,transcriber's note3 ,table of ,contents added by ,transcriber4 ,boldface is indicated by equals signs2 italics by underscores4 ,,contents ,the ,coming ,total ,eclipse of the ,sun #a ,the ,most ,expensive ,city in the ,world #af ,a ,bubble-blowing ,insect #bc ,the ,negro ,since the ,civil ,war #bi ,the ,birds of the ,adirondacks #dj ,the ,structure of ,blind ,fishes #dh ,a ,hundred ,years of ,chemistry #ei ,mount ,tamalpais #fi ,international ,law and the ,peace ,conference #gf ,the ,fate of the ,beagle #hf ,science ,study and ,national ,character #ij ,editor's ,table #ii ,fragments of ,science #aja ,minor ,paragraphs #ajh ,publications ,received #aaa ,,the ,,popular ,,science ,,monthly ,,edited ,,by ,j4 ,mc,k,e,e,n ,,cattell ,,vol4 ,,lvii ,,may ,,to ,,october1 #aijj ,,new ,,york ,,and ,,london ,mc,c,l,u,r,e1 ,,phillips ,,and ,,company #aijj ,,copyright1 #aijj1 ,,by ,mc,c,l,u,r,e1 ,,phillips ,,and ,,company4 ,,the ,,popular ,,science ,,monthly ,,appletons' ,,popular ,,science ,,monthly4 ,,may1 #aijj4 ,,the ,,coming ,,total ,,eclipse ,,of ,,the ,,sun4 ,,by ,,frank ,h4 ,,bigelow1 ,,professor ,,of ,,meteorology1 ,,united ,,states ,,weather ,,bureau4 ,the circumstance which renders the coming total eclipse of the sun1 on ,may #bh1 #aijj1 of special significance to thousands of people who might otherwise entirely overlook the occasion is the fact that the path of the moon's shadow over the surface of the earth1 or the track of the eclipse1 is in such a convenient locality--namely1 in our ,southern ,states--as to render the places of visibility easily accessible4 ,instead of being obliged to go to the ends of the earth1 at a heavy expenditure of time and money1 all the while running the risk of not seeing the eclipsed sun on account of prevailing cloudiness1 we are fortunate this time to have the show at home in our own country4 ,while many foreigners will be induced to come to the ,united ,states to make observations1 it is certain that more people will be in a position to see this eclipse with a minimum amount of trouble than has ever happened before in the history of eclipses1 at least since the telescope was invented and careful records of the phenomenon preserved4 ,the track of ,may #bhth enters the ,united ,states in southeastern ,louisiana2 passes over ,new ,orleans1 ,la41 centrally2 over ,mobile1 ,ala41 which is on its southern edge2 over ,montgomery1 ,ala41 on the northern edge2 over ,columbus1 ,ga42 south of ,atlanta1 ,ga41 which lies about twenty-five miles to the north of it2 near ,macon1 ,milledgeville1 and ,augusta1 ,ga41 ,columbia1 ,s4 ,c41 ,charlotte1 ,n4 ,c42 over ,raleigh1 ,n4 ,c41 which is ten miles north of the central line2 and over ,norfolk1 ,va41 fifteen miles north of the center4 ,the track is about fifty miles wide in all parts1 and the duration of the eclipse varies from one minute and twelve seconds near ,new ,orleans to one minute and forty-four seconds near ,norfolk1 on the central line4 ,these durations diminish from the maximum at the middle of the track to zero at the northern and southern limits of it1 so that an observer must be stationed as near the central line as possible in order to see much of the eclipse4 ,the population of several of the above-mentioned cities is at present as follows3 ,new ,orleans1 #bdb1jjj2 ,mobile1 #ca1jjj2 ,montgomery1 #bb1jjj2 ,columbus1 #bj1jjj2 ,atlanta1 #ff1jjj2 ,raleigh1 #ac1jjj2 and ,norfolk1 #ce1jjj4 ,it is evident that with very little exertion more than #ejj1jjj people can see this eclipse4 ,it is most fortunate that the track passes near so many cities1 because1 with their facilities for the accommodation of visitors1 many will be induced to undertake excursions with the purpose of taking in this rare sight1 and a little enterprise on the part of railroads and transportation companies might easily increase the numbers4 ,if people will go to a parade1 yacht race1 or an exposition1 and consider themselves paid for their expenses1 then surely they will find in this great spectacle of ,nature not only an object of wonder and beauty1 but also one of peculiar instruction in many important branches of science4 ,all educators who can induce their pupils to make such an expedition will implant a love of astronomy in many impressionable minds which will become a source of pleasure to them for the rest of their lives4 ,illustration3 ,,chart ,i4--,,track ,,in ,,the ,,united ,,states ,,of ,,the ,,total ,,eclipse ,,of ,,may #bh1 #aijj4 7,by permission of the ,united ,states ,weather ,bureau47 ,out of about seventy eclipses of the sun which have occurred somewhere in the world within the nineteenth century1 there have been only eight total eclipses of more or less duration visible on the ,north ,american continent4 ,the others happened in places often remote from civilization1 and sometimes in entirely inaccessible localities1 as over the ocean areas4 ,the difficulty of transporting heavy baggage to the remote parts of ,asia1 ,africa1 or ,south ,america is such as to preclude all but a few scientists from any effort to observe eclipses4 ,the writer was much impressed with the formidable nature of undertaking to establish eclipse stations in places which are distant from centers of population by his own experience on the ,west ,african ,eclipse ,expedition1 sent out by the ,united ,states ,government1 for the eclipse of ,december #bb1 #ahhi1 to ,cape ,ledo1 on the west coast of ,angola1 about seventy miles south of ,st4 ,paul de ,loanda4 ,nearly eight months were consumed in the course of the preparations at home and in the voyage out and back4 ,the expedition1 it should be said1 however1 went to ,cape ,town1 ,south ,africa1 and halted also at ,st4 ,helena1 ,ascension ,island1 and ,barbados for magnetic and gravity observations1 so that all this time should not be charged to the eclipse proper4 ,we sailed in the old frigate ,pensacola1 the companion to ,farragut's flagship1 the ,hartford1 with ,captain ,yates4 ,in earlier days ,admiral ,dewey commanded this ship1 and the expedition was fitted out while he was in charge of the ,bureau of ,equipment at ,washington4 ,the same fine courtesy that has become so well known to his countrymen was at that time extended to all the members of the expedition4 ,the cloudiness along the track of the eclipse in the ,southern ,states on the #bhth of ,may1 #aijj1 is evidently a matter of much importance not only for all astronomers1 but for non-professional spectators4 ,if it could be foretold1 with the same precision as the astronomical data give the time and the place of the occurrence of the eclipse1 that the day itself will be fair or cloudy1 or that certain portions of the track will be clear while others will be obscured1 it would be of great benefit4 ,the cost of these scientific expeditions is very great1 since it is necessary to transport many heavy and delicate pieces of apparatus into the field1 including telescopes1 spectroscopes1 polariscopes1 and photographic cameras1 and set them up in exact position for the day of observation4 ,the expedition to ,cape ,ledo1 ,west ,africa1 in #ahhi1 carried out a large amount of material1 prepared it for work during the totality1 and then entirely lost the sun during the critical moments by a temporary obscuring of the sky through local cloud formations4 ,there had been some clouds at the station during the forenoons for several days preceding the eclipse1 but the sky was usually clear and very favorable during the middle of the afternoons4 ,the totality came on at three o'clock1 and photographs of the sun were taken at first contact about #a4cj ,p4 ,m42 clouds thickened1 however1 and totality was entirely lost1 while the sun came out again for the last contact at #d4cj ,p4 ,m4 ,this was a very trying experience1 and of course could not have been avoided by any possible precautions4 ,some astronomers have thought that the advance of the moon's shadow is accompanied by a fall in temperature1 and that cloudiness is more likely to be produced from this cause4 ,soon after the ,west ,african eclipse ,professor ,todd1 of ,amherst ,college1 proposed that more systematic observations be made for the probable state of the sky along eclipse tracks1 with the view of at least selecting stations having the most favorable local conditions4 ,the method was tried in ,chili1 ,april1 #ae1 #ahic1 and in ,japan1 ,august #h1 #ahif1 with some success4 ,heretofore the available meteorological records1 which were originally taken for other general purposes1 had been consulted1 and some idea formed of the prevailing tendency to cloudy conditions4 ,in accordance with the improved method1 the ,united ,states ,weather ,bureau has been conducting special observations on the cloudiness occurring from ,may #aeth to ,june #aeth in each of the three years #ahig1 #ahih1 and #ahii1 for the morning hours of the eclipse--between #h ,a4 ,m4 and #i ,a4 ,m4 ,a tabular form was sent through the local offices to such observers as were willing to act as volunteers in making these records1 and their reports have been studied to discover how the cloudiness behaves along the eclipse track at that season of the year4 ,each of the three years gives substantially the same conclusion--namely1 that there is a maximum of cloudiness near the ,atlantic coast in ,virginia1 extending back into ,north ,carolina1 and also near the ,gulf coast in ,louisiana and in southern ,mississippi1 while there is a minimum of cloudiness in eastern ,alabama and central ,georgia4 ,the following table will serve to make this plain3 ,the ,prevailing ,cloudiness of the ,sky along the ,eclipse ,track4 ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,,state4 ,general sky4 ,sky near the sun4 ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,virginia #dj4c #ch4j ,north ,carolina #cb4d #bi4i ,south ,carolina #bf4d #bd4i ,georgia #af4d #ad4g ,alabama #ah4b #ag4g ,mississippi #cj4h #bi4b ,louisiana #cb4i #bg4g ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,the significance of these figures is shown by transferring them to a diagram1 given on ,chart ,,ii1 which indicates the average cloudiness prevailing over the several ,states where they are crossed by the track4 ,the marked depression in the middle portions1 especially over ,alabama and ,georgia1 indicates that the stations in these districts make a much better showing than those nearer the coast line4 ,the reasons for this difference are probably many in number1 but the chief feature is that the interior of this region1 especially over the higher lands of the southern reaches of the ,appalachian ,mountains1 which are from six hundred to one thousand feet above the sea level1 is somewhat freer from the moisture flowing inland from the ocean at that season of the year4 ,the table shows also two divisions1 one for the 8general sky10 wherein the relative cloudiness was noted in every portion of the visible sky1 and for the 8sky near the sun10 where the observation was confined to the immediate vicinity of the sun4 ,the two records agree almost exactly1 except that the sky near the sun averages a little lower than the general sky4 ,this indicates that although the sun will be seen in the morning hour of ,may #bhth1 when it is only from thirty to forty degrees above the horizon1 yet this is not an unfavorable circumstance4 ,the low altitude1 on the other hand1 makes it easier for those at the instruments to enjoy a more comfortable observing position than if it were nearer the zenith1 where one must look directly upward4 ,of course1 a storm of some kind may occur on that day to modify these general weather conditions and upset all calculations4 ,while the cloud observations suggest that ,georgia and ,alabama have the best sites for the eclipse1 it must be remembered that the duration is about one minute and twenty seconds in ,alabama1 and one minute and forty seconds in ,north ,carolina4 ,as a gain of twenty seconds in observing time will be considered by many of sufficient importance to take chances on the cloudiness1 stations will be selected in ,north ,carolina for that reason1 although the probability for minimum cloudiness is twice as good in ,georgia and ,alabama4 ,the table shows that the chances are only one to six against observers located in these ,states1 while near the coast they are about two to six against them4 ,on the whole1 the general result is that observing in this region ought to be successful1 because the favorable chances for good weather are above the average at that season of the year4 ,illustration3 ,,chart ,,ii4--,,probable ,,state ,,of ,,the ,,sky ,,along ,,the ,,eclipse ,,track4 ,average percentage of cloudiness in ,may and ,june4 ,on ,chart ,i there are six lines drawn across the track3 ,no4 #a near ,new ,orleans1 and ,no4 #f on the ocean to the east of ,norfolk1 ,va4 ,these represent the places for which the times of the duration are computed in the ,american ,nautical ,almanac1 with the following results3 ,no4 h4 m4 h4 m4 m4 s4 #a4 ,at #a #cj ,greenwich ,m4 ,t4 #g #bg4 ,local ,m4 ,t4 the duration is #a #ab4f #b4 0 #a #ce 0 0 #g #dg4 0 0 0 0 0 #a #ai4f #c4 0 #a #dj 0 0 #h #je4 0 0 0 0 0 #a #bf4j #d4 0 #a #de 0 0 #h #bb4 0 0 0 0 0 #a #ca4g #e4 0 #a #ej 0 0 #h #dj4 0 0 0 0 0 #a #cg4j #f4 0 #a #ee 0 0 #h #ed4 0 0 0 0 0 #a #da4i ,illustration3 ,,chart ,,iii4--,,fifteen ,,pictures ,,of ,,the ,,solar ,,corona1 ,,arranged ,,in ,,the ,,eleven ,,year ,,period1 ,,to ,,show ,,the ,,recurrence ,,of ,,similar ,,types ,,during ,,this ,,period4 ,an observer at the intersection of these cross-lines with the central line will see the totality during the intervals given in the table4 ,the mode of the formation of the shadow cones of the moon1 called the penumbra for the partial shadow and the umbra for the total shadow1 are well illustrated in general works on astronomy1 and good geometrical pictures of them can there be found1 together with much useful information regarding the subject of eclipses4 ,as we are here concerned chiefly with certain practical points about the eclipse of #aijj1 it will be well for the reader to consult such works for many details regarding the astronomical features attending an eclipse of the sun which must now be omitted4 ,there are many existing theories to account for the phenomenon of the sun's bright appendage1 called the corona1 which is visible only during eclipses1 on account of the absorbing effects of the earth's atmosphere on its light4 ,is it electrical1 or is it magnetic8 ,is it composed of fine stuff ejected from the sun1 or of meteoric dust falling upon the sun8 ,is it merely an optical effect1 as some suppose1 or is it a portion of the newly discovered radiant matter streaming off to enormous distances into space8 ,the answer to these questions is eagerly sought through observation1 photography1 and every other possible means1 on the occasion of each total eclipse4 ,the efforts of astronomers have thus far secured a series of pictures of the solar corona1 which1 when compared together1 show very distinctly that the corona1 as well as the spots1 the protuberances1 and the facul1 are going through a series of changes which seem to repeat themselves in the so-called eleven-year period4 ,it has also been proven1 with entire distinctness1 that the earth's magnetic field1 as marked by the changes in the intensity of the magnetic elements1 in the auroral displays1 and the earth electric currents show variations which synchronize closely with those observed on the sun2 also that the weather elements of pressure1 temperature1 precipitation1 and storm intensity all harmonize with the solar and the earth's magnetism in the same synchronism4 ,all attempts of scientists to detect any variations in the sunshine which falls upon the tropics have been entirely futile2 on the other hand1 it has been shown that the magnetic forces having the characteristics just mentioned impinge upon the earth in a direction perpendicular to the plane of the earth's orbit1 just as if the sun1 being a magnet1 throws out a field of force to the surface of the earth1 which1 by its variation depending upon the internal workings of the sun1 produces the changes just enumerated in the earth's atmosphere and in its magnetic field1 also throughout the planetary system1 being1 of course1 strongest near the sun4 ,the belief is gradually growing among scientists that the earth1 the sun1 and the planets are all magnetic bodies1 and have these bonds of connection between them in addition to the ,newtonian gravitation4 ,this is a most fascinating field of research1 and1 though full of difficulties1 yet attracts the attention of many who are convinced that one of the most pressing duties of the hour is to clear up the problems connected with the transmission of energy from the sun to the earth in other forms than the ordinary or sunlight radiation4 ,it is entirely probable that the secular variations of the weather changes from year to year1 and even from month to month1 are bound up with these solar forces1 and that the solution of these questions will carry with them much information of practical use to civilized man4 ,the coronas of the past forty years are shown on ,chart ,,iii1 taken from the report of the eclipse of #ahif 7,august #ith71 by ,a4 ,hansky4 ,it arranges the coronas in the eleven-year period so far as the dates at which the eclipses occurred permit this to be done1 and by comparing them in vertical lines the similarity is at once seen for the respective quarters of phases of the period4 ,the forecast there given for #aijj is seen to resemble #ahfg1 #ahgh1 and #ahhi1 but it differs in orientation from that on ,chart ,,iv1 which was prepared by the author4 ,the four coronas on the left in ,chart ,,iii are taken at the sun-spot maximum1 and the appearance is that of total confusion in the structure of the rays2 the second and the fourth columns are for the sun's medium intensity at about halfway between the maximum and the minimum1 and they show a system of polar rays taking on structural form1 the second column being at a stage of diminishing and the fourth at one of increasing solar activity2 the third column gives the corona when the spots are at a minimum of frequency and the sun is in a comparatively quiescent state1 wherein the polar rifts are very distinct and the equatorial wings or extensions greatly developed4 ,illustration3 ,,chart ,,iv4--,,bigelow',s ,,forecast ,,of ,,the ,,corona ,,of ,,may #bh1 #aijj4 ,e1 earth's axis2 ,k1 axis of ecliptic2 ,s1 axis of sun2 ,c1 ,c1 poles of the solar corona4 ,the successful observation of a solar corona depends upon three conditions3 the selection of the instrument1 its proper mounting1 and the photographic process1 regarding each of which a few suggestions will be made4 ,the instruments are divided into two classes1 for visual and for photographic work4 ,but in either case the most important feature is the focal length or the size of the telescope4 ,since the photographic image of the corona will not bear magnifying without dispersing the available light1 and thus blurring out the details of the picture1 which is the most important feature to retain to the utmost1 one can not use a short telescope and at the same time a magnifying eyepiece to enlarge the image by projection on a screen or on a photographic plate4 ,the only alternative in order to get an image of large diameter is to use a long-focus lens4 ,the effect of a difference of focus upon the image of the corona is well shown on ,chart ,v1 which gives a small corona 7#a7 taken with a four-foot lens 7,barnard71 7#b7 with a fifteen-foot lens 7,pickering71 and 7#c7 with a forty-foot lens 7,schaeberle74 ,the diameter is proportional to the focal length1 but the difference of effect upon the details is very important4 ,in the small picture the details of the corona near the sun are completely lost in the general light1 while the coronal extensions from the middle latitudes are seen at a great distance from the sun--as much as one million miles2 at the same time the polar rifts are distinctly marked1 so that the pole or central line from which they bend is readily located4 ,on the second picture the details of the polar rays are better brought out1 but the extensions are shortened4 ,in the third the region near the sun's edge has many interesting details very clearly defined1 while all the extensions are gone4 ,it is evident that each lens has its advantage1 according to the details sought1 and they ought all to be employed in the eclipse4 ,the reproductions on paper by no means do justice to the original negatives1 which make the distinctions even more pronounced than shown on ,chart ,v4 ,illustration3 ,,chart ,v4--,,relative ,,images ,,of ,,the ,,corona ,,as ,,taken ,,with ,,telescopes ,,ranging ,,from ,,forty ,,feet ,,to ,,four ,,feet ,,in ,,focal ,,length4 ,some amateur observers have telescopes but no mountings suitable for eclipse work1 and many astronomical telescopes have good equatorial mountings at home which are yet unavailable in the field for lack of proper foundations and supports4 ,the ordinary telescope balanced near the center1 with the eye end subject to all sorts of motions which may happen through jarring and rough handling in the hurry of shifting photographic plates1 makes a very poor eclipse apparatus4 ,all telescopes of any length should be held firmly at each end1 so as to be perfectly steady1 since the least vibration ruins a coronal picture devoted to delicate photographic effects4 ,there are two ways of accomplishing this1 and only two4 ,dispensing with an equatorial mounting1 the lens must be set permanently on a base1 and light reflected from a mirror must be utilized1 which shall be concentrated on a plate also placed on a fixed base4 ,this is the method employed by ,schaeberle in ,chili1 ,april #af1 #ahic1 to obtain ,no4 ,,iii of ,chart ,v4 ,there is no objection to it if an observer possesses a perfectly plane mirror1 which it is very difficult and also expensive to obtain2 if the reflecting mirror should be imperfect it would distort the image of the corona4 ,the second method1 lacking a good mirror1 is to mount the long-focus lens in a tube and point it directly at the sun4 ,a forty-foot lens was thus mounted at ,cape ,ledo for ,december #bb1 #ahhi1 and its action was very satisfactory4 ,of course1 it was a cumbersome arrangement1 and could not be employed by a small party4 ,the foundation for the mounting of the forty-foot tube consisted of two casks filled with stones and cement1 and set firmly in the ground4 ,these made two good piers1 since the narrowing tops of the casks held the bed plates of the telescope as in a vise4 ,a triangle1 whose base was parallel to the earth's axis and having the telescope tube itself for the long side1 was fitted with an extension rod for adjustment in altitude on the third side1 and the whole was made to revolve on ball bearings4 ,this triangular support was rotated by a side rod of adjustable length1 whose end terminated in a sand piston working with a regulating valve4 ,the sand flowed out steadily like an hour-glass1 and dropped the tube1 keeping it central on the sun4 ,the image was made to follow accurately for twenty minutes without tremor1 all the time holding the solar disk tangent to fixed lines4 ,the principle of a revolving triangle and a short piston1 taking the place of an expensive reflecting mirror with a delicate clockwork or one carrying a telescope balanced on its center but subject to jars and side motions1 is an important assistance in field work on account of its ready adaptability to all sorts of observations4 ,since time is limited1 it is necessary to provide all operations with automatic arrangements as far as possible1 by using such an apparatus as that described4 ,what can be applied successfully to a forty-foot lens can serve for shorter telescopes4 ,in combination with spectroscopes1 polariscopes1 and special instruments for photographing1 an immense amount of work can be compressed into the few seconds allowed by mounting them all on such a movable frame as the triangle4 ,the old-fashioned method of putting one observer to one telescope ought to be abandoned4 ,of course1 for a rising sun during the forenoon a modification in the moving support must be employed4 ,this should be such as to cause the objective of the telescope to rise from the ground toward the meridian1 and it must be accomplished by attaching a heavy weight which in sinking draws the tube upward4 ,illustration3 ,,chart ,,vi4--,,tracks ,,of ,,the ,,eight ,,total ,,eclipses ,,of ,,the ,,sun ,,seen ,,on ,,the ,,north ,,american ,,continent ,,during ,,the ,,nineteenth ,,century4 ,of the two kinds of photographic plates1 the wet and the dry1 the dry plates are much more convenient in the field1 and are good for certain purposes4 ,the objections to them are that the rough granulations of the gelatin film sometimes overpower the fine details of the corona itself2 they burn out very near the disk by over-exposure while the faint outer extensions are being taken4 ,wet plates having the requisite quickness are harder to prepare1 but are smoother and hold the coronal rays better from the base to the outer edge1 and there is always plenty of time to give the necessary exposure4 ,the ,no4 #bf ,seed plate requires from #j4e to #b4j seconds only1 generally one second being about right2 the wet plate will take the corona in eight seconds or less4 ,the best time of exposure should be tested on a bright star of about the second magnitude1 by trial before the eclipse4 ,there is no rule about the photographic focus1 except to discover it by a series of exposures at different distances near the supposed point4 ,eclipse work is a practical matter1 and many rough-and-ready methods must necessarily be admitted4 ,a good lens in a wooden light-tight tube1 supported at each end1 having the motion of the sun1 the photographic focal plane carefully determined1 the time exposures very short1 and1 finally1 exceedingly slow development of the picture after the eclipse--these form the prime requisites4 ,expensive telescopes1 clockwork on heavy iron piers1 reflecting mirrors1 and such like apparatus are not needed4 ,ingenuity in practical details1 with great anxiety about the essential matter of the light itself1 is what is needed for a successful eclipse expedition4 ,those persons who have no telescope for viewing the sun1 or camera for photographing it1 can yet see the corona to great advantage by means of a good opera glass1 and indeed this is really the most satisfactory way to thoroughly enjoy the spectacle4 ,the object may be sketched on paper at once or from memory1 and this picture may well be of value to astronomy4 ,the tracks of the eight ,north ,american eclipses seen since #ahjj are shown on ,chart ,,vi4 ,it is noted that three have paths very similarly located1 and that five run in directions about parallel to one another1 but almost at right angles to the first group4 ,this comprises the eclipse of ,november #cj1 #ahcd1 duration two minutes2 ,august #g1 #ahfi1 two minutes and three quarters2 ,july #bi1 #ahgh1 two minutes and a half1 which stretch from ,alaska southeastward in a fan-shape to the ,south ,atlantic coast4 ,the second group contains the tracks ,june #af1 #ahjf1 four minutes and a half2 ,july #ag1 #ahfj1 three minutes2 ,january #aa1 #ahhj thirty-two seconds2 ,january #a1 #ahhi1 two minutes and a quarter2 and ,may #bh1 #aijj1 two minutes4 ,these tracks all trend from southwest to northeast1 and cross the ,north ,american continent in different latitudes1 that of ,may #bh1 #aijj1 being the most southerly and of rather short duration2 lasting less than two minutes in the ,united ,states4 ,the path of the total eclipse of ,may #bh1 #aijj1 after leaving the ,united ,states1 crosses the ,north ,atlantic ,ocean to ,coimbra1 ,portugal1 and continues over ,north ,africa to its end at the ,red ,sea4 ,stations which are not situated on the path of the totality will see the sun partially eclipsed1 in proportion to the distance of the locality from the central line to the northern or the southern limits4 ,thus ,new ,england1 ,new ,york1 the ,ohio ,valley1 and the southern ,rocky ,mountain districts will see the sun about nine tenths covered2 the ,lake ,region1 the lower ,missouri ,valley1 and ,southern ,california will see an eight-tenths eclipse2 and the northern ,rocky ,mountain region about six tenths or seven tenths4 ,the best way to view the partially eclipsed sun is to secure three strips of thin colored glass1 one and a half inch wide by five inches long--red1 blue1 and green2 bind them over the eye end of a good opera glass1 and adjust focus on the sun4 ,this makes the light safe for the eyes and brings out the spherical aspect of the sun's ball4 ,the time of the eclipse can be read by interpolating within the lines marked on ,chart ,,vii4 ,illustration3 ,,chart ,,vii4--,,the ,,path ,,of ,,the ,,total ,,eclipse ,,of ,,may #bh1 #aijj1 ,,with ,,times ,,of ,,beginning ,,and ,,ending ,,at ,,several ,,places ,,and ,,the ,,northern ,,and ,,southern ,,limits ,,of ,,the ,,partial ,,eclipse4 ,no other eclipse track will occur in this country till ,june #h1 #aiah1 when one of the first kind will pass from ,oregon to ,florida1 two minutes in duration4 ,another will occur in ,new ,england1 ,january #bd1 #aibe4 ,eclipses seven minutes in duration will occur in ,india in #aiee1 and in ,africa in #aigc1 the longest for a thousand years4 ,the remoteness of the last two1 both in time and place1 put them out of reckoning for most of us1 but those of #aiah and #aibe give additional zest to the approaching eclipse of ,may #bhth1 as affording further opportunity for confirming facts and noting differences based upon the observations now made4 ,,the ,,most ,,expensive ,,city ,,in ,,the ,,world4 ,,by ,,hon4 ,,bird ,s4 ,,coler1 ,,comptroller ,,of ,,the ,,city ,,of ,,new ,,york4 ,the annual expenses of the city of ,new ,york are larger than those of any other municipality in the world1 and the financial transactions of a year represent the receipt and expenditure of more than #bjj1jjj1jjj1 counting temporary loans1 sinking funds1 and bond issues4 ,the gross budget of the city for #ahii was #bj1jjj1jjj greater than the expenses of the city of ,london1 #ah1jjj1jjj in excess of the budget of ,paris1 and only #a1jjj1jjj less than the combined expenditures of ,boston1 ,chicago1 and ,philadelphia4 ,the expenses of ,new ,york last year for local purposes1 exclusive of bond issues1 amounted to #ai4ef per capita of an estimated population of #c1ejj1jjj4 ,the combined annual expenditures of the six largest ,states in the ,union are less than those of the city of ,new ,york1 and the financial transactions of the latter are equal in amount to one seventh of those of the national ,government4 ,the credit of the city1 it may be stated at the outset1 is second only to that of the ,federal ,government1 and the property owned by the municipality1 if sold at market value1 would pay the entire funded debt several times over4 ,the consolidation of ninety municipalities with the former city of ,new ,york was the culmination of a sentiment so fixed upon an ideal that there had been little careful reckoning of the cost4 ,the municipality1 by taking in the extra territory and population1 doubled its debt1 added less than one fourth to its tangible assets1 and increased the cost of local government #ae1jjj1jjj a year4 ,this added cost is the price paid by the taxpayers for a sentiment and for haste and carelessness in the work of completing consolidation4 ,the cost of government for the enlarged city was in #ahii approximately #ae1jjj1jjj more than the combined expenditures of the various municipalities for the last year of their separate existence4 ,this increase was excessive and altogether unnecessary to the maintenance of thorough and progressive government4 ,the present charter of the city is supposed to provide a large measure of home rule1 yet the salary of almost every officer and employee1 from the mayor to the doormen of the police stations1 is fixed by act of the ,state ,legislature4 ,the former cities of ,new ,york and ,brooklyn had been so long regulated and governed from ,albany that the commissioners who drafted the charter evidently overlooked the fact that a municipality might be trusted to regulate the pay of its own employees4 ,to-day the pay of the school-teachers1 policemen1 firemen1 heads of departments1 and chiefs of bureaus is fixed at ,albany1 where the representatives of the city are in the minority4 ,when the charter was prepared the commissioners agreed that taxation and salaries must be equalized4 ,the members differed in their views on many questions1 but they evidently agreed that the way to equalize salaries was to increase the lowest to equal the highest4 ,in extending the benefits of a great corporate government to the many suburban communities included in the consolidation a uniformed policeman1 or five or ten of them1 at fourteen hundred dollars a year took the place of a town marshal or constable at three hundred dollars a year1 and high-priced trained firemen were substituted for unpaid volunteers4 ,this method of equalizing salaries was extended to every section of the city and to every branch of the government4 ,no attempt1 apparently1 was made to devise some system that would adjust salaries in various localities to local conditions and cost of living4 ,the sentiment in favor of a great city was not disposed to quibble when the cost of maintaining the visible form of municipal government was increased fivefold in much of the outlying territory4 ,aside from the extension of high-priced municipal service throughout the great area of the consolidated city1 many useless offices were created and many salaries fixed at excessive figures4 ,authority was too much divided4 ,the borough system is expensive1 and so far useless4 ,the entire charter is a series of compromises1 and every compromise on a salary was at the maximum rate4 ,this method of arranging the expenses of the greater city increased the cost of government beyond the highest estimates of those who had advocated consolidation4 ,the initial cost was further increased by reason of the fact that no precautions were taken to prevent the various municipalities to be united from increasing their bonded and contract indebtedness during the last year of their separate existence4 ,the result of that oversight was that every municipality1 the former city of ,new ,york included1 issued bonds and entered upon contracts with somewhat reckless disregard of the future4 ,in this way a heavy burden of unnecessary expense was added to the legitimate account charged against the consolidated city4 ,greater ,new ,york began business in a condition of apparent bankruptcy1 because the debts exceeded the constitutional limitation of ten per cent of the assessed value of taxable real estate4 ,to overcome this and to meet the extra expense of government by the new system it was necessary to greatly increase the tax rate4 ,the financial condition of ,new ,york on ,january #a1 #aijj1 was satisfactory except in the matter of current expenses4 ,the gross accepted funded debt on that date was #ceh1ajd1cjg4aa1 against which there was a sinking fund of #aje1dce1hga4gj1 leaving a net funded debt of #beb1ffh1dce4da4 ,considered in connection with the wealth of the city1 this debt is not excessive4 ,the city of ,paris1 with smaller available resources1 has a debt in excess of #ejj1jjj1jjj4 ,the gross expenditures of the city during #ahii1 exclusive of permanent improvements1 paid for from the proceeds of bonds1 were #ic1ebj1jhb4jc1 and in #aijj the expenses will be some #c1jjj1jjj less4 ,the total receipts of the city for the same period1 from all sources and for all purposes1 were approximately #ajh1jjj1jjj4 ,the income was derived from three general sources1 taxation yielding #hd1jjj1jjj4 ,the budget1 which represents the money to be raised by taxation1 was reduced #i1jjj1jjj by income known as the general fund4 ,the chief items of this were3 ,excise taxes1 #c1fjj1jjj2 school money from the ,state1 #a1bhj1hhc4de2 fees of various county and city offices1 #bdf1egf4fe2 interest on taxes and assessments1 #igi1ahe4ce2 and unexpended appropriations1 #a1cef1ghf4eg4 ,aside from the revenues classed as the general fund1 ,new ,york has no income from any source that can be applied to current expenses for the reduction of taxation4 ,the immensely valuable franchises heretofore granted to private corporations yield a revenue to the city that is insignificant1 the total collected rarely exceeding #cjj1jjj a year4 ,the gradual reduction of the city debt1 except as it is maintained or increased by additional bond issues1 is amply provided for by a steadily increasing and protected sinking fund4 ,the total receipts of this fund in #ahii were #ae1fja1dib4ej4 ,the ,croton water rents1 amounting last year to #d1eij1ejb4ee1 are applied to this fund1 as well as the dock and slip rents of #b1cfb1dba4ad4 ,some of the other chief items of this fund are3 ,revenue from investments1 #c1egc1eai4cd2 ferry rents1 #cgj1ggf2 market rents1 #bea1ejj2 interest on deposits1 #ebj1ebf2 installments included in the budget1 #b1fcc1aaj4 ,more1 than #a1jjj1jjj is derived annually from miscellaneous sources1 including the sale of various odds and