still barred from taking degrees4 ,in ,france in #aije there were #cc1afh students1 among these #aibb women 7#ggd foreigners74 ,they were distributed as follows3 ,law1 #eg2 medicine1 #chf2 sciences1 #bei2 literature1 #hch2 miscellaneous1 #chb4 ,the following are the countries in which women have been admitted to universities3 ,united ,states1 ,england1 ,holland1 ,belgium1 ,denmark1 ,sweden1 ,norway1 ,russia1 ,germany1 ,austria1 ,hungary1 ,italy1 ,switzerland1 ,france1 ,turkey and ,australia4 ,female physicians are admitted to the practice of their profession in ,india1 ,abyssinia1 ,persia1 ,morocco1 ,china1 etc4 ,especially in the ,oriental countries female physicians are constantly gaining ground4 ,the restrictions that custom and religion place upon women in these countries make female physicians an especially great boon4 ,after long struggles and great exertions1 ,germany1 too1 has at last taken a new course1 though timidly at first4 ,by a decision passed by the ,federal ,council on ,april #bd1 #ahii1 women have been admitted to examinations for the practice of medicine and dentistry1 as well as pharmacy1 upon the same terms as men4 ,by another decision of the ,federal ,council of ,july #bh1 #aijj1 ,german women physicians who studied abroad are admitted to practice in ,germany1 and studies commenced abroad were accredited to them4 ,even since #ahih some ,german universities1 as ,heidelberg and ,goettingen1 had opened their doors to women4 ,during the term #aija to #aijb1 #abgj women attending courses were already enumerated in the registers of the universities4 ,in a number of ,german cities girls' high-schools and colleges were founded2 thus in ,karlsruhe1 ,stuttgart1 ,hannover1 ,koenigsberg1 ,hamburg1 ,frankfort on the ,main1 ,breslau1 ,berlin1 ,schoeneberg1 ,mannheim1 etc4 ,but in the spring of #aijb1 the senate of the ,university of ,berlin again declined a request by female students1 to be matriculated upon presentation of a certificate of admission from a ,german college4 ,the opposition by very influential circles in ,germany against the study of women had not yet been overcome4 ,during ,march of #aijb1 the ,prussian minister of public instruction delivered a speech in the ,prussian diet1 in which he said among other things1 that the girls' colleges are an experiment that must be declined by the ministry of public instruction4 ,he feared1 so he said1 that the differences between man and woman established by nature and developed by civilization1 would be impaired by the study of girls at colleges and universities1 and that the characteristics of the ,german woman ought to be maintained for the welfare of the ,german family4 ,that is quite in keeping with the old conception4 ,many ,german professors also continue to oppose study for women1 though others admit that many of the female students are well1 some even excellently qualified1 to meet the demands made upon them4 ,what some of the students1 perhaps a majority of them1 thought in regard to the study of women1 may be seen from the following protest of the clinical students at ,halle1 addressed to the medical students of ,germany generally during ,march of #aijb4 ,after it states that the protest has been caused by the agitation1 carried on by the 8,society for ,furthering the ,education of ,women in ,berlin10 to admit women to the study of medicine1 it goes on to say3 8,since this question has been called to public attention1 the clinical students of ,halle turn to those circles to whom the decision is of prime importance1 the clinical students and physicians at ,german universities4 ,they either know the resulting unpleasantness from personal experience1 or can picture to what unwholesome situations1 devoid of all modesty1 this common clinical instruction must lead1 situations that are too revolting to be described4 ,the medical faculty of the university of ,halle was one of the first to admit women to the study of medicine1 and the innovation may be regarded as a complete failure4 ,into these halls of earnest endeavor cynicism has entered with the women1 and scenes frequently occur that are equally obnoxious to instructors1 students and patients4 ,here the emancipation of woman becomes a calamity1 conflicting with morality1 and should be checked4 ,colleagues1 who would dare1 in the face of these facts1 to oppose our just demands8 ,we demand the exclusion of women from clinical instruction1 because experience has taught us that a common clinical instruction of male and female students is incompatible with a thoroughgoing study of medicine1 as well as with the principles of decency and morality4 ,this question taken up by us is no longer a local one4 ,already it has been stated in government circles1 that women are to be definitely admitted to the study of medicine4 ,you all now are equally interested in our cause1 and therefore we appeal to you3 ,express your opinion on this question and join with us in a common protest60 ,this protest is a striking proof of the narrow-mindedness of the clinical students and also of their envy1 for petty envy is at the bottom of most of their moral considerations4 ,how can an institution that has existed for years in other civilized countries1 without injuring the morals and the sense of decency of male and female students1 be considered a peril to ,germany8 ,the ,german students are not famed for their morality and ought to refrain from a moral outburst that seems like a jest4#afg ,if it is not incompatible with decency and morality for female nurses to be present and to render assistance to the physicians during all kinds of operations upon male and female patients1 if it is decent and proper for dozens of young men to surround1 for the purpose of study1 the bed of a woman in the throes of child-birth1 and to witness operations upon female patients1 then it is ridiculous to seek to exclude the female students4 ,very different from the reasons given by the clinical students of ,halle1 was an argument advanced against the admission of women to the study of medicine by the late ,professor ,bischoff4 ,the reason he gave was the brutality of the male students1 which he was well qualified to judge4 ,but1 regardless of the narrow-mindedness or envy of men1 the question has been decided in favor of the women4 ,on ,august #ah1 #aijh1 an edict was published1 decreeing the regular enrollment of female students at the universities of ,prussia1 where until then they had been admitted to the lectures4 ,the only restriction is1 that for the purpose of immatriculation ,german women require the consent of the minister in one case1 and foreigners require it in all cases4#afh ,the entire number of women students enrolled at ,german universities was1 during the term of #aijh-aiji1 #ajgg1 as against #cgg during the summer of #aijh1 and #bed in #aijf4 ,they were distributed among the various universities as follows3 ,berlin1 #djj2 ,bonn1 #fi2 ,breslau1 #ej2 ,erlangen1 #aa2 ,freiburg1 #fg2 ,giessen1 #bc2 ,goettingen1 #ga2 ,greifswald1 #e2 ,halle1 #bb2 ,heidelberg1 #aji2 ,jena1 #ac2 ,kiel1 #b2 ,koenigsberg1 #ag2 ,leipsic1 #dd2 ,marburg1 #bg2 ,munich1 #acd2 ,tuebingen1 #f2 ,wuerzburg1 #g4 ,only the universities of ,strassburg1 ,rostock and ,muenster had no female students4 ,the entire number of women attending courses was #aghg during the summer of #aijh1 and #agfg during the term #aijh to #aiji4 ,they were distributed as follows3 ,berlin1 #cac2 ,strassburg1 #bdi2 ,breslau1 #afh2 ,munich1 #aca2 ,bonn1 #abj2 ,koenigsberg1 #aaf2 ,leipsic1 #ie2 ,giessen1 #ic2 ,goettingen1 #gc2 ,tuebingen1 #fg2 ,halle1 #ed2 ,freiburg1 #ej1 and in all others less than #ej4 ,of the regularly enrolled women students #c studied theology2 #ca1 law2 #ccd1 medicine1 and #gji1 philosophy4 ,the admission of women to the universities necessitated a thoroughgoing reform of girls' high-schools4 ,according to the provisions of ,may #ca1 #ahii1 a nine years' course had been set down as the rule for girls' high-schools1 while a ten years' course was the exception4 ,but development necessitated the regular introduction of a tenth class4 ,according to statistics there were in #aija1 #bac public high-schools for girls2 among these #ij had a nine years' course and #ed a ten years' course4 ,in ,october1 #aijg1 the number of schools having a nine years' course had decreased from #ij to #fi1 and the number of schools having a ten years' course had increased from #ed to #acb4 ,among the private schools for girls1 too1 there were1 besides #aaj with a nine years' course1 #ach with a ten years' course4 ,it only remained to add the bureaucratic seal to this actual development1 and to preserve as much as possible of the 8characteristics of ,german women40 ,according to the reform of ,august #ah1 #aijh1 girls' high schools shall consist of ten grades4 ,to 8complete her education in regard to the future life's work of a ,german woman10 it is planned to found a lyceum with a course from one to two years4 ,in order to prepare young girls of the upper classes for academic training1 colleges are being planned1 which are to be under the same management as the girls' high-schools4 ,thereby an experiment1 which the board of education still refused to consider in ,march #aijb1 is now1 six years later1 under the pressure of economic development1 being introduced by that same board on a national scale4 ,let us consider the official argumentation6 ,it reads as follows3 8,the rapid development of our civilization and the resulting changes in social1 economic and educational conditions1 have brought about that1 especially in the middle and upper classes1 many girls remain unprovided for1 and much ability reposing in woman1 that may be valuable to the community1 remains unapplied4 ,the numerical superiority of the female population and the increasing bachelorhood of men of the upper classes1 compel a large percentage of educated girls to renounce their natural profession of wifehood and motherhood4 ,it becomes necessary to open professions to them that are suited to their education1 and to give them an opportunity to earn their living1 not only by teaching1 but also by other professions attainable by a university education40 ,this almost reads like an extract from my book6 ,be this as it may1 the higher education of women can no longer be halted4 ,there are female physicians in all civilized countries of the world1 and even in some that are not yet regarded as civilized4 ,the late ,li ,hung ,chang had appointed as his family physician a ,chinese woman doctor who practiced at the woman's hospital of her native town1 ,futchang4 ,the late ,sonia ,kowalewska1 the noted mathematician1 was professor of mathematics at the ,university of ,stockholm from #ahhi until her death in #ahia4 ,there are many women professors in the ,united ,states1 and some also in ,italy1 ,switzerland1 ,england and ,france4 ,in ,france the famous ,marie ,curie1 who together with her husband discovered radium and polonium1 was1 after the death of her husband in #aijf1 appointed his successor at the university4 ,we see women acting as physicians1 dentists1 lawyers1 chemists1 physicists1 geologists1 botanists1 teachers at higher institutions of learning1 etc41 and it is up to the women themselves to prove by their achievements1 that they are as competent to fill the positions entrusted to them as men4 ,in ,switzerland1 during the summer of #ahii1 a majority of voters in the ,canton of ,zurich1 favored the admission of women to the practice of law4 ,the decision was passed by #ba1gag against #bj1jdf votes4 ,in the ,united ,states women are admitted to the bar in #cd states4 ,they are also admitted in ,france1 ,holland1 ,sweden1 ,denmark1 ,finland1 ,russia1 ,canada and ,australia4 ,many men1 especially learned men1 are opposed to the higher education of women1 because they believe that the sciences will become degraded if even women can practice them4 ,they regard scientific study as a privilege reserved for the chosen few of the male sex4 ,unfortunately our universities1 as our entire educational system1 still leave much to be wished for4 ,as the children in the public schools are frequently robbed of the most valuable time to cram their brains with a lot of things that are not in conformity with reason and scientific knowledge1 as they are burdened with a lot of learning that will prove useless in life and will rather hamper than help their development1 thus it is also with our higher institutions of learning4 ,in the preparatory schools the pupils are crammed with a lot of useless stuff1 mostly learned by rote1 that absorbs most of their time and strength1 and in the universities the same method is generally pursued4 ,besides good and useful things1 many that are antiquated and superfluous continue to be taught4 ,most professors repeat the same lectures term after term even down to the interspersed jokes4 ,to many the noble profession of teaching becomes a mere trade1 and it does not require much intelligence on the part of the students to perceive this4 ,the prevailing conceptions concerning college life also prevent the young people from taking their studies too seriously1 and some who would like to take them seriously are repulsed by the pedantic and uninteresting methods of many professors4 ,it is generally admitted that students at high-schools and universities are becoming less studious1 a fact that has caused some alarm among the authorities4 ,alongside of this we find toadyism and patronage playing an important part at our institutions of learning in this age1 which is marked by a lack of character4 ,to be of good family and to have 8sound principles10 is regarded as being of greater importance than knowledge and ability4 ,a patriot--that is1 one who has no convictions of his own1 but takes his cue from his superiors and fawns upon them--is considered more than a man of character1 wisdom and ability4 ,when examinations come around1 men of this type cram for a few months what is needful to attain the passing mark1 and when the examinations have been passed successfully1 and they have attained an official or professional position1 many of these 8scholars0 merely continue to work in a mechanical way4 ,yet they are very insulted if a man1 who is not a 8scholar01 does not treat them with utmost respect and fails to regard them as a superior species of human being4 ,the majority of our professional men1 lawyers1 judges1 physicians1 professors1 public officials1 artists1 etc41 are merely mechanics in their line1 and their sole object is personal gain4 ,only the industrious man discovers later on how much superfluous knowledge he assimilated and how often he failed to learn that which he requires most1 and then begins to learn anew4 ,during the best part of his life he has been bothered with much that was useless or harmful2 he requires a second part of his life to cast what is useless or harmful aside and to attain the heights of the views of his time1 and then only can he become a useful member of society4 ,many do not surpass the first stage1 others come to a standstill in the second1 and only few have the energy to struggle on to the third4 ,but decorum demands that the medival trash and superfluous learning should be maintained1 and as women have been until now1 and in many cases still are1 excluded from the preparatory institutions1 this fact furnishes a convenient excuse for excluding them from the lecture halls of the universities4 ,in ,leipsic1 during the seventies1 one of the most noted professors of medicine made the following frank confession to a lady3 8,a classical education is not essential to an understanding of medicine1 but it must be made a condition of entrance to maintain the dignity of science40 ,opposition against an obligatory1 classical education as being essential to the study of medicine1 is gradually manifesting itself in ,germany also4 ,the tremendous advance of the sciences and their great importance to life in general1 necessitates a scientific training4 ,but the classical education1 with its special preference of ,greek and ,latin1 considers science unimportant and neglects it4 ,it therefore frequently happens that young students are wanting in the most elementary scientific knowledge1 that is of decisive importance for a study like medicine4 ,even teachers themselves are beginning to oppose this one-sided method of education4 ,in other countries1 for instance1 in ,switzerland1 the study of science has long since been held as being of prime importance1 and all who possess sufficient preliminary knowledge in the natural sciences and mathematics are admitted to the study of medicine1 even without having had a so-called classical education4 ,the same is true of ,russia1 the ,united ,states1 and other countries4 ,in ,russia1 where suppression and persecution of the ,jews is considered one of the maxims of government1 an imperial ukase1 in #aijg1 prescribed that in the newly established school of medicine for women1 only #e per cent4 of the students might be of other than ,christian faith4 ,of these only #c per cent4 might be ,jewesses1 and the remaining #b per cent4 were to be reserved for students of ,moslem origin4 ,this is one of the retrogressive measures which are daily occurrences in ,russia4 ,the ,russian government certainly had no cause for such provisions1 because there is quite a dearth of physicians in that tremendous realm1 and because the ,russian women practitioners1 regardless of their faith or origin1 have been noted for the most unselfish devotion in the practice of their profession4 ,dr4 ,erismann1 who practiced in ,russia for many years1 delivered a lecture at the #edth annual convention of the ,medical ,society in ,olten1 in which he said3 8,very favorable were the experiences gathered during the first years in regard to the activity of the female physicians4 ,from the very beginning they were enabled to win the confidence of the people4 ,in the noble competition with their male colleagues they even carried off the laurels4 ,it was soon observed that the female physicians1 on an average1 treated more patients annually than the male physicians1 although the latter proved very efficient and unselfish1 likewise4 ,female patients especially1 in great numbers1 sought aid with the women doctors40#afi ,on the other hand1 female competition1 so much feared by men1 especially in regard to the practice of medicine1 has not been in evidence4 ,it seems that female physicians obtain a circle of patients from their own sex who apply to male physicians rarely1 or only in cases of extreme necessity4 ,it has1 moreover1 been observed that a great many women physicians abandon their profession as soon as they enter into marriage4 ,it seems that in present-day society the domestic duties of married women are so numerous1 especially where there are children1 that many women find it impossible to have two professions simultaneously4 ,a physician must be constantly prepared1 by day and by night1 to practice her profession1 and to many that becomes impossible4#agj ,after ,england1#aga the ,united ,states and ,france took lead in employing women as factory inspectors--an innovation that has become all the more necessary because1 as has been shown1 the number of women in industry is rapidly increasing1 and the industries employing women1 chiefly or exclusively1 are increasing likewise--a number of ,german states have also followed their example4 ,baden1 ,bavaria1 ,hessia1 the ,kingdom of ,saxony1 ,weimar1 ,wurtemberg1 and others have added women assistants to their factory inspectors1 and some of these have already achieved much recognition by their activity4 ,in ,prussia there are three women factory inspectors in ,berlin1 and one each in ,duesseldorf1 ,breslau and ,wiesbaden4 ,this proves again how the progress of ,prussia has been retarded compared with other ,german states4 ,there is not a single woman assistant in districts like ,potsdam 7with #cb1bii working women71 ,frankfort on the ,oder 7with #ca1cga71 ,liegnitz 7with #ca1gih71 and others1 where their presence is extremely needful4 ,here1 too1 it has been seen that working women confide more readily in members of their own sex1 and that female factory inspectors have been able to obtain much information that was denied to their male colleagues4 ,one shortcoming of this institution is that the assistants frequently are not given the autonomy that is needful in their position1 and their pay is not what it ought to be1 either4 ,the new institution is being tried out carefully and hesitatingly4#agb ,in ,germany the prejudice and aversion against employing women in public offices is particularly strong1 because so many retired military men annually seek appointments to all kinds of offices in the state and municipal administrations1 that there is hardly any room left for applicants from other circles4 ,when women are employed1 nevertheless1 their salary is considerably lower1 whereby they immediately appear as being worth less than men1 and whereby they also become a means to keep down wages and salaries4 ,the great variety of female ability could be observed especially well at the ,world's ,fair in ,chicago1 in #ahic4 ,the splendid woman's building had been entirely planned by female architects1 and the articles displayed that had been designed and made by women exclusively1 were much admired for their tasty and artistic execution4 ,in the realm of invention1 too1 women have achieved much and will achieve still more4 ,an ,american trade-journal published a list of inventions by women2 among them were3 ,an improved spinning machine2 a rotary loom1 which produces three times as much as the usual kind2 a chain elevator2 a connecting-rod for a propeller2 a fire-escape2 an apparatus for weighing wool1 one of the most delicate machines that have ever been invented1 of immeasurable value to the wool industry2 a fire extinguisher2 a process of employing petroleum as a fuel for steam-engines instead of wood or coal2 an improved spark-catcher for locomotives2 a signal for grade-crossings2 a system of heating cars without fire2 a lubricating felt to diminish friction 7on railroads72 a typewriter2 a signal-rocket for the navy2 a deep-sea telescope2 a system for subduing the noise of the elevated trains2 a smoke-consumer2 a machine for folding paper bags1 etc4 ,many improvements on sewing machines have been made by women2 for instance1 an appliance for sewing canvas and coarse cloth2 an apparatus for threading the needle while the machine is running2 an improvement of machines for sewing leather1 etc4 ,the last-named invention was made by a woman who was a harness-maker in ,new ,york4 ,the deep-sea telescope1 invented by ,mrs4 ,mather and improved by her daughter1 is an invention of great importance1 since it makes it possible to examine the keel of the largest vessel without bringing same into a dry-dock4 ,with the aid of this telescope sunken wrecks may be examined from ship-board1 obstacles to navigation and torpedoes may be located1 and so forth4 ,a machine famed in ,america and ,europe for its complicated and ingenious construction1 is one for the manufacture of paper bags4 ,many men1 among them noted mechanicians1 had tried in vain to construct a machine of this sort4 ,it was invented by a woman1 ,miss ,maggie ,knight4 ,the same lady has since invented a machine for the folding of paper bags1 which performs the labor of thirty persons4 ,she personally conducted the construction of this machine in ,amherst1 ,massachusetts4 #afg ,a statistic compiled by ,blaschko gives the following information in regard to the extension of sexual diseases among the various occupations4 ,first come the secret prostitutes with #cj per cent2 then the students with #be per cent2 merchants with #af1 and workingmen with #i per cent4 #afh ,in special cases women may be excluded from certain lectures with the consent of the minister of education4 #afi ,the organization of free clinical treatment of patients in the large cities of ,russia4--,german ,quarterly of ,public ,hygiene4 #agj ,what difficulties are entailed for women who have a family and at the same time wish to1 or have to1 practice a trade or profession1 has been ably shown in the book by ,adele ,gerhard and ,helen ,simon3 8,maternity and ,intellectual ,occupations0 7,berlin1 #aija1 ,george ,reimer74 ,it contains the personal experiences and opinions of writers1 artists1 singers1 actresses1 etc41 and these opinions prove that society must be completely reorganized to give full play to the great amount of female intelligence that exists and strives for expression1 since it is in the interest of society itself that it should be given full play4 #aga ,according to the last report for #aijh1 ,england has #af female factory inspectors1 ,miss ,a4 ,m4 ,anderson and #ae assistants4 #agb ,the first woman factory inspector was appointed in ,bavaria in #ahig4 ,from then until #aiji the number of woman factory inspectors rose to #bf4 ,fourteen states had until then not appointed any4 ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,the ,legal ,status of ,women4 #a4--,the ,struggle for ,equality ,before the ,law4 ,the social dependence of a race1 class1 or sex1 always finds expression in the laws and political conditions of the country in question4 ,the laws of a country are the formulated expression of its ruling interests4 ,women1 being the dependent and oppressed sex1 find their legal status mapped out to them accordingly4 ,laws are both negative and positive4 ,they are negative by failing to take notice of the oppressed in the distribution of rights4 ,they are positive inasmuch as they point out his dependent position and denote whatever exceptions there may be4 ,our common law is founded on the ,roman law1 which considers the human being solely in his quality as a propertied being4 ,the old ,german law1 that dealt more favorably with women1 has maintained its influence only to a slight extent4 ,in the ,french language1 as in the ,english language1 human being and the male are denoted by the same word1 8l'homme0--man4 ,in the same way1 the ,french law only recognizes the man as a human being1 and1 until a few decades ago1 this was true also of ,england1 where women were maintained in abject dependence4 ,it was the same in ancient ,rome4 ,there were ,roman citizens and wives of ,roman citizens1 but no ,roman citizenesses4 ,in ,germany the legal status of women has been somewhat improved1 inasmuch as the great variety of existing laws have been replaced by a uniform law1 whereby rights enjoyed by women here and there have been made general4 ,thereby1 unmarried women were admitted to guardianship2 women were permitted to act as witnesses1 to sign contracts1 and to carry on a business independently4 ,both husband and wife are entitled to the common ownership of each other's property1 unless the demands made by either party may be regarded as an abuse of his or her rights4 ,if there are conflicting opinions between them on this subject1 the decision rests with the husband1 who also is entitled to determine the place of residence4 ,if the husband should abuse this right1 the wife is exempt from obedience4 ,the sole management of the household rests with the wife4 ,she has the so-called power of the keys1 which empowers her1 within her domestic sphere1 to attend to her husband's affairs and to represent him4 ,the husband is liable for his wife's debts4 ,but the wife's power of the keys may be restricted1 or entirely abolished1 by her husband4 ,should he abuse his power1 this limitation may be annulled by the courts4 ,the wife is obliged to do the housework and to perform tasks in her husband's business1 but only where such occupations are customary1 in accordance with the husband's standard of living4 ,a demand to establish1 as the rule1 separate rights of ownership by husband and wife1 was declined by the ,diet4 ,this can only be obtained by means of the marriage contract1 which is usually neglected1 and may lead to disagreements later on4 ,instead1 community of management was established4 ,the husband is thereby entitled to dispose of his wife's property1 while she is limited to her dowry4 ,on the other hand1 the wife has unrestricted control over whatever she may earn during marriage1 by personal labor or in business4 ,the husband has no right to deprive the wife of her earnings or her dowry4 ,the wife may also demand security1 in case she has good reason to fear that her property is endangered1 which she may sometimes learn too late4 ,she may also enter a complaint to have the common ownership abolished1 if her husband should fail to provide for her and her children4 ,the husband is liable for damage resulting from mismanagement4 ,the wife may be grievously wronged by the existing divorce laws4 ,for1 in case of divorce1 the joint earnings of husband and wife belong to the husband1 even if he is the guilty party1 and if most of their common property has been earned by the wife4 ,but the woman is entitled to alimony1 according to her station1 only if it can be shown that she is not able to maintain her standard of living by means of her own property or earnings4 ,paternal control has been replaced by the joint control of both parents1 but in case of disagreement between the parents1 the decision rests with the father4 ,in case of the father's death1 parental control1 including the management and use of the child's property1 devolves on the mother4 ,a divorced woman has no right to represent her children legally1 or to control their property1 even if the children have been awarded to her1 while the father continues to enjoy full parental rights4 ,in ,england1 until #ahgj1 according to the common law1 a husband was entitled to all the personal property of his wife4 ,only real estate remained her property by law1 but even this the husband was entitled to manage and to use4 ,the ,english woman was a mere cipher before the law4 ,she could not sign any legal document1 not even a will4 ,she was her husband's chattel4 ,if she committed any crime in her husband's presence1 he was held responsible for it1 since she was regarded as a minor4 ,in case she damaged any one's property1 the damage was viewed as if done by a domestic animal2 her husband was answerable for it4 ,in #ahhh ,bishop ,j4 ,n4 ,wood delivered a lecture in the chapel at ,westminster1 in which he said1 among other things1 that as late as a century ago ,english women had not been permitted to eat at their husbands' table1 nor to speak until they were spoken to4 ,as a symbol of his marital power1 a whip hung above the bed1 that the husband was permitted to wield when the wife was not as docile as her lord desired her to be4 ,only her daughters were obliged to obey her4 ,by her sons she was regarded as a servant4 ,by the laws of #ahgj1 #ahhb and #ahic1 the woman is not only entitled to all the property brought into marriage by her1 she is also entitled to everything she may obtain during marriage by her earnings1 by inheritance1 or by gift4 ,this legal relation can be modified only by special agreement between husband and wife4 ,in this respect ,english legislation has followed the example set by the ,united ,states4 ,by the ,custody of ,infants' ,act1 of #ahhf1 in case of the father's death1 parental control devolves on the mother4 ,the ,intestate ,estates ,act1 of #ahij1 still gives the man a privileged position4 ,both husband and wife are free to dispose of their property by their last will and testament4 ,but if the wife dies intestate1 all her personal property belongs to her husband2 while1 if the husband dies intestate1 his widow is entitled to only one-third of his personal property and income on real estate2 the remainder belongs to his children4 ,many remnants of the old mediaeval law remain in force that greatly impair the legal status of married women4 ,as we have seen1 the divorce laws are still highly unfavorable to women4 ,if a man commits adultery1 that alone is no ground for divorce for the woman1 but only in connection with cruelty1 bigamy1 rape1 etc4#agc ,the civil law is especially unfavorable to women in ,france1 and in all those countries--mostly ,romanic countries--that are strongly influenced by the ,french 8code civil10 or where it has been adopted in full1 with some modifications4 ,this is the case in ,belgium1 ,spain1 ,portugal1 ,italy1 ,russian ,poland1 the ,netherlands1 and in most of the cantons of ,switzerland4 ,there is a saying by ,napoleon ,i4 that is characteristic of his conception of the position of women1 and that still holds true2 it is3 8,one thing is not ,french1 a woman who may do as she pleases40#agd ,as soon as a ,french woman marries she is placed under the guardianship of her husband4 ,according to the ,code ,civil1 she may not appear in court without the consent of her husband1 not even if she is connected with a lawsuit4 ,the husband shall protect his wife1 and the wife shall obey her husband4 ,he controls the property brought into marriage by his wife2 he may sell1 rent1 or mortgage same1 without being obliged to ask her consent4 ,the result is1 that women frequently live in a condition of absolute servitude4 ,a man may spend his wife's earnings on drink1 or on frivolous women2 he may gamble and run into debt1 leaving his wife and children in want2 he is even entitled to demand from an employer the wages his wife has earned4 ,under such circumstances it is not to be wondered at that many women prefer to desist from marriage1 as was frequently seen in ,france4 ,in most ,romanic countries women cannot act as witnesses to legal documents1 contracts1 wills1 etc4 ,in ,france this was the case until #ahig4 ,but they are permitted--by a strange inconsistency--to act as witnesses at court in all criminal cases1 where their testimony may perhaps lead to the execution of a human being4 ,in criminal law woman is everywhere regarded as man's equal1 and crimes and transgressions committed by her are measured by the same standard as those committed by man4 ,our law-makers seem blissfully unconscious of this glaring inconsistency4 ,as a widow1 a woman may make her will1 but in a great many states she is not admitted as a witness to a will1 yet she may be appointed as executrix4 ,in ,italy women are admitted as witnesses in civil law since #ahgg4 ,the privileged position of men is especially manifest in the divorce laws4 ,according to the 8,code ,civil10 in ,france a man might obtain a divorce if his wife committed adultery2 but a woman could not obtain it1 unless her husband had brought his concubine into their home4 ,this article has been changed by the divorce law of ,july #bg1 #ahhd1 but in ,french criminal law the distinction has been maintained1 which is very characteristic of the ,french law-makers4 ,if a woman has been convicted of adultery she is punishable by imprisonment of from three months to two years4 ,but the man is punishable only if he has maintained a concubine in his own household1 as per the former article of the 8,code ,civil40 ,if found guilty1 his only punishment is a fine of from #ajj to #bjjj francs4 ,such inequality before the law would be impossible if there were women in the parliament of ,france4 ,similar laws are in force in ,belgium4 ,the penalty for adultery when committed by a woman is the same as in ,france4 ,the man goes unpunished1 unless adultery has been committed by him in his and his wife's domicile2 in that event he may be punished by imprisonment of from one month to one year4 ,in ,belgium the injustice is not quite as glaring as in ,france1 but in both countries we find one standard of law for the man and another one for the woman4 ,under the influence of ,french law similar provisions have been made in ,spain and ,portugal4 ,according to the civil law of ,italy1 enacted in #ahfe1 a woman cannot obtain a divorce on the ground of adultery1 unless her husband maintains his concubine in his own home1 or in a place where her presence appears as a particular insult to the wife4 ,in #aijg1 together with the enactment of ,june #ba1 which has modified a number of articles of the ,code ,civil in regard to marriage1 both chambers finally adopted the law of ,july #ac1 whereby the wife became the sole owner of property earned by her1 or obtained by inheritance or gift4 ,the husband has been deprived of his former control over the personal property of his wife4 ,that is the first breach in ,french law1 and thereby ,french women have obtained the same legal status that was obtained for ,english women by the law of #ahgj4 ,much more advanced than the 8,code ,civil0 and more advanced also than ,german civil law1 is the new civil law of ,switzerland that was adopted on ,december #aj1 #aijg1 and will come into force on ,january #a1 #aiab4 ,until now the various cantons of ,switzerland had their own laws4 ,in ,geneva1 ,waadt1 and ,italian ,switzerland they were partly founded on the 8,code ,civil40 ,in ,bern and ,lucerne they were founded on ,austrian law1 and in ,schwytz1 ,uri1 ,unterwalden1 etc41 the old common law prevailed4 ,now ,switzerland is to have a uniform code of laws4 ,the freedom of the wife and the children is assured4 ,the new law provides that the wife is entitled to one-third of her husband's income1 even if she is only occupied as his assistant or housekeeper4 ,in regard to inheritance1 also1 the laws are more favorable to women than the ,german laws4 ,when a man dies1 his wife is not only entitled to one-half of his property1 but also1 together with the man's parents1 to the lifelong use of the income from the other half4 ,if people owe money to a man who fails to provide for his wife and children1 the judge may instruct them to pay these debts1 not to the man himself1 but to his wife4 ,the law no longer forbids a divorced person to marry the person with whom he has committed adultery4 ,the property rights of married persons are mainly determined by the marriage contract that may be drawn up by both before and during marriage4 ,illegitimate children--in cases where the mother had been given a promise of marriage--are not only entitled to alimony from their father1 as according to the new ,german law1 but they are also entitled to their father's name1 and thereby obtain the full rights of legitimate children4 ,swedish women are given full control over their own earnings by a law of ,dec4 #aa1 #ahgd4 ,in ,denmark a similar law was enacted in #ahhj4 ,according to ,danish law no claims may be made on a woman's property for the payment of her husband's debts4 ,the ,norwegian law of #ahhh and the ,finnish law of #ahhi are quite similar4 ,the married woman has the same control over her property as the unmarried woman2 only some exceptions are provided for that are stated in the law4 ,in the ,norwegian law it is clearly stated1 that the woman becomes a dependent by marriage4 8,in the ,scandinavian countries1 as elsewhere1 this universal movement to extend the property rights of women originated in the same way as it did in ,england3 through the gainful employment of married women4 ,the ruling classes were far more willing to abandon the patriarchal superiority of the common man over his working wife1 than that of the man from their own ranks over his propertied wife40#age ,in the law of ,may #bg1 #aijh1 ,danish legislation advanced still another step4 ,if a husband and father fails to provide for his family1 the wife and children may have the sum1 awarded to them by the authorities1 advanced out of the public funds4 ,in most countries the father has the sole control over the children and the right to determine their education4 ,only in some countries the mother is given joint control with the father in a more or less subordinate way4 ,the old ,roman principle1 whereby the father had complete power over his children1 everywhere forms the key-note of legislation4 ,in ,russia married women have some control over their property1 but as bread-winners they remain utterly subservient to their husbands4 ,no pass--which is absolutely essential for any change of residence--is ever issued to a married woman without her husband's consent4 ,in order to accept a position or to practice any trade or profession1 she must also have her husband's permission4 ,divorce is made so difficult1 that it can be obtained only in very rare cases4 ,the position of ,russian women was much more independent formerly in the old peasant communities1 which was due to the remaining communistic institutions or to the reminiscences of these institutions4 ,the peasant woman was the manager of her own estate4 ,communism is the most favorable social condition for women4 ,we have seen this from our exposition of the matriarchal period4#agf ,in the ,united ,states the women have succeeded in winning almost complete equality before the law2 they have also prevented the introduction of ,english and other laws regulating prostitution4 #agc ,a4 ,chapman and ,m4 ,chapman--,the ,status of ,women under the ,english ,law4 ,london1 #aiji4 #agd ,l4 ,bridel--,la puissance maritale4 ,lausanne1 #ahgi4 #age ,marianne ,weber--,wife and ,mother in the ,evolution of ,law4 ,tubingen1 #aijg4 #agf ,the correctness of this conception may be seen from the comedy by ,aristophanes1 8,the ,popular ,assembly of ,women40 ,in this comedy ,aristophanes depicts how the ,athenian state was so mismanaged that no one knew what to do4 ,in the popular assembly of the citizens of ,athens the prytanes submit the question how the state is to be saved4 ,a woman1 disguised as a man1 moves to entrust the government to the women1 and this motion is carried without resistance1 8because it was the only thing not yet tried in ,athens40 ,the women proceed to steer the ship of state and immediately introduce communism4 ,of course1 ,aristophanes ridicules this condition1 but the characteristic part of his play is1 that he has the women introduce communism as the only rational social organization from their point of view1 as soon as they come into power4 ,aristophanes had no idea of how much truth was in his jest4 #b4--,the ,struggle for ,political ,equality4 ,the evident inequality of women before the law has caused the more advanced among them to demand political rights1 in order to attain their equality by means of legislation4 ,the same thought has also led the working class to direct their agitation toward the conquest of political power4 ,what is right for the working class1 cannot be wrong for the women4 ,being oppressed1 devoid of rights and1 in many instances1 disregarded1 it is not only their right1 but their duty to defend themselves and to adopt any method that appears good to them1 so that they may win an independent position4 ,of course these endeavors are opposed by the usual reactionary croakings4 ,let us see to what extent these are justified4 ,women possessing eminent intellectual abilities have influenced politics at all times and among all peoples1 even where they were not endowed with the power of sovereigns4 ,even the papal court was not exempt from this4 ,if they could not exert any influence by means of the rights conceded to them1 they did so by their intellectual superiority1 even by intrigues4 ,for many centuries their influence was particularly strong at the court of ,france1 as also at the ,spanish and ,italian courts4 ,at the close of the seventeenth century1 at the court of ,philip ,v4 of ,spain1 ,marie of ,trmonille1 ,countess of ,bracciano and ,princess of ,ursins1 was the prime-minister of ,spain for thirteen years1 and during this time very ably conducted ,spanish politics4 ,as the mistresses of rulers1 many women have succeeded in obtaining a great political influence2 we need but mention the well-known names of ,maintenon1 the mistress of ,louis ,,xiv41 and ,pompadour1 the mistress of ,louis ,,xv4 ,the great intellectual awakening of the eighteenth century1 that produced men like ,montesquieu1 ,voltaire1 d',allembert1 ,holbach1 ,helvetius1 ,la ,mettrie1 ,rousseau1 and many others1 did not fail to affect the women4 ,this great movement1 which questioned the justification of the fundamental principles of the state and feudal society and helped to undermine them1 may have been joined by some women to follow the fashion1 to satisfy their love of intrigue1 or for other unworthy motives4 ,but a great many women were impelled to take part in this movement by their profound interest and enthusiasm for its noble aims4 ,decades before the outbreak of the great revolution1 which swept over ,france like a purifying cloud-burst1 tore the old order asunder and cast it down1 causing jubilation among the most advanced minds of the age1 women had thronged into the scientific and political clubs1 where philosophical1 scientific1 religious1 social and political problems were discussed with unwonted daring1 and had taken part in the discussions4 ,when at length1 in ,july1 #aghi1 the storming of the ,bastille ushered in the great revolution1 women of the upper classes and women of the common people participated actively and exerted a very noticeable influence both for and against it4 ,they participated excessively in both good and evil wherever an opportunity presented itself4 ,the majority of historians have taken more notice of the excesses of the revolution than of its great and noble deeds4 ,these excesses1 by the way1 were only too natural1 for they were the result of tremendous exasperation at the unspeakable corruption1 the exploitation1 the imposition1 the baseness and villany of the ruling classes4 ,under the influence of these biased descriptions1 ,schiller wrote the lines3 8,and women there become hyenas and mock at horror and despair40 ,and yet in those years women have set so many noble examples of heroism1 magnanimity1 and admirable self-sacrifice1 that to write an impartial book on 8the women in the great revolution10 would mean the erection of a noble monument in their honor4#agg ,according to ,michelet1 women even were the van-guard of the revolution4 ,the general poverty and want from which the ,french people suffered under the predatory and disgraceful rule of the ,bourbon kings1 especially affected the women1 as is always the case under similar conditions4 ,being excluded from almost every decent means of support1 tens of thousands of them fell victims to prostitution4 ,to this was added the famine of #aghi1 which increased the suffering of women and children to the utmost4 ,this famine led them to storm the town-hall in ,october and to march in masses to ,versailles1 the seat of the court4 ,it also caused a number of them to petition the national assembly 8that the equality between man and woman be reinstated1 that work and employment be opened to them and that they be given positions suited to their abilities40 ,as the women recognized that they needed power to win their rights1 but that they could attain power only by organizing and by standing together in great numbers1 they organized women's clubs throughout ,france1 some of which had a surprisingly large membership1 and also took part in the men's meetings4 ,while brilliant ,madame ,roland preferred to play a leading political part among the 8statesmen0 of the ,french ,revolution1 the ,girondistes1 passionate and eloquent ,olympe de ,gouges took the leadership of the women of the people and espoused their cause with all the enthusiasm of her fervent temperament4 ,when the assembly proclaimed 8the rights of man0 7les droits de l'homme71 in #agic1 she promptly recognized that they were only rights of men4 ,in opposition to these1 ,olympe de ,gouges1 together with ,rose ,lacombe and others1 wrote 8,the rights of ,women10 in seventeen articles4 ,on the #bh ,brumaire 7,november #bj1 #agic71 she defended the rights before the ,paris ,commune1 with arguments that are still fully justified4 ,in her argumentation the following sentence1 characteristic of the situation1 was contained3 8,if a woman has the right to mount the scaffold she must also have the right to mount the platform40 ,her demands remained unfulfilled4 ,but her reference to the right of woman to mount a scaffold met with bloody confirmation4 ,her defence of the rights of women on the one hand1 and her struggle against the atrocities of the assembly on the other1 made her appear ripe for the scaffold to the assembly4 ,she was beheaded on the #c;d of ,november1 of the same year4 ,five days later ,madame ,roland was beheaded1 also4 ,both went to their death heroically4 ,shortly before these executions1 on ,october #ag1 #agic1 the assembly had shown its attitude of hostility toward women by deciding to suppress all the women's clubs4 ,later on1 when the women continued to protest against the wrong perpetrated against them1 they were even forbidden to attend the assembly and the public meetings1 and were treated as rebels4 ,when monarchical ,europe marched against ,france1 and the assembly declared 8the fatherland to be in danger10 ,parisian women offered to do what was done twenty years later by enthusiastic ,prussian women1 to bear arms in defence of the fatherland1 thereby hoping to prove their right to equality4 ,but they were opposed in the commune by the radical ,chaumette1 who addressed them thus3 8,since when are women permitted to deny their sex and to make men of themselves8 ,since when is it customary for them to neglect the tender care of their households1 to forsake the cradles of their children1 to come into public places1 to speak from platforms1 to enter the ranks of the army1 with one word1 to perform those duties which nature has destined man to perform8 ,nature has said to the man3 #8,be a man6 ,the races1 the hunt1 agriculture1 politics1 all exertions are your privilege4' ,she has said to the woman3 #8,be a woman6 ,the care of your children1 the details of the household1 the sweet restlessness of motherhood1 these are your tasks4' ,foolish women1 why do you seek to become men8 ,are human beings not properly divided8 ,what more do you ask8 ,in the name of ,nature1 remain what you are1 and far from envying us our stormy lives1 make us forget them in the midst of our families by letting our eyes rest upon the lovely sight of our children1 happy in your tender care40 ,undoubtedly the radical ,chaumette expressed the opinion held by most men4 ,it is generally considered an appropriate division of labor that men defend the country and women care for hearth and home4 ,for the rest the oratorical effusion of ,chaumette consists of mere phrases4 ,it is not true that man has borne the burdens of agriculture4 ,from primeval days down to the present woman has contributed a large share to agriculture4 ,the exertions of the hunt and the races are no 8exertions10 but a pleasure to men1 and politics entails dangers only for those who combat current opinions1 while to others it offers at least as much pleasure as exertion4 ,nothing but the egotism of man finds expression in this speech4 ,aims similar to those pursued by the ,encyclopedists and the great revolution in ,france found expression in the ,united ,states1 when1 during the seventies and eighties of the eighteenth century1 the colonists won their struggle for independence from ,england and established a democratic constitution4 ,at that time1 ,mercy ,ottis ,warren and the wife of the second president of the ,united ,states1 ,mrs4 ,adams1 together with a few other women1 favored political equality4 ,it was due to their influence that the ,state of ,new ,jersey bestowed the right of suffrage upon women1 of which it deprived them again in #ahjg4 ,in ,france1 even before the outbreak of the revolution1 ,condorcet1 later a ,girondist1 published a brilliantly written essay in favor of woman's suffrage and the political equality of both sexes4 ,inspired by the great events in the neighboring country1 it was brave ,mary ,wollstonecraft1 born in #agei1 who proclaimed woman's cause at the other side of the channel4 ,in #agij she wrote a book in opposition to ,burke1 one of the most vehement opponents of the ,french ,revolution1 in which she defended the rights of man4 ,soon after she proceeded to demand the rights of man for her own sex4 ,in her book1 published in #agib1 8,a ,vindication of the ,rights of ,women10 she severely criticised her own sex1 but demanded and bravely defended complete equality for women in behalf of the common welfare4 ,she met with vehement opposition and was subjected to severe and unjust attacks4 ,heart-broken by bitter inward struggles1 she died in #agig1 misunderstood and ridiculed by her contemporaries4 ,at the same time1 when the first serious endeavors to obtain political equality for women were being made in ,france1 ,england1 and the ,united ,states1 even in ,germany1 which was particularly retrogressive then1 a ,german writer--,th4 ,g4 v4 ,hippel--anonymously published a book in ,berlin1 in #agib1 on the 8,civic ,improvement in the ,condition of ,women10 in which he defended the equal rights of women4 ,at that time a book on the civic improvement in the condition of men would have been equally justified4 ,we must therefore doubly admire the courage of this man1 who1 in his book1 ventured to draw all the logical conclusions from social and political sex equality and defended same very ably and intelligently4 ,since then the demand for political rights of women has remained dormant for a long time2 but gradually it has been taken up again by the woman's movement in all countries and has become realized in a number of states4 ,in ,france the ,st4 ,simonists and ,fourierists favored sex equality1 and1 in #ahdh1 the ,fourierist ,considrant moved in the constitutional committee of the ,french parliament to bestow equal political rights upon women4 ,in #ahea1 ,pierre ,leroux repeated the motion in the chamber1 but likewise unsuccessfully4 ,at present matters have an entirely different aspect4 ,the development of our social conditions and all social relations have undergone a tremendous transformation and have at the same time transformed the position of women4 ,in all civilized states we find hundreds of thousands and millions of women employed in the most varied professions1 just like men1 and every year the number of women increases1 who must rely on their own strength and ability in the struggle for existence4 ,the nature of our social and political conditions1 therefore1 can no longer remain a matter of indifference to women4 ,they must be interested in questions like the following3 ,whether or not the control of domestic and foreign affairs favor war2 whether or not the state should annually keep hundreds of thousands of healthy men in the army and drive tens of thousands from the country2 whether or not the necessities of life should be raised in price by taxes and duties at a time when the means of subsistence are very scarce to a great majority1 etc4 ,women also pay direct and indirect taxes from their property and their earnings4 ,the educational system is of the greatest interest to women1 for the manner of education is a determining factor in the position of their sex2 it is of special importance to mothers4 ,the hundreds of thousands and millions of women employed in hundreds of trades and professions are personally and vitally concerned in the nature of our social legislation4 ,laws relating to the length of the work-day1 night-work1 child labor1 wages1 safety appliances in factories and workshops1 in one word1 all labor laws1 as also insurance laws1 etc41 are of the greatest interest to working women4 ,workingmen are only very insufficiently informed about the conditions existing in many branches of industry in which women are chiefly or exclusively employed4 ,it is to the interest of the employers to conceal existing evils that they have caused2 and in many instances factory inspection does not include trades in which women are exclusively employed2 yet in these very branches of industry protection is most needful4 ,we need but point to the workshops in our large cities1 where seamstresses1 dressmakers1 milliners1 etc41 are crowded together4 ,we hardly ever hear a complaint from their midst1 and there is no investigation of their condition4 ,women as bread-winners are also interested in the commerce and custom-laws and in all civil laws4 ,there can no longer be any doubt1 that it is as important to women as it is to men1 to influence the nature of our conditions by means of legislation4 ,the participation of women in public life would give it a new impetus and open new vistas4 ,demands of this sort are briefly set aside1 with the reply3 8,women don't understand politics2 most of them do not wish to have a vote and would not know how to use it40 ,that is both true and false4 ,it is true that until now1 in ,germany1 at least1 not very many women have demanded political equality4 ,the first ,german woman to proclaim the rights of women1 as early as the sixties of the last century1 was ,hedwig ,dohm4 ,recently the ,socialist working women have been the chief supporters of woman's suffrage and have undertaken an active agitation for the winning of the ballot4 ,the argument that women have until now shown only a very moderate interest in politics1 does not prove anything at all4 ,if women have failed to care about politics formerly1 that does not signify that they ought not to care about them now4 ,the same arguments that are advanced against woman suffrage were1 during the first half of the sixties1 advanced against universal manhood suffrage4 ,in #ahfc the writer of this book himself was among those who opposed it4 ,four years later it made possible his election to the ,diet4 ,tens of thousands experienced a similar development4 ,nevertheless there still are many men who either fail to make use of their political right1 or do not know how to use it4 ,yet that would be no reason to deprive them of it4 ,during the parliamentary elections usually from #be to #cj per cent4 of the voters fail to vote1 and among these are members of all classes4 ,while among the #gj to #ge per cent4 who do vote1 the majority1 in our opinion1 vote as they ought not to vote if they understood their own advantage4 ,that they do not understand is due to a lack of political education4 ,but political education is not obtained by withholding political rights from the masses4 ,it is obtained only by the practice of political rights4 ,practice alone makes perfect4 ,the ruling classes have always known it to be in their own interest to keep the great majority of the people in political dependence4 ,therefore it has been the task of a determined1 class conscious minority to struggle for the common good with energy and enthusiasm1 and to arouse the masses from their indifference and inertia4 ,it has been thus in all the great movements of history1 and therefore it need not surprise or discourage us that it is the same with the woman's movement4 ,the success that has been obtained so far shows1 that work and sacrifice are not in vain and that the future will bring victory4 ,as soon as women shall have obtained equal rights with men1 the consciousness of their duties will be awakened in them4 ,when asked to vote they will begin to question 8why0 and 8for whom40 ,thereby a new source of interest will be established between man and woman that1 far from harming their mutual relation1 will considerably improve it4 ,the inexperienced woman will naturally turn to the more experienced man4 ,therefrom an exchange of ideas and mutual instruction will result1 a relation that until now has been very rare between man and woman4 ,this will give their life a new charm4 ,the unfortunate differences in education and conception between the sexes that frequently lead to disputes1 breed discord in regard to the various duties of the man and injure the public welfare1 will be adjusted more and more4 ,a congenial and like-minded wife will support a man in his endeavors1 instead of hindering him4 ,if other tasks should prevent her from being active herself1 she will encourage the man to do his duty4 ,she will also be willing to sacrifice a fraction of the income for a newspaper and for purposes of agitation1 because the newspaper will mean instruction and entertainment to her1 and because she will understand that by the sacrifices for purposes of agitation1 a more worthy human existence can be won for herself1 her husband and her children4 ,thus the common service of the public welfare1 that is closely linked with the individual welfare1 will elevate both man and woman4 ,the opposite of that will be attained which is claimed by short-sighted persons or by the enemies of equal rights1 and this relation between the sexes will develop and become more beautiful as improved social conditions will liberate both man and woman from material care and excessive burdens of toil4 ,here1 as in other cases1 practice and education will help along4 ,if ,i do not go into the water ,i will never learn to swim2 if ,i do not study and practice a foreign language1 ,i will never learn to speak it4 ,that is readily understood by everyone2 but many fail to understand that the same holds true of the affairs of the state and society4 ,are our women less capable than the inferior ,negro race that was given political equality in ,north ,america8 ,or shall a highly cultured1 educated woman be entitled to fewer rights than the most coarse and ignorant man1 only because blind chance brought the latter into the world as a male being8 ,has the son a greater right than the mother from whom he has perhaps inherited his best qualities and who made him what he is8 ,such 8justice0 is strange1 indeed4 ,moreover1 we are no longer risking a leap into the dark and unknown4 ,north ,america1 ,new ,zealand1 and ,finland have paved the way4 ,on the effects of woman suffrage in ,wyoming1 ,justice ,kingman1 from ,laramie1 wrote to 8,the ,woman's ,journal10 on ,november #ab1 #ahgb1 as follows3 8,it is three years to-day that women were enfranchised in our territory and were also given the right to be elected to office1 as all other voters4 ,during this time they have taken part in the elections and have been elected to various offices2 they have acted as jurors and as justices of the peace4 ,although there probably still are some among us who oppose the participation of women1 on principle1 ,i do not believe any one can deny that the participation of women in our elections has exerted an educational influence4 ,the elections became more quiet and orderly1 and at the same time our courts were enabled to punish various kinds of criminals who had been allowed to go unpunished until then4 ,when the territory was organized1 for instance1 there was hardly a person who did not carry a revolver and make use of same upon the slightest provocation4 ,i do not remember a single case where a person had been convicted of shooting by a jury composed entirely of men2 but1 with two or three women among the jurors1 they always followed the instructions of the judge40 ,the prevailing sentiment in regard to woman suffrage in ,wyoming1 twenty-five years after its introduction1 was expressed in a proclamation by the legislature of that state to all the legislatures of the country4 ,it read3 8,whereas1 ,wyoming was the first ,state to adopt woman suffrage1 which has been in operation since #ahfi1 and was adopted in the constitution of the ,state in #ahij2 during which time women have exercised the privilege as generally as men1 with the result that better candidates have been elected for office1 methods of election purified1 the character of legislation improved1 civic intelligence increased1 and womanhood developed to a greater usefulness by political responsibility2 therefore1 8,resolved1 by the ,house of ,representatives1 the ,senate concurring1 that1 in view of these results1 the enfranchisement of women in every ,state and ,territory of the ,american ,union is hereby recommended as a measure tending to the advancement of a higher and better social order40 ,it is certain that the enfranchisement of women has shown many advantageous results for ,wyoming1 and not one single disadvantage4 ,that is the most splendid vindication of its introduction4 ,the example set by ,wyoming was followed by other states4 ,women were given full parliamentary suffrage in ,colorado in #ahid1 in ,utah in #ahie1 in ,idaho in #ahif4 ,women have municipal suffrage in ,kansas1 and school suffrage1 tax-paying suffrage1 etc41 in a number of other states in the ,union4 ,in #ahii1 after the innovation had been in force in ,colorado for five years1 the legislature decided upon the following resolution1 by #de against #c votes3 8,whereas1 equal suffrage has been in operation in ,colorado for five years1 during which time women have exercised the privilege as generally as men1 with the result that better candidates have been selected for office1 methods of election have been purified1 the character of legislation improved1 civic intelligence increased and womanhood developed to greater usefulness by political responsibility2 therefore1 8,resolved1 by the ,house of ,representatives1 the ,senate concurring1 that1 in view of these results1 the enfranchisement of women in every ,state and ,territory of the ,american ,union is hereby recommended as a measure tending to the advancement of a higher and better social order40 ,in a number of states the legislatures have passed woman suffrage bills1 but these decisions were annulled by the vote of the people4 ,this was the case in ,kansas1 ,oregon1 ,nebraska1 ,indiana1 and ,oklahoma4 ,in ,kansas and ,oklahoma this proceeding has been twice repeated1 and in ,oregon even three times4 ,the noteworthy fact is that each time the majorities against the political emancipation of women became smaller4#agh 8,the municipal rights obtained by women are very varied1 but1 taken all in all1 do not amount to much4 ,as a matter of course1 women enjoy the full municipal rights of citizenship in those four states in which they have been given national suffrage4 ,but only one other state1 ,kansas1 has given women municipal suffrage1 which also includes school and tax-paying suffrage and makes them eligible to school boards4 ,a limited municipal suffrage1 founded upon an educational qualification1 has been exercised by the women of ,michigan since #ahic4 ,louisiana1 ,montana1 ,iowa1 and ,new ,york give women the right to vote on municipal questions of taxation4 ,the women have not obtained as much influence in the general administration of municipal affairs as they have in regard to the administration of schools4 ,they have school suffrage and are eligible to school boards in the following states3 ,connecticut1 ,massachusetts1 ,new ,hampshire1 ,vermont1 ,new ,york1 ,new ,jersey1 ,delaware1 ,ohio1 ,illinois1 ,wisconsin1 ,minnesota1 ,north and ,south ,dakota1 ,nebraska1 ,montana1 ,arizona1 ,oregon and ,washington4 ,in ,kentucky and ,oklahoma they have school suffrage1 but are not eligible to office2 in ,kentucky the school suffrage is limited by certain restrictions4 ,in ,maine1 ,rhode ,island1 ,pennsylvania1 ,louisiana1 ,iowa and ,california1 women are eligible to school boards1 but only to certain offices40#agi ,in ,new ,zealand1 women have had full parliamentary suffrage since #ahic4 ,they have actively participated in the parliamentary elections1 more actively than the men1 but they are not eligible to office4 ,only men may be elected4 ,in #ahic1 of #aci1iae women of voting age no less than #aji1dfa registered2 #ghe for each #ajjj2 #ij1bij--fde for each #ajjj--took part in the elections4 ,in #ahif #ajh1ghc 7#fh per cent47 of the women voted2 in #aijb1 #ach1efe2 in #aije1 #age1jdf4 ,in ,tasmania1 women were given municipal suffrage in #ahhd and national suffrage in #aijc4 ,in ,south ,australia1 women have had national suffrage since #ahie1 in ,west ,australia since #aijj1 in ,new ,south ,wales since #aijb1 in ,queensland since #aije1 in ,victoria since #aijh4 ,federated ,australia introduced parliamentary woman's suffrage in #aijb4 ,the parliamentary suffrage implies the eligibility of women to parliament1 but until now no woman has been elected4 ,women who are of age may vote for members of parliament and be voted for on the same terms as men4 ,the municipal administration is less democratic4 ,the right of participation in the administration of municipal affairs is connected with military service4 ,since #ahhi1 tax-paying women are eligible to the charity-boards of town and rural communities4 ,they may also be elected as directors of charitable institutions and members of school boards4 ,the grand general strike of ,october1 #aije1 and the victory of the ,russian revolution made possible the restoration of the constitution in ,finland4 ,the working class1 by bringing pressure to bear upon the ,national ,diet1 succeeded in obtaining the passage of a law that provided for the introduction of universal suffrage1 including the women4 ,only such persons were excluded who received aid from public funds1 or who owed their personal tax to the state1 #ej cents for men and #be cents for women4 ,in #aijg1 #ai women1 and in #aijh1 #be women were elected to the parliament of ,finland4 ,in ,norway1 women participate in the administration of schools since #ahhi4 ,in cities1 the city councils may appoint them to school boards1 and women having children of school age take part in the election of school inspectors4 ,in the rural districts all who pay school taxes1 regardless of sex1 are entitled to take part in the school meetings of the communities4 ,women may hold the office of school inspector4 ,gradually women were given a voice in other municipal matters also4 ,in #aija1 municipal suffrage was extended to all ,norwegian women who had attained their twenty-fifth year1 who were ,norwegian citizens1 having been in the country at least five years1 and who paid taxes on an income of at least #cjj crowns1 in the rural districts1 and #djj crowns in the cities1 or whose husbands paid the required amount of taxes4 ,women answering these requirements were also made eligible to municipal offices4 ,by this law #bjj1jjj women were enfranchised1 #cj1jjj of them in ,christiania alone4 ,during the first election in which the women participated1 #ij women were elected as members of town and city councils1 and #afj as alternates4 ,in ,christiana1 #f women councillors and one alternate were elected4 ,on ,july #a1 #aijg1 the ,norwegian women were given parliamentary suffrage1 but not upon the same terms as men4 ,parliamentary suffrage was extended to women on the same terms on which they had been given municipal suffrage2 #bej1jjj proletarian women still remain excluded from political rights4 ,in ,sweden1 unmarried women take part in municipal elections since #ahfb1 on the same terms as men2 that is1 they must be of age and must pay taxes on an income of at least #adj dollars4 ,in #ahhg only #djjj women