,transcriber's note3 ,table of ,contents added by ,transcriber4 ,,contents ,chapters on the ,stars #bbg ,preventive ,inoculation4 7,,ii47 #bdj ,colonies and the ,mother ,country4 7,,ii47 #bdh ,technical ,education at the ,massachusetts ,institute of ,technology #beg ,the ,psychology of ,crazes #bhe ,some ,phases of the ,earth's ,development in the ,light of ,recent ,chemical ,research #bie ,a ,preliminary ,account of the ,solar ,eclipse of ,may #bh1 #aijj1 ,as ,observed by the ,smithsonian ,expedition #cjb ,malaria and the ,malarial ,parasite #caj ,new ,sources of ,light and of ,rntgen ,rays #cah ,discussion and ,correspondence #cbc ,scientific ,literature #cbg ,the ,progress of ,science #ccb ,,the ,,popular ,,science ,,monthly ,,edited ,,by ,j4 ,mc,k,e,e,n ,,cattell ,,vol4 ,,lvii ,,may ,,to ,,october1 #aijj ,,new ,,york ,,and ,,london ,mc,c,l,u,r,e1 ,,phillips ,,and ,,company #aijj ,,copyright1 #aijj1 ,,by ,mc,c,l,u,r,e1 ,,phillips ,,and ,,company4 ,illustration3 ,,president ,g4 ,k4 ,,gilbert1 ,,american ,,association ,,for ,,the ,,advancement ,,of ,,science4 ,,the ,,popular ,,science ,,monthly4 ,,july1 #aijj4 ,,chapters ,,on ,,the ,,stars4 ,,by ,,professor ,,simon ,,newcomb4 ,i4 ,,introductory4 ,it would be difficult to name any subject of investigation1 the progress of which during our time has been more remarkable than that in the field of stellar astronomy4 ,several features of this progress are especially noteworthy4 ,one of these is the mere extension of research4 ,a natural result of the northern hemisphere being the home of civilized peoples was that1 thirty years ago1 the study of the southern heavens had been comparatively neglected4 ,it is true that the curiosity of the inquiring astronomers of the past would not be satisfied without their knowing something of what was to be seen south of the equator4 ,various enterprises and establishments had therefore contributed to our knowledge of the region in question4 ,as far back as #affg1 during a voyage to ,st4 ,helena1 ,halley catalogued the brighter stars in the region near the ,south ,pole4 ,about #agej ,lacaille1 of ,france1 established an observing station at the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 and made a catalogue of several thousand stars which has remained a handy book for the astronomer up to the present time4 ,in #ahcd-ch ,sir ,john ,herschel made a special voyage to the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 armed with the best telescopes which the genius of his father had shown him how to construct1 for the purpose of doing for the southern heavens as much as possible of what his father had done for the northern4 ,the work of this expedition forms one of the most important and interesting chapters in the history of astronomic science4 ,not only is ,herschel's magnificent volume a classic of astronomy1 but the observations which it contains are still as carefully and profitably studied as any that have since been made4 ,they may be said to form the basis of our present knowledge of the region which they included in their scope4 ,herschel's work may be described as principally in the nature of an exploration4 ,he had no instruments for accurately determining the positions of stars4 ,in the latter field the first important contributions after ,lacaille were made by ,sir ,thomas ,brisbane1 ,governor of ,new ,south ,wales1 and ,rumker1 his assistant1 at ,paramata4 ,johnson1 of ,england1 about #ahcj1 introduced modern accuracy into the construction of a rather limited catalogue of stars which he observed at ,st4 ,helena4 ,about the same time the ,british ,government established the observatory at the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 which has maintained its activity to the present time1 though1 at first1 its means were extremely limited4 ,about the middle of the century the ,government of ,new ,south ,wales established1 first at ,williamstown and then at ,melbourne1 an observatory which has worked in the same field with marked success4 ,an ,american enterprise in the same direction was that of ,captain ,james ,m4 ,gilliss1 who1 in #ahdi1 organized an astronomical expedition to ,chili4 ,the principal motive of this enterprise was the determining of the solar parallax by observations upon ,venus and ,mars near the time of their nearest approach to the earth4 ,as these observations would take but a small part of his time1 ,gilliss determined to take with him instruments for determining the positions of the stars4 ,he established his observatory at a point near ,santiago1 where he continued his observations for nearly three years4 ,he was a practical observer1 but an untoward circumstance detracted from the value of his work4 ,his observatory was built upon a rocky eminence1 a foundation which seemed to afford the best possible guarantee of the stability of his instruments4 ,he made no attempt to reduce his observations till after his return home4 ,then it was found that the foundation1 through the expansion and contraction due to the heat of the sun1 was subject to a diurnal change which made it extremely difficult to derive good results from his careful work4 ,it was not until #ahif1 more than thirty years after his death1 that the catalogue of the stars observed by him was at last completed and published4 ,we do not derogate in any way from the merit of these efforts in saying that they could not lead to results comparable with those of the score of richly equipped northern observatories which the leading nations and universities of ,europe had endowed and supported for more than a hundred years4 ,only within the last thirty years has it been possible to bring our knowledge of the southern heavens up to a satisfactory stage4 ,now1 however1 the progress of southern astronomy1 if we may use the term1 is such that in several points our knowledge of the southern heavens surpasses that of the northern ones4 ,if we measure institutions by the importance of the work they are doing1 there are several in the southern hemisphere which must to-day be placed in the first rank4 ,the history and work of the ,cordova ,observatory are of special interest4 ,in #ahgj ,dr4 ,b4 ,a4 ,gould1 who might fairly be considered as the father of modern ,american astronomy1 conceived the idea of establishing an observatory of the first class in ,south ,america4 ,he found the ,president and ,governor of the ,argentine ,republic ready to support his scheme with a liberality well fitted to impress us with a high sense of their standard of civilization4 ,in a year or two the observatory at ,cordova was in active operation4 ,a statement of its work belongs to a subsequent chapter4 ,suffice it to remark here that ,dr4 ,gould continued in active charge until #ahhe1 when he returned home1 and was succeeded by ,thome1 the present director4 ,a few years after ,gould went to ,cordova1 ,gill was made director of the ,royal ,observatory at the ,cape of ,good ,hope4 ,the rapid growth of this institution to one of the first rank is due no less to the scientific ability of the new director than to the unflagging energy which he has devoted to the enlargement of the resources of the institution4 ,the great fact which he sought to impress upon his supporters was that the southern celestial hemisphere was as large as the northern1 and therefore equally worthy of study4 ,in any general review of the progress of stellar astronomy during the past twenty years1 we should find ,harvard ,university before us at every turn4 ,what it has done will be seen1 perhaps in an imperfect way1 in subsequent chapters4 ,not satisfied with the northern hemisphere1 it has established a branch at ,arequipa1 ,peru1 in which its methods of observation and research are extended to the south celestial pole4 ,its principal specialties have been the continuous exploration of the heavens4 ,celestial photography1 photometry and spectroscopy sum up its fields of activity4 ,for more than ten years it might be almost said that a sleepless watch of the heavens has been kept up by an all-seeing photographic eye1 with an accuracy of which the world has hardly had a conception4 ,the completeness with which its work has been done has recently been shown in a striking way4 ,our readers are doubtless acquainted with the singular character of the minor planet ,eros1 whose orbit passes through that of ,mars1 as one link of a chain passes through another1 and which comes nearer the earth at certain times than any other celestial body1 the moon excepted4 ,when the character of the orbit became established1 it was of interest to know whether the planet had ever been observed as a fixed star at former oppositions4 ,chandler1 having computed the path of the planet at the most important of the oppositions1 beginning with #ahib-id1 communicated his results to ,director ,pickering1 and suggested a search of the ,harvard photographs to see if the planet could be found on them4 ,the result was the discovery of the planet upon more than a score of plates taken at various times during the preceding ten years4 ,new stars were formerly supposed to be of very rare occurrence1 but since the ,harvard system of photographing the heavens has been introduced1 no less than three have been known to break out4 ,the great revelations of our times have come through the application of the spectroscope to the measurement of motions in the line of sight from us to a star4 ,no achievement of the intellect of man would have seemed farther without the range of possibility to the thinker of half a century ago1 than the discoveries of invisible bodies which are now being made with this instrument4 ,the revelations of the telescope take us by surprise4 ,but1 if we consider what the thinker alluded to might regard as attainable1 they are far surpassed by those of the spectroscope4 ,the dark bodies1 planets1 we may call them1 which are revolving round the stars1 must be forever invisible in any telescope that it would be possible to construct4 ,they would remain invisible if the power of the instrument were increased ten thousand times4 ,and yet1 if there are inhabitants on these planets1 our astronomers could tell them more of the motions of the world on which they live than the human race knew of the motions of the earth before the time of ,copernicus4 ,the men and institutions which have contributed to this result are so few in number that it will not be tedious to mention at least the principal actors4 ,the possibility of measuring the motions of the stars in the line of sight by means of the spectroscope was first pointed out by ,mr4 now ,sir ,william ,huggins4 ,he actually put the method into operation4 ,as soon as its feasibility was demonstrated it was taken up at ,greenwich4 ,in these earlier attempts1 eye methods alone were used1 and the results were not always reliable4 ,then spectrum photography was applied at the astrophysical observatory at ,potsdam by ,vogel4 ,thence the photographic method soon spread to ,meudon and ,pulkova4 ,but1 as often happens when new fields of research are opened1 we find them ablaze in quarters where we should least expect4 ,the successful application of the method requires not only the best spectroscope1 but the most powerful telescope at command4 ,ten years ago the most powerful telescope in the world was at the ,lick ,observatory4 ,mr4 ,d4 ,o4 ,mills put at its eye end the best spectrograph that human art could make at that time1 the work of ,brashear4 ,it is ,campbell1 who1 with this instrument1 has inaugurated a series of discoveries in the line in question which are without a parallel4 ,a mere survey of what has been done in the various lines we have mentioned would be far from giving an idea of the real significance of the advance we are considering4 ,cataloguing the stars1 estimating their magnitudes1 recording and comparing their spectra and determining their motions1 might be considered as1 after all1 barren of results of the highest human interest4 ,when we know the exact position of every star in the heavens1 the direction in which it is moving and the character of its spectral lines1 how much wiser are we8 ,what could hardly have been foreseen fifty years ago1 is that these various classes of results are now made to combine and converge upon the greatest problem which the mind of man has ever attempted to grasp--that of the structure of the universe4 ,the study of variable stars has suddenly fallen into line1 so to speak1 so that now1 it is uniting itself to the study of all the other subjects to give us at least a faint conception of what the solution of this problem may be4 ,one of the principal objects of the present chapter is to make a comparison of these various researches1 and discuss the views respecting the constitution of the stars individually1 as well as of the universe as a whole1 to which they lead us4 ,but there are a number of details to be considered singly before we can combine results in this way4 ,our early chapters will therefore be devoted to the special features and individual problems of stellar astronomy which have occupied the minds of astronomers from the beginning of their work to the present time4 ,keeping these details in mind1 we can profitably proceed to the consideration of the general conclusions to be drawn from them4 ,we may begin by refreshing our memories on some points1 an understanding of which must be taken for granted4 ,what are familiarly known as the heavenly bodies belong to two classes4 ,those nearest to us form a sort of colony far removed from all the others1 called the solar system4 ,the principal bodies of this system are the sun and eight great planets with their moons1 revolving round it4 ,on one of the planets1 small when compared with the great bodies of the universe1 but large to our every-day conceptions1 we dwell4 ,the other planets appear to us as stars4 ,four of them1 ,venus1 ,mars1 ,jupiter and ,saturn1 are distinguished from the fixed stars by their superior brightness and characteristic motions4 ,of the remaining three1 ,mercury will only rarely excite notice1 while ,uranus and ,neptune are as good as invisible to the naked eye4 ,the dimensions of the solar system are vast when compared with any terrestrial standard4 ,a cannon shot going incessantly at its utmost speed would be a thousand years in crossing the orbit of ,neptune from side to side4 ,but vast as the dimensions are1 they sink into insignificance when compared with the distance of the stars4 ,outside the solar system are spaces which1 so far as we know1 are absolutely void1 save here and there a comet or a meteor1 until we look far outside the region which a cannon shot would cross in a million of years4 ,the nearest star is thousands of times farther away than the most distant planet4 ,scattered at these inconceivable distances are the bodies to which our attention is directed in the present work4 ,if we are asked what they are1 we may reply that the stars are suns4 ,but we might equally well say that the sun is one of the stars2 a small star1 indeed1 surrounded by countless others1 many of which are much larger and brighter than itself4 ,we shall treat our theme as far as possible by what we may call the natural method1 beginning with what1 being most obvious to the eye1 was first noticed by man1 or will be first noticed by an observer1 and tracing knowledge up step by step to its present state4 ,several features of the universe of stars will be evident at a glance4 ,one of these is the diversity of the apparent brightness1 or1 in technical language1 of the magnitudes of the stars4 ,a few far outshine the great mass of their companions4 ,a greater number are of what we may call medium brightness2 there is a yet larger number of fainter ones1 and about one half of all those seen by a keen eye under favorable conditions are so near the limit of visibility as to escape ordinary notice4 ,moreover1 those which we see are but an insignificant fraction of the number revealed by the telescope4 ,the more we increase our optical power1 the greater the number that come into view4 ,how many millions may exist in the heavens it is scarcely possible even to guess4 ,the photographic maps of the heavens now being made probably show fifty millions1 perhaps one hundred millions or more4 ,another evident feature is the tendency of the brighter stars to cluster into groups1 known as constellations4 ,the latter are extremely irregular1 so that it is impossible to decide where one constellation should end and another begin1 or to which constellation a certain star may belong4 ,hence1 we can neither define the constellations nor say what is their number1 and the division of the stars among them is a somewhat arbitrary proceeding4 ,a third feature is the ,milky ,way or ,galaxy1 which1 to ordinary vision1 appears as an irregular succession of cloud-like forms spanning the heavens4 ,we now know that these seeming clouds are really congeries of stars too small to be individually visible to the naked eye4 ,we shall hereafter see that the stars of the ,galaxy form1 so to speak1 the base on which the universe appears to be constructed4 ,each of these three features will be considered in its proper place4 ,,ii4 ,,magnitudes ,,of ,,the ,,stars4 ,the apparent brightness of a star1 as we see it from the earth1 depends upon two causes--its intrinsic brilliancy or the quantity of light which it actually emits1 and its distance from us4 ,it follows that if all the stars were of equal intrinsic brightness we could determine their relative distances by measuring the respective amounts of light which we receive from them4 ,the quantity of light in such a case varies inversely as the square of the distance4 ,this will be made evident by ,fig4 #a1 where ,s represents the position of a star1 regarded as a luminous point1 while ,a and ,b are screens placed at such a distance that each will receive the same amount of light from the star4 ,if the screen ,b is twice as far as the screen ,a1 its sides must be twice as large as those of ,a in order that it shall receive all the light that would fall on ,a4 ,in this case its surface will be four times the surface of ,a4 ,it is then evident that any small portion of the surface of ,b will receive one fourth as much light as an equal portion of surface ,a4 ,thus an eye or a telescope in the position ,b will receive from the star one fourth as much light as in the position ,a1 and the star will seem one fourth as bright4 ,illustration3 ,,figure #a4 ,the fact is1 however1 that the stars are very unequal in their actual brightness1 and in consequence the apparent magnitude of a star gives us no clue to its distance4 ,among the nearer of the stars are some scarcely1 if at all1 visible to the naked eye1 while among the brighter ones are several whose distances are immeasurably great4 ,a remarkable example is that of ,caropes1 the second brightest star in the heavens4 ,for these reasons astronomers are obliged to content themselves1 in the first place1 with determinations of the actual amount of light that the various stars send to us1 or their apparent brilliancy1 without regard to their distance or actual brilliancy4 ,the ancient astronomers divided all the stars they could see into six classes1 the number expressing the apparent brightness being called the magnitude of the star4 ,the brightest ones1 numbering in all about fourteen1 were said to be of the first magnitude4 ,the fifty next in brightness were said to be of the second magnitude4 ,three times as many1 an order fainter1 were of the third magnitude4 ,the progression was continued up to the sixth magnitude1 which included those which were barely visible4 ,as the stars are actually of every degree of apparent brilliancy1 no sharp line of demarkation could be drawn between those of one magnitude and those of the magnitude next higher4 ,hence1 different observers made different estimates1 some calling a star of the second magnitude which others would call of the first1 while others would designate a star of the third magnitude which others would call of the second4 ,it is therefore impossible to state with absolute numerical precision what number of stars should be regarded of one magnitude and what of another4 ,an idea of the magnitude of a star can be readily gained by the casual observer4 ,looking at the heavens on almost any cloudless evening1 we may assume that the two1 three or more brightest stars which we see are of the first magnitude4 ,as examples of those of the second magnitude1 may be taken the five brightest stars of the ,dipper1 the ,pole ,star and the brighter stars of ,cassiopeia4 ,some or all of these objects can be seen on any clear night of the year in our latitude4 ,stars of the third magnitude are so numerous that it is difficult to select any one for comparison4 ,the brightest star of the ,pleiades is really of this magnitude1 but it does not appear so in consequence of the five other stars by which it is surrounded4 ,at a distance of #ae from the ,pole ,star1 ,beta ,ursa ,minoris is always visible1 and may be distinguished by being slightly redder than the ,pole ,star2 it lies between two fainter stars1 the brighter of which is of the third and the other of the fourth magnitude4 ,the five readily visible but fainter stars of the ,pleiades are about of the fourth magnitude4 ,of the fifth magnitude are the faintest stars which are easily visible to the naked eye1 while the sixth comprises those which are barely visible with good eyes4 ,modern astronomers1 while adhering to the general system which has come down to them from ancient times1 have sought to give it greater definiteness4 ,careful study showed that the actual amount of light corresponding to the different magnitudes varied nearly in geometrical progression from one magnitude to another1 a conclusion which accords with the well-known psychological law that the intensity of sensation varies by equal amounts when the exciting cause varies in geometrical progression4 ,it was found that an average star of the fifth magnitude gave between two and three times as much light as an average one of the sixth2 one of the fourth gave between two and three times as much light as one of the fifth2 and so on to the second4 ,in the case of the first magnitude1 the diversity is so great that it is scarcely possible to fix an average ratio4 ,sirius1 for example1 is really six times as bright as ,altair1 which is commonly taken as a standard for a first magnitude star4 ,to give precision to their estimates1 modern astronomers are gradually seeking to lay the subject of magnitudes on an exact basis by defining a change of one unit in the magnitude as corresponding to an increase of about two and one half times in the amount of light4 ,if the practice of separating the visible stars into only six orders of magnitude were continued without change1 we should still have the anomaly of including in one class stars of markedly different degrees of brightness4 ,some more than twice as bright as others would be designated of the same magnitude4 ,hence1 to give quantitative exactness to the results1 a magnitude is regarded as a quantity which may have any value whatever1 and may be expressed by decimals--tenths or even hundredths4 ,thus1 we may have stars of magnitude #e4j1 #e4a1 #e4b1 etc41 or we may even subdivide yet farther and speak of stars having magnitudes #e4aa1 #e4ab1 etc4 ,unfortunately1 however1 there is as yet no way known of determining the amount of light received from a star except by an estimate of its effect upon the eye4 ,two stars are regarded as equal when they appear to the eye of equal brilliancy4 ,in such a case the judgment is very uncertain4 ,hence1 observers have endeavored to give greater precision to it by the use of photometers1--instruments for measuring quantities of light4 ,but even with this instrument the observer must depend upon an estimated equality of light as judged by the eye4 ,the light from one star is increased or diminished in a known proportion until it appears equal to that of another star1 which may be an artificial one produced by the flame of a candle4 ,the proportion of increase or diminution shows the difference of magnitude between the two stars4 ,as we proceed to place the subject of photometric measures of star light on this precise basis we find the problem to be a complex one4 ,in the first place not all the rays which come from a star are visible to our eyes as light4 ,but all the radiance1 visible or invisible1 may be absorbed by a dark surface1 and will then show its effect by heating that surface4 ,the most perfect measure of the radiance of a star would therefore be the amount of heat which it conveys1 because this expresses what is going on in the body better than the amount of visible light can do4 ,but unfortunately the heating effect of the rays from a star is far below what can be measured or even indicated by any known instrument4 ,we are therefore obliged to abandon any thought of determining the total amount of radiation and confine ourselves to that portion which we call light4 ,here1 when we aim at precision1 we find that light1 as we understand it1 is properly measured only by its effect on the optic nerve1 and there is no way of measuring this effect except by estimation4 ,thus1 all the photometer can do is to give us the means of increasing or diminishing the light from one star1 so that we can make it equal by estimation to that from some other star or source of light4 ,the difficulty of reaching strict results in this way is increased by the fact that stars are different in color4 ,two lights can be estimated as equal with greater precision when they are of the same color than when their colors are different4 ,an additional source of uncertainty is brought in by what is known as the ,purkinje phenomenon1 after the physicist who first observed it4 ,he found that if we took two lights of equal apparent brightness1 the one red and the other green1 and then increased or diminished them in the same proportion1 they would no longer appear equal4 ,in other words1 the geometrical axiom that halves or quarters of equal quantities are themselves equal1 does not apply to the effect of light on the eye4 ,if we diminish the two equal lights1 we find that the green will look brighter than the red4 ,if we increase them in the same proportion1 the red will look brighter than the green4 ,in other words1 the red light will1 to our vision1 increase or fade away more rapidly with a given amount of change than the green light will4 ,it is found in recent times that this law of change does not extend progressively through all spectral colors4 ,it is true that as we pass from the red to the violet end of the spectrum the yellow fades away less rapidly with a given diminution than does the red1 and the green still less rapidly than the yellow4 ,but when we pass from the green to the blue1 it is said that the latter does not fade out quite so fast as the green4 ,one obvious conclusion from all this is that two stars of different colors which look equal to the naked eye will not look equal in the telescope4 ,the red or yellow star will look relatively brighter in a telescope2 the green or bluish one relatively brighter to the naked eye4 ,in recent times stars have been photographed on a large scale4 ,their magnitudes can then be determined by the effect of the light on the photographic plate1 the impression of the star1 as seen in a microscope1 being larger and more intense as the star is brighter4 ,but the magnitude thus determined is not proportional to the apparent brightness as seen by the eye1 because the photographic effect of blue light is much greater than that of red light having the same apparent brightness4 ,in fact1 the difference is so great that1 with the chemicals formerly used1 red light was almost without photographic effect4 ,even now1 what we measure in taking the photograph of a star is almost entirely the light in the more refrangible portions of the spectrum4 ,it appears1 therefore1 that when a blue and a yellow star1 equally bright to the naked eye1 are photographed1 the impression made on the negative by the blue star will be greater than that made by the yellow one4 ,a distinction is therefore recognized between photographic and visual magnitudes4 ,the photographic magnitudes of the stars are now being investigated and catalogued on a scale even larger than that on which we have studied the visual magnitudes4 ,yet we have to admit the non-correspondence of the two systems4 ,the bluer the star1 the brighter will be its photographic as compared with its visual magnitude4 ,the most that can be done is to bring about the best attainable agreement between the two systems in the general average of all the stars4 ,fortunately the differences between the colors of the stars are by no means so great as those between the colors of natural objects around us4 ,all the stars radiate light of all colors2 and although the difference is quite appreciable either by the eye or by the photograph1 it is not so great as it would have been were the variations in color as wide as in the case of terrestrial objects4 ,two comprehensive surveys of the heavens1 intended to determine as accurately as possible the magnitudes of all the brighter stars1 have recently been undertaken4 ,one of these is the ,harvard photometry1 commenced by ,professor ,pickering at the ,harvard ,observatory1 and now extended to the ,southern ,hemisphere by the aid of a branch establishment at ,arequipa1 ,peru4 ,the instrument designed by ,professor ,pickering for his purpose is termed a meridian photometer1 and is so arranged that the observer can see in the field of his telescope a reflected image of the ,pole ,star1 and1 at the same time1 the image of some other star while it is passing the meridian4 ,by a polarizing apparatus the image of the star to be measured is made to appear of equal brightness with that of the ,pole ,star1 and the position of a ,nicol prism1 which brings out this equality1 shows the ratio between the magnitudes of the two stars4 ,the other survey1 with the same object1 is now being made at the ,potsdam ,astrophysical ,observatory1 near ,berlin4 ,in the photometer used by the ,german astronomers the image of one star is compared with an artificial star formed by the flame of a candle4 ,the work is performed in a more elaborate way than at the ,harvard ,observatory1 and in consequence1 only that part of the heavens1 extending from the equator to #dj north declination1 has been completed and published4 ,a comparison of the results thus obtained with those of ,professor ,pickering1 shows a curious difference depending on the color of the star4 ,in the case of the reddest stars1 the estimates are found to be in fairly close agreement1 ,pickering's being a little the fainter4 ,but in the case of the white or bluish stars1 the estimates of the ,german astronomers are more than one fourth of a magnitude greater than those of ,pickering4 ,this corresponds to an increase of nearly one fifth in the brightness4 ,whether this difference is to be regarded as purely psychological or due to the instruments used1 is an interesting question which has not yet been settled4 ,it is difficult to conceive how different instruments should give results so different4 ,on the other hand1 the comparisons made by the ,germans make it difficult to accept the view that the difference is due purely to the personality of the observers4 ,there are two ,german observers1 ,drs4 ,mller and ,kempf1 whose results agree with each other exactly4 ,on the other hand1 ,pritchard1 at ,oxford1 made quite an extensive photometric survey1 using an instrument by which the light of one star was cut down by a wedge-shaped dark glass1 whereby any gradation of light could be produced4 ,a comparison shows that the results of ,pritchard agree substantially with those of ,pickering4 ,it is quite possible that the ,purkinje phenomenon may be the cause of the difference1 the source of which is eminently worthy of investigation4 ,this fact simply emphasizes the lack of mathematical precision in photometric measurements of star light4 ,even apart from this difference of color1 the estimates of two observers will frequently differ by #j4b and sometimes by even #j4c of a magnitude4 ,these differences correspond roughly to #bj or #cj per cent in the amount of light4 ,it must not be supposed from this that such estimates are of no value for scientific purposes4 ,very important conclusions1 based on great numbers of stars1 may be drawn even from these uncertain quantities4 ,yet1 it can hardly be doubted that if the light of a star could be measured from time to time to its thousandth part1 conclusions of yet greater value and interest might be drawn from the measures4 ,we have said that in our modern system the aim has been to so designate the magnitudes of the stars that a series of magnitudes in arithmetical progression shall correspond to quantities of light ranging in geometrical progression4 ,we have also said that a change of one unit of magnitude corresponds to a multiplication or division of the light by about #b4e4 ,on any scale of magnitude this factor of multiplication constitutes the light-ratio of the scale4 ,in recent times1 after much discussion of the subject and many comparisons of photometric measures with estimates made in the old-fashioned way1 there is a general agreement among observers to fix the light ratio at the number whose logarithm is #j4d4 ,this is such that an increase of five units in the number expressing the magnitude corresponds to a division of the light by #ajj4 ,if1 for example1 we take a standard star of magnitude one and another of magnitude six1 the first would be #ajj times as bright as the second4 ,this corresponds to a light ratio slightly greater than #b4e4 ,when this scale is adopted1 the series of magnitudes may extend indefinitely in both directions so that to every apparent brightness there will be a certain magnitude4 ,for example1 if we assign the magnitude #a4j to a certain star1 taken as a standard1 which would formerly have been called a star of the first magnitude1 then a star a little more than #b4e times as bright would be of magnitude one less in number1 that is1 of magnitude #j4 ,the one next brighter in the series would be of magnitude -#a4 ,so great is the diversity in the brightness of the stars formerly called of the first magnitude that ,sirius is still brighter than the imaginary star just mentioned1 the number expressing its magnitude being -#a4d4 ,this suggests what we may regard as one of the capital questions in celestial photometry4 ,there being no limit to the extent of the scale1 what would be the stellar magnitude of the sun as we see it when expressed this way on the photometric scale8 ,such a number is readily derivable when we know the ratio between the light of the sun and that of a star of known magnitude4 ,many attempts have been made by observers to obtain this ratio2 but the problem is one of great difficulty1 and the results have been extremely discordant4 ,amongst them there are three which seem less liable to error than others2 those of ,wollaston1 ,bond and ,zllner4 ,their results for the stellar magnitude of the sun are as follow3 ,wollaston -#bf4f ,bond -#be4h ,zllner -#bf4f ,of these1 ,zllner's seems to be the best1 and may1 therefore1 in taking the mean1 be entitled to double weight4 ,the result will then be3 ,stellar magnitude of sun -#bf4d ,from this number may be readily computed the ratio of sunlight to that of a star of any given magnitude4 ,we thus find3 ,the sun gives us3 #aj1jjj1jjj1jjj1 the light of ,sirius4 #ia1jjj1jjj1jjj1 the light of a star of magnitude #a4 #i1ajj1jjj1jjj1jjj1 the light of one of magnitude #f4 ,the square roots of these numbers show the number of times we should increase the actual distance of the sun in order that it might shine as a star of the corresponding magnitude4 ,these numbers and the corresponding parallax are as follows3 ,sirius2 ,distance #ajj1jjj3 ,parallax #b4jf ,mag4 #a 0 #cjb1jjj3 0 #j4fh 0 #b 0 #dgi1jjj3 0 #j4dc 0 #c 0 #gei1jjj3 0 #j4bg 0 #d 0 #a1bjb1jjj3 0 #j4ag 0 #e 0 #a1ijf1jjj3 0 #j4aa 0 #f 0 #c1jbj1jjj3 0 #j4jg ,these parallaxes are those that the sun would have if placed at such a distance as to shine with the brightness indicated in the first column4 ,they are generally larger than those of stars of the corresponding magnitudes1 from which we conclude that the sun is smaller than the brighter of the stars4 ,,preventive ,,inoculation4 7,,ii47 ,,by ,,dr4 ,w4 ,m4 ,,haffkine1 ,,director-,,in-,,chief1 ,,government ,,plague ,,research ,,laboratory1 ,,bombay4 ,in a previous paper ,i reviewed briefly the history of preventive inoculation and described the results of my attempts to secure a #8virus fix' in the case of cholera4 ,it will be remembered that the two vaccines finally obtained protected guinea pigs successfully against all possible forms of cholera infection4 ,it was now necessary to ascertain whether the same protection could be given to man which was observed in animals4 ,for this purpose it was essential to first of all prove the perfect harmlessness of the operation4 ,this was established by very careful observations of medical men and scientists who were inoculated in ,europe soon after the results of the above investigations were published4 ,the inoculation causes a rise of temperature and general discomfort1 which lasts one or two days1 and some pain at the seat of the injection1 which disappears in a few days4 ,the fever and discomfort induced are1 on the whole1 shorter in duration1 though often more intense1 than those caused by vaccination against smallpox4 ,the effect disappears within a few days and the individual returns to his usual condition of health4 ,the next and all-important stage was to devise an experiment or a series of experiments on man so as to test the efficiency of the method against cholera attacks4 ,this part of the investigation could only be done in a cholera-stricken country1 where opportunities would arise of comparing the incidence of the disease in inoculated and uninoculated4 ,such opportunities are limited4 ,except in certain parts of ,india and ,china1 cholera appears in localities unexpectedly and does not last long4 ,in the places where the disease is endemic the cases are scattered over large areas4 ,these features rendered the demonstration of the effect of the vaccine a matter of particular difficulty4 ,in #ahic ,i went to ,india1 and in the course of a year inoculated some twenty-three thousand people in the northern parts of the country2 but no cholera appeared in their midst to show whether the vaccine was of value or not4 ,in the spring of #ahid the inoculations were introduced into ,bengal1 and1 with the assistance and co-operation of ,prof4 ,w4 ,j4 ,simpson1 of ,king's ,college1 ,london1 at that time ,health ,officer of ,calcutta1 and of his staff1 efforts were made to induce the inhabitants of the bustees of ,calcutta to get themselves inoculated4 ,these bustees are isolated villages consisting of groups of mud huts inhabited by the poorer class4 ,owing to the consumption of water from the ponds or tanks belonging to these villages1 the inhabitants of the bustees are subject to periodic visitations of cholera4 ,it was in one of these bustees that the first observation was made as to the effect of the cholera vaccines4 ,the spring is essentially the cholera season in ,calcutta4 ,about the end of ,march two fatal cases of cholera and two cases of choleraic diarrha occurred in ,katal ,bagan ,bustee1 in a population grouped around two tanks4 ,this outbreak led to the inoculation of one hundred and sixteen persons in the bustee out of about two hundred4 ,after the inoculation there occurred nine more cases of cholera1 seven of which proved fatal1 and one case of choleraic diarrha4 ,all the ten cases occurred among the uninoculated portion of the inhabitants1 which formed the minority1 none of the inoculated suffering4 ,the results were more interesting when analyzed in detail4 ,some of the cases had occurred in families in which some of the members had been inoculated and others not1 and the disease selected the non-inoculated members1 sparing the inoculated4 ,thus1 in one house six members out of eight had been inoculated4 ,the attack1 a fatal one1 occurred in one of the remaining two4 ,in another house eleven members out of eighteen were inoculated4 ,the eleven members remained free while four out of seven not inoculated were attacked4 ,upon these observations the ,calcutta municipality felt encouraged to vote funds for the continuance of the inoculations in an experimental farm1 and appointed for that purpose a special staff4 ,in #ahif the result of two years' observations were embodied by the health officer in a report to the ,calcutta ,municipal ,corporation4 ,it recorded a most satisfactory state of affairs4 ,during the time under observation some eight thousand persons were inoculated4 ,cases of cholera occurred in seventy-seven huts in which some members of the family had been previously inoculated and others not4 ,comparing the incidence of the disease in the two groups1 a striking advantage was found to be with the inoculated4 ,i made an analysis of the cases according to the time which had elapsed between inoculation in each of these huts and the occurrence of cholera in them1 and the following results were found4 ,during the first four days after inoculation1 apparently before the vaccine had time to produce its full protective effect1 there were proportionately #a4hf times fewer deaths among the inoculated than among the non-inoculated members of the families4 ,in a second period1 extending from the fifth to the four hundred and twenty-ninth day--i4 e41 for fourteen months--there were #bb4fb times fewer deaths among the inoculated2 while in the last period--that is1 between the four hundred and thirtieth and seven hundred and twenty-eighth day after the inoculation--there were only #a4ed fewer deaths among the inoculated1 the immunity having evidently gradually disappeared4 ,the net result was that for two years after inoculation1 including the periods of incomplete protection1 there was a reduction in mortality of #gb4dg per cent among the inoculated2 or in other words1 in houses in which inoculations were performed and in which cholera subsequently occurred there were1 even from the day of inoculation1 before the full effect of it could be produced1 eleven deaths among the non-inoculated to only three among the inoculated4 ,eight lives out of every eleven were saved4 ,at the end of my first cholera campaign1 in ,august1 #ahie1 there were altogether #ca1jef natives of ,india1 #abe ,eurasians1 #hfi ,europeans of the civil population1 #f1fbg native officers and sepoys1 and #bid officers with #c1bjf men of the ,british troops stationed in ,india1 in all #da1ghg people1 who had submitted to inoculation4 ,observations instituted among them1 especially among prisoners1 soldiers and coolies in tea estates1 with regard to whom detailed records could be kept1 went to confirm the results as detailed above4 ,in order to lengthen1 if possible1 the period of immunity1 the plan was formed of inoculating stronger vaccines and in higher doses4 ,the inoculations are now carried on in a ,government laboratory1 in ,purulia1 ,bengal1 chiefly among the people emigrating to the cholera districts of ,assam1 and there is no doubt that in the course of time a marked effect upon the prevalence of cholera in those districts will be produced and valuable theoretical data will be obtained4 99 99 99 99 99 ,there was one noticeable feature about the results of the inoculation against cholera which early attracted my attention1 and this was that while the number of attacks and the absolute number of deaths was strikingly influenced by the operation1 the proportion of deaths to those attacked did not appear to be changed4 ,the case incidence was effectively checked1 but the #8case mortality' was not reduced4 ,the inoculation diminished the chances of an attack of cholera--that is1 the chances of the cholera virus penetrating into the tissues of a man2 but if it so happened that the patient was attacked and the virus found an entrance and started growing in the system notwithstanding the inoculation1 the latter would not assist in mitigating the severity of the symptoms or reducing the fatality of the disease4 ,in analyzing this result further1 it seemed to me permissible to assume that the vaccine protected against the cholera microbes themselves1 but did not protect against their poisonous products1 which are the cause of the actual symptoms4 ,this interpretation of the facts found support in a set of laboratory experiments by ,professor ,pfeiffer and ,dr4 ,kolle1 of ,koch's ,institute1 in ,berlin1 who showed that the blood serum of animals and persons inoculated with the cholera vaccine1 as practiced in ,india1 acquired an intense power of destroying cholera microbes1 but exhibited no properties capable of counteracting the effect of their toxic products--no #8antitoxic properties'4 ,combined with those of previous experimenters these results tended to prove that two kinds of immunity could be produced separately1 and it became incumbent to devise a plan which would secure not only a lowering of susceptibility to the disease1 but also a reduction in the case mortality4 ,for that purpose it seemed rational to attempt the treatment with a vaccine containing a combination of bodies of microbes1 together with their toxic products4 ,i intended to test this plan experimentally in the cholera districts2 but1 plague having broken out in ,bombay1 the ,government of ,india commissioned me to inquire into the bacteriology of that disease1 and ,i determined that the knowledge gained in the cholera inoculations should be applied and tested in the preparation of a prophylactic against the new epidemic4 ,the experiments ,i had in view involved manufacturing a material on a large scale1 and operating on it for weeks continuously4 ,to do this it was essential to find a way of recognizing plague growth with certainty1 so as to enable the officers engaged in the manufacture to control the process and know exactly when they were handling the proper stuff1 and when an admixture and invasion of extraneous growth took place4 ,when this was solved1 a drug was prepared by cultivating the plague microbe in sterilized broth1 to which a small quantity of clarified butter or of cocoanut oil had been added4 ,the plague bacilli attach themselves to the drops of butter or oil floating on the surface1 and grow down into the depth of the liquid1 forming a peculiar threadlike appearance4 ,while doing so they secrete toxic matter1 which is gradually accumulated in the liquid2 at the same time a large amount of microbial growth comes gradually down from the surface of the liquid and collects at the bottom of the flask4 ,when shaken up the whole represents the desired combination of the bodies of microbes and of their toxic products4 ,the process is continued for a period of five to six weeks4 ,as the microbes of plague had been very little studied before1 and as their exact effect on the human system was unknown1 ,i decided not to use for the treatment living microbes1 but to use at least at first #8carbolized' vaccines1 though the result of the treatment might be less favorable or less lasting than that which could be expected from living vaccines4 ,the microbes in the above plague growth were accordingly killed by heating them at a temperature ranging from #fe to #gj ,c41 and then mixed with a small proportion of carbolic acid1 to prevent the drug from subsequent contamination and decomposition4 ,the dose of the prophylactic was regulated by measuring up the quantity to be injected4 ,the requisite amount is determined by the degree of fever which it produces4 ,the febrile reaction varies in different individuals1 but a temperature reaching #ajb and above in at least thirty per cent of those inoculated has been found to indicate a good material4 ,in the cholera1 rabies and smallpox vaccines1 the microbes being employed in a living state1 it was essential to fix the strength of the vaccine1 for otherwise it was impossible to predict the behavior of the microbe when injected into the system4 ,in the case of the plague prophylactic the activity of the microbes is arrested before it is inoculated1 and the effect can be regulated1 as mentioned above1 by simply measuring up the doses in the same way as is done with any chemical drug4 ,the expectation formed when devising the plan for the plague prophylactic has been very fortunately justified1 and an advance on the results from the cholera vaccines was obtained2 but ,i can not yet say certainly whether this favorable result is indeed due to the particular provisions which ,i had made for obtaining it4 ,the effect of the plague prophylactic was first tested at the ,byculla ,jail1 in ,bombay1 when the epidemic reached that establishment4 ,from the first day after the inoculation till the end of the outbreak there were in the jail twelve cases and six deaths among one hundred and seventy-two uninoculated inmates1 and two cases1 with no deaths1 among one hundred and forty-seven inoculated4 ,a year later1 almost exactly a similar result was observed when the plague attacked the so-called ,umarkhadi ,common ,jail1 in ,bombay4 ,in this case after the inoculation there were ten cases and six deaths among one hundred and twenty-seven uninoculated inmates1 and three cases1 with no deaths1 among one hundred and forty-seven inoculated4 ,these and other observations show that the vaccine for the plague begins to exercise its effect within some twenty-four hours after inoculation2 that it is useful even in the case of persons already infected2 that it is therefore applicable at any stage of an epidemic4 ,numerous further observations were soon collected on the working of the system4 ,at the small village of ,uudhera1 of the ,baroda feudatory state1 where plague broke out1 inoculation was applied to a half of each family1 the other half remaining uninoculated4 ,after that there were twenty-seven cases and twenty-six deaths among sixty-four uninoculated1 and eight cases1 with three deaths1 among seventy-one inoculated of the same households1 the proportionate difference in mortality being over eighty-nine per cent4 ,there followed observations on a far larger scale1 demonstrating that the mortality of the inoculated1 compared to that of the non-inoculated1 was on an average between eighty and ninety per cent less4 ,sometimes this reduction reached ninety per cent4 ,in the ,punjaub1 in a village called ,bunga1 there occurred1 in two hundred and eighty-one not inoculated1 ninety-seven cases of plague and sixty-five deaths1 while among seventy-four inoculated there were six cases1 but no deaths4 ,in ,bangalore1 among #hj1bhe of the inhabitants not inoculated1 there were #b1bjh deaths from plague1 while among #bc1ecg inoculated there were only #ajh4 ,the observations at ,lanowli1 ,kirkee1 ,daman1 ,hubli1 ,dharwar1 ,gadag1 in the ,bombay ,presidency1 gave the same results4 ,at ,hubli over forty-two thousand inhabitants out of some fifty thousand were inoculated4 ,in ,bombay city1 out of a population of #hba1gfd1 #aeg1bef have now undergone the inoculation4 ,the work proceeds here at present at the rate of one thousand to eleven hundred inoculations a day4 ,from plague hospitals the returns show that among those of the attacked who were previously inoculated the mortality is reduced to less than one half of that among patients who were not inoculated4 ,the property of reducing the case mortality thus appears to belong to the plague prophylactic in an unmistakable degree4 99 99 99 99 99 ,by the anti-cholera and anti-plague inoculation the methods of preventive treatment by means of cultivated bacteria and their products have been rendered1 so to say1 a part of the daily policy in human medicine4 ,the usefulness and practicability of those methods have become clearly apparent1 and steps have been taken to extend further the field of their application4 ,on the ground of the experiments made with the typhoid bacillus in the ,pasteur ,institute in #ahhi-'ic1 and of the results obtained from the anti-cholera inoculation in ,india1 ,i was able to induce ,professor ,wright1 of the ,pathological ,laboratory in ,netley1 whom ,i initiated in #ahib in the principles and technique of anti-cholera inoculation1 to start a campaign of similar operations against typhoid among the ,british troops4 ,the latter are stationed at different times of their service very nearly in all parts of the world1 and yearly pay a very heavy tribute to that disease4 ,the medical officers in charge of these troops pass through a course of training at ,netley1 and ,professor ,wright had rendered excellent services in connection with the cholera inoculations1 by disseminating the knowledge of them among the probationers of the school4 ,it seemed to me expedient1 therefore1 to start the typhoid inoculation also through the staff and pupils of that school4 ,the following plan as to the preparation of the vaccine1 and the way of carrying out the inoculation1 was laid before ,professor ,wright4 ,the typhoid bacillus was to be brought to a fixed stage of virulence by the inoculation in the peritoneal cavity of ,guinea pigs1 according to the exact rules prescribed for the anti-cholera inoculation4 ,once the virus was fixed1 it was to be cultivated for twenty-four hours on a solid medium1 and a first vaccine prepared by carbolizing that virus4 ,as1 however1 the durability of the effect of carbolized vaccine alone was not known1 this was to be followed up by the injection of a dose of the fixed living virus4 ,the inoculation was first to be made on volunteers among the physicians on probation at ,netley2 then on volunteers among the young officers of the army on the eve of their departure for the tropics2 and then1 with the approval of the military authorities1 on volunteers among private soldiers4 ,at the end of #ahie1 during my visit to ,england1 ,i obtained from ,sir ,william ,mackinnon1 then ,director-,general of the ,army ,medical ,department1 permission for ,professor ,wright to start the work upon the plan above detailed2 and the first inoculations1 in the way described above1 were done in the middle of #ahif4 ,soon after that1 ,pfeiffer and ,kolle1 recognizing the same similarity between the cholera and typhoid microbes1 and pointing out that the results obtained by us in ,india were likely to be repeated when applying the method to typhoid1 proposed and started a similar series of inoculations4 ,when the inoculation against plague was begun1 and observation showed that dead vaccines alone were apparently sufficient to produce satisfactory results1 a second inoculation with living virus appeared less urgently necessary2 and as the effect of such an inoculation1 which ,professor ,wright very courageously tried first on himself1 seemed troublesome1 it was decided to do for the time being the second inoculation also with the carbolized virus4 ,similarly1 the plan which was adopted for the plague inoculation1 of cultivating the vaccine in a liquid1 instead of a solid medium1 and of using cultures of several weeks' duration1 has been subsequently adopted in the typhoid inoculation also4 ,many thousands of ,british soldiers and civilians have already undergone the inoculation in question4 ,the latter was done partly with vaccines cultivated on a solid medium1 according to the older plan1 and partly with vaccines prepared according to the plague inoculation method4 ,the results so far observed are encouraging1 and1 ,i hope1 will shortly be improved considerably4 ,at the last ,harveian dinner in ,london1 ,surgeon-,general ,jameson1 ,director-,general of the ,army ,medical ,department1 summarized the results of the observations in ,india1 where1 among several thousands of young soldiers1 the most prone to the disease1 the incidence of typhoid since their inoculation was #j4g per mille1 while among the older1 more resistant1 not inoculated soldiers1 the incidence was during the same period just double that4 ,a large proportion of the force now on service in the ,south ,african campaign have been inoculated1 some before embarking and others on their way out4 99 99 99 99 99 ,such is the position of preventive inoculation1 as applied1 so far1 to human communities4 ,the very success of these operations is now apt to create some sort of feigned or earnest alarm1 and one meets at present with the question1 ,what is going to happen to our poor body if we are to be inoculated against all diseases8 and with this other one1 ,how do you expect us to make a living if you try to keep all of us alive8 ,the humorous form of these questions usually permits of their dropping out of the conversation without a reply4 ,the earnest answers are1 however1 obvious4 ,the efforts of the bacteriologists in combating diseases are at present directed to a twofold aim3 their prevention1 by a prophylactic treatment1 and their cure4 ,the advantage of a curative treatment is that it is to be applied to a relatively small number of persons1 to those who actually fall victims to an attack2 while that of the preventive treatment is in the greater certainty with which safety and protection are secured by it4 ,the relative position of the two treatments will1 in practice1 differ in different diseases--namely1 according to the prevalence and fatality of a given disease1 and according to the merits of the two treatments as they stand at the time4 ,in diseases in which the risks of being attacked are smaller1 or the consequences of an attack less serious1 or for which a very effective and sure curative treatment has been discovered1 the majority of people will prefer to wait for an actual attack rather than to undergo the discomfort of a preventive treatment2 in diseases1 on the contrary1 in which the chances of being attacked are great1 or in which the fatality is higher1 the sequel of an attack more serious1 and for which a successful and not very troublesome preventive treatment has been found1 large numbers will undergo preventive inoculation4 ,but1 even in the latter case1 a mutual co-operation between the two methods will exist always1 as there will always be a number of people1 either among those who have neglected to protect themselves by inoculation1 or among those in whom the inoculation has proved unsuccessful1 who will fall victims to an attack and require the benefits of a curative treatment1 be those at the time little or great4 ,the answer to the second question is of course to be expected rather from the politico-economist1 the wise administrator1 the civilian1 than from the bacteriologist4 ,in any case it is clear already that if we are ever to be told that we must thin our ranks1 we shall prefer not to leave the task in the hands of the indiscriminating microbe1 but to have some voice in the matter ourselves4 ,inoculation marks only the conquest of another force which henceforth we shall be glad to control4 ,,bombay1 ,,india1 ,march1 #aijj4 ,,colonies ,,and ,,the ,,mother ,,country4 7,,ii47 ,,by ,,james ,,collier4 ,the growth of the relations between a colony and the mother country closely follows the development of the relationship between an organism and its offspring1 or 7in higher species7 between parents and children4 ,when an infusorian subdivides into two cells1 the new cell produced swims away and henceforth leads an independent life4 ,most of the ,phnician and most of the earlier ,greek colonies were social infusoria which parted from the parent organism by segmentation and had no further relations with it4 ,as we rise in the animal scale a new relationship1 that between mother and young1 and a new instinct1 the maternal1 come into existence4 ,these begin as low down as the mollusks1 and expand and heighten1 though not without strange lapses1 in both insects and birds as species develope2 but we need not trace the evolution here4 ,let it suffice to note that there are successive degrees of specialization2 a site is chosen suitable for depositing and hatching eggs2 means are found for making them secure2 a shelter is built for them2 they are deposited near substances adapted to nourish the young2 special food is prepared for them2 they are reared through food disgorged or brought to them4 ,the accession of the male to the family marks the dawn of the paternal instinct2 it appears earliest among fishes4 ,this evolution is repeated in the history of colonies1 where1 however1 the maternal and paternal offices melt into one another insensibly4 ,the mother country founds and nurtures colonies4 ,most of the earliest colonies are the work of adventurous bands or navigating merchants or fishermen1 who seek their own habitats1 carry with them their own equipment and fight their own battles4 ,then the metropolis settles its surplus or discontented citizens in territories previously chosen1 provides them with all that is necessary for their start1 and often nourishes them during the infancy of the colony4 ,hispaniola was a state colony manned with miners and artisans who were provided with tools1 and this at the cost of a loan and a draught from the confiscated property of the ,jews4 ,nor was it until gold began to be found in large quantities that the receipts equalled the expenditure on the young colony4 ,louisiana was founded and fostered with a royal munificence that conferred on it 8more than was contributed by all the ,english monarchs together for the twelve ,english colonies on the ,atlantic40 ,georgia was a one-man foundation1 but the ,british ,parliament twice granted considerable sums to initiate it and carry it on2 the ,society for the ,propagation of the ,gospel aided1 and the benevolence of philanthropic ,england contributed largely to its success4 ,not till #ahah--more than half a century after the conquest--did the revenue of ,canada balance its expenditure4 ,the convict colony of ,new ,south ,wales was1 of course1 entirely of state origin4 ,stores of every kind1 together with cattle and seeds1 were sent out at the beginning1 and long continued to be sent out to it4 ,the first governor was granted a space of two years to make it self-supporting1 but the growth of a convict colony is abnormally slow1 and the civil and military establishments for thirty-four years continued to be a drain on the ,british exchequer to the extent of over ten millions4 ,even now one of the oldest and best of existing ,british colonies1 with an area of over three hundred thousand square miles1 does not produce the breadstuffs needed for its own consumption4 ,the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 of mixed ,dutch and ,french origin1 was first made a truly ,british colony by the dispatch of six thousand emigrants at the cost of the mother country--a cost much greater than was anticipated4 ,when the ,transvaal was forcibly annexed by ,england1 the stepmother country advanced a sum of #ij1jjj to rescue the quondam republic from its financial difficulties4 ,in #ahie ,parliament voted three millions for the building of a railroad in ,british ,east ,africa4 ,uganda is supported by a ,british subsidy4 ,algeria is a manufactured colony1 which has all along had to be supported by its creator4 ,apart from the cost of their civil and military establishments1 ,france has to subsidize her colonies to the extent of over four millions sterling1 partially expended in reproductive public works4 ,even tiny ,new ,caledonia costs ,france half a million1 one half of which1 it is true1 is expended on the convict establishment4 ,most colonies at their beginning are burdensome to the mother country4 ,years after its foundation ,south ,australia fell into such embarrassment that its governors had to draw on the imperial exchequer for nearly a million4 ,in #ahcd the expenditure in ,cape ,colony was still in excess of the revenue4 ,sierra ,leone had to be aided by a parliamentary grant year after year4 ,no wonder the ,colonial ,office complained that colonies were expensive to keep up4 ,in ,german ,africa the revenue does not meet the expenditure4 ,the ,congo ,free ,state does not pay its way4 ,on the other hand1 ,congo ,franaise has a substantial surplus4 ,western ,australia was another exception to the rule4 ,there the ,imperial ,government announced that it would contribute nothing to the foundation of the colony1 which was to be self-supporting from the first4 ,private capitalists were to arrange for the emigration of ten thousand persons in four years4 ,lands were granted to the emigrants on a scale of extravagance which long hampered the progress of the colony4 ,companies likewise expend large sums in many colonies4 ,french and ,english companies embarked on ,american1 ,indian1 ,african and island adventures at ruinous loss4 ,law's company withdrew from ,louisiana1 the ,new ,zealand ,company from ,new ,zealand1 and the ,canterbury ,association from ,canterbury with a balance on the wrong side of the account4 ,wealthy individuals bear their part4 ,mr4 ,rhodes annually subsidizes the ,british ,central ,african ,protectorate1 and ,king ,leopold the ,congo ,free ,state4 ,colonial bishoprics have also been endowed and colonial cathedrals built1 largely with the aid of voluntary contributions by sympathizers in the mother country4 ,the mother state sometimes gives the colonies the benefit of her financial good name4 ,in #ahfi ,england withdrew her regiments from ,new ,zealand when the colony was still at war with the ,maoris1 and to salve the wounded feelings of the colonists she agreed 7under pressure7 to guarantee a loan of a million in aid of emigration and public works4 ,before the ,canadian ,pacific ,railway could be completed the ,imperial ,government had to guarantee a loan of #c1fjj1jjj4 ,mr4 ,rhodes proposes 7unsuccessfully1 it now appears7 that the ,imperial ,government1 which contributed #bjj1jjj to the cost of a railway from ,kimberley to ,buluwayo1 should guarantee a loan of an enormous amount for the continuation of the ,african trunk railway from ,buluwayo to ,lake ,tanganyika4 ,the mother country supports or aids its self-governing colonies through its capitalists4 ,in order to execute public works--roads1 bridges and railways--to assist immigration1 to build fortresses1 and sometimes to pay the interest on previous loans1 all the colonies have habitual recourse to the ,british ,stock ,exchange4 ,there are good reasons for this4 ,the colonies have little capital of their own1 for all their money has been used up from day to day4 ,the ,english investor has an almost unlimited amount--the savings mainly of one industrious century--and he is prepared to lend it at a lower rate of interest than would content the colonial capitalist4 ,of over two thousand millions sterling which ,john ,bull has out at usury all over the world1 the total public and private indebtedness of the seven ,australasian colonies alone1 with a population of four millions1 is stated to exceed three hundred and twenty millions1 or at the rate of eighty pounds per head of these daring colonists4 ,one half of this sum is due from colonial governments for the purposes already named4 ,the half of it1 due from banks1 building companies1 mercantile associations and mortgage agencies1 excites no misgivings2 these institutions can always go bankrupt1 as many of them did in the financial collapse of #ahia-'ic4 ,but it is not open to a ,british colony to file its schedules1 or at least so we used to think2 and so the ,times said till the oldest of ,british colonies went bankrupt the other day4 ,at all events1 it is harder1 and we contemplate this enormous pile of public indebtedness in young and scantily peopled communities with the same feelings as made alarmists foresee impending ruin in the growing augmentation of the gigantic public debt of the ,united ,kingdom4 ,it is commonly said that while the imperial debt has been accumulated as the cost of 8just and necessary wars10 or of wars that were neither just nor necessary1 the colonial debt has been contracted for the execution of reproductive public works4 ,this is not altogether so4 ,eleven million pounds of the public debt of ,new ,zealand were contracted to carry on war with the ,maoris1 who were defending their territory4 ,the ,seven ,years' ,war1 which was begun on the part of ,england to gain possession of the ,ohio ,valley and thus increase the extent of her colonies1 doubled her public debt4 ,where is the difference between the two classes of expenditure8 ,then most of the self-governing colonies have expended large sums in fortifying ports1 some in partly supporting a fleet1 and one at least in purchasing war ships of its own4 ,nor has all the remainder been reproductively expended4 ,the building of schools is a wise way of spending money1 one's own or another's1 but it can not be called a materially reproductive way4 ,governors' and ministerial residences1 parliamentary and departmental buildings1 are indispensable1 but they can not be called #8assets1' especially if built of perishable and inflammable timber4 ,even railways1 most profitable of public works1 are not always true assets4 ,in many of the colonies they are light railways1 and when traffic increases and a higher speed is required they will have to be built over again and new rolling stock procured4 ,not a few of them1 too1 are #8political railways1' running through a sparsely populated country no-whither1 and built to capture votes4 ,roads are only less valuable1 but they were made 7sometimes by graduates and men of scientific antecedents who were afterward cabinet ministers7 at the wage rate of from two guineas to four pounds ten per week1 and are an inadequate return on the outlay4 ,last century ,british loans were issued as prizes to friends of ministers1 and a much reduced amount found its way to the treasury4 ,deduct an analogous1 though not quite similar1 item of waste in colonial loans1 add this to all the other non-reproductive elements1 and the genuinely reproductive proportion will shrink considerably4 ,every one of the colonies1 even with the fee simple of territories only less than ,europe in extent in their hands1 would have sunk under the increasing burden4 ,happily or not1 the ever-growing wealth of ,england has so cheapened money that the interest charge on the whole ,australasian indebtedness sank in five years 7#ahij-'if71 mainly through conversion of loans1 from fourteen millions to twelve and a quarter4 ,it may be added that the colonies which have borrowed most recklessly have not been the most populous or those with largest resources1 but rather the socialistic colonies with big schemes on hand4 ,a father may assist his son by supplying him with the capital needed to carry on his business4 ,thus it is entirely with the mother country's money that the first colonial banks are founded4 ,as the colony grows wealthier and the business of the banks extends1 colonial shareholders purchase stock in it1 but the number of ,british shareholders remains considerable4 ,a typical example is that of the ,bank of ,new ,zealand1 from two fifths to one half of whose shares are 7or in #ahhh were7 held in the ,united ,kingdom4 ,in the older or wealthier colonies of ,new ,south ,wales and ,victoria the number of ,english shareholders may be smaller1 though still large4 ,a still larger proportion of the shares of the great colonial steamship companies1 amounting possibly to three fourths or nine tenths of the whole1 is held 7chiefly by commercial men and firms7 in ,great ,britain4 ,many commercial undertakings in all the colonies are engineered entirely by ,english capital 7not included in the two thousand millions74 ,the ,canadian transcontinental railway2 railways1 electric tramway lines and silver mines in ,tasmania2 the ,midland ,railway and also copper mines in ,new ,zealand2 the gold mines in ,western ,australia to such an extent that much more ,english capital is said to pour into that colony than gold flows out of it--are only a few colonial enterprises that would never have been undertaken but for the mother country's aid4 ,some of these are lucrative1 others not2 some have been abandoned1 and others belong to a still darker class4 8,uncounted millions of capital have been raised in the central money market of ,london1 only to be fooled away in ill-conceived and misdirected enterprises abroad10 says ,lord ,brassey4 ,nor are the losses confined to questionable undertakings4 ,two great ,australasian banks have frittered away their entire capital of four and three millions1 respectively1 and it may be assumed that the ,british investor has borne one half of the losses4 ,of half a dozen smaller colonial banks a similar tale might be told4 ,father and son have to share in one another's adversity1 as in one another's prosperity4 ,the socialistic movement in ,england has lately so strongly reacted on the relations of the ,imperial ,government with the colonies that the ,secretary of ,state is believed to be willing to employ the resources of the empire to assist backward colonies4 ,he has invited ,english capitalists to aid the declining ,west ,indies1 and