ends of property4 ,the total interest charges on bonds in #ahii amounted to #aa1bge1hbb1 leaving more than #d1jjj1jjj of the sinking-fund income applicable to reduction of the funded debt4 ,two features of the financial system of ,new ,york that increase expenditures can and should be changed4 ,taxes are now collected in the last quarter of the year upon an assessment made twelve months before4 ,this compels the city to borrow large sums of money to meet current expenses4 ,in #ahii the city borrowed1 in anticipation of taxes1 the sum of #dh1jbg1dej1 on which the interest amounted to #gee1gjd4 ,if the taxes were collected during the first quarter of the year1 the city would not only save this three quarters of a million dollars interest on temporary loans1 but for six or seven months would have large cash balances in depository banks earning two per cent4 ,this change would be worth approximately #a1ejj1jjj a year to the treasury1 but it must be made by degrees in order that taxes shall not be collected twice in a twelve-month4 ,under the present constitutional restriction upon the borrowing capacity of the city1 ,new ,york is placed in the contradictory position of getting richer and poorer at the same time and by the same process4 ,the restriction of the debt limit to ten per cent of the taxable real estate is arbitrary1 and makes no distinction of obligations4 ,every time the city acquires additional real estate for parks1 docks1 schoolhouses1 or any other purpose its borrowing capacity and income from taxation are reduced1 because the property acquired no longer yields a tax and it is not counted in the valuation upon which the debt limit is fixed4 ,this is the most illogical and unbusinesslike feature of the present financial system4 ,the piers owned by the city are profitable investments1 yielding a revenue in excess of interest and sinking fund for the bonds issued2 yet if we should acquire #ajj1jjj1jjj of additional water front now owned by private parties the borrowing capacity of the municipality would be reduced #aj1jjj1jjj1 and the income would suffer the amount of taxes on the land acquired4 ,there should be adopted a constitutional amendment that would separate debts incurred for revenue-yielding investments1 such as docks and waterworks1 from those created for general public improvements4 ,the former should not be a charge against the borrowing capacity of the city4 ,the budget of the city for #aijj is #ij1ggh1igb4dh1 which will be reduced #i1jjj1jjj by the general fund1 leaving some #hb1jjj1jjj to be raised by taxation4 ,the magnitude of this outlay for current expenses may be better understood by comparison with the expenditures of other large cities4 ,the approximate current expenses of ,london last year were #gc1jjj1jjj2 of ,paris1 #ge1jjj1jjj2 of ,berlin1 #bc1cdg1fjj2 of ,boston1 #ce1ded1ehh2 of ,chicago1 #cb1jcd1jjh2 of ,philadelphia1 #bg1jge1jad4 ,in #ahii the ,state tax paid by the city of ,new ,york amounted to #f1bge1fei1 or nearly seventy per cent of the whole2 interest on bonds absorbed #aa1bge1hbb1 leaving #ge1hac1fdd as the actual cost of the current expenses of local government4 ,the gross budget represented a per-capita tax of #bd4fb on #c1ejj1jjj inhabitants1 of which #ai4ef was for local expenses4 ,of this enormous expenditure more than #ce1jjj1jjj is paid out in salaries and wages to #cg1jjj officers and employees4 ,the ,police ,department cost #ab1jjj1jjj a year1 of which #aj1gjj1jjj is for salaries4 ,new ,york has #f1djj policemen4 ,philadelphia has #b1fjj1 and the annual cost of the department in that city is #c1ajj1jjj a year--much lower in proportion than that of the metropolis4 ,the salaries and wages paid to all regular department employees1 including policemen1 firemen1 street cleaners1 and dock builders1 are higher than those paid in any other city in the world1 and almost without exception the rate has been fixed by act of the ,state ,legislature1 and not by the local authorities4 ,in the matter of fixing the pay of officers and employees the city of ,new ,york has never known any degree of home rule4 ,the magnitude of the city in wealth and population has always operated against economy in local government4 ,there has existed1 apparently1 an overwhelming popular sentiment in the city1 as well as throughout the ,state1 that such a great municipality should pay the maximum price for everything it might require4 ,if this sentiment had been satisfied by the payment of high salaries and wages it might have been excusable from some points of view2 but it was not1 and the demand for more money from the public treasury has extended to every class of expenditure4 ,the city of ,new ,york is a purchaser in the open market of supplies exceeding in value #e1jjj1jjj a year4 ,this figure applies only to articles purchased without competitive bidding4 ,there is in the charter a provision that all purchases of supplies and labor in excess of #a1jjj shall be made by open competitive bidding4 ,this leaves a wide field for fraud and favoritism1 and it is an easy matter to evade the spirit and letter of the law relating to competition4 ,if a department requires material and supplies amounting to #aj1jjj1 or even #ej1jjj1 it is often possible to make the purchases in lots of less than #a1jjj from day to day1 and thereby obey the letter of the law while permitting the grossest frauds against the city treasury4 ,under the system that has grown up1 protected by this imperfect legal restriction and opinions and decisions to the effect that the city has no defense against excessive claims unless fraud and conspiracy can be proved1 robbery of the public treasury has not only been legalized1 it has been made respectable4 ,the comptroller1 who is by law the auditor of accounts1 may be able to show that the city has been charged double or treble the market rate for supplies purchased1 yet under the legal opinions and decisions that have prevailed for two years he is not permitted to interpose any defense to an action to recover unless he can prove that there was a conspiracy or agreement to defraud4 ,in the very nature of things it is next to impossible to secure legal evidence of such agreements2 therefore the city has been robbed with impunity4 ,the methods of the ,tweed ring have long been out of date in the city of ,new ,york1 and fraud upon the public treasury has become a respectable calling4 ,it is not easy--in fact1 not possible--to determine accurately how much the expenses of the city have been increased in recent years by the lax interpretation of an imperfect law and the tolerance of a public sentiment that demands proof of crime on a large scale before becoming aroused to a condition of effective action4 ,it is safe to say1 however1 that a perfect system of buying in the open market at the lowest prices obtainable1 if honestly enforced1 would save to the taxpayers more than #a1jjj1jjj a year4 ,honest and intelligent administration in every department of the city government would reduce expenditures1 but the extent of the reduction that might be made would depend largely upon the proper amendment of certain laws1 and to an even greater extent upon the development of a thoroughly informed public sentiment that would sustain retrenchment and economy4 ,the expenses of the city are far greater than they should be1 but it is going to be a difficult matter to make even an appreciable beginning in economy so long as the ,state ,legislature is permitted to exercise practically unlimited power to regulate the financial affairs of the municipality4 ,persons and corporations1 be they honest or corrupt1 when they seek to obtain money from the city treasury for any purpose1 are going to proceed along the line of least resistance1 and the smooth and open way has long been the ,legislature at ,albany4 ,every session of that body adds something to the expenses of the city1 and it is a short and dull one that does not add many thousands of dollars to the burden of the ,new ,york taxpayers4 ,the revenues of the municipality are so small in comparison with what they should be that it is a difficult matter to find any excuse for the theory of government that existed in the days when perpetual franchises were given away4 ,it is small consolation that the policy of municipal ownership is at last to prevail after so much of the public property has passed into the possession of private corporations4 ,if all the outstanding franchises that were the property of the people had been sold on short terms for percentages even as large as have been fixed in recent cases1 the city to-day would drive from that source an annual revenue of more than #e1jjj1jjj1 instead of the paltry #cjj1jjj now collected4 ,the mistakes of the past1 however1 are beyond undoing1 and the taxpayers must look to the future for relief from the burdens they bear4 ,they are paying now #ae1jjj1jjj a year for the sentiment that demanded a city great in all save honesty and political wisdom4 ,consolidation in fact as well as sentiment must result to prove the material advantage of the arrangement4 ,public opinion and politicians must realize sooner or later that income and expenses are to be adjusted the one to the other upon sound and enduring principles of business1 honesty1 and intelligence4 ,there must be a union of public and political interests4 ,every section of the great city must be brought into close touch with every other section by cheap and rapid transit4 ,the possibilities of the future are greater than the dreams of to-day1 but new policies and new methods must and will prevail4 ,the development of ,greater ,new ,york must not be hampered by a financial system antiquated and imperfect4 ,the city should have power to develop its material resources into revenue-yielding improvements1 and then1 with honest and intelligent government1 the burden of taxation will be reduced to a minimum1 and the ideal of the grandest municipality in the world will have been achieved4 ,a ,,bubble-,,blowing ,,insect4 ,,by ,,prof4 ,e4 ,s4 ,,morse4 ,many years ago1 while preparing an elementary book on zology1 ,i had occasion to make a drawing of the little insect which is found on grass and other plants immersed in flecks of froth4 ,this substance is commonly known as frog spittle or cuckoo spit1 and1 being found in the spring1 is known in ,france as 8spring froth40 ,works on entomology gave the general statement that this insect emitted the frothy mass from its body4 ,curious to ascertain what peculiar gas-secreting apparatus was contained within its anatomy1 ,i dissected a number of specimens1 without finding a trace of any structure that could produce from within the body a single bubble of air4 ,on the contrary1 ,i found that the little insect emitted a clear1 somewhat viscid fluid1 and by means of appendages at the extreme tip of its tail secured a moiety of air by grasping it1 so to speak1 and then instantly releasing it as a bubble in the fluid it had secreted4 ,at the time of this observation--twenty-five years ago--,i supposed that entomologists were familiar with this fact1 but1 on the appearance of my little book1 ,i received a letter from the late ,dr4 ,hermann ,hagen1 the distinguished entomologist1 stating that he had ransacked his library and failed to find any reference of the nature of my statement4 ,doubtless the whole history of this insect has since been published1 but a somewhat superficial survey of the literature has failed to reveal any reference to the matter4 ,in this connection it is interesting to observe how often the more easily accessible facts of ,nature escape the special student4 ,the history of science is replete with such instances4 ,one can hardly take up any subject connected with the life history of animals without finding lacun which ought to have been filled long ago4 ,the facts in regard to the ossification of the hyoid bones in man is a case in point4 ,the persistence of these erroneous concepts or half-truths comes about by the acceptance at the outset of some fairly trustworthy account by an authority on the subject1 and ever after the statements are copied without a doubt being expressed as to their accuracy4 ,if we look over the literature of the subject under discussion1 we find that in nearly every case the statement in regard to the spit-insect conveys the idea that the creature secretes the froth in which it is immersed4 ,beginning with ,de ,geer in the last century1 we quote as follows3 8,one may see coming out of the hinder part of its body a little ball of liquid1 which it causes to slip along1 bending it under its body4 ,beginning again the same movements1 it is not long in producing a second globule of liquid1 filled with air like the first1 which it places side by side with and close to the preceding one1 and continues the same operation as long as there remains any sap in its body40 ,kirby and ,spence1 in their ,entomology1 describe 8the white froth often observed on rose bushes and other shrubs and plants1 called by the vulgar #8frog spittle1' but which if examined will be found to envelop the larva of a small hemipterous larva 7,aphrophora spumaria71 from whose anus it exudes40 ,in ,westwood's ,insects we find the following statement3 8,one of the best-known insects in the family is the ,aphrophora spumaria1 a species of small size which frequents garden plants1 the larva and pupa investing themselves with a frothy excrementitious secretion which has given rise to various fancies4 ,a species of ,aphrophora is also found in great quantities upon trees in ,madagascar1 the larva of which has the power of emitting a considerable quantity of clear water1 especially in the middle of the day1 when the heat is greatest40 ,here the statement is definitely made that the froth is excrementitious1 and the ,madagascar insect is shown to be different from ,aphrophora in that it exudes a clear water4 ,in ,dr4 ,harris's ,treatise on some of the ,insects ,injurious to ,vegetation1 of ,massachusetts1 we find a most definite statement as to the origin and nature of this froth4 ,he says3 8,here may be arranged the singular insects1 called frog hoppers 7,cercopidid71 which pass their whole lives on plants1 on the stems of which their eggs are laid in the autumn4 ,the following summer they are hatched1 and the young immediately perforate the bark with their beaks and begin to imbibe the sap4 ,they take in such quantities of this that it oozes out of their bodies continually in the form of little bubbles1 which soon completely cover up the insects40 ,in ,dr4 ,packard's admirable ,guide to the ,study of ,insects the statement is made that 8,helochara and ,aphrophora1 while in the larva state1 suck the sap of grasses and emit a great quantity of froth1 or in some cases a clear liquid1 which in the former case envelops the body and thus conceals it from sight4 ,it is then vulgarly called #8toad's spittle4'0 ,in other accounts it is stated that the larv live covered by masses of froth which the insects produce by expelling from their beak the juices drawn out of the tree4 ,the above extracts are sufficient to indicate the common belief among entomologists that the insect in some way emits this froth from the body4 ,a most cursory examination of the creature1 however1 shows that its only secretion is a clear fluid4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4--;,grass stalk and leaves1 showing appearance of froth4 ,the so-called frog spittle or cuckoo spit 7,fig4 #a7 appears as little flecks of froth on grass1 buttercups1 and many other plants during the early summer4 ,these flecks of froth may be found very commonly at the junction of the leaf with the stem4 ,immersed in this froth is found a little green insect1 sometimes two or three of them1 concealed by the same moist covering4 ,this little creature represents the early stage of an insect which in its full growth still lives upon grass1 and is easily recognized by its triangular shape and its ability of jumping like a grasshopper4 ,there are a number of species2 the one living on grass apparently confines itself to the grass alone1 though ,i have seen one species that frequents a number of different plants4 ,a species found on the white pine is dark brown in color1 and the froth in which it is found not only hangs pendent from the branch1 but the lower portion appears as a large drop of clear water4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4--,the insect first emitting a clear fluid which fills up the interspaces between its body and the stem of grass upon which it rests4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4--;,after the lapse of some time it begins rapidly to make bubbles4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4--;,entire fluid filled with bubbles1 and the froth thus made enveloping the stem4 ,,magnified ,,figures ,,of ,,aphrophora1 ,,showing ,,successive ,,stages ,,in ,,the ,,production ,,of ,,froth4 ,let one provide himself with a good hand lens1 a bit of glass 7a watch crystal is especially suitable for this purpose71 and a common camel's-hair brush1 and he is ready to make a preliminary study of ,aphrophora4 ,the brush is convenient for easily removing the insect from the froth which invests it4 ,if the insect is cleared from the mass of froth1 it will crawl quite rapidly along the stem of the plant1 stopping at times to pierce the stem for the purpose of sucking the juices within1 and finally settling down in earnest1 evidently exerting some force in thrusting its piercing apparatus through the outer layers1 as shown by the firm way in which it clutches the stem with its legs4 ,after sucking for some time1 a clear fluid is seen to slowly exude from the posterior end of the abdomen1 flowing over the body first and gradually filling up the spaces between the legs and the lower part of the body and the stem upon which it rests 7,fig4 #b74 ,during all this time not a trace of an air bubble appears2 simply a clear1 slightly viscid fluid is exuded1 and this is the only matter that escapes from the insect4 ,in other words1 its secretion of clear fluid is precisely like that of the ,madagascar species referred to by ,westwood and others4 ,this state of partial immersion continues for half an hour or more4 ,during this time1 and even when the insect is roaming up and down the grass or twig1 the posterior segments of the abdomen are extended at intervals1 the abdomen turning upward at the same time4 ,it is a kind of reaching-up movement1 but whether this action accompanies a discharge of fluid or is an attempt at reaching for air ,i have not ascertained4 ,suddenly the insect begins to make bubbles by turning its tail out of the fluid1 opening the posterior segment1 which appears like claspers1 and grasping a moiety of air1 then turning the tail down into the fluid and instantly allowing the inclosed air to escape 7,fig4 #c74 ,these movements go on at the rate of seventy or eighty times a minute4 ,at the outset the tail is moved alternately to the right and left in perfect rhythm1 so that the bubbles are distributed on both sides of the body1 and these are crowded toward the head till the entire fluid is filled with bubbles1 and the froth thus made runs over the back and around the stem 7,fig4 #d74 ,even when partially buried in these bubbles the tail is oscillated to the right and left1 though when completely immersed the tail is only occasionally thrust out for air which is allowed to escape in the mass apparently without the right-and-left movement1 though of this ,i am not sure4 ,it is interesting to observe that in half a minute some thirty or forty bubbles are made in this way--a bulk of air two or three times exceeding the bulk of the body--without the slightest diminution in the size of the body4 ,if the insect is allowed to become dry1 by resting it upon a piece of blotting paper1 and is then placed upon a piece of glass and a drop of clear saliva be allowed to fall upon it1 it proceeds to fill up this fluid with bubbles in precisely the same manner as it did with its own watery secretion4 ,it is quite difficult to divest the creature of the bubbles of air which adhere to the spaces between the legs and the segments on the underside of the body4 ,it may be readily done1 however1 by immersing it in clear water and manipulating it with a brush4 ,if now it is again dried and placed on the glass it will slowly secrete what spare fluid it has in its body1 but not the minutest bubble of air is seen to escape4 ,these experiments should be made on glass1 for then one may get transmitted light1 and the highly refractive outlines of the air bubbles are more quickly detected4 ,using a higher power with a live cell1 new features may be observed4 ,confining the insect in this way1 inclosed in a drop of water1 a very clear proof is offered that it gets all the air for its froth in the way ,i have described4 ,so long as the insect remains surrounded by water not the minutest bubble of air is seen to escape from the body4 ,during this immersion the creature is incessantly struggling to reach the edge of the drop1 and no sooner has this been accomplished than it thrusts out its tail and begins the clutching of air and the making of bubbles4 ,the bubbles1 however1 disappear as soon as made1 as the clear water will not preserve them4 ,as the water becomes slightly viscid from the insect's own secretions1 the bubbles remain for a longer time4 ,a bubble will be partially released and then held1 or even partially withdrawn1 between the claspers4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4--,showing underside of posterior extremity of body with appearance of branchi4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4--;,a single branchia under slight pressure4 ,the claspers seem to be the tergal portions of the ninth segment4 ,on the sides of the seventh and eighth segments may be clearly seen leaflike appendages1 which are possibly branchial in their nature 7,figs4 #e and #f74 ,they are extremely tenuous1 and appear like clusters of filaments1 slightly adhering together and forming lamellate appendages similar to the gill-like appendages seen in the early stages of ,potamanthus1 a neuropterous insect1 not1 however1 having the definiteness of these structures4 ,while in ,potamanthus one may easily trace the ramifications of the tracheal system1 ,i have not been able to detect a similar connection with these appendages in ,aphrophora4 ,certainly the insect does not depend upon these structures for respiration1 as when the creature is perfectly dry it seems to suffer no immediate inconvenience1 but will crawl about the table or even on the dusty floor and live for an hour or two in this condition4 ,the usually glabrous surface of the body1 however1 becomes shriveled after a while4 ,on the other hand1 it immediately sinks in water1 and will live for some time immersed in this way1 and this leads me to believe that the appendages above described may perform a slight respiratory function4 ,the fact that the insect immediately sinks may be cited as an additional evidence that it does not emit air4 ,it is interesting to observe that regarding this stage of ,aphrophora as an aquatic stage1 since it lives immersed in fluid1 we have the same behavior that we observe in the aquatic stages of other ,hemiptera1 as well as in insects of other orders4 ,the great water beetle ,hydrophilus has an aquatic larva4 ,myall1 quoting ,lyonet1 says3 8,they never remain long at the bottom of the water2 air is necessary for them1 and this they take in by the tail1 which they raise from time to time to the surface of the water40 ,in the larva of ,dysticus1 another water beetle1 the only functional spiracles are the last pair1 opening at the tail4 ,the little oval beetles1 known as whirligigs1 from their rapid whirling motion1 when swimming on the surface of the water carry down a bubble of air on the end of the abdomen1 and when this has been exhausted in the process of respiration rise to the surface for a fresh bubble4 ,the larv of some forms are furnished on each side with long respiratory filaments4 ,a number of neuropterous insects whose early stages are passed in the water are furnished with branchial trache or false gills4 ,these consist of filaments springing from the sides of the abdominal segments4 ,in the early stages of certain dragon flies the rectum supports epithelial folds which are filled with fine tubes from the tracheal system4 ,among certain aquatic insects belonging to the order of ,hemiptera the creatures reach out the hinder portion of the body to secure air4 ,dr4 ,myall1 in his very interesting book on the ,natural ,history of ,aquatic ,insects1 says3 8,a ,nepa or a ,ranatra may sometimes be seen to creep backward along a submerged weed until the tip of its breathing tube breaks the surface of the water40 ,the ,aphrophora while immersed in the watery fluid1 whether secreted by itself or consisting of clear water which has been supplied to it1 reaches out for air in a precisely similar manner4 ,primarily the froth made by this insect not only keeps the body moist1 but acts as a protection against its enemies4 ,a number of individuals may often be found in one fleck of froth1 and they are entirely hidden from sight while immersed in this way4 ,the viscid character of the fluid secreted insures the retention of the air the insect collects in the form of little bubbles4 ,this peculiar feature must have been a secondary acquisition4 ,the bubbles not only surround the insect and the stem upon which it rests1 but flows in a continuous sheet between the ventral plates of the abdomen1 and the insect probably utilizes this air in the manner of other air-breathing aquatic larv--namely1 through its spiracles4 ,as many aquatic larv respire in two ways1 either inhaling air through the spiracles or by means of branchial leaflets1 so ,aphrophora may likewise utilize its branchial tufts for the same purpose4 ,for this reason we can understand how each fresh bubble added to the mass may arate the fluid1 so to speak1 and thus insure at intervals a fresh supply of oxygen4 ,,the ,,negro ,,since ,,the ,,civil ,,war4 ,,by ,n4 ,s4 ,,shaler1 ,,dean ,,of ,,the ,,scientific ,,school ,,of ,,harvard ,,university4 ,the admirable conduct of the negro during the civil war made it seem possible to have the readjustment of his relations on the basis of freedom brought about with a minimum of friction4 ,as a whole1 the former slaves had stayed on the land where they belonged4 ,many of those who had wandered1 moved by the homing instinct so strong in their race1 found their way back to their accustomed places4 ,the bonds of mutual interest and old affections were enough1 had the situation been left without outside disturbance1 to have made the transition natural and easy4 ,it is true that the negro1 with his scant wage paid in supplies1 would not have advanced very far in the ways of freedom4 ,he would have been hardly better than the middle-age serf bound to his field4 ,it would1 however1 have been better to begin with a minimum of liberty1 with provision for schooling and a franchise based on education4 ,but this was not to be4 ,political ends and the popular misconception of the negroes as beings who differ from ourselves only in the color of their skin and in the kink of their hair led to their immediate enfranchisement and to the disenfranchisement of their masters4 ,this was attended by an invasion into the ,south of the worst political rabble that has ever cursed the land4 ,there were good and true men among the carpet-baggers1 but as a lot they were of a badness such as the world has not known since captured provinces were dealt out to the political gamblers of ,rome4 ,the effect of the carpet-bag period on the negroes was to raise their expectations of fortune to the highest point1 and then to cast them down4 ,those of the poorest imaginations looked for forty acres of land and a mule4 ,in the resulting political corruption the native whites and blacks endured even greater losses than the war had inflicted1 the most grievous being a great unsettling of the relations between the races4 ,the way in which the white men of the better sort met this trial is fit to be compared with the best political achievements of their folk4 ,gradually1 on the whole without violence1 for they had to abstain from that1 working within the limits of the ,constitution to which they had been forced to trust for their remedies1 they rewon control of their wasted communities1 and brought them back to civilized order4 ,there was a share of terrorism and shame from such devices as tissue ballots to lessen the dignity of this remarkable work1 yet it remains a great achievement--one that goes far to redeem the folly of the secession movement4 ,the full significance of this action is yet to be comprehended4 ,the overthrow of the carpet-bag governments1 quietly yet effectively accomplished1 removed the only danger of war between the blacks and whites4 ,we can not well imagine another crisis so likely to bring about a conflict of that kind4 ,the blacks were driven from power4 ,their desperate leaders would willingly have led them to fight1 but the allegiance to the ancient masters was too strong1 their trust in the carpet-bagger1 for all his affectation of love1 too slight to set them on that way4 ,the negro fell back as near as might be to the place he held at the close of the war4 ,his position was thereafter worse than it was at that station in his history1 for the confidence and affection which the behavior of their servants during the rebellion had inspired was replaced in the mind of the dominant race by an abiding sense of the iniquities in which the ex-slaves had shared4 ,thereafter1 and to this day1 the black man is looked upon as a political enemy1 who has to be watched lest he will again win a chance to control the state4 ,in the greater part of the ,south this fear is passing away4 ,in several ,states new laws concerning the franchise have made it practically impossible for the negro vote to be a source of danger for some time to come--until1 indeed1 the negro is better educated and has property4 ,there is a share of iniquity in these laws1 as there is apt to be in all actions relating to a situation that rests on ancient evils1 but their effect is better than that of terrorism and tissue ballots which it replaces4 ,they will afford time for the new adjustments to be effected4 ,in considering the present conditions of the negro1 we may first note the important fact that he is hard at work4 ,the production of the ,south clearly shows that the sometime slaves1 or rather their children1 are laboring even more effectively than they did in the time of legal servitude4 ,this disposes of the notion that the blacks will not work without other compulsion than those needs which bend the backs of his white brethren4 ,it is evident that the generation born since the war is laborious and productive up to1 if not beyond1 the average of men4 ,it is also plain that they are fitted for a rather wider range of employment than they were accustomed to follow as slaves4 ,the negro has proved himself well adapted for labor in mines and about furnaces--in all places1 indeed1 where strength and a moderate share of intelligence are required4 ,the fear that he would desert the land and flock to the cities has not been justified4 ,he appears less disposed to yield to the temptations of the great towns than the whites4 ,the first rage of the freed people for schooling seems to have passed4 ,a good many of them are getting the rudiments of an education1 some few a larger culture1 but there appears to be danger that the folk may lapse into indifference concerning all training that is not immediately profitable4 ,as to the moral condition of the negroes1 there appears to be good reason for believing that it is now in the way of betterment4 ,little as they were disturbed in their conduct by the sudden change in their apparent place in the world1 they were for a time somewhat shaken as regards the limits of their rights4 ,so far as ,i have been able to learn1 they are much less given to stealing than they were just after they were freed1 or even as they were as slaves4 ,their marital relations1 though leaving much still to be desired1 are improving1 as is all that relates to the care of their children4 ,most important is the fact that loose relations between white men and negro women have in great measure ceased1 so that the unhappy mixture of the races1 which has been the curse of tropical states1 is apparently not likely to prove serious4 ,although the negro is not rapidly gaining property1 he is making a steadfast advance in that direction4 ,the money sense in all that relates to capital he1 with a few exceptions1 is yet to acquire4 ,this part of his task is certain to be difficult to him1 as it is to all peoples who are in the earlier stages of civilized thought4 ,the experiment of the ,freedman's ,bank1 by which many suffered at the hands of designing white people1 has left a bad impression upon the minds of the negroes4 ,where they save1 they commonly hoard their store4 ,as yet they have not become accustomed to associative action4 ,they rarely enter into any kind of partnership4 ,in this indisposition to attain the advantages of mutual support we have another evidence of the primitive condition of the folk4 ,before endeavoring to go further with this account of the present state of the negroes of this country1 it is well to note the fact that while much has been done to blend the original diversities of their stock1 these differences have by no means passed away4 ,the seekers after slaves in ,africa were not choice as to their purchases or captures2 they reckoned as black if he were no darker than brown1 and they were not at all careful to see that his hair was kinky4 ,thus it came about that from the wide ethnic range of the ,dark ,continent there came to us a great variety of people--a much more diverse population than we have received from ,europe4 ,it might be supposed that the conditions of slavery would quickly have effaced these differences1 but even in that state there was choice in mating1 and certain stocks have such prepotency that a small share of their blood stamps those who have it in a definite manner4 ,the result is that1 under the mask of a common dark1 though really very variedly tinted skin1 we have an exceeding diversity of race and quality4 ,it is discreditable to our students of anthropology that as yet there has been no considerable effort made to determine the varieties which exist in our negro population or the source of their peculiarities in the tribes whence they come4 ,in a small way1 for many years1 on numerous journeys in the ,south1 ,i have endeavored to classify the blacks ,i have met4 ,for a long time ,i kept these results in a roughly tabulated form4 ,although such observations1 including no measurements and giving only eye impressions of the general form1 can have no determinable value1 they may1 in the absence of better work1 deserve consideration4 ,the result of this rough inspection of many thousand of these peoples in nearly every ,state in the ,south has been to indicate that there are several1 probably more than six1 groups of so-called negroes which represent original differences of stock or the mixed product of their union4 ,the more characteristic of these ,i will now briefly describe4 ,for convenience ,i will first note those who are termed mulattoes1 in which there is an evident mixture of white blood4 ,such admixture seems to be distinctly traceable if it amounts to as little as one eighth2 it is said that one sixteenth of negro blood1 or less1 will be revealed on close study of the hair and skin4 ,the proportion of the negroes in our ,southern ,states who have white ancestry in any degree does not1 in my opinion1 exceed one tenth1 and may be as small as one twentieth of the whole number4 ,judging only by the hue of the skin1 the observer will be likely to make the proportion larger1 for the reason that he will include many persons who1 because they come from stocks that were not blackskinned1 appear at first sight to be mulattoes of some degree4 ,these ,eu-,africans1 as we may term them--imitating in the term the useful word ,eurasian1 which is applied to the mixture of ,european and ,asiatic people in ,india--are in appearance exceedingly diverse1 the variety being caused by the varying share of the blood of the two races1 as well as by the diversities of the stocks to which the parents belong4 ,besides the mixture of the ,european and black1 we have another less well known but not uncommon between the negro and the ,indian4 ,this is often met with among the remnants of the ,indian tribes in all the eastern part of the ,united ,states4 ,the two groups of primitive people appear to have found their despised lot a basis for a closer union4 ,the dark skin of the ,algonkins1 however1 makes the remnants of that people appear to have more black blood than they really possess4 ,not only did stray negroes resort to the ,indian settlements1 but some of the tribes owned many slaves4 ,the result is that in many parts of this country1 but particularly in ,virginia1 the ,carolinas1 ,florida1 and ,georgia1 the attentive observer often will note the ,indian's features