among #fb1jjj voted4 ,at first1 women were not eligible to any municipal office1 but in #ahhi a law was enacted which declared them eligible to school boards and boards of charity4 ,in ,february1 #aiji1 ,swedish women were declared eligible to all town and city councils4 ,in #aijb parliamentary woman suffrage was rejected by the lower house by #aad against #fd votes2 in #aije by #aji against #hh votes4 ,in ,denmark1 after many years of agitation1 women were given municipal suffrage in ,april1 #aijh1 and were also made eligible to municipal offices4 ,all those women are enfranchised who have attained their twenty-fifth year and who have an annual income of at least #bbe dollars in the cities 7less in rural districts71 or whose husbands pay the required amount of taxes4 ,moreover1 servant girls are enfranchised1 in whose case board and lodging are added to the wages they receive4 ,during the first election in which women participated1 which took place in #aiji1 seven women were elected to the city council of ,copenhagen4 ,in ,iceland1 women have municipal suffrage and are eligible to municipal offices since #aijg4 ,the struggle for woman suffrage in ,england has a considerable history4 ,according to an old law1 in the mediaeval ages1 ladies of the manors had the right of suffrage and also exercised judicial power4 ,in the course of time they were deprived of these rights4 ,in the election reform acts of #ahcb1 the word 8person0 had been employed1 which includes members of both sexes4 ,yet the law was construed not to refer to women1 and they were barred from voting wherever they made an attempt to do so4 ,in the election reform bill of #ahfg1 the word 8person0 had been replaced by the word 8man40 ,john ,stuart ,mill moved to reintroduce the word 8person0 instead of 8man10 explicitly stating as the object of his motion that thereby women would be given the suffrage on the same terms as men4 ,the motion was voted down by #aid against #gc votes4 ,sixteen years later1 in #ahhc1 another attempt was made in the house of commons to introduce woman suffrage4 ,the bill was rejected by a majority of only #af votes4 ,another attempt failed in #ahhd1 when a much larger membership of the house voted down a suffrage bill by a majority of #acf votes4 ,but the minority were not discouraged4 ,in #ahhf they succeeded in having a bill providing for the introduction of parliamentary woman suffrage passed in two readings4 ,the dissolving of parliament prevented a final decision4 ,on ,november #bi1 #ahhh1 ,lord ,salisbury delivered an address in ,edinburgh1 in which he said1 among other things3 8,i sincerely hope that the day may not be distant when women will participate in parliamentary elections and will help to determine the course of the government40 ,alfred ,russell ,wallace1 the well-known scientist and follower of ,darwin1 expressed himself upon the same question in the following manner3 8,when men and women shall be free to follow their best impulses1 when no human being shall be hampered by unnatural restrictions owing to the chance of sex1 when public opinion will be controlled by the wisest and best and will be systematically impressed upon the young1 then we will find that a system of human selection will manifest itself that will result in a transformed humanity4 ,as long as women are compelled to regard marriage as a means whereby they may escape poverty and neglect1 they are and remain at a disadvantage compared to men4 ,therefore the first step in the emancipation of women is to remove all the restrictions which prevent them from competing with men in all branches of industry and in all occupations4 ,but we must advance beyond this point and permit women to exercise their political rights4 ,many of the restrictions from which women have hitherto suffered would have been spared them if they had had a direct representation in parliament40 ,on ,april #bg1 #ahib1 the second reading of a bill by ,sir ,a4 ,rollit was again rejected by #age against #aeb votes4 ,on ,february #c1 #ahig1 the house of commons passed a suffrage bill1 but1 owing to various manuvres of the opponents1 the bill did not come up for the third reading4 ,in #aijd the same scene was re-enacted4 ,of the members of parliament elected to the house of commons in #aijf1 a large majority had declared themselves in favor of woman suffrage prior to their election4 ,on ,june #ba1 #aijh1 a grand demonstration was held in ,hyde ,park4 ,on ,february #bh1 a bill providing that women should be given parliamentary suffrage on the same terms as men1 had been passed by #bga against #ib votes4#ahj ,in regard to municipal administration1 woman suffrage in ,great ,britain is constantly expanding4 ,in the parish councils tax-paying women have a voice and vote as well as men4 ,since #ahii1 women in ,england have the right to vote for town1 district and county councils4 ,in the rural districts all proprietors and lodgers--including the female ones--who reside in the parish or district are entitled to vote4 ,all inhabitants who are of age may be elected to the above-named bodies1 regardless of sex4 ,women vote for members of school boards1 and1 since #ahgj1 are eligible to same on the same terms as men4 ,but in #aijc the reactionary ,english school law has deprived women of the right of being elected to the school board in the county of ,london4 ,since #ahfi independent and unmarried women have the right to vote for the privy councils4 ,two laws enacted in #aijg made unmarried women in ,england and ,scotland eligible to district and county councils4 ,but a woman who may be elected as chairman of such a council1 shall thereby not hold the office of justice of peace that is connected with it4 ,women are also eligible to parish councils and as overseers of the poor4 ,the first woman mayor was elected in ,aldeburgh on ,november #i1 #aijh4 ,in #aijh there were #aafb women on ,english boards of charity and #fae women on school boards4 ,in ,ireland1 tax-paying women have had municipal suffrage since #ahhg1 and since #ahif they may vote for members of boards of charity and be elected to same4 ,in the ,british colony of ,north ,america1 most of the provinces have introduced municipal woman suffrage on similar terms as in ,england4 ,in the ,african colonies of ,england1 municipal woman suffrage has likewise been introduced4 ,in ,france the first slight progress was brought about by a law enacted on ,february #bg1 #ahhj4 ,by this law a school board was created consisting of women school principals1 school inspectors1 and inspectors of asylums4 ,another law of ,january #bc1 #ahih1 gave women engaged in commerce the right to vote for members of courts of trade1 and1 since ,november #be1 #aijh1 women may be elected as members of courts of trade themselves4 ,in ,italy women may vote for members of courts of trade and be elected as such since #ahic4 ,they are also eligible to boards of supervisors of hospitals1 orphan asylums1 foundling asylums1 and to school boards4 ,in ,austria women belonging to the class of great landowners may vote for members of the ,diet and the imperial council1 either personally or by proxy4 ,taxpaying women1 over #bd1 may vote for town and city councillors2 married women exercise the suffrage indirectly through their husbands1 others through some other authorized agent4 ,all the women belonging to the class of great land-owners have the right to vote for members of the ,diet1 but1 with the exception of ,lower ,austria1 they do not exercise it personally4 ,only in the one domain referred to1 the law of #ahif provides that the great landowners1 regardless of sex1 must cast their vote in person4 ,women may also vote for members of courts of trade1 but may not be elected to same4 ,in ,germany women are explicitly excluded from voting for any law-making bodies4 ,in some parts of the country women may vote for town-councillors4 ,in no city or rural community are women eligible to municipal offices4 ,in the cities they are also excluded from the right to vote for any office4 ,the exceptions to this rule are some cities in the ,grand-duchy of ,saxony-,weimar-,eisenach1 in the principalities of ,schwarzburg-,rudolstadt1 and ,schwarzburg-,sondershausen1 in ,bavaria1 and the little town of ,travemuende1 in ,lubeck4 ,in the ,bavarian cities all women who are house-owners1 and in the cities of ,saxony-,weimar and ,schwarzburg1 all women citizens are given the suffrage1 but only in ,travemuende are they permitted to exercise it in person4#aha ,in most of the rural communities where the right of suffrage depends upon a property or tax-paying qualification1 women are included in this right4 ,but they must vote by proxy and are not eligible to any office themselves4 ,this is the case in ,prussia1 ,brunswick1 ,schleswig-,holstein1 ,saxony-,weimar1 ,hamburg1 and ,lubeck4 ,in the ,kingdom of ,saxony a woman may exercise the suffrage if she be a landowner and unmarried4 ,when she becomes married1 her suffrage devolves upon her husband4 ,in those states in which municipal suffrage depends upon citizenship1 women are generally excluded4 ,this is the case in ,wurtemberg1 in the ,bavarian ,palatinate1 in ,baden1 ,hessia1 ,oldenburg1 ,anhalt1 ,gotha1 and ,reuss4 ,in ,saxony-,weimar-,eisenach1 ,coburg1 ,schwarzburg-,rudolstadt1 and ,schwarzburg-,sondershausen1 women can become citizens on the same terms as men1 and they have the suffrage1 not limited by any property qualification4 ,but here1 too1 they are prohibited from exercising this right in person4 ,in those ,prussian districts where a limited form of woman suffrage exists1 the enfranchised women participate directly or indirectly in the elections for members of the dietines4 ,in the electoral groups of great landowners and the representatives of mining and manufacturing establishments1 the women vote for members of the dietines directly2 but in the rural communities they vote indirectly1 since here the town council does not elect the representatives themselves1 but only their electors4 ,as the local dietines elect representatives to the provincial diets1 the small number of enfranchised women are enabled to exert a very modest influence on the administration of the provinces4 ,during recent years women have been admitted to boards of charity1 and have been made overseers of the poor and of orphan asylums in growing numbers and with marked success4 7,bavaria constitutes the only exception47 ,in some cities 7in ,prussia1 ,baden1 ,wurtemberg1 ,bavaria and ,saxony71 they have also been admitted to school boards1 and in one city 7,mannheim71 they have been made members of a commission for the inspection of dwellings4 ,insurance against sickness is the only public institution in connection with which women may vote and be voted for4 ,they remain excluded from voting for members of courts of trade4 ,the above-quoted instances show that suffrage in ,germany and ,austria is determined1 almost without exception1 not by the person1 but by property4 ,politically1 human beings are mere ciphers if they have no money and no possessions4 ,neither intellect nor ability1 but property is the determining factor4 ,it is very instructive to note this fact in regard to the morality and justice of the present state4 ,we see that a number of exceptions have already been made to the theory that women are in the same class with minors and that the franchise must accordingly be withheld from them4 ,and yet people vehemently oppose the endeavor to give women full political equality4 ,even progressive people argue that it would be dangerous to enfranchise women because they are conservative by nature and are susceptible to religious prejudices4 ,but these arguments are true to some extent only1 so long as women are maintained in ignorance4 ,our object must therefore be to educate them and to teach them where their true interest lies4 ,incidentally it may be stated that the religious influence on elections has been overestimated4 ,the ultramontane agitation was so successful in ,germany only because it wisely combined the religious interests with social interests4 ,for a long time the ultramontane chaplains vied with the ,socialists in revealing social deterioration4 ,it was this that caused them to become so influential with the masses4 ,but with the end of the struggle between church and state this influence gradually declines4 ,the clergy are obliged to abandon their struggle against the power of the state2 at the same time the increasing class differences compel them to show greater consideration for the ,catholic bourgeoisie and the ,catholic nobility and to be more reticent in regard to social questions4 ,thereby they lose their influence upon workingmen1 especially if consideration for the ruling classes compels them to favor or to tolerate actions and laws that are directed against the interests of the working class4 ,the same reasons will eventually also destroy the influence of the clergy upon women4 ,when women learn in meetings1 or from newspapers1 or by personal experience1 where their true interests lie1 they will emancipate themselves from clerical influence just as men4#ahb ,in ,belgium1 where ultramontanism still predominates among large circles of the population1 a number of the ,catholic clergy favor woman suffrage because they deem it an effective weapon against ,socialism4 ,in ,germany1 too1 a number of conservative members of the ,diet have declared themselves in favor of the woman suffrage bills introduced by ,socialist members and have explained their position by asserting that they consider woman suffrage a weapon against ,socialism4 ,undoubtedly there is some truth in these opinions1 taking into consideration the present political ignorance of women and the strong influence exerted over them by the clergy4 ,but still this is no reason to disfranchise them4 ,there are millions of workingmen1 too1 who vote for candidates of bourgeois and religious parties against their own class interest and thereby prove their political ignorance1 yet no one would propose to disfranchise them for this reason4 ,the withholding or the rape of the franchise is not practiced because the ignorance of the masses--including the ignorance of women--is feared2 for what these masses are1 the ruling classes have made them4 ,it is practiced because the ruling classes fear that the masses will gradually become wise and pursue their own course4 ,until recently the various ,german states were so reactionary that they even withheld from women the right of political organization4 ,in ,prussia1 ,bavaria1 ,brunswick1 and a number of other ,german states1 they were not permitted to form political clubs4 ,in ,prussia they were not even permitted to participate in entertainments arranged by political clubs1 as was distinctly set down by the supreme court in #aija4 ,the rector of the ,berlin ,university even went so far as to forbid a woman to lecture before a social science club of students4 ,in the same year the police authorities of ,brunswick forbade women to take part in the proceedings of the social congress of ,evangelists4 ,in #aijb the ,prussian secretary of state condescended to give women the permission to attend the meetings of political clubs1 but under the condition that they had to take their seats in a part of the hall specially set aside for them1 like the ,jewish women in their synagogues4 ,nothing could have better characterized the pettiness of our conditions4 ,as late as ,february1 #aijd1 ,pasadowsky solemnly declared in the ,diet3 8,women shall keep their hands off politics40 ,but eventually this state of affairs became unbearable even to the bourgeois parties4 ,the new national law on assembly and organization of ,april #ai1 #aijh1 brought the only marked improvement by establishing equal rights of women in regard to political organization and public assembly4 ,the right to vote must of course be combined with the right to be elected to office4 ,we hear the cry3 8,how ridiculous it would be to behold a woman on the platform of the ,diet60 ,yet there are other states where women have ascended to the platforms of parliaments1 and we1 too1 have long since become accustomed to see women on platforms in their meetings and conventions4 ,in ,north ,america women appear on the pulpit and in the jury-box2 why not on the platform of the ,diet8 ,the first woman to be elected to the ,diet will know how to impress the other members4 ,when the first workingmen were elected to the ,diet they1 too1 were the objects of cheap wit1 and it was asserted that workingmen would soon recognize the folly of electing men of their type4 ,but the working-class representatives quickly succeeded in winning respect1 and at present their opponents fear that there may be too many of them4 ,frivolous jesters exclaim3 8,but picture a pregnant woman on the platform of the ,diet2 how shocking60 ,yet the same gentlemen consider it quite proper that pregnant women should be employed at occupations which shockingly degrade their womanly dignity and decency and undermine their health4 ,that man is a wretch1 indeed1 who dares to ridicule a pregnant woman4 ,the very thought that his mother was in the same condition before she gave him birth must drive the blood to his cheeks in shame1 and the other thought1 that his wife's being in the same condition may mean the fulfillment of his fondest hopes1 must silence him4#ahc ,the woman who gives birth to children is serving the community at least as well as the man who risks his life in defence of the country4 ,for she gives birth to and educates the future soldiers1 far too many of whom must sacrifice their lives on the battlefield4 ,moreover1 every woman risks her life in becoming a mother4 ,all our mothers have faced death in giving us life1 and many of them have perished4 ,in ,prussia1 for instance1 the number of deaths in child-birth--including the victims of puerperal fever--by far exceeds the number of deaths from typhoid4 ,during #aije and #aijf #j4gc and #j4fb per cent4 of typhoid patients died4 ,but among #aj1jjj women #b4ac and #a4ig per cent4 died in child-birth4 8,how would conditions have developed10 ,professor ,herff rightly remarks1 8if men were subjected to these sufferings to the same extent8 ,would not the utmost measures be resorted to80#ahd ,the number of women who die in child-birth1 or are left sickly as a result of same1 is far greater than the number of men who die or are wounded on the battlefield4 ,from #ahaf to #ahgf1 in ,prussia alone1 no less than #cba1gia women fell victims of puerperal fever2 that is an annual average of #ecfc4 ,in ,england1 from #ahdg to #aija1 #bac1ecc women died in child-birth1 and still1 notwithstanding all hygienic measures1 no less than #djjj die annually4#ahe ,that is a far greater number than the number of men killed in the various wars during the same time4 ,to this tremendous number of women who die in child-birth must furthermore be added the still greater number of those who become sickly as a result of child-birth and die young4#ahf ,this is another reason why woman is entitled to full equality with man4 ,let these facts be especially noted by those persons who advance the military service of men as an argument against the equal rights of women4 ,moreover1 our military institutions enable a great many men to escape the performance of this duty4 ,all these superficial objections to the public activity of women would be impossible if the relation of the sexes was natural1 instead of there being an artificially stimulated antagonism between them4 ,from their early childhood on the sexes are separated in their education and their social intercourse4 ,it is especially the antagonism we owe to ,christianity that keeps the sexes apart and maintains one in ignorance about the other1 whereby free social intercourse1 mutual confidence and the ability to supplement each other's traits of character are prevented4 ,one of the first and most important tasks of a rationally organized society must be to remove this detrimental discord and to restore the rights of nature4 ,we begin by making even the little children in school unnatural1 firstly1 by separating the sexes1 and secondly1 by failing to instruct our children as to the sex nature of human beings4 ,in every fairly good school natural history is being taught at present4 ,the child learns that birds lay eggs and hatch them4 ,he learns when birds mate and that both the male and female bird build the nest1 hatch the eggs and feed the young4 ,he also learns that mammals bring forth their young alive4 ,he hears of the mating season and that the male animals fight one another for possession of the females4 ,perhaps he even learns how many young one or another species of animal usually brings forth and how long the female is pregnant4 ,but profoundest secrecy is maintained in regard to the origin and development of the human being4 ,when the child seeks to satisfy its natural curiosity by questioning his parents1 especially his mother--he rarely ventures to question the teacher--he is told the most ridiculous fairy tales that cannot satisfy his thirst for knowledge and that must exert an all the more harmful influence when1 some day1 he nevertheless learns the true nature of his origin4 ,there are few children who have not learned of it by the time they are twelve years old4 ,in every small town1 and especially in the country1 even very young children have occasion to observe the pairing of poultry and domestic animals at close range in the yards1 in the streets and on pasture4 ,they hear that the pairing of domestic animals and the birth of the young is discussed without a sense of shame by their parents1 their elder brothers and sisters and the servants4 ,all this causes the child to doubt the truth of what his parents told him in regard to his own coming into the world4 ,finally the child learns the truth1 but not in the manner in which he ought to learn it if his education were a natural and rational one4 ,the fact that the child keeps his knowledge a secret leads to an estrangement between him and his parents1 especially between him and his mother4 ,the parents have accomplished the opposite of what they sought to accomplish in their ignorance and short-sightedness4 ,those who recall their own childhood and the childhood of their playmates know to what this may lead4 ,an ,american woman#ahg tells us that in order to satisfactorily answer the constant questions of her eight-year-old son as to his origin1 and because she did not wish to tell him fairy tales1 she revealed to him the truth about his birth4 ,the child1 she says1 listened to her with utmost attention1 and from the day upon which he had learned how much suffering he caused his mother1 he had treated her with unwonted tenderness and respect and had also transferred these feelings to other women4 ,the writer upholds the correct view that only by means of a natural education men can be led to treat women with more respect and self-control4 ,every unprejudiced person is bound to agree with her4 ,whatever starting-point one may choose in the criticism of present-day conditions1 one is bound always to reiterate the following3 ,a thorough reorganization of our social conditions1 and thereby a thorough transformation in the relation of the sexes1 is needful4 ,woman1 in order to attain her aim more quickly1 must look about for allies1 and she naturally finds such allies in the proletarian movement4 ,the class-conscious proletariat has long since commenced to storm the fortress of the state that is founded on class rule1 which includes the rule of one sex over the other4 ,the fortress must be surrounded on all sides1 and1 by arms of all calibers1 it must be forced to surrender4 ,the beleaguering army finds its officers and suitable arms on all sides4 ,the social sciences1 the natural sciences1 historical research1 pedagogics1 hygiene and statistics furnish the movement with arms and munition4 ,philosophy comes forward1 too1 and1 in ,mainlaender's 8,philosophy of ,deliverance10 proclaims the early realization of the 8ideal state40 ,the conquest of the class-state and its transformation is made easier by dissension in the ranks of its defenders1 who1 notwithstanding their community of interests against the common enemy1 fight one another in the struggle for the spoils4 ,the interest of one group is opposed to the interest of another4 ,another point in our favor is the growing mutiny in the ranks of the enemy4 ,to a great extent their soldiers are blood of our blood and flesh of our flesh1 but1 owing to ignorance1 they1 until now1 fought against us and against themselves4 ,more and more of these join our ranks4 ,we are1 furthermore1 helped by the desertion of honest men of intellect1 who were hostile to us at first1 but whose superior knowledge and profound insight impels them to rise above their narrow class interest1 to follow their ideal desire for justice1 and to espouse the cause of the masses that are longing for liberation4 ,many still fail to recognize that state and society are already in a state of decay4 ,therefore an exposition of this subject also becomes necessary4 #agg ,emma ,adler--,famous ,women of the ,french ,revolution4 ,vienna1 #aijf4 #agh ,at present suffrage amendments are pending in ,washington and ,oklahoma4 7,tr47 #agi ,clara ,zetkin--,woman ,suffrage4 ,berlin1 #aijg4 #ahj ,a similar bill1 known as the 8conciliation bill10 drawn up by a committee consisting of members of all parties1 passed its second reading in ,july #aiaj by #bii against #ahi votes4 ,prime ,minister ,asquith prevented the third reading and final vote upon the bill during that session of ,parliament4 7,tr47 #aha ,political ,manual for ,women4 ,berlin1 #aiji4 #ahb ,that this danger exists the clergy themselves have soon recognized4 ,since the woman movement has grown and developed even in bourgeois circles1 the leaders of the ,catholic party recognized that they could no longer oppose it1 and they accordingly completely reversed their attitude4 ,with that subtlety which has always characterized the servants of the church1 they favor at present what they opposed until quite recently4 ,they not only favor higher education for women1 they also declare themselves in favor of unrestricted right of assembly and organization for women4 ,some of the more far-sighted even support woman suffrage1 hoping that the church may derive the greatest gain from the introduction of same4 ,in the same way the industrial organization of women is supported by the ,catholic clergy1 even the organization of servant girls4 ,but all these social endeavors are fostered1 not from an innate sense of justice1 but to prevent the women from flocking to the camp of religious and political opponents4 #ahc 8,half of the women members of ,parliament in ,finland are wives and mothers4 ,three of the ,socialist married women members became mothers during their parliamentary activity without any other disturbing results except that they remained away from the sessions for a few weeks4 ,their pregnant condition was regarded as something natural that was neither wonderful nor noteworthy4 ,it may rather be said that this factor was of educational value to the assembly4 ,in regard to the parliamentary activity of these women members it should be noted that their parties elected them to the special committees also1 which proves that they were convinced of their ability4 ,the committee on labor where the laws for workingmen's protection1 workingmen's insurance1 and the new trade laws were drawn up1 consisted of twelve men and four women1 and three women had been chosen as alternates4 ,the legislative and constitutional committees each had two women members1 and for each there was one woman alternate1 and the women have ably maintained their place in these committees40--,miss ,hilda ,paerssinen1 member of the diet of ,finland--8,woman ,suffrage and the ,participation of ,women in the ,parliamentary ,work of ,finland40--,documents of ,progress4 ,july1 #aiji4 #ahd ,professor ,dr4 ,otto v4 ,herff--,the struggle against puerperal fever4 ,leipsig1 #aijh4 #ahe ,w4 ,williams--,deaths in ,child-bed4 ,london1 #aijd4 #ahf 8,for every woman who dies in child-birth we must assume from fifteen to twenty who are more or less seriously infected with resulting diseases of the abdominal organs and general debility from which they frequently suffer for the remainder of their lives40 ,dr4 ,mrs4 ,h4 ,b4 ,adams--,the ,book of ,woman4 ,stuttgart1 #ahid4 #ahg ,womanhood1 ,its ,sanctities and ,fidelities by ,isabella ,beecher ,hooker4 ,new ,york1 #ahgd4 ,lee1 ,shepard ,dillingham4 ,the ,state and ,society4 ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,the ,class-,state and the ,modern ,proletariat4 #a4--,our ,public ,life4 ,the development of society has been a very rapid one in all civilized states of the world during recent decades1 and any new achievement in any realm of human activity still hastens this development4 ,thereby our social conditions have been put into a state of unrest1 fermentation and dissolution1 the like of which had never been known before4 ,the feeling of security of the ruling classes has been shaken1 and the institutions are losing their old stability whereby they might resist the attacks that are made upon them from all sides4 ,a feeling of discomfort1 insecurity and dissatisfaction has taken possession of all strata of society1 the highest as well as the lowest4 ,the tremendous exertions made by the ruling classes to remove this unbearable state of affairs by patching and mending the body social1 prove useless because they are insufficient4 ,they only increase their sense of insecurity and heighten their discomfort and unrest4 ,they have scarcely inserted one beam into the dilapidated structure in the form of some legislation1 when they discover a dozen other decayed spots that require repairs still more urgently4 ,at the same time they have constant quarrels and serious differences of opinion among themselves4 ,a measure introduced by one party to appease the growing dissatisfaction of the masses1 is condemned by the other party as an unpardonable weakness and leniency that is bound to stimulate a desire for still greater concessions4 ,that is clearly seen by the endless discussions in all parliaments1 whereby new laws and institutions are constantly being introduced without attaining any state of rest and satisfaction4 ,among the ruling classes themselves certain extreme differences exist1 some of which are insurmountable1 and these still intensify the social conflict4 ,the governments--and not only those in ,germany--sway to and fro like reeds shaken by the wind4 ,they must lean on something1 for they cannot exist without a support1 and so they incline first toward one side and then toward another4 ,there is hardly a progressive state in ,europe in which the government can count upon a permanent majority in parliament4 ,social extremes break up the majorities2 and the constant fluctuations of the market1 especially in ,germany1 undermine the last remnant of confidence that the ruling classes still placed in themselves4 ,to-day one party is in control and to-morrow another4 ,what the one has constructed with much difficulty is torn down by the other4 ,the confusion increases1 the dissatisfaction becomes more lasting1 the struggles multiply and wear out more human strength in a few months than formerly in an equal number of years4 ,besides1 the material demands1 in the form of various taxes1 are constantly increasing1 and there is no limit to the public debts4 ,the modern state is by its very nature a class-state4 ,we have seen how it became necessary to protect private property and to regulate1 by means of laws and institutions1 the relations of the proprietors to one another and to the non-possessors4 ,whatever forms the appropriation of property may assume in the course of historical development1 it is established by the very nature of private property that the greatest proprietors are the most powerful persons in the state and shape it in accordance with their interests4 ,it is1 furthermore1 established by the nature of private property that an individual can never obtain enough of same and employs all available means in order to increase it4 ,he therefore endeavors so to shape the state that it may best enable him to attain his ends4 ,thereby laws and institutions of the state naturally develop into class laws and class institutions4 ,but the powers of the state1 and all who are interested in maintaining the present order1 would not be able to uphold it long against the mass of those who are not interested in its maintenance1 if this mass would recognize the true nature of existing conditions4 ,this recognition must therefore be prevented at any cost4 ,the masses must be maintained in ignorance concerning the nature of existing conditions4 ,they must be taught that the present order has always existed and will always continue to exist1 that seeking to overturn it1 means to rebel against the institutions of ,god himself4 ,that is why religion is made to serve this purpose4 ,the more ignorant and superstitious the masses are1 the more favorable are the circumstances to the ruling classes4 ,to maintain them in ignorance and superstition is in the interest of the state2 that is1 in the interest of those classes who regard the state as an institution to protect their class privileges4 ,these are1 besides the propertied class1 the hierarchy of church and state1 who all unite in the common task of protecting their interests4 ,but1 with the endeavor to win possessions and with the increased number of possessors1 the general status of civilization is raised to a higher level4 ,the circle of those increases who seek to participate in the fruits of progress and who succeed in so doing to a certain degree4 ,a new class arises on a new basis4 ,it is not regarded by the ruling class as being entitled to equal rights1 but is prepared to venture anything in order to attain equality4 ,finally new class struggles arise and even violent revolutions1 whereby the new class obtains recognition and power4 ,especially by espousing the cause of the mass of the oppressed and exploited1 it attains the victory with their aid4 ,but as soon as the new class has come into power it unites with its former enemies against its former allies1 and after some time class struggles begin anew4 ,the new ruling class has meanwhile imprinted the entire body social with the character of its means of subsistence2 but as it can increase its power and its possessions only by letting a part of its achievements fall to the share of the class that it oppresses and exploits1 it thereby heightens the ability and understanding of that class4 ,by so doing1 the ruling class furnishes the oppressed class with the weapons that shall achieve its own destruction4 ,the struggle of the masses now becomes directed against all class rule1 in whatever form it may exist4 ,this last class is the modern proletariat1 and its historical mission will be not only to achieve its own liberation1 but also the liberation of all who are oppressed1 which includes the liberation of woman4 ,the nature of the class state not only involves the political oppression of the exploited classes1 it also involves that they are made to bear the heaviest burdens for the maintenance of the state4 ,that is made easy when the burdens are imposed in such a manner that their true character is concealed4 ,it is obvious that high direct taxes must foster a rebellious spirit if the income of those on whom they are imposed is a small one4 ,wisdom therefore bids the ruling classes to be moderate in this respect1 and to introduce a system of indirect taxation instead by placing a tax on the most necessary commodities4 ,thereby the taxes are paid for in the price of the commodities in an invisible way1 and the majority remain ignorant as to the amount of taxes that they actually pay4 ,to what extent the consumer is taxed on bread1 salt1 meat1 sugar1 coffee1 beer1 oil1 etc41 is difficult to calculate1 and most persons have no idea to what extent they are fleeced4 ,these taxes weigh heaviest on large families2 they are therefore the most unjust form of taxation imaginable4 ,on the other hand1 the possessing classes pride themselves on the direct taxes that they pay1 and by the height of these taxes they measure the political rights that they enjoy and that they withhold from the non-possessing classes4 ,moreover1 the possessing classes provide aid and assistance from the state for themselves by means of the tariff and other institutions that amount to millions of dollars annually at the expense of the masses4 ,the masses are furthermore exploited by the increased cost of living as a result of capitalistic organization and the formation of trusts2 these the state either favors by its policy or suffers to exist1 and in some cases it even supports them by actual participation4 ,as long as the masses can be kept in ignorance concerning the nature of all these measures1 they in no way endanger the state or the ruling social order4 ,but as soon as the exploited classes become conscious of their exploitation--and the growing political education of the masses enables them to become so--the glaring injustice of these measures arouses bitterness and indignation4 ,the last spark of confidence in a sense of justice of the ruling powers is destroyed4 ,the true nature of the state that resorts to such measures1 the true nature of the society that favors them1 become recognized4 ,the struggle for the ultimate destruction of both is the result4 ,in their endeavor to do justice to the most conflicting interests1 state and society organize one institution upon another1 but no old one is thoroughly removed and no new one is thoroughly carried out4 ,half measures are resorted to that fail to satisfy anyone4 ,the new requirements of civilization that have grown up among the people require some consideration1 if the powers that be are not to risk everything4 ,to meet these requirements even insufficiently entails a considerable expense1 all the more so because there are a number of parasites everywhere4 ,but alongside of these new institutions all the old institutions that are averse to the purposes of civilization are maintained4 ,as a result of social extremes they are even expanded and become all the more troublesome and oppressive1 because increasing knowledge and judgment loudly proclaim them to be superfluous4 ,the police department1 the army1 the courts1 the prisons1 all are extended and become more expensive2 but thereby neither the outward nor the inward security is strengthened2 rather the contrary takes place4 ,a highly unnatural condition has gradually developed in regard to the international relations of nations to one another4 ,these relations increase with the growing production of commodities1 with the increased exchange of commodities that is constantly made easier by improved methods of distribution1 and by the fact that economic and scientific achievements are becoming the common property of all nations4 ,trade and customs treaties are made1 and1 with the aid of international means1 expensive thoroughfares are constructed4 7,the ,suez ,canal1 the ,st4 ,gothard ,tunnel1 etc47 ,individual states support steamship lines that help to increase the traffic between various countries of the globe4 ,the ,postal ,union was formed--a marked progress in civilization--international congresses are held for various practical and scientific purposes2 the mental products of the several nations are disseminated among all the civilized nations of the world by translation into their respective languages1 and by all these international activities the ideal of the brotherhood of man is fostered and increased4 ,but the political and military condition of ,europe and the rest of the civilized world forms a striking contradiction to this development4 ,jingoism and national hostilities are artificially fostered here and there4 ,everywhere the ruling classes seek to maintain the belief that the people are brimful of hostile feeling toward one another and are only waiting for an opportunity to attack and destroy each other4 ,the competitive struggle of the capitalist classes of the various countries among themselves1 becomes international1 and assumes the character of a struggle of the capitalist class of one country against the capitalist class of another country4 ,this struggle1 supported by the political blindness of the masses1 causes the nations to vie with one another in warlike preparations the like of which the world has never seen before4 ,this rivalry created armies of a prodigious size2 it created tools of murder and destruction for warfare on land and sea of such perfection1 as could be made possible only by our age of advanced technical development4 ,this rivalry creates a development of the means of destruction that finally leads to self-destruction4 ,the maintenance of the armies and navies necessitates an immense expense that grows with every year and is ultimately bound to ruin the wealthiest nation4 ,during the year #aijh ,germany alone spent over #ae million marks 7#c1gej1jjj7 for its army and navy1 including the expenses for pensions and the interest on the national debt as far as same had been contracted for military purposes1 and this sum is increasing annually4 ,the following list1 compiled by ,neymarck1 shows the combined military expenses of the ,european states3 #ahff4 #ahgj4 #ahhg4 #aijf4 ,army and navy #c1jjj #c1jjj #d1ejj #f1gbe ,national debts #ff1jjj #ge1jjj #aag1jjj #adh1jjj ,interest #b1djj #c1jjj #e1cjj #f1jjjahh ,as shown by this list1 ,europe spends #f1gbe million francs 7#a1cfb1jjj1jjj7 annually for armies and navies1 and #f1jjj million francs 7#a1bae1jjj1jjj7 interest on debts that have mostly been incurred to serve warlike purposes4 ,a fine state of affairs1 indeed6 ,america and ,asia have begun to follow the example set by ,europe4 ,the ,united ,states spent #ifg1jjj1jjj in #ahge1 and #c1eib1bej1jjj in #aijg and #aijh4 ,in ,japan the expenses for army and navy1 including the pensions1 amounted to #ea1bej1jjj in #ahge and to #eea1jjj1jjj in #aijh and #aiji4 ,as a result of these expenses objects of education and civilization are grievously neglected4 ,the expenses for external defense predominate and undermine the true purpose of the state4 ,the growing armies comprise the healthiest and strongest elements of the nation1 and for their education and training all physical and mental forces are employed1 as if training for wholesale murder were the most important mission of our age4 ,at the same time the tools of warfare and murder are constantly being improved4 ,they have attained such a degree of perfection in regard to speed1 range1 and force of destruction1 that they have become a terror alike to friend and foe4 ,if this tremendous apparatus should be set in motion--which would imply that the warring ,european forces would take the field with from #af to #bj million men--it would be seen that it has become uncontrollable and indirigible4 ,no general can command such masses2 no battlefield is large enough to draw them up2 no administration can provide for their maintenance during any length of time4 ,in case a battle had taken place there would not be sufficient hospitals to care for the wounded1 and to bury the dead would become almost impossible4 ,if we furthermore take into consideration what disturbances and devastations would be wrought by a ,european war on the field of economics1 we may say1 without fear of exaggeration3 ,the next war will be the last war4 ,the number of failures in business would exceed all previous records4 ,the export trade would come to a standstill and thousands of factories would accordingly be forced to shut down4 ,the supply of provisions would run short1 whereby the cost of living would be enormously increased4 ,it would require millions of dollars to support the families whose bread-winners had gone to war4 ,but whence should come the means to meet all these prodigious expenses8 ,at present the ,german empire alone spends from eleven to twelve million dollars daily to maintain its army and navy in readiness for war4 ,the political and military status of ,europe has taken a trend of development that may easily end with a catastrophe by which bourgeois society will be engulfed4 ,on the height of its development this society has created conditions which make its own existence untenable4 ,itself the most revolutionary society that has hitherto existed1 it has furnished the means for its own destruction4 ,in a great many of our municipalities a desperate state of affairs gradually begins to prevail1 since it becomes almost impossible to satisfy the annually increasing demands4 ,these demands are especially heavy in our rapidly growing large cities and industrial centers1 and most of them cannot meet the demands made upon them in any other way than by raising the taxes and by borrowing4 ,schools1 building of streets1 illumination1 water-works1 sanitation1 educational and wellfare work1 police and administration entail constantly increasing expenses4 ,besides1 the well-to-do minority makes very heavy demands on the community4 ,higher institutions of learning are demanded1 the building of museums and theatres1 the laying out of fine residential districts and parks1 with appropriate illumination1 pavement1 etc4 ,the majority of the population may object to these privileges1 but they are an innate part of the nature of conditions4 ,the minority are in power and they use this power to satisfy their requirements of civilization at the expense of the community4 ,these increased requirements are justified1 too1 for they represent progress4 ,their only shortcoming is that they are mainly enjoyed by the possessing classes alone1 while they ought to be for the common enjoyment of all4 ,another evil is that the administrations are often expensive without being good4 ,not infrequently the officials are incompetent and lack proper understanding2 while town or city councillors are generally so much engaged with the care for their private existence that they are unable to make the sacrifices that a thorough performance of their duties would require4 ,often public positions are used to further private interests to the detriment of the community4 ,the tax-payers must bear the consequences4 ,a thorough and satisfactory reform of these conditions cannot be attained by present-day society4 ,in whatever form the taxes may be levied1 the dissatisfaction increases4 ,in a few decades most of the municipalities will be unable to satisfy their demands by the present form of taxation and administration4 ,in the municipalities1 as in the state1 the need of a thoroughgoing transformation becomes manifest4 ,in fact1 the greatest demands for purposes of civilization are made upon them2 they form the nucleus from which the social transformation will proceed as soon as the will and power for such transformation exist4 ,but how shall this be attained while private interests control everything and public interests are of secondary importance8 ,this is1 briefly stated1 the condition of our public life1 which is but a reflection of the social condition of society as a whole4 #ahh ,a4 ,neymarck--,la ,statistique international des valeurs mobilires4 ,bulletin de l'institut international de statistique4 ,copenhagen1 #aijh4 #b4--;,aggravation of ,social ,extremes4 ,in present-day life the struggle for existence is becoming increasingly difficult4 ,the war of all against all is raging and is waged relentlessly1 often without any discrimination in the methods employed4 ,the ,french saying3 8,ote-toi de la1 que je m'y mette0 7get out of there that ,i may take your place71 is practiced in actual life4 ,the weak must make way for the strong4 ,if the material force of money1 of property1 does not suffice1 the meanest methods are resorted to that a desired aim may be attained4 ,lies1 fraud and deception1 forgery and perjury1 the worst crimes are committed for this end4 ,as one individual is arrayed against another in this warfare1 thus we find class against class1 sex against sex1 age against age4 ,advantage is the only arbiter of human relations2 every other consideration is set aside4 ,as soon as advantage requires it1 thousands upon thousands of workingmen and women are cast out into the street1 and become public charges or enforced vagabonds4 ,in masses workers wander from place to place through the length and breadth of the land1 and society fears and despises them more and more as the duration of their unemployment makes their external appearance more shabby1 and1 eventually1 also demoralizes their character4 ,respectable society does not know what it means to do without the simplest requirements of order and cleanliness for months1 to wander about with an empty stomach1 and to reap nothing but ill-disguised disgust and contempt from those who are the upholders of this system4 ,the families of these unfortunates suffer the hardest privations and become dependent on public charity4 ,sometimes despair drives parents to awful crimes against their children and themselves1 to murder and suicide4 ,especially during hard times these deeds of despair increase to an appalling degree4 ,but the ruling classes are not perturbed by such occurrences4 ,the same editions of the daily papers that report such deeds1 caused by poverty and despair1 also contain reports of festive revelries and glittering official pageants1 as if there were joy and abundance everywhere4 ,the general need and the increasingly difficult struggle for existence drive more and more women and girls into lives of degradation and ruin4 ,demoralization1 brutality and crime increase1 while the prisons1 the penitentiaries and the so-called reformatories can hardly contain the mass of their inmates4 ,crime is closely connected with social conditions4 ,society does not wish to admit this fact4 ,like the ostrich1 that conceals its head in the sand not to see approaching danger1 we deceive ourselves in regard to these conditions that should lead to self-accusation4 ,we try to persuade ourselves that it is all due to laziness1 love of pleasure and lack of piety on the part of the workingmen4 ,this is self-delusion and hypocrisy of the worst kind4 ,as social conditions grow more unfavorable for a majority of the population1 crimes become more numerous and more severe4 ,the struggle for existence assumes its most cruel and violent form and creates a condition in which men regard one another as mortal enemies4 ,social bonds are severed and human beings treat each other with hostility4#ahi ,the ruling classes who do not see1 nor wish to see1 to the bottom of things1 seek to remedy these evils in their own way4 ,when poverty and need increase1 and1 as a result1 demoralization and crime increase likewise1 the source of the evil is not sought out in order to plug up this source1 but the products of these conditions are punished4 ,as the evils grow and the number of evil-doers increases1 persecutions and penalties are made more severe4 ,the belief seems to be that the devil can be driven out by ,satan4 ,even ,professor ,haeckel deems it justifiable to punish crime with severe penalties and to resort to capital punishment4#aij ,on this point he is fully agreed with reactionaries of all shades who otherwise are his mortal enemies4 ,haeckel holds the opinion that incorrigible criminals and wrong-doers should be exterminated like weeds that rob the plants of air1 light and the soil to grow in4 ,if ,haeckel had devoted himself partly to the study of social sciences instead of devoting himself to the natural sciences exclusively1 he would know that these criminals could be transformed into useful members of human society1 if society would offer them the needful conditions of existence4 ,he would know that the extermination of individual criminals would no more prevent the perpetuation of new crimes1 than weeds could be prevented from growing while their roots or their seeds remained4 ,man will never be able to prevent absolutely the formation of harmful organisms in nature4 ,but he will be able so to improve the social order that he himself has created1 that the conditions of existence shall be favorable to all1 that each individual shall be enabled to develop freely1 and shall no longer be compelled to satisfy his hunger1 his desire for possessions1 or his ambitions1 at the expense of others4#aia ,they who seek to remove crime by removing its causes cannot favor violent methods of repression4 ,they cannot prevent society from protecting itself in its own way against criminals whom it can1 of course1 not give free scope1 but they demand all the more urgently a transformation of society that would mean a removal of the causes of crime4 ,the connection between social conditions and misdemeanors and crimes has frequently been shown by statisticians and political economists4#aib ,one of the most frequent misdemeanors1 that is regarded as a misdemeanor by our society1 in spite of all its ,christian teachings about charity--is mendicancy4 ,in connection with this subject the statistics of the ,kingdom of ,saxony teach us that the increase of the great crisis that began in ,germany in #ahij and attained its height from #ahib to #ahic1 the number of persons punished for mendicancy increased likewise4 ,during #ahij the number of persons punished for this misdemeanor was #h1hae2 during #ahia1 #aj1jge1 and during #ahib1 #ac1abj4 ,similar facts were observed in ,austria1 where1 during #ahia1 #ij1ibf persons were convicted of mendicancy and vagrancy1 and #ih1iih persons during #ahib4aic ,this is a considerable increase4 ,pauperization of the masses on the one hand and increasing wealth on the other is the stamp of our period4 ,the trend of present-day development may be well judged from the fact that in the ,united ,states five men--,john ,d4 ,rockefeller1 the late ,harriman1 ,j4 ,pierpont ,morgan1 ,w4 ,k4 ,vanderbilt1 and ,g4 ,j4 ,gould--in the year #aijj1 owned together over #hjj1jjj1jjj dollars1 and that they possessed sufficient influence to control the economic life of the ,united ,states and partly also that of ,europe4 ,in all civilized countries the large combinations of capitalists form the most noteworthy phenomenon of the recent period and are constantly gaining more social and political importance4 #ahi ,plato already recognized the results of such conditions4 ,he wrote3 8,a state in which classes exist is not one single state but two4 ,the poor form one1 and the rich form the other4 ,both dwell together1 but always way-lay one another4 ,finally the ruling class becomes unable to wage a war1 for then it depends upon the masses whom1 when armed1 it fears more than the enemy40--,plato1 ,the ,state4 ,aristotle says3 8,widespread poverty is an evil1 for it can hardly be prevented that such persons become promoters of disorder40 #aij ,natural ,history of the ,creation4 #aia ,a similar thought is expressed by ,plato in his 8,state03 8,crimes are caused by ignorance1 by bad education and institutions of the state40 ,plato was better acquainted with the nature of society than many of his learned followers two thousand and three hundred years later4 ,that is not very encouraging4 #aib ,m4 ,sursky--,new facts concerning the economic causes of crime4 8,new ,era40 #aic ,h4 ,herz--,crime and ,criminals in ,austria4 ,the author says3 8,the prevailing economic status must be taken into consideration in the judgment of crime4 ,the organization of production and consumption and the distribution of wealth has a marked influence on crime in many ways40 ,,chapter ,,xvii4 ,the ,process of ,concentration in ,capitalistic ,industry4 #a4--,the ,displacement of ,agriculture by ,industry4 ,the capitalistic system of production not only dominates the social organization but also the political organization4 ,it influences and controls the thoughts and sentiments of society4 ,capitalism is the ruling power4 ,the capitalist is lord and master of the proletarian1 whose labor power he buys as a commodity to be applied and made use of1 at a price that oscillates according to supply and demand and the cost of production1 as with every other commodity4 ,but the capitalist does not buy labor power 8to please ,god10 or to render a service to the workingman--as he sometimes seeks to present it--but to obtain surplus value by it1 which he pockets in the form of profit1 interest and rent4 ,this surplus value squeezed out of the workingman--inasmuch as it is not spent by the employer for his personal enjoyment--is crystallized into capital1 and enables him steadily to enlarge his plant1 to improve the process of production1 and to employ more labor power4 ,thereby again he becomes enabled to encounter his weaker competitor1 as a horseman1 clad in armor1 might encounter an unarmed pedestrian1 and to destroy him4 ,this unequal struggle is developing more and more in all domains1 and woman1 furnishing the cheapest labor power1 beside the child1 plays an important part in this struggle4 ,the result of these conditions is1 that the line of demarcation becomes sharper between a relatively small number of powerful capitalists and the great mass of non-possessors of capital1 who depend upon the daily sale of their labor power4 ,with this development the position of the middle classes is becoming more and more unfavorable4 ,one line of industry after another1 where until recently the small manufacturers predominated1 are being taken hold of by capitalistic enterprise4 ,the competition of the capitalists among themselves compels them constantly to seek new realms to be exploited4 ,capital goes about 8like a roaring lion seeking something to devour40 ,the small men are ruined1 and if they do not succeed in finding some other field of activity--which is becoming increasingly difficult--they sink down into the class of wage-workers4 ,all attempts to prevent the decline of handicraft and the middle class by means of laws and institutions that have been taken from the shelves of the past1 prove useless4 ,they may deceive one or another for a little while in regard to his true position1 but soon the delusion is dispelled by the force of facts4 ,the process of absorption of the small ones by the great ones is becoming clearly evident to all with the unrelenting force of a natural law4 ,in what manner the social structure of ,germany has been transformed during the brief period of twenty-five years--from #ahhb to #ahie and from #ahie to #aijg--that may be seen by a comparison of the census figures from these years1 as shown by the following table3 ,,key ,agr3 ,agriculture ,ind3 ,industry ,com3 ,commerce and ,traffic ,dom3 ,domestic service ,pub3 ,public service and learned professions ,noo3 ,no occupation ,tot3 ,total ,persons gainfully employed ,increase 77 or in principal calling decrease 77 ------------------------------------ since #ahhb #ahhb #ahie #aijg ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,agr #h1bcf1dif #h1bib1fib #i1hhc1beg #a1fdf1gfa #ai4hi ,ind #f1cif1dfe #h1bha1bbj #aa1bef1bed #d1hei1ghi #ge4ih ,com #a1egj1cah #b1cch1eaa #c1dgg1fbf #a1ijg1cjh #aba4df ,dom #cig1ehb #dcb1dia #dgg1fie #gd1aac #ah4fc ,pub #a1jca1adg #a1dbe1ifa #a1gch1ecj #gjg1chc #fh4ef ,noo #a1ced1dhf #b1adb1hjh #c1djd1ihc #b1jej1dig #aea4dj ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,tot #ah1ihf1did #bb1iac1fhc #cj1bcb1cde #aa1bde1hea #ec4ie ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,persons gainfully employed ,increase 77 or including their families decrease 77 ------------------------------------ since #ahhb #ahhb #ahie #aijf ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,agr #ai1bbe1dee #ah1eja1cjg #ag1fha1agf #a1edd1bgi #ah4ah ,ind #af1jeh1jhj #bj1bec1bda #bf1chf1ecg #aj1cbh1deg #fd4be ,com #d1eca1jhj #e1iff1hcf #h1bgh1bci #c1gdg1aei #hb4fi ,dom #ich1bid #hhf1hjg #gib1gdh #ade1edf #ae4eg ,pub #b1bbb1ihb #b1hce1jad #c1djg1abf #a1ahd1add #ec4cc ,noo #b1bdf1bbb #c1cbg1jfi #e1agd1gjc #b1ibh1dha #acj4cf ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,tot #de1bbb1aac #ea1gfj1bhd #fa1gbj1ebh #ai1hgh1jff #cd4bg ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,these figures show that during the twenty-five years referred to1 a considerable shifting of the population and its occupations has taken place4 ,the population employed in industry1 commerce and traffic has increased at the expense of the agricultural population4 ,almost the entire increase in population--#f1edh1aga from #ahhb to #ahie1 and #i1iej1bde from #ahie to #aijg--;has been absorbed by the former4 ,although the number of persons gainfully employed in industry as their principal calling has increased1 this increase has not kept pace with the general growth of the population1 and the number of the members of the families of persons so employed has even decreased by #a1edd1bgi #h per cent4 ,industry 7including the building trades and mining71 commerce and traffic1 present a different aspect4 ,here the number of persons gainfully employed and their families have considerably increased2 in fact1 they have increased more rapidly than the population4 ,the number of persons employed in industry exceeds the number of persons employed in agriculture by #a1cgb1iig #ae per cent4 ,the number of the members of their families exceeds the number of the members of families of persons employed in agriculture by #h1gje1cfa #di per cent4 ,the numbers of persons employed in commerce and traffic1 together with their families1 show a still greater increase4 ,the result is that the agricultural population1 which is the real conservative portion of the population and forms the mainstay of the old order of things1 is being repressed more and more and overtaken by the population engaged in industry1 commerce and traffic4 ,that the number of persons engaged in learned professions and their families have increased likewise1 does not alter these facts4 ,the strong increase in the number of persons having no occupation and their families is due to the growing number of persons living on their rents1 including accident1 invalid and old-age insurance1 the greater number of persons dependent on charity1 students of all sorts1 and inmates of poorhouses1 hospitals1 insane asylums and prisons4 ,another characteristic fact is the slight increase in the number of persons employed in domestic service and the direct decrease in the number of servants4 ,this shows1 firstly1 that fewer persons can afford to employ domestic help2 it shows furthermore that proletarian women who strive for greater independence1 like this profession less and less4 ,in #ahhb the number of persons engaged in agriculture as their principal calling constituted #dc4ch per cent4 of persons gainfully employed2 in #ahie1 #cf4ai per cent41 and in #aijg only #cb4fi per cent4 ,the agricultural population--including the families of those gainfully employed in agriculture--in #ahhb constituted #db4ea per cent4 of the entire population2 in #ahie1 #ce4gd per cent41 and in #aijg only #bh4fe per cent4 ,those employed in industry as their principal calling constituted1 in #ahhb1 #cc4fi per cent4 of the entire population2 in #ahie1 #cf4ad per cent41 and in #aijg1 #cg4bc per cent4 ,including their families1 they constituted #ce4ea per cent4 in #ahhb2 #ci4ab in #ahie1 and #db4ge in #aijg4 ,the following figures show the percentage of persons employed in commerce and traffic3 ,persons employed4 ,including their families4 #ahhb #h4bg #aj4jb #ahie #aj4ba #aa4eb #aijg #aa4ej #ac4da ,we see1 then1 that in ,germany1 at present1 #ef4af per cent4 of the population 7in ,saxony even #gd4e per cent47 depend upon industry and commerce1 and that not more than #bh4fe per cent4 7in ,saxony only #aj4jg per cent47 are engaged in agriculture4 #b4--;,increasing ,pauperization4--,preponderance of ,large ,industrial ,establishments4 ,it is also important to state how the population employed in gainful occupations is divided among independent workers1 employes and laborers1 and what proportion of each of these is furnished by either sex4 ,this information may be gathered from the table on the following page4 ,,key ,agr3 ,agriculture ,ind3 ,industry ,com3 ,commerce ,alt3 ,altogether ,m 3 ,male ,f 3 ,female ,t 3 ,total ,independent ,persons ,employees ---------------------------------------- --------------------- #ahhb #ahie #aijg #ahhb #ahie #aijg ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,agr3 ,m #b1jaj1hfe #b1bba1hbf #b1agb1gdj #fj1gfc #gh1jff #hb1edh ,f #bgg1afh #cdf1hii #cbh1bcd #e1hha #ah1ajg #af1bfd ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,t #b1bhh1jbb #b1efh1gbe #b1ejj1igd #ff1fdd #if1agc #ih1hab ,ind3 ,m #a1fba1ffh #a1edb1bgb #a1dii1hcb #if1hjg #bed1dba #fbb1jga ,f #egi1dgh #eai1dib #dgg1bij #b1bfi #i1cbd #fc1icf ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,t #b1bja1adf #b1jfa1gfd #a1igh1abb #ii1jgf #bfc1gde #fhf1jjg ,com3 ,m #eej1icf #fdj1ida #gfe1eea #ach1chg #bdi1ibj #dbf1bbj ,f #aej1egb #bjb1faf #bdf1fda #c1afa #aa1ihg #gi1fhi ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- #gja1ejh #hdc1eeg #a1jab1aib #ada1edh #bfa1ijg #eje1ijj ,alt3 ,m #d1ahc1dfi #d1dje1jci #d1cch1abc #bie1ieg #ehb1djg #a1acj1hci ,f #a1jjg1bah #a1jfi1jjg #a1jeb1afe #aa1caa #ci1dah #aei1hhi ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,t #e1aij1fhe #g1dgd1jdf #e1cij1bhh #cjg1bfh #fba1hbe #a1bij1gbh ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,wage-workers ---------------------------------- #ahhb #ahie #aijg --------------------------------------- ,agr3 ,m #c1fbi1iei #c1bci1fdf #c1jbh1ihc ,f #b1bea1hfj #b1chh1adh #d1bed1dhh ------------------------------------ ,t #e1hha1hai #e1fbg1gid #g1bhc1dga ,ind3 ,m #c1eea1jad #d1ifc1dji #g1jcj1dbg ,f #ede1bbh #iib1cjb #a1efb1fih ------------------------------------ ,t #d1jif1bdc #e1iee1gaa #h1eic1abe ,com3 ,m #ehb1hhe #hcf1jdb #a1ced1dhb ,f #add1cgg #cfe1jje #fje1jdc ------------------------------------ #gbg1bfb #a1bja1jdg #a1iei1ebe ,alt3 ,m #g1gfc1heh #i1jga1jig #ac1fid1afj ,f #b1ida1dee #c1gde1dee #d1afa1ifa ------------------------------------ ,t #aj1gje1cbd #ab1haf1eeb #ag1hef1aba --------------------------------------- ,this table shows that the number of persons independently engaged in agriculture increased by #bhj1fib from #ahhb to #ahie1 an increase of #ab4e per cent42 but that from #ahie to #aijg it decreased by #fg1gea1 so that from #ahhb to #aijg the number of independent persons in agriculture has increased by only #bab1ida #i4b per cent4 ,on the other hand the number of workingmen that had decreased by #bed1jbe #d4c per cent41 from #ahhb to #ahie1 has1 since #ahie1 increased by #a1fee1fgg #bi4d per cent4 ,upon examining this increase more closely we find that it is mainly due to female members helping to support the families4 7,among the total increase of #a1iij1icj are #agj1ecb male and #a1hbj1ich female47 ,when we take only the rural day-laborers and help into consideration1 we find that the male workers have decreased by #cha1aie persons1 while the female workers have increased by #de1idb persons4 ,altogether this shows the considerable decrease of #cce1bec persons among agricultural laborers4 ,in agriculture1 then1 not only the number of independent persons1 but also the number of help and day laborers has decreased4 ,the increase in the agricultural occupation1 compared to the previous census1 is due to the greatly increased assistance from members of the families1 especially the female members4 ,the industrial occupation presents a different picture4 ,in a term of #be years the persons independently employed decreased by #bcd1jbd #aj4f per cent41 while the population increased by #cf4dh per cent4 ,mechanics1 working alone or working with two assistants1 have mainly disappeared4 ,the number of wage-workers has increased by #a1hei1dfh from #ahhb to #ahie1 and by #b1fcg1dad from #ahie to #aijg4 ,when we count only the wage-workers proper1 not including the members of their families who assist at their work1 we find that their number has increased from #e1hii1gjh in #ahie to #h1dfj1cch in #aijg4 ,three-quarters of all persons employed in industrial occupations are wage-workers 7#ge4af per cent474 ,in commerce and trade we find the opposite ratio4 ,here the number of persons independently engaged has greatly increased1 but the number of employes and workers has increased likewise4 ,the number of women independently engaged in commerce has increased especially2 they chiefly are either widows who seek to make their living as small dealers1 or married women who endeavour to increase their husbands' income4 ,the number of persons independently engaged in commerce increased by #caj1ehd #dd4c per cent41 from #ahhb to #aijg4 ,but the number of employes and wage-workers has increased still more 7by #cfd1cfa #beh4h1 and by #a1bcb1bfc #afi4d per cent474 ,this shows how tremendously commerce and trade have developed1 particularly from #ahie to #aijg4 ,there are almost twice as many employes as prior to that period1 and among these almost six times as many female employes4 ,during the period from #ahhb to #aijg the entire number of persons independently engaged in the three occupations increased by #e4g per cent42 it did not keep pace then with the increase in population 7#cf4dh per cent474 ,the number of employes increased by #cbe4d per cent41 and the number of wage-workers by #ci4a per cent4 ,we must furthermore take into consideration that among #e1dij1bhh independent persons1 many lead an entirely proletarian existence4 ,among the #b1jhf1cfh manufactories enumerated there were no less than #iid1gdc small producers who worked alone and #hge1eah who did not employ over five assistants4 ,in commerce there were1 in #aijg among #gji1bca establishments1 no less than #bcb1ghj maintained by the owners without assistance4 ,there were1 besides1 #ebdj porters1 errand-boys1 etc41 and thousands of insurance agents1 book agents1 etc4 ,another point to be considered is that the number of independent persons in the three occupations does not coincide with the number of establishments4 ,if a firm1 for instance1 has dozens of branch establishments1 as is frequently the case in the tobacco trade1 or if a concern runs a number of stores1 each branch is enumerated as an individual establishment4 ,the same is true of industrial enterprises1 when1 for instance1 a machine factory also runs an iron foundry1 a carpenter shop1 etc4 ,the figures then do not convey sufficient information regarding the concentration of capital on the one hand and the standard of living on the other4 ,and yet1 in spite of all these deficiencies1 the results of the latest census of ,june #ab1 #aijg1 present a picture of the