,transcriber's note3 ,table of ,contents added by ,transcriber4 ,bold text is indicated with equals signs1 italics with underscores4 ,,contents ,south ,sea ,bubbles in ,science #dja ,what ,makes the ,trolley ,car ,go #djh ,is the ,christian ,religion ,declining8 #dbc ,a ,century of ,geology #dca ,the ,applications of ,explosives #ddd ,a ,year's ,progress in the ,klondike #def ,the ,decline of ,criminal ,jurisprudence in ,america #dff ,the ,blind ,fishes of ,north ,america #dgc ,the ,man of ,science in ,practical ,affairs #dhg ,forenoon and ,afternoon #dib ,president ,jordan's 8,neminism40 #did ,correspondence #dig ,editor's ,table #eja ,fragments of ,science #eje ,minor ,paragraphs #eaj ,publications ,received #eab ,established by ,edward ,l4 ,youmans ,,appletons' ,,popular ,,science ,,monthly ,,edited ,,by ,,william ,,jay ,,youmans ,,vol4 ,,lvi ,,november1 #ahii1 ,,to ,,april1 #aijj ,,new ,,york ,d4 ,,appleton ,,and ,,company #aijj ,,copyright1 #aijj1 ,,by ,d4 ,,appleton ,,and ,,company4 ,,appletons' ,,popular ,,science ,,monthly4 ,,february1 #aijj4 ,,south ,,sea ,,bubbles ,,in ,,science4 ,,by ,,prof4 ,,john ,,trowbridge1 ,,director ,,of ,,jefferson ,,physical ,,laboratory1 ,,harvard ,,university4 ,the advances in science lead to hopes of the sudden accumulation of gold1 just as the discovery of new worlds led our ancestors to invest in many inflated enterprises of commerce and conquest4 ,this older temptation has passed away1 for there are no new worlds to discover1 and this small globe has been practically staked out2 but the mysterious domains of science are still illimitable1 and afford vast opportunities for inflated schemes which have their prototype in the ,south ,sea ,bubble4 ,let us refresh our memory of this surprising delusion4 ,it arose in the reign of ,queen ,anne1 nearly one hundred and eighty years ago1 and when we consider the extent of the speculation and gambling which it caused and the number of those who lost everything and who consigned their families to bitter poverty1 we are tempted to class it with those other calamities which preceded it and which afflicted ,england so heavily--the great fire of ,london and the plague4 ,the ,south ,sea ,company claimed to have enormous sources of profit in certain exclusive privileges1 obtained from the ,spanish ,government1 for trading in their possessions in ,south ,america and ,mexico2 and it may be well for us in these times of the flotation of schemes for obtaining gold from salt water and from sands1 of power from air and something more ethereal than air1 to be reminded of the many bubbles that came into existence and burst at the time of the collapse of the ,south ,sea ,bubble4 ,the stock of the ,south ,sea ,company rose from one hundred to a thousand1 and an army of future victims crowded the offices of the company1 anxious to invest in what they believed would suddenly enrich them4 ,indeed1 all ,england seemed to go mad1 and the craze of the time is reflected in the writings of ,pope and ,swift4 ,pope says3 8,at length corruption like a general flood ,did deluge all2 and avarice creeping on1 ,spread like a low-born mist1 and hid the sun4 ,statesmen and patriots plied alike the stocks1 ,peeress and butler shared alike the box2 ,and judges jobbed1 and bishops bit the town1 ,and mighty dukes packed cards for half a crown2 ,britain was sunk in lucre's sordid charms40 ,the rise of the great bubble was accompanied by the formation of hundreds of minor ones4 ,among these we will mention a few which are pertinent to the subject of this paper3 ,a wheel for perpetual motion4 ,capital1 one million pounds4 ,for extracting silver from lead4 ,for the transmutation of quicksilver into a malleable fine metal4 ,puckles ,machine ,company1 for discharging round and square cannon balls and bullets1 and making a total revolution in 8the art of war40 ,for carrying on an undertaking of great advantage1 8but nobody to know what it is40 ,it is estimated that the proposed capital for floating these and similar schemes was three hundred million pounds4 ,we find1 in the annals of the time1 that the ,duchess of ,marlborough persuaded her husband1 ,john ,churchill1 the great general1 not to increase his holdings1 and to sell his shares2 he1 like a sensible man1 took a sensible woman's advice and made one hundred thousand pounds4 ,when we come to speak of the connection of women with modern delusions1 we must remember this act of one of their sex4 ,at this time1 nearly two hundred years after the singular outbreak of chimerical projects of ,queen ,anne's reign1 we can match some of these bubbles almost exactly2 for have we not had the ,keeley motor1 the extraction of gold from salt water1 and is there not great activity in making the wonder of the public over some advance in science a source of money-making8 ,the unscientific person is certainly open to a new danger in the increasing tendency to promote enterprises based upon some new scientific discovery1 and it behooves the followers of science to suggest a remedy for this growing evil4 ,i shall endeavor to do my part in this paper in pointing out the necessity of some oracular medium--a scientific oracle of ,delphos--to which the common man can repair and get trustworthy information1 for it is a melancholy fact that such information can not be obtained from the daily press or from the literary magazines of the time4 ,many of our newspapers draw such an income from their advertising columns that the editors are unwilling to print any criticism which would lead to the restriction of this source of gain2 thus if a company promoting a scientific bubble should advertise liberally in a leading newspaper1 the editors are usually loath to insert an article upon the scheme1 for the printing of the criticism might lead to the withdrawal of the advertisement4 ,it is possible that the editors of such daily papers have not overmuch confidence in the judgment of scientific men1 for have not the latter often been mistaken8 ,there was ,lardner1 who prophesied that steamships could not cross the ,atlantic1 but we must remember that ,lardner was not a scientific man2 he was a popularizer of science1 and never made a scientific investigation4 ,it is said that there have been college professors who have denied the possibility of sending messages under the ocean4 ,this ,i also doubt1 for ,i am a witness in the flesh of the way such stories can arise4 ,not long since ,i was invited to speak before a commercial club1 and the presiding officer1 in introducing me1 remarked3 8,the professor will now address you on the advances in electricity4 ,when ,i was in college ,i well remember his describing an electric motor and his remark that it would never become a practical invention40 ,there was1 of course1 laughter1 and the president sat down with a comfortable air of having made a point4 ,the professor pointed out that the presiding officer graduated before he became professor in the university1 and before the ,gramme machine and the electric motor were invented4 ,nevertheless1 the world loves to believe in the inaccuracy of the accurate1 and even a sophomore takes infinite delight in discovering arithmetical mistakes in an edition of ,newton's ,principia4 ,i mention this proneness to believe that scientific men are apt to be mistaken1 for it is a blame laid at their doors often by the promoters of scientific bubbles1 and for a very easily understood reason1 and the editors of newspapers and literary magazines can ease their consciences after publishing sensational scientific articles by reflecting on the fallibility of the followers of science4 ,lawyers and judges1 too1 make their mistakes2 nevertheless1 we continue to resort to them for advice2 and few editors1 ,i imagine1 would dare to publish a legal opinion without consulting an authority in law4 ,yet we read every day so-called scientific articles in newspapers and magazines which have evidently never been submitted to competent critics4 ,have we not read statements of the possibility of exploding powder magazines on board ships by electric waves2 of the manufacture of liquid air without the expenditure of energy2 of electricity direct from coal2 papers on the nebular theory1 more nebulous than any nebula yet discovered8 ,when we read a broad sheet in the morning paper setting forth a glowing scheme to manufacture power out of nothing1 to what oracle can we repair to ascertain the truth8 ,it is true that common sense might lead the reader to reflect that when he is told that the shares can now be obtained for five dollars1 but in a short time they will be advanced to ten dollars1 and now is the time to invest1 that such good things are quickly taken up without the necessity of advertising4 ,when the morning mail brings a prospectus of a company formed to make diamonds by electricity1 a company with ten million dollars capital 7why not one hundred millions871 to whom should one go to allay the fever of sudden gain8 ,while men and women will carefully consider which line of steamships to ,europe is the best equipped with engines1 the efficiency of which depends upon the laws that prove the impossibility of perpetual motion1 they enter at the same time upon schemes to obtain power without the consumption of work4 ,we are indeed confronted with the curious fact that even so-called intelligent people can be led to believe that what we have learned in regard to the working of ,nature may be thrown aside1 and that some new and unrelated laws may rule supreme4 ,thus we have what is called ,christian ,science1 one of the intuitional sciences which may be said to add a new peril to matrimony4 ,we find cultivated men believing that a government can make money by pronouncing silver equal to gold4 ,thus there are those who fondle their delusions and those who bank upon credulity4 ,education seems to be ineffectual with some temperaments2 on the whole1 however1 it has a saving grace1 and there are undoubtedly a number in the community who would welcome a source of scientific authority which might answer for them just as the ,times does in political and economic questions to an ,englishman4 ,the ,american has especial reason to fear scientific bubbles1 for our patent laws make it comparatively easy for promoters to make a great show of vested rights4 ,one method is to build an imposing plant1 with powerful dynamos and with a multiplicity of electrical devices1 and to capitalize for an enormous sum an expensive plant in sight with millions in patents of very little value4 ,the proposed investor is taken to see the great plant2 its magnitude appeals to his reverence for size1 and his pocketbook is soon at the service of the promoter4 ,another method is to select some scheme which is on the borderland between physics and chemistry1 such as the electrolytic method of obtaining gold from salt water4 ,there is a minute quantity of gold in salt water1 and the chemist1 thinking that electricity might afford an economical method of treating large quantities of water1 is reticent in regard to such a scheme1 while the electrician1 ignorant of chemistry1 is ready to concede that the chemists may have found a cheap extractor1 so the promoter can play the chemist against the electrician1 and there is no arbitrator in sight4 ,the ,american is peculiarly in peril from the absence of a large body of men trained in technical science1 such as exist in ,germany4 ,he also has been unduly excited1 and his desire for love of sudden wealth stimulated by phenomenal successes4 ,the commercial triumph of the telephone has led to a multitude of scientific bubbles1 and has resulted1 like the discovery of gold in the ,klondike1 in a rush into electrical schemes which have been held up to a hungry crowd of victims as second only to the ,bell telephone4 ,while the telegraph and the telephone can prevent speculations like the ,south ,sea ,bubble in a great measure1 for such schemes were much aided by a lack of a general dissemination of intelligence1 and this lack is supplied by a quick interchange of knowledge1 they bring their own peculiar peril1 for they are examples of what profit may be reaped from discovery in the world of science4 ,the commercial enterprises of the world have been brought within reach of the many by the telegraph and telephone4 ,they no longer belong to the few1 while the successful working of the field of science is still confined to a minority and the general public2 even the cultivated people are very ignorant of the approaches to the ,new ,el ,dorado4 ,no bogus land scheme or salted mining enterprise can be kept in existence to-day for a long period2 but the ,keeley motor1 with its ethereal vibrations and its pseudo-molecular motions1 was limited in activity only by the life of the promoter4 ,instead of the alchemists we have the seekers after power1 which costs nothing1 and in the train of the honest inventor there are unscrupulous promoters ready to capitalize any remarkable new fact or discovery which attracts public attention4 ,i have mentioned the influence of the first ,duchess of ,marlborough in inducing her husband1 the great duke1 to sell out his shares in the ,south ,sea ,bubble when they had risen to a high value because this example of discrimination and prudence in a woman supports one in the belief that all women are not prone to invest in women's bank schemes1 in ,keeley motors1 or in enterprises for 8carrying on an undertaking of great advantage1 but nobody to know what it is40 ,one of my friends recently visited the office of a company which proposed to produce power without the expenditure of a due amount of energy1 and found among those anxious to invest a woman who said that she had just received a dividend from the company for extracting gold from salt water1 and she was anxious to invest it in the new power company4 ,the dividend was the result of a liquidation of the ,gold from ,sea ,water ,company1 and represented half of her original sum4 ,she had come out of one delusion with a loss of half of her property1 and was now ready to enter another one with the remaining half4 ,it was an old-fashioned notion that women should be kept in ignorance of business1 for business knowledge1 it was thought1 was the concern of the husbands4 ,this notion prevails still in some quarters1 and there may be some connection between the number of women in ,christian ,science temples and their lack of education in practical matters1 or in what may be called the legal business habit--a habit which weighs the probabilities of this and that1 and leads to ways of exact thinking4 ,one of the remedies for this proneness of women to invest in scientific bubbles1 to invest money on faith1 is the lack of exact training1 which is not acquired by them either in private schools or colleges4 ,the classes of philosophy and psychology in women's colleges are crowded1 while those in the exact sciences have only handfuls4 ,this remark also applies to the students in men's colleges1 and we realize in this respect how closely college women imitate college men4 ,they follow the latter also in the habit of taking lecture courses1 a custom which increases vagueness1 inaccuracy of thought1 and looseness of statement4 ,this choice of studies by the young women in their colleges is a serious question for mankind1 in view of the speculative spirit which the feminine sex show toward scientific bubbles and schemes which promise an inordinate rate of interest2 for the graduates of these colleges will become teachers of youth1 and if not teachers they have an influence upon the coming citizen during his formative period4 ,as teachers they will far outnumber men teachers1 and they are fast coming into competition with men also in the routine of business offices and in certain positions in commercial houses4 ,in these activities they will need a balance of judgment1 exactness of thought1 and business habits4 ,they should be given a sufficient knowledge of the elements of physical science to know that power can not be created from nothing1 and that the great mass of our knowledge of mechanics and of the relation of electricity to mechanics can not be overturned by any new discovery4 ,whatever is discovered must be related to what has preceded it4 ,this is a characteristic of a science1 and this is what distinguishes it from a delusion--namely1 the great body of related facts put upon a mechanical basis1 so that any fact can be substantiated and any phenomenon repeated4 ,when this latter test is applied to many of the isms of the day they fade into thin air1 and young women need especially to be taught to apply such a test4 ,it would seem as if the present choice of study by women students tended to intensify vagueness of thought rather than to correct it1 to keep them in ignorance of business habits rather than to educate them in the balance of judgment on economic questions4 ,women are born speculators1 and are peculiarly prone to invest money and heart in bubbles4 ,being the power behind the throne1 they can carry men into action1 and it seems to me that especial attention should be paid in women's colleges to the studies that cultivate accurate thought and business methods4 ,a certain amount of the study of scientific methods and a study of common law might take the place of the study of philosophy1 psychology1 and biology1 certainly in the first years of a woman's college course1 for psychology and biology are studies which demand long scientific training and maturity of thought4 ,recently ,i heard the following conversation at a bank in ,cambridge4 ,the cashier was speaking with a young lady3 8,miss ----1 your friend has overdrawn her account three hundred dollars1 and you say she has left ,cambridge40 8,yes1 the trouble with ,jane is she is too much educated40 ,a long residence in a university town makes one wary of educational theories1 but the proneness of women to invest in women's banks and bogus trust companies certainly seems to need a corrective in a new college curriculum4 ,men can indulge in delusions and can recover mental balance1 and perhaps their fortunes2 but women are apt to become bankrupt permanently4 ,their experience in business delusions is similar to that in affairs of the heart4 ,washington ,irving says of this feminine attribute3 8,she sends forth her sympathies on adventure2 she embarks her whole soul in the traffic of affection1 and if shipwrecked her case is hopeless1 for it is a bankruptcy of the heart40 ,more mathematics and science1 and less philosophy and psychology1 might correct that vagueness of thought which leads both men and women into delusion4 ,now for our other remedies4 ,shall we have an academy which shall issue storm warnings of scientific bubbles8 ,i fear that the influence of academies is waning1 and that the conviction that there are as many good men outside of the academy as inside would militate against their dicta4 ,we could have courts of scientific appeal1 with judges appointed by the ,state to sit on scientific questions of perplexity1 and to sift expert opinions4 ,such a constitution of scientific courts might be a good thing in several ways--a saving health to the public4 ,the college professor would certainly be greatly relieved of endeavors of promoters to use the name and reputation of the professor's university1 and incidentally the little his own name might add4 ,this remedial solution is not in sight1 and we must direct our vision in another direction4 ,we know that the newspaper can not serve us1 for we seek to kill sensations1 and it seeks to live on them4 ,we are bound to turn to some journal or periodical which will publish only what it considers sound science and will eschew sensational science2 a journal which1 just as the ,london ,times is regarded as the authority on political and economical questions1 will be looked up to as an authority on matters of science4 ,in order1 therefore1 to protect the public against scientific bubbles we must impress upon both men and women the fact that an education in science is desirable1 and is becoming more important as the world grows older2 but until a scientific education becomes more general1 it is important that there should be some scientific oracle of ,delphos1 and ,i can not think of any better than a well-managed scientific journal1 the editors of which will seek for the best information on scientific questions which interest the financial world4 ,when it is known that such a journal admits to its pages nothing that is sensational1 when it is realized that the best specialists contribute to it1 surely it will become a saving help in times of trouble4 ,,what ,,makes ,,the ,,trolley ,,car ,,go4 ,,by ,,william ,,baxter1 ,,jr41 ,c4 ,e4 ,,note4--,the illustrations of railway generator and switchboard were made from photographs kindly furnished by the ,westinghouse ,electric and ,manufacturing ,company4 ,for the photographs of the electric truck and car controller we are indebted to the courtesy of the ,general ,electric ,company4 ,,ii4 ,if the successful operation of a street-railway car by mechanical power depended wholly upon the ability to produce a motor of sufficient capacity to do the work1 the problem would be an easy one to solve1 and would have been solved long before the advent of the electric motor4 ,mere ability to furnish the necessary power1 however1 is not enough to meet the requirements4 ,as already shown1 the mechanism must be light1 strong1 compact1 simple1 and so well protected that it can not be injured except under abnormal conditions4 ,in addition1 speed-controlling devices must be provided whereby the velocity may be changed at will and in the shortest possible time1 and with as nearly absolute precision as possible4 ,this controlling mechanism must also be so arranged that the direction of motion may be varied with the greatest certainty and as rapidly as may at any time be required4 ,the way in which these results are accomplished in an electrically operated car can be understood from ,figs4 #ah and #ai1 which are line drawings1 in a simplified form1 of an ordinary trolley car4 ,fig4 #ah is an elevation showing the outline of the car body and the wheels in broken lines1 while the motors and the wires through which the current is conveyed thereto are drawn in solid lines4 ,fig4 #ai is a plan in which the outline of the car floor and the platforms is represented in broken lines1 the solid lines being the motors and connecting wires4 ,in almost every instance railway cars are provided with two motors1 as shown at ,m ,m in these two figures4 ,this arrangement is adopted not because one motor can not furnish all the power required1 but simply for the purpose of making the equipment more reliable4 ,everything of human make is liable to fail2 hence if only one motor were used there would be more or less liability of its giving out at a critical moment1 and then the car would be helpless4 ,if two motors are provided1 should one give out the car would not be disabled1 for the remaining machine would be able to run it to its destination4 ,in order that this result may be successfully accomplished1 each motor is made of sufficient capacity to run the car without being overtaxed1 unless the load is abnormally large2 but even under the latter conditions the machine will in ninety-nine cases out of a hundred withstand the strain4 ,some roads1 in small towns1 where the traffic is light and the expense must be kept down to the lowest point1 use single-motor cars1 so as to effect a saving in first cost4 ,this course1 however1 is very seldom followed1 except in places where there are no heavy grades or where there is very little probability of the loads becoming excessive1 except at rare intervals4 ,if the cars are provided with a single motor1 when one becomes disabled from any cause it has to wait until overtaken by the car behind it1 so that it may be pushed by the latter to the end of the road4 ,the electric current for operating the motors is generated in a power house that is located at some convenient point along the route4 ,the current is conveyed to the moving cars by means of a trolley wire1 which is marked ,t in the drawings4 ,unless the road is very small and operates but a few cars1 this wire will not be sufficient to carry all the current1 hence in most cases there are a number of supplementary wires1 which are called feeders4 ,these wires are carried along on poles1 and at proper intervals are connected with the trolley wire ,t4 ,the electric current passes from the trolley wire through the motors on the car1 and thence to the rails ,r1 and through these1 and also through the ground1 back to the power house4 ,the exact path of the current is as follows3 ,illustration3 ,,figs4 #ah1 #ai4--,,outline ,,elevation ,,and ,,plan ,,of ,,electric ,,railway ,,car1 ,,showing ,,location ,,of ,,motors1 ,,controlling ,,switches1 ,,and ,,connecting ,,wires4 ,from the trolley wire1 through the trolley pole t1 to the fixture on top of the car which holds the latter4 ,from this fixture1 as shown by the heavy full line1 the current passes to a1 which is a switch located under the car hood overhanging the platform4 ,from this switch the current passes to a similar one1 marked b1 located in a like position at the other end of the car4 ,these two switches are called emergency switches2 they are provided simply as a safety device1 and are used only when the main switches get out of order and the motorman can not turn the current off in the regular way4 ,from the last hood switch b the current passes to the bottom of the car1 where it enters the wire d d at the point c4 ,this wire d d1 as will be seen1 runs in both directions1 and ends in the stands ,c ,c4 ,these latter are the controlling switches1 and are provided with a handle h1 by means of which the current is turned on or off from the motors1 and is directed through them in such a way as to make the car run in whichever direction may be desired4 ,from the controllers ,c ,c several wires are run under the car1 as shown at e e e4 ,these wires are generally bunched into one or two cables1 but they are kept separate from each other by means of strong insulating coverings4 ,four wires lead into each motor1 and three or four into each of the boxes marked ,g ,g4 ,if the motors were required to run in one direction only1 then two wires would be sufficient to convey the current to them2 but as they have to run in either direction1 at least three wires are necessary1 but in almost every case four are used1 as the results obtained thereby are more satisfactory4 ,the boxes ,g ,g are called rheostats1 and are simply devices through which the current is run so as to reduce the speed of the car1 and also for the purpose of graduating the strength of the current that passes through the motors in the act of starting4 ,these rheostats are very seldom in use when the car is in motion1 because it is a waste of power to pass the current through them4 ,after the current has passed through the motors it enters the ironwork1 and thus gets into the car wheels and finally to the track4 ,the lines drawn in ,fig4 #ah to indicate the position of the wires in the car do not show their actual position1 but only the general direction they follow4 ,from the trolley base to the first hood switch the wire1 as a rule1 is run along the car roof on one side of the ventilator1 and the wire leading from the first to the second hood switch occupies a corresponding position on the opposite side of the roof4 ,from the last hood switch1 b1 the wire is run down one corner of the car body1 being either within the car body1 or1 if not1 so covered by moldings as to not be reached by the hands of passengers4 ,the wires d and e are generally run under the car1 and are firmly secured to it by means of suitable fastenings4 ,the controlling switches ,c ,c are provided with one and sometimes two handles1 one of which is used to regulate the speed of the car and stop and start it1 while the other is for the purpose of reversing the direction in which it runs4 ,the handle h is for the purpose of regulating the speed1 and by means of k the direction of motion is changed4 ,before h is moved from the inactive position k is turned so that the car may run either forward or backward1 as may be desired2 then1 when h is moved1 the car will start1 and by varying the position of h