stamped on those of the ,african4 ,coming to the diversities of the stock among the pure ,africans1 we may first note the type which1 in the rough judgment of the public1 is the real or ,guinea negro4 ,that he is so taken is doubtless because he is the most distinctly characterized of all black people4 ,the men of this well-known group are generally burly fellows1 attaining at a relatively early age a massive trunk and strong thighs2 they have thick necks and small though variedly shaped heads4 ,the bridge of the nose is low1 and the jaws protruding4 ,the face1 though distinctly of a low type1 very often has a very charming expression--one in which the human look is blended with a remnant of the ancient animal who had not yet come to the careful stage of life4 ,the women of this group are well made1 but commonly less so than the men4 ,in general form the two sexes of the group are much alike1 a feature which also indicates an essentially low station4 ,these people of the ,guinea type form perhaps one half of the ,southern negroes4 ,along with the ,guinea type goes another much rarer1 which at first sight might by the careless observer be confounded with the lower group4 ,the only common features are the burly form of both1 the deep-black hue1 and the general form of the features4 ,the men we are now considering have a higher and in every way better head4 ,their foreheads are fuller1 and the expression of the face1 to my view1 quite other than that of the ,guinea men4 ,in place of the sly1 evasive child-animal look of the lower creature1 this fellow has rather a lordly port1 the expression of a vigorous1 brave1 alert man4 ,this1 which ,i am disposed to term the ,zulu type1 from the resemblance to that people1 is on many accounts the most interesting of all the groups we have to consider4 ,my idea that it may have come from the above-named tribe is based on an acquaintance with a party of southern ,africans who some forty years ago were brought to this country by a showman4 ,i came to know them well4 ,they were attractive fellows1 of the same quality as certain blacks ,i had known in ,kentucky4 ,when ,i saw these strangers ,i perceived their likeness to certain able blacks whose features and quality had made impressions on my mind that remain clear to the present day4 ,it is likely that this element of the negro people ,i have termed ,zulu is not of any one tribe2 it may be of several diverse stocks with no other common quality than that which vigor gives4 ,they may1 in part1 be from ,bangora tribes of the ,congo ,valley1 or even ,soudanese4 ,the proportion of this group to the whole is small2 because it merges into the other it can not well be estimated4 ,i find that ,i have reckoned it in my notes as one twentieth of the whole black population4 ,set over against these robust blacks1 but also of high quality1 is a group less distinctly limited1 which has for its characteristics a rather tall1 lean form1 a slender neck1 a high head1 and a thin face1 usually with a nose of better form than is commonly found1 sometimes approaching the aquiline4 ,the skin of these people is often as black as that of the ,guinea folk1 yet it is of another hue--a deader black1 perhaps due to some difference in the skin glands4 ,usually1 however1 there is a trace of brown in the complexion4 ,now and then the relative straightness of the hair and their facial profiles suggest that the peculiarity of this people is due to an admixture of ,semitic 7probably ,arabian7 blood4 ,negroes of this type are most abundant in the northern part of the ,south1 particularly in ,virginia4 ,they are rare in the plantation ,states4 ,this is mayhap due to the fact that in the selection of people to be sold to the traders such delicate folk were retained where they belonged--as house servants4 ,these rare negroes1 which for lack of a better name will be termed ,arabs1 are few in number4 ,they can not be reckoned at more than one per cent of the whole4 ,besides the comparatively recognizable types above reckoned1 there is another which puzzles the observer4 ,they are of varied shapes1 generally1 however1 rather smaller than the average4 ,their peculiarity consists in the reddish-brown hue of their skins1 which at first suggests that they are mulattoes4 ,their faces and hands are often distinctly blotched with darker patches1 in the manner of freckles4 ,at times ,i have been inclined to regard their features as indicating a tendency to albinism1 or that change of pigment such as now and then gives silver foxes or white blackbirds4 ,all things considered1 it seems more likely that we have in these red negroes the remnant of a people once distinctly separated from the other black ,africans4 ,in favor of this view is the fact that the members of the group are very evenly distributed1 as they would be if they were a distinct race1 and not as we should expect to find them if they were the result of albinism or of a mixture of white blood4 ,the number of this variety of folk is small2 it probably does not exceed one per cent of the population4 ,when the observer has made the divisions above noted he has set apart a little more than one half of the blacks he has tried to classify4 ,among the remainder he will have remarked other but indistinct types in a way that appears to indicate that several other fairly characterized groups might by close scrutiny be established4 ,the greater part of this remainder1 however1 evidently consists of mixed people1 who have come from a mingling of the original diverse stocks4 ,imperfectly founded and inadequate as are the results of my rough inspection of the ,southern negroes1 they fairly serve to show some facts of importance to those who would helpfully foresee the future of the black people in this country4 ,we may first remark that1 notwithstanding the many distinct racial qualities and diversity which1 to my eye1 far exceed what we may observe among the whites of the ,united ,states1 they are1 with the exception of the mulattoes1 in excellent physical condition4 ,they are of curiously even1 serviceable size1 dwarfs and giants being very rare--much rarer than among the whites4 ,the percentage of deformed persons is1 so far as the eye can determine it1 very low4 ,i am fairly well acquainted with the peasant class in most of the ,european states1 and ,i know of no region where the average condition of the folk appears to be so good as it is among the ,southern blacks4 ,in fact1 this state is doubtless due to the rigid selection which was had when the ,africans were chosen for export2 in part to the care of their bodies during the time when they were slaves4 ,the result is a distinctly chosen people1 well fitted to carry the burdens of this world4 ,the variety of physical quality which appears to exist among the negroes is important1 for the reason that it appears to be associated with mental differences even as great1 thus affording a basis for the differentiation of the people as regards occupations and consequent station in life4 ,it is even more difficult to get at the mental peculiarities of the several groups of black folk than it is to ascertain those of their bodies1 so what ,i shall now set forth is stated with much doubt4 ,it represents my own opinion1 qualified by that of others whose judgments ,i have sought4 ,in the ,guinea type we have a folk of essentially limited intelligence4 ,the children are rather nimble-witted1 but when the body begins to be mature it dominates the mind4 ,it seems likely that thus the largest element of the race is to find its place in the field or in the lower stages of craft work4 ,the ,zulu type appears to me fit for anything that the ordinary men of our own race can do4 ,they remain through life alert and with a capacity for a vigorous reaction with their associates4 ,from them may come the leaders of their kindred of less masterful quality4 ,from the ,arab type we may expect more highly educable people than is afforded by the other distinct groups4 ,they have more delicate qualities4 ,they lack the wholesome exuberance of the ordinary negro1 which is commonly termed 8bumptiousness40 ,their nature is often what we may term clerical4 ,they are inclined to be somber1 but are not morose in the manner of a 8musty0 elephant1 as is frequently the case with the ,guinea and ,zulu types4 ,of the red or freckled negroes ,i have no sufficient grounds for an opinion1 yet they as a whole impress me less favorably than any other of the distinct groups4 ,as for the unclassified remainder of the blacks1 it can only be said that they seem to be as varied in their mental as they are in their physical character4 ,the mulattoes of this country appear to be of less importance to the future of the people with which they are classed than they are in other parts of the world1 where the white element of the mixture is from other than the ,teutonic stock4 ,they are in general of feeble vitality1 rarely surviving beyond middle age4 ,my father1 an able physician1 who had been for nearly all of a long life in contact with negroes1 was of the opinion that he had never seen a half-breed who was more than sixty years old4 ,there is certainly a notable lack of aged people of a hue that would indicate that they were anywhere near an equal mixture of the white and black races4 ,those in which the blood of white stock predominates appear to be more enduring than the half-breeds4 ,while the intellectual qualities of the mixed white and black are often very good and the attractiveness of the person and manner sometimes remarkable1 they have in general a rather bad reputation as regards trustworthiness4 ,such a view of mestizos is common in all countries where they occur4 ,humboldt is quoted 7though ,i have not found the matter in his works7 as saying that all mixed races have rather the evil than the good of the races from which they sprang4 ,in the case of the mulattoes1 at least1 there seems to be no warrant for this judgment1 and all we know of offspring of diverse species in the animal and plant world fails to give it any support4 ,it is most likely that this opinion as to the mixed white and black people is but one of the varieties of race prejudice where the sufferer is often despised by those who are below him as well as those who are above4 ,the lot of all human half-breeds is unhappy in that they are limited to a narrow field of association4 ,they are not perfectly free to make friends with either of the peoples to whom they are kin4 ,considering the peculiar situation of the mulattoes1 the difficulty of which no one who has not sought information on the matter can well conceive1 it seems to me that their way of life is creditable to them4 ,on their own and other accounts1 however1 we may welcome the fact that their mixed stock is likely to disappear1 being merged in those whence it sprang4 ,in considering the future of our ,american negroes it is important that we should make a judgment as to their moral tendencies4 ,this is not easy to do1 for the statistics of crime are not in such form as to make it clear in what regards they depart from the averages of the white population4 ,there can1 however1 be no doubt that at first they were addicted to small thieving1 and that this habit continued until after the civil war4 ,southern people1 well placed for forming an opinion1 believe that this evil is passing away1 from the development of the property sense4 ,as for drunkenness1 the negro appears to be on the whole less tempted to it than are the whites4 ,one rarely finds the sot type among them4 ,those of the lower class are liable to curious contagious excitements1 which often make them behave as if they were intoxicated when they are not so4 ,a scene ,i witnessed on a train out of ,new ,orleans1 a few years ago1 illustrates this and other significant features of the negro character4 ,it was a ,sunday morning1 and the car assigned to blacks was full of sturdy fellows1 mostly of the ,guinea type4 ,explaining to the conductor that ,i wished to see the people1 he allowed me to take a seat in the rear of the carriage4 ,at first my neighbors looked askance at me1 but with a word they became friendly4 ,while the train was at rest the throng was still1 but as soon as it was in motion singing and shouting began4 ,there was a lull at every station1 but with each renewal of the motion the excitement rose higher1 until it became very great4 ,a white newsboy1 a fellow of some eighteen or twenty years1 was engaged in selling papers and candy4 ,as he passed along the aisle one of the negroes sprang at him1 knife in hand4 ,in a flash the boy had the muzzle of his pistol almost against the assailant's head4 ,at this every negro in the car was afoot and shouting4 ,fearing the boy might be struck from behind1 ,i moved near to him1 intending to caution him not to fire too soon1 for ,i was sure that his opponent would quickly break down4 ,the youngster needed no advice of mine4 ,in a steady1 low voice he called1 8,put up your knife--one60 ,with that the throng became suddenly still4 8,put up your knife--two60 whereupon the ugly fellow slowly hid his knife and sank into a seat with bowed head1 while the newsboy went on crying his wares1 as if nothing unusual had happened4 ,thinking that the negro might have had some grudge in mind1 ,i asked the newsboy for the facts4 ,he assured me that he had never seen the fellow before1 and had no reason to expect the attack4 ,he agreed with me that none of the people were drunk1 and accounted for their conduct much as ,i was disposed to do--that 8coons would get wild when there was a racket going on40 ,it was interesting to note that the brakemen1 who1 with their pistols ready1 came from either end of the car1 took the affair as quietly as did the newsboy1 making no kind of comment on it4 ,i stayed on for an hour or so in the car4 ,while ,i was there the negroes were perfectly quiet1 it being evident that although the offender was not arrested and no blow had been struck1 not even a brutal word used1 a profound impression had been made on those half-savage people1 as in another way on me4 ,we both felt what means the strong hand of a masterful race--the stronger when it withholds from smiting4 ,i had seen a good example of one of the ways by which the wild men of ,africa have been shaped to the habits of their masters4 ,such a scene as ,i have sketched is happily possible in only a limited part of the ,south--that in which there is a great body of negroes who have not yet been to any extent influenced by civilizing contact with the whites4 ,there is a common assertion that the male negroes are sexually dangerous animals4 ,the lynchings for assaults on white women appear at first sight to give some color to this view4 ,it is1 however1 evidently a difficult matter on which to form an opinion4 ,it may be fairly said that these instances of violence occur in by far the larger proportion in the ,states where the blacks are least domesticated1 where they have been in the smallest measure removed from their primitive savagery4 ,if we could eliminate this uncivilized material1 mostly that which took shape1 or rather kept its primitive shape1 on the great plantation1 the iniquity would be as rare everywhere as it is in ,virginia1 ,kentucky1 ,missouri1 ,north ,carolina1 and ,tennessee4 ,when we recall the fact that there are now some five million negro men in the ,south1 and that probably not one in ten thousand is guilty of the crime1 we see how imperfect is the basis of this judgment4 ,we have also to remember that this offense when committed by a negro is through the action of the mob widely published1 while if the offender be a white man it is unlikely to be so well known4 ,i therefore hold to the belief that violence to women is not proved to be a crime peculiarly common among the blacks4 ,i am inclined to believe that1 on the whole1 there is less danger to be apprehended from them in this regard than from an equal body of whites of the like social grade4 ,this matter is one of exceeding importance1 for on it may depend the future of the ,south4 ,it is fit that in considering it men should keep their heads clear4 ,in reviewing the condition of the ,eu-,africans a third of a century after the war that gave them their new estate1 we have1 ,i think1 reason to be satisfied with the results of the change4 ,the change has brought us no distinct economic evils1 as shown by the statistics of the industries4 ,the labor of the blacks is quite as productive as it was while they were slaves4 ,their moral situation is not evidently worse than it was before they attained the measure of liberty which they now possess4 ,the first step1 that which naturally caused the most fear1 has been taken1 the people are free and have not turned their liberty to license4 ,in looking forward1 however1 we see that only a part of the task has been done4 ,the negroes have failed to acquire1 save in very small proportion1 the capacity for a true political life4 ,it has been found necessary to deprive them of the control they once exercised1 to the peril of the ,states and their own great harm4 ,the question is as to the ways in which they are to be lifted into the safe plane of ,american citizenship4 ,they must be so lifted1 or we shall in time see established in the ,south a system of serfdom under the control of an oligarchy--a state of affairs in some regards worse than that of slavery1 for it will lack the element of personal interest which did much to help the black in the first stages of his life with us4 99 99 99 99 99 ,faro ,,ii is a dog of fine breed and great intelligence1 belonging to one of the artists of ,la ,nature1 and has been engaged as an actor in the play of ,robinson ,crusoe1 at one of the theaters in ,paris4 ,on the stage his name is ,toby1 and he knows it1 and knows just what he has to do4 ,he has entered into relations with his fellow-actors1 and obeys his cue instantly4 ,he does the stage business with strict accuracy1 picks up the bird that is shot and takes it to ,robinson1 looks up his yams and the vegetable soup and his pipe4 ,he is grieved when ,robinson is sad1 exults when he is rejoicing1 and looks after his fellow-actors--the goat1 the monkey1 and the parrot--who are not so bright as he4 ,off the stage he knows nothing of ,toby or of ,robinson ,crusoe1 answers to no name but ,faro1 and recognizes no master but the artist1 ,m4 ,weisser4 ,,the ,,birds ,,of ,,the ,,adirondacks4 ,,by ,,senator ,,george ,,chahoon4 ,i shall make no appeal for the protection of our birds1 for that is not necessary to those who know them2 but ,i wish we could all know them better1 and when we knew we would surely love and give them our protection4 ,we would then realize their great use as insect and weed destroyers2 they would fascinate us with their cunning habits1 and charm us with their beauty and grace4 ,most of our birds are migrators1 passing their breeding season in summer with us and then leaving for warmer climes4 ,in addition to the climatic reasons for this migration1 the question of food supply is doubtless an important factor1 for while they might stand the severity of our winters the insectivorous birds could not get any food when our ground was covered with snow and ice1 and1 in proof of this1 as a rule the omnivorous migratory birds are the first to come in the spring and the last to leave in the fall4 ,in #ahgg ,i began making notes of the arrival of the robin1 bluebird1 and swallow2 these notes have been made every spring1 mostly by myself1 but during my absence by some member of my family1 and were all taken at ,au ,sable ,forks4 ,the earliest date for the robin is ,march #ajth2 for the bluebird1 ,march #gth2 and for the swallow1 ,april #dth4 ,the latest date for the robin is ,april #gth2 for the bluebird1 ,april #gth2 and for the swallow1 ,april #beth4 ,the average date is for the robin1 ,march #bhth2 bluebird1 ,march #bfth2 and the swallow1 ,april #aeth4 ,in every year the first robins that came were males1 and this was true with the bluebird excepting two years when ,i saw both male and female birds on the same day4 ,the sex of the swallow is not as easily determined1 and ,i am not sure about them1 but my general observation has been that the males come first1 and are followed in a few days by the females1 and that the courtship and mating are all arranged after their arrival4 ,my observations have been quite careful1 and ,i think they are full enough to go far toward establishing this fact4 ,of course1 there will be exceptions and our observations are necessarily imperfect1 for it is not probable that we happen to see the very first bird that comes4 ,no bird is more generally known or more universally liked than our common robin4 ,every year he sings for us our praises to the coming spring from the tallest limb of the elm1 and he hops across our lawn with a cuteness that forces a hearty welcome1 and1 differing from most birds1 he seems to be more numerous each year4 ,in a few days his mate joins him1 and a search for a site for their first nest begins4 ,the robin lays four eggs1 and frequently raises three broods of young in a season1 never1 so far as ,i know1 using the same site or the same nest twice in one season1 or more certainly never using the same nest or site for two consecutive broods4 ,year after year the same corner in the porch or the same crotch in the apple tree will be used as a nesting place by the robin1 and we have all wondered if the same robins came back every year1 or if the young birds returned and used the nest in which they were hatched4 ,the birds look and act wonderfully familiar when the old site is occupied1 and many people are sure they remember the birds from the year preceding4 ,i have never seen a statement from any ornithologist throwing light on this interesting question1 and ,i twice made an attempt1 without success1 to obtain the information for myself4 ,all thrushes except the robin are mottled on the breast1 and the breast of the young robin is mottled for the first season1 so the young can be readily told from the old birds4 ,the robin is a great lover of angleworms4 ,the young follow the mother while she gathers worms to feed them1 and about the time for weaning the young birds ,i have frequently seen the mother bird pick up straws and sticks and offer them to her young instead of food4 ,this may be done to discourage them from following her any longer1 but ,i think it is more probably caused by a return of the nest-building instinct to the mother4 ,some years ago ,i put a small bird box on a post in our yard1 which was soon occupied by a pair of summer wrens1 and all went nicely with them until a pair of ,english sparrows concluded to drive the wrens away and take the house for themselves1 and for three or four days the wrens and sparrows were constantly fighting1 but the wrens finally won and held possession of the house1 although at a great sacrifice1 for after the fight was over ,i raised the lid of the box and found the young birds dead1 the fight evidently taking so much of the time and attention of the old birds that they allowed their young to starve4 ,i removed the dead birds1 and in a short time the wrens rebuilt the nest1 and this time they closed the hole for entrance until it was scarcely large enough to admit my thumb4 ,the box was occupied by wrens for several years1 but the entrance was never closed afterward1 and ,i kept the sparrows from any further interference4 ,in this connection ,i would say that1 at least so far as the ,english sparrow is concerned1 the male selects the site for the nest4 ,when ,i shot the female the male soon returned with another mate1 but when ,i shot the male the female did not return4 ,the wren builds a very coarse nest1 and fills the box nearly half full of sticks three or four inches long4 ,as these sticks are carried in the birds' bills by the middle1 they would naturally strike the hole crosswise and could not enter1 so when the birds get near the box they turn sideways and poke the sticks in end first1 following in and arranging them afterward4 ,the merganser is a fish duck nearly as large as our common domestic duck1 and is known under the names of sheldrake and sawbill duck4 ,the male is considerably larger than the female2 he has a jet-black head1 and the black extends down the neck for about two inches1 where the color changes to a pure white1 the line being as regular and distinct as the painting on the smokestack of a steamship4 ,the body is generally white1 with black markings on the wings and some black on the body2 the breast is a beautiful salmon color when the bird is killed1 but if mounted soon fades to a pure white4 ,the male merganser in full plumage is one of our most beautiful birds4 ,the female1 besides being smaller1 is of a grayish color1 and the plumage and general appearance are entirely unlike the male1 so that the sex can be easily determined even at a long distance4 ,this bird is common on the ,champlain and waters of the ,adirondacks4 ,like all fish ducks1 it has a long1 sharp bill1 which is serrated with sawtooth-shaped notches strongly suggesting teeth1 a fact which has given this bird much interest to our evolutionary scientists4 ,i have noticed a habit of this bird that ,i believe is entirely unique1 and one ,i am surprised that our authorities on birds have not mentioned--that is1 that the males are entirely migratory and the females are not4 ,after the lakes and still waters freeze the mergansers go to the rivers which are open in some places on the rapids all winter4 ,for more than twenty years ,i have seen female mergansers on the ,au ,sable ,river all winter1 and ,i have frequently seen them on the other ,adirondack rivers2 but ,i have never seen a male merganser in the winter1 and in the late fall the males and females gather in separate flocks1 and when the male mergansers appear in the spring they are always in flocks by themselves4 ,i think the merganser lives entirely on fish1 and it is surprising to one who has made no observations on the subject to know what an enormous number of young fish a flock of these ducks will destroy in a season4 ,i quote the following from my notebook3 8,october #ac1 #ahhb1 killed fish duck 7female merganser7 in ,slush ,pond1 and found in her throat and stomach one pickerel1 four black bass1 and eleven sun perch4 ,bob 7my brother7 present4 ,october #ah1 #ahhb1 killed same kind of duck on ,lake ,champlain1 and took out of her sixty small perch4 ,james ,r4 ,graves present40 ,our most valuable game bird is the ruffed grouse or partridge4 ,he stays with us all the time4 ,he is a strong1 swift flier1 and taxes the nerve and skill of the sportsman to a high degree1 and to bring down a partridge under full wing in the evergreens in ,november sends a thrill of delight through one's veins4 ,the partridge is a gallinaceous bird1 and the young leave the nest as soon as hatched1 running around with the mother like chickens4 ,upon the approach of danger the young hide themselves under the leaves in an incredibly short time1 and the mother flutters off with an apparently broken wing1 keeping just out of reach to lure you away from the hiding place of her young4 ,this ruse is employed by many birds1 but in none1 so far as ,i know1 to as large an extent as the partridge4 ,naturally a very timid bird1 the partridge will put up quite a bluff for a fight in defense of her young1 and on two occasions ,i knew a partridge to show fight without any young4 ,experience has satisfied me that a partridge knows enough to try and get a tree between himself and the huntsman1 and to keep it there until he is out of range4 ,partridges are less numerous around my home than they were twenty years ago1 and their habits have undergone a very decided change4 ,then they usually took to a tree when flushed2 now they seldom light on a tree1 and take much longer flights4 ,when hunting in ,canada last fall ,i found that the partridges were very tame1 and simply ran away from me1 or if pressed flew into trees near by and waited for their heads to be taken off with rifle balls4 ,i notice considerable difference in the shade coloring of the partridge1 some being much darker than others1 but all have the same markings4 ,the partridge is omnivorous1 and1 like man and the pig1 he eats almost everything4 ,in the winter he lives upon the buds of trees1 and many a bird has lost his life while filling his crop from this source1 as he is then an easy mark for the hunter1 and ,i have seen the marks of his bill on the carcasses of animals4 ,he is fond of blackberries1 and sportsmen often visit blackberry patches when looking for him in the early fall1 but ,i have been surprised to find that when feeding in a blackberry patch he apparently shows no preference for the ripe berries1 filling his crop with all kinds4 ,a fact about the partridge which ,i find is not generally known is1 while in summer its toes are plain1 like the toes of a chicken1 in the winter they are bordered with a stiff hairy fringe that gives it support on the snow1 having the same effect as the meshes of our snowshoes4 ,this is a fact of considerable interest1 for it seems to have a bearing upon the theory that there is a tendency in animals to develop conditions favorable to their environment4 ,under this theory one might hope to find a development of a substitute for a snowshoe on a non-migratory bird whose habits keep it largely upon the ground1 while no such development would be expected on a bird that leaves us in the winter for warmer climes4 ,in this connection ,i would say that while few of our native birds change the color of their plumage as an adaptation to the seasons1 our pretty thistle bird1 or ,american goldfinch1 undergoes a radical change4 ,in summer he has a bright yellow body with black markings and a black head1 while in winter his plumage is all pale brown or sparrow-color1 and we often fail to recognize in our somber winter resident the brilliant goldfinch of our summer4 ,these little birds are gregarious in the winter1 and as they fly in small flocks into the trees by the roadside they are frequently mistaken for sparrows1 and in fact are usually called tree sparrows4 ,there are few things connected with the study of natural history more interesting than the tendency in animals to develop conditions suitable to their environment1 and it is surprising to see for how long a time an acquired habit will sometimes survive after its usefulness has ceased4 ,the common chimney swallows always build their nests in chimneys that are unused during their breeding season4 ,they make a semicircular nest of sticks1 which they glue to the inside wall of the chimney with a secretion from their mouths4 ,it is interesting to see the swallows gather the sticks for their nests1 for they do not alight on the ground1 but1 while flying1 break off dead twigs from trees without stopping in their flight4 ,this habit of building in chimneys must have been acquired in a comparatively short time1 for there were no chimneys in this country before the arrival of the white man1 and for a long time afterward the settler had but one chimney in his house1 which must have been used1 at least for cooking purposes1 in the summer4 ,so perfect is this habit that the swallow looks and acts as though he were made for the chimney2 his color is a sooty black1 so that he does not tarnish his coat by rubbing against the chimney walls2 the feathers of his tail end in hard spikes1 that he can use them to prop himself against the wall4 ,i have been interested on a summer evening watching these swallows in hundreds circling around a church chimney in ,plattsburg1 until finally the birds in the center began to enter the chimney1 the circle growing smaller and smaller as they apparently poured down in the vortex of a whirlpool of swallows4 ,many birds have acquired a habit of associating with man1 and we rarely find them1 except during the season of their flight1 far away from houses4 ,the barn swallows always place their nests under the eaves or cornices of some building1 usually a barn4 ,these nests are built of mud gathered by the birds from wet places on the ground1 and carried in their mouths to the sites chosen by them4 ,many of our farmers have an unkind feeling for the barn swallows1 as they think the mud-daubed nests on the new red paint are not an artistic addition2 but if our cattle could give an intelligent opinion they would welcome the birds1 for all swallows are entirely insectivorous1 and they must eat many flies and mosquitoes that otherwise would be left to torment our animals4 ,birds that build in inaccessible places seem to rely upon that for security1 and apparently make little effort to conceal their nests1 while those building on or near the ground are generally careful to hide them1 and they display considerable cunning in preventing discovery4 ,robins1 for instance1 after the young are hatched1 never drop the eggshells over the side of the nests to the ground1 where they would attract attention and cause one to look directly overhead and thus find the nest1 but take the broken shells in their bills and carry them off1 dropping them while flying4 ,frequently birds are very shy and easily frightened away from their nests1 but after they are well established they sometimes show a good deal of tenacity in staying by them until the young are ready to leave4 ,some years ago we opened an old ore mine1 where a pair of phbe birds had placed their nest on a shelf a few feet overhead1 a projecting rock protecting it from the flying stones of the blasts that were fired several times a day1 and the men were working so near that they could almost touch it with their hands4 ,these birds did not desert their nests until the young were old enough to leave4 ,the site was not used the following year1 as is usually the case with the phbe bird4 ,no bird has insinuated himself into our affections more deeply than the bluebird4 ,he charms us as he flits through the air like a painted arrow1 reflecting the sunlight from the metallic luster of his wings1 while he pours out his inspired song 8in notes as sweet as angels' greetings when they meet40 ,he comes to us before the unfolding of the first bud of spring1 sings to us until our hills and mountains are covered with the richness of their summer verdure1 and stays with us until this verdure is changed to all the beauty of its autumnal glory4 ,i am very sorry1 but ,i believe our bluebirds are gradually though steadily decreasing in numbers4 ,some years ago two pairs nested in our yard1 one pair in a hole in an old apple tree and one pair in a box1 but for several years these nesting places have been unoccupied1 and ,i know of a number of other former nesting places that have been vacant for years4 ,twenty years ago the wild pigeons were quite plentiful in the fall of the year in this part of our ,state1 but each fall they came in decreasing numbers1 and for the last four or five years ,i have not seen a single bird4 ,there is no sweeter songster than the shy hermit thrush1 and ,i am much pleased in believing that his numbers are increasing4 ,in former years they were not often heard2 now1 as our spring afternoons decline into twilight1 his charming notes come to us from almost every suitable point4 ,for the first eight or ten years of my residence in ,au ,sable ,forks ,i did not see a turtle dove1 and now ,i see them nearly every summer4 ,our ,american eagle is occasionally seen in the ,adirondacks1 and some years ago a large female golden eagle was caught in a steel trap near my home and came into my possession1 where she occupied a slatted hencoop1 and whenever curiosity led a hen to poke her bill through the slats her head was taken off very quickly4 ,i was afraid that if ,i kept the eagle ,i would turn vivisectionist or become too cruel for a hunter1 so ,i presented her to the ,zological ,gardens in ,central ,park4 ,in birds of prey the female is the larger and finer bird1 while the reverse is true with other birds2 but there is a striking exception in the noble woodcock4 ,no bird is held in higher appreciation by the sportsman1 and a female woodcock in full plumage is as rich in coloring and as beautiful in marking as any bird ,i know4 ,he lies well for the dog1 is rare sport for the gunner1 and has no equal for the palate4 ,he nests in our alder thickets or on wet marshy ground1 and around my home it is the work of a man to get him4 ,he is nocturnal in his habits1 feeding at night and pushing his long1 slender bill into the soft ground1 leaving holes that to the casual eye look like worm holes1 but which are easily recognized by one familiar with his habits4 ,cow blackbirds are common to this locality during the summers1 and they are found in our pastures with the cattle4 ,i have never found their eggs in the nests of other birds1 but they are ,mormonistic in their habits1 one often having as many as a dozen wives1 and ,i have known the crow blackbird to have more than one mate4 ,some years ago an article went the rounds of the newspapers telling of a man catching a flock of crows by soaking corn in alcohol and leaving it for the crows to eat1 and when they became drunk he caught them4 ,i tried bread crumbs soaked in whisky on ,english sparrows1 but they would not eat them1 and ,i finally got a crow1 and