,illustration3 ,,brass ,,image ,,of     
,,gautama ,,buddha ,,from ,,ceylon4     
,he is seated on the ,mualinda ,serpent 
7see p4 #dhj71 in an attitude    of     
profound meditation1 with eyes half     
closed1 and five rays of light          
emerging from the crown of his head4    
,frontispiece4                          
,,buddhism1               ,,in ,,its    
,,connexion ,,with ,,br,,hmanism ,,and  
,,hind,,ism1                            
,,and                            ,,in   
,,its ,,contrast ,,with                 
,,christianity1                         
,,by                   ,,sir ,,monier   
,,monier-,,williams1 ,k4,c4,i4,e41      
,m4,a41 ,,hon4 ,d4,c4,l4 ,,of ,,the     
,,university ,,of ,,oxford1             
,,hon4 ,,ll4,d4 ,,of ,,the ,,university 
,,of ,,calcutta1                 ,,hon4 
,,ph4,d4 ,,of ,,the ,,university ,,of   
,g,,ttingen1         ,,hon4 ,,member    
,,of ,,the ,,asiatic ,,societies ,,of   
,,bengal ,,and ,,bombay1        ,,and   
,,of ,,the ,,oriental ,,and             

,,philosophical ,,societies ,,of        
,,america1                              
,,boden ,,professor ,,of ,,sansk,,it1   
,,and ,,late ,,fellow ,,of ,,balliol    
,,college1 ,,oxford1 ,,etc4             
,illustration3                          
,,new ,,york3                           
,,macmillan ,,and ,,co4                 
#ahhi4                            ,all  
rights reserved4                        
,,preface4      ,the #8,duff ,lectures' 
for #ahhh were delivered by me at       
,edinburgh in the  month of ,march4 ,in 
introducing my subject1 ,i spoke to the 
following  effect3--    #8,i wish to    
express my deep sense of the            
responsibility which the writing  of    
these ,lectures has laid upon me1 and my
 earnest desire that they may1  by their
 usefulness1 prove in some degree worthy
 of the great missionary  whose name    
they bear4    #8,dr4 ,duff was a man of 
power1 who left his own foot-print so   
deeply  impressed on the soil of        
,bengal1 that its traces are never      

likely to be  effaced1 and still serve  
to encourage less ardent spirits1 who   
are  striving to imitate his example in 
the same field of labour4    #8,but not 
only is the impress of his vigorous     
personality still fresh in  ,bengal4 ,he
 has earned an enduring reputation      
throughout ,india and the  ,united      
,kingdom1 as the prince of educational  
missionaries4 ,he was in all  that he   
undertook an enthusiastic and           
indefatigable workman1 of whom1 if  of  
any human being1 it might be truly said1
 that1 when called upon to  quit the    
sphere of his labours1 8he needed not to
 be ashamed40 ,no one  can have         
travelled much in ,india without having 
observed how wonderfully  the results of
 his indomitable energy and fervid      
eloquence in the cause  of ,truth wait  
on the memory of his work everywhere4   
,monuments may be  erected and          
lectureships founded to perpetuate his  
name and testify to  his victories over 
difficulties which few other men could  

have overcome1  but better than these   
will be the living testimony of         
successive  generations of ,hind men and
 women1 whose growth and progress in    
true  enlightenment will be due to the  
seed which he planted1 and to which ,god
  has given the increase4'    ,i said a 
few more words expressive of my hope    
that the #8,life of ,dr4  ,duff'#a would
 be read and pondered by every student  
destined for work  of any kind in our   
,indian empire1 and to that biography ,i
 refer all who  are unacquainted with   
the particulars of the labours of a man 
to whom  ,scotland has assigned a place 
in the foremost rank of her most eminent
  ,evangelists4    ,i now proceed to    
explain the process by which these      
,lectures have  gradually outgrown the  
limits required by the ,duff ,trustees4 
,when ,i addressed myself to the        
carrying out of their                   
wishes--communicated  to me by ,mr4 ,w4 
,pirie ,duff--,i had no intention of    
undertaking more than a  concise account

 of a subject which ,i had been studying
 for many years4 ,i  conceived it       
possible to compress into six ,lectures 
a scholarly sketch  of what may be      
called true ,buddhism1--that is1 the    
,buddhism of the  ,piakas or ,pli texts 
which are now being edited by the ,pli  
,text  ,society1 and some of which have 
been translated in the #8,sacred ,books 
of  the ,east4' ,it soon1 however1      
became apparent to me that to write an  
account of ,buddhism which would be     
worthy of the great ,indian  missionary1
 ,i ought to exhibit it in its connexion
 with ,brhmanism and  ,hindism and even 
with ,jainism1 and in its contrast with 
,christianity4  ,then1 as ,i proceeded1 
,i began to feel that to do justice to  
my subject ,i  should be compelled to   
enlarge the range of my researches1 so  
as to  embrace some of the later phases 
and modern developments of ,buddhism4   
,this led me to undertake a more careful
 study of ,koeppen's ,lamaismus  than ,i
 had before thought necessary4          

,furthermore1 ,i felt it my duty to     
study attentively numerous treatises on 
,northern ,buddhism1 which ,i had       
before read in a cursory manner4 ,i even
 thought it incumbent on me to  look a  
little into the ,tibetan language1 of   
which ,i was before wholly  ignorant4   
,i need scarcely explain further the    
process of expansion through which  the 
present work has passed4 ,a conviction  
took possession of my mind1  that any   
endeavour to give even an outline of the
 whole subject of  ,buddhism in six     
,lectures1 would be rather like the     
effort of a foolish  man trying to paint
 a panorama of ,london on a sheet of    
note-paper4 ,hence  the expansion of six
 ,lectures into eighteen1 and it will be
 seen at once  that many of these       
eighteen are far too long to have been  
delivered in  extenso4 ,in point of     
fact1 by an arrangement with the        
,trustees1 only a  certain portion of   
any ,lecture was delivered orally4 ,the 
present work is  rather a treatise on   

,buddhism printed and published in      
memory of ,dr4  ,duff4    ,i need not   
encumber the ,preface with a            
re-statement of the reasons which  have 
made the elucidation of an intricate    
subject almost hopelessly  difficult4   
,they have been stated in the           
,introductory ,lecture 7pp4 #ac1  #ad74 
,moreover the plan of the present volume
 has been there set forth 7see p4  #ag74
    ,i may possibly be asked by weary   
readers why ,i have ventured to add     
another tributary to the too swollen    
stream of treatises on ,buddhism8 or    
some may employ another metaphor and    
inquire why ,i have troubled myself  to 
toil and plod over a path already well  
travelled over and trodden  down8 ,my   
reply is that ,i think ,i can claim for 
my own work an  individuality which     
separates it from that of others--an    
individuality  which may probably       
commend it to thoughtful students of    
,buddhism as  helping to clear a thorny 
road1 and introduce some little order   

and  coherence into the chaotic         
confusion of ,buddhistic ideas4    ,at  
any rate ,i request permission to draw  
attention to the following  points1     
which1 ,i think1 may invest my          
researches with a distinctive  character
 of their own4    ,in the first place ,i
 have been able to avail myself of the  
latest  publications of the ,pli ,text  
,society1 and to consult many recent    
works  which previous writers on        
,buddhism have not had at their command4
    ,secondly1 ,i have striven to       
combine scientific accuracy with a      
popular  exposition sufficiently        
readable to satisfy the wants of the    
cultured  ,english-speaking world--a    
world crowded with intelligent readers  
who take  an increasing interest in     
,buddhism1 and yet know nothing of      
,sanskit1  ,pli1 and ,tibetan4          
,thirdly1 ,i have aimed at effecting    
what no other ,english ,orientalist     
has1 to my knowledge1 ever accomplished4
 ,i have endeavoured to deal with  a    

complex subject as a whole1 and to      
present in one volume a  comprehensive  
survey of the entire range of ,buddhism1
 from its earliest  origin in ,india to 
its latest modern developments in other 
,asiatic  countries4    ,fourthly1 ,i   
have brought to the study of ,buddhism  
and its sacred  language ,pli1 a        
life-long preparatory study of          
,brhmanism and its  sacred language     
,sanskit4    ,fifthly1 ,i have on three 
occasions travelled through the sacred  
land of  ,buddhism 7p4 #ba71 and have   
carried on my investigations personally 
in  the place of its origin1 as well as 
in ,ceylon and on the borders of        
,tibet4    ,lastly1 ,i have depicted    
,buddhism from the standpoint of a      
believer in  ,christianity1 who has     
shown1 by his other works on ,eastern   
religions1 an  earnest desire to give   
them credit for all the good they       
contain4    ,in regard to this last     
point1 ,i shall probably be told by some
  enthusiastic admirers of ,buddhism1   

that my prepossessions and              
predilections--inherited with my        
,christianity--have1 in spite of my     
desire  to be just1 distorted my view of
 a system with which ,i have no         
sympathy4  ,to this ,i can only reply1  
that my consciousness of my own         
prepossessions  has made me the more    
sensitively anxious to exhibit ,buddhism
 under its  best aspects1 as well as    
under its worst4 ,an attentive perusal  
of my  last ,lecture 7see p4 #ecg7 will1
 ,i hope1 make it evident that ,i have  
at  least done everything in my power to
 dismiss all prejudice from my mind1    
and to assume and maintain the attitude 
of an impartial judge4 ,and to  this end
 ,i have taken nothing on trust1 or at  
second hand4 ,i have  studied ,pli1 as  
,i have the other ,indian ,prkits1 on my
 own account1  and independently4 ,i    
have not accepted unreservedly any man's
  interpretation of the original        
,buddhist texts1 and have endeavoured to
  verify for myself all doubtful        

statements and translations which occur 
in existing treatises4 ,of course ,i owe
 much to modern ,pli scholars1 and      
writers on ,buddhism1 and to the        
translators of the #8,sacred ,books of  
the  ,east2' but ,i have frequently felt
 compelled to form an independent       
opinion of my own4    ,the translations 
given in the #8,sacred ,books of the    
,east'--good as they  generally         
are--have seemed to me occasionally     
misleading4 ,i may mention  as an       
instance the constant employment by the 
translators of the word  #8,ordination' 
for the ceremonies of admission to the  
,buddhist monkhood  7see pp4 #gf-hj of  
the present volume74 ,i have ventured in
 such instances  to give what has       
appeared to me a more suitable          
equivalent for the ,pli4  ,on the same  
principle ,i have avoided all needless  
employment of  ,christian terminology   
and ,bible-language to express ,buddhist
 ideas4    ,for example1 ,i have in most
 cases excluded such words as #8sin1'   

#8holiness1' #8faith'1 #8trinity1'      
#8priest' from my explanations of the   
,buddhist creed1 as wholly unsuitable4  
,i regret that want of space has        
compelled me to curtail my observations 
on ,jainism--the present representative 
of ,buddhistic doctrines in ,india  7see
 p4 #ebi47 ,i hope to enter more fully  
on this subject hereafter4    ,the names
 of authors to whom students of         
,buddhism are indebted are given  in my 
first ,lecture 7pp4 #ad1 #ae74 ,we all  
owe much to ,childers4 ,my own  thanks  
are specially due to ,general ,sir      
,alexander ,cunningham1 to  ,professor  
,e4 ,b4 ,cowell of ,cambridge1          
,professor ,rhys ,davids1 ,dr4          
,oldenberg1 ,dr4 ,rost1 ,dr4 ,morris1   
,dr4 ,wenzel1 who have aided me with    
their opinions1 whenever ,i have thought
 it right to consult them4 ,dr4  ,rost1 
,c4,i4,e41 of the ,india ,office1 is    
also entitled to my warmest             
acknowledgments for having placed at my 
disposal various subsidiary  works      

bearing on ,buddhism1 some of which     
belong to his own ,library4    ,my      
obligations to ,mr4 ,hoey's translation 
of ,dr4 ,oldenberg's #8,buddha1' to  the
 translations of the travels of the     
,chinese pilgrims by ,professor  ,legge1
 ,mr4 ,beal1 ,m4 ,abel ,rmusat1 and ,m4 
,stanislas ,julien1 to ,m4 ,huc's       
travels1 and to ,mr4 ,scott's           
#8,burman1' will be evident1 and have   
been  generally acknowledged in my      
notes4 ,i am particularly grateful to   
,mr4  ,sarat ,chandra ,ds1 ,c4,i4,e41   
for the information contained in his    
,report  and for the instruction which  
,i received from him personally while   
prosecuting my inquiries at ,drjling4   
,i have felt compelled to abbreviate    
nearly all my quotations1 and  therefore
 occasionally to alter the phraseology4 
,hence ,i have thought it  right to mark
 them by a different type without       
inverted commas4    ,with regard to     
transliteration ,i must refer the       
student to the rules for  pronunciation 

given at p4 xxxi4 ,they conform to the  
rules given in my  ,sanskit ,grammar and
 ,dictionary4 ,like ,dr4 ,oldenberg1 ,i 
have preferred to  substitute ,sanskit  
terminations in a for the ,pli o4 ,in   
,tibetan ,i  have constantly consulted  
,jschke1 but have not followed his      
system of  transliteration4    ,in      
conclusion1 ,i may fitly draw attention 
to the engravings of objects1  some of  
which were brought by myself from       
,buddhist countries4 ,they are          
described in the list of illustrations  
7see p4 xxix71 and will1 ,i trust1  give
 value to the present volume4 ,it has   
seemed to me a duty to make use  of     
every available appliance for throwing  
light on the obscurities of a  difficult
 subject2 and1 as these ,lectures       
embrace the whole range of  ,buddhism1  
,i have adopted as a frontispiece a     
portrait of ,buddha which  exhibits     
,buddhism in its receptivity and in its 
readiness to adopt  serpent-worship1 or 
any other superstition of the races     

which it strove  to convert4 ,on the    
other hand1 the ,wheel1 with the        
,tri-ratna and the  ,lotus 7pp4 #eba1   
#ebb71 is engraved on the title-page as 
the best  representative symbol of early
 ,buddhism4 ,it is taken from a         
,buddhist  sculpture at ,amarvat        
engraved for ,mr4 ,fergusson's #8,tree  
and  ,serpent-worship' 7p4 #bcg74       
,the portrait which faces page #gd is   
well worthy of attention as             
illustrating the connexion#b between    
,buddhism and ,brhmanism4 ,it is  from a
 recently-taken photograph of ,mr4      
,gaur-akar ,uday-akar1  ,c4,s4,i4--a    
well-known and distinguished ,brhman of 
,bhaunagar--who 7with ,mr4  ,percival7  
administered the ,state during the      
minority of the present  enlightened    
,mah-rja4 ,like the ,buddha of old1 he  
has renounced the  world--that is1 he   
has become a ,sannys1 and is chiefly    
engaged in  meditation4 ,he has         
consequently dropped the title          
,c4,s4,i41 and taken the  religious     

title--,svm r ,saidnanda-,sarasvat4 ,his
 son1 ,mr4  ,vijay-akar ,gaur-akar1     
kindly sent me the photograph1 and with 
his  permission ,i have had it engraved4
    ,it will be easily understood that1 
as a great portion of the following     
pages had to be delivered in the form of
 ,lectures1 occasional  repetitions and 
recapitulations were unavoidable1 but ,i
 trust ,i shall  not be amenable to the 
charge of repeating anything for the    
sake of  #8padding4' ,i shall1 with more
 justice1 be accused of #8cramming1' in 
the  sense of attempting to force too   
much information into a single volume4  
,january #a1 #ahhi4                     
,,postscript4      ,since writing the   
foregoing prefatory remarks1 ,i have    
observed with much  concern that a      
prevalent error1 in regard to ,buddhism1
 is still  persistently propagated4 ,it 
is categorically stated in a newspaper  
report of a quite recent lecture1 that  
out of the world's population of  about 
#aejj millions at least #ejj millions   

are ,buddhists1 and that  ,buddhism     
numbers more adherents than any other   
religion on the surface  of the globe4  
,almost every ,european writer on       
,buddhism1 of late years1 has assisted  
in  giving currency to this utterly     
erroneous calculation1 and it is high   
time that an attempt should be made to  
dissipate a serious  misconception4     
,it is forgotten that mere sympathizers 
with ,buddhism1 who occasionally        
conform to ,buddhistic practices1 are   
not true ,buddhists4 ,in ,china the     
great majority are first of all         
,confucianists and then either ,toists  
or  ,buddhists or both4 ,in ,japan      
,confucianism and ,shintoism co-exist   
with  ,buddhism4 ,in some other         
,buddhist countries a kind of ,shamanism
 is  practically dominant4 ,the best    
authorities 7including the ,oxford      
,professor of ,chinese1 as stated in the
 ,introduction to his excellent  work   
#8,the ,travels of ,f-hien'7 are of     
opinion that there are not more  than   

#ajj millions of real ,buddhists in the 
world1 and that ,christianity  with its 
#dcj to #dej millions of adherents has  
now the numerical  preponderance over   
all other religions4 ,i am entirely of  
the same  opinion4 ,i hold that the     
,buddhism1 described in the following   
pages1  contained within itself1 from   
the earliest times1 the germs of        
disease1  decay1 and death 7see p4      
#eeg71 and that its present condition is
 one of  rapidly increasing             
disintegration and decline4    ,we must 
not forget that ,buddhism has           
disappeared from ,india proper1         
although it dominates in ,ceylon and    
,burma1 and although a few ,buddhist    
travellers find their way back to the   
land of its origin and sojourn  there4  
,indeed1 if ,i were called upon to give 
a rough comparative numerical  estimate 
of the six chief religious systems of   
the world1 ,i should be  inclined1 on   
the whole1 to regard ,confucianism as   
constituting1 next to  ,christianity1   

the most numerically prevalent creed4   
,we have to bear in  mind the immense   
populations1 both in ,china and ,japan1 
whose chief creed  is ,confucianism4    
,professor ,legge informs me that ,dr4  
,happer--an ,american ,presbyterian     
,missionary of about #de years standing1
 who has gone carefully into the        
statistics of ,buddhism--reckons only   
#bj millions of ,buddhists in ,china1   
and not more than #gb millions in the   
whole of ,asia4 ,dr4 ,happer states     
that1 if the ,chinese were required to  
class themselves as ,confucianists  or  
,buddhists or ,toists1 #ai_/bjths1 if   
not #ii_/ajjths1 of them would1 in  his 
opinion1 claim to be designated as      
,confucianists4    ,in all probability  
his estimate of the number of ,buddhists
 in ,china is  too low1 but the ,chinese
 ambassador ,li1 with whom ,professor   
,legge once  had a conversation on this 
subject1 ridiculed the view that they   
were as  numerous as the ,confucianists4
    ,undeniably1 as it seems to me1 the 

next place after ,christianity and      
,confucianism should be given to        
,brhmanism and ,hindism1 which are not  
really two systems but practically one2 
the latter being merely an  expansion of
 the former1 modified by contact with   
,buddhism4    ,brhmanism1 as ,i have    
elsewhere shown1 is nothing but         
spiritual  ,pantheism2 that is1 a belief
 in the universal diffusion of an       
impersonal  ,spirit 7called ,brhmn or   
,brhm7--as the only really existing     
,essence--and in its manifesting itself 
in ,mind and in countless material      
forces and forms1 including gods1       
demons1 men1 and animals1 which1 after  
fulfilling their course1 must ultimately
 be re-absorbed into the one  impersonal
 ,essence and be again evolved in       
endless evolution and  dissolution4     
,hindism1 with its worship of ,vishu and
 iva1 is based on this  pantheistic     
doctrine1 but the majority of the ,hinds
 are merely  observers of ,brhmanical   
institutions with their accompanying    

,hind  caste usages4 ,if1 however1 we   
employ the term ,hind in its widest     
acceptation 7omitting only all ,islmized
 ,hinds7 we may safely affirm  that the 
adherents of ,hindism have reached an   
aggregate of nearly #bjj  millions4 ,in 
the opinion of ,sir ,william ,wilson    
,hunter1 they are still  rapidly        
increasing1 both by excess of births    
over deaths and by  accretions from more
 backward systems of belief4            
,probably ,buddhism has a right to the  
fourth place in the scale of  numerical 
comparison4 ,at any rate the number of  
,buddhists can scarcely  be calculated  
at less than #ajj millions4    ,in      
regard to ,muhammadanism1 this creed    
should not1 ,i think1 be placed  higher 
than fifth in the enumeration4 ,in its  
purest form it ought to be  called      
,islm1 and in that form it is a mere    
distorted copy of ,judaism4    ,the     
,empress of ,india1 as is well known1   
rules over more ,muhammadans than  any  
other potentate in the world4 ,probably 

the ,musalmn population of  the whole of
 ,india now numbers #ee millions4    ,as
 to the number of ,muhammadans in the   
,turkish empire1 there are no very      
trustworthy data to guide us1 but the   
aggregate is believed to be about  #ad  
millions2 while ,africa can scarcely    
reckon more than that number1  even if  
,egypt be included4    ,the sixth       
system1 ,toism 7the system of ,lo-tsze71
 according to  ,professor ,legge1 should
 rank numerically after both            
,muhammadanism and  ,buddhism4    ,of   
course ,jainism 7p4 #ebi7 and           
,zoroastrianism 7the religion of the    
,prss7 are too numerically insignificant
 to occupy places in the above          
comparison4    ,it is possible that a   
careful census might result in a more   
favourable  estimate of the number of   
,buddhists in the world1 than ,i have   
here  submitted2 but at all events it   
may safely be alleged that1 even as a   
form of popular religion1 ,buddhism is  
gradually losing its                    

vitality--gradually loosening its hold  
on the vast populations once loyal  to  
its rule2 nay1 that the time is rapidly 
approaching when its capacity  for      
resistance must give way before the     
mighty forces which are destined  in the
 end to sweep it from the earth4        
,m4 ,m4-,w4    #hh ,onslow ,gardens1    
,london4        ,january #ae1 #ahhi4    
,,contents4                             
,,page    ,preface                      
v    ,postscript on the common error in 
regard to the comparative               
prevalence of ,buddhism in the world    
xiv    ,list of ,illustrations          
xxix    ,rules for ,pronunciation       
xxxi    ,pronunciation of ,buddha1 etc4 
,addenda and ,corrigenda                
xxxii                                   
,,lecture ,i4                           
,introductory ,observations4            
,buddhism in its relation to ,brhmanism4
 ,various sects in ,brhmanism4          
,creed of the ordinary ,hind4 ,rise of  
scepticism and infidelity4              

,materialistic school of thought4       
,origin of ,buddhism and ,jainism4      
,manysidedness of ,buddhism4 ,its       
complexity4 ,labours of various         
scholars4 ,divisions of the subject4    
,the ,buddha1 his ,law1 his ,order      
of ,monks4 ,northern ,buddhism          
#a-ag                                   
,,lecture ,,ii4                     ,the
 ,buddha as a ,personal ,teacher4       
,the ,buddha's biography4 ,date of his  
birth and death4 ,his names1            
epithets1 and titles4 ,story of the four
 visions4 ,birth of the        ,buddha's
 son4 ,the ,buddha leaves his home4 ,his
 life at ,rja-giha4        ,his study of
 ,brhmanical philosophy4 ,his sexennial 
fast4 ,his        temptation by ,mra4   
,he attains perfect enlightenment4 ,the 
,bodhi-tree4 ,buddha and ,muhammad      
compared4 ,the ,buddha's proceedings    
after his enlightenment4 ,his first     
teaching at ,benares4 ,first            
sermon4 ,effect of first teaching4 ,his 
first sixty missionaries4        ,his   

fire-sermon4 ,his eighty great          
disciples4 ,his two chief and           
sixteen leading disciples4 ,his         
forty-five years of preaching and       
itineration4 ,his death and last words4 
,character of the ,buddha's             
teaching4 ,his method illustrated by an 
epitome of one of his        parables   
#ah-eb                                  
,,lecture ,,iii4               ,the     
,dharma or ,law and ,scriptures of      
,buddhism4      ,origin of the ,buddhist
 ,law 7,dharma74 ,buddhist scriptures   
not like the        ,veda4 ,first       
council at ,rja-giha4 ,kyapa chosen as  
leader4        ,recitation of the       
,buddha's precepts4 ,second council at  
,vail4        andra-gupta4 ,third       
council at ,patn4 ,composition of       
southern        canon4 ,tri-piaka or    
three collections4 ,rules of discipline1
 moral        precepts1 philosophical   
precepts4 ,commentaries4 ,buddha-ghosha4
        ,aoka's inscriptions4 ,his      
edicts and proclamations4 ,fourth       

council        at ,jlandhara4 ,kanishka4
 ,the northern canon4 ,the nine ,neplese
        canonical scriptures4 ,the      
,tibetan canonical scriptures 7,kanjur7 
#ec-gj                                  
,,lecture ,,iv4                   ,the  
,sagha or ,buddhist ,order of ,monks4   
,nature of the ,buddhist brotherhood4   
,not a priesthood1 not a hierarchy4     
,names given to the monks4 ,method of   
admission to the monkhood4              
,admission of novices4 ,three-refuge    
formula4 ,admission of full             
monks4 ,four resources4 ,four           
prohibitions4 ,offences and penances4   
,eight practices4 ,the monk's daily     
life4 ,his three garments4              
,confession4 ,definition of the ,sagha  
or community of monks4 ,order        of 
,nuns4 ,lay-brothers and lay-sisters4   
,relation of the laity to        the    
monkhood4 ,duties of the laity4 ,later  
hierarchical ,buddhism4                 
,character of monks of the present day  
in various countries    #ga-ib          

,,lecture ,v4                  ,the     
,philosophical ,doctrines of ,buddhism4 
,the philosophy of ,buddhism founded on 
that of ,brhmanism4 ,three ways         
of salvation in ,brhmanism4 ,the        
,buddha's one way of salvation4 ,all    
life is misery4 ,indian pessimistic     
philosophy4 ,twelve-linked chain        
of causation4 ,celebrated ,buddhist     
formula4 ,the ,buddha's attitude        
towards the ,skhya and ,vednta          
philosophy of the ,brhmans4 ,the        
,buddha's negation of spirit and of a   
,supreme ,being4 ,brhmanical            
theory of metempsychosis4 ,the ,buddhist
 ,skandhas4 ,the ,buddhist        theory
 of transmigration4 ,only six forms of  
existence4 ,the        ,buddha's        
previous births4 ,examples given of     
stories of two of his        previous   
births4 ,destiny of man dependent on his
 own acts4        ,re-creative force of 
acts4 ,act-force creating worlds4 ,no   
knowledge        of the first act4      
,cycles of the ,universe4 ,interminable 

succession        of existences like    
rotation of a wheel4 ,buddhist ,kalpas  
or ages4        ,thirty-one abodes of   
six classes of beings rising one above  
the        other in successive tiers of 
lower worlds and three sets of          
heavens                                 
#ic-abb                                 
,,lecture ,,vi4      ,the ,morality of  
,buddhism and its chief aim--,arhatship 
or ,nirva4      ,inconsistency of a life
 of morality in ,buddhism4 ,division of 
the moral        code4 ,first five and  
then ten chief rules of moral conduct4  
,positive injunctions4 ,the ten fetters 
binding a man to existence4             
,seven jewels of the ,law4 ,six 7or ten7
 transcendent virtues4        ,examples 
of moral precepts from the ,dharma-pada 
and other works4        ,moral merit    
easily acquired4 ,aim of ,buddhist      
morality4 ,external        and internal 
morality4 ,inner condition of heart4    
,four paths or        stages leading to 
,arhatship or moral perfection4 ,three  

grades of        ,arhats4 ,series of    
,buddhas4 ,gautama the fourth ,buddha of
 the        present age1 and last of    
twenty-five ,buddhas4 ,the future       
,buddha4        ,explanation of ,nirva  
and ,pari-nirva as the true aim of      
,buddhist morality4 ,buddhist and       
,christian morality contrasted          
#abc-adf                                
,,lecture ,,vii4           ,changes in  
,buddhism and its disappearance from    
,india4      ,tendency of all religious 
movements to deterioration and          
disintegration4 ,the corruptions of     
,buddhism are the result of its         
own fundamental doctrines4 ,re-statement
 of ,buddha's early        teaching4    
,recoil to the opposite extreme4 ,sects 
and divisions in        ,buddhism4 ,the 
first four principal sects1 followed by 
eighteen1        thirty-two1 and        
ninety-six4 ,mah-yna or ,great ,method  
7vehicle74        ,hna-yna or ,little   
,method4 ,the ,chinese ,buddhist        
travellers1        ,f-hien and ,hiouen  

,thsang4 ,reasons for the disappearance 
of        ,buddhism from ,india4        
,gradual amalgamation with surrounding  
systems4 ,interaction between ,buddhism1
 ,vaishavism1 and aivism4               
,ultimate merging of ,buddhism in       
,brhmanism and ,hindism     #adg-aga    
,,lecture ,,viii4                ,rise  
of ,theistic and ,polytheistic          
,buddhism4      ,development of the     
,mah-yna or ,great ,method4 ,gradual    
deification of        saints1 sages1 and
 great men4 ,tendency to group in       
triads4 ,first        triad of the      
,buddha1 the ,law1 and the ,order4      
,buddhist triad no        trinity4 ,the 
,buddha to be succeeded by ,maitreya4   
,maitreya's heaven        longed for4   
,constitution and gradations of the     
,buddhist        brotherhood4 ,headship 
and government of the ,buddhist         
monasteries4        ,the first ,arhats4 
,progress of the ,mah-yna doctrine4 ,the
 first        ,bodhi-sattva ,maitreya   
associated with numerous other          

,bodhi-sattvas4 ,deification of         
,maitreya and elevation of ,gautama's   
great pupils to ,bodhi-sattvaship4      
,partial deification of great           
teachers4 ,ngrjuna1 ,gorakh-nth4        
,barlaam and ,josaphat      #agb-aid    
,,lecture ,,ix4                         
,theistic and ,polytheistic ,buddhism4  
,second ,buddhist triad1 ,maju-r1       
,avalokitevara or ,padma-pi and         
,vajra-pi4 ,description of each4 ,theory
 of five human ,buddhas1        five    
,dhyni-,buddhas #8of meditation1' and   
five        ,dhyni-,bodhi-sattvas4 ,five
 triads formed by grouping together one 
from each4 ,theory of di-,buddha4       
,worship of the ,dhyni-,buddha          
,amitbha4 ,tiers of heavens connected   
with the four ,dhynas or        stages  
of meditation4 ,account of the later    
,buddhist theory of        lower worlds 
and three groups of heavens4 ,synopsis  
of the        twenty-six heavens and    
their inhabitants4 ,hind gods and demons
        adopted by ,buddhism4 ,hind and 

,buddhist mythology           #aie-bbb  
,,lecture ,x4        ,mystical ,buddhism
 in its connexion with the ,yoga        
,philosophy4      ,growth of esoteric   
and mystical ,buddhism4 ,dhyni-,buddhas4
 ,yoga        philosophy4 ,svm          
,daynanda-,sarasvat4 ,twofold ,yoga     
system4 ,bodily        tortures of      
,yogs4 ,fasting4 ,complete absorption in
 thought4        ,progressive stages of 
meditation4 ,samdhi4 ,six transcendent  
faculties4 ,the ,buddha no spiritualist4
 ,nature of ,buddha's                   
enlightenment4 ,attainment of miraculous
 powers4 ,development of                
,buddha's early doctrine4 ,eight        
requisites of ,yoga4 ,six-syllabled     
sentence4 ,mystical syllables4 ,cramping
 of limbs4 ,suppression and             
imprisonment of breath4 ,suspended      
animation4 ,self-concentration4         
,eight supernatural powers4 ,three      
bodies of every ,buddha4 ,ethereal      
souls and gross bodies4 ,buddhist       
,mahtmas4 ,astral bodies4 ,modern       

spiritualism4 ,modern esoteric ,buddhism
 and ,asiatic occultism                 
#bbc-beb                                
,,lecture ,,xi4   ,hierarchical         
,buddhism1 especially as developed in   
,tibet and ,mongolia4      ,the ,sagha4 
,development of ,hierarchical gradations
 in ,ceylon and in        ,burma4       
,tibetan ,buddhism4 ,northern ,buddhism 
connected with        ,shamanism4 ,lmism
 and the ,lmistic ,hierarchy4           
,gradations of        monkhood4 ,avatra 
,lmas4 ,vagabond ,lmas4 ,female         
,hierarchy4 ,two        ,lmistic sects4 
,explanation of ,avatra theory4 ,history
 of ,tibet4        ,early history of    
,tibetan ,buddhism4 ,thumi ,sambhoa's   
invention of        the ,tibetan        
alphabet4 ,indian ,buddhists sent for to
 ,tibet4 ,tibetan        canon4 ,tibetan
 kings4 ,founding of monasteries4       
,buddhism adopted in        ,mongolia4  
,hierarchical ,buddhism in ,mongolia4   
,invention of        ,mongolian         
alphabet4 ,birth of the ,buddhist       

reformer ,tsong ,khapa4        ,the ,red
 and ,yellow ,cap schools4 ,monasteries 
of ,galdan1 ,brepung1        and ,sera4 
,character of ,tsong ,khapa's           
reformation4 ,resemblance of        the 
,roman ,catholic and ,lmistic systems4  
,death and canonization of        ,tsong
 ,khapa4 ,development of the ,avatra    
theory4 ,the two ,grand        ,lmas1   
,dalai ,lma and ,panchen ,lma4 ,election
 of ,dalai ,lma4        ,election of the
 ,grand ,lmas of ,mongolia4 ,list of    
,dalai ,lmas4        ,discovery of      
present ,dalai ,lma4 ,the ,lma or       
,khanpo of ,galdan1 of        ,kurun or 
,kuren1 of ,kuku khotun4 ,lmism in      
,ladk1 ,tangut1 ,nepl1        ,bhutn1   
,sikkim4 ,in ,china and ,japan4         
,divisions in ,japanese                 
,buddhism4 ,buddhism in ,russian        
territory                     #bec-cjb  
,,lecture ,,xii4                        
,ceremonial and ,ritualistic ,buddhism4 
,opposition of early ,buddhism to       
sacerdotalism and ceremonialism4        

,reaction4 ,religious superstition in   
,tibet and ,mongolia4 ,accounts         
by ,koeppen1 ,schlagintweit1 ,markham1  
,huc1 ,sarat ,chandra ,ds4              
,admission-ceremony of a novice in      
,burma and ,ceylon4 ,boy-pupils4        
,daily life in ,burmese monasteries1    
according to ,shway ,yoe4               
,observances during ,vassa4 ,pirit      
ceremony4 ,mah-baa ,pirit4              
,admission-ceremonies in ,tibet and     
,mongolia4 ,dress and equipment of      
a ,lmistic monk4 ,dorje4 ,prayer-bell4  
,use of ,tibetan language in        the 
,ritual4 ,a4 ,csoma de ,krs' life and   
labours4 ,form and        character of  
the ,lmistic ,ritual4 ,huc's description
 of a        particular ,ritual4 ,holy  
water1 consecrated grain1 tea-drinking4 
,ceremonies in ,sikkim and ,ladk4       
,ceremony at ,sarat ,chandra ,ds'       
presentation to the ,dalai ,lma4        
,ceremony at translation of a chief     
,lma's soul4 ,other ceremonies4         
,uposatha and fast-days4                

,circumambulation4 ,comparison with     
,roman ,catholic ,ritual     #cjc-cci   
,,lecture ,,xiii4           ,festivals1 
,domestic ,rites1 and ,formularies of   
,prayers4      ,new ,year's ,festivals  
in ,burma and ,tibet4 ,festivals of     
,buddha's birth        and death4       
,festival of lamps4 ,local ,festivals4  
,chase of the        spirit-kings4      
,religious masquerades and dances4      
,religious dramas        in ,burma and  
,tibet4 ,weapons used against evil      
spirits4 ,dorje4        ,phurbu4        
,tattooing in ,burma4 ,domestic rites   
and usages4        ,birth-ceremonies in 
,ceylon and ,burma4 ,name-giving        
ceremonies4        ,horoscopes4 ,baptism
 in ,tibet and ,mongolia4 ,amulets4     
,marriage-ceremonies4 ,freedom of women 
in ,buddhist countries4        ,usages  
in sickness4 ,merit gained by saving    
animal-life4 ,usages at        death4   
,cremation4 ,funeral-ceremonies in      
,sikkim1 ,japan1 ,ceylon1        ,burma1
 ,tibet1 and ,mongolia4 ,exposure of    

corpses in ,tibet and        ,mongolia4 
,prayer-formularies4 ,monlam4 ,mai-padme
 or #8jewel-lotus'        formulary4    
,prayer-wheels1 praying-cylinders and   
method of using        them4            
,formularies on rocks1 etc4 ,man ,dangs4
 ,prayer-flags4 ,mystic                 
formularies4 ,rosaries4 amaru4 ,manual  
of daily prayers      #cdj-chf          
,,lecture ,,xiv4                        
,sacred ,places4      ,the sacred land  
of ,buddhism4 ,kapila-vastu1 the        
,buddha's birth-place4        ,the      
arrow-fountain4 ,buddha-,gay4 ,ancient  
,temple4 ,sacred tree4                  
,restoration of ,temple4 ,votive ,stpas4
 ,mixture of ,buddhism and              
,hindism4 ,hiouen ,thsang's description 
of ,buddha-,gay4 ,srnth near            
,benares4 ,ruined ,stpa4 ,sculpture     
illustrating four events in the         
,buddha's career4 ,rja-giha4 ,scene of  
incidents in the ,buddha's        life4 
,deva-datta's plots4 ,satta-pai cave4   
rvast4 ,residence in        ,jeta-vana  

monastery4 ,sandal-wood image4          
,miracles4 ,vail1 place        of second
 council4 ,description by ,hiouen       
,thsang and ,f-hien4        ,kaumb4     
,great monolith4 ,nlanda monastery4     
,hiouen ,thsang's        description4   
,sakya1 place of ,buddha's descent from 
heaven4        ,account of the triple   
ladder4 ,sketa or ,ayodhy4 ,miraculous  
tree4        ,kany-kubja4 ilditya4      
,pali-putra4 ,aoka's palace4 ,founding  
of        hospitals4 ,first ,stpa4      
,kesarya4 ,ruined mound4 ,stpa4         
,kui-nagara1 the place of the ,buddha's 
death and ,pari-nirva                   
#chg-dbe                                
,,lecture ,,xv4                         
,monasteries and ,temples4      ,five   
kinds of dwellings permissible for      
monks4 ,institution of                  
monasteries4 ,cave-monasteries4         
,monasteries in ,ceylon1 ,burma1 and    
,british ,sikkim4 ,monastery at ,klang  
in ,lahl2 at ,kunbum2 at ,kuku          
khotun2 at ,kuren2 at ,lhssa4           

,palace-monastery of ,potala4 ,residence
        of ,dalai ,lma1 and ,mr4        
,manning's interview with him4          
,monasteries        of ,l brang1        
,ramohe1 ,moru1 ,gar ,ma ,khian4 ,three 
mother-monasteries        of the ,yellow
 ,sect1 ,galdan1 ,sera1 and ,dapung4    
,tashi ,lunpo and the        ,tashi     
,lma4 ,mr4 ,bogle's interview with the  
,tashi ,lma4 ,turner's        interview 
with the ,grand ,lma of the ,terpaling  
monastery4 ,sarat        ,chandra ,ds'  
description of the ,tashi ,lunpo        
monastery4 ,monasteries        of the   
,red ,sect1 ,sam ye and ,sakya4         
,monastery libraries4 ,temples4         
,cave-temples or aityas4 ,the ,elor     
aitya4 ,the ,krle aitya4        ,village
 temples4 ,temples in ,ceylon4 ,temple  
at ,kelani4 ,tooth-temple        at     
,kandy4 ,burmese temples4 ,rangoon      
pagoda4 ,temples in ,sikkim1            
,mongolia1 and ,tibet4 ,great temple at 
,lhssa2 at ,ramohe2 at ,tashi           
,lunpo                                  

#dbf-dfd                                
,,lecture ,,xvi4                        
,images and ,idols4      ,introduction  
of idolatry into ,india4 ,ancient image 
of ,buddha4 ,gradual        growth of   
objective ,buddhism4 ,development of    
image-worship4        ,self-produced    
images4 ,hiouen ,thsang's account of the
 sandal-wood        image4 ,form1       
character1 and general characteristics  
of images4        ,outgrowth of         
,buddha's skull4 ,nimbus4 ,size1 height1
 and different        attitudes of      
,buddha's images4 #8,meditative1'       
#8,witness1'                            
#8,serpent-canopied1' #8,argumentative' 
or #8,teaching1' #8,preaching1'         
#8,benedictive1' #8,mendicant1' and     
#8,recumbent' ,attitudes4               
,representations of ,buddha's birth4    
,images of other ,buddhas and           
,bodhi-sattvas4 ,images of ,amitbha1 of 
,maitreya1 of ,maju-r1 of               
,avalokitevara1 of ,kwan-yin and        
,vajra-pi4 ,images of other             

,bodhi-sattvas1 gods and goddesses      
#dfe-dib                                
,,lecture ,,xvii4                       
,sacred ,objects4      ,sung-,yun's     
description of objects of worship4      
,three classes of        ,buddhist      
sacred objects                          
#dic-die      ,relics4 ,hind ideas of   
impurity connected with death4 ,hind and
        ,buddhist methods of honouring  
ancestors compared4 ,worship of the     
,buddha's relics4 ,the ,buddha's hair   
and nails4 ,eight portions of        his
 relics4 ,adventures of one of the      
,buddha's teeth4 ,tooth-temple        at
 ,kandy4 ,celestial light emitted by    
relics4 ,exhibition of relics4          
,form and character of ,buddhist        
relic-receptacles4 aityas1 ,stpas1      
,dgabas1 and their development into     
elaborate structures4 ,votive           
,stpas                                  
#die-ejf      ,worship of foot-prints4  
,probable origin of the worship of      
foot-prints4        ,alleged foot-prints

 of ,christ4 ,vishu-pad at ,gay4 ,jaina 
pilgrims        at ,mount ,prasnth4     
,adam's ,peak4 ,foot-prints in various  
countries4        ,mr4 ,alabaster's     
description of the foot-print in ,siam4 
,marks on        the soles of the       
,buddha's feet                          
#ejf-ead      ,sacred trees4 ,general   
prevalence of tree-worship4 ,belief that
 spirits        inhabit trees4          
,offerings hung on trees4 ,trees of the 
seven        principal ,buddhas4 ,the   
,avattha or ,pippala is of all trees the
        most revered4 ,other sacred     
trees4 ,the ,kalpa-tree4 ,wishing-tree4 
,kabr ,var tree                         
#ead-ebj      ,sacred symbols4 ,the     
,tri-ratna symbol4 ,the akra or ,wheel  
symbol4 ,the        ,lotus-flower4 ,the 
,svastika symbol4 ,the ,throne symbol4  
,the        ,umbrella4 ,the akha or     
,conch-shell                            
#ebj-ebc      ,sacred animals4 ,worship 
of animals due to doctrine of           
metempsychosis4        ,elephants4      

,deer4 ,pigs4 ,fish                     
#ebd-ebf      ,miscellaneous objects4   
,bells4 ,seven precious substances4     
,seven        treasures belonging to    
every universal monarch                 
#ebf-ebh          ,supplementary        
,remarks on the ,connexion of ,buddhism 
with ,jainism4      ,difference between 
the ,buddhist and ,jaina methods of     
obtaining        liberation4 ,nigahas4  
,two ,jaina sects4 ,dig-ambaras and     
vetmbaras4 ,the three chief points of   
difference between them4        ,their  
sacred books4 ,characteristics of both  
sects as distinguished        from      
,buddhism4 ,belief in existence of      
souls4 ,moral code4                     
,three-jewels4 ,five moral prohibitions4
 ,prayer-formula4 ,temples              
erected for acquisition of merit        
#ebi-ecf                                
,,lecture ,,xviii4                      
,buddhism contrasted with ,christianity4
      ,true ,buddhism is no religion4   
,definition of the word #8religion4'    

,four        characteristics constitute 
a religion4 ,gautama's claim to be      
called #8the ,light of ,asia' examined4 
,the ,buddha's and ,christ's            
first call to their disciples4 ,the     
,christian's reverence for the          
body contrasted with the ,buddhist's    
contempt for the body4        ,doctrine 
of storing up merit illustrated1 and    
shown to be common        to ,buddhism1 
,brhmanism1 ,hindism1 ,confucianism1    
,zoroastrianism1        and             
,muhammadanism4 ,doctrine of ,karma or  
,act-force4 ,buddhist and               
,christian doctrine of deliverance      
compared4 ,buddhist and ,christian      
moral precepts compared4 ,the many      
benefits conferred upon ,asia by        
,buddhism admitted4 ,religious feelings 
among ,buddhists4 ,buddhist             
toleration of other religions4          
,historic life of the ,christ contrasted
 with legendary biography of the        
,buddha4 ,christ ,god-sent4 ,the ,buddha
 self-sent4 ,miracles recorded        in

 the ,bible and in the ,tri-piaka       
contrasted4 ,buddhist and               
,christian self-sacrifice compared4     
,character and style of the             
,buddhist ,tri-piaka contrasted with    
those of the ,christian ,bible4         
,various ,buddhist and ,christian       
doctrines contrasted4 ,which            
doctrines are to be preferred by        
rational and thoughtful men in          
the nineteenth century8                 
#ecg-efc                                
,,observe4    ,the prevalent error in   
regard to the number of ,buddhists at   
present  existing in the world is       
pointed out in the ,postscript at the   
end of the  ,preface 7p4 xiv74          
,,list ,,of ,,illustrations             
,,with ,,descriptions4                  
,,page      #a4 ,brass ,image of        
,gautama ,buddha obtained by the ,author
 from ,ceylon                           
,frontispiece        ,he is seated on   
the ,mualinda ,serpent 7see p4 #dhj71 in
 an            attitude of profound     

meditation1 with eyes half closed1      
and five rays of light emerging from the
 crown of his            head4      #b4 
,vignette1 representing the akra or     
#8,wheel' ,symbol with ,tri-ratna       
symbols in the outer circle and ,lotus  
symbol in the centre 7see        pp4    
#eba-ebb7                               
,on ,title-page        ,copied from the 
engraving of a ,wheel supported on a    
column at            ,amarvat 7date     
about #bej ,a4,d47 in ,mr4 ,fergusson's 
#8,tree            and ,serpent         
,worship4'      #c4 ,map illustrative of
 the ,sacred ,land of ,buddhism         
,to face #ba      #d4 ,portrait of ,mr4 
,gaur-akar ,uday-akar1 ,c4,s4,i41 now   
,svm r        ,saidnanda-,sarasvat      
,to face  #gd        ,see the           
explanation at p4 xiii4 of the ,preface4
      #e4 ,magical ,dorje or thunderbolt
 used by ,northern ,buddhists           
#cbc      #f4 ,prayer-bell used in      
worship                                 
#cbd      #g4 ,magical weapon called    

,phur-pa1 for defence against evil      
spirits  #ceb        ,used by ,northern 
,buddhists4 ,brought from ,drjling in   
#ahhd4      #h4 ,amulet worn by a       
,tibetan woman at ,drjling in #ahhd     
#ceh        ,purchased at ,drjling and  
given to the ,author by ,mr4 ,sarat     
,chandra ,ds4      #i4 ,hand            
,prayer-wheel brought by the ,author    
from ,drjling           #cge      #aj4  
amaru1 or sacred drum1 used by vagabond 
,buddhist monks         #che      #aa4  
,ancient ,buddhist temple at            
,buddha-,gay1 as it appeared in #ahhj   
,to face #cia        ,erected about the 
middle of the #bnd century on the ruins 
of            ,aoka's temple1 at the    
spot where ,gautama attained            
,buddhahood4        ,from a photograph  
by ,mr4 ,beglar enlarged by ,mr4 ,g4 ,w4
 ,austen4      #ab4 ,the same temple at 
,buddha-,gay1 as restored in #ahhd   ,to
 face #cic        ,from a photograph by 
,mr4 ,beglar enlarged by ,mr4 ,g4 ,w4   
,austen4      #ac4 ,bronze model dug up 

at ,moulmein1 representing triple ladder
 by        which ,buddha is supposed to 
have descended from heaven 7from        
original in ,south ,kensington ,museum7 
#dah      #ad4 ,remains of a colossal   
statue of ,buddha                ,to    
face #dfg        ,probably in           
#8argumentative' or #8teaching' attitude
 7see p4            #dha74 ,it was found
 by ,general ,sir ,a4 ,cunningham close 
to            the south side of the     
,buddha-,gay temple4 ,the date 7,samvat 
#fd  ,a4,d4 #adb7 is inscribed on the   
pedestal4      #ae4 ,terra-cotta image  
of ,buddha dug up at ,buddha-,gay       
#dgg        ,half the size of the       
original sculpture4 ,buddha is in the   
attitude of meditation under the tree1  
with a halo or            aureola round 
his head4 ,probable date1 not earlier   
than            #ith century4      #af4 
,sculpture found by ,general ,sir ,a4   
,cunningham at ,srnth1 near             
,benares                                
,to face #dgg        ,illustrative of   

the four principal events in ,gautama   
,buddha's            life--namely1 his  
birth1 his attainment of ,buddhahood    
under            the tree1 his teaching 
at ,benares1 and his passing away in    
complete ,nirva 7see p4 #chg74 ,date    
about #djj ,a4,d4      #ag4 ,sculpture  
of ,buddha in #8,witness-attitude' on   
attaining ,buddhahood1        under the 
tree 7an umbrella is above7             
#dgh        ,found at ,buddha-,gay4     
,date about the #ith century4 ,the      
original            is remarkable for   
its smiling features and for the        
circular mark on the forehead4 ,the     
drawing is from a            photograph 
belonging to ,sir ,a4 ,cunningham4      
#ah4 ,sculpture of ,buddha in           
#8,witness-attitude' on attaining       
,buddhahood        under the tree       
#dhj        ,from a niche high up on the
 western side of the ,buddha-,gay       
temple4 ,it has the #8,ye dharm' formula
 7p4 #ajd7 inscribed            on each 
side4 ,it is half the size of the       

original            sculpture4 ,probable
 date about the #aath century4      #ai4
 ,sculpture found at ,buddha-,gay       
representing the earliest ,triad1       
viz4 ,buddha1 ,dharma1 and ,sagha       
#dhe        ,the drawing is from a      
photograph belonging to ,sir ,a4        
,cunningham1 described at p4 #dhd4      
#bj4 ,votive ,stpa found at ,buddha-,gay
                     ,to face #eje      
,probable date about #ith or #ajth      
century of our era4      #ba4 ,clay     
model of a small votive ,stpa           
#ejf        ,selected from several which
 the author saw in the act of being     
made by a monk outside a monastery in   
,british ,sikkim in            #ahhd4   
,this model probably contains the #8,ye 
dharm' or some            other formula 
on a seal inside4 ,the engraving is     
exactly            the size of the      
original4                               
,,rules ,,for ,,pronunciation4          
,,vowels4    ,a1 a1 pronounced as in    
rural1 or the last a in ,america2 1  1  

as in tar1 father2 ,i1 i1 as in fill2 1 
1 as in  police2 ,u1 u1 as in bull2 1 1 
as in rude2 i1 i1 as  in merrily2 1 1 as
 in marine2 ,e1 e1 as in prey2 ,ai1  ai1
 as in aisle2 ,o1 o1 as in go2 ,au1 au1 
as in ,haus  7pronounced as in ,german74
                                        
,,consonants4    ,k1 k1 pronounced as in
 kill1 seek2 ,kh1 kh1 as in inkhorn2    
,g1 g1 as in gun1 dog2 ,gh1 gh1 as in   
loghut2 1 1 as  ng in sing 7si74    1 1 
as in dolce 7in music71  ,english ch in 
church1  lurch 7lur72 h1 h1 as in       
churchhill 7urhill72 ,j1  j1 as in jet2 
,jh1 jh1 as in hedgehog 7hejhog72 1 1 as
  in singe 7sij74    1 1 as in true     
7ru72 h1 h1 as in anthill 7anhill72  1 1
 as in drum 7rum72 h1 h1 as in redhaired
  7rehaired72 1 1 as in none 7u74    ,t1
 t1 as in water 7as pronounced in       
,ireland72 ,th1 th1 as  nut-hook 7but   
more dental72 ,d1 d1 as in dice 7more   
like th in  this72 ,dh1 dh1 as in adhere
 7more dental72 ,n1 n1 as in  not1 in4  
,p1 p1 as in put1 sip2 ,ph1 ph1 as in   

uphill2 ,b1 b1 as  in bear1 rub2 ,bh1   
bh1 as in abhor2 ,m1 m1 as in map1  jam4
    ,y1 y1 as in yet2 ,r1 r1 as in red1 
year2 ,l1 l1 as in  lie2 ,v1 v1 as in   
vie 7but like w after consonants1 as in 
twice74    1 1 as in sure1 session2 ,sh1
 sh1 as in shun1 hush2  ,s1 s1 as in    
sir1 hiss4 ,h1 h1 as in hit4      ,in   
,tibetan the vowels1 including even e   
and o1 have generally the  short sound1 
but accentuated vowels are comparatively
 long4 ,i have  marked such words as    
,lma with a long mark to denote this1   
but ,koeppen  and ,jschke write ,lama4  
,jschke says that the ,tibetan alphabet 
was  adapted from the ,laha form of the 
,indian letters by ,thumi 7,thonmi7     
,sambhoa 7see p4 #bgj7 about the year   
#fcb4                                   
,,observe4      ,it is common to hear   
,english-speakers mispronounce the words
 ,buddha and  ,buddhism4 ,but any one   
who studies the rules on the preceding  
page will  see that the u in ,buddha1   
must not be pronounced like the u in the

  ,english word #8bud1' but like the u  
in bull4    ,indeed1 for the sake of the
 general reader1 it might be better to  
write  ,booddha and ,booddhism1 provided
 the oo be pronounced as in the words   
#8wood1' #8good4'                       
,,addenda and ,,corrigenda4    ,it is   
feared that the long-mark over the      
letter ,a may have been omitted  in one 
or two cases or may have broken off in  
printing4    ,in this electronic        
edition1 corrections were incorporated  
in the text2  additions were inserted as
 new footnotes and tagged--,corr4       
,,buddhism4                             
,,lecture ,i4            ,introductory4 
,buddhism in relation to ,brhmanism4    
,in my recent work#c on ,brhmanism ,i   
have traced the progress of ,indian     
religious thought through three         
successive stages--called by me ,vedism1
  ,brhmanism1 and ,hindism--the last    
including the three subdivisions of     
aivism1 ,vaishavism1 and ktism4         
,furthermore ,i have attempted to prove 

that these systems are not really       
separated by sharp lines1 but that  each
 almost imperceptibly shades off into   
the other4    ,i have striven also to   
show that a true ,hind of the orthodox  
school is  able quite conscientiously to
 accept all these developments of       
religious  belief4 ,he holds that they  
have their authoritative exponents in   
the  successive bibles of the ,hind     
religion1 namely1 7#a7 the four         
,vedas--ig-veda1 ,yajur-veda1 ,sma-veda1
 ,atharva-veda--and the ,brhmaas2  7#b7 
the ,upanishads2 7#c7 the               
,law-books--especially that of ,manu2   
7#d7 the  ,bhakti-stras1 including the  
,rmyaa1 the ,mah-bhrata1 the            
,puras--especially the                  
,bhgavata-pura--and the ,bhagavad-gt2   
7#e7 the  ,tantras4    ,the chief works 
under these five heads represent the    
principal periods  of religious         
development through which the ,hind mind
 has passed4    ,thus1 in the first     
place1 the hymns of the ,vedas and the  

ritualism of  the ,brhmaas represent    
physiolatry or the worship of the       
personified  forces of nature--a form of
 religion which ultimately became       
saturated  with sacrificial ideas and   
with ceremonialism and asceticism4      
,secondly1  the ,upanishads represent   
the pantheistic conceptions which       
terminated in  philosophical ,brhmanism4
 ,thirdly1 the ,law-books represent     
caste-rules  and domestic usages4       
,fourthly1 the ,rmyaa1 ,mah-bhrata1 and 
,puras  represent the principle of      
personal devotion to the personal gods1 
iva1  ,vishu1 and their manifestations2 
and fifthly1 the ,tantras represent the 
perversion of the principle of love to  
polluting and degrading practices       
disguised under the name of religious   
rites4 ,of these five phases of the     
,hind religion probably the first three 
only prevailed when ,buddhism  arose2   
but ,i shall try to make clear hereafter
 that ,buddhism1 as it  developed1      
accommodated itself to the fourth and   

even ultimately to the  fifth phase1    
admitting the ,hind gods into its own   
creed1 while ,hindism  also received    
ideas from ,buddhism4    ,at any rate it
 is clear that the so-called orthodox   
,brhman admits all  five series of works
 as progressive exponents of the ,hind  
system--although he scarcely likes to   
confess openly to any adoption of  the  
fifth4 ,hence his opinions are of       
necessity ,protean and multiform4       
,the root ideas of his creed are of     
course ,pantheistic1 in the sense of    
being grounded on the identification of 
the whole external world--which  he     
believes to be a mere illusory          
appearance--with one eternal1           
impersonal1 spiritual ,essence2 but his 
religion is capable of presenting  so   
many phases1 according to the           
stand-point from which it is viewed1    
that its pantheism appears to be        
continually sliding into forms of       
monotheism and polytheism1 and even into
 the lowest types of animism and        

fetishism4    ,we must not1 moreover1   
forget--as ,i have pointed out in my    
recent  work--that a large body of the  
,hinds are unorthodox in respect of     
their  interpretation of the leading    
doctrine of true ,brhmanism4    ,such   
unorthodox persons may be described as  
sectarians or dissenters4  ,that is to  
say1 they dissent from the orthodox     
pantheistic doctrine that  all gods and 
men1 all divine and human souls1 and all
 material  appearances are mere illusory
 manifestations of one impersonal       
spiritual  ,entity--called tman or      
,purusha or ,brahman--and they believe  
in one  supreme personal god--either iva
 or ,vishu or ,kisha or ,rma--who is not
  liable 7as orthodox ,brhmans say he   
is7 to lose his personality by          
subjection to the universal law of      
dissolution and re-absorption into  the 
one eternal impersonal ,essence1 but    
exists in a heaven of his own1  to the  
bliss of which his worshippers are      
admitted#d4    ,and it must be borne in 

mind that these sectarians are very far 
from  resting their belief on the       
,vedas1 the ,brhmaas1 and ,upanishads4  
,their creed is based entirely on the   
,bhakti-stras--that is1 on the  ,rmyaa1 
,mah-bhrata1 and ,puras 7especially on  
the ,bhgavata-pura7  and the            
,bhagavad-gt1 to the exclusion of the   
other scriptures of  ,hindism4    ,then 
again it must always be borne in mind   
that the terms #8orthodox' and          
#8unorthodox' have really little or no  
application to the great majority  of   
the inhabitants of ,india1 who in truth 
are wholly innocent of any  theological 
opinions at all1 and are far too        
apathetic to trouble  themselves about  
any form of religion other than that    
which has belonged  for centuries to    
their families and to the localities in 
which they  live1 and far too ignorant  
and dull of intellect to be capable of  
inquiring for themselves whether that   
religion is likely to be true or  false4
    ,to classify the masses under any   

one definite denomination1 either as    
,pantheists or ,polytheists or          
,monotheists1 or as simple              
idol-worshippers1  or                   
fetish-worshippers1 would be wholly     
misleading4    ,their faculties are so  
enfeebled by the debilitating effect of 
early  marriages1 and so deadened by the
 drudgery of daily toil and the dire    
necessity of keeping body and soul      
together1 that they can scarcely be     
said to be capable of holding any       
definite theological creed at all4      
,it would be nearer the truth to say    
that the religion of an ordinary  ,hind 
consists in observing caste-customs1    
local usages1 and family  observances1  
in holding what may be called the       
,folk-legends of his  neighbourhood1 in 
propitiating evil spirits and in        
worshipping the image  and              
superscription of the ,empress of       
,india1 impressed on the current  coin  
of the country4    ,as a rule such a man
 gives himself no uneasiness whatever   

about his  prospects of happiness or    
misery in the world to come4    ,he is  
quite content to commit his interests in
 a future life to the care  and custody 
of the ,brhmans2 while1 if he thinks    
about the nature of a  ,supreme ,being  
at all1 he assumes ,his benevolence and 
expects ,his good  will as a matter of  
course4    ,what he really troubles     
himself about is the necessity for      
securing the  present favour of the     
inhabitants of the unseen world1        
supposed to  occupy the atmosphere      
everywhere around him--of the good and  
evil demons  and spirits of the         
soil--generally represented by rude and 
grotesque  images1 and artfully         
identified by village priests and       
,brhmans with  alleged forms of ,vishu  
or iva4    ,it follows that the mind of 
the ordinary ,hind1 though indifferent  
about  all definite dogmatic religion1  
is steeped in the kind of religiousness 
best expressed by the word              
deisidaimonia4 ,he lives in perpetual   

dread  of invisible beings who are      
thought to be exerting their mysterious 
influences above1 below1 around1 in the 
immediate vicinity of his own  dwelling4
 ,the very winds which sweep across his 
homestead are believed  to swarm with   
spirits1 who unless duly propitiated    
will blight the  produce of his fields1 
or bring down upon him injury1 disease1 
and  death4    ,then again1 besides the 
orthodox and besides the sectarian ,hind
 and  besides the great                 
demon-worshipping1 idolatrous1 and      
superstitious  majority1 another class  
of the ,indian community must also be   
taken into  account--the class of       
rationalists and free-thinkers4 ,these  
have been  common in ,india from the    
earliest times4    ,first came a class  
of conscientious doubters1 who strove to
 solve the  riddle of life by           
microscopic self-introspection and      
sincere searchings  after truth1 and    
these did their best not to break with  
the ,veda1 ,vedic  revelation1 and the  

authority of the ,brhmans4    ,earnestly
 and reverently such men applied        
themselves to the difficult  task of    
trying to answer such questions         
as--,what am ,i8 ,whence have ,i  come8 
,whither am ,i going8 ,how can ,i       
explain my consciousness of personal    
existence8 ,have ,i an immaterial spirit
 distinct from1 and independent  of1 my 
material frame8 ,of what nature is the  
world in which ,i find  myself8 ,did an 
all-powerful ,being create it out of    
nothing8 or did it  evolve itself out of
 an eternal protoplasmic germ8 or did it
 come  together by the combination of   
eternal atoms8 or is it a mere illusion8
  ,if created by a ,being of infinite   
wisdom and love1 how can ,i account for 
the co-existence in it of good and evil1
 happiness and misery8 ,has the         
,creator form1 or is ,he formless8 ,has 
,he qualities and affections1 or has    
,he none8    ,it was in the effort to   
solve such insoluble enigmas by their   
own  unaided intuitions and in a manner 

not too subversive of traditional       
dogma1 that the systems of philosophy   
founded on the ,upanishads  originated4 
,these have been described in my book on
 ,brhmanism4 ,they were gradually       
excogitated by independent thinkers1 who
 claimed to be ,brhmans or  twice-born  
men1 and nominally accepted the ,veda   
with its ,brhmaas1  while they covertly 
attacked it1 or at least abstained from 
denouncing  it as absolutely untrue4    
,such men tacitly submitted to          
sacerdotal  authority1 though they      
really propounded a way of salvation    
based  entirely on self-evolved         
knowledge1 and quite independent of all 
,vedic  sacrifices and sacrificing      
priests4 ,the most noteworthy and       
orthodox of  the systems propounded by  
them was the ,vednta#e1 which1 as ,i    
have  shown1 was simply spiritual       
,pantheism1 and asserted that the one   
,spirit  was the only real ,being in the
 ,universe4    ,but the origin of the   
more unorthodox systems1 which denied   

the  authority of both the ,veda and the
 ,brhmans1 must also be traced to the   
influence of the ,upanishads4 ,for it is
 undeniable that a spirit of  atheistic 
infidelity grew up in ,india almost pari
 passu with dogmatic  ,brhmanism1 and   
has always been prevalent there4 ,in    
fact it would be  easy to show that     
periodical outbursts of unbelief and    
agnosticism have  taken place in ,india 
very much in the same way as in ,europe2
 but the  tendency to run into extremes 
has always been greater on ,indian soil 
and  beneath the glow and glamour of    
,eastern skies4 ,on the one side1 a far 
more unthinking respect than in any     
other country has been paid to the      
authority of priests1 who have declared 
their supernatural revelation to  be the
 very breath of ,god1 sacrificial rites 
to be the sole instruments  of          
salvation1 and themselves the sole      
mediators between earth and  heaven2 on 
the other1 far greater latitude than in 
any other country has  been conceded to 

infidels and atheists who have poured   
contempt on all  sacerdotal dogmas1 have
 denied all supernatural revelation1    
have made no  secret of their disbelief 
in a personal ,god1 and have maintained 
that  even if a ,supreme ,being and a   
spiritual world exist they are          
unknowable  by man and beyond the       
cognizance of his faculties4    ,we     
learn indeed from certain passages of   
the ,veda 7ig-veda ,,ii4 #ab4 #e2       
,,viii4 #ajj4 #c1 #d7 that even in the  
,vedic age some denied the existence of 
the god ,indra4    ,we know1 too1 that  
,yska1 the well-known ,vedic            
commentator1 who is  believed to have   
lived before the grammarian ,pini       
7probably in the  fourth century        
,b4,c471 found himself obliged to refute
 the sceptical  arguments of ,kautsa and
 others who pronounced the ,veda a      
tissue of  nonsense 7,nirukta ,i4 #ae1  
#af74    ,again1 ,manu--whose law-book1 
according to ,dr4 ,bhler1 was composed  
between the second century ,b4,c4 and   

the second ,a4,d41 and1 in my opinion1  
possibly earlier--has the following     
remark directed against sceptics3--     
#8,the twice-born man who depending on  
rationalistic treatises  7hetu-stra7    
contemns the two roots of law 7ruti and 
smiti71 is to be  excommunicated        
7vahish-krya7 by the righteous as an    
atheist 7nstika7  and despiser of the   
,veda' 7,manu ,,ii4 #aa74               
,furthermore1 the ,mah-bhrata1 a poem   
which contains many ancient  legends    
quite as ancient as those of early      
,buddhism1 relates  7nti-parvan #adaj1  
etc47 the story of the infidel rvka1 who
 in the  disguise of a mendicant ,brhman
 uttered sentiments dangerously         
heretical4    ,this rvka was the        
supposed founder of a materialistic     
school of  thought called ,lokyata4     
,rejecting all instruments of knowledge 
7prama7 except perception by the senses 
7pratyaksha71 he affirmed that  the soul
 did not exist separately from the body1
 and that all the  phenomena of the     

world were spontaneously produced4      
,the following abbreviation of a passage
 in the ,sarva-darana-sagraha#f  will   
give some idea of this school's infidel 
doctrines1 the very name of  which      
7,lokyata1 #8generally current in the   
world'7 is an evidence of the           
popularity they enjoyed3--      ,no     
heaven exists1 no final liberation1     
,no soul1 no other world1 no rites of   
caste1    ,no recompense for acts2 let  
life be spent1    ,in merriment#g2 let a
 man borrow money    ,and live at ease  
and feast on melted butter4    ,how can 
this body when reduced to dust          
,revisit earth8 and if a ghost can pass 
,to other worlds1 why does not strong   
affection    ,for those he leaves behind
 attract him back8    ,oblations1       
funeral rites1 and sacrifices    ,are a 
mere means of livelihood devised    ,by 
sacerdotal cunning--nothing more4       
,the three composers of the triple ,veda
    ,were rogues1 or evil spirits1 or   
buffoons4    ,the recitation of         

mysterious words    ,and jabber of the  
priests is simple nonsense4    ,then    
again1 the continued prevalence of      
sceptical opinions may be shown  by     
extracts from other portions of the     
later literature4 ,for example1 in  the 
,rmyaa 7,,ii4 #ajh7 the infidel ,brhman 
,jvli gives utterance to  similar       
sentiments thus3--    #8,the books      
composed by theologians1 in which men   
are enjoined to  worship1 give gifts1   
offer sacrifice1 practise austerities1  
abandon the  world1 are mere artifices  
to draw forth donations4 ,make up your  
mind  that no one exists hereafter4     
,have regard only to what is visible and
  perceptible by the senses             
7pratyaksham74 ,cast everything beyond  
this  behind your back4'                
,furthermore1 in a parallel passage from
 the ,vishu-pura1 it is  declared that  
the great ,deceiver1 practising         
illusion1 beguiled other  demon-like    
beings to embrace many sorts of heresy2 
some reviling the  ,vedas1 others the   

gods1 others the ceremonial of          
sacrifice1 and others  the ,brhmans#h4  
,these were called ,nstikas4    ,such   
extracts prove that the worst forms of  
scepticism prevailed in both  early and 
medival times4 ,but all phases and      
varieties of heretical  thought were not
 equally offensive1 and it would        
certainly be unfair and  misleading to  
place ,buddhism and ,jainism on the same
 level with the  reckless ,pyrrhonism of
 the rvkas who had no code of morality4 
,and indeed it was for this very reason1
 that when ,buddhism and ,jainism  began
 to make their presence felt in the     
fifth century ,b4,c4 they became  far   
more formidable than any other phase of 
scepticism4    ,whether1 however1       
,buddhism or ,jainism be entitled to    
chronological  precedence is still an   
open question1 about which opinions may 
reasonably differ4 ,some hold that they 
were always quite distinct from  each   
other1 and were the products of inquiry 
originated by two  independent thinkers1

 and many scholars now consider that the
 weight of  evidence is in favour of    
,jainism being a little antecedent to   
,buddhism4  ,possibly the two systems   
resulted from the splitting up of one   
sect into  two divisions1 just as the   
two ,brhma-,samjes of ,calcutta are the 
product of the di-,samj4    ,one point  
at least is certain1 that               
notwithstanding much community of       
thought between ,buddhism and ,jainism1 
,buddhism ended in gaining for  itself  
by far the more important position of   
the two4 ,for although  ,jainism has    
shown more tenacity of life in ,india1  
and has lingered on  there till the     
present day1 it never gained any hold on
 the masses of  the population1 whereas 
its rival1 ,buddhism1 radiating from a  
central  point in ,hindstn1 spread      
itself first over the whole of ,india   
and then  over nearly all ,eastern      
,asia1 and has played--as even its most 
hostile  critics must admit--an         
important rle in the history of the     

world4    ,to ,buddhism1 therefore1 we  
have now to direct our attention1 and at
 the  very threshold of our inquiries we
 are confronted with this difficulty1   
that its great popularity and its wide  
diffusion among many peoples have  made 
it most difficult to answer the         
question3--,what is ,buddhism8 ,if it   
were possible to reply to the inquiry in
 one word1 one might perhaps say  that  
true ,buddhism1 theoretically stated1 is
 ,humanitarianism1 meaning by  that term
 something very like the gospel of      
humanity preached by the  ,positivist1  
whose doctrine is the elevation of man  
through man--that is1  through human    
intellect1 human intuitions1 human      
teaching1 human  experiences1 and       
accumulated human efforts--to the       
highest ideal of  perfection2 and yet   
something very different4 ,for the      
,buddhist ideal  differs toto clo from  
the ,positivist's1 and consists in the  
renunciation of all personal existence1 
even to the extinction of  humanity     

itself4 ,the ,buddhist's perfection is  
destruction 7p4 #abc74    ,but such a   
reply would have only reference to the  
truest and earliest  form of ,buddhism4 
,it would cover a very minute portion of
 the vast area  of a subject which1 as  
it grew1 became multiform1 multilateral1
 and  almost infinite in its            
ramifications4    ,innumerable writers1 
indeed1 during the past thirty years    
have been  attracted by the great       
interest of the inquiry1 and have vied  
with each  other in their efforts to    
give a satisfactory account of a system 
whose  developments have varied in every
 country2 while lecturers1 essayists1   
and the authors of magazine articles are
 constantly adding their  contributions 
to the mass of floating ideas1 and too  
often propagate  crude and erroneous    
conceptions on a subject1 the depths of 
which they  have never thoroughly       
fathomed4    ,it is to be hoped that the
 annexation of ,upper ,burma1 while     
giving an  impulse to ,pli and          

,buddhistic studies1 may help to throw  
light on some  obscure points4          
,certainly ,buddhism continues to be    
little understood by the great  majority
 of educated persons4 ,nor can any      
misunderstanding on such a  subject be  
matter of surprise1 when writers of high
 character colour  their descriptions of
 it from an examination of one part of  
the system  only1 without due regard to 
its other phases1 and in this way either
  exalt it to a far higher position than
 it deserves1 or depreciate it          
unfairly4    ,and ,buddhism is a subject
 which must continue for a long time to 
present  the student with a boundless   
field of investigation4 ,no one can     
bring a  proper capacity of mind to such
 a study1 much less write about it      
clearly1 who has not studied the        
original documents both in ,pli and in  
,sanskit1 after a long course of        
preparation in the study of ,vedism1    
,brhmanism1 and ,hindism4 ,it is a      
system which resembles these other      

forms of ,indian religious thought in   
the great variety of its aspects4       
,starting from a very simple            
proposition1 which can only be described
 as  an exaggerated truism--the truism1 
,i mean1 that all life involves sorrow1 
and that all sorrow results from        
indulging desires which ought to be     
suppressed--it has branched out into a  
vast number of complicated and          
self-contradictory propositions and     
allegations4 ,its teaching has become   
both negative and positive1 agnostic and
 gnostic4 ,it passes from  apparent     
atheism and materialism to theism1      
polytheism1 and  spiritualism4 ,it is   
under one aspect mere pessimism2 under  
another pure  philanthropy2 under       
another monastic communism2 under       
another high  morality2 under another a 
variety of materialistic philosophy2    
under  another simple demonology2 under 
another a mere farrago of               
superstitions1 including necromancy1    
witchcraft1 idolatry1 and  fetishism4   

,in some form or other it may be held   
with almost any  religion1 and embraces 
something from almost every creed4 ,it  
is founded  on philosophical ,brhmanism1
 has much in common with ,skhya and     
,vednta  ideas1 is closely connected    
with ,vaishavism1 and in some of its    
phases  with both aivism and ktism1 and 
yet is1 properly speaking1 opposed to   
every one of these systems4 ,it has in  
its moral code much common ground  with 
,christianity1 and in its medival and   
modern developments presents  examples  
of forms1 ceremonies1 litanies1 monastic
 communities1 and  hierarchical         
organizations1 scarcely distinguishable 
from those of ,roman  ,catholicism2 and 
yet a greater contrast than that        
presented by the  essential doctrines of
 ,buddhism and of ,christianity can     
scarcely be  imagined4 ,strangest of    
all1 ,buddhism--with no ,god higher than
 the perfect  man--has no pretensions to
 be called a religion in the true sense 
of the  word1 and is wholly destitute of

 the vivifying forces necessary to give 
vitality to the dry bones of its own    
morality2 and yet it once existed  as a 
real power over at least a third of the 
human race1 and even at the  present    
moment claims a vast number of adherents
 in ,asia1 and not a few  sympathisers  
in ,europe and ,america4    ,evidently1 
then1 any ,orientalist who undertakes to
 give a clear and  concise account of   
,buddhism in the compass of a few       
lectures1 must find  himself engaged in 
a very venturesome and difficult task4  
,happily we are gaining acquaintance    
with the ,southern or purest form of    
,buddhism through editions and          
translations of the texts of the ,pli   
,canon by ,fausbll1 ,childers1 ,rhys    
,davids1 ,oldenberg1 ,morris1           
,trenckner1  ,l4 ,feer1 etc4 ,we owe    
much1 too1 to the works of ,turnour1    
,hardy1 ,clough1  ,gogerly1 ,d',alwis1  
,burnouf1 ,lassen1 ,spiegel1 ,weber1    
,koeppen1 ,minayeff1  ,bigandet1 ,max   
,mller1 ,kern1 ,ed4 ,mller1 ,e4 ,kuhn1  

,pischel1 and others4  ,these enable us 
to form a fair estimate of what         
,buddhism was in its  early days4       
,but the case is different when we turn 
to the ,northern ,buddhist  ,scriptures1
 written generally in tolerably correct 
,sanskit 7with  ,tibetan translations74 
,these continue to be little studied1   
notwithstanding the materials placed at 
our command and the good work  done1    
first by the distinguished #8founder of 
the study of ,buddhism1'  ,brian        
,hodgson1 and by ,burnouf1 ,wassiljew1  
,cowell1 ,senart1 ,kern1 ,beal1         
,foucaux1 and others4 ,in fact1 the     
moment we pass from the ,buddhism of    
,india1 ,ceylon1 ,burma1 and ,siam1 to  
that of ,nepl1 ,kashmr1 ,tibet1  ,bhutn1
 ,sikkim1 ,china1 ,mongolia1 ,manchuria1
 ,corea1 and ,japan1 we seem to  have   
entered a labyrinth1 the clue of which  
is continually slipping from  our hands4
    ,nor is it possible to classify the 
varying and often conflicting systems   
in these latter countries1 under the one

 general title of ,northern  ,buddhism4 
,for indeed the changes which religious 
systems undergo1 even in  countries     
adjacent to each other1 not unfrequently
 amount to an entire  reversal of their 
whole character4 ,we may illustrate     
these changes by  the variations of     
words derived from one and the same root
 in  neighbouring countries4 ,take1 for 
example1 the ,german words selig1       
#8blessed1' and knabe1 #8a boy1' which  
in ,england are represented by  #8silly'
 and #8knave4'    ,a similar law appears
 to hold good in the case of religious  
ideas4 ,their  whole character seems to 
change by a change of latitude and      
longitude4  ,this is even true of       
,christianity4 ,can it be maintained1   
for instance1  that the ,christianity of
 modern ,greece and ,rome has much in   
common with  early ,christianity1 and   
would any casual observer believe that  
the  inhabitants of ,st4 ,petersburg1   
,berlin1 ,edinburgh1 ,london1 and ,paris
 were  followers of the same religion8  

,it cannot therefore surprise us if     
,buddhism developed into apparently     
contradictory systems in different      
countries and under varying climatic    
conditions4 ,in no two countries did it 
preserve the same features4 ,even  in   
,india1 the land of its birth1 it had   
greatly changed during the first  ten   
centuries of its prevalence4 ,so much so
 that had it been possible  for its     
founder to reappear upon earth in the   
fifth century after  ,christ1 he would  
have failed to recognize his own child1 
and would have  found that his own      
teaching had not escaped the operation  
of a law which  experience proves to be 
universal and inevitable4    ,it is     
easy1 therefore1 to understand how      
difficult it will be to give  any       
semblance of unity to my present        
subject4 ,it will be impossible for  me 
to treat as a consistent whole a system 
having a perpetually varying  front and 
no settled form4 ,i can only give a     
series of somewhat rough1  though1 ,i   

hope1 trustworthy outlines1 as far as   
possible in methodical  succession4     
,and in the carrying out of such a      
design1 the three objects that will at  
first naturally present themselves for  
delineation will be three which         
constitute the well-known triad of early
 ,buddhism--that is to say1 the  ,buddha
 himself1 ,his ,law and ,his ,order of  
,monks4    ,hence my aim will be1 in the
 first place1 to give such a historical 
account of the ,buddha and of his       
earliest teaching as may be gathered    
from his legendary biography1 and from  
the most trustworthy parts of the       
,buddhist canonical scriptures4         
,secondly1 ,i shall give a brief        
description of the origin and           
composition of those scriptures as      
containing the ,buddha's #8,law'        
7,dharma72 and thirdly1 ,i shall        
endeavour  to explain the early         
constitution of the ,buddha's ,order of 
,monks  7,sagha74 ,after treating of    
these three preliminary topics1 ,i shall

 next  describe the ,law itself2 that   
is1 the philosophical doctrines of      
,buddhism1 its code of morality and     
theory of perfection1 terminating in    
,nirva4 ,lastly1 ,i shall attempt to    
trace out the confused outlines of      
theistic1 mystical1 and hierarchical    
,buddhism1 as developed in ,northern    
countries1 adding an account of sacred  
objects and places1 and  contrasting the
 chief doctrines of ,christianity4 ,in  
regard to the  ,buddhism of ,tibet1 ,i  
shall chiefly base my explanations on   
,koeppen's  great work--a work never    
translated into ,english and now out of 
print--as  well as on my own researches 
during my travels through the parts of  
,india bordering on that country4       
,and here ,i ought to state that my     
explanations and descriptions will1 ,i  
fear1 be wholly deficient in            
picturesqueness4 ,my simple aim will be 
to  convey clear and correct information
 in unembellished language2 and in      
doing this1 ,i shall often be compelled 

to expose myself to the reproach        
contained in the expressions1           
arvita-arvaam1 #8chewing the chewed1'   
and pisha-peshaam1 #8grinding the       
ground4' ,i shall constantly be  obliged
 to tread on ground already well        
trodden4    ,to begin1 then1 with the   
,buddha himself4                        
,,lecture ,,ii4                    ,the 
,buddha as a personal ,teacher4      ,it
 is much to be regretted that among all 
the sacred books that  constitute the   
,canon of the ,southern ,buddhists 7see 
p4 #fa7--the only true  ,canon of       
,buddhism--there is no trustworthy      
biography of its ,founder4    ,for      
,buddhism is nothing without ,buddha1   
just as ,zoroastrianism is  nothing     
without ,zoroaster1 ,confucianism       
nothing without ,confucius1             
,muhammadanism nothing without          
,muhammad1 and ,i may add with all      
reverence1 ,christianity nothing without
 ,christ4    ,indeed1 no religion or    
religious system which has not emanated 

from some  one heroic central           
personality1 or in other words1 which   
has not had a  founder whose strongly   
marked personal character constituted   
the very  life and soul of his teaching 
and the chief factor in its             
effectiveness1  has ever had any chance 
of achieving world-wide acceptance1 or  
ever  spread far beyond the place of its
 origin4    ,hence the barest outline of
 primitive ,buddhism must be incomplete 
without some sketch of the life and     
character of ,gautama ,buddha himself4  
,yet it is difficult to find any sure   
basis of fact on which we may  construct
 a fairly credible biography4    ,in all
 likelihood legendary histories of the  
,founder of ,buddhism were  current in  
,nepl and ,tibet in the early centuries 
of our era2 but  unhappily his too      
enthusiastic and imaginative admirers   
have thought it  right to testify their 
admiration by interweaving with the     
probable  facts of ,gautama ,buddha's   
life1 fables so extravagant that some   

modern  critical scholars have despaired
 of attempting to sift truth from       
fiction1 and have even gone to the      
extreme of doubting that ,gautama       
,buddha ever lived at all4    ,to       
believe nothing that has been recorded  
about him1 is as unreasonable  as to    
accept with unquestioning faith all the 
miraculous circumstances  which are made
 to encircle him as with a halo of      
divine glory4    ,we must bear in mind  
that when ,gautama ,buddha lived--about 
the fifth  century ,b4,c4--the art of   
writing was not common in ,india#i4 ,we 
may point  out1 too1 that in all        
countries1 ,european as well as         
,asiatic--notably in  ,greece 7witness1 
for example1 the familiar instance of   
,socrates7--men  have thought more of   
preserving the sayings of their teachers
 than of  recording the facts of their  
lives4    ,and we must not forget that  
in ,india--where the imaginative        
faculties  have always been too active1 
and anything like real history is       

unknown--any plain matter-of-fact       
biography of the most heroic personage  
would have few charms for any one1 and  
little chance of gaining  acceptance    
anywhere4    ,hence it has happened that
 the ballads 7gth7 and legends current  
about  ,gautama among ,northern         
,buddhists1 bristle with the wildest    
fancies and  the most absurd            
exaggerations4    ,yet it is not        
impossible to detect a few scattered    
historical facts  beneath stories1      
however childish1 and legends1 however  
extravagant4 ,we  shall not at least be 
far wrong1 if1 in attempting an outline 
of the  ,buddha's life1 we begin by     
asserting that intense individuality1   
fervid  earnestness1 and severe         
simplicity of character1 combined with  
singular  beauty of countenance1 calm   
dignity of bearing1 and above all1      
almost  superhuman persuasiveness of    
speech1 were conspicuous in the great   
,teacher4    ,the earliest authorities1 
however1 never claim for him anything   

extraordinary or superhuman in regard to
 external form4 ,it was only in  later  
times that ,buddhist writers pandered to
 the superstitions of the  people1 by   
describing the ,buddha as possessed of  
various miraculous  characteristics of  
mind and body4 ,he is said to have been 
of immense  stature--according to some1 
eighteen feet high--and to have had on  
his  body thirty-two chief auspicious   
marks 7mah-vyajana71 regarded as        
indications of a ,supreme ,lord and     
,universal ,ruler1 eighty secondary     
marks 7anu-vyajana71 besides one hundred
 and eight symbols on the sole  of each 
foot1 and a halo extending for six feet 
round his person4    ,all that can be   
said with any degree of probability     
about his personal  appearance is1 that 
he was endowed with certain qualities1  
which acted  like a spell1 or with a    
kind of irresistible magnetism1 on his  
hearers4  ,these must have formed1 so to
 speak1 the foundation-stone on which   
the  superstructure of his vast         

influence rested4    ,illustration3     
,,sacred ,,land ,,of ,,buddhism1 ,,and  
,,scene ,,of ,,the ,,buddha',s          
,,itineration ,,and ,,preaching ,,for   
,,forty-,,five ,,years4    ,unhappily1  
no authoritative ,buddhist scripture    
gives any trustworthy  clue to the exact
 year of the ,buddha's birth4 ,the      
traditions which refer  back his death  
to a date corresponding to #edc ,b4,c4  
are now rejected by  modern ,european   
scholars4 ,nor can we as yet accept as  
infallible the  results of the latest   
researches1 which making use of various 
other  data1 such as the inscriptions on
 coins1 rocks1 and columns1 place his   
death more than a century later4 ,we    
shall not1 however1 be far wrong if  we 
assert that he was born about the year  
#ejj ,b4,c4 at ,kapila-vastu 7now       
,bhila7--a town situated about half-way 
between ,bast and ,ajdhy  7,ayodhy7 in  
the territory of ,kosala 7the modern    
,oudh1 see pp4 #bi1 #dh71  about sixty  
miles from its capital city rvasti 7a   

favourite residence  of ,gautama71 and  
about one hundred miles#aj north-west of
 ,benares1 and  near the borders of the 
kingdom of ,magadha 7now ,behr74    ,his
 father1 named uddhodana1 was a         
land-owner of the tribe of the  kyas 7a 
name possibly connected with the        
,sanskit root ak1 #8to be  powerful'71  
whose territory in the ,gorakh-pur      
district extended from the  lower       
,nepalese mountains to the river ,rapt  
in ,oudh4 ,it has been  conjectured that
 the kyas may have been originally a    
non-ryan tribe1  connected perhaps with 
certain nomad immigrants from ,tibet or 
,northern  ,asia1 who may have          
immigrated into ,india at various       
periods2 but even if  this could be     
proved1 it would have to be admitted    
that the kyas had  become ryanized4 ,it 
is said that the chief families claimed 
to be  ,rjputs1 tracing back their      
origin to ,ikshvku1 the first of the    
,solar  race4 ,it appears1 too1 that    
though belonging to the ,kshatriya      

caste1  they were agriculturists1 and   
mainly engaged in the cultivation of    
rice4  ,it is also asserted that kya    
families were in the habit of taking the
  name of the family of the ,brhmans who
 were their spiritual guides and        
performed religious offices for them1   
and that the family of uddhodana  took  
the name ,gautama1 that is1 descendant  
of the sage ,gotama4 ,it does  not1     
however1 seem necessary to account for  
the name in this manner4 ,it  was an    
auspicious name1 which in ancient times 
might have been given to  the child of  
any great land-owner as a proof of      
orthodoxy1 or with the  view1 perhaps1  
of pleasing the ,brhmans and securing   
their prayers and  good wishes on its   
behalf4    ,the father of the ,founder  
of ,buddhism was simply a chief of the  
kya  tribe--certainly not a king in our 
sense of the term--but rather a great   
,zamndr or landlord1 whose territory was
 not so large in area as  ,yorkshire4   
,his name uddhodana1 #8one possessed of 

pure rice1' probably  indicated the     
occupation and ordinary food of the     
peasantry inhabiting  the district      
belonging to him and subject to his     
authority4 ,those who  have travelled   
much in ,india must often have met great
 land-owners of  the uddhodana type--men
 to whom the title ,mah-rja is given    
much as  #8,lord' is to our aristocracy4
 ,for example1 the ,mah-rja of          
,darbhanga is  probably a more important
 personage than ,gautama's father ever  
was1 and  his territory larger than that
 of uddhodana ever was4    ,the name    
,gautama 7in ,pli spelt ,gotama7 was the
 personal name  corresponding to that   
given to all children at the name-giving
 ceremony4  ,it was not till his        
supposed attainment of perfect wisdom   
that ,gautama  assumed the title of     
,buddha1 or #8the enlightened one4' ,but
 from that  time forward this became his
 recognized title4 ,every other name    
besides  ,gautama 7or ,gotama71 and     
every other title except ,buddha 7or    

together1  ,gautama ,buddha71 are simply
 epithets2 for example1 kya-muni1 #8sage
 of  the tribe of the kyas2' kya-siha1  
#8lion of the kyas2' ramaa  7,samano71  
#8the ascetic2' ,siddhrtha1 #8one who   
has fulfilled the object  7of his       
coming72' ,sugata1 #8whose coming is    
auspicious2' ,tathgata1 #8who  comes and
 goes as his predecessors2' ,bhagavn    
7,bhagav71 #8the blessed  lord2' st     
7,satth71 #8the ,teacher2' ,aaraa-araa1 
#8,refuge of the  refugeless2'          
ditya-bandhu1 #8,kinsman of the ,sun2'  
,jina1 #8conqueror2'  ,mah-vra1 #8great 
hero2' ,mah-purusha1 #8great man2'      
akravart1  #8universal monarch4' ,devout
 ,buddhists call him #8,lord of the     
,world1' #8the  ,lord1'                 
#8,world-honoured ,one1' #8,king of the 
,law1' #8the ,jewel1' etc42 and  prefer 
to use the titles rather than the       
personal name ,gautama1 which is        
thought too familiar4    ,the names of  
previous ,buddhas1 supposed to have     
existed in previous  ages1 are given at 

p4 #acf4    ,little of the story of the 
miraculous birth of ,buddha is worthy of
  repetition4 ,since1 however1 a white  
elephant is reckoned among the  sacred  
objects of ,buddhism1 as something rare 
and precious1 it is worth  while        
mentioning the fable1 that when the time
 came for the ,bodhi-sattva  to leave   
the ,tushita heaven 7p4 #abj7 and be    
born on earth as ,gautama  ,buddha1 he  
descended into the womb of his mother in
 the form of a white  elephant4 ,he was 
born under a l tree and the god ,brahm  
received him  from his mother's side4   
,his mother1 ,my1 died seven days       
afterwards1  and the infant was         
committed to her sister 7,mah-prajpat71 
a second  wife of uddhodana4    ,it is  
not related of ,gautama that1 as he grew
 up1 any efforts were made  to imbue him
 with sacred learning2 though1 as a     
,kshatriya1 he was  privileged to       
receive instruction in certain portions 
of the ,veda4    ,nor are we told of him
 that as a ,kshatriya he was trained to 

the  profession of a soldier4 ,it is    
more probable1 that his love of         
contemplation developed itself very     
early1 and that from a desire to  humour
 this not uncommon ,oriental propensity1
 he was allowed to pass  most of his    
time in the open air4    ,there is a    
well-known legend1 which relates how    
,gautama's relations came  in a body to 
his father and complained that the      
youth's deficiency in  martial and      
athletic exercises would incapacitate   
him1 on reaching  manhood1 from taking  
part in warlike expeditions4 ,this might
 be reckoned  among the few trustworthy 
historical incidents1 were the story not
  marred by the legendary addition1 that
 on a day of trial being fixed1  the    
youth1 without any previous practice1   
and of course to the surprise  of all   
present1 proved his superiority in      
archery and in #8the twelve  arts4'     
,one statement may certainly be accepted
 without much qualification4 ,it  is    
said that ,gautama was made to marry    

early1 according to the universal       
custom throughout ,india in the present 
day4 ,no son of any respectable  person 
in modern times could remain unmarried  
at the age of sixteen or  seventeen1    
without1 so to speak1 tarnishing the    
family escutcheon1 and  exposing the    
youth himself to a serious social       
stigma1 likely to cling  to him in      
after-life4 ,in ancient times marriage  
was equally universal1  and there is no 
reason to suppose that among ,kshatriyas
 it was delayed  to a much later period 
of life4    ,no doubt1 therefore1 the   
future ,buddha had at least one wife    
7whose name  was ,yaodhar1 though often 
called ,rhula-mt1 #8,rhula's mother'71  
and  probably at least one son1 named   
,rhula4 ,it is said that this son was   
not born till his father was twenty-nine
 years of age1 or not till the  time    
when a sense of the vanity of all human 
aims1 and a resolution to  abandon all  
worldly ties1 and a longing to enter    
upon a monastic life  had begun to take 

possession of his father's mind4    ,the
 story of the four visions1 which led to
 his final renunciation of  the world1  
is profusely overlaid with fanciful     
hyperbole1 but1 however  slight the     
basis of fact on which it may reasonably
 be held to rest1 it  is too picturesque
 and interesting to be passed over      
without notice4 ,i  therefore here      
abridge the account given in ,mr4       
,beal's translation of  the ,chinese    
version of the ,abhi-nishkramaa-stra1   
varying 7for the sake  of brevity7 the  
phraseology1 but retaining the          
expression #8prince'3--    ,one day the 
prince ,gautama resolved to visit the   
gardens in the  neighbourhood of his    
father's city1 desiring to examine the  
beautiful  trees and flowers4    ,then  
there appeared before his eyes in one of
 the streets the form of a              
decrepid9999decrepit old man1 his skin  
shrivelled1 his head bald1 his  teeth   
gone1 his body infirm and bent4 ,a staff
 supported his tottering  limbs1 as he  

stood right across the path of the      
prince's advancing  chariot4    ,seeing 
this aged person1 ,siddhrtha inquired of
 his charioteer3--#8,what  human form is
 this1 so miserable and so distressing1 
the like of which ,i  have never seen   
before8'    ,the charioteer             
replied3--#8,this is what is called an  
old man4'    ,the prince again          
inquired3--#8,and what is the exact     
meaning of this  expression 8old08'     
,the charioteer answered3--#8,old age   
implies the loss of bodily power1  decay
 of the vital functions1 and failure of 
mind and memory4 ,this poor  man before 
you is old and approaching his end4'    
,then asked the prince3--#8,is this law 
universal8'    #8,yes1' he replied1     
#8this is the common lot of all living  
creatures4 ,all  that is born must die4'
    ,soon afterwards another strange    
sight presented itself--a sick man1 worn
  by disease and suffering1 pale and    
miserable1 scarcely able to draw his    
breath1 was seen tottering on the road4 

,then the prince inquired of his        
charioteer3--#8,who is this unhappy     
being8'    ,the charioteer              
replied3--#8,this is a sick man1 and    
such sickness is common  to all4'       
,soon afterwards there passed before    
them a corpse1 borne on a bier4    ,then
 asked the prince3--#8,who is this borne
 onwards on his bed1 covered  with      
strangely-coloured garments1 surrounded 
by people weeping and  lamenting8'      
#8,this1' replied the charioteer1 #8is  
called a dead body2 he has ended his    
life2 he has no further beauty of form1 
and no desires of any kind2 he  is one  
with the stones and the felled tree2 he 
is like a ruined wall1 or  fallen leaf2 
no more shall he see his father or      
mother1 brother or  sister1 or other    
relatives2 his body is dead1 and your   
body also must  come to this4'    ,next 
day on his going out by a different gate
 there appeared advancing  with measured
 steps a man with a shaven crown1 and   
monk's robe--his right  shoulder bare1 a

 religious staff in his right hand1 and 
a mendicant's  alms-bowl in his left4   
#8,who is this1' the prince inquired1   
#8proceeding with slow and dignified    
steps1 looking neither to the right hand
 nor to the left1 absorbed in  thought1 
with shaven head and garments of reddish
 colour8'    #8,this man1' said the     
charioteer1 #8devotes himself to        
charity1 and  restrains his appetites   
and his bodily desires4 ,he hurts       
nobody1 but  does good to all1 and is   
full of sympathy for all4'    ,then the 
prince asked the man himself to give an 
account of his own  condition4    ,he   
answered3--#8,i am called a homeless    
ascetic2 ,i have forsaken the world1    
relatives1 and friends2 ,i seek         
deliverance for myself and desire the   
salvation of all creatures1 and ,i do   
harm to none4'    ,after hearing these  
words1 the prince went to his father and
 said1 #8,i  wish to become a wandering 
ascetic 7parivrjika7 and to seek        
,nirvna2  all worldly things1 ,o king6  

are changeable and transitory4'    ,such
 is an epitome of the legendary story of
 the #8four visionary  appearances1' so 
called because they are supposed to have
 been divine  visions or appearances1   
miraculously produced4 ,the remainder of
 the  legendary life of ,gautama ,buddha
 is interesting and here and there not  
without some historical value1 and      
portions of it ,i now add in an         
abridged form4    ,very shortly after   
the occurrences just described1 ,gautama
 receives  intelligence of the birth of 
his son ,rhula4 ,this is the first      
momentous  crisis of his life1 and      
,gautama remains for a long time lost in
 profound  thought4 ,he sees in his     
child the strongest of all fetters1     
binding him  to family and home4 ,but   
his mind is made up4 ,he must fly at    
once1 or be  for ever held in bondage4  
,around him gather the beautiful women  
of his  father's household1 striving by 
their blandishments to divert him from  
his purpose2 but in vain4 ,he seeks the 

chamber of his wife1 and finds  her     
asleep with her hand on the head of his 
infant son4 ,he longs for a  last       
embrace2 but fearing to arouse her      
suspicions hurries away4  ,outside1 his 
favourite horse is waiting to aid his   
flight4 ,he  accomplishes the first     
stage of what ,buddhists call with pride
 the  ,mahbhinishkramaa1 #8the great    
going forth from home2' but not without 
overcoming other still more formidable  
trials4 ,for ,mra1 the evil deity  who  
tempts men to indulge their passions    
7see p4 #abj71 makes himself  visible1  
and promises the prince all the glories 
of empire if he will  return to the     
pleasures of worldly life4    ,finding  
all his allurements disregarded1 ,mra   
alters his method of  attack2 he fills  
the air with mighty thunderings1 and    
creates on the  road before the youthful
 fugitive's eyes apparitions of         
torrents1 lofty  mountains1 and blazing 
conflagrations4 ,but nothing alarms or  
deters him4  #8,i would rather1' he     

exclaims1 #8be torn to pieces limb by   
limb1 or be  burnt in a fiery furnace1  
or be ground to pieces by a falling     
mountain  than forego my fixed purpose  
for one single instant4'    ,arrived at 
a safe distance from his father's       
territory1 he exchanges  garments with a
 passing beggar1 cuts off his own hair  
with a sword1 and  assumes the outward  
aspect and character of a wandering     
ascetic4 ,the  hair does not fall to the
 ground but is taken up to the          
,trayastrias  heaven 7p4 #abj71 and     
worshipped by the gods4    ,his first   
halting-place is ,rja-giha 7now ,rj-gr71
 the chief city of  ,magadha1 which1    
with ,kosala 7,oudh1 pp4 #ba1 #dh71     
afterwards became the  holy land of     
,buddhism4 ,there he attaches himself as
 a disciple to two  ,brhmans named ra   
7in ,sanskit ra1 with epithet ,klpa or  
,klma7  and ,uddaka 7,udraka1 also      
written ,rudraka1 and called ,rma-putta1
  ,mah-vagga ,i4 #f4 #c71 who imbue him 
with their own philosophical tenets  and

 theory of salvation4 ,sufficient       
evidence exists to warrant a belief  in 
this part of the story4    ,no place in 
,india abounds in more interesting      
,buddhistic remains than  ,rja-giha     
7about #dj miles south-east of ,patn71  
proving that it was one  of the most    
sacred places of ,buddhism1 consecrated 
by some of its most  cherished          
associations4 ,its ,pli name is         
,rja-gaha4 ,it may be  conjectured that 
the connexion between the metaphysics of
 ,buddhism and  those of ,brhmanism was 
due to ,gautama's intercourse with the  
,brhmans  of this district1 and to the  
ideas he thus imbibed at the earliest   
stage  of his career4    ,but to resume 
our story4 ,gautama fails to find in    
,brhmanical philosophy  that rest and   
peace for which his soul was craving    
when he left his  home4    ,still there 
was another way of emancipation and     
union with the ,universal  ,soul1 taught
 by the ,brhmans4 ,this was the way of  
,tapas#aa1 or  self-inflicted bodily    

pain and austerity4    ,from the        
earliest times a favourite doctrine of  
,brhmanism has been1  that              
self-inflicted bodily suffering is      
before all things efficacious  for the  
accumulation of religious merit1 for the
 acquirement of  supernatural powers1   
and for the spirit's release from the   
bondage of  transmigration and its      
re-absorption into the ,one ,universal  
,spirit4    ,among other forms of       
self-inflicted pain1 religious devotees 
7,tapasvs7  sometimes went through the  
process of sitting all day long unmoved 
during the hottest months on a prepared 
platform or plot of ground1  surrounded 
by five fires1 or by four blazing fires1
 with the burning sun  above their heads
 as a fifth#ab4 ,even gods 7and notably 
iva7 are  described as mortifying       
themselves by bodily austerities        
7tapas71 so  as not to be outdone by    
men2 for according to the theory of     
,hindism1  the gods themselves might be 
supplanted and even ousted from their   

rank  and position as divinities by the 
omnipotence acquirable by human         
devotees through a protracted endurance 
of severe bodily suffering4    ,hence we
 are not surprised to find it recorded  
of ,gautama ,buddha1 that  seeking in   
vain for rest in the teaching of        
,brhmanical philosophy1 and  eager to   
try the effect of a course of           
self-mortification1 he wandered  forth  
from ,rja-giha to a wood in the district
 of ,gay1 called ,uruvilv  7or ,uruvel74
    ,there1 in company with five other  
ascetics1 he began his celebrated       
sexennial fast4 ,sitting down with his  
legs folded under him on a raised  seat 
in a place unsheltered from sun1 wind1  
rain1 dew1 and cold1 he  gradually      
reduced his daily allowance of food to a
 single grain of rice4  ,then holding   
his breath1 he harassed and macerated   
his body1 but all in  vain4 ,no peace of
 mind came1 and no divine enlightenment4
 ,he became  convinced of his own folly 
in resorting to bodily austerity as a   

means  of attaining supreme             
enlightenment1 and delivering himself   
from the  evils and sufferings of life4 
,rousing himself1 as if from a troubled 
dream1 he took food and  nourishment in 
a natural way1 thereby incurring the    
temporary  disapproval of his five      
companions in self-mortification4 ,then1
 when  sufficiently refreshed1 he moved 
away to another spot in the same        
district4 ,there1 under the shelter of a
 sacred fig-tree 7,avattha1  ,ficus     
religiosa1 known as the ,pippala or     
,ppal71 in a village1  afterwards called
 ,buddha-,gay1 he gave himself up to    
higher and higher  forms of meditation  
7,jhna  ,dhyna74 ,in this he merely     
conformed to the  ,hind ,yoga1--a method
 of attaining mystic union with the     
,deity1 which  although not then        
formulated into a system1 was already in
 vogue among  the ,brhmans4 ,there can  
be little doubt that the ,dhra1 ,dhyna  
7see p4  #bji71 and ,samdhi of the ,yoga
 were resorted to1 even in ,gautama's   

time1  as a means for the attainment of 
perfect spiritual illumination1 as well 
as of final absorption in the ,deity4   
,in ,manu ,,vi4 #gb it is said3--#8,let 
him purge himself from all taints       
7doshn7 by suppression of breath1 from  
sin by restraints of thought  7dhrabhi71
 from sensual attachments by control1   
and from unspiritual  qualities by      
meditation 7dhynena74'    ,in the later 
work called ,bhagavad-gt 7see p4 #ie of 
this volume7 it is  declared3--#8holding
 his body1 head1 and neck quite         
immovable1 seated on a  firm seat in a  
pure spot with ,kua grass around1 the   
devotee 7,yog7  should look only at the 
tip of his nose1 and should meditate on 
the  ,supreme ,being' 7,,vi4 #aa1 #ab74 
,further on he is directed to meditate  
so  profoundly as to think about nothing
 whatever 7,,vi4 #be74    ,the very     
,gyatr or ancient ,vedic prayer 7ig-veda
 ,,iii4 #fb4 #aj1 see p4  #gh of this   
volume7--which is to ,hinds what the    
,lord's ,prayer is to  ,christians1 and 

is still repeated by millions of our    
,indian  fellow-subjects at their daily 
devotions--was originally an act of     
meditation1 performed with the very     
object ,gautama had in view--supreme    
enlightenment of mind3--#8,let us       
meditate 7,dhmahi1 root dhyai7 on the   
excellent glory of the divine vivifying 
,sun1 may he enlighten our              
understandings4' ,even the selection of 
a seat under an ,avattha tree was  in   
keeping with ,brhmanical ideas 7see     
#8,brhmanism and ,hindism1' p4  #cce74  
,the first result1 however1 of his      
engaging in abstract meditation1 was    
that he seemed to himself to be as far  
as ever from the emancipation  which was
 the one aim of his great renunciation4 
,why not then return to  the world8 ,why
 not indulge again in the pleasures of  
sense8 ,why not go  back to home1 wife1 
and child8 ,thoughts of this kind passed
 through his  mind1 while all his old   
affections and feelings seemed to revive
 with  tenfold intensity4 ,then on one  

particular night1 during this mental    
struggle1 ,mra1 the ,destroyer and      
personification of carnal desire1       
seized his opportunity4 ,the spirit of  
evil had bided his time2 had  waited to 
assail the sage at the right moment1    
when protracted  self-mortification had 
done its work--when with exhausted      
strength he had  little power of        
resistance4    ,it is certainly         
remarkable that a great struggle between
 good and evil1  right and wrong1 truth 
and error1 knowledge and ignorance1     
light and  darkness1 is recognized in   
all religious systems1 however false4   
7,see a  notable allusion to this in    
akara's ,commentary to hndogya          
,upanishad1  p4 #bf1 ll4 #b-h47    ,the 
legendary description of the ,buddha's  
temptation1 and of the assault  made    
upon him by ,mra 7the deadly spirit of  
sensuous desire#ac71 and by  all his    
troop of attendants1 is so interesting  
and curious1  notwithstanding its       
extravagance1 that ,i here abridge it3--

    ,fiends and demons swarmed about him
 in the form of awful monsters1  furies1
 vampires1 hobgoblins1 armed to the     
teeth with every implement of           
destruction4 ,their million faces were  
frightful to behold1 their limbs        
encircled by myriads of serpents1 their 
heads enveloped in a blaze of  fire4    
,they surrounded the saint and assailed 
him in a thousand different  ways4      
,missiles of all kinds were hurled      
against him2 poison and fire  were      
showered over him--but the poison       
changed into flowers1 the fire  formed a
 halo round his head4    ,the baffled   
evil one now shifted his ground4 ,he    
summoned his sixteen  enchanting        
daughters1 and sent them to display     
their charms in the  presence of the    
youthful saint4 ,but the resolute young 
ascetic was not  to be lured by their   
wiles4 ,he remained calm and impassive1 
and with a  stern face rebuked the      
maidens for their boldness1 forcing them
 to  retire discomfited and disgraced4  

,other forms of temptation followed1 and
 the debilitated ascetic's  strength    
seemed to be giving way4 ,but this was  
merely the crisis4 ,after  rising to    
higher and higher stages of abstract    
meditation at the end of  a long night  
he shook off his foe4 ,the victory was  
won1 and the light of  true knowledge   
broke upon his mind4 ,a legend relates  
that in the first  night-watch he gained
 a knowledge of all his previous        
existences2 in the  second--of all      
present states of being2 in the         
third--of the chain of  causes and      
effects 7p4 #ajb72 and at the dawn of   
day he knew all things4    ,the dawn on 
which this remarkable struggle          
terminated was the birthday  of         
,buddhism4 ,gautama was at that time    
about thirty-five years of age4 ,it  was
 then1 and not till then1 that his      
,bodhi-sattvaship 7see p4 #ace7  ended  
and he gained a right to the title      
,buddha1 #8the ,enlightened4' ,no       
wonder that the tree under which he sat 

became celebrated as #8the tree  of     
knowledge and enlightenment4' ,it is    
remarkable1 too1 that just as the  night
 on which the ,buddha attained perfect  
enlightenment is the most  sacred night 
with ,buddhists1 so the ,bodhi-tree 7in 
familiar language1  ,bo-tree7 is their  
most sacred symbol--a symbol as dear to 
,buddhists as  the ,cross is to         
,christians4    ,and what was this true 
knowledge1 evolved out of a mind        
sublimated by  intense meditation8      
,this is1 perhaps1 the strangest point  
of all in this strange story4 ,it  was  
after all a mere partial one-sided      
truth--the outcome of a single  line of 
thought1 dwelt upon with morbid         
intensity1 to the exclusion of  every   
other line of thought which might have  
modified and balanced it4  ,it was an   
ultra-pessimistic view of the miseries  
of life1 and a  determination to ignore 
all its counterbalancing joys4 ,it was  
the  doctrine that this present life is 
only one link in a chain of countless   

transmigrations--that existence of all  
kinds involves suffering1 and that  such
 suffering can only be got rid of by    
self-restraint and the  extinction of   
desires1 especially of the desire for   
continuity of  personal existence4      
,for let it be made clear at the outset1
 that whatever may be said of the       
,christian-like self-renunciation       
enjoined by the ,buddhist code of       
morality1 the only self it aims at      
renouncing is the self of  personality1 
and the chief self-love it deprecates is
 the self-love  which consists in       
craving for continuous individual life4 
,to those who have never travelled or   
resided much in the ,east1  indulgence  
in such a morbid form of pessimism1     
under glowing skies and  amid bright    
surroundings1 may seem almost an        
impossibility4 ,but those  who know     
,india by personal experience are aware 
that its climate is not  conducive to   
optimistic views of life1 and that even 
in the present day  men of the ,buddha  

type1 who seek in various ways to       
impress their  pessimistic theories of  
existence on their fellow-men1 are not  
uncommon4    ,in the course of my       
travels ,i frequently met ascetics who  
had given up  family and friends1 and   
were leading a life of morose seclusion1
 and  pretended meditation1 undergoing  
long courses of bodily mortification4   
,nay1 ,i have even seen men who1 to     
prove their utter contempt for the      
pleasures of worldly existence1 and to  
render themselves fit for the           
extinction of all personality by        
absorption into the ,universal ,soul1   
have sat in one posture1 or held up one 
arm for years1 or allowed  themselves no
 bed but a bed of spikes1 no shelter but
 the foliage of  trees#ad4 ,gautama's   
course of protracted cogitation         
therefore had in it  nothing peculiar or
 original4    ,nor need we doubt that   
certain historical facts underlie the   
legendary  narrative4 ,we cannot admit  
with the learned ,senart and ,kern that 

the  life of ,gautama was based on a    
mere solar myth4 ,to us it is more      
difficult not to believe than to believe
 that there lived in the fifth  century 
,b4,c4 the youthful son of a petty ,rja 
or land-owner in ,oudh1  distinguished  
from ordinary men by many remarkable    
qualities of mind and  body--notably by 
a thoughtful and contemplative          
disposition2 that he  became impressed  
with a sense of the vanity of all       
earthly aims1 and of  the suffering     
caused by disease and death2 that he    
often said to  himself1 #8,life is but a
 troubled dream1 an incubus1 a          
nightmare1' or1  like the ,jewish sage  
of old1 #8,all the days of man are      
sorrow1' #8,man  walketh in a vain      
shadow and disquieteth himself in vain2'
 and that like  many other of the       
world's philosophers1 instead of        
acquiescing in the  state of things     
around him1 and striving to make the    
best of them1 or to  improve them1 he   
took refuge from the troubles of life in

 abandoning all  its ties1 renouncing   
all its joys1 and suppressing all its   
affections  and desires4    ,and again1 
it is more difficult not to believe than
 to believe that in  such a man         
introspection and abstinence1 protracted
 for many years1  induced a condition of
 mind favourable to ecstatic visions1   
which were  easily mistaken for flashes 
of inner enlightenment4    ,we know1    
indeed1 that eleven centuries later     
another great thinker arose  among the  
,semitic races in ,western ,asia1 who   
went through the same kind  of mental   
struggle1 and that ,muhammad1 like      
,gautama1 having by his long  fasts and 
austerities brought himself into a      
highly wrought condition of  the nervous
 system1 became a fanatical believer in 
the reality of his  own delusions and in
 his own divine commission as a teacher4
    ,but the parallel between the       
,buddha and ,muhammad cannot be carried 
on  much further4 ,and indeed1 in point 
of fact1 no two characters could be     

more different4 ,for the ,buddha never  
claimed to be the channel of a          
supernatural revelation2 never          
represented the knowledge that burst on 
his mind as springing from any but an   
internal source2 never taught that  a   
divine force operating from without     
compelled him to communicate that       
knowledge to mankind2 never dreamed of  
propagating that knowledge to  others by
 compulsion1 much less by the sword4 ,on
 the contrary1 he always  maintained    
that the only revelation he had received
 was an illumination  from within--due  
entirety to his own intuitions1 assisted
 by his  reasoning powers and by severe 
purgatorial discipline protracted       
through  countless previous births in   
every variety of bodily form4    ,but   
how did this internal                   
self-enlightenment#ae--the great        
distinguishing feature of               
,buddhism--first find expression8 ,it is
 said  that the first words uttered by  
the ,buddha at the momentous crisis when

  true knowledge burst upon him1 were to
 the following effect3--    #8,through  
countless births have ,i wandered1      
seeking but not discovering  7anibbisan7
 the maker of this my mortal            
dwelling-house 7gaha-kraka71  and still 
again and again have birth and life and 
pain returned4 ,but now  at length art  
thou discovered1 thou builder of this   
house 7of flesh74 ,no  longer shalt thou
 rear a house for me4 ,rafters and beams
 are shattered  and with destruction of 
,desire 7,tah7 deliverance from repeated
 life is  gained at last' 7,dhamma-pada 
#aec1 #aed1 ,sumagala #df74    ,contrast
 with these first utterances of ,gautama
 ,buddha the first words  of ,jesus     
,christ3--    #8,wist ye not that ,i    
must be about ,my ,father's business8'  
7,st4 ,luke ii4  #di47    ,the ,buddha's
 first exclamations1 as well as the     
account of his  subsequent sayings and  
doings1 are the more worthy of credit as
 taken  from the ,southern ,canon4      
,the ,mah-vagga 7,i4 #a7 tells us that  

after attaining complete  intelligence1 
the ,buddha sat cross-legged on the     
ground under the  ,bodhi-tree for seven 
days1 absorbed in meditation and        
enjoying the bliss  of enlightenment4   
,at the end of that period1 during the  
first three  watches of the night1 he   
fixed his mind on the causes of         
existence4 ,then  having thought out the
 law of causation 7p4 #ajb71 he         
exclaimed3 #8,when  the laws of being   
become manifest to the earnest thinker1 
his doubts  vanish1 and1 like the ,sun1 
he dispels the hosts of ,mra4'    ,next 
he meditated for another seven days     
under a banyan tree1 called the  tree of
 goat-herds 7aja-pla74 ,it was there    
that a haughty ,brhman  accosted him    
with the question1 #8,who is a true     
,brhman8' and was told1  #8,one free    
from evil and pride2 self-restrained1   
learned1 and pure4'    ,then he         
meditated under another tree for a third
 period of seven days4  ,there the      
serpent 7,nga7 ,mualinda 7or ,muilinda7 

coiled his body round  the ,buddha1 and 
formed a canopy to protect him from the 
raging of a  storm--this being one of   
the trials he had to go through4 ,when  
it was  over the ,buddha exclaimed1     
#8,happy is the seclusion of the        
satisfied man  7tusha7 who has learned  
and seen the truth4'    ,a fourth period
 of meditation was passed under the tree
 ,rjyatana1  making four times seven    
days4 ,may not these symbolize the four 
stages of  meditation 7p4 #bji78 ,later 
legends1 however1 reckon seven times    
seven  days4    ,during the whole of the
 interval between the first acquisition 
of  knowledge and the setting forth to  
proclaim it1 the ,buddha fasted1 being  
too elated to seek food1 and only once  
receiving it from two merchants1  named 
,tapussa 7,trapusha7 and ,bhallika4     
,these became his first  lay-reverers   
7p4 #hi7 by repeating the double formula
 of reverence for  the ,buddha and for  
his doctrine 7the ,sagha not being then 
instituted1  ,mah-v ,i4 #d4 #e74 ,a     

later legend relates that they received 
in return  eight of his hairs which they
 preserved as relics4    ,in connexion  
with the legend of a forty-nine days'   
fast1 ,i may mention  that an ancient   
carving of ,gautama was pointed out to  
me at ,buddha-,gay1  which represents   
him as holding a bowl of rice-milk      
divided into  forty-nine portions1 one  
for each day4    ,with these legends we 
may contrast the simple ,gospel         
narrative of  ,christ's forty days' fast
 in the wilderness4    ,the ,buddha's   
first resolution to come forth from his 
seclusion and  proclaim his gospel to   
mankind is of course a great epoch with 
all  ,buddhists4    ,and here it should 
be observed1 that1 strictly1 according  
to ,gautama's  own teaching he ought to 
have ceased from all action on arriving 
at  perfect enlightenment4 ,for had he  
not attained the great object of his    
ambition--the end of all his            
struggles--the goal of all his          
efforts--carried on through hundreds of 

existences8 ,he had1 therefore1 no  more
 lives to lead1 no more misery to       
undergo4 ,in short he had achieved  the 
summum bonum of all true ,buddhists--the
 extinction of the fires of  passions   
and desires--and had only to enjoy the  
well-earned peace  7nirviti7 of complete
 ,nirva4 ,yet the love of his fellow-men
 impelled  him to action 7pravitti74 ,in
 fact it was characteristic of a supreme
  ,buddha that he should belie1 by his  
own activity and compassionate          
feelings1 the utter apathy and          
indifference to which his own doctrines 
logically led 7p4 #abh74    ,but he did 
not carry out his benevolent design     
without going through  another course of
 temptation 7which it is usual to       
compare with the  temptation of         
,christ74 ,evil thoughts arose in his   
mind1 and these were  suggested1        
according to later legends1 by ,mra 7p4 
#cc71 thus3--#8,with  great pains1      
blessed one1 hast thou acquired this    
doctrine 7dharma74 ,why  proclaim it8   

,beings lost in desires and lusts will  
not understand it4  ,remain in quietude4
 ,enjoy ,nirva' 7,mah-v ,i4 #e4 #c74    
,to counteract these malevolent         
suggestions1 the god ,brahm ,sahmpati   
7,pli ,sahmpati1 p4 #baj7 presented     
himself and exclaimed3--#8,arise1 ,o    
spotless one1 open the gate of ,nirva4  
,arise1 look down on the world  lost in 
suffering4 ,arise1 wander forth1 preach 
the doctrine4'    ,first the ,buddha    
thought of his two teachers1 ra and     
,uddaka 7p4 #bi71  but found they were  
dead4 ,next he thought of the five      
ascetics whom he  had offended by his   
abandonment of the method of gaining    
true knowledge  through painful         
austerities4 ,they were at that time    
prosecuting their  bodily mortifications
 at ,benares in the ,deer-park called   
,isipatana4 ,it  was only natural that  
the ,buddha should think of wending his 
way in the  first instance to ,benares1 
even if special considerations had not  
drawn  him there2 for that city was the 

great centre of ,eastern thought and    
life1 the ,indian ,athens1 where all    
peculiar doctrines were most likely  to 
gain a hearing4    ,on his way thither1 
,upaka1 a member of the jvaka sect of   
naked  ascetics1 met him and inquired   
why his countenance was so bright       
7pariuddha78 ,he replied1 #8,i am the   
all-subduer1 the all-wise1 the          
stainless1 the highest teacher1 the     
conqueror 7p4 #ace72 ,i go to ,benares  
to dissipate the world's darkness'      
7,mah-vagga ,i4 #f4 #g74    ,the five   
ascetics 7,kauinya  ,koao1 ,avajit      
,assaji1 ,vshpa1  ,mahnma1 and          
,bhadrika7 were soon converted by his   
words1 and by merely  repeating the     
triple formula were admitted at once to 
his ,order of  monks4 ,they constituted1
 with ,gautama1 the first six members of
 the  ,sagha1 or fraternity of men      
seeking release from the misery of      
existence by cnobitic monasticism4      
,and of what nature were ,gautama       
,buddha's first didactic utterances8    

,his  first sermon1 delivered in the    
,deer-park at ,benares1 is held in as   
much  reverence by ,buddhists as the    
first words of ,christ are by           
,christians4  ,it is called             
,dhamma-akka-ppavattana-sutta1 or in    
,sanskit  ,dharma-akra-pravartana-stra1 
#8the discourse which set in motion the 
wheel of the law1' or #8of the universal
 dominance of the true belief4'    ,the 
following is the substance of it1 as    
given in the ,mah-vagga 7,i4 #f4  #ag74 
,it is important to note that the       
,buddha spoke in the vernacular of      
,magadha 7now called ,pli71 and not to  
men generally1 but to the first  five   
would-be members of his ,order of       
monks3--    #8,there are two extremes   
7ant71 ,o monks 7,bhikkhus71 to be      
avoided by one  who has given up the    
world--a life devoted to sensual        
pleasures 7kma71  which is degrading1   
common1 vulgar1 ignoble1 profitless2 and
 a life  given to self-mortification    
7tma-klamatha7--painful1 ignoble1       

profitless4 ,there is a middle path1    
avoiding both extremes--the noble       
eightfold path discovered by the ,buddha
 7,tathgata7--which leads to  insight1  
to wisdom1 to quietude 7upaama71 to     
knowledge1 to perfect  enlightenment    
7sambodhi71 to final extinction of      
desire and suffering  7,nirva74'    ,so 
far there is nothing very explicit in   
the discourse4 ,doubtless such  precepts
 as #8virtue is a mean' and that #8medio
 tutissimus ibis' are  useful1 though   
trite1 truths2 but the difficulty is to 
prove that the  ,buddha's eightfold path
 is really a middle course of the kind  
described2  for the most fanatical      
enthusiasts will always regard their own
 creed1  however extravagant1 as        
moderate4    ,the ,buddha1 therefore1   
goes on to propound what he calls the   
four noble  truths 7ariya-sani          
rya-satyni71 which are the key to his   
whole  doctrine4 ,they may be stated    
thus3--    #a4 ,all existence--that is1 
existence in any form1 whether on earth 

or in  heavenly spheres--necessarily    
involves pain and suffering 7dukkha74   
#b4  ,all suffering is caused by lust   
7rga7 or craving or desire 7tah   trish1
 #8thirst'7 of three kinds--for sensual 
pleasure 7kma71 for  wealth 7vibhava71  
and for existence 7bhava74 #c4          
,cessation of suffering  is simultaneous
 with extinction of lust1 craving1 and  
desire 7p4 #aci74  #d4 ,extinction of   
lust1 craving1 and desire1 and cessation
 of suffering  are accomplished by      
perseverance in the noble eightfold path
 7ariyo  ahangiko maggo71 viz4 right    
belief or views 7samm dihi71 right      
resolve 7sakappo71 right speech1 right  
work 7kammanto71 right  livelihood      
7jvo71 right exercise or training 7vymo 
vyyma71 right  mindfulness 7sati1 p4    
#ej71 right mental concentration        
7samdhi74    ,and how is all life mere  
suffering 7,i4#f4ai78--      #8,birth is
 suffering4 ,decay is suffering4        
,illness is suffering4 ,death    is     
suffering4 ,association with            

7samprayogo7 objects we hate is         
suffering4 ,separation from objects we  
love is suffering4 ,not to obtain       
what we desire is suffering4 ,clinging  
7updna7 to the five elements    7p4     
#aji7 of existence is suffering4        
,complete cessation of thirst    7tah7  
and desires is cessation of suffering4  
,this is the noble truth    of          
suffering4'    ,this sermon 7called in  
,ceylon the first ,baa  ,bha1           
#8recitation1' p4  #gj7 was addressed to
 monks1 and however unfavourably it must
 compare  with that of ,christ 7,st4    
,luke iv4 #ah71 addressed not to monks  
but to  suffering sinners--and however  
obvious may be the idea that pain must  
result from giving way to lust and the  
desire for life through countless       
existences--is of great interest because
 it embodies the first teaching  of one1
 who1 if not worthy to be called #8the  
,light of ,asia1' and  certainly        
unworthy of comparison with the #8,light
 of the ,world1' was at  least one of   

the world's most successful teachers4   
,bear in mind that1 as the result of his
 earliest meditation 7pp4 #ci1 #ef1     
#ajb71 the ,buddha made ignorance       
precede lust as the primary cause of    
life's misery4    ,of course the real   
significance of the whole sermon depends
 on the  interpretation of the word     
#8right' 7samm  samyak7 in describing   
the  eightfold path1 and the plain      
explanation is that #8right belief'     
means  believing in the ,buddha and his 
doctrine2 #8right resolve' means        
abandoning one's wife and family as the 
best method of extinguishing the  fires 
of the passions2 right speech is        
recitation of the ,buddha's  doctrine2  
right work 7,karmnta7 is that of a monk2
 right livelihood is  living by alms as 
a monk does2 right exercise is          
suppression of the  individual self2    
right mindfulness 7,smiti7 is keeping in
 mind the  impurities and impermanence  
of the body2 right mental concentration 
is  trance-like quietude4    ,mark1 too1

 that in describing the misery of life1 
association with loved  objects is not  
mentioned as compensating for the pain  
of connexion with  hateful objects4     
,the ,buddha's early disciples were not 
poor men2 for the sixth to be  admitted 
to the ,sagha was a high-born youth     
named ,yasa4 ,then this  youth's father1
 a rich merchant1 became the first      
lay-disciple by  repeating the triple   
formula 7pp4 #dj1 #gh71 and his mother  
and wife  became the first lay-sisters4 
,next1 four high-born friends of ,yasa1 
and  subsequently fifty more became     
monks4 ,thus1 not long after the first  
sermon1 ,gautama had sixty enrolled     
monks2 all from the upper classes4      
,in sending forth these sixty monks to  
proclaim his own gospel of  deliverance1
 he addressed them thus3--    #8,i am   
delivered from all fetters 7p4 #abg71   
human and divine4 ,you too1 ,o  monks1  
are freed from the same fetters4 ,go    
forth and wander everywhere1  out of    
compassion for the world and for the    

welfare of gods and men4 ,go  forth1 one
 by one1 in different directions4       
,preach the doctrine  7,dharmam71       
salutary 7kalya7 in its beginning1      
middle1 and end1 in its  spirit 7artha7 
and in its letter 7vyajana74 ,proclaim a
 life of perfect  restraint1 chastity1  
and celibacy 7brahmaariyam74 ,i will go 
also to  preach this doctrine'          
7,mah-vagga ,i4 #aa4 #a74    ,when his  
monk-missionaries had departed1 ,gautama
 himself followed1  though not till ,mra
 7p4 #da7 had again tempted him4        
,quitting ,benares he  journeyed back to
 ,uruvel1 near ,gay4 ,there he first    
converted thirty  rich young men and    
then one thousand orthodox ,brhmans1 led
 by ,kyapa  and his two brothers1 who   
maintained a sacred fire 7#8,brhmanism1'
 p4  #cfd74 ,the fire-chamber was       
haunted by a fiery snake-demon2 so      
,buddha  asked to occupy the room for a 
night1 fought the serpent and confined  
him in his own alms-bowl4 ,next he      
worked other miracles 7said to have     

been #cejj in number71 such as causing  
water to recede1 fire-wood to  split1   
fire-vessels to appear at his word4     
,then ,kyapa and his  brothers1         
convinced of his miraculous powers1 were
 admitted with the  other ,brhmans to   
the ,sagha4 ,thus ,buddha gathered round
 him about a  thousand monks4    ,to    
them on a hill ,gayssa 7,brahma-yoni71  
near ,gay1 he preached his  #8burning'  
fire-sermon 7,mah-v ,i4 #ba73           
#8,everything1 ,o monks1 is burning     
7dittam  dptam74 ,the eye is burning2   
visible things are burning4 ,the        
sensation produced by contact with      
visible things is burning--burning  with
 the fire of lust 7desire71 enmity and  
delusion 7rgaggin dosaggin  mohaggin71  
with birth1 decay 7jaray71 death1 grief1
 lamentation1 pain1  dejection          
7domanassehi71 and despair 7upysehi74   
,the ear is burning1  sounds are        
burning2 the nose is burning1 odours are
 burning2 the tongue  is burning1 tastes
 are burning2 the body is burning1      

objects of sense  are burning4 ,the mind
 is burning1 thoughts are burning4 ,all 
are burning  with the fire of passions  
and lusts4 ,observing this1 ,o monks1 a 
wise and  noble disciple becomes weary  
of 7or disgusted with7 the eye1 weary of
  visible things1 weary of the ear1     
weary of sounds1 weary of odours1  weary
 of tastes1 weary of the body1 weary of 
the mind4 ,becoming weary1  he frees    
himself from passions and lusts4 ,when  
free1 he realizes that  his object is   
accomplished1 that he has lived a life  
of restraint and  chastity              
7brahma-ariyam71 that re-birth is       
ended4'    ,it is said that this        
fire-sermon--which is a key to the      
meaning of  ,nirva--was suggested by the
 sight of a conflagration4 ,it was      
,gautama's  custom to impress ideas on  
his hearers by pointing to visible      
objects4  ,he compares all life to a    
flame2 and the gist of the discourse is 
the  duty of extinguishing the fire of  
lusts1 and with it the fire of all      

existence1 and the importance of        
monkhood and celibacy for the           
attainment of this end4    ,contrast in 
,christ's ,sermon on the ,mount the     
words addressed to the  multitude 7not  
to monks71 #8,blessed are the pure in   
heart1 for they shall  see ,god4'       
,the ,buddha and his followers next     
proceeded to ,rja-giha4 ,among them     
were two1 afterwards called #8chief     
disciples' 7,agra-rvakas71 ,sriputta    
and ,moggallna 7or ,maudgalyyana71 who  
died before the ,buddha1 and  sixteen   
leaders among the so-called eighty      
#8great disciples'  7,mah-rvakas72 the  
chief of these being ,kyapa 7or         
,mah-kyapa71  ,upli1 and nanda 7a       
cousin71 besides ,anuruddha 7another    
cousin71 and  ,ktyyana4 ,of course among
 the eighty are reckoned the five       
original  ,benares converts4 ,at a later
 time two chief female disciples        
7,agra-rviks7 named ,khem and ,uppala-va
 7,utpala-var7 were added  7see p4 #hf74
 ,each leading disciple was afterwards  

called ,sthavira1 #8an  elder1' or      
,mah-sthavira1 #8great elder' 7,pli     
,thera1 ,mahthera2 fem4  ,ther74 ,mark1 
too1 that ,bimbi-sra1 king of ,magadha1 
and ,prasenajit  7,pasenadi71 king of   
,kosala1 were ,gautama's lay-disciples  
and constant  patrons4    ,it was not   
long before the ,buddha's followers were
 more formally  incorporated into a     
monastic ,order 7,sagha71 and rules of  
discipline  drawn up 7see pp4 #fa1 #gb1 
#gc1 #hc74 ,and doubtless the success of
 ,buddhism  was due to the carrying out 
of this idea of establishing a          
brotherhood  offering a haven of rest to
 all4    ,about forty-five years elapsed
 between ,gautama's attainment of       
,buddhahood and his death4 ,during that 
period he continued teaching and        
itinerating with his disciples2 only    
going #8into retreat' during the  rains4
 ,a list of #de places of residence is  
given4 ,he seems to have  resided       
oftenest at rvast 7p4 #ba7 in the       
monastery ,jetavana given by            

