,transcriber's note3 ,table of ,contents
 added by ,transcriber4  ,boldface is   
indicated by equals signs2 italics by   
underscores4          ,,contents        
,recent ,years of ,egyptian ,exploration
        #fbe    ,the ,gold ,sands of    
,cape ,nome                 #fcc    ,a  
,state ,official on ,excessive ,taxation
      #fde    ,latest ,developments     
,with the ,x ,rays         #fei    ,a   
,hundred ,years of ,chemistry           
#fgc    ,the ,science of ,art ,form     
#fhe    ,steam ,turbines and ,high-speed
 ,vessels       #fif    ,a ,survival of 
,medival ,credulity            #gjf     
,genuine ,starch ,factories             
#gaf    ,trade ,corporations in ,china  
#gbb    ,editor's ,table                
#gbh    ,fragments of ,science          
#gca    ,minor ,paragraphs              
#gcg    ,publications ,received         
#fci    ,index                          
#gda            ,established by ,edward 
,l4 ,youmans      ,,appletons'          
,,popular ,,science    ,,monthly        

,,edited ,,by    ,,william ,,jay        
,,youmans      ,,vol4 ,,lvi             
,,november1 #ahii1 ,,to ,,april1 #aijj  
,,new ,,york    ,d4 ,,appleton ,,and    
,,company    #aijj                      
,,copyright1 #aijj1    ,,by ,d4         
,,appleton ,,and ,,company4             
,,appletons'    ,,popular ,,science     
,,monthly4    ,,april1 #aijj4           
,,recent ,,years ,,of ,,egyptian        
,,exploration4    ,,by ,w4 ,m4          
,,flinders ,,petrie1    ,,professor ,,of
 ,,egyptology1 ,,university ,,college1  
,,london4      ,familiar as we are with 
the methods of science--exact           
observation and  record1 comparison1 and
 the strict weeding out of              
hypotheses--yet  such methods have only 
gradually been applied to various       
branches of  learning4    ,geometry     
became a science long ago1 zology much  
later1 medicine  only a generation or   
two ago1 and the history of man is but  
just  being developed into a science4   
,what was done for other sciences by    

the pioneers of the past is now being   
done in the present day for  archology4 
,we now have to devise methods1 to form 
a notation for  recording facts1 and to 
begin to lay out our groundwork of      
knowledge4  ,with very few exceptions1  
it may be said of ,egypt that there is  
no  publication of monuments before this
 century that is of the least use1  no  
record or dating of objects before      
#ahfj1 and no comparison or study  of   
the history of classes of products      
before #ahij4 ,thus1 the work of  recent
 years in ,egyptology is really the     
history of the formation of a  science4 
,the great stride that has been made in 
the last six years is the  opening up of
 prehistoric ,egypt1 leading us back    
some two thousand  years before the time
 of the pyramid builders4 ,till         
recently1 nothing  was known before the 
age of the finest art and the greatest  
buildings1  and it was a familiar puzzle
 how such a grand civilization could    
have  left no traces of its rise4 ,this 

was only a case of blindness on the     
part of explorers4 ,upper ,egypt teems  
with prehistoric remains1 but1  as most 
of what appears is dug up by plunderers 
for the market1 until  there is a demand
 for a class of objects1 very little is 
seen of them4  ,now that the prehistoric
 has become fashionable1 it is          
everywhere to  be seen4 ,the earlier    
diggers were dazzled by the polished    
colossi1 the  massive buildings1 the    
brilliant sculptures of the well-known  
historic  times1 and they had no eyes   
for small graves1 containing only a few 
jars or1 at best1 a flint knife4    ,the
 present position of the prehistory of  
,egypt is that we can now  distinguish  
two separate cultures before the        
beginning of the ,egyptian  dynasties1  
and we can clearly trace a sequence of  
manufactures and art  throughout long   
ages before the pyramid builders1 or    
from say #fjjj ,b4  ,c41 giving a       
continuous history of eight thousand    
years for man in  ,egypt4 ,continuous ,i

 say advisedly1 for some of the         
prehistoric ways are  those kept up to  
the present time4    ,in the earliest   
stage of this prehistoric culture metal 
was already  used and pottery made4 ,why
 no ruder stages are found is perhaps   
explained by the fact that the alluvial 
deposits of the ,nile do not  seem to be
 much older than eight thousand years4  
,the rate of deposit  is well           
known--very closely one metre in a      
thousand years--and borings  show only  
eight metres thick of ,nile mud in the  
valley4 ,before that  the country had   
enough rain to keep up the volume of the
 river1 and  it did not drop its mud4   
,it must have run as a rapid stream     
through a  barren land of sand and      
stones1 which could not support any     
population  except paleolithic hunters4 
,with the further drying of the climate1
 the  river lost so much velocity that  
its mud was deposited1 and the fertile  
mud flats made cultivation and a higher 
civilization possible4 ,at  this point a

 people already using copper came into  
the country4 ,their  bodies were buried 
in shallow1 circular pit-graves1 covered
 with goat  skins1 which were fastened  
rarely by a copper pin2 before the face 
was  placed a simple bowl of red and    
black pottery1 and some of the valued   
malachite was placed in the hands4 ,the 
body was sharply contracted1  often with
 the knees almost touching the face1 and
 the hands were  usually in front of the
 face4    ,very soon they developed     
their pottery into varied and graceful  
forms1  and decorated it with patterns  
in white clay applied to the dark-red   
surface1 but it continued to be entirely
 hand-made1 without the use of  the     
potter's wheel4 ,the patterns1 usually  
copied from basketwork1 show  the source
 of the forms of the cups and vases4    
,the modern ,kabyle1 in  the highlands  
of ,algeria1 has kept up the same       
patterns on hand-made  pottery1 and the 
same use of white clay on a red base4   
,it is probably  to a ,libyan people    

that this civilization is first due1 and
 the  skulls of these prehistoric       
,egyptians are identical with those of  
the  prehistoric ,algerians from the    
dolmens and the modern ,algerians4 ,this
  first growth of the civilization not  
only developed pottery1 but also  the   
carving of stone vases entirely by hand4
 ,the principal type of  these is the   
cylinder1 with many small variations4   
,figures were carved  in alabaster and  
bone1 and modeled in clay and paste2    
these are rude1  but show that the type 
of the race was fine1 with a high       
forehead and  pointed beard4 ,the use of
 marks denoting property was common1 and
 such  marks seem to be the earliest    
stages of the system of signs which     
developed later into the alphabet4 ,this
 civilization had apparently  passed its
 best time1 decoration had ceased on the
 pottery1 when a  change came over all  
classes of work4    ,the second         
prehistoric civilization seems to have  
belonged to a people  kindred to that of

 the first age1 as much of the pottery  
continued  unchanged1 and only gradually
 faded away4 ,but a new style arose of a
  hard1 buff pottery1 painted with      
patterns and subjects in red outline4   
,ships are represented with cabins on   
them1 and rowed by a long bank  of oars4
 ,the use of copper became more general1
 and gold and silver  appear also4      
,spoons of ivory1 and rarely of precious
 metals1 were  made1 but hair combs1    
which were common before1 ceased to be  
worn4  ,stone vases were commonly carved
 in a variety of hard and ornamental    
stones1 but always of the barrel outline
 and not the early cylinder  shapes4    
,flint-working reached the highest stage
 ever known in any  country1 the most   
perfect mastery of the material having  
been acquired4  ,though this            
civilization was in many respects higher
 than that which  preceded it1 yet it   
was lower artistically1 the figures     
being ruder  and always flat1 instead of
 in the round4 ,also the use of signs   

was  driven out1 and disappeared in the 
later stage of this second period4  ,the
 separation of these two different ages 
has been entirely reached  by the       
classification of many hundreds of      
tombs1 the original order of  which     
could be traced by the relation of their
 contents4 ,in this way  a scale of     
sequence has been formed1 which enables 
the range of any  form of pottery or    
other object to be exactly stated1 and  
every fact of  connection discovered can
 be at once reduced to a numerical scale
 as  definite as a scale of years4 ,for 
the first time a regular system of      
notation has been devised for           
prehistoric remains1 and future research
  in each country will be able to deal  
with such ages in as definite a  manner 
as with historic times4 ,the material   
for this study has come  entirely from  
excavations of my own party at ,nagada  
7#ahie71 ,abadiyeh1  and ,hu 7#ahii72   
but great numbers of tombs of these same
 ages have been  opened without record  

by ,m4 de ,morgan 7#ahif-'ig71 and by   
,french and  ,arab speculators in       
antiquities4    ,the connection between 
these prehistoric ages and the early    
historic  times of the dynastic kings of
 ,egypt is yet obscure4 ,the cemeteries 
which would have cleared this have      
unhappily been looted in the last  few  
years without any record1 and it is only
 the chance of some new  discoveries    
that can be looked to for filling up the
 history4 ,we can at  least say that the
 pottery of the early kings is clearly  
derived from  the later prehistoric     
types1 and that much of the civilization
 was in  common4 ,but it is clear that  
the second prehistoric civilization was 
degrading and losing its artistic taste 
for fine work before the new  wave of   
the dynastic or historic ,egyptians came
 in upon it4    ,these early historic   
people are mainly known by the remains  
of the  tombs of the early kings1 found 
by ,m4 ,amelineau at ,abydos            
7#ahif-'ii71  and probably the first    

stage of the same race is seen in the   
rude  colossi of the god ,min1 which ,i 
found at ,koptos 7#ahid74 ,unhappily1   
the work at ,abydos was not recorded1   
and it is not known now out of  which of
 many kings' tombs1 nor even out of     
which cemeteries1 the  objects have     
come4 ,hence scientific results are     
impossible1 unless  enough material has 
escaped the careless and ignorant       
workmen to  reward more accurate        
reworking of the same ground4 ,we can at
 present  only glean a general picture  
of the early royal civilization from    
,abydos1 supplemented by some splendid  
carvings of two reigns found at         
,hierakonpolis 7#ahig-'ih7 by ,mr4      
,quibell4    ,the burials continued to  
be in tombs of the same                 
form--rectangular pits  lined with      
brickwork and roofed over with beams and
 brushwood4 ,but they  were made larger1
 and1 in the case of the royal tombs1   
great halls were  formed about fifty by 
thirty-five feet1 roofed with beams     

eighteen  or twenty feet long4 ,in these
 royal tombs were placed a profusion of 
vases of hard and beautiful stones1     
bowls of slate1 and immense jars  of    
alabaster2 these contained the more     
valuable offerings of precious          
ointments and other funereal treasures4 
,besides these1 there were  hundreds of 
great jars of pottery1 containing       
provision of bread1  meats1 dried       
fruits1 water1 beer1 and wine4          
,doubtless there were many  vases of    
metals1 but these have been almost      
always robbed from the tomb  anciently4 
,around the tomb were the small graves  
of the retainers of  the king1 each with
 a lesser store like that of their      
master4 ,the royal  tomb was denoted by 
a great tablet bearing the king's       
spiritual name  by which he would be    
known in the future world4 ,the private 
tombs had  small tablets1 about a foot  
and a half high1 with the names of their
  occupants4 ,as all these tablets show 
considerable weathering1 it seems  that 

they were placed visible above the tomb4
 ,tombs of the subsequent  kings were   
elaborated with small chambers around   
the great one1 to  contain the          
offerings1 and even a long passage was  
formed with dozens  of chambers along   
each side of it1 each chamber containing
 a separate  kind of offering4          
,turning now to some of the remains of  
these kings during their life1  we learn
 that they were occupied with frequent  
wars--the gradual  consolidation of the 
kingdom of ,egypt4 ,one king will record
 the myriads  of slain enemies1 another 
gives a picture of a captive king       
brought  before him with over a million 
living captives1 the regular ,egyptian  
notation for such large numbers being   
already complete4 ,another king  shows  
his triumphal entry to the temple1 with 
the slain enemies laid  out before him4 
,on other sculptures are shown the      
peaceful triumphs  of canalization and  
reclamation of land1 which are alluded  
to in the  traditions of the early      

dynasties preserved by ,greek           
historians4 ,all  these scenes are given
 us on the slate carvings and great mace
 heads  covered with sculpture from     
,hierakonpolis4    ,thus in these great 
discoveries of the last few years we can
 trace at  least three successive       
peoples1 and see the gradual rise of the
 arts1  from the man who was buried in  
his goat skins1 with one plain cup by   
him1 up to the king who built great     
monuments and was surrounded by  most   
sumptuous handiwork4 ,we see the rise of
 the art of exquisite flint  flaking1   
and the decline of that as copper came  
more commonly into use4  ,we see at     
first the use of signs1 later on disused
 by a second race1  and then superseded 
by the elaborate hieroglyph system of   
the dynastic  race4    ,the mixture of  
various races was surmised long ago from
 the varied  portraiture of the early   
times4 ,it is now shown more plainly    
than  ever on these early monuments4 ,we
 see represented the king of the        

dynastic type1 a scribe with long1 wavy 
hair1 a chief of the dynastic           
shaven-headed type1 another with long1  
lank hair1 and another with a  beard1   
while the enemies are shown with curly  
hair and narrow beards  like ,bedouin4  
,four different peoples are here in     
union against a  fifth4 ,and this       
diversity of peoples lasts on long into 
the historic  times4 ,after several     
centuries of a united ,egypt1 under the 
pyramid  builders1 we find that some    
people buried in the old contracted     
position1 others cut up the body and    
wrapped every bone separately in  cloth1
 while others embalmed the body whole4  
,thus great diversity of  belief and    
custom still prevailed for perhaps a    
thousand years after  the unification of
 ,egypt4 ,so useless is it to think of  
8the ancient  ,egyptians0 as an unmixed 
race gradually rising into 8a           
consciousness of  nationality40    ,the 
excavations at ,deshasheh in #ahig1     
which first showed me the  diversity of 

burials1 also showed that the type of   
the race had already  become unified by 
intermixture1 and that1 strange to say1 
four thousand  years later1 after untold
 crossings with many invaders1 the type 
was  unchanged4 ,later work at ,dendereh
 and elsewhere has pointed to the       
conclusion that a mixture of a new race 
is subdued to the type of  the country  
by the effect of climate and            
surroundings within a few  centuries4   
,turning now to the purely classical    
,egyptian work1 the principal           
discoveries of the last few years have  
given us new leading examples  in every 
line4 ,the great copper statue of ,king 
,pepy1 with his son1  dates from before 
#cjjj ,b4 ,c4 ,it is over life size1 and
 entirely wrought  in hammered copper1  
showing a complete mastery in metal work
 of the  highest artistic power4        
,probably of the same age is a head of a
 figure  of the sacred hawk1 wrought    
hollow in a single mass of hammered     
gold1  weighing over a pound2 this again

 shows work of noble dignity and  power4
 ,both of these were found at           
,hierakonpolis in #ahih1 and are now  in
 the ,cairo ,museum4    ,some centuries 
later was made the exquisite jewelry    
found at ,dahshur in  the graves of     
three princesses4 ,this is a revelation 
of the delicacy  possible in goldsmith's
 work4 ,the soldering of the minute     
parts of  the gold is absolutely        
invisible4 ,the figures of hawks are    
made up  of dozens of microscopic pieces
 of colored stone--lazuli1 turquoise1   
carnelian--every one cut to the forms of
 the feathers1 and every piece  having a
 tiny cell of soldered gold strip to    
hold it in place1 yet the  whole bird   
only about half an inch high4 ,the      
finest colored enameling  ever made     
would be child's play compared with a   
piece of this early  jewelry4 ,the      
exquisite grace of form1 harmony of     
coloring1 and sense of  perfection leave
 the mind richer by a fresh emotion1    
after seeing such  a new world of skill4

 ,coming down to about #aejj ,b4 ,c41 a 
large work  has been done in the last   
six years in clearing the temple of     
,queen  ,hatshepsut at ,deir el ,bahri1 
on the western side of ,thebes4 ,that   
great  ruler had there commemorated the 
events of her reign1 particularly  the  
expedition to the south of the ,red ,sea
 to obtain the plants of  the sacred    
incense and other valued products4 ,the 
attention shown to  exact figuring of   
plants and animals makes this valuable  
as a record of  natural history4 ,this  
clearance has been made by ,dr4 ,naville
 for the  ,english fund4 ,meanwhile1    
,franco-,egyptian officials have been   
clearing  out the ,temple of ,karnak1 on
 the opposite bank1 but with disastrous 
effect4 ,the huge columns1 built poorly 
of small blocks by ,rameses ,,ii1  stand
 now below the level of the inundation1 
and1 after removing the  earth          
accumulated around them1 the ,nile water
 has free circulation4  ,this has       
dissolved the mortar so much that nine  

of these ,titanic  columns of the ,great
 ,hall fell last year1 and three more   
threaten to  follow them4    ,the       
,valley of the ,tombs of the ,kings has 
been prohibited ground  to foreign      
explorers for over forty years1 although
 the official  department never did any 
work there4 ,the native plunderers1     
however1  turned up many years ago the  
beautiful chair of ,queen ,hatshepsut1  
and  lately they found the entry to     
still unopened royal tombs4 ,the secret 
passed--for a consideration--to the     
,department of ,antiquities1 and two    
royal tombs were opened4 ,these         
contained the bodies of several kings of
  the eighteenth and nineteenth         
dynasties--one undisturbed1 the others  
moved from elsewhere4 ,with these was a 
crowd of objects of funereal  furniture4
 ,unhappily1 nothing is published in    
detail of any official  discoveries2    
with the exception of the first find of 
the ,dahshur  jewelry1 there has never  
been any full account issued of the     

great  discoveries in the most important
 sites1 which are reserved to the       
,government4 ,the great group of kings  
found at ,deir el ,bahri1 the great     
necropolis of the priests of ,amen1 the 
second find of ,dahshur jewelry1  the   
second group of royal mummies1 of all   
these we know nothing but  what has     
appeared in newspapers1 or some partial 
account of one branch  of the subject4  
,hardly any publication has ever        
appeared1 such as  the ,english         
societies issue every year about the    
produce of their  excavations4    ,many 
of the royal temples of the nineteenth  
dynasty at ,thebes were  explored by the
 ,english in #ahif4 ,the ,ramesseum was 
completely examined1  through all the   
maze of stone chambers around it4 ,but  
the most  important result was the      
magnificent tablet of black granite1    
about ten  feet high and five wide1     
covered on one side with an inscription 
of  ,amen ,hotep ,,iii1 and on the other
 side with an inscription of ,merenptah4

  ,the latter account1 of about #abjj   
,b4 ,c41 mentions the war with the      
8,people of ,israel02 this is the only  
naming of ,israel on ,egyptian  records1
 and is several centuries earlier than  
any ,assyrian record of  the ,hebrews4  
,it has1 of course1 given rise to much  
discussion1 which is  too lengthy to    
state here4    ,one of the most         
important results of historical         
,egyptian times is the  light thrown on 
prehistoric ,greek ages4 ,the pottery   
known as 8,mykenan0  since the          
discoveries of ,schliemann in the       
,peloponnesus was first dated  in ,egypt
 at ,gurob in #ahhi2 next were found    
hundreds of vase fragments  at ,tell el 
,amarna in #ahib2 and since then several
 ,egyptian kings' names  have been found
 on objects in ,greece1 along with such 
pottery4 ,the  whole of this evidence   
shows that the grand age of prehistoric 
,greece1  which can well compare with   
the art of classical ,greece1 began     
about  #afjj ,b4 ,c41 was at its highest

 point about #adjj ,b4 ,c41 and became  
decadent about #abjj ,b4 ,c41 before its
 overthrow by the ,dorian invasion4     
,besides this dating1 ,greece is        
indebted to ,egypt for the preservation 
of the oldest texts of its classics4    
,fragments of ,plato almost             
contemporary with his lifetime1 pages of
 ,thucydides1 whole books of  the       
,iliad1 and the celebrated recent       
publications of ,bacchylides and        
,herondas1 all are due to ,egypt4       
,moreover1 of ,christian times we have a
  leaf of an early collection of        
,sayings of ,jesus1 a leaf of gospel    
about  two centuries older than any     
other biblical manuscript1 and a host of
  documents bearing on early            
,christianity1 such as the ,gospel of   
,peter  and other apocryphal writings   
which were later banned by the ,church4 
,now it may be asked how all these      
discoveries are made--indeed1 many      
people take for granted that some       
government kindly pays for it all4  ,on 

the contrary1 the only official         
influences are a severe check  on such  
scientific work4 ,while a native        
,egyptian can plunder tombs  with but   
little hindrance1 any one desiring to   
preserve objects and  promote knowledge 
must 7after obtaining the permission of 
the ,egyptian  ,government for the exact
 place he wants to work7 be officially  
inspected at his own expense 7a matter  
of twenty or thirty pounds a  season71  
and then1 after all1 give up to the     
,government half of all he  finds1      
without any recompense4 ,the ,english   
,government long ago gave up  all claim 
for ,british subjects to occupy any post
 in the ,cairo ,museum1  thus putting a 
decisive bar on the hopes of would-be   
students and  hindering the object very 
effectually4    ,in face of all these   
disadvantages1 work has yet been carried
 on by  the ,egypt ,exploration ,fund   
and by the ,egyptian ,research ,account2
 both  rely on ,english and ,american   
support1 and the latter body is intended

  expressly to help students in         
training4 ,besides these1 private work  
has  been carried on during several     
years by two or three other explorers1  
partly at their own cost1 partly helped 
by friends4 ,the two societies  above   
named have kept to the principles that  
everything shall be  published as soon  
as possible1 and that all the           
antiquities removed  from ,egypt shall  
be divided among public museums as gifts
 in return  for the support from various
 places1 nothing ever being sold        
publicly  or privately4 ,in this way    
several centers in ,america send large  
annual  contributions1 have             
representatives on the ,london          
,committee of the  ,exploration ,fund1  
and receive their share for museums     
every year4    ,besides this organizing 
of ways and means1 there is quite as    
important  organization needed in the   
excavations4 ,at present most of the    
above-named work is done by a corps of  
men who have been engaged at  it for    

many years4 ,they leave their homes and 
assemble as soon as the  winter begins2 
any dealing in antiquities or misconduct
 since the last  season excludes them   
from rejoining4 ,they each know their   
work1 what  to preserve1 how to leave   
everything intact in the ground where   
found1  and how best to manage different
 kinds of excavating4 ,with such men it 
is always possible to screw more        
information out of a site1 however  much
 it may have been already wrecked in    
ancient or modern times4 ,and  it is far
 safer to leave such men unwatched1 with
 the certainty that  they will receive a
 fair value for all they find1 than it  
is to drive a  gang under the lash1 on  
bare wages1 without rewards to keep them
 from  pilfering4 ,the ,english system  
means mutual confidence and good faith2 
the native and ,french system of force  
means the destruction of both           
information and antiquities4    ,and yet
 besides this there is the essential    
business of observing and  recording4   

,every hole dug must have a meaning and 
be understood1 as to  the date of the   
ground at different levels and the      
nature of the place4  ,everything must  
be spelled out as the work advances2 any
 difficulties  that can not be explained
 must be tried with all possible        
hypotheses2  each detail must either    
fall into place as agreeing with what is
 known1  or be built in as a new piece  
of knowledge4    ,twenty years ago      
nothing was known of the date of any    
,egyptian  manufactures1 not even of    
pottery or beads1 which are the         
commonest4  ,now1 at present it is      
seldom that anything is found which can 
not be  dated tolerably near by1 and in 
some classes of remains the century or  
even the reign can be stated at once1   
without a single word to show it4  ,the 
science of ,egyptian archology is now in
 being4    ,in this1 therefore1 as in   
many other matters1 the ,anglo-,saxon   
taste  for private enterprise is the    
ruling power1 and in spite of political 

obstacles and of taxation1 which are    
happily unknown in other sciences1  the 
private work of individuals has quietly 
traced out the foundations  of one of   
the earliest civilizations of mankind4  
,,the ,,gold ,,sands ,,of ,,cape ,,nome4
    ,,by ,,prof4 ,,angelo ,,heilprin1   
,,late ,,president ,,of ,,the           
,,philadelphia ,,geographical ,,society4
      ,one of the most interesting      
contributions to the history of gold and
  gold mining has undoubtedly been      
discovered in the region of ,cape       
,nome1 ,alaska1 during the past summer4 
,vague reports have from time to  time1 
for a period of a year or more1 been    
sent out from the bleak  and            
inhospitable shores of ,bering ,sea of  
the discovery there of rich  deposits of
 placer gold1 and of almost fabulous    
wealth acquired by a  few fortunate     
prospectors--a new ,klondike on         
,american soil--but these  gained little
 credence beyond the portals of         
transportation companies  and the       

organizers of 8boom0 enterprises4 ,a few
 of the more credulous  and those       
unmindful of adventure and hardship took
 practical action on  the receipt of the
 reports1 and prepared to buffet the    
still ice-bound  waters of the ,pacific 
to gain early access to the new land of 
promise4  ,in a brief period the fame of
 ,golovnin ,bay had been spread         
broadcast1  only to be again dimmed by  
the later announcements that the earlier
  reports of finds were only 8fakes40   
,making and unmaking are a part of  all 
new mining centers1 and in an incredibly
 short time all manner of  conclusions  
are arrived at regarding the            
possibilities of a location4            
,illustration3 ,,an ,,off-,,shore ,,view
 ,,of ,,nome4    ,new reports of finds  
made along the coast of ,bering ,sea1   
about fifty  miles west of ,golovnin    
,bay1 called renewed attention to the   
region1  and those who in the early     
summer of the past year 7#ahii7 timidly 
ventured their fortunes to share in a   

possible discovery1 found1 on  their    
arrival at the tundra-bound shores about
 ,cape ,nome1 that miles of  territory  
had already been located as claim sites1
 that sluice-boxes  were in full        
operation1 and that sackfuls of gold    
dust and nuggets had  been carefully    
laid to one side1 representing 8outputs0
 of tens of  thousands of dollars4 ,at  
this time many of the journals of       
civilization  in the ,east1 repeating   
the warnings that they persistently     
threw out  following the discovery of   
gold in the ,klondike1 jealously guarded
  the secrets of the earth by doubting1 
or even denying1 the claims  to         
discovery1 but1 withal1 wisely          
counseling against that haphazard  and  
purseless rush which is one of the      
invariable accompaniments of  gold      
announcements4 ,a new mining district   
had suddenly sprung into  existence1 and
 before two months had passed--i4 e41 by
 the early days  of ,september--a full  
front of tents and frame houses took    

possession  of what continues to remain 
a dreary and desolate expanse of ocean  
beach--sufficiently pleasant in the     
quiet1 balmy days of summer and  autumn1
 but wofully exposed to the hurricane   
blasts of the arctic  winter--and gave  
shelter to from three to four thousand  
adventurers1  where formerly a few      
,indians and ,eskimos from the still    
farther  northwest and ,king's ,island  
constituted a straggling and accidental 
population4 ,this1 in brief1 is the     
initial history of the ,nome or ,anvil  
,city mining region1 which will almost  
certainly call to it in the  coming     
spring fifteen to twenty thousand       
additional inhabitants4                 
,illustration3 ,a ,,street ,,in ,,nome4 
,far more interesting to the one who has
 not been properly rewarded  in his     
search for placer claims than the placer
 deposits themselves  are the           
gold-bearing beach sands1 whose         
productivity will mainly be  responsible
 for the influx of population to the new

 region4 ,from them1  by crude and      
simple methods1 has been taken1 in      
barely more than two  months1 gold to   
the value of more than a million        
dollars1 and what the  possibilities for
 the future may be no one is wise enough
 to tell4 ,so  clearly exaggerated did  
the accounts of the free-sand rocking   
appear1  even those coming from         
reputable miners who were personally    
known to  me1 that ,i could hardly bring
 myself to take them at their full      
value1  but1 being accidentally drifted 
in the course of a summer's wanderings  
to ,st4 ,michael1 above the mouth of the
 ,yukon ,river1 ,i had easy  opportunity
 to verify for myself the accuracy of   
the statements that  had been sent out1 
and to cast a geological glance at the  
situation4 ,my  examination of the      
region was confined to a few of the     
later days of  ,september and to early  
,october4    ,the geographical position 
of the ,nome region is the southern face
 of  the peninsular projection of       

,alaska which separates ,kotzebue ,sound
 on  the north from ,bering ,sea on the 
south1 and terminates westward in  ,cape
 ,prince of ,wales the extent of the    
,north ,american continent4 ,in  a      
direct line of navigation1 it lies about
 twenty-five hundred miles  northwest of
 ,seattle and one hundred and seventy   
miles southeast of  ,siberia4 ,the      
nearest settlement of consequence to it 
prior to #ahii  was ,st4 ,michael1 a    
hundred miles to the southeast1 the     
starting point  of the steamers for the 
,yukon ,river2 but during the year      
various  aggregations of mining         
population had built themselves up in   
closer  range1 and reduced the isolation
 from the civilized world by some sixty 
miles4 ,the ,nome district as settled   
centers about the lower course of  the  
,snake ,river1 an exceedingly tortuous  
stream in its tundra course1  which     
emerges from a badly degraded line of   
limestone1 slaty1 and  schistose        
mountain spurs generally not over seven 

hundred to twelve  hundred feet         
elevation1 but backed by loftier        
granitic heights1 and  discharges into  
the sea at a position thirteen miles    
west of ,cape ,nome  proper4 ,three     
miles east of this mouth is the         
discharge of ,nome ,river4  ,both       
streams have a tidal course of several  
miles4 ,nome1 or1 as it was  first      
called1 ,anvil ,city--named from a giant
 anvil-like protrusion of  slate rock   
near to the summit of the first line of 
hills--occupies in  greater part the    
tundra and ocean beach of the eastern or
 left bank of  ,snake ,river1 but many  
habitations1 mainly of a temporary      
character1  have been placed on the bar 
beach which has been thrown up by the   
sea  against the mouth of the stream1   
and deflected its course for some       
distance parallel with the ocean front4 
,a number of river steamers 7one  even  
of considerable size7 and dredges have  
found a suitable anchorage  or 8harbor0 
in the barrier-bound waters1 and much   

driftwood passes into  them at times of 
storms and higher waters1 when the      
greatly constricted  and shallow mouth  
is made passable4 ,the entire region is 
treeless1 and  the nearest approach to  
woodland is in the timber tract of      
,golovnin  ,bay and its tributaries1    
about forty miles to the northeast4 ,a  
fairly  dense growth of scrub willow1   
three to five feet in height1 with elms 
and alders1 forms a fringe or delimiting
 line to parts of the courses  of the   
streams in the tundra1 which greatly    
undulates in the direction  of the      
foothills and incloses tarnlike bodies  
of fresh and slightly  brackish waters4 
,it is covered merely with a low growth 
of flowering  herbaceous plants1 grass1 
and moss1 with a somewhat scantier      
admixture  of the dwarf birch1 arctic   
willow1 and crowberry4 ,the surface is  
pre-eminently swampy during the warmer  
periods of the year1 and walking  over  
it means either wading through the water
 or risking continuous  jumps to and    

from the individual clumps of matted    
grass and moss--the  so-called          
8nigger-heads40 ,the greater part of the
 tundra seems to rest  on gravel and    
sand--doubtless of both marine and      
fluviatile origin--and  ordinarily the  
frozen stratum is already reached at a  
depth of two or  three feet1 sometimes  
less4 ,in early ,october of the past    
year it was  still too 8open0 to permit 
of easy walking over it1 but in quite   
early  hours of the morning the surface 
afforded fair lodgment to moderate      
weights4 ,fragmentary parts of the      
skeleton of the mammoth have been  found
 here and there1 even loose on the top  
grass1 but where found  in such         
situations it is by no means certain    
that they had not been  redeposited by  
high tidal wash4 ,a large fragment of   
thigh bone1 with  shoulder blade1 which 
,i found about an eighth of a mile      
inland and  perhaps fifteen feet above  
the water1 was associated with one of   
the mandibular bones of the whale4 ,i   

could obtain no information as  to their
 having been possibly carried to their  
present position by  man1 but it may    
have been the case4 ,a large skull1     
which ,i owe to the  kindness of ,mr4   
,inglestadt and to ,mr4 ,louis ,sloss1  
,jr41 manager of the  ,alaska           
,commercial ,company1 was obtained1 as  
nearly as ,i could determine  through   
inquiry on the spot1 from about the same
 locality4 ,where it  abuts upon the sea
 the tundra stands from eight to twenty 
feet above  it1 at places descending to 
even lower levels4 ,the sea face is     
almost  everywhere an abrupt one1       
showing undercutting by high water1 and 
it  is continued by a broad1 rapidly    
sloping sand and shingle beach1 which   
packs firmly1 and almost immediately    
beneath the surface exhibits a          
distinctly stratified construction--the 
alternate layers of fine1 flat  gravel1 
coarse1 clayey sand1 and finer 8ruby0   
7fragmented garnet7 sand  sloping like  
the surface1 although generally with a  

milder pitch1 to  the sea4              
,illustration3 ,a ,,native ,,of ,,the   
,,land ,,of ,,nome4    ,the open sea    
front1 with inland tundra1 is continued 
for a distance  of about fourteen miles 
westward of ,nome1 where it is          
interrupted  by the mountains1 in a     
west-southwest course1 reaching the sea2
  flat-topped ,sledge ,island1 so much  
recalling in aspect some of the  islands
 lying off ,whale ,sound1 in the        
northwest of ,greenland1 is their       
oceanic continuation for some distance1 
with sharp breaks on both the  oceanic  
and inner sides4 ,it is probable that   
much of the dbris  that has resulted    
from the disruption of the mountain     
masses has been  distributed littorally 
by the sea1 with an eastward wash1 to   
form the  bars and shallows which for   
some distance stretch along the coast2  
nor is it impossible that some of the   
giant bowlders of limestone1  marble1   
granite1 and syenite which are found on 
the margin of the  beach about four or  

five miles west of ,nome1 some of them  
measuring  eight and twelve feet or more
 in diameter1 and all of them smoothly  
rounded and evenly polished1 represent a
 part of this destruction4  ,at the same
 time1 there is good reason to suspect  
that they may have  been deposited by   
ice action1 either as erratics of floe  
ice coming  from the northwest1 or of   
glacial distribution from the region of 
the  mountains4 ,whatever may have been 
the final stage in the history of the   
amphitheater of ,nome 7the region       
included between ,cape ,nome and ,sledge
  ,island71 which my limited observation
 did not permit me to determine  to full
 satisfaction1 it is almost certain1    
even in the absence  of the ordinary    
glacial testimony1 that the region is   
one of past  glaciation1 and that much  
of the gravel and bowlder material of   
the  ocean front is of morainic origin1 
so modified and altered in position  by 
readjustments of the land and water as  
to have lost its proper  physiographic  

contours4 ,the aspect of the hills and  
valleys is almost  precisely that of    
some of the regions of ,greenland which 
have only  quite recently been vacated  
by the glaciers1 while the composition  
of  the shingle--the inclusion over so  
long a front of bowlders from beyond    
the first line of mountain heights1 many
 of them most markedly grooved  and     
polished--is also highly suggestive of  
glacial deposition4    ,illustration3   
,,the ,,harbor ,,of ,,snake ,,river     
7,,nome74    ,the gold sands1 or sands  
that are worked for gold1 are merely the
  ordinary materials of the beach1 loose
 and incoherent like most  seashore     
sands1 and particularly defining        
horizons three to six  feet below the   
surface4 ,in regular stratified layers1 
with fine and  moderately coarse gravel1
 they embrace four or five distinct     
layers of  fragmented garnets 7the      
components of the so-called 8ruby       
sand071 and  it is from these1 and at   
this time almost exclusively from the   

bottom  layer of three to five inches   
thickness1 which is popularly described 
as lying on 8bed rock0--in most places  
merely a hard-pan of arenaceous  clay or
 argillaceous sand1 with no true rock to
 define it--that most of  the gold is   
obtained4 ,each ruby band nearer to the 
top seems to contain  less and less     
gold1 and there is no question that the 
different layers  are merely            
reformations by the sea from those of   
earlier deposition1  just as surface    
shingle deposits generally are in part  
reconstructions  of underlying beds4    
,that the ocean is to-day depositing the
 ruby sand  is unmistakably shown by the
 great patches of this sand lying on the
  surface and its incoming in the path  
of nearly every storm4 ,even these      
surface sands are mildly gold-bearing1  
showing that the gold1 despite  its high
 specific gravity1 may be buoyed up and 
wafted in by such a  light medium as    
water when it has been reduced to       
sufficiently minute  particles or       

scalelike forms4 ,it is little wonder   
that a general belief  has gained       
currency with the more enthusiastic     
locators that the sand  gold is a       
deposition or precipitate from the sea4 
,the gold itself occurs in an           
exceedingly fine state of subdivision1  
too  fine in most cases to be caught    
without mercury or the best arrangement 
of 8blanketings40 ,much of it is really 
in the condition of colors  dissected   
nearly to their finest particles1 and it
 is hardly surprising  that it should   
have so long escaped detection4         
,occasionally pieces to  the value of   
three to six cents are obtained in the  
pans1 and ,i was  witness to the finding
 of a scale with the value of perhaps   
nearly  twenty cents4 ,the usual        
magnetitic particles are associated with
 the  gold1 and their origin can clearly
 be traced to the magnetite which  is so
 abundantly found in some of the schists
 7micaceous1 chloritic1  and talcose    
schists71 which1 judged by the fragments

 and bowlders  that everywhere lie in   
the path of the streams of the tundra1  
must be  closely similar to the series  
of schists of the ,klondike region4 ,the
  particles of fragmented garnet1 which 
by their astonishing abundance  give so 
distinctive a coloring to the layers    
which they compose or  constitute1 are  
of about the ordinary fineness of       
seashore sand1  perhaps a trifle        
coarser1 but occasionally much coarser  
particles or  masses of particles are   
found2 and in the placer deposits of    
,anvil  ,creek1 as in the bunch of      
claims around 8,discovery0--about five  
miles  due north of ,nome--fragments of 
the size of lentils are not uncommon4   
,i have seen full garnets obtained from 
the wash here which were of the  size of
 small peas4 ,nodules of manganese      
7manganite1 pyrolusite7 are at          
intervals found with them1 and some     
stream-tin 7cassiterite71 as in the     
,klondike region1 also appears to be    
present4 ,apart from the evidence  that 

is brought down by the magnetite and    
garnet1 it would naturally be  assumed  
that the gold had its primal source in  
the mountains back of  the coast4       
,these1 as has already been stated1 have
 undergone exhaustive  degradation1 and 
the materials resulting from their      
destruction1  in whatever way brought   
about1 have been thrown into the sea1   
and  there adjusted and readjusted--or1 
so far as the gold particles are        
concerned1 one might say 8concentrated40
 ,latterly1 and perhaps this is  also   
true to-day1 the land has undergone     
elevation1 and exposed much  that until 
recently properly belonged to the sea4  
,the tundra is a part  of this ocean    
floor1 and it too doubtless contains    
much gold1 perhaps  even very much4     
,the length of the sea strip that was   
worked during the past summer1  and so  
far in autumn as the clemency of the    
weather permitted1 covered  a nearly    
continuous thirty or thirty-five miles1 
extending beyond  ,synrock on the west  

and1 with interruptions1 to ,nome ,river
 on the east4  ,the full extent of the  
auriferous sands remains unknown1       
however1 and  report claims for them    
reappearances throughout the entire     
coast as  far as ,cape ,prince of       
,wales4 ,the season's work gave easy and
 lucrative  employment to perhaps       
fifteen hundred1 mostly needy1          
prospectors1 who  realized on an average
 certainly not less than fifteen dollars
 per day1  and many as much as sixty1   
seventy1 and eighty dollars4 ,it is     
claimed1  and ,i have little reason to  
doubt the truthfulness of the statement1
  that from a single rocker1 although   
operated by two men1 one hundred  and   
fifty dollars had been taken out in the 
course of nine hours'  work4 ,it is also
 asserted that two men realized a       
fortune of thirteen  thousand dollars as
 the result of their combined season's  
work1 and  two others are said to have  
rocked out forty-five hundred dollars in
  the period of a month4 ,women have1 to

 an extent1 shared with men the         
pleasures of 8rocking gold from the     
sea10 and their application in  the     
toils of the sea plow1 with booted      
forms1 rolled-up sleeves1 and           
sunbonnets1 was certainly an interesting
 variation on the borders  of the       
,arctic ,circle from the scenes one has 
grown accustomed to at  ,atlantic ,city 
or ,newport4    ,illustration3          
,,erecting ,a ,,steam ,,pump 7,,nome74  
,the placer deposits of the ,nome       
district are in the form of shallow1    
largely or mostly unfrozen gravels1     
which occupy varying heights1  partly in
 disrupted or overhanging benches1 of   
the valleys and gulches  which trench   
the slate and limestone mountains4      
,perhaps the most  favored ones are     
those of ,anvil and ,glacier ,creeks    
7with ,snow ,gulch  as an affluent of   
the latter71 tributaries of ,snake      
,river1 and ,dexter  ,creek1 a tributary
 of ,nome ,river4 ,my time and the      
conditions of weather  permitted only of

 a visit to ,anvil ,creek1 and an       
examination mainly of  the properties   
about 8,discovery40 ,the diggings here  
are all shallow1  from four to seven    
feet1 when bed-rock1 a steeply pitching 
and highly  fissile slate1 is reached4  
,as before remarked1 the gravels are not
  frozen1 and thereby present a marked  
contrast to the condition that  prevails
 in the ,klondike region1 and one1 it is
 hardly necessary to  state1 which is   
eminently to the favor of economy in    
mining4 ,a layer  of ice1 about eight   
inches in thickness1 covers one side of 
the layers  in claim 8,no4 #a below10   
but beneath this the matrix is again    
open4 ,in  all these claims the         
pay-streak was at first reported to be  
very broad1  but it seems that the later
 work has narrowed down the             
probabilities  of extension very        
measurably--at any rate1 in the         
condition of a rich  producer4 ,of the  
wealth contained in these claims there  
is no question1  but it would probably  

be straining the truth to say that it is
 the  equal of that of the best or even 
the better claims of the ,klondike      
region4 ,a two days' clean-up from 8,no4
 #a below0 is reported to have  yielded 
thirteen thousand dollars1 while the    
entire product of that  claim from ,july
 #bfth1 when the first wash was made1 to
 ,september #bast1  was placed at one   
hundred and twenty-five thousand        
dollars4 ,claim 8,no4  #a above0 appears
 to be equally good1 and 8,discovery0   
falls perhaps  not very far below       
either4 ,a nugget of the value of three 
hundred  and twelve dollars--a          
magnificent specimen1 measuring upward  
of four  inches in length--was obtained 
from the tailings of 8,no4 #a below02 a 
larger one1 of the value of four hundred
 and thirty-four dollars1 is  to the    
credit of 8,no4 #a above40 ,it is       
interesting to note that these  rich    
claims are located at the very issuance 
of ,anvil ,creek from the  mountains--i4
 e41 at the contact with the upper rise 

of the tundra--and  other good          
properties are found still lower down1 a
 condition which  makes it certain that 
the inner reaches of the tundra1        
whatever the  whole tundra may be1 must 
yield largely in gold4    ,illustration3
 8,,digging0 ,,the ,,seashore ,,sands   
,,for ,,gold4    ,the city of ,nome     
itself might properly be termed a model 
of production4  ,before the end of      
,june1 #ahii1 there was practically     
nothing on its  present site2 in early  
,july it was still a place of tents1 but
 by  the middle of ,september it had    
blossomed out into a constructed town   
of three to four thousand inhabitants1  
more than one half of whom  were        
properly housed in well-built cabins1   
the lumber for which was  in part       
brought from a distance of two thousand 
miles1 and none of  it from less than   
one hundred miles4 ,numerous stores and 
saloons had  arranged themselves on both
 sides of a well-defined street 7which  
was  here and there centrally           

interrupted by building transgressions71
 the  familiar signs of dancing and     
boxing bouts were displayed in front of 
more than comfortably filled faro and   
roulette establishments1 and  in a      
general way the site wore the aspect of 
riding a boom swell4  ,and indeed there 
was plenty of activity1 for the final   
weeks of fine  weather warned of the    
impending wintry snows and blasts1 and  
much had  to be done individually to    
shield one from these and other         
discomforts4  ,there was at that time a 
threatening shortage in building        
material1  and fears were expressed for 
those who seemingly would be obliged  to
 spend the winter months--a dreary      
expanse of nearly one half the  year1   
with hurricane blasts of icy wind       
blowing with a velocity of  fifty to    
eighty miles an hour1 and under the not 
very comfortable  temperature of -#dj to
 -#fj ,f4--in the frail shelter of      
tents4 ,how  many1 if any1 remained in  
this condition can not now be known4    