a leading firm has offered to invest a million in the sugar industry if a guarantee of sufficient returns is given4 ,the constitution of the projected ,australian ,federation contains a novel analogous provision1 permitting the commonwealth to aid its needy provinces4 ,the growing unity in the social organism as a whole is accompanied by an increasing unity in its component parts4 ,the mother country continues to defend its colonies1 as animals defend their young and parents their children4 ,but the polyp does not defend its offspring1 nor did the earliest colonizing powers succor their colonies4 ,while not even the armed persuasion of ,cambyses could induce ,tyre to make war against ,carthage1 neither seems to have helped the other in its need4 ,carthage fought savagely for her ,sicilian colonies1 but in her own interests1 not in theirs4 ,though the ties between a ,greek metropolis and her colonies were closer1 the one did not invariably defend the other4 ,corcyra refused the aid her daughter city ,epidaurus sought1 and the latter had to find it in the grandmother city of ,corinth1 who considered it her colony no less than that of ,corcyra4 ,the ,dorian city was celebrated for her typical ,greek patriotism1 and she gladly assisted ,syracuse to expel her ,carthaginian conquerors4 ,rome fought for her colonies while her power lasted4 ,france and ,england fought for their colonies1 or rather for the possession of them1 all through the eighteenth century4 ,spain has just fought for her last colonies1 but as much against the colonists as against the foreign state that came to set them free4 ,the mother country is also at the cost of keeping her colonies in a state of defence4 ,the sum of #i1jjj was in #afgi annually expended on the maintenance of ,english soldiers in ,virginia and two ,west ,indian colonies1 and #a1jjj on the fortifications of ,new ,york4 ,troops were often dispatched to assist the ,american colonies in special expeditions4 ,the colonial military expenditure of ,great ,britain in #ahei amounted to nearly #a1bjj1jjj4 ,in compliance with the findings of a ,royal ,commission1 repeatedly reaffirmed by resolutions of ,parliament1 to the effect that the self-governing colonies ought to suffice for their own military defense1 the troops were finally withdrawn in #ahgc1 but she still maintains a garrison at ,halifax and in ,natal and a fleet in ,australian waters1 to which last the adjacent colonies contribute a fraction4 ,most of the self-governing colonies have at their own cost erected fortresses1 and they maintain a defensive force4 ,two of them have stationary ships of war4 ,they are willing and eager1 moreover1 to aid the mother country when she is in difficulties4 ,when ,england was embroiled in ,egypt or danger threatened in ,india and ,south ,africa1 several of these colonies offered to send1 and one actually sent1 troops to engage in wars in which they were not directly concerned4 ,the head and the extremities are sometimes at variance because their interests conflict4 ,the heart of such an empire is one4 ,a stride has been taken toward organic unity4 ,animals evolve special organs for the nursing of their young1 and all colonizing countries seem to have created special departments for the supervision of their colonies4 ,as the lacteal glands are only modified skin-glands1 are in certain lower genera 7the ,monotremata7 at first without teats and only in higher species develop into true mamm1 so the colonial department in the mother country is originally a mere adaptation of existing agencies4 ,a rather perfect example of this stage is presented by the earliest of modern colonizing powers4 ,the ,casa de la ,contratacion de las ,indias1 established soon after the discovery of ,south ,america1 was organized in #aejc4 ,it granted licenses1 equipped and despatched fleets1 received merchandise for export and cargoes imported and contracted for their sale4 ,it controlled the trade with ,barbary and the ,canaries and supervised the shipping business of ,cadiz and ,seville4 ,taking cognizance of all questions concerning marine trade1 it was advised by two jurists4 ,it also kept the ,spanish government informed of all that concerned the colonies4 ,it was a general board of colonial marine trade1 and such it remained even when1 a few years later1 its more important colonial functions were absorbed by a higher department4 ,where the colony has been founded by a commercial or by a colonizing company1 the mother country controls the colony through the directors of the company2 the office of the company is pro tanto the ,colonial ,office4 ,yet the later colonial department1 as an organ of government1 is not a development of these shipping1 commercial or colonizing boards4 ,it is a delegation of the sovereign authority4 ,this is at first exercised directly by the sovereign as it was notably by ,isabella and ,ferdinand4 ,it is next delegated1 like almost all functions of the ruler1 to his privy council1 which assigns the business of colonies to a committee1 which again may be set apart as an independent administrative body4 ,the ,spanish ,council of the ,indies1 the separate ,english privy council for colonial affairs contemplated in the first ,virginian charter1 the ,council of ,nine appointed by the ,states-,general of the ,netherlands1 the ,swedish royal council1 were such bodies4 ,their powers are everywhere the same4 ,the superintendence of the whole colonial system is entrusted to them4 ,they have supreme jurisdiction over all the colonies4 ,they appoint and may recall viceroys1 governors-general1 governors and other local officers4 ,they can veto laws and ordinances made by colonial rulers or legislatures4 ,they frame constitutions for the colonies and enact laws4 ,through the governors and other officers sent out by them1 they minutely supervise and incessantly interfere with the whole internal administration of each colony4 ,the tendency of this supreme council is to divorce itself evermore from the privy council and become independent1 till at last it is transformed into a ministerial department4 ,yet an amicable relationship 7such as sometimes survives the divorce court7 long remains4 ,the ,colonial ,committee of the privy council in ,england was summoned as late as #ahdi1 and the ,judicial ,committee still hears appeals from colonial courts of justice4 ,the government of the commonwealth was naturally averse to the king's council1 and a body of special commissioners 7,cromwell and ,pym and ,vane among them7 was appointed to govern the colonies4 ,the ,restoration did not at once return to the old system4 ,on the contrary1 a remarkable democratic advance was made4 ,recognizing that though #8politics lie outside the profession of merchants' 7as the ,swedish and ,british governments declared71 yet trade is eminently within their scope1 the restored monarchy set up a ,council of ,trade and ,plantations1 of whose forty members twenty were elected representatives of the five merchant companies and the incorporated trades4 ,but there was ever a tendency1 at least under the despotic rule of the ,stuarts1 to revert to the privy council1 and in #afgd a standing committee of it was appointed ,lords of the ,committee of ,trade and ,plantations4 ,the change appears to have been unimportant4 ,trade still governed the committee and shaped its policy4 ,the ,board of ,trade set up in #afif1 rather by the ,house of ,commons than by the ,ministry1 marked the more popular character of the revolution of #afhh1 and lasted for ninety years4 ,as if foreshadowing the despotic character of the ,english reaction against the greater ,french revolution1 this board was abolished by an act introduced by the chief reactionary--,edmund ,burke4 ,a committee of the ,privy ,council for ,trade and ,plantations was in #aghf again resorted to1 and this committee in a shadowy manner survived 7perhaps it still survives7 till #ahdi1 when it was for the last time summoned by ,earl ,grey4 ,but the real administration of the colonies had long been in the hands of a department of state1 directly responsible to ,parliament1 though it was still a department that dealt with other affairs as well4 ,specialization began in #agjb by the colonies being assigned to the ,secretary for the ,southern ,department4 ,in #agfh a separate department with a secretary was created for ,america1 where almost all of the colonies were then situated4 ,after the loss of most of the ,american colonies the new department was abolished in #aghb4 ,the colonies were then annexed to the home department4 ,in #agid the newly created war department nominally included the colonies1 though these were not actually united with it till the ,committee for ,trade and ,plantations ceased to act1 seven years later4 ,in #ahed a separate colonial department1 with an independent secretary of state1 was finally created4,a ,a ,the history of the relations between the government of ,great ,britain and her colonies will be found in many books1 but best in ,mr4 ,egerton's comprehensive survey of ,british colonial policy4 ,as there were twenty-three secretaries in forty-one years1 it will be readily understood that the practical work of administration remained with the permanent officials4 ,with a longer tenure of office1 previous training and thorough mastery of details1 they held all the threads of colonial administration in their own hands4 ,a newly-appointed minister1 with little knowledge of the colonies and no acquaintance at all with the business of his department1 was no match for an experienced officer who had colonial affairs at his fingers' ends4 ,a mere clerk1 unknown outside his office1 though well known in literature1 could recall a governor2 another1 whose very name was unknown till he died1 recommended 7that is1 commanded on pain of dismissal7 a recent ,governor of ,new ,zealand to give away to his ministers on a crucial exercise of the prerogative4 ,nor is it in matters of routine alone that the permanent officers shape the course of colonial administration4 ,a strong-minded minister with a policy of his own1 like ,lord ,grey or ,lord ,carnarvon1 will force his subordinates to carry it out1 but even here a still stronger-minded under-secretary will often have his way4 ,in #ahdh ,lord ,grey1 then ,secretary for the ,colonies1 summoned the aged and moribund ,committee 7of the privy council7 on ,trade and ,plantations to advise with him on the policy to be adopted towards the ,australian colonies4 ,the report was drafted by ,sir ,james ,stephen and we have no difficulty in discovering in its far-sighted proposals and masculine style the mind as well as the hand of the author of the essay on #8,hildebrand4' ,it is often said that a state department is inevitably wedded to routine4 ,in the report just mentioned the striking feature is the outline of a system of ,australian federation that is only now on the point of being realized4 ,so far was the pedantic ,colonial ,office then1 as it has often been before and since1 ahead of its subject colonies4 ,the other colonizing countries have followed the same line of development4 ,beginning as direct delegations of the sovereign power to a branch1 first constituent and then separated1 of the sovereign's council1 the department of colonies has been in course of time made an independent ministry directly answerable to parliament4 ,in bureaucratic ,france the colonies since #ahed have been associated with the navy4 ,on the first of ,january1 #ahii1 the empire on which the sun never set1 having lost the last of the dependencies that were once its glory1 abolished its colonial office4 ,the sun had set on ,spain to rise no more4 ,,technical ,,education ,,at ,,the ,,massachusetts ,,institute ,,of ,,technology4 ,,by ,,professor ,,george ,f4 ,,swain4 ,with the enormous progress in the arts and sciences which has characterized especially the last half of the nineteenth century1 education has kept well abreast1 although its progress has been gradual and it is not always easy to recognize the great advances that have been made4 ,in the sciences1 a discovery is made or a machine invented that in the course of a few years forms the basis of a new industry1 gives occupation to thousands and places within the reach of almost every one conveniences previously attainable only by the few4 ,in education no such sudden revolutions occur1 and great changes are introduced by degrees without producing any commotion or any surprise4 ,from the days of ,erasmus and ,rabelais1 if not earlier1 educational reformers have urged the importance of studying things rather than books about things1 of cultivating the hand and eye as well as the mind1 of training the perceptive powers1 of cultivating a habit of observation and discrimination1 and of developing the faculty of judgment4 ,yet1 notwithstanding all that has been said and written1 progress in this direction has until recently been very slow4 ,carlyle1 apparently looking at the matter almost from the old scholastic standpoint1 expressed the opinion that the true university of modern times was a great library2 books1 not things1 should be studied4 ,it would conform more to the modern point of view to say that the true university of the twentieth century is a great laboratory4 ,even the function of a library in our modern institutions of learning is perhaps more that of a laboratory than that of a mere storehouse of facts and opinions4 ,it is perhaps not too much to say that the development in the direction indicated has been greatest in our own country2 that the ,united ,states have taken the lead in the revolution against the old method of teaching1 and that at the present time the higher schools of this country are examples of the best practice and the highest development of the laboratory method4 ,it may1 therefore1 be of interest to give the readers of this magazine a brief account of the school which has in these respects been one of the foremost1 if indeed it has not led the schools of this country1 the ,massachusetts ,institute of ,technology4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,rogers ,,building1 ,,massachusetts ,,institute ,,of ,,technology1 ,,is ,,at ,,the ,,right1 ,,the ,,walker ,,building ,,at ,,the ,,left4 ,with the development of the natural sciences and the growth of the constructive arts1 natural science long ago gained a place in the curricula of the great universities of ,europe2 and afterwards special schools were founded for teaching the applications of science to the arts4 ,in ,france1 the cole des ,ponts et ,chausses1 originally started in #agdg as a drawing school1 was organized in #agfj for the training of engineers4 ,in the ,states of ,germany1 a number of similar schools were organized early in the present century4 ,in ,america1 the ,rensselaer ,polytechnic ,institute1 the pioneer in technical education1 was founded in #ahbd1 and was the only school devoted to applied science until the forties1 when ,joseph ,sheffield and ,abbot ,lawrence established the schools which bear their names1 in connection1 respectively1 with ,yale and ,harvard4 ,with the development of railroads1 which dates from the thirties1 and of manufacturing1 which began in this country but a few years earlier1 urgent need was felt for schools which should fit younger men to grapple with the problems which the new industries offered4 ,these schools1 however1 maintained for many years but a precarious existence and were quite elementary in character4 ,the ,civil ,war interrupted their growth and absorbed for a time all the resources of the nation2 but its termination set free an abundant store of energy1 henceforward to seek its chief application in the development of trade1 commerce1 manufacturing and industrial pursuits of every kind4 ,from this time the success of schools of technology was assured4 ,they were needed to supply young men for the development of the arts2 but1 on the other hand1 as in all things not purely material1 they were to create a demand for such men by first furnishing a supply4 ,manufacturers and leaders of industrial enterprise soon found that they could not afford to do without the services of young men trained in scientific principles4 ,in this way1 by reversing the usual law of supply and demand1 these schools contributed powerfully to advance the technical development of the country1 far indeed beyond the measure that may be inferred from the mere number of their graduates4 ,the ,massachusetts ,institute of ,technology was chartered in #ahfa1 and first opened to students in #ahfe4 ,its claim to recognition as a leader in the development of technical education may perhaps be summarized as follows3 ,it was the first school in the world to institute laboratory instruction in physics and chemistry to students in large classes as a part of the regular course of each candidate for a degree2 the first to equip a mining and metallurgical laboratory for the instruction of students by actual treatment of ores in large quantities2 the first to establish a laboratory for teaching the nature and uses of steam1 and a laboratory for testing the strength of materials of construction in commercial sizes2 and the first in ,america to establish a department of architecture4 ,later still1 it was the first school in ,america to establish distinct and specialized courses of study in electrical engineering1 in sanitary engineering1 in chemical engineering and in naval architecture4 ,the success of the school has been commensurate with its progressiveness4 ,it stands to-day the largest1 most complete school of its class in the ,united ,states1 and one of the largest in the world4 ,the number of its students is #a1agf1 the number of its teachers1 including lecturers1 #age4 ,excluding lecturers1 the number of students per teacher is only #h4g1 a ratio which is a good general index of the character of the instruction4 ,the students come from #dj ,states and ,territories of the ,union and from #ab foreign countries4 ,before passing to a more detailed description of the work of its various departments1 some general characteristics of the school should be mentioned4 ,the first is the great variety of its courses and the specialization of its instruction4 ,it is a college of general technology1 embracing almost every branch of study which finds application in the arts4 ,there are thirteen distinct courses of study3 ,civil and topographical engineering1 mechanical engineering1 mining engineering and metallurgy1 architecture1 chemistry1 electrical engineering1 biology1 physics1 general studies1 chemical engineering1 sanitary engineering1 geology and naval architecture4 ,these several departments mutually support and reinforce each other1 and allow a specialization of the instruction which would be impossible in a smaller college with a less numerous staff of instructors4 ,thus1 at the ,institute of ,technology1 there are not only professors of civil engineering and of mechanical engineering1 but professors of mechanism1 steam engineering1 railroad engineering1 highway engineering1 hydraulic engineering1 topographical engineering1 etc4 ,again1 the chemical staff of twenty-four persons is distributed over general chemistry1 analytical chemistry1 organic chemistry1 industrial chemistry and sanitary chemistry4 ,there are separate laboratories for water analysis1 for gas analysis1 for food analysis1 for dyeing and bleaching1 etc4 ,in each of these there are teachers who are able to give their entire time to instruction and research in a single line4 ,illustration3 ,,william ,,barton ,,rogers1 ,,president1 #ahfb-ahgj2 #ahgh-ahha4 ,the second characteristic of the ,institute is the predominance of laboratory1 shop and field practice1 experiment and research4 ,these are used wherever it is found practicable to supplement1 illustrate or emphasize the work of the recitation or lecture-room4 ,the third characteristic of the ,institute1 and one which is absent in the case of many similar schools1 is the fact that a not inconsiderable amount of general training has from the beginning been required of every candidate for the degree4 ,in some technical or scientific schools there are no liberalizing studies1 aside from those of a professional character4 ,the faculty of the institute have insisted that such studies should be incorporated to a considerable extent in the curriculum of every course1 recognizing the fact that few students in technical schools are graduates of colleges1 and that the aim of the ,institute should be first of all to graduate broadly trained men4 ,aside from the courses in liberal studies1 a broad spirit is shown in the technical courses themselves4 ,the study of general principles is always the chief end in view1 and to it are strictly subordinated the acquirement of all knacks1 tricks of the trade or merely practical rules4 ,these characteristics of the ,institute were impressed upon it from the beginning by the master hand of its founder and first president1 ,william ,b4 ,rogers4 ,president ,rogers aimed to establish #8a comprehensive1 polytechnic college' which should provide a #8complete system of industrial education4' ,it is now generally recognized that a complete system of industrial education would consist of three parts3 ,first1 manual training schools1 for developing the eye and hand1 not with the object of producing artisans1 but for training alone4 ,second1 trade schools for special training in the technique of the different trades4 ,third1 higher technical schools for training in the fundamental principles of the sciences1 and fitting men in the broadest way to become leaders in the application of the sciences to the arts4 ,manual training is now generally recognized as a desirable addition to every scheme of public instruction and a powerful adjunct to every technical school4 ,it was not indicated in the original scheme of the ,institute1 but was added in #ahgg through the wisdom of ,president ,runkle1 as a result of the exhibition in ,philadelphia of the results obtained in ,russia by instruction of this kind4 ,trade schools1 for the training of artisans1 were never included in the scheme of ,president ,rogers1 and are not now1 either in ,america or ,europe1 considered suitable adjuncts to so-called technical schools1 although they are very desirable as special and independent institutions4 ,the original plan for the ,institute contemplated simply a school of the last-named kind1 together with provision for evening lectures1 to which outsiders should be admitted1 and which it was expected would be of benefit to artisans2 and also the establishment of a museum of arts1 and of a society of arts which should hold regular meetings and which should be the medium for the communication to the public of scientific discoveries and inventions4 ,it may be as well to state here that the museum of arts was never established except in so far as the separate departments of the ,institute have accumulated collections2 but that the society of arts1 which held its first meeting in #ahfb1 has been continued to the present time4 ,many important inventions1 as for instance the earliest forms of the ,bell telephone1 were first publicly exhibited at its meetings4 ,in outlining his plan1 ,president ,rogers showed wonderful keenness and foresight4 ,with the added experience of the succeeding forty years1 it would scarcely be possible to make a more complete statement of what experience has shown to be the best method of organization4 ,in fact1 his ,scope and ,plan of the ,school of ,industrial ,science of the ,massachusetts ,institute of ,technology may be said to be the first step toward a new order of things in education1 and contains the first clear statement of the desirability of teaching physics1 mining1 metallurgy and other branches by the laboratory method4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,henry ,l4 ,,pierce ,,building ,,and ,,engineering ,,building4 ,let us now see what has been the result of the nearly forty years of development since ,president ,rogers outlined his plan4 ,originally confined to one building1 the growing needs of the school have led to the erection of five others1 in addition to a gymnasium4 ,the original building1 completed in #ahfe1 is now known as the ,rogers ,building1 after the founder of the school2 while the one next erected1 in #ahhc1 is named after the third president1 the late ,general ,francis ,a4 ,walker4 ,these two buildings each measure about #ij by #aej feet1 and in addition to a building occupied by the ,boston ,society of ,natural ,history1 occupy one entire square nearly in the heart of the city1 and in close proximity to the ,public ,library and the ,art ,museum4 ,three other buildings1 which adjoin each other and now form one structure1 are situated about six hundred feet distant and form the front and part of one side of what will some day be one large quadrangle4 ,the first of these buildings to be erected was the ,engineering ,building1 built in #ahhi1 measuring #eb by #adh feet on the ground1 adjoining which is a building erected in #ahib1 #eh by #fh feet on the ground1 and now forming part of the ,engineering ,building4 ,adjoining this is the ,henry ,l4 ,pierce ,building1 erected in #ahih1 and measuring #eh by #afj feet4 ,in addition to these buildings are the workshops1 about a quarter of a mile distant1 covering #bd1jjj square feet1 and a gymnasium and drill hall4 ,illustration3 ,,one ,,of ,,the ,,chemical ,,laboratories4 ,the first laboratory to be established at the institute was that of chemistry1 and this leads us to speak first of the department of chemistry4 ,the laboratory of general chemistry was opened in #ahgf under the direction of ,professors ,eliot,b and ,storer1 and is believed to be the first laboratory where instruction was given in general chemistry to classes of considerable size4 ,from small beginnings1 this department has rapidly grown under the able direction of such men as ,james ,m4 ,crafts1 7since #ahig president of the ,institute71 ,william ,ripley ,nichols1 ,charles ,h4 ,wing1 ,lewis ,m4 ,norton and ,thomas ,m4 ,drown1 until now the instructing force consists of five professors1 thirteen instructors and six assistants1 a total teaching force of twenty-four1 in addition to seven or eight lecturers on chemical subjects4 ,the department occupies the two upper floors in the ,walker ,building1 together with about half of one floor in the ,henry ,l4 ,pierce ,building1 devoted to industrial chemistry4 ,the laboratories1 which are said to be the largest and best equipped in the ,united ,states1 are known as the ,kidder chemical laboratories1 having been so named in recognition of the generosity of the late ,jerome ,s4 ,kidder4 ,they comprise twenty-two separate laboratories1 three lecture-rooms1 a reading-room and library1 two balance-rooms1 offices and supply-rooms1 making forty rooms in all1 with accommodation for seven hundred students4 ,besides the large laboratories for general chemistry and analytical chemistry1 there are smaller laboratories for volumetric analysis1 for organic chemistry1 for sanitary chemistry with special reference to the analysis of water and air1 for oil and gas analysis1 for the optical and chemical examination of sugars1 starches1 etc41 for the determination of molecular weights1 and so on4 ,in the industrial laboratories1 the students are taught how to manufacture chemicals with due regard to economy of material1 space and time4 ,there is also a special laboratory for textile coloring1 with printing machines and all the necessary equipment of baths1 dryers1 etc41 for experimental dyeing and coloring4 ,in this laboratory the preparation and use of coloring matters are taught with the object of fitting young men for positions in dye works4 ,a course of lectures in textile coloring was first introduced in #ahhh and the laboratory course in #ahhi4 ,b ,now ,president ,eliot of ,harvard4 ,a large amount of original work is accomplished each year in these laboratories1 both by students and professors4 ,during the year #ahig-ih1 for instance1 four books and sixteen articles on chemical subjects came from them4 ,in the development of sanitary chemistry the ,institute has been particularly prominent4 ,beginning with the careful and thorough investigations made by ,professor ,nichols for the ,state ,board of ,health1 the reputation of the institute in this direction has been still further increased by the recent extensive investigations of ,professor ,drown and ,mrs4 ,ellen ,h4 ,richards1 made for the same board in connection with the examination of the purity of the water supplies of the ,state1 and the experiments at ,lawrence relating to the best methods for purifying water and disposing of the sewage of inland towns4 ,an illustration of the policy of the school in separating out a subject whenever it is found capable of complete theoretical and practical treatment and putting it into the hands of some assistant professor for development1 is found in the laboratory for gas and oil analysis1 which for some years has been in charge of ,dr4 ,gill4 ,in this laboratory1 investigations are made relating to chimney gases1 as well as questions of fuel1 furnaces1 gas firing1 etc41 while oils are tested and analyzed with reference to specific gravity1 viscosity1 friction1 flashing and firing points1 and liability to spontaneous combustion4 ,the same policy is further illustrated in the establishment in #ahid of a well equipped laboratory devoted entirely to physical chemistry2 that is to say1 to the relations between chemical changes and heat1 light and electricity4 ,this laboratory1 under the charge of ,dr4 ,h4 ,m4 ,goodwin1 occupies a room measuring #bh by #bi feet1 and is devoted to photographic work1 experiments in electrical conductivity1 thermo-chemistry1 molecular weight determinations and experiments in chemical dynamics4 ,more recently still1 a complete option in electro-chemistry has been established1 to meet a growing demand4 ,illustration3 ,,part ,,of ,,the ,,electrical ,,engineering ,,laboratory4 ,still another illustration of the policy of specialization is afforded by the action of the ,institute in establishing new courses of study1 extending through the entire four years1 whenever the need is felt for men trained in a direction not hitherto specially provided for4 ,thus1 in #ahhh a new course was established in chemical engineering4 ,the chemical engineer is not primarily a chemist1 but a mechanical engineer--one1 however1 who has given special attention to such problems as the construction of dye works and bleacheries1 sugar refineries1 soap works1 paper and pulp manufactories1 fertilizer works1 chemical works1 and in general all the problems of chemical machinery and manufacturing4 ,that this new course filled a real want was soon made evident4 ,the first class1 that of '#ia1 contained seven graduates1 while eighty-eight students in all have now been graduated and are for the most part engaged in chemical works4 ,the physical laboratories of the ,institute are now known as the ,rogers laboratories4 ,although they formed perhaps the central feature of ,president ,rogers' plan1 financial and other exigencies prevented their being established when the school was opened4 ,in #ahfi1 ,prof4 ,edward ,c4 ,pickering1 then in charge of the department of physics1 submitted a scheme to the government of the ,institute entitled #8,plan of the ,physical ,laboratory4' ,this plan was adopted and carried out in the autumn of #ahfi and has been in use ever since4 ,it is worthy of remark that the original statement of ,professor ,rogers with reference to laboratory instruction in physics contained no mention of electricity1 then a subordinate branch1 but one whose development since has caused it to occupy the leading place in any physical department4 ,in #ahhb the corporation established a course in electrical engineering1 setting an example which has since been followed by almost every large technical school1 and founding a course destined in a few years to become one of the largest in the ,institute4 ,at present the department of physics and electrical engineering1 under the head of ,prof4 ,charles ,r4 ,cross1 has an active teaching force of one professor1 four assistant professors1 six instructors and three assistants1 a total of fourteen4 ,in addition to these1 there are twelve lecturers on special topics1 including many men eminent in their profession4 ,the ,rogers laboratories occupy sixteen rooms in the ,walker ,building1 including two lecture-rooms and ten laboratories4 ,as in the case of the chemical department1 these laboratories are highly specialized4 ,there is a laboratory for general physics1 one for electrical measurements1 two rooms devoted to a laboratory for electrical engineering1 containing two distinct power plants driven by steam engines of #ajj and #aej horse-power1 with a large number of dynamo machines1 transformers and a great variety of other apparatus arranged for purposes of instruction1 the mere enumeration of which would occupy several pages4 ,moreover1 a lighting and power plant in the new building on ,trinity ,place is available for experiments and instruction4 ,besides these1 there are rooms for photometry1 for heat measurements1 for acoustics1 for optics and for photography4 ,in fact1 probably no department of the ,institute is more fully equipped than this1 the wealth of apparatus being so great that the casual visitor is confused by the network of wires and machinery which surround him4 ,the interdependent and harmonious work of the various departments of the ,institute is shown in the development of special lecture and laboratory courses1 and is in marked contrast to the policy of departmental isolation sometimes practiced4 ,thus1 in #ahhi1 two new courses of instruction were established by the physical department in response to the demand of the department of mining2 namely1 the course in heat measurements1 including measurements of high temperatures1 the determination of the calorific power of fuels1 etc41 and a course on the applications of electro-metallurgy to chemical analysis1 the reduction of ores and similar problems4 ,the equipment of calorimeters1 pyrometers1 etc41 in the heat laboratory is said to be so large as to permit a more complete examination of the efficiency of fuels than has hitherto been possible anywhere4 ,illustration3 ,,smelting ,,furnace ,,in ,,john ,,cummings ,,laboratory ,,of ,,mining ,,and ,,metallurgy4 ,perhaps the greatest innovation made by the ,institute in the early days was in establishing a laboratory for the teaching of mining and metallurgy4 ,previous to #ahga metallurgical work was done in the chemical laboratories1 but in that year the mining and metallurgical laboratory was put into operation through the efforts of ,president ,runkle1 ,professor ,richards and ,professor ,ordway4 ,prior to this date1 there were assaying or metallurgical laboratories at the cole des ,mines at ,paris1 the ,royal ,school of ,mines in ,london1 the ,german ,mining ,schools at ,freiberg and ,clausthal and ,berlin1 and also in several technical schools in this country4 ,the ,german mining schools were situated beside smelting works1 but the plants could not often be used for experiments by professors or students in a way to alter the usual method of running4 ,in all these laboratories1 however1 the apparatus was designed to treat quantities of ore not exceeding a few ounces for each test4 ,the ,institute laboratories were the first in the world which were designed for the treatment of ores in economical quantities of from five hundred pounds to three tons1 and used entirely for purposes of instruction4 ,they are now known as the ,john ,cummings laboratories1 in memory of one who for many years was treasurer of the ,institute and one of its most devoted friends4 ,they now occupy the entire basement of the ,rogers ,building1 and include laboratories for milling1 concentrating and smelting ores1 as well as for testing them by assay and by blowpipe4 ,the development of these laboratories from the small beginnings of #ahga has been mainly due to the efforts of ,prof4 ,r4 ,h4 ,richards1 past president of the ,american ,institute of ,mining ,engineers1 whose contributions on methods of ore dressing are well known to mining engineers4 ,the staff of this department also includes ,prof4 ,h4 ,o4 ,hofman1 well known for his researches in metallurgy4 ,illustration3 ,,three ,,stamp ,,mill ,,in ,,mining ,,laboratory4 ,mention should here be made of the department of geology1 which is under the direction of ,professors ,niles1 ,crosby and ,barton1 and which now occupies commodious quarters comprising the