,antha-piika2 but the whole region      
between rvast and ,rja-giha 7p4  #bi71  
for nearly #cjj miles1 was the scene of 
his itineration4 ,favourite  resorts    
near ,rja-giha were the #8,vulture-peak'
 and ,bambu-grove  7,veu-vana72 but     
continual itineration was one chief     
means of  propagating ,buddhism4    ,it 
is said that his death occurred at      
,kui-nagara#af 7,kusinr71 a town  about 
eighty miles east of ,kapila-vastu--the 
place of his birth--when he  was eighty 
years of age1 and probably about the    
year #dbj ,b4,c4#ag    ,the story is    
that ,gautama died from eating too much 
pork 7or dried  boar's flesh#ah74 ,as   
this is somewhat derogatory to his      
dignity it is  not likely to have been  
fabricated4 ,a fabrication1 too1 would  
scarcely  make him guilty of the        
inconsistency of saying #8,kill no      
living thing1'  and yet setting an      
example of eating flesh-meat4    ,these 
were his words when he felt his end     
near3--    #8,o nanda1 ,i am now grown  

old1 and full of years1 and my journey  
is  drawing to its close2 ,i have       
reached eighty years--my sum of         
days--and  just as a worn-out cart can  
only with much care be made to move     
along1  so my body can only be kept     
going with difficulty4 ,it is only when 
,i  become plunged in meditation that my
 body is at ease4 ,in future be ye to   
yourselves your own light1 your own     
refuge2 seek no other refuge4 ,hold     
fast to the truth as your lamp4 ,hold   
fast to the truth as your refuge2  look 
not to any one but yourselves as a      
refuge' 7,mah-parinibbna-sutta  ,,ii4   
#cb1 #cc74    ,afterwards he gave a     
summary of every monk's duties1         
thus3--#8,which then1  ,o monks1 are the
 truths 7the seven jewels1 p4 #abg7 it  
behoves you to  spread abroad1 out of   
pity for the world1 for the good of gods
 and men8  ,they are3 #a4 the four      
earnest reflections 7,smiti1            
,sati-pahna1 on the  impurities of the  
body1 on the impermanence of the        

sensations1 of the  thoughts1 of the    
conditions of existence1 p4 #abg72 #b4  
the four right  exertions               
7,sammappadhna1 viz4 to prevent demerit 
from arising1 get rid  of it when       
arisen1 produce merit1 increase it72 #c4
 the four paths to  supernatural power  
7,iddhi-pda1 viz4 will1 effort1 thought1
 intense  thought72 #d4 the five forces 
7,paa-bala1 viz4 faith1 energy1         
recollection1 self-concentration1       
reason72 #e4 the proper use of the five 
organs of sense2 #f4 the seven #8limbs' 
of knowledge 7,bodhy-aga1 viz4          
recollection1 investigation1 energy1    
joy1 serenity1 concentration of  mind1  
equanimity72 #g4 the noble #8eightfold  
path' 7p4 #dd74 ,see  ,mah-parinibbna   
,,iii4 #fe4    ,then shortly before his 
decease1 he said1 #8,it may be1 nanda1  
that in  some of you the thought may    
arise3--,the words of our ,teacher are  
ended2  we have lost our ,master4 ,but  
it is not thus4 ,the truths and the     
rules of  the ,order1 which ,i have     

taught and preached1 let these be your  
teacher1  when ,i am gone' 7,,vi4 #a74  
#8,behold now1 ,o monks1 ,i exhort      
you3--,everything that cometh into being
  passeth away2 work out your own       
perfection with diligence' 7,,iii4 #ff74
    ,not long after his last utterances 
the ,buddha1 who had before through     
intense meditation attained ,nirva or   
extinction of the fire of  desires1     
passed through the four stages of       
meditation 7p4 #bji7 till the  moment   
came for his ,pari-nirva1 whereby the   
fire of life also was  extinguished4 ,a 
couch had been placed for him between   
two l trees 7p4  #bc71 with the head    
towards the north4 ,in sculptures he is 
represented as  lying on his right side 
at the moment of death1 and images of   
him in  this position are highly        
venerated4    ,the chief men of         
,kui-nagara burnt his body with the     
ceremonies usual at  the death of a     
akravartin or ,universal ,ruler1 which  
the ,buddha claimed  to be4    ,then his

 ashes were distributed among eight     
princes1 who built ,stpas  over them    
7,buddha-vasa #bh74    ,a legend states 
that when the ,buddha died there was an 
earthquake4 ,then  the gods ,brahm and  
,indra appeared and the latter          
exclaimed3 #8,transient  are all the    
elements of being2 birth and decay are  
their nature2 they  are born and        
dissolved2 then only is happiness when  
they have ceased to  be' 7,mah-p ,,vi4  
#af74    ,contrast with ,buddha's last  
words the last words of ,christ3        
#8,father1  into ,thy hands ,i commend  
my ,spirit4'    ,a greater contrast than
 that presented by the account of the   
,buddha's  death and the ,gospel        
narrative of the death of ,christ can   
scarcely be  imagined4    ,of course as 
a result of discourses during forty-five
 years1 a large  number were gathered   
into ,gautama's monastic ,order4 ,his   
first aim was  the founding of this     
,order1 and his chief sermons were to   
his monks2 but  he accepted all men and 

ultimately multitudes attached          
themselves to him  as lay-brethren 7p4  
#hg74    ,in fact ,gautama's doctrine of
 a universal brotherhood1 open to all1  
constituted the corner-stone of his     
popularity4 ,he spoke to them in  their 
own provincial dialect1 which could not 
have differed much from  the ,pli of the
 texts--and he enforced his words by    
dialogues1 parables1  fables1           
reiterations1 and repetitions4 ,probably
 he was the first  introducer of real   
preaching into ,india1 and by his       
practical method he  seemed to bring    
down knowledge from the clouds to every 
man's door4    ,the following parable is
 an example3 #8,as the peasant sows the 
seed but  cannot say3 the grain shall   
swell to-day1 to-morrow germinate1 so   
also  it is with the disciple2 he must  
obey the precepts1 practise meditation1 
study the doctrine2 he cannot say to-day
 or to-morrow1 ,i shall be  delivered4  
,again3 as when a herd of deer lives in 
a forest a man comes  who opens for them

 a false path and the deer suffer hurt2 
and another  comes who opens a safe path
 and the deer thrive2 so when men live  
among  pleasures the evil one comes and 
opens the false eightfold path4 ,then   
comes the perfect one and opens the safe
 eightfold path of right belief1  etc4' 
7p4 #dd1 ,oldenberg1 #aia1 #aib74       
,six rival heretical teachers are       
alluded to4 ,his chief opponent was his 
cousin ,devadatta1 who set up a school  
of his own1 and is said to have  plotted
 against the ,buddha's life4 ,his       
efforts failed 7ulla-vagga ,,vii71  and 
he himself came to an untimely end4     
,possibly he may have belonged to  the  
rival ,jaina sect 7,nigaha7 of naked    
ascetics1 of which the great  leader was
 ,vardhamna ,mahvra ,nta-putta          
7,jti-putra74    ,gautama's teaching    
gained the day4 ,it claimed             
universality1 and was  aptly symbolized 
by a wheel rolling among all alike4 ,yet
 at first it had  no attractions for the
 poor and the child-like4    ,by        

degrees1 a fuller system1 adapted in an 
ascending scale to laymen1  novices1    
monks1 nuns1 and ,arhats1 was           
developed--a system which had its       
abstruse doctrines suited to men of     
philosophical minds1 as well as its     
plain practical side4 ,this constituted 
the ,buddhist ,dharma1 which was        
ultimately collected in certain sacred  
books to be next described4             
,,lecture ,,iii4           ,the ,law    
7,dharma7 and ,sacred ,scriptures of    
,buddhism4      ,probably most educated 
persons are aware that ,buddhists have  
their own  sacred scriptures1 like      
,hinds1 ,prss1 ,confucianists1          
,muhammadans1  ,jews1 and ,christians4  
,it is not1 however1 so generally known 
that in one  important particular these 
,buddhist scriptures1 constituting the  
,tri-piaka 7p4 #fa71 differ wholly from 
other sacred books4 ,they lay no  claim 
to supernatural inspiration4 ,whatever  
doctrine is found in them  was believed 
to be purely human--that is1 was held to

 be the product of  man's own natural   
faculties working naturally4    ,the    
,tri-piaka was never like the ,veda of  
the ,brhmans1 believed to be  the very  
#8breath of ,god'#ai2 the same care1    
therefore1 was not taken to  preserve   
every sound2 and when at last it was    
written down the result  was a more     
scholastic production than the ,veda4   
,moreover1 it was not composed in the   
,sanskit of the ,veda and stras--in  the
 sacred language1 the very grammar and  
alphabet of which were  supposed to come
 from heaven--but in the vernacular of  
the part of ,india  in which ,buddhism  
flourished4 ,indeed1 it is a significant
 fact that  while the great sages of    
,sanskit literature and philosophy1 such
 as  ,vysa1 ,kumrila1 and akara1 in all 
probability spoke and taught in         
,sanskit#bj1 the ,founder of ,buddhism  
preferred to communicate his  precepts  
to the people in their own vernacular1  
afterwards called ,pli4  ,nevertheless1 
he never composed a single book of his  

own4 ,in all  probability he never wrote
 down any of his own precepts2 for if   
writing  was then invented1 it was      
little practised1 through the absence of
  suitable materials4 ,this is the more 
remarkable as ,buddhism ultimately      
became an instrument for introducing    
literary culture among uncivilized      
races4    ,all that ,gautama did was to 
preach his ,dharma1 #8,law1' during     
forty-five  years of itineration1 and   
oral teaching4 ,it was not till some    
time after  his death that his sayings  
were collected 7p4 #ig71 and still      
longer  before they were written down4  
,itineration1 recitation of the ,law1   
and  preaching were the chief           
instruments for the propagation of      
,buddhism4    ,at present the ,buddhist 
,canon is about as extensive as the     
,brhmanical#ba1 and in both cases we are
 left in doubt as to the date  when the 
books were composed4 ,how1 then1 did    
their composition take  place8    ,all  
that can be said is that at three       

successive epochs after the  ,buddha's  
death1 three gatherings of his followers
 were held for the  purpose of          
collecting his sayings and settling the 
true ,canon1 and that  a fourth assembly
 took place much later in the ,north4   
,the first of these assemblages can     
scarcely with any fitness be called a   
,council4 ,nor can the fact of its      
meeting together in any formal manner   
be established on any trustworthy       
historical basis4 ,it is said that a    
number of monks 7about five hundred1    
called ,mah-sthavir1 #8the great        
elders1' ,pli ,mah-ther7 assembled in a 
cave called ,sattapai1 near  the then   
capital city of ,magadha--,rja-giha1 now
 ,rj-gr--under the  sanction of king    
,ajta-atru1 during the rainy season     
immediately  succeeding the death of    
,gautama1 to think over1 put together1  
and  arrange the sayings of their       
,master1 but not1 so far as we know1 to 
write them down4    ,there1 in all      
likelihood1 they made the first step    

towards a methodical  arrangement4 ,but 
even then it is doubtful whether any    
systematic  collections were composed4  
,the assembled monks chose ,kyapa 7or   
,mah-kyapa1 p4 #dg71 the most esteemed  
of all the ,buddha's surviving          
disciples1 as their leader1 and chanted 
the ,thera-vda 7,sthavira-v71  #8words  
of the elders1' or precepts of their    
,founder preserved in the  memory of the
 older men2 the rules of discipline     
7,vinaya7 being recited  by ,upli#bb1   
and the ethical precepts 7,stra71 which 
constituted at  first the principal     
,dharma#bc 7par excellence1 in          
contradistinction  to the ,vinaya71     
being imparted by ,gautama's favorite   
nanda 7p4 #dg72  while the philosophical
 doctrines--then undeveloped--were      
communicated by  the president1 ,kyapa4 
,if any arrangement was then made it was
 probably  in two collections--the      
,vinaya and ,dharma 7say about #djj     
,b4,c47    ,in regard to the ,dharma1   
two main lines were1 in all likelihood1 

laid  down as the basis of all early    
teaching4 ,the first consisted of the   
four  sublime verities1 as they are     
called--that is1 of the four fundamental
  truths originally taught by the       
,founder of ,buddhism1 namely1 the      
inevitable inherence of suffering in    
every form of life1 the connexion  of   
all suffering with indulgence of        
desires1 especially with craving for    
continuity of existence1 the possibility
 of the cessation of suffering  by      
restraining lusts and desires1 and the  
eightfold course leading to  that       
cessation 7see p4 #dd74    ,the second  
line of doctrine probably consisted of  
an outline of the  twelve-linked chain  
of causality 7nidna71 which traced back 
all  suffering to a still deeper origin 
than mere lusts and desires--namely1  to
 ignorance 7p4 #ajc74    ,it is not1    
however1 at all likely that any         
philosophical or metaphysical  doctrines
 were clearly and methodically          
formulated at the earliest  assembly    

which took place soon after ,gautama's  
death4 ,it is far more  probable that   
the first outcome of the gathering      
together of the  ,buddha's disciples was
 simply the enforcing of some strict    
rules of  discipline for the ,order of  
monks1 and this may have taken place    
soon  after #djj ,b4,c4    ,after a     
time1 certain relaxations of these rules
 or unauthorized  departures from them  
7ten in number1 such as reception of    
money-gifts1  eating a second meal in   
the afternoon1 drinking stimulating     
beverages1  if pure as water in         
appearance#bd71 began to be common4 ,the
 question as  to whether liberty should 
be allowed in these points1 especially  
in the  first1 shook the very           
foundations of the community4 ,in fact  
the whole  society became split up into 
two contending parties1 the strict and  
the  lax1 and a second ,council became  
necessary for the restoration of order4 
,all ten points were discussed at this  
,council1 said to have consisted of     

#gjj monks and held at ,vail 7,vesl1 now
 ,besrh71 #bg miles north of  ,patn1    
about #chj ,b4,c4#be ,the discussions   
were protracted for eight  months1 and  
all the ten unlawful relaxations were   
finally prohibited4    ,it has been     
observed that this second ,council      
stands in a relation to  ,buddhism very 
similar to that which the ,council of   
,nica bears to  ,christianity4    ,the  
exact date1 however1 of either the first
 or second assemblies cannot  be        
determined with precision4    ,not long 
afterwards occurred the political       
revolution caused by the  well-known    
andra-gupta 7 ,sandra-kottus7--sometimes
 called the first  ,aoka 7or            
disparagingly1 ,kloka74 ,this man1 who  
was a low-born dra1  usurped the throne 
and founded the ,maurya dynasty1 after  
killing king  ,nanda and taking         
possession of ,paliputra 7or            
,palibothra1 now ,patn1  the then       
metropolis of ,magadha or ,behr71 about 
#cae ,b4,c4 ,he extended the  kingdom of

 ,magadha over all ,hindstn1 and became 
so powerful that when  ,alexander's     
successor1 ,seleukos ,nikator 7whose    
reign commenced about #cab  ,b4,c471    
invaded ,india from his kingdom of      
,bactria1 so effectual was the          
resistance offered by andra-gupta1 that 
the ,greek thought it politic to  form  
an alliance with the ,hind king1 and    
sent his own countryman1  ,megasthenes1 
as an ambassador to reside at his court4
    ,to this circumstance we owe the    
earliest authentic account of ,indian   
customs and usages1 by an intelligent   
observer who was not a native2 and      
,megasthenes' narrative1 preserved by   
,strabo1 furnishes a basis on which  a  
fair inference may be founded that      
,brhmanism and ,buddhism existed  side  
by side in ,india on amicable terms in  
the fourth and third  centuries ,b4,c4  
,there is even ground for believing that
 king andra-gupta  himself favoured the 
,buddhists1 though outwardly he never   
renounced his  faith in ,brhmanism4     

andra-gupta's reign is thought to have  
lasted until #bia ,b4,c41 and that  of  
his son and successor1 ,vindusra1 from  
#bia to 7say7 about #bfj ,b4,c4  ,then  
came andra-gupta's grandson1 the        
celebrated ,aoka 7sometimes  called     
,dharmoka71 who1 though of dra origin1  
was perhaps the  greatest ,hind monarch 
of ,india4    ,it was about this period 
that ,gautama ,buddha's followers began 
to  develope his doctrines1 and to make 
additions to them in such a way that    
the ,abhi-dharma or #8further ,dharma'  
had to be added to the tra which        
constituted the original ,dharma 7p4    
#ef74 ,even in ,gautama's time there    
were great dissensions4 ,afterwards     
differences of opinion increased1 so    
that before long eighteen schools of    
schismatic thought 7p4 #aeh7 were       
established4 ,the resulting             
controversies were very disturbing1 and 
a  third ,council became necessary4 ,it 
consisted of a thousand oldest  members 
of the ,order1 and was held in the #afth

 or #agth year of ,aoka's  reign at     
,patn 7,pali-putra71 about #bdd-bdb     
,b4,c4    ,this third ,council was1     
perhaps1 the most important2 for through
 its  deliberations the decision was    
arrived at to propagate ,buddhism by    
missions4 ,hence missionaries1 supported
 by king ,aoka 7see p4 #ff71 were  sent 
in all directions2 the first being      
,mahinda 7,mahendra71 the king's  son1  
who carried the doctrine into ,ceylon4  
,dr4 ,oldenberg has shown that in a part
 of the ,tri-piaka now extant1 the      
first and second ,councils are mentioned
 but not the third4 ,the plain          
inference is that the portion of the    
,buddhist ,canon in which the second    
,council is described cannot be older   
than that ,council4 ,yet in all         
likelihood a great part of the ,vinaya  
7including the ,ptimokkha and the       
,khandhaka1 p4 #fb7 was composed before 
the second ,council--possibly as  early 
as about #djj ,b4,c4--and the rest of   
the ,canon during the succeeding        

century and a half before the third     
,council--that is1 from #djj to #bej    
,b4,c4 ,it was composed in the then     
vernacular language of ,magadha         
7,mgadh71 where all three ,councils were
 held4    ,it seems1 however1 probable  
that in each district to which ,buddhism
  spread the doctrine of its founder was
 taught in the peculiar dialect         
understood by the inhabitants4 ,it even 
appears likely that when ,gautama       
himself lived in ,kosala 7,oudh7 he     
preached in the dialect of that         
province just as he taught in ,mgadh    
when he resided in ,magadha4 ,the       
ulla-vagga 7,v4 #cc4 ,i7 makes him      
direct that his precepts should be      
learnt by every convert in the          
provincial dialect1 which doubtless     
varied slightly everywhere4 ,in time it 
became necessary to give fixity  to the 
sacred texts1 and the form they finally 
assumed may have  represented the       
prevalent dialect of the time1 and not  
necessarily the  original ,mgadh        

,prkit#bf4 ,this final form of the      
language was called  ,pli#bg 7or        
,tanti71 and no doubt differs from the  
earlier ,aoka  inscription dialect1 and 
from ,mgadh ,prkit as now known4        
,some think that the ,pli resulted from 
an artificial infusion of  ,sanskit4 ,it
 is said that nearly two-fifths of the  
,pli vocabulary  consists of unmodified 
,sanskit4    ,at any rate1 it was in    
this language that the ,buddhist ,law   
was carried  7probably by ,mahendra7    
into ,ceylon1 and the whole ,canon is   
thought by  some to have been handed    
down orally till it was written down    
there  about #he ,b4,c4 ,oral           
transmission1 we know1 was common in    
,india1 but if  edicts were written by  
,aoka 7p4 #fg71 why should not the ,law 
have been  written down also8    ,as1   
however1 ,pli was not spoken in ,ceylon1
 the ,pli commentaries  brought by      
,mahendra were translated by him into   
,sinhalese1 and the ,pli  originals     
being lost1 were not retranslated into  

,pli till about the  beginning of the   
fifth century of our era4    ,turning   
next to the final arrangement of the    
,pli ,canon1 we find that it  resolved  
itself into three collections 7called   
,tri-piaka1 ,pli  ,tipiaka1 #8,three    
baskets1' the word piaka1 however1 not  
occurring in  the early texts71 namely3 
#a4 ,yinaya1 #8discipline' for the      
,order2 #b4  ,stra-7,pli ,sutta71       
#8precepts1' which at first constituted 
the principal  ,dharma1 or moral ,law   
7p4 #ef72 #c4 ,abhi-dharma              
7,abhi-dhamma71 #8further  ,dharma1' or 
additional precepts relative to the law 
and philosophy4    ,this division was   
not logical1 as each collection may     
treat of the  subjects belonging to the 
others4    ,taking1 then1 in the first  
place1 the ,vinaya or discipline portion
 of  the ,buddhist bible1 we ought to   
observe that a portion of it 7the       
,ptimokkha7 is not only the oldest1 but 
also the most important in its  bearing 
on the whole theory of ,buddhism4 ,for1 

as we shall point out more  fully       
hereafter1 the ,buddha's paramount aim  
was to convince others that  to get rid 
of ignorance1 gain knowledge1 practise  
morality1 and obtain  deliverance1 it   
was incumbent on a wise man to renounce 
married life and  become a member of a  
monastic ,order4    ,pure ,buddhism1 in 
fact1 was pure monachism--implying      
celibacy1 poverty1  and mendicancy--and 
this could not be maintained without    
rules for  discipline and outward       
conduct1 which1 as adopted by the       
,buddha1 were  simply a modification of 
the rules for the two religious orders  
of the  ,brahma-r and ,sannys1 already  
existing in ,brhmanism4    ,with regard 
to the classification of the ,vinaya    
rules1 they were divided  into three    
sets3 a4 the ,khandhaka1 in two         
collections called  ,mah-vagga          
7,mah-varga71 #8great section1' and     
ulla-vagga1 #8minor  section' 7vagga    
varga72 b4 the ,vibhaga 7including the  
two works  called ,prjika and ,pittiya71

 or a systematic arrangement and        
explanation of certain ancient          
#8release-precepts' 7pratimoksha-stra1  
,pli ,ptimokkha7 for setting free1      
through penances1 any who had  offended 
against the ,order2 c4 ,parivra-pha1 or 
a comparatively  modern summary of the  
above two divisions4    ,mark1 however1 
that the ,vinaya abounds in details of  
the life and  teaching of ,gautama4     
,the second ,piaka1 called ,sutta       
7,stra71 #8precepts1' contains the      
ethical doctrines which at first        
constituted the whole ,buddhist ,law4   
,it  consists of five ,nikyas1 or       
collections1 viz4 a4 the ,dgha1 or      
collection of #cd long suttas1 among    
which is the ,mah-parinibbna-sutta  7one
 of the oldest parts of the ,canon after
 the ,ptimokkha72 b4 the  ,majjhima1 or 
collection of #aeb suttas of middling   
length2 c4 the  ,sayutta1 or collection 
of #ee groups of joined suttas1 some of 
them very  short2 d4 the ,aguttara1 or  
miscellaneous suttas in divisions1 which

  go on increasing by one 7aga72 e4 the 
,khuddaka1 or minor collection1         
consisting of fifteen works4            
,according to one school1 this fifth    
,nikya is more correctly referred to    
the ,abhi-dhamma ,piaka4 ,in character1 
however1 it conforms more to the        
,sutta4 ,of its fifteen works1 perhaps  
the most important are the  following   
six3--    ,the ,khuddaka-pha1 #8short   
readings2' the ,dhamma-pada1 #8precepts 
of the  ,law' 7or #8verses of the ,law1'
 or #8footsteps of the ,law'72 the      
,jtaka  7with their commentaries71 a    
series of stories relating to about     
#eejbh  previous births of the ,buddha  
7p4 #aaa71 which have formed the basis  
of  many stories in the ,paa-tantra1    
fables of sop1 etc42 the  ,sutta-nipta1 
#8collection of discourses2' the        
,thera-gth 7   ,sthavira-g71 #8verses or
 stanzas by elder monks2' ,ther-gth1    
#8verses  by elder nuns4'    ,the other 
nine are the ,udna1 containing #hb short
 suttas and joyous  utterances of the   

,buddha at crises of his life2 the      
,itivuttaka1 #8thus it  was said' 7  ity
 ukta71 #aaj sayings of the ,buddha2 the
 ,vimna-vatthu1  on the mansions of the 
gods 7which move about at will and      
sometimes  descend on earth72 the       
,peta-vatthu 7  ,preta-vastu1 ,peta     
standing for  ,preta and ,piti71 on     
departed spirits2 the ,niddesa1 a       
commentary on the  ,sutta-nipta2 the    
,pai-sambhid1 on the supernatural       
knowledge of  ,arhats2 the ,apadna      
7,sanskit ,avadna71 #8stories about the 
achievements'  of ,arhats2 the          
,buddha-vasa1 or history of the #bd     
preceding ,buddhas 7the  ,dgha mentions 
only six7 and of ,gautama2 the          
ariy-piaka1 #8treasury of  acts1' giving
 stories based on the ,jtakas1          
describing ,gautama's  acquisition of   
the ten transcendent virtues 7p4 #abh7  
in former births4    ,the works included
 in this ,sutta-piaka frequently take   
the form of  conversations on doctrine  
and morality1 between ,gautama1 or one  

of his  chief disciples1 and some       
inquirer4 ,as constituting the ethical  
,dharma1  they are the most interesting 
portion of the ,canon4    ,with regard  
to the third ,piaka1 called ,abhi-dhamma
 7,abbhi-dharma1  #8further dharma'71   
which is held by modern scholars to be  
of later  origin and supplementary to   
the ,sutta 7p4 #fb71 it contains seven  
prose  works#bi4 ,moreover1 it was once 
thought to relate entirely to           
metaphysics and philosophy2 but this is 
now held to be an error1 for all  seven 
works treat of a great variety of       
subjects1 including discipline  and     
ethics4 ,metaphysical discussions occur1
 but it is probable that  originally    
,buddha kept clear of metaphysics 7see  
p4 #ih74    ,besides the numerous works 
we have thus described as constituting  
the  ,tri-piaka or three collections of 
works of the ,southern ,buddhists1      
there are the ,pli commentaries called  
,aha-kath 7,artha-kath1  #8telling of   
meanings#cj'71 which were translated    

into ,sinhalese1  according to          
tradition1 by ,mahendra himself4        
,afterwards the original  ,pli text was 
lost and some of the commentaries were  
retranslated into  ,pli by              
,buddha-ghosha1 #8he who had the very   
voice of ,buddha1' at the end  of the   
fourth and beginning of the fifth       
century of our era4    ,the ,mah-vaa or 
#8history of the great families of      
,ceylon1' a  well-known work 7written in
 ,pli by a monk named ,mah-nma in the   
fifth  century and translated by        
,turnour71 gives an account of this     
writer#ca4  ,it says that a ,brhman     
youth1 born near ,buddha-,gay in        
,magadha1 had  achieved great celebrity 
as a disputant in ,brhmanical           
philosophy4 ,this  youth was converted  
by a ,buddhist sage in ,india1 and      
induced to enter  the ,buddhist monastic
 ,order4 ,he soon became renowned for   
his eloquence1  and was on that account 
called ,buddha-ghosha4 ,he wrote a      
commentary1  called ,aha-slin1 on the   

,dhamma-sagani1 a work belonging to the 
,abhi-dharma4 ,he also wrote a most     
valuable ,pli compendium of ,buddhist   
doctrine called ,visuddhi-magga1 #8path 
of purity1' and a commentary on  the    
,dharma-pada containing many parables4  
,he went to ,ceylon about ,a4,d4  #dcj  
for the purpose of retranslating the    
,sinhalese commentaries into  ,pli4 ,his
 literary reputation stands very high in
 that island1 and he  was instrumental  
in spreading ,buddhism throughout       
,burma4    ,it may be noted that the two
 important ,pli works1 ,mah-vaa and     
,dpa-vaa 7,dvpa-vaa71 perhaps the oldest
 extant histories of ,ceylon1  are also 
fairly authentic sources for ,buddhistic
 history before ,christ4    ,turn we now
 to the ,mahyna or #8,great ,vehicle4'  
,this cannot be said to  possess any    
true ,canon distinct from the           
,tri-piaka1 though certain  ,nepalese   
,sanskit works1 composed in later times1
 are held to be  canonical by ,northern 
,buddhists4    ,to understand this part 

of the subject we must revert to the    
great king  ,aoka4 ,it is usual to call 
this second and more celebrated ,aoka   
the  ,constantine of ,buddhism4 ,being  
of dra origin he was the more inclined  
to favour the popular teaching of       
,gautama1 and1 as he was the first king 
who adopted ,buddhism openly 7about #beg
 ,b4,c47 he doubtless did for  ,buddhism
 very much what ,constantine did for    
,christianity4    ,the ,buddhist system 
then spread over the whole kingdom of   
,aoka1 and  thence over other portions  
of ,india1 and even to some outlying    
countries4 ,for gradually during this   
period most of the petty princes of     
,india1 from ,peshwar and ,kashmr to the
 river ,kistna1 and from ,surat to      
,bengal and ,orissa1 if not actually    
brought under subjection to the king  of
 ,magadha1 were compelled to acknowledge
 his paramount authority4    ,this is   
proved by ,aoka's edicts1 which are     
inscribed on rocks and stone  pillars#cb
 7the earliest dating from about #bea   

,b4,c471 and are found in  frontier     
districts separated from each other by  
enormous distances4    ,these           
inscriptions are of the greatest        
interest and value1 as furnishing  the  
first authentic records of ,indian      
history4 ,they are written in a  more   
ancient language than the ,pli of       
,ceylon1 and in at least three          
different dialects4 ,ten of the most    
important are found on six rocks and    
five pillars 7,ls71 though numerous     
other monuments are scattered over      
,northern ,india1 from the ,indian      
,ocean to the ,bay of ,bengal1 from the 
,vindhya range on the south to the      
,khaibar ,pass on the north#cc4    ,in  
these proclamations and edicts 7one of  
which was addressed to the  third       
,buddhist ,council71 king ,aoka1 who    
calls himself ,priya-dar 7,pli          
,piya-dass71 issues various orders4 ,he 
prohibits the slaughter of  animals for 
food or sacrifice1 gives directions for 
what may be called  the first hospitals1

 i4 e4 for treating men and even animals
 medically1  appoints missionaries for  
the propagation of ,buddhist doctrines1 
inculcates peace and mercy1 charity and 
toleration1 morality and  self-denial1  
and what is still more remarkable1      
enjoins quinquennial  periods of        
national humiliation and confession of  
sins by all classes1  accompanied by a  
re-proclamation of the ,buddha's        
precepts4 ,aoka1 in  fact1 became so    
zealous a friend of ,buddhism1 that he  
is said to have  maintained #fd1jjj     
,buddhist monks in and around the       
country of ,magadha1  which was on that 
account called the land of monasteries  
7,vihra  the  modern ,bihr or ,behr74   
,no doubt it was ,aoka's propagation of 
,buddhism by missions in various        
countries--where it came in contact with
 and partly adopted various  already    
existing indigenous faiths and          
superstitions--that led to the  ultimate
 separation of the ,buddhist system into
 the two great divisions  of ,southern  

and ,northern4    ,indeed1 the formation
 of a ,northern ,school1 as distinct    
from a ,southern1  became inevitable    
after the conversion of ,kanishka1 the  
,indo-,scythian  king of ,kashmr1 who   
came from the ,north1 and became a      
zealous ,buddhist4  ,he probably reigned
 in the second half of the first century
 7,a4,d471 and  extended his dominions  
as far as ,gujart1 ,sindh1 and even     
,mathur 7see  p4 #afg1 note #b74    ,it 
was during ,kanishka's reign that a     
fourth ,council#cd was held at          
,jlandhara in ,kashmr1 under ,prva and  
,vasu-mitra4 ,it consisted of #ejj      
monks1 who composed three ,sanskit works
 of the nature of commentaries          
7,upadea1 ,vinaya-vibhsh1               
,abhidharma-vibhsh7 on the three ,pli   
,piakas4 ,these were the earliest books 
of the ,mah-yna or ,northern  ,school1  
which afterwards formulated its more    
developed doctrines on the  ,indus1     
while the ,pli ,canon of the ,south     
represented the true doctrine           

promulgated on the ,ganges4    ,kashmr  
was a centre of ,sanskit learning1 and  
,kanishka1 who was a  patron of it1     
became to ,northern ,buddhism what ,aoka
 had been to  ,southern4 ,hence in      
process of time other ,northern         
,buddhist books were  written in        
,sanskit1 with occasional ,gths or      
stanzas in an irregular  dialect1 half  
,sanskit1 half ,prkit4    ,it is usual  
to enumerate nine ,nepalese canonical   
scriptures  7,dharmas73--#a4,praj       
pramit1 #8transcendent knowledge1' or an
 abstract  of metaphysical and mystic   
philosophy2 #b4 ,gaa-vyha2 #c4          
,daa-bhm-vara 7describing the ten stages
 leading to ,buddhahood72 #d4           
,samdhi-rja2 #e4 ,lakvatra2 #f4         
,saddharma-puarka1 #8,lotus of the ,true
  ,law2' #g4 ,tathgaa-guhyaka           
7containing the secret ,tantric         
doctrines72 #h4  ,lalita-vistara 7giving
 a legendary life of ,buddha72 #i4      
,suvara-prabhsa4  ,the eighth is        
probably as old as the #bnd century of  

our era1 and next  comes the sixth4     
,tibetan translations were made of all  
of them4 ,these  extend to #ajj volumes 
and are collectively called ,ka'gyur or 
,kan'gyur  7,kanjur74 ,we owe our       
knowledge of these to the indefatigable 
,hungarian  traveller1 ,alexander ,csoma
 de ,krs4    ,copies of the ,sanskrit   
works were brought to ,england by ,mr4  
,b4 ,h4  ,hodgson4 ,the sixth has been  
translated by ,burnouf and recently by  
,h4  ,kern4 ,dr4 ,rjendralla-mitra has  
edited the eighth4 ,as to the           
non-canonical works ,m4 ,senart has     
edited part of the ,mah-vastu1 and      
,professor ,e4 ,b4 ,cowell and ,mr4 ,r4 
,a4 ,neil1 the ,divyvadna4 ,they contain
  interesting old legends--some about   
the achievements of ,aoka1 some about   
,buddha himself1 some perhaps from lost 
,vinaya books4    ,as to the ,pli       
written character1 it is a question     
whether that current  in the holy land  
of ,buddhism1 or in ,ceylon1 or in ,siam
 7,kambodia71 or in  ,burma--that is1   

,devangar1 ,sinhalese1 ,kambodian1 or   
,burmese--should be  used4 ,many think  
,burmese most suited to it1 and in      
,europe the ,roman  character is        
preferred4    ,it should be added that  
the recitation 7,bha1 ,sanskit root     
,bha1 #8to  speak2' in ,sinhalese spelt 
,baa7 of the ,law is one of the         
principal  duties of monks1 the reciter 
being called ,bhaka4 ,a peculiar mode of
  intoning is called ,sara-bhaa 7sara   
svara74 ,the ,buddha1 they say1 is  not 
extinct1 for he lives in the ,dharma and
 in the ,sagha1 in the ,law  and in the 
monks who recite it4 ,hence the         
importance of recitation in  the        
,buddhist system 7p4 #hd74              
,,lecture ,,iv4                  ,the   
,sagha or ,buddhist ,order of ,monks4   
,perhaps the first point made clear by  
the study of the ,buddhist  ,scriptures 
is1 that the ,buddha never seriously    
thought of founding a new  system in    
direct opposition to ,brhmanism and     
caste4 ,even his ,order or  fraternity  

of ,monks1 which attained a world-wide  
celebrity and spread  through a great   
part of ,asia1 was a mere imitation of  
an institution  already established in  
,india4 ,he himself was a ,hind of the  
,hinds1 and  he remained a ,hind to the 
end4 ,his very name1 ,gautama1 connected
 him  with one of the most celebrated   
,hind sages1 and was significant of his 
original connexion with orthodox        
,brhmanism4 ,it is true he was a        
determined opponent of all ,brhmanical  
sacerdotalism and ceremonialism1  and of
 all theories about the supernatural    
character of the ,vedas 7see  p4 #ec72  
but1 being himself a ,hind1 he never    
required his adherents to  make any     
formal renunciation of ,hindism1 as if  
they had been converted  to an entirely 
new faith2 just as1 if ,i may say so    
with all reverence1  the ,founder of the
 ,christian ,church1 being ,himself a   
,jew1 never required  ,his followers to 
give up every ,jewish usage4    ,nor had
 the ,buddha any idea of courting       

popularity as a champion of  social     
equality and denouncer of all           
distinctions of rank and ancient        
traditions--a kind of ,tribune of the   
people1 whose mission was to protect    
them from the tyranny of the upper      
classes4    ,there was1 no doubt1 at one
 time a prevalent opinion among scholars
 that  ,gautama aimed at becoming a     
great social reformer4 ,it was generally
  supposed that he began by posing      
before his fellow-countrymen in a       
somewhat ad captandum manner as a       
popular leader and liberator1 whose     
mission was to deliver them from the    
tyranny of caste4 ,but such an  opinion 
is now known to be based on mistaken    
assumptions4 ,what ought  rather to be  
claimed for him is that he was the first
 to establish a  universal brotherhood  
7,sagha7 of cnobite monks1 open to all  
persons of  all ranks4 ,in other words1 
he was the first founder of what may be 
called a kind of universal monastic     
communism 7for ,buddhist monks never1   

as a rule1 lived alone71 and the first  
to affirm that true  enlightenment--the 
knowledge of the highest path leading to
 saintship--was  not confined to the    
,brhmans1 but open to all the members of
 all castes4  ,this was the only sense  
in which he abolished caste4 ,his true  
followers1  however1 constituted a caste
 of their own1 distinguished from the   
laity4  ,from the want of a more        
suitable term we are forced to call them
  #8monks#ce4'    ,and this ,order of   
monks was not a hierarchy4 ,it had no   
ecclesiastical  organization under any  
centralized authority4 ,its first ,head1
 ,gautama1  appointed no successor4 ,it 
was not the depository of theological   
learning4 ,nor was it a mediatorial     
caste of priests1 claiming to mediate   
between earth and heaven4 ,it ought not 
to be called a ,church1 and it had  no  
rite of ordination in the true sense4   
,it was a brotherhood1 in which  all    
were under certain obligations of       
celibacy1 moral restraint1  fasting1    

poverty1 itineration and confession to  
each other--all were  dominated by one  
idea1 and pledged to the propagation of 
the one  doctrine1 that all life was in 
itself misery1 and to be got rid of by a
  long course of discipline1 as not     
worth living1 whether on earth or in    
heaven1 whether in present or future    
bodies4 ,the founding of a monastic     
brotherhood of this kind which made     
personal extinction its final aim1  and 
might be co-extensive with the whole    
world1 was the ,buddha's  principal     
object4    ,in point of fact1 the       
so-called enlightenment of mind which   
entitled him  to ,buddhahood1 led him at
 the early stage of his career into no  
abstruse  or transcendental region of   
thought1 but took a very practical      
direction4 ,it led him to see that an   
association of monks offering  equality 
of condition to high and low1 rich and  
poor1 and a haven of  refuge to all     
oppressed by the troubles of life1 would
 soon become  popular4 ,his ,order      

started with first ten1 then fifty1 then
 sixty  original members 7see p4 #de71  
but its growth soon surpassed all       
anticipations1 and its ramifications    
extended to distant countries1  where1  
like the branches of the ,indian        
fig-tree1 they sent down roots to  form 
vigorous independent plants1 even after 
the decay of the parent  stem4 ,on this 
account it was called the fraternity of 
the four quarters  7tuddisa1 ,mah-vagga 
,,viii4 #bg4 #e7 of the globe4    ,in   
brief1 a carefully regulated monastic   
brotherhood1 which opened its  arms to  
all comers of all ranks1 and enforced on
 its members the duty of  extending its 
boundaries by itinerancy1 and by        
constantly rolling onward  the wheel of 
the true doctrine 7,law71 constituted in
 its earliest days  the very essence1   
the very backbone of ,buddhism1 without 
which it could  never have been         
propagated1 nor even have held its own4 
,but we repeat that in this1 his main   
design1 ,gautama was after all no       

innovator2 no introducer of novel ideas4
    ,monachism had always been a        
favourite adjunct of the ,brhminanical  
system1 and respect for monastic life   
had taken deep root among the  people4  
,thus we find it laid down in its most  
authoritative exponent1  ,manu's        
,law-book 7,book ,,vi71 that every      
twice-born man was bound to be  first an
 unmarried student 7,brahma-r71 next a  
married householder1  and then at the   
end of a long life he was to abandon    
wife and family and  become a ,sannys1  
#8ascetic1' or ,bhikshu1 #8mendicant1'  
wandering from  door to door4 ,in fact1 
it was through these very states of life
 that  ,gautama himself1 as a           
,kshatriya1 was theoretically bound to  
have passed4    ,hind monks1 therefore1 
were numerous before ,buddhism4 ,they   
belonged to  various sects1 and took    
various vows of self-torture1 of        
silence1 of  fasting1 of poverty1 of    
mendicancy1 of celibacy1 of abandoning  
caste1  rank1 wife and family4          

,accordingly they had various names4    
,the ,brhman  was called a ,sannys1     
#8one who gives up the world4' ,others  
were called  ,vairg1 #8free from        
affections2' ,yog1 #8seeking mystic     
union with the  ,deity2' ,dig-ambara1   
#8sky-clothed1' #8naked2' ,tapasv1      
#8practising  austerities2' ,yati1      
#8restraining desires2' ,jitendriya1    
#8conquering  passions2' ramaa1         
#8undergoing discipline2' ,bhikshu1     
#8living by alms2'  ,nirgrantha1        
#8without ties4' ,such names prove that 
asceticism was an  ancient institution4 
,the peculiarity about ,gautama's       
teaching in regard  to monachism was    
that he discouraged#cf solitary         
asceticism1 severe  austerities1 and    
irrevocable vows1 though he enjoined    
moral restraint in  celibate            
fraternities1 conformity to rules of    
discipline1 upright  conduct1 and       
confession to each other4               
,illustration3 ,,portrait ,,of ,,mr4    
,,gaur-,a,,kar ,,uday-,a,,kar1          

,c4,s4,i41 ,,now  ,,sv,m ,r             
,,sa,,id,,nanda-,,sarasvat4     ,seated1
 as a ,brhman ,sannys1 in meditation    
7described at p4 xiii of                
the ,preface74    ,his usual mode of    
designating his monks was by the old    
term ,bhikshu  7,pli ,bhikkhu71 #8living
 by alms1' to indicate their poverty4   
,they were  also called rmaera and ramaa
 7,pli ,smaera1 ,samaa71 as subject to  
monastic discipline#cg4 ,those who      
entered the stream leading to           
,arhatship 7p4 #acb7 were called rya4   
,the term rvaka1 #8hearers1' seems to   
have been used in the ,hna-yna  system  
to denote great disciples only1 and     
especially those #8great  disciples' 7p4
 #dg7 of ,gautama who heard the ,law    
from his own lips1 and  were afterwards 
called ,sthaviras and became ,arhats 7p4
 #acc74 ,they had  also the title       
yushmat1 #8possessing life4'    ,we     
perceive again the close connexion      
between ,brhmanism and ,buddhism2  for  
clearly the ,brahma-r and ,sannys of the

 one became the rmaera  or junior monk1 
and ramaa or senior monk of the other4  
,as to the name ramaa 7from root ram1   
#8to toil'71 bear in mind that1         
although ,buddhism has acquired the     
credit of being the easiest religious   
system in the world1 and its monks are  
among the idlest of men--as having  no  
laborious ceremonies and no work to do  
for a livelihood--yet in  reality the   
carrying out of the great object of     
extinguishing lusts1 and  so getting rid
 of the burden of repeated existences1  
was no sinecure if  earnestly           
undertaken4 ,nor was it possible for men
 to lead sedentary  lives1 whose only   
mode of avoiding starvation was by house
 to house  itinerancy4    ,as to the    
form of admission1 there was no great   
strictness in early  times1 when all    
applicants were admitted without        
inquiry4 ,it was only  when the ,order  
increased that murderers1 robbers1      
debtors1 soldiers and  others in the    
,king's service1 lepers1 cripples1      

blind1 one-eyed1 deaf  and dumb1 and    
consumptive persons1 and all subject to 
fits were  rejected#ch4    ,originally  
it was enough for the ,buddha to have   
said1 #8,come 7ehi71  follow me4' ,this 
alone conferred discipleship4 ,in time1 
however1 he  commissioned those he had  
himself admitted to admit others4 ,then 
the  form of admission to the           
brotherhood was divided into two stages1
 marked  by two ceremonies1 which have  
been very unsuitably compared to our    
ordination services for deacon and      
priest4 ,at any rate the term           
#8ordination' is wholly misleading1 if  
any idea of a priestly commission  or   
gift of spiritual powers be implied4    
,the youthful layman who desired        
admission to the first degree1 or that  
of a novice1 had to be at least fifteen 
years old#ci 7,mah-v ,i4 #ej72  and such
 novices had to be at least twenty 7from
 conception7 before the  second rite or 
admission to the full monkhood4    ,the 
first rite was called pravrajy          

7pabbajj71 #8going forth from home'     
7,mah-v ,i4 #ab74 ,persons admitted to  
this first degree of monkhood were      
called rmaera 7,smanera71 #8novices1'   
though they were also called  #8new' or 
#8junior monks' 7,navako ,bhikkhu74     
,they might be admitted by a  senior    
monk without appearing before any formal
 conclave2 but not  without the consent 
of their parents1 and not without       
attaching  themselves to a religious    
teacher 7updhyya7 after their admission4
 ,it  is said that ,gautama was urged by
 his father uddhodana to require the    
sanction of parents1 in rather touching 
and remarkable words1 to the  following 
effect3--    #8,the love for a son cuts 
into the cuticle 7havi72 having cut into
 the  cuticle1 it cuts into the inner   
skin 7amma72 having cut into the inner  
skin1 it cuts into the flesh2 having cut
 into the flesh1 it cuts into  the      
tendons 7nhru or nahru72 having cut into
 the tendons1 it cuts into  the bones2  
having cut into the bones1 it reaches   

the marrow  7ahi-mij71 and abides in the
 marrow4 ,let not ,pabbajj1 therefore1  
be  performed on a son without his      
father's and mother's permission'       
7,mah-vagga ,i4 #ed74    ,the admission 
ceremony of a novice was extremely      
simple1 and confined to  certain acts   
and words on the part of the candidate1 
witnessed by any  competent monk4 ,the  
,sagha1 as a body1 took no part in it4  
,the novice  first cut off his hair1 put
 on three yellow ragged garments        
7tri-vara71 adjusted the upper robe so  
as to leave the right shoulder  bare1   
and then before a monk repeated three   
times the three-refuge  formula3        
#8,i go for refuge to the ,buddha       
7,buddha araa gahmi74'    #8,i go for   
refuge to the ,law 7,dharma araa        
gahmi74'    #8,i go for refuge to the   
,order 7,sagha araa gahmi74'    ,very   
remarkably1 this1 the only prayer of    
true ,buddhism1 resembled the  ,gyatr or
 sacred prayer of the ,veda 7repeated by
 the ,brahma-r7 in  consisting of three 

times eight syllables4 ,but if the      
,buddhist novice  had a right to the    
,brahma-r's sacred cord 7upavta71 this  
was  probably abandoned on admission4   
,he was then instructed in the ,ten     
,precepts 7,dasa-sla or sikkh-pada71    
which were really ten prohibitions      
7,mah-vagga ,i4 #ef71 requiring ten     
abstinences 7verama73--    #a4 from     
destroying life 7ptipato  prtipta72 #b4 
from taking  anything not given         
7adinndna72 #c4 from unchastity         
7abrahmaariy72 #d4  from speaking       
falsely 7mus-vda  mish-vda72 #e4 from   
drinking strong  drinks 7sur72 #f4 from 
eating at forbidden times               
7vikla-bhojana72 #g4  from dancing1     
singing1 music1 and worldly spectacles  
7viska72 #h4 from  garlands1 scents1    
unguents or ornaments2 #i4 from the use 
of a high or  broad bed2 #aj4 from      
receiving gold or silver4 ,the          
prohibition not to  receive money1 even 
in return for religious teaching or any 
supposed  spiritual benefits conferred1 

was held to be most important1 and was  
for  a long time obeyed1 though in the  
end monasteries became owners of large  
property and landed estates4    ,of     
course the ,upasampad1 or admission to  
full monkhood 7described  ,mah-vagga ,i4
 #gf71 was a more formal ceremony4 ,a   
conclave 7,sagha7 of at  least ten monks
 was required4 ,the candidate had to    
appear before them1  but was first      
instructed by some competent and learned
 monk as to the  nature of the rite and 
the questions he would have to answer4  
,this  instructor also directed him to  
choose some other monk competent to act 
as his ,updhyya 7upajjhya7 or teacher   
for five years after his  admission1 and
 made him provide himself with an       
alms-bowl and with the  usual yellow    
monkish vestments4 ,then his first      
instructor presented  himself before the
 conclave and informed them that the    
candidate was  ready to be admitted4    
,thereupon the novice came forward1     
adjusted his  upper garment so as to    

cover the left shoulder1 bowed down     
before the  feet of the assembled monks1
 seated himself on the ground1 and1     
raising  his joined hands1 asked three  
times for admission to the full         
monkhood1  thus3--#8,i entreat the      
,sagha for full monkhood 7,upasampad71  
have  compassion on me and uproot me    
7ullumpatu mm7 from the world1' repeated
  thrice4    ,thereupon he was          
questioned not1 as in our ,ordination   
,service3 #8,are you  inwardly moved by 
the ,holy ,spirit to take upon you this 
office8' ,not3  #8,will you apply all   
your diligence to frame and fashion your
 own life  and that of your family so as
 to be wholesome examples8' but         
thus3--,are  you free from leprosy1     
boils1 consumption1 fits1 etc4 ,are you 
a male8  ,are you a free man and not in 
the royal service8 ,are you free from   
debts8 ,have you the consent of your    
parents8 ,are you full twenty years     
old8 ,have you an alms-bowl and         
vestments8 ,what is your name8 ,what is 

your teacher's name8    ,if the answers 
were satisfactory the candidate was     
admitted4 ,after  admission no prayer   
was pronounced such as in our           
,ordination ,service3  #8,we beseech    
,thee1 merciful ,father1 send on ,thy   
servant ,thy heavenly  blessing that he 
may be clothed with righteousness'#dj2  
but he was  informed that he was to     
trust to only four ,resources 7nissaya71
 and to  abstain from four chief        
forbidden acts 7akarayni74 ,these four  
,resources and four ,prohibitions were  
then communicated to him thus3--        
,first the four ,resources as           
follow3--7#a7 ,broken morsels given in  
alms for  food2 7#b7 ,rags from a       
dust-heap for clothes2 7#c7 ,roots of   
trees for an  abode2 7#d7 ,liquid       
putrefying excreta of cows for medicine4
 ,note1  however1 that1 in practice1    
indulgences 7atirekha-lbha7 were in all 
four cases allowed2 such as1 better food
 when it happened to be given1  or when 
invited to dinner by rich laymen2 linen1

 cotton1 or woollen  garments1 if dyed  
yellow and in three pieces 7but only one
 change was  allowed72 houses1 huts1 or 
caves to dwell in1 when not itinerating2
  ghee1 honey1 or molasses when out of  
health 7,mah-v ,i4 #cj4 #d74    ,next   
the four chief ,prohibitions 7compare   
the ,ten ,prohibitions1 p4 #gh71        
viz43--7#a7 ,unchastity and sexual acts 
of any kind2 7#b7 ,taking anything  not 
given1 even a blade of grass2 7#c7      
,killing any living thing1 even an  ant1
 or worm1 or plant2 7#d7 ,falsely       
claiming the extraordinary powers of  a 
perfected saint 7uttarimanussa-dhamma4  
,mah-v ,i4 #gh4 #b74    ,clearly there  
were great temptations to gain celebrity
 by claiming such  powers1 or else this 
fourth prohibition would not have       
terminated the  ceremony4    ,so soon as
 a man was admitted to full monkhood1 he
 went through a five  years' course of  
instruction in the entire doctrine and  
discipline1  under the preceptor        
7,updhyya1 rya7 who had been previously 

chosen  and was required to be of at    
least ten years' standing4    ,this was 
a modification of the ,brhmanical rule  
that a student  7,brahma-r7 should study
 under his preceptor for thirty-six     
years1 or  less1 until he knew the      
,veda4    ,the full ,buddhist monk had  
in theory to dwell under trees or in    
huts  formed of leaves 7p-sl  paa-sla   
para-l72 but practically  he resided in 
collections of simple mud or brick      
tenements1 in cells1 or  in rows of     
caves hewn out of rocky hills4 ,at any  
rate1 collections of  monastic          
dwellings1 called ,vihras#da1 were his  
usual abode during  ,vassa 7or the rainy
 season1 see p4 #hb72 and at such times 
he had  fellow-monks 7saddhivihrika7    
living in companies around him1 or in   
the  same monastery4    ,strict         
discipline was supposed to be enforced1 
and yet there was no  central authority1
 no ,chief ,hierarch1 no ,archbishop    
whom he was bound  #8reverently to      
obey4'    ,offences against the four    

forbidden acts were called ,prjik patti1
  #8offences meriting expulsion from the
 community of monks 7,sagha74'    ,then 
there were thirteen ,saghdises patti1 as
 well as certain ,dukkata  or less      
serious offences1 requiring only        
confession before the ,sagha1  and dealt
 with by a ,sagha-kamma1 or act of a    
conclave of monks imposing  some        
penance4 ,there were penances           
7,prya-itta7 for lying1  prevarication1 
abusive language1 destroying vegetable  
or animal life1  etc4 7see ,ptimokkha1  
,pittiy dhamm1 and pp4 #fb1 #hd74 ,the  
following  practices were also incumbent
 on all monks3--    7#a7 ,the wearing   
vestments given by laymen 7not          
purchased7 and consisting  of three     
lengths of yellow-coloured rags2 or1 if 
entire lengths of  cotton cloths were   
given1 the saleable value had to be     
destroyed by  tearing them into at least
 three pieces1 and then sewing them     
together2  7#b7 ,the owning no          
possessions except the three cloths1 a  

girdle1 bowl1  razor1 needle1 and       
water-strainer to prevent the swallowing
 of  animalcul2 7#c7 ,the living only on
 food collected in a wooden bowl by     
daily going from house to house1 but    
without ever asking for it2 7#d7 ,the   
eating at mid-day the one meal so       
collected and at no other time2 7#e7    
,the fasting on four prescribed days2   
7#f7 ,the abiding in one spot for  three
 or four months during ,vassa1 #8the    
rains' 7from middle of ,june to  middle 
of ,october71 when itineration would    
involve trampling on  vegetable and     
insect life2 7#g7 ,the refraining from a
 recumbent posture  under all           
circumstances2 7#h7 ,the visiting       
cremation-grounds for  meditation on the
 corruption of the body4    ,in truth it
 might almost be said that in every     
movement and action1 in  waking and     
sleeping1 in dressing and undressing1 in
 standing and  sitting1 in going out and
 coming in1 in fasting and eating1 in   
speaking  and not speaking1 the         

,buddhist monk had to submit to the most
 stringent  regulations4    ,it was a   
noteworthy feature in ,buddhist         
monachism that monks were never  allowed
 to appear in public in a state of even 
semi-nudity4 #8,properly  clad1' says   
the ,sekhiy dhamm 7#d71 #8must the monk 
itinerate4' #8,not  nakedness1' says the
 ,dhamma-pada 7#ada71 #8can purify a    
mortal who has not  overcome desires4'  
,the monk's three garments 7tivara      
tri-vara7  were an inner one            
7antara-vsaka71 another wound about the 
thighs  7sagh7 and an upper robe        
7uttarsaga7 worn loosely and brought    
round over the left shoulder4 ,this     
constituted an important distinction    
between the ,buddhist monks and the     
,jaina and other naked ascetics whose   
want of decency the ,buddha condemned4  
,the ,buddhist monk's daily life        
probably began by meditation and by his 
reciting or intoning 7,bha1 ,sarabhaa7  
portions of the ,law1 or by  hearing it 
recited1 followed perhaps by lessons in 

doctrine1 or by  discussions or by      
confessions4 ,next came itineration for 
food1 followed  by the one noon-day     
meal4 ,then came rest and further       
meditation and  recitation1 while       
possibly the senior monks preached to   
laymen4 ,such  preaching took place     
especially during ,vassa4 ,in later     
times the daily  duties included        
offering flowers1 etc41 at sacred       
shrines1 and repeating  so-called       
prayers1 which were merely forms of     
words used as charms4    ,to illustrate 
the immensely meritorious efficacy of   
constant recitation  of the ,law1 a     
story is told of five hundred bats that 
lived in a cave  where two monks daily  
recited the ,dharma4 ,these bats gained 
such merit  by simply hearing the sound 
that when they died they were all       
re-born as  men and ultimately as gods4 
,doubtless quarrels and faults of       
omission and commission occurred among  
the monks1 especially during their      
residence together in ,vassa  7miscalled

 the ,buddhist ,lent74 ,we read of six  
monks named habbaggiya  who were        
constantly committing offences4 ,hence a
 day called ,pavra  7,pravra71          
#8invitation1' was kept at the end of   
,vassa1 when all were  invited to       
assemble for confession and for         
felicitation1 if harmony had  been      
preserved4    ,an important part of     
every monk's duties was confession on   
,uposatha  7,upavasatha7 or fast-days   
7miscalled the ,buddhist                
sabbaths7--which were  kept at first on 
two days in each month1 at full and new 
moon  7corresponding to the ,dara and   
,pauramsa days of ,brhmanism71 and      
afterwards also at the intermediate days
 of quarter-moon4 ,on these four        
,uposatha days the ,ptimokkha or general
 confession 7p4 #fb7 was recited4  ,the 
confession was by monks to each other1  
not by laymen to monks1  though the four
 days were also observed by laymen1 and 
we know that  ,aoka enjoined periodical 
ceremonies1 and expression of sorrow for

 sins  on the part of all his subjects4 
,such confession did not cause remission
  of sin or absolution in our sense1 but
 only release from evil  consequences by
 penances 7p4 #fb74    ,we have learnt1 
then1 that ,buddhist monks were not     
under irrevocable  vows4 ,they undertook
 to obey rules of discipline1 but took  
no actual  vows--not even of obedience  
to a superior4 ,buddhist monkhood was   
purely  voluntary1 so that all were free
 to come and go4 ,it had nothing        
hereditary about it like the rank of a  
,brhman4    ,we have also learnt1 that  
the term #8priest' is not suitably      
applied to  ,buddhist monks4 ,for true  
,buddhism has no ecclesiastical         
hierarchy1 no  clergy1 no priestly      
ordination2 no divine revelation1 no    
ceremonial  rites1 no prayer1 no worship
 in the proper sense of these terms4    
,each  man was a priest to himself in so
 far as he depended on himself alone    
for internal sanctification4            
,evidently1 too1 all ,buddhist monks    

were integral parts of one organic      
whole4 ,it is true that in the end they 
were collected in various  monasteries1 
each of which practically became an     
independent ,sagha  7each under one     
,head74 ,but in theory all were parts of
 one and the same  brotherhood1 which   
was republican and communistic in its   
constitution4  ,and this word ,sagha    
cannot be correctly rendered by         
#8church1' if by  that term is meant an 
ecclesiastical body with legislative    
functions1  embracing clergy and laity  
united in a common faith and under one  
,head2 for as founded by the ,buddha1 it
 was not this4 ,it was simply a  vast   
fraternity intended to embrace all monks
 of the four quarters  7aturdia7 of the 
world1 from the ,buddha himself and the 
perfected  ,arhat 7p4 #acc71 to every   
monk of the lowest degree1 but not a    
single  layman4 ,indeed in its highest  
sense the ,sagha comprised only true    
,nirva-seeking monks who had entered the
 paths of true sanctification  7p4      

#acb74    ,and here observe that1       
notwithstanding the stigma attached to  
unmarried  women in ,india1 ,gautama in 
the end permitted an ,order of ,nuns    
7,pli  ,bhikkhun7 and female novices    
7,smaer1 p4 #dg74 ,the ulla-vagga 7,x4  
,i4  #c7 relates how women were indebted
 to the intercession of a monk1         
,gautama's cousin nanda1 for permission 
to form an ,order1 and how              
,mah-prajpat1 the ,buddha's nurse 7p4   
#bd71 became the first nun2 yet  when   
nanda first asked3 #8,how are we monks  
to behave when we see women8'  ,gautama 
replied3 #8,don't see them4' #8,but if  
we should see them1 what are  we to do8'
 #8,don't speak to them4' #8,but if they
 speak to us1 what then8'  #8,let your  
thoughts be fixed in deep meditation'   
7,sati upahpetabb4  ,mah-parin ,v4 #bc74
    ,clearly the ,buddha was originally 
a misogynist as well as a misogamist1   
and wished his followers to be          
misogynists also4 ,even when he had been
  induced to admit the justice of the   

plea for women's rights1 he placed  his 
nuns under the direction of monks4 ,they
 could only be admitted by  monks1 and  
were subject to the male ,order in all  
matters of discipline4  ,they were under
 eight special obligations1 one of which
 was to rise up  in the presence of a   
monk1 even if a novice4    ,the         
,buddha's exhortation to the first nun  
is noteworthy3--#8,whatsoever1 ,o       
,gotam 7,mah-prajpat71 conduces to      
absence of passion1 to absence of       
pride1 to wishing for little and not for
 much1 to seclusion and not to  love of 
society1 to earnest effort and not to   
indolence1 to contentment  and not to   
querulousness1 verily that is the true  
doctrine' 7ulla-v ,x4  #e74    ,it was  
certainly a great gain for a woman when 
she was permitted to  become a nun 7or a
 ,ther72 for1 as a nun1 she could even  
attain  ,arhatship4 ,this is clearly    
laid down in ulla-vagga ,x4 #a4 #c4 #d4 
,no  woman1 however1 could attain to    
,buddhahood without being born as a man1

  so that it could scarcely be said that
 in ,buddha there is #8neither male  nor
 female4'    ,such1 then1 was the       
monachism which constituted the very    
pith and marrow  of ,buddhism4 ,all     
truly enlightened disciples of ,buddha  
were monks or  nuns4    ,let us not     
forget1 however1 that in practice       
,buddhism admitted  lay-brothers1       
lay-sisters1 married householders and   
working-men1 as  necessary adjuncts4    
,yet they were only appendages4 ,of     
course the ,buddha knew very well that  
it was not possible to enforce celibacy 
on all his followers4 ,he knew  that    
having prohibited his monks from making 
or taking money or holding  property1   
they would have to depend on            
lay-associates and householders  for    
food1 clothing1 and habitation1 and     
that1 if every layman were to  become a 
monk1 there would be no work done1 no   
food produced1 no  children born1 and in
 time no humanity--nay1 no              
,buddhism--left4    ,universal monkhood1

 in short1 might have been a            
consummation to be aimed  at in some    
,utopia2 but was practically            
unattainable4 ,in fact ,gautama had  to 
take the world as he found it1 and the  
very idea of a world  perpetuating      
itself--according to his own theory of a
 constant succession  of birth1 decay1  
and reproduction--implied that a youth1 
on reaching  manhood1 married1 had      
children1 worked and earned a livelihood
 for their  support4 ,he could not      
impose this burden on others4           
,besides1 the generality of people were 
in ,gautama's day what they are in      
,india now-a-days--bent on early        
marriage1 and resolute in working hard  
for a livelihood4 ,even ,manu only      
enjoined celibacy on young religious    
students and on old men1 though there   
were occasional cases of perpetual      
7naishhika7 ,brahma-rins4    ,without   
doubt1 celibacy in instances of         
extraordinary sanctity has  always      
commanded respect in ,india2 but in no  

country of the world has  married life  
been so universally honoured4 ,it is not
 very likely1 then1  that the following 
sentiments1 enunciated by the ,buddha1  
could have met  with general approval3--
    #8,a wise man should avoid married  
life 7abrahma-ariyam7 as if it were a   
burning pit of live coals'              
7,dhammika-,sutta #ba74    #8,full of   
hindrances is married life1 defiled by  
passion4 ,how can one who  dwells at    
home live the higher life in all its    
purity8' 7,tevijja-,sutta  #dg74    ,and
 in reality ,buddha's anti-matrimonial  
doctrines did excite  opposition4 ,the  
people murmured and said1 #8,he is come 
to bring  childlessness among us1 and   
widowhood1 and destruction of           
family-life4'  ,indeed1 the two         
facts--first1 that the foundations of   
,buddhism were not  laid 7as those of   
,christianity notably are71 on the      
hallowed hearth of  home and on the     
sacred rock of family-life with its     
daily round of  honest work2            

and--secondly1 that the precept         
enjoining monkhood and  abstinence from 
marriage was not combined with any      
organized  ecclesiastical hierarchy     
under a central government1 are         
sufficient to  account for the          
circumstance that ,buddhism never gained
 any real  stability in ,india4    ,no  
doubt lay-brethren were always welcomed2
 but they were bound to  ,buddhism by   
very slender ties in regard to dogma1   
and were only expected  to conform to   
the simplest possible code of morality4 
,probably the only form of admission for
 a layman was the repetition of  the #bd
 syllables of the three-refuge          
7tri-araa7 formula3--#8,i go for  refuge
 to the ,buddha1 his ,law and his       
,order' 7p4 #gh74 ,it was of course     
understood that he was to abstain from  
the five gross sins 7p4 #abf71 but  he  
was already bound to do so by the rules 
of ,hind caste and  family-religion4    
,the chief test of his ,buddhism was his
 readiness to  serve the monks4 ,it was 

for this reason1 ,i think1 that         
lay-adherents  were not called1 as might
 have been expected1 rvakas1            
#8,hearers1' but  simply ,upsakas1      
#8,servers1' and in the case of women   
,upsiks4 ,they  could not be called     
disciples of ,buddha in the truest      
sense1 unless  they entered his monastic
 ,order4    ,of course the majority of  
,buddhist householders never cared to do
 this4  ,their chief religion consisted 
in giving food and clothing1 earned by  
daily toil1 to the monks#db4 ,if they   
failed in this1 there was only one      
punishment4 ,they were forbidden the    
privilege of giving at all1 and so  of  
accumulating a store of merit4 ,no monk 
was allowed to ask them for a  single   
thing4 ,of course1 too1 the majority of 
,buddhist householders were             
worldly-minded2 they were no believers  
in ultra-pessimistic views of  life4    
,they looked for a life in some heaven1 
not ,nirva4 ,yet in theory  all laymen  
might enter the paths of sanctification 

7p4 #acb71 and  thousands of earnest men
 are said to have done so#dc4    ,a     
layman's progress1 however1 towards     
,arhatship1 except through monkhood  and
 abandoning the world1 was almost       
hopelessly barred4 ,at page #bfd of  the
 ,milinda-paha it is implied that an    
earnest layman might become an  ,arhat1 
even while still a layman1 but he had   
either to enter monkhood or  else to    
pass away in ,pari-nirva 7p4 #adj7 at   
the moment of becoming so4    ,the best 
proof of the truth of this view of the  
matter is1 that after a  layman had     
attached himself to the ,buddha1 the    
,law1 and the ,order1 he  was not       
required to undergo any initiatory      
ceremony1 like baptism1 or to  receive  
any stamp of membership1 or to assume a 
peculiar dress1 or to  give up all      
belief in his family religion1 or       
caste-customs4 ,in short1  he did not as
 a lay-brother break entirely with      
,hindism4    ,that universal tolerance  
was of the very essence of ,buddhism is 

indicated by ,aoka's twelfth            
edict3--#8,the beloved of the gods      
honours all  forms of religious         
faith--there ought to be reverence for  
one's own faith  and no reviling of that
 of others4' ,compare p4 #abf4    ,nor  
did ,gautama himself ever set an example
 of intolerance4 ,he never  railed at   
the ,brhmans4 ,he treated them with     
respect1 and taught others  to do so2   
and even adopted the title ,brhmaa for  
his own saints and  ,arhats             
7,dhamma-pada #chc-dbc74    ,what he    
opposed was priestcraft and             
superstition1 not ,brhmanism2 as  indeed
 other reformers had done before him4   
,probably the great  receptivity of     
,buddhism was one of the causes that led
 to its decay in  ,india4    ,yet       
,gautama's victory over one of the most 
inveterate propensities in  human       
nature--the tendency to seek salvation  
through a mediatorial caste  of         
priests--was a wonderful achievement4   
,this is proved by the fact that  his   

followers in other countries became     
re-entangled in a network of            
priestcraft1 even more enslaving than   
that out of which he had rescued  them4 
,koeppen1 ,rhys ,davids1 and other      
writers have well shown that the        
,buddhism of ,tibet1 with its ,pope-like
 grand ,lmas--its cardinals and  abbots1
 monks and mendicant friars1 nuns and   
novices1 canonized saints  and angelic  
hosts1 temples and costly shrines1      
monasteries and  nunneries1 images and  
pictures1 altars and relics1 robes and  
mitres1  rosaries and consecrated water1
 litanies and chants1 processions and   
pilgrimages1 confessions and penances1  
bell-ringing and incense--is in         
everything1 except doctrine1 almost a   
counterpart of the ,romish system4  ,how
 little could the ,buddha have foreseen 
such a development of his  brotherhood  
of monks1 whose chief duties were       
meditation and  itineration6    ,and    
what is to be said of the present       
condition of the ,buddhist  monkhood8   

,do we see anywhere evidences of that   
enlightenment of mind  which ,buddhism  
claims as its chief characteristic8     
,when ,i was travelling in ,ceylon1 ,i  
met a few learned monks1 but the        
majority seemed to me idle1 ignorant1   
and indifferent4    ,in ,burma the monks
 are called ,pungs 7,phongies71 and are 
a little more  active4 ,every youth in  
,burma is supposed for a time to inhabit
 a  monastery4    ,in ,tibet the monks  
are called ,lmas 7a lower title being   
,gelong7 and  constitute a large        
proportion of the population4 ,they are 
slaves to  gross superstitions4 ,some   
are mere devil-charmers1 a belief in the
 power  of evil spirits being the chief 
religion of the people4    ,in ,china   
the monks are called ,ho-shang 7or      
,ho-sang74 ,they constitute the  only   
section of the population who have a    
right to be called ,buddhists1  though1 
after all1 they are mere                
pseudo-,buddhists4 ,professor ,legge    
informs me that he has known a few      

learned men among them1 and learned     
works have been written by them4 ,but   
the general testimony of ,europeans  in 
,china is that the mass of the monks    
there are simply drones1 or  aimless    
dreamers1 who go through their          
repetitions by rote4 ,almost all  are   
conspicuous for apathy1 inertness1 and a
 vacant idiotic expression  of          
countenance4    ,clearly we have in     
their condition an example of the fact  
that even  moral restraint1 if carried  
to the extreme of extinguishing all the 
natural affections and desires1 must    
inevitably be followed by a  ,nemesis4  
,surely we have in these monkish        
fraternities an illustration of  the    
truth that any transgression of the laws
 of nature1 common-sense1  and          
reason--any suppression of the primary  
instincts of humanity1 must in  the end 
incur the penalty attached to every     
violation of the eternal  ordinances of 
,god4                                   
,,lecture ,v4                 ,the      

,philosophical ,doctrines of ,buddhism4 
,one of the most noteworthy points in   
the early history of ,buddhistic        
thought is that while ,gautama ,buddha  
denied the existence of ,brahm as a     
personal ,creator1 and repudiated the   
,veda and all ,vedic sacrifices and     
ceremonial observances1 he at the same  
time made the philosophical  teaching of
 the ,brhmans the point of departure for
 his own peculiar  philosophical        
teaching4    ,another noteworthy point  
is that while ,buddhism was undoubtedly 
a  modification of philosophical        
,brhmanism1 the latter was also modified
  by an interchange with ,buddhistic    
ideas4    ,it may certainly be          
questioned whether ,gautama himself1 in 
the early  stages of his career1 ever   
caused much offence to the most orthodox
  ,brhmans by the free expression of his
 opinions4 ,he did not spare either  his
 criticism or sarcasm1 but it is well   
known that the ,brhmans were  not only  
tolerant of criticism2 they were equally

 critical themselves1  and delighted in 
controversial discussions1 as they do to
 this day4    ,in the ,tevijja-,sutta an
 account is given of a discussion in    
which1  though ,gautama expressed       
himself strongly1 he does not seem to   
have  excited any wrath in his          
opponent--a ,brhman named ,vsettha4     
,the argument attributed to the ,buddha 
is so remarkable that a portion of  it  
may be given here3--    #8,then you say1
 ,vsettha1 that not one of the ,brhmans1
 or of their  teachers1 or of their     
pupils1 even up to the seventh          
generation1 has  ever seen ,brahman 7the
 ,god of the ,brhmans7 face to face4    
,and that even  the ishis of old1 the   
utterers of the ancient verses1 which   
the  ,brhmans of to-day so carefully    
intone and recite precisely as they have
  been handed down--even they did not   
pretend to know or to have seen where   
or whence or whither ,brahman is4 ,so   
that the ,brhmans versed in the  three  
,vedas have forsooth said thus3 8,to a  

state of union with that  which we know 
not and have not seen1 we can show the  
way and can say3  #8,this is the        
straight path1 this is the direct way   
which leads him who  acts according to  
it1 into a state of union with          
,brahman#dd4'0    #8,now what think you1
 ,vsettha8 ,does it not follow1 this    
being so1 that  the talk of the         
,brhmans1 versed though they be in the  
three ,vedas1 is  foolish talk8         
#8,verily1 ,vsettha1 that ,brhmans      
versed in the three ,vedas should be    
able to show the way to a state of union
 with that which they do not  know1     
neither have seen--such a condition of  
things has no existence4    #8,as when a
 string of blind men are clinging one to
 the other1 neither  can the foremost   
see1 nor can the middle one see1 nor can
 the hindmost  see1 just so is the talk 
of the ,brhmans versed in the three     
,vedas#dd4'    ,these no doubt were     
trenchant words1 but it might easily be 
shown that  the ,brhmans themselves did 

not scruple to use almost as strong     
language  against their own revelation4 
,for instance1 the hndogya ,upanishad   
7p4  #dgc7 speaks of the ,veda as #8mere
 name' 7nma eva74 ,the ,bihadrayaka     
,upanishad declares that when a man is  
in a condition of knowledge1 #8the  gods
 are no gods to him1 and the ,veda no   
,veda2' and the ,muaka  describes the   
sacrificial ,veda as inferior to        
,brahma-vidy4    ,and in truth every    
,hind was allowed to choose one of three
 ways of  securing his own salvation4   
,the first was #8the way of works'      
7,karma-mrga71 that is to say1 of       
sacrifices 7,yaja71 of ceremonial rites1
 of lustral washings1 penances  and     
pilgrimages1 as enjoined in the ,mantra 
and ,brhmaa portion of the  ,veda1 in   
,manu1 the ,law-books and parts of the  
,puras4    ,the second was #8the way of 
faith' 7bhakti71 meaning by that term   
devotion to one or other of certain     
commonly worshipped personal            
deities1--a way leading in later times  

to the worship of iva and ,vishu        
7unfolded in the ,puras71 and involving 
merely heart-devotion1 without          
sacrificial or ceremonial acts4    ,the 
third was #8the way of knowledge'       
7,jna71 as set forth in the             
,upanishads4    ,the medival ,brhman    
,kumrila--a really historical           
teacher--advocated the  first way2      
another teacher of less note1 ilya1     
advocated the second2  another          
celebrated historical teacher1 akara1   
advocated the third4    ,even in        
,gautama's time any one of these ways or
 all three together might  be chosen1 so
 long as the authority of the ,brhmans  
was not impugned4    ,this1 at least1 is
 the general teaching of the            
,bhagavad-gt--an eclectic  work which is
 the most popular exponent of the ,hind 
creed#de4    ,yet even the ,author of   
the ,bhagavad-gt had a preference for   
the way of  knowledge4 ,in one passage  
7,,ii4 #db7 he describes the ,veda as   
#8mere  flowery doctrine' 7pushpit v71  

and is careful to point out that works  
must be performed as acts of devotion   
leading to absorption into the  ,supreme
 7,brahma-nirvam74    ,indeed there can 
be no doubt that it was generally held  
by the ,brhmans  of ,buddha's time that 
the way of knowledge was the highest    
way4 ,but this  way was not open to all4
 ,it was reserved for the privileged    
few--for the  more intellectual and     
philosophically-minded ,brhmans4 ,the   
generality of  men had to content       
themselves with the first and second    
ways4    ,what the ,buddha then did was 
this3--,first he stretched out the right
 hand  of brotherhood to all mankind by 
inviting all without exception to join  
his fraternity of celibate monks1 which 
he wished to be co-extensive  with the  
world itself4 ,then he abolished the    
first and second ways of  salvation 7p4 
#ie71 that is1 ,yaja1 #8sacrifices1' and
 ,bhakti1 #8devotion  to personal gods1'
 and substituted for these meditation   
and moral  conduct as the only road to  

true knowledge and emancipation4 ,and   
then1  lastly1 he threw open this       
highest way of true knowledge to all who
  wished to enter it1 of whatever rank  
or caste or mental calibre they  might  
be1 not excepting the most degraded4    
,without doubt the distinguishing       
feature in the ,buddha's gospel was that
  no living being1 not even the lowest1 
was to be shut out from true            
enlightenment4    ,and here it will be  
necessary to inquire more closely into  
the nature of  that knowledge which the 
,buddha thus made accessible to every   
creature  in the universe4    ,was it   
some deep mystery8 ,some occult doctrine
 of physical or  metaphysical science8  
,some startling revelation of a law of  
nature never  before imparted to the    
world8 ,was the ,buddha's open way very 
different  from the old1 well-fenced-off
 ,brhmanical way8    ,of one point we   
may be certain4 ,he was too sensible to 
cast aside all  ancient traditions4 ,nor
 was he a mere enthusiast claiming to be

 the sole  possessor of a new secret for
 regenerating society4    ,unhappily1   
however1 we are here met by a           
difficulty4 ,the ,buddha never1  like   
,muhammad1 wrote a book1 or1 so far as  
we know1 a line4 ,he was the  ,socrates 
of ,india1 and we are obliged to trust  
to the record of his  sayings 7see p4   
#ch74 ,still we have no reason to doubt 
the genuineness of  what was for some   
time handed down orally in regard to the
 doctrines he  taught1 and we are struck
 with the fact that ,gautama called his 
own  knowledge ,bodhi 7from budh1 #8to  
understand'71 and not ,veda 7from  vid1 
#8to know'74 ,probably by doing so he   
wished to imply that his own  knowledge 
was attainable by all through their own 
intuitions1 inner  consciousness1 and   
self-enlightening intellect1 and was to 
be  distinguished from ,veda or         
knowledge obtainable through the        
,brhmans  alone1 and by them through    
supernatural revelation only4 ,hence1   
too1 he  gave to every being destined to

 become a ,buddha the title             
,bodhi-sattva  7,bodhi-satta71 #8one    
having knowledge derived from           
self-enlightening  intellect for his    
essence4'    ,but it should be noted1   
that even in the choice of a name       
derived from  the ,sanskrit root budh1  
the ,buddha only adopted the phraseology
 of the  ,skhya philosophy and of the   
,brhmaas4 ,the ,skhya system made       
,buddhi1  #8intellect1' its great       
principle 7,mahat71 and the             
atapatha-brhmaa  called a man who had   
attained to perfect knowledge of ,self  
prati-buddha#df4 ,it may be pointed out1
 too1 that ,manu 7,,iv4 #bjd7 uses  the 
same root when he calls his wise man    
,budha4    ,moreover1 the doctrines     
which grew out of his own special       
knowledge  ,gautama still called ,dharma
 7,dhamma71 #8law1' using the very same 
term  employed by the ,brhmans--a term  
expressive of law in its most           
comprehensive sense1 as comprising under
 it the physical laws of the  ,universe1

 as well as moral and social duties4    
,in what1 then1 did the ,buddha's       
,dharma differ from that of the         
,brhmans8  ,one great distinction       
certainly was that it contained no      
esoteric  7rahasya7 and metaphysical    
doctrines in regard to matter and       
spirit1  reserved for the privileged    
few2 yet some of its root-ideas were    
after  all mere modifications of the    
,skhya1 ,yoga1 and ,vednta systems of   
philosophy4 ,his way of knowledge1      
though it developed into many paths1    
had the same point of departure4 ,it was
 a knowledge of the truth1 that  all    
life was merely one link in a series of 
successive existences1 and  inseparably 
bound up with misery4 ,moreover as there
 were two causes of  that misery--lust  
and ignorance--so there were two cures4 
,the first cure was the suppression of  
lust and desire1 especially of  all     
desire for continuity of existence4     
,the second cure was the removal of     
ignorance4 ,indeed ,ignorance was1      

according to ,gautama1 the first factor 
in the misery of life1 and stands  first
 in his chain of causation 7p4 #ajb74   
,not1 however1 the ,vedntist's          
ignorance--not ignorance of the fact    
that man and the universe are  identical
 with ,god1 but ignorance of the four   
truths of ,buddhism 7p4                 
#dc73--;ignorance that all life is      
misery1 and that the misery of life is  
caused by indulging lusts1 and will     
cease by suppressing them4    ,it would 
be easy to show how all ,indian         
philosophy was a mere scheme for        
getting rid of the bugbear of           
metempsychosis1 and how common was the  
doctrine that everything is for the     
worst in the worst of all possible      
worlds4 ,this was taught by the ,brhmans
 five centuries ,b4,c41 and  continued  
to be a thoroughly ,hind idea long after
 the disappearance of  ,buddhism4       
,witness the following from the         
,maitryai ,upanishad3--      ,in this   
weak body1 ever liable    ,to wrath1    

ambition1 avarice1 illusion1    ,to     
fear1 grief1 envy1 hatred1 separation   
,from those we hold most dear1          
association    ,with those we hate2     
continually exposed    ,to hunger1      
thirst1 disease1 decrepitude1           
,emaciation1 growth1 decline and death1 
,what relish can there be for true      
enjoyment8    ,also the following1 from 
,manu 7,,vi4 #gg73--      ,this body1   
like a house composed of the 7five7     
elements1 with bones    for its rafters1
 tendons for its connecting links1 flesh
 and blood for    its mortar1 skin for  
its covering2 this house filled with    
impurities1    infested by sorrow and   
old age1 the seat of disease1 full of   
pain and    passion1 and not lasting--a 
man ought certainly to abandon4    ,also
 ,bharti-hari 7,vairgya-ataka ,,iii4    
#cb4 #ej73--      ,enjoyments are       
alloyed by fear of sickness1    ,high   
rank may have a fall1 abundant wealth   
,is subject to exactions1 dignity       
,encounters risk of insult1 strength is 

ever    ,in danger of enfeeblement by   
foes1    ,a handsome form is jeoparded  
by women1    ,scripture is open to      
assaults of critics1    ,merit incurs   
the spite of wicked men1    ,the body   
lives in constant dread of death--      
,one course alone is proof against      
alarm1    ,renounce the world1 and      
safety may be won4      ,one hundred    
years#dg is the appointed span    ,of   
human life1 one half of this goes by    
,in sleep and night2 one half the other 
half    ,in childhood and old age2 the  
rest is passed    ,in sickness1         
separation1 pain1 and service--    ,how 
can a human being find delight    ,in   
such a life1 vain as a watery bubble8   
,no doubt this kind of pessimism has    
always found advocates in all ages1  and
 among all nations in ,europe as well as
 in ,asia4 ,it was a favourite  idea    
with the ,stoics1 and it has found      
favour with ,schopenhauer1 ,von         
,hartmann1 and other modern             
philosophers2 and ,shakespeare makes    

,hamlet  give expression to it4         
,happily the general tone of ,european  
philosophical thought is in another     
key1 and the admirers of ,aristotle     
still constitute a majority in  ,europe4
 ,the great ,stagirite described ,god as
 #8,energy1' and in dealing  with       
,solon's dictum that #8no man can be    
called happy while he lives1'  gave     
expression to a different belief4 ,a    
good man's virtuous energies1  he       
asserted1 are in this present life a    
genuine source of happiness to  him2    
misfortunes cannot shake his            
well-balanced character2 he surmounts   
the worst sufferings by generous        
magnanimity#dh4    ,even in the ,east a 
greater than ,aristotle and no less an  
,authority than  the true #8,light of   
the world'--bade men rejoice and leap   
for joy under  the most trying          
circumstances of life1 and prize ,his   
gift of ,eternal  ,life as their highest
 good4    ,in ,india1 on the contrary1  
the ,upanishads and systems of          

philosophy  which followed on them1 all 
harped on the same string4 ,they all    
dwelt on  the same minor key-note4      
,their real object was not to           
investigate truth1  but to devise a     
scheme for removing the misery believed 
to result from  repeated bodily         
existence and from all action1 good or  
bad1 in the  present1 previous1 and     
future births4    ,the ,skhya 7,i4 #a7  
defines the chief aim of man to be      
deliverance from  the pain incident to  
bodily life and energy2 or according to 
the ,nyya  7,i4 #b71 from the pain      
resulting from birth1 actions1 and false
  knowledge2 while the ,vednta considers
 that ignorance alone fetters the  soul 
of man to a body1 and the ,yoga defines 
the divine ,purusha 7 the  perfect man  
of ,buddhism7 as a being unaffected by  
pain 7klea71 acts1  consequences of     
acts1 and impressions derived from acts 
done in previous  births 7aya  sakra74  
,gautama's sympathy with these ideas is 
shown by the twelve-linked chain  of    

causation1 put forth by him as an       
accompaniment to his four  fundamental  
truths 7p4 #dc71 and thus expressed     
7,mah-vagga ,i4 #a4 #b73--    ,from     
,ignorance comes the combination of     
formations or tendencies  7instincts    
derived from former births#di72 from    
such formations comes  consciousness    
7vijna72 from consciousness1 individual 
being  7nma-rpa1 name and form72 from   
individual being1 the six organs of     
sense 7including mind72 from the six    
organs1 contact 7with objects of        
sense72 from contact1 sensation 7vedan72
 from sensation1 desire 7lust1  thirst1 
tah  tish72 from desire1 clinging to    
life 7updna72 from  clinging to life1   
continuity of becoming 7bhava72 from    
continuity of  becoming1 birth2 from    
birth1 decay and death2 from decay and  
death1  suffering4    ,it is difficult  
to discover a strictly logical sequence 
in this curious  twelve-linked chain4   
,the first link is a cause1 the ten     
following are  both causes and effects1 

while the last is an effect only4 ,the  
second  7sakhr7 is presented to us      
afterwards as one of the ,skandhas 7p4  
#aji71 and we have the whole inverted in
 a kind of circular chain in the  form  
of question and answer1 thus3--    ,what
 is the cause of misery and suffering8  
,answer--,old age and death4  ,what is  
the cause of old age and death8         
,answer--,birth4 ,of birth8             
,answer--,continuity of becoming4 ,of   
continuity of becoming8                 
,answer--,clinging to life4 ,of clinging
 to life8 ,answer--,desire4 ,of  desire8
 ,answer--,sensation or perception4 ,of 
sensation8 ,answer--,contact  with the  
objects of sense4 ,of contact with      
objects8 ,answer--,the organs  of sense4
 ,of the organs8 ,answer--,name and     
form1 or individual being4 ,of          
individual being8                       
,answer--,consciousness 7via  vijna74   
,of  consciousness8                     
,answer--,combination of formations or  
tendencies 7or  those material and      

mental predispositions derived from     
previous births  which tend to form     
character1 compare p4 #aji74 ,of such   
formations8  ,answer--,ignorance4    ,in
 making ,ignorance 7,avidy7 the first   
cause of the misery of life1  ,gautama  
agreed with the ,vednta 7though he      
explained ,ignorance  differently1 see  
p4 #ii71 while in the remaining chain of
 causes 7,nidna7  we detect his sympathy
 with the ,skhya theory of a chain of   
producers  and products4    ,his own    
scheme of causation 7often called       
,paia-samuppdo7 occupies an  important  
place in ,buddhistic philosophy1 as     
supplementary to1 and  complementary of1
 the four truths 7p4 #dc74 ,it was      
thought out before  them 7see p4 #ci7   
and is equally revered4    ,it is on    
this account that the following         
celebrated formula is  constantly       
repeated like a short creed1 and is     
found carved on numerous  ,buddhist     
monuments3--    #8,conditions 7or laws7 
of existence which proceed from a cause1

 the cause  of these hath the ,buddha   
explained1 as also the cessation 7or    
destruction7 of these4 ,of such truths  
is the ,great ramaa the  teacher#ej4'   
,this was the formula repeated by       
,assaji to ,sriputta and ,moggallna 7p4 
#dg71 when they wished to join the      
,buddha and asked for a summary of the  
spirit 7artha71 not the letter          
7vyajana71 of his doctrine 7,mah-v ,i4  
#bc4 #e74 ,certainly the sorites-like   
form of statement in the scheme of      
causation had charms for ,oriental      
thinkers4    ,moreover the ,buddha's    
method of clothing old truths in a new  
dress1  or--to adopt another            
metaphor--his plan of putting new wine  
into old  bottles1 had in it something  
very attractive to all ,indian minds4   
,of what kind1 then1 was the new dress  
in which ,gautama clothed the great     
central doctrine of ,indian             
philosophy--the doctrine of             
metempsychosis1  involving the          
perpetuation of the misery of life8     

,the ,buddha1 like all ,indians1 was by 
nature a metaphysician4 ,he had  great  
sympathy with the philosophy of the     
,upanishads4 ,how was it that he        
disbelieved in the existence of ,spirit 
as distinct from bodily organism8  ,a   
little consideration will perhaps make  
clear how he was brought to his  own    
peculiar agnostic view4    ,probably    
before his so-called enlightenment and  
attainment of true  knowledge1 he was as
 firm a believer in the real existence  
of one  ,universal ,spirit as the most  
orthodox ,brhman4 ,he had become imbued 
with  ,brhmanical philosophy while      
sitting at the feet of his two teachers 
ra and ,uddaka 7p4 #bi74 ,at that time  
there were no definite or  formulated   
philosophical systems1 separated from   
each other by sharp  lines4 ,but the    
,skhya1 ,yoga1 and ,vednta systems were 
assuming shape1  and the doctrines they 
embodied had been foreshadowed in the   
,upanishads1  and were orally current4  
,in short1 it had been repeatedly stated

 in the ,upanishads1 that nothing       
really existed but the one universally  
present impersonal ,spirit1 and  that   
the whole visible world was really to be
 identified with that  ,spirit4    ,then
 it followed as an article of faith that
 man's spirit1 deluded into  a temporary
 false idea of separate independent     
personal existence by the  illusion of  
ignorance1 was also identical with that 
,one ,spirit1 and  ultimately to be     
re-absorbed into it4    ,further1 it    
followed that man's spirit1 while so    
deluded and so  separated for a time    
from the ,one ,spirit1 was compelled to 
migrate  through innumerable bodily     
forms1 and that such migration entailed 
misery1 from which there was no escape  
except by a process of  disillusionment1
 that is1 by dissipating the illusion of
 separate  individuality1 through the   
acquisition of perfect knowledge leading
 to  re-union with the ,one ,spirit1 as 
the river blends with the ocean4 ,and   
such knowledge was best gained by       

suppression of the passions1            
abandonment of all worldly connexions1  
and abstinence from all action4         
,finally1 it was held1 with apparent    
inconsistency1 that the storing up  of  
merit by good works assisted in         
effecting this object by raising a  man1
 not yet fit for union with the supreme 
,spirit1 to forms of  existence in which
 such union might be accomplished4      
,now it is obvious that to believe in   
the ultimate merging of man's  personal 
spirit in ,one impersonal ,spirit1 is   
virtually to deny the  ultimate         
existence of any human spirit at all4   
,nay more--it is virtually  to deny the 
existence of a supreme universal ,spirit
 also4    ,for how can a merely abstract
 universal ,spirit1 which is unconscious
 of  personality1 be regarded as        
possessing any real existence worth     
being  called true life8    ,to assert  
that such a ,spirit is pure abstract    
,entity or 7according to  ,vednta       
phraseology7 pure ,existence 7without   

anything to exist for71  pure ,thought  
or even pure ,consciousness 7without    
anything to think  about1 or be         
conscious about71 pure ,joy 7without    
anything to rejoice  about71 is         
practically to reduce it to pure        
non-entity4    ,all that ,gautama did1  
therefore1 was to purge ,brhmanism of a 
dogma  which appeared to him to be a    
mere sham 7,brahma-jla ,i4 #bf74    ,he 
simply eliminated as incapable of proof 
the doctrine of a purely  abstract1     
incorporeal spirit or self1 whether     
human or divine4 ,the  assertion that   
any soul or self or ,ego really existed 
7,atta-vdo7 was an  error4 ,it formed   
one of the constituents of ,updna 7p4   
#aji71 and was  the first of the ten    
fetters 7,sakkya-dihi1 p4 #abg74    ,and
 with the rejection of this dogma1 as   
incapable of demonstration1 he  found   
himself compelled to reject also1 as    
beyond the range of man's  cognizance1  
the doctrine of any ,supreme ,being     
higher than the perfectly  enlightened  

man4 ,like ,kapila in the ,skhya        
aphorisms 7,i4 #ib1 ,v4 #aj7 he  felt   
bound to admit3 #8,it is not proved that
 there is a ,god4'    ,this1 indeed1 is 
the chief foundation on which rests the 
assertion that  ,buddhism is a mere     
system of atheistic negations4 ,and     
there can be no  doubt that from one    
point of view its statements are steeped
 in  negations1 or rather perhaps in    
evasions4 ,its morality has been        
described as more negative than         
positive2 but this is scarcely correct1 
and it would be fairer to say that it   
delights in telling men to abstain  from
 doing evil1 rather than in urging them 
to active exertions for the  good of    
others4 ,it has many positive precepts4 
,but if there was no probability of a   
soul existing separately from a  body   
after death1 how could there be any     
soul-transmigration8 ,how could  there  
be any agreement between the teaching of
 the ,buddha and that of  the ,brhmans1 
in regard to this important central     

dogma8 ,the real fact  was that the     
divergence of the ,buddhist doctrine    
from the ,brhmanical1  as stated in the 
,upanishads1 was not greater than was to
 be expected  from the difference of    
belief between the two systems in regard
 to the  existence of soul4    ,plato1  
we know1 held that souls #8found their  
prisons in the same  natures' at death1 
so that an effeminate man might be      
re-born as a  woman1 a tyrannical man as
 a wolf1 and so on4 ,in ,manu's         
,law-book is set  forth a triple order  
of soul-transmigration through lower1   
middle1 and  higher planes of existence1
 resulting from good1 middling1 and bad 
acts1  words1 and thoughts4 ,thus--to   
instance only the lower--the soul of a  
man  who spoke ill of his teacher was   
destined to pass into an ass or a dog   
7,,ii4 #bja71 the soul of a thief might 
occupy a mouse 7,,xii4 #fb71 the soul   
of one who neglected his caste-duties   
might pass into a demon 7,,xii4 #ga1    
#gb72 and greater crimes might lead to  

the soul's being condemned to  occupy   
plants1 stones1 and minerals4 ,then     
there was also an intermediate          
condition of the soul4 ,according to one
 idea it went to the moon2  according to
 another it became a hungry ghost which 
required food to be  offered to it at   
the rddha ceremonies4    ,this theory of
 transmigration1 according to the       
,hinds1 explained the  origin of evil4  
,evil must proceed from antecedent evil1
 and the  resulting penalty must be     
borne by the evil-doer in succeeding    
existences4 ,this was the terrible      
incubus which it was the great object   
of ,indian philosophers to remove4 ,it  
was equally ,gautama's object1 but  how 
could he accept soul-transmigration1    
denying as he did the existence  of any 
spirit1 as distinct from material       
organization8 ,he therefore put  forth a
 view of his own1 thus3--,every being is
 composed of five  constituent elements 
called ,skandhas 7,pli ,khandha71 which 
have their  source in ,updna 7p4 #ajc7  

and are continually combining1          
dissolving1  and recombining1 viz4 #a4  
,form 7rpa71 i4 e4 the organized body4  
#b4  ,sensation 7vedan7 of pain or      
pleasure1 or of neither1 arising from   
contact of eye1 ear1 nose1 tongue1 skin1
 and mind with external objects4  #c4   
,perception 7saa  saj7 of ideas through 
the same sixfold  contact4 #d4          
,aggregate of formations 7sakhra        
saskra1 i4e4  combination of properties 
or faculties or mental tendencies1      
fifty-two  in number1 forming individual
 character and derived from previous    
existences2 compare the similar sakhr   
pl4 at p4 #ajb74 #e4  ,consciousness    
7via  vijna7 or thought#ea4 ,this fifth 
is the  most important4 ,it is the only 
soul recognized by ,buddhists4          
,theoretically it perishes with the     
other ,skandhas1 but practically is     
continued1 since its exact counterpart  
is reproduced in a new body4    ,for    
although1 when a man dies1 all the five 
constituents of existence  are          

dissolved1 yet by the force resulting   
from his actions 7karma71  combined with
 ,updna1 #8clinging to existence' 7one  
form of the  fetters at p4 #abg71 a new 
set of five1 of which consciousness is  
still  the dominant faculty1 starts into
 being4 ,the process of the new creation
  is so instantaneous that it is        
equivalent to the continuance of the    
same  personality1 pervaded by the same 
consciousness2 though each personality  
is only really connected with the       
previous by the force of acts done and  
character formed in each--such force    
operating through ,updna4 ,in short1  to
 speak of transmigration of souls in    
,buddhism gives a wrong idea4           
,metempsychosis with ,buddhists resolves
 itself into continuous  metamorphosis  
or ,palingenesis4 ,for no true ,buddhist
 believes in the  passing of a soul from
 one body to another1 but rather in the 
passing on  of what may be called       
act-force1 or of the merit and demerit  
resulting  from a man's acts1 so as to  

cause a continuous succession of        
transformations--a succession which may 
be compared to the rolling on of  a     
wheel through different scenes and over 
every variety of ground2 or to  the     
burning on1 through day and night1 of a 
flame which is not the same  flame at   
the beginning of the day and end of the 
night1 and yet is not  different4 ,it is
 this act-force 7,karma71 combined with 
,updna1  #8clinging to existence'       
7abhi-nivea in the ,yoga ,,ii4 #i71     
which is the  connecting link between   
each man's past1 present1 and future    
bodies4    ,in its subtle and           
irresistible operation it may be        
compared to stored-up  chemical or      
electric energy4 ,it is a force which   
continually creates and  re-creates the 
whole man1 and perpetuates his personal 
identity through  separate forms1       
whether it compels him to ascend or     
descend in the scale  of being4    ,yet 
to say that personality is transmitted1 
when there is no  consciousness of any  

continuity of identity1 amounts1 after  
all1 to  denial of continuous existence4
    ,be it observed1 too1 that the scale
 of existence is limited in ,buddhism   
to six classes of beings--gods1 men1    
demons1 animals1 ghosts1 and  dwellers  
in hell 7p4 #aba74 ,transmigration is   
not extended1 as in the  ,brhmanical    
system1 to plants1 stocks1 and stones2  
though a man could be  born as a        
tree-god 7p4 #aab74    ,gautama ,buddha 
himself was merely the last link in a   
long chain of  corporeal forms1 and he  
had been preceded by twenty-four        
,buddhas1 who  were to previous ages of 
the world what he was to the present4   
,every one  of these ,buddhas was gifted
 with the faculty of recollecting his   
previous personalities1 and ,gautama    
often gave an account of his own  former
 existences4 ,the stories of about five 
hundred and fifty of his  births        
7,jtakas7 are even now daily repeated to
 eager listeners in every  ,buddhist    
country1 and are believed to convey     

important lessons1 though  full of      
puerilities4    ,the interchange of     
ideas between ,brhmanism and ,buddhism  
is well  exemplified not only by the    
twenty-five ,buddhas1 who correspond to 
the  fourteen ,manus1 or representative 
men1 in each world-period 7,antara71    
but also by the birth-stories1 many of  
which are mere modifications of  old    
fables long current in ,india1 while    
others have been imported from          
,buddhism into ,sanskit literature4     
,they constantly remind one of similar  
stories in the ,paa-tantra1 ,hitopadea1 
,rmyaa1 and ,mah-bhrata4 ,the           
noteworthy point about the repeated     
births of ,gautama ,buddha is1 that     
there appears to have been no ,darwinian
 rise from lower to higher forms2  but a
 mere jumble of metamorphoses4 ,thus we 
find him born four times as  ,mah-brahm1
 twenty times as ,indra1 once as a hare1
 eighty-three times  as an ascetic1     
fifty-eight as a king1 twenty-four as a 
,brhman1 once as  a gamester1 eighteen  

times as a monkey1 six as an elephant1  
eleven as a  deer1 once as a dog1 four  
times as a serpent1 six as a snipe1 once
 as a  frog1 twice as a fish1           
forty-three times as a tree-god1 twice  
as a pig1  ten times as a lion1 four as 
a cock1 twice as a thief1 once as a     
devil-dancer1 and so on4 ,he was never  
born as a woman1 nor as an insect1  nor 
as a ,preta1 nor an inhabitant of hell  
7p4 #aai71 and in all his  births he was
 a ,bodhi-sattva 7pp4 #ih1 #ace74 ,and  
in all he suffered and  sacrificed      
himself for the good of the world4      
,here is the substance of an account of 
,gautama's birth as a hare1 given  by   
himself 7ariy-,piaka ,i4 #aj1 translated
 by ,dr4 ,oldenberg73--    #8,in one of 
my lives ,i was a hare living in a      
forest4 ,i ate grass and did  no one any
 harm4 ,an ape1 a jackal1 and an otter  
dwelt with me4 ,i used to  teach them   
their duties and tell them to abstain   
from evil and give alms  on the four    
fast-days in every month4 ,they did as  

,i told them1 and gave  beans1 corn1 and
 rice4 ,then ,i said to                 
myself3--,suppose a worthy object of    
charity passes by1 what can ,i give him8
 ,i live on grass only2 ,i cannot  offer
 a starving man grass2 ,i must give him 
myself4 ,thereupon the god  akra1       
wishing to test my sincerity1 came in a 
,brhman's form and asked  me for food4  
,when ,i saw him ,i said joyfully3--8,a 
noble gift will ,i give  thee1 ,o       
,brhman2 thou observest the precepts2   
thou painest no creature2  thou wilt not
 kill me for food4 ,but go1 collect     
wood1 place it in a  heap1 and kindle a 
fire4 ,then ,i will roast myself1 and   
thou may'st eat  me40    #8,he          
said3--8,so be it10 and went and        
gathered wood and kindled a fire4       
#8,when the wood began to send forth    
flame1 ,i leaped into the midst of the  
blazing fire4    #8,as water quenches   
heat1 so the flames quelled all the     
sufferings of  life4 ,cuticle and skin1 
flesh and sinews1 bones1 ligaments1 and 

heart--my  whole body with all its      
limbs--,i gave to the ,brhman4'         
,perhaps the best and most often recited
 ,jtaka is the last birth but  one1 in  
which he was born as prince ,vessantara 
7,vaiyntara74 ,this is  called the      
,mah-jtaka1 #8great birth4' ,it may be  
summarized thus3--    #8,vessantara     
7afterwards ,buddha7 was so liberal that
 he gave to every one  who asked4 ,among
 his possessions was a white elephant1  
which had the  power of bringing down   
rain whenever it was needed4 ,at last he
 gave away  this also to a neighbouring 
country suffering from drought4 ,this so
  incensed his own people that they     
persuaded the king his father to  banish
 him with his wife and two children to  
the forest4 ,they set out in  a chariot 
drawn by horses4 ,first he gave away the
 horses and next the  chariot to        
,brhmans who begged for them4 ,then when
 another ,brhman asked  for the         
children1 ,vessantara gave them up too1 
saying3 8,may ,i for this  act become a 

,buddha60 ,in short his sufferings and  
theirs in banishment1  and his          
generosity to every one1 led to his     
recall with great  rejoicings4 ,when he 
died he was born again in the ,tushita  
heaven1 whence  he descended as a white 
elephant into the womb of ,my1 and was  
born as  ,gautama' 7p4 #bc74    ,another
 wise man of the ,east1 who lived long  
before ,gautama1 spoke of  #8the path of
 the just shining more and more unto the
 perfect day4' ,of  this kind of        
progressive advance towards higher      
planes of perfection1  the ,indian sage 
knew nothing4 ,nor to the ,buddha1 of   
course1 would the  ,christian idea of   
#8original sin1' or of imputed          
,perfection have conveyed  any meaning  
whatever4 ,with ,gautama1 righteousness 
and unrighteousness1  holiness and sin1 
were the product of a man's own acts4   
,they were  produced by no one but      
himself1 and they were merely           
troublesome forces  7see p4 #abd7       
causing1 in the one case1 a man's       

re-birth either in one of  the heavens  
or in higher earthly corporeal forms1   
and1 in the other1 his  re-birth in one 
of the hells or in lower corporeal      
forms4 #8,not in the  heavens1' says the
 ,dhamma-pada 7#abg71 #8not in the midst
 of the sea1 not  if thou hidest thyself
 in the clefts of the mountains1 wilt   
thou find a  place where thou canst     
escape the force resulting from thy evil
  actions4'    ,here also is the        
substance of a passage in the           
,deva-dta-sutta  7translated by ,dr4    
,oldenberg73--    #8,do not relatives   
and friends welcome a man who has been  
long  travelling1 when he returns safely
 to his home8 ,even so1 a righteous     
man1 when he passes from this world to  
another1 is welcomed by his good  works1
 as by friends4    #8,through the six   
states of transmigration does the power 
of our actions  lead us4 ,a life in the 
heavens awaits the good4 ,the wardens of
 hell drag  the wicked before the king  
of hell1 ,yama1 who says to them3--8,did

 you  not1 when on earth1 see the five  
divine messengers1 sent to warn you--the
  child1 the old man1 the sick1 the     
criminal suffering punishment1 and the  
dead corpse80    #8,and the wicked man  
answers3--8,i did see them40    #8,and  
didst thou not think within             
thyself3--8,i also am subject to birth1 
old age1 death4 ,let me be careful to do
 good works80    #8,and the wicked man  
answers3--8,i did not1 sire2 ,i         
neglected in my folly  to think of these
 things40    #8,then king ,yama         
pronounces his doom3--8,these thy evil  
deeds are not the  work of thy mother1  
father1 relations1 friends1 advisers4   
,thou alone  hast done them all2 thou   
alone must gather the fruit40 ,and the  
warders  of hell drag him to the place  
of torment1 rivet him to red-hot iron1  
plunge him in glowing seas of blood1    
torture him on heaps of burning  coal2  
and he dies not1 till the last residue  
of his guilt has been  expiated4'       
,and this ,buddhist theory of every     

man's destiny being dependent on his    
own acts is quite in keeping with       
,brhmanical ideas4 #8,in that 7new body7
  he is united with the knowledge gained
 in the former body1 and then  again    
goes on working for perfection2 for even
 against his will he is  forced on 7from
 one body to another7 by his former     
works' 7,bhagavad-gt  ,,vi4 #dc1 #dd74  
,and again3--#8,the act committed in a  
former birth  7prva-janma-kita karma71  
that is called one's destiny2' and      
again1  #8,as from a lump of clay a     
workman makes what he pleases1 even so a
 man  obtains whatever destiny he has   
wrought out for himself' 7,hitopadea1   
,introduction74 ,in ,brhmanism the      
influence of ,karma or #8act' in        
determining every being's form at the   
time of his own re-birth is  universal4 
,thus also the ,nyya of ,gautama 7,,iii4
 #acb7 affirms that the new body  7after
 death7 is produced through the         
irresistible force of actions done  in  
the previous body                       

7prva-kita-phalnubandht tad-utpatti74   
,the  cosmogony of the same philosophy  
7,vaieshika branch71 taught that the    
concurrence of eternal atoms to form the
 world was the result of  ,adisha or the
 #8unseen force' derived from the acts  
of a previous  world4    ,we are        
reminded1 too1 of our poet's own        
sentiment3 #8,our deeds still  travel   
with us from afar1 ,and what we have    
been makes us what we are2'  and of ,don
 ,quixote's saying1 #8,every man is the 
son of his own works2'  and of          
,wordsworth's1 #8,the child is father of
 the man2' and of  ,longfellow's1       
#8,lives of great men all remind us1 we 
can make ourselves  sublime4'    ,in    
short1 we are the outcome of ourselves4 
,nor can ceremonies avail  aught1 nor   
can devotion to personal gods avail     
aught1 nor can anything  whatever       
possess the slightest efficacy to save a
 man from his own acts4    ,it is said  
that ,buddhism leaves the will          
unfettered2 but surely fatalism  is     

taught when the force of one's own deeds
 in previous births is held  to be      
irresistible4    ,the only creator1     
then1 recognized by true ,buddhists is  
,act-force4 #8,my  action is the womb   
that bears me1' says the ,aguttara      
,nikya4 ,it is this  ,act-force that    
creates worlds4 ,it is this ,act-force1 
in conjunction with  ,updna 7p4 #aji71  
that creates all beings in any of the   
six classes into  which they are        
divided--gods1 men1 demons1 animals1    
ghosts1 and the  dwellers in hell4 ,we  
often talk of the force of a dead man's 
acts--of his  being dead and yet        
speaking4 ,it is this force which in    
,buddhism resists  death2 for no force  
can ever be lost4    ,and what does the 
modern ,positivist philosopher assert8  
,he maintains  that both body and mind  
are resolved into their elements at     
death4 ,the  only immortal part of us   
consists in the good deeds1 words1      
thoughts1  and influences we leave      
behind us1 to be made use of by our     

descendants  and improved on for the    
elevation of humanity4 ,and the         
aggregate of  these1 combined with the  
force of will1 constitute1 according to 
the  ,buddhist1 a power strong enough to
 re-create not only human beings but    
the whole material world4    ,it was    
thus that the force of ,gautama's own   
acts had constantly  re-created him     
through a long chain of successive      
personalities1  terminating in the      
perfect ,buddha1 who has no further     
births to undergo4    ,turn we now to   
that division of the ,buddhist system   
which concerns  itself with the external
 universe1 and seeks to explain its     
constitution1 form1 and the various     
divisions of which it consists4    ,and 
here we must be careful to note the     
peculiar views of ,buddhism1            
notwithstanding the large admixture of  
,brhmanical ideas4    ,for ,buddhism has
 no cosmogony like the ,skhya1 ,vednta1 
and ,vaieshika4  ,nor does it explain   
the creation of the universe1 in our    

sense4 ,it only  concerns itself with   
cosmology1 and it dissents from         
,brhmanical  cosmology in declining to  
admit the eternity of anything whatever1
  except change or revolution or a      
succession of revolutions4 ,buddhism has
  no ,creator1 no creation1 no original 
germ of all things1 no soul of the      
world1 no personal1 no impersonal1 no   
supramundane1 no antemundane  principle4
    ,it might indeed have been supposed 
that since ,gautama denied the eternal  
existence of either a personal ,god or  
of ,spirit1 he would at least have      
given eternal existence to matter4      
,but no2 the only eternal things are the
 ,causality of ,act-force and the       
succession of cause and effect--the     
eternity of #8,becoming1' not of        
#8,being4'    ,the ,universe around us1 
with all its visible phenomena1 must be 
recognized as an existing entity1 for we
 see before our eyes evidence of  its   
actual existence4 ,but it is an entity  
produced out of nonentity1 and  destined

 to lapse again into nonentity when its 
time is fulfilled4    ,for out of       
nothingness it came1 and into           
nothingness must it return--to          
re-appear again1 it is true1 but as a   
new ,universe brought into being by  the
 accumulated force of its predecessor's 
acts1 and not evolved out of  any       
eternally existing spiritual or material
 germ of any kind4    ,it is thus that  
,universe after ,universe is like a     
succession of  countless bubbles for    
ever forming1 expanding1 drifting       
onwards1  bursting and re-forming1 each 
bubble owing its re-formation to the    
force  generated by its vanished        
predecessor4 ,the poet ,shelley might   
have been  called a ,buddhist when he   
wrote3      ,worlds on worlds are       
rolling ever      ,from creation to     
decay2    ,like the bubbles on a river1 
,sparkling1 bursting1 borne away4       
7,hellas47    ,or like lotuses1 for ever
 unfolding and then decaying1 each decay
  containing the germ of a new plant2 or

 like an interminable succession  of    
wheels for ever coming into view1 for   
ever rolling onwards1  disappearing and 
reappearing2 for ever passing from being
 to non-being1  and again from non-being
 to being4 ,it was this ceaseless       
rotation that  led to the wheel being   
adopted as the favourite symbol in      
,buddhism 7p4  #abb74    ,christianity  
recognizes in a very different way this 
#8law of  circularity' in the physical  
world1 as the ,rev4 ,hugh ,macmillan has
 ably  pointed out4    ,as to the       
question from whom8 or whence8 or how8  
came the original force  or impetus that
 started the first movement1 the ,buddha
 hazarded no  opinion4 ,he held this to 
be an inexplicable mystery--an insoluble
 riddle4  ,he confessed himself to be a 
thorough ,agnostic4 ,he saw nothing but 
countless cycles of causes and effects1 
and never undertook to explain  the     
first cause which set the first wheel in
 motion4 ,it was not1 then1  without a  
deep significance that ,gautama placed  

,ignorance first in his  chain of       
,causation 7p4 #ajb4 ,note1 however1 the
 explanation given at p4  #ii74         
,after all1 these ,buddhistic           
speculations amount to little else than 
,brhmanism stripped of some of its      
transcendental mysticism4 ,we know1  for
 example1 that the true ,vednta         
philosophy makes the ,universe proceed  
out of an eternal ,illusion1 or         
,ignorance associated with the          
impersonal  ,spirit ,brahman1 into which
 it is again absorbed4    ,can it be    
affirmed1 then1 a ,buddhist might say1  
that either this pure  impersonal       
,spirit 7or ,ignorance7 is virtually    
very different from pure  nothingness8  
,what says the author of ig-veda ,x4    
#abj8--      ,in the beginning there was
 neither naught nor aught1    ,then     
there was neither sky nor atmosphere    
above4    ,then first came darkness hid 
in darkness1 gloom in gloom2    ,next   
all was water1 all a chaos indiscreet1  
,in which the ,one lay void1 shrouded in

 nothingness4    ,then as to the vast   
periods called ,kalpas or ages1 during  
which 7as in  ,brhmanism7 constant      
,universes are supposed to appear1      
disappear1 and  re-appear3--    ,let it 
be supposed1 say ,buddhist writers1 that
 a solid rock forming a  vast cube      
sixteen miles high1 and the same in     
length and breadth1 were  lightly rubbed
 once in a hundred years with a piece of
 the finest cloth1  and by this slight  
friction reduced in countless ages to   
the size of a  mango-seed2 that would   
still give you no idea of the immense   
duration of  a ,buddhist ,kalpa4    ,and
 what1 in conclusion1 is the existing   
,universe8 ,buddhist writers make  it   
consist of an infinite number of        
akkavlas 7akra-vlas7 or vast  circular  
planes1 which for convenience may be    
called spheres4 ,each  sphere has       
thirty-one ,satta-lokas 7,sattva-lokas7 
or dwelling-places of  six classes of   
living beings1 rising one above the     
other and distributed  under three      

world-systems1 built up in successive   
tiers through infinite  space1 below1   
upon1 and above ,mount ,meru 7or        
,sumeru7--the ideal central  point of   
the whole4 ,this gigantic mythical      
mountain forms the mighty  base or pivot
 of the sphere4    ,first comes ,hell   
with #acf divisions1 to receive #acf    
varieties of  offenders1 all in tiers   
one above the other1 and lying deep     
under the  earth in the lower regions of
 the akra-vla4 ,to be re-born in ,hell  
7,naraka7 is the worst of all the six   
kinds of existence1 reserved for  the   
worst evil-doers1 and although the      
punishment is not eternal1 its  shortest
 duration is for five hundred years of  
,hell1 each day equalling  fifty years  
of ,earth4 ,in ,brhmanism there are     
twenty-one hells 7,manu ,,iv4  #hh-ij74 
,buddhism originally had only eight4    
,the most terrific 7,avi7 is  for       
revilers of ,buddha and his ,law4       
,above the subdivisions of ,hell come   
the other sensuous worlds  7,kma-lokas71

 thus3--7#b7 the world of animals2 7#c7 
that of ,pretas or  ghosts2 7#d7 that of
 ,asuras or demons2 7#e7 the earth1 or  
world of men1  with concentric circles  
of seven seas4    ,having distributed   
all possible places of habitation for   
migrating  beings under the three heads 
of ,hell1 four lower worlds1 and        
twenty-six  heavens 7described at p4    
#bjf71 ,buddhism holds that there are   
only six  forms or ways 7gati7 of       
existence through which living beings   
can pass1  and under which every thing  
that has life must be classed1 and of   
these  the first two ways are good1 the 
last four bad1 thus3--#a4 ,gods2 #b4    
,men2  #c4 ,asuras1 or demons1          
inhabiting spaces under the earth2 #d4  
,animals2 #e4  ,pretas1 or ghosts1      
recently inhabitants of earth1 and ever 
consumed with  hunger and thirst2 #f4   
,beings undergoing torment in the hells4
    ,as to the gods1 bear in mind that  
,buddhism recognized most of the        
deities of ,hindism4 ,see p4 #bjf4      

,such gods existed in subtle corporeal  
forms1 and1 though not omnipotent1  were
 capable of working benefit or harm4    
,they were subject to the  universal law
 of dissolution1 and after death were   
succeeded by others1  so that there was 
not one ,brahm or one akra1 but many    
successive  deities so named1 and many  
classes of deities under them4 ,they had
 no  power of effecting any person's    
salvation4 ,on the contrary1 they had to
  see to their own1 and were inferior to
 the perfected man4    ,moreover1 to be 
born in the world of the gods seems not 
to have implied  any vast accumulation  
of merit1 for we read of a certain frog 
that from  simply listening to the      
,buddha's voice1 while reciting the     
,law1 was born  as a god in the         
,trayastria heaven 7,hardy1 p4 #cib74   
,in short1 the constant revolving of the
 wheel of life in one eternal  circle1  
according to fixed and immutable laws1  
is perhaps after all the  sum and       
substance of the philosophy of          

,buddhism4 ,and this eternal wheel  or  
circle has1 so to speak1 six spokes     
representing six forms of  existence4   
,when any one of the six classes of     
beings dies1 he must be born again in   
some one of these same six classes1 for 
there are no other possible ways  7gati7
 of life1 and he cannot pass into       
plants1 stones1 and inorganic  matter1  
as in the ,brhmanical system 7see p4    
#ajh74 ,if he be born again  in one of  
the hells he is not thereby debarred    
from seeking salvation1  and even if he 
be born in heaven as a god1 he must at  
some time or other  leave it and seek   
after a higher state still--that of the 
perfect man who  has gained ,nirva and  
is soon to achieve the one consummation 
worth  living for1 the one crown worth  
striving for--extinction of personal    
existence in ,pari-nirva 7see pp4       
#ach-adb74                              
,,lecture ,,vi4     ,the ,morality of   
,buddhism and its chief aim--,arhatship 
or ,nirva4      ,the first questions    

suggested by the subject of this lecture
 will  probably be3--    ,how could a   
life of morality be inculcated by one   
who made all life  proceed from         
ignorance1 and even virtuous conduct in 
one sense a  mistake1 as leading to     
continuity of life1 and therefore of    
suffering8  ,how could the ,buddha's    
first commandment be1 #8,destroy not1'  
when his  ideal of perfection was       
destruction8 ,how could he say1 #8be    
active1' when  his theory of ,karma 7pp4
 #aaj1 #aad7 made action conduce to     
misery8    ,the inconsistency is        
evident1 but it is no less true that1   
notwithstanding the doctrine that all   
existence entails misery1 and that  all 
action1 good or bad1 leads to future    
births1 ,gautama taught that the  life  
of a man in higher bodily forms1 or in  
one of the heavens1 was  better than a  
life in lower forms1 or in one of the   
hells1 and that  neither a higher form  
of life nor the great aim of ,nirva     
could be  attained without righteous    

action1 meditation1 and true knowledge4 
,buddhism1 indeed1 as we have seen1     
could not hold forth as an incentive  to
 good behaviour any belief in a ,creator
 rewarding and punishing his  creatures 
according to their works1 or pardoning  
their sins4 ,it could  not inculcate    
piety2 for in true ,buddhism piety was  
impossible2 yet like  ,manu 7,,ii4 #f7  
it made morality 7la7 the basis of ,law 
7,dharma72 it  stimulated good conduct  
by its doctrine of repeated births1 and 
by  pictures of its numerous heavens1   
and it deterred men from unrighteous    
acts by its terrible places of torment4 
,let it then be made clear from the     
first that ,buddhism1 in inculcating    
morality1 used no word expressive of    
morality1 as founded on the love  and   
fear of ,god1 or of sin as an offence   
against ,god4    ,in ,buddhism the words
 klea 7kileso71 #8pain1' and akuala1    
#8demerit1'  take the place of #8sin1'  
and its perfect saint is said to be     
#8free from  pain' 7nishklea7 and from  

demerit1 not from sin in our sense4 ,by 
an  unrighteous act it meant an act     
producing suffering and demerit of some 
kind 7p4 #aac71 and it bade every man   
act righteously in order to escape      
suffering and to accumulate merit       
7kuala71 and thus work out his own      
perfection--that is to say1 his own     
self-extinction4    ,doubtless ,buddhism
 deserves credit for laying stress on   
right belief1  right words1 right work1 
instead of on ceremonial rites2 and on  
the  worship of ,hind gods2 but it had  
its own idea of right4 ,it urged        
householders to abandon the world1 or   
else to be diligent in serving its      
monks for the working out of their own  
salvation2 and while making  morality1  
meditation1 and enlightenment its       
indispensable factors in  securing      
perfection1 it made perfection consist  
in freedom from the  delusion that #8,i 
am2' and in deliverance from an         
individual existence  inseparably bound 
up with misery4    ,mark1 too1 another  

contradiction4 ,it inculcated entire    
self-dependence  in working out this    
kind of perfection1 and yet it set      
before its  disciples three guides2     
namely1 the ,buddha's own example1 the  
,law  7,dharma71 and the example of the 
whole body of monks and perfected       
saints 7,sagha74    ,we now turn to its 
fuller moral system1 keeping this       
distinct from its  philosophy and       
metaphysics1 and freely admitting that  
there are in  ,buddhist morality many   
things1 true1 honourable1 just1 pure1   
lovely1 and  of good report4    ,it is  
fair to point out at the outset that    
,buddhist morality was not a  purely    
external matter4 ,it divided men into   
the outwardly correct and  internally   
sincere4 ,the mere outwardly correct    
,buddhists might include  monks as well 
as laymen1 though a higher standard of  
profession was  expected of monks4 ,the 
internally sincere were the really      
earnest  seekers after perfection 7monks
 and laymen71 and were divided into four

  classes1 representing four conditions 
of the inner life1 lower1 higher1  still
 higher1 and highest1 culminating in    
perfect ,saintship1 ,arhatship1  and    
,nirva 7p4 #acb74    ,at the same time  
there was not much hope of saintship    
except through  celibacy and monkhood2  
for in true ,buddhism the notion of holy
  family-life was almost a contradiction
 in terms4    ,of course the ,buddhist  
moral code soon passed beyond the       
eightfold path  propounded by ,gautama  
in his first sermon 7see p4 #dd71 and   
,dr4 ,oldenberg  has shown that in the  
absence of a systematically arranged    
code1 we may  still trace out amid a    
confusion of precepts the three leading 
duties of  external moral conduct 7la71 
of internal mental concentration        
7samdhi71 and of acquiring true wisdom  
7pa  praj74 ,compare ,dr4  ,wenzel's    
#8,friendly ,epistle1' #ec4    ,the five
 fundamental rules of moral conduct     
7la71 or rather1  prohibitions1 were    
promulgated very early3--    #a4 ,kill  

not any living thing4 #b4 ,steal not4   
#c4 ,commit not adultery4 #d4  ,lie not4
 #e4 ,drink not strong drink4 ,these    
five1 having reference chiefly  to one's
 neighbour1 were called the fivefold law
 for all classes1  including laymen4    
,they were taken from ,brhmanism1 but in
 the vows of  the ,sannys the fifth was 
not included4 ,it was ,buddhism probably
 that  first interdicted strong drink4  
,it prohibited too what the ,brhmans    
allowed--killing for sacrificial        
purposes4    ,five others of a more     
trivial character for monks 7often given
 in a  different order1 p4 #gh7 were    
added3--    #f4 ,eat no food1 except at 
stated times4 #g4 ,use no wreaths1      
ornaments1 or  perfumes4 #h4 ,use no    
high or broad bed1 but only a mat on the
 ground4 #i4  ,abstain from dancing1    
singing1 music1 and worldly spectacles4 
#aj4 ,own no  gold1 or silver of any    
kind1 and accept none 7,mah-vagga ,i4   
#ef74 ,this  ,buddhist ,decalogue may be
 contrasted with the ,mosaic ,decalogue4

    ,all ten were binding on monks only1
 and for the third was then  substituted
 #8be absolutely chaste4'    ,sometimes 
not only the first five but the first   
eight were held to be  binding on       
laymen4    ,another was added in later  
times3--,never think or say that your   
own  religion is the best4 ,never       
denounce the religion of others 7see p4 
#ij74    ,then1 although only the first 
half of the eightfold path 7p4 #dd7 was 
said to be necessary for lay-brethren1  
the whole was for monks1 who also  had  
to observe the special practices already
 described 7p4 #gf74    ,all gambling   
and games of chance were prohibited     
7,tevijja-,sutta ,,ii74  ,compare ,manu 
,,ix4 #bba-bbh4    ,sometimes five      
renunciations are named3--of wife1 of   
children1 of money1  of life1 of craving
 for existence in future births4        
,then sometimes three 7sometimes four7  
corrupting influences 7sava   srava7 are
 enumerated--of lust 7kma71 of life1 of 
ignorance1 7of  delusion47    ,most     

important to be got rid of are the ten  
fetters 7sayojana1 p4 #de7  binding a   
man to existence3--    #a4 ,belief in   
the existence of a personal self or ,ego
 7sakkya-dihi72  #b4 ,doubt 7viikits72  
#c4 ,ceremonial practices 7slabbata     
la-vrata72  #d4 ,lust or sensuality     
7kma72 #e4 ,anger 7paigha72 #f4 ,craving
 for life in  a material form 7rpa-rga7 
either on earth or in heaven2 #g4       
,longing for  immaterial life 7arpa-rga7
 in the higher heavens2 #h4 ,pride      
7mna72 #i4  ,self-exaltation            
7auddhatya72 #aj4 ,ignorance4 ,of these1
 #a1 #c1 and #d1 with  dihi1 #8wrong    
belief1' are the four constituents of   
,updna1 #8clinging  to existence' 7p4   
#aji74    ,the seven jewels of the law  
7p4 #di7 are--#a4 the five              
contemplations or  reflections2 #b4 the 
four right exertions 7p4 #ej72 #c4 the  
four paths to  supernatural power 7p4   
#ej72 #d4 the five moral forces 7p4     
#ej72 #e4 the  right use of the five    
organs of sense2 #f4 the seven limbs of 

knowledge  7p4 #ej72 #g4 the eightfold  
path 7p4 #dd74    ,the five above-named 
reflections are--#a4 on the thirty-two  
impurities of  the body2 #b4 on the duty
 of displaying love 7,maitr7 towards all
 beings2  #c4 on compassion for all who 
suffer2 #d4 on rejoicing with all who   
rejoice2 #e4 on absolute indifference   
7upeksh7 to joy or sorrow4 ,these       
contemplations 7bhvan7 in ,buddhism take
 the place of prayer4 ,the last  is the 
highest4 ,the first is also a           
,sati-pahna 7p4 #di74 ,they must not  be
 confused with the meditations 7,dhynas1
 p4 #bji74    ,then come six 7or ten7   
transcendent virtues called ,pramits1   
#8leading  to the further shore1' for   
,arhats4 ,these1 too1 every             
,bodhi-sattva had to  practise before he
 could attain ,buddhahood4 ,they        
were3--#a4 ,generosity or  giving 7,dna7
 to all who ask1 even the sacrificing of
 limbs or life for  others2 this is most
 important2 #b4 ,virtue or moral conduct
 7la72 #c4  ,patience or tolerance      