most powerful concentration of capital in industry1 commerce and traffic4 ,they show that1 hand in hand with the industrialization of our entire economic system1 a concentration of all the means of production into a few hands is rapidly progressing4 ,the independent small manufacturers and traders working alone1 of whom there still were #a1hgg1hgb in #ahhb1 have become fewer again since #ahie4 ,in #ahie1 #a1gad1cea were enumerated1 and in #aijg only #a1ddf1bhf2 a decrease of #dca1ehf #bb4i per cent4 ,the number of small producers and dealers has rapidly decreased from census to census4 ,in #ahhb it was #ei4a per cent42 #ahie1 #df4e1 and1 #aijg1 only #cg4c per cent4 of all persons gainfully employed4 ,at the same time the number of large manufacturing and commercial enterprises has grown from #bb4j to #bi4f1 and 7#aijg7 to #cg4c per cent4 ,from #ahie to #aijg the number of persons employed by small concerns increased by #ab4b per cent42 the number of those employed by concerns of medium size1 by #dh4e per cent41 and the number of those employed by large concerns1 by #ge4g per cent4 ,among #e1cej1jbe persons industrially employed in #aijg1 the by far largest group is employed by large concerns1 while1 in #ahhb1 a greater number of persons were small1 individual producers4 ,in the seven following branches of industry the large concerns predominate1 employing more than half of all persons engaged in these industries4 ,of each #ajj persons the following percentage were employed by large concerns3 ,mining #if4f per cent4 ,machine manufacture #gj4d 8 ,chemical trades #fi4h 8 ,textile trades #fg4e 8 ,paper trades #eh4d 8 ,industry of pottery and earthenware #eb4e 8 ,industry of soaps1 fats and oils #eb4c 8 ,in the other groups industry on a large scale already predominated in #ahie1 and everywhere its predominance has been still further increased4 7,in the malleation of metals1 #dg4j2 in the polygraphic trades1 #dc4h2 in traffic1 #da4f1 and in the building trades1 #dj4e per cent4 of all persons were employed by large concerns47 ,we see1 then1 that in almost every branch development has favored industry on a large scale4 ,the concentration of manufacture and the concentration of capital1 which are one and the same thing1 take place particularly rapidly wherever capitalistic production obtains full control4 ,let us1 for instance1 consider the brewing industry4 ,in the ,german brewery-tax district1 excluding ,bavaria1 ,wurtemberg1 ,baden and ,alsace-,lorraine1 there were3 ,number of ,producing #ajjj breweries4 ,commercial hectolitres of beer4 #ahgc #ac1efa #aj1ibg #ai1fee #ahhj #aa1efd #aj1cgd #ba1acf #ahij #h1ifi #h1jed #cb1bgi #aijj #f1ijc #f1bhc #dd1gcd #aije #e1iie #e1fjb #df1bfd #aijf #e1ghe #e1dbc #de1hfg #aijg #e1ebh #e1bea #df1cee ,so the number of breweries decreased1 from #ahgc to #aijg1 by #hjcc #ei4c per cent42 that of breweries decreased by #efgf #ea4i per cent41 but the production of beer increased by #bf1gjj1jjj hectolitres #ace4g per cent4 ,this signifies a downfall of the small concerns and a tremendous growth of the large concerns1 whose productivity has been multiplied4 ,in #ahgc1 #adej hectolitres and in #aijg #hche hectolitres were produced by each brewery4 ,it is the same wherever capitalism rules4 ,similar results are shown by the ,german coal-mining industry and other mining industries of the ,german ,empire4 ,in coal mining the number of concerns that amounted to an average of #fbc1 from #ahga to #ahge1 dwindled down to #djf1 in #ahhi4 ,but at the same time the production of coal rose from #cd1dhe1djj tons to #fg1cdb1bjj tons1 and the average number of persons employed increased from #abg1jgd to #bci1ied4 ,the following table illustrates this process of concentration in the mining of mineral coal and brown coal1 until #aijg3 ,mineral ,coal ,brown ,coal ,number ,number ,year of ,average ,no4 ,quantity of ,average ,no4 ,quantity ,concerns ,employed #ajjj tons ,concerns ,employed #ajjj tons #aijj #cch #dac1fic #aji1bij4b #efi #ej1iaa #dj1dih4j #aije #cca #dic1cjh #aba1bih4f #ecc #ed1ifi #eb1eab4a #aijf #cbb #eaa1ajh #acg1aag4i #ecf #eh1fcg #ef1dai4f #aijg #cac #ede1ccj #adc1ahe4g #ece #ff1dfb #fb1edf4g ,we see1 then1 that1 in the production of mineral coal since the seventies1 the number of concerns has decreased by #di4h per cent41 while the number of wage-workers employed has increased by #baf4i per cent41 and the output even by #dbj4f per cent4 ,the following table shows the development in the entire mining industry3 ,year ,number of ,average number ,quantity concerns employed #ajjj tons #ahga-ge #c1jcd #bgg1hgh #ea1jef4j #ahhg #b1adf #ccg1fcd #hh1hgc4j #ahhi #a1ifb #cfh1hif #ii1dad4j #aije #a1hfb #ffa1caj #bje1eib4f #aijf #a1hfb #fhh1hec #bbi1adf4a #aijg #a1ieh #gcd1ijc #bdb1fae4b ,here the number of concerns has decreased by #ce4e per cent41 while the number of wage-workers employed increased by #afd4d per cent41 and the output1 #cgd4e per cent4 ,the number of employers had grown smaller but wealthier1 and the number of proletarians had greatly increased4 ,in the industrial districts of the ,rhine and ,westphalia there still were #aef mines in #aijg1 but #cd of these controlled more than #ej per cent4 of the output4 ,although the census enumerates #aef mines1 the coal trust1 which controls the mines with but a few exceptions1 had only #gf members4 ,to such extent the process of concentration has developed4 ,according to the reports of ,february1 #aijh1 the output of the coal trust amounted to #gg4i million tons of coal4#aid ,in #ahga there were #cjf blast-furnaces1 employing #bc1aia laborers and producing #a1efc1fhb tons of crude iron4 ,in #aijg1 #cjc blast furnaces1 employing #de1bja laborers1 produced #ab1hge1bjj tons4 ,in #ahga crude iron was produced at the rate of #e1aaj tons for every blast-furnace2 in #aijg at the rate of #db1dia tons for every blast-furnace4 ,according to a list published in 8,steel and ,iron10 in ,march1 #ahif1 only one blast-furnace in ,germany was able to produce crude iron at the rate of #hbj tons in #bd hours4 ,but in #aijg there were #ab blast-furnaces that could1 within #bd hours1 produce #ajjj tons1 and more4#aid ,in #ahga-ahgb1 #caa factories in the beet sugar industry consumed #b1bej1iah tons of beets4 ,in #aijg-aijh1 #cfe factories consumed #ac1dhb1gej tons4 ,the average consumption of beets per factory was #g1bcg tons during #ahga-ahgb1 and #cf1ici tons during #aijg-aijh4 ,this mechanical revolution does not take place in industry alone1 but also in commerce and traffic4 ,the following table shows the development of ,german maritime trade3 ,year ,sailing vessels ,regist'd tonnage ,number of crew #ahga #d1cgb #ijj1cfa #cd1gci #aija #b1bgb #ebe1adj #ab1ibb #aije #b1bid #dic1fdd #ab1iad #aijh #b1cde #dcc1gdi #ab1hjj #aiji #b1cfa #daf1ead #ab1hdd ,less than in #ahga #b1jaa less #dhc1hdg less #ba1hie ,sailing vessels1 then1 are considerably diminishing1 and among those still existing the registered tonnage and the number of the crew is decreasing4 ,in #ahga there were1 for each sailing vessel1 #bje4i registered tonnage and #g4i members of the crew4 ,in #aiji each sailing vessel had an average of but #agf4d registered tonnage1 and only #e4d members of the crew ,german maritime trade by steam navigation presents a different aspect1 as the following table shows3 ,ocean-going ,year steamships ,regist'd tonnage ,number of crew #ahga #adg #ha1iid #d1gcf #aija #a1cij #a1cdg1hge #cf1hja #aije #a1feg #a1ggd1jgb #df1gdg #aijh #a1ibb #b1bef1ghc #eg1iie #aiji #a1iec #b1cjb1iaj #eh1dea ,more than in #ahga #a1hjf #b1bba1jjf #ec1gae ,not only had the number of steamships greatly increased1 their tonnage had increased more still1 but1 in proportion to this increase the number of the crew had decreased4 ,in #ahga a steamship had an average tonnage of #eeh tons and a crew of #cb4a men4 ,in #aiji it had an average freight capacity of #abcj tons and a crew of only #bi men4 ,the rapid increase of motor power employed is another symptom of capitalistic development4 ,in the territory of the ,german 8,zollverein10 according to ,viebahn1 #ii1gfa horse-power were used in #ahfa4aie ,in #ahge1 in ,germany1 factories employing more than five persons1 used1 #a1jee1gej horse-power1 and in #ahie1 #b1icc1ebf horse-power1 almost three times the number used in #ahge4 ,railroads1 street cars and steamboats are not contained in this list4 ,the following list shows the amount of horse-power used in ,prussia3 ,stationary ,movable boilers and steam engines traction engines #ahgi #hhh1jjj #dg1jjj #ahif #b1ecd1ijj #aei1djj #aijj #c1dfa1gjj #bbi1fjj #aije #d1fhd1ijj #cae1bjj #aijf #d1iie1gjj #ccd1djj #aijg #e1aij1djj #cfc1bjj ,so the amount of horse-power employed in ,prussia in #aijg is six times greater than in #ahgi4 ,how tremendously industry has developed since the census of #ahie can be seen by the fact that the number of stationary engines in ,prussia has increased by #ce per cent4 from #ahif to #aijg4 ,the productiveness of the machines has increased by #aje per cent4 during this period4 ,while1 in #ahih1 #c1cje steam engines of #beh1gbf horse-power served to run dynamos1 there are #f1aia of #ied1ide horse-power in #aijg4 ,that is an increase of #hg and #bfi per cent4#aif ,the following figures show the increased application of steam-power in the most important industries 7expressed in horsepower73 ,industry #ahgi #ahig #aijg ,mining and foundries #eaf1jjj #a1dcj1jjj #b1bhd1jjj ,masonry and bricks #bi1jjj #acb1jjj #bee1jjj ,metallurgy #bc1jjj #eg1jjj #aac1jjj ,machines #bb1jjj #fa1jjj #cbi1jjj ,textile #hh1jjj #bdc1jjj #cbc1jjjaig ,notwithstanding this fabulous development of the productive powers and the immense concentration of capital1 attempts are still being made to deny these truths4 ,such an attempt was made at the eleventh session of the ,international ,institute of ,statistics in ,copenhagen in ,august1 #aijg1 by the ,french economist1 ,ives ,guyot4 ,on the basis of careless statistics1 he moved to abolish the word 8concentration0 from statistics4 ,among others1 ,carl ,buecher answered him as follows3 8,an absolute increase in the number of manufactories may easily coincide with a concentration of same4 ,wherever the census enumerates individual establishments1 it is unavoidable that many should be counted twice4 ,a bank with #ajj trust-funds is counted as #aja2 a brewery that has opened and fitted out #ej saloons1 is counted as #ea establishments4 ,the results of such statistics prove nothing in regard to the phenomenon in question4 ,investigation so far shows that agriculture alone does not seem to be subjected to the process of concentration4 ,it is evident in mining1 commerce1 transportation1 building trades and insurance4 ,in industry it is difficult to recognize1 because every civilized nation in a healthy state of development must present an extension of industrial production1 for the following four reasons3 #a4 ,because occupations that were formerly domestic in character have been taken over by industry4 #b4 ,because natural products have been replaced by industrial products 7wood by iron2 woad1 madder and indigo by tar-colors1 etc474 #c4 ,because of new inventions 7automobiles74 #d4 ,because of the possibility of exportation4 ,for these reasons concentration on a large scale takes place in industry without any diminution in the number of establishments1 even with an increase in same4 ,wherever industry creates commodities ready for use of a typical character1 the destruction of the independent small concerns is inevitable4 ,the capitalistic forms of production are accordingly rapidly developing in the most important lines of industry4 ,it is not wise to oppose the ,socialists where they are right1 and they are undoubtedly right in their assertions in regard to increasing concentration40#aih ,the same aspect presented by the economic development of ,germany is presented by all the industrial states of the world4 ,all the civilized states endeavour to become industrial states more and more4 ,they not only seek to manufacture articles of industry to supply their own demand1 but also to export them4 ,therefore we not only speak of a national market1 but also of the world market4 ,the world market regulates the prices of countless articles of industry and agriculture and controls the social status of the nations4 ,that industrial realm which has attained the greatest importance in regard to the relations of the world market1 is the ,north ,american ,union4 ,here the main impetus is given whereby the world market and bourgeois society are revolutionized4 ,the census of the last three decades showed the following figures3 ,amount of capital invested in industry4 #ahhj #b1gij1jjj1jjj dollars #ahij #f1ebe1jjj1jjj 8 #aijj #i1hac1jjj1jjj 8 ,value of ,industry4 #ahhj #e1cfi1jjj1jjj dollars #ahij #i1cgb1jjj1jjj 8 #aijj #ac1jjj1jjj1jjj 8 ,the ,united ,states1 accordingly1 is the leading industrial country of the world4 ,its exportation of products of industry and agriculture increase with each year1 and the tremendous accumulations of capital that are a natural result of this development seek investment beyond the boundaries of the country1 and influence the industry and trade of ,europe to a marked degree4 ,it is no longer the individual capitalist who is the motive power underlying this development4 ,it is the group of captains of industry1 the trust1 that is bound to crush the most powerful individual enterprise1 wherever it chooses to turn its activities4 ,what can the small man amount to in the face of such development1 to which even the great must yield8 #aid ,otto ,hu--,history of the development of the mining industries4 #aie ,a4 ,hesse--,statistics of ,trade4 #aif ,a4 ,hesse--,statistics of ,trades4 #aig ,prof4 ,dr4 ,s4 ,reyer ,kraft--,economic1 ,technical and ,historical ,studies in the ,development of the ,power of ,states4 #aih ,bulletin de l'institut international de statistique4 ,copenhagen1 #aijh4 #c4--;,concentration of ,wealth4 ,it is an economic law that1 with the concentration of industry and its increased productivity1 the number of workers employed relatively decreases1 while the wealth of a nation1 in proportion to the entire population1 becomes concentrated in fewer hands4 ,that can be clearly seen by the distribution of the income in various civilized countries4 ,of the larger ,german states1 ,saxony possesses the oldest and best statistics on the income tax4 ,the present law is in force since #ahgi4 ,but it is advisable to take a later year1 because during the first years the assessments were1 on an average1 too low4 ,the population of ,saxony increased by #ea per cent4 from #ahhj to #aije4 ,the number of persons assessed increased by #afj per cent4 from #ahhb to #aijd2 the assessed income by #bc per cent4 ,until the beginning of the nineties an income up to #cjj marks per annum was exempt from taxation1 after that up to #djj marks4 ,in #ahhb the number of persons exempt from taxes were #ge1fig #f4fa per cent42 in #aijd1 #bje1ffg #aa4jc per cent4 ,it must be noted that1 in ,saxony1 the incomes of wives and of members of the family under #af are added to the income of the husband and father4 ,the taxpayers having an income from #djj to #hjj marks formed #dh per cent4 of those assessed in #ahhb2 in #aijd only #dc4ha per cent4 ,a part of them had advanced into a class with a higher income4 ,the average income of the taxpayers of this class had increased by #cg per cent--from #dba to #ehb marks--during this period1 but still remained behind the average of #fjj marks4 ,the taxpayers having an income from #hjj to #abej marks formed #ab per cent4 of those assessed in #ahhb1 and #bd4ch per cent4 in #aijd4 ,but those with an income from #abej to #ccjj marks formed #bj per cent4 in #ahhb and only #af4gd per cent4 in #aijd4 ,in #ahfc ,lassalle computed that only #d per cent4 of all incomes in ,prussia were over #cjjj marks annually4 ,when we consider that1 in the meantime1 rents1 taxes and the cost of living have increased1 and that the demands in regard to the standard of living have grown1 it becomes evident that the position of the masses has relatively scarcely improved4 ,the medium incomes of from #c1djj to #aj1jjj marks in #aijd formed only #c4bd per cent4 of those assessed1 and the incomes of over #aj1jjj marks less than #a per cent4 ,the number of taxpayers with incomes from #ab1jjj to #bj1jjj marks1 #j4hj per cent4 ,the number of incomes of over #ab1jjj marks has increased from #d1abd1 in #ahhb1 to #aa1gga1 in #aijd2 that is1 by #ahh per cent4 ,the highest income in #ahhb was #b1egj1jjj marks2 in #aijf1 #e1ijj1fjj marks4 ,these figures show the following facts3 ,the lower incomes have increased somewhat1 but in many cases this increase has been more than equalized by the increased cost of living4 ,the middle classes experienced the least improvement2 but the number and the income of the richest people show the greatest increase4 ,accordingly the class extremes became more marked4 ,in his investigations of the distribution of income in ,prussia from #ahib to #aijb1 ,professor ,adolf ,wagner has ascertained the following facts4 ,he divides the population of ,prussia into three large groups3 ,the lower group 7lowest up to #dbj marks2 medium1 #dbj to #ijj2 highest1 #ijj to #b1ajj72 the middle group 7lowest1 #b1ajj to #c1jjj2 medium1 #c1jjj to #f1jjj2 highest1 #f1jjj to #i1ejj marks72 the upper group 7lowest from #i1ejj to #cj1ejj2 medium1 #cj1ejj to #ajj1jjj1 and highest over #ajj1jjj74 ,the entire income is divided almost equally among these three groups4 ,the #c4ea per cent4 of the upper group control #cb4a per cent4 of the entire income4 ,the lower group1 including the #gj4ff per cent4 of those exempt from taxation1 also controls an income of #cb4i per cent4 of the entire income2 and the middle group1 with #be4hc per cent4 controls #cd4i per cent4 of the entire income4 ,if we take into consideration only those incomes that are subject to taxation1 we find that all those having an income from #ijj to #cjjj marks1 who formed #hf4ii per cent4 of those enumerated in #ahib1 and #hh4jd per cent4 in #aijb1 controlled over half of the assessable income1 #ea4je per cent41 in #ahib1 and #eb4a per cent4 in #aijb4 ,incomes of over #cjjj marks1 which formed1 respectively1 #ac and #ab per cent4 of those enumerated1 controlled about #di per cent4 of the entire assessable income in #ahib and #dh per cent4 in #aijb4 ,the average income of the small taxpayers throughout ,prussia amounted to #acgd in #ahib and to #acdh in #aijb2 it had1 accordingly1 diminished to #a4hi per cent4 ,on the other hand the average income of the large taxpayers has increased from #h1haa marks1 in #ahib1 to #i1aah marks1 in #aijb1 or by #c4dh per cent4 ,upon the upper group1 which formed only #j4e per cent4 of all those enumerated in #ahib and #j4fc per cent4 in #aijb1 #ae4ie percent4 of the entire income devolved in #ahib1 and #ah4cg per cent4 in #aijb4 ,the increase is slightest with the lowest and medium class of the middle group4 ,it is somewhat greater with the highest class of the lower group4 ,but it is greatest and increasingly great from class to class1 with the highest class of the middle group and with the entire upper group4 ,the greater the income of a group of those enumerated1 the richer they are2 the more1 accordingly1 their number relatively increases4 ,the number of those having high and highest incomes increases1 who1 on an average1 also attain increasingly large incomes4 ,in other words1 a growing concentration of incomes takes place1 not only among particularly rich individuals1 but among the economically high and highest group of the population1 that is rapidly growing and yet comprises a relatively small number4 8,this shows that the modern economic development has indeed been favorable to the entire population by increasing the income and by increasing the number of members of each economic-social class1 but that the distribution has been a very uneven one1 the rich being mostly favored1 then the lower classes1 and the middle class least4 ,it shows1 accordingly1 that the social class differences1 inasmuch as they depend upon the size of the income1 have increased40#aii ,the ,prussian income-tax assessments of #aijh show that there were #ajd1ijd taxpayers with an income of more than #i1ejj marks1 representing a total income of #c1abc1bgc1jjj marks4 ,among these were #c1gif with an income of more than #ajj1jjj marks1 representing a total income of #icd1jjj1jjj marks2 #gg were enumerated with an income of more than a million4 ,the #ajd1ijd taxpayers1 or #a4gh per cent41 with an income of more than #i1ejj marks1 represented the same total income as the #c1aji1edj 7#eb4i per cent471 with an income of from #ijj to #a1cej marks4 ,in ,austria about #bd per cent4 of the assessed net income devolved upon approximately #ab to #ac per cent4 of the taxpayers having incomes of from #d1jjj to #ab1jjj crowns4 ,if the incomes up to #ab1jjj crowns are taken together1 this group comprises over #ig per cent4 of the taxpayers and #gd per cent4 of the income4 ,the remaining #c per cent4 of the taxpayers control #bf per cent4 of the assessed income4#bjj ,the minimum exempt from taxation is higher in ,austria than in ,prussia--#a1bjj crowns1 or #a1jad marks4 ,the small taxpayers having an income of from #a1bjj to #d1jjj crowns formed #hd4c per cent4 of all taxpayers in #aijd4 ,the number of richest persons having an income of more than #bjj1jjj crowns was #bee in #ahih1 and in #aijd it was #cjg1 or #j4jcb per cent4 of all taxpayers4 ,in ,great ,britain and ,ireland1 according to ,l4 ,g4 ,chiozza ,money1 half of the national income 7over #d1aej1jjj1jjj dollars7 belongs to one-ninth of the population4 ,he divides the population into three groups3 ,the rich1 with an income of more than #gjj pounds sterling2 the wealthy1 with an income of from #afj to #gjj pounds sterling2 and the poor1 with an income of less than #afj pounds sterling4 ,including ,income in ,class ,persons families pounds sterling ,rich #bej1jjj #a1bej1jjj #ehe1jjj1jjj ,wealthy #gej1jjj #c1gej1jjj #bde1jjj1jjj ,poor #e1jjj1jjj #ch1jjj1jjj #hhj1jjj1jjj ,according to these figures1 more than one-third of the national income belongs to one-thirtieth of the population4 ,the investigations of ,booth for ,london1 and of ,rowntree for ,york1 have shown that thirty per cent4 of the entire population lead an existence of direst life-long poverty4#bja ,for ,france1 ,e4 ,levasseur compiled the following figures1 on the basis of the statistics of inheritance3 8,two-fifths of the national wealth are owned by #ih per cent4 having less than #ajj1jjj francs2 about one-third is owned by a small group of #a4g per cent41 and a quarter of the entire national wealth belongs to a wee minority--#j4ab per cent40#bjb ,all these figures show how great are the numbers of the non-possessing masses1 and how thin the strata of the possessing classes4 8,the growing inequality10 says ,g4 ,schmoller1 8is undeniable4 ,it cannot be doubted that the distribution of wealth in ,central ,europe1 from #acjj to #aijj1 became increasingly unequal1 though of course the inequalities varied in the different countries4 ,recent development1 with its growing class distinctions1 has greatly increased the inequalities in income and wealth40#bjc ,this capitalistic process of development and concentration1 that takes place in all civilized countries1 combined with the prevailing anarchy in the methods of production1 that so far was unable to prevent the formation of trusts1 inevitably leads to overproduction and to an overstocking of the market4 ,we enter upon the crisis4 #aii ,adolf ,wagner--,a contribution to the method of statistics of the national income and national wealth and further statistic investigations of the distribution of the national income in ,prussia1 founded on the new income statistics1 #ahib-aijb4 ,gazette of the royal ,prussian bureau of statistics1 #aijd4 #bjj ,f4 ,l4--,the distribution of the income in ,austria4 ,leipzig1 #aijh4 #bja ,l4 ,g4 ,chiozza ,money4 ,riches and ,poverty4 ,london1 #aijh4 #bjb ,e4 ,levasseur4 #bjc ,g4 ,schmoller--,principles of ,economics4 ,vol4 ,,ii4 ,,chapter ,,xviii4 ,crisis and ,competition4 #a4--;,causes and ,effects of the ,crises4 ,the crisis arises because no standard exists whereby the real demand for a commodity may at any time be measured and ascertained4 ,there is no power in bourgeois society that is enabled to regulate the entire production4 ,in the first place1 the consumers of a commodity are scattered over a wide area1 and the purchasing ability of the consumers1 who determine the consumption1 is influenced by a number of causes that no individual producer is able to control4 ,moreover1 every individual producer must compete with a number of other producers whose productive abilities are unknown to him4 ,each one seeks to defeat his competitors by every means at his command3 by a reduction in prices1 by advertising1 by giving credit for prolonged periods1 by sending out drummers1 and even by cunningly and insidiously disparaging the products of his competitors1 the latter means being especially frequently resorted to during critical times4 ,the entire realm of production accordingly depends upon the subjective discretion of the individual4 ,every manufacturer must dispose of a certain quantity of goods in order to subsist4 ,but he seeks to sell a far larger quantity1 for this increased sale determines not only his larger income1 but also the probability of his triumphing over his competitors4 ,for a while sales are insured1 they even increase2 this leads to more extensive enterprises and to increased production4 ,but good times and favorable conditions tempt not only one but all manufacturers to multiply their efforts4 ,production by far exceeds the demand4 ,suddenly it becomes manifest that the market is over-stocked with goods4 ,the sales slacken1 the prices fall1 production is limited4 ,to limit production in any branch means to decrease the number of workers employed in this branch1 and a reduction in wages1 whereby the workers in turn are compelled to limit their consumption4 ,the inevitable result is1 that production and consumption in other branches slacken likewise4 ,small dealers of all kinds1 shopkeepers1 bakers1 butchers1 etc4 whose chief customers are workingmen fail to dispose of their goods and also suffer want4 ,the effects of such a crisis may be seen from the statistics of the unemployed that were compiled by the trade-unions of ,berlin at the close of ,january1 #aijb4 ,in ,berlin and suburban towns there where over #gj1jjj persons who were entirely unemployed1 and over #fj1jjj who were partly unemployed4 ,on ,february #ac1 #aiji1 the trade-unions of ,berlin took another census of the unemployed and found that there were #ajf1gbb unemployed persons 7#ib1fee men and #ad1jfg women74#bjd ,in ,england there were #gej1jjj unemployed persons during ,september #aijh4 ,these figures represent workingmen and women who were willing and eager to work but unable to find work4 ,the deplorable social conditions of these human beings may be easily imagined6 ,since one industry furnishes the raw material to another and one depends upon the other1 the ills that befall one must affect the others4 ,the circle of those affected widens4 ,many obligations that had been entered upon in the hope of prolonged favorable conditions cannot be met1 and heighten the crisis that grows worse from month to month4 ,a heap of accumulated goods1 tools and machines becomes almost worthless4 ,the goods are frequently sold underprice and this often leads to the ruin of the owners of such goods as well as to the ruin of dozens of others who in turn are compelled to sell their goods underprice also4 ,but even during the crisis the methods of production are constantly improved in order to meet the increased competition1 and this means again forms a cause for new crises4 ,after a crisis has lasted for years and over-production has gradually been removed by selling the products underprice1 by limiting production and by the ruin of smaller manufacturers1 society slowly begins to recuperate4 ,the demand increases again1 and promptly the production increases also1 slowly and carefully at first1 but more rapidly with the prolonged duration of favorable conditions4 ,people seek to reimburse themselves for what they have lost and seek to secure their portions before a new crisis sets in4 ,but as all manufacturers are guided by the same impulse1 as they all seek to improve the means of production in order to excel the others1 a new catastrophe is ushered in more rapidly and with still more disastrous results4 ,countless lives rise and fall like bubbles1 and this constant reciprocal action causes the awful conditions that we experience during every crisis4 ,the crises become more frequent as production and competition increase1 not only among individuals1 but among entire nations4 ,the small battle for customers1 and the great battle for markets becomes increasingly severe and is bound to end with enormous losses4 ,meanwhile goods and supplies are stored away in masses1 but countless human beings who wish to consume but are unable to buy1 suffer hunger and privation4 ,the years #aija and #aijg-jh have proven the correctness of this representation4 ,after years of business depression1 during which capitalistic development nevertheless continued to progress uninterruptedly1 the upward course set in1 stimulated to no slight extent by the changes and new equipments that the army and navy required4 ,during this period a tremendous number of new industrial enterprises sprang up1 and a great many others were increased and expanded to attain the development made possible by their technical means and to heighten their productivity4 ,but in the same way the number of enterprises increased that were transferred from the hands of individual capitalists to capitalistic associations 7stock companies71 a transformation that is always accompanied by an enlargement of the manufactory4 ,many thousands of millions of marks represent the newly formed stock companies4 ,moreover1 the capitalists of all countries seek to form national and international agreements4 ,trusts spring up like mushrooms from the ground4 ,these endeavour to determine the prices and to regulate production on the basis of exact statistical research to avoid over-production and reduction in prices4 ,entire branches of industry have been monopolized in this way to the advantage of the manufacturers and to the disadvantage of the workers and the consumers4 ,many believed that thereby capital had obtained the means that would enable it to dominate the market in all directions4 ,but appearances are deceiving4 ,the laws of capitalistic production prove stronger than the most cunning representatives of the system1 who believed to have regulated it4 ,the crisis came1 nevertheless1 and it was seen again that the wisest calculation proved faulty and that bourgeois society cannot escape its fate4 ,but capitalism continues in the same manner since it cannot change its substance4 ,by the way in which it is bound to act1 it upsets all laws of bourgeois economics4 ,unrestricted competition--the alpha and omega of bourgeois society--is supposed to place those most capable at the helm of all enterprises4 ,but experience shows that as a rule it places those at the helm who are most shrewd and cunning and least troubled by a conscience4 ,moreover1 stock companies set aside all individuality4 ,the trust goes further still4 ,here not only does the individual manufacturer cease to be an independent person1 the stock company too becomes a mere link in a chain that is controlled by a board of capitalists whose main purpose is to plunder the public4 ,a hand full of monopolists become the masters of society2 these dictate the prices to be paid by the consumers for commodities1 and to the workers their wages and standard of living4 ,this development shows how superfluous private enterprise has become1 and that production conducted on a national and international scale is the goal toward which society is bent4 ,the only difference will ultimately be that organized production and distribution will benefit the entire community instead of benefiting the capitalistic class only1 as is the case to-day4 ,the economic revolution above described1 which is rapidly driving bourgeois society to the heights of its development1 is constantly intensified by new1 important events4 ,while ,europe is being more threatened each year1 both in its foreign and domestic markets1 by the rapidly growing ,north ,american competition1 new enemies are arising in the far ,east who make the economic conditions of the entire world still more critical4 ,competition drives the capitalist around the globe1 as the ,communist ,manifesto expresses it4 ,he is constantly seeking new markets1 that is1 countries and nations where he can dispose of his goods and create new demands4 ,one side of this endeavour may be seen from the fact that since a few decades the various states are eagerly engaged in colonization4 ,germany was foremost among these and succeeded in taking possession of large tracts of land1 but these possessions are chiefly occupied by people of a very primitive degree of civilization who have no demand worth speaking of for ,european products4 ,the other side of this endeavour is directed toward carrying capitalistic civilization to nations who have already attained a higher degree of civilization1 but who until recently were rigorously opposed to modern development4 ,such are the ,east ,indians1 the ,japanese1 and especially the ,chinese4 ,these are nations that comprise more than one third of the entire population of the earth4 ,when once given an impetus they are well able--as the ,japanese have already demonstrated during the war with ,russia--to develop the capitalistic method of production quite independently1 and to do so1 moreover1 under conditions that will be accompanied by disastrous results to the more advanced nations4 ,the ability and skill of these nations is well known1 but it is equally well known that their wants are few--due to a great extent to the warm climate--and that1 when compelled to do so1 they rapidly adapt themselves to changed conditions4 ,here the old world1 including the ,united ,states1 is being confronted by a new competitor who will demonstrate to the whole world that the capitalistic system is untenable4 ,in the meanwhile1 the competing nations1 especially the ,united ,states1 ,england and ,germany1 seek to outdo one another1 and all means are resorted to in order to obtain the largest possible share in the control of the world's market4 ,this leads to international politics1 to interference in all international events of importance1 and in order to interfere successfully1 the navies especially are developed and increased as never before1 whereby the danger of great political catastrophes is heightened anew4 ,thus the political realm grows with the realm of economic competition4 ,the contradictions grow on an international scale1 and in all countries that have undergone a capitalistic development they bring forth similar phenomena and similar struggles4 ,not only the method of production but also the manner of distribution is responsible for these unbearable conditions4 #bjd ,unemployment and ,statistics of the ,unemployed in the ,winter of #aijh to #aiji4 ,berlin1 #aiji4 #b4--;,intermediate ,trade and the ,increased ,cost of ,living4 ,in human society all individuals are linked to one another by a thousand threads that become more complicated and interwoven with increasing civilization4 ,when disturbances occur they are felt by all members4 ,disturbances in production affect distribution and consumption and vice versa4 ,a marked characteristic of capitalistic production is the concentration of the means of production in increasingly large factories4 ,in distribution the opposite trait becomes manifest4 ,whoever has been driven by competition out of the ranks of independent producers1 in nine cases out of ten seeks to win a place as dealer between producer and consumer to obtain a living4#bje ,this accounts for the surprising increase of persons engaged in intermediate trade1 dealers1 small shopkeepers1 hucksters1 agents1 jobbers1 etc4 as has been statistically proven in a previous chapter4 ,most of these persons1 among whom we find many women independently engaged in business1 lead a precarious existence4 ,many1 in order to subsist1 must cater to the basest fashions of their fellow-men4 ,this accounts for the tremendous prevalence of advertising especially in regard to everything in connection with the gratification of the love of luxury4 ,now it cannot be denied that in modern society the desire for the enjoyment of life is very noticeable1 and viewed from a higher standard this fact is gratifying4 ,people begin to understand that in order to be human they must lead lives worthy of human beings1 and they seek to gratify this desire in the manner in which they conceive the enjoyment of life4 ,in the display of wealth society has become much more aristocratic than in any former period4 ,the contrast between the richest and the poorest is greater than ever4 ,on the other hand1 society has become more democratic in its ideas and laws4#bjf ,the masses demand greater equality1 and since in their ignorance1 they do not yet recognize the means to achieve true equality1 they seek it in trying to ape those in superior social positions and to obtain every enjoyment within their reach4 ,various stimulants serve to gratify this desire and the results are frequently detrimental4 ,a desire that is justified in itself leads to devious paths in many cases2 it even leads to crimes1 and society punishes the perpetrators without changing matters in the least4 ,the growing number of persons engaged in intermediate trade has led to many evils4 ,though the persons thus engaged work hard and are frequently burdened with care1 most of them form a class of parasites who are unproductive and live on the products of the labor of others as well as the employing class4 ,an increased cost of living is the inevitable result of intermediate trade4 ,the price of provisions is thereby raised to such extent that they sometimes cost twice and three times as much as is obtained by the producer4#bjg ,but if provisions can not be raised in price any more1 because a further raise would limit the consumption1 they are diminished in quantity and quality1 adulteration of food and the use of incorrect weights and measures is resorted to4 ,the chemist ,chevalier reports that among various articles of food he found the following number of methods of adulteration3 coffee1 #cb2 wine1 #cj2 chocolate1 #bh2 flour1 #bd2 whiskey1 #bc2 bread1 #bj2 milk1 #ai2 butter1 #aj2 olive oil1 #i2 sugar1 #f1 etc4 ,a great deal of fraud is practiced in the grocery stores with goods that have been previously measured or weighed and packed4 ,frequently only #ab or #ad ounces are sold for a pound1 and in this way the lower price is made up for4 ,workingmen and other persons of small means suffer most from these fraudulent methods1 because they are obliged to buy on credit and must therefore hold their peace even where the fraud is perfectly evident4 ,in the bakery trade also incorrect weight is frequently resorted to4 ,swindle and fraud are inevitably linked with our social conditions1 and certain institutions of the state1 for instance high indirect taxes and duties1 favor swindle and fraud4 ,the laws enacted against the adultery of food accomplish but little4 ,the struggle for existence compels the swindlers to resort to more cunning methods1 and a thoroughgoing and severe control rarely exists4 ,serious control is also made impossible because it is claimed that in order to detect every adultery1 an expensive and extensive organization would be required and that legitimate business would also be damaged thereby4 ,but wherever the control does interfere successfully1 a considerable increase in prices ensues1 because the low prices were possible only by means of adulteration4 ,in order to diminish these evils from which the masses always and everywhere suffer most1 cooperative stores have been established4 ,in ,germany especially army and navy stores and civil service stores have been developed to such an extent1 that many commercial enterprises were ruined by them4 ,but the workingmen's cooperative stores have also developed tremendously during the last decade and have partly even undertaken the manufacture of certain commodities4 ,the cooperative stores in ,hamburg1 ,leipsic1 ,dresden1 ,stuttgart1 ,breslau1 ,vienna1 etc41 have become model establishments and the annual sales of the ,german cooperative stores amount to hundreds of millions of marks4 ,since a few years the ,german cooperative stores have central establishments in ,hamburg where the goods are purchased wholesale on the largest scale2 this enables the various branch stores to obtain these goods at the lowest possible price4 ,these cooperative stores prove that the scattering methods of intermediate trade are superfluous4 ,that is their greatest advantage beside the other advantage that they furnish reliable goods4 ,the material advantages to their members are not very great nor do they suffice to bring about any marked improvement in their social status4 ,but the establishment of these cooperative stores proves the existence of a widespread recognition that intermediate trade is superfluous4 ,society will ultimately achieve an organization that will do away with commerce1 since the products will be turned over to the consumers without the aid of other intermediate agents than are required by transportation from one place to another and by distribution4 ,when the common purchase of food has been achieved1 the common preparation of food on a large scale appears to be the next logical step4 ,this again would lead to a tremendous saving in labor power1 space1 material and many other expenses4 #bje 8,the decline of ancient handicraft is not the only cause that accounts for the great increase in the small retail trade4 ,the growing industrialization and commercialization of the country notwithstanding its tendency toward manufacture on a large scale always furnishes new ground for small businesses4 ,inventions that create new branches of industry also cause the rise of new small establishments for the distribution of these products4 ,but the main cause of the great increase in retail trade is1--as expressed in a report submitted to the government of ,saxony by the ,dresden chamber of commerce1--that trade on a small scale has become the rallying place of many persons who despair of making their living in any other way40 ,paul ,lange--,retail ,trade and ,middle ,class ,politics4 8,new ,era40 #bjf ,in his first adaption of ,rau's 8,text ,book of ,political ,economy10 ,professor ,adolf ,wagner expresses a similar thought4 ,he says3 8,the social struggle is the conscious contradiction between the economic development and the social ideal of freedom and equality as expressed in political life40 #bjg ,in his book on 8,domestic ,industry in ,thuringia10 ,dr4 ,e4 ,sax tells us that in #ahfi the production of #bdd million slate pencils had yielded #abb1jjj to #bjj1jjj florins in wages to the workingmen1 but their final sale had yielded #a1bjj1jjj florins1 at least six times as much as the producers had received4 ,during the summer of #ahhh1 #e marks were paid for #e hundred-weights of haddock by the wholesaler4 ,but the retailer paid #ae marks to the wholesaler1 and the public paid the latter #abe marks4 ,large quantities of food moreover are destroyed because the prices do not make their transportation worth while4 ,for instance1 during years when the catch of herrings has been an over abundant one1 loads of them have been used as manure1 while there were thousands of persons in the interior who could not afford to buy herrings4 ,the same occurred in ,california in #ahib when the crop of potatoes was too abundant4 ,when in #aija the price of sugar was very low1 a trade paper seriously suggested to destroy a greater part of the supplies so that the price could be raised4 ,it is well known that ,charles ,fourier was inspired to his ideas of a social system because while he served as apprentice in a commercial house in ,toulon1 he had been ordered to throw a load of rice over board to raise the prices4 ,he reasoned that a society which resorts to such barbarous and irrational methods must be founded on a false basis1 and so he became a socialist4 ,,chapter ,,xix4 ,the ,revolution in ,agriculture4 #a4--,transatlantic ,competition and ,desertion of the ,country4 ,the economic revolution in industry and trade has also largely affected agricultural conditions4 ,the commercial and industrial crises affect the rural population likewise4 ,hundreds of thousands of members of the families of farmers are temporarily or permanently employed in industrial establishments of various kinds4 ,this manner of employment constantly expands1 firstly1 because the great number of small farmers do not have enough work on their own farms to keep themselves and the members of their families usefully employed1 and1 secondly1 because the large farmers find it profitable to have an important portion of the products of their soil transformed into industrial commodities right on their own farms4 ,in this manner they save the heavy expense of shipping the raw material1 for instance1 potatoes and grain for the manufacture of alcohol1 beets for sugar1 cereals for flour or for brewing beer1 etc4 ,they1 furthermore1 are enabled to establish a mutual relation between agricultural and industrial production and can employ the labor power on hand to better advantage4 ,the wages are lower and the workers are more willing too than those in cities and industrial centers4 ,expenses of buildings and rents as well as taxes are considerably lower too1 for the large land owners in the rural districts are both the makers and executors of the law2 they furnish many representatives from their midst and control the administration and police force4 ,that is why the number of factories in the country increases each year4 ,agriculture and industry are becoming more and more closely linked1 and the large agricultural establishments mainly profit from this fact4 ,the capitalistic development that the large estates have undergone1 in ,germany as elsewhere1 has created conditions similar to those in ,england and the ,united ,states4 ,we no longer meet with those ideal conditions in the country that still existed a few decades ago4 ,modern civilization has gradually taken possession of the country1 too1 in the remotest places even4 ,militarism especially has unintentionally exercised a revolutionary influence4 ,the great increase in the standing army has made itself especially severely felt in the open country4 ,a great portion of the troops for the standing army is drawn from the rural population4 ,but when the peasant's son1 or day laborer or farm-hand1 returns to the country1 after an absence of two or three years1 from the city and the barracks1 where the atmosphere has not been an exactly moral one1 he has become acquainted with many new ideas and requirements of civilization that he seeks to satisfy at home as he did away from home4 ,to make this possible his first demand is for higher wages4 ,the old modesty and contentedness have been shattered in the city4 ,in many cases he prefers to stay away from the country altogether1 and all endeavours1 supported by the military authorities1 to lead him back1 remain unsuccessful4 ,improved means of traffic and communication also tend to raise the standard of requirements in the country4 ,by his associations with the city the farmer becomes acquainted with the world in an entirely new and tempting way2 he is influenced by ideas and learns of requirements of civilization that have been entirely foreign to him until then4 ,that causes him to become dissatisfied with his position4 ,the increased demands made upon the population by state1 county1 community1 etc41 affect the peasant as well as the rural worker and make them more rebellious still4 ,to this other most important factors must be added4 ,european agriculture1 and especially ,german agriculture1 has entered upon a new phase of its development since the close of the seventies of the last century4 ,while1 until then1 the nations depended upon the farm products of their own agriculture1 or1 as ,england1 upon that of the neighboring countries--,france and ,germany--the situation now began to change4 ,as a result of the tremendously improved means of transportation--navigation and the construction of railways in ,north ,america--provisions began to be shipped from there to ,europe and lowered the prices of grain1 so that cultivation of the chief kinds of grain in ,middle and ,western ,europe became far less profitable1 unless the entire conditions of production could be changed4 ,moreover1 the realm of international grain production greatly expanded4 ,besides ,russia and ,roumania1 who made every endeavour to increase their export of grain1 products from ,argentine ,republic1 ,australia1 ,india and ,canada appeared upon the market4 ,in the course of development another unfavorable factor was added4 ,influenced by the causes above enumerated1 the small farmers and rural workers began to desert the country4 ,they either emigrated beyond the seas or scores of them moved from the country to the cities and industrial centers1 so that labor power in the country became scarce4 ,the antiquated1 patriarchal conditions1 especially in ,eastern ,europe1 the ill-treatment and almost servile status of the farm-hands and servants still heightened this desertion of the country4 ,to what extent this shifting of the population has affected the rural districts from #ahdj until the census of #aije1 may be seen from the fact that during this period the ,prussian provinces--,east-,prussia1 ,west ,prussia1 ,pomerania1 ,posen1 ,silesia1 ,saxony and ,hannover--lost #d1jdi1bjj persons1 and ,bavaria1 ,wurtemberg1 ,baden and ,alsace-,lorraine had a loss of #b1jbf1ejj1 while ,berlin increased by migration by about #a1jjj1jjj persons1 ,hamburg by #djb1jjj1 the ,kingdom of ,saxony by #cbf1bjj1 the ,rhine provinces by #cdc1jjj1 and ,westphalia by #bdf1ajj4bjh #bjh ,quarterly ,gazette for ,statistics of the ,german ,empire4 #b4--,peasants and ,great ,landowners4 ,as a result of all these changes1 agriculture began to suffer from a want of capital4 ,accordingly the former line of development1 whereby the great landowner bought up the small and medium-sized farmers and made them part of his property1 gave way to the opposite tendency4 ,but this pressure also brought about1 that the clumsy character of agricultural enterprises was gradually modified1 because people recognized that it would no longer do to follow the beaten path1 but that it had become necessary to adopt new methods4 ,the national government1 as well as the state governments1 endeavored to relieve agriculture from its exigency by appropriate trade and tariff policies and by direct expenditures for various improvements4 ,recently the medium and great landowners are quite successful again wherever the farms are conducted in keeping with modern technical development1 as may be gathered from the fact that the prices of farms have greatly increased4 ,if agriculture is to prosper in capitalistic society1 it is necessary that it should be conducted by capitalistic methods4 ,here1 as in industry1 it is important that human labor should be replaced or aided by machinery and technical improvements4 ,that this is being done may be seen from the following3 ,during the period from #ahhb to #ahie the number of steam-ploughs employed in agriculture in ,germany has increased from #hcf to #afif1 and the number of steam-threshing machines has increased from #ge1fij to #bei1cfd4 ,compared to what might be done in the way of agricultural machinery1 these figures are still exceedingly low and prove the undeveloped state of agriculture2 they also prove that lack of means and the small size of the individual farms have so far made the application of machinery impossible4 ,the machine1 in order to be truly advantageous1 requires application on a large area of land devoted to cultivation of the same kind of crop4 ,the great number of small and medium-sized farms1 the scattered fields and the great variety of crops have prevented a successful application of machinery4 ,the tables on page #cea show how the farming area is distributed in the ,german ,empire4#bji ,among the #e1gcf1jhb farms counted in #aijg there were no less than #d1chd1ghf of less than #e hectares #gf4h per cent41 that can furnish but a poor existence to their owners1 unless the soil is particularly good1 or unless devoted to horticulture4 ,a great many of them could not even be used in this way1 since there are #b1gca1jee farms among them of one hectare1 and less1 in area4 ,number of ,farms ,increase or ,decrease ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,farms ,from #ahhb ,from #ahie #ahhb #ahie #aijg to #ahie to #aijg ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,less than #b hectares #c1jfa1hca #c1bcf1cfg #c1cgh1eji #agd1ecf #adb1adb #b to #e ha4 #iha1djg #a1jaf1cah #a1jjf1bgg #cd1iaa #aj1jda #e 8 #bj 8 #ibf1fje #iih1hjd #a1jfe1eci #gb1aii #ff1gce #bj 8 #ajj 8 #bha1eaj #bha1gfg #bfb1aia #beg #ai1egf ,over #ajj 8 #bd1iia #be1jfa #bc1eff #gj #a1die ---------------------------------------- ------------------ #e1bgf1cdd #e1eeh1cag #e1gcf1jhb #bha1igc #agg1gfe ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,farming area in hectares ,increase or ,decrease ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,farms ,from #ahhb ,from #ahie #ahhb #ahie #aijg to #ahie to #aijg ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,less than #b hectares #a1hbe1ich #a1hjh1ddd #a1gca1cag #ag1did #gg1abg #b to #e ha4 #c1aij1bjc #c1bhe1ihd #c1cjd1hgb #ie1gha #ah1hhh #e 8 #bj 8 #i1aeh1cih #i1gba1hge #aj1dba1efe #efh1dgg #fii1fij #bj 8 #ajj 8 #i1ijh1agj #i1hfi1hcg #i1cbb1ajf #ch1ccc #edg1gca ,over #ajj 8 #g1ghf1bfc #g1hca1hja #g1jee1jac #de1ech #ggf1ghh ---------------------------------------- --------------------- #ca1hfh1igb #cb1eag1ida #ca1hcd1hgc #fdh1ifi #fhc1jfh ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,but even among the farms of more than #e hectares there are many that yield only a poor product1 notwithstanding hard and long labor1 owing to poor soil1 unfavorable climate1 bad location1 lack of proper means of transportation1 etc4 ,it may be said without exaggeration that fully nine-tenths of the farmers lack the means and the knowledge to cultivate their soil as it might be cultivated4 ,neither do the small peasants receive a fair price for their products1 since they depend upon the intermediate trader4 ,the dealer who traverses the country on definite days or in definite seasons and usually trades off his merchandise to other dealers again1 must obtain his profit4 ,but to gather in the many small quantities means much more trouble to him than to procure a large quantity from a great landowner4 ,the peasants owning small and medium-sized farms therefore receive less for their products than the great landowners1 and if their products are of inferior quality1 which is frequently the case owing to their primitive methods1 they must accept almost any price4 ,sometimes they cannot even wait for the time when their product will bring the highest price4 ,they owe money on rent1 interest and taxes1 they must repay loans1 or must settle bills with tradespeople and mechanics1 therefore they are obliged to sell no matter how unfavorable the time may be4 ,in order to improve their property1 or to satisfy joint-heirs or children they have mortgaged their farms4 ,as they have few lenders to choose from1 the conditions are not very favorable4 ,a high rate of interest and definite dates of payment weigh heavily on them4 ,a poor harvest or a faulty speculation in regard to the kind of product that they expected to sell at a good price often drive them to the verge of ruin4 ,sometimes the products are bought and the capital is loaned by one and the same person1 and in that event the peasant is entirely in the hands of his creditor4 ,in this manner the peasants of entire villages and districts are sometimes in the hands of a few creditors4 ,this is the case with the peasants who raise hops1 wine1 tobacco1 and vegetables in ,southern ,germany1 and on the ,rhine1 and with small farmers in ,central ,germany4 ,the creditor fleeces the peasants mercilessly4 ,he allows them to remain on their farms as apparent owners1 but as a matter of fact they no longer own them4 ,frequently the capitalistic exploiter finds this method far more profitable than to cultivate the land himself1 or to sell it4 ,in this manner thousands of peasants are recorded as owners of farms who are virtually not the owners4 ,as a matter of fact1 many great landowners1 too1 who managed badly or were unfortunate or took the property under unfavorable conditions1 fell victims to capitalistic extortioners4 ,the capitalist becomes master of the soil1 and1 in order to increase his profits1 he divides up the farm into lots1 because in this way he can obtain a far higher price than if he sold it undivided4 ,with a number of small proprietors he furthermore has the best prospect to continue his usurious trade4 ,as is well known1 in the city1 too1 those houses yield the highest rents that contain the largest number of small apartments4 ,a small number of farmers take the opportunity and buy portions of the divided estate4 ,the capitalistic benefactor is willing to turn over larger portions to them also upon a small payment4 ,the remainder of the price he takes as mortgage at a high rate of interest1 and there the difficulty begins4 ,if the small farmer is fortunate and succeeds in making his farm pay he escapes2 otherwise his lot will be as described above4 ,if the small farmer loses some of his cattle1 that is a great misfortune for him2 if he has a daughter who marries1 the purchase of her outfit increases his debts and he loses a cheap labor power2 if a son marries1 the latter demands his share of the farm1 or a payment in money4 ,frequently he cannot afford even necessary improvements4 ,if his stock does not provide sufficient manure--as is often the case--his soil becomes poorer in quality1 because he cannot afford to buy manure4 ,sometimes he is too poor to buy good seed even2 the use of machinery is denied him1 and a change of crop adapted to the chemical nature of his soil is frequently unfeasible4 ,neither can he apply advantageous methods offered by science and experience in the improvement of his stock4 ,lack of proper fodder1 lack of proper stalls1 lack of other necessary appliances1 prevents it4 ,so there are many causes that make existence difficult to the small farmer4 ,it is quite different with the large estates1 where a comparatively small number of farms cover a large area4 ,we see from the statistics that #bc1eff farms1 having an area of #g1jee1jac hectares of cultivated soil1 cover #b1jai1hbd hectares more than the #d1chd1ghf farms having an area of less than five hectares4 ,but the numbers of the farms and the numbers of the owners do not coincide4 ,in #ahie there were no less than #iab1iei leased farms of all sizes1 #a1fid1bea farms that were partly owned and partly leased1 and #ihc1iag farms that were cultivated in different ways1 as farms loaned to officials1 as part of communal property1 etc4 ,on the other hand1 single individuals own a number of agricultural estates4 ,the greatest ,german landowner is the ,king of ,prussia1 who owns #hc estates1 with an area of #ih1gdf hectares2 other great ,german landowners are3 ,prince of ,pless owning #ge estates of #gj1agj hectares ,prince ,hohenzollern-,sigmar 8 #bd 8 8 #ei1ifh 8 ,duke of ,ujest 8 #eb 8 8 #ci1gdb 8 ,prince ,hohenlohe-,oehringen 8 -- ------ #ci1cfe 8 ,prince of ,ratibor 8 #ea 8 8 #cc1jif 8 ,in #ahie the entailed estates in ,prussia comprised an area of #b1aba1fcf hectares1 or #f4ji per cent4 of the entire area of the land4 ,the #ajde entailed estates were owned by #ici proprietors1 and their common property was by #bjf1fjj hectares larger than the entire ,kingdom of ,wurtemberg1 which covers an area of about #a1iae1jjj hectares4 ,the large landowners are naturally interested in maintaining the present conditions4 ,not so the small proprietors1 who would draw great advantages from a rational transformation of the conditions4 ,it is an innate characteristic of large ownership of land that it seeks to enlarge its possessions more and more1 and to take possession of all the farms within reach4 ,it is so in ,silesia1 ,lausitz1 the ,dukedom of ,hessia and in other districts from which purchases of peasants' estates on a large scale are frequently reported4 ,in ,austria the large estates predominate far more than in ,germany1 or particularly in ,prusia4 ,here1 besides the nobility and the bourgeoisie1 the ,catholic ,church has succeeded in taking possession of a lion's share of the soil4 ,the expropriation of peasants is in full swing in ,austria also4 ,in ,styria1 ,tyrol1 ,salzburg1 ,upper and ,lower ,austria1 etc41 all means are applied to drive the peasants from their native soil and to turn their farms into gentlemen's estates4 ,the same scenes that were at one time enacted in ,scotland and ,ireland may now be observed in the most picturesque parts of ,austria4 ,individuals1 as well as societies1 purchase enormous tracts of land1 or rent what they cannot purchase1 and transform them into hunting grounds4 ,trespassing on the valleys1 hills and hamlets is prohibited by the new masters1 and the stubborn proprietors of some estates1 who refuse to comply with the demands of the gentlemen1 are annoyed so long in various ways that they yield and sell their property4 ,soil that has been cultivated for ages1 where for thousands of years many generations made a living1 are transformed into a wilderness where deer may roam about1 and the mountains that have been taken possession of by the capitalistic nobility or bourgeoisie are the hunting grounds of the chamois4 ,poverty spreads over entire communities because they are denied the right of driving their cattle on the ,alpine pastures4 ,and who are these persons who are robbing the peasant of his property and his independence8 ,besides ,rothschild and ,baron ,meyer-,melnhof1 the ,counts of ,coburg and ,meiningen1 ,prince ,hohenlohe1 the ,duke of ,liechtenstein1 the ,count of ,braganza1 the ,duchess ,rosenberg1 the ,duke of ,pless1 the ,counts ,schoenfeld1 ,festetics1 ,schafgotsch1 ,trauttmannsdorff1 the ,baron ,gustaedt ,hunting ,club1 the ,count ,karoly ,hunting ,club1 the ,noblemen's ,hunting ,club of ,bluehnbach1 etc4 ,everywhere the great landowners are extending their property4 ,in #ahge there were only #i persons in ,lower ,austria who owned more than #ejjj yokes each1 with an area of #hi1dij hectares2 in #ahie there were #bd persons who owned an area of #bac1egd hectares4 ,throughout ,austria the great landowners control an area of #h1gjj1jjj hectares1 while #ba1cjj1jjj hectares belong to the small landowners4 ,the proprietors of entailed estates1 #big families1 own #a1bjj1jjj hectares4 ,millions of small landowners cultivate #ga per cent4 of the entire area1 while a few thousand great landowners control more than #bi per cent4 of the entire area of ,austria4 ,there are few land-revenue districts in which there are no great landed proprietors4 ,in most of the districts there are two or several landowners who exert a determining political and social influence4 ,almost half of the great landowners hold property in several districts of the country1 a number of them in several crown-lands of the empire4 ,in ,lower ,austria1 ,bohemia1 ,moravia1 and ,silesia there is no district without them4 ,only industry succeeded in dislodging them to some extent2 for instance1 in ,northern ,bohemia and at the boundary of ,bohemia and ,moravia4 ,in all other parts of the country the large estates are increasing3 ,in ,upper ,austria1 where1 of all crown-lands1 we still find a class of peasants that is fairly well off2 in ,goerz and ,gradiaska1 in ,styria1 ,salzburg1 in ,galicia and ,bukovina4 ,they are increasing less rapidly in those countries that already are the domains of the great landowners--,bohemia1 ,moravia1 ,silesia and ,lower ,austria4 ,in ,lower ,austria1 of the entire ground comprising #a1ihb1cjj hectares1 #cic great landowners owned #edj1fee hectares1 and the ,church owned #gi1aha hectares2 #ac estates comprise #dbe1jgi hectares #i per cent4 of the entire area2 among these1 ,duke ,hoyos-,sprinzenstein owns #cc1abd hectares4 ,the area of ,moravia covers #b1aha1bbj hectares4 ,of these the ,church owned #ha1heg hectares1 and #aaf estates of more than #ajjj hectares each comprised a larger area than the #ejj1jjj estates up to #aj hectares1 that form #ib4a per cent4 of all estates4 ,the area of ,austrian ,silesia covers #ead1fgg hectares4 ,of these the ,church owned #ej1hde hectares1 and #gi proprietors together owned #bjd1aah hectares4 ,bohemia1 with an area of #e1aid1ejj hectares1 has about #a1bcg1jhe great landowners4 ,the distribution of property is characterized by an unusual number of estates of smallest dimensions1 and by extensive large estates4 ,almost #dc per cent4 of all the estates are smaller than hectare1 and more than four-fifths do not exceed #e hectares4 ,these #gjc1egg estates 7#ha per cent47 only cover #ab4e per cent4 of the area of ,bohemia4 ,on the other hand1 #ggf persons own #ce4f per cent4 of the entire area1 while they only form #j4a per cent4 of all estates4 ,the unequal distribution of property is more striking still when we analyze the larger class1 those over #bjj hectares4 ,we then obtain the following result3 #chj persons own each #bjj to #ejj hectares together #aaf1adc hectares #ada 8 8 8 #ejj 8 #ajjj 8 8 #aja1gdh 8 #ajd 8 8 8 #ajjj 8 #bjjj 8 8 #aej1efg 8 #aea 8 8 8 over #bjjj 8 8 #a1dcf1jhd 8 ,of the last-named group1 #ca persons own #e1jjj to #aj1jjj hectares each2 #ba persons own #aj1jjj to #bj1jjj hectares each1 and the ,princes ,mor4 ,lobkowitz1 ,ferdinand ,kinsky1 ,karl ,schwarzenberg1 ,alfred ,windischgraetz1 the ,dukes ,ernst ,waldstein1 ,johann ,harrach1 ,karl ,buquoy own #bj1jjj to #cj1jjj hectares each4 ,clam-,gallas and ,lar4 ,czernin own over #cj1jjj each4 ,the ,prince of ,lichtenstein owns #cf1ahi hectares2 ,prince ,max ,egon ,fuerstenberg1 #ci1afb hectares2 ,prince ,colloredo ,mannsfeld1 #eg1fia hectares1 and the ,prince of ,schwarzenberg1 #agg1caj hectares #c4d per cent4 of the entire area of ,bohemia4 ,the ,church owns #aej1cie hectares #c per cent4 of the area of ,bohemia4#baj ,these figures were compiled in #ahif2 since then matters have grown still worse4 ,according to the agricultural census of #aijb there were #ah1dcg estates 7#j4g per cent4 of the entire number7 that covered #i1ibi1ibj hectares1 or one-third of the entire area4 ,in the district of ,schwaz seven ,alps and in the district of ,zell sixteen ,alps that had hitherto served as pastures to the cattle1 were shut off by the new landlords and transformed into hunting grounds4 ,pasturing of cattle is prohibited along the entire ,karwendel range4 ,the leading nobility of ,austria and ,germany1 besides rich bourgeois parvenus1 purchased areas up to #gj1jjj yokes1 and more1 in the ,alpine regions and had them fenced in as game preserves4 ,entire villages1 hundreds of farms disappear1 the inhabitants are driven from their native soil1 and the place of human beings and of animals intended for human food1 is taken by deer and stags and chamois4 ,not a few of these men who have devastated entire provinces in this manner1 afterwards speak on the needy condition of the peasants in the parliaments1 and abuse their power to employ the aid of the state in the form of taxes on grain1 wood1 live stock1 meat1 whiskey1 etc41 at the expense of the propertyless classes4 ,in the most advanced industrial states it is not the love of luxury of the privileged classes that dislodges the small estates1 as is the case in ,austria4 ,here the increasing demands of a rapidly growing population make it necessary to organize farming along capitalistic lines1 in order to produce the required amount of food4 ,this may be observed in a country so highly developed industrially as ,belgium4 ,according to the 8,annual ,statistics10 quoted by ,emile ,vandervelde in an article1 8,landed ,property in ,belgium ,during the ,period from #ahcd to #ahii10 it says3 8,only farms of less than #e hectares1 and especially those of less than #b hectares1 have diminished in number4 ,but the farms of more than #aj hectares have increased to #c1ghi4 ,the concentration of landed property that is in keeping with modern industry and cattle breeding on a large scale1 may here be clearly observed4 ,since #ahhj a development has set in that takes the opposite course of the one that took place from #ahff to #ahhj4 ,while1 in #ahhj1 there still were #iaj1cif farms1 only #hbi1fbe remained in #ahie2 that means a decrease by #hj1gga farms #i per cent41 in fifteen years4 ,as a matter of fact1 this decrease has affected only farms of less than #e hectares4 ,on the other hand1 farms of from #e to #aj hectares increased by #fge2 those of from #aj to #bj hectares by #b1afh2 from #bj to #cj hectares by #dad2 from #cj to #dj hectares by #afd1 from #dj to #ej hectares by #ahg1 and those of over #ej hectares by #aha40 #bji ,karl ,kautsky--,the ,agrarian question and temporary results of the agricultural census of ,june #ab1 #aija4 ,quarterly ,gazette for ,statistics of the ,german ,empire1 #aiji4 #baj ,the ,propertied and ,propertyless ,classes in ,austria4--,t4 ,w4 ,teifen4 ,vienna1 #aijf4 #c4--,the ,contrast ,between ,city and ,country4 ,the condition of the soil and its cultivation is of the greatest importance to the advancement of our civilization4 ,the existence of the population primarily depends upon the soil and its products4 ,the soil cannot be increased at will2 the manner of its cultivation is therefore the more important4 ,the population of ,germany1 which grows by about #hgj1jjj persons annually1 requires a considerable import of bread and meat1 if the prices of the most necessary articles of food are still to be within reach of the masses4 ,but here we are confronted by sharp-contrasting interests between the agricultural and industrial population4 ,that part of the population that is not engaged in agricultural pursuits1 is interested in obtaining articles of food at low