,much  driftwood and some coal had been 
secured by many of the more fortunate   
inhabitants1 and it is possible that    
some provision has been made by  which  
everybody of the two or three thousand  
wintering inhabitants  will receive a   
proper measure of heating substance1    
without which the  utmost discomfort    
must prevail4 ,the last coal before my  
departure sold  for seventy-five dollars
 per ton1 but ,i suspect that later     
importations  must have realized the    
better part of double this amount4 ,in  
early  ,october flour could still be    
purchased for seven to eight dollars per
  sack1 and meat for a dollar a pound1  
but these prices were run up  very      
materially in the period of the next two
 weeks4 ,good meals were  only a dollar1
 and fractions of meals could be had for
 twenty-five  and fifty cents4          
,magnificent oranges were only a quarter
 apiece1 and  watermelons four and five 
dollars4 ,all these prices were1 at the 
least1 doubled before the first week in 

,november1 when the locality  was       
finally cut off from contact with the   
rest of the civilized world4  ,the      
principal commercial houses doing trade 
in ,alaska--as the ,alaska  ,commercial 
,company1 the ,north ,american ,trading 
and ,transportation  ,company1 the      
,alaska ,exploration ,company1 all of   
which1 besides others1  have their      
agencies in ,dawson and at various      
stations on the ,yukon  ,river--have    
well-constructed1 iron-sheathed         
warehouses1 and carry large  lines of   
goods4 ,the energy which in so short a  
period has planted  these interests     
here1 and in so substantial a manner1 is
 certainly  astonishing4 ,who a year ago
 could have expected that the needs of a
  resident population situated close    
under the ,arctic ,circle1 and along    
the inhospitable shores of ,bering ,sea1
 would have demanded depots of  sale of 
the size of those that one finds in     
cities of importance in the  civilized  
,south8    ,nome prints to-day three    

newspapers1 the first issue of the first
  journal1 the ,nome ,news1 appearing   
about the #ajth of ,october4 ,its       
selling price was twenty-five cents4 ,up
 to the time of my leaving1  there were 
no serious disturbances of any kind1 but
 indications of  trouble1 resulting from
 the disputed rights of possession1     
whether in  the form of squatter        
sovereignty or of purchase1 were        
ominously in the  air1 and it was feared
 that should serious trouble of any kind
 arise1  neither the military nor civil 
authorities would be in a position  to  
properly cope with it4 ,it was freely   
admitted that the community  was not    
under the law that so strongly forces   
order in ,dawson and  the ,klondike     
region4 ,much more to be feared than    
disturbance1 for at  least the first    
season1 is the possibility of           
conflagration2 closely  packed as are   
the tents and shacks1 with no available 
water supply for  combating flames1 a   
headway of fire can not but be a serious

 menace  to the entire location1 and one
 which is in no way lessened through    
the general indraught of hurricane      
winds4 ,the experiences of ,dawson      
should have furnished a lesson1 but they
 have seemingly not done so1  nor has   
apparently the average inhabitant       
profited in any effort to  ward off the 
malignant influences arising from hard  
living1 unnecessary  exposure to the    
inclemencies of the weather1 and a      
non-hygienic diet4  ,hence1 typhoid or  
typho-malarial disease1 even if not in a
 very  pronounced form1 has already sown
 its seeds of destruction1 and warns  of
 the dangers which here1 as in ,dawson1 
man brings to himself in his  customary 
contempt for the working of ,nature's   
laws4          ,a ,,state ,,official    
,,on ,,excessive ,,taxation4    ,,by    
,,franklin ,,smith4      ,it is not to  
government reports that a student of    
social science looks  for warnings      
against the perils lurking in the       
enormous expenditures  and the          

extraordinary enlargement of the duties 
of the state4 ,officials  are usually so
 deeply impressed with the importance of
 their positions  and so anxious to     
magnify the worth of their labors that  
they are prone  to take the rosiest view
 of any part of the great clanking      
machine  intrusted to their care4 ,with 
the keenest pride they point to their   
achievements in furthering the work of  
human welfare4 ,if modesty does  not    
restrain them1 they are certain to      
paint1 with an artless faith  in their  
own abilities1 the still greater work   
that could be done  with a slight       
increase of funds and a little more     
assistance4 ,not all  officials1        
however1 permit themselves to indulge in
 the natural vanity  of bureaucrats4    
,they refuse either to be blinded to the
 perpetual  failure of state-made       
civilization1 or to deceive the         
impoverished  victims of the same costly
 system of modern magic4 ,of the very   
few of  this class ,mr4 ,james ,h4      

,roberts1 for five years ,comptroller of
 the  ,state of ,new ,york1,a is perhaps
 the most conspicuous4 ,astray as he is 
on the question of a graded inheritance 
tax1 and trustful as he is in  the      
virtue of ,state supervision1 he puts   
himself beyond criticism in  his        
opposition to the policy of ,state      
socialism1 now the rage at home  and    
abroad4 ,indeed1 no one could hold it up
 to graver reproach4        ,a ,he was  
in office from ,january #a1 #ahid1 to   
,january #a1 #ahii4    ,whenever an     
observer of the signs of the times in   
the ,united ,states  ventures to say    
that they offer little food for hope1 he
 is branded as  pessimistic or          
unpatriotic4 ,he is told that if he had 
the confidence  in democratic           
institutions of a man with a good       
digestion and a fair  intelligence1 he  
would know that they possess a vitality1
 a power of  rejuvenation1 that does not
 belong to an autocracy nor an          
aristocracy4  ,if he is particularly    

despondent1 and seeks to justify himself
 with  fact and argument1 he is         
denounced as a dangerous agitator1 or1  
what  is a shade more odious1 as an     
absurd doctrinaire4 ,but ,mr4 ,roberts  
has not been consigned to any such      
depths of contempt4 ,he is known  as a  
8hard-headed business man10 a title of  
honor that always frees  the most       
ridiculous optimist from any suspicion  
of the theorist or  sentimentalist4     
,yet1 as the supervisor of the finances 
of a great  ,state1 he was brought in   
contact with a mass of phenomena that   
forced  upon him the conviction that    
something is wrong1 and that if it is   
not  righted it will bring disaster4    
,indeed1 ,i do not recall a pessimist1  
however dyspeptic1 nor a doctrinaire1   
however visionary1 that has  struck a   
more melancholy note than he4 ,in all   
his reports much will  be found that    
indicates anything but a belief that a  
democracy that  plunders and enslaves a 
people is any better than any other     

despotism  guilty of the same offense1  
or that the practice in the one case    
will  be productive of greater          
prosperity and happiness than in the    
other4    ,it is1 however1 in the report
 for #ahig that ,mr4 ,roberts gives the 
fullest expression to his apprehensions4
 8,this country10 he says  in an        
elaborate argument for a graded         
inheritance tax1 which he  believed     
would bring some relief to the poor and 
discontented1 8has  just passed through 
the most threatening political campaign 
in its  history4 ,the portents in #ahif 
were vastly more dangerous than those of
  #ahfj1 when peace and internecine war 
hung in the balance4 ,issues were       
advanced last year1 and vigorously      
supported by a large element of the     
,american electorate1 which1 if adopted1
 would have undermined the very         
foundations of ,american institutions4  
,these issues were largely the          
outgrowth of discontent among the       
people4 ,the farmer1 as a class1 the    

work people1 and the small trade folk   
were in distress4444 ,hundreds  of      
thousands of industrious people were out
 of employment1 the best  efforts of the
 farmer had been attended with poor     
results1 and the  small tradesman and   
business man were worse off than if they
 had been  doing nothing40 ,in the      
report for the following year he spoke  
again of  the 8public discontent and    
dissatisfaction with existing conditions
  in this ,state40 ,instead of joining  
the comfortable and contented in a      
denunciation of them as a delusion1 born
 of envy or criminal instincts1  he     
expressed the opinion that they had a   
very substantial basis4 8,my  four years
 of close official study of the ,state  
finances10 he says1  8compels me to say 
there is serious ground for complaint40 
,after giving  an impressive summary in 
another place of the enormous increase  
of  public expenditures within recent   
years he is moved to ask1 8,whither  are
 we drifting80    ,the answer commonly  

given to this question is one quite     
flattering  to ,american vanity4 ,it is 
that we are drifting away from          
8parochial0  things and taking our      
proper place as a great 8world power40  
,having  solved all the petty problems  
that have absorbed our thoughts and     
energies for a hundred years1 we have   
gone forth to 8take up the white  man's 
burden10 and to solve the greater       
problems that a discriminating          
,providence has so wisely confided to   
our ability and philanthropy4 ,at  the  
same time we are going to have our say  
as to how the affairs of  the world     
outside of our narrow and cramping      
borders shall be managed4  ,mr4         
,roberts1 however1 does not appear to   
take any such pleasant view  of the     
future4 ,he has none of the blood of    
,don ,quixote flowing in his  veins4    
,the bestowal of the blessings of a     
,christian civilization with  machine   
guns upon breech-clouted savages has no 
attractions for him4 ,he  sees that we  

have made such a disgraceful failure of 
the management of  the contemptible     
things in which we have been so ignobly 
absorbed that  we are threatened with   
national decadence6 8,while the contests
 against  unjust and oppressive         
taxation10 he says in his report for    
#ahii1 8have  been the contests of      
freedom and civil and religious liberty 
in the  world1 it must not be forgotten 
that unjust and burdensome taxation  has
 been in all ages the most prolific     
cause of national decadence  as well4   
,there are nations in ,europe1 once     
great and prosperous10 he  adds1 thus   
recalling the warnings of ,lord         
,salisbury's famous speech  on the same 
subject1 8which to-day seem dying of dry
 rot because1 to  meet their immense    
expenses and to pay interest on their   
great bonded  debts1 taxation has been  
increased beyond the safe limit1 and the
 very  sources of national prosperity   
have been taxed so that they run dry1   
or send down a rill where it should be a

 river4 ,few national diseases  are more
 dangerous or harder to cure than       
burdensome taxation4 ,can  any one      
charged with the responsibility of      
making tax laws10 he asks1  profoundly  
stirred by the startling facts that have
 come under his  observation1 8afford to
 ignore the undoubted lessons of history
 or the  manifest tendency of the times 
in the matter of revenue raising and    
expending80    ,obvious as is the       
fitting answer to this question1 it is  
one that few  people stop to give4 ,both
 the lessons of history and the tendency
  of the times are willfully and        
incessantly ignored4 ,not only are  they
 ignored by demagogues1 who thrive most 
when public distress is  greatest1 and  
by misguided philanthropists1 who seek  
to relieve it in  ways that only        
intensify it4 ,even publicists1 whose   
studies in history  ought to make them  
more familiar with the signs of social  
decadence  than a man of affairs with   
vision less extended1 ignore them also4 

,they  seem to be as insensible to the  
real significance of what is going  on  
before their eyes as the wooden totems  
of a burning tepee4 ,but to  minds more 
alert and penetrating1 even if less     
congested with musty  lore and fine     
intentions1 the flight of the farming   
population to the  cities is something  
besides 8a great natural movement toward
 urban life  that accompanies an advance
 in civilization0--it is a desperate but
  futile attempt to escape conditions   
that have become too hard to be  borne4 
,the swarms of impoverished and degraded
 humanity that crowd the  slums to      
suffocation are not altogether the      
product of willful sloth  and           
incapacity2 they are due1 in a measure1 
to the growing taxation  that has wiped 
out the narrow margin that separates    
independence  from                      
dependence--self-support and            
self-respect from destitution and       
pauperism4 ,the hatred of the rich1 the 
denunciation of capital1 the  contempt  

for the ,church1 the bloody             
insurrections of labor1 the  general    
feeling of rancor1 accompanied by an    
increase of the tyranny  of trades      
unions and government regulations1 are  
not the inevitable  manifestations of   
envy1 ignorance1 and criminal instincts2
 they are  the inevitable fruits of the 
perpetual aggressions in a thousand     
forms  that spring from politics and    
war4 ,but instead of acting upon this   
natural interpretation of the signs of  
the times and seeking to solve  the     
social problem in the only way that it  
can be solved1 the 8new0  reformers     
tormenting the world are engaged in the 
invention of schemes  that add to the   
public burdens and hasten the nation's  
decay4    ,the reckless expenditure of  
public money in the ,united ,states has 
not been confined to any particular     
political division nor to any           
particular geographical section4 ,the   
national1 ,state1 and municipal         
governments have seemed to vie with one 

another in the plunder of the  taxpayer4
 ,from the ,north1 the ,south1 the      
,east1 and the ,west have come  the same
 complaints of excessive burdens4,b ,but
 figures are needed to  give these      
statements the vividness of reality4    
,beginning with national  expenditures1 
,mr4 ,roberts says that during the      
decade from #ahbj to #ahcj  they were   
#a4jg per capita2 from #ahea to #ahfa1  
they were #b4jf2 and for  the year      
#ahid1 #f4jh4 8,in a word10 he adds1    
8the per capita expense of  the national
 ,government in #ahid was nearly six    
times as great as it  was in #ahbj1 and 
nearly three times as great as it was in
 the decade  before our great civil     
war40 ,the per capita expenditures of   
the ,state  of ,new ,york in #ahcj were 
#a4cj1 thirty years later they were     
#a4hi1 in  #ahij they were #b4ae1 and   
8in #ahig the estimated per capita      
expenditure  reached the alarming amount
 of #d4ie40 ,that is to say1 the        
combined  expenditures of the ,state and

 national governments gave a rate as    
high  as that prevailing in ,france     
before the outbreak of the ,revolution4 
8,the tendency to increase10 says ,mr4  
,roberts1 commenting on these  figures1 
8is a persistent one4 ,in #ahha the     
amount expended by the ,state  was      
#i1hgh1bad4ei2 in #ahhd1 #aj1dgi1eag4ca2
 in #ahhg1 #ad1cja1ajb4dh2  in #ahij1   
#ac1jgf1hha4hf2 in #ahic1               
#ag1cfg1cce4ih2 and in #ahif1           
#bj1jbj1jbb4dg40 ,coming to municipal   
expenditures1 where the hand of  the    
prodigal has been most lavish1 ,mr4     
,roberts says that 8between #ahfj  and  
#ahhj the municipal debts of our ,union 
increased from #ajj1jjj1jjj  to         
#fhb1jjj1jjj1 and in fifteen cities1    
believed to represent the  average1 the 
increase in taxation was #cfb4b per     
cent1 while the  increase in taxable    
valuation was but #aef4i per cent1 and  
of population  but #gj per cent4 ,in the
 year #ahfj the direct taxes for ,state1
 county1  town1 and city purposes in    

,new ,york were #d4ij per capita1 in    
#ahhj it  was #h4bj1 and in #ahif it had
 reached #aj4dc1 an increase in         
thirty-six  years of #bac per cent40 ,it
 should be added that the bonded        
debt--,state1  county1 city1 town1      
village1 and school district--in the    
,state is  estimated by ,mr4 ,roberts to
 be #dej1jjj1jjj4 ,is it any wonder that
  people so mercilessly plundered feel  
that the times are out of joint8  ,is it
 any wonder1 either1 that in #ahif ,mr4 
,roberts was moved to say  that1 without
 the discovery of new sources of        
revenue1 8a low tax rate  would never   
again be enjoyed in this ,state08 ,is it
 any wonder1 finally1  that he declared 
again that if 8we have not yet passed   
the danger limit  of taxation10 we have 
reached 8a point where there is a deep  
feeling of  unrest and dissatisfaction1 
and where a halt should be called or    
there  will be danger08        ,b ,from 
the mass of proofs of this statement in 
my possession          ,i will select   

only one4 ,in a call for a convention at
          ,portland1 ,me41 on the #ajth 
of ,june last1 of all persons           
8interested in the revision of the      
present system of ,state                
taxation and a more economical          
management of the ,state                
affairs10 it is stated that 8the        
expenses of the ,state          have    
increased fifty per cent in ten years1  
while the          wealth and population
 of the ,state have steadily declined40 
,the object of the convention was 8to   
protest against the          course of  
extravagance that is rapidly bringing   
reproach          upon the government of
 the ,state and reducing the farmers    
and taxpayers to automatons to grind out
 revenue to be          absorbed by a   
rapacious and ever-multiplying horde of 
office-holders1 who devour the people's 
substance as fast          as they      
produce it40 ,after showing how 8once   
prosperous          farming towns and   
townships have been reduced to but      

little better than a howling            
wilderness10 the call says          in  
conclusion3 8,these once prosperous     
farming communities          were       
redeemed from the native wilderness by  
men who were          no more temperate1
 industrious1 or economical than the    
farmers of to-day1 and the prices they  
received for their          products    
were as low as1 and in some instances   
lower than1          to-day1 but the    
fruits of their honest toil were not    
drawn          from them as fast as     
acquired by national1 ,state1 county1   
and1 in many instances1 by municipal    
extravagance1 as it          is to-day40
 ,the plundered peasantry of ,spain1    
,italy1 or          ,russia1 army ridden
 as they are1 could not have made a more
          just complaint4    ,the stock 
explanation of this growth of           
expenditure is that with  the advance of
 civilization the cost of government    
must increase in  like degree2 there    
must be more regulation and supervision 

of the  activities becoming more        
numerous and complex4 ,but this means1  
if it  means anything1 that the more    
enlightened and humane people are1 the  
more difficult it is to maintain order  
and enforce justice1 the more  inclined 
are they to attack and plunder one      
another--in a word1 the  more barbarous 
they are4 ,preposterous as this theory  
of civilization  is1 it is precisely the
 one upon which the ,american people are
 acting  with unparalleled energy4      
,while we should naturally think them   
moving  toward a point where they could 
get along without government1 they are  
moving toward a point where they will   
have nothing but government4  ,referring
 to the increase of expenditures already
 mentioned1 ,mr4  ,roberts says it      
8corresponds almost exactly with the    
increase of  the number of commissions  
and departments4444 ,these departments  
and  commissions10 he continues1 8are   
largely for the purpose of extending    
social supervision and regulation over  

many things which1 in the  earlier days 
of our ,commonwealth1 were left to the  
localities or to  self-regulation40     
,again he says3 8,the amount of ,state  
inspection  has become very great1      
reaching out constantly over new fields1
 and  employing in the aggregate an army
 of inspectors4444 ,the system of       
laissez faire1 which was the rallying   
cry of democracy and free  government at
 the beginning of the century1 has      
yielded gradually to a  system of       
supervision and control which monarchies
 never attempted4444  ,what our ,state  
has done in this line can not probably  
be undone10 he  says in a repetition of 
his warning1 8but this tendency to      
expand  and multiply and differentiate  
and segregate ,state supervision and    
regulation must cease1 or the burden    
will soon become too grievous to  be    
borne40    ,but there is no warrant for 
the assumption that the more civilized  
we  are--that is1 the greater our       
self-control--the more are we in need   

of inspection and regulation4 ,such an  
explanation of the enormous  increase in
 public expenditure is worthless4 ,the  
true explanation lies  in the greed of  
politicians and the delusion of social  
reformers4 ,to  both of these causes    
must be attributed the evils that ,mr4  
,roberts  deplores4 8,the truth of      
history10 he says1 referring to the     
thirty-six  new offices and commissions 
created since #ahhj1 8compels the       
statement  that it looks as if many of  
these creations were made not so much to
  satisfy a public want as to relieve a 
political situation40 ,that is  to say1 
they were designed to provide spoils for
 the insatiable maw  of politicians4    
,one of the most flagrant examples of   
this popular  method of forwarding the  
beneficent work of civilization and     
hastening  the dawn of the millennium is
 the ,state ,board of ,mediation and    
,arbitration1 created in #ahhf4 ,up to  
the present year it has cost the        
taxpayers #aie1hbh4eg4 ,for this        

expenditure little can be shown but a   
shelf full of reports seldom read1 and a
 pigeon hole of vouchers for  salaries  
never earned4 ,with one of the former   
members of this board1  who served      
thirteen years and received #ci1jjj for 
his able services1  ,i am personally    
acquainted4 ,of my own knowledge1 ,i can
 say that for  nearly three years at    
least his duties as commissioner never  
interfered  perceptibly with his duties 
as editor4 ,that most of the other      
offices  and commissions are equally    
worthless there can be no doubt4        
,altogether  they have cost the ,state  
the startling sum of #ca1gfh1hii4he1 and
 are  increasing the public burdens at  
the rate of more than #a1jjj1jjj a      
year4 ,but their true character as      
asylums for decayed politicians1  or as 
stepping stones for ambitious young     
ones1 and at all times  as centers of   
political intrigue and personal profit1 
is gradually  dawning upon the public4  
,already several ,governors have        

demanded1 in  their annual messages to  
the ,legislature1 that they be          
consolidated  or abolished4 ,as yet1    
however1 it has been impossible to relax
 their  grip on the taxpayer4 ,obedient 
to the instincts of their kind1 they are
  inventing new arguments to establish  
their claims to the confidence and      
gratitude of the victims of their greed 
and incompetency4    ,but the creation  
of new and needless offices is not the  
only  manifestation of what ,mr4        
,roberts fitly calls 8the vicious       
tendencies  of legislation40 ,more      
demoralizing are the laws that actually 
encourage  the robbery of one class of  
people for the benefit of another4 ,a   
familiar example is the bounty law for  
the destruction of fishing  nets4       
,almost as soon as passed it produced a 
new industry--namely1 the  manufacture  
of cheap nets1 which were deposited in  
fishing waters1  subsequently discovered
 and seized by a pre-arrangement1 and   
made the  basis of demands upon the     

public treasury out of proportion to    
their  value4 ,so great have been the   
frauds perpetrated under it that the    
cry for its repeal comes from every     
quarter4 ,another law even worse        
morally was passed to meet the clamor of
 the bicyclists and bicycle             
manufacturers4 ,it provides that        
twenty-five per cent of the cost of     
so-called good roads to be built under  
it shall be paid by the ,state4  ,as    
cities and villages are exempt from its 
provisions1 this sum1 which  comes out  
of the pockets of all taxpayers1 urban  
as well as rural1 is1  as ,mr4 ,roberts 
says1 simply 8a gratuity to the towns   
for the benefit  of country roads40 ,as 
a sign of the moral decadence of the    
times1 ,i  ought to add that one of the 
most powerful and effective arguments in
  favor of the law was this very        
discrimination4 ,still more shameless   
was one of the chief arguments in favor 
of the ,raines liquor law4 ,with  a     
moral callousness truly astounding1 its 

advocates framed tables of  figures to  
show how great a percentage of taxation 
it would shift from  the country to the 
city districts4 ,in the heated political
 campaign  that followed1 these tables  
were made to do service again to save   
from  defeat the party responsible for  
the enactment4 ,to indicate1 finally1   
how legislation may encourage vice1 ,i  
must not omit to mention the  provision 
that created the ,raines hotel4 ,under  
it assignation houses  have multiplied  
to a degree that ,satan himself could   
not have foreseen  nor have been more   
enchanted with4    ,but the greatest    
inroads on the pockets of the taxpayer  
have been  made under the pretense of   
charity4 ,i say 8pretense0 because it is
 a  gross misuse of language to decorate
 with so fine a word the seizure  of a  
man's property under the forms of law   
and to devote it to the  ostensible     
relief of want and suffering4 ,it is the
 infliction of an  aggression that has  
no more warrant in a court of sound     

morals than the  seizure of his property
 in disregard of the forms of law4 ,yet 
this evil  has reached such vast        
proportions that ,mr4 ,roberts was moved
 to protest  against it4 ,after speaking
 of 8the tendency of the ,state in      
building up  a gigantic system0 that    
8will call for an enormous and          
ever-increasing  annual expenditure for 
maintenance10 he expressed the belief in
 #ahif  that 8the time has come to call 
a halt before this burden of taxation   
becomes too heavy40 ,he then mentioned  
the significant fact that while  the    
,state spent #f1jjj1jjj for charity1    
#d1hjj1jjj for public schools1  #hjj1jjj
 for the militia1 it spent only #ejj1jjj
 for judges' salaries6  ,he pointed out 
also that the expenditures under the    
head of charity had  increased from     
#a1dfh1dga4eh in #ahhg to #e1hhh1aic4gd 
in #ahig1 or over  four hundred per cent
 in ten years4 ,he added the prophecy   
that it would  be 8a matter of a short  
time only when the annual expenditures  

for  charity alone in this ,state will  
reach #aj1jjj1jjj40 ,at that time five  
large ,state charitable institutions    
were in process of construction1  and   
were soon to be thrown open to the      
public4 ,in the following year  he      
reverted to the subject in still        
stronger terms4 8,god forbid10 he  says1
 8that ,i should put a straw in the way 
of charity rationally  directed2 but my 
four years' experience as comptroller   
444 compels me  to say that charity is  
dispensed in this ,state with an almost 
lavish  hand1 and in my judgment it is  
in many cases unwisely dispensed40 ,in  
his last report to the ,legislature the 
aggregate cost of the fourteen  great   
institutions in operation1 with a       
population of #f1fba1 is put at         
#f1hih1cjd4eb4    ,that this enormous   
largess1 wrested from the taxpayers     
without the  slightest consideration for
 their own wants and sufferings1 is     
unwisely  dispensed in many cases ,mr4  
,roberts furnishes the amplest proof4   

,the  charges that he brings against    
this form of ,state activity are most   
serious4 ,they reveal the same odious   
traits that characterize the  management
 of public affairs in no wise connected 
with the love of  humanity4 8,nearly    
every locality10 says ,mr4 ,roberts1    
8having a ,state  charitable institution
 deals with it as though it were        
established  to afford that locality an 
avenue through which to reach the ,state
  treasury1 and in most cases1 where a  
majority of the managers live  under or 
are dominated by local influence1 the   
avenue has been  profitably traveled4   
,the result of such predominance is     
combination  among local dealers1 a     
division of the furnishing of the       
supplies among  them at greatly advanced
 prices1 the palming off upon the       
institution  of inferior articles which 
would find no sale in the market1 a row 
with the superintendent if he undertakes
 to expend money outside of  the        
locality1 and1 through friction and     

disturbance1 the work of the            
institution is more or less             
demoralized40 ,he charges that 8the only
  aim0 of some institutions 8seems to be
 the expenditure of their entire        
appropriation1 irrespective of the      
number of inmates provided for or  the  
results obtained40 ,putting the same    
charge in another way1 he says  that    
8the cost of an institution is more     
frequently based upon the  amount of the
 appropriation granted by the           
,legislature than upon its  real or     
apparent necessities40 ,when it is      
remembered that the managers  of the    
institutions against whom these         
astonishing charges are brought  are    
picked people1 representing much more   
than the average character  and ability1
 the conclusion is not unnatural that   
ward heelers and  caucus packers have no
 monopoly of the rotten ethics of       
politics4    ,if we look a little       
further into the management of the      
institutions1  all the familiar         

footprints of the unscrupulous          
politician become  visible4 ,money      
appropriated for specific purposes is   
diverted from  them4 ,over fifty-five   
per cent of the amount expended in #ahih
 under  special appropriations was used 
for the benefit of two institutions1    
leaving less than forty-five per cent   
for the remaining fourteen4  ,plans for 
new buildings or the improvement of old 
are so changed as to  require an        
expenditure considerably in excess of   
the money appropriated  for the purpose4
 ,not infrequently the excess ranges    
from twenty-five to  fifty per cent1 and
 thus the way is paved for further      
appeals to the  ,legislature to meet the
 dishonest deficits4 ,a more            
reprehensible use  of public money is   
appropriations for new buildings and    
improvements  of old ones belonging to  
private institutions4 ,as examples1 ,mr4
  ,roberts cites the expenditure of     
#gg1dgc upon the private property of    
the ,malone ,institute for ,deaf-,mutes1

 and #deg1eef upon that of the          
,randall's ,island ,reformatory4 8,in my
 judgment10 he says1 expressing an      
opinion that every fair-minded person   
will approve1 8this is a mistaken       
public policy4 ,if these institutions   
are to be steady recipients of  ,state  
aid for permanent improvements1 the     
title of the property should  be        
transferred to the ,state40 ,otherwise  
any philanthropist might found  a       
charitable institution to provide       
himself with congenial employment1  and1
 availing himself of the courtesy of the
 ,state to thrust his hands  into the   
pockets of his neighbors1 make additions
 to it and keep it in  repair4    ,but  
these are by no means the only ways that
 money picked from the  pockets of      
taxpayers is poured into the bottomless 
pit of ,state  philanthropy4 ,one of the
 most common and most expensive is the  
unjustifiable increase of salaries4 ,in 
#ahid and #ahie1 when the country  was  
still in the throes of the great panic  

of #ahic and when hundreds  of thousands
 of people were glad to get work at     
almost any pay1 the  salary list of nine
 charitable institutions was increased  
forty  thousand dollars a year4         
,indefensible variations in the per     
capita cost  of practically the same    
service discloses another mode of waste4
 ,mr4  ,roberts gives elaborate tables  
in exposure of this evil4 ,while the per
  capita cost of the inmates of the     
,western ,house of ,refuge for ,women at
  ,albion is #bed4bg1 that of the       
inmates of the ,house of ,refuge for    
,women  at ,hudson is #bag4fc4 ,again1  
while the per capita cost of the inmates
  of the ,state ,industrial ,school at  
,rochester is #bai4di1 that of the      
inmates of the ,reformatory on          
,randall's ,island is #baj4ei4 ,still   
again1  while the per capita cost of the
 inmates of the ,state ,school for the  
,blind at ,batavia is #cac4gd1 that of  
the inmates of the ,northern ,new  ,york
 ,institute for ,deaf-,mutes at ,malone 

is #beh4cf4 ,if it be remembered  that  
the institutions on ,randall's ,island  
and at ,malone are under  private       
management1 the lower rate prevailing   
there1 compared with the  higher rate at
 the ,batavia and ,rochester            
institutions1 suggest a fact  of no     
slight significance4 8,private          
institutions10 says ,mr4 ,roberts1      
calling attention to it1 8are only paid 
in some instances #aaj per  annum for   
the care and support of inmates1 444    
while the cost in ,state  institutions  
is more than #bjj per annum40 ,yet1     
despite the possible  indefinite        
multiplication of such facts1 the 8new0 
reformer pins his  faith to the ,state  
as a fit agent for the regeneration of  
his fellows4    ,before leaving these   
institutions ,i must call attention to  
another  characteristic form of waste4  
,i refer to the delicacies furnished to 
the officials and inmates4 8,it has not 
seemed exactly right10 says  ,mr4       
,roberts1 setting forth the scandal in  

very moderate terms1 8that  the         
taxpayers of the ,state should be       
required to pay for ,blue ,points1      
lobster1 terrapin1 frogs' legs1         
partridge1 quail1 venison1 and most of  
the delicacies of the season to supply  
the tables of officials already  well   
paid and well housed by the ,state40    
,but solicitude about table  economies  
was never known to be a trait of        
bureaucratic parasites4 ,they  never    
trouble themselves to prolong their     
vision to the meager tables  of the poor
 and suffering robbed of the necessaries
 of life to load  theirs with luxuries4 
,the same limited vision is exhibited on
 holidays  in their generosity at other 
people's expense4 8,is it fair10 says   
,mr4  ,roberts1 protesting against this 
touching display of human goodness1     
8that the average workingman should wear
 poor clothes and live on plain  fare in
 order that he may bring up his family  
decently and honestly1  while the       
inmates of ,state institutions are      

indulged with turkey at  eighteen cents 
a pound1 footballs at #d4hc each1       
oranges1 candy1 nuts1  ice cream1 and   
expensive luxuries8444 ,it must not be  
forgotten10 he  adds1 mentioning a truth
 commonly forgotten even by people that 
have  reached a higher civilization than
 that of the average ,state official1   
8that the money spent for these inmates 
is not voluntary contribution1  but is  
the product of enforced taxation40,c    
,c ,but ,i ought to add that this       
mismanagement of ,state                 
charitable institutions is duplicated in
 the management          of other ,state
 departments that came under ,mr4       
,roberts's          observation4        
,although more than #bd1jjj1jjj have    
been          spent on the new ,capitol1
 it proves to be too small          for 
the purposes it was designed to meet4   
,mr4 ,roberts          recommends the   
conversion of the old ,state ,hall into 
a          finance building4 ,the ,state
 ,library has become so large           

that it will soon require a separate    
building4 ,the racing          tax law  
was so bunglingly framed that the       
collections          under it in #ahif  
were attended with 8more difficulty and 
expense than usual40 ,as the            
forest-preserve law stood in            
#ahif1 it permitted people purchasing   
,state lands to strip          them of  
lumber1 and then1 owing to certain      
irregularities          connected with  
the sale1 making it illegal1 to recover 
the          money originally paid with 
interest at six and seven per           
cent added4 ,because of the absence of  
any law covering          the personal  
expenditures of members of legislative  
investigating committees1 claims for    
seven and eight          dollars a day  
are rendered1 although four or five     
dollars          a day are believed to  
be ample4 ,let me add that these        
investigations1 which1 during the period
 from #ahgi to #ahif          inclusive1
 cost #hbc1ecd4ea1 reveal another source

 of          waste from ,state          
management4 ,still another source of    
waste          is ,state printing4      
,pointing out the 8growing expenses of  
,state printing10 ,mr4 ,roberts shows   
that they have increased          from  
#ie1jbi4ea in #ahhg to #cae1ehe4ha in   
#ahif4 ,at one time          the law was
 so defective that it was impossible to 
frame          specifications for bids  
that would allow for printing of        
different kinds4 ,for example1 blanks   
varying from two to          three      
inches square to two and three feet had 
to be classed          in the same      
schedule and price4 ,a needless quantity
 of          reports is printed4 ,some  
of them are printed in the highest      
style of the art and richly embellished 
with expensive          plates and      
engravings4 ,one report for #ahie cost  
#db1jjj1          and others cost as    
high as #bj1jjj and #cj1jjj4 8,it does  
not seem logical10 says ,mr4 ,roberts1  
commenting on this                      

extravagance1 8to spend as much on the  
illustration of a          report as it 
costs for clerk hire in many            
departments40          ,another evil is 
the failure of the ,legislature to      
appropriate money enough to meet the    
printing bills each          year1 thus 
making it necessary either to borrow    
money to          pay them or to compel 
the printer to wait for his pay         
at a loss of interest on the amount due 
him4 ,in this          connection       
attention must be called to the failure 
of the          ,legislature to provide 
money enough to cover expenditures      
during the period intervening before    
funds are available          from       
taxation4 ,although ,mr4 ,roberts       
recommended repeatedly                  
legislation for the avoidance of this   
difficulty1 which          causes waste1
 no attention was paid to him4 ,the     
management          of court and trust  
funds by county treasurers has been     
particularly scandalous4 ,in disregard  

of the express          direction of the
 courts1 thousands of dollars were      
retained          by parties or their   
attorneys for their own personal        
benefit4 ,money has been paid out by    
county treasurers          without      
certified orders of the courts merely   
upon the          assurance of attorneys
 that the payments were proper4 ,the    
rules framed by the comptroller in      
regard to this matter          were     
constantly disregarded4 ,excessive      
allowances were made          for costs 
of attorneys4 ,in the case of one estate
 of #gej1          thus robbed1 only #fj
 remained for the payment of the debts  
against it4 ,by the defalcations of     
county treasurers1 court          and   
trust funds are often depleted1 and the 
beneficiaries1          often widows1   
orphans1 and unfortunate litigants1 are 
robbed4 ,mr4 ,roberts has recommended   
legislation on this          subject1   
but no attention1 as far as ,i know1 has
 been paid          to it4 ,it is one of

 those 8parochial0 questions that the   
,american people appear to have no taste
 for4 ,but it would          seem as if 
the protection of citizens1 especially  
the poor          and weak1 was the     
first duty of the ,state4    ,resistance
 to aggression is one of the fundamental
 instincts of the  human race4 ,it has  
been enforced during countless ages by  
the penalty  of extermination4 ,only the
 people that refuse to be killed1 or    
robbed  and enslaved1 which are modified
 forms of the same crime1 can respond   
to a scriptural injunction2 they alone  
can be fruitful1 multiply1 and          
replenish the earth4 ,all others must   
succumb to the pitiless law of the      
survival of the fittest4 ,efforts to    
escape taxation not sanctioned by       
justice1 so common throughout the       
,united ,states1 are not1 therefore1    
exhibitions of hopeless depravity2 they 
are exhibitions of the natural  desire  
for self-preservation that demands study
 and heed4    ,in ,new ,york ,state the 

efforts of taxpayers to escape this     
increasing  aggression have had a       
deplorable effect4 ,to still the voice  
of  discontent and complaint1           
legislators have tried to lay on their  
burdens as lightly as possible4 ,acting 
upon a familiar definition  of taxation1
 they have tried to pluck the goose so  
as to get the  most feathers with the   
least squawk4 ,but in their observance  
of the  principles of humanity they have
 shown but slight regard for the        
principles of economics or justice4 ,mr4
 ,roberts characterizes their           
enactments as 8confused1 illogical1 and 
conflicting02 he adds that they  are    
8nearly all legislative makeshifts1 and 
many of them blunders40  ,the moral     
effect of the aggression has1 however1  
been more disastrous  than either the   
economic or statutory4 ,to escape it1   
the owners of  every class of property1 
no matter what their intelligence1 their
  religious professions1 or their social
 standing1 resort to every  possible    

subterfuge4 ,with the cries of the      
tortured fowl ringing in  sympathetic   
ears1 complaisant officials refuse to   
assess real estate1  as required by law1
 at its full value4 8,the assessor10    
says ,mr4  ,roberts1 describing this    
form of evasion and its evil            
consequences1  8undertakes1 by reducing 
valuations on his own responsibility and
 in  defiance of law1 to protect his own
 county or town from paying more  than  
its fair proportion of tax1 and         
self-interest lulls the moral  sense of 
the community into support of his       
action40 ,the same law of  assessment   
applies to the whole ,state1 yet there  
are twenty-five rates  of assessment in 
the sixty counties1 and these rates     
range from fifty  to ninety-two per cent
 of the value of the land4 ,the owners  
of personal  property avoid their       
obligations in a manner still more      
reprehensible4  ,they either conceal it 
or lie about it4 ,while its amount      
during the  past forty years has reached

 the enormous total of #ah1jjj1jjj1jjj1 
or more than four times the value of the
 real estate1 its assessed  value has   
not increased4 ,it is ,mr4 ,roberts's   
conviction1 based upon  8study and      
observation10 that not 8more than three 
per cent0 of it  is assessed4 ,the      
result is that1 although real estate    
pays a revenue  of over #i1jjj1jjj a    
year1 personal property pays one of only
 about  #a1jjj1jjj4 ,as to the          
corporations1 they are equally alert in 
avoiding  their obligations4 ,before the
 enactment of a recent law they did it  
by  watering their stocks and issuing   
bonds1 thus creating an indebtedness    
equal to their capital4 ,they do it now 
by incorporating in other ,states  and  
carrying on business in this ,state4    
,they do it also by neglecting  for a   
certain time to make the reports        
required by law1 and then taking  refuge
 behind the statute of limitations4 ,if 
the burdens thrust upon  them can not be
 shirked or borne1 they fly to other    