7,kshnti72 #d4 ,fortitude or energy     
7,vrya72 #e4  ,suppression of desire    
7,nekkhamma  naishkmya71 or1 according  
to some1  profound contemplation2 #f4   
,transcendental wisdom 7,paa  ,praj74   
,to  which are added--#g4 ,truth        
7,satya72 #h4 ,steadfast resolution     
7,adhishhna72  #i4 ,good-will or        
kindness 7,maitra72 #aj4 ,absolute      
indifference or  imperturbability or    
apathy 7,upeksh71 resulting in a kind of
 ecstatic  quietude4    ,this kind of   
memorial tabulation in lists of #d1 #e1 
#g1 #h1 #aj1 etc41 is of  course a      
product of later ,buddhism4    ,i now   
give examples from the ,dharma-pada3--  
#8,by oneself is evil done2 by oneself  
is one injured2 by oneself is evil  left
 undone2 by oneself is one purified2 no 
one purifies another4'  7,compare ,manu 
,,iv4 #bdj47    #8,better than dominion 
over the earth1 better than going to    
,heaven1 or  having sovereignty over the
 worlds1 is the attainment of the first 
step  in sanctification4'    #8,not to  

commit evil1 to accumulate merit by good
 deeds 7kusalassa  upasampad71 to purify
 the heart1 this is the doctrine of the 
,enlightened' 7#afe1 #agh1 #ahc74       
#8,as a frontier town is guarded#eb     
within and without1 so guard  thyself4' 
7,dh4 #cae47    #8,he who holds back    
rising anger like a rolling chariot1 him
 ,i call a  real driver2 any other      
merely holds the reins4' 7,dh4 #bbb4    
,compare ,manu  ,,ii4 #hh47    #8,let a 
man overcome anger by gentleness1 let   
him overcome the evil by  good2 the     
parsimonious by liberality1 the liar by 
truth4' 7,dh4 #bbc4 ,manu  ,,vi4 #dg1   
#dh47    #8,the fully enlightened finds 
no satisfaction even in heavenly        
pleasures2  but only in suppression of  
desires4'    #8,one by one1 little by   
little1 moment by moment1 a wise man    
frees  himself from personal impurities 
as a refiner blows away the dross of    
silver4' 7,dh4 #ahg1 #bci47    #8,there 
is a treasure laid up in the heart1 a   
treasure of charity1  purity1           

temperance1 soberness4 ,a treasure1     
secure1 impregnable1 that no  thief can 
steal2 a treasure that follows after    
death4 7,compare ,manu ,,iv4  #bda47    
,universal science1 all the perfections1
 supernatural knowledge1  supreme       
,buddhaship itself this treasure can    
procure4' 7,childers'  ,nidhi-ka47      
,the following are some of the blessed  
states described in the                 
,mahmagala-sutta4 ,they prove that      
,gautama required married men to        
discharge their duties faithfully4      
#8,the succouring of mother and father1 
the cherishing of child and wife1  and  
the following of a peaceful calling1    
this is the greatest blessing'  7magalam
 uttamam74    #8,the giving alms1 a     
religious life1 aid rendered to         
relations1 blameless  acts1 this is the 
greatest blessing4'    #8,reverence and 
humility1 contentment and gratefulness1 
the hearing of  the ,law at the right   
time1 this is the greatest blessing4'   
#8,patience and lowly speech1           

association with religious men1         
recitation  of the ,law at the right    
time1 this is the greatest blessing4'   
#8,self-mortification and chastity1     
discernment of the noble truths1        
perception of ,nirva1 this is the       
greatest blessing4'    ,in the ,aguttara
 7,,ii4 iv4 #b7 it is said that no      
adequate return can be  made by children
 to parents #8even by menial service4'  
,with ,gautama1 to  honour father and   
mother was better than to worship the   
gods of heaven4    ,many other examples 
might be given4 ,not only was a man     
forbidden to  kill1 he was never to     
injure4    ,then in the ,rjovda ,jtaka  
we have the story of the one king #8who 
overcomes the strong by strength1 the   
soft by softness1 the good by  goodness1
 and the wicked by wickedness2' and of  
the other king #8who  conquers anger by 
calmness1 the wicked by goodness1 the   
stingy by gifts1  the liar              
7alika-vdinam7 by truth4'    ,other     
precepts require a man to exercise      

charity and respect towards all  aged   
persons1 teachers1 servants1 and        
animals4 ,he was to set an example  of  
self-sacrifice4    ,it is recorded of   
,gautama ,buddha that on one occasion he
 plucked out his  own eyes1 and that on 
another he cut off his own head1 and    
that on a  third he cut his own body to 
pieces to redeem a dove from a hawk4    
,yet we repeat that with all this       
apparently sublime morality no true     
idea of sin1 as displeasing to a ,holy  
,god1 was connected with the  infraction
 of the moral code4 ,nor did a ,buddhist
 always avoid harming  others from any  
true reverence for life4 ,he was to     
cherish the life of  others1 but his    
chief motive was the fear that by not   
doing so he would  entail the misery of 
continuous life on himself2 and his     
chief motive  for avoiding anger was    
that it was incompatible with that      
equanimity1  which ought to characterize
 every wise man who aimed at the        
extinction  of his own personality4     

,the ease with which charitable acts    
might be performed is amusingly         
illustrated by a story told in ,huc's   
travels in ,tibet4 ,a certain zealous   
fellow-traveller 7who considered that it
 was quite possible to be at the  same  
time a good ,buddhist and a good        
,christian7 invited the ,french         
missionaries to co-operate with him in  
performing charitable acts to           
commemorate the termination of a        
fatiguing journey1 especially by        
providing worn-out travellers1 like     
themselves1 with horses4 ,the           
missionaries pleaded their own poverty1 
but to their surprise were told  that   
they were only required to draw horses  
on paper1 which were taken  to the edge 
of a precipice1 thrown up into the air1 
and1 certain  formularies being recited1
 were carried away by the wind and      
changed  into real horses by the power  
of ,buddha4    ,let us by no means1     
however1 shut our eyes to the           
praiseworthy feature  of the ,buddhist  

system mentioned at page #abe--;its     
recognition of the need  of inner purity
 and sanctification--an inner ,buddhism 
of the heart1  without which even a monk
 was no true ,buddhist4 ,of course the  
,law could  be observed superficially   
without any real heart-belief or        
heart-purity4    ,when the inner        
heart-condition of a ,buddhist is       
described1 he is said to  be walking on 
one of four paths 7attro ,magg71 and is 
then called  ,ariyo 7 rya71 #8worthy of 
reverence' 7distinguished from          
,pithag-jana1  #8an ordinary professing 
,buddhist'74 ,to avoid confounding these
 paths  with the eightfold path 7p4 #dd7
 it would be better to speak of them as 
four stages of inner sanctification4    
,dhyna1 #8meditation1' of four  kinds1  
is the chief means of entering and      
passing through these stages  7p4 #cb71 
which once entered can never be         
abandoned4    ,the first stage is that  
of the man--be he monk or layman--who is
 just  converted1 by an inner awakening1

 to true heart-,buddhism4 ,this man has 
freed himself from the first three      
fetters--namely1 delusion of self1      
doubts about the ,buddha's doctrine1 and
 dependence on external rites 7p4       
#abg74 ,he is called ,sotpanno1 #8one   
who has entered the stream'             
7,srota-panna71 inevitably carrying him 
onwards--though not necessarily  in the 
same body--to the calm ocean of ,nirva1 
and his state is called  ,sotpatti4 ,he 
can only be re-born as a god or man1 but
 not in the four  lower births 7p4      
#aba74    ,mark that the doctrine of    
#8perseverance' is a remarkable feature 
in this  phase of the ,buddhist system4 
,the second stage is that of the man who
 has nearly freed himself from  the     
first five fetters1 but has a sufficient
 number left to cause one  more birth on
 the earth4 ,he is called ,sakad-gm     
7,sakid-g74    ,the third stage is that 
of the man who is quite free from the   
first five  fetters4 ,such a man can    
only be re-born in a ,brahm heaven1 from

 which  he reaches ,nirva4 ,he is       
therefore called ,an-gm1 #8one who will 
not  come back to earth4'    ,the fourth
 stage is that of the completely freed  
man who attains  ,arhatship 7,arahatta7 
in this life1 and will at death         
experience no  re-birth4 ,there is1 of  
course1 a difference between one who has
 only  just entered each stage of the   
journey and one who has reached the     
terminus4 ,and this ,arhatship is open  
to all 7even to women71 though only     
likely to be attained by true monks or  
true nuns4 ,the name ,arhat 7,pli       
,arah1 in ,ceylon ,rahat71 #8most       
deserving' 7root arh71 is significant   
of the highest merit2 for the ,arhat is 
perfect1 freed from all pain            
7nishklea71 from all the ten fetters1   
from all attachment to existence        
7updna7 whether on earth or in heaven1  
and from all re-creative  ,act-force4   
,he has already entered ,nirva1 and     
while still living he is  dead to the   
world4 ,he is the ,jvan-mukta1          

#8emancipated living man1' of  the      
,yoga4 ,by the force of the fourth      
,dhyna1 he has gained the ,abhijs       
7,abhi71 or #8transcendent faculties of 
knowledge1' the inner eye1  inner ear1  
knowledge of all thoughts1 and          
recollection of previous  existences1   
and the extraordinary powers over matter
 called ,iddhi 7  iddhi74 ,in short he  
is ,asekha1 #8one who has nothing to    
learn4'    ,although1 theoretically1 a  
layman and even beings existing in other
  spheres1 might enter the stream       
leading to ,arhatship 7see p4 #ij7      
without  becoming monks1 yet it is      
evident that as a rule it was only      
likely to  be entered by persons who    
renounced the world and led a celibate  
monastic life4    ,but of ,arhats there 
are three grades3--    ,first1 the      
simple ,arhat 7described above71 who has
 attained perfection  through his own   
efforts and the doctrine and example of 
a supreme  ,buddha1 but is not himself  
such a ,buddha1 and cannot teach others 

how to  attain ,arhatship1 though he    
associates with others4    ,secondly1   
and second in rank1 but far above the   
simple ,arhat1 the  ,pratyeka-,buddha or
 ,solitary ,saint1 who has attained     
perfection for  himself and by himself  
alone1 and not as a member of any       
monastic ,order1  nor through the       
teaching of any supreme ,buddha 7except 
in some former  birth74 ,this solitary  
hermit-like ,arhat--a kind of           
concentration of  isolated or selfish   
sanctity--is symbolized by a rhinoceros4
 ,he does not  appear on earth at the   
same time with a supreme ,buddha1 and   
has not the  same epithets 7p4 #bc7     
applied to him4    ,thirdly1 the supreme
 ,buddha or ,buddha par excellence 7once
 a  ,bodhi-sattva71 who1 having by his  
own self-enlightening insight attained  
perfect knowledge 7sambodhi71 and       
having1 by the practice of the          
transcendent virtues 7p4 #abh7 and      
through extinction of the passions and  
of all desire for life1 become entitled 

to that complete extinction of  bodily  
existence 7pari-nirva71 in which the    
perfection of all  ,arhatship must end1 
has yet delayed this consummation that  
he may become  the ,saviour of a        
suffering world--not in the same manner 
as the ,god-sent  ,saviour of           
,christianity1 but by teaching men how  
to save themselves4  ,this is the       
supreme ,buddha1 the founder of the     
whole monastic ,order1  immeasurably    
superior both to ,pratyeka-,buddhas and 
to all mere ,arhats4    ,he said of     
himself 7,mah-vagga ,i4 #f1 #h71--#8;,i 
am the all-subduer  7sabbbhibh72 the    
all-wise2 ,i have no stains2 through    
myself ,i possess  knowledge2 ,i have no
 rival 7paipuggalo72 ,i am the chief    
,arhat--the  highest teacher2 ,i alone  
am the absolutely wise 7,sambuddha72 ,i 
am the  ,conqueror 7,jina72 all the     
fires of desire are quenched 7stibhto7  
in  me2 ,i have ,nirva 7nibbuto74' ,see 
p4 #db of this volume4    ,this seems a 
marvellous assumption on the part of one

 who never claimed  to be other than a  
man2 yet he had taken the idea from     
,brhmanism1 which  held that its saints 
could surpass all gods 7,brahm only     
excepted74    ,such supreme ,buddhas1   
who are perfect knowers1 and also       
perfect teachers  of the truth1 are only
 manifested on the earth at long        
intervals of  time4    ,gautama is the  
fourth ,buddha of the present age       
7,bhadra-,kalpa74 ,he was a  ,kshatriya2
 his three mythical                     
predecessors--,kraku-handa1             
,kanaka-muni1  and ,kyapa--having been  
sons of ,brhmans4 ,he is to be followed 
by the  fifth ,buddha1 ,maitreya 7a name
 meaning #8full of love towards all     
beings'71 but not until the doctrine of 
,gautama has passed out of men's  memory
 after five thousand years 7p4 #aha74   
,in their previous existences  ,gautama 
and his predecessors were1 7see pp4 #ih1
 #aab17 ,bodhi-sattvas#ec1  #8beings who
 have knowledge 7derived from intellect7
 for their essence1'  a name borne by   

all destined to become supreme ,buddhas 
as well as by the  first of ,gautama's  
successors1 ,maitreya4    ,this coming  
,buddha is1 as we shall see hereafter1  
an object of universal  reverence among 
later ,buddhists of all sects as a kind 
of expected  ,messiah or ,saviour4      
,often1 indeed1 he is more honoured than
 ,gautama  himself1 because he is       
interested in the present order of      
things1 as  well as in the future1 while
 ,gautama ,buddha and all his           
predecessors  have passed away into     
non-being4    ,twenty-four mythical     
,buddhas 7the first being ,dpakara1     
#8,light-causer'7  are held to have     
appeared#ed before ,gautama in preceding
 cycles of  time4 ,many particulars     
about them are given1 including their   
birth-places1 the length of their lives 
and their statures4 ,gautama  himself is
 said to have met some of them during   
his transmigrations4  ,even the trees   
under which they achieved supreme wisdom
 are enumerated4    ,sometimes the last 

six of the twenty-four are reckoned with
 ,gautama  ,buddha as constituting seven
 principal ,buddhas#ee1 who seem to have
  been grouped together to correspond   
with the ,brhmanical seven ,manus of    
the present ,kalpa4 ,usually1 however1  
,gautama is held to be the last of      
twenty-five ,buddhas4    ,clearly1 then1
 the principal lines of ,buddhist moral 
teaching all  converge to one focus--to 
the perfected ,arhat or rather to a     
still  brighter point of light in the   
perfect ,buddha waiting for his         
reward--the  nectar of the eternal state
 of complete ,nirva4    ,and this       
compels us to attempt some explanation  
of ,nirva4 ,in the first  place         
forty-six synonyms of it are given in   
the ,abhidhnappadpik1 e4g4  ,mokkha or  
,mutti1 #8deliverance1' ,nirodha1       
#8cessation1' ,tahakkhaya               
7tish-kshaya71 #8destruction of lust1'  
,arpa1 ,khema1 ,kevala1 ,apavagga1      
#8emancipation1' ,nibbuti 7 nirviti71   
#8quietude1' ,amata 7,amita71           

#8deathless nectar4'    ,the following  
is from ,rhys ,davids' ,jtaka 7p4 #d73  
#8,one day the wise  ,sumedh fell       
a-thinking1 thus3--8,grievous is        
re-birth in a new existence1  and the   
dissolution of the body in each         
successive place where we are  re-born4 
,i am subject to birth1 to decay1 to    
disease1 to death4 ,it is  right1 being 
such1 that ,i should strive to attain   
the great deathless  ,nirva1 which is   
tranquil1 and free from birth1 decay1   
sickness1 grief1  and joy4    #88,for as
 in this world there is pleasure--the   
opposite of pain--so where  there is    
existence there must be its opposite1   
the cessation of  existence2 and as     
where there is heat there is also cold  
which  neutralizes it1 so there must be 
a ,nirva that extinguishes 7the fires   
of7 lust and the other passions2 and as 
in opposition to a bad and evil         
condition there is a good and blameless 
one1 so where there is evil  ,birth     
there must also be ,nirva1 called the   

,birthless1 because it puts  an end to  
all re-birth4    #88,just as a man who  
has fallen into a heap of filth1 if he  
beholds afar  off a great pond covered  
with lotuses of five colours1 ought to  
seek  that pond1 saying1 #8,by what way 
shall ,i arrive there8' but if he does  
not seek it1 the fault is not that of   
the pond2 even so where there is  the   
lake of the great deathless ,nirva40'   
,what1 then1 is the proper definition of
 ,nirva 7,pli ,nibbna78 ,in  venturing  
on an explanation of so controverted a  
term1 ,i feel rather  like a foolhardy  
person walking barefoot over thorny     
ground4  ,nevertheless ,i may fearlessly
 assert two things about it4    ,the    
first is1 that the term ,nirva was not  
originated by ,gautama4 ,it  was an     
expression common to both ,brhmanism and
 ,buddhism1 and most of  its synonyms   
such as moksha1 apavarga1 and nirviti   
are still common to  both4 ,it was      
current in ,gautama's time1 and         
certainly occurs in the  ,mah-bhrata1   

parts of which are of great antiquity4  
,in the celebrated episode of that poem 
called ,bhagavad-gt#ef1 ,v4 #bd1  we    
find the following3--    #8,that ,yog   
who is internally happy1 internally     
satisfied and internally  illumined1    
attains extinction in the ,supreme      
,being1 and becomes that  ,being' 7,yo  
'ntasukho #8ntarrmas tathntarjyotir eva 
ya1  ,sa ,yog  ,brahma-nirva#eg         
,brahma-bhto 'dhigahati74    ,the second
 point is that it would be about as     
unreasonable to expect  that ,nirva     
should always be explained in one way as
 to restrict  ,brhmanism and            
,buddhism--two most elastic1            
comprehensive1 and ,protean  systems1   
which have constantly changed their     
front to suit changing  circumstances   
and varying national peculiarities at   
different epochs and  in different      
countries--to one hard and fast outline4
    ,it is certainly singular that      
although the term ,nibbna 7,sanskit     
,nirva7--like some of the crucial       

theological terms of ,christianity--has 
led to endless discussions1 it does not 
occur often in the ,pli texts4  ,the    
word ,arahattam1 #8,arhatship1' is more 
common4    ,nirva1 of course1 originally
 means #8the state of a blown-out       
flame4'  ,hence its first meaning is    
properly restricted to the complete     
extinction of the three chief fires#eh  
of lust1 ill-will1 and delusion1  and a 
total cessation of all evil passions and
 desires#ei1 especially  of the desire  
for individual existence 7name and      
form74    ,following on this is the     
state of release from all pain and from 
all  ignorance1 accompanied by a sense  
of profound rest--a state achieved by   
all ,arhats while still living in the   
world#fj1 and notably by the  ,buddha at
 the moment when he attained            
,buddhahood1 forty-five years  before   
his final ,pari-nirva4 ,nirva then is   
not necessarily the  annihilation of all
 existence4 ,it is the absence of klea  
7p4 #abd71 as  in the ,yoga system1 and 

corresponds very much to the ,brhmanical
  ,apavarga1 described in the ,nyya1 and
 defined by a commentator1  ,vtsyyana1  
to be ,sarva-dukha-heda 7#8the cutting  
off of all pain'74 ,in  short1 it is    
,arhatship4    ,but besides ,nirva we   
have the expression ,pari-nirva4 ,this  
is not  merely the blowing out of the   
fires of the passions but also the      
entire  cessation of re-births1 with    
extinction of all the elements or seeds 
of  bodily existence4 ,this took place  
when the ,buddha died or #8passed away' 
after innumerable previous deaths4      
,practically1 however1 in ,buddhism the 
death of every ordinary being amounts to
 this kind of ,nirva2 for1 if  there is 
no recollection of any former state of  
existence in the new  being created by  
,karma1 what is every death but utter   
personal  extinction8    ,now with      
regard to the ,nirva of ,arhatship1 no  
one can have come in  contact with the  
natives of ,india in their own country1 
without  observing that for a genuine   

aristocratic ,brhman to allow others to 
see  him give way to any passion1 to    
exhibit any emotion or enthusiasm1 is   
regarded as a proof of weakness4    ,we 
can easily understand1 therefore1 that  
when the ,buddha exhorted his  followers
 to strive after a wholly impassive     
condition1 he addressed a  sympathetic  
audience4    ,long before his           
exhortations were heard in ,india1 his  
fellow-countrymen  held persons in the  
highest respect who claimed to have     
entirely  suppressed their passions4    
,the only peculiarity in ,gautama's     
teaching  was that he made this object  
incumbent on all true ,buddhists alike1 
without exception4 ,and this state of   
absolute imperturbability is well       
indicated to the eye by the usual       
attitude of the images which1 after     
,gautama's death1 were carved to        
represent him--an attitude of           
passionless  composure1 and dignified   
calm4    ,in the interesting ,pli work  
,milinda-prana 7,milinda-paho71         

containing  a conversation on the       
subject of ,nirva between ,king ,milinda
 7,menander7  and the monk ,ngasena     
7supposed to have lived about #adj      
,b4,c471 the  latter compares it to the 
pure water which quenches fire1 and to  
the  fathomless ,ocean freed from       
trouble and impurities1 which no river1 
however vast1 can fill to overflowing2  
and to the ,air1 which cannot be  seen  
or explained1 though it enters our      
bodies and fills us with life2  and to  
,space1 which is eternal and infinite1  
and beyond the power of man  to         
conceive4    ,i trust ,i shall not shock
 my ,indian friends if ,i illustrate    
this  condition by a comparison of my   
own drawn from the animal creation4 ,in 
crossing the ,indian ,ocean1 when       
unruffled by the slightest breeze1 ,i   
have sometimes observed a jelly-fish    
floating on the surface of the          
transparent water1 apparently lifeless4 
,the creature is evidently  neither     
asleep nor awake4 ,it certainly is not  

thinking about anything1  and its       
consciousness is doubtful4 ,all that can
 be affirmed about it is  that it seems 
to be drinking in the warm fluid in a   
state of lazy  blissful repose4    ,no  
,buddhist1 at least1 could look at such 
a sight without being reminded  of this 
idea of ,nirva--the idea of1 so to      
speak1 floating in perfect  repose and  
peace and cessation from all pain1 and  
all work1 and even all  thought1 on a   
kind of ocean of half conscious1 half   
unconscious  beatitude4 ,it is not      
consciousness1 neither is it            
unconsciousness4 ,it is  symbolized by a
 full-blown1 perfectly formed lotus--a  
frequent emblem of  perfection--reposing
 on a calm mirror-like lake4    ,with   
regard to ,pari-nirva#fa--the complete  
termination of migrations  and passing  
away of all the elements of bodily      
existence--if this is to  be            
distinguished from the ,brhmanical idea 
of absorption into an  impersonal       
spirit--whereby the ,ego of personal    

identity is destroyed--it  is a         
distinction without much difference4    
,strictly1 however1 in ,buddhism the    
dissolution of the body leaves no       
surviving personality or individuality1 
and consequently ,pari-nirva is  not    
properly described either as absorption 
into a void 7nya7 or as  annihilation4  
,it is simply the absolute termination  
of a series of  conscious bodily        
organizations4 ,the ,buddha himself     
evaded dogmatic  definitions1 and would 
probably have said3--it is not life1    
neither is it  non-life2 it may be      
compared to infinite space 7nya7 which  
is not to  be comprehended or explained4
    ,we should also bear in mind that   
although ,nirva and ,pari-nirva         
constitute the ultimate goal to which   
all the morality of a true  ,buddhist   
tends1 they have no place either in the 
aims or thoughts of the  ordinary       
adherents of ,buddhism at the present   
day4    ,the apex of all the desires1   
the culminating point of all the        

ambition  of the most religiously-minded
 ,buddhists of modern times1 points to a
  life in one of the heavens1 while the 
great mass of the people aim only  at   
escaping one of the hells1 and elevating
 themselves to a higher  condition of   
bodily existence in their next birth on 
this earth1 and  perhaps on that very   
part of this earth which is the scene of
 their  present toils1 joys1 and        
sorrows4    ,it only remains for me to  
caution those who may be impressed with 
the  beauty of some of the precepts of  
the moral code and its theory of        
perfection1 as ending in ,pari-nirva1   
against deducing therefrom too          
optimistic an estimate of the ,buddhist 
system4 ,buddhist morality is like  a   
showy edifice built on the sand4 ,it is 
a thoroughly fair-weather  structure1   
incapable of standing against flood1    
storm1 and tempest4    ,it may be summed
 up in a few words as a scheme for the  
establishing of a  paradox--for the     
perfecting of one's self by accumulating

 merit with the  ultimate view of       
annihilating all consciousness of       
self--a system which  teaches the       
greatest respect for the life of others1
 with the ultimate  view of             
extinguishing one's own4    ,it must1 in
 short1 be clearly understood that if   
any comparison be  instituted between   
,buddhism and ,christianity in regard to
 the  self-abnegation1 or self-sacrifice
 which each claims to inculcate1 the    
self to be got rid of in ,buddhism is   
not the selfishness condemned by        
,christianity1 but rather the self of   
individuality--the self of  individual  
life1 and personal identity4    ,to be  
righteous in a ,christian sense a man   
must be ,god-like1 and to be  righteous 
in a ,buddhistic sense a man must be    
,buddha-like2 but the  righteousness of 
the ,buddhist is not the perfection of  
holiness by the  extinction of sin      
committed against ,god1 but the         
perfection of  merit-making1 with the   
view of earning happiness for himself in

 a higher  state hereafter4    ,for     
every ,buddhist is like a trader who    
keeps a ledger1 with a regular  debtor  
and creditor account1 and a daily entry 
of profit and loss4    ,he must not     
take1 make1 or hoard money4 ,he is      
forbidden to store up a  money-balance  
in a worldly bank1 but he is urged to be
 constantly  accumulating a             
merit-balance in the bank of ,karma4    
,in conclusion1 let the ,buddha enforce 
his own moral teaching in his own  way1 
by allegory and illustration drawn from 
real life3--,when asked by a  ,brhman   
#8why he did not plough and sow and earn
 his own bread8' he  replied to the     
following effect3 #8,i do plough and sow
 and eat immortal  fruit 7,amata        
,amita72 my plough is wisdom 7pa72 my   
shaft is  modesty2 my draught-ox1       
exertion2 my goad1 earnest meditation   
7sati72 my  mind1 the rein4 ,faith      
7saddh7 in the doctrine is the seed ,i  
sow2  cleaving to life is the weed ,i   
root up2 truth is the destroyer of the  

weed2 ,nirva and deliverance from misery
 are my harvest4'  7,kasi-bhradvja-sutta
 of the ,sutta-nipta47    ,this may be  
compared with ,st4 ,luke viii4 #aa-ae2  
but have we not here a  contrast rather 
than a comparison8    ,perhaps some may 
think that the contrast is not          
unfavourable to  ,buddhism4 ,nay1       
possibly some may complain that ,i have 
not enlarged  sufficiently on the       
remarkable resemblance between certain  
moral  precepts in the ,buddhist code   
and in the ,christian4 ,i admit this    
resemblance--,i admit that both tell    
us3--not to love the world2 not to  love
 money2 not to show enmity towards our  
enemies2 not to do  unrighteous or      
impure acts--to overcome evil by good1  
and to do to others  as we would be done
 by4    ,nay1 ,i admit even more3--,i   
allow that some ,buddhist precepts go   
beyond  the corresponding ,christian    
injunctions4 ,for ,buddhism prohibits   
all  killing--even of animals and       
noxious insects4 ,it demands total      

abstinence  from stimulating            
drinks--disallowing even moderation in  
their use4 ,it  excludes all who aim at 
perfect sanctity from the holy estate of
  matrimony4 ,it bids a man1 if he      
strives after perfection1 abandon the   
world and lead a life of monkhood4 ,in  
fine1 its morality is essentially  a    
monkhood-morality4 ,it enjoins total    
abstinence1 because it dares not  trust 
human beings to be temperate4 ,how      
indeed could it trust them when  it     
promises them no help1 no divine grace1 
no restraining power8    ,the glory of  
,christianity is that having freely     
given that grace and  that power to man1
 it trusts him to make use of the gift4 
,it seems to  speak to him thus3--,thy  
,creator wills to trust thee and to be  
trusted by  thee2 ,he has endowed thee  
with freedom of choice1 and therefore   
respects  thy liberty of action4 ,he    
imposes no rule of total abstinence in  
regard  to natural desires2 ,he simply  
bids thee keep them within bounds1 so   

that  thy moderation may be known unto  
all men2 ,he places thee in the world   
amid trials and temptations and says to 
thee1 #8,my grace is sufficient  for    
thee' and by its aid thou mayest        
overcome them all4    ,yes1 the grand   
difference between the morality of      
,buddhism and the  morality of          
,christianity is not in the letter of   
the precepts1 but in  the principle and 
motive power brought to bear on their   
application4    ,buddhism says3--,be    
righteous by yourselves1 and through    
yourselves1 and  for the getting rid of 
all life in yourselves4 ,christianity   
says3--,be  righteous through the power 
of ,god's gift of eternal life in ,his  
,son4 ,in  a word1 ,buddhism founds its 
morality on self4 ,christianity founds  
its  morality on ,christ4    ,the       
,buddha said to his followers3--,take   
nothing from me1 trust to no one  but to
 yourselves4    ,christ said1 and says  
to us still3--,take all from me2 take   
this free  gift4 ,put on this spotless  

robe4 ,eat this ,bread of ,life4 ,drink 
this  ,living ,water4    ,think you that
 any one who receives a priceless gift1 
is likely  willingly to insult the      
,giver of it8 ,think you that any one   
who accepts  a snow-white robe is likely
 willingly to soil it by impure acts8   
,think  you that any one who tastes     
life-giving ,bread is likely to relish  
husks8  or that any one who draws deep  
draughts at a living ,well is likely to 
prefer the polluted water of a stagnant 
pool8    ,beware1 then1 of judging by   
the mere letter2 or1 should you insist  
on so  judging1 bear in mind that       
everywhere the ,buddha's ,law is a dead 
letter1  because the ,buddha is dead2   
just as the ,sermon on the ,mount would 
be a  dead letter1 if ,christ were dead4
    ,finally1 let me say to the admirers
 of ,buddhism3--    ,if you insist on   
placing its moral code on the same level
 with that of  ,christianity1 ask       
yourselves one plain question--,who     
would be the more  likely to lead a     

godly1 righteous1 and sober life1 a life
 of moderation  and temperance1 a life  
of holiness and happiness--the man who  
has learnt  his morality from the dead1 
the extinct ,buddha1 or the man who     
draws his  morality and his holiness    
from the living1 the eternal1 the       
life-giving  ,christ8                   
,,lecture ,,vii4          ,changes in   
,buddhism and its disappearance from    
,india4      ,in the preceding ,lectures
 ,i have confined myself chiefly to the 
consideration of what may be called true
 ,buddhism as taught by its  ,founder   
and developed by his immediate followers
 and disciples during  the first two or 
three centuries of its existence in the 
land of its  birth1 ,india4    ,to      
attempt an explanation of all the       
subsequent phases of ,buddhism  would1  
as ,i have before stated1 require the   
command of unlimited time4  ,all ,i can 
hope to accomplish in the concluding    
,lectures is to give a  very general    
idea of the nature of the changes       

,buddhism underwent before  it died out 
in ,india1 and of its corruptions in    
some of the countries  bordering on     
,india and in ,north-eastern ,asia4     
,and ,i may add that those who desire   
correct views on this subject1 ought    
not to trust to mere inferences and     
theories founded on a critical  perusal 
of the so-called ,sacred ,books of the  
,buddhists4 ,for it is  certain that    
without any practical experience of what
 ,buddhism has  become in modern        
times--,i mean such an experience as can
 only be gained  by residing or         
travelling in countries where ,buddhism 
now prevails--the  mere study of its    
ancient scriptures is likely to be      
misleading4    ,at the same time        
book-knowledge is indispensable1 and it 
is essential to  bring to the study of  
later ,buddhism a scholarlike           
acquaintance with  ,sanskit and ,pli4   
,even a knowledge of ,tibetan ought to  
be added4 ,nor  ought the inquirer to be
 ignorant of the science of comparative 

religion1 seeing that the principles of 
that science may throw light on  many   
difficult questions4    ,for example1 a 
student of comparative religion will be 
prepared to  expect that all religious  
systems will diverge more or less from  
their  original type in the hands of    
enthusiastic disciples1 who are ever    
inclined to amplify their master's      
teaching and to explain it  differently 
according to each man's peculiar        
temperament and mental  bias1 until in  
the end the original deposit of simple  
doctrine becomes  overlaid with layer   
upon layer of adventitious matter4      
,nor will he be surprised to find that  
the tendency of every religious         
movement is towards deterioration and   
disintegration4 ,nor will it appear     
strange to him that the chief           
conservative force is antagonism4 ,as   
time  goes on disagreements among the   
followers of any great leader seem to be
  inevitable1 and always lead to        
sectarian divisions and subdivisions4   

,yet  it is this opposition of religious
 parties that usually operates to       
mitigate the worst extremes of          
corruption1 and tends to bring about    
re-forming movements4    ,even the      
progress of ,christianity--as history   
shows too well--furnishes  illustrations
 of the law of deterioration1           
disintegration1 and  re-formation4 ,at  
all events1 it is certain that no study 
of the ,new  ,testament is likely to    
give a true idea of the varying         
condition of the  ,christian religion as
 exhibited at the present day in        
different parts of  the world4    ,but  
here it is important to caution the     
student of religions against  forcing a 
comparison between two systems of       
doctrine like ,christianity  and        
,buddhism1 which are radically and      
essentially opposed to each other4      
,the unchristianlike incrustations and  
divisions which have marred the         
original teaching of the ,head of our   
religion exist in spite of              

,christianity4 ,they are not the result 
of any development of its first         
principles2 whereas1 on the contrary1   
the corruptions and schisms of          
,buddhism are the natural and inevitable
 outcome of its own root-ideas  and     
fundamental doctrines4    ,in proof of  
this let us revert for a moment to the  
insight we have  gained into the origin 
of ,buddhism4    ,it will be seen that  
the most remarkable feature of the      
,buddha's  teaching1 so far as it has   
been stated in the preceding ,lectures1 
was  that he altogether ignored the     
existence in human nature of any        
spiritual aspirations1 affections1 or   
instincts higher than or distinct  from 
the natural aspirations1 affections1 and
 instincts of humanity2 and  of any     
force outside of human nature capable of
 aiding a man's own  efforts in his     
struggle for salvation4 ,not that he    
reviled1 or poured  contempt on the     
religion prevalent among his            
fellow-countrymen1 but that  he found no

 place in his system for an external    
,ruler and ,controller of  the          
,universe1 and would have stultified his
 own teaching had he  acknowledged a    
,supreme ,creator1 guiding and upholding
 all things by ,his  will1 and always at
 hand to co-operate with ,his creatures 
and listen to  their supplications4     
,if it were possible1 in short1 to      
condense into a categorical statement   
the scattered utterances of a man whose 
teaching was rarely dogmatic1 we  might 
affirm that it was to the effect that   
for any man to depend on a  ,being      
higher than himself1 or to centre the   
noblest affections of his  nature on a  
merciful1 just1 and holy ,god1 whose    
presence he yearned for1  whose aid he  
prayed for1 and to whose image he longed
 to be  assimilated--was a mere         
delusion1 though perhaps a harmless one4
 ,he  therefore set aside every supposed
 supernatural revelation as useless  and
 incapable of proof4 ,he prescribed no  
prayer1 he enjoined no form of  worship1

 he established no real church1 and     
instead of a priesthood or  clergy1     
ordained to aid men in their progress   
heavenwards or to console  them in the  
trials of life1 he founded an ,order of 
,monks pledged to  denounce human life  
as not worth living1 and bound to       
abstain from all  participation in human
 affairs4    ,it is true that he        
deserves commendation for having        
substituted moral  conduct for useless  
superstitious rites1 but his moral code 
had no other  aim than the suppression  
of lusts and desires 7p4 #aci1 note #b71
 and his  peculiar stoical philosophy   
had no other object than the removal of 
the  ignorance which obstructed the path
 to true knowledge--the knowledge that  
all life is fraught with pain and       
misery1 and not worth perpetuating4     
,it is admitted1 too1 that its moral    
precepts were of a high order2 but  it  
promised man no divine aid in observing 
them1 it supplied him with no  motive   
power except the selfish hope of        

benefiting himself in future  states of 
corporeal existence1 and it provided no 
remedy in case his  attempts to obey its
 injunctions ended in failure4 ,how1    
indeed1 could it  do any of these things
 when its only idea of sin was not the  
infraction  of ,god's law1 but the      
commission of an act fraught with evil  
consequences to the doer8               
,furthermore1 it was guilty of the      
inconsistency of bidding a man cherish  
a fellow-feeling for others and         
diligently engage in all good works1    
while it made his true salvation depend 
on his giving up all love for  wife and 
children1 and setting before himself1 as
 his final goal1 a  condition of        
absolute indifference and inactivity4   
,what1 therefore1 ,i am at present      
concerned to point out is that1 if the  
essential doctrines of primitive        
,buddhism were of the character thus    
summarized1 a rebound from one extreme  
to another became inevitable1 and  that 
such a reaction was due to the very     

nature of the original teaching  of its 
,founder4 ,in point of fact it was not a
 development that took  place1 but a    
recoil--like the recoil of a spring held
 down for a time by  a powerful hand and
 then released4 ,and this resulted from 
the simple  working of the eternal      
instincts of humanity1 which insisted on
 making  themselves felt notwithstanding
 the unnatural restraint to which the   
,buddha had subjected them2 so that     
every doctrine he taught developed by  a
 kind of irony of fate into a complete  
contradiction of itself4    ,let us take
 a few examples3--    ,buddhism1 we     
know1 started with the doctrine that all
 idea of marriage1  or of happy         
home-life1 was to be abandoned by wise  
men--by all who aimed  at becoming true 
,buddhists 7in direct contradistinction1
 we may note1 to  the primary ,christian
 truth that it is not good for created  
man to be  alone1 and that therefore his
 ,creator created a help meet for him--a
  truth confirmed in a remarkable manner

 by the ,founder of the ,christian      
,church when ,he gave the first sign of 
,his divine commission at a  marriage   
ceremony74    ,what1 then1 followed on  
the ,buddha's original unnatural        
teaching in  regard to marriage8    ,of 
course an immediate result was that1    
although according to the  ,buddha's    
ordinance any one who aimed at perfect  
sanctity was bound to  lead a celibate  
life1 the rule against marriage was     
admitted to be  inapplicable to the     
majority of human beings living in the  
world4 ,the  mass of the people1 in     
short1 were necessarily offenders       
against the  primary law of ,buddhism4  
,though called lay-,buddhists1 they were
 not  #8wise men' in the ,buddhist sense
 of the term 7pp4 #hf1 #hh74 ,there is  
even  evidence that among certain       
monkish communities in ,northern        
countries  the law against marriage was 
soon relaxed4 ,it is well known that at 
the  present day ,lamaseries in ,sikkim 
and ,tibet swarm with the children of   

monks1 though called their nephews and  
nieces#fb4 ,and far worse than  this1   
,buddhism ultimately allied itself with 
,tntrism or the worship of  the female  
principle 7akti71 and under its sanction
 encouraged the  grossest violations of 
decency and the worst forms of          
profligacy4    ,it was the same in      
regard to the unnatural vow of poverty4 
,monasteries  and ,lamaseries now       
possess immense revenues1 and monks are 
often wealthy  men4    ,then again1 what
 resulted from the ,buddha's ignoring   
the existence of a  ,god1 and telling   
his disciples to abstain from depending 
on any ,being  higher than what man     
himself could become8 ,of course this   
was opposed to  every man's innermost   
sense of his own needs and of his own   
nature4 ,for  man is so constituted that
 he cannot be happy without loving and  
trusting a ,being higher than himself--a
 ,being who takes the initiative in     
loving ,his creatures and is the proper 
object of their loftiest  affections4   

,nor can man in his secret heart regard 
either himself or any  one of his       
fellow-men as a being worthy of his     
highest adoration4 ,nor  can he set his 
affections on a blank or an abstraction4
 ,and so1 in spite  of the ,buddha's    
teaching1 his followers would act on    
their own  convictions4 ,they would     
believe in beings higher than           
themselves1 and in  a personal ,creator 
knowable and lovable by themselves1 and 
knowing and  loving ,his creatures4     
,nay1 they ultimately converted the     
,buddha himself  into the very ,god he  
denied1 calling him #8,the chief god of 
all the gods'  7,devtideva74    ,again1 
what was the effect of the ,buddha's    
leading men to believe that  all        
supernatural revelation was             
unneeded--that all enlightenment came   
from within1 and that every man was     
competent to think out true  knowledge  
for himself by the exercise of his own  
reasoning powers1 in  the way that the  
,buddha himself had done8    ,of course 

the result was that the generality of   
men who shrank from the  effort of      
thinking out truth for themselves1 and  
were wholly destitute  of any faculty   
for doing so1 insisted on believing in a
 revelation from  an external power1 and
 ended in attributing infallibility to  
the  ,buddha's own teaching1 and        
worshipping the ,law of ,buddhism--as a 
visible  embodiment of their deceased   
teacher--with all the ardour of         
enthusiastic  bibliolatrists4           
,furthermore1 what followed on the      
,buddha's denying that any prayer1      
however earnest1 could have any power to
 modify the operation of natural  laws8 
,of course men longed for some form of  
supplication to a higher power1  and so 
the ,buddha's disciples not only        
composed prayer-formularies1 but        
invested the mere letters and syllables 
of such forms with an efficacy  which no
 other body of religionists has ever    
thought of attributing to  prayer of any
 kind4    ,they not only repeated       

mystical sentences1 which were called   
prayers1  though really mere charms1    
believing that an occult virtue was     
inherent  in the words1 but invented a  
method of manufacturing such sentences  
7,dhra7 like marketable commodities4    
,they fabricated prayers1 in fact1 by   
machinery1 inscribing them on  wheels or
 on rolls inserted in cylinders1 which  
in the present day are  made to revolve 
by hand or by the force of water and    
wind1 and will  possibly1 with the      
spread of science1 be impelled by       
steam-power1 so  that each revolution   
may count for an infinite number of     
repetitions1  and be set down to the    
credit of the owner or manager of the   
mechanism4    ,yet again1 what was the  
inevitable consequence of the ,buddha's 
rejection  of the doctrine that any     
benefit could accrue to human beings    
from  religious services conducted by   
regularly ordained priests1 and of his  
instituting in their stead an ,order of 
,monks1 who were little better  than a  

community of drones1 contributing       
nothing to the wealth of the  world1    
doing nothing of any utility to any one1
 and taught to regard  inaction as the  
path of true wisdom8    ,naturally1 men 
craved for spiritual helpers1 guides1   
and intercessors1  and so by degrees    
these very monks conducted elaborate    
religious  services1 and a complicated  
hierarchy was organized in ,tibet1 even 
more  intricate and far-reaching in its 
ramifications than that of the modern   
,romish ,church4    ,and once more1 what
 resulted from the ,buddha's objection  
to provide  visible images and material 
objects of worship1 with a view to      
stimulate  devotion or aid meditation8  
,of course concrete and objective       
,buddhism of some kind became a         
necessity4 ,it became essential to make 
concessions to the weakness and         
infirmity of human nature1 which        
required external aids1 and declined to 
be devoted to an ideal void1 or to      
meditate on a pure abstraction4 ,even   

the ,founder of ,buddhism himself seems 
to have felt1 as we shall see1  that his
 hold on the memory of his followers    
would depend on their  venerating       
certain objects and symbols after his   
death4 ,unhappily for  the purity of    
,buddhism1 but quite in conformity with 
the inveterate  tendencies of humanity1 
the ,buddha's disciples pushed          
veneration of  external objects to an   
extreme4 ,they were not contented with  
mere  reverence shown to the relics of  
the ,buddha's burnt body and the shrines
  containing them4 ,they worshipped the 
tree under which he attained            
,buddhahood1 the seat on which he sat1  
the prints of his feet1 his shadow      
supposed to be impressed on rocks1 the  
utensils he used1 the books  containing 
the ,law1 the wheel which symbolized    
both the propagation and  the character 
of his doctrine1 and finally bowed down 
before carved  representations of his   
body and images of all kinds4 ,it is    
remarkable  that in ,buddhist countries 

idols are far more numerous than among  
any  other idolatrous people in the     
world4    ,lastly1 what resulted from   
the ,buddha's teaching that the ultimate
 end  to which men's efforts ought to be
 directed was ,nirva--that is1 the      
total extinction of all individual      
existence and personal identity8    ,of 
course men instinctively recoiled from  
utter self-annihilation1 and  so the    
,buddha's followers ended in changing   
the true idea of ,nirva and  converting 
it from a condition of non-existence    
into a state of hazy  beatitude in      
celestial regions1 while they encouraged
 all men--whether  monks or laymen--to  
make a sense of dreamy bliss in heaven1 
and not total  extinction of life1 the  
end of all their efforts4    ,but it was
 not only this natural and inevitable   
recoil to the opposite  extreme that    
ultimately brought about an entire      
change in primitive  ,buddhism4 ,another
 cause must also be taken into account4 
,we have already explained the nature of

 the tie which bound ,buddhism to       
,brhmanism1 from the first day on which 
,gautama sat as a disciple at the  feet 
of the ,brhman philosophers ,udraka and 
ra 7p4 #bi74 ,now1 although  this tie   
was soon loosened1 and although the     
,buddha struck out a line of  his own1  
and a separation took place1 yet the two
 systems stood on so  much common ground
 that they were always ready to draw    
together again4    ,at all events1 it is
 probable that one system never expelled
 the other1  and that the constant      
attrition and contact which took place  
between  ,brhmanism and ,buddhism1 led  
to a considerable splitting up of the   
original fabric of ,buddhism1 involving1
 of course1 many divisions and          
subdivisions of ,buddhistic thought1    
some of which were closely allied to    
the later developments of ,brhmanical   
philosophy4    ,in the                  
,sarva-darana-sagraha four principal    
sects of ,buddhism are  enumerated1     
which must have taken root early on     

,indian soil4    ,these four were the   
,vaibhshika1 ,sautrntika1 ,mdhyamika1   
and ,yogra4  ,of these the first two    
with their subdivisions#fc were         
realistic1 and  were established--though
 not perhaps thoroughly formulated and  
systematized--in very early times1 long 
before the council of ,kanishka2  while 
the two later schools are described as  
idealistic1 the ,mdhyamika  being a     
,buddhistic form of the ,vednta         
philosophy1 and the ,yogra  agreeing    
generally with the ,yoga system4        
,indeed there is good evidence that     
,buddhism developed in ,india a greater 
number of schools and phases of thought 
than ,brhmanism itself4 ,some           
authorities enumerate eighteen divisions
 7corresponding perhaps to the  eighteen
 original disciples1 pp4 #dg-gc7 which  
existed in king ,kanishka's  time--that 
is1 in the first century of our era1    
while others specify  thirty-two2 and in
 the fourth century we find the ,chinese
 traveller  ,f-hien 7p4 #afj7 making    

allusion to as many as ninety-six 7,dr4 
,legge's  translation1 p4 #fb74    ,we  
cannot wonder then that the author of   
the ,sarva-darana-sagraha  expressed    
himself in rather strong language to the
 following effect3--    #8,though the   
venerated ,buddha be the only one       
teacher1 his disciples are  manifold2   
just as when the sun has set1 the thief 
and other evil doers1  the theological  
student and others understand that it is
 time to set  about their occupations1  
according to their several              
inclinations4'    ,yet1 after all1 it   
was chiefly in the ,north1 and in       
consequence of the  council held by     
,kanishka1 ,india's greatest ,buddhist  
king after ,aoka#fd  7see p4 #fi71 that 
the original features of ,buddhism      
underwent the  greatest change and      
became overlaid with coating after      
coating of  extraneous matter4 ,it was  
there1 in ,northern regions1 in the     
valley of  the ,indus1 that the ,protean
 system called ,mah-yna arose1 and grew1

 by  the operation of the usual laws of 
accretion1 conglomeration1              
disintegration1 and reintegration1 into 
a congeries of heterogeneous  doctrines1
 including the worship of               
,bodhi-sattvas1 deified saints1 and     
personal gods4    ,naturally the        
adherents of this wider method spoke    
disparagingly of the  simpler system    
prevalent in the ,south1 whose sacred   
books were the  ,tri-piaka of ,ceylon   
written in the ancient vernacular       
7,pli74 ,that  system they designated   
,hna-yna1 #8the defective method1' not  
denying  however that their own enlarged
 system grew out of and included the    
simpler one4    ,there arose1 too1 a    
third method1 or #8vehicle' of          
salvation1 called #8the  middle method' 
7,madhyama-yna74 ,this1 however1 is not 
so well known1  and1 being a compromise 
between the other two1 never gained many
  adherents1 though it is still         
recognized in ,tibet--the ,tibetans     
often  speaking of ,tri-yna1 or #8the   

three vehicles4'    ,at all events1 it  
is only necessary for practical purposes
 to recognize  the distinction of the   
,great and ,little ,vehicle--the        
,mah-yna#fe and  the ,hna-yna4 ,and it  
may be stated generally that the        
inhabitants of  ,nepl1 ,tibet1 ,china1  
,manchuria1 ,mongolia1 and ,japan have  
always shown a  preference for the      
,mah-yna1 or #8,great ,vehicle1' while  
the people of  ,ceylon1 ,burma1 and     
,siam have always preferred the         
#8,little ,vehicle4'    ,at the same    
time1 it is important to note that while
 the ,buddhists of  ,northern countries 
are supposed to be disciples of the     
,mah-yna or  ,great ,way of ,salvation1 
the ,buddhism of each ,northern country 
differs  greatly from that of the other1
 and that the countries nearest to      
,india  have still further complicated  
the ,mah-yna system by adopting mystical
  doctrines1 and introducing magic and  
other practices supposed to aid in  the 
acquisition of supernatural powers4     

,it must also be borne in mind that1    
although the ,mah-yna or ,great  ,method
 originated on the ,indus1 and the      
,hna-yna or ,little ,method1 on  the    
,ganges1 the two streams of teaching    
were not always confined to  these two  
areas1 even on ,indian soil4    ,in     
point of fact they were often           
intermixed1 and the changes thus        
brought about in ,buddhism will become  
more evident by referring to the        
narratives of three well-known ,buddhist
 travellers from ,china4    ,buddhism   
was introduced into ,china between #eh  
and #ge of our era#ff1 but  it was not  
till much later that ,chinese pilgrims  
visited ,india--the holy  land of       
,buddhism4    ,the first traveller of   
whom we have any record was a certain   
,chinese  ,buddhist monk named ,f-hien1 
who set out on a pilgrimage to ,india   
about  the year #cii of our era1 with   
the definite object of searching for and
  carrying back to ,china complete      
copies of the ,vinaya or ,rules of      

discipline for the ,order4 ,he wrote a  
very simple and straightforward  account
 of his travels#fg--which lasted for    
fourteen years--and of his  visits to   
all the spots in ,india held most sacred
 by ,buddhists4 ,he was  followed by a  
,chinese traveller of less mark1 named  
,sang ,yun1 who  started about #eah     
,a4,d41 and seems to have ended his     
journey at ,peshawar1  or at least not  
to have penetrated much further ,south4 
,peshawar1 we  know1 was a great        
,buddhist centre1 and there was a fine  
,stpa there1  containing the alms-bowl  
of ,buddha4 ,then after another interval
 a much  more celebrated ,chinese       
pilgrim named ,hiouen ,thsang#fh started
 for  ,india 7,a4,d4 #fbi-fdd74 ,the    
narrative of his travels for about      
fifteen  years is perhaps the best known
 and most commonly quoted of the three4 
,in ,chang ,yueh's preface#fi to these  
travels ,hiouen ,thsang is described  as
 #8a ,doctor of the three ,piakas1 and  
is said to have translated #feg  works  

from the original ,sanskit4 ,in all the 
districts through which he  journeyed he
 learnt the dialects and investigated   
the deep secrets of  religion4'    ,all 
three travellers give information in    
regard to the prevalence of  ,buddhism  
in ,india up to the seventh century of  
our era1 and the  narratives of         
two--,f-hien and ,hiouen ,thsang--are   
invaluable for the light  they throw on 
the changes which ,buddhism underwent in
 the interval of  their travels4 ,here  
and there the pilgrims exaggerate1      
especially when  they venture on        
numerical statistics or write from      
hearsay2 but on the  whole their        
accounts may be accepted1 and we learn  
that ,hiouen ,thsang  found some        
monasteries in ruins which were         
flourishing in ,f-hien's  time1 and that
 the ,mah-yna had supplanted the earlier
 form of  ,buddhism1 or rather          
co-existed with it in many parts of the 
,south as  well as of the ,north1 and   
was to be found even in ,ceylon#gj4     

,and this brings us face to face with   
the greatest change of all--the  total  
dying out of ,buddhism in the place of  
its origin4 ,how is it to be  accounted 
for that no adherents of either the     
greater or lesser ,buddhist  systems--of
 either the ,mah-yna or ,hna-yna--are to
 be found in ,india at  the present     
moment8    ,the problem is difficult of 
solution1 and ,i can only offer a few   
suggestions for its elucidation4    ,in 
the first place1 ,i think it may be     
confidently asserted that the           
disappearance of ,buddhism from ,india  
was a very gradual process1 and         
unattended by any serious or violent    
religious revolution4    ,we have       
already alluded to the tolerant1        
liberal1 and eclectic spirit  which has 
characterized ,buddhism ever since the  
period of its first  promulgation at    
,benares4    ,such toleration of the    
doctrines and ideas of co-existing      
systems had  its advantages1 especially 
in the early stages of the ,buddhistic  

movement4 ,it certainly had a           
prophylactic effect in warding off      
violent  attacks1 and helped to promote 
the diffusion of ,buddhism throughout   
the  numerous countries to which it     
ultimately spread4 ,in ,india itself1 as
 we  have already seen1 ,buddhism was   
never aggressive or combative4 ,its     
motto  everywhere was persuasion and    
conciliation4 ,composure1 tranquillity1 
and  absence of acrimony were stamped on
 all its features4 ,the very  foundation
 on which it was reared--the very       
establishment of a celibate  monastic   
,order1 by means of which true knowledge
 was to be  propagated--had in it       
something altogether agreeable to the   
spirit and  usages of ,brhmanism4    ,we
 have seen1 too1 that the ,buddha took  
care to show his respect for            
,brhmanical traditions1 even while      
promulgating a philosophical theory  and
 preaching doctrines opposed to all     
sacerdotalism1 priestly  privileges1    
supernatural revelation1 and ,vedic     

ceremonial4    ,it does not1 of course1 
follow that the great teacher1 to whom  
the  majority of ,asiatic races have for
 centuries looked as their chosen       
example1 had not the courage of his     
opinions1 and was not competent to  fill
 the rle of a religious reformer4       
,the real fact was that he was too wise 
to enter upon any open crusade  against 
inveterate customs and ideas4 ,the      
peculiar calm of an ,indian  atmosphere1
 though occasionally disturbed by       
political storms sweeping  from distant 
regions1 has rarely been stirred by     
violent religious  antagonisms4 ,the    
various currents of ,hind religious life
 have flowed  peacefully side by side1  
and reformers have generally done their 
work  quietly4 ,as for ,gautama1 there  
can be little doubt that his whole      
career  was stamped with the impress of 
his early surroundings1 and that he     
imbibed his tolerant ideas from the     
,brhmanism in which he had been         
trained4    ,it has been usual to blame 

the ,brhmans for their arrogant         
exclusiveness1 but their arrogance has  
been rather shown in magnifying  their  
own caste-privileges and carrying them  
to an extravagant pitch1  than in       
preventing any discussion of their own  
dogmas1 or in resenting  any dissent    
from them4    ,the very essence of      
,brhmanism was tolerance4 ,every form of
 opinion was  admissible under a system 
which made every person and every object
 in  existence manifestations of the one
 ,being1 ,brahm4    ,the only delicate  
ground1 on which it was dangerous for   
any reformer to  tread1 was caste4 ,the 
only unpardonable sin was infringement  
of  caste-rules4 ,nor was any one       
tempted to adopt the rle of a violent   
agitator1 when all were free to express 
any opinion they liked without          
hindrance1 provided they took care to   
abstain from any act of  interference   
with caste-privileges4    ,it does not  
appear1 in short1 that the preachers of 
either ,buddhism1 or  ,vaishavism1 or   

aivism1 or ktism1 or of any form of     
these sectarian  systems1 ever incurred 
the special animosity of the ,brhmans or
 of each  other1 or ever indulged in    
very violent denunciations of each      
other's  religious doctrines4    ,in    
real truth1 these systems of doctrine   
were all evolved out of  ,brhmanism4    
,they were1 therefore1 not only         
tolerated by ,brhmanism1 but  accepted  
as the inevitable outcome of its own    
pantheistic creed4    ,no doubt each    
received at first a strong stamp of     
individuality from its  founder1 marking
 it off from other systems1 but with the
 lapse of years  the deeper shades of   
difference grew fainter4 ,then it became
 a question  which should become merged 
in the other4 ,in such a competition    
between  rival systems ,buddhism had    
less chance of holding its own than     
either  ,vaishavism or aivism2 for its  
root-ideas--as we have seen--were not   
rooted in the eternal instincts of human
 nature4    ,buddhism1 in fact1 could   

never have maintained itself in ,india  
till the  twelfth or thirteenth century 
of our era1 had it not gradually1 and to
 a  great extent through interaction    
with ,vaishavism and aivism1 dropped    
its unnatural pessimistic theory of life
 and its unpopular atheistic  character1
 and accommodated itself to those       
systems4    ,but ,buddhism in parting   
with its ultra-pessimism and its        
atheistic and  agnostic ideas1 lost its 
chief elements of individuality and its 
chief  independent stand-point4         
,vaishavism1 on the other hand1 was     
quite alive to its own interests1  and  
had an eye to the spread of its own     
doctrines4 ,it took care to adopt  all  
the popular features of ,buddhism4 ,it  
vied with ,buddhism in  inculcating     
universal love1 toleration1 liberality1 
benevolence1 and  abstinence from       
injury4 ,it preached equality1          
fraternity1 and even in  some cases the 
abolition of caste distinctions4 ,it    
taught a succession  of incarnations or 

rather descents 7,avatra#ga7 of divine  
beings upon  earth 7as ,buddhism taught 
a succession of ,buddhas71 and it even  
adopted  the ,buddha himself as one of  
the incarnations of ,vishu4    ,this1   
indeed1 is the best explanation of what 
has happened at ,pur in  ,orissa1 where 
a temple once dedicated to ,gautama     
,buddha1 and supposed to  contain a     
relic of his burnt body1 was afterwards 
dedicated to the  ,jagannth form of     
,kisha and supposed to enshrine one of  
his bones1 and  where low-caste and     
high-caste both eat together the food   
cooked in the  house of that popular    
god4    ,the same may be said of the    
interaction which took place between    
,buddhism and aivism2 for aivism1 of    
course1 was quite as bent on the        
propagation of its own creed as other   
systems were4 ,it vied with  ,buddhism  
in encouraging abstract meditation1 and 
although it had less  sympathy than     
,vaishavism had with that system1 it    
approached in some  respects so closely 

to its rival1 that when ,buddhism       
disappeared from  ,india1 images of     
,gautama were converted into            
representations of iva  seated in       
profound contemplation4    ,ultimately1 
the interaction between the three       
systems proceeded to such  a point that 
each was influenced and modified by the 
other2 each learnt  something1 or       
adopted some practice from the other4   
,it was thus1 too1 that ktism1 i4 e4 the
 worship of energy or force  7akti71    
identified with iva's consort1 was      
imported into ,buddhism2 its  doctrine  
of the self-evolution of all things from
 ,prakiti having much  that harmonized  
with the ,buddhist theory of the origin 
of the ,universe4  ,thus1 too1 even     
,tntrism in its worst forms became      
intermixed with  ,buddhistic practice4  
,enough1 then1 has been said to justify 
the assertion that ,buddhism was  not   
forcibly expelled from ,india by the    
,brhmans4 ,it simply in the             
end--possibly as late as the thirteenth 

century of our era--became blended  with
 the systems which surrounded it1 though
 the process of blending was  gradual4  
,it would certainly be easy to prove    
from the records of the three  ,chinese 
travellers1 that ,buddhism and          
,brhmanism existed together in          
,northern and ,central ,india as quite  
distinct systems till at least the      
seventh century of our era1 if not      
always quite amicably1 yet without  any 
violent internecine conflict4 ,bitter   
controversies between the two  rival    
creeds are without doubt clearly alluded
 to1 and ,f-hien in one  passage states 
that #8the ,brhmans with their contrary 
doctrine became  full of hatred and envy
 in their hearts#gb4' ,yet1 on the other
 hand1 we  find that at a ,council held 
by the great ,buddhist king ilditya     
7,harsha-vardhana71 whose meritorious   
acts are fully described by ,hiouen     
,thsang 7ch4 v71 and who had his capital
 at ,kanouj1 in the year #fcd of  our   
era#gc1 controversial points relating to

 both ,buddhism and  ,brhmanism were    
discussed in a tolerant spirit1 though  
it is said that  in discussing questions
 between the ,northern and ,southern    
,buddhists1 the  #8,little ,vehicle' was
 condemned4    ,again1 the ,buddhist    
drama called ,ngnanda1 #8joy of the     
snake  world#gd1' throws great light on 
the amicable relations existing  between
 the various sectarians and religionists
 in the days of king  ilditya4 ,it is   
the only ,sanskit play in which the ,nnd
 or opening  prayer invokes the power of
 ,buddha1 thus3--    #88,on whom dost   
thou meditate1 putting on a pretence of 
religious  abstraction1 yet opening     
thine eyes8 ,see1 saviour that thou art1
 thou  dost not pity us sick with the   
shafts of ,love4 ,falsely art thou      
compassionate4 ,who is more cruel than  
thou80 ,may ,buddha1 the conqueror1  who
 was thus jealously addressed by the    
,apsarasas 7daughters7 of ,mra  7p4     
#cd71 protect you6'    ,professor ,e4   
,b4 ,cowell has shown in his valuable   

,preface that both this  play and the   
sister ,hind play called ,ratnvali were 
probably put forth  or at least         
patronised by ,harsha-vardhana          
7ilditya71 and that both  were probably 
acted at the same period1 the king being
 as much a ,hind  as a ,buddhist4       
,hiouen ,thsang praises ,harsha-vardhana
 for his support of  ,buddhism1 but in  
his description of the two ,convocations
 held by that  king1 states that both   
,buddhists and ,brhmans were equally    
honoured by  him1 and intimates that    
half his subjects held one doctrine and 
half the  other4 ,in the second         
,convocation which took place at ,prayga
 7now  ,allahbd7 eighteen kings were    
present and #ejj1jjj monks and laymen4  
,on  the first day the statue of ,buddha
 was installed2 on the second day that  
of the ,sun1 and on the third that of   
iva4 ,alms were distributed to  ,brhmans
 and ,buddhists alike1 and even to the  
,nirgranthas or ,jaina naked  heretics4 
,again the well-known play called       

,mlat-,mdhava 7by ,bhava-bhti1 who      
lived at ,kanauj in the beginning of the
 eighth century7 has an opening  prayer 
addressed to iva1 and yet a female      
,buddhist ascetic and her  attendant    
constitute two of the principal dramatis
 person1 proving that  an intermixture  
of the two creeds prevailed everywhere4 
,it was also during the reign of ilditya
 that the immense monastery at  ,nlanda 
near ,rja-giha formed a seat of         
learning1 which might suggest a         
comparison with the learned monkish     
communities and even with the           
universities of medival ,europe#ge4 ,in 
that monastery might be seen  several   
thousand novices and monks of the       
eighteen ,buddhist schools--all  of them
 supported by royal grants1 and thus    
enabled both to perform  their religious
 duties1 and to prosecute the study of  
philosophy1 law1  and science in        
literary ease4 ,it is probable that if  
disputes and  disagreements upon burning
 questions occurred1 they rarely led to 

serious conflicts1 and were not general 
throughout ,india1 but confined  to     
particular localities2 and ,i think it  
may be safely affirmed that if          
,buddhism was ever anywhere persecuted1 
it never anywhere persecuted in  return4
    ,i myself was much struck in a visit
 ,i paid to ,ellora in the ,nizm's      
territory by the evidence ,i there saw  
of the friendly tolerance which  must   
have prevailed between ,brhmans1        
,buddhists1 and ,jains4 ,brhmanical1    
,buddhist1 and ,jaina caves are there   
seen side by side1 and their inmates  no
 doubt lived on terms of fairly friendly
 tolerance1 much as the  members of the 
,anglican1 ,roman ,catholic1 and        
,wesleyan communions live in  ,europe at
 the present day4    ,even at ,benares1 
the stronghold of ,brhmanism1 ,i        
witnessed similar  proofs of amicable   
mutual intercourse1 and at ,nsik--the   
,benares of  ,western ,india--the       
proximity of the ,buddhist caves and    
ruined monasteries  which ,i visited1   

made it abundantly clear that ,brhmans  
and ,buddhists  agreed to differ and to 
avoid serious quarrels4    ,it must     
nevertheless be admitted1 that in the   
extreme ,south of ,india1  and perhaps  
eventually at ,benares and a few other  
strongholds of  ,brhmanism1 the         
difference between the systems became so
 accentuated as  to lead to grievous    
conflicts4 ,whether blood was shed it is
 impossible  to prove2 but it is        
alleged1 with some degree of            
probability1 that  violent crusades     
against ,buddhism were instituted by    
,kumrila and  akara--two well-known     
,southern ,brhmans noted for their      
bigotry--in the  seventh and eighth     
centuries of our era4 ,it does not      
appear1 however1  that they were very   
successful either in the conversion or  
extermination  of ,buddhists4    ,it    
may1 ,i think1 be confidently affirmed  
that what ultimately happened  in most  
parts of ,india was1 that ,vaishavas and
 aivas crept up softly  to their rival  

and drew the vitality out of its body by
 close and  friendly embraces1 and that 
instead of the ,buddhists being expelled
 from  ,india1 ,buddhism gradually and  
quietly lost itself in ,vaishavism and  
aivism4 ,in fact1 by the beginning of   
the thirteenth century very little      
,buddhism remained on ,indian soil4 ,in 
a philosophical drama1 called #8the     
,rise of the ,moon of ,knowledge'       
7,prabodha-androdaya71 written probably 
about the twelfth century1 the          
approaching triumph of ,brhmanism over  
,buddhism is clearly indicated2 for the 
,buddhist and other heretical  sects are
 represented as belonging to the losing 
side4    ,yet1 after all1 it is scarcely
 correct to say that ,buddhism ever     
wholly  died away in ,india4 ,its name  
indeed perished there1 but its spirit   
survived1 and its sacred places remain  
to this day4 ,its ruined temples1       
monasteries1 monuments1 and idols are   
scattered everywhere1 while some  of    
these have been perpetuated and adopted 

by those later phases of  ,hindism which
 its own toleration helped to bring into
 existence4    ,at all events it may be 
safely affirmed that the passing away of
 the  ,buddhistic system in ,india was  
on the whole like the peaceful passing  
away of a moribund man surrounded by his
 relatives1 and was at least  unattended
 with any agonizing pangs#gf4           
,,lecture ,,viii4               ,rise of
 ,theistic and ,polytheistic ,buddhism4 
,in the preceding ,lecture we have      
endeavoured to show generally how       
,buddhism was evolved out of ,brhmanism1
 how it flourished side by side  with   
,brhmanism1 and how after a chequered   
career and protracted  senility in the  
land of its birth--lasting for at least 
fifteen  centuries#gg--;it ultimately   
merged its individuality in ,vaishavism 
and  aivism1 or1 in other words1        
disappeared and became lost in a        
composite  system called ,hindism4      
,we have now to trace more closely the  
gradual sliding of a simple  agnostic   

and atheistic creed1 into a variety of  
theistic and  polytheistic conceptions4 
,we have already seen how the expansion 
of the ,hna-yna into the  ,mah-yna      
became an inevitable result of the      
,buddha's own teaching--in  other words1
 how a rebound from atheism to theism   
was as unavoidable as  the return swing 
of a heavy pendulum4 ,we need only      
repeat here that it  could not have been
 otherwise1 when a teacher1 who never   
claimed to be  more than a man1         
attempted to indoctrinate his human     
followers with  principles opposed to   
the inextinguishable instincts and      
eternal  intuitions of humanity4    ,in 
fact the teachers of the ,mah-yna school
 were not slow to perceive  that1 if    
,buddhism was to gain any hold over the 
masses1 it was essential  that it should
 adapt itself to their human needs4 ,it 
became imperatively  necessary1 as a    
simple preservative measure1 to convert 
a cold  philosophical creed1 based on an
 ultra-pessimistic theory of existence1 

into some sort of belief in the value of
 human life as worth living4 ,and  if   
life was not to be an invariable current
 of misery it followed that  there must 
also be some sort of faith in a         
superintending ,god  controlling that   
life1 and interesting ,himself in ,man's
 welfare4    ,unfortunately1 having once
 advanced beyond definite limits1 the   
more  progressive teachers found it     
impossible to draw the line at any given
  point4    ,no doubt the theistic      
movement began by simple                
saint-worship--that is1 by  veneration  
for the extinct ,buddha as for a perfect
 saint4 ,this was  accompanied by homage
 offered to his relics and to various   
memorials of  his person4    ,then mere 
veneration and homage led to actual     
worship1 and the ,buddha1  who from     
first to last made his own perfect      
humanity an essential  principle of his 
teaching1 became elevated to a pinnacle 
far above  humanity and converted into a
 veritable god4    ,next1 it is easy to 

see that a further development of the   
theistic  movement became inevitable4   
,for indeed it was only natural that in 
process of time some of the more        
eminent of the ,buddha's followers      
should become almost equally revered    
with himself4 ,it was not1 however1 till
 some time after their death that  they 
received any homage resembling that     
accorded to their ,master4    ,it was   
then that1 instead of being thought of  
as extinct1 according to  the orthodox  
,buddhist doctrine1 they were           
continually elevated in the  imagination
 of their admirers to heavenly regions  
of beatitude4    ,of course this        
constant increase of saint-worship      
tended to land men by  degrees in a mass
 of theistic and polytheistic           
conceptions4    ,and polytheism could   
not prevail in ,eastern countries       
without its usual  reverse              
side--polydemonism2 and polydemonism    
could not prevail without  its usual    
adjuncts of mysticism and magic4 ,and   

all of these again  entailed idolatry1  
relic-worship1 fetish-worship1 and      
various other  gross superstitions4     
,such was the natural termination of the
 process of degeneration4 ,let us  now  
trace it more in detail4    ,and in the 
first place it must not be forgotten    
that ,gautama himself  seems to have    
foreseen this result4    ,he seems to   
have been quite aware of the            
ineradicable tendency inherent  in the  
nature of human beings1 impelling them  
to elevate their saints  and heroes to  
the position of gods4 ,he therefore took
 pains to make his  beloved disciple and
 cousin nanda understand that the truth 
embodied in  the ,dharma or ,law which  
he had taught1 was all that ought to    
take his  place and represent him when  
he was gone4    ,accordingly we learn   
from ancient inscriptions that for many 
years  afterwards the only allowable    
object of veneration among primitive    
,buddhists was the ,law--that is1 the   
precepts1 rules1 and ordinances         

propounded by ,gautama himself--many of 
which may have been committed to        
writing in early times1 though oral     
transmission was at first the usual     
rule1 as it was among ,brhmans4    ,in  
time1 however1 the interconnexion       
between ,brhmanism and ,buddhism1  and  
the tendency to group sacred objects in 
triads#gh1 which showed  itself very    
early in ,hind religious thought and    
mythology1 seems to  have led to the    
idea of a corresponding triple          
arrangement of venerated  objects among 
,buddhists4 ,hence three precious       
things--sometimes called  the three     
jewels 7tri-ratna71 or the #8three      
,holies#gi'--;came first to  be held in 
honour and then actually worshipped2 a  
kind of personality  being accorded to  
all three1 very similar to that supposed
 to belong to  the three chief gods of  
the ,hind ,pantheon4    ,this triad of  
personalities consisted of 7#a7 the     
,buddha himself1 that is  to say1       
,gautama ,buddha1 or the ,buddha of the 

present age of the world2  7#b7 his     
,dharma or ,law1 that is1 the word and  
doctrine of the ,buddha  personified1 or
 so to speak incarnated and manifested  
in a visible form  after his            
,pari-nirva2 and 7#c7 his ,sagha or     
,order of monks1 also in a  manner      
personified--that is1 embodied in a kind
 of ideal impersonation or  collective  
unity of his true disciples4    ,this   
last word1 ,sagha1 which means in       
,sanskit #8a collection' or             
#8assemblage1' is sometimes1 as we have 
already seen 7p4 #he71 very  unsuitably 
rendered by the expression #8,buddhist  
,church4' ,it simply  denotes #8the     
collective body of ,buddhist monks2'    
that is to say1 the  entire monastic    
fraternity1 comprising in its widest    
sense the whole  assemblage of monks1   
,arhats1 ,pratyeka-,buddhas1            
,bodhi-sattvas1 perfected  ,buddhas and 
not yet perfected saints of all classes1
 whether on the  earth or in any other  
division of the ,universe2 but not      

including--be it  carefully borne in    
mind--the still vaster community of     
living persons  constituting the whole  
body of the ,buddhist laity4    ,these  
three1 then1--the ,buddha1 his ,law1 and
 his ,order of ,monks1--passed  into the
 first three divine personifications of 
early theistic ,buddhism1  commonly     
known as the first ,buddhist ,triad4    
,hence we find that the ,khuddaka-pha or
 #8lesser readings#hj' of the  fifteen  
divisions of the ,khuddaka-nikya 7p4    
#fc7 begins thus3--    #8,i put my trust
 in the ,buddha1 in the ,law1 in the    
,order' 7repeated three  times74        
#8,ye beings 7,bhtni7 here assembled of 
earth and air1 let us bow1 let us  bow  
before the ,buddha1 revered by gods and 
men4 ,may there be prosperity6    #8,ye 
beings of earth and air1 let us bow     
before the ,law4    #8,ye beings of     
earth and air1 let us bow before the    
,order of ,monks4'    ,when ,f-hien was 
on his return home and in great peril at
 sea1 he  committed his life to the     

protection of the ,sagha1 saying3--#8,i 
have  travelled far in search of the    
,law1 let me1 by your dread and         
supernatural power1 return from my      
wanderings and reach my  resting-place4'
    ,and again1 on ending his travels1  
he gratefully acknowledged that he had  
been guarded in his perils by the dread 
power of the #8three honoured  ones' or 
#8three precious ones' or #8three       
,holies'--thus acknowledging the        
personality of the ,law as well as of   
the ,buddha himself and of the  ,sagha  
or collective body of ,monks#ha4    ,but
 it must be borne in mind that this did 
not necessarily imply any  worship of   
images4 ,it is certain that for a long  
time even ,buddha  himself was not      
represented visibly4 ,this is proved by 
the sculptures on  the ,bharhut ,stpa4  
,even in the present day the simple     
expression of  trust in the three       
revered ones constitutes the only       
formula of worship  current in ,ceylon4 
,it is true that images of the ,buddha  

are now common  in that country1 and    
while travelling there ,i saw numbers of
 persons  offering homage and flowers to
 these images4 ,but no prayer was       
addressed  to them1 and ,i noticed no   
visible representations of the          
personified ,law  or ,sagha#hb4    ,nor1
 when ,i was at the ,buddhist monastery 
near ,darjling1 did ,i see any  image of
 the ,law side by side with that of     
,gautama1 though every book  examined by
 me in the temple-library began with the
 words3--,namo  ,buddhya1 #8reverence to
 the ,buddha2' namo ,dharmya1           
#8reverence to the  ,law2' namo ,saghya1
 #8reverence to the ,order4' ,the only  
visible symbol  of the three so-called  
#8,holies' was a long staff with three  
prongs1 like  the ,indian ,tri-la4      
,it seems clear1 therefore1 that while1 
in process of time1 images of  ,gautama 
,buddha were multiplied everywhere--and1
 as we shall see1 in  various attitudes 
and shapes--images of the personified   
,law and ,sagha  were never common1 and 

indeed rarely found1 except among       
,northern  ,buddhists4 ,those images of 
the ,law which ,i have examined are in  
the form  of a man#hc with four arms and
 hands1 two of which are folded in      
worship1 while one holds a book 7or     
sometimes a lotus7 and the other a      
rosary#hd4    ,sometimes1 however1 the  
representation of a book alone is held  
to be a  sufficient symbol of the ,law4 
,the ,sagha1 on the other hand1 is      
generally symbolized by the image of a  
man with two arms and hands1 one of     
which1 as in the images of ,buddha1     
rests on the knees and the other holds a
 lotus4    ,and it may be observed here 
that of the three images of the ,buddha1
 the  ,law1 and the ,order1 sometimes   
one occupies the central position and   
sometimes the other4 ,this circumstance 
has led scholars to speak of what  it is
 the fashion to term a ,buddhist        
trinity2 but in real fact neither       
,buddhism nor ,brhmanism has any trinity
 in the true meaning of the term1  for  

although ,buddhists claim a kind of     
tri-unity for their triad1 and  say that
 the first contains the second1 and that
 the third proceeds from  the first two 
and contains them1 yet the first is     
clearly never regarded  as either the   
,father or ,creator of the world1 in the
 ,christian sense4    ,it appears1 in   
fact1 that the earliest ,buddhist       
worship was exactly what  might have    
been expected to follow on the death of 
a religious ,reformer  and author of a  
new system4 ,it was merely the natural  
expression of deep  reverence for the   
founder of ,buddhism1 his doctrine1 and 
the collective  body of his disciples4  
,so simple a form of worship1 however1  
did not long satisfy the  devotional    
aspirations of the ,buddha's followers1 
even in the sacred  land of pure        
,buddhism4    ,the mere offering of     
homage1 either to a system of ,law1 or  
to a  community of living monks or to   
departed human saints--even though their
  memory was kept alive by visible      

representations1 and stimulated by      
meditation and repetition of            
prayer-formularies--had in it nothing   
calculated to support or comfort men in 
seasons of sickness1  bereavement1 or   
calamity4 ,this kind of simple ,buddhism
 might have  satisfied the needs of men 
in times of peace and prosperity4 ,under
 other  conditions it broke down4 ,it   
could offer no shelter and give no help 
amid the storms and tempests of life4   
,hence the development of the later     
phases of the ,mah-yna system1 the chief
 feature of which was a marked  change  
in the meaning attached to the term     
#8,bodhi-sattva4'    ,this change will  
be better understood if we go back to   
what has already  been mentioned 7at p4 
#ih74 ,we have before explained that1   
according to  the original theory of    
,buddhism1 a ,bodhi-sattva is one who   
has knowledge  7derived from            
self-enlightening intellect7 for his    
essence2 that is1 he  is a being who    
through all his bodily existences is    

destined in some  final existence to    
become a ,buddha1 or self-enlightened   
man4 ,until his  final birth1 however1 a
 ,bodhi-sattva is a being in whom true  
knowledge  is rather latent and         
undeveloped than perfected4 ,gautama had
 been a  ,bodhi-sattva of this character
 7see p4 #acd71 the merit of whose      
actions  7,karma7 in each of his        
countless previous existences 7see p4   
#aji7 had  been transmitted to          
succeeding corporeal forms1 till in the 
state  immediately preceding his last   
birth on earth he existed as a          
,bodhi-sattva in the ,tushita heaven    
7see p4 #abj74 ,there he continued      
until the time came for him to be born  
on earth as the ,buddha of the  present 
age1 when he entered the right side of  
his mother in the form of  a white      
elephant 7p4 #bc7he4    ,and it may be  
repeated here that the white elephant1  
as something rare  and beautiful of its 
kind1 was simply symbolical of the      
perfect  ,arhatship which he was        

destined to achieve in the ensuing      
birth4    ,born1 then1 at last as the   
child ,gautama1 son of uddhodana1 and   
purified by a long observance of the six
 transcendent virtues 7p4 #abh71  he    
ultimately attained to perfect knowledge
 and ,arhatship under the  ,bodhi-tree1 
and in so attaining passed from the     
condition of a  ,bodhi-sattva to that of
 the highest of all ,arhats--a supreme  
,buddha4  ,then1 after about forty-five 
years of diligent discharge of his      
self-imposed task as a teacher of the   
right way of salvation1 he  ultimately  
passed away in ,pari-nirva1 or absolute 
non-existence4    ,it is important1     
however1 to remember1 that at the moment
 of his  attaining ,buddhahood he had   
transferred the ,bodhi-sattvaship to    
,maitreya1 #8the loving and             
compassionate one1' who became the      
,buddha-elect1 dwelling and presiding as
 his predecessor had done in the  heaven
 of contented beings 7,tushita2 see p4  
#abj74 ,there he watches over  and      

promotes the interests of the ,buddhist 
faith1 while awaiting the  time when he 
is to appear on earth as ,maitreya1 or  
the fifth ,buddha of  the present age4  
,his advent will not take place till the
 lapse of five  thousand years after the
 ,nirva of ,gautama1 when the world will
 have  become so corrupt that the       
,buddhist ,law will be no more obeyed1  
nor even  remembered4    ,no wonder then
 that this ,maitreya--whose very name   
implies love and  tenderness towards    
mankind1 and who was destined to become1
 like  ,gautama1 a ,saviour of the world
 by teaching its inhabitants how to save
  themselves--became a favourite object 
of personal worship after ,gautama      
,buddha's death4 ,even when the worship 
of other ,bodhi-sattvas was  introduced1
 ,maitreya retained the distinction of  
being the only  ,bodhi-sattva worshipped
 by all ,buddhist countries1 whether in 
the ,south  or in the ,north4 ,not that 
,gautama's memory was neglected4 ,he    
was1 of  course1 held to be superior to 

,maitreya1 who was still a mere         
,bodhi-sattva or ,buddha-designate4 ,but
 the feeling towards ,gautama  ,buddha1 
after his ,nirva and death1 became      
different1 and the object of  bringing  
flowers and offerings to his shrines was
 simply to honour the  memory of a      
departed1 not an existing saint4 ,it was
 a mere mechanical  act1 fraught with   
beneficial consequences1 but not        
supplying any real  religious need4 ,on 
the other hand actual prayers were      
addressed to  ,maitreya1 as to a living 
merciful being1 whose favour it was     
all-important to secure1 and whose      
heaven was believed to be a region of   
perfect love and contentment1 to which  
all his worshippers were  admitted4     
,in ,hiouen ,thsang's ,travels a        
heavenly ishi is represented as         
saying3--#8,no words can describe the   
personal beauty of ,maitreya4 ,he       
declares a law not different from ours4 
,his exquisite voice is soft and  pure4 
,those who hear it can never tire2 those

 who listen are never  satiated#hf4'    
,in fact1 the aspirations of few pious  
,buddhists in early times ever led  them
 to soar higher than the happiness of   
living with ,maitreya and  listening to 
his voice in his own ,tushita heaven4   
,it is true that afterwards when the    
worship of the ,dhyni-,buddha  ,amitbha 
came into vogue in ,northern countries  
this ,buddha's heaven1  called ,sukhvat1
 fabled to be somewhere in the ,western 
sky1 seems to  have taken the place of  
the heaven of ,maitreya4 ,but this      
belongs to a  later phase of ,buddhism1 
to be explained when we speak of the    
,dhyni-,buddhas 7p4 #bjc74    ,it was   
for ,maitreya's ,tushita heaven that    
,hiouen ,thsang1 and other  devout men  
of his day1 prayed on their death-beds1 
and the one ,chinese  inscription found 
at ,buddha-,gay is full of expressions  
indicative of  the same longing#hg4     
,if then1 we are able to enter into the 
feelings of ,buddhists everywhere  in   
depending on the living1 loving1 and    

energizing ,maitreya1 rather than  on   
the extinct ,buddha who existed only in 
their memories1 we shall find  it less  
difficult to understand how it came to  
pass that the idea of1 so  to speak1    
canonizing every great saint or popular 
head of a monastic  community1 and      
elevating him at death to the position  
of a ,bodhi-sattva  like ,maitreya1     
living in permanent regions of bliss1   
and able to help  his votaries to the   
same position1 came into vogue4    ,it  
may make the course of development of   
,theistic ,buddhism clearer if we  here 
revert to the early constitution of the 
,buddhist monastic  brotherhood1 and    
endeavour to show how the homage paid to
 eminent and  saint-like men led1 first 
to the multiplication of ,bodhi-sattvas1
 and  then to polytheism and every form 
of polytheistic superstition4    ,a full
 explanation of the early monastic      
system is given in the learned  work of 
,koeppen#hh4 ,it is clear that as long  
as ,gautama was alive he  was the sole  

,head of the brotherhood of monks4      
,after his death the  ,headship 7as in  
the ,christian brotherhood after the    
death of ,christ7 was  not assigned to  
any one leader4 ,the ,buddha himself    
forbade this4 ,the  term ,sagha at that 
time merely denoted a republican        
fraternity of  monks1 bound by no       
irrevocable vows and subject to no      
hierarchical  ,superior1 but all intent 
on following the example1 and           
propagating the  doctrines of their     
departed leader4 ,soon1 however1 the    
formation of  separate centres of union 
and teaching became inevitable1 and the 
term  ,sagha was then applied to each   
separate society1 and sometimes even to 
a separate ,conclave of each society1 as
 well as to the whole body4 ,it  seems  
at least certain that each monastic     
association had the right to  admit     
monks1 to hear confession1 and to       
excommunicate4 ,naturally1 too1  in     
course of time it became necessary for  
each society to have some sort  of      

governing body and choose a kind of     
president1 and this presiding  officer  
was originally the senior monk1 and     
accordingly had the simple  title of    
,sthavira 7,thera71 #8,elder4' ,this    
title appears to have been  introduced  
immediately after ,gautama's death4     
,it is believed that ever since the time
 of the great ,aoka1 ,sthaviras or      
,elders who became actual               
superintendents of monasteries1         
exercised  administrative powers1 like  
those of ,abbots2 each over his own     
monastic  community4 ,this was the first
 kind of ,headship recognized4 ,it was  
simply  a superiority of age4    ,as to 
any still higher form of authority      
corresponding to that of ,pope1         
,archbishop1 or ,bishop1 and extending  
over several monasteries1 this did  not 
belong to early ,buddhism or to its     
earliest developments4 ,lists of        
uninterrupted series of pretended       
,buddhist ,hierarchs exist1 but are mere
  fanciful fabrications4 ,nevertheless1 

it is certainly a historical fact  that 
along with the superiority of mere age1 
seniority1 and experience1  there       
rapidly grew up pari passu a superiority
 of knowledge1 learning1  and sanctity1 
which were generally1 though not        
invariably1 combined in  the person of  
the presiding ,elder4    ,any one1 in   
fact1 who was distinguished for the     
practice of the highest  degree of      
meditation1 for complete acquaintance   
with the ,law1 for  special purity of   
conduct1 and perfect fulfilment of the  
precepts1 was  naturally elevated above 
the class of ordinary ,bhikshus4 ,such a
 monk was  from the earliest times      
dignified by the title ,arhat1 #8very   
reverend1'  i4 e4 more worthy of honour 
than the generality4 ,arhat1 in short1  
was  from the first a name for the      
higher grade of saint-like ,bhikshu4    
,such a  man1 too1 before long1 was     
raised to a still higher level in the   
estimation of his fellow-monks4 ,he was 
believed to have delivered  himself from

 all the consequences of acts1 whether  
bad or good--from all  the fetters 7see 
p4 #abg7 of life1 and therefore from all
 re-birth4 ,he  was even elevated to a  
still loftier pinnacle4 ,he was believed
 by his  superstitious admirers to      
possess unlimited dominion over nature1 
space1  time1 and matter2 to be         
all-seeing1 all-powerful1 and capable of
 working  every kind of miracle4 ,then1 
of course1 at death he passed away in   
,pari-nirva and was1 so to speak1       
canonized4 ,be it noted1 however1 that  
such canonization was never accorded to 
an ,arhat till after his  departure from
 the world4    ,probably the immediate  
disciples of ,gautama ,buddha--that is1 
his  so-called #8great pupils' 7see p4  
#dg71 were all considered perfect       
,arhats4 ,and these perfect ,arhats were
 probably the only saints of the        
earliest period of ,buddhism4 ,yet there
 was one who surpassed them all by  an  
immeasurable interval1 and that one was 
,gautama ,buddha himself4 ,it  was the  

distinguishing mark of a supreme ,buddha
 that he was infinitely  greater than   
all other ,arhats1 because he had not   
only gained perfect  knowledge himself1 
but had become the ,saviour of the whole
 world by  imparting to men the         
knowledge of how they were to save      
themselves4    ,it seems1 therefore1    
only natural that the followers of      
,buddha1 and  probably the ,buddha      
himself1 before his decease1 should have
 thought it  desirable to establish a   
more systematic gradation of saintship  
by  filling up the immense gap between  
ordinary ,arhats and the supreme        
,buddha4 ,it was this that led to the   
idea of ,pratyeka-,buddhas1 that is1    
self-dependent solitary ,buddhas#hi 7see
 p4 #acd71 as well as to the  notion of 
a still higher being called a           
,bodhi-sattva1 who1 as the              
,buddha-designate and future successor  
of ,gautama1 occupied a still more      
exalted intermediate position than a    
,pratyeka-,buddha4    ,of course it     

became difficult to fix on any living   
man1 or any recently  deceased saint    
worthy of the highest stage of ,bodhi1  
to which a being  about to become a     
perfect ,buddha was supposed to attain4 
,the first to be so elevated 7though    
apparently not by ,gautama himself7     
was1 as frequently mentioned before1 the
 mythical individual ,maitreya4  ,he    
was1 we repeat1 for a long time the only
 ,bodhi-sattva recognized by  all       
,buddhists alike1 whether adherents of  
the ,hna-yna or ,mah-yna4  ,but he was  
not a historical personage1 like        
,gautama or his immediate  disciples4   
,he was a mere mythological             
personification of that spirit of       
love--of that kindly and friendly       
disposition towards all living beings   
by force of which ,buddhism hoped one   
day to conquer the world1 and win  it   
over to itself4    ,and in conformity   
with his mythical character1 and        
probably to prevent  the rivalry of     
pretenders among future ambitious heads 

of monasteries1  he was not to appear   
for five thousand years1 till the       
teaching of  ,gautama had lost its      
power4    ,indeed1 it was only to be    
expected that this rank should at first 
have  been accorded to one person       
alone--just as in worldly affairs there 
could  be only one ,heir-apparent to the
 throne4    ,such was the more simple   
doctrine of early ,buddhism in regard to
 the  relative position of the members  
of the ,buddhist community4    ,how then
 did the teachers of the ,mah-yna       
proceed to amplify this  doctrine8      
,they taught that there were two methods
 of salvation or1 so to speak1  two ways
 or two vehicles--the ,great and the    
,little 7,mah-yna and  ,hna-yna7--and   
indeed two ,bodhis or forms of true     
knowledge which these  vehicles had to  
convey#ij4 ,the former was for ordinary 
persons1 the  latter for beings of      
larger talents and higher spiritual     
powers4 ,the  #8,little ,way' was the   
simple doctrine1 which had many ,arhats 

but only one  ,bodhi-sattva2 the        
#8,great ,way1' on the other hand1 was  
the wider and  broader1 which had many  
,bodhi-sattvas as well as many ,arhats4 
,he who  satisfied the usual            
requirements of ,saintship received the 
rank of an  ,arhat in both systems4 ,but
 in the wider system every one who aimed
 at  unusual sanctity on the one hand1  
and knowledge 7,bodhi7 on the other1    
might walk on the ,great road leading to
 ,bodhi-sattvaship1 and receive  the    
title ,bodhi-sattva4    ,we have seen   
7p4 #acf7 that the ,hna-yna1 or         
#8,little system1' taught  that there   
were only twenty-four ,buddhas who had  
preceded ,gautama4 ,three  of these     
7viz4 ,kraku-handa1 ,kanaka-muni1 and   
,kyapa71 with ,gautama as  a fourth1 had
 appeared in the present age1 and only  
one ,bodhi-sattva  7,maitreya7 was to   
come4    ,but according to the #8,great 
,system1' it was a mistake to limit the 
acquisition of the highest ,saintship in
 this manner4 ,it maintained that  there

 would be numberless supreme ,buddhas   
7and1 in addition to them1  self-taught1
 solitary ,buddhas1 called              
,pratyeka-,buddhas71 as well as         
numberless ,bodhi-sattvas1 even in the  
present age of the world4 ,in other     
words1 it propounded the doctrine that  
the practice of the six 7or ten7        
transcendent virtues 7p4 #abh71 and     
especially the acquisition of           
transcendent wisdom 7praj pramit71 might
 qualify many saints for the  attainment
 of ,bodhi-sattvaship and ,buddhaship4  
,according to one theory1  there were to
 be at least a thousand ,bodhi-sattvas1 
followed by a  thousand ,buddhas1 while1
 according to others1 ,buddhas and      
,bodhi-sattvas  were to be reckoned by  
myriads4    ,but this theory of         
numberless ,bodhi-sattvas involved an   
entirely new  view of their nature and  
of the meaning of the term4    ,in fact1
 the ,bodhi-sattvas of the more         
developed ,mah-yna school were  not     
,bodhi-sattvas at all1 according to the 

strict sense of the term4 ,it  is true  
they resembled the genuine ,bodhi-sattva
 in having gone through a  long series  
of existences leading them at last to   
perfect saintship and  to a heaven of   
their own1 but they were under no       
obligation to give up  their            
,bodhi-sattvaship1 quit their celestial 
abodes1 or descend  ultimately as human 
,buddhas upon earth4    ,furthermore1   
they never appeared to aim at           
,pari-nirva like their  earthly         
counterparts4 ,their most obvious raison
 d'tre seems to have  been to supply the
 need of personal objects of worship1   
and though in  ,tibet they were believed
 to have their own secondary corporeal  
emanations--sometimes called their      
#8incarnations1' but more properly      
described as descents 7avatra7 of       
portions of their essence in a  constant
 succession of human saints1--they never
 really left their own  permanent       
stations in the heavenly regions4       
,indeed1 it is probable that  the chief 

cause of their popularity1 as personal  
objects of adoration1  was that they    
were able to help their worshippers to  
attain to the same  permanent and       
unchangeable regions of bliss4    ,it   
was thus that the #8,great ,vehicle'    
took up an attitude which raised it  not
 only above the simple effort to        
suppress the passions and desires1  but 
also above the hopeless ,nihilism of    
early ,buddhism2 for it soon  became the
 fashion for the most devoted and pious 
of ,buddhist monks to  aspire to the    
title and actual blessedness of         
,bodhi-sattvaship rather  than to the   
doubtful blessedness of utter personal  
annihilation involved  in ,buddhahood4  
,at any rate the numerous ,bodhi-sattvas
 of the #8,great  ,method' appear to    
have remained quite contented with their
 condition1 so  long as it involved     
perpetual residence in the heavens1 and 
quite  willing to put off all desire for
 ,buddhahood and ,pari-nirva4           
,without doubt1 this more amplified     

system was the result of a reaction  of 
,brhmanism on ,buddhism4 ,it was at     
first a mere plan for creating a  close 
,hierarchy like that of the ,brhman     
caste--that is to say1 a  privileged    
class of men possessed of higher        
knowledge and sanctity and  superior to 
the majority of ,bhikshus of the common 
stamp4 ,then it soon  developed into a  
scheme for satisfying the craving of the
 masses for  divinities of some kind to 
whom they might appeal for help in time 
of  need4    ,in all probability the    
first to receive the title of           
,bodhi-sattva1 next  to ,maitreya1 were 
the most celebrated ,arhats before      
mentioned1 who were  immediate disciples
 of ,gautama1 not however till death had
 separated  them from their human       
frames1 when1 as a matter of course1    
they received  a kind of worship like   
that accorded to all leaders of men1    
just as the  earliest saints1 heroes1   
and teachers of ,brhmanism did4    ,to  
specify all the ,arhats who were        

elevated to the rank of ,bodhi-sattva   
and became objects of veneration in     
later times would be a difficult and    
unprofitable task4    ,we may also      
dismiss1 as unworthy of note1 statements
 such as that in the  ,lalita-vistara1  
in which it is declared that #cb1jjj    
,bodhi-sattvas joined  the ,buddha's    
assembly in the ,jetavana garden4 ,but  
we may notice the  quasi-deification of 
a few historical personages mentioned by
 the two  ,chinese travellers1 whose    
account of the state of ,buddhism in    
,india from  the fourth to the seventh  
centuries has been so often quoted4     
,first of all came the immediate        
followers and so-called #8great pupils' 
7see p4 #dg7 of ,gautama1 namely1 his   
two chief disciples1 ri-puttra and      
,moggallna 7,maudgalyyana               
,modgala-puttra7#ia1 both of whom are   
believed to have died before him4 ,then 
came the three great leaders at  the    
first ,council3 #a4 ,kyapa 7pp4 #df1    
#ee72 #b4 ,gautama's cousin and  beloved

 pupil nanda2 #c4 ,upli 7note1 p4 #ef74 
,next to these perhaps the most         
celebrated teacher elevated to          
,bodhi-sattvaship was                   
,ngrjuna#ib--noticed before as the      
alleged founder  of the ,mah-yna system 
and its introducer into ,tibet4         
,according to one  account he was the   
son of a ,brhman of ,vidarbha1 and      
taught ,buddhism in  the south of       
,india4 ,he had a celebrated disciple   
named ,deva 7or  rya-deva7#ic4 ,ngrjuna 
was at any rate a great teacher and     
developer  of the ,mah-yna4 ,a legend   
relates that he was skilled in magic1   
and was  able thereby to prolong his own
 and a ,southern ,indian king's life    
indefinitely4 ,this caused great grief  
to the mother of the  ,heir-apparent1   
who instigated her son to ask ,ngrjuna  
for his own head4  ,ngrjuna complied    
with the request1 and cut his own head  
off with a  blade of ,kua grass1 nothing
 else having the power to injure him4   
,he is  said by ,hiouen ,thsang to have 

lived in ,southern ,koala about #djj    
years  after the death of ,gautama1 and 
is worshipped under different epithets  
in ,tibet1 ,china1 ,mongolia1 and even  
,ceylon4 ,probably he lived in the      
first or second century--,beal places   
him between ,a4,d4 #aff and #bjj4       
,wassiljew considers him a wholly       
mythical personage4 ,the additions he   
made to ,buddhist doctrines were        
undoubtedly great4 ,when he died ,stpas 
were erected to his memory1 and in some 
places he was even worshipped as        
,buddha4    ,among other deified1 or    
partially deified ,bodhi-sattvas1 whose 
images  and ,stpas 7p4 #afa7 the        
,chinese pilgrims found scattered in    
various  parts of ,india1 may be        
mentioned1 those of the mythical        
,buddhas who  preceded ,gautama1        
especially ,kyapa#id4 ,then we have     
,rhula 7son of  ,gautama71 the patron of
 all novices1 and founder of the        
realistic school  called ,vaibhshika#ie2
 ,dharma-pla1 ,vasu-mitra 7or           

,vasu-bandhu71  ,ava-ghosha1 ,guamati1  
,sthiramati1 and others4 ,in this       
practice of  deifying their saints1     
,buddhists merely followed the example  
of the  adherents of ,hindism4 ,and we  
may add that this tendency is constantly
  repeating itself in the religious     
history of all nations4    ,there is    
even a tendency to press the saints of  
other countries into the  service4 ,this
 is remarkably exemplified in the       
history of ,barlaam and  ,josaphat1     
current in ,europe in the ,middle ,ages4
 ,the zealous ,roman  ,catholics of     
those days thought that they could not  
exclude so noble a  monk as ,buddha from
 the catalogue of their own saints1 and 
so they  registered him in their list as
 ,st4 ,josaphat 7,josaphat being a      
corruption of ,bodhisat74 ,colonel      
,yule1 in his ,marco ,polo1 states that 
a  church in ,palermo is dedicated to   
this saint4    ,and here mention may be 
made of a modern deified ,hind teacher  
or sage1  named ,gorakh-nth1 who is said

 to have gone from ,india into ,nepl1   
and  is worshipped there as well as at  
,gorakh-pur and throughout the ,panjb4  
,very little is known about him1 and he 
belongs more to ,hindism than to        
,buddhism4 ,some say that he was a      
contemporary of ,kabr 7#adhh-aeab71 and1
  according to a ,janamskh1 he once had 
an interview with ,nnak1 the  founder of
 the ,sikh sect4 ,such legendary        
accounts as are current are  wrapped in 
much mystery4 ,one legend describes him 
as born from a lotus4    ,others        
describe him as the third or fourth in a
 series of aiva  teachers1 and the      
founder of the ,knph sect of ,yogs4 ,the
 remarkable  thing about him is that he 
succeeded in achieving an extraordinary 
degree of popularity among ,northern    
,hinds and among some adherents of      
,buddhism in ,nepl4 ,his tomb is in the 
,panjb1 and he is to this day  adored as
 a kind of god by immense numbers of the
 inhabitants of ,north  ,western ,india 
under the hills4    ,but the            

canonization of such historical teachers
 in ,india and their  elevation to      
semi-divine rank did not satisfy the    
craving of the  uneducated masses1      
either among ,buddhists or ,hinds1 for  
personal  deities1 possessed of powers  
over human affairs far greater than any 
departed human beings1 however eminent4 
,in ,buddhism the supposed  existence of
 the more god-like ,bodhi-sattva        
,maitreya--venerated by both  the       
,mah-yna and the ,hna-yna schools--was  
not sufficient to satisfy  this craving4
    ,hence the #8,great ,vehicle' soon  
began to teach the existence of numerous
  mythological ,bodhi-sattvas1 other    
than ,maitreya1 to whom no historical   
character belonged1 but whose functions 
were more divine4                       
,,lecture ,,ix4                         
,theistic and ,polytheistic ,buddhism4  
,in the preceding ,lecture ,i have      
endeavoured to sketch the rise of       
theistic and polytheistic ,buddhism4    
,we have now to turn our attention to   

its development1 especially in  regard  
to the worship of mythical              
,bodhi-sattvas1 and of the ,hind gods   
and other mythological beings4    ,some 
of the ,bodhi-sattvas of the ,mah-yna or
 ,great ,system were merely             
quasi-deifications of eminent saints and
 teachers4 ,others were  impersonations 
of certain qualities or forces2 and just
 as in early  ,buddhism we have the     
simple triad of the ,buddha1 his ,law1  
and his ,order1  so in ,northern        
,buddhism the worship of mythical       
,bodhi-sattvas--other than              
,maitreya--was originally confined to a 
triad1 namely 7#a7 ,maju-r1 #8he  of    
beautiful glory2' 7#b7 ,avalokitevara1  
#8the looking-down lord1' often  called 
,padma-pi1 #8the lotus-handed2' 7#c7    
,vajra-pi or ,vajra-dhara1  #8the       
thunderbolt-handed4'    ,these three    
mythical ,bodhi-sattvas were not known  
to early ,buddhists1  nor to the        
,buddhists of ,ceylon4 ,they are not    
even found in the oldest  books of the  

,northern ,school 7such as the          
,lalita-vistara71 though they  occur    
conspicuously in the ,saddharma-puarka4 
,all we can say with certainty is1 that 
when ,f-hien visited ,mathur on  the    
,jumn #djj years after ,christ1 their   
cult certainly existed there at  that   
time4    ,we shall not be far wrong if  
we assert that it was adopted in about  
the  third century of our era4    ,as   
already indicated 7see p4 #age71 the    
idea of the first ,buddhist  triad--the 
,buddha1 the ,law1 and the ,monastic    
,order--accepted by the  adherents of   
both ,vehicles--was probably derived    
from the earliest  ,brhmanical triad4   
7,see also ,brhmanism and ,hindism1 pp4 
#i1 #dd4 #gd47    ,in the same way the  
second ,buddhist triad introduced by the
 advanced  teachers of the #8,great     
,vehicle1' viz4 ,maju-r1 ,avalokitevara 
7  ,padma-pi71 and ,vajra-pi1           
corresponded to the later ,hind triad   
7tri-mrti7 of deities1 ,brahm1 ,vishu1  
and iva4    ,i have explained in        

#8,brhmanism and ,hindism' 7pp4 #ed1    
#gc7 how the gods  ,vishu and iva       
gradually usurped the position of the   
god ,brahm1 whom  they dispossessed of  
his co-equality with themselves1 and how
 the whole  mythology of the ,hinds1    
which was originally complicated by a   
large  admixture of pre-ryan and ,vedic 
elements1 ultimately became more        
simplified by arranging itself under the
 two heads of ,vaishavism and  aivism1  
all other mythological personages being 
regarded as forms of  either ,vishu or  
iva4    ,in contradistinction to this1  
we find that each member of the two     
,buddhist triads holds its own1 and we  
are led on to a system which  bewilders 
us by ever increasing complications--a  
system which preserves  the             
individuality of its own triads and     
deified saints1 and yet  recognizes     
almost all the gods1 demigods1 demons1  
and supernatural  beings of ,hindism4   
,i propose now to offer some account of 
the development of the ,buddhist        

,pantheon1 beginning with the mythical  
conceptions peculiar to ,buddhism1  and 
passing on to those held in common with 
,hindism4    ,and first as to the second
 ,buddhist triad above-named1 it may be 
noted1  as a proof of the very gradual  
growth of ,buddhistic mythology1 that in
  the earlier developments of ,buddhism 
the three ,bodhi-sattvas  constituting  
that triad have very restricted         
functions4    ,when ,i visited the      
,buddhist caves at ,ellora1 ,i noticed  
that in the  ancient sculptures there1  
,padma-pi and ,vajra-pi 7but not        
,maju-r7  are represented as attendants 
of the human ,buddha4    ,of course it  
is easy to understand that the duty of  
guarding the ,buddha  ultimately        
expanded into that of watching over and 
protecting the whole  ,buddhist world1  
though it is difficult to determine     
which of the three  mythical            
,bodhi-sattvas became first celebrated  
for the effective  discharge of this    
duty1 or to which of the three          

chronological  precedence ought to be   
assigned4    ,without taking the order  
already given1 we may begin with        
,padma-pi as  the most popular1 and may 
note that he has a name1 ,avalokitevara1
  composed of the two ,sanskit words    
avalokita1 #8looking down#if1' and      
vara1 #8lord1' the latter being the     
,brhmanical name for the ,supreme       
,god--a name wholly unrecognized by     
early ,buddhism1 but assigned by the    
,hinds to the three personal gods1      
,brahm1 ,vishu1 and iva1 especially  to 
the latter4    ,in the duty of watching 
over and protecting the whole ,buddhist 
world1  ,avalokitevara 7 ,padma-pi71    
that is1 #8the lord who looks down with 
pity on all men1' certainly takes the   
lead1 and his name was in keeping  with 
the reputation for answering prayer     
which he soon achieved4    ,in the      
,lmism of ,tibet1 he is1 as we shall see
 hereafter1 a kind of  divine ,pope1    
existing eternally in the heavens as    
,vicar of one of the  ,buddhas of the   

present age1 but delegating his         
functions to a succession  of earthly   
,popes in whom he is perpetually        
incarnated and re-incarnated1  while at 
the same time preserving his own        
personality in his own heaven4          
,indeed1 the popularity of his worship  
is one of the chief  characteristics of 
the ,mah-yna system1 and is not confined
 to ,tibet1  though he is believed to be
 the special patron of that country4 ,it
 is he  who during the continuance of   
the present age of the world presides   
over  the whole cycle of soul-migration4
 ,in a word1 the temporal welfare of    
all living beings1 and of all who have  
to wander through the worlds of  the    
gods1 men1 demons1 ghosts1 animals1 and 
livers in hell1 is  especially assigned 
to him4    ,people1 therefore1 pray to  
him more frequently than to any other   
,bodhi-sattva1 and not only for release 
from the misery of future  re-births1   
but in all cases of present bodily      
danger and domestic  affliction4 ,hence 

he has numerous other names or epithets1
 such as #8,god  of mercy1' #8,ocean of 
pity' 7,karurava71 #8,deliverer from    
fear'  7,abhaya-da71 #8,lord of the     
world' 7,loke-vara71 #8,world-protector'
  7,loka-pla71 #8,protector of the ryas'
 7rya-pla72 and the ,chinese  traveller 
,f-hien says of himself1 that he prayed 
in his heart for the  aid of            
,avalokitevara when in great peril      
during a storm at sea4    ,that his     
worship was very prevalent among        
,buddhists of the ,mah-yna  ,school all 
over ,india1 as well as in ,tibet1 from 
the fourth to the  seventh century1 is  
attested also by ,hiouen ,thsang4 ,both 
travellers tell  us that they frequently
 met with his images1 which were often  
placed on  the tops of mountains4       
,possibly this fact may account for the 
name he  acquired of the #8,looking-down
 lord4' ,or1 on the other hand1 it is   
possible that his name may have led to  
the selection of high situations  for   
his temples and images4    ,and it may  

be observed here that although          
,avalokitevara bears a close            
resemblance in character to ,vishu1 yet 
his images often conform to the  ,brahm 
type1 and sometimes to that of iva#ig4  
,he has generally several               
faces--sometimes even eleven or         
twelve--and usually four or eight arms4 
,these faces are placed one above the   
other in the form of a pyramid1 in      
three tiers1 and probably indicate that 
he looks down on all three  worlds1     
namely1 the worlds of desire1 of true   
form1 and of no form 7pp4  #bac1 #bad71 
from all points of the horizon4         
,note1 however1 that two of his hands   
are generally folded1 as if adoring  the
 ,buddha1 while his two other hands hold
 such emblems as the lotus and  wheel   
7especially the lotus74 ,this           
distinguishes the images of the mere    
,bodhi-sattva ,avalokitevara from those 
of the god ,vishu1 who1 although  he has
 four arms1 is never represented in an  
attitude of adoration4  ,note1 too1 that

 the many-headed images of              
,avalokitevara probably belong  to the  
later phase of the ,mah-yna1 when he was
 regarded as an  emanation or spiritual 
son of the ,dhyni-,buddha ,amitbha1     
whose head  forms the eleventh above his
 own ten4 ,there are descriptions of    
earlier  idols1 which make it probable  
that ,avalokitevara was originally      
represented in ordinary human shape4    
,when his worship was introduced into   
,china the name he received was         
,kwan-she-yin or ,kwan-yin 7in ,japan   
,kwan-non7--a name denoting 7according  
to ,professor ,legge7 #8one who looks   
down on the sounds of the world1 and    
listens to the voices of men4'    ,we   
know that each of the chief ,hind gods  
had his female counterpart or  akti1 who
 is often more worshipped than the male4
 ,similarly the female  counterpart of  
the male ,avalokitevara is the form of  
the god chiefly  worshipped in ,china   
and ,japan#ih4 ,in those countries he is
 only known  in the feminine character  

of #8goddess of mercy1' and in this form
 is  represented with two arms1 but     
oftener with four or more1 and even with
  a thousand eyes4    ,the connexion of 
,avalokitevara with iva1 as well as with
 ,vishu1 is  proved by the fact that in 
some characteristics ,kwan-yin          
corresponds to  the ,durg form of iva's 
wife1 and in others to the form called  
,prvat1  who1 as dwelling on mountains1 
may be supposed to look down with       
compassion on the world4    ,as to      
,vajra-pi 7or ,vajra-dhara71 #8the      
thunderbolt-handed1' this  ,bodhi-sattva
 corresponds in some respects to ,indra4
 ,he is the fiercest  and most          
awe-inspiring of all the ,bodhi-sattvas1
 and was1 in time1  converted into a    
kind of ,buddhistic form of iva1        
resembling that god in  his character of
 controller of the demon-host and       
destroyer of evil  spirits4 ,hiouen     
,thsang describes how eight ,vajra-pis  
surrounded the  ,buddha as an escort1   
when he journeyed to visit his father   

uddhodana4  ,vajra-pi is of course a    
popular object of veneration in all     
,northern  ,buddhist countries1 where a 
dread of malignant spirits is so        
prevalent  that the waving to and fro of
 an implement symbolizing a thunderbolt 
7,vajra1 or in ,tibetan ,dorje7 is      
practised as a method of keeping them at
  bay and averting their malice4        
,nevertheless1 ,vajra-pi is not so      
popular as the third ,bodhi-sattva1     
,maju-r1 #8he of glorious beauty1' also 
called ,maju-ghosha1 #8having a         
beautiful voice1' and ,vgvara1 #8lord of
 speech4' ,this ,bodhi-sattva1 as       
#8wisdom personified1' and as #8lord of 
harmony1' may be regarded as a          
counterpart of the ,brhmanical ,brahm or
 ,viva-,karman1 the supposed  creator of
 the universe4 ,brahm1 however1 in his  
character of chief god1  needed no      
,buddhistic substitute1 having been     
incorporated by name into  ,buddhism4   
,maju-r1 as #8lord of speech1' seems    
also to be a counterpart  of ,brahm's   

consort ,sarasvat4    ,according to     
some1 a learned and eloquent ,brhman    
teacher1 named  ,maju-r1 introduced     
,buddhism from ,india into ,nepl about  
#bej years  after the ,nirva of ,buddha1
 and the mythical ,maju-r may have been 
a  development of the historical        
personage4 ,his worship is mentioned by 
both ,f-hien and ,hiouen ,thsang#ii1 and
 seems to have been very popular4    ,a 
personification of ,praj pramit1        
#8transcendent wisdom1' is also  named4 
,and indeed it seems natural that so    
soon as the ,buddhists began  to        
personify qualities and invest them with
 divine attributes1 learning  should    
have been among the first selected for  
deification1 as it was by  the ,hinds in
 early times4    ,mark1 however1 that   
the popular ,maju-r has no place        
assigned to him  in the ,dhyni-,buddha  
theory4    ,this mystical theory was a  
later development4 ,it may be explained 
thus3--,the term ,dhyna 7,jhna7 is a    
general expression for the four         

gradations of mystic meditation which   
have ethereal spaces or worlds          
corresponding to them 7p4 #bji71 and a  
,dhyni-,buddha is a ,buddha who is      
supposed to exist as a kind of spiritual
 essence in these higher regions  of    
abstract thought4    ,that is to say1   
every ,buddha who appears on earth in a 
temporary human  body--with the object  
of teaching men how to gain             
,nirva--exists also in  an ideal        
counterpart1 or ethereal representation 
of himself1 in the  formless worlds of  
meditation 7p4 #bac74 ,these ideal      
,buddhas are as  numerous as the        
,buddhas1 but as there are only five    
chief human ,buddhas  in the present    
age--,kraku-handa1 ,kanaka-muni1 ,kyapa1
 ,gautama1 and the  future ,buddha      
,maitreya--so there are only five       
corresponding                           
,dhyni-,buddhas3--,vairoana1 ,akshobhya1
 ,ratna-sambhava1 ,amitbha1 and         
,amogha-siddha 7sometimes represented in
 images as possessing a third  eye74    

,but this is not all2 each of these     
produces by a process of  evolution a   
kind of emanation from himself called a 
,dhyni-,bodhi-sattva1  to act as the    
practical head and guardian of the      
,buddhist community  between the        
interval of the death of each human     
,buddha and the advent of  his          
successor4 ,hence there are five        
,bodhi-sattvas--,samanta-bhadra1        
,vajra-pi1 ,ratna-pi1 ,padma-pi 7       
,avalokitevara71 and                    
,viva-pi--corresponding to the five     
,dhyni-,buddhas and to the five  earthly
 ,buddhas respectively4 ,in ,nepl five  
corresponding female aktis  or ,tr-devs 
are named 7see p4 #baf74    ,it is      
remarkable that the ,chinese pilgrims   
from the fifth to the seventh           
centuries1 while often mentioning the   
,bodhi-sattvas1 make no allusion to  any
 of the ,dhyni-,buddhas--whence we may  
gather that ,amitbha1 though  adopted   
into ,indian ,buddhism1 was not actually
 worshipped in ,india at  least as a    

personal god4    ,in point of fact1 it  
was only the ,buddhism of the ,north    
which was not  satisfied with the       
original triad of the ,buddha1 the ,law1
 and the  ,monkhood4 ,it1 therefore1    
invented in addition five triads1 each  
consisting of a ,dhyni-,buddha1 a       
,dhyni-,bodhi-sattva1 and an earthly    
,buddha1 though of these triads only one
 was of importance1 namely1 that        
consisting of ,amitbha1 ,avalokitevara1 
and the human ,buddha1 ,gautama4  ,but  
the ,lalita-vistara does not mention    
this theory4    ,it should be observed1 
too1 that an important addition to the  
,mah-yna  doctrine was made in certain  
,northern countries about the tenth     
century  of our era4    ,a particular   
sect of ,buddhists in ,nepl1 calling    
themselves ,aivarikas1  propounded a    
theory of a ,supreme ,being 7vara71 to  
whom they gave the  name of a           
#8primordial ,buddha' 7di-,buddha71 and 
who was declared to be  the source and  
originator of all things1 and the       

original ,evolver of the                
,dhyni-,buddhas1 or ,buddhas of         
contemplation1 while they again were    
supposed to evolve their corresponding  
,dhyni-,bodhi-sattvas4    ,it is clear1 
of course1 that this addition was a mere
 adaptation of  ,buddhism to ,brhmanism1
 and that the di-,buddha was invented to
 serve as  a counterpart of the ,one    
,universal ,spirit ,brahm--the one      
eternally  existing spiritual ,essence1 
from which all existing things are mere 
emanations4    ,sometimes1 however1 this
 di-,buddha is said to have produced all
 things  through union with ,praj       
7mentioned before1 p4 #bjb71 in which   
case he  is rather to be identified with
 the personal ,creator ,brahm4          
,observe1 moreover1 that even in early  
times one of the  ,dhyni-,buddhas--the  
one called ,amitbha1 #8diffusing        
infinite light1'--lost  his purely      
abstract character1 and was worshipped  
by ,northern ,buddhists  as a personal  
,god4 ,he is in the present day held by 

them to be an  eternal ,being1 the ideal
 of all that is beautiful and good1 who 
receives  his worshippers into a heaven 
called ,sukhvati1 #8paradise of         
pleasures'  7see p4 #ahc74    ,but it   
must also be noted that neither         
di-,buddha nor ,amitbha1 when  regarded 
as personal gods1 were held to be       
,creators of the ,world in the          
,christian sense4 ,they were merely     
,supreme rulers outside and above it2   
for ,northern ,buddhists agree with     
,southern in thinking that the world    
exists of itself1 and that its only     
,creator is the force of its own  acts4 
,we pass on now to consider how far and 
with what modifications the  mythology  
of ,brhmanism and ,hindism was          
incorporated into ,buddhism4    ,i have 
already pointed out that although the   
,buddha changed the  character of much  
of the existing mythology1 he never     
prohibited his  lay-followers from      
continuing their old forms of worship1  
or bowing down  before the deities      

honoured by their fathers and           
grandfathers4    ,apart indeed from the 
shrewd policy of not assuming an        
attitude of  hostility to popular creeds
 and usages1 the tolerant tendency and  
universality of the ,buddha's teaching  
obliged him1 in common  consistency1 to 
recognize1 and as far as possible       
appropriate1 the  various religious     
elements existing around him1 and to    
subordinate them  to his own purposes4  
,in fact1 according to the theory of    
true ,buddhism1 as has been well        
pointed out by other writers1 there was 
only one system of doctrine and  only   
one ,law--that ,law 7,dharma7 which     
,gautama ,buddha came to renovate for   
the benefit of the world in the present 
age4    ,hence all the apparently       
conflicting creeds1 dogmas1 forms1      
ceremonies1  and usages of all nations1 
tribes1 and races1 were in reality mere 
outcomes1 or dim recollections1 or      
corruptions1 of that one and the same   
universal ,dharma which countless       

,buddhas had preached to mankind1 in    
countless ages before the time of       
,gautama1 and would continue to preach  
in ages to come4    ,hindism1 therefore1
 like all other creeds1 was contained in
 the ,dharma  of ,buddhism1 and the     
great object of ,gautama's advent was   
not to uproot  the old religion1 but to 
purify it from error and restore it4    
,it was on this account that he regarded
 the ,hind gods as occupying a  place in
 his own system1 though not without some
 modification of the  nature of their   
supposed position1 offices1 and         
functions4    ,and here it will be      
necessary to give an account of the     
later ,buddhist  theory of twenty-six   
successive tiers of heavens1 one rising 
above the  other 7p4 #abj74    ,in the  
centre of the world-system stands1 as we
 have seen1 the vast mass  of the       
mythical mountain ,meru4 ,on the upper  
portion of this stupendous  axis of the 
universe and above the eight chief hells
 and the worlds of  animals1 ghosts1    

demons1 and men1 is situated the lowest 
heaven of the  gods1 where abide the    
four ,mah-rjas1 #8great champions1' or  
guardians  of the earth and the heavens 
against the demons1 who are ever engaged
 in  assailing them from their world    
below4 ,these four are represented in   
full armour1 with drawn swords2 one     
quarter of the heavens being  assigned  
to the guardianship of each2 viz4 the   
,east to ,dhita-rshra1  king of the     
,gandharvas2 the ,south to ,virhaka1    
king of the ,kumbhas2  the ,west to     
,virpksha1 king of the ,ngas2 the ,north
 to ,kuvera  7,vairavaa71 king of the   
,yakshas4 ,the inhabitants of this      
heaven are  called atur-mahrja-kyikas1  
or simply ,mahrjika-devh4 ,above this   
lowest heaven1 and on the highest summit
 of the world's axis1 ,meru1 is         
enthroned the god akra 7,indra71 known  
in the ,veda as god of the  atmosphere4 
,he is lord of a heaven of his own1 and 
no god is more  popular among ,buddhists
 or oftener named in their legends2 yet 

he is  inferior to ,mah-brahm and to    
,mra 7p4 #bjh74 ,buddha himself was     
,indra  in some of his births 7p4 #aaa74
 ,to this heaven he ascended to preach  
the  ,law to his mother4    ,hence we   
may infer that in the early days of     
,buddhism1 ,indra1 who was  perhaps the 
chief god of the ig-veda1 was still the 
favourite god of  the people4    ,his   
heaven forms the second tier1 reckoning 
from the lowest upwards 7see  p4 #abj71 
and is called ,trayastria 7,tvatisa71   
that of the  thirty-three divinities--as
 recognized in the ,vedic               
hymns--consisting of  the three groups  
of eleven ,rudras1 eight ,vasus1 and    
twelve dityas1  together with           
personifications of ,heaven and ,earth4 
,the remaining heavens of the gods1     
which rise in succession above the      
lowest and above ,indra's and therefore 
in the sky above ,mount ,meru1 are  the 
third1 fourth1 fifth1 and sixth4 ,these 
are not illuminated by the  sun and     
moon1 since the gods who live in them   

give out a sufficient  light from their 
own persons4 ,the first of them1 or     
third of the  heavens1 is inhabited by  
beings called ,ymas4 ,they were known to
 the  ,brhmans and probably presided    
over the periods of the day4 ,they are  
called #8strifeless1' because they have 
not to take part in the war  constantly 
being waged by the gods of the two lower
 heavens against the  demons 7,asuras71 
who are unable to advance into the      
regions above ,meru4    ,the fourth     
heaven is that of the ,tushitas or      
#8perfectly contented  beings4' ,it is a
 peculiarly sacred region1 as it is the 
home of all the  ,bodhi-sattvas destined
 to become ,buddhas4 ,gautama ,buddha   
once dwelt  there1 and ,maitreya now    
presides in it4    ,the fifth heaven is 
inhabited by the ,nirma-rati-dev1 that  
is1  #8beings who constantly enjoy      
pleasures provided by themselves4'      
,the sixth heaven1 and the highest of   
the ,deva-lokas1 is the abode of the    
,para-nirmita-vaa-varti-dev1 #8beings   

who constantly enjoy pleasures  provided
 for them by others4' ,these beings are 
also called ,mras1 and  are #8lords of  
sensuous desires4' ,when the theory of  
races of gods was  invented1 it led to  
the figment of millions of ,mras ruled  
over by a  chief ,mra1 who tempts men to
 indulge their passions 7pp4 #bh1 #cc1  
#da71  and is always on the watch to    
enter the citadel of the body by the    
gates  of eye1 ear1 etc4 7see note1 p4  
#abi74 ,one of ,mra's names is ,kma1    
#8desire4' ,he is superior to all the   
gods of the worlds of sense1 even to    
akra or ,indra4 ,in every akravla or    
,universe of worlds there is a  ,mra4   
,he is sometimes called the ,buddhist   
,satan1 but this is misleading4  ,he is 
rather a superior god1 whose power      
consists in exciting sensual or  carnal 
desires4    ,so far1 then1 the heavens  
are all worlds of sense1--like the earth
 and  the lower regions1--and are       
spheres inhabited by beings who have    
sexual  feelings and live active lives4 

,but at this point in the ascent upwards
  all sensuality ceases1 and we are     
introduced to beings who enjoy a  higher
 condition of existence in which there  
is no distinction of sex1  and all      
sensuous desires and objects have lost  
their hold over the  frame--a condition 
supposed to be induced by the exercise  
of mystical  abstract meditation        
7,dhyna1 ,pli ,jhna74    ,the importance
 of ,dhyna or intense abstract          
meditation in the ,buddhist  system has 
been pointed out before 7p4 #cb74 ,it is
 the chief religious  exercise in which 
a true follower of ,buddha can engage1  
and although it  is divided into four   
stages1 the man who exercises himself   
perfectly in  any one of the four1      
becomes so sublimated and refined that  
he cannot be  re-born in any of the     
sensuous heavens1 or in any region lower
 than the  ,brahm worlds4    ,the first 
stage of ,dhyna consists in fixing      
7,dhra7 the mind and at  the same time  
exercising the thinking faculties on    

some object1 in such  a way that a state
 of ecstatic joy and serenity is        
attained4    ,the second consists in    
concentrating the mind or soul so       
intensely on  itself that the thinking  
faculties cease to act and only ecstatic
 joy  and serenity remain4    ,in the   
third1 nothing remains but perfect      
serenity4    ,the fourth is a           
trance-like condition of utter          
indifference and torpor1  in which there
 is neither any exercise of thought1 nor
 any conscious joy  or serenity1 but the
 whole being is released from the       
fetters of sense  and soars to a        
transcendental condition1 characterized 
by latent energy  and a power of working
 miracles 7p4 #acc74    ,these four     
stages of abstract meditation must not  
be confused with the  four earnest      
reflections and the five contemplations 
7pp4 #di1 #abg71  which are not so      
abstract and require more earthly       
objects on which to  be exercised4      
,the fourth and last ,dhyna is also     

called ,samdhi1 and properly means  such
 a perfect concentration of the soul's  
faculties1 that the soul  becomes merged
 in itself4 ,it is often used to denote 
an ecstatic  condition1 scarcely to be  
distinguished from trance or hypnotism  
or  catalepsy4 ,those devotees in ,india
 who practise it are buried1 not  burnt1
 and their tombs are called ,samdhs4    
,to return now to ,buddhist ,cosmology1 
the theory of later ,buddhism is  that  
he who has practised the first ,dhyna   
will rise at death to one of  the three 
tiers of heavens connected with that    
first ,dhyna1 i4e4 to the  first and    
lowest of the four groups of worlds of  
true form 7rpa71 in  which all sexual   
distinctions are obliterated4    ,this  
first or lowest group consists of the   
worlds of the ,brahms1 a high  order of 
gods divided into three classes with    
three tiers of abodes4    ,the first    
class of ,brahm gods1 inhabiting the    
first or lowest of the  tiers of the    
,brahm abodes1 consists of the          

,brahma-parisajj dev1 or  beings who    
constitute the retinue of the god       
,mah-brahm--the chief of  all the       
,buddhist gods4    ,the second class of 
,brahm gods1 inhabiting the second tier1
 consists of  the ,brahma-purohit dev1  
#8beings who are the ministers of       
,mah-brahm4'    ,the third class of     
,brahm gods1 inhabiting the highest of  
the three  tiers1 consists of the       
,mah-brahms1 #8great ,brahms1' of whom  
,mah-brahm is the chief4    ,the        
inhabitants of these three worlds are   
sometimes called the  ,brahma-kyik dev1 
#8gods having a ,brahm form4'    ,it is 
important1 however1 to note that ,brahm 
or ,mah-brahm1 sometimes  called ,brahm 
,sahm-pati1 #8lord of those who have to 
suffer#ajj1' is  the king of all the    
higher heavens 7p4 #bad71 ruling there1 
as ,mara and  ,indra do in the lower    
worlds and heavens of sense and desire4 
,out of  deference to ,brhmanism he has 
been adopted as the chief god of the    
,buddhist ,pantheon1 and yet he is far  

inferior to the ,buddha4                
,furthermore1 it is to be observed that 
every akra-vla or #8system of  worlds'  
7see p4 #abj7 has its own ,mah-brahm    
ruling over its own higher  heavens1 and
 that as there are countless akra-vla1  
so there are  countless ,mah-brahms4    
,nor is any of these chief gods eternal4
 ,each has  to pass into some other form
 of existence at the end of vast periods
 of  time1 and is then succeeded by     
another4 ,gautama ,buddha himself was   
born  four times as ,mah-brahm 7see p4  
#aaa74    ,the second group of worlds of
 true form has also three tiers of      
heavens  like the first1 and is assigned
 as an abode to those who have risen to 
the second degree of contemplation4     
,the characteristic of these three      
heavens is that they are regions of     
true light--not of the sun's light1 but 
of mental enlightenment1 and each  of   
the three is inhabited by beings who    
have raised themselves to  different    
heights of knowledge and intelligence4  