prices1 since their wellfare1 both as human beings and as individuals engaged in industry and commerce1 depends upon it4 ,every increase in the cost of articles of food leads to a deterioration in the standard of living of a large portion of the population1 unless the wages of the population depending upon agricultural products should be raised also4 ,but an increase in wages usually implies an increase in the prices of industrial products1 and that may result in a decline of sales4 ,but if wages remain stationary1 notwithstanding the increased cost of articles of food1 the purchase of other commodities must be limited1 and again industry and commerce suffer4 ,matters have a different aspect for those engaged in agriculture4 ,just as persons engaged in industry1 they seek to obtain the greatest possible advantage from their occupation1 and it does not matter to them from which particular product they obtain it4 ,if the import of foreign grain prevents their obtaining the desired profit from the cultivation of grain1 they devote their soil to the cultivation of other products that are more profitable4 ,they cultivate beets for the manufacture of sugar1 and potatoes and grain for the manufacture of whiskey1 instead of wheat and rye for bread4 ,they devote the most fertile fields to the cultivation of tobacco1 instead of to the cultivation of vegetables and fruit4 ,others use thousands of hectares of land for pastures for horses1 because horses bring high prices for military purposes4 ,moreover1 great stretches of forest land1 which could be employed for agricultural purposes1 are reserved as hunting-grounds for sportsmen of rank4 ,this is sometimes the case in regions where a few thousand hectares of forests might be cut down and transformed into fields1 without any harmful results ensuing1 due to a decrease in humidity by the cutting down of the forest4 ,in this manner thousands of square miles of fertile soil might still be won for agricultural purposes in ,germany4 ,but this transformation is contrary to the material interests of a part of the bureaucracy1 the forest- and game-keepers1 as well as to the interests of the great landowners1 who do not wish to give up their hunting-grounds and to deny themselves the pleasures of the chase4 ,it is a matter of course that such clearing of forests could take place only where it would be truly advantageous4 ,on the other hand1 large areas of mountain and waste land might be planted with forests4 ,recently the great influence of forests on the formation of moisture has been denied1 as it appears1 unjustly so4 ,to what marked degree the forest influences the moisture of the land1 and thereby the fertility of the soil1 is shown by some striking facts given in the book by ,parvus and ,dr4 ,lehmann1 8,starving ,russia40 ,the authors assert1 on the ground of their own observations1 that the boundless and desultory devastation of forests in the most fertile provinces of ,russia1 was the chief cause of the failure of crops from which these at one time fertile regions suffered severely during the last few decades4 ,among many other facts1 they pointed out that during the course of time five little rivers and six lakes disappeared in the government district of ,stawropol2 in the government district of ,busuluk four rivers and four lakes disappeared2 in the government district of ,samara six small rivers1 and in the government district of ,buguruslan two small rivers disappeared4 ,in the government districts of ,nikolajewsk and ,novousensk four rivers are barely maintained by the construction of dams4 ,many villages that formerly had running water in their vicinity are robbed of this advantage1 and in many places the depth of wells is #de to #fj yards4 ,as a result of this dearth of water the soil is hard and cracked4 ,with the cutting down of the forests the springs dried up and rain became scarce4 ,capitalistic cultivation of the soil leads to capitalistic conditions4 ,for a number of years a portion of our farmers derived enormous profits from the cultivation of beets and the manufacture of sugar connected with it4 ,the system of taxation favored the exportation of sugar1 and in such a manner that the revenue of the taxes on sugar-beets and on the consumption of sugar was to a considerable extent employed as bounties for exportation4 ,the reimbursement granted to the sugar manufacturers per hundred-weight of sugar was considerably higher than the tax paid by them on the beets1 and placed them in a position to sell their sugar at low prices to foreign countries1 at the expense of the domestic taxpayers1 and to develop the cultivation of sugar-beets more and more4 ,the advantage gained by the sugar manufacturers under this system of taxation amounted to over #ca million marks annually4 ,hundreds of thousands of hectares of land that had formerly been devoted to the cultivation of grain1 etc41 were now employed to raise beets2 countless factories were erected1 and the inevitable result was the panic4 ,the high profit obtained from the cultivation of beets also caused a rise in the price of property4 ,this led to a wholesale purchase of the small farms1 whose owners were tempted to sell by the high prices they could obtain for their property4 ,the soil was made to serve industrial speculation1 and the raising of grain and potatoes was relegated to soil of inferior quality1 which heightened the demand for the importation of products of food4 ,finally the evils that had arisen from the allowance on export of sugar and had gradually assumed an international character1 compelled the governments and the parliaments to abolish this system and thereby to revert to somewhat more natural conditions4 ,under present-day conditions the small farmers cannot attain the social status to which they are entitled as citizens of a civilized state1 no matter how hard they may work and how much they may deny themselves4 ,whatever the state and society may do to uphold these classes that form a considerable basis of the existing form of state and society1 their endeavours remain patch-work4 ,the agrarian taxes harm this portion of the agricultural population more than they benefit them4 ,most of these farmers do not produce as much as they need for the maintenance of their own families4 ,they must purchase part of their supplies1 the means for which they obtain by industrial or other additional labor4 ,a great many of our small farmers are more interested in a favorable status of industry and commerce than in agriculture1 because their own children make their living by industry or commerce1 since the farm offers no employment and no income to them4 ,one failure of crops increases the number of farmers who are obliged to purchase agricultural products4 ,so how can agrarian taxes and prohibition of importation benefit those who have little to sell and must occasionally buy much8 ,at least #hj per cent4 of all agricultural establishments are in this position4 ,how the farmer cultivates his soil is his own affair in the era of private property4 ,he cultivates whatever seems most profitable to him1 regardless of the interests and requirements of society2 so 8laissez faire60 ,in industry the same principle is applied4 ,obscene pictures and indecent books are manufactured1 and factories are established for the adulteration of food4 ,these and many other activities are harmful to society2 they undermine its morals and heighten corruption4 ,but they are profitable1 more so than decent pictures1 scientific books and unadulterated food4 ,the manufacturer1 eager for profits1 must only succeed in escaping the notice of the police1 and he may ply his trade in the knowledge that society will envy and respect him for the money he has made4 ,the mammon character of our age is most forcibly expressed by the stock exchange and its dealings4 ,products of the soil and industrial products1 means of transportation1 meteorological and political conditions1 want and abundance1 disasters and suffering of the masses1 public debts1 inventions and discoveries1 health or disease and death of influential persons1 war and rumors of war often invented for this purpose1 all these and many other things are made the object of speculation and are used to exploit and cheat one another4 ,the kings of capital exert the most decisive influence on the weal and woe of society1 and1 favored by their powerful means and connections1 they accumulate boundless wealth4 ,governments and officials become mere puppets in their hands1 who must perform while the kings of the stock exchange pull the wires4 ,the powers of the state do not control the stock market1 the stock market controls the powers of the state4 ,all these facts1 which are becoming more evident every day because the evils are daily increasing1 call for speedy and thoroughgoing reforms4 ,but society stands helpless before these evils and keeps going about in a circle like a horse in a treadmill1 a picture of impotence and stupidity4 ,they who would like to act1 are still too weak2 they who ought to act1 still lack understanding2 they who might act1 do not wish to4 ,they rely upon their power and think1 as ,madame ,pompadour expressed it3 8,aprs nous le dluge60 7,may the deluge come after we are gone67 ,but what if the deluge should overtake them8 ,the ,socialization of ,society4 ,,chapter ,,xx4 ,the ,social ,revolution4 #a4--,the ,transformation of ,society4 ,the tide rises and undermines the foundation of state and society4 ,every one feels that the pillars are swaying and that only powerful props can support them4 ,but to erect such props means great sacrifices on the part of the ruling classes1 and there the difficulty lies4 ,every proposition1 the realization of which would seriously damage the material interests of the ruling classes and would threaten to question their privileged position1 is bitterly opposed by them and roundly condemned as a measure destined to overturn the present order of state and society4 ,but1 without questioning and ultimately removing the privileges of the ruling classes1 the diseased world cannot be cured4 8,the struggle for the liberation of the working class is not a struggle for privileges1 but one for equal rights and equal duties and for the removal of all privileges40 ,this declaration of principles is contained in the ,socialist platform4 ,it follows that nothing can be attained by half measures and small concessions4 ,but the ruling classes regard their privileged position as natural and self-understood2 they will admit of no doubt in its permanence and justification4 ,so it is quite natural that they oppose and combat every attempt to shatter their privileges4 ,even proposed measures and laws that do not change their privileged position and the present order of society in the least1 cause the greatest excitement among them1 if their purse-strings are loosened thereby or likely to be loosened4 ,in the parliaments mountains of paper are printed with speeches until the laboring mountains bring forth a ridiculous mouse4 ,the most self-understood demands of workingmen's protection are met with as much opposition as if the existence of society depended upon it4 ,when1 after endless struggles1 some concessions are won from the ruling classes1 they act as if they had sacrificed a part of their fortune4 ,they show the same stubborn opposition when called upon to recognize the oppressed classes on a basis of formal equality2 for instance1 to discuss questions of labor agreements with them as with their equals4 ,this opposition to the simplest things and the most self-understood demands confirms the old experience that no ruling class can ever be convinced by reason1 unless the force of circumstances compels discretion and compliance4 ,but the force of circumstances may be found in the growing measure of understanding created in the oppressed by the development of our conditions4 ,the class extremes are constantly becoming more severe1 more noticeable and more evident4 ,the oppressed and exploited classes begin to recognize that existing conditions are untenable2 their indignation increases1 and with it the imperious demand to transform and humanize conditions4 ,as this perception grows and reaches ever widening circles1 it finally conquers the vast majority of society1 which is most directly interested in this transformation4 ,but to the same extent in which this perception of the untenableness of existing conditions and the need of their transformation grows among the masses1 the power of resistance of the ruling classes declines1 since their power is founded upon the ignorance and the lack of understanding of the oppressed and exploited classes4 ,this reciprocal action is evident1 and therefore everything that advances it must be welcomed4 ,the progress of capitalism on the one hand is balanced on the other by the growing perception that the existing social order is adverse to the wellfare of the vast majority of the people4 ,although the solution and removal of social extremes will require great sacrifices and many exertions1 a solution will be found as soon as the extremes have attained the height of their development1 toward which they are rapidly advancing4 ,what measures are to be resorted to at the various stages of development1 depends upon circumstances4 ,it is impossible to predict what measures will be necessitated by circumstances in particular instances4 ,no government1 no prime-minister1 be he the most powerful person1 can predict what circumstances will compel him to do a year hence4 ,it is all the more impossible to predict measures that will be dictated by circumstances unknown to us at present4 ,the question of measures is a question of tactics to be observed in a struggle4 ,the tactics are influenced by the opponent and also by the resources at the command of both parties4 ,means that are splendid to-day may be harmful to-morrow1 because the circumstances that justified their employment may have changed4 ,it is but necessary always to keep our aim before us2 the means for attaining same depend upon time and circumstances4 ,but the most effective means that time and circumstances permit of should be resorted to4 ,in depicting future developments we must therefore resort to hypothetical methods2 we must surmise certain conditions4 ,proceeding from this point of view1 we surmise that1 at a given time1 all the depicted evils will have developed to such extremes and will have become so evident and tangible to the great majority of the population1 that they come to be regarded as unbearable2 that a general1 irresistible demand for a thoroughgoing transformation will manifest itself1 and that1 accordingly1 the quickest help will be considered the most appropriate4 ,all social evils1 without exception1 spring from the present social order1 which1 as has been shown1 is founded on capitalism1 on the capitalistic method of production4 ,this method of production enables the capitalist class--the owners of all the means of production1 the ground1 mines1 raw materials1 tools1 machines1 means of transportation--to exploit and oppress the masses1 which leads to insecurity of existence and to the degradation of the exploited classes4 ,accordingly the most rapid and direct way would be to transform capitalistic property into common1 or social property by a general expropriation4 ,the production of commodities will be socialized2 it will become a production for and by society4 ,manufacture on a large scale and the increasing productivity of social labor1 until now a source of misery and oppression for the exploited classes1 will then become a source of well-being and harmonious development for all4 #b4--;,expropriation of the ,expropriators4 ,the transformation of all means of production into common property forms the new basis of society4 ,the conditions of life and work for both sexes in industry1 agriculture1 traffic1 education1 marriage1 science1 art and social intercourse become radically different4 ,human life is given a new purpose4 ,gradually the organization of the state also loses ground2 the state disappears2 it1 so to say1 abolishes itself4 ,in the first part of this book we have shown why the state had to arise4 ,it is the product of development from primitive society1 founded on communism1 that becomes dissolved as private property develops4 ,with the rise of private property antagonistic interests are formed within society4 ,differences of class and caste arise that necessarily lead to class struggles among the different groups and threaten the maintenance of the new order4 ,to keep down the opponents of the new order and to protect the threatened proprietors1 an organization is required that opposes such attacks and declares property to be 8righteous0 and 8sacred40 ,this organization1 which protects and maintains private property1 becomes the state4 ,by laws the state secures the proprietor's right to his property1 and upon those who would attack the order laid down by law it turns as judge and avenger4 ,by their innermost nature1 then1 the interests of the ruling1 possessing class1 and of the powers of the state1 always are conservative4 ,the organization of the state only changes when the interest of property demands it4 ,thus the state is the indispensable organization of a society founded on class rule4 ,as soon as class extremes have been removed by the abolition of private property1 it becomes unnecessary and impossible4 ,the state gradually ceases to exist with the passing away of class rule1 as surely as religion ceases to exist when belief in superior beings and occult powers is no longer met with4 ,words must have a purport2 when they lose same they cease to convey a meaning4 ,here a reader who is capitalistically minded may object and may ask on what legal ground can society justify these overthrowing changes8 ,the legal ground will be the same that always was found1 when similar changes and transformations were needful3 ,the common wellfare4 ,society1 not the state1 is the source of law4 ,the state is only clerk to the society1 whose duty it is to measure and dispense the law4 ,until now1 ruling society was always but a small minority1 but this small minority acted in behalf of the entire nation and represented itself as being society1 just as ,louis ,,xiv4 represented himself as being the state3 8,l'tat c'est moi40 7,i am the state47 ,when our newspapers report3 8,the season has begun1 society is returning to town20 or3 8,the season is over1 society is hastening to the country10 they do not mean the people1 but the upper ten thousand who constitute society as they constitute the state4 ,the masses are the 8plebs10 the vile multitude4 ,in the same way1 everything undertaken by the state for society in behalf of 8the common welfare10 has1 first and foremost1 served the interests of the ruling classes4 8,salus reipublicae suprema lex esto0 7the welfare of the republic shall be the supreme law71 is the well-known legal principle laid down by the ancient ,romans4 ,but who formed the ,roman republic8 ,the subjected peoples1 the millions of slaves8 ,no6 ,the comparatively small number of ,roman citizens1 above all the ,roman nobility1 who permitted the slaves to support them4 ,when1 during the middle ages1 nobility and princes robbed the communal property1 they did so on the legal ground of 8the common welfare10 and in what manner they disposed of the communal property and the property of the helpless peasants1 the history of the middle ages1 down to recent times1 has amply shown4 ,the agrarian history of the past thousand years is a history of uninterrupted robbery of communal and peasant property1 practiced by the nobility and the ,church in all civilized states of ,europe4 ,when the great ,french ,revolution then proceeded to expropriate the property of the nobility and the ,church1 it did so 8in behalf of the common welfare10 and the greater part of the eight million of property holders who form the chief stay of ,bourgeois ,france1 owe their existence to this expropriation4 ,in behalf of the 8common welfare10 ,spain took possession of much ,church property1 and ,italy confiscated it entirely1 applauded by the most ardent defenders of 8sacred property40 ,the ,english nobility for centuries robbed the ,irish and ,english nations of their property1 and from #ahjd to #ahcb legally presented itself--8in behalf of the common welfare0--with no less than #c1eaa1gaj acres of communal property4 ,when1 after the great ,north ,american civil war1 millions of slaves were emancipated1 who had been the lawfully acquired property of their masters1 without reimbursing the latter1 this was done 8in behalf of the common welfare40 ,our entire bourgeois development is an uninterrupted process of expropriation and confiscation4 ,in this process the mechanic is expropriated by the manufacturer1 the peasant by the great landowner1 the small dealer by the large merchant1 and1 finally1 one capitalist by another4 ,to judge by the declamations of our bourgeoisie1 all this is being done to serve 8the common welfare10 in the 8interest of society40 ,on the #ah ,brumaire and ,december #b1 the followers of ,napoleon 8saved0 8society0 and 8society0 congratulated them4 ,when society will save itself by taking back the property it has created1 it will perform the most noteworthy deed4 ,for then its actions will not purpose to suppress one to the advantage of another1 but to obtain equality of opportunity for all and to enable each and every one to lead an existence worthy of a human being4 ,it will be the grandest measure1 morally1 ever enacted by society4 ,in what forms this great process of social expropriation will be consummated and under what conditions1 is of course quite impossible to predict4 ,in his fourth social letter to v4 ,kirchmann1 entitled 8,capital10#baa ,rodbertus says3 8,a confiscation of all private property in land1 is not a chimera1 but quite possible from the standpoint of political economy4 ,it would also be the most radical help for society4 ,for society suffers from the increase of rent in land and capital4 ,with the abolition of private property in land1 traffic and the progress of national wealth would not be interrupted for one moment40 ,what do the ,agrarians say to this opinion of one who was formerly a member of their party8 ,the further course of events1 after such a measure has been resorted to1 cannot be definitely laid down4 ,no human being is able to foresee how coming generations will shape the details of their social organizations1 and in what manner they will best succeed in satisfying their requirements4 ,in society1 as in nature1 there is constant change4 ,one thing appears while another disappears2 what is old and wasted is replaced by what is new and full of vitality4 ,inventions and discoveries along varied lines are made whose significance cannot be foreseen1 and when applied1 such inventions and discoveries may revolutionize human life and the entire social organization4 ,in the following1 therefore1 we can only discuss the development of general principles4 ,they may be laid down as a logical outcome of the prior explanations1 and to some extent it is possible to overlook in what manner they will be carried out4 ,even heretofore society could not be guided and directed by single individuals1 although it sometimes appeared so4 ,but appearances are deceiving2 presuming to direct1 we are being directed4 ,even heretofore society has been an organism that developed in accordance with definite1 inherent laws4 ,in the future the guidance and direction1 according to the will of individuals1 will be entirely out of the question4 ,society will then be a democracy that will have unravelled the secrets of its nature4 ,it will have discovered the laws of its development and will consciously apply them to its further growth4 #baa ,berlin1 #ahhd4 ,,chapter ,,xxi4 ,fundamental ,laws of ,socialistic ,society4 #a4--;,duty to ,work of ,all ,able-bodied ,persons4 ,as soon as society has become the owner of all means of production1 the duty to work of all able-bodied persons1 regardless of sex1 becomes a fundamental law of socialized society4 ,society cannot exist without labor4 ,it therefore is justified in demanding that all who seek to satisfy their requirements1 should also serve to the best of their physical and mental abilities in producing the commodities that are needful to satisfy the requirements of all4 ,the silly assertion that the ,socialists wish to abolish work is an absurdity4 ,lazy persons1 shirkers of work1 are met with in bourgeois society only4 ,socialism is agreed with the ,bible in asserting that 8he who will not work neither shall he eat40 ,but work shall be useful1 productive activity4 ,the new society will therefore insist that everyone choose some definite industrial1 agricultural1 or other useful activity1 whereby he performs a certain amount of labor for the satisfaction of existing requirements4 ,no enjoyment without labor1 without labor no enjoyment4 ,since all are obliged to work1 all have the same interest in having three conditions of labor complied with4 ,firstly1 that the work-day shall not be too long and that the work shall not require over-exertion2 secondly1 that the work shall be varied and as agreeable as possible2 thirdly1 that it shall be as productive as possible1 since on this the length of the work-day and the number of obtainable enjoyments depend4 ,but these three conditions again are determined by the number and the nature of the means of production and the workers2 they are furthermore determined by the required standard of living4 ,socialistic society does not establish itself in order to lead a proletarian existence1 but to abolish the proletarian manner of living of the great majority of people4 ,it seeks to grant to everyone the fullest measure of the comforts and joys of life1 and so the question arises3 ,to what extent will the requirements of society grow8 ,in order to determine this an administration will be necessary that comprises all fields of social activity4 ,here our municipalities will form an appropriate foundation4 ,if they are too large to permit of obtaining an insight1 they may be divided into districts4 ,as in primitive society1 all members of the communities who are of age1 regardless of sex1 will participate in the elections and choose the persons who are to take charge of the administration4 ,at the head of all local bodies there will be a central administration4 ,this--let it be noted--will not be a government with ruling powers1 but an executive board of managers4 ,whether this board of managers is to be elected by the entire population or by the local boards is not essential4 ,these questions will not be as important then as they are now1 for election to these offices will not mean greater power and influence and a higher income4 ,they will be positions of trust to which the fittest1 be they men or women1 will be elected1 and they can be recalled or re-elected1 as conditions may demand1 or as it may seem desirable to the voters4 ,all offices are temporary4 ,the persons who hold these positions1 therefore1 cannot be regarded as officials4 ,their function is not a permanent one1 nor is a hierarchical order of advancement provided for4 ,viewed from this standpoint1 it also becomes a matter of indifference whether there will be any intermediate bodies between the central administration and the local administrations1 as provincial administrations1 etc4 ,if considered necessary they will be instituted2 if not1 they will be omitted4 ,all that will be determined by experience4 ,if progress in the development of society should make old institutions superfluous1 they will be abolished without any ado and without any conflict1 since no one is personally interested in their maintenance1 and new ones will be instituted instead4 ,this thoroughly democratic administration is very different from the present4 ,at the present time--what battles in the newspapers1 what a warfare of tongues in the parliaments1 what piles of documents in the government offices1 to accomplish an insignificant change in the administration or government6 ,to begin with1 the main task will be to determine the existing forces1 the number and kind of means of production1 factories1 workshops1 means of transportation1 area of land1 and the previous productivity4 ,further it will be necessary to determine the supply on hand and the number of articles and products required to supply the demand in a given length of time4 ,as at present the state and the various municipalities annually determine their budgets1 this will in future be done for the entire social demand1 and changes made necessary by new or increased demands can be fully taken into consideration4 ,statistics here become the main factor4 ,they are the most important auxiliary science in the new society1 since they furnish the standard whereby all social activity may be measured4 ,statistics are being used for similar purposes at present on a large scale4 ,the budgets of nation1 state1 and municipality are founded on a great number of statistical investigations that are annually undertaken by the various branches of administration4 ,experience of long duration and a certain stability in current demands simplify them4 ,under normal conditions every manufacturer and every merchant is also enabled to determine his requirements for the coming quarter of a year and in what manner he must arrange his production and his purchases4 ,unless excessive changes occur he can meet them readily and without much difficulty4 ,the experience that the crises are brought on by blind1 anarchistic production2 that is to say1 because goods are produced without any knowledge of the stock on hand1 the sales1 and the demand for the various articles on the world market1 has caused the captains of industry in various branches--as already stated--to form trusts4 ,the object of these trusts is to determine prices on the one hand1 and on the other to regulate production4 ,by the producing ability of each individual concern and by the sales it is likely to make1 the amount of goods to be produced for the coming months is determined4 ,failure to comply with these rules is punished by a fine and by proscription4 ,the manufacturers form these agreements not to benefit1 but to harm the public1 and solely for their own advantage4 ,their purpose is to use the power of co-operation to insure the greatest advantage for themselves4 ,by regulating production it becomes possible to exact the payment of prices that can never be obtained as long as the individual manufacturers compete with one another4 ,so the manufacturer enriches himself at the expense of the consumer1 who must pay the fixed price for the article that he needs2 and1 as the consumer is injured by the trusts1 so also the worker4 ,regulation of production by the manufacturers releases a number of workers and employes1 and these1 in order to live1 must underbid their fellow-workers4 ,moreover1 the social power of the trust is so great that the labor unions1 too can rarely cope with them4 ,the employers1 accordingly1 enjoy a double advantage2 they receive higher prices and pay lower wages4 ,this regulation of production by associations of employers is the opposite of that which will take effect in ,socialistic society4 ,to-day the interest of the employers is the determining factor2 in the future it will be the interest of the general public4 ,but in bourgeois society even the best organized trust cannot overlook and compute all the factors4 ,competition and speculation on the world market continue to rage1 in spite of the trust1 and suddenly it becomes manifest that the calculation is faulty1 and the artificial structure breaks down4 ,like industry1 commerce also possesses far-reaching statistics4 ,every week the large centers of commerce and seaport towns publish lists of the supplies on hand of kerosene1 cotton1 sugar1 coffee1 wheat1 etc4 ,sometimes these statistics are not exact1 because the owners of the goods occasionally have a personal interest in preventing the truth from becoming known4 ,but1 taken all in all1 these statistics are pretty reliable and enable those interested to judge the probable aspect of the market in the near future4 ,but here1 too1 speculation enters into consideration that frequently deceives and upsets all calculations and often makes it impossible to carry on an honest business4 ,just as a general regulation of production is made impossible in bourgeois society by the conflicting interests of the countless private producers1 so the regulation of distribution is made impossible by the speculative nature of commerce and by the conflicting interests of the great number of persons engaged in it4 ,but what has been accomplished so far gives an idea of what can be accomplished as soon as private interests disappear and the common interest predominates4 ,an example of this is1 for instance1 the harvest statistics compiled annually by various states1 that make it possible to calculate the crops1 the amount needful to supply the domestic demand1 and the probable prices4 ,but in a socialized society conditions will be perfectly orderly1 since the solidarity of society will have been established4 ,everything is carried out1 according to plans1 in an orderly way1 and so it will be easy to determine the amounts required by the various demands4 ,when some experience has been gained1 everything will run smoothly4 ,when the average demand for meat1 bread1 shoes1 garments1 etc41 has been statistically determined1 and when the output of the respective establishments of production is known1 the average daily amount of socially necessary labor can be established4 ,it1 furthermore1 can be determined whether more establishments of production are needed1 or whether some can be dispensed with as superfluous and can be fitted out for other purposes4 ,every individual chooses the branch of industry in which he wishes to be employed4 ,the great number of very different realms of activity makes it possible to take the most varied wishes into consideration4 ,if there is an excess of workers in one branch and a lack of workers in another1 it will be the duty of the administration to make the necessary arrangements and to bring about an equalization4 ,to organize production and to give opportunity to the various forces to be employed at the right place1 will be the chief task of the elected administrations4 ,as all perfect themselves in their particular tasks the wheels run more smoothly4 ,the different branches of industry and sub-divisions elect their managers1 who must control the work4 ,but these are no slave-drivers1 as overseers and foremen are to-day1 but fellow-workers who simply practice the administrative function entrusted to them1 in place of a productive one4 ,it is not impossible that at a more advanced stage of organization and with a more perfect education of all its members1 these functions will become alternating and will1 in definite rotation1 be overtaken by all persons concerned1 regardless of sex4 #b4--;,harmony of ,interests4 ,labor1 organized on a basis of complete freedom and democratic equality1 with one for all and all for one1 will call forth a rivalry and a desire to create that are nowhere met with under the present industrial system2 and this joy of creation will enhance the productivity of labor4 ,since all work for one another1 they are interested in having all objects well made and with as little waste of time and strength as possible1 be it to save labor1 or to gain time for the manufacture of new products destined to satisfy higher demands4 ,this common interest will cause all to seek to improve1 simplify and hasten the process of work4 ,the ambition to discover and invent will be stimulated to the highest degree1 and people will endeavour to outdo each other in new ideas and suggestions4#bab ,so the opposite of what is claimed by the opponents of ,socialism will be true4 ,how many discoverers and inventors perish in bourgeois society6 ,how many are exploited and cast aside6 ,if intelligence and talent were to hold the foremost place in bourgeois society1 instead of property1 the greater part of the employers would have to make way for their workingmen1 foremen1 mechanics1 engineers1 chemists1 etc4 ,these are the men who1 in ninety-nine cases out of a hundred1 have made the discoveries1 inventions1 and improvements that are applied by the man with the full purse4 ,how many thousands of discoverers and inventors have failed because they could not find a man who would furnish the money to carry out their discoveries and inventions1 and how many meritorious discoverers and inventors are crushed by the social misery of daily life1 is quite beyond our calculation4 ,not the persons endowed with a quick intelligence and a clear brain are masters of the world1 but those endowed with ample means1 which does not imply that a clear brain and a full purse cannot belong to the same person4 ,everyone engaged in practical life knows with how much suspicion the workingmen regard every improvement1 every new invention that is introduced to-day2 and their suspicion is entirely justified4 ,for1 as a rule1 not the workers but the employers are the only ones to derive any advantage from it4 ,the worker must fear that the new machine1 or the improvement1 will make him superfluous and turn him out into the street4 ,instead of joyfully acclaiming a new invention that is a credit to humanity and ought to be a boon to him1 he curses it4 ,many an improvement in the process of production invented by workingmen has never been introduced4 ,the inventor keeps his invention to himself1 because he fears that it will harm him1 instead of benefiting him4 ,such are the natural results of conflicting interests4#bac ,in ,socialistic society the conflict of interests will be removed4 ,everyone will develop his abilities to serve himself and will thereby serve society4 ,at present1 satisfaction of personal egotism and service of society usually are extremes that exclude each other4 ,in the new society these extremes will not exist4 ,satisfaction of personal egotism and service of society will be harmonious2 they will coincide4#bad ,the splendid influence of such a status of morals is obvious4 ,the productivity of labor will rapidly increase4 ,especially will the productivity of labor grow1 because the dissemination of forces among hundreds of thousands of tiny manufacturers with imperfect tools and insufficient means1 will cease4 ,it has been previously shown among how many small1 medium-sized and large manufactories ,german industry is disseminated4 ,by gathering in all the small and medium-sized manufactories into manufacture on a large scale in great establishments that will be furnished with all the most modern technical improvements1 a tremendous waste of effort1 time1 material of all kinds 7light1 heat1 etc471 and space will be removed1 and the productivity of labor will be heightened4 ,the difference that exists between the productivity of small1 medium-sized and large manufactories1 may be illustrated by an example from the industrial census of ,massachusetts of #ahij4 ,there the factories in ten chief branches of industry are divided into three classes4 ,those that produced less than #dj1jjj dollars' worth were placed in the lower class2 those that produced between #dj1jjj and #aej1jjj dollars' worth in the middle class1 and those that produced over #aej1jjj dollars' worth1 in the upper class4 ,this division presented the following figures3 ,percentage ,percentage of ,number of of all ,value of entire ,value ,establishments ,establishments ,production of ,production ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,lower class #b1jdb #ee4b #ea1ffj1fag #i4d ,middle class #ifh #bf4b #ajf1hfh1fce #ai4e ,upper class #fhf #ah4f #cij1hag1cjj #ga4a ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ #c1fif #ajj4-- #edi1cdf1eeb #ajj4-- ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,twice the number of small factories1 compared to the large and medium-sized ones1 turned out only #i4d per cent4 of the entire production1 while the large factories1 which formed only #bc per cent4 of the total number1 produced almost #b times the quantity of all the others4 ,but even the large establishments could be organized much more rationally still1 so that the total production might yield a still far greater quantity4 ,how much time can be gained by placing production on a rational basis8 ,that has been shown by interesting calculations made by ,th4 ,hertzka1 in his book on 8,the ,laws of ,social ,evolution10 published in #ahhf4 ,he calculated how much time and labor power would be needful to satisfy the demands of the population of ,austria1 which was #bb millions strong at the time4 ,for this purpose1 ,hertzka investigated the productivity of the large establishments in the various lines of industry and based his calculations on the results4 ,this calculation includes the farming of #aj million hectares of cultivated soil and #c million hectares of pasturage1 which should suffice to supply said population with meat and the products of agriculture4 ,furthermore1 ,hertzka included in his calculation the building of homes1 in such a manner that every family might have their own house1 with a space of #aej square meters1 for a period of fifty years4 ,it was found that1 for agriculture1 building1 the production of flour and sugar1 coal-mining1 iron and machine industry1 the clothing industry1 and the chemical industry1 #fae1jjj workers would be needed1 who would have to work throughout the year for the present average number of hours daily4 ,but these #fae1jjj workers formed only #ab4c per cent4 of the able-bodied population of ,austria1 not counting the women1 nor the male inhabitants under #af or over #ej4 ,if the #e million men available at the time of the calculation were employed like the #fae1jjj1 each of them would have to work only #cf4i days1 about six weeks annually1 to supply the most needful requirements for #bb million human beings4 ,but1 if we assume #cjj work-days annually1 instead of #cg1 we find that1 under the new organization it would be necessary to work only #a hours daily to supply the most necessary requirements4 ,hertzka also takes the requirements of luxury of the better situated classes into consideration and finds that the manufacture of such articles1 to supply the demands of #bb million people1 would require #cae1jjj more workers4 ,according to ,hertzka1 then1 about #a million workers1 #bj per cent4 of the able-bodied male population of ,austria1 excluding those under #af and over #ej1 would be needed to supply the entire needs of the population in sixty days4 ,if we again take the entire able-bodied male population into consideration1 we find that they would have to perform only about #b hours of work daily4#bae ,this calculation will not surprise anyone who is well acquainted with existing conditions4 ,if we furthermore assume that1 with such a short work-day1 only the sick and the invalids must be excluded1 while men over #ej might still work1 and youths under #af might be active to some extent1 and that the women might also serve in industry1 except those who are engaged in child-rearing1 the preparation of food1 etc41 we find that the hours of work might be shortened still more1 or that the demands might be greatly increased4 ,nor will any one deny that tremendous1 incalculable progress may still be made in perfecting the process of production1 a factor that will create further advantages4 ,on the other hand1 many requirements will be satisfied that only a small minority can satisfy to-day1 and1 with the higher development of civilization1 new requirements will arise that will also have to be satisfied4 ,it must be iterated and reiterated3 ,the new society will not elect to lead a proletarian existence4 ,it will demand the existence of a highly civilized people for all its members from the first to the last4 ,but it shall not only satisfy all the material requirements1 it shall also grant to all ample opportunity and time for the study of science and art1 and for recreation4 #bab 8,the force of rivalry that leads to supreme efforts to win the praise and admiration of others1 has been shown by experience to be a useful one wherever persons compete with one another1 even in regard to frivolous matters and such matters from which the public derives no benefit4 ,but a rivalry as to who can best serve the common welfare1 is a sort of competition that ,socialists do not repudiate40--,john ,stuart ,mill1 8,political ,economy40 ,every society1 every organization of persons having the same aims and a common cause1 also furnishes many examples of a nobler endeavor that leads to no material success but to a purely ideal one4 ,the persons vieing with each other are indeed impelled by the ambition of serving the common cause and of winning recognition4 ,but this sort of ambition is a virtue since it serves the common good and at the same time gives satisfaction to the individual4 ,ambition is harmful only when it is satisfied at the expense of others or to the detriment of society4 #bac v4 ,thuenen--8,the ,isolated ,state10 says3 8,the conflicting interests are the reason why proletarians and possessors are hostile to one another and will remain unreconciled as long as the discord in their interests has not been removed4 ,not only by the wealth of the employer1 but also by invention in manufactory1 by the building of roads and railways1 and by the opening of new markets1 the national income may be greatly increased4 ,but in our present social order the workingman derives no benefit from this increase4 ,his status remains the same1 and the entire increase in income falls to the share of the employers1 capitalists and landlords40 ,this last sentence is an almost verbal anticipation of a declaration by ,gladstone in the ,english parliament1 in #ahhd4 ,he said3 8,this intoxicating growth of wealth and power 7experienced by ,england during the last twenty years7 has been limited exclusively to the possessing classes20 and v4 ,thuenen says3 8in the separation of the worker from his product the evil lies40--,morelly says in his 8,principles of ,legislation03 8,property divides us into two classes1 the rich and the poor4 ,the former love their property and do not care to defend the state4 ,the latter can not love their fatherland for it gives them nothing but misery4 ,but under ,communism every one loves his fatherland for by it everyone obtains life and happiness40 #bad ,in weighing the advantages and disadvantages of ,communism1 ,john ,stuart ,mill says in his 8,political ,economy03 8,no field can be more favorable to this conception 7that public interest and private interest are identical7 than a communistic association4 ,all the ambition as well as the physical and mental activity1 that is at present directed upon the pursuit of sporadic and selfish interests1 would demand a different sphere of activity1 and would find it in the service of the common good of society40 #bae ,in his 8,false ,doctrines10 ,eugen ,richter ridicules the enormous shortening of the hours of work predicted by us that would result if all were obliged to work and if the process of production were organized in accordance with the highest technical development4 ,he tries to belittle the productivity of large manufacture and to enlarge the importance of small manufacture1 in order to assert that it would not be possible to produce the required amount4 ,to make ,socialism seem impossible the upholders of the present 8order0 must try to discredit the advantages of their own social system4 #c4--,organization of ,labor4 ,in a number of other very essential points the socialistic co-operative system will differ from the bourgeois individualistic system4 ,the cheap and poor goods that make up a large portion of bourgeois production1 and necessarily must make up a large portion of it1 because a majority of the customers can afford to purchase only cheap goods that wear out quickly1 will be eliminated4 ,only the best will be produced that will last long and will not have to be renewed as often4 ,the fads and follies of fashion that only favor extravagance and bad taste will disappear4 ,doubtless our wearing apparel will be better suited to its purpose and more tasty than to-day--for the fashions of the last century1 especially those of the men1 have been conspicuous by their bad taste--but new fashions will no longer be introduced every few months4 ,the present follies of fashion are caused1 on the one hand1 by the competition of women among themselves1 and on the other by conceit and ostentation and the desire to display one's wealth4 ,moreover1 a great many persons depend upon these follies of fashion to-day1 and it is to their interest to encourage and stimulate them4 ,together with the follies of fashion in dress1 the madness of fashion in the style of dwellings will disappear4 ,here eccentricity is rampant to-day4 ,styles that have required centuries to become evolved among various nations--we are no longer satisfied with ,european styles1 but turn to those of the ,japanese1 ,indians1 ,chinese1 etc4--are used up in a few years and set aside4 ,persons engaged in mechanical arts hardly know what to do with all the designs and models4 ,they have barely adapted themselves to one style1 trusting to recover their expenses1 when a new style appears that necessitates further sacrifices of time and money and of physical and mental forces4 ,in this mad rushing from one fashion to another and from one style to another the nervousness of our age is vividly reflected4 ,no one would claim that there is any sense or reason in this rush and haste1 or that it might be regarded as a healthful state of society4 ,socialism will give greater stability to the habits of life4 ,it will make rest and enjoyment possible and will liberate us from the present haste and excitement4 ,nervousness1 the scourge of our age1 will disappear4 ,work will be made as agreeable as possible4 ,to accomplish this1 the places where production is carried on will be furnished practically and tastily1 every means will be resorted to that danger may be eliminated1 and that evil smells1 smoke1 etc41 and all unpleasant and harmful factors will be done away with4 ,at first the new society will produce with the means of production taken over from the old society4 ,but these are insufficient4 ,the workshops are scattered and are not properly constructed or furnished1 and tools and machinery do not come up to the demands of the great number of persons employed and their desire for safety and comfort4 ,to create a great many large1 light1 airy1 well-equipped workshops becomes an imminent necessity4 ,the arts and crafts1 genius and skill1 are immediately given a vast realm of activity4 ,all branches of machine manufacture and the manufacture of tools1 the building trades and the trades of interior decoration find ample opportunity for occupation4 ,whatever the human mind is able to invent in the way of convenient and agreeable buildings1 appropriate ventilation1 lighting and heating1 and technical and mechanical improvements1 will be instituted4 ,to save motor-power1 light and heat1 as well as time and labor1 and to insure the comfort of the workers1 it will become desirable to concentrate the workshops in definite places4 ,the dwellings will be separated from the workshops and freed from the unpleasantness of industrial activity2 and the unpleasantness will be diminished and finally abolished by all sorts of institutions and appliances4 ,even the present status of technical knowledge gives us sufficient means to deprive the dangerous occupations1 like mining1 the chemical trades1 etc41 of their dangers entirely4 ,but these means are not applied in bourgeois society1 because they entail a heavy expense and because no one is duty bound to do more for the protection of the workingman than is absolutely necessary4 ,the dangers of mining1 for instance1 could be removed by working the mine in a different manner1 by a thorough system of ventilation1 by the installation of electric light1 by a considerable shortening of the hours of work1 and by a frequent change of shifts4 ,it does not require special ingenuity to find safety appliances that will make accidents in the building trade next to impossible and to make this sort of work particularly agreeable4 ,for instance1 ample contrivances might be made to shield the workers at large buildings and at all out-of-door work from the sun and the rain4 ,in socialistic society1 which will control an abundance of labor power1 it will also be a simple matter to have frequent relays of new workers and to concentrate certain tasks upon definite seasons or definite hours of the day4 ,the problem of abolishing dust1 smoke1 grime and unpleasant odors1 can also be solved entirely even to-day by chemistry and mechanics4 ,but it is not done1 or insufficiently done1 because the private employers do not care to meet the heavy expense4 ,the future places of production1 wherever they may be1 below the earth or above1 will differ most favorably from the present ones4 ,in private industry improved appliances are mainly a question of money4 ,if they pay they will be established4 ,if they do not pay1 the health and life of the workingman are of no concern4#baf ,in socialistic society the question of profits will have ceased to exist4 ,this society will recognize no other consideration but the welfare of its members4 ,what is to their advantage must be established4 ,what is likely to harm them must be refrained from4 ,no one will be compelled to enter into dangerous undertakings4 ,if tasks are undertaken that entail dangers one may be assured that there will be many volunteers1 all the more so because the undertakings will not serve destruction but the advancement of civilization4 #baf 8,capital10 says the 8,quarterly ,reviewer10 8flees tumult and quarrel and is of a timid nature4 ,that is true1 but it is not the whole truth4 ,capital abhors the absence of profits or very small profits as nature abhors empty space4 ,with appropriate profits1 capital becomes bold4 ,if ten percent4 are insured1 it can be applied everywhere2 #bj percent41 and it becomes aggressive2 #ej percent41 positively reckless2 for #ajj percent4 it tramples all human laws under foot2 #cjj percent41 and there is no crime it will not risk even at the peril of the gallows4 ,if tumult and quarrel bring profit1 it will encourage both40 ,karl ,marx--,capital4 #d4--,the ,growth of the ,productivity of ,labor4 ,a far-reaching appliance of motor-power1 and of the most perfect machines and tools1 a detailed division of labor and a skillful combination of the various forces1 will so heighten the productivity of labor that the necessary quantities of all commodities can be produced1 notwithstanding a considerable shortening of the hours of work4 ,increased production will be to the common advantage of all4 ,the share of each individual increases with the productivity of labor1 and the increased productivity of labor again makes it possible to reduce the time required for the performance of socially necessary labor4 ,among the motor powers that will be applied1 electricity will most likely hold the foremost place4 ,bourgeois society everywhere presses it into service1 and the more this is done the better it is for general progress4 ,the revolutionizing effect of the most powerful of all natural forces will only hasten the overthrow of the bourgeois world and help to usher in ,socialism4 ,but only in socialistic society will the force be generally applied and turned to the best advantage4 ,both as a motor-power and as a source of light and heat it will contribute largely to the improved standard of living of society4 ,electricity is distinguished from every other force by the fact that it exists in nature in abundance4 ,our streams1 high and low tide of the sea1 wind and sunlight will furnish countless horse-powers when we shall thoroughly understand how to apply them4 8,a wealth of energy that by far exceeds all demands is furnished by those parts of the surface of the earth that are so regularly subjected to the heat of the sun that it might be applied to regular technical operations4 ,perhaps it would not be an exaggerated precaution if a nation would even now secure a share in such places4 ,the required areas need not even be very large2 a few square miles in ,northern ,africa would suffice for the requirements of a country like the ,german ,empire4 ,by concentrating the heat of the sun a high temperature can be produced1 and thereby everything else--portable mechanical work1 charging of batteries1 light and heat1 and1 by electrolysis1 even fuel40#bag ,the man who opens up these vistas is not a dreamer1 but an appointed professor at the ,berlin ,university and president of the ,royal ,physical and ,technical ,institute1 a man who ranks high in the scientific world4 ,at the #gith congress of the ,british ,association in ,winnipeg 7during ,august1 #aiji71 the famous ,english physicist1 ,sir ,s4 ,thompson1 said3 8,the day is not too far distant when our life will be revolutionized by applying the rays of the sun4 ,man will liberate himself from his dependence upon coal-and-water power1 and all large cities will be surrounded by immense apparatus1 real sunbeam traps1 into which the heat of the sun will be gathered1 and the obtained energy will be stored away in tremendous reservoirs4 ,it is the force of the sun1 stored away in coal1 in waterfalls1 in nourishment1 that performs all the world's work4 ,how great is this tribute of force that the sun pours down upon us becomes evident when we consider the fact that the warmth received by the earth when the sun is high and the sky is clear1 according to the researches of ,langley1 equals an energy of #gjjj horse-powers per acre4 ,although our engineers have not yet found the way to apply this gigantic source of power1 ,i do not doubt that they will ultimately succeed in finding it4 ,when the supply of coal in the bowels of the earth has been exhausted1 when the water-powers will no longer suffice to meet our requirements1 then we will obtain from this source all the energy needed to complete the work of the world4 ,then the centers of industry will be removed to the glowing deserts of ,sahara1 and the value of the land will be measured by how well it is suited to the erection of the great #8sunbeam traps4'0#bah ,according to this1 our anxiety that we might at some time lack fuel1 is removed4 ,the inventions of the accumulators would make it possible to store a large quantity of force away for future use at any time and place2 so that1 besides the power furnished by sun and tide1 the power furnished by the wind and by mountain torrents1 which can be obtained only periodically1 might be stored and applied4 ,so there may finally be no human task for which motor power cannot be supplied if necessary4 ,only by the assistance of electricity has it become possible to employ water-power on a large scale4 ,according to ,t4 ,koehn1 eight ,european states have the following supply of water-power at their disposal4 ,per #ajjj ,horse-powers inhabitants ,great ,britain #ifc1jjj #bc4a ,germany #a1dbe1ijj #bd4e ,switzerland #a1ejj1jjj #ach ,italy #e1ejj1jjj #aej ,france #e1heg1jjj #afi ,austria and ,hungary #f1dfj1jjj #ded4e ,sweden #f1gej1jjj #abij ,norway #g1ejj1jjj #cdji ,of the ,german states1 ,baden and ,bavaria control the largest amount of water-power4 ,baden alone can obtain #bjj1jjj horse-powers at the ,upper ,rhine4 ,bavaria has at its disposal #cjj1jjj horse-powers that have so far not been applied1 besides #ajj1jjj that are applied4 ,professor ,rehbock estimates that the theoretical energy of the entire amount of water flowing upon the surface of the earth amounts to eight thousand million horse-powers4 ,if only the sixteenth part of this could be efficiently applied1 #ejj millions of permanently serviceable horse-powers could still be won1 an amount of energy ten times as great as the energy obtained by the mining of coal during the year #aijg1 approximately calculated at #ajjj million tons4 ,although such calculations are of a purely theoretical character at present1 they still show what achievements we may anticipate in the future from the use of 8white coal40 ,the ,niagara ,falls alone1 which flow from lakes covering an area of #bca1hhj kilometers--about #dc per cent4 of the entire area of ,germany--might furnish more water-power than exists in ,england1 ,germany and ,switzerland combined4#bai ,according to another calculation quoted in an official report1 the ,united ,states have water-power at their disposal of no less than twenty million horse-powers1 which represent an equivalent of three hundred million tons of coal annually4#bbj ,the mills that will be driven by means of this white or 8green0 coal1 with the force of the gushing mountain streams and waterfalls1 will have no smokestacks and no fire4 ,electricity will also make it possible to more than double the speed of our railroads4 ,at the beginning of the nineties of the last century1 ,mr4 ,meems1 in ,baltimore1 declared it to be possible to construct an electric car that would make #cjj kilometers an hour1 and ,professor ,elihu ,thomson1 in ,lynn1 believed that electric motors could be constructed that would make it possible to cover #bfj kilometers in an hour4 ,these expectations have nearly been realized4 ,the trial-rides made on the military railway ,berlin-,zossen1 during #aija and #aijb1 showed the possibility of speed up to #aej kilometers an hour4 ,during experiments made in #aijc1 the ,siemens car attained a speed of #bja kilometers1 and that of the ,general ,electric ,company1 #bjh kilometers4 ,in the succeeding years steam locomotives have also attained a speed of #aej kilometers an hour1 and more4 ,the present aim is to attain #bjj kilometers per hour4 ,already1 ,august ,sherl has entered the arena with his new project of rapid transit1 which relegates the existing railway lines to freight service and proposes to connect the large cities by monorail train service1 with a speed of #bjj kilometers4#bba ,the question of transforming railroad service from steam into electricity is a current topic in ,england1 ,austria1 ,italy1 and ,america4 ,between ,new ,york and ,philadelphia an electric train is to run at a speed of #bjj kilometers an hour4 ,the speed of ocean vessels will increase in the same manner4 ,here the determining factor is the steam turbine4#bbb 8,it holds the foremost place in technical interest at present4 ,it seems destined to displace the piston4 ,while most engineers still regarded the steam turbine as a task of the future1 it had become a present-day problem that attracted the attention of the entire world of technics by its success4 ,it remained for electrotechnics1 with its rapidly running machinery to create a large field for the practical application of this new power engine4 ,the by far greatest number of all steam-turbines in use to-day serves to drive dynamos40#bbc ,the turbine has especially proved its superiority over the piston in navigation4 ,the ,english steamship 8,lusitania10 which is equipped with steam-turbines1 during ,august1 #aiji1 made the journey from ,ireland to ,new ,york in #d days #aa hours and #db minutes1#bbd with an average speed of #be4he knots an hour4 ,the steamship 8,america10 constructed in #ahfc1 the fastest vessel at the time1 made #ab4e knots an hour4#bbe ,the day is not distant when the problem of electric propellers for large vessels will be satisfactorily solved4 ,they are already in use with smaller vessels4 ,simplicity1 safety1 good self-regulation1 and absence of shaking make the steam-turbine the ideal power for the creation of electric energy on board4 ,electricity will eventually be generally applied to both railway and steamship service4 ,by electricity the technics of moving loads has also been revolutionized4 8,steam-power1 having made it possible to construct lifting-engines with natural force1 electric transmission of power led to a complete revolution in the construction of lifting-machines by giving these machines freedom of motion and constant readiness for use40 ,electric power has1 among other things1 led to a complete transformation in the construction of the cranes4 8,with its massive curved beak of rolled iron1 resting upon a heavy foundation of stone-masonry1 with slow motions and the hissing noise of the puffed-out steam1 the steam-crane conveys the impression of resembling a gigantic1 prehistoric monster4 ,when it has grasped a load it exhibits a tremendous power for lifting1 but it needs the assistance of human beings1 who1 by means of chains1 fasten the weights to its hook4 ,owing to its clumsiness and slow motions it is serviceable only for the lifting of very heavy loads1 but not where quick action is needed4 ,even externally the modern electric crane presents an entirely different aspect4 ,we behold graceful steel trellis-work stretched above the hall1 and from this is stretched out a slender pair of tongs1 which is movable in all directions4 ,the whole mechanism is controlled by a single man4 ,by means of a gentle pressure on the levers1 he directs the electric currents and drives the slender steel limbs of the crane to rapid action4 ,unaided1 they grasp the glowing steel and whirl it through the air1 while no other noise is heard but the low buzzing of the electro-motors40#bbf ,without the aid of these machines the steadily increasing transportation of masses of goods would not be possible4 ,by a comparison of the wharf-crane at ,pola and that at ,kiel1 the development1 in regard to the increase of lifting-power from the middle to the end of the nineteenth century1 may be judged4 ,the lifting-power of the former was #fj tons1 that of the latter1 #bjj tons4 ,the manufacture of ,bessemer steel only is possible when rapidly working lifting-machines are at hand1 for otherwise the tremendous quantities of liquid steel that are produced in a short time could not be transported in the casting-moulds4 ,in the iron-works of ,krupp1 in ,essen alone1 #fjh cranes are in action1 having an aggregate lifting-power of #feac tons1 equal to a freight train of #fej cars4 ,the low cost of freight1 which is a condition of present-day international commerce1 would not be possible1 could not the capital invested in vessels be put to such intense use by the rapid process of unloading4 ,the equipping of a vessel with electric cranes led to a reduction in the annual cost of traffic from #bc1jjj to #ac1jjj marks1 almost by one-half4 ,and this comparison takes into consideration only the progress of a single decade4 ,the technics of navigation and transportation present new achievements almost daily along all lines4 ,the problem of aerial navigation1 which seemed insoluble but two decades ago1 is practically solved4 ,at present the dirigible balloons and flying machines do not serve the easier and cheaper transportation of the masses1 but only sport and military purposes4 ,but later on they will enhance the productive forces of society4 ,great progress has also been made by wireless telegraphy2 its industrial value grows each day4 ,in a few years1 accordingly1 traffic will be placed on a new basis4 ,mining1 too1 is in a state of transformation at present that still seemed inconceivable ten years ago4 ,electricity has been introduced and has revolutionized the machines1 the pumps1 and the winding-engines4 ,marvelous are the prospects revealed by the former ,french minister of public instruction1 ,professor ,berthelot 7died ,march #ah1 #aijg71 in an address on the future significance of chemistry1 delivered at a banquet of the syndicate of manufacturers of chemicals4 ,in this address1 ,mr4 ,berthelot depicted the possible achievements of chemistry in the year #bjjj1 and1 though his description contains some humorous exaggerations1 it also contains much that is true1 of which the following is a brief synopsis4 ,mr4 ,berthelot gave a resum of what chemistry had accomplished in a few decades and enumerated1 among other things3 ,the manufacture of sulphuric acid1 of soda1 bleaching and dyeing1 beet-sugar1 therapeutic alcaloids1 gas1 gilding and silvering1 etc4 ,then came electro-chemistry1 which completely transformed metallurgy1 the chemistry of explosives1 which provided mining and warfare with new engines1 and the marvels of organic chemistry in the manufacture of colors1 perfumes1 therapeutic and antiseptic remedies1 etc4 ,but all this1 said the lecturer1 was only a beginning4 ,far greater problems would soon be solved4 ,in the year #bjjj1 agriculture and peasants would have ceased to exist1 as chemistry would have made cultivation of the soil superfluous4 ,there would be no coal-mines and1 accordingly1 no miners' strikes4 ,fuel would be replaced by chemical and physical processes4 ,tariff and warfare would be abolished2 aerial navigation1 employing chemicals as a means of locomotion would have done away with these antiquated institutions4 ,the problem of industry consists in finding sources of power that are inexhaustible and can be renewed with the least possible amount of labor4 ,until now we have generated steam by the chemical energy of burned coal4 ,but the coal is difficult to obtain1 and the supply is diminishing daily4 ,it becomes necessary to utilize the heat of the sun and the heat inside the earth4 ,there is good reason to hope that both these sources will find unlimited application4 ,thereby the source of all heat and of all industry would be made accessible4 ,if water-power were also applied1 all imaginable machines might be run on the earth4 ,this source of power would barely diminish in centuries4 ,by means of the warmth of the earth many chemical problems might be solved1 among others the chemical production of food4 ,theoretically this problem is already solved4 ,the synthesis of fats and oils is long since known1 sugar and the hydrates of carbon are known also1 and the synthesis of the nitrogen-compounds will soon become known4 ,the problem of food is a purely chemical one4 ,as soon as the necessary cheap power could be obtained1 by means of carbon from carbonic acid1 oxygen and hydrogen from water1 and nitrogen from the atmosphere1 food of all kinds would be produced4 ,what had heretofore been done by the plants would henceforth be done by industry1 and the products of industry would be more perfect than those of nature4 ,the time would come when every one would carry a box of chemicals in his pocket from which he would satisfy his need of nourishment in albumen1 fat and hydrates of carbon1 regardless of time and