,states1 where the  aggressions of the  
tax collector are less ruinous4    ,to  
compel officials to do their duty1      
countless expedients have been  invented
 from time immemorial4 ,in the face of  
proof mountains high that  no           
legislative or administrative device can
 uproot the selfishness  imbedded in    
human nature or reshape the conduct     
molded to this  immutable fact1 social  
quacks still continue to spawn their    
schemes  to work the miracle4 ,slight as
 is ,mr4 ,roberts's sympathy with them1 
he is no exception4 ,as a panacea for   
the dishonesty and incompetency  of the 
county treasurers that mismanage court  
and trust funds1 he  recommends the     
substitution of ,state for local        
inspection4 ,by a similar  application  
of hocus-pocus1 he would transmute the  
extravagance of the  managers of        
charitable institutions into exemplary  
economy4 ,disgusted  with the charlatans
 in charge of certain duties connected  
with these  institutions requiring      

special skill and knowledge1 he thinks  
8it would  be well to provide a corps of
 enthusiastic scientists 444 who have   
more  than a pecuniary interest0 in     
their work4 ,but another recommendation 
of  his is a direct assault on this     
simple faith in the honor and integrity 
of specialists4 ,already many of the    
departments of the ,state are in  the   
hands of men supposed to have a special 
aptitude and liking for  their duties4  
,but ,mr4 ,roberts finds that 8leaving  
the department to  expend the money as  
it deems best10 instead of appropriating
 it for a  specific purpose1 8is not in 
the interest of economy40 ,he says that 
8it absolutely deprives the ,legislature
 of that judicial scrutiny of  the      
necessity of appropriations0 that 8it   
should always exercise1 and  leaves to  
the judgment of one what could often be 
better decided if  considered by        
several40 ,could a deadlier blow be     
given to a common  theory that under    
government management we have the same  

division of  labor and the same perfect 
adjustment of means to ends that we have
  under private management8 ,what       
legislative body1 chosen by universal   
suffrage1 the most perfect instrument   
ever invented for the selection  of     
incompetents1 would enable it to        
exercise the supervision over the       
thousand activities of life that ,mr4   
,roberts recommends8    ,the same futile
 ingenuity exhibited in making officials
 do their  duty is exhibited in making  
taxpayers do theirs4 ,one of the        
multitude  of plans suggested is a      
single tax on land2 but that does not   
seem promising1 for it would not prevent
 the discriminations that  assessors    
make--discriminations that ,mr4 ,roberts
 himself believes  to be beyond the     
reach of even ,state supervision4       
,another is a more  rigid enforcement of
 the personal-property tax2 but this is 
equally  unpromising4 8,the fact is10   
says ,mr4 ,roberts1 8that from the dawn 
of civilization the wit of man has      

failed to discover a plan by  which     
intangible personal property could be   
made to pay its share of  taxation1 and 
it will never be made to pay on the     
ordinary assessment  plan40 ,besides the
 increase of taxes on corporations1 the 
taxation of  franchises1 which has just 
been authorized1 and a general revision 
and simplification of tax laws1 it has  
been proposed that a graded  inheritance
 tax be adopted4 ,mr4 ,roberts is       
particularly enamored of  this idea4    
,but his advocacy of it betrays the same
 disregard of the  rights of others1 and
 leads to the same appeals to specious  
facts  and arguments that always        
accompany the commission of aggression  
in  politics as well as in war4 ,his    
reasoning is that since 8special        
privileges conferred by government10    
such as tariff laws1 corporation  laws1 
public franchises1 etc41 are 8the       
foundation of most of the  great        
fortunes of the country to-day02 since  
these fortunes are1 to a  considerable  

extent1 8composed of personal property0 
that 8very largely  escapes taxation02  
since the decedent has been 8allowed the
 use and  enjoyment of his fortune      
during life10 and the beneficiary simply
  pays 8a fee for the privilege of      
receiving an estate in the creation  of 
which he had little or no hand02 and1   
finally1 since he can make  no just     
complaint against the payment of such a 
fee1 as his right to  receive his       
fortune 8comes from the ,state--is by   
the grace of the  ,state0--the seizure  
at death of a certain percentage of all 
estates  beyond a prescribed amount     
would be only justice to 8the mass of   
small  landowners and taxpayers who have
 from year to year borne more than      
their equitable share of the burden of  
taxation40 ,but1 the fallacies of  such 
an argument are easily exposed4 ,the    
moral ownership of property  does not   
lie in the ,state2 it lies in the labor 
and skill of the man  that accumulated  
the property4 ,the moral title to a     

bequest does not  lie in that fiction   
either2 it lies in the right of the     
decedent to do  whatever he pleases with
 his own4 ,if great fortunes have been  
unjustly  acquired in consequence of    
special privileges a great wrong has    
been  committed1 and it is not righted  
by the commission of another wrong4     
,the only reparation that can be made is
 to abolish the privileges4 ,so  obvious
 a suggestion does not1 however1 appear 
to have occurred to ,mr4  ,roberts4     
,but even if all the reforms in taxation
 that could be imagined were  put in    
operation they would not meet the       
situation2 they would not  deliver the  
,american people from the great and     
alarming evil of  over-legislation and  
excessive taxation4 ,an increase of     
revenue1 like  an increase of           
supervision1 is almost certain to       
increase the injustice  that it was     
designed to abate4 ,the first year's    
operation of the ,raines  law           
contributed more than #c1ejj1jjj to the 

,state treasury1 yet the  addition to   
the public expenditures that accompanied
 its enactment made  a high tax rate    
necessary4 ,what the situation requires1
 therefore1  is not more but less social
 regulation and taxation4 ,we need also 
a  gradual restriction of the duties of 
the ,state to the limits laid down  by  
,mr4 ,spencer--to the preservation of   
order and the enforcement of  justice4  
,although not apparently a disciple of  
that philosopher1 ,mr4  ,roberts himself
 virtually subscribes to this view4 ,in 
his last report  he demands 8far greater
 economy and care in public             
expenditures1 and no  further excursions
 in the field of social supervision and 
regulation40          ,,latest          
,,developments ,,with ,,the ,x ,,rays4  
,,by ,,prof4 ,,john ,,trowbridge1       
,,director ,,of ,,the ,,jefferson       
,,physical ,,laboratory1 ,,harvard      
,,university4      ,we have become      
accustomed to seeing photographs of the 
bones of  our hands1 and we no longer   

stop at shop windows to look at ,x-ray  
photographs4 ,indeed1 they are rarely   
displayed1 and the lecturer who  once   
gazed on a sea of faces as he endeavored
 to explain the most  marvelous         
electrical sensation of this century now
 addresses a mere  handful of listeners4
 ,such patient hearers continuing to the
 end may  still hear of marvelous       
performances of this strange light of   
which the  great public are even now    
ignorant1 and in this paper ,i shall    
take my  readers into a physical        
laboratory and endeavor to make the     
generally  unknown manifestation of the 
new rays plain and free from technical  
language4 ,i am sure that we shall all  
leave the laboratory with our           
imagination full of thoughts of unknown 
movements in the air about  us--thoughts
 of possible telepathic waves through   
space1 conceptions of  new ranges of    
nerve excitations1 hopes of new lights1 
conceptions of  the vastness of the     
electrical whirls in that elevated      

region where the  molecules of the air1 
in their endeavor to fly into the abyss 
of space1  are controlled by the earth's
 forces and are endowed with electrical 
energy by the sun4    ,in the first     
place1 what is the present state of our 
knowledge of  the ,x rays8 ,have we more
 efficient methods of producing them1   
and  can we see farther into the        
recesses of the human body8 ,in regard  
to the first question1 we can say that1 
although we may not be able  to answer  
dogmatically that we know what these    
rays are1 we have  valuable hints in    
regard to their character1 and our      
knowledge of their  manifestations and  
their relation to light waves and       
magnetic waves  has greatly increased   
during the four years which have elapsed
 since  their discovery4 ,they are now  
believed by the best authorities to be  
magnetic and electrical pulses1 or waves
 of extremely short length4 ,in  the    
spectrum of sunlight formed by sending a
 beam through a prism of  quartz the    

,x-ray pulses or waves are to be found1 
according to this  hypothesis1 beyond   
the violet color of this spectrum--far  
into the dark  region invisible to the  
eye1 and only brought into view at      
present by  the aid of photography4 ,in 
this invisible region reside many       
singular  manifestations of energy      
closely analogous to those of the ,x    
rays4 ,the  ultra-violet rays invisible 
to the eye have the property of         
refraction4  ,they can be bent out of   
their course by prisms made of quartz4  
,the  ,x rays1 however1 can not be      
directed from a straight course4 ,this  
is their greatest peculiarity1 and many 
attempts1 both mathematical  and        
experimental1 have been made to         
elucidate it4 ,it is not a fatal        
objection to the ,x rays being classed  
with light waves1 for1 under  certain   
conditions1 even light waves can be made
 to lose the power of  being bent aside4
    ,leaving for the present a further  
discussion of the question ,what are    

the ,x rays8 let us examine what the    
actual condition of the art of  using   
the rays is4 ,many attempts have been   
made to improve the ,crooke's  tube1 in 
which the rays are produced1 but1 like  
the hand telephone1  its form has       
remained substantially unaltered since  
the first flush  of discovery4 ,its     
present form consists of a bulb of thin 
glass1  exhausted of air1 containing a  
little concave mirror of aluminum1 and  
opposite to this1 separated by a gap of 
several inches1 is an inclined  sheet of
 thin platinum1 called the focus plane1 
or anticathode4 ,the  electrical        
discharge passes between this plane and 
the mirror1 and the  ,x rays are thrown 
off from the inclined sheet of platinum4
 ,they are  not reflected in the        
ordinary sense of the term1 but the     
electric rays  converge from the mirror 
to a spot on the platinum which glows   
with a  red heat1 and the ,x rays       
emanate from the heated spot as if it   
were  their source4 ,thousands of       

investigators have endeavored to improve
  the form of tube1 but1 with several   
important minor appendages1 it  still   
maintains the principal features of an  
aluminum concave mirror  and an inclined
 plane of platinum4 ,aluminum is found  
to be the best  metal for the mirror    
from which the rays are generated1      
largely because  its metallic particles 
are not torn off by the discharge1 as   
would  be the case if it were made of   
platinum4 ,it is also light1 and can be 
easily fixed to a platinum wire4 ,among 
the important modifications of  the tube
 are those which enable the operator to 
control the degree of  vacuum in the    
tube4 ,this is accomplished by sealing  
to the main tube  an appendage          
containing certain chemicals which1 on  
being heated1 give  off a small amount  
of vapor1 and which take it up again on 
cooling4  ,this modification is made    
necessary by the singular fact that     
after a  ,crooke's tube is submitted to 
an electrical discharge for some time   

the vacuum becomes more and more        
complete1 and a higher and higher       
electro-motive force or pressure is     
needed to produce the discharge  in the 
tube4 ,it prefers in time to jump over  
the surface4 ,thus1 at  the very        
beginning of our use of the ,x rays we  
meet with a mystery4  ,where do the     
remaining particles of air go8 ,it is   
surmised that they  disappear in the    
platinum terminals4    ,illustration3   
,,fig4 #a4--,the evolution of the       
,crooke's tube4    ,the manufacture of  
the ,x-ray tubes tests technical skill  
and the  patience of the experimenter   
more highly1 perhaps1 than the          
preparation  of any apparatus used in   
science4 ,glass working is a difficult  
art1  and requires an absolute devotion 
to it4 ,there is only one metal  known  
which will enable an electrical         
discharge to pass into and out  of a    
rarefied space inclosed by glass4 ,this 
is platinum4 ,a wire of  this metal can 
be sealed into glass so that no air can 

leak into an  exhausted space around the
 joints4 ,all electric lamps1 so        
commonly used  in electric lighting1    
have little wires of platinum at their  
bases1 by  means of which the electric  
current enters and leaves the bulb4 ,the
  ,crooke's tube is in principle an     
,edison lamp with the filament broken4  
,the maker of ,crooke's tubes should    
complete the making of the tube  at one 
sitting1 for reheating of the tube is   
very apt to lead to a  disastrous       
cracking of the glass4 ,he must take the
 utmost precautions  against unequal    
heating and sudden cooling1 and he must1
 above all1  have phenomenal patience4  
,fig4 #a shows the evolution of the     
,crooke's tube which is used to  produce
 the ,x rays4 ,the first form of tube   
was barely larger than a  goose's egg4  
,the size has been gradually increased1 
and at present it  is three or four     
times larger than the original form4    
,the interior  arrangement has not been 
materially changed1 and consists1 as we 

have  said1 of a concave mirror1 which  
constitutes the negative electrode1  and
 an inclined sheet of platinum1 from    
which the ,x rays seem to  emanate4     
,the later forms of tube have accessory 
chambers1 filled with certain           
chemicals1 which1 on being slightly     
heated1 reduce the vacuum to the        
desired point4 ,certain forms of tubes  
have merely an additional chamber       
which1 on being heated1 reduces the     
vacuum in the main vessel4 ,the  latest 
form of tube1 devised by ,dr4 ,william  
,rollins1 of ,boston1 has a  hollow     
anode tube 7,b ,c1 ,fig4 #a71 through   
which a current of water  can circulate 
in order to save the tube from breaking4
 ,the end of this  anode tube is small1 
in order to form a sharp radiant point  
of light4  ,one of the platinum wires   
7,p7 inserted in the tube projects      
outside  some distance4 ,when the vacuum
 becomes too high in the tube1 this     
platinum wire is slightly heated in a   
gas flame2 then the flame is  blown out 

and the hydrogen is allowed to flow     
against the heated wire4  ,a sufficient 
amount of the gas is absorbed by the    
heated wire to reduce  the vacuum in the
 tube4 ,this tube stands very powerful  
electrical  discharges1 and is the most 
scientifically designed tube at the     
command  of the experimenter4    ,there 
are three methods of generating the     
electrical discharge which  produces the
 rays4 ,the commonest method is that in 
which the ,ruhmkorf  coil is used4 ,this
 coil is what is now known as a         
transformer1 and  consists of one coil  
of a few turns of coarse wire1 which is 
connected  to a battery or other source 
of electricity1 and of another coil     
surrounding the first of a great number 
of turns of fine wire4 ,any  sudden     
change of the battery current produces  
an electric pressure or  electro-motive 
force at the ends of the fine coil of   
wire4 ,by this  simple arrangement of   
two coils we can thus exalt a current of
 low  pressure to one of high           

electro-motive force4 ,a battery current
 which  can barely produce an electric  
spark of one hundredth of an inch at the
  ends of the coarse coil can cause a   
spark of eight inches or more at  the   
terminals of a fine coil4    ,in the    
second method one uses an ordinary      
electrical machine in which  the glass  
plates are supplanted by rubber ones1   
which are run at a  high rate of speed4 
,both of these methods have their       
advocates4 ,the use  of the ,ruhmkorf   
coil is the most universal4    ,the     
third method consists in charging a     
number of ,leyden jars by a  storage    
battery and in discharging these one    
after another1 so as to  obtain a high  
electro-motive force4 ,this method is a 
very flexible one4  ,i can experiment   
with my apparatus over a range of       
electric pressure  extending from twenty
 thousand units to three million4 ,the  
electrical  discharge produced by three 
million units or volts is over six feet 
in  length4    ,the apparatus for       

discharging the ,leyden jars or         
condensers in series  is represented in 
,fig4 #b4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4      
#b4--;,apparatus for producing          
electrical sparks six  feet in length4  
,a fourth method1 first used by         
,professors ,norton and ,goodwin1 of the
  ,massachusetts ,institute of          
,technology1 consists in discharging a  
quantity of electricity through the     
coarse coil of a ,ruhmkorf coil4  ,this 
method obviates the necessity of a      
mechanical break to interrupt  the      
battery current which is employed to    
excite the current in the  coarse coil  
of this apparatus4    ,i have           
experimented with more powerful         
quantities of electricity than  have    
been hitherto used4 ,the accompanying   
photograph gives an idea of  the        
magnitude of the quantity which ,i can  
use to excite the ,x rays4    ,it       
represents the discharge1 burning a fine
 iron wire1 and it makes a  noise       
resembling the crack of a pistol4 ,now1 

this discharge can be used  in a variety
 of ways to excite various transformers 
in order to produce  the best conditions
 for exciting the ,x rays4 ,the method  
of using this  powerful discharge to    
excite a transformer seems at present   
the most  promising one in seeking the  
best conditions for obtaining rays of   
high  penetrating power4    ,there is   
still another method of obtaining the   
rays yet in its  infancy--the simplest  
method of all1 for no apparatus is      
required4    ,it has been discovered    
that certain substances1 like the salts 
of  uranium1 have the power of emitting 
rays which have all the properties  of  
the ,x rays4 ,the list of such          
substances is constantly increasing1    
and they are called radio-active        
substances4 ,it is possible to take a   
shadow picture of the hand through a    
board by placing the hand on a  covered 
sensitive plate1 resting the board on   
the back of the hand1  and strewing the 
board with one of these radio-active    

substances in  the form of a powder4    
,can it be that all the skill and       
industry which  has been employed to    
perfect ,x-ray apparatus is to be       
supplanted by  a powder8 ,the peculiar  
property shown by the radio-active      
substances  leads investigators to      
surmise that we have evidence of new    
substances1  and we have the waves      
radium and polonium4    ,illustration3  
,,fig4 #c4--,the burning of an iron wire
 by the most  powerful electric         
discharge yet produced4    ,the methods 
by which the ,x rays are detected in    
practical employment in  surgery have   
not been essentially changed4 ,the      
ordinary photographic  plate1 shielded  
in a plate holder1 is still used to     
receive the  shadow cast by the bones1  
and salts of barium or of calcium strewn
  on pasteboard serve as fluorescent    
screens to receive on their  luminous   
surfaces these shadows and to make them 
evident to the eye4  ,an interesting use
 of flexible sensitive films instead of 

glass plates  has been made in          
dentistry4 ,the films are put in the    
mouth1 and the  ,crooke's tube placed   
outside in such a position that the rays
 can pass  through the jaw4 ,in this way
 the accompanying photographs were taken
  7,fig4 #d74;,d        ,d ,kindness of 
,dr4 ,dwight ,m4 ,clapp1 ,boston4       
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4--a4 ,male     
patient1 aged ten years4 ,temporary     
incisors in position with the permanent 
incisors nearly ready to erupt4  ,the   
roots of the temporary teeth nearly     
absorbed4 ,right temporary  central cut 
incisor destroyed by a blow five years  
previous1 showing  gutta-percha filling 
put in at the time which1 with the dead 
root1  has been absorbed 7same as the   
live root of the other central74 ,it is 
taught in the text-books that teeth with
 dead nerves are not absorbed4  #b4     
,temporary molars in position with no   
signs of the permanent bicuspid  which  
should take its place4 #c4 ,patient1    
aged ten years4 ,shows the open  ends of

 the incisor roots4 #d4 ,shows one      
bicuspid and two molar teeth4  ,the     
roots of the teeth pass through the     
floor of and into the cavity  of the    
antrum4 ,the spongy character of the    
bone is shown4 #e and #f4  ,superior    
jaw1 right and left sides1 showing      
temporary cuspid teeth in  place1 with  
the permanent cuspids imbedded in the   
jaw entirely covered4    ,the use of    
photographic films in the application of
 the ,x rays  in surgery will doubtless 
extend2 we can easily imagine cases     
where the necessity of the use of the   
knife may be avoided by the  information
 which a carefully placed film might    
afford4 ,in general1  ,x-ray photographs
 convey more information to the skilled 
eye of the  specialist than to the      
untrained inspector of them4 ,they      
should be  studied from the negatives   
themselves1 for the delicate details can
 not  be reproduced in a print4 ,it is  
remarkable that shadow pictures can     
show so much definition4 ,here is a     

photograph of an elbow joint which      
shows the texture of the bones 7,fig4   
#e74;,e        ,e ,taken by ,professor  
,goodspeed1 ,university of              
,pennsylvania4    ,the use of the       
fluorescent screen1 too1 has been       
greatly extended4 ,dr4  ,francis ,h4    
,williams1 of ,boston1 has used it as a 
valuable instrument  in medical         
diagnosis1 especially in studying lung  
diseases4 ,it has  been used at the     
,harvard ,medical ,school to follow the 
processes of  digestion4 ,to accomplish 
this1 in one instance a goose was fed   
with  food mixed with subnitrate of     
bismuth1 a salt which absorbs ,x rays4  
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4--,photograph  
of an elbow joint1 showing the  texture 
of the bones4    ,the passage of the    
dark mass down the long neck of the bird
 could be  traced on the fluorescent    
screen1 and the peculiarities of its    
motion  in the gullet could be studied4 
,a cat was also fed with the same       
substance1 and the movements of its     

stomach noted4 ,these movements were    
analogous to those of the heart--in     
other words1 were rhythmical when  the  
processes of digestion were going on    
normally and uninterruptedly4  ,when1   
however1 the cat was irritated1 it may  
be by the sight of a dog1  these        
pulsations instantly ceased4 ,as soon as
 the source of vexation  was removed and
 the purring of the animal showed a     
contented frame of  mind1 the stomach   
resumed its rhythmical movements4 ,the  
dependence of  the digestive apparatus  
on the state of the nervous system was  
thus  clearly shown4 ,the female cat was
 much more tractable under these        
experiments than the male4    ,the use  
of the ,x rays is accompanied with some 
danger if the ,crooke's  tube is not    
properly used4 ,a long exposure to the  
,x rays is apt to  produce bad burns    
which are like sunburns1 and lead in    
certain cases  to bad ulcerations4 ,they
 are long in healing and are            
characterized by  a peculiar red glow1  

especially on exposure to a cold wind4  
,to prevent  them one should place a    
sheet of thin aluminum between the      
,crooke's  tube and the part of the body
 submitted to the rays4 ,this sheet     
should  be connected to the earth4 ,this
 fact should be borne in mind when we   
come to speak of the electrical region  
outside a ,crooke's tube4    ,many      
investigators1 reflecting upon the      
singular fact that the rays  pass so    
freely through thin aluminum and that1  
on the contrary1  glass absorbs such a  
large percentage1 concluded that        
,crooke's tubes  provided with aluminum 
windows would be an improvement upon the
 thin  incandescent lamplike bulbs now  
used4 ,the glass of these bulbs is very 
thin1 not more than one thousandth of an
 inch in thickness1 where the  rays     
emerge1 not thicker than a sheet of     
ordinary note paper1 and  the absorption
 of such a sheet of glass is so small   
that it can not  be detected by         
photography4 ,thus a sliver of glass of 

this thickness  in the hand would not   
appear on the ,x-ray photograph of this 
member1  and would not cast a shadow in 
the fluoroscope4 ,there does not  seem1 
therefore1 any advantage in supplying a 
,crooke's tube with an  aluminum window4
 ,the mechanical difficulties1 too1 in  
accomplishing  this are very great4     
,there is no way of joining the thin    
aluminum  disk to the glass so that an  
air-tight joint can be made4 ,in the    
process of exhausting the ,crooke's     
tube1 the tube must be heated to  a     
comparatively high temperature in order 
to drive off the air which  clings to   
the inside of the glass4 ,the rise of   
temperature would soften  or melt any   
current which might be used to make the 
aluminum adhere to  the glass4    ,we   
can not expect1 therefore1 any          
improvement in the direction of         
aluminum windows4 ,at one time1 ,i      
suppose that the rays were highly       
absorbed in passing through atmospheric 
air1 and that it would be an            

improvement in the application of the   
rays to surgery to interpose1 so  to    
speak1 a vacuum chamber between the body
 and the source of the ,x  rays4 ,the   
experiment led to some interesting      
results1 but not in the  direction      
anticipated4    ,the vacuum chamber     
consisted of a glass cylinder three feet
 long and  about eight inches in        
diameter4 ,the two ends were closed by  
sheets of  aluminum1 and it could be    
exhausted through a side tube4 ,the     
reader  will immediately ask1 in view of
 what has been said1 ,how could the     
glass tube be hermetically closed with  
sheets of aluminum8 ,this was  indeed a 
difficult matter1 but less difficult    
than in the case of the  ,crooke's tube1
 for the ends of the glass cylinder were
 provided with  heavy brass flanges1    
which were perfectly flat1 and the      
sheets of  aluminum lying smoothly could
 be confined by many bolts between the  
flange and suitable brass heads4 ,this  
cylinder1 having been exhausted1  was   

placed between the ,crooke's tube and   
the arm1 for instance1 in  the hope that
 a greater depth of human flesh and     
tissue might be  penetrated by the rays4
 ,it was speedily seen that the         
absorption of  the layer of air three   
feet thick could not be detected either 
by  photographs or the fluorescent      
screen4 ,the glass cylinder was then    
filled with rarefied hydrogen1 but no   
advantage was apparent4 ,if the         
photographs of the human hand were      
taken1 one through the rarefied         
cylinder and the other through an       
equivalent thickness of air1 no         
difference in clearness or depth of     
definition could be perceived4 ,the     
amount of absorption by a column of air 
three feet in length is less  than ten  
per cent4 ,this result interested me    
greatly1 for it shows the  remarkable   
difference between the ,x rays and the  
cathode rays1 which  had been           
investigated by ,crooke1 ,hittorf1 and  
,lenard2 for the cathode  rays are      

greatly absorbed by atmospheric air1    
being reduced in passing  through five  
or six inches of air to one             
four-hundredth part of their  value4    
,the small amount of absorption of the  
,x rays lifts them into the realm  of   
very short wave lengths of light1 for   
their behavior in regard to  the        
absorption by air is very analogous to  
that of ultra-violet rays4  ,although   
the vacuum chamber1 by which ,i looked1 
showed no absorption  of the ,x rays1 it
 disclosed a beautiful phenomenon4 ,in a
 dark room  this large tube1 three feet 
long and eight inches wide1 was filled  
with a roseate light1 which wavered like
 the northern lights when the  ,crooke's
 tube was emitting the ,x rays4 ,if the 
finger was brought near  the glass walls
 of the cylinder a stream of light      
apparently emanated  from a point on the
 inside wall of the cylinder4 ,the hand 
thus had  ghostly streamers giving an   
image of it1 although the hand itself   
was  invisible4 ,these banners of light 

could be diverted in any direction  by  
the hand or by any conducting body      
brought near1 and gave a vivid          
conception of how the streaming of the  
aurora can be brought about by  this    
flitting of conducting clouds or the    
drifting of moisture-laden  strata of   
air below the rarefied space in which   
the beams of the  northern light dart   
back and forth4 ,both in the case of the
 ,crooke's  tube and the aurora these   
streamers are produced by electrical    
discharges through rarefied air4 ,the   
experiments show that outside the       
,crooke's tube there is a strong        
electrical attraction and repulsion1    
which is only revealed in darkness and  
in a cold1 lifeless1 airless  space1    
such as exists between us and the sun4  
,can we not extend our  thoughts from   
the contemplation of this laboratory    
experiment to that  of the immensely    
greater play of electrical forces       
between the earth  and the sun across   
the immense vacant space ninety millions

 of miles in  distance8    ,the         
mysterious effects of the ,x rays on the
 molecules in the air form  a great     
subject of inquiry1 and the             
investigation of it promises to  extend 
our knowledge of electricity and light  
and heat4 ,when the  ,crooke's tube is  
excited we are conscious of a mysterious
 activity  within it1 for its glass     
walls glow with a phosphorescent light1 
and  if certain crystals1 like the      
diamond or the ruby1 are placed in the  
tube1 this phosphorescent light is      
vivid4 ,outside the tube1 in free  air1 
these luminescent effects are also      
present4 ,the air is under an           
electrical strain1 which is shown by the
 auroral streamers when this  air is    
rarefied1 and an electrical charge can  
not be maintained on a  pith ball--it is
 dissipated in some strange manner4     
,still stranger1  an electrical current 
is greatly aided by the ,x rays in its  
endeavor  to pass through air--they make
 for the time being air a conductor4    

,furthermore1 these rays separate the   
air into positively laden and           
negatively laden particles4    ,the     
electrical discharge in the ,crooke's   
tube is many-sided in its               
manifestations4 ,its energy seems       
all-pervading in the room where it      
occurs4 ,before the discharge passes    
through the rarefied space in the  tube 
its energy manifests itself by a        
crackling spark1 a miniature  lightning 
discharge4 ,this spark1 five or six     
inches in length1 can  send out magnetic
 waves which extend far beyond the      
narrow limits of  the room4 ,they can be
 detected1 by the methods of wireless   
telegraphy1  fifty miles4 ,when the same
 amount of energy is developed in a     
,crooke's  tube the magnetic waves      
hardly pass beyond the walls of the     
room1 and  the phenomenon of            
phosphorescence and fluorescence and the
 strange  molecular effects outside the 
,crooke's tube spring into prominence4  
,the crackling spark outside the tube is

 far-reaching in its effect1  yet it    
shows no signs of the ,x rays1 its light
 can not penetrate the  human body1 it  
excites only a feeble phosphorescence at
 a distance  of even two or three feet1 
while the same energy excited in the    
,crooke's tube can cause luminescence at
 a distance of twenty feet4  ,the       
crackling spark1 however1 can be seen   
much farther than the light  of the     
,crooke's tube1 and it can also impress 
a photographic plate at  much greater   
distance4 ,the following experiments    
will illustrate the  different          
manifestations of energy of which an    
electrical discharge  is capable4 ,i    
produced an electrical spark about six  
inches in length  and exposed a         
photographic plate for six seconds1 at a
 distance of  two1 ten1 and twenty feet1
 to its light4 ,a thin strip of tin1    
with a  circular hole cut in it1 served 
as a shutter4 ,the sensitive plate was  
thus protected1 except in front of this 
aperture4 ,the images exhibit  the      

decrease in light with the increase of  
distance4 ,another portion  of the      
sensitive plate was exposed in the same 
manner during the same  length of time  
to the light of a ,crooke's tube which  
was excited by  this same spark4 ,no    
image was obtained at a distance of ten 
feet1  and barely one at three feet4    
,the spark in air1 therefore1 was far   
more energetic photographically than the
 ,x rays1 but it could not  penetrate   
solid materials4 ,this property was     
given to it by its passage  through     
rarefied space4 ,i then covered a screen
 with a phosphorescent  substance1 and  
exposed it to the spark in air4 ,the    
phosphorescent light  could barely be   
detected at a distance of three feet1   
while with a  spark in rarefied air it  
could be seen at a distance of twenty   
feet4    ,when we consider these        
experiments we see that the ,x rays act 
toward  phosphorescent matter much as   
the spark in air behaves toward the     
photographic plate4 ,now1 these results1

 taken in connection with the  strong   
electrical effects in the neighborhood  
of an excited ,crooke's  tube1 points to
 a certain connection between           
phosphorescence and  electricity4 ,can  
it be that the strange light is excited 
by very short  electrical waves sent out
 from the tube1 which can not travel far
  but are very active in producing      
molecular effects8 ,this activity1      
indeed1 may prevent their extending to  
great distances4 ,wireless  telegraphy  
evidently depends upon one set of waves 
sent out by a spark1  and ,x-ray        
photographs upon another set developed  
only in rarefied  air4 ,phosphorescence 
can not be produced with ease by the    
spark in  air4 ,on the contrary1 it is  
developed to a remarkable degree and  at
 comparatively great distances by the   
discharge in rarefied air4  ,it has been
 shown by ,mr4 ,burbank and myself that 
electrical force  can develop           
phosphorescent light in certain         
crystals4 ,the sunlight  can do the     

same4 ,is sunlight an electrical        
phenomenon8 ,that it is  constitutes the
 greatest hypothesis in physics of this 
century4 ,when  we reflect1 too1 that   
the phosphorescence of the firefly is   
excited by  some manifestation of a     
living organism--nerve force or some    
related  force--shall we not include    
nerve force in the electrical category8 
,the ,x rays1 therefore1 bring into     
prominence strange lights which had     
heretofore been noticed chiefly by      
keen-eyed investigators1 and which1     
with their names1 phosphorescence and   
fluorescence1 were unknown to the  bulk 
of mankind4 ,the fluorescent screen1 by 
means of which surgeons  observe the    
skeleton of the body1 has now taken its 
place in medical  practice with the     
stethoscope1 by which the mechanism of  
the lungs is  studied1 and hopes have   
been excited that the blind may yet use 
the  ,x rays in detecting objects and in
 regaining a sense of vision1 even      
though this sense may be only partial4  

,it is a curious fact that the  retina  
of the eye is phosphorescent and        
fluorescent1 and that one can  see the  
shadow of certain objects in the dark   
when one stands so that  the feeble ,x  
rays fall upon the eye4 ,in other words1
 the retina acts  as a fluorescent      
screen4 ,the eye at present recognizes  
only a limited  number of the waves that
 are surging about us4 ,we can see the  
colors  from red to violet1 but the dark
 colors1 so to speak1 formed by waves   
longer than #a_/djjjj of an inch and    
shorter than #a_/ajjjjj of an inch  make
 no recognizable impress upon our       
retina1 unless1 indeed1 they  constitute
 telepathic signals which apparently    
stir our consciousness  and make us     
believe that friends are communicating  
from a distance4 ,the  electrical       
discharge has lifted1 so to speak1 a    
realm of short waves of  energy out of  
the darkness and made them visible4 ,can
 the human brain  be made conscious of  
other waves which fill space8    ,but we

 have not by any means exhausted the    
protean manifestations  of the ,x rays4 
,besides the photographic1 the          
phosphorescent1 and  fluorescent        
effects1 there are still more singular  
properties of these  rays4 ,one of the  
most striking consists in their opening 
a path for a  current of electricity4   
,the electrical discharge1 feeble in    
itself1  not capable of lifting by means
 of a motor a pound weight a foot from  
the floor1 is yet competent to open a   
path for a current which can  set all   
the trolley cars of a great city in     
motion4 ,to exhibit this  mysterious    
effect we bring the ends of the         
electrical current which  we wish to    
excite near each other1 but not         
touching1 in a glass tube  with thin    
walls1 from which the air has been      
exhausted4 ,when the ,x rays  fall on   
the gap between the wires the electrical
 current immediately  jumps across the  
gap with a vivid light4 ,we have here   
the mechanism  of an electrical         

relay--the feeble energy of the electric
 discharge  can call into play a giant  
energy4 ,by what energy does it         
accomplish  this8 ,is it by compelling  
molecules to put themselves in line1 so 
that  the electrical current can bridge 
the gap8 ,is it by breaking down  this  
mysterious ether of space1 as if we     
threw a stone at a turbid  bull's eye in
 a prison chamber and let in a flood of 
sunlight8 ,how the  imagination is      
stirred by this process1 what seems dead
 and lifeless  can1 by a physical       
agency1 be stirred to endless activity6 
,the rays are  like the touch of        
,ithuriel's spear4    ,the electrical   
discharge can accomplish all this1 but  
the story of  its activity is not yet   
told4 ,it can not be told1 for each year
 adds  information in regard to these   
activities1 for there are thousands  of 
investigators at work4 ,another         
far-reaching manifestation is  this3 the
 rays can separate the air or a gas into
 its constituent  particles1 much as a  

strong electrical current separates     
water into  oxygen and hydrogen4 ,they  
can communicate electrical charges to   
these  particles--positive and negative 
charges4 ,the charged air-particles1    
when forced through partitions of spun  
glass1 does not give up their           
electricity as they do when they are    
charged by an electrical machine4  ,this
 curious manifestation leads me to      
suspect that the electricity  and       
magnetism of the earth may be caused by 
an ,x-ray effect on our  atmosphere4    
,the sun and the earth are separated    
like the terminals of  a ,crooke's      
tube--two conductors with a vacuum      
between4 ,an electrical  excitation from
 the sun may cause an electrical        
discharge between it  and the earth4    
,this discharge might consist of an     
,x-ray effect which  could separate the 
upper layers of the atmosphere into     
positive and  negative charges4 ,the    
velocity of the negatively charged      
particles is  greater than that of the  

positively charged ones1 and the        
revolution  of the earth may cause such 
a movement of these electrified         
particles  that electrical currents may 
be generated which in circulation around
  the earth could produce the observed  
magnetism of the north and south  poles1
 together with the auroral lights       
characteristic of those  regions4 ,this1
 ,i am well aware1 is an audacious      
theory4 ,it is certainly  a vast        
extension of the laboratory experiments 
,i have described1 but  the electrical  
radiations developed in electrical      
discharges are as  competent to produce 
powerful magnetic whirls as the heat    
radiations  in our atmosphere to develop
 cyclones4 ,in the lower regions of our 
atmosphere the air is an insulator like 
glass to the passage of an  electrical  
current4 ,a layer a foot thick can      
prevent the circulation of  the most    
powerful current which is now used to   
generate horse power4  ,when this air   
space is rarefied at a certain degree of

 rarefaction  the electrical current    
passes1 especially1 as we have seen1 if 
it is  illuminated by the ,x rays4      
,when1 therefore1 we ascend to a height 
of  ten or twenty miles the rarefied air
 becomes an excellent conductor of      
electricity of high electro-motive      
force4 ,to my mind the conditions  exist
 for developing an electrical state in  
the earth's covering of  air1 which is  
competent to explain the electrical     
manifestations of  the air1 the auroral 
gleam1 and the mysterious effect on the 
magnetic  needle which keeps it directed
 to the magnetic north4 ,can not we     
conclude that the study of the ,x rays  
bids fair to greatly extend  our        
conceptions of the constitution of      
matter and of the action and            
interaction of ,nature's forces8        
99       99       99       99       99  
,a ,himalayan explorer reported1 a few  
years ago1 that he had seen1      from  
one of the lofty summits of the ,mount  
,everest district1 a peak      which1   

beheld in the same view with ,mount     
,everest1 was evidently      higher than
 it4 ,nothing has been heard of the     
matter since then      till the recent  
appearance of ,major ,l4 ,a4 ,waddell's 
book1 ,among      the ,himalayas4 ,this 
author1 who has explored the same       
region1      represents that the        
,tibetans there say there is another    
mountain1      due north of ,mount      
,everest1 that exceeds that peak in     
height1 thus      confirming the story  
of the former ,alpinist4 ,it appears    
that ,mount      ,everest is not called 
,gaurisankar or ,deodunga1 as some      
affirm1      but that the ,tibetan name 
of the culminating peak of the group is 
,jomokang-kar--8,the ,lady ,white       
,glacier40          ,a ,,hundred ,,years
 ,,of ,,chemistry4    ,,by ,f4 ,w4      
,,clarke1    ,,chief ,,chemist1 ,,united
 ,,states ,,geological ,,survey4        
,it is hardly an exaggeration to say    
that chemistry1 as a science1 is  the   
creation of the nineteenth century4     

,chemical facts1 indeed1 were  known    
even in remote antiquity2 some          
principles were dimly anticipated  long 
before the century began2 ,boyle had    
given the first rational  definition of 
an element2 the principal gases had been
 discovered2  great foundations were    
laid1 ready for the superstructure4 ,but
 the  making of bricks is not           
architecture1 nor does the accumulation 
of details constitute a science4 ,the   
scattered facts are needful             
preliminaries1 but only with the        
discovery of laws and the development   
of broad generalizations does true      
science begin4    ,that truth can be    
born from error may seem paradoxical1   
but1  nevertheless1 the statement is    
exact4 ,false hypotheses stimulate      
investigation1 and so truth comes at    
last to light4 ,in the history  of      
chemistry this principle is clearly     
illustrated4 ,during the  eighteenth    
century the doctrine of phlogiston was  
generally accepted2  this led to        

exhaustive researches upon combustion1  
and from these the  science of chemistry
 received its present shape4 ,becher and
 ,stahl  had taught that every          
combustible substance contained a       
combustible  principle--phlogiston--and 
that to the elimination of this         
principle  the phenomena of combustion  
were due4 ,according to this theory1 a  
metal  was regarded as a compound of its
 calx1 or oxide1 with phlogiston2       
hydrogen became a compound of water with
 phlogiston1 and so the truth  was      
curiously inverted4 ,the doctrine was   
vigorously and ingeniously  defended1   
and1 although it was overthrown by      
,lavoisier1 it had  persistent          
supporters even after the present       
century began4    ,the weak point of the
 phlogistic theory was its practical    
disregard of  the phenomena of weight4  
,that the calx weighed more than the    
metal was  well known1 but quantitative 
considerations were subordinated to     
those  of quality1 and the form of      

matter was studied rather than its mass4
    ,in #aggj the scientific career of  
,lavoisier began1 and the balance       
became a chief instrument in chemical   
research4 ,the constancy of  weight     
during chemical change was              
experimentally established1 and  what   
had been a philosophical                
speculation--the increatability and     
indestructibility of matter--became a   
doctrine of science1 a datum  of        
knowledge instead of a hypothetical     
belief4 ,in #aggd ,priestley and        
,scheele independently discovered       
oxygen1 and with the aid of the  balance
 the phenomena of combustion were       
rendered intelligible4 ,the  foundations
 of chemistry were laid1 and upon them  
the nineteenth  century has built4      
,lavoisier1 the greatest of the         
founders1 fell a  victim to the         
guillotine2 the judge who condemned him 
refused all  appeals for mercy1 saying  
8the republic has no need for savants10 
but the necessity which judicial        

ignorance could not foresee presently   
made itself felt4 ,france1 at war with  
all ,europe1 her ports closed to        
supplies from without1 fell back upon   
her own resources4 ,saltpeter  was      
needed for her guns1 alkali for her     
industries1 and the chemist  was called 
upon for help4 ,the stress of continued 
warfare stimulated  intellectual        
activity1 and one result was the        
creation of chemical  processes which   
revolutionized more than one industry4  
,the dependence  of modern civilization 
upon science then began to be           
recognized--a  dependence which is1     
perhaps1 the chief characteristic of the
 present  century4    ,with the opening 
of the new century a period of great    
activity began4  ,the constancy of      
matter was well established1 and the    
fundamental  distinction between        
elements and compounds was clearly      
recognized2 two  starting points for    
exact research had been gained4 ,only a 
small number  of elements1 however1 had 

been identified as such2 of some        
substances  it was doubtful whether they
 were elementary or not1 but the mine   
was  open and a rich body of ore was in 
sight4 ,furthermore1 the utility of     
research had become evident1 so that    
intellectual curiosity received a  new  
stimulus and a new direction4 ,theory   
and practice became partners1  and have 
worked together to this day4    ,between
 the years #ahjc and #ahjh one of the   
greatest advances1 in  scientific       
chemistry was made1 when ,john ,dalton  
announced and developed  his famous     
atomic theory4 ,in this we find a       
notable illustration of the  difference 
between metaphysics and science4 ,the   
conception of matter as  made up of     
atoms1 as discrete rather than          
continuous1 was a commonplace  of       
philosophical speculation4 ,it had been 
taught by ,democritus and  ,lucretius2  
it was the theme of wordy wrangles      
during centuries2  ,swedenborg1         
,higgins1 and other writers had sought  

to apply it to the  discussion of       
chemical phenomena2 but it remained only
 a speculation1  unfruitful for         
discovery4 ,up to the time of ,dalton it
 had led to  nothing but intellectual   
gymnastics4    ,a good scientific theory
 is never a product of the unaided      
imagination2  it must serve some purpose
 in the correlation of phenomena which  
suggest it to the mind4 ,this was the   
case with ,dalton's discovery1  which   
grew out of his observations upon       
definite and multiple  proportions4     
,that every chemical compound has a     
fixed and definite  composition was     
recognized by ,lavoisier1 and by other  
chemists before  him2 but the fact was  
disputed by ,berthollet1 and its verity 
was not  established until #ahjh4       
,dalton went a step further1 and found  
that to  every element a definite       
combining number could be assigned1 and 
that  when two elements united in more  
than one proportion even multiples of   
that number appeared4 ,thus1 taking the 

hydrogen weight as unity1 oxygen  always
 combines with other elements in the    
proportion of eight parts  or some      
simple multiple thereof1 and so on      
through the entire list of  elementary  
bodies4 ,each one has its own combining 
weight1 and this was  the law for which 
,dalton sought an adequate explanation4 
,fractions of  the weights did not      
appear1 fractional atoms could not      
exist2 the two  thoughts were connected 
by ,dalton4 ,chemical union1 to his     
mind1 became  a juxtaposition of atoms1 
whose relative weights were indicated by
  their combining numbers1 and so the   
atomic conception for the first  time   
was given quantitative expression4 ,the 
facts were co-ordinated1  the special   
laws were combined in one general       
theory1 and the mere  suppositions of   
other men were supplanted by a precise  
statement1  which is a corner stone of  
chemistry to-day4 ,the doctrine led at  
once  to investigations1 it rendered    
possible the discovery of new truth1    

chemical formul and chemical equations  
were developed from it2 without  its aid
 the growth of chemical science would   
probably have been  slow4 ,the nature of
 the atoms may be in doubt1 they may be 
divisible  or indivisible1 but the value
 of the theory is independent of such   
considerations4 ,it gives adequate      
expression to known laws1 and it can    
only be set aside1 if ever1 by          
absorption into some wider and deeper   
generalization4    ,the same year which 
saw the completion of ,dalton's theory  
7#ahjg7 was  also signalized by the     
remarkable discoveries of ,sir ,humphry 
,davy1 who  decomposed the alkalies and 
proved them to be compounds of metals4  
,in #ahaj chlorine1 which was previously
 thought to be a compound1 was  proved  
to be elementary1 and this fact was     
emphasized a year later  by the         
discovery of iodine4 ,these researches  
gave precision to the  conception of an 
element1 and prepared the way for later 
investigations  upon many other oxides4 