,in the first are the ,parttbh          
7,parttbh7 dev1 #8beings of             
circumscribed or limited enlightenment2'
 in the second are the  ,aprambh        
7,appambh7 dev1 #8beings of infinite    
light2' in the  third are the bhsvar    
7bhassar7 dev1 #8beings of the clearest 
light4'    ,the third group of worlds of
 true form has again three tiers of     
heavens1  which are assigned to those   
who have raised themselves to the third 
stage of contemplation4    ,the         
peculiarity of these three seems to be  
that they are regions of the  greatest  
purity1 and that each of the three is   
the abode of beings  distinguished by   
higher and higher degrees of purity4 ,in
 the first are  the ,partta-ubh         
7,partta-subh7 dev1 #8gods or beings of 
limited  purity2' in the second are the 
,aprama-ubh 7,appamna-subh7 dev1        
#8beings of unlimited purity2' in the   
third are the ubha-kitsn  7,subha-ki7   
dev1 #8beings of absolute purity4'      
,the fourth group of worlds of true form

 has seven tiers of heavens1  occupied  
by those beings who have risen to the   
fourth or highest grade  of abstract    
meditation 7,dhyna71 which is really a  
state of meditating  on nothing and of  
complete indifference to all concrete   
objects4 ,these  beings are the         
emancipated ,arhats who have delivered  
themselves from the  cycle 7,sasra7 of  
constant re-birth 7p4 #acd74    ,in the 
first tier are the ,vihat-phal          
7,vehapphal7 dev1 #8beings  enjoying    
great reward2' in the second are the    
,asaji-sattv  7,asaa-satt7 dev1 #8beings
 lost in total unconsciousness2' in the 
third are the ,avih 7,avih7 dev1        
#8beings who make no efforts2' in the   
fourth are the ,atap 7,atapp7 dev1      
#8beings who never endure any pain2'  in
 the fifth are the ,sudar 7,sudass7 dev1
 #8beings who see clearly2'  in the     
sixth are the ,sudarino 7,sudass7 dev1  
#8beings of beautiful  appearance2' in  
the seventh are the ,akanishh 7,akanih7 
dev1  #8highest of all beings4' ,in this

 last must be included all ,arhats and  
,pratyeka-,buddhas4    ,high above the  
worlds of true form and above the abode 
of pure  contemplative beings1 rise the 
four heavens of formless                
entities--beings  who have no material  
frames1 even of the subtlest kind1 but  
are mere  abstractions1 such as the     
,dhyni-,buddhas 7pp4 #bjb1 #bjc74    ,in
 the first of these formless heavens    
7,arpa-loka7 are the  knantyyatan dev1  
#8beings who are capable of conceiving  
the idea  of infinite space2' in the    
second are the ,vijnnantyyatan dev1     
#8beings who are capable of conceiving  
the idea of infinite  intelligence2' in 
the third are the ,akianyyatan dev1     
#8beings who  can conceive the idea of  
absolute nonentity1' or1 in other words1
 that  nothing whatever exists anywhere2
 in the fourth and highest of all are   
the ,naivasajnsajyatan dev              
7,nevasansay-71 #8beings who  abide in  
neither consciousness nor               
unconsciousness4' ,this is the most     

sublime of all conditions1 but these    
heavens belong to mystical  ,buddhism4  
,subjoined is a synopsis of all the     
heavens and their inhabitants  explained
 above 7see ,koeppen i4 #bfj74          
,a4              ,heavens of beings     
liable to sensuous desires4        7#a7 
,heaven of the four ,mah-rjas4      7#b7
 ,heaven of the ,trayastrias4      7#c7 
,heaven of the ,ymas4      7#d7 ,heaven 
of the ,tushitas4      7#e7 ,heaven of  
the ,nirma-rati-dev4      7#f7 ,heaven  
of the ,para-nirmita-vaa-vartins4       
,b4                 ,heavens of beings  
possessing true forms4                  
,first ,dhyna4        7#g7 ,heaven of   
the ,brahma-parisajj dev4      7#h7     
,heaven of the ,brahma-purohit dev4     
7#i7 ,heaven of the ,mah-brahm dev4     
,second ,dhyna4        7#aj7 ,heaven of 
the ,parttbh dev4      7#aa7 ,heaven of 
the ,aprambh dev4      7#ab7 ,heaven of 
the bhsvar dev4                         
,third ,dhyna4        7#ac7 ,heaven of  
the ,partta-ubh dev4      7#ad7 ,heaven 

of the ,aprama-ubh dev4      7#ae7      
,heaven of the ubha-kitsn dev4          
,fourth ,dhyna4        7#af7 ,heaven of 
the ,vihat-phal dev4      7#ag7 ,heaven 
of the ,asaji-sattv dev4      7#ah7     
,heaven of the ,avih dev4      7#ai7    
,heaven of the ,atap dev4      7#bj7    
,heaven of the ,sudar dev4      7#ba7   
,heaven of the ,sudarino dev4      7#bb7
 ,heaven of the ,akanishh dev4          
,c4                      ,heavens of    
formless entities4        7#bc7 ,heaven 
of the knantyyatan dev4      7#bd7      
,heaven of the ,vijnnantyyatan dev4     
7#be7 ,heaven of the ,akianyyatan dev4  
7#bf7 ,heaven of the ,naiva-sajnsajyatan
 dev4    ,this elaborate description of 
higher and higher conditions of future  
existence may be contrasted with the    
reticence of the ,bible and its  simple 
allusion to a new heaven and a new      
earth1 wherein dwelleth  righteousness4 
,the description1 however1 belongs to   
later ,buddhism4 ,it enables us to      
understand the true position of the     

,buddhist gods4 ,they merely  constitute
 one of the six classes of beings1 and1 
as they have to go  through other forms 
of life1 are inferior to ,arhats and    
,buddhas4    ,mah-brahm is often named1 
whereas ,vishu1 the popular god of the  
,hinds1 is neglected4 ,in point of fact 
he was1 as we have seen1  represented by
 ,padma-pi 7,avalokitevara1 p4 #aih71   
who seems to have  taken his place in   
later ,buddhism4    ,at all events the  
more modern form of ,vishu called       
,kisha1 who is  generally worshipped by 
the lower orders of ,hinds as the most  
popular  god of medival ,hindism1 has   
not been adopted by the inhabitants of  
,buddhist countries4    ,when ,i was at 
,kandy in ,ceylon ,i found one solitary 
shrine 7,devl7  dedicated1 not to       
,kisha1 but to ,mah-,vishu4 ,it was near
 the  well-known ,tooth-temple and      
appeared almost deserted4 ,the shrine   
was at  the end of a bare room1 and     
contained a small silver-gilt image of  
,mah-,vishu 7as ,vishu is called when   

worshipped by ,buddhists1 just as  the  
chief of the ,brahm gods is called      
,mah-,brahm7 about half a foot  high4   
,in the hands of the image was a thin   
metal bar with a kind of  locket or     
amulet suspended from it1 while round   
its neck was a long  rosary and in front
 of the body a large plate for          
offerings4 ,the folding  doors of the   
sanctuary had representations of the sun
 and moon4    ,turning to the god iva1  
we may note that he was adopted by later
  ,buddhism in his character of ,yog1 or
 ,mah-yog 7see #8,brhmanism and         
,hindism1' p4 #hc74 ,then1 as the       
,buddhism of the ,north very soon became
  corrupted with aivism and its         
accompaniments1 ktism1 ,tntrism1 and    
,magic1 so in ,northern countries       
various forms of iva--such as ,mah-,kla1
  ,bhairava1 ,bhma--and of his wife     
7,prvat1 ,durg1 etc471 are honoured1    
and their images are found in temples4  
,sometimes bloody sacrifices are        
offered to them4    ,among the female   

deities forms of ,tr are chiefly        
worshipped1 and  regarded as aktis of   
the ,buddhas4    ,it is even held by the
 disciples of the more advanced         
,mah-yna--especially in ,nepl--that     
there are five aktis or female          
,energies 7corresponding to the five    
human ,buddhas71 whose names are  given 
in corresponding order                  
thus3--,vajra-dhtr1 ,loan1 ,mmak1  ,par1
 and ,tr or ,tr-dev 7the latter being   
the ,tr par  excellence7#aja4    ,but   
the goddess ,tr was also worshipped by  
,buddhists in ,india proper2  for we    
find that ,hiouen ,thsang alludes to    
having seen images of ,tr               
,bodhi-sattva#ajb in the country of     
,magadha4    ,i may mention1 too1 that  
in a dilapidated building1 which        
contains the  ,vajrsana or thunderbolt  
throne of ,gautama at ,buddha-,gay 7in  
the same  country of ,magadha71 ,i      
noticed in a shrine near the temple1 an 
image of  ,tr-dev1 which1 from the crown
 of fresh flowers encircling its head1  

appeared to have been recently          
worshipped by some ,buddhist pilgrims1  
who  had arrived on the day of my visit 
in #ahgf4    ,the god ,indra1 usually   
called akra 7,sakka71 is1 as we have    
seen1 the  most popular god of the early
 ,buddhist ,pantheon 7pp4 #ea1 #bjg74   
,he is a  friendly deity and never      
exerts evil influences over men1 like   
,mra4 ,on  the contrary1 if any good man
 is in need of his services he descends 
from his own heaven to render           
assistance2 and the fact of his aid     
being  required is made known to him by 
his throne becoming hot4    ,the        
,dharma-pada 7#ajg1 #cib7 mentions      
,agni1 god of fire1 and again 7#dh71    
,antaka1 god of death1 sometimes        
identified with ,mra or with ,yama1     
#8ruler in ,hell4' ,a form of ,yama     
called ,yamntaka is also recognized4    
,in ,ceylon ,i observed several shrines 
to ,kanda-,kumra1 a form of ,skanda     
7son of iva71 who is said to have       
received the gift of healing from       

,buddha4    ,there also ,i observed     
shrines of ,saman 7sometimes spelt      
,samanta1  sometimes ,sumana71 the      
tutelary deity of ,adam's ,peak1 which  
is thence  called ,samanta-ko and       
,sumana-ko4    ,then there were shrines 
dedicated to a demoniacal goddess called
 ,paini  7regarded sometimes as         
protecting from small-pox71 and to      
certain good  and evil genii1 called    
,nths 7,nthas87 as in ,burma4    ,no    
doubt the worship of devils and demons  
existed in ,ceylon long before  the     
introduction of either ,brhmanism or    
,buddhism4 ,at ,colombo in #ahgg ,i     
witnessed a so-called devil-dance1      
performed late at night before the  then
 ,governor1 ,sir ,william ,gregory4     
,first1 three men dressed in coarse1    
loose1 jet-black dresses1 engaged in  a 
wild dance together4 ,they had shaggy   
hair1 blackened faces daubed with  white
 paint1 and a set of six or eight long  
projecting false teeth1  which protruded
 far below the lower lip1 sometimes one1

 sometimes two at  a time4 ,their legs  
were completely covered with small      
bells1 which  rattled like chains when  
they moved4 ,in their hands they held   
three  flaring torches1 branching from  
one handle4 ,at intervals they increased
  the glare and smoke from these torches
 by sprinkling resin upon them4         
,their dance was of the wildest         
description1 in a circle1 sometimes     
moving in and out1 and crossing each    
other1 and all the while beating  the   
ground violently with their jingling    
legs1 which kept time to the  noisy     
music of tom-toms1 flagiolets1 horns1   
etc41 played by attendant  musicians4   
,these three men were supposed to       
represent the various forms  of typhus  
fever4 ,at intervals during their dance 
they assumed frightful  black masks with
 hideous open mouths4    ,then with them
 were two other dancing demons dressed  
in red1 not so  hideous in appearance1  
who also danced holding torches4 ,these 
represented another form of devil4 ,they

 danced in the interval of the  two     
performances of the black devils4 ,there
 were also three men dressed  in reddish
 garments1 who formed part of the group 
and moved about  quietly among the      
others4 ,they were described to me as   
devil-charmers or  exorcisers4    ,every
 disease--every calamity has its        
presiding demon1 and all such  demons   
are the servants of ,buddha4    ,in     
regard to the other supernatural beings 
and figments of ,hind  mythology        
adopted1 with a few unimportant         
modifications1 by ,buddhists1  the first
 that call for mention are the ,pretas  
7see p4 #aba74    ,the ,pretas are      
beings of the nature of ghosts and      
goblins who have  recently inhabited the
 earth1 and are often of gigantic size  
and  terrific appearance1 with dried-up 
limbs1 hairy countenances1 enormous     
bellies1 ever consumed with hunger and  
thirst1 and yet never able to eat  and  
drink by reason of their contracted     
throats4 ,some are represented as       

trying to swallow sparks of fire2 others
 try to eat up dead bodies1 or  their   
own flesh4 ,possibly this form of       
re-birth was invented to deter  the     
laity from withholding food from the    
monks4 ,the ,pretas inhabit a  region   
above the hells4 ,some1 however1 assign 
them habitations above the  surface of  
the earth or in desert places on the    
earth itself4    ,the ,asuras or        
,daityas are evil demons who1 like the  
,titans of ,greek  mythology1 are always
 at war with the gods4 ,they dwell under
 the  foundations of ,mount ,meru1 as   
far underneath the surface of the earth 
as  their great enemy ,indra is above   
it4 ,in short1 if he may be supposed to 
live at the zenith1 they live at the    
nadir1 and their battle-field is on  the
 slopes of ,meru4    ,closely connected 
with them are the ,rkshasas1 who are    
also enemies of  the gods and are       
represented as monsters of frightful    
form and  man-eating propensities4 ,they
 haunt cremation-grounds and cemeteries 

and  way-lay human beings in solitary   
places to devour them4    ,then there is
 a class of very malignant demons called
 ,pias 7described  in #8,brhmanism and  
,hindism1' p4 #bdb71 who are the authors
 of all evils4    ,on the other hand1   
the ,yakshas and ,yakshis are a class of
 good genii  ruled over by ,kuvera1     
#8god of wealth1' who is often referred 
to in  ,buddhist writings under his     
patronymic ,vairavaa 7,pli              
,vessavao7#ajc4  ,these beings are      
commonly represented in sculptures in   
human form and  held to be harmless1    
though some ,buddhist legends describe  
them as  cruel4 ,stories are told about 
some of them being converted to         
,buddhism4    ,then come the ,ngas1 who 
are constantly alluded to4 ,they        
properly belong  to a class of          
serpent-demons1 having human faces with 
serpent-like lower  extremities1 who    
live in one of the lower regions below  
the earth called  ,ptla1 or under the   
waters4 ,they are introduced into       

,buddhist  sculptures as worshippers of 
the ,buddha and friends of all          
,buddhists1  but usually represented as 
ordinary men4 ,the ,nga ,mualinda 7also 
,muilinda71 who sheltered ,buddha1 was a
 real serpent 7see p4 #ci74  ,nga-kanys 
or female ,ngas 7serpents from the waist
 downwards7 are also  not uncommon#ajd4 
,in ,kashmr ,ngas are connected with    
fountains and the  sources of rivers4   
,then there are the ,mahoragas1 #8great 
dragons1' who also belong to the  ,nga  
class of demons4    ,we ought also to   
notice the ,kumbhas1 a class of demons  
who attend on  ,virhaka 7p4 #bjf72 the  
,garuas1 a bird-like race ruled over by 
the  mythical ,garua1 king of birds and 
enemy of the ,ngas and serpents2 the    
,apsarases1 or nymphs produced at the   
churning of the ocean4 ,these last  are 
sometimes described in ,hind mythology  
as the ,hrs of ,indra's  heaven1 who are
 assigned to heroes killed in battle4   
,in ,buddhist  sculptures they are      
represented as beautiful females1 who   

are properly  the wives of ,indra's     
celestial musicians called ,gandharvas4 
,finally1 mention should be made of the 
,kinnaras and ,kinnars--beings who      
ought properly to be represented with   
human bodies and equine heads1 and  are1
 like the ,gandharvas1 heavenly         
musicians4 ,it is even recorded in one  
legend that the ,buddha himself in a    
former life was a ,kinnar4    ,all this 
proves the close connexion of ,buddhism 
with the ,hindism which1  like          
,buddhism1 grew out of ,brhmanism4 ,in  
short1 the one mythology is so          
interpenetrated with the other1 that    
,buddhism in making proselytes          
throughout ,eastern ,asia could not     
avoid propagating ,hind mythological    
doctrines along with its own4    ,the   
consequence was that ,hindism1 though   
often regarded as an  unproselyting and 
wholly national religion1 really        
exercised a vast  influence outside its 
own boundaries and among alien races4   
,it is1 at any rate1 a remarkable fact  

that no mythological system has  ever   
spread over so large an area of the     
earth's surface as that which1          
originating in ,india1 was accepted to a
 great extent by all ,buddhist          
communities4 ,and this ,indo-,buddhistic
 system of mythology1 with its1 to  us1 
absurd idolatry1 rests on an extremely  
subtle form of pantheism1  which is not 
to be brushed aside as too contemptible 
for investigation4    ,it is usual to   
denounce all such systems as simple     
,heathenism2 but  #8,heathenism' means  
the religion of #8the nations'--the     
religion evolved by  the men of all     
countries out of their own imaginations 
and by their own  natural faculties1    
without the aid of any true supernatural
 revelation4    ,and assuredly this     
religion of human nature is still a     
strong citadel  entrenched behind the   
formidable forces of pride1 passion1    
prejudice1  and ignorance4 ,yet the     
walls of the fortress have numerous weak
 places1  which the wise missionary1    

armed with the still more powerful      
forces at  his command1 will endeavour  
to discover and quietly undermine4 ,by  
patient and quiet working he must win   
the day4    ,with man1 speed and        
rapidity of action are supposed to be   
the chief  evidences of progress and the
 chief factors in success4 ,the         
,evangelist1  on the other hand1 is a   
worker for ,god and a fellow-worker with
 ,god1 and  ought not to be discouraged 
by the tardy advance of the ,truth which
 he  advocates4 ,he may have his moments
 of despondency1 but he has only to     
look around and observe that ,god works 
everywhere throughout ,his own          
,universe by slow and almost            
imperceptible processes4 ,the ripe fruit
  falls from the tree in a second1 but  
its maturity is not effected  without a 
whole year of gradual preparation4      
,,lecture ,x4       ,mystical ,buddhism 
in its connexion with the ,yoga         
philosophy4      ,the first idea implied
 by ,buddhism is intellectual           

enlightenment4 ,but  ,buddhism has its  
own theory of enlightenment--its own    
idea of true  knowledge1 which it calls 
,bodhi1 not ,veda4 ,by true knowledge it
 means  knowledge acquired by man       
through his own intellectual faculties  
and  through his own inner              
consciousness1 instincts1 and           
intuitions1 unaided  by any external or 
supernatural revelation of any kind4    
,but it is important to observe that    
,buddhism1 in the carrying out of its   
own theory of entire self-dependence in 
the search after truth1 was  compelled  
to be somewhat inconsistent with itself4
 ,it enjoined  self-conquest1           
self-restraint1 self-concentration1 and 
separation from  the world for the      
attainment of true knowledge and for the
  accomplishment of its own summum      
bonum--the bliss of ,nirva--the bliss   
of deliverance from the fires of passion
 and the flames of  concupiscence4 ,yet 
it encouraged association and           
combination for mutual  help4 ,it       

established a universal brotherhood of  
celibate monks1 open to  persons of all 
castes and ranks1 to rich and poor1     
learned and unlearned  alike--a         
community of men which might1 in theory1
 be co-extensive with  the whole        
world--all bound together by the common 
aim of self-conquest1  all animated by  
the wish to aid each other in the battle
 with carnal  desires1 all penetrated by
 a desire to follow the example of the  
,buddha1  and be guided by the doctrine 
or law which he promulgated4            
,cnobitic monasticism in fact1 as we    
have already pointed out1 became an     
essential part of true ,buddhism and a  
necessary instrument for its            
propagation4    ,in all this the ,buddha
 showed himself to be eminently         
practical in his  methods and profoundly
 wise in his generation4 ,evidently1    
too1 he was  wise in abstaining at first
 from all mystical teaching4 ,originally
  ,buddhism set its face against all    
solitary asceticism and all secret      

efforts to attain sublime heights of    
knowledge4 ,it had no occult1 no        
esoteric system of doctrine which it    
withheld from ordinary men4    ,nor did 
true ,buddhism at first concern itself  
with any form of  philosophical or      
metaphysical teaching1 which it did not 
consider  helpful for the attainment of 
the only kind of true knowledge worth   
striving for--the knowledge of the      
origin of suffering and its remedy--the 
knowledge that suffering and pain arise 
from indulging lusts1 and that  life is 
inseparable from suffering1 and is an   
evil to be got rid of by  suppressing   
self and extinguishing desires4    ,in  
the ,mah-parinibbna-sutta 7,rhys        
,davids1 ,,ii4 #cb7 is recorded one of  
the ,buddha's remarks shortly before his
 decease3--    #8,what1 ,o nanda1 does  
the ,order desire of me8 ,i have taught 
the law  7desito dhammo7 without making 
any distinction between esoteric and    
exoteric doctrine 7anantaram abahiram   
karitv74 ,in the matter of the  law1 the

 ,tathgata 7i4e4 the ,buddha7 has never 
had the closed fist of a  teacher       
7ariya-muhi7--of a teacher who withholds
 some doctrines and  communicates       
others4' ,in short1 he was opposed to   
mysticism4    ,nevertheless1 admitting1 
as we must1 that early ,buddhism had no 
mysteries reserved for a privileged     
circle1 we must not shut our eyes to    
the fact that the great importance      
attached to abstract meditation in  the 
,buddhist system could not fail in the  
end to encourage the growth of  mystical
 ideas4    ,furthermore1 it is          
undeniable that such ideas were1 in some
 countries1  carried to the most        
extravagant extremes4 ,efforts to induce
 a  trance-like or hypnotic condition1  
by abstracting the thoughts from all    
bodily influences1 by recitation of     
mystical sentences1 and by              
superstitious devices for the           
acquisition of supernatural faculties1  
were placed above good works and all the
 duties of the moral code4    ,we might 

point1 too1 to the strange doctrine     
which arose in ,nepl and  ,tibet--the   
doctrine of the ,dhyni-,buddhas 7or     
#8,buddhas of  ,meditation'7--certain   
abstract ,essences existing in the      
formless worlds  of thought1 who were   
held to be ethereal and eternal         
representatives of  the transitory      
earthly ,buddhas4 ,these have been      
adverted to in a  previous ,lecture 7see
 p4 #bjb74    ,our present concern is   
rather with the growth and development  
of  mystical ,buddhism in ,india itself1
 through its connexion with the system  
of philosophy called ,yoga and ,yogra4  
,the close relationship of ,buddhism to 
that system is well known2 but the      
various practices included under the    
name ,yoga did not owe their origin  to 
,buddhism4 ,they were prevalent in      
,india before ,gautama ,buddha's time2  
and one of the most generally accepted  
facts in his biography is that1  after  
abandoning his home and worldly         
associations1 he resorted to  certain   

,brhman ascetics1 who were practising   
,yoga4    ,what then was the object     
which these ascetics had in view8       
,the word ,yoga literally means #8union'
 7as derived from the ,sanskit root     
#8yuj1' to join2 compare the ,english   
word #8yoke'71 and the proper aim of    
every man who practised ,yoga was the   
mystic union 7or rather re-union7  of   
his own spirit with the one eternal     
,soul or ,spirit of the ,universe4 ,a   
true ,yog1 says the ,bhagavad-gt 7,,vi4 
#ac1 #be71 should be indifferent to  all
 earthly things4 ,to him a clod1 a      
stone1 and gold should be all  alike4   
,doubtless this was the ,buddha's first 
aim when he addressed himself to  ,yoga 
in the fifth century ,b4,c41 and even to
 this hour1 earnest men in  ,india      
resort to this system with the same     
object4    ,in the ,indian ,magazine for
 ,july1 #ahhg 7as well as in my         
#8,brhmanism and  ,hindism1' p4 #ebi71  
is a short biography of a quite recent  
religious  reformer named ,svm          

,daynanda-,sarasvat1 whose acquaintance 
,i made at  ,bombay in #ahgf and #ahgg1 
and who only died in #ahhc4 ,the story  
of his  life reads almost like a        
repetition of the life of ,buddha1      
though his  teaching aimed at restoring 
the supposed monotheistic doctrine of   
the  ,veda4    ,it is recorded that his 
father1 desiring to initiate him into   
the  mysteries of aivism1 took him to a 
shrine dedicated to the god iva2  but   
the sight of some mice stealing the     
consecrated offerings1 and of  some rats
 playing on the heads of the idol1 led  
him to disbelieve in  iva-worship as a  
means of union with the ,supreme ,being4
 ,longing1  however1 for such union and 
for emancipation from the burden of     
repeated  births1 he resolved to        
renounce marriage and abandon the world4
  ,accordingly1 at the age of           
twenty-two1 he clandestinely quitted his
  home1 the darkness of evening covering
 his flight4 ,taking a secret path1  he 
travelled thirty miles during the night4

 ,next day he was pursued by  his       
father1 who tried to force him to       
return1 but in vain4 ,after  travelling 
farther and farther from his native     
province1 he took a vow  to devote      
himself to the investigation of truth4  
,then he wandered for  many years all   
over ,india1 trying to gain knowledge   
from sages and  philosophers1 but       
without any satisfactory result1 till   
finally he  settled at ,ahmedbd4 ,there1
 having mastered the higher ,yoga       
system1 he  became the leader of a new  
sect called the rya-,samj4    ,and here 
we may observe that the expression      
#8higher ,yoga' implies that a  lower   
form of that system had been introduced4
 ,in point of fact1 the  ,yoga system   
grew1 and became twofold--that is1 it   
came in the end to have  two objects4   
,the earlier was the higher ,yoga4 ,it  
aimed only at union with the ,spirit  of
 the ,universe4 ,the more developed     
system aimed at something more4 ,it     
sought to acquire miraculous powers by  

bringing the body under control  of the 
will1 and by completely abstracting the 
soul from body and mind1  and isolating 
it in its own essence4 ,this condition  
is called ,kaivalya4    ,in the fifth   
century ,b4,c41 when ,gautama ,buddha   
began his career1 the  later and lower  
form of ,yoga seems to have been little 
known4  ,practically1 in those days1    
earnest and devout men craved only for  
union  with the ,supreme ,being1 and    
absorption into his ,essence4 ,many     
methods of  effecting such union and    
absorption were contrived4 ,and these   
may be  classed under two chief         
heads--bodily mortification 7tapas7 and 
abstract  meditation 7dhyna74    ,by    
either one of these two chief means1 the
 devotee was supposed to be  able to get
 rid of all bodily fetters--to be able  
to bring his bodily  organs into such   
subjection to the spiritual that he     
became unconscious  of possessing any   
body at all4 ,it was in this way that   
his spirit became  fit for blending with

 the ,universal ,spirit1 of which it was
 originally a  part4    ,we learn from  
the ,lalita-vistara that various forms  
of bodily torture1  self-maceration1 and
 austerity were common in ,gautama's    
time4    ,some devotees1 we read1 seated
 themselves in one spot and kept        
perpetual  silence1 with their legs bent
 under them4 ,some ate only once a day  
or  once on alternate days1 or at       
intervals of four1 six1 or fourteen     
days4  ,some slept in wet clothes or on 
ashes1 gravel1 stones1 boards1 thorny   
grass1 or spikes1 or with the face      
downwards4 ,some went naked1 making no  
distinction between fit or unfit places4
 ,some smeared themselves with  ashes1  
cinders1 dust1 or clay4 ,some inhaled   
smoke and fire4 ,some gazed  at the sun1
 or sat surrounded by five fires1 or    
rested on one foot1 or  kept one arm    
perpetually uplifted1 or moved about on 
their knees instead  of on their feet1  
or baked themselves on hot stones1 or   
submerged  themselves in water1 or      

suspended themselves in air4    ,then1  
again1 a method of fasting called very  
painful 7atikihra71  described by ,manu 
7,,xi4 #bac71 was often practised4 ,it  
consisted in eating  only a single      
mouthful every day for nine days1 and   
then abstaining from  all food for the  
three following days4    ,another       
method1 called the lunar fast 7,,vi4    
#bj1 ,,xi4 #baf71 consisted in          
beginning with fifteen mouthfuls at full
 moon1 and reducing the quantity  by one
 mouthful till new moon1 and then       
increasing it again in the same  way    
till full moon4    ,passages without    
number might be quoted from ancient     
literature to prove  that similar       
practices were resorted to throughout   
,india1 with the  object of bringing the
 body into subjection to the spirit4    
,and these  practices have continued up 
to the present day4    ,a ,muhammadan   
traveller1 whose narrative is quoted by 
,mr4 ,mill 7,british  ,india1 i4 #cee71 
once saw a man standing motionless with 

his face towards  the sun4    ,the same 
traveller1 having occasion to revisit   
the same spot sixteen  years afterwards1
 found the very same man in the very    
same attitude4 ,he  had gazed on the    
sun's disk till all sense of external   
vision was  extinguished4    ,a ,yog was
 seen not very long ago 7,mill's ,india1
 i4 #cec7 seated between  four fires on 
a quadrangular stage4 ,he stood on one  
leg gazing at the  sun1 while these     
fires were lighted at the four corners4 
,then placing  himself upright on his   
head1 with his feet elevated in the air1
 he  remained for three hours in that   
position4 ,he then seated himself       
cross-legged1 and continued bearing the 
raging heat of the sun above his  head  
and the fires which surrounded him1 till
 the end of the day1  occasionally      
adding combustibles with his own hands  
to increase the  flames4    ,i1 myself1 
in the course of my travels1 encountered
 ,yogis who had kept  their arms        
uplifted for years1 or had wandered     

about from one place of  pilgrimage to  
another under a perpetual vow of        
silence1 or had no place  to lie upon   
but a bed of spikes4    ,as to fasting1 
the idea that attenuation of the body by
 abstinence from  food facilitates union
 of the human soul with the divine1 or  
at any rate  promotes a keener insight  
into spiritual things1 is doubtless as  
common  in ,europe as in ,asia2 but the 
most austere observer of ,lent in       
,european  countries would be hopelessly
 outdone by devotees whose extraordinary
  powers of abstinence may be witnessed 
in every part of ,india4    ,if we now  
turn to the second method of attaining  
mystic union with the  ,divine ,essence1
 namely1 by profound abstract thought1  
we may observe  that it1 too1 was       
everywhere prevalent in ,buddha's time4 
,indeed1 one of the names given by      
,indian philosophers to the ,one        
,universal ,spirit is it1 #8,thought4'  
,by that name1 of course1 is meant  pure
 abstract thought1 or the faculty of    

thought separated from every  concrete  
object4 ,hence1 in its highest state the
 eternal infinite  ,spirit1 by its very 
nature1 thinks of nothing4 ,it is the   
simple  thought-faculty1 wholly         
unconnected with any object about which 
it  thinks4 ,in point of fact1 the      
moment it begins to exercise this       
faculty1  it necessarily abandons for a 
time its condition of absolute oneness1 
abstraction1 and isolation1 to associate
 itself with something inferior1  which 
is not itself4    ,it follows1          
therefore1 that intense concentration of
 the mind on the ,one  ,universal       
,spirit amounts to fixing the thought on
 a mere abstract  ,essence1 which       
reciprocates no thought in return1 and  
is not conscious  of being thought about
 by its worshipper4    ,in harmony with 
this theory1 we find that the definition
 of ,yoga1 in the  second aphorism of   
the ,yoga-stra1 is1 #8the suppression   
7nirodha7 of the  functions or          
modifications 7vitti7 of the thinking   

principle 7itta74'  ,so that1 in        
reality1 the union of the human mind    
with the infinite  ,principle of thought
 amounts to such complete mental        
absorption1 that  thought itself becomes
 lost in pure thought4    ,in the       
akuntal 7,,vii4 #age7 there is a        
description of an ascetic engaged  in   
this form of ,yoga1 whose condition of  
fixed meditation and immovable          
impassiveness had lasted so long that   
ants had thrown up a mound as high  as  
his waist1 and birds had built their    
nests in the long clotted  tresses of   
his tangled hair4    ,not many years    
ago1 ,i1 myself1 saw at ,allahbd near   
the fort a devotee  who had maintained a
 sitting1 contemplative posture1 with   
his feet  folded under his body1 in one 
place for twenty years4 ,during the     
,mutiny  cannon thundered over his head1
 and bullets hissed around him1 but     
nothing apparently disturbed his        
attitude of profound meditation4 ,even  
,muhammadans practise the same4 ,the    

,russian correspondent of the ,times    
states 7,sept4 #ah1 #ahhh7 that he saw  
in a mosque at ,samarkand men who       
voluntarily remained mute and motionless
 for forty days4 ,on a curtain  being   
pulled aside he beheld a motionless     
figure seated in profound  meditation   
like a squatting mummy4 ,the guide said 
that a cannon fired  off in front of his
 face would have left him equally       
unmoved4    ,it is clear1 then1 that1   
supposing ,gautama to have made up his  
mind to  devote himself to a religious  
life1 his adoption of a course of       
profound  meditation was a most usual   
proceeding4    ,a large number of the   
images of ,buddha represent him sitting 
on a raised  seat or throne 7called the 
,bodhi-maa71 with his legs folded under 
his  body1 and his eyes half-closed1 in 
a condition of abstraction              
7samdhi7--sometimes called ,yoga-nidr2  
that is1 a trance-like state1           
resembling profound sleep4 7,compare    
frontispiece47    ,he is said to have   

seated himself in this way under four   
trees in  succession 7see p4 #ci of     
these ,lectures71 namely1 under the     
,bodhi-tree  or sacred fig-tree1 under  
the ,banyan-tree1 under the             
,mualinda-tree  7protected by the       
serpent71 and under the ,rjyatana-tree4 
,and those four successive seats        
probably symbolized the four recognized 
stages of meditation#aje 7dhyna7 rising 
one above the other1 till  thought      
itself was converted into non-thought   
7see p4 #bji74    ,we know1 too1 that   
the ,buddha went through still higher   
progressive  stages of meditation at the
 moment of his death or final decease   
7,pari-nirva71 thus described in the    
,mah-parinibbna-sutta 7,davids1  ,,vi4  
#aa73    #8,then the ,venerable ,one    
entered into the first stage of         
meditation  7pathamajjhnam72 and rising 
out of the first stage1 he passed into  
the  second2 and rising out of the      
second1 he passed into the third2 and   
rising out of the third1 he passed into 

the fourth2 and rising out of  the      
fourth stage1 he attained the conception
 of the infinity of space  7knayatanam1 
see p4 #bad72 and rising out of the     
conception of the  infinity of space1 he
 attained the conception of the infinity
 of  intelligence 7viayatanam72 and     
rising out of the idea of the  infinity 
of intelligence1 he attained the        
conception of absolute  nonentity       
7kiayatanam72 and rising out of the idea
 of nonentity1  he entered the region   
where there is neither consciousness nor
  unconsciousness2 and rising out of    
that region1 he entered the state in    
which all sensation and perception of   
ideas had wholly ceased4' 7,see p4  #bac
 of these ,lectures47    ,clearly1 even 
four progressive stages of abstraction  
did not satisfy the  requirements of    
later ,buddhism in regard to the intense
 sublimation of  the thinking faculty   
needed for the complete effacement of   
all sense of  individuality4 ,higher and
 higher altitudes had to be reached1    

insomuch  that the fourth stage of      
abstract meditation is sometimes divided
 and  subdivided into what are called   
eight ,vimokhas and eight               
,sampattis--all  of them forms and      
stages of ecstatic meditation#ajf4    ,a
 general name1 however1 for all the     
higher trance-like states is  ,samdhi1  
and by the practice of ,samdhi the six  
transcendent faculties  7,abhi7 might   
ultimately be obtained1 viz4 the inner  
ear1 or power of  hearing words and     
sounds1 however distant 7clair-audience1
 as it might  be called72 the inner eye1
 or power of seeing all that happens in 
every  part of the world                
7clair-voyance72 knowledge of the       
thoughts of others2  recollection of    
former existences2 the knowledge of the 
mode of  destroying the corrupting      
influences of passion2 and1 finally1 the
  supernatural powers called ,iddhi1 to 
be subsequently explained4    ,but to   
return to the ,buddha's first course of 
meditation at the time  when he first   

attained ,buddhahood4 ,this happened    
during one particular  night1 which was 
followed by the birthday of ,buddhism4  
,and what was the first grand outcome of
 that first profound mental             
abstraction8 ,one legend relates that in
 the first watch of the night all  his  
previous existences flashed across his  
mind2 in the second he  understood all  
present states of being2 in the third he
 traced out the  chain of causes and    
effects1 and at the dawn of day he knew 
all things4    ,according to another    
legend1 there was an actual outburst of 
the divine  light before hidden within  
him4    ,we read in the ,lalita-vistara 
7chap4 i7 that at the supreme moment of 
his intellectual illumination brilliant 
flames of light issued from the  crown  
of his head1 through the interstices of 
his cropped hair4 ,these  rays are      
sometimes represented in his images1    
emerging from his skull in  a form      
resembling the five fingers of an       
extended hand 7see the  frontispiece74  

,mark1 however1 that ,gautama's         
meditation never led him to the highest 
result of the true ,yoga of ,indian     
philosophy--union with the ,supreme     
,spirit4 ,on the contrary1 his          
self-enlightenment led to entire        
disbelief  in the separate existence of 
any eternal1 infinite ,spirit at        
all--any  ,spirit1 in fact1 with which a
 spirit existing in his own body could  
blend1 or into which it could be        
absorbed4    ,if the ,buddha was not a  
materialist1 in the sense of believing  
in the  eternal existence of material   
atoms1 neither could he in any sense be 
called a #8spiritualist1' or believer in
 the eternal existence of  abstract     
spirit4    ,with him ,creation did not  
proceed from an ,omnipotent ,spirit or  
,mind  evolving phenomena out of itself 
by the exercise of will1 nor from an    
eternal self-existing1 self-evolving    
germ of any kind4 ,as to the  existence 
in the ,universe of any spiritual       
substance which was not  matter and was 

imperceptible by the senses1 it could   
not be proved4    ,nor did he believe in
 the eternal existence of an invisible  
,self or ,ego1  called ,soul1 distinct  
from a material body4 ,the only eternity
 of true  ,buddhism was an eternity of  
#8becoming1' not of #8being'--an        
eternity of  existences1 all succeeding 
each other1 and all lapsing into        
nothingness4  ,if there were any        
personal gods they were all inferior to 
the perfect  man1 and all liable to     
change and dissolution4    ,in brief1   
the ,buddha's enlightenment consisted1  
first1 in the discovery  of the origin  
and remedy of suffering1 and1 next1 in  
the knowledge of  the existence of an   
eternal ,force--a force generated by    
what in ,sanskit  is called ,karman1    
#8,act4' ,the accumulated force of the  
acts of one  ,universe produced another4
    ,every man1 therefore1 was created  
by the force of his own acts in former  
bodies1 combined with a force generated 
by intense attachment to  existence     

7updna74 ,who or what started the first 
act1 the ,buddha never  pretended to be 
able to explain4 ,he confessed himself  
in regard to this  point a downright    
,agnostic4 ,the ,buddha himself had been
 created by his  own acts1 and had been 
created and re-created through countless
 bodily  forms2 but he had no spirit or 
soul existing separately between the    
intervals of each creation4 ,by his     
protracted meditation he attained to  no
 higher knowledge than this1 and        
although he himself rose to loftier     
heights of knowledge than any other man 
of his day1 he never aspired to  other  
faculties than were within the reach of 
any human being capable of  rising to   
the same sublime abstraction of mind4   
,he was even careful to lay down a      
precept that the acquisition of         
transcendent human faculties was        
restricted to the perfected saints      
called ,arhats2 and so important did he 
consider it to guard such  faculties    
from being claimed by mere impostors1   

that one of the four  prohibitions      
communicated to all monks on first      
admission to his  monastic ,order was   
that they were not to pretend to such   
powers 7see p4  #ha74    ,nor is there  
any proof that even ,arhats in          
,gautama's time were allowed  to claim  
superhuman faculties and the power of   
working physical  miracles4    ,by      
degrees1 no doubt1 powers of this kind  
were ascribed to them as well  as to the
 ,buddha4 ,even in the ,yinaya1 one of  
the oldest portions of the  ,tri-piaka1 
we find it stated 7,mah-vagga ,i4 #bj1  
#bd7 that ,gautama ,buddha  gained      
adherents by performing three thousand  
five hundred supernatural  wonders      
7,pli1 pi-hriya2 see p4 #df74 ,these    
were thought to be  evidences of his    
mission as a great teacher and saviour  
of mankind2 but  the part of the        
narrative recording these1 although very
 ancient1 is  probably a legendary      
addition4    ,it is interesting1        
however1 to trace in portions of the    

early  literature1 the development of   
the doctrine that ,buddhahood meant     
first  transcendent knowledge1 and then 
supernatural faculties and the power of 
working miracles4    ,in the            
kakheyya-sutta 7said to have been       
composed in the fourth  century ,b4,c47 
occurs a remarkable passage1 translated 
by ,prof4 ,rhys  ,davids 7,s4,b4,e41 p4 
#bad73--    #8,if a monk should desire  
through the destruction of the          
corrupting  influences 7savas71 by      
himself1 and even in this very world1 to
 know  and realise and attain to        
,arhatship1 to emancipation of heart1   
and  emancipation of mind1 let him      
devote himself to that quietude of heart
  which springs from within1 let him not
 drive back the ecstasy of              
contemplation1 let him look through     
things1 let him be much alone4    #8,if 
a monk should desire to hear with clear 
and heavenly ear1 surpassing  that of   
men1 sounds both human and celestial1   
whether far or near2 if he  should      

desire to comprehend by his own heart   
the hearts of other beings  and of other
 men2 if he should desire to call to    
mind his various  temporary states in   
the past1 such as one1 two1 three1 four1
 five1 ten1  twenty1 a hundred1 a       
thousand1 a hundred thousand births1 or 
his births  in many an age and on of    
destruction and renovation1 let him     
devote  himself to that quietude which  
springs from within4'    ,then1 in the  
,mah-parinibbna-sutta 7,i4 #cc1 ,rhys   
,davids7 occurs the  following2--       
#8,at that time the blessed ,one--as    
instantaneously as a strong man would   
stretch forth his arm1 or draw it back  
again when he had stretched it          
forth--vanished from this side of the   
river1 and stood on the further  bank   
with the company of the brethren4'      
,and1 again1 the following3--    #8,i   
call to mind1 nanda1 how when ,i used to
 enter into an assembly of  many hundred
 nobles1 before ,i had seated myself    
there1 or talked to  them1 or started a 

conversation with them1 ,i used to      
become in colour  like unto their       
colour1 and in voice like unto their    
voice4 ,then1 with  religious discourse1
 ,i used to instruct1 incite1 and       
quicken them1 and  fill them with       
gladness4 ,but they knew me not when ,i 
spoke1 and would  say1 8,who may this be
 who thus speaks8 a man or a god80      
,then1 having  instructed1 incited1     
quickened1 and gladdened them with      
religious  discourse1 ,i would vanish   
away4 ,but they knew me not even when ,i
  vanished away2 and would say1 8,who   
may this be who has thus vanished  away8
 a man1 or a                            
god80'--7,mah-parinibbna-sutta ,,iii4   
#bb1 ,rhys ,davids47    ,such passages  
in the early literature afford an       
interesting  exemplification of the     
growth of supernatural and mystical     
ideas1 which  led to the ultimate       
association of the ,buddhistic system   
with aivism1  demonology1 magic1 and    
various so-called spiritual phenomena4  

,i now proceed to show that the         
development of these ideas in ,buddhism 
resulted from its connexion with the    
later ,yoga1 which developed similar    
ideas4    ,in the aphorisms of this     
later ,yoga1 composed by ,patajali1     
eight chief  requisites are enumerated  
7,,ii4 #bi72 namely1 #a4 abstaining from
 five evil  acts 7yama72 #b4 performing 
five positive duties 7niyama72 #c4      
settling  the limbs in certain postures 
7sana72 #d4 regulating and suppressing  
the  breath 7pryma72 #e4 withdrawing the
 senses from their objects  7pratyhra72 
#f4 fixing the thinking faculty 7dhra72 
#g4 internal  self-contemplation        
7dhyna72 #h4 trance-like                
self-concentration  7samdhi74    ,these 
eight are indispensable requisites for  
the gaining of ,patajali's  summum      
bonum--the complete abstraction or      
isolation 7kaivalya7 of the  soul or    
spirit in its own essence--and for the  
acquirement of  supernatural faculties4 
,taking now these eight requisites of   

,yoga in order1 we may observe1 with    
regard to the first1 that the five evil 
acts to be avoided correspond to  the   
five commandments in ,buddhism1 viz4    
#8kill not1' #8steal not1' #8commit  no 
impurity1' #8lie not4' ,the fifth       
alone--#8abstain from all worldly       
enjoyments'--is different1 the ,buddhist
 fifth prohibition being #8drink no     
strong drink' 7p4 #abf74    ,with regard
 to the second requisite1 the five      
positive duties  are--self-purification1
 both external and internal 7both called
 aua72  the practice of contentment     
7satosha72 bodily mortification 7tapas72
  muttering of prayers1 or repetition of
 mystical syllables 7svdhyya1 or  japa71
 and contemplation of the ,supreme      
,being4    ,the various processes of    
bodily mortification already described  
7see p4  #bbh7 were repudiated by       
,buddhism4    ,as to the muttering of   
prayers1 the repetition of mystic       
syllables such  as ,om 7a symbol for the
 ,triad of gods71 or of any favourite   

deity's  name1 is held among ,hinds to  
be highly efficacious#ajg4 ,in a similar
  manner among ,tibetan ,buddhists the  
six-syllabled sentence3 #8,om mai  padme
 ,hm'--#8,om6 the jewel in the lotus6   
,hm6'--is used as a charm against  the  
sixfold course of transmigration 7see   
pp4 #aba1 #cga-cgc74    ,mystical       
syllables are very common4 ,sir ,a4     
,cunningham gives the  following as     
current in ,ladk3--,bhyo1 ,rakmo-bhyo6  
,rakmo-bhyo-bhyo6 ,ru-lu1  ,ru-lu1 ,hm  
,bhyo ,hm6 7,ladk1 #chf47    ,other     
mystical syllables 7such as ,sam1 ,yam1 
,ram1 ,lam1 etc47 are supposed  to      
contain some occult virtue4    ,the     
third requisite--posture--would appear  
to us a somewhat trivial aid to  the    
union of the human spirit with the      
divine2 but with ,hinds it is an        
important auxiliary1 fraught with great 
benefit to the ,yog4    ,the alleged    
reason is that certain sitting postures 
7sana7 and cramping  of the lower limbs 
are peculiarly efficacious in producing 

bodily  quietude and preventing         
restlessness4 ,some of the postures have
 curious  names1 for                    
example3--,padmsana1 #8the lotus        
posture2' #8vrsana1 #8the  heroic       
posture2' sihsana1 #8the lion posture'  
7see note1 p4 #ccf72  krmsana1          
#8tortoise posture2' kukku-sana1 #8cock 
posture2'  dhanur-sana1 #8bow posture2' 
mayrsana1 #8peacock posture4' ,in the   
first  the legs are folded under the    
body and the right foot is placed on the
  left thigh1 and the left on the right 
thigh4    ,in short1 the idea is that   
compression of the lower limbs1 in such 
a way  as to prevent the possibility of 
the slightest movement1 is most         
important as a preparation for complete 
abstraction of soul4    ,then1 as       
another aid1 particular mystical        
twistings 7called mudr7 of  the upper   
limbs--of the arms1 hands1 and          
fingers--are enjoined4    ,even in      
,muhammadan countries certain movements 
of the limbs are  practised by devotees 

with the view of uniting the human      
spirit with the  ,divine4 ,those who    
have seen the whirling and #8howling'   
dervishes at  ,cairo can testify that   
fainting fits result from their violent 
exertions1 inspirations1 expirations1   
and utterances of the name of ,god1  and
 such fits are believed to be ecstatic  
states of union with the  ,deity4       
,the fourth requisite--regulation and   
suppression of the breath--is perhaps   
the one of all the eight which is most  
difficult for ,europeans to  understand 
or appreciate2 yet with ,hinds it is    
all-important4 ,it is  sometimes called 
,haha-vidy4 ,nor are the ideas connected
 with it wholly  unknown in ,europe4    
,according to ,swedenborg#ajh1 thought  
commences and corresponds with          
respiration3--    #8,when a man thinks  
quickly his breath vibrates with rapid  
alternations2  when the tempest of anger
 shakes his mind his breath is          
tumultuous2 when  his soul is deep and  
tranquil1 so is his respiration4' ,and  

he adds3 #8,it  is strange that this    
correspondence between the states of the
 brain or  mind and the lungs has not   
been admitted in science4'    ,the ,hind
 belief certainly is that deep          
inspirations of breath assist in        
concentrating and abstracting the       
thoughts and preventing external        
impressions4 ,but1 more than this1 five 
sorts of air are supposed to  permeate  
the human body and play an important    
part in its vitality4 ,they  are called 
,pra1 ,vyna1 ,apna1 ,samna1 ,udna4 ,in  
the hndogya  ,upanishad 7,v4 #ai1 etc47 
they are described as if they were      
divine beings  to be adored and to be   
honoured by offerings of food4 ,the     
,haha-dpik  says3 #8,as long as the air 
remains in the body1 so long life       
remains4  ,death is the exit of the     
breath4 ,hence the air should be        
retained in the  body4'    ,in          
regulating the breath1 the air must     
first be drawn up through one  nostril  
7the other being closed with the        

finger71 retained in the lungs1  and    
then expelled through the other nostril4
 ,this exercise must be  practised      
alternately with the right and left     
nostril4 ,next1 the breath  must be     
drawn forcibly up through both nostrils1
 and the air imprisoned  for as long a  
time as possible in the lungs4 ,thence  
it must be forced by  an effort of will 
towards the internal organs of the body1
 or made to  mount to the centre of the 
brain4    ,the ,hinds1 however1 do not  
identify the breath with the soul4 ,they
  believe that a crevice or suture      
called the ,brahma-randhram at the top  
of the skull serves as an outlet for the
 escape of the soul at death4 ,a  ,hind 
,yog's skull is sometimes split at death
 by striking it with a  sacred shell4   
,the idea is to facilitate the exit of  
the soul4 ,it is said  that in ,tibet   
the hair is torn out of the top of the  
head1 with the same  object4    ,in the 
case of a wicked man the soul is        
supposed to escape through one  of the  

lower openings of the body4    ,the     
imprisonment of the breath in the body  
by taking in more air than is  necessary
 for respiration1 is the most important 
of the breath  exercises4 ,it is said   
that ,hind ascetics1 by constant        
practice1 are  able by this means to    
sustain life under water1 or to be      
buried alive  for long periods of time4 
,many alleged feats of suspended        
animation are  of course mere and sheer 
trickery4 ,it seems1 however1 open to   
question1  whether it may not be        
possible for human beings of particular 
constitutions to practise a kind of     
hibernation like that of animals1 or    
acquire some power of suspending        
temporarily the organic functions4 ,a   
certain ,colonel ,townsend is said to   
have succeeded in doing so4    ,a       
well-known instance of suspended        
animation occurred in the ,panjb in     
#ahcg4 ,a ,hind ,yog was there1 by his  
own request1 buried alive in a  vault   
for forty days in the presence of       

,runjit ,singh and ,sir ,claude  ,wade2 
his eyes1 ears1 and every orifice of his
 body having been first  stopped with   
plugs of wax4 ,dr4 ,mc,gregor1 the then 
residency surgeon1  also watched the    
case4 ,every precaution was taken to    
prevent deception4  ,english officials  
saw the man buried1 as well as exhumed1 
and a  perpetual guard over the vault   
was kept night and day by order of      
,runjit  ,singh himself4 ,at the end of 
forty days the disinterment took place4 
,the  body was dried up like a stick1   
and the tongue1 which had been turned   
back into the throat1 had become like a 
piece of horn4 ,those who exhumed  him  
followed his previously-given directions
 for the restoration of  animation1 and 
the ,yog told them he had only been     
conscious of a kind  of ecstatic bliss  
in the society of other ,yogs and       
saints1 and was  quite ready to be      
buried over again4    ,what amount of   
fraud there may be in these feats it is 
difficult to say4  ,they may possibly be

 accounted for by the fact that ,indian 
,yogs have  studied the habits of       
hibernating animals2 but in some cases  
the secret  introduction of food has    
been detected4    ,i may add that it is 
commonly believed throughout ,india that
 a man whose  body is sublimated by     
intense abstract meditation never dies1 
in the  sense of undergoing corruption  
and dissolution4 ,when his supposed     
death  occurs he is held to be in a     
state of trance1 which may last for     
centuries1 and his body is1 therefore1  
not burnt1 but buried--generally  in a  
sitting posture--and his tomb is called 
a ,samdh4    ,with regard to the fifth  
requisite--the act of withdrawing the   
senses  from their object1 as1 for      
example1 the eye from visible           
forms--this is  well compared to the act
 of a tortoise withdrawing its limbs    
under its  shell4    ,the sixth         
requisite--fixing the principle of      
thought--comprises the act of  directing
 the thinking faculty 7itta7 towards    

various parts of the  body1 for example1
 towards the heart1 or towards the crown
 of the head1  or concentrating the     
will-force on the region between the two
 eyebrows1  or even fixing the eyes     
intently on the tip of the nose4        
7,compare  ,bhagavad-gt ,,vi4 #ac47     
,the seventh and eighth requisites--viz4
 internal self-contemplation and        
intense self-concentration--are held    
7when conjoined with the sixth7 to  be  
most important as leading to the        
acquisition of certain supernatural     
powers1 of which the following are most 
commonly enumerated3--7#a7 ,animan1     
#8the faculty of reducing the body to   
the size of an atom2' 7#b7 ,mahiman1  or
 ,gariman1 #8increasing the size or     
weight at will2' 7#c7 ,laghiman1        
#8making the body light at will2'       
7#d7,prpti1 #8reaching or touching any  
object or spot1 however apparently      
distant2' 7#e7 ,prkmya1 #8unlimited     
exercise of will2' 7#f7 itva1 #8gaining 
absolute power over one's self  and     

others2' 7#g7 ,vait1 #8bringing the     
elements into subjection2' 7#h7         
,kmvasyit1 #8the power of suppressing   
all desires4'    ,a ,yog who has        
acquired these powers can rise aloft to 
the skies1 fly  through space1 pass     
through the key-hole of a door1 pierce  
the mysteries  of planets and stars1    
cause storms and earthquakes1 understand
 the  language of animals1 ascertain    
what occurs in any part of the world1 or
  of the universe1 recollect the events 
of his own previous lives1 prolong  his 
present life1 see into the past and     
future1 discern the thoughts of  others1
 assume any form he likes1 disappear1   
reappear1 and even enter  into another  
man's body and make it his own4    ,such
 were some of the extravagant ideas     
which grew with the growth of  the ,yoga
 system1 and were incorporated into the 
later developments of  ,buddhism4    ,we
 learn from ,mr4 ,sarat ,chandra ,ds    
that in the monastery of ,galdan in     
,tibet there is at this moment a college

 specially devoted to the  teaching of  
,esoteric and ,mystical ,buddhism2 while
 magic and sorcery are  taught in the   
monasteries founded by ,padma-sambhava  
7see pp4 #bgb1 #bgd1  #dda74    ,of     
course it was only natural that1 with   
the association of ,buddhism  with the  
later ,yoga and aivism1 the ,buddha     
himself should have become a  centre for
 the growth of supernatural and mystical
 ideas4    ,hence the ,buddha is fabled 
by his followers to have ascended to the
  ,trayastria heaven of ,indra1 walked  
on water1 stepped from one mountain  to 
another1 and left impressions of his    
feet on the solid rock4 ,although  in   
the ,dhamma-pada it is twice declared   
7#bed1 #bee71 #8,there is no path       
through the air4'    ,perhaps the climax
 was reached when the later doctrine    
made every ,buddha  possess a threefold 
existence or three bodies1 much in the  
same way as  in ,hindism three bodies   
are assigned to every being4    ,the    
first of the ,buddha's bodies is the    

,dharma-kya1 #8body of the ,law1'       
supposed to be a kind of ethereal       
essence of a highly sublimated nature   
and co-extensive with space4 ,this      
essence was believed to be eternal1  and
 after the ,buddha's death1 was         
represented by the ,law or ,doctrine    
7,dharma7 he taught4 ,the idea seems to 
have been invented as an analogue  to   
,brahman1 or the ,universal spiritual   
,essence of ,brhmanism#aji4    ,the     
second body is the ,sambhoga-kya1 #8body
 of conscious bliss1' which  is of a    
less ethereal and more material nature  
than the last4 ,its  ,brhmanical        
analogue appears to be the intermediate 
body 7belonging to  departed spirits7   
called ,bhoga-deha1 which is of an      
ethereal character1  though composed of 
sufficiently gross 7sthla7 material     
particles to be  capable of experiencing
 happiness or misery4    ,for observe   
that it is an essential part of the     
,hind doctrine of  transmigration or    
metempsychosis1 that a soul without a   

body is  incapable of feeling either    
happiness in heaven or pain in hell4    
,the third body is the ,nirma-kya1      
#8body of visible shapes and            
transformations1' that is to say1 those 
various concrete material forms  in     
which every ,buddha who exists as an    
invisible and eternal essence1 is       
manifested on the earth or elsewhere for
 the propagation of the true  doctrine4 
,the ,brhmanical analogue of this third 
body appears to be the earthly  gross   
body1 called ,sthla-arra4    ,it is     
evident that the extravagances of       
mystical ,buddhism have their           
counterparts in ,brhmanism4    ,there is
 a ,brhmanical legend which relates how 
the great ,brhman sage  akarrya         
entranced his gross body1 and then1     
having forced out his  soul along with  
his subtle body1 entered the dead body  
of a recently  deceased king1 which he  
occupied for several weeks4    ,the     
,yoga of the ,brhmans1 in fact1 held    
that adepts1 skilled in occult  science1

 might throw their gross bodies into a  
state of unconsciousness1  and by a     
determined effort of will project or    
force out the ethereal  body through the
 pores of the skin1 and make this       
phantasmal form  visible in distant     
places#aaj4    ,and now it is declared  
to be a fact that a community of        
,buddhist  #8,brothers' called ,mahtmas1
 are living at this moment in the       
deserts of  ,tibet1 who1 having         
emancipated their interior selves from  
physical  bondage by profound abstract  
meditation1 have acquired #8astral'     
bodies  7distinct from their gross      
bodies71 with which they are able to    
rise in  the air1 or move through space1
 by the mere exercise of will4    ,sir  
,edwin ,arnold on the other hand1 in his
 #8,india ,revisited' 7p4 #bgc71  states
 that he asked r ,weligama of ,ceylon   
whether there existed  anywhere         
,mahtmas1 who elevated in this way above
 humanity1 possessed  larger powers and 
more profound insight than any other    

living  philosophers8 ,weligama         
answered1 #8,no6 such do not exist2 you 
would seek  them vainly in this island1 
or in ,tibet1 or in ,siam1 or in ,china4
 ,it is  true1 ,o my friend1 that if we 
had better interpretations of the ,lord 
,buddha's teaching1 we might reach to   
heights and depths of power and         
goodness now quite impossible1 but we   
have fallen from the old wisdom1  and   
none of us to-day are so advanced4'     
,i believe that the ,psychical ,research
 ,society once sent delegates to  ,india
 who inquired into this subject1 and    
exposed the absurdity of some  of the   
alleged phenomena4    ,curiously in     
agreement with these extravagant notions
 are the beliefs of  various uncivilized
 races4 ,dr4 ,tylor1 in his #8,primitive
 ,culture' 7i4  #ddj71 relates how the  
,north ,american ,indians and others    
believe that  their souls quit their    
bodies during sleep1 and go about       
hunting1  dancing1 visiting1 etc4 ,it is
 stated by ,mr4 ,finn1 late ,h4 ,m4     

,consul for  ,north ,persia1 that he    
never could induce his ,persian servants
 to awaken  him in the morning4 ,they   
gave as their reason that the soul      
during sleep  wanders away from the     
body1 and that a sleeper will die if    
awakened  before the soul has time to   
rejoin the body4 ,the ,indian tribes in 
,central ,brazil have the same belief1  
so says ,dr4 ,karl von den ,steinen     
7recently quoted in the ,times          
newspaper74    ,furthermore it is clear 
that the possibility of acquiring       
supernatural  faculties is not an idea  
confined to one country4    ,old legends
 relate how ,simon ,magus made statues  
walk2 how he flew in the  air2 how he   
lept into the fire1 made bread of       
stones1 changed his shape1  assumed two 
faces1 made the vessels in a house move 
of themselves  7,colonel ,yule's ,marco 
,polo1 i4 #cjf74    ,we are told that   
the phenomena of ,european spiritualism 
are to be kept  distinct from those of  
,asiatic occultism4 ,modern             

spiritualism1 it is  said1 requires the 
intervention of #8mediums1' who neither 
control nor  understand the             
manifestations of which they are the    
passive instruments2  whereas the       
phenomena of occultism are the          
#8achievements of a conscious  living   
operator1' produced on himself by an    
effort of his own will4  ,according to  
,mr4 ,sinnett1 the important point      
#8which occultism brings  out is1 that  
the soul of man1 while something        
enormously subtler and  more ethereal   
and more lasting than the body1 is      
itself a material body4  ,the ether that
 transmits light is held to be material 
by any one who  holds it to exist at    
all2 but there is a gulf of difference  
between it  and the thinnest of gases4' 
,in another place he advances an opinion
 that  the spirit is distinct from the  
soul4 ,it is the soul of the soul4      
,and again3 #8,the body is the prison of
 the soul for ordinary mortals4 ,we  can
 see merely what comes before its       

windows2 we can take cognisance  only of
 what is brought within its bars4 ,but  
the adept has found the key  of his     
prison1 and can emerge from it at       
pleasure4 ,it is no longer a  prison for
 him--merely a dwelling4 ,he can project
 his soul out of his  body to any place 
he pleases with the rapidity of         
thought#aaa4'    ,it is perhaps worth   
noting that many believers in ,asiatic  
occultism hold  that a hitherto         
unsuspected force exists in nature      
called ,odic force 7is  this to be      
connected with ,psychic force871 and    
that it is by this that  the levitation 
of entranced persons is effected4       
,others1 like the ,yogs1 maintain that  
any one may lighten his body by         
swallowing large draughts of air1 and by
 an effort of will forcing this  air to 
diffuse itself through every part of the
 frame4 ,it is alleged  that this       
phenomenon has been actually witnessed4 
,the connexion1 however1 of similar     
phenomena with feats of conjuring is    

undeniable4 ,in the ,asiatic ,monthly   
,journal 7,march1 #ahbi71 an account is 
given of a ,brhman who poised himself   
apparently in the air1 about  four feet 
from the ground1 for forty minutes1 in  
the presence of the  ,governor of       
,madras4 ,another juggler sat on three  
sticks put together to  form a tripod4  
,these were removed1 one by one1 and the
 man remained  sitting in the air#aab4  
,long ago ,friar ,ricold related that   
#8a man from ,india was said to fly4    
,the truth was that he did walk close to
 the surface of the ground  without     
touching it1 and would seem to sit down 
without any substance to  support him'  
7,colonel ,yule's ,marco ,polo1 i4      
#cjg74    ,on the other hand1 it is     
contended1 that #8since we have         
attained1 in the  last half-century1 the
 theory of evolution1 the antiquity of  
man1 the  far greater antiquity of the  
world itself1 the correlation of        
physical  forces1 the conservation of   
energy1 spectrum analysis1 photography1 

the  locomotive engine1 electric        
telegraph1 spectroscope1 electric light1
 and  the telephone 7to which we may now
 add the phonograph71 who shall dare  to
 fix a limit to the capacity of         
man#aac8' ,few will deny altogether  the
 truth of such a contention1 however    
much they may dissent from  ,colonel    
,olcott's theosophical views4    ,there 
may be1 of course1 latent faculties in  
humanity which are at  present quite    
unsuspected1 and yet are capable of     
development in the  future4             
,according to ,sir ,james ,paget1 in his
 recent address on #8,scientific        
,study1' many things1 now held to be    
inconceivable and past man's            
imagination1 are profoundly and         
assuredly true1 and it will be in the   
power of ,science to prove them to be   
so#aad4    ,most persons will assent to 
these propositions1 and at the same time
  agree with me when ,i express my      
conviction that mystical ,buddhism and  
,asiatic occultism are no more likely   

than modern ,european spiritualism1  to 
bear the searching light of true        
scientific investigation4               
,nevertheless the subject of mystical   
,buddhism ought not to be brushed  aside
 as unworthy of consideration4 ,it      
furnishes1 in my opinion1 a  highly     
interesting topic of inquiry1 especially
 in its bearing on the                  
#8neo-,buddhism1' and #8,theosophy' of  
the present day4 ,at all events it is   
clear from what we have advanced in the 
present ,lecture1 that the  practices   
connected with spiritualism1 mesmerism1 
animal magnetism1  telepathy1           
clairvoyance1 thought-reading#aae1 etc41
 have their  counterparts in the ,yoga  
system prevalent in ,india more than    
#b1jjj years  ago1 and in the practices 
of mystical ,buddhism prevalent in      
,tibet and  the adjacent countries for  
many centuries4    #8,the thing that    
hath been1 it is that which shall be2   
and that which is  done is that which   
shall be done3 and there is no new thing

 under the  sun4'                       
,,lecture ,,xi4  ,hierarchical          
,buddhism1 especially as developed in   
,tibet and ,mongolia4      ,early       
,buddhism was1 as we have seen1 opposed 
to all ecclesiastical  organization4 ,it
 had no hierarchy in the proper sense of
 that term--no  church1 no priests1 no  
true form of prayer1 no religious rites1
 no  ceremonial observances4 ,it was    
simply a ,brotherhood consisting of men 
who had renounced all family ties1 all  
worldly desires--even all desire  for   
life--and were pledged to devote        
themselves to meditation1 recitation  of
 the ,law1 self-restraint1 and the      
accumulation of merit1 not for the  sake
 of saving others1 but for their own    
deliverance4    ,it was on this account 
that when the ,buddha died he abstained 
from  appointing a successor1 and gave  
no directions to his followers as to    
any particular form of government4 ,all 
that he said was1 #8,hold fast to  the  
,law2 look not to any one but yourselves

 as a refuge4' ,in short1 the  ,society 
7,sagha7 he left behind was a simple    
brotherhood of monks which  claimed some
 kind of corporate authority for the    
enforcement of  discipline1 but had no  
,head except the ,law4 ,nor did         
,buddhism for a long  time think of     
contravening the last injunctions of its
 ,founder4 ,nor has  it ever attempted  
to establish a universal hierarchy under
 one ,head and  under one central       
authority1 and although the great ,kyapa
 as president  of the first ,council 7p4
 #ee7 is sometimes held to have been the
 first  successor of ,buddha1 and nanda 
the second 7p4 #ef71 these men never    
claimed any supremacy like that of      
,popes4 ,in point of fact ,buddhism     
simply organized itself in separate     
monastic institutions according to      
local ideas and necessities4 ,and indeed
 the exigencies of healthy  growth1 and 
even the simple instinct of             
self-preservation compelled the         
scattered members of the ,buddhist      

,brotherhood to attempt some such       
organization very soon after the death  
of their ,founder4 ,in ancient  times   
communication was carried on with       
difficulty1 and the ,buddhist           
,brotherhood could only hold together by
 combining for mutual support in        
various centres1 and adopting some sort 
of monastic government4    ,it was thus 
that every collection of monks naturally
 tended to  crystallize into a distinct 
organized society with certain definite 
rules4    ,naturally1 the earliest      
constitution of each was moulded        
according to  the family pattern4 ,the  
living ,head of every monastery was a   
kind of  spiritual father1 while its    
inmates were his children1 and these1   
again1  resolved themselves into two    
classes3 the first consisting of the    
more  youthful members of the society2  
the second1 of those whose more mature  
experience entitled them to greater     
respect and reverence4 ,then1 again1    
some kind of pre-eminence was assigned  

to individuals who were  remarkable for 
greater knowledge1 or sanctity of       
character4    ,it is easy to understand1
 therefore1 how it happened that the    
,sagha or  collective community of monks
 was compelled in the end to establish  
several gradations of rank and position 
among its members4    ,the following    
were soon recognized3--#a4 ,the rmaera  
or #8novice' 7who  began by being a hela
 or #8pupil' under education72 #b4 ,the 
ramaa 7also  called ,bhikshu7 or full   
monk2 #c4 ,the ,sthavira or #8elder1'   
who was merely  superior to others in   
virtue of his age2 #d4 ,the             
,mah-sthavira or #8great  elder'        
7sometimes called ,sthavira ,sthavirm72 
#e4 ,the ,updhyya and  rya4 ,these last 
were teachers of different kinds1 who   
received honour  in virtue of their     
knowledge2 the two positions of elder   
and teacher  being frequently united in 
the ,president of particular            
monasteries4    ,no doubt gradations of 
this kind existed in very early times in

 ,india1  ,ceylon1 and ,burma4 ,but in  
,india the whole ,buddhistic ,order of  
monks  passed away4    ,in ,ceylon and  
,burma1 on the contrary1 ,buddhism has  
held its own4 ,it may  even now be found
 in a purer form in those countries and 
in ,siam than in  any other region of   
,eastern ,asia1 although it must be     
borne in mind  that1 when it was        
introduced there1 it was grafted on     
serpent-worship1  ,nga-worship#aaf1     
demon-worship1 and ,nath-worship#aag1   
with all of  which1 as well as with the 
worship of numerous ,hind gods1 it      
continues  to be adulterated in the     
present day4    ,the ,sinhalese         
7,koeppen1 i4 #bjg1 #chf7 give a list of
 the first five  successive enforcers of
 discipline 7viz4 ,upli1 ,dsaka1        
,sonaka1 ,siggava1  and ,moggali-putta71
 and another list of ten successive     
,sthaviras or  elders1 beginning with   
,sri-putta4 ,these lists are            
untrustworthy1  especially as omitting  
the great ,kyapa4    ,and ,i may here   

state that the condition of ,buddhism in
 ,ceylon is a  subject which ,i have had
 an opportunity of investigating        
personally4 ,i  visited ,ceylon in      
#ahgg1 and had many interesting         
conversations with  intelligent monks1  
heads of monasteries1 and a few really  
learned men1  including a leading monk  
named ,sumagala1 who described himself  
to me as  #8,high ,priest of ,adam's    
,peak#aah4'    ,i found1 too1 that a    
lofty idea prevails in ,ceylon in regard
 to the  status of the monkhood4        
,theoretically1 a true monk is regarded 
as a kind  of inferior ,buddha1 and     
revered accordingly4 ,there are         
boy-pupils1  novices1 and full monks1 as
 in ,burma 7see p4 #bei74 ,the          
admission-ceremonies resemble those     
before described 7p4 #gg74 ,admission   
confers no priestly powers4 ,those monks
 who are ,anglicized by contact  with   
our civilization call themselves        
#8priests1' but they are not real       
priests1 and have no sacerdotal         

functions except teaching1 intoning the 
,law1 and preaching4 ,they live as      
celibates and cnobites in ,pn-sls       
7#8houses made of leaves1' p4 #dcj71 or 
monastic buildings of the simplest      
structure4    ,the number of such monks 
is said to be about #h1jjj1 and their   
chief  duties are supposed to be to     
meditate a great deal1 to perform ,baa1 
that is1 to recite the ,tri-piaka with  
its commentary the ,aha-kath in  a      
sing-song voice1 to repeat constantly   
the three-refuge formula 7p4  #gh7aai1  
to teach and to preach1 to fast and to  
make confession to each  other on at    
least four days in every month1 at the  
four changes of the  moon called        
,uposatha 7or commonly ,poya7 days 7see 
p4 #hd72 these days  being generally in 
modern times made to coincide with the  
,christian  ,sunday4    ,true ,buddhism 
does not require monks to perform public
 religious  services in temples4 ,nor is
 it the daily practice of monks to set  
the  people an example of worshipping   

and presenting offerings there4 ,so far 
as ,i was able to observe1 the duty of  
visiting temples belongs rather to  the 
laity4 ,the monks receive offerings1    
rather than present them4 ,as to  their 
dress1 it resembles that represented in 
the ,buddha's images1 and  ought to     
consist of three pieces of cloth stained
 yellow or of a dull  yellowish colour4 
,the principal garment is in one piece1 
but torn and  sewn together again1 the  
object being to reduce its value and    
assimilate  it to a dress made of rags4 
,the end of the dress is brought over   
the  left shoulder1 and generally so as 
to leave the right shoulder bare4 ,in   
some cases both shoulders are covered1  
or the right partially so4    ,a good   
deal of care seems to be taken in       
,ceylon to instruct the youthful        
members of the ,order in ,pli2 that is1 
in the language of their sacred  books  
7p4 #fj71 and to make them conversant   
with the sacred texts4    ,i visited two
 principal colleges for monks at ,kandy1

 which enjoy a  reputation rather like  
that of ,oxford and ,cambridge in our   
own country4  ,one is called ,mlwatte1  
and the other sgrya4 ,in the former ,i  
noticed  a large central hall1 in which 
the ceremony of admission to the        
monkhood  takes place4    ,at ,colombo  
there has been recently a revival of    
learning1 and a modern  ,oriental       
,college 7called ,vidyodaya71 for the   
cultivation of ,sanskit1  ,pli1 and     
,sinhalese1 has been established under  
the superintendence of  the learned     
,sumagala1 #8the ,high ,priest of       
,adam's ,peak1' mentioned  before4      
,each monastery in ,ceylon has a        
presiding ,head1 and generally a temple 
and library attached1 with considerable 
property in land1 but there is  clearly 
no organized hierarchy in the proper    
sense of the term1 and no  supreme      
authority like that of an ,archbishop2  
though it is said that the  ,heads of   
the two ,kandy ,colleges exercise a kind
 of control over the  after-career of   

the monks they have trained4 ,i found   
that a certain  amount of intelligence  
and learning exists among the monks both
 at  ,colombo and ,kandy1 but it must be
 evident to every impartial observer    
that the habit of living in houses apart
 from the laity1 of repeating  the ,law 
by rote1 and of engaging in a kind of   
meditation which generally  amounts to  
thinking about nothing in particular1   
must tend1 in the  majority of          
instances1 to contract the mind1 induce 
laziness1 and give a  vacant and        
listless expression to the countenance4 
,it may be safely  affirmed that the    
chief religious aim of the ,buddhists of
 ,ceylon is to  acquire merit with a    
view to #8better' themselves in future  
states of  existence1 and that their    
highest aspiration is to attain to the  
heaven  of ,indra 7akra1 p4 #bjg74 ,they
 have no real desire for ,nirva 7p4     
#ada71  and still less for ,pari-nirva  
7p4 #adb74    ,passing on to ,burma we  
may remark that although in ,burma1 as  

in ,ceylon1  a pure form of ,buddhism   
has prevailed ever since its            
introduction by  ,buddha-ghosha 7p4     
#fe71 and is still existent1 yet we find
 that the purer  system is mixed up1 as 
in ,ceylon1 with the worship of ,ngas1  
demons1  spirit-gods called ,naths      
7commonly spelt ,nats1 p4 #bag71 and    
with a kind  of ,shamanism derived from 
the surrounding hill-tribes4    ,in     
regard to the gradations of the monkhood
 a more complete organization  exists in
 ,burma than in ,ceylon4    ,to begin   
with the boy-pupils3--,in ,burma nearly 
all boys become inmates of  monastic    
houses 7called ,kyoung7 with the one    
object of learning to read  and write4  
,they are simply school-boys and nothing
 more4 ,indeed1 until  our advent1 the  
monasteries monopolized the education of
 the country1  and to a great extent do 
so still4 ,the real gradations are as   
follow3--    #a4 ,the ,she or ,shi1 that
 is rmaeras or novices4 ,these are      
properly  youths of at least fifteen    

years of age 7but see p4 #cjg72 their   
hair is  cut off and yellow garments are
 put on for a time4    ,it should be    
noted that every male throughout ,burma 
is required to enter  a monastery and   
become a novice for a portion of his    
life1 if only for a  single ,vassa4     
,this is because the ,buddha taught that
 every true ,buddhist  ought to conform 
to his example and become a monk1       
although he wisely  abstained from      
imposing any irrevocable vows4 ,the     
whole process is often  merely formal1  
and sometimes only lasts for seven days4
    #b4 ,the ,pyit-se or ,pyit-si       
7sometimes pronounced ,patzin7 or full  
monks1  who have the title ,pung or     
,phung 7sometimes spelt ,phungee or     
,phongie71  #8full of great glory1' when
 they have been at least ten years      
members of  the order4 ,they correspond 
to the ramaas1 and are by ,europeans    
called  ,talapoins 7from their carrying 
fans of palm leaves74 ,their dress      
usually  consists of three pieces of    

yellow cotton cloth4    #c4 ,the ,hsay  
7always a ,phung7 or ,head of a separate
 monastery1 who  corresponds to the     
,abbot of ,european countries4    #d4   
,the ,gai-ok or provincial ,head1 who   
has a kind of episcopal  jurisdiction   
over all the monasteries of a district4 
#e4 ,the ,ththan-paing 7,ththan         
,sanskit san7 or supreme rulers1  who   
correspond to ,archbishops4 ,they       
superintend all religious affairs4      
,according to ,mr4 ,scott1 there are now
 eight of them4    ,occasionally        
instances occur of hermit-monks who lead
 solitary lives1  and sit motionless in 
meditation for years4    ,in ,siam the  
gradations of monkhood are nearly       
similar to those in ,burma1  and we     
learn from ,mr4 ,alabaster that the     
monastic vow is not binding for  life1  
but can be cancelled at any time4 ,this 
rule leads to every ,siamese  man       
spending at least three months of his   
life in a monastery4    ,we have now to 
pass from ,ceylon1 ,burma1 and ,siam to 

,tibet 7properly  called ,bod or ,bot or
 ,bhot1 ,sanskit ,bhoa74 ,and here we   
leave the  simpler forms of ,buddhism   
and are brought face to face with that  
highly  developed system which1 though  
nominally resulting from an expansion of
  the ,hna-yna1 #8,little ,method1' into
 the ,mah-yna1 #8,great ,method' 7p4    
#aeh71 was really the product of a still
 further expansion of the #8,great      
,method' and its combination with other 
creeds4    ,in truth1 ,tibetan ,buddhism
 is so different from every other       
,buddhistic  system that it ought to be 
treated of separately in a separate     
volume1  as ,koeppen has done4 ,in his  
elaborate and excellent work on this    
subject  he has remarked that for the   
development of a hierarchy no           
circumstance  is more favourable than   
isolation1 and that this advantage was  
offered  in the highest degree by       
,tibet4 ,up to the moment of its        
conversion to  ,buddhism a profound     
darkness had rested on it4 ,the         

inhabitants were  ignorant and          
uncultivated1 and their indigenous      
religion1 sometimes  called ,bon1       
consisted chiefly of magic based on a   
kind of ,shamanism4    ,to describe     
exactly what ,shamanism is would be no  
easy task4 ,the word is  said to be of  
,tungusic origin#abj1 and to be used as 
a name for the  earliest religion of    
,mongolia1 ,siberia1 and other ,northern
 countries4    ,perhaps we shall not be 
far wrong in asserting that the two     
principal  constituents of ,shamanism   
are the worship of nature and the dread 
of  spirits4    ,the inhabitants of     
,tibet and ,mongolia and indeed of other
 ,northern  countries believed that     
spirits1 good and bad1 influenced the   
whole  course of nature4 ,they held that
 such spirits were able either to cause 
or to avert diseases and disasters1 to  
control the destinies of men1 and  even 
to decide the fate of the lower animals4
 ,hence it is easy to  understand that  
the chief function of the ,shamans1 or  

wizard-priests1  was to exorcise evil   
demons1 or to propitiate them by        
sacrifices and  various magical         
practices4 ,in this way they pretended  
to prevent storms1  pestilences1 and    
other calamities4 ,they were supposed1  
too1 to  understand omens and to predict
 the future by watching the flights of  
birds1 by examining the shoulder-blades 
of sheep1 and by similar  devices4      
,shamanism1 in fact1 with its ,tibetan  
offshoot1 ,bon1 had much in  common with
 the lowest types of aivism1 ktism1 and 
,tntrism1 with  which the ,buddhism of  
,northern ,india1 ,nepl1 and the        
countries bordering  on ,tibet1 had     
already become adulterated4    ,when1   
therefore1 this mixed form of ,buddhism 
advanced from those  countries into     
,tibet1 its approach was not resisted as
 an intrusion4 ,on  the contrary1       
,tibetan ,shamanism1 although it had    
possession of the  field1 was quite     
ready to meet the new religion halfway4 
,the result was  an alliance1 or rather 

perhaps an amalgamation2 and this led to
 the  establishment of a complex        
religious system which ,i have ventured 
to  call ,lmism#aba4    ,lmism1 then1 is
 a form of ,buddhism which1 although    
based on the  ,hna-yna and ,mah-yna of  
,india1 is combined with ,shamanism1    
iva-worship1 and magic1 and has a marked
 individuality and a peculiar           
hierarchical organization of its own4   
,this organization has been  compared to
 that of the ,roman ,catholic ,church4  
,doubtless in its great  receptivity    
,buddhism may have borrowed from        
,christianity1 but ,lmism  possesses    
certain unique features which           
distinguish it from every other  system 
in the world4    ,unfortunately few     
,europeans have1 as yet1 penetrated into
 ,tibet1 and its  sacred literature has 
been little studied4 ,it follows        
therefore that the  various gradations  
of the ,tibetan hierarchy are not easily
 described1  and only a general idea of 
them can be given4    ,we ought first to

 note the boy-pupil called ,genyen1     
sometimes spoken of  as ,bandi or ,bante
 7 ,bandya#abb1 a term more properly    
applicable to  monks74 ,boy-pupils are  
inmates of every ,tibetan monastery2 but
 under  exceptional circumstances a     
pupil may live with his parents4 ,he may
 be  received after seven years of age1 
and until fifteen1 as in ,burma 7p4     
#bei74 ,he is placed under a full monk1 
who teaches him and makes him  promise  
to keep the five chief commandments 7p4 
#abf74 ,though sometimes  called a      
novice he is merely under education1 and
 not necessarily a  candidate for the   
monkhood4 ,the real degrees of the      
,lmistic hierarchy1  as explained by    
,koeppen and others1 are as follow3--   
#a4 ,first and lowest in rank comes the 
novice or junior monk1 called  ,gethsul 
7,getzul71 who has been admitted after  
fifteen years of age to  the first stage
 of monkhood by a ,khanpo ,lma or his   
representative4 ,his  hair is cut off   
and he wears the monkish garments1 and  

has #aab rules to  observe4 ,he waits on
 the full monk1 and assists in all      
functions except  blessing and          
consecrating4 ,he has been compared to  
the deacon of the  ,european            
ecclesiastical system1 but the          
comparison is misleading1 as  shown at  
p4 #gf4    #b4 ,secondly and higher in  
rank we have the full monk1 called      
,gelong 7or  ,gelo74 ,he corresponds to 
the ,bhikshu1 who has received complete 
consecration1 and is often called by    
courtesy a ,lma 7see note1 p4 #bfb71    
though he has no real right to that     
title4 ,he is not properly a priest1    
yet it is certain that in ,tibet he     
often discharges sacerdotal  functions4 
,the ceremony of admission to the full  
monkhood can only be  performed after   
the twentieth year1 and binds the       
recipient to #bec rules  of             
discipline#abc4    #c4 ,thirdly we have 
the superior ,gelong or ,khanpo         
7strictly m,khan po71  who has a real   
right to the further title ,lma1 and    

from his higher  knowledge and sanctity 
sometimes becomes a kind of head-teacher
  7,sanskit ,updhyya or rya74 ,as the   
chief monk in a monastery he may  be    
compared to the ,european ,abbot2 but in
 respect of consecration he is  only a  
,gelong4 ,nor are any of the higher     
grades of monks--so far as the  forms of
 consecration are concerned--higher than
 ,gelongs and ,khanpos4    ,at this     
point1 however1 we have to note the     
special peculiarity of the  ,lmistic    
system1 namely1 that some of the higher 
,khanpo ,lmas are  supposed to be living
 re-incarnations or re-embodiments of   
certain  canonized saints and           
,bodhi-sattvas who differ in rank4      
,these are called  ,avatra ,lmas 7see p4
 #aij71 and of such there are three     
degrees1 which  we may denote by the    
letters ,a4 ,b4 ,c4 as follow3--    ,a4 
,the lowest degree of ,avatra ,lma4 ,he 
may be called an ordinary  ,khubilghan  
7from a ,mongolian word--written by     
,huc1 ,hubilghan74 ,he  represents the  

continuous re-embodiment of an ordinary 
canonized saint  7p4 #ahh71 or founder  
of some great monastery4 ,he is higher  
by one degree  than the ,khanpo ,abbot1 
as presiding over a more important      
monastery4    ,b4 ,a higher grade of    
,avatra ,lma called ,khutuktu4 ,he      
exercises a kind  of episcopal          
jurisdiction over a still more important
 monastery than  that presided over by  
the ordinary incarnated ,lma4 ,he       
represents the  incarnation of a higher 
,bodhi-sattva or deified saint1 but he  
sometimes  claims to be an incarnated   
,buddha4    ,c4 ,the highest ,avatra    
,lma commonly called a ,supreme or      
,grand ,lma4 ,he  is not an incarnation 
of a mere ordinary ,bodhi-sattva 7p4    
#ahh71 but a  continuous re-embodiment  
of either a supreme ,buddha or of his   
,bodhi-sattva4 ,the two notable examples
 of this highest degree are the  ,dalai 
and ,panchen ,lmas1 who claim an        
authority1 like that of a ,pope or      
,archbishop1 over extensive regions     

outside their own monasteries4 ,they    
will be more fully described in the     
sequel 7see p4 #bhd74    ,it may be     
stated generally1 therefore1 that the   
,lmistic hierarchy  consists of three   
lower and three higher grades4 ,we have1
 besides1 to  reckon certain other      
distinctions of rank1 such as those of  
the  ,rab-jampa1 #8doctor of theology or
 philosophy1' the horje 7strictly       
hos-rje71 #8lord of the faith4' ,these  
are sometimes associated with the       
,khanpo or ,abbot1 though slightly      
inferior in rank to that dignitary4 ,it 
is said that the horje often acts as a  
kind of coadjutor ,abbot4  ,practically 
they rank below the incarnated or       
,avatra ,lmas4 ,moreover1  in every     
monastery there are numerous other      
subordinate officials2 for  example1    
schoolmasters1 teachers who explain the 
,law and guide the  studies of the      
brotherhood1 precentors or choirmasters1
 secretaries1  collectors of revenue1   
treasurers1 stewards1 overseers1        

physicians1  painters1 sculptors1       
manufacturers of relics1 of amulets1 of 
rosaries1  of images1 and in some       
monasteries-especially those of the ,red
  sect--astrologers1 fortune-tellers1   
magicians 7hos-kyong or hos-kyo71  and  
exorcists4 ,the ,lma is not only the    
priest2 he is the educator1             
schoolmaster1 physician1 astrologer1    
architect1 sculptor1 painter2 he is     
#8the head1 the heart1 the oracle of the
 laity4'    ,there is also a whole class
 of mendicant ,lmas1 who have vowed to  
live a  vagabond life for a certain     
number of years4 ,they are better known 
than  some others1 for they often find  
their way into ,british territory4      
,when ,i was staying at ,drjling1 ,i    
encountered two specimens of the        
vagabond class who came from some       
distant part of ,tibet4 ,they called    
themselves ,lmas1 though1 of course1    
they had no real right to that  title4  
,they were clothed in ragged garments   
made up of thirty-two  patches of       

different cloths1 and wore thick buskins
 to protect them from  the snows4 ,then 
they carried a kind of knapsack or      
wallet of goat-skin  behind their backs1
 and in their hands a sort of sacred    
drum or tabour  called amaru 7see p4    
#chd74    ,according to ,m4 ,huc1 these 
vagabond ,lmas travel for the sake of   
travelling4 ,they wander through ,china1
 ,manchuria1 ,southern ,mongolia1  ,kuku
 ,nr1 ,tibet1 ,northern ,india1 and even
 ,turkestn4    ,there is scarcely a     
river which they have not crossed2 a    
mountain which  they have not ascended2 
a ,grand ,lma before whom they have not 
prostrated themselves2 a people among   
whom they have not lived1 and of  whom  
they do not know the manners and        
language4    ,it should be noted that   
when an incarnated ,lma is the spiritual
 ,head of  a monastery there is         
generally a temporal ,head to manage its
 affairs4    ,then we must not forget   
that ,tibetan ,buddhism has also its    
organized  female hierarchy1 on the     

highest steps of which are female       
,khutuktus and  incarnated ,abbesses1 as
 well as lower gradations of nuns and   
novices1  living together in their own  
convents4    ,the rules of discipline   
for the whole ,lmistic hierarchy fill at
 least  thirteen out of the #ajh volumes
 of the ,tibetan ,canon 7see p4 #bgb74  
,they  do not differ materially from    
those of other ,buddhist countries4 ,the
 #bec  rules of the ,pratimoksha-stra   
7see p4 #fb7 are said to contain        
commands  and prohibitions relating to  
five sides of the monastic              
life--conduct1  dress1 food1 habitation1
 and occupation4    ,it must be borne in
 mind that early ,lmism1 like true      
,buddhism1 had  properly no secular     
priesthood and encouraged no intercourse
 with the  outer world1 except for the  
reception of alms and food from the     
laity4  ,all grades of the hierarchy    
were supposed to live together as one   
celibate fraternity in monastic         
seclusion1 apart from mundane           

associations4 ,their only duties were to
 meditate1 recite the ,law1 and  obey   
certain strict rules of discipline4     
,this strictness of discipline1         
however1 was not long borne with equal  
patience by the whole fraternity4  ,it  
soon became irksome to a large section1 
and the same state of things  which     
arose in early ,buddhism and generally  
arises in all religious  communities1   
occurred in ,lmism4 ,the fraternity of  
,lmas became split up  into two chief   
parties or sects--the strict and the    
lax4 ,we shall see in  the end that     
these two sects were distinguished from 
each other by the  colour of their      
garments1 and especially of their caps1 
the former  adopting yellow and calling 
themselves ,gelug pa or ,galdan pa1 the 
latter  adopting red 7,shamr74 ,of      
course the lax or ,red-cap sect soon    
infringed  the rule in regard to        
celibacy1 and allowed the marriage of   
monks under  certain conditions1 though 
such marriages seem at first to have    

been  exceptional4    ,it is said1      
indeed1 that in ,nepl1 under modern     
,gorkha rule1 the  celibate occupies a  
lower position than the married monk1 to
 whom the  services in the temples are  
committed4 ,it is said1 too1 that the   
,lmas  of ,sikkim and other northern    
countries constantly have children      
living  with them1 though they do not   
admit them to be their own 7p4 #aeb74   
,yet1  for all that1 celibacy is the    
rule1 and nominally1 at any rate1 the   
great majority of ,lmistic monks in     
,eastern ,asia are unmarried  cnobites1 
who live together in monasteries4       
,certainly in no other country in the   
world are monasteries so numerous  or on
 so vast a scale as in ,tibet and       
,mongolia 7see p4 #dbf74    ,and1       
indeed1 in all probability it was the   
difficulty of enforcing  discipline and 
order in these immense establishments1  
without some  method of securing        
obedience to a presiding ,head          
acceptable to all the  inmates1 that led

 to that strange re-incarnation or      
#8,avatra' theory  which is one chief   
distinguishing feature of ,lmism4       
,the process by which this remarkable   
theory was developed is so  interesting 
and so important in relation to the     
subject of the present  ,lecture that it
 deserves careful investigation1 and to 
clear the ground  we must here make a   
brief digression and advert to some     
circumstances in  the early history of  
,tibet and ,mongolia1 as given in       
,koeppen's laborious  work4    ,we learn
 from him that ,nya ,khri ,tsanpo1 who  
lived in the ,yarlung valley1  was the  
first king of ,tibet4 ,after several    
successors came ,srong ,tsan  ,gampo4   
,this king was born in #fag1 and1       
according to a legend1 exhibited  at his
 birth certain marks of perfection like 
those of ,amitbha or  ,avalokitevara 7p4
 #aih74 ,he is worshipped as a great    
,conqueror and  ,reformer4    ,in the   
year #fcb1 or about the time when       
,muhammad died in ,arabia1 he  began the

 work of civilizing his subjects4 ,to   
this end he directed his  minister      
,thumi 7or ,thonmi7 ,sambhoa to proceed 
to ,india1 and make  himself acquainted 
with ,buddhist writings4 ,this great man
 was the first  to design the ,tibetan  
alphabet on the model of the ,indian    
letters then  in use 7called ,laha71 but
 rejecting certain consonants and       
certain  vowels as unsuitable for the   
representation of ,tibetan sounds1 and  
adding six new letters4 ,hence he was   
the first to introduce the art of       
writing along with ,buddhism into       
,tibet4    ,it may be noted here that   
,buddhism1 to its great credit1 has     
generally  given some sort of literary  
education to the barbarous nations to   
which  it has imparted its own          
doctrines4 ,it has also made the        
vernacular of  the people its medium of 
instruction1 though it has not always   
translated its sacred literature or     
ritualistic formularies into that       
vernacular4    ,the first ,tibetan      

author was ,thumi ,sambhoa himself1 who 
is said to have  composed a grammar and 
other books during his sojourn in       
,india4 ,an  important work translated  
by him into the vernacular was the ,mai 
,kambum--a ,tantra work1 alleged to have
 been revealed by ,amitbha and his  son 
,avalokitevara4 ,this book describes the
 introduction of ,buddhism  into ,tibet 
as well as the origin of the well-known 
six-syllabled  prayer-formula of        
,tibet--,om mai padme ,hm 7see pp4      
#cga-cgd74 ,it contains  #ajj1jjj       
precepts4    ,the teaching of ,thumi    
,sambhoa seems to have been of an       
orthodox  character4 ,he may perhaps be 
regarded as the founder of the strict   
school of ,tibetan ,buddhism 7already   
mentioned71 which was afterwards  called
 ,kadampa1 and finally developed into   
the ,yellow-robed sect1 as              
distinguished from the ,red4 ,after     
,thumi ,sambhoa the propagation of      
,buddhism in ,tibet was chiefly carried 
on by the two princesses1 wives of      

,king ,srong ,tsan ,gampo1 called       
,dolkar and ,doljang4 ,they were        
worshipped  under the name ,dolma1 as   
forms of the wife of iva or of the      
goddess  ,tr2 one being called the white
 mother1 and the other1 the dark2       
representing the mild and fierce forms  
of iva's consort#abd4    ,the first two 
,lma monasteries in ,tibet 7called ,l   
brang and ,ra mo che1  founded about    
,a4,d4 #fej2 ,edgar1 p4 #ch7 were       
erected at ,lhssa#abe by  them or in    
their honour1 and each monastery        
contained a renowned  wonder-working    
image1 which each princess had brought  
with her 7see pp4  #ddj1 #dda1 #dib74   
,after ,king ,srong ,tsan ,gampo1       
,buddhism declined in ,tibet4 ,one of   
his  successors1 named ,khri ,srong ,de 
,tsan1 who was born in #gbh ,a4,d4 and  
reigned from #gdj to #ghf1 tried to     
restore it4 ,for this purpose1 he sent  
for religious teachers in great numbers 
from ,india4 ,these seem to have        
brought with them a very corrupt form of

 ,buddhism1 which aimed chiefly  at     
counteracting the evil influences of    
demons by magical spells4    ,first came
 nta ,rakshita1 with twelve companions  
from ,bengal4    ,then the celebrated   
,padma-sambhava was sent for out of the 
land of  ,udyna 7 ,dardistn7--west of   
the ,indus1 north of ,peshawar--where   
the  people were addicted to aivism and 
witchcraft4 ,it was under him that  the 
great monastery at ,sam ye 7strictly    
,sam yas7 was built 7see p4 #ddh74  ,he 
was celebrated for his skill in magic1  
sorcery1 and alchemy1 and  became the   
real founder of the ,red sect1 after    
instructing several young  ,tibetans in 
his own lore4 ,at the same time he was  
remarkable for his  knowledge of ,indian
 languages1 and was active in promoting 
a taste for  literature in ,tibet4 ,it  
redounds much to his credit that he was 
the  first to further the translation of
 the whole ,buddhist ,canon 7almost     
entirely from ,sanskit books7 into      
,tibetan4    ,but the sacred books had  

by that time greatly increased1 so that 
the  ,tibetan ,canon commonly called    
,kanjur 7or more strictly ,kangyur and  
,ka-gyur1 pp4 #gj1 #bfg7 consisted of at
 least #ajh volumes4    ,then we have   
the ,tanjur 7,tangyur7 consisting of    
#bbe folio volumes of  translations1    
commentaries1 and treatises1            
corresponding to the  ,aha-kath of      
,ceylon 7p4 #fe71 and embracing works on
 all subjects  7often mere translations 
from the ,sanskit71 such as grammar1    
logic1  rhetoric1 poetry1 medicine1     
astrology1 alchemy1 magic1 and the use  
of  spells4    ,a sect called ,urgyanpa 
7or ,urgyenpa71 another called ,brugpa  
7or ,dugpa or  ,dukpa71 another called  
,sakyapa--all belonging to the          
,red-clothed 7in  ,tibetan1 ,shamr7     
,lmas who are numerous in ,nepl1 ,bhutn1
 ,sikkim1 ,ladk1  and in portions of    
,southern ,tibet--follow the rules of   
,padma-sambhava4    ,after ,khri ,srong 
,de ,tsan came a number of kings who    
caused ,buddhism to  decline2 but in the

 second half of the eleventh century it 
began to  recover1 and learned men were 
sent for from ,kashmir and ,india1 one  
of  whom was ,atsha 7strictly ,ata71 who
 might be called the re-founder of      
,lmism4    ,he had an eminent ,tibetan  
pupil named ,brom ,ton 7,brom-s,ton or  
,brom  ,bakshi#abf74 ,all violent       
opposition to ,buddhism then ceased4    
,monastery  after monastery was founded 
in the eleventh and twelfth centuries4  
,three of the most important were 7#a7  
,raseng 7or ,ra-deng1 strictly ,ra      
s,greng71 north-east of ,lhssa1 founded 
by ,brom ,ton in #ajeh2 7#b7 ,sakya     
7see p4 #ddh71 situated in the district 
of ,tsang1 south-west of ,shigatse1  and
 founded by ,koncho ,yalpo1 whose son   
was the first ,grand ,lma of this       
monastery2 7#c7 ,brikhung 7also written 
,briku or ,brigu or ,brigung71 four     
days' journey north of ,lhssa1 founded  
by ,koncho ,yalpo's son4    ,atsha      
belonged to a school which did not      
favour aivism and sorcery in  the way   

that ,padma-sambhava had done1 and his  
pupil1 ,brom ,ton of the  ,raseng       
monastery1 was the founder of the sect  
called ,kadampa#abg1 which  enforced    
great strictness of monastic life--a    
sect which1 as we have  already         
mentioned1 had its earliest origin in   
the teaching of ,thumi  ,sambhoa1 and   
whose tenets were adopted by the        
celebrated reformer ,tsong  ,khapa 7p4  
#bgg71 the real founder of the ,yellow  
sect4    ,on the other hand1 the monks  
of the ,sakya monastery belonged to the 
more  lax school1 and were therefore    
followers of ,padma-sambhava4 ,no doubt 
these two chief monasteries of ,raseng  
and ,sakya maintained at first  their   
own separate independence1 the presiding
 ,lma of each claiming  equal authority 
with the other4 ,then in process of     
time1 a rivalry  sprang up between them4
 ,moreover the ,brikhung monastery      
strove with the  ,sakya1 each trying to 
acquire predominance4 ,ultimately they  
appealed to  the ,chinese authorities1  

who decided that the highest position   
belonged  to the monastery of ,sakya and
 to the ,red sect4    ,and here we have 
to turn for a short time to ,mongolia4  
,that country  received its ,buddhism1  
or rather ,lmism1 from ,tibet4 ,it is   
well known  that the great ,mongol      
conqueror1 ,jenghiz ,khn1 conquered     
,tibet about  ,a4,d4 #abjfabh4 ,before  
that period the ,mongolians had come in 
contact  with various religious cults2  
for example1 with ,zoroastrianism1      
,buddhism1 and ,islm4    ,they had even 
had some experience of ,christianity2   
for ,nestorian  ,missions existed in    
,central ,asia in the fifth and sixth   
centuries of our  era1 and penetrated to
 ,china in the seventh century4 ,all    
these religions  strove to convert the  
,mongolians1 who soon became an         
important nation  through the conquests 
of ,jenghiz ,khn4 ,that conqueror1      
however1 had a  very simple religion of 
his own4 ,he believed in one ,god in    
heaven1 and  one king on earth2 that is1

 he believed that ,god had given him the
  dominion of the whole world1 and he   
set himself to conquer the world4  ,yet 
he tolerated all religions4 #8,as the   
hand1' he said1 #8has many  fingers1 so 
there are many ways to show men how they
 may reach heaven4'    ,khubilai        
7#abei-abid71 the greatest of all the   
descendants of ,jenghiz and  ,sovereign 
of a vast empire1 was the first to      
elevate his people above a  mere life of
 rapine and plunder2 and it struck him  
that the best method  of civilizing them
 would be by adopting and promoting     
,buddhism1 which  the greater number of 
the races subject to him already        
professed4    ,between the indigenous   
,shamanism of ,northern countries and   
the doctrines  of ,confucius1 or of     
,islm1 or of ,christianity1 there were  
no points of  contact2 whereas          
,shamanism1 as we have seen1 had much   
common ground with  ,northern ,buddhism1
 which had become mixed up with aivism  
and magic4    ,it was this that led     

,khubilai to adopt the ,lmistic or      
,tibetan form of  ,buddhism4 ,he also   
thought it wise to conciliate the       
spiritual potentates  of ,tibet1 who had
 for many centuries taken all real power
 out of the  hands of their temporal    
chiefs4    ,and among ,lmistic prelates1
 the ,head of the ,monastery of ,sakya  
and of  the ,red school in ,southern    
,tibet had1 as we have seen1 acquired a 
kind  of sovereignty4 ,many monks of    
this ,red sect married1 according to the
  practice of the ,brhmans1 and remained
 householders till a son and heir  was  
born to them4 ,at that time they had a  
presiding monk1 called ,sakya  ,paita1  
and the ,emperor ,khubilai appointed    
,mati-dhvaja1 the ,paita's  nephew1 to  
succeed him as ,head of the monastery1  
conferring on him a  certain amount of  
temporal power and making him a kind of 
tributary  ruler of ,tibet4 ,he was     
known as the ,phaspa 7strictly ,phags   
pa71  #8excellent ,lma1' and in return  
for the supremacy granted to him1 was   

required to consecrate or crown the     
emperors of ,mongolia4    ,koeppen      
observes that ,khubilai was thus the    
creator of the first  ,lmistic ,pope2   
just as ,pepin and ,charlemagne were of 
the first ,christian  ,pope4    ,the    
,mongolians also owe their written      
character and literature to  ,buddhism4 
,it was ,phaspa ,lma who invented the   
,mongolian alphabet4 ,taking  the       
,tibetan alphabet as his model1 he      
invented a square character with a      
thousand syllables4 ,he then undertook a
 new revision of the ,buddhist  sacred  
writings1 causing the ,tibetan sacred   
texts 7,kanjur7 to be  compared with the
 ,chinese4 ,it is said that this lasted 
from the year  #abhe to #acjf4          
,twenty-nine learned men1 versed in the 
,tibetan1 ,ugrian1 ,chinese1 and        
,sanskit languages1 were occupied on the
 task of collation1 and a few  years    
later1 the first ,mongolian translation 
of the sacred texts was  begun by the   
,sakya ,lma hoskyi ,odser4    ,khubilai1

 no doubt1 was a great promoter of      
,buddhism1 and founded many  monasteries
 in ,mongolia1 and a celebrated one at  
,peking4    ,after the elevation of the 
,phaspa ,lma to quasi-temporal as well  
as  spiritual sovereignty very little is
 known about the state of ,buddhism  in 
,tibet1 except that the successive      
,heads of the ,sakya monastery          
maintained their position under         
,khubilai's successors1 and of course   
perpetuated and extended the doctrines  
of the ,red school of ,buddhism4        
,probably they resided at ,lhssa1 and   
possibly at the ,mongolo-,chinese       
,court4    ,in #acfh1 the last ,mongol  
emperor was expelled by the founder of  
the ,ming  dynasty1 after ,jenghiz's    
family had occupied the throne of ,china
 for  about a century4    ,the emperors 
of this dynasty did their best to bring 
,tibet under the  ,chinese ,government1 
and to conciliate the ,tibetan ,lmas by 
gifts1  titles1 and other favours4 ,but 
they thought it politic to prevent the  

predominance of any one monastery4      
,hence they made three other ,heads of  
monasteries equal in rank to the ,sakya 
,lma1 and encouraged antagonism  between
 them4 ,this facilitated the great      
,reform which ,lmism underwent  in the  
time of the ,emperor ,jong lo--a reform 
brought about by the  celebrated ,tsong 
,khapa1 sometimes called the ,luther of 
,lmistic  ,buddhism4    ,tsong ,khapa1  
whose name is as much celebrated in     
,mongolia and ,tibet and  among the     
,kalmuk ,tartars as that of the founder 
of ,buddhism1 is said to  have been born
 in the year #acee or #aceg of our era1 
in the land of ,amdo1  where the        
celebrated monastery of ,kunbum or      
,kumbum--situated ,north of  ,tibet on  
the borders of ,china--now stands4 ,all 
sorts of legends1 but none  worth       
repeating1 are related about him4 ,we   
may note1 however1 a probable  tradition
 that a learned ,lma1 #8with a long nose
 and bright eyes1' who  had settled in  
the land of ,amdo1 and may possibly have

 been a ,roman  ,catholic priest1 became
 his teacher4    ,in process of time1   
,tsong ,khapa set out on a journey from 
,amdo to ,tibet1  his object being to   
acquire a knowledge of the doctrine from
 original  sources4 ,he is said to have 
studied the ,law of ,buddha at ,sakya1  
,brikhung1 and ,lhssa4 ,it was in this  
way that he became impressed with  the  
necessity of purifying and reforming the
 discipline of ,tibetan  ,buddhism1     
which the ,red sect had corrupted by    
allowing the marriage of  monks and by  
laxity in other matters4 ,innumerable   
pupils gathered round  him1 all of whom 
adopted1 as their distinguishing mark1  
the orthodox  yellow garments of        
primitive ,buddhism1 and especially the 
yellow cap 7p4  #bfh72 while the        
followers of ,padma-sambhava and the    
more corrupt school  wore red garments  
and a red cap4    ,tsong ,khapa soon    
acquired vast influence1 and in the year
 #adji was able  to build on a hill     
about thirty miles from ,lhssa1 the     

afterwards  celebrated monastery called 
,galdan 7or ,gahdan7 of the ,yellow     
school4 ,of  this ,tsong ,khapa was the 
first ,abbot4 ,his followers1 however1  
rapidly  became too numerous to be      
comprehended within so limited an area4 
,hence  there arose in the immediate    
neighbourhood of ,lhssa1 two other great
  monasteries1 ,brepung 7also written   
,dapung1 etc41 see p4 #ddb71 founded by 
,jam-yang hos-rje1 and ,sera #8the      
,golden1' founded by ,byam hen hos-rje4 
,these three monasteries once held      
#cj1jjj monks of the ,yellow sect1 but  
now have only #af1ejj4    ,tsong ,khapa 
wrote many works1 which enjoy a         
quasi-canonical authority  among the    
adherents of the reformed sect4 ,many of
 them exist in  ,mongolian translations1
 but they have not yet been fully       
examined4    ,undeniably1 ,tsong        
,khapa's chief merit was that he caused 
his followers  to revert to the purer   
monastic discipline1 especially to the  
rule of  celibacy4 ,he also purified the

 forms of worship1 and greatly          
restricted  without altogether          
prohibiting the use of magical rites4   
,tsong ,khapa1  too1 is said to have    
re-established the original practice of 
retirement  for religious meditation at 
certain seasons1 although as there was  
no  rainy season in ,tibet1 another     
period had to be chosen4    ,travellers 
in ,tibet have often described the many 
points of resemblance  between the      
,roman ,catholic and ,lmistic systems1  
such as the ,popedom1  the celibacy of  
the priesthood1 the worship of saints1  
confession1  fasting1 processions1 holy 
water1 bells1 rosaries1 mitres1         
croziers1  etc4 ,these resemblances and 
coincidences will be more fully noted in
 a  subsequent ,lecture 7see pp4 #cch1  
#cci74    ,it is possible that ,tsong   
,khapa may have imbibed some of his     
notions  from his instructor at ,amdo   
already named 7p4 #bgg71 who was either 
a  ,roman ,catholic missionary1 or was  
familiar with the constitution of the   

,romish hierarchy4 ,on the other hand1  
it is certain that celibacy1            
confession1 and fasting existed in      
,buddhism before the teaching of        
,christ1 and long before that of ,tsong 
,khapa4    ,in fact1 ,tsong ,khapa's    
reformation had been to a certain extent
  anticipated1 as we have seen1 by the  
school of ,kadampa1 founded in the      
eleventh century1 by ,atsha's disciple1 
,brom ,ton 7p4 #bgc74    ,very little   
more is known about ,tsong ,khapa4 ,he  
died in the year #adai1  or1 as his     
disciples believe1 ascended to heaven1  
and that ascension is  still celebrated 
during the festival of ,lamps by all    
orthodox ,buddhists  of the ,lmistic    
,church 7see pp4 #cde1 #cdf74    ,when  
some time after his death1 he was       
canonized1 he was regarded by  some as  
an incarnation of ,amitbha1 or by others
 of ,maju-r1 or by  others of ,vajra-pi 
7see p4 #aie71 or even of the ,mah-kla  
form of  iva1 and his image is generally
 found in the temples of the ,yellow    

sect1 and often between the two images  
of the ,dalai ,lma and the ,panchen     
,lma1 on the right and left             
respectively4    ,his followers of the  
,yellow school called themselves        
,gelugpa 7or  ,gelukpa71 #8adherents of 
virtue' 7or1 ,gal-danpa from their      
monastery72  their principal            
characteristic being that they adhered  
to the purer  discipline4    ,the chief 
point of interest in connexion with     
,tsong ,khapa is the bearing  of his    
reformation on the development of the   
,avatra theory already  mentioned 7see  
pp4 #aij1 #bfe74    ,it is said that    
,tsong ,khapa himself1 like ,gautama    
,buddha1 had two chief  pupils1 and that
 he appointed these two to succeed him  
with equal  authority as ,heads of the  
orthodox sect4 ,he is also credited with
 having  been the first to promulgate   
the doctrine that no election of        
successors  to his two pupils would at  
any time be needed1 as each of them on  
dying  would be constantly re-born in a 

supernatural manner4    ,there is1      
however1 no historical foundation for   
such a statement4  ,indeed1 according to
 the opinion of some1 the two ,grand    
,lmas were  merely the lineal successors
 of the two eminent ,lmas1 ,atsha and   
his  pupil ,brom ,ton 7see p4 #bgc74    
,after all1 it seems most likely that   
the whole ,avatra theory was an         
invention of some shrewd ,head ,lma1    
who1 perceiving that the strict         
enforcement of celibacy would prevent   
any hereditary succession1 like  that   
possible in monasteries of the ,red     
school1 and foreseeing that it  would be
 necessary to prevent the suicidal      
divisions to which the  intrigues of an 
election to the ,headship of            
monasteries--especially of  ,grand ,lma 
monasteries--would be likely to give    
rise1 bethought himself  of a compromise
 between hereditary succession and      
election4 ,after more  than one trial1  
the system was found to work so well    
that it was  eventually adopted with    

little modification by all ,northern    
,buddhists1  and even by those of the   
,red sect4    ,the date of its invention
 is as uncertain as the name of the     
inventor4  ,all that can be said is1    
that it cannot be traced back to an     
earlier  period than the fifteenth      
century4    ,and here we must again     
guard against the confusion of thought  
likely to  arise from the usual practice
 of translating ,avatra by              
#8incarnation4'    ,we have seen that   
the doctrine of transmigration 7gati7   
through various  embodiments1 as        
applicable to all beings1 is a          
fundamental dogma both of  ,brhmanism   
and of ,buddhism1 though in ,buddhism   
transmigration properly  means a mere   
continuous transformation and           
reconstruction of the  elements         
7,skandhas7 of being 7p4 #aji74    ,the 
idea is very dimly1 if at all1          
adumbrated in the ,mantra portion of    
the ,veda4    ,it is more clearly       
traceable in one of the ,brhmaas1 and   

distinctly  enunciated in the hndogya   
,upanishad 7,v4 x4 #g7 thus3--#8,he     
whose conduct  has been good1 quickly   
attains to some good embodiment as a    
,brhman1  ,kshatriya1 or ,vaiya4 ,he    
whose conduct has been bad1 assumes an  
inferior  embodiment1 as a dog1 a hog1  
or a ala4' ,in ,manu the theory is fully
  developed4    ,now it is true that in 
,buddhism this kind of transmigration   
may be  described as a continuous series
 of incarnations1 although genuine      
,buddhism denies the separate existence 
of a soul between each  incarnation 7see
 p4 #aaj74    ,but the doctrine of      
repeated incarnations of one individual 
in six forms  of life is quite distinct 
from the ,tibetan ,avatra theory4 ,this 
theory  not only recognizes the separate
 existence of an immaterial essence or  
soul1 but also teaches that the ,head   
,lma of certain monasteries is the      
living1 visible embodiment1 for the time
 being1 of the continuous  descent      
7avatra7 on earth of a portion of the   

essence of the canonized  ,founder of a 
monastery or of a celestial             
,bodhi-sattva or ,buddha1 who  will     
perpetually continue to descend from    
heaven and re-appear in human  forms for
 the welfare of the world 7see p4       
#aji7abi4    ,a similar idea1 we know1  
prevails in ,india1 where the doctrine  
of the  descent 7avatra7 of portions of 
the essence of ,vishu and other gods is 
common4 ,there is1 however1 a noteworthy
 distinction in the ,hind  doctrine1    
because the descents of ,vishu are not  
continuous and  uninterrupted 7see      
#8,brhmanism and ,hindism1' pp4 #dg1    
#ajg-aaf72 and  although every great    
,hind teacher is supposed to be the     
embodiment of a  portion of the essence 
of a deity1 each such embodiment is     
isolated and  single4    ,and here note 
that one theory is that the continuous  
descents of  ,bodhi-sattvas and ,buddhas
 into human forms were effected by means
 of  their third changeable body        
7,nirma-kya1 p4 #bdg71 which belonged to

  ,bodhi-sattvas as well as to ,buddhas2
 or1 according to another theory1       
through rays of light proceeding from   
the essences of the ,bodhi-sattvas1     
just as the ,bodhi-sattvas themselves   
were held by some to have been          
generated by rays of light proceeding   
from the ,dhyni-,buddhas4    ,or again1 
the ,dhyni-,buddhas might incarnate     
themselves not only  intermediately     
through their ,dhyni-,bodhi-sattvas1 but
 by the  transmission of rays of light  
directly from their own essences into a 
continuous succession of human beings of
 pre-eminent sanctity4    ,hence it is  
clear that the ,avatra ,lma is no       
example of the working of  either ,hind 
metempsychosis or of ,buddhist          
metamorphosis4 ,and indeed1  re-birth1  
through transmigration and              
transformation1 according to the        
ordinary ,hind and ,buddhist theories1  
is regarded as a kind of natural  act1  
whereas continuous incarnation through  
the descent of a portion of  a celestial

 essence into human bodies is a         
supernatural act4    ,of course1 as we  
have stated1 there were lower and higher
 ,avatras1  corresponding to the        
difference in rank of ,saints and       
,bodhi-sattvas 7see  pp4 #aij1 #bfe74   
,examples of the highest ,avatras are   
the two quasi-,popes1 or spiritual      
,kings1 who are supreme ,lmas of the    
,yellow sect--the one residing at       
,lhssa1 and the other at ,tashi ,lunpo  
7,krashi ,lunpo71 about #ajj miles      
distant1 in a south-westerly direction1 
not far from the town of  ,shigatse 7or 
,shigatze1 capital of the province of   
,tsang71 and not very  far from our     
,indian frontier4    ,the ,grand ,lma at
 ,lhssa is the ,dalai ,lma1 that is1    
#8the ,ocean-,lma1 or  one whose power  
and learning are as great as the ocean2'
 a half  ,mongolian half ,tibetan       
title--,dalai 7or ,tale7 meaning in     
,mongolian  #8,ocean1' and ,lma meaning 
in ,tibetan #8a superior ,teacher' 7see 
note1 p4  #bfb74 ,he has also the       

,tibetan title of r,gyamthso ,rinpoche  
7,rin-po-e71  #8,ocean-,jewel' 7the     
,tibetan equivalent for ,dalai being    
r,gyamthso74    ,the other ,grand ,lma  
who resides in the monastery of ,tashi  
,lunpo1 is  known in ,europe under the  
names of the ,tashi ,lma 7sometimes     
written  ,teshu ,lma7 or ,panchen ,lma  
7called in ,mongolian ,bogdo ,lma74 ,he 
has the  ,tibetan title of ,panchen     
,rinpoche 7,pa-en ,rin-po-e71 #8the     
great ,pait  ,jewel' 7,pan being        
equivalent to ,paita1 and chen meaning  
great74    ,hence ,tashi ,lunpo is the  
second metropolis of ,lmism 7see p4     
#ddc74 ,it is  said to have been built  
by ,gedun grub pa1 the chief pupil of   
the  ,reformer ,tsong ,khapa1 in #adde  
7see p4 #bia74    ,neither of these     
,grand ,lmas are ,popes in the ,european
 sense1 for  neither are elected by a   
conclave of chief ,lmas4    ,the belief 
is that when they quit their bodies at  
death1 they re-appear  after nine       
months1 or occasionally after the second

 or third year1 in  children whose      
bodies they have occupied from          
conception4    ,the ,dalai ,lmas are    
held to be continuous re-incarnations of
 the  ,dhyni-,bodhisattva ,avalokitevara
 7p4 #aig71 while the ,panchen ,lmas are
  continuous re-incarnations of his     
father the ,dhyni-,buddha ,amitbha 7p4  
#bjc74    ,hence1 as the father is      
superior to the son1 and the master to  
the  pupil1 the ,panchen ,lma at ,tashi 
,lunpo might reasonably have ranked     
above the ,dalai ,lma at ,lhssa4 ,but1  
as ,avalokitevara is the special  patron
 of the ,lmistic ,church in ,tibet1 his 
incarnation at ,lhssa is  practically a 
more important personage than the       
incarnated ,dhyni-,buddha  at ,tashi    
,lunpo4 ,some hold that the ,panchen    
,lma is only a re-incarnation  of ,tsong
 ,khapa1 who was identified with        
,maju-r4    ,it is said that the ,dalai 
,lma exercises secular authority over   
about  four millions of people1         
including monks2 although in the present

 day  political power has to a great    
extent been taken from him by the       
,chinese  ,government1 which has two    
permanent ,commissioners or ,residents  
7called  ,ampas7 at ,lhssa1 and         
sometimes sends a special ,envoy        
7,kin-,tche7#acj4    ,the real fact is1 
that since mere children1 who are too   
young to have  received any education1  
are elevated to the ,grand ,lmaship1 and
 most of  them either die naturally or  
are made to die before they have gained 
any  knowledge1 the re-incarnated ,lmas 
are generally unfit to govern1 and in   
monasteries which have an ,avatra ,grand
 ,lma1 an elected chief ,lma acts  as   
regent or administrator of affairs1     
while the incarnated ,buddha is         
supposed to lose himself in sublime     
heights of meditation and receive       
divine homage#aca4 ,this elected ,regent
 also governs during the  intervals of  
the incarnations1 and at ,lhssa he is   
the real ,head and  most powerful       
,tibetan official4 ,he is called        

,nomun-khan or ,nomin-khan  7or ,no min 
han74    ,the manner in which the       
,avatra doctrine is carried into        
practice has  varied at different times4
    ,it is alleged that formerly the    
departing ,lma1 before he transferred   
himself to another body1 was in the     
habit of revealing where and in what    
family he would be re-incarnated4 ,or   
occasionally it happened that  children 
of two or three years of age called out 
suddenly1 as if  impelled by some       
spiritual influence1 #8,i am a living   
,buddha1 ,i am the  chief ,lma of such  
and such a monastery4'    ,or more      
commonly the sacred books were          
consulted2 or the official  soothsayers 
gave their opinion4    ,but the usual   
rule was that at the death of the ,dalai
 ,lma the  interpretation of the        
traditions and oracles about his        
re-birth and the  duty of discovering   
the family in which he was to appear    
were committed  to the ,panchen ,lma4   
,when the ,panchen ,lma himself died1   

the ,dalai ,grand  ,lma did the same    
service for him4    ,it was only natural
 that the holy land of ,tibet1 and      
especially the holy  city of ,lhssa1    
should have been most fruitful in       
re-incarnations1 and  should even have  
supplied foreign countries with them4   
,when ,messrs4 ,huc and ,gabet were     
travelling in ,mongolia they were about 
to pass a certain ,lmistic convent      
without stopping1 when a ,lma came  out 
and invited them to enter1 that they    
might have an opportunity of  paying    
adoration to the saint enthroned within4
 #8,our saint1' he said1  #8is not a    
mere man4 ,in our small convent we have 
the happiness to  possess a living      
,buddha6 ,two years ago he deigned to   
descend from the  holy mountains of     
,tibet1 and he is now seven years old4' 
,these living  ,buddhas1 according to   
,m4 ,huc1 are very numerous4 ,sometimes 
a clever ,lma  builds a small temple and
 attracts a few disciples4 ,then by     
degrees his  reputation increases4      

,other ,lmas build their cells near the 
temple1 and  bring it into fashion1 and 
proclaim him to be a living ,buddha4    
,it is said1 indeed1 that some spiritual
 ,heads of the ,hierarchy in ,lhssa     
have contrived to instal their          
illegitimate children in the ,headship  
of  distant ,lmaseries1 so that         
occasionally the supposed living ,buddha
 is  really the son of some ,tibetan    
,grand ,lma4    ,in the present day the 
,emperor of ,china exercises so great an
 influence  in the nomination of both   
the ,dalai and ,panchen ,lmas1 that the 
co-operation of the ,lmistic priesthood 
has become little more than a  form4    
,still the form is gone through1 and the
 following description  7chiefly resting
 on the authority of ,koeppen and ,huc7 
may give some idea  of the whole        
process4    ,when the ,dalai ,lma dies1 
or rather when his soul--which consists 
of a  portion of the essence of         
,avalokitevara--has cast off one body   
with the  object of entering another1   

the names of all the male children born 
at  the time of his death in ,tibet have
 to be sent in to the great monastery   
of ,l brang at ,lhssa1 and those parents
 who have reason to suspect that  their 
children are re-incarnations1 are       
obliged to notify the fact4    ,a true  
decision cannot be arrived at until     
three children have been  found1 or     
rather 7as is practically the case7     
until three candidates  have been set up
 for election who are accepted by the   
,chinese ,government  or its            
representatives4    ,the first stage in 
the process of election is to write the 
names of  these three children on lots1 
and place them in a golden urn4 ,then   
the  ,khutuktus assemble together in    
solemn conclave4 ,for six days they     
remain  in retirement4 ,during all that 
period they are supposed to fast and to 
be engaged in repeating prayers4 ,on the
 seventh day1 the leading  ,khutuktu    
draws a lot1 and the infant or child    
whose name comes out is  proclaimed     

,dalai ,lma4 ,the ,panchen ,lma and the 
representatives of ,china  must be      
present at the time#acb4    ,in a       
similar manner1 the ,panchen ,lmas1     
,khutuktus1 and ordinary ,avatra  ,lmas 
are elected4    ,the ,mongolian mode of 
election is thus described by ,m4 ,huc4 
7,the  quotation is not literal1 and is 
abridged47      ,the election and       
enthronization of the living ,buddhas is
 extremely    curious4 ,when a ,grand   
,lma is #8gone away1' that is to say1 is
 dead1    the event is by no means made 
a matter of mourning in the convent4    
,there are no tears or regrets1 for     
every one knows that the living         
,buddha will soon re-appear4 ,the       
apparent death is only the              
commencement of a new existence1 a new  
link added to a boundless and           
uninterrupted chain of successive       
lives--a simple palingenesia4 ,while    
the saint is in the chrysalis state1 his
 disciples are in the greatest          
anxiety1 and the grand point is to      

discover the place where their    master
 has returned to life4 ,if a rainbow    
appears1 they consider it as    a sign  
sent to them from their ,grand ,lma1 to 
assist them in their    researches4     
,every one then goes to prayers1 and    
especially the convent which has    been
 widowed of its ,buddha is incessant in 
its fastings and orisons1    and a troop
 of chosen ,lmas set out to consult the 
,churchun or diviner    of hidden       
things4 ,they relate to him the time1   
place1 and    circumstances under which 
the rainbow has appeared3 and he then1  
after    reciting some prayers1 opens   
his books of divination1 and at length  
pronounces his oracle2 while the        
,tartars who have come to consult him1  
listen on their knees with the most     
profound devotion4      #8,your ,grand  
,lma1' they say1 #8has returned to life 
in ,tibet--at such a    place--in such a
 family2' and when the poor ,mongols    
have heard the    oracle1 they return   
full of joy to their convent1 to        

announce the    happy news4 ,sometimes  
the living ,buddha announces himself1 at
 an age    when other infants cannot    
articulate a word2 but whether his place
 of    abode be found by means of the   
rainbow1 or by this spontaneous         
revelation1 it is always at a           
considerable distance1 and in a country 
difficult of access4 ,a grand procession
 is then made1 headed by the    king1 or
 the greatest man in the country1 to    
fetch the young living    ,buddha4 ,the 
,mongols often go through incredible    
fatigue and hardships1    traverse      
frightful deserts1 and sometimes1 after 
being plundered by    robbers1 stripped 
of everything1 and compelled to return1 
set out    again with undiminished      
courage4 ,when the living ,buddha is    
found1    however1 he is not saluted    
,grand ,lma without a previous          
examination4    ,doubtless1 the simple  
,mongols are in this matter often the   
dupes of    those who have an interest  
in making a ,grand ,lma of the baby4    

,the    title of the living ,buddha     
having been confirmed1 he is conducted  
in    triumph to the monastery of which 
he is to become ,grand ,lma2 and as     
he passes along1 the ,tartars come in   
great troops and prostrate    themselves
 before him1 and bring him offerings4   
,as soon as he arrives    at the        
convent1 he is placed on the altar1 and 
every ,tartar1 from the    highest to   
the lowest in the land1 bows down before
 this child4 ,there    is no ,tartar    
kingdom which does not possess one of   
these living    ,buddhas2 but there is  
always another ,grand ,lma1 chosen among
 the    members of the royal family1    
with whom the real government of the    
convent rests4 ,the famous maxim #8,le  
roi rgne et ne gouverne pas' has    been
 of old application among the ,tartars4 
,see note p4 #cjf of these    ,lectures4
    ,it should be noted that the        
,lmistic community like to keep up the  
fiction of these re-incarnations2 and   
therefore they pretend to  ascertain the

 genuineness of every re-birth by clear 
signs4 ,hence before  a re-born saint is
 installed1 his identity is established 
by his passing  a kind of examination   
before a solemn assembly1 thousands of  
witnesses  being present4    ,some of   
the books1 clothes1 and sacred or       
secular utensils which the  dead ,lma   
was in the habit of using1 are brought  
and mixed with others4  ,the child is   
then asked to pick out the true ones1 or
 he has to answer  questions as to the  
events in his previous state of         
existence4 ,if the  replies are         
satisfactory1 he is installed as the    
re-born ,lma amid great  rejoicings4    
,koeppen asserts that no positive       
information as to the relationship      
between the ,dalai and ,panchen ,lmas is
 forthcoming4 ,some maintain that  both 
hierarchical systems developed          
simultaneously4 ,some say that the      
,panchen ,lma of ,tashi ,lunpo was the  
first ,grand ,avatra ,lama1 while       
others hold that the elevation of the   