greater part of a floor in the ,henry ,l4 ,pierce ,building4 ,the collections of this department number many thousands1 and are supplemented by those of the ,society of ,natural ,history1 which are available for purposes of instruction4 ,as would be expected in a school of applied science1 the economic aspects of geology are kept closely in view1 and the work is adapted to the particular object to be attained4 ,the student in architecture1 for instance1 receives a course in geology in which the study of building stones is a prominent feature4 ,an engineering laboratory formed part of the original scheme of ,president ,rogers1 although he included it under the head of physics and did not anticipate the importance which has since attached to it4 ,such a laboratory1 especially devoted to engineering1 was established on a small scale in #ahgd1 through the efforts of ,professor ,whitaker4 ,an engine for experimental purposes was presented to the institute by ,mr4 ,g4 ,b4 ,dixwell1 and this1 with other apparatus1 constituted what is believed to have been the first engineering laboratory in the world for the regular instruction of classes4 ,for lack of funds and space1 it was not much developed until #ahhb1 but since that time it has been brought to a high state of efficiency4 ,to-day the engineering laboratories1 as they are called1 which include laboratories of steam engineering1 hydraulics1 for the testing of materials and a room containing cotton machinery1 occupy a floor space of #ba1chj square feet on the two lower floors of the ,engineering and ,pierce ,buildings4 ,in addition to this1 there are workshops which will be referred to again4 ,it would be tedious to enumerate the great variety of apparatus to be found in these laboratories1 but a few important points may be mentioned4 ,in the steam laboratory a #aej horse-power triple-expansion ,corliss engine1 the first of its kind of practical size ever arranged for experimental purposes1 was purchased in #ahij and is regularly used for testing purposes4 ,a second engine of #bbe horse-power was added two years ago1 transferring its power through a rope drive4 ,besides these two large engines1 there are a number of smaller ones for experimental purposes and the study of valve setting1 and1 in addition1 there are gas engines1 hot-air engines and other apparatus4 ,there is also a collection of cotton machinery sufficient to make clear to the student the mechanism of the various machines4 ,illustration3 ,,horizontal ,,emery ,,testing ,,machine ,,of #cjj1jjj ,,pounds ,,capacity ,,in ,,the ,,applied ,,mechanics ,,laboratory4 ,the hydraulic laboratory is well equipped for the study of the laws of flowing water1 having a steel tank five feet in diameter and twenty-seven feet high1 with a system of stand-pipes eighty-five feet high1 reaching to the top of the building4 ,this tank is furnished with gates and other apparatus suitable for experiments on the flow from orifices1 and connected with a system of horizontal pipes by which a large variety of other investigations may be carried on4 ,among the other apparatus of interest may be mentioned two impact water wheels1 placed in housings with glass sides so that the action of the water on striking the buckets can be observed4 ,some experiments have already been made in the laboratory on the flow of air1 the results of which have been communicated by ,professor ,peabody to the ,american ,society of ,mechanical ,engineers4 ,it is now intended to continue the study of the flow of air and its use as a motive power in great detail1 just as the flow of water is studied1 and an air compressor of #ajj horse-power1 which will produce a pressure of twenty-five hundred pounds1 is now being installed4 ,illustration3 ,,the #ajj1jjj ,,pound ,,beam ,,machine ,,in ,,the ,,applied ,,mechanics ,,laboratory4 ,the laboratory for testing the strength of materials was established in #ahha by ,prof4 ,g4 ,lanza1 and has since been extensively developed under his direction1 until it is now one of the most complete in the world4 ,it is perhaps not too much to say that the experiments made in this laboratory have in some respects revolutionized the ideas of engineers4 ,previous to its establishment1 the only tests of timber that had been made were upon small selected specimens one or two inches square and a few feet long4 ,the results of these tests had been used for years by architects and engineers1 and they were given in all the engineering handbooks4 ,in the ,institute laboratory there were conducted the first systematic and extended tests of beams of commercial size4 ,the results soon showed that the strength of such timber was a great deal less than previous tests on small beams had indicated1 and the practice of engineers and architects has since that time been completely modified through the results obtained in this and similar laboratories4 ,in this way does the work of such a laboratory become of direct and lasting value to the arts4 ,the central piece of apparatus of the ,institute laboratory is the ,emery machine1 similar to the great machine at the ,watertown arsenal1 with a capacity of three hundred thousand pounds4 ,but in addition to this machine there are a dozen or more other machines designed to test beams1 columns1 rope1 wire and1 in fact1 materials of every kind and in every form4 ,an interesting machine is that for testing shafts in torsion1 and it is instructive to see it twist off with apparent ease a steel shaft three inches in diameter1 twisting the fibers before they break till the rod resembles a barber's pole4 ,there are also beam-testing machines with capacities up to one hundred thousand pounds1 in which not only beams but wooden trusses may be tested to the breaking point4 ,some of the apparatus is of great delicacy2 for instance1 one instrument will measure the twist of a steel shaft two and a half inches in diameter and six feet long so delicately that the effect of a twist given by one's hand is distinctly visible2 scientifically speaking1 it will measure an angle of twist of two seconds4 ,there is also a machine designed for testing stone arches1 having a capacity of four hundred thousand pounds and suitable for an investigation of many questions concerning these uncertain structures2 also machinery for studying the wear of brake shoes and wheel tires1 a subject in regard to which there is room for much investigation4 ,finally1 mention should be made of machinery for investigating the interesting subject of the effect of repetition of stress4 ,illustration3 ,,forge ,,shop4 ,the tests performed in the engineering laboratory cover almost the entire range of mechanical science4 ,sometimes investigations are carried on through a number of years2 for instance1 during three successive years experiments were conducted and formed the subject of theses on the proper method of counterbalancing the reciprocating parts of a locomotive4 ,nor are the tests performed by the ,institute students as a regular part of their instruction confined to these laboratories1 as is made evident by the fifty-hour test of the ,west ,end ,street ,railway power station and the twenty-four hour test of the pumping engine at ,chestnut ,hill1 both recently carried out4 ,in connection with the engineering laboratories1 brief mention may be made of the shops1 which form an important adjunct of the laboratories4 ,they consist of a shop for carpentry1 wood-turning and pattern-making1 equipped with forty carpenters' benches1 thirty-six pattern-makers' benches and a full equipment of saws1 planers1 lathes1 etc42 a foundry with a cupola furnace for melting iron1 thirty-two moulders' benches1 two brass furnaces and a core-oven2 a forge shop with thirty-two forges1 a power hammer1 vises1 etc42 a machine shop with about forty lathes1 together with drills1 planers and all the other necessary apparatus used in machine tool work4 ,the magnitude of the ,institute laboratories is shown by the following statements3 ,the total horse-power of steam and other engines is nine hundred and eighty-three2 the total capacity of tension1 compression and transverse testing machines is over eight hundred thousand pounds1 and of torsion testing machines about one hundred and fifty-six thousand inch pounds2 the total horse-power of hydraulic motors is sixty-two2 and the total capacity of pumps is thirty-two hundred gallons per minute4 ,the engineering laboratories are used by students of all the engineering departments1 that is to say1 by a large majority of the students in the school4 ,the benefit derived by this actual contact with materials and with machines of commercial size1 under proper instruction1 is believed to be very great4 ,the department of mechanical engineering1 one of the original departments1 is now the largest in the school1 having a force of instruction of five professors and twelve instructors and assistants4 ,as an offshoot of it1 a department of naval architecture was established in #ahic1 after a preliminary experience of four years with an option in this direction4 ,this was the first course of its kind established in this country4 ,it is somewhat remarkable1 considering the preminence that ,america has long enjoyed in the building of ships and marine engines1 that our technical schools should for so long have failed to offer specialized instruction in these important branches4 ,schools devoted to these subjects have long existed abroad4 ,the ,french ,government ,school of ,naval ,architecture was established in #ahfe for the purpose of educating young men for the ,government service4 ,to this school foreigners are admitted under certain restrictions4 ,in ,england the first school of naval architecture was opened in #ahga1 but no systematic instruction seems to have been provided until #ahfd4 ,at present1 however1 the ,royal ,naval ,college1 at ,greenwich1 gives excellent and thorough instruction to young men desiring to enter the ,government service4 ,there has also been for a number of years an excellent course of study in naval architecture at the ,university of ,glasgow4 ,the ,institute of ,technology established in #ahhh an elementary course in ship construction1 and this was followed in #ahij by a specialized option in naval architecture extending through the four years4 ,already forty-one men have graduated from this course4 ,illustration3 ,,john ,d4 ,,runkle1 ,,president1 #ahgj-ahgh4 ,one of the large departments of the school is that of architecture4 ,forming one of the original departments established at the beginning of the ,institute in #ahfe1 when there was no similar department in this country1 it may fairly be affirmed to have led in the development of instruction in this important profession4 ,it was for many years in charge of ,prof4 ,w4 ,r4 ,ware1 who left the ,institute in #ahhj to assume charge of the newly established department at ,columbia ,college4 ,in common with the other departments of the ,institute1 that of architecture has developed enormously within recent years4 ,three times since #ahhc has the department been obliged to change its location in order to meet the continued need of expansion4 ,from the original small quarters in the upper floor of the ,rogers ,building1 it has grown so that it now occupies two and one half floors in the ,pierce ,building1 besides a large room for modelling in another building4 ,the drawing-rooms now accommodate over two hundred students4 ,the department has a magnificent library and a very large collection of photographs and lantern slides4 ,under the careful management of ,prof4 ,f4 ,w4 ,chandler1 who at the same time is head of the ,architectural ,department of the city and member of the ,fine ,arts ,commission1 it has now attained a most enviable reputation4 ,institute students competed for several years for the prizes offered by the ,new ,york ,socit des ,beaux ,arts1 and in each competition in which they entered they carried off the gold medal and the highest honors4 ,in the three competitions of '#id-'ie1 no less than seventy sets of drawings were submitted by all competitors4 ,the two gold medals1 four first mentions and two second mentions were awarded to ,institute students4 ,of the nine designs sent from the ,institute1 six were placed by the jury among the first eight of the seventy designs submitted2 two received second place and one was put out of competition because of too great deviation from the preliminary sketch4 ,this great success is doubtless due to the rigorous training which the students receive in architectural design at the hands of ,professor ,despradelle1 himself a graduate of the cole des ,beaux ,arts1 a winner of high honors in ,paris1 and of the third prize in the recent ,phbe ,hearst world competition for the new buildings of the ,university of ,california1 and within a few weeks the winner of the first medal in architecture in the ,paris ,salon of #aijj4 ,for three years the students are continually engaged upon architectural design1 and the work of each student is examined and criticised before the class by a jury from the ,boston ,society of ,architects4 ,students in architecture have also the opportunity1 if they desire1 of taking an option in architectural engineering1 in which they are given a course in the theory and design of structures as rigid as that received by the students in civil engineering4 ,the relations between architecture and engineering are exceedingly close and are becoming closer every year4 ,the work of the architect1 aside from the sthetic design of his buildings1 is becoming more and more like the work of the engineer1 and requires a thorough knowledge of engineering construction4 ,during the past year1 after very careful consideration1 the faculty has also established an option in the course of architecture1 devoted particularly to landscape architecture1 including1 besides a large amount of work in architecture proper1 instruction in horticulture and landscape design1 on the one hand1 and in surveying1 topographical drawing1 drainage1 etc41 on the other hand4 ,the landscape architect has heretofore had no opportunity to secure a thorough training in his profession1 except by passing through an apprenticeship1 as was formerly necessary in the older professions4 ,on account of the steady increase in this country in the demand for trained landscape architects and the increasing attention which is now being paid by our municipalities to questions concerning public parks1 and also by private individuals to the beautifying of private grounds1 there seems now to be an unusual opportunity for young men to devote themselves to this branch of the profession4 ,as usual1 the ,institute of ,technology is early in the field with a course designed to this end4 ,illustration3 ,,hydraulic ,,surveying ,,in ,,the ,,essex ,,canal1 ,,lowell4 ,the last of the engineering departments to be considered and one of the largest1 is that of civil engineering1 a department established when the ,institute was founded1 and until #ahha under the direction of that accomplished scholar and teacher1 ,prof4 ,j4 ,b4 ,henck1 and since #ahhg in charge of the writer4 ,this department has grown since #ahhf from four to eleven teachers1 and from sixty to one hundred and fifty-three students in the three upper classes4 ,it now occupies the two upper floors of the ,engineering ,building1 or about twenty-three thousand square feet4 ,in recognition of the increasing importance of sanitary questions affecting the health of communities1 a new branch of civil engineering was recognized by the ,institute in #ahhi by the establishment of a regular four years' course in sanitary engineering1 in which particular attention is directed to such problems1 and students are afforded opportunities of studying the bearing of chemistry and biology upon them4 ,here again the breadth and specialization of the work at the ,institute was shown1 rendering it possible with no change in the teaching force and with no disarrangement of studies1 to establish such a course of instruction as soon as the need for it became apparent4 ,interesting work has been done under the direction of ,professor ,burton1 professor of topographical engineering1 in connection with the measurement of base lines with the steel tape4 ,after devising an apparatus for holding and supporting the tape1 and measuring the coefficient of expansion of actual tapes1 an application was recently made of the thermophone for determining the exact average temperature of the tape4 ,this instrument1 which was invented a few years ago by two ,institute graduates1 allows the average temperature of the tape to be measured within half a degree4 ,an interesting department of the ,institute1 and one that has of recent years assumed great practical importance1 is that of biology4 ,it was organized in #ahhb1 as an outgrowth of what was prior to that date the course in natural history1 and now has a teaching force of six1 under the direction of ,prof4 ,william ,t4 ,sedgwick1 and occupies1 with its laboratories and lecture-rooms1 one entire floor of the ,pierce ,building4 ,there are five distinct laboratories1 fully equipped1 with private rooms1 store and preparation rooms1 and a library and reading-room1 and it is perhaps safe to say that nowhere in the ,united ,states is there so compact or well arranged a series of laboratories devoted chiefly to the sanitary1 hygienic and industrial aspects of biology4 ,the great advances in sanitary science in recent years have made bacteriology one of the most important1 as well as one of the most practical1 of the biological sciences1 and the biologist has taken his place beside the chemist and the engineer in the study of the science and art of public sanitation4 ,but bacteriology is of importance1 not only in sanitary science1 but also in its industrial relations4 ,great industries1 like those connected with food preserving1 canning1 vinegar making1 tanning and brewing1 depend upon the activity or the exclusion of micro-organisms4 ,as might be expected in a school of applied science1 the development of the biological department in the ,institute has been mainly along sanitary and industrial lines1 rather than in the direction of zology4 ,the biological work in connection with the recent important investigations of the ,state ,board of ,health regarding the purification of water and the disposal of sewage1 was done at the ,institute1 and early led to special instruction in these directions4 ,in #ahid a course was established in the micro-organisms of fermentation1 not only new to the ,institute1 but1 it is believed1 to the ,united ,states4 ,important researches had been made in ,denmark in these lines1 and in order to become thoroughly familiar with them1 one of the instructors of the department spent a summer in the laboratory of ,alfred ,jrgensen1 in ,copenhagen4 ,in #ahif1 a more elaborate course1 that in industrial biology1 was established1 and since that time special studies have been made in various lines1 such as the efficiency of sterilizing processes1 the preparation of canned goods and the cultivation of butter bacteria4 ,this department is destined to still greater development in the near future1 and its laboratories are finely equipped in every direction4 ,illustration3 ,,francis ,a4 ,,walker1 ,,president1 #ahha-ahig4 ,reference to the different departments in the ,institute would not be complete without brief mention of its department of general studies4 ,it is perhaps seldom recognized1 but it is nevertheless a fact that the ,institute1 although primarily a technical school1 is better equipped for giving instruction in languages1 in history1 in economics and statistics and in political science than many classical institutions4 ,indeed1 the only important department of study which is found in such institutions1 and for which no provision is made at the ,institute1 is that of ancient languages4 ,the force of instruction in the department of general studies1 leaving out of consideration the department of modern languages1 comprises two professors1 one associate professor1 three assistant professors1 one instructor and one assistant1 a total of eight1 probably a larger number than is found in any but the very largest colleges4 ,in the department of modern languages1 there is one professor1 one associate professor1 one assistant professor and four instructors4 ,there are offered ten distinct courses in ,english1 eleven in modern languages1 eight in history and twenty in economics and statistics and in political science4 ,as already stated1 it has been a fundamental principle in the government of the school that all regular students should receive a not inconsiderable amount of instruction in these subjects1 but in addition to the engineering and other technical courses1 there is a so-called course in general studies1 designed to train young men for business occupations1 in which1 besides thorough courses in chemistry1 physics and other sciences1 a large amount of time is devoted to the general studies which have been referred to4 ,the late president of the ,institute1 ,general ,walker1 whose principal work1 aside from that relating to education1 lay in the field of economics and statistics1 took great interest in the development of this general course1 and to him1 more than to anybody else1 is due its present high standard4 ,seventy-eight young men have graduated from the department1 and in many respects its course of study offers advantages over the usual college course4 ,summer schools are maintained by the ,institute in the departments of civil engineering1 mining engineering and architecture4 ,that in civil engineering affords continuous field practice in geodesy and hydraulics during about a month4 ,that in mining engineering affords students an opportunity to visit mining or metallurgical works and to become practically acquainted with the methods employed by actually taking part in them4 ,these summer schools in mining and metallurgy have been held in all parts of the country1 from ,nova ,scotia to ,lake ,superior and ,colorado4 ,the summer school in architecture consists not infrequently of a trip abroad1 with detailed studies and sketches of special types of architecture4 ,the ,institute also offers extended courses of free evening lectures1 of which twenty courses of twelve lectures each were given during the past year4 ,these courses1 established by the trustee of the ,lowell ,institute under the supervision of the ,institute1 correspond to one portion of ,president ,rogers's original plan1 and are fully appreciated by young men who cannot afford the time for a complete and consecutive education4 ,the trustee of the ,lowell ,institute also established in #ahgb1 and has maintained ever since1 a special school of practical design1 under the supervision of the ,institute1 in which young men and women are given free instruction in the art of making patterns for prints1 ginghams1 silks1 laces1 paper hangings1 carpets1 etc42 the object being to fit them to engage in the textile industries especially1 but also in other branches of manufacture in which taste in form and color is an essential element for success4 ,mention may be made here of the fact that all work at the ,institute is open to women on the same terms as to men4 ,as early as #ahfg1 among the ,lowell free courses1 there were two chemical courses open to both sexes1 and soon afterward women were admitted to the regular work of the school4 ,the first woman to graduate was ,mrs4 ,ellen ,h4 ,richards1 in #ahgc1 and since that time forty-eight women have received the degree4 ,this number1 however1 is no measure of the part which women have taken in the work of the school1 for a large majority of those who attend are special students4 ,during the year #ahii-aijj1 there were fifty-three women studying at the school1 principally in the departments of chemistry1 biology1 geology1 physics and architecture4 ,from the last-named course eleven young women have graduated1 one of whom was the designer of the ,woman's ,building at the ,chicago ,exposition4 ,one peculiarity of the ,institute which has not been mentioned is the sub-division of its libraries4 ,instead of having one general library1 each department has its special library1 conveniently located with reference to its rooms4 ,this involves a slight duplication of books1 but is of the greatest advantage to students and teachers for consultation4 ,the ,institute libraries are not large1 compared with the libraries of many colleges and universities1 but they are remarkably rich along the lines of the special topics to which they are of necessity principally devoted1 and particularly in scientific periodicals4 ,the total number of periodicals in all languages regularly received at the ,institute1 not including a large number of official reports1 is eight hundred and forty-seven4 ,in the engineering library alone there are one hundred and seventy-three4 ,it is believed that this forms one of the largest collections of scientific journals to be found anywhere4 ,the ,institute publishes a scientific magazine1 known as the ,technology ,quarterly1 which was established in #ahhg1 and is the official organ for the publication of the results of tests in the laboratories and of special investigations by members of the staff and by students and alumni4 ,the ,association of ,class ,secretaries also publishes the ,technology ,review1 a more popular quarterly1 established only two years ago1 and devoted to the social and general interests of the ,institute4 ,in #ahif the ,technology ,club was started1 occupying a building near the ,institute and affording alumni and students the social advantages of a clubhouse4 ,the alumni of the ,institute now number two thousand three hundred and thirty-nine2 they maintain an ,alumni ,association which holds annual meetings1 and seven local branch associations which are scattered over the country from the ,connecticut ,valley to ,colorado4 ,illustration3 ,,james ,m4 ,,crafts1 ,,president1 #ahig-aijj4 ,in reviewing the success which this school has attained1 the question naturally presents itself3 ,to what is this success due8 ,let me here record my conviction that it has been due mainly to the courage and devotion of its corporation and of the presidents who have directed its policy4 ,in this respect no institution was ever more fortunate4 ,with a guiding body possessed of the courage and faith that have animated the corporation of the institution from the earliest days1 and especially with the able men who have been its presidents1 success was assured4 ,while the school was yet struggling for its very existence1 with few friends and little money1 they never faltered4 ,they have not hesitated again and again to plunge the school deeply into debt when its needs required it1 trusting to the generosity of ,new ,england that it should not be allowed to be crippled1 and each time has their confidence been justified4 ,poverty has never been permitted to impair the efficiency of the school4 ,as ,president ,crafts remarked in a recent annual report1 8,we are less favored than many neighboring institutions in building space1 but we have always followed the wise policy of keeping in the foremost rank and in some departments leading the way in supplying the best methods and apparatus for teaching and for making investigation4 ,we have run in debt to buy them1 and run still further in debt to build houses to hold them1 but we have always had them when the head of a department told the government of the school that they were necessary to the most efficient teaching of his science40 ,with a corporation acting on such a principle there could be no failure4 ,it is true that the faculty have stood unfalteringly1 even in the darkest days1 for high scholarship2 and equally true that the school has been remarkably fortunate in the character of the young men who have sought its halls1 but no faculty and no body of students could have brought success with a corporation less broadminded and courageous4 ,let me here add my tribute to the work which was done by the late ,general ,francis ,a4 ,walker1 president of the institute from #ahha till #ahig4 ,probably no single person did more to secure the success of the school than he4 ,his great administrative ability1 his wide acquaintance1 his accurate judgment of men1 his magnificent courage and his splendid enthusiasm1 were factors in the development of the school whose importance it is difficult to overestimate4 ,general ,walker was succeeded by ,president ,james ,m4 ,crafts1 who had been connected with the ,institute for many years as professor of chemistry1 and under whose energetic administration the progress of the ,institute has been steadily continued4 ,in fact1 thanks to some unexpected additions to the funds of the school1 its material resources and its equipment have been more enlarged and extended during the past three years than in many years previous4 ,only a few months ago1 however1 ,president ,crafts1 desiring to devote himself more uninterruptedly to the pursuit of the science which first awakened his enthusiasm and in which he has attained such eminent distinction1 both in this country and abroad1 decided to relinquish his office4 ,the corporation has chosen as his successor1 ,dr4 ,henry ,s4 ,pritchett1 for many years professor of astronomy in ,washington ,university1 ,st4 ,louis1 and for the past few years superintendent of the ,coast and ,geodetic ,survey at ,washington4 ,a more fortunate selection could not have been made1 and the well-known scientific and administrative ability of ,dr4 ,pritchett will no doubt be the means not only of maintaining the present high reputation of the school1 but of extending and enlarging it4 ,unfortunately1 the ,institute is still unendowed in the sense that its receipts from invested property constitute but a very small part of the means required to carry on the school4 ,to quote from one of ,president ,walker's reports1 8,no other institution of our size but has two1 three or four times the amount of wealth to draw upon which we possess4 ,it has only been exceeding good fortune1 combined with extreme courage1 energy and self-devotion on the part of its trustees and teachers that has more than once rescued the school from paralysis1 if not from extinction40 ,in #ahih-'ii1 the total expenditures of the school were about #cfg1ejj1 while the current receipts were about #cdg1ejj1 showing a deficit of about #bj1jjj4 ,of the current receipts1 #bjg1jjj1 or #ei per cent1 were from students' fees4 ,dividing the total expenditures by the number of students1 we find an expenditure of #cad per student1 without counting interest on the value of land and buildings1 while the tuition fee is #bjj4 ,the invested funds of the ,institute amount to but #a1iag1jjj4 ,all gifts and legacies1 with the exception of this amount1 have had to go into land1 buildings and equipment4 ,between #ahhh and #ahii the ,institute has been obliged to spend #cej1jjj for land1 the purchase of which has been a great burden1 and within a few years a further expenditure of #bfj1jjj in this direction has been made4 ,illustration3 ,,henry ,s4 ,,pritchett1 ,,president-,,elect ,,of ,,the ,,massachusetts ,,institute ,,of ,,technology4 ,the bearing of these figures will perhaps be realized by comparing them with similar figures regarding ,cornell ,university1 which is largely a technical school1 since nearly one half of its students pursue technical courses similar to those in the ,institute4 ,in #ahih the total income of that university was #ehc1jjj1 of which about #aba1jjj1 or only #bj per cent1 was received from tuition fees4 ,its invested funds amounted to #f1ddf1hah4 ,the ,state has generously given aid to the ,institute in some of its most trying times2 as in #ahhh1 when it gave #bjj1jjj1 one half unconditionally and the other half for the support of free scholarships2 and again in #ahie1 when it granted unconditionally #be1jjj a year for six years and #b1jjj a year additional for scholarships4 ,although the school has a very inadequate endowment1 yet the future looks bright4 ,it is significant of the general appreciation of its work that men and women who have not received a technical education have devoted a large part of their fortunes to providing such education for others4 ,among the recent benefactors of the ,institute we may name ,henry ,l4 ,pierce1 ,john ,w4 ,randall1 ,mrs4 ,julia ,b4 ,huntington ,james and ,edward ,austin1 who1 within less than three years have bequeathed nearly a million and a half dollars to the school4 ,if the large gifts of recent years are continued1 the school will before long be put financially upon a level with its neighbors4 ,may we not hope that as the applications of science to the arts enrich the alumni and friends of the ,institute1 they may help to make the road easy for their successors by devoting a part of their riches to the advancement of technical education8 ,,the ,,psychology ,,of ,,crazes4 ,,by ,,professor ,g4 ,t4 ,w4 ,,patrick1 ,,university ,,of ,,iowa4 ,a well-known ,washington newspaper correspondent1 writing of the recent ,congress of the ,daughters of the ,american ,revolution and its disorderly meetings1 says3 8,it is the unanimous opinion of those who have attended the congress that1 while the ,daughters of the ,american ,revolution1 individually1 are nearly all intellectual1 refined and attractive women1 collectively they are an uncontrollable mob40 ,why is the social conduct of human beings different from their conduct as individuals8 ,this is the problem of the new science of social psychology4 ,the following study of crazes and epidemics is offered as a slight contribution to this science4 ,by way of preface it might be said that a good deal of the confusion as to the subject matter of social psychology would be avoided if it were understood that this science is not the study of any mysterious entity called #8the social mind1' nor the mere study of those individual traits that make men social beings1 such as imitation and suggestibility2 but rather the study of the peculiar and characteristic behavior of the mind of the individual when under the influence of the social afflatus4 ,under this influence we do indeed find that he becomes a different being1 and that his mental processes must be formulated by different laws2 and we are convinced that1 as thus understood1 social psychology is just as distinct and legitimate a branch of study as is the psychology of the child or the psychology of sex4 ,now1 in what ways is the behavior of man as a social being different from his behavior as an individual8 ,to answer this question in part1 let us examine his behavior in mental epidemics and crazes4 ,i select these because they illustrate in somewhat extreme form the influence of the social afflatus4 ,if1 for the sake of comparison1 we first consider the normal individual as such1 we find that he is a perceiving1 remembering1 associating1 judging1 reflecting1 reasoning being2 that he is subject to certain feelings1 emotions1 desires and impulses1 prompting him to action2 that his action is more or less deliberative1 and1 when it finally occurs1 is the result of a set of motives determined by the man's character1 which in turn is the outcome of his heredity and education and his general ability to appreciate and reflect the moral ideals of the social order to which he belongs4 ,if now we study this man in respect to his mental development1 whether from the savage or the child1 we find that the direction of change has been away from imitative1 impulsive action1 towards thought1 reflection1 deliberation4 ,he continually makes more use of memory and1 anticipating the future1 regulates his action in the light of his past experience4 ,this change from the imitative and impulsive to the reasoning man accompanies the development of the higher brain centers1 particularly of the cerebral cortex1 upon which depend the all-important functions of memory and association4 ,as an experiment it is quite possible to reduce this highly developed reasoning being in a single moment to a condition resembling his primitive state by means of hypnotism4 ,in hypnosis there is a temporary paralysis or sleep of the higher brain centers1 upon which depends deliberative1 rational action1 and1 the lower 7older7 centers alone being active1 the subject becomes a mere ideo-motor machine acting out every suggestion4 ,in various related states of automatism1 where there is any spontaneity at all1 the mentality and morality of the subject are of a lower type and may be called reversionary in character1 owing1 no doubt1 to the fact that those brain centers which