,all the so-called 8earths0--lime1      
magnesia1  alumina1 and so on--were now 
seen to be oxy-compounds of metals1 and 
an intelligent interpretation of all    
forms of inorganic matter became        
possible4 ,the first step in the chain  
of research was the discovery  of oxygen
 itself2 from that1 and from the        
teachings of ,lavoisier1 the  later     
discoveries logically followed4         
,while the investigations of ,dalton and
 of ,davy were still incomplete1  other 
chemists were actively studying the     
properties of gases and  exploring the  
fertile border-land between chemistry   
and physics4 ,in  #ahje ,gay-,lussac and
 ,humboldt determined the composition of
 water by  volume2 in #ahjh ,gay-,lussac
 extended these observations1 and found 
that in all compound gases simple       
volumetric relations existed2 and  in   
#ahaa the entire subject was generalized
 into ,avogadro's law4  ,avogadro showed
 that equal volumes of gases1 compared  
under equivalent  conditions1 must      

contain equal numbers of molecules1 and 
although the  force of his discovery was
 not fully appreciated until much later1
  it is now recognized as one of the    
fundamental propositions of both        
physics and chemistry4 ,for the first   
time the distinction between atoms  and 
molecules was clearly stated1 and from  
the density of a gas the  relative      
weight of its molecule could be         
calculated4 ,avogadro's law  rounded out
 and completed the atomic theory1 and to
 its application  much of the advance in
 organic chemistry is due4 ,equally     
striking1 but  less far-reaching in its 
consequences1 was the discovery         
announced by  ,dulong and ,petit in     
#ahai1 when it was shown that the       
specific heat of  an element was        
inversely proportional to its atomic    
weight4 ,otherwise  stated1 this law    
asserts that the atoms of all the       
elements have the  same capacity for    
heat1 and an important check upon       
determinations of  atomic weight was    

thus provided4    ,the next twenty years
 in the history of chemistry were years 
of  detail rather than of permanent     
generalizations4 ,the multitudinous     
verification of known laws1 the         
development of experimental methods1    
especially methods of analysis1 the     
discovery of new elements1 the          
preparation of numberless new compounds1
 occupied the attention of most         
workers4 ,this period1 which may be     
called the ,berzelian period1 was       
enormously fruitful in results1 although
 but few of the theories then  proposed 
have survived to the present day4       
,during this period the name  and       
influence of ,berzelius overshadowed all
 others1 and his marvelous  researches1 
carried out in a laboratory which was   
hardly more than  a kitchen1 were of    
almost incredible variety4 ,for the     
crude symbols  of ,dalton1 ,berzelius   
substituted a system of chemical formul 
which  could be used in chemical        
equations2 in #ahah and #ahbf he        

published  tables of atomic weights1    
determined with far greater exactness   
than  ever before2 he discovered five   
new elements and a multitude of         
compounds1 devised methods of research1 
and proposed theories which1  though    
later to be overthrown1 for many years  
dominated chemical  science4 ,his       
electro-chemical experiments led him to 
his dualistic  theory of compounds1     
which interpreted each compound as made 
up of two  parts--one positive1 the     
other negative4 ,the electro-positive   
oxides  were basic1 the electro-negative
 groups were acid2 chemical affinity    
was electrical attraction between the   
two opposites2 chemical union  implied a
 neutralization of one by the other4    
,these ideas were more  than            
speculation1 for they rested upon       
experiment and led to further           
experimental research2 but they went too
 far1 and therefore could  not last4    
,the theory1 however1 contained much    
that was true1 and the  formul developed

 by it gave the first general suggestion
 of what is  now known as chemical      
structure or constitution4 ,the later   
study of  organic compounds led up to   
the modern views4    ,although          
,berzelius and many other chemists did  
some work upon organic  compounds1 their
 era was chiefly identified with        
inorganic researches4  ,mineral         
chemistry received a great deal of      
attention1 the relatively  simple acids1
 bases1 and salts were studied1 but the 
compounds of  carbon were thought to be 
more complex and received less          
consideration4  ,to-day1 at the close of
 the century1 nearly seventy thousand   
organic  compounds are known1 and of    
these comparatively few were discovered 
before the year #ahcj4 ,since then      
organic chemistry has been the  dominant
 line of investigation4    ,among the   
earlier chemists of the nineteenth      
century it was commonly  supposed that  
organic and inorganic matter were       
radically different1  and that the      

former could only be produced by the    
operation of a  peculiar vital force4   
,to this view there were some           
dissentients1  ,berzelius among them1   
but experimental proof for their        
contention  was lacking4 ,in #ahbg1     
however1 ,whler succeeded in            
transforming the  inorganic ammonium    
cyanate into the organic urea1 and the  
barrier was  broken down4 ,the era of   
synthetic chemistry had begun4 ,still   
earlier1  in #ahbc1 ,liebig had found   
that silver cyanate and silver fulminate
  possessed the same percentage         
composition2 in #ahbe ,faraday          
discovered  an isomer of ethylene2 and  
,whler's research now gave a third      
example  of the same kind4 ,two         
different substances could contain the  
same  elements in the same proportions1 
and to explain this fact ,berzelius     
inferred different arrangements of atoms
 within the molecule1 and  suggested    
that their mode of union might be       
determined4 ,a working  theory1 however1

 was still lacking1 and without it      
progress was  necessarily slow4 ,the    
dualistic hypothesis explained the      
phenomena  only in part1 and as the     
known facts increased in number it had  
to be  abandoned4    ,two important     
investigations paved the way for an     
advance4 ,in #ahcb  ,liebig and ,whler1 
studying benzoic acid1 found that it and
 its  derivatives contained in common a 
group of atoms1 not isolable by  itself1
 to which they gave the name of benzoyl4
 ,the conception of such  a group1 a    
compound radicle1 already existed1 but  
it lacked clearness1  and now for the   
first time it became truly a scientific 
idea4 ,the  search for1 and the         
identification of1 compound radicles    
began to  occupy the attention of       
chemists1 and a definite line of attack 
upon  organic matter was recognized4    
,two years later the second great step  
was taken4 ,dumas1 studying the  action 
of chlorine upon acetic acid1 showed    
that the chlorine could  replace        

hydrogen atom for atom1 or volume for   
volume1 and that his  observations      
explained other reactions which had been
 unintelligible  hitherto4 ,this        
research led him to the famous theory of
 substitutions1  which at first was     
received with ridicule1 but soon found  
general  acceptance4 ,electro-chemical  
conceptions1 the ,berzelian doctrines1  
were  then in vogue1 and it seemed      
strange1 even absurd1 to suppose that   
electro-negative chlorine could be      
substituted for electro-positive        
hydrogen4 ,but the facts were stronger  
than the preconceived ideas1 and  the   
latter soon gave way4 ,in this discovery
 by ,dumas the first germs of  the      
modern theory of valence are to be      
found4    ,for the study of inorganic   
substances1 however1 the dualistic      
theory  was long retained1 with the     
result that inorganic chemistry         
degenerated  to a great extent into     
analysis and compound making1 without   
any  general conceptions which could    

stimulate scientific advance4 ,it       
became a science of details rather than 
of principles1 and was soon             
overshadowed by the organic branch4 ,in 
the latter1 theory after theory  sprang 
up1 flourished1 and died away1 each one 
having partial truth1  but none being   
exhaustive and final4 ,still1 the       
intellectual activity  led to           
discoveries1 and the warfare between    
doctrines1 unlike the  warfare between  
men1 was productive of good instead of  
destruction4  ,from the conflict of     
ideas the truth gradually emerged1 and a
 new  system of chemical philosophy was 
developed4 ,the theory of compound      
radicles1 the nucleus theory1 the theory
 of types1 the conception of  conjugated
 compounds1 followed rapidly one after  
the other1 until in  the discovery of   
valence all discrepancies were          
reconciled1 structural  chemistry came  
into existence1 and a single doctrine1  
applicable alike  to organic and        
inorganic substances1 had possession of 

the field4    ,the theory of valence was
 a logical outgrowth from its           
predecessors1  whose valuable features  
it included in a wider generalization1  
but it  was the work of no one master   
mind4 ,many chemists contributed to its 
up-building1 ,frankland and ,kekul being
 among the leaders2 but its  foundations
 are to be detected in the atomic theory
 itself1 from which  it is legitimately 
derived4 ,to understand its full        
significance we must  take a step       
backward in history1 and trace the      
change in atomic weights  from their    
first form to the modern system4    ,in 
the early days of the atomic theory1 in 
the determinations by  ,wollaston1      
,berzelius1 and others1 attention was   
chiefly paid to  the atomic weights in  
their aspect of combining numbers4 ,they
 were  primarily of use as factors in   
chemical calculations1 and chemists     
naturally sought for their simplest     
expressions1 with little regard to      
theoretical considerations4 ,the laws of

 ,avogadro1 of ,dulong and ,petit1  had1
 indeed1 been announced1 but the        
adjustment of the atomic weights  to    
meet their requirements was long        
neglected4 ,the importance of the       
adjustment was not realized1 for it was 
obscured by the prevailing  dualistic   
theory1 but without it the deeper       
general relations of the  atoms could   
not appear4 ,accordingly1 a system of   
chemical formul grew  up which was based
 upon a deceptive apparent simplicity of
 ratios1  and by which the theory of    
valence could not be even suggested4    
,the  old formula for water1 ,,ho1      
expressed only its composition by       
weight1  ignoring its composition by    
volume2 it failed1 therefore1 to accord 
with ,avogadro's law or to give the     
slightest hint as to the relations      
which are now covered by the conception 
of chemical structure4 ,a part  of the  
existing knowledge was accurately       
symbolized1 but the larger  part was    
ignored1 a state of affairs which could 

not last1 although the  change came     
about but slowly4    ,the incentive to  
reform came from two sources4 ,physics1 
in the  kinetic theory of gases1 gave a 
new demonstration of the truth of       
,avogadro's law1 and led chemists to    
realize more clearly than before  the   
distinction between atoms and molecules4
 ,soon it was seen that the  molecule   
was the smallest particle of matter     
which could exist as such1  while the   
atom was the smallest particle which    
could take part in any  chemical change4
 ,the metaphysical atom was really the  
modern molecule2  the chemical atom was 
a new conception1 due to the discoveries
 of  chemistry alone4 ,this distinction 
was found to hold good even for         
elementary bodies1 and it became evident
 that free hydrogen or oxygen  must     
contain two atoms to the molecule1 while
 phosphorus and arsenic  contained four4
 ,with mercury the atom and the molecule
 are identical1  but in most cases the  
greater complexity exists1 and the      

elements as  we see them are compounds  
of like atoms with each other4 ,that    
hydrogen  can unite with hydrogen1      
oxygen with oxygen1 carbon with carbon1 
is a  conception to which the early     
chemists never attained1 but which is a 
necessary consequence of ,avogadro's law
 in its application to observed         
phenomena4    ,the second impulse toward
 change originated in the study of      
organic  compounds1 and gained its force
 from the struggle between contending   
theories4 ,the advocates of each theory 
sought for evidence in its  favor1 and  
so innumerable discoveries were made1   
compound radicles  were recognized in   
great numbers1 and the mass of data     
became so  overwhelming that for a while
 chaos reigned4 ,classification of      
compounds became imperatively necessary1
 and to that all speculation  was       
subordinated4 ,in #ahdb ,schiel found   
that the alcohols formed a  regular     
series1 with progressive variation in   
their properties2 ,dumas  observed a    

similar relation among the fatty acids1 
and so something  like order began to   
appear4    ,in #ahdc ,charles ,gerhardt 
proposed to use the law of ,avogadro as 
a basis  for the determination of atomic
 weights4 ,this involved the doubling of
  many existing values1 especially the  
atomic weights assigned to oxygen1      
carbon1 and sulphur4 ,at first the      
proposition was violently opposed1  and 
even ridiculed1 but by slow degrees it  
managed to make its way1  although it   
was not until after #aheh that it began 
to find anything  like general          
acceptance4 ,in that year ,cannizzaro   
put forth his revision  of the atomic   
weights1 adjusted to accord with        
physical laws1 and a  new era in        
chemistry began4 ,the modern theories of
 chemistry became  possible1 and the    
many researches in which they had been  
foreshadowed  received a clearer        
meaning4 ,cannizzaro did not stand      
alone2 his work  was but the capstone of
 a structure which had long been        

growing2  ,liebig1 ,dumas1 ,laurent1    
,gerhardt1 ,wurtz1 ,graham1 ,williamson1
 and  ,frankland were among the         
builders4 ,but at last chemical and     
physical  evidence were brought into    
full convergence1 and each gave emphasis
 to  the other4    ,during the formative
 period of the new doctrines1 between   
#ahdj and  #aheh1 many discoveries were 
made which helped toward the final      
consummation4 ,even earlier than this   
the researches of ,graham upon  the     
phosphoric acids had familiarized       
chemists with the idea that  different  
substances might have very different    
combining powers1 and  other polybasic  
acids were found to exist among organic 
compounds4  ,the discovery by ,wurtz1 in
 #ahdi1 that the hydrogen of ammonia was
  replaceable by organic radicles1      
forming the compound ammonias or        
amines1 was a logical extension of the  
theory of substitutions2 and  the       
recognition at about the same time1 by  
,hofmann1 of ammonia as a  distinct type

 upon which many other substances could 
be modeled1 was  another long step      
forward4 ,in #ahea ,williamson argued   
that nearly all  inorganic and many     
organic molecules could be represented  
as analogous  in structure to water1 and
 a year later1 as a result of his       
researches  upon the organo-metallic    
bodies--zinc ethyl1 tin ethyl1          
etc4--,frankland  expressed the belief  
that every elementary atom has a        
definite  combining power which limits  
the number of other atoms capable of    
direct union with it4 ,this was the     
theory of valence in its first and      
simplest form1 undeveloped to its       
consequences1 but unmistakably clear4   
,to carbon compounds in general it was  
yet to be applied4    ,in #aheh the work
 of ,cannizzaro appeared1 and a general 
revision of  chemical formul became     
necessary4 ,the advanced views which a  
few  chemists had held began to find a  
more general acceptance1 and the        
significance of the change was gradually

 realized4 ,in the same year  ,kekul    
showed that the atom of carbon had a    
combining capacity of  four1 and        
furthermore that in many organic        
compounds the carbon atoms  were in part
 united with each other1 and even       
linked1 as it were1 into  chains4 ,still
 later1 studying benzene1 he found that 
its six carbon  atoms were best regarded
 as joined together in the form of a    
closed  ring1 and with this conception  
the idea of chemical structure received 
at last a definite form4 ,these linkages
 of atoms1 these rings and  their       
derivatives1 could all be represented   
graphically to the eye1  in accordance  
with the combining power of the several 
elements1 and  so the structural formul 
of modern chemistry came into vogue4    
,types1  substitutions1 compound        
radicles1 were all covered by and       
included in  the new generalization1 and
 each of the older theories was seen to 
be  but an expression of special cases1 
rather than of any general law4 ,no     

truth was set aside1 but all were       
co-ordinated4    ,to the non-chemical   
reader the foregoing passages may seem  
vague  and abstruse1 but in an essay of 
this scope greater elaboration is       
inadmissible4 ,it is clear1 however1    
that each forward step has been a       
logical development of the atomic       
theory1 which1 as we shall see later1   
does not end even here4    ,thus1 then1 
the chemical formul and atomic weights  
of ,berzelius grew  by slow degrees into
 the modern system1 with its            
representations of  structure and atomic
 linking4 ,the internal architecture of 
the molecule  was now revealed not to   
the imagination only1 but to the eye of 
reason1  and1 speculative as the new    
conceptions may seem at first1 they have
  led to astonishing practical          
consequences4 ,the new formul at once   
indicated lines of research1 and with   
their aid synthetic chemistry  was      
greatly stimulated4 ,true1 many         
syntheses of organic compounds  had     

already been made1 but progress became  
more rapid and the work  of discovery   
was systematized to a wonderful degree4 
,in #ahef ,perkin  discovered the first 
of the coal-tar dyes1 creating a new    
industry  which has been assisted beyond
 measure by the structural symbols that 
came into use only a few years later4   
,in #ahfh alizarin1 the coloring        
principle of madder1 was made           
artificially from the hydrocarbon       
anthracene2 a host of other colors1 a   
veritable chemical rainbow1  have been  
discovered2 the synthesis of indigo has 
been effected2 and  within twenty years 
we have seen medicine enriched by a     
great variety  of drugs1 all prepared by
 purely chemical processes from the     
former  waste material--coal tar4 ,to   
most of this work1 at least since #ahfe1
  ,kekul's conception of the benzene    
ring has been the guiding clew1  and it 
is certain that without the theory the  
practice would have  advanced much more 
slowly4 ,out of research for its own    

sake has come  an enrichment of the     
world1 which in any previous age would  
have been  inconceivable4    ,the atomic
 theory1 while replacing speculation in 
one sense1 stimulated  it in another4   
,the human mind is always striving to   
get back of the  known1 to see what lies
 beyond the limits of visibility1 and   
the  conception of an element with its  
atomic weight opened up a field for  the
 exercise of the imagination4 ,what is  
an element ultimately8 was  an early    
question to ask4 ,are the elements      
really diverse1 or do they  manifest but
 one fundamental kind of matter8 ,to    
such queries the atomic  weights offered
 a promising line for investigation1 and
 more than one  mind began traveling    
along it4 ,in #ahae ,prout put forth the
 supposition  that all atomic weights   
were even multiples of that assigned to 
hydrogen1 and over this hypothesis a    
long warfare has raged4 ,to-day  it is  
practically abandoned by chemists1 but  
the controversy which it  provoked led  

to some of the most accurate            
investigations in the history  of       
science1 and so served to give precision
 to our knowledge4 ,without  the        
instigation of ,prout's hypothesis1     
which hinted at hydrogen as  the        
ultimate form of matter1 we might have  
been content with inferior              
determinations of atomic weight1 and    
chemistry1 as an exact science1  would  
have suffered4    ,in due time1 however1
 it was perceived that the elements     
could  be arranged in groups1 the       
members of each group having similar    
properties and forming similar          
compounds4 ,serial relations1 analogous 
to those discovered among organic       
compounds1 became manifest1 and  much   
thought was expended in seeking to trace
 out their meaning4 ,the  classification
 of the elements was more and more seen 
to be important1  and regularities came 
to light which at first were            
unsuspected4 ,still1  no general law1 no
 one guiding principle1 could be found  

so long as the  old system of weights   
and formul was retained in common usage4
    ,the adoption of ,cannizzaro's      
atomic weights and the establishment of 
the theory of valence made possible a   
new attack upon the problem of          
classification4 ,in #ahfd ,newlands     
arranged the elements in the order of   
their atomic weights1 and showed that at
 regular intervals there was a  periodic
 recurrence of certain characteristics4 
,this observation1 which  foreshadowed  
the periodic law1 was received with     
indifference and1 to  some extent1 with 
ridicule1 but the path had been found   
which soon led  to a great discovery4   
,in #ahfi ,mendelejeff published his    
celebrated  memoir1 and the periodic law
 took its place as a distinct addition  
to  science4 ,almost simultaneously     
,lothar ,meyer announced similar views1 
but independently1 and controversy soon 
arose as to the relative merits  of the 
two philosophers4 ,with that controversy
 we have nothing to do1  but the law    

itself deserves our fuller attention4   
,according to the periodic law1 all the 
properties of the elements are  periodic
 functions of their atomic weights1     
varying from substance  to substance in 
a perfectly regular manner4 ,the        
elements thus fall  into periods1 or    
octaves1 as ,newlands called them1 of a 
very striking  character4 ,if1 for      
example1 we start with univalent        
lithium1 the next  higher element has a 
valence of two1 the next of three1 and  
then comes  carbon1 whose atom is       
quadrivalent4 ,following carbon1 the    
combining  power of successive elements 
decreases until we reach sodium1 in     
which  something like the properties of 
lithium recur4 ,above sodium the same   
rise goes on to the fourth element      
higher1 silicon1 which resembles        
carbon1 and then follows the regular    
step-by-step falling away1 to end  with 
chlorine1 the last member of the second 
period4 ,this periodic  rising and      
falling is characteristic of all the    

elements1 and they were  so tabulated by
 ,mendelejeff as to be perfectly clear1 
with a clearness  which is not to be    
given by words4 ,in ,mendelejeff's table
 certain gaps  appeared1 which he       
ascribed to the existence of            
undiscovered metals4  ,for three of     
these he predicted the properties1      
starting out from  the properties of    
their neighbors4 ,this was a rash thing 
to do1 but  the venture has been fully  
vindicated4 ,in #ahge ,lecoq de         
,boisbandram  discovered gallium1 which 
filled one of the gaps2 scandium and    
germanium filled the other two later4   
,the predictions of ,mendelejeff  were  
fulfilled2 atomic weight1 specific      
gravity1 fusibility1 the  character of  
the compounds to be formed1 were all    
foreseen for each  of the three new     
elements2 and1 so far as experiment has 
yet gone1  his anticipations have been  
perfectly realized4 ,every good theory  
is  prophetic2 but few generalizations  
have been so strikingly verified  in    

this respect as has the periodic law4   
,in spite of some outstanding           
difficulties1 yet to be explained1 the  
law has served to great  advantage in   
the classification of the elements1 and 
it has had much to  do with the late    
revival of inorganic chemistry4 ,the    
latter branch of  science1 long         
comparatively neglected1 has now gained 
new interest1 and  for it1 in the near  
future1 a great growth can be           
prophesied4    ,the immediate effect of 
the periodic law was to prove that the  
elements are connected with one another 
by general relations1 and so  to        
stimulate the belief in their possibly  
common origin4 ,this view has  many     
upholders1 although it is also strongly 
opposed1 but the weight  of argument    
seems to be in its favor4 ,on           
philosophic grounds it is at  least more
 probable than the opposite opinion1    
which can not account  in any way for   
the regularities which have been        
observed4 ,from another  source1 partly 

physical and partly chemical1 the theory
 of the unity  of matter has received   
strong support1 and this statement      
brings us  to another of the greatest   
discoveries made during the nineteenth  
century--that of the spectroscope and   
spectrum analysis4    ,it was in #ahfj  
that ,kirchhoff and ,bunsen added this  
new weapon to  the arsenal of scientific
 research4 ,the spectroscope itself1 as 
an instrument1 was an invention in the  
department of optics1 but  its          
applications to chemistry were among the
 most obvious and the  most startling of
 its achievements4 ,with its aid new    
elements were  discovered--rubidium1    
csium1 thallium1 indium1 and gallium2 in
 many  lines of investigation it found  
immediate use2 but1 more than all1 it   
made possible the analysis of the       
heavenly bodies1 and proved that the    
same kinds of matter exist throughout   
the visible universe4 ,before the  day  
of the spectroscope all speculation upon
 the chemistry of the stars  was in     

vain2 with its advent the material unity
 of planets1 suns1 and  nebul was made  
clear4 ,to the astronomer1 a new eye was
 given2 to the  chemist1 a new          
laboratory4 ,three sciences were brought
 to a single  focus1 and each one gained
 in power thereby4    ,in its           
application to what may be called       
chemical astronomy1 one  achievement of 
the spectroscope was particularly       
notable--namely1 the  rehabilitation of 
the nebular hypothesis4 ,when the       
gigantic telescope  of ,lord ,rosse had 
resolved some nebul into clusters of    
stars1 it  was thought that all other   
nebul might be of the same character2   
the visible basis of the hypothesis was 
gone4 ,but the spectroscope  soon found 
among these celestial objects some which
 were truly clouds  of incandescent gas1
 and so the nebular hypothesis received 
a new  standing1 becoming stronger than 
ever before4 ,one point1 however1  was  
strange3 these gaseous clouds were of   
the simplest composition2  hydrogen and 

nitrogen were their chief constituents2 
how1 then1 could a  world like ours     
originate from them8    ,further        
investigation1 to which ,huggins and    
,secchi were the chief  contributors1   
showed1 however1 that from nebula to    
planet there is  a regular1 progressive 
order of chemical complexity4 ,the nebul
 are  simple2 in the hotter stars a few 
more elements appear2 more still can  be
 detected in colored stars and the sun2 
but the planets1 represented  by our    
earth1 are most complex of all4 ,so far 
the facts2 the scientific  imagination  
now comes into play4 ,if suns and       
planets were derived  by a process of   
condensation from such nebul as exist   
to-day1  perhaps the process of         
evolution was attended by an evolution  
of the  chemical elements themselves4   
,upon that supposition the facts become 
intelligible2 without it the evidence is
 not easily co-ordinated4 ,this  hint1  
together with the suggestions offered by
 the periodic law1 has  made chemists   

more ready to consider the probable     
unity of matter1  even though actual    
proof for or against the conception has 
not yet  been attained4 ,that the       
chemical elements are absolute and final
 few  thinkers of to-day believe2 the   
drift of opinion is mainly in one       
direction1 but no element has yet been  
decomposed or transmuted into  another4 
,some mathematical relations have been  
found connecting the  atomic weights of 
certain elements with the wave lengths  
of their  spectral lines1 and this field
 of investigation is a promising one for
  the future4 ,that the atomic weights  
are connected hardly admits of  doubt2  
to the mass of the atom its rate of     
vibration must be related2  to that     
vibration the lines in the spectrum are 
due4 ,the clews are  obvious1 and it    
will be strange if they do not lead to  
important  discoveries ere long4    ,to 
be concluded4          ,,the ,,science  
,,of ,,art ,,form4    ,,by ,d4 ,,cady   
,,eaton4      ,taste is so free and so  

subjective1 so largely a matter of      
personal  feeling1 that any selection or
 limitation of attractive objects  would
 be met by plausible objection4 ,every  
honest and unprejudiced  investigator   
must1 however1 admit nowadays that his  
individual taste  may be informed and   
purified1 and that he is under          
obligations to  be ever ready to explain
 and to justify it4 ,the day for the    
mere  proclaiming of preference has     
passed4 ,the proclamation must be       
accompanied by explanations which will  
satisfy others1 if they do not  convince
 them1 and which will be clear to one's 
own understanding4 ,the  authoritative  
explanation1 8,i like this1 ,i dislike  
that10 will no more  pass current nor   
carry weight4 ,science has sufficiently 
studied the  sentiments and emotions to 
know that they1 too1 are subject to laws
  which must be acknowledged and obeyed4
 ,excitations for which there is  no    
reasonable accounting1 no justifiable   
source1 must be relegated  to the domain

 of folly4 ,the reason for everything   
that appertains to  thought and emotion1
 if not apparent1 must be exposed and   
presented4  ,artists must explain their 
works to vulgar understanding4 ,writers 
must  make their criticisms plain to the
 humble intellect4 ,the age in which  we
 live takes nothing for granted1 accepts
 no man's ipse dixit1 hates  shams1 is  
intolerant of secrecy1 hypocrisy1 and   
fraud4    ,i propose in this article1 by
 contrasting good and bad examples1 to  
put  before readers a few of the        
simplest elements of decoration4 ,you   
can  hardly fail to note the            
differences1 and when once the eye has  
acquired  the habit of discriminating   
there is no reason why there should not 
follow a growth in perception which will
 result in delightful and  augmenting   
artistic enjoyment4 ,no attempt is to be
 made to develop a  system1 nor1 of     
course1 to cover the whole ground of the
 subject4 ,the  object is simply to     
start perceptions in the right          

direction4    ,almost all the ideas and 
the illustrations of this article are   
taken  from a little work by ,henri     
,mayeux1 called ,la ,composition        
,dcorative4  ,henri ,mayeux is          
,professor of ,decorative ,art in the   
cole des ,beaux-,arts  in ,paris4 ,his  
work is one of the series of the        
,bibliothque de  l',enseignement des    
,beaux-,arts1 a series which should be  
among the very  first works to be found 
in the library of every student of art4 
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4    ,the very  
first of ,mayeux's illustrations 7,fig4 
#a7 introduces the style  of the        
teaching of the volume and of this      
article4 ,let me translate  his         
accompanying description3 8,here are two
 recipients of the same  height1 made of
 the same material1 and with about equal
 care4 ,each has  two handles and is    
decorated by the same number of fillets4
 ,the one  marked ,a is the work of an  
ordinary potter1 without artistic       
instinct  or education4 ,the other1 ,b1 

is a ,greek vase of fine and delicate   
taste4 ,no one can fail to appreciate   
the superiority of ,b to ,a4 ,the       
purity of its profile1 the graceful     
manner in which the handles are         
attached1 the calculated division of the
 fillets1 establish at once a           
considerable difference of artistic     
value between the two objects40 ,if     
,mayeux were addressing beginners he    
might add that one reason why all  jugs 
and vases are round is that the shape is
 the easiest to make4 ,the  potter's    
wheel must have been one of the very    
earliest inventions of  semi-civilized  
races4 ,besides1 as a drop of water is  
globular1 it seems  appropriate that    
liquids should be contained in round    
receptacles4 ,a  square jug would not   
only seem inappropriate1 but it would be
 ugly  and perhaps difficult to handle4 
,notice in ,b how much better the       
different parts are distinguished3 the  
neck from the body of the  vessel1 and  
the body of the vessel from the foot4   

,two fillets are also  very             
appropriately put where the vessel is   
largest1 and where they seem  to convey 
a sense of increased strength exactly   
where the pressure is  greatest4 ,you   
will find all the way through the study 
of ornament that  utility1 or use1 is a 
fundamental principle which can not be  
violated  without impairing beauty4     
,before presenting objects for          
comparison it may be well to pass in    
review the elements which compose all   
objects4 ,decoration is the  application
 of ornament to form4 ,it therefore     
presupposes knowledge  of both form and 
ornament1 for form must be understood by
 itself1 and  ornament by itself1 before
 the proper ornament may be selected for
 the  given form4 ,the elements of form 
are length1 breadth1 and thickness4 ,a  
mathematical point is conceived to have 
no dimensions1 a mathematical  line but 
one1 and a mathematical plane but two4  
,but in actuality there  is no tangible 
object without the third                

dimension--thickness4 ,still1  where two
 dimensions are very much more prominent
 than the third--as1  for instance1 in a
 plaque1 in the side of a room1 in a    
single  elevation of a building1 or     
whenever merely the surface of an object
  is viewed--the third dimension may be 
left out of consideration4 ,lines  and  
the surfaces they bound--that is1 length
 and breadth--are the two  elements of  
form which play the chief part in       
decoration4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4
    ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4    ,if the
 two vases which are represented in the 
view by vertical and  horizontal1       
straight and curved lines1 were actually
 before us you  would have difficulty in
 finding any vertical lines1 and the    
horizontal  lines would turn out to be  
circles4 ,the lines in the view mark the
  apparent terminations of the surfaces4
 ,for purposes of study1 however1  you  
must regard objects of three dimensions 
as bounded by lines1 just  as they      
appear in photographs1 drawings1 or     

other flat representations1  geometric  
or perspective4 ,in regarding objects   
from the point of view  of decoration   
there is still another element to be    
considered2 that is1  the element of    
material1 the substance of which objects
 consist1 for it  is evident that the   
ornament which would be appropriate to  
wood1 for  instance1 might not be       
appropriate to metal or to stone4 ,the  
element of  material is of great        
importance in practical decoration1 but 
of less  importance in theoretical      
decoration4 ,lines and surfaces are     
therefore  the two chief elements of    
decoration to be considered at present4 
,color1 being an element of an entirely 
independent nature1 will not be         
considered at all4    ,first1 lines4    
,the lines down one side of an object   
may be called the  profile of the       
object1 while the lines surrounding the 
object may be  called the contour or    
outline of the object4    ,illustration3
 ,,fig4 #d4    ,profiles and outlines   

are made up of any number of straight   
and curved  lines connected at any and  
every variety of angle4 ,the view 7,fig4
 #b7  shows a few possibilities of      
combination of lines into profiles4 ,the
  particular thing to be observed in    
these profiles is that individual       
curves are preceded or followed by      
curves which curve in the same          
direction or in the opposite            
direction--that is1 regarding the curves
  as concave or convex from a given side
 of the profile1 sometimes a  concave   
curve meets a concave curve1 sometimes  
it meets a convex curve4  ,in these     
particular profiles the straight lines  
which unite the curves  are so small and
 so insignificant that they appear as   
mere connections4  ,where the adjoining 
curves are homogeneous the connection is
 called  continuous--raccords continus1 
as ,mayeux puts it4 ,when the adjoining 
curves are different1 the connection is 
called contrasted--raccords  contrasts4 
,in the view all continuous connections 

are marked a2 all  contrasted           
connections are marked b4 ,now follow   
these lines up and  down slowly and     
deliberately--not once or twice1 but a  
number of times4  ,see exactly where the
 connections occur1 and where the       
connections  are continuous1 and where  
they are contrasted4 ,in these profiles 
are  shown forth and made evident two of
 the most important and general laws    
not only of ornament1 but of all        
artistic composition3 ,first1 that      
connected curves of the same kind must  
run substantially in the same           
direction2 and1 second1 that for        
purposes of strong contrast curves of   
different kinds must be joined--that is 
to say1 that where contrasted           
connection is desired1 the difference in
 direction must be abruptly  and sharply
 indicated4 ,in the profiles in the view
 the various curves  have been continued
 in dotted lines beyond the profiles1 so
 as to bring  out and make clear these  
two laws4 ,you see that wherever there  

is a  b4 the dotted lines cross at1 or  
nearly at1 right angles1 and that       
wherever there is an a4 there is no     
crossing at all of the dotted  lines4   
,the essence of these two laws is of    
such importance in all  artistic and    
decorative composition that beginners   
might well be put  to drawing profiles  
until the principles involved have been 
absorbed  and made a part of artistic   
apprehension4 ,the profiles in the view 
are  all pleasing1 because the laws are 
observed4 ,try your hand at drawing     
profiles in which the laws are not      
observed1 and you will quickly  perceive
 the difference4 ,the most beautiful of 
pure profiles are those  presented by   
,greek entablatures4 ,the most beautiful
 of ,greek outlines  are those presented
 by ,greek vases4 ,the beauties of      
,greek sculpture and  of renaissance    
design belong so strictly to the domain 
of pure art that  they may not be used  
for comparison in an article on         
ornament4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4  

,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4    ,as        
outlines are composed of profiles1 the  
same laws govern4 ,that  the curved line
 is the line of beauty stands out most  
evidently in  the study of antique      
designs4 ,vertical lines and horizontal 
lines  are the lines of support and     
strength1 and must always have proper   
consideration2 but in pure ornament the 
office of straight lines seems  to be   
confined to connecting curves and to    
emphasizing their contrasts4            
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4    ,the next  
view 7,fig4 #c7 is to illustrate the    
progress already made4  ,on the upper   
line are the three rough outline        
sketches for modern  articles1 of which 
the final use and destination are shown 
on the lower  line4 ,in the sketch to   
the left the fine effect is produced by 
a few  curves1 of which the connections 
are boldly and finely contrasted4 ,in   
the second sketch an equally pleasing   
effect is produced by curves1 of  which 
the principal ones are continuously     

connected1 while in the third  sketch   
there is a pleasing exhibition of both  
kinds of connections4  ,the lower line  
gives you your first notion of the use  
of ornament in  marking and embellishing
 the lines of form4    ,illustration3   
,contours btards et indcis ,,fig4 #h4   
,the next view 7,fig4 #d7 exposes forms 
in which the above laws are  violated1  
and by whose ugliness you can not fail  
to be impressed4 ,on  the top line are  
objects of which the curves are so weak 
and undecided  that it would be         
difficult to state whether the          
connections are  continuous or          
contrasted4 ,in the second line is shown
 how ugly is the  effect when straight  
lines are substituted for curved lines1 
and in the  third line is shown how ugly
 effects may be produced even by curved 
lines when not used in obedience to some
 accepted and apprehended  principle4   
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i4    ,there is  
another presentation of form which is in
 reality but a  modification of profile1

 but which1 because it looks as if it   
had  been separately applied1 and also  
because it is separately treated  in    
books1 must be considered by itself4    
,the term 8molding0 has been  given to  
variations in surfaces which have both  
useful and ornamental  uses4 ,moldings  
are as old as architecture1 and vary    
with schools of  architecture4          
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aj4    ,in the   
next view 7,fig4 #e71 taken from        
,mayeux's work1 are given the most      
ordinary ,greek moldings with their     
,french names4 ,however necessary it    
must be for the architect1 and however  
admirable it may be for the art         
student1 to know the names of all       
moldings by heart and to be able  to    
describe each one accurately1 such      
proficiency is not required at  present 
and is not necessary for the            
understanding of the present  theme4    
,some moldings have square edges1 some  
round4 ,the curved edges  of some are   
simple1 of others complex4 ,each has its

 name1 and of some  the name is         
descriptive4 ,the term molding would    
seem to indicate that  moldings were    
made apart and subsequently applied to  
the main object4  ,whatever be the      
origin of moldings1 the same rules apply
 to them which  apply to other profiles1
 with the additional rule that moldings 
must  always be kept subordinate to the 
principal object4 ,for instance1 in  the
 view 7,fig4 #f7 the pedestal marked bon
 is good1 because the body  of the      
pedestal is the principal object and it 
is clearly seen that  the moldings at   
the base and at the top are subordinate 
and merely  ornamental1 while the       
pedestal marked mauvais is decidedly    
bad1  because more vertical space is    
given to the moldings than to the shaft1
  confusing outline1 weakening the      
shaft1 and destroying the sense of      
strong and steady support4    ,readers  
may at once make use of the information 
already acquired by  seeing how these   
rules apply to their own lamps1         

candlesticks1 pieces  of furniture1 etc4
    ,the next view 7,fig4 #g7 shows     
incidentally how much better it is under
  all circumstances to mark with fillets
 and lines the changes from one  curve  
to another1 for you certainly see how   
much more substantial  character and    
beauty has ,b than ,a4    ,illustration3
 ,,fig4 #aa4    ,finally1 let it be     
said1 and said emphatically1 that though
 there  are profiles which require the  
use of the compass to draw them1 and    
though all architectural details must be
 worked out with mathematical  accuracy1
 those profiles and outlines are the    
most beautiful where it  is evident that
 artistic skill governing a free hand   
has controlled and  where mechanical    
assistance is so subordinate as to be   
overlooked4    ,there is very little to 
be said about surfaces or forms of two  
dimensions4 ,the principal requirement  
is that outlines should be  agreeable   
and must be well defined4 ,in fact1 the 
two qualities are  inseparable1 for a   

well-defined outline is agreeable and a 
badly  defined one is sure to be        
disagreeable4 ,by well-defined is meant 
that its particular shape should easily 
appear and be clearly  distinguishable4 
,for instance1 a square should appear   
with sides  distinctly equal2 a circle  
should have but one center4 ,in an      
architectural opening either arch or    
entablature should prevail1 and  the    
character of the arch should be evident4
 ,in the examples presented  7,fig4 #h7 
in the view these principles are        
violated4 ,the first figure  is so      
clearly a square that at first1 and     
before you have examined  it closely1   
you think it is a square4 ,it leaves an 
indefinite and  consequently            
disagreeable impression4 ,the same      
criticism applies to  the second object1
 apparently a mirror4 ,the glass is     
round1 but the  frame is so irregular   
that the impress of the circle is       
destroyed1 and  there is left an        
undecided and therefore uncomfortable   

sensation4 ,in  the third example the   
arch is so poorly defined and so weak1  
while the  entablature above it is so   
strong and so prominent1 that the result
  is a composition that fails to give   
pleasure1 because no distinct  idea is  
conveyed4 ,in the last example the      
outlines of the arch are so  indefinite 
that its character is indistinguishable4
 ,you can not see  which prevails1 the  
round arch or the pointed arch4         
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ab4    ,the same 
principles apply to smaller objects and 
to details1 as seen  in the next view   
7,fig4 #i74 ,to the left the date plate 
on top is bad  in comparison with the   
one beneath it1 because its direction is
 not  so well marked and its corner     
projections are too large4 ,in the      
lambrequins on the right1 those are good
 in which the general direction  is     
properly marked1 and in which           
subdivisions are kept properly          
subordinated4 ,lambrequins have so      
entirely gone out of use nowadays  that 

it is difficult to recall the time when 
they were regarded as  indispensable    
parts of furniture4    ,there is one    
other point to which your attention     
should be called--that  is1 stability4  
,if an object be intended to stand1 its 
center of  gravity should be so well    
within its base that there will be no   
danger  of its being upset by the       
ordinary uses to which it is exposed4   
,pots  and pans1 pitchers1 lamps1 and   
candlesticks1 of general and daily      
household use1 should have bases so     
broad and weight so low that the        
accidental bump of the inexperienced    
8help0 will not be inevitably  fatal4   
,when utensils are made more for show   
than for use1 as those in ,fig4  #aj1   
and are to occupy places of comparative 
security1 beauty more than  utility may 
be considered in the proportions of     
their supports4 ,where  utility has     
disappeared altogether and the suggested
 outline of a vase1  for instance1 is   
used for purely ornamental purpose1     

supports may be  done away with         
altogether1 as appears in these drawings
 of ,italian  tapestries of the         
seventeenth century 7,fig4 #aa74    ,the
 stability of pendant objects must also 
be considered4 ,it is  evident that the 
perpendicular line of suspension must be
 the line of  equilibrium1 and that     
these two must correspond with the      
design 7,fig4  #ab74 ,whether any       
objects should under any circumstances  
be exposed to  the real and apparent    
danger of falling is a question4 ,we    
have got so  into the habit of hanging  
pictures1 engravings1 and other works of
 art  in our houses1 and of seeing them 
hung in galleries1 that we have lost    
sight of the incongruity of the custom4 
,pictures should be impaneled1  and be  
permanent parts of the walls on which   
they appear4 ,but1 then1  how could they
 be moved when owners tire of them1 or  
tire of their  houses1 or how could they
 be gathered together in museums for    
purposes  of study and public enjoyment8