though ,i kept him until he was very hungry ,i could not get him to eat corn soaked in whisky1 and he found no difficulty in picking up every unsoaked kernel and leaving the others4 ,you may draw your own moral1 but ,i am satisfied that the crow will not eat food saturated with alcohol4 ,he is either too uncivilized or too intelligent4 ,orioles and other birds sometimes give us much annoyance by eating the green peas from our gardens1 and1 except in the case of ,english sparrows1 we do not like to shoot them4 ,i once killed a hawk and roughly stuffed it with straw1 putting it on a pole near my pea vine1 where the birds collected in numbers to scold and peck at it1 but they were afraid to touch the peas1 and finally left mine for those of my neighbors across the street4 ,the ,acadian owl is a pretty1 cunning-looking little bird1 not much larger than a robin4 ,he is the smallest of our owls and quite tame1 and is not often seen around my home4 ,some two years ago1 while hunting with my brother we saw one of these little birds on the limb of a tree not far from the ground1 and we concluded to try and snare him4 ,we cut a long pole and made a slip noose with a shoe string1 and while my brother kept the owl's attention by standing in front of him ,i slipped the noose over his head from behind4 ,when we had the owl we wanted to tie him1 and since we could not spare the shoe string for that purpose1 my brother decided to tie him with his watch chain4 ,he snapped the catch around one leg1 and while trying to fasten the other leg the owl made a flutter and got loose1 and the last we saw of him he was sailing over the tops of the trees with the watch chain hanging to his leg4 ,i have always taken an interest in birds because ,i have loved them1 but it does not follow that ,i know much about them4 ,some one said that the more we know men the less we love them1 but that man was an old cynic and doubtless told an untruth4 ,certain it is that the more we know our native birds the more we love them1 and it is one of the encouraging signs of the day that it has become fashionable for young people to take an increasing interest in the birds and wild flowers of their own country1 and a young person would hardly be considered accomplished to-day who is entirely ignorant of at least the common names of the flowers that bloom in our fields and woods and the birds that pour out their ecstatic music from our trees and hedges4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,herbert ,,spencer',s work on ,education has been translated into ,sanskrit by ,mr4 ,h4 ,soobba ,row1 who gives as his reason for publishing a version in an 8unspoken0 language that the pundits1 for whom the version is primarily intended1 8can more easily appreciate the ideas conveyed in ,sanskrit than perhaps in any other vernacular40 ,,the ,,structure ,,of ,,blind ,,fishes4 ,,by ,,carl ,h4 ,,eigenmann1 ,,professor ,,of ,,zo,,logy1 ,,indiana ,,university4 ,,the ,,color ,,of ,,the ,,amblyopsid4--,the three species of ,chologaster are colored1 with varying intensity1 from ,c4 cornutus1 which is darkest1 to ,c4 ,agassizii1 in which the color is faintest4 ,the color cells are in all cases arranged in a definite pattern4 ,these are determined by the underlying muscles4 ,the pattern consists of three longitudinal bands on the sides1 following the line where the muscle segments are angularly bent1 and cross-stripes along the line separating successive segments4 ,the general color of ,typhlichthys is cream and pink4 ,it is abundantly pigmented4 ,in younger specimens the pigment is arranged in more definite areas about the head4 ,in the old it is more uniformly distributed1 being1 however1 specially abundant about the brain4 ,the pigment pattern of the body is precisely as in ,chologaster1 except that the individual pigment cells are minute and their aggregate not evident except under the lens4 ,the retention of the color pattern of ,chologaster in ,typhlichthys is not less interesting than the retention of similar habits4 ,it is perhaps due to different causes4 ,the color pattern in ,chologaster is determined by the underlying muscular structure1 and the retention of a similar pattern in ,typhlichthys is due to the same underlying structure1 rather than to the direct hereditary transmission of the color pattern4 ,amblyopsis is flesh-colored1 ranging to purple in the gill region1 where the blood of the gills shows through the overlying structures1 and over the liver1 which can be seen through the translucent sides and ventral wall4 ,about the head and bases of the fins the color is yellowish1 resembling diluted blood4 ,the surface of the body is slightly iridescent1 and the surface of the head has a velvety1 peach-bloom appearance4 ,the general pink color of ,amblyopsis is due to the blood4 ,it is not due to any abnormal development of blood-vessels in the dermis4 ,in the fins1 where the blood-vessels are near the surface1 the general effect is a yellowish color4 ,the surface vessels of the dermis also appear yellowish4 ,it is only on account of the translucent condition of all the tissues1 permitting the deeper vessels to show through a certain thickness1 that the pink effect is produced4 ,amblyopsis has always been spoken of as white4 ,the term 8white aquatic ghosts0 of ,cope is very apt1 for they do appear white in the caves1 and their gliding motion has an uncanny effect4 ,all alcoholic specimens are white4 ,the pigment cells can not be made to show themselves1 even by a prolonged stay in the light4 ,the old1 if kept in the light1 will not become darker1 and a young one reared in the light until ten months old not only showed no increase in the pigmentation but lost the pigment it had at birth1 taking on the exact pigmentless coloration of the adult4 ,pigment cells are late in appearing in ,amblyopsis4 ,when the young are two months old pigment is abundant4 ,this pigmented condition is evidently a hereditarily transmitted condition4 ,it disappears with age4 ,primarily this disappearance was probably individual4 ,but1 as in the flounder1 the depigmentation has also become hereditarily transmitted1 for even those individuals reared in the light lose the color4 ,numerous facts and experiments show that while pigment may be1 and is1 developed in total darkness1 the amount of color in an individual animal depends1 other things equal1 directly on the amount of light to which it is habitually exposed4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4--;,chologaster ,agassizii from ,cedar ,sinks ,cave1 ,kentucky4 ,the lower and upper surfaces of the flounder1 the one protected and the other exposed to the light1 give the most striking example1 and the argument is clinched here by the fact1 noted by ,cunningham1 that a flounder whose lower side is for long periods exposed to the light takes on color4 ,loeb has shown that in the yolk sacs of ,fundulus embryos more pigment cells are developed if the embryos are kept in the light than when they are kept in the dark4 ,however1 in the body1 and especially in the eye1 the pigmentation was not affected by the absence of light4 ,the general absence of color in cave animals is conceded4 ,packard states1 8,as regards change of color1 we do not recall an exception to the general rule that all cave animals are either colorless or nearly white1 or1 as in the case of ,arachnida and insects1 much paler than their out-of-door relatives40 ,chilton has made the same observation on the underground animals of ,new ,zealand4 ,similar observations have been recorded by ,lnnberg1 ,carpenter1 ,schmeil1 and ,vir4 ,hamann enumerates a number of species living both in caves and above ground4 ,in such cases the underground individuals are paler than the others4 ,this confirms similar observations by ,packard4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4--;,chologaster papilliferus from ,illinois4 ,poulton has mentioned that ,proteus becomes darker when exposed to the light4 ,this has been verified by others4 ,typhlotriton larv living at the entrance of a cave are dark1 while the adult living farther in the cave are much lighter1 but with many chromatophores containing a small amount of color4 ,epigan fishes found in caves are always lighter in color than their confrres outside4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4--,typhlichthys subterraneus4 ,we have thus numerous examples of colored epigan animals bleaching in caves1 and also bleached cave animals turning dark when exposed to the light4 ,we have also animals in which the side habitually turned to the dark is colorless1 while the side habitually turned to the light is colored4 ,finally1 we have cave animals that are permanently bleached4 ,natural selection can not have affected the coloration of the cave forms1 for it can be absolutely of no consequence whether a cave species is white or black4 ,it could affect the coloration only indirectly in one of two ways3 ,first1 as a matter of economy1 but since the individual is in part bleached by the direct effect of the darkness there is no reason why natural selection should come into play at all in reducing the pigment as a matter of economy2 second1 ,romanes has supposed that the color decreases through the selection of correlated structures--a supposition he found scarcely conceivable when the variety of animals showing the bleached condition is considered4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #d a4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #d b4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #d c4 ,,fig4 #d a1 b1 c4--,three views of ,amblyopsis4 ,panmixia can not account for the reduction of the color1 since it returns in some species when they are exposed to the light1 and disappears to a certain extent in others when kept in the dark4 ,panmixia1 ,romanes thinks1 may have helped to discharge the color4 ,in many instances the coloration is a protective adaptation1 and therefore maintained by selection4 ,panmixia might in such instances lower the general average to what has been termed the 8birth mean40 ,proteus is perhaps such an instance4 ,but in this species the bleached condition has not yet been hereditarily established1 and since each individual is independently affected 8the main cause of change must have been of that direct order which we understand by the term climatic40 ,since1 however1 the bleached condition1 which in the first instance is an individual reaction to the absence of light1 has become hereditarily established in ,amblyopsis so that the bleaching goes on even when the young are reared in the light1 it is evident that in ,amblyopsis we have the direct effect of the environment on the individual hereditarily established4 ,,the ,,eyes ,,of ,,the ,,amblyopsid4--,the structure of the eyes has formed the basis of a separate1 fully illustrated paper4,a ,the prominent features in the eyes of the various species must1 however1 be known before the question of the origin of these forms and the causes of degeneration can be seriously considered4 ,the eyes of the species of ,chologaster are normally formed1 possessing a lens1 pupil1 vitreous body1 retina1 and optic nerve1 and all the eye muscles normal to the fishes4 ,the eyes are functional4 ,the retina is1 however1 very much simplified4 ,the eye of papilliferus is1 in this respect1 more perfect than the eye of cornutus4 ,in papilliferus the outer nuclear layer consists of two series of nuclei1 the inner layer of about five series of nuclei1 and the ganglionic layer of a complete single layer of nuclei except where the optic fibers pass between them1 for an optic-fiber layer is not present4 ,in ,chologaster cornutus the outer nuclear layer has been reduced to one or two series1 and the ganglionic layer to cells widely separated from each other or in rows and little groups1 but no longer forming a complete layer4 ,in ,amblyopsis and ,typhlichthys the largest eyes are not more than one twentieth the diameter of those of ,chologaster1 or one thousandth of their bulk2 the lens is nearly1 if not quite1 obliterated2 the same is true of the vitreous body and the optic nerve in the adult4 ,beyond this the eyes differ much4 ,in ,amblyopsis scleral cartilages are present and prominent1 the pigmented layer is prominent1 the outer and inner nuclear layers form one layer only1 two or three cells deep4 ,in ,t4 subterraneus the pigmented layer is insignificant1 and no pigment is ever found in it1 while the outer and inner nuclear layers are still separate4 ,in both these species the ganglionic layer forms a central core of cells4 ,in ,amblyopsis several or all the eye muscles are present2 in ,typhlichthys nothing is left of them4 ,a ,archiv f4 ,entwickelungsmechanik1 viii1 pp4 #ede-fag1 ,plates ,,xi-,,xv4 ,scleral cartilages are not present in ,chologaster or ,typhlichthys2 in ,troglichthys they are very prominent1 sometimes several times as long as the eye4 ,while there is no pigment left in ,typhlichthys1 there is in ,troglichthys4 ,the eye in the former is about #j4afh millimetre in diameter1 while the entire eye of the latter is but about #j4jej millimetre1 or less than one third the diameter1 and less than one ninth the bulk4 ,the entire eye of ,troglichthys is smaller than many single cells1 and ,i shall be pardoned for not going into the details of its structure here4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4--,three views of the head of an ,amblyopsis1 prepared to show the tactile ridges4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4--,snout of ,chologaster papilliferus1 to show the tactile ridges4 ,,the ,,tactile ,,organs4--,the tactile organs are among the most important in the consideration of the blind forms4 ,their minute structure will form the basis of a separate paper4 ,the prominent tactile organs about the head of ,amblyopsis have been mentioned by nearly every writer1 and they have been figured by ,putnam-,wyman,b and ,leidig1,c but the figures of the distribution of the ridges are worthless4 ,the description of ,professor ,forbes,d of ,chologaster papilliferus is the only systematic enumeration of the ridges that has appeared4 ,the accompanying figures1 drawn by me with the camera lucida1 and verified and copied by ,mr4 ,u4 ,o4 ,cox1 give the exact extent and position of the ridges in ,amblyopsis and ,chologaster papilliferus4 ,it will be seen that in the number and distribution of the tactile area the two forms agree very closely1 the eyed form having the same number and distribution of ridges or rows that the blind forms have4 ,in ,chologaster papilliferus most of the ridges are much less prominent than in the blind species1 being sunk into the skin4 ,about the nose and chin1 however1 the ridges are as prominent as in the other species4 ,in the small ,chologaster cornutus there are no distinct ridges at all1 the tactile organs being arranged as in other species of fishes4 ,in specimens of the same size the papill are not more prominent in papilliferus than in cornutus4 ,it is only in the oldest of papilliferus that the papill become prominent4 ,the number of individual papill in each tactile ridge differs considerably with age 7size71 so that an exact comparison between the large ,amblyopsis and the much smaller species of ,chologaster and ,typhlichthys can not be made4 ,from a number of counts made by ,professor ,cox ,i take the liberty of giving the following3 ,ridge ,no4 #f contains1 in ,chologaster papilliferus1 six organs2 in ,typhlichthys1 eleven2 in two specimens of ,amblyopsis1 respectively eighty-three and one hundred and six inches long1 twelve and twenty4 ,b ,american ,naturalist1 #ahgb1 ,plate ,,ii1 ,figs4 #a and #b4 ,c ,untersuchungen z4 ,anatomie und ,histologie d4 ,tiere1 ,plate ,,iii1 ,fig4 #bh4 ,d ,american ,naturalist1 #af1 #ahhb1 p4 #b4 ,aside from the tactile organs in ridges1 there are many solitary ones not evident from the surface in ,amblyopsis4 ,when the epidermis is removed by maceration1 the dermal papill on which these rest give the whole head a velvety appearance4 ,in the young1 at least of ,amblyopsis1 each of the tactile organ of the ridges is provided with a club-shaped filament abruptly pointed near the end4 ,they wave about with the slightest motion in water1 and are so numerous as to give the whole head a woolly appearance4 ,to recapitulate the facts ascertained concerning the eye and tactile organs3 #a4 ,the eyes were degenerating and the tactile organs developing beyond the normal before the permanent underground existence began4 #b4 ,the eyes continued to degenerate and the tactile organs to increase after permanent entrance to underground waters4 #c4 ,in the degeneration of the eye the retina leads2 the vitreous body and lens follow2 the more passive pigmented layer and sclera remain longest2 the bony orbit is not affected4 ,,bearing ,,of ,,the ,,facts ,,gained ,,on ,,the ,,origin ,,of ,,the ,,cave ,,fauna4--,the origin of the cave fauna and of the blind fauna are two distinct questions4 ,this was first recognized by ,h4 ,garman4 ,before1 the two questions were considered as one1 and two explanations are prominent among those suggesting its solution3 #a4 ,the explanation of ,lankester seems either a pleasantry or the most unwarranted speculation4 ,he says3 8,supposing a number of some species of ,arthropod or fish to be swept into a cavern or to be carried from less to greater depths in the sea1 those individuals with perfect eyes would follow the glimmer of light1 and eventually escape to the outer air or the shallower depths1 leaving behind those with imperfect eyes to breed in the dark place4 ,a natural selection would thus be effected4 ,in every succeeding generation this would be the case1 and even those with weak but still seeing eyes would in the course of time escape1 until only a pure race of eyeless or blind animals would be left in the cavern or deep sea40 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4--,lateral view of ,amblyopsis1 showing the location of the tactile ridges4 ,this process does not1 of course1 account for the degeneration of the eye beyond blindness4 ,but1 aside from this objection1 the humor of his 8glimmer of light0 impresses itself very forcibly on one after spending a day in following the devious windings of a living cave1 not to mention his tendency in cave animals1 which are negatively heliotropic1 to follow it4 ,there are other objections4 ,fishes are annually swept into the caves1 but they are not able to establish themselves in them4 ,to do this they must have peculiar habits1 special methods of feeding and mating before a successful colonization of caverns can become successful4 ,further1 if the origin of the cave fauna is due to accident1 the accident must have happened to four species out of six of the ,amblyopsid1 while none of the numerous other species of fishes about the caves met with the same accident4 #b4 ,the second explanation is that of ,herbert ,spencer3,e 8,the existence of these blind cave animals can be accounted for only by supposing their remote ancestors began making excursions into the caves1 and1 finding it profitable1 extended them1 generation after generation1 farther in1 undergoing the required adaptations little by little40 ,e ,popular ,science ,monthly1 vol4 xliii1 pp4 #dhg1 #dhh4 ,this second view has been modified by ,h4 ,garman in so far as he supposes the adaptations to do without eyes and consequent degeneration of eyes to occur anywhere where a species has no use for eyes1 enumerating burrowing animals and parasitic animals1 concluding that 8the origin of the cave species 7nonaquatic especially7 of ,kentucky were probably already adjusted to a life in the earth before the caves were formed40 ,in this modified sense1 ,spencer's view is directly applicable to the ,amblyopsid4 ,hamann goes so far as to suppose that darkness itself is not the primary cause of degeneration1 but unknown factors in the animal itself4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h4--,lateral view of ,chologaster papilliferus1 showing the location of the tactile ridges4 ,the three things to be considered in this connection are 7a7 the habit of the cave form1 7b7 the modifications to enable the form to do without the use of light1 and 7c7 the structure of the eye as a result of a and b4 a4 ,the prime requisite for a candidate to underground existence is a negative reaction to light4 ,we found that even the epigan ,chologaster is negatively heliotropic4 b4 ,it must also be evident that a fish depending on its sight to procure its food can never become a cave form4 ,sunfishes1 which are annually carried into caves1 belong to this class of fishes4 ,they are always poor when found in the caves1 and will never be able to establish themselves in them4 ,on the other hand1 there are no reasons why fishes detecting their prey either by smell or touch should not be capable of colonizing caves4 ,the catfishes and ,amblyopsid belong to the latter class4 ,it is surprising that more catfishes have not established themselves in caves4 ,among the ,amblyopsid even those with functional eyes depend on touch and vibrations for their food4 ,chologaster has well-developed tactile organs and poor eyes4 ,it is found chiefly at the mouths of underground streams1 but also in the underground streams themselves4 ,the tactile organs are not different in kind from those of other fishes1 and their high development is not more marked than their development in the barbels of the catfishes4 ,the characters which distinguish ,chologaster as a fish capable of securing its food in the dark are emphasized in ,typhlichthys1 and the tactile organs are still more highly developed in ,amblyopsis4 ,the eyes of the last two genera are so degenerate that it is needless in this connection to speak of degrees of degeneration4 ,on account of the structure of their eyes and their loss of protective pigment they are incapable of existence in open waters4 ,with the partial and total adaptation to an underground existence in the ,amblyopsid and their negative reaction to light1 it is scarcely possible that for this family the idea of accidental colonization can be entertained for a moment4 ,their structure is not as much due to their habitat as their habitat is to their structure and habit4 ,typhlogobius lives in the holes of shrimps under rocks on the coast of southern ,california4 ,it is a living example of the origin of blind forms in dark places remote from caves4 ,here again the 8accidental0 idea is preposterous1 since no fish could by accident be carried into the devious windings of the burrows they inhabit4 ,moreover1 a number of related species of gobies occur in the neighborhood4 ,they live ordinarily in the open1 but always retreat into the burrows of crustaceans when disturbed4 ,the origin of the blind species by the gradual change from an occasional burrow seeker to a permanent dweller in the dark and the consequent degeneration of the eye is evident here at once4 ,among insects the same process and the same results are noted4 ,we have everywhere the connection of diurnal species with dark-loving and blind forms1 a transition the result of habit entered into with intent1 but no evidence of such a connection as the result of accident4 ,also numerous instances of daylight species being swept into caves1 but no instance of one establishing itself there4 ,this view accounts also for the wide distribution of the blind fishes4 ,the ancestry of the ,amblyopsid we may assume to have had a tendency to seek dark places wherever found1 and incipient blind forms would thus arise over their entire distribution4 ,the structural differences between ,troglichthys and ,typhlichthys argue in favor of this1 and certainly the fearless1 conspicuous blind fish as at present developed would have no chance of surviving in the open water4 ,their wide distribution after their present characters had been assumed1 except through subterranean waters1 would be out of the question entirely4 ,the same would not be true of the incipient cave forms when they had reached the stage at present found in ,chologaster4 ,it will be recalled that ,chologaster1 and even the blind forms1 have the habit of hiding underneath boards and in the darker sides of an aquarium4 ,these dark-seeking creatures would1 on the other hand1 be especially well fitted to become distributed in caves throughout their habitat4 ,s4 ,garman's able argument for the single origin and dispersal of the blind fishes through epigan waters was based on the supposition that the cis-,mississippi and trans-,mississippi forms were identical4 ,the differences between these species are such as to warrant not only that they have been independently segregated1 but that they are descended from different genera4 ,the external differences between these species are trifling1 but this was to be expected in an environment where all the elements that make for external color marking are lacking4 ,the similarity between ,typhlichthys and ,amblyopsis is so great that the former has been considered to be the young of the latter4 ,judging from the structure of the eye and the color of the skin1 ,troglichthys has been longest established in caves4 ,amblyopsis came next1 and ,typhlichthys is a later addition to the blind cave fauna4 99 99 99 99 99 8,those10 said ,dr4 ,j4 ,n4 ,langley1 in his sectional address on ,physiology at the ,british ,association1 8who have occasion to enter into the depths of what is oddly1 if generously1 called the literature of a scientific subject1 alone know the difficulty of emerging with an unsoured disposition4 ,the multitudinous facts presented by each corner of ,nature form in large part the scientific man's burden to-day1 and restrict him more and more1 willy nilly1 to a narrower and narrower specialism4 ,but that is not the whole of his burden4 ,much that he is forced to read consists of records of defective experiments1 confused statement of results1 wearisome description of detail1 and unnecessarily protracted discussion of unnecessary hypotheses4 ,the publication of such matter is a serious injury to the man of science2 it absorbs the scanty funds of his libraries1 and steals away his poor hours of leisure40 ,a ,,hundred ,,years ,,of ,,chemistry4 ,,by ,f4 ,w4 ,,clarke1 ,,chief ,,chemist1 ,,united ,,states ,,geological ,,survey4 ,concluded4 ,it is evident1 from what has been already said1 that chemistry and physics are near akin--indeed1 they can hardly be separated4 ,avogadro's law and spectrum analysis are but two illustrations of the relationship1 but many other examples are equal to them in importance4 ,take1 for instance1 the action of light upon chemical substances2 it may provoke union of elements1 or effect the decomposition of compounds2 upon the latter phenomenon the art of photography depends4 ,that salts of silver are chemically changed by light was the fundamental observation1 and upon this fact most photographic processes1 though not all1 are founded4 ,thus light1 working as a chemist in the laboratory of the photographic plate1 has become the useful servant of all arts1 all sciences1 and all industries--an indispensable aid to invention and research4 ,on this theme a volume might be written2 a bare reference to it must be sufficient here4 ,still another branch of chemistry1 recently developed but essentially an extension of the theory of valence1 is also due to the study of optical relations4 ,that different crystalline bodies differ in their behavior toward polarized light has long been known1 and the polariscope is recognized as an instrument of great value in chemical research4 ,to the analysis and valuation of sugars and sirups it is most effectively applied1 and commercial transactions of great magnitude depend in part upon its testimony4 ,here is practical utility1 but the development of theory is what concerns us now4 ,the discovery of isomerism1 of the fact that very different compounds might contain the same elements united in the same proportions1 was easily interpreted by the theory of valence in a fairly complete and satisfactory way4 ,in the structural formul the different atomic groupings were clearly shown1 but with one essential limitation--the arrangement was in a single plane4 ,that is1 the linking of the atoms was considered1 but not their relations to tridimensional space4 ,for the study of reactions1 for the classification of compounds1 the structural symbols sufficed2 but human thought is not so easily satisfied1 and more was soon required4 ,one class of isomers was unexplained1 and an explanation was demanded4 ,a typical example of the difficulty was offered by tartaric acid1 which exists in two forms differing crystallographically and optically4 ,one form1 dissolved in water1 twisted a ray of polarized light to the left1 the other produced a rotation to the right1 while the crystals of the two acids1 similar in all other respects1 also showed a right- and left-handedness in the arrangement of their planes4 ,the crystal of one variety resembled the other as would its reflection in a mirror--the same1 but reversed4 ,these differences1 discovered by ,pasteur as long ago as #ahdh1 the theory of valence could not explain2 to interpret them1 and other similar cases1 the arrangement of the atoms in space had to be considered4 ,in #ahgd two chemists1 ,van t',hoff and ,lebel1 working independently1 offered a solution of the problem1 and stereochemistry1 the chemistry of molecular structure in three dimensions1 was founded4 ,they proposed1 in effect1 to treat the carbon atom essentially as a tetrahedron1 the four angles corresponding to the four units of valence or bonds of affinity4 ,they then studied the linking or union of such tetrahedra1 and found that with their aid the formul for tartaric acid could be developed in different ways1 showing right- and left-handed atomic groupings4 ,other similar compounds were equally explicable4 ,thus the definite conception of a tridimensional1 geometric atom led to a new development of structural formul1 from which many discoveries have already proceeded4 ,the fruitfulness of the speculation vindicates its use1 but it is only the first step in a method of research which must in time be applied to all of the chemical elements4 ,probably the study of crystalline form will be connected with these chemico-structural expressions1 and from the union some greater generalizations will be born4 ,from the geometry of the crystal to the geometry of the molecule there must be some legitimate transition4 ,with all their utility1 our present conceptions of chemical structure are incomplete2 they represent only portions or special phases of some great general law1 but so far as they go1 properly used1 they are valid4 ,but light is not the only physical force involved in chemical changes2 heat and electricity are far more important4 ,heat1 in particular1 is essential to every chemical operation2 it provokes combination and effects decomposition2 it appears in one reaction and vanishes in another2 apart from thermal phenomena the science of chemistry could not exist4 ,from the very beginnings of chemistry this interdependence has been recognized1 and its study has led to notable discoveries and to great enlargements of resource4 ,in the theory of phlogiston the connection between heat and chemical change was crudely stated1 and when ,lavoisier saw that combustion was oxidation1 thermochemistry began to exist4 ,in every chemical change a definite amount of heat is either liberated or absorbed--a distinct1 measurable quantity4 ,this fact was established by ,hess in #ahdj1 and since then the thermal values of many reactions have been determined1 notably by ,thomsen in ,denmark and ,berthelot in ,france4 ,the data are already numerous1 but as yet they have not been co-ordinated into any general law4 ,they are in great measure the raw material with which some future scholar is to build4 ,one fact1 however1 is already clear--namely1 that the heat of formation or of combustion of any compound is conditioned by its structure4 ,two isomeric substances may differ widely in their calorific constants1 an observation which has repeatedly been verified4 ,thus the conception of structure1 of atomic grouping1 appears again a chief factor in a set of unsolved problems4 ,in the relations of chemistry to heat perhaps the greatest advances have been made in the extension of our resources1 particularly in regard to the development and control of temperatures4 ,at the beginning of the century the range of temperatures available to the chemist was narrowly limited--from the freezing point of mercury at one end to the heat of a blast furnace at the other4 ,his command of heat and cold are now vastly greater than then1 and the steps which have been taken are worth tracing4 ,at the lower end of the scale the greatest progress has been made through the liquefaction of gases4 ,when a liquid evaporates1 heat is absorbed1 or1 reversely stated1 cold is produced1 and the more rapid the evaporation the greater is the cooling effect4 ,a command of more volatile liquids is therefore a command of cold1 and the liquefied gases represent the extreme limit of our power in that direction4 ,near the beginning of the century1 by combining cold and pressure1 sulphurous acid and chlorine were reduced to the liquid state4 ,in #ahbc ,faraday succeeded in liquefying still other gases1 and in #ahce ,thilorier went even further and reduced carbonic acid to a snowlike solid4 ,liquid chlorine1 sulphurous acid1 and carbonic acid1 stored in strong cylinders of steel1 are now commercial products1 manufactured and sold in large quantities like any other merchandise4 ,they can be transported to long distances and kept indefinitely1 to the great convenience of chemists and the furtherance of research4 ,in #ahde ,faraday published the results of further investigations1 when it appeared that all but six of the known gases had been reduced to the liquid state4 ,through cold and pressure lower and lower temperatures were gained1 each step forward having given a foothold from which a new advance was possible4 ,in #ahgg ,pictet and ,cailletet simultaneously succeeded in liquefying four of the supposedly permanent gases2 nitrogen yielded to the attacks of ,wroblevsky and ,olzewski in #ahhc1 and hydrogen alone remained unconquered4 ,in #ahih ,dewar overcame this last obstacle1 and in the year following he actually reduced hydrogen to an icelike solid which melts at only eighteen degrees centigrade above the theoretical absolute zero4 ,every gas has been liquefied1 and probably the lowest degree of cold attainable by man has been reached4 ,within the century the work began and ended2 the future can only improve the working methods and utilize the new resources4 ,liquid ammonia has long been used in the manufacture of artificial ice and for direct refrigeration2 liquid air1 with its temperature of two hundred centigrade degrees below zero1 is now almost a commercial product1 obtainable in quantity1 but with its possibilities of usefulness as yet practically undeveloped4 ,the infant ,hercules will doubtless find no lack of tasks to do1 each one more arduous and more helpful to man than any labor of his mythical prototype4 ,to the chemist the possibilities thus opened are innumerable4 ,pictet has shown that at the low temperatures which are now easily attainable all chemical action stops1 even the most energetic substances lying in contact with each other quiet and inert4 ,a greater control of the more violent chemical reactions is therefore within reach1 doubtless to be utilized in many ways yet unforeseen4 ,at the highest temperatures1 also1 chemical union ceases1 and compounds are decomposed2 each reaction is possible only within a limited thermal range1 of which the beginning and the end are measurable4 ,from future measurements of this sort new laws will surely be discovered4 ,the first step in the upward scale of temperatures was taken in #ahjb1 when ,robert ,hare1 an ,american1 invented the oxyhydrogen blowpipe4 ,with this instrument platinum1 hitherto infusible1 was melted1 a result of great importance to chemists4 ,apart from recent electrical applications1 platinum finds its chief use in the construction of chemical apparatus1 and ,hare's invention was therefore of great assistance to chemical research4 ,later in the century electrical currents were utilized as producers of great heat1 until in the very modern device of the electric furnace the range of available temperatures has been at least doubled4 ,temperatures of three to four thousand degrees of the centigrade scale are now at the disposal of the chemist1 and these are manageable in compact apparatus at very moderate cost4 ,cheap aluminum is one of the products of this new instrument1 and the extraordinary abrasive substance1 carborundum1 is another4 ,new industries have been created by the electric furnace1 and in the hands of ,moissan it has yielded scientific results of great interest and remarkable variety4 ,the rarest metals can now be separated from their oxides with perfect ease1 and new compounds1 obtainable in no other way1 the furnace has placed at our disposal4 ,this field of research is now barely opened2 from it the twentieth century should gather a rich harvest4 ,with electricity also chemistry is nearly allied1 and along some lines the