seasons1 of rain and drought1 of frost1 hail and destructive insects4 ,this would lead to a transformation that was as yet beyond our conception4 ,orchards1 vineyards and pastures would disappear4 ,man would become more gentle and humane1 because he would no longer live upon the murder and destruction of living beings4 ,then the difference between fertile and unfertile regions would also disappear1 and perhaps the deserts would become the favorite resorts of man1 since they are healthier than the damp and marshy plains where agriculture is carried on at present4 ,then art and all the beauties of human life would attain their fullest development4 ,the earth would no longer be disfigured by the geometrical figures drawn on its surface by agriculture1 but would become a garden in which grass1 flowers1 shrubs and forests might be grown at will2 all humanity would dwell in plenty1 in a golden age4 ,but man would not fall a victim to laziness and corruption4 ,work is needful to happiness1 and man would work as ever1 since he worked for his own welfare1 for the development of his mental1 moral and sthetic possibilities4 ,the reader may accept as true from this address of ,berthelot whatever he chooses4 ,the fact remains that future development will lead to a tremendous improvement in the quantity1 quality and variety of products1 and that the comforts of life of coming generations will increase to a degree that we can barely conceive to-day4 ,professor ,elihu ,thomson agrees with ,werner ,siemens1 who declared at the convention of scientists in ,berlin1 in #ahhg1 that it would become possible by means of electricity to transform the elements directly into food4 ,werner ,siemens held the opinion that it might be possible1 at a remote time1 to produce artificially a hydrate of carbon1 as grape-sugar or starch1 whereby the possibility would be given 8to make bread of stones40 ,the chemist1 ,dr4 ,h4 ,meyer1 declared that it would be possible to make ligneous fibre a source of human nourishment4 ,in the meantime 7#ahij71 ,emil ,fisher has actually produced grape-sugar artificially1 and has thereby made a discovery that ,werner ,siemens considered possible only 8at a remote time40 ,since then chemistry has made still further progress4 ,indigo1 vanilla and camphor have been artificially produced4 ,in #aijf1 ,w4 ,loeb succeeded in achieving the assimilation of carbonic acid1 outside of the plant up to the production of sugar by means of electric tension4 ,in #aijg ,emil ,fisher obtained one of the most complicated synthetic bodies that is closely related to natural protein4 ,in #aijh ,willstatter and ,benz produced pure chlorophyl and proved it to be a compound of magnesium4 ,thereby the main problem of organic chemistry--to obtain albumen--may find its solution in a future not too far distant4 #bag 8,the ,energy of ,labor and ,appliance of the ,electric ,current0 by ,fr4 ,kohlrausch4 ,leipsic1 #aijj4 #bah ,as early as #ahfd1 ,augustin ,mouchot made an attempt to make the heat of the sun serve industrial purposes directly and constructed a sun-machine that was improved by ,pifr4 ,the largest sun-machine 7heliomotor7 is in ,california and serves as an apparatus for pumping4 ,the water in the well is pumped up at the rate of #aa1jjj litres a minute4 #bai ,t4 ,koehn--,some ,large ,european ,water-,power ,plants and ,their ,economic ,significance4 #bbj ,supply and ,distribution of ,cotton4 ,washington1 #aijh4 #bba ,in #aijh1 the ,prussian department of public works decided to transform the steam-railways ,leipsic-,bitterfeld1 ,magdeburg and ,leipsic1 ,halle into electric railways4 #bbb ,while the old steam-engine turns the driving-wheels in a round-about way 7by the transmission of the motion of the piston rods71 the steam-turbine produces a direct rotary motion1 like the wind turns the wind-mill4 #bbc ,c4 ,matchoss--,the ,evolution of the ,steam-,engine4 #bbd ,during ,september1 #aiaj1 the ,mauretania broke this record by hour and one minute4--,tr4 #bbe ,during the fifties of the last century1 the sailing vessels took about six weeks to reach ,new ,york4 ,the steamers crossed in two weeks4 ,during the nineties1 the voyage was made in a week1 and now it is made in #e days4 ,as a result of this progress1 the two continents are brought nearer to each other now than ,berlin and ,vienna were a century ago4 #bbf ,o4 ,kammerer--,the ,technics of ,moving ,loads1 ,formerly and at the ,present ,time4 ,berlin1 #aijg4 #e4--,removal of the ,contrast between ,mental and ,manual ,work4 ,a need1 deeply rooted in human nature1 is the desire for freedom of choice and for the opportunity of a variation of occupations4 ,just as the best food becomes disgusting if the same thing is constantly placed before us1 so an occupation repeated daily in treadmill fashion weakens and dulls4 ,man performs his task mechanically and does what he must do1 but without enthusiasm or joy4 ,a number of talents and abilities are innate in every human being that need but to be awakened in order to find expression and produce favorable results4 ,only thereby man becomes a perfect human being4 ,socialistic society will offer ample opportunity for the satisfaction of this desire for variation4 ,the immense increase in productive forces1 combined with a simplified process of work1 will not only make it possible to limit the hours of work considerably1 it will also make it easy to master a number of varied accomplishments4 ,the old system of apprenticeship has already been abandoned4 ,it still exists1 and is possible only among undeveloped and antiquated forms of production1 as represented by small manufactures4 ,but as these will completely disappear in the new society1 all forms and institutions peculiar to them will disappear also4 ,new ones will take their place4 ,even at present it can be seen in any factory how few workingmen have learned and practice a definite trade4 ,the workingmen employed in some line of production or other may have learned the most varied trades4 ,usually a short time is sufficient for them to gain experience in one detail of the process of production1 and to this one detail they are tied down then1 according to the prevailing system of exploitation1 for long hours1 without the slightest variation1 and without any regard for their personal tastes and inclinations4 ,at the machine they become machines4#bbg ,this state of affairs1 too1 will be removed by the new social order4 ,there will be ample time to practice manual skill and to develop the mechanical arts4 ,large1 splendidly equipped polytechnical schools will make it easy for both young and old to learn an occupation4 ,chemical and physical laboratories1 in keeping with the standards of these sciences1 will be erected1 and capable teachers will be on hand4 ,only then will people fully recognize what a wealth of talent and ability has been suppressed or wrongly developed by the capitalistic system of production4#bbh ,not only will it be possible to satisfy the desire for variation1 it must be regarded as the purpose of society to satisfy this desire1 since the harmonious development of man depends upon it4 ,the professional types that we meet with in present-day society--be these types the product of a definite1 one-sided occupation or of laziness--will gradually disappear4 ,there are exceedingly few persons to-day who possess the possibility of a variety of occupations4 ,rarely one finds persons so favored by special circumstances1 that they can escape the monotony of their daily task and can1 after the performance of physical work1 recuperate by mental work4 ,on the other hand1 we sometimes find mental workers who devote part of their time to some manual work1 gardening and the like4 ,the beneficial effects of an occupation founded on a variation of mental and physical work are obvious4 ,such occupation is the only one adapted to natural needs4 ,it is taken for granted1 of course1 that every occupation must be practiced with moderation and according to individual strength4 ,in his book on 8,the ,significance of ,science and ,art10 ,count ,leo ,tolstoi condemns the hypercritical and unnatural character that art and science have assumed as a result of our unnatural social conditions4 ,he roundly condemns the fact that present-day society holds physical labor in contempt and advises a return to natural conditions4 ,he asserts that every human being who wishes to live naturally and to enjoy life should spend his day--firstly1 at physical work in agriculture2 secondly1 at some manual trade2 thirdly1 at some mental occupation1 and fourthly1 in intellectual social intercourse4 ,no human being should perform more than eight hours of physical work4 ,tolstoi himself lived up to this ideal and claimed that he has only become truly human since he adopted this mode of life4 ,but ,tolstoi overlooks that what is possible for him1 the man of independent means1 is not possible for the vast majority of people under present-day conditions4 ,a man or woman who must work ten or twelve hours daily1 and sometimes longer1 to make a bare living1 and who has grown up in ignorance1 cannot adopt ,tolstoi's mode of life4 ,neither can all those adopt it who are in the midst of the struggle for existence and must conform with its requirements2 and of the few who might live in this manner1 many would not wish to4 ,it is one of the illusions in which ,tolstoi indulges1 to believe that exhortations and examples might transform societies4 ,the experience made by ,tolstoi1 in regard to his mode of life1 proves it to be a rational one4 ,but to make this mode of life general1 different social conditions1 a new society1 will be needed4 ,the coming society will establish such conditions4 ,it will produce countless scientists and artists1 but all of these will devote a part of the day to physical labor1 and the remainder of the day they will devote to their studies1 their arts and to social intercourse1 according to their tastes and wishes4#bbi ,the present contrast between mental and manual work1 a contrast that is intensified by the ruling classes1 who are anxious to secure their mental superiority also1 will1 accordingly1 have to be removed4 #bbg 8,the great mass of workingmen in ,england1 as in most of the other countries1 have so little free choice in regard to their occupation and place of residence1 they depend so absolutely upon fixed rules and the will of others1 as could be possible under any system with the exception of real slavery40 ,john ,stuart ,mill--,political ,economy4 #bbh ,a ,french workingman1 who has returned home from ,san ,francisco1 writes3 8,i would have never believed that ,i would be able to practice all the trades that ,i have practiced in ,california4 ,i had been firmly convinced that ,i was good for nothing except printing4 ,but in the midst of these adventurers who change their trade more readily than their shirt1 ,i did as the others4 ,since mining was not sufficiently remunerative1 ,i left and moved into the city4 ,here ,i successively became typographer1 slater1 plumber1 etc4 ,as a result of this experience of being fit for all tasks1 ,i feel less of a mollusc and more of a human being40 ,karl ,marx--,capital4 ,vol4 ,i4 #bbi ,what people may achieve under favorable conditions of development is shown1 for example1 by the life of ,leonardo da ,vinci4 ,he was a splendid artist1 a famous sculpturer1 an able architect and engineer1 a military engineer1 a musician and an extemporizer4 ,benvenuto ,cellini was a famous goldsmith1 an excellent modeller1 a recognized military engineer1 a good soldier and a capable musician4 ,abraham ,lincoln was a wood-cutter1 a farmer1 a boatsman1 a clerk and a lawyer1 before he became president of the ,united ,states4 ,it may be said without exaggeration that most people are engaged in occupations that are not suited to their abilities because their career has been shaped1 not by choice1 but by the force of circumstances4 ,many a poor professor might make a very competent shoemaker1 and many a good shoemaker might become a good professor also4 #f4--;,increase of ,consumption4 ,the above enumerated facts prove that panics1 crises1 and unemployment will be impossible in future society4 ,crises arise because capitalistic production1 incited by the desire for profit1 and without any reliable means of estimating the true demand1 leads to over-production and to over-stocking of the market4 ,under capitalism the products assume the character of goods that their owners indeavor to exchange1 and the consumption of goods depends upon the consumer's purchasing ability4 ,but this purchasing ability is very limited among a vast majority of the population who are not paid the full value of their labor and whose services are not wanted if their employers cannot squeeze profits out of them4 ,purchasing ability and the ability to consume are two entirely different matters in bourgeois society4 ,many millions are in need of new clothes1 shoes1 furniture1 linens and articles of food1 but they have no money1 and so their needs1 their ability to consume1 remains unsatisfied4 ,the market is over-stocked1 but the masses are hungry2 they wish to work1 but cannot find anyone willing to purchase their labor-power1 because the employers can derive no profits from employing them4 ,perish1 become a vagabond1 a criminal1 ,i1 the capitalist1 cannot help it1 because ,i cannot use goods that ,i cannot sell at a profit4 ,in his position the capitalist is entirely justified in taking this attitude4 ,in the new society this contradiction will be removed4 ,the new society will not produce 8goods0 to be 8bought0 and 8sold10 it will produce commodities for consumption1 not for any other purpose4 ,the ability to consume will not be limited by the purchasing ability of each individual1 but by the common ability to produce4 ,if there is sufficient labor-power and sufficient means of production1 every want can be satisfied4 ,the social ability to consume knows no bounds except the satisfaction of the consumers4 ,if there will be no 8goods0 in the new society there will ultimately be no money1 either4 ,money appears to be the counterpart of goods1 but is goods itself4 ,yet1 at the same time1 money is the social equivalent1 the standard of value for all other goods4 ,but the new society will not produce goods1 it will produce commodities whose manufacture will require a certain measure of social working-time4 ,the average time required to produce a given commodity is the only standard by which it will be measured for social consumption4 ,ten minutes of social working-time at one commodity equal ten minutes of social working-time at another commodity1 no more and no less4 ,society will not wish to 8earn10 it will merely wish to bring about the exchange of commodities of the same quality and of the same value among its members1 and eventually it will not even be necessary to determine the value4 ,society will simply produce what it needs4 ,if it should become evident1 for instance1 that three hours of work daily are necessary to produce all the required products1 three hours will be the fixed time4#bcj ,if the means of production should be improved to such extent that the supply can be furnished by two hours of work1 it will be two hours4 ,if1 on the other hand1 the demands should grow and the increased productivity of the process of work would not suffice to satisfy these demands1 the working-time would be lengthened4 ,it can easily be calculated how much social labor will be necessary for the manufacture of each product4#bca ,thereby the relation of this portion of work to the entire working-time can be calculated4 ,any kind of certificate1 a printed piece of paper1 gold or tin1 enables the holder to exchange same for various kinds of commodities4#bcb ,if he finds that his wants are less than what he receives for his services1 he can work less1 accordingly4 ,if he wishes to give away what he does not use1 nobody will prevent him from so doing4 ,if he voluntarily chooses to work for another1 so that the other one may idle1 or if he wishes to divide his share of the social products1 no one will restrain him4 ,but no one can compel him to work for another person's advantage1 no one can deprive him of a part of the share he is entitled to for his services4 ,everyone will be able to satisfy all desires and requirements possible of fulfillment1 but not at the expense of others4 ,he receives from society the equivalent of what he produces1 no more and no less1 and remains free from exploitation4 #bcj ,it must be noted again and again that production will be organized according to the highest scale of technical development and that all will be engaged in it1 so that1 under favorable circumstances1 a working-day of three hours may still prove too long4 ,owen1 who was a large manufacturer and was therefore competent to judge1 estimated--in the early part of the nineteenth century--that a working-day of two hours would be sufficient4 #bca 8,the amount of social labor represented by a given product need not be determined in a round-about way2 daily experience will show directly how much on an average will be required4 ,society will be able to calculate how many hours of work are represented by a steam-engine1 a hectolitre of wheat of the last harvest1 or a hundred square yards of cloth of a certain quality4 ,society will accordingly not think of expressing the quantities of work contained in the products--that will then be directly known--in the relative1 fluctuating1 uncertain manner of a third product1 inevitable at present1 instead of expressing them by their natural1 adequate1 absolute measure-time4 ,it will be necessary to arrange the plan of production in accordance with the means of production1 including labor-power4 ,the usefulness of the various commodities1 balanced with one another and with the amount of work necessary for their production will ultimately determine the plan4 ,everything will be adjusted in a very simple way without the intercession of the famous #8value'40 ,fr4 ,engels--,mr4 ,eugen ,duehring's ,transformation of ,science4 #bcb ,mr4 ,eugen ,richter in his 8,false ,doctrines0 is so amazed by the fact that in socialistic society the use of money will be dropped 7it will not be abolished outright but will simply become superfluous because the products of labor will no longer have the character of goods71 that he devotes a special chapter to this incident4 ,the thing that especially puzzles him is that it will be immaterial whether the working certificate will be a printed piece of paper1 gold or tin4 ,he says3 8,with gold the demon of the present world order would enter the socialistic state again0 7,mr4 ,richter obstinately overlooks that eventually there will be only a socialistic society1 not a socialistic 8state10 for a great deal of his argumentation would then loose ground71 8for gold has independent value as a metal and can easily be hoarded1 and so the possession of pieces of gold would make it possible to accumulate values to escape the duty to work and even to loan out money on interest40--,one must consider one's readers very stupid to place such bosh before them4 ,mr4 ,richter who cannot free himself from the conception of capital1 cannot see that where there is no capital1 no goods1 there can be no money1 and that where there is neither capital nor money there can be no interest4 ,we should like to know how a member of socialistic society could 8hoard0 his golden working certificate or could even loan it on interest1 when all the others also own what the one offers and--on which he lives4 #g4--;,equal ,duty to ,work for ,all4 8,but how will you discriminate between thrifty and lazy1 intelligent and stupid persons80 ,that is one of the questions most frequently asked by our opponents1 and the answer we give them puzzles them greatly4 ,but these wise questioners never stop to think that1 among our hierarchy of officials1 the distinction between thrifty and lazy1 intelligent and stupid persons is not made1 but that the length of service usually determines the salary and promotion4 ,teachers and professors--many of whom are the most nave questioners--have their salaries determined by the position they fill1 not by the value of their services4 ,in many cases officials1 military men and scientists1 are not promoted according to their abilities1 but according to rank1 relationship1 friendship1 and the favor of women4 ,that wealth is not measured either by intelligence and thrift1 may be seen by the three-class-electoral-system of ,prussia4 ,we find saloon-keepers1 bakers and butchers1 many of whom are not able to speak grammatically1 enrolled in the first class1 while men of intelligence and science1 the highest officials of the state and the nation1 are enrolled in the second or third class4 ,there will be no difference between thrifty and lazy1 intelligent and stupid persons1 because that which we understand by these terms will have disappeared4 ,society1 for instance1 calls some people 8lazy0 because they have been thrown out of employment1 have been driven to a life of vagabondage1 and have finally become real vagabonds4 ,we also apply this term to people who are the victims of a bad education4 ,but whoever should venture to call lazy the man of means who spends his time in idleness and debauchery would commit an insult1 for the rich idler is a 8respectable0 man4 ,now what aspect will matters assume in the new society8 ,all will develop under similar conditions of life1 and everyone will perform the task assigned to him by ability and inclination4 ,therefore the differences in achievements will be slight4#bcc ,the social atmosphere that will incite each to excel the others will help to level the distinctions4 ,if a person should realize that he is unable to accomplish in one line of work what others accomplish1 he will choose some other line better suited to his strength and his abilities4 ,everyone who has worked together with a great many persons knows that people who were inefficient at one task have proved very efficient when given another4 ,by what right can anyone ask for privileges8 ,if some person is so incapacitated by nature that it is quite impossible for him to accomplish what others accomplish1 society cannot punish him for the shortcomings of nature4 ,on the other hand1 if some one has been endowed by nature with abilities that elevate him above the others1 society need not reward him for that which is not his personal merit4 ,it must1 furthermore1 be remembered that in ,socialistic society all will have the same opportunities for education1 so that all can develop their knowledge and ability in accordance with their talents and inclinations4 ,as a result1 knowledge and ability will be far more developed than in bourgeois society4 ,it will be more evenly distributed and yet more varied4 ,when ,goethe1 during a journey along the ,rhine1 studied the ,cathedral of ,cologne1 he discovered1 by perusal of the architectural deeds that the architects of old had paid all their workingmen alike by time2 they did so because they desired good workmanship conscientiously carried out4 ,to bourgeois society this seems an anomaly4 ,bourgeois society has introduced the piece-work system1 by means of which the workingmen compel one another to overwork and make it all the easier for the employer to under-pay and to resort to a frequent reduction in wages4 ,what is true of material productivity is equally true of the mental4 ,man is the product of time and circumstances4 ,if ,goethe had been born in the fourth instead of in the eighteenth century1 under equally favorable circumstances1 instead of becoming a great poet and scientist he would probably have become a great father of the ,church who might have outshone ,st4 ,augustine4 ,again1 if ,goethe had not come into the world as the son of a rich patrician of ,frankfort1 but as the son of a poor shoemaker1 he would hardly have become minister to the ,grand-duke of ,weimar1 but would have lived and died a respectable master-shoemaker4 ,goethe himself recognized of what great advantage it was to him to have been born in a materially and socially favorable position which helped him to attain his development2 he thus expresses himself in 8,wilhelm ,meister40 ,if ,napoleon ,i4 had been born ten years later he would never have become ,emperor of ,france4 ,without the war of #ahgj to #ahga1 ,gambetta would never have become what he has been4 ,if a gifted child of intelligent parents should be placed among savages it would become a savage4 ,men are what society has made them4 ,ideas are not the product of higher inspiration sprung from the brains of a single individual1 but they are a product1 created in the brains of the individual by the social life and activity amidst which he lives and by the spirit of his age4 ,aristotle could not have the ideas of ,darwin1 and ,darwin had to reason differently from ,aristotle4 ,we all reason as the spirit of our age--that is1 our environment and its phenomena--compels us to reason4 ,that explains what has been frequently observed1 that different people sometimes follow the same line of reasoning simultaneously2 that the same inventions and discoveries are made at the same time at places situated far apart4 ,that also explains that an idea expressed fifty years ago may have found the world indifferent1 but the same idea expressed fifty years later1 may agitate the whole world4 ,in #adae ,emperor ,sigismund could dare to break the promise given ,huss and to have him burned at the stake in ,constance4 ,in #aeba1 ,charles ,v41 although a far greater fanatic1 had to permit ,luther to go in peace from the diet at ,worms4 ,ideas are the product of social co-operation1 of social life4 ,what is true in regard to society in general1 is especially true in regard to the various social classes that compose society at any given epoch of history4 ,because every class has its peculiar interests1 it also has its peculiar ideas and views4 ,these conflicting ideas and interests have led to the class struggles that filled the annals of history and have attained their culmination in the class extremes and class struggles of the present day4 ,the feelings1 thoughts and actions of a person are1 therefore1 determined not only by the age in which he lives1 but also by the class to which he belongs4 ,without modern society no modern ideas could exist4 ,this is clear to everyone4 ,in the new society--let it be remembered--the means that each individual will employ for his education and development will be the property of society4 ,society cannot feel obliged to reward particularly what it alone has made possible1 its own product4 ,so much in regard to the qualification of physical and mental labor4 ,from this the further conclusion may be drawn1 that no distinction will be made between higher and lower grades of work2 as1 for instance1 at present mechanics consider themselves superior to day-laborers who perform work on the roads1 etc4 ,society will have only such work performed as is socially useful1 and so every kind of work will be of equal social value4 ,should it not be possible to perform some kinds of dirty and disagreeable work by means of mechanical or chemical devices--which will undoubtedly be the case1 to judge by the present rate of progress--and should there be no volunteers1 it will be the duty of each worker to perform his share of such work when his turn comes4 ,no false pride and no irrational disdain of useful labor will be recognized4 ,these exist only in our state of drones1 where idleness is considered enviable1 and where those workers are the most despised whose tasks are the hardest and most unpleasant ones1 and often the most needful to society4 ,to-day the most disagreeable tasks are the ones most poorly paid4 ,the reason for this is that we have a great many workers who have been maintained at a low level of civilization1 whom the constant revolution in the process of production has cast out into the street1 as a reserve force1 and who1 in order to live1 must perform the lowest kinds of work1 at wages that even make the introduction of machinery for such work 8unprofitable40 ,the crushing of stone1 for instance1 is notoriously one of the most disagreeable and most poorly paid employments4 ,it would be a simple matter to have this crushing of stones done by machinery1 as is generally being done in the ,united ,states4 ,but in ,germany there is such an abundance of cheap labor1 that the introduction of the stone-crusher would not 8pay40#bcd ,street-cleaning1 the cleaning of sewers1 collecting ashes and garbage1 work in shafts and caissons1 etc41 might1 even at the present time1 with the aid of proper machinery1 be performed in such a manner that most of the unpleasantness connected with them for the laborers1 would disappear4 ,but1 as a matter of fact1 a workingman who cleans sewers1 to guard human beings against the dangers of germs of disease1 is a very useful member of society1 while a professor who teaches falsified history in the interest of the ruling classes1 or a theologian who seeks to mystify the minds by the teaching of supernatural doctrines1 are very harmful individuals4 ,a great many of our present-day scientists and scholars represent a guild that is employed and paid to defend and vindicate the dominance of the ruling classes1 by means of the authority of science1 to let this dominance appear just and necessary1 and to maintain existing prejudices4 ,in truth1 this guild1 to a great extent1 poisons the minds1 and performs work hostile to the advancement of civilization1 in the interest of the bourgeoisie and its clients4#bce ,a social condition that will henceforth make the existence of such elements of society impossible1 will perform a liberating deed4 ,on the other hand1 true science is often connected with very disagreeable and revolting work4 ,for instance1 when a physician dissects a corpse in a state of decomposition1 or operates upon a purulent part of the body1 or when a chemist examines fces4 ,these tasks are often more revolting than the most disagreeable work performed by unskilled laborers4 ,yet no one will admit that this is so4 ,the difference is that the performance of the one work requires profound study1 while the other work can be performed by anyone without previous preparation4 ,this accounts for the great difference in their estimation4 ,but in future society1 where1 by means of equal opportunities of education for all1 the distinctions of educated and uneducated will disappear1 the distinction between skilled and unskilled labor will disappear also4 ,this is all the more so because the possibilities of technical development are unlimited1 and much that is manual work to-day will be performed by machines and mechanical processes4 ,we need but consider the present development of our mechanical arts2 for instance1 engraving1 wood-cutting1 etc4 ,as the most disagreeable tests often are the most useful ones1 so our conceptions1 in regard to pleasant and unpleasant work1 like many other conceptions in the bourgeois world1 are superficial and founded entirely on outward appearances4 #bcc 8,all normal well developed human beings are born with approximately the same degree of intelligence1 but education1 laws and circumstances make them differ from one another4 ,individual interest1 properly understood1 is identical with the common or public interest40 ,helvetius--,man and ,his ,education4 ,in regard to the great majority of men1 ,helvetius is right2 what does differ are the talents for various occupations4 #bcd 8,if one had to choose between ,communism with all its chances and the present social order with all its suffering and injustice2 if it were a necessary result of private property that the products of labor should be divided as we see them to-day1 almost in a reverse ratio to the work performed--that the largest shares fall to those who have never worked at all1 the next largest to those whose work is almost nominal1 and so on along the line1 the remuneration becoming smaller as the work becomes more difficult and disagreeable1 until at last the most wearing and exhausting labor cannot even be certain of earning the most needful means of existence2 if1 we say1 the alternative would be3 this or ,communism1 all scruples in regard to ,communism1 both great and small1 would be like chaff in the scales40--,john ,stuart ,mill--,political ,economy4 ,mill has honestly tried to 8reform0 bourgeois society and to 8make it listen to reason20 of course1 in vain2 and thus like every rational human being capable of recognizing the true nature of conditions1 he finally became a ,socialist4 ,he did not dare to confess to this during his life-time1 but caused his autobiography1 containing his socialistic confession of faith1 to be published after his death4 ,his position was similar to ,darwin's1 who did not wish to be regarded as an atheist during his life-time4 ,bourgeois society drives thousands to such hypocrisy4 ,the bourgeoisie feigns loyalty1 piety and submission to authority1 because their rule depends upon the recognition of these virtues by the masses1 but inwardly they jeer at them4 #bce 8,learning often serves ignorance as much as progress40 ,buckle--8,history of ,english ,civilization40 #h4--;,abolition of ,trade4--,transformation of ,traffic4 ,as soon as the new society will have placed production on the basis sketched above1 it will--as we have already noted--cease to produce 8goods10 and will only produce commodities to supply the social demand4 ,as a result of this1 trade will also cease to exist1 as trade is needful and possible only in an organization of society founded on the production of goods4 ,by the abolition of trade a great army of persons of both sexes will be mobilized for productive activity4 ,this great army becomes one of producers2 it brings forth commodities and enables society to increase its demands1 or makes possible a still further reduction of the hours of work4 ,to-day these persons live more or less like parasites on the products of the toil of others4 ,still they often work very hard and are burdened with cares1 without earning enough to supply their wants4 ,in the new society commercial men1 agents1 jobbers1 etc41 will be superfluous4 ,in place of the dozens1 hundreds and thousands of stores of all kinds that we find in every municipality to-day1 according to its size1 there will be large municipal store-houses1 elegant bazaars1 entire exhibitions1 that will require a comparatively small number of persons for their administration4 ,the entire bustle of trade will be transformed into a centralized1 purely administrative activity4 ,the discharge of its duties will be simple and will become still more simplified by the centralization of all social institutions4 ,traffic will experience a similar transformation4 ,telegraph and telephone lines1 railroads1 mail service1 river and ocean vessels1 street-cars1 automobile cars and trucks1 air-ships and flying machines1 and whatever all the institutions and vehicles serving traffic and communication may be called1 will have become social property4 ,in ,germany many of these institutions1 like the mail1 the telegraph1 the telephone system1 and most railroads1 have already been made state institutions2 their transformation into public property is a mere matter of form4 ,here private interests can no longer be injured4 ,if the state continues to operate in the present direction1 so much the better4 ,but these state-owned institutions are not socialistic institutions1 as is erroneously assumed4 ,these institutions are exploited by the state1 according to the same capitalistic principles as if they were privately owned4 ,neither the officials nor the workingmen are particularly benefited by them4 ,the state does not treat them differently from a private employer4 ,when1 for instance1 in the bureaus of the national navy and the railroad administration orders are issued not to employ workingmen who are over forty years of age1 that is a measure which proves the class character of the state as a state of exploiters1 and is bound to rouse the indignation of the workers4 ,such and similar measures resorted to by the state in its capacity of employer1 are much worse than when resorted to by private employers4 ,the latter is always a small employer compared to the state1 and the employment that he refuses may be granted by another4 ,but the state1 monopolizing certain branches of employment1 may1 by such maxims1 with one blow drive thousands into poverty4 ,these are not socialistic but capitalistic actions1 and ,socialists have every reason to protest against the assumption that the present state-owned institutions are socialistic in character and may be regarded as a realization of socialistic aims4 ,as large1 centralized institutions will replace the millions of private dealers1 and agents of all kinds1 so the entire system of transportation will also assume a different aspect4 ,the millions of small shipments that are sent out daily to an equal number of owners1 and entail a great waste of work1 time and material1 will be absorbed by shipments on a large scale1 sent out to the municipal store-houses and the large centers of manufacture4 ,here1 too1 work will become greatly simplified4 ,as it is much simpler to ship raw material to a factory employing #ajjj workingmen than to ship it to hundreds of scattered small factories1 so the centers of production and distribution for entire municipalities1 or for parts of same1 will mean a considerable saving4 ,this will be to the advantage of society1 but also to the advantage of each individual1 for public interest and personal interest will then be identical4 ,the aspect of our places of production1 of our means of transportation1 and especially also of our residences1 will thereby become entirely changed4 ,they will obtain a much more cheerful aspect4 ,we will be freed1 to a great extent1 from the nerve-racking noise1 speed and confusion of our large cities1 with their thousands of vehicles of all kinds4 ,the building of streets1 street-cleaning1 the manner of living1 the intercourse of people with one another--all will experience a great transformation4 ,it will then be possible to carry out hygienic measures easily1 which to-day can be carried out only at a great expense and insufficiently1 and often only in the residential quarters of the wealthy classes4 ,under such conditions traffic and transportation must attain their highest development4 ,perhaps aerial navigation will be the favorite means of transportation then4 ,the means of transportation are the veins that conduct the exchange of products--the circulation--through the entire body social1 and are therefore particularly adapted to the dissemination of an equal standard of comfort and culture4 ,to provide for the extension and ramification of the most perfect means of transportation to the remotest portions of the provinces will become a necessity to the public welfare4 ,here the new society will set tasks for itself that by far exceed those of present-day society4 ,this highly perfected system of communication will also decentralize the masses of humanity that at present congest our large cities and centers of industry1 and will scatter them broadcast over the land4 ,this will not only be of the greatest benefit to public health1 it will also have a decisive influence on the material and intellectual progress of civilization4 ,,chapter ,,xxii4 ,socialism and ,agriculture4 #a4--;,abolition of the ,private ,ownership of ,land4 ,land1 being the prime raw material for all human labor and the basis of human existence1 must be made the property of society1 together with the means of production and distribution4 ,at an advanced stage of development society will again take possession of what it owned in primeval days4 ,at a certain stage of development all human races had common ownership of land4 ,common property is the foundation of every primitive social organization2 it is essential to its existence4 ,only by the rise and development of private property and the forms of rulership connected with it1 has common property been abolished and usurped as private property1 as we have seen1 not without severe struggles4 ,the robbery of the land and its transformation into private property formed the first cause of oppression4 ,this oppression has passed through all stages1 from slavery to 8free0 wage-labor of the twentieth century1 until1 after a development of thousands of years1 the oppressed again convert the soil into common property4 ,the great importance of the soil to human existence was the reason why the ownership of the soil constituted the chief cause of conflict in all social struggles of the world--in ,india1 ,china1 ,egypt1 ,greece1 ,rome1 the ,christian middle ages1 the realms of the ,aztecs and ,incas1 and in the social struggles of modern times4 ,even at the present day men like ,adolf ,samter1 ,adolf ,wagner1 ,dr4 ,schaeffle1 ,henry ,george1 and others1 who do not believe in other forms of common property1 favor the common ownership of land4#bcf ,the welfare of a population depends primarily upon the cultivation of the soil4 ,to develop this cultivation to the highest degree is eminently to the interest of all4 ,that this highest degree of development cannot be attained under the rule of private property1 has been shown4 ,to obtain the greatest possible advantage from the soil1 not its cultivation alone must be taken into consideration4 ,other factors must be considered to which neither the largest private owner nor the most powerful association is equal1 factors that may exceed even the jurisdiction of the state and require international consideration4 #bcf ,during the centuries when common ownership of land still predominated1 but the robbery of land assumed ever greater portions1 fathers of the church1 popes and bishops have also preached communistic doctrines4 ,of course1 the syllabus and the encyclical letters of the nineteenth century no longer contain references of this sort1 and the popes too have become subservient to bourgeois society and rise to defend it against the ,socialists4 ,bishop ,clemens ,i 7died #ajb ,a4 ,d47 said3 8,the use of all worldly things should be common to all4 ,it is wrong to say3 ,this is mine1 this belongs to me1 and that to someone else4 ,it is this which has caused dissention among men40 ,bishop ,ambrosius of ,milan1 who lived around #cgd1 exclaimed3 8,nature gives all blessings to all men in common2 for ,god has created all things for the common enjoyment of all1 that the earth should be common property4 ,nature accordingly has created the right of common ownership1 and only unfair usurpation creates the right of private property40 ,in his ,book of ,homilies directed against the wickedness and depravity of the people of ,constantinople1 ,st4 ,john ,chrysostomus 7died #djh7 wrote3 8,let no one call anything his own4 ,from ,god have we received everything for common enjoyment1 and mine and thine are words of falsehood60 ,st4 ,augustin 7died #dcj7 said3 8,because we have private property1 we also have law suits1 hostility1 dissention1 wars1 rebellion1 sin1 injustice1 murder4 ,whence come all these scourges8 ,only from property4 ,so1 my brethren1 let us refrain from owning things1 or let us1 at least1 refrain from loving what we own40 ,pope ,gregory the ,great 7about #fjj7 exclaimed3 8,let them know that the earth whence they come and of which they are made is common to all men1 and that the fruits which the earth brings forth should therefore belong to all without distinction40 ,bossuet1 the famous bishop of ,meaux 7died #agjd71 says in his 8,politics of the ,holy ,scripture30 8,without the governments the earth and its products would belong to all men in common1 just as air and light4 ,according to the prime right of nature1 no one may lay claim to anything4 ,all things belong to all4 ,from bourgeois government property derives its origin40 ,the last sentence might be more clearly expressed in the following manner3 because common property became private property1 we have obtained bourgeois governments that must protect it4 ,one of the moderns1 ,zachariae1 says in his 8,forty ,books on the ,states30 8,all sufferings of civilized nations may be traced to the private ownership of land40 ,all the men quoted above have more or less correctly recognized the nature of private property4 ,as ,st4 ,augustin says3 ,since its existence it has brought into the world law suits1 hostility1 dissention1 war1 rebellion1 sin1 injustice1 murder1--evils that will disappear again by its abolition4 #b4--,the ,amelioration of ,land4 ,society must consider the land in its totality1 its topographical condition1 its mountains1 plains1 forests1 lakes1 rivers1 ponds1 heathers1 swamps and moors4 ,besides the geographical location1 which is unalterable1 this topographical condition exerts a certain influence upon the climate and the nature of the soil4 ,this is a vast field of activity1 where much experience is still to be gained and much experimentation still to be performed4 ,until now the state has accomplished but little along these lines4 ,only moderate means have been applied to such tasks of civilization1 and even if the state desired to adopt effective measures1 the large landed proprietors1 who have a decisive voice in legislation1 would prevent the carrying out of such measures4 ,without interference with private property nothing effectual could be done4 ,but since the state is founded on the 8sanctity0 of private property1 and since the large owners of private property are its chief supporters1 it is prevented from proceeding in the manner that has been designated4 ,it would be necessary to undertake the amelioration of land on a grand scale1 to plant forests here and cut down forests there1 to irrigate and to drain2 to mix different kinds of soil1 to break ground and to plant1 in order to attain the highest degree of fertility4 ,a highly important factor in the amelioration of the land would be an extensive system of rivers and canals1 to be conducted according to scientific principles4 ,the question of cheap transportation by water1 so important to present-day society1 would be of minor importance to the new society4 ,nevertheless transportation by water will be regarded as a very convenient means of transportation1 requiring the least expenditure in strength and material4 ,but of the greatest importance an extensive system of rivers and canals will be for purposes of irrigation and drainage1 for the transportation of manure and other materials for the amelioration of the land1 and for the distribution of the crops4 ,it has been determined by experience that countries where water is scarce1 suffer much more from cold winters and hot summers than countries having an abundant water supply4 ,for this reason maritime countries rarely suffer from extremes of temperature4 ,such extremes of temperature are neither advantageous nor agreeable to plants or human beings4 ,an extensive system of canals1 combined with measures for the preservation of forests1 would have a beneficial influence4 ,such systems of canals and large basins1 to collect and preserve masses of water1 would prove especially beneficial1 when the melting ice and snow1 in spring1 or heavy rain-falls cause rivers and streams to rise and to overflow their banks4 ,the construction of similar canals and basins would be required for the mountain torrents4 ,floods1 with their ravaging effects1 would then become impossible4 ,extensive surfaces of water and the increased evaporation would probably also cause rain to fall more regularly4 ,these improvements would also make it possible to establish pumps and lifting apparatus for an extensive irrigation of the land whenever necessary4 ,wide stretches of arid land might be made fertile by artificial irrigation4 ,where at present the grazing sheep barely find sufficient nourishment and where1 at best1 only emaciated looking trees stretch their lean branches skyward1 an abundance of crops might be raised and a dense population might obtain nourishment and enjoyment4 ,it is1 for instance1 only a question of the amount of labor employed1 to transform the stretches of sandy soil of the ,march1 humorously called 8the sand-box of the ,german ,empire10 into an ,eden of fertility4 ,this was pointed out by one of the lecturers at the ,german agricultural exhibition1 in ,berlin1 during the spring of #ahid4bcg ,but the landowners of the ,march do not have sufficient means to undertake the building of canals1 irrigation1 amelioration of the land1 etc41 and so1 just beyond the walls of the national capital wide stretches of land remain in a condition that will seem incredible to coming generations4 ,on the other hand1 by means of canalization1 wide stretches of swamps1 moor-land and marshes might be drained and won for cultivation2 thus1 in northern and southern parts of ,germany1 the canals might further be used for the breeding of fish1 and small communities that are not located near rivers might use them to erect bathing establishments4#bch ,a few examples will suffice to show the influence of irrigation4 ,in the vicinity of ,weissenfels1 #g hectares of irrigated meadows yielded #dhj cwt4 of hay1 while #e hectares1 located beside these1 that were not irrigated1 yielded only #cb cwt4 ,the former produced more than ten times as much as the latter4 ,near ,riesa1 in ,saxony1 #fe acres of irrigated meadows increased the net proceeds from #e1hej to #aa1ajj marks4 ,by an investment of #abd1jjj marks for irrigation of the arid lands at the right bank of the ,lippe1 an annual gain of approximately #djj1jjj marks was obtained4 ,the amelioration of the land undertaken in ,lower ,austria cost about one million crowns and increased the value of the produce by about six million crowns4 ,the expensive improvements paid4 ,other parts of ,germany1 besides the ,march have an exceedingly sandy soil1 and here the harvests are only fairly satisfactory1 after a rainy summer4 ,if these vicinities could be furrowed with canals1 properly irrigated and ameliorated1 they would shortly bring forth five and ten times their present amount4 ,examples are at hand in ,spain1 showing that well-irrigated soil brought forth #cg times as much as soil that had not been irrigated4 ,so water is all that is needed to bring forth fresh masses of nourishment from the soil4 ,hardly a year passes in which not one or the other of the ,german states and provinces is ravaged by floods4 ,large tracts of the most fertile land are carried away by the force of the water2 others are littered with stones1 sand and rubbish1 and are made unfertile for years to come4 ,entire orchards that have required decades to be grown are uprooted4 ,houses1 bridges1 streets and dams are washed away1 railroads are ruined and human lives are sacrificed1 flocks perish and crops are destroyed4 ,wide stretches of land that are exposed to frequent ravages from floods are not cultivated at all1 or only slightly1 since their owners do not wish to suffer constant loss4 ,devastation of the forests1 especially on the mountains1 and particularly by private owners1 increases the danger from floods4 ,the mad devastation of the forests1 prompted by a desire for profit1 has led to a diminution of the fertility of the soil in the ,german provinces of ,russia and ,pomerania1 in ,corinthia and ,styria1 as also in ,italy1 ,france1 ,spain1 ,russia1 and other countries4 ,frequent floods are the result of the devastation of forests on the mountains4 ,the inundations of the ,rhine1 the ,oder1 and the ,vistula are ascribed mainly to the devastation of forests in ,switzerland1 ,galicia1 and ,poland4 ,the same causes lead to the frequent inundations in ,italy1 especially of the ,river ,po4 ,as a result of the same causes1 ,madeira1 large portions of ,spain1 the most fertile provinces of ,russia1 and stretches of land in ,asia ,minor1 which were at one time fertile and blooming1 have lost much of their fertility4#bci ,at last even bourgeois society has begun to recognize that1 in this respect1 it will no longer do to maintain the policy of 8laissez faire10 and that1 by sensible measures1 applied on a large scale1 the destructive forces can be transformed into constructive ones4 ,so the construction of large dams was undertaken to collect immense quantities of water and to utilize the water-power to supply electric power to industry and agriculture4 ,the ,bavarian state especially has undertaken to dam the mountain streams on a grand scale to obtain power for the running of electric railways and other industrial undertakings4 ,agrarian old ,bavaria is thereby rapidly becoming a modern industrial state4 #bcg ,an official report on the world's-fair in ,chicago contained the following3 8,the utilization of water to raise fruit and vegetables becomes increasingly desirable4 ,water companies established for this purpose might transform deserts into edens40 #bch 8,in a highly cultivated part of the ,austrian monarchy--in ,bohemia--#fef1jjj hectares of farm land are in want of drainage4 #agd1jjj hectares of meadows are either too moist or too dry4 ,of course1 matters are much worse in those vicinities that are less developed agriculturally1 as especially in ,galicia40 ,dr4 ,eugene v4 ,philippovitch--,political ,economy4 #bci ,according to ,schwoppach1 the forest is of immeasurable value by preventing of washing away the soil on the mountains and preventing the soil from becoming sandy in the plains4 ,the devastation of forests in ,russia is a chief cause why the cultivated land is becoming increasingly sandy4 #c4--;,changed ,methods of ,farming4 ,it is self-understood that these great tasks cannot be accomplished at once2 but the new society will devote all its strength to these and similar undertakings1 since it will be the avowed purpose of this new society to perform tasks in the interest of civilization and to permit nothing to interfere with their performance4 ,in the course of time it will accomplish works the very thought of which would make present-day society dizzy4 ,measures and institutions like the ones described above will make agriculture much more favorable4 ,still other points are to be considered in connection with the improved methods of farming4 ,at present many square miles of land are planned with potatoes to be used mainly for the distilling of whiskey1 which is consumed almost exclusively by the poor and needy portion of the population4 ,whiskey is the only stimulant they can obtain1 the only banisher of care4 ,but among the truly civilized people of the new society the consumption of whiskey will disappear2 the soil and the labor power will be employed to raise wholesome food4 ,we have already pointed to the cultivation of sugar-beets and the manufacture of sugar for export4 ,in ,germany more than #djj1jjj hectares of land1 best suited to the raising of wheat1 are devoted to the cultivation of sugar-beets1 to supply ,england1 ,switzerland1 the ,united ,states1 etc41 with sugar4 ,our standing army1 the scattered methods of production and distribution1 the scattered methods of farming1 etc41 make it necessary to breed millions of horses1 and large areas of land are required to pasture them4 ,the thoroughly transformed social and political conditions will enable the new society to utilize most of this land for agricultural purposes4 ,recently areas of many square kilometers have been withdrawn from agriculture1 entire villages have been wiped out1 because the new long-range firearms and the new methods of combat necessitate drilling-grounds on which whole troops may manuvre4 ,such use will never be made of the land in the future4 ,the great realm of agriculture1 forestry and irrigation has already been made the subject of discussion1 and a considerable literature exists on the subject4 ,no particular field has remained unconsidered4 ,forestry1 irrigation and drainage1 the raising of grain1 the cultivation of vegetables1 fruit1 berries1 flowers and ornamental plants1 the raising of fodder for domestic animals1 cattle-breeding1 raising of poultry1 fish and bees1 the preparation of dung and manure1 the use of waste materials in farming and in industry1 chemical examinations of the soil1 and its preparation for one or another kind of crop1 the nature of seeds1 rotation of crops1 farm implements and machinery1 proper construction of farm-buildings1 conditions of climate1 etc4--all these things have been made subjects of scientific discussion and investigation4 ,almost daily new discoveries and experiences lead to improvements along one line or another4 ,since the researches of ,thaer and ,j4 v4 ,liebig agriculture has become a science4 ,indeed it has become one of the first and foremost sciences and has attained a degree of importance that few realms of productive activity can equal4 ,but if we compare this tremendous progress along all lines with the true status of agriculture1 it must be admitted that1 so far1 only a small fraction of the private owners have been able to make use of this progress1 and all only pursue their private interest1 regardless of the public welfare4 ,the great majority of our farmers1 we may say about #ii per cent4 of them1 are quite unable to make use of the progress and the advantages offered by science and by technical improvements1 because they lack the necessary means1 or knowledge1 or both4 ,here the new society will find a field that has been well prepared1 both theoretically and practically1 and that it will only need to organize to attain the grandest results4 #d4--;,agriculture on a ,large and ,small ,scale4--,electric ,appliances4 ,while even among ,socialists some persons still hold the opinion1 that small farmers are able to compete with the large agricultural enterprises by means of their own thrift and that of their families1 experts have come to hold a different opinion4 ,by over-exertion the peasant may achieve his utmost1 but from the standpoint of a civilized human being his position is a deplorable one4 ,no matter how much he may achieve1 the modern technical development and the science of agriculture can achieve more4 ,but1 above all1 only by the appliance of science and technique does the peasant attain the full development of a civilized human being1 while to-day he is the slave of his property and the helot of his creditor4 ,the advantages of farming on a large scale are immense4 ,to begin with1 the area that can be utilized is considerably enlarged1 because the numerous paths and roads and ridges necessitated by the disjointed properties1 disappear4 ,fifty persons1 working on a large farm--regardless of the more rational implements used by them--can accomplish much more than #ej persons working on scattered farms4 ,only farming on a large scale makes it possible to combine and direct the forces so as to obtain the best results4 ,to this must be added the immense advantage derived from the application of all kinds of machinery1 the use of the produce for industrial purposes1 the more rational methods of cattle and poultry breeding1 etc4 ,electric appliances especially furnish advantages to agriculture that overshadow every other method of cultivation4 ,p4 ,mack#bdj has ascertained that the introduction of machinery led to a saving of over #ejjj days' labor by horses1 and that a single investment of #dj1jjj marks' capital led to a cheapening of the product of over #ab1jjj marks or #dh marks per hectare4 ,this computation did not even take into consideration the increase in produce from the introduction of deep ploughing1 or the more exact cultivation by machinery4#bda ,deep ploughing led to an increase of from #bj to #dj per cent4 in the cultivation of grain1 and up to #ej per cent4 in the cultivation of potatoes1 turnips1 and the like4 ,taking an average of only #bj per cent41 ,mack showed that1 on the farm under consideration1 this meant a gain of #ee4de marks per hectare2 together with the saving referred to above1 this made a gain of #ajc4de marks per hectare4 ,mack pointed out that it was necessary to establish a sufficient number of power plants1 whereby not only all the machinery employed could be set in motion1 but heat and light could also be supplied4 ,by means of the electric plants1 the dwellings1 streets1 stables1 barns1 store-houses and factories can be lighted1 and if it should become necessary1 crops can be reaped at night4 ,mack calculated that1 by the general introduction of electricity1 two-thirds of the animals employed for drawing and carrying loads 7#a1gda1cjj heads7 might be dispensed with1 which would imply an annual net profit of #a1jjb1ihi1jjj marks4 ,the application of electricity makes agriculture more and more a purely technical1 industrial process4 ,the following compilation shows the manifold applicability of electricity in agriculture3#bdb ,the following can be run by electric motors3 #a4 ,machines that heighten the gross proceeds3 ,a4 for tilling3 seed-assorter and electric ploughs4 ,b4 for the harvest3 mowing-machines with binders2 machines for reaping potatoes2 irrigation-works4 #b4 ,machines for reducing the cost of production3 ,a4 lifting machines1 unloading machines in barns1 grain elevators1 pumps for liquid manure4 ,b4 means of transportation3 groves1 straps and bellows1 field-railways1 spindles and cranes4 ,c4 for utilization3 straw-presses1 corn-mills1 chaff-cutters4 #c4 ,machines of agricultural industry3 ,a4 distillery machines and machines for the manufacture of starch2 water-pumps for various purposes4 ,b4 dairy implements3 refrigerators1 centrifuges1 churners1 kneaders1 presses1 etc4 ,c4 saw-mills1 circular-saws and saw-frames4 ,d4 drills1 turning-lathes1 machines for wheel-making4 #d4 ,food-chopping machines1 for cattle-breeding3 chaff-cutters1 turnip-choppers1 meal1 potato and oat-grinders1 etc42 squeezers1 water-pumps4 ,investigations have shown that about #ae per cent4 of all farm-labor can be performed in this economical way1 by the aid of electric motors4 ,the amount of manual labor power required for the threshing and preparation of #ajjj kilograms of grain was ascertained3 ,number of hours required4 #a4 ,when all the work was done by hand #ajd #b4 ,when small thrashing-machines and riddling machines were employed #da4d #c4 ,when an electric thrashing-machine of #bj horse power was employed #bf4d #d4 ,when a giant electric thrashing-machine with winnowing and riddling machine1 elevators1 etc4 was employed #aj4e ,there is nothing to prevent the general introduction of electric ploughs4 ,like the electric railway1 the electric plough has already attained a high degree of development4 ,the heavy and expensive steam-plough can be rationally employed only on large areas and for deep ploughing4 ,it is especially serviceable for heightening the crops of potatoes1 etc4 ,but the electric plough can be used equally well for deep and shallow ploughing4 ,it makes it possible to cultivate the soil on steep inclines1 where it is difficult to plough with horses1 or oxen even4 ,it is a great labor-saving device1 as may be seen from the following comparison of expenses for ploughing1 when horses1 oxen1 a steam-plough and an electric plough were used3 ,cost per acre for ploughing number of inches of medium depth --------------------------------- #d #f #h #aa #ad ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,horses #b4ej #c4jj #d4bj #g4gj #ac4cj ,oxen #c4fe #d4fe #e4hj #g4ij #aj4bj ,steam-plough1 rented1 from #f4jj #f4gj #g4fj #i4ae #aj4gj 8 8 8 to #g4ej #h4dj #i4ce #aa4jj #ab4ee 8 8 owned1 from #d4ej #e4jj #e4he #g4cj #h4he 8 8 8 to #f4jj #f4gj #g4fj #i4ae #aj4gj ,electric-plough1 horse power #dj #b4gj #c4ee #d4fj #f4be #g4ie 8 8 8 8 #fj #b4fe #c4dj #d4cj #e4gj #g4aj 8 8 8 8 #hj #b4ej #c4ae #c4ij #e4bj #f4ej ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,the simple supply and distribution of electric energy1 the ease and simplicity with which electric machines can be run and kept in order1 make their advantages to agriculture paramount1 especially as a thin wire suffices to supply the power to extensive areas4 ,as the employment of electric machines would necessitate a network of electric wires across the country1 electric motor-power in agriculture could easily be combined with electro-cultivation1 the direct influence of electricity on the growth of plants4 ,during recent years plant physiologists1 as also practical agriculturists1 were eagerly engaged in studying the influence of electricity on the growth and fructification of plants1 especially the various kinds of grain4 ,the task was accomplished by the late ,professor ,r4 ,s4 ,lemstroem 7died #aijf74 ,he spread a net of wire across a large area of cultivated ground which1 by means of a battery1 he charged with positive electricity1 while the negative pole remained on the ground1 and subjected a field1 or part of one1 to an electric current during its entire period of vegetation1 while an adjacent field1 which was under observation also1 remained uninfluenced4 ,the experiments were tried upon various areas of different size1 and1 wherever carried out properly1 they all showed the same favorable results4 ,firstly1 the crop increased from #cj to over #ajj per cent42 secondly1 it ripened in a shorter time1 and thirdly1 the quality was considerably improved4 ,there were still a few practical short-comings connected with this method1 which ,newman1 an ,english agriculturist1 succeeded in removing4 ,he succeeded in interesting a famous ,english physicist1 ,oliver ,lodge1 in ,lemstroem's method4 ,according to recent reports from ,lodge these experiments have been successively tried from #aijf to #aijh2 the area under observation has been extended to ten hectares1 and it was satisfactorily proven that the charged wire net may be spread as high as five meters above the ground1 without lessening the favorable influence of the electric current on the harvest4 ,this altitude makes it possible to drive loaded wagons beneath the wire net and to perform all agricultural tasks without interference1 while ,lemstroem's net was not to be more than #dj centimeters above the plants to be influenced by the electric current4#bdc ,several millers instituted comparative baking experiments1 and the electrified wheat was found to make better flour than that which had not been electrified4 ,so the new method is ripe for being successfully introduced into agriculture and horticulture4 ,fowler's steam-plough1 with two compound locomotives1 requires an area of #ejjj hectares for its satisfactory application1 which is larger than the cultivated area of most peasant communities4 ,it has been calculated that1 if the soil under cultivation in #ahie had been cultivated with the application of all available machinery and all other modern advantages1 a saving of #afjj million marks would have been realized4 ,according to ,ruhland#bdd the successful combating of the diseases of grain alone would make the import of grain into ,germany superfluous4 ,in his book on 8,our ,meadows and ,produce of the ,fields10 ,dr4 ,sonnenberg informs us1 that ,bavarian agriculture suffers a loss of #cj per cent4 annually1 owing to the spread of weeds in the fields4 ,on two areas of #d square meters each1 one of which was full of weeds1 while the other had been kept clear of weeds1 ,nowatzki attained the following results3 ,stalks4 ,grains4 ,crop of straw4 ,on the area with weeds #baf #ahj #bci grammes ,on the area free from weeds #dbc #ebh #ajgg grammes ,dr4 v4 ,ruemker1 ,professor at the ,agricultural ,institute of the ,university of ,breslau1 declares that a careful economy of the nourishment of the soil is almost entirely wanting in ,germany4 ,the cultivation of the soil and the sowing are done in such a thoughtless manner1 according to old1 acquired habits1 and by means of such insufficient and imperfect tools1 that the returns of all the labor must remain poor and unsatisfactory4 ,he claims that the ,german farmers do not even perform the easy task of rationally assorting their seed4 ,professor v4 ,ruemker showed by the following table how the harvest can be increased per hectare by assorting the seed3 ,not assorted ,assorted ,number of ,wheat furnished kilograms kilograms kilogr's more per hectare per hectare from ass'd seeds ,entire crop #h1jjj #aj1hjj #b1hjj ,grain #a1ffh #b1hhe #a1bag ,straw and chaff #f1ccb #g1iae #a1ehc ,weight in hectoliters of crop #gg4b #gh4g #a4e ,so1 according to this table1 #abjj kilograms more of corn might be obtained per hectare by properly assorting the seed1 which1 valued at #ae marks per cwt41 represents a gain of #ahj marks4 ,estimating the cost of assorting #d4dj marks per hectare at the most1 there still remains a clear cash profit of #age4fj marks per hectare for the grain alone1 not counting the additional gain in straw and chaff4 ,by a number of experimental cultivations1 ,ruemker furthermore ascertained that by selecting that kind of grain best suited to each particular vicinity1 the harvests might be increased and the gross receipts improved1 on an average1 as follows3 ,rye by #cjj- #gjj kilogr's of grain or by #db- #ih marks per hectare ,wheat 8 #cjj- #hjj 8 8 8 8 8 #de-abj 8 8 8 ,barley 8 #bjj- #gjj 8 8 8 8 8 #cd-aai 8 8 8 ,oats 8 #bjj-abjj 8 8 8 8 8 #bf-aef 8 8 8 ,the gain obtained from assorting the seed and from a proper selection of the kind of wheat taken together1 would1 in the raising of wheat alone1 increase the harvest by #aejj to #bjjj kilograms of grain1 or by #bbj to #bie marks per hectare4 ,in a paper on 8,the ,future of ,german ,agriculture10 it has been shown how tremendously all agricultural products could be increased by sufficient and appropriate fertilization1 by supplying mineral manure1 as hypophosphate1 phosphoric acid1 etc4 ,the ,german harvest of wheat might be increased on an average of #cf cwts4 per hectare1 and the harvest of rye by #bd cwts4 per hectare4 ,moreover1 a considerable portion of the land used for the cultivation of rye at present1 might1 by proper manuring1 be used for the cultivation of wheat1 so that the average harvest of grain for bread--two-fifths of wheat1 three-fifths of rye--might amount to #bh4h cwts4 per hectare4 ,after the deduction of seed and of grain of inferior quality1 there would still remain #bf cwts4 per hectare to feed the nation4 ,the #g4i million hectares that are planted with wheat and rye at present might be increased by an additional #a4e million hectares of pasture1 fallow-ground1 heaths and moor-land1 so that1 with an average crop of #bf cwts4 per hectare and a cultivated area of #i4d million hectares1 a production of #bea4ib million cwts4 of grain for bread might be obtained4 ,with an annual consumption of #age kilograms for every person1 enough grain