the speed can be changed4 ,if it is desired to reverse the car1 h is brought back to the stop position1 k is shifted to the reverse motion1 and then h is again turned to the running position4 ,when the controlling switch is provided with only one handle this is turned in one direction to run the car ahead1 and in the opposite direction to run it backward1 the graduations in velocity being obtained by placing the handle in positions intermediate between the stop position and the highest speed position4 ,as will be noticed1 the wire d d branches at c and runs in both directions4 ,now1 when the controller handles are both turned to the stop position the current from the trolley can get no farther than the ends of d in either switch1 but if one of them is turned to the running position1 the current at once passes to the wires in the cable e e e1 and thus to the two motors4 ,if the switches ,c ,c are in proper working order and there is no disarrangement of the wires leading to the motors or those within the latter1 the current will obey the movements of the handle h1 but under other conditions it may not4 ,if such an emergency arises1 the motorman reaches up to the hood and turns the safety switch a or b1 and thus cuts the current off4 ,the force with which the motors turn the car wheels around depends upon the strength of the current2 this is owing to the fact that the magnetic force is increased or decreased by variations in the current strength4 ,if the current is doubled the magnetic force of the armature is nearly doubled1 and so is that of the field magnet1 therefore the pull between the poles is nearly four times as great4 ,from this it will be seen that the force with which the car is pushed ahead can be increased enormously by a comparatively small increase in the strength of the current4 ,if the current strength is doubled1 the propelling force is practically quadrupled2 and if the current is increased four times1 the propelling force is made nearly sixteen times as great4 ,the speed at which the car runs depends upon the force that impels the current through the wire1 and which is called electro-motive force4 ,the greater the electro-motive force1 the higher the velocity4 ,if the current passes from the wires in the cable e e e through each motor separately1 and thence to the rails ,r1 each machine will receive the effect of the whole electro-motive force of the current2 but if after the current has passed through one motor it is directed through the other1 then each machine will be acted upon by only one half the electro-motive force1 and1 as can be seen at once1 the velocity in the first instance will be twice as great as in the last4 ,this fact is taken advantage of in regulating the speed of the car1 and controlling switches arranged so as to direct the current through the motors in this way are designated as belonging to the series parallel type1 the name being given from the fact that when the car is running slow1 the current passes through the two motors in series--that is1 through one after the other2 but when the motors are running fast1 a separate current passes through each machine4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bj4--,,view ,,of ,,electric ,,railway ,,truck ,,with ,,one ,,motor ,,on ,,each ,,axle ,,and ,,provided ,,with ,,magnetic ,,brakes4 ,if1 when a car is running1 the controlling switch is turned to cut the current off1 the effect will be that the speed will gradually reduce2 but if it is desired to effect a sudden stop1 it becomes necessary to check the headway by means of a brake4 ,for this purpose the hand brake ordinarily used on all types of cars is employed1 but magnetic brakes are also used in some cases4 ,fig4 #bj shows a car truck equipped with two motors and magnetic brakes1 one on each axle4 ,looking at the front end of the truck1 the brake is seen on the left side of the axle1 between the motor bearing and the car wheel4 ,the larger drum1 on the right side1 is the casing within which the gear wheel and pinion are inclosed4 ,these magnetic brakes are operated by a current generated by the motors1 and not by that of the main line4 ,as was explained in the first article1 an electric motor can be made to act as a generator of electric current by simply reversing the direction in which the armature revolves4 ,if we do not desire to reverse the direction of rotation1 the result can still be attained by reversing the direction in which the current passes through the armature coils4 ,it is evident that the direction of a car motor can not be reversed at the instant that it is desired to have it act as a generator--that is1 when it is desired to put the brakes on2 hence the direction of the current through the armature is reversed4 ,when a car is provided with magnetic brakes1 the controlling switches are so made that when the handle h is moved back to the stop position it disconnects the motors from the trolley wire and at the same time connects them with the magnetic brakes in such a manner that they will act as generators and thus send current through the coils of the latter4 ,in order that the force with which the brakes are applied may be graduated1 the controlling switches are arranged so as to be moved several steps back of the point which in the ordinary type of switch would be the final stop position4 ,when the handle h is placed on the first brake position the current generated by the motors is not very strong1 and as a consequence the force of the brake is light1 but sufficient to bring the car to a stop in a reasonable distance4 ,if a quicker stop is desired the handle is moved to the second1 third1 or fourth brake position1 thus increasing the retarding force as much as may be desired4 ,magnetic brakes are very desirable1 as they save the car wheels1 and furthermore afford an additional safety in cases where it is necessary to arrest the speed instantly4 ,the position of the motors with reference to the truck and car wheels is very well shown in ,fig4 #bj1 and also the manner in which they are held in place4 ,the covers of the openings through which access to the commutator brushes is obtained are removed from both motors1 and in the forward one the top of the commutator and one of the brushes can be readily seen4 ,the manner in which the motors are suspended from the truck is not the same in this figure as in those previously shown1 but this is simply because the machines are not made by the same concern1 and each manufacturer has his own design4 ,fig4 #ba shows the appearance of the interior of the controlling switches ,c ,c1 ,figs4 #ah and #ai4 ,it will be noticed that there are two upright shafts1 the ends of which project above the top of the box4 ,the handle h is placed upon the shaft to the left1 and k on that to the right4 ,the first is the main controller1 and the other is the reversing switch4 ,it will be noticed that the main controller shaft carries a number of circular segments of different lengths2 these are so disposed that they come in contact with suitable stationary pieces as the handle h is turned around1 and thus vary the path of the current through the motors and the rheostats in the manner required to effect the desired changes in the velocity of the car4 ,the reversing shaft is also provided with a number of segments1 but these are not so easily seen1 although they can be discerned on close examination4 ,the wires from the cable e e e and also wire d d are attached to the stationary pieces with which the segments carried by the two shafts make contact when the latter are moved around by the motorman4 ,these wires can be seen back of the main switch shaft1 and also above the board located at the lower left-hand corner4 ,all these wires enter the controller through an opening in the bottom4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ba4--,,view ,,of ,,interior ,,of ,,car ,,controller4 ,in addition to the apparatus shown in ,figs4 #ah to #ba1 electric cars are provided with a safety fuse and a lightning arrester1 the object of the latter being to protect the motors from the destructive effects of lightning strokes4 ,the object of the safety fuse is to protect the motor from injury when the current becomes too strong4 ,an electric current in passing through a wire generates heat1 and the stronger the current the greater the heat4 ,if the wire is large and the current weak1 the heat developed may be insufficient to raise the temperature to a noticeable degree2 but1 on the other hand1 if the wire is small or the current very strong1 the heat generated may be capable of raising the temperature of the metal to the fusing point4 ,in fact1 the incandescent lamp operates upon this principle2 the carbon filament is traversed by a current of a strength sufficient to heat it to a point where it becomes intensely luminous1 and sometimes1 through accident or otherwise1 the current becomes strong enough to melt the filament1 and then the light goes out4 ,in an electric motor it is not necessary to raise the temperature of the wire to the melting point to do serious injury2 in fact1 if the heat is sufficient to char paper or cloth1 the machine will be rendered useless until suitable repairs are made4 ,the insulation of the wire coils is made principally of cotton1 which is a very good electrical insulator in its natural state1 but when carbonized by excessive heat it becomes a conductor4 ,as soon as it becomes a conductor the current is no longer confined to the proper channel1 but cuts through the insulation to find the shortest path through the machine4 ,if safety fuses were not provided the danger of destroying the insulation of the motors and thus disabling the car would be decidedly great1 for1 as already said1 the motors can not be stalled with an overload1 the only effect produced being a reduction in the speed and an increase in current strength4 ,now1 if there were no way of limiting the increase in current strength the motors1 if greatly overloaded1 would continue to operate until the insulation gave out4 ,the safety fuse is simply a piece of wire of such size that it will be melted by a current that the motors can carry without being injured2 hence when the current strength reaches a point where the safety of the apparatus is endangered the fuse melts and thus breaks the circuit and stops the further flow of current4 ,fuses are generally made of an alloy that melts at a low temperature1 so that the molten metal may not set fire to anything upon which it may fall4 ,these easily fused alloys are inferior to copper as electrical conductors1 and on this account the fuse wire is as a rule much larger than that wound upon the motors1 which fact makes its action somewhat mysterious to the uninitiated2 but whatever its size may be1 it is so proportioned that it will melt before the current rises to a strength that would injure the motor coils4 ,the manner in which the electric current generated in the power house reaches the motors is illustrated in ,fig4 #bb4 ,in this figure four tracks are shown1 which may be taken to represent roads running in as many different directions4 ,the three squares at the left side represent generators located in the power house4 ,the circles a a a represent switches1 by means of which the generators are connected or disconnected from the trolley lines4 ,a and ,b represent heavy metallic rods1 generally made of copper1 with which the generators are connected by means of the switches a a a4 ,these rods are called bus bars4 ,the circles b b b b represent switches by means of which the current is turned on or off from the several tracks4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bb4--;,,diagram ,,illustrating ,,the ,,manner ,,in ,,which ,,the ,,electric ,,current ,,flows ,,from ,,the ,,generators ,,to ,,the ,,cars ,,upon ,,the ,,tracks4 ,electric currents must always circulate in closed paths--that is1 the current that starts out from a generator must return to it1 and the amount coming back is the same as that which leaves4 ,the action of an electric generator can be understood by comparing it with that of a water pump pumping into a pipe which runs around from the delivery end to the suction4 ,with such an arrangement it can be seen that the action of the pump would be to keep the water in circulation1 but the same water would be pumped through the pump and the pipe all the time4 ,with an electric generator the action is the same1 and in ,fig4 #bb the current flowing along any one of the tracks follows the course indicated by the arrows4 ,the currents pass out to the several tracks through the trolley wires ,t ,t ,t ,t1 and return through the tracks ,r ,r ,r ,r4 ,the bus bar ,a is connected with a plate ,d1 which is imbedded in the ground1 and is also connected with the ends of the rails ,r ,r ,r ,r4 ,suppose for a moment that the two lower generators are out of service1 their switches a a being turned so as to disconnect them from the bus ,a1 and1 further1 suppose that the three lower b switches are open1 so that the current can only pass to the upper track2 then the top generator will feed into the top road only4 ,tracing the path of the current under these conditions1 we find that it will start from the upper side of the generator through the a switch to the ,b bus1 and thence to the trolley wire at the top of the figure4 ,on reaching the first car a portion of the current passes to the track ,r1 the amount being dependent upon the speed of the car and the load4 ,why the whole current does not follow this path generally puzzles the layman1 but the explanation is that the motors hold the current back1 and only allow as much to pass through them as is necessary to perform the required work--that is to say1 the current flowing through each car is not controlled by the generator or by the force of the current1 but by the requirements of the motors4 ,the amount of current delivered by the generator is governed by the demands of the motors4 ,the current that does not pass through the first car goes on to the second one1 and if there were more cars there would be current left in the trolley wire to supply them4 ,after passing through the motors of the two cars the current returns through the rails ,r to the plate ,d1 and thus to bus ,a1 from which it enters the lower side of the top generator4 ,it will from this explanation be seen that the action of the generator is simply to keep the current circulating4 ,if two of the generators are connected with the bus bars ,a and ,b1 the current required by the motors will be delivered by the two machines1 and if the three generators are placed in service the current will be divided among them4 ,when two or more generators are used1 it is necessary to provide means to prevent the current from dividing unequally between them2 if this were not done1 one machine might do nearly all the work1 while the other one would be practically idle4 ,the means employed to accomplish the result is simply an additional bus bar1 which is called an equalizing bus4 ,we will not undertake to explain the principle upon which this arrangement acts2 it is sufficient to say that by such means the work can be distributed in amounts directly proportional to the capacity of the generators1 so that if one machine is very much larger than the others it will take a portion of the load corresponding to its size4 ,in order that these results may be attained it is necessary to properly adjust the several generators1 and as no machine can be made to work with the accuracy of perfection1 the work will not be distributed in true proportion for all conditions of load2 thus if the generators are adjusted so as to each take its proper share when all the cars are in operation1 one machine may do too much or not enough when only one half the number are running1 but the excess or deficiency will not be more than a few per cent unless the adjustment is very defective4 ,electric generators for railway work are made in all sizes1 from those only large enough to operate four or five cars to others capable of furnishing sufficient current for thirty or forty or even more4 ,small generators are made so as to be driven by a belt running over a pulley mounted on the end of the armature shaft1 or they may be arranged to be connected to the end of a steam-engine shaft1 and thus become what is called direct connected machines4 ,large generators are almost invariably of the latter type4 ,a machine of this class is illustrated in ,fig4 #bc4 ,the driving engine is shown at ,e1 the cylinder being in the background and the crank toward the front1 the shaft being clearly seen at ,s1 while ,f is the fly wheel4 ,the generator is mounted directly upon the engine shaft1 between the bearing at the crank end and the fly wheel4 ,the large ring marked ,g is the field magnet ring1 and at ,d ,d ,d the field coils are shown4 ,these coils are equally spaced all the way around the circle4 ,the commutator is marked ,c1 and the commutator brushes are located at ,b ,b4 ,the armature can not be seen very well1 as it is covered by the brush holders and their supporting frames1 but it is located within the ring ,g in the position designated by ,a4 ,this machine is one of a number used to operate the roads of ,troy1 ,n4 ,y41 and is of about one-thousand-horsepower capacity1 which is enough to furnish all the current required to run sixty or seventy cars4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bc4--,,large-,,size ,,direct ,,connected ,,electric ,,railway ,,generator4 ,the switches a a and b b1 shown in ,fig4 #bb1 and the bus bars ,a ,b1 are mounted upon a large panel1 made of marble or slate1 called a switch board4 ,these switches are sufficient for the purpose of turning the current on or off any track or for connecting and disconnecting the generators1 but for the successful operation of the plant it is necessary to have other devices by means of which the strength of the current may be ascertained1 and also the electro-motive force4 ,it is necessary to provide each generator with means for varying the electro-motive force of the current it generates1 otherwise the load could not be properly equalized between the several machines4 ,all these different devices are located upon the switch board1 so as to have them in an accessible position4 ,a railway switch board1 arranged for four generators and a large number of distributing circuits1 is shown in ,fig4 #bd4 ,the four generator switches are shown at a a a a1 and the circles marked ,r1 directly under them1 are the devices by means of which the electro-motive force of the current is regulated4 ,these devices are called field regulators1 from the fact that their office is to regulate the strength of the field magnets of the generators1 making them stronger to increase the electro-motive force and weaker to reduce it4 ,the part seen upon the front of the switch board is not the regulator proper1 but only the handle and the contact points over which this swings4 ,the instruments marked ,a ,a ,a ,a are for measuring the strength of the current of each individual generator1 and are called ammeters4 ,the instruments marked ,v ,v ,v ,v are for the purpose of indicating the electro-motive force of the currents of the several generators1 and are called voltmeters4 ,ag is an ammeter used to measure the strength of the total current1 and ,vg is a voltmeter that indicates the electro-motive force of the current passing out to the cars on the various lines4 ,the ammeter ,ag is not an actual necessity1 for the strength of the total current can be ascertained by adding the readings of the four instruments connected with the generators1 but it is a convenience1 as it saves the trouble of performing the addition4 ,the voltmeter ,vg1 however1 can not be regarded in this light2 in fact1 its presence is decidedly serviceable1 for it indicates the average electro-motive force of all the generators2 therefore if any one of the instruments ,v ,v ,v ,v is higher or lower it shows at once that the generator to which it is attached is out of adjustment and not doing its proper share of the work4 ,the switches b b b1 by means of which the current is turned on to the several external circuits1 are shown at the extreme end of the switch board4 ,the instrument marked ,w1 located between the a switches1 is called a wattmeter1 and its office is to indicate the amount of power furnished by the generators4 ,this instrument is not always used1 as it is a convenience but not a necessity4 ,it can be seen at once that whether it is used or not1 the amount of power required to operate the roads will be the same1 but it is thought by most railroad managers that it is desirable1 for then the relation between the coal consumed and the power developed can be seen2 and if the showing is not as good as it should be1 the engineer can remind the firemen that they are not exercising as much care in feeding the boilers as they should4 ,considered in this light1 the watt-meter acts as a check to wastefulness on the part of the employees4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bd4--;,,electric ,,railway ,,switchboard4 ,the instruments marked ,c ,c ,c ,c serve the same purpose in connection with the generators as the safety fuses do with respect to the car motors2 they are electro-magnetic devices used to open the generator circuits whenever the current reaches a strength that is sufficient to injure the machine4 ,these devices are called circuit breakers4 ,as will be noticed1 there are four located directly above the four a switches1 and1 at the farther end of the board1 a large number located directly above the b switches4 ,the latter act to open the individual circuits when the currents flowing in them become too strong1 and the former are controlled entirely by the current of the generator circuits4 ,a circuit breaker is more reliable than a safety fuse1 because it acts quicker4 ,with the fuse the current must act for some time before it can melt the metal1 as a sufficient amount of heat can not be generated instantly4 ,with the circuit breaker1 however1 the action is instantaneous1 for as soon as the current reaches the predetermined strength the magnetism of the operative parts of the device becomes sufficiently strong to cause it to act4 ,a circuit breaker is simply a switch that is arranged to be opened automatically by the action of a magnet1 instead of by the hand of the operator4 ,the switch part of the apparatus is held in place by a catch that is set much after the fashion of the catch in a mouse trap--that is1 so that the least pressure will disengage it4 ,a strong spring acts to throw the switch open1 and as soon as the catch is tripped by the actuating magnet the force of the spring comes into action and the circuit is opened4 ,the circuit breaker is a very valuable apparatus1 for it frequently happens that1 through delays of one kind or another1 a large number of cars concentrate at one point on the road1 and1 as all the motormen are anxious to make headway1 they all start up at once at the first opportunity4 ,if there were no circuit breakers at the power house the result would be that some of the generators would be greatly overloaded and perhaps disabled2 but1 owing to the presence of the circuit breakers1 the actual result is that the circuit is broken1 and then the motormen have to wait until the current is turned on again4 ,if too many of them try to start their cars at the second trial the current will again stop4 ,after two or three ineffectual efforts have been made to start all the cars together the motormen will conclude to go easy1 and set a few in motion at a time4 ,in this way the cars will become more evenly distributed along the line1 and the demand for current at the point of blockade will reduce to the normal amount1 or nearly so1 and the running of the cars will continue without further interruption1 for the current drawn by the motors having been reduced to the average amount1 the circuit breaker will cease to act4 ,the bus bars and all the connections between them and the generators and external circuits1 as well as with all the instruments1 are located behind the switch board4 ,all these connections are so secured that they can not come in contact with each other except where contacts are required2 care is also taken to prevent any connection being made with the iron framing that supports the marble slabs4 ,the front of a switch board is generally very attractive1 the surface being of highly polished marble1 while all the switches and instruments are finely finished and1 as a rule1 of decidedly ornamental design4 ,the switch board might be looked upon as the fountain head from which the entire operation of an electric railway system is controlled4 ,by the movement of one set of switches upon it the generators are thrown in or out of service1 and by the movement of another set of switches the several branches of the road are rendered active or inactive4 ,,is ,,the ,,christian ,,religion ,,declining8 ,,by ,,the ,,rev4 ,,charles ,,augustus ,,briggs1 ,d4 ,d41 ,,professor ,,of ,,biblical ,,theology1 ,,union ,,theological ,,seminary4 ,the question whether the ,christian religion is declining is agitating the public mind in some measure at the present time4 ,this is due to the many changes that are taking place in the forms of religion1 the types of doctrine1 and the methods of action in the numerous religious organizations which bear the name of ,jesus ,christ4 ,are these changes symptoms of disease and decay in the ,christian religion1 or are they evidences of renewed vitality and enlargement by growth8 ,it is quite evident that many things which have been regarded as important and even essential in the past have declined in importance1 and some of them seem to be on the eve of disappearing altogether4 ,it is not surprising that those who have been trained to regard these as essential to ,christianity should think that the ,christian religion is declining with them4 ,if1 however1 these things are not so important as has been supposed1 but have gained for a time an exaggerated importance1 then their decline to their normal position and the advance of other things to their rightful place1 as more important things than has hitherto been supposed--all this is evidence of a healthful advance in ,christianity4 ,this question1 therefore1 will be answered in accordance with the point of view of the one who considers it4 ,if it is to be answered correctly we must put aside all prejudice1 and examine the whole situation candidly and with a critical scientific spirit4 ,it is impracticable within the bounds of this article to examine this question on all sides4 ,we can only make a few suggestions relating to it4 ,it is necessary at the outset to approach the question aright4 ,we must distinguish between what is essential to the ,christian religion and what is non-essential4 ,this is not so easy a task as one might imagine4 ,we can only make this distinction generally1 and not with scientific precision4 ,in the study of religions we have to distinguish 7#a7 the more fundamental things in the historical institutions and experience in life2 7#b7 the doctrines which express the popular belief or scientific knowledge of the adherents of the religion2 and 7#c7 the expression of the religion in ethical principles and moral conduct4 ,the order of development is always life1 doctrine1 morals4 ,the earlier stages of the ,christian religion and of ,christian experience at any time and in any community is the vital experience and the institutional organization4 ,doctrines of faith and knowledge presuppose the vital relation1 and morals presuppose both1 and conduct is the final aim and crown of the whole development4 ,and yet there are some scholars who exaggerate the relative importance of each one of the three in its relation to the other two and to the whole4 ,in our age greater attention is given to ,christian ethics and sociology than ever before4 ,a man who has the ethical enthusiasm of our times is inclined to criticise historical ,christianity with great severity1 because of its failure to realize the highest ethical ideals1 and especially those presented by ,jesus in his teaching and his example4 ,historical ,christianity is so far below these ideals1 even in its best types1 that one is inclined to say if the ,church has failed so badly