two branches of science have been curiously intertwined4 ,like the other physical forces1 electricity may either provoke or undo combination1 and1 like heat1 it may itself be generated as a product of chemical action4 ,the voltaic pile and the galvanic battery owe their currents to chemical change1 and it is only since the middle of the century that any other source of electric energy has become available for practical purposes4 ,it is not surprising1 therefore1 that many thinkers should have sought to identify chemical and electric force1 the two have so much in common4 ,it was with the galvanic current that ,davy decomposed the alkalies1 and since his day other electro-chemical decompositions have been studied in great number1 to the development of important industries4 ,to the action of the current upon metallic solutions we owe the electrotype and all our processes for electroplating1 and these represent only the beginnings of usefulness4 ,even now1 almost daily1 advances are being made in the practical applications of electrolysis1 and the forward movement is likely to continue throughout the coming century4 ,from the curiously reversible chemical reactions of the secondary battery the automobile derives its power1 and here again we find a field for invention so large that its limits are beyond our sight4 ,from every peak that science can scale new ranges come into view4 ,the solution of one problem always creates another1 and this fact gives to scientific investigation its chief interest4 ,we gain1 only to see that more gain is possible2 the opportunity for advance is infinite4 ,forever and ever thought can reach out into the unknown1 and never need to weep because there are no more worlds to conquer4 ,it was the study of electro-chemical changes which led ,berzelius to his electro-chemical theory of combination1 and then to the dualistic theory1 which has already been mentioned4 ,in or about the year #ahcb1 when the ,berzelian doctrines were at the summit of their fame1 ,faraday showed that the chemical power of a current was directly proportioned to the quantity of electricity which passed1 and this led him to believe that chemical affinity and electric energy were identical4 ,electrolysis1 the electrical decomposition of compounds in solution1 was a special object of his attention1 and by quantitative methods he found that the changes produced could be stated in terms of chemical equivalents or combining numbers4 ,one equivalent weight of zinc consumed in the galvanic battery yields a current which will deposit one equivalent of silver from its solution1 or which1 decomposing water1 will liberate one equivalent each of oxygen and hydrogen4 ,all electro-chemical changes followed this simple law1 which gave new emphasis to the atomic theory1 and furnished a new means for measuring the combining numbers4 ,in the early days of electro-chemistry the products of electrolysis were studied in the light of the dualistic theory4 ,but as chemical investigation along other lines overthrew this hypothesis1 a closer examination of electrolytic reactions became necessary4 ,electrical decompositions were dualistic in character1 but the dualism was not that taught by ,berzelius4 ,when a salt1 dissolved in water1 is decomposed by the current it is separated into two parts1 which ,faraday called its ions2 in ,berzelian terms these were in most cases oxides1 but this conclusion fitted only a part of the facts1 and finally was abandoned4 ,whatever the ions might be1 they were not ordinary oxides4 ,many and long were the investigations bearing upon this subject before a satisfactory settlement was reached4 ,the phenomena observed in solutions1 raised still another question1 that of the nature of solution itself1 and this is not yet fully answered4 ,two lines of study1 however1 have converged1 within recent years1 to some remarkable conclusions1 the latest large development of chemical theory4 ,it has long been known that solutions of salts do not freeze so easily as pure water1 and also that their boiling points are higher4 ,in #ahhc ,raoult discovered a remarkable relation between the freezing point of a solution and the molecular weight of the substance dissolved1 a relation which has since been elaborately studied by many investigators4 ,from either the freezing-point depression or the elevation of the boiling point the molecular weight of a soluble compound can now be calculated1 and many uncertain molecular weights have thus been determined4 ,another phenomenon connected with solutions1 which has received much attention1 is that of osmotic pressure4 ,a salt in solution exercises a definite pressure1 quantitatively measurable1 which is curiously analogous to the pressure exerted by gases4 ,in a gas the molecules are widely separated1 and move about with much freedom4 ,in a very dilute solution the molecules of a salt are similarly separated1 and are also comparatively free to move4 ,the kinetic theory of gases1 therefore1 is now paralleled by a kinetic theory of solutions1 founded by ,van t',hoff in #ahhg1 which is now generally accepted4 ,all the well-established laws connecting pressure1 temperature1 and volume among gases find their equivalents in the phenomena exhibited by solutions4 ,in ,avogadro's law we learn that equal volumes of gases1 under like conditions of temperature and pressure1 contain equal numbers of molecules4 ,according to the new generalizations1 equal volumes of different solutions1 if they exert the same osmotic pressure1 also contain equal numbers of molecules4 ,the parallelism is perfect4 ,with these relations the freezing- and boiling-point phenomena are directly connected4 ,but1 both for gases and for solutions some apparent anomalies existed4 ,certain compounds1 when vaporized1 seemed not to conform to ,avogadro's law1 and called for explanation4 ,this proved to be simple1 and was supplied by the fact that the anomalous compound1 as such1 did not exist as vapor1 but was split up1 dissociated1 into other things4 ,for instance1 ammonium chloride1 above a certain temperature1 is decomposed into a mixture of two gases--hydrochloric acid and ammonia--which1 on cooling1 reunite and reproduce the original compound4 ,twice as much vapor as is required by theory1 and specifically half as heavy1 is produced by this transformation1 which is only one of a large class1 all well understood4 ,in the case of solutions it was found that certain compounds1 notably the acids1 alkalies1 and metallic salts1 caused a depression of freezing point which was twice as great as ought to be expected4 ,this fact was illuminated by the phenomena observed in gases1 and soon it was seen that here too a splitting up of molecules1 a true dissociation1 occurred4 ,these anomalous solutions1 moreover1 were electrolytes--that is1 they conducted electricity and underwent electrolytic decompositions--while normal substances1 especially solutions of carbon compounds1 such as sugar1 were not4 ,van t',hoff's discoveries went far1 but one more step was needed1 and this was taken by ,arrhenius in #ahhh4 ,electrolytic compounds1 when dissolved1 are actually dissociated into their ions1 partially so in a strong solution1 entirely so in one which is infinitely dilute1 a statement which leads to some extraordinary conclusions4 ,for instance1 the ions of common salt are sodium and chlorine4 ,in a dilute solution the salt itself ceases to exist1 while atoms of sodium and atoms of chlorine wander about1 chemically separated from each other but still in equilibrium4 ,sodium sulphate may be regarded as made up of two parts--sodium and an acid radicle which contains one atom of sulphur to four of oxygen--and these parts1 its ions1 are severed apart during solution to move about independent of each other4 ,this theory of ,arrhenius1 the theory of electrolytic dissociation1 is supported by many facts1 and fits in well with the kinetic theory of ,van t',hoff4 ,electrolysis is no longer to be considered as a separating process1 but rather as a sorting of the ions1 which receive different electrical charges and concentrate at the two electrical poles4 ,the phenomena of freezing and boiling points in solutions1 and of the absorption of heat when solid salts are dissolved1 all harmonize with the conclusions which have been reached4 ,a complete theory of solutions is yet to be proposed2 but these new doctrines1 which are true so far as they go1 represent a long step in the right direction4 ,a final theory will include them1 but they are not likely to be set aside4 ,as we near the end of the century we find one more discovery to note1 from a most unexpected quarter--the discovery of new gases in the atmosphere4 ,in #ahic ,lord ,rayleigh was at work upon new determinations of density1 with regard to the more important gases4 ,in the case of nitrogen an anomaly appeared3 nitrogen obtained from the atmosphere was found to be very slightly heavier than that prepared from chemical sources1 but the difference was so slight that it might almost have been ignored4 ,to ,rayleigh1 however1 such a procedure was inadmissible1 and he sought for an explanation of his results4 ,joining forces with ,ramsay1 the observed discrepancies were hunted down1 and in #ahid the discovery of argon was announced4 ,ramsay soon found in certain rare minerals another new gas--helium--whose spectral lines had previously been noted in the spectrum of the sun2 and still later1 working with liquid air1 he discovered four more of these strange elements--krypton1 xenon1 neon1 and metargon4 ,by extreme accuracy of measurement this chain of discovery was started1 and1 as some one has aptly said1 it represents the triumph of the third decimal4 ,a noble dissatisfaction with merely approximate data was the motive which initiated the work4 ,to the chemist these new gases are sorely puzzling4 ,they come from a field which was thought to be exhausted1 and cause us to wonder why they were not found before4 ,the reason for the oversight is plain3 the gases are devoid of chemical properties1 at least none have yet been certainly observed4 ,they are colorless1 tasteless1 odorless1 inert2 so far they have been found to be incapable of union with other elements2 apart from some doubtful experiments of ,berthelot1 they form no chemical compounds4 ,under the periodic law they are difficult to classify2 they seem to belong nowhere2 they simply exist1 unsocial1 alone4 ,only by their density1 their spectra1 and some physical properties can these intractable new forms of matter be identified4 ,in a sketch like this a host of discoveries must remain unnoticed1 and others can be barely mentioned4 ,the isolation of fluorine and the manufacture of diamonds by ,moissan1 the synthesis of sugars by ,fischer1 the discovery of soluble forms of silver by ,carey ,lea--all these achievements and many more must be passed over4 ,something1 however1 needs to be said upon the utilitarian aspects of chemistry1 and concerning its influence upon other sciences4 ,portions of this field have been touched in the preceding pages2 the interdependence of chemistry and physics is already evident2 other subjects now demand our attention4 ,medicine and physiology are both debtors to chemistry for much of their advancement1 and in more than one way4 ,from the chemist medicine has received a host of new remedies1 some new processes1 and advanced methods for the diagnosis of disease4 ,the staining of tissues for identification under the microscope is effected by chemical agents1 the analysis of urine helps to identify disorders of the kidneys2 nitrous oxide1 chloroform1 ether1 and cocaine almost abolish pain4 ,the disinfection of the sick-room and the antiseptic methods which go far toward the creation of modern surgery all depend upon chemical products whose long list increases year by year4 ,crude drugs are now replaced by active principles discovered in the laboratory--morphine1 quinine1 and the like--and instead of the bulky1 nauseous draughts of olden time1 the invalid is given tasteless capsules of gelatin or compressed tablets of uniform strength and more accurately graded power4 ,a great part of physiology consists of the study of chemical processes1 the transformation of compounds within the living organism1 and practically all this advance is the creation of the nineteenth century4 ,modern bacteriology1 at least in its practical applications1 began with a chemical discussion between ,liebig and ,pasteur as to the nature of fermentation3 step by step the field of exploration has enlarged2 as the result of the investigations we have preventive medicine1 more perfect sanitation1 and antiseptic surgery4 ,the ptomaines which cause disease and the antitoxins which prevent it are alike chemical in their nature1 and were discovered by chemical methods4 ,physiology without chemistry could not exist2 even the phenomena of respiration were meaningless before the discovery of oxygen4 ,the human body is a chemical laboratory1 and without the aid of the chemist its mysteries can not be unraveled4 ,to agriculture also chemistry is a potent ally1 whose value can hardly be overrated4 ,it has created fertilizers and insecticides for the use of the farmer and taught their intelligent use1 and in the many experiment stations of the world it is daily discovering facts or principles which are practically applicable to agriculture4 ,the beet-sugar industry was developed by chemical researches and chemical methods2 the arts of the dairy have been chemically improved2 the food of all civilized nations is better and more abundant than it was before the chemist gave his aid to its production4 ,adulteration1 always practiced1 is now easily detected by chemical analysis1 and1 though the evil still exists1 the remedy for it is in sight4 ,to ,liebig1 who gave to agricultural chemistry its first great impulse forward1 mankind is indebted to an amount which is beyond all computation4 ,in manufactures the influence of chemistry is seen at every turn4 ,when the century began1 probably no industrial establishment in the world dreamed of maintaining a chemical laboratory2 to-day1 hundreds are well equipped and often heavily manned for the sole benefit of the intelligent manufacturer4 ,coal gas is a chemical product2 its by-products are ammonia and coal tar2 from the latter1 as we have seen1 hundreds of useful substances1 the discoveries of the last half century1 are prepared4 ,better and cheaper soap and glass owe their existence to chemical improvement in the making of alkalies2 chemical bleaching has replaced the tedious action of sunlight and dew2 chemical dyestuffs give our modern fabrics nearly all their hues4 ,metallurgy is almost wholly a group of chemical processes2 every metal is extracted from its ores by methods which rest on chemical foundations2 analyses of fuel1 flux1 and product go on side by side with the smelting4 ,the cyanide and chlorination processes for gold1 the ,bessemer process for steel1 are apt illustrations of the advances in chemical metallurgy2 but before these come into play the dynamite of the miner1 another chemical invention1 must have done its work underground4 ,for rare minerals1 the mere curiosities of twenty years ago1 uses have been found2 from monazite we obtain the oxides which form the mantle of the ,welsbach burner2 from beauxite1 aluminum is made4 ,the former waste products of many an industry have also revealed unsuspected values1 and chemistry has the sole honor of their discovery4 ,in education1 chemistry has steadily grown in importance1 until a single university may have need of as many as twenty chemists in its teaching staff1 teaching not only what is already known1 but also the art of research4 ,as a disciplinary study1 chemistry ranks high in the college curriculum1 and it opens the way to a new learned profession1 equal in rank with those of more ancient standing4 ,for the material advancement of mankind the nineteenth century has done more than all the preceding ages combined1 and science has been the chief instrument of progress4 ,scientific methods1 experimental investigation1 have replaced the old empiricism1 and no man can imagine where the forward movement is to end4 ,hitherto research has been sporadic1 individual1 unorganized2 but fruitful beyond all anticipation4 ,in the future it should become more systematic1 better organized1 richer in facilities4 ,through laboratories equipped for research alone the twentieth century must work1 and chemistry is entitled to its fair share of the coming opportunities4 ,the achievements of the chemist1 great as they have been during this century1 are but a beginning2 the larger possibilities are ahead4 ,the greatest laws are yet undiscovered2 the invitation of the unknown was never more distinct than now4 ,,mount ,,tamalpais4 ,,by ,,marsden ,,manson1 ,c4 ,e41 ,,ph4,d4 ,mount ,tamalpais is the southern and terminating peak of the westerly ridge of the ,coast ,range1 which confronts the ,pacific ,ocean from the ,golden ,gate to the ,oregon line4 ,its outliers form the bold headlands which skirt the ,golden ,gate and adjacent waters to the north1 and which bound the peninsula constituting ,marin ,county4 ,the spurs extending to the east reach the shores of the ,bay of ,san ,francisco1 and inclose small alluvial valleys of great fertility and beauty4 ,in some instances these valley lands are fringed by tidal marshes1 in part reclaimed and under cultivation4 ,the top of the mountain breaks into three distinct peaks1 each reaching an altitude of nearly half a mile above sea level1 although bounded on three sides by tidal waters4 ,no land points visible from the summit1 except those bounding the apparent horizon1 reach equal or greater altitude4 ,the mountain is therefore a marked feature from all parts of the area visible from its summit1 which area has an extent of about eight thousand square miles4 ,the adjoined photographic reproduction of a portion of a relief map of the ,state gives a general idea of the adjacent land1 bay1 and ocean areas4 ,the westerly group of islands1 opposite the ,golden ,gate1 are the ,farallones4 ,the bold headland northwest of the ,gate is ,point ,reyes2 it protects from the north and northwest winds the anchorage known as ,drake's ,bay4 ,the strip of water between the adjoining peninsula and the mainland is ,tomales ,bay4 ,the most westerly headland south of the ,golden ,gate is ,san ,pedro ,point1 and the prominent headland farther south is ,pescadero ,point4 ,the whole of ,san ,francisco ,bay is visible from ,mount ,tamalpais1 except a few sheltered nooks and portions behind islands4 ,illustration3 ,,vicinity ,,of ,,the ,,golden ,,gate4 ,the tidal area inside the ,golden ,gate is about seven hundred and forty square miles at high tide2 this includes that portion which extends east of the ,coast ,range into the valley of ,california1 and known as ,suisun ,bay2 this bay is connected with ,san ,francisco ,bay through the ,straits of ,carquinez and ,san ,pablo ,bay4 ,emptying into ,suisun ,bay at its easterly end are the ,sacramento and ,san ,joaquin ,rivers4 ,thus the tidal waters washing the base of ,mount ,tamalpais are connected with the interior valley of ,california1 and tributary to them are about twelve hundred miles of navigable channels1 tapping the central part of the ,state4 ,from the summit of this peak the eye sweeps the horizon of the ,pacific ,ocean for nearly one hundred and fifty degrees4 ,to the northwest1 north1 and northeast lie ,petaluma1 ,santa ,rosa1 ,sonoma1 and ,napa ,valleys1 the view over these being bounded by the ridges inclosing them4 ,to the east are the ,straits of ,carquinez1 the outlet of the fifty-eight thousand square miles of drainage of the ,sacramento and ,san ,joaquin ,rivers1 and the only water gap in the entire perimeter4 ,from the east to the south lie the slopes of the ,contra ,costa ,hills and the ranges bounding the drainage into the ,bay of ,san ,francisco1 and including the ,santa ,clara ,valley1 thus embracing a magnificent view of the garden spots of ,california1 and the cities and towns around the bay--the homes of about one third the population of the ,state4 ,three prominent peaks mark the limits of the land view3 ,mount ,hamilton1 the site of the ,lick ,observatory of the ,university of ,california2 ,mount ,diablo1 the base and meridian of the ,united ,states land surveys of central ,california2 and ,mount ,st4 ,helena1 a volcanic peak the summit of which is common to ,napa1 ,sonoma1 and ,lake ,counties1 and whose spurs are noted for their quicksilver mines1 mineral and hot springs4 ,illustration3 ,,map ,,showing ,,location ,,of ,,railroad ,,from ,,mill ,,valley ,,to ,,summit ,,of ,,mount ,,tamalpais4 ,the plant life of the immediate ,tamalpais region is abundant and interesting2 the flowering plants are represented by about eighty orders1 three hundred and fifty genera1 and from seven to eight hundred species1 of which about one hundred are trees and shrubs4,f ,some of the ,sierra forms occur on ,mount ,tamalpais1 and it is also the locus of the most southerly extension of certain boreal species4 ,owing to the wide range of temperature1 moisture conditions1 and exposures1 many of these plants can be found in bloom during every week in the year4 ,during the warm1 moist autumn and winter the hardiest species bloom from ,october to ,april in protected areas1 and in the cold1 exposed areas these same species require the heat of the season from ,april to ,september to bring them into bloom4 ,thus1 within a radius of four or five miles from the summit there is not a week in the year when the flowers of certain species can not be gathered--this in face of the fact that during the months of ,december1 ,january1 and ,february the summit may be covered with sleet or snow for a day or two at a time4 ,f ,estimated by ,miss ,eastwood1 curator of the ,department of ,botany of the ,california ,academy of ,sciences4 ,mount ,tamalpais is therefore a point of great interest to the sight-seer1 the tourist1 and the student of ,nature4 ,illustration3 ,view of ,summit from a ,point ,sixteen ,hundred ,feet above ,tide4 ,,modes ,,of ,,reaching ,,the ,,summit4--,for many years a trail has existed from ,mill ,valley to the summit1 and another from ,ross ,valley1 both practicable for pack mules4 ,later the ,ross ,valley trail was improved so as to be practicable for light vehicles1 but these did not answer the needs of the increasing travel1 and in #ahie the ,mill ,valley and ,mount ,tamalpais ,scenic ,railway ,company was organized4 ,the purpose of this company was bold--to construct a traction railroad from tide level to the summit of a peak not two miles off and nearly half a mile high appeared visionary1 if not impossible1 to many4 ,but with persevering skill a road was located upon a line #h4ai miles long1 having an average grade of five and a half per cent and maximum grades of seven per cent1 and overcoming #b1cec feet elevation in this distance4 ,four and nine tenths miles are curved1 the minimum radius being seventy feet4 ,owing to the rough and ravine-cut topography1 twenty-five trestles were necessary1 the curvature and grade being maintained over these4 ,in order to reduce the cost of grading and to develop sufficient length to overcome the elevation1 the grade contour was followed as closely as possible4 ,the very short radius employed permitted this to be done without tunnels and with but two through cuts4 ,the accompanying map1 prepared from the ,united ,states ,coast and ,geodetic charts and the maps and profiles of the company1 gives a general idea of the location and main features4 ,to the student of railroad location it forms an interesting exhibit of the extreme flexibility of railway location4 ,the rails are steel1 fifty-seven pounds to the yard1 laid to standard gauge upon the ordinary redwood ties in use on the ,pacific coast4 ,grading1 trestle work1 and laying cost about #ee1jjj4 ,the entire road cost #acf1gdf4dd1 or practically #af1gjj per mile4 ,the equipment consists of one thirty-ton geared locomotive 7,heisler71 one twenty-ton geared locomotive 7,shay71 six open canopy-top observation cars1 one half-closed passenger car1 and two flat cars4 ,cost of equipment1 #bb1dej4;,g ,g ,the writer is indebted to the officers of the ,mill ,valley and ,mount ,tamalpais ,scenic ,railway for the above accurate statistics4 ,illustration3 ,,view ,,from ,,summit ,,of ,,mount ,,tamalpais ,,hotel ,,at ,,terminus4 ,the locomotives and cars are very thoroughly provided with brakes3 first1 the ,westinghouse automatic air brake2 second1 a water brake2 and1 third1 a powerful hand brake to each locomotive and car4 ,the efficiency of this equipment is attested in the operation of the road without accident or injury of any kind4 ,the locomotives are always operated on the lower end of trains1 and the maximum speed allowed is eight miles per hour4 ,the ride up the winding caons and through the superb scenery traversed by this road is a treat of which one never tires4 ,the point of view1 the direction1 and the character of the landscape are continually changing4 ,with no deep cuts1 no tunnels1 facing first one and then the other and finally all the points of the compass1 sweeping around spurs1 with distant views of land and sea1 and near views of great beauty2 then facing the steep sides of the mountain1 its geology and flora affording interesting pictures2 then over trestles with the branches of the bay1 redwood1 madroo1 oak1 and manzanita just out of reach--all these form beauties and attractions possessed by no other road known to the writer4 ,a faint idea of the appearance of the road and of the scenery may be had from the appended photographs4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,double ,,bow4 ,,the ,,meteorological ,,station4--,the advantages of ,mount ,tamalpais as a meteorological station have long been recognized1 and many efforts have been made to utilize them4 ,it frequently projects many hundreds of feet above fogs which cover the adjacent shores1 and during these periods one can look out upon an ocean of rolling1 fleecy clouds which break upon the mountains around its base and visible from its summit4 ,this freedom from obscuring conditions gives an opportunity to more freely observe and study meteorological phenomena1 and caused the ,weather ,bureau to make a series of preliminary observations in #ahig1 and1 these resulting favorably1 a fully equipped permanent station was subsequently built4 ,the results have fully equaled expectations4 ,the advantages of the location may be briefly summarized as follows3 #a4 ,it is close to the coast line1 and is so elevated that it is not seriously affected by the local indraught of air through the ,golden ,gate and adjacent gaps in the ,coast ,range4 ,this local indraught is a disturbing and often a misleading factor in all observations taken near and south of the ,golden ,gate for at least a score of miles4 ,the elevated station on top of the peak eliminates the source of errors based upon observations at lower stations1 and enables the forecast official to determine the effects of the local disturbances1 and thus to give observations taken at or near sea level their true weight at the proper time4 #b4 ,no station in the ,united ,states has so full and free a projection into the lower third of the vapor-bearing stratum as has the station on this peak4 ,no other station furnishes1 as it does1 an opportunity to study the distribution of vapor in the lower third of that stratum of the atmosphere1 the physics of which is most important to human life and industries4 #c4 ,in studying the phenomena connected with the occurrence of fog1 this station furnishes highly valuable data that could be obtained from no other2 and1 again1 enables the student of weather lore to correct misleading impressions and deductions based upon observations taken below the one-thousand-foot contour above sea level4 ,on the #afth of ,june1 #ahii1 the observations taken on ,mount ,tamalpais marked a difference of about thirty degrees in temperature over those around its base4 ,in ,san ,francisco1 at ,point ,lobos and at ,point ,reyes1 the temperature was down to #dh1 while on ,mount ,tamalpais it was #gi1 thus marking an approaching change in weather conditions1 and giving the ,weather ,bureau the first opportunity of using the vertical temperature gradient in forecasting4 ,as a station for furnishing the data for a study of the problems of the physics of the atmosphere ,mount ,tamalpais is of further importance1 as it stands near the easterly limits of the great area of high pressure which1 during summer1 lies over the ,north ,pacific and which dominates the climatic phenomena of ,california for the greater portion of the year4 ,stations on the ,hawaiian ,islands to the south and others on the ,aleutian ,islands to the north of this area of high pressure will still further aid in the solution of the great and vital problems now before meteorologists4 ,these stations are the most reliable ones which can surround on three sides the two great 8weather breeders0--the 8summer high0 and the 8winter low0 of the ,north ,pacific4 ,,international ,,law ,,and ,,the ,,peace ,,conference4 ,,by ,,james ,,harris ,,vickery1 ,,ll4 ,b4 8,in truth these #8cut-and-dried' schemes are of no value at all1 unless as monuments of the mingled simplicity and ingenuity of their authors40--,,lawrence4 ,the view has been very generally entertained that all efforts to promote the cause of peace and order in the world by cut-and-dried schemes are bound to fail1 and it must be admitted that few truer words have been written than those which stand at the head of this article4 ,but this truth1 like some others1 may be abused4 ,evidences are not wanting to show that the incredulity which preceded the convening of the ,peace ,conference1 the skepticism which marked its first sessions1 and a certain want of faith which has since been manifested in various quarters in the practical value of the measures adopted1 are all mainly due to a misapplication of this truth4 ,the measures formulated at ,the ,hague do not constitute a 8cut-and-dried scheme10 but1 on the contrary1 they form an additional step in a natural1 healthy1 and orderly evolution of the forces of peace which have so effectively asserted themselves in the improvement of international relations during the latter half of this century4,h ,h ,for an excellent statement of the work of the ,conference from the ,german point of view1 see ,die vlkerrechtlichen ,ergebnisse der ,haager ,conferenz1 by ,professor ,zorn1 of ,knigsberg1 one of the ,german delegates1 published in the ,deutsche ,rundschau1 ,january et seq4 ,,the ,,geneva ,,red ,,cross ,,rules4--,the first matter to which attention will be invited is the extension of the ,red ,cross rules to naval warfare4 ,the ,geneva ,convention of #ahfd1 which marks the beginning of the organization known as the ,red ,cross ,society1 inaugurated a vast and beneficent improvement in the then existing usage of nations as regarded the care of the sick and wounded in war4 ,its two salient features are the neutralization of the officers and forces of the society and the disabled soldiers under their care1 and the establishment of a system to govern the conduct of its humane work4 ,at the dawn of modern international law during the first quarter of the seventeenth century not only the sick and wounded of a vanquished foe1 but every prisoner1 and even women and children1 suffered to the fullest the indignities and cruelties incident to the rough warfare of the age2 but the growth of mercy has softened the asperities of war1 and among the milestones that mark this advance toward a more humane usage the ,red ,cross ,society holds an honored place4 ,under its rules the sick and wounded were no longer left to the irregular and capricious care of private benevolence1 but were made the subject of organized and systematic treatment by a staff of skilled physicians and experienced nurses provided with hospital and ambulance facilities1 and1 thus equipped and assured the protection of both combatants1 they were able to work effectively in their ministrations to the sick and dying4 ,vast as was this progress from the days when at the siege of ,acre the first real attention since the dark ages was given to the wounded by the ,order of ,teutonic ,knights1 there was still one serious imperfection that limited its sphere of usefulness--it did not apply to warfare on the seas4 ,an effort had indeed been made in #ahfh to extend the ,red ,cross rules to naval warfare1 but it failed1 and the wounded in conflicts on the sea continued to be left to the old provisions1 which were necessarily inadequate and could not be exercised under the joint protection of the combatants4 ,the virtue of the good ,samaritan is a potent force1 but to be fully effective on the field of battle it must be exercised under a common system established and maintained by the mutual consent of nations4 ,it would1 however1 be a mistake to suppose that because the effort made in #ahfh to extend these rules to sea warfare failed on account of their non-ratification1 they were not sustained by public opinion4 ,many difficulties1 especially those of a technical character1 stood in the way2 but public opinion was ever growing in their favor1 and it eventually came to be regarded as an anomaly that while the care of the sick and wounded in land warfare had been regulated upon a common basis of international agreement1 no similar provision existed for the care of the victims of naval combat4 ,without some such extension of the rules no adequate expression could be given to the growing humanity of the age4 ,for these reasons it will be obvious that the next step necessary in the further development of the ,red ,cross work consisted of its extension to naval warfare4 ,the ,peace ,conference subjected the ,convention of #ahfd and the additional rules of #ahfh to a careful examination1 considered at length the difficulties in the way1 and finally adopted a new series of rules providing for an organized staff of physicians and nurses1 with hospital ships and life-saving appliances1 which shall1 without interfering with operations1 be henceforth employed in naval engagements and enjoy the protection of both combatants4 ,the newly formulated rules1 in conjunction with the previous ones relating to land warfare1 are the practical embodiment of the growing feelings of humanity and mercy in the conduct of warfare which1 commencing with the ,peace of ,westphalia1 has been ever more and more effective in securing the evolution of a better usage4 ,,the ,,brussels ,,rules4--,so1 too1 with reference to the rules governing the conduct of armies in the field the work of the conference represents a sound and healthy evolution4 ,it may be remarked1 by way of preface1 that the old idea of war regarded hostilities as working the absolute interruption of all relations between belligerents1 save those arising from force2 it also regarded the enemy as a proper object of violence and depredation4 ,even in the time of ,grotius the universal usage permitted the putting to death of all persons found in the enemy's territory1 and in the terrible struggles of the ,thirty ,years' ,war in ,germany and the ,eighty ,years' ,war in the ,netherlands the story of the fate of men1 women1 and children at the hands of a conquering soldiery forms one of the darkest chapters in human history4 ,but while ,grotius declared this to be the usage1 he also took care to point out that considerations of justice and mercy dictate a better course1 and he made a distinction between certain classes1 declaring that justice requires the belligerent to spare those who have done no wrong to him1 especially old men1 priests1 husbandmen1 merchants1 prisoners1 women1 and children4 ,this merciful distinction was eagerly seized upon by his successors1 who gradually developed out of it different rules for the treatment of the 8combatant0 and 8non-combatant0 portion of the enemy inhabitants4 ,after the ,peace of ,westphalia in #afdh1 which marked the close of the great struggles that had so long convulsed ,europe1 the older and more brutal customs fell into disuse1 and the theory that only so much stress should be put upon an enemy1 and primarily upon the combatant portion1 as was sufficient to destroy his power of resistance was substituted for it4 ,along with this new usage grew the ever-increasing rights of neutrals1 among them being that of trade and commerce with the non-combatant portion of belligerent states1 which has done so much to lighten the hardships of war suffered by those devoted to peaceful pursuits in the enemy's territory4 ,the next important step in this evolution belongs to the present century1 and is due to the enlightened initiative of the ,united ,states4 ,this step consisted in the preparation of a manual containing a code of rules for the conduct of land warfare4 ,keenly alive to the inevitable sufferings incident to the great civil conflict then being waged1 ,abraham ,lincoln commissioned ,francis ,lieber to prepare a series of rules for the conduct of the armies of the republic in the field which should set bounds to the passions of the soldiery4,i ,in pursuance of this commission1 a code of rules was prepared and