for bread could be raised to supply the needs of #add million persons4 ,at the time of the census of #aijj1 ,germany had a population of approximately #ef1cde1jjj inhabitants1 and even at that time science and technics were sufficiently far advanced that the ,german soil might have supplied a population two and a half times as large with bread4 ,under the present agricultural system1 with the scattered private ownership of land1 ,germany is obliged to import annually about one-ninth of its requisite supply of wheat and rye4 ,if1 under the present agricultural system1 similar quantities were to be raised1 it would mean so great an increase in the cost of articles of food1 that a majority of the people could not afford to buy them1 and that would not answer the purpose4 ,these results can be obtained only by communistic methods1 when carried out on the largest scale2 but of course the authors quoted above do not think of that possibility4 ,according to calculations made by them1 by means of an intensified cultivation of the soil1 the products of ,german agriculture might be increased as follows3 ,rye and wheat by #ade4a million cwts4 ,potatoes 8 #ddd4j 8 8 ,oats1 barley1 peas and beans 8 #gh4g 8 8 ,hay 8 #adf4b 8 8 ,fodder 8 #aaj4j 8 8 ,turnips 7for cattle7 8 #bbf4j 8 8 ,if we furthermore take into consideration the suggestions by ,mack1 quoted above1 showing that a very great number of animals for drawing and carrying loads might be dispensed with by the introduction of electric power1 we find that the breeding of cattle for nourishment might be considerably increased1 or that much of the land used for pasture might be planted with food for man4 ,another field of agricultural activity that might be developed to a far greater extent1 is poultry breeding4 ,the value of eggs imported by ,germany annually amounts to #adi4g million marks 7#aijg71 and that of live poultry to over #dj million marks4 ,the institutions for raising and breeding poultry are still sadly undeveloped4 ,the concentrated methods of agriculture on a large scale will lead to the concentration of farming establishments1 such as stables1 store-houses1 ice-houses1 fodder and feeding2 much time1 labor and material will be saved1 and practical advantages will be obtained that are inaccessible to small and medium-sized establishments1 and are but rarely enjoyed by large ones4 ,how insufficient1 for instance1 are the hygienic institutions in most stables1 how inadequate are the provisions made for the feeding and care of the cattle and poultry6 ,that cleanliness1 air and light are as necessary to animals as to human beings and have a favorable influence on their condition1 is a fact known but little among peasants of the twentieth century4 ,it is self-understood that1 by a general dissemination and application of this knowledge1 milk1 butter1 cheese1 eggs1 honey1 meat1 etc41 will be obtained under far more sanitary and favorable conditions than at present4 ,by a skillful combination and application of human labor power and machinery1 not only the cultivation of the fields1 but also the reaping of the harvest will be done by ways and means unknown to us to-day4 ,the erection of great halls for shelter will make it possible to gather in the crops during any kind of weather1 and1 by bringing them in quickly1 the enormous losses will be avoided that are so frequent now4 ,according to v4 d4 ,goltz1 during one single unfavorable harvest-time1 #h to #i million marks are lost on crops in ,mecklenburg1 and in the government district of ,koenigsberg1 from #ab to #ae million marks4 #bdj ,p4 ,mack ,althof-,ragnit ,cavalry-,captain and ,owner of ,manorial ,estate--,the ,development of ,agriculture by ,cheapening of the ,cost of ,production4 ,an ,investigation of the ,service rendered ,agriculture by ,machines and ,electricity4 ,koenigsberg1 #aijj4 #bda ,the packing into subterranean pits 7,campbell7 has become a very significant factor in recent years4 ,in some regions of ,north ,america where rain is scarce1 marvelous results have been obtained by this method4 #bdb ,kurt ,krohne--,the ,expanded ,application of ,electricity in ,agriculture4 ,journal of ,electrotechnics1 #aijh4 #bdc ,m4 ,breslauer--,the ,influence of ,electricity on the growth of plants4 ,journal of ,electrotechnics1 #aijh4 ,a small plant for purposes of demonstration is being erected near ,berlin under the direction of ,breslauer4 #bdd ,dr4 ,g4 ,ruhland--,fundamental ,principles of ,actual ,agrarian ,politics4 ,tuebingen1 #ahic4 #e4--,vine-,culture of the ,future4 ,the cultivation of fruit and berries and horticulture will also attain a degree of development in the future that hitherto seemed almost impossible4 ,to what extent the cultivation of fruit is still neglected in ,germany1 although the ,german climate is particularly favorable to the cultivation of orchards1 especially apple-orchards1 may be seen from the fact that more than #dj million marks' worth of fresh fruit and more than #bj million marks' worth of dried fruit are imported annually4 ,one look at the poor condition of our fruit-trees in the greater part of ,germany1 even in countries like ,wurtemberg1 which are famed for their orchards1 makes this easily understood4 ,here a wide field presents itself to agricultural and horticultural activity4 ,the cultivation of berries is just begun and presents a no more favorable aspect4 ,by applying artificial heat and moisture in large1 sheltered halls1 it becomes possible to raise vegetables1 fruit and berries in large quantities during any season of the year4 ,the florists' show-windows in our large cities present as gorgeous an array of flowers in mid-winter as they do in summer4 ,wonderful progress in the line of artificial cultivation of fruit1 is marked by the artificial 8vineyard0 of ,garden-,director ,haupt1 in ,brieg in ,silesia1 which has since been imitated elsewhere1 and already had been tried in other countries2 for instance1 in ,england4 ,its equipment and the results achieved were so enticingly described in the 8,vossishe ,gazette10 of ,september #bg1 #ahij1 that an extract of this description follows3 8,the glass-house is situated upon an approximately square field of #ejj square meters4 ,it is from #d4e to #e meters high1 and its walls face exactly north1 south1 east and west4 ,it contains twelve rows of double fruit-walls1 running from south to north1 #a4h meters apart1 which at the same time serve as supports to the flat roof4 ,in a bed #a4be meters deep1 resting on a bank of earth #be centimeters strong1 which contains a net of pipes for drainage and ventilation of the soil1 a bed1 whose heavy ground has been made loose and fertile by the introduction of chalk1 rubbish1 sand1 manure1 bone-dust and potash1 ,mr4 ,haupt planted #cfj grapevines of the kinds that yield the best grape-juice in the ,rhine ,province3 ,white and red ,riessling and ,traminer1 white and blue ,moscatelle and ,burgundy4 8,the ventilation of the place is effected by several apertures in the side walls and by slats #bj meters long attached to the roof1 which can be opened and closed by a lever1 and afford protection from the storm in any position4 ,twenty-six showers serve to water the vines4 ,they are attached to rubber pipes #a4be meters long that are suspended from a tank above4 ,but ,mr4 ,haupt has introduced still another truly ingenious contrivance for quickly and thoroughly watering his #8wine-hall' and his #8vineyards'3 an artificial generator of rain4 ,under the roof four long copper tubes are attached that contain fine perforations half a meter apart4 ,through these perforations fine streams of water are driven upward1 strike small round sieves made of gauze1 and1 by being filtered through them1 are scattered in fountains of a fine spray4 ,it takes several hours to water the place thoroughly by means of the rubber tubes2 but one need open only one faucet1 and throughout the building a gentle1 refreshing rain falls down evenly upon the vines1 the ground and the granite walks4 ,without any artificial heating1 only by the neutral qualities of the glass-house1 the temperature can be raised from #h to #aj degrees ,r4 above the outside air4 ,in order to protect the vines from their most dangerous and destructive enemy1 the vine-louse1 in case one should appear1 it will suffice to close all the drain-pipes and open all the faucets4 ,thereby an inundation of the vines will be caused which1 as is well known1 this enemy cannot resist4 ,the glass walls and roof protect the vineyard from storm1 cold1 frost and superfluous rain4 ,a fine wire netting1 spread over roof and walls1 affords protection from hail4 ,the artificial rain contrivance is a safeguard against drought4 ,the wine-grower in such a vineyard makes his own weather and can mock the dangers of all the incalculable whims and treacheries of indifferent or cruel nature that threaten with ruin the fruit of the wine-grower's toil and care40 ,mr4 ,haupt's expectations were fully realized4 ,the vines thrived splendidly in the even temperature4 ,the grapes ripened to their fullest perfection1 and in the fall of #ahhe yielded a juice that was not inferior in richness and sweetness to any obtained along the ,rhine4 ,the grapes thrived equally well in the following year1 and in that most unfavorable year1 #ahhg4 ,when the vines have attained their full height of five meters and bear an abundance of grapes to their very top1 in this establishment about #bj hectoliters of wine can be produced annually1 and the cost of wine per bottle to the producer will not exceed #dj 8pfennige0 7#aj cents74 ,there is no reason why this new and most favorable system of vine-culture should not be introduced on a large scale4 ,glass-houses like this one1 covering one-fifth of an acre1 can without doubt also be erected on areas of one acre1 or more1 equipped with the same contrivances for ventilation1 drainage and artificial rain4 ,here the vegetation will set in some weeks earlier than in the open air1 and during the time of bloom the young vines will be protected from ,may-frosts1 rain and cold2 while the grapes ripen they will be protected from drought1 from pilfering birds and thieves and excessive moisture2 during the entire year they will be protected from the vine-louse1 and the berries will remain safely on the vine until ,november or ,december4 ,in an address delivered before the ,society for the ,advancement of ,horticulture1 in #ahhh1 from which ,i have taken several technical terms in this description of ,haupt's 8vineyard10 the inventor and founder of same closed with the following alluring perspective of the future3 8,since this vine-culture can be carried on throughout ,germany1 also on otherwise barren1 sandy or stony soil 7as1 for instance1 in the ,march71 after it has been made arable and watered1 it becomes evident that vine-culture under glass becomes a matter of national interest4 ,i would like to call this method the vine-culture of the future40 ,the author then described how the wine obtained form the grapes had met with the highest approval of experts1 and added3 8,the vineyard also left sufficient room for the cultivation of other plants4 ,thus ,mr4 ,haupt1 between every two vines raises one rose-bush1 which presents a wealth of bloom during ,april and ,may4 ,on the eastern and western walls he also raises peaches1 and during ,april their luxuriant blossoms must impart to this glass palace a fairy-like appearance40 ,recently ,belgium has bestowed special attention upon this method of fruit-culture4 ,but in ,germany also it is being extensively applied1 for instance1 in raising pineapples4 ,nothing will prevent the establishment of similar hot-house plantations for various kinds of plants1 so that1 with many products of the soil1 we may enjoy the luxury of a double or threefold harvest4 ,at present these undertakings are primarily a question of profit1 and their products are enjoyed only by the favored few4 ,but in ,socialistic society the only question will be whether sufficient labor-power is obtainable4 ,this being the case the task will be accomplished to the common advantage of all4 #f4--,measures to ,prevent ,exhaustion of the ,soil4 ,so we see that1 even under present-day conditions1 a thorough transformation in the methods of procuring food is taking place4 ,but the utilization of all these discoveries is extremely slow1 because powerful classes--the agrarians and their social and political supporters--are profoundly interested in suppressing them4 ,although in spring weekly prayers are offered up in all churches for a good crop1 individual members of the congregations may feel like that pious man who implored his patron saint3 8,st4 ,florian1 protect my house1 set others on fire60 ,for if the crops turn out well in all countries the prices are lowered1 and this possibility is dreaded by agrarians4 ,what is advantageous to others is harmful to him1 and therefore he is a silent opponent of every discovery or invention that benefits others besides himself4 ,our society dwells in constant discord with itself4 ,in order to maintain the soil in a fertile condition and to improve it1 sufficient manure is essential4 ,to obtain same will be an important task for the new society also4#bde ,manure is to the fields what food is to man1 and just as not every kind of food is equally nourishing to man1 so not every kind of manure is of equal value to the soil4 ,the ground must be given exactly the same chemical substances that have been withdrawn from it by the reaping of a crop1 and such chemical substances1 as are required for the cultivation of a certain kind of plant1 must be introduced in large quantities4 ,therefore the study of chemistry and its practical application will develop to an extent unknown to-day4 ,now animal and human excrements contain the very chemical substances that are suited to the cultivation of human food4 ,therefore it is important to obtain and properly distribute them4 ,little is done in this respect at present4 ,especially the cities and industrial centers1 which receive large quantities of food1 return very little of the valuable offal to the soil4 ,as a result the farms that are situated far from the cities and industrial centers and that annually ship the greater part of their products into these1 suffer from want of manure4 ,often the offal obtainable on the farms does not suffice1 because the human beings and animals from which it is obtained have consumed only a small portion of the crops4 ,so an exhaustion of the soil would be sure to take place1 unless the want of natural manure were made up for by artificial manure4 ,all countries that export agricultural products and receive no manure in return1 will sooner or later be ruined by the impoverishment of their soil4 ,this is the case with ,hungary1 ,russia1 the ,danubian principalities1 etc4 ,in the middle of the last century1 ,liebig solved his theory of the reproduction of substance for arable soil1 which led to the use of concentrated manure4 ,schultze-,lupitz proved that certain plants1 although not given manure containing nitrogen1 still added nitrogen to the soil1 a phenomenon that was explained later by ,hellriegel4 ,he showed that the millions of bacilli1 acting on certain leguminous plants1 obtain the nitrogen for the nourishment of the plant directly from the air4#bdf ,chemistry constitutes one phase of modern1 scientific agriculture1 and bacteriology constitutes the other4 ,in its deposits of potash1 ,thomas-slag1 hypophosphate and phosphoric acid1 ,germany possesses a number of inexhaustible sources of mineral manure4 ,a proper application of these1 combined with an appropriate tilling of the soil1 makes possible a production of enormous quantities of food4 ,an idea of the importance of the various kinds of artificial manure may be gained from the following figures3 ,during #aijf ,germany consumed about #cjj million marks' worth of artificial manure4 ,among these were sulphate of ammonia for #eh4c millions2 nitrate of soda for #abj1 and the rest was expended for ,thomas-slag1 hypophosphate1 potash1 guano1 etc4 ,the most important of these fertilizers are the ones containing nitrogen4 ,the great importance of this substance may be seen from the following3 ,investigations made by ,wagner showed that crops of oats from a field in ,hessia diminished by #ag per cent4 when there was a dearth of phosphoric acid2 by #ai per cent4 when there was a dearth of potash1 and by #hi per cent4 when there was a dearth of nitrogen4 ,the net profits for one year per hectare were3 ,when the fertilizer contained all the needful ingredients1 #if marks2 when the potash was omitted1 #fb marks2 when phosphoric acid was omitted1 #dh marks2 when nitrogen was omitted1 #e marks4 ,it has been calculated that if ,germany would double its nitrogen-manure1 it could produce not only sufficient grain and potatoes to supply the demands of its own population1 but could also export considerable quantities4 ,and the chief sources of this valuable manure1 the deposits of nitrate soda in ,chili1 like the deposits of guano1 are rapidly being used up1 while the demand for nitrogen preparations constantly increases in ,germany1 ,france1 ,england1 and1 during the last ten years1 in the ,united ,states of ,america also4 ,as early as #ahii the ,english chemist1 ,william ,crookes1 propounded this question and designated it as one of greater importance than the possibility of proximate exhaustion of the ,british coal mines4 ,he therefore regarded it to be one of the most important tasks of chemistry to manufacture nitrogen fertilizers from the tremendous nitrogen reservoir of the atmosphere4 ,it must be remembered that the quantity of air covering one square centimeter of ground1 weighs approximately #a kilogram1 and that four-fifths of it are nitrogen4 ,from this may be calculated that the nitrogen contained in the atmosphere of the earth1 amounts1 in round figures1 to #djjj million tons4 ,the present annual consumption of nitrate of soda is1 in round figures1 #cjj1jjj tons4 ,so even if the nitrogen in the atmosphere were not replaced1 it would suffice to supply the demand of the entire earth during #ad1jjj million years4 ,this problem has been practically solved4 ,in #ahii1 ,a4 ,frank and ,n4 ,caro produced cyanide of potassium that contains from #ad to #bb per cent4 of nitrogen4 ,the new fertilizer has been introduced upon the market under the name of calcareous nitrogen4 ,but ,frank's and ,caro's method is not the only one4 ,in #aijc the ,norwegians1 ,c4 ,birkeland and ,s4 ,eyde1 succeeded in transforming the atmospheric nitrogen into nitric acid by combustion1 by means of electricity4 ,this second method furnishes a product that is equal to ,chili nitrate of soda in every respect and even superior to it for certain kinds of soil4 ,in #aije ,otto ,schoenherr succeeded in finding a method still superior to that of ,birkeland and ,eyde4 ,for1 besides the electric power1 only the cheapest materials are required1 i4 e41 water and limestone4 ,so agriculture has been given a new fertilizer that can be obtained by a purely technical industrial process1 and has an unlimited supply at its disposal4#bdg ,according to ,a4 ,mueller1 a healthy adult secretes annually on an average of #dh4e kilograms of solid and #dc4h kilograms of liquid matter4 ,estimated by the present prices of manure1 these materials represent a value of about #e4ae marks4 ,the great difficulty in fully utilizing this material lies in the establishment of large and appropriate contrivances for collecting same and in the high cost of transportation4 ,a great portion of the excrements from the cities is conducted into our rivers and streams and pollutes them4 ,in the same way1 the offal and refuse from kitchens and industrial establishments that might also be used for manure1 are usually carelessly wasted4 ,the new society will find ways and means to prevent this waste4 ,it will solve the problem more easily1 because the large cities will gradually cease to exist owing to the decentralization of the population4 #bde ,there is a recipe for the fertility of fields and the eternal duration of their crops2 if properly applied it will prove more remunerative than any that has ever been resorted to by agriculture4 ,it is the following3 ,every farmer who takes a bag of grain or a hundred-weight of rape1 carrots1 potatoes1 etc4 to market shall1 like the ,chinese coolie1 bring back with him as much1 if possible more1 of the ingredients of his products of the soil and shall give them back to the field from which he has taken them4 ,he shall not despise a potatoe peal or a blade of straw1 but shall remember that one of his potatoes needs the peal and one of his ears of corn the blade4 ,his expense for this import is slight and the investment is sure2 no savings bank is safer1 and no capital will bring a higher rate of interest4 ,the surface of his field will bring forth the double amount in ten years4 ,he will produce more corn1 more meat and more cheese without spending more time or performing more labor1 and he will not be in constant anxiety seeking new and unknown means to keep his field fertile by other methods4 ,old bones1 soot and ashes1 the blood of animals and all kinds of offal should be collected in establishments erected for this purpose and prepared for shipment4 ,the administrative and police officials in the cities should see to it that by an appropriate arrangement of drains and cess-pools this waste of material is avoided4 ,liebig--8,chemical ,letters10 ,leipsic and ,heidelberg1 #ahfe4 #bdf ,german ,agriculture at the ,close of the ,century4 ,address delivered by ,dr4 ,max ,delbrueck at the ,royal ,academy of ,agriculture1 on ,january #ab1 #aijj4 #bdg ,according to ,prof4 ,bernthsen on sulphuric acid of the atmosphere4 ,lecture delivered at the seventh international congress in ,london4--,journal of ,applied ,chemistry1 #aiji4 #g4--,removal of the ,contrast between ,city and ,country4 ,no one can adjudge our modern large cities a healthy product4 ,the prevailing economic and industrial system constantly attracts great masses of the population to the cities4#bdh ,they are the chief seats of industry and commerce1 and there all the highways of traffic converge4 ,there the owners of great fortunes reside1 and there the civil1 judicial and military authorities are located4 ,in the cities are found the great institutions of learning1 the academies of art1 the places of enjoyment and recreation1 exhibitions1 museums1 theatres1 concert-halls1 etc4 ,thousands are attracted by their occupations1 thousands by pleasure1 and thousands of others by the hope of greater gain and a more pleasant life4 ,but this formation of great cities1 figuratively speaking1 reminds one of a man whose girth is constantly increasing while his legs are constantly growing leaner1 until they can no longer carry the load4 ,in the immediate vicinity of these cities all the villages assume an urban character also1 and here the proletarians flock together4 ,these usually poor municipalities must tax their members to the utmost and still are unable to meet all demands4 ,when they have finally extended close to the large city they are swallowed up by it1 as a planet that has come too close to the sun4 ,but thereby the conditions of life are not improved4 ,on the contrary1 they become more unfavorable by the crowding of masses in congested dwellings4 ,these gatherings of masses are necessary in present-day development and1 to a certain degree1 form the centers of revolution2 but in the new society they will have accomplished their purpose4 ,their gradual dissolution will be inevitable1 for then the contrary will take place4 ,the population will migrate from the large cities to the country1 will form new communities adapted to the changed conditions1 and will combine industrial and agricultural activity4 ,as soon as the urban population1 as a result of the development of the means of transportation1 methods of production1 etc41 is enabled to transfer to the country all its accustomed requirements of culture1 its institutions of learning1 museums1 theaters1 concert-halls1 libraries1 social centers1 etc41 the migration will begin4 ,life will offer all the advantages of the former large city without its disadvantages4 ,the dwellings will be far more sanitary and pleasant4 ,the rural population will participate in industry1 and the industrial population will participate in agriculture and horticulture1 a variety of occupations that only a few persons can enjoy at present1 and only by excessively long and hard labor4 ,as on all other fields1 the bourgeois world is paving the way for this development1 as each year a greater number of industrial establishments are transferred to the country4 ,the unfavorable conditions prevailing in the large cities1 high rents and high wages1 compel many manufacturers to transfer their establishments to rural districts4 ,on the other hand1 the large landowners are becoming industrialists 7manufacturers of sugar1 distillers1 brewers1 manufacturers of cement1 earthenware1 bricks1 woodwork1 paper1 etc47 ,even to-day tens of thousands of persons who work in the large cities have their homes in the suburbs1 because the improved means of transportation enable them to live in this manner4 ,by the decentralization of the population the present contrast between urban and rural population will be removed4 ,the peasant1 this modern helot1 who1 until now1 in his isolation in the country1 has been excluded from all modern cultural development1 will then become a civilized being#bdi in the fullest sense of the word4 ,the wish once expressed by ,prince ,bismarck1 that he might see the large cities destroyed1 will be fulfilled1 but in a different sense than he anticipated4#bej #bdh ,according to the census of ,june #ab1 #aijg1 ,germany had #bd large cities with more than #ajj1jjj inhabitants each4 ,in #ahaf1 there were only two cities in ,germany having more than #ajj1jjj inhabitants4 ,in #ahga1 there were only #h of them4 ,the population of ,berlin was1 approximately1 #hbf1jjj in #ahga2 #a1hhj1jjj in #aijj2 #b1jdj1adh in #aije4 ,so its population had increased by #adg per cent4 in #cd years4 8,greater ,berlin0 had #hge1cbh inhabitants in #ahga1 and #b1dfi1jji inhabitants in #aijj4 ,in #aijg1 #db large cities had #aa1gij1jjj inhabitants1 and their proportion to the entire population now amounts to1 approximately1 #ai per cent4 ,a number of these large cities found it necessary to admit into their municipalities a number of the suburban factory towns that1 according to their population1 were cities in themselves1 and so they grew in leaps and bounds4 ,during the period from #ahie to #aije1 ,leipsic increased from #agj1jjj to #ejc1fgb inhabitants2 ,cologne from #afa1jjj to #dbh1gbb2 ,magdeburg from #aad1jjj to #bdj1fcc2 ,munich from #bgj1jjj to #ech1ihc2 ,breslau from #bii1jjj to #dgj1ijd2 ,frankfort on the ,main from #aed1jjj to #ccd1igh2 ,hannover from #adj1jjj to #bej1jbd2 ,duesseldorf from #aae1jjj to #bec1bgd2 ,nuremberg from #aae1jjj to #bid1dbf2 ,chemnitz from #aaa1jjj to #bid1ibg2 ,essen from #fe1jgd to #bci1fib1 etc4 #bdi ,professor ,adolf ,wagner says in his 8,text-book of ,political ,economy by ,rau0 that has been previously quoted3 8,the small farms constitute an economic basis that cannot be replaced by any other institution for a very important part of the population1 an independent1 self-sustaining peasantry and its peculiar socio-political position and function40 ,if the author would not idealize the small farmer 8 tout prix0 to please his conservative friends1 he would have to recognize the small farmer as the poorest of beings4 ,under existing conditions the small farmer is almost inaccessible to a higher culture4 ,he works hard from dawn till darkness and lives like a dog4 ,meat1 butter1 eggs1 milk that he produces are not consumed by him2 he produces for others4 ,under existing conditions he cannot attain a higher status of life and so becomes an element detrimental to the progress of civilization4 ,he who likes retrogression because it serves his own ends1 may desire the continued existence of this social stratum1 but human progress demands that it should cease to exist4 #bej ,in the ,union ,parliament at ,erfurt1 in #ahej1 ,prince ,bismarck raged against the large cities because they were 8hot-beds of revolution0 and should therefore be demolished4 ,he was right4 ,in the modern proletariat bourgeois society produces its own 8grave-diggers40 ,,chapter ,,xxiii4 ,abolition of the ,state4 ,when we review what has been set forth so far1 we find that1 with the abolition of the private ownership of the means of production1 and their transformation into social property1 those evils gradually disappear that bourgeois society presents on all sides1 and which are becoming more and more unbearable4 ,class rule will cease4 ,society will apply all its activities according to its own plans1 and will guide and control itself4 ,by abolition of the wage system1 the exploitation of man by man1 deception and fraud1 adulteration of food1 speculation1 etc41 will be eradicated4 ,the halls of the ,temples of ,mammon will be empty1 for stocks1 bonds1 promissory notes1 mortgages1 etc41 will have become waste-paper4 ,the words of ,schiller3 8,all old scores shall be erased and the world shall make its peace10 will be realized1 and the scriptural saying3 8,in the sweat of thy brow shalt thou eat thy bread10 will then prevail with the heroes of the stock-exchange and the drones of capitalism1 also4 ,the employers and capitalists will be relieved forever of that worry about their property which1 so they pathetically assure us1 is often even harder to bear than the workingman's lot of uncertainty and privation4 ,the excitements of speculation1 that give so many of our stock-jobbers heart-diseases and apoplexy1 and cause them to be the victims of nervous prostration1 will be spared them in the future4 ,freedom from care will be their lot and that of their descendants1 and they will not deplore this lot4 ,with the abolition of private property and class antagonism1 the state1 too1 will gradually pass out of existence4 8,as the capitalistic method of production converts ever greater numbers of the population into proletarians1 it creates the power that1 under penalty of its own destruction1 is destined to bring about the transformation4 ,since its tendencies are to convert into state property the socialized means of production1 it blazes the trail for the achievement of this transformation4444 8,the state was the official representative of society as a whole1 its unification in a visible body2 but it was this only in so far as it was the state of that particular class which itself represented society as a whole at its time2 in antiquity1 the slave-owning citizen2 in medival days1 the feudal nobility2 in our own day1 the bourgeoisie4 ,by finally becoming the actual representative of society as a whole1 it renders itself superfluous4 ,as soon as there will be no social class that needs to be repressed1 as soon as the conflicts and excesses will be removed that are rooted in the present anarchistic methods of production and the individual struggle for existence1 there will be nothing to necessitate a special power of repression1 a state4 ,the first act wherein the state will appear as the true representative of the whole body social--the act of taking possession of the means of production in behalf of society--will at the same time be its last independent act as state4 ,state interference with social relations will become superfluous in one domain after another and will finally fall into disuse4 ,instead of a government of persons1 there will be an administration of things and a direction of the processes of production4 ,the state will not be #8abolished1' it will die out40#bea ,together with the state will vanish its representatives3 ministers1 parliaments1 standing armies1 police1 courts1 lawyers and district attorneys1 prison officials1 collectors of taxes and duty2 in short1 the entire political apparatus4 ,armories and other military buildings1 palaces of justice and administration1 prisons1 etc41 will then serve better purposes4 ,tens of thousands of laws1 decrees and regulations will become just so much waste-paper2 their only value will be an historical one4 ,the great and yet so petty parliamentary struggles1 during which the men of the tongue imagine that by their orations they rule and guide the world1 will disappear4 ,they will make room for colleges of administration and administrative delegations1 whose purpose will be to consider and determine the best means and methods of production and distribution1 to decide how large a quantity of supplies is required1 to introduce and utilize new appliances and improvements in art1 science1 education1 traffic1 etc41 to organize and direct industry and agriculture4 ,all these are practical1 visible1 tangible objects that will be objectively viewed by all1 because no one will have any personal interests hostile to the interests of society4 ,it will be to the common interest of all to have everything provided for and arranged in the most effective and advantageous manner4 ,the hundreds of thousands of former representatives of the state will enter various professions1 and by their intelligence and strength will help to increase the wealth and comforts of society4 ,neither political nor common crimes will be known in the future4 ,thieves will have disappeared1 because private property will have disappeared1 and in the new society everyone will be able to satisfy his wants easily and conveniently by work4 ,nor will there be tramps and vagabonds1 for they are the product of a society founded on private property1 and1 with the abolition of this institution1 they will cease to exist4 ,murder8 ,why8 ,no one can enrich himself at the expense of others1 and even the murder for hatred or revenge is directly or indirectly connected with the social system4 ,perjury1 false testimony1 fraud1 theft of inheritance1 fraudulent failures8 ,there will be no private property against which these crimes could be committed4 ,arson8 ,who should find pleasure or satisfaction in committing arson when society has removed all cause for hatred8 ,counterfeiting8 ,money will be but a chimera1 it would be 8loves labor lost40 ,blasphemy8 ,nonsense6 ,it will be left to good and almighty ,god himself to punish whoever has offended him1 provided that the existence of ,god is still a matter of controversy4 ,thus all the fundamental principles of the present 8order0 become a myth4 ,in later days parents will tell their children about them like about legends of days gone by2 and1 when told of the persecutions to which men of the new ideas were subjected1 they will be impressed by these accounts just as we are impressed by the accounts of the burnings of heretics and witches4 ,all the names of those 8great0 men who distinguished themselves by their persecutions of the new ideas and were applauded for it by their narrow-minded contemporaries1 will be forgotten4 ,at best they will only attract the attention of the historians engaged in the research of old documents4 ,unfortunately we are not yet living in that happy age when humanity may breathe freely4 #bea ,fr4 ,engels--,mr4 ,eugen ,duehring's ,transformation of ,science4 ,stuttgart1 #ahid4 ,,chapter ,,xxiv4 ,the ,future of ,religion4 ,as with the state1 so it will be with religion4 ,it will not be 8abolished10 ,god will not be 8dethroned10 people will not be 8robbed of their faith10 as all the foolish arguments are worded that are directed against atheistic ,socialists4 ,such follies ,socialists leave to bourgeois idealists who attempted such measures during the ,french ,revolution and1 of course1 failed utterly4 ,without any forcible attack or expression of opinions1 of whatever nature they may be1 the religious organizations will gradually disappear and the churches with them4 ,religion is the transcendental reflection of the social condition of every age4 ,in the measure in which human development progresses and society is transformed1 religion is transformed likewise4 8,religion10 says ,marx1 8is the striving of the people for an imaginary happiness2 it springs from a state of society that requires an illusion1#beb but disappears when the recognition of true happiness and the possibility of its realization penetrates the masses40 ,it is to the interest of the ruling classes to prevent this recognition1 and so they seek to uphold religion as a means for preserving their rule4 ,this is clearly expressed in the well-known saying3 8,religion must be preserved for the people40 ,this business of preserving religion for the people becomes an important official function in a society founded on class-rule4 ,a caste is formed that assumes this function and concentrates all its ingenuity upon maintaining and expanding the structure1 for this means the maintenance and expansion of their own power and authority4 ,at the lowest stages of civilization1 among primitive social conditions1 religion is mere fetichism4 ,with a higher development religion becomes polytheism1 and at a still higher stage1 it becomes monotheism4 ,it is not the gods who have created man1 but man who has created the gods1 or ,god4 8,in the image of himself 7man7 he created him 7,god702 not vice-versa4 ,even now monotheism has dissolved itself into an all-comprising1 all-penetrating pantheism that is constantly becoming more volatile4 ,science has reduced the doctrine of creation of the earth in six days to a myth4 ,astronomy1 mathematics and physics make heaven a phantom4 ,they make of the stars in heaven on which angels are enthroned1 suns and planets that preclude angelic existence4 ,the ruling class1 seeing its existence threatened1 clings to religion1 the support of all authority1 as every ruling class has done4#bec ,the bourgeoisie itself does not believe1 and by its entire development and by modern science that sprang from its lap1 it has destroyed the faith in religion and in all authority4 ,their belief is hypocrisy1 but the ,church accepts the support of this false friend1 because it is sorely in need of aid itself4 8,religion must be preserved for the people40 ,for the new society no considerations will exist4 ,uninterrupted human progress and unadulterated science will be its device4 ,if some one should have religious needs1 he may satisfy them with those who share his belief4 ,society will pay no attention to them4 ,even the priest must work to live1 and as he will improve his mind by work1 the time will come when even he will recognize that it is our highest destiny to be human4 ,ethics and morality exist even without religion4 ,only fools or hypocrites would assert the contrary4 ,ethics and morality are the expression of conceptions that regulate the actions and mutual relations of men1 while religion comprises the relations of men to supernatural beings4 ,but1 like religion1 our moral conceptions1 too1 arise from prevailing social conditions4#bed ,the cannibal considers it moral to eat human flesh4 ,greeks and ,romans regarded slavery as a moral institution4 ,serfdom seemed moral to the feudal lords of the middle ages1 and the modern capitalist deems wage-slavery1 the exploitation of women and the demoralization of children by industrial labor1 a highly moral condition4#bee ,these four stages of social evolution present four different conceptions of morality1 but in none of them does the highest moral conception prevail4 ,the highest moral condition is one in which all human beings will be free and equal2 it is one in which the principle1 8do unto others as you would have others do unto you10 will dominate all human relations4 ,in the middle ages a man's pedigree was the decisive factor2 at the present time his social status is determined by his wealth2 in the future every human being will be valued for his own true worth1 and the future lies with ,socialism4 #beb ,karl ,marx--8,critic of the ,philosophy of ,law by ,hegel40 #bec ,the following utterance by ,aristotle shows the opinion of the ancients on this subject3 8,the tyrant 7in ancient ,greece every autocrat was called a tyrant7 must appear to take religion very seriously4 ,for if the subjects believe their ruler to be pious and ,god-fearing they do not expect unlawful treatment at his hands2 on the other hand they will not readily turn against him for they believe that he has the support of the gods40 ,aristotle--8,politics40 8,the ,prince must possess noble human qualities or1 at least1 must seem to possess them4444 ,he must especially appear very pious1 extremely religious4444 ,though some will penetrate his guise1 they will maintain silence on the subject2 for the majesty of the state protects the ,prince and by means of this protection he may betray the opposite qualities if his advantage should require it4 ,because he appeared pious whenever his piety did not interfere with his interests1 the majority of his subjects will consider him an honorable man1 even when he acts contrary to the maxims of faith and religion4 ,therefore the ,prince shall carefully cultivate worship and church affairs40 ,macchiavelli in his famous book1 8,the ,prince40 #bed ,see ,k4 ,kautsky--,ethics and the ,materialistic ,interpretation of ,history4 ,stuttgart1 #aije4 #bee ,whenever a bourgeois is in want of arguments to justify what is injustfiable1 it is a thousand to one that he will make his appeal to 8morality40 ,in the spring of #ahid1 at a meeting of the ,evangelical ,synod1 a 8liberal0 member of the ,berlin ,court of ,justice even declared it to be 8moral0 that only taxpayers should have a vote at church meetings4 ,,chapter ,,xxv4 ,the ,socialist ,system of ,education4 ,the late member of the ,german diet1 ,dr4 ,lasker1 delivered a lecture in ,berlin1 during the seventies1 in which he arrived at the conclusion that it is possible for all members of society to have an equal standard of education4 ,but ,dr4 ,lasker was an anti-,socialist1 a rigid upholder of private property and capitalism1 and the question of education under present-day conditions is pre-eminently a question of money4 ,therefore an equal standard of education for all is impossible at present4 ,some may attain a higher education even under unfavorable circumstances1 by overcoming many difficulties and by applying an amount of energy that few possess4 ,but the masses can never attain it so long as they must live in a state of social dependence and oppression4#bef ,in the new society the conditions of existence will be the same for all4 ,the requirements and inclinations will differ and will always continue to differ1 since these differences are rooted in the nature of man4 ,but each individual will be able to develop under conditions equally favorable to all4 ,the uniform equality1 imputed to ,socialism1 is like so many other imputations1 sheer nonsense4 ,it would be useless1 indeed1 if ,socialism should strive for uniform equality1 for it would then come into conflict with human nature itself and could not hope to see society develop in accordance with its principles4#beg ,indeed1 if ,socialism should succeed in forcing society into unnatural conditions1 these new conditions would soon make themselves felt as shackles that would be torn asunder1 and ,socialism would be doomed4 ,society develops by innate laws and acts accordingly4#beh ,a proper education of the young must be one of the chief tasks of the new society4 ,every child that is born will be a welcome addition to society4 ,in the child society beholds the possibility of its own continuity1 its own further development4 ,therefore it will also recognize the duty of amply providing for the new being4 ,the first object of its care must1 accordingly1 be the child-bearing woman1 the mother4 ,comfortable homes1 pleasant environment1 institutions of all kinds suited to this stage of motherhood1 considerate care for her and for the child--these are the first requirements4 ,it is self-understood that women will be enabled to nurse their children as long as necessary and desirable4 ,moleschott1 ,sonderegger1 all hygienists and physicians are agreed that no other nourishment can fully substitute the mother's milk4 ,those who1 like ,eugen ,richter1 grow indignant at the suggestion that young mothers shall give birth to their children in a lying-in-hospital1 where they will be surrounded by every care and comfort that only wealthy persons can afford to-day1 and that even they cannot obtain as perfectly as it can be provided in institutions especially equipped for the purpose1 should remember that at present at least four-fifths of all children who come into the world are born under the most primitive conditions that mock civilization4 ,of the remaining one-fifth of our mothers again only a small minority are able to enjoy the care and the comforts that should be bestowed upon every woman in this condition4 ,even to-day some cities have splendid provisions for child-bearing women1 and many women gladly make use of these institutions when they feel their time approaching4 ,but these institutions are so expensive that only few women are able to make use of them2 others1 of course1 are prevented by prejudice4 ,here again we have an example how the bourgeois world everywhere contains the germs for future transformation4 ,motherhood among women of wealth and fashion becomes rather peculiar by the fact that these mothers transfer their maternal duties as soon as possible to a proletarian wet-nurse4 ,it is well known that the ,lausitz 7,spreewald7 is the region that supplies the bourgeois women of ,berlin1 who do not or cannot nurse their infants1 with nurses4 8,the breeding of nurses0 is carried on as a trade1 since country girls do not hesitate to become pregnant1 because they find it profitable1 after the birth of their babies1 to hire out as nurses to rich families in ,berlin4 ,it is not an unusual occurrence that girls have three or four illegitimate children in order to hire out as nurses1 and if they earn enough money by this trade they are regarded as desirable wives by the young men of the ,spreewald4 ,regarded from the view-point of bourgeois morality1 such actions are despicable2 but regarded from the view-point of the family interests of the bourgeoisie1 they become praiseworthy and desirable4 ,as soon as the child will have outgrown infancy it will join companions of its age in common play under common care and direction4 ,everything needful or desirable for the child's physical and mental development will be supplied4 ,every observer of children knows that they can be most easily educated in the company of other children4 ,this quality can be successfully applied to the system of education4#bei ,the play-halls and the kindergarten will be succeeded by a playful introduction into the rudiments of knowledge and the various industrial tasks4 ,they will be succeeded by appropriate mental and physical work1 combined with gymnastic exercises and unrestricted motion on the playground and in the gymnasium1 the skating-rink and the swimming-pool4 ,there will be exercises1 drills and wrestling-matches for both sexes1 for the aim will be to bring up a healthy1 hardy race that will be normal both physically and mentally4 ,step by step the children will be initiated into the various practical activities1 horticulture1 agriculture1 manufacture1 the technics of the process of production4 ,mental education in the various realms of knowledge will not be neglected4 ,the system of education will be purified and improved1 just like the system of production4 ,many antiquated1 superfluous methods and subjects1 which only serve to hamper the child's mental and physical development1 will be dropped4 ,the knowledge of natural things1 adapted to the child's understanding1 will incite a far greater desire for study than a system of education where one subject conflicts with and contradicts another2 for instance1 when1 on the one hand1 children receive religious instruction as taught by the ,bible1 and1 on the other1 are taught science and natural history4 ,the equipment of the schools and the methods and means of education will be in keeping with the advanced stage of civilization of the new society4 ,all the books and objects required for education and study1 food and clothing1 will be furnished by society2 no pupil will be at a disadvantage with the others4#bfj ,this is another chapter that causes indignation among our bourgeois 8men of order40#bfa ,they claim that ,socialists seek to turn the school into barracks1 and to deprive the parents of all influence over their children4 ,socialists do not aim at anything of the sort4 ,in future society1 parents will have far more time at their disposal than the great majority of parents have to-day4 ,we need but point to the fact that at present many workingmen are employed ten hours daily1 and even longer1 and that many employees in the postal and railroad service1 prison and police officials1 etc41 as well as mechanics1 small farmers1 merchants1 military men1 physicians1 etc41 must devote an equal length of time to their occupations4 ,in future parents will be able to devote themselves to their children in a measure that is quite impossible to-day4 ,moreover1 the parents will control the educational system and will determine the measures and methods that are to be adopted and introduced4 ,for then society will be thoroughly democratic4 ,there will be boards of education consisting of parents--men and women--and of the educators4 ,does anyone presume that these will act contrary to their sentiments and interests8 ,that is done in present-day society1 where the state carries out its ideas of education contrary to the wishes of most parents4 ,our opponents pretend that it is one of the most agreeable things to parents to have their children about them all day and to be constantly occupied with their education4 ,as a matter of fact1 this is not so4 ,every parent knows that the education of a child is no easy task4 ,several children facilitate education1 but they cause so much work and worry1 especially to the mother1 that she is thankful when they are old enough to attend school1 and she is relieved of their care for a part of the day4 ,moreover1 most parents can educate their children but insufficiently1 because they have no time4 ,the fathers are engaged in their trades or professions and the mothers in their household tasks1 and sometimes the mothers are breadwinners1 also4 ,but even those parents who have sufficient time usually lack the ability4 ,how many parents are able to follow up the mental development of their children at school and to assist them8 ,mighty few4 ,the mother1 who1 in most cases1 might be best enabled to render such assistance1 rarely has the ability1 because she has not been properly trained herself4 ,moreover1 the methods and subjects are changed so often that they are foreign to most parents4 ,for most children the facilities at home are so insufficient that they have no proper order1 comfort or peace for doing their home-work1 nor are they helped by anyone4 ,often the home is small and overcrowded2 the entire family are huddled together in a few small rooms1 the furniture is scanty1 and the child wishing to study lacks every comfort and convenience4 ,not infrequently light1 air and heat are wanting4 ,the books and school supplies are either wanting entirely or are of the poorest quality4 ,frequently also the little ones are tortured by hunger1 which destroys all inclination for study4 ,hundreds of thousands of children are put to work at all kinds of domestic and industrial occupations that rob their childhood of its joy and incapacitate them for mental work4 ,sometimes children must contend with the opposition of narrow-minded parents1 who object to it that the children devote time to their studies or to play4 ,in short1 there are so many obstacles that it is to be wondered at that the young are so well educated4 ,this is a proof of the health of human nature and of its innate desire for progress and perfection4 ,bourgeois society itself recognizes a number of these evils and facilitates the education of the young by introducing free public instruction and1 here and there1 by also furnishing the school supplies4 ,as late as the middle of the eighties the then ,minister of ,education of ,saxony1 designated both these institutions as 8,socialistic demands40 ,in ,france1 where public education had long been neglected and then progressed all the more rapidly1 progress has advanced still further2 at least1 this is the case in ,paris4 ,here the public-school meal1 at the expense of the municipality1 has been introduced4 ,poor children are given the meals free of charge1 and the children of parents who are in better circumstances must pay a nominal sum into the municipal treasury4 ,here we behold a communistic institution that has proved entirely satisfactory to parents and children4 ,the insufficiency of our present educational system--it often fails to accomplish the moderate aims it has set for itself--becomes evident from the fact that thousands upon thousands of children are unable to get along at school on account of insufficient nourishment4 ,every winter there are thousands of children in our cities who come to school without breakfast4 ,hundreds of thousands of others are chronically underfed4 ,to all these children public feeding and clothing would be a blessing4 ,in a community that will1 by proper care and nourishment1 teach them what it means to be human1 they will not become acquainted with a house of 8correction40 ,bourgeois society cannot deny the existence of this misery1 and so compassionate souls unite to found free-lunch establishments and soup-kitchens1 to perform1 as a charity1 what ought to be performed by society as a duty4 ,recently a few municipalities have undertaken to feed poor children at public expense4 ,but all this is insufficient and must be accepted as a charitable gift1 while it should be demanded as a right4#bfb ,it is well that the amount of home-work is being reduced in our schools1 since the insufficiency of home facilities has been recognized4 ,the child of wealthy parents is at an advantage over his poorer schoolmate1 not only because he is privileged by outward circumstances1 but also because he is helped at home by a governess or a tutor4 ,on the other hand1 laziness and carelessness are fostered in the child of wealthy parents1 because their wealth makes study appear superfluous to him1 and because demoralizing examples are frequently placed before him and he is approached by many temptations4 ,he who learns daily and hourly that rank1 position and wealth count for everything1 acquires a peculiar conception of human duties and of the institutions of state and society4 ,when we examine this question more closely we find that bourgeois society has no reason to become indignant over the communistic methods of education aimed at by ,socialists1 for it has itself introduced such methods for privileged classes1 but in a distorted manner4 ,we need but point to the cadet schools1 the seminaries and colleges for the clergy4 ,here thousands of children1 some of them belonging to the upper classes1 are trained in the most absurd and one-sided way and in strict monastic seclusion for certain occupations4 ,many members of the better classes1 like physicians1 clergymen1 officials1 manufacturers1 large farmers1 etc41 who live in small towns where there are no higher institutions of learning1 send their children to boarding-schools in large cities1 and do not see them during the entire year1 except at vacation time4 ,it is a contradiction1 then1 when our opponents decry a communistic system of education and estrangement between parents and children1 and at the same time introduce a similar system of education1 only in a wrong1 insufficient and distorted manner1 for their own children4 ,only too frequently are the children of the rich not educated by their parents at all1 but by nurses1 governesses and tutors4 ,a special chapter might be written on this subject that would not cast a favorable light on the family relations of these classes4 ,here1 too1 hypocrisy prevails and conditions are anything but ideal1 both for the educated and the educators4 ,in accordance with the entirely altered system of education that aims at the physical and mental development and culture of the young1 the teaching force must be increased4 ,the training of the rising generation should be provided for in the same way as the training of the soldiers is provided for in the ,german army4 ,here one officer has charge of from #h to #aj men4 ,if in future a similar number of pupils will be placed under the guidance of one teacher1 the desired aims will be attained4 ,introduction into mechanical activities in the splendidly equipped workshops1 and into horticultural and agricultural activities1 will also constitute an important factor in the future education of the young4 ,everything will be taught with a proper variation of occupations and without over-exertion1 in order to educate harmoniously developed human beings4 ,education must be the same for both sexes and must be given in common to both4 ,separation of the sexes is justifiable only in cases where the differences of sex make it absolutely necessary4 ,in this manner of education the ,united ,states is far advanced over ,europe4 ,here education has been introduced from the primary school to the university4 ,not only is education furnished free1 but the school supplies also1 inclusive of the tools for manual training1 lessons in cooking1 and articles used by the pupils in the study of chemistry and physics4 ,many schools are equipped with gymnasiums1 swimming-pools and playgrounds4 ,in the higher schools the girls are trained in gymnastics1 swimming1 rowing1 running1 etc41 as well as the young men4#bfc444 ,the ,socialistic system of education will attain still higher results4 ,properly regulated and ordered and placed under able control1 it will continue until the age at which society declares its young men and women to be of age4 ,then the members of both sexes will be fully prepared to perform all duties and to enjoy all rights4 ,then society will be certain of having educated capable1 fully developed members1 human beings to whom nothing human is foreign1 who are as familiar with their own nature as they are with the nature and condition of society1 into which they forthwith enter1 enjoying full equality4 ,so the excesses of our modern youth that are daily increasing1 and that are a natural product of our disintegrating social conditions1 will disappear4 ,unruliness1 lack of self-control1 immorality and brutal sensuality1 which characterize the modern young men at our higher institutions of learning1 our colleges and universities1 and that are the result of domestic demoralization and unrest and of the baneful influences of social life1 will not mark the young men of the future4 ,the evil influences of the factory system and the congested dwellings1 that cause young people to be self-assertive and unbridled at an age when human beings are in the greatest need of education and of being trained to exercise self-control1 will also disappear4 ,future society will avoid all these evils without being obliged to resort to compulsory measures4 ,the social institutions and the resulting intellectual atmosphere that will dominate society will simply make the existence of such evils impossible4 ,in society1 as in nature1 diseases and the destruction of organisms take place only where a process of decay has set in4 ,none will deny that our present system of education is afflicted with great and serious defects1 and1 as a matter of fact1 these defects are more marked with the higher schools and institutions of learning than with the lower ones4 ,a village school is a model of moral healthfulness compared with a college2 a sewing school for poor girls1 a model of morality compared with a number of fashionable boarding schools4 ,it is not hard to find the reason for this4 ,among the upper classes of society every striving after higher aims has been smothered2 they are devoid of ideals4 ,owing to the lack of ideals and loftier aspirations1 the unbounded love of enjoyment and the inclination to excesses are disseminated1 with their resulting physical and moral deterioration4 ,how can young persons1 growing up in such an atmosphere1 be different8 ,a purely material enjoyment of life1 carried to extremes1 is all they see and know4 ,why should they strive after higher aims when the wealth of their parents makes every endeavor appear superfluous8 ,the maximum education of the great majority of sons of the ,german bourgeoisie1 consists in their passing the examination for one year's voluntary service in the army4 ,when they have attained this aim1 they believe that they have absorbed all knowledge worth knowing and regard themselves as demi-gods4 ,if they have obtained a reserve-officer's certificate1 their conceit and arrogance knows no bounds4 ,the influence exercised by this generation1 most of whose members are weak in character and knowledge1 but strong in servility1 characterize the present period as the 8age of reserve officers40 ,its peculiarities are3 ,ignorance1 lack of character1 and a servile disposition4 ,men fawn on their superiors1 and are arrogant and brutal to their inferiors4 ,most of the daughters of the upper classes are trained to be society ladies1 walking fashion plates and silly dolls4 ,they rush from one enjoyment to another1 until they grow weary with the boredom of their empty lives1 and fall victims to many real and imaginary diseases4 ,when they grow old they become religious fanatics1 spiritualists and faith healers1 who turn up their eyes at the wickedness of the world and preach asceticism4 ,in regard to the lower classes1 efforts are being made to further diminish their standard of education4 ,the fear prevails that the proletarian might become too wise1 that he might tire of his subjection and rebel against his earthly gods4 ,the more ignorant the masses are1 the more easily can they be governed and controlled4 ,large landowners from the ,east-,elbe province have repeatedly declared in their meetings3 8,the most stupid workingman is the one most welcome to us40 ,an entire program is contained in this one sentence4 ,so present-day society is as helpless and aimless in regard to the question of education as it is in regard to all other questions4 ,what methods1 then1 does it resort to8 ,it calls for punishment and preaches religion2 that is1 it preaches submissiveness and contentment to those who are far too submissive and contented already2 it teaches abstinence1 where poverty compels people to abstain from the very necessities of life4 ,they who brutally rebel against this state of affairs are placed in so-called 8reformatories0 that are generally controlled by religious influences4 ,that is the limit of the pedagogical wisdom of our society4 ,the vicious methods of education applied to neglected and demoralized proletarian children become manifest by the frequent cases of abuse and ill-treatment committed by the directors1 overseers1 etc41 in these 8homes0767 ,here it has been shown time and again how religious fanatics of the deepest dye have1 with a perverted pleasure1 ill-treated poor1 helpless children with unspeakable brutality2 and how many of these horrors may never become known6 #bef 8,a certain degree of culture and well-being is a necessary external condition for the development of the philosophic spirit4444 ,we1 therefore1 find that only such nations begin to philosophize who had attained a considerable degree of well-being and culture40 ,tenneman1 quoted by ,buckle4--8,material and intellectual interests go hand in hand4 ,one cannot exist without the other4 ,there is a connection between them as between body and mind4 ,to separate them means destruction40 v4 ,thuenen1 8,the ,isolated ,state40--8,the best life1 both for the individual in particular and for the state in general1 is one in which virtue is sufficiently endowed with external possessions1 that participation in good and virtuous deeds becomes possible10 ,aristotle1 8,politics40 #beg ,mr4 ,eugen ,richter1 in his 8,false ,doctrines10 reiterates the worn-out phrase3 the ,socialists wish a coercive state4 ,that there will eventually be no state ought to be clear to the readers of our book4 ,he assumes that society would introduce a state or a social order that would be averse to its own interests4 ,but no new social order or state differing fundamentally from the preceding one could be arbitrarily created4 ,that would be in opposition to all the laws according to which state and society develop4 ,mr4 ,eugen ,richter and those who share his views may find consolation in this3 if ,socialism really pursues the foolish aims that they impute to it1 it will die off without any effort on their part4--,equally untenable is ,richter's remark that for a social condition like the one aimed at by ,socialists1 men must be angels4 ,to begin with1 there are no angels1 and we do not need any4 ,man is influenced by circumstances1 but circumstances are also influenced by man1 and the latter will be the case more and more1 as men become better acquainted with the nature of society1 which they constitute1 and apply their experiences consciously to their social organization4 ,we do not need different human beings1 but we do need more intelligent and rational human beings than the majority are to-day1 and to make them more intelligent and rational1 we agitate and publish books like this one4 #beh ,when we consider the boundless stupidity of our opponents1 it seems marvelous that no one has as yet asserted that under ,socialism all would be given the same quantity of food and underwear and clothing of the same size to crown the system of 8uniform equality40 #bei ,fourier has accomplished this brilliantly1 even though in carrying out his ideas1 he approached the utopia4 ,bebel1 ,chas4 ,fourier1 ,his ,life and ,his ,theories1 #c;d ed4 ,stuttgart1 #aijg4 #bfj ,condorcet postulates in his educational plan3 8,education must be general1 free of charge1 equal to all1 physical1 mental1 industrial and political1 and must aim at true equality40 ,likewise ,rousseau in his 8,political ,economy30 8,especially must education be public1 equal and common1 to educate human beings and citizens40 ,aristotle also demands3 8,since the state has but one object1 it must give all its members one and the same education1 and the care for them must be a public1 not a private1 matter40 #bfa ,thus ,eugen ,richter in his 8,false ,doctrines40 #bfb 8,at present #bj districts of ,paris have established school-kitchens1 where the children are given a noon-day meal consisting of meat and vegetables4 ,only this meal is obligatory1 but in several districts the children can obtain breakfast and afternoon-tea also40 ,helene ,simon--,school and ,bread4 ,hamburg1 #aijg4 ,it is due to the initiative of the ,labor ,party that a bill providing for the feeding of school children in ,england was turned over to a committee in #aijf4 #bfc ,professor ,dr4 ,emil ,hausknecht--8,the ,american ,educational ,system40 ,,chapter ,,xxvi4 ,literature and ,art in ,socialistic ,society4 ,when1 in the new society1 the young generation has come of age1 the further education will be every person's own concern4 ,every one will do whatever his inclinations and talents prompt him to do4 ,some will devote themselves to one or another branch of the natural sciences that will be more and more fully developed3 ,anthropology1 zoology1 botany1 mineralogy1 geology1 physics1 chemistry1 the prehistoric sciences1 etc4 ,others will take up history1 etymology1 or the history of art4 ,some will become musicians1 others artists1 sculptors1 actors4 ,in the future there will be neither 8corporate0 artists and scientists nor corporate mechanics4 ,thousands of brilliant talents that have so far been suppressed will develop and will prove their knowledge and ability wherever an opportunity presents itself4 ,there will no longer be professional musicians1 artists1 actors and scientists1 but these will be all the more inspired by enthusiasm1 talent and genius4 ,their achievements are likely to excel present-day achievements on these fields as vastly as the industrial1 technical1 and agricultural achievements of future society will excel those of modern society4 ,an era of art and science will arise such as the world has never known1 and the achievements that will have created it will be correspondingly great4 ,the coming renaissance of art that will result from the introduction of conditions more worthy of human beings1 has been foreseen by no less a man than ,richard ,wagner1 who expressed himself on this subject as early as #ahej1 in his book on 8,art and ,revolution40 ,this book is especially noteworthy because it was published right after a revolution that had been beaten down and in which ,wagner himself participated4 ,in this book1 ,wagner predicts what the future will bring4 ,he directly turns to the working class1 who must help the artists to establish true art4 ,among other things1 he says3 8,when1 for the free human beings of the future1 it will no longer be the purpose of life to obtain the means of subsistence1 but1 as a result of a new belief1 or rather1 knowledge1 they will be certain of obtaining the means of subsistence in return for an appropriate natural activity1 when1 in short1 industry will no longer be our mistress1 but our servant1 the true purpose of life will become the enjoyment of life1 and by education we will endeavor to make our children capable of its real enjoyment4 ,an education founded on the exercise of strength and the care of physical beauty1 will1 owing to the love for the child and the joy at the development of its beauty1 become a purely artistic one1 and every human being will1 in some way1 be a true artist4 ,the diversity of natural inclinations will develop the most manifold tendencies in an unthought of wealth40 ,this is a thoroughly ,socialistic conception and coincides with our description4 ,in the future1 social life will become ever more public4 ,its trend of development can be best judged by the completely altered position of woman4 ,domestic life will be limited to what is absolutely essential1 while the desire for sociability will be given the widest field4 ,large meeting halls for lectures and the discussion of public affairs--that will in future be decided upon by the people at large--dining-halls1 reading-rooms1 libraries1 playgrounds1 concerts1 theaters1 museums1 gymnasiums1 public baths1 parks and promenades1 institutions of education