in nineteen centuries1 what prospect has it in the present or the future8 ,some good men in our times are disgruntled with historical ,christianity for its ethical failures1 and keep aloof from the ,church on that account2 but these are after all proportionately few1 and they are unreasonable1 for they exaggerate the ethical phase of ,christianity over against the doctrinal and the vital2 they fail to see what is necessarily involved in the development of the ,christian religion1 that the ethical age should come last of all2 and they also are not just in their estimate of ,christian history1 for1 notwithstanding the failure of the ,church1 there has been a wonderful and steady ethical advance through the centuries4 ,indeed1 it is ,christianity itself which is chiefly responsible for the ethical enthusiasm of the present time1 and this is an evidence that ,christianity is about to enter upon the last and highest stage of its development4 ,holy love in principle and practice in the liberty of self-sacrifice is better understood in the ,church to-day than ever before1 and it is becoming more influential in the ,church and in the world4 ,the ,church is about to put forth the supreme ethical influence of holy love to transform society and the lives of men4 ,in large sections of the ,church the greatest stress is still laid upon ,christian doctrine1 especially as expressed in dogmatic forms4 ,if a man thinks that orthodox doctrine is the test of a healthful and vigorous church1 he will make that the determining element in his judgment whether ,christianity is advancing or declining4 ,in this sphere we have to distinguish three things3 7#a7 ,the popular orthodoxy1 which is determined by the consensus of teaching from the pulpit2 7#b7 the scholarly orthodoxy1 which is determined by the teaching of the theologian from the chairs of the theological schools and in text-books of dogmatic theology2 7#c7 the official orthodoxy1 which is determined by creeds1 liturgies1 confessions of faith1 and canons of the ,church4 ,there can be no doubt that there has been a great overturning of dogma in our times1 and it is altogether probable that this will assume much greater dimensions4 ,many think that dogma has had an exaggerated importance in the past1 and1 from their point of view1 the ,christian religion has made an advance by pushing dogma back to a less dominant position4 ,those who maintain that dogma is of supreme importance naturally think that the ,christian religion declines when dogma is discredited in the ,christian community4 ,there can be little doubt that a large number of men absent themselves from church attendance because they dislike the popular orthodoxy1 which seems to them antiquated1 unscientific1 and untrue4 ,many refuse to unite with religious organizations which are dominated by an orthodoxy representing the theories of scholastic theology4 ,many remain apart from the churches because they are unwilling to be responsible in any way for their official orthodoxy4 ,many1 born and trained in ,presbyterian families1 refuse to remain in an organization which is responsible for the hard doctrines set forth in the ,westminster ,confession4 ,many ,methodists refuse to be compromised by ,wesley's doctrines and ,wesley's rules of life4 ,many refuse to remain ,baptists because of what is involved in close communion4 ,many refuse to be ,episcopalians because they resent the doctrines and practices of sacerdotalism4 ,and so we could find1 more or less in all religious communions1 a dissatisfaction with dogmas--sometimes superficial1 giving a plausible excuse for absence1 sometimes profound1 inciting active hostility to the ,church4 ,if all of these dissatisfied ones are to be regarded as hostile or indifferent to ,christianity1 then it is evident that an army of ,christians have practically separated themselves from the ,church in our time1 and we must say that ,christianity has in this respect declined4 ,if1 on the other hand1 we think that these dissatisfied and disgruntled ones are yet ,christians1 and that they are maintaining their faith in ,christ in opposition to an unreasonable church1 that they are exerting an important influence in the transformation of the dogmas of the ,church1 then we may say that this is an evidence that ,christianity is in a state of transition1 that it is on the move away from an untenable position of exaggerated dogma to a truer and stronger position1 in which dogma will be transformed and given its normal place and importance4 ,the effort to throw off the bondage of the popular and the scholastic dogma is an advance1 and not a decline2 it is an advance into the realm of freedom4 ,it first gives the possibility of a critical re-examination of the dogmatic faith of the ,church4 ,only by the application of the scientific methods of our age to dogma is it possible for our age to verify dogma and accept it as valid and reliable4 ,we can not rely on anything that is merely traditional or the product of the logical analysis of premises which remain themselves unverified4 ,the revolt against the confessional orthodoxy1 especially in the ,presbyterian1 ,reformed1 and ,lutheran ,churches1 is not a sign of decline1 as some think1 but a wholesome movement which indicates a determination to know the truth and to hold nothing but the truth4 ,the ,chicago-,lambeth articles1 adopted by the whole ,anglican communion throughout the world1 reduces the essential doctrines of ,christ's ,church to the ,nicene ,creed and the ,apostles' ,creed2 those creeds in which all the great historical churches1 the ,greek and the ,oriental1 the ,roman and the ,protestant1 agree4 ,this marks a dogmatic advance1 not a dogmatic decline1 because it makes the distinction between the essential and unessential doctrines1 it defines essential doctrines by holding up ancient fundamental historical creeds2 it thereby represents all other matters as within the realm of the unessential doctrines1 the province of ,christian liberty4 ,the churches are therefore readjusting themselves in their relation to ,christian doctrine1 and the ,christian community is readjusting itself likewise4 ,the offensive features of ,christian dogma1 while still retained and advocated by some theologians and some communions1 have been in great measure removed by other theologians and communions1 and the process is going on with great rapidity4 ,the war against science1 criticism1 literature1 and art--all that is characteristic of our age--is gradually being limited to a smaller number of theologians and denominations1 and there is ever an increasing number of theologians and churches which fully recognize all the achievements of modern times and who are at work in harmonizing them with the verified ,christian dogmas in a larger1 grander system--in a new theology representing all that is noblest and best in ,christianity as applied to the modern world4 ,while this process is going on1 the dissatisfied ones will take some little time to find their new church homes and to adjust themselves to new conditions and circumstances4 ,so far as the great mass of mankind is concerned1 the chief factor in the ,christian religion is the fundamental one of the ,christian life and the ,christian institution1 and the advance or decline of ,christianity will be judged from this point of view4 ,here1 however1 we must recognize that there are several types of religious life which sometimes combine in one community1 but which ordinarily exist apart as characteristic of different temperaments1 different nations1 different races4 ,the lines of cleavage in historical ,christianity are for the most part racial1 national1 or temperamental4 ,we have to take this into account when we consider the religious life and institutions of different countries4 ,what a difference there is in religion from this point of view in the great centers1 such as ,rome1 ,st4 ,petersburg1 ,berlin1 ,london1 ,edinburgh1 ,new ,york6 ,that man would go far astray who should undertake to use any one of these as a test of any or of all the others4 ,let us consider1 for example1 the question of participation in the services of the ,church4 ,rome has apparently1 from a ,protestant point of view1 an abnormal number of churches1 and in these churches an extraordinary number of chapels and altars4 ,the reason for this is that there is an immense number of clergy in ,rome1 and all these altars are needed that they may perform the most important of their duties--the sacrifice of the mass4 ,the churches1 chapels1 and altars are not erected for the people merely--if so1 vastly fewer would be necessary--but for the priests who sacrifice for the people even when they are absent4 ,berlin has apparently very few churches1 and these are not always well attended by the people1 and are used infrequently except on ,sundays4 ,judging from this1 it would be a very irreligious city2 but any one who really knows ,berlin would not say that it is less religious than ,rome4 ,the religion of the ,german people finds its expression in a mystic type of personal piety and of family and social life2 it maintains and propagates itself without frequent attendance upon public worship4 ,in ,london regular attendance upon public worship is commonly regarded as indispensable for the maintenance of the ,christian religion4 ,therefore ,christian people frequent the churches to an extent that is unknown on the continent of ,europe4 ,but to make the ,british habit of frequenting the ,church for public worship a test of the vitality of the ,christian religion in the great cities of the ,continent would be altogether unjust and untrue4 ,the historical development of religion in ,great ,britain has brought about an entirely different state of affairs there from that which we find everywhere else in the world4 ,the situation in ,great ,britain is therefore special1 peculiar1 and1 one might say1 abnormal as compared with the situation in other parts of the world4 ,in the ,united ,states the original population was chiefly ,british1 and therefore followed ,british methods in religion4 ,but in the present century our land1 and especially our cities1 have filled up with a population from the continent of ,europe1 bringing with them ,continental methods of worship which would not yield to or readily adopt ,british methods4 ,intermarriage with the ,british stock and familiar converse in society have tended to assimilation1 and therefore the situation has gradually and inevitably emerged that the ,christianity of ,new ,york and ,chicago and our other great cities has assumed an intermediate position between that of the ,continent and that of ,great ,britain4 ,the religious customs characteristic of ,british ,christianity have undoubtedly declined--they have yielded to the influence of ,continental ,christianity4 ,if ,british ,christianity is the norm by which we are to judge1 then ,christianity has declined in the ,united ,states4 ,if1 however1 it is not the norm1 then it might appear that an intermediate position1 such as we have attained by the assimilation of the ,british and the ,continental types1 may be a real advance and gain1 because of the appropriation of some of the best features of both methods and the rubbing off of some of the eccentricities and excrescences of both4 ,a decline in the relative attendance upon the public worship1 and especially upon the second service on ,sunday1 is exactly what we would anticipate under the circumstances4 ,it is altogether probable that the decline is much less than we had the right to expect in view of the vast influence exerted upon us by ,continental types of ,christianity during the past half century4 ,and it is altogether probable that the decline has not reached its normal goal4 ,especially is this the case when we take into consideration other influences which tend to diminish the attendance upon public worship4 #a4 ,in ,great ,britain1 where the churches were established by law1 the state and ,church were so entwined that it was a badge of good citizenship to attend upon public worship4 ,in antithesis with this1 attendance of the nonconformists upon public worship was regarded as a standing by their principles and a test of fidelity and courage4 ,these influences worked also in the ,united ,states during the colonial period2 but during the present century this motive has lost its influence1 and it is to be feared that politicians as such feel under no special obligation to attend church1 especially in view of the attitude of many of the ministry as to political life and political questions4 #b4 ,in ,great ,britain it has been a badge of social propriety to attend public worship4 ,social influences still prevail greatly in the ,united ,states1 in villages and small cities1 and even to some extent in the churches in the great cities1 where they are organized and conducted in social lines as social religious clubs4 ,but this influence is much weaker than it used to be1 and it is gradually passing away4 #c4 ,the pulpit was once the chief means of instruction and of intellectual and moral stimulation for the people4 ,the preacher was the people's orator4 ,the pulpit has in great measure lost its attractive power in this regard4 ,the daily and weekly press have a greater influence in public instruction4 ,the multiplication of cheap books also takes from the preacher a large share of his influence in this regard4 ,oratory in legislative bodies has to a great extent lost its influence4 ,its place has been taken by simple1 compact1 time-saving statements1 often printed but not delivered4 ,committees do the work which used to be done after discussion before the public4 ,so the people will not listen now to the pulpit orator of former generations4 ,they demand short1 crisp sermons that bristle with points1 and are practical and helpful4 ,in other words1 the oratorical and highly intellectual character of the pulpit which used to attract worshipers no longer attracts them4 ,they feel that they can get more benefit in this regard by reading in the comfort of the home4 ,multitudes of people can no longer be induced to attend church to be instructed by the minister or to get his judgment on topics of the time1 or to be stirred by his eloquence2 they can get all these things cheaper and easier by reading at home4 ,when1 now1 this is re-enforced by the fact that multitudes dislike the doctrines of the ,church1 and resent them when they are preached1 we can easily understand that church attendance should decline very greatly from this reason4 ,but this is no evidence that the ,christian religion has declined4 ,if men absent themselves from public worship because it is no longer necessary for them1 as good citizens and as respectable members of society1 to attend1 or because they may get their instruction and stimulation elsewhere easier and with less expenditure of time and money1 that is simply an evidence that attendance upon church in the past has been due in great measure to other than religious reasons1 and that1 these no longer holding1 attendance has disappeared with them4 ,the attendance upon public worship1 though reduced so far as number is concerned1 is now more simply and purely for religious reasons1 and therefore minister and people may with greater freedom make the services more distinctly religious4 ,this is indeed the real situation that has emerged4 ,the sermon has declined relatively in importance1 and rightly so4 ,it had an exaggerated importance in the ,protestant ,church1 especially in the non-liturgical churches4 ,there is a world-wide tendency now1 which is increasing in power1 to improve and enlarge the worship of the ,church4 ,liturgies and ceremonies of worship are more discussed now in the ,protestant world than are sermons and lectures1 because it is becoming every day more evident that the ,church is organized for common prayer and for public worship1 and not merely to furnish a pulpit for a minister4 ,the pulpit is more and more being merged in the worship1 and is losing its domination over the worship4 ,with this tendency goes increased attention to the ,holy ,sacraments1 especially the ,holy ,communion1 more frequent celebrations and more frequent participation1 increased opportunity of worship during ,sunday and during the week1 and also therewith the greatly increased attention to the organization of the ,church for aggressive ,christian work4 ,those who think that the pulpit is everything in the public service naturally suppose that with the decline of the pulpit ,christianity declines1 but those who think that public worship is the essential thing in the ,church rejoice at the changes that are taking place1 and hold that ,christianity is advancing4 ,they maintain that it is not so important for the ,church to gather large crowds to listen to the sermon as it is for the church doors to be ever open1 with frequent services for the convenience and help of worshipers at any time1 without regard to whether they are few or many1 assured that thereby a much greater number of people are reached and benefited than by the former limited methods4 ,it is sometimes said that biblical criticism has undermined faith in ,holy ,scripture1 and that1 therefore1 many absent themselves from public worship4 ,but there is no real evidence for it4 ,i doubt not that the opponents of biblical criticism drive many people from their congregations1 just as they do when they attack the sure results of modern science1 or expose their ignorance in the discussion of political and economical questions in which they have not been trained2 but these people simply remove to other congregations where they will not be offended by obscurantism and intolerance4 ,biblical criticism really makes the ,bible more attractive to the people1 and its reading and exposition more interesting and influential in the ,church4 ,a careful study of the situation makes it evident that the ,christian religion is not declining in our land2 but it is passing through a transition state1 putting off antiquated dogmas1 customs1 and methods1 and adapting itself to the modern world1 and transferring itself so as to better accomplish its work4 ,in no age has ,christianity made more advance than in the century now drawing to a close4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,indians of ,bolivia are described by ,sir ,martin ,conway as 8an exceedingly bigoted folk1 retaining under a mask of ,christianity their ancient superstitions1 little altered10 and are kept in order by priestly management rather than by force4 ,mr4 ,conway was seriously interfered with by them in the prosecution of his researches because the nature of his undertaking involved some outrage to their superstitions4 ,they regard the mountains above the level of habitation as part of the other world1 and holding1 among other fancies1 that a golden bull and a golden cross planted by supernatural agency stood on the summit of one of the peaks round the base of ,mount ,serata1 thought that the object of the explorer's expedition could be nothing else than to obtain possession of these priceless treasures4 ,hence they offered formidable opposition to him4 ,a ,,century ,,of ,,geology4,a ,,by ,,prof4 ,,joseph ,,le ,,conte4 ,a ,in this article ,i have attempted to give only the development of geological thought4 ,geology is one of the youngest of the sciences4 ,it may almost be said to have been born of the present century4 ,it is true that knowledge concerning the structure of the earth had been accumulating ever since the time of the ,greeks and ,romans2 it is true that these materials became more abundant and were better organized in the eighteenth century2 but this knowledge had not yet taken form as a distinct branch of science until about the end of that century4 ,there are two distinctive marks of scientific as compared with popular knowledge3 ,first1 that its fundamental idea is clearly conceived2 and1 second1 that its method is distinctly inductive4 #a4 ,,fundamental ,,idea4--,the fundamental idea underlying geological thought is the history of the earth4 ,now1 until the beginning of the present century the earth was not supposed to have any history4 ,it was supposed to have been made at once1 out of hand1 about six thousand years ago1 and to have remained substantially unchanged ever since as the necessary theater of human history4 ,changes were known to have taken place and in less degree to be still taking place1 but these were not supposed to follow any law such as is necessary to constitute a history1 and thus to constitute a science distinct from geography4 ,buffon1 about the middle of the last century1 did indeed bring out dimly the idea of an abyss of time1 preceding the advent of man1 in which the earth was inhabited by animals and plants wholly different from those of the present day1 but he was compelled by the priests of the ,sorbonne to retract these supposed irreligious views4 ,so tardily was the fundamental idea of geology clearly conceived that ,comte1 the great originator of scientific philosophy1 in his classification of the sciences in #ahbj1 denied a place to geology because1 according to him1 it was not a distinct science at all1 but only a field for the application of all the sciences4 ,it is evident that he did not perceive the fundamental idea underlying geology and distinguishing it from geography--viz41 a life history of the earth through all time4 ,the claim of geology to a place in a scheme of classification is exactly the same as that of astronomy4 ,as astronomy is a field for the application of mathematics1 mechanics1 physics1 and1 recently1 chemistry1 but is distinguished from them all by its characteristic fundamental idea of illimitable space1 so geology is a field for the application of all other lower sciences1 but is distinguished from them all by her characteristic fundamental idea of illimitable time4 ,as all other sciences are terrestrial1 but astronomy alone celestial1 so all other sciences belong to the present--the 8now0--but geology alone belongs to the illimitable past4 ,the fundamental idea of the one is infinite space1 of the other infinite1 in sense of inconceivable1 time4 ,all other sciences1 including astronomy1 are but a flash-light view of ,nature4 ,geology alone is a view of ,nature in continuous movement1 a life history--an evolution of ,nature4 ,this mode of thought began to dawn only in the closing years of the last and the opening years of the present century4 ,it seems to have been first clearly conceived by the mind of ,hutton in the last part of the eighteenth century4 #b4 ,,inductive ,,method ,,applied4--,when the true idea underlying geology was clearly conceived and geology thus distinctly separated from other departments of science1 geology may be said to have been born4 ,but it was still in helpless infancy1 its growth irregular1 and even its continuous life uncertain1 because a solid basis of inductive method was not yet laid4 ,that basis was laid mainly by ,hutton in #agie1;,b and still more clearly by ,charles ,lyell in #ahcj1 in the principle that the study of causes now in operation is the only true foundation of geology4 ,b ,hutton's ,theory of the ,earth4 ,geological changes1 of course1 belong to the irrevocable past1 and are therefore hopelessly removed from direct observation4 ,their causes and process must be reconstructed by the skillful use of the scientific imagination4 ,until ,lyell1 more or less probable hypotheses seemed all that was possible4 ,what a field was here for the conflict of opposite extreme views6 ,but ,lyell showed that 8causes now in operation0 are producing similar effects under our eyes1 if we will only observe4 ,from that moment geology became a truly inductive science and its indefinite progress assured4 ,these two events1 then--viz41 the conception of geology as a distinct science1 and the introduction of a true scientific method--are the greatest epochs in the history of geological science4 ,some dim adumbrations of these appear before this century1 especially the former in the mind of ,buffon1 and the latter somewhat fully in the mind of ,hutton1 but they were not generally accepted and had not become working principles until the beginning and even some time after the beginning of the nineteenth century4 ,these must be borne in mind in all we have further to say of the progress of geology through the century4 ,when the century opened1 the war between the ,neptunists and the ,plutonists1 between the ,wernerites and the ,huttonites1 was still going on1 but was approaching the usual result in such cases of dispute--viz41 the recognition of the fact that there was truth on both sides1 and they must be combined into a more comprehensive view4 ,the chief difference of opinion still remaining was as to the relative importance of the two agencies1 aqueous and igneous4 ,two great advances took place about the beginning of this century3 ,william ,smith1 by patient1 painstaking field observation and mapping1 laid the foundation of stratigraphy2 and ,cuvier1 by his profound and brilliant studies of the wonderful discoveries of extinct mammals in the ,eocene basin of ,paris1 laid the foundations of paleontology4 ,these researches placed in clearer light than ever before the existence of other time-worlds before the present one4 ,william ,smith published his tabular view of the ,british ,strata in #agij1 but his map was not completed and published until #ahae4 ,cuvier's great work on the ,organic ,remains of the ,paris ,basin was published in #ahjh4 ,thus1 early in the century the two bases of our science were laid by ,smith and ,cuvier4 ,we now proceed to touch lightly only the main steps of subsequent growth through the century4 ,as1 in the previous century and the early part of this1 the discussion was between the opposite schools of ,neptunists and ,plutonists1 with the final result of reconciliation in a more scientific view which combined these two surface views into a stereoscopic reality1 so now the discussions began between catastrophism and uniformitarianism1 and ended with a similar final result4 ,geologists1 in the early part of the century1 before the study of causes and processes now in operation was generally acknowledged as the only rational basis of a true scientific geology1 seeing the frequent unconformities in the geological series and the apparently sudden changes of life forms associated with these unconformities1 were naturally led to the conclusion that the whole history of the earth consisted of a series of sudden and violent catastrophes by which the bed of the ocean was suddenly raised and its waters precipitated on the land as a great wave of translation1 carrying universal ruin and extermination of all life in its course4 ,such catastrophes were supposed to be followed by periods of quiet1 during which the new earth was repeopled1 by direct act of creation1 with new forms of life adapted to the new conditions4 ,this view was in perfect accord with the then accepted doctrine of the supernatural origin and the permanence of species4 ,species were supposed to have been created at once1 out of hand1 without natural process1 in some place 7center of specific origin71 spread in all directions as far as physical conditions would allow1 but remained unchanged and unchangeable as long as they continued to live or until another universal exterminating catastrophe4 ,species are 8medals of creation40 ,they are successive individuals struck from the same die1 until the die is worn out or broken4 ,then a new die is made1 and the process of coinage of identical individuals is renewed4 ,thus the whole history of the earth was supposed to consist of a succession of alternate supernatural and natural events4 ,the catastrophes were supernatural2 the times of quiet were natural4 ,the creation of new dies or creation of first individuals was supernatural2 the coinage of individuals of successive generations was natural4 ,but on the whole the successive conditions of physical geography and the successive faunas and floras were higher and more complex according to a preordained plan4 ,the great apostles of catastrophism were ,cuvier in ,france and ,buckland in ,england4 ,according to ,buckland1 the last of these great catastrophes was the ,quaternary or drift period1 and this period was1 by him and by many others since1 