 ,picture frames are of comparatively   
modern invention4 ,the idea of buying a 
picture for the purpose of  selling it  
again was not entertained before the    
fifteenth century4  ,pictures were as   
substantial parts of churches and houses
 as were  shrines and fireplaces4       
,having very cursively reviewed the     
elements of form1 we are in a  position 
to understand decoration1 which is      
simply the application to  form of      
ornament4           99       99       99
       99       99        ,the highest  
authenticated points at which flowering 
plants have      heretofore been found  
growing upon the ,andes are at about    
#ag1jjj      feet1 although the ,kew    
,herbarium contains several specimens   
labeled      as having been found at    
altitudes of from #ag1jjj to #ah1jjj    
feet4      ,sir ,martin ,conway has     
brought back from his recent            
explorations in      the ,bolivian      
mountains at least half a dozen species 
from #ah1jjj      feet and upward1 the  

highest being from about #ah1ejj feet4  
,they      include a saxifrage1 a       
mallow1 a valerian1 and several         
,composit4      ,composit likewise      
attain the upper limit of phanerogamous 
vegetation in ,thibet1 where1 in        
latitudes from #cj to #cd1 one was      
found by ,dr4 ,thorold at #ai1jjj feet4 
,,steam ,,turbines ,,and ,,high-,,speed 
,,vessels4,f    ,,by ,,the ,,hon4       
,,charles ,a4 ,,parsons1 ,f4 ,r4 ,s4    
,f ,abstract of the ,presidential       
,address to the ,institution of         
,junior ,engineers1 ,november #c1 #ahii4
      ,all heat engines at present in   
use take in heat from a source at a     
high temperature and discharge most of  
it at a lower temperature1 the          
disappearance of heat in the process    
being the equivalent of the work  done  
by the engine4 ,in all cases at the     
present time the source of heat  is from
 fuel of some kind1 and after working   
the engine the residue  is discharged in
 the case of the steam engine either to 

the condenser  or in the exhaust steam  
when non-condensing4 ,in the gas engine 
it is  discharged in the waste gases and
 into the water jacket around the       
cylinder4    ,the earliest records of   
heat engines are found in the           
,pneumatics of  ,hero of ,alexandria1   
about #bjj ,b4 ,c4 ,he describes a      
reaction steam  turbine1 a spherical    
vessel mounted on axes supplied with    
steam through  one of the trunnions from
 a boiler beneath2 the steam escaping   
through  two nozzles diametrically      
opposite to each other and tangential to
 the  sphere1 causing the sphere to     
rotate by the reaction or momentum of   
the  issuing steam1 and analogous to a  
,barker's water wheel4    ,thus1 the    
first engine deriving its motive power  
from fuel was a  crude form of steam    
turbine1 and though it could have been  
applied to  useful work1 and could      
easily have been made sufficiently      
economical  to replace manual and horse 
power in many instances1 yet it lay     

dormant till #afbi ,a4 ,d41 when ,bianca
 suggested the same principle in  a     
different form4 ,bianca's steam turbine 
consisted simply of a steam  jet fed    
from a boiler impinging against vanes or
 paddles attached to  the rim of a wheel
 which was blown round by the momentum  
of the steam  issuing from the jet4     
,the piston engine is1 however1 of      
comparatively modern origin1 and  dates 
from about the year #agjj ,a4 ,d4       
,engines of this class are so well      
known that it suffices to say that they 
have been practically the sole          
motive-power engines from fuel in use   
from #agjj up to #ahde1 and have        
constituted one of the most important   
factors in the development of  modern   
engineering enterprise4    ,air engines 
were introduced about the year #ahde1   
and although the  larger engines of the 
,stirling type were very economical in  
fuel1 yet1  on account of the inherent  
difficulty of heating large volumes of  
air  within metal chambers or pipes--a  

difficulty arising from the low         
conductibility of air and consequently  
the overheating and burning  of the     
metal--they have only come into         
commercial use for very small  powers4  
,illustration3 ,,fig4                   
#a4--,,longitudinal ,,diagram ,,of      
,,parsons',s ,,steam  ,,turbine1 ,,with 
,,side ,,of ,,containing ,,case         
,,removed4 ,the construction of  the    
blades and guide vanes is more clearly  
shown in ,fig4 #b4 ,the steam  enters at
 ,j and exhausts after leaving the      
low-pressure cylinder ,c4    ,during the
 last thirty-five years gas engines have
 been perfected1 and  more recently oil 
engines1 and in point of efficiency both
 convert  a somewhat larger percentage  
of the heat energy of the fuel into     
mechanical energy than the best steam   
engines4 ,all successful oil and  gas   
engines are at present                  
internal-combustion engines1 the fuel   
being  burned in a gaseous form inside  
the working cylinder4    ,very numerous 

attempts have1 however1 been made to    
construct  internal-combustion engines  
to burn solid fuel instead of gas4 ,some
  have been so far successful as to work
 with good economy in fuel1  but the bar
 to their commercial success has been   
the cutting of the  cylinder and valves 
by fine particles of fuel4 ,this        
difficulty is not  present when the fuel
 is introduced in the gaseous or liquid 
form1 and  hence the success of gas and 
oil engines2 but could this difficulty  
be  overcome1 the solid fuel would be   
the cheaper to use4                     
,internal-combustion engines1 gas       
engines1 oil engines1 cannon1 etc41  owe
 their superior economy in fuel to the  
very high temperature at  which the heat
 is transferred from the fuel to the    
working substance  of the engine1 and   
consequently the great range of         
temperature in the  working substance of
 the engine4 ,in steam engines the      
temperature is  limited by the practical
 difficulties of deterioration of metal 

and  materials involved in the          
construction4    ,about fifteen years   
ago ,i was led by circumstances to      
investigate  the subject of improving   
the steam turbine4 ,in recent times     
several  attempts had been made to apply
 steam turbine wheels of the ,hero and  
,bianca types to the driving of circular
 saws and fans4 ,the velocity  of       
rotation with either of these types must
 necessarily be very high  in order to  
obtain a reasonable efficiency from the 
steam1 a velocity  much in excess of    
that suitable for the direct driving of 
almost all  classes of machinery2       
gearing was considered objectionable1   
and it  therefore appeared desirable to 
adopt some form of turbine in which the 
steam should be gradually expanded in   
small steps or drops in pressure  so as 
to keep the velocity of flow            
sufficiently low to allow of a          
comparatively moderate speed of rotation
 of the turbine engine4    ,the method  
adopted was to gather a number of       

turbines of the parallel  flow type on  
to one shaft and contained in one case1 
the turbines  each consisting of a ring 
of guide and a ring of moving blades1   
the  successive rings of blades or      
turbines being graduated in size1 those 
nearer the exhaust end being larger than
 those near the steam inlet1 so  as to  
allow a gradual expansion of the steam  
during its passage through  the         
turbines4    ,the form of the turbine   
was that of a rotating drum1 with       
outwardly  projecting rings of blades   
which nearly touched the containing     
cylindrical case1 and on the case       
inwardly projecting rings of guide      
blades which nearly touched the drum4   
,in the first examples of the  engine   
there were two groups of turbines       
right-and left-handed on each  side of  
the steam inlet1 the exhaust taking     
place at each end of the  turbine case1 
so as to completely balance end pressure
 from the steam4  ,more recently one    
series of turbines only has been used1  

those on  the other side of the steam   
inlet being replaced by packing rings or
  rotating balance pistons which balance
 the end pressure and divert the  whole 
of the steam through the turbines on the
 other side4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b
 ,,shows ,,the ,,arrangement ,,of       
,,moving ,,blades ,,and ,,guide  ,,vanes
 ,,in ,a ,,parsons',s ,,turbine4 ,the   
top outer cover has been removed4  ,the 
cylinder containing the revolving barrel
 has1 as will be seen1 a  greater       
internal diameter than the diameter of  
the drum4 ,it is the  annular space thus
 formed through which the steam flows   
and which  contains the revolving blades
 and the fixed guide blades4 ,between   
each  two rings of moving blades there  
is a ring of guide blades1 the latter   
being keyed into the containing case4   
,the vanes are set at an angle1 so  that
 the steam acts on them as wind on the  
sails of a windmill4    ,the steam      
entering the annular space between the  
shaft and the case  passes firstly      

through a ring of guide blades attached 
to the case1  and is given a rotational 
direction of flow2 it then passes to the
  succeeding ring of blades attached to 
the shaft1 by which its direction  of   
rotation is reversed1 thereby impressing
 the difference of its  rotational      
momentum in torque to the shaft4 ,the   
steam then passes to  the second ring of
 guide blades1 and the process is       
repeated1 and so  on1 gradually         
expanding by small increments at each   
ring of blades2 the  succeeding rings of
 blades get longer and wider1 and at    
intervals the  diameter of the turbine  
drums1 cylinders1 and rings are also    
increased4  ,in condensing turbine      
engines of the larger size an expansion 
ratio in  the turbines of one           
hundredfold and upward is attained      
before the steam  passes to the exhaust 
pipe and condenser4    ,the loss of     
power present in engines of the piston  
class1 due to  cylinder condensation    
arising from the variation of steam     

pressure  in the cylinder1 is not       
present in the steam turbine1 as the    
steam  pressure remains constant at each
 turbine ring and each part of the      
cylinder and barrel1 and the numerous   
tests of steam consumption that  have   
been made have shown that compound steam
 turbine engines of  moderate sizes when
 working with a condenser are comparable
 in steam  consumption per effective    
horse power with the best compound or   
triple  condensing steam engines of the 
piston type4 ,they have been constructed
  in sizes up to about one thousand     
horse power for driving alternators  and
 dynamos1 and several sets of about two 
thousand horse power are  nearing       
completion4    ,the application of the  
compound steam turbine to the propulsion
 of  vessels is a subject of            
considerable general interest1 in view  
of the  possible and probable general   
adoption of this class of engine in fast
  vessels4    ,in the turbine is found  
an engine of extremely light weight1    

with a  perfectly uniform turning       
moment1 and very economical in steam in 
proportion to the power developed1 and1 
further1 it can be perfectly  balanced  
so that no perceptible vibration is     
imparted to the ship4 ,the  problem of  
proportioning the engine to the screw   
propellers and to the  ship to be driven
 has been the subject of costly         
experiments extending  over several     
years1 with the result that a           
satisfactory solution has  been found1  
giving very economical results in regard
 to pounds of  steam consumed in the    
engines per effective horse power       
developed in  propelling the vessel1    
results which are equal or superior to  
those so  far obtained with             
triple-expansion engines of ordinary    
type in torpedo  boats or torpedo-boat  
destroyers4 ,the arrangement adopted may
 be best  described by saying that      
instead of placing1 as usual1 one engine
 to  drive one screw shaft1 the turbine 
engine is divided into two1 three1  or  

sometimes more separate turbines1 each  
driving a separate screw  shaft1 the    
steam passing successively through these
 turbines2 thus  when there are three   
turbines driving three shafts1 the steam
 from the  boiler passes through the    
high-pressure turbine1 thence through   
the  intermediate1 and lastly through   
the low1 and thence to the condenser4   
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4--;,a          
,,seventy-,,five ,,kilowatt ,,turbine   
,,engine ,,directly  ,,connected ,,to ,a
 ,,dynamo4 ,the turbine engine is on the
 right4    ,as to the propellers1 these 
approach closely to the usual form4 ,it 
has1  however1 been found best to place 
two propellers of approximately the     
same pitch on each shaft at some        
considerable distance apart1 so that    
the after one shall not be seriously    
affected by the wash of the one  in     
front4 ,the advantage of this           
arrangement is that a sufficient blade  
area is obtained to carry the thrust    
necessary to drive the vessel with  a   

lesser diameter of propeller1 and so    
permitting of a higher speed of         
revolution of the engines4    ,the      
problem was complicated by the question 
of cavitation1 which1  though previously
 anticipated1 was first practically     
found to exist  by ,mr4 ,thornycroft and
 ,mr4 ,barnaby in #ahid1 and by them it 
was  experimentally determined that     
cavitation1 or the hollowing out of the 
water into vacuous spaces and vortices  
by the blades of the propeller1         
commences to take place when the mean   
thrust pressure on the projected  area  
of the blades exceeds eleven pounds and 
a quarter per square  inch4 ,this limit 
has since been corroborated during the  
trials of the  ,turbinia4    ,this      
phenomenon has also been further        
investigated in the case of  model      
propellers working in an oval tank of   
water1 and to permit of  cavitation at  
more moderate speeds than would         
otherwise have been  necessary1 the     
following arrangement was adopted3 ,the 

tank was closed1  plate-glass windows   
being provided on each side1 through    
which the  propeller could be observed1 
and the atmospheric pressure was removed
  from the surface of the water by an   
air pump2 under this condition the  only
 forces tending to prevent cavitation   
were the small head of water  above the 
propeller1 and capillary attraction4    
,in the case of a propeller of two      
inches in diameter1 cavitation          
commenced at about twelve hundred       
revolutions1 and became very  pronounced
 at fifteen hundred4 ,had the           
atmospheric pressure not been  removed1 
speeds of twelve thousand and fifteen   
thousand respectively  would have been  
necessary4    ,photographs were taken   
with a camera made for the purpose1 with
 a focal  plane shutter giving an       
exposure of about one thousandth of a   
second1  the illumination being by      
sunlight concentrated on the propeller  
from a  twenty-four-inch concave mirror4
    ,photographs were also taken by     

intermittent illumination of the        
propeller from an arc lamp1 the         
arrangement consisting of an ordinary   
lantern condenser1 which projected the  
beam on to a small concave  mirror1     
mounted on a prolongation of the        
propeller shaft1 the reflected  beam    
being caught by a small stationary      
concave mirror at a definite  position  
in each revolution and reflected on to  
the propeller4 ,by this  means the      
propeller was illuminated in a definite 
position at each  revolution1 and to the
 eye it appeared as stationary4 ,the    
cavities  about the blades could also be
 clearly seen and traced1 the           
photographs  being taken with an        
ordinary camera and about ten seconds'  
exposure4    ,a series of experiments   
was also made with model propellers in  
water  at and just below the boiling    
point1 dynamometric measurements being  
taken of power and thrust with various  
widths of propeller blade1 the          
conclusion arrived at being that wide   

and thin blades are essential for  fast 
speeds at sea1 as well as a coarse pitch
 ratio of propeller4    ,the first      
vessel fitted with steam turbine        
machinery was the ,turbinia4  ,she was  
commenced in #ahid1 and1 after many     
alterations and preliminary  trials1 was
 satisfactorily completed in the spring 
of #ahig4 ,her  principal features are3 
,length1 one hundred feet2 beam1 nine   
feet2  five-foot draught of water under 
the propellers2 forty-four tons and  a  
half displacement on trial2 she is      
fitted with a water-tube boiler  of     
eleven hundred feet total heating       
surface1 and forty-two square  feet of  
grate area1 with closed stoke-holds     
supplied with air from a  centrifugal   
fan mounted on a prolongation of the    
low-pressure turbine  shaft4 ,the       
engines consist of three compound steam 
turbines1 high  pressure1 intermediate1 
and low pressure1 each driving one screw
 shaft2  on each of the shafts are three
 propellers1 making nine in all2 the    

condenser is of the usual type1 and has 
four thousand square feet of  surface4  
,when officially tested by ,professor   
,ewing1 ,f4 ,r4 ,s41 assisted by        
,professor ,dunkerley1 she attained a   
mean speed on a measured mile of        
thirty-two knots and three quarters1 and
 the consumption of steam  for all      
purposes was computed to be fourteen    
pounds and a half per  indicated horse  
power of the main engines4              
,subsequently1 after some  small        
alterations to the steam pipe1 she was  
further pressed1 and is  estimated to   
have reached the speed of thirty-four   
knots and a half4  ,she was1 and still  
is1 therefore1 the fastest vessel       
afloat2 she has  been out in very rough 
weather1 is an excellent sea boat1 and  
at all  speeds there is an almost       
complete absence of vibration4    ,in   
the ,turbinia the exceptional speed     
results principally from two  causes3   
#a4 ,the engines1 screws1 and shafting  
are exceptionally light4  #b4 ,the      

economy of steam in the main engines is 
greater than usual4    ,at full speed   
the steam pressure in the boiler is two 
hundred and ten  pounds2 at the engines1
 one hundred and seventy-five2 and the  
vacuum in  the condenser twenty-seven   
inches1 representing an expansion ratio 
in  the turbines of about one hundred   
and ten after allowance has been made   
for wire-drawing in the exhaust pipe4   
,the first vessels of larger size than  
the ,turbinia to be fitted with  steam  
turbine machinery are the torpedo-boat  
destroyer ,viper for  the ,british      
,government1 and a similar vessel for   
,messrs4 ,sir ,w4 ,g4  ,armstrong1      
,whitworth  ,company4    ,illustration3 
,,fig4 #d4--,,the ,,turbinia ,,running  
,,about ,,forty ,,miles ,,an ,,hour4    
,these vessels are of approximately the 
same dimensions as the  thirty-knot     
destroyers now in her ,majesty's        
service1 but have slightly  more        
displacement4 ,the boilers are about    
twelve per cent larger1  and it is      

estimated that upward of ten thousand   
horse power will be  realized under the 
usual conditions1 as against sixty-five 
hundred with  reciprocating engines4    
,the engines of these vessels are in    
duplicate4 ,two screw shafts are  placed
 on each side of the vessel1 driven     
respectively by a high- and  a          
low-pressure turbine2 to each of the    
low-pressure turbine shafts  a small    
reversing turbine is permanently coupled
 for going astern1  the estimated speed 
astern being fifteen knots and a half1  
and ahead  thirty-five knots2 two       
propellers are placed on each shaft4,g  
,g ,on her second trial trip the ,viper 
attained a mean speed of          #cd4h 
knots1 her fastest trial being over #ce 
knots1 or about          #da statute    
miles per hour1 with an indicated horse 
power of          #aa1jjj4 ,this vessel 
is of about #cej tons displacement4     
,the latter of these two vessels has    
commenced her preliminary trials1  and  
has already reached a speed of          

thirty-two knots4 ,the manipulation  of 
the engines is a comparatively simple   
matter1 as to reverse it is  only       
necessary to close one valve and open   
another1 and1 owing to there  being no  
dead centers1 small graduations of speed
 can be easily made4    ,in regard to   
the general application of turbine      
machinery to large  ships1 the          
conditions appear to be more favorable  
in the case of the  faster class of     
vessels such as cross-,channel boats1   
faster passenger  vessels1 cruisers1 and
 liners2 in such vessels the reduction  
in weight  of machinery1 as well as     
economy in the consumption of coal per  
horse  power1 are important factors in  
the case1 and in some vessels the       
absence of vibration1 both as regards   
the comfort of passengers1 and in  the  
case of ships of war permitting greater 
accuracy in sighting of the  guns1 is a 
question of first importance4    ,as    
regards cross-,channel boats1 the       
turbine system presents advantages  in  

speed1 absence of vibration1 and1 owing 
to the smaller diameter of  the         
propellers1 reduced draught4    ,as an  
instance1 a boat of two hundred and     
seventy feet length1  thirty-three feet 
beam1 one thousand tons displacement1   
and eight  feet six inches draught of   
water could be constructed with spacious
  accommodation for six hundred         
passengers1 and with machinery          
developing  eighteen thousand horse     
power2 she will have a sea speed of     
about  thirty knots1 as compared with   
the speed of nineteen to twenty-two     
knots of the present vessels of similar 
size and accommodation4    ,it is1      
perhaps1 interesting to examine the     
possibilities of speed  that might be   
attained in a special unarmored cruiser1
 a magnified  torpedo-boat destroyer of 
light build1 with scanty accommodation  
for her large crew1 but equipped with an
 armament of light guns and  torpedoes4 
,let us assume that her dimensions are  
about double those of  the thirty-knot  

destroyers1 with plates of double the   
thickness and  specially strengthened to
 correspond with the increased          
size--length1  four hundred and twenty  
feet2 beam1 forty-two feet2 maximum     
draught1  fourteen feet2 displacement1  
twenty-eight hundred tons2 indicated    
horse power1 eighty thousand2 there     
would be two tiers of water-tube        
boilers2 these1 with the engine space1  
coal bunkers1 etc41 would occupy  the   
whole of the lower portion of the       
vessel2 the crew's quarters and  guns   
would be on the upper decks4 ,there     
would be eight propellers of  nine feet 
in diameter revolving at about four     
hundred revolutions per  minute1 and her
 speed would be about forty-four knots4 
,she could carry coal at this speed for 
about eight hours1 but she would  be    
able to steam at from ten to fourteen   
knots with a small section  of the      
boilers more economically than other    
vessels of ordinary type  and power1    
and1 when required1 all the boilers     

could be used1 and full  power exerted  
in about half an hour4    ,in the case  
of an ,atlantic liner or a cruiser of   
large size1 turbine  engines would      
appear to present some considerable     
advantages4 ,in the  first place they   
would effect a reduction in weight of   
machinery and  some increase in economy 
of fuel per horse power developed1 both 
thus  tending either to a saving in coal
 on the one hand1 or1 if preferred1     
some increase in speed4    ,the         
advantages are1 however1 less pronounced
 in this class of vessel on  account of 
the smaller relative power of the       
machinery and the large  quantity of    
coal necessary for long voyages1 but the
 complete absence  of vibration at all  
speeds1 not to mention many minor       
considerations  of saving in cost and   
reduced engine-room staff1 are questions
 of  considerable importance4           
,a ,,survival ,,of ,,medi,,val          
,,credulity4    ,,by ,,professor ,e4 ,p4
 ,,evans4    ,concluded4      ,in the   

seventeenth year of her age ,miss ,diana
 ,vaughan joined the  ,freemasons1      
entering the lodge 78triangle07 of 8,the
 ,eleven ,seven10 at  ,louisville1 and  
passing rapidly through the different   
grades until  the 8,elect ,palladistic  
,knighthood0 was conferred upon her     
after she  had given satisfactory proofs
 of her ,luciferian orthodoxy4 ,one     
thing  she refused to do--namely1 to    
stab the host with a dagger--since  this
 act implied a recognition of the       
sacramental character of the            
,eucharist4 ,she maintained that there  
would be no sense in piercing the       
consecrated wafer unless it was believed
 to be the real body of ,christ2  but as
 she rejected the doctrine of           
transubstantiation as a childish        
superstition1 she was unwilling to make 
a fool of herself by assaulting  a piece
 of ordinary bread with a show of wrath4
 ,she would not hesitate  to commit     
sacrilege1 but did object to being      
silly4 ,this scruple1 or  rather this   

lively sense of the ridiculous1 rendered
 her unpopular with  the ,freemasons1   
inasmuch as it marred the performance of
 their most  important and impressive   
,satanic ceremony1 and thus gave her    
rival1  ,sophia ,walder1 an advantage1  
which she was quick to improve4    ,we  
need not follow the career of ,sophia   
,walder1 known to the infernals  as     
,sophia ,sapho4 ,she is said to have    
been born in ,strasburg1 ,september     
#bi1 #ahfc1 as the supposititious       
daughter of a ,protestant parson1       
,philias ,walder1 and a ,rosicrucian    
dame1 ,ida ,jacobsen1 with whom the     
clergyman lived after having murdered   
his wife in ,copenhagen4 ,her  real     
father1 however1 was the devil ,bitru1  
who declared her to be  the predestined 
great-grandmother of antichrist4 ,in    
#ahif1 while in  ,jerusalem1 she gave   
birth to a daughter1 the grandmother of 
antichrist2  this child was also of     
demoniac paternity4 ,owing to her       
uncompromising  ,luciferianism1 she was 

a favorite of the ,freemasons1 and      
excited the  jealousy of ,diana         
,vaughan1 who tells with zest of the    
practical jokes  played on her4 ,thus1  
at a banquet of the ,freemasons1        
somebody put a few  drops of ,lourdes   
water in her glass of lemonade1 which   
caused terrible  pain and threw her into
 spasms1 from which she finally found   
relief by  vomiting fire4 ,this incident
 is cited by a ,catholic writer1 ,dr4   
,michael  ,germanus1,h in his ,secrets  
of ,hell 7,geheimnisse der ,hlle71 as   
conclusive proof that 8,sophia was      
possessed40        ,h ,michael ,germanus
 7a ,latinization of 8,der deutsche     
,michel10 the personification of the    
,german nation1          analogous to   
the ,english 8,john ,bull0 and the      
,american          8,brother ,jonathan07
 is the pseudonym of a priest1 ,parson  
,knzle1 of ,feldkirch1 in the ,tyrolese 
,voralberg4    ,illustration    ,bitru's
 proclamation of ,sophia ,sapho as the  
prospective  great-grandmother of the   

incarnate antichrist is given in full4  
,it  was dictated in ,latin by ,bitru at
 a meeting of ,freemasons in ,italy1    
and written down by ,luigi ,revello1 and
 bears the devil's signature1  composed 
of ,satanic signs and symbols1 darts1   
sword1 cords1 lightning1  bugle-horn1   
trident1 and crowing cock4    ,this     
climax of absurdity ought to have served
 to expose the trickery  and trumpery of
 the whole affair1 but it produced the  
very opposite  effect4 ,dr4 ,germanus   
refers to 8,bitru's sign-manual as      
highly  interesting10 and characterizes 
8the documentary evidence as thoroughly 
convincing02 those who refuse to        
recognize the truth in the face of  such
 positive proof he accuses of imitating 
the ostrich and willfully  shutting     
their eyes to the light4,i        ,i ,a 
photographic reproduction of this       
document is given in          ,diana    
,vaughan's biography of the ,italian    
statesman ,crispi1          which       
contains numerous illustrations and     

portraits of          ,crispi1 ,mazzini1
 ,lemmi1 ,garibaldi1 ,giordano ,bruno1  
and          other 8,palladists10 or    
,masonic worshipers of ,satan4 ,the     
original ,french title of the book is   
8,le #cc  ,crispi4 ,un                  
,palladiste ,homme d'tat dmasqu4        
,biographie documente du          ,hros 
depuis sa ,naissance jusqu'  sa deuxime 
,mort4 ,par          ,miss ,diana       
,vaughan40    ,the salvation of ,diana  
,vaughan is described as due to her     
intense  admiration for ,joan of ,arc1 a
 feeling which was ardently fostered by 
the priests with whom she chanced to    
come in contact4 ,one day1 as she  was  
attended by ,asmodeus1 ,astaroth1       
,beelzebub1 and ,moloch1 incarnate in   
8the counterfeit presentment0 of fine   
gentlemen1 she obeyed a sudden  and     
irresistible impulse to invoke the ,maid
 of ,orleans1 when these  devils were   
immediately stripped of their disguise1 
and stood before  her in their true     
character as imps of hell1 with hoofs   

and horns1 and  emitted an intolerable  
stench4 ,no sooner did they perceive    
that they  were unmasked than they      
vanished with a fearful howl4 ,this     
miracle  made a deep impression upon    
her1 and led to her conversion4 ,she    
took  refuge in a ,parisian cloister1   
and1 after severe penance and proper    
instruction1 was received into the bosom
 of the ,catholic ,church4 ,during  this
 period of penitential seclusion she    
wrote her ,memoirs1 which  produced an  
immense sensation in clerical circles1  
and were pronounced  by a high          
ecclesiastical dignitary to be 8worth   
more than their weight  in gold40    ,it
 must be confessed that in weaving this 
tissue of fabrications ,taxil  showed   
consummate skill as a romancer and a    
profound knowledge of the  possibilities
 of human credulity4 ,he made a happy   
hit in calling the  heroine of his      
,stygian story ,diana1 since in the     
annals of witchcraft  the pagan goddess 
of the chase is wont to frequent the    

nocturnal  assemblies of demons1 and in 
medival theology the phrase 8congressus 
,sabathi cum ,diana0 was a common       
expression for intercourse with  ,satan4
 ,another masterly stroke was to        
represent her deliverance from  the     
snares of evil spirits and the          
hallucinations of ,luciferianism  as a  
miracle of grace wrought through the    
mediation of ,joan of ,arc1  thus       
furnishing an argument in favor of the  
canonization of the ,maid  of ,orleans1 
which the cleverest advocatus diaboli   
would be unable  to answer4 ,at this    
time ,taxil prepared also a ,catholic   
prayer book  entitled ,eucharistic      
,novena1 published under the name of    
,diana  ,vaughan1 and containing forms  
of supplication against unbelief1       
worldly indifference and lukewarmness1  
hardness of heart1 blasphemy1  and      
unchastity4 ,the covert sarcasm which   
pervades the entire manual  of devotion 
comes out most clearly in the section on
 the violation of  the seventh          

commandment4 ,a copy of the work1 which 
had been approved  by the ,archbishop of
 ,genoa1 was sent to ,cardinal          
,parocchi1 with a  letter signed 8,your 
,eminence's most devoted servant in     
,jesus1 ,mary1 and  ,joseph1 ,diana     
,vaughan10 and five hundred francs1 of  
which two hundred  and fifty were to be 
used for organizing an international    
antimasonic  congress1 and the rest to  
be given as ,peter's pence to the ,pope4
 ,the  cardinal replied with great      
cordiality to his 8dear daughter in our 
,lord10 called her conversion 8one of   
the most glorious triumphs of  grace10  
and added1 8,i am reading at this very  
moment your ,memoirs with  burning      
interest40 ,he gave her his blessing1   
and conveyed 8the thanks  and special   
benediction of his ,holiness40 ,numerous
 letters of a like  character were      
received from the ,vatican4 ,on ,may    
#bg1 #ahif1 the ,general  ,secretary of 
the ,apostolic ,see1 ,verzichi1 wrote   
that 8his ,holiness  had read her       

,eucharistic ,novena with extreme       
pleasure02 two months  later the ,pope's
 private secretary1 ,vincenzo ,sardi1   
thanked her in the  name of ,leo ,,xiii 
for her exposure of ,crispi1 and bade   
her 8continue to  write and to unmask   
the godless sect10 and the ,civilt      
,cattolica1  the official organ of the  
papacy1 praised her 8inexhaustibleness  
in  precious revelations1 which are     
unparalleled for their accuracy and     
usefulness4 ,freemasonry is confounded1 
and seeks to evade the blows  of the    
valiant championess by denying her      
existence1 and treating her  as a myth4 
,it is a pitiable shift1 but            
,freemasonry can find no better         
refuge40 8,your pen and your piety10    
wrote ,monsignore ,villard1 ,october    
#ae1 #ahif1 8are predestined to demolish
 the foes of mankind4 ,the good  works  
of the saints have always met with      
opposition1 and it is no  wonder1       
therefore1 that yours should be         
combated40    ,naturally1 there was     

intense curiosity to see this new       
convert and  powerful defender of the   
faith4 ,this inquisitiveness was easily 
allayed  at first by the plea that the  
cloister to which she had retired must  
be kept secret1 in order that she might 
be safe from assassination  by the      
,freemasons4 ,meanwhile the medium of   
correspondence was a  bright ,american  
girl1 employed as copyist in a ,parisian
 typewriting  establishment1 who wrote  
all the letters at ,taxil's dictation1  
and  received a monthly salary of one   
hundred and fifty francs for her        
services4 ,after a time he deemed it    
politic to introduce her privately  to  
select circles of ,catholics1 who were  
thereby enabled to testify  to her      
existence1 since they had seen and      
conversed with her4 ,the  following     
incident may be mentioned to illustrate 
the adroitness with  which she played   
her part3 ,m4 ,pierre ,lautier states   
that he once  breakfasted with her1 and 
offered to pour a little ,chartreuse    

into  her coffee1 but she refused it    
with a singular sign of aversion1 and   
took a few drops of old cognac instead4 
,as an ex-,luciferian1 she              
instinctively shrank from a drink made  
in a cloister1 or what she  called 8an  
,adonac liquor40 ,that she should have  
thought of such a  feint on the spur of 
the moment indicates that she had not   
only made a  thorough study of her rle1 
but also had been endowed by ,nature    
with  genuine theatrical talent4 ,a full
 account of the solemn sham1 published  
in the ,revue ,mensuelle1 served to     
strengthen the faith of waverers in  the
 reality of ,diana ,vaughan1 and        
furnished an admirable opportunity  for 
discoursing on the difficulty of        
throwing off ,satanic influences2  for  
here was a young lady who1 although she 
had received absolution  and thus become
 a child of grace1 could not forget the 
terrible effect  of a few drops of      
,lourdes water on one of her former     
demonolatrous  associates1 and recoiled 

with horror from a glass of ,chartreuse4
 ,taxil  and his confederates confess   
that they often 8doubled up with        
laughter0  over the success of their    
imposture1 and indulged in jokes about  
it in  their writings4 ,thus ,dr4       
,bataille1 in the first volume of ,the  
,devil in  the ,nineteenth ,century1    
remarks1 as a peculiarity of ,diana     
,vaughan1  that she 8is very fond of    
wearing male attire10 but no allusions  
of  this kind1 however pointed1 seemed  
to have excited any suspicion of  guile 
in minds predisposed to credulity by    
,nature and by education4    ,taxil's   
long series of mystifications1 extending
 over a dozen years1  culminated in the 
convocation of an antimasonic congress  
at ,trent1 on  ,september #bf1 #ahif1 to
 the president of which ,leo ,,xiii     
addressed an  apostolical brief with his
 benediction1 and expressed the hope    
that  the assembled representatives of  
the ,church would not rest until the    
8detestable sect0 had been unmasked and 

the evil utterly eradicated4  ,a        
8central executive committee10          
consisting of a score of ,italian       
papists1 issued a circular summoning all
 ,catholics to join 8the new  crusade10 
and declaring that the ,vatican had now 
raised a war-cry  against ,freemasonry1 
8the den of ,satan10 as it did eight    
centuries  ago against ,islam4 ,taxil   
was received with ovations1 and did not 
hesitate to poke fun at the venerable   
prelates to their very faces4  ,with an 
assumption of modesty he reproved them  
for what might be  misplaced enthusiasm4
 8,one can never be sure10 he said1 8of 
a converted  ,freemason1 but must always
 fear lest he may return to his former  
friends4 ,not until the convert is dead 
can one be wholly free from  this       
anxiety4 ,i am well aware that this     
general principle applies  also to      
myself40 ,but even this daring dash of  
irony1 hardly hidden  under the gauzy   
disguise of self-distrust1 did not cool 
the ardor  of his admirers1 who         

continued to greet the harlequin with   
8,evviva  ,taxil60 ,his photograph hung 
among the pictures of the saints1 and   
the mere mention of his name called     
forth loud applause1 whereupon  the     
prince of mountebanks rose and bowed4 ,a
 few ,germans had the good  sense and   
courage to protest against these        
demonstrations1 and to  doubt the       
existence of ,diana ,vaughan and the    
sincerity of ,taxil1  whose sole object1
 as ,dr4 ,gratzfeld asserted1 was to    
8lay a snare for  ,catholics and        
anti-,freemasons1 and scoff at them when
 they are caught  in it40 ,this         
skepticism created intense excitement1  
and was severely  rebuked by an ,italian
 priest and a ,parisian prebendary1 who 
averred  that they knew ,diana ,vaughan 
personally1 and could vouch for her     
saintliness4 ,a ,french monk used such  
violent language in his reply to  ,dr4  
,gratzfeld that the presiding officer1  
although indorsing his views1  felt     
constrained to call him to order4 8,any 

doubt of ,diana ,vaughan's  existence or
 of the genuineness of her revelations10
 exclaimed the ,abb  de ,bessonies1 8is 
a sin against the antimasonic cause60   
,the ,spanish  delegates introduced a   
resolution demanding that all           
,freemasons should  be legally          
incapacitated to hold any civil office  
or military command2  the resolution was
 adopted1 with the amendment that       
8wherever it may be  feasible0 such laws
 should be enacted and executed4 ,the   
manner in which  ,taxil met the         
allegations of his opponents is highly  
characteristic4  8,a priest of the ,holy
 ,sacrament1 ,father ,delaporte1 had    
often declared  that he would gladly    
give his life for the conversion of     
,diana ,vaughan4  ,she attended mass in 
the cloister for the first time on      
,corpus ,christi1  and left her sacred  
retreat on the following ,saturday4 ,on 
the very day  of her departure ,father  
,delaporte died4 ,and yet there are     
persons who  doubt the existence of     

,miss ,vaughan60 ,the burst of applause 
elicited  by this irrefragable argument 
proved his accurate appreciation of  the
 logical powers of his auditors1 whose  
minds had been fed on the  nutriment    
which may be wholesome as 8milk for     
babes10 but1 when  persistently         
administered to adults1 converts them   
into intellectual  milksops4            
,although the congress was attended by  
many of the chief dignitaries  of the   
papal hierarchy1 and the ,romish        
,patriarch of ,constantinople  sat there
 in state with a golden crown on his    
head1 ,taxil was its  ruling spirit4 ,on
 his motion1 it was resolved to         
establish antimasonic  associations in  
every land under the auspices of the    
bishops and the  direction of national  
committees1 and a commission was        
appointed to  investigate the ,diana    
,vaughan affair4 ,a few months later1 on
 ,january  #bb1 #ahig1 this commission  
made an indecisive and utterly nugatory 
report1 to the effect that 8no          

thoroughly convincing evidence had been 
furnished for or against the existence  
and conversion of ,diana ,vaughan  and  
the authenticity of the writings        
attributed to her40 ,this evasion  of   
the issue1 however1 did not shake the   
confidence of the ultramontane  press1  
nor prevent its positive affirmation of 
the points which the  commission had    
discreetly left in doubt4 ,as a reward  
for this fanatical  zeal and steadfast  
credulity1 the editor of ,the ,pelican  
received a  special apostolical         
benediction1 and was thus encouraged to 
8resist the  raging of ,satan40 8,stand 
firm60 he exclaimed4 8,the ,holy ,father
 is with  us1 and who is over him80     
,with the ,congress of ,trent the       
mystification which ,taxil had been     
playing off on papacy for so many years 
had reached the acme of  success1 and   
nothing now remained but to wind up the 
plot with a  drastic denouement4        
,accordingly1 ,diana ,vaughan issued an 
invitation  to a conference to be held  

on ,april #ai1 #ahig1 in the great hall 
of  the ,geographical ,society of       
,paris4 ,it was also stated that other  
conferences would be held in the        
principal cities of ,france1 ,italy1    
,england1 and the ,united ,states4 ,the 
programme for the evening was quite     
elaborate1 beginning with a lottery for 
an ,american typewriter and  ending with
 a series of fifty-four stereopticon    
pictures representing1  among other     
fantastic scenes1 ,sophia ,walder and   
her serpents1 events in  the life of    
,diana ,vaughan1 the apparition of the  
devil ,bitru in ,rome1  ,eden and ,eve  
with the fatal apple1 sacrilegious      
stabbing of the host  on a ,satanic     
altar in a ,masonic lodge at ,berlin1   
and finally ,leo ,,xiii  with the       
encyclical letter ,humanum genus as a   
flaming sword in his  hand1 the         
archangel ,michael on his right and the 
apocalyptic ,st4 ,john  on his left     
treading the triple-headed dragon of    
,freemasonry under  foot4 ,the audience 

consisted chiefly of priests1 with a few
 ,protestant  clergymen and ,freemasons1
 and an unusually large number of       
newspaper  reporters4 ,the typewriter   
was won by ,ali ,kemal1 correspondent of
 the  ,constantinople journal ,ikdam1   
who only regretted that it did not      
write ,turkish4 ,taxil then appeared on 
the platform1 and began his  address    
with the words3 8,reverend sirs1 ladies1
 and gentlemen6 ,you  wish to see ,diana
 ,vaughan4 ,look at me6 ,i myself am    
that lady60 ,after  this startling      
exordium1 he proceeded to relate how    
from his youth  up he had always had an 
irresistible inclination to play        
practical  jokes4 ,once he frightened   
the inhabitants of ,marseilles by       
discovering  a shoal of sharks in the   
harbor1 and again he set the            
archologists  all agog by announcing the
 existence of a city1 built on piles1 at
 the  bottom of ,lake ,leman4 ,but these
 were 8childish things0 compared with   
the manner in which he had humbugged the

 ,catholic clergy for nearly a  dozen   
years4 ,we need not report the details  
of his discourse2 it is  sufficient to  
say that he gave a full account of the  
deep-laid plot  from its first          
conception to its final consummation at 
the ,congress of  ,trent4 ,each new     
disclosure called forth cries of        
8,liar60 8,scoundrel60  8,vilifier60    
8,villain60 and similar epithets1 but   
nothing could disturb  the cynical      
composure of the speaker4 ,as a         
precautionary measure1 all  persons had 
been required to give up their canes and
 umbrellas at the  entrance1 otherwise  
the angry words would have been         
emphasized by  blows4 ,the shameless    
impostor coolly referred to the numerous
 presents  received1 among which was an 
,emmenthaler cheese1 sent by the        
,marquis  de ,mors1 with pious sayings  
carved in the rind4 8,it was an         
excellent  cheese10 he added1 8and      
served to strengthen me in my fight     
against  ,freemasonry40 ,the money      

remitted to ,diana ,vaughan in ten years
 amounted  to more than half a million  
francs1 and flowed into the pockets of  
,taxil and his confederates4 ,he        
expressed his thanks to the clergy for  
their aid in carrying out his scheme1   
and attributed their co-operation       
chiefly to ignorance and imbecility1 but
 partly also to dishonesty1  declaring  
that among the many dupes there were not
 a few knaves4 ,as  he left the hall he 
was threatened with violence1 and took  
refuge  in a neighboring caf1 under the 
protection of the police4 ,no one       
thought any longer of the pictures which
 were to form such a novel and          
attractive feature of the entertainment2
 indeed1 this forgetfulness  constituted
 an important although unprinted part of
 the programme in  the minds of those   
who arranged it4    ,how difficult it is
 for constitutionally credulous persons1
 in whom  this disposition has been     
nurtured by education1 to take a        
rational  view of things when a strong  

appeal is made to their prejudices1 is  
evident from a statement published in   
the ,osservatore ,cattolico of  ,milan1 
in ,may1 #ahig1 that ,leo ,taxil was    
held in durance vile by the             
,freemasons1 one of whom personated him 
on the occasion just described4         
,another ,catholic writer asserted that 
,diana ,vaughan did not appear at  the  
conference because ,taxil had been      
bribed by the ,freemasons to have  her  
shut up in a lunatic asylum4    ,the    
history of ,taxil's imposture has been  
circumstantially narrated  in a book    
entitled ,leo ,,xiii und der            
,satanskult1 by ,dr4 ,j4 ,ricks         
7,berlin3 ,hermann ,walther1 #ahig1 pp4 
xiv-#cja2 price1 three marks74  ,the    
author1 a doctor of divinity and pastor 
of a ,lutheran church at  ,olvenstadt1  
near ,magdeburg1 has collected his      
materials from authentic  sources and   
treated the whole subject with          
remarkable thoroughness and             
impartiality4 ,his work is a valuable   

contribution to the voluminous  annals  
of religious superstition and credulity4
    ,the ease with which ,taxil         
succeeded in duping so many prominent   
representatives of the papal hierarchy  
naturally disturbed the  equanimity of  
the most intelligent ,catholics1        
especially in ,germany1  and caused them
 to sound a note of alarm4 ,how is it   
possible1 they  asked themselves1 for a 
large body of educated men1 claiming to 
be  the spiritual guides of the people1 
to become the victims of so plump  an   
imposition8 ,is it not due to radical   
defects in the development  and         
discipline of the intellectual          
faculties8 ,nearly a century ago        
,madame de ,stal remarked that 8since   
the ,reformation the ,protestant        
universities stand unquestionably higher
 than the ,catholic1 and the  whole     
literary fame of ,germany emanates from 
these institutions02  and this opinion  
has been quoted and indorsed by the     
unimpeachable  authority of an eminent  