adopted which has since been known as ,lieber's ,manual2 it was published in #ahfc1 and proved a blessing to soldier and civilian alike4 ,so obvious1 indeed1 were its good results that other nations rapidly followed the lead of the ,united ,states1 and similar manuals were issued by ,great ,britain1 ,france1 ,germany1 ,russia1 and other powers4 ,i ,see ,pierantoni1 ,die ,fortschritte des ,vlkerrechts im neunzehnten ,jahrhundert4 ,but while ,lieber's ,manual was thus taken as the model by various nations1 there were inevitably developed serious divergencies in the rules and details4 ,recognizing the desirability of a common code1 which should be binding upon all nations1 ,alexander ,,ii of ,russia attempted to secure the united action of the leading states1 and1 pursuant to his initiative1 the ,conference of ,brussels was called in #ahgd4 ,in the sessions of this conference the rules already developed were carefully examined1 and ultimately a series of articles1 well calculated to form the basis for an excellent international code1 was adopted4 ,as the delegates1 however1 had not been given plenary powers by their respective governments1 their action was necessarily ineffective without subsequent ratification4 ,upon this rock the conference was wrecked1 and the rules which it had formulated acquired no binding authority4 ,but indirectly they had a most happy effect1 for they worked as a unifying influence in the preparation of subsequent manuals and the amendment of existing ones4 ,the increasing interest in the subject thus stimulated led the ,institute of ,international ,law to give the matter still further thought1 with the result that that eminent body of jurists in #ahhj adopted a very full and excellent code1 which gave evidence of much advance in the knowledge of the subject4 ,but neither the ,brussels rules nor the code of the ,institute of ,international ,law possessed any binding authority1 save in so far as they embodied generally accepted usage2 their influence1 however1 increased the tendency in the direction of a common manual such as that which ,alexander ,,ii had hoped to secure--a hope which has now been realized1 and in a manner worthy of the subject4 ,this logical step1 too long delayed1 is due to the ,peace ,conference4 ,it devoted most careful consideration to the various codes1 and has enriched1 extended1 and unified the rules and improved the whole by many valuable provisions suggested by the intervening experience4 ,altogether1 the result is a splendid example of a natural evolution which1 commencing with the distinction between 8combatant0 and 8non-combatant0 founded on the considerations of mercy and justice pleaded by ,grotius1 subsequently recognized in the ,peace of ,westphalia1 increasingly practiced since then1 and at the instance of ,lincoln embodied in a manual1 has now led to the adoption of a common international code for the conduct of future armies in the field--a result which marks the triumph in our day of the conception of civilized warfare tempered with mercy over the old idea of indiscriminate and inhuman slaughter4 ,,the ,,sphere ,,of ,,arbitration4--,a matter that has given rise to much speculation is the jurisdiction of arbitral tribunals4 ,it has come to be recognized that a distinction must be made between different classes of international disputes4 ,what may be called 8business disputes0 between states1 such as boundary lines1 tariffs1 damages1 fishery claims1 questions of citizenship1 and various treaty arrangements--like the most-favored nation clause--are all fit subjects for arbitration4,j ,but the graver questions involving the consideration of national policy and aspirations1 vital interests and honor1 race and religious prejudices and passions1 and last of all self-preservation1 are1 at least for the present1 far beyond the competence of an arbitration tribunal4,k ,j ,see ,essai sur l',organisation de l',arbitrage ,international1 by ,m4 ,descamps1 p4 #bd4 ,k ,the ,transvaal ,war pertinently illustrates the prevailing want of knowledge regarding the true sphere of arbitration4 ,ever since the outbreak of war the ,continental press and some ,american papers have been asking why the provisions of the ,peace ,conference are not put in operation4 ,much of this is due to anglophobia2 much to a genuine ignorance of the matter4 ,the treatment of the subject usually takes the form of an antithesis in which ,great ,britain as a peace power at the conference is contrasted with ,greater ,britain making war on a little republic1 and this is invariably followed with a statement or inference that the ,peace ,conference was a huge farce1 and the ,permanent ,court a dire failure4 ,it is now quite plain that the root of the difficulty between ,england and the ,transvaal was not the franchise nor the dynamite monopoly1 but ,english versus ,dutch predominancy in the whole of ,south ,africa1 and therefore a grave clash of two opposing policies1 involving the deepest questions of interest and even self-preservation4 ,regarding these questions the conference was unanimous in the opinion that they are entirely outside the sphere of arbitrable question4 ,if the list of arbitral decisions hitherto given be examined it will show that questions of the first sort above are those which have thus far been submitted to judicial settlement4,l ,it is therefore in harmony with past experience that the conference1 in generally defining the scope of arbitration1 declared it to be intended for the settlement of 8questions of a juridical nature10 especially the interpretation and application of international agreements upon the basis of respect for law4,m ,the frequency of these 8business questions0 is on the increase2 they seriously embarrass diplomatic representatives1 whose proper duty is the conduct of graver matters of policy1 and there is a growing disposition to submit them to legal settlement4 ,under these circumstances1 there is little doubt that the time has come when the system of special temporary courts of arbitration1 splendid as their work has been1 must give way to a more adequate system--they were indeed but stepping stones to a more permanent organization4 ,under the old system each power was likely to wait for the other to take the initiative2 then came a squabble as to just how much and what part of the difficulty should be submitted to arbitration1 then a squabble about judges1 then a squabble about procedure1 place of trial1 and so on--all was unpreparedness1 uncertainty1 and meantime angry passions had full play4 ,l ,see especially the list given in the back of ,darby's ,international ,tribunals1 p4 #bhf4 ,m ,see ,article ,,xv of the ,convention4 ,in the preparation for war the modern state lays no end of force on the necessity for a rapid and systematic mobilization4 ,the weak point1 however1 in preparing for a judicial contest hitherto has been the absence of any system by which to 8mobilize judges and counsel0 and get the legal forces out into the field4 ,to attain this end the scheme presented by ,lord ,pauncefote and unanimously adopted by the conference will be found to be a most striking example of the happy adaptation of a means to an end where the way seemed blocked by infinite difficulties4 ,it consists of a few simple provisions for the establishment of an ,international ,bureau of ,arbitration with an ,administrative ,council1 and this1 with the addition of various other features drawn from the ,united ,states1 ,russia1 ,france1 and ,italy1 with some others1 constitutes the composite plan embodied in the ,final ,act4 ,in brief outline it is as follows3 ,,permanent ,,court ,,of ,,arbitration4--,the diplomatic representatives of the signatory powers accredited to ,the ,hague1 including the ,netherlands ,minister of ,foreign ,affairs as president1,n are to constitute an administrative council4 ,this council shall organize and establish an ,international ,bureau of ,arbitration1 of which it shall retain the direction and control1 pursuant to the provisions of the conference4 ,this bureau shall serve as the office of the court1 and contain the archives1 and the routine business shall be conducted therein4 ,the signatory powers will each appoint four persons1 who shall be men of recognized ability in international law and of high character1 and the whole number of persons so appointed shall form a list or panel of members of the court1 or the international bench4 ,in case of a difficulty arising between two or more powers which they desire to submit to arbitration1 they agree to notify the bureau1 and the bureau will ask them to choose a certain number of judges from the panel1 and these shall constitute the special bench4,o ,an agreement is then to be drawn up stating the object of the litigation and the powers of the arbitrators4 ,this agreement implies the engagement of the parties to submit in good faith to the sentence4 ,n ,the amendment to ,lord ,pauncefote's plan1 by which the ,dutch ,foreign ,minister was made the president1 is due to ,mr4 ,white1 ,president of the ,american ,commission4 ,o ,in case states1 between whom a dispute may arise1 do not of their own accord have recourse to the tribunal1 ,section #bg permits the powers to remind such states that the ,permanent ,court is open to them1 and the giving of this reminder is declared to be a duty in the superior interests of peace1 and is to be regarded only as an exercise of 8good offices40 ,to this section the ,united ,states agreed on condition that its consent should not be regarded as a departure from the well-known principles underlying the foreign policy of the ,republic4 ,,arbitral ,,procedure4--,for the purpose of promoting the development of arbitration certain simple rules are formulated4 ,the powers will appoint special agents1 who shall be intermediaries between them and the tribunal2 they will also appoint counsel4 ,the proceedings consist first of instruction--communications by the agents and counsel to the tribunal and the opposing party1 of the pleadings1 etc42 and1 secondly1 of argument--the oral development of the pleadings4 ,the argument being closed1 the bench shall deliberate in secret1 and a decision is to be reached by a majority vote4 ,the decision shall be written1 and is to contain the reasons of law and fact upon which it is based4 ,in case of disagreement1 the dissenting opinion shall also be written and contain the reasons therefor2 the signature of each member is to be added to his opinion4 ,subsequently the decision is to be read in open session1 in the presence of the agents and counsel of the parties4 ,to sum up3 it contains all the essentials2 it is immediately available1 provided with a permanent office1 with officials1 with a code of procedure1 with directions for the commencement of proceedings1 the presentation of cases1 the taking of evidence by an ,international ,commission of ,inquiry1 the oral explanation and argument of the printed case1 the pronouncement of sentence in open court1 the recording of such decision1 the subsequent rectification of an error therein on the discovery of new and important facts of a decisive character1 and the preservation of the records4,p ,p ,see ,articles ,,xv to ,,lvii of the ,convention4 ,,basis ,,for ,,future ,,evolution4--,with these essentials there is a basis for a future evolution until the court shall have become as perfect in its organization and details as the ,high ,courts of ,justice in ,england or the ,supreme ,court of the ,united ,states4 ,it may not be amiss here to suggest the influence which the permanent tribunal is calculated to exercise in the future development of international law4 ,the provision for a permanent bureau or record office1 in which the archives shall be kept1 is sure to prove a valuable condition for future growth1 for the deposit in such bureau of all arbitral decisions will mark the true beginning of what we may call 8,international ,law ,reports40 ,to this bureau the powers undertake to send certified copies of all special arbitration agreements1 whether embodied in treaties or otherwise2 to it also will be sent the result of all special arbitrations hereafter resorted to1 and in it will be deposited the papers1 pleadings1 and other documents1 and especially the decisions of the permanent court1 as well as those of any special courts which may hereafter be created from time to time4 ,these archives will thus furnish a wealth of material not locked up or available only by jurists of the particular state where they may happen to be situated1 as has too often been the case heretofore1 but accessible alike to the great text writers and commentators of all nations4 ,the criticisms and opinions of eminent text writers have heretofore been of great value in the improvement of international law1 and under these new and more favorable conditions their influence should be even more beneficial in the future4 ,to the works of text writers will in future be added the able discussions of counsel and the learned opinions of judges handed down in writing1 with the reasons upon which they are founded4,q ,where rules and usages are becoming obsolete or obviously hostile to the growth of opinion1 international judges may feel themselves bound for a time by them and give their decisions accordingly1 but they may embody in their written decisions an obiter dictum which shall prove the death knell of the old rule and the establishment of a healthier one4 ,many are the wholesome changes that have thus been wrought in ,english 8judge-made law0 as the direct result of learned and convincing obiter dicta4 ,q ,for an admirable example1 see the published proceedings of the ,paris ,tribunal in the ,venezuelan case4 ,the interest which will thus be stimulated in the whole subject of international law will promote its study in all nations4 ,hitherto this branch of legal education has been rather slighted2 not being regarded as essential to the ordinary practitioner1 it has been neglected for the petty provisions of some state code or involved corporation law1 but the influences already at work in favor of a more thorough and scholarly study of this branch will be effectively aided under the new conditions4 ,though the law of nations should be uniform in all countries1 a comparison of the leading works in different countries1 ,english and ,german for instance1 will reveal many differences partly traceable to the particular system of law in which the author was grounded1 and in part to his peculiar 8judicial instinct40 ,it is not often that one finds an ,english or ,american lawyer thoroughly grounded in the ,roman system and the modern ,continental systems founded upon it2 quite as rare is it to find a ,continental lawyer learned in the system of ,english jurisprudence4 ,there have been such men1 as1 for example1 ,rudolf ,gneist1 whose great work on ,english ,constitutional ,law and ,history has become a classic4 ,but1 as a rule1 there is among text writers on this branch of law and among the eminent jurists who have hitherto been connected with international tribunals much 8provincialism in thought and conception10 if the phrase may be allowed1 and to overcome it the future jurists who shall take part in international contests before the high tribunal of the nations will require to be more thoroughly grounded in the history and evolution of law in general and in the study of comparative law1 both private and public1 in particular1 than their predecessors have been4,r ,in this connection it is not too much to hope that the unifying influence of an international tribunal will eventually exercise a good effect in promoting the solution of various perplexing problems on the private side of international law1 or what is known as 8conflict of laws40 ,r ,as evidence of increased attention to this matter in ,germany1 see ,wertheim1 ,wrterbuch des ,englischen ,rechts4 ,having indicated some directions in which the growth of international law will be likely to be promoted by the tribunal1 the question suggests itself whether the jurisdiction of the international court will eventually be enlarged beyond the scope at present contemplated by the ,convention of ,the ,hague4 ,will the time ever come when such a court shall take cognizance of various matters which now lie without the sphere of 8business disputes and questions of a juridical nature0 and within that of essential interests1 honor1 race1 and religious policies and ideals8 ,the statement1 which is sometimes heard1 that such will never be the case1 does not seem warranted when we regard the growth of law in general1 and indeed the development of this particular branch of it1 in the past1 but it is safe to say that the time is a long way off2 it will depend on many things3 the efficiency of the court itself1 the continued growth of neutral rights1 the increasing necessity for preserving international peace1 and the infinite forces which have tended to widen the jurisdiction of municipal law4,s ,s ,see ,le ,droit de la ,paix1 by ,m4 ,descamps4 ,in the growth of systems of 8,national ,law0,t there has been evolved from small beginnings an ever-widening jurisdiction4 ,impartial courts have inspired confidence which stimulated individuals to seek their aid1 and this has reacted to extend their jurisdiction1 until now the most intimate and complex relations between individuals1 at one time wholly without their sphere1 are in these days submitted as a matter of course to judicial settlement4 ,even questions of individual honor are settled according to the well-developed principles of libel and slander which were once considered as requiring a duel for their satisfaction4 ,t ,in contradistinction to 8,international ,law40 ,a similar growth may be expected in the jurisdiction of the international tribunal4 ,upon the reputation which it shall succeed in establishing for impartiality1 freedom from race and national prejudices1 regard for broad principles of law and equity1 and the thoroughness and ability with which it shall discharge its high duties within its present sphere1 will largely depend the extent to which an advancing public opinion will enlarge its jurisdiction until it shall embrace various classes of questions now declared non-arbitrable4 ,no detailed classification1 however1 can be thought of2 each difficulty as it arises must be determined in view of the surrounding circumstances with due regard to the growing public feeling in favor of judicial settlement4 ,under the system of voluntary arbitration there is abundant room for growth1 for the onus will be thrown on each contending state to square its conduct with that growing feeling in favor of arbitration which it will become more and more difficult to ignore4 ,in every country the growth of law and the extension of the jurisdiction of the courts which administered it have been concurrent2 the same rule must govern in the field of international law4 ,there are vast fields at present untouched by the law of nations4 ,the discovery of the ,new ,world threw the jurists of that day into bewilderment as to how rights in the ,american continents might be acquired and established4 ,a period of doubt and dispute ensued1 until finally ,grotius1 by applying certain rules of ,roman law regarding the acquirement of rights by individuals through purchase1 possession1 etc41 and by inventing certain other rules1 helped to supply a legal foundation upon which the acquisition of these territories could be regulated4 ,looking toward the future1 one can see that1 since there are no more continents to be discovered and the habitable parts of the earth have been already taken possession of by the colonial pioneer1 the great principle of the survival of the fittest must henceforth mainly work itself out in competitions confined to the existing territories of the various powers4 ,this will necessitate the consideration of some deep questions concerning the life and death of nations and the heirship to their dominions4,u ,u ,vide ,contuzzi1 ,leggi di ,composizioni e di ,decomposizioni degli ,stati4 ,it is widely believed1 for instance1 that ,china is dying a natural death4 ,assuming it to be the fact1 what will be the rules to govern the inheritance of these ,oriental domains8 ,great ,britain1 ,russia1 ,germany1 the ,united ,states1 and other nations have acquired footholds and established interests within ,chinese territory4 ,disputes will inevitably arise between them2 many will be settled by mutual compromise in which1 perhaps1 the chief consideration will be the amount of warlike force behind the arguments advanced2 many others will be sure to find their way to an arbitral tribunal1 and before that body arguments will be made and by that body decisions will be handed down embracing principles not now to be found in the books1 but which the circumstances of the case and the demands of justice require4 ,and so will doubtless ensue a growth of 8international judge-made law and equity0 which will gradually work an extension of the arbitral jurisdiction into fields at present unknown to the law of nations4 ,one thing is certain3 the law so developed must not1 on the one hand1 be in conflict with the ,grotian doctrine of the equality of states as rightly understood1 nor1 on the other1 with that great all-pervading law of the survival of the fittest--a law which determines the destinies of men and nations alike4 ,,the ,,fate ,,of ,,the ,,beagle4 ,,by ,,the ,,rev4 ,v4 ,,marshall ,,law4 ,on the #bgth of ,december1 #ahca1 his ,majesty's ship ,beagle1 a ten-gun brig1 under the command of ,captain ,fitz ,roy1 ,r4 ,n41 sailed from ,devonport1 ,england1 on an expedition the purpose of which was to complete a survey of ,patagonia and ,tierra del ,fuego that had been begun under ,captain ,king 7#ahbf-'cj72 to survey the shores of ,chile and ,peru1 and of some islands in the ,pacific2 and to carry a chain of chronometrical measurements round the world4 ,the voyage was one of the most memorable ones in the annals of scientific exploration1 for1 besides the direct results1 which1 in the condition of geography and natural history at the time1 constituted very important additions to knowledge1 it carried ,charles ,darwin1 then young and full of the enthusiasm for study that never left him4 ,mr4 ,darwin accompanied the expedition on the invitation of its commander1 ,captain ,fitz ,roy1 and with the special sanction of the ,lords of the ,admiralty1 and1 as it turned out1 next to the captain of the vessel was perhaps the most important member of it4 ,he made it his special business to inquire into the character and method and the reason of all the natural objects and phenomena he saw1 examining what was in the sea while they were upon it1 and1 when they landed1 going ashore and studying the geography and geology and life of the region as thoroughly as the time of stay would permit1 and collecting no end of notes and specimens as material for future study4 ,illustration3 ,h4 ,m4 ,s4 ,,beagle ,,in ,,the ,,straits ,,of ,,magellan4 ,,mount ,,sarmiento ,,in ,,the ,,distance4 ,besides his elaborate work giving the full story of the expedition and the details of its scientific results--a book which has ever since been a standard authority1 and still keeps students in active discussion and investigation--the voyage of the ,beagle has to be credited with having supplied the occasion for the composition of the briefer and more popular account which has become one of the classics of ,english literature4 ,more than this1 and vastly transcending it in the importance of its bearing on the future of science1 it was while going round the world and observing on the ,beagle that those fundamental facts were gathered and stored in ,mr4 ,darwin's mind which1 worked over and developed in after years and compared and combined with subsequently accumulated facts1 bore fruit in the ,origin of ,species and the transformation of science that resulted upon the enunciation of ,mr4 ,darwin's theory of descent4 ,we all regard the association of any object with great events or with those in which we have great interest as making it precious4 ,we endow ships with a kind of personality1 regard them affectionately1 and often speak of them fondly1 as if they were real living beings in whom we had an interest4 ,such feelings we might legitimately entertain with regard to the ,beagle1 so closely associated with the history we have referred to4 ,few associations deserve1 in fact1 to be more highly valued than that of this brig1 the ,beagle1 with ,mr4 ,darwin's books and his theory4 ,it is therefore a matter of legitimate concern to inquire into what was the fate of the famous vessel4 ,the inquiry has been made1 and is answered by the ,rev4 ,v4 ,marshall ,law1 of ,oakland1 ,cal41 whose account follows3 8,i was lying in my room1 in ,tsukiji1 as ,i had been day after day1 in #ahij1 watching the lazy roll of the school-ship in the ,imperial ,naval ,academy1 just a little to the south1 when a caller and an old resident1 ,mr4 ,arthur ,morris1 said to me1 #8,i see you have ,darwin's old ship1 the ,beagle1 in plain sight out there4' 8#8,is that the ,beagle8' ,i asked in great surprise4 8,he assured me that it was1 and somehow after he had gone it impressed itself more strongly on my mind the more ,i thought of it4 ,i lay ill1 and part of the time in delirium1 for ten days4 ,when ,i at last got up1 the ,beagle was gone4 ,i sent inquiries to the ,naval ,academy1 but no one seemed to know anything about her4 ,as soon as ,i was able to go out1 ,i lost no time in setting on foot inquiries of the whereabouts of the missing ship4 ,i finally learned that she had probably gone to the ,imperial ,navy ,yard in ,yokosuka1 about thirty miles from ,tokio4 ,as soon as ,i was able to travel we started to go to ,yokosuka in search of the missing vessel4 ,before this1 however1 ,i had taken the precaution to put on the track the ,englishman1 ,mr4 ,f4 ,w4 ,hammond1 who taught the young ,japanese gunnery in the ,imperial ,naval ,academy at ,tokio1 and he promised to do all in his power--which in this instance was very great--to help me in my search for the ,beagle4 ,to aid him1 ,i gave him the following list of questions1 to which he sent me the answers given below months afterward4 ,my questions had gone through the regular naval channels4 ,the answers show how methodical the ,japanese are1 even if they are slow4 ,in these answers ,i use their language3 8#8,question4 ,how did the ,japanese ,government happen to get the ,beagle8' 8#8,answer4 ,the details of getting are not plainly known1 but the ,prince of ,kagoshima procured it on seventy-five thousand dollars1 at the #bc;d of ,july1 first year of ,genzi 7#ahfj71 afterward he offered it to the ,government at the ,june of the third year of ,genzi4' 8#8,q4 ,are there any good photographs of her as she was when a war ship8' 8#8,a4 ,no1 we have no one4' 8#8,q4 ,where is the ,beagle now8' 8#8,a4 ,after out of use1 she was applied as a ,chastising ,place for seamen at the ,yokosuka station1 and then was auctioned at the ,march1 twenty-second year of ,genzi4' 8#8,q4 ,what was the date of her arrival in ,japan8' 8#8,a4 ,she was received by the ,prince of ,kagoshima1 at ,nagasaki1 ,july1 the first year of ,genzi4' 8#8,q4 ,what is her present name8 ,when was her name changed8' 8#8,a4 ,at the present this ship has no name in the consequence of out of use1 but after procured by the ,kagoshima ,prince the name of ,beagle was changed into ,kenko ,kan4' 8#8,q4 ,do you know how old this ship is1 and what she was used for by the ,british ,government before the ,japanese got her8' 8#8,a4 ,she was actually used during twenty-three years1 after which she was put out of use1 having been constructed at ,liverpool1 and we can not know what she was applied for before got by ,japan1 but she remained more or less than one year in ,england4' 7,darwin made his famous voyage in her from #ahca to #ahcf47 8#8,q4 ,what is the name of the captain who had charge of her after she became the property of the ,japanese ,government8' 8#8,a4 ,commander ,sadakumi ,shiba was appointed the acting captain ,february1 #b;d year of ,genzi2 ,commander ,s4 ,hamataki1 from ,december1 #eth year of ,genzi2 ,commander ,m4 ,omura1 from ,november1 #ajth year of ,genzi2 ,commander ,sadakumi ,shiba1 from ,december1 #aath year of ,genzi2 then the last was dismissed on the ,september1 in the #adth year of ,genzi4' 8#8,q4 ,in what capacity did the ,japanese ,government use her from the time she arrived up to the time she was dismantled8' 8#8,a4 ,she was rated as the fifth class at the ,november1 #dth year of ,genzi1 then the fourth class ,may the #hth year4' 8,we found ,yokosuka1 and our party were shown every courtesy by the ,japanese naval officials2 so at last we ran down the ,beagle1 lying on the shore and showing not a vestige of her proud1 historic self4 ,she was being torn to pieces1 and the parts were sold for #8old junk4' 8,i reflected1 as ,i stood among her spars and chains1 her anchors and her capstan1 of the significance of the career of the famous vessel1 and of her associations with the man whose investigations revolutionized scientific thought and spread consternation for a time in the pulpits of the world4 ,the attitude of these pulpits has been modified by reason of those researches1 and the blessings of the world and of the ,church now follow the author of them for having shown the way to a juster and more rational conception of the power and purposes of the ,creator40 ,,science ,,study ,,and ,,national ,,character4 ,,by ,,albert ,b4 ,,crowe4 ,until very recently it had come to be a commonly accepted view in ,america that the civilization of a nation is directly proportional to the amount it expends for education1 and inversely proportional to the amount it expends for war4 ,the budgets of ,european countries have given ,americans good reason to accept this standard1 since its application gave the most gratifying evidence of our great intellectual and moral advancement4 ,less than three years ago the ,president of the ,national ,educational ,association proudly exclaimed3 8,england1 six to one for war2 ,russia1 thirty-eight to one for war2 ,america1 four to one for education60 ,since that time our country has become involved in war projects1 from which we can hardly hope it will withdraw1 that have increased our expenditure for war four times1 and a policy has been inaugurated which1 if persisted in1 will certainly almost at once reverse our boasted ratio1 making it 8four to one for war06 ,this course has been supported by a great body of our people4 ,even our ,christian ministers have committed 8,the ,white ,man's ,burden0 to memory1 and breathe never a whisper of the sixth commandment4 ,if1 as has been held by all wise and good men1 the victories of peace are more worthy to be sung than those of war2 if the ability to avoid quarrels or to settle them without force of arms is nobler than that which achieves military success2 if true enlightenment and education make for peace and not for war1 then our law of direct and inverse proportion has lately been scandalously dishonored4 ,if we have expended so much for education and at the same time have lowered our ideal of national greatness1 something must be wrong with that education4 ,if the sharpening and quickening of the intellect are accompanied by a blunting and atrophy of the moral sense1 the best and the worst thing that can be said of our school system is that it gives daily rations to hundreds of thousands of teachers4 ,evidence of disease of the national conscience must raise in the minds of thoughtful men grave doubts as to the sufficiency of our education to 8insure national progress1 prosperity1 and honor10 whether because of inherent weakness of the system or because of the strength of the forces opposed to it4 ,has our system of education1 then1 failed to elevate our national character8 ,he who would answer this question in the affirmative would be a pessimist indeed4 ,incalculable 8general good0 has come to us1 we think1 by the agency of our schools4 ,without them our civilization could not be so far advanced as it is2 our national life might have ended long since4 ,in every crisis1 however black has been the storm1 however fierce and ominous the lightning flash1 there has followed in good time the gentle rain1 soothing and allaying our fear1 and giving renewed promise of prosperity and peace4 ,it is the sober second thought1 we are in the habit of saying1 which saves us1 which takes the helm and sheers us away from the half-hidden reefs in our first mad course4 ,it is not4 ,it is the sober first thought which has redeemed us from destruction time after time--the sober first thought of the few who are truly educated1 who have looked below the surface of things and considered the hidden and obscure results1 who have weighed the right and wrong and stood immovable for the right4 ,it is the counsel of such men which has fallen like the rain that follows the first bursting of the storm1 and has given us courage and power to restrain ourselves and to face our hardest duty4 ,for such men in our national affairs we may reverently offer thanks1 and for an educational system which is partly1 at least1 responsible for them we may have sincere praise4 ,but our safety must always depend upon the presence of such men1 strong enough in numbers and in influence to control each difficult and dangerous situation which may threaten us4 ,our work as teachers is not faithful if we do not increase this number and strengthen this influence4 ,and if such men have been overpowered in the important events of the past two years1 if they have been entirely ignored1 or if they have been taunted and ridiculed1 we have reached a dangerous crisis1 and our sacred duty is to stop and take our bearings4 ,if we have manifested certain national traits hitherto scarcely suspected1 and now unwillingly confessed1 every motive of patriotism and of prudence should impel us to study our case1 that we may effectively prescribe for it4 ,are there not1 then1 certain signs which we may all agree are discernible8 ,have not the waves of powerful feeling which have swept over us1 the storms of acrimonious debate which have raged in our papers and forums1 the pans of praise which we have chanted at our 8peace jubilees0 and hero parties1 revealed the prevalence and rapid growth of certain sentiments which we may all1 without regard to political belief1 clearly recognize8 ,i do not in this place raise the question of the political wisdom or simple justice of the course which the country has taken in its international relations4 ,i do not now challenge any belief as to these matters which has been formed thoughtfully1 honestly1 manfully2 but ,i do maintain that the past few months have left lessons for thoughtful1 honest men to unite in studying4 ,probably the most striking phenomenon which we have witnessed has been the tremendous display of excited feeling4 ,however careful our national leaders may have been1 however honest in basing their actions on what they considered sufficient information1 or however careless and dishonest1 no man who has read any considerable number of our papers1 who has listened to the clamor of the crowds1 can doubt that the force of blind passion has been in hundreds of thousands of men the dominant force4 ,if during the war with ,spain you stood in the cheering1 surging crowds before the bulletin boards1 if you heard storms of hisses greet the name of the innocent boy-,king of ,spain1 or noted the cheer of triumph which applauded the capture of a lumber scow by an armored cruiser1 you will have no difficulty in agreeing with me4 ,you will smile at the idea of imputing to such men the credit of serious thought4 ,on the birthday of the greatest ,american1 whose life was a message of liberty--8who10 said a great ,spanish orator1 8laid down his life at the foot of his finished work0--our papers printed jokes about the mistake of the ,filipinos in trying to fight ,uncle ,sam1 and in our cities1 at least1 the report of their slaughter was received with exultation4 ,whether they were civilized or not1 whether they were misled or not1 whether they were ignorant of ,america's carefully concealed intention or not1 the killing of thousands of men who thought they were fighting for their freedom1 who faced machine guns1 and who crawled away into the bushes to die for the cause for which they had fought1 is hardly a subject for jokes or for exultation1 when people are governed by reason and not by feeling alone4 ,when the ,maine was sunk in ,havana ,harbor her captain1 in a notable dispatch telling of the disaster1 urged a suspension of judgment until the facts should be known4 ,facts6 ,in an hour our battle-cry was1 8,remember the ,maine60 ,under that motto1 within a few days1 one of the great ,chicago dailies 7the ,inter-,ocean7 hung out the pennant of the wrecked battle ship and enlistment signs4 ,who was right--the ,maine's captain or the paper8 ,which appeal meant safety1 and which danger8 ,our own commission investigated the wreck4 ,after an examination1 which was kept entirely within our own hands1 the commission reported that the ship had been destroyed from the outside1 but that there was no evidence to fix the responsibility4 ,did we fix the responsibility8 ,though the investigation