associated with the ,noachian ,deluge4 ,lyell opposed this view with all his power4 ,according to him we can not judge of geological causes and processes except by study of causes and processes now in operation and producing effects under our eyes4 ,the slow operation of similar causes and processes is sufficient--given time enough--to account for all the phenomena in geological history4 ,thus arose the extreme opposite doctrine of uniformitarianism4 ,things have gone on from the beginning and throughout all time much as they are going on now4 ,this view1 of course1 required illimitable time1 and was of great service in enforcing this idea4 ,but1 in revulsion from the previous idea of catastrophism1 it undoubtedly was pushed much too far4 ,meanwhile the theory of evolution was incubating in the mind of ,darwin4 ,even ,lyell1 while he established the doctrine of slow uniform changes so far as inorganic ,nature was concerned1 was still compelled to admit supernatural catastrophic changes in organic ,nature4 ,species1 even for ,lyell1 were still immutable--still there were supernatural creation of first individuals1 and continuance of similar individuals by natural process of generation4 ,on the publication of ,darwin's ,origin of ,species by ,descent with ,modification1 ,lyell at once embraced the new view as a completion of his principle of causes now in operation and his doctrine of uniformitarianism4 ,in a certain superficial sense evolution is certainly confirmatory of the doctrine of uniformity of causes and processes in the past and the present1 but in a deeper sense it is quite contrary in its spirit4 ,uniformitarians of the ,lyell school look upon geology as a chronicle of events--evolutionists as a life history of the earth4 ,the one regards the slow changes as irregular1 uncertain1 without progress or purpose or goal2 the other as an evolution to higher and higher conditions1 as a gradual movement onward toward the present condition and toward man as its goal4 ,the recognition of this is only now approaching clearness4 ,if geology is the history of the evolution of the earth from primal chaos until now1 then the conditions have changed at every step1 and absolute uniformity is impossible4 ,extreme uniformitarianism is therefore untenable4 ,catastrophism and uniformitarianism are opposite extremes which must be combined and reconciled4 ,this reconciliation is only now being completed1 and we therefore put off its discussion for the present4 ,suffice it to say now that geologic thought in this regard has passed through three stages--catastrophism1 uniformitarianism1 and evolutionism4 ,and this latter is the final stage1 because 7#a7 it is a complete reconciliation between the other two1 and 7#b7 because it is plastic and indefinitely modifiable and progressive1 while the other two are equally rigid and unchangeable by their mutual antagonism4 ,with these fundamental principles in mind1 we proceed to touch briefly the most important advances during the century4 ,,evolution ,,of ,,earth ,,forms4 ,the idea of the progressive development of the earth in its greater features throughout all geologic time by the action of forces resident in the earth itself preceded the acceptance of the evolution of organic forms4 ,we have said that the fundamental idea of geology is that of the evolution of the earth through all time4 ,now1 it was ,dana who first studied geology wholly from this point of view4 ,for him geology was the development of the earth as a unit4 ,before him1 doubtless1 geology was a kind of history--i4 e41 a chronicle of thrilling events--but ,dana first made it a philosophic history4 ,before ,dana1 geology was an account of the succession of formations and their fossil contents4 ,dana made it an account of the evolution of earth forms and the concomitant and resulting evolution of organic forms4 ,it is true that first and for a long time his evolutional conception was incomplete4 ,it is true that while he attributed the evolution of earth forms to natural causes and processes1 he still shrank from applying similar causes to the changes in life forms1 but this was the almost necessary result of the then universal belief in the supernatural origin and the unchangeableness of organic forms4 ,he lived to make his conception of evolution as a natural process1 both of the earth and of organic forms1 complete4 ,ocean ,basins and ,continents4--,if we divide geological causes and processes into two general kinds as to their origin--viz41 internal1 or earth-derived1 and external1 or sun-derived--evidently the former is the original and fundamental kind4 ,these determine earth forms1 while the other only modify them2 these determine the great features1 the other only the lesser features2 the former rough-hews the earth features1 the latter shapes them4 ,it is the effects of these interior earth forces which are the most important to study4 ,and among these effects the most fundamentally important of all is the formation of those greatest features--the ocean basins and continental arches4 ,the most probable view is that they are formed by unequal radial contraction in the secular cooling of the earth4 ,the earth was certainly at one time an incandescently hot mass1 which gradually cooled and contracted to its present temperature and size4 ,now1 if it were perfectly homogeneous both in density and in conductivity in all parts1 then1 cooling and contracting equally in every part1 it would retain its symmetric oblate-spheroid form1 though diminishing in size4 ,but if there were any1 the least1 heterogeneity either in density or especially in conductivity over large areas1 then the more conductive areas1 contracting more rapidly toward the center radially1 would form hollows or basins1 and the less conductive areas would stand out as higher arches4 ,thus were formed the oceanic basin and the continental arches of the lithosphere4 ,the same causes which produced would continue to increase them1 and thus the ocean basins would increase in depth and the continents in height4 ,the hydrosphere is still to be added4 ,in the beginning of this process doubtless the lithosphere was hot enough to maintain all the water in the form of vapor in the atmosphere4 ,but when the surface was cool enough the water would precipitate and partly or wholly cover the earth--whether partly or wholly would depend on the amount of precipitated water and the amount of inequality which had already taken place4 ,the amount of water1 as we know1 is sufficient1 if the inequalities were removed1 to cover the whole surface two and a half miles deep4 ,inasmuch as the forming of the inequalities is progressive and still going on1 it seems improbable that the inequalities had become sufficiently great1 at the time of precipitation1 to hold the waters4 ,if this be so1 then the primeval ocean was universal and the future continents existed only as continental banks in the universal ocean4 ,however this may have been1 there seems little doubt that the same cause which produced the inequalities continued to operate to increase them4 ,the ocean basins1 so far as these causes are concerned1 must have become deeper and deeper1 and the continents larger and larger4 ,in spite of many oscillations producing changes mostly on the margins1 but sometimes extending over wide areas in the interior of the continent1 this1 on the whole1 seems to be in accordance with the known geological history of the earth4 ,if so1 then the oceanic basins have always been oceanic basins1 and the places of the continents have always been substantially the same4 ,this introduces a subject on which there has been much discussion recently--viz43 ,the ,permanency of ,ocean ,basins4--,closely associated with the ,lyellian uniformitarianism was the doctrine of extreme instability of earth features1 especially the forms and places of sea and land4 ,crust movements were irregularly oscillating to such a degree that in the course of geologic history sea and land frequently and completely changed places4 ,abundant evidence of this was supposed to be found in the unconformities so frequent in the stratified series4 ,the tendency of that time was toward a belief in up-and-down movements1 back-and-forth changes1 without discoverable law1 rather than progressive onward movement4 ,on first thought it might seem that such lawless movement was rather in keeping with catastrophism than uniformitarianism4 ,but not so1 for the movements are supposed to be very slow4 ,again1 it might seem on first thought that gradual progressive change--in a word1 evolution--would be peculiarly in accord with uniformitarian ideas4 ,but again not so1 because this doctrine was1 above all1 a revulsion from the idea of supernatural purpose or design or goal contained in catastrophism4 ,uniformitarianism strongly inclined toward purposelessness1 because of its supposed identity with naturalism4 ,thus for a long time1 and still with many geologists1 the tendency is toward a belief in irregular movements without discoverable law1 toward instability of even the greatest features of the earth--viz41 sea basins and continental arches4 ,geology for them is a chronicle1 not a life history4 ,the contrary movement of thought may be said to have commenced with ,dana4 ,dana studied the earth as a unit1 as in some sense an organism developing by forces within itself4 ,the history of the earth is a life history moving progressively toward its completion4 ,the forces originating oceanic basins and continental arches still continue to deepen the former and enlarge the latter4 ,from this point of view1 oceanic basins and continental arches must have always been substantially in the same places4 ,oscillations there have been at all times and in all places1 but they affect mainly the outlines of these great features1 though sometimes affecting also the interior of continents and mid-sea bottoms1 but not sufficiently to change greatly their general form1 much less to interchange their places4 ,such is the doctrine of permanency of oceanic basins4 ,it is undoubtedly a true doctrine1 but must not be held in the rigid form characteristic of early thought4 ,the forces originating oceanic basins still continue to deepen them and to increase the size and height of continents1 but other forces are at work1 some antagonizing 7i4 e41 cutting down the continents and filling up the ocean beds71 and still others determined by causes we little understand1 by oscillations over wide areas1 greatly modifying and often obscuring the effects of the basin-making movements4 ,here1 then1 we have two kinds of crust movements3 the one fundamental and original1 determining the greatest features of the earth and moving steadily onward in the same direction1 ever increasing the features which it originates2 the other apparently lawless1 uncertain1 oscillating over very wide areas1 modifying and often obscuring the effects of the former4 ,the old uniformitarians saw only the effects of the latter1 because these are most conspicuous2 the new evolutionists add also the former and show its more fundamental character1 and thus introduce law and order into the previous chaos4 ,the former is the one movement which runs ever in the same direction through all geologic time4 ,the latter are the most common and conspicuous now and in all previous geologic time4 ,the former underlies and conditions and unifies the history2 the latter has practically determined all the details of the drama enacted here on the surface of the earth4 ,of the causes of the former we know something1 though yet imperfectly4 ,of the causes of the latter we yet know absolutely nothing4 ,we have not even begun to speculate profitably on the subject1 and hence the apparent lawlessness of the phenomena4 ,a fruitful theory of these must be left to the coming century4 ,mountain ,ranges4--,if oceanic basins and continental domes constitute the greatest features of the earth's face1 and are determined by the most fundamental movements of the crust1 surely next in importance come great mountain ranges4 ,these are the glory of our earth1 the culminating points of scenic beauty and grandeur4 ,but they are so only because they are also the culminating points1 the theaters of greatest activity1 of all geological forces1 both igneous and aqueous--igneous in their formation1 and aqueous both in the preparatory sedimentation and in the final erosive sculpturing into forms of beauty4 ,a theory of mountain ranges therefore lies at the bases of all theoretical geology4 ,to the pre-geologic mind mountains are the type of permanence and stability4 ,we still speak metaphorically of the everlasting hills4 ,but the first lesson taught by geology is that nothing is permanent2 everything is subject to continuous change by a process of evolution4 ,mountains are no exception4 ,we know them in embryo in the womb of the ocean4 ,we know the date of their birth2 we trace their growth1 their maturity1 their decay1 their death2 we even find in the folded structure of the rock1 as it were1 the fossil bones of extinct mountains4 ,in a word1 we are able now to trace the whole life history of mountains4 ,mountains1 therefore1 have always been a subject of deepest interest both to the popular and the scientific mind--an interest intensified by the splendors of mountain scenery and the perils of mountain exploration4 ,the study of mountains is therefore coeval with the study of geology4 ,as early as the beginning of the present century ,constant ,prevost observed that most characteristic structure of mountains--viz41 their folded strata--and inferred their formation by lateral pressure4 ,all subsequent writers have assumed lateral pressure as somehow concerned in the formation of mountains4 ,but that the whole height of mountains is due wholly to this cause was not generally admitted or even imagined until recently4 ,it was universally supposed that mountains were lifted by volcanic forces from beneath1 that the lifted strata broke along the top of the arch1 and melted matter was forced through between the parted strata1 pushing them back and folding them on each side4 ,and hence the typical form of mountain ranges is that of a granite axis along the crest and folded strata on each flank4 ,but attention has lately been drawn to the fact that some mountains1 as1 for example1 the ,appalachian1 the ,uintah1 etc41 consist of folded strata alone1 without any granite axis4 ,in such ranges it is plain that the whole height is due not to any force acting from below1 but to a lateral pressure crushing and folding the strata1 and a corresponding thickening and bulging of the same along the line of crushing4 ,then the idea was applied to all mountain ranges4 ,so soon as the prodigious amount of erosion suffered by mountains1 greater often than all that is left of them1 was fully appreciated1 it became evident that the granite axis so characteristic of mountains was not necessarily pushed up from beneath and protruded through the parted strata1 but was in many cases only a sub-mountain core of igneous matter slowly cooled into granite and exposed by subsequent erosion greatest along the crest4 ,next1 attention was drawn to the enormous thickness of the strata involved in the folded structure of mountains4 ,from this it became evident that the places of mountains before they were formed were marginal sea bottoms off the coasts of continents1 and receiving the whole washings of the continents4 ,thus the steps of the process of mountain formation were 7#a7 accumulation of sediments on offshore sea bottoms until by pari passu subsidence an enormous thickness was attained4 ,this is the preparation4 7#b7 ,a yielding along these lines to the increasing lateral pressure with folding and bulging of the strata along the line of yielding1 until the mountain emerges above the ocean and is added to the land as a coast range4 ,this is mountain birth4 7#c7 ,as soon as it appears above the water it is attacked by erosive agents4 ,at first the rising by continuance of the crushing and bulging is in excess of the erosion1 and the mountain grows4 ,this is mountain youth4 7#d7 ,then supply and waste balance one another1 and we have mountain maturity4 7#e7 ,then the erosive waste exceeds the growth by up-bulging1 and mountain decay begins4 7#f7 ,finally1 the erosive forces triumph and the mountain is clean swept away1 leaving only the complexly folded rocks of enormous thickness to mark the place of a former mountain4 ,this is mountain death4 ,such briefly is the life history of a mountain range4 ,in all this we have said nothing about causes4 ,in this connection there are two points of especial importance3 7#a7 ,why does the yielding to lateral pressure take place along lines of thick sediments8 7#b7 ,what is the cause of the lateral pressure8 #a4 ,cause of ,yielding to ,lateral ,pressure along ,lines of ,thick ,sediments4--,the earth was once very hot4 ,it is still very hot within1 and still very slowly cooling4 ,if sediments accumulate upon a sea bottom the interior heat will tend to rise so as to keep at the same distance from the surface4 ,if the sediments are very thick1 say five to ten miles1 their lower parts will be invaded by a temperature of not less than #ejj to #a1jjj ,f4 ,this temperature1 in the presence of water 7the included water of the sediments71 would be sufficient to produce softening or even fusion of the sediments and of the sea floor on which they rest4 ,this would establish a line of weakness1 and therefore a line of yielding1 crushing1 folding1 bulging1 and thus a mountain range4 ,in the first formation of a range1 therefore1 there would necessarily be a sub-mountain mass of fused or semifused matter which by the lateral crushing might be squeezed into cracks or fissures1 forming dikes4 ,but in any case the sub-mountain mass would cool into a granite core which by erosion may be exposed along the crest4 ,the explanation seems to be satisfactory4 #b4 ,cause of the ,lateral ,pressure4--,no question in geology has been more discussed than this1 and yet none is more difficult and the solution of which is more uncertain4 ,but the most obvious and as yet the most probable view is that it is the result of the secular contraction of the earth which has gone on throughout its whole history1 and is still going on4 ,it is admitted by all that in an earth cooling from primal incandescence there must come a time when the surface1 having become substantially cool and receiving heat also from the sun1 would no longer cool or contract1 but1 the interior being still incandescently hot1 would continue to cool and contract4 ,the interior1 therefore1 cooling and contracting faster than the exterior crust1 the latter following down the ever-shrinking nucleus1 would be thrust upon itself by a lateral or tangential pressure which would be simply irresistible4 ,if the earth crust were a hundred times more rigid than it is1 it still must yield to the enormous pressure4 ,it does yield along its weakest lines with crushing1 folding1 bulging1 and the formation of mountain ranges4 ,this is the barest outline of the so-called 8contractional theory of mountain formation40 ,very many objections have been brought against it1 some of them answerable and completely answered1 but the complete answer to others must be left to the next century4 ,perhaps the greatest objection of all is the apparent insufficiency of the cause to produce the enormous amount of folding found not only in existing mountains but in the folded structure of rocks where mountains no longer exist4 ,but it will be observed that ,i have thus far spoken only of contraction by loss of heat4 ,now1 not only has this cause been greatly underestimated by objectors1 but1 as shown by ,davison and especially by ,van ,hise1 there are many other and even greater causes of contraction4 ,it would be out of place to follow the discussion here4 ,the subject is very complex1 and not yet completely settled4 ,we have given the barest outline of the history of mountain ranges and of the theory of their formation as worked out in the last third of the present century1 and1 ,i might add1 chiefly by ,american geologists4 ,so true is this1 that by some it has been called the 8,american theory40 ,oscillatory ,movements of the ,earth's ,crust over ,wide ,areas4--,we have already spoken of these as modifying the effect of the ocean-basin-making movements1 and therefore now touch them very lightly4 ,these differ from the movements producing oceanic basins on the one hand and mountain ranges on the other1 by the fact that they are not continuously progressive in one direction1 but oscillatory--now up1 now down1 in the same place4 ,again1 they do not involve contraction of the whole earth1 but probably are always more or less local and compensatory--i4 e41 rising in one place is compensated by down-sinking in some other place4 ,nevertheless1 they often affect very wide areas--sometimes1 indeed1 of more than continental extent--as1 for example1 in the crust movements of the ,quaternary period or ice age4 ,these are by far the most frequent and most conspicuous of all crust movements--not only now1 but also in all geological times4 ,if ocean-basin-forming movements are the underlying cause and condition of the evolution of the earth1 these wide oscillations1 by increasing and decreasing the size and height of continents and changing greatly their contours1 have determined all the details of the drama enacted on the surface1 and were the determining cause of the varying rates and directions of the evolution of the organic kingdom4 ,these were the cause of the unconformities and the corresponding apparent wholesale changes in species so common in the rocky strata1 and which gave rise to the doctrine of catastrophism of the early geologists4 ,these also have so greatly modified the contours of the continents and their size by temporary increase or decrease that they have obscured the general law of the steady development of these1 and therefore their substantial permanency4 ,although the most important of all crust movements in determining the whole history of the earth1 and especially of the organic kingdom1 we shall dwell no further on them1 because no progress has yet been made in their explanation4 ,this1 too1 must be left to the workers of the twentieth century4 ,the ,principle of ,isostasy4--,the principle of static equilibrium as applied to earth forms was first brought forward 7as so many other valuable suggestions and anticipations in many departments of science7 by the wonderfully fertile mind of ,sir ,john ,herschel1 and used by him in the explanation of the sinking of river deltas under the increasing weight of accumulating sediments4,c ,it was afterward applied to continental masses by ,archbishop ,pratt,d and by the ,royal ,astronomer ,professor ,airy4,e ,but for its wide application as a principle in geology1 its clear definition1 and its embodiment in an appropriate name1 we are indebted to ,major ,dutton1 ,united ,states ,army4,f ,c ,philosophical ,magazine1 vol4 ii1 p4 #bab1 #ahcg2 ,quarterly ,journal of ,geological ,society1 vol4 ii1 p4 #edh1 #ahcg4 ,d ,philosophical ,magazine1 vol4 ix1 p4 #bca1 and vol4 x1 p4 #bdj1 #ahee4 ,e ,philosophical ,trans41 #ahee1 p4 #aja4 ,f ,philosophical ,society of ,washington1 #ahib4 ,the principle may be briefly stated as follows3 ,a globe so large as the earth1 under the influence of its own gravity1 must behave like a very stiffly viscous body--that is1 the general form of the earth and its greatest inequalities must be in substantial static equilibrium4 ,for example1 the general form of the earth is oblate spheroid1 because that is the only form of equilibrium of a rotating body4 ,rotation determines a distribution of gravity with latitude which brings about this form4 ,with any other form the earth would be in a state of strain to which it must slowly yield1 and finally relieve itself by becoming oblate4 ,if the rotation stopped1 the earth would accommodate itself to the new distribution of gravity and become spherical4 ,the same is true of the large inequalities of surface4 ,oceanic basins and continental arches must be in static equilibrium or they could not sustain themselves4 ,in order to be in equilibrium the sub-oceanic material must be as much more dense than the continental and sub-continental material as the ocean bottoms are lower than the continental surfaces4 ,such static equilibrium1 by difference of density1 is completely explained by the mode of formation of oceanic basins already given4 ,so also plateaus and great mountain ranges are at least partly sustained by gravitative equilibrium1 but partly also by earth rigidity4 ,it is only the smaller inequalities1 such as ridges1 peaks1 valleys1 etc41 that are sustained by earth rigidity alone4 ,these conclusions are not reached by physical reasonings alone1 but are also confirmed by experimental investigations4 ,for example1 a plumb line on the plains of ,india is deflected indeed toward the ,himalayas1 as it ought to be1 but much less than it would be if the mountain and sub-mountain mass were not less dense and the sub-oceanic material more dense than the average4,g ,again1 gravitative determinations by pendulum oscillations1 undertaken by the ,united ,states along a line from the ,atlantic shore to ,salt ,lake ,city1 show that the largest inequalities1 such as the ,appalachian bulge1 the ,mississippi-basin hollow1 and the ,rocky ,mountain bulge1 are in gravitative equilibrium--i4 e41 the mountain and sub-mountain material is as much lighter as the mountain region is higher than the ,mississippi-basin region4 ,g ,pratt1 ,philosophical ,magazine1 vol4 ix1 p4 #bca1 #ahee2 vol4 x1 p4 #cdj1 #ahee2 vol4 xvi1 p4 #dja1 #aheh4 ,now1 so sensitive is the earth to changes of gravity that1 given time enough1 it responds to increase or decrease of pressure over large areas by corresponding subsidence or elevation4 ,hence1 all places where great accumulations of sediment are going on are sinking under the increased weight1 and1 contrarily1 all places where excessive erosion is going on1 as1 for example1 on high plateaus and great mountain ranges1 are rising by relief of pressure4 ,this principle of isostasy is undoubtedly a valuable one1 which must be borne in mind in all our reasonings on crust movements1 although its importance has been exaggerated by some enthusiastic supporters4 ,its greatest importance is not as a cause initiating crust movements or determining the features of the earth1 but rather as conditioning and modifying the results produced by other causes4 ,the idea belongs wholly to the latter half of the present century4 ,commencing about #ahdj1 it has grown in clearness and importance to the present time4 ,to be concluded4 ,,the ,,applications ,,of ,,explosives4 ,,by ,,charles ,e4 ,,munroe1 ,,professor ,,of ,,chemistry1 ,,columbian ,,university4 ,concluded4 ,illustration3 ,,gun ,,cotton ,,shell ,,after ,,impact4 ,it is apparent that the range of even the most highly perfected torpedo is comparatively short1 while their accuracy of travel is low4 ,besides1 their propelling1 controlling1 and discharging mechanisms are complicated1 delicate1 and easily deranged1 they are very expensive1 and not only the explosive chamber but the entire system is destroyed in use4 ,the superiority of gunpowder guns as a means of throwing projectiles to great distances with accuracy is well known1 and their capacity for safely and efficiently projecting shells filled with gunpowder has long been demonstrated4 ,it was obvious that as the superior destructive power of dynamite1 gun cotton1 and other high explosives became known and their commercial manufacture was assured1 attempts would be made to employ them as bursting charges for shells4 ,experiments to demonstrate how this might be done and what effects could be expected were begun more than forty years ago1 and have been continued in many different places from time to time ever since2 but while it has proved that small charges might be fired with low velocities and pressures in ordinary shell1 and large charges in specially constructed shell or in specially prepared forms of charge1 with comparative safety so far as the premature explosion of the explosive charge itself is concerned1 yet these bodies are so sensitive to the shock