represent the most recent acquirements of the race are temporarily out of the circuit4 ,if again we study the mind of the child1 we find that it presents many points of likeness to the mind of the hypnotic subject and to the mind of the primitive man4 ,we learn from biology that the child is to some extent a recapitulation of the life of the race1 passing through in his individual development the stages of race development4 ,physiologically speaking1 the higher brain centers and the centers for association1 which are late acquirements of the race1 are last developed in the child4 ,we are therefore not surprised to find that the child1 like the savage and the hypnotic subject1 is imitative1 impulsive1 non-reflective1 incapable of much abstract thought1 deliberation or reasoning1 and that he acts with a view to immediate rather than remote ends4 ,if now we turn to the behavior of the normal adult man in mental epidemics and crazes of all kinds1 from the ,crusades to the ,massacre of ,st4 ,bartholomew1 from the tulip mania in ,holland to the ,dewey welcome in ,new ,york ,city1 we observe that his behavior is to some extent similar to that of the hypnotic subject1 and the child1 and the primitive man4 ,the general character of mental action in epidemics is as follows3 ,men become imitative beings and their actions are determined by suggestion from the actions of others4 ,memory and the association of ideas are inactive1 and there is an inability to reason and an indisposition towards deliberation and calm reflection4 ,past experiences are disregarded1 remote consequences are not seen and behavior is impulsive and spasmodic4 ,feeling is very strong and every kind of emotion is apt to be exaggerated4 ,calm observation is also lacking and mental images may be mistaken for objective reality1 as in the case of the hallucinations that are frequent in these phenomena4 ,the moral peculiarities of an epidemic are of a similar kind4 ,under the influence of a craze1 the moral character of a people suffers a reversion to a primitive type4 ,in times of epidemic waves the moral standards of the crowd approach those of the savage4 ,we observe the exhibition of primitive instincts1 such as cruelty1 revenge and blood-thirstiness1 together with changeableness1 fanaticism1 self-sacrifice and enthusiastic devotion to a leader4 ,all these moral traits were well illustrated in the ,revolution crazes in ,france and in the persecution of witches in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries4 ,even in our own times a striking example of the primitive character of the morality of a people under the influence of social excitement was seen in the battle-cry of our ,american sailors in the recent ,spanish war1 #8,remember the ,maine1' the ethical motive being a precipitate impulse to seek revenge4 ,an instance like this can not be explained upon the theory that it represented the actual individual morality of the sailors participating in the battles1 for it was echoed and apparently endorsed by the press throughout the country and upon the platform and even in the pulpit4 ,it is hardly conceivable that an ,englishman of noble birth should openly boast of his joy in being revenged upon an enemy2 yet collective ,england is wild with delight when #8,majuba ,hill is avenged6' ,we are thus led apparently to the theory that1 for some reason not yet evident1 under the influence of social excitement1 something takes place in the brain of the individual not unlike the action of hypnotism1 by which the higher centers representing the more recent moral and mental acquirements of the race are temporarily paralyzed1 reducing the subject in a greater or less degree to the condition of the child and of the primitive man4 ,the observation of certain physical phenomena which often accompany mental epidemics tends to confirm this theory and at the same time to suggest a possible explanation4 ,epidemics of the more extreme kind are apt to be accompanied by great muscular excitability1 varying all the way from mere extreme mobility1 such as shouting1 jumping and throwing the arms1 to convulsions like those of epilepsy4 ,the dancing manias of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries furnish the best illustrations of this1 although these phenomena did not equal in intensity the frightful physical convulsions during the religious revivals in ,kentucky at the beginning of this century4 ,the particular character of these muscular movements is determined by imitation and suggestion4 ,the movements themselves are no doubt due to congestion and irritation of the motor centers1 or at least to a rapid overflow of nervous discharges at these centers1 an accompaniment of the excessive emotion which attends all mental epidemics4 ,in such a condition of the nervous system1 thought1 reasoning1 memory and association can have little place1 or1 to express it physiologically1 the unusual excitement in the lower centers of the brain accompanying excessive emotion may not only find expression in muscular movements1 but may also exercise an inhibitory or paralyzing effect upon the higher centers1 resulting in a kind of hypnotic condition4 ,neither is it difficult to understand the presence of this excessive emotion during mental epidemics or during any purely social movements1 when we remember that war itself is the great original social movement1 which even in this age always takes the form of a mental epidemic called the war spirit4 ,the emotional effect of the mere physical congregation of a large number of men1 the emotion increasing with the size of the assemblage1 is known to all4 ,as we glance now at a few of the typical mental epidemics of history1 we shall notice the ever-recurring presence of some or all of the mental and moral traits that ,i have pointed out4 ,for illustrations of these phenomena we may turn indifferently to ancient1 medieval or modern history4 ,they abound at every period4 ,very good examples may be found in ,hecker's #8,epidemics of the ,middle ,ages4' ,in the ,crusades1 particularly in the ,children's ,crusades1 we may observe all the mental1 moral and physical peculiarities that have been mentioned4 ,in the anti-,semitic mania1 we see in its history of criminal horror the dehumanizing effects of the epidemic and the moral reversion which takes place under the influence of social excitement4 ,the peculiar physical phenomena which have been referred to as characterizing epidemic excitement are best illustrated in the dancing manias of the ,middle ,ages and in the religious revival4 ,although epidemic #8revivals' have occurred in all countries1 some of the best illustrations are seen in ,america in its early history and to some extent at the present day4 ,at the time of the elder ,edwards1 revivals were accompanied by fainting1 falling1 tremor and numbness4 ,in the ,kentucky revivals the meetings1 called camp meetings1 were held in the open air4 ,the interest in them spread in true epidemic form4 ,at the height of the excitement1 as many as #bj1jjj people1 men1 women and children1 were gathered in a single camp at one time4 ,dr4 ,davidson1 who writes a history of this revival1 says that 8the laborer quitted his task1 age snatched his crutch1 youth forgot his pastime1 the plough was left in the furrow1 business of all kinds was suspended1 bold hunters and sober matrons1 young men1 maidens and little children flocked to the common center of attraction40 ,the emotional tension was very great4 ,a boy perhaps would spring to his feet and begin to rave1 or some over-excited person would utter a piercing shriek1 or a cry of triumph1 and this would be the signal for a general hysterical outbreak1 accompanied by many remarkable physical symptoms4 ,of these the most common were falling in convulsive spasms1 jerking1 dancing1 barking like dogs1 fainting1 crying1 singing1 praying and cursing4 ,sometimes whole companies were seized with uncontrollable laughing fits1 called the holy laugh4 ,at a meeting in ,east ,tennessee1 six hundred began jerking at one time4 ,in many instances sensibility would be lost and the extremities would be cold1 while the face was flushed4 ,in some places the sufferers were laid out in rows and squares in the churchyard until they should recover4 ,from a medical point of view we should call this epidemic chorea1 but its more exact physiology ,i have already referred to4 ,when closely examined1 the phenomena lose a part at least of their mysterious character4 ,we must remember that religious emotions are powerful1 deep and ancient4 ,the effect1 furthermore1 is increased by the general epidemic excitement1 by the element of large and unwonted gatherings of people1 by imitation1 by the stimulating music and by the fearfully exciting power of human shrieks and wild cries and prayers4 ,such a nervous condition induced in an individual must have two results3 first1 the escape of the unusual nervous excitement in motor channels1 giving rise to the choreic movements2 and second1 the paralysis of the higher brain centers1 resulting in various hypnotic phenomena and reversionary morality and mentality4 ,many of these scenes were repeated in the great revival that swept ,new ,york and the ,middle ,states1 beginning in the year #ahcb4 ,in these meetings preachers who kept cool and reasoned logically were not listened to4 ,there was rather a demand for the wild1 impetuous1 vociferous1 physically impassioned oratory of the rude man4 ,as an example of reversionary morals in this epidemic1 we may notice the fact mentioned by ,albert ,rhodes that in response to visions many men put away their own wives and took others from their neighbors4 ,from the psychological point of view perhaps the most instructive of all epidemics is the demonophobia or witchcraft mania which raged from the end of the fifteenth to the end of the seventeenth centuries4 ,the savage's fear of demons and of unseen supernatural agencies lurking in every forest and moor now took hold of the modern world and turned the people1 not into brutes and devils as we figuratively say1 but simply into the original savages from which they came1 whose basal instincts they still carried in their lower nervous centers1 to be brought out under the influence of a social craze4 ,the ecclesiastical authorities1 both ,roman and ,protestant1 led in this homicidal frenzy1 while sedate judges1 learned jurors and wise legislators lent their zealous aid4 ,it spread in true epidemic form all over the ,continent and into ,england and ,scotland1 even to ,america4 ,distinguished jurists declared that ordinary methods of trial should not be used for this offence1 for so difficult is it to bring proof of the crime of witchcraft1 that out of a million of witches not one could be convicted if the usual course of justice were followed4 ,one contemporary of undoubted authority wrote that he saw a list of three thousand witches that had been put to death during the time of the ,long ,parliament alone4 ,in this reign of demonophobia the psychological phenomena of the craze are well illustrated4 ,the exciting cause was a widespread contagious and epidemic fear4 ,the result was a recrudescence of the barbaric instincts of cruelty1 torture and homicide1 accompanied by a loss not merely of reasoning power1 but apparently of common sense1 so that intelligent men seemed to believe that old women blasted the crops in the fields and the offspring of animals1 and raised storms and whirlwinds4 ,the cruelty characteristic of the savage is again noticed in this case4 ,in the witchcraft persecutions1 the victims were commonly weak women1 particularly the more helpless old and young1 while the character of the inflictions was such as is peculiar to primitive people1 viz41 torture and burning alive4 ,the perfidy of the savage is also noticed1 as in innumerable instances the victims were led to believe that they would be spared if they made a confession1 and were then put to death4 ,to elude a legal requirement that torture should not be repeated1 the most horrible tortures were #8continued' from day to day4 ,the psychology of crazes is clearly seen in certain of its aspects in the homicidal manias that have swept over communities or whole countries at frequent intervals in the world's history4 ,the homicidal impulse itself is one of the most primitive and basal of all impulses4 ,the reason for this is apparent4 ,the history of man has been a history of warfare and of struggle for existence4 ,it has been man against man1 tribe against tribe1 nation against nation4 ,habits like these are not quickly unlearned1 and reversion to them in times of social disturbance is not strange4 ,in the massacre of ,st4 ,bartholomew we have a typical instance of the homicidal mania4 ,the necessary conditions were1 first1 great emotional excitement caused by religious fanaticism acting as an inhibitory agent upon the higher brain centers and allowing the primitive impulses to act unchecked2 second1 the removal of external and customary restraints1 effected in this case by the royal decree2 and third1 the mental effects of imitation and suggestion4 ,these conditions being all supplied1 the ,french people resolved themselves speedily into assassins and cut-throats1 and enjoyed a homicidal debauch4 ,begun in ,paris1 the massacre spread in true epidemic form throughout ,france1 until fifteen or twenty thousand people had perished4 ,these homicidal manias have1 of course1 been very frequent in history4 ,the decivilizing influence of the craze is1 however1 most perfectly illustrated in the various scenes of the ,french ,revolution4 ,here the overturning of the social and religious order itself acted in part as the unsettling and emotionally exciting cause4 ,the usual results followed4 ,the effect of social excitement in paralyzing the intellect was shown in this case in the wholesale and useless destruction of women and children4 ,furthermore1 this reversion to the manners of the savage carries with it its appropriate mood4 ,the slaughterers are not like demons1 as we imagine demons to be1 but rather like thoughtless children4 ,there is merriment and much gayety1 and there is dancing and singing around the corpses1 and seats are arranged for the ladies1 who are eager to enjoy the spectacle2 and finally the victims are made to pass through a double row of executioners1 who carve them into pieces gradually1 so that all can saturate themselves with the sight of the bloodshed4 ,although in some cases wars may be coolly planned by the people's leaders for personal or political reasons or for purposes of national conquest1 still they all depend for their successful issue upon the homicidal impulse in the masses of people4 ,this is called the war spirit and is always of an epidemic character4 ,it may have any degree of ferocity or mildness4 ,it has a tendency to be periodic1 so that if it has slumbered for a considerable period a very slight cause is sufficient to awaken it4 ,a mere boundary line in ,venezuela1 in which this country had but a remote interest1 was sufficient a few years ago to excite this war spirit in a milder form1 when a curious craze for a war with ,great ,britain flowed like a wave across this country4 ,any war will furnish instructive material to the student of social psychology4 ,in the late ,spanish-,american war1 for instance1 we all felt the war spirit which flowed in epidemic form across the country and engulfed it4 ,the first motive of the war1 the altruistic desire to free an oppressed people1 was of the ideal glittering kind1 well fitted to excite the emotions of the masses4 ,a dramatic event further fans this emotional flame1 and at once the aggregate personality of the nation is in a condition of automatism1 where primitive instincts1 such as revenge and lust for the paraphernalia of war1 are no longer checked by the more lately acquired moral principles4 ,congressmen1 editors1 members of peace societies1 ministers of the gospel1 forget their long and patient efforts to establish means for settling national differences by arbitration and join lustily in the war cry1 and the psychologically curious spectacle is presented of a great nation1 priding itself as a leader in the world's morals1 giving to the appeal of a weaker nation for the arbitration of a dispute the answer of shot and shell4 ,although the motive of blood for blood is a moral motive belonging to a bygone age and in individual ethics has long been outgrown1 yet collectively1 under the influence of the war craze1 we revert to it1 and it is shamelessly proclaimed from platform and editorial room and vigorously applauded by the people4 ,we have seen that cruelty and the persecution of the weak by the strong were among the reversionary symptoms of the social epidemic in many instances4 ,we may notice curiously enough a trace of these qualities here1 where the fact that our enemy was a greatly inferior power does not detract in our eyes from the brilliancy of our victories1 though in the ethics of the individual such a circumstance would put us to shame4 ,in all this we proceed strictly in accordance with international law1 but international law itself is only international custom and is the mere expression of the wonted behavior of the aggregate personality1 particularly in times of war4 ,as such it does not represent the highest ethical development of man1 but that lower stage of development to which he reverts in times of social excitement4 ,from this point of view it is possible to understand why international ethics is so far behind individual ethics4 ,personal disputes were once settled by brute force as international disputes are now settled4 ,there is no reason to doubt that the latter will1 somewhat later in the history of civilization1 be settled by courts of arbitration and enforced by a system of police as the former now are4 ,the considerations now before us show the futility of peace congresses in that part of their work which contemplates the enforced substitution of arbitration for war4 ,peace congresses are not social movements4 ,they spring from the efforts of individual men1 leaders in social reform4 ,they belong to the upward ethical movements led by individuals1 the slow1 painful climbing towards higher moral and intellectual standards4 ,these congresses may meet and discuss arbitration and perfect an international program1 but they labor in vain1 for they forget that social man has a double personality and that the personality that meets and deliberates in the peace congress is not the personality that1 under the influence of the war craze1 thrills with emotion and acts from ancient and deep rooted impulses and motives4 ,when the war spirit sweeps over a country the social personality passes into a condition not unlike that of hypnosis and is ruled by a different set of moral principles4 ,it should not be understood from this that peace congresses are useless4 ,they are a part of an educative system whose influence in the end will be strong enough to react upon the secondary social personality and determine its behavior4 ,among crazes of a different kind1 we may notice financial crazes as an interesting type1 falling under the same laws as those mentioned4 ,both in panics and in speculative manias we observe again a species of hypnotization4 ,in the case of the latter the ordinary business shrewdness which characterizes the dealings of the individual in a normal state and which depends upon the activity of late developed association tracts in the brain1 is to a large extent lost4 ,the memory is impaired and what in general we may call prudence is lacking4 ,the psychology of the speculative mania is very simple4 ,there is first1 greed1 furnishing the necessary emotional excitement2 then imitation2 then precipitate1 unreasoning action4 ,in the panic1 the psychological sequence is the same1 except that fear takes the place of greed4 ,the stampede among animals may be taken as the type of all panics4 ,it is a reflex phenomenon consisting merely of contagious fear and precipitate1 unintelligent flight4 ,fear and flight constitute a most primitive form of mental action1 equalled in primitive character only by that other form whose survival we have seen illustrated in wars and homicidal manias1 viz41 anger and combat4 ,although the individual has long outgrown these simple reflexes1 yet in social excitement he reverts to them4 ,the recrudescence of the first of these two forms is seen in the case of panics in theatres and burning buildings1 where social fear is followed by unintelligent flight1 there being a temporary paralysis of reason1 prudence1 the power of choosing means to ends1 respect for women and consideration for the weak and feeble4 ,the limits of this paper permit me only to refer to other forms of the craze illustrating the same laws4 ,in fads and fashions of all kinds1 the behavior of the social personality is different only in degree from that already described in the more serious epidemics4 ,the law of imitation is the same1 but there is less excitement and emotional disturbance and consequently a lesser paralysis of the higher mental faculties and a lesser return to barbaric impulses4 ,whereas the others may be called forms of social paranoia1 these may be called forms of social monomania4 ,a single idea fills the public mind1 and as a result this idea is unduly exalted as to its importance and worth4 ,the higher mental powers are paralyzed only so far as that there is a perverted judgment as to the relative importance of things and consequently a more or less distorted view of the world and its values4 ,perhaps the simplest form of this craze is seen in the epidemic character of children's games4 ,at different times of the season different games completely fill the social consciousness of the child-world1 so that for the moment there is no interest in any other game4 ,new and interesting sports1 such1 for instance1 as golf1 often fill the social adult consciousness in the same way4 ,then there are social and literary fads1 crazes in musical airs1 fashions in dress1 furniture1 houses and carriages1 without number4 ,crazes of all kinds have found a prolific soil in ,america4 ,the ,american mind is highly suggestible4 ,one fad after another rages over the country and in some cases reduces the aggregate mind to a condition of idiocy4 ,the ,dewey craze in ,new ,york ,city last year is an illustration of this4 ,nothing but a sort of hypnotic distortion of intellectual vision could cause grown men to stand in line for an hour in order that they might sit for an instant in the chair in which the hero sat during the review1 or to fight for shreds of the flags and awnings that decorated the platform4 ,sporadic social reform movements take the form of crazes and illustrate the same laws4 ,one recalls the ,woman's ,crusade in #ahgc1 the result not of a rational plan but of imitation1 and the ,granger movement and the ,farmers' ,alliance and the greenback craze and the silver craze and many others4 ,since ,aristotle we have been told that man is a social animal and that to study him as he really is we must not isolate him from society4 ,the evident truth of this may lead us to forget that it is but a half truth and the uncritical acceptance of it will lead us wholly astray in our sociological study4 ,the inference which we seem compelled to draw from studies in social psychology is that social man is1 in his ethical and intellectual development1 many stages behind the individual man4 ,the progress of civilization is a slow1 painful1 upward climbing1 in which individuals are the thinkers1 the planners1 the promoters and the leaders4 ,the mind of society1 on the other hand1 using the phrase in the sense defined1 is an imitative1 unreflective1 half-hypnotic1 half-barbaric mind1 always acting as a drag upon the upward and forward movement1 and1 in times of crazes1 epidemics and social cataclysms1 gaining temporary dominance and causing disastrous relapses to a lower plane of civilization4 ,,some ,,phases ,,of ,,the ,,earth',s ,,development ,,in ,,the ,,light ,,of ,,recent ,,chemical ,,research4 ,,by ,,professor ,,edward ,,renouf4 ,,johns ,,hopkins ,,university4 ,in the following pages an effort is made to apply some of the results of recent chemical research to the earlier history of the earth4 ,it is hoped that the main facts brought out may be readily grasped by those who have never studied chemistry1 and that each link in the chain of events will be made evident to those who have mastered the rudiments of this science4 ,chemical action involves change of composition4 ,substances more or less complex may be broken down into simpler substances1 or from several simpler substances a complex substance may be built up4 ,from the complex ore of copper found in nature the simple element copper is obtained4 ,from the elements sulphur and oxygen and the simple substance water the complex sulphuric acid is built up4 ,within the last few years the high temperature of the electric arc--the heat generated by a powerful electric current playing between two carbon poles--has been employed in bringing about chemical changes which do not occur at ordinary temperatures nor at those obtainable by burning fuel4 ,the electric furnace is used industrially to make calcium carbide from lime and coke1 carbon silicide 7carborundum7 from coke and sand1 and the metal aluminum from its compounds4 ,chemical changes at high temperatures have long been an object of research1 but it was not until the introduction of the electric furnace that it was possible to command temperatures high enough to make exhaustive studies4 ,in the last few years several chemists1 especially ,moissan1 of ,paris1 and his pupils1 have done systematic work with the aid of the arc furnace4 ,the furnace used in the laboratory for high temperature work is a small and simple apparatus2 ,moissan's furnace is a block of quick lime a little longer and wider than a page of this magazine and about three inches thick4 ,a rectangular cavity is cut on the upper surface of this block4 ,a similar block forms the cover4 ,in opposite grooves between the top and bottom piece are placed the carbons1 such as are used in ordinary arc lights4 ,the arc plays across the cavity in such a manner that the substance to be heated is not brought into the arc itself1 which is vaporized carbon1 but below it4 ,the cavity thus represents a tiny reverberatory furnace2 the arc heats the roof and sides to an intense heat1 which is radiated on the open dish or closed crucible or tube containing the substance heated4 ,this is the simplest form of laboratory furnace4 ,various modifications are used1 but in all the size is small and the arrangement simple4 ,a powerful arc plays in the smallest possible cavity with the object of attaining the maximum of temperature1 expense and duration of material being secondary considerations4 ,lime and magnesia are the best materials1 because they are at the same time the most refractory substances available and are poor conductors of heat4 ,a furnace top one and one half inches thick may be heated by so powerful an arc that the melted quick lime drips from the inner surface1 while the outer surface is scarcely warm to the touch of the hand4 ,moissan has utilized in these little furnaces currents of electricity of varied strength1 the lowest being that given by a four horse-power dynamo1 the highest that generated by three hundred horse power4 ,the highest temperatures obtained were about #c1ejj centigrade 7#f1cjj ,fahrenheit71 with the heat constantly increasing2 the limit to the obtainable temperature--as far as the experimental evidence showed--was merely the lack of any known substance refractory enough to bear the heat2 for at the temperature mentioned quick lime and magnesia not only melt but are changed into gases1 so that the furnace was filled with the vapors of its own material4 ,the effect of the heat on single substances is very interesting4 ,refractory metals1 such as iron1 manganese1 uranium1 platinum1 melt rapidly and then become gaseous2 the most refractory non-metallic elements1 silicon1 boron1 carbon1 are also changed into the gaseous form4 ,very refractory compounds are broken down into simpler ones4 ,magnesium pyrophosphate yields phosphorus1 magnesium oxide and oxygen4 ,asbestos--a magnesium silicate--gives as chief product magnesium silicide2 the other substances formed being silicon1 silicon dioxide and a little magnesium oxide4 ,such are the astounding changes wrought by simple heat upon those substances which we are accustomed to regard as infusible4 ,it must be remembered that the range of temperature which chemists employ in ordinary laboratory work is not very great and that the conditions of work in the laboratory and of nature's work on the earth's surface at the present day favor the formation of two classes of compounds--the oxides and their hydrates4 ,although air is a mixture consisting mainly of four parts of nitrogen and one of oxygen1 atmospheric nitrogen is generally inert at ordinary temperatures1 and it is the oxygen of the air which is the more important factor in the growth of living things and in changes in lifeless matter4 ,water1 a compound of oxygen and hydrogen1 is present everywhere1 either in the liquid form or as vapor in the air2 even in the flame of the hottest fires there is water vapor in abundance1 since water is one of the chief products of combustion of most forms of fuel4 ,is it a wonder that under such conditions we find the earth's crust to contain the elements chiefly compounded with oxygen8 ,was this always so8 ,are we justified in supposing that conditions may have prevailed--nay1 must have prevailed--in former times on the earth's surface1 which gave to other elements as important or more important functions than to oxygen8 ,the answer to these questions must be sought in the results of the chemistry of high temperatures4 ,first let us consider the conditions of existence of the omnipresent water4 ,water begins to break down into its components1 hydrogen and oxygen1 at #icd centigrade2 at #b1ejj centigrade 7#d1ejj ,fahrenheit7 the decomposition is complete4 ,in other words1 water vapor cannot exist at temperatures above #b1ejj1 but the hydrogen and oxygen exist in the free state4 ,astronomers tell us that refractory elements like iron1 silicon and carbon1 perhaps disassociated into still simpler substances1 are present as vapor in the atmosphere of the sun and that many others of our well-known elements1 including hydrogen1 are also present in this glowing atmosphere1 while the heat of the sun's surface and that of the hotter stars is vastly higher than that of the electric furnace4 ,geologists believe that the evidence at their disposal points to a similar period of great heat in the early history of the earth4 ,it may be considered1 then1 that temperatures higher than those of the electric furnace prevailed in former times on the earth's surface4 ,let us now return to the study of the results obtained with the electric furnace4 ,the following reactions are especially important4 ,if metals1 or refractory non-metals1 or metallic or non-metallic oxides1 or complex silicates1 are heated to the higher temperatures in contact with carbon1 boron1 silicon or compounds of these three elements with oxygen1 the result generally is that very refractory carbides1 borides or silicides of the metals or non-metals are formed4 ,in other words1 those complex substances which form the chief constituents of the outer crust of the earth at the present day are decomposed at high temperatures1 and simple compounds of two elements--so-called binary compounds--are formed4 ,four classes of these binary substances seem to be especially stable at high heat--the carbides1 borides1 silicides and oxides2 but the oxygen of the metallic oxides tends to pass off as an oxide of carbon1 if carbon be present4 ,at somewhat lower temperatures nitrogen is very active and the nitrides of many metals are readily formed4 ,an excellent example is shown by heating a mixture of carbon and of an oxide of titanium 7titanic acid74 ,when heated by a feeble current the acid is simply reduced1 forming a lower oxide of titanium2 with a more powerful current the mass is completely changed into the nitride of titanium1 the nitrogen coming from the air2 with a very powerful current this is changed into pure carbide1 as the nitride cannot exist at the higher temperature1 and the nitrogen escapes1 carbon taking its place4 ,at still higher temperatures hydrogen acts on many metals1 forming hydrides4 ,the carbides and other compounds of some metals are not stable at high temperatures1 being reduced by gaseous carbon to the free metals1 which remain then in the gaseous form4 ,at that period of the earth's history when the temperature was as high as that easily obtained in the electric furnace1 we have the sanction of geologists for picturing the earth's surface as an ocean of molten matter surrounded by a glowing atmosphere4 ,this molten surface must have consisted of binary compounds such as those mentioned above1 and probably contained some refractory elements1 metals and non-metals1 in the free state4 ,the atmosphere contained free hydrogen1 oxygen and nitrogen1 gaseous binary compounds like the oxides of carbon1 metals in the gaseous form and many non-metallic elements like sulphur and chlorine4 ,in the atmospheric region furthest removed from the molten surface violent chemical reactions occurred between the heated elements1 forming compounds which were again dissipated into their elements by the heat given off in the act of formation or radiated from the glowing surface below4 ,under the enormous pressure of this atmosphere the liquid surface of the earth solidified at very high temperature4 ,whether the earth's mass solidified from the centre outward or by forming a solid crust over a liquid interior1 is a question to be decided by physicists and geologists4 ,we will consider only the outer crust and the atmosphere4 ,as the surface and the atmosphere above it gradually cooled1 the formation of nitrides1 and later of hydrides1 sulphides and chlorides1 occurred4 ,the conditions now attained may have been fairly stable as long as the temperature of the surface and lower regions of the atmosphere were high enough to prevent the union of the atmospheric oxygen and hydrogen1 or to decompose the water forming in the outer regions of the atmosphere4 ,as soon1 however1 as by further cooling1 water came into contact with the earth's surface1 very violent reactions occurred1 which were supplemented by other equally violent reactions when the cooling process permitted the formation of the ordinary mineral acids4 ,the reactions of water and of acids on many of the binary compounds are so important in determining the present composition of the earth's crust that they must be considered in detail4 ,the carbides1 nitrides1 chlorides1 sulphides and hydrides of most elements1 and some silicides1 are decomposed by water1 or else by dilute acids1 forming the hydrogen compounds of carbon1 nitrogen1 chlorine1 sulphur and silicon respectively1 and the oxide or hydroxide of the other element4 ,thus calcium carbide and water give calcium hydroxide and acetylene1 a hydro-carbon4 ,aluminum carbide yields alumina and methane 7marsh gas71 another hydro-carbon1 the chief constituent of #8natural gas4' ,other carbides yield crude petroleum4 ,the nitrides yield ammonia1 which is the hydrogen composed of nitrogen4 ,the chlorides give hydrochloric acid1 the sulphides sulphuretted hydrogen and the silicides the hydrogen silicide4 ,the metallic hydrides yield free hydrogen4 ,the violence and the magnitude of some of these reactions almost baffle the imagination4 ,let the reader drop a piece of calcium carbide as large as a small marble into a little water in a cup2 there is a rapid action1 a gas 7acetylene7 is given off1 which burns with a smoky flame if a lighted match is held over the cup4 7,the experiment should be tried in the open air47 ,so much heat is generated in the reaction that the cup becomes hot4 ,nearly four per cent4 of the earth's outer crust is calcium2 all this was at this period of the earth's history in the form of carbide4 ,imagine all the vast limestone mountain ranges of the present day as carbide1 and try to realize the effect when water fell on any considerable area4 ,the heat generated would be so enormous that in a moment the acetylene would ignite and burn1 forming oxides of carbon and water vapor1 which would in turn decompose1 throwing the jets of glowing hydrogen and oxygen vast distances into the atmosphere1 there to