and learning1 laboratories1 etc41 all splendidly equipped1 will afford ample opportunity for entertainment and sociability1 and will enable science and art to attain the highest degree of development4 ,in the same way the institutions for the care of the sick1 the infirm and the aged will meet the highest demands4 ,how petty will our present age seem in comparison6 ,this fawning for favors and good-will from above1 this servile disposition1 this envious struggle against one another for the best place1 carried on by the lowest and most spiteful means1 and1 at the same time1 suppression of one's true convictions1 concealing of good qualities that might displease those whose favor it sought1 emasculation of character1 the feigning of opinions and feelings that one does not possess--all these qualities that may be termed cowardice and hypocrisy1 are daily becoming more pronounced4 ,qualities that are truly ennobling1 self-confidence1 independence and incorruptibility of one's opinions1 are usually turned into faults and short-comings under present-day conditions4 ,persons who cannot suppress these good qualities are often ruined by them4 ,many are so accustomed to their degradation that they do not even perceive it4 ,the dog regards it as a matter of course that he has a master who is sometimes ill-tempered and whips him4 ,the altered conditions of social life will also thoroughly revolutionize our literature4 ,the theological literature1 which furnishes the largest number of works in the annual catalogues of literary productions1 will be eliminated1 together with the judicial literature4 ,for the one there will be no more interest1 and for the other no need4 ,the products that have reference to the struggles over institutions of the state1 will also be eliminated1 because these institutions will no longer exist4 ,they will assume the character of historical studies4 ,the numerous literary products of a highly superficial nature1 which are just a proof of bad taste and sometimes are made possible only by a sacrifice of the author's pride1 will be dropped4 ,even from the present point of view1 we may say that four-fifths of all literary products might disappear from the market without a loss to one single interest of civilization1 so great is the mass of superficial or harmful products and obvious trash on the field of literature4 ,fiction and the press will be affected in an equal measure4 ,there is nothing more superficial and insipid than the greater part of our journalistic literature4 ,if our standard of civilization were to be estimated by the contents of our newspapers1 it would be deemed a low one1 indeed4 ,people and conditions are judged by the opinions of past centuries that have long since been proven untenable by science4 ,a great many of our journalists are persons who1 as ,bismarck correctly said1 have missed their vocation1 but whose standard of education and salary are in keeping with the bourgeois interest in their trade4 ,moreover1 the newspapers1 as well as a majority of the magazines1 have a very unworthy mission in their advertising sections1 and their reports of the money-market serve the same interests on a different field4 ,the material interest of the publishers determines the contents4 ,modern fiction is1 on an average1 not much better than journalistic literature4 ,it cultivates the excesses of sexual relations4 ,it either renders homage to superficial enlightenment1 or to antiquated prejudice and superstition4 ,the purpose is to let the bourgeois world appear as the best of worlds1 regardless of the numerous short-comings that are1 to some extent1 admitted4 ,on this wide and important realm future society will have to clear up thoroughly4 ,science1 truth1 beauty and the conflict of opinions as to what is best1 will alone control it4 ,every person of talent and ability will be enabled to participate4 ,the writer will no longer depend upon the favor of the publisher1 financial interest or prejudice2 he will depend upon the judgment of impartial experts whom he will help to select and against whose decisions he may appeal to the community--all of which is impossible to-day with a publisher or the editor of a newspaper1 who only take their private interest into consideration4 ,the nave conception1 that a difference of opinions would be suppressed in a ,socialistic community1 can be maintained only by those who consider the bourgeois world a perfect state of society1 and1 out of hostility to ,socialism1 seek to slander and belittle it4 ,a society founded upon perfect1 democratic equality1 will bear no oppression4 ,only perfect freedom of thought makes uninterrupted progress possible1 which is the principle of life for society4 ,it is a gross misrepresentation to depict bourgeois society as a defender of real freedom of thought4 ,parties that represent the interests of the ruling classes will only publish that in the press which is not adverse to class interests1 and woe to him who would do otherwise6 ,his social ruin is certain1 as every one knows who is acquainted with conditions4 ,the writers know how the publishers treat literary works that do not suit them4 ,finally1 the press and criminal laws betray what spirit dominates the ruling classes4 ,true freedom of thought appears to them as the most dangerous of all evils4 ,,chapter ,,xxvii4 ,free ,development of ,individuality4 #a4--;,freedom from ,care4 ,man should be given an opportunity for perfect development4 ,that is the purpose of human association4 ,so he must not remain tied down to the spot where he has been placed by the chance of birth4 ,one should become acquainted with the world and people not only through books and newspapers1 but also by personal observation and practical experience4 ,so future society must enable all to do what many are able to do even in present-day society1 though at present the force of want usually forms the motive4 ,the desire for change in all human relations is deeply rooted in human nature4 ,this is due to the impulse of seeking perfection that is innate in every living being4 ,the plant that is placed in a dark room extends and stretches1 as if conscious of the ray of light that penetrates some crevice4 ,it is the same with man4 ,an instinct1 that is innate in man1 must find rational satisfaction4 ,the desire for change will not be opposed by the conditions prevailing in the new society2 the satisfaction of this desire will1 on the contrary1 become possible to all4 ,the highly developed system of communication will make it easy1 and the international relations will demand it4 ,in the future far more persons will travel through the world1 for the most varied purposes1 than heretofore4 ,society will require an ample supply of all the necessities of life to meet all demands4 ,society will therefore regulate its hours of work according to the needs4 ,it will lengthen or shorten them1 as the demands or the season of the year make this appear desirable4 ,during one season it will devote more time to agriculture1 and during another it will devote more time to industry and to artistic crafts4 ,it will direct the labor forces as the needs may let it appear desirable4 ,by combining various labor forces with the most perfect technical appliances1 it will be able to carry out large undertakings playfully1 that seem practically impossible to-day4 ,as society provides for the young1 so also will it provide for the old1 the sick and invalid4 ,if any one has1 by some misfortune1 become incapacitated for work1 society will provide for him4 ,this will not be an act of charity1 but a simple performance of duty4 ,the assistance will not be a morsel graciously given1 but support and care provided with every possible consideration1 bestowed as a matter of course upon him who performed his duty toward society as long as he was able to do so4 ,the evening of life will be made beautiful by all that society has to offer4 ,for every one will hope himself to receive some day what he bestows upon other aged persons4 ,no old person will be harassed by the thought that others are awaiting their death to inherit their possessions4 ,they are also freed from the terror of being cast aside like a squeezed lemon when they have become old and helpless4 ,they must neither depend on the kindness and support of their children1 nor on public charity4#bfd ,how unfortunate is the position of most parents who in old age must depend upon the support of their children1 is a well-known fact4 ,and how demoralizing to children and to relatives is the hope of inheriting6 ,what degrading passions are aroused and how many crimes are caused thereby--murder1 suppression1 legacy-hunting1 perjury and blackmailing6 ,the moral and physical condition of society1 the nature of its work1 homes1 food1 dress1 its social life1 all will tend to prevent accidents1 sickness and debility4 ,dying a natural death1 the normal decline of the vigor of life1 will become the rule more and more4 ,the conviction that heaven is upon earth and that death means the end1 will cause people to lead a rational life4 ,he who enjoys longest1 enjoys most4 ,the clergy themselves1 who prepare people for 8the hereafter10 know how to value a long life4 ,their care-free existence enables them to attain the highest average age4 #bfd 8,the person who has worked hard and honestly until old age1 should not depend upon the benevolence of his children or that of bourgeois society4 ,an independent1 easy and care-free old age is the natural reward for continuous exertions during the days of health and strength40 v4 ,thuenen--,the ,isolated ,state4 ,but how are the aged treated in bourgeois society8 ,millions look forward with dread to the time when they will be cast out into the street because they have grown old2 and our industrial system makes people age before their time4 ,the much boasted old age and invalid pension in the ,german ,empire is only a very scanty substitute2 even its most ardent supporters admit that4 ,the assistance rendered is still much more insufficient than the pensions allowed by the municipalities to the majority of their pensioned officials4 #b4--;,changes in the ,methods of ,nutrition4 ,food and drink are prime necessities of life4 ,people who believe in the so-called 8natural manner of living0 frequently ask why ,socialists remain indifferent to vegetarianism4 ,everyone lives as best he may4 ,vegetarianism1 that is1 the doctrine of an exclusive vegetable diet1 found its chief supporters among the persons who are so comfortably situated that they are able to choose between a vegetable and an animal diet4 ,but the great majority of persons have no choice4 ,they must live according to their means1 and the scantiness of their means compels them to live on a vegetable diet almost exclusively and often on one of the poorest quality4 ,for the ,german laboring population in ,silesia1 ,saxony1 ,thuringia1 etc41 the potato is the principal article of food2 even bread comes only second4 ,meat only rarely appears on their tables1 and then it is meat of the poorest quality4 ,the greater part of the rural population1 although they raise cattle1 also rarely eat meat2 for they must sell the cattle1 and1 with the money obtained1 must satisfy other needs4 ,to these numerous people who are obliged to live as vegetarians1 a solid beefsteak or a good leg of mutton would mean a decided improvement in their nourishment4#bfe ,if vegetarianism opposes the overeating of an animal diet1 it is right4 ,if it combats the partaking of meat as harmful and detrimental1 mainly for sentimental reasons1 it is wrong2 when it is claimed1 for instance1 that natural feelings forbid to kill an animal and to partake of a 8corpse40 ,the desire to live in peace compels us to wage war upon and destroy a great many living creatures1 such as vermin1 and1 in order not to be devoured ourselves1 we must kill and exterminate wild beasts4 ,if we could allow 8the good friends of man10 the domestic animals1 to live undisturbed1 these 8good friends0 would multiply to such a degree that they would 8eat0 us by robbing us of nourishment4 ,the assertion that vegetable diet creates a gentle disposition is false1 too4 ,even in the gentle1 vegetarian ,hindoos the 8beast0 was aroused1 when the severity of the ,english drove them to rebellion4 ,the nutritive value of an article of food cannot be estimated only by the amount of albumen that it contains4 ,it must be taken into consideration how large a quantity of the albumen consumed remains undigested4 ,considered from this view-point1 we find1 for instance1 meat and rice1 or potatoes1 as #b4e to #bj or #bb4 ,in other words1 of #ajj grammes of albumen consumed with meat1 #b4e grammes will pass out of the system undigested4 ,of #ajj grammes consumed with rice or potatoes1 respectively1 #bj and #bb grammes will pass out4 ,the famous ,russian physiologist1 ,pawlow1 and his scholars have shown that1 with the digestion of bread1 there is much more ferment than with the digestion of meat4 ,pawlow has furthermore shown that the gastric juices produced by the pancreas glands are of two kinds4 ,they are produced through stimulation of the mucous membrane by the food itself1 and are also produced as 8appetite juices0 by stimulation of the senses4 ,the quantity of our appetite juice depends upon our psychic condition for the time being2 for instance1 on hunger1 grief1 annoyance1 joy1 etc41 and it also depends upon the nature of the food4 ,but the importance of the appetite juice differs with different articles of food4 ,some foods1 as1 for instance1 bread1 boiled albumen1 as contained in eggs1 or pure starch1 cannot be digested at all1 unless the digestion is introduced by the appetite juice1 as has been directly proved by experiments4 ,they can only be digested when they are eaten with an appetite1 or together with other food4 ,but meat1 as ,pawlow has shown1 can be partly digested without appetite juice1 although1 with the aid of appetite juice1 meat is digested much more rapidly 7five times as fast74 8,we must therefore take factors into consideration that depend upon the psychology of man4 ,here a connection has been established between facts of the physiology of nutrition and social conditions4 ,the modern residents of large cities1 especially the masses of the working class1 live under social conditions that are bound to destroy their normal appetite4 ,work in the squalid factory1 the constant worry over their daily bread1 absence of mental repose and pleasant impressions1 complete physical exhaustion1 all these are factors that are destructive of appetite4 ,in this psychological condition we are unable to furnish the appetite juice required for the digestion of vegetable food4 ,but in meat we possess an article of food that--if we may thus express it--provides for its own digestion4 ,a considerable quantity of meat can be digested without appetite2 it also acts as a stimulant and a creator of appetite4 ,so meat aids the digestion of vegetables consumed at the same time1 and thereby insures a better assimilation of the consumed matter4 ,this appears to be the great advantage of an animal diet to modern man40#bff ,sonderegger hits the nail on the head when he says3 8,there is no order of rank among articles of food1 but there is an immutable law regarding the combination of their nutritive qualities40 ,it is true that no one can live on an animal diet exclusively1 while one can live on a vegetable diet1 provided that the diet can be properly selected4 ,on the other hand1 no one would care to content himself with one specific kind of vegetable food1 no matter how nutritive it might be4 ,thus1 beans1 peas1 lentils1 in one word1 the leguminos1 are the most nutritive of all articles of food4 ,but to live on them exclusively--which is said to be possible--would be a torture4 ,karl ,marx mentions1 in his first volume of 8,capital10 that the mine-owners in ,chili compel their workingmen to eat beans all the year round1 because this nourishment gives them an unusual amount of strength and enables them to carry loads as no other nourishment will4 ,the workingmen refuse the beans1 notwithstanding their nutritive value1 but are compelled to content themselves with this diet4 ,under no circumstances does the happiness and welfare of man depend upon a definite kind of food1 as the fanatics among vegetarians claim4 ,climate1 social conditions1 custom and personal taste are the determining factors4#bfg ,in the measure in which civilization advances1 exclusive meat diet1 as is met with among hunting and pastoral tribes1 is partly replaced by vegetable diet4 ,the variety of cultivated plants is a proof of higher civilization4 ,on a given area1 moreover1 much more nourishment can be obtained by the cultivation of plants than by the breeding of cattle4 ,this development gradually causes the vegetable diet to predominate4 ,the supply of meat from distant countries1 especially ,south ,america and ,australia1 will be exhausted in a few decades4 ,on the other hand1 animals are raised not only for their flesh1 but also for wool1 hair1 bristles1 hides1 milk1 eggs1 etc4 ,many industries and a number of human needs depend upon it4 ,much offal in industry and housekeeping could not be more usefully employed than by cattle raising4 ,in the future the ocean1 too1 will have to yield to man its wealth of animal food in a larger measure4 ,then it will not occur that loads of fish will be used as manure1 owing to the high cost of transportation1 or canning1 that prevent their sale1 as is frequently the case at present4 ,it is quite probable that the abolition of the extremes between city and country1 when work in closed shops will be combined with work in the open fields1 will again lead to a preponderance of the vegetable diet4 ,of course the absence of stimulants in a vegetable diet can be equalized by a proper and rational preparation of the food with the aid of spice4 ,but that future society should live on vegetables exclusively is neither probable nor necessary4 #bfe ,that this is the fact has been proven by experiments in nutrition1 recently reported by two ,italian scientists4 ,the metabolic assimilation of a population that has long since lived on a vegetable diet exclusively1 was examined4 ,such an agricultural population1 living in wretched economic conditions1 is met with in southern ,italy in the ,abruzzi4 ,their nourishment consists of corn1 vegetables and olive oil4 ,they do not partake of milk1 cheese or eggs4 ,meat is brought to their tables only three or four times a year4 ,by way of experiment meat was added to their diet4 ,during #ae days every person was given #ajj grammes of meat and during the following #ae days #bjj grammes4 ,it was found that the process of assimilation became much more favorable4 ,the formerly great loss of nutritious matter was considerably diminished4 ,not only was the newly added animal albumen perfectly assimilated1 but also the vegetable food that was consumed together with the meat had been assimilated far better4 ,this was all the more remarkable because this particular kind of vegetable diet1 which consisted almost exclusively of corn1 was hard to digest1 as it contains much cellular tissue4 ,dr4 ,a4 ,lipschuetz1 ,m4 ,d4--8,a ,reform in our ,nutrition80 #bff ,a4 ,lipschuetz4 #bfg 8,the popular nutrition is almost exclusively a vegetable diet with a slight addition of animal substances4 ,peasants eat generally very little meat4 ,no one will deny that one can live in this manner4 ,as a matter of fact1 an exclusive vegetable diet1 which can also be given greater diversity by proper selection1 is quite compatible with good health4 ,but far different needs are becoming manifest in every continent4 ,the popular simple manner of nutrition is being forsaken for more tasty foods and combinations1 and for this meat is essential1 because it can be employed in many different ways4 ,everywhere we perceive this tendency4 ,like the old1 simple customs and national customs disappear1 so also are the old forms of nutrition being set aside4 ,this transformation can be observed in all countries4 ,even in ,japan where a peculiar national diet prevailed until recently1 ,european fare has displaced the old regime4 ,in the ,japanese navy the new diet was introduced because it proved to be more beneficial to the men in service4 ,the endeavor to establish this concentrated1 rich and tasty fare is a general one40 ,m4 ,rubner--,the ,question of ,public ,nutrition4 #c4--,the ,communistic ,kitchen4 ,in the matter of nutrition quality is far more important than quantity4 ,much food is not beneficial if the food is not good4 ,but quality may be greatly improved by the manner in which food is prepared4 ,the preparation of food should be conducted as scientifically as any other human activity1 in order to be as advantageous as possible4 ,this requires knowledge and proper equipment4 ,that our women who are chiefly engaged in the preparation of food do not possess this knowledge and cannot possess it1 requires no further proof4 ,the equipment of the large kitchen has already attained a degree of perfection that the best equipped domestic kitchen cannot come up to4 ,the kitchen equipped with electricity for lighting and heating is the ideal one4 ,no more smoke1 heat1 or disagreeable odors6 ,the kitchen resembles a workshop furnished with all kinds of technical and mechanical appliances that quickly perform the hardest and most disagreeable tasks4 ,here we see potato and fruit-paring machines1 apparatus for removing kernels1 meat-choppers1 mills for grinding coffee and spice1 ice-choppers1 corkscrews1 bread-cutters1 and a hundred other machines and appliances1 all run by electricity1 that enable a comparatively small number of persons1 without excessive labor1 to prepare a meal for hundreds of guests4 ,the same is true of the equipments for house-cleaning and for washing the dishes4 ,to millions of women the private kitchen is an institution that is extravagant in its methods1 entailing endless drudgery and waste of time1 robbing them of their health and good spirits1 and an object of daily worry1 especially when the means are scanty1 as is the case with most families4 ,the abolition of the private kitchen will come as a liberation to countless women4 ,the private kitchen is as antiquated an institution as the workshop of the small mechanic4 ,both represent a useless and needless waste of time labor and material4 ,the nutritive value of food is heightened by its easier assimilation2 this is a decisive factor4#bfh ,only the new society will be able to provide a rational nutrition for all4 ,cato sets forth with especial praise that in ancient ,rome1 up to the sixteenth century of the city 7#bjj ,b4 ,c471 there were men versed in the art of healing1 but that they found little occasion to practice their art4 ,the ,romans led such simple and temperate lives that sickness was rare among them1 and most people died from old age4 ,only when extravagance and idleness1 in short1 a dissolute life1 set in1 on the one hand1 and poverty and excessive work on the other1 matters were completely changed4 ,in the future1 extravagance1 idleness and dissoluteness will be impossible1 but misery1 want and privation will be impossible likewise4 ,there is an abundance for all4 ,heinrich ,heine has sung ere now3 ,sufficient grain is grown on earth ,with bread all beings to provide1 ,roses and myrtles1 beauty1 mirth1 ,and sugar-peas are there beside4 ,yes1 sugar-peas for every one6 ,when want no longer harrows1 ,then heaven gladly shall we leave ,to angels and to sparrows4#bfi 8,he who eats little lives well0 7that is1 long71 said the ,italian ,cornaro1 in the sixteenth century1 as quoted by ,niemeyer4 ,finally1 chemistry1 too1 will be active in the future to produce new and improved articles of food4 ,to-day this science is frequently abused to adulterate food2 but it is clear that a chemically prepared article of food that has all the qualities of a natural product1 serves the same purpose4 ,the manner in which food is obtained is a matter of secondary importance1 provided that it answers all requirements4 #bfh ,the power of assimilation of food by each individual is the standard4 ,niemeyer3 ,hygiene4 #bfi ,heinrich ,heine3 ,germany4 ,a ,winter's ,tale4 #d4--,transformation of ,domestic ,life4 ,as the kitchen1 so our entire domestic life will be revolutionized1 and countless tasks that must be performed to-day will become superfluous4 ,as the central kitchen will do away with the private kitchen1 so central heating and electric lighting plants will do away with all the trouble connected with stoves and lamps4 ,warm and cold water supply will enable all to enjoy daily baths4 ,central laundries and drying-rooms will assume the washing and drying of clothes2 central cleaning establishments1 the cleaning of carpets and clothes4 ,in ,chicago carpet-cleaning machines were exhibited that cleaned carpets in an incredibly short time1 calling forth the wonder and admiration of the ladies who visited the exposition4 ,the electric door opens at a slight pressure of the finger and shuts off itself4 ,electric contrivances carry letters and newspapers to every floor of the houses1 and electric elevators save one the trouble of climbing stairs4 ,the interior furnishing of the houses1 the coverings of walls1 floors1 furniture1 etc41 will be so arranged as to make house-cleaning easy and to avoid the gathering of dust and germs4 ,garbage and all kinds of offal will be carried out of the houses by waste-pipes like the water that has been used4 ,in the ,united ,states1 and in some ,european cities1 for instance1 in ,zurich1 ,berlin and its suburbs1 ,london1 ,vienna1 ,munich1 we already find wonderfully equipped houses1 in which well-to-do families--others could not meet the expense--reside and enjoy a great many of the advantages described above4#bgj ,here again we have an illustration of how bourgeois society paves the way for the revolutionizing of domestic life1 though only for its chosen few4 ,but when domestic life will be generally transformed in the manner we have pointed out1 then the domestic servant1 this 8slave to all whims of the mistress10 will disappear4 ,but the 8lady of the house0 will disappear also4 8,without servants1 no civilization10 ,mr4 v4 ,treitschke exclaims1 horror-stricken1 with an amusing pathos4 ,he can picture society without servants as little as ,aristotle could picture it without slaves4 ,it comes as a surprise to us1 though1 that ,mr4 v4 ,treitschke regards our servants as the 8standard-bearers of our civilization40 ,treitschke1 like ,eugen ,richter1 is also worried over the shining of shoes and the cleaning of clothes1 which people cannot possibly attend to themselves4 ,as a matter of fact1 nine-tenths of the people do polish their own shoes and clean their own clothes to-day1 or women do it for their husbands1 or daughters or sons do it for the family1 and we could answer that what has been done so far by the nine-tenths might as well be done by the remaining tenth1 also4 ,there might be still another way4 ,why should not1 in future1 young persons1 regardless of sex1 be called upon to perform such and similar necessary tasks8 ,work is no disgrace1 not even when it consists of shining shoes4 ,that has been experienced by many an officer of noble birth who had to make his escape to the ,united ,states on account of debts1 and there became a porter or a boot-black4 ,in one of his pamphlets1 ,mr4 ,eugen ,richter even has the shoe-polishing problem cause the downfall of the 8,socialist chancellor0 and the disruption of the 8,socialist state40 ,for the 8,socialist chancellor0 refuses to polish his own shoes1 and that is his great misfortune4 ,our opponents have enjoyed this description hugely and have thereby only proved that their demands on a criticism of ,socialism are exceedingly modest4 ,mr4 ,eugen ,richter lived to experience the great grief that a member of his own party1 in ,nuremberg1 invented a shoe-polishing machine1 shortly after the publication of his pamphlet1 and that1 at the ,world's ,fair1 at ,chicago1 an electric shoe-polishing machine was exhibited that performed the task to perfection4 ,so ,richter's and ,treitschke's main argument against ,socialistic society has been shattered by an invention made within bourgeois society itself4 ,the revolutionary transformation that is changing all human relations completely1 especially the position of women1 is being consummated under our very eyes4 ,it is only a question of time when society will take up this transformation on a large scale1 will hasten and generalize the process1 and will thereby enable all to participate in its countless and multiform advantages4 #bgj ,among #beba dwellings erected in ,wilmersdorf during #aijh1 the following number were equipped with3 ,central heating #ajja or #ci4ga per cent4 ,hot water supply #acgc 8 #ed4df 8 8 ,electric light #abhh 8 #ea4ji 8 8 ,baths #bjfc 8 #ha4hc 8 8 ,elevators #fii 8 #bg4gc 8 8 ,vacuum cleaners #cjd 8 #ab4jf 8 8 ,all of them were supplied with gas4 ,in and near ,berlin there also are a number of houses furnished with a central kitchen4 ,in this common kitchen the food for all the residents of the house is prepared4 ,thus bourgeois society contains all the germs of future transformation4 8,the garden city of the future will not only contain the town hall1 the central gas1 electric lighting and heating plant1 the schools and libraries1 but a central kitchen also4 ,it is not impossible that the underground passages1 containing the electric cables and heating-pipes1 will be expanded1 and that through them small automatic wagons will carry the food directly into the residences upon an order by telephone1 similar to the underground1 electric mail-carriers that have been planned1 for transporting the mail from one post-office to another in the large cities4 ,that is much simpler and can be attained much more easily than the solution of the problem of aerial navigation that still seemed utterly utopian a short while ago40 ,e4 ,lilienthal--,the ,reform of ,domestic ,work1 8,documents of ,progress10 #aiji4 ,,chapter ,,xxviii4 ,woman in the ,future4 ,this chapter may be brief4 ,it merely contains the conclusions that may be drawn in regard to the position of woman in future society1 from all that has been said so far2 conclusions that every reader can easily draw for himself4 ,in the new society woman will be entirely independent1 both socially and economically4 ,she will not be subjected to even a trace of domination and exploitation1 but will be free and man's equal1 and mistress of her own lot4 ,her education will be the same as man's1 with the exception of those deviations that are necessitated by the differences of sex and sexual functions4 ,living under normal conditions of life1 she may fully develop and employ her physical and mental faculties4 ,she chooses an occupation suited to her wishes1 inclinations and abilities1 and works under the same conditions as man4 ,engaged as a practical working woman in some field of industrial activity1 she may1 during a second part of the day1 be educator1 teacher or nurse1 during a third she may practice a science or an art1 and during a fourth she may perform some administrative function4 ,she studies1 works1 enjoys pleasures and recreation with other women or with men1 as she may choose or as occasions may present themselves4 ,in the choice of love she is as free and unhampered as man4 ,she woos or is wooed1 and enters into a union prompted by no other considerations but her own feelings4 ,this union is a private agreement1 without the interference of a functionary1 just as marriage has been a private agreement until far into the middle ages4 ,here ,socialism will create nothing new1 it will merely reinstate1 on a higher level of civilization and under a different social form1 what generally prevailed before private property dominated society4 ,man shall dispose of his own person1 provided that the gratification of his impulses is not harmful or detrimental to others4 ,the satisfaction of the sexual impulse is as much the private concern of each individual1 as the satisfaction of any other natural impulse4 ,no one is accountable to any one else1 and no third person has a right to interfere4 ,what ,i eat and drink1 how ,i sleep and dress is my private affair1 and my private affair also is my intercourse with a person of the opposite sex4 ,intelligence and culture1 personal independence1--qualities that will become natural1 owing to the education and conditions prevailing in the new society1--will prevent persons from committing actions that will prove detrimental to themselves4 ,men and women of future society will possess far more self-control and a better knowledge of their own natures1 than men and women of to-day4 ,the one fact alone1 that the foolish prudery and secrecy connected with sexual matters will disappear1 will make the relation of the sexes a far more natural and healthful one4 ,if between a man and woman who have entered into a union1 incompatibility1 disappointment or revulsion should appear1 morality commands a dissolution of the union which has become unnatural1 and therefore immoral4 ,as all those circumstances will have vanished that have so far compelled a great many women either to chose celibacy or prostitution1 men can no longer dominate over women4 ,on the other hand1 the completely changed social conditions will have removed the many hindrances and harmful influences that affect married life to-day and frequently prevent its full development or make it quite impossible4 ,the impediments1 contradictions and unnatural features in the present position of woman are being recognized by ever wider circles1 and find expression in our modern literature on social questions1 as well as in modern fiction2 only the form in which it is expressed sometimes fails to answer the purpose4 ,that present day marriage is not suited to its purpose1 is no longer denied by any thinking person4 ,so it is not surprising that even such persons favor a free choice of love and a free dissolution of the marriage relation1 who are not inclined to draw the resulting conclusions that point to a change of the entire social system4 ,they believe that freedom in sexual intercourse is justifiable among members of the privileged classes only4 ,in a controversy1#bga in which she opposes the emancipation of women as set forth by the writer1 ,fanny ,lewald1 ,matilde ,reichhardt-,stromberg says the following3 8,if you 7,f4 ,l471 demand complete equality for women in social and political life1 ,george ,sand must also be justified in her struggles for emancipation1 that strove for nothing else but to possess what has long since been man's undisputed possession4 ,for no good reason is to be found why only woman's head1 and not also her heart1 shall participate in this equality1 why she shall not give and take as freely as man4 ,on the contrary3 if nature gives woman the right1 and thereby also the duty1--for we shall not bury a talent bestowed upon us1--to exert her brain to the utmost in competition with the intellectual ,titans of the opposite sex1 it must also give her the right to preserve her equilibrium1 just as they do1 by quickening the circulation of her heart in whatever manner she may see fit4 ,we all read without being shocked in the least how1 for instance1 ,goethe1--to choose the greatest as an example1--again and again wasted the warmth of his heart and the enthusiasm of his great soul upon some other woman4 ,intelligent people consider this perfectly natural1 and only narrow-minded moralists condemn it4 ,why1 then1 deride the 8great souls0 among women8 ,let us assume that the entire female sex consisted of great souls like ,george ,sand2 let us assume that every woman were a ,lucretia ,florini1 whose children are all children of love1 but who brings up these children with true motherly love and devotion1 as well as in a rational and intelligent manner4 ,how would the world fare8 ,there is no doubt that the world could continue to exist and develop as to-day1 and might even fare exceptionally well40 ,but why should only 8great souls0 lay claim to this right1 and not also the others who are no great souls8 ,if a ,goethe and a ,george ,sand1--to select only these two from among the many who have done and are doing likewise1--could follow the inclinations of their hearts1 if on ,goethe's love affairs1 especially1 entire libraries are published that are devoured in a sort of reverend ecstacy by his admirers1 why should we condemn in others what becomes an object of admiration in the case of a ,goethe1 or a ,george ,sand8 ,of course1 it is impossible to assert the free choice of love in bourgeois society1 as we have shown by our entire line of argument1 but if the community were placed under similar social conditions as are enjoyed to-day only by the few who are materially and intellectually favored1 all would have the possibility of a similar freedom4 ,in 8,jacques10 ,george ,sand depicts a husband who judges the illicit relation of his wife with another man in the following manner3 8no human being can command love1 and none is guilty1 if he feels or goes without it4 ,what degrades the woman is the lie2 what constitutes the adultery is not the hour she grants to her lover1 but the night that she thereupon spends with her husband40 ,as a result of this conception1 ,jacques feels it to be his duty to make way for his rival 7,borel71 and philosophizes accordingly3 8,borel1 in my place1 would have calmly beaten his wife1 and would not have blushed to receive her into his arms afterwards1 degraded by his blows and his kisses4 ,there are men who would not hesitate1 according to oriental custom1 to kill their faithless wife1 because they regard her as their lawful property4 ,others fight a duel with their rival1 kill or remove him1 and then beg the woman1 whom they claim to love1 for kisses or caresses1 while she either withdraws full of horror or yields in despair4 ,these1 in cases of conjugal love1 are the most common ways of acting1 and it seems to me that the love of hogs is less vile and debasing1 than the love of such men40 ,to these sentences1 ,brandes observes3#bgb 8,these truths1 that are elemental ones to educated persons to-day1 were atrocious sophisms fifty years ago40 ,but the propertied and cultured classes do not venture even to-day1 openly to avow the principles of ,george ,sand1 altho they actually live in accordance with them4 ,they are hypocrites in marriage1 as they are hypocrites in morals and religion4 ,what was done by ,goethe and ,george ,sand1 is being done by thousands of others to-day1 who cannot bear comparison with ,goethe or ,sand1 without suffering a loss of social esteem4 ,everything can be done if people hold a respected position4 ,nevertheless the liberties of a ,goethe and a ,george ,sand are immoral from the standpoint of bourgeois morality1 for they are in opposition to the moral laws laid down by society1 and are in contradiction to the nature of our social system4 ,compulsory marriage is the normal marriage to bourgeois society4 ,it is the only 8moral0 union of the sexes2 any other sexual union is 8immoral40 ,bourgeois marriage is1--this we have irrefutably proved1--the result of bourgeois relations4 ,closely connected with private property and the right of inheritance1 it is contracted to obtain 8legitimate0 children4 ,under the pressure of social conditions it is forced also upon those who have nothing to bequeath4 ,it becomes a social law1 the violation of which is punished by the state1 by imprisonment of the men or women who have committed adultery and have become divorced4 ,but in ,socialistic society there will be nothing to bequeath1 unless house furnishings and personal belongings should be regarded as hereditary portions2 so the modern form of marriage becomes untenable from this point of view also4 ,this also settles the question of inheritance1 which ,socialism will not need to abolish4 ,where there is no private property1 there can be no right of inheritance4 ,so woman will be free1 and the children she may have will not impair her freedom1 they will only increase her pleasure in life4 ,nurses1 teachers1 women friends1 the rising female generation1 all these will stand by her when she is in need of assistance4 ,it is possible that there will be some men1 even in the future1 who will say1 like ,a4 ,humboldt3 8,i am not built to become the father of a family4 ,moreover1 ,i consider marriage a sin1 the begetting of children a crime40 ,what does it matter8 ,the force of the natural impulse will establish the equilibrium with others4 ,we are not alarmed either by ,humboldt's hostility to marriage1 or by the philosophic pessimism of ,schopenhauer1 ,mainlander or v4 ,hartmann1 who hold out to man the prospect of self-destruction in the 8ideal state40 ,we are fully agreed with ,dr4 ,ratzel1 who writes on this subject3 ,man should no longer regard himself an exception to natural laws4 ,he should finally strive to recognize the laws underlying his own thoughts and actions1 and should endeavor to live in accordance with these laws4 ,he will eventually learn to arrange his life with his fellow-beings1 that is1 the family and the state1 not according to the precepts laid down in centuries gone by1 but according to the rational principles derived from an understanding of nature4 ,politics1 morals1 laws1 that are at present drawn from various sources1 will be shaped according to natural laws4 ,an existence worthy of human beings1 that mankind has been dreaming of for thousands of years1 will become a reality at last4#bgc ,this time is rapidly approaching4 ,for thousands of years human society has passed thru all phases of development1 only to return to its starting point3 communistic property and complete liberty and fraternity2 but no longer only for the members of the gens1 but for all human beings4 ,that is what the great progress consists of4 ,what bourgeois society has striven for in vain1 in what it failed and was bound to fail1--to establish liberty1 equality and fraternity for all1--will be realized by ,socialism4 ,bourgeois society could merely advance the theory1 but here1 as in many other things1 practice was contrary to the theories4 ,socialism will unite theory and practice4 ,but as mankind returns to the starting point of its development1 it will do so on an infinitely higher level of civilization4 ,if primitive society had common ownership in the gens and the clan1 it was but in a coarse form and an undeveloped stage4 ,the course of development that man has since undergone1 has reduced common property to small and insignificant remnants1 has shattered the gens and has finally atomized society2 but in its various phases it has also greatly heightened the productive forces of society and the extensiveness of its demands2 it has transformed the gentes and the tribes into nations1 and has thereby again created a condition that is in glaring contradiction to the requirements of society4 ,it is the task of the future to remove this contradiction by re-establishing the common ownership of property and the means of production on the broadest basis4 ,society takes back what it has at one time possessed and has itself created1 but it enables all to live in accordance with the newly created conditions of life on the highest level of civilization4 ,in other words1 it grants to all what under more primitive conditions has been the privilege of single individuals or classes4 ,now woman1 too1 is restored to the active position maintained by her in primitive society2 only she no longer is mistress1 but man's equal4 8,the end of the development of the state resembles the beginnings of human existence4 ,primitive equality is reinstated4 ,the maternal material existence opens and closes the cycle of human affairs40 ,thus ,backofen1 in his book on ,the ,matriarchate2 and ,morgan says3 8,since the advent of civilization1 the increase of wealth has been so enormous1 its forms so varied1 its application so extensive1 and its administration so skillful in the interest of the owners1 that this wealth has become an invincible power against the people4 ,the human mind is helpless and bewildered in the face of its own creation4 ,and yet the time will come1 when human intelligence will be sufficiently strong to master wealth1 when it will determine both the relation of the state to the property that it protects1 and the limit of the rights of individual owners4 ,the interests of society are absolutely paramount to individual interests1 and both must be placed into a just and harmonious relation4 ,pursuit of wealth is not the ultimate aim of man1 if progress is to remain the law of the future as it has been the law of the past4 ,the time that has elapsed since the advent of civilization is only a small fraction of the past existence of humanity2 it is only a small fraction of its coming existence4 ,we are threatened by the dissolution of society as the termination of a historic career1 whose sole aim is wealth2 for a career of this sort contains the elements of its own destruction4 ,democracy in administration1 fraternity in social relations1 general education1--these will initiate the next1 higher stage of society1 toward which experience1 reason and science are constantly leading us4 ,it will be a resurrection1 only in a higher form1 of the liberty1 equality and fraternity of the old gens40#bgd ,so men1 proceeding from the most varied standpoints1 arrive at the same conclusions1 as a result of their scientific investigations4 ,the complete emancipation of woman1 and her establishment of equal rights with man is one of the aims of our cultured development1 whose realization no power on earth can prevent4 ,but it can be accomplished only by means of a transformation that will abolish the rule of man over man1 including the rule of the capitalist over the laborer4 ,then only can humanity attain its fullest development4 ,the 8golden age0 of which men have been dreaming1 and for which they have been yearning for thousands of years1 will come at last4 ,class rule will forever be at an end1 and with it the rule of man over woman4 #bga 8,rights of ,women and ,duties of ,women40 ,a ,reply to ,fanny ,lewald's ,epistles3 8,for and against ,women40 #bgb ,george ,brandes3 ,the literature of the ,nineteenth ,century4 ,leipsic1 #ahhc4 #bgc ,quoted by ,ernst ,haeckel in his 8,natural ,story of ,creation40 #bgd ,morgan3 ,ancient ,history4 ,,chapter ,,xxix4 ,internationality4 ,but an existence worthy of human beings cannot be the manner of living of a single privileged nation1 for1 being isolated from all other nations1 it could neither establish nor maintain this condition4 ,our entire development is the product of the combined action of national and international forces and relations4 ,altho the national ideal still dominates the minds to a great extent and is used as a means for maintaining political and social rulership1--for this is possible only within national bounds1--we are already deeply imbued with internationalism4 ,treaties of commerce1 tariff and navigation1 the world postal union1 international expositions1 congresses on international law and international measurements of degrees1 other international scientific congresses and associations1 international expeditions of exploration1 commerce and trade1 and especially the international conventions of workingmen1 who are the heralds of the new era1 and to whose influence it is due that1 during the spring of #ahij1 upon an invitation from the ,german ,empire1 the first international conference on workingmen's protective legislation was held in ,berlin1--all this proves the international character that the relations of civilized nations have assumed1 notwithstanding their national seclusion4 ,beside speaking of national economy1 we speak of international economy1 and consider the latter more important1 because the welfare of the different nations depends upon it to a great extent4 ,a great many of our domestic products are exchanged for foreign products1 that we can no longer dispense with4 ,as one branch of industry suffers when another flags1 so the entire national production of a given country is very materially injured by a crisis in another country4 ,the relations of the different countries to one another are constantly becoming more cordial1 regardless of the passing disturbances1 like wars and the instigations of national hatred1 because these relations are dominated by material interests1 the strongest of all4 ,every new highway1 every improvement in the means of transportation1 every invention or improvement in the process of production which leads to a cheapening of commodities1 strengthens these relations4 ,the ease with which personal relations are established between widely separated countries and nations1 is a new1 important link in the chain of connections4 ,emigration and colonization are other powerful levers4 ,nations learn from one another and strive to excel each other4 ,beside the exchange of all kinds of material products1 an exchange of intellectual products takes place1 both in their original forms of expression and in translations4 ,to millions of people it becomes a necessity to learn foreign languages1 and beside material advantages1 nothing is more likely to remove prejudice and to arouse sympathy1 than an acquaintance with the language and intellectual products of a foreign nation4 ,the effect of this process of approach on an international scale is an increasing resemblance in the social conditions of the various nations4 ,with the most advanced civilized nations1 that may therefore be regarded as the standard1 this resemblance is so great1 that whoever knows the economic structure of one nation1 practically knows it of all4 ,it is as in nature1 where animals belonging to the same species have skeletons that are identical in organization and structure1 and if a scientist is given some parts of such skeleton he can theoretically reconstruct the entire animal4 ,a further conclusion is that1 wherever similar social conditions exist1 the results springing from them must be similar4 ,accumulation of great wealth points to the opposite extreme of wage-slavery1 oppression of the masses by the system of production1 rule of the masses by the propertied minority1 and all the resulting evils4 ,as a matter of fact1 we see that the class antagonism and class struggle1 which is raging in ,germany1 is stirring all of ,europe1 the ,united ,states of ,america and ,australia4 ,in ,europe we meet with a spirit of unrest and dissatisfaction from ,russia to ,portugal1 from the ,balkans1 ,hungary and ,italy to ,england and ,ireland4 ,everywhere we perceive the same symptoms of social fermentation1 general dissatisfaction and decomposition4 ,altho these movements differ outwardly1 according to the degree of development and the character of the population1 they all are identical in character4 ,profound social antagonism is the underlying cause4 ,with each year this antagonism is growing more pronounced1 the fermentation and dissatisfaction pervades the body social more and more1 until perhaps some slight provocation will cause an outbreak that will spread with the rapidity of lightning over the entire civilized world1 and will everywhere arouse men to side with one or the other party in the great conflict4 ,it will be the struggle of the new world against the old4 ,masses will enter the arena1 and the struggle will be conducted with an amount of intelligence such as the world has never seen in any previous struggle1 such as it will never see again2 for it will be the last social struggle4 ,standing at the beginning of the twentieth century1 we can see this struggle approaching its last stages in which the new ideas will be victorious4 ,the new society will construct itself upon an international basis4 ,the nations will fraternize1 they will join hands1 and will endeavor to extend the new conditions to all nations of the world4#bge ,one nation will no longer approach another as an enemy1 to exploit and to oppress it1 or as the upholder of a foreign religion that it seeks to force upon it1 but as a friend1 endeavoring to make civilized beings of all men4 ,the tasks of colonization and civilization of the new society will differ as radically from those of the present in their very nature1 and in the means employed by them1 as the two social orders differ from one another4 ,neither powder and lead nor 8fire-water0 and the ,bible will employed4 ,the mission of civilization will be undertaken by peaceable means1 that will make the civilizers appear to barbarians and savages not as enemies1 but as benefactors4 ,reasonable voyagers and explorers have long since experienced how successful these methods are4 ,when the civilized nations are united in a mighty federation1 then the time will have come when the trumpets of war shall be silenced forever4 ,eternal peace will then no longer be a dream1 as uniformed gentlemen would have the world believe4 ,this time will arrive as soon as the nations will have recognized their true interests4 ,these interests are not advanced by quarrels and conflicts1 by warlike preparations that destroy countries and nations1 but by peaceable agreements and common works of civilization4 ,moreover1 the ruling classes and their governments see to it1--as has been previously set forth1--that armaments and wars come to an end by means of their own enormity4 ,so the last weapons1 like so many that have preceded them1 will be gathered into old curiosity collections to prove to coming generations how men1 for thousands of years1 often lacerated one another like wild beasts of the jungle--until man finally triumphed over the wild beast within him4 ,that national characteristics and differences lead to wars1--these characteristics and differences being artificially stimulated by the ruling classes1 so that a great war may1 in case of necessity1 counteract dangerous tendencies in the interior1--is confirmed by an utterance of the late ,general ,fieldmarshal ,moltke4 ,in the first volume of his posthumous work that deals with the ,german-,french ,war of #ahgj-ga1 he says1 among other things1 in the introductory remarks3 8,so long as nations lead a separate existence1 there will be differences that can only be settled by force of arms4 ,but it is to be hoped that the wars may become rare as they have become more terrible40 ,this national separation1 that is1 this hostile exclusion of one nation from another1 is passing away in spite of all endeavors to maintain it1 and so coming generations will find it an easy matter to carry out tasks1 that gifted minds have long since planned and have attempted to accomplish1 but unsuccessfully4 ,condorcet already conceived the idea of introducing a universal language4 ,the late ex-president of the ,united ,states1 ,ulysses ,s4 ,grant1 said in an address3 8,since commerce1 education1 and the quick transportation of thoughts and objects by telegraph and steam have transformed everything1 ,i believe that ,god is preparing the world to become one nation1 to speak one language1 and to attain a degree of perfection in which armies and navies will be superfluous40 ,with a full-blooded ,yankee1 ,god must1 of course1 be the adjuster1 instead of recognizing that matters are being adjusted in consequence of historic evolution4 ,that is not to be wondered at4 ,ignorance or hypocrisy in religious matters are nowhere greater than in the ,united ,states4 ,the less the power of the state guides the masses by its organization1 the more must it be done by religion1 by the church4 ,therefore the bourgeoisie appears most pious wherever the power of the state is weakest4 ,beside the ,u4 ,s41 this is the case in ,england1 ,belgium and ,switzerland4 ,even the revolutionary ,robespierre1 who played with the heads of aristocrats and priests as with bowling balls1 was1 as is well known1 exceedingly religious4 ,therefore he had the 8supreme being0 solemnly reinstated after its recent dethronement by the convention1--an action of equally bad taste4 ,since before the great revolution the frivolous and dissolute aristocrats bragged about their atheism1 ,robespierre regarded it as being aristocratic1 and thus denounced it before the convention in his speech on the 8supreme being30 8,atheism is aristocratic4 ,the idea of a supreme being that watches over the innocent oppressed and punishes triumphant crime1 has sprung from the midst of the people4 ,if there were no ,god it would be necessary to invent one40 ,virtuous ,robespierre divined that his virtuous bourgeois republic could not remove social extremes4 ,therefore he preached belief in a supreme being1 avenging wrong and equalizing what men could not yet equalize2 therefore this belief was a necessity to the first republic4 ,times change4 ,one progress leads to another4 ,mankind will set ever new tasks for itself1 and will lead them to a degree of development in which national or religious hatred and wars will no longer be known4 #bge 8,at present national interests and human interests are hostile to each other4 ,on a higher level of civilization both interests will become identical40--v4 ,thuenen4--,the ,isolated ,state4 ,,chapter ,,xxx4 ,the ,question of ,population and ,socialism4 #a4--;,fear of ,over-,population4 ,there are people who regard the question of population as one of the most important and urgent of all1 because1 they claim that we are threatened with over-population1 indeed1 that it is already at hand4 ,therefore this question must be specially treated from an international standpoint1 for nourishment and distribution of the population have become more and more a matter of international concern4 ,there has been much discussion on the law governing the growth of population since ,malthus4 ,in his famous and notorious book1 an 8,essay on the ,principle of ,population10 that ,karl ,marx has described as a 8school-boyish1 superficial plagiarism on ,sir ,james ,stewart1 ,townsend1 ,franklin ,wallace1 etc41 declaimed in a priest-like manner and not containing a single original thought10--,malthus propounds the theory that mankind has the tendency to increase at the ratio of geometrical progression 7#a1 #b1 #d1 #h1 #af1 #cb1 etc471 while food increases only at the ratio of arithmetical progression 7#a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 #e1 etc474 ,the consequence1 he asserts1 is that a disproportion arises between the number of human beings and the food supply which must lead to wholesale starvation1 and that1 therefore1 it becomes necessary to impose abstinence upon one's self in the procreation of children4 ,he1 who has not sufficient means to support a family should not marry1 as there would not be sufficient room at 8nature's table0 for his descendants4 ,the fear of over-population is a very old one4 ,as we have shown in this book1 it existed among the ,greeks and ,romans and was met with again at the close of the middle ages4 ,plato and ,aristotle1 the ,romans1 the small bourgeois of the middle ages1 they all were dominated by this fear4 ,it also occupied ,voltaire1 who wrote a treatise on this subject at the beginning of the eighteenth century4 ,other writers followed him1 until ,malthus finally gave this fear the most poignant expression4 ,the fear of over-population is always met with at periods when existing social conditions are in a state of decay4 ,the general dissatisfaction that prevails at such times is ascribed to the superabundance of human beings and the lack of food1 instead of being ascribed to the manner in which food is obtained and distributed4 ,every exploitation of man by man is founded on class rule4 ,the first1 and principal means of establishing class rule is to take possession of the soil4 ,common property at first1 it gradually becomes private property4 ,the masses become propertyless and are obliged to earn their share of food by serving the propertied class4 ,under such circumstances1 every addition to the family1 or new competitor1 becomes a burden4 ,the specter of over-population appears1 and spreads terror in the same measure in which the soil becomes monopolized and loses its productivity1 either because it is not sufficiently cultivated1 or because the best ground is turned into pastures1 or because it has been reserved for the pleasures of the hunt of its masters1 and thus withdrawn from cultivation for human food4 ,rome and ,italy suffered from the greatest lack of food at the time when the land was owned by about three thousand latifundia proprietors4 ,hence the cry of fear3 the latifundia are destroying ,rome6 ,the ,italian soil was converted into immense hunting grounds or parks for the pleasure of its noble owners4 ,sometimes it was also left uncultivated1 because its cultivation by slaves was more expensive than to import grain from ,sicily and ,africa2 this state of affairs favored the usury in grain1 in which the rich nobility of ,rome likewise participated4 ,the nobility profited more by the usury in grain than by cultivating grain in their own country4 ,under such conditions the ,roman bourgeois1 or the pauperized nobleman1 preferred to refrain from marriage and the procreation of children4 ,the premiums placed on marriage and the birth of children1 to prevent a diminution of the ruling classes1 remained ineffectual4 ,a similar phenomenon occurred at the close of the middle ages1 after the nobility and the clergy had1 for centuries1 by force and by stealth1 robbed many peasants of their property and usurped the common land4 ,when the peasants revolted as a result of all the abuses they had suffered1 but were beaten down1 the robbery of the nobility was continued on a still larger scale1 and the reformed princes also practiced it on the property of the church4 ,at that time the number of thieves1 beggars and vagabonds increased as never before4 ,their number was greatest after the reformation4 ,the expropriated rural population poured into the cities2 but here1 too1 the conditions of life had been growing steadily worse1 owing to causes that have been set forth in previous chapters1 and so 8over-population0 prevailed everywhere4 ,the appearance of ,malthus coincides with that period of ,english industry when1 as a result of the new inventions by ,hargreaves1 ,arkwright and ,watt1 tremendous mechanical and technical changes took place4 ,these changes especially affected the cotton and linen industries1 and deprived tens of thousands of workingmen of employment1 who were engaged in these domestic industries4 ,the concentration of property in land1 and the development of industry on a large scale1 assumed great dimensions in ,england at that time4 ,with the rapid increase of wealth on the one hand1 there was growing misery of the masses on the other4 ,during such a time the ruling classes1 who have good cause to consider the world1 as it is1 the best of worlds1 had to seek a plausible explanation1 relieving them of all responsibility1 for so contradictory a phenomenon as the pauperization of the masses in the midst of increasing wealth and nourishing industry4 ,nothing was more convenient than to blame the too rapid increase of the workingmen by their having too many children for this state of affairs1 instead of blaming the fact that they were being made superfluous by the process of production1 and the further fact that the soil was becoming accumulated in the hands of the landlords4 ,under such conditions the 8school-boyish1 superficial plagiarism declaimed in a priest-like manner0 which ,malthus published1 contained an explanation of existing evils that expressed the innermost thoughts and wishes of the ruling classes1 and justified them before the world4 ,that explains why it met with so much success on the one hand1 and with such bitter opposition on the other4 ,for the ,english bourgeoisie ,malthus had spoken the right word at the right time1 and so--altho his book did 8not contain a single original thought10 he became a great and famous man1 and his name came to stand for the entire doctrine6#bgf #bgf ,that ,darwin and others also become followers of ,malthus only proves that a lack of economic studies leads to the most biased views in the realm of science4 #b4--,production of ,over-,population4 ,the conditions that caused ,malthus to utter his cry of warning and to set forth his brutal doctrines1--they were addressed to the working class1 which meant adding insult to injury1--have since expanded with every decade4 ,they have expanded1 not only in the native land of ,malthus1 ,great ,britain1 but in all countries of the world that have a capitalistic method of production1 which implies robbery of the soil and subjugation of the masses by means of the machine and the factory4 ,this system1--as has been shown1--consists in the separation of the worker from his means of production1 be it the land or tools1 and their transfer into the hands of the capitalists4 ,this system constantly creates new branches of industry1 developes and concentrates them1 but it also constantly turns out into the street new masses of the population and makes them 8superfluous40 ,in many cases it also promotes1 as in ancient ,rome1 the latifundia ownership with all its results4 ,ireland is the classic land of ,europe that has been afflicted worst of all by the ,english system of robbery4 ,as early as #ahgd it already had an area of meadow and pasture land of #ab1cgh1bdd acres1 but only #c1cgc1ejh acres of cultivated fields1 and every year the population decreases1 and hand in hand with this decrease proceeds the further conversion of cultivated land into meadows and pastures for sheep and cattle and into hunting grounds for the landlords4#bgg 7,in #aijh there were #ad1hje1jdf acres of meadow and pasture land and only #b1bch1ijf acres of cultivated land47 ,moreover1 the agricultural land of ,ireland is1 to a great extent1 rented by small tenants1 who are unable to improve upon the cultivation of the soil4 ,so ,ireland presents the aspect of a country that is retrogressing from an agricultural to a pastoral country4 ,at the same time the population that numbered #h millions at the beginning of the nineteenth century1 has declined to #d4c millions1 and a few million still are 8superfluous40 ,this clearly explains the rebellion of the ,irish against ,england4 ,scotland presents a similar picture in regard to the ownership and cultivation of its land4#bgh ,the same thing is re-enacted in ,hungary1 which entered upon modern lines of development only a few decades ago4 ,few ,european countries possess such a wealth of fertile soil as ,hungary1 and yet it is burdened with debts and the population is pauperized and is at the mercy of usurers4 ,despair drives the people to wholesale emigration4 ,the land is concentrated in the hands of modern magnates of capital1 who apply their rapacious system to the forests and the fields4 ,it is likely that in a time not far distant1 ,hungary will cease to be a grain exporting country4 ,italy presents a similar picture4 ,in ,italy1 as in ,germany1 political unity of the nation has favored capitalistic development1 but the industrious peasants of ,piedmont and ,lombardy1 of ,tuscany1 ,romagna and ,sicily1 are constantly growing poorer and are being utterly ruined4 ,already swamps and marshes begin to reappear1 where1 up to a few decades ago1 were the well cultivated fields and gardens of small peasants4 ,before the very gates of ,rome1 in the district known as the ,campagna1 are hundreds of thousands of hectares of land that are left uncultivated1 in a vicinity that was one of the most flourishing of ancient ,rome4 ,everywhere are swamps exhaling their poisonous miasms4 ,if the necessary means were employed to drain the swamps and to introduce a proper system of irrigation1 the population of ,rome would obtain a rich source of nourishment and enjoyment4 ,but ,italy suffers from the ambition to become a great power2 so it ruins the population by bad administration1 military and naval armament and colonization1 and has no means left for true tasks of civilization1 such as the cultivation of the ,campagna4 ,in southern ,italy and ,sicily conditions are similar as in the ,campagna4 ,sicily1 at one time the granary of ,rome1 is ever growing poorer4 ,in all ,europe there is no poorer1 more exploited and worse treated population4 ,the sons of the most beautiful country of ,europe1 flood half of ,europe and ,america1 and because their needs are few they serve to lower wages4 ,they emigrate in masses1 because they do not wish to starve on their native soil1 which they no longer own4 ,malaria1 that awful fever1 has spread to such an extent thruout ,italy1 that in #ahhb the government became alarmed and instituted an investigation4 ,this investigation revealed that of the #if provinces of the country1 #cb were already severely afflicted1 #cb others were infected and only #e remained free from the disease4 ,formerly known in the country only1 the disease was carried into the cities1 where the congested proletarian population1 increased by the rural proletariat1 formed the central seat of the infection4 #bgg ,in his pathetic poem1 8,ireland10 ,ferdinand ,freiligrath sings3 ,the lord provides that stag and ox ,for him the peasant's toil may feed1 ,instead of draining pools and bogs-- ,ireland's swamps1 well known indeed6 ,unused he leaves and useless quite ,the soil that wealth of crops might bear1 ,there but the wild duck wings its flight ,and guinea-hens are nesting there4 ,aye1 by the curse of ,god1 a marsh ,and wilderness1 four million acres wide6 #bgh 8,two million acres1 comprising the most fertile parts of ,scotland1 entirely laid waste6 ,the natural grass of ,glen ,tilt was among the most nourishing of the ,county of ,perth4 ,the ,deer ,forest of ,ben ,aulder was the best grazing ground in the wide district of ,badenoch2 a portion of the ,black ,mountain ,forest was the best pasture for black-faced sheep4 ,an idea may be gained of the extent of the land laid waste for the pleasure of the chase1 from the fact that it is larger than the entire ,county of ,perth4 ,the great loss entailed by this forcible destruction of the sources of production may be ascertained by calling to mind that the soil of the ,deer ,forest of ,ben ,aulder could pasture #ae1jjj sheep1 and that1 moreover1 this deer forest is but one thirtieth of the entire hunting ground of ,scotland4 ,all this hunting ground is entirely unproductive4 ,it might as well have been caused to sink into the ,north-,sea40 ,the ,london 8,economist10 ,july #b1 #ahff4 ,quoted by ,karl ,marx in 8,capital40 #c4--,poverty and ,fecundity4 ,no matter from what side we view the capitalistic