resulting from the discharge of the propellant1 the heat generated by its combustion1 and that arising from friction in the 8set-back0 of the shell charge and the rotation imparted by the rifling1 that they can not be safely fired from modern high-power guns under service conditions1 particularly as these explosives all require that the shell shall be fitted with a detonator in order that the charge may be fully exploded4 ,the most promising results with explosives of this class have been obtained with compressed wet gun cotton1 which has been packed directly in the shell in rigid blocks completely filling the shell cavity1 or cut in cubes and cemented in the cavity with carnauba wax1 for shell filled in the former manner1 but unfused1 were repeatedly fired1 in #ahhg and #ahhh1 at ,newport1 ,r4 ,i41 from #bd-pounder ,dahlgren howitzers and #bj-pounder muzzle-loading rifles with service charges of powder1 and though they were fired point blank into the masonry escarpment of the old fort on ,rose ,island1 but fifty yards distant from the muzzle1 so that the shells were broken up or distorted and the gun cotton in them subjected to a powerful compression1 yet not only was there no premature explosion1 but none of the shell exploded by impact4 ,about the same time fused shell containing cemented gun cotton were fired in ,germany1 with an initial velocity of fourteen hundred feet per second1 and they passed completely through four inches and three quarters of compound armor1 backed with twenty-four inches of oak1 and burst inside the bombproof1 while in #ahig fused armor-piercing shells containing wet gun cotton were fired from the six-inch quick-firing gun1 with a muzzle velocity of nearly nineteen hundred feet per second1 which completely perforated three inches of steel and burst behind the plate4 ,encouraged by these results1 this system was adopted by our army officials1 but1 on trial in larger calibers at ,sandy ,hook1 it gave rise to premature explosions1 and the tale of disaster reached its climax on ,april #bi1 #ahii1 when ,captain ,stuart1 of the ,ordnance ,corps1 was superintending the loading of a twelve-inch torpedo shell with wet gun cotton by compressing it into the shell1 for an explosion resulted which killed four men instantly and fatally wounded two others1 ,captain ,stuart being one of them4 ,illustration3 ,,sims-,,dudley ,,pneumatic ,,gun1 ,,limbered ,,up4 7,courtesy of the ,scientific ,american47 ,illustration3 ,,sims-,,dudley ,,pneumatic ,,gun1 ,,in ,,battery4 7,courtesy of the ,scientific ,american47 ,illustration3 ,,tyndall',s ,,bronze ,,bell-,,mouthed ,,gun4 ,the history of the attempts made to use nitroglycerin1 dynamite1 explosive gelatin1 and explosives of this class as bursting charges for shell fired from service guns is even less satisfactory than that given for gun cotton4 ,it is not surprising1 therefore1 that inventors should have proposed catapults1 slings1 rotary wheels1 and other means for projecting these powerful agents into the enemy's midst1 but the ,mefford air gun1 as mounted on the ,united ,states steamship ,vesuvius1 and the ,sims-,dudley gun1 in which a reduced charge of powder is fired in a chamber exterior to the gun proper1 were deemed to possess sufficient merit to warrant their trial in the field4 ,these devices were employed in the recent war with ,spain1 the pneumatic guns on the ,vesuvius being used to throw shells containing three hundred pounds of gun cotton1 while the ,sims-,dudley guns were used on land to throw small charges of dynamite or explosive gelatin2 but1 beyond frightening the enemy by the startling character of their reports1 these superficial charges produced no serious effect4 ,illustration3 ,,mirror ,,or ,,reflector ,,in ,,which ,,to ,,fire ,,gun ,,cotton4 ,there is a widespread misapprehension in regard to the devastating effect of these high explosives1 for when unconfined the effect even of large charges of them upon structures is comparatively slight4 ,at the ,naval ,ordnance ,proving ,ground1 so long ago as #ahhd1 repeated charges of dynamite1 varying from five pounds to one hundred pounds in weight1 were detonated on the face of a vertical target consisting of eleven one-inch wrought-iron plates bolted to a twenty-inch oak backing1 until #ddj pounds of dynamite had been so detonated in contact with it1 and yet the target remained practically uninjured2 while at ,braamfontein the accidental explosion of fifty-five tons of blasting gelatin1 which was stored in railway vans1 excavated but #cj1jjj tons of soft earth4 ,this last may seem a terrible effect1 but the amount of explosive involved was enormous and the material one of the most energetic that we possess1 while if we compare it with the action of explosives when confined its effect becomes quite moderate4 ,thus at ,fort ,lee1 on the ,hudson1 but two tons of dynamite placed in a chamber in the rock and tamped brought down #ajj1jjj tons of the rock2 at ,lamberis1 ,wales1 two tons and a half of gelatin dynamite similarly placed threw out #ahj1jjj tons of rock2 and at the ,talcen ,mawr1 in ,wales1 seven tons of gunpowder1 placed in two chambers in the rock1 dislodged from #abe1jjj to #bjj1jjj tons of rock4 ,we might cite many such examples1 but on comparing these we find that the gunpowder confined in the interior at the ,talcen ,mawr was over forty-two times as efficient as the explosive gelatin on the surface at ,braamfontein1 while the dynamite at ,fort ,lee was over ninety times as destructive4 ,illustration3 ,,railroad ,,torpedoes ,,fastened ,,on ,,rail4 ,illustration3 ,,steel ,,disks ,,upon ,,which ,,gun ,,cotton ,,has ,,been ,,detonated ,,to ,,test ,,their ,,resistance ,,to ,,shock4 ,midvale steel disks after second fire4 ,considerations similar to these led me1 in #ahhe1;,h to point out that high explosives for use in shells must be strongly confined1 and in the attack on armored ships they should be fired in projectiles that can 8either penetrate the armor partially and explode in place or pierce it completely and burst inside the ship0 to secure the greatest efficiency4 ,this requires that the projectiles shall be fired at higher velocities than can be imparted to them by guns of the kind just described1 and which can only be realized at present in modern breech-loading rifles4 ,although experience has shown the futility of all our efforts to use gun cotton and nitroglycerin explosives in this manner1 it has been proved that the nitro-substitution explosives can be employed with safety and effect4 ,h ,van ,nostrand's ,engineering ,magazine1 vol4 xxxii1 pp4 #a-i1 #ahhe4 ,the nitro-substitution explosives are made from nitrobenzenes1 nitrotoluenes1 nitronaphthalenes1 nitrophenols1 and bodies of a similar character1 and one of them1 called joveite1 has given excellent results in this country4 ,after having demonstrated that the destructive effect of joveite was greater than that of gunpowder1 smokeless powder1 or gun cotton1 and1 by repeated trials under severe conditions1 that service shell loaded with it could be fired from service guns under service conditions with safety1 on ,november #c1 #ahig1 the naval officials at ,indian ,head fired a fused ten-inch ,carpenter armor-piercing projectile containing #h4be pounds of joveite1 with a velocity of #a1ifj foot-seconds1 at a ,harveyized nickel-steel plate taken from the armor for the ,united ,states steamship ,kentucky4 ,the shell passed completely through the armor plate1 where it was #ad4e inches in thickness1 and burst immediately behind the plate4 ,in a second round an unfused ten-inch ,midvale semi-armor-piercing shell containing twenty-eight pounds of joveite was fired with a velocity of #a1ibe foot-seconds at the same plate where it was sixteen inches thick4 ,the shell penetrated to a depth of twelve inches1 and the heat produced by the upsetting of the shell was so great as to explode the joveite1 which broke the plate and burst the shell with tremendous violence4 ,in fact1 the explosion was so very severe that the heavy base plug of the shell was sheared longitudinally1 an effect never observed before with any explosive fired at the proving ground4 ,illustration3 ,,shooting ,,an ,,oil ,,well ,,with ,,nitroglycerin4 ,notwithstanding that no accident occurred in any of the many firings1 that the stability and safety of the explosive are assured1 and that the explosion has been effected with a well-known and long-used form of fuse1 no provision has yet been made to supply the service with charges for its costly armor-piercing projectiles4 ,happily1 the force resident in explosives may be applied to the saving as well as to the destruction of human life1 advantage having long since been taken of the penetrating power of the report from the discharge of a gun to employ them as signals of distress at sea or as warnings in foggy weather4 ,the ,english ,lighthouse ,board1 under ,professor ,tyndall's guidance1 some years ago sought to find the form of gun best suited to this purpose1 and their experiments led them at first to a bronze gun with a bell-shaped mouth4 ,subsequently1 their attention being called to the sharpness and carrying power of the report from detonating gun cotton1 an apparatus was devised in which the gun cotton was detonated in the focus of a parabolic mirror4 ,the best results1 however1 were attained with rockets carrying gun cotton charges arranged to be exploded in mid air4 ,illustration3 ,,safe ,,to ,,be ,,opened ,,by ,,detonation ,,of ,,nitroglycerin4 ,before the charge was fired4 ,illustration3 ,,after ,,firing ,,charge4 ,guns have also been arranged for projecting life-lines between stranded ships and the adjacent shore1 and are now employed on a smaller scale for conveying lines to the upper stories of our monumental buildings when they are on fire4 ,by means of guns or rockets1 projectiles filled with oil may be cast to considerable distances from a vessel in a raging sea1 so that the oil1 as it diffuses1 may still the waters in her course2 while sounding-lines may be thrown far in advance of a vessel while she is still under way1 and the soundings taken without her laying-to4 ,inclosed in shallow tin boxes1 which are fixed by lead strips to the top of the rail1 explosives are used as torpedoes in the railroad service to give warning1 by the report of their explosion as an engine runs over them1 that another train is on the same track and but a short distance ahead1 and by this means collisions in fogs or on curves are frequently prevented4 ,explosives find applications in many industries4 ,the farmer uses them in breaking bowlders1 grubbing stumps and felling trees1 in shaking the soil to fit it for deep-soil cultivation1 and1 in the wine-growing districts1 to free it from phylloxera1 while the farmer's friend has tried by this means1 in times of drought1 to shake the nerves of ,jove and to divert the hailstorm from its course4 ,illustration3 ,,safe ,,perforated ,,by ,,hollow ,,dynamite ,,cartridge4 ,the iron founder uses them in breaking up large castings4 ,the iron smelter employs them to clear out obstructions in blast furnaces while the latter are still in operation1 the dynamite1 protected by a clay envelope1 being inserted in the red-hot mass which clogs the furnace4 ,the author has proposed to use the detonating explosives for testing the integrity of large masses of metals and their resistance to shock4 ,dynamite has been employed in fishing1 since submarine explosions of it will kill or stun fish for a long distance about the charge4 ,this method of fishing1 which threatened to deplete the waters1 has very properly been prohibited by law1 but guns are employed for projecting harpoons in the whale fishery1 and have reduced very much the danger attending this extra-hazardous occupation4 ,nitroglycerin1 inclosed in tin cans three to five inches in diameter and five to twenty-five feet in length1 is used for shooting oil wells to free them from the solid paraffins with which they become choked1 or to shake the oil-bearing sandstone so as to produce a greater yield4 ,in this work the loaded can1 having a detonating cap attached to its top1 is lowered by a wire to the bottom of the well1 which is often fifteen hundred feet or more in depth4 ,a perforated weight is then strung on the wire1 and when the torpedo is in place the weight is allowed to fall1 strike the cap1 and explode the charge4 ,dynamite has been used to knock out the blocking from the ways when launching ships4 ,fired on an iron plate placed on the top of a pile and covered with a tamping of earth or clay1 it has successfully and economically replaced the pile driver4 ,it has been found efficient in excavating holes in which to plant telegraph and telephone poles2 in driving water out of quicksands in which foundations are to be laid or shafts to be driven2 in slaughtering cattle2 in breaking down ice dams to prevent inundations2 in blowing up buildings to prevent the spread of conflagrations2 in razing unsafe walls of burned buildings2 in destroying wrecks which endanger navigation1 and even in freeing vessels which are hard aground on shoals4 ,illustration3 ,,hollow ,,dynamite ,,cartridge2 ,,elevation4 ,an especially notable instance was in the blasting out of the dbris in the river at ,johnstown after the frightful flood that occurred there1 which formed an enormous dam above the bridge and threatened its existence1 and which was successfully and expeditiously removed by blasting after all other means had been tried in vain4 ,illustration3 ,,hollow ,,dynamite ,,cartridge4 ,view from below4 ,in fact1 the amount of explosives consumed in the industries is so great that the quantity employed for military purposes sinks into insignificance4 ,yet we have failed to refer to those industries--quarrying and mining1 and the engineering operations--in which they are most extensively and commonly used1 being employed so largely in mining alone that it is an almost daily occurrence for blasts containing twenty1 thirty1 and even fifty thousand pounds of explosives to be used in a single charge2 and the system of large blasts has even become common in hard-rock excavations1 such as quarries and railroad cuttings1 while in the blast at the blowing up of ,flood ,rock1 in ,new ,york ,harbor1 ,october #aj1 #ahhe1 over one hundred and forty-one tons of rack-a-rock1 dynamite1 and mercury fulminate were used in a single shot4 ,nor have ,i alluded to the use of explosives by the anarchists in their dastardly outrages1 through which the safety of the old and young1 feeble and strong1 the innocent and the offending1 are alike endangered2 but ,i will touch briefly upon the applications of these powerful agents in the too-much cultivated industry of safe-robbing1 since ,i was called upon some years ago to demonstrate1 before a ,government commission1 how safes might be successfully attacked either in a burglarious way or by a mob with explosives1 meaning by the burglarious operation that the safe should be made accessible within twenty-four hours with means such as a party of men could smuggle into a bank and which might be used without attracting attention or doing material damage to the building1 and by 8mob violence10 meaning that the vaults are supposed to be in the hands of a mob which has ample time and quantities of explosives at command1 and does not care how much noise is made or destruction is wrought1 provided the treasure is secured4 ,illustration3 ,,firing ,,on ,,iron ,,disk1 ,,resting ,,on ,,lead ,,disk1 ,,in ,,testing ,,the ,,efficiency ,,of ,,gun ,,cotton4 ,illustration3 ,,gun ,,cotton ,,disk4 ,with indented inscription1 and iron plate upon which the indented inscription has been reproduced4 ,in the experiments made in a burglarious way1 among others1 a three-thousand-dollar square safe of the most approved construction was attacked by inserting in the crevice about the locked door four and eight tenths ounces of nitroglycerin1 and in eight minutes after the operation of loading was begun the charge was fired1 with the result that the whole of the jamb below the door was blown out and a hole made in the door of sufficient size to admit the hand and arm1 while the doors and divisions of the interior compartments were completely shattered4 ,on repeating the operation with four ounces and a quarter of forcite dynamite the door was completely torn off4 ,among experiments made to demonstrate the resistance of structures to attack by a mob was one upon a safe twenty-nine inches cube1 with walls four inches and three quarters thick1 made up of plates of iron and steel1 which were re-enforced on each edge so as to make it highly resisting1 yet when a hollow charge of dynamite nine pounds and a half in weight and untamped was detonated on it a hole three inches in diameter was blown clear through the wall1 though a solid cartridge of the same weight and of the same material produced no material effect4 ,the hollow cartridge was made by tying the sticks of dynamite around a tin can1 the open mouth of the latter being placed downward1 and ,i was led to construct such hollow cartridge for use where a penetrating effect is desired by the following observations3 ,illustration3 ,,holes ,,produced ,,in ,,iron ,,plates ,,by ,,bored ,,gun ,,cotton4 ,in molding the gun cotton at the torpedo station1 as stated above1 a vertical hole was formed in each cylinder or block in which to insert the detonator1 and in the final press a steel die was laid upon the cake so that an inscription in letters and figures was forced upon it4 ,this inscription was indented in the cylinders and was raised upon the surfaces of the blocks4 ,when the gun cotton was fired untamped1 in testing it1 the cylinder or block was usually placed with the inscribed face resting on a polished iron plate or iron disk1 and after firing1 if the gun cotton had detonated it was invariably found that not only was a vortex-like cavity produced below the detonator1 but that the inscription on the gun cotton was reproduced on the iron plate1 and1 what was most singular1 when the inscription was indented in the gun cotton it was indented in the iron plate1 and when the inscription was raised on the surface of the gun cotton it was reproduced raised on the surface of the iron plate4 ,in experimentally investigating this phenomenon ,i eventually soaked several cylinders in water1 so that ,i could bore them without danger1 and then bored holes of various diameters and depths in them1 until in the last instance ,i bored a vertical hole an inch and three quarters in diameter completely through the cylinder4 ,these wet cylinders were each placed on a similar iron plate1 a similar dry disk was placed on each as a primer1 and they were successively fired1 when it was found that the deeper and wider the hole in the gun cotton the deeper and wider were the holes produced in the iron plate1 until when the completely perforated gun cotton cylinder1 from which at least half of the weight of explosive had been removed by the boring1 was fired1 the iron plate was found to be completely perforated4 ,advantage was taken of this action of the rapidly moving molecules to produce some beautiful effects by interposing laces1 coins1 leaves from the trees1 and stencils with various devices cut in them between the base of the gun cotton and the iron plate1 for after the detonation of the gun cotton the objects were found to be reproduced upon the iron with the utmost fidelity and in their most delicate parts1 and the impressions were raised upon the iron as the objects had been before the explosion4 ,in one instance a disk of gun cotton was placed in a tin which had been used in canning peas4 ,the disk was covered with water so as to be completely immersed in it1 and a second dry disk1 with which to fire it1 was placed upon the wet one4 ,the face of the can resting in contact with the iron plate was originally the top of the can1 through which the vegetable had been introduced1 and it was consequently grooved where the cover was soldered on1 and it also had an irregular drop of solder over the vent hole1 the solder being raised1 therefore1 above the general level of the face4 ,on firing1 the can was completely volatilized or comminuted as usual1 but the face of the can was reproduced in every feature and with the original values of the surface1 the groove being indented in the iron1 and the solder being raised above the rest of the impression4 ,illustration3 ,,maple ,,leaf ,,reproduced ,,on ,,iron ,,plate4 ,in another instance a disk of gun cotton three inches in diameter was placed in a tin can five inches in diameter1 and the can1 which had a smooth bottom1 placed on the face of an iron ,i-beam4 ,the can was filled with water so as to just cover the gun cotton1 a second dry gun cotton disk was placed on the wet disk of a primer1 both being in constant contact with one side of the can1 and the system detonated4 ,as a result the can and water disappeared and the face of the beam was torn off1 but on recovering the pieces and matching them it was found that not only was the smooth base of the gun cotton and the face of the can reproduced in the iron1 but in the space between the gun cotton and the side of the can1 occupied by the water1 three distinct sets of waves were produced1 having an increasing amplitude from the center proceeding outward4 ,it is evident that many curious effects can be produced with explosive substances1 and ,i do not doubt that useful applications will be found through a close study of the phenomena attending them4 ,a ,,year',s ,,progress ,,in ,,the ,,klondike4 ,,by ,,prof4 ,,angelo ,,heilprin4 ,,note4--,acknowledgment is here made to ,mr4 ,e4 ,a4 ,hegg for the use of most of the photographs accompanying this article4 ,two years ago the difficulties of reaching the ,klondike were thought to be of such a nature as to preclude the probability or even possibility of ,dawson ever becoming a place of permanent habitation4 ,the trials of the ,chilkoot and ,white ,passes were exploited in magazine and journal from one end of the continent almost to the other1 and the wrecks of humanity1 and particularly of the thousands of beasts that lay scattered along the trail--the tribute to the ,sahara turned to shame--were appealed to as grim testimony of the almost insuperable barrier which separated man from the object of his search4 ,to-day1 and since ,july #fth of the past year 7#ahii71 a steam railway traverses the full forty-two miles of the ,white ,pass trail1 and the traveler enjoys the beauties of the subarctic landscape in much the way that he enjoys the trip through the ,alleghany ,mountains in the ,east1 or of the prairies in the ,west4 ,deposited at ,bennett1 on ,lake ,bennett1 at virtually the head of navigation of the mighty ,yukon ,river 7otherwise known as the ,lewes71 he engages passage on one of several commodious steamers heading down stream or northward1 and with one change--at the ,miles ,caon and ,white ,horse ,rapids1 where there is a five-mile portage--reaches ,dawson after a voyage1 delightful in its change of scene and novelty of experience1 of from four to six days4 ,it is a fact1 therefore1 that with a strict timing of departures the traveler from ,new ,york may make the journey to ,dawson in summer time in twelve days1 and exceptionally even in less2 and the journey has indeed been made in eleven days and a half4 ,such is the change which the effort of less than two years has accomplished4 ,illustration3 ,,bartlett ,,brothers' ,,pack ,,train1 ,,dawson4 ,the ,dawson of #ahii is no longer the ,dawson of #ahih1 and much less that of the year previous4 ,the thousands of bateaux that were formerly lined up against the river front1 in rows six deep and more1 and comprising all manner of craft from the small canoe to sliced sections of scows1 have mostly disappeared1 and in their place we now find the graceful and ungraceful forms of varying types of steamboat4 ,it is no uncommon thing to find five or more of these larger craft tied up at one time to the river front1 and the amplitude and majesty of the ,mississippi boats gain but little in a comparison with some of the larger craft of the ,yukon ,river4 ,overhung signs call attention to the flying queens of the river1 the ,bonanza ,king1 ,canadian1 and ,sibyl1 and thousands are offered upon the result of the race to the ,white ,horse ,rapids4 ,so here1 as in the olden days of the ,mississippi1 the struggle for supremacy has led to the opening of the throttle and to the scraping of the fire box4 ,upward of a hundred arrivals from down the river were registered at ,dawson during the season of open water of #ahii4 ,dawson has been further put into comparatively close touch with the outer world by the entry of the telegraph1 and since the early days of ,october messages have been freely going to the seaboard at ,skaguay4 ,it is true that a cableless stretch of hundreds of miles still separates this town from the nearest port of importance on the continent1 but doubtless before very long even this blank in the line of communication will have been supplied4 ,it may be first by means of wireless telegraphy1 as it is mooted that the ,canadian ,government looks with favor upon experimentation with the ,marconi system2 or1 what is more likely1 the desired end will be brought about by the laying of a continuous wire4 ,the extraordinary rapidity with which the five hundred to six hundred miles of land wire were laid--five and seven miles per day--speaks well for the morale of the ,canadian sapper and engineering service4 ,in its commercial and residential aspects the city has made vast progress4 ,the days of ingulfing mires are virtually over1 and from one end of the town almost to the other1 one may safely tread the streets on secure board sidewalks4 ,not alone the main street is furnished in this way1 but also several of the streets running parallel with it1 and parts of streets that run across at right angles4 ,a wise enactment1 not perhaps absolutely just in its details1 has swept off the shacks and booths from the river side of the front street1 and one now enjoys an almost uninterrupted view of the opposing bank of the stream1 already marred by giant advertising letters announcing bargain sales in merchandise1 and directing to particular shops in the metropolis of the ,north4 ,illustration3 ,,dawson',s ,,great ,,fire1 ,,april #bf1 #ahii4 ,the shops of ,dawson have risen to the dignity of establishments having corrugated-iron covers1 plate-glass fronts1 and redwood shelves and counters4 ,following closely upon the pioneer constructions--department stores1 they might be classed--of the ,alaska ,commercial ,company are the depots of the ,north ,american ,trading and ,transportation ,company1 the ,alaska ,exploration ,company1 ,ames ,mercantile ,company1 and the ,yukoner ,company1 several with retaining warehouses placed beyond the reach of a city fire and with dimensions that would lend dignity to locations of much larger size than the emporium of the ,north4 ,many of the smaller shops also carry a varied line of goods1 but others are restricted to a specialty1 and their wares are now offered at rates which are in the main only reasonably in advance of the 8high0 rates of the ,western coast towns4 ,there are exceptions to this rule1 however1 especially where skilled local labor is called into requisition in a manufacture4 ,thus fourteen dollars for a pair of trousers made to order strikes the imagination rather forcibly1 when a first-grade quality of boot or shoe can be obtained for five dollars and six dollars4 ,really good meals may be procured almost everywhere for from a dollar to a dollar and a half1 and the best hotels supply twenty-one meals for twenty-five dollars1 and these do not absolutely reject delicacies of one kind or another4 ,cow's milk can now be had as a regular adjunct to coffee1 since the milcher is no longer a stranger to the country4 ,the price of rooms in the hotels still remains high--from four to six dollars per night1 without meals--but the character of these rooms has materially improved1 even though they would be considered with us decidedly third rate4 ,in a few establishments of a more private character1 lodging for a certain amount of permanency may be had for fifteen dollars the week1 or1 where the condition of the surroundings is not closely scanned1 for even less4 ,a new and capacious hotel1 the ,hotel ,metropole1 reared from the wealth of the 8,king of the ,klondike0--,alexander ,mac,donald--has recently been added to those of less pretentious design which served the community last year4 ,a heavy cut in rates is promised4 ,the conflagration of ,april #bfth1 through which perhaps one quarter of the business portion of ,dawson was burned to the ground1 has given opportunity for the introduction of improvements1 and the most important of these is that which has resulted in the removal of houses and resorts of evil repute from the heart of the city and consigned them and their inmates to a localized area or 8tenderloin0 district4 ,women of refinement may now parade the streets without having their finer sensibilities offended through the public intrusion of the immorals of the lower world4 ,the tone of the public places of amusement1 the theaters and dance houses1 has also been in a measure elevated1 even if far from sufficiently so1 and some real talent occasionally sparkles behind the footlights4 ,a new 8opera house10 with a seating capacity of perhaps seven hundred or eight hundred1 but advertised for two thousand1 was thrown open to the public last ,august1 after a construction1 it is claimed1 of only two weeks4 ,its season's rpertoire included1 among other plays1 ,michael ,strogoff and ,camille1 both of which1 even in their crudest type of presentation1 felt well of the public pulse4 ,school education plays as yet little part in the morals of the ,dawsonites4 ,the greed of fortune has left scant time for the consideration of educational matters1 and what little of school training is imparted to the youth of tender years comes largely in the shape of a beneficence from private hands4 ,if the issuance of newspapers be properly classed as belonging to education1 then ,dawson has made material advances during the past year1 for1 in addition to the three weeklies which more than supplied all the information that was needed to the inhabitants of #ahih1 it has now a daily 7the ,dawson ,daily ,news7 and a ,sunday paper 7,the ,gleaner71 while the pioneer ,nugget has been converted into a semi-weekly4 ,some of these journals1 which in typographical detail stand fully equal to many of the foremost journals of the ,united ,states1 are devoted largely to a vilification of the ,yukon government1 and secondarily to the nonpartisan interests of the community4 ,but little space is given over to murders and daring deeds of robbery1 since occurrences of this kind1 thanks to the continued vigilance and efficiency of the ,northwest ,mounted ,police1 are all but unknown1 and the safety of possessions is as well established as that of the person4 ,the shooting of an actress by her lover1 followed by the suicide of the murderer1 furnished the sensation for the year2 but previous suicides1 also in the ranks of the theatrical profession1 had already paved a way to this form of excitement4 ,two or more lines of telephone unite ,dawson with the nearer mining region1 and a partial city service has also been established4 ,the city remains as yet without an electric-light plant1 but it is by no means unlikely that before the present season has passed the darkness of the winter night will be lifted by the arc light1 and much of the oppressiveness of the closed season thereby removed4 ,after two winters of experience1 the ,dawsonites continue to think lightly of the 8terrors0 of the cold1 and to but few apparently is the extreme of temperature a deterrent to exercise4 ,sleighing continues to be a pastime1 with the temperature marking #dj to #ej below zero1 but only with this season does it enter into the category of a fashionable recreation4 ,hitherto dog-sled teams performed the full service of winter travel1 and divided with skating and 8ski0-ing the winter exercise2 but this year the snow causeways will be lively with the jingling of cutter bells and the rapid pacing of the horse4 ,one can not help remarking the vast improvement in the general tone of ,dawson society1 if by that term we may include all that constitutes the population of the city4 ,more particularly is this marked in the case of women1 among whom it is no longer a rarity to meet with strict refinement and culture4 ,musical soires register among the events of the week1 and literary recitals are not exceptional4 ,the male portion of the population has also undergone a refining process through the departure of hundreds or even thousands of 8bums10 who only too late for their comfort discovered that their presence was neither a necessity to ,dawson nor a mainspring to the extraction of gold from the soil4 ,by their departure the city has probably suffered a decrease in its population of some three thousand to four thousand1 but has more than received compensation in that stability of purpose which such elimination always insures4 ,as a city of about thirteen thousand inhabitants1 it enters upon its history in the year #aijj with principles cast largely upon a pure business basis1 and with a future that is bound in with the product of the soil4 ,illustration3 ,,midnight ,,view ,,of ,,dawson1 ,,june #ba1 #ahii4 ,the gold resource of the ,klondike region seems fully to sustain the anticipations which had been put forth touching the product of #ahii4 ,the better-known creeks1 such as the ,bonanza1 ,eldorado1 and ,hunker1 have kept well up with their record of the previous year1 and give indications of continuing as important factors in the calculation of output for some time to come in the future4 ,the introduction of a certain amount of mining machinery1 such as steam drills1 thawers1 and powerful pumps--applied more particularly to the deposits of the benches and hillsides--coupled with a more definite method of conducting extensive operations on a comparatively economic basis1 has given fresh impetus to the work of mine holders1 and made largely remunerative that which had promised to be little profitable4 ,a more just administration of the mining laws has helped to a considerate feeling among the miners1 and reduced very materially the grievances which formerly fell with thick force upon the offices of the ,recorder and ,gold ,commissioner4 ,access is now easily had to the records of claims1 and individual 8cases0 receive an early and proper hearing4 ,electric plants have been introduced on some of the claims1 so that there need be no interruption in work for the full twenty-four hours of the day4 ,apart from the discovery of rich pay-dirt on creeks and gulches1 such as ,last ,chance 7tributary to ,hunker71 ,gold ,bottom 7tributary to ,sulphur71 and ,american1 ,magnet1 and ,adams 7tributary to the ,bonanza71 concerning which much skepticism was expressed last year1 the filling in of assumed barren gaps in the general line of creeks has done much to inspire the feeling that more of the broad area is gold-bearing than the first surveys and explorations 8indicated0--a feeling to which particular confidence has been given by the surprising wealth which has been washed out from the hillsides4 ,for a nearly continuous four miles of the 8left limit0 of the ,bonanza1 extending northward from ,gold ,hill at the confluence of the ,eldorado to the 8forties below discovery10 the crests of the hills at an elevation of some one hundred and eighty to two hundred feet above the creek are laid bare with the work of the shovel1 pick1 and drill1 and the same or a corresponding stratigraphical height is pierced elsewhere along the stream4 ,gold ,hill 7and ,french ,hill1 on the ,eldorado side71 ,skookum1 ,adams1 ,magnet1 and ,american ,hills1 and ,monte ,cristo1 all have their summits capped by what is now familiarly known as the 8white layer0--a feature in the landscape as interesting to the casual tourist as the construction is important to the more fortunate claim holders who are located here4 ,up to this time no quartz locations determined to be of positive value have been located1 although a goodly number of 8quartz reefs10 8lodes10 and kidney masses have been staked1 restaked1 and recorded4 ,some of these have shown gold in small quantity1 but in by far the greater number of cases they have proved absolutely barren1 and are without promise of yielding anything4 ,the anticipation of many1 naturally fostered by individual wish and hope1 that an originating or 8mother0 lode must be present and found somewhere rests without any geological support so far as evidence has been accumulated up to the present time1 and there is nothing that looks like a promise to the geological eye4 ,at the same time1 it would be premature to assert that such a reef or series of reefs may not be discovered in the future4 ,the hill crests that have furnished so much of the white material of the high benches of the ,bonanza and the ,eldorado may perhaps be searched with best advantage in this direction1 and thence extended to the water parting which surrounds or incloses the upper waters of ,gay ,gulch4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,columbian ,,and ,,the ,,eldorado ,,starting ,,from ,,dawson1 ,,july #d1 #ahii1 ,,on ,a ,,race ,,to ,,white ,,horse ,,rapids4 ,no estimate1 naturally1 can yet be put to the total gold supply of the ,klondike region1 but to inquiry that is frequently put regarding the future existence of ,dawson as an energetic mining camp one can unhesitatingly answer that this existence is assured for many years to come1 and there are indications that point to a permanence independent of the simple supply of gold4 ,illustration3 ,,street ,,scene1 ,,dawson1 ,,july1 #ahii4 ,the earlier conceptions of the extreme severity of the climate of the ,yukon ,valley forbade the hope of agricultural possibilities1 but a more intimate knowledge of the conditions prevailing in the summer time--a season of four to five months' duration1 with daylight and day heat protracted far into the normal hours of night--and a comparison of these conditions with somewhat similar conditions prevailing elsewhere1 have given hope not alone of a possibility1 but of a probability1 and there are few to-day who doubt that agriculture may not be practiced with at least a legitimate amount of success in many parts of the ,yukon basin4 ,this probability has1 indeed1 been already emphasized by ,prof4 ,george ,dawson1 and the more recent examinations of ,alaskan territory1 made by ,colonels ,ray and ,abercrombie1 confirm with a conviction the reference to ,american soil4 ,the feeble but more than promising efforts in agriculture and gardening that were made in the region about ,dawson in #ahih have borne surprising fruit in #ahii1 and while the results may not1 for various reasons1 have proved in all cases remunerative to the 8prospector10 they at least clearly demonstrate the possibilities to which the future may lay claim4 ,cabbages1 turnips1 peas1 radishes1 lettuce1 and beans are now raised to perfection in favored spots along the ,yukon and ,klondike1 and on scattered hillsides of the ,bonanza and ,eldorado1 and a good promise is also held out for the potato4 ,in the charming spot known as the ,acklin ,garden1 situated on the ,klondike about two miles from ,dawson1 oats and barley1 sown on ,april #bfth and ,may #bb;d respectively 7#ahii71 were grown to beautiful heads1 and harvested in the middle of ,august4 ,no wheat had ripened up to that time1 and ,i suspect that1 owing to a light frost which took place on the #aith of the same month1 none of this grain came to maturity4 ,radishes sown on ,april #bdth were collected on ,may #bjth1 and string beans1 whose seed was scattered on ,may #bfth1 were collected on ,august #ast4 ,other successful crops were those of beets1 onions1 and spinach4 ,the exquisite beauty of the flower garden in this spot rivets the attention of all passers-by1 and few there are who do not for a moment lay aside their packs to enjoy the feast of color that is presented to them4 ,poppies of the size and brilliance of those which adorn the fields about ,naples1 chrysanthemums1 gorgeous dahlias1 pansies1 the cornflower1 mignonette1 and centaurea are part of the outside bloom1 to which ,nature 8beyond the fence0 has fittingly added the wild rose1 anemone1 fireweed1 and forget-me-not4 ,such is the aspect of the region which to-day illumines the far ,north1 and carries with itself a hopeful promise to many and the certainty of disappointment to many more4 ,,the ,,decline ,,of ,,criminal ,,jurisprudence ,,in ,,america4 ,,by ,,gino ,c4 ,,speranza4 ,the rights of personal security1 personal liberty1 and private property have been called the 8rights of the people of ,england10 and may be said to constitute the richest heirloom in the ,anglo-,saxon family4 ,while1 in a certain sense1 they belong to all civilized people1 yet1 in their practical application1 they are peculiarly the creation of ,anglo-,saxon common sense and love of order4 ,the underlying principle of these rights1 clothed by the ,latins in the seductive garb of ,libert1 ,egalit1 ,fraternit1 gave us a ,reign of ,terror1 a ,commune1 and finally a doubtful republicanism2 but the same principle1 embodied in the less dazzling formula1 8,that no man shall be deprived of life1 liberty1 or property without due process of law10 produced in the hands of the ,anglo-,saxons more enduring democracies 8of the people1 by the people1 and for the people40 ,with the instinct of a race born for self-government1 the ,anglo-,saxons have ever sought and almost always found the highest safeguard for their ancient rights in the courts of law4 ,between a partisan ,legislature and a tyrannical ,executive an honest judiciary has generally been found ready to annul the excesses of the one and to prevent any infringement by the other2 so that it has become a belief1 having the force of faith1 that in our courts will be found the bulwark of those liberties which we consider essential to the full enjoyment of life4 ,laws and courts1 however1 are after all the creation of men1 and1 like all such creations1 they are necessarily imperfect and fallible2 or1 more correctly1 they are organisms which develop and improve4 ,in other words1 justice and law are only relatively immutable and perfect4 ,they do1 indeed1 represent1 in a sense1 abstract perfection1 and at any given time they must be considered the highest criterion of human conduct4 ,but justice and law are not such divinities that they can withdraw themselves from the operation of those forces which we call progress4 ,seriousness1 dignity1 and venerability are not sufficient to sustain the majesty of the law2 it needs also adaptation to those higher conditions and broader views which mark the growth of human thought4 ,the more we come to look upon law as the standard and gauge of upright human action1 the more do we grow to expect it in consonance with the highest dictates of human knowledge and reason1 for what is above us must represent what is best in us1 else it will be neither respected nor obeyed4 ,whenever this consonance is not found1 human belief in the dignity of the law and in the efficacy of justice ceases4 ,for1 theoretically at least1 law is so near ideal perfection that the least defect destroys it entirely2 and by this 8ideal perfection0 is meant that laws must reflect the highest and soundest thought of every age4 ,laws that fail in this cease to be a power for good2 they are then looked upon either as ridiculous or as oppressive4 ,if the former1 they defeat their ends by becoming dead laws2 if the latter1 they become a source of disorder and discontent4 ,hence we see that jurisprudence is essentially evolutionary and progressive1 and that the majesty of the law does not lie in its age but in its perennial youth1 or1 more correctly1 in its successive rejuvenescence4 ,it is true that in ,china the antiquity of a law is its highest prestige1 but1 as a consequence1 ,chinese justice is proverbially inefficient and barbarous4 ,it therefore follows that the constant study and improvement of what we have called the safeguards of our fundamental rights should be our highest duty1 and the object of the care and solicitude of the ,state4 ,it is not enough to rest contentedly in the thought that a ,magna ,charta1 a ,petition of ,rights1 and sundry written constitutions protect us4 ,their very existence is but an argument for our eternal vigilance4 ,now1 the question to be here examined is whether we have exercised that care and vigilance which are essential to the free enjoyment of our rights4 ,let me premise the statement that the protection of the rights of life1 liberty1 and property is peculiarly within the province of the criminal law4 ,what constitutes the right of life1 liberty1 and property can not be defined or described1 except negatively by a definition of what will be deemed its infringements4 ,these we call crimes4 ,to declare what acts come within the definition of such crimes is the function of the criminal courts4 ,it is upon the criminal law1 therefore1 that we must rely for the enunciation of what acts shall constitute a breach of the right of life1 liberty1 and property1 and it is to the criminal bench and bar that we must turn for the correct interpretation and application of such enunciations4 ,hence the more time and attention we devote to the study of criminal legislation and to the enlightenment of the criminal bench and bar1 the more will the safety of our rights be increased and strengthened4 ,likewise1 the more we allow criminal legislation to be the product of hasty consideration and the criminal bar to drift into disrepute1 the more the safety of our rights will be proportionally weakened4 ,the first question that presents itself is1 8,what is done by our law schools for the study of criminal law80 ,the answer is not very encouraging4 ,let us take those law schools which are of most importance1 either by reason of their curriculum or of their attendance4 ,harvard1 with a three years' course1 devotes two hours a week for one year to criminal law 7including criminal procedure74 ,allowing nine months of four weeks each to the scholastic year1 and a weekly average of eighteen hours1 it will be found that the time devoted to the study of criminal law 7including procedure7 is a little over three per cent of the entire course4 ,by a similar computation we find that ,columbia devotes to criminal law 7and procedure7 a little over four per cent of the entire course1 which is about the percentage given by ,yale and a little lower than that of the ,universities of ,michigan1 ,cornell1 and ,new ,york respectively4 ,these computations are based upon figures given in the catalogues of those universities1 or kindly furnished by the deans4 ,nothing more eloquent of the decline of the study of criminal jurisprudence in our country could be cited4 ,but the catalogues of these law schools add further proof4 ,at none of them is there a professor whose instruction is confined solely to criminal law4 ,nearly all the instructors in criminal law devote but a small part of their time 7and probably of their study7 to the teaching of this subject4 ,in ,columbia the instructor in criminal law is professor of international law and diplomacy2,i at ,harvard the incumbent of the chair of criminal law teaches the law of carriers2 that of ,michigan teaches the law of bills and notes and of public corporations2 that of the ,new ,york ,university the law of sales and wills4 ,it is1 moreover1 a significant fact that the faculties of the above-named institutions1 while recommending to law students the optional study of political economy1 constitutional history1 taxation1 physical science1 ,english literature1 and modern languages as conducive to a higher standard of legal culture1 utterly fail to advise them to pursue courses in criminal anthropology1 criminology1 or penology4 ,in other words1 it is deemed advisable that the future lawyer should bring to the aid of his civil practice the complementary knowledge of ,french and history1 for instance1 but it is of no importance that he should be acquainted with the results of modern criminologic and penologic research4 ,thus the conclusion is forced upon us that the study of criminal law1 whose importance ,i have endeavored to set forth1 has become a subject at sufferance in our universities1 a practically optional course of little consequence to the student1 and of no interest to the teacher4 ,i ,this has since been changed2 but the change makes the case worse1 as the new instructor in criminal law teaches not only two branches of the law 7as under last year's course71 but five--viz41 ,criminal ,law1 ,wills and ,administration1 ,common-,law ,practice and ,pleading ,bankruptcy1 and ,bailments and ,carriers4 ,from the very beginning of his legal career the future lawyer is made to feel that the field of criminal law is not the one in which to exercise his best talents4 ,both the school curriculum and popular sentiment strengthen this prejudice4 ,to the community at large our criminal courts have come to mean places where criminals are sentenced or rogues saved on technicalities2 they have ceased to be centers of justice1 where innocent men are saved and guilty men tried according to the law of the land4 ,hence has arisen the popular belief 7despite the rule that the accused shall be considered innocent until his guilt is proved71 shared in a measure by the bench and bar1 that every man accused of crime is criminal and depraved1 and that1 therefore1 contact with him should be avoided4 ,thus the criminal lawyer1 who necessarily must come in touch with such alleged crime and depravity1 is practically ostracized not only from the community but also from the civil forum4 ,the existence of such prejudice against the criminal bar is most deplorable4 ,men of ability and position will shun criminal practice1 leaving the field clear to unscrupulous shysters4 ,let it be remembered that to a man charged with the commission of a crime and deprived of his liberty the lawyer appears a savior2 that the accused is practically at his lawyer's mercy1 being under most trying duress and very easily influenced4 ,the temptation for unprofessional dealing is here at its highest1 because of the manifest advantage of the lawyer who is able1 or whom the client believes to be able1 to unlock the prison doors4 ,it takes men of more than ordinary fiber to persistently resist such temptation in all its forms4 ,hence the necessity of upright and learned men at the criminal bar4 ,but how few are our great criminal practitioners6 ,how often have ,i heard lawyers1 too young and clientless to allow themselves preferences1 declare most decidedly that they were willing to do anything 8except criminal law06 ,they had been trained to look upon it not merely as inferior but as degrading practice4 ,yet it is common knowledge that in ,european countries1 where less boast is made of inalienable rights1 it is the ambition of all lawyers to get a reputation at the criminal bar4 ,it is there1 in fact1 that reputations are made4 ,it is likewise in those countries where many would make us believe that life1 liberty1 and property are not as sacredly guarded as in our own country1 that the criminal laws are a constant object of scholarly study and investigation4 ,the great progress made in the study of crime1 the building up of a criminal science and a criminal sociology1 is almost exclusively the work of ,continental criminologists4 ,penology has indeed engaged our attention1 but criminology has been almost practically ignored by us4 ,of criminal law it was long ago said that1 8by reason of the numberless unforeseen events which the compass of a day may bring forth10 the knowledge of its provisions 8is a matter of universal concern40 ,yet1 despite this 8universal concern10 our criminal law has been and still is inferior to our civil law4 ,i have pointed out at the beginning of this article how the majesty of the law depended essentially upon its ever-recurring rejuvenescence2 that law was a living organism1 subject to change and the forces of evolution4 ,the theories on criminal responsibility and on crime in general1 in the light of modern medical1 anthropologic1 and sociologic sciences1 have completely supplanted the old doctrines1 yet criminal legislation has apparently taken no notice of them4 ,modern science tells us that our antiquated tests of criminal responsibility result in sending hundreds of men to prison who ought to be sent to asylums1 but we do nothing to avoid this scandal4 ,under our system the courts are obliged to let the conclusions of the learned judges who occupied the bench three hundred years ago have more weight than the positive investigations of the men of science of our day1 and so1 consciously or unconsciously1 numberless crimes are committed in the name of stare decisis4 ,true it is that in some jurisdictions1 and notably in ,new ,york1 the courts have recognized to some extent the progress of science and its influence upon juridic theories4 ,but even in these cases the concession has been made only in civil cases4 ,thus ,mr4 ,bishop1 in his ,criminal ,law1 is obliged to point out that our courts recognize two kinds of insanity--to wit1 civil and criminal irresponsibility4 ,why the test to be applied in the case of the validity of a will should be different from that applied in the case of murder does not seem very clear4 ,the scientific test as to insanity has been oftentimes recognized and applied by our civil tribunals1 but the criminal judges still cling with unabashed attachment to the unscientific and unprogressive rule in ,mc,naughten's case4 ,the ,guiteau trial1 which followed that celebrated decision1 added fresh authority to the ,english view1 and practically made the rule to be applied in criminal trials a legal dogma4 ,in an able and exhaustive paper by ,mr4 ,j4 ,h4 ,dougherty on this very subject1 before the ,society of ,medical ,jurisprudence1 the evils of such dogmatism in criminal law are strikingly set forth4 8,life10 he said1 8should be as sacred as property4 ,while society needs protection from the criminal1 it does not require that the protection should be insured through the application of a fallacious and discredited legal dogma40 ,this is but one example of the unprogressiveness of our criminal jurisprudence4 ,yet1 if we really have the ancient principle of the right of life and liberty at heart we ought to recognize that this legal dogma is a greater menace to the practical abrogation of the right than the despotism of an unscrupulous executive4 ,for while the latter is an infringement of a right which the law forbids1 the former is a breach of a right which the law sanctions4 ,again1 the theories regarding the object of penal provisions have entirely changed4 ,punishment has been scientifically shown to be practically useless either as a deterrent or as a correctional remedy4 ,yet our penal codes are confessedly based on the idea of punishment and retribution4 ,we have indeed made some little headway1 such as indeterminate sentences and suspension of judgment1 but only in a scattered and tentative way4 ,the additions to or changes in our criminal codes have been unimportant and unprogressive4 ,what additions are made are slipshod in their make-up1 at times partisan in intent1 seldom in harmony with the teachings of modern science1 and oftentimes in disregard of fundamental principles4 ,our legislators grant 8hearings0 before passing a law affecting the business of a few privileged men and give it due weight2 but criminal bills1 which may affect the public1 are generally 8rushed through10 probably because of an absolute lack of interest4 ,this is but a repetition of ,blackstone's complaint against criminal legislation in his day4 8,it is never usual in the ,house of ,commons10 he wrote1 8even to read a bill which may affect the property of an individual without first referring it to some of the learned judges and hearing their report thereon4 ,and surely equal precaution is necessary when laws are to be established which may affect the property1 liberty1 and perhaps the lives of thousands40 ,and he thus concludes his observations3 8,the enacting of penalties to which a whole nation should be subject ought not to be left as a matter of indifference to the passions or interests of a few1 who upon temporary motives may prefer or support such a bill40 ,the lack of public