cool and reunite to water4 ,the decomposition of other carbides1 of the hydrides and silicides1 as well as the formation of hydroxides by the action of the lighter metals on water1 would produce similar phenomena1 as the substances formed are combustible gases1 or liquids or solids easily volatilized4 ,this is no wild fantasy1 but a conservative statement4 ,similar reactions are taking place at the present day in those stars whose cooling process has advanced far enough2 a case in point is that of the so-called #8temporary stars4' ,extremely violent reactions are taking place constantly in the atmosphere of the sun4 ,the sun's chromosphere1 or outer layer of its atmosphere1 consists mainly of hydrogen1 and jets of glowing hydrogen are thrown to great heights above the chromosphere2 these jets or #8prominences' have been frequently observed to have a height of #ajj1jjj miles1 and prominences of more than double this height are reported by observers4 ,the most conservative estimates assume temperatures of the sun's surface so enormous that that of the electric furnace is insignificant in comparison1 and we can have no conception of the chemical changes occurring under such conditions4 ,whether one believes1 with ,lockyer1 that the chemical #8elements' are disassociated by the sun's heat into simpler substances or not1 it is clear that very violent chemical reactions are in progress1 and if we realize that the known chemical reactions increase in intensity with increase in temperature1 it does not seem strange that at the sun's temperature the reactions occurring should cause disturbances like those observed4 ,returning to the earth1 let us consider the products of these violent reactions4 ,the hydrogen and hydrides of boron1 silicon1 sulphur and carbon1 combined with the oxygen of the atmosphere1 forming water and boric1 silicic1 sulphurous and carbonic acids1 which in turn acted on the metallic oxides and hydroxides1 forming sulphites1 carbonates1 borates and simple and complex silicates2 some quickly1 some slowly1 some at low temperatures and atmospheric pressure1 others at high temperatures in liquid or semi-liquid condition and under the pressure of rock masses above4 ,to determine the relative age of existing rock layers1 or the mode of their formation1 whether by eruptive action1 by surface heat1 by deposition of finely divided material under water1 or by metamorphic changes of the cooled silicate under subsequent action of water1 pressure and heat1 is the province of the geologist4 ,the present writer refrains from an opinion whether any of the first formed solid crust could or could not survive to the present day in its primary form1 considering the exposure to water1 acids1 heat and pressure which it suffered4 ,yet an idea may be formed of the condition of the earth's surface when it had cooled so far that the more violent chemical action had ceased4 ,it consisted chiefly of silicates1 simple and complex2 of some of the original binary compounds1 which are scarce affected by water or acids1 such as the silicide of carbon 7carborundum71 of stable oxides1 chlorides and sulphides1 with other compounds in smaller proportion1 and free elements in greater proportion than at the present day4 ,everywhere1 from crevices in the surface1 hydrocarbons1 phosphoretted hydrogen 7phosphine7 and ammonia were issuing as gases2 the atmosphere was heavy with these gases and with carbon dioxide4 ,no scientific observations thus far show how or from what definite compounds plant life or animal life was first evolved from lifeless matter2 but it is certain that the materials were much more abundant and the conditions more favorable at the period when it was evolved than at the present day4 ,an ocean much warmer and less saline than now1 a damp atmosphere like that of a hothouse1 an abundance of plant food and a choice of raw material1 were at hand4 ,the chief foods required for plant life are nitrogen in the form of ammonia or nitrates1 carbon dioxide1 phosphorus as phosphates1 sulphates of lime1 of magnesia and of the alkalies1 and water4 ,as to the raw material for the first formation of the living cell1 it is impossible to say what compounds of carbon were employed2 suffice it to note that the known simple and complex binary compounds of carbon were there ready for use2 the hydrocarbons1 carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide were oozing from the earth's surface1 from the ocean floor as well as from the land1 or hanging heavy in the air above it4 ,if warmth or increased pressure were desiderata1 an ocean warm to its greatest depths could afford any pressure required4 ,from the decomposition of the nitrides and phosphides below the surface1 ammonia and phosphine were escaping into the ocean and into the air4 ,the conditions then during long periods of time were especially favorable for marine life1 and as sand and mud accumulated on the rocky surface of the earth1 for land plants2 the absence of a thick soil being more than compensated for by the abundance of plant food1 notably of carbon dioxide and ammonia4 ,the statement may be found in excellent modern text-books of chemistry that ammonia is always formed by the decomposition of plants and animals1 accompanied by the further statement that ammonia is a requisite for plant food4 ,no plants--no ammonia2 no ammonia--no plants4 ,if this were true1 the beginning of plant life would indeed have been a struggle for existence2 that it is not true is shown above4 ,this decomposition of nitrides has ceased practically on the actual surface of the earth at the present day because the nitrides have all been decomposed2 yet it may be mentioned that specimens of rock freshly quarried in ,sweden were recently found to give off ammonia when wet with water1 showing the presence of nitrides4 ,below the actual earth's surface it is probable that nitrides still exist in large quantity1 for ammonia is one of the constituents of volcanic gases2 to believe that volcanic ammonia is a product of plant or animal decomposition is difficult2 to suppose it formed by the action of steam on nitrides in the earth's interior is simple4 ,much the same may be said of the presence of carbides4 ,while they no longer exist on the surface1 there is no doubt of their existence in the interior of the earth1 and the volcanic gases contain their decomposition products4 ,in this connection the theory--first put forward by ,mendeleff and since supported by ,moissan--of the origin of petroleum1 may be mentioned4 ,these writers favor the hypothesis that it was formed by the decomposition of carbides by water under pressure2 and while the evidence at hand perhaps favors the belief that the petroleum of the more important oil fields owes its origin to decomposition of the lower forms of marine animal life1 yet there can be no doubt that petroleum may be formed by carbide decomposition1 and it seems probable that natural gas is in part at least a result of the same action4 ,a ,,preliminary ,,account ,,of ,,the ,,solar ,,eclipse ,,of ,,may #bh1 #aijj1 ,,as ,,observed ,,by ,,the ,,smithsonian ,,expedition4 ,,by ,,dr4 ,s4 ,p4 ,,langley1 ,,smithsonian ,,institution4 ,partly in deference to the report of the ,united ,states ,weather ,bureau1 from which it appeared that the chance of a fair eastern sky on the morning of the eclipse was about #h to #a1 and after examination by ,mr4 ,abbot of many stations in ,north ,carolina1 ,wadesboro1 of that ,state1 was selected early in ,april as the site of the ,smithsonian observations4 ,the advantages of ,wadesboro being also recognized by ,professor ,young1 of ,princeton1 ,professor ,hale1 of ,yerkes ,observatory1 and the ,rev4 ,j4 ,m4 ,bacon1 of the ,british ,astronomical ,association1 it came about that four large observing parties1 besides several smaller ones and numerous excursionists from the surrounding country1 were all joined to produce at ,wadesboro one of the largest company of eclipse observers ever assembled for scientific purposes4 ,it is a matter for congratulation that the sky at ,wadesboro upon the day of the eclipse was cloudless and clearer than the average1 so that the efforts of the observing forces were not thwarted by any circumstances beyond their control4 ,the provisions of the ,mayor and authorities of ,wadesboro for preventing intrusion before and during the eclipse1 and thus securing an undisturbed field of operations1 deserve especial recognition4 ,further than this1 the many acts of courtesy and hospitality to the visiting astronomers on the part of the townspeople will long be remembered by the recipients4 ,the ,smithsonian party proper consisted of thirteen observers1 and included ,mr4 ,langley1 ,mr4 ,abbot1 aid acting in charge of the ,smithsonian astrophysical observatory2 ,mr4 ,smillie1 in charge of photography2 ,mr4 ,putnam1 of the ,united ,states ,coast ,survey2 ,mr4 ,fowle1 ,mr4 ,mendenhall1 ,mr4 ,child1 ,mr4 ,draper1 ,mr4 ,gill1 ,mr4 ,kramer and ,mr4 ,smith4 ,included with these1 the ,rev4 ,father ,searle and the ,rev4 ,father ,woodman gave most valuable assistance4 ,mr4 ,hoxie1 of ,port ,royal1 ,s4 ,c41 and ,mr4 ,little1 of ,wadesboro1 rendered valued assistance to ,mr4 ,putnam during totality4 ,professor ,hale1 of the ,yerkes ,observatory1 was a member of the party1 while still in general charge of the ,yerkes expedition1 and his counsel and aid were of the greatest service4 ,mr4 ,clayton1 of ,blue ,hill ,meteorological ,station1 occupied a part of the grounds of the ,smithsonian party4 ,the main object of investigation was1 of course1 the corona1 and of this1 7first7 a photographic and visual study of its structure2 with1 7second7 a determination by the bolometer whether appreciable heat reaches us from it1 and1 if possible1 an examination of the form of its spectrum energy curve4 ,the writer had been particularly struck1 when observing the eclipse of #ahgh on ,pike's ,peak1 by the remarkable definiteness of filamentary structure close to the sun's limb1 and had never found in any photographs1 not even in the excellent ones of ,campbell taken at the ,indian eclipse of #ahih1 anything approaching what he saw in the few seconds which he was able to devote to visual observations at the height of fourteen thousand feet4 ,his wish to examine this inner coronal region with a more powerful photographic telescope than any heretofore used upon it1 was gratified by the most valued loan by ,prof4 ,e4 ,c4 ,pickering of the new #ab-;inch achromatic lens of #ace feet focus1 just obtained for the ,harvard ,college ,observatory4 ,this lens1 furnishing a focal image of more than #ae inches diameter1 was mounted so as to give a horizontal beam from a clostat clock-driven mirror by ,brashear1 of #ah inches aperture1 and used with #cj-;inch square plates4 ,to supplement this great instrument1 a #e-;inch lens of #ch-;feet focus1 loaned by ,professor ,young1 was pointed directly at the sun4 ,this formed images upon #aa #ad plates moved in the focus of the lens by a water clock4 ,specially equatorially mounted lenses of #f1 #d and #c-;inch aperture1 driven by clock work1 were provided for the study of the outer corona1 and the search for possible intra-mercurial planets4 ,for the bolometric work1 the massive siderostat with its #ag-;inch mirror1 and a large part of the delicate adjuncts employed at the ,smithsonian ,institution in recent years1 to investigate the sun's spectrum1 was transported to ,wadesboro4 ,the excessively sensitive galvanometer reached camp without injury even to its suspending fibre1 a thread of quartz crystal #a-ae1jjj inch in diameter4 ,besides these two chief aims 7the photography and bolometry of the inner corona71 several other pieces of work were undertaken1 including the automatic reproduction of the #8flash spectrum' by means of an objective prism with the #ace-;foot lens1 the photographic study of the outer coronal region1 including provision for recognizing possible intra-mercurial planets1 already alluded to1 visual and photographic observations of times of contact1 and sketches of the corona1 both from telescopic and naked-eye observations4 ,the assignment of the observers was as follows3 ,mr4 ,langley1 in general charge of the expedition1 observed with the same #e-;inch telescope used by him on ,pike's ,peak in #ahgh1 which was most kindly lent for this special comparison by ,professor ,brown1 of the ,united ,states ,naval ,observatory2 ,c4 ,g4 ,abbot1 aid acting in immediate charge1 assigned with ,c4 ,e4 ,mendenhall to the bolometer2 ,t4 ,w4 ,smillie1 having general direction of the photographic work1 made exposures at the #ace-;foot telescope2 ,f4 ,e4 ,fowle1 ,jr41 assigned to the #ch-;foot telescope2 ,father ,searle1 directing the assembled telescopes for the outer coronal region1 and for intra-mercurial planets1 assisted by ,p4 ,a4 ,draper and ,c4 ,w4 ,b4 ,smith1 exposed two cameras of #c-;inch aperture and #aa feet focus1 and two of #d-;inch aperture and #c feet focus1 all four of these telescopes being mounted on a single polar axis driven by an excellent clock2 ,de ,lancey ,gill1 assisting ,mr4 ,smillie1 removed the flash spectrum objective prism at second contact1 and made a single long exposure with a #f-;inch photographic lens of #g feet focus equatorially mounted2 ,assistant ,g4 ,r4 ,putnam1 who1 by the kindness of the superintendent of the ,united ,states ,coast ,survey1 was detailed for latitude1,c longitude,d and time observations1 also observed contacts1 directed the striking of signals by ,mr4 ,little1 and rendered other valuable services4 ,mr4 ,putnam was assisted in recording contacts by ,mr4 ,hoxie4 ,r4 ,c4 ,child1 observing with a #f-;inch telescope of #g feet focus1 made sketches with special reference to inner coronal detail1 and was in addition charged with all electrical circuits for chronograph and automatic photographic apparatus4 ,father ,woodman1 with #c-;inch telescope1 observed contacts and made sketches4 ,c #cd1 #eg1 #eb ,n4 ,d #e;h41 #bjm41 #ag4hs4 ,w4 ,the first detachment1 consisting of ,messrs4 ,abbot1 ,fowle1 ,kramer 7instrument maker7 and ,smith 7carpenter71 reached ,wadesboro ,may #dth1 and were soon joined by ,messrs4 ,draper and ,putnam4 ,the latter returned to ,washington after a short but satisfactory latitude and longitude campaign1 reaching ,wadesboro again just before the eclipse4 ,other members of the party reached camp on and after the middle of the month4 ,the first comers found a very satisfactory shed already erected and piers begun4 ,not a day passed from the time of the arrival of the apparatus1 ,may #gth1 to the day before the eclipse1 that was not fully occupied in perfecting the arrangements4 ,the most striking portion of the installation was the line beginning at the northwest pier1 with its equatorial and clostat1 continued from thence south of east by the two great diverging tubes of the #ace-;foot telescope and spectroscope4 ,these tubes were covered with white canvas1 presenting the appearance of two immensely prolonged #8,a' tents1 ending beyond the photographic house1 where the #ch-;foot telescope tube pointed east and upward at an angle of #db with the horizon4 ,when the equatorial1 with its large special conical tube camera1 with all this long-branching extent of white canvas ending in the uplifted tube of the #ch-;foot telescope1 was seen in the light of the moon1 the extensive field with these preparations1 exhibited a still more picturesque scene than by day4 ,less imposing1 and perhaps more ungainly was the combination of four great cameras under the main shed1 designed to search for new planets and to depict the outer corona4 ,these might well be described as like a cabin and outbuilding1 mounted on a polar axis1 yet1 despite their awkward proportions1 they were made to follow very accurately4 ,the morning of the eclipse dawned cloudless and very fairly clear4 ,deep blue sky1 such as the writer had seen on ,pike's ,peak1 of course1 is not among the ordinary possibilities of an eclipse1 but the milkiness of the blue was less pronounced than is usual in the summer season1 and all felt that the seeing promised well4 ,at fifteen minutes before totality a series of rapid strokes on the bell called every one to his post1 and one minute before the expected contact five strokes were given as a final warning4 ,coincidentally with the actual observation of the second contact by ,mr4 ,putnam1 the first two strokes upon the bell sounded1 and the work began4 ,after #hb seconds 7the duration of totality from the ,nautical ,almanac was #ib seconds71 three strokes were given as a signal to stop the long photographic exposures4 ,scarcely more than five seconds after this the sun's crescent reappeared4 ,the duration of totality1 as observed by ,mr4 ,putnam1 was approximately #hh seconds4 ,to visual observers the sky was notably not a dark one4 ,no second magnitude stars were observed with the naked eye1 and most of the on-lookers saw only ,mercury conspicuously1 though ,venus was distinguished at a low altitude and ,capella also was seen4 ,so high a degree of sky illumination can not but have operated unfavorably in the study of the outer corona or in the search for intra-mercurial planets1 and this is to be remembered in connection with what follows4 ,,before ,,totality4 ,a deepened color in the sky1 a fall of temperature and a rising breeze were distinctly noticeable4 ,no change in direction of the wind was noted4 ,shadow bands were seen1 but those who attempted to measure their velocity found them too rapid and flickering for any great exactness in this determination4 ,there was tolerable unanimity among independent observers as to their size and distance apart 7about five inches71 though some thought this less as totality approached4 ,it was noticed that the birds grew silent just before and during totality1 but true to their nature1 the ,english sparrows were last to be still and first to begin their discussion of the eclipse1 after the return of light4 ,,during ,,totality4 ,the attention of all visual observers was at once caught by the equatorial streamers4 ,father ,woodman's comparison of the appearance of a structure of mother of pearl was generally recognized as good1 but different observers differed on the color estimate4 ,a yellowish green tinge was noted by the artist of the party1 ,mr4 ,child1 while to others the light was straw colored or golden4 ,the general coronal form to the naked eye was nearly that of the small annexed photograph1 which1 though taken by one of the smaller objectives1 gives a good view of the relative intensities4 ,the same extensions of the equatorial corona could be followed by the naked eye from #c to #c solar diameters4 ,the visual telescopic observations of the writer gave little indication of the finely divided structure of the inner corona which he had noticed at ,pike's ,peak4 ,structure1 to be sure1 was evident1 but not in such minute subdivision as had then been seen1 and though one remarkable prominence as well as several smaller ones was visible1 the coronal streamers did not give to the writer the impression of being connected with these prominences1 though the relationship of some of them to the solar poles was abundantly manifest4 ,,after ,,totality4 ,results4 ,comparing notes after totality1 all observers reported a successful carrying out of the programme4 ,the greatest interest centers in the direct coronal negatives taken with the #ace-;foot telescope4 ,mr4 ,smillie exposed six #cj #cj plates during totality1 with times ranging from one half a second to sixteen seconds1 and three others were exposed by him immediately after the third contact4 ,at this writing only a part of the negatives taken have been developed4 ,their general quality may be inferred from the examples here given1 after due allowance for the great loss suffered by translation onto paper even with the best care4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,,general ,,view ,,of ,,the ,,corona4 ,,taken ,,with #f ,,inch ,,lens ,,of #g ,,feet ,,focus4 #hb ,,seconds ,,exposure4 ,fig4 #a is a view taken with one of the smaller objectives 7#f inches71 given here to afford the reader an idea of the general disposition of the coronal light4 ,the upper part is the vertex in the inverted field4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4 ,,prominences ,,on ,,southwest ,,limb ,,of ,,sun4 ,,taken ,,with #ab ,,inch ,,lens ,,of #ace ,,feet ,,focus4 #h ,,seconds ,,exposure4 ,fig4 #b is a portion of one of the great #ae-;inch circular images obtained with the #ace-;foot focus telescope4 ,it was obtained in the great disc in the last exposure during totality of #h seconds1 showing one of the principal prominences then on the sun's disc1 with the disposition of the lower filaments near it4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4 ,,north ,,polar ,,coronal ,,streamers4 ,,taken ,,with #ae ,,inch ,,lens ,,of #ace ,,feet ,,focus4 ,,exposure #af ,,seconds4 ,fig4 #c is a portion of one of the same set of plates1 but taken with a #af-second exposure4 ,the part near the sun has1 of course1 been intentionally over-exposed1 in order to better exhibit the remarkable polar streamers1 extending here to a distance of about six minutes from the sun1 but seen still further in ,mr4 ,child's telescopic drawing 7not given47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4 ,,dark ,,room ,,and ,,tubes ,,of #ace ,,foot ,,and #ch ,,foot ,,telescopes4 #e ,,inch ,,equatorial ,,in ,,foreground1 ,,prof4 ,,langley ,,observing4 ,fig4 #d is a view of a small part of the great apparatus on the field1 including the terminus of the horizontal tube with its canvas covering1 which has been described as like an extended #8,a' tent4 ,the photographic room is seen at the end of the tube1 and beyond that the tube containing the lens loaned by ,professor ,young pointing directly skyward4 ,that it will be impracticable to give here all of the disc of the moon in the large photographs1 will be evident when it is considered that the lunar circumference on each plate is about #d feet2 but it will be inferred from the examples that the prominences and polar streamers as well as their features1 appear in imposing magnitude and detail4 ,many of what it is hoped will be the most interesting photographs still await development1 but ,mr4 ,smillie's thorough preparation is promising adequate results4 ,,heat ,,of ,,the ,,corona4 ,mr4 ,abbot1 with aid of ,mr4 ,mendenhall1 appears to have measured the heat of the corona1 and in spite of previous efforts1 this is probably the first time that it has been really shown to exist4 ,for five minutes before second contact1 the bolometer was successfully exposed to the region of the sky close to the narrowing crescent of the sun where the corona was shortly to appear4 ,a diaphragm was interposed in the beam having an aperture of only #j4d sq4 cm4 ,deflections1 rapidly diminishing from #hj to #f mm4 were obtained1 the last being about #dj seconds before totality4 ,then the diaphragm was opened to #bij sq4 cm4 and a negative deflection of #ac mm4 was observed after totality1 where these positive deflections had just been found1 showing that the corona was actually cooler than the background which had been used at the room temperature4 ,next the black surface of the moon was allowed to radiate upon the bolometer1 and the still larger negative deflection of #ah mm4 was observed4 ,the important result was that the corona gave a positive indication of heat as compared with the moon4 ,this heat1 though certain1 was1 however1 too slight to be sub-divided by the dispersion of the prism with the means at hand4 ,the negatives taken to depict the outer corona show from three to four solar diameters extension for the longest streamers4 ,the equatorial #8wings1' as they recede from the sun1 are finally lost in an illuminated sky1 without any indication of having actually come to an end4 ,no attempt to carefully examine the plates taken for intra-mercurial planets has yet been possible4 ,it is1 however1 as has been remarked1 doubtful if the very faintest objects will be found1 in consideration of the considerable sky illumination during totality4 ,however1 ,pleione in the ,pleiades 7a star of the #f4c magnitude71 is plainly seen on one of the plates1 and some smaller ones are discernible4 ,on the whole1 the expedition may be considered as promising to be very satisfactory in its results1 and that it was so is largely owing not only to the efficient care of ,mr4 ,abbot1 but to the many gentlemen who have assisted me with the loan of valuable apparatus1 with counsel1 with voluntary service and with painstaking observation1 to one and all of whom ,i desire to express my obligations4 ,,malaria ,,and ,,the ,,malarial ,,parasite4,e ,,by ,,patrick ,,manson1 ,m4 ,d41 ,,ll4 ,d41 ,,lecturer ,,on ,,tropical ,,diseases ,,at ,,st4 ,,george',s ,,hospital ,,and ,,charing-,,cross ,,hospital ,,medical ,,schools ,,and ,,at ,,the ,,london ,,school ,,of ,,tropical ,,medicine4 ,e ,abstract of a lecture delivered at the ,medical ,graduates' ,college and ,polyclinic1 and printed in the ,lancet of ,may #ai4 ,this lecture is devoted to a description of the parasite and of its life cycles4 ,the existence of a parasite in malarial disease has been suspected for a long time1 but only very recently have we had absolute assurance that such a parasite exists4 ,some time in the thirties ,meckel described in the human blood certain black particles which he found in leucocytes and in certain pale1 leucocyte-like bodies the nature of which he did not know4 ,when he saw these bodies he certainly saw the malarial parasite4 ,his observations were repeated and extended in the forties and the fifties by ,frerichs and ,virchow1 and they1 too1 undoubtedly saw the malarial parasite4 ,but it is one thing to see and quite another to recognize2 discovery is recognition4 ,the discoveries of ,laveran1 ,golgi1 ,marchiafava1 ,bignami and others resulted in considerable knowledge of the life history of the malarial parasite and of the correspondence between its life cycle and the clinical cycle of the disease4 ,laveran discovered the parasite2 ,golgi described the cycle of the tertian and quartan forms2 the others added new data1 especially concerning the more malignant parasites4 ,the malarial parasite in its mature form has the appearance--,i shall take the tertian parasite as a type--of a mass of pale protoplasm occupying practically the whole of the red blood corpuscles4 ,scattered through this mass of protoplasm are a number of black specks or little rods of intensely black pigment4 ,later in the life of the parasite a peculiar thing happens3 all these little specks of black pigment concentrate usually towards the center of the organism whilst the pale protoplasm arranges itself into little spherules1 the whole constituting what is known as the #8rosette body4' ,later in the life of the parasite the surrounding blood corpuscle breaks away and this rosette body floats free in the liquor sanguinis and then breaks up into its constituent spores1 setting free at the same time the black pigment clump4 ,phagocytes attack many of these free spores and probably absorb most of them1 as well as the little pieces of pigment4 ,the result is the pigmented leucocyte1 so characteristic of malarial blood4 ,a few of the spores escape and in virtue of some peculiar faculty1 which is not at present understood1 enter fresh blood corpuscles and appear there as pale specks in the hmoglobin4 ,these pale specks1 if watched in perfectly fresh blood1 are seen to be possessed of very active amboid movement4 ,they throw out pseudopodia in various directions and wander about through the hmoglobin of the corpuscle4 ,after a time they increase in size by assimilating the hmoglobin4 ,by and by there appear somewhere in the parasite those specks of black pigment which we saw in the mature animal4 ,later they increase still further in size until they come to occupy half1 and finally nearly the whole1 of the blood corpuscle4 ,again there is concentration of pigment and the formation of little sporules4 ,this is the cycle1 as described by ,golgi1 of the tertian and quartan parasite4 ,the cycle of the tropical or stivo-autumnal parasite corresponds in plan almost exactly with that of the quartan and ordinary tertian parasite4 ,it was found that the life cycles of these parasites ran parallel with the clinical cycle of malarial disease4 ,it was found that when the parasite had arrived at maturity the apyretic interval in an ague was about to conclude1 and that when the parasite had arrived at the sporulating stage the patient had entered on the shivering stage of his fever4 ,during that and the succeeding hot and sweating stage the spores had entered the red blood corpuscles1 and when the parasite had ensconced itself in the red blood corpuscle and begun to grow1 the fever had come to an end4 ,it was found in tertian fever that the cycle of the parasite took forty-eight hours to complete1 exactly the length of the cycle of the clinical phenomena4 ,in quartan fever the cycle took seventy-two hours1 exactly the length of the clinical cycle of that form of malarial disease4 ,in the malignant or tropical fevers there was found to be a similar correspondence between the cycle of the parasite and the cycle of the disease4 ,it was found that with each recurring paroxysm of fever there was a renewal of the life of the parasite1 and that in this way the life of the parasite was continued from period to period and from cycle to cycle for weeks or even1 especially in the case of quartan malaria1 for months4 ,now this explains very well the way in which the malaria parasite contrives to maintain its existence in the human body1 but it does not explain how it passes from host to host1 neither does it explain certain appearances that ,laveran and everybody else who has studied the subject have witnessed4 ,in malarial blood you sometimes see that peculiar body1 the flagellated body1 which ,i have already alluded to as consisting of a sphere surrounded by from one to six or seven long tentacles or arms in a state of continual agitation4 ,neither does it explain the peculiar crescent-shaped body which also so pointedly arrested ,laveran's attention4444 ,golgi's scheme leaves the passage of the parasite from host to host and also the nature of these two bodies unexplained4 ,what relation have these two bodies to the life of the parasite8 ,their nature and purpose do not receive any illumination from ,golgi's theory4 ,you will find in all forms of malarial infection1 if you look enough1 the flagellated body2 but1 strange to say1 you will not find it in malarial blood immediately after it is withdrawn from the body4 ,it is only after an interval of minutes1 perhaps a quarter of an hour1 after the blood is withdrawn that these flagellated bodies appear4 ,whence do they come8 ,if you make a preparation of malarial blood from a patient by pricking the finger and spreading a little of the blood on a slide1 fixing it immediately with heat or alcohol and staining it1 you will never see any of these flagellated organisms4 ,but if the slip be kept moist and in a warm temperature for half an hour and then stained1 the flagellated bodies will be seen1 proving that they develop only after the escape of the parasite from the human body4 ,such a fact is very interesting and obviously has some significance in connection with the life of the parasite4 ,whence1 ,i ask1 come these flagellated bodies8 ,if one of the crescent-shaped bodies is observed continuously1 the following changes of shape may often be observed3 ,it becomes shorter1 loses its crescent shape and gives off flagella1 which may break off and swim about by themselves4 ,when they come in contact with a blood corpuscle they straighten themselves out and indulge in a peculiar vibratory movement1 as if endeavoring to penetrate the corpuscle4 ,many years ago ,king1 in ,america1 and others too numerous to mention suspected that the mosquito had something to do with malaria1 but in what way they could not say4 ,not only civilized observers had this suspicion1 but the savage natives of certain tropical countries had the same idea4 ,koch tells us that certain natives of ,german ,east ,africa who lived in a mountainous1 and therefore non-malarial1 part noticed that when they descended to the malarial regions on the coast they acquired a fever which they called #8mbu4' ,they said that they were bitten there by certain insects which they also called #8mbu'--mosquito or gnat4 ,they give the same name to the mosquito and to the fever1 therefore obviously these savages associate the insect and the fever as cause and effect4 ,peasants in certain parts of ,italy have the same idea1 believing that the bite of the mosquito may be followed by the development of malarial fever4 ,laveran1 some years ago1 in one of his numerous works on malarial fever1 said that possibly the malarial parasite was cared for by the mosquito in the same way that the latter cares for the filaria of the blood4 ,he did not1 however1 formulate a definite theory on the subject4 ,in #ahid ,i was engaged in working at malaria1 following out ,golgi's work and that of other ,italians4 ,i was particularly struck by the phenomena of exflagellation and more particularly by the fact that it occurred only when the blood had been removed from and was outside the human body4 ,i reasoned that if this exflagellation occurs only outside the body1 the purpose of the flagellated body must lie outside the human body1 and that therefore the flagellated body must be the first phase of the malarial parasite outside the body1 must be the first step that the malarial parasite takes in passing from one human host to another4 ,there seemed to me to be a sort of logic in this4 ,but how was the malarial parasite to pass from one human being to another8 ,it was not provided while inside the human body with any organs of locomotion or penetration2 as far as we know the parasite is never extruded in the excreta1 neither does it habitually escape in hmorrhages4 ,therefore1 the idea of a spontaneous escape of the parasite from the human body had to be dismissed4 ,i therefore concluded that some extraneous agency must remove the parasite from the human body1 so as to afford the opportunity for this flagellation which ,i had concluded must constitute the first step in its extra-corporeal life4 ,in casting about for an organism which could effect this removal ,i1 for many reasons similar in some respects to those that influenced the savage ,african1 the ,italian peasant1 ,king1 ,laveran and others1 came to the conclusion that the medium of removal and transit must be the mosquito4 ,i was so impressed with the probabilities of this double hypothesis and with its extreme practical value1 should it prove to be correct1 that ,i endeavored to leave ,england for a time and to visit ,british ,guiana or some such suitable malarial country where ,i might work out the idea4 ,unfortunately1 that could not be accomplished1 so ,i published my theory in the hope that it would appeal to someone who might enjoy the opportunities denied to me4 ,at that time ,surgeon-,major ,ross was at home from ,india and we had many conversations on the subject4 ,i described to him my hypothesis1 the probabilities of which and the possibilities of which powerfully appealed to his highly logical and practical mind4 ,he undertook1 when he returned to ,india1 to do his best either to establish or confute it4 ,accordingly he set to work in ,india experimenting with mosquitoes and malaria4 ,ross was stationed in ,secunderabad1 in the south of ,india1 where there was abundant opportunity for experimental work--plenty of patients and plenty of mosquitoes4 ,he got patients with crescent parasites in their blood and he got mosquitoes to bite them4 ,he found that in the course of a few minutes after the blood had entered the insects' stomachs the crescent parasites proceeded to the formation of sphere and flagellated body4 ,but he got no further4 ,this experiment was repeated hundreds of times4 ,many of his preparations were sent to me1 and ,i could confirm from them the accuracy of his statements on the subject4 ,ross was encouraged1 for obviously we were on the right track4 ,one day ,ross1 whose station had in the meantime been changed1 caught some mosquitoes which had been feeding on a patient the subject of tertian malaria4 ,he kept the mosquitoes and after a few days dissected them4 ,he took the stomach out and placed it on a slip with a little salt solution1 covered it with a cover-glass and examined it with a microscope4 ,he was gratified to find lying