,panchen ,lmas took place later1  and   
only resulted from the increase in      
importance of the ,tashi ,lunpo         
monastery in which they reside 7p4      
#bhd74    ,the ,dalai ,lmas may be      
enumerated as follow3--    ,the first is
 said to have been ,gedun grub pa       
7otherwise pronounced ,gedun  dubpa74   
,probably he was the nephew and chief   
pupil of the ,reformer ,tsong  ,khapa4  
,it was he who founded the monastery of 
,tashi ,lunpo in #adde1 and  he is by   
some therefore called the first ,lma of 
that monastery4 ,his  birth is supposed 
to have occurred in #acia or #adai1 and 
his death in  #adgc or #adgf4 ,then he  
was born again after ten months as      
,gedun ,gyam,thso  7or ,gedun ,yamtso71 
the second ,grand ,lma1 who is held by  
some to have  been the real founder of  
the ,avatra system of perpetual         
succession by  reincarnations4 ,he      
filled the ,dalai ,lma ,chair from #adgd
 or #adgf to #aedj  or #aedb4    ,the   
third embodiment took place in #aedc1   

and bore the name ,sod nam  ,gyam,thso  
7or ,sod nam ,yamtso71 #8sea of virtue4'
 ,he was the first who  really took the 
half ,mongolian title of ,dalai ,lma4   
,moreover1 he  laboured hard to spread  
,buddhism among the ,mongolians1 and    
founded the  first ,great ,lma's ,chair 
in ,mongolia4    ,in his fourth         
re-birth1 the ,dalai ,lma took the name 
of ,yon ,jan ,yam  ,thso1 #8ocean of    
merit1' and lived up to his #adth year  
7until #afjb7 in  ,mongolia1 when he    
moved to ,lhssa4    ,the fifth ,dalai   
,lma was the great ,navang ,lobsang     
7strictly ,ngag d,bang  b,lo b,sang71   
#8wise speaker or eloquent sage1' who is
 the most celebrated  of all4 ,according
 to some he was the first real ,dalai   
,lma1 those who  preceded him being     
merely supreme ,lmas of the ,yellow     
school4 ,his career  lasted from #afag  
to #afhb4 ,he was a kind of ,lmistic    
,innocent4 ,but his  long minority led  
to political disturbances4 ,in the end1 
,navang ,lobsang  overcame all          

difficulties1 and as a sign that the    
power of a king of  ,tibet had been made
 over to him1 built on one summit of the
 triple hill  ,potala1 where once the   
royal castle had stood1 that palatial   
monastery--that wonderful ,lmistic      
,vatican--in which he still resides in  
his continual re-incarnations 7see p4   
#ccj74    ,indeed the successors of     
,tsong ,khapa had good reason to be     
satisfied  with their position at that  
time4 ,they had overshadowed the ,red   
sect1 or  reduced it to comparative     
unimportance4 ,they had won over        
,mongolia1  which greatly aided them in 
their struggle for dominion4 ,monastery 
after  monastery arose there4 ,the      
sacred books had been translated into   
the  ,mongolian language1 and thousands 
of ,mongolians came every year with     
rich presents to worship the re-born    
,lmas at ,lhssa1 or sent their sons     
there for education4    ,when ,navang   
,lobsang died1 his death was concealed  
by the ,regent1 and  great intriguing   

followed4 ,in the interregnum two ,dalai
 ,lmas were  successively set up and    
deposed4 ,these are not reckoned in the 
list of  legitimate ,dalai ,lmas4       
,then a child was chosen1 who had all   
the signs of being called to the        
,lmaship4 ,this was ,lobsang ,kalsang   
,yamthso2 he is reckoned the sixth      
,dalai ,lma4 ,he died in #ageh1 after   
gaining some repute as a writer4    ,the
 seventh ,dalai ,lma was ,lobsang       
,jampal 7or ,champal7 ,yamthso1 who is  
believed to have died in either #ahje or
 #ahjh4    ,the next was ,lungtog       
,yam,thso1 who died a mere infant in    
#ahae or #ahaf4 ,he  had three          
child-successors1 who were all killed as
 minors by the acting  ,regent4 ,the    
last child was made away with in #ahcg4 
,if these three children are reckoned1  
,ge ,mure ,yam,thso must be regarded  as
 the eleventh ,dalai ,lma4 ,he died in  
#ahee4 ,the twelfth was born in  #ahef1 
and seems to have lived till #ahgd4     
,the discovery of the present ,dalai    

,lma is thus related by ,sarat ,chandra 
,ds4      ,after the death of an        
incarnate ,lma1 his soul is said        
ordinarily to    remain in the spiritual
 world for a space 7called ,bardo7 of at
 least    forty-nine days4 ,in #ahge1   
one year after the demise of the late   
,dalai    ,lma1 ,thinle ,gya-tsho1 the  
,regency and the ,college of ,cardinals 
at    ,lhssa consulted the celebrated   
oracle of ,nachung ,chhoskyong about the
    re-appearance of the ,dalai4 ,the   
oracle declared that the ,grand ,lma    
could only be discovered by a monk of   
the purest morals4 ,accordingly    the  
,shar-tse ,khanpo of the ,galdan        
monastery1 who was well known for    his
 virtuous character and his profound    
knowledge of the sacred books1          
proceeded to ,chhoikhor ,gya1 where he  
sat in profound meditation for    full  
seven days4 ,on the night of the last   
day he saw a vision1 in    which a voice
 from heaven directed him to go and see 
a miraculous    sight in the ,ya-tsho   

lake of ,chhoikhor ,gya4 ,awaking from  
his sleep1    the ,khanpo went to the   
lake1 where in the crystal-like water he
 saw    the incarnate ,grand ,lma       
sitting in the lap of his mother and    
caressed    by his father4 ,the house   
with its furniture was also visible4    
,all on a    sudden this mirage-like    
appearance disappeared1 and he heard the
    neighing of a horse4 ,so much of his
 dream being fulfilled1 he    proceeded 
on the horse to the province of         
,kong-po1 and1 on the way1 he           
happened to call at the house of a rich 
and respectable family of the           
district of ,tag-po4 ,here he recognized
 the house1 the family1 and the    child
 he had seen in the lake1 and at once   
declared that the real end    of his    
journey was obtained4 ,on his report the
 ,government officials    and the       
,college of ,cardinals1 headed by the   
,regent1 visited ,tag-po and    escorted
 the infant with its parents in great   
pomp to the palace of    ,rigyal near   

,lhssa4 ,the princely child was only one
 year old when he    was discovered4 ,he
 is now ten1 and bears the name of      
,nag-wang ,lo-ssang    ,thub-dan        
,gya-tsho1 #8the lord of speech1 and    
powerful ocean of wisdom4'    7,this    
extract is abbreviated47    ,a similar  
list of the ,panchen ,lmas who have     
reigned at ,tashi ,lunpo has  not been  
given4 ,when ,mr4 ,sarat ,chandra ,ds   
was there in ,august1 #ahhb1  the then  
,panchen ,lma died from grief 7so it was
 said7 because he had  not been allowed 
to consecrate the young ,dalai ,lma1    
according to  previous custom4    ,the  
next important ,lma in great ,tibet     
7after the ,dalai and ,panchen  ,lmas7  
is the ,head ,lma or ,khanpo of the     
monastery of ,galdan  7,gahdan7--the    
oldest monastery of the ,yellow sect1   
founded in the year  #adji by the       
reformer ,tsong ,khapa 7see p4 #bgh71   
who was the first ,abbot4  ,it once had 
#h1jjj inhabitants4 ,the body of ,tsong 
,khapa is said to be  there visible1    

preserved from corruption and           
miraculously poised in the  air4 ,prints
 of his hands and feet and his bed are  
also shown to pilgrims  7see p4 #dda74  
,but the ,grand ,lma of the ,yellow     
school who comes next in rank to the    
,dalai and ,panchen ,lmas is the ,head  
of the monastery of ,kurun 7also        
written ,kuren7 or ,urga1 in the land of
 the ,khalkhas in ,mongolia4 ,his       
perpetual re-incarnation began in the   
sixteenth century4 ,he is generally     
called by the ,mongolians ,maidari or   
,gegen ,khutuktu1 but his proper title  
is ,je ,tsun ,dampa 7or ,tampa7         
,trantha4 ,a ,trantha ,lma 7born in     
#aege7  completed a work on ,buddhism in
 the ,tibetan language in #afjh         
7,markham's  ,tibet1 xlviii74    ,there 
is also a celebrated ,avatra ,lma at    
,kuku khotun in ,tartary who is  a      
perpetual re-incarnation of ,maju-r     
,khutuktu4    ,indeed ,mongolia is a    
kind of paradise in which the monks of  
,lmism enjoy  perennial bliss1 for the  

,mongolians are simpler and more full of
 faith  than the ,tibetans4    ,another 
,grand ,lma is the ,dharma-rja of ,bhutn
 7p4 #big71 and another  ,great ,lma is 
at ,peking in ,china 7see p4 #bii74     
,as to ,ladk 7the capital of which is   
,le or ,leh71 this is the most  western 
part of ,tibet that has adopted ,lmism4 
,aoka's mission  penetrated to ,ladk1 so
 that the whole land in king ,kanishka's
 time  7that is1 in the first century7  
was ,buddhistic4 ,moreover1 the         
,buddhist  religion 7both ,red sect and 
,yellow7 has maintained itself there    
until  now1 while in the neighbouring   
countries of ,kashmr1 ,kafirstn1 the    
,panjb1 etc41 it has been displaced by  
,brhmanism1 ,islm1 and ktism1  etc4 ,we 
have little knowledge of the ancient    
history of ,ladk4 ,it has a  large and  
ancient monastery at ,lma ,yurru1 near  
the ,indus--in which is an  enormous    
image of the cloven-headed#acc          
,avalokitevara--another at  ,hemis1 and 
another at ,hanle4 7,see ,cunningham's  

#8,ladk1' ,mrs4 ,bridges'  #8,travels1' 
and p4 #dcc of this volume47    ,in     
,tangut1 all round the blue lake 7,kuku 
,nr71 ,lmistic ,buddhism has  been the  
established religion since the end of   
the ninth century4 ,it  seems to have   
taken a great start upwards in the      
succeeding four  centuries1 for it was  
in the province of ,amdo1 as before     
mentioned 7p4  #bgg71 that the great    
,reformer commenced his career4 ,in the 
,north-eastern  corner close to ,china  
is the ,lmasery of ,kunbum 7,kumbum71   
where ,tsong  ,khapa was born4 ,when his
 reputation increased1 ,lmas from all   
parts made  pilgrimages there4 ,sarat   
,chandra ,ds states that it is inhabited
 by  #i1jjj ,lmas of the ,yellow sect4  
,koeppen says that it has a ,university 
with four ,faculties1 and an important  
printing-press1 and that at the  head of
 it is an incarnated living ,buddha4    
,the ,lmas from ,amdo are said  by      
,koeppen to be more highly-gifted1      
intelligent1 learned1 and religious     

than the monks of other monasteries4    
,they are intrusted in ,lhssa with  the 
most important offices1 and are employed
 in the education of the  infant        
representatives of ,buddha4 ,amdo is    
still almost a terra  incognita4        
,passing on to ,nepl--this country      
probably adopted ,buddhism before the   
beginning of the ,christian era4 ,it is 
said that ,aoka's missionaries  found   
their way there2 but there is no proof  
that ,buddhism really  flourished in    
,nepl till the seventh century1 and even
 then it never  existed except in       
conjunction with ,brhmanism4 ,it is     
probable that  ,buddhist monasteries and
 ,brhmanical temples always adjoined    
each other4  ,indeed since the          
immigration of the ,hinds into ,nepl1   
and especially  since the invasion of   
the ,gorkhas1 there have always been two
  nationalities1 two languages1 two     
literatures1 two religions in contact   
with each other4    ,in recent times    
,brhmanism has gained the predominance  

as the  ,state-religion1 and ,buddhism  
has degenerated1 though it is everywhere
  tolerated4    ,it is a question       
whether the spiritual supremacy of the  
,tibetan ,grand  ,lma has ever been     
acknowledged in ,nepl proper4 ,but1     
according to some1  the ,dalai ,lma     
formerly had a legate or representative 
in the largest  and oldest ,buddhistic  
temple of ,khatmandu--the temple of     
,svayambhu-nth1  who is here at once    
di-,buddha and iva4 ,the ,dalai ,lma    
also claimed the  ownership of this     
temple1 which1 he maintained1 had been  
dependent on  him from the earliest     
times4 ,but it is certain that1 even if 
the ,tibetan  ,legate ever possessed the
 authority arrogated by him1 he was     
compelled  by the ,gorkhas to abandon   
his claims4 ,nevertheless the ,tibetan  
tribes  now in ,nepl still adhere to    
,buddhism4 ,the same may be said of the 
,newars1 who are the original possessors
 of the great valley of ,nepl4  ,they   
profess a kind of ,buddhism1 though they

 reject the ,lmas1 and have  priests of 
their own1 whom they call ,bandya 7see  
note p4 #bfc74    ,with regard to ,bhutn
 7capital town ,punakha7 it is said to  
have become  ,buddhist about #cej years 
ago4 ,its spiritual ruler and incarnated
 saint  is called ,dharma-rja 7or ,lma  
,rinpoche74 ,he belongs to the ,red-cap 
school1 and calls himself ,chief of all 
the monks of the ,dugpa sect4 ,his      
subordination to the ,dalai ,lma is     
little more than nominal4 ,the  temporal
 ,governor is called ,depa-rja          
7,deb-rja74    ,the following titles    
engraved on the ,dharma-rja's seal of   
office will  give some idea of his      
pretensions3--    #8,i am the ,chief of 
the realm4 ,defender of the ,faith4     
,equal to ,sarasvat  in learning4 ,chief
 of all the ,buddhas4 ,head-expounder of
 the stras4  ,caster out of devils4     
,most learned in the holy ,laws4 ,an    
,avatr of ,god4  ,absolver of sins4     
,head of the best of all religions4'    
7,see ,dr4 ,wright's  ,nepl47    ,it is 

said that there are about #aj1jjj monks1
 and about #ej1jjj ,buddhist  lay       
families in ,bhutn4 ,many of the monks  
do not live in monasteries1  but hold   
offices under the ,government4    ,next1
 as to ,sikkim--of which ,drjling1 now  
the ,sanitarium of the ,bengal          
,government1 once formed a part4 ,this  
is a small boundary country between     
,bhutn and ,nepl4 ,it seems to have     
adopted ,buddhism about the same time   
as ,bhutn1 or perhaps a century earlier4
 ,the ,lmas there belong to the  ,dugpa 
,red sect 7p4 #bfh74 ,the aborigines1   
called ,lepchas1 though they  venerate  
the ,lmas1 are really only half         
,buddhists2 and their priests1  called  
,bijna 7,bhikshu87 beggars1 are half    
devil-exorcists4 ,the oldest  temple is 
that of ,pemyangchi 7see p4 #dcb74 ,next
 come the important  monasteries of     
,tassiding1 ,changachelling1 ,raklang1  
and ,tamlung 7one  residence of the     
,rja1 the other being at ,chumbi in     
,tibetan territory74  ,there is also one

 near ,drjling4    ,we ought finally to 
advert briefly to ,china and ,japan4 ,it
 is noteworthy  that next in rank to the
 ,mongolian ,grand ,lma comes the ,head 
,lma of the  great monastery of ,peking1
 who represents ,lmism in that country4 
,koeppen informs us that in ,china1 for 
at least six centuries1 there have  been
 two classes of ,buddhist monks side by 
side1 viz4 first1 the  ,ho-shang 7p4    
#ib7 or ,chinese monks1 who had become  
naturalized in the  year #fe after      
,christ2 and1 secondly1 the ,lmas4      
,these two schools are  not             
distinguished so much by difference of  
doctrine and discipline1 as  by the     
position they hold in the empire4 ,the  
,ho-shang are little more  than separate
 fraternities of monks1 tolerated by the
 ,state4 ,they have  no hierarchical    
organization1 and no bishops1 but each  
monastery stands  independently1 and has
 no superior except its own ,abbot4     
,on the other hand1 the ,lmas constitute
 in ,china a public organized  society1 

acknowledged to a great extent and      
supported by the ,state1 and  possessing
 certain spiritual and temporal rights  
over particular  districts4 ,it is said1
 however1 that the ,lmistic hierarchy in
 ,china is  subordinated to the         
,government ,committee for foreign      
affairs4    ,it is further stated that  
three great monasteries situated in or  
near  ,peking are exclusively reserved  
for the ,tibetan and ,mongolian ,lmas1  
and  that of the three ,lmas who preside
 over these the chief is the            
before-mentioned representative of      
,lmism at the ,government ,court 7p4    
#bie74    ,in ,china proper1 within the 
eighteen ,provinces1 the number of the  
,lma  monasteries is said to be small1  
and these are generally to be found in  
the ,provinces nearest to ,tibet and    
,mongolia4    ,as to ,japan1 it does not
 appear that the ,lmistic form of       
,buddhism has  penetrated into that     
country4 ,in all probability ,buddhist  
writings were  introduced there from    

,corea about ,a4,d4 #eebacd1 but it is  
certain that  ,buddhism did not gain    
much ascendency in ,japan till the ninth
 century1  and even then was not able to
 displace either ,shintoism or          
,confucianism  and the worship of       
deceased ancestors4 ,in fact1 ,buddhism 
commended  itself to the ,japanese1 as  
it did to the people of every country to
  which it spread by its receptivity2   
and just as in ,tibet1 it adapted       
itself to the ,shamanism which          
previously existed there1 so in ,japan  
it  adopted ,shintoism1 and turned some 
of the ,shinto deities into             
,bodhi-sattvas4 ,then followed the      
inevitable splitting up of ,japanese    
,buddhism1 as of all other religious    
systems1 through disagreements and      
divisions2 and in the thirteenth century
 various sects were developed4  ,as to  
these1 we need only note that while some
 sects adopt the early  ,atheistic and  
,agnostic form of ,buddhism with its    
doctrine of ,nirva1  the principal sect 

called ,shin is decidedly ,theistic4    
,sir ,edward ,reed1 in his work on      
,japan 7i4 #hd71 informs us that he met 
a  learned priest named ,akamatz in     
company with the ,archbishop of the     
,western sect4 ,this priest's account of
 the ,shin sect coincides with the      
information which ,i myself received    
from a learned ,japanese priest at      
,oxford4    ,it appears that the members
 of this sect believe in ,amitbha       
,buddha as a  ,being of infinite light  
and goodness1 their chief prayer-formula
 being  ,namo ,amida 7for ,amita7       
,butsu1 #8,reverence to the ,infinite   
,buddha1' that  is to ,amitbha#ace4     
,they place faith in the love and mercy 
of ,amita  ,buddha1 or rather in his    
readiness to receive them into his      
paradise  called ,sukhvat 7see pp4 #ahc1
 #bjd74 ,at the same time they are      
required  to lead moral lives1 and      
salvation is practically only obtainable
  through their own works4 ,the monks   
are allowed to marry and to eat flesh   

and fish4    ,their doctrines have many 
points of contact with ,christianity4   
,the late  ,mr4 ,kasawara of ,japan1 who
 belonged to this sect and was highly   
esteemed  by all who knew him in        
,england1 said to a ,christian friend   
that #8it gave  him great pleasure to   
meet in the ,gospels many coincidences  
with the  aspirations of his own        
,buddhist faith1 and that he greatly    
admired the  idea of the ,christ as the 
concrete expression of the ,inscrutable 
,essence  in its twofold form of        
infinite ,light and infinite ,love4'    
,another well known sect called         
,nichiren was founded by a celebrated   
student and teacher named ,nichiren4    
,the ,nichirens have been called the    
,methodists or ,revivalists of ,japan4  
,they are very strict1 and esteem the   
book of the ,law as the highest object  
of veneration4 ,their prayer is to  the 
following effect3--#8,glory be to the   
salvation-bringing book of the  ,law6'  
,doubtless ,japan once had a peculiar   

hierarchical organization of its  own1  
which crumbled away not long ago1 and   
need not now be described4  ,even in the
 present day each sect may have its     
leader or ,head1 who  exercises a kind  
of episcopal superintendence like that  
of a ,bishop or  ,archbishop4    ,we    
have already mentioned 7p4 #bjj7 that a 
female form of ,avalokitevara  is       
worshipped in ,japan and ,china as the  
goddess of mercy4 ,her name in  ,china  
is ,kwan-yin1 and in ,japan ,kwan-non2  
and she is represented as  possessing   
any number of eyes and arms up to a     
thousand1 and sometimes  three faces4   
,in concluding this ,lecture we may note
 that ,russia is the only ,european     
country to which ,lmistic ,buddhism has 
hitherto penetrated4 ,there are         
adherents of the ,dalai ,lma among the  
,burat 7,buryad7 tribes on the  ,baikal 
,lake1 and among the ,kalmuks on the    
,volga4 ,koeppen informs us that  the   
chief temple and monastery of the former
 is on a lake thirty versts  to the     

,north-west of ,selenginsk1 and that the
 presiding monk is called  the ,khanpo  
,paita and claims to be an ,avatra ,lma4
 ,the ,chief ,lma of  the latter is said
 to be appointed by the ,russian        
,government4    ,hierarchical ,buddhism 
naturally leads us on to the subject of 
ceremonial  ,buddhism1 which must be    
reserved for the next ,lecture4         
,,lecture ,,xii4                        
,ceremonial and ,ritualistic ,buddhism4 
,having in the last ,lecture described  
the manner in which hierarchical        
systems were established in various     
,buddhist countries1 we are naturally   
led on to consider in the present       
,lecture the development of what may be 
called #8,ceremonial and ,ritualistic   
,buddhism'2 for no hierarchy can        
maintain its hold over the masses       
anywhere without the aid of outward     
manifestations1 rites1 ceremonies1 and  
appeals to the senses4    ,early        
,buddhism was1 as we have already shown1
 vehemently opposed1 not  only to all   

sacerdotalism1 but to all merely        
external ritualistic and  ceremonial    
observances4 ,it swept away the whole   
,vedic ritual--the whole  sacrificial   
system of the ,brhmans2 it rejected all 
penitential  austerities and painful    
bodily mortifications2 it denounced     
every form  of superstition1 idolatry1  
and priestcraft2 it maintained that to  
lead a  life of purity and high morality
 was better than all the forms and      
ceremonies of religion4    ,but the very
 vehemence of its opposition tended to  
bring about a  reaction4 ,indeed1 the   
history of all religious movements      
proves that the  teaching of extreme    
doctrines of any kind is almost         
invariably followed  by a ,nemesis1     
though the teacher of them may himself  
not live to see it4    ,at the outset a 
reformer of the ultra type is sure to   
gain adherents by  his enthusiasm and   
earnestness1 as well as by his ardour in
 condemning  abuses1 but a time is      
almost certain to come when his         

followers will  themselves lapse into   
the identical practices which it was his
 great  object to denounce4    ,at all  
events1 it is well known that in the    
present day the ,buddha's  followers    
have invented a mass of complicated     
forms and ceremonies  wholly out of     
keeping and incompatible with the purer 
and simpler system  which he himself    
sought to establish4    ,in point of    
fact the ,buddha in promulgating his    
creed did not take into  account the    
impossibility of eradicating certain    
deep-seated cravings  inherent in human 
nature1 which every religion aiming at  
general  acceptance must reckon with and
 satisfy3--for example1 the craving for 
the visible1 for the audible1 and for   
the tangible2 the craving for some      
concrete impersonation of infinite      
goodness and power2 the craving for     
freedom from personal responsibility and
 for its transference to a  priesthood2 
the craving for deliverance from the    
pains and penalties of  sin2 the craving

 for an infallible guide in all matters 
of faith and  doctrine4    ,later       
,buddhism1 on the other hand1 set itself
 to satisfy these  longings--these      
ineradicable yearnings of the human     
heart4 ,it felt that  it could not      
establish itself on a firm foundation   
without hierarchical  organizations1 and
 it could not maintain these without    
external forms1  ceremonies1 and ritual 
observances4 ,it therefore turned the   
simple  monastic brotherhood into a     
caste of priests1 and it attracted and  
gratified the senses of unthinking      
multitudes by a great variety of        
religious rites1 usages1 and symbols1   
many of which are quite unique1  while  
nearly all are accompanied with         
superstitious practices implying  an    
amount of ignorance and credulity on the
 part of the people1 quite              
unparalleled4    ,this corrupt phase of 
,buddhism is especially dominant in     
,tibet1  ,mongolia1 and ,northern       
countries4 ,in real truth it might be   

affirmed of  every ,buddhist in ,tibet  
that religious superstition colours all 
his  thoughts1 words1 and deeds4 ,it is 
interwoven with the tissue of his  daily
 life1 and is part and parcel of his    
worldly occupations4 ,it is  equally    
part and parcel of the national life1   
and enters into every  ,government      
transaction4 ,furthermore1 it is        
fostered by art and science1  and       
ministered to by painting and sculpture4
 ,nay1 it is stamped on  ,nature itself4
 ,it is impressed on rocks1 stones1 and 
trees4 ,it finds its  way to the summit 
of snow-clad mountains1 to the recesses 
of  inaccessible ravines1 and to the    
extremities of remote deserts4    ,to   
crown all1 it might be affirmed that in 
,tibet religious superstition  goes on  
by machinery1 quite independently of the
 human will4 ,it is kept  in continual  
activity1 night and day1 by the flapping
 of flags1 and by  the revolution of    
innumerable wheels and cylinders1 which 
are acted on  by the forces of wind and 

water4    ,it may easily1 therefore1 be 
imagined that to give an exhaustive     
account  of all the ceremonies and      
superstitious practices of ,tibetan1 or1
 as it  may be called1 ,lmistic         
,buddhism1 would require the command of 
unlimited  time4 ,they have been treated
 of by ,koeppen in his second volume1   
and by  ,schlagintweit in his           
#8,buddhism in ,tibet1' and have been   
illustrated by  descriptions in ,huc's  
travels#acf1 in ,markham's account of   
the travels  of ,bogle1 ,turner1 and    
,manning1 and in the recent narrative of
 ,mr4 ,sarat  ,chandra ,ds' ,journey4   
,all ,i can attempt is to give a concise
 account of  some of the chief ,lmistic 
observances1 taking the books just named
 as  my authorities1 and adding whatever
 information ,i have been able to       
collect myself from other sources1 while
 travelling in ,buddhist  countries4    
,we must1 however1 guard against the    
notion that ceremonial observances  are 
confined to ,tibet and ,northern        

regions4 ,they are now more or less     
prevalent in ,burma and ,ceylon1 which  
have adopted much of the ,mah-yna       
system1 and to these countries we must  
give our first attention4 ,even  the    
ceremonies now observed at the reception
 of novices and monks in  ,burma and    
,ceylon are less simple than the early  
admission-forms already  described 7pp4 
#gg1 #gh1 #bef74    ,of course every    
novice has to cut off his hair4 ,he does
 this to prove  that he is ready to give
 up the most beautiful and highly-prized
 of all  his personal ornaments for the 
sake of a religious life4    ,but other 
forms have to be gone through in the    
present day1 and ,i now  give an account
 of the admission-ceremony of a         
novice--as performed in  ,burma--based  
on the description in the third chapter 
of ,shway ,yoe's  interesting volume    
called #8the ,burman#acg4'    ,it is    
well understood that1 according to the  
strict letter of the law  7p4 #gg of the
 present ,lectures71 a boy ought not to 

be admitted to the  novitiate until he  
is fifteen1 but in modern times1 the    
admission often  takes place at twelve  
or even eleven years of age1 the belief 
being that  until a boy is so admitted  
he cannot claim to be more than an      
animal4    ,the first point to be noted 
is that his admission involves the      
dropping  of his secular name1 and the  
receiving of another title to mark that 
it  is then possible for him to escape  
the suffering of life4 ,as he is sure   
to have been a scholar or pupil in a    
monastery 7,kyoung7 before applying  to 
be admitted as a novice1 he has learnt  
beforehand all the forms of  worship and
 much that will be required of him      
during his monastic life2  for instance1
 that he is to address senior monks in a
 particular manner  and to wait upon    
them respectfully2 that he is to walk   
through the  streets keeping his eyes   
fixed on the ground1 without gazing     
about1 even  if he have to pass a       
pageant or attractive spectacle of any  

kind2 that  he is to wear his garments  
in the prescribed fashion2 that he is to
 eat  with moderation and dignity4      
,on the day appointed for the           
induction-ceremony1 the young neophyte  
dresses in his gayest clothes1 and      
mounted on a pony1 passes at a foot's   
pace through the town or village4 ,a    
band of music goes before him1 and  all 
his friends dressed in their best       
garments1 follow in a crowd1 the  young 
men dancing and singing1 the girls      
smiling and laughing4 ,thus he  proceeds
 in procession to the houses of his     
relations1 to bid them  farewell4 ,of   
course the introductory observance is   
intended as a kind of  dramatic         
imitation of ,gautama ,buddha's         
celebrated abandonment of his own       
family and worldly associates1 called   
the ,mahbhinishkramaa1 #8the great      
going forth from home' 7see p4 #bh of   
this volume74 ,when the round of  visits
 is finished1 the would-be novice turns 
back with all his  companions to his    

parents' house4 ,there he finds a large 
number of  persons assembled1 and among 
them the ,head of the monastery1 with   
several of his brother monks4 ,these are
 seated on a raised dais in front  of   
which are the offerings intended for    
presentation to them1 consisting  of    
fruit1 cooked food1 yellow cloth1 etc4  
,the monks 7#8,talapoins'7 seated in a  
row1 carefully hold up their large      
fan-like screens to shut out the female 
portion of the assemblage from  their   
view4 ,portions of the ,vinaya 7p4 #fb  
of this volume7 are then  recited1 after
 which the would-be novice is made to   
throw off all his  fine clothes and bind
 a piece of white cloth round his loins4
 ,then his  hair is cut off close1 and  
his head is carefully shaved and washed4
 ,next  he is taken to a bath1 and after
 immersion in pure water1 is brought    
once more1 partially clothed1 before the
 assembled monks4 ,prostrating  himself 
three times before them1 he raises his  
hands in reverence1 and1  using the     

regular ,pli form of words1 asks to be  
admitted to the holy  brotherhood4 ,upon
 that the ,head of the monastery        
presents him with the  yellow monastic  
garments4 ,these are duly put on1 and   
the mendicant's  bowl is hung round his 
neck4 ,the ceremony concludes by the    
formal  announcement of his having      
become a member of the monastery4       
,the present admission-ceremony in      
,ceylon appears to be of a simpler      
character4 ,in fact it differs little   
from the ancient form4 ,those boys  who 
are destined for the novitiate usually  
begin their connexion with  the         
monastery to which they intend to belong
 by first becoming pupils in  the       
monastery-school4 ,the devotion of the  
monkhood to the education of  mere boys 
was perhaps one of the best results of  
the progress and  development of        
,buddhism4 ,in monasteries1 all boys may
 learn to read and  write#ach4 ,there   
also they gain some experience of       
monastic duties and  requirements1 so   

that when the time comes for any pupil  
to enter the  novitiate1 his            
preparedness is taken for granted4 ,he  
merely makes known  his intention to a  
superior or senior monk4 ,then having   
shaved his head1  and undergone the     
ceremony of bathing1 the applicant1 who 
has furnished  himself with the proper  
yellow robes1 presents them to the      
superior  monk1 and requests to be      
allowed to receive them again that he   
may  become a novice4 ,next1 on his     
reciting the three-refuge formulary1 and
  the ten prohibitions1 he is permitted 
to take back the monkish garments  and  
to put them on4 ,he is then formally    
admitted1 and his admission  announced  
to the other members of the monastery   
7,hardy's ,eastern  ,monachism1 p4 #bc74
 ,it may be noted that the monkish      
garments do not  include a head-covering
 as in ,northern countries4    ,as to   
the ceremony of admission to the full   
monkhood1 it differs so  little from the
 ancient rite 7described at p4 #gi71    

that no further  description need here  
be given4    ,with regard to the        
religious services performed in the     
monastic  institutions of modern times1 
they are1 of course1 a great advance on 
the simple formularies used in early    
days1 before the establishment and      
organization of large monasteries4      
,the earlier and purer ,buddhism1 as we 
have seen1 had only one religious       
formula1 and that was a simple          
expression of veneration for the three  
jewels--the ,buddha1 his ,law1 and his  
,order of ,monks 7p4 #gh74    ,any form 
of worship was altogether out of place1 
if not a mere mockery1  when there was  
no supreme ,being to worship2 when the  
,buddha himself1 who  never claimed to  
be more than a perfected man1 had passed
 away into  non-existence1 and when all 
that he left behind was the great ideal 
of  his own memory1 to be venerated and 
imitated4    ,when1 however1 monastic   
establishments were organized and the   
doctrine  became developed1 a great     

development of worship took place4      
,to illustrate this ,i submit a         
description of daily life in a ,burmese 
monastery1 based on the information     
given by ,shway ,yoe 7p4 #cjg71 and     
often using his words4    ,it appears   
that every monastic community in ,burma 
is roused a little  before daylight by  
the sound of a big bell1 beaten with a  
wooden mallet4  ,each monk has then to  
rise1 rinse out his mouth1 wash his     
hands and  face1 arrange his dress 7the 
same in which he has slept all night7   
and  recite a few formularies1 among    
which is one to the following           
effect3--#8,how great a favour has the  
,lord ,buddha bestowed upon me in       
manifesting to me his law1 through the  
observance of which ,i may escape  the  
purgatorial penalties of hell and secure
 salvation6' ,all the members  of the   
fraternity then station themselves      
before the image of the  ,buddha1 with  
the ,abbot at their head1 and the rest  
of the brotherhood1  full monks1 novices

 and scholars1 according to their order4
 ,this done1  they proceed to intone the
 morning service4 ,at its conclusion    
each  stands before the ,head of the    
monastery1 and pledges himself to       
observe  during the day all the rules   
and precepts incumbent upon him4 ,they  
then  separate--the pupils and novices  
to sweep the floor of the monastery1    
bring drinking water1 filter it1 etc41  
the more advanced novices and  full     
monks to tend the sacred trees2 the     
elders to meditate in solitude  on the  
miseries of life1 such meditation being 
beyond all other actions  meritorious4  
,some gather flowers and offer them     
before the relic-shrine  7,dgaba74      
,then comes a repast1 preceded by a     
grace to the effect that the food is    
eaten to satisfy bodily wants1 not to   
please the appetite2 that garments  are 
used to cover nakedness1 not for vanity2
 that health is desired to  give        
strength for the performance of         
religious worship and meditation4       

,after the meal1 all devote themselves  
to study or to teaching4 ,then          
arranging themselves in file1 they set  
out with the ,abbot at their head  to   
receive their food 7not beg74 ,silently 
they move on through the  streets1      
fixing their eyes steadily on the ground
 six feet before them1  meditating on   
the vanity and mutability of all things1
 and only halting  when a layman emerges
 from some door to pour his contribution
 of rice or  fruit or vegetables into   
their alms-bowls4 ,the gift received1   
not a word  or a syllable of thanks is  
uttered2 for is it not the receivers who
  confer the favour and not the givers8 
,in this way they circle back to  the   
monastery4    ,on their return from     
their perambulation a portion of the    
food is  offered to the ,buddha1 and    
then all proceed to eat the remainder1  
consisting perhaps of cooked rice1      
boiled peas1 fish1 cocoa-nut cakes1     
cucumbers1 or even curried flesh and    
fowl1 usually wrapped separately in     

plantain-leaves4 ,next the bowls are    
washed1 and a few hymns are chanted     
before the ,buddha's image4 ,during the 
succeeding hour the boy-scholars  are   
allowed to play about1 while the monks  
pass their time in  conversation1 and   
the ,abbot receives people who come to  
pay their  respects4 ,all visitors      
prostrate themselves before him three   
times1 once  for the ,buddha1 once for  
the ,law1 and once for the ,monkhood4   
,the ,abbot  in return says3 #8,may the 
supporter' 7so he calls all laymen2     
compare p4  #hi71 #8as a reward for     
merit1 be freed from the three          
calamities 7of war1  pestilence1 and    
famine76' ,at about half-past eleven the
 last regular  meal of the day is eaten4
 ,monks are forbidden to eat after noon4
 ,when  the mid-day meal is over1 all   
return to work4 ,some undertake the     
teaching of the boy-scholars4 ,others   
read the texts of the ,tri-piaka  with  
their commentaries1 or superintend the  
writers who are copying  manuscripts4   

,some of the older members of the       
monastery talk with the  idlers1 who are
 to be found lounging about the         
precincts1 and some sink  into deep     
meditation1 which probably ends in deep 
sleep4    ,yet this profound meditation 
is believed to be all important1 for is 
it  not the path to ,arhatship1 to      
,nirva1 and to the acquisition of       
supernatural faculties 7see p4 #bde78   
,other monks tell the beads of their    
rosaries and repeat the prescribed      
formularies1 such as3 #8,all is         
changeful1 all is sorrowful1 all is     
unreal1' followed by invocations to  the
 three holies 7see p4 #age74 ,between   
three and four o'clock the  lessons are 
finished1 and the scholars perform any  
domestic duties  required in the        
monastery4 ,this is the chief return for
 the teaching  they receive4 ,then most 
of the pupils go to their own homes for 
dinner4  ,as to the youthful novices or 
junior monks1 these are all obliged to  
fast like the full monks4 ,many of them 

go out with some of the senior  monks   
for a solemn walk4 ,then at sunset the  
far-reaching notes of the  bell summon  
the walkers back to the monastery4 ,all 
must be within the  walls before the sun
 goes down4 ,the day's duties now draw  
to a close4  ,the boy-pupils are made to
 repeat all they have learned during the
 day1  and some of the ,pli rituals are 
chanted #8with spasmodic energy4' ,at   
half-past eight or nine there are       
further recitations before the image  of
 the ,buddha4 ,all assemble1 as in the  
morning1 and together intone the  hymns4
 ,when the last sound of the chant has  
died away1 one of the  novices stands up
 and proclaims the hour1 day of the     
week1 day of the  month1 and number of  
the year4 ,then all bow before the      
,buddha's image1  and thrice before the 
,head of the monastery1 and retire to   
rest 7see  ,shway ,yoe's #8,burman'74   
,it is noteworthy that severe asceticism
 and painful austerities--as  practised 
among the ,hinds from the earliest times

 up to the present day  7described at   
pp4 #bbh-bcj of this volume7--form no   
part of the duties of  ,buddhist monks2 
for ,buddhism has never sanctioned      
bodily torture1 as  ,brhmanism has done4
    ,we now pass on to a description of 
the observances usual during the  period
 of ,vassa 7see pp4 #hb-hd74    ,mr4    
,dickson has given us some valuable     
notes on the method of keeping  this    
season in ,ceylon1 and ,i venture to    
found a short narrative on the          
information he has communicated#aci4    
,it seems that the villagers of ,ceylon 
esteem it a privilege and a work  of    
great merit to send for one or two      
monk-priests from a monastery and  to   
minister to their wants1 as well as     
listen to their preaching and           
recitations during ,vassa4    ,the      
season begins on the fifteenth day of   
the eighth month2 that is1 on  the day  
of full moon in the month ,ashha 7,june1
 ,july74 ,sometimes two or  three       
villages join in inviting a monk-priest 

to live with them for the  whole three  
months4 ,they prepare a chamber for his 
sleeping  accommodation1 a room for his 
meals1 a temporary chapel for the       
reception of the ,buddha's image1 of the
 relic-casket and of the sacred  books1 
and a place in which he can recite the  
law and explain it4    ,on the first day
 of ,vassa the villagers put on their   
holiday dresses1  and set off with      
music1 dancers1 singers1 and flags for  
the monastery1  where the priest1 whom  
they desire to invite1 resides4 ,thence 
they  conduct him in procession to their
 homes4 ,his first act1 after his       
arrival1 is to set up the image and     
arrange the relic-casket and books4  ,an
 altar is placed in front of the image1 
and on this the people proceed  to make 
their offerings of flowers and perfumes4
 ,next every villager  contributes      
something for the priest's food1 such as
 tea1 sugar1  honeycomb1 orange-juice1  
and the like4 ,the priest1 in return1   
pronounces  a benediction1 and          

says3--#8,by virtue of this first       
offering made for the  sake of the      
,buddha1 who is like unto the sun of    
gods and men1 and by  virtue of this    
second offering made to the monkhood1   
which is like a  field of merit1 may you
 henceforth be delivered from the evils 
of birth  in the place of torment1 in   
the world of beasts1 in the world of    
ghosts1  and in the world of demons1 and
 inherit the bliss of those who ascend  
and descend through the worlds of gods  
till you are born again in the  world of
 men 7see p4 #ba76'    ,then the        
monk-priest proceeds to the             
preaching-chamber1 in the middle of     
which is a chair with a cushion4 ,he    
takes his seat1 and1 holding a  screen  
before his face to prevent his attention
 being distracted1  commences his       
recitations4 ,the people sit on the     
floor--the men on one  side1 the women  
and children on the other4 ,first he    
repeats the  three-refuge formula 7p4   
#gh7 and the five prohibitions 7p4      

#abf71 the  people repeating after him4 
,next he recites some favourite passage 
from  the discourses of ,buddha1 the one
 generally selected being the  ,nidhi-ka
 ,sutta 7see p4 #abi74 ,if any listener 
interposes a remark1 or  hints that he  
does not understand1 the priest explains
 the meaning4 ,the  people then make    
obeisance and depart4    ,the           
monk-priest next repeats to himself the 
appointed ,pirit for the  first day of  
,vassa--namely1 the ,magala-sutta1      
,ratna-sutta1 and  ,karaya-metta-sutta  
7see p4 #cah71 after which he retires to
 rest for a  few hours4 ,rising before  
daybreak1 he meditates on the virtues of
  ,buddha1 on goodwill towards all      
living beings1 on the impurities of the 
body1 and on death1 walking up and down 
in his own chamber1 or in any  place    
suitable for perambulation4 ,next he    
goes to the temporary chapel1  and      
prostrating himself before the shrine1  
says1 #8,i worship continually  all the 
relic-shrines1 the sacred ,bodhi-tree1  

and the images of ,buddha4  ,i reverence
 the three jewels' 7see p4 #age74 ,he   
then arranges his  offering of flowers1 
and places these with a small portion of
 his  morning meal on the altar4 ,his   
meal being concluded1 he teaches the    
children of the villagers1 or he        
prepares for the mid-day and evening    
preaching 7baa74    ,these preachings   
are generally well attended1 especially 
on the four  ,poya days 7p4 #beg74 ,on  
the new-moon and full-moon days1 the    
priest must  go to the nearest monastery
 and join in the ,ptimokkha 7see p4     
#hd72 and  on the full-moon day1 which  
terminates the three months of ,vassa1  
he  must go there again as before1 but  
on that occasion1 addressing the        
assembled monks1 he must                
say3--#8,venerable ,sirs1 ,i have duly  
finished the  ,vassa2 if you have any   
doubt about it1 speak1 and tell me in   
what ,i have  erred4' ,if no one speaks 
he is held to have fulfilled his duties 
faultlessly4 ,then returning and taking 

with him a second priest1 the two       
together perform the ,rtri-baa or       
mid-night service1 which concludes  the 
ceremonies of ,vassa4 ,two pulpits1 made
 of four upright posts1  supporting     
small platforms1 are erected1 and the   
people from the  neighbouring villages1 
dressed in their holiday attire1 attend 
in large  numbers4 ,these nocturnal     
recitations are commonly continued for  
about  five hours4    ,some account     
should next be given of the ceremony    
called ,pirit1 which is  performed in   
,ceylon and ,burma during ,vassa1 and   
also at other times4 ,the  name ,pirit  
is corrupted from the ,pli paritta1     
which again is supposed  to be connected
 with ,sanskit paritr or paritra1       
#8protection#adj4'  ,we must premise    
that this ceremony had its origin in the
 fear of evil  spirits and demons       
everywhere prevalent in the ,east 7see  
p4 #bah72 but it  must be borne in mind 
that ,buddhism recognizes no order of   
beings1  called demons1 created by ,god1

 and eternally separate in nature from  
men4    ,demons are beings who are      
regarded as created by men1 rather than 
by  ,god2 for they may have been men in 
their last state of existence and may   
become men again 7see p4 #abb74 ,they   
are1 however1 represented as  cherishing
 spiteful and malevolent feelings       
against the superior race to  which they
 once belonged2 and all kinds of        
safeguards and counteracting  influences
 are thought to be needed to protect    
human beings from their  malignity4     
,this is quite in keeping with the ,hind
 theory1 which holds that when a  man   
addicted to any particular vice dies1   
his evil nature never dies1  but assumes
 another personality and lives after him
 as a demon4 ,and this  applies equally 
to women1 so that the resulting demons  
may be of either  sex1 and the female is
 held to be more spiteful than the male4
    ,the most effective of all          
safeguards against the machinations of  
such  malignant beings1 is believed to  

be the recitation or intoning of the    
,buddha's ,law1 and especially of the   
,sutta 7,stra7 division of it already   
described 7p4 #fb74 ,and of this        
division there are choice               
portions--twenty-nine in                
number#ada--supposed to possess greater 
prophylactic potency than other         
portions4 ,collectively1 they constitute
  what is called the ,pirit1 and of     
these1 three are most commonly          
recited3--the ,magala-sutta1 the        
,ratna-sutta1 and the                   
,karaya-metta-sutta4 ,part of the first 
of these has been already given  7at p4 
#abi of this volume74    ,part of the   
second or #8,jewel' ,sutta 7translated  
by ,childers7 runs thus3--      #8,all  
spirits here assembled1--those of earth 
and those of air1--let all    such be   
joyful2 let them listen attentively to  
my words4      #8,therefore hear me1 ,o 
ye spirits2 be friendly to the race of  
men2 for    day and night they bring you
 their offerings1 therefore keep        

diligent    watch over them4            
#8,whatsoever treasure exists here or in
 other worlds1 whatsoever    glorious   
jewels in the heavens1 there is none    
like ,buddha4      #8,buddha is this    
glorious jewel4 ,may this truth bring   
prosperity6 ,there    is nought like    
this doctrine4 ,the ,law is this        
glorious jewel4 ,may this    truth bring
 prosperity6      #8,the disciples of   
,buddha1 worthy to receive gifts1 the   
priesthood is    this glorious jewel4   
,may this truth bring prosperity6       
#8,their old karma is destroyed1 no new 
karma is produced4 ,their hearts    no  
longer cleaving to future life1 their   
seed of existence destroyed1    their   
desires quenched1 the righteous are     
extinguished like this lamp4    ,the    
priesthood is this glorious jewel4 ,may 
this truth bring    prosperity6 ,ye     
spirits here assembled--those of earth  
and those of    air--let us bow before  
,buddha--let us bow before the ,law--let
 us bow    before the ,monkhood4'       

,part of the third or                   
,karaya-metta-sutta runs as follows3--  
,this is what should be done by him who 
is wise in seeking his own    good4     
,contented and cheerful1 not oppressed  
with the cares of this    world1 not    
burdened with riches1 tranquil1         
discreet1 not arrogant1 not    greedy   
for gifts1 let him not do any mean      
action for which others who    are wise 
might reprove him4 ,let all creatures be
 happy and prosperous2    let them be of
 joyful mind4 ,let no man in any place  
deceive another1    nor let him be harsh
 towards any one2 let him not1 out of   
anger or    resentment1 wish ill to his 
neighbour4 ,as a mother1 so long as she 
lives1 watches over her child1 her only 
child1 so among all beings let          
boundless goodwill prevail4 ,let        
goodwill without measure1 impartial1    
unmixed with enmity1 prevail throughout 
the world1 above1 below1    around4     
,the ,rev4 ,d4 ,j4 ,gogerley witnessed  
the performance of a great ,pirit       

ceremony in ,ceylon 7,hardy's           
,monachism1 p4 #bdj74 ,taking his       
account and  that of ,mr4 ,dickson1 ,i  
have compiled the following brief       
description of  the ,mah-baa ,pirit1    
#8great ,pirit recitation'3--    ,so    
soon as the sun has set crowds of people
 arrive at the  ,recitation-,hall1      
bringing oil-lamps made out of          
cocoanut-shells4 ,the  ,hall is         
decorated1 and a canopy1 shaped like a  
pagoda1 is erected over  the pulpits1   
which are placed on a raised platform4  
,when darkness  supervenes a blaze of   
light illuminates the ,hall4 ,a relic of
 the ,buddha  is deposited on the       
platform1 and a sacred thread is        
fastened round the  ,hall1 one extremity
 of it being brought close to the relic 
and to the  ,reciters4 ,on the morning  
of the next day1 the recitations begin4 
,one of  the ,reciters repeats the      
three-refuge formula1 and the five      
commandments  7see pp4 #gh1 #abf74 ,then
 incense is burnt round the platform1   

and the  musicians outside the ,hall    
strike up a lively air4 ,next1 the      
formula of  #8the twelve successive     
causes of existence' 7see p4 #ajb7 is   
intoned1 and  a hymn of victory chanted4
    ,the recitation of the ,pirit       
continues uninterruptedly1 day and      
night1  for seven days4 ,twenty-four    
priests are employed1 two of whom are   
constantly seated on the platform and   
engaged in reciting4 ,moreover  three   
times in each day--at sunrise1 mid-day1 
and sunset--they all  assemble together 
and chant in chorus4 ,of course1 when   
the recitation of  the ,suttas          
constituting the ,pirit is concluded1 it
 is recommenced1 and  in this way all   
the ,suttas are recited again and again4
 ,on the morning  of the seventh day a  
messenger is sent to a neighbouring     
temple to  invite the attendance of the 
gods4 ,then by a stretch of the         
imagination  certain of the gods and    
spirits are believed to answer the      
summons1 and  on their supposed arrival1

 the protective ,suttas are chanted more
  energetically than ever till the      
morning of the eighth day1 when a       
benediction concludes the ceremony1 and 
offerings of robes are made to  the     
priest-reciters4    ,we now pass on to  
,tibet and ,mongolia4    ,the ceremonies
 of admission to the monkhood in those  
countries do not  deviate sufficiently  
from the practices just described to    
require  special notice4    ,with       
regard1 however1 to the dress of        
,lmistic monks after their  admission to
 the ,order1 the ancient rule1 as we    
have seen1 obliged them  to wear only   
three garments of a dirty yellowish     
colour1 made out of  rags1 or picked up 
in cemeteries or on dust heaps4 ,but the
 necessities  of a colder climate have  
compelled the ,lmas to increase their   
official  vestments1 and the higher     
,lmas sometimes wear bright silken robes
  enriched with ornament4 ,the law is   
sufficiently obeyed by putting a  patch 
or two at one corner4    ,a full        

equipment is supposed to consist of an  
under vestment1 a sort of  tunic worn   
over it1 a mantle1 a kind of scarf worn 
over the left  shoulder1 a loose robe   
brought round over the same shoulder1   
and a  cap#adb4 ,the right shoulder is  
rarely bare1 as it generally is in      
,southern ,buddhist countries4    ,the  
colour of these six articles of         
clothing1 especially of the cap1 is     
yellow or red1 according to the sect to 
which a monk belongs4    ,the cap is an 
important mark of sectarian difference1 
and is of various  forms1 and when it   
has five points1 has been compared to a 
bishop's  mitre1 but the five points    
really denote the five ,dhyni-,buddhas  
and  their ,bodhi-sattvas4    ,part of  
every full monk's equipment in ,tibet is
 a peculiar instrument1  made of bronze 
or other metal1 and called a ,dorje     
7,sanskit ,vajra1 #8a  thunderbolt'71   
the employment of which for religious   
objects is peculiar  to ,northern       
,buddhism4 ,it is shaped like the       

imaginary thunderbolt of the  gods      
,indra and iva--that is1 it consists of 
a short bar1 about four  inches long1   
the two extremities of which swell out  
in globular form1 or  like small oval   
cages formed of hoops of metal4 ,the    
original ,dorje is  supposed to have    
fallen direct from ,indra's heaven1 and 
to have been  preserved in a monastery  
near ,lhssa1 called ,sera pp4 #bgh1     
#ddb4  ,according to another legend1 the
 original instrument belonged to        
,gautama  ,buddha himself1 and on his   
passing away into non-existence1        
transported  itself through the air from
 ,india into ,tibet4 ,the consecrated   
imitations  of it are innumerable4      
,their primary use is for exorcising and
 driving  away evil spirits1 especially 
in the performance of ceremonies and    
repetition of prayers--the instrument   
being then held between the fingers  and
 thumb and waved backwards and forwards1
 or from side to side4    ,the efficacy 
of the ,dorje in securing good fortune  

and warding off evil  influences of all 
kinds is supposed to be of wide         
application4 ,the idea  was really      
borrowed from aivism or from the ,tantra
 system1 introduced  through ,nepl by   
the ,red sect4 ,it is easy to understand
 the enormous  power supposed to belong 
to a priesthood which claimed to be the 
wielders of a formidable thunderbolt1   
sent to them directly from heaven4      
,no wonder that the original ,dorje     
preserved at the ,sera monastery has    
become an object of actual worship4     
,according to ,m4 ,huc1 countless       
pilgrims prostrate themselves before it2
 and at the ,new ,year's festival1  on  
the #bgth day of the first month1 it is 
carried in procession with  great pomp  
to ,lhssa1--to the two centres of       
,lmism--,potala and ,l brang4  ,on its  
way there1 the mystical implement is    
adored by the whole  population1 male   
and female 7ii4 #bba74    ,below is an  
engraving of a ,dorje which ,i brought  
from ,drjling4    ,illustration3     ,it

 should be mentioned that the fierce    
,bodhi-sattva ,vajra-pi 7see p4  #bja of
 this volume7 is represented holding a  
similar ,dorje in his right  hand in his
 character of subduer of evil spirits4  
,in some  representations the evil      
demons are denoted by serpents4         
,another important part of a full monk's
 equipment in ,tibet is the             
,prayer-bell 7called ,drilbu7 employed  
at the performance of daily  religious  
ceremonies1 and rung to accompany the   
repetition and chanting  of prayers1 or 
to fill up the intervals of worship4 ,it
 often has half a  ,dorje as a handle1  
or the handle is ornamented with various
 mystical  symbols carved on it4 ,the   
object of ringing bells during worship  
is to  call the attention of the beings 
who are worshipped1 or to keep off evil 
spirits by combining noise with the     
waving of the ,dorje in the handle4     
,the bell here represented was brought  
by me from ,drjling4    ,illustration3  
,the bells used in ,burma are described 

at p4 #ebf4    ,other religious         
implements used by novices and          
lay-brethren1 as well as  by full monks1
 are prayer-wheels1 prayer-cylinders1   
rosaries1 amulets  7see p4 #ceh71 drums 
7see p4 #che71 and the ,phurbu or       
,phur-pa 7pp4 #cea1  #ceb74    ,as to   
the daily religious services and        
ceremonies performed by ,monks in       
,tibet and ,mongolia1 these1 of course1 
are far more ritualistic than in        
southern ,buddhist countries4 ,it has   
already been explained 7at pp4 #bjb1    
#bbe7 that certain abstract essences or 
mystical forms of the ,buddha1  called  
,dhyni-,buddhas1 were imagined to exist1
 and these had their  concrete          
energizing vice-gerents called          
,bodhi-sattvas--beings who  received    
adoration as if they were actually gods4
 ,in ,tibet the  ,bodhi-sattva          
,avalokitevara1 and the canonized       
reformer ,tsong ,khapa1 and  other      
supposed saints1 became prominent       
objects of religious worship4  ,then1 in

 process of time1 a complicated         
ceremonial was developed1 which1  as we 
shall see 7p4 #cch71 has much in common 
with the ritual of ,roman  ,catholic    
,christianity4    ,the language employed
 in the religious services of the       
,lmistic  ,hierarchy1 whether in ,tibet1
 ,mongolia1 or in the ,lma monasteries  
of  ,china and ,manchuria1 is ,tibetan4 
,in fact1 ,tibetan is to the ,lmistic   
,church what ,latin is to the ,romish4  
,it is the sole orthodox language of    
religion and religious ceremonial4      
,according to ,koeppen1 only one        
,mongolian ,lma-monastery 7and that     
established at ,peking7 has the right to
 perform religious services in          
,mongolian instead of in ,tibetan#adc4  
,dr4 ,edkins1 however1 states that there
 is a temple 7called ,fa-hai-si7  near  
the hunting-park1 in which the ,manchu  
language is employed instead  of        
,tibetan4 7,chinese ,buddhism1 p4 #djf47
    ,without doubt the acquisition of   
some knowledge of the ,tibetan language 

is incumbent on every ,lma4             
,nevertheless1 few1 except in ,tibet1   
really  understand it4 ,they simply     
repeat the usual prayers and formularies
  mechanically#add4    ,it appears that 
the ,lmistic priests assemble three     
times a day to go  through the          
prescribed ritual--at sunrise1 at       
mid-day1 and at sunset4 ,we  read that1 
before commencing the service1 they     
enter the temple or hall  of worship in 
procession and seat themselves on low   
seats in long rows4  ,these are placed  
the whole length of the hall1 from the  
entrance-door to  the altar1 being      
divided in the middle by a passage4 ,at 
the further  extremity1 close to the    
altar1 are two raised thrones for the   
,head  ,lmas--a five-cushioned one on   
the right for the ,abbot and a          
three-cushioned one for the             
,vice-,abbot4    ,when all have seated  
themselves1 the choir-master or         
precentor gives a  signal with a bell4  
,then the prayer-formularies are recited

 or chanted1  certain passages out of   
the ,law are intoned and certain        
litanies sung1  sometimes in loud tones1
 accompanied by noisy music or by       
clapping of  hands1 and generally in    
unison1 though occasionally verses are  
sung  alternately with responses4       
,then at other times a sentence of the  
,law is repeated by each monk in  turn2 
or a chant is set up consisting of such 
words as3 ,praise be to the  ,buddha6 or
 praise be to some ,bodhi-sattva6       
followed by a recital of all  his names1
 titles1 and epithets2 or mystical      
sentences and syllables are  ejaculated4
 ,the result is said to be a chaos of   
voices and a deafening  confusion of    
sounds4    ,the chief instruments used  
in the services are a spiral shell1 a   
long  trumpet of copper or brass        
7sometimes more than ten feet long71 a  
large  drum1 flutes1 cymbals1 and       
horns--the last being sometimes made of 
the  thigh-bones of human beings#ade4   
,the ritual is imposing1 and still more 

so when a living ,buddha is  present4   
,it has been described by ,m4 ,huc1 and 
,i here give the substance  of his      
account#adf4      ,in front of the chief
 idol1 and on a level with the altar1 is
 a gilded    seat for the living ,buddha
 or ,grand ,lma of the ,monastery4 ,the 
whole    space of the temple1 from one  
end to the other1 is occupied by long   
low seats almost level with the ground1 
stretching right and left of    the     
,grand ,lma's throne4 ,these are covered
 with carpets1 a vacant    space being  
left between each row for the ,lmas to  
pass and repass4    ,when the hour of   
prayer is come1 a ,lma1 whose office it 
is to summon    the choir1 places       
himself in front of the grand entrance  
of the temple    and blows with all the 
force of his lungs into a conch-shell   
trumpet1    the sound of which is       
audible for a league round4 ,this       
effectually    rouses the ,lmas and     
calls them together4 ,each then takes   
his mantle    and official hat of       

ceremony1 and repairs to the interior   
court4 ,the    trumpet sounds again1 and
 when its note is heard for the third   
time1    the great door is suddenly     
thrown open2 the living ,buddha enters1 
and    takes his seat in front of the   
image on the altar4 ,then the ,lmas1    
after depositing their red boots in the 
vestibule1 advance towards him          
barefoot1 and adore him by three        
prostrations4 ,this done1 they seat     
themselves on the long seats according  
to their dignity1 cross-legged    and   
face to face4 ,as soon as the director  
of the ceremonies has given    the      
signal by tinkling a little bell1       
everyone murmurs the prescribed         
prayers1 unrolling the formularies on   
his knees4 ,after this    recitation1   
there is profound silence for a minute4 
,then the bell is    again rung1 and a  
hymn or chant in two choruses begins4   
,the ,tibetan    prayers1 ordinarily    
arranged in verses1 and written in      
metrical style1    are well adapted to  

harmony2 but sometimes at certain pauses
 indicated    by the rubric1 the ,lma   
musicians execute a strain in little    
accord    with the gravity of the       
psalmody4 ,the result is a stunning     
noise of    bells1 cymbals1 drums1      
tambourines1 conch-shells1 trumpets1 and
 pipes4    ,each musician sounds his    
instrument with a sort of fury1 and each
    strives to outdo his neighbour in   
the noise he can produce4 7,huc's       
,travels1 i4 #hh1 abridged47    ,one    
important element in some ,tibetan      
religious services is the  consecration 
and distribution of holy water and grain
 by the chief  ,lmas4    ,perfumes1 too1
 are burnt1 and censers containing      
incense are swung  backwards and        
forwards during the ceremonies4         
,then1 again1 some ,lmistic ceremonials 
include the drinking of tea  poured into
 little cups1 kept in the breast-pockets
 of the monks' robes1  and replenished  
two or three times during the service4  
,sir ,richard ,temple 7,journal1 ii4    

#bjh7 thus describes a tea-drinking     
ceremonial at which he was present1 at  
the monastery of ,pemyangchi in  ,sikkim
 7see p4 #bih of these ,lectures74      
,the priests and monks1 some thirty-five
 in all1 were drawn up in full    robes 
to receive us4 ,then the officials of   
the monastery were    introduced--the   
steward1 the rod-bearer1 the deputy     
master1 and lastly1    the master4 ,a   
procession was quickly formed1 which we 
followed into    the chapel1 where they 
all took their accustomed seats1 while  
we sat    on places prepared for us4    
,the interior of the chapel seemed an   
odd    place for this1 but we were told 
that it was the correct ceremonial4 ,a  
chant was begun1 which lasted some ten  
minutes1 as a sort of grace1    and then
 tea was handed round--first to us1 next
 to the priests1 and    lastly to the   
monks4 ,a short chant followed1 and then
 the procession    preceded us out of   
the chapel4    ,in the picture which    
accompanies ,sir ,richard's description1

 all the  monks have head-coverings1    
some of which are like caps or hats of a
 high  sugar-loaf shape1 while others   
have several points like episcopal      
mitres  7see p4 #cba74    ,the monks of 
,sikkim are generally of the ,dugpa     
sect#adg1 and wear red  caps 7see pp4   
#bgc1 #bih74    ,when ,dr4 ,watt was in 
,ladk1 he was present at a service      
performed by a  number of monks         
belonging to both sects1 who seemed to  
fraternize very  amicably4 ,all the     
monks of the red sect took up a position
 on one side  of the chapel1 while those
 of the yellow sect ranged themselves on
 the  opposite side4 ,the two sects     
entered together1 as usual1 in          
procession1  and part of the            
ceremonial--as in that witnessed by ,sir
 ,richard  ,temple--consisted in        
drinking tea from little cups taken from
 the folds  of their robes1 and put back
 again1 to be again taken out and       
replenished2 and this1 too1 without     
interrupting the continuous  repetition 

of prayers1 chants1 and formularies#adh4
    ,m4 ,huc also describes a           
#8,tea-general' ceremony after morning  
service in  a temple4 ,each monk drinks 
in silence1 carefully placing his scarf 
before his cup1 as if to prevent the    
sight of the apparent incongruity  of   
drinking tea in such a sacred spot 7ii4 
#eg74    ,another instance of           
tea-drinking as an element in ,lmistic  
ceremonial1  occurs in ,mr4 ,sarat      
,chandra ,ds' highly interesting account
 of the  ceremony of his presentation to
 the ,dalai ,lma at the palace-monastery
  of ,potala1 in ,lhssa1 on ,june #aj1  
#ahhb4 ,i venture to give the substance 
of it in an abbreviated form and not    
quite literally#adi4    ,an account of  
other presentations both to the ,dalai  
,lma and ,tashi ,lma  will be given in a
 future ,lecture 7see pp4 #dci1 #ddd1   
#ddg74      ,early in the morning ,i was
 informed of the arrival of ,chola      
,kusho1 who    was ready to take me to  
,potala for presentation to the ,dalai  

,lma4 ,we    sallied forth on horseback1
 with three bundles of incense-sticks in
    our hands1 and a roll of scarves in 
our breast-pockets1 chanting as we      
went along certain hymns1 and           
particularly the mystic #8,om mai padme 
,hm4' ,in the street we saw a calf      
sucking milk1 and several women         
fetching water in our direction4 ,my    
companions were delighted at these      
auspicious omens4 ,arrived at the       
eastern gateway of ,potala1 we          
dismounted1 and walked up a long hall1  
on two sides of which were two    rows  
of prayer-wheels1 put there to be       
twirled1 on going in and coming    out4 
,a young monk now came down to conduct  
us1 and we ascended slowly1    looking  
only on the ground before us4 ,the      
several ladders which    conducted us   
from one story to another were steep1   
and placed in dark    halls4 ,i counted 
five1 which took us as far as the       
ground-floor of the    ,red palace4     
,half-a-dozen ladders still remained to 

be scaled4      ,at about eight we      
reached the top1 and there found a      
number of monks    anxiously awaiting an
 interview with his ,holiness4 ,a seat  
was pointed    out to me4 ,a monk sat   
near me1 and smilingly observed that it 
must    have been on account of the sins
 of my former life that ,i was born in  
,india1 where there is no living        
,buddha4      ,from the top of the ,red 
palace we enjoyed a grand panorama of   
,lhssa    and its suburbs4 ,shortly     
afterwards some ,lmas of high rank1     
dressed    in loose yellow mantles1     
arrived4 ,they entered the hall of      
reception    one after another in solemn
 array4 ,we remained outside in anxious 
suspense1 fixing our eyes on the        
entrance door1 and expecting to be      
summoned to his ,holiness' presence4    
,at last1 three ,lmas came towards us   
and asked us to enter in a line    one  
after another4 ,walking very gently1 we 
proceeded to the middle of    the       
audience hall--a spacious apartment     

supported by three rows of four         
wooden pillars4 ,the walls had paintings
 of the exploits of ,buddha1 of         
,chanrassig#aej1 ,tsong ,khapa1 and     
other celebrated saints1 besides        
images of the successive incarnations of
 the ,dalai ,lma4      ,as soon as we   
had entered the official                
scarf-collectors received the           
presentation-scarves from our hands4 ,we
 seated ourselves on rugs1    spread in 
about eight rows1 my seat being in the  
third row1 at a    distance of about ten
 feet from the ,grand ,lma's throne1 and
 a little    to his left4 ,when all were
 seated1 perfect silence reigned in the 
grand hall4 ,the state officials walked 
from left to right with serene          
gravity1 as became their exalted rank1  
in the presence of the ,supreme         
,vice-,regent of ,buddha on earth4 ,at  
their head walked the ,kuchar           
,khanpo1 who carried in his hand the    
bowl of benediction1 containing    the  
sacred ,thui 7that is1 consecrated water

 stained yellow with    saffron7 for    
sprinkling over the audience4 ,the      
bearer of the    incense-pot1 suspended 
by three golden chains1 the carrier of  
the    royal golden tea-pot1 and other  
domestic officials1 now came up1 and    
stood motionless as pictures1 without   
looking on either side1 but    fixing   
their eyes and their attention1 as it   
were1 on the tips of    their respective
 noses4 ,two large golden lamp-burners1 
resembling    flower-vases1 flickered on
 two sides of the throne4 ,the great    
altar--resembling an oriental throne1   
and supported by lions#aea    carved in 
wood--on which sat his ,holiness1 a     
child of eight1 was    covered with silk
 scarves of great value4 ,it was about  
four feet high1    six long1 and four   
broad4 ,a yellow mitre-hat#aeb covered  
the ,grand    ,lma's head1 the pendant  
portions veiling his ears1 and a yellow 
mantle enveloped his person4 ,he sat    
cross-legged1 with the palms of    his  
hands joined together to bless us4 ,when

 it came to my turn ,i    received his  
,holiness' benediction1 and was able to 
look upon his    divine face4 ,other    
,lmas approached him with downcast      
looks1 and    resumed their respective  
seats1 not presuming to look up4 ,i     
longed to    linger a few seconds1 but  
other candidates for benediction        
displaced    me by pushing me gently    
forward4 ,i noticed that the princely   
child    possessed a really bright and  
fair complexion1 with rosy cheeks4 ,his 
eyes were large and penetrating4 ,the   
contour of his face was    remarkably   
ryan1 though somewhat marred by the     
obliquity of his eyes4    ,the thinness 
of his person was probably owing to the 
fatigues of the    court-ceremonies1    
religious duties1 and ascetic           
observances1 to which    he had been    
subjected since taking the vows of      
monkhood4 ,remembering    the stories   
about the freaks of fortune1 which had  
lately brought him    to this proud     
position1 and had compelled his         

predecessors to undergo    untimely     
transmigrations1 ,i pitied his exalted  
rank3 for who knows    whether he will  
not be forced to undergo another        
transmigration before    reaching his   
twentieth year8      ,when all were     
again seated after receiving the ,dalai 
,lma's    benediction1 the ,sol-pon     
,chhenpo poured tea in his ,holiness'   
golden    cup from a golden tea-pot1    
while four assistant ,sol-pons poured   
tea in    the cups of the audience1     
consisting of the head ,lmas of ,meru   
monastery and ourselves4 ,before the    
,grand ,lma lifted his cup to his       
lips1 a grace was solemnly said1        
beginning with #8,om h ,hm' thrice      
chanted1 and followed by a prayer to the
 following effect3--#8,never even    for
 a moment losing sight of the three     
,holies1 always offer reverence    to   
the ,tri-ratnas2 let the blessings of   
the three be upon us4' ,without    even 
stirring the air by the movements of our
 limbs1 we slowly lifted    our cups to 

our lips1 and drank the tea--which was  
delicious--taking    care to make no    
sound with our lips4 ,three times was   
tea served1 and    three times we       
emptied our cups1 after which we put    
them back in our    breast-pockets4     
,then the ,sol-pon placed a golden dish 
full of    consecrated rice in front of 
his ,holiness1 which he only touched4   
,the    remainder was distributed among 
those present4 ,i obtained a handful1   
which ,i carefully tied in one corner of
 my handkerchief4 ,the following        
grace was then uttered by the assembled 
monks1 with much gravity3--#8,the       
most precious ,buddha is the most       
perfect and matchless teacher2 the      
most unerring guide is the ,sagha2 the  
most infallible protection is    in the 
sacred ,dharma4 ,we offer these         
offerings to these three    objects of  
refuge4 ,reverence be to each of them6' 
,mr4 ,sarat ,chandra ,ds also witnessed 
at the same time the performance of  a  
remarkable ceremony for the translation 

of the soul of a chief ,lma or  ,khanpo 
to one of the heavenly mansions4    ,it 
appears that a certain well-known       
,khanpo had died of small-pox4 ,he  was 
one of the most distinguished scholars  
of ,tibet1 and held the  highest        
position in the ,court of ,potala4 ,the 
day on which the ceremony  was performed
 was the twenty-seventh day of this     
chief ,lma's ,bardo  7p4 #cga72 that is1
 of the interval of forty-nine days     
between his death  and his translation  
to another world4 7,according to ,jschke
 the interval  of the intermediate state
 only lasts for forty days47    ,the    
,dalai ,lma1 seated on his throne1      
chanted a hymn in a low indistinct      
voice4 ,afterwards the assembled monks  
in grave tones repeated what the  ,grand
 ,lma had uttered4 ,then a venerable    
personage rose from the middle  of the  
first row of seats1 and addressing the  
,grand ,lma as the  incarnate ,lord     
,chenressig 7,avalokitevara71 recited   
all the many acts of  mercy performed by

 him1 as the patron-saint of ,tibet1 for
 the benefit of  its people4 ,next1 he  
made offerings of certain precious      
things  7including an imaginary         
presentation of the seven mythical      
treasures#aec7 for the benefit of the   
soul of the late ,khanpo1  saying3--#8,i
 pray that you may graciously accept    
these presents for the  good of all     
living beings4'    ,finally1 he         
prostrated himself three times before   
the ,grand ,lma's  throne4 ,a solemn    
pause followed2 after which the audience
 rose1 and the  ,grand ,lma retired4    
,mr4 ,sarat ,chandra ,ds goes on to     
relate that at the  end of the ceremony 
one of the assistant ,lmas gave him two 
packets of  pills1 and another tied a   
scrap of red silk round his neck4 ,the  
pills1  he was told1 were chinlab or    
blessings1 consecrated by the ,buddha   
and  other saints2 and the consecrated  
scrap of silk1 called sungd1 #8knot of  
blessing1' was the ,grand ,lma's usual  
return for presents made to him by      

pilgrims and devotees4    ,we may note  
here that in #ahff the ,indian explorer 
,nain ,singh saw the  then ,dalai ,lma4 
,he was a handsome boy about thirteen   
years old1 and was  seated on a throne  
six feet high4 ,he had the ,regent on   
his right hand4  ,he was said to be in  
his thirteenth transmigration#aed4      
,dr4 ,schlagintweit 7p4 #bci7 describes 
a ceremony in which consecrated  water  
7thui7 is poured from a teapot-like     
vessel over a metallic mirror  7pp4     
#deh1 #dfc of these ,lectures71 which is
 held so as to reflect the  image of    
,gautama ,buddha seated on the altar4   
,this water falls down into  a flat     
vessel containing a bag filled with     
rice1 and is then suitable  for         
ceremonial ablutions4    ,another       
ceremony 7called ,nyungne8 by           
,schlagintweit71 involving long         
abstinence1 lasts for four days4    ,the
 first and second days are passed in    
preparations4 ,those who are to  take   
part in the ceremony rise at sunrise1   

bathe and prostrate  themselves several 
times before the image of               
,avalokitevara4 ,the head  ,lma then    
bids them confess their faults1 and     
meditate on the evils  resulting from   
demerit4 ,he next1 with his attendants1 
recites extracts  from certain books of 
confession4 ,this goes on till ten      
o'clock1 when  tea is taken4 ,after this
 the recitations and prayer-recitals    
continue  till two o'clock1 when a meal 
of vegetables is eaten4 ,then comes a   
pause1 but the prayers and readings are 
afterwards carried on till late  at     
night1 tea being handed round at        
intervals4 ,before retiring to rest1    
the head ,lma specifies the various     
duties to be performed by the  devotees 
on the following day1 and orders them1  
as a penance1 to sleep  in #8the        
lion-posture1' viz4 to lie on the right 
side1 to stretch out the  feet and to   
support the head with the right         
hand#aee4    ,the third day is the most 
important1 and is passed in rigorous    

abstinence from all food4 ,no one is    
even allowed to swallow his saliva1     
which must be ejected into a vessel     
placed before him4 ,not a word must  be 
spoken4 ,each man prays and confesses   
his sins1 but does so in  absolute      
silence4 ,this continues till sunrise on
 the fourth day4    ,it was at first the
 rule that repetitions of the ,law1     
confessions of sin  7especially the     
,ptimokkha71 and some of the chief      
religious ceremonies  7including        
fasting7 should take place1 more        
particularly on the days of  new and    
full moon 7called ,uposatha1 p4 #hd74   
,thus we read that #8on the day of full 
moon nanda purified himself1 and  went  
up to the upper story of his house to   
keep the sacred day'                    
7,mahsudassana-sutra1 #a-aj74 ,this was 
in conformity with the ancient          
,brhmanical rule that every new-moon day
 7,dara7 and every full-moon day        
7,pauramsa7 should be set apart for     
special religious observances#aef4      

,in later times the intermediate        
quarter-moon days were also held sacred1
  and so the number of ,uposatha days   
7see p4 #hd7 was increased to four in   
every month1 or once a week4 ,very      
strict ,buddhists in ,tibet eat nothing 
on these days between sunrise and sunset
 except farinaceous food with  tea 7p4  
#cdf74    ,the laity are invited to join
 in keeping the ,uposatha days1 but take
 no  real part in the detail of the     
services4 ,the same rule applies to all 
religious ceremonies4 ,laymen may be    
present at any rite1 but without        
co-operating in carrying out the ritual4
 ,still1 laymen have their own  part to 
perform4 ,they look on--listen1 tell    
their rosaries1 and repeat  short       
prayers--such as the #8three-refuge' and
 #8jewel-lotus' formula 7pp4  #gh1      
#cgj7--;and make declarations to avoid  
the five great sins 7p4 #abf74 ,or  they
 walk up to the image-altar and place   
offerings on it1 or bow before  it and  
receive the ,lma's benediction4         

,theoretically1 the laity only  exist to
 honour and support the monkhood1 and to
 be blessed by them in  return4 ,at all 
events a layman's religion is usually   
restricted to a  very limited range of  
duty4    ,one common way of showing     
piety is by walking round temples1      
monasteries1 ,stpas1 and sacred walls   
7see pp4 #chj1 #eje71 from east to      
west1 keeping the right shoulder towards
 them1 and even occasionally  measuring 
the ground with the extended body4      
,this last task is by no means a light  
or easy one4 ,according to ,m4 ,huc  7i4
 #bjb71 a whole day scarcely suffices to
 perform the circumambulation  when the 
monastic buildings and temples occupy an
 extensive area4 ,people  begin at      
daybreak1 and the feat must be          
accomplished all at one time1  without  
any break1 or even a few moments' pause 
for taking nourishment4  ,moreover1 the 
measuring-process must be perfect2 #8the
 body must be  extended to its whole    
length1 and the forehead must touch the 

earth  while the arms are stretched out 
in front and the hands joined4' ,at each
  prostration a circle must be drawn on 
the ground with two rams' horns  held in
 the hands4 #8,it is a sorrowful        
spectacle1 and the unfortunate  people  
often have their faces and clothes      
covered with dust and mud4 ,the  utmost 
severity of the weather does not present
 any obstacle to their  courageous      
devotion4 ,they continue their          
prostrations through rain1  snow1 and   
cold4 ,sometimes they go through the    
additional penance of  carrying an      
enormous weight of books on their backs4
 ,you meet with men1  women1 and even   
children sinking under these excessive  
burdens4 ,when  they have finished their
 circumambulation1 they are considered  
to have  acquired the same merit as if  
they had recited all the prayers        
contained  in the books they have       
carried4' ,in point of fact they are    
generally far  too ignorant to be able  
to read the books1 and the carrying of  

them on  their backs is taken as an     
adequate equivalent4    ,the acquisition
 of merit by circumambulation is not an 
exclusively ,hind  or ,buddhist idea4   
,the ,holy ,house at ,loretto near      
,ancona--believed to have  been         
transported there from ,bethlehem by    
angels--is circumambulated by  pilgrims 
on their knees1 but keeping the sacred  
object to the left4  ,indeed1 we may    
fitly conclude the present ,lecture by a
 comparison  between the ritual of      
,tibetan ,buddhism and that of ,roman   
,catholicism--a  comparison1 too1 drawn 
by the ,roman ,catholic ,missionaries   
themselves3    #8,the cross1 the mitre1 
the dalmatica1 the cope1 which ,grand   
,lmas wear  on their journeys1 or when  
they are performing some ceremony out of
 the  temple2 the service with double   
choirs1 the psalmody1 the exorcisms1 the
  censer for incense1 suspended from    
five chains1 and opened or closed at    
pleasure2 the benedictions pronounced by
 the ,lmas by extending the  right hand 

over the heads of the faithful2 the     
chaplet1 ecclesiastical  celibacy1      
spiritual retirement1 the worship of the
 saints1 the fasts1  the processions1   
the litanies1 the holy water1 all these 
are analogies  between the ,buddhists   
and ourselves' 7,huc1 ii4 #ej74 ,to     
these may be  added sacred images1      
sacred pictures1 sacred symbols1 relics1
 lamps1 and  illuminations#aeg4    ,this
 is doubtless a true comparison4 ,but it
 does not follow that the  opinion which
 the missionaries express--#8that these 
analogies are of  ,christian origin'--is
 equally deserving of our assent4 ,no   
doubt one chief  feature of ,buddhism1  
as of ,hindism#aeh1 is its receptivity1 
but may it  not be the case that human  
nature and human tendencies will be     
found to  assert themselves             
independently in every part of the      
world1 wherever  surrounding            
circumstances are favourable to their   
development8                            
,,lecture ,,xiii4          ,festivals1  

,domestic ,rites1 and ,formularies of   
,prayer4      ,we must now turn to the  
consideration of some of the chief      
festivals1  domestic rites1 and         
prayer-formularies of ,buddhism--a      
subject which  follows as a natural     
sequel to the last ,lecture4    ,it is  
well known that the ,hinds have certain 
festivals and holy days1  celebrated at 
the junction of the seasons which in    
,india are properly  six in             
number--namely1 spring1 summer1 the     
rains 7,varsha71 autumn1  winter1 and   
the season of dew and mist 7see         
#8,indian ,wisdom1' p4 #dej2            
#8,brhmanism and ,hindism1' p4 #dbh74   
,buddhism has adopted the old ,hind     
ideas on this subject1 and has added    
others of its own1 but generally only   
reckons three seasons--summer1 the      
rains 7,vassa  ,varsha7 and winter4     
,the festival of the ,new ,year is1 of  
course1 universal4 ,it is supposed to   
celebrate the victory of light over     
darkness1 and1 in ,buddhist  countries1 

of ,buddhism over ignorance4 ,the       
corresponding ,hind festival  is called 
,makara-sakrnti4 ,in ,india this marks  
the termination of the  inauspicious    
month ,pausha and the beginning of the  
sun's northern course  7uttaryaa7 in the
 heavens4 ,it is a season of general    
rejoicing4    ,in ,burma1 where a good  
type of ,southern ,buddhism is still to 
be found1  the ,new ,year's festival    
might suitably be called a              
#8water-festival4' ,it  has there so    
little connexion with the increase of   
the ,new ,year's light1  that it often  
takes place as late as the early half of
 ,april 7see ,mr4  ,scott's #8,burman1' 
ii4 #dh74 ,it is1 however1 a movable    
feast1 the date of  which is regularly  
fixed by the astrologers of ,mandalay1  
#8who make  intricate calculations based
 on the position of various             
constellations4'  ,the object is to     
determine on what precise day the king  
of the ,naths  7see p4 #bag of this     
volume7 will descend upon the earth and 

inaugurate  the new year4 ,when the day 
arrives all are on the watch1 and just  
at the  right moment--which invariably  
occurs at midnight--a cannon is fired   
off1  announcing the descent of the     
,nath-king upon earth4 ,forthwith       
7according  to ,mr4 ,scott7 men and     
women sally out of their houses1        
carrying pots  full of water consecrated
 by fresh leaves and twigs of a sacred  
tree 7p4  #ead of this volume71 repeat a
 formal prayer1 and pour out the water  
on  the ground4 ,at the same time all   
who have guns of any kind discharge     
them1 so as to greet the new year with  
as much noise as possible4    ,then1    
#8with the first glimmer of light1' all 
take jars full of fresh  water and carry
 them off to the nearest monastery4     
,first they present  them to the monks1 
and then proceed to bathe the images4   
,this work is  usually done by the women
 of the party1 #8who reverently clamber 
up' and  empty their goblets of water   
over the placid features of the ,buddhas

 and  ,bodhi-sattvas4 ,then begin the   
,saturnalia4 ,all along the road are    
urchins  with squirts and syringes1 with
 which they have been furtively         
practising for the last few days4 ,the  
skill thus acquired is exhibited  by the
 accuracy of their aim4 ,cold streams of
 water catch the ears of  the passers   
by4 ,young men and girls salute one     
another with the contents  of jars and  
goblets4 ,shouts of merriment are heard 
in every quarter4  ,before breakfast    
every one is soaked1 but no one thinks  
of changing his  garments1 for the      
weather is warm1 and #8water is         
everywhere4' ,the girls  are the most   
enthusiastic1 and as they generally go  
in bands and carry  copious reservoirs  
along with them1 #8unprotected males'   
are soon routed4  ,then a number of     
#8zealous people' go down to the river1 
wade into the  water knee-deep1 splash  
about and drench one another till they  
are  tired4 ,no one escapes4 ,for three 
days no one likes to be seen with dry   

clothes4 ,the wetting is a compliment4  
,a clerk comes up to his master1  bows1 
and #8gravely pours the contents of a   
silver cup down the back of  his neck1' 
saying1 #8let me do homage to you with  
water4'    ,it appears from ,mr4        
,scott's amusing narrative that1 when   
there was a  king in ,burma1 an         
important feature of the festival was   
the formal  washing of his ,majesty's   
head4    ,the ,new ,year's rejoicings in
 ,ceylon require no special notice4     
,in ,tibet the ,new ,year's festival    
properly begins at new moon1 and may be 
delayed till some time in ,february4    
,the festival lasts fifteen days1  and1 
as usual1 is a season of general        
festivity1 gifts1 congratulations1      
mummery1 dancing1 and acting4 ,it is the
 ,lmistic carnival4    ,according to ,m4
 ,huc 7ii4 #baf7 the rejoicings commence
 7as in ,burma7 at  midnight4 ,at ,lhssa
 all the inhabitants sit up1 awaiting   
the solemn  moment which is to close the
 old year and open the new4 ,the usages 

differ so curiously from those customary
 in ,southern ,buddhist countries1  that
 ,i here give an abbreviated version of 
the two ,french travellers'             
experiences4      ,not being at all     
eager to watch for the moment of        
separation between    the two ,tibetan  
years1 we went to bed at our usual hour1
 and were    wrapped in profound        
slumber1 when we were suddenly awakened 
by cries    of joy issuing from all     
quarters of the town4 ,bells1 cymbals1  
conchs1    tambourines1 and all the     
instruments of ,tibetan music1 were set 
to    work together and produced the    
most frightful uproar imaginable4 ,we   
had a good mind to get up to witness the
 happiness of the inhabitants    of     
,lhssa1 but the cold was so cutting     
that1 after reflection1 we    decided to
 remain under our woollen coverlets1 and
 to unite ourselves    in heart only    
with the public felicity4 ,unhappily for
 our comfort1    violent knocks on our  
door1 threatening to smash it into      

splinters1    warned us that we must    
renounce our project4 ,we therefore     
donned our    clothes1 and the door     
being opened1 some friendly ,tibetans   
rushed into    our room1 inviting us to 
the ,new ,year's banquet4 ,they all bore
 in    their hands a small vessel made  
of baked earth1 in which balls of       
honey and flour floated on boiling      
water4 ,one visitor offered us a    long
 silver needle1 terminating in a hook1  
and invited us to fish in    his basin4 
,at first we sought to excuse ourselves1
 objecting that we    were not in the   
habit of taking food during the night1  
but they    entreated us so warmly1 and 
put out their tongues at us with so     
friendly a grace1 that we were obliged  
to comply1 and resign ourselves    to a 
participation in the ,new ,year's       
festivities4 ,each of us1    therefore1 
hooked a ball1 which we then crushed    
between our teeth to    ascertain its   
flavour4 ,for politeness sake we had to 
swallow the dose1    but not without    

making some grimaces4 ,nor could we get 
off with this    first act of devotion4 
,the ,new ,year was inexorable4 ,our    
numerous    friends at ,lhssa succeeded 
each other almost without interruption1 
and we had perforce to munch ,tibetan   
sweetmeats till daybreak4    ,it is said
 that other peculiar customs follow1 one
 of which the ,tibetans  call the       
,lhssa-,moru4 ,this takes place on the  
third day1 and leads to  the invasion of
 the town and its environs by           
innumerable bands of ,lmas4  ,immense   
numbers of ,lmas1 some on foot1 some on 
horseback1 some on asses  or oxen1 and  
all carrying cooking-utensils and       
prayer-books1 crowd into  ,lhssa from   
all points4 ,the town is completely     
over-run4 ,those who  cannot get        
lodgings encamp in the streets and      
squares1 or pitch their  tents in the   
suburbs4 ,the tribunals are closed1 and 
the course of  justice is suspended4    
,the ,lmas parade the streets in        
disorderly bands1  uttering discordant  

cries1 pushing one another about1       
quarrelling1  fighting1 and yet1 in the 
midst of all1 chanting their prayers    
7,huc1 ii4  #bah74    ,in ,tibet there  
is a #8water-festival' in the seventh or
 eighth month  7about our ,august and   
,september74 ,at this festival the ,lmas
 go in  procession to rivers and lakes1 
and consecrate the waters by benediction
  or by throwing in offerings4 ,huts and
 tents are erected on the banks1  and   
people bathe and drink to wash away     
their sins4 ,it concludes with  dancing1
 buffoonery1 and masquerading4    ,the  
festival of ,gautama ,buddha's          
conception1 or of the ,buddha's last    
birth--for it must be borne in mind     
that1 before ,buddhahood1 he went       
through innumerable previous births--is 
a most important anniversary in  all    
,buddhist countries1 but the right date 
has been the occasion of much           
controversy4 ,the event is generally    
celebrated at the end of ,april1 or     
beginning of ,may1 or on a day          

corresponding to the #aeth day of the   
,hind  month ,vaikha1 which is also     
sometimes given as the date of the      
,buddha's attainment of ,buddhahood1 and
 of his death4 ,everywhere  throughout  
the modern ,buddhist world the ,buddha's
 birthday is kept by  the worship of his
 images1 followed by processions4    ,as
 to the day of his death1 ,sarat        
,chandra ,ds was at ,lhssa on ,june #a1 
#ahhb1 and wrote thus3--#8,to-day being 
the holiest day of the year--the        
anniversary of ,buddha's ,nirva--the    
burning of incense in every shrine1     
chapel1 monastery1 and house1 darkened  
the atmosphere with smoke4 ,men         
hastened to the great temple to do      
homage to the ,buddha and to obtain  his
 blessing4'    ,the #8festival of lamps'
 is an important anniversary with all   
,buddhists4  ,the ,hinds have their ,dvl
 or feast of illuminations 7see         
#8,brhmanism  and ,hindism1' p4 #dcb7   
when the cold season begins4 ,the early 
,buddhists  marked the end of the rainy 

season 7,vassa  ,varsha71 which         
terminated  their period of retirement1 
by a day of rejoicing 7see p4 #hd74 ,in 
process of time they connected the      
celebration of ,gautama's descent from  
heaven 7p4 #dag7 with the termination of
 ,vassa4    ,in ,tibet the orthodox     
followers of the ,dalai ,lma have a     
festival of  their own1 with            
illuminations1 on the #beth day of the  
#ajth month  7,nov4--,dec471 to         
celebrate the ascension of ,tsong ,khapa
 to heaven 7p4  #bhj74 ,sarat ,chandra  
,ds was at ,tashi ,lunpo on this day in 
#ahha1 when  #8hundreds of lamp-burners 
were tastefully placed in rows on the   
roof of  every building4' ,the          
illuminations of the temples1 tombs1 and
 grand  monastery #8presented a         
magnificent appearance4'    ,with regard
 to the season called ,vassa1 it should 
be noted here that  since there is no   
rainy period of the year in ,tibet which
 corresponds to  the ,indian #8,rains1' 
certain seasons of abstinence from food 

are observed  either before1 or at the  
same time with the great ,festivals4    
,these  periods of fasting are          
distributed equally throughout the      
year--one in  ,february1 one in ,may1   
one in ,july1 one in ,november or       
,december4    ,the festivals and holy   
days thus briefly described1 are by no  
means the  only festivals of ,buddhism4 
,there are numerous other special and   
local  ones4 ,for example1 in ,ceylon1  
the ,sinhalese celebrate the coming of  
the  ,buddha to their island and his    
victory over the ,rkshasas and evil     
demons by a festival in ,march or       
,april1 when the greater number of      
pilgrims flock to his supposed          
foot-print on ,adam's ,peak1 or to the  
sacred ,bodhi-tree at ,anurdha-pura 7see
 p4 #eai74 ,other ,southern  countries  
have festivals connected with the       
worship of special  foot-prints and     
relics of their own4    ,then the ,lmas 
in ,lhssa keep the day of the worship of
 the ,dorje 7see  p4 #cbb7 on the #bgth 

day of the first month1 while those in  
,sikkim  celebrate as a festival the day
 on which the ,lepchas make offerings to
  the spirit of the mountain            
,kinchinjunga4    ,then1 again1 at the  
beginning of the third month an         
exhibition of sacred  vessels and       
pictures takes place at ,lhssa1         
accompanied by processions  in masks1   
the ,lmas appearing as good genii1 and  
the laity as tigers1  leopards1         
elephants1 c4    ,in other places1 too1 
there are special festivals4 ,for       
example1 a  singular festival1 called   
#8,chase of the spirit-kings1' is kept  
by  ,northern ,buddhists on the #cjth of
 the second month1 when there is a vast 
amount of religious dancing 7with       
tediously slow movements71              
masquerading1 mummery1 and buffoonery1  
not unlike the devil-dancing  which goes
 on in ,ceylon1 and closely connected   
with the universal belief  in demons and
 evil spirits4    ,the most hideous     
masks are used on these occasions4 ,in  

#ahhd ,i had an  opportunity of         
inspecting in a ,buddhist monastery near
 ,drjling a most  singular assortment of
 religious masks1 which for distortion  
of feature  and horrible unsightliness1 
could scarcely be matched anywhere2 for 
indeed mask-making is an art which      
,buddhism has brought to the greatest   
perfection4 ,i also witnessed a         
religious dance performed by a party of 
masqueraders which struck me as a       
remarkable example of the utter         
debasement of ,buddhism in ,northern    
countries4    ,mrs4 ,bridges describes a
 similar religious dance in ,ladk       
thus3--      #8,a group of grinning     
masks--lions' heads and harlequins'     
bodies--came    down the steps1 and     
whirling slowly round1 retreated again  
into the    gloom and came out          
dragon-headed4 ,then a band of          
skeletons1 the skulls    7masks7        
admirably painted1 gnashing their       
hideous jaws and shaking    their lanky 
limbs1 rushed out into the sunshine and 

executed a real    8,dance of ,death0   
before us4' 7#8,travels1' p4 #aja47     
,yet all true ,buddhists are prohibited 
from dancing and masquerading 7p4  #abf 
of this volume72 just as ,manu 7,,ii4   
#agh1 ,,iv4 #ae1 #bab7 prohibited       
,brhmans from engaging in similar       
frivolities4    ,then the religious     
dramas performed on some of the         
,buddhist festive days  are not the     
least interesting examples of the       
present prevalent  superstitions4    ,i 
witnessed part of a dramatic performance
 at a ,burmese ,theatre in  ,calcutta   
7during the ,exhibition year71 when the 
story of the ,hind ,epic1  called       
,rmyaa1 and especially that portion of  
it which relates to the  carrying off of
 ,st by demons 7see #8,brhmanism and    
,hindism1' p4 #db1  and #8,indian       
,wisdom1' p4 #ccg71 was dramatically    
represented4 ,the theatre  was a rude   
wooden enclosure open to the sky1 with  
the exception of a  portion roofed over 
for a band of musicians1 whose noisy    

performances  appeared to constitute an 
important element in the proceedings4   
,the  chief musician sat on the ground  
in the middle of a circular             
frame-work--about two or three feet     
high--hung round with drums of          
different sizes1 which he struck with   
his hands1 and occasionally tuned  by   
the application of moist clay in larger 
or smaller lumps4 ,in the  centre of the
 open area of flat dusty soil which     
served for the stage1 a  big branch of a
 tree was stuck upright1 possibly to    
represent the forest  in which ,rma     
lived with his wife4 ,then the hero and 
heroine of the  drama--,rma and         
,st--kept up a tedious colloquy1        
interspersed with jokes1  for hours4    
,the former--who1 be it remembered1 was 
supposed to be a  god--smoked a cigar   
all the while1 and occasionally ejected 
saliva with  perfect indifference to all
 appearances and to all laws of         
congruity1  while every now and again   
,st1 in spite of a tight dress1 varied  

the  monotony of the dialogue by        
executing a slow dance1 characterized by
  strange contortions1 twistings1 and   
wrigglings of the limbs4 ,hideous  masks
 were at intervals assumed by the       
actors1 and1 of course1 by the  demons  
who intervened at odd moments with much 
ludicrous gesticulation4  ,the action of
 the play went on continuously for about
 ten days1 during  which period people  
came and went as they liked1 and the    
last comers  entered into the progress  
of the plot with as much interest as if 
they  had witnessed the whole4 ,there is
 never much originality of invention in 
these religious plays4 ,the ,indian     
heroic poems and the five hundred and   
fifty birth-stories 7see p4 #fc7 of the 
,buddha furnish the basis of all4       
,the religious dramas of ,tibet are of a
 somewhat different character4 ,the     
following description is founded on ,dr4
 ,schlagintweit's account 7p4  #bcc71   
and on that of ,mrs4 ,bridges in her    
interesting #8,travels' 7,john  ,murray1

 #ahhc1 p4 #acj74      ,the dramatis    
person consist of three classes4--#a4   
,tutelary deities or    good genii1     
called ,dragshed 7,draged71 who ward off
 the assaults of    evil demons2 #b4    
,evil demons2 #c4 ,men4 ,the actors of  
each class are    distinguished by their
 masks4 ,the first class--that is the   
,dragsheds or    good genii--wear masks 
of enormous size and terrific           
aspect#aei4 ,the    second class--that  
is the ,evil demons--wear larger masks  
of a dark    colour1 and their garments 
are well padded to deaden the force of  
the    blows showered upon them4 ,the   
third class--that is the ,men--wear the 
usual dress of human beings1 and masks  
of a natural size and colour1    while  
under their clothes they carry heavy    
wooden sticks1 with which    at times1  
during the progress of the drama1 they  
belabour the demons4    ,the gods also  
get well knocked about by the demons1   
much to the    amusement of the         
spectators4      ,the drama is preceded 

by the recital of hymns and prayers and 
by noisy    music4 ,the ,dragsheds      
occupy the centre1 the men are on their 
right and    the demons on their left4  
,at short intervals the men and the     
demons    execute slow dances1 each     
group by itself4 ,at last1 an evil      
spirit and    a man step forth4 ,the    
evil spirit then tries1 in a plausible  
speech1    to tempt the man to violate  
some precept of morality1 while other   
evil    spirits approach and chime in4  
,the man at first stands firm1 but      
gradually gives way and is about to     
yield1 when other men come forward      
and entreat him not to be seduced by the
 artful suggestions of the    demons4   
,he is then closely pressed by the two  
opposite parties1 but in    the end     
takes the advice of his human           
counsellors4 ,upon this all the    men  
break out into praise of the ,dragsheds1
 to whose presence and    assistance    
they ascribe the victory4 ,the          
,dragsheds now proceed to    punish the 

evil demons4 ,the leading ,dragshed1 who
 is distinguished by    an unusually    
large yellow mask1 advances against them
 surrounded by    about a dozen         
followers4 ,other ,dragsheds next rush  
out from the    back-ground1 shoot      
arrows1 throw stones1 and even fire with
 muskets    upon the demons1 while the  
men belabour them with their sticks1    
hitherto concealed under their clothes4 
,the demons are routed1 and run    in   
every direction pursued by the good     
genii4 ,the drama concludes by    all   
the actors 7men and demons included7    
singing hymns in honour of    the       
victorious tutelary genii4    ,among the
 spectators 7at the performance         
witnessed by ,mrs4 ,bridges at  ,leh7   
were six deities1 represented by six    
,lmas seated on a bench with  umbrellas 
over their heads4 ,they had incense     
swung before them by  attendant priests4
    ,this curious dramatic performance  
is paralleled in ,india by the ,hind    
drama called ,prabodha-androdaya1       

#8,rise of the moon of true knowledge1' 
in which we have ,faith1 ,volition1     
,opinion1 ,imagination1 ,contemplation1 
,devotion1 ,quietude1 ,friendship1 c41  
on one side2 ,error1 ,self-conceit1     
,hypocrisy1 ,love1 ,passion1 ,anger1    
,avarice1 on the other4 ,the two sets of
  characters are1 of course1 opposed to 
each other1 the object of the play      
being to show how the orthodox faith of 
the ,hinds became victorious  over the  
erroneous doctrine of the ,buddha--the  
,buddhists and other  heretical sects   
being represented as adherents of the   
losing side4    ,then--to take a        
parallel nearer home--we find similar   
religious dramas  acted in ,england not 
so very long ago 7about the time of     
,henry ,,viii74  ,for example1 in the   
old ,english morality play1 called      
#8,every-man1' some  of the dramatis    
person on the one side are--,god1       
,death1 ,every-man1  ,fellowship1       
,kindred1 ,good-deeds1 ,knowledge1      
,confession1 ,beauty1  ,strength1       

,discretion2 while on the other are     
personifications of the  opposite       
qualities4 ,then1 again1 in #8,lusty    
,juventus1' we have a medley  of ,good  
,counsel1 ,knowledge1 ,satan1           
,hypocrisy1 ,fellowship1 ,abominable    
,living1 ,god's ,merciful ,promises4    
,and here with reference to the supposed
 contest continually going on  between  
good and evil1 and the participation of 
human beings in this  terrible struggle1
 we may note that the mystical          
thunderbolt called  ,dorje 7p4 #cbb7 is 
not the only implement of spiritual     
warfare employed  by the ,lmas against  
the demons#afj4 ,another important      
weapon is the  ,phurbu or #8nail1'      
described as triangular and             
wedge-shaped1 with the  thin end very   
sharp-pointed1 and with the head of     
,tamdin 7a particular  ,dragshed        
,haya-grva1 noted for his power7        
emerging from the broad end  and        
surmounted by a half-thunderbolt for a  
handle4    ,according to ,schlagintweit1

 this weapon is often made of cardboard1
 on  which mystical sentences 7,dhras7  
in ,sanskit are inscribed1 some  against
 the demons of the ,south1 some against 
those of the ,east1 and  some against   
those of the ,south-east4 ,in case of   
illness a ,lma goes  round the house    
turning the point of the ,phurbu in all 
directions and  uttering magical spells4
    ,most of the ,dharas end with the   
syllables ,hm phat1 the potency of      
which in scaring evil demons is         
irresistible4 ,many charms begin with   
,ah  ,tamdin4    ,those ,phurbus are    
considered most efficacious which are   
inscribed with  mystical syllables and  
words composed by either the ,dalai ,lma
 or  ,panchen ,lma4 ,these are sold for 
large sums4 ,it is said 7,schlagintweit1
  #bfj7 that such ,phurbus form an      
important article of trade for the      
,mongolian pilgrims returning from      
,tibet4    ,i was fortunate enough to   
meet with a remarkable specimen of a    
magical  weapon of this kind 7called    

,phur-pa by ,jschke7 made of metal1 and 
shaped like a dagger with three edges1  
one for each of the three classes  of   
demons inhabiting the three quarters4   
,the handle is composed of a  ,dorje 7p4
 #cbb71 and is surmounted by carvings of
 the heads of the three  most powerful  
,dragsheds4 ,i here give a              
representation of it#afa4               
,illustration3     ,it may be easily    
understood that among a people1 steeped 
in  superstition1 a man armed with such 
a weapon as this--composed of the  heads
 of three potent genii1 a divine        
thunderbolt and a triple-edged          
dagger--would be regarded as a match for
 the whole demon-host4    ,in ,burma the
 tattooing of mystical squares1         
triangles and cabalistic  diagrams and  
figures on various parts of the body1   
seems to be regarded  as a sufficient   
substitute for the use of magical       
weapons1 and is held  to be highly      
efficacious4    ,obviously we may       
contrast the ,christian armoury         

described by ,s4 ,paul  7,ephes4 vi4    
#aa71 #8the shield of faith and the     
sword of the ,spirit4' ,we  might also  
contrast the words of ,christ1          
#8,rejoice not1 that the spirits  are   
subject unto you2 but rather rejoice1   
because your names are written  in      
heaven' 7,s4 ,luke x4 #bj74             
,domestic ,rites and ,usages4    ,i now 
pass on to domestic rites and usages1   
which are as numerous and  important in 
,buddhist countries as in ,india4 ,it is
 said1 indeed1 that in  ,tibet and      
,mongolia no one is so poor as not to   
possess an altar in his  dwelling on    
which he daily lays his offerings1 and  
before which he  performs devotions4    
,in ,ceylon and ,burma certain          
ceremonies take place soon after the    
birth  of a child4 ,mr4 ,scott1         
describing those in ,burma1 says that a 
fortnight  after birth a fortunate day  
and hour is fixed by an astrologer for  
the  naming of the infant4 ,a feast is  
prepared1 and all the friends and       

relations of the family are invited4    
#8,the child's head is usually washed   
for the first time on this day1' and    
some one suggests a name4    ,the name  
actually given appears to be a matter of
 choice1 but this is  not so4 ,the      
consonants of the language are divided  
into groups1 which  are assigned to the 
days of the week1 ,sunday having all the
 vowels to  itself4 #8,it is an         
invariable rule in all respectable      
families that the  child's name must    
begin with one of the letters belonging 
to the day on  which it was born1 but   
within these limits any name may be     
chosen4' ,a  common belief is that1     
according to the day of the week 7or    
rather the  constellation representing  
that day7 on which a child is born1 so  
will  its character be4    ,in this way 
every person's probable characteristics 
may be inferred4 ,for  example1 a man   
born on a ,monday is likely to be       
jealous2 on ,tuesday1  honest2 on       
,wednesday1 hot-tempered--but soon      

appeased--this characteristic  being    
intensified under the influence of      
,rhu#afb4    ,then1 again1 if born on a 
,thursday1 a man will probably be mild2 
on  ,friday1 talkative2 on ,saturday1   
ill-tempered and quarrelsome2 on        
,sunday1  parsimonious4 ,saturday is a  
bad day for everything4 ,not only has   
every  day its special character and its
 fixed letters1 but there is also       
7according to ,mr4 ,scott7 a particular 
animal assigned to symbolize  it--for   
example1 a guinea-pig stands for        
,friday2 a dragon for ,saturday2 a      
tiger for ,monday--and red or yellow wax
 candles are made in the forms of  these
 animals to be offered at the ,pagoda by
 the pious4 ,each worshipper  offers the
 creature-candle representing his       
birth-day4    ,then a careful note is   
made of the exact hour of birth1 with   
the  important object of drawing up the 
child's horoscope4 ,this may be  delayed
 till the fifth or sixth year1 and a    
,brhman astrologer may be  called in for

 the purpose4 ,he records the year1 the 
month1 the day and  hour at which the   
child was born2 the name given to it and
 the planet in  the ascendant at the    
moment4 ,all this is scratched neatly on
 a palm-leaf  with a metal style4 ,on   
the other side are a number of          
cabalistic squares  and numbers from    
which future calculations may be made4  
,a person born on ,monday remains under 
the influence of the moon for  fifteen  
years4 ,then he passes under ,mars for  
eight years4 ,at the age of             
twenty-three ,mercury presides over him1
 and so on through all the  planets to  
the end of his life1 which may be       
protracted to #ajh years4    ,rhu1 and  
especially ,saturn1 have a particularly 
sinister influence4 ,a  man does most of
 the stupid and wicked things in his    
life while he is in  ,saturn's house4   
,other details will be found in #8,shway
 ,yoe4'    ,the horoscope is carefully  
kept by the parents until the child is  
old  enough to take care of it himself1 

and thenceforward it is guarded as a    
valuable possession4    ,all these      
,buddhist customs have their counterpart
 in the ceremonies of  ,brhmanism and   
,hindism4    ,for example1 the ,hinds   
have their birth-ceremonies             
7,jta-karman71 and  their name-giving   
ceremony 7,nma-karaa#afc71 and the      
latter is a  solemn religious act       
fraught with momentous consequences in  
its bearing  on a child's future4 ,hence
 ,hind boys are generally called after  
some  god1 or the name indicates that   
the child is the god's servant4         
,horoscopes1 too1 are as important in   
,india as in ,buddhist  countries#afd4  
,in ,india1 too1 all ,brhman boys go    
through the ceremony of tonsure and     
cutting off the hair4    ,among the     
,buddhists of ,burma a boy is sent to   
the monastery school at  about the age  
of eight4 ,before he can become a novice
 he has to undergo  the hair-abscission 
ceremony1 followed by shaving every     
fort-night 7as  before described74 ,but 

those who afterwards elect to lead a    
secular life  wear long hair1 to wash   
which is regarded as a kind of religious
  ceremonial1 and only to be performed  
about once a month1 partly1 says  ,mr4  
,scott1 because the washing of a        
,burman's luxuriant hair takes a long   
time1 and partly because too frequent   
ablutions #8would disturb and  irritate 
the good genius who dwells in the head  
and protects the man4'    ,it is        
considered unlucky to wash the head on a
 ,monday1 ,friday1 or  ,saturday2 and   
#8parents sending their boy to a        
monastery must remember  not to cut his 
hair off on a ,monday1 or on a ,friday1 
or on his  birth-day4'    ,it is        
noticeable that a kind of baptism is    
practised in ,tibet and  ,mongolia4 ,it 
is usual to sprinkle children with      
consecrated water1 or  even to immerse  
them entirely on the third or tenth day 
after birth4  ,this is called ,khrus-sol
 7according to ,jschke74    ,the priest 
consecrates the water by reciting some  

formula1 while candles  and incense are 
burning4 ,he then dips the child three  
times1 blesses it1  and gives it a name4
 ,after performing the ceremony1 he     
draws up the  infant's horoscope4       
,then1 so soon as the child can walk and
 talk1 a second ceremony takes  place1  
when prayers are said for its happy     
life1 and an amulet or little  bag is   
hung round its neck1 filled with spells 
and charms against evil  spirits and    
diseases4    ,the use of amulets        
7,sanskit kavaa71 charms and spells in  
,northern  ,buddhist countries is       
universal4    ,at ,drjling ,i noticed   
that among the crowds of persons who    
frequented  the bazaar--many of whom    
were travellers from ,tibet1 ,nepl1     
,bhutn1 and  ,sikkim--almost every one  
wore an amulet1 or a string of amulets  
round the  neck4 ,most of these amulets 
are simply ornamental boxes or          
receptacles  for supposed relics of     
saints1 or for little images1 or        
pictures1 or for  prayer-formularies1   

worn like breast-plates or phylacteries4
 ,they are  composed of wood1 bone1 and 
not infrequently of beautifully-worked  
filigree silver1 embossed and ornamented
 with turquoise4 ,the shape is          
sometimes square1 sometimes circular or 
curved1 and brought round to a          
point#afe4 ,i purchased several         
specimens1 but the vendor of any amulet 
in actual use invariably removed the    
contents before consenting to part  with
 it4 ,here is a specimen of one of      
exceptionally beautiful design  which   
was given to me by ,mr4 ,sarat ,chandra 
,ds4 ,it was taken from the  neck of a  
woman in the bazaar1 but not purchased  
without much  difficulty4               
,illustration3     ,we pass on next to  
the ,buddhist marriage-ceremony4 ,this  
in ,ceylon1  ,burma1 ,tibet1 ,mongolia1 
and indeed in all ,buddhist countries1  
is  properly a purely civil contract    
witnessed only by parents and           
guardians4 ,we have already pointed out1
 that true ,buddhism considers  celibacy

 to be the only sure means of attaining 
real sanctity of  character4            
,consistently with this idea1 it has not
 prescribed any  religious ceremony to  
be performed by monks or priests1 as a  
condition  of the validity of           
marriage#aff4    ,hence among ,buddhists
 the ceremony of marriage is very       
simple1 and has  no religious character1
 or at any rate no complicated religious
  observances connected with it1 as     
among the ,hinds#afg4 ,in fact the      
celibate monks of true ,buddhism would  
be much scandalized if they were  asked 
to take part in the celebration of a    
wedding1 or even to ratify it  by their 
presence4    ,the principal ceremony    
consists in a feast given by the        
bridegroom or  his parents1 to which all
 the relations1 friends1 and neighbours 
are  invited4 ,nevertheless1 in most    
,buddhist countries in the present day  
the  monks manage to have some          
remunerative work to do in connexion    
with  weddings2 for their business is to

 fix the most auspicious days for the   
performance of the ceremony1 in return  
for which they receive offerings  of    
various kinds4 ,we know that in ,india  
astrology is a chief factor in  all     
marriage-arrangements4 ,similarly in    
most ,buddhist countries no  wedding can
 take place till the astrologer1 who is 
usually a  monk-priest1 has been        
consulted as to lucky and unlucky       
combinations1  and the benign or baleful
 aspects of planets and stars4 ,for     
example1 in  ,burma1 ,saturdays and     
,thursdays are pronounced unlucky days1 
and it would  be the height of          
imprudence to marry in certain months of
 the year4  ,then1 again1 a woman born  
on a ,friday would be guilty of utter   
folly if  she married a man born on a   
,monday1 seeing that one or other would 
soon  die#afh2 and so on through a long 
list of auspicious and inauspicious     
potentialities4    ,it should1 however1 
be set down to the credit of ,buddhism  
that wives and  daughters are not       

imprisoned in ,zannas1 as among ,hinds  
and  ,muhammadans4 ,i was present at an 
evening-party given by a rich native of 
,ceylon1 when the ladies of the family  
were introduced to the ,european        
guests1 and conversed freely with the   
rest of the company4 ,nor is the        
marriage of mere boys and girls insisted
 on in ,buddhist countries as in        
,india4 ,the bridegroom is seldom of a  
less age than eighteen or nineteen4     
,then1 again1 not only births and       
marriages1 but illnesses and death are  
in the present day a source of revenue  
to the ,buddhist monkhood4    ,first1 as
 to sickness4    ,in ,ceylon1 when any  
one is dangerously ill1 the monk-priest 
is summoned  from the neighbouring      
,vihra1 after first sending offerings of
 flowers1  oil1 and food4 ,then a       
temporary preaching-place is erected    
near the  house1 and all the relatives  
and friends1 and if possible the sick   
man  himself1 listen to the reading of  
the ,law 7,baa7 for about six hours4    

,the part especially read and intoned is
 the ,ratna-valiya section of the       
,pirit 7see p4 #cag74 ,after the ,baa a 
number of offerings are given to  the   
reciting priest1 including a piece of   
calico1 one end of which is  held by the
 priest1 and the other by the sick man4 
,then the priest  pronounces a          
benediction1 and says words to the      
following effect3--#8,by  reverence do  
the wise secure health1 by almsgiving do
 they lay up  treasures for             
themselves#afi4'    ,when the sick man  
is likely to die the priest repeats the 
,three-refuge  formula 7p4 #gh71 the    
five commandments 7p4 #abf71 and the    
,sati-pahna  ,sutta 7p4 #di74    ,in    
,burma1 if an epidemic happens to break 
out in any village1 the people  begin by
 painting the supposed figure of an evil
 spirit on a common  earthenware        
water-pot1 and then solemnly smashing it
 to pieces at sunset  with a heavy      
stick#agj4 ,then as soon as it gets dark
 all the villagers  shout1 yell1 shriek1

 and make every kind of deafening din1  
with the hope  of frightening away the  
evil spirit who has caused the disease4 
,this  process is continued for three   
nights1 and if no good result follows   
the  monk-priests are called in from the
 monastery4 ,they recite the ten        
precepts1 chant the ,law up and down the
 road1 and intone a particular  sermon  
of the ,buddha1 by the preaching of     
which he once drove away a  pestilence4 
,these means are1 of course1 not        
effective unless abundant  alms and     
gifts are bestowed upon the monastery4  
,according to ,koeppen and ,huc the art 
of medicine in ,northern ,buddhist      
countries is practised exclusively by   
the ,lmas4 ,the theory is that  there   
are #adj different maladies1 and that   
most of these are caused by  devils4    
,the monk-priests are the sole doctors1 
and a sick person can  only be cured by 
them4 ,one process is simple4 ,it begins
 by the ,lma  doctor writing the name of
 a remedy upon a morsel of paper1       

moistening  it with saliva1 and rolling 
it into a pill4 ,the patient takes the  
paper  pellet with as much faith as if  
he were swallowing the veritable drug4  
,many ,mongols believe that #8it is     
precisely the same1 whether you swallow 
a drug or its written appellation4'     
,then1 #8if the patient be poor1 the    
devil is a little one1 and may be       
dislodged by a few prayers2 but1 if he  
be rich1 the case is different2 fine    
clothes1 handsome boots1 or even a  good
 horse must be presented1 or he will not
 consent to turn out4'    ,a very       
effective medicine may be composed of   
the bones of some pious  ,lma ground    
into a powder4 ,this may be given alone 
or in combination  with other           
substances4    ,it appears to be        
essential that the prayers recited on   
these occasions  should be accompanied  
by terrific noises4 ,m4 ,huc relates a  
story of an  old woman--the aunt of a   
certain chief--who was one day attacked 
by  intermittent fever4 ,the ,lma1 of   

course1 announced that a devil had      
possession of her body2 and so in the   
evening he and eight other ,lmas  began 
operations for its expulsion4 ,first    
they made a little figure or  manikin of
 dried herbs1 which they called the     
devil of intermittent  fevers4 ,this    
they stuck upright in the tent of the   
sick woman4 ,then at  eleven o'clock at 
night the ,lmas ranged themselves at the
 back of the  tent1 armed with bells1   
tambourines1 conch-shells1 and other    
noisy  instruments4 ,nine members of the
 family closed the circle in front1     
crouching on the ground1 while the old  
woman remained seated on her  heels in  
front of the manikin4 ,next1 #8at a     
given signal1 the orchestra  performed  
an overture capable of scaring away the 
most imperturbable and  obstinate devil1
 while all the secular assistants beat  
time with their  hands to the hubbub of 
the instruments and the howling of the  
prayers4  ,when this demoniacal music   
was over1 the chief ,lma began his      

exorcisms1  scattering millet seeds     
around as he proceeded2 sometimes       
speaking low1  sometimes in stentorian  
tones4 ,then1 appearing to throw himself
 into a  passion1 he addressed animated 
appeals1 with violent gesticulation1 to 
the manikin4' ,finally1 after further   
incantations1 he gave a signal2 the     
,lmas thundered out a noisy chorus1 the 
instruments added to the din1  and the  
members of the family rushing out in    
file1 made the circuit of  the tent1    
striking it frantically with stakes1 and
 uttering terrific  cries4 ,finally1 the
 chief ,lma and his assistants1 after   
joining in the  yells1 set fire to the  
manikin4 ,this ended the ceremony2 the  
demon being  compelled to beat a        
retreat4    ,mr4 ,sarat ,chandra ,ds has
 given an account of a somewhat similar 
ceremony in ,tibet performed by some    
,lmas to cure him of a sickness4 ,an    
image representing the patient1 and     
supposed to resemble him1 was           
constructed1 and a suit of his clothes  

placed in front of it1 together  with   
portions of his usual food and drink4   
,two ,lmas then muttered  mystic        
sentences1 ringing a bell1 waving a     
,dorje 7see p4 #cbc of these            
,lectures71 and twisting their fingers  
and hands into the mysterious  shapes   
called ,mudr 7p4 #bda74 ,next they broke
 out into alternate  exhortations and   
threats1 and at the conclusion of the   
ceremony the  officiating priests       
supplicated the lord of death 7,yama7 to
 accept the  image in place of the      
moribund man4    ,on another occasion1  
when ,mr4 ,sarat ,chandra ,ds was       
seriously ill in  ,tibet1 an effective  
method of curing his disease was        
proposed to him1  and1 with his consent1
 actually carried out4 ,this mainly     
consisted in  the ransoming of          
fish-life4 ,a certain ,lma started off  
for a fisherman's  village1 and in a    
short time returned in a high state of  
satisfaction4  ,he had saved the lives  
of five hundred fishes for the benefit  

of the  sick man4 ,the merit of this    
deed was credited to the patient on his 
repeating the following prayer3--       
#8,by virtue of my having ransomed the  
lives of these animals1 let health1     
longevity1 prosperity1 and happiness    
perpetually accrue to me4'    ,in the   
same way in ,burma1 in times of great   
heat and drought1 when the  ponds and   
tanks appear to be on the point of      
drying up1 it is held to be  a work of  
enormous merit to rescue fish1 put them 
in jars1 and transport  them alive to   
the rivers4 7,see ,scott's #8,burman1'  
ii4 #dc47    ,similarly a bird-catcher  
will sell live birds to pious persons1  
that  they may gain merit by releasing  
them4    ,we pass on1 in the next place1
 to the usages and ceremonies common at 
death4    ,if a man's soul is to be     
separated from his body properly and    
peacefully1 so as not to hurt the       
survivors1 and in a manner likely to    
cause a happy re-birth for himself1 alms
 must be bestowed on the  monk-priests1 

and their presence must be invited for  
the repetition of  prayers4 ,in ,ceylon 
and ,burma monks go to the houses of    
mourners and  repeat portions of the    
,pirit 7see p4 #cag74    ,in ,tibet the 
priest not only recites prayers but     
compresses the skull  till it appears to
 crack1 or else the hair is torn off and
 a little  incision is made1 to enable  
the dying man's soul to escape4 ,the    
priest  then settles what method of     
burial is to be followed1 and the place1
 day  and hour1 all of which depend on  
astrological combinations1 known only   
to him4    ,the method of disposing of a
 dead body differs in all ,buddhist     
countries  according to station1        
condition1 rank1 and wealth4    ,in     
,ceylon the bodies of monks are all     
burnt1 and the cremation  ceremonies are
 carried out under decorated arches or  
canopies1 which are  never removed1 but 
left to crumble away4    ,in ,burma the 
cremation of a monk distinguished for   
sanctity is an affair  of great state   

and ceremonial4 ,the body 7see ,mr4     
,scott's #8,burman1' ii4  #cca7 is first
 embalmed1 and next tightly wrapped in  
white cloth1 which  is varnished and    
afterwards covered with gold-leaf4 ,the 
corpse thus  gilded is placed in an     
unclosed inner coffin1 and left exposed 
to view  for a considerable time4 ,when 
fastened down1 the inner coffin is      
covered  with gold-leaf1 like the body4 
,an outer sarcophagus is then prepared1 
and painted to represent scenes from the
 lives of the ,buddha4 ,this is  placed 
in a building erected for the purpose1  
and there the body lies in  state for   
several months1 while a constant line of
 pilgrim-worshippers  pass in and out4  
,in process of time1 when enough money  
for the expenses  has been collected1 a 
grand cremation takes place under a     
lofty canopy1  which on special         
occasions may be fifty or sixty feet    
high4 ,the calcined  bones are then     
reverentially collected1 and either     
buried near the  temple or pounded and  

made up into a paste1 with which an     
image of the  ,buddha is constructed for
 worship in the monastery4    ,in ,tibet
 the bodies of the ,grand ,lmas are     
generally embalmed and  preserved in    
monuments or ,stpas4 ,other ,lmas and   
monks distinguished  for sanctity are   
burnt1 and their ashes are either       
distributed as  relics1 or preserved in 
idols or in small ,dgabas4 ,kings1      
princes1 and  great men are also burnt1 
and of course with much ceremony and    
repetition of prayers4 ,then for a long 
time afterwards prayers continue  to be 
recited by the priests1 the object being
 to propitiate ,yama1 god  of ,death1   
and to deliver the deceased from the    
possible purgatorial  torments of one of
 the hells4 ,it is said that this       
repetition of prayers  is prolonged1 in 
the case of the rich1 for seven weeks1  
and in the case  of princes1 for a whole
 year4    ,mr4 ,j4 ,ware ,edgar1        
,c4,s4,i41 in his interesting ,report of
 his visit to  ,sikkim in #ahgc1 gives a

 description of the remarkable funeral  
ceremonies  performed on the occasion of
 the death of the ,rj of ,sikkim's      
sister  7see p4 #fb71 which ,i here     
abbreviate3--      ,the ,rj's sister had
 died a few days after his return to    
,choombi4 ,the    body had been buried  
at ,choombi1 but her clothes had been   
sent to    ,toomlong1 and her soul was  
supposed to accompany them4 ,there a    
lay-figure meant to represent her1      
dressed in her costume as a nun1    and 
wearing a gilt mitre and a long white   
veil1 was placed on a kind    of throne 
to the right of the great altar in the  
principal chapel4    ,before the figure 
was a table1 on which were different    
kinds of food4    ,on another table were
 various things which had belonged to   
her1 while    on a third1 #ajh little   
brass lamps were arranged in rows4 ,some
 days    afterwards the lay-figure of   
the nun was taken to ,pemyangchi4       
,there1    for three days the figure was
 seated before the altar1 and the monks 

chanted the litanies for her soul1 which
 had accompanied her clothes    from    
,choombi4 ,on the third day towards     
evening the tea-cup of the nun    was   
freshly filled with tea1 and all the    
monks solemnly drank tea with    her4   
,the monks chanted the litanies1 and the
 ,head ,lma went through    some        
elaborate ceremonies4 ,at about nine    
o'clock the chanting ceased1    and the 
,lma made a long speech to the soul of  
the nun1 in which he    told her that   
all that could be done to make her      
journey to another    world easy1 had   
been done1 and that now she would have  
to go alone and    unassisted to appear 
before the ,king and ,judge of the dead4
      #8,you will have to leave your    
robes1 your mitre1 and your veil1' said 
he1 #8and clad in the black garment of  
your sins1 or in the shining    garment 
of your good deeds1 you will be shown   
the mirror of the just    ,king4 ,your  
gold and silver1 your rank1 your good   
name will not help    you1 when your    

good deeds are weighed against your evil
 deeds1 in the    scales of the ,king4  
,if you have done ill1 you will be      
punished2 but if    your sins are found 
to be lighter than your good works1 your
 reward    will be great indeed4'       
,when the ,lma had finished his address1
 some of the monks took down    the     
lay-figure and undressed it1 while      
others formed a procession and          
conducted the soul of the nun into the  
darkness outside the monastery1    with 
a discordant noise of conch-shells1     
thigh-bone trumpets1 ,tibetan    flutes1
 gongs1 cymbals1 tambourines1 and drums4
    ,in ,japan small portions of the    
calcined remains 7often not larger than 
peas7 are preserved in globular glass   
shrines1 and then duly honoured  and    
worshipped4    ,the method of disposing 
of the dead bodies of the laity and of  
the  common people is generally much    
more simple4 ,in most ,buddhist         
countries  laymen are buried1 and the   
priests lead the processions to the     

grave4 ,in  ,ceylon1 the laity are      
certainly1 as a rule1 buried and not    
burnt4    ,in ,burma rich laymen are    
also generally buried1 and1 according to
 ,mr4  ,scott1 the funeral is a grand   
affair4    ,the body is swathed in new  
white cotton cloth1 leaving the face    
uncovered4 ,a piece of gold or silver is
 placed between the teeth to  serve as  
ferry-money over the ,buddhist          
,styx--the terrible river of death      
which all deceased persons are compelled
 to pass4 ,this river is clearly  the   
counterpart of the ,vaitara of the      
,hinds 7see #8,brhmanism and  ,hindism1'
 p4 #big74    ,if the dead man's family 
is poor1 a copper coin or even a betel  
nut will  suffice4 ,next the monks are  
sent for1 their immediate presence being
  necessary to keep off the evil spirits
 who always swarm near a corpse4  ,after
 an interval the body is placed in a    
coffin1 which is sometimes  gilded and  
placed on a bier under a canopy4 ,when  
the right day arrives  for the funeral1 

a long procession is formed1 with a     
number of priests  in proportion to the 
amount of alms bestowed1 and a crowd of 
relations1  friends1 and neighbours4    
,occasionally those who carry the bier  
stop and  go through a sort of solemn   
dance1 while mournful tunes are played  
by  the musicians and funeral dirges are
 sung4 ,the body is finally buried in  a
 cemetery to the west of the town or    
village4 ,a funeral must never go  to   
the north or to the east4 ,the ceremony 
concludes by alms to the  priests1 who  
in return intone the commandments and   
other portions of the  ,law in ,pli4    
,after the funeral1 great festivities go
 on in the  family-abode for the benefit
 of the crowds who come to offer        
condolence4  ,then the presence of the  
priests is again needed1 and has to be  
paid for  by alms to the monastery1 or  
the evil spirits1 who are sure to hang  
about1 cannot be got rid of4 ,in some   
parts of ,burma the cremation of  rich  
laymen is not uncommon1 and the ashes   

are either deposited in  ,dgabas--that  
is1 in small ,stpas or ,pagodas#aga--or 
are pounded into  paste and made into   
miniature ,stpas 7p4 #ejf7 or into small
 images of  the ,buddha for worship at  
the domestic altar4    ,in ,tibet and   
,mongolia the corpses of the laity1     
especially of the poor1  are often      
exposed in the fields1 in deserts1 or on
 mountain tops1 or  rocks1 or in lonely 
ravines1 or sometimes in open places    
enclosed for  the purpose4 ,occasionally
 they are covered with a thin layer of  
earth or  loose stones4 ,usually they   
are devoured by vultures1 dogs1 and     
other  animals4    ,it seems that in    
,lhssa certain dogs are kept for that   
purpose#agb4 ,a  class of professional  
men exist there1 whose business it is to
 cut up  dead bodies1 and throw the     
flesh piecemeal to dogs and vultures4   
,even  the bones are sometimes pounded1 
and the dust1 being mixed with flour1   
is given to be devoured4 ,the strange   
thing is1 that this kind of burial  is  

thought desirable1 and even honourable4 
,to be eaten up by sacred dogs  after   
death is productive of great merit1 and 
leads to re-birth in  higher forms4     
,dogs are the mausoleums of ,lhssa4     
,according to ,m4 ,huc1 a common funeral
 ceremony among the ,mongols  consists  
in carrying the corpse to the summit of 
a mountain1 or to the  bottom of a      
ravine4 ,the body is walled up in a sort
 of kiln of a  pyramidal form1 with a   
small door at the bottom1 and an opening
 at the  top to maintain a current of   
air1 and allow the smoke to escape4     
,during  the combustion the ,lmas recite
 prayers4 ,when the corpse is consumed1 
the kiln is demolished4 ,then the bones 
are collected and carried to the  ,grand
 ,lma1 who reduces them to a powder1    
and1 after adding an equal  quantity of 
wheaten flour1 kneads the whole         
carefully1 and1 with his own  hands1    
fashions a number of cakes of various   
sizes4 ,these are afterwards  placed in 
a pyramidal ,stpa1 which has been built 

beforehand in some  auspicious place4   
,the soil of the famous monastery of the
 ,five ,towers in the province of  ,shan
 ,si1 is said to be so holy that those  
interred there are sure to  effect a    
good transmigration4 ,in the deserts of 
,tartary1 ,mongols are  frequently seen 
carrying on their shoulders the bones of
 their kindred1  and journeying to the  
,five ,towers--there to purchase1 almost
 at its  weight in gold1 a little       
surface of ground whereon to erect a    
small  ,stpa4 ,some of them undertake a 
toilsome journey of a whole year's      
duration1 to reach this holy spot 7see  
p4 #dce74    ,burial in rivers1 which is
 highly prized by the ,hinds1 is not in 
favour  among ,buddhists4 ,only very    
poor people allow their dead to be      
thrown  into rivers1 though this is the 
only kind of ,buddhist burial mentioned 
by ,albern 7,sachau1 ii4 #afi74         
,buddhism1 from the first1 repudiated   
the  ,hind funeral ceremonies called    
rddhas1 which are still a great  incubus

 on the people4 ,the poorest man in     
,india1 if he be of high caste1  cannot 
perform a rddha for a relation for a    
less sum than forty  rupees1 given in   
fees to the priests4 ,buddhism did good 
service in  delivering the people from  
this burden1 but in ,northern countries 
it  established something similar in the
 ,bardo ceremony 7p4 #ccd74             
,formularies of ,prayer4    ,with regard
 to prayer-formularies1 there is in     
modern times a good deal  of difference 
between ,southern and ,northern         
,buddhist countries4 ,we have  seen that
 the three-refuge formulary was the sole
 prayer of early  ,buddhists4 ,certain  
orthodox men whom ,i met in ,ceylon1    
maintained to me  that this is the only 
legitimate form of prayer that ought to 
be used  even in the present day4 ,it is
 certainly a form which is accepted and 
employed by all ,buddhists of whatever  
nationality4    ,tsong ,khapa1 it is    
said1 established at ,lhssa an annual   
prayer-congregation called ,monlam henpo