interest and of intelligent consideration by the people and the bar in criminal problems and criminal legislation are clearly shown by the paucity of criminal statistical data furnished by various ,states4 ,penological research is based on an intelligent study of statistics1 and civilized nations1 recognizing this fact1 have provided elaborate systems of records based on the suggestions of statistical science4 ,but with us statistical facilities in the field of crime are not merely primitive or old-fashioned1 but in many cases shamefully absent4 ,in reply to requests addressed to the ,secretaries of ,state of various ,states for official statistics of crimes committed in their respective jurisdictions1 the answers ,i received were in a number of cases negative4 ,the officials mentioned replied that no statistics were published by the ,state in ,illinois1 ,georgia1 ,new ,jersey1 ,tennessee1 ,kentucky1 ,maryland1 ,vermont1 ,california1 ,idaho1 ,missouri1 ,south ,carolina1 ,connecticut1 ,texas1 ,wisconsin1 ,nebraska1 ,mississippi1 ,virginia1 ,colorado1 and ,kansas4 ,it is true that in some of these ,states this lacuna is filled in by special prison reports or reports of commissioners or of the attorneys-general4 ,but even in these cases1 as well as in those published officially by the ,state 7,ohio1 ,indiana1 ,new ,york1 ,massachusetts1 and ,louisiana71 the information furnished is a monument of antiquated methods and of very little value to the student of criminology4 ,how1 then1 can we study the grave questions of crime and criminals without a basis of computation8 ,it may be true1 as some claim1 that ,continental jurists have refined the criminal law to an unpractical degree and too much on classic and theoretic lines1 but it will not be claimed that by adhering to an old-fashioned and obsolete criminal jurisprudence the ,anglo-,saxons are safeguarding their fundamental liberties4 ,that there is something essentially wrong1 or at least antiquated1 with our criminal law is evidenced by the popular discontent against it1 which is too widespread and insistent to be the result of ignorance or sentiment4 ,if there is inertia as to changes in the law it is probably because1 while feeling that there is something wrong1 the people either can not define it or the conservatism of centuries in this field is unconsciously affecting their better intentions4 ,who will deny 7and ,i address this question to lawyers and judges7 that1 under our system1 guilty men escape and innocent men suffer in larger numbers than it should be1 even allowing for the defects inherent in all human systems8--that technicalities and not facts often save scoundrels2 that unscrupulous lawyers do not avoid them1 and the best of judges are obliged by legal dogmas to respect them8 ,who will deny 7and ,i address this question to sociologists and penologists7 that the penal provisions of our present laws are inappropriate1 inelastic1 and unscientific2 that they neither prevent nor reform2 and that the basic principle of our penal codes is still retribution and punishment8 ,can it be that the right of life1 liberty1 and property is becoming a pious fraud8 ,of course1 it is not claimed that we have less liberty now than our fathers had three centuries ago2 progress never stops1 and each day is something gained2 but it seems clear that the juridic basis and form of our liberties have not kept up with the progress of those very liberties4 ,yet1 what we call rights must have a counterpart or reflection in our laws4 ,we may1 while enjoying those rights1 forget that the juridic basis on which they stand is crumbling with age4 ,unless that basis is rejuvenated the entire edifice must eventually fall4 ,while we are in full possession of our rights we need no laws to guarantee them2 but it is when those laws are encroached upon that there arises the necessity of juridic sanction for them4 ,the right of life1 liberty1 and property constitutes the essence of the 8law of the land40 ,but the conception of rights1 as we have seen1 changes and progresses4 ,the law of the land must likewise change and progress4 ,laws may be the highest and best creation of man's intellect1 but they are not 8hedged in by any divinity40 ,that is why they are neither infallible nor unchangeable4 ,yet1 as the highest and best creation of man's intellect1 and as the final criterion of human public conduct1 they should conform to the best thought and to the highest scientific progress4 ,if they do not approach this standard they are worse than useless1 for they become legalized means of oppression4 ,it is then that ,justice needs a bandage over her eyes1 not to avoid partiality1 but to hide her shame4 ,,the ,,blind ,,fishes ,,of ,,north ,,america4 ,,by ,,carl ,h4 ,,eigenmann1 ,,professor ,,of ,,zo,,logy1 ,,indiana ,,university4 8,an investigation into the history of degenerate forms often teaches us more of the causes of change in organic ,nature than can be learned by the study of the progressive ones40--,,weismann4 ,the caves of the ,united ,states are inhabited by three cave salamanders1 two of them with degenerate eyes2 by six cave fishes1 all with impaired vision--five of them with rudimentary eyes1 one with eyes the most degenerate among vertebrates2 and by several mammals4 ,it is thus seen that among the interesting features of the ,north ,american fauna the blind vertebrates are not the least4 ,yet during the past twenty-five years the only additions to our knowledge1 aside from diagnoses of new species1 have been a few random notes on the habits and a short account of the eye of ,troglichthys by ,kohl4 ,various classes of vertebrates have blind members1 but no large vertebrate has become blind or permanently taken up its home in caves4 ,blatchley reports that a number of cats have established themselves in ,wyandotte ,cave1 where they bring forth and rear their young4 ,they have exterminated the cave rats1 and now station themselves in a narrow passage of the cave and capture bats as they fly through4 ,among the permanent residents in dark places we have1 among mammals1 the moles1 which habitually live in burrows of their own make4 ,in ,mammoth ,cave lives a rat--,neotoma pennsylvanica4 ,in ,marengo ,cave1 ,indiana1 white-footed mice have established themselves4 ,although with unimpaired eyes1 they have acquired ears and whiskers longer than the rest of their kind living outside4 ,in ,florida occurs a blind lizard--,rhineura floridana4 ,it burrows in the ground1 and is colorless and blind4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4--,the cave salamander of the ,mississippi ,valley 7,spelerpes maculicauda74 ,of salamanders1 one blind species lives in ,european caves4 ,in the large caves of the eastern ,united ,states no blind salamanders have been found1 although other species1 especially ,spelerpes maculicauda1 abound4 ,in the caves of ,missouri a veiled-eyed salamander1 ,typhlotriton1 has been described within recent years by ,stejneger4 ,still another salamander1 ,typhlomolge1 having rudimentary eyes1 has been cast up from an artesian well at ,san ,marcos1 ,texas1 and occurs in the cave streams about that place4 ,the most abundant of the blind vertebrates1 both in individuals and in species1 are the blind fishes4 ,these1 from their geographical distribution1 may be separated into three groups3 7#a7 ,those inhabiting the depths of the ocean2 7#b7 those inhabiting dark places along the shores of the ocean2 7#c7 those inhabiting the underground fresh waters4 ,the fishes1 blind or partially blind1 living in the depths of the ocean bordering the ,american continents1 are as follows3 #a4 ,ipnops ,murrayi ,gnther lives at depths varying from #iee fathoms to #b1aeh and has the very wide distribution suggested by the localities from which specimens have been secured--viz41 off the coast of ,brazil1 near ,tristan da ,cumba1 near ,celebes1 latitude #bd #cf north1 longitude #hd #ea west1 and off ,bequia4 ,this is the only vertebrate in which no vestige of an eye has been found4 ,ipnops stands alone in a family4 #b4 ,the ,brotulid have several members blind or with very much reduced eyes in various parts of the globe4 ,aphyonus mollis ,g4 and ,b41 #iee fathoms1 and ,alexeterion parfaiti ,vaillant1 #e1jje metres1 are the only ones found in the neighborhood of ,america4 #c4 ,the ,lophiid are represented by ,mancalias ,schufeldtii ,gill1 from a depth of #cgb fathoms4 ,other blind species are found in foreign waters1 while others with small eyes are found in ,american waters4 ,the majority of deep-sea fishes have well-developed eyes4 ,the shore fishes have their blind representative in ,typhlogobius californiensis ,st41 which lives under rocks between tide water on the coast of southern and ,lower ,california4 ,i have elsewhere described the habits of this form4 ,in the fresh-water caves of ,cuba two blind fishes--,stygicola denta ,poey and ,lucifuga subterraneus ,poey--have been found4 ,their relatives live in the ocean1 ,brotula barbata in ,cuban waters2 some of the others are blind and inhabitants of deep water4 ,the inland fresh-water fishes are represented by ,gronias nigrilabris ,cope1 a catfish from cave streams of eastern ,pennsylvania1 and by members of the ,amblyopsid1 concerning which a more detailed account is given below4 ,,the ,,amblyopsid4--,the ,amblyopsid are a small family of fishes allied to the ,cyprinodontid4 ,they are found in the ,mississippi drainage basin and in certain southeastern streams4 ,three of the members of the family1 the ,chologasters1 are provided with well-developed eyes1 while four other species are cave fishes in the strictest sense1 being blind and colorless4 ,the distribution of the different members of the ,amblyopsid is as follows3 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4--,the larva and adult of the ,missouri cave salamander 7,typhlotriton74 ,chologaster cornutus is found in lowland swamps of the ,southern ,states from the ,dismal ,swamp to the ,okefinokee ,swamp4 ,chologaster ,agassizii is found in subterranean streams in ,tennessee and ,kentucky4 ,chologaster papilliferus has so far been found only in southwestern ,illinois4 ,amblyopsis is abundant in the cave streams of the ,ohio ,valley south of the east fork of ,white ,river4 ,typhlichthys subterraneus inhabits the region south of the ,ohio and east of the ,mississippi4 ,a single specimen of another ,typhlichthys has been found north of the ,ohio ,river in a well at ,corydon1 ,indiana4 ,troglichthys ros inhabits the caves west of the ,mississippi in ,arkansas and ,missouri4 ,,chologaster4--,mr4 ,e4 ,b4 ,forbes secured a school of ,chologaster papilliferus for me1 and he wrote3 8,the little fishes were found under stones at the edges of the spring very close to the bluff1 and when disturbed they swam back under the cliff4444 ,none were found at any considerable distance from the face of the cliff40 ,i found the ,chologaster ,agassizii to act similarly in the river ,styx1 in ,mammoth ,cave4 ,as soon as my net touched the water they darted in under the ledge of rock at the side of the little pool in which ,i found them4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4--;,blind salamander from an artesian well at ,san ,marcos1 ,texas 7,typhlomolge74 ,chologaster papilliferus detects its food entirely by the sense of touch4 ,two which were kept in an aquarium for over a year were starved for a few days4 ,they became very nervous1 continually swimming along the sides of the aquarium4 ,asellus was introduced4 ,these1 even if quite near1 produced no effect if moving in front of the ,chologaster4 ,the moment one came in close proximity to the fish from any direction1 by a flashlike motion it was seized4 ,none of them were swallowed4 ,the fish became very alert after the introduction of the sowbugs1 and when swimming forward would strike at a part of a leaf if it came in contact with the head of the fish4 ,it seemed evident that the eye gave no information of the character of the object4 ,as ,asellus was not altogether to their taste1 ,gammarus was introduced4 ,one of these swimming rapidly toward the chin of the ,chologaster from behind and below was instantly seized when it came in contact with the fish4 ,the eye could not have located the ,gammarus at all4 ,the action is in very strong contrast to the action of a sunfish1 which detects its food by the sight4 ,it is undoubtedly this peculiar method of locating and securing food which has enabled the ,amblyopsid to establish themselves in caves4 ,the ,chologaster in general make-up is like ,amblyopsis1 but is somewhat longer-jointed4 ,it sits with its pectorals extended4 ,when it moves horizontally for some distance the pectorals are usually pressed to the sides1 the propelling being done largely by the tail very much after the manner of a salamander1 which it resembles4 ,in swimming toward the surface it uses its pectoral fins chiefly1 and the fish usually sinks to the bottom as soon as its efforts to raise itself are stopped4 ,individuals kept in aquaria with one end darkened either collected in the darkened area floating about1 or under leaves or sticks in any part of the aquarium4 ,they are frequently found under a floating board1 where they float with the tops of their heads in contact with the board1 their bodies slanting downward4 ,they seek the dark1 regardless of the direction of the rays of light4 ,these characteristics they have1 in great part1 in common with the blind members of the family4 ,the adult ,amblyopsis frequently floats with its head to the top of the water1 the tail sloping downward1 and in swimming along ledges of rock the top of the head is applied to the ledge4 ,i have captured many specimens simply by scraping my net along the surface of a ledge4 ,typhlichthys1 living in total darkness1 has retained the habit of staying under floating boards1 sticks1 and stones4 ,miss ,hoppin noticed that ,troglichthys swims with its back to the sides of the aquarium1 and ,i have repeatedly noted the same in the young of ,amblyopsis up to fifty millimetres1 and the still younger ,amblyopsis frequently hides under rocks4 ,,amblyopsis4--,the general impression given by ,amblyopsis is that of a skinned catfish swimming on its back4 ,the expressions1 8,they are catfish02 8,they look as though they were skinned02 8,they are swimming on their backs10 are heard from those who see these fishes for the first time4 ,the largest individual secured by me measured #ace millimetres in total length4 ,individuals as large as this are rare4 ,the usual length of an adult is about #ij millimetres4 ,one individual was mentioned to me at ,mammoth ,cave having a length of #bjj millimetres6 ,amblyopsis is found in pools in the cave streams it inhabits4 ,i have secured as many as twelve from a pool perhaps ten by fifty feet in size4 ,very rarely they are to be found in the riffles connecting the pools4 ,i have seen them lying at the bottom1 or swimming1 or rather gliding1 through the water like 8white aquatic ghosts40 ,in the aquarium they lie at the bottom or at various depths in the water1 their axes making various angles with the horizontal1 their pectorals folded to their sides4 ,when swimming slowly it is chiefly by the use of the pectorals4 ,the strokes of the pectoral are lazily given1 and the fish glides on after a stroke till its impetus is exhausted1 when another stroke is delivered4 ,the fishes frequently roll slightly from side to side at the exhaustion of the result of a stroke4 ,when swimming rapidly the pectorals are folded to the sides1 and their locomotion is then similar to that of a salamander--by the motion of the tail4 ,they readily adjust themselves to different depths1 and are usually perfect philosophers1 quiet1 dignified1 unconcerned1 and imperturbed1 entirely different from such eyed species as minnows and sunfishes which are sometimes found in caves and which are much more readily disturbed by any motion in the water1 making it almost impossible to capture them when found in the caves4 ,the pectorals are also almost exclusively used when quietly rising in the water4 ,at such times the pectorals are extended laterally and then pressed to the sides1 beginning with the upper rays4 ,a downward stroke is delivered in this way not quickly1 but with apparent lazy deliberation4 ,in swimming the pectorals are brought forward upper edge foremost4 ,the center of gravity seems to be so placed in regard to their various axes that the fish does not lose its balance whatever its position4 ,they float horizontally in the water without any apparent effort to maintain their position1 or with the main axis inclined upward1 with the snout sometimes touching the surface of the water1 apparently lifeless4 ,once one was seen resting on its tail in a nearly vertical position1 and one while quietly swimming was once seen to leisurely turn a somersault and swim on undisturbed4 ,at another time the same individual rolled completely over4 ,when one of them is kept out of the water for a short time it frequently goes in a corkscrew-shaped path through the water1 continually spinning around its long axis4 ,in their quiet1 floating position it is difficult to determine whether they are alive or not4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4--;,ipnops ,murrayi1 living at a depth of #a1ejj to #b1ajj fathoms4 ,,fig4 #e4--;,chlorophthalmus gracilis1 from #a1ajj fathoms1 off ,new ,zealand4 ,i have not found the slightest difficulty in capturing ,amblyopsis with a small dip net1 either from a boat or while wading through the subterranean stream1 and ,i have caught one in the hollow of my hand4 ,at such a time all the noise ,i could make did not affect the fishes found swimming in the water4 ,frequently they were taken in the dip net without apparently noting the vibrations produced in the water until they were lifted out of it2 very rarely a fish became evidently scared4 ,such a one would dart off a few feet or a few inches1 and remain on the qui vive4 ,if not pursued1 it soon swam off quietly2 if pursued1 it not infrequently escaped by rapidly darting this way and that2 when jumping out of the water1 often an abrupt turn in the opposite direction from which it started would land it in the net1 showing that their sense of direction was not very acute4 ,at other times1 if disturbed by the waves produced by wading1 one or another individual would follow a ledge of rock to the bottom of the stream1 where it would hide in a crevice4 ,but very frequently1 much more frequently than not1 no attention was paid either to the commotion produced by the wading or by the boat and dip net4 ,in general1 it may be said that the fishes in their natural habitat are oblivious to disturbances of the water until frightened by some very unusual jar or motion1 probably a touch with the net1 when they become intensely alert4 ,the fact that they are not easily frightened suggests the absence of many enemies1 while their frantic behavior if once scared gives evidence either that occasional enemies are present and that they are very dangerous1 or that the transmission of the instinct of fear is as tenacious as the transmission of physical characters4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4--;,brodula barbata from ,havana1 ,cuba4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4--,stygicola dentatus from the caves of ,cuba4 ,contrary to ,sloan's observation1 that they detect the presence of a solid substance in their path1 ,i have never noticed that those in confinement became aware of the proximity of the walls of the aquarium when swimming toward it4 ,instead1 they constantly use the padded1 projecting lower jaw as bumpers4 ,even an extremely rapid dart through the water seems to be stopped without serious inconvenience by the projecting jaw4 ,the first observations on the feeding habit of ,amblyopsis are those of ,cope4 ,he remarks that 8the projecting lower jaw and upward direction of the mouth render it easy for the fish to feed at the surface of the water1 where it must obtain much of its food4444 ,this structure also probably explains the facts of its being the sole representative of the fishes in subterranean waters4 ,no doubt many other forms were carried into the caverns since the waters first found their way there1 but most of them were like those of our present rivers--deep-water or bottom feeders4 ,such fishes would starve in a cave river1 where much of the food is carried to them on the surface of the stream40 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h4--;,aphyonus gelatinosus1 #a1djj fathoms1 between ,australia and ,new ,guinea4 ,,fig4 #i4--;,aphyonus mollis1 #iee fathoms1 #bd #cf north1 #hd #e west4 ,,fig4 #aj4--,tauredophidium hextii1 #a1caj fathoms1 ,bay of ,bengal4 ,,fig4 #aa4--;,acanthonus armatus1 #a1jej fathoms1 mid ,pacific1 off the ,philippines4 ,,fig4 #ab4--,typhlonus nasus1 #b1aej to #b1ddj fathoms1 north of ,australia and north of ,celebes4 ,,fig4 #ac4--;,hephthacara simum1 #ijb fathoms1 ,coromandel coast4 ,,fig4 #ad4--;,alexeterion parfaiti1 #e1jje metres1 ,north ,atlantic4 ,the observations of ,cope are entirely erroneous1 as we shall see1 and the speculations based on them naturally fall to the ground4 ,dr4 ,sloan recorded one ,amblyopsis which he kept twenty months without food4 8,some of them would strike eagerly at any small body thrown in the water near them1 rarely missed it1 and in a very short time ejected it from their mouths with considerable force4 ,i tried to feed them often with bits of meat and fish-worms1 but they retained nothing4 ,on one occasion ,i missed a small one1 and found his tail projecting from the mouth of a larger one40 ,wyman found a small-eyed fish in the stomach of an ,amblyopsis4 ,hoppin was struck by the fact that1 if not capable of long fasts1 ,troglichthys must live on very small organisms that the unaided eye can not discern4 ,garman found1 in the stomachs of ,troglichthys collected by ,hoppin in ,missouri1 species of ,asellus1 ,cambarus1 ,ceuthophilus1 and ,crangonyx4 ,all the specimens of ,amblyopsis so far taken by me contained very large fatty bodies in their abdominal cavity1 a condition suggesting abundance of food4 ,the stomachs always contained the dbris of crustaceans1 a closer identification of which was not attempted4 ,one young ,amblyopsis disappeared on the way home from the caves1 and had evidently been swallowed by one of the larger ones4 ,a few old ones1 kept in an aquarium from ,may to ,july1 were seen voiding excrement toward the last of their captivity1 and their actions at various times suggested that they were scraping the minute organisms from the side of the aquarium4 ,the young ,amblyopsis reared in the aquarium seemed to feed on the minute forms found in the mud at the bottom of its aquarium4 ,some ,ccidota placed in the aquarium of the young soon disappeared1 and the capture of one of these was noted under a reading glass4 ,the fish was quietly swimming along the side of its aquarium2 when it came within about an inch of the crustacean it became alert1 and with the next move of the ,ccidota it was captured with a very quick1 well-aimed dart on the part of the young fish4 ,others were captured while crawling along the floor of the aquarium4 ,from all things noted1 it seems very probable that ,amblyopsis is a bottom feeder1 and that it also picks food from the walls of the caves4 ,it is not at all improbable or impossible that food should be captured at the surface or in open water1 but there seems no warrant for ,cope's supposition that ,amblyopsis is a top feeder4 ,i have frequently seen larger specimens1 which had been in captivity for several weeks1 nosing about the bottom of the aquarium1 with their bodies inclined upward in the water and quietly taking in the organic fragments at the bottom4 ,an ,asellus stirring about at such a time always produced an unusual alertness4 ,the number of respiratory movements of ,amblyopsis averaged nineteen a minute in five observations1 reaching a maximum of thirty in a small individual and a minimum of fourteen in a large one4 ,this is in strong contrast to ,chologaster1 the number of whose respiratory motions reached an average of eighty per minute in five observations1 with a minimum of fifty-six and a maximum of one hundred and eight in a small specimen4 ,dr4 ,loeb has called my attention to the more rapid absorption of oxygen in the light than in the dark2 this extended would probably mean the more rapid absorption of oxygen through the skin of light-colored animals1 a matter of doubtful value1 however1 to species living in the dark4 ,the gill filaments are small as compared with the gill cavity4 ,oxygenation probably takes place through the skin4 ,ritter,j has suggested the same for ,typhlogobius4 ,j ,ritter1 ,museum of ,comparative ,zology1 vol4 xxiv1 p4 #ib4 8,cutaneous respiration is not unique in ,typhlogobius and the ,amblyopsid4 ,in the viviparous fishes of ,california the general surface1 and especially the fins1 which have become enormously enlarged1 serve as respiratory organs during the middle and later periods of gestation2 the fins are a mass of blood-vessels1 with merely sufficient cellular substance to knit them together4 ,there is1 however1 no pink coloration40 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ae4--,mancalias ,schufeldtii1 #cgb fathoms4 ,skin respiration would account for the extreme resistance to asphyxiation in ,amblyopsis and ,typhlogobius4 ,about forty-five examples of ,amblyopsis were carried in a pail of water four hundred miles by rail1 with only a partial change of water three times during twenty-four hours4 ,a smaller number may be kept for days or weeks--probably indefinitely--in a pail of water without change4 ,the characteristics of ,typhlogobius along this line have been set forth elsewhere4 ,sticks1 straws1 etc41 are never avoided by the fishes even when perfectly imperturbed4 ,by this ,i mean that they are never seen to avoid such an object when it is in their path4 ,they swim against it and then turn4 ,an object falling through the water does not disturb them1 even if it falls on them4 ,a pencil gently moved about in front of them does not disturb the fishes much1 but if the pencil is held firmly in the hand it is always perceived1 and the fish comes to a dead halt ten or fifteen millimetres before it reaches such an object4 ,on the other hand1 they may be touched on the back or tail before they start away4 ,they glide by each other leisurely and dignified1 and if they collide1 as they sometimes do1 they usually show no more emotion than when they run against a stick4 ,but this indifference is not always displayed1 as we shall see under the head of breeding habits4 ,a number kept in an aquarium with a median partition1 in which there was a small opening1 were readily able to perceive the opening1 swimming directly for it when opposite it4 ,this observation is in direct contrast to their inability to perceive solid substances in their path4 ,a sharp tap on the sides of an aquarium in which six blind fishes were swimming1 where they had been for a number of days undisturbed1 in a dark room1 caused nearly all of them to dart rapidly forward4 ,a second tap produced a less unanimous reaction4 ,this repeated on successive days always brought responses from some of the inmates of the aquarium4 ,those responding were not necessarily the nearest to the center of disturbance1 but sometimes at the opposite side of the aquarium or variously distributed through it4 ,after a few days the fishes took no notice of the tapping by any action observable in the artificially lighted room4 ,such tapping on a well-lighted aquarium containing both ,chologaster and ,amblyopsis was always perceived by the ,amblyopsis1 but the only response from these imperturbable philosophers was a slight motion of the pectorals1 a motion that suggested that their balance had been disturbed and that the motion was a rebalancing4 ,chologaster1 on the other hand1 invariably darted about in a frantic manner4 ,one individual of ,amblyopsis floating on the water was repeatedly pushed down by the finger without being disturbed4 ,if1 however1 they are touched on the side they always rapidly dart away4 ,from everything observed1 it is quite evident that ,amblyopsis is not keener in perceiving objects or vibrations than other fishes1 and ordinarily