,catholic theologian1 the late          
,professor  ,dllinger4,j ,recently      
another ,catholic1 ,dr4 ,hermann        
,schell1 ,professor  of ,apologetics in 
the ,university of ,wrzburg1 has called 
attention to  the latest statistics of  
religious denominations in ,germany1    
showing  the inferiority of ,catholics1 
as indicated by their comparative lack  
of interest in higher education and the 
smaller percentage of them in  the      
learned professions4,k ,in this         
connection he refers to ,taxil's        
successful exposure of the intellectual 
deficiencies1 which render  the         
hierophants of ,roman ,catholicism      
incapable of resisting the most         
palpable delusions of superstition4 ,his
 two 8tracts for the times10  as they   
might fitly be termed1 ,der             
,katholicismus als ,princip des         
,fortschritts and ,die neue ,zeit und   
der alte ,glaube1 maintain that         
,catholicism should be progressive1 and 
that the old faith can remain  a living 

force in each new era only by adapting  
itself to every real  advance of mankind
 in knowledge and thus becoming         
reanimated by the  spirit of the age4   
,professor ,schell expresses his        
sympathy with the  movement in favor of 
greater freedom of thought and          
independence of  research1 known as     
8,americanism0 in the ,catholic ,church1
 and regards  its extension to the ,old 
,world as a vital necessity4,l        ,j
 ,cf4 ,ignaz von ,dllinger4 ,sein ,leben
 auf ,grund seines                      
schriftlichen ,nachlasses dargestellt   
von ,j4 ,friedrich4          ,mnchen3   
,beck1 #ahii1 vol4 i1 p4 #gg4        ,k 
,in confirmation of this statement we   
may cite the          statistical tables
 of ,dr4 ,von ,mayr for #ahif1 giving   
the          number in every ten        
thousand of the different denominations 
attending the gymnasia or classical     
schools1 the scientific          schools
 with ,latin1 and the scientific schools
 without          ,latin3               

,protestants    #bg4g    #ac4b    #ab4e 
,catholics      #ba4d     #c4h     #f4g 
,dissidents     #ag4g    #ac4b    #ah4g 
,jews          #agc4g    #fe4h    #ib4g 
,the ,catholic students in the gymnasia 
are mostly candidates          for the  
priesthood4 8,dissidents0 are members of
 free          religious associations4  
,a noteworthy feature is the large      
proportion of ,jews1 and curiously      
enough this laudable                    
characteristic is made by anti-,semitic 
agitators a ground          of          
crimination and used to prejudice the   
public mind4 ,not          long since a 
demagogue of that ilk in ,berlin charged
 the          ,jews with putting forth  
every effort for the education          
of their sons1 in order that they might 
more effectually          compete with  
,christians2 8therefore down with the   
,jews60          ,l ,since these lines  
were written ,professor ,schell has been
          disciplined and threatened    
with excommunication by the             

,see of ,rome4 ,we regret to be obliged 
to add that he did          not have the
 courage to maintain his opinions1 but  
made a          public recantation of   
them4 ,the cause of progress in the     
,catholic ,church has now found a new   
and apparently more          fearless   
advocate in a ,bavarian priest1 ,dr4    
,mller1 of          ,munich1 whose      
pamphlet on ,reformkatholizismus can    
hardly          escape the interdict of 
the papal hierarchy4    ,it is          
creditable to the ,catholic prelates in 
the ,united ,states that  they were not 
among the foolish birds caught with the 
lime laid by ,leo  ,taxil4 ,indeed1 the 
,bishop of ,charleston went to ,rome for
 the express  purpose of warning ,leo   
,,xiii against this trickster1 but was  
sharply  reprehended and admonished to  
be silent4 ,a similar rebuke was given  
to  the ,apostolic ,vicar of ,gibraltar 
for denying the existence there of      
,tubal-,cain's subterranean laboratory  
for manufacturing microbes4    ,the     

,breviarium ,romanum1 the daily use of  
which1 as a manual of  devotion and     
edification1 is enjoined by the ,pope on
 the clergy1 is  full of legends which  
are recorded as historical facts1 and   
quite equal  in absurdity to ,taxil's   
most extravagant and fantastic          
inventions4 ,the  tales there told of   
the miracles wrought by saints1 their   
communion  with angels1 and their       
combats with devils may have easily     
suggested  many incidents narrated in   
,the ,devil in the ,nineteenth ,century 
and  the ,memoirs of ,diana ,vaughan4   
,it is no wonder that minds accustomed  
to accept the marvels of hagiology as   
actual events should be readily         
deceived by a clever caricature of them1
 especially when appealing to a         
prejudice so absurd and yet so strong as
 that entertained by the papacy  against
 ,freemasonry4 ,it would seem from many 
indications that the  ,romish ,church1  
as an ecclesiastical organization1 bears
 about the same  relation to            

contemporary culture that ,roman        
paganism did to the best  thought of the
 period when ,lucian wrote his sprightly
 dialogues and  ,lucretius his genial   
and comprehensive didactic poem ,de     
,rerum ,natura4  ,is it doomed to the   
same fate1 or has it1 as ,professor     
,schell and ,dr4  ,mller assert1 a      
saving1 recuperative power8           99
       99       99       99       99    
,of the geological age of the building  
stones used in the ,united      ,states1
 ,george ,p4 ,merrill observes1 in his  
report to the ,maryland      ,geological
 ,survey1 that few stones are used to   
any extent that are      of later date  
than the ,triassic1 and few1 if any1 of 
our marbles      are younger than the   
,silurian1 while nearly all our         
granites1 as      now quarried1 belong  
at least to ,palozoic or ,archan times4 
,stones      of later age than ,triassic
 are1 so far as relates to the eastern  
,united ,states1 so friable or so poor  
in color as to have little      value4  

,,genuine ,,starch ,,factories4    ,,by 
,,byron ,d4 ,,halsted1 ,,sc4 ,d41       
,,rutgers ,,college4      ,much in this 
world is neither upon first nor last    
analysis true to  name4 ,from the corner
 grocery we buy a pound of starch in a  
rectangular  package highly decorated   
with lithograph and lettering1 setting  
forth the excellences of the product1   
8superior to all others10 and           
manufactured1 with the utmost care1 by  
,messrs4 ,so-and-,so4 ,the fact is  that
 the big seven-story establishment did  
not make a grain of the  starch1 and the
 best that can be claimed is a          
satisfactory method  of bringing the    
product already formed into the present 
acceptable  condition4    ,but it is not
 the purpose of this paper to decry the 
refineries1  whether they be of starch1 
sugar1 or this or that of a hundred     
natural  products1 but to direct        
attention to the source of that very    
common  and1 it may be safely said1     
indispensable substance known to the    

,english-speaking people as starch4     
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4--,,starch     
,,granules ,,of ,,the ,,potato4    ,it  
will be no new surprise to state1 by way
 of introduction to the  subject1 that  
starch is the ordinary everyday product 
of ordinary  everyday plants4 ,so humble
 a vegetable as the potato has gained   
its way  into all lands of the more     
civilized peoples almost solely because 
it  has a habit of storing away1 in     
large underground stems1 a vast amount  
of starch4 ,let this provident tendency 
disappear in this plant for a  single   
season1 and the crop growers would      
discard it from their list of           
remunerative plants1 while millions of  
people would turn with dismay to  some  
other source of a daily supply of       
starch4 ,what this change in the  nature
 of a single kind of plant would mean to
 the human race words can  not describe4
 ,if the famine in ,ireland of #ahde and
 some later years1  induced by a rot in 
the potato1 is any index1 the misery    

would be  something worse than we should
 care to even dream of4 ,when there is a
  shortage of starch in ,india1 a       
distress follows that is felt through   
the bonds of sympathy1 if in no other   
way1 the whole world round4 ,let  rice  
fail to mature its grain1 which means1  
in short1 not to store its  starch in   
available form for man1 and the         
dependent race is brought  to the       
ghostly condition of starvation and     
thrown upon the charity  of those people
 whose starch is in their grain         
elevators1 sacks1 and  barrels almost   
without number4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4
 #b4--,,starch ,,granules ,,of ,,corn4  
,starch1 it would seem from this1 is the
 prime food element of the  human       
family1 the chief factor in the         
upbuilding of a race1 because a         
fundamental aliment of our bodies4      
,if the starch factories do not make1 in
 the true sense1 the product of  their  
mills1 it may be to the point to        
consider how this all-important         

substance comes into existence4 ,the    
organic chemist tells us that  starch is
 a ternary compound1 and this agrees    
closely with the  definition laid down  
by the dictionaries1 only they add that 
it is  odorless1 tasteless1 and         
insoluble in water4 ,it is one of the   
proximate  principles of plants1 and is 
stored in the form of granules          
wonderfully  variable in size and shape1
 but each kind having a type that is    
adhered  to with much regularity4 ,for  
example1 the ordinary potato 7,solanum  
tuberosum ,l47 produces a starch granule
 that is characterized by  a form       
resembling the shell of the oyster4     
,fig4 #a is from a camera  drawing of a 
cell from the center of a potato1 with  
portions of  adjoining cells1 all of    
which were packed full of starch1 a few 
grains  only being represented4         
,starch is acted upon differently by    
reagents1 one of the leading tests  for 
it being a solution of iodine4 ,a drop  
of a very weak solution will  determine 

the presence of starch in a cuff or     
shirt front by leaving  a blue spot or  
streak where the iodine has been        
applied4 ,by means of  this reagent the 
student of plant tissues is readily able
 to locate  starch when present in any  
slice of tissue he may have made4 ,he   
would1  for example1 find much more     
starch in the tuber of the potato than  
in  any other portion of the plant1 and 
there the grains will be found many     
times larger than in the stem or the    
cells of the green leaves4 ,of the      
relation of the starch in the leaves to 
that in the underground stem  something 
may be said later in this paper4    ,in 
the corn plant the starch is stored     
chiefly in the grain1 and not in  the   
subterranean portions1 as in the potato4
 ,the granules of the corn  starch are  
much smaller than those of the potato1  
as indicated by ,fig4  #b1 which is from
 a camera drawing of a cell from a grain
 of corn and  made to the same scale as 
,fig4 #a4 ,the granules are oval and not

 much  marked with stri or lines1 but   
chemically the substance is the same in 
both cases4    ,another leading starch  
is that of wheat1 the form of the grains
 of  which is shown in ,fig4 #c4 ,while 
somewhat larger than the corn-starch    
granules1 they are not otherwise widely 
different4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4     
#c4--,,starch ,,granules ,,of ,,wheat4  
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4--,,starch     
,,granules ,,of ,,rice4    ,one could   
scarcely overlook the starch produced by
 the rice plant1 for  it feeds more     
people than the potato1 corn1 or wheat4 
,the relative size  and form of the     
rice-starch granules are shown in ,fig4 
#d4 ,it is seen  that the grains are not
 large1 and with a strong tendency to   
break up  into small angular pieces4    
,there are almost as many forms of      
starch as plants producing it1  some of 
them being very odd in shape4 ,thus the 
tapioca starch has a  characteristic    
form1 as also the sago2 but it is not   
the purpose here  to more than call     

attention to the form in which the      
substance under  consideration is laid  
down in plants4 ,the student of food    
adulterations  is an expert in the      
detection of starches1 and1 with his    
microscope and  skill1 is able to decide
 how much of one kind of starch and how 
much of  another is offered in the      
product under examination4 ,it is a     
matter of  congratulation that ,nature  
has set herself so strongly against     
fraud  in food stuffs as to record the  
origin of each grain of starch in the   
grain itself4    ,and that brings us to 
a consideration of that origin4 ,we must
 accord  to plants the exalted          
prerogative of being the exclusive and  
universal  starch-formers in the world4 
,whether we note the growth of the      
potato  tubers or the plumping out of   
the grains of corn1 wheat1 or rice1 the 
same fact remains that storehouses are  
being filled with the same  organic     
compound4 ,there must be many           
preliminary steps before this  process  

of storing is complete1 and for these we
 need to seek elsewhere  in the growing 
plant4    ,even the most careless       
observer can not but be at home with the
 fact  that the whole port and bearing  
of ordinary plants is for sun exposure4 
,they rise from the ground as closely   
placed stems of grass or less           
neighborly orchard or forest trees1 and 
hang out their leaves to catch  the sun4
 ,the economy of substance is so well   
studied that there is a  very large     
exposure at a minimum of expenditure of 
tissue4 ,in short1  the leaves are the  
organs for association with the         
sunlight4 ,they  reach toward the sun   
where light is scanty1 as in the window1
 and even  turn their faces to the orb  
of day1 shifting the position hour by   
hour  from sunrise to nightfall4 ,the   
rapidity with which we come to the      
fundamental fact that leaves are for the
 sun almost surprises one4 ,the  purpose
 is as easily inferred1 but the steps in
 the process are not so  quickly taken4 

,the facts that leaves are par          
excellence the starch  factories and the
 sunlight the inobtrusive chemist are   
granted1 and it  remains only to show   
something of the steps of proof that    
science may  have discovered4    ,we    
need1 therefore1 to consider starch from
 the standpoint of its  composition1 and
 upon this the chemists are fairly well 
agreed4 ,it  consists of three elements1
 with their atoms so arranged that the  
molecule of starch has the composition  
of six parts of carbon1 ten  of         
hydrogen1 and five of oxygen1 or1 to    
express the formula in terse  chemical  
terms1 it stands ,c,h,o4 ,if we can     
account for the bringing  of these atoms
 together in the production of a single 
molecule of  starch the laboratory has  
been explored and the secret is ours1   
even if  we can not put it to practical 
use in our so-called 8starch factories40
    ,the independent plant1 beyond      
serious question1 gets its food from    
outside itself4 ,there are two sources  

for these substances--namely1 the       
soil-water bathing the absorbing roots1 
and the atmosphere1 with which  the     
arial branches and their leaves are     
constantly surrounded4 ,from  the soil  
come the water and all the salts1 ash   
constituents1 and the  like that may be 
dissolved therein1 while the gases of   
the atmosphere  bring1 among its chief  
contributions1 a constant and1 in an    
always  exceedingly diluted form1 the   
carbon dioxide1 or1 sometimes called1   
the carbonic-acid gas4 ,this compound1  
familiar to us as a product of          
combustion1 fermentation1 and decay1 is 
composed of carbon and oxygen1  and has 
the symbol ,,co associated with it by   
chemists4    ,in short1 for the         
formation of our starch the water 7,h,o7
 from the  soil and the ,,co of the     
atmosphere1 when brought together1 may  
be made  to combine with the formation  
of starch4 ,a single diagram1 while not 
perhaps an absolute statement of fact1  
may serve to represent the final        

result3      #f;,,co          ,c,h,o    
#ab,o4    #e;,h,o    ,in other words1   
the six molecules of carbon dioxide and 
five of water  combine with the         
formation of one molecule of starch and 
the liberation  of twelve atoms of      
oxygen4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4        
#e4--;,,diagrammatic ,,view ,,of ,,the  
,,process ,,of  ,,photo-,,synthesis4    
,this driving off of such a large amount
 of oxygen1 entirely against the  whole 
tendency of that element1 it is assumed1
 is at the expenditure  of much force4  
,the only one adequate to this work is  
solar energy1 and  this is abundantly at
 hand4 ,that we need not seek further   
for this  power is proved by many and   
conclusive tests4 ,vegetable            
physiologists  to-day are able not only 
to locate the sun as the chemist1 that  
effects the changes necessary for the   
production of starch1 but can  show in  
what cells and portions of those cells  
the forces effect  the synthesis4 ,the  
chlorophyll granules in the living cell 

are the  microscopic laboratories in    
which a silent chemist1 powerful beyond 
all  measurements1 builds out of        
inorganic materials the food substance  
of  the whole world of animals and      
plants4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4        
#f4--,,portion ,,of ,,leaf ,,magnified1 
,,illustrating  ,,photo-,,synthesis4    
,fig4 #e is an attempt to present the   
above statements as to  photo-synthesis 
in plants in such a form that it may    
appeal to the eye  of the reader4 ,a bit
 of maple twig is shown with one leaf in
 position4  ,passing up the stem in the 
young wood is the crude sap from the    
soil  to the leaf4 ,there is a downward 
flow of elaborated sap in the inner     
bark also represented4 ,solar energy is 
indicated by the wave lines as  playing 
upon the upper side of the leaf1 while  
the direction of the  carbon dioxide is 
shown by the dotted lines entering from 
both above  and below the leaf4 ,water  
of transportation is indicated as being 
given off1 and upon a dry1 hot day this 

is considerable1 which1 as it  vaporizes
 in the tissue1 tends to keep the latter
 cool4 ,lastly1 with  the formation of  
starch there is the escape of oxygen set
 free from the  broken molecule of      
carbon dioxide or water or both in the  
formation of  the starch4    ,fig4 #f is
 a similar attempt to show the process  
of starch formation  with the use of a  
portion of the leaf in section as it    
might appear  under the microscope4 ,the
 under portion of the leaf is seen as   
having  openings in the skin1 through   
which the gases and vapors pass1 and the
  middle portion above shows the porous 
nature of that part that is most  active
 in synthesis4 ,the small oval bodies in
 all the cells1 except  those of the    
upper and under epidermis1 represent the
 chlorophyll  granules1 the special seat
 of the special activities which result 
in  the formation of the carbohydrate1  
familiar to all as starch4 ,to the      
right is a leaf vein1 through which the 
crude sap 7c4 s47 reaches the  synthetic

 cells1 and the elaborated sap 7e4 s47  
descends to places  where it is needed  
for growth or for storage4    ,with the 
above facts in mind1 there is no wonder 
at the activity that  may reside in a   
field of corn during a bright day in    
,august4 ,starch is  being made almost  
by the ton daily1 and1 if the conditions
 favor1 the  next month will find a rich
 harvest for the husbandman who has     
assisted  in supplying the conditions   
for the desired output of the leading   
carbohydrate4    ,the genuine starch    
factories of the world are exceedingly  
small and  equally numerous1 and1 with  
the sunlight as the active force1 each  
green cell may contribute to the world's
 gain in the food substances  that      
enable all creatures to live and move   
and enjoy a fairly  comfortable         
existence4          ,,trade             
,,corporations ,,in ,,china4    ,,by ,m4
 ,,maurice ,,courant4      ,the         
remarkable longevity of a large number  
of business houses in ,china  is not due

 solely to the general conditions of    
society or to those  which are peculiar 
to the commercial class1 but their      
stability and  their fame rest upon a   
special organization1 under which they  
are  united in groups4 ,it is customary 
for all the houses possessing the  same 
specialty to form an association which  
,i shall call a corporation1  reserving 
to myself the privilege of pointing out 
a few exceptions to  the rule4 ,these   
corporations1 which seem to date from at
 least three  centuries back1 are       
difficult subjects to study4 ,various in
 type1  formed by the individuals       
interested1 without the state having had
  anything to do with their regulations 
or even perhaps authorized them1  they  
exist by force of custom and live       
conformably to their traditions1  while 
some1 ,i have been told1 have written   
regulations and even1  perhaps1         
archives--which they have not thought   
fit to communicate to  the public4 ,what
 is to be learned of them has1          

therefore1 to be deduced  from their    
visible transactions4    ,the           
corporation fixes the minimum price of  
articles of sale1 and has  secret agents
 to watch that no house takes less1     
thereby setting bounds  to competition  
and preventing the injurious            
depreciation of goods4  ,only the public
 suffers from the existence of the      
minimum1 but it does  not seem to       
perceive it1 and the ,government never  
interferes except in  respect to the    
price of grain1 for which it fixes a    
maximum1 and in  times of great stress  
sells from its own granaries4 ,the      
corporation1  too1 as represented in the
 banks and loan offices1 fixes the rates
 of  interest to be paid or received1   
and the kinds of securities and moneys  
that shall be accepted4 ,in short1 it   
adjusts the general regulations  of     
business transactions1 and defends the  
common interests of all  those          
associated in it4 ,if one of them is    
implicated in a judicial  proceeding of 

general interest the corporation        
sustains him with  its credit and its   
funds4 ,it further takes in hand        
injuries to the  interests of its       
associates4 ,in #ahhc the tea merchants'
 corporation of  ,hankow suspecting     
frauds by the agents of certain foreign 
houses1 asked  those houses to designate
 themselves some foreigner to           
superintend  the weighings4             
,notwithstanding the good reputation of 
the corporation  and the moderation of  
its requests1 the foreign houses        
refused4 ,all  transactions were        
suspended1 and the official in authority
 declared  that he could not compel the 
merchants to sell contrary to their     
wish1  and the foreign houses were      
eventually obliged to yield1 one at a   
time4    ,the corporations likewise     
watch the transactions of their members1
  oppose fraud which might harm the good
 name of the association so far  that   
the silversmiths will not permit one of 
their number to sell  alloyed jewelry1  

even when the purchaser knows it is     
such4 ,some see  that the taxes and     
duties on production are regularly and  
properly  paid4 ,others1 in the interest
 of the stability of the houses1 forbid 
all fictitious sales and purchases1 and 
most of the stock operations  and a     
large number of commercial transactions 
which seem very  simple to us would not 
be tolerated by them4 ,the custom of    
selling  short having been introduced   
upon the silver exchange in ,peking a   
few years ago1 a censor reported it as a
 kind of gambling1 and the  ,government 
interdicted the operation--a very rare  
example of official  intervention4      
,under a similar old-fashioned view1 the
 corporation of  bankers inquires into  
the total amount of the notes issued by 
its  members4 ,every banker and every   
broker is free to issue notes1 and      
little attention is paid to the         
precautions required by the law4 ,but   
the corporation has an infallible means 
of restricting extravagance in  the     

emission of bills4 ,if a house is going 
so fast as to be in danger  of          
compromising its credit and perhaps     
endangering the capital of  others      
associated with it1 an order is given1  
all the notes are thrown  before the    
public1 and the imprudent bank has to   
suspend its payments  and retire4       
,the corporation further maintains its  
reputation and keeps on good  terms with
 public powers by expenditures on       
ceremonials and charities4  ,every year 
it appropriates a sum for the opening of
 the kitchens from  which rice and      
millet broths are distributed to the    
poor of ,peking4  ,in case of famine or 
inundation1 the quotas of the           
corporations do  not have to be waited  
for1 while the more prominent commercial
 men  also contribute largely under     
their own names4 ,they will subscribe   
for a testimonial to a mandarin who has 
done good service1 will help  prepare   
the road over which an imperial         
procession is to pass1 and will         

contribute to the pageantry of popular  
religious ceremonials4    ,each         
corporation has its patron divinity1 who
 is the object of a  special cult4 ,with
 one it is the god of riches2 with      
another ,koan ,yu1  god of war2 with    
others a spirit of more limited         
competency1 like  ,lou ,pan1 a famous   
mechanician of the time of ,confucius1  
now patron of  the carpenters4 ,adored  
in every shop by all the patrons and    
clerks1  the festivals of the protecting
 genius are celebrated by the whole     
corporation at fixed dates4 ,to some    
divinities a sacrifice of meats and     
incense is offered in each warehouse1   
after which all the chiefs and  the men 
employed take part1 while the spirit is 
supposed to be present4  ,to others1    
more rarely1 a more bountiful sacrifice 
is made in a temple1  and the banquet1  
held in a large hall1 is enlivened by   
dramatic  entertainments4 ,the patron is
 also duly honored in the celebration of
  the general feasts of the ,chinese    

people4    ,the corporations have       
tribunals of arbitration and a common   
treasury1  but the method of operation  
of those departments is among the things
  they do not reveal to the public4 ,i  
have only learned a few general  facts  
on the subject4 ,the corporations       
intervene1 ,i have been told1  in the   
disputes of the members and to prevent  
dishonest dealings and  attempts to     
cheat one another1 but ,i have not      
learned that they have  any real        
judiciary authority4 ,their treasury is 
sustained by means of  assessments and  
fines1 and loans may be contracted on   
its account1 for  the salt merchants of 
,tientsin are still paying interest on a
 number of  debts contracted by the     
corporation in the last century4        
,great differences might be expected to 
exist between the corporations  in      
respect to these points and many others4
 ,they have been constituted  at        
different epochs1 independently of one  
another1 and are similar only  in their 

essential features4 ,the minimum price  
fixed by the assembly  is not equally   
imperative in all4 ,thus1 the price     
fixed by the fur  merchants at the      
beginning of the winter does not bind   
the members4  ,in most branches of      
commerce all the houses composing the   
corporation  are on a footing of        
substantial equality1 though1 of course1
 the large  banks prevail over the small
 brokers1 but there is no unlikeness in 
the business or the situation4 ,the     
policy of the tea trade is mainly       
controlled in ,peking by the houses of  
the families ,fang and ,oou4 ,they  fix 
the price1 determine the equivalence of 
weight 7the standard is a  pound of four
 ounces instead of sixteen71 and lead   
the corporation4  ,in fact1 the retail  
dealers use their capital in the        
decoration of  their shops with gilding 
and sculpture1 at a cost of between     
sixteen  hundred and two thousand       
dollars1 while the goods are lent them  
by  one of the importers1 who holds the 

decoration as security1 so that  the    
whole corporation is in the hands of    
these two families4 ,this is  a special 
condition1 and there is nothing else    
like it1 even among  other importers of 
southern products4 ,while most branches 
of trade  are independent of official   
action1 slaughter houses1 of which there
  are only five in ,peking1 have to be  
authorized by the ,government4  ,a      
religious motive may be at the bottom of
 this restriction1 the  large cattle    
being reserved for the imperial         
sacrifices4 ,moreover1  the killing of  
animals has been interdicted at         
different times1 and  even now the      
slaughter houses are ordered closed1 as 
an act of public  penitence1 in times of
 drought4    ,the loan houses also need 
an official authorization4 ,they pay a  
tax  on their operations to the local   
authorities1 and are divided into  three
 classes1 according to the importance of
 their business4 ,those  of the first   
class receive deposits from the         

authorities of various  sums1 on which  
they pay interest1 the administration   
reasoning that  by helping them increase
 their capital and enlarge their        
business it  will be doing a            
philanthropic work and assisting the    
people4 ,these loan  offices are not at 
all like our pawnbrokers' shops1 but are
 a credit  institution1 to which the    
middle class as well as the poor        
,chinaman has  constant recourse4 ,being
 conducted on equitable terms and       
serving their  convenience in various   
ways1 they render great services to the 
,chinese  people1 and have become       
necessary to their life1 and this       
explains the  departure of the          
,government from its usual policy of    
non-interference  to supervise and favor
 them4 ,china has1 further1 large and   
small  capitalists1 and numerous credit 
establishments very much like ours4     
,they may be classified as exchange     
offices1 banks1 and banks of  discount4 
,the last are at ,peking1 where they    

were founded a few decades  ago by some 
men from ,chan-,si4 ,their single       
industry is trading notes in  all ,china
 and some of its dependencies4 ,they    
have no monopoly1 for some  of the      
larger banks and more important traders 
were all doing the same2  but they have 
regulated the business1 extended it to  
more places1 and  have almost entirely  
suppressed the transportation of money  
in bulk4    ,the banks of exchange      
perform a variety of functions on a     
restricted  scale1 charging two per cent
 for exchanges1 issuing notes without   
any  supervision1 and lending money at  
two per cent a month in normal times4   
,they are not1 however1 always able to  
pay their notes at sight1 and  it is    
well1 therefore1 not to keep them too   
long4 ,in the provinces a  bank usually 
accepts only its own notes4 ,in ,peking 
some well-known  signatures are accepted
 everywhere after examination by an     
expert1 who  places his seal on the note
 he declares good1 charges a fee for    

each  verification1 and is responsible  
for his mistakes4    ,the large banks1  
by accepting or refusing the notes of   
any house or by  throwing money or      
sapiques on the market1 rule in the     
corporation  and have the whole fate of 
the market in their hands4 ,the four    
,hengs1  by the amount of their reserve1
 the solidity of their credit1 and  the 
number of their branches or             
correspondents1 have no rivals in  north
 ,china4 ,all exchange operations are   
carried on in the money  market1 which  
is held every day in the south-eastern  
part of the  city1 on the street1 near  
the ,tauist ,temple1 where all the      
houses in  ,peking are represented1 and 
every one takes care to be so1 lest he  
be thought in default4 ,when the rate is
 fixed the news is dispatched  by       
couriers1 pigeons1 etc41 to all whom it 
concerns4 ,the couriers of  the         
corporation1 who communicate with the   
brokers and bankers1 are  also the      
confidential agents of the syndics1 are 

acquainted with the  amounts of the     
emissions of each house1 know whether a 
certain patron  is really ill or only   
feigning1 and by their reports decide   
who shall  be boycotted or declared     
insolvent4 ,all this goes on in full    
liberty1  without surveillance by the   
state1 without any tax on the           
transactions1  and without any other    
interference than the prohibition of    
fictitious  dealings4 ,the corn market  
is in the same way the almost exclusive 
domain of the corn corporation1 the     
state never interfering except in  the  
case of a famine in the region4         
,besides the merchants' corporations1   
there exist also corporations of        
artisans4 ,the embroiderers1 the makers 
of cloisonn1 the tanners1  and the      
carpenters have theirs4 ,the carriers   
and the boatmen1 who1  before the       
opening of the railway1 had the monopoly
 of transportation  between ,peking and 
the provinces without forming           
associations1 met  at their respective  

inns and established rules and rates for
 their  business4 ,informal             
organizations1 varying among the        
different towns in  their degrees of    
development1 exist among the            
barbers--who at ,peking  meet every year
 for a sacrifice and a banquet--the     
chair-bearers1  and the jinrikisha men1 
and so every city has its corporations  
and  associations which are not like    
those of the next city4    ,some        
branches of trade have no corporations1 
and the peasants1 when  they come to    
town to sell their produce1 trade on    
their own account1  for the best terms  
they can get1 and have to accept1 in the
 market1  an organization the origin of 
which is forgotten4 ,every year1 on the 
appearance of each sort of crop1 the    
,king ki of the market1 having  agreed  
with the dealers1 fixes the minimum     
price of the commodity for  the season4 
,he also polices the market4 ,the       
function of ,king ki is  the property of
 the person who exercises it1 who has   

bought it from his  predecessor and will
 sell it to his successor by private    
contract1 and  nobody contests his      
right4 ,in the market for azaroles the  
position  is hereditary4 ,the monopoly  
of the corporations is often complicated
  with a provincial question4 ,the      
,chinaman regards every man who was born
  in another district as a              
foreigner--still more if he is of       
another  province4 ,those who are of the
 same local origin1 on the other hand1  
stand by one another4 ,hence it has come
 to pass that some trades have  been    
monopolized by the people of some one   
province4 ,most of the  bankers were    
originally from ,chan-,si2 all the great
 merchants came  from ,anhoei4 ,the     
people of ,chan-tung have three special 
occupations in  ,peking4 ,they have the 
exclusive privilege of killing pigs and 
retailing  meat4 ,they are the only     
water carriers1 each one having his well
 on  the public highway1 his watering   
place for horses and mules1 and his     

district where he sells water without   
permitting the people to provide  for   
themselves elsewhere4 ,such privileges  
are consecrated by usage and  zealously 
defended by their holders1 and respect  
for them is enforced1  when necessary1  
by the authorities4 ,associations are   
formed1 also1 even  among the coolies   
who work on the docks4    ,these details
 show by how great a variety of forms   
all the corporations  assure the same   
result--the organization of labor4 ,we  
see also how they  extend beyond        
commerce4 ,the ,chinaman is in fact a   
social being bound  closely to his      
fellows--of the family1 province1 trade1
 or class--by  every tie and in every   
sphere of life4 ,he is never a man      
living by  himself and for himself1 and 
is not accustomed to independence4      
,hence  the authority of the            
corporation1 instead of seeming strange1
 is a  necessity to him4 ,consequently  
the corporation has the right1 by       
universal consent1 to exact obedience   

from its members1 and to compel  those  
who would stay out to come into         
it4--,translated for the ,popular       
,science ,monthly from the ,revue des   
,deux ,mondes4           99       99    
99       99       99        ,m4 ,l4     
,azoulay suggests1 in the ,revue        
,scientifique1 that the      invitation 
given to ,seor ,rmon y ,cajal1 the      
celebrated ,spanish      neurologist1 to
 visit the ,united ,states and attend   
the celebration      of the tenth       
anniversary of ,clark ,university1      
furnishes a good      example for       
,france to follow4 8,it causes grievous 
chagrin to      me to think10 he says1  
8that while ,germany1 ,england1         
,austria1      ,switzerland1 and the    
,united ,states are regularly accustomed
      to invite to their scientific     
ceremonials1 of which there are         
more than one every year1 students of   
other countries who have                
illustrated any branch of human         
knowledge1 ,france1 formerly so         

hospitable1 refuses these international 
appeals40           99       99       99
       99       99        ,at the recent
 meeting of the ,british ,archological  
,association1      at ,buxton1 ,dr4     
,brushfield described the prehistoric   
circle of      ,arbor ,low as1 upon     
evidence which he cited1 the earliest   
neolithic      monument in ,britain4    
,there are thirty-two stones in the     
circle1 all      now lying prostrate1   
but they must originally have been      
erect4 ,the      dolmen in the center is
 now level with the ground4 ,the mound  
and      ditch--the latter being inside1
 between the mound and the stone        
circle--are in a very perfect condition1
 notwithstanding the lapse      of time4
 ,the work has two openings--on the     
northeast and southwest4                
,editor's ,table4      ,,science ,,and  
,,dogma4    ,after many uncomfortable   
turnings in his narrow theological      
quarters1  the eminent biologist1       
,professor ,st4 ,george ,mivart1 seems  

to have made  up his mind that he may as
 well1 before he dies1 know what it is  
to  enjoy the air of liberty4 ,for many 
years he has been pining for this1  and 
almost inviting the authorities of the  
,church to give him his  passports4 ,the
 ,church was not anxious1 however1 to   
quarrel with a man  of recognized       
ability and wide knowledge1 and         
therefore writings which  might well    
have been expected to give serious      
umbrage were allowed to  pass unnoticed4
 ,the professor then made a most        
audacious raid upon  the venerable      
doctrine that there remains for the     
majority of mankind  a place of         
unutterable and eternal misery4 ,he     
ventured to speak of  ,the ,happiness in
 ,hell1 maintaining that1 while the     
inhabitants of  that abode would always 
have a profound and harrowing sense of  
having  missed the supreme happiness of 
heaven1 they would still be able to     
occupy themselves in a variety of ways  
which would give them a certain  amount 

of happiness1 just as in this world a   
man may carry a profound  sorrow in his 
heart and yet1 under the stimulus of    
business or society  or intellectual    
study1 have his attention happily       
diverted for many  hours every day4 ,at 
this point the authorities drew the     
line4 ,it is  related of an old ,scotch 
lady that1 referring to the             
,universalists1  she said1 8,those      
people say that all men will be saved at
 last1 but  we hope for better things40 
,whether this was the point of view of  
the ecclesiastical powers or not1       
certain it is that they refused to      
sanction the notion of any happiness1 of
 howsoever humble an order1  in the     
abode of gloom1 and gave a peremptory   
order to the professor  to take it all  
back4 ,well1 he took it back as a matter
 of submission  to those whom he        
regarded as his lawful spiritual guides1
 but the  submission did not give him   
rest4 ,if ecclesiastical authority was  
entitled to respect on one side1 science

 was urging even stronger  claims on the
 other4 ,in ,august last1 as we now     
learn1 the professor  wrote to the      
,prefect of the ,sacred ,congregation of
 the ,index1  explaining how he wished  
his submission to be understood1 and as 
he and  the prefect could not come to an
 agreement about it1 he withdrew the    
submission altogether4 ,then he resolved
 to relieve his mind4 ,it took  two     
articles in two separate magazines to do
 it--one in the ,fortnightly  and one in
 the ,nineteenth ,century--but then it  
was done in a manner  admitting of no   
recall4 ,no sooner had these articles   
appeared than  ,cardinal ,vaughan drew  
up an iron-clad declaration affirming   
the falsity  of every position the      
writer had taken1 and required him to   
sign it4  ,too late6 ,the biologist and 
evolutionist in ,professor ,mivart had  
finally triumphed over the theologian1  
and he met the cardinal's demand  with a
 flat refusal4 ,thereupon his ,eminence 
issued an order excluding  the          

recalcitrant savant from the sacraments 
of the ,church4    ,mr4 ,mivart now     
knows where he is4 ,he occupies the     
broad ground of  scientific truth4 ,he  
breathes the free air of intellectual   
and moral  liberty4 ,he still professes 
loyalty to the ,church according to his 
own conception of it1 but he will no    
longer bow down to an authority  that   
assumes to prescribe his opinions in    
matters which he is quite  capable of   
judging for himself4 ,he has arrived at 
the conclusion that  even as regards the
 interpretation of ,scripture the       
,church is just as  liable to err as the
 humble layman4 ,he quotes most         
persistently the  case of ,galileo1 in  
which the ,church1 in the most formal   
and official  manner1 declared that     
,scripture taught what for nearly a     
century now  it has admitted ,scripture 
does not teach4 ,if the highest organs  
of  ecclesiastical authority could make 
such a blunder in ,galileo's day1  what 
blunders may they not commit in our day8

 ,but if the ,church can err            
egregiously in what is its own peculiar 
province--if anything is--how  great is 
likely to be its inaptitude when it     
undertakes to deal with  scientific     
questions6    8,god has taught us10 says
 ,mr4 ,mivart1 8through history1 that it
 is  not to ecclesiastical congregations
 but to men of science that he  has     
committed the elucidation of scientific 
questions1 whether such  questions are  
or are not treated of by ,scripture1 the
 ,fathers1 the  ,church's common        
teaching1 or special congregations or   
tribunals of  ecclesiastics actually    
summoned for the purpose4 ,this also    
applies to  all science--to ,scripture  
criticism1 to biology1 and to all       
questions  concerning evolution1 the    
antiquity of man1 and the origin of     
either  his body or his soul or of both4
 ,for all ecclesiastics who know nothing
  of natural science it is an act       
necessarily as futile as impertinent to 
express any opinion on such subjects40  

,the opposition of the rulers of the    
,church to the true theory of  the solar
 system in the sixteenth and seventeenth
 centuries is  paralleled1 according to 
,mr4 ,mivart1 by their opposition to the
  doctrine of evolution to-day4 ,he     
refers to the fact that two ,catholic   
professors who had ventured to give a   
partial support to the doctrine  in     
question--one of them ,father ,zahm1 who
 contributed an article1  as many of our
 readers will remember1 to this magazine
 a couple of  years ago--had both been  
compelled to retract and disavow what   
they  had published on the subject4     
,professor ,mivart draws a distinction1 
however1 between the rulers of the      
,church and the ,church4 ,the latter  he
 idealizes--and we by no means dispute  
his right to do so--as a  vast          
organization the office of which is to  
keep alive man's sense  of spiritual    
things1 and to bear eternal testimony in
 favor of those  truths of the heart    
which do not admit1 like intellectual   

truths1 of  logical demonstration4      
,though cut off by authority from       
participation  in the rites of the      
,church1 he feels himself still one in  
sympathy with  all who in the ,church   
are aspiring to a higher life4 ,we look 
upon his  case as a very instructive    
one1 affording as it does clear evidence
 of  the absolute incompatibility       
between any authoritative system of     
dogma  and the free pursuit of truth4   
,it has taken ,professor ,mivart a long 
time to arrive at his present           
standpoint1 but it is well that he has  
got there at last4 ,his example1 we     
believe1 will encourage not a few  to   
assert in like manner their right to    
think freely and to utter what  they    
think4      ,a ,,more ,,excellent ,,way4
    ,when our article of last month1    
entitled ,a ,commission in              
,difficulties1  was written we had not  
seen the paper by ,mr4 ,theodore        
,dreiser1 in  ,harper's ,magazine for   
,february1 describing the important     

educational  work which the ,western    
railways are doing with a view to       
promoting the  prosperity of the        
agricultural regions through which they 
pass4 ,in  our article we observed that 
8the more interference there is between 
parties who1 in the last resort1 are    
dependent upon one another's good  will1
 the less likely they are to recognize  
their substantial identity  of          
interest40 ,what ,mr4 ,dreiser clearly  
shows is how great the community  of    
interest is between the railroads on the
 one side and the farming  community on 
the other1 and how fully that community 
of interest is  recognized by the       
railways at least4 ,the freight agent of
 a given line  is charged with the duty 
of developing to the utmost--in the     
interest1  primarily1 of his road1 it   
may readily be granted--the agricultural
  resources of the country through which
 it runs4 ,he has his assistants1  who  
look after different branches of the    
work1 such as crop-raising1             

cattle-grazing1 dairying1               
poultry-raising1 etc4 8,through this    
department10 the writer says1 8the      
railroads are doing a remarkably  broad 
educational work1 not only of inspecting
 the land1 but of  educating the farmers
 and merchants1 and helping them to     
become wiser  and more successful4 ,they
 give lectures on soil nutrition and    
vegetable  growing1 explain conditions  
and trade shipments1 teach              
poultry-raising  and cattle-feeding1    
organize creameries for the manufacture 
of cheese  and butter1 and explain new  
business methods to merchants who are   
slow  and ignorant in the matter of     
conducting their affairs40 ,an agent of 
the railway will visit every town along 
the line a certain number of  times     
every year to see what he can do to     
quicken trade4 ,finally1 in  the great  
centers there are special agents who    
8look after incoming  shipments1 and    
work for the interests of the merchants 
and farmers by  finding a market for    

their products40 ,examples are given    
showing how  the railways are able to   
impart1 and do impart1 information of   
the  highest value to the farmers1 such 
as puts them in the way of getting      
greatly improved returns from their     
land4    ,of course1 the railways want  
business1 but it is eminently           
satisfactory  when one party who wants  
business uses his best efforts on behalf
 of  another in order that by making him
 prosperous he himself may prosper4     
,when things get into this shape they   
are all right1 as the phrase is4  ,the  
accepted definition of a perfect action 
is one which benefits  all who are      
parties to it4 ,things are on a much    
better foundation  when people are      
mutually benefiting one another1 each   
primarily in  his own interest1 than    
when it is all philanthropy on one side 
and  passive acceptance of benefits on  
the other4 ,philanthropy is an          
uncertain thing1 and its effects are    
uncertain4 ,its quality will take1  in  

general1 a good deal of training2 but   
business1 on an honest and  reciprocally
 helpful basis1 is good all through4    
,it is a happy circumstance that there  
are natural laws and forces at  work    
which tend to produce a healthful social
 equilibrium4 ,the true  statesman is he
 who is on the watch to discern these   
forces and these  laws1 resolved that if
 he can not aid their operation he shall
 at least  throw no obstacle in the way 
of their activity4 ,the amount of harm  
that is done by coming between people   
who would be certain to arrange  their  
business relations satisfactorily1 if   
they were only left to do  it without   
interference1 can hardly be estimated4  
,man is fundamentally  a social animal1 
and he wants1 if he can possibly get it1
 the good  opinion of his fellows4 ,this
 is a principle which legislation too   
much  overlooks1 but it is one on which1
 as we believe1 the future progress  of 
society depends1 and which1 in spite of 
the blunders of legislators1  will more 

and more assert itself as the years go  
on4          ,fragments of ,science4    
,religious ,suicides4--,suicides from   
religious fanaticism1 which are  still  
prescribed by some sects1 are compared1 
as having a common  origin1 with        
propitiatory or expiatory human         
sacrifices1 by ,herr ,lasch1  in an     
article of which we find a review in the
 ,rivista ,italiana di  ,sociologica4   
,voluntary sacrifices1 which abound in  
the history of  ancient peoples1 had    
nearly always in view the removal of    
perils or the  cessation of public      
calamities by appeasing the anger of the
 divinity  through the offering of a    
human victim4 ,thus ,macaria1 the       
daughter of  ,hercules1 at ,athens      
during the ,peloponnesian war1 and      
,codrus and the  ,athenian youth        
,cratinus voluntarily offered their     
lives to aid their  country by the      
sacrifice4 ,the consul ,decius gave     
himself up to assure  victory to his    
legions1 and ,adrian's favorite         