amongst the transverse and longitudinal muscular fibres a number of spherical bodies1 very sharply defined1 and including a great many grains of intensely black pigment exactly like those of the malaria parasite4 ,ross was at once struck with the similarity4 ,after years of labor he believed he had at last seen the malaria parasite in the tissues of the mosquito1 where we reasoned it ought to be2 and he was right4 ,at a subsequent experiment on the malarial patient he found exactly the same bodies1 and on dissecting several mosquitoes at different intervals of time he found that the parasite1 which originally was six micro-millimetres in diameter only1 grew to sixty or eighty micro-millimetres1 each parasite1 notwithstanding its growth and the lapse of time1 still containing the peculiar and most characteristic black pigment4 ,ross was now quite sure that he had found the extra-corporeal phase of the malarial parasite4 ,some of these preparations he sent home4 ,i examined them and showed them to a number of friends in ,london familiar with the malarial parasite2 they agreed with me1 as ,laveran also did1 in believing that probably this indeed was the long-sought-for extra-corporeal phase of the malarial parasite4 ,ross at that time had great difficulty in getting opportunities for experiment on the human subject and in procuring proper mosquitoes4 ,he found that the mosquitoes in which he had discovered these pigmented bodies were of a different species to those on which he had formerly experimented1 and that in this circumstance lay the explanation of his lack of success earlier as well as the secret of his ultimate success4 ,failing to get sufficient opportunity for experimenting on human malaria he turned to bird malaria4 ,he found that the sparrow of ,calcutta1 in a large proportion of instances1 contained in its blood a malaria-like parasite4 ,ross procured a number of infected sparrows and let loose upon them a number of mosquitoes of a species belonging to the genus culex4 ,these mosquitoes1 after from one to ten days1 he dissected and examined their stomachs4 ,he found in the stomach-wall pigmented bodies exactly similar to those which he found in the stomach-walls of mosquitoes fed on human malarial blood4 ,he found that they increased in size and in a week or ten days grew from six to eighty micro-millimetres in diameter4 ,when they became of considerable size they protruded like warts from the surface of the insect's stomach and were included in a very definite capsule4 ,at this stage the capsule was filled with a vast number of very minute rod-like bodies4 ,these capsules1 which now projected into the body cavity of the insect1 being over-distended1 ruptured and discharged the rod-like bodies into the body cavity of the mosquito4 ,for a time ,ross could get no further than this4 ,he could not find what became of the rod-like bodies4 ,one day1 in dissecting the head of a mosquito1 he encountered two small trilobed glands the ducts from which united to form a main duct4 ,the glands lay on either side of the head and the common duct he traced to the base of the proboscis of the mosquito4 ,this was the salivary gland of the mosquito4 ,he found that the cells of the gland contained rod-like bodies exactly like those which he had found inside the parasitic capsules in the stomach-wall4 ,he concluded that somehow these #8germinal rods' 7for so he called them7 had managed to find their way into the salivary gland of the mosquito4 ,it immediately occurred to him that this might be the route by which the parasite escaped from the mosquito into its vertebrate host4 ,no sooner had the idea occurred to ,ross than he put it to the test of experiment4 ,he selected a number of sparrows in whose blood he satisfied himself that there were no parasites and let loose upon them a number of mosquitoes which he had already infected with malarial parasites4 ,he found after a week or ten days that the sparrows which were experimented upon sickened and many of them died2 and in their blood he found the malarial parasite4 ,we now understand why the flagellated body is developed outside the human host3 because its function lies outside the human host4 ,we now understand why the flagella break away and enter the granular sphere3 they impregnate it and start it on the road of development4 ,we now understand why ,mac,callum's vermicule is beaked and endowed with powers of locomotion and penetration3 that it may approach and penetrate the stomach of the mosquito4 ,and we now know why the sporozooites1 the #8germinal rods1' enter the mosquito's salivary gland3 that they may be injected into vertebrate issue and so pass the parasite from vertebrate to vertebrate4 ,this is one of those fairy tales of science which people are inclined to doubt1 but any one who has worked at the subject and taken the trouble to go through the long series of preparations which have been sent home from ,india can not for a moment have the slightest doubt that what ,ross stated was absolutely true1 and that not only for bird but for human malaria4 ,so soon as the idea got abroad that the key to the way in which the malarial parasite is propagated had been found the ,italians immediately set to work with renewed vigor and with the utmost skill4 ,almost at once they demonstrated that what happened in the case of ,ross's sparrows happened also with the human subject3 that the appropriate species of mosquito fed upon the human malarial subject and subsequently allowed to feed upon a non-malarial subject conveyed the malarial parasite and malarial disease1 and that the appropriate species of mosquito belonged to the genus anopheles4 ,there can not be the slightest doubt that the mosquito acts the part of transmitting agent as well as definitive host of the malarial parasite4 ,this is a piece of knowledge of the utmost importance to mankind1 for we know that malarial disease in tropical countries--which1 after all1 in the future will be the most important parts of the world1 seeing that they can produce more food than temperate countries and can therefore support a larger population--causes more deaths and more disposition to death by inducing cachectic states predisposing to other affections than all the other parasites affecting mankind put together4 ,we know now in what way this parasite is acquired4 ,depend upon it1 in time1 in virtue of this knowledge1 we will get enormous power over the disease and sooner or later we will be able to prevent the infection of man by the parasite4 ,it is only a question of study and the application of the knowledge already acquired1 only a question of money and perseverance and a little ingenuity1 and these results will come4 ,it may not be in ten years or twenty years1 but sooner or later the energies of a considerable portion of scientific mankind now being expended in endeavoring to devise means for preventing the infection of men with the malarial germ by the mosquito will bear valuable fruit4 ,you can readily understand that it is of great importance to be able to recognize the special species of mosquito which convey malaria4 ,the effective species as regards human malaria belong to the genus anopheles2 species of the genus culex are effective in the case of sparrow malaria4 ,fortunately1 these two genera are easily recognized even by the amateur zologist4 ,if you find a mosquito clinging to the wall or other surface you can tell which genus it belongs to by its posture4 ,if the body is stuck out nearly at right angles to the surface on which the insect is resting1 it is an anopheles4 ,if the body is almost parallel to the surface1 it is a culex4 ,there is another test which is easily applied if you have a pocket lens2 in culex the two organs known as palpi are rudimentary and very short2 whereas in anopheles those organs are almost as long as the proboscis4 ,it should be remembered that the male mosquito is not a blood-sucker and therefore is not dangerous4 ,it is the female anopheles which transmits the disease4 ,the mosquito larv inhabit stagnant or slow-running water4 ,if a mosquito larva be found with its head downwards1 the body hanging at right angles to the surface of the water1 it is a culex2 if the body lies parallel to the surface of the water1 it is an anopheles4 ,there are other points of difference with which ,i need not now trouble you2 those referred to suffice for diagnosis between the innocuous and the dangerous mosquitoes4 ,the facts regarding the malaria parasite which ,i have described are of great importance for many reasons4 ,first1 because they help us to understand the pathology and etiology of malaria4 ,secondly1 they help us in diagnosis4 ,thirdly1 our knowledge of the parasite is invaluable in directing treatment4 ,lastly1 a knowledge of the life-history of the malarial parasite is of extreme value for the prevention of malarial disease1 for could we by mechanical or other arrangements prevent the mosquito attacking the human body1 we could prevent the malarial parasites from entering the human body2 or if we could abolish the mosquito by drainage or other means from a country1 then we might be sure that we would abolish the malaria of that country also4 ,attempts are being made to solve these practical problems4 ,at the present moment such attempts are being actively made in ,rome by ,professor ,celli and elsewhere by others4 ,i have no doubt that in the course of a few years we shall get some very valuable results in this direction and that1 thanks to this new-born knowledge about the malarial parasites1 better times are rapidly approaching for malarial countries4 ,,new ,,sources ,,of ,,light ,,and ,,of ,r,,ntgen ,,rays4 ,,by ,,henry ,,carrington ,,bolton1 ,,ph4 ,d4 ,among the general laws of physical science1 none seems more firmly established than that of the conservation and correlation of energy2 according to this the various forms of energy that constitute the domain of experimental physics1 heat1 light1 electricity1 magnetism and chemical action1 have reciprocal dependence and 8can not originate otherwise than by devolution from some prexisting force10 or rather energy4 ,that motion is convertible into heat1 heat into light and both the former into electricity are phenomena familiar to every one who uses incandescent bulbs or rides in a trolley1 and we do not usually recognize any production of light unaccompanied by heat4 ,true1 the little fire-fly is possessed of a mysterious power that enables it to emit light without enough heat to affect ,langley's most sensitive bolometer1 but the eminent ,secretary of the ,smithsonian has to admit that the 8cheapest form of light0 is produced by 8processes of nature of which we know nothing40 ,this little understood property called phosphorescence is shared by many living organisms1 both animal and vegetable1 as well as by substances of the mineral kingdom2 to the former belong coelenterates1 mollusks1 crustacea1 fishes and insects1 and decaying wood1 certain mushrooms1 etc42 to the latter the ,bologna stone1 so-called1 and the commercial article called #8,balmain's paint4' ,in the case of the mineral substances1 barium or calcium sulfids and the like1 the light-giving power is not an innate property1 but is set in operation by exposure to the energy of sunlight1 the light of burning magnesium or to some other source of actinism2 moreover1 the power thus acquired by insolation is a fugitive one1 the substances exercising it after three or four hours become #8dead' and lose their activity4 ,excepting then these living beings and these phosphorescent bodies1 light as commonly known to us is always correlated with heat2 within the last four years1 however1 discoveries have been made in ,france that seem to modify the position taken by philosophers and to necessitate new views concerning the manifestations of that energy with which the universe is endowed4 ,a group of ,french savants have found mineral substances that apparently give out light perpetually without any exciting cause1 realizing the dream of the alchemists--a perpetual lamp consuming no oil4 ,these substances also emit rays having the penetrating properties of ,x-rays1 other rays affecting a photographic plate1 and fourthly1 rays causing air to become a conductor of electricity4 ,the history of these discoveries can be briefly given4 ,rntgen's discovery of the rays that pass through metals and solids opaque to light was made in #ahie1 and in the following year1 ,becquerel1 a distinguished ,french academician1 discovered that salts of the metal uranium 7substances that had long been used in coloring china and glass7 emit invisible radiations capable of discharging electrified bodies and of producing skiagraphic images on sensitive plates2 he found that potassio-uranic sulfate emits rays that pass through black paper and give photographic impressions in the same way as ,rntgen rays4 ,this property is not limited to the brilliantly fluorescent uranic salts1 but is shared by the non-fluorescent uranous salts1 and is exhibited by compounds whether phosphorescent or not1 whether crystalline1 melted or in solution1 as well as by the metal itself4 ,the permanence of this activity is amazing1 substances kept in a double leaden box more than three years continuing to exert the power4 ,shortly after the announcement by ,becquerel1 experimenters found that other substances have the power of emitting #8,becquerel ,rays1' such as calcium and zinc sulfids and compounds of thorium4 ,in #ahih ,mme4 ,sklodowska ,curie1 working in the laboratory of the ,municipal ,school of ,industrial ,physics and ,chemistry in ,paris1 devised a special apparatus for measuring the electrical conductivity of the air when under the influence of #8radio-active bodies1' and by its means studied the behavior of pitchblende 7uraninite71 and of other uranium minerals2 finding that some specimens of pitchblende had three times as much energy as uranium itself1 she came to the conclusion that the peculiar property is due to some unknown body contained in the minerals and not to uranium4 ,examining the mineral with the aid of her husband1 the two found a substance analogous to bismuth1 four thousand times stronger than uranium1 which was named #8,polonium1' in honor of the native land of ,mme4 ,curie4 ,in ,december of the same year1 the lady received the ,gegner prize of #d1jjj francs awarded by the ,academy of ,sciences1 as a substantial appreciation of her discovery1 and later in the same month ,mme4 and ,m4 ,curie announced that they had found a second body in pitchblende1 which they named #8,radium4' ,more recently1 ,m4 ,debierne1 working under the auspices of ,mme4 ,curie1 has discovered a third body1 which he calls #8,actinium1' an unfortunate appellation because #8actinium' has already been used for an element announced by ,dr4 ,phipson and since discarded4 ,these three #8radio-active' substances do not possess identical properties2 their rays are unequally absorbed and are differently affected in a magnetic field2 moreover radium emits visible rays1 while polonium does not4 ,nor have they the same chemical affinities2 polonium belongs to the bismuth group1 radium to the barium and actinium to the titanium series4 ,they have not been separated perfectly from their analogues1 and consequently their chemical properties and the actual intensity of their physical activities is very imperfectly known4 ,the difficulties of securing even small quantities of crude materials are enormous2 ,fritz ,giesel obtained from one thousand kilograms of raw material only fifteen grams of active compounds1 and ,mme4 ,curie1 operating on half a ton of the residues of uranium from a chemical manufactory1 got about two kilograms of barium chloride rich in radium1 but the percentage of active substances in these mixtures is unknown4 ,radium is spontaneously luminous1 and all the bodies emit rays that excite phosphorescence in gems1 fluorite and other minerals2 they communicate radiant energy to inactive substances1 and they exert chemical action1 transforming oxygen into ozone and producing changes in the color of glass and of barium platino-cyanid4 ,through the enterprise and liberality of the ,smithsonian ,institution1 and by the courtesy of ,professor ,langley1 ,i have enjoyed the opportunity of studying small specimens of these rare and costly substances2 they comprised ten grams of #8radio-active substance' prepared by a manufacturing chemist of ,germany and smaller quantities of #8radium' and of #8polonium' from ,paris4 ,on removing the wrappings of the ,german specimens in a dark room1 they were seen to emit greenish-white light that gave to the enveloping papers a peculiar glow1 similar to the fluorescence produced by ,rntgen rays4 ,simple tests of the radium showed that it gave the usual reactions of barium2 on boiling it with water it lost its luminosity1 but on heating to dull redness this property returned in the dark4 ,it also caused a barium platino-cyanid screen to fluoresce4 ,experiments to test the actinic power of these bodies gave interesting results2 on exposing sections of photographic plates1 at distances of five inches1 from two to twelve minutes1 bands were obtained varying in intensity with the duration of action4 ,by exposing sensitive plates behind negatives to the radiant materials from two to three hours1 excellent transparencies were secured2 on substituting ,eastman's bromide paper good prints were obtained4 ,the penetrating power of the rays emitted permits the production of skiagraphs2 the plates were enveloped in ,carbutt's black paper 7impermeable to light71 and on them were laid pieces of tinfoil cut in openwork pattern2 after one hour's exposure negatives were secured plainly showing the pattern4 ,analogous experiments were carried on with the specimens from ,paris1 but they were only one fifth as strong in effects2 that labelled #8polonium sub-nitrate' had positively no action on the plates used4 ,the primary source of the energy manifested by these extraordinary substances has greatly puzzled physicists1 and as yet remains a mystery4 ,mme4 ,curie1 speculating on the matter1 conjectured that all space is continually traversed by rays analogous to ,rntgen rays1 but far more penetrating1 and not capable of being absorbed by certain elements of high atomic weight1 such as uranium and thorium4 ,becquerel1 reflecting on the marvellous spontaneous emission of light1 said3 8,if it can be proved that the luminosity causes no loss of energy1 the state of the uranium is like that of a magnet which has been produced by an expenditure of energy and retains it indefinitely1 maintaining around it a field in which transformation of energy can be effected2 but the photographic reductions and the excitation of phosphorescence require an expenditure of energy1 of which the source can only be in the radio-active substances40 ,somewhat later1 ,becquerel hazarded the opinion that the radiation is composed at least in part of cathodic rays2 but these have been proved to be material1 hence the induced activity must be caused by material particles impinging upon the substances excited4 ,this materialistic theory seems to be confirmed by the results of ingenious experiments made by ,mme4 and ,m4 ,curie2 they placed a sensitive plate beneath a salt of radium supported on a slab of lead1 in the vicinity of an electro-magnet4 ,under these conditions1 when the current was passing1 the rays emitted were bent in curved lines upon the sensitive plate1 making impressions4 ,it may be objected1 says a ,french writer1 that the materialistic theory requires us to admit actual loss of particles of matter1 nevertheless the charges are so feeble that the most intense radiation yet observed would require millions of years for the removal of one milligram of substance4 ,while writing these lines1 we have news of experiments that seem to throw doubt on the elementary character of these radio-active bodies2 ,bela von ,lengyel1 of ,budapest1 claims to have prepared the so-called #8radium' synthetically4 ,by fusing with the heat of electricity uranium nitrate mixed with a small percentage of barium nitrate1 and treating the mass with acids1 he obtained a substance that gives out actinic rays1 ,rntgen rays1 excites platino-cyanid screens and causes air to conduct electricity2 in short1 the ,hungarian chemist gets material possessing all the properties characteristic of the #8element' announced by ,mme4 ,curie4 ,admitting that radio-active bodies can be manufactured to order1 are we any nearer explaining their mysterious powers8 ,speculations as to the future history and applications of these wonder-working bodies press upon even the dullest imagination2 if a few grams of earth-born material1 containing only a small percentage of the active body1 emit light enough to affect the human eye and a photographic plate1 as well as rays that penetrate with ,x-ray power1 what degree of luminosity1 of actinism and of ,rntgenism 7if the term may be allowed71 is to be expected from an hundred weight of the quintessence of energy purified from interfering matter8 ,and to what uses is this light-generating material to be applied8 ,are our bicycles to be lighted with discs of radium in tiny lanterns8 ,are these substances to give us the #8cheapest form of light8' ,are we about to realize the chimerical dream of the alchemists8 ,seriously1 in what direction is profound study of these substances going to lead us8 ,will it not greatly extend our knowledge of physical manifestations of energy and their correlation8 ,in what corner of the globe will be found the cheap and convenient supply of the raw material yielding the radio-active bodies8 ,will not chemists be obliged to re-examine much known material by laboratory methods conducted in the dark8 ,many of us have worked up pounds of pitchblende to extract the uranium oxids1 and in so doing have poured down the waste-pipe or thrown into the dust-bin the more interesting and precious bodies4 ,whatever the future may bring1 scientists are deeply indebted to ,becquerel and to ,mme4 and ,m4 ,curie for placing in their hands new methods of research and for furnishing a novel basis for speculation destined to yield abundant fruits4 ,,discussion ,,and ,,correspondence4 ,,washington ,,as ,,an ,,explorer ,,and ,,surveyor4 ,washington was a surveyor and explorer before he entered upon the fields of war and statecraft1 and his honesty of purpose1 sincerity of action and accuracy of statement and method1 so manifest throughout his career as a soldier and statesman1 are found also in the earlier record4 ,at the age of sixteen he crossed the ,blue ,ridge on horseback and made a series of successful surveys in the ,shenandoah valley1 overcoming physical obstacles with the method and system of a modern scientist4 ,at twenty-two he led a party into the wilderness of the valley of the ,ohio to treat with the ,french and ,indians4 ,he then became acquainted with the great resources of the interior1 and saw that the valleys of the ,james and ,potomac afforded unusual facilities for lines of transportation for the trade #8of a rising empire4' ,in #aged he reported in favor of a scheme of communication between the ,atlantic states and the great west4 ,sixteen years later he suggested that the project of opening up the ,potomac be #8recommended to public notice4' ,the idea contained in the ,potomac scheme was of far-reaching import1 and only the present generation can fully realize its significance4 ,washington was not only the first to map and recommend the general route of the great highways called the ,national ,pike and the ,chesapeake and ,ohio ,canal1 which are now in truth #8becoming the channels of conveyance of the extensive and valuable trade of a rising empire1' but he was also the first to predict the commercial success of that route through the ,mohawk valley which was afterwards taken by the ,erie ,canal and the ,new ,york ,central ,railroad4 ,one hundred and fifteen years ago he asked3 8,would it not be worthy of the wisdom and attention of ,congress to have the western waters well explored1 the navigation of them fully ascertained and accurately laid down1 and a complete and perfect map made of the country4444 ,the advantages would be unbounded1 for sure ,i am that nature has made such a display of her bounties in those regions that the more the country is explored the more it will rise in estimation1 consequently greater will the revenue be to the ,union40 ,again he declared1 8,i shall not rest contented until ,i have explored the western country and have traversed those lines which have given bounds to a new empire40 ,washington did not do this as fully as he wished1 but his ambition has been and is being realized through the medium of hundreds of enterprises under both national and private encouragement4 ,the result of a trip made in the fall of #aghd was the real historic beginning of the ,potomac enterprise4 ,on his return he wrote to ,benjamin ,harrison1 ,governor of ,virginia1 8,i shall take the liberty now1 my dear sir1 to suggest a matter which would mark your administration as an important era in the annals of this country if it should be recommended by you and adopted by the ,assembly40 ,he reached far out for those days1 assuming ,detroit as a point of departure for the trade of the northwest territory4 ,his confidence in the practical abilities of the ,american people is shown by the remark1 8,a people who are possessed with the spirit of commerce1 who see and will pursue their destinies1 may achieve almost anything4 ,no person who knows the temper1 genius and policy of this people as well as ,i do can harbor the smallest doubt40 ,in urging the ,potomac scheme1 he later asked that commissioners be appointed to make a careful survey of the ,potomac and ,james rivers to their respective sources1 and that a complete map of the country intervening between the seaboard1 the ,ohio waters and the ,great ,lakes be presented to the people4 8,these things being done10 he says1 8,i shall be mistaken if prejudice does not yield to facts1 jealousy to candor and finally1 if reason and nature1 thus aided1 do not dictate what is right and proper to be done40 ,he introduced his plan to the notice of ,congress1 thus making the first suggestion to that body of the policy of national improvements which the present generation is carrying on1 as well as of the policy of exploration and national surveys to which our ,government so firmly adheres4 ,to-day the ,government is carrying forward surveying work by means of the largest and most thoroughly equipped organizations in existence1 and thus is ,washington honored4 ,the scientific men of to-day owe to ,washington profound respect and gratitude for the scientific spirit he cultivated in his work4 ,the ,government once established on so high a plane1 it necessarily followed that all true science should be encouraged and be enlisted in the development of the citizen and of the material resources of the nation4 ,,charles ,d4 ,,walcott1 ,u4 ,s4 ,geological ,survey1 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c4 ,,science ,,and ,,fiction4 ,the leading article of the ,june number of the ,century ,magazine is entitled 8,the ,problem of increasing ,human ,energy10 and is written by ,nikola ,tesla4 ,mr4 ,tesla offers the reader some naive verbal analogies between the causes of human progress and the #8energy' of theoretical physics1 and a eulogy of a number of inventions which he expects to make4 ,he intersperses these with sundry remarkable statements such as1 8our own earth will be a lump of ice20 8,though this movement is not of a translatory character1 yet the general laws of mechanical movement are applicable to it20 8,that we can send a message to a planet is certain1 that we can get an answer is probable20 8,it is highly probable that if there are intelligent beings on ,mars they have long ago realized this very idea the transmission of electrical energy for industrial purposes without wires1 which would explain the changes on its surface noted by astronomers40 7,the italics are our own47 ,mr4 ,tesla's doctrine of human energy is in some ways as original as the inventions and discoveries which he expects to make4 ,each of us is1 he says1 a part of a unitary whole1 #8man4' 8,this one human being lives on and on4444 ,therein 444 is to be found the partial explanation of many of those marvelous phenomena of heredity which are the result of countless centuries of feeble but persistent influence40 ,now we may 8assume that human energy is measured by half the product of man's mass with the square of a certain hypothetical velocity 444 the great problem of science is1 and always will be1 to increase the energy thus defined4444 ,this mass is impelled in one direction by a force ,f1 which is resisted by another partly frictional and partly negative force ,r1 acting in a direction exactly opposite1 and retarding the movement of the mass40 ,unhappily ,mr4 ,tesla in his enthusiasm to progress to recommendations of religion1 vegetarianism1 the old rgime for women and the artificial preparation of nitrogen compounds1 neglects to state which direction is the proper one for the human mass to follow1 north1 south1 east1 west1 toward the moon or ,sirius or to ,dante's ,satan in the centre of the earth4 ,nor does he explain how #8enlightenment' makes the mass of human bodies go in an exactly opposite direction to that toward which #8visionariness' impels them1 nor reveal why1 if his account be true1 he and a #8visionary' can walk in the same direction4 ,of course the whole notion that the #8velocity' of the human #8mass1' i4e4 the space it traverses in a given time1 has any connection with human progress or is of any value to anybody or anything1 is absurd4 ,mr4 ,tesla has enjoyed considerable1 excellent repute as a gifted student of certain electrical phenomena and one expects a good deal from his 8electrical experiments1 now first published40 ,mr4 ,tesla1 too1 expects a good deal from them4 ,it would take too long to even note here all the important scientific discoveries which ,mr4 ,tesla expects to make or all the benefits which he expects to thereby confer upon mankind in general and in particular upon those who exploit his inventions4 ,some samples may be given4 ,war will be rendered harmless by being reduced to a sort of game between #8telautaumata1' machines which behave 8just like a blind-folded person obeying instructions received through the ear10 any one of which is 8enabled to move and to perform all its operations with reason and intelligence40 ,says ,mr4 ,tesla3 8,i purpose to show that1 however impossible it may now seem1 an automaton may be contrived which will have its #8own mind1' and by this ,i mean that it will be able1 independent of any operator1 left entirely to itself1 to perform1 in response to external influences affecting its sensitive organs1 a great variety of acts and operations as if it had intelligence4 ,it will be able to follow a course laid out or to obey orders given far in advance2 it will be capable of distinguishing between what it ought and what it ought not to do1 and of making experiences or1 otherwise stated1 of recording impressions which will definitely affect its subsequent actions4 ,in fact1 ,i have already conceived such a plan40 ,inasmuch as the interest in this telautomatic warfare is to be purely sthetic1 it would seem as if international bull-fights or kite-flying or spelling matches or potato-races might do as well1 and have the added advantage of leaving ,mr4 ,tesla's expectations free to wander among the following prospective discoveries4 ,new sources of energy1 ,mr4 ,tesla thinks1 may be opened up1 such as a wheel which shall perform work without any further effort on our part than that of constructing it4 8,imagine a disc of some homogeneous material turned perfectly true and arranged to turn in frictionless bearings on a horizontal shaft above the ground4 ,this disk1 being under the above conditions perfectly balanced1 would rest in any position4 ,now1 it is possible that we may learn how to make such a disk rotate continuously and perform work by the force of gravity without any further effort on our part4444 ,to make the disk rotate by the force of gravity we have only to invent a screen against this force4 ,by such a screen we could prevent this force from acting on one half of the disk1 and the rotation of the latter would follow40 ,into further particulars concerning the nature of such a screen ,mr4 ,tesla does not enter1 though it would seem a matter well fitted to engage his peculiar gifts4 ,the #8screen against gravity' idea has already entered into a popular story1 but scientific men have probably not given it much consideration4 ,by producing a #8sink' or reservoir of a low temperature1 thereby inducing the heat of the ambient medium to transform itself in part into other forms of energy 7e4g4 electrical71 ,mr4 ,tesla hopes to 8get any amount of energy without further effort0 beyond the amount needed to create the #8sink4' ,we should thus employ 8an ideal way of obtaining motor power10 and incidentally rebuke the narrow-minded physics of ,carnot and ,lord ,kelvin4 ,by means of his electrical oscillator ,mr4 ,tesla has satisfied himself that he can transmit electrical energy in large quantities without wires4 ,he expects that this can be done to great economic advantage4 ,then would come the golden age4 8,men could settle down everywhere1 fertilize and irrigate the soil with little effort1 and convert barren deserts into gardens1 and thus the entire globe could be transformed and made a fitter abode for mankind40 ,the golden age figures largely in ,mr4 ,tesla's article2 he offers us all that is entrancing and wonderful4 ,he is generous4 ,we ask for the bread of definite facts of science and intelligible evidence1 but he gives us the amethyst and topaz and diamonds of an ambient medium doing all our work and the atmosphere transporting all our motive power and the tyrant gravity held powerless by a screen1 and ,mr4 ,tesla correcting ,lord ,kelvin's errors4 ,still amethyst and topaz and diamonds are only stones4 ,they may dazzle the magazine reader1 but they do not nourish the student of science4 ,the editorial department of the ,century ,magazine perhaps felt that these jewels were a bit too bright4 ,we read there that 8much that must seem speculative to the layman can take its proper place only in the purview of the scientist40 ,some conservative scientists will feel like growling1 8,and much that must seem bosh to the man of science can take its proper place only in the purview of the editorial departments of popular magazines40 ,leaving aside the present case1 it is a fact that the same care which is exercised by editors to secure in their contributions excellence of style and syntax1 a proper moral tone and freedom from advertisement of business ventures1 is not exercised to secure accuracy in statements of fact or decent credibility in matters of theory4 ,the editors apparently impute to their readers a desire to be entertained at all costs4 ,they descend to a footing with the ,sunday newspaper instead of trying to rise to the level of such scientific literature as ,huxley or ,tyndall gave us4 ,they evidently often do not know science from rubbish and apparently seldom make any effort to find out the difference4 ,they should at least submit their scientific literature to competent men for criticism and revision4 ,the general public is helpless before any supposedly scientific statement4 ,it may judge vaguely by the standing of the paper or magazine or book containing it1 by the name of the writer or by the general tone in which the article is written4 ,but it cannot judge definitely by comparison with relevant facts or by critically examining the logic of the deductions1 for the general public lacks both knowledge of the relevant facts and training in logical criticism4 ,that a man should invent a microscope which will enable one to see objects a million times as small as can be seen with the naked eye seems no more questionable to the general public than that a man should cause unfertilized eggs to develop4 ,yet the first would be impossible while the second has been possible1 probable1 and still more lately proved4 ,guidance in scientific matters should be welcome if only for the protection thus given against fraudulent medicines1 bogus inventions and nonsensical enterprises4 ,,physicist4 ,,scientific ,,literature4 ,,mathematical ,,physics4 ,the memoirs presented to the ,cambridge ,philosophical ,society on the occasion of the jubilee of ,sir ,george ,stokes1 