 7see p4 #chf74 ,but the most  common   
prayer used in ,tibet is a mere         
formulary1 the constant repetition  of  
which is one of the most amazing        
instances of the tyranny of             
superstition to be found in any part of 
the world4    ,it consists of the       
six-syllabled sentence1 ,om mai padme   
,hm1 #8,om6 the  ,jewel in the ,lotus6  
,hm6'    ,this prayer1 or rather        
mystical sentence1 is supposed to have  
been  composed by ,padma-pi             
7,avalokitevara71 and to have reference 
to his  own manifestation as the        
,patron-,saint of ,tibet#agc4 ,it is    
sometimes  called the ,mai or #8,jewel' 
prayer1 and1 if brevity is a valuable   
quality1 its excellence is undeniable1  
since it consists of merely two         
,sanskit words1 between two mystical1   
untranslatable auspicious  ejaculations1
 ,om and ,hm#agd4    ,doubtless the     
prayer really owes its origin to the    
close connexion which  sprang up between
 ,northern ,buddhism and aivism4 ,the   

worshippers of iva  have always used    
7compare p4 #bdj7 similar mystical      
sentences and  syllables called ,dhras1 
to which a kind of miraculous efficacy  
is  attributed4 ,in all probability an  
occult meaning underlies the            
#8,jewel-lotus' formula1 and my own     
belief is that the majority of those    
who repeat it are ignorantly doing      
homage to the self-generative power     
supposed to inhere in the universe--a   
power pointed at by the popular  ,skhya 
theory of the union of ,prakiti and     
,purusha1 and by the  universal worship 
of the ,liga and ,yoni throughout       
,india#age4 ,no  thoughtful person can  
have travelled much in ,india without   
being  impressed with this4    ,at all  
events1 whatever be its origin and      
meaning1 no other prayer used  by human 
beings in any quarter of the globe is   
repeated so often4 ,every  ,tibetan     
believes it to be a panacea for all     
evil1 a compendium of all  knowledge1 a 
treasury of all wisdom1 a summary of all

 religion4 ,but if  you ask ,northern   
,buddhists to give you the reason for   
this belief1 very  few are able to give 
an intelligible reply4 ,according to the
 most  learned doctors of philosophy who
 are to be found in ,tibetan            
monasteries1 it is certainly addressed  
to their patron deity  ,avalokitevara1  
and the real secret of its efficacy lies
 in the fact1  that each one of its six 
syllables has a potent influence on some
 one of  the six ,gatis or courses of   
being--that is to say1 on some one of   
the  six kinds of transmigration or     
transformation through which every      
living  individual has to pass 7see p4  
#aba7agf4    ,the oftener1 therefore1   
this mystical formula is repeated the   
shorter  will be an individual's course 
7gati7 through some of these six forms  
of  existence1 every one of which       
involves misery or evil4 ,or it may be  
that  by repeating it he will be able to
 escape some of the six existences      
altogether4    ,strange indeed as it may

 appear to us1 it is impossible to shake
 the  faith of a ,lmistic ,buddhist in  
the absolutely infallible efficacy of   
his six favourite mystic syllables4 ,he 
repeats them1 not at all as if he  were 
praying in a ,christian sense1 but as if
 he were a farmer intent on  planting   
the very best seed in the most          
productive soil1 and watering it        
incessantly according to the most       
scientific principles of irrigation4 ,a 
bountiful harvest is absolutely certain 
to reward his efforts4    ,it need not1 
therefore1 surprise us if these six     
syllables are murmured  morning1 noon1  
and night1 by every man1 woman1 and     
child1 wherever the  ,lmistic ,hierarchy
 has extended4 ,and1 if not repeated by 
the voice1 an  incessant stream of      
repetition--an incessant scattering of  
the six mystic  seeds--is kept going by 
the hand4    ,the words are written or  
printed on roll within roll of paper and
  inscribed in cylinders1 which1 when   
made to revolve either by educated      

monks or by illiterate laymen1 have the 
same efficacy as if they were  actually 
said or repeated4 ,the revolutions are  
credited as so much  prayer-merit1 or1  
to speak more scientifically1 as so much
  prayer-force1 accumulated and stored  
up for the benefit of the person  who   
revolves them4    ,the cylinder is      
generally made of metal1 the prayer     
being engraved on  the outside1 as well 
as written on paper and inserted inside4
 ,it is held  in the right hand and     
whirled round1 like a child's toy1 by   
means of a  handle in a particular      
direction 7with the sun74 ,if made to   
revolve the  other way1 its rotations   
will be set down to the debtor rather   
than the  creditor side of the owner's  
account4 ,here is a drawing of one of   
several hand-cylinders 7commonly called 
prayer-wheels or prayer-mills2          
,tibetan1 hos-kor or hos-kyi or         
,khor-lo71 obtained by me at ,drjling3--
    ,illustration3     ,then1 again1 the
 words of the prayer are written or     

printed millions and  millions of times 
on rolls or strips of paper1 and        
enclosed in much  larger barrel-like    
cylinders1 which are set up in temples1 
chapels1  monasteries1 corridors1       
passages1 houses1 villages1 by the road 
side1  and in every possible corner1 for
 the convenience of the mass of the     
people who are too ignorant to read1 and
 too indolent to engage in  continuous  
oral repetition#agg4    ,it sometimes   
happens that quarrels arise from rival  
claims in regard to  the use of such    
prayer-cylinders4 ,in illustration of   
this an amusing  story is told by the   
,french missionaries3--    ,one day when
 they happened to be passing a          
praying-machine1 set up near  a         
monastery1 they saw two ,lmas engaged in
 a violent quarrel2 and1 as it          
appeared1 all on account of their zeal  
for their prayers4 ,the fact was  that  
one ,lma had come1 and1 having set the  
barrel in motion for his own  benefit1  
was retiring modestly and complacently  

to his own abode1 when  happening to    
turn his head to enjoy the spectacle of 
the wheel's pious  revolutions1 he saw  
the other ,lma stop it1 and set it      
whirling again  for himself4 ,indignant1
 of course1 at this unwarrantable       
interference  with his own devotions1 he
 ran back1 and in his turn put a stop to
 his  rival's piety1 and both of them   
continued this kind of demonstration for
  some time1 till at last losing        
patience they proceeded to menaces1 and 
then to blows1 when an old ,lma came out
 of a neighbouring cell1 and  brought   
the difficulty to a peaceful termination
 by himself twirling the  prayer-barrel 
for the benefit of both parties4    ,on 
the occasion of my visiting ,drjling in 
#ahhd1 ,i was desirous of  judging for  
myself of the method of using these     
remarkable instruments  of religion4 ,i 
therefore1 soon after my arrival1 walked
 to a ,buddhist  temple near the town4  
,there ,i found several large           
barrel-like cylinders  set up close     

together in a row at the entrance1 so   
that no one might  pass in without      
giving them at least one twirl1 or by a 
rapid sweep of  his hand might set them 
all twirling at once4 ,inside the       
entrance-portico a shrivelled and       
exceptionally hideous old woman was     
seated on the ground4 ,in her left hand 
she held a small portable               
prayer-cylinder1 which she kept in      
perpetual revolution4 ,in her right     
hand was a cord connected with a huge   
barrel-like cylinder1 which with  some  
exertion she made to rotate on its axis 
by help of a crank1 while  she kept     
muttering ,om mai pamme ,hm 7so she     
pronounced it7 with  amazing rapidity4  
,in this way she completed at least     
sixty oral  repetitions every minute1   
without reckoning the infinite number of
  rotatory repetitions accomplished     
simultaneously by her two hands4 ,and   
all this was done with an appearance of 
apathy and mental vacuity in her        
withered face1 which was so distressing 

and melancholy to behold1 that  the     
spectacle will never be effaced from my 
memory4 ,in truth the  venerable dame   
seemed to be sublimely unconscious that 
any effort of  thought or concentration 
of either mind or heart was needed to   
make  prayer of any value at all4       
,and the men of ,tibet are quite as much
 slaves to this superstition as  the    
women4 ,a friend of mine when staying at
 ,drjling had some  conversation on     
serious subjects with an apparently     
sensible native1 and  observed with     
surprise that all the while he was      
engaged in talking with  the ,buddhist1 
the latter continued diligently whirling
 a prayer-cylinder  with great velocity4
 ,my friend1 being unacquainted with    
,tibetan customs1  came away from his   
colloquy under the impression that      
,buddhists regard  ,christians as       
dangerous lunatics possessed with evil  
spirits1 which  require specially active
 measures in the way of exorcism4 ,it   
did not  occur to him that the ,buddhist

 was merely intent on redeeming every   
instant of time for the purpose of      
storing up merit by prayer4    ,and the 
hold which this extraordinary           
superstition has upon the  population is
 still more forcibly impressed on the   
traveller who  penetrates into the      
regions beyond ,drjling4 ,he may there  
see immense  prayer-cylinders set up    
like mills1 and kept in incessant       
revolution1  not by the will or hand of 
man1 but by the blind1 unconscious force
 of  wind and water4    ,it is even said
 that great mechanical ingenuity is     
displayed by the  monks in some parts of
 ,tibet1 their inventive powers being   
stimulated by  a burning desire to      
economize time and labour in the        
production of  prayer-merit by          
machinery4    ,an intricate arrangement 
of huge wheels and other wheels within  
wheels1  like the works of a clock1 is  
connected with rows of cylinders and    
made  to revolve rapidly by means of    
heavy weights4 ,an infinite number of   

prayers are repeated in this manner by a
 single monk1 who takes a minute  or two
 to wind up the complicated spiritual   
machinery1 and then hastens  to help his
 brothers in industrial occupations--the
 whole fraternity  feeling that the     
ingenious contrivance of praying by     
clock-work enables  them to promote the 
common weal by making the most of both  
worlds4 ,the  story goes that1 in times 
of special need and emergency1          
additional  weights are attached to the 
machinery1 and1 of course1 increased    
cogency  given to the rotatory prayers4 
,it is to be hoped that when ,european  
inventions find their way across the    
,himlayas1 steam-power may not be       
pressed into the service of these gross 
superstitions4    ,the use of           
prayer-wheels of various kinds is also  
common in ,japan1 as  described in ,sir 
,edward ,reed's work4    ,but praying by
 machinery is not all4 ,beneficial      
results are believed to  accrue through 
the carving of the all-powerful six     

syllables on every  conceivable object4 
,the traveller1 as he walks along1 sees 
the mystic words impressed on the       
stones at his feet1 on rocks1 doors1    
monuments1 and trees4 ,indeed1 rich  and
 zealous ,buddhists maintain at their   
own expense1 companies of ,lmas  for the
 sole object of propagating the         
,mai-padme formula4 ,these strange      
missionaries may occasionally be        
encountered1 chisel and hammer in hand1 
traversing field1 hill1 dale1 and       
desert1 their only mission being to     
engrave the sacred six syllables on     
every rock in their path 7,huc1 ii4     
#aid74    ,absolutely incalculable is   
the grand total of ,mai-padmes thus     
placed to  the credit of the world of   
living beings during the short space of 
twenty-four hours4 ,yet1 at the end of  
the ,new ,year's festival in ,tibet1    
the chief ,lma will sometimes pretend to
 proclaim the exact sum of  mystic      
syllables supposed to have been repeated
 during its continuance1  amounting     

perhaps to billions upon billions1 for  
the consolation of all  those faithful  
,buddhists who1 oppressed by the evils  
of life1 are  seeking for some antidote4
    ,but the #8jewel-lotus' is not the  
only antidote4 ,there are other short   
prayer-formularies1 such as ,om         
,vajra-pi-,hm 7addressed to the         
,bodhi-sattva ,vajra-pi1 p4 #bja71 and  
other still more mystical  ejaculations 
7such as ,om ah ,hm72 and magical       
sentences1 called ,dhran1  and          
profoundly significant monosyllables1   
such as ,ram1 ,pha1 ,him1 ,hm1  im1 m1  
,hs4    ,and here in connexion with the 
ubiquity of prayer-formularies1 we must 
not omit to notice the ,praying-walls1  
that is1 the long stone walls or  banks 
called 7from the #8jewel-lotus' prayer  
inscribed upon them7  ,mai#agh1 or in   
the provincial dialect ,man ,dang       
7variously ,man-dong1  ,mendong74       
,these remarkable stone-structures1     
peculiar to ,lmism1 are erected by  the 
side of high-roads1 and in frequented   

thoroughfares1 with the simple  object  
of aiding in the accumulation of        
prayer-merit4 ,some are only a  few feet
 long1 six feet high1 and from six to   
twelve feet broad2 others  have been met
 with nearly #ajjj yards long1 with     
pyramidal ,stpas#agi or  aityas 7in     
,tibetan hortens7 at each end4 ,inserted
 in these walls are  slabs on which the 
six-syllabled1 and other                
prayer-formulas1 and  sometimes images  
of saints1 are carved and dedicated as  
votive  offerings4 ,passing travellers  
acquire merit by keeping them on their  
left side#ahj1 so that they may follow  
the letters of the inscription  without 
necessarily repeating the words#aha4    
,in the same connexion we may advert to 
,praying-flags and  ,praying-staffs4    
,and ,i may mention that1 while staying 
at ,drjling1 ,i  visited a village to   
which a monastery is attached1 and1 on  
approaching  the spot1 was surprised to 
see the whole neighbourhood studded with
  poles from which long flags were      

flying4 ,on the tops of the poles were  
curious ornaments like caps1 made of    
coloured cloth with flounces4 ,i        
naturally supposed that ,i had arrived  
on a gala day1 and that at least a      
great ,lma or other high functionary was
 expected1 perhaps to lay the  first    
stone of some new building connected    
with the monastery4 ,on  inquiry1       
however1 ,i ascertained that there was  
nothing unusual about the  appearance of
 the village1 which was merely praying1 
according to  custom1 by means of its   
flag-staffs4 ,every time the wind1 which
 happened  to be blowing fresh1 extended
 the long flags1 a vast number of       
prayers  were credited to the           
inhabitants who were themselves all     
absent1 and  probably hard at work      
either in the fields or at ,drjling4    
,i managed to obtain facsimiles of some 
of the flags4 ,on them are  inscribed   
various versions of the inevitable      
,mai-padme formulary1  together with    
figures of the #8flying-horse' 7,lungta1

 strictly r,lu-rta1  #8wind-horse'7#ahb 
and other symbols1 such as those of the 
,norbu  gem#ahc and of the              
,phurbu--which are held to be peculiarly
 efficacious  in warding off evil       
spirits or neutralizing the diseases    
inflicted by  them4 ,indeed in most     
cases these flags are regarded by the   
peasantry as  talismans or charms to    
protect the village from the malice of  
mischievous ghosts and demons1 believed 
to haunt the atmosphere and  swarm      
everywhere around4    ,here are some of 
the mystic formularies inscribed on my  
flags4 ,they  resemble aiva ,mantras and
 ,dhras--that is1 mystical words or     
sentences  used as spells3--    ,om mai 
padme ,hm ,hring1 ,om ,vajra-pi ,hm1 ,om
  ,hm1 ,om ,vg-var ,mm1                 
,sarva-siddhi-phala ,hm1 ,om muni muni  
mah-muni1 kya-muni svh1 ,om             
vajra-sattva ,hm1 ,hulu hulu1 ,rulu     
rulu1 ,hm ,pha1 etc4 7,compare my       
#8,brhmanism1' etc4 p4 #aig74    ,one   
flag in my possession has               

representations of four animals at the  
four corners1 viz4 a ,tiger1 ,lion1     
,eagle1 and ,dragon#ahd--supposed to act
  as guards against evil spirits4 ,it   
also has an inscription in ,tibetan     
which was translated for me by ,mr4     
,sarat ,chandra ,ds1 thus3--            
#8,reverence be to the ,buddhas and     
,bodhi-sattvas6 ,thus hath it been      
heard by me--once on a time when the    
adorable kya-,buddha was seated    on a 
marble throne amid the gods of the      
,trayastria heaven1 ,indra1    the      
,prince of ,gods1 arrived there1 after  
being completely defeated by    the     
demons 7,asuras74 ,seeing the ,buddha1  
and throwing himself at his    feet1 he 
thus reverentially addressed him3--8,oh1
 my ,lord1 we the gods    of the        
,trayastria 7heaven7 have suffered a    
complete defeat at the    hands of the  
demons2 instruct us1 what are we to do8 
how are we to    triumph over our       
enemies80 ,to this the adorable one     
replied3--8,o lord    of gods1 take this

 mystical formula called ,gyatshar gyi  
tsemoi    ,punggyan1 which1 when        
repeated1 will make you unconquerable4  
,i1 too1    in my former existence of a 
,bodhi-sattva found it efficacious in   
securing victory40'    ,it is of course 
a work of great merit to erect          
prayer-flags4 ,they form a  conspicuous 
feature in every landscape throughout   
,tibet1 fluttering on  hills and in     
valleys1 by the roadside1 and on the    
river bank1 on walls  and on the tops of
 houses1 in streets1 squares1 and       
gardens4    ,then1 again1 the duty of a 
constant repetition of prayer-formul and
  mystical sentences has led ,northern  
,buddhists to employ ,rosaries1  which  
were used both by ,hinds and ,buddhists 
long before they came into  vogue in    
,europe4 ,without these necessary aids  
to devotion the long  rounds of         
repetition could not be accurately      
completed4 ,in ,northern  ,buddhist     
countries rosaries ought to consist of  
#ajh beads1 which in  ,tibet are said to

 represent the #ajhahe volumes of the   
,kanjur4 ,the same  number of beads is  
used by the worshippers of ,vishu1 who  
use the rosary  to aid them in repeating
 any one of the names of ,vishu #hjj    
times1 the  eight additional beads      
marking each century of repetitions4    
,the commonest ,buddhist rosaries are   
made of wood1 or pebbles1 or  berries1  
or bone#ahf2 the more costly1 of        
turquoise1 coral1 amber1 or  silver1 or 
even of pearls and gems4 ,if a rosary   
made of the bones of  some holy ,lma can
 be procured1 it is of course prized    
above all others4  ,sometimes a ,dorje  
is appended4 ,northern ,buddhist        
worshippers hold their  rosaries 7like  
,roman ,catholics7 in the right hand1   
and move on the beads  with the left1   
and they will do this while talking     
together or even  quarrelling4 ,in      
,china and ,japan ,buddhist rosaries are
 often arranged in  two rings4 ,they    
sometimes consist of enormous beads with
 relics in the  central bead4    ,be it 

observed1 however1 that the             
prayer-formularies of ,buddhists are    
not always a mere unintelligible string 
of words and syllables1  muttered1      
iterated1 and reiterated with the aid of
 rosaries4 ,their  prayers sometimes    
contain lofty sentiments4 ,for instance1
 the two  vagabond mendicant monks seen 
by me at ,drjling 7described at p4 #bfg7
  went about chanting the following3--  
,reverence to all the noble             
,father-,lmas6 ,i address this to the   
feet of    ,duang our patron saint4 ,i1 
,milaraspa#ahg1 sing it4 ,if the soul be
    white 7enlightened71 it must be     
white inside and outside4 ,i am born in 
consequence of the works of this world4 
,my earthly father is a sower    of the 
seed of sin4 ,my mother is the soil     
which receives the seed of    sin4 ,the 
child is myself tied to the father by   
the cord of sin4 ,when    you think of  
your earthly father1 think also of your 
,lma 7spiritual    father74 ,your       
earthly father is the source of your    

sin4 ,your ,lma    frees you from       
sin#ahh4    ,but this song1 which was   
repeated over and over again1 invariably
  concluded by a repetition of the      
inevitable six-syllabled formula4 ,this 
they repeated very rapidly1 pronouncing 
it as usual1 #8,om mai-pamme  ,hm1' and 
adding the mystical syllable ,hs4 ,their
 chanting was  accompanied by an        
incessant agitation of their amaru or   
sacred drum1  which ,i was able to      
purchase4 ,it is shaped like two        
hemispheres1 joined  on their convex    
sides1 and is encircled by sacred       
shells4 ,it is sounded  by means of     
buttons attached to two pendulous strips
 of leather4 ,the  sound made by these  
drums is out of all proportion to their 
size4 ,it may  be heard at a great      
distance1 and is thought to be highly   
efficacious in  frightening away evil   
spirits1 who dislike loud noises of all 
kinds4  ,here is an exact representation
 of the sacred drum now in my           
possession3--    ,illustration3         

,again1 ,dr4 ,eitel 7,lectures1 iii47   
mentions a manual of daily prayer used  
by ,northern ,buddhists1 which shows    
that striking words are sometimes       
chanted1 though they may be in ,sanskit1
 and therefore unintelligible to  those 
who repeat them4 ,for instance1 the     
following3--    #8,may all the ,buddhas 
abide in me1 instruct and enlighten me  
with  knowledge and perfection1 free me1
 deliver me1 cleanse me1 purify me2  and
 may the whole universe be set free     
7,sarva-tathgat m samvasantu  buddhy    
siddhy bodhaya vibodhaya moaya vimoaya  
odhaya viodhaya  samanta moaya76'       
,before1 therefore1 concluding this     
,lecture we must acknowledge1 in        
fairness to the inhabitants of ,tibet1  
that much of the spirit of  religion may
 be mingled with their superstitions4   
,the words of their  prayers are not    
merely repeated by machinery1 written on
 paper1 and  inscribed on rocks and     
stones4 ,the voices of men and women1 if
 not their  thoughts1 often go heartily 

with uttered prayers4 ,the note of      
prayer is  raised at all times and      
seasons--in the morning1 mid-day1 and   
evening1 in  private and in public1 at  
home or abroad1 in the midst of labour  
and  idleness1 in lying down and rising 
up1 in moving about and keeping  still1 
on the march and on the battle-field1 on
 mournful occasions1 and  in the midst  
of joy and laughter4 ,nor is any one    
ashamed of praying  aloud or praying    
together in the open streets and squares
 of crowded  towns4    #8,there exists1'
 says the ,french ,missionary 7ii4      
#aid71 #8a very touching  custom at     
,lhssa4 ,in the evening1 just as the day
 is verging on its  decline1 all the    
,tibetans stop business and meet        
together1 men1 women1  and children1    
according to their sex and age1 in the  
principal parts of  the town and in the 
public squares4 ,as soon as groups are  
formed1 every  one kneels down1 and they
 begin slowly and in undertones to chant
  prayers4    #8,the religious concerts 

produced by these numerous assemblages  
create  throughout the town a solemn    
harmony1 which operates forcibly on the 
soul4 ,the first time we witnessed this 
spectacle1 we could not help  drawing a 
painful comparison between this pagan   
town1 where all prayed  together1 and   
the cities of ,europe1 where people     
would blush to make the  sign of the    
cross in public4'                       
,,lecture ,,xiv4                        
,sacred ,places4      ,it was only to be
 expected1 that ,buddhism1 closely      
connected as it was  with ,brhmanism and
 ,hindism1 and yet in some respects     
opposed to those  systems1 should have  
certain sacred places and hallowed      
regions1 some of  which were identical  
with those of ,brhmanism and ,hindism1  
and some  peculiarly its own4    ,in the
 ,mah-parinibbna-sutta 7,v4 #af-bb1     
,rhys ,davids71 we have the  following  
declaration3--      #8,there are four   
places which the believing man should   
visit as a    pilgrim with feelings of  

reverence and awe4 ,the place at which  
he can    say1 8,here the ,tathgata 7one
 of the names of ,buddha1 see p4 #bc7   
was    born40 ,the place at which he can
 say1 8,here the ,tathgata attained to  
perfect insight and enlightenment40 ,the
 place at which he can say1    8,here   
the ,law was first preached by the      
,tathgata40 ,the place at which    he   
can say1 8,here the ,tathgata passed    
finally away in that utter    passing   
away which leaves nothing whatever      
behind0 7see p4 #adb1 note1    and p4   
#dgg74      #8,and they who die1 while  
with believing heart they journey on    
such    pilgrimages1 shall be reborn1 in
 the happy realms of heaven4'    ,the   
,chinese traveller1 ,f-hien1 names the  
same four sacred places 7,chap4  xxxi471
 and says that the situation of the four
 great ,stpas 7see p4  #ejd7 has been   
fixed1 namely1 7#a7 where the ,buddha   
was born1 7#b7 where he  attained       
wisdom1 7#c7 where he began to turn the 
wheel of his ,law1 7#d7  where he       

attained ,pari-nirva 7p4 #adb74 ,compare
 engraving of sculpture  opposite p4    
#dgg4    ,elsewhere ,f-hien mentions two
 other sacred spots--the place where the
  ,buddha discomfited the advocates of  
erroneous doctrines#ahi1 and the  place 
where he descended after ascending to   
the ,trayastria heaven 7see  p4 #dad of 
this volume71 to preach the ,law to his 
mother 7,legge's  ,f-hien1 #fh74        
,these places are all situated within   
the area of the sacred land of          
,buddhism 7see map opposite p4          
#ba72--that is to say1 the land which   
was  the scene of the ,buddha's         
itineration for forty-five years--a     
region  about #cjj miles long1 by nearly
 #bjj broad1 lying in ,gangetic ,india1 
within the modern provinces of ,oudh and
 ,behr 7,bihr for ,vihra71 or the       
ancient kingdoms of ,kosala and         
,magadha1 and having rvast and          
,buddha-,gay for its limit towards the  
north and south respectively4    ,it    
will be interesting to note a few       

particulars in regard to these and      
other sacred spots scattered throughout 
this region1 in the following           
order3--,kapila-vastu1 ,buddha-,gay1    
,srnth near ,benares1 ,rja-giha1  rvast 
7often written rvasti71 ,vail1 ,kaumbi1 
,nlanda1 ,sakya1  ,skea 7,ajdhy71       
,kany-kubja 7,kanauj71 ,pali-putra      
7,patn71 ,kesarya1  ,kui-nagara4 ,the   
map opposite p4 #ba will make these     
clear4    ,to begin with the ,buddha's  
birth-place 7see p4 #ba74               
,kapila-vastu4    ,kapila-vastu 7in     
,pli1 ,kapila-vatthu7 was long searched 
for by  archologists in vain1 but is now
 identified by ,general ,sir ,a4        
,cunningham and ,mr4 ,carlleyle with    
,bhila1 a village surrounded by buried  
brickwork in the ,bast district under   
the ,nepl mountains1 about  twenty-five 
miles north-east from ,faizbd1 twelve   
north-west from  ,bast1 and one hundred 
and twenty north of ,benares4 ,both     
,f-hien 7,legge1  #fg7 and ,hiouen      
,thsang describe the neighbouring       

,lumbin 7,lava7 garden1  where the      
,buddha was born from the right side of 
his mother 7see p4 #bc1  and engraving  
opposite p4 #dgg74 ,they also mention   
the ,arrow-fountain  where ,gautama     
contended with others of his tribe in a 
shooting-match4  ,the legend is 7p4 #bd7
 that he gained the victory by shooting 
an arrow  which passed through the      
target1 buried itself in the ground1 and
 caused  a clear spring of water to flow
 forth 7,legge1 #fe-fg2 ,beal1 ii4 #bc1 
#bd74  ,this name ara-,kpa1             
#8arrow-fountain1' has now been         
corrupted into  ,sar-,kuia 7or          
,sar-,kuhiya71 and the spot has been    
identified 7,cunningham's  #8,reports of
 ,survey1' xii4 #ahh74    ,it might have
 been expected that so sacred a place as
 ,kapila-vastu--the  birth-place of     
,buddha and the scene of his education  
and youthful  exploits--would have been 
a favourite place of pilgrimage for     
,buddhists  through all time2 but we    
learn from the two ,chinese travellers1 

that  even in their day 7from the fourth
 to the seventh century7 the whole      
neighbourhood was a desert and the town 
in ruins 7,beal1 i4 #ej2 ii4 #ad74  ,the
 reason probably is that ,hindism gained
 the ascendancy over ,buddhism  in      
certain localities1 and that when this  
happened the ,brhmans took  pains to    
obliterate all traces of the rival      
creed4 ,in later times  ,muhammadan     
invasions contributed to the same       
result4                                 
,buddha-,gay4    ,this was the place    
where the ,buddha obtained perfect      
knowledge and  enlightenment after his  
sexennial course of fasting and         
meditation 7see  p4 #ca of this volume74
 ,it is situated six or seven miles from
 the town  of ,gay1 and about sixty     
miles from ,patn and ,bankipur4 ,it is  
of all  ,buddhist sacred places the most
 sacred1 and abounds in profoundly      
interesting memorials of early          
,buddhism4    ,of course it was only to 
be expected that memorial structures    

intended  to mark important epochs in   
the life of the extinct ,buddha1 and    
calculated to foster feelings of        
reverence in the minds of his           
followers1 should have been erected at  
this and various other holy spots  of   
ground consecrated by the presence and  
acts of ,gautama on great  occasions4   
,and of all such ,buddhist monuments the
 ancient pyramidal  temple at           
,buddha-,gay1 which ,i visited in #ahgf 
and #ahhd1 is the most  striking and    
full of interest4 ,probably a monument  
of some kind was  erected there not very
 long after the ,buddha's death1 and    
,hiouen ,thsang  7see p4 #cii7 mentions 
the temple built there by ,aoka4 ,the   
temple which  ,i saw on the occasion of 
my first visit was probably not built   
till the  middle of the second century1 
but was erected on the foundation of    
,aoka's temple1 the ruins of which are  
traceable under the present  one#aij4   
,the materials consist of bluish bricks1
 plastered with lime4  ,hiouen ,thsang  

states that in his time it had eleven   
stories and an  altitude of about #afe  
feet4 ,it also had niches in each story1
 with a  golden statue of ,buddha in    
each niche4 ,the whole was crowned with 
the  representation of an ,amalaka fruit
 7,emblic myrobalan7 in gilt copper     
7,cunningham's ,report1 i4 #e74 ,the    
,burmese probably restored the temple   
between #ajce and #ajgh ,a4,d4 ,though  
falling into decay in #ahgf1 its        
appearance struck me as exceedingly     
imposing1--even more so than that of    
the grand pyramidal towers1 built over  
the entrances to the great ,south       
,indian temples#aia4 ,the annexed       
engraving of this ancient monument as   
it appeared in #ahhj1 before its        
restoration1 is from a photograph by    
,mr4  ,beglar1 taken on the spot1 and   
enlarged by ,mr4 ,austen4               
,illustration3 ,,ancient ,,buddhist     
,,temple ,,at ,,buddha-,,gay1 ,,as ,,it 
,,appeared ,,in  #ahhj4    ,erected     
about the middle of the second century  

over the ruins of ,aoka's               
temple1 at the spot where ,gautama      
attained ,buddhahood4    ,the original  
object of its erection seems to have    
been simply and solely  to serve as a   
monument1 and not as a ,dgaba or        
receptacle for relics4  ,very soon1     
however1 monuments of this kind were    
made to enshrine images1  and were used 
as temples and places of worship4 ,on   
inquiry ,i found that  the ancient image
 or images of ,buddha1 which once       
occupied the shrine in  the ancient     
,buddha-,gay temple1 had been destroyed 
or carried off at  different times#aib1 
and that another stone image1 believed  
to have  been carved in the eighth      
century1 had been recently substituted  
for it4  ,it is remarkable that during  
the process of restoring the so-called  
#8diamond throne1' on which the statues 
were placed1 a mass of fragments  of    
coral1 sapphire1 cornelian1 crystal1    
ruby1 pearl1 ivory1 and gold1  but no   
diamond1 was found compacted or cemented

 together in front of  it#aic4    ,at   
the back of the raised terrace which    
surrounded the ancient temple  was a    
,ppal or sacred fig-tree1 fabled to be  
the very tree under which  ,gautama sat 
during his course of profound meditation
 ending in  ,buddhahood 7see p4 #ca74   
,its vitality was on the wane1 for its  
decaying  branches drooped over the     
parapet as if they sought1 like those of
 a  neighbouring ,banyan tree1 to gain  
new life by rooting themselves in the   
ground beneath4 ,some ,buddhist pilgrims
 happened1 at the moment of my  visit1  
to be worshipping at the temple1 deputed
 by the ,king of ,burma to  present     
offerings4 ,i observed that they had    
brought packets of  gold-leaf1 and had  
gilded the stone steps that surrounded  
the tree4  ,having performed this act of
 homage1 they sat near muttering their  
prayer-formularies4 ,no doubt they      
believed it to be the very ,bodhi-tree  
of ,gautama's time1 the stem of which   
had been miraculously preserved1        

though1 had it been really so1 the stem 
would have been about  twenty-three     
centuries old4 ,considering the         
well-known properties of the  ,ppal     
tree1 it is possible that the           
worshippers were1 after all1 paying     
honour to the descendant of the original
 tree1 the fact1 no doubt1 being  that  
as each tree began to decay a new one   
was produced1 by the dropping  of seeds 
into the old roots and the springing up 
of fresh scions4  ,probably most of the 
sacred trees in the neighbourhood of    
,buddhist  temples throughout ,india1   
,ceylon1 and ,burma were originally     
raised from  seeds brought from the     
ancient ,buddha-,gay tree4              
,illustration3 ,,ancient ,,buddhist     
,,temple ,,at ,,buddha-,,gay1 ,,as      
,,restored ,,in  #ahhd4    ,it is a     
received tradition that a shoot from    
this tree was taken by the  ,missionary 
,mahendra1 son of ,aoka1 in the third   
century ,b4,c4 to ,ceylon1  and planted 
at ,anurdha-pura1 where its descendant  

still flourishes4    ,when ,i again     
visited ,buddha-,gay in #ahhd1 ,i found 
that the old pyramidal  temple had been 
restored according 7as is conjectured7  
to ,hiouen  ,thsang's description of the
 ,vihra of his day4    ,it is said that 
the late ,burmese government1 not very  
long ago1 spent  about thirty thousand  
rupees in building a wall round the     
temple and  making excavations with a   
view to its restoration4 ,then our      
government1  about #ahha or #ahhb1      
undertook the work1 and ,i believe at   
least a lakh of  rupees has been spent  
in completing it4 ,i give a             
representation of the  restored temple  
7as it appeared in #ahhd71 from a       
photograph taken by ,mr4  ,beglar1 and  
enlarged by ,mr4 ,austen4 ,its present  
height is #agf feet1 as  it has several 
tiers of the usual umbrella-like        
ornament1 tapering to a  point at the   
summit#aid4    ,the reconstruction of   
the temple led of course to the removal 
of the  sacred ,bodhi-tree1 but an      

effort was made to preserve the tree by 
transplanting it to a neighbouring      
garden4 ,no sooner was this done than   
parties of pilgrims from ,burma and     
,ceylon1 in their pious desire to       
maintain the vitality of the venerated  
tree1 covered the stem with  gold-leaf1 
and1 bringing ,eau de ,cologne and other
 scents1 poured them  over the roots1 at
 the same time manuring them with the   
contents of  boxes of sardines steeped  
in oil1 choice biscuits1 and other      
delicacies4  ,of course1 the result was 
the speedy destruction of the tree1 root
 and  branch4 ,to compensate for its    
loss1 a new ,ppal tree was planted      
behind  the restored temple by ,sir ,a4 
,cunningham in #ahhe4 ,another near the 
temple appeared to be in a flourishing  
condition in #ahhd1 and ,i observed     
that both ,hind and ,buddhist pilgrims  
met together there as worshippers  of   
the same sacred object4    ,the         
idol-shrine1 under the principal tower  
of the restored temple1  consists of a  

small vaulted stone-chamber lighted only
 by the door4 ,my  first act1 on        
arriving at ,gay in #ahhd1 was to       
descend to this  interesting spot4 ,at  
the further end is the principal statue 
of ,buddha1  seated1 in the             
#8witness-attitude' 7see p4 #dhj7--on an
 altar-like throne  having five         
pilasters1 and supposed to represent the
 original  ,bodhi-maa4 ,the pedestal of 
the statue is ornamented with           
diamond-shaped carvings1 and sculptures 
of two elephants and two  lions#aie4    
,inside the shrine1 at the moment of my 
visit1 were five ,burmese pilgrims  from
 ,mandelay4 ,they were apparently monks1
 as all were habited in yellow  dresses4
 ,each man bowed down before the image1 
with hands joined in  reverence1        
occasionally touching the ground with   
his forehead1 and going  through a      
course of prayer-repetition by help of a
 rosary4 ,after  worshipping for some   
time1 they deposited a quantity of      
offerings1 of a  somewhat miscellaneous 

description1 in front of the image4 ,i  
noticed  among other things1 rice1      
fruit1 vegetables1 flowers of the       
,bel-tree1  tin boxes filled with       
sardines1 ,huntley and ,palmer's        
biscuits1 bottles  of the genuine ,maria
 ,farina's ,eau de ,cologne for watering
 the  sacred-trees1 and a large number  
of packets of gold-leaf4 ,i left the    
shrine for two or three hours1 and on   
returning found that the pilgrims  had  
crowned their act of worship by gilding 
the image with the contents  of these   
packets1 reserving a supply for covering
 the other images in  the vicinity of   
the temple4 ,the cost of the whole      
process must have been  considerable4   
,at the back of the great ,buddha-,gay  
temple1 ,i found a stone tablet for     
offerings1 recently brought and fixed   
horizontally in the ground by  another  
pilgrim who was from ,colombo in        
,ceylon4 ,it bore an inscription        
indicating that the slab had been placed
 there as a votive offering by a  person

 calling himself ,gua-ratna ,muddali ,rj
 of ,kolamba-pur4 ,the date  carved on  
it 7,buddha-vasse #bdbg7 shows that the 
,buddhists of ,ceylon are  no believers 
in the researches of modern scholars4   
,they still reckon  from ,b4,c4 #edc for
 the supposed ,nirva of ,buddha4    ,at 
a little distance in front of the great 
,temple1 but on the right  side1 are the
 two smaller temples called ,tr-dev and 
,vgvar4 ,in the  latter is a circular   
stone with nine circles of complicated  
ornaments4  ,this is called a ,vajrsana1
 from the thunderbolt ornament in the   
second  circle1 but it is not the true  
,bodhi-maa4    ,i may mention here that 
a portion of the original ,aoka         
stone-railing1  with an inscription1    
lotus-ornaments and carvings1 was       
discovered in a  fair state of          
preservation by ,sir ,a4 ,cunningham1   
and is now to be seen  in situ4 ,the    
,buddha's walking place was unearthed by
 ,mr4 ,beglar4 ,the  massive new brick  
railing which now encloses the temple   

has been well  constructed after an     
ancient pattern1 and ornamented with    
numerous  carvings representing scenes  
in the lives of the ,buddha 7p4 #aaa74  
,the  paved quadrangle sets the whole   
off to great advantage4 ,indeed1 the    
present appearance of the square and the
 sacred area of ground                  
adjoining--strewn with ruins of the     
,stpas erected by ,aoka and  others--and
 according to the legend by the gods    
,indra and ,brahm--is one  of the most  
striking sights in all ,india1 and must 
be seen to be  appreciated4    ,in      
truth1 ,buddha-,gay is a kind of        
,buddhist ,jerusalem1 abounding in      
associations of thrilling interest1 not 
only to the followers of ,buddha1  but  
to all who see in that spot the central 
focus whence radiated a  system which   
for centuries has permeated the         
religious thought of the  most populous 
regions of ,eastern ,asia1 and          
influenced the creed of a  majority of  
the human race4    ,another remarkable  

characteristic of this spot is that it  
was converted  into a kind of ,buddhist 
,necropolis1 teeming with the remains of
  generations of the ,buddha's adherents
 contained in relic-receptacles  called 
,stpas 7pp4 #ejc-ejf71 some of which    
have been brought to light1  while      
countless others still remain to be     
unearthed4    ,the fact was that immense
 numbers of pilgrims from all parts of  
,india  and the outlying countries once 
thronged in crowds to ,buddha-,gay1 and 
nearly every pilgrim brought with him a 
,stpa or relic-shrine of some  kind1    
according to his means1 and deposited it
 as a votive offering in  this hallowed 
region1 either with the object of       
acquiring religious  merit for himself1 
or of promoting the welfare of the      
deceased in other  states of being4     
,often it was inscribed with the usual  
,buddhist formula1  ,ye ,dharm1 etc4    
7see p4 #ajd71 and sometimes bore a date
 and the name of  the reigning king4    
,generally the votive ,stpa contained   

the relics of  deceased                 
relatives--perhaps the ashes of a father
 or mother1 or pieces of  bone1 or a    
small fragment of a single bone placed  
in an earthen vessel  or casket of some 
other material1 and buried in the       
interior of the  ,stpa4    ,relics1     
however1 were not always forthcoming1   
and so the votive ,stpas  were          
frequently mere cenotaphs or models in  
clay or stone of actual  ,stpas erected 
in other places4 ,often they were       
beautifully carved and  ornamented with 
rows on rows of images of the ,buddha4  
,i obtained some  beautiful specimens   
for the ,indian ,institute at ,oxford1 a
 drawing of one  of which will be given 
7see p4 #eje74 ,layers on layers of     
these have been  exhumed during the     
process of the excavations4 ,they are of
 every variety  of size1 from three     
inches to several feet high1 and of     
every variety of  material1 from terra  
cotta and clay turned on a potter's     
wheel to  elaborately sculptured brick  

and stone4 ,all the upper layers are now
  gone 7those made of clay and pottery  
having naturally crumbled to  pieces71  
but the lowest are still in situ1 and   
furnish specimens of  all ages from the 
second century to the tenth or twelfth4 
,i noticed  hundreds lying about on the 
ground in #ahhd4    ,a sacred tank1     
mentioned by ,hiouen ,thsang1 is        
situated three or four  hundred yards to
 the left of the ,buddha-,gay temple4 ,i
 found1 on  visiting it1 that this      
hallowed pool is quite as much venerated
 by  ,hinds as by pilgrims from         
,buddhist countries4    ,indeed1 ,i was 
much struck by the evidence which       
,buddha-,gay affords of  the            
inter-relationship between ,buddhism and
 ,hindism--especially that  form of the 
latter called ,vaishavism4 ,for         
instance1 on one side of the  temple ,i 
noticed the tombs of the ,mahants1 or   
,heads of the neighbouring  ,hindu      
monastery1 who are buried there in a    
sitting posture4 ,near these  again are 

shrines of the five ,pava heroes 7who   
take the place of the  five ,buddhas71  
and a shrine containing the supposed    
impression of the  two feet of ,vishu4  
,the upper portion of a small ,buddhist 
,stpa has been  sawn off and            
inverted#aif1 and ,vishu's footsteps    
carved on the smooth  surface4 ,this    
certainly symbolizes in a remarkable    
manner the merging of  ,buddhism in     
,vaishavism1 and bears out ,dr4         
,sachau's assertion that in  ,albern's  
time ,vishu-worship was dominant in     
,india4    ,then1 again1 on the right of
 the entrance to the principal temple is
 a  raised platform of earth1 on which  
are images of ,vishu1 iva1 ,prvat1  and 
,gaea4 ,here ,i saw a rddha             
ceremony#aig1 in the act of being       
performed by some ,hinds--just arrived  
from the neighbouring town of  ,gay4    
,they were repeating their mantras1     
offering their ,pias1 and  putting the  
finishing stroke to the funeral services
 7previously  performed by them at the  

,vishu-pad temple at ,gay71 under the   
shadow of  a ,ppal tree1 held as sacred 
by them as by ,buddhists4    ,to give an
 exhaustive account of the objects      
crowded together at this  fountain-head 
of ,buddhism would be impossible4 ,the  
following abbreviated  version of the   
,rev4 ,s4 ,beal's translation 7ii4 #aae7
 of ,hiouen ,thsang's  description1     
throws great light on the state of      
,buddhism in the seventh  century3--    
,going south-west from ,mount ,prgbodhi1
 we came to the ,bodhi-tree4 ,it    is  
surrounded by a brick wall1 and is about
 #ejj paces round4 ,within    the wall  
the sacred traces touch one another in  
all directions4 ,in one    place there  
are ,stpas1 in another place ,vihras4   
,in the middle of the    enclosure is   
the ,bodhi-tree1 under which is the     
diamond throne called    ,bodhi-maa4 ,on
 this the ,buddha sat and attained the  
holy path of    perfect wisdom4 ,when   
the earth is shaken1 this spot alone is 
unmoved4    ,in old days1 when ,buddha  

was alive1 the ,bodhi-tree--which is a  
,pippala    or sacred fig-tree--was     
several hundred feet high4 ,although it 
has    often been injured by cutting1 it
 is still forty or fifty feet high4     
,the leaves never wither either in      
winter or summer1 but always remain     
shining and glistening1 except on every 
successive ,nirva-day1 when    the      
leaves fade1 and then in a moment revive
 as before4 ,on this day    thousands   
and ten thousands assemble from         
different quarters1 and    bathe the    
roots with scented water and perfumed   
milk4 ,king ,aoka1    before he was     
converted1 tried to destroy the tree by 
force1 and after    him king ,saka tried
 again1 but the roots sprang up as full 
of life    as ever4      ,to the east of
 the ,bodhi-tree1 there is a ,vihra     
about #afj or #agj feet    high1 built  
of blue tiles covered with chunam2 all  
the niches in the    different stories  
holding golden figures4 ,the four sides 
of the    building are covered with     

ornamental work4 ,the whole is          
surmounted by    a gilded copper        
,amalaka fruit4 ,to the right and left  
of the gate are    niches2 in the left  
is a figure of ,avalokitevara           
,bodhi-sattva and in    the right a     
figure of ,maitreya4 ,on the site of the
 present ,vihra1    ,aoka at first built
 a small ,vihra4 ,afterwards a ,brhman1 
who became    a convert to ,buddhism1   
reconstructed it on a larger scale4     
,to the north of the ,bodhi-tree is the 
place where ,buddha walked up and       
down1 about #gj paces or so long4 ,when 
he had obtained enlightenment1    he    
remained perfectly quiet for seven days4
 ,then rising1 he walked up    and down 
during seven days to the north of the   
tree4 ,not far to the    south of the   
tree is a ,stpa about #ajj feet high1   
built by ,king ,aoka4    ,to the east of
 the tree is the place 7marked by two   
,stpas7 where ,mra    tempted ,gautama  
to become a ,universal ,monarch4 ,to the
 north-west is a    ,vihra in which is  

an image of ,kyapa ,buddha1 noted for   
its    miraculous qualities4            
,occasionally it emits a glorious light1
 and the    old records say1 that if a  
man1 actuated by sincere faith1 walks   
round    it seven times1 he obtains the 
power of knowing the place and          
condition of his previous births4       
,outside the south gate is a large      
tank1 about #gjj paces round1 the water 
of which is clear and pure as a         
mirror4 ,to the east of this is the lake
 of the ,snake-king1 ,mualinda4    ,on  
the west bank is a small ,vihra4        
,formerly1 when ,tathgata acquired      
complete enlightenment1 he sat here for 
seven days in perfect    composure1 and 
ecstatic contemplation1 while ,mualinda 
protected him    with his folds wound   
seven times round his body4 7,compare   
the    frontispiece47      ,by the side 
of the river1 not far off1 is the place 
where ,buddha    received the rice-milk1
 and where two merchants offered some   
wheat-flour and honey from their        

travelling-store 7p4 #dj of this        
volume74      ,near this a ,stpa marks  
the spot where the four ,kings presented
 ,buddha    with four golden dishes4    
,the ,lord declined such costly         
offerings4 ,then    the four ,kings1    
casting away the golden vessels1 offered
 silver ones2    and afterwards vessels 
of crystal1 lapis-lazuli1 cornelian1    
amber1    ruby1 and so on in succession2
 but the ,lord of the ,world would      
accept    none of them4 ,lastly1 the    
four ,kings offered stone vessels4      
,near this spot the ,buddha worked      
various wonders to convert those who    
were capable of conversion4 ,for        
example1 it was here that the ,buddha   
overcame the fiery snake-demon 7see p4  
#df of this volume74 ,in the    middle  
of the night the ,nga vomited forth fire
 and smoke1 and the    chamber seemed to
 be filled with fiery flames2 but the   
,buddha having    forced the fiery      
dragon into his alms-bowl1 came forth   
next day    holding it in his hand1 and 

showed it to the unbelievers4      ,to  
the south of ,mualinda's tank is a      
,stpa1 which indicates the spot    where
 ,kyapa1 having embarked in a boat to   
save ,buddha during an    inundation1   
saw the ,lord of the ,world walking on  
the water as on land4                   
,srnth near ,benares4    ,the city of   
,benares 7,banras1 properly ,vras7 is   
the most sacred  place of               
,brhmanism#aih1 and is certainly the    
second most holy place of  ,buddhism4   
,for it was from this centre that the   
stream of ,buddhist  teaching first     
flowed1 and in the days of ,aoka and of 
his immediate  successors1 ,buddhism    
must have vied with ,brhmanism in the   
number of its  shrines and sacred       
objects collected there4    ,we have    
already seen that memorial ,stpas and   
temples1 not intended to  contain       
relics1 were reared at various holy     
spots of ground1 consecrated  by the    
presence of ,gautama on special         
occasions4 ,the immense ruined          

,stpa--once a tower-like monument--at a 
spot now called ,srnth                  
7,sraga-nth#aii71 three or four miles   
from the modern city of  ,benares1 is a 
memorial of this kind4 ,it is all that  
remains of the  celebrated structure    
erected at the spot in the ,miga-dva or 
deer-park1  once called ,isi-patana 7for
 ,sanskit ishi-patana71 where ,gautama  
first  turned the wheel of the ,law     
7,dharma-akra7--that is1 where he       
preached  his first sermon 7p4 #db74 ,it
 was to this place that ,buddhist       
pilgrims  once flocked1 and here vast   
numbers of votive relic-shrines and     
,stpas  were deposited1 as at           
,buddha-,gay4    ,i visited this ancient
 ruin1 in company with the late ,mr4    
,sherring1 in  #ahgf1 and enjoyed the   
advantage of his guidance in inspecting 
it1 as  well as all that remains of the 
monastic buildings and other adjacent   
ruins1 including the octagonal tower    
called ,chaukandi1 about half a mile    
distant4 ,in his book on ,benares1 ,mr4 

,sherring has followed ,general ,sir    
,a4 ,cunningham1 who describes the      
principal monument--now of a bee-hive   
shape1 and called ,dhamek#bjj--;as #ic  
feet in diameter at the base1 #bib  feet
 in circumference1 and #abh feet above  
the general level of the soil4  ,the    
lower part--to a height of #dc feet--is 
built of stone1 and all the  upper part 
of bricks4 ,there are eight projecting  
faces with empty  niches1 which once    
held statues4    ,an old man who was in 
charge of the ruins when we examined    
them1 lighted  a candle1 and took us    
into the horizontal tunnel-like gallery 
which the  ,general had excavated some  
years before1 in the hope that relics or
  memorials of some kind might be found 
buried in the interior4 ,a shaft or     
well had been previously sunk from the  
summit1 and at the depth of #aj  feet a 
slab was discovered1 inscribed with the 
well-known ,buddhist  formula #8,ye     
dharm1' etc4 7p4 #ajd72 but the search  
for relics proved  unsuccessful4 ,the   

,stpa1 in fact1 turned out to be merely 
memorial1 like  that at ,buddha-,gay4   
,probably some monumental ,stpa existed 
here from the earliest times1 and       
certainly from ,aoka's time4 ,the       
present ,stpa was seen by ,hiouen       
,thsang1 who has described it in rather 
a confused manner 7,beal1 ii4 #de74     
,hence it must be as old as about the   
ninth century4 ,f-hien saw a ,stpa  of  
some kind there in the fifth century 7p4
 #chg74    ,about fifty yards from the  
,stpa1 ,sir ,a4 ,cunningham found the   
interesting sculpture given at p4 #dgg4 
,rja-giha4    ,rja-giha 7,pli1          
,rja-gaha7 is the modern ,rj-gr4 ,the   
old city had the  epithet ,giri-vraja1  
#8surrounded by hills#bja4' ,it was the 
first  metropolis or mother-city of     
,buddhism1 and the original capital of  
the  powerful kingdom of ,magadha1 when 
under the rule of the ,kings ,bimbi-sra 
7p4 #dh7 and his son ,ajta-atru1 who    
were contemporaries and friends of      
,gautama1 and converted by him to       

,buddhism#bjb4 ,the sacred character of 
the place is attested by the ruins of   
vast numbers of ,buddhist ,stpas  and   
,vihras which once existed here4        
,unhappily ,brhmans and ,musalmns  have 
used the materials for their temples1   
tombs1 and mosques4    ,it was here that
 ,gautama first studied under the       
,brhmans ra and  ,uddaka 7p4 #bi71 and  
here he first imbibed the philosophical 
ideas which  afterwards coloured his    
teaching4 ,it is not surprising1        
therefore1 that  at a later period of   
his career he was fond of returning to  
,rja-giha  for retirement during ,vassa2
 his two favourite resorts#bjc being the
  ,bambu grove 7,veu-vana1 p4 #dh7 and  
the hill called ,vulture-peak           
7,gidhra-ka1 ,legge's ,f-hien1 #ha1     
#hc71 both in the neighbourhood of  the 
city4    ,it was here1 too1 that several
 interesting incidents in the life of   
,buddha occurred4 ,for example1 it was  
here in a cavern that the ,buddha  often
 meditated4 ,it was here that he often  

preached and taught2 and it  was here1  
or in the neighbourhood of the city1    
that the god akra  7,indra7 once        
appeared to ,buddha1 bringing a musician
 from heaven to  entertain him1 and     
afterwards testing his knowledge by     
forty-two  questions4 ,these the god    
traced with his finger on the rock1 and 
the  impression of them1 according to   
,f-hien1 was to be seen there in his    
time1 and a monastery was built on the  
spot4 ,with reference to this  legend we
 may note that the answers to the       
forty-two questions are  supposed to be 
contained in a celebrated ,tibetan work 
called the  #8,forty-two points on which
 the ,buddha gave instruction#bjd'1 the 
importance of which is proved by its    
being translated into several           
languages4    ,it was in this           
neighbourhood1 too1 that ,buddha's two  
chief  disciples--riputra and           
,maudgalyyana 7,pli1 ,moggallna1 p4     
#dg7--;had  their noted meeting with    
,avajit 7,pli1 ,assaji71 already        

mentioned 7p4  #ajd74 ,here1 also1 a    
,jaina ascetic made a pit of fire and   
poisoned the  rice1 and then invited    
,buddha to eat4 ,lastly1 it was here    
that many of  ,deva-datta's plots       
against the ,buddha's life 7see p4 #eb7 
were carried  on4 ,the story of these is
 so interesting that ,i abridge it from 
the  ,sacred ,books of the ,east 7vol4  
xx4 p4 #bch73--      ,now at that time  
the ,venerable ,one was seated preaching
 the ,law and    surrounded by a great  
multitude1 including the king and his   
retinue4    ,and ,deva-datta rose from  
his seat1 and said1 #8,the ,venerable   
,one is now    aged1 he has accomplished
 a long journey1 and his term of life is
    nearly run4 ,let the ,venerable ,one
 now dwell at ease and give up the      
,sagha to me1 ,i will be its leader4'   
,then said the ,buddha1 #8,i would      
not give over the ,sagha1 even to       
,sriputta and ,moggallna2 how much      
less then to so evil-living a person as 
you4'      ,then ,deva-datta thought3   

#8,the ,venerable ,one denies me before 
the king1    and calls me 8evil-living10
 and exalts ,sriputta and ,moggallna4'  
,with    these thoughts in his mind he  
departed1 angry and displeased1 and went
    to ,ajta-sattu and said1 #8,do you1 
prince1 kill your father1 and become    
,rj2 and ,i will kill the ,venerable    
,one and become the ,buddha4' ,and      
prince ,ajta-sattu1 taking a dagger1    
entered his royal father's    chamber4  
,and the ,rj ,bimbi-sra said1 #8,why do 
you want to kill me1 ,o    prince8 if   
you want the kingdom1 let it be thine4' 
,and he handed it    over to            
,ajta-sattu4 ,then ,deva-datta said1    
#8,give orders1 ,o king1 to    your men1
 that ,i may deprive the ,samana ,gotama
 of life4' ,and    ,ajta-sattu did so4  
,then sixteen men were sent to kill     
,gotama4 ,they    went1 and returned and
 said1 #8,we cannot kill him4 ,great is 
the power    of the ,venerable ,one4'   
,next ,deva-datta climbed up the        
,vulture's ,peak1 and hurled down a     

mighty rock on the ,venerable ,one4 ,but
 two mountain peaks came together    and
 stopped that rock4 ,f-hien says that it
 hurt one of his toes4    ,legge1 p4    
#hc4 ,now at that time there was at     
,rja-giha an elephant    named ,nlgiri1 
fierce and a man-slayer4 ,and           
,deva-datta caused the    elephant to be
 let loose against ,gotama4 ,but the    
,venerable ,one infused    a sense of   
love into the elephant4 ,and the        
elephant extended his trunk    and took 
up the dust from off the feet of the    
,venerable ,one and    sprinkled it over
 his own head1 and retired bowing       
backwards1 gazing    upon the ,venerable
 ,one4    ,it may be noted here that the
 hell to which ,deva-datta was condemned
 for  his attempts upon the ,buddha's   
life1 is thus described by ,burmese     
authorities3--      ,the impious        
,deva-datta1 a cousin and brother-in-law
 of the ,buddha1    suffers terrible    
punishment in ,hell4 ,his feet are sunk 
ankle-deep in    burning marl4 ,his head

 is incased with a red hot metal cap    
down to the    lobe of the ears4 ,two   
large red-hot bars transfix him from    
back to    front1 two horizontally from 
right to left1 and one impales him from 
head to foot4 7,shway ,yoe's #8,burman1'
 i4 #aba47    ,it should be mentioned in
 connexion with ,rja-giha that          
,ajta-atru  built a grand ,stpa there1  
over a portion of the ,buddha's ashes1  
soon  after his cremation4    ,another  
fact which enhances the interest of this
 place is the  propinquity of the       
celebrated ,satta-pai cave 7p4 #ee71    
where the  ,buddhist brotherhood first  
assembled after their leader's death4   
rvast4    rvast 7,pli1 ,svatth71        
sometimes spelt rvasti1 has been        
identified  by ,general ,cunningham with
 a place now called ,shet-,mhet1 about  
fifty-eight miles north of ,ajdhy in    
,oudh4 ,the town is said to derive  its 
name from the fact that it was built by 
a certain ,king rvasta4  ,other native  
authorities derive it from a ishi named 

,svattha1 who is  said to have resided  
there4 ,it was certainly the ancient    
capital of  ,kosala 7,oudh71 and was    
ruled over by ,king ,prasena-jit 7,pli1 
,pasenadi71  who was ,gautama's         
contemporary4 ,moreover1 it was the     
,buddha's favourite  place of           
retreat#bje during the rainy seasons 7p4
 #dh of this volume71  about half of his
 ,vassas having been spent there#bjf in 
the ,jeta-vana  monastery built for him 
by the wealthy merchant ,antha-piika    
7,anepidu71 sometimes called ,su-datta4 
,doubtless on this account rvast was    
once much resorted to by the  ,buddha's 
followers1 and ultimately became an     
important seat of ,buddhist  learning4  
,the celebrated monastery1 the ruins of 
which still exist1 was erected in  the  
garden 7vana7 of ,prince ,jeta1 who     
parted with the land to ,su-datta  on   
condition that he would cover it with   
gold coins4 ,this was done1 till        
eighteen krores of coins had been spread
 out like a pavement on the  ground4    

,both ,f-hien and ,hiouen ,thsang       
mention this incident1 and the  former  
states that the monastery was seven     
stories high#bjg4 ,the  pavement of     
coins is represented in one of the      
sculptures belonging to  the ,stpa of   
,bharhut 7,cunningham1 pp4 #hd-hg71 as  
well as on one of the  pillars of       
,aoka's railing at ,buddha-,gay4        
rvast was the place where1 according to 
,f-hien1 the first  sandal-wood image of
 ,buddha was set up in a monastery by   
,king  ,prasena-jit 7see p4 #dga7bjh4 ,a
 colossal erect figure of the ,buddha   
was  found here in a temple excavated by
 ,sir ,a4 ,cunningham1 but this was of  
stone4    ,with regard to the celebrated
 sandal-wood image1 ,f-hien 7p4 #eg7    
relates  a strange legend of its        
preservation by a miracle3--      #8,the
 kings and people of the countries      
around vied with one another in    their
 offerings 7to the image74 ,hanging up  
about it silken canopies1    scattering 
flowers1 burning incense1 and lighting  

lamps4 ,it happened    that a rat1      
carrying in its mouth the wick of a     
lamp1 set one of the    canopies on     
fire1 which caught the ,vihra1 and the  
seven stories were    all consumed4 ,the
 kings and people were all very sad1    
supposing that    the sandal-wood image 
had been burned2 but lo6 when a small   
,vihra to    the east was opened1 there 
was seen the original image6'    ,f-hien
 goes on to describe another miracle3-- 
#8,to the north-west of the ,vihra there
 is a grove called 8,the getting    of  
,eyes40 ,formerly there were five       
hundred blind men1 who lived here2      
,buddha preached his ,law to them1 and  
they all got back their eyesight4       
,full of joy they stuck their staves in 
the earth1 and did reverence4    ,the   
staves immediately began to grow1 and   
formed a grove' 7,legge1 pp4    #eh1    
#ei74    ,hiouen ,thsang states that in 
his time the towns and monasteries about
  rvast were mostly in ruins4 ,he1 too1 
gives an interesting account of  a      

miraculous incident which occurred      
there3--      ,to the north-east of the 
,jeta-vana garden is the place where the
    ,buddha washed a sick ,monk1 who    
lived apart by himself in a solitary    
place4 ,the ,lord of the ,world seeing  
him inquired1 #8,what is your           
affliction8' ,he answered1 #8,in former 
days1 my disposition being a    careless
 one1 ,i never looked on any sick man   
with pity1 and now when ,i    am sick1  
no one looks on me4' ,thereupon the     
,buddha said to him1 #8,my    son6 ,i   
will look on you1' and touching him with
 his hand1 he healed    the sickness4   
,then leading him forth1 he washed his  
body1 and gave him    new clothes1 and  
said1 #8,from this time forward be      
diligent and exert    yourself4'        
,hearing this1 the penitent monk1 moved 
by gratitude and    filled with joy1    
followed the ,buddha and became his     
disciple4 7,founded    on ,beal1 ii4 #e1
 abridged47                             
,vail4    ,vail 7in ,pli ,vesl1 now     

,besrh7 lies twenty miles north of      
,hji-pur1 on the left bank of the       
,ganges1 and twenty-seven north-east of 
,patn4 ,this town 7the city of the      
,lihavis7 is celebrated as the scene  of
 the second ,council 7p4 #eg74 ,near it1
 at a place called ,bakhra1 is a        
celebrated ancient pillar surmounted by 
a lion 7see ,cunningham1 i4 #ei74       
,vail1 however1 is chiefly noted as one 
of the places where ,gautama  often     
preached and taught1 and where he       
stopped on his way to ,kusinr1  the     
place of his death4 ,his usual residence
 was in a ,vihra1 described  by ,f-hien 
as double-galleried1 and in a garden    
presented to him by the  courtesan      
,amba-pl1 whom he converted and induced 
to live a virtuous  life4 ,he also      
resided for the fifth year of his       
teaching in a building  called the      
,kgra#bji hall4    ,hiouen ,thsang      
speaks of the town and of the objects of
 interest round it  thus 7,beal1 ii4    
#ff-ge73--      ,both heretics and      

believers are found here living         
together4 ,there are    several hundred 
monasteries 7,saghrmas7 which are mostly
    dilapidated4 ,there are also several
 ,deva temples1 occupied by    sectaries
 of different kinds4 ,the followers of  
the ,nirgranthas 7i4 e4    of the       
,jains7 are very numerous4      ,to the 
north is a ,stpa which indicates the    
place where ,tathgata    stopped and    
took leave of the ,lihavis1 on his way  
to ,kui-nagara to    die4 ,wishing him  
to quit the world1 ,mra 7compare p4 #da7
 came to    ,buddha and said1 #8,you    
have now dwelt sufficiently long in the 
world4    ,those whom you have saved    
from the circling streams of            
transmigration    are as numerous as the
 sand4' ,the ,buddha replied1 #8,no1    
those who are    saved are as the grains
 of dust on my nail2 those who are not  
saved    are like the grains of dust on 
the whole earth4 ,nevertheless1 after   
three months ,i shall die4' ,mra hearing
 this was rejoiced1 and    departed4    

,both within and without the city of    
,vail and all round it1 the    sacred   
vestiges are so numerous1 that it would 
be difficult to recount    them all4 ,to
 the north-west is a ,stpa at the spot  
where ,buddha dwelt    when he recited  
the history of his former birth 7,jtaka7
 as a    akra-vartin or ,universal      
,monarch 7compare p4 #dbc7 possessed of 
the    seven treasures4 ,to the         
south-east is a great ,stpa1 marking the
 place    where the convocation of the  
seven hundred sages and saints was held1
    one hundred and ten years after the 
,nirva of ,buddha1 to compel the        
monks who had broken the laws of ,buddha
 to obey them4    ,it appears that the  
,lihavis of ,vail obtained a large      
quantity of  the relics of the ,buddha's
 body1 and built a ,stpa over them4     
,according to ,f-hien they also erected 
a ,stpa over half the relics of  the    
burnt body of nanda 7see p4 #dg of this 
volume71 the other being  deposited near
 ,rja-giha4 ,his narrative runs as      

follows3--      ,when nanda was going   
from ,magadha to ,vail1 wishing his     
,pari-nirva to take place there1 king   
,ajta-atru heard of his    intention1   
and set out with his retinue to follow  
him4      ,the ,lihavis1 too1 when they 
heard that nanda was coming to their    
city1 went out to meet him4 ,in this way
 both parties arrived together    at the
 river1 and nanda1 thinking to himself  
that he ought to please    both1 burnt  
his own body in the middle of the river1
 and thus attained    ,pari-nirva in a  
fiery ecstasy of ,samdhi4 ,then his body
 was divided    into two1 so that each  
got one half as a sacred relic 7,legge1 
pp4    #ge-gg74                         
,kaumb4    ,kaumb 7in ,pli ,kosmb71 now 
,kosam#baj1 on the river ,jumn1 about   
thirty miles from ,allahbd1 was once a  
place hallowed by many  ,brhmanical     
associations1 and is mentioned in the   
,rmyaa4 ,it was the  capital of the     
,kaumba country1 and is said to have    
been founded by  ,kumba1 tenth in       

descent from ,purravas4 ,without doubt  
it was one of  the most ancient cities  
of ,india4 ,it was also the city of     
,king ,udayana1  whose story is alluded 
to by the greatest of all ,sanskrit     
poets1  ,kli-dsa1 in his                
#8,cloud-,messenger#baa4' ,furthermore1 
,kaumb is the  city in which the scene  
of the ,sanskit drama ,ratnval was      
laid#bab4    ,the ,buddha resided there 
in the sixth and ninth years of his     
,buddhahood1  and probably visited the  
place at other times4 ,this was the     
chief cause  of its reputation in       
connexion with ,buddhism4 ,but it also  
derived its  sacred character from the  
fact that it contained the celebrated   
sandal-wood image#bac of the ,buddha1   
believed to have been carved  during his
 life-time1 by a sculptor sent by       
,moggallna 7see last line1  p4 #dad7 at 
,king ,udayana's request1 to the        
,trayastria heaven1 when the  ,buddha   
was there preaching the ,law to his     
mother 7see p4 #bjg74    ,in a village  

near at hand ,sir ,a4 ,cunningham 7i4   
#cjh7 found two  sculptured pillars1 and
 the pedestal of a statue inscribed with
 the #8,ye  dharm' formula 7see p4      
#ajd74 ,a great monolith was also       
discovered  there4 ,in ,f-hien's time a 
,vihra existed at the spot where the    
,buddha  had explained the ,law 7,legge1
 p4 #if74 ,hiouen ,thsang mentions that 
a  lofty ,stpa1 #bjj feet high1 was     
erected by ,aoka near at hand4    ,there
 was also a cavern in which the ,buddha 
had left his shadow  impressed on the   
rock4 ,he also speaks of ten monasteries
 all in ruins4                          
,nlanda4    ,nlanda#bad was the greatest
 seat of ,buddhist learning in ,india4  
,it has  been identified by ,sir ,a4    
,cunningham with the village of         
,baragaon1 about  seven miles north of  
,rja-giha1 about thirty miles south-east
 of the  modern ,patn1 and about forty  
miles from ,buddha-,gay4 ,sir ,alexander
  states that ,baragaon possesses       
immense ruins and more numerous         

specimens  of sculpture than any other  
place visited by him4 ,according to     
,hiouen  ,thsang1 the ,buddha preached  
the ,law there for three months4 ,the   
vast  extent and importance of the      
monastery 7,saghrma7 or monasteries at  
,nlanda have been already alluded to 7p4
 #afi74 ,f-hien1 however1 does  not     
mention them1 which seems to indicate   
that they were built  subsequently to   
,a4,d4 #dbe4 ,hiouen ,thsang1 who       
travelled in the seventh  century1 is   
said to have resided there for five     
years as a student4 ,ten  thousand      
monks1 renowned for their learning1     
lived and studied in six  magnificent   
buildings4 ,the following is an extract 
from the later  ,chinese traveller's    
description of it 7,beal1 ii4 #gj73--   
,the monks of ,nlanda1 to the number of 
several thousands1 are men of    the    
highest ability4 ,their conduct is pure 
and unblamable1 although    the rules of
 the monastery are severe4 ,the day is  
not sufficient for    asking and        

answering profound questions4 ,from     
morning till night the    monks engage  
in discussion2 the old and the young    
mutually helping one    another4 ,those 
who cannot discuss questions out of the 
,tripiaka are    little esteemed1 and   
are obliged to hide themselves for      
shame4 ,hence    learned men from       
different cities come here in multitudes
 to settle    their doubts2 and thence  
the streams of their wisdom spread far  
and    wide4 ,for this reason some      
persons usurp the name of ,nlanda       
students1    and in going to and fro    
receive honour in consequence4      ,if 
men from other quarters desire to enter 
and take part in the    discussions1 the
 keeper of the gate proposes some hard  
questions2    those who are unable to   
answer have to retire4 ,one must have   
studied    deeply both old and new      
books1 before gaining admission4 ,those 
students who come as strangers1 have to 
show their ability by hard              
discussion2 those who fail compared with

 those who succeed are as    seven or   
eight to ten4                           
,sakya4    ,sakya1 now called ,sakisa1  
about fifty miles north-west of ,kanouj1
  was identified by ,sir ,a4 ,cunningham
 in #ahdb4 ,it was evidently once a     
large town with many remarkable         
monuments1 and ought to be reckoned     
among the most sacred places of         
,buddhism4 ,hiouen ,thsang describes it 
under the name ,kie-pi-tha 7,kapitha74  
,it is said that the ,buddha's mother   
died seven days after his birth 7see  p4
 #bd of this volume71 and was thus      
deprived of the advantage of hearing    
the ,law from her son's lips4 ,to       
compensate her for this loss1 the       
,buddha  ascended by his own            
supernatural power in three steps to the
  ,trayastria heaven of ,indra 7p4      
#bjg71 to which his mother had been     
transported1 and there recited the ,law 
for three months for her benefit4  ,his 
return to earth seems to have been a    
more difficult matter2 for his  descent 

was not effected without the help of a  
ladder with three  parallel flights of  
steps1 made for him by the god ,indra4  
,f-hien describes this miraculous       
incident in the following manner        
7,legge1 #dh1 abridged73--      ,sakya  
is the place where ,buddha came down    
after ascending to the    ,trayastria   
heaven1 and there preaching his ,law for
 three months for    his mother's       
benefit4 ,buddha had ascended there by  
his supernatural    power1 without the  
knowledge of his disciples2 but seven   
days before    his return1 ,anuruddha1  
by his own supernatural vision1 saw him 
in    heaven1 and requested ,moggallna  
7see p4 #dg of this volume7 to ascend   
to ,indra's heaven to inquire after     
#8the ,world-honoured one4'             
,moggallna did so1 and returned with the
 information that in seven    days the  
,buddha would return4 ,then the kings of
 eight countries with    their people1  
not having seen ,buddha for a long time1
 were all eagerly    looking up for him 

to return4 ,but the female mendicant    
,utpal#bae    thought in her heart1     
#8,to-day1 the kings1 with their        
ministers and    people1 are all going  
to meet ,buddha4 ,i am but a woman2 how 
shall ,i    succeed in being the first  
to see him8' ,then ,buddha1 by his      
supernatural power1 changed her into the
 appearance of a ,universal    ,emperor1
 so that she was the foremost of all to 
meet and to do    reverence to him4     
,at his descent three flights of steps  
were created4 ,buddha descended    on   
the middle flight1 composed of the seven
 precious substances2    ,mah-,brahm1   
king of the ,brahm heavens 7see p4 #baa 
of this volume71    came down by a      
flight of silver steps on the right     
side1 and akra    7,indra71 lord of the 
thirty-three divinities 7p4 #bjg71      
descended by    steps of gold on the    
left side1 holding a canopy made of the 
seven    precious substances4 ,an       
innumerable multitude of gods followed4 
,no    sooner had the ,buddha come down 

than all three flights disappeared in   
the ground1 except seven steps1 which   
continued to be visible4                
,afterwards ,king ,aoka1 being eager to 
ascertain where their ends    rested1   
sent men to find out by digging4 ,they  
dug down till they    reached a yellow  
spring1 but could not discover the      
bottom of the    steps4 ,hence the king 
felt an increase of devotion1 and built 
a ,vihra    over the steps1 with a      
standing image of ,buddha sixteen cubits
 high4    ,behind the ,vihra he erected 
a stone pillar1 about fifty cubits high1
    with a lion on the top of it4 ,a    
dispute arose between some heretics     
and the ,buddhist monks about the       
ownership of the place1 and the         
former agreed to give up their claim if 
any supernatural sign    occurred2 upon 
which the lion on the column gave a     
great roar4    ,f-hien adds that a ,stpa
 was erected on the spot where ,buddha  
descended2 another where the female     
mendicant caught the first sight of     

,buddha at his descent4    ,the basement
 of ,king ,aoka's pillar was found by   
,general ,cunningham in  #ahgf4 ,on a   
previous occasion he discovered the     
capital of the ancient  pillar          
surmounted by an elephant1 which may    
have been mistaken by  ,f-hien for a    
lion 7see ,cunningham1 i4 #bgd74        
,hiouen ,thsang1 in his account of the  
three ladders 7,beal1 i4 #bjb71 says    
that they were arranged side by side    
from north to south1 so that those  who 
descended might have their faces to the 
east1 and that the flight by  which     
,indra descended was of crystal 7not of 
gold71 while that used by  ,brahm was of
 silver1 and the ,buddha's steps were of
 gold 7or of the  seven precious        
substances1 of which gold was one74     
,this indicated the  superiority of     
,buddha over the two gods who           
accompanied him4    ,in harmony with    
these ideas ,indra and ,brahm are       
sometimes represented  in ,buddhistic   
sculptures standing one on each side of 

the ,buddha1 and  protecting him4 ,they 
were also present at his birth 7see p4  
#dhc and  engraving opposite p4 #dgg74  
,hiouen ,thsang adds that some centuries
 before his time the ladders still      
existed in their original position2 but1
 when he visited the spot1 they  had    
sunk into the earth1 and disappeared4   
,sakya1 however1 was still  much        
frequented4 ,a magnificent image of the 
,buddha was preserved in a  large       
monastery there1 and #ajjj priests were 
studying the doctrines of  the          
,sammatya1 a school of the ,hna-yna1 in 
four monasteries4  ,furthermore1 many   
#8myriads' of pious laymen lived in the 
neighbourhood4    ,the story of         
,buddha's descent from heaven by help of
 golden steps is  commonly believed both
 in ,ceylon and ,burma to the present   
day4 ,the  legend1 as current in        
,ceylon1 is given by ,spence ,hardy     
7,manual1 p4 #caa74    ,it appears that 
when ,buddha was about to return to     
earth from the god  ,indra's heaven1 the

 god reflected that1 although ,buddha   
had ascended in  three steps1 his       
descent ought to be celebrated #8with   
special honours4'  ,he therefore caused 
a ladder of gold to extend from the     
,mountain ,meru  7see p4 #bjf of the    
present ,lectures7 to ,sakya1 #hj1jjj   
,yojanas#baf in  length4 ,the steps were
 alternately of gold1 silver1 coral1    
ruby1 emerald  and other gems4 ,at the  
right side of the ladder he created     
another1 also  of gold1 by which ,indra1
 blowing the conch1 descended1          
accompanied by  his own gods2 and on the
 left another ladder of silver1 by which
 ,brahm  and the ,brahm gods 7p4 #baj7  
descended1 holding umbrellas over the   
,buddha4 ,the three flights of steps    
appeared to the people of the earth     
like three rainbows4 ,when ,buddha      
commenced his descent all the worlds    
were illuminated by the light from his  
body4    ,with this extravagant         
myth--believed in as a historical fact  
by most  ,buddhists--we may contrast the

 simple narrative of ,jacob's dream in  
,genesis xxviii4    ,nevertheless the   
legend is curious1 and ,i was greatly   
pleased by  discovering in the ,indian  
,section of the ,south ,kensington      
,museum1 a  small bronze model of the   
triple ladder1 lately dug up at         
,moulmein4 ,mr4  ,purdon ,clarke1       
,c4,i4,e41 the present ,keeper1 kindly  
had the model  photographed1 and        
presented me with a drawing of it4 ,this
 ,i have had  engraved1 and here give4  
,illustration3     ,it will be observed 
that an image of the ,buddha is         
represented above the  ladder1 as if    
seated in ,indra's heaven1 and as if    
engaged in the act of  teaching there2  
while the earth is typically represented
 below in the  shape of a square        
platform1 with four small ,buddhist     
temples1 one at  each of the four       
quarters of the compass 7compare p4     
#he74    ,a ruder representation of the 
ladder occurs in the sculptures of the  
,bharhut ,stpa 7,cunningham1 p4 #ib74   

,the ,general found an imperfect        
representation of it carved in          
soap-stone at ,sakisa in #ahgf 7,report1
  xi4 #bf74                             
,sketa4    ,sketa is a name of the      
ancient city ,ayodhy 7now ,ajdhy7       
described in  ,valmki's great epic the  
,rmyana1 and believed to have been      
founded by  ,manu1 the progenitor of the
 human race4 ,this renowned city1 which 
was a  great centre of ,brhmanism1 was  
also1 no doubt1 at one time a           
considerable centre of ,buddhism4 ,at   
all events1 the identification of       
certain ,buddhist sites there has been  
made clear by ,sir ,a4 ,cunningham1  who
 considers ,sketa to be the same as the 
,pi-so-kia 7,vikh7 of ,hiouen  ,thsang  
and the ,sh-che or ,sh-khe of ,f-hien4  
,the former found twenty  monasteries   
there1 and #cjjj priests studying the   
,little ,vehicle  according to the      
,sammatya school2 also fifty ,deva      
temples and very many  heretics4    ,in 
one of the monasteries resided the      

,arhat ,deva-arm1 who wrote a  treatise 
called the ,vijna-kya-stra in defence of
 the doctrine of  the non-existence of  
any ,ego or personal self4 ,a ,stpa1    
#bjj feet high1  was built by ,aoka in  
the place where ,buddha is supposed to  
have  preached and taught during six    
years4    ,both ,f-hien and ,hiouen     
,thsang mention the legend that he one  
day threw  on the ground a twig he had  
used to clean his teeth 7danta-kshha71  
which sprouted and grew into a          
miraculous tree seven cubits high1 at   
which height it always remained4 ,the   
,brhmans became jealous of the  miracle 
and sometimes cut the tree down1        
sometimes uprooted it1 but it  always   
grew again and remained at the same     
height4 ,here also is the  place where  
the four ,buddhas 7p4 #djj7 walked and  
sat 7,legge1 pp4 #ed1 #ee2  ,beal1 i4   
#bdj74                                  
,kany-kubja 7,kanouj74                  
,kany-kubja#bag is the ,sanskit name for
 the ancient city of ,kanouj2  7often   

spelt ,kanoj71 once the capital of      
,northern ,india1 and said to be  the   
oldest city in ,india1 next to ,ayodhy4 
,when ,hiouen ,thsang visited this place
 it was the capital of the  celebrated  
monarch ,harsha-vardhana1 also called   
ilditya 7see p4 #afg of  this volume71  
whose kingdom extended from ,kashmr to  
,assam and from the  river ,narbad to   
,nepl4 ,when he carried off a           
tooth-relic of the ,buddha  from        
,kashmr1 his procession back to his     
capital was attended by a large  number 
of tributary kings4 ,hiouen ,thsang1 in 
describing the piety of  this great     
monarch1 says of him1 that #8he sought  
to plant the tree of  religious merit to
 such an extent that he forgot to sleep 
and to eat4'  ,he goes on to state as   
follows3--      ,king ilditya forbade   
the slaughter of any living thing as    
food on    pain of death4 ,he built     
several thousand ,stpas1 each about #ajj
 feet    high4 ,then in all the highways
 of the towns and villages throughout   

,india he erected hospices1 and         
stationed physicians there with         
medicines for travellers and the poor   
persons round about4 ,on all    spots   
where there were holy traces of ,buddha1
 he built monasteries4    ,once in five 
years he held the great assembly called 
,moksha4 ,then    every year he         
assembled the monks1 and bestowed on    
them the four kinds    of alms 7food1   
drink1 medicine1 clothing74 ,he ordered 
them to carry on    discussions1 and    
himself judged of their arguments4 ,he  
rewarded the    good and punished the   
wicked4 ,he promoted the men of talent1 
and    degraded evil men4 ,wherever he  
moved he dwelt in a travelling-palace1  
and provided choice meats for men of all
 sorts of religion4 ,of these    the    
,buddhist priests would be perhaps a    
thousand2 the ,brhmans five             
hundred#bah4 ,he divided each day into  
three portions4 ,during the    first he 
occupied himself on matters of          
government2 during the second    he     

practised himself in religious devotion 
7,beal1 i4 #bad74    ,notwithstanding   
,hiouen ,thsang's description of various
 ,stpas1  monasteries and monuments seen
 by him1 ,general ,sir ,a4 ,cunningham  
was not  able to identify any of the    
existing ruins in the neighbourhood of  
,kanouj1 #8so completely has almost     
every trace of ,hind occupation been    
obliterated by the ,musalmns' 7,report1 
i4 #bhd74    ,f-hien mentions a ,stpa   
near the town1 built on the spot where  
the  ,buddha preached a discourse on    
#8the bitterness and vanity of life1'   
comparing it to #8a bubble or foam on   
water' 7,legge1 #ed74                   
,pali-putra4    ,pali-putra 7now ,patn7 
seems to have existed as a village at a 
very  early period4 ,its ancient name   
was ,kusuma-pura4 ,it was enlarged and  
practically founded about the time of   
the ,buddha's death by  ,ajta-atru#bai1 
who did not1 however1 remove there from 
his own  capital city ,rja-giha4 ,one of
 his successors1 the great ,king ,aoka1 

the well-known patron of ,buddhism 7p4  
#ff71 converted ,pali-putra into  the   
metropolis of the kingdom of ,magadha1  
and it thenceforward became an          
important centre of ,buddhism4 ,sir ,a4 
,cunningham states that it continued    
flourishing as the capital of the great 
,gupta kingdom during the fourth  and   
fifth centuries of the ,christian era4  
,f-hien relates a tradition that ,king  
,aoka's palace in the city was  built by
 genii 7spirits71 who brought great     
rocks and constructed  chambers by      
heaping them together4 ,he describes a  
monastery belonging to  the ,great      
,vehicle1 and a temple belonging to the 
,little ,vehicle1 in the  neighbourhood 
of the city1 and gives an account of a  
,buddhist procession  of four-wheeled   
cars and images which took place once a 
year4 ,each car  was twenty-two feet or 
more high1 and had five stories1 with   
niches on  four sides1 in which were    
placed images of the ,buddha and the    
,bodhi-sattvas1 along with images of the

 gods 7dvas74 ,they were made to  look  
like moving pagodas 7or ,dgabas74 ,the  
,hinds1 as we know1 have  similar       
car-processions to this day1 when the   
images of ,kisha are  dragged through   
the streets of towns and villages4      
,f-hien mentions the interesting fact   
that the nobles of the country had      
founded hospitals in the city to which  
destitute1 crippled1 and diseased       
persons might repair1 and receive       
advice1 food1 and medicines suited to   
their cases1 gratuitously4 ,he adds that
 ,aoka1 wishing to build #hd1jjj        
,stpas#bbj in place of the eight        
originally constructed over the         
,buddha's ashes1 built the first ,stpa  
and a pillar near ,pali-putra4    ,near 
it he says was an impression of the     
,buddha's foot1 over which a  temple    
with a door towards the north had been  
erected 7,legge1 pp4 #gg-hj2  ,beal1 i4 
lv-lviii74 ,the position of the ,stpa   
and column has been  discovered by ,sir 
,a4 ,cunningham 7xi4 #aeg1 #aeh74       

,kesarya4    ,kesarya is a large village
 about thirty miles distant from ,vail  
7,besrh74 ,it is chiefly remarkable for 
a mound of ruined brick-work1 #fb  feet 
in height1 supporting a solid brick     
,stpa 7nearly #fh feet in  diameter71   
which is also partly in ruins4 ,the     
people call it the ,stpa  of the        
akravart 7,universal ,monarch7 ,vea1    
father of ,king ,pithu4 ,in  ,manu1     
,,vii4 #da2 ,,ix4 #ff1 #fg1 ,king ,vea  
is described as an arrogant monarch  who
 resisted the authority of the ,brhmans4
 ,probably he favoured the  ,buddhists4 
,at any rate the ,buddhists assert that 
the remarkable ,stpa at  this place was 
built to mark the spot where ,gautama   
,buddha preached a  discourse1 in which 
he described one of his previous births 
as a  akravart king4    ,not far from   
the ,stpa a small mound has been        
excavated1 and the head  and shoulders  
of a colossal statue of ,buddha brought 
to light  7,cunningham1 i4 #fg74        
,kui-nagara4    ,kui-nagara 7in ,pli    

,kusi-nr7 was the place where the       
,buddha died1  or--to speak more        
correctly--passed away in ,pari-nirva   
7see pp4 #dh1 #di1  #adj74 ,it was long 
searched for in vain1 but has recently  
been identified  by ,sir ,a4 ,cunningham
 with the modern ,kasia1 eighty miles   
east of  ,kapila-vastu1 and #abj miles  
,n4,n4,e4 of ,benares4    ,neither      
,f-hien nor ,hiouen ,thsang say much    
about ,kui-nagara1 except  that it was  
deserted and had few inhabitants2 but   
the latter's allusion  to the ,buddha's 
passing away out of the world at this   
place1 and his  account of the          
subsequent assembling of the first      
council at ,rja-giha  by order of the   
great ,kyapa 7pp4 #dg1 #ee71 is so      
interesting and  curious that ,i here   
give an abstract of his narrative1 based
 on ,mr4  ,beal's translation 7ii4      
#afa73--      ,once when the great      
,kyapa was seated in meditation1        
suddenly a    bright light burst forth1 
and the earth shook4 ,then1 exerting his

    faculty of supernatural vision1 he  
saw the ,lord ,buddha passing away      
into ,pari-nirva between two trees4     
,forthwith he ordered his    followers  
to accompany him to the city of         
,kui-nagara4 ,on the way    there they  
met a ,brhman1 who1 on being asked      
whence he came1 replied1    #8,from     
,kui-nagara1 where ,i saw your master   
entering into ,nirva4 ,a    vast        
multitude of heavenly beings were around
 him4'      ,kyapa having heard these   
words said1 #8,the sun of wisdom has    
extinguished his rays4 ,the world is now
 in darkness4 ,the illustrious          
guide--the ,king of the ,law--has left  
us2 the whole world is empty and        
afflicted4 ,men and gods are left       
without a guide4' ,accordingly1 he      
proceeded to the two trees1 and looking 
on ,buddha1 offered worship4    ,but    
certain careless monks said one to      
another1 with satisfaction1             
#8,tathgata has gone to rest4 ,this is  
good for us2 for now1 if we             

transgress1 who is there to reprove us8'
 ,then ,kyapa was deeply    moved1 and  
resolved to secure obedience to the     
teaching of ,buddha4      ,addressing   
the assembled multitude1 he said1 #8,we 
ought to collect the    ,law4 ,those who
 have kept it without failure1 whose    
powers of    discrimination are clear1  
such persons may form the assembly4     
,those    who are only learners must    
depart to their homes4'      ,on this   
they went away1 and only #iii men were  
left1 including nanda4    ,but the great
 ,kyapa excluded nanda as being yet a   
learner4    ,addressing him1 he said1   
#8,you are not yet free from defect2    
you1 too1    must leave the assembly4   
,you were a personal attendant on       
,buddha1 you    loved him much1 and are1
 therefore1 not free from the ties of   
affection4'      ,so nanda retired to a 
desert place4 ,wearied out1 he desired  
to lie    down4 ,scarcely had his head  
reached the pillow1 when lo6 he obtained
    the condition of an ,arhat4 ,then he

 returned to the door of the            
assembly4 ,but ,kyapa said to him1      
#8,have you got rid of all ties8 ,if    
so1 prove it2 exercise your spiritual   
power and enter without the door        
being opened4' ,then nanda entered      
through the key-hole1 and having    paid
 reverence to the assembled monks1 sat  
down4    ,this power of reducing the    
body to the size of an atom1 so as to be
 able  to pass through so minute an     
aperture as a key-hole1 was one of the  
supernatural faculties supposed to      
belong to perfected saints or ,arhats   
7compare pp4 #acc1 #bde of these        
,lectures74    ,the consideration of    
,buddhist ,sacred ,places might lead us 
on to various  hallowed spots in other  
,buddhist countries1 for example1       
,anurdha-pura1  ,adam's ,peak and       
,kelani in ,ceylon2 the site of the     
great pagoda at  ,rangoon1 and of that  
near ,mandalay in ,burma2 the site of   
the ,buddha's  foot-print 7,phra ,bat7  
in ,siam2 the snows of ,kinchinjunga in 

,sikkim2 the  city of ,lhssa and its    
monasteries in ,tibet2 ,kuren in        
,mongolia2 but all  these1 and other    
places1 have either been incidentally   
mentioned in  previous ,lectures or will
 be more fully noticed hereafter4       
,,lecture ,,xv4                         
,monasteries and ,temples4              
,buddhist monasteries deserve a fuller  
notice than the incidental  allusions we
 have made to them in previous          
,lectures4    ,the duty of dwelling     
under trees1 and not in houses1         
according to the  example set by all the
 ,buddhas 7see p4 #acf71 and especially 
by ,gautama  ,buddha himself1 during his
 long course of meditation 7see p4 #ca71
 was in  theory supposed to be binding  
on all true monks4 #8,the root of a tree
 for  an abode' was one of #8the four   
,resources1' of which every monk was    
allowed to avail himself1 and the       
enumeration of which formed part of  the
 admission-ceremonies 7see p4 #hj74     
,at the same time certain dispensations 

or indulgences were specially  granted  
at those ceremonies1 one of which was   
permission to live in  covered          
residences1 when not itinerating4 ,the  
five kinds of dwellings  permissible    
under varying circumstances are         
described in ulla-vagga  7,,vi4 #a1 #b74
 ,they are ,vihras 7monasteries71       
,ahayogas 7i4 e4 houses of  a peculiar  
shape71 storied dwellings 7prsda7#bba1  
mansions 7harmya71  and caves 7see note1
 p4 #ha of this volume74    ,it is clear
 that any painful exposure of the body  
to the violent storms  of ,india was    
incompatible with one of the principles 
of ,buddhism1 which1  though it taught  
self-denial and self-sacrifice of a     
particular kind1  deprecated all        
personal self-inflicted pain and        
austerity4    ,yet it appears 7from     
,mah-vagga1 ,,iii4 #ae7 that at the time
 of his first  residence at ,rja-giha   
7see p4 #bi of these ,lectures71 the    
,buddha had  not yet instituted #8the   
,retreat' during the rains 7,vassa74    

,hence the  monks were in the habit of  
going on their travels alike during     
winter1  summer1 and the rainy season4  
,the people complained of this1 and said
 that the monks in walking about  during
 wet weather were unable to avoid       
crushing vegetable life and  treading on
 minute living things4 ,thereupon the   
,buddha prescribed that  the monks were 
to keep #8,vassa1' and refrain from     
peregrination during  the rains4        
,soon afterwards1 when the ,buddha had  
left ,rja-giha and had taken up  his    
abode during ,vassa in the ,jeta-vana   
garden at ,svatth 7see p4 #djg71  a     
wealthy and pious layman 7,upsaka7 who  
had built a monastery 7,vihra7  for the 
monks1 sent to invite them to reside in 
it1 saying that he  wished to hear them 
recite the ,law and to bestow gifts upon
 them4 ,the  ,buddha permitted them to  
go1 but required them to return in seven
 days4  ,he gave the same permission    
when another rich and pious layman had  
provided other residences and           

conveniences for the monks1 such as a   
storied house1 a mansion1 a store-room1 
a cave1 a refectory1 a bathing  room1 a 
well-house1 a pavilion1 a park1 etc4    
,on the other hand1 when1 on a          
particular occasion1 a monk wished to   
keep  ,vassa in a cattle-pen            
7,mah-vagga1 ,,iii4 #ab7 the ,buddha    
permitted him to  do so4 ,so1 again1 on 
another occasion he allowed a man to    
keep ,vassa in  a caravan1 and on a     
third occasion in a covered boat or     
ship4 ,but it is  recorded that he      
prohibited ,vassa from being kept in the
 open air1 or in  the hollow of         
trees#bbb 7see ,mah-vagga1 ,,iii4 #ab1  
#c74    ,it is evident from all this1   
that even in the early days of          
,buddhism1  rich laymen were in the     
habit of seeking to acquire religious   
merit by  providing comfortable         
habitations for the monks2 and although 
at first  the use of such luxuries was  
only permitted in the rainy season1 this
  restriction was soon removed1 and a   

residence in covered dwellings  became  
usual at all seasons of the year4       
,then1 as ,buddhism spread1 kings1      
princes1 and rich men competed with     
each other for the privilege of erecting
 vast monasteries--sometimes  called    
,vihras#bbc1 sometimes ,saghrmas--to    
which temples1 libraries1  and schools  
were generally attached1 and in which   
dwelt wealthy  communities of monks1 who
 were allowed to hold property in land4 
,the founding of extensive and important
 institutions of this kind was1  of     
course1 an exceptional proceeding4 ,as a
 general rule1 collections of  monastic 
dwellings were of a simple and          
unostentatious character4 ,in  various  
parts of ,india are to be seen in the   
present day ancient  ,buddhist          
cave-monasteries now untenanted1 some of
 them--such as the caves  of ,barbar--as
 old as the third century ,b4,c4    ,i  
myself visited those at ,elor 7,elur71  
twelve miles from ,aurangbd in  the     
,nizm's territory1 as well as others at 

,nsik1 ,krle1 and other  places4 ,the   
,elor caves are possibly as old as the  
third century#bbd1  and with the        
adjoining ,brhmanical and ,jain caves of
 later date1 extend  for one mile and a 
quarter along the scarp of an elevated  
plateau4 ,the  three groups of caves    
rival each other in the beauty and      
interest of  their sculptures1 and      
together constitute one of the wonders  
of  ,india--their position side by side 
proving that the adherents of the  three
 systems lived together in harmony4     
,among the ,buddhist caves are          
beautiful #8aityas' or halls for general
 worship 7see p4 #dej71  refectories for
 commensality1 and cells without number 
for the  habitation of the monks4 ,all  
the excavations had become partially    
filled  up2 but the visit of the ,prince
 of ,wales in #ahgf stimulated the      
,nizm's  government to clear away the   
dust and rubbish of centuries4    ,then1
 besides cave-monasteries1 the ruins of 
extensive monastic  establishments built

 of brick1 stone1 or other less durable 
materials1  are scattered everywhere    
throughout ,india4    ,those of the vast
 monastery of ,nlanda near ,rja-giha1   
and others at  various other sacred     
places1 have been already described 7see
 p4 #dab74    ,turning next to the      
monastic structures of modern ,buddhist 
countries1  and beginning with ,ceylon1 
we find that in that island1 as ,spence 
,hardy  has pointed out1 and as ,i      
myself observed during my sojourn there1
 the  residences of the monks are of    
very simple construction1 and often     
extremely mean in appearance4 ,they are 
called ,pn-sls 7,paa-l   ,sanskit       
,para-l7 because supposed to be made of 
leaves4 ,in general1  however1 they are 
constructed of wattle filled up with    
mud1 the roof  being covered with straw1
 or with the platted leaves of the      
cocoa-nut4  ,they are always dirty and  
always abound in cobwebs4    ,a         
monastery which ,i saw near ,kandy      
consisted of an oblong rectangular      

court-yard1 surrounded in the interior  
by a kind of roofed cloister or         
verandah1 out of which opened the monks'
 cells1 lighted only from the  sky above
 the court4 ,the interior walls of both 
cloister and cells were  begrimed with  
patches of dirt and masses of cobwebs1  
which are never  touched for fear of    
breaking the first ,buddhist            
commandment1 #8kill not'  7p4 #abf74    
,of course there are monasteries of a   
better and more imposing type1 such  as 
that attached to the ,mligwa temple of  
the sacred eye-tooth on the  ,kandy lake
 7see p4 #ded74    ,in ,burma the       
ordinary residences of the monks appear 
to be simple in  character1 like those  
in ,ceylon4 ,in ,siam1 on the contrary1 
they are  sometimes elaborate1 and often
 have richly-covered entrances4 ,at the 
same time the ,siamese monks 7according 
to ,mr4 ,alabaster7 are in the  habit of
 itinerating a good deal1 only remaining
 in their monasteries  during the three 
months of rains1 when residence there is

 imperative4    ,speaking of the larger 
and more imposing monasteries 7,kyoung7 
in ,burma1  ,mr4 ,scott says 7,i give   
his account in an abbreviated form73--  
,the monasteries are built of teak1 or1 
sometimes in ,mandalay and ,lower       
,burma1 of brick4 ,the shape is always  
oblong1 and the inhabited portion    is 
raised on posts and pillars1 eight or   
ten feet above the ground4    ,they are1
 like all the other houses in the       
country1 only one story    high2 for if 
it is an indignity to a layman to have  
anyone's feet over    his head#bbe1 it  
is much more so to a member of the      
brotherhood4 ,the    space between the  
ground and the floor is always kept     
open1 and is    never used except by the
 monastery school-boys4 ,a flight of    
steps of    stone or wood leads up to   
the verandah1 which extends along the   
north    and south sides1 and frequently
 all round4 ,from the raised floor thus 
reached1 rises the building1 with tier  
upon tier of massive roofs 7in          

diminishing stages71 giving the         
appearance of many stories when there   
is only one4 ,the accommodation is      
simple4 ,it consists in the main of a   
central hall divided into two portions1 
one level with the verandah    where the
 scholars are taught1 and most of the   
duties of the monastery    carried on1  
and the other a dais1 raised about two  
feet above the    level of the rest of  
the building4 ,seated upon this1 the    
monks are    accustomed to receive      
visitors1 and at the back1 against the  
wall1 are    arranged the images of     
,buddha1 a large one usually standing in
 the    centre on a kind of altar1 with 
candles1 flowers1 praying flags1 and    
other offerings placed before it4 ,on   
shelves alongside are a number of       
smaller figures of gold1 silver1        
alabaster1 clay or wood1 according to   
the popularity of the monastery1 and the
 religious character of the             
neighbourhood4 ,occasionally there are  
dormitories for the monks1 but    as a  

rule they sleep in the central hall1    
where the mats which form    their beds 
may be seen rolled up against the wall4 
,the whole area of    the extensive     
compound in which the monastery stands  
is enclosed by a    heavy teak fence    
with massive posts and rails1 seven or  
eight feet    high4 ,the laity1 when    
they enter1 take off their shoes and    
carry them    in their hands4 ,this rule
 applies to the highest in the land4    
,the daily life of the monks inhabiting 
monasteries of this kind in ,burma  has 
been already described 7see pp4 #caa-cad
 of these ,lectures74    ,if we now pass
 to northern ,buddhist countries we     
shall find that1 as a  general rule1 the
 dwellings of monks are insignificant   
tenements of poor  construction1        
attached to or built round small chapels
 or shrines4  ,sometimes the monks live 
in the rooms built over such chapels4   
,sir ,richard ,temple 7,journal1 ii4    
#bjg7 visited a so-called monastery at  
,pemyangchi 7in ,sikkim71 which         

consisted of a single building with two 
stories4 ,in the upper some of the monks
 resided1 and a chapel formed the       
lower4    ,the temple-monastery ,i      
myself visited in ,british ,sikkim1 near
 ,drjling1  is similar4 ,the exterior   
appearance might be compared to that of 
some  small ,dissenting chapel in an    
,english village4 ,the thatched roof1   
which  once gave it a picturesque       
appearance1 has recently been removed1  
and a  roof of modern construction      
substituted4 ,the shrine or temple is on
 the  ground floor1 while the upper     
floor is the abode of the attendant     
priests1 and seems also to serve as a   
store-room with cupboards for  their    
equipments4 ,the contents of the        
ground-floor temple1 with its  altar at 
the further end and shelves for the     
sacred books on one side1  are very     
indistinctly seen1 being only lighted up
 by a #8dim religious  light1' when the 
door is kept wide open4 ,i noticed three
 images on the  altar4    ,the case is  

different when large numbers of monks   
congregate in  particular places4 ,in   
some districts of ,ladk1 ,mongolia and  
,tibet1  monasteries 7or ,lmaseries as  
they are sometimes called7 have been    
erected1 which for vastness1            
magnificence1 and grandeur of situation 
amid splendid scenery1 are unequalled in
 any part of the world4    ,according to
 strict rule1 retired localities should 
be chosen4 ,hence  large monastic       
establishments are often found in       
solitary places#bbf  and elevated       
situations2 for instance1 in ,ladk those
 at ,lma ,yurru and  ,hemis are more    
than #aa1jjj feet above the sea1 and    
that at ,hanle is  #ad1jjj feet4 ,they  
resemble romantic castles towering      
upwards in the  midst of rocks1 crags1  
and snowy mountains4    ,another        
monastery at ,klang 7,kyelang71 in the  
,british ,tibetan province  of ,lahl    
7contiguous to ,ladk71 stands on the    
spur of a mountain1 at an  elevation of 
#ab1jjj feet1 and is approached through 

grand ravines and  glaciers1 so that    
occasionally1 after snow-storms1 those  
who pass to and  fro are buried in      
avalanches4    ,the outer walls of large
 monasteries of this kind in secluded   
situations  are generally lofty4 ,often 
they are made of stone or brick1        
plastered  with mud and surmounted with 
little pinnacles and poles1 on which are
  prayer-flags4 ,within the walls are   
cells for the monks1 the abode of the   
,head or ,abbot1 a room for holding     
books1 a temple1 an assembly-hall1 a    
refectory1 store-houses1 receptacles for
 musical instruments1 masks1  staves1   
etc42 the buildings being often arranged
 in rows1 and always  intermixed with   
,stpas 7see p4 #ejd7 and monuments4 ,the
 walls of the  vestibules and of the    
great hall are usually ornamented with  
fresco-paintings1 representing subjects 
from the ,buddhist ,jtakas 7p4  #aaa74  
,generally there are corridors or       
covered cloisters lined with            
prayer-wheels1 or open walks paved with 

stone1 called in ,sanskit  ankramaa     
7,pli1 ankamana71 for the monks to      
perambulate up and down  in meditation4 
,these are supposed to be constructed   
after the pattern of  the stone         
walking-places used by the ,buddha      
himself 7see p4 #djj74    ,in the       
monastery at ,klang the roof of the     
great hall is supported by  massive     
beams garnished with belts1 swords1     
yaks' tails1 huge and  terrible masks1  
and all sorts of odds and ends4 ,on one 
side is a huge  praying-wheel1 on each  
revolution of which a bell is struck4 ,a
 dim  subdued light pervades the entire 
hall1 exaggerating the ghastly          
hideousness of the figures#bbg4    ,to  
take as another instance--the monastery 
or ,lmasery of ,kunbum 7or  ,kumbum7    
north of ,tibet1 celebrated as the      
birth-place of ,tsong ,khapa 7p4  #bgg71
 and situated1 according to ,m4 ,huc1 on
 a mountain intersected by a  broad and 
deep ravine3--      ,on either side of  
the ravine1 and up the slopes of the    

mountain1 rise1    in amphitheatrical   
curves1 the white dwellings of the      
,lmas1 each with    its little terrace  
and enclosing wall1 while here and there
 above them    #8tower the temples1 with
 their gilt roofs glittering with a     
thousand    colours4' ,the houses of the
 superior monks are distinguished by    
pennants1 floating above small hexagonal
 turrets1 while those of the    ordinary
 monks are simple cells4 ,on all sides  
mystical sentences1 in    the ,tibetan  
character1 meet the eye 7see p4 #cha71  
some inscribed on    doors1 some on     
walls and stones1 or on linen flags     
fixed on poles4      ,almost everywhere 
are conical vessels1 in which incense   
and    odoriferous wood are burning2    
while numbers of ,lmas circulate through
    the streets of the monastery in     
their red and yellow dresses--grave in  
their deportment1 and1 although under no
 obligation to silence1    speaking     
little1 and that little in a low voice4 
,this ,lmasery of ,kunbum enjoys so     

great a reputation1 that the            
worshippers of ,buddha make pilgrimages 
to it from all parts of ,mongolia1      
,tartary1 and ,tibet1 and on the        
occasion of great festivals the         
confluence of strangers is immense4 ,it 
is much frequented by ,eastern          
,tibetans4    ,near ,kunbum is a much   
smaller monastery1 devoted to the study 
of  medicine4 ,it is at the foot of a   
rocky mountain1 on the heights of which 
dwell certain contemplative monks4 ,m4  
,huc saw one of these hermits1 who      
never communicated with the outer world 
except for food1 which he drew  up to   
his rocky cell by the help of a bag tied
 to a long rope 7ii4 #gc74    ,some     
mention should also be made of the      
monasteries at ,kuku khotun1 #8the  blue
 city' in ,tartary4 ,that town contains 
no less than five great  ,lmaseries and 
fifteen affiliated monasteries1 with a  
grand total of  #bj1jjj ,lmas dwelling  
in them4 ,the chief monastery is that of
 the #8,five  ,towers'--not to be       

confounded with one of the same name in 
the ,chinese  province of ,shan si4     
,this latter is a celebrated place for  
burials 7see p4 #cgj71 and pilgrims  may
 there be edified by a sight of the     
,buddha's shadow impressed on a  rock4  
,another example of a monastery in a    
remote situation is that of ,kurun or   
,kuren 7see p4 #bie71 situated on the   
slope of a mountain in ,mongolia4 ,in   
this celebrated monastery of the ,grand 
,lma ,trantha #cj1jjj ,lmas  7according 
to ,m4 ,huc7 are lodged and supported4  
,the plain at the foot of the mountain  
is constantly covered with tents    of  
various sizes for the convenience of    
pilgrims4 ,hither throng the            
worshippers of ,buddha from the most    
remote countries4      ,viewed from a   
distance1 the white cells of the ,lmas1 
built on the    declivity in horizontal 
lines one above the other1 resemble the 
steps    of an enormous altar1 of which 
the temple of the ,trantha ,lma         
appears to constitute 7in ,roman        

,catholic phraseology7 #8the            
tabernacle4' ,in this country ,trantha  
is the saint par excellence1    and     
there is not a ,tartar ,khalka who does 
not take a pride in calling    himself  
his disciple4    ,passing on now to     
,tibet1 we find that in its principal   
provinces the  number of monastic       
institutions connected with its two     
respective  capitals of ,lhssa and      
,tashi ,lunpo1 is more than a thousand1 
with  #dia1bdb ,lmas4 ,this is the      
estimate of the latest traveller#bbh4   
,according to ,huc1 more than thirty    
large monasteries may be reckoned in    
the neighbourhood of ,lhssa alone4      
,adverting for a moment to ,lhssa       
itself1 we may note that this #8city of 
the gods'--the chief town of the        
province of ,u1 situated on the ,ki-hu  
river#bbi--;had in #ahed about #ae1jjj  
inhabitants within a circumference  of  
two-and-a-half miles4 ,according to a   
,chinese proverb1 its chief  inmates    
have always been #8priests1 women1 and  

dogs4' ,koeppen affirms  that ,lhssa has
 always been a greater nest of          
monk-priests than ,rome has  ever been4 
,doubtless its population is now        
increased1 and includes a considerable  
proportion of laymen2 yet1 in all       
likelihood1 at least two-thirds of the  
inhabitants are monks2 and it cannot be 
too often repeated that1  according to  
the true theory of ,buddhism1 the only  
raison d'tre of the  laity is to wait   
upon the monkhood4    ,moreover1 ,lhssa1
 next to ,benares and ,mecca1 is1       
perhaps1 the most  frequented place of  
pilgrimage upon earth4 ,scarcely a day  
passes on  which the streets do not     
overflow with crowds of pilgrims--some  
from  every quarter of ,tibet1 some from
 ,bhutn and other ,himlayan regions1    
some from all parts of ,mongolia4 ,all  
meet here to worship the incarnated     
representative of the ,bodhi-sattva     
7,avalokitevara7 manifested in the      
,dalai ,lma--to receive his blessing1   
his consecrated pills1 and his          

prayer-papers 7see p4 #cca of these     
,lectures74 ,the residence of this      
,lmistic ,pope is at ,potala4    ,in    
fact ,potala on the north-west side of  
,lhssa is what the ,vatican is  to      
,rome4 ,it existed in ancient times as a
 palace1 but was rebuilt and  converted 
into a palace-monastery by the          
celebrated fifth ,dalai ,lma  ,navang   
,lobsang1 ,a4,d4 #afag-afhb 7p4 #bib of 
this volume71 and from that  time       
forward became the residence of all the 
,dalai ,lmas1 who had before  lived     
either at ,sera or at ,brepung 7,dapung1
 see p4 #ddb74    ,in its striking and  
unique position1 it is even more        
imposing than the  ,vatican4    ,imagine
 a lofty structure erected on an        
isolated hill#bcj1 rising  abruptly from
 the plain with three long summits or   
eminences1 and  watered at the base by  
the ,ki-hu river1 which flows into the  
great  ,tsanpo4 ,the south-western ridge
 is the so-called ,iron-hill1 on which  
is  a monastery where ,tsong ,khapa     

himself is said to have taught4 ,the    
north-eastern bears the name of the     
,phagmo hill#bca1 while the highest  is 
the hill of ,potala1 with its           
palace-monastery towering in four       
stories to the height of about #cfg     
feet1 and ending in a cupola covered    
with plates of pure gold4    ,from this 
vantage ground the incarnated           
,bodhi-sattva looks down on the  crowds 
of pilgrims approaching to worship him1 
or kneeling at the foot  of the hill4   
,the buildings grouped in the vicinity  
are said to contain  #aj1jjj rooms1 for 
the accommodation of as many monks4     
,countless are the  statues of ,buddha1 
with other idols and images of saints1  
not to mention  obelisks and pyramidal  
monuments1 which meet the eye           
everywhere4 ,all  sacred objects are    
manufactured out of gold1 silver1 or    
copper1  according to the wealth of     
those who have brought them as          
offerings4 ,two  ascending avenues lead 
up from ,lhssa to ,potala1 which are    

constantly  thronged with foreign       
pilgrims1 troops of ,lmas in official   
vestments1  higher ,lmas and courtiers  
in full uniform4 ,yet we are told that a
  solemn religious silence prevails1 for
 the thoughts of all are fixed in       
meditation4    ,i have already given an 
abstract of ,mr4 ,sarat ,chandra ,ds'   
narrative of  his visit to ,potala1 and 
his presentation to the ,dalai ,lma on  
,june #aj1  #ahhb 7see p4 #cca of these 
,lectures74 ,i now add an account of    
,mr4 ,thomas  ,manning's interview with 
the ,dalai ,lma on ,december #ag1 #ahaa4
 ,no  ,european1 except ,mr4            
,manning#bcb1 has ever set eyes on a    
,dalai ,lma1  and no other ,englishman  
has ever seen ,lhssa 7for ,m4 ,huc was  
misinformed2 ,moorcroft was never       
there73--      ,we rode to the foot of  
the mountain on which the palace is     
built1 or    out of which1 rather1 it   
seems to grow2 but having ascended a few
    paces to a platform1 were obliged to
 dismount4 ,from here to the hall       

where the ,grand ,lma receives visitors 
is a long and tedious ascent4    ,it    
consists of about four hundred steps1   
partly stone steps in the    rocky      
mountain1 and the rest mere ladders from
 story to story in the    palace4       
,besides this1 from interval to interval
 along the mountain1    wherever the    
ascent is easy1 there are stretches     
interspersed1 where    the path         
continues for several paces together    
without steps4 ,at length    we arrived 
at the large platform on which is built 
the hall of    reception4 ,there we     
rested awhile1 arranged the presents1   
and    conferred with the ,lma's        
,chinese interpreter4      ,the ,t-mu-fu
 was in the hall with the ,grand ,lma4  
,i was not informed    of this until ,i 
entered1 which occasioned me some       
confusion4 ,i did not    know how much  
ceremony to go through with one1 before 
,i began with the    other4 ,i made the 
due obeisance1 touching the ground three
 times with    my head to the ,grand    

,lma1 and once to the ,t-mu-fu4 ,i      
presented my    gifts1 delivering the   
coin and the handsome silk scarf with my
 own    hands into the hands of the     
,grand ,lma4 ,i then took off my hat1   
and    humbly gave him my clean-shaven  
head to lay his hands upon4 ,the        
ceremony of presentation being over1 the
 ,munsh and ,i sat down on two          
cushions not far from the ,lma's throne1
 and had tea brought to us4 ,it    was  
most excellent1 and ,i meant to have    
emptied the cup1 but it was    whipped  
away suddenly1 before ,i was aware of   
it4 ,the ,lma's beautiful    and        
interesting face and manner engrossed   
almost all my attention4 ,he    was at  
that time about seven years old2 and had
 the simple and    unaffected manners of
 a well-educated princely child4 ,his   
face was1 ,i    thought1 poetically and 
affectingly beautiful4 ,he was of a gay 
and    cheerful disposition2 his        
beautiful mouth perpetually unbending   
into a    graceful smile1 which         

illuminated his whole countenance4      
,sometimes1    particularly when he had 
looked at me1 his smile approached to a 
gentle laugh4 ,no doubt my grim beard   
and spectacles somewhat excited    his  
risibility4 ,he inquired whether ,i had 
not met with molestation and            
difficulties on the road2 to which ,i   
promptly returned the proper    answer4 
,a present of dried fruit was brought   
and set before me1 and    then we       
withdrew4 7,mr4 ,clements ,markham's    
,tibet1 p4 #bfd1 abridged47    ,as to   
the monasteries grouped around this     
,vatican of ,lmistic ,buddhism1  we may 
make special mention of four1 noting a  
few particulars4    ,to begin with the  
oldest monastery1 that of ,l brang1 said
 to mean  #8abode of ,lmas#bcc1' which  
was built by ,king ,srong ,tsan ,gampo  
7see p4  #bga of this volume71 and      
founded in the seventh century4 ,this   
ancient  institution is in the very     
centre of ,lhssa1 and is regarded as the
  centre of the whole country4 ,all the 

main roads of ,tibet converge  towards  
it4 ,doubtless the area of the monastery
 has been enlarged by  occasional       
additions in the course of one thousand 
years1 but not since  it was partly     
rebuilt and restored in the seventeenth 
century4 ,its  magnificent temple 7,cho 
,khang7 is the ,st4 ,peter's of ,lmism  
7see p4  #dei74    ,the immense number  
of monks inhabiting this monastery is   
proved by the  fact that a huge cauldron
 is shown which holds more than #abjj   
gallons of  tea for the ,lmas who       
perform the daily services4    ,the     
other three monasteries near ,potala and
 ,l brang1 according to  ,koeppen1 are  
devoted to the study of magic and the   
art of exorcising4 ,we  may take them in
 the following order3--    ,first1 at a 
short distance north of ,l brang1 stands
 the monastery  ,ramohe1 #8the great    
enclosure1' which was the other ancient 
monastery  built by ,srong ,tsan ,gampo1
 or by one of his wives 7see p4 #bga74  
,it is  now a great school of exorcism1 

and has a celebrated temple 7see pp4    
#dfb1 #dfc71 containing the celebrated  
image of the ,buddha1 and also one  of  
,nanda1 ,gautama's step-brother and     
disciple4 ,those who study here may     
gain the decree of #8,doctor of ,magic4'
    ,next comes the monastery of ,moru  
7or ,muru or ,meru71 close to the city4 
,it is noted for its order and          
cleanliness1 and for its printing-press4
  ,like the last1 it contains a school  
for instruction in magic4    ,then1 at a
 short distance east of ,l brang        
7according to ,koeppen71 is  the        
monastery of ,gar ,ma ,khian--the mother
 monastery of soothsayers1              
fortune-tellers1 and exorcisers         
7hos-kyong1 see p4 #bff74    ,let us    
next turn to the three ancient          
#8mother-monasteries' of the ,yellow    
sect--,galdan1 ,sera1 and ,dapung4      
,galdan 7or ,gahdan71 the #8heaven of   
contented beings' 7,sanskit  ,tushita1  
see pp4 #bjg1 #bac7--the oldest         
monastery of the ,yellow sect--is       

situated on the hill of the same name1  
about thirty miles#bcd east of  ,lhssa4 
,as already stated 7pp4 #bgh1 #bid71 it 
was founded by ,tsong ,khapa  ,a4,d4    
#adji4 ,it is three-quarters of a mile  
in circumference1 and has #ccjj  monks4 
,sera1 #8the golden1' founded by ,tsong 
,khapa 7p4 #bgh71 or by one of his      
disciples immediately after his death1  
lies about three miles north of  ,lhssa1
 on a declivity of a hill1 over which   
passes the road leading to  ,mongolia4  
,it has #eejj monks1 and numerous       
temples1 towers1 and houses  curving    
round like an amphitheatre4 ,on the     
hills above the town are rows  of cells 
of contemplative monks and recluses4    
,sera has three great temples several   
stories high1 the halls of which  are   
richly gilded4 ,in one temple the staff 
of ,gautama ,buddha is  preserved4      
,dapung 7variously ,dapu1 ,depung1      
,debung1 ,debang1 ,brepung1 ,brebung1   
,prebung71 #8rice-heap1' so called from 
the shape of the hill1 was also  founded

 by ,tsong ,khapa three years before    
,sera1 and is situated four  miles west 
of the city of ,lhssa4 ,it has #ggjj    
monks4 ,the great temple in  the middle 
is surrounded by four small ones4 ,one  
of these four belongs  to the exorcisers
 and professors of magical arts1 of whom
 there are  nearly three hundred4 ,in   
the centre of the monastery is a        
residence for  the ,dalai ,lma1 when he 
pays his annual visit4 ,numbers of      
foreigners  study here1 especially      
,mongolians4 ,in front of the monastery 
stands a  ,stpa1 which contains the     
bones of the fourth ,dalai ,lma1 ,jon   
,tan ,yam  ,thso1 who was of a          
,mongolian family4    ,mr4 ,edgar       
7,report1 p4 #da7 mentions four other   
monasteries of the ,yellow  sect around 
,lhssa1 ,chemiling1 ,tengiling1         
,chechuling1 and  ,kenduling#bce4 ,the  
last is said to be the residence of the 
,regent 7p4  #bhf of these ,lectures74  
,sarat ,chandra ,ds gives a long list of
  monasteries1 some containing #ejjj    

monks 7e4g4 ,rnam rgyal grvatsang1      
,gongdkar r,dorjegdan1 etc47 and some   
#gjjj4    ,we have next to describe the 
great monastery of the second ,grand    
,lma of  ,tibetan ,buddhism--,i mean    
that at ,tashi ,lunpo1 also belonging to
 the  ,yellow sect4    ,tashi ,lunpo1   
near ,shigatse1 is the seat of          
government of the ,tashi  ,lma or       
,panchen ,lma 7see p4 #bhd of these     
,lectures71 and the second  metropolis  
of ,lmistic ,buddhism4 ,our knowledge of
 this celebrated place  is derived from 
the record of the journeys of ,mr4      
,bogle and ,captain  ,turner1 as well as
 from the narratives of ,indian         
explorers4    ,according to some of     
these authorities1 ,tashi ,lunpo is     
situated about  #adj ,english miles in a
 nearly westerly direction from ,lhssa4 
,it is  built on a level plain enclosed 
on all sides by rocky hills1 through    
which a small river 7the ,painam7 rushes
 into the great ,tsanpo                 
7,brahma-putra74 ,the monastery is said 

to have been built by the first  ,dalai 
,lma1 ,gedun grub pa1 in #adde 7see p4  
#bia of these ,lectures71  though the   
final seat of the ,dalai ,lmas was at   
,lhssa4    ,according to ,koeppen four  
roads meet at ,tashi ,lunpo2 one leading
 to  ,lhssa1 one to ,ladk1 one to ,nepl1
 and one to ,bhutn4    ,near at hand1 on
 the north-east side of the ,tashi      
,lunpo monastery1 on a  rocky eminence  
protecting it from the cold winds1      
stands the fort of  ,shigatse 7also     
written ,shigatze71 which1 with its     
surrounding houses1  forms the capital  
of the province of ,tsang1 just as      
,lhssa constitutes  that of the province
 of ,u4    ,our fellow countryman1 ,mr4 
,bogle1 commissioned by ,warren         
,hastings to  open communications       
between ,bengal and ,tibet1 arrived at  
,tashi ,lunpo in  #aggd4 ,his           
description of it is to the following   
effect4 ,i give it  abbreviated 7from   
,mr4 ,clements ,markham's ,tibet73--    
,we passed by the foot of ,tashi ,lunpo1

 which is built on the lower            
declivity of a steep hill4 ,the roof of 
the palace is all of    copper-gilt4    
,the building is of dark-coloured brick4
 ,the houses of the    town rise one    
above another4 ,four churches with gilt 
ornaments are    mixed with them4       
,altogether the town presents a princely
 appearance4    ,many of the courts are 
spacious1 flagged with stone1 and have  
galleries running round them4 ,the      
alleys1 which are likewise paved1    are
 narrow4 ,the palace is appropriated to 
the ,lma and his officers1    to        
temples1 granaries1 warehouses1 etc4    
,the rest of the town is    entirely    
inhabited by priests1 who are in number 
about four thousand4    ,the following  
is the substance of ,mr4 ,bogle's       
account of his interview  with the      
,tashi ,lma on ,november #h1 #aggd      
7abbreviated from ,markham's  ,tibet73--
      ,in the afternoon ,i had my first 
audience of the ,tashi ,lma4 ,he is     
about forty years of age1 of low        

stature1 and inclining to be fat4 ,his  
complexion is fairer than that of most  
,tibetans1 and his arms are as    white 
as those of a ,european2 his hair1 which
 is jet black1 is cut    very short2 his
 eyes are small and black4 ,the         
expression of his    countenance is     
smiling and good-humoured4 ,he was upon 
his throne1    formed of wood carved and
 gilt1 with some cushions above it1 upon
    which he sat with his legs folded   
under him4 ,he was dressed in a         
mitre-shaped cap of yellow broadcloth1  
with long bars lined with red    satin1 
a yellow cloth jacket without sleeves1  
and a satin mantle of    the same colour
 thrown over his shoulders4 ,on one side
 of him stood    his physician1 with a  
bundle of perfumed sandal-wood rods     
burning in    his hand2 on the other    
stood his cup-bearer4 ,i laid the       
,governor's    presents before him1     
delivering the letter and the pearl     
necklace into    his own hands1 together
 with a white handkerchief on my own    

part1    according to the custom of the 
country4 ,he received me in the most    
engaging manner4 ,i was seated on a high
 stool covered with a carpet4    ,plates
 of boiled mutton1 boiled rice1 dried   
fruits1 sweetmeats1 sugar1    bundles of
 tea1 dried sheep's carcases1 etc41 were
 set before me and    my companion1 ,mr4
 ,hamilton4 ,the ,lma drank two or three
 dishes of tea    with us1 but without  
saying any grace1 asked us once or twice
 to eat1    and on our retiring threw   
white handkerchiefs over our necks4     
,after    two or three visits1 he used  
to receive me without any ceremony1 his 
head uncovered1 and dressed only in the 
large red petticoat worn by    all full 
monks1 red boots1 a yellow cloth vest1  
with his arms bare1    and a piece of   
coarse yellow cloth thrown across his   
shoulders4 ,he sat    sometimes in a    
chair1 sometimes on a bench covered with
 tiger-skins1    and nobody but the     
cup-bearer present4 ,sometimes he would 
walk with me    about the room1 explain 

the pictures1 or make some remarks upon 
the    colour of my eyes1 etc4 ,for1    
although venerated as ,god's vicegerent 
through all the eastern countries of    
,asia1 and endowed with a portion    of 
omniscience and with many other divine  
attributes1 he throws aside    in       
conversation all the awful part of his  
character1 accommodates    himself to   
the weakness of mortals1 endeavours to  
make himself loved    rather than       
feared1 and behaves with the greatest   
affability to    everybody1 particularly
 to strangers4    ,in #aghc1 when ,tashi
 ,lunpo was visited by ,captain ,turner1
 the monastery  consisted of #djj       
houses1 many of which were built of     
stone and marble1  and at least two     
stories high4 ,they contained about     
#cgjj monks 7now  #chjj74 ,around the   
houses were gilded temples1 pinnacles1  
pyramidal  monuments 7,stpas71 and above
 all the palace of the ,tashi ,lma1     
forming  a striking spectacle4          
,captain ,turner had a remarkable       

interview with the ,grand ,lma at the   
neighbouring monastery of ,terpaling1 on
 ,december #d1 #aghc4 ,he found the     
princely child1 then aged eighteen      
months1 seated on a throne1 with his    
father and mother standing on the left  
hand4 ,having been informed that1       
although unable to speak1 he could      
understand1 ,captain ,turner intimated  
to him #8that the ,governor-,general1 on
 receiving news of his decease1 had     
been overwhelmed with sorrow1 and       
continued to lament his absence from    
the world until the cloud was dispelled 
by his re-appearance4 ,the  ,governor   
hoped that he might long continue to    
illumine the world by his  presence4'   
,the infant looked steadfastly at the   
,british envoy1 and appeared to be      
listening to his words with deep        
attention1 while he repeatedly nodded   
his head1 as if he understood every     
syllable4 ,he was silent and sedate1    
and conducted himself with astonishing  
dignity4 ,captain ,turner thought  him  

one of the handsomest children he had   
ever seen4 ,it seems that he  grew up to
 be an able and devout ruler1 gratifying
 the ,tibetans by his  presence for many
 years1 and living to a good old age4   
,tashi ,lunpo was not visited by the    
,french missionaries1 but ,m4 ,huc      
informs us 7ii4 #aeg7 that in #ahdf the 
then ,panchen ,lma was #fj years of     
age1 and still vigorous4 ,m4 ,huc was   
told that he was of ,indian origin1  and
 that he had declared of himself that   
his first incarnation had taken  place  
in ,india some thousands of years       
before4    ,mr4 ,sarat ,chandra ,ds1    
from whose notes of a journey in ,tibet 
so many  extracts have been already     
given1 writes thus of his arrival at    
,tashi  ,lunpo on the #ith of ,december1
 #ahha 7the extract is not given        
literally1  and is abbreviated73--      
,in the afternoon we arrived at ,tashi  
,lunpo4 ,in front of the western        
entrance ,i noticed two ,chortens 7that 
is1 #8aityas or ,stpas1' see p4    #ejd 

of these ,lectures71 one very large1    
with a gilt spire1 and the    other     
small4 ,on entering the grand monastery1
 ,i mustered all my    knowledge of     
,buddhist ceremonies and monkish        
etiquette1 that ,i might    not be      
criticised by the passing monks as one  
unacquainted with the    duties of the  
wearers of the sacred costume4 ,i walked
 slowly and with    gravity1 but        
secretly observing everything around me4
 ,there were a few    yaks under the    
charge of three or four herdsmen1       
waiting probably for    the return of   
some of their number from within the    
monastery4 ,some    monks1 riding on    
mules1 passed us from north to south4 ,a
 few parties    with heavy grain        
packages on their backs were entering   
the monastery    along with us4 ,the    
rays of the sun1 now slanting on the    
gilded spires    of houses and tombs in 
the monastery1 presented a very         
magnificent    view to the eye4         
,while residing in the monastery ,i saw 

people busily engaged in    out-door    
work1 such as collecting fuel and       
tending cattle4 ,in fact1    this was   
the busiest part of the year1 when the  
,tibetans remain on the    move for the 
purpose of buying and selling1 at a time
 when the    intensely cold winds wither
 up the vegetation1 freeze the streams1 
harden the soil1 and dry up the skin4   
,the monks1 like the lay-people1    are 
remarkable for their habit of early     
rising4 ,no monk within the    walls of 
the monastery rose later than five in   
the morning1 and the    usual time for  
getting up was four a4 m4 ,those who    
slept later1    without any special     
cause1 were subject to correction4 ,at  
three in the    morning the great       
trumpet summons all the monks to the    
religious    service in the congregation
 hall4 ,whoever fails to attend is      
punished    next morning4 ,no register  
is kept1 yet the officer who            
superintends    the discipline can tell 
what monk out of two thousand has       

absented    himself on any particular   
day4 ,i was the only man who slept up to
 six    in the morning4 ,the monks used 
often to remark that1 were ,i a regular 
monk of the monastery1 the              
superintendent's birch would have stript
 my    body of its flesh4    ,about six 
miles from ,tashi ,lunpo1 and on the    
road leading from it in a               
south-westerly direction towards the    
monastery of ,sakya 7see below71 is  the
 monastery of ,narthang1 whence issued  
one of the three copies of  the ,kanjur 
7p4 #bgb7 brought to ,europe by ,brian  
,hodgson4    ,we have now to notice the 
two most important monasteries of the   
,red  sect4    ,first1 ,sam ye 7,sam    
yas7 is on the great river ,tsanpo1     
about forty  miles from ,lhssa1 in a    
south-easterly direction4 ,it was the   
first  monastery founded in the eighth  
century by ,padma-sambhava1 after ,king 
,khri ,srong ,de ,tsan's restoration of 
,buddhism 7pp4 #bga1 #bgb74 ,it is the  
metropolitan monastery of the           