system of production1 we arrive at the conclusion that the poverty and misery of the masses is not due to a lack of food1 but to an unequal distribution of same1 and to wrong methods1 that create an abundance for some and compel others to live in want4 ,the assertions of ,malthus have sense only from the standpoint of capitalistic production4 ,on the other hand1 the capitalistic method of production urges the production of children4 ,cheap 8hands10 in the shape of children1 are needed for its factories and work-shops4 ,among proletarians the procreation of children becomes a sort of calculation1 as they earn their own living4 ,the proletarian employed in domestic industry is even obliged to have many children1 for they help him to be able to compete4 ,this is assuredly an abominable system2 it increases the pauperization of the workingman and his dependence upon the employer4 ,the proletarian is compelled to work for lower and lower wages1 and every labor law destined to protect workingmen1 that does not include the persons engaged in domestic industry1 only causes the employer to widen the circle of those so employed1 for wherever this form of production is possible1 it offers particular advantages to the capitalist4 ,but the capitalistic system does not lead only to an over-production of goods and of workers1 but also to an over-production of intellect4 ,intellectuals1 too1 find it increasingly difficult to obtain employment1 as the supply constantly surpasses the demand4 ,there is only one thing in this capitalistic world that is never superfluous1 and that is capital and its owner1 the capitalist4 ,if the bourgeois economists are followers of ,malthus1 they are what they must be in accordance with their bourgeois interests4 ,only they should refrain from transferring their bourgeois prejudices to ,socialistic society4 ,john ,stuart ,mill says3 8,communism is that very state of affairs of which one may expect1 that it will vehemently oppose this sort of selfish immoderation4 ,every increase of the population that would diminish the comfortable status of the population or increase its toils1 would cause direct and unmistakable inconvenience to each individual member of the association1 and this inconvenience could no longer be ascribed to the rapacity of the employers or the unfair privileges of the rich4 ,under such circumstances1 public opinion could not fail to make known its disproval1 and if this would not suffice1 punishments of one kind or another would be resorted to1 in order to suppress this and similar immoderations4 ,the danger of over-population1 then1 is not advanced by the communistic theory2 this theory1 on the contrary1 tends to counteract this danger in a marked degree40 ,professor ,adolf ,wagner says1 in ,rau's 8,text-book of ,political ,economy30 8,least of all could a ,socialistic community grant absolute freedom of marriage or freedom in the procreation of children40 ,the authors both proceed from the opinion that the tendency toward over-population is common to all social systems1 but they both grant that ,socialism will be better able to maintain an equilibrium between population and nourishment than any other form of society4 ,the latter is true1 but the former is not4 ,there were1 indeed1 some ,socialists who were infected by the ideas of ,malthus1 and feared that over-population was 8an imminent danger40 ,but these ,socialistic ,malthusians have disappeared4 ,a better understanding of the nature of bourgeois society has changed their opinion on this subject4 ,the complaints of our agrarians also teach us that we have too much food--viewed from the standpoint of the world market--and that the resulting lowering of prices make the production of food unprofitable4 ,our ,malthusians imagine1--and the chorus of bourgeois leaders thoughtlessly echo their fears1--that a ,socialistic society upholding freedom of choice in love and maintaining an existence worthy of human beings for all its members1 would foster rabbit-like propensities4 ,they imagine that people1 under such conditions1 would indulge in an unbridled satisfaction of their lusts and in unlimited procreation of children4 ,rather the contrary is likely to be true4 ,so far not the well-to-do classes have had the greatest number of children1 but1 on the contrary1 the poorest classes4 ,indeed1 we may say without exaggeration3 the poorer the position of a proletarian stratum is1 the more numerous is its blessing of children2 occasional exceptions are1 of course1 conceded4 ,this opinion is confirmed by ,virchow1 who wrote1 in the middle of the last century2 8as the ,english laborer in his deepest degradation1 in the utmost emptiness of mind1 knows only two sources of enjoyment1 intoxication and cohabitation1 so the population of ,upper ,silesia1 until recent years1 had concentrated all its desires and endeavors upon these two things4 ,the enjoyment of liquor and the satisfaction of the sexual impulse had become the supreme factors of its existence1 and so it can be easily explained that the population increased as rapidly in numbers1 as it deteriorated physically and morally40 ,karl ,marx expresses himself similarly in 8,capital40 ,he says3 8,not only the number of births and deaths1 but the absolute size of the families also is in reverse ratio to the height of the wages1 that is1 to the means of subsistence at the disposal of the various categories of laborers4 ,this law of capitalistic society would sound absurd among savages or even among civilized colonists4 ,it reminds one of the enormous reproduction of species of animals that are individually weak and much hunted40 ,marx furthermore quotes ,laing1 who says3 8,if the whole world lived in comfortable circumstances1 the world would soon be depopulated40 ,so ,laing holds the opposite view from ,malthus4 ,he maintains that an improved standard of living does not increase the number of births1 but diminishes them4 ,herbert ,spencer expresses a similar opinion thus3 8always and everywhere perfection of the species and its procreative ability are opposed to one another4 ,from this follows that the further development of man will probably lead to a decrease in procreation40 ,we see1 then1 that men1 maintaining different standpoints on other subjects1 are fully agreed on this one1 and we fully concur with their conception4 #d4--,lack of ,human ,beings and ,abundance of ,food4 ,the whole question of population might be disposed of by saying1 that for a long time to come this fear of over-population is absurd1 for we are confronted with an abundance of food that increases each year1 so that we would be more justified in worrying over how to apply this wealth1 than in worrying over whether it will suffice4 ,the producers of food would even welcome a more rapid increase of consumers4 ,but our ,malthusians are indefatigable in raising objections1 and so we must meet these objections1 lest they assert that they cannot be answered4 ,they claim that the danger of over-production in a not distant future lies in the 8decrease of the productivity of the soil40 ,our cultivated soil1 they claim1 is becoming 8weary of yields10 an increase in crops could no longer be expected1 and since fresh soil that still might be cultivated is becoming rarer1 the danger of a scarcity of food1 if the population continues to increase1 is imminent4 ,in the chapters on agriculture we have1 so we believe1 already proved irrefutably of what enormous progress mankind is still capable in the matter of obtaining new masses of nourishment1 judging even by the present state of agricultural science4 ,nevertheless we will add some further illustrations4 ,a very capable large land-owner and an economist of recognized worth1 who1 therefore1 far surpassed ,malthus in both respects1 as early as #ahej1 at a time when agricultural chemistry was in its beginnings1--expressed the following3 8,the productivity of raw products1 especially of food1 will in future not lag behind the productivity in manufacture and transportation4 ,in our days agricultural chemistry is just beginning to open up vistas to agriculture that may lead to some errors1 but that will ultimately place the production of food into the power of society1 just as society has the power to-day of furnishing any desired quantity of cloth1 provided that there is a sufficient supply of work40#bgi ,justus v4 ,liebig1 the founder of agricultural chemistry1 holds the opinion that 8if there is sufficient human labor power and sufficient manure1 the soil is inexhaustible and continually yields the richest crops40 ,the 8law of decrease of the productivity of the soil0 is a notion of ,malthus that could be accepted at a time when agriculture was very undeveloped1 but it has long since been refuted by science and experience4 ,the yield of a field is in direct ratio to the amount of human labor power 7including science and technic7 expended on it1 and to the amount of proper fertilizers applied to it4 ,if the small peasantry of ,france have been able to more than quadruple the yields of their soil during the last #ij years1 while the population has not even doubled1 what results may be expected from a ,socialistic society6 ,our ,malthusians overlook1 furthermore1 that under present day conditions not only our own soil must be taken into consideration1 but the soil of the entire earth1 including countries whose fertility is twenty and thirty times as great as that of our fields of the same size4 ,the earth is largely occupied by man1 but with the exception of a very small fraction1 it is nowhere cultivated and utilized as it might be4 ,not only ,great ,britain could produce far more food than it is producing at present1 but also ,france1 ,germany and ,austria1 and the other ,european countries might do so to a still greater extent4 ,in little ,wurtemberg alone1 with its #hgi1igj hectares of grain soil1 by application of the steam plough1 the average crop might be increased from #f1adj1jjj cwts4 to #i1jjj1jjj cwt4 ,european ,russia1 measured by the present standard of the population of ,germany1 might feed a population of #dge million instead of its present #ajj million4 ,at present ,european ,russia has about #ai4d inhabitants to the square kilometer2 ,saxony has over #cjj4 ,the objection that ,russia has vast stretches of land that cannot be rendered more fertile owing to their climate1 is true4 ,but it is equally true that other stretches of land in the southern part of ,russia have a climate and a fertility that ,germany cannot come up to4 ,moreover1 the greater density of the population1 and the increased cultivation of the soil1 will cause changes in the climate that cannot be estimated to-day4 ,wherever men aggregate in masses climatic changes result4 ,we do not pay sufficient attention to these phenomena4 ,moreover1 we cannot observe them to their full extent1 because we have no occasion to do so and because1 as matters are at present1 it is impossible to undertake experiments on a large scale4 ,thus ,sweden and ,norway1 who are both sparsely populated1 with their immense forests and inexhaustible wealth of metals1 their numerous streams and their sea-coasts1 might become a rich source of nourishment to a dense population4 ,under existing conditions it is impossible to obtain the proper means and appliances to disclose the wealth of these countries1 and so even a part of the sparse population emigrates4 ,what has been said of the north1 applies to a still greater extent to the south of ,europe1 to ,portugal1 ,spain1 ,italy1 ,greece1 the ,danubian ,provinces1 ,hungary1 ,turkey1 etc4 ,a delightful climate1 a soil so rich and fertile as it can hardly be found in the best regions of the ,united ,states1 will some day provide an abundance of food for unnumbered masses of the population4 ,the rotten social and political conditions of these countries cause hundreds of thousands of persons to leave ,europe and cross the ocean instead of remaining in their native lands or settling down in much nearer and more conveniently located places4 ,as soon as rational social and political institutions have been established1 fresh millions of people will be needed to place those wide and fertile countries on a higher level of civilization4 ,in order to achieve higher objects of civilization in ,europe1 we have1 for a long time to come1 not a superabundance of human beings1 but rather a dearth of same1 and under such circumstances it is absurd to entertain any fears in regard to over-population4#bhj ,at the same time we must always keep in mind that the utilization of existing sources of nourishment by the application of science and labor is practically unlimited1 and that every day brings us new discoveries and inventions whereby the sources of nourishment are increased4 ,if we turn from ,europe to other parts of the earth1 we find that the lack of human beings and the abundance of food is still more pronounced4 ,the richest and most fertile lands of the earth still lie entirely1 or almost entirely1 unused1 because their cultivation and utilization cannot be undertaken by a few thousand persons2 here colonies of many millions would be needed only partly to master the over-abundant nature4 ,such countries are1 among others1 ,central and ,south ,america1 an area of hundreds of thousands of square miles4 ,in ,argentine ,republic1 for instance1 only about #e million hectares were cultivated in #ahib1 but the country has #if million hectares of fertile soil at its disposal4 ,that soil of ,south ,america that is fit for the cultivation of wheat1 but still lies fallow1 is estimated at #bjj million hectares at least1 while the ,united ,states1 ,austria1 ,hungary1 ,great ,britain and ,ireland1 ,germany and ,france altogether have cultivated only about #aje million hectares for the raising of grain4 ,about #dj years ago1 ,carey asserted that the valley of the ,orinoco alone1 having a length of #cfj miles1 might produce sufficient nourishment to feed the entire human race4 ,if we accept but half of this statement1 an abundance still remains4 ,at any rate1 both ,americas alone1 could feed many times the number of persons living on the earth at present4 ,the nutritive value of a territory planted with banana trees yield #ab to #bj times its seed2 rice1 in its native soil1 yields #hj to #ajj times and corn #bej to #cjj times its seed4 ,in some regions1 for instance in the ,philippine ,islands1 the productivity of rice is estimated at #djj times its seed4 ,with all these articles of food it is1 moreover1 a matter of importance1 to make them as nourishing as possible by the manner in which they are prepared4 ,in matters of nutrition chemistry has an inexhaustible field for development4 ,central ,america and ,south ,america1 especially ,brazil1 abound with a luxuriance and fertility that cause the marvel and admiration of travellers4 ,these countries also possess a boundless wealth of ores and metals4 ,brazil itself is almost as large as all of ,europe1 having #h1ebd1jjj square miles1 with about #bb million inhabitants1 as against ,europe's #i1hhg1jaj square miles1 with about #dcj million inhabitants4 ,but to the world these countries are barely disclosed1 because their population is indolent1 too few in numbers and on too low a level of civilization to master the grandeur of nature4 ,the discoveries of recent decades have enlightened us in regard to matters in ,africa4 ,altho a great portion of ,central ,africa will never be available for ,european agriculture1 there are other territories of a wide range that can be utilized to a marked degree as soon as rational principles of colonization are applied4 ,in ,asia1 too1 there are wide stretches of fertile land that could provide food for countless numbers4 ,the past has shown us how1 in regions that are unfertile and almost desert at present1 the climate can produce a wealth of nourishment if man will but provide the soil with water4 ,the destruction of grand water-works and contrivances for irrigation in ,asia ,minor1 along the ,tigris1 ,euphrates1 etc41 by cruel wars of conquest and by insane oppression of the people1 have transformed thousands of square miles of fertile land into a desert4#bha ,the same is true of northern ,asia1 ,mexico and ,peru4 ,give us millions of civilized human beings and inexhaustible sources of nourishment will be disclosed4 ,the date palm thrives in ,asia and ,africa in marvelous abundance1 and requires so little room that #bjj of these trees can be grown on one acre of land4 ,in ,egypt the durria bears fruit three thousand fold1 and yet this country is poor4 ,it is poor1 not owing to an excessive population1 but owing to a system of robbery that causes the desert to widen and expand with each decade4 ,what marvelous results ,european agriculture and horticulture might obtain in these countries is incalculable4 ,the ,united ,states1 measured by the standard of their present agricultural production1 could easily maintain a population #ae or #bj times as large as the present one2 that is1 #abej to #agjj million1 instead of #ij million4 ,at the same rate1 ,canada could provide food for several hundred millions1 instead of for its six millions4 ,then there is ,australia1 the numerous and to some extent exceedingly fertile islands of the ,pacific and ,indian ,ocean1 etc4 ,in the name of civilization man should be exhorted to multiply1 not to decrease4 ,everywhere it is the social institutions--the existing methods of production and distribution of the products--that cause misery and want1 not a too great number of people4 ,a number of rich crops in succession lower the prices of food to such an extent1 that many a farmer is ruined thereby4 ,the lot of the producers grows worse instead of being improved4 ,at the present time a great many farmers regard a good harvest as a misfortune1 because it lowers the prices4 ,and such conditions are supposed to be rational8 ,to keep out the rich crops of other countries1 high duties are imposed on grain1 to make the importation of grain more difficult and to raise the price of the domestic product4 ,there is not a lack of food1 but a superabundance of food1 just as there is a superabundance of the products of industry4 ,just as millions of persons are in need of all kinds of industrial products1 but cannot satisfy their needs under the existing conditions of property and production1 so millions are in need of the most essential articles of food1 because they cannot pay for them1 altho there is food in abundance4 ,the madness of such conditions is obvious4 ,when the crops are good1 our speculators in grain often intentionally allow a part of it to go to waste and ruin1 because they know that the price increases at the same rate at which the supply diminishes4 ,and with all this1 we should be in fear of over-population8 ,in ,russia1 southern ,europe and elsewhere1 hundreds of thousands of hundredweights of grain are destroyed1 because there is a lack of appropriate store-houses and means of transportation4 ,many million hundred-weights of food are wasted annually1 because the provisions for gathering in the crops are imperfect and insufficient1 or because there is a lack of hands at the decisive time4 ,many a granary1 many a replenished barn1 indeed1 entire farms are burned down1 because the insurance premiums heighten the profits4 ,food is destroyed for the same reasons that cause people to sink ships with their entire crews4#bhb ,our military drills cause the destruction of large crops each year4 ,the cost of a single manoeuvre1 lasting a few days only1 amounts to hundreds of thousands of marks1 altho the estimates are very moderate1 and there are a number of such manoeuvres annually4 ,for the same purpose entire villages have been razed and large areas are withdrawn from agriculture4 ,we must not forget that to all the sources we have enumerated1 the ocean must be added1 whose surface is to the area of the earth as #ah to #g4 ,the surface of the water is1 accordingly1 two and a half times as large as that of the land1 and is still awaiting a rational utilization of its enormous wealth of food4 ,the future1 then1 opens up a vista very different from the sombre picture drawn for us by our ,malthusians4 ,who can say when our chemical1 physical and physiological knowledge will have reached their limit8 ,who could venture to predict what gigantic undertakings future mankind will carry out to bring about marked changes in the climates of various countries and the utilization of their soil8 ,even to-day1 under the capitalistic system of society1 we see undertakings executed that would have appeared impossible and insane a century ago4 ,broad isthmuses are cut thru and oceans connected2 tunnels1 many miles long1 connect countries that are separated by the highest mountains2 others are dug under the bottom of the sea to shorten distances1 and to avoid disturbances and dangers that occur where countries are separated by the sea4 ,where1 then1 might one say3 8thus far and no further80 ,not only must the 8law of decrease of the productivity of the soil0 be answered in the negative1 it must be reasserted that there is an abundance of cultivatable soil1 that will require millions of human beings for its cultivation4 ,if all these tasks of civilization were to be undertaken at the same time1 we would not have too many people1 but too few4 ,humanity must still multiply considerably to do justice to all the tasks that are awaiting it4 ,the soil is far from being cultivated as it might be1 and almost three-quarters of the surface of the earth are still uncultivated1 because there are not enough people to undertake its cultivation4 ,the relative excess of population that to-day is continually produced by the capitalistic system to the detriment of the working class and of society1 will prove a blessing on a higher level of civilization4 ,a numerous population is not a hindrance to progress4 ,it is1 on the contrary1 a means to advance progress1 just like the present over-production of commodities and food1 the disruption of marriage by the employment of women1 children in industry and the expropriation of the middle class by the large capitalists1 are the preliminary conditions of a higher stage of civilization4 #bgi ,rodbertus3 8,an ,elucidation of the ,social ,question40 #bhj ,this is especially true of ,germany also4 ,notwithstanding the steady increase of the population1 emigration has steadily decreased4 ,in #ahia1 #abj1jhi persons emigrated2 in #aijg1 only #ca1fif4 ,on the other hand1 immigration has increased1 because there was a scarcity of labor power in several branches of industry4 ,in #aijj1 #geg1aea persons immigrated1 in #aije1 #a1jjg1adi4 #bha ,kaerger estimates the harvests in ,anatolia1 even when the crops are poor1 at #bf4dj to #cj cwt4 ,the average is #bf4dj to #ci cwt42 on well fertilized and irrigated soil1 #ff cwt4 7,international ,agricultural ,competition1 a ,capitalistic ,problem1 by ,professor ,dr4 ,gustave ,ruhland4 ,berlin1 #aija47 #bhb ,even at the time of ,st4 ,basil 7died #cgi71 similar conditions must have existed1 for he calls out to the rich3 8wretches1 what reply will you make to the divine ,judge8 ,you cover the nakedness of your walls with tapestry1 but you do not cover with clothes the nakedness of man4 ,you deck your horses with costly1 soft blankets1 but you despise your brother who is clad in rags4 ,you suffer your grain in the barns and granaries to rot and to be eaten by rats1 and do not even cast a glance at those who have no bread40 ,moralizing has never yet availed with the ruling classes and never will4 ,let the social institutions be changed so that no one can act unfairly toward his fellowmen1 and the world will be well off4 #e4--,social ,conditions and ,reproductive ,ability4 ,the other side of the question is3 do people multiply indefinitely1 and do they wish to8 ,in order to prove the enormous reproductive ability of man1 the ,malthusians like to point to the abnormal cases of some families or peoples4 ,but these examples do not prove anything4 ,there are other cases where1 regardless of favorable conditions of existence1 complete sterility sets in1 or the reproductive ability is very slight4 ,it is surprising how quickly wealthy families often die out4 ,altho the conditions for an increase of the population are more favorable in the ,united ,states than in any other country1 and hundreds of thousands of persons in the prime of life emigrate into the ,united ,states every year1 the population doubles only once in thirty years4 ,the claim that populations double once in twelve or twenty years is not born out by the facts anywhere4 ,as has already been indicated by the quotations from ,virchow and ,marx1 the population multiplies most rapidly where it is poorest1 because1 as ,virchow correctly says1 beside drink1 sexual intercourse forms their only enjoyment4 ,when ,gregory ,,vii forced celibacy upon the clergy1 the clergy of lower rank of the ,diocese of ,mayence1--as previously mentioned1--complained that they did not have all kinds of enjoyments like the prelates1 but that their only joy was woman4 ,lack of a variety of occupations may also account for it that the marriages of the rural clergy are usually so richly blessed with children4 ,it cannot be disputed1 furthermore1 that the poorest districts in ,germany1 the ,silesian ,eulengebirge1 the ,lausitz1 the ,erzgebirge and ,fichtelgebirge1 the ,forest of ,thuringia1 the ,harz1 etc4--districts in which the potato constitutes the chief article of food1 are at the same time the most densely populated4 ,it is furthermore certain that the sexual impulse is particularly strongly developed with persons afflicted with consumption1 and such persons often beget children in a stage of physical decline in which this seems almost impossible4 ,it is a law of nature1 as expressed in the utterances of ,herbert ,spencer and ,laing1 which we have quoted1 to supply in quantity what is lacking in quality4 ,the most highly developed and strongest animals1 lion1 elephant1 camel1 etc41 our domestic animals1 as horse1 donkey1 cow bring forth but few young1 while animals of a lower order multiply in inverse ratio1 as all kinds of insects1 most fish1 etc41 and also the smaller mammals1 like rabbits1 rats1 mice1 etc4 ,darwin has shown that certain species of animals1 for instance the elephant1 lose their fecundity when they are captured and tamed by man4 ,all this proves that altered conditions of existence and the resulting changed mode of life have a decisive influence on reproductive ability4 ,strange to say1 the ,darwinians share the fear of over-population1 and our modern ,malthusians lean on their authority4 ,the ,darwinians seem to be unfortunate as soon as they seek to apply their theories to man1 because they employ roughly empirical methods and do not take into consideration that man1 altho the most highly developed animal1 is distinguished from animals by the fact that he has learned to understand the laws of nature1 and may consciously and intelligently apply these laws4 ,the theory of the struggle for existence1 the doctrine that the germs of new life exist in a far greater measure than could be maintained by the existing means of subsistence1 would be equally applicable to man1 if human beings1 instead of exerting their brain and employing technics for the conscious utilization of land and water1 would graze like cattle or would yield1 like monkeys1 to an unbridled satisfaction of their sexual desires1 thereby reverting to monkeys4 ,incidentally1 be it noted1 that beside human beings1 monkeys are the only creatures with whom the sexual impulse is not limited to certain periods4 ,this alone furnishes a striking proof of the close relationship between the two4 ,but1 altho closely related1 they are not identical4 ,they cannot be placed upon the same level or measured by the same standards4 ,it is true that so far1 owing to the conditions of property and production1 the struggle for existence has prevailed1 and still prevails1 for individual human beings1 and that many were unable to obtain the needful means of subsistence4 ,but this was so1 not because the means were wanting1 but because social conditions withheld the means from them in the midst of plenty4 ,it is a mistake to assume that because conditions have been such until now1 they must always and unalterably remain so4 ,this is the point where ,darwinians make a great mistake4 ,they study biology and anthropology1 but they fail to study sociology1 and thoughtlessly become the followers of bourgeois ideologists4 ,thus they arrive at false conclusions4 ,the sexual impulse is perennial in man4 ,it is his strongest impulse1 and must be satisfied if his health is not to suffer4 ,as a rule this impulse is strongest with healthy1 normally developed human beings1 just like a hearty appetite and good digestion are proofs of a healthy stomach and are essential to a healthy body4 ,but satisfaction of the sexual impulse and the procreation of children are not one and the same thing4 ,many are the theories that have been propounded in regard to the fecundity of man4 ,on the whole1 we are still groping in the dark concerning these important questions1 mainly because1 for centuries1 a foolish reticence has prevailed that prevented an investigation of the laws of the origin and development of man and a study of human procreation and evolution4 ,only gradually will our conception change on this subject1 and it is highly important that they should4 ,some claim that higher mental development and strenuous intellectual activity1 in fact all increased nervous activity1 has a repressing effect on the sexual impulse and diminishes the productive ability4 ,by others this is denied4 ,people point to the fact that the well-to-do classes generally have fewer children1 and that this cannot be ascribed to preventive measures only4 ,it is certain that a strenuous mental activity has a repressing influence on the sexual impulse1 but it cannot be claimed that such activity is carried on by a majority of our propertied class4 ,excessive physical exertion also has a repressing effect1 but any kind of excessive exertion is harmful and therefore not to be desired4 ,others assert that the mode of life1 especially the nourishment1 beside certain physical conditions on the part of the woman1 have a decisive influence on procreation and conception4 ,the food1 they claim1 also influences procreation among animals more than any other factor4 ,here1 indeed1 the determining factor may be found4 ,the influence of the nature of food on the organisms of certain animals1 has been revealed in a surprising manner among bees4 ,by feeding the larvae on special food1 they can produce a queen at will4 ,the bees accordingly are further advanced in their recognition of the development of sex than man4 ,probably they have not been preached to for thousands of years that it is 8indecent0 and 8immoral0 to concern one's self with sexual matters4 ,it is also known that plants grown in rich and well manured soil thrive luxuriantly1 but do not yield seed4 ,it is hardly to be doubted that1 with human beings1 also the nature of food influences the composition of the male sperm and the fecundity of the female egg1 and so it may be that the reproductive power of a population depends largely upon its food4 ,there are other factors besides1 whose nature is but slightly known4 ,in the future one factor will be decisive in regard to the question of population3 the higher1 freer position of woman4 ,as a rule1 intelligent and energetic women are not inclined to regard a number of children as a 8,godsend10 and to spend the best years of their lives in a condition of pregnancy1 or with babes at their breasts4 ,even at present1 most women have an aversion against a too numerous progeny1 and this aversion is likely to increase rather than decrease1 regardless of the care that a ,socialistic society will bestow upon pregnant women and mothers4 ,this is the main reason why1 in our opinion1 the increase of population is likely to progress more slowly in ,socialistic society than it does in bourgeois society4 ,our ,malthusians assuredly have no cause to rack their brains in regard to the increase of population in the future4 ,until now1 nations have been ruined by a diminution of their numbers1 but never yet by an excess4 ,in a society1 living according to natural laws1 the number of the population will ultimately be regulated without harmful abstinence1 or unnatural preventive measures4 ,karl ,marx will be vindicated on this subject also4 ,his conception1 that every economic period of development has its special law of population1 will prove true under the rule of ,socialism4 ,in a book on 8,the ,artificial ,limitation of ,progeny10 ,h4 ,ferdy sets forth the following opinion3 8,the strong opposition of ,socialists to ,malthusianism is a piece of roguery4 ,the rapid increase of the population favors pauperization of the masses and fosters discontent4 ,if the over-population could be checked1 the spread of ,socialism would come to an end1 and the ,socialist state with all its splendor would be buried forever40 ,here we behold ,malthusianism as a new weapon for combatting ,socialism4#bhc ,dr4 ,adolf ,wagner is one of those who are in fear of over-population1 and1 therefore1 favor restriction of the freedom of marriage and freedom of settlement1 especially in the case of workingmen4 ,he bewails the fact that workingmen marry too young1 as compared with the middle classes4 ,he and others holding the same views1 overlook that the male members of the middle class do not attain a position until later in life1 that enables them to support a family according to their standard of life4 ,but they seek recompense for this renunciation with prostitution4 ,if marriage is made more difficult for the workingmen also1 they will be driven upon the same devious path4 ,but1 then1 do not let us complain of the results1 and cry out at the 8decline of ethics and morality40 ,neither let us grow indignant1 then1 if men and women1--since the natural impulses reside1 in women as in men1--if men and women satisfy their natural impulse in illegitimate relations1 and if hosts of illegitimate children populate town and country4 ,but the views of ,wagner1 and those who agree with him1 are also averse to the interests of the bourgeoisie and to the interests of our economic development that requires a large supply of 8hands0 in order to possess forces that enable competition on the world market4 ,by petty1 shortsighted suggestions1 born of retrogressive and philistine minds1 the evils of the age cannot be cured4 ,at the dawn of the twentieth century there is no class and no power of the state that is strong enough to retard the natural evolution of society4 ,every attempt is bound to fail4 ,the current of evolution is so strong that it overcomes every obstacle4 ,not backward1 but 8forward10 is the word1 and he who believes in retarding progress fools himself4 ,in ,socialistic society1 when mankind will be placed upon a natural basis1 and will be truly free1 man will consciously guide his own development4 ,in all preceding epochs1 man acted in regard to production and distribution1 and in regard to the increase of population1 without any knowledge of their underlying laws2 he1 therefore1 acted unconsciously4 ,in the new society man will act consciously and methodically1 knowing the laws of his own development4 ,socialism is science applied to all realms of human activity4 #bhc ,the immense ignorance of the ,socialist-killer1 ,ferdy1 is most clearly seen from the following sentences1 perpetrated on page #dj of his book3 8,the ,socialists will go further in their demands than the ,neo-,malthusians4 ,they will demand that the minimum wage be so fixed that every workingman can beget the largest possible number of children according to the social supply of food4 ,as soon as ,socialism has drawn its ultimate conclusions and private property has been abolished1 even the most stupid would soon begin to question3 why should ,i work longer and harder because my neighbor chooses to thrust a dozen new members into society80 ,it would be well to know the ,a ,b ,c of ,socialism before venturing to write about it and such utter nonsense as that6 ,conclusion4 ,we have shown1 in the course of our argumentation1 that the realization of ,socialism does not imply arbitrary destruction and construction1 but a process of historical evolution4 ,all factors active in the process of destruction1 on the one hand1 and in the process of construction on the other1 act as they are bound to act4 ,neither 8brilliant statesmen0 nor 8demagogues who incite the people10 can direct matters at their will4 ,they believe that they are pushing1 and are being pushed1 themselves4 ,but the day of fulfilment is not distant4 ,in the course of these expositions1 we have frequently referred to an over-production of goods that leads to crises1 a phenomenon peculiar to bourgeois society1 that was not met with at any previous stage of development4 ,but bourgeois society does not only create an over-production of goods and workers1 but also an over-production of intelligence4 ,germany is the classic land where this over-production of intelligence takes place on a large scale1 intelligence that the bourgeois world no longer knows how to employ4 ,a condition that has for centuries been regarded as a misfortune to ,german development1 has been instrumental in producing this phenomenon4 ,it was the great number of small states that impeded the development of capitalism on a large scale4 ,the large number of small states decentralized the intellectual life of the nation by creating many small centers of intellectual life1 that exercised their influence upon the whole country4 ,in comparison with a single central government the numerous states required a very large official apparatus1 for whose members a higher education was needful4 ,so a larger number of high schools and universities sprang up than in any other ,european country4 ,the ambition and jealousy of the various governments played an important part in this development4 ,it was the same when some of the governments began to introduce obligatory public education4 ,in these instances the desire not to be excelled by the neighboring state has had a good effect4 ,the demand for intelligence rose when increasing education1 hand in hand with the material advance of the bourgeoisie1 awoke a desire for political action1 for popular representation and self-government4 ,the governmental bodies were small and represented only small countries and districts1 but they caused the sons of the upper classes to covet seats in them and to adapt their education accordingly4 ,as it was with science1 so with art4 ,no other country of ,europe has1 in proportion to its size1 so large a number of artists1 so many art-schools and technical schools1 so many museums and art collections1 as ,germany4 ,other countries may have a greater accumulation of art in their capitals1 but no other country possesses such a distribution of art thruout its entire realm4 ,only ,italy can vie with it4 ,this entire development led to a deepening of the ,german intellect4 ,the absence of great political struggles gave people time and leisure1 as it were1 to lead a contemplative life4 ,while other nations wrestled for the control of the world market1 divided the earth among themselves1 and carried on great internal political struggles1 the ,germans quietly remained at home1 dreaming and philosophizing4 ,but this dreaming and philosophizing1 favored by a climate that necessitated hard work and a domestic life1 gave the ,germans that keen1 observing intellect that distinguished them after they had awakened4 ,while the ,english bourgeoisie had won a determining influence over the state as early as the middle of the seventeenth century1 and the ,french bourgeoisie had come into power at the close of the eighteenth century1 it was not until #ahdh that the ,german bourgeoisie succeeded in winning a very modest influence over the powers of the state4 ,but the year #ahdh was the year of birth of the ,german bourgeoisie as a self-conscious class1 that entered the arena as an independent1 political party1 represented by 8liberalism40 ,here1 too1 the peculiar nature of ,german development manifested itself4 ,the leading men were not manufacturers1 merchants1 men of commerce and finance1 but chiefly professors1 writers1 jurists and doctors of all academic faculties4 ,they were the ,german ideologists1 and their work was shaped accordingly4 ,after #ahdh the bourgeoisie was1 for the time being1 silenced politically2 but they employed the time of political graveyard tranquility during the fifties to promote their task all the more thoroly4 ,the outbreak of the ,austro-,italian war1 and the beginning of the ,regency in ,prussia1 caused the bourgeoisie again to reach out after political power4 ,the movement for national unity 78,nationalverein07 began4 ,the bourgeoisie was too far developed to tolerate any longer the numerous political barriers1 that were also economic barriers1 between the various states4 ,they threatened to become revolutionary4 ,bismarck grasped the situation1 and made use of it in his way to reconcile the interests of the bourgeoisie with the interests of the ,prussian monarchy1 toward which the bourgeoisie had never been hostile1 as it feared the revolution and the masses4 ,finally the barriers fell that had prevented its material development4 ,aided by ,germany's wealth in coal and minerals1 and by the presence of an intelligent1 but easily contented working class1 the bourgeoisie1 within a few years1 attained such a gigantic development1 as has not been attained by the bourgeoisie of any other country in an equally short time1 with the exception of the ,united ,states4 ,thus ,germany quickly came to hold the second place in ,europe as an industrial and commercial state1 and she is anxious to obtain the first4 ,but this rapid material development has its dark side also4 ,the system of seclusion that had existed among all ,german states1 until national unity was established1 had insured the existence of a very numerous class of small mechanics and farmers4 ,when all protective barriers were suddenly torn down1 this class was confronted by the unbridled development of the capitalistic process of production4 ,as a result their position became a desperate one4 ,the period of prosperity at the beginning of the seventies made the danger appear less great at first1 but it became all the more noticeable when the crisis set in4 ,the bourgeoisie had utilized the period of prosperity for its fullest development1 and by excessive production created a ten-fold pressure4 ,from now on the chasm between the propertied and the non-propertied classes was rapidly and tremendously widened4 ,this process of absorption and decomposition1 that is accomplished more and more rapidly1 favored by the increase of material power on the one hand1 and by a decline of the power of resistance on the other1 is intensifying the distress of entire strata of the population4 ,they find their position becoming more and more precarious and their ruin certain4 ,in this desperate struggle many seek salvation in a change of their profession4 ,the old people cannot accomplish this change any more1 and only in rare cases are they able to leave a fortune to their children1 so they make desperate efforts and employ their last means to obtain for their sons and daughters positions with a fixed income1 that require no capital4 ,these are the civil service positions in the empire1 states and municipalities1 teaching1 positions connected with the postal and railway service1 the higher positions in the service of the bourgeoisie in offices1 stores and factories as clerks1 managers1 chemists1 technicists1 engineers1 constructors1 etc41 and also the so-called liberal professions3 jurists1 physicians1 theologians1 writers1 artists1 architects1 teachers1 etc4 ,thousands upon thousands who would formerly have taken up a trade1 now seek professional positions1 because there is no longer any possibility of maintaining an independent and decent livelihood by practicing a trade4 ,all strive for learning and a higher education4 ,high schools1 colleges and polytechnical institutes spring up like mushrooms1 and the existing ones are overcrowded4 ,in the same measure the number of students at the universities increases1 and the number of scholars in physical and chemical laboratories1 in art schools1 in trade and commercial schools1 in the higher institutions of learning for women1 etc4 ,all departments1 without exception1 are over-crowded1 and the stream is still rising4 ,new demands are constantly being made for the establishment of colleges and higher institutions of learning1 to accommodate the large number of pupils and students4 ,officials and private persons issue warnings upon warnings1 now against the study of one subject and then against the study of another4 ,even theology1 7that formerly threatened to dry out on account of a lack of candidates7 now receives its share of blessings from the abundance and finds its positions filled again4 8,i will preach belief in ten thousand gods and devils1 if required1 only give me a position that will support me10 is the general cry4 ,sometimes the respective ministers even refuse to give their consent to the establishment of new educational institutions1 8because the ones in existence amply supply the demand for candidates in all departments40 ,this state of affairs is rendered more severe by the fact that the competitive and destructive struggle of the bourgeoisie among themselves1 compels many of their sons to seek public positions4 ,moreover1 the steadily growing standing army1 with its mass of officers1 whose promotion is exceedingly slow during a long period of peace1 causes many of them to be pensioned during the best years of their lives1 and these1 aided by the state1 seek employment in all kinds of official positions4 ,the great number of candidates for civil service positions1 from lower grades of the army1 rob other strata of their living4 ,to this must1 furthermore1 be added that the swarm of imperial state and municipal officials of all degrees1 educate1 and must educate1 their children mainly for professions1 like the ones enumerated above4 ,the social position1 education and requirements of these classes make it necessary to withhold their children from the so-called lower occupations1 but these1 as a matter of fact1 are over-crowded also4 ,the system of one-year voluntary service in the army1 that1 upon the attainment of a certain degree of education and a certain material sacrifice1 permits young men to complete their military service in one year instead of in two or three1 also increases the number of candidates for offices and positions4 ,there are1 especially1 many sons of wealthy peasants who do not care to return to their native villages and the professions of their fathers4 ,as a result of all these circumstances1 the proletariat of scholars and artists and of the so-called liberal professions1 is more numerous in ,germany than in any other country4 ,this proletariat is constantly increasing1 and is bearing the fermentation and dissatisfaction with existing conditions into the highest strata of society4 ,this youth is aroused and incited to a criticism of the existing order1 and helps to hasten the general decomposition4 ,so these conditions have brought about that the ,german ,social ,democracy took the leadership in the gigantic struggle of the future4 ,german ,socialists were the ones to discover the laws underlying modern social development1 and to demonstrate scientifically that ,socialism will be the coming form of society4 ,karl ,marx and ,frederick ,engels took the lead4 ,they were followed by ,ferdinand ,lassalle1 whose agitation fired the masses4 ,german ,socialists have also been the pioneers of ,socialistic thought among the workingmen of other countries4 ,half a century ago1 ,buckle wrote1 as a result of his studies of ,german education and culture1 that ,germany possessed a number of the greatest scholars1 but that in no other country1 the gulf between the class of scholars and the mass of the people were equally great4 ,this was true of ,germany1 as long as science was limited to that circle of scholars who stood aloof from that practical life4 ,but1 since ,germany has been revolutionized economically1 science has been pressed into the service of practical life4 ,science itself became practical4 ,people began to recognize that science attained its full value only when it helped to promote the comforts of life4 ,the development of capitalistic production on a large scale forced this recognition upon us4 ,as a result1 all branches of knowledge have been democratized in ,germany during the last decade4 ,the great number of young men trained for the practice of learned professions1 have helped to carry science among the people1 and the general education1 that has attained a higher degree in ,germany1 than in most other countries1 has disseminated many products of the intellect among the masses4 ,but the ,socialist movement1 especially1 with its literature1 its newspapers1 its societies and meetings1 its parliamentary representation and its constantly practiced criticism on all fields of public life1 has considerably raised the intellectual level of the masses4 ,the exceptional laws enacted against the ,social ,democrats 7from #ahgh to #ahij7 have in no wise changed this4 ,they merely hemmed in the movement to some extent1 and slackened its pace4 ,but they also helped to make the movement more profound1 and to arouse much bitterness against the ruling classes and the powers of the state4 ,the final repeal of the exceptional laws was only due to the development of the ,social ,democratic ,party1 under these laws1 and to the economic development of the nation4 ,thus the movement is progressing1 as it must progress1 under the given circumstances4 ,as the ,socialist movement has progressed in ,germany1 it has also progressed1 beyond all expectations1 in other states of the civilized world4 ,the international congresses of labor1 whose attendance is constantly increasing1 furnish an eloquent proof of this progress4 ,so the great war of the minds has begun in all civilized countries of the world1 and is being waged with the greatest ardor4 ,beside the social sciences1 the wide realm of the natural sciences1 hygiene1 history and philosophy1 furnish the weapons for this war4 ,the foundations of existing conditions are attached on all sides1 and the strongest blows are directed against the pillars of the old rgime4 ,revolutionary thoughts penetrate the most conservative circles1 and create confusion in the camp of our enemies4 ,artisans and scholars1 farmers and artists1 merchants and officers1 even manufacturers and bankers1 in short1 men of all positions1 join the workingmen1 who form the bulk of that great army that is striving for victory1 and is bound to win it4 ,all mutually support and supplement each other4 ,woman1 too1 and especially the proletarian woman1 has been called upon1 not to lag behind in this struggle that is being fought for her liberation and redemption also4 ,it is up to her to prove that she has recognized her true position in the movement1 and in the struggle of the present for a better future1 and that she is determined to participate4 ,it is the duty of the men to help her to cast aside all prejudices and to take part in the great struggle4 ,let no one underestimate his strength1 and think that his help is of no consequence4 ,in the struggle for the progress of mankind1 no power1 not even the weakest1 can be spared4 ,the steady fall of drops will finally hollow the hardest stone4 ,many drops make a brook1 the brooks make a river1 and the rivers make a stream4 ,finally1 no obstacle is strong enough to hem the stream's majestic course4 ,it is the same with the development of man4 ,if all who feel called upon devote their whole strength to this struggle1 the ultimate victory will be certain4 ,this victory will be all the greater1 the more eagerly and unselfishly each one pursues the mapped out path4 ,doubts1 whether the individual for all his sacrifices1 toils and efforts1 may still live to see the dawn of a new1 more beautiful period of civilization1 must not effect us1 nor must they prevent us from pursuing the chosen path4 ,we can neither determine the length1 nor the nature of the phases of development1 that this struggle for the highest aims must still pass thru2 we can do this as little as we have any certainty in regard to the duration of our lives4 ,but as we are dominated by the joy of living1 so may we also cherish the hope that we may live to see this victory4 ,we are living in an age that rushes forward 8with seven league boots10 and that makes all enemies of a new1 higher order of society tremble4 ,every day furnishes new proof of the rapid growth1 and the tremendous spread of ,socialist thought4 ,everywhere there is motion and progress4 ,the dawn of a better day is drawing nigh4 ,so let us struggle and strive onward1 regardless of 8where0 and 8when0 the boundary-posts of a new and better age for mankind will be raised4 ,if we should fall in the course of this great struggle for liberation1 others will take our place4 ,we will fall with the consciousness of having done our duty as human beings1 and with the conviction that the goal will be attained1 no matter how the powers hostile to humanity may oppose and resist the triumphal march of progress4 8,the future belongs to ,socialism1 that is1 primarily1 to the worker and to woman40 ,transcriber's ,notes3 ,the texts of pages #cfe and #cff 7part of ,chapter ,,xx1 ,section #a7 are out of order in the original4 ,the texts of these pages are in the correct order in this e-text4 ,the list of ,contents has been moved from the end of the book4 ,headings and page numbers have been matched to those in the main text4 ,the styling of headings has been made consistent4 ,missing section numbers in section headings have been supplied4 ,to fit the width restriction for this text version1 some tables have been reformatted and_/or split4 ,errors in punctuation have been corrected4 ,no changes to the numerical figures and words in the text1 including those with inconsistent hyphenation and variant spellings1 have been made except those listed below4 ,changes involving footnote markers and table column headings have been made based on the #fbnd ,german edition 7published #aigc74 ,page #be1 8goddesses0 changed from 8godesses0 7goddesses ,astarte1 ,demeter72 8,isis0 from 8,iris0 7,latona1 ,isis1 ,frigga74 ,page #bf1 8,andombies0 changed from 8,audombies0 7,andombies on the ,congo74 ,page #bh1 8antiquity0 changed from 8anitquity0 7states of antiquity72 8necessitated0 from 8ncessitated0 7necessitated special knowledge74 ,page #cd1 8,thesmophoria0 changed from 8,thermophoria0 7celebration of the ,thesmophoria74 ,page #cf1 8,eumenides0 changed from 8,euminedes0 7the ,eumenides reply74 ,page #dj1 marker for footnote #ac was inserted 7by ,aristophanes1#ac74 ,page #dc1 8,athens'0 changed from 8,athen's0 7,athens' greatest rival72 8across0 from 8acros0 7across the ,taygetus74 ,page #dd1 8,isis0 changed from 8,iris0 7,egyptian festivals of ,isis74 ,page #dh1 8furthermore0 changed from 8furthemore0 7can furthermore be gathered72 8,araucanians0 from 8,araunanians0 7among the ,araucanians74 ,page #di1 8,tarnowsky0 changed from 8,tarnowsgy0 7,tarnowsky was told74 ,page #eb1 8,nabataeans0 changed from 8,nabastaeans0 7,nabataeans1 an ,arabian tribe72 8,rechabites0 from 8,rachebites0 7,among the ,rechabites74 ,page #ec1 8trampled0 changed from 8trampeled0 7and trampled upon74 ,page #ed1 8adulteriis0 changed from 8adultriis0 7lex ,julia de adulteriis74 ,page #ei1 8neighbor's0 changed from 8neighbors0 7that is his neighbor's74 ,pages #gc-gd1 8praiseworthy0 changed from 8praisworthy0 7this praiseworthy town74 ,page #gd1 8maintenance0 changed from 8maintainance0 7maintenance of brothels74 ,page #ic1 8harassing0 changed from 8harrassing0 7harassing and persecution72 8intellectual0 from 8intellectuel0 7their intellectual horizon74 ,page #ig1 8develop0 changed from 8devlop0 7to develop normally74 ,page #ih1 8knowledge0 changed from 8konwledge0 7we decry knowledge74 ,page #ajd1 8,mill0 changed from 8,mills0 7,john ,stuart ,mill says in regard74 ,page #aje1 8,atheneum0 changed from 8,antheneum0 7fragments of #8,atheneum'74 ,page #aaa1 8,mill0 changed from 8,mills0 7,john ,stuart ,mill says3 8,men74 ,page #aaf1 8twenty0 changed from 8tweny0 7be twenty and74 ,page #abg1 8strata0 changed from 8starta0 7and other strata74 ,page #acd1 8#dga1eai0 changed from 8#dga-eai0 7and #dga1eai in #ahii74 ,page #acf1 8illegitimate0 changed from 8illigitimate0 7their illegitimate relations72 8thirtieth0 from 8thirthieth0 7attained the thirtieth year72 8,constantinople0 from 8,contanstinople0 7,in #ahgb at ,constantinople74 ,page #acg1 8#bbcf0 changed from 8#bbbcf0 7from #aijb to #aijf1 #bbcf74 ,page #ach1 8interdite0 changed from 8enterdite0 7paternit est interdite72 8conu pendant0 from 8concupendant0 7,l'enfant conu pendant74 ,page #aci1 8retrogressive0 changed from 8retogressive0 7a retrogressive one74 ,page #adj1 8abortions0 changed from 8obortions0 7of criminal abortions74 ,page #adh1 8characteristics0 changed from 8charactecistics0 7that these characteristics74 ,page #aej1 8equally0 changed from 8equaly0 7are equally ignorant74 ,page #aec1 8physician0 changed from 8physican0 7the physician must74 ,page #aed1 8characteristics0 changed from 8charecteristics0 7differences and characteristics74 ,page #aee1 8than0 changed from 8that0 7more women than men74 ,page #aeg1 table1 supplied missing first comma in 8#agd1iad1aai04 ,page #afe1 8revolution0 changed from 8revolntion0 7a complete revolution74 ,page #afi1 8lowered0 changed from 8lowerred0 7has been somewhat lowered72 8pensioners0 from 8pensioneers0 7pensioners with their families74 ,page #aga1 second table1 8#ibe0 changed from 8#bbe02 8#ajjh0 from 8#jjh04 ,page #agd1 8strongly0 changed from 8stongly0 7particularly strongly at74 ,page #age1 8innate0 changed from 8inate0 7an innate vice74 ,page #agf1 the sentence 8,but they do not draw 444 conditions40 is bold only up to 8different0 in the original4 ,page #ahb1 8associates0 changed from 8asociates0 7everyone who associates74 ,page #ahh1 8afflicted0 changed from 8afflcted0 7afflicted with this disease72 8secrets0 from 8secets0 7reveal their secrets74 ,page #ahi1 8tournament0 changed from 8tournamentt0 7eel-catching tournament74 ,page #aib1 8,buenos0 changed from 8,buneos0 7and ,buenos ,ayres72 inserted 8to0 in 8paid to the agents04 ,page #bja1 8dsigns0 changed from 8designs0 7ils seront dsigns72 8,aucune0 from 8,aucunne0 7,aucune autre qualification74 ,page #bjc1 8,bertillon0 changed from 8,bertillion0 7,bertillon claims1 that74 ,page #bje1 8appalling0 changed from 8apalling0 7reveal appalling facts74 ,page #bjf1 8increased0 changed from 8in creased0 7have increased by74 ,page #bjg1 8about0 changed from 8abo t0 7about one-fifth72 8gonorrhoea0 from 8gonorrheoa0 7about one-fifth1 become diseased with gonorrhoea72 8unmarried0 from 8unmaried0 7of unmarried life74 ,page #bjh1 8,russia0 changed from 8,rusia0 7,russia1 #dj4e72 changed periods in 8#aba4ee0 and 8#aba4id0 from commas 7in #aije #aba4ee cases and in #aijf #aba4id cases74 ,page #baa1 table1 supplied missing period in 8#fa4a04 ,page #bab1 table key1 footnote marker #abf inserted after row heading 8,united ,states of ,america04 ,page #bac1 footnote marker #abh inserted after 8to the entire population40 ,page #bac1 table column heading1 8persons0 changed from 8person0 7,of #ajj persons gainfully employed74 ,page #bae1 first table1 80 sign before 8#afb1jdi0 changed from 80 sign2 supplied unclear fifth digit 8#i0 in 8#ahj1fij02 supplied missing third digit 8#i0 in 8#agi1aec04 ,page #bae1 second table key1 row heading 8,independent0 changed from 8,indepent04 ,page #bae1 third table1 supplied respective second1 third1 and fifth column headings 8#aijg01 8#ahie01 and 802 changed period in 8#ba4gg0 from comma4 ,page #bag1 first table1 supplied heading 8#aija0 for third column2 8manufacture0 changed from 8manufacfacture0 7manufacture of machinery74 ,page #bah1 8good0 changed from 8goed0 7a good wage74 ,page #bai1 table1 data 8#b4j0 changed from 8#j4f04 ,page #bbd1 8#f0 changed from 8#d0 7#c4ge to #f74 ,page #bbe1 second table1 fifth row1 supplied missing period in 8#b4ej04 ,page #bbi1 8preceded0 changed from 8preceeded0 7preceded by an operation72 8paraffine0 from 8peraffine0 7quinine1 soda1 paraffine74 ,page #bcj1 8degeneration0 changed from 8deegneration0 7increase of immorality1 degeneration72 8mortality0 from 8morality0 7and infant mortality74 ,page #bcb1 8object0 changed from 8obejct0 7object of hatred74 ,page #bdb1 8narrow-chested0 changed from 8narow-chested0 7small1 narrow-chested74 ,page #bdg1 8narrower0 changed from 8narower0 7narrower vascular system72 8possesses0 from 8possessses0 7that he possesses74 ,page #bdh1 8would0 changed from 8wonld0 7would not differ74 ,page #bdi1 8,gauss0 changed from 8,ganss0 7famous mathematician ,gauss74 ,page #bej1 8independent0 changed from 8dependent0 7independent of one another74 ,page #beb1 8otherwise0 changed from 8othrwise0 7what otherwise remains74 ,page #beh1 8make0 changed from 8maks0 7so they make desperate efforts74 ,page #bfa1 8,abyssinia0 changed from 8,abysinnia0 7,india1 ,abyssinia1 ,persia74 ,page #bfb1 8dentistry0 changed from 8dentristry0 7medicine and dentistry72 8enumerated0 from 8ennumerated0 7were already enumerated72 8the0 from 8they0 7that the girls' colleges74 ,page #bff1 8successor0 changed from 8successer0 7appointed his successor74 ,page #bgc1 8admitted0 changed from 8admited0 7unmarried women were admitted74 ,page #bgi1 8patriarchal0 changed from 8patriarchial0 7the patriarchal superiority74 ,page #bha1 8,ursins0 changed from 8,ursin0 7,princess of ,ursins74 ,page #bhi1 8organized0 changed from 8orgainzed0 7the territory was organized74 ,page #bic1 8administration0 changed from 8adminstration0 7in the administration of schools74 ,page #bif1 8same0 changed from 8asme0 7and be elected to same72 8,british0 from 8,birtish0 7the ,british colony74 ,page #big1 8permitted0 changed from 8permittel0 7permitted to exercise74 ,page #bii1 8possessions0 changed from 8possesions0 7and no possessions72 8favor0 from 8faver0 7compels them to favor74 ,page #cje1 8reorganization0 changed from 8reorgainzation0 7,a thorough reorganization74 ,page #cji1 8subsistence0 changed from 8subsistance0 7of its means of subsistence74 ,page #cac1 80 inserted before 8#a1bae1jjj1jjj02 8million0 changed from 8milion0 7#af to #bj million men72 in 8uncontrollable and indirigible01 8uncon0 not bold in the original4 ,page #caf1 8committed0 changed from 8commited0 7worst crimes are committed74 ,page #cag1 8penalties0 changed from 8penalities0 7with severe penalties74 ,page #cba1 first table1 supplied missing 8#i0 in column heading 8#ahie02 supplied missing second to the last 8#a0 in 8#b1cch1eaa02 supplied missing period in 8#aba4df02 supplied missing comma in 8#dcb1dia02 supplied missing second 8#g0 in 8#dgg1fie04 ,page #cba1 second table1 supplied missing second 8#f0 in 8#bf1chf1ecg04 ,page #cbe1 8number0 changed from 8uumber0 7we find that their number74 ,page #cbg1 8,wurtemberg0 changed from 8,wurtemburg0 7excluding ,bavaria1 ,wurtemberg74 ,page #cbg1 second table1 supplied third column heading 8,commercial04 ,this heading reads 8,darunter gewerbliche0 in the ,german #fbnd edition4 ,page #ccf1 inserted 8per cent40 in 8#hd4c per cent4 of all taxpayers04 ,pages #ccf-ccg1 syllable 8in0 in 8income of more than 444 taxpayers0 is not bold in the original4 ,page #cch1 8insidiously0 changed from 8insiduously0 7and insidiously disparaging74 ,page #cdf1 8wherever0 changed from 8whereever0 7,but wherever the control74 ,page #cdh1 8affect0 changed from 8effect0 7affect the peasant as well74 ,page #cdi1 8affected0 changed from 8effected0 7has affected the rural districts74 ,page #ced1 8other0 changed from 8ohter0 7in other districts74 ,page #ceg1 8,windischgraetz0 changed from 8,windischgraatz0 7,alfred ,windischgraetz74 ,page #cei1 8humidity0 changed from 8humiditty0 7decrease in humidity74 ,page #cfj1 8,samara0 changed from 8,ssamara0 7district of ,samara72 8,buguruslan0 from 8,buguruslaw0 7district of ,buguruslan72 8,novousensk0 from 8,novausensk0 7,nikolajewsk and ,novousensk72 8,with0 from 8,wtih0 7,with the cutting down74 ,page #cfb1 8meteorological0 changed from 8meterological0 7meteorological and political72 8dluge0 from 8deluge0 7,aprs nous le dluge674 ,page #cff1 8organization0 changed from 8orgainzation0 7an organization is required74 ,page #cfg1 8c'est0 changed from 8cst0 7,l'tat c'est moi72 8reipublicae0 from 8reipublica0 7,salus reipublicae suprema lex esto74 ,page #cgc1 8possesses0 changed from 8posseses0 7commerce also possesses74 ,page #cgd1 8statistically0 changed from 8statistictlly0 7been statistically determined74 ,page #cge1 8endeavour0 changed from 8endeavours0 7people will endeavour74 ,page #cgi1 8,hertzka0 changed from 8,hertza0 7,hertzka also takes74 ,page #chb1 8and0 changed from 8nad0 7institutions and appliances74 ,page #chf1 exchanged positions of footnote markers #bai and #bbj4 ,page #cib1 8artificially0 changed from 8artifically0 7produced grape-sugar artificially74 ,page #cif1 8and0 changed from 8nad0 7crises1 and unemployment74 ,page #cig1 8suffice0 changed from 8sufficice0 7would not suffice to satisfy74 ,page #cii1 8questions0 changed from 8quetsions0 7one of the questions74 ,page #dje1 8bazaars0 changed from 8bazzars0 7elegant bazaars74 ,page #djf1 supplied missing 8c0 in 8municipalities0 7for entire municipalities74 ,page #dab1 8#abd1jjj0 changed from 8#abd4jjj0 7investment of #abd1jjj marks74 ,page #dac1 8,pomerania0 changed from 8,pommerania0 7of ,russia and ,pomerania74 ,page #dag1 8oat-grinders0 changed from 8oat-ginders0 7oat-grinders1 etc474 ,page #dai1 8succeeded0 changed from 8succeded0 7succeeded in removing74 ,page #dbj1 8than0 changed from 8that0 7make better flour than that74 ,page #dbc1 inserted 8will0 in 8material will be saved04 ,page #dbe1 8generator0 changed from 8generater0 7an artificial generator72 8drought0 from 8draught0 7safeguard against drought74 ,page #dcg1 8progresses0 changed from 8pregresses0 7human development progresses74 ,page #deb1 8our children capable of its real enjoyment4 ,an edu0 in 8certain of obtaining 444 wealth40 is not bold in the original4 ,page #dec1 8suppression0 changed from 8suppresison0 7suppression of one's72 deleted duplicated 8the0 in 8from the present point of view04 ,page #ded1 8difference0 changed from 8dlfference0 7difference of opinions74 ,page #dei1 8,pawlow0 changed from 8,pavlow0 7,russian physiologist1 ,pawlow74 ,page #dfa1 8measure0 changed from 8measue0 7measure in which civilization74 ,page #dfe1 8answer0 changed from 8ansewr0 7we could answer72 8necessary0 from 8necsssary0 7similar necessary tasks74 ,page #dgj1 8marriage0 changed from 8marirage0 7hypocrites in marriage72 8irrefutably0 from 8irrefutibly0 7we have irrefutably proved74 ,page #dga1 8,schopenhauer0 changed from 8,schoppenhauer0 7pessimism of ,schopenhauer74 ,page #dgi1 8principal0 changed from 8principle0 7first1 and principal means74 ,page #dhj1 8affected0 changed from 8effected0 7,these changes especially affected74 ,page #dha1 8bourgeoisie0 changed from 8bourgoisie0 7,for the ,english bourgeoisie74 ,page #dif1 8reproductive0 changed from 8reproductiive0 7on reproductive ability74 ,page #ejd1 8commercial0 changed from 8commerical0 7and commercial schools74 ,footnote #bh1 8,yves0 changed from 8,yoes0 7,yves ,guyot74 ,footnote #eb1 8,mayer0 changed from 8,meyr0 7,george v4 ,mayer74 ,footnote #fi1 8dtruit0 changed from 8detruit0 7empire est dtruit74 ,footnote #gj1 table1 supplied respective second and third column headings 8,women0 and 8,men04 ,footnote #hc1 8,hygiene0 changed from 8,hygienne0 7,text ,book of ,hygiene74 ,footnote #hd1 8,th40 changed from 8,h40 7,th4 ,bade74 ,footnote #hi1 8,severus0 changed from 8,severns0 7,dr4 ,h4 ,severus74 ,footnote #ii1 8institutions0 changed from 8institutioons0 7benefit fund institutions74 ,footnote #afb1 8strength0 changed from 8strenght0 7size and strength74 ,footnote #ahb1 8subtlety0 changed from 8sublety0 7,with that subtlety74 ,footnote #ahh1 8mobilires0 changed from 8mobilirs0 7des valeurs mobilires74 ,footnote #ahi1 8,aristotle0 changed from 8,aristotel0 7,aristotle says74 ,footnote #bjf1 8,rau's0 changed from 8,raus's0 7first adaption of ,rau's74 ,footnote #bcd1 8,mill0 changed from 8,mills0 7,mill has honestly tried74 ,footnote #bcf1 8that0 changed from 8tht0 7that will disappear74 ,footnote #bdf1 8,delbrueck0 changed from 8,delbruek0 7,dr4 ,max ,delbrueck74 ,footnote #bdg1 8,bernthsen0 changed from 8,benthsen0 7,according to ,prof4 ,bernthsen74 ,footnote #beb1 8,philosophy0 changed from 8,philisophy0 7,philosophy of ,law74 ,footnote #beg1 8society0 changed from 8socity0 7society would introduce72 8arbitrarily0 from 8arbitrarely0 7arbitrarily created74 ,footnote #bei1 8#aijg0 changed from 8#ajig0 7,stuttgart1 #aijg74 ,footnote #bfd1 8society0 changed from 8socitey0 7treated in bourgeois society874 ,some portions of the text that appear to be typographical errors are printed as such in the original book4 ,a list of these possible misprints follows3 ,page #cg1 8gynacontis0 apparent typo for 8gynaiconitis0 or 8gynaikonitis04 ,page #baf1 the sentence ,it is especially noteworthy that during #ahha1 the year of a crisis1 the number of men emparent one1 since most of the wives and daughters of number of women employed increased by #hj1fch4 is apparent typo for ,it is especially noteworthy that during #ahha1 the year of a crisis1 the number of men employed decreased compared to #ahga by #dhf1edj persons and the number of women employed increased by #hj1fch4 ,in the ,german #fbnd edition1 the corresponding sentence reads 8,besonders bemerkenswert ist in der ,tabelle1 da1 obgleich im ,jahre #ahha1 das ein ,krisenjahr war1 die ,zahl der beschftigten mnnlichen ,personen im ,vergleich zu #ahga um #dhf4edj ,kpfe abnahm1 die ,zahl der weiblichen um #hj4fch zunahm40 ,page #cbc1 table1 the following data are apparent typos3 8#g1dgd1jdf0 for 8#e1dgd1jdf0 8#d1cch1abc0 for 8#d1dch1abc0 8#e1cij1bhh0 for 8#e1dij1bhh0 8#i1jga1jig0 for 8#i1jci1jig0 8#ab1haf1eeb0 for 8#ab1ghd1eeb0 8#ac1fid1afj0 for 8#aa1dac1hib0 8#d1afa1ifa0 for 8#f1dbb1bbi0 8#ag1hef1aba0 for 8#ag1hcf1aba0 ,page #chg1 apparently missing 8an hour0 or 8per hour0 after 8speed of #bja kilometers01 8#bjh kilometers01 and 8speed of #bjj kilometers04