,antinous to save his  imperial         
protector4 ,spontaneous offerings of    
human victims to appease  offended      
divinities are mentioned in the         
traditions of the ancient  ,germans1 and
 it was usually their chief or king who 
suffered for the  good of the people4   
,offerings of this sort are far from    
infrequent  among barbarous and         
half-civilized peoples4 ,among some     
tribes in ,china  a man is sacrificed   
every year for the public welfare4 ,such
 voluntary  renunciations of life to    
acquire merit with the divinity1 to gain
  favors1 to atone for sins1 and fulfill
 vows are very common in ,india1        
particularly where ,brahmanism is most  
influential4 ,special methods were      
pointed out in the ,hindu laws for      
performing such sacrifices as would  be 
sinful for a ,brahman1 but not for a    
,sutra1 who1 before abandoning  life1   
should make gifts to the ,brahmans4 ,a  
favorite method was to  drown one's self
 in the ,ganges1 and particular spots in

 the river  were designated for this    
act4 ,the sacred books mention five     
methods  of performing sacrifice to     
assure a better fortune in the next     
life3  ,starving to death1 being burned 
alive1 burial in snow1 being eaten by a 
crocodile1 and cutting the throat or    
being drowned at a particular spot  in  
the ,ganges4 ,in fulfillment of vows1   
sons would sacrifice themselves  for    
their mothers by jumping from a rock4   
,to keep up the courage of  the victim1 
the ,sivaitic rituals promised many     
beatitudes to him who  courageously met 
death for his sins1 and threatened      
eternal punishment  to one who performed
 the sacrifice in a base manner4 ,and   
when the  suicide had been decided upon 
they allowed no retreat or repentance1  
but forced its consummation4 ,a special 
apparatus for suicide formerly  existed 
in some of the villages in central      
,india1 consisting of a  guillotine     
which the victim himself set in action4 
,casting one's  self under the wheels of

 the car of ,juggernaut was another     
method of  religious suicide4 ,some     
philosophical schools prescribed        
subjection of  the body to various pains
 for the purification of the soul2 and  
the  books of ,manu1 which also impose  
the destruction of human sensibility1   
have contributed much to preserve this  
idea in ,india and spread abroad1       
especially in the ,malay ,archipelago1  
the usage of voluntary sacrifice  to the
 divinity4 ,the aborigines of the       
,canary ,islands have employed          
voluntary sacrifices on the coming of an
 epidemic1 and the ancient  ,mexicans   
and ,peruvians observed them in honor of
 the divinity4           99       99    
99       99       99    8,manuring with 
,brains40--8,new ,soil ,science0 is the 
name ,mr4 ,d4  ,young gives1 in the     
,nineteenth ,century1 to the results of 
the studies  of soil bacteriology       
prosecuted by ,mr4 ,john ,hunter and    
,professor  ,mc,alpine on ,lord         
,roseberry's estate of ,dalmeny1 and    

8manuring with  brains0 to the          
application of them4 ,attention has been
 called to  the value of the bacteria in
 the soil as nitrifying and fertilizing 
elements by the experiments of ,sir     
,john ,bennet ,lawes and ,sir ,joseph   
,henry ,gilbert at ,rothamsted1 and more
 forcibly by experiments coming  after  
them but suggested by them4 ,it had also
 been found that caustic  lime used upon
 the soil is liable to destroy the      
nitrifying and other  advantageous      
organisms1 while carbonate of lime is   
surely useful1 and  a due proportion of 
lime compounds is essential to the best 
discharge  of their functions4 ,the     
discovery that the bacteria of the root 
nodules of leguminous plants possess the
 power of absorbing the free  nitrogen  
of the atmosphere and rendering it      
available for the use of  the plant was 
made by ,messrs4 ,hunter and ,mc,alpine1
 according to ,mr4  ,young1 and was     
taught by them to their students several
 years before  ,hellriegel1 to whom it  

is usually ascribed1 fell upon it4 ,they
 found  that several well-defined sets  
of bacteria were concerned in the work  
of nitrification1 and isolated and      
cultivated the nitrous germ1 but  could 
accomplish nothing with the nitric germ 
till they used old mortar  or some lime 
dressing with it4 ,they also found that 
lime compounds  in the surface soil     
served a further important use by       
preventing the  soluble silicates from  
being taken up by the roots of the      
plant1 the  lime taking up those salts  
and forming insoluble silicates which   
were retained in the soil and did not   
diffuse into the plant4 ,so a           
non-silicated stem1 or a cellulose stem1
 was formed1 which would bend  before   
the wind without breaking1 while the    
non-silicated straw was  much superior  
in value to the silicated straw4        
,messrs4 ,hunter and  ,mc,alpine denied 
that silica in the plant gave strength  
and solidity  to the stem1 and pointed  
out that it rather1 like glass1 made the

  straw brittle4 ,they found out1       
further1 that large quantities of       
carbonic acid were produced in the soil 
through the operation of the  ferments1 
and found an outlet through the subsoil 
drains4 ,they made  other discoveries   
which threatened to render it necessary 
to revise  the whole fabric of          
agricultural science1 and were called to
 account  by the institutions in which  
they were teachers for their heresies4  
,they maintained their position till the
 opportunity came to them to  make tests
 of their theories on ,lord ,rosebery's 
,dalmeny farm4 ,among the  results of   
the ,dalmeny experiments are proof of   
the value of a dressing  of ground lime 
in proportions not large enough to kill 
the bacteria1  emphasis of the value of 
potash for every crop1 and the discovery
 of a  remedial treatment for the       
finger-and-toe pest in turnips4 8,when  
these  experiments were commenced1      
ground lime for agricultural purposes   
had  never been heard of1 whereas now   

there are at least six lime works  where
 extensive grinding plants are kept hard
 at work to supply the  ever-increasing 
demand for that substance4 ,since the   
principles for the  new soil science    
have been put in successful practice at 
,dalmeny the  scientific authorities1   
who at first had branded these          
principles as  absurd heresies1 have    
changed their tune10 and now the        
chemical adviser  of the ,highland      
,society has declared that he accepts   
the new doctrines4           99       99
       99       99       99    ,plague  
,antitoxin4--,in justifying his belief  
in the efficacy of the  inoculation     
treatment against the plague1 ,lord     
,curzon1 the ,viceroy of  ,india1 said1 
in a recent address at ,poonah3 8,if ,i 
find1 as ,i do find1  out of one hundred
 plague seizures among uninoculated     
persons1 the  average number who die is 
somewhere about seventy to eighty per   
cent1  while1 in a corresponding number 
of seizures among inoculated persons1   

the proportions are entirely reversed   
and seventy to eighty per cent1  if not 
more1 are saved--and these calculations 
have been furnished from  more than one 
responsible quarter--,i say figures of  
that kind can not  fail to carry        
conviction2 and ,i altogether fail to   
see how1 in the face  of them1 it is    
possible for any one to argue that      
inoculation is not  a wise and necessary
 precaution40 ,he had been personally   
visiting the  plague hospitals and camps
 about the city1 and had already        
supported  his advocacy of this         
treatment by having himself and his     
party  inoculated at ,simla with the    
plague antitoxin4           99       99 
99       99       99    ,cultivation of 
,india ,rubber4--,an article in the     
,bulletin of the  ,bureau of ,american  
,republics represents that there are    
lands in  ,mexico and ,central ,america 
equally adapted to the cultivation of   
the  ,india-rubber tree with the        
,brazilian plantations1 and having1 in  

addition1 a salubrious climate4         
,formerly dependence for the supply of  
,india rubber was placed in the product 
of wild trees1 but with the  increase in
 the uses for it1 and the consequent    
rise in prices1 capital  is being       
invested in this industry1 and its      
profitable cultivation is  being largely
 engaged in4 ,the trees do not flourish 
at an elevation  exceeding five hundred 
feet above sea level1 and low land1     
moist but  not swampy1 is the best4     
,land suitable for planting could be    
bought  for twenty-five cents an acre in
 large tracts1 but it now brings from   
two dollars to five dollars ,mexican4   
,these lands can be used for other      
crops while the trees are growing up1   
and thus made partly to repay  the cost 
of starting the plantation4 ,so the     
expense of clearing the  land           
preparatory to planting it is largely   
met1 if facilities for  transplantation 
are at hand1 by the sale of the         
dyewoods1 sandalwood1  satinwood1 ebony1

 and mahogany that are cut off4 ,the    
land should be  chosen along the banks  
of streams1 where the soil is rich1     
deep1 and  loamy1 and the presence of   
wild rubber trees is a sure indication  
of  its suitability4 ,these wild trees  
should be left standing1 and young      
seedlings should be kept and            
transplanted into their proper places4  
,the  densest plantation compatible with
 good results is fifteen feet apart1    
giving about one hundred and            
ninety-three trees to the acre4 ,once in
  the ground1 the tree needs no         
attention or cultivation beyond keeping 
down the undergrowth1 which can be      
effected by the aid of a side crop4     
,the tree propagates itself by the seeds
 or nuts1 which drop in ,may and  ,june4
 ,by the sixth or seventh year the grove
 will be in bearing1 and  thereafter    
should yield from three to five pounds  
of ,india rubber per  tree4           99
       99       99       99       99    
,the ,new ,york ,botanical ,garden's    

,museum4--,the museum building of the   
,new ,york ,botanical ,garden is        
substantially completed1 and most of    
the works are in an advanced state of   
forwardness4 ,the museum cases  7for    
public inspection7 and the herbarium    
cases 7for students7 are in  position1  
and the herbarium cases are filled4     
,among the recent gifts  of value to the
 institution are the miscellaneous      
collection of ,john  ,j4 ,crooke1 made  
about thirty years ago and containing   
about twenty  thousand specimens1 among 
which are a set of the plants obtained  
by  the ,united ,states ,pacific        
,exploring ,expedition of about #ahej2  
the  collection of between twenty and   
thirty thousand specimens made by ,dr4  
,f4 ,m4 ,hexamer in ,switzerland and the
 ,united ,states2 a collection of  seven
 or eight thousand numbers1 made by ,mr4
 and ,mrs4 ,a4 ,a4 ,heller1             
representing between twelve and thirteen
 hundred species1 some of which  are new
 to science2 and specimens of crude     

drugs1 for the ,economic  ,museum1      
presented by ,parke1 ,davis  ,co4 ,a    
permanent microscopic  exhibition is to 
be established by ,mr4 ,william ,e4     
,dodge1 at his own  expense4 ,it will be
 furnished with at least twenty-five    
microscopes1  and with specimens        
carefully prepared and inclosed1 to     
secure them  from injury4 ,a set of more
 than two hundred volumes on botany and 
horticulture1 which formed a part of the
 library of ,dr4 ,david ,hosack1        
founder of the first botanical garden in
 ,new ,york1 has been presented  by the 
,new ,york ,academy of ,medicine1 which 
received it from the ,new  ,york        
,hospital4           99       99        
99       99       99    ,action of ,sea 
,water on ,cements4--,as the result of  
examinations of  many masonry structures
 immersed in sea water1 ,dr4 ,wilhelm   
,michaelis  has found that ,portland    
cement does not resist the chemical     
action of  such water so well as do     
,roman cement and the hydraulic cements4

 ,the  soluble sulphates in the sea     
water appear to enter into a            
substitution  combination with the lime 
which exists in the cement in a free    
state  or is liberated in the hardening1
 and it is converted into a sulphate1   
while disintegration ensues4 ,in ,roman 
cement the lime exists in  combination1 
and there is no inclination toward the  
formation of  a sulphate1 and hydraulic 
limes resemble ,roman cement in physical
  qualities4 ,dr4 ,michaelis suggests   
that hydraulic cementing materials      
containing more lime than is required   
for the formation of stable             
hydro-silicate and aluminate may be made
 suitable for submarine work by  an     
admixture of trass or puzzolana1 whereby
 the cementing strength of  the mass    
will be greatly increased1 and it will  
be enabled to withstand  the            
disintegrating action of the sea water4 
99       99       99       99       99  
,stories of ,amazonian ,pygmies4--,dr4  
,d4 ,g4 ,brinton subjected the  stories 

of the existence of pygmy tribes on the 
upper tributaries of  the ,amazon to a  
careful examination1 and came to the    
conclusion that  the facts did not show 
anything more than that there are       
undersized  tribes in that part of      
,south ,america1 with occasional        
individual  examples of dwarfs1 such as 
occur in all communities4 ,it is still a
  question1 he observed1 8whether the   
rumor of a pygmy people somewhere  in   
the tropical forests is not to be       
classed with the stories which  threw a 
strange glamour about those inaccessible
 regions in the early  days of the      
discovery4 ,there were many of these1   
for ,i am speaking of  the part of the  
map where was located the ,el ,dorado1  
the golden city of  ,manoa1 the home of 
the warlike ,amazons2 where dwelt the   
men with tails  and the mysterious      
,oyacoulets1 warriors with white skin1  
blue eyes1  and long1 blond beards4 ,all
 have vanished from history but the     
pygmies1  and their turn will probably  

soon come40           99       99       
99       99       99    ,relief and     
,pension ,funds of ,railroad ,men4--,in 
instituting a pension  fund for the men 
in its employ the ,pennsylvania         
,railroad established1  in addition and 
supplementary to the relief fund of     
which they  enjoy the privilege1 a      
special fund for those who are retired  
or  superannuated1 which is adjusted    
according to their length of service    
and the pay they have been receiving4   
,the relief fund affords every  man     
employed an opportunity to provide for  
himself in case of sickness  or         
disability4 ,it is co-operative1 and is 
supported jointly by the  employed men1 
its members1 and the company1 the       
expenses of operation  and the          
deficiencies in it being met by the     
company4 ,the additional  pension is the
 company's own undertaking4 ,besides the
 manifestly  humane purpose of this     
arrangement--to care for the present and
 future  interests of its men--it       

promises to work to increase and improve
 the  effectiveness of the company's    
service4 ,its tendency will be to give  
the men greater heart in their work1 and
 to cause them to identify  themselves  
more fully with it4 ,decent provision   
being made for the  retirement of old   
hands1 the service can be kept manned by
 a younger  and more robust class4 ,the 
new fund will effect the entire force on
 the  lines of the ,pennsylvania system 
east of ,pittsburg and ,erie1 extending 
over a trackage of more than forty-one  
hundred miles4           99       99    
99       99       99    ,the ,broom as a
 ,spreader of ,disease4--,dust being now
 generally  recognized as one of the    
most efficient vehicles of the germs of 
disease1 ,dr4 ,max ,girsdansky finds the
 broom to be one of the most  active    
agents in sending them into air1 where  
it is diffused by  whatever breezes may 
be blowing there4 ,the housewife digs   
the dust  out of her carpets and stirs  
it out of the quiet corners where it has

  accumulated1 wearing an old dress and 
covering her head while she  leaves her 
lungs exposed1 then shakes her rugs in  
the yard1 and the  street sweeper       
transfers the dust he has charge of from
 the pavement  to the atmosphere1 where 
we can breathe our fill of consumption  
from  day to day4 ,therefore1 the author
 holds1 the broom1 8far from serving    
any hygienic purpose1 is the cause of   
the maintenance of organic dust  in the 
atmosphere of the large cities of the   
world1 and as such is the  most         
important cause of the existence and    
spread of tuberculosis40  ,further1 the 
carpet is pronounced 8an unhygienic     
article1 serving  as a fine breeding    
ground for vegetable parasites1         
necessitating  the use of the broom and 
the duster1 and thereby becoming a      
reason  for the existence of organic    
dust40 ,as the only proper and safe way 
of procuring the cleanliness of the     
floors and streets of our large  cities1
 ,dr4 ,girsdansky advises the free use  

of water in the shape  of showers1 or   
with sprinkling wagons1 hoes1 mops1     
etc41 and that  all floors and floor    
coverings of the house and the street be
 so  constructed as to facilitate the   
free use of water in these ways4        
99       99       99       99       99  
,alkali ,soils in ,montana4--,mr4 ,f4   
,w4 ,traphagen1 of the ,montana         
,agricultural ,experiment ,station1     
ascribes the origin of the alkali  soil 
in the arid regions to the failure of   
the elements to remove  the soda salts  
set free on the disintegration of the   
rocks1 which in  humid regions are taken
 up and washed away by the rains4 ,the  
soluble  salts are dissolved by the     
water that falls on the surface1 and are
  carried down when it soaks through the
 ground1 to form an element in  the     
ground water4 ,they return thence to the
 soil when water is brought  up by      
capillary action to supply the place of 
that lost by surface  evaporation1 and  
accumulate there4 ,then1 as the water   

evaporates  they are left on the        
surface1 forming1 when in sufficient    
quantity1  the white crusts seen in     
badly alkalied places4 ,the most        
effective  remedy for alkali might      
probably be found in underdrainage1     
which  would prevent the ground water   
rising to the top1 and would carry  off 
the salts4 ,this being at present       
impracticable on the large scale  that  
would be required1 such expedients as   
surface flooding and such  cultivation  
of crops as would tend to check         
evaporation are suggested4  ,the        
pernicious effects of 8black alkali0 or 
sodium carbonate are  seen when it forms
 as much as about one tenth of one per  
cent of the  soil1 in the corrosion and 
solution of vegetable matter--the stems 
of  plants--exposed to it4 ,it also     
dissolves the humus or vegetable mold1  
forming dark-colored solutions and      
depositing a black residue upon  the    
evaporation of the water--whence its    
name--and it destroys the  tillability  

of many soils4 ,the 8white alkali0 or   
sodium sulphate can  be borne in much   
larger proportions in the soil1 and     
promotes the best  crops just before it 
completely destroys them4 ,the author   
remarks that  the foundations of a      
number of buildings in ,billings1       
,montana1 are  gradually becoming       
insecure because of the disintegration  
of the rock1  due to the absorption of  
alkali salts1 followed by the           
evaporation of  the water and the       
deposit of salts within the pores of the
 rock4 ,as the  process continues1 the  
rock particles are forced apart4        
99       99       99       99       99  
,future of the ,new ,york ,canals4--,the
 ,committee on ,canals of ,new ,york    
,state recommend decidedly in their     
report to the ,governor that those      
highways should not be abandoned but    
maintained1 and the principal ones      
enlarged1 while the others should be    
kept up as navigable feeders4 ,of  two  
projects for enlarging the ,erie ,canal1

 that undertaken in #ahie1  with        
modifications to be executed at a cost  
of #ba1afa1fde1 and a  larger one to    
cost #eh1hid1ffh1 the committee prefer  
the larger one1  because it will        
permanently secure the commercial       
supremacy of ,new  ,york1 while the     
other is 8at best only a temporary      
makeshift40 ,an  important principle    
emphasized in the report is that the    
efficiency of  the canals depends upon  
their management as well as upon their  
physical  size4 ,therefore a policy     
should be followed that will encourage  
transportation companies to seek the use
 of them2 mechanical means of  traction 
should be employed1 and mechanical power
 should be substituted  for hand power  
in certain operations2 the force engaged
 upon them  should be organized on a    
more permanent basis of fitness1 so as  
to  furnish an attractive career to     
graduates of scientific institutions2   
and efficient guards should be thrown   
over the expenditure of money 8so  as to

 make impossible a repetition of the    
unfortunate results of the  #i1jjj1jjj  
appropriation40           99       99   
99       99       99    ,floating       
,stones4--,while engaged in scientific  
research in southwest  ,patagonia1 ,mr4 
,erland ,nordenskiold observed a        
considerable number of  small fragments 
of slate floating upon the surface1     
packed together  in larger or smaller   
clusters4 ,the surface of the stones was
 dry1 and  they sank immediately when it
 became wet4 ,their specific gravity was
  #b4ga1 that of the water being        
#a4jjdi4 ,the fragments contained no air
  cavities perceptible to the naked eye1
 but small1 gaseous bubbles could  be   
seen attached to their under surfaces1  
and stones on the very fringe  of the   
beach which were just beginning to float
 were observed to be  lightened by      
gaseous bubbles4 ,the author was not    
able to investigate  the phenomenon more
 closely1 but believes that besides the 
visible  bubbles they were surrounded by

 an envelope of gas1 supported by an    
insignificant coating of alg1 by which  
they are enveloped4 ,the greasy  surface
 of the mineral also prevented the water
 from adhering to  them1 and caused them
 to be surrounded with a concave        
meniscus1 which  contributed much to    
their floating4           99       99   
99       99       99    ,the            
8,periodicity of ,war40--,the doctrine  
of 8the periodicity of  war0 was        
presented at the ,lake ,mohonk          
,conference on ,international           
,arbitration in ,may-,june1 #ahii1 by   
,general ,alfred ,c4 ,barnes1 with the  
introductory remark that 8no one        
deprecates war more than the soldier    
who serves from a sense of duty40 ,the  
speaker said that 8with all  our        
privileges1 and in spite of the elevated
 spirit that undeniably  prevails among 
us1 the original savage lurks in the    
hearts of men here  as elsewhere40 ,in  
two hundred and twenty-five years we    
have had ten  principal wars--five      

during the colonial period and five     
since our  independence was undertaken4 
,the average interval between wars has  
been about twenty years--8an extremely  
interesting periodicity1 as it  brings  
into the arena a new race of fighting   
young men4 ,so it seems  that for each  
fresh generation of our youth the temple
 gates of ,janus  have to be opened1    
that the furies there confined may rush 
forth and  devastate the earth4 ,it     
looks almost like the operation of a    
natural  law40 ,general ,barnes's theory
 of the origin of the war that the      
,united  ,states is still engaged in is 
the simple one that we were 8spoiling   
for  a fight40           99       99    
99       99       99    ,expert         
,opinions respecting ,food              
,preservatives4--,at a recent hearing   
before an ,english ,official ,committee 
on ,preservatives and ,coloring         
,matters in ,food1 the representative of
 an eminent firm of preservers  said    
that preservatives were not very        

generally used with fruits and  jams4   
,his firm regarded them as quite        
unnecessary1 but he would not  say they 
ought to be prohibited if used in       
moderate quantity4 ,besides  coloring   
matter in vegetables1 the only article  
used by his firm for  coloring was an   
extract of cochineal4 ,mr4 ,john ,tubb  
,thomas1 a medical  officer1 told of    
children who were injured by milk       
containing boracic  acid1 and said that 
in his experiments upon himself about   
fifteen  grains of that substance a day 
had upset his digestive organs and      
produced sickness1 with diarrha and     
headache4 ,the use of the acid1  he     
said1 should certainly be prohibited in 
new milk1 which was so  largely the food
 of invalids and infants4 ,dr4 ,w4 ,h4  
,corfield said he  had found salicylic  
acid in the lighter wines and beers4 ,it
 was a  slightly acrid1 irritating      
substance1 which was used externally for
 the  removal of corns and warts1 and   
was a most undesirable article to put   

in food4 ,mr4 ,walter ,collingwood      
,williams1 a public analyst1 had found  
salicylic acid in a number of           
temperance1 non-alcoholic drinks4 ,dr4  
,kaye1 a medical officer of health1     
showed that the number of infant  deaths
 was increasing1 while the general death
 rate was decreasing1 and  attributed   
the fact1 partly at least1 to the       
growing and excessive use  of           
preservatives4           99       99    
99       99       99    ,pawnshops in   
,germany4--,between half a dozen and a  
dozen of the  state pawnshops which were
 common in ,germany in the seventeenth  
and  eighteenth centuries still exist4  
,the ,united ,states vice-consul at     
,cologne has given a considerable list  
of municipal pawnshops in the  more     
important cities of all parts of        
,germany4 ,on the whole1 the  number of 
these institutions is larger in ,germany
 than in ,france1 but  smaller than in  
,belgium1 ,holland1 and ,italy4 ,the    
business of pawnshops  appears1 at least

 more recently1 to depend less upon     
general economic  than on special1 local
 causes4 ,the ,german law has usually   
required  private persons doing a       
pawnbroking business to take out special
  licenses1 and has exercised a more or 
less strict supervision over  them4 ,the
 supervision practically lacked         
efficiency1 and more stringent          
regulations were imposed by a statute   
enacted in #ahgi1 which is now the      
basis of the existing law of the ,german
 ,empire4 ,under this law license  is   
refused to persons who are unfitted for 
the business1 and is not  issued at any 
rate unless a necessity is shown for the
 institution4  ,the imperial law is     
supplemented by special laws of the     
various ,german  states4           99   
99       99       99       99           
,animals of the ,ocean ,depths4--,while 
plant life in the ocean is  limited to  
shallow waters1 ,sir ,john ,murray says 
fishes and members  of all the          
invertebrate groups are distributed over

 the floor of the  ocean at all depths4 
,the majority of these deep-sea animals 
live by  eating the mud1 clay1 or ooze1 
or by catching the minute particles of  
organic matter which fall from the      
surface4 ,it is probably not far from   
the truth to say that three fourths of  
the deposits now covering the  floor of 
the ocean have passed through the       
alimentary canals of marine  animals4   
,these mud-eating species1 many of which
 are of gigantic size  when compared    
with their allies living in the shallow 
coastal waters1  become in turn the prey
 of numerous rapacious animals armed    
with  peculiar prehensile and tactile   
organs4 ,many deep-sea animals present  
archaic characters2 still1 the deep sea 
can not be said to contain more         
remnants of fauna which flourished in   
remote geological periods than  the     
shallow and fresh waters of the         
continents4           99       99       
99       99       99    ,the ,site of   
,ophir4--,dr4 ,carl ,peters1 an ,african

 explorer recently  returned to ,london1
 believes that he has found the ,ophir  
whence ,king  ,solomon's gold was       
brought1 in the country between the     
,zambesi and  the ,pungwa ,rivers1 in   
,portuguese ,africa and eastern         
,mashonaland4 ,many  rivers1 some quite 
extensive1 of undetermined origin1 and  
traces of  ancient mining enterprises1  
are found in the region1 and gold is    
still  washed there4 ,one site is ,fura1
 on the ,muira ,river1 about fifteen    
miles  south of the ,zambesi4 ,the name 
,fura is said to be a native corruption 
of the word ,afur1 by which the ,arabs  
of the sixteenth century called  the    
district1 and that to be the ,saharan or
 south ,arabian form of the  ,hebrew    
,ophir4 ,the natives are unlike the     
ordinary ,africans1 and have a          
distinctly ,jewish type of face4 ,a     
chief informed ,dr4 ,peters concerning  
the position of some ancient workings1  
and1 following his directions1  the     
explorer found ruins 8of an undoubtedly 

,semitic type40 ,dr4 ,peters's          
hypotheses and evidences must be        
accepted for what they are worth4       
,other explorers have found ,ophir at   
various points in ,africa and  ,arabia1 
and even in ,india and elsewhere1 and   
have been as satisfied and  as sure as  
he with their identifications4          
,,minor ,,paragraphs4      ,an          
instructive address1 before the ,iron   
and ,steel ,institute of  ,great        
,britain1 was recently delivered by ,sir
 ,w4 ,roberts ,austen on  the progress  
made in the iron and steel industries   
during the past  century4 ,the great    
revolution which the discovery of steel 
brought  about is dwelt upon at length1 
and its far-reaching importance1 not    
only in the iron industry itself but in 
all other industries and in the         
destinies of ,england herself1 pointed  
out4 ,in the early days of the  industry
 it was held that the different         
qualities of iron were due to  the      
different localities from which the ore 

was obtained1 but late in  the          
eighteenth century the great ,swedish   
chemist1 ,bergman1 of ,upsala1  clearly 
showed that carbon is the element to    
which steel and cast  iron owe their    
distinctive properties4 ,clouet's       
celebrated experiment  on the           
carburization of iron by the diamond    
followed4 8,well might  ,bergman express
 astonishment at the action of carbon on
 iron4 ,startling  as the statement may 
seem1 the destinies of ,england         
throughout the  century1 and especially 
during the latter half of it1 have been 
mainly  influenced by the use of steel4 
,hardly a step of our progress or  an   
incident of our civilization has not in 
one way or another been  influenced by  
the properties of iron and steel4 ,it is
 remarkable that  these properties have 
been determined by the relations        
subsisting  between a mass of iron1     
itself protean in its nature1 and the   
few  tenths per cent of carbon it       
contains40 ,in #ahjj the production of  

pig  iron in ,england was about #bjj1jjj
 tons2 in #ahih it was #h1gfi1bdi tons4 
99       99       99       99       99  
,a note in ,nature describes an         
ingenious arrangement for controlling   
the direction of torpedoes by means of  
ether waves4 ,two solenoids1  into which
 are drawn iron cores1 are attached to  
the rudder head1 the  core which is     
drawn in depending1 of course1 upon the 
direction of the  received current4 ,two
 rods projecting above the surface of   
the water  receive the waves and are in 
circuit with a coherer of special type1 
which affects a relay in the usual way4 
,the actual processes involved  in      
steering and controlling a torpedo are  
somewhat as follows3 ,the  torpedo1     
containing a suitable combination of the
 apparatus above  mentioned1 is launched
 from a vessel containing the necessary 
sending  apparatus4 ,suppose the torpedo
 goes off its course4 ,then1 by means of
  a switch1 an induction coil is        
supplied with an electric current1 and  

waves or oscillations are generated4    
,these1 on reaching the torpedo1  pass  
into the projecting wire and thence     
reach the coherer4 ,this  operates the  
relay1 closing the secondary circuit4   
,an electric current  now flows through 
a 8selector0 to one of the solenoids1   
the iron core  is sucked into right or  
left1 and the helm is thus turned4 ,when
 the  torpedo has attained a proper     
course the switch is opened and the     
waves  cease4 ,the vibration in the     
neighborhood of the coherer restores it 
to the original resistance2 the current 
passing through it becomes  weaker and  
ceases to affect the relay coil1 which  
therefore opens  the secondary circuit  
and allows the helm to fly back to the  
midship  position4 ,a large model of the
 apparatus has been constructed1 and it 
is said to work with entire success     
under all kinds of conditions4 ,the     
inventors are ,mr4 ,walter ,jameson and 
,mr4 ,john ,trotter4 ,it is stated  that
 ,nikola ,tesla has ,american patents   

for a somewhat similar device4          
99       99       99       99       99  
,in the absence of the author1          
,professor ,dewar's paper on the        
solidification of hydrogen was read in  
the ,british ,association by ,sir       
,william ,crook4 ,it shows that solid   
hydrogen presents the appearance  of    
frozen water1 and not1 as had been      
anticipated by many1 of frozen  mercury2
 hence it is now definitely decided that
 it is not metallic4  ,the temperature  
of the solid is #af absolute at         
thirty-five millimetres  pressure1 and  
it melts at #af or #ag absolute1 the    
practical limit  of the temperature     
obtainable by its evaporation being #ad 
or #ae  absolute4 ,thus the last of the 
old gas has been solidified4 ,it was    
further mentioned1 in connection with   
these statements1 that ,professor       
,dewar had succeeded in liquefying      
helium4           99       99       99  
99       99    ,the organizing          
committees of the ,congresses of        

,aronautics and  ,meteorology--these    
being cognate subjects--of the          
,exposition of #aijj  have decided to   
hold the meetings of these bodies in    
such a manner that  all members can     
attend the sessions of both4 ,the       
programme arranged for  the ,aronautical
 ,congress contemplates the discussion1 
under aspects  which are set forth in   
detail1 of 8problems0 relating to free  
balloons1  their management and use2    
captive balloons1 steerable balloons1   
and  aviation2 and the scientific       
applications of balloon observations to 
problems in astronomy1 meteorology1 and 
physiology2 also of their  use for      
purposes of reconnoissance and          
topographical surveys1 and of           
photography from balloons4 ,in a        
different order of ideas1 the congress  
may occupy itself with questions of     
legislation and international law  which
 concern aronauts in times of peace and 
of war4           99       99       99  
99       99    ,three ,state catalogues 

of ,ohio plants have heretofore been    
issued4  ,the first1 by ,j4 ,s4         
,newberry1 was published in the ,state  
,agricultural  ,report in #ahei2 the    
second1 by ,h4 ,c4 ,beardslee1 was      
published in  #ahgd1 and was reprinted  
in the ,agricultural ,report for #ahgi2 
and  the third1 by ,w4 ,a4 ,kellerman   
and ,w4 ,c4 ,werner1 was included in the
  ,state ,geological ,report for #ahic4 
,this work contains a bibliography1  and
 gives the names of the first known     
collectors of the less common  species4 
,a fourth catalogue1 consisting of a    
checklist of the  ,pteridophytes and    
,spermophytes1 recently published by    
,prof4 ,w4 ,a4  ,kellerman1 contains the
 species and varieties numbered         
serially1 as in  the ,state ,herbarium  
of nearly ten thousand sheets1 with the 
sequence of  groups as by ,engler and   
,prantl1 and the nomenclature as used by
 ,britton  and ,brown4      ,,notes4    
,the committee of the ,st4 ,petersburg  
,astronomical ,society for the  revision

 of the ,russian calendar1 to make it   
agree with the ,gregorian1  has found it
 necessary to move slowly4 ,the         
festivals prove a formidable  obstacle  
to the desired reform1 and the people   
will have to be prepared  for the change
 before it can be instituted4 ,the plan 
now is to use  both dates1 ,russian and 
,gregorian1 together till the new style 
can be  made familiar1 and it is        
proposed to make the double use         
compulsory on  private as well as on    
public documents and papers4            
99       99       99       99       99  
,a steamboat company is placing its     
little vessels on the canals of         
,venice1 and the gondolas1 which were   
one of the charms of the city to        
travelers1 are destined to              
disappear--unless a few may be reserved 
to  gratify the curiosity of tourists4  
99       99       99       99       99  
,the ,commissioner of ,education of     
,rhode ,island has issued a circular  to
 teachers1 calling attention to the work

 of the ,audubon ,society for  the      
,preservation of ,birds1 and to the     
incalculable value1 from various  points
 of view1 of bird life1 and advises them
 to foster ,nature study  as furnishing 
a natural channel by means of which     
instruction and  information on the     
subject may readily be brought before   
the children1  and through them to the  
people generally4           99       99 
99       99       99    ,in a paper on  
,the ,ultimate ,basis of ,time          
,divisions in ,geology1 ,t4  ,c4        
,chamberlin accepts it as proved that   
there were no universal  breaks in      
sedimentation or in the fundamental     
continuity of life1 no  physical        
cataclysms attended by universal        
destruction of life1 and  that          
sedimentation has been in constant      
progress somewhere and life  continuous 
and self-derivative since the beginning4
 ,he then raises the  question whether  
this continuity of physical and vital   
action proceeded  by heterogeneous      

impulses or by correlated pulsations4   
,the author's  conclusion is in favor of
 the hypothesis of correlated pulsations
  involving a rhythmical periodicity4   
99       99       99       99       99  
,nettle fiber is said to be coming into 
great favor for the manufacture  of fine
 yarns and tissues4 ,several factories  
in ,germany are using it1  and the      
introduction of the extensive           
cultivation of nettles into the         
,african colony of the ,cameroons is    
contemplated4           99       99     
99       99       99    ,there are now1 
according to the last annual ,report of 
the ,commissioner  of the ,general ,land
 ,office1 thirty-six forest reservations
 7exclusive  of the ,afognak ,forest and
 ,fish-,culture ,reserve in ,alaska7 in 
the ,united  ,states1 embracing an      
estimated area of #df1jba1hii acres4    
,this estimate  is for the aggregate    
areas within the boundaries of the      
reservations1  but the lands reserved   
are only the vacant public lands        

therein4 ,the  actual reserved area is  
therefore somewhat less than the        
estimate4           99       99       99
       99       99    ,experiments made 
by ,professor ,dewar and ,sir ,w4       
,thisleton ,dyer1 and  reported to the  
,british ,association1 upon the effect  
of the temperature  of liquid hydrogen  
upon the germinative power of seeds1 go 
to show that  life goes on at a         
temperature so low that ordinary        
chemical action is  practically stopped4
 ,seeds of barley1 vegetable marrow1    
mustard1 and  the pea were immersed in  
liquid hydrogen for six hours1 cooled to
 a  temperature of #dec ,f4 below the   
temperature of melting ice1 and came    
out unchanged to the eye1 and1 when     
planted1 all germinated4           99   
99       99       99       99    ,sir   
,john ,lubbock1 having been raised to   
the peerage1 has adopted ,lord  ,avebury
 as his title1 and will be henceforth so
 known4           99       99       99  
99       99    ,in our obituary list of 

men known to science are the names of   
,n4 ,e4  ,green1 ,f4 ,r4 ,a4 ,s41 who   
was distinguished for the excellence of 
his  planetary observations1            
particularly of ,mars1 made at ,madeira 
in #ahgg1  and was the second ,president
 of the ,british ,astronomical          
,association1  died ,november #ajth1 in 
his seventy-sixth year2 ,prof4 ,e4 ,e4  
,hughes1  inventor of the ,hughes       
printing telegraph machine1 the         
microphone1 and  the induction balance1 
,fellow of the ,royal ,society1 gold    
medalist1 and  ,chevalier of the ,legion
 of ,honor1 who was born in ,london in  
#ahca and  was brought to the ,united   
,states at an early age2 ,mr4 ,j4 ,r4   
,gregory1  mineralogist2 ,m4 ,marion1   
professor in the ,scientific ,faculty in
 the  ,university of ,marseilles and    
,keeper of the ,natural ,history ,museum
  there1 who took part in the dredging  
trips of the ,travailleur and the       
,talisman1 and contributed to the       
,annales of the museum at ,marseilles2  

,dr4 ,hans ,bruno ,geinitz1 geologist   
and paleontologist1 at ,dresden1        
,saxony1 in his eighty-sixth year2      
,walter ,gtze1 botanist1 while on an    
expedition to ,german ,east ,africa1    
,december #ith2 and ,mr4 ,w4 ,t4        
,suffolk1  treasurer of the ,royal      
,microscopical ,society of ,great       
,britain4          ,,publications       
,,received4      ,agricultural          
,experiment ,stations4 ,bulletins and   
,reports4 ,connecticut3  ,twenty-third  
,annual ,report4 ,part ,i4 ,fertilizers4
 ,pp4 #ib2 ,bulletin ,no4  #acj4        
,commercial ,feeding ,stuffs in the     
,connecticut ,market4--,north ,dakota   
,weather and ,crop ,service1 ,november1 
#ahii1 and ,january1 #aijj4 ,pp4 #h     
each4--,united ,states ,department of   
,agriculture3 ,agrostology ,circular    
,no4 #ed4 ,smooth ,brome-,grass4 ,pp4   
#aj2 ,no4 #eg4 ,experiments with ,forage
  ,plants in ,ontario4 ,pp4 #c2         
,meteorological ,chart of the ,great    
,lakes4  ,summary for the ,season of    

#ahii4 ,vol4 ,,ii1 ,no4 #i4 ,by ,alfred 
,j4 ,h4 ,henry  and ,norman ,b4 ,conger4
 ,pp4 #bh1 with maps4--,west ,virginia3 
,bulletin ,no4  #fa4 ,sheep-,feeding    
,experiments4 ,by ,j4 ,h4 ,stewart and  
,horace ,atwood4 ,pp4  #aj2 ,no4 #fb4 ,a
 ,study of the ,effect of ,incandescent 
,gaslight on ,plant  ,growth4 ,by ,l4   
,c4 ,corbett4 ,pp4 #ch1 with plates4    
,american ,grocer ,publishing ,company4 
,scientific ,testimony against  the use 
of ,alum in ,food4 7,evidence before the
 ,united ,states ,senate  ,investigating
 ,committee47 ,pp4 #ab4    ,andrews1    
,william4 ,the ,diuturnal ,theory of the
 ,earth1 or ,nature's ,system  of       
constructing a ,stratified ,physical    
,world4 ,new ,york3 ,myra ,andrews  and 
,ernest ,g4 ,stevens1 #ah ,west         
,forty-fifth ,street4    ,benson1       
,lawrence ,sluter4 ,principles of       
,finite ,values in ,mathematics4  ,pp4  
#f4    ,bland1 ,rev4 ,j4 ,p41           
,cambridge1 ,mass4 ,what we ,know about 
,god4 ,pp4 #ab4    ,bulletins1 ,reports1