board could find no evidence1 though reason said that the destroyer of the ,maine1 were he ,spain's own king1 was ,spain's worst enemy1 we forgot the cause of deliverance1 and went into battle with the cry of vengeance on our lips4 ,this is not a statement of sentiment but of fact4 ,your motives1 or the ,president's1 or mine may have been pure--your opinion may have been unprejudiced--but these things around us we all saw and all heard4 ,we know that many men were carried away by their feelings1 and did not think4 ,we know that their feelings grew into a prejudice which was absolutely certain to distort the facts and to drive them far from the truth if they ever came to the point of thinking4 ,the ears of the multitude have been closed to all counsels1 however wise2 their eyes to all consequences1 however fatal2 their minds to all logic1 however clear and simple4 ,we may consider more briefly1 but not less carefully1 other tendencies which have been shown1 seeing many of them in the facts which have already been referred to4 ,from the fact that passion has so largely supplanted reason in moving many of our people we have developed some wonderful instances of credulity4 ,the sequence is most natural4 ,when men become unwilling1 or uncaring1 to ascertain the truth for themselves they inevitably display a great willingness to swallow any statement which may obligingly be offered them by some one else4 ,so1 with half of the ,spanish navy sunk and the other half accounted for1 we spent hours of glorious1 wild conjecture1 in the dear dead days beyond recall1 listening to the awful sound of cannonading in the ,windward ,passage1 which reached us by the way of ,mole ,st4 ,nicholas4 ,we believe what is sufficiently exciting to be true4 ,related to the phenomena we have noticed is another--the evident loss of individuality--of moral and mental independence4 ,how striking is it to compare some of our newspaper editorials of to-day with those of two years ago in the same papers1 and to see how their writers have been dragged1 step by step1 into line with those whom they formerly opposed6 ,they have not changed their faith2 they have deserted it4 ,for them there is the defense of business necessity2 but if you will to-day talk to many men who gave you their opinions a few months ago1 you will find that they have broken down and given up--surrendered to superior numbers4 ,in our bulletin crowds we have all seen the spirit of the mob1 which meets the newcomer indifferent or doubtful1 thrills him with the mysterious influence of the men packed around and against him1 and sends him away an irresponsible monomaniac4 ,with such forces at work1 it is inevitable that we should act1 or be ready to act1 quickly4 ,why not8 ,reflection takes time4 ,to learn the facts fully and certainly takes time4 ,to feel--how long8 ,to take another man's word--how long8 ,to give way to a thousand other men--how long8 ,we have all seen men cheering our war with ,spain only yesterday4 ,to-day ,austria seems friendly to the queen regent4 ,we'll whip ,austria1 too4 ,to-morrow ,germany is impudent to ,dewey4 ,we shall be ready by night to whip ,germany4 ,if ,europe combines against us1 how long shall we consider the cost of such a war as that8 ,write it on the bulletin board--the crowd will be ready before the writing is done4 ,near to this is the spirit of fickleness1 of inconstancy1 which has been frequently manifested4 ,we have not only made up our minds on insufficient evidence1 but we have unmade them in a hurry on no evidence at all1 showing a startling lack of confidence in our own judgments and of respect for them4 ,attention might well have been called1 in a former paragraph1 to the small amount of our real knowledge of the character of ,aguinaldo4 ,on what petty and inconsequential evidence have we first called him a great liberator1 and now a scheming politician6 ,men who could hardly read his most remarkable appeal to this country do not hesitate to call him an unprincipled1 conceited1 ignorant barbarian3 what reliable information have they received with reference to his motives8 ,they have found no trouble in changing their opinions4 ,in the past few months we have been mercurial almost beyond mercurial ,frenchmen4 ,think of the revulsion of feeling that followed ,hobson across the continent2 and1 more recently1 of our sad lack of self-restraint shown by the vicious and ungrounded attack upon ,admiral ,dewey1 only a few days after he had been the object of the greatest display of hero worship ,america has ever seen4 ,and how many important changes may we count1 if we carry back our comparison to the time before the war8 ,but by so doing we uncover another significant fact4 ,we find that many of the ideas so quickly thrown aside are those which have been the foundation principles1 and bear the prestige of great names4 ,we have held it our special mission to show to warlike nations that a power which stands for peace may be greater than theirs2 and1 alas6 many of our leaders1 and our people1 too1 are crying that the time has come--has now come--for us to take our place among the great nations of the earth4 ,we have pitied the war-taxed peoples of ,europe1 and offered them a home where they would not have to buy powder and guns4 ,and now we are eagerly rushing to take up the burden from which they have been fleeing to us4 ,we have held that great standing armies are unnecessary and dangerous1 and already we have quadrupled ours4 ,we have declared our determination to avoid foreign entanglements1 and now we are in the very heart of the sputtering coil in the far ,east4 ,with those who have thoughtfully decided that these changes have been necessary or wise ,i have no wish to debate now1 but we must all unite in recognizing the spirit which has been shown1 and is now shown1 in speaking of our past positions4 ,the principles which for years have been our rules of national conduct have been thrown aside in a day1 scoffed at1 mocked4 ,and we smile at the names of the great men who have announced those principles and defended them1 or we flatly declare they are out of date4 ,we once listened with reverent and full hearts when our wise men spoke to us of freedom1 and recalled our national traditions and taught national righteousness4 ,now we laugh at swaddling clothes outgrown1 outused1 and smile at the innocent simplicity of our fathers4 ,we lift our brows at the name of ,washington3 we say he was a fine old gentleman1 and his ,farewell ,address1 considering everything1 was a very creditable paper1 and well adapted to the exigencies of the time in which it was written4 ,and this carnival of irreverence is holding not only in our streets1 but in our newspaper offices1 in our pulpits1 and in some of our higher institutions of learning4 ,these are the phenomena of our recent national experience which ,i desire you to consider4 ,there may be other unfavorable indications4 ,there may be others1 and many more1 which are hopeful and encouraging4 ,but these clearly warn us of danger4 ,furthermore1 ,i insist that whatever may have been your sympathy with the ,administration1 or your opposition to it2 however numerous the men of your acquaintance who have been free from such influences1 you must have seen them at work in a dangerously large part of our population4 ,even if that part has1 in your judgment1 reached the right position1 you must recognize the ominous character of their method of reaching it4 ,now1 what has this to do with us8 ,what connection has it with our work8 ,if science teaching has any educational value1 the most definite and direct connection4 ,i shall not do you the injustice of supposing that any tendency ,i have named did not at once bear to you its proper suggestion4 ,if it has failed1 the fault has been in the presentation of a very simple matter4 ,for every perilous tendency ,i have mentioned has its life in direct violation of the essential principles of science study1 and may be restrained by extending the knowledge and habitual use of those principles4 ,i do not wish to claim for science work an unwarranted value in this respect1 nor to deny the influence of other subjects in bringing about a moral evolution4 ,it is true that history warns us by examples1 that it points us to the failure of free governments in whose steps to destruction many of us seem only too willing to follow4 ,it is true that we can learn from ,rome the results of imperialism2 from ,france1 of irreverence2 from ,spain1 of tyranny4 ,in other fields of learning we may find other lessons of present value4 ,but to meet the dangers that just now assail us1 the national weaknesses that ,i have enumerated1 the scientific studies seem especially fitted4 8,the great peculiarity of scientific training10 says ,huxley1 8that in virtue of which it can not be replaced by any other discipline whatsoever1 is the bringing of the mind directly into contact with fact1 and practicing the intellect in the completest form of induction--that is to say1 in drawing conclusions from particular facts made known by immediate observation of ,nature40 8,the bringing of the mind into contact with fact40 ,this means the recognition of the existence of incontrovertible truth4 ,the dawning knowledge of such truth must bring with it the consciousness that much that we have always accepted as truth is open to question4 ,thus every belief1 no matter what its nature1 is in time subjected to examination4 ,if it stand1 it stands because it is able to bear this searching scrutiny and to answer fairly the questions of honest doubt4 ,honest doubt may be the result of honest reasoning2 it must absolutely demand honest reasoning to satisfy it4 ,this exercise of the rational faculty1 then1 depends upon and results from an awakened love of truth4 ,how directly do these most obvious principles of scientific investigation bear upon the facts we have been considering6 ,how flatly do they forbid us to be carried away into excesses6 ,let us apply them briefly1 point by point4 ,if love of truth and appeal to reason mean anything at all1 they mean1 first of all1 eternal opposition to the power of unthinking passion--of blind feeling4 ,they mean that every sentiment should have a rational cause and a reasonable object4 ,they do not forbid feeling1 but they require thinking4 ,secondly1 they defy prejudice4 ,they call for the open court1 the fair trial1 the impartial judge4 ,they say 8,no0 to worthless witnesses and to packed juries4 ,thirdly1 they demand a sufficient amount of evidence4 ,true science is the enemy of wildcat theories and reckless generalizations4 8,the ,united ,states has always come out on top in every war60 cries one4 8,there's no danger that we'll ever be whipped40 8,i don't like foreigners10 says another4 8,i had a ,frenchman for a neighbor once1 and he was dishonest4 ,i'm in favor of shutting out foreigners40 ,such reasoning as this--and how astoundingly common it is6--must be cut down at the root by the habit of trained induction4 ,fourthly1 the love of truth and appeal to reason1 which are in the very grain of the scientific mind and heart1 laugh at credulity4 ,they do not scoff at authority1 or reject it4 ,but they say3 8,we must know4 ,if we learn from you1 we must know that you know4 ,who are you8 ,how do you know8 ,if you know1 you will not offer us absurd contradictions of reason and accepted truth40 ,again1 they make their abode with the man who can receive them at his own intellectual fireside4 ,they require that his mind be his own1 that his opinions be his own1 that his acts be his own1 and that he defend his property in them1 have pride in them1 and stand by them4 ,again1 they demand sufficient time for care1 for securing the evidence and for weighing it1 and for considering its effect4 ,they demand the completed work1 and they reject all results which do not come from time employed1 but are hasty guesses4 ,and they are not tossed about like a wave of the sea4 ,they do command to prove all things1 but they also exhort to hold fast that which is good4 ,first1 to what is good of our own and in ourselves4 ,it is well enough to throw away our guesses1 quickly made and often wrong4 ,but the fruit of honest investigation1 the conclusions of careful reasoning on sufficient information1 these are the science student's riches4 ,he may add to them or replace some of them by better1 but he will not throw them away at a suggestion1 or trade them to the first speculator who offers something else4 ,he will not have a supply of new beliefs for every day1 or for every month1 or for every year4 ,second1 we should hold fast the proved good which we have received from others4 ,and we should honor and revere those who have opened the way for us to the truth--those who have above other men possessed the power of reason and beneficently used it for the world4 ,the spirit of science1 which sets infinite value on knowledge1 can not fail to teach reverence for those who have made it possible for us to know4 ,at every point1 then1 the scientist opposes the tendencies ,i have deplored4 ,against them all he must stand1 by training and by instinct4 ,against them all he would teach others to stand1 by giving to them his own training4 ,against them all we science teachers may arm our countrymen if we are faithful to our duty4 ,but this end of our work is defeated if our students are allowed to indulge in careless statements of what they see and do2 if they are permitted to use exaggerated description or inaccurate terms4 ,right here is the crucial test of the teacher's honesty of purpose4 ,the careful examination of written descriptions and reports1 the enforced correction of every inaccurate detail1 the personal consultation--all require untiring labor1 and time never allotted in the schedule4 ,but such work carried out has its own reward4 ,the student first respects the truth1 then learns to love it4 ,he conscientiously avoids the vague1 the doubtful1 the unsubstantiated4 ,if in our schools we might insure to every boy and girl this attitude of mind1 this desire for strict veracity1 we should have started him well on the way to correct judgments and wise conduct2 we should have implanted in his nature the first elements of good citizenship4 ,as ,tennyson says3 8,self-reverence1 self-knowledge1 self-control1 ,these three alone lead life to sovereign power4 ,yet not for power 7power of herself ,would come uncalled for7 but to live by law1 ,acting the law we live by without fear1 ,and because right is right1 to follow right ,were wisdom in the scorn of consequence40 99 99 99 99 99 ,the fish called ,lepidosiren 7,lepidosiren paradoxica7 is one of the only three still existing survivors of the once prominent group of ,dipnoi1 or lung fishes1 which are characterized by the possession of well-developed lungs in addition to their gills4 ,mr4 ,graham ,kerr1 who spent several months in the swamps of the ,gran ,chaco1 ,south ,america1 a habitat of these fishes1 describes them as living among the dense vegetation of the swamp1 swimming in eel fashion1 or clambering through the mass of vegetation by means of their leglike limbs4 ,in the dry season they retire into the mud1 and breathe entirely by means of their lungs4 ,when the wet season begins they are set free1 and at once prepare to spawn4 ,they lay their eggs in burrows at the bottom of the swamp1 where the eggs develop into larv4 ,the phenomena of their development are of special interest1 because it takes place in seclusion1 away from the disturbing features due to adaptation to varied surroundings4 ,it has been discovered that the young lepidosirens become white and transparent during the hours of darkness4 ,editor's ,table4 ,,thoughts ,,for ,,the ,,times4 ,good use was made of a ,washington celebration at ,oberlin ,college1 ,ohio1 by the chief speaker of the occasion1 the ,rev4 ,a4 ,a4 ,berle1 to utter words that are peculiarly needed at the present time4 ,his subject was ,popular ,american ,fallacies1 and among these he noted the following3 ,that ,anglo-,saxondom is identical with the kingdom of ,god2 that national glory and power can supply the place of national character2 that new occasions always teach new duties2 and that political alliances may do away with the necessity for 8a dual alliance10 as he expressed it1 8between the people and ,god40 ,these particular fallacies1 in our opinion1 were happily chosen4 ,there is a great deal of silly talk current about the incomparable glories and unimaginable destinies of the ,anglo-,saxon race2 and it never seems to occur to those who indulge in such talk that a profound sense of one's greatness is very far from being a sure sign of greatness4 ,the greatest characters are the simplest and least boastful4 ,their greatness is so native to them that they are scarcely conscious of it2 and they leave it to others to sing their praises4 ,it is presuming altogether too intimate an acquaintance with the designs of ,providence to claim that any race in particular is charged1 above all others1 with carrying those designs into effect4 ,who knows what reservoirs of moral and intellectual force may reside in nations and tribes whose world-action has been very obscure as yet8 ,dr4 ,arnold1 of ,rugby1 thought that much of high value for civilization lay dormant in the negro race1 and it is too soon to say he was mistaken4 ,then1 who knows what the ,slavonic race may bring forth8 ,who can calculate the future of the vast human hive known as ,china8 ,and1 after all1 what has any nation got to do except to behave itself1 be it great or small1 famous or of no great repute8 ,how is it in the community8 ,do we admire great men who swagger1 who boast of their wealth1 their strength1 their courage1 or their virtue8 ,a little quiet consideration will persuade any man that there is one law for all nations alike--the law of justice and humanity--and that the greatest nation1 according to any true conception of greatness1 is the one which exemplifies that law most perfectly in its domestic and foreign policy4 ,the surest sign of greatness in a nation1 we venture to say1 is that it should hate war--not dread it1 but hate it4 ,it is a singular thing that any but the most light-headed portion of the community should fall into the second fallacy which the speaker mentioned--that national glory and power can take the place of national character4 ,a nation requires a true heart1 an honest self-consciousness1 just as much as an individual1 and time will avenge national misdoings just as surely as it will those of individuals4 ,no numbers1 nor any amount of huzzaing or factitious enthusiasm1 can make a vicious policy safe4 ,you may win victories with chariots and horsemen1 but to enjoy the fruits of peace there must be a dominant love of justice1 and that is what war does not tend to promote4 ,it is also very true1 as the speaker said1 that there are not many new duties to be learned in this age of the world4 ,there is enough of moral truth taught in old ,hesiod's ,works and ,days to make any society now existing a good deal better than it is4 ,when people talk of new duties they generally mean some new harum-scarum enterprise4 ,the old duty would be good enough if they would only consider it closely and follow it faithfully4 ,the ,rev4 ,mr4 ,berle has spoken words in season2 and it would be well if all who are like minded would unceasingly proclaim the same doctrines1 if perchance they may sink into the heart of the masses1 and give to this great people a public policy founded on righteousness and the love of peace4 ,a ,,humiliating ,,situation4 8,how far1 ,o ,catiline1 when all is said and done1 are you going to abuse our patience80 ,so said the great ,roman orator on a certain famous occasion4 ,our ,catiline is no individual man2 it is the party system which has inflicted on us the ,puerto ,rican disgrace4 ,it was obvious to the common sense of every one that1 having laid our hands on the island of ,puerto ,rico1 there was no decent course to take save to make it1 for all practical purposes1 an integral portion of the ,union4 ,we had cut it off from the market it enjoyed in ,spain1 and left it to contend with the hostile tariffs of other countries--were we going1 in addition to that1 to make it a stranger to the land that had seized it1 and subject its products to our own high scale of duties8 ,the ,president1 in his message to ,congress1 conceiving the proposition to be almost self-evident1 had declared that it was 8our plain duty to abolish all customs tariffs between the ,united ,states and ,puerto ,rico1 and give her products free access to our markets40 ,so thought nearly every disinterested citizen1 and yet what have we since seen8 ,the ,president1 terrorized by the cry of party unity in danger1 repudiates his former emphatic declaration1 and gives his approval to a measure which virtually makes our unfortunate possession a foreign country4 ,with the 8free access to our markets0 which the ,president had promised1 the island would have entered on a new career of prosperity2 but with its leading industries weighed down under an impost of fifteen per cent1 there is nothing in view but commercial stagnation and general poverty4 ,that the island has already languished under ,american rule--our revolutionary forefathers did not expect that their descendants would so soon go into the 8ruling0 business--the most disinterested witnesses attest4 ,a leading journal of this city1 ,the ,herald1 prints in heavy-faced type the following statement of a correspondent3 8,american military officials told me at the outset that the year and a half of ,american sovereignty had been a blight on the island4 ,this was not the echo of ,spanish or of ,puerto ,rican feelings4 ,they spoke their own views with soldierly frankness and sometimes with a word of regret for their own position4 ,their talk was more pointed than when filtered through official channels40 ,it is in these circumstances that our ,legislature1 at the instance of a benevolent ,president1 decides to refund to the people of the island two million dollars of duties collected in our ports on their products4 ,our tariff system breeds poverty in the population it oppresses1 and then we rush to their assistance with a largess4 ,they ask for justice and we offer them alms--alms for which the correspondent already quoted says he can not find a single individual who is grateful4 ,we rob the ,puerto ,rican ,peter to pay our own tobacco-growing ,paul2 and then we rob the whole community in order to pay back ,peter4 ,and1 strange to say1 some of us feel very virtuous over the business4 ,the countenance of the ,president glows with satisfaction over the thought of all the good he is doing4 ,for our part1 we view the matter in a different light4 ,the money will1 of course1 meet certain expenses of government in ,puerto ,rico2 but there is reason to fear that it will do as much to pauperize the island in one direction as the restriction of its trade will do in another4 ,what the ,puerto ,ricans want is not alms1 but commercial liberty4 ,the repayment of this money will not stimulate their trade2 it will not stimulate anything except their helplessness4 ,it is an open question whether they will suffer more by our protectionist greed or by our wishy-washy sentimentality4 ,meantime what are we to think of the party system whose exigencies place us in so ridiculous a position before the world8 ,how long shall it abuse our patience8 ,fragments of ,science4 ,ventilation of ,tunnels4--,the question of the ventilation of tunnels forms the subject of a series of articles1 by ,m4 ,raymond ,godfernaux1 published recently in ,le ,gnie ,civil4 ,the principal sources of definite information1 upon which the discussion of ,m4 ,godfernaux is based1 are the reports of the committee on ventilation of tunnels of the ,metropolitan ,railway of ,london1 and of the commission appointed by the ,italian ,minister of ,public ,works to investigate the tunnels of the railways of the department of the ,adriatic4 ,although the vitiation of the air in a tunnel may proceed from three sources--i4 e41 the lighting1 the respiration of the passengers1 and the combustion of the fuel in the engines--yet the two former sources are insignificant compared with the latter1 which alone need be considered4 ,the principal products of combustion which are injurious are carbonic acid1 carbonic oxide1 and sulphurous acid4 ,of these it is found that the proportion of carbonic oxide should not exceed #j4ja per cent1 which corresponds to #j4ac per cent of carbonic acid in excess of the normal proportion of #j4jc per cent and to #j4jjjbg per cent of sulphurous acid4 ,in practice it is found that if the total proportion of carbonic acid be limited to #j4ae per cent the proportions of the other gases will be well within the comfort and danger limits4 ,this is much lower than is often attained in crowded auditoriums1 where the proportion of carbonic acid sometimes reaches #j4d to #j4e per cent1 but in such cases there is no carbonic oxide produced1 while in the case of tunnels traversed by steam locomotives we may assume that the carbonic oxide will be about #a to #ac of the carbonic acid1 and the sulphurous acid about #a to #ddj4 ,assuming a given limit of deterioration of the air1 it would be easy to devise a system of ventilation if it were possible to treat the tunnel as if it were a closed room or controllable space4 ,in practice1 however1 the conditions are peculiar4 ,the space to be ventilated is a long1 narrow passage1 usually open only at the ends1 and traversed periodically often almost continuously1 by trains in one or both directions1 these trains emitting the objectionable gases and also disturbing the air currents best adapted to proper ventilation4 ,how best to reconcile these conflicting conditions forms the problem under consideration4 ,where there are but few trains it has been proposed to close the ends of the tunnel by doors1 and provide a fan exhaust or pressure system1 but this method is obviously limited in its applications4 ,the practical conditions which must be considered are those in which frequent trains in opposite directions pass through the tunnel1 and these conditions ,m4 ,godfernaux has analyzed graphically in a very interesting manner4 ,assuming a double-track tunnel eight hundred metres 7a metre contains #ci4cg inches7 in length1 with an exhausting ventilator placed in the middle and with trains of a given gas-producing capacity passing on each track every three minutes1 he constructs a diagram showing how the composition of the atmosphere of the tunnel varies at successive points1 and how1 by an examination of the diagram thus made1 it is possible to discover the maximum vitiation of the air1 and consequently the extent to which the conditions are satisfied4 ,by one or two such constructions any such problem may be solved to a degree quite within the limits of practical work1 and the effect of various systems of ventilation compared4 ,m4 ,godfernaux discusses various systems of ventilation1 including those involving the use of shafts1 fan blowers and exhausters1 and air jets1 and concludes with a description of the ,saccardo system1 in use in the ,apennine tunnel of the ,bologna-,pistoia line1 and to the ,st4 ,gothard ,tunnel4 ,while all this investigation and discussion is of much value1 it certainly seems as if the true remedy lies not so much in the removal of deleterious gases as in the absence of their production4 ,the substitution of electric traction avoids altogether the fouling of the air of tunnels and subways1 and electric locomotives are already used in the ,baltimore ,tunnel in the ,united ,states and elsewhere1 and it seems as if this remedy is the true one to be applied in all cases4 99 99 99 99 99 ,liquid ,air4--,the following warning appears in ,the ,engineering and ,mining ,journal of ,march #c;d3 8,the advertisements which are now appearing in the papers all over the country of companies which are to furnish liquid air on a large scale must be accepted with a great deal of caution4 ,the public mind has been very adroitly worked up for the reception of these by lectures1 paragraphs in the press1 and other well-understood methods4 ,undoubtedly liquid air possesses some valuable properties1 and many striking experiments can be performed with it4 ,it is not by any means certain yet that it can be prepared1 transported1 and used economically on a commercial scale1 or that the difficulties in the way have been overcome4 ,we do not say that they may not be overcome in the future2 but to talk1 as the advertisements do1 of the certainty that liquid air will soon largely replace steam in furnishing motive power is going entirely too far4 ,such assertions have no present basis of fact to warrant any one in making them4 ,the liquid-air people have a great deal to do yet before they can establish their claims or carry on business on a scale that will warrant the organization of ten-million-dollar companies4 ,the question of validity of patents is also quite an open one4 ,it is doubtful if there is any valid patent on this subject40 99 99 99 99 99 ,taka-,diastase4--,the following is taken from an interesting article1 by ,w4 ,e4 ,stone and ,h4 ,e4 ,wright1 in ,the ,journal of the ,american ,chemical ,society3 8,taka-diastase is1 so far as known1 somewhat similar to malt-diastase in its chemical character1 viz43 a highly nitrogenous substance1 readily soluble in water1 and dependent upon certain conditions of temperature for its maximum activity4 ,its action is also affected by alkalies and acids4 ,it is produced as the result of the growth of a species of mold 7,eurotium oryz1 ,ahlberg7 upon rice1 maize1 wheat bran1 etc4 ,for its production1 as at present practiced in this country1 wheat bran is steamed and1 after cooling1 is sown with the spores of the fungus4 ,after twenty-four hours in culture rooms1 at a temperature of about #be ,c41 the fungous growth becomes visible4 ,in forty or fifty hours the content in diastatic material has reached the maximum1 and further growth of the fungus is checked by cooling4 ,the material1 now consisting of the bran felted together with fungus mycelium1 is called #8taka-koji4' ,it may be mixed with grain or starchy materials in the same manner as malt is used1 and1 like malt1 will speedily convert the starch into fermentable sugars4 ,an aqueous extract of the mass may be used for a similar purpose4 ,for the preparation of a pure product1 which1 however1 is not necessary for ordinary industrial purposes1 the aqueous extract is concentrated by evaporation1 and on the addition of alcohol the diastatic substance may be precipitated as a yellowish powder1 easily soluble in water1 of stable keeping qualities1 and possessed of an unusual power of converting starch into sugar4 ,the medicinal preparation above mentioned is obtained in this way1 and represents a fairly pure form of the diastatic principle4 ,this bears the name of #8taka-diastase4'0 99 99 99 99 99 ,professor ,agassiz's ,investigations on ,coral ,islands4--,having steamed and observed for twenty-five hundred miles among the ,paumotu ,islands1 ,prof4 ,alexander ,agassiz says1 in a second letter from the ,albatross ,expedition1 published in the ,american ,journal of ,science1 that he has seen nothing tending to show that there has anywhere been a subsidence1 but that the condition of the islands does not seem to him capable of explanation on any theory except that they have been formed in an area of elevation4 ,all the islands examined are composed of a tertiary coralliferous limestone1 which has been elevated to a greater or less extent above the level of the sea1 and then planed down by atmospheric agencies and submarine erosion1 and the appearance of this old rock is very different from that of the modern reef rock4 ,in these islands the rims of the great atolls1 after having been denuded to the level of the sea1 are built up again from the material of their two faces1 so that a kind of conglomerate1 or breccia1 or pudding stone1 or beach rock is found on all the reef flats4 ,on the lagoon side sand bars grow into small islands and gradually become covered with vegetation4 ,whenever the material supplied from both sides is very abundant the land ring becomes more or less solid2 the islets become islands1 separated by narrow or wider cuts1 until they at length form the large islands1 which seem at first to be a continuous land around the rim of the lagoon1 while they are often really much dissected4 ,in time water ceases to pass through the channels1 and only the marks of them are left4 ,few if any of the lagoons appear to be shut off from the sea as ,dana and other writers have supposed4 ,they simply have not boat passages4 ,unlike other coral regions1 the ,paumotu reefs seem to bear only a scanty life4 99 99 99 99 99 8,winking40--,no satisfactory determination has been made of the reason we wink4 ,some suppose that the descent and return of the lid over the eye serves to sweep or wash it off2 others that covering of the eye gives it a rest from the labor of vision1 if only for an inappreciable instant4 ,this view borrows some force from the fact that the record of winking is considerably used by experimental physiologists to help measure the fatigue which the eye suffers4 ,in another line of investigation ,herr ,s4 ,garten has attempted to measure the length of time occupied by the different phases of a wink4 ,he used a specially arranged photographic apparatus1 and affixed a piece of white paper to the edge of the eyelid for a mark4 ,he found that the lid descends quickly1 and rests a little at the bottom of its movement1 after which it rises1 but more slowly than it fell4 ,the mean duration of the downward movement was from seventy-five to ninety-one thousandths of a second2 the rest with the eye shut lasted variously1 the shortest durations being fifteen hundredths of a second with one subject and seventeen hundredths with another2 and the third phase of the wink1 the rising of the lid1 took seventeen hundredths of a second more1 making the entire duration of the wink about forty hundredths1 or four tenths of a second4 ,the interruption is not long enough to interfere with distinct vision4 ,m4,v4 ,henri says1 in ,l',anne ,psychologique1 that different persons wink differently--some often1 others rarely2 some in groups of ten or so at a time1 when they rest a while2 and others regularly1 once only at a time4 ,the movement is modified by the degree of attention4 ,periods of close interest1 when we wink hardly at all1 may be followed by a speedy making up for lost time by rapid winking when the tension is relieved4 99 99 99 99 99 ,an ,ingenious ,method of ,locating an ,obstruction4--,the ,engineering ,record gives the following interesting account of the scientific solving of a practical commercial problem3 8,the pneumatic dispatch tube for the delivery of mail between the main ,philadelphia post office and a branch office at ,chestnut and ,third ,streets is a cast-iron pipe buried below the surface of the street1 and in it small cylindrical carriers1 six inches in diameter1 are propelled from end to end by air pressure4 ,at one time a carrier became lodged at some unknown point in the tube1 and to remove the obstruction it was desirable to locate its position as closely as possible before digging down to the pipe4 ,this was satisfactorily accomplished by firing a pistol at one end of the tube2 its report was echoed from the obstruction1 and indicated its position by the time required for the transmission of the sound4 ,the pistol was fired in a hole in the side of the pneumatic tube near the end1 which was capped and had a rubber-hose connection to the recording apparatus4 ,the end of the rubber hose terminated in a chamber closed by a diaphragm about five inches in diameter1 which had a stylus attached to it4 ,a cock in the middle of the rubber hose was partly closed to reduce the force of the explosion on the diaphragm1 and the pistol was fired4 ,the sound-wave immediately produced a movement of the diaphragm1 causing the stylus to make a mark on the record diagram4 ,the hose cock was then fully opened1 and when the sound-wave had traveled to the obstruction and been reflected back it again moved the diaphragm1 and caused the stylus to make a second mark on the diagram4 ,the lapse of time had been automatically recorded on the same diagram1 so to determine the distance it was only necessary to note the exact interval of time between the direct and reflected reports1 divide it by two1 and multiply the quotient by the velocity of sound under the existing conditions40 ,the obstruction was indicated at #a1ecg feet from the diaphragm4 ,excavations were made at this place1 and the carrier was found nearly at the calculated point4 ,the limits of distance at which this method is applicable have not yet been determined1 but ,mr4 ,batcheller1 the engineer of the ,pneumatic ,tube ,company and the deviser of the above ingenious expedient1 has found that in a tube #dc4c inches in diameter a pistol shot will vibrate a sensitive diaphragm at a distance of #fe1abi feet2 decreasing the diameter of the tube decreases the distance over which the pistol shot will act4 99 99 99 99 99 ,diseased ,meat in ,paris4--,the police of ,paris1 says the ,lancet1 