,red-capped monks and ,urgyanpa sect4   
,sam ye  was visited by the ,indian     
explorer ,nain ,singh in #ahgd1 on his  
final  journey to ,lhssa#bcf1 and by    
,sarat ,chandra ,ds in #ahhb4 ,many of  
its  images are of gold1 and it         
possesses an extensive library4         
,padma-sambhava was a master of ,indian 
,yoga and magic4 ,he is fabled to  have 
worked many miracles--such as filling   
empty jars with divine  water--at ,sam  
ye4 ,he undertook to expel all evil     
demons from ,tibet1 but  was opposed by 
the ,bon priests4    ,the other chief   
monastery of the ,red sect is that of   
,sakya 7,saskya71  situated about       
fifty-five miles from ,tashi ,lunpo1 on 
the road leading in  a south-westerly   
direction towards ,nepl4 ,it has four   
great sanctuaries  and a celebrated     
library1 and is surrounded by a large   
town1 with  temples and houses mostly   
painted red 7p4 #bgc74    ,it should be 
noted that in all the large monasteries 
of ,northern  ,buddhist countries1      

varied assortments of vestments1 robes1 
costumes1  and masks are kept for use in
 the religious dances1 masquerades1 and 
dramatic performances which are a       
characteristic of ,northern ,buddhism4  
,indeed1 some of the richer monasteries 
possess extensive wardrobes of  great   
value1 and the monks in their           
masquerading dances change their        
costumes very frequently and with great 
rapidity 7see pp4 #cdg-cej74    ,note1  
too1 that the libraries of such         
monasteries generally contain  large and
 valuable collections of books4 ,the    
#ajh volumes of the northern  canon     
called ,kanjur1 with the commentaries   
called ,tanjur 7see p4 #bgb71           
constitute a library in themselves4 ,in 
addition to these1 there are vast       
numbers of other treatises written to   
elucidate the mysteries of  ,northern   
,buddhism1 most of which are still a    
terra incognita to ,european  scholars4 
,it is well known that in medival times 
some ,buddhist  monasteries became seats

 of learning1 which might have vied with
 the  most learned ,universities        
established at that period in ,europe4  
,temples4    ,although temples have been
 already adverted to as forming an      
important  feature in all monasteries1  
and often an actual part of the edifice 
constituting the monastery2 it will be  
worth while to devote a short  space of 
time to their separate consideration4   
,in the earliest days of ,buddhism      
neither temples nor halls nor rooms for 
meeting together 7sagha-giha7 were much 
needed4 ,the monk recited the  ,law in  
the open air or in the houses of the    
laity4 ,it was only when  collections of
 monks crystallized into regularly      
organized communities1  and a kind of   
congregational recitation of the ,law   
became a part of  every day's duty1 that
 the monks required places of assembly  
like  churches for the performance of   
religious services4    ,such places of  
meeting were often1 like the cells for  
the monks1  excavated out of rocks4     

,and1 since relic-shrines called aityas 
7as well  as ,stpas1 see p4 #ejd7 were  
erected at the further extremity of the 
excavated hall1 the hall itself was     
generally called a aitya4    ,the two   
principal rock-excavated aitya-halls    
visited by me were at  ,elor 7also spelt
 ,ellora and ,elur7 and at ,krle 7,krl74
 ,i was also  much interested in a      
smaller one at the ,nsik caves4 ,in     
their interior  structure they are all  
strikingly like ancient ,christian      
churches4    ,the ,elor aitya forms one 
of the series of caves already mentioned
  7p4 #afi74 ,it is probably as old as  
the sixth century of our era1 and is  of
 an elongated horse-shoe shape1 with a  
massive ribbed roof arched like  that of
 a cathedral1 supported on twenty-eight 
octagonal columns1 over  which runs a   
curious frieze1 having on it a carved   
representation of a  buffalo-hunt and   
boar-chase4 ,there is a nave with       
side-aisles about #hf  feet long by #dc 
broad4 ,moreover1 over the entrance1    

supported by two  square columns1 is a  
gallery which may have served for a     
choir or for a  band of musicians4 ,a   
lofty solid ,dgaba1 in shape like a     
massive dome  resting on a cylindrical  
base1 stands at the further end of the  
nave1  the aisles being continued round 
it1 so that worshippers may             
circumambulate the apse4 ,the front of  
this immense relic-receptacle is        
hollowed out to receive a colossal      
sedent figure of the ,buddha1 about #ag 
feet high#bcg1 with the ,bodhi-tree     
carved in an arch above his head4  ,two 
images of attendants are in an erect    
attitude1 one on each side1 but  are not
 so prominent as to draw off the eye    
from the immense central  figure4       
,the ,brhmans have now appropriated this
 cave1 and dedicated it to  ,viva-karma1
 the supposed patron deity of builders  
and carpenters4 ,i was  told that       
carpenters come from all parts of the   
country to worship the  image in its    
,brhmanical character4 ,as a token of   

honour1 they smear it  with red paint4  
,i noticed a remarkable sculpture carved
 out of the rock near this  cave-temple4
 ,it represented worshippers praying to 
,padma-pni to be  delivered from fire1  
from sword1 from captivity1 from wild   
beasts1 from  snakes1 and from the      
skeleton ,death who is seen approaching4
    ,the aitya cave at ,krle1 near      
,poona1 which ,i visited in #ahgf1 is in
  all its dimensions and arrangements   
similar to the ,viva-karma cave at      
,elor1 but is still larger1 finer1 and  
more imposing4 ,it has a nave and  side 
aisles1 terminating in an apse1 round   
which the aisle is carried4  ,the whole 
is about #abd feet long by #de feet     
broad and #df feet in  height4 ,there   
are fifteen pillars on each side1       
separating the nave from  the aisles1   
and under the dome of the apse is the   
,dgaba 7or aitya7--a  two-storied       
cylindrical drum1 surmounted by a ,tee  
ornament 7p4 #def71 on  which is a      
wooden umbrella4 ,there is a cavity in  

the ,dgaba for relics1  though none are 
now to be found there4    ,this         
wonderful excavation at ,krle is one of 
the most magnificent  monuments of      
ancient ,buddhism1 and one of the most  
interesting examples  of early          
,buddhistic art to be seen anywhere in  
,india4 ,and1 more than  this1 it is    
probably one of the most striking places
 of congregational  worship to be seen  
anywhere in the world4    ,of course    
these rock-excavated churches soon      
developed into temples  7,vihras7 built 
of stone or brick1 some of which were of
 a monumental  character1 like that at  
,buddha-,gay1 already described 7see p4 
#cij71  while others were unpretending  
structures near villages1 where the     
laity  could repeat their prayers or    
make offerings4 ,others1 again1 formed  
the  most important edifice among the   
group of buildings constituting a       
monastery4    ,the village temples might
 more suitably be called chapels4 ,all  
have some  features in common4 ,at the  

further end of a dimly-lighted room is  
an  altar of stone or wood4 ,on this are
 placed the idols1 and around them  are 
arranged vases and cups1 in which the   
offerings of the laity are  deposited4  
,the larger edifices have vestibules1   
and at the entrance are  generally rude 
images of the four great kings 7p4      
#bjf71 who are supposed  to be the      
guardians of ,buddhism 7p4 #bjf71 while 
inside there are  sculptures1 frescoes1 
and pictures illustrative of the various
 births  and transmigrations of the     
,buddhas and ,bodhi-sattvas4 ,in the    
precincts  is always to be found a      
,bodhi-tree 7,bo-tree1 p4 #eai71 if the 
climate and  soil will admit of its     
being reared4 ,the greater number of    
sacred  structures1 however1 even those 
of a more important kind and more       
entitled to be called temples1 are mere 
square or oblong rectangular  buildings1
 without architectural design or        
ornamentation4    ,in ,ceylon ,i visited
 a temple of this kind on the shore of  

the ,kandy  lake4 ,it consisted of a    
large bare room or small hall1 at the   
further  end of which was a curtain     
concealing a highly venerated image of  
the  ,buddha4 ,the attendant drew aside 
the curtain and showed us the image1    
which had representations of rays of    
light issuing from all parts of his     
body1 as well as five rays emerging from
 the crown of his head4 ,in the         
enclosure or #8compound' of the temple1 
was a bell-shaped ,dgaba or             
relic-shrine of solid brick-work1       
covered with ,chunam1 and having a      
receptacle for lights in front of it4   
,close at hand was the usual sacred     
,ppal-tree4    ,at ,kelani1 about eight 
miles from ,colombo1 is a larger and    
much more  important temple which ,i    
also visited4 ,those who make           
pilgrimages to  this temple gain great  
stores of merit4 ,it contains a colossal
 recumbent  image of the ,buddha1       
thirty-six feet long1 lying on his right
 side1 and  representing the founder of 

,buddhism when about to pass into       
,pari-nirva 7see p4 #ej74 ,the image is 
protected by a screen1 in the  centre of
 which is a figure of the ,king of      
,serpents1 while at the sides  are      
gigantic images of the temple-guardians4
 ,around the interior are  fresco       
paintings of various incidents in the   
previous lives of the  ,buddha4 ,there  
are also images of the ,hind gods       
,vishu1 iva1 and ,gaea  7see p4 #bjf74  
,in the garden of the temple are        
residences for the monks1  a            
cloister-like enclosure1 a room with a  
good printing press1 and an  immense    
,ppal-tree4    ,a still more important  
temple is that called the ,dalada       
,mligwa or  temple of the sacred        
eye-tooth1 at ,kandy in ,ceylon4 ,this  
is a very  picturesque structure1       
situated on the margin of the lake close
 to the  town4 ,it has no surrounding   
walls1 and is easily accessible to all  
comers4 ,steps lead up to a kind of open
 corridor1 in which is the main         

entrance1 and the walls of which are    
decorated with coloured frescoes of  the
 eight principal hells--the supposed    
abode of evil-doers undergoing          
purgatorial torments during one of their
 states of existence 7see p4  #abj7bch4 
,some are represented in the act of     
being cut in pieces by demons1 or  fixed
 on red-hot iron spikes1 or torn asunder
 with glowing tongs1 or  sawn in two    
with saws1 or crushed between rocks1 or 
consumed by flames  entering the        
apertures of their bodies4 ,the         
,european visitor inquires  with        
amazement how it is that a system so    
mild1 merciful1 and tolerant1  should   
have invented the horrible tortures here
 exhibited4 ,the  explanation is not    
difficult1 and his astonishment ceases  
when he is  reminded that ,buddhism1    
recognizing no moral ,governor of the   
,universe1  is compelled to resort to   
such artifices for the coercion and     
intimidation of evil-doers4    ,in the  
interior of the building is the shrine1 

in which is preserved  behind iron bars1
 the golden ,dgaba or receptacle of one 
of the ,buddha's  eye-teeth 7see p4     
#ejj74 ,on each side are images1 and    
when ,i visited the  shrine1 the whole  
chamber was redolent with the fragrance 
of masses of  flowers--chiefly          
jasmine--recently deposited before them 
as offerings4    ,behind the building ,i
 found an open quadrangle with cells for
 the monks1  and a residence for the    
,head of the monastery4 ,not far from   
the entrance  was a spacious library1   
where ,i was greeted by a number of     
youthful  monks1 dressed in simple      
toga-like vestments1 but with their     
right  shoulders left bare4 ,some were  
engaged in writing4 ,i therefore asked  
for  a specimen of their penmanship4    
,upon which they wrote down for me on   
palm leaves1 in the ,sinhalese          
character1 forty-eight epithets of the  
,buddha1 such as the following3--,god of
 the gods1 ,indra of ,indras1 ,brahm  of
 ,brahms1 the ,almighty1 ,omniscient1   

,existing in his own ,law1 ,lord of  the
 ,law1 ,saviour of all1 ,conqueror1     
,king of doctrine1 ,ocean of grace1     
,treasury1 ,jewel1 ,sun1 ,moon1 ,stars1 
,lotus1 ,ambrosia of the ,world1 the    
,five-eyed one1 the ,bull1 ,elephant1   
,lion among men1 stronger than the      
strongest1 mightier than the mightiest1 
more merciful than the most  merciful1  
more meritorious than the most          
meritorious1 more beautiful  than the   
most beautiful1 etc4    ,the temples in 
,burma are commonly called #8pagodas1' a
 word corrupted  from the ,pli ,dgaba   
7,sanskit ,dhtu-garbha71 #8receptacle of
 the  7sacred7 elements' or relics of   
the body4 ,they are also called ,dagohn4
  ,according to ,mr4 ,scott 7#8,burman1'
 i4 #ahd71 the number of temples in     
,burma far exceeds those in ,ceylon or  
,tibet or ,china4 ,no village so poor   
as to be without its #8neatly kept      
shrine1 with the remains of others      
mouldering away around it2 no hill so   
steep as to be without its  glittering  

gold or snow-white spire rising up to   
guard the place2 no  work of merit so   
richly paid as the building of a        
pagoda4' ,some are of  simple           
construction1 others elaborate2 but of  
all the temples the great  ,rangoon     
pagoda is the grandest and most crowded 
with worshippers and  pilgrims4    ,the 
peculiar sacredness and popularity of   
this wonderful structure 7said  to have 
been founded #ehh ,b4,c471 arises from  
its containing relics of  ,gautama and  
his three predecessors1 that is1 eight  
hairs from ,gautama's  head1 the staff  
of ,kyapa1 the robe of ,kanaka-muni1 and
 the  drinking-cup of ,kraku-handa 7see 
p4 #ace of these ,lectures74 ,the       
stately pile stands upon a mound--partly
 natural1 partly artificial--cut  into  
two rectangular terraces one above the  
other1 the upper being #aff  feet above 
the ground1 and each side facing one of 
the cardinal points  of the compass4    
,the ascent is by very dilapidated      
steps1 some of stone1  some of          

#8sun-dried bricks1 worn almost into a  
slope by the bare feet of  myriads of   
worshippers4' ,none but ,europeans may  
ascend with covered  feet4 ,the stairs  
lead to a #8broad1 open flagged space1  
which runs all  round the pagoda1 and is
 left free for worshippers4' ,from the  
centre of  this springs1 from an        
octagonal plinth1 the #8profusely gilt  
solid  brick pagoda1' which has a       
circumference of #acee feet1 and rises  
to a  height of about #cbh1 #8or nearly 
as high as ,st4 ,paul's cathedral4' ,on 
the  summit is #8the ,tee1' a gilt      
umbrella-shaped ornament with many tiers
 of  rings1 on each of which #8hang     
multitudes of gold and silver jewelled  
bells4' ,it was #8placed there at a cost
 of not much less than  #ej1jjjbci4' ,at
 the foot of the pagoda are four        
chapels1 having  colossal figures of    
,buddha at the sides1 and their gilded  
interiors  darkened by the vapour of    
thousands of burning tapers4 #8,hundreds
 of  ,gautamas1' large and small1 white 

and black1 gilded and plain1 sitting1   
standing1 and reclining1 surround the   
larger images4 ,it is said that the     
great pagoda has been thrice covered    
with gold-leaf4    ,there is a still    
higher pagoda 7#ccb feet high7 at ,pegu1
 and the most  ancient of all is at     
,arakan4    ,passing to ,northern       
,buddhist countries1 we find that the   
temples are  generally simple1 and not  
to be compared with the grand pagodas of
  ,burma4    ,for example1 at ,tassiding
 in ,sikkim1 ,sir ,richard ,temple      
7,journal1 ii4  #bjd7 found that the two
 principal temples were chapel-like     
structures  with #8overshadowing        
umbrella-shaped roofs1 thatched with    
split bamboos4'  ,the walls were of     
rough stone1 the upper half being       
painted red4 ,the  interiors1 which were
 dimly lighted1 had two stories1 the    
walls being  covered with coloured      
frescoes illustrating the punishments in
 the  various hells1 #8some of which    
would be suitable for illustrations of  

,dante's ,inferno4' ,the ends opposite  
to the entrance were filled with        
images4 ,in other parts of the chapels  
were praying-machines1 and on  shelves  
the remnants of a library of sacred     
,buddhist manuscripts4 ,sir  ,richard   
attended a religious service in one of  
these chapels1 which  consisted of a    
series of chants and invocations to a   
female demon called  ,tanma1 represented
 by a hideous lay figure dressed in     
robes4 ,according  to tradition1 it was 
the malevolent action of the twelve     
,tanmas in  bringing pestilences on the 
,tibetans1 that led them to send for    
,padma-sambhava1 who introduced the     
debased ,buddhism subsequently          
prevalent in ,tibet 7,note by ,capt4 ,r4
 ,c4 ,temple74    ,according to ,dr4    
,schlagintweit 7p4 #ahi7 and ,koeppen   
the generality of  temples in ,mongolia 
and ,tibet consist of one large square  
or rectangular  room1 with an           
entrance-hall or vestibule1 which in    
,mongolia looks to the  south and in    

,tibet to the east4 #8,the inside       
surface is whitewashed or  covered with 
a kind of plaster1' and decorated with  
paintings  representing episodes taken  
from the life of the ,buddhas1 or with  
pictures of gods and goddesses of       
terrible aspect4 ,generally images of   
the four great kings are placed here as 
guardians of the sanctuary 7p4  #bjf of 
this volume74 ,sometimes there are side 
chambers1 which may be  compared to     
transepts1 and give the building the    
form of a cross4 ,these  chambers often 
have shelves for the sacred books1      
wrapped in silk4 ,in  the corners are   
tables for images of the deities1       
religious dresses1  musical instruments1
 etc4 ,other articles required for the  
daily service  are hung up on wooden    
pegs along the walls4 ,benches for the  
,lmas are  placed in the hall of the    
temple4    ,the altar at the further    
extremity rises in steps made of wood1  
beautifully carved and richly           
ornamented4 ,upon these are arranged    

images  of the ,buddhas and             
,bodhi-sattvas1 and especially the chief
 idol  representing ,gautama ,buddha in 
some of his forms and attitudes4 ,here  
also are vessels for offerings1 bells1  
,dorjes 7p4 #cbc71 and other  utensils  
used in religious worship4 ,among the   
latter may be seen the  mirror 7,melong1
 see p4 #dfc7 used in the ceremony      
described at p4 #cce4  ,there is also a 
vase with peacock's feathers1 and a     
sacred book is never  wanting4    ,the  
vessels for offerings are of brass1 and 
like tea-cups4 ,they are  usually filled
 with barley1 butter1 and perfumes1 and 
in summer with  flowers4 ,near at hand  
is a ,chorten 7p4 #chj7 containing      
relics1 and  having a niche with the    
image of a ,buddha or ,bodhi-sattva1 to 
whom the  temple may perhaps be         
dedicated4    ,finally1 in the          
entrance-vestibule1 at both sides of the
 door1 as well  as in the interior1     
stand rows of large and small           
prayer-cylinders1  which are perpetually

 kept revolving by the attendant ,lmas4 
,of course the temples at the great     
centres of ,tibetan ,buddhism in and    
near ,lhssa1 ,tashi ,lunpo1 and other   
important places1 are far more          
imposing4 ,indeed1 for magnificence1 few
 religious edifices in any part  of the 
world can compare with them4    ,the    
great temple 7called ,cho ,khang7 in the
 monastery of ,l brang at  ,lhssa is a  
kind of centre of the ,lmistic ,church4 
,it is the first and  oldest temple1    
and1 as before stated 7p4 #ddj71 the    
,st4 ,peter's of  ,lmism#bdj4    ,the   
facade of this vast structure looks to  
the east1 and in front of it  is a      
square place1 with a kind of obelisk or 
monolith1 commemorating the  victory of 
the ,tibetans over the ,chinese in the  
ninth century1 as well  as more recent  
treaties of peace and friendship between
 the two  countries4 ,the main building 
is three stories high4 ,before the      
entrance  stands a lofty flag-pole1     
forty feet high#bda1 and not far off is 

a  poplar1 said to have sprung #8from   
the consecrated hair of ,buddha4' ,the  
portico of the temple consists of a     
colonnade of six thick wooden  columns4 
,the walls of the portico are covered   
with rude paintings1  representing      
scenes in the biography of ,gautama     
,buddha4 ,in the middle  are folding    
doors adorned with bronze carvings in   
relief4 ,through these  is the entrance 
into the front hall1 over which is the  
first story4 ,in  the wall opposite to  
the entrance is a second door1 on each  
side of  which stand two colossal       
statues of the four great kings 7see pp4
 #bc1  #ea1 #ec1 #ed of this volume74   
,this second door leads into the        
interior of the building4 ,on entering1 
the visitor finds himself in a vast     
temple1 shaped like a basilica1  divided
 by rows of columns into three naves and
 two transepts4 ,the broad  central nave
 is lighted from above by transparent   
oil-cloth instead of  glass4 ,this is   
the only light which finds its way into 

the temple1 as  there are no side       
windows4 ,on the outside of the two     
secondary naves is  a row of small      
chapels1 fourteen on one side and       
fourteen on the other4  ,the two        
transepts form the back-ground of the   
great hall1 and are  separated from the 
naves by a silver lattice-work4 ,here1  
at the ordinary  services1 are the seats
 of the inferior monks4 ,from the west  
transept a  staircase leads to another  
pillared transept1 which forms the      
vestibule  of the sanctuary4 ,in the    
middle of the sanctuary1 which is square
 in  form1 is the altar for offerings4  
,beyond the altar1 at the west side of  
the sanctuary1 and therefore in the     
furthest recess of the whole  building1 
is a quadrangular niche4 ,in front of   
this niche on the left is  the throne of
 the ,dalai ,lma1 very lofty1 richly    
adorned and furnished  with five        
cushions1 as is customary in the case of
 ,grand ,lmas4 ,on one  side of the     
,dalai ,lma's throne is a similar throne

 for the ,panchen  ,lma1 and then1 in   
regular order1 the thrones of the       
,khutuktus and other  ,avatra ,lmas4    
,the ,khanpos and the whole non-,avatra 
monkhood have seats  in the transept4   
,opposite to the throne of the ,dalai   
,lma1 on the right of the niche1 is  the
 chair of the ,regent1 which is less    
elevated than the thrones of the        
,avatra ,lmas4 ,behind are the seats of 
the four ministers1 which again  are    
less elevated than those of the         
non-,avatra ,lmas4 ,at the west end  of 
the niche is the high altar1 which rises
 in numerous steps4 ,on the  upper steps
 are small images of deified saints1 in 
massive gold or  silver4 ,on the lower  
ones1 as on all ,buddhist altars1 are   
lamps1  incense-holders1 bowls for      
offerings1 etc4 ,on the highest         
elevation1  behind silver and golden    
lattice-work1 is the celebrated image of
  ,gautama ,buddha richly gilded4 ,this 
image is said to have been  constructed 
in ,magadha during the lifetime of the  

,buddha4 ,others hold it  to be         
self-produced2 and another tradition    
ascribes its origin to the  god         
,viva-karma1 who1 instructed by ,indra1 
constructed it with equal  parts of five
 metals and five precious stones4       
,besides this highest  object of        
worship1 the temple contains countless  
images and pictures of  ,buddhas and    
,bodhi-sattvas 7such as ,dpakara1       
,amitbha1 ,maitreya1 the  eleven-faced  
,avalokitevara1 ,maju-r1 etc471 besides 
gods and  goddesses#bdb1 and historical 
personages1 such as ,tsong ,khapa1 who  
have  benefited the ,lmistic church     
7among them being a statue of ,hiouen   
,thsang71 as well as relics1 and gold   
and silver vessels1 which are  exhibited
 every year at the beginning of the     
third month4    ,mr4 ,sarat ,chandra    
,ds1 who1 in his #8,narrative1' records 
his visit to the  great ,lhssa temple1  
informs us that when he was there1 five 
thousand  oil-burners were lighted in   
the court of the temple1 and those      

before  the principal image were all of 
gold4 ,he found some of the subordinate 
chapels infested by mice1 which are     
never touched1 because supposed to  be  
metamorphosed monks4 ,he observed some  
,buddhists from ,nepl chanting  ,sanskit
 hymns1 and others engaged in           
circumambulation1 while the  muttering  
of ,om ,mai padme ,hm 7p4 #cgb7 was     
incessant4    ,mr4 ,sarat ,chandra ,ds  
also describes a visit he paid to the   
famous  shrine of ,ramohe1 before       
adverted to 7see p4 #dda74 ,i give his  
description in an abbreviated form3--   
,our equipment was as usual a bundle of 
incense-sticks1 clarified    butter1 and
 a few scarves4 ,our road turned        
westward by the side of a    long       
,mandong 7see p4 #chj74 ,i left it to my
 right-hand side1 seeing    that to have
 kept it on my left would have been     
heretical4 ,a few    hundred paces      
brought us to the gate of the famous    
temple of ,ramohe1    erected by the    
wife of ,king ,srong ,tsan ,gampo1 the  

first ,chinese    princess who          
introduced ,buddhism into ,tibet4 ,it is
 a lofty edifice1    flat-roofed1 and   
three stories high1 surrounded by a     
stone wall1 with    a high and wide     
porch4 ,about thirty monks were solemnly
 seated to    perform a religious       
service1 on two sides of a row of       
pillars which    supported the roof4    
,the image brought by the ,neplese      
princess1 lay    midway between the     
pillars4 ,it was grand-looking2 and1    
though its face    was gilded1 its      
antiquity was manifest4 ,in the northern
 lobby of the    temple was a vast      
collection of ancient relics1 such as   
shields1    spears1 drums1 arrows1      
sabres1 long knives1 trumpets1 etc4 ,in 
a room    to the left of the entrance1  
enclosed by iron lattice-work1 were a   
few    images considered especially     
sacred4 ,we were also shown a brass     
mirror1 called ,melong1 said to be      
possessed of wonderful properties4      
,the history of the shrine1 according to

 the same traveller1 is this3--,the     
princess being thoroughly versed in     
astrology1 found that there was a  spot 
close to the new-built city of ,lhssa   
which was connected with the  lower     
regions of torment4 ,on that plot of    
ground she erected the shrine  of       
,ramohe1 on the chief altar of which she
 placed the famous statue of  ,buddha1  
brought from ,china4 ,in this way she   
hoped to intercept the  passage 7gati7  
of wicked people to a life in one of the
 hells 7see p4  #aba74 ,whoever1 at the 
time of death1 was brought to this      
sanctuary1  could only be born again in 
the worlds of either men or gods4       
,finally we come to the temple at the   
second great ,metropolis of             
,buddhism3--    ,mr4 ,bogle 7,markham's 
,tibet1 p4 #ajj7 describes the temple in
 the  monastery at ,tashi ,lunpo as     
simply a long room or gallery containing
  thirteen gigantic figures made of     
copper gilt1 all in a sedent attitude1  
with their legs folded under them4 ,he  

found them all draped1 with  jewelled   
crowns and necklaces of coral1 pearls1  
and other stones4 ,the  thrones on which
 they sat were also of copper gilt1 and 
adorned with  turquoises and cornelians4
 ,behind them were a variety of         
conch-shells1  set in silver1           
ostrich-eggs1 cocoa-nuts1 and other     
articles4 ,at each end  of the gallery  
was a large collection of books         
deposited in  pigeon-holes4 ,mr4 ,bogle 
was present when the ,tashi ,lma himself
 entered  the temple1 and1 as he passed 
along1 sprinkled rice upon the images4  
,this was a kind of                     
consecration-ceremony4    ,as an        
instance of the tolerant character of   
,buddhism and its readiness  to         
accommodate itself to the indigenous    
creeds of the countries into  which it  
was introduced1 we may note1 in         
conclusion1 that in ,japan may  be seen 
,buddhist and ,shinto temples side by   
side or even occasionally  combined in  
one building4 ,buddhism in fact adopted 

,shintoism in ,japan  just as it adopted
 ,shamanism in ,tibet4 ,it took the     
deities and demi-gods  of ,shintoism and
 turned them into ,bodhi-sattvas#bdc4   
,the subject of ,monasteries and        
,temples naturally leads us to that of  
images and image-worship2 but this and  
the whole subject of #8,sacred          
,objects' must be reserved for the next 
two ,lectures4                          
,,lecture ,,xvi4                        
,images and ,idols4      ,on several    
occasions during my travels through all 
parts of ,india1 ,i  asked intelligent  
,paits how they could reconcile the     
gross idolatry  and fetish-worship which
 meet the eye at almost every step      
throughout  the length and breadth of   
their land1 with the doctrine repeatedly
  declared to be the only true creed of 
,brhmanism--the doctrine that  nothing  
really exists but the one eternal1      
omnipresent ,spirit of the  ,universe   
7named ,brahman or ,brahm7#bdd4    ,the 
answer ,i generally received to this    

inquiry was1 that spiritual  worship was
 at first the only form of religion     
dominant in ,india1 till  the ,buddhists
 set the example of worshipping material
 objects and images  7pratim-pj74    ,of
 course it is impossible to say what    
amount of truth there may be in  this   
accusation4 ,it seems probable that     
material impersonations of the  forces  
of nature existed before the ,buddha's  
time4 ,yet there is no  evidence of the 
prevalence of actual idolatry at the    
time when the  ig-veda was composed4    
,nor is there any very clear allusion to
 it in  ,manu4 ,nor have any images of  
,hind gods been found which are so      
ancient  as some ,buddhist images4 ,at  
the same time nothing is said about     
image-worship in the ,buddhist ,piakas4 
,the statement that the ,buddha  himself
 sanctioned idolatry is wholly legendary
 7see p4 #agg74 ,nor is  there any proof
 that carved images of his person were  
common in ,india  till several centuries
 after his death4    ,the ,bharhut      

sculptures of about the second century  
,b4,c4--though  representing many scenes
 connected with the ,buddha 7see pp4    
#djh1  #ebc7--;exhibit no               
representations of the ,buddha himself4 
,nor are there any  on the ,snch gateway
 of still later date4    ,the only      
objects of reverence in the ,bharhut    
sculptures1 according to  ,sir ,a4      
,cunningham1 are ,bodhi-trees1 ,wheels1 
the ,tri-ratna symbol1  ,stpas1 and     
foot-prints 7see pp4 #eba-ebb of these  
,lectures74 ,the  bas-reliefs on the    
railing at the ,buddha-,gay ,temple1    
which is of a  little earlier date1     
agree in making the ,tree1 ,wheel1      
,tri-ratna1 and  ,stpa the great objects
 of reverence4 ,on the other hand1 in   
the edicts  of king ,aoka veneration for
 the ,bodhi-tree alone is enjoined4     
,among the  historical scenes           
represented in the ,bharhut sculptures1 
are the  processions of the kings       
,ajta-atru and ,prasenajit on their     
visits to  the ,buddha2 #8the former on 

his elephant1 the latter in his chariot1
  exactly as they are described in the  
,buddhist chronicles4' ,there are  also 
bas-reliefs which seem to represent     
,rma1 during his exile1 besides  images 
of other gods1 ,yakshas and ,ngas1 but  
no figure of ,buddha himself  is to be  
seen anywhere4    ,yet it is undeniable 
that in the early centuries of our era1 
images of  ,gautama ,buddha and other   
,buddhas and ,bodhi-sattvas had become  
common  among the ,buddhists in every   
part of ,india4    ,illustration3       
,,remains ,,of ,a ,,colossal ,,statue   
,,of ,,buddha1 ,,probably ,,once ,,in   
,,the ,,argumentative ,,or ,,teaching   
,,attitude4     ,found in the ruins     
close to the south side of the          
,buddha-,gay temple1  the date 7,s4 #fd 
,a4,d4 #adb7 being inscribed on the     
pedestal4 7see p4 #dha7    ,one of the  
oldest statues of the ,buddha that has  
yet been brought to  light is the       
colossal image 7now in the ,calcutta    
,museum7 dug up in the  ruins outside   

the ancient temple at ,buddha-,gay 7p4  
#cij71 the date  inscribed on which     
corresponds to about ,a4,d4 #adb4 ,the  
engraving  7opposite7 is from a         
photograph of this statue1 belonging to 
,sir ,a4  ,cunningham#bde4 ,the thick   
lips are certainly remarkable4 ,the     
attitude  was probably the              
#8argumentative' or #8teaching'         
7described at p4 #dha74  ,another       
colossal statue of about the same date  
was found by ,sir ,a4  ,cunningham at   
rvast 7see p4 #djh74    ,it was indeed  
by a strange irony of fate that the man 
who denied any god  or any being higher 
than himself1 and told his followers to 
look to  themselves alone for salvation1
 should have been not only deified and  
worshipped1 but represented by more     
images than any other being ever        
idolized in any part of the world4 ,in  
fact images1 statues1 statuettes1       
carvings in bas-relief1 paintings1 and  
representations of him in all  attitudes
 are absolutely innumerable4 ,in caves1 

monasteries1 and  temples1 on ,dgabas1  
votive ,stpas1 monuments and rocks1 they
 are  multiplied infinitely and in      
endless variety1 and not only are       
isolated  images manufactured out of all
 kinds of materials1 but rows on rows   
are  sculptured in relief1 and the      
greater the number the greater religious
  merit accrues to the sculptor1 and--if
 they are dedicated at sacred           
places--to the dedicator also4    ,and  
not only images of the ,buddha1 but     
representations of every object  that   
could possibly be connected with him1   
became multiplied to an  indefinite     
extent4    ,the gradual growth of what  
may be called objective ,buddhism1 and  
the  steps which led to every kind of   
extravagance in the idolatrous use of   
images1 may be described in the         
following manner3--    ,it was only     
natural that the disciples of an ideally
 perfect man1 who  had taught them that 
in passing away at death he would become
 absolutely  extinct1 should have       

devised some method of perpetuating his 
memory and  stimulating a desire to     
conform to his example4 ,their first    
method was  to preserve the relics of   
his burnt body1 and to honour every     
object  associated with his earthly     
career4 ,then1 in process of time1 they 
began  to worship not only his relics   
but the receptacles under which they    
were  buried1 and around these they     
placed sculptures commemorative of his  
life and teaching4 ,thence they passed  
on to the carving or moulding of  small 
statuettes of his person in wood1 stone1
 metal1 terra-cotta1 or  clay1 and on   
these they often inscribed the          
well-known ,buddhistic  formul mentioned
 before 7see p4 #ajd74 ,eventually1 too1
 painting was  pressed into the service1
 and frescoes on walls became common4   
,indeed in  some temples paintings take 
the place of images1 as objects of      
adoration4    ,it seems likely that the 
use of images and paintings was at first
  confined to the brotherhood1 and it is

 alleged that they were only  honoured  
and not worshipped4 ,but the more the   
circle of uncultured and  unthinking    
,buddhists became enlarged1 the more did
 visible  representations of the founder
 of ,buddhism become needed1 and the    
more  they became multiplied4    ,nor   
was this all4 ,the reaction from the    
original simplicity of ,buddhism  led to
 a complete repudiation of its          
anti-theistic doctrines4 ,it adopted    
polytheistic superstitions even more    
rapidly and thoroughly than  ,brhmanism 
did4 ,people were not satisfied with    
representations of the  founder of      
,buddhism4 ,they craved for other       
visible and tangible objects  of        
adoration--for the images of other      
,buddhas and ,bodhi-sattvas--of gods    
many and lords many--insomuch that a    
,buddhist ,pantheon was gradually       
created which became peopled with a more
 motley crowd of occupants than  that of
 ,brhmanism and ,hindism4               
,furthermore1 it was only natural that  

the manufacture of the whole array  of  
divinities and semi-divinities1 of      
saints and sages1 should have been      
committed to the monks4 ,they alone     
possessed this privilege4 ,they alone1  
too1 had the power of consecrating each 
image by the repetition of  mystical    
texts and formularies4 ,and when images 
and idols were thus  consecrated1 they  
were believed to be animated with the   
spirit1 and to  possess all the         
attributes of the beings they           
represented4    ,in fact1 the           
development of every phase of idolatrous
 superstition  reached a point of       
extravagance unparalleled in any other  
religious  system of the world4 ,the    
monks of ,buddhism vied with each other 
in the  #8pious fraud' with which they  
constructed their idols4 ,they so       
manipulated them that they appeared to  
give out light or to flash  supernatural
 glances from their crystal eyes4 ,or   
they made them deliver  oracular        
utterances1 or they furnished them with 

movable limbs1 so that  a head would    
unexpectedly nod1 or a hand be raised to
 bless the  worshipper4 ,then they      
clothed them with costly vestments1 and 
adorned  them with ornaments and jewels1
 and treated them in every way as if    
they  were living energizing            
personalities4    ,it ought1 however1 to
 be noted here1 that in some temples    
images of the  ,buddhas and             
,bodhi-sattvas were said to exist which 
were not manufactured  or consecrated by
 monks4 ,they were believed to have been
 self-produced1  or to have been created
 supernaturally out of nothing1 or to   
have  emerged in a miraculous manner out
 of vacuity4 ,the child-like faith of   
uncultured and imaginative races in the 
virtue supposed to be inherent  in such 
images was perhaps not surprising4 ,the 
power of working all  kinds of miracles 
was gradually ascribed to them2         
sicknesses were said  to be healed by   
them1 rain to be produced1 and the      
course of nature  itself to be subject  

to their direction and control4    ,the 
two ,chinese pilgrims ,f-hien and       
,hiouen ,thsang are never tired of      
describing the wonders supposed to have 
been wrought by the statues and  idols  
they saw during their travels1          
especially by the marvellous            
sandal-wood statue mentioned before 7see
 p4 #djh74    ,the following tradition  
in regard to this image1 narrated by    
,f-hien  7,legge1 #ef1 #eg71 is         
especially interesting as showing that  
the general  belief among all classes of
 ,buddhists in his time was1 that       
,gautama  ,buddha himself was the first 
to sanction the making of visible       
representations of himself3--      ,when
 ,buddha went up to the ,trayastria     
heaven and preached the law    for the  
benefit of his mother for ninety days1  
,prasenajit longing to    see him1      
caused an image to be carved in ,gorsha 
sandal-wood1 and put    in the place    
where he usually sat4 ,when ,buddha1 on 
his return1 entered    the ,vihra1 this 

image immediately left its place1 and   
came forth to    meet him4 ,buddha then 
said to it3 #8,return to your seat4     
,after ,i have    attained ,pari-nirva  
you shall serve as a pattern to the four
 classes    7paths1 see p4 #acb7 of my  
disciples4' ,thereupon the image        
returned to    its seat4 ,this was the  
very first of all the images of ,buddha1
 and    that which men subsequently     
copied4    ,in ,hiouen ,thsang's        
narrative1 which is of much later date  
7see p4 #dac71  we find the following   
account of this celebrated sandal-wood  
image  7,beal1 ii4 #cbb73--      ,at the
 town of ,pim 7,pi-mo7 there is a figure
 of ,buddha in a standing    position   
made of sandal-wood4 ,the figure is     
about twenty feet high4 ,it    works    
many miracles1 and reflects constantly a
 bright light4 ,those who    have any   
disease1 according to the part affected1
 cover the    corresponding place on the
 statue with gold-leaf1 and forthwith   
they    are healed4 ,people who address 

prayers to it1 with a sincere heart1    
mostly obtain their wishes4 ,this is    
what the natives say3 #8,this image     
in old days1 when ,buddha was alive1 was
 made by ,udayana1 ,king of    ,kaumb   
7see p4 #dab of these ,lectures74 ,when 
,buddha left the world1    it mounted of
 its own accord into the air1 and came  
to the north of    this kingdom to the  
town of ,ho-lo-lo-kia 7,urgha874'       
,with regard to the form and character  
of the countless images now  scattered  
everywhere1 they vary according to      
country and period 7see p4  #dhe74 ,it  
should be observed1 however1 that       
,buddhism1 when it began to  encourage  
idolatry1 did not make it hideous by    
giving monstrous shapes  to its idols4  
,in this respect early ,buddhism        
contrasted very favourably  with        
,hindism4 ,nor did the ,buddhists of    
,india1 as of other countries1  adopt   
the practice of endowing their idols    
with extra heads and arms to  symbolize 
power1 or of inventing grotesque        

combinations of the human  figure with  
the shapes of elephants1 birds1         
serpents1 and other animals4  ,they     
seemed rather to have tried in the first
 instance to neutralize the  tendency to
 extravagant symbolism common among all 
,eastern peoples1 by  delineating their 
great teacher as an ideal man1 simply   
and naturally  formed1 according to the 
,buddhist ideal of perfection with      
symmetrical  limbs1 and a dignified1    
calm1 passionless1 and majestic bearing4
 ,what  can be a greater contrast than  
the four-armed elephant-headed          
village-god of ,india1--,gaea1 son of   
iva#bdf--;and the purely human  figure  
of the ,buddha as shown in his statues6 
,nevertheless it must be admitted that  
in process of time the  representations 
of ,gautama ,buddha developed certain   
peculiar varieties  of form as well as  
differences in attitude4 ,these         
differences1 indeed1  constitute a      
highly interesting topic of inquiry1 and
 perhaps deserve  more attention than   

they have hitherto received in any      
treatise with  which ,i am acquainted4  
,without going minutely into every      
point1 we may begin by noting a few     
general characteristics common to all   
the ,buddha's images4    ,in the first  
place1 they all represent ,gautama as   
clothed--not naked4 ,in  this respect   
they present a pleasant contrast to the 
images of ,jaina  saints2 for1 as       
already pointed out1 ,gautama           
discountenanced all  extremes of bodily 
mortification1 and disapproved the      
practice of going  about nude1 according
 to the custom of ,hind devotees4 ,in   
the  ,dharma-pada it is said1 #8,not    
nakedness1 not matted hair1 not dirt1   
not  fasting1 nor lying on the ground1  
nor smearing with ashes1 nor sitting    
motionless can purify a mortal who has  
not overcome desires4'    ,gautama's    
robe was drawn gracefully over his      
shoulders like a toga1 but  probably the
 right shoulder was always left bare on 
formal occasions4  ,the ,piakas give no 

clear information as to this point4 ,in 
,indian  statues the robe is sometimes  
represented as fitting so closely to the
  body that the figure seems            
garmentless#bdg2 its presence being     
merely  denoted by a line running       
diagonally over the left shoulder across
 the  breast1 and under the right arm4  
,this line frequently looks so like a   
cord that some have mistaken it for the 
thread to which1 as a ,kshatriya1       
,buddha was entitled#bdh4 ,in some      
ancient images no trace of the line is  
left1 but they are not really nude4     
,most ,indian images have the right     
shoulder bare 7even in the case of      
nuns74 ,of course in colder climates    
both shoulders are covered4 ,even in    
,southern countries some have both      
shoulders covered1 or the right         
partially so4    ,in contradistinction  
to the clothed images of the ,buddha1   
all the  representations of his great   
opponent and rival ,deva-datta 7see pp4 
#eb1  #dje7 make the latter unclothed1  

like a ,jaina ascetic1 or only partially
  clothed up to the waist4 ,deva-datta  
is also represented as shorter in       
stature than the ,buddha4    ,other     
characteristics generally to be observed
 in the earlier images of  ,gautama     
,buddha are3--the impassive tranquil    
features1 typical of complete  conquest 
over the passions1 and of perfect       
repose2 the absence of all  decoration  
and ornament2 the long pendulous ears1  
which occasionally  reach to the        
shoulders#bdi2 the circle or small globe
 or lotus#bej1 or  auspicious mark of   
some kind1 on the palm or palms of the  
supinated  hands 7as well as often on   
the soles of the feet71 and the short   
knobby  hair1 often carved so as to     
resemble a close-fitting curly wig4     
,it must not be forgotten that ,gautama 
signalized his renunciation of the      
world by cutting off his hair with a    
sword1 and the resulting stumps are     
said to have turned into permanent knobs
 or short curls#bea4    ,in images      

brought from ,burma and ,siam a curious 
horn-like protuberance  on the crown of 
the head--either tapering to a point1 or
 rounded off at  the extremity--is      
noticeable4 ,often1 too1 sculptures     
found in ,india show  the rounded form  
of this excrescence4    ,some think that
 it represents an ascetic's mass of hair
 coiled up in a  top-knot on the crown  
of the head1 as in images of the god    
iva4 ,others  regard it as the rough    
outline of what ought to be an ,ushsha  
or  peculiar crown-like head-dress1 such
 as may be seen in many later images  of
 the ,buddha4 ,some legends declare that
 the ,buddha was born with this         
,ushsha1 which was indicative of his    
future supremacy4    ,others1 again1    
maintain that this protuberance         
7sometimes lengthened out  so as to be  
as high as the head itself7 was a       
peculiar growth of the  skull1 and one  
of the marks of a supreme ,buddha       
indicative of  supernatural             
intelligence2 just as in other images   

7especially those  brought from ,ceylon7
 five flames--in shape like the fingers 
of a hand--are  represented issuing from
 the crown of the head 7see p4 #dec71 to
 typify  the ,buddha's diffusion of     
light and knowledge throughout the      
world4    ,it is said that this         
outgrowth of the ,buddha's skull has    
been preserved  as a sacred relic in a  
town of ,afghnistn near ,jallbd4    ,in 
many representations of the ,buddha1 a  
,nimbus or aureola of glory  encircles  
the head 7see p4 #dgh71 and in some     
images rays of light are  represented as
 emerging from his whole body4 ,an image
 with a halo of  this kind surrounding  
the entire figure was seen by me in a   
temple near  ,kandy in ,ceylon 7see p4  
#dec74    ,in ,nepl many images         
represent ,buddha holding his alms-bowl1
 but these  are not common in other     
places4    ,with regard to the size of  
the images1 they vary from diminutive   
examples1 two or three inches long1 to  
colossal statues twelve1  eighteen1     

twenty1 thirty1 forty1 or even seventy  
feet high4 ,they are  generally carved  
in stone or marble1 but sometimes in    
metal1 sometimes  in wood1 and          
occasionally moulded in clay4    ,much  
difference of opinion prevails as to the
 ,buddha's actual stature4  ,when ,i    
asked the opinion of ,buddhist teachers 
in ,ceylon1 they all agreed  in         
assigning to the founder of their       
religion a majestic bodily frame1  not  
only gifting him with the possession of 
the thirty-two  distinguishing marks of 
a perfect man and supreme ,buddha 7see  
p4 #bj71  but with great height and     
imposing presence4 ,a common idea is    
that the  eighteen-feet statues         
represent life-size4 ,according to other
 legends  the ,buddha's stature reached 
to twenty cubits4 ,in ,china1 the       
mythical  history of ,buddha gives him a
 height of only sixteen feet#beb4 ,his  
arms  are by some said to have been so  
long1 that he was able to touch his     
knees with his hands without stooping1  

and if we are to take the  supposed     
impress of his foot on ,adam's ,peak and
 in ,siam as the measure  of his        
stature1 he must have been the most     
gigantic giant that ever  lived4 ,even  
one of the most enlightened natives of  
,ceylon1 the late ,mr4  ,james          
d',alwis--a convert to                  
,christianity--told me1 in explanation  
of the  abnormal size of the eye-tooth  
at ,kandy1 that he was convinced that   
all  human beings were taller in        
,buddha's time1 and that ,gautama was   
taller  than his fellow-men of those    
days1 and was about eight feet high4 ,it
 was  his opinion that as sin increases 
in the world1 so men's stature          
decreases4 ,probably the ,buddha was    
tall1 even for the ,north-west of       
,india1 where the average of a man's    
stature is about five feet eight or     
nine inches4    ,illustration3          
,,sculpture ,,found ,,by ,,sir ,a4      
,,cunningham ,,at ,s,,rn,,th1 ,,near    
,,benares1      ,illustrating the four  

principal events in ,gautama ,buddha's  
life--his    birth from his mother's    
side1 his attainment of ,buddhahood     
under the      tree1 his teaching at    
,benares1 and his passing away in       
complete              ,nirva4 7,date of 
the sculpture1 about #djj ,a4,d47    ,as
 to the attitudes of ,gautama's images1 
they may be classed under the  three    
heads of sedent1 erect1 and recumbent4  
,i use the word #8sedent' for  what     
ought to be called a squatting position1
 with the legs folded under  the body4  
,images which represent a figure sitting
 in ,european fashion  are rare4        
,four principal images represent the    
four principal events in ,buddha's      
life1 as shown in the ,srnth sculpture  
engraved on the opposite page  7compare 
p4 #chg74    ,the first sedent attitude 
may be called the #8,meditative4' ,the  
example  below is described at p4 xxx4  
#ae4    ,illustration3     ,this        
represents the ,buddha seated1 in       
meditation1 on a raised seat under  the 

sacred tree1 with the two hands         
supinated1 one over the other4          
,illustration3     ,the second sedent   
attitude may be called the              
#8,witness-attitude4' ,it is  perhaps   
the most esteemed of all1 and is        
represented in a good sculpture         
delineated below 7from ,sir ,a4         
,cunningham's photograph1 see p4 xxx4   
#ag74  ,this represents ,gautama at the 
moment of achieving ,buddhahood after   
his  long course of meditation1 seated  
on a lion-throne 7sihsana7 with an      
ornamental back1 having two lions carved
 below 7compare p4 #cid74 ,his  legs are
 folded in the usual ,indian fashion1   
the feet being turned  upwards1 while   
the right hand hangs over the right leg 
and points to the  earth1 and the left  
hand is supinated on the left foot4 ,he 
has an  aureola round his head and a    
mark--perhaps the caste-mark of a       
,kshatriya--on his forehead1 and an     
umbrella over the sacred tree4 ,this    
attitude is well shown in the ,srnth    

sculpture 7facing p4 #dgg74    ,the     
tradition is that at the moment of his  
enlightenment ,gautama was  taunted by  
the evil being ,mra with being unable to
 give any proof or  sign of his         
,buddhahood4 ,thereupon ,gautama        
pointed1 not to heaven as a  ,brhman    
might have done1 but to the earth       
beneath his feet1 calling it  to        
witness4 ,then a six-fold earthquake and
 other miraculous phenomena             
followed#bec4    ,at this time1 too1 the
 evil being ,mra sent his enchanting    
daughters 7p4  #cd7 to seduce the       
,buddha4 ,this is shown in the engraving
 facing p4 #dgg4    ,the incident of    
calling the earth to witness is thus    
mentioned by ,hiouen  ,thsang3--        
,in the ,vihra1 was found a beautiful   
figure of ,buddha in a sitting          
position1 the right foot uppermost1 the 
left hand resting1 the right    hand    
hanging down4 ,he was sitting facing the
 east1 and as dignified in    appearance
 as when alive4 ,the signs and marks of 

a ,buddha were    perfectly drawn4 ,the 
loving expression of his face was like  
life4 ,now    it happened that a ramaa1 
who was passing the night in the ,vihra1
    had a dream1 in which he saw a      
,brhman who said3--      #8,i am        
,maitreya ,bodhi-sattva4 ,fearing that  
the mind of no artist could    conceive 
the beauty of the sacred features1 ,i   
myself have come to    delineate the    
figure of ,buddha4 ,his right hand hangs
 down1 in token    that when he was     
about to reach ,buddhahood the evil ,mra
 came to tempt    him1 saying1 8,who    
will bear witness for you80 ,then       
,tathgata dropped    his hand and       
pointed to the ground1 saying1 8,here is
 my witness40 ,on    this an            
earth-spirit leapt forth to bear        
witness4' 7,beal's ,records1    ii4     
#aba1 abridged47    ,this               
#8,witness-attitude' is also shown in   
the annexed engraving from a  photograph
 of one of the only statues that        
remained in the exterior  niches of the 

ancient ,buddha-,gay temple before its  
restoration4    ,illustration3     ,the 
two seal-like circles on each side      
contain the usual #8,ye dharm'  formula 
7see p4 #ajd and p4 xxx4 #ah74    ,the  
third sedent pose or position may be    
called the #8,serpent-canopied4'  ,this 
is commemorative of the legend that     
,gautama1 when seated in  meditation    
after his attainment of ,buddhahood1 was
 sheltered from a  violent storm by the 
expanded hood of the ,nga1 or           
serpent-demon  ,mualinda 7see p4 #ci71  
while the coils of the snake were wound 
round his  body1 or gathered under him  
to form a seat4 ,similarly the ascetic  
form  of iva is often represented under 
a serpent-canopy4    ,only one example  
of this has been found at ,buddha-,gay4 
,such images1  however1 are common in   
the south1 and their prevalence there is
 not  difficult to account for4 ,indeed1
 the connexion of ,buddhism with the    
serpent-worship of southern countries   
and with the ,ngas of ,hind  mythology  

7see p4 #bbj of these ,lectures71 was   
one inevitable result of  its readiness 
to graft popular superstitions on its   
own doctrines#bed4    ,i procured a good
 specimen of the #8,serpent-canopied'   
,buddha during my  stay in ,ceylon4 ,it 
is made of heavy brass1 and curiously   
enough  represents ,buddha with an      
aquiline nose4 ,it has the five rays of 
light  before alluded to 7see pp4 #dec1 
#dge7 issuing from the crown of his     
head4  ,see the frontispiece opposite   
title-page4    ,in some images an       
umbrella alone1 and in some1 as at p4   
#dgh1 both an  umbrella and tree form   
the canopy4    ,the fourth sedent       
posture may be called the               
#8,argumentative' 7,tarka7  attitude 7as
 shown in the engraving opposite p4     
#dgg74 ,it represents  ,gautama with the
 thumb and finger of the right hand     
touching the fingers  of the left1 and  
apparently going through the heads of   
his  doctrine#bee1 and enforcing it1 as 
he usually did1 by reiterations4  ,this 

is sometimes called the #8,teaching'    
attitude4    ,often the #8,ye dharm'    
formula 7see p4 #ajd7 is carved either  
under or at  the side of images in this 
attitude4    ,the fifth may be called   
the #8,preaching' attitude4 ,it is often
 erect4 ,the  ,buddha has one finger    
raised in a didactic manner4 ,monks in  
the present  day often read the ,law and
 preach in the same manner4    ,the     
sixth attitude also--as a rule--comes   
under the erect class1 and is  often    
scarcely to be distinguished from the   
last4 ,it may be called the             
#8,benedictive' attitude 7irvda74 ,see  
the engraving opposite p4 #dgg4    ,it  
represents the ,buddha in the act of    
pronouncing a benediction1 the  right   
hand being raised4 ,this attitude is    
sometimes sedent4 ,even to this  day    
,buddhist monks bless laymen in a       
similar attitude4 ,occasionally the     
figure with the hand upraised has a     
crown1 and an ornamental head-dress2    
but it may be taken for granted that all

 images of the ,buddha which  represent 
him with a crown of any kind after his  
attainment of  ,buddhahood1 are         
comparatively modern and incorrect4     
,on the other hand1 it is clear that    
even ancient sculptures1 when they      
represent him as a prince1 may correctly
 give him decorations and a  head-dress4
    ,the seventh attitude may be called 
the #8,mendicant4' ,this also is a      
standing figure1 holding a round        
alms-bowl in one hand1 and sometimes    
screening it with the other 7compare p4 
#dj74 ,examples of this attitude  are   
rare4 ,there are no real mendicants in  
,buddhism4 ,no monk ever begs1  he only 
receives alms4    ,the eighth and last  
attitude is recumbent1 and this is      
perhaps as  important as the second1    
though not so common 7see the uppermost 
figure  opposite to p4 #dgg74 ,it       
represents the moribund ,gautama lying  
down on  his right side1 with his head  
turned towards the north1 and his right 
cheek resting on his right hand1 about  

to pass away in the final  consummation 
of ,pari-nirva 7see pp4 #ej1 #adj74 ,in 
many representations  of this attitude1 
the usual five rays of light often      
mentioned before  are made to issue from
 the crown of the head4 ,a colossal     
image of this  kind was seen by me in a 
temple near ,colombo1 and there is a    
good  example of it in the ,indian      
,institute at ,oxford#bef4 ,in some     
carvings  of the dying ,buddha a few    
attendants are represented1 who hold    
umbrella-like canopies over the         
recumbent figure1 or bow down           
reverentially before it4 ,it has been   
asserted that this scene--as            
commemorative of the grand consummation 
of the ,buddha's career through         
countless existences--is held in as much
 reverence by ,buddhists as the         
crucifixion is by ,christians4    ,the  
representation of the ,buddha in the act
 of being born is found in  sculptures  
and bas-reliefs1 but is never found as a
 separate image4 ,it  represents him    

springing out of the side of his mother 
7note1 p4 #ahj74  ,this birth-scene is  
occasionally carved on temples4 ,it is  
shown in the  lower part of the         
engraving 7opposite page #dgg74 ,the god
 ,brahm is seen  receiving the new-born 
child1 while ,indra stands on his right 
and the  mother's sister 7i4e4 nurse1 p4
 #bd7 is on her left4    ,some          
representations of the ,buddha1 or of   
certain forms of the  ,buddha--such as  
,amitbha--show a sedent figure emerging 
from a  lotus-blossom1 or seated on a   
pedestal formed of lotus-leaves1 this   
flower symbolizing perfection4    ,it   
must not be forgotten that in every     
country the images of the ,buddha  are  
generally moulded according to the type 
of countenance prevalent in  each       
country4 ,hence the contour and         
expression of face differ in ,ceylon1   
,burma1 ,siam1 ,tibet1 ,mongolia1       
,china1 and ,japan1 although as a rule  
the  features are calm1 mild1           
meditative1 and passionless4    ,in     

,burma the people are merry2 hence the  
images sometimes have a twinkle  in the 
eye and smiling lips4    ,in ,china1    
again1 examples sometimes occur of      
images which do not exhibit  ,buddha as 
the ideal of a man who has conquered his
 passions1 but rather  with the figure  
and features of a self-indulgent        
libertine#beg2 while  others again      
portray him with a grim aspect4    ,we  
now pass on to the representations of   
other ,buddhas1 ,bodhi-sattvas1  saints1
 gods and goddesses4    ,often two other
 images are associated with that of     
,gautama ,buddha  himself4    ,and1     
first of all1 his image was joined with 
the other two persons of  the earliest  
,triad 7see p4 #age71 viz4 ,dharma 7the 
,law7 and ,sagha 7the  ,monkhood74 ,a   
sculpture1 in a broken and imperfect    
condition1  representing this earliest  
,triad1 and dating from the ninth to the
 tenth  century1 was found at           
,buddha-,gay4 ,the image of ,buddha1    
under an  umbrella-like tree1 is in the 

centre2 that of the ,sagha is on his    
right1 with a full-blown lotus 7p4 #agg1
 note #b71 and having one leg  hanging  
down1 while that of ,dharma 7a female7  
is on his left with a  half-blown lotus4
 ,a drawing of this 7from ,sir ,a4      
,cunningham's  photograph7 is given     
below3--    ,illustration3     ,in ,nepl
 the image of ,dharma is always that of 
a sedent female1 who is  supposed to be 
an embodiment of supreme wisdom 7praj   
pramit71 and  sometimes has four arms   
7see note1 p4 #agh74    ,next come the  
images of the ,buddhas who preceded     
,gautama1 especially  ,kyapa ,buddha1   
,kanaka-muni1 and ,kraku-handa4 ,it is  
often mentioned  that the images of one 
or other of these three1 as of the      
,bodhi-sattvas1  are set up side by side
 with that of ,gautama4    ,then1 of    
course1 there are the images of the five
 ,dhyni-,buddhas4  ,perhaps the         
commonest of these is that of ,amitbha  
7see p4 #bjc71 but  images of ,akshobhya
 and ,ratna-sambhava are by no means    

rare4    ,then as to the ,bodhi-sattvas1
 of whom ,maitreya is the first and the 
only  one worshipped by ,buddhists of   
all countries 7see p4 #ahb71 ,f-hien    
records that he saw in ,northern ,india 
a wooden image of ,maitreya             
,bodhi-sattva eighty cubits high1 which 
on fast days emitted a brilliant  light4
 ,offerings were constantly presented to
 it by the kings of  surrounding        
countries 7,legge1 #bc74    ,hiouen     
,thsang 7,beal1 i4 #acd7 also describes 
this image of ,maitreya as  very        
dazzling1 and says it was the work of   
the ,arhat ,madhyntika1 a  disciple of  
nanda4 ,he saw another image of         
,maitreya made of silver at             
,buddha-,gay1 and another made of       
sandal-wood in ,western ,india4 ,the    
latter also gave out a bright light4    
,probably these images were covered     
with some kind of gilding4    ,in the   
present day the images of ,maitreya     
often represent him with both  hands    
raised1 the fingers forming the         

lotus-shaped ,mudr1 the body  yellow or 
gilded1 and the hair short and curly4   
,passing next to the images of the triad
 of mythical ,bodhi-sattvas1  ,maju-r1  
,avalokitevara1 and ,vajra-pi 7p4 #aie71
 we may gather from  what has been      
already stated 7p4 #aif71 that the      
interaction of ,buddhism  and ,hindism  
affected both the mythology and imagery 
of both systems4  ,yet it does not      
appear that the images of the           
,bodhi-sattva ,maju-r  were ever        
unnaturally distorted4 ,they are quite  
as human and pleasant in  appearance as 
those of ,gautama and ,maitreya4 ,in    
general ,maju-r  represented in a sedent
 attitude1 with his left hand holding a 
lotus1  and his right holding the sword 
of wisdom1 with a shining blade to      
dissipate the darkness of ignorance 7see
 p4 #bja74 ,his body ought to be        
yellow4    ,it was not till the         
introduction of the worship of          
,avalokitevara that  the followers of   
,buddha thought of endowing the figures 

of deified  saints with an extra number 
of heads and arms4    ,the process of   
,avalokitevara's 7,padma-pi's7 creation 
and the  formation of his numerous heads
 by the ,dhyni-,buddha ,amitbha1 is thus
  described 7,schlagintweit1 p4 #hd1    
abridged73--      ,once upon a time     
,amitbha1 after giving himself up to    
earnest    meditation1 caused a red ray 
of light to issue from his right eye1   
which brought ,padma-pi ,bodhi-sattva   
into existence2 while from his    left  
eye burst forth a blue ray of light1    
which becoming incarnate in    the two  
wives of ,king ,srong ,tsan 7see p4     
#bga71 had power to enlighten    the    
minds of human beings4 ,amitbha then    
blessed ,padma-pi's    ,bodhi-sattva by 
laying his hands upon him1 so that by   
virtue of this    benediction1 he       
brought forth the prayer #8,om mai padme
 ,hm4'    ,padma-pi then made a solemn  
vow to rescue all the beings in hell    
from their pains1 saying to             
himself3--#8,if ,i fail1 may my head    

split    into a thousand pieces6' ,after
 remaining absorbed in contemplation for
    some time1 he proceeded to the      
various hells1 expecting to find that   
the inhabitants1 through the efficacy of
 his meditations1 had ascended    to the
 higher worlds4 ,and this indeed he     
found they had done4 ,but no    sooner  
was their release accomplished than all 
the hells again became    as full as    
ever1 the places of the out-going       
tenants being supplied by    an equal   
number of new-comers4 ,this so astounded
 the unhappy    ,bodhi-sattva that his  
head instantly split into a thousand    
pieces4    ,then ,amitbha1 deeply moved 
by his son's misfortune1 hastened to his
    assistance1 and formed the thousand 
pieces into ten heads4    ,schlagintweit
 states1 and ,i have myself observed1   
that ,avalokitevara's  eleven heads are 
generally represented as forming a      
pyramid1 and are  ranged in four rows4  
,each series of heads has a particular  
complexion4  ,the three faces resting on

 the neck are white1 the three above    
yellow1  the next three red1 the tenth  
blue1 and the eleventh--that is1 the    
head  of his father ,amitbha at the top 
of all#beh--;is red4 ,in ,japanese      
images  the heads are much smaller1 and 
are arranged like a crown1 the centre of
  which is formed by two entire figures1
 the lower one sitting1 the other       
standing above it4 ,ten small heads are 
combined with these two figures4    ,the
 number of ,avalokitevara's hands ought 
to amount to a thousand1 and  he is     
called #8a thousand-eyed1' as having the
 eye of wisdom on each  palm4 ,of course
 all these thousand arms and eyes cannot
 be represented  in images4 ,still there
 is an idol in the ,british ,museum     
which represents  him with about forty  
arms1 two of which have the hands joined
 in an  attitude of worship4    ,a      
remarkable description of an image of   
,avalokitevara seen by ,sarat  ,chandra 
,ds 7so recently as #ahhb7 in the great 
temple at ,lhssa occurs  in his         

#8,narrative' 7which ,i here abridge73--
      ,next to the image of ,buddha1 the
 most conspicuous figure was that of    
,chanrassig 7i4 e4 the eleven-faced     
,avalokitevara74 ,the origin of this    
is ascribed to ,king ,sron ,tsan ,gampo 
7p4 #bga of this volume74 ,once the     
king heard a voice from heaven1 saying  
that if he constructed an image    of   
,avalokitevara of the size of his own   
person1 all his desires would    be     
fulfilled4      ,thereupon he proceeded 
to do so1 and the materials he used were
 a    branch of the sacred ,bodhi-tree1 
a portion of the ,vajrsana1 some soil   
from an oceanic island1 some sand from  
the river ,nairajana1 some pith    of   
,gorsha sandal-wood1 a portion of the   
soil of the eight sacred    places of   
ancient ,india1 and many other rare     
articles pounded together    and made   
into paste1 with the milk of a red cow  
and a she-goat4 ,this    paste the king 
touched with his head1 and prayed to the
 all-knowing    ,buddhas and the host of

 ,bodhi-sattvas1 that by the merit of   
making    that image1 there might be    
god-speed to the great work he had      
undertaken--namely1 the diffusion of    
,buddhism in ,tibet4      ,the gods1    
,buddhas1 saints1 etc4 filled the aerial
 space to listen to    his prayer4      
,the king then ordered the ,neplese     
artist to hasten the completion of      
the image1 and with a view of           
heightening its sanctity1 obtained a    
sandal-wood image of ,avalokitevara from
 ,ceylon and inserted it    inside1     
together with the relics of the seven   
past ,buddhas4 ,when the    work was    
finished1 the artist said3--            
#8,sire1 ,i cannot say that ,i have made
 this image1 it has passed into         
self-grown existence4' ,then a current  
of lightning flashed forth from    its  
feet4 ,afterwards1 the souls of the king
 and his queen are said to    have been 
absorbed into it1 in consequence of     
which this image is    called #8the     
five-absorbed self-sprung4'    ,it is   

recorded in another tradition that a    
wonder-working image of  ,avalokitevara 
was set up in a monastery near ,kabul1  
and another in  ,magadha near the       
,ganges4 ,any worshipper who approached 
these idols in  devotion and faith were 
favoured with a personal vision of the  
saint4  ,the statues opened1 and the    
,bodhi-sattva emerged in bright rays of 
light  7compare ,koeppen1 i4 p4 #dii74  
,originally1 and still in ,tibet1       
,avalokitevara 7otherwise called        
,padma-pi7 had only male attributes2 but
 in ,china this deity 7as we  have      
already mentioned at p4 #bjj7 is        
represented as a woman1 called          
,kwan-yin 7in ,japan ,kwan-non71 with a 
thousand arms and a thousand eyes4  ,she
 has her principal seat in the island of
 ,poo-too1 on the coast of  ,china1     
which is a place of pilgrimage4         
,there are two images of ,kwan-yin in   
the ,british ,museum1 one with sixteen  
arms and the other with eight4          
,images of the third mythical           

,bodhi-sattva--the fierce ,vajra-pi1    
#8holding a thunderbolt in one          
hand'--like one form of iva--are almost 
as  common as those of the merciful and 
mild ,avalokitevara4 ,he has been       
described in a previous ,lecture 7p4    
#bja74    ,in the ,pitt-,rivers         
collection at ,oxford there is an image 
of this  ,bodhi-sattva engaged in       
combating the power of evil4 ,it is     
remarkable  that the figures of three   
monkeys are carved underneath1 one      
stopping  his ears with his hands1      
another stopping his eyes1 and another  
his  mouth1 to symbolize the effort to  
prevent the entrance of evil desires    
through the three most important organs 
of sense4    ,with regard to the images 
of female deities we may observe that   
,tr1  the wife or akti of ,amogha-siddha
 7p4 #baf71 is represented as a green   
sedent figure2 her right hand on her    
knee1 her left holding a lotus4    ,a   
standing image of the goddess ,pain 7p4 
#bag of this volume7 may be  seen in the

 ,british ,museum4    ,in a temple which
 ,i visited near ,drjling ,i saw the    
image of the  ,padma-sambhava or        
#8lotus-born' form of ,buddha occupying 
the centre of  the altar1 with the      
images of ,gautama ,buddha and of       
,buddha yushmat1 or  the #8,buddha of   
,life1' on each side4    ,sir ,r4       
,temple 7,journal1 p4 #bab7 relates how 
in a chamber of a ,sikkim  monastery    
there were three figures1 the central of
 which1 with a fair  complexion1 was    
,amitbha1 that on its right ,gautama    
,buddha1 and on its  left ,gorakh-nth   
7see p4 #aic of this volume74    ,in the
 monastery of ,galdan 7p4 #dda7 ,mr4    
,sarat ,chandra ,ds saw the golden      
image of ,tsong ,khapa 7with his golden 
chain and his tooth and his             
block-prints71 along with the images of 
,amitbha1 ,gautama1 ,maitreya1          
,bhairava 7the awful defender of        
,buddhism71 ,yama #8the lord of death1' 
and  his terrific messengers4    ,in the
 great ,cho ,khang at ,lhssa 7see p4    

#dei7 he saw images of  ,avalokitevara1 
,maju-sr1 ,maitreya1 ,kuvera1           
,padma-sambhava1 with an  immense number
 of others1 and especially one of the   
terrific goddess  ,paldan 7or ,pandan7  
who is feared all over ,tibet1          
,mongolia1 and ,china1 as  the greatest 
guardian deity of the ,dalai and ,tashi 
,lmas and of the  ,buddhist ,dharma4 ,he
 found her shrine infested with mice1   
who are  believed to be metamorphosed   
monks4    ,at ,sera 7p4 #ddb7 he saw    
images of the ,buddha in his character  
of  #8demon-vanquisher1' along with     
,maitreya 7in silver71 ,avalokitevara1  
the  six-armed ,bhairava1 the goddess   
,kl1 ,dolkar 7 ,tr1 p4 #bga71 the       
,tntrik ,vajra-vrh1 the sixteen         
,sthaviras 7pp4 #dh1 #bee71 and a great 
variety of others4    ,at ,radeng 7p4   
#bgc7 he saw a golden image of          
,milaraspa 7p4 #chd74    ,in the        
monastery of ,sam ye 7p4 #ddh7 he saw   
images of the ,indian ,paits  who       
brought ,buddhism into ,tibet1 with a   

vast number of other images4    ,at     
,tashi ,lunpo he saw golden images of   
,buddha and ,maitreya1 besides  images  
of #ajjj other ,buddhas 7p4 #ahi71 and  
the four guardians of the  quarters 7p4 
#bjf74    ,at ,yarlung he saw an image  
of ,vairoana ,buddha1 besides images of 
the  sixteen ,sthaviras1 and a gigantic 
image of the king of the ,ngas1 and a   
terrific representation of the demon    
,rvaa 7of the ,rmyaa74    ,at           
,mindolling he saw fresco paintings of  
the six classes of beings 7p4  #abb7    
inhabiting the six corresponding worlds4
 ,of course delineations of  the ,jtakas
 7p4 #aaa7 and pictures of all kinds    
were common in  monasteries and temples 
everywhere4    ,the two wonder-working  
images brought from ,nepl and ,china    
have been  already mentioned 7p4 #bga74 
,as an illustration of the monstrous    
superstition and idolatry prevalent  in 
modern ,buddhist countries1 ,i venture1 
in conclusion1 to quote1 with           
abridgment1 the following description of

 an idol seen by ,miss ,bird in  ,japan 
7see her #8,unbeaten ,tracks in ,japan1'
 published by ,mr4 ,murray73--      ,in 
one shrine is a large idol spotted all  
over with pellets of paper1    and      
hundreds of these may be seen sticking  
to the wire-netting which    protects   
him4 ,a worshipper writes his petition  
on paper1 or1 better    still1 has it   
written for him by the priest1 chews it 
to a pulp and    spits it at the        
divinity4 ,if1 having been well aimed1  
it passes    through the wire and       
sticks1 it is a good omen1 if it lodges 
in the    netting the prayer has        
probably been unheard4      ,on the left
 there is a shrine with a screen1 to    
which innumerable    prayers have been  
tied4 ,on the right sits one of         
,buddha's original    sixteen disciples 
7see p4 #dg of these ,lectures74 ,a     
,koolie with a    swelled knee applied  
it to the knee of the idol1 while one   
with    inflamed eyelids rubbed his     
eyelids on it6                          

,,lecture ,,xvii4                       
,sacred ,objects4      ,next to the     
subject of images and idols comes that  
of certain sacred  objects which        
,buddhists of all ,schools--whether     
adherents of the  ,hna-yna or ,mah-yna  
systems--hold in veneration2 for        
example1 relics1  relic-receptacles or  
,stpas1 foot-prints1 trees1 utensils1   
bells1  symbols1 and animals4    ,the   
narratives of the ,chinese travellers1  
frequently mentioned before1  teem with 
descriptions of such objects4 ,take1 for
 instance1 ,f-hien's  account of the    
district of ,nagra1 near ,peshawar in   
,northern ,india  7,legge1 #cd-dj71 in  
which several sacred objects are stated 
to exist--such  as a fragment of        
,buddha's skull1 one of his teeth1      
portions of his hair  and nails1 his    
alms-bowl1 his staff 7contained in a    
wooden tube1 so  heavy that even a      
thousand men could not lift it71 his    
robe1 and the  impression of his shadow4
 ,this was at the beginning of the fifth

 century  of our era4    ,f-hien's      
statements are confirmed by ,sung-,yun1 
the next ,chinese  traveller mentioned  
before 7p4 #afa of this volume#bei71 who
 started on  his journey rather more    
than a century after ,f-hien4      ,we  
then visited the ,ki-,ka-lam temple near
 ,nagra4 ,this contains the    yellow   
robe 7,kashya7 of ,buddha in thirteen   
pieces4 ,here also is the    staff of   
,buddha1 in a wooden case covered with  
gold-leaf4 ,the weight    of this staff 
is sometimes so heavy that a hundred men
 cannot raise    it1 and at other times 
it is so light that one man can lift it4
 ,in the    city of ,na-kie 7,nagarahra7
 is a tooth of ,buddha and also some of 
his    hair1 both of which are contained
 in precious caskets4 ,morning and      
evening religious offerings are made to 
them4      ,we next arrive at the cave  
of ,go-pla1 where is the shadow of      
,buddha4    ,to anyone entering the     
cavern1 and looking for a long time 7or1
 from a    long distance7 at the western

 side of it opposite the door1 the      
figure1 with its characteristic marks1  
appears2 on going nearer1 it            
gradually grows fainter and then        
disappears4 ,on touching the place      
where it was1 there is nothing but the  
bare wall4 ,gradually    retreating1 the
 figure begins to come in view again1   
and foremost is    conspicuous that     
peculiar mark between the eyebrows 7ra71
 which is    so rare among men4         
,before the cave is a square stone1 on  
which is a trace of ,buddha's    foot   
7,beal's ,translation1 p4 cvii1         
abridged74    ,hiouen ,thsang1 the third
 traveller1 confirms the statements of  
his  predecessors in regard to the      
relics in this district1 and adds as    
follows3--      ,there is another little
 ,stpa1 made of the seven precious      
substances1    in which is deposited the
 eye-ball of the ,buddha1 large as an   
mra    fruit1 and bright and clear      
throughout4 ,it is deposited in a       
sealed-up    casket 7,beal1 i4 #if74    

,it is easy to perceive from the above  
extracts that the worship of  certain   
sacred objects connected with the       
founder of ,buddhism had become  even in
 ,f-hien's time a marked feature of     
,buddhism4 ,in fact1 the number  of such
 objects increased so rapidly that      
before long it became usual to  classify
 them under three heads as follow#bfj3--
    7#a7 rrika 7or arra-dhtu or simply  
rra71 objects which once  formed part of
 the ,buddha's body1 such as a bone1 a  
tooth1 a hair1 a  nail4    7#b7         
,pribhogika1 #8objects possessed or used
 by the ,buddha1' such as his  seat1    
alms-bowl1 drinking-vessel 7kumbha71    
staff1 vestments1 and even  his         
spittoon4 ,under this division is placed
 the ,bodhi-tree4    7#c7 ,uddeika1     
objects worshipped as in some way       
commemorative of the  ,buddha or of some
 event or incident in his life4    ,it  
would be difficult to decide under which
 of these categories the  sacred books  
containing the ,buddha's ,law are to be 

placed1 and yet  they are deeply        
revered1 and at the present day almost  
deified1 as if  they were intelligent   
and omniscient beings4 ,they are wrapped
 in costly  cloth or silk1 and their    
names are mentioned with the addition of
  honorific personal titles4            
,occasionally such sacred books are     
placed on  a kind of rude altar1 near   
the road-side1 that passers-by may place
  offerings of money upon them#bfa4     
,without attempting1 therefore1 to      
follow any particular classification1   
we proceed to notice some of the chief  
objects in the order of their           
importance1 beginning with relics4      
,relics4    ,adoration of relics        
constitutes an important point of       
difference between  ,buddhism and       
,brhmanism2 for ,brhmanism and its      
offspring ,hindism are  wholly opposed  
to the practice of preserving the ashes1
 bones1 hair1 or  teeth of deceased     
persons1 however much such individuals  
may have been  revered during life4     

,i remarked in the course of my travels 
through ,india that articles used  by   
great religious teachers--as1 for       
example1 robes1 wooden shoes1 and       
seats--are sometimes preserved and      
venerated after their death4 ,all       
articles of this kind1 however1 must1 of
 course1 be removed from the  body      
before actual decease2 for it is well   
known that1 in the minds of  ,hinds1    
ideas of impurity are inseparably       
connected with death1 and  contamination
 is supposed to result from contact with
 the corpses of  even a man's dearest   
relatives4 ,nor is the mortal frame ever
 held in  veneration by the ,hinds as it
 was by the ancient ,egyptians1 and as  
it  generally is in ,christian          
countries4    ,even the living body is  
regarded as a mass of corruption1 a     
thing to be  held in contempt1 and a    
constant impediment to sanctity of life4
 ,how  much more then ought every part  
of a dead body to be got rid of without 
delay6 ,hence in the present day a      

corpse is burnt1 and its ashes are      
generally scattered on the surface of   
sacred rivers or of the sea4    ,it is  
true that the bodies of great ,hind     
ascetics and devotees are  exempted from
 this rule4 ,they are usually           
buried--not burnt4 ,not1  however1      
because the mere corporeal frame is held
 in greater veneration1  but because the
 bodies of the most eminent saints are  
supposed to lie  undecomposed in a kind 
of trance1 or state of intense ecstatic 
meditation 7samdhi74    ,the ,buddhist1 
too1 is a thorough ,hind in contemning  
the living body2  but when the corpse is
 burnt1 he does not scatter the ashes on
 rivers4  ,he takes measures to preserve
 them4    ,we know that according to the
 teaching of ,brhmanism the burning of a
  corpse is followed by religious       
ceremonies called rddhas#bfb4 ,the      
greater the number of rddhas which a    
living man is able to perform in  behalf
 of his deceased relatives1 the greater 
is the benefit which  accrues to their  

souls2 and if the dead man's soul       
happens to be in one  of the hells1 the 
sooner it is released from its          
purgatorial pains4    ,a true ,buddhist1
 on the other hand1 considers all such  
rddhas as  useless2 although it is      
certainly a fact that in the end the    
more  developed ,buddhism of the ,north 
invented similar ceremonies1 called     
,bardo 7see pp4 #bic1 #ccd74    ,true   
,buddhism1 in short1 has only one way of
 honouring ancestors1 and  only one     
method of keeping alive the memory of   
those perfected saints  whose whole     
personality has become extinct1 and     
whose transition into  other forms of   
life has finally ceased4    ,the        
calcined ashes1 or certain unconsumed   
portions of the body--such as  fragments
 of bone or hair or nails or teeth--are 
deposited in  relic-shrines4    ,of     
course the most sacred of all ,buddhist 
relics are those of the ,buddha         
himself4 ,it is said that after the     
cremation of his corpse the chief       

remains consisted of four teeth1 the two
 cheek-bones1 and fragments of  the     
skull4 ,but it is believed that1 even   
before his death1 portions of  his hair 
and nails were preserved and placed     
under ,dgabas 7,stpas74 ,one  legend    
relates that when ,gautama had decided  
on abandoning all worldly  associations1
 his first act was to cut off the mass  
of his hair1 with  its ornament 7-mai71 
and that these were taken up by the god 
,indra  to the ,trayastria heaven1 and  
there placed under a ,dgaba and         
worshipped by the gods4    ,f-hien1 in a
 passage already alluded to1 says that  
in the country of  ,nagra there is a    
particular spot where ,buddha shaved off
 his hair and  clipt his nails1 and1    
having done so1 proceeded to erect a    
lofty mound  or ,stpa to enshrine them1 
as well as to be a model for all future 
,stpas 7p4 #ejd of this volume74        
,hiouen ,thsang relates a tradition that
 when the two travelling merchants      
,trapusha and ,bhallika 7see p4 #dj7    

were converted1 the ,buddha gave them   
at their own request some of his own    
hair and nail-parings1 besides his      
alms-bowl1 staff1 and a portion of his  
clothing1 and bade them deposit  each   
article in ,stpas or ,dgabas4 ,the two  
merchants1 it is narrated1  went home to
 their own country and acquired an      
enormous stock of  religious merit by   
being the first to erect a ,stpa for the
 reception of  personal memorials of the
 great ,buddha4 ,according to a         
tradition the two  merchants were from  
,burma1 and the shrine which was erected
 to receive  eight of his hairs         
afterwards developed into the great     
,rangoon ,dgaba  7,pagoda74 ,it may be  
inferred from this legend 7as ,dr4      
,oldenberg has  already remarked7 that  
the care of the ,buddha's relics1 and   
the  institution of ceremonies in their 
honour1 were in the first instance  left
 to the devotion of religiously minded  
,buddhist laymen4      #8,what are we to
 do1' nanda asks of the ,master1 when   

his end is    drawing near#bfc1 #8with  
the body of the ,perfect ,one8' #8,let  
not the    honours due to the body of   
the ,perfect ,one trouble you1 nanda4   
,seek    ye rather perfection for       
yourselves4 ,there are1 nanda1 wise men 
among    the nobles1 the ,brhmans1 and  
the citizens1 who believe in the        
,perfect    ,one2 they will honour the  
body of the ,perfect ,one4'    ,hiouen  
,thsang 7,beal1 ii4 #dj7 also states    
that when certain ,indian ,rjas1  eight 
in number1 heard of the ,buddha's death1
 they collected armies and  marched to  
,kusi-nr 7p4 #dbd7 to seize portions of 
the relics2 but the  prince of ,kusi-nr 
refused to give them up4 ,in the end the
 matter was  settled amicably1 and the  
relics were divided1 so that each of the
 eight  princes might take a share4     
,then all departed to their own homes1  
and  each prince built a ,stpa over his 
own portion of the relics4 ,the gods    
also took their portions4    ,f-hien    
7chap4 xxiii7 alludes to the building of

 the eight ,stpas1 and  adds that king  
,aoka destroyed them1 and in their place
 built #hd1jjj  others--one for the     
conservation of each atom of the        
elements of the  ,buddha's body2 the    
belief being that the bodies of all     
human beings  consist of that number of 
elementary particles 7see p4 #dbc74 ,the
  eight-fold division is described in   
#8,buddhist ,suttas1' pp4 #acc-acf 7,s4 
,b4 ,e4 vol4 xi74    ,it appears        
probable that the earliest relics of his
 burnt body held in  honour were his    
teeth2 and of these again the most      
celebrated seem to  have been his four  
eye-teeth4 ,one of the four is said to  
have been  appropriated by the gods and 
another by the ,ngas1 while the third   
was  taken to ,gndhra in the north-west1
 and the fourth to ,kaliga in the       
south-east4    ,the first two eye-teeth 
have only mythical histories1 and little
 is  recorded of the third1 but the     
fourth has gone through a series of     
terrestrial adventures1 which have been 

much written about and would  fill      
several volumes4 ,one of the immediate  
followers of ,gautama is said  to have  
gained possession of it on the occasion 
of the eight-fold  distribution of the  
great sage's relics 7p4 #dii71 and to   
have conveyed  it to a place afterwards 
called ,danta-pura1 #8tooth-city#bfd1'  
the  capital of ,kaliga 7,orissa71 where
 it is believed to have remained        
undisturbed for about #hjj years4 ,after
 that period it was seized1 at the      
instigation of some ,brhmans1 by a      
powerful ,hind king who reigned at      
,paliputra4 ,its vicissitudes and       
adventures for centuries afterwards     
were very varied4 ,it was conveyed      
surreptitiously to ,ceylon about the    
year #caa of our era by a princess of   
,kaliga1 who concealed it in her  hair4 
,there it remained till #acae1 when it  
was carried back to ,southern  ,india4  
,after a time it was taken back to      
,kandy in ,ceylon4 ,next it was  seized 
by the ,portuguese and carried off to   

,goa4 ,thence it was  transported to    
,pegu1 and finally the precious         
tooth-relic 7dh-dhtu71  or at least some
 imitation of it1 was restored to the   
good people of  ,kandy1 where it is     
still preserved by them as a veritable  
,palladium1  with every possible        
precaution against further outrage1     
although under  the protecting gis of   
our government its security ought not   
any longer  to be matter of anxiety4    
,every native of ,ceylon 7,lak71 whether
 ,buddhist or ,hind1 seems to feel  that
 the welfare of his country depends on  
its careful conservation4 ,at  any rate 
the ,sinhalese have placed their        
tooth-temple--called ,dalada            
,mligwa--in the loveliest part of their 
beautiful island 7see p4 #ded71  amid   
richly wooded hills1 from which may be  
obtained some of the most  enchanting   
views in the world4 ,the eye-tooth is in
 appearance like a  piece of discoloured
 ivory about two inches#bfe long1 and   
one inch  across in the thickest part4  

,indeed1 all the supposed relics of the 
,buddha's body1 and the dress and       
implements he used1 are of such a size  
as to make his worshippers believe that 
his stature far exceeded that of        
ordinary men4    ,the tooth is enclosed 
in nine bell-shaped1 jewelled golden    
cases1 one  within the other1 each      
locked by a key1 and each key consigned 
to the  custody of a separate official4 
,the interior cases increase in         
costliness till the most highly jewelled
 of all is reached1 and within  this on 
a golden lotus lies the relic4 ,when ,i 
visited the tooth-temple  in #ahgg1 the 
cases were kept within iron bars in a   
dimly-lighted  shrine--redolent with    
flower-offerings which exhaled an       
overpowering  perfume--and in the very  
centre of the buildings of the temple4  
,when the  ,prince of ,wales visited    
,kandy in #ahgf1 all the officials      
assembled to  unlock the cases and      
exhibit the treasured relic4    ,a      
detailed account of the tooth is given  

in a book called ,dalada-vaa  or        
,dh-vaa1 said to have been written      
originally in ancient  ,sinhalese 7,elu7
 about the year #caj of our era1 and    
translated into the  sacred ,pli about  
the year #abjj4 ,this book has been     
rendered into  ,english by the late ,sir
 ,coomra ,swmy4 ,the tooth is also      
described in  many other ,pli and       
,sinhalese books1 including the         
,mah-vaa4    ,and here it may be        
remarked that one feature of the        
,buddha's relics was  that they gave    
forth on special occasions celestial    
light1 and had the  power of working    
miracles4 ,sometimes a reverent         
circumambulation of the  shrine which   
contained the relics was believed to be 
sufficiently  efficacious in stimulating
 their miraculous powers4 ,sometimes    
they were  taken out and exhibited4 ,the
 following extract from ,f-hien reminds 
one  of what takes place at ,kandy in   
the present day3--      ,in the city of 
,he-lo 7the present ,hia1 west of       

,peshawar7 there is    the flat-bone of 
,buddha's skull1 deposited in a ,vihra  
adorned all    over with gold-leaf and  
the seven sacred substances4 ,the king  
of the    country revering the bone1 and
 anxious lest it should be stolen1 has  
selected eight individuals representing 
great families1 and committed    to each
 a seal with which he should seal the   
shrine and guard the    relic4 ,at early
 dawn these men come1 and after each has
 inspected his    seal1 they open the   
door4 ,this done they wash their hands  
with scented    water1 and bring out the
 bone1 which they place on a lofty      
platform1    where it is supported on a 
pedestal of the seven precious          
substances4    ,the king every morning  
makes his offerings and performs his    
worship4    ,the chiefs of the ,vaiyas  
also make their offerings4 ,then they   
replace    the bone in the ,vihra1 under
 a ,stpa of the seven precious          
substances    7p4 #ebh of this volume7  
more than five cubits high 7,legge1 pp4 

#cf-ch1    abridged74    ,f-hien records
 a similar exhibition of the ,buddha's  
alms-bowl in the  country near          
,peshawar3--      ,when it is mid-day   
they bring out the bowl and make        
offerings to it4    ,it may contain     
about two pecks1 and it has a bright    
lustre4 ,when poor    people throw into 
it a few flowers1 it becomes full4 ,if  
the rich throw    in myriads of flowers1
 they are not able to fill it4    ,he   
states that the ,buddha's robe was also 
brought out to be worshipped3--         
,when there is a drought the people     
collect in crowds1 bring out the        
robe1 pay worship to it and make        
offerings1 on which there is            
immediately a great rain from the sky   
7,legge1 pp4 #ce1 #ci1 abridged74       
,the relics of all great saints in      
,buddhist countries were revered in a   
similar manner4 ,at the same time it    
ought to be noted that the  periodical  
exhibition of relics1 before the eyes of
 worshippers1 was not  a usual          

occurrence 7as it is in ,roman ,catholic
 countries74 ,indeed1 as a  general     
rule1 the custom seems to have been to  
shield the ashes and  remains of revered
 dead bodies from observation and       
liability to be  touched4 ,hence they   
were commonly sealed up hermetically1 as
 it were1 in  the interior of           
receptacles which effectually concealed 
them from view  and protected them from 
disturbance4    ,and this leads us to   
advert to the form and character of     
,buddhist  relic-receptacles4    ,it is 
probable that at a very early period1   
and even before the ,buddha's  time1 the
 ,hinds were accustomed to raise heaps  
or tumuli over the ashes  of kings1     
great men1 saints and sages1 just as    
even to this day among  the ,sikhs of   
the ,panjb1 the ashes of great men are  
so honoured4 ,some  think that the      
hemispherical dome-like form of the     
tumulus was intended  to represent a    
bubble--the most transitory of all      
material objects4 ,in  all likelihood   

the dome of the ,sch ,stpa--which is    
thought to be as  old as the time of    
,buddha--was constructed in memory of   
some great man4    ,such heaps were at  
first generally called aityas1 and      
afterwards ,stpas  7from the ,sanskit   
roots i and styai1 meaning #8to heap    
together'72 but  aitya ultimately       
denoted a relic-structure in an         
assembly-hall 7see p4  #dej71 while the 
word ,stpa denoted one in the open air4 
,then inside the  aitya or ,stpa 7,pli  
,thpa1 corrupted into ,tope7 there was a
  casket--made of silver1 gold1 stone1  
earthenware1 etc4--in which were        
deposited the ashes1 fragments of bone1 
or the teeth or nails of the  deceased4 
,and this relic-casket was called in    
,sanskit ,dhtu-garbha1 or  in ,pli      
,dgaba 7corrupted into ,dagoba and      
afterwards into ,pagoda7--that  is1 a   
repository of the elementary particles  
of which all bodies are  composed4      
,then in time the word ,dgaba 7,pagoda7 
denoted the monument as well as  the    

relic-casket4 ,moreover aityas and      
,stpas were often mere pyramidal        
structures1 enshrining images or marking
 important events 7see p4 #cij71  but   
not containing relics4 ,among the ,hinds
 aitya often denotes the  sacred        
village-tree planted on a mound4        
,illustration3 ,,votive ,,st,,pa1       
,,recently ,,found ,,at ,,buddha-,,gay4 
7,date about ninth or tenth century of  
our era47    ,the process by which the  
simple aitya or mound developed into    
more  elaborate structures is           
remarkable4 ,first came erections of    
stone or  brick1 generally bell-shaped  
or domed like bee-hives4 ,these again   
expanded into elongated pyramidal       
structures1 springing from cylindrical  
or octagonal or hexagonal bases1 and    
ornamented with images of ,gautama1  and
 resting on plinth-like foundations1 the
 summits tapering into  finials         
consisting of three1 or seven1 or nine1 
or eleven1 or even  fifteen tiers of    
umbrella-shaped ornaments 7see note1 p4 

#cic74    ,then1 again1 in time1 these  
elaborate ,dgabas expanded into vast    
,pagodas  of enormous height1 as1 for   
example1 the ,rangoon ,pagoda 7see p4   
#def7 and  that at ,anurdha-pura in     
,ceylon4    ,it is doubtful whether in  
early ,buddhism aityas and ,stpas were  
ever  empty monuments or cenotaphs4     
,probably all of them contained ashes1  
fragments of bone1 teeth1 or hair1      
though in some cases the most careful   
examination has failed to discover the  
vessel in which they were  deposited4   
,if made of fragile materials1 it       
rapidly crumbled into dust4  ,but       
,stpas1 even without relics1 were       
themselves objects of reverence4    ,in 
the later period of ,buddhism the       
practice of carving1 or moulding  mere  
memorial or votive ,stpas1 and          
dedicating them at sacred spots  became 
common4 ,the examples of this kind of   
,stpa which ,i saw unearthed  at        
,buddha-,gay have been described 7p4    
#cig74    ,the engraving opposite to    

this page is a copy of one of these     
votive  ,stpas which ,i procured for the
 ,indian ,institute through ,mr4        
,beglar4    ,at ,mandalay there is a    
large ,pagoda with about #fbj smaller   
ones round it  7in rows of six or seven 
deep74 ,each small ,pagoda enshrines a  
tablet--exposed to view--on which some  
portion of the ,law is engraved4  ,many 
small ,pagodas are simply canopies of   
brick or some solid material  erected   
over images4    ,outside the ,buddhist  
convent near ,drjling1 when ,i visited  
it in #ahhd1  a monk was roughly        
moulding a number of small votive ,stpas
 in clay1  with which he was probably   
mixing the powdered bones of some       
deceased  ,lma4 ,here is a copy of one  
exactly the size of the original3--     
,illustration3     ,if broken open1 a   
terra-cotta seal1 inscribed with some   
sacred formula1  would probably be found
 inside4    ,of course most of the      
,buddha's chief disciples1 such as      
,sriputta1  ,maudgalyyana1 ,kyapa1      

nanda1 ,upli1 each had ,stpas erected   
over  their relics4                     
,sacred ,foot-prints4    ,next in       
importance to the worship of relics is  
that of foot-prints  7,sanskit r-pada or
 r-pda74 ,everywhere throughout         
,buddhist  countries the supposed       
impressions of the ,buddha's feet are as
 much  honoured as those of the god     
,vishu are by ,vaishavas4    ,when      
,f-hien reached ,gidhra-ka 7see pp4     
#djd1 #djf71 he is said to have  used   
words to the following effect3 #8,i1    
,f-hien1 was born when ,i could  not    
meet with ,buddha1 and now ,i only see  
the foot-prints which he has  left'     
7,legge1 #hc74    ,it is well known that
 the practice of bowing down and        
honouring the feet  is a thoroughly     
,asiatic custom4 ,the idea seems to be  
derived from a kind  of a fortiori      
argument4 ,if the feet1 as the lowest   
member of the body1  are honoured1 how  
much more is homage rendered to the     
whole man4 ,hence  children honour their

 parents1 not by kissing their faces1   
but by  prostrating themselves at their 
feet and touching them reverentially4   
,another reason for venerating the feet 
is well expressed in one of our         
hymns3--      ,o let me see ,thy        
foot-marks1    ,and in them plant my    
own2    and in ,longfellow's            
,foot-prints on the sands of time2      
,foot-prints which perhaps another1     
,sailing o'er life's solemn main1    ,a 
forlorn and shipwrecked brother1        
,seeing may take life again4    ,this   
shows that even ,europeans are familiar 
with the idea4 ,there is a  ,roman      
,catholic church at ,vienna which       
possesses a celebrated image of  ,christ
 on the ,cross4 ,on one occasion ,i     
visited this church and observed        
several worshippers kissing the feet of 
the image1 while others--too  short in  
stature to reach it with their          
lips--touched its feet with their       
fingers and then kissed their fingers4  
,a similar honour is paid to the  images

 of ,st4 ,peter at ,rome1 and indeed to 
that ,apostle's living  representatives4
 ,the alleged foot-prints of ,christ are
 not numerous1 but  they exist in       
certain holy places#bff4    ,every      
sentiment in the ,east is exaggerated1  
and it need not therefore be  matter of 
wonder if a veneration for foot-prints  
has led to an excessive  multiplication 
of these symbols1 and to an excess of   
superstitious  worship paid to them by  
,hinds of various sects in every part of
 ,india4  ,no true ,vaishava will leave 
his house in the morning without marking
  his forehead with the symbol of       
,vishu's feet4 ,in travelling from one  
place to another ,i often came across   
what appeared to be an empty  shrine1   
but on a close inspection ,i found that 
it contained two  foot-prints on a      
little raised altar made of stone4      
,these are called  ,pduk #8shoes1' but  
are really the supposed impressions of  
the soles of  the feet of the person to 
whom the shrines are dedicated4 ,in     

#ahgf ,i  visited the celebrated        
,vishu-pad temple at ,gay4 ,crowds were 
worshipping the foot-mark impressed on  
the bare stone1 but concealed by        
offerings1 and surrounded by a silver   
fence under a silver canopy 7see        
#8,brhmanism and ,hindism1' p4 #cji74   
,it is true that ,buddhists never       
imitate the practice of the worshippers 
of ,vishu by marking their foreheads    
with the supposed impressions of  the   
,buddha's feet1 but they will           
nevertheless make long and toilsome     
pilgrimages to bow down before what they
 believe to be the impression of  his   
foot on a rock4    ,the ,jainas1 who are
 the only ,hind representatives of the  
,buddhistic  system left in ,india1 are 
quite as ardent foot-print worshippers4 
,in  #ahhd ,i ascended ,mount ,prasnth  
7,prva-nth7 in ,bengal at the same time 
with crowds of ,jaina pilgrims who1 like
 myself1 toiled up the hill to  visit   
the numerous ,jaina temples scattered   
over the uneven surface at  the summit1 

some five thousand feet above the plain4
 ,our objects were  very different4     
,theirs was the acquisition of merit1   
mine was the  acquirement of knowledge4 
,lepers lined the rough pathway1 and    
much  additional merit was held to      
accrue to the pilgrims by distributing  
alms  among them4 ,i found that nearly  
every shrine at the summit consisted of 
a little domed canopy of marble1        
covering two foot-prints of some one of 
the twenty-four ,jaina saints           
7especially ,prva-nth7 impressed on a   
marble altar4 ,the soles of the supposed
 foot-prints were either white or  black
 and marked with small gilded circles4  
,groups of worshippers bowed down before
 the shrines and deposited  offerings of
 money1 rice1 almonds1 raisins1 and     
spices on the  foot-marks4 ,no sooner   
did they quit one shrine for the next1  
than a  troop of frolicking monkeys     
promptly took their place and scampered 
off  with the edible portion of the     
objects offered4    ,it is impossible to

 state positively when either ,buddhism 
or ,jainism  first introduced foot-print
 worship1 but the practice must have    
begun  very early4    ,with regard to   
this point ,general ,sir ,a4            
,cunningham1 in his account of  the     
,bharhut ,stpa--a ,stpa which dates from
 the second century  ,b4,c4--says3--    
,foot-prints of ,buddha were most       
probably an object of reverence from a  
very early period--certainly before the 
building of the ,bharhut    ,stpa--as   
they are represented in two separate    
sculptures there4 ,in the    first      
sculpture the foot-prints are placed on 
a throne or altar1    canopied by an    
umbrella1 hung with garlands4 ,a royal  
personage is    kneeling before the     
altar1 and reverently touching the      
foot-prints    with his hands4 ,the     
second example is in the bas-relief     
representing    the visit of ,ajta-atru 
to ,buddha4 ,here1 as in all other      
,bharhut    sculptures1 ,buddha does not
 appear in person1 his presence being   

marked by his two foot-prints4 ,the     
wheel symbol is duly marked on both     
7p4 #aab1 abridged74    ,the ,general   
justly remarks that perhaps the worship 
of the ,buddha's  foot-prints may have  
sprung up in imitation of the homage    
alleged to  have been paid by           
,mah-,kyapa and #ejj monks to his feet1 
which1 it is  said1 were exposed to view
 when his body was lying on the funeral 
pile4  ,the legend states that while the
 monks were in the act of bowing down in
  adoration before the feet1 the funeral
 pile ignited spontaneously4    ,on one 
of the gate-pillars of the ancient ,sch 
,stpa there is a  sculpture of a        
foot-print marked with the wheel 7akra1 
p4 #ebb7 symbol1  which the late ,mr4   
,fergusson ascribed to the early part of
 the first  century of the ,christian   
era4    ,there are also sculptured      
representations of the ,buddha's        
foot-prints at  ,amarvat1 supposed to   
date from the second or third century of
 the  ,christian era4 ,these            

representations are often carved on     
so-called  altars or else placed before 
altars4    ,but of all foot-prints1 that
 on ,adam's ,peak 7the highest mountain 
in  ,ceylon1 more than #gjjj feet above 
the sea71 supposed to have been left  by
 the ,buddha when he ascended thence to 
heaven1 is the most celebrated4         
,according to ,f-hien 7,legge1 p4 #ajb71
 when ,buddha was in ,ceylon he  planted
 one foot on the north of the royal city
 and the other on  ,sumana-,ka 7,adam's 
,peak71 fifteen yojanas1 or about a     
hundred miles1  distant4    ,this       
fancied impression of the ,buddha's foot
 7believed by ,christians to  be that of
 ,st4 ,thomas1 by ,muhammadans to be    
that of ,adam1 and by ,hinds  to be that
 of the god iva7 is merely a shapeless  
hollow in the rock1  five feet seven    
inches long by two feet seven inches    
broad1 which would  give the ,buddha a  
stature of about thirty-five feet4 ,it  
is said to have  been discovered by a   
hunter at the beginning of the century  

before  ,christ1 and1 although very     
difficult of access1 is annually visited
 by  about #ajj1jjj ,buddhist pilgrims4 
,near it1 on the summit of the mountain1
  is a small temple dedicated to ,saman 
7p4 #bag74    ,in a shrine near the     
tooth-temple at ,kandy1 ,i saw a        
so-called facsimile  of this foot-print4
 ,those who are physically incapable of 
toiling up the  mountain to bow down    
before the sacred impression on the     
rock1 gain  nearly as much merit by     
worshipping its copy4 ,the shrine was   
filled with  fragrant flowers recently  
deposited on the facsimile4    ,other   
foot-prints in various places throughout
 ,india1 ,burma1 ,siam1  ,tibet1        
,mongolia1 and ,china1 are from two to  
five feet long4 ,a tradition  is        
mentioned by ,f-hien 7,legge1 #bi7 that1
 when ,buddha visited ,northern  ,india1
 he came to the country of ,woo-chang or
 ,udyna1 and there he left  a print of  
his foot1 which appears long or short   
according to the ideas  of the          

beholders4    ,another legend states    
that ,buddha left the print of his left 
foot on  ,adam's ,peak1 and then1 in one
 stride1 strode across to ,siam1 where  
he  left the impression of his right    
foot4    ,the ,siamese hold their       
foot-print in as much reverence as the  
,sinhalese  hold theirs4 ,it is called  
,phra ,bat1 and1 according to ,mr4      
,alabaster1 its  appearance is like that
 of the foot-print on ,adam's ,peak4    
,nothing is to  be seen but a hole in   
the rock1 about five feet long by two   
broad4 ,a  temple is built over it1 and 
every precaution taken to protect it    
from  over-zealous worshippers4 ,mr4    
,alabaster thus describes his visit to  
this  sacred spot3--      ,the grating  
which usually covers the foot-print was 
removed to enable    us to see the      
bottom1 but the temple was so dark that 
we could not see    much of it4 ,we     
moved aside some of the offerings lying 
on it1 but    could see nothing of the  
pattern except the five marks of the    

toe-nails--five grooves in the          
rock--which some declare to have been   
made with chisels4 ,on inquiry we were  
told that the other marks were    long  
ago destroyed by an accidental fire4    
,likeness to a foot there is    none4   
,yet to this holy foot-print year after 
year crowds of ,siamese    flock with   
varied offerings1 and even the most     
enlightened amongst    them--the late   
,king for instance--have observed and   
encouraged the    practice4 7#8,wheel of
 the ,law1' p4 #bhd1 abridged47    ,the 
soles of the ,buddha's feet are         
represented as quite flat1 and all  the 
toes of equal length4 ,each sole        
possesses1 as we have seen 7p4 #bj71    
one hundred and eight auspicious marks  
7magala-lakkhaa71 and of these  the     
principal is generally the wheel 7akra71
 while around it are  grouped           
representations of animals1 inhabitants 
of various worlds1 and  symbols of      
different kinds4 ,in all probability the
 idea is that all  things are subject to

 the ,buddha or belong to him2 they are 
therefore  metaphorically placed under  
his feet4 7,compare the metaphor in     
,psalm  viii4 #f-h47    ,the one hundred
 and eight marks vary in various        
specimens4 ,a good  typical example     
7brought from ,burma7 of the impression 
of one foot may  be seen in the ,british
 ,museum4 ,the sole is divided into     
compartments1  each compartment         
containing a mark4 ,there are five      
conch-shells1 one in  each of the five  
toes1 this symbol being highly esteemed 
by ,buddhists as  well as by ,hinds4    
,among the one hundred and eight        
auspicious marks on the ,siamese        
foot-print are the following3--,a spear1
 trident 7tri-ratna71 book1             
elephant-goad1 ,indra's elephant1 dragon
 7makara71 ocean1 golden ship1  water   
with lotuses1 conch-shell1 four-faced   
,brahm1 umbrella1 king of  ,ngas1 king  
of horses1 of tigers1 of birds1 sun1    
moon1 ten mountains1  peacock1 flag of  
victory1 deer1 fish1 water-jar4 ,the    

wheel 7akra7 does  not occur in ,mr4    
,alabaster's list 7#8,wheel of the      
,law1' p4 #bij71 but the  two feet of   
the ,amarvat ,stpa1 described by ,mr4   
,fergusson1 have a  wheel in the centre 
of the soles4 ,above is the ,tri-ratna  
emblem with a  ,svastika symbol on each 
side4 ,there are other ,svastika marks1 
and others  on the toes 7see p4 #ebc74  
,the ,skanda-,pura and ,bhgavata-,pura  
give similar lists of marks on  the sole
 of ,vishu's foot4                      
,sacred ,trees4    ,we now pass on to a 
brief consideration of sacred trees4    
,most persons  are aware that the homage
 offered to trees and plants is not     
confined to  ,buddhism4 ,it existed very
 early in ,brhmanism and is still common
  everywhere throughout ,india 7see my  
#8,brhmanism and ,hindism1' p4 #ccj74   
,in point of fact various forms of      
tree-worship prevail at the present     
moment in almost every part of the world
 where superstition and  ignorance are  
ruling influences4 ,nor can we really   

condemn1 as either  unnatural or        
unreasonable1 the feeling of veneration 
with which trees  are generally         
regarded1 bearing in mind the grateful  
shade and shelter  which they afford1   
the beauty of their foliage1 their      
importance as  purifiers of the         
atmosphere1 and the hundreds of useful  
purposes to  which their wood1 leaves1  
and fruit are applicable4 ,according to 
,dr4 ,e4  ,b4 ,tylor 7#8,primitive      
,culture1' ii4 #bbc71 the ,north        
,american ,indians of  the ,far ,west   
often hang offerings on the trees to    
propitiate the spirits  and procure good
 weather and good hunting4 ,he adds that
 ,mr4 ,darwin  describes the ,south     
,americans as doing much the same4      
,in ,persia and other ,eastern          
,countries trees may often be met with1 
the  branches of which have been        
recently hung with offerings of cloth1  
rags1  and even garments4    ,in ,india 
the notion of trees being inhabited by  
deities or semi-divine  beings or       

spirits is to this day very common1 and 
we have already noted  7p4 #aab7 that   
during the period of ,gautama's         
,bodhi-sattvaship1 in the  course of    
which he had to undergo countless births
 in preparation for  his ,buddhahood1 he
 was born forty-three times as a        
tree-god4    ,in ,siam1 according to    
,mr4 ,alabaster1 offerings are commonly 
made in the  present day to the spirits 
or deities inhabiting trees4 ,people    
hang  various votive objects on the     
branches1 or place them on a stand or   
altar beneath any particular tree whose 
deity they wish to propitiate4          
,moreover they are very averse to the   
cutting down of any trees of any  kind1 
lest the tree-gods should be angry4     
#8,some years ago1' says ,mr4           
,alabaster1 #8when ,i employed my spare 
energy    in showing the ,siamese how to
 make roads in the1 till then1 roadless 
suburbs of ,bangkok1 ,i had to cut my   
lines through villages1                 
temple-groves1 orchards1 plantations1   

and patches of jungle4 ,for the         
8wicked0 duty of cutting down the trees1
 a gang of the lowest    criminals was  
placed at my disposal4' ,but he adds    
that the removal of    any specially    
holy building or tree was interdicted by
 the ,government4    ,we have already   
seen that1 according to the theory of   
later ,buddhism1  every ,buddha is      
supposed to have his own special tree   
under which he sat  and meditated1 and  
in the end attained supreme knowledge   
7see p4 #acf74  ,for example1 there is  
the ,pippala 7also called ,avattha1     
,ficus  ,religiosa7 sacred fig-tree of  
,gautama ,buddha1 the ,vaa or           
,banyan-tree  7,ficus ,indica7 of ,kyapa
 ,buddha1 the ,uumbara 7,ficus          
,glomerata7 of  ,kanaka-muni2 the irsha 
7,acacia ,serisa7 of ,kraku-handa2 the  
la  7,shorea ,robusta7 of ,viva-bh2 the 
,puarka 7,white ,lotus7 of  ikhin#bfg2  
the ,pali 7,bignonia ,suaveolens7 of    
,vipayin4    ,these six ,buddhas with   
,gautama are sometimes held to be the   

seven  principal ,buddhas1 and1         
according to some authorities1 the tree 
of the  future ,buddha 7,maitreya7 will 
be the ,iron-wood tree                  
7,sideroxylon7#bfh4  ,specimens of some 
of these trees are to be found growing  
in the area of  the ,buddha-,gay temple1
 and several are represented in the     
sculptures of  the ,stpa of ,bharhut 7of
 the second century ,b4,c474 ,on one of 
the pillars  of that ,stpa elephants are
 carved in the act of worshipping both  
the  ,ppal-tree and the ,banyan-tree4   
,in fact it must be borne in mind that  
,gautama ,buddha is said to have        
meditated under both of these trees1 and
  is therefore connected with both 7see 
p4 #ci74    ,it might have been         
expected1 too1 that the l-tree would    
have ranked  next in sacredness to the  
,ppal and ,banyan2 for according to one 
legend1  ,my gave birth to ,gautama     
while standing under a l-tree1 and      
according to another legend1 ,gautama   
died on a couch placed between two      

l-trees 7pp4 #bc1 #ej74 ,this tree1     
however1 appears to be more honoured  in
 connexion with the ,buddha ,viva-bh 7p4
 #acf1 note #a74    ,there are other    
trees which were held in veneration by  
,indian  ,buddhists3--for example1 the  
,mango 7mra7 and the ,jambu1 and the    
,aoka4  ,the first of these appears     
frequently in sculptures1 and is known  
by the  shape of its fruit4    ,two     
other trees under which the ,buddha is  
said to have meditated after  his       
attainment of ,buddhahood--namely1 the  
,mualinda-tree#bfi and the              
,rjyatana-tree--are not identified4     
,but among all trees revered by all     
,buddhists of all nationalities1 the    
,avattha or ,pippala 7,ppal71 under     
which ,gautama achieved ,buddhahood and 
perfect knowledge1 takes the precedence4
 ,in some ,buddhist countries the       
climate prevents its introduction1 but  
if it can by any means be made to  grow1
 it is everywhere planted close to      
,buddhist temples1 monasteries  and     

,dgabas1 and in many cases is the       
product of a seed brought from the      
supposed original tree at ,buddha-,gay4 
,a tradition relates that ,gautama      
during his lifetime directed nanda to   
break off a branch from that original   
tree and to plant it in the garden  of  
the ,vihra1 or monastery1 at            
rvast--,gautama's favourite place of    
residence--#8,he who worships it1' said 
,gautama1 #8will receive the same       
reward as if he worshipped me#bgj4'     
,this is a mere legend resting on no    
historical basis2 but the tradition     
which makes ,gautama choose a seat under
 the sacred ,pippala or ,avattha  as the
 spot where the first stirrings of a    
divine afflatus and the first           
whisperings of divine                   
communications--symbolized by the       
mysterious  quivering and rustling of   
its leaves--were likely to make         
themselves  felt1 points to a probable  
fact--a fact quite in harmony with what 
we  have already noted in regard to his 

early ,brhmanical education and  ideas4 
,we read in the ,kaha ,upanishad 7,,vi4 
#a7 that the root of the  ,avattha-tree 
was identified with the ,supreme ,being1
 ,brahman4 ,in a  passage of the ,muaka 
,upanishad 7,,iii4 #a4 #a7 and in a     
,mantra of the  ig-veda 7,i4 #afd4 #bj7 
the same idea is alluded to4 ,it is true
 that  ,gautama afterwards repudiated   
the possibility of any divine           
inspiration  coming from any external   
source whatever1 yet it is probable that
 when  he first seated himself under the
 sacred fig-tree1 which is even now     
regarded by the ,hinds as a             
manifestation of the god ,brahm1 he     
expected  supernatural communications of
 some kind#bga4    ,the history of the  
original sacred ,pippala 7,avattha7     
tree1 or as it is  commonly called the  
,bodhi-tree 7,bo-tree7 of ,gautama      
,buddha at  ,buddha-,gay1 has already   
been sketched in a previous ,lecture    
7see pp4  #cib-cid74    ,hiouen         
,thsang's description of the tree1 as he

 saw it in the seventh  century1 has    
also been given 7see p4 #cii74 ,f-hien1 
who saw it at  ,buddha-,gay in the fifth
 century1 calls it the ,patra-tree4 ,the
 following  is an abridgement of what he
 says about it3--      ,the             
,bodhi-sattva advanced to the           
,patra-tree1 placed the ,kua grass at   
the foot of it1 and sat down with his   
face to the east4 ,then ,king ,mra      
sent three beautiful damsels to tempt   
him4 ,the ,bodhi-sattva put his    toes 
down to the ground1 and the young       
maidens were changed into old           
grandmothers4 ,buddha1 after attaining  
perfect wisdom1 contemplated the    tree
 for seven days 7,legge1 p4 #hh74       
,f-hien also saw the offspring of the   
original ,bodhi-tree growing in  ,ceylon
 7,legge1 p4 #ajc74    ,it is recorded  
that soon after ,mahinda1 son of ,aoka1 
arrived in ,ceylon  7about #bej ,b4,c47 
for the purpose of propagating          
,buddhism1 his sister1  who had become a
 ,buddhist ,nun1 also arrived there1 and

 brought with her  from ,king ,aoka a   
branch of the sacred ,bodhi-tree of     
,buddha-,gay4 ,this  was planted at     
,anurdha-pura1 and the zealous          
,buddhists of ,ceylon fully  believe    
that the identical tree exists there    
still4    ,an interesting account of the
 state of this tree or its descendant1  
about thirty years ago1 is given in ,sir
 ,emerson ,tennant's #8,ceylon' 7vol4   
ii4 p4 #fac74 ,i here give an abridged  
extract3--      ,the ,bo-tree of        
,anurdha-pura is in all probability the 
oldest    historical tree in the world4 
,its conservancy has been an object of  
solicitude to successive dynasties1 and 
the story of its vicissitudes    has    
been preserved in a series of continuous
 chronicles4      ,it would almost seem 
to verify the prophecy pronounced when  
it was    planted1 that it would        
flourish and be green for ever4         
,the degree of sanctity with which this 
extraordinary tree has been    invested 
by ,buddhists1 may be compared to the   

feeling of veneration    with which     
,christians regard the attested wood of 
the ,cross4      ,the other ,bo-trees   
which are found in the vicinity of every
 temple in    ,ceylon are said to be all
 derived from the parent-tree at        
,anurdha-pura1 but they have been       
propagated by seeds2 the priesthood     
adhering in this respect to the         
precedent recorded in the ,mah-vaa      
7when ,mahinda himself1 taking up a     
fruit as it fell1 gave it to the    king
 to plant71 and objecting religiously to
 lop it with any weapon4      ,in the   
fifth century ,f-hien found the ,bo-tree
 at ,anurdha-pura in    vigorous health1
 and its guardians displaying towards it
 the same    vigilant tenderness which  
they exhibit at the present day4        
,the author of the ,mah-vaa1 who wrote  
between the years #dei and #dgh    of   
our era1 after relating the ceremonial  
which had been observed    nearly eight 
hundred years before1 at the planting of
 the venerated    tree by ,mahinda1     

concludes by saying3--#8,thus this      
monarch of the    forest1 endowed with  
miraculous powers1 has stood for ages in
 ,lak1    promoting the spiritual       
welfare of its inhabitants and the      
propagation    of true religion4'       
,when ,buddhism became thoroughly mixed 
up with ,hindism the ,kalpa-tree or     
divine tree of ,indra's paradise was    
often introduced4 ,it is supposed to    
have its terrestrial counterpart in some
 sacred spots on earth1 and  there to   
grant all desires1 the worshipper having
 merely to stretch out  his hand and    
take the gifts suspended from its       
branches#bgb4 ,in one  sculpture it is  
represented pouring out coins on the    
ground4 ,this kind  of wishing-tree is  
believed to present1 among other things1
 any food  that its worshippers may ask 
for1 and to present it ready-cooked1 if 
cooking is needed4    ,the miraculous   
tree which developed out of the         
,buddha's tooth-cleaning  twig1 when    
thrown by him on the ground1 has been   

already described 7see  p4 #dai1 and    
compare #8,brhmanism and ,hindism1' p4  
#ccg74                                  
,sacred ,symbols4    ,some of the sacred
 objects already described may be       
regarded as symbols4  ,of those which   
are more strictly symbols the ,tri-ratna
 #8three-jewel'  emblem comes first4 ,it
 is three-pointed1 and the three points 
are simply  emblematical of the ,buddha1
 the ,law1 and the ,monastic ,order4 ,it
 is often  used as an ornament4 ,good   
examples may be seen in some of the     
,bharhut  sculptures 7see ,sir ,a4      
,cunningham's work74 ,the central point 
is often  the least elevated4    ,the   
use of this triple symbol is another    
proof of the connexion between          
,buddhism and ,hindism4 ,both delight in
 triads and in symbolizing  triads#bgc1 
but the ,buddhist #8three-jewel' symbol 
should not be  confused with the ,hind  
,tri-la1 which is iva's trident used as 
a  weapon in his warfare with the       
demons4 ,the ,tri-ratna is merely the   

analogue of the ,tri-la1 as it is also  
of the triple horizontal mark on  the   
forehead of aivas1 and of the ,tri-pura 
or triple frontal mark of  the ,tengalai
 sect of ,rmnuja ,vaishavas4 ,the two   
outer marks of the  latter stand for    
,vishu's two feet and the middle for his
 consort  ,lakshm#bgd4    ,sir ,a4      
,cunningham was the first to show that  
the three fetish-like  figures of       
,jagannth 7,kisha7 and his sister and   
brother1 at ,pur in  ,orissa1 were      
derived from three of the combined      
emblems of the ,buddhist  ,tri-ratna    
7compare p4 #aff of this volume74       
,next to the ,tri-ratna comes the akra  
or wheel4 ,this symbolizes the          
,buddhist doctrine that the origin of   
life and of the universe 7p4 #aai7  are 
unknowable--the doctrine of a circle of 
causes and effects without  beginning   
and without end4 ,the wheel also        
typifies the rolling of this  doctrine  
over the whole surface of the world 7pp4
 #daj1 #dbc74 ,it is  perhaps one of the

 most important symbols of ,buddhist    
philosophy4 ,it is  often represented as
 either supporting the ,tri-ratna or    
supported by it1  or the latter may be  
inserted in it4    ,observe that the    
akra or wheel is equally a ,vaishava    
symbol1 but in  the hand of ,vishu or of
 ,kisha it is a circular weapon1 hurled 
at a  demon-foe4    ,another symbol is  
the ,lotus-flower4 ,its constant use as 
an emblem1  seems to result from the    
wheel-like form of the flower--the      
petals taking  the place of spokes1 and 
thus typifying the doctrine of perpetual
 cycles  of existence--or from the      
perfection typified by the regularity of
 these  petals1 or from the idea that   
its expanded flower1 reposing on a calm 
mirror-like lake1 is a fit emblem of    
,nirva4    ,the ,wheel1 the ,tri-ratna1 
and the ,lotus are so important1 as     
symbols of  ,buddhism1 that they are    
combined in the vignette on the         
title-page of  this volume4    ,another 
symbol is the ,svastika mark1 consisting

 of two lines crossing  each other1 the 
termination of each arm of the cross    
being usually bent  round in the same   
direction#bge4 ,much controversy has    
been devoted to  the origin and meaning 
of this symbol1 which simply symbolizes 
good  luck1 and equally belongs to      
,hindism4 ,long ago ,i propounded a     
theory  that it might represent the four
 arms of ,lakshm4 ,i now think it a mere
  curtailed form of the ,wheel1         
consisting of four spokes with a portion
 of  the periphery of the circle4 ,in my
 opinion1 the four spokes may  represent
 the four groups of worlds 7i4 e4 the   
lower worlds and three  groups of       
heavens1 p4 #bac7 circling in an eternal
 cycle4 ,sir ,a4  ,cunningham considers 
this symbol to be a monogram or         
interlacing of the  letters of the      
auspicious words su asti 7svasti7 in the
 ,aoka  characters4    ,another symbol  
is the ,throne or seat of ,buddha--a    
favourite emblem in  many sculptures4   
,in ,cunningham's #8,stpa of ,bharhut'  

the throne of each  ,buddha is often    
represented under his ,bodhi-tree 7but  
without any  image71 and the thrones of 
the last four ,buddhas are joined       
together in  a single bas-relief4       
,sometimes the throne is covered by an  
umbrella with  garlands1 or the         
,buddha's bowl may rest on it4          
,sometimes two foot-prints  are on a    
foot-stool under the throne4    ,another
 venerated symbol is the ,stpa 7see p4  
#eje74 ,it is often an  object of       
adoration in itself4    ,i need scarcely
 revert to the ,umbrella symbol 7see p4 
#cic74 ,in ,eastern  countries it       
typifies supremacy4 ,if a king is       
present no one else ought  to carry an  
umbrella4    ,the akha or ,conch-shell  
is a very auspicious symbol1 especially 
if  the convolutions turn to the right  
in the ,nandy-varta form1 as on the     
,buddha's foot 7see p4 #eac74    ,the   
,tibetan symbol of the #8,flying horse' 
7,lung-ta7--able to transport a  man    
round the world in one day--has been    

mentioned before2 also the  ,norbu gem  
7see pp4 #cha1 #ebh74                   
,sacred ,animals4    ,it may be truly   
said that all animals are more or less  
venerated--though  not actually         
worshipped--under the ,buddhist system4 
,how can it be  otherwise when every    
,buddhist believes that the ,buddha     
himself was  incarnated in various      
animals during the period of his        
,bodhi-sattvaship  7see p4 #aaa78    ,in
 the same way the ,hinds believe that   
the god ,vishu was incarnated in        
animals1 such as a fish1 a tortoise1 and
 a boar4    ,buddhism in this as in     
other respects is like ,brhmanism and   
,hindism4  ,the feeling of reverence for
 animals rests on the doctrine of       
metempsychosis4 ,it is difficult for    
either a ,hind or a ,buddhist to draw  a
 line of demarcation between gods1 men1 
and animals1 when the same  living being
 may exist as a god1 a man1 or an       
animal4 ,it is on this  account that in 
,india animals appear to live on terms  

of the greatest  friendship and mutual  
confidence with human beings4           
,everywhere in ,india animals dispute   
possession of the earth with man4       
,birds build their nests and lay their  
eggs in the fields1 untroubled    by    
fears or misgivings1 before the very    
eyes of every passer-by1 and    within  
the reach of every village school-boy4  
,animals rove over the    soil as if    
they were the landlords4 ,bulls walk    
about independently in    the streets1  
and jostle you on the pavements2 monkeys
 domesticate    themselves jauntily on  
the roof of your house2 parrots peer    
inquisitively from the eaves of your    
bedroom into the mysteries of    your   
toilet2 crows make themselves at home on
 your window-sill1 and    carry off     
impudently any portable article of      
jewellery that takes    their fancy on  
your dressing-table2 sparrows hop about 
impertinently    and take the bread off 
your table-cloth2 a solitary mongoose   
emerges    every morning from a hole in 

your verandah1 and expects a share in   
your breakfast2 swarms of insects claim 
a portion of your mid-day    meal1 and  
levy a tax on the choicest delicacies at
 your dinner table2    bats career      
triumphantly about your head as you     
light yourself to your    bedroom2 and  
at certain seasons snakes domicile      
themselves    unpleasantly in the folds 
of your cast-off garments4 7,quoted from
 my    #8,brhmanism and ,hindism4'7     
,perhaps the most sacred animal in the  
estimation of all ,buddhists is the     
elephant4 ,this will be easily          
understood by recalling what has been   
said  in a previous ,lecture 7see pp4   
#bc1 #bd74 ,in one of the ,bharhut      
sculptures  the white elephant is seen  
descending to enter the side of         
,gautama's  mother ,my 7#8,stpa of      
,bharhut1' p4 #hd74 ,the elephant1 says 
,sir ,a4  ,cunningham1 is a favourite   
subject for delineation4 ,it is         
represented in  almost every possible   
position1 as standing1 walking1 running1

 sitting  down1 eating1 drinking1       
throwing water over its own back1 and   
lastly1  kneeling down in reverence     
before the holy ,bodhi-tree4            
,probably the next sacred animal to the 
elephant is the deer4 ,the ,buddha  was 
born eleven times as a deer 7p4 #aaa71  
and he delivered his first  sermon in a 
deer-park 7p4 #db74 ,the #8goose'       
7,hasa1 sometimes called #8a  duck' or  
#8a swan'7 is also very sacred4 ,with   
regard to other animals1  ,sir ,a4      
,cunningham remarks3--      ,the animals
 represented in the ,bharhut sculptures 
are of two classes1    the natural and  
the fabulous4 ,the latter1 however1 are 
limited to    three varieties1 an       
elephant with a fish-tail1 a crocodile  
with a    fish-tail1 and a winged horse2
 while the former comprises no less than
    fourteen quadrupeds1 six birds1 one 
snake1 one fish1 one insect1 one        
crocodile1 two tortoises1 one lizard1   
and one frog4 ,the quadrupeds    include
 the lion1 elephant1 horse1 rhinoceros1 

wild boar1 bull1 deer1    wolf1 monkey1 
cat1 dog1 sheep1 hare1 and squirrel4    
,the birds comprise    the cock1 parrot1
 peacock1 goose1 wild duck1 and quail4  
,the snakes and    fishes appear to be  
of only one kind4 ,the solitary insect  
is a    flesh-fly 7p4 #da1 etc474    ,in
 ,burma people feed sacred fish1 and    
save their lives in seasons when  they  
would perish through the drying up of   
rivers and ponds 7see p4  #cfd74    ,dr4
 ,eitel1 in his ,lectures 7p4 #acf71    
points out that even pigs are held      
sacred1 though not worshipped1 by       
,northern ,buddhists4 ,we must not      
forget  that the ,buddha in two of his  
births was a pig 7p4 #aab71 that he died
 of  eating pork1 and that in sculptures
 of the ,tntrik goddess                 
,vajra-vrh--adopted by ,northern        
,buddhists--a row of seven pigs is      
carved  underneath her three-headed     
figure1 one head being that of a pig4   
,miscellaneous ,objects4    ,among these
 may be reckoned bells of various kinds4