 ,announcements1 etc4 ,american         
,association for  the ,advancement of   
,science3 ,forty-eighth ,annual         
,meeting1 ,columbus1  ,ohio1 #ahii4     
,proceedings4 ,pp4 #ebg1 with plates of 
portraits4--,annals  of the             
,astronomical ,observatory of ,harvard  
,college4 ,vol4 ,,xxxii1  ,part ,,ii4   
,visual ,observations of the ,moon and  
,planets4 ,by4 ,w4 ,h4  ,pickering1     
,director4 ,pp4 #bab1 with plates2 ,vol4
 ,,xxxiii4 ,miscellaneous  ,researches1 
#ahig-ahii4 ,pp4 #bhg1 with plates2     
,vol4 ,,xlii1 ,part ,,ii4  ,observations
 made at the ,blue ,hill ,meteorological
 ,observatory1  ,massachusetts1 #ahig   
and #ahih1 under the ,direction of ,a4  
,lawrence  ,rotch4 ,pp4                 
#aej4--;,columbia ,university1 ,new     
,york3 ,summer ,session1 #aijj4         
,announcement4 ,pp4 #bd4--;,cuba1       
,department of ,posts3 ,annual ,report  
for  the ,fiscal ,year ending ,june #cj1
 #ahii4 ,pp4 #bae4--;,interstate        
,commerce  ,commission3 ,preliminary    

,report on the ,income ,account of      
,railways in the  ,united ,states1 to   
,june #cj1 #ahii4 ,pp4                  
#gj4--,massachusetts ,institute of      
,technology1 ,boston3 ,annual           
,catalogue1 #ahii-aijj4 ,pp4            
#ceg4--,michigan3  ,thirty-eighth       
,annual ,report of the ,secretary of the
 ,state ,board of  ,agriculture1 and    
,twelfth ,annual ,report of the         
,experiment ,station4 ,pp4              
#dfe4--,missouri ,botanical ,garden3    
,twelfth ,annual ,report4 ,by ,william  
,trelease4 ,pp4 #aea1 with plates4--,new
 ,york ,state3 ,report of the           
,committee on ,canals1 #ahii4 ,pp4 #bca1
 with charts2 ,sixteenth ,annual        
,report of the ,bureau of ,labor        
,statistics1 #ahih4 ,pp4 #aagi--,perkins
  ,institution and ,massachusetts       
,school for the ,blind3 ,sixty-eighth   
,annual  ,report4 ,pp4 #cbe4--,united   
,states ,department of ,labor3 ,bulletin
 ,no4 #bf4  ,january1 #aijj4 ,pp4       
#bcf4--,united ,states ,geological      

,survey3 ,nineteenth  ,annual ,report4  
,part ,v4 ,forest ,reserves4 ,pp4 #djj1 
with portfolio of maps4    ,burns1 ,j4  
,j4 ,the ,story of ,english ,kings      
according to ,shakespeare4 ,new  ,york3 
,d4 ,appleton and ,company4             
7,home-,reading ,books47 ,pp4 #bgb4     
,chambers1 ,g4 ,f4 ,the ,story of       
,eclipses4 7,library of ,useful         
,stories47 ,new  ,york3 ,d4 ,appleton   
and ,company4 ,pp4 #bbb1 with plates4   
#dj cents4    ,citator1 ,the4 ,ohio     
,edition4 7,register of ,citations in   
,legal ,practice47  ,quarterly4 ,lapeer1
 ,mich4 ,pp4 #ajb4    ,clinical         
,excerpts4 ,elberfeld ,company1 ,new    
,york4 ,pp4 #bj4    ,coulter1 ,john ,m4 
,plant ,structures4 ,a ,second ,book of 
,botany4 ,new ,york3  ,d4 ,appleton and 
,company4 7,twentieth ,century          
,text-,books47 ,pp4 #cdh4 #a4bj4        
,deniker1 ,j4 ,the ,races of ,men4 ,an  
,outline of ,anthropology and           
,ethnography4 ,new ,york3 ,charles      
,scribner's ,sons4 7,contemporary       

,science  ,series47 ,pp4 #faa4 #a4ej4   
,echeveria i ,reyes1 ,anibal4 ,voces    
,usadas en ,chile4 7,errors of ,speech47
  ,santiago4 ,pp4 #bdf4    ,hannay1 ,p4 
,m4 ,how to gain ,health and ,long      
,life4 ,chicago3 ,the ,hazel            
,pure-,food ,company4 ,pp4 #aad4    ,i  
am that ,i am4 ,a ,dialogue of the      
,gods4 ,by ,sum quod ,sum4 ,new ,york3  
,library of ,liberal ,classics4 ,pp4    
#ba4 #aj cents4    ,kent1 ,rev4         
,alexander4 ,the ,plan of ,salvation4   
,pp4 #af4    ,la ,pouge1 ,g4 ,vachet de4
 ,l',aryen ,son ,role ,social4 7,the    
,aryan1 his ,social  ,office47 ,paris3  
,albert ,fontemoing4 ,pp4 #efi4 #aj     
francs4    ,macmillan1 ,the1 ,company4  
,announcements of ,new ,books1 ,spring1 
#aijj4 ,pp4  #dd4    ,mc,ilwraith1 ,j4  
,n4 ,canada4 7,history for ,young       
,readers47 ,new ,york3 ,d4  ,appleton   
and ,company4 ,pp4 #beb4    ,manning1   
,warren ,h4 ,a ,handbook for ,planning  
and ,planting ,small ,home  ,grounds4   
,stout ,manual-,training ,school1       

,menomonee1 ,wis4 ,pp4 #gf4    ,richter1
 ,victor von4 ,organic ,chemistry1 or   
,chemistry of the ,carbon  ,compounds4  
,edited by ,prof4 ,r4 ,anschtz and ,dr4 
,g4 ,schroeter4 ,authorized  translation
 by ,edgar ,f4 ,smith4 ,philadelphia3   
,p4 ,blakiston's ,son  ,co4  ,pp4 #fga4 
#c4    ,richardson1 ,harriet4 ,a ,new   
,species of ,idotea1 from ,hakodate     
,bay1 ,japan4  ,pp4 #d4    ,ward1       
,lester ,f4 ,description of a ,new      
,genus and ,twenty ,new ,species of     
,fossil ,cycadean ,trunks from the      
,jurassic of ,wyoming4 ,pp4 #cb1 with #g
  plates4    ,wooster1 ,l4 ,c4          
,educational ,value of the ,natural     
,sciences4 ,pp4 #ah4          ,,index4  
,,articles ,,marked ,,with ,,an         
,,asterisk ,,are ,,illustrated4         
,aggression1 ,external and ,internal4   
7,table71 #chf      ,agnosticism and    
,naturalism1 ,professor ,ward on4 ,h4   
,spencer1 #cdi      ,agricultural       
,education in ,foreign ,countries4 ,w4  
,e4 ,de ,riemer1 #bah      ,agriculture3

 ,alkali ,soils in ,montana4 7,frag471  
#gcd          0        ,manuring with   
,brains4 7,frag471 #gca          0      
,sea ,water1 ,effect of1 on ,soil4      
7,frag471 #ejh      ,air ,flight1 ,early
 ,experiments in4 ,m4 ,b4 ,rivet1 #fjc  
,alkali ,soils in ,montana4 7,frag471   
#gcd      ,allen1 ,grant1 ,death of4    
7,frag471 #chi      ,amazonian ,pygmies1
 ,stories of4 7,frag471 #gcc      ,a    
,more ,excellent ,way4 7,table71 #gbi   
,anarchist1 ,a ,paradoxical4 ,c4        
,lombroso991 #cab      ,anglo-,saxon    
,superiority4 7,frag471 #fbj            
,animals of the ,ocean ,depths4         
7,frag471 #gcf        0     ,reason8    
,do4 ,rev4 ,e4 ,r4 ,young991 #aje       
0        0     0  7,corr471 #abb        
,annual ,flowers4 7,frag471 #cid        
,anthropological ,traits1 ,zola's4      
7,frag471 #chh      ,anthropology3      
,amazonian ,pygmies1 ,stories of4       
7,frag471 #gcc            0             
,anglo-,saxon ,superiority4 7,frag471   
#fbj            0       ,a ,survival of 

,medival ,credulity4 ,e4 ,p4 ,evans1    
#egg            0       ,malay          
,folklore4 ,r4 ,c4 ,ford1 #bci          
0       ,origins of the ,american       
,races1 ,professor ,putnam on4          
7,frag471 #ejg      ,appleton1 ,william 
,h41 ,the ,late4 7,table71 #bfe         
,archology3 ,athabascan ,indian ,lodge1 
,an4 7,frag471 #bib          0          
,egyptian ,exploration1 ,recent ,years  
of4 ,w4 ,m4 ,flinders                   
,petrie1 #fbe          0       ,ophir1  
,the ,site of4 7,frag471 #gcf          0
       ,vinland and its ,ruins4 ,c4     
,horsford991 #afj      ,art ,form1 ,the 
,study of4 ,d4 ,cady ,eaton991 #fhe     
0  ,value of the ,study of4 ,g4 ,perrot1
 #bjd      ,artificial ,india ,rubber4  
7,frag471 #acf      ,astronomy1 ,advance
 of1 in the ,nineteenth ,century4 ,sir  
,r4 ,s4 ,ball1 #bhi          0          
,forenoon and ,afternoon4 ,c4 ,f4 ,dowd1
 #dib          0      ,gegenschein1     
,the4 7,frag471 #fah          0         
,scenes on the ,planets4 ,g4 ,p4        

,serviss991 #ccg      ,athabascan       
,indian ,lodge1 ,an4 7,frag471 #cib     
,bacteria of the ,dairy4 7,frag471 #bhd 
,ball1 ,sir ,r4 ,s4 ,advance of         
,astronomy in the ,nineteenth ,century1 
#bhi    ,baxter1 ,william1 ,jr4 ,what   
makes the ,trolley ,car go991 #caf1     
#djh1 #efd      ,becker1 ,w4 ,f41 ,m4   
,d4 ,the ,morbid ,sense of ,injury1 #eif
      ,birds1 ,busy4 7,frag471 #ach     
,blind ,fishes of ,north ,america4 ,c4  
,h4 ,eigenmann991 #dgc      ,books      
,noticed1 #abf1 #bfh                    
,anthropological ,institute of ,great   
,britain1 ,quarterly ,journal of1       
#bgg4        ,astronomy1 ,elements of   
,practical4 ,w4 ,w4 ,campbell1 #abi4    
-- ,stars and ,telescopes4 ,d4 ,b4      
,todd1 #acb4        ,barrett1 ,john4    
,the ,philippine ,islands and ,american 
,interests in the                       
,far ,east1 #acc4        ,beeman1 ,w4   
,w41 and ,smith1 ,d4 ,e4 ,new ,plane and
 ,solid ,geometry1 #bgc4        ,binet1 
,alfred4 ,the ,psychology of ,reasoning1

 #bgd4        ,biology4 ,living         
,organism1 ,the4 ,a4 ,earl1 #aca4       
,botany4 ,california ,plants in their   
,homes4 ,a4 ,m4 ,davidson1 #acj4        
-- ,plant ,relations4 ,j4 ,m4 ,coulter1 
#aca4        ,british ,race1 ,the ,story
 of the4 ,j4 ,munro1 #bgb4              
,buckley1 ,j4 ,m4 ,extemporaneous       
,oratory1 #bgj4        ,bullen1 ,f4 ,t4 
,idylls of the ,sea1 #bga4              
,campbell1 ,w4 ,w4 ,elements of         
,practical ,astronomy1 #abi4            
,chemical ,jurisprudence1 ,notes on4 ,h4
 ,huntington1 #acc4        ,cities1     
,growth of1 in the ,nineteenth ,century4
 ,a4 ,f4 ,weber1 #abf4        ,civil    
,engineers1 ,proceedings of the         
,american ,association of4 ,april1      
#ahii1 #bgh4        ,cope1 ,e4 ,d4      
,vertebrate ,remains from the ,port     
,kennedy ,deposit1 #acc4                
,coulter1 ,john ,m4 ,plant ,relations1  
#aca4        ,cragin1 ,belle ,s4 ,our   
,insect ,friends and ,foes1 #bgc4       
,croke1 ,w4 ,j4 ,d4 ,architecture1      

,painting1 and ,printing at ,subiaco1   
#acd4        ,crook1 ,james ,k4 ,mineral
 ,waters of the ,united ,states and     
their          ,therapeutic ,uses1 #abg4
        ,dalton1 ,d4 ,how to ,swim1     
#bgg4        ,davidson1 ,alice ,m4      
,california ,plants in their ,homes1    
#acj4        ,diet in ,illness and      
,convalescence4 ,a4 ,w4 ,winthrop1 #bga4
        ,earl1 ,a4 ,the ,living         
,organism1 #aca4        ,economics4     
,liquor ,laws1 ,centralized             
,administration of4 ,c4 ,m4 ,l4         
,sites1 #bge4        ,electricity4      
,accumulators1 ,small4 ,p4 ,marshall1   
#bgf4        ,entomology4 ,butterflies1 
,everyday4 ,s4 ,h4 ,scudder1 #abh4      
-- ,insect ,friends and ,foes4 ,b4 ,s4  
,cragin1 #bgc4        ,erlingsson1 ,t4  
,ruins of the ,saga ,times1 #bgg4       
,fish and ,fisheries1 ,report of ,united
 ,states ,commission of1 for ,year      
ending ,june #cj1 #ahih1 #bgf4          
,fiske1 ,john4 ,through ,nature to ,god1
 #bfh4        ,gardiner1 ,c4 ,a4 ,our   

,right to ,acquire and ,hold ,foreign   
,territory1 #acd4        ,gell1 ,m4 ,e4 
,l',audition et ses ,organes1 #abh4     
,gelman1 ,f4 ,h4 ,elements of ,blowpipe 
,analysis1 #bgi4        ,geological     
,survey1 ,united ,states1 ,eighteenth   
,annual ,report1 #bgb4        ,geometry1
 ,new ,plane and ,solid4 ,beeman and    
,smith1 #bgc4        ,heilprin1 ,a4     
,alaska and the ,klondike1 #bgj4        
,history of the ,american ,nation4 ,a4  
,c4 ,mc,laughlin1 #abi4                 
,huntington1 ,h4 ,notes on ,chemical    
,jurisprudence1 #acc4        ,idylls of 
the ,sea4 ,f4 ,t4 ,bullen1 #bga4        
,insect ,friends and ,foes4 ,b4 ,s4     
,cragin1 #bgc4        ,interstate       
,commerce ,commission1 ,tenth ,annual   
,report of1 #bgf4        ,jacoby1 ,j4   
,the ,object of the ,labor ,movement1   
#bgi4        ,knowledge1 ,methods of4   
,w4 ,smith1 #bgc4        ,kruger1 ,f4   
,t4 ,a ,step ,forward1 #bge4            
,labor ,movement1 ,the ,object of the1  
#bgi4        ,leonard1 ,j4 ,w4 ,who's   

,who ,in ,america1 #bgd4        ,lucas1 
,f4 ,a4 ,the ,hermit ,naturalist1 #acc4 
,luquer1 ,l4 ,mc,i4 ,minerals in ,rock  
,sections1 #acj4        ,mc,laughlin1   
,a4 ,c4 ,history of the ,american       
,nation1 #abi4        ,marshall1 ,p4    
,small ,accumulators1 #bgf4             
,mathematics4 ,trigonometry1 ,elements  
of4 ,h4 ,c4 ,whitaker1 #acj4            
,medicine4 ,transactions ,wyoming ,state
 ,medical ,society4 ,first and          
,second ,regular ,meetings1 #bgi4       
,memory1 ,the ,philosophy of1 and ,other
 ,essays1 #bgd4        ,mineralogy4     
,blowpipe ,analysis1 ,elements of4 ,f4  
,h4 ,gelman1 #bgi4        -- ,colombia1 
,the ,ores of4 ,h4 ,w4 ,nichols1 #acb4  
-- ,crystals1 ,the ,characters of4 ,a4  
,j4 ,moses1 #abi4        -- ,microscopic
 ,identification of ,minerals in ,rock  
,sections4 ,l4 ,mc,i4                   
,luquer1 #acj4        ,mineral ,waters  
of the ,united ,states4 ,james ,k4      
,crook1 #abg4        ,montaigne on the  
,education of ,children4 ,l4 ,e4        

,rector1 #bgh4        ,moore1 ,j4 ,h4   
,better ,world ,philosophy1 #bgf4       
,morehouse1 ,g4 ,w4 ,the ,wilderness of 
,worlds1 #aca4        ,moses1 ,a4 ,j4   
,the ,characters of ,crystals1 #abi4    
,munro1 ,john4 ,the ,story of the       
,british ,race1 #bgb4                   
,naturalist1 ,the ,hermit4 ,f4 ,a4      
,lucas1 #acc4        ,nichols1 ,h4 ,w4  
,the ,ores of ,colombia1 #acb4          
,oratory1 ,extemporaneous4 ,j4 ,m4      
,buckley1 #bgj4        ,philosophy1     
,better ,world4 ,j4 ,h4 ,moore1 #bgf4   
-- ,through ,nature to ,god4 ,john      
,fiske1 #bfh4        ,physiology4       
,hearing and its ,organs4 ,m4 ,e4 ,gell1
 #abh4        ,port ,kennedy ,deposit1  
,vertebrate ,remains from4 ,e4 ,d4      
,cope1 #acc4        ,psychologique1     
,l',anne4 ,a4 ,binet1 #bgh4             
,psychology of ,reasoning1 ,the4 ,a4    
,binet1 #bgd4        ,railway           
,statistics in ,united ,states1 ,tenth  
,annual ,report of          ,interstate 
,commerce ,commission1 #bgf4            

,reasoning1 ,the ,psychology of4 ,a4    
,binet1 #bgd4        ,reason1 ,the ,dawn
 of4 ,j4 ,weir1 ,jr41 #bge4             
,rector1 ,l4 ,e4 ,montaigne on the      
,education of ,children1 #bgh4          
,saga ,times1 ,ruins of the4 ,t4        
,erlingsson1 #bgg4        ,scudder1 ,s4 
,h4 ,everyday ,butterflies1 #abh4       
,sites1 ,clement ,m4 ,l4 ,centralized   
,administration of the ,liquor ,laws1   
#bge4        ,smith1 ,d4 ,t4 ,the       
,philosophy of ,memory and ,other       
,essays1 #bgd4        ,smith1 ,w4       
,methods of ,knowledge1 #bgc4           
,southern ,magazine1 ,the1 #bgh4        
,subiaco1 ,architecture1 ,painting1 and 
,printing at4 ,w4 ,j4 ,d4 ,croke1       
#acd4        ,swift1 ,m4 ,l4            
,anti-,imperialism1 #acd4        ,swim1 
,how to4 ,d4 ,dalton1 #bgg4             
,todd1 ,d4 ,b4 ,stars and ,telescopes1  
#acb4        ,weber1 ,adna ,ferrin4     
,growth of ,cities in the ,nineteenth   
,century1 #abf4        ,weir1 ,j41 ,jr4 
,the ,dawn of ,reason1 #bge4            

,whitaker1 ,h4 ,c4 ,elements of         
,trigonometry1 #acj4        ,who's ,who 
in ,america4 ,j4 ,w4 ,leonard1 #bgd4    
,wilderness of ,worlds1 ,the4 ,g4 ,w4   
,morehouse1 #aca4        ,winthrop1     
,alice ,w4 ,diet in ,illness and        
,convalescence1 #bga4        ,witt1 ,h4 
,fundamental ,principles of ,nature1    
,some ,observations on the1             
#acb4        ,wyoming ,state ,medical   
,society1 ,transactions of ,first and   
,second          ,regular ,meetings1    
#bgi4      ,botanical ,garden's ,museum1
 ,new ,york4 7,frag471 #gcc             
,botany3 ,annual ,flowers4 7,frag471    
#cid        0     ,genuine ,starch      
,factories4 ,b4 ,d4 ,halsted991 #gaf    
0     ,plant ,names1 ,english4 7,frag471
 #adj        0     ,the ,new ,field of4 
,b4 ,d4 ,halsted1 #ih      ,briggs1 ,c4 
,a4 ,is the ,christian ,religion        
,declining81 #dbc      ,brooks1 ,w4 ,k4 
,the ,wonderful ,century1 #be           
,broom as a ,spreader of ,disease1 ,the4
 7,frag471 #gcd      ,bunsen1 ,death of4

 7,frag471 #bha        ,calcium1        
,metallic4 7,frag471 #bhc               
,california1 ,forestry in4 7,frag471    
#eji      ,cambridge ,university4 7,an  
,english ,university47 ,h4              
,stotesbury991 #ad      ,canals1 ,future
 of the ,new ,york4 7,frag471 #gce      
,carbonic ,acid and ,climate4 7,frag471 
#fba      ,carrington1 ,james ,b4       
,winter ,birds in a ,city ,park991 #cff 
,cements1 ,action of1 on ,sea ,water4   
7,frag471 #gcc      ,chemistry3 ,a      
,hundred ,years of4 ,f4 ,w4 ,clarke1    
#fgc          0      ,calcium1          
,metallic4 7,frag471 #bhc          0    
,hydrogen1 ,the ,solidification of4     
7,frag471 #fah          0      ,new     
,element1 ,another4 7,frag471 #eji      
,children1 ,literature for4 7,frag471   
#fah      ,china1 ,trade ,corporations  
in4 ,m4 ,courant1 #gbb      ,christian  
,religion ,declining8 ,is the4 ,c4 ,a4  
,briggs1 #dbc      ,city ,roadways1     
,modern4 ,n4 ,p4 ,lewis991 #ebd         
,civilized and ,savage4 7,frag471 #ada  

,clarke1 ,f4 ,w4 ,a ,hundred ,years of  
,chemistry1 #fgc        0     0  0  ,the
 ,man of ,science in ,practical         
,affairs1 #dhg      ,climate and        
,carbonic ,acid4 7,frag471 #fba         
,colored ,labor1 ,educated4 7,frag471   
#ada      ,columbus1 ,ohio1 ,geology of4
 7,frag471 #ada      ,commission in     
,difficulties1 ,a4 7,table71 #fad       
,cook1 ,o4 8,ribbon ,lightning0991 #ehg 
,courant1 ,m4 ,trade ,corporations in   
,china1 #gbb      ,criminal             
,jurisprudence1 ,decline of1 in         
,america4 ,g4 ,c4 ,speranza1 #dff       
,criminology3 ,anarchist1 ,a            
,paradoxical4 ,c4 ,lombroso991 #cab     
0       ,typical ,criminals4 ,rev4 ,s4  
,a4 ,smith991 #eci        ,dairy1       
,bacteria of the4 7,frag471 #bhd        
8,dark ,lightning40 7,frag471 #eje      
,dastre1 ,m4 ,a4 ,the ,scavengers of the
 ,body1 #cgi      ,dawson1 ,sir         
,william1 ,death of4 7,frag471 #cij     
,democracy1 ,real ,problems of4 ,f4     
,smith1 #a      ,destruction of the     

,birds4 7,frag471 #cic      ,development
 of the ,american ,newspaper4 ,w4 ,l4   
,hawley991 #ahf      ,diamonds1         
,emigrant1 in ,america4 ,william ,h4    
,hobbs991 #gc      ,dover ,meeting of   
the ,british ,association4 7,frag471    
#ace      ,dowd1 ,c4 ,f4 ,forenoon and  
,afternoon1 #dib        ,eaton1 ,d4     
,cady4 ,the ,science of ,art ,form991   
#fhe      ,economics3 ,a ,more          
,excellent ,way4 7,table71 #gbi         
0      ,commission in ,difficulties1 ,a4
 7,table71 #fad          0              
,monopolies1 ,the ,war against4         
7,frag471 #ejh          0               
,pawnshops in ,germany4 7,frag471 #gcf  
0      ,pension ,funds for ,railroad    
,men4 7,frag471 #gcd          0         
,taxation1 ,a ,state ,official on       
,excessive4 ,f4 ,smith1 #fde            
,economy1 ,a ,question of4 7,frag471    
#bhc      ,education3 ,an ,english      
,university4 ,h4 ,stotesbury991 #ad     
0      ,cross-4 ,e4 ,w4 ,scripture991   
#ehi          0      ,language and      

,life4 7,table71 #ejc          0        
,liberal1 and ,democracy4 7,table71 #che
          0      ,literature for        
,children4 7,frag471 #fai          0    
,plantations for ,rural ,school         
,grounds4 7,frag471 #cic          0     
,specialization4 7,table71 #abe         
0      ,the ,environment in4 7,frag471  
#cia      ,egyptian ,exploration1       
,recent ,years of4 ,w4 ,m4 ,flinders    
,petrie1 #fbe      ,eigenmann1 ,c4 ,h4  
,blind ,fishes of ,north ,america991    
#dgc      ,electricity3 ,dark           
,lightning4 7,frag471 #eje           0  
,from ,thales to ,faraday4 ,e4 ,t4      
,lesueur1 #bdb      ,electricity3       
8,ribbon ,lightning40 ,o4 ,cook991 #ehg 
,electrolysis4 ,h4 ,s4 ,wynkoop991 #ceg 
,element1 ,another ,new4 7,frag471 #eji 
,emigrant ,diamonds in ,america4        
,william ,h4 ,hobbs991 #gc              
,entomology3 ,spider ,bites and         
8,kissing ,bugs40 ,l4 ,o4 ,howard991 #ca
      ,evans1 ,e4 ,p4 ,a ,survival of   
,medival ,credulity1 #egg1 #gjf         

,evolutionary ,variation in the ,past1  
,rate of4 7,frag471 #bhe                
,exploration and ,geography in #ahii4   
7,frag471 #fai      ,explosives1 ,the   
,applications of4 ,c4 ,e4 ,munroe991    
#cjj1 #ddd        ,faith and ,knowledge4
 7,corr471 #dig      ,fiske's ,views    
,compared4 7,corr471 #dih               
,flinders1 ,petrie1 ,w4 ,m4 ,recent     
,years of ,egyptian ,exploration1 #fbe  
,floating ,stones4 7,frag471 #gce       
,food ,poisoning4 ,v4 ,c4 ,vaughan1 #dg 
0   ,preservatives1 ,expert ,opinions   
respecting4 7,frag471 #gcf      ,ford1  
,r4 ,c4 ,malay ,folklore1 #bci          
,forenoon and ,afternoon4 ,c4 ,f4 ,dowd1
 #dib      ,forestry1 ,american         
,advances in4 7,frag471 #ejf         0  
in ,california4 7,frag471 #eji          
,fossiliferous ,formation below the     
,cambrian1 ,a4 7,frag471 #aci           
,funafuti ,atoll1 ,constitution of the4 
7,frag471 #bhc      ,future of the ,new 
,york ,canals4 7,frag471 #gce           
,gegenschein1 ,the4 7,frag471 #fah      

,geography and ,exploration in #ahii4   
7,frag471 #fai      ,geology1 ,a        
,century of4 ,j4 ,le ,conte1 #dca1 #edf 
0     ,fossiliferous ,formation below   
the ,cambrian4 7,frag471 #aci         0 
,funafuti ,atoll1 ,constitution of the4 
7,frag471 #bhc         0     of         
,columbus1 ,ohio4 7,frag471 #ada        
,gerhard1 ,william ,p4 ,needed          
,improvements in ,theater ,sanitation1  
#hd      ,giddings1 ,f4 ,h4 ,exact      
,methods in ,sociology1 #ade            
,glacial ,lakes in ,new ,york4 7,frag471
 #cia      ,glangeaud1 ,p4 ,wingless    
,birds1 #bed        ,halsted1 ,b4 ,d4   
,genuine ,starch ,factories991 #gaf     
0     0  0  ,the ,new ,field of ,botany1
 #ih      ,hawley1 ,w4 ,l4 ,development 
of the ,american ,newspaper991 #ahf     
,heat ,insulators4 7,frag471 #ejg       
,heilprin1 ,a4 ,a ,year's ,progress in  
the ,klondike991 #dee         0      0  
,the ,gold ,sands of ,cape ,nome991 #fcc
      ,high ,altitudes1 ,dangers of1 for
 ,elderly ,people4 7,frag471 #acf       

,hobbs1 ,w4 ,h4 ,emigrant ,diamonds in  
,america991 #gc      ,home ,burdens4    
7,table71 #abe      ,horsford1          
,cornelia4 ,vinland and its ,ruins991   
#afj      ,howard1 ,l4 ,o4 ,spider      
,bites and 8,kissing ,bugs0991 #ca      
,hydrogen1 ,solidification of4 7,frag471
 #fah      ,hygiene3 ,bacteria of the   
,dairy4 7,frag471 #bhd        ,india    
,rubber1 ,artificial4 7,frag471 #acf    
0      0    ,cultivation of4 7,frag471  
#gcb        ,japanese ,paper4 7,frag471 
#chi      ,jew1 ,the ,dread of the4     
7,frag471 #bhj      ,jordan1 ,d4 ,s4    
,old ,rattler and the ,king ,snake1 #cga
         0    0  0  ,the ,education of  
the ,neminist1 #agf      ,jordan's      
7,president7 ,neminism4 ,a4 ,pangloss1  
#did        8,kissing ,bugs0 and ,spider
 ,bites4 ,l4 ,o4 ,howard991 #ca         
,klondike1 ,a ,year's ,progress in the4 
,a4 ,heilprin991 #dee        ,language  
and ,life4 7,table71 #ejc      ,law3    
,criminal ,jurisprudence1 ,decline of1  
in ,america4 ,g4 ,c4 ,speranza1         

#dff      ,le ,conte1 ,joseph4 ,a       
,century of ,geology1 #dca1 #edf        
,lesquereux and ,sullivant1 ,honors to4 
7,frag471 #bhe      ,lesueur1 ,e4 ,a4   
,electricity from ,thales to ,faraday1  
#bdb      ,lewis1 ,n4 ,p4 ,modern ,city 
,roadways991 #ebd      ,literature for  
,children4 7,frag471 #fai               
,lombroso1 ,c4 ,a ,paradoxical          
,anarchist991 #cab        ,malaria1 ,the
 ,mosquito ,theory4 ,major ,r4 ,ross1   
#db      ,malay ,folklore4 ,r4 ,c4      
,ford1 #bci      ,man of ,science in    
,practical ,affairs4 ,f4 ,w4 ,clarke1   
#dhg      8,manuring with ,brains40     
7,frag471 #gca      ,medalists1 ,royal  
,society4 7,frag471 #fbj      ,medicine3
 ,plague ,antitoxin4 7,frag471 #gcb     
0     ,rats and the ,plague4 7,frag471  
#eji      ,meteorology3 ,climate and    
,carbonic ,acid4 7,frag471 #fba         
,mexico1 ,prosperity and ,enterprise in4
 7,frag471 #bhc      ,mineralogy3       
,emigrant ,diamonds in ,america4        
,william ,h4 ,hobbs991 #gc              

,miracle1 ,a ,thirteenth-,century4      
7,frag471 #cid      ,monopolies1 ,the   
,war against4 7,frag471 #ejh            
,montana1 ,alkali ,soils in4 7,frag471  
#gcd      ,mosquito ,theory of ,malaria1
 ,the4 ,major ,r4 ,ross1 #db            
,munroe1 ,e4 ,c4 ,the ,applications of  
,explosives991 #cjj1 #ddd               
,natural ,history3 8,salamanders0 and   
8,salamander0 ,cats4 ,n4 ,robinson991   
#eef         0       0     ,whales1     
,longevity of4 7,frag471 #fah           
,negro ,question3 ,educated ,colored    
,labor4 7,frag471 #ada        0       0 
,transplantation of a ,race4 ,n4 ,s4    
,shaler1 #eac      ,neminism1 ,president
 ,jordan's4 ,a4 ,pangloss1 #did         
,neminist1 ,the ,education of the4 ,d4  
,s4 ,jordan1 #agf      ,new ,york       
,botanical ,garden's ,museum4 7,frag471 
#gcc       0    0  ,glacial ,lakes in4  
7,frag471 #cia      ,nome1 ,the ,gold   
,sands of ,cape4 ,angelo ,heilprin991   
#fcc        ,ocean ,depths1 ,animals of 
the4 7,frag471 #gcf        0   ,the     

,deeps of the4 7,frag471 #cij      ,old 
,rattler and the ,king ,snake4 ,d4 ,s4  
,jordan1 #cga      ,ophir1 ,the ,site   
of4 7,frag471 #gcf      ,oregon1        
,eastern ,oyster ,culture in4 ,f4 ,l4   
,washburn991 #bcc      ,ornithology3    
,birds1 ,destruction of the4 7,frag471  
#cic           0       ,sand ,grouse1   
,the4 7,frag471 #cib           0        
,wingless ,birds4 ,p4 ,glangeaud1 #bed  
0       ,winter ,birds in a ,city ,park4
 ,j4 ,b4 ,carrington991 #cff            
,orton1 ,edward1 ,sketch of4            
7,portrait71 #fjg      ,outdoor         
,improvement1 ,for4 7,frag471 #bhd      
,oyster ,culture1 ,eastern1 in ,oregon4 
,f4 ,l4 ,washburn991 #bcc               
,packard1 ,r4 ,l4 ,remarkable ,volcanic 
,eruptions in the ,philippines1 #cgd    
,pangloss1 ,a4 ,president ,jordan's     
8,neminism01 #did      ,paper1          
,japanese4 7,frag471 #chi      ,paris   
,exposition in #aijj1 ,the1 and         
,congresses4 7,frag471 #adj             
,park-making among the ,sand ,dunes4    

7,frag471 #aci      ,parliamentary      
,amenities ,committee1 ,the4 7,frag471  
#acg      ,parsons1 ,c4 ,a4 ,steam      
,turbines and ,high-,speed ,vessels991  
#fif      ,patrick1 ,mary ,m4 ,woman's  
,struggle for ,liberty in ,germany1 #cbh
      ,pawnshops in ,germany4 7,frag471 
#gcf      ,pearl ,mussels4 7,frag471    
#fba      ,pension ,funds for ,railroad 
,men4 7,frag471 #gcd      ,periodicity  
of ,war4 7,frag471 #gce      ,perrot1   
,g4 ,value of the ,study of ,art1 #bjd  
,petrie1 ,w4 ,m4 ,flinders4 ,recent     
,years of ,egyptian ,exploration1 #fbe  
,physical ,investigation1 ,where it     
fails4 7,frag471 #bhd         0         
,measurements of ,asylum ,children4     
7,frag471 #ach      ,physiology3        
,scavengers of the ,body4 ,m4 ,a4       
,dastre1 #cgi      ,plague ,antitoxin4  
7,frag471 #gcb        0    ,rats and    
the4 7,frag471 #eji      ,plantations   
for ,rural ,school ,grounds4 7,frag471  
#cic      ,plant ,names1 ,english4      
7,frag471 #adj      ,pseudo-,science3   

,neminist1 ,the ,education of the4 ,d4  
,s4 ,jordan1 #agf      ,psychology3     
,animals ,reason8 ,do4 ,rev4 ,e4 ,r4    
,young991 #aje          0       ,a      
,survival of ,medival ,credulity4 ,e4   
,p4 ,evans1 #egg          0             
,morbid ,sense of ,injury1 ,the4 ,w4 ,f4
 ,becker1 ,m4 ,d41 #eif          0      
8,warming ,up40 7,frag471 #ejf          
,public ,library1 ,the ,function of the4
 7,table71 #faf      ,putnam1           
,professor1 on the ,origins of the      
,american ,races4 7,frag471 #ejg        
,pygmies1 ,amazonian1 ,stories of4      
7,frag471 #gcc        ,rats and the     
,plague4 7,frag471 #eji      ,religion1 
,is the ,christian1 ,declining8 ,c4 ,a4 
,briggs1 #dbc      ,religious ,suicides4
 7,frag471 #gca      8,ribbon           
,lightning40 ,o4 ,cook991 #ehg          
,riemer1 ,w4 ,e4 ,de4 ,agricultural     
,education in ,foreign ,countries1 #bah 
,rivet1 ,m4 ,b4 ,early ,experiments in  
,air ,flight1 #fjc      ,roberts1       
,comptroller1 on ,excessive ,taxation4  

,f4 ,smith1 #fde      ,robinson1 ,n4    
8,salamanders0 and 8,salamander0        
,cats991 #eef      ,ross1 ,major ,r4    
,the ,mosquito ,theory of ,malaria1 #db 
,royal ,society ,medalists4 7,frag471   
#fbj        8,salamanders0 and          
8,salamander0 ,cats4 ,n4 ,robinson991   
#eef      ,sand ,dunes1 ,park-making    
among4 7,frag471 #aci      ,sand        
,grouse1 ,the4 7,frag471 #bib           
,sanitation3 ,broom1 ,the1 as a         
,spreader of ,disease4 7,frag471 #gcd   
,scavengers of the ,body4 ,m4 ,a4       
,dastre1 #cgi      ,science and ,dogma4 
7,table71 #gbh         0    of ,art     
,form1 ,the4 ,d4 ,cady ,eaton991 #fhe   
0    ,south-,sea ,bubbles in4 ,j4       
,trowbridge1 #dja         0    ,the ,man
 of1 in ,practical ,affairs4 ,f4 ,w4    
,clarke1 #dhg      ,scripture1 ,e4 ,w4  
,cross-,education991 #ehi      ,sea     
,water1 ,effect of1 on ,soil4 7,frag471 
#ejh       0    0    on ,cements1       
,action of4 7,frag471 #gcc              
,serviss1 ,g4 ,p4 ,scenes on the        

,planets991 #ccg      ,shaler1 ,n4 ,s4  
,the ,transplantation of a ,race1 #eac  
,simplon ,tunnel1 ,the4 7,frag471 #chh  
,smith1 ,rev4 ,s4 ,g4 ,typical          
,criminals991 #eci        0             
,franklin4 ,a ,state ,official on       
,excessive ,taxation1 #fde              
,sociology3 ,democracy1 ,real ,problems 
of4 ,f4 ,smith1 #a          0           
,exact ,methods in4 ,f4 ,h4 ,giddings1  
#ade      ,south-,sea ,bubbles in       
,science4 ,j4 ,trowbridge1 #dja         
,specialization4 7,table71 #abe         
,spencer1 ,h4 ,professor ,ward on       
,naturalism and ,agnosticism1 #cdi      
,speranza1 ,g4 ,c4 ,decline of ,criminal
 ,jurisprudence in ,america1 #dff       
,standard ,time1 ,how ,obtained4 ,t4 ,b4
 ,willson1 #bac      ,starch ,factories1
 ,genuine4 ,b4 ,d4 ,halsted991 #gaf     
,steamships1 ,sixty ,years'             
,improvements in4 7,frag471 #ejf        
,steam ,turbines and ,high-,speed       
,vessels4 ,c4 ,a4 ,parsons991 #fif      
,sternberg1 ,george ,m41 ,sketch of4    

7,portrait71 #aaf      ,stones1         
,floating4 7,frag471 #gce               
,stotesbury1 ,h4 ,an ,english           
,university991 #ad      ,st4 ,prokopy1  
,a ,thirteenth-,century4 7,frag471 #cid 
,suicides1 ,religious4 7,frag471 #gca   
,survival of ,medival ,credulity4 ,e4   
,p4 ,evans1 #egg1 #gjf        ,taxation1
 ,a ,state ,official on ,excessive4 ,f4 
,smith1 #fde      ,theater ,sanitation1 
,needed ,improvements in4 ,william ,p4  
,gerhard1 #hd      ,trolley ,car1 ,what 
makes the1 go8 ,william ,baxter1 ,jr4991
  #caf1 #djh1 #efd      ,trowbridge1    
,john4 ,latest ,developments with the ,x
 ,rays991 #fei          0        0      
,south-,sea ,bubbles in ,science1 #dja  
0        0    ,wireless ,telegraphy991  
#ei        ,vagrant ,electricity1       
,destructive ,effects of4 ,h4 ,s4       
,wynkoop991 #ceg      ,vaughan1 ,v4 ,c4 
,food ,poisoning1 #dg      ,vinland and 
its ,ruins4 ,cornelia ,horsford991 #afj 
0    ,the ,location of4 7,corr471 #ejj  
,volcanic ,eruptions in the             

,philippines1 ,remarkable4 ,r4 ,l4      
,packard1 #cgd        8,warming ,up40   
7,frag471 #ejf      ,war1 ,periodicity  
of4 7,frag471 #gce       0   ,spirit1   
,the4 7,table71 #eja      ,washburn1 ,f4
 ,l4 ,eastern ,oyster ,culture in       
,oregon991 #bcc      ,whales1 ,longevity
 of4 7,frag471 #fah      ,willson1 ,t4  
,b4 ,how ,standard ,time is ,obtained1  
#bac      ,wingless ,birds4 ,p4         
,glangeaud1 #bed      ,wireless         
,telegraphy4 ,john ,trowbridge991 #ei   
,woman's ,struggle for ,liberty in      
,germany4 ,mary ,m4 ,patrick1 #cbh      
,wonderful ,century1 ,the4 ,w4 ,k4      
,brooks1 #be      ,wynkoop1 ,h4 ,s4     
,destructive ,effects of ,vagrant       
,electricity991 #ceg        ,x ,rays1   
,latest ,developments with4 ,j4         
,trowbridge991 #fei        ,young1 ,rev4
 ,e4 ,r4 ,do ,animals ,reason8991 #aje  
,zola's ,anthropological ,traits4       
7,frag471 #chh      ,zology3 ,blind     
,fishes of ,north ,america4 ,c4 ,h4     
,eigenmann991 #dgc      ,,the ,,end4    

,transcribers' ,notes      ,punctuation1
 hyphenation1 and spelling were made    
consistent when a  predominant          
preference was found in this book2      
otherwise they were not  changed4       
,simple typographical errors were       
corrected2 occasional unbalanced        
quotation marks retained4    ,ambiguous 
hyphens at the ends of lines were       
retained4    ,in some editions of this  
e,book1 the superscript 8e0 in the      
address on  page #gjh appears as a      
normal 8e01 the asterism immediately    
following it  appears as 331 and        
subscripted numbers in chemical formulas
 appear as  normal numbers1 such as     
,h#b,o4    ,the other five issues of    
,volume #ef also are available at       
,project  ,gutenberg4 ,the e,book       
numbers are #ddgbe1 #dgjbd1 #dgahj1     
#dgaha1 and #dfdgc4    ,page #fce3      
8wofully0 was printed that way4    ,page
 #fdi3 ,missing closing quotation mark  
added after 8howling  wilderness104     
,page #fhc3 8,boisbandran0 is a misprint

 for 8,boisbaudran04    ,page #gca3     
8,adrian's0 was printed that way2 may   
refer to 8,hadrian04    ,page #gcd3     
8,pittsburg0 was printed that way4