have been published in a stately volume by the ,cambridge ,university ,press4 ,a year ago some four hundred men of science met at ,cambridge to celebrate the fiftieth anniversary of the appointment of ,sir ,george ,stokes to the ,lucasian professorship of mathematics1 a chair held by ,newton and a distinguished line of mathematicians4 ,an official account of the proceedings1 with a portrait of ,professor ,stokes1 is given in the volume now issued4 ,the seventy-two institutions sending delegates are arranged chronologically in the order of their foundation1 and it is not unworthy of note that among the sixteen oldest institutions1 the ,united ,states has five representatives1 whereas ,great ,britain has thirteen universities and colleges younger than the ,johns ,hopkins ,university4 ,the ,rede lecture given by ,m4 ,alfred ,cornu and entitled #8,la thorie des ondes lumineuses1' is published in ,french1 even the quotations from ,newton's #8,opticks' being translated into that language4 ,m4 ,cornu states that by #8une tude approfondie' of the #8,opticks1' his lecture shows that ,newton favored ,descartes's undulatory theory of light1 rather than the emission theory usually attributed to him4 ,the twenty-two memoirs that follow cover a wide range of subjects1 nearly all of which have1 however1 a connection with the researches of ,professor ,stokes4 ,they include three contributions from the ,united ,states1 mathematical papers by ,profs4 ,e4 ,w4 ,brown and ,e4 ,o4 ,lovett1 and a description by ,professor ,michelson of his echelon spectroscope4 ,in addition to this memorial volume1 the ,cambridge ,university ,press1 which is represented in ,america by ,the ,macmillan ,company1 is at present publishing the collected papers of three eminent students of mathematical physics4 ,the first volume of ,lord ,rayleigh's #8,scientific ,papers' contains seventy-eight contributions published from #ahfi to #ahha4 ,the early papers show the influence of ,maxwell1 ,lord ,rayleigh's predecessor in the chair of experimental physics at ,cambridge1 but it was apparently not until #ahha that he fully appreciated the importance of ,maxwell's electro-magnetic theory of light4 ,the papers on acoustics were followed by the publication in #ahgg of the classical work on the #8,theory of ,sound4' ,lord ,rayleigh1 at an early period1 treated various optical subjects1 including some of the phenomena of color vision4 ,his explanation of the blue color of the sky and his treatment of the resolving power of telescopes are well known4 ,the contributions on optics and acoustics have been continued to the present time1 but they by no means limit his interests4 ,there are important papers on hydrodynamics and mathematics1 and longer and shorter contributions on a great range of subjects in mathematical physics1 the science which at the present day is perhaps of supreme importance4 ,the second volume of ,professor ,tait's #8,scientific ,papers' contains those published since #ahha4 ,the first volume consisted of sixty papers1 and this volume1 which has followed with but little delay1 adds seventy-three4 ,as must be the case in collected papers1 some are elaborate treatises while others fill only part of a single page2 some are extremely technical while others were first published in the #8,encyclopdia ,britannica' and the #8,contemporary ,review4' ,among the more elaborate papers are those on the physical properties of water contributed to #8,the ,voyage of ,h4 ,m4 ,s4 ,challenger1' on the kinetic theory of gases1 on impact and on quaternions4 ,the third series just published by the ,cambridge ,press is the #8,papers on ,mechanical and ,physical ,subjects'1 by ,prof4 ,osborne ,reynolds1 of ,owens ,college4 ,the first volume contains forty papers from transactions and journals issued from #ahfi to #ahhb4 ,the most elaborate memoir is that on certain dimensional properties of matter in the gaseous state1 which includes experiments on thermal transpiration of gases through porous plates and a theoretical extension of the dynamic theory of gas4 ,many of the papers1 such as those on meteorological phenomena and the steering of vessels1 are of popular interest4 ,the ,cambridge ,university ,press is performing a work of the utmost value to science in undertaking the publication of these great volumes1 and we can only regret that1 in spite of the beginnings made at ,johns ,hopkins1 ,chicago1 ,pennsylvania and ,columbia1 ,american men of science have no such opportunities for the publication of their works as those afforded at ,cambridge and ,oxford4 ,,botany4 ,that a large amount of popular interest centers in the study of tree life and all subjects incidental to forestry and horticulture is evidenced by the appearance of a second book on the subject under the title of #8,our ,native ,trees and ,how to ,identify ,them' 7,scribners71 by ,harriet ,l4 ,keeler4 ,the volume in question takes up the trees native of northern ,united ,states east of the ,rocky ,mountains1 together with a few well-known foreign species which have become naturalized in this region4 ,the book opens with a key to the families of dicotyledonous species based upon leaf characters1 and every species receives not only a full technical description1 but also comes in for interesting comments upon habit and general ecological relations4 ,numerous drawings and half-tones add to the accuracy and clearness of the descriptions4 ,it is not too much to say that the photographic reproductions surpass in beauty and presentation of detail any recent botanical publication1 and the venation of leaves is shown in most instances by this method quite as well as it might be done by means of pen and ink sketches4 ,the value of the descriptions is heightened by the inclusion of notes of economic interest4 ,it is not unexpected that some errors should creep into the discussions on almost all phases of botany which are interspersed throughout the volume4 ,the appearance of a new botanical dictionary is most timely1 and it is fortunate that the task of its preparation should be undertaken by such a skilful bibliographer as ,mr4 ,b4 ,d4 ,jackson4 ,his #8,glossary of ,botanical ,terms' 7,lippincott7 contains fifteen thousand words1 or three times as many as have been included in any previous work of this character4 ,this is indicative of a most energetic pursuit of investigations in all departments of the subject1 and also of a lamentable tendency to the coinage by botanists of new and unnecessary terms upon the slightest pretext4 ,a legitimate factor in the increase of the contents of such a work consists in the inclusion of words in common use which take on a technical meaning in botany2 such1 for instance1 as altitude1 abnormal1 abrupt1 absolute1 accidental back1 etc4 ,derivations are given1 but the history of the terms has not been attempted4 ,according to the author1 #8anlage' may be variously rendered as rudiment1 inception or primordium4 #8,chlorophyll' receives the double consonant at the end of the last syllable against the popular extra-botanical practice4 ,regarding #8medullary' the author says3 8,i have given the accent as it is always spoken 7medul'-lary7 though all of the dictionaries 7botanical87 accent it as med'-ullary except ,henslow's40 ,in this the author had in mind the practice among his insular colleagues only1 since the latter pronunciation is given in the ,standard1 ,century and ,webster's ,dictionaries and is followed by nine tenths of the ,american botanists4 8,mycorhizome mycorrhiza-like structures in ,corallorhiza and ,epipogum roots10 and 8,mycorrhiza symbiotic fungi on the roots of plants1 prothallia1 etc410 are not only incongruous with orthography and botanical fact1 but also with the usage of all recent writers on this subject4 ,while many other errors of this character could be adduced1 the general value of the book is scarcely lessened1 and it will be of the greatest service to the working botanist1 not only in raising the general literary tone of his writings1 but also in placing at his command a choice of all of the established terms dealing with any phase of the subject2 an aid which will be greatly conducive to increased accuracy of statement4 ,a decade since1 the majority of the botanists engaged in the study of the distribution of plants on this continent1 as well as the strict systematists1 were quite unanimously of the opinion that the territory within the boundaries of the ,united ,states had been quite thoroughly explored1 and that the task of the collector are well-nigh done4 ,despite this discouraging conclusion a few enthusiastic workers have not intermitted their labors in a more critical consideration of the floras of the newer and less thickly settled regions1 with the result that scores and hundreds of new species have been brought to light each year1 and the awakening interest in the subject promises a re-exploration of the great ,west4 ,a striking example of the results awaiting the student in this line is afforded by ,dr4 ,rydberg's #8,flora of ,montana and the ,yellowstone ,park' 7,new ,york ,botanical ,garden71 which has recently appeared4 ,although the first collections of plants in this region were made by the ,lewis and ,clarke expedition nearly a century ago1 ,dr4 ,ryberg finds #afc new species and varieties in the #a1igf which he lists in this volume4 ,of this number #dhg are found on both the eastern and western slopes of the continental divide1 #bfh on the eastern side only1 #ebj on the western side only1 #db of which are arctic and inhabit the high mountain summits1 and #fei which have originated in the exact region under discussion4 ,seven hundred and seventy-six of the species listed were not included in ,coulter's #8,rocky ,mountain ,botany1' published a few years ago4 ,the symposium on the #8,plant ,geography of ,north ,american1' to be given at the coming meeting of the ,american ,association for the ,advancement of ,science1 will do much to systematize investigations of this character and broaden the method of treatment accorded the subject in the future4 ,,biology4 ,the #8,biological ,lectures from the ,marine ,laboratory of ,woods ,holl1 #ahii1' make up a volume of about three hundred pages which represent fairly the present tendencies of biological investigation in this country4 ,the most striking things about the lectures are the wide range of topics which they treat1 and the first-hand quality of the subject matter in each case4 ,this is most clearly seen by a careful reading of the text1 but a mere enumeration of a few of the sixteen titles and lectures makes it fairly obvious4 ,thus1 ,d4 ,p4 ,penhallow writes on #8,the ,nature of the ,evidence ,exhibited by ,fossil ,plants1 and its bearing upon our ,knowledge of the ,history of ,plant ,life2' ,d4 ,t4 ,mac,dougal writes on the #8,significance of ,mycorrhizas1' ,edward ,thorndike on #8,instinct1' ,herbert ,s4 ,jennings on #8,the ,behavior of ,unicellular ,organisms1' ,alpheus ,hyatt on #8,some ,governing ,factors usually neglected in ,biological ,investigations1' ,t4 ,h4 ,morgan on #8,regeneration1' ,c4 ,b4 ,davenport on #8,the ,aims of the ,quantitative ,study of ,variation1' ,jacques ,loeb on #8,the ,nature of the ,process of ,fertilization4' ,to the professed scientist these lectures will furnish expert opinion on certain important topics2 the general reader will find in them a presentation not too technical or detailed4 ,professor ,loeb's lecture1 for example1 is for such readers the best account yet given of his experiments in artificial fertilization4 ,the range and originality which characterize these lectures are really characteristic of the general work and spirit of the ,woods ,holl ,laboratory4 ,few people realize the amount of research work which is done there from summer to summer4 ,yet last year there were seventy-one investigators there4 ,moreover1 these represent a superior selection from among the instructors and students of the various colleges4 ,it is a symptom of a healthy1 vigorous condition in biological science that the best workers of the country are glad to devote their vacation season to research1 and it is highly creditable to the ,woods ,holl management that it offers them such attractive facilities4 ,similar summer laboratories are now being established in other parts of the country1 and are to be reckoned with as very important factors in the progress of biology4 ,,cytology4 ,it is a somewhat surprising fact that among educated people of scientific training there prevails generally the greatest ignorance as to some of the most important problems of biology4 ,we refer to those problems connected with the structure and functions of the animal and plant cell4 ,men who can understand and appreciate recent discoveries in astronomy1 physics1 chemistry and geology are usually wholly lost in cytology4 ,in fact1 in general writing or speech it is not safe to use this name without at once defining it1 since it is commonly supposed to be a mispronunciation or a stupid misspelling of #8psychology1' while to most people nuclei1 chromosomes1 centrosomes and mitotic spindles are words without meaning1 signifying nothing4 ,the reason for this is twofold3 ,first1 cytology is one of the newest of the biological sciences and it has but recently found its way into college curricula1 and second1 there have been few text-books or general works on this subject to which an intelligent layman could turn for information4 ,and yet1 in spite of this fact1 there are few fields of scientific work possessing more general interest than that of cytology4 ,at the present day the greatest problems of biology are centered in the cell4 ,assimilation1 growth1 metabolism1 reproduction1 differentiation1 inheritance and variation--these are at bottom cellular phenomena1 the result of the structure and functions of cells4 ,it is not surprising1 therefore1 that 8all the searchlights of science have been turned upon the cell10 and that cell studies during the past ten years have received an amount of attention which is comparable only to that devoted to evolution under the stimulus of ,darwin's work4 ,professor ,wilson's book on the cell1,f the second edition of which has just appeared1 is a work of more than ordinary interest1 not only to the biologist1 but to all persons who are interested in the general advance of science4 ,although there are several other good text-books of cytology which have appeared during the past five or six years1 ,professor ,wilson's book1 in thoroughness of treatment1 in philosophical insight1 in clearness and forcefulness of style and in wealth and beauty of illustrations1 easily surpasses them all4 ,f ,the ,cell in ,development and ,inheritance4 ,edmund ,b4 ,wilson4 ,second ,edition ,revised and ,enlarged4 ,columbia ,university ,biological ,series ,,iv4 ,new ,york and ,london1 ,the ,macmillan ,co41 #aijj4 ,pp4 xxi1 #dhc with #aid ,figures in the ,text4 #c4ej ,it is impossible in this brief note to give any adequate summary of the volume or of the position of the author on questions of general interest2 the subjects of the chapters1 however1 may serve to give some idea as to the scope of the work4 ,after an introduction which gives a brief historical sketch of the cell theory and its relation to the evolution theory1 there are taken up in successive chapters a general sketch of cell structure1 cell division1 the germ cells1 fertilization of the ovum1 the formation of the germ cells and the halving of their nuclei preparatory to fertilization1 cell organs and their relations to each other and to the life of the cell1 cell chemistry and cell physiology1 cell division in its relation to the development of the egg1 and finally1 some theories of inheritance and development4 ,in addition1 there is appended an excellent glossary and a list of all the most important literature on the subject up to the current year4 ,while the work is undoubtedly intended as a reference book for investigators and advanced students in biology1 being marked by the thoroughness of treatment of an original communication1 it is yet so well written and so copiously illustrated as to make it not only intelligible but also intensely interesting to the general reader4 ,,education4 ,the most important recent book on education is undoubtedly #8,education in the ,united ,states1' a book prepared in connection with the educational exhibit of this country at the ,paris ,exposition4 ,it consists of a series of monographs which cover all the important phases of educational endeavor in the ,united ,states4 ,the two volumes include nearly a thousand pages1 almost all of which present definite and reliable facts4 ,only rarely is there any indulgence in expressions of private opinion1 and still more rarely is such opinion questionable4 ,the editor is justified in his statement that the book is #8a cross-section view of education in the ,united ,states in #aijj4' ,it will be of great value to the student of ,american institutions or of education in general1 and should be of interest to any citizen who desires to be well informed about his country4 ,the quality of the monographs will be evident from the list of the author's names4 ,for instance1 those writing on higher education are ,prof4 ,a4 ,f4 ,west1 of ,princeton2 ,prof4 ,e4 ,d4 ,perry1 of ,columbia2 ,president ,thomas1 of ,bryn ,mawr2 ,director ,parsons1 of the ,university of the ,state of ,new ,york2 ,president ,mendenhall1 of the ,worcester ,polytechnic ,institute1 and ,prof4 ,h4 ,b4 ,adams1 of ,johns ,hopkins4 ,,the ,,progress ,,of ,,science4 ,the conditions in the ,united ,states have been favorable to the development of geology4 ,the varied forms of the land have offered abundant opportunities for research1 whereas the practical value of the work has led to the establishment of surveys1 the magnitude of whose contribution to geology is only known to special students4 ,the ,geological ,society of ,america has about two hundred and fifty members1 nearly all of whom are actively engaged in geological research1 perhaps a larger number than in any other science4 ,the ,u4 ,s4 ,geological ,survey is the center of this movement1 and its great efficiency is in large measure due to ,mr4 ,g4 ,k4 ,gilbert1 now president of the ,american ,association for the ,advancement of ,science4 ,he was born in ,rochester1 ,n4 ,y41 in #ahdc1 and after graduating from the university in that city1 acted for five years as assistant in the ,ward ,museum1 where a number of eminent naturalists have been trained4 ,he then became geologist in the ,ohio ,survey under ,newberry1 was engaged in the ,wheeler and ,powell ,surveys1 and has been geologist in the ,u4 ,s4 ,geological ,survey since its establishment in #ahgi4 ,in the arid west1 where the face of the earth is bare1 ,mr4 ,gilbert made the observations and discoveries in dynamical and physical geology which have done so much toward the making of the science of physiography4 ,his monographs on the ,henry ,mountains and on ,lake ,bonneville1 the name he gave to the ancient lake that once filled the ,utah basin1 are models1 both in regard to their original discoveries and the methods of presentation4 ,he has extended his studies to the basins of the ,laurentian ,lakes and to other regions1 always with important results4 ,mr4 ,gilbert has been president of the ,american ,society of ,naturalists1 the ,geological ,society of ,america and the ,philosophical ,society of ,washington1 and has received the ,wollaston ,medal of the ,geological ,society of ,london4 ,his presidential address before the ,american ,association will be given at the ,american ,museum of ,natural ,history1 ,new ,york ,city1 on the evening of ,june #bf1 his subject being #8,geological ,rhythm4' 99 99 99 99 99 ,the meeting of the ,american ,association in ,new ,york ,city1 opening as this issue of the ,,monthly is published1 promises to be of more than usual importance4 ,the preliminary programs of the different sections show long lists of valuable papers and promise the attendance of leading men of science from all parts of the country4 ,a movement of interest is the increasing tendency of special scientific societies to meet in conjunction with the ,association4 ,no less than fifteen societies will this year hold their sessions at ,columbia ,university1 some of them joining with the sections of the ,association1 and others holding independent meetings4 ,the members of these different societies have the advantage of the reduced railway rates and other arrangements which can be made once for all1 and the still greater advantage of meeting scientific men in other departments4 ,as science grows in details and in range1 there is on the one hand an increased specialization1 making it desirable for small groups of experts to meet together to discuss their special problems1 while1 on the other hand1 almost every scientific question has ramifications extending to many sciences4 ,hence1 the need of many separate societies and at the same time of a common meeting ground4 ,when the ,american ,association was organized1 in #ahdh1 its members could meet in one body2 later they divided into two sections1 one for the exact sciences and one for natural history4 ,in #ahhb nine sections were organized1 but it was not until #ahib that botany was separated from zology4 ,at present the sections no longer suffice1 and there must be either a further sub-division and a more efficient organization of the sections1 or the ,american ,association must become an administrative body1 that will arrange for the simultaneous meetings of independent societies and the union of these societies in support of their common interests4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the obvious advantages of meeting together have now led nearly all the national scientific societies to select either the time of the ,american ,association or ,christmas week for joint meetings4 ,it is unfortunate that they should be divided into two groups1 and it must be admitted that neither midsummer nor the ,christmas holidays are altogether suitable for the meetings4 ,the ,american ,association has this year made the experiment of selecting the end of ,june1 immediately after the close of the college sessions1 instead of a week in ,august4 ,this has some advantages1 but even at the beginning of the summer many men of science are either abroad or are engaged in scientific expeditions4 ,the heat is apt to be excessive1 interfering not only with the meetings1 but also requiring some self-sacrifice on the part of scientific men when they leave their comfortable summer homes to travel through heat and dust to a hot and dusty city4 ,christmas week1 divided by ,sunday1 is too short for a series of scientific meetings1 especially for those who must travel from a distance4 ,this led to the organization last winter of the ,cordillerean ,geological ,society1 the ,western ,society of ,naturalists and the ,western ,philosophical ,association4 ,local associations are1 of course1 valuable1 but they should not interfere with one central meeting in the course of the year4 ,the plan has been suggested of taking one week1 either immediately after the ,new ,year or in the early spring1 for a general scientific gathering1 which would include not only the exact and natural sciences1 but also philology1 history1 etc4 ,the plan would be to secure an adjournment of exercises or leave of absence in the case of universities1 colleges1 museums1 ,government departments1 etc41 with the understanding that it would be the duty of all those who were released from their regular work to attend the meetings4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,american ,association last met in ,new ,york ,city in #ahhg1 though there was a meeting in ,brooklyn in #ahid4 ,the past thirteen and even the past six years have witnessed an extraordinary development in the educational and scientific institutions of the city4 ,columbia ,college and ,new ,york ,university have developed into great universities1 each having found a new site and erected upon it buildings which might have been expected to come only as the growth of a century4 ,the ,american ,museum of ,natural ,history has become one of the great museums of the world1 millions of dollars having been spent on buildings4 ,a botanical garden and a zological park have been established1 which promise to rival those of any of the ,european capitals4 ,a well-equipped aquarium has been opened under the auspices of the city2 the ,metropolitan ,museum of ,art has been entirely rebuilt to accommodate its increasing collections2 a magnificent building is in course of erection for the ,public ,library to contain its great assemblage of books1 which with its endowment is largely the result of recent years4 ,while ,boston and ,philadelphia have made great advances within the last few years1 and ,washington has become the chief scientific center of the ,united ,states1 it is especially noteworthy that ,new ,york ,city has enjoyed an educational and scientific development commensurate with its material resources4 99 99 99 99 99 ,jonas ,g4 ,clark1 who ten years ago established at ,worcester a university and christened it with his name1 has died and left to the university several hundred thousand dollars1 and on certain conditions practically the whole of his estate1 which is said to be between five and ten million dollars4 ,the will is a complicated document with numerous codicils1 somewhat difficult to interpret and likely to give rise to legal complications4 ,the history of ,clark ,university has been curious and interesting4 ,as in the case of the ,johns ,hopkins ,university1 there was a difference of opinion between the founder and the president as to the scope of the institution4 ,in both cases the founder had in view a more or less local college1 while the president believed that we had colleges in sufficient number1 but needed in the ,united ,states universities on ,german models1 but going even further than ,germany in making research rather than instruction the primary object of the institution4 ,johns ,hopkins died very soon after the establishment of his university1 and though there was for a while a good deal of difference of opinion in the board of trustees1 the university idea triumphed4 ,a college was1 however1 established in connection with it4 ,at ,clark ,university the founder lived for ten years1 and appears to have altered several times his point of view4 ,he withdrew his support1 and the university work which began brilliantly was much reduced in range and quality4 ,the greater part of the faculty removed in a body to the ,university of ,chicago4 ,it appears that at this time ,mr4 ,clark bequeathed his money to the university only on condition that the president should resign1 but later devised a compromise by which the university should continue as at present1 while a partly independent college should be established in conjunction with it4 ,the interpretation of the will1 the value of the estate and the development of the university open problems that will only be settled in the course of time4 99 99 99 99 99 ,europeans who look upon the ,united ,states as a material and commercial nation must find it difficult to interpret the great gifts that are continually made for the cause of higher education4 ,twenty-five years ago there were in ,america no universities in the sense in which the term is most properly employed4 ,during this comparatively brief period the older institutions have become universities1 and the great increase in expenditure has been met chiefly by voluntary contributions4 ,the annual expenditure1 for example1 at ,harvard and ,columbia ,universities is about a half million dollars beyond the tuition fees1 and the money invested in grounds and buildings1 is in the case of either university many millions4 ,then this period has witnessed the establishment of new universities1 rivaling in endowment the older institutions4 ,the ,johns ,hopkins ,university and ,clark ,university have been mentioned above1 but the most noteworthy instances are the ,university of ,chicago1 to which one benefactor still living has given eight million dollars1 and ,leland ,stanford ,junior ,university1 the endowment of which reaches the enormous sum of thirty-five million dollars4 ,at the same time1 the ,state universities1 directly supported by the people1 are beginning to rival privately endowed institutions4 ,it may be confidently asserted that no nation has ever so liberally supported higher education1 and the wisdom of this liberality is now demonstrated1 even from the most mercenary point of view1 by the place the ,united ,states has taken in the world's commerce4 ,it will be still further demonstrated in the course of the next twenty-five years4 ,it is possible that existing conditions are not favorable to literature and to art1 but the future of science in the ,united ,states is assured beyond question4 99 99 99 99 99 ,it is sometimes said that ,government control and individual initiative can not be united1 but there is no justification for this view in the development of the educational and scientific institutions of the ,united ,states4 ,institutions established by private initiative have been assisted by the ,state1 and ,state institutions have received large sums from private individuals4 ,the ,new ,york institutions referred to above--the ,american ,museum of ,natural ,history1 the ,metropolitan ,museum of ,art1 the ,public ,library1 the ,botanical ,gardens and the ,zological ,park--are in almost equal measure supported by the city and by citizens of the city4 ,johns ,hopkins ,university1 the ,university of ,pennsylvania1 ,cornell ,university and other privately endowed institutions have received assistance from the ,state1 without any decrease in private gifts1 while the ,state universities1 ,california for example1 are receiving large private endowments in addition to their support from the ,state4 ,these conditions may not last1 but at all events they obtain at the present time1 and we find the country in which the largest gifts from private individuals are made for education and science to be the country in which they are most liberally supported by the ,government4 99 99 99 99 99 ,never before has any government made such great appropriations for the development of the resources of the country or for the advance of science as the ,congress which has just adjourned4 ,we may take for example the ,department of ,agriculture1 for which the appropriation is #d1jbc1ejj1 an increase of more than #bhj1jjj over the appropriation for the preceding year4 ,every one familiar with the conditions at ,washington and throughout the country will know that this large sum of money is expended with the utmost economy1 and there is no doubt but what the money invested by the nation is returned to the people many fold in the course of every year4 ,some of the items of the bill deserve special notice4 ,thus1 a new agricultural experiment station is to be established in the ,hawaiian ,islands1 and the work of the ,weather ,bureau is to be extended to them4 ,the agricultural resources and capabilities of ,porto ,rico are to be investigated1 and bulletins of information in ,english and in ,spanish are to be distributed to the inhabitants4 ,the division of chemistry is to investigate the use of food preservatives and coloring matter1 determine their relations to health and establish the principles which should guide their use4 ,the division of forestry receives an increase of #dj1jjj and the ,weather ,bureau an increase of over #ce1jjj4 ,other items of the appropriation act are as follows3 ,biological ,survey1 #cj1cjj1 an increase of #b1gdj2 ,division of ,botany1 #dc1jhj1 an increase of #ad1bhj2 ,nutrition ,investigation1 #ag1ejj1 an increase of #b1ejj2 ,division of ,pomology1 #ah1djj2 ,public ,road ,inquiry1 #ad1jjj1 an increase of #f1jjj2 ,division of ,statistics1 #adf1afj2 ,library1 #ad1jjj2 and ,museum1 #b1bfj4 99 99 99 99 99 ,while ,american men of wealth have given freely of their means for the promotion of education and science1 they have not so often devoted their own time to its service4 ,this is natural1 as the wealth has in most cases been acquired by the present generation1 and it is in succeeding generations1 when families have been established1 that leisure and wealth will give a class similar to that which has accomplished so much for ,great ,britain and to a lesser extent for ,germany and ,france4 ,still1 it is the case that the heads of two of our chief universities are men of great wealth1 who have devoted not only their means1 but also their services to the cause of education1 and there are in our universities and other institutions many who hold their positions purely out of interest in their work1 not as a means for their support4 ,in the next generation there will probably be more representatives of a class to which belonged the ,duke of ,argyll1 whose death we were compelled to record last month4 ,another man has since died of a somewhat similar type4 ,when ,colonel ,lane-,fox somewhat unexpectedly succeeded to large estates in ,wiltshire and ,dorsetshire and assumed the name ,pitt-,rivers1 his chief interest seemed to be in the earth works and tumuli of ,cranbourne ,chase1 and the extensive memoirs he has published and the museum he has established show what good use he made of the excavations4 ,some of the results of his earlier work will be found at ,oxford1 but he built at ,farnham1 in ,dorsetshire1 a museum which contains collections of the greatest possible value4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the communication in this issue signed #8,physicist' is worthy of note4 ,if what its writer says is true1 it is evident that a reputation as a brilliant inventor does not insure that its possessor is a safe writer about general physics4 ,our correspondent1 who represents fairly the opinion of scientific men in general1 finds fault with ,mr4 ,tesla's article in the ,june ,century in many important particulars4 ,during the years since ,mr4 ,tesla's notable invention of the polyphase alternate current transformer1 he seems to have become less definite and exact in his thinking1 and less productive as an inventor4 ,the speculation and rhetoric of the ,century article are certainly disappointing to every one who is trying to bring about an intelligent and sound view of science on the part of non-scientific people4 ,men of science everywhere should certainly make it their business to instruct people in general about the progress1 and even the prospects1 of science through the press1 but it takes wisdom on the part of both writers and editors to know what is instructive and what is misleading4 ,honest criticism such as that of our correspondent is therefore highly desirable4 99 99 99 99 99 ,it is generally agreed that the most important advance of last year in the science of medicine was the discovery that the parasite causing malaria was transmitted from person to person by mosquitoes4 ,dr4 ,manson describes this discovery fully in this number of the ,,popular ,,science ,,monthly4 ,this summer a crucial experiment is being made of a somewhat dramatic character4 ,a mosquito-proof tent has been constructed1 which is located in ,italy1 in the ,campagna4 ,in this ,dr4 ,luigi ,sambon1 lecturer of the ,london ,tropical ,school of ,medicine1 and ,dr4 ,g4 ,c4 ,low will live until ,october1 taking the utmost care not to be bitten by mosquitoes4 ,if they escape malaria it will serve as corroborative evidence that the mosquito is the means of infection4 ,on the other hand1 several ,englishmen1 including ,dr4 ,manson's son1 have offered themselves as subjects for the complementary experiment4 ,they will live in a healthy district1 but will definitely allow themselves to be bitten by mosquitoes which are known to be infected4 ,these experiments will probably be particularly useful in demonstrating to the public at large the validity of the hypothesis derived last year from technical bacteriological evidence4 ,transcribers' ,notes ,punctuation1 hyphenation1 and spelling were made consistent when a predominant preference was found in this book2 otherwise they were not changed4 ,inconsistent spacing in abbreviations was not changed4 ,simple typographical errors were corrected2 occasional unbalanced quotation marks retained4 ,ambiguous hyphens at the ends of lines were retained4 ,page #bcj3 8spectrograph0 was misprinted as 8spectograph02 corrected here4 ,page #cae3 8sporozooites0 was printed that way4 ,page #cbb3 8uranium oxids0 was printed that way4 ,page #cbi3 8#8,plant ,geography of ,north ,american1'0 may be a misprint for 8,america04