have just laid hands on a vast fraudulent organization for evading the precautionary measures drawn up by the authorities for inspecting the meat distributed for consumption in the suburbs of ,paris4 ,both for ,paris and the suburbs all animals destined for food have to be killed in public slaughterhouses1 where the strictest watch is kept by the municipal veterinary surgeons1 who forbid the delivery to the butchers of any meat which exhibits the slightest suspicious signs4 ,elaborate regulations have been laid down as to the various diseases which render meat unfit for the food of man1 and naturally enough tuberculosis is the complaint most rigorously watched for4 ,the swindlers who have been arrested made up a vast organization which used to buy up from the farms of the eastern provinces and even in ,germany such animals as1 owing to disease1 would have been refused for slaughter at the abattoirs1 and1 moreover1 they bought them dirt cheap4 ,these animals were then conveyed in regular herds to a small place near ,paris and killed in sheds built at the bottom of an old quarry4 ,under cover of night the meat was taken away by the accomplice butchers and resold in the various suburban shops4 ,in connection with this clandestine slaughterhouse the firm had a kind of cemetery1 where those animals were buried the meat of which was too bad for even the swindlers to risk its sale in the market4 ,ivry was the place where the fraud was discovered1 and the official inquiry shows that the organization was singularly complete4 ,it is extraordinary that the slaughterhouse1 which was in full work1 should never have attracted the attention of the villagers1 but it must be remembered that all killing was done by night and that the slaughtermen were all ,germans who did not understand a word of ,french1 and were therefore unable to engage in imprudent conversation with the neighbors4 99 99 99 99 99 ,how ,aluminum is made4--,in a paper read before the ,manchester ,junior ,electrical ,engineers1 ,j4 ,h4 ,henderson describes the two commercial methods of making aluminum3 ,the agent which has made aluminum a commercial product is electricity4 ,this is how electrolysis produces it 7by one successful method73 ,in a metal1 carbon-lined crucible having two carbon electrodes1 one of which acts as anode and the other as cathode1 are put the following ingredients3 ,fluoride of calcium1 #bcd parts by weight2 double fluoride of cryolite1 #dba parts by weight2 fluoride of aluminum1 #hde parts by weight4 ,to these add three to four per cent of a suitable chloride--for example1 calcium chloride4 ,to this add alumina sufficient to form a very stiff mixture4 ,before electrolysis can begin the above are fused by means of heat1 which should not exceed #a1baj ,f4 ,the heat is obtained from a furnace heated by gas1 coke1 or charcoal1 care being taken that no gases from the furnace enter the crucible4 ,the bath fused1 the electrodes are dipped into it1 the current switched on1 and the metal is deposited 7in the best and largest of these crucibles7 at the rate of one pound per five electrical horse-power hours4 ,the current pressure required is six to eight volts1 at a density of one and a half ampres per square inch4 ,the metal from time to time is removed from the crucible by means of a siphon or a ladle1 care being taken to remove as little of the haloid salts as possible4 ,there is another method of extraction equally successful with this1 but also more economical4 ,in this other method a set of similar ingredients are placed in a crucible having one or more vertically movable carbon electrodes1 which are used as one1 or a collective anode1 respectively4 ,the crucible1 though lined principally with carbon1 has some metal exposed to act as a cathode at the beginning of the process1 this to generate heat enough to fuse the bath1 after which the anode is placed so that the extracted aluminum acts as a cathode4 ,the molten metal is from time to time run out of a tap-hole into a mold1 and thence cast into ingots1 or granulated by being poured into cold water4 ,the same particulars as to results apply to this crucible furnace process also1 only that not nearly so much of the bath is wasted in it1 and the metal needs less purifying when molten4 ,there are1 also1 no loss of time and money from the use of gas1 coke1 or charcoal1 and of an extra furnace in this method4 99 99 99 99 99 ,illustration 8,a ,mechanical ,bootblack40--,a bootblacking apparatus is one of the latest developments of the nickel-in-the-slot machine1 a specimen of which is undergoing trial in a ,french public garden4 ,the customer drops his coin--in the present case a ten centime1 or a two-and-a-half-cent piece--into the receptacle1 which opens the way to a compartment where a brush cleans his boots2 he next puts his feet into a second compartment and has them blackened2 and then into a third1 where they are polished4 ,the operation takes about a minute and a half1 and during the time the customer may watch the indications of its progress as they are shown upon the dial4 ,the machinery working in the inside is very simple4 ,an electric motor of small power--about eighteen kilogrammetres per second--controls the shaft on which the three rotary brushes are fixed1 and the customer has only to unlock the machine1 the same as all others of its kind1 with his coin1 and move the handle which opens the circuit and starts the motion4 ,a representation of the machine at work is given in the accompanying illustration1 for which we are indebted to ,la ,nature4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the 8,barisal ,guns40--,a curious phenomenon of unexplained sounds like those of explosions1 occasionally heard in different places over the earth1 has attracted much attention1 has been made the subject of a book recording several hundred accounts of it1 by ,m4 ,ernest ,van den ,broeck1 of ,brussels1 and has already been mentioned in the ,popular ,science ,monthly4 ,the phenomenon has been most carefully observed in ,india1 where it seems to have assumed a peculiarly marked form1 and is known there as the 8,barisal guns40 ,m4 ,van den ,broeck calls it 8mistpoeffers10 or air-puffs4 ,the most definite description of it is given in ,nature by ,mr4 ,henry ,s4 ,schurr1 as he has heard it in ,india1 where it has been observed over a wide range1 but most clearly and frequently in the ,baekergunge district1 of which ,barisal is the headquarters4 ,the ,barisal guns are heard most frequently from ,february to ,october1 not during fine weather but just before1 during1 or immediately after heavy rain4 ,they always sound in triplets--that is1 three reports occur1 one after another1 at regular intervals--and though several guns may be heard1 the number is always three or a multiple of three4 ,sometimes only one series of triplets of sounds is remarked in a day2 at other times the author has counted as many as forty-five of them1 one after another1 without a pause4 ,the report is exactly like the firing of big guns heard at a distance1 except that it is always double1 or has an echo4 ,a number of conjectural solutions of the phenomenon have been put forth1 but none of them accounts for it as a whole in any approaching a satisfactory manner4 99 99 99 99 99 ,photographing ,live ,fishes4--,a number of methods are mentioned by ,dr4 ,r4 ,w4 ,schufeldt1 in a paper on the subject1 by which fishes may be photographed in their natural element1 with natural surroundings4 ,this can be done1 even under the surface of the water1 by the use of certain subaquatic apparatus4 ,by the employment of instantaneous photography some fishes have been taken in the air1 as of salmon in the act of leaping1 or of flying fish in flight4 ,such pictures1 however1 illustrate special habits rather than the ordinary life of the subjects4 ,well-arranged aquariums afford opportunities for photographing fishes in almost every condition and position1 and a command of light and situation can be had in them which is of great advantage to the operator4 ,the specimens of fish photographs published by the author with his paper are in every way satisfactory4 ,the spots on the sunfish1 for example1 are almost as clear and distinct as if we had the fish lying before us in the broad light4 ,the photograph of the pike has afforded opportunity to correct some inaccuracies in the drawing of it as given in previous works of high authority4 99 99 99 99 99 ,marine ,life at ,cold ,spring ,harbor1 ,long ,island4--,mr4 ,francis ,n4 ,beach1 in presenting to the ,boston ,society of ,natural ,history a list of the ,marine ,mollusca of ,cold ,spring ,harbor1 ,long ,island1 speaks of the locality as representing 8a fairly distinct facies of molluscan life--the fauna of the oyster beds1 broadly speaking4 ,from this point of view1 its homogeneity and the absence of stragglers lend it value4 ,probably almost every species enumerated lives on the spot where found or in the immediate vicinity4 ,this characteristic makes the spot a good sample of actual conditions of life in that interesting transitional region where the #8,virginian' and #8,acadian' 7or #8,boreal'7 faunas overlap4 ,from this point of view it is1 so far from being homogeneous1 strikingly heterogeneous40 ,of the two faunas1 the southern one contributes a quota rather more than twice that of the more northern one1 and the increase in the preponderance of southern forms can be detected in a range of forty miles4 ,the author concludes from his examination that1 notwithstanding the well-marked character of ,cold ,spring ,harbor as 8muddy10 its molluscan fauna is determined not at all by that character1 but predominantly by the depth of water and by the factors included in the 8inclosedness0 of the place--that is1 he supposes1 by the temperature1 the specific gravity1 the percentage of organic matter1 etc4 8,it looks as though the various species would manage somehow to be represented on almost any stretch of shore or bottom1 provided only the water conditions be right40 99 99 99 99 99 ,farm ,homes for ,neglected ,city ,children4--,the system of providing homes upon farms is represented in the last annual report of the ,new ,york ,juvenile ,asylum as being on the wane4 ,while from #ahhj to #ahij twenty-four per cent of the children committed to the asylum were placed in ,western homes1 the percentage from #ahij to #ahig was only fifteen4 ,among the reasons assigned for this diminution are the increase of undesirable material1 chiefly of races against which prejudice is strong1 and the growing habit of parents expecting their children to be restored to them when their services become profitable4 ,placing out street waifs and neglected and dependent children in the homes of private families1 the report says1 has been sadly abused4 ,the degradation and moral corruption of the condition of such children are apt to make them so refractory and unsusceptible to the wholesome influences of family life that an abrupt transfer is liable to be attended with failure and disaster4 ,the children should therefore be previously brought under the restraining and reformatory influences of a training school4 ,at the best1 a placing-out work can not be exempt from serious contingencies4 8,the second decade1 the adolescent age1 under most favorable conditions1 is the period when the will is apt to be wholly dominated by the emotions1 and unless the environment is peculiarly favorable1 guardianship becomes a difficult function4 ,with an indenturing system that prolongs the term of apprenticeship for boys throughout their minority1 both apprentice and guardian must possess an extraordinary measure of amiable qualities to insure a continuance of their relation through an extended period40 ,when the boy is old enough to earn wages from strangers the temptation to leave and go out for hire is very strong1 and must be met by a corresponding degree of tact and liberality2 and even when interests are happily adjusted 8a placing-out system ought to take account of the tastes and aptitudes of young people1 and leave the way open for the deserving at a suitable age to start upon a new career40 99 99 99 99 99 ,animals ,helping ,one ,another4--,while the ruminant animals as a rule do not seem to have made any further advance toward forming communal groups than to post sentinels while pasturing together1 a few marked cases are found in which a division of labor and some system of assistance seem to have been given effect4 ,one such instance is cited in the ,london ,spectator as having been observed by ,lord ,lovat in the ,highland deer1 where large stags have smaller stags to attend them and serve them very much as the ,english school bully is attended and served by his fag4 ,lord ,lovat tells another story of compassion manifested and help afforded by a stag to a younger animal4 ,of three stags on the move1 two jumped the wire fence1 and the third1 a two-year-old1 halted and would not venture the leap4 ,the two waited for some time while the little fellow ran along the fence1 till the larger of them came back to coax him1 and 8actually kissed him several times40 ,finally1 the animal gave up and went on1 after which the little stag took courage and made the jump4 ,the social organization is very far advanced with the beavers1 and is quite elaborate with the rabbits1 which excavate common and interlacing burrows1 and with insects like ants and bees4 99 99 99 99 99 ,geological ,formations and ,forests in ,new ,jersey4--,from a study of the relation between forestry and geology in ,new ,jersey1 ,arthur ,hollick finds that two distinctly defined forest zones have long been recognized in the ,state--a deciduous and a coniferous--the contrast between the two being so obvious as to attract the attention even of superficial observers4 ,while the deciduous zone is roughly confined to the northern part of the ,state and the coniferous to the southern part1 yet when the line of demarcation is carefully followed up across the ,state and beyond its confines it is found not to coincide with any parallel of latitude or isothermal line1 and not to be entirely dependent either on topography or the physiographic conditions4 8,if1 however1 a geological map of the region be examined1 the line of demarcation between the two zones will be found to follow the trend of the geologic formations whose outcrops extend in a northeast direction across the ,state and southward beyond4 ,a coincidence was suggested1 and it became more apparent1 as the investigations proceeded1 that the two classes of angiosperms and gymnosperms were severally identified with certain geological formations1 and also that the distribution of many species within each of the zones was capable of being similarly associated1 and their limits of being more or less accurately defined4 ,the deciduous zone is roughly located as lying north of a line between ,woodbridge and ,trenton1 and the coniferous zone as being south of a line between ,eatontown and ,salem4 ,between these two lines is an area about sixteen miles wide where these zones overlap1 which the author calls the 8tension zone10 because a constant state of strain or tension in the struggle for existence prevails in it4 ,in the deciduous zone the geological formations are numerous1 with various soils and every gradation of topography1 and the diversity of trees is great4 ,its southern line is coterminous with the southern edge of the ,triassic formation4 ,the coniferous zone presents but little diversity in geology or topography1 and little variety of trees4 ,its northern border is coterminous with the northern border of ,tertiary gravels1 sands1 and sandy clays4 ,the 8tension zone0 includes practically the whole of the ,cretaceous plastic clays1 and the clay-marls and marls4 ,,minor ,,paragraphs4 ,a conference was appointed1 to be held at ,wiesbaden1 ,germany1 ,october #ith and #ajth1 to promote the formation of an ,international ,federation of ,science--a scheme which was referred to in ,sir ,michael ,foster's presidential address before the ,british ,association4 ,this idea for the establishment of an international association of great learned societies appears1 the ,london ,athenum says1 to be the outcome of discussions carried on at ,gttingen in #ahih4 ,for some time past the ,academies of ,vienna1 ,munich1 ,gttingen1 and ,leipsic have been federated into an association or 8,castell10 each meeting in turn at their respective headquarters to talk over scientific matters of joint interest4 ,at two or three recent meetings questions were brought up1 such as antarctic research and the cataloguing of scientific literature1 which1 besides being of sufficient interacademic value to come before the 8,castell10 were of prime importance to ,english men of science4 ,english delegates were therefore invited to attend1 and did so2 and out of this invitation has grown a desire for a wider international basis for the association4 ,the adherence of the principal learned societies of the world1 including our ,national ,academy1 is said to have been secured to the movement4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the thirteenth season of the ,department of ,botany at the ,marine ,biological ,laboratory1 ,woods ,holl1 ,mass41 will open ,july #eth and continue till ,august #afth4 ,three laboratory courses are provided1 accompanied by lectures1 including the subjects of cryptogamic botany1 plant physiology1 and plant cytology and micro-technique4 ,the principal instructors are ,dr4 ,bradley ,r4 ,davis1 ,mr4 ,george ,t4 ,moore1 and ,dr4 ,rodney ,h4 ,true4 ,the department extends a special welcome to investigators1 and desires their co-operation in the development of the laboratory4 ,woods ,holl offers great attractions in variety of material and facilities for biological research1 and is proposed as an excellent center of resort where the botanists of the country may meet for a few weeks4 ,a six weeks' course in ,nature study1 including both animals and plants1 and consisting largely of field work1 is a new feature offered this year for the first time4 99 99 99 99 99 ,on ,friday1 ,march #ith1 occurred the death of two of the six surviving founders of the ,american ,association for the ,advancement of ,science--,dr4 ,charles ,e4 ,west1 of ,brooklyn1 and ,professor ,oliver ,payson ,hubbard1 of ,manhattan4 ,both were distinguished teachers4 ,dr4 ,west was born in ,washington1 ,mass41 in #ahji1 and after being graduated from ,union ,college1 began his career as a teacher in the ,albany ,female ,academy4 ,he was afterward principal of the ,rutgers ,female ,institute1 the ,buffalo ,female ,seminary1 and the ,brooklyn ,heights ,seminary1 where he remained twenty-nine years4 ,he also assisted in preparing the original courses of instruction of ,vassar ,female ,college4 ,he was one of the founders of the ,long ,island ,historical ,society2 was a fellow of the ,royal ,antiquarian ,society of ,denmark2 and was a member of the ,american ,ethnological1 the ,american ,philosophical1 and the ,new ,york and the ,long ,island ,historical ,societies4 ,professor ,hubbard was born at ,pomfret1 ,conn41 in #ahji1 was graduated from ,yale ,college in #ahbh1 and was appointed ,professor of ,chemistry1 ,pharmacy1 and ,mineralogy at ,dartmouth ,college in #ahcf4 ,he remained there1 with an interval1 from #ahff till #ahga1 in which he devoted himself to lecturing1 till #ahhc1 when he became professor emeritus4 ,he was made in #ahga overseer of the ,thayer ,school of ,engineering at ,dartmouth1 and he was a member of the ,new ,hampshire ,legislature in #ahfc and #ahfd4 ,only four of the founders of the ,american ,association are now living--namely1 ,dr4 ,martin ,h4 ,boye1 of ,cooperstown1 ,pa42 ,prof4 ,walcott ,gibbs1 of ,harvard2 ,dr4 ,samuel ,l4 ,abbot2 and ,epes ,dixwell4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the firm of ,burroughs1 ,wellcome ,co41 says the ,lancet1 are to be congratulated on the generous care which they have taken to promote the material and intellectual welfare of their employees4 ,their principal works are at ,dartford1 where they employ more than eight hundred persons of both sexes1 including some two hundred scientific workers4 ,for the purpose of establishing a sort of club for these employees1 ,mr4 ,wellcome succeeded in purchasing the ,manor ,house known as ,acacia ,hall1 and the extensive and beautiful grounds in which it is situated4 ,the ,manor ,house he has fitted up as a club for the members of his staff4 ,an old mill which stands close by has been converted into what is called the library building4 ,the upper floor is fitted out as a lecture-room1 and there is a library which already contains some thousands of volumes4 ,a third building1 called the ,tower ,house1 contains club accommodations for men4 ,then there are elaborate bathrooms1 and finally a large gymnasium4 ,the grounds are most extensive1 being half a mile in length and very tastefully laid out4 ,there is a lake1 a river1 and many pleasure boats for rowing1 a large field for sports of all sorts1 a grand stand to witness the same1 a rich orchard and a beautiful pleasure garden1 several luxurious lawns1 and many superb trees4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a peculiar kind of glassy bodies1 known as moldavite or bouteillenstein1 is attracting the attention of ,austrian and ,bohemian geologists4 ,these glasses are ovals from an inch to an inch and a half long1 and are characterized by various markings1 some of which suggest finger impressions1 while others form a network of furrows1 which may have in part a rough radial arrangement4 ,they have been regarded by some authors as relics of prehistoric glass manufacture1 but this view does not appear to have been sustained4 ,dr4 ,f4 ,e4 ,suess1 the famous ,austrian geologist1 finds resemblances between them and meteorites1 and the most general disposition of students of the subject is now to consider them of extra-terrestrial origin4 ,resemblances have further been pointed out between them and some peculiar obsidian bombs found in ,australia4 ,the moldavites in ,bohemia occur in sandy deposits which are assigned to the late ,tertiary or early ,diluvial period4 99 99 99 99 99 ,at the ,massachusetts ,institute of ,technology1 besides studies bearing directly on science and the arts1 courses are given in modern languages1 as an important means of access to foreign works in the student's professional department3 ,english1 for the purpose of training pupils to express themselves readily1 accurately1 and adequately1 and of aiding them in the understanding and appreciation of good literature2 history and political and social science1 the instruction in which is arranged to connect with that in biology1 so that the two departments shall present 8an unbroken sequence of related studies extending through three successive years1 and resting upon the fundamental knowledge of living forms and of prehistoric man that is presented in general biology1 zology1 and anthropology10 followed by comparative politics and international law2 and economics4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a witness recently admitted to the ,british ,government's ,committee now making inquiry into the use of coloring matters and preservatives in food1 that yellow coloring substances were largely purchased without any discrimination for the purpose of giving a rich appearance to milk and milk products4 ,as a rule1 no question was asked as to the injurious or non-injurious character of the dye so used4 ,one of the best coloring matters was known as ,martius's yellow1 naphthol yellow1 naphthalene yellow1 ,manchester yellow1 saffron yellow1 or golden yellow1 and is chemically the same as the dinitro-alpha-naphthol prepared from the naphthalene that crystallizes in gas mains1 which is an important constituent in the making of lyddite4 ,it is slightly explosive when heated1 is injurious when it comes in contact with an abrasion of the skin1 and has been shown by physiological experiments to be a highly improper substance to mix with food4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a goose market is held regularly in ,october at ,warsaw1 ,poland1 to which about three million geese are brought1 most of them to be exported to ,germany4 ,often coming from remote provinces1 many of these geese have to travel over long distances1 upon roads which would wear out their feet if they were not 8shod40 ,for this purpose they are driven first through tar poured upon the ground1 and then through sand4 ,after the operation has been repeated several times the feet of the geese become covered with a hard crust that effectively protects them4 ,,notes4 ,the first summer session of ,columbia ,university1 #aijj1 will open ,july #b;d1 instruction beginning ,july #eth1 and will continue till ,august #ajth4 ,the work will be under the general direction of ,prof4 ,nicholas ,murray ,butler1 and will be conducted by a large corps of instructors1 in eleven courses1 of thirty lectures or other exercises or their equivalent in laboratory or field work1 each4 ,the concluding examinations will be held ,august #ith and #ajth4 ,credits will be given for courses pursued at the school in the requirements for a degree at the university1 and for a ,teachers' ,college diploma1 and in the examinations for teachers' licenses in ,new ,york city4 99 99 99 99 99 ,an ,international ,congress of ,medical ,electrology and ,radiology has been connected with the ,international ,congress system of the ,paris ,exposition1 #aijj1 and will be held ,july #bgth to ,august #ast4 ,the commission is composed of representative men from various universities1 institutions1 and hospitals of ,france1 with ,prof4 ,e4 ,doumer1 #eg ,rue ,nicolas ,leblanc1 ,lille1 as secretary4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a curious fall of 8black snow10 which was observed at ,molding1 ,austria1 at the beginning of the year1 was found to consist largely of the insects known as 8glacier fleas10 which were supposed to have come along with a violent snowstorm from some of the ,alpine glaciers4 99 99 99 99 99 ,how to write #aijj in ,roman numerals is a question of the day that will have to be settled4 ,three ways are suggested by ,mr4 ,j4 ,fletcher ,little in the ,london ,times1 either of which is correct according to the ,roman system4 ,they are ,,mdcccc1 ,,mdcd1 and ,,mcm4 ,but when we reach the year #aihh1 if we use the first of these methods we shall have to write the formidable-looking formula ,,mdcccclxxxviii1 whereas if we use the third and shortest method1 it will only be ,,mcmlxxxviii--and that is long enough4 ,the third method1 therefore1 which may be interpreted as meaning one thousand plus another thousand lacking a hundred1 seems to be the simplest4 99 99 99 99 99 ,dr4 ,st4 ,george ,mivart1 ,professor of ,biology in ,university ,college1 ,kensington1 died suddenly in ,london1 ,april #ast1 aged seventy-two years4 ,he was author of numerous scientific works1 of treatises critical of ,darwinism and the theory of evolution1 and of demonstrations of the harmony of ,roman ,catholic dogma with proved scientific facts4 ,his name has been made prominent of late by his recantation of his previously expressed views of the consistency of dogma with science1 and the correspondence with ,cardinal ,vaughan which grew out of it4 99 99 99 99 99 ,an ,international ,congress of ,ethnographical societies has been arranged for by the ,ethnographic ,society of ,paris1 to be held in ,paris1 ,august #bfth to ,september #ast4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,wollaston medal of the ,royal ,geological ,society1 ,london1 for the most important geological discoveries1 has this year been awarded to ,mr4 ,grove ,k4 ,gilbert1 of the ,united ,states ,geological ,survey4 ,this is the third time the medal has been awarded to a citizen of this country4 99 99 99 99 99 ,among the recently announced publications of ,john ,wiley and ,sons we notice a third edition1 revised and enlarged1 of ,allen ,hazen's ,filtration of ,public ,water ,supplies2 a new and revised edition of ,olof's ,text-book of ,physiological ,chemistry2 ,the ,cost of ,living as ,modified by ,sanitary ,science1 by ,ellen ,h4 ,richards2 ,examination of ,water 7,chemical and ,biological71 by ,william ,p4 ,mason2 and the fifth edition of ,h4 ,van ,f4 ,furman's ,manual of ,practical ,assaying4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in a method of sterilization of water by means of ozone1 described by ,dr4 ,weyl1 of ,berlin1 at the ,german ,scientific ,conference1 #ahii1 water is pumped to the top of a tower and allowed to flow freely over stones1 meeting as it falls a current of air charged with ozone4 ,the process appears to be likewise effectual in purifying peat and bog water1 the solution of the iron salts of humic acid being decomposed and oxidized1 and the brown color disappearing in consequence4 ,the method1 it is said1 can be advantageously used in connection with filter beds4 99 99 99 99 99 ,our death list this month of men known in science is large4 ,it includes the names of ,m4 ,philippe ,salmon1 archologist1 subdirector of l'cole d',anthropologie of ,paris1 ,president of the ,ministry of ,public ,instruction's ,commission on ,megalithic ,monuments and author of numerous monographs on subjects of his studies1 in ,paris1 aged seventy-six years2 ,dr4 ,c4 ,t4 ,r4 ,luther1 director of the ,observatory at ,bilk1 near ,dusseldorf1 aged seventy-eight years4 ,he discovered twenty-one of the minor planets and calculated the orbits of them all1 as well as those of several other bodies2 ,dr4 ,c4 ,piazzi ,smith1 formerly ,astronomer ,royal of ,scotland1 author of studies of the amount of heat given by the moon to the earth1 and of some famous speculations upon the construction and purposes of the ,great ,pyramid as an exponent of the standard of measurement1 ,february #bast1 aged eighty-one years2 ,m4 mile ,blanchard1 dean of the section of ,anatomy and ,physiology of the ,french ,academy of ,sciences2 ,captain ,bernadires1 member of the ,french ,bureau des ,longitudes and ,director of the ,observatory ,school of ,montsouri for ,officers of the ,marine1 who had fulfilled several astronomical and geodesic commissions2 ,dr4 ,hermann ,schaeffer1 honorary professor of ,mathematics and ,physics at ,jena1 aged seventy-six years2 ,leander ,j4 ,mc,cormick1 founder of the ,mc,cormick ,observatory at the ,university of ,virginia2 ,president ,james ,h4 ,smart1 of ,purdue ,university1 ,lafayette1 ,ind42 ,general ,a4 ,a4 ,tillo1 ,vice-,president of the ,russian ,geographical ,society1 founder of an exact physical geography of ,russia1 based on scientific data1 and of many contributions on the science1 at ,st4 ,petersburg1 ,january #aath1 aged sixty years2 ,prof4 ,e4 ,beltrami1 of the ,university of ,rome 7,mathematical ,physics71 ,president of the ,accademia dei ,lincei1 and correspondent of the ,paris ,academy of ,sciences2 ,m4 ,emmanuel ,liais1 ,mayor of ,cherbourg1 ,france1 also distinguished for useful and very meritorious work in ,astronomy and ,physics1 aged seventy-four years2 ,dr4 ,hans ,bruno1 ,professor of ,mineralogy and ,geology in the ,university of ,dresden1 ,saxony1 distinguished for his investigations of the ,paleozoic1 ,cretaceous1 and ,permian rocks of ,saxony1 at ,dresden1 ,january #bhth1 aged eighty-five years2 and ,william ,thorpe1 one of the ,vice-,presidents of the ,society of ,chemical ,industry4 ,,publications ,,received4 ,agricultural ,experiment ,stations4 ,bulletins and ,reports4 ,indiana 7,purdue ,university74 ,twelfth ,annual ,report4 ,pp4 #aej4--,michigan4 ,monthly ,bulletin of ,vital ,statistics1 ,january1 #aijj4 ,pp4 #ah4--,new ,jersey3 ,bulletin ,no4 #ada4 ,forcing ,tomatoes4 ,by ,alva ,t4 ,jordan4 ,pp4 #ah2 ,no4 #adb4 ,pea-,growing in ,new ,jersey4 ,by ,alva ,t4 ,jordan4 ,pp4 #ad4--,new ,york3 ,no4 #afb 7popular edition74 ,injury by ,sun ,scorching of ,foliage4 ,by ,f4 ,h4 ,hale and ,f4 ,c4 ,stewart4 ,pp4 #f2 ,no4 #afc 7popular edition74 ,canker1 an ,enemy of the ,apple4 ,by ,f4 ,h4 ,hall and ,wendell ,paddock4 ,pp4 #f2 ,no4 #afd 7popular edition74 ,divers ,diseases discussed4 ,by ,f4 ,h4 ,hall4 ,pp4 #e2 ,no4 #afe4 ,report of ,analyses of ,paris ,green and other ,insecticides4 ,by ,l4 ,l4 ,van ,slyke4 ,pp4 #aj4--,ohio3 ,no4 #aj4 ,the ,maintenance of ,fertility4 ,by ,c4 ,e4 ,thorne4 ,pp4 #ia--,united ,states ,department of ,agriculture ,comparative ,range ,grass and ,forage ,plant ,experiments at ,highmore1 ,south ,dakota4 ,by ,f4 ,lampson ,scribner4 ,pp4 #aj4--,list of ,publications for ,sale by the ,superintendent of ,documents1 ,union ,building1 ,washington1 to ,february #a1 #ahii4 ,pp4 #cc2 ,some ,miscellaneous ,results of the ,work of the ,division of ,entomology4 ,part ,,iv4 ,pp4 #aji4--,report of the ,north ,dakota ,section of the ,climate and ,crop ,service of the ,weather ,bureau for ,february1 #aijj4 ,pp4 #h4 ,aluminum ,plate ,press ,company1 ,new ,york4 ,calendar for #aijj4 ,baudouin1 ,marcel1 ,editor-in-chief4 ,bibliographica ,medica4 ,monthly1 ,january1 #aijj4 ,paris3 ,institute de ,bibliographie4 ,pp4 #fd4 #e francs2 #fj francs a year4 ,borosher1 ,c4 ,a4 ,world ,relations4 ,man and the ,cosmic ,principle4 ,champaign1 ,ill4 ,pp4 #aee4 ,burnham1 ,judge ,c4 ,e4 ,csar ,lombroso2 and ,shepherd1 ,l4 ,a ,criticism of ,lombroso4 ,kansas ,city1 ,mo4 ,pp4 #bj4 ,butler1 the ,hon4 ,marion4 ,speech in the ,united ,states ,senate on ,postal ,savings ,banks4 ,pp4 #ac4 ,chamberlin1 ,t4 ,c4 ,an ,attempt to ,frame a ,working ,hypothesis of the ,cause of ,glacial ,periods on an ,atmospheric ,basis4 ,university of ,chicago ,press4 ,pp4 #ajd4 ,chambers1 ,g4 ,f4 ,the ,story of ,eclipses ,simply ,told for ,general ,readers4 7,library of ,useful ,stories47 ,new ,york3 ,d4 ,appleton and ,company4 ,pp4 #bbb4 #dj cents4 ,dean1 ,bashford4 ,the ,devonian ,lamprey1 ,palospondylus ,gunni1 ,traquair1 with ,notes on the ,systematic ,arrangement of ,fishlike ,vertebrates4 ,new ,york ,academy of ,sciences4 ,pp4 #cb1 with plate4 ,fernow1 ,b4 ,e4 ,beginnings of ,professional ,forestry in the ,adirondacks4 ,new ,york ,state ,college of ,forestry1 ,cornell ,university4 ,pp4 #ef4 ,field ,columbian ,museum1 ,chicago4 ,annual ,report of the ,director for #ahih-'ii4 ,pp4 #ij1 with plates4 ,folkmar1 ,daniel4 ,the ,duration of ,school ,attendance in ,chicago and ,milwaukee4 ,pp4 #ej4 ,folkmar1 ,daniel4 ,leons d',anthropologie ,philosophique2 ses ,applications la ,morale ,positive4 7,lessons of ,philosophical ,anthropology2 its ,applications to ,positive ,morals47 ,paris3 ,schleicher ,frres4 ,pp4 #ccf4 #g francs4 ,gibier1 ,paul4 ,quarterly ,bulletin of the ,new ,york ,pasteur ,institute4 ,march1 #aijj4 ,pp4 #h4 ,gray1 ,elisha4 ,nature's ,miracles4 ,familiar ,talks on ,science4 ,vol4 ,i4 ,earth1 ,air1 and ,water4 ,new ,york3 ,fords1 ,howard ,hulbert4 ,pp4 #bdc4 #fj cents4 ,highsmith1 ,george ,r4 ,contributions of the ,medical ,profession to ,general ,literature and ,collateral ,sciences4 ,pp4 #ah4 ,hinrichs1 ,gustavus ,d4 ,the ,present and ,future ,water ,supply of ,st4 ,louis4 ,pp4 #ae4 ,hollick1 ,arthur4 ,some ,features of the ,drift of ,staten ,island1 ,n4 ,y4 ,pp4 #ab1 with plate2 ,the ,relation between ,forestry and ,geology in ,new ,jersey4 ,parts ,i and ,,ii4 ,pp4 #bba4 ,mac,dougal1 ,d4 ,t4 ,the ,nature and ,work of ,plants4 ,new ,york3 ,the ,macmillan ,company4 ,pp4 #bah4 #hj cents4 ,manning1 ,warren ,h4 ,directions for ,surveying and ,arranging ,home and ,school ,grounds4 ,boston1 ,mass4 ,pp4 #ab4 ,marriott1 ,h4 ,p4 ,f4 ,the ,secret ,societies of ,west ,africa4 ,london3 ,harrison ,sons4 ,pp4 #d4 ,martens1 ,adolf4 ,handbook of ,testing ,materials4 ,part ,i4 ,vol4 ,,ii4 ,illustrations4 ,new ,york3 ,john ,wiley ,sons4 ,pp4 7plates and explanations7 #bdj4 ,mexico4 ,boletin del consejo ,superior de ,salubridad4 7,bulletin of the ,superior ,sanitary ,council47 ,mexico1 ,january1 #aijj4 ,pp4 #cb4 ,roisel4 ,essai de ,chronologie des ,temps ,prehistoriques4 7,essay on the ,chronology of ,prehistoric ,times47 ,paris3 ,flix ,alcan4 ,pp4 #fj4 #a franc4 ,schufeldt1 ,r4 ,w4 ,notes on the ,mountain ,partridge in ,captivity4 ,pp4 #d1 with plate4 ,scientific ,alliance of ,new ,york4 ,ninth ,annual ,directory4 ,pp4 #fj4 #be cents4 ,siebel1 ,j4 ,e4 ,compend of ,mechanical ,refrigeration4 ,chicago3 ,h4 ,s4 ,rich ,co4 ,pp4 #chi4 ,price1 #c4 ,south ,kensington ,museum 7,london74 ,catalogue of the ,collection of ,pottery and ,porcelain illustrating ,popular ,british ,history1 ,lent by ,henry ,willett1 ,esq4 ,pp4 #abc4 ,trelease1 ,william4 ,classification of ,botanical ,publications4 ,pp4 #ab4 ,williams1 ,thomas ,a41 ,editor4 ,the ,asa ,gray ,bulletin4 ,devoted to ,plant ,life in ,field1 ,forest1 and ,garden4 ,bimonthly4 ,february1 #aijj4 ,pp4 #bf4 ,transcribers' ,notes ,punctuation1 hyphenation1 and spelling were made consistent when a predominant preference was found in this book2 otherwise they were not changed4 ,simple typographical errors were corrected2 occasional unbalanced quotation marks retained4 ,ambiguous hyphens at the ends of lines were retained4 ,page #bb3 8the city to-day would drive from that source0 may be a misprint for 8derive04 ,page #ed3 8each of the tactile organ0 probably should be 8organs04 ,page #fh3 8beauxite0 was spelled that way4 ,page #ajg3 ,unmatched quotation mark in paragraph beginning 8,geological ,formations04