 ,the prayer-bells  common in ,tibet1   
which are held in the hand and used     
during the chanting  of prayers1 have   
been already described 7p4 #cbc74    ,in
 ,burma bells abound everywhere4 ,they  
are of all sizes1 and often of  immense 
weight1 but are not used in the same way
 as in ,tibet4 ,nor are  they ever rung 
in peals or with a clapper4 ,their use  
is not to call  people to religious     
services4 ,it is no part of the business
 of monks or  priests to summon the     
laity to any service4 ,every man        
worships on his  own account1 and for   
himself1 and by himself1 and no         
so-called priest  reminds him of his    
religious duties1 or is responsible if  
he neglects  them4    ,the real use of  
bells in ,burmese temples is to draw the
 attention of the  deities and spirits  
7,naths7 to the act of worship1 and so  
secure the due  registering of          
prayer-merit4 ,when a man has finished  
his repetitions1 he  strikes the bell   
with a piece of wood or other sacred    

implement lying  near1 and the more     
noise he makes the better4 ,mr4 ,scott  
informs us that  every large pagoda has 
dozens of bells of all sizes1 hanging   
outside1  and one or two inside the     
central shrine4 ,they are constantly    
dedicated  by religious people1 and thus
 multiplied ad infinitum4    ,the form  
of dedication is inscribed on every     
bell1 and is in the ,pli  language1     
though instances of the vernacular      
occur4    ,the following is a portion of
 a remarkable inscription in the        
vernacular  7,shway ,yoe1 i4 #bdc1      
abridged73--      ,this bell was moulded
 with great care and much expense1 and  
is humbly    offered by ,moung ,san ,yah
 and his wife1 who seek refuge in the   
boundless mercy of the pitiful ,buddha1 
in the majesty of the eternal    law1   
and in the examples of the venerable    
assembly4 ,they humbly strive    to gain
 merit for themselves4 ,may the good    
,naths look smilingly on    them4 ,may  
the ,naths who dwell in the air and the 

earth defend their    two fat           
bullocks--which plough the fields--from 
evil creatures4 ,may the    guardian    
,naths of the house and of the city keep
 ,chit ,oo1 their son1    and little    
,mah ,mee1 their darling daughter1 from 
harm4    ,the weight of the bell is     
generally added to the dedication4      
,there is a fine ,burmese bell in the   
,indian section of the ,south           
,kensington ,museum4 ,it has a long ,pli
 inscription1 a portion of the          
translation of which ,i here give3--    
#8,without charity you cannot attain to 
,nirva'--so it is written in the    ,pli
 ,texts4      ,i1 the giver of this     
bell1 was staying in the sweet-smelling 
town of    ,ma-oo--of which ,i collect  
the taxes for the king--and with me was 
my    wife--my life's breath--like to   
the pollen of a lily1 from whom ,i will 
not be separated in all the existences  
which are to come1 and out of    which  
we hope soon to escape4 ,we adore       
,buddha1 that we may embark in    the   

golden raft of the ,noble ,path1 which  
will lead us to the final    plunge into
 ,nirva4 ,we two1 brother and sister    
7that is1 husband and    wife71 have    
given this bell as an offering4 ,the    
exact weight of the    bell is #bejj    
kyats4 ,we took our own weight in gold  
and silver and    bright copper and     
other metal1 and mixed them well        
together1 in the    year #abji 7#ahdg   
,a4,d474      ,now ,i will record all   
the alms ,i gave and what ,i erected    
within the    sacred enclosure4 ,i gave 
a sacred flag-staff 7see p4 #chj of     
these    ,lectures71 the price of which1
 with all expenses in putting up1 was   
#ejj rupees4 ,at the foot of it ,i built
 four small pagodas4 ,outside ,i        
built a monastery and a rest-house4     
,such are all the offerings4 ,may ,i    
be freed from the ,four states of       
,punishment1 from the ,three ,great     
,calamities 7war1 famine1 and plague71  
from the ,eight ,evil ,places1 from     
the ,five ,enemies1 from unfortunate    

times and seasons1 and from bad         
people4 ,may ,i escape all these when ,i
 die4      ,all the merits ,i have      
gained1 may they be shared with my      
parents1    teachers1 and all my        
relations2 with kings1 queens1 nobles1  
and all    people in the thirty-one     
places of habitation throughout the     
universe4    7,see p4 #aba of these     
,lectures47    ,under the head of       
miscellaneous objects1 we may note the  
seven precious  minerals or substances  
to which allusion has frequently been   
made4 ,they  are gold1 silver1 pearl1   
sapphire or ruby1 cat's eye1 diamond1   
and coral  7,childers72 but they vary1  
and some authorities substitute lapis   
lazuli  for pearl4 ,in ,hindism there   
are nine precious substances            
7nava-ratna74    ,we may also enumerate 
here the seven treasures belonging to   
every  universal monarch4 ,these        
are3--#a4 a wheel which1 being set in   
motion by  the monarch1 rolls before him
 to establish the ,law in his dominions2

 #b4  an elephant2 #c4 a flying horse   
7see p4 #ebc72 #d4 a jewel which on the 
darkest night illuminates the earth for 
seven miles round 7p4 #cha72 #e4 a  good
 queen or wife2 #f4 a good minister or  
servant1 who has the power of           
discovering hidden treasures2 #g4 a good
 general 7compare ,alabaster's  #8,wheel
 of the ,law1' p4 #ha74                 
,supplementary ,remarks on the          
,connexion of ,buddhism with            
,jainism#bgf4      ,having during the   
progress of the foregoing ,lectures1    
incidentally  mentioned the subject of  
,jainism1 ,i ought not to conclude them 
without  explaining some of the chief   
points of difference between the system 
of  the ,jainas 7conveniently contracted
 into ,jains7 and that of the           
,buddhists4 ,the ,jains in ,india1      
according to their own reckoning1 number
  #a1bbb1jjj2 but this is incorrect1 for
 by the last ,census they only  number  
half a million4 ,a great authority 7,sir
 ,william ,wilson ,hunter7  confirms    

this4 7,see his #8,gazetteer' and       
#8,indian ,empire4'7    ,most scholars  
in the present day are of opinion that  
the ,jaina ,teacher  ,vardhamna ,mah-vra
 7,ntaputta7 and ,gautama ,buddha were  
contemporaries1  and that ,jains were an
 independent sceptical sect1 probably a 
little  antecedent to the ,buddhists1   
and were their rivals4 ,at any rate it  
seems  certain that the ,nigahas#bgg or 
,dig-ambara ,jains1 that is1 a sect of  
naked ascetics1 existed before the      
,buddha's time1 and that the ,tripiaka  
alludes to them4    ,probably ,vardhamna
 ,mah-vra 7usually called ,mah-vra7 was 
merely a  reformer of a system          
previously founded by a teacher named   
,prva-ntha4  ,not much is known of the  
latter1 though he is greatly honoured by
 the  ,jains4 ,his images are           
#8serpent-canopied' like those of       
,buddha 7p4 #dhj74  ,his pupils are     
called ,psvaijja 7for ,prvpatyya1       
#8belonging to the  descendants of      
,prva'74 ,they were only bound by four  

vows1 whereas  ,mah-vra's teaching      
imposed five vows4    ,we have seen that
 ,gautama ,buddha1 in the fifth century 
,b4,c41 came to the  conclusion that    
bodily austerities were useless as a    
means of obtaining  liberation4 ,his    
main idea seems to have been that       
liberation from the  painful cycle of   
continued re-births1 that is1 from      
,sasra1 was to be  obtained by means of 
knowledge 7,bodhi71 evolved out of the  
inner  consciousness through meditation 
7dhyna7 and intuition2 whereas1 in      
contradistinction to this ,buddhist     
idea1 the main idea of the ,jain        
teacher ,mah-vra seems to have been that
 liberation was to be obtained  through 
subjugation of the passions and through 
mortification of the  body 7tapas74 ,the
 term ,jina1 #8conqueror1' is used in   
both systems1 but  ,gautama ,buddha was 
a ,jina or conqueror through profound   
abstract  meditation1 whereas ,mah-vra  
was a ,jina through severe bodily       
austerity4    ,in fact1 the ,jains1 like

 all other ascetics1 were impressed with
 the  idea that it was necessary to     
maintain a defensive warfare against the
  assault of evil passions1 by keeping  
under the body and subduing it4  ,they  
had also a notion that a sense of shame 
implied sin1 so that if  there were no  
sin in the world there would be no      
shame4 ,hence they  argued rather       
illogically that to get rid of clothes  
was to get rid of  sin2 and every       
ascetic who aimed at sinlessness was    
enjoined to walk  about naked1 with the 
air or sky 7,dig7 as his sole covering  
7,dig-ambara74    ,in the ,kalpa-stra of
 the ,jains we read that ,mah-vra       
himself began his  career by wearing    
clothes for one year and one month1 and 
after that he  walked about naked4 ,now 
,gautama ,buddha was an opponent of     
,jain  asceticism1 and it seems to me   
probable that one of the chief points on
  which he laid stress was that of      
decent clothing4 ,in the ,dhamma-pada   
7#ada7 occurs the sentiment that        

#8,nakedness cannot purify a mortal who 
has not overcome desires4' ,and again1  
in the ,sekhiy ,dhamm we have           
#8properly clad' #8must a monk          
itinerate4' 7,see p4 #dgc of these      
,lectures47    ,it is recorded in the   
,vinaya 7,mah-vagga ,i4 #f4 #g-i7 that  
,upaka1 a man of  the jvaka sect of     
naked ascetics1 founded by ,gosla 7said 
to have been  a pupil of ,mah-vra71 met 
the ,buddha just after his              
enlightenment1 and  noticing his bright 
countenance1 asked him who had been his 
teacher8 ,he  replied1 #8,having gained 
all knowledge1 ,i am myself the highest 
teacher4'  ,thereupon the naked ascetic 
shook his head and went another road4   
,clearly these naked ,nigahas1 disciples
 of the ,jain ,teacher ,mah-vra1  were  
no friends of the ,buddha4 ,it seems to 
me even possible that  ,gautama's great 
rival1 ,deva-datta 7see pp4 #dje1 #djf71
 may have belonged  to a ,dig-ambara    
sect who opposed the ,buddha on         
questions of stricter  asceticism1      

especially in the matter of clothing2   
for in ancient  sculptures ,deva-datta  
is generally represented naked or nearly
 so1 and  is usually in close proximity 
to his cousin ,gautama ,buddha1 who1 in 
marked contrast to the other1 is always 
clothed4 ,evidently the question  of    
dress was a crucial one1 and in process 
of time a party seems to have  arisen1  
even among the ,dig-ambara ,jains1      
opposed to strict asceticism in  this   
particular4    ,this party ultimately   
formed themselves into a separate sect1 
calling  themselves vetmbaras1 that is1 
#8clothed in white garments4' ,it is    
well  known that in early ,buddhism two 
similar parties arose1 the strict and   
the lax4 ,but the two ,buddhist parties 
were ultimately reunited4 ,the  second  
council is supposed to have settled the 
controversy4    ,dr4 ,jacobi has shown  
that the separation of the two ,jain    
sects must have  taken place 7according 
to the traditions of both parties7 some 
time  before the first century of our   

era4    ,it appears probable that the   
strict ,dig-ambaras preceded the more   
lax  vetmbaras1 though each sect claims 
to be the oldest4 ,the two ,jain  sects 
have remained separate to the present   
day1 though in all essential  points of 
doctrine and discipline they agree4     
,when ,i was last in ,india1 in #ahhd1  
,i ascended the two hills1 ,prasnth     
7for ,prva-nth7 and b--both of them most
 sacred places in the  estimation of the
 ,jains1 and covered with their temples4
 ,my ascent of  the former has been     
already described 7p4 #eji74 ,i also    
visited ,delhi1  ,jaypur1 jmere1 and    
some other chief ,jain stations4 ,jaypur
 is the  stronghold of the ,dig-ambara  
,jains1 and two intelligent ,dig-ambara 
,paits1 named ,phae ,ll and ,syoj ,ll1  
visited me there4 ,we conversed  for a  
long time in ,sanskit1 and ,i asked them
 many questions about their  religion1  
and the points in which they differed   
from the vetmbara  sect4    ,three chief
 differences were stated to be3 ,first1 

the vetmbaras object  to entirely nude  
images of any of the twenty-four ,jinas 
or ,trtha-karas  accepted by both sects4
 ,hence all vetmbara statues ought to   
have some  appearance of a line round   
the middle of the body1 representing a  
strip  of cloth4 ,in one respect the    
images of the ,jinas differ from those  
of  the ,buddhas4 ,they have a          
jewel-like mark on the breast4 ,this is 
especially conspicuous in ,prva-nth4    
,they are also of different  colours1   
and have symbols 7generally animals1    
such as a deer1 tortoise1  pig7         
connected with them4    ,secondly1 the  
vetmbaras admit women into their order  
of ascetics just  as ,buddhists have    
their ,bhikkhuns1 or nuns2 whereas the  
,dig-ambaras1  for obvious reasons1 do  
not admit women4    ,thirdly1 the       
vetmbaras have distinct sacred books of 
their own1 which  they call ,agas1      
#8limbs of the ,law1' eleven in number1 
besides others1  making #de gamas1 #aa  
,agas1 #ab ,upgas1 #aj ,pinnas          

7,prakraka71 #d  ,mlas1 #f hedas1 #a    
,anuyoga-dvra1 and #a ,nandi4 ,dr4      
,bhler places the  composition of the   
,agas in the third century ,b4,c4 ,dr4  
,jacobi places  them at the end of the  
fourth or beginning of the third        
century4 ,they  are written in ,jain    
,prkit 7sometimes called ,ardha-,mgadh1 
a later  form than ,pli71 with ,sanskit 
commentaries4 ,the ,dig-ambaras         
substitute1  for the ,agas1 later works1
 also written in more modern ,prkit     
7probably in the fifth or sixth century 
after ,christ71 and maintain that  the  
vetmbara ,canon is spurious4 ,both sects
 have valuable ,sanskit  works in their 
sacred literature4    ,i now add a few  
characteristics of both sects of ,jains 
as distinguishing  them from ,buddhists4
    ,i need scarcely notice the fact    
that the ,jains of the present day keep 
up ,caste4 ,the two ,jain ,paits who    
came to me at ,jaypur were ,brhmans1    
and wore the ,brhmanical thread4 ,i     
believe this to be a mere modern        

innovation1 which does not properly     
belong to the ,jain system4    ,more    
important are the following             
points3--,the ,jain saints1 or prophets1
  are called by a peculiar name         
,trtha-kara1 #8ford-makers1' i4 e4      
making  a ford across the troubled river
 of constant births or transmigrations  
7,sasra7 to the ,elysium of ,nirva2     
whereas the name ,trtha-kara with  the  
,buddhists means a #8heretical teacher4'
 ,then there are twenty-four  ,jain     
,trtha-karas1 whereas there are         
twenty-five ,buddhas4 ,of the           
twenty-four ,jain saints1 the           
twenty-third and                        
twenty-fourth--,prva-nth  7pp4 #eji1    
#ebi7 and ,mah-vra--are the only        
historical personages4 ,the  others1    
beginning with ishabha1 are mythical4   
,next1 the ,jains have no ,stpas or     
,dgabas 7p4 #ejd7 for preserving the    
relics of their saints4    ,still more  
important is the point that the ,jains  
believe in separate  individual souls   

7,jva71 whereas the ,buddhists deny the 
existence of  souls4 ,souls1 according  
to the ,jains1 may exist in stocks1     
stones1 lumps  of earth1 drops of water1
 particles of fire4 ,in ,buddhism there 
is1 as we  have seen1 no true           
metempsychosis1 but rather a connected  
series of  metamorphoses1 and this stops
 at animals2 whereas the metempsychosis 
of  ,jainism extends to inorganic       
matter4    ,with regard to the moral    
code two or three points may be noticed4
 ,the  ,jaina #8three jewels' are       
,right-belief1 ,right-knowledge1 and    
,right-conduct1 whereas the ,buddhist   
,tri-ratna consists in the well-known   
,triad--the ,buddha1 the ,law1 and the  
,monkhood4    ,then as to the five chief
 ,moral ,prohibitions--the fifth with   
,jains is3  #8have no worldly           
attachments2' whereas with ,buddhists it
 is3 #8drink no  strong drink4' ,i      
believe the ,buddhists to have been the 
first to  introduce total abstinence    
from strong drinks into ,india4 ,the    

,jains1  too1 lay even more stress than 
the ,buddhists on the first             
prohibition3--,kill no living creature4 
,they strain water before drinking1     
sweep the ground with a silken brush    
before sitting down on it1 never  eat in
 the dark1 often wear muslin before     
their mouths to catch minute  insects1  
and even object to eating fruits        
containing seed4    ,another interesting
 difference is that ,jainism makes      
,dharma and ,adharma1  good and evil1 or
 rather merit and demerit1 two out of   
its six real  substances--its           
fundamental and eternal principles      
7,astikya7--the other  four being matter
 7pudgala71 soul 7jva71 space and time4 
,the ,jains  reject the ,buddhist theory
 of the five ,skandhas 7see p4 #aji74   
,lastly1 the prayer-formula of the      
,jains differs from the well-known      
#8three-refuge' formula of the          
,buddhists 7#8,i go for refuge to the   
,buddha1  the ,law1 and the order of    
,monks'7 thus3 #8,reverence to the      

,arhats1 to the  ,siddhas1 to the       
,aryas1 to the ,updhyyas1 to all the    
,sdhus' 7,namo  ,arihanta namo ,siddha  
namo ,ayariya namo ,uvajjhya namo loe   
sabba-sha74    ,time will not permit me 
to notice minor differences1 such as the
 ,jain  rule that the hair should be    
painfully torn off1 instead of cut off1 
etc4    ,certainly ,jainism1 when viewed
 from the stand-point of ,christianity1 
is  even a colder system than ,buddhism1
 and has even less claim to be called  a
 religion4 ,yet no system can show a    
greater number of temples4 ,every  ,jain
 who is noted for his piety builds a    
small temple4 ,he never repairs  the    
temples of others4 ,at ,plitna in       
,kthiwr1 there is a whole city  of ,jain
 temples4 ,nor is it at all necessary   
that every temple built to  hold a ,jain
 saint should possess either priests or 
worshippers4 ,what is  aimed at is the  
acquisition of merit by the performance 
of pious acts4    ,i must conclude by   
expressing my opinion that ,indian      

,jainism is  gradually drifting back    
into the current of ,brhmanism1 which   
everywhere  surrounds it and attracts   
it4 ,jainism1 like ,buddhism1 came out  
from  ,brhmanism1 and into ,brhmanism it
 is destined to return4                 
,,lecture ,,xviii4                      
,buddhism contrasted with ,christianity4
      ,in the previous ,lectures ,i have
 incidentally contrasted the principal  
doctrines of ,buddhism with those of    
,christianity4    ,it will be my aim in 
this concluding ,lecture to draw        
attention more  directly and more in    
detail to the main points of divergence 
between two  systems1 which in their    
moral teaching have so many points of   
contact1  that a superficial study of   
either is apt to lead to very confused  
ideas  in regard to their comparative   
excellence and their resemblance to each
  other4    ,and first of all ,i must   
remind those who heard my earlier       
,lectures of  the grand fundamental     
distinction which they were intended to 

establish--namely1 that ,christianity is
 a religion1 whereas ,buddhism1 at      
least in its earliest and truest form1  
is no religion at all1 but a mere       
system of morality and philosophy       
founded on a pessimistic theory of      
life4    ,here1 however1 it may be      
objected that1 before we exclude        
,buddhism from  all title to be called a
 religion1 we ought to define what we   
mean by  the term #8religion4'    ,of   
course1 it will be generally            
acknowledged that mere morality need not
  imply religion1 though--taking the    
converse--it is most undeniably true    
that religion must of necessity imply   
morality4    ,unquestionably there have 
been great philosophers in ancient times
 who  have lived strictly moral lives   
without acknowledging any religious     
creed at all4 ,many excellent men1 too1 
exist among us in the present  day1 who 
resent being called irreligious1 and yet
 hold no definite  religious doctrines1 
and decline to accept any system which  

commits them  to absolute belief in     
anything except an eternal ,energy or   
,force4    ,clearly the definition of   
the word #8religion' is beset with      
difficulties1 and its etymology is too  
uncertain to help us in  explaining     
it#bgh4 ,we shall1 however1 be justified
 if we affirm that  every system        
claiming to be a religion in the proper 
sense of the word  must postulate the   
eternal existence of one living and true
 ,god of  infinite power1 wisdom1 and   
love1 the ,creator1 ,designer1 and      
,preserver  of all things visible and   
invisible4    ,it must also take for    
granted the immortality of man's soul or
 spirit1  and the reality of a future   
state and of an unseen world4 ,it must  
also  postulate in man an innate sense  
of dependence on a personal ,god--a     
sense  of reverence and love for ,him1  
springing from a belief in ,his justice1
  holiness1 wisdom1 power1 and love1 and
 intensified by a deep  consciousness of
 weakness1 and a yearning to be         

delivered from the  presence1 tyranny1  
and penalty of sin4    ,then1 starting  
from these assumptions1 it must satisfy 
four requisites4    ,first1 it must     
reveal the ,creator in ,his nature and  
attributes to ,his  creature1 man4      
,secondly1 it must reveal man to        
himself4 ,it must impart to him a       
knowledge of his own nature and         
history--what he is2 why he was created2
  whither he is tending2 and whether he 
is at present in a state of  decadence  
downwards from a higher condition1 or of
 development upwards  from a lower4     
,thirdly1 it must reveal some method by 
which the finite creature may           
communicate with the infinite           
,creator--some plan by which he may gain
  access to ,him and become united with 
,him1 and be saved by ,him from the     
consequences of his own sinful acts4    
,fourthly1 such a system must prove its 
title to be called a religion by  its   
regenerating effect on man's nature2 by 
its influence on his  thoughts1 desires1

 passions1 and feelings2 by its power of
 subduing all  his evil tendencies2 by  
its ability to transform his character  
and  assimilate him to the ,god it      
reveals4    ,it is clear1 then1 that    
tried by such a criterion as this1 early
  ,buddhism could not claim to be a     
religion4 ,it failed to satisfy these   
conditions4 ,it refused to admit the    
existence of a personal ,creator1 or  of
 man's dependence on a higher ,power4   
,it denied any eternal soul or ,ego  in 
man4 ,it acknowledged no external1      
supernatural revelation4 ,it had no     
priesthood--no real clergy2 no real     
prayer2 no real worship4 ,it had no     
true idea of sin1 or of the need of     
pardon 7p4 #abd71 and it condemned  man 
to suffer the consequences of his own   
sinful acts without hope of  help from  
any ,saviour or ,redeemer1 and indeed   
from any being but  himself4    ,the    
late ,bishop of ,calcutta once said to  
me1 that being in an outlying  part of  
his diocese1 where ,buddhism prevailed1 

he asked an apparently  pious ,buddhist1
 whom he happened to observe praying in 
a temple1 what he  had just been praying
 for8 ,he replied1 #8,i have been       
praying for  nothing4' #8,but1' urged   
the ,bishop1 #8to whom have you been    
praying8' ,the  man answered1 #8,i have 
been praying to nobody4' #8,what6' said 
the  astonished ,bishop1 #8praying for  
nothing to nobody8' ,and no doubt this  
anecdote gives an accurate idea of the  
so-called prayer of a true  ,buddhist4  
,this man had not really been praying   
for anything4 ,he had been  merely      
making use of some form of words to     
which an efficacy1 like that  of sowing 
fruitful seed in a field1 was supposed  
to belong4 ,he had not  been praying in 
any ,christian sense4    ,here1 however1
 an objector might remind me that       
according to my own  showing1 various   
developments of ,buddhism modified and  
even contradicted  the original creed1  
and that what has been here said about  
prayer1 is  only strictly applicable to 

early ,buddhism as originally taught in 
the  most ancient texts4    ,i grant    
this--,i grant that expressions of      
reverence for the ,buddha1 the  ,law1   
and the ,monkhood1 developed into       
expressions of wants and needs1  and    
that these expressions1 gradually led on
 to the offering of actual  prayers to  
deified ,buddhas and ,bodhi-sattvas4    
,i admit that we ought to judge of      
,buddhism as a whole4 ,we ought to give 
full consideration to its later         
developments1 and the gradual sliding of
  its atheism and agnosticism into      
theism and polytheism4 ,we are bound to 
acknowledge that ,buddhism1 as it       
extended to other countries1 did        
acquire the character of a theistic     
religious system1 which1 though  false1 
had in it some points of contact with   
,christianity4    ,nevertheless1        
admitting all this1 and taking into     
account all that can  be said in favour 
of ,buddhism as a religious system1 it  
will be easy to  show how impossible it 

is to bridge over the yawning chasm     
which  separates it from the true       
religion4    ,it is1 indeed1 one of the 
strange phenomena of the present day1   
that  even educated people who call     
themselves ,christians1 are apt to fall 
into raptures over the precepts of      
,buddhism#bgi1 attracted by the  bright 
gems which its admirers delight in      
culling out of its moral code1  and in  
displaying ostentatiously1 while keeping
 out of sight all its  dark spots1 all  
its trivialities and senseless          
repetitions#bhj2 not to  speak of all   
those evidences of deep corruption      
beneath a whited  surface1 all those    
significant precepts and prohibitions in
 its books of  discipline1 which indeed 
no ,christian could soil his lips by    
uttering#bha4    ,it has even been      
asserted that much of the teaching in   
the ,sermon on the  ,mount1 and in other
 parts of the ,gospel narratives1 is    
based on  previously current moral      
teaching1 which ,buddhism was the first 

to  introduce to the world1 #ejj years  
before ,christ#bhb4 ,but this is not    
all4 ,the admirers of ,buddhism maintain
 that the ,buddha was not a mere        
teacher of the truths of morality1 but  
of many other sublime truths4 ,he  has  
been justly called1 say they1 #8the     
,light of ,asia1' though they           
condescendingly admit that ,christianity
 as a later development is more  adapted
 to become the religion of the world4   
,let us then inquire1 for a moment1 what
 claim ,gautama ,buddha has to this     
title--#8the ,light of ,asia8'    ,now1 
in the first place those who give him   
this name forget that his  doctrines    
only spread over ,eastern ,asia1 and    
that either ,confucius1 or  ,zoroaster1 
or ,muhammad might equally be called    
#8the ,light of ,asia4'    ,but was the 
,buddha1 in any true sense1 a ,light to 
any part of the world8    ,it is        
certainly true that the main idea       
implied by ,buddhism is  intellectual   
enlightenment4 ,buddhism1 before all    

things1 means  enlightenment of mind1   
resulting from intense                  
self-concentration and  introspection1  
from intense abstract meditation1       
combined with the  exercise of a man's  
own reasoning faculties and intuitions4 
,of what nature1 then1 was the so-called
 ,light of ,knowledge that radiated     
from the ,buddha8 ,was it the knowledge 
of his own utter weakness1 of his       
original depravity of heart1 or of the  
origin of sin8 ,no2 the ,buddha's  light
 was in these respects profound         
darkness4 ,he confessed himself1 in     
regard to such momentous questions1 a   
downright ,agnostic4 ,the primary       
origin of evil--the first evil act--was 
to him an inexplicable mystery4    ,was 
it1 then1 a knowledge of the goodness1  
justice1 holiness1 and  omnipotence of a
 personal ,creator8 ,was it a knowledge 
of the ,fatherhood  of ,god8 ,no2 the   
,buddha's light was in these respects   
also mere and sheer  darkness4 ,in these
 respects1 too1 he acknowledged himself 

a thorough  ,agnostic4 ,he admitted that
 he knew of no being higher than        
himself4    ,what1 then1 was the light  
that broke upon the ,buddha8 ,what was  
this  enlightenment which has been so   
much written about and extolled8 ,all   
that he claimed to have discovered was  
the origin of suffering and the  remedy 
of suffering4 ,all the light of         
knowledge to which he attained  came to 
this3--that suffering arises from       
indulging desires1 especially  the      
desire for continuity of life2 that     
suffering is inseparable from  life2    
that all life is suffering2 and that    
suffering is to be got rid of  by the   
suppression of desires1 and by the      
extinction of personal  existence4      
,here1 then1 is the first great         
contrast4 ,when the ,buddha said to his 
converts1 #8,come 7ehi71 be my          
disciple1' he bade them expect to get   
rid  of suffering1 he told them to stamp
 out suffering by stamping out  desires 
7see pp4 #dc1 #dd74 ,when the ,christ   

said to ,his disciples1 #8,come1  follow
 ,me1' ,he bade them expect suffering4  
,he told them to glory in  their        
sufferings--nay1 to expect the          
perfection of their characters  through 
suffering4    ,it is certainly          
noteworthy that both ,christianity and  
,buddhism agree in  asserting that all  
creation groaneth and travaileth in     
pain1 in  suffering1 in tribulation4    
,but mark the vast1 the vital           
distinction in  the teaching of each4   
,the one taught men to be patient under 
affliction1  and to aim at the          
glorification of the suffering body1 the
 other taught  men to be intolerant of  
affliction1 and to aim at the utter     
annihilation  of the suffering body4    
,what says our ,bible8 ,we ,christians1 
it says1 are members of ,christ's       
,body--of ,his flesh and of ,his        
bones--of that ,divine ,body which was  
once a  suffering ,body1 a cross-bearing
 ,body1 and is now a glorified ,body1 an
  ever-living1 life-giving ,body4 ,hence

 it teaches us to honour and revere  the
 human body2 nay1 almost to deify the   
human body4    ,a ,buddhist1 on the     
other hand1 treats every kind of body   
with contempt1  and repudiates as a     
simple impossibility1 all idea of being 
a member of  the ,buddha's body4 ,how   
could a ,buddhist be a member of a body 
which was  burnt to ashes--which was    
calcined1--which became extinct at the  
moment  when the ,buddha's whole        
personality became extinguished also8   
,but1 say the admirers of ,buddhism1 at 
least you will admit that the  ,buddha  
told men to avoid sin1 and to aim at    
purity and holiness of life8  ,nothing  
of the kind4 ,the ,buddha had no idea of
 sin as an offence against  ,god1 no    
idea of true holiness 7see p4 #abd74    
,what he said was--,get rid of  the     
demerit of evil actions and accumulate a
 stock of merit by good  actions4       
,and let me remark here that this       
determination to store up merit--like   
capital at a bank--is one of those      

inveterate propensities of human        
nature1 one of those irrepressible and  
deep-seated tendencies in  humanity     
which nothing but the divine force      
imparted by ,christianity can  ever     
eradicate4 ,it is for ever cropping up  
in the heart of man1 as much  in the    
,west as in the ,east1 as much in the   
,north as in the ,south2 for  ever      
re-asserting itself like a pestilent    
weed1 or like tares amidst the  wheat1  
for ever blighting the fruit of those   
good instincts which  underlie man's    
nature everywhere4    ,only the other   
day ,i met an intelligent ,sikh from the
 ,panjb1 and asked  him about his       
religion4 ,he replied1 #8,i am no       
idolater2 ,i believe in ,one  ,god1 and 
,i repeat my prayers1 called 8,jap-jee10
 every morning and  evening4 ,these     
prayers occupy six pages of print1 but  
,i can get through  them in little more 
than ten minutes4' ,he seemed to pride  
himself on  this rapid recitation as a  
work of increased merit4    ,i said1    

#8,what else does your religion require 
of you8' ,he replied1 #8,i  have made   
one pilgrimage to a holy well near      
,amritsar4 ,eighty-five steps  lead down
 to it4 ,i descended and bathed in the  
sacred pool4 ,then ,i  ascended one step
 and repeated my ,jap-jee with great    
rapidity4 ,then ,i  descended again to  
the pool and bathed again1 and ascended 
to the second  step and repeated my     
prayers a second time4 ,then ,i         
descended a third  time1 and ascended to
 the third step and repeated my ,jap-jee
 a third  time1 and so on for the whole 
eighty-five steps1 eighty-five bathings 
and eighty-five repetitions of the same 
prayers4 ,it took me exactly  fourteen  
hours1 from #e p4m4 one evening to #g   
a4m4 next morning1 and ,i  fasted all   
the time4'    ,i asked1 #8,what good did
 you expect to get by going through this
 task8'  ,he replied1 #8,i hope ,i have 
laid up an abundant store of merit1     
which  will last me for a long time4'   
,this1 let me tell you1 is a genuine    

,hind notion4 ,it is of the very        
essence of ,brhmanism1 of ,hindism1 of  
,zoroastrianism1 of ,confucianism1  of  
,muhammadanism4 ,it is even more of the 
essence of ,buddhism4 ,for1 of  all     
systems1 ,buddhism is the one which lays
 most stress on the  accumulation of    
merit by good actions1 as the sole      
counterpoise to the  mighty force       
generated by the accumulation of demerit
 through evil  actions in present and   
previous forms of life4 ,nor did the    
,buddha ever  claim to be a deliverer   
from guilt1 a purger from the taint of  
past  pollution4 ,he never pretended to 
set any one free from the penalty1      
power1 and presence of sin--from the    
bondage of sinful acts and besetting    
vices4 ,he never professed to furnish   
any cure for the leprosy of man's       
corrupt nature--any medicine for a dying
 sinner#bhc4 ,on the contrary1 by  his  
doctrine of ,karma he bound a man hand  
and foot to the inevitable  consequences
 of his own evil actions with chains of 

adamant4 ,he said1 in  effect1 to every 
one of his disciples1 #8,you are in     
slavery to a tyrant  of your own setting
 up2 your own deeds1 words1 and thoughts
 in your  present and former states of  
being1 are your own avengers through a  
countless series of existences4         
8,your acts your angels are for good or 
ill1    ,your fatal shadows that walk by
 you still40    #8,if you have been a   
murderer1 a thief1 a liar1 impure1 a    
drunkard1 you  must pay the penalty in  
your next birth--perhaps as a sufferer  
in one of  the hells#bhd1 perhaps in the
 body of a wild beast1 perhaps in that  
of  some unclean animal or loathsome    
vermin1 perhaps as a demon or evil      
spirit4 ,yes1 your doom is sealed4 ,not 
in the heavens1 ,o man1 not in the      
midst of the sea1 not if thou hidest    
thyself in the clefts of the  mountains1
 wilt thou find a place where thou canst
 escape the force of  thine own evil    
actions#bhe4 ,thy only hope of salvation
 is in thyself4  ,neither god nor man   

can save thee1 and ,i am wholly         
powerless to set thee  free4'    ,and   
now1 contrast the few brief words of    
,christ in his first recorded           
sermon#bhf4 #8,the ,spirit of the ,lord 
is upon ,me1 because ,he hath  anointed 
,me to preach good tidings to the poor2 
,he hath sent ,me to  proclaim liberty  
to the captives1 and recovering of sight
 to the blind1  and the opening of the  
prison to them that are bound4'    ,yes1
 in ,christ alone there is deliverance  
from the bondage of former              
transgressions1 from the prison-house of
 former sins2 a total cancelling  of the
 past2 a complete blotting-out of the   
handwriting that is against  us2 an     
entire washing away of every guilty     
stain2 the opening of a clear  course   
for every man to start afresh2 the free 
gift of pardon and of  life to every    
criminal1 to every sinner--even the most
 heinous and  inveterate4    ,still1 ,i 
seem to hear some admirers of ,buddhism 
say3 ,we admit the force  of these      

contrasts1 but surely you will allow    
that in the moral law of  ,buddha we    
find precepts identically the same as   
those of  ,christianity--precepts which 
tell a man not to love the world1 not to
  love money1 not to hate his enemies1  
not to do unrighteous acts1 not to      
commit impurities1 to overcome evil by  
good1 and to do to others as we  would  
be done by8    ,well1 ,i admit all this4
 ,nay1 ,i admit even more than this2 for
 many  ,buddhist precepts command total 
abstinence in cases where ,christianity 
demands only temperance and moderation4 
,the great contrast1 as ,i have  already
 explained1 between the moral precepts  
of ,buddhism and  ,christianity1 is not 
so much in the letter of the precepts1  
as in the  power brought to bear in     
their application4    ,buddhism1 ,i     
repeat1 says3 ,act righteously through  
your own efforts1 and  for the final    
getting rid of all suffering1 of all    
individuality1 of all  life in          
yourselves4 ,christianity says3 ,be     

righteous through a power  implanted in 
you from above1 through the power of a  
life-giving  principle1 freely given to 
you1 and always abiding in you4 ,the    
,buddha  said to his followers3 #8,take 
nothing from me1 trust to yourselves    
alone4' ,christ said3 #8,take all from  
,me2 trust not to yourselves4 ,i give   
unto you eternal life1 ,i give unto you 
the bread of heaven1 ,i give unto  you  
living water4' ,not that these priceless
 gifts involve any passive  condition of
 inaction4 ,on the contrary1 they stir  
the soul of the  recipient with a living
 energy4 ,they stimulate him to noble   
deeds1 and  self-sacrificing efforts4   
,they compel him to act as the worthy1  
grateful1 and appreciative possessor of 
so inestimable a treasure4    ,still1 ,i
 seem to hear some one say3 ,we         
acknowledge this2 we admit the  truth of
 what you have stated2 nevertheless1 for
 all that1 you must  allow that         
,buddhism conferred a great benefit on  
,india by encouraging  freedom of       

thought and by setting at liberty its   
teeming population1  before entangled in
 the meshes of ceremonial observances   
and ,brahmanical  priestcraft4    ,yes1 
,i grant this2 nay1 ,i grant even more  
than this4 ,i admit that  ,buddhism     
conferred many other benefits on the    
millions inhabiting the  most populous  
part of ,asia4 ,it introduced education 
and culture2 it  encouraged literature  
and art2 it promoted physical1 moral1   
and  intellectual progress up to a      
certain point2 it proclaimed peace1 good
  will1 and brotherhood among men2 it   
deprecated war between nation and       
nation2 it avowed sympathy with social  
liberty and freedom2 it gave back  much 
independence to women2 it preached      
purity in thought1 word1 and  deed      
7though only for the accumulation of    
merit72 it taught self-denial  without  
self-torture2 it inculcated generosity1 
charity1 tolerance1  love1              
self-sacrifice1 and benevolence1 even   
towards the inferior  animals2 it       

advocated respect for life and          
compassion towards all  creatures2 it   
forbade avarice and the hoarding of     
money2 and from its  declaration that a 
man's future depended on his present    
acts and  condition1 it did good service
 for a time in preventing stagnation1   
stimulating exertion1 promoting good    
works of all kinds1 and elevating  the  
character of humanity4    ,then again1  
when it spread to outlying countries it 
assumed the  character of a religion2 it
 taught the existence of unseen worlds2 
it  permitted the offering of prayers to
 ,maitreya and other supposed  personal 
saviours2 it inculcated faith and trust 
in these celestial  beings1 which       
operated as good motives in the hearts  
of many1 while the  hope of being born  
in higher conditions of life1 and the   
desire to  acquire merit by reverential 
acts1 led to the development of         
devotional  services1 which had much in 
common with those performed in          
,christian  countries4 ,nay1 it must    

even be admitted that many ,buddhists in
 the  present day are deeply imbued with
 religious feelings1 and in no part of  
the world are the outward manifestations
 of religion--such as temples and       
sacred objects of all kinds--so         
conspicuous as in modern ,buddhist      
countries4    ,but if1 after making all 
these concessions1 ,i am told that1 on  
my own  showing1 ,buddhism was a kind of
 introduction to ,christianity1 or that 
,christianity is a kind of development  
of ,buddhism1 ,i must ask you to  bear  
with me a little longer1 while ,i point 
out certain other contrasts1  which     
ought to make it clear to every         
reasonable man1 how vast1 how  profound1
 how impassable is the gulf separating  
the true religion from  the false       
philosophy1 and from the later religious
 systems developed out  of it4    ,and  
first1 observe that ,buddhism has never 
claimed to be an exclusive  system4 ,it 
has never aimed at taking the place of  
other religions4 ,on  the contrary it   

tolerates all1 and a ,buddhist considers
 that he may be  at the same time a     
,hind1 a ,confucianist1 a ,toist1 a     
,shintoist1 and  even1 strange to say1 a
 ,christian4    ,a ,christian1 on the   
other hand1 holds as a cardinal doctrine
 of his  religion1 that there is only   
one ,name under heaven given among men1 
whereby any human being can be saved4   
,to be at the same time a believer  in  
,christ and a believer in ,buddha       
implies an utter contradiction in       
terms4    ,then it need scarcely be     
repeated here that ,christ is before all
 things  a majestic example of a great  
historic personality4 ,any really       
historical1 matter-of-fact account of   
the life of ,buddha1 like that of  the  
life of ,christ by the four             
,evangelists1 may be looked for in vain 
through all the ,buddhist scriptures4   
,the ,buddha's biography is mixed up    
with such monstrous legends1 absurd     
figments1 and extravagant fables1  that 
to attempt the sifting out of any really

 historical element worthy  of being    
compared with the pregnant              
simplicity--the dignified brevity of    
the biography of ,christ1 would be an   
idle task4    ,still we may note two or 
three obvious points of comparison and  
contrast4    ,and perhaps the most      
important is1 that ,christ constantly   
insisted on  the fact that ,he was      
,god-sent1 whereas the ,buddha always   
described  himself as self sent4 ,how   
indeed could the ,buddha have said #8the
 great ,i  ,,am hath sent me unto       
you#bhg' when he had no belief in the   
eternal  existence of any ,ego at all8  
,not even in the reality of his own     
individuality4    ,all that he affirmed 
of himself was that he came into the    
world to be a  teacher of perfect       
wisdom1 by a force derived from his own 
acts4 ,by that  force alone he had      
passed through innumerable bodies of    
gods1 demi-gods1  demons1 men1 and      
animals1 until he reached one out of    
numerous heavens1  and thence by his own

 will descended upon earth and entered  
the side of  his mother in the form of a
 white elephant 7see pp4 #bc1 #dgg74    
,let those  who speak of his            
#8virgin-mother' bear this in mind4     
,christ1 on the other hand1 made known  
to his disciples1 that ,he was with     
,his ,father from everlasting1 #8,before
 ,abraham was1 ,i am4' ,then in the     
fulness of time1 ,he was sent into the  
world by ,his ,father1 and was  born of 
a pure virgin1 through the power of the 
,holy ,spirit1 in the  likeness and     
fashion of men4    ,next let us note a  
vast contrast in the fact that ,christ  
was sent from  heaven to be born on     
earth in a poor and humble station1 to  
be reared in  a cottage1 to be trained  
to toilsome labour as a working-man2    
whereas  the ,buddha came down to be    
born on earth in a rich and princely    
family2  to be brought up amid luxurious
 surroundings1 and finally to go forth  
as  a mendicant-monk1 depending upon    
others for his daily food and doing     

nothing for his own support4    ,then1  
again1 ,christ as ,he grew up showed no 
signs of earthly majesty in  his        
external form1 whereas the ,buddha is   
described as marked with  certain mystic
 symbols of universal monarchy on his   
feet and on his  hands1 and taller and  
more stately in frame and figure than   
ordinary  human beings 7see pp4 #dgf1   
#eja74    ,then1 when each entered on   
his ministry as a teacher1 ,christ was  
despised and rejected by kings and      
princes1 and followed by poor and       
ignorant fishermen1 by common people1   
publicans1 and sinners2 ,buddha was     
honoured by kings and princes1 and      
followed by rich men and learned        
disciples4    ,then ,christ had all the 
treasures of knowledge hidden in        
,himself1 and  made known to ,his       
disciples that ,he was ,himself the     
,way1 and the  ,truth1--,himself their  
,wisdom1 ,righteousness1                
,sanctification1 and  ,redemption4      
,buddha declared that all enlightenment 

and wisdom were to be  attained by his  
disciples1 not through him1 but through 
themselves and  their own intuitions2   
and that1 too1 only after long and      
painful  discipline in countless        
successive bodily existences4    ,then  
in regard to the miracles which both the
 ,bible and the ,tripiaka  describe as  
attestations of the truth of the        
teaching of each1 contrast  the simple  
and dignified statement that #8the blind
 receive their sight1  the lame walk1   
the lepers are cleansed1 the deaf hear1 
the dead are  raised up1 and the poor   
have the gospel preached unto them#bhh1'
 with  the following description of the 
,buddha's miracles in the ,mah-vagga    
7,i4  #bj1 #bd7bhi3 #8,at the command of
 the ,blessed ,one the five hundred     
pieces  of fire-wood could not be split 
and were split1 the fires could not be  
lit up and were lit up1 could not be    
extinguished and were extinguished4     
,besides he created five hundred vessels
 with fire4 ,thus the number of  these  

miracles amounts to three thousand five 
hundred4'    ,then1 although each made  
use of missionary agency1 the one sent  
forth  his high-born learned monks as   
missionaries to the world at the        
commencement of his own career1 giving  
them no divine commission2 the  other   
waited till the close of ,his own       
ministry1 and then said to ,his         
low-born1 unlearned disciples1 #8,as ,my
 ,father hath sent ,me1 even so send  ,i
 you' 7,st4 ,john xx4 #ba74    ,then1   
when we come to compare the death of    
each1 the contrast reaches  its climax2 
for ,christ was put to death violently  
by wicked men1 and  died in agony an    
atoning death1 suffering for the sins of
 the world at  the age of thirty-three1 
leaving behind in ,jerusalem about one  
hundred  and twenty disciples after a   
short ministry of three years4 ,whereas 
the  ,buddha died peacefully among his  
friends1 suffering from an attack of    
indigestion at the age of eighty1       
leaving behind many thousands of        

disciples after forty-five years of     
teaching and preaching4    ,and what    
happened after the death of each8       
,christ1 the ,holy ,one1 saw no         
corruption1 but rose again in ,his      
present glorified body1 and is alive    
for evermore--nay1 has life in ,himself 
ever flowing in life-giving  streams    
towards ,his people4 ,the ,buddha is    
dead and gone for ever2 his  body1      
according to the testimony of his own   
disciples1 was burnt more  than #djj    
years before the ,advent of ,christ1 and
 its ashes were  distributed everywhere 
as relics4    ,even according to the    
,buddha's own declaration1 he now lives 
only in the  doctrine which he left     
behind him for the guidance of his      
followers4    ,and here again1 in regard
 to the doctrine left behind by each1 a 
vast  distinction is to be noted4 ,for  
the doctrine delivered by ,christ to    
,his  disciples is to spread by degrees 
everywhere until it prevails  eternally4
 ,whereas the doctrine left by ,buddha1 

though it advanced  rapidly by leaps and
 bounds1 is1 according to his own       
admission1 to fade  away by degrees1    
till at the end of #ejjj years it has   
disappeared  altogether from the earth1 
and another ,buddha must descend to     
restore  it4 7,compare ,postscript at   
end of ,preface1 p4 xiv47    ,then that 
other ,buddha must be followed by       
countless succeeding ,buddhas  in       
succeeding ages1 whereas there is only  
one ,christ1 who can have no  successor1
 for ,he is alive for ever and for ever 
present with ,his  people3 #8,lo1 ,i am 
with you alway1 even unto the end of the
 world4'    ,then observe that1 although
 the ,buddha's doctrine was ultimately  
written  down by his disciples in       
certain collections of books1 in the    
same  manner as the doctrine of ,christ1
 a fundamental difference of            
character--nay1 a vast and impassable   
gulf of difference--separates the       
,sacred ,books of each1 the ,bible of   
the ,christian and the ,bible of the    

,buddhist4    ,the characteristic of the
 ,christian's ,bible is that it claims  
to be a  supernatural revelation1 yet it
 attaches no mystical talismanic virtue 
to the mere sound of its words4 ,on the 
other hand1 the characteristic of  the  
,buddhist ,bible is that it utterly     
repudiates all claim to be a            
supernatural revelation2 yet the very   
sound of its words is believed to       
possess a meritorious efficacy capable  
of elevating any one who hears it  to   
heavenly abodes in future existences4   
,in illustration ,i may advert to  a    
legend current in ,ceylon1 that once on 
a time #ejj bats lived in a cave  where 
two monks daily recited the ,buddha's   
,law4 ,these bats gained such  merit by 
simply hearing the sound of the words1  
that1 when they died1  they were all    
re-born as men1 and ultimately as gods4 
,then as to the words themselves1       
contrast the severely simple and        
dignified style of the ,bible narrative1
 its brevity1 perspicuity1  vigour1 and 

sublimity1 its trueness to nature and   
inimitable pathos1  with the feeble     
utterances1 the tedious diffuseness1 and
 ,i might almost  say #8the inane       
twaddle' and childish repetitions of the
 greater portion  of the ,tripiaka 7see 
note #b1 p4 #eda74    ,but again1 ,i am 
sure to hear the admirers of ,buddhism  
say3 ,is it not the  case that the      
doctrine of ,buddha1 like the doctrine  
of ,christ1 has  self-sacrifice as its  
key-note8 ,well1 be it so4 ,i admit that
 the ,buddha  taught a kind of          
self-sacrifice4 ,i admit that he related
 of himself  that1 on a particular      
occasion in one of his previous         
births#bij1 he  plucked out his own     
eyes1 and1 that on another1 he cut off  
his own head  as a sacrifice for the    
good of others2 and that again1 on a    
third  occasion1 he cut his own body to 
pieces to redeem a dove from a          
hawk#bia4 ,yet note the vast distinction
 between the self-sacrifice  taught by  
the two systems4 ,christianity demands  

the suppression of  selfishness2        
,buddhism demands the suppression of    
self1 with the one  object of           
extinguishing all consciousness of self4
 ,in the one1 the true  self is elevated
 and intensified4 ,in the other1 the    
true self is  annihilated by the        
practice of a false form of             
non-selfishness1 which  has for its real
 object1 not the good of others1 but the
 annihilation of  the ,ego1 the utter   
extinction of the illusion of personal  
individuality4    ,furthermore1 observe 
the following contrasts in the doctrines
 which each  bequeathed to his          
followers3--    ,according to           
,christianity3--,fight and overcome the 
world4    ,according to                 
,buddhism3--,shun the world1 and        
withdraw from it4    ,according to      
,christianity3--,expect a new earth when
 the present earth is  destroyed2 a     
world renewed and perfected2 a purified 
world in which  righteousness is to     
dwell for ever4    ,according to        

,buddhism3--,expect a never-ending      
succession of evil worlds  for ever     
coming into existence1 developing1      
decaying1 perishing1 and  reviving1 and 
all equally full of everlasting misery1 
disappointment1  illusion1 change1 and  
transmutation4    ,according to         
,christianity1 bodily existence is      
subject to only one  transformation4    
,according to ,buddhism1 bodily         
existence is continued in six           
conditions1  through countless bodies of
 men1 animals1 demons1 ghosts1 and      
dwellers  in various hells and heavens2 
and that1 too1 without any progressive  
development1 but in a constant jumble of
 metamorphoses and  transmutations 7see 
p4 #abb74    ,christianity teaches that 
a life in heaven can never be followed  
by a  fall to a lower state4            
,buddhism teaches that a life in a      
higher heaven may be succeeded by a     
life in a lower heaven1 or even by a    
life on earth or in one of the  hells4  
,according to ,christianity1 the body of

 man may be the abode of the ,holy      
,spirit of ,god4    ,according to       
,buddhism1 the body whether of men or of
 higher beings can  never be the abode  
of anything but evil4    ,according to  
,christianity3--,present your bodies as 
living sacrifices1  holy1 acceptable to 
,god1 and expect a change to glorified  
bodies  hereafter4    ,according to     
,buddhism3--,look to final deliverance  
from all bodily life1  present and to   
come1 as the greatest of all blessings1 
highest of all  boons1 and loftiest of  
all aims4    ,according to              
,christianity1 a man's body can never be
 changed into the  body of a beast1 or  
bird1 or insect1 or loathsome vermin4   
,according to ,buddhism1 a man1 and even
 a god1 may become an animal of  any    
kind1 and even the most loathsome vermin
 may again become a man or a  god4      
,according to ,christianity3--,stray not
 from ,god's ways2 offend not against   
,his holy laws4    ,according to        
,buddhism3--,stray not from the         

eight-fold path of the perfect  man1 and
 offend not against yourself and the law
 of the perfect man4    ,according to   
,christianity3--,work the works of ,god 
while it is day4    ,according to       
,buddhism3--,beware of action1 as       
causing re-birth1 and aim at  inaction1 
indifference1 and apathy1 as the highest
 of all states4    ,then note other     
contrasts4    ,according to the         
,christian ,bible3--,regulate and       
sanctify the heart1  desires1 and       
affections4    ,according to the        
,buddhist3--,suppress and destroy them  
utterly1 if you  wish for true          
sanctification4    ,christianity teaches
 that in the highest form of life1 love 
is  intensified4    ,buddhism teaches   
that in the highest state of existence1 
all love is  extinguished4    ,according
 to ,christianity3--,go and earn your   
own bread1 support yourself  and your   
family4 ,marriage1 it says1 is          
honourable and undefiled1 and  married  
life is a field on which holiness may   

grow and be developed4  ,nay1           
more--,christ ,himself honoured a       
wedding with ,his presence1 and took  up
 little children in ,his arms and       
blessed them4    ,buddhism1 on the other
 hand1 says3--,avoid married life2 shun 
it as if it  were #8a burning pit of    
live coals' 7p4 #hh72 or1 having entered
 on it1  abandon wife1 children1 and    
home1 and go about as celibate monks1   
engaging in nothing but in meditation   
and recitation of the ,buddha's         
,law--that is to say--if you aim at the 
highest degree of sanctification4       
,and then comes the important contrast  
that in the one system we have a        
teaching gratifying to the pride of man1
 and flattering to his  intellect2 while
 in the other we have a teaching        
humbling to his pride1  and distasteful 
to his intellect4 ,for ,christianity    
tells us that we must  become as little 
children1 and that when we have done all
 that we can1  we are still unprofitable
 servants4 ,whereas ,buddhism teaches   

that every  man is saved by his own     
works and by his own merits only4       
,fitly1 indeed1 do the rags worn by the 
monks of true ,buddhism symbolize  the  
miserable patchwork of its own          
self-righteousness4    ,not that        
,christianity ignores the necessity for 
good works2 on the  contrary1 no other  
system insists on a lofty morality so   
strongly2 but  never as the meritorious 
instrument of salvation#bib--only as a  
thank-offering1 only as the outcome and 
evidence of faith4    ,lastly1 we must  
advert again to the most momentous--the 
most essential of  all the distinctions 
which separate ,christianity from       
,buddhism4  ,christianity regards       
personal life as the most sacred of all 
possessions4 ,life1 it seems to say1 is 
no dream1 no illusion4 #8,life is  real1
 life is earnest4' ,life is the most    
precious of all ,god's gifts4  ,nay1 it 
affirms of ,god ,himself that ,he is the
 highest ,example of intense  ,life--of 
intense personality1 the great #8,i ,,am

 that ,i ,,am1' and teaches us  that we 
are to thirst for a continuance of      
personal life as a gift for  ,him2 nay1 
more1 that we are to thirst for the     
living ,god ,himself and for  conformity
 to ,his likeness2 while ,buddhism sets 
forth as the highest of  all aims the   
utter extinction of the illusion of     
personal identity--the  utter           
annihilation of the ,ego--of all        
existence in any form whatever1 and     
proclaims as the only true creed the    
ultimate resolution of everything  into 
nothing1 of every entity into pure      
nonentity4    ,what shall ,i do to      
inherit eternal life8--says the         
,christian4 ,what shall  ,i do to       
inherit eternal extinction of           
life8--says the ,buddhist4    ,it seems 
a mere absurdity to have to ask in      
concluding these  ,lectures3--,whom     
shall we choose as our ,guide1 our      
,hope1 our ,salvation1  #8the ,light of 
,asia1' or #8the ,light of the ,world8' 
the ,buddha or the  ,christ8 ,it seems a

 mere mockery to put this final question
 to rational  and thoughtful men in the 
nineteenth century3 ,which ,book shall  
we clasp  to our hearts in our last     
hour--the ,book that tells us of the    
dead1 the  extinct1 the death-giving    
,buddha1 or the ,book that reveals to us
 the  living1 the eternal1 the          
life-giving ,christ8                    
,,postscript4    ,since the printing of 
my concluding ,lecture1 it has occurred 
to me that  ,i ought to make a few      
remarks in regard to a very prevalent   
error--the  error that ,buddhism still  
numbers more adherents than any other   
religion  of the world4 ,for these      
remarks the reader is referred to the   
,postscript  at the end of the ,preface 
7p4 xiv74                               
,footnotes      #a#8,life of ,alexander 
,duff1 ,d4,d41 ,,ll4,d41 by ,george     
,smith1 ,c4,i4,e41 ,,ll4,d4'            
,london3 ,hodder and ,stoughton2        
published first in #ahgi1 and a popular 
edition in #ahha4    #b;,a reference to 

pages #gd1 #bbf1 #bcb of the following  
,lectures will make      the connexion  
which ,i wish to illustrate clearer4 ,in
 many images of      the ,buddha the    
robe is drawn over both shoulders1 as in
 the portrait      of the living        
,sannys4 ,then mark other particulars in
 the      portrait3--e4g4 the ,rudrksha 
rosary round the neck 7see #8,brhmanism 
and ,hindism1' p4 #fg74 ,then in front  
of the raised seat of the      ,sannys  
are certain ceremonial implements4      
,first1 observe the      ,kamaalu1 or   
water-gourd1 near the right hand corner 
of the seat4      ,next1 in front of the
 seat1 on the right hand of the figure1 
is the      ,upa-ptra--a subsidiary     
vessel to be used with the ,kamaalu4    
,then1      in the middle1 is the       
,tmra-ptra or copper vessel1 and on the 
left      the ,paa-ptra with the aman   
7see #8,brhmanism and ,hindism1' pp4    
#dja1 #djb74 ,near the left hand corner 
of the seat are the wooden      clogs4  
,finally1 there is the ,daa or staff    

held in the left hand1      and used by 
a ,sannys as a defence against evil     
spirits1 much as      the ,dorje 7or    
,vajra7 is used by ,northern ,buddhist  
monks 7see p4 #cbc      of the present  
volume74 ,this mystical staff is a bambu
 with six      knots1 possibly          
symbolical of six ways 7,gati7 or states
 of life1      through which it is      
believed that every being may have to   
migrate--a      belief common to both   
,brhmanism and ,buddhism 7see p4 #abb of
 this      volume74 ,the staff is called
 ,su-darana 7a name for ,vishu's akra71 
and is daily worshipped for the         
preservation of its mysterious          
powers4 ,the mystic white roll which    
begins just above the left hand      and
 ends before the left knot is called the
 ,lakshm-vastra1 or      auspicious     
covering4 ,the projecting piece of cloth
 folded in the      form of an axe      
7,parau7 represents the weapon of       
,parau-,rma1 one of      the            
incarnations of ,vishu 7see pp4 #aaj1   

#bgj of #8,brhmanism and      ,hindism'7
 with which he subdued the enemies of   
the ,brhmans4 ,with      this so-called 
axe may be contrasted the ,buddhist     
weapon for keeping      off the powers  
of evil 7engraved at p4 #ceb74          
#c#8;,brhmanism and ,hindism4' ,third   
,edition4 ,john ,murray1 ,albemarle     
,street4    #d,the heaven of iva is     
,kailsa1 of ,vishu is ,vaikuha1 of      
,kisha is      ,goloka4    #e,the ,skhya
 system1 as ,i have shown1 was closely  
connected with the      ,vednta1 though 
it recognized the separate existence of 
countless      individual ,purushas or  
spirits instead of the one 7called      
tman74      ,both had much in common    
with ,buddhism1 though the latter       
substituted      nya #8a void' for      
,purusha and tman4    #f;,freely        
translated by me in ,indian ,wisdom1 p4 
#acc1 and literally      translated by  
,prof4 ,e4 ,b4 ,cowell4    #g#8,let us  
eat and drink for to-morrow we die4' #a 
,cor4 xv4 #cb4    #h,see ,dr4 ,john     

,muir's ,article on ,indian             
,materialists1 ,journal of ,royal       
,asiatic ,society1 ,n4 ,s4 xix1 p4 #cjb4
    #i;,it is difficult to accept the   
theory of those who maintain that       
writing had not been invented4          
#aj,one hundred is given as a round     
number4 ,the actual distance is about   
one hundred and twenty miles4--,corr4   
#aa,tapas is a ,sanskit word1 derived   
from the root tap1 #8to burn1           
torment4' ,it is connected with ,lat4   
tepeo1 ,greek ,thapt1 which      last   
originally denoted #8to burn1' not #8to 
bury' dead bodies4 ,tapas      ought not
 to be translated by #8penance1' unless 
that word is      restricted to the     
sense poena1 #8pain4'    #ab,such men   
are called ,paa-taps 7,manu ,,vi4 #bc74 
,a good representation      of this form
 of ,tapas may be seen in the ,museum of
 the ,indian      ,institute1 ,oxford4  
#ac;,according to ,dr4 ,oldenberg1 the  
,mityu of the ,kahopanishad4    #ad;,in 
the same way the ,cistercian monks of   

,fountain's ,abbey lived under          
certain trees while the ,abbey was      
building4    #ae,the ,bhagavad-gt 7,v4  
#bh7 asserts3--#8,the sage 7,yog7 who is
      internally happy1 internally at   
peace1 and internally illumined1        
attains extinction in ,brahma4' ,this is
 pure ,buddhism if we      substitute   
,cessation of individual existence for  
,brahma4    #af,or ,kua-nagara1         
identified by ,gen4 ,sir ,a4 ,cunningham
 with ,kasia1 #ce      miles east of    
,gorakh-pore on an old channel of the   
,chota ,gandak4    #ag;,i give #dbj as a
 round number4 ,rhys ,davids has good   
reasons for      fixing the date of     
,gautama's death about ,b4,c4 #dab1     
,oldenberg about      #dhj1 ,cunningham 
#dgh1 ,kern #chh4 ,the old date is #edc4
    #ah,see ,book of the great ,decease1
 translated by ,rhys ,davids1 p4 #gb4   
#ai,the atapatha-brhmaa 7p4 #ajfd7 and  
the ,bihad-rayaka ,upanishad      7p4   
#dee7 affirm that the ig- ,yajur- ,sma- 
and ,atharva-veda1 the      ,upanishads1

 ,itihsas1 and ,puras were all the      
breath 7nivasitni7      of the ,supreme 
,being4 ,and ,syaa1 the well-known      
,indian ,commentator      on the        
ig-veda1 speaking of the ,supreme ,being
 in his ,introduction1      says1 ,yasya
 nivasita ,ved1 #8whose breath the      
,vedas were4'    #bj;,how else can we   
account for ,pini's applying the term   
,bhsh to      colloquial ,sanskit8      
,professor ,e4 ,b4 ,cowell holds that   
,pini's      standard is the ,brhmaa    
language as opposed to the ,sahit of the
      ,veda and to ,loka or ordinary    
usage4    #ba;,according to ,professor  
,rhys ,davids1 the ,pli text of the     
whole      ,tri-piaka1 or true ,canon of
 ,buddhist ,scripture1 contains about   
twice as many words as our ,bible2 but  
he calculates that an ,english          
translation1 if all repetitions were    
given1 would be about four      times as
 long4 ,i should state here that in this
 chapter ,koeppen1      ,childers1 ,rhys
 ,davids1 and ,oldenberg have all been  

referred to1      though ,i have not    
failed to examine the original ,pli     
documents      myself4    #bb,upli is   
said to have been originally the family 
barber of the      kyas4 ,professor     
,oldenberg rightly remarks that this did
 not make      him a man of low         
position1 though he was probably the    
lowest in rank      of all the early    
disciples of ,gautama4    #bc,professor 
,oldenberg1 in his preface to his       
edition of the      ,mah-vagga1 shows   
that in early times there were only two 
divisions      of the ,piaka1 one called
 ,vinaya and the other ,dharma          
7,dhamma71      which were often        
contrasted4    #bd,the ten usually      
enumerated are the three above-named and
 seven      others1 viz4 power of       
admitting to the ,order and confession  
in      private houses1 the use of      
comfortable seats1 relaxation of        
monastic      rules in remote country   
places1 power of obtaining a            
dispensation      from the ,order after 

the infringement of a rule1 drinking    
whey1      putting salt aside for future
 use1 power of citing the example of    
others as a valid excuse for relaxing   
discipline4    #be;,according to        
,professor ,oldenberg's calculation4    
,the date is      doubtful4 ,a round    
number 7say #cej ,b4,c47 might be given4
    #bf,professor ,oldenberg places the 
locality of the ,pli on the eastern     
coast of ,southern ,india in the        
northern part of ,kaliga 7,pur in       
,orissa71 and would therefore make it an
 old form of ,uriya4 ,that      country 
he thinks had most frequent             
communications with ,ceylon4            
#bg,professor ,childers thought that    
,pli merely meant the language of       
the line or series of texts1 the word   
pli like tanti meaning      #8line4'    
,pli differs from the ,prkit of the     
,inscriptions1 and from      that of the
 dramas1 and from that of the ,jainas   
7which is still      later and called   
,ardha-mgadh71 by its retention of some 

consonants      and infusion of         
,sanskit4 ,the ,gth dialect of the      
northern books is      again different4 
#bheej is a round number4 ,the text of  
the ,jtakas has been edited by          
,fausbll and translated by ,rhys ,davids
 and others4 ,see a specimen at      p4 
#aab4    #bi,the seven are called3 #a4  
,dhamma-sagai1 #8enumeration of         
conditions      of existence1' edited by
 ,dr4 ,e4 ,mller2 #b4 ,vibhaga1         
#8explanations2'      #c4 ,kath-vatthu1 
#8discussions on one thousand           
controverted points2'      #d4          
,puggala-paatti1 #8explanation of       
personality2' #e4 ,dhtu-kath1           
#8account of elements2' #f4 ,yamaka1    
#8pairs2' #g4 ,pahna1 #8causes4'        
#cj;,a list of these is given in        
,childers' ,dictionary4    #ca,see      
,introduction to ,buddha-ghosha's       
,parables1 by ,professor ,max           
,mller2 ,turnour's ,mah-vaa1 pp4        
#bej-bec4    #cb,they are in two quite  
distinct kinds of writing4 ,that at     

,kapurda-garhi--sometimes called        
,northern ,aoka or ,ariano-,pli--is     
clearly ,semitic1 and traceable to a    
,phnician source1 being written         
from right to left4 ,that at ,girnr1    
commonly called ,southern ,aoka      or 
,indo-,pli1 is read from left to right1 
and is not so clearly      traceable4   
,if it came from the west it probably   
came through a      ,pahlav channel1 and
 gave rise to ,devangar4 ,general       
,cunningham and      others believe this
 latter character to have originated    
independently in ,india4 ,james ,prinsep
 was the first to decipher the          
inscription character4    #cc,see ,dr4  
,r4 ,n4 ,cust's article in the          
#8,journal of the ,national ,indian     
,association' for ,june1 #ahgi1 and one 
of his ,selected ,essays1 and           
,general ,sir ,a4 ,cunningham's great   
work1 #8,the ,corpus ,inscriptionum     
,indicarum4' ,the ,general reckons      
thirteen rock inscriptions1             
seventeen cave inscriptions1 and six    

inscribed pillars4        ,the eight    
most important rock inscriptions are    
those on 7#a7 the ,rock      of         
,kapurda-garhi 7at ,shhbz-garhi71 in    
,british ,afghnistn1 forty      miles   
east-north-east of ,peshwar--this is in 
the ,ariano-,pli      character2 7#b7   
the ,rock of ,khlsi1 situated on the    
bank of the river      ,jumn1 just where
 it leaves the ,himlaya mountains1      
fifteen miles      west of the          
hill-station of ,mussourie2 7#c7 the    
,rock of ,girnr1      half-a-mile to the
 east of the city of ,junagurh1 in      
,kthiwr2 7#d7      the ,rock of ,dhauli1
 in ,kuttack 7properly ,kaak71 twenty   
miles north      of ,jagan-nth2 7#e7 the
 ,rock of ,jaugada1 in a large old fort 
eighteen      miles west-north-west of  
,ganjam in ,madras2 7#f7 ,bairt2 7#g7   
,rpnth1      at the foot of the ,kaimur 
range2 7#h7 ,sahasarm1 at the north-east
      end of the ,kaimur4 ,the second   
,bairt inscription is most important    
as the only one which mentions ,buddha  

by name4        ,the five most important
 pillars are3 7#a7 the ,pillar at ,delhi
 known      as ,firoz ,shh's ,l2 7#b7   
another ,pillar at ,delhi1 which was    
removed      to ,calcutta1 but has      
recently been restored2 7#c7 the ,pillar
 at      ,allahbd1 a single shaft       
without capital1 of polished sandstone1 
thirty-five feet in height2 7#d7 the    
,pillar at ,lauriya1 near ,bettiah1     
in ,bengal2 7#e7 the ,pillar at another 
,lauriya1 seventy-seven miles           
north-west of ,patn4    #cd;,hiouen     
,thsang states that the three           
commentaries were engraved on           
sheets of copper and buried in a ,stpa4 
,beal1 ,i4 #aeb-aef4    #ce,our word    
monk 7derived from monachos1 #8one who  
lives alone1'7 is      not quite        
suitable unless it be taken to mean     
#8one who withdraws      from worldly   
life4' ,see p4 #ge4    #cf;,although he 
discouraged1 he did not prohibit monks  
from living      solitary lives4 ,see p4
 #acb as to the ,pratyeka-,buddha1 and  

note1 p4      #gb4    #cg,some prefer to
 derive the ,pli amao from the ,sanskit 
root am1      #8to be quiet4' mnika1    
#8frequenting burning grounds1' is a    
later      name1 life being to monks a  
kind of graveyard4    #ch,we may note   
that in the #8,clay-,cart1' a ,sanskit  
drama written in an      early century  
of our era1 a gambler becomes a         
,buddhist monk4    #ci;,i hear from ,dr4
 ,oldenberg that the mention in his     
#8,buddha' of twelve      years as the  
minimum is a mistake4 ,the age of eight 
mentioned by      ,prof4 ,rhys ,davids  
as the minimum1 must be a modern rule   
peculiar to      ,ceylon1 if it be      
admissible at all4    #dj;,i give these 
quotations to show the unsuitableness of
 the term      #8,ordination' applied to
 ,pabbajj and ,upasampad in the ,s4 ,b4 
,e4    #da;,in ,mah-vagga ,i4 #cj4 #d1  
five kinds of dwellings are named       
besides      trees1 viz4 ,vihras1       
,ahayogas 7a kind of house shaped like  
,garua71 storied dwellings 7prsda71     

mansions 7harmya71 and caves      7guh74
    #db;,comparing ,western with        
,eastern ,monachism1 ,i may remark that 
the      chief duty of the lay-brethren 
attached to the ,cistercian monastery   
at ,fountain's ,abbey was to wait upon  
the monks1 procure food and      cook it
 for them2 and we learn from the ,times 
of ,december #bd1      #ahhe1 that the  
same duty devolved on the ,carthusian   
lay-brothers4    #dc,the ,chronicles of 
,ceylon state that #hj1jjj laymen       
entered the paths      in ,kashmr4      
,compare ,divyvadna1 p4 #aff1 line #ab2 
p4 #bga1 #ab4    #dd,see                
,tevijja-,sutta1 ,s4 ,b4 ,e4  #ad1 #ae4 
#de,the venerable ,svm r ,saidnanda     
,sarasvat1 in sending me a copy      of 
the ,bhagavad-gt with a metrical        
commentary1 says1 #8,it is the      best
 of all books on the ,hind religion1 and
 contains the essence of      all kinds 
of religious philosophy4' ,i find in the
 ,madras ,times for      ,october #bi1  
#ahhf1 the following3 #8,at a meeting of

 the 8,society for      the ,propagation
 of ,true ,religion10 at #f p4m4 to-day1
 the      ,bhagavad-gt will be read and 
explained4'    #df,,xiv4 #g4 #b4 #ag4   
,this was first pointed out by          
,professor ,a4 ,weber4                  
#dg;,centenarians 7atyus1 ata-varsha7   
seem to have been rather common      in 
,india in ancient times1 if we may judge
 by the allusions to them      in ,manu 
and other works4 ,see ,manu ,,iii4 #ahf2
 ,,ii4 #ace1 #acg4    #dh;,i here merely
 give the substance of what may be found
 fully stated      in ,aristotle's      
,ethics1 ,i4 #a and ,,iv4 #c4           
#di,that is1 ,sakhr  ,sanskit ,saskr pl4
 7see p4 #aji71 #8qualities      forming
 character4' ,in the ,vaieshika system  
,saskra is one of the      twenty-four  
qualities1 the self-reproductive        
quality4 ,in the ,yoga      system      
,saskra  aya1 #8impressions derived from
 actions done in      previous births4' 
,according to ,childers1 ,sakro is      
practically       ,karma1 #8act4' ,it   

may also stand for #8matter1' and for a 
quality1 or      mode of being2 e4g4 not
 only for a plant but for its greenness4
    #ej,the ,pli in ,mah-v ,i4 #bc4 #e1 
is3--,ye dhamm hetuppabhav tesa hetu    
,tathgato ha tesa a yo nirodho evamvd   
,mah-samao4 ,the form      ,tathgato is 
also common in ,sanskit versions4 ,the  
metrical form of      the sentence has  
become broken4        ,professor ,cowell
 informs me that the ,sanksit given in  
an old ,,ms4 at      ,cambridge         
is3--#8,ye dharm hetu-prabhav hetu tesh 
,tathgata  ,hy      avadat tesh a yo    
nirodha eva-vd ,mah-ramaa4' ,burnouf    
gives      a slightly different version1
 thus3--,ye dharm hetu-prabhavs tesh    
hetu ,tathgata uva tesh a etc4          
,sometimes both avadat and      uva are 
omitted4    #ea,sometimes a human being 
is said to be made up of the five       
elements--ether1 air1 fire1 water1      
earth--with a sixth called ,vijna4      
#eb,the body is often compared to a city
 with nine gates or apertures1          

which have to be guarded 7viz4 two eyes1
 ears1 nostrils1 etc474    #ec;,in fact 
,gautama remained a ,bodhi-sattva until 
he was thirty-four or      thirty-five1 
when he attained perfect enlightenment  
and ,buddhahood4    #ed,their names are 
,dpakara1 ,kauinya1 ,magala1 ,sumanas1  
,raivata1      obhita1 ,anavama-darin1  
,padma1 ,nrada1 ,padmottara1 ,sumedhas1 
,sujta1 ,priya-darin1 ,artha-darin1     
,dharma-darin1 ,siddhrtha1      ,tishya1
 ,pushya1 ,vipayin1 ikhin1 ,viva-bh1    
,krakuanda1 ,kanaka-muni      7or       
,kogamana71 ,kyapa4    #ee;,beginning   
with ,vipayin4 ,these are the only      
,buddhas mentioned in the               
,dgha-nikya4 ,if the coming ,buddha     
,maitreya is reckoned1 then             
,vipayin must be omitted4    #ef;,it    
must not be inferred that the episode of
 the ,bhagavad-gt is of      great      
antiquity4 ,this point ,i have made     
clear in #8,brhmanism and      ,hindism'
 7p4 #fc7 as well as in #8,indian       
,wisdom4' ,my object at p4 #ach      is 

simply to show that ,nirva is an        
expression common to ,buddhism1         
,brhmanism1 and ,hindism4--,corr4       
#eg,the expression ,brahma-nirva is     
repeated several times afterwards4      
,mark1 too1 that one of the god iva's   
names in the ,mah-bhrata is             
,nirvam4    #eh,rga1 dvesha1 moha4      
,eleven fires are sometimes enumerated4 
#ei;,dr4 ,rhys ,davids holds that the   
,buddha only advocated the suppression  
of good desires2 ,fausbll says #8desire 
in all its forms4' ,i agree      with   
the latter4    #fj,when ,i was on the   
confines of ,tibet1 this was described  
to me by a      ,tibetan scholar as the 
unchangeable state of conscious         
beatitude4    #fa,or ,anupdi-esha1 that 
is1 ,nirva without remains or remnants  
of      the elements of existence4 ,see 
,childers' ,pli ,dictionary1 s4 v4      
#fb,this was remarked by ,hooker when   
travelling in ,sikkim4 ,sir ,richard    
,temple in his ,journals 7,,ii4 #baf7   
asserts that he often found married     

monks in ,sikkim1 and they make no      
secret of it4 ,they are free to         
resign the monastic character when they 
choose4    #fc,the ,vaibhshika was      
divided into ,sarvstivda 7assertion of  
the real      existence of all things71 
,mahsaghika1 ,sammatya 7said to have    
been      founded by ,upli71 and        
,sthavira2 the ,sautrntika had also its 
own      subdivisions4    #fd;,another  
great king was the celebrated           
,harsha-vardhana or ,silditya      of   
,kanauj1 who flourished about ,a4,d4    
#faj-fej1 and who is said to      have  
founded an era formerly much used in    
,northern ,india4 ,he ruled      from   
the ,indus to the ,ganges1 and his      
doings are described by ,hiouen         
,thsang 7,beal's ,records1 ,i4          
#baj-bba47    #fe,the ,mah-yna is said  
to be connected with the ,mdhyamika and 
,yogra ,schools1 and the ,hna-yna with  
the ,vaibhshika and      ,sautrntika4   
#ff,professor ,legge's ,travels of      
,f-hien1 p4 #bh4    #fg,translated from 

the ,chinese by the ,rev4 ,s4 ,beal and 
more recently by      ,professor ,legge4
    #fh;,according to ,dr4 ,legge's     
orthography this name should be written 
,hsen ,chwang4    #fi,see ,beal's       
#8,records of the ,western ,world1'     
which gives a translation      of these 
travels in two volumes4    #gj;,hiouen  
,thsang describes the ,sthavira form of 
the ,mah-yna as      existing as far    
south as ,ceylon4 ,he found many monks  
studying both      the ,great and       
,little ,vehicles in ,central ,india4   
,beal's ,records1 ii4      #bdg1 #bed1  
#beg4    #ga;,as ,i have shown in       
#8,brhmanism and ,hindism1' the term    
incarnation      is not strictly        
expressive of the ,hind idea of ,avatra1
 which means      #8a descent' of a god 
7or a portion of his essence7 in various
 forms      upon earth4    #gb,professor
 ,legge's translation1 p4 #ef4          
#gc,there are four great ,buddhist kings
 of ,india who may be called            
historical1 the dates of whose reigns   

may be fixed with fair                  
certainty3--#a4 andra-gupta1 who was at 
any rate a sympathiser with             
,buddhism1 ,b4,c4 #cae-bia4 #b4 ,aoka1 a
 decided ,buddhist1 ,b4,c4 #bei-bbb4    
#c4 ,kanishka 7see p4 #fi74 #d4 ilditya1
 above4 ,some consider ,kanishka      to
 have founded the aka era1 dating from  
,a4,d4 #gh4    #gd,translated in #ahgb  
by ,mr4 ,palmer ,boyd1 and published    
with an      interesting introduction by
 ,professor ,cowell4    #ge,see ,beal's 
,records1 ii4 #afg-agb2 a long account  
of this monastery      visited by       
,hiouen ,thsang is there given4         
#gf,no doubt there are places in the    
,south of ,india where there is         
evidence of some violent persecution4 ,i
 may instance among the      places ,i  
visited ,tanjore and ,madura4 ,when ,i  
concluded the reading of      a paper on
 this subject at the meeting of the     
,royal ,asiatic ,society      on        
,february #ae1 #ahhf1 the then          
,president1 ,colonel ,yule1 justly      

remarked that the members of two        
religious communions who hold very      
similar doctrines1 often on that account
 hate and oppose each other      all the
 more2 but my point was that the        
ultra-tolerance which was of      the   
very essence of both ,brhmanism and     
,buddhism must have prevented           
actual persecution1 except under special
 circumstances4 ,brhmanism      was much
 more likely to have adopted ,buddhism  
as part of its system1      than to have
 persecuted and expelled it4 ,in point  
of fact1 the      ,brhmans1 as is well  
known1 are ready to regard any great    
teacher as      one of ,vishu's         
incarnations1 and in this way are even  
willing to      pay homage to the ,head 
of ,christianity4    #gg;,buddhism began
 to lose ground in ,india about the     
fourth or fifth      century after      
,christ1 but it maintained a chequered  
career for      several succeeding      
centuries even after ,hiouen ,thsang's  
time4 ,see p4      #afa4    #gh;,first1 

the ,vedic triad of gods1 ,agni1        
#8,fire1' ,indra1 #8wielder of the      
thunderbolt1' and ,srya1 #8the ,sun1'   
followed by the ,tri-mrti or            
,brahm1 iva1 and ,vishu4 ,then the three
 ,guas or constituents of      the      
material ,universe1 ,sattva1 ,rajas1 and
 ,tamas1 and lastly the      triple name
 of ,brahm1 ,sa-id-nanda4    #gi,sarat  
,chandra ,ds1 in his interesting        
,tibetan journal1 describes      them as
 the #8three ,holies4'    #hj;,edited by
 ,childers4 ,see ,journal ,r4 ,a4 ,s41  
,n4 ,s4 iv4 #cah1 and ,kern's           
,buddhismus1 ii4 #aef4    #ha,legge's   
,f-hien1 pp4 #aab-aaf4    #hb;,capt4    
,temple states that the ,sagha is       
personified in ,sikkim under      the   
form of a man holding a lotus in his    
left hand1 the right hand      being on 
the right knee4    #hc,probably all the 
images of ,dharma are meant to be       
female1 as      described in the note on
 the same page1 and at p4 #dhe4--;,corr4
    #hd;,according to ,capt4 ,temple1   

,dharma1 #8the law1' is personified in  
,sikkim as a white woman with four arms1
 two raised in prayer1 the      third   
holding a garland 7or rosary71 the      
fourth a lotus4    #he,one legend       
says3--#8,thus1 ,o monks1 ,buddha was   
born1 and the right side      of his    
mother was not pierced1 was not wounded4
 ,it remained as      before4' ,foucaux1
 p4 #ig4 ,hiouen ,thsang relates that   
there is a      ,vihra at ,kapila-vastu 
indicating the spot #8where the         
,bodhi-sattva      descended spiritually
 into the womb of his mother1' and that 
there      is a representation of this  
scene drawn in the ,vihra4 ,i have      
myself      seen many representations of
 it in ,buddhist sculptures4            
#hf;,beal's ,records1 i4 #bbh4          
#hg;,beal's ,records1 i4 #acd1 note4    
#hh,this work1 #8,die ,religion des     
,buddha1' by ,carl ,friederich ,koeppen1
      has been long out of print1 and   
has unfortunately never been            
translated into ,english4 ,the ,german  

is often difficult1 but ,i have         
endeavoured to give a correct idea of   
,koeppen's statements in the            
instances in which ,i have made use of  
them4 ,it is now somewhat out      of   
date4    #hi;,it is obvious to remark   
that in the same way those who are      
intellectually self-dependent and       
self-raised among ourselves             
generally rise to a higher level of     
popular esteem than those taught      by
 other men4    #ij,there was also a     
#8middle way1' see p4 #aei4    #ia,see  
pp4 #dg1 #ajd4 ,koeppen compares them to
 ,st4 ,peter and ,st4 ,paul4    #ib,the 
,rev4 ,s4 ,beal 7,ind4 ,antiquary for   
,dec41 #ahhf7 shows that      ,ngrjuna  
and ,ngasena are two different persons4 
,sir ,a4 ,cunningham      is of the same
 opinion4 ,it may be noted that         
,padma-sambhava is      credited with   
introducing the more corrupt form of    
,buddhism along      with magic into    
,tibet at a later date1 probably in the 
eighth      century4    #ic;,for the    

account of ,ngrjuna's disciple ,deva1   
mentioned by ,hiouen      ,thsang1 see  
,beal's ,records1 ii4 #ig4    #id,of    
course not to be confounded with        
,gautama's disciple of the same         
name1 who is generally called           
,mah-,kyapa4    #ie;,according to ,eitel
 he is still revered as the patron-saint
 of all      novices1 and is to be      
re-born as the eldest son of every      
future      ,buddha2 see ,legge's       
,f-hien1 p4 #df4    #if,the use of the  
passive participle in an active sense is
 not uncommon      in ,sanskit1 but is  
generally confined to verbs involving   
some idea      of motion4    #ig,see    
,beal's ,records1 i4 #aad1 note #ajg4   
#ih,professor ,legge tells us that an   
intelligent ,chinese once asked him     
whether #8the worship of ,mary in       
,europe was not similar8'    #ii,legge's
 ,translation1 p4 #df4 ,beal1 i4 #ahj1  
ii4 #bbj4 ,according to                 
,schlagintweit1 a historical teacher    
named ,maju-r taught in the      eighth 

or ninth century ,a4,d4    #ajj;,even   
the ,brahms1 after immense periods of   
life in the ,brahm      heavens1 have to
 go through other births in one of the  
six ways of      migration4 ,sahm-pati  
may therefore mean #8the lord of        
sufferers1'      #8all life involving   
suffering1' and this excludes the idea  
of his      #8being lord over the       
,buddha who has not to be born again4'  
#aja,see ,wright's ,nepl1 p4 #dc4       
#ajb;,beal's ,records1 ii4 #ajc1 #agd4  
#ajc,the images of this deity represent 
him as coarse and ill-favoured      in  
form 7his name in fact signifying       
#8deformed'74 ,he has sometimes         
three legs4 ,as guardian of the northern
 quarter he is sculptured on      the   
corner pillar of the northern gate of   
the ,bharhut ,stpa4 ,he had      a      
metropolis of his own1 according to     
,hind mythology 7as we know      from   
the ,megha-dta71 called ,alaka1 on the  
,himlayas4    #ajd;,a very interesting  
specimen of ancient sculpture           

representing a      ,nga-kany may be    
seen in the museum of the ,indian       
,institute1      ,oxford4 ,it belongs to
 a collection of ,buddhist antiquities  
lent by      ,mr4 ,r4 ,sewell1 of the   
,madras ,civil ,service4    #aje;,i give
 this as my own theory4 ,i am no        
believer in the learned ,m4             
,senart's sun theory1 or in its         
applicability to this point4            
#ajf,these are described in ,childers's 
,pli ,dictionary1 s4v4    #ajg,see my   
#8,brhmanism and ,hindism1' p4 #aje4    
#ajh,quoted in ,colonel ,olcott's       
#8,yoga ,philosophy1' p4 #bhb4          
#aji,see my #8,brhmanism and ,hindism1' 
p4 #ce4    #aaj;,colonel ,olcott and    
,mr4 ,sinnett mention this faculty as a 
peculiar      characteristic of ,asiatic
 occultism4    #aaa#8,the ,occult       
,world1' by ,a4 ,p4 ,sinnett1           
,vice-,president of the                 
,theosophical ,society1 pp4 #ab1 #ae1   
#bj4    #aab;,at a meeting of the       
,victoria ,institute1 where ,i repeated 

the      substance of the present       
,lecture1 ,mr4 ,w4 ,s4 ,seton-,karr1 who
 was for      some time ,foreign        
,secretary at ,calcutta1 stated that he 
also had      witnessed the performance 
of this feat in ,india4    #aac;,colonel
 ,olcott's #8,lectures on ,theosophy and
 ,archaic ,religions1' p4      #aji4    
#aad,report in the ,times newspaper4    
#aae,see ,mr4 ,walter ,besant's recent  
interesting story1 #8,herr ,paulus4'    
#aaf,nga-worship is not always identical
 with serpent-worship4 ,see p4          
#bbj4    #aag,the ,naths are certain    
demons or spirits of the air more       
worshipped      in ,burma than in       
,ceylon4 ,see p4 #bei4    #aah;,his     
proper title is rpda ,sumagala ,unnnse4 
,the title ,unnnse is      used by all  
the superior monks of ,ceylon for       
#8venerable' 7,sanskit      vandya74    
#aai,sumagala informed me that this was 
the only prayer used in ,ceylon4        
,it is no real prayer1 but only an      
expression of reverence4 ,often1        

however1 wishes for good luck are       
expressed like prayers4 ,they are       
called ,magala or ,jaya-magala4 ,for    
example3 #8,may ,i for this             
particular act of merit obtain some     
particular piece of good      fortune6' 
#abj,some connect the wizard-priest     
,shaman with the ,buddhist ramaa4       
#aba,lma 7written in ,tibetan b,lama7 is
 the ,tibetan name for a superior       
teacher 7,sanskit ,guru71 and from this 
word the hierarchical system      of    
,tibet is usually called ,lmaism4 ,it   
seems1 however1 as legitimate      to   
form a word ,lmism from ,lma1 as        
,buddhism from ,buddha4 ,at any         
rate my adjective ,lmistic is less      
awkward than ,lmaistic4 ,as to       in 
,lma1 see ,rules for pronunciation at p4
 xxxi4    #abb,this is the ,sanskit     
vandya1 #8to be saluted4' ,i cannot help
      thinking that ,bante and ,bandya  
may be the origin of the term ,bonze1   
applied to monks or priests in ,china1  
though ,i believe ,professor      ,legge

 connects ,bonze with ,munsh4           
#abc;,according to ,dr4 ,schlagintweit  
the number of rules is #bej1 and they   
are detailed in the first or ,dulva     
portion of the ,kanjur4    #abd,one was 
a ,neplese princess 7called ,bribsun7   
and the other a      ,chinese princess  
7called ,wenching74 ,according to       
,koeppen1 they were      worshipped     
under the general name ,dra ,eke--,dra  
standing for the      ,sanskit ,tr and  
,eke meaning ,mother4    #abe,some write
 ,lhsa 7strictly ,lhasa74 ,i prefer     
,lhssa as best      representing the    
pronunciation4 ,it means #8the city of  
the gods' 7lha      or lh74             
#abf;,bakshi is probably a corruption of
 ,bhikshu4 ,koeppen says it is          
,mongolian for ,ton4 ,mr4 ,edgar        
7,report1 p4 #ci7 pronounces ,brom ,ton 
,domton4    #abg;,dr4 ,schlagintweit 7p4
 #gc7 identifies this with the sect     
which wear      red dresses1 but this   
must surely be an error for yellow4     
#abh,through the ,mongols ,tibet        

gradually came under the power of ,china
      from #abee to #agbj4 ,the dynasty 
in ,china is now ,manchu4    #abi;,it is
 remarkable that the expression ho      
katabas is said of ,christ      in the  
,new ,testament4    #acj;,according to  
the ,times ,correspondent ,lhssa stands 
in no closer      relation to ,china    
than the least dependent of ,indian     
,states to the      ,british ,empire2   
history1 however1 proves that ,china    
can1 when her      interests demand it1 
assume a very different position4 ,the  
military      power of ,china is not    
great1 but that of the ,lma ,government 
is      nearly nil4 ,the expulsion of   
the missionaries ,huc and ,gabet proves 
this4    #aca;,it is said by some that  
even his excreta are held sacred4 ,they 
are      dried1 ground to powder1 and   
either swallowed or made use of as      
charms4 ,others deny this4    #acb;,in  
the ,times newspaper for ,june #ae1     
#ahhh1 is the following3 #8,how      the
 ,grand ,lma of ,tibet is appointed4--,a

 recent number of the      ,peking      
,gazette contains a memorial to the     
,emperor from the ,chinese              
,resident at ,lhssa1 stating that a     
certain ,tibetan official called        
the ,nominhan 7see p4 #bhf of this      
volume7 had reported to him that he     
had found three young boys of remarkable
 intelligence and acuteness1      into  
one of whom beyond a doubt the spirit of
 the late ,lma of ,tashi      ,lunpo    
7one of the two supreme pontiffs7 had   
passed4 ,thereupon the      ,chinese    
,resident sent a report to ,peking1     
asking that the ceremony      of        
selecting one of these three children   
might be permitted4 ,by the      time   
the authority arrived1 the ,nominhan    
with the children had      reached      
,lhssa1 and a lucky day was chosen for  
the ceremony4 ,the      golden vase in  
which the lots are cast was brought and 
placed before      the image of the     
,emperor4 ,prayers were chanted before  
the assembled      ,lmas1 and the       

children were conducted into the        
presence of the      ,resident and      
,tibetan authorities in order that their
 intelligence      and difference from  
other persons might be tested4'         
#acc#8;,cloven-headed' seems a misprint 
for eleven-headed2 but the account      
of the creation of ,avalokitevara at p4 
#dhg of this volume justifies           
#8cloven-headed4'--,corr4               
#acd;,article on ,japan in the last     
edition of the ,encyclopdia             
,britannica4    #ace;,according to one  
of my ,japanese informants ,butsu should
 he ,bhutsu1      and the formula should
 be translated1 #8,reverence to the     
,infinite      ,being4'    #acf,my      
quotations from the travels of ,huc and 
,gabet have been made from              
excellent translations by ,mrs4 ,percy  
,sinnet and ,w4 ,hazlitt1 but ,i        
have been compelled to abbreviate the   
extracts4    #acg,published by ,messrs4 
,macmillan  ,co4 ,shway ,yoe is an      
assumed name4      ,the author's real   

name is ,scott4    #ach;,i was told when
 in ,ceylon1 that many monasteries in   
the ,kandyan      provinces had         
misappropriated their endowments and    
dropped the      schools1 which they    
were bound to keep up4    #aci,notes    
illustrative of ,buddhism as the daily  
religion of the      ,buddhists of      
,ceylon1 by ,j4 ,f4 ,dickson1 ,m4 ,a4   
,oxon4    #adj,this is the derivation   
given by ,childers2 one might otherwise 
have      been inclined to suspect some 
connexion with ,preta1 a ghost 7pp4     
#aba1 #bai of this volume74    #ada,the 
texts and commentaries of some of these 
were collected by ,m4      ,grimblot1   
and translated with notes by ,m4 ,leon  
,feer1 in the ,journal      ,asiatique4 
,the ,tibetan ,pirit is said to consist 
of only thirteen      ,suttas4          
#adb;,a cold climate necessitates the   
addition of trousers1 and boots and     
occasionally shoes are worn4            
#adc,this is probably permitted with a  
view to prevent the study of            

,mongolian from entirely dying out4 ,it 
is certain that1 although the           
,buddhist sacred books have long been   
translated into ,mongolian1             
,chinese1 and ,tungusic1 only the       
,tibetan texts are esteemed as          
canonical4    #add,the indomitable      
persevering ,hungarian traveller1       
,alexander ,csoma de      ,krs1 already 
mentioned 7at p4 #gj71 was the first    
,european to throw      light on the    
,tibetan language4 ,he had been impelled
 to acquire it by      the task he had  
imposed on himself of searching out the 
progenitors      of his race4 ,more than
 eighty years ago he set out on his     
travels1      and his search ultimately 
brought him to ,tibet4 ,there he devoted
      himself to the study of the       
,tibetan language and its sacred        
literature1 taking up his abode in the  
monastery of ,pugdal1 in      defiance  
of intense cold and other hardships4    
,but his heroic energy      did not end 
there4 ,in #ahca he travelled from      

,tibet to ,calcutta1 and      in that   
city1 about the year #ahcd1 published   
his ,grammar and      ,dictionary of the
 ,tibetan language1 besides his table of
 contents of      the ,kanjur and the   
extra-canonical treatises4 ,at length   
fancying      himself qualified for the 
accomplishment of his self-inflicted    
task1      he started off again1 and    
died in ,sikkim in ,april #ahdb4 ,he is 
buried      at ,drjling4 ,we            
,englishmen1 who ought to have taken the
 greatest      share in these linguistic
 conquests--so important in their       
bearing on      the interests of our    
,indian frontier--have hitherto1 to our 
great      discredit1 almost entirely   
neglected them4 ,meanwhile1 ,st4        
,petersburg      and ,paris have founded
 chairs of the ,tibetan language1 and   
nearly      all that has been effected  
for promoting the study of ,tibetan has 
been due to ,russian and ,french        
scholars1 and to ,german and ,moravian  
missionaries1 especially to ,jschke and 

,hyde4        ,i am glad1 however1 to   
see from the annual address delivered by
 the      ,president of the ,asiatic    
,society of ,bengal1 and published in   
the      ,report for ,february1 #ahhh1  
that this reproach is now being wiped   
out      by our fellow-subjects in      
,india4 ,babu ,pratpa ,chandra ,ghosha  
is      bringing out in the ,bibliotheca
 ,indica the ,tibetan translation of    
the ,buddhistic work ,praj-pramit1      
forming the second division of      the 
,kanjur1 while ,mr4 ,sarat ,chandra ,ds1
 ,c4,i4,e41 is editing the      ,tibetan
 version of the ,avadna-,kalpalat 7a    
store-house of legends      of ,buddha's
 life and acts71 and compiling a        
,tibetan-,sanskit-,english              
,dictionary4 ,great credit is due to our
 ,indian ,government for the            
publication of ,jschke's                
,tibetan-,english ,dictionary4          
#ade;,as corpses are exposed to be      
devoured by animals in ,tibet human     
bones are easily obtained for this      

purpose4    #adf;,as before stated 7p4  
#cjf1 note7 ,i have been compelled to   
abbreviate      the translator's version
 and occasionally to vary the           
expressions1      and have therefore    
felt it right to omit inverted commas4  
#adg;,according to ,schlagintweit this  
sect 7also called ,brugpa1 p4 #bgb7     
are especially worshippers of the ,dorje
 7see p4 #cbb71 and are      therefore  
,tntrikas4    #adh,this ,i heard from   
his own lips4    #adi,the abstract has  
been made by me from a copy of ,sarat   
,chandra ,ds'      ,report kindly lent  
to me by ,sir ,edwin ,arnold4 ,but ,i   
learnt much from      ,mr4 ,s4 ,c4 ,d4  
in personal conversations4 ,in my       
numerous quotations ,i      have        
ventured to make a few alterations in   
the ,english4    #aej,this is the       
,tibetan name of ,avalokitevara or      
,padma-pi4 ,it is      often spelt      
,chenresi1 or ,chenresig1 or            
,chenressig4    #aea,the ,lion is an    
emblem of the ,buddha1 and he is called 

kya-siha1      #8the ,lion of the kya   
tribe' 7see pp4 #bc1 #cid74    #aeb,see 
p4 #cba4    #aec,see these enumerated at
 p4 #ebh4    #aed,see ,mr4 ,clements    
,markham's ,tibet1 p4 cxiii4            
#aee,this was the ,buddha's attitude    
when he died 7see pp4 #ej1 #bda74 ,he   
is called #8a ,lion4' 7,see note #b1 p4 
#ccb47    #aef,see my #8,brhmanism and  
,hindism1' p4 #cfg4    #aeg;,i found1   
when in the ,south of ,india1 that an   
image of ,bhavn in a      ,hind temple  
was very like that of the ,virgin ,mary 
in an adjacent      ,roman ,catholic    
,church4 ,i was told that the same ,hind
 carver carved      both4    #aeh,we    
know that ,hindism1 in the end1 adopted 
,buddha himself1 and      converted him 
into one of the incarnations of ,vishu  
7see      #8,brhmanism and ,hindism1' p4
 #aad74    #aei,these good deities1     
according to ,schlagintweit1 are        
represented      with formidable        
countenances and dark complexions1 and a
 third eye      in the                  

forehead--probably the eye of wisdom1 as
 in the ,dhyni-,buddhas      7see p4    
#bjc of these ,lectures74    #afj,see   
the account of the female demons called 
,tanma at p4 #deg of      these         
,lectures4    #afa,the shape is not     
quite the same as that of the ,phurbu1  
but there      can be no doubt of its   
being a kindred weapon4 ,i purchased my 
specimen at ,drjling1 and was assured   
that it came from ,tibet1 and      was  
used by the ,tibetans in the same way as
 the ,phurbu4    #afb,see #8,brhmanism  
and ,hindism1' p4 #cde4    #afc,see my  
work on #8,brhmanism and ,hindism1' pp4 
#ceg1 #ceh1 #cgj1 etc4    #afd,see the  
translation of a horoscope given in     
#8,brhmanism and      ,hindism1' p4     
#cgc4    #afe;,according to             
,schlagintweit1 those amulets which are 
curved round to      a point are        
intended to represent the leaf of the   
sacred fig-tree4    #aff;,in this it did
 good service1 at least for a time2 for 
the cost of      marriage-ceremonies    

among the ,hinds often cripples the     
resources of      a family for years4   
,the marriage of the poorest persons    
sometimes      entails expenses in gifts
 to the ,brhmans1 etc41 to the amount of
      #cjj rupees4    #afg,mr4 ,scott   
points out in his #8,burman' that this  
is especially the      case in ,burma4  
#afh,scott's #8,burman1' p4 #abe4       
#afi,my authority for this is ,mr4 ,j4  
,f4 ,dickson's pamphlet called #8,notes 
and illustrations of ,buddhism1' etc4   
#agj,scott's #8,burman1' i4 #bhb4       
#aga,the ,dgabas of laymen have no      
umbrellas at the top 7see p4 #eje74     
,this privilege is only accorded to the 
monkhood 7,scott's #8,burman'74         
#agb,this is mentioned by ,huc as well  
as by ,koeppen4    #agc;,he is sometimes
 represented seated on a ,lotus1 or born
 from a      ,lotus4    #agd,om is      
borrowed from the ,hinds4 ,it is their  
most sacred syllable1      symbolical of
 their triad of gods1 ,brahm1 ,vishu1   
and iva1 denoted      by the three      

mystical letter ,a1 ,u1 ,m 7see my      
#8,brhmanism1' p4 #djb74      ,when     
imported into ,buddhism it may possibly 
symbolize the ,buddhist      triad4 ,om 
is sometimes translated by ,hail6 ,hm1  
as a particle of      solemn assent1 is 
sometimes translated by ,amen6 ,i prefer
 to treat      both ,om and ,hm as      
untranslatable ejaculations4    #age;,i 
had formed this opinion long before ,i  
saw the same view hinted at      in one 
of ,koeppen's notes 7see my #8,brhmanism
 and ,hindism1' p4 #cc74      ,it is    
certainly remarkable that the name ,mai 
is applied to the male      organ1 and  
the female is compared to a             
lotus-blossom in the      ,kma-stras4 ,i
 fully believe the formula to have a    
phallic meaning1      because ,tibetan  
,buddhism is undoubtedly connected with 
aivism4    #agf,some think1 however1    
that the six syllables owe their        
efficacy to      their symbolizing the  
six ,pramits or transcendent virtues4   
#agg;,dr4 ,schlagintweit mentions 7p4   

#aba7 that when ,baron ,schilling       
visited a certain convent he found the  
,lmas occupied in preparing      #ajj   
million copies of ,om mai padme ,hm to  
be inserted in a      prayer-cylinder4  
,he also states that the inscription    
relating to the      foundation of the  
monastery of ,hemis in ,ladk 7see p4    
#dcc of these      ,lectures7 records   
the setting up of #cjj1jjj              
prayer-cylinders along      the walls   
and passages of the monastery4          
#agh,the ,mai-padme prayer is itself for
 shortness often called ,mai4           
#agi,stpas and aityas are explained at  
p4 #ejd4    #ahj,so says ,schlagintweit1
 but he adds that in some places passers
 by      keep them to the right4 ,mr4   
,sarat ,chandra ,ds also mentions this4 
#aha;,according to ,sir ,richard ,temple
 7,journal1 p4 #aih7 travellers walk    
first on one side and then on the other4
    #ahb,schlagintweit 7p4 #bec7 says   
this is the horse which constitutes one 
of the seven treasures 7see p4 #ebh of  

these ,lectures74 ,it brings      good  
fortune to the man who keeps it flying  
on a flag4    #ahc,the gem called ,norbu
 is another of the seven treasures4     
#ahd;,dr4 ,schlagintweit says that a    
,dhrai to the following effect is       
often written on the flag3 #8,tiger1    
,lion1 ,eagle1 and ,dragon1 may they    
co-operate ,sarva-du-du-hom6 7#8,tibetan
 ,buddhism1' p4 #bee74    #ahe,the      
number #ajh seems sacred1 as the sole of
 ,buddha's foot is said      to have    
that number of marks upon it4           
#ahf;,common people in ,buddhist        
countries are satisfied with #cj or #dj 
beads4    #ahg,this is a great ,tibetan 
saint1 author of a hundred thousand     
songs4    #ahh,translated for me by ,mr4
 ,sarat ,chandra ,ds1 who was my        
companion      during part of my sojourn
 at ,drjling4    #ahi;,hiouen ,thsang   
says that this place is near ,prayga    
7the modern      ,allahbd71 and that    
,aoka built a ,stpa there4 7,beal1 i4   
#bca47    #aij;,general ,sir ,a4        

,cunningham puts the date at about      
,a4,d4 #aej4    #aia,see the account    
given in #8,brhmanism and ,hindism1' p4 
#ddb4    #aib,many images and sculptures
 were abstracted by the ,burmese1 but   
many      never reached ,burma1 for they
 accidentally fell into the ,ganges in  
the process of being transported there4 
,the colossal image found      outside  
the temple is now in the ,calcutta      
,museum 7see the engraving      opposite
 to p4 #dff74    #aic,mr4 ,beglar gave  
me specimens of the fragments1 which ,i 
have still4    #aid,the umbrella is     
symbolical of supremacy4 ,see p4 #ebc4  
#aie,the lion is often associated with  
,buddha1 who is called kya-siha         
7see p4 #bc71 and whose throne is       
therefore called a ,sihsan4    #aif,this
 will be evident to any one who examines
 it attentively4 ,the      socket-hole  
of the umbrella-ornament may be easily  
detected4    #aig,the form of ritual    
observed was like that ,i witnessed at  
,gay1 and      described in my          

#8,brhmanism and ,hindism1' p4 #caj4    
#aih,see my #8,brhmanism and ,hindism1' 
p4 #dcd4    #aii,that is1 #8the lord of 
deer4' ,sraga is a kind of deer1 and the
      ,buddha was probably called so    
because he is fabled to have wandered   
about as a deer in this very place in   
one of his former births 7see      p4   
#aaa of this volume74 ,the legend is    
that he was born eleven times      as a 
deer1 and on this account a deer is one 
of the sacred symbols      of ,buddhism4
 ,we learn from ,general ,sir ,a4       
,cunningham 7i4 #aje7 that      the name
 ,srnth properly belongs to a temple    
dedicated to iva near      the ,buddhist
 monument1 and the epithet #8,lord of   
deer1' is equally      applicable to the
 god iva1 who is often represented in   
the act of      holding up a deer in his
 hand4    #bjj,the name ,dhamek may     
possibly be a corruption of ,dhamma-akka
      7,dharma-akra74    #bja;,f-hien   
says that the old city was girdled by   
five hills4 ,these      hills are now   

called ,baibhr 7on which are five ,jain 
temples71      ,vipula1 ,ratna1 ,udaya1 
and ,sona-giri4 ,a long account of the  
place      will be found in             
,cunningham's #8,ancient ,geography of  
,india1' pp4      #dfb-dfh1 and in his  
#8,archological ,report1' i4 #bj4       
,bimbi-sra seems      to have built the 
town1 which was afterwards improved by  
,ajta-atru1 and the site of the new     
portion being not quite      identical1 
the new town was called #8new           
,rja-giha4' ,legge's      #8,f-hien1' p4
 #ha4 ,there are several hot springs in 
this locality4    #bjb;,ajta-atru seems 
first to have sided with ,buddha's enemy
      ,deva-datta4    #bjc;,it may be   
mentioned here that any place or house  
in which the      ,buddha resided for a 
time was afterwards called ,gandha-ku   
7probably from the fragrance of the     
perfumed offerings always to be         
found in it74 ,hence the ,bambu grove at
 ,rja-giha1 and the ,jeta-vana      at  
,srvast 7p4 #djg71 were both            

,gandha-kus4    #bjd;,a magnificent     
edition of this work in ,tibetan1       
,mongol1 ,manchu1 and      ,chinese came
 into the possession of the ,french     
,missionaries 7,huc1      ii4 #gd74     
#bje;,here1 therefore1 there was a      
,gandha-ku 7see note1 p4 #djd74         
#bjf;,f-hien says1 #8,here lived ,buddha
 for a longer time than at any          
other place1' and on that account1      
perhaps1 was called      ,dharma-pattana
 7,beal's #8,records1' ii4 #a74 ,it was 
at this place that      the ,brahmarns  
killed a courtesan1 and accused ,buddha 
of adultery      and murder 7see ,legge1
 p4 #ei2 ,beal1 ii4 #h74    #bjg,legge1 
pp4 #eg1 #ei2 ,beal1 ii4 #e4            
#bjh;,another statue1 claiming to be the
 genuine sandal-wood image1 was      at 
,kaumb 7see p4 #dab74    #bji;,a kgra is
 properly any building with a peaked    
roof 7ka7 or      pinnacle4             
#baj;,cunningham 7i4 #cja7 gives a full 
account of the place4    #baa,the story 
is fully narrated in the second and     

third books of the                      
,kath-sarit-sgara of ,soma ,deva4 ,see  
my #8,indian ,wisdom1' p4 #eaa4         
,king ,udayana is said to have been a   
contemporary of the ,buddha4    #bab,see
 my #8,indian ,wisdom1' p4 #dhf4        
#bac,see ,hiouen ,thsang's account of   
it1 p4 #dga4 ,another similar image     
belonged to ,king ,prasenajit at rvast1 
see pp4 #djh1 #dga4    #bad,the name is 
said to have been derived from that of a
 ,nga1 who      lived in a neighbouring 
tank4 ,see the description in two       
,chinese      ,buddhist inscriptions    
found at ,buddha-,gay4 ,r4 ,a4 ,s4      
,journal1 vol4      xiii4    #bae,this  
,utpal must be the same as ,utpala-var  
7see p4 #dh of this      volume74       
#baf;,a ,yojana is variously estimated  
at #d or #e or #i ,english miles4       
#bag;,hiouen ,thsang states that this   
name1 which means a #8hump-backed       
virgin1' is derived from the fact that  
an old sage 7ishi71 who      possessed  
supernatural powers1 cursed ninety-nine 

daughters of king      ,brahma-datta for
 refusing to marry him1 and made them   
deformed      7,beal1 i4 #bji74 ,a      
different legend is given in my         
,sanskit-,english      ,dictionary4     
#bah,this is very instructive in regard 
to the numerical proportion      between
 ,brhmans and ,buddhists at this place4 
#bai;,according to ,cunningham1 about   
,b4,c4 #dej4    #bbj,one for each of the
 #hd1jjj elements of the body 7p4 #dii74
 ,the real      number of ,stpas was    
#hd1 but1 as usual1 three ciphers have  
been      added4    #bba;,it is         
difficult to understand exactly what    
these ,ahayoga1 ,prsda      and ,harmya 
were4 ,in some ,buddhist countries      
storied houses are      considered      
objectionable1 as no one likes to submit
 to the indignity      of having the    
feet of another person above his head4  
#bbb,the objection to the hollow of     
trees was that spirits1 ghosts1 and     
goblins often took up their abode there4
    #bbc,the term ,vihra was afterwards 

usually applied to temples1 or to       
buildings combining temple and monastery
 in one4    #bbd,some authorities place 
them in the sixth century of our era4   
#bbe,this is curiously illustrated in a 
recent letter from a resident in        
,burma to the ,editor of the ,times     
newspaper1 in which it is stated        
that about six months after ,king       
,theebaw had been deported1 some of     
his things were exhibited by us in the  
lower rooms of the ,rangoon             
,museum1 to the great disgust of his    
,burmese admirers1 who asked1      #8how
 we dared place their king's things in a
 lower room where people      could walk
 above them8'    #bbf;,it is for this   
reason that in the ,tibetan language    
they are called      ,gonpa4    #bbg,so 
described in a pamphlet on ,buddhist    
,monasteries in ,lahoul1 by a           
,moravian ,missionary4    #bbh,mr4      
,sarat ,chandra ,ds gives the names of  
#ajbf monasteries4 ,koeppen      makes  
#cjjj monasteries and #hd1jjj ,lmas4    

#bbi;,a small river flowing into the    
,tsanpo or ,brahma-putra4    #bcj,the   
hill is called ,potala1 and the         
palace-monastery is named after      it4
 ,koeppen says it has three peaks1 but  
the illustration in      ,markham's     
account of ,manning's journey 7p4 #bef7 
shows three long      summits rather    
than peaks4 ,the hill is called         
,buddha-la by ,huc 7ii4      #adj71 but 
,koeppen 7ii4 #cda7 is more correct in  
stating that ,potala      is the name of
 a sea-port on the river ,indus1 called 
,pattala by the      ,greeks1 and now   
,tatta4 ,there is a tradition that this 
,potala was the      original home of   
the kya tribe 7see p4 #ba of this       
volume74    #bca,koeppen translates this
 by the ,german sau1 but says it may    
also      mean #8,hintere ,berg4'       
#bcb,messrs4 ,huc and ,gabet failed in  
their attempt to obtain an              
interview with the ,dalai ,lma of #ahdf4
    #bcc;,it may also mean temple of    
,lhssa and #8abode of gods1' in which   

case ,l would be for ,lh4    #bcd;,huc  
says #8four leagues2' ,koeppen #8drei   
meilen1' which is incorrect4            
#bce,these are also mentioned by ,sarat 
,chandra ,ds and by ,markham 7p4        
#acj1 note #c71 and again1 differently  
spelt1 at p4 #bfd1 note #a4    #bcf;,for
 his services as an explorer and        
surveyor ,nain ,singh enjoys a          
,government pension1 and has been       
awarded the gold medal of the           
,geographical ,society4 ,sarat ,chandra 
,ds has been made a ,c4,i4,e4    #bcg,my
 authority for all these details is ,dr4
 ,burgess' ,report4    #bch;,copies of  
these were made for me by a ,sinhalese  
artist4    #bci;,in this description ,i 
have chiefly followed ,mr4 ,scott4      
#bdj,this description is based on       
,koeppen1 ii4 #bcd1 and on the narrative
      of ,sarat ,chandra ,ds' journey in
 #ahha1 #ahhb4    #bda,sarat ,chandra   
,ds mentions a #8flag-pole forty feet   
high1 on which      are some            
inscriptions1 two tufts of yak hair1 and

 several yak and      sheep-horns4'     
,possibly this may be the obelisk       
mentioned by ,koeppen4    #bdb,one of   
these is the terrific goddess ,paldan   
7p4 #dia71 worshipped by      all       
,tibetans and ,mongols1 and identified  
with the goddess ,kl4    #bdc,my        
authority for this is ,bishop ,edward   
,bickersteth1 the present      ,bishop  
in ,japan4    #bdd,see my #8,brhmanism  
and ,hindism' 7published by ,mr4 ,murray
 of      ,albemarle ,street71 pp4 #b-bj4
    #bde;,another ancient statue but not
 so old1 though of a highly             
interesting type1 was procured by me    
7for the ,indian ,institute at          
,oxford7 from ,buddha-,gay on the       
occasion of my last visit in #ahhd1     
through the kind assistance of ,mr4     
,beglar4 ,it is in the erect            
attitude4    #bdf,see #8,brhmanism and  
,hindism1' p4 #bad4    #bdg;,a good     
example of this tight-fitting robe is   
afforded by the      ancient statue of  
the ,buddha1 mentioned at p4 #dfg1 note4

    #bdh,when ,gautama renounced his    
family and caste1 he doubtless discarded
      the cord1 just as a true ,sannys  
is required to do 7p4 #gh74    #bdi;,in 
the ,jaina statues1 the lobes of the    
ears1 so far as ,i have      observed1  
always touch the shoulders4    #bej,some
 think that this represents the wheel of
 the akra-vart      emperor1 or the     
wheel of the law1 or the cycle of       
causes1 or the      continual revolution
 of births1 deaths1 and re-births4 ,dr4 
,mitra      maintains that a lotus1 and 
not a wheel1 is always intended1 though 
the lotus is often so badly carved that 
it may pass for any circular            
ornament4    #bea;,dr4 ,rajendralla     
,mitra considers that curly locks were  
given to      ,gautama ,buddha because  
the possession of curls is believed to  
be an      auspicious sign4 ,some have  
actually inferred from the curl-like    
knobs1 that ,buddha was a negro6        
#beb,see ,dr4 ,edkins' #8,chinese       
,buddhism' 7p4 #bef74    #bec,see       

,lalita-vistara 7,calc4 ed471 pp4 #djb1 
#djc1 #ddi1 ll4 #f-ad4    #bed,see my   
remarks on the worship of serpents in   
#8,brhmanism and      ,hindism1' p4     
#cai2 and ,fergusson's great work1      
#8,tree and ,serpent      ,worship4'    
#bee,there is a striking parallel in a  
well-known picture by ,bernardino       
,luini 7of the ,milan school7 of        
#8,christ disputing with the ,doctors'  
to be seen in our ,national ,gallery4   
#bef,procured for me by ,mr4 ,burrows1  
of the ,ceylon ,civil ,service4         
#beg,see especially an image in the     
,british ,museum4 ,in ,china ,bas-relief
      images of ,buddha are sometimes   
inserted by ,buddhist priests in large  
mussel-shells while the animal is       
living1 and are covered by it with      
a coating of mother of pearl4 ,this they
 call a miracle4 ,an example      is in 
the ,indian ,institute1 presented by    
,mrs4 ,newman ,smith4    #beh,the       
sculptured figures of ,padma-pi observed
 by me in the caves of      ,elor       

represent him with ,amitbha in his      
head-dress4    #bei,observe that ,sang  
,yun1 as there given1 is more correctly 
spelt ,sung      ,yun or ,sung-,yun4    
#bfj;,compare ,hardy's #8,monachism1' p4
 #bab4    #bfa,see ,hardy's #8,eastern  
,monachism1' p4 #aib4    #bfb,see my    
#8,brhmanism and ,hindism1' p4 #cjc4    
#bfc#8,mah-p4' p4 #ea4 #8,milinda       
,paha1' p4 #agg4 #8,it is certainly     
noteworthy1' says ,oldenberg1 #8that as 
the care for ,buddha's remains      is  
not represented as belonging to the     
disciples1 so the ,vinaya      texts are
 nearly silent as to the last honours of
 the deceased      monks4 ,to arrange   
for their cremation was probably        
committed to the      laity4'           
#bfd,subsequently called ,pur1 and noted
 for the worship of ,jagan-nth      or  
,kisha1 who became the successor of     
,buddha as an object of      worship    
7see p4 #aff of this volume74           
#bfe;,hardy's #8,eastern ,monachism1' p4
 #bbd4 ,the size of the tooth does not  

seem very preposterous1 on the          
assumption of the truth of the          
tradition that ,gautama attained to the 
stature of twenty cubits4    #bff,mr4   
,lesley1 in his #8,lectures on the      
,origin and ,destiny of ,man1'          
states that there are two foot-prints   
sculptured on the summit of      ,mount 
,olivet1 and worshipped by pilgrims as  
the marks left when      ,christ sprang 
into the sky at ,his ascension4 ,there  
is another      alleged foot-print of   
,christ in the ,mosque of ,omar1 and two
      foot-prints at ,poitiers in       
,france4 ,there are two foot-prints of  
,ishmael in the temple at ,mecca4 ,this 
is mentioned by ,mr4 ,alabaster      7p4
 #bfb74    #bfg,or according to some the
 lmali or ,silk-cotton tree 7,smal74    
#bfh,spence ,hardy's #8,eastern         
,monachism1' p4 #bae4    #bfi;,i        
conjecture that the ,mualinda-tree may  
have been the ,sandal1 for      it is   
described in ,sanskit literature as     
infested by snakes4 ,the      fact of a 

serpent having emerged from the roots of
 this tree and      protected the       
,buddha instead of injuring him1 may    
account for the      sacred character of
 the sandal-wood statue 7see p4 #djh74  
#bgj;,hardy's #8,eastern ,monachism1' p4
 #bab4    #bga;,i noticed a fine        
specimen of this tree growing in the    
courtyard of      the temple of the god 
,brahm at ,pokhar1 near jmere1 visited  
by me      in #ahhd4 ,near it were two  
,banyan trees1 a ,nm tree1 and ,aoka    
tree4      ,brahm's other temple at     
,idar was not visited by me4            
#bgb;,compare my translation of         
#8akuntal1' pp4 #ij1 #ia 7fifth         
edition74      ,the ,christmas-tree with
 its suspended gifts offers a curious   
and      interesting analogy4 ,the      
wonderful tree described by ,messrs4    
,huc and      ,gabet as seen by them    
7vol4 ii4 p4 #ec1 ,hazlett's            
translation7 can      only be regarded  
as an example of a remarkably clever    
hoax4    #bgc,mr4 ,r4 ,sewell has       

written an interesting article on       
#8,early ,buddhist      ,symbolism1' in 
which he connects certain symbols with  
solar ideas      derived from the ,west4
 ,mr4 ,frederic ,pincott thinks that the
 triple      symbol stands for the      
ancient ,y of the #8,ye dharm' formula4 
#bgd,see my #8,modern ,india1' p4 #aic1 
published by ,messrs4 ,trbner and       
,co41 and #8,brhmanism and ,hindism1' p4
 #abg4    #bge,the ,jaugada inscription 
has two ,svastikas1 the arms in each of 
which are bent in opposite directions4  
#bgf,the expression ,jainism corresponds
 to aivism1 just as ,jaina does      to 
aiva4 ,consistency would require        
,bauddhism and ,bauddha for             
,buddhism and ,buddhist1 but ,i fear the
 latter expressions are too      firmly 
established4    #bgg,nigaha 7also spelt 
,niggantha7 is from the ,sanskit        
,nir-grantha1      #8having no ties or  
worldly associations4'    #bgh;,cicero  
7,de natura deorum7 derives religion    
from relego1 and      explains it as a  

diligent practice of prayer and worship4
 ,others      have derived it from      
religo1 and hold that it means #8binding
 to      ,god4'    #bgi;,here is an     
extract from a book called #8,the       
,mystery of the ,ages1'      published  
in #ahhg3--#8;,buddhism is the          
,christianity of the ,east1 and1      as
 such1 even in better conservation than 
is ,christianity1 the      ,buddhism of 
the ,west4'    #bhj;,as instances of the
 trivialities ,i give the following from
 the      ulla-vagga 7,sacred ,books of 
the ,east1 vol4 xx4 v1 #ca1 p4 #adf2 v1 
#i4      #e1 p4 #hg73--        #8,now at
 that time the ,bhikkhus hung up their  
bowls on pins in the      walls1 or on  
hooks4 ,the pins or hooks falling down1 
the bowls were      broken4 ,they told  
this matter to the ,blessed ,one4 8,you 
are not1 ,o      ,bhikkhus1 to hang your
 bowls up4 ,whosoever does so1 shall be 
guilty      of a dukkata0 7offence74    
,now at that time the ,bhikkhus put     
their      bowls down on a bed1 or a    

chair2 and sitting down thoughtlessly   
they      upset them1 and the bowls were
 broken4 ,they told this matter to the  
,blessed ,one4 8,you are not1 ,o        
,bhikkhus1 to put your bowls on a bed1  
or on a chair4 ,whosoever does so1 shall
 be guilty of a dukkata0      7offence74
 ,now at that time the ,bhikkhus kept   
their bowls on their      laps2 and     
rising up thoughtlessly they upset them1
 and the bowls      were broken4 ,they  
told this matter to the ,blessed ,one4  
8,you are not1      ,o ,bhikkhus1 to    
keep your bowls on your laps4 ,whosoever
 does so1      shall be guilty of a     
dukkata0 7offence74 ,now at that time   
the      ,bhikkhus put their bowls down 
on a sunshade2 and the sunshade being   
lifted up by a whirlwind1 the bowls     
rolled over and were broken4      ,they 
told this matter to the ,blessed ,one4  
8,you are not1 ,o ,bhikkhus1      to put
 your bowls down on a sunshade4         
,whosoever does so1 shall be      guilty
 of a dukkata40 ,now at that time the   

,bhikkhus1 when they were      holding  
the bowls in their hands1 opened the    
door4 ,the door      springing back1 the
 bowls were broken4 ,they told this     
matter to the      ,blessed ,one4 8,you 
are not1 ,o ,bhikkhus1 to open the door 
with your      bowls in your hands4     
,whosoever does so1 shall be guilty of a
      dukkata40 ,now at that time the   
,bhikkhus did not use tooth-sticks1     
and their mouths got a bad odour4 ,they 
told this matter to the      ,blessed   
,one4 8,there are these five            
disadvantages1 ,o ,bhikkhus1 in not     
using tooth-sticks--it is bad for the   
eyes--the mouth becomes                 
bad-smelling--the passages by which the 
flavours of the food pass are      not  
pure--bile and phlegm get into the      
food--and the food does not      taste  
well to him who does not use them4      
,these are the five      disadvantages1 
,o ,bhikkhus1 in not using              
tooth-sticks40 8,there are      five    
advantages1 ,o ,bhikkhus0 7etc41 the    

converse of the last74 8,i      allow   
you1 ,o ,bhikkhus1 tooth-sticks40 ,now  
at that time the      habbaggiya        
,bhikkhus used long tooth-sticks2 and   
even struck the      ,smaeras with them4
 ,they told this matter to the ,blessed 
,one4 8,you      are not1 ,o ,bhikkhus1 
to use too long tooth-sticks4 ,whosoever
 does      so1 shall be guilty of a     
dukkata4 ,i allow you1 ,o ,bhikkhus1    
tooth-sticks up to eight finger-breadths
 in length4 ,and ,smaeras      are not  
to be struck with them4 ,whosoever does 
so1 shall be guilty      of a dukkata40 
,now at that time a certain ,bhikkhu1   
when using too      short a tooth-stick 
got it stuck in his throat4 ,they told  
this      matter to the ,blessed ,one4  
8,you are not1 ,o ,bhikkhus1 to use too 
short a tooth-stick4 ,whosoever does so1
 shall be guilty of a      dukkata4 ,i  
allow you1 ,o ,bhikkhus1 tooth-sticks   
four finger-breadths      long at the   
least40'    #bha;,although this ,lecture
 was written and in type before the     

publication of the ,bishop of ,colombo's
 article in the ,july 7#ahhh7           
number of the #8,nineteenth ,century1'  
,i need not say that ,i wish here1      
as the ,bishop has done1 to draw        
attention to the collection of          
#8moral horrors' existing in some parts 
of the ,prjika books--the               
disgusting detail of every conceivable  
form of revolting vice1      supposed to
 be perpetrated or perpetrable by monks4
    #bhb;,dr4 ,kellogg1 in his excellent
 work1 #8the ,light of ,asia and the    
,light of the ,world1' well criticizes  
,professor ,seydel's                    
,buddhist-,christian ,harmony1 as well  
as the ,professor's views on this       
point expressed in his work entitled    
#8,das ,evangelium von ,jesu in         
,seinen ,verhltnissen zu ,buddha-,sage  
und ,buddha-,lehre4' ,leipzig1          
#ahhj4    #bhc;,it is true that in the  
,lalita-vistara ,buddha is described in 
terms      which appear to assimilate   
his character to the ,christian         

conception      of a ,saviour2 but how  
could any man1 however good and great1  
have      any claim to be called either 
a ,saviour or ,redeemer1 who only       
revealed to his fellow-men such a method
 of getting rid of pain and             
suffering1 through their own works and  
merits1 as must lead them in      the   
end to extinction of all personal       
existence8 ,the very essence of         
,christ's character as a ,saviour is    
,his divine power of transferring       
,his own perfect merits to imperfect    
men1 and leading them from death      to
 eternal life1 not to eternal extinction
 of life4    #bhd;,in regard to the     
,buddhist doctrine of terrific          
purgatorial torments      in some of the
 numerous ,hells see p4 #abj of this    
volume4    #bhe,see ,dhamma-pada1 #abg4 
#bhf;,i have not followed the exact     
words in our authorized translation     
of ,st4 ,luke iv4 #ah1 because they must
 be taken with ,isaiah4    #bhg;,exodus 
iii4 #ad4    #bhh,st4 ,matthew xi4 #e4  

#bhi,sacred ,books of the ,east1 xiii4  
#acc4    #bij;,it is necessary to point 
out that these acts of self-sacrifice   
took      place in former states of     
existence1 for when a man becomes a     
,buddha      he has no need to gain     
merit by self-sacrifice4    #bia,see p4 
#acj4    #bib;,a ,buddhist writer in a  
,buddhist magazine1 published in        
,ceylon1 has      lately taken me to    
task for asserting in a recent speech   
that      ,christianity denies the      
all-sufficiency of good works as an     
instrument of salvation4 ,it is easy to 
quote passages1 such as those      in   
the epistle of ,st4 ,james1 in support  
of his one-sided view of      this      
question1 but ,i need scarcely say that 
the writer has much to      learn as to 
the true character of our ,bible1 in    
which no text has      full force       
without its context1 and no part can be 
taken to      establish a doctrine      
without a comparison with other parts1  
and      without the balancing of       

apparent contradictions in both ,old and
 ,new      ,testaments4                 
,,works ,,by ,,the ,,same ,,author4     
,brhmanism and ,hindism1 or ,religious  
,thought and ,life in ,india1 as        
based on the ,veda and other ,sacred    
,books of the ,hinds4 ,third and        
cheaper ,edition1 with full index4 ,john
 ,murray1 ,albemarle ,street4 #ahhg4    
#ajs4 #f;d4      ,indian ,wisdom1 or    
,examples of the ,religious1            
,philosophical1 and    ,ethical         
,doctrines of the ,hinds3 with a brief  
history of the chief    departments of  
,sanskit ,literature1 and some account  
of the past and    present condition of 
,india1 ,moral and ,intellectual4       
,modern ,india and the ,indians3 ,a     
,series of ,impressions1 ,notes1 and    
,essays4 ,fourth ,edition1 with index4  
,trbner  ,co41 ,ludgate ,hill4 #ahhh4   
,hindism4 ,published by the ,society for
 ,promoting ,christian    ,knowledge4   
,sanskit-,english ,dictionary4          
,published at the ,university ,press1   

,oxford4 ,henry ,frowde1 #g ,paternoster
 ,row4 #ahhh4      ,english-,sanskit    
,dictionary4 ,at the ,india ,office4    
,practical ,sanskit ,grammar4 ,fourth   
,edition4 ,at the ,university ,press1   
,oxford4 ,henry ,frowde1 #g ,paternoster
 ,row4 #ahgg4      ,sanskit ,manual with
 ,exercises4 ,w4 ,h4 ,allen  ,co4       
akuntal4 ,a ,sanskit ,drama1 in ,seven  
,acts2 the ,text1 with critical    and  
explanatory notes and literal ,english  
translations4 ,second    ,edition4 ,at  
the ,university ,press1 ,oxford4 ,henry 
,frowde1 #g ,paternoster    ,row4 #ahgf4
 #hvo4 cloth1 #bas4      ,vikramorras4  
,a ,sanskit ,drama4 ,the ,text4 ,stephen
 ,austin1 ,hertford4      ,a ,free      
,translation in ,english ,prose and     
,verse of the ,sanskit ,drama           
akoontal1 with a portrait of the heroine
 and her two friends4 ,fifth            
,edition4 ,john ,murray1 ,albemarle     
,street4 #ahhg4 #gs4 #f;d4 ,first       
,edition printed on fine paper1         
illuminated and illustrated by ,stephen 

,austin1 ,hertford4      ,story of      
,nala3 ,a ,sanskit ,poem1 with full     
,vocabulary and an improved    version  
of ,dean ,milman's ,translation4        
,university ,press1 ,oxford1 and #g     
,paternoster ,row4      ,application of 
the ,roman ,alphabet to the ,languages  
of ,india4    ,longmans4      ,practical
 ,hindstn ,grammar4 ,longmans4      ,bgh
 o ,bahr4 ,the ,hindstn ,text in the    
,roman character4 ,longmans4            
,transcriber's ,notes      --,corrected 
palpable typos4    --,incorporated most 
author's corrections into the text4     
--,inserted author's additions into     
additional footnotes tagged             
8--,corr40