pays much less attention to them4 ,whether it possesses a greater power of discrimination of vibrations it would be difficult to say4 ,it certainly possesses very elaborate tactile organs about the head4 ,these tactile organs are probably more serviceable in detecting and precisely locating prey in the immediate neighborhood than for anything else4 ,some observations on young ,amblyopsis are of interest in this connection4 ,the young1 with a large amount of yolk still attached1 show a well-developed sense of direction4 ,a needle thrust into the water near their heads and in front of them causes a quick reaction1 the young fishes turning and swimming in the opposite direction4 ,they will do this two or three times1 then1 becoming exhausted1 will remain at rest4 ,sometimes an individual will not move until it is actually touched by the needle4 ,the needle must come within about three or four millimetres of the fish before it is noticed4 ,then1 if it produces any result1 it causes the fish to quickly turn and swim some distance1 when it falls to the bottom again and remains at rest4 ,if the needle is placed behind the fish1 it will swim directly forward2 if at the side or about the middle1 it causes the fish to swim directly forward or to turn and swim in a direction opposite the origin of the disturbance4 ,younger specimens have1 as yet1 no power over the direction of their progress2 the wiggling of the tail simply produces a gyration1 with the yolk as pivot4 ,a young blind fish1 six months old1 swims about in a jerky manner1 chiefly by the use of its pectoral fins4 ,it keeps close to the side of the vessel1 usually with its back to the glass4 7,the aquarium was a cylindrical jar three hundred millimetres in diameter and three hundred millimetres high47 ,it perceives a stick thrust toward it as readily as a seeing fish can4 ,it always perceives from whatever direction it may be approached1 and will invariably dart away a short distance1 sometimes making sharp turns to avoid the stick1 and always successfully4 ,it can be approached from the top nearer than from the sides or from in front4 ,it does not avoid the sides of the aquarium1 which it frequently strikes4 ,it is a bottom feeder2 its intestinal canal is always partially full4 ,a long series of experiments was made on ,amblyopsis and ,chologaster to determine their reaction to white and monochromatic light4 ,without going into the details of these experiments1 it may be stated that ,amblyopsis avoids the light1 regardless of the direction or the color of the rays4 ,the same is true of ,chologaster1 except that they were positively attracted by the red rays of the spectrum as against the blue4 ,we owe the first observations on the breeding habits of ,amblyopsis to ,thompson1 who states that a fish 8was put in water as soon as captured1 where it gave birth to nearly twenty young1 which swam about for some time1 but soon died2 444 they were each four lines in length40 ,little or nothing has been added to our knowledge of this subject since that time1 but the highly interesting supposition of ,thompson that they were viviparous has gained currency1 and it is therefore unfortunate that in this respect he was in error4 ,putnam adds to the above that1 judging from some data in his possession1 the young are born in ,september and ,october1 and further along remarks that they are 8undoubtedly0 viviparous4 ,the eggs are laid by the female in under her gill membrane4 ,here they remain for perhaps two months1 till the yolk is nearly all absorbed4 ,if a female with young in her gill pouches is handled1 some of the young are sure to escape4 ,this was observed1 and gave rise to the idea that this fish is viviparous4 ,eggs have been obtained as early as ,march #aath and as late as ,september1 and the indications are that the breeding season extends throughout the year4 ,the eggs are large--#b4c millimetres in diameter from membrane to membrane--and about sixty to seventy are laid at one time4 ,certain structures gain an entirely new significance in the light of the breeding habits4 ,these are the enlarged gill cavities1 with the small gills1 the closely applied branchiostegal membrane1 and the position of the anus and sexual orifices4 ,the latter are placed just behind the gill membrane in such close proximity to it that they can be covered by it4 ,it is probable1 therefore1 that the membrane is drawn over the sexual orifice and the eggs deposited directly into the gill cavity4 ,in an individual thirty-five millimetres long the anus is situated between the origin of the pectorals2 in one twenty-five millimetres long it lies between the pectorals and ventrals4 ,in the young it lies behind the ventrals1 as in other fishes4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #af4--,the embryo of ,typhlogobius1 showing the well-developed eye4 ,,fig4 #ag4--;,a young ,typhlogobius1 times #d-b_/i4 ,,fig4 #ah4--;,adult ,typhlogobius4 ,,fig4 #ai4--;,adult ,gillichthys-y-cauda living in crab holes in ,san ,diego ,bay4 ,,fig4 #bj4--,young ,gillichthys mirabilis under the same magnification as ,fig4 #ag4 ,in an aquarium containing six ,amblyopsis two took a great antipathy to each other4 ,whenever they touched1 a vigorous contest began4 ,frequently they came to have a position with broadside to broadside1 their heads pointing in opposite directions4 ,at such a time the fight consists in quick lateral thrusts toward the antagonist to seize him with the mouth4 ,the motion is instantly parried by a similar move by the antagonist4 ,this blind punching may be kept up for a few seconds1 when1 by their vigorous motions1 they lose each other and jerk themselves through the water from side to side1 apparently hunting for each other4 ,at this time they are very agile1 and move with precision4 ,when the belligerents meet one above the other1 the snapping and punching is of a different order4 ,while jerking through the water immediately after a round1 if one of the belligerents touches one of the neutrals in the aquarium it frequently gives it a punch1 but does not follow it up1 and the unoffending fellow makes haste to get out of the road1 the smaller ones doing so most quickly4 ,if1 after an interval of a few seconds1 a belligerent meets a neutral they quietly pass each other without paying any further attention1 whereas if the two belligerents meet again there is an immediate response4 ,whether they recognize each other by touch or by their mutual excitability ,i do not know4 ,at one time1 in another aquarium1 ,i saw one belligerent capture the other by the pectorals4 ,after holding on for a short time it let go1 and all differences were forgotten4 ,the thrust is delivered by a single vigorous flip of the tail and caudal to one side4 ,these fights were frequently noticed1 and always occurred between males4 ,the absence of secondary sexual differences in the cave fishes is a forcible argument in favor of sexual selection as the factor producing high coloration in the males4 ,the absence of secondary sexual differences in cave animals opposes the idea of ,geddes and ,thompson that the differences are the external expression of maleness and femaleness4 ,attempts at acclimating ,amblyopsis in outside waters have so far failed4,k ,a few were placed in ,turkey ,lake1 ,indiana4 ,they were surrounded by a fine wire net1 to keep off other fishes4 ,they died in a few days1 as the result of attacks of leeches1 saprolegnia1 or fish mold1 and from unknown causes4 ,others were kept in an elongated box sunk into the ground1 where fresh spring water flowed through it constantly4 ,saprolegnia sooner or later destroyed all of them4 ,they live longest in quiet aquaria1 where the water is rarely changed4 ,the young ,i have secured died1 with one exception1 within a few weeks4 ,the difficulty of rearing the young is not at all insurmountable4 ,they eat readily4 ,their aquaria must be kept free from green plants1 and have a layer of fine mud1 with a few decaying leaves1 in the bottom4 ,they will feed on minute crustaceans and other micro-organisms4 ,when they have reached a sufficient size1 examples of ,asellus are greedily devoured4 ,fish mold is the bane of the larv4 ,many of them were found with tufts of the hyph growing out of their mouths and gill openings4 ,k ,since the above was written an apparently successful attempt has been made to colonize them in a pool at ,winona ,lake4 ,a record of this colony will be published later4 ,,the ,,man ,,of ,,science ,,in ,,practical ,,affairs4 ,,by ,f4 ,w4 ,,clarke4 ,the human mind is addicted to the creation of types1 a process which implies classification and generalization of a somewhat low order4 ,some prominent feature of the thing classified is selected for emphasis1 and there is often a degree of exaggeration which leads1 in the end1 to caricature4 ,john ,bull1 ,brother ,jonathan1 the ,jew of the comic papers1 and the stage ,irishman are examples of this tendency4 ,so1 too1 a profession or occupation is summed up in one conventional character1 with a little truth distorted as if seen reflected from the surface of a curved mirror4 ,the likeness is there1 but unlike the reality4 ,the individual embodiment of the type is rarely1 if ever1 encountered4 ,the man of science deals with questions which commonly lie outside of the range of ordinary experience1 which often have no immediately discernible relation to the affairs of everyday life1 and which concentrate the mind upon apparent abstractions to an extraordinary degree4 ,accordingly1 the scholar1 the scientific investigator1 is typified as an elderly dreamer in spectacles1 who is so uncouth1 so self-forgetful1 so absent-minded1 and so ignorant of practical matters as to be hardly more than a child4 ,he is one to be cared for and humored1 like an imbecile--treated with some consideration1 perhaps1 on account of his learning1 but never to be trusted in the transaction of business nor in the administration of public affairs4 ,with him1 as an antithesis1 is contrasted the practical man1 who knows whither his steps are tending1 who has learned to control others1 and who never dreams of abstractions during office hours1 if indeed he troubles himself about them at all4 ,the one is thought to be vague1 visionary1 and unpractical2 the other is deemed efficient1 precise1 prompt1 and clear4 ,has this distinction any basis in reality8 ,do scientific pursuits disqualify a man for administrative responsibility8 ,these questions1 like all other legitimate questions1 are to be answered by evidence1 and the popular impression is entitled to no weight whatever4 ,this evidence is to be found by a study of the thing itself1 the man of science as he actually is2 by an examination of the training which he receives1 the character of the work which he does1 and the results which he accomplishes4 ,by this method it will be found that the supposed type is purely imaginary1 that the workers in science exhibit all the variations which are found in any other group of occupations1 that the human race as a whole is their only symbol or representative4 ,the man of science may be grave or gay1 moral or immoral1 social or unsocial1 keen or visionary--in short1 he may exemplify any trait of human nature1 except the traits of ignorance and stupidity4 ,he must be intelligent and educated1 methodical and exact2 apart from these qualifications he may resemble any other man1 chosen from any other vocation4 ,indeed1 his nearest analogue is the so-called man of business1 and the chief distinction between the two is that one deals with unfamiliar1 the other with familiar things4 ,the direct tendency of the scientific training is to develop as fully as possible the positive traits which have been mentioned4 ,each science is a body of systematic1 well-organized knowledge1 with clear fundamental principles and distinct outlines4 ,the study of science is a continual discouragement of obscurity or vagueness2 it is a discipline in the statement and solution of definite problems1 and it trains one to see things as they are1 apart from all irrelevancies4 ,the technicalities of science1 so bewildering to the layman1 are merely aids to exactness1 avoidances of circumlocution--in short1 they are practical devices whereby labor is saved4 ,economy of effort is one of the features in which the scientific training excels4 ,the results of such a training vary1 of course1 with the individual1 and depend upon his personal peculiarities4 ,a broad man is broadened by it2 a narrow man shuts himself up within the limits of a specialty4 ,to some extent specialization is necessary1 but there is a wide difference between the man who sees only his own province and one who realizes its relations to other fields4 ,the same distinction is found in commercial life1 and with the same results4 ,the specialist in money1 in stocks1 in iron1 or in cotton may be just as narrow as the specialist in stars1 or reactions1 or insects1 and know little or nothing of any subject outside his own4 ,neither narrowness nor breadth of view is monopolized by any vocation4 ,the mere fact that men of science rarely devote their attention to accumulating wealth does not prove them to be unpractical4 ,they are not1 as a rule1 careless or thriftless in money matters2 they are as likely to handle their financial affairs intelligently as any one else1 but their main business lies in other directions4 ,if seldom a millionaire1 the man of science is still more seldom a bankrupt4 ,in wild speculation the so-called practical man takes the lead1 and anything which bears the trade mark of electricity1 from the electrical refining of sugar to the extraction of gold from sea water1 can secure from otherwise shrewd financiers the support which a worker in science would contemptuously refuse to give4 ,a few years ago the would-be rain-makers obtained the money for their experiments from men of business1 and from ,congress even1 in spite of advice based upon scientific knowledge1 and failure was the inevitable end4 ,in that borderland between business and research1 which is known as applied science1 the scientific student is more practical than the financier4 ,when both work together1 wealth is produced1 but the seedtime of abstract investigation always precedes the harvest4 ,the commercial value of exact knowledge is often very great1 but to the prospective investor this truth is not always evident4 ,the practical value of the scientific training is perhaps most fully recognized in ,germany4 ,there the importance of the investigator1 the apparently abstract scholar1 is thoroughly understood1 and to his work the great industrial advance of ,germany is largely attributable4 ,in chemical and electrical industries this is particularly true1 and their growth can be directly traced to the influence of the universities4 ,the ,german professor is a man trained to research1 and from among his students many of the best investigators are chosen for service in the factories4 ,german competition in the commercial world is to-day the bugbear of other ,european countries1 and its success is due1 first of all1 to the utilization of trained intelligences4 ,in our own country the importance of applied science is fully realized and its achievements are beyond dispute1 but the scholar as yet receives less consideration than the commercial expert4 ,the latter is practical1 the former is regarded as visionary4 ,accurate knowledge is a good thing1 but rule-of-thumb experience is often thought to be better4 ,it is only when knowledge and experience join hands that the highest practical results are attainable1 the one factor tending to advance1 the other to perpetuate1 industry4 ,the man of affairs is not a practical man until he appreciates the force of these propositions4 ,at bottom the scientific training is a training in clear thought1 precise statement1 accurate observation1 the verification of evidence1 and the ascertainment of truth4 ,why should its recipient be unfitted for practical things8 ,good administration1 the effective transaction of business1 implies system1 exactness1 the judgment of evidence upon its merits1 and the prompt solution of problems as they arise1 and to each of these requisites the scientific education is directly related4 ,what other training is less likely to produce dreamers1 or more likely to develop efficient men8 ,the main distinction between the workers in science and men of other vocations is one of aim1 a difference in ambition1 perhaps a difference in the point of view4 ,the scientific scholar seeks to discover and possibly to apply new truth2 and after that his ambition is to win the recognition of his fellows1 to gain reputation1 rather than to acquire wealth4 ,he may not be indifferent to the latter purpose1 but it is not his chief end4 ,it is difficult to do both things well4 ,for the administration of large interests1 involving the control of men and the building-up of great institutions1 men of science have over and over again demonstrated their fitness4 ,in the scientific societies of the world they have shown their capacity for organization1 and in the management of schools and colleges their ability has often been proved4 ,among the presidents of universities and technical schools who have been drawn from the ranks of science ,i may mention ,eliot1 of ,harvard2 ,gilman1 of the ,johns ,hopkins2 ,drown1 of ,lehigh2 ,jordan1 of the ,leland ,stanford2 ,chamberlin1 of ,wisconsin2 ,morton1 of the ,stevens ,institute2 and ,mendenhall1 of the ,worcester ,polytechnic4 ,the ,institute of ,technology in ,boston has been directed successively by ,rogers1 ,runkle1 ,walker1 and ,crafts2 the ,columbia ,school of ,mines was built up by a group of scientific workers1 aided by ,president ,barnard2 and the list might be lengthened almost indefinitely4 ,have these men fallen below the average of their fellows8 ,have they not shown at least as high administrative ability as has been found elsewhere8 ,the mere statement of their names is a sufficient answer1 and renders argument unnecessary4 ,with them the scientific training has not been a disqualification1 nor even a handicap2 it has rather been to their advantage1 for to it they owe much of the insight1 the power to grasp great problems intelligently1 the ability to interpret evidence1 and the tendency to prompt and decisive action1 without which successful administration is impossible4 ,again1 consider the scientific institutions of the world1 the museums and observatories1 and the various governmental organizations in which science is recognized4 ,in our own country1 the ,smithsonian ,institution and ,national ,museum were built up by ,henry and ,baird1 in spite of great and varied difficulties2 the ,coast ,survey was created by ,hassler and ,bache2 and the ,geological ,survey was developed by a group of men among whom ,hayden1 ,king1 and ,powell were pioneers4 ,the last-named organization has been controlled from the beginning by men of science1 and the ,coast ,survey has been weak only when under nonscientific management4 ,the ,commission of ,fish and ,fisheries owes its existence and a great part of its effectiveness to its creator1 ,baird2 the ,army ,medical ,museum and ,library represents the executive genius of ,billings2 and in none of these institutions has partisan politics ever exerted an appreciable influence4 ,no bureaus of the ,government have been more wisely or more efficiently handled than those which men of science have controlled2 in none have there been fewer errors or scandals2 there is not one in which the essential purpose of its existence has been better fulfilled4 ,instead1 then1 of excluding the scholar1 the investigator1 the man who knows1 the man of scientific training1 from his fair share of public responsibility1 we should do well to call him into service more and more4 ,he may be1 he often is1 averse to administrative work1 for the reason that it interferes with his chosen occupation1 and hinders the prosecution of research4 ,but his training and his mental bias are both needed in public affairs1 wherein the scientific method is too often unapplied4 ,in ,european countries men of high scientific rank are frequently found in legislative bodies and ministries2 men like ,playfair1 ,roscoe1 and ,lubbock in ,england1 ,virchow in ,germany1 ,quintino ,sella in ,italy1 and ,berthelot in ,france4 ,with us in ,america the maker of speeches outranks the thinker in popular esteem1 and is given duties to perform in which he may become ridiculous4 ,both in legislation and in diplomacy many questions arise which demand the most careful scientific treatment1 or which can be answered only by thorough scientific knowledge1 and many of these have been intrusted for settlement to men of no specific training whatever4 ,of late years we have had the fur-seal controversy1 the question of forest reserves1 the irrigation of our arid lands1 problems of sanitation and water supply1 and in each of these the man of science has played a part which was too often subordinate to that of the politician4 ,in an ideal government the two should work together1 each supplementing the peculiar ability of the other4 ,many details of the tariff1 and a notable part of the coinage question1 require scientific data for their proper settlement1 but the true expert has not always been consulted4 ,the result of this neglect is sometimes seen in courts of law1 where questions of interpretation arise which might have been averted1 obscurity in legislation being often due to the careless use of scientific terminology or to ignorance of the relations in science between two branches of industry4 ,the voice of the trained investigator might well be heard in ,congress1 but his testimony now is limited to the committee room4 ,even there it is received with an attention which is too often mingled with incredulity4 ,the myth of the dreamer1 the visionary1 is more than half believed4 ,the supposed type1 then1 is not a type1 but an exception--a man of straw1 which is hardly worth overthrowing4 ,but the belief in it has been and still is mischievous1 a hindrance to wise action1 an obstacle to progress4 ,the misconception has worked injury to science4 ,these words of protest1 therefore1 are not wholly superfluous4 ,,forenoon ,,and ,,afternoon4 ,,by ,,charles ,f4 ,,dowd1 ,,ph4 ,d4 ,it is a fact of common observation1 at different times of the year1 that the forenoon and afternoon1 as to daylight1 are of unequal length4 ,along in later autumn the shortness of the afternoons is very noticeable1 and the shortness of forenoons along in later winter4 ,whatever makes common facts more intelligible adds to the general intelligence and to the general good4 ,it is to this end that the following brief statements are made4 ,nothing is more evident than that the sun requires just as much time to go from the eastern horizon to the midday meridian as to go from that meridian to the western horizon4 ,but1 strange to say1 there are but four days during the whole year in which the sun reaches the midday meridian at just twelve o'clock4 ,the true noon point varies from about fifteen minutes before to about sixteen minutes after twelve o'clock4 ,these extreme points in one set of variations fall in the first week of ,november and in the second week of ,february1 not to designate exact days for years in general4 ,the calendars show that in the latitude of ,saratoga 7essentially ,boston latitude7 on ,november #c1 #ahih1 the sun rose at #f4cj and set at five o'clock1 thereby making the forenoon a half hour longer than the afternoon4 ,on that day the sun reached the midday meridian at #aa4de4 ,on ,february #ac1 #ahii1 the sun rose at just seven o'clock and set at #e4cj1 thereby making the afternoon a half hour longer than the forenoon1 and on this day the sun reached the midday meridian at #ab4ae4 ,these are facts plainly open to general view1 and therefore need no verifying4 ,the causes of the foregoing are not so apparent to common observation4 ,it must be borne in mind that the mean or average solar day is the basis for all time measurements1 therefore its exact length is of the greatest importance4 ,yet the general solar day1 from which the average one is derived1 is a very indefinite term as to its length4 ,its length in general may be defined1 under view of the sun's apparent motion1 as the time extending from the instant that the sun's center crosses any given meridian of the earth on one day to the instant that center crosses the same meridian on the following day--i4 e41 the time intervening between these two instants is the length of a solar day4 ,the motion of the sun1 however1 is only apparent2 the actual motion is in the earth's revolution upon its axis4 ,we should have one day a year long if the earth did not revolve on its axis at all1 since the revolution of the earth around the sun once a year would in the course of the year bring all sides facing the sun4 ,consequently the earth makes one more revolution upon its axis each year than the number of solar days in that year1 and a little consideration of this fact will show that in each solar day the earth makes one full revolution on its axis and about #a_/cfe of another1 which fractional addition is occasioned by one day's progress of the earth along its orbit4 ,another fact needs to be considered4 ,since the earth's orbit is in the form of an ellipse1 with the sun at one of the foci1 the earth must pass nearer the sun in some parts of its orbit than in others4 ,by the laws of gravity1 when nearer1 the attraction between the earth and sun is greater1 and if this were not balanced by increased velocity along its orbit the earth would fall into the sun2 and1 on the other hand1 when farther off this attraction is less1 and if this were not balanced by a diminution of velocity along its orbit the earth would fly off into space4 ,this varying velocity1 together with other complications too technical for a magazine article1 gives varying lengths of orbit to the several solar days of the year4 ,if the earth's orbit were laid out upon paper and1 by astronomical calculations1 an exact proportionate section were marked off for each solar day of the year1 the variable lengths of orbit for the different days of the year would plainly appear to the eye4 ,but1 as before explained1 the time of a solar day is the time of one revolution of the earth upon its axis1 together with the fractional part of another revolution occasioned by one day's progress of the earth along its orbit4 ,then it must follow that as the daily sections of the orbit vary in length1 the time of the solar day must vary in length4 ,no clock could be made to keep the variable time of true solar days1 and if this were possible1 the hour1 minute1 etc41 would be variable of length1 and hence no standard for time measurements4 ,but by working a simple arithmetical problem of addition and division an average length of day for the year may easily be found4 ,this average day is the mean solar day adopted4 ,its time is arbitrary and exact1 forming a perfect standard for all time measurements4 ,from this the term mean time gains its significance4 ,by referring to the foregoing earth's orbit laid out on paper1 with the true solar days marked off in sections of mathematical exactness1 it will be seen that by dividing each section into two equal parts and marking the division point with red ink1 the true noon point of each solar day in the year will be conspicuous upon the drawing1 and in its proportionate relations in every way4 ,if now we set a pair of dividers or compasses so that the opening shall reach over the exact space on the orbit of one half of the mean solar day1 and beginning at the red noon point of one of the four days in the year when the true noon falls at just twelve o'clock--say ,december #bdth--and step the dividers around on the orbit1 making a blue point mark at each second step1 then as the blue points vary from the red so will the mean time which our clocks keep vary from the true noon of each day of the year4 ,variation in length of forenoon and afternoon1 therefore1 may be viewed by common intelligence not only as a fact but as a necessity4 ,,president ,,jordan',s 8,,neminism40 ,,office ,,of ,,the ,,president1 ,,leland ,,stanford ,,junior ,,university1 ,,palo ,,alto1 ,,cal4 ,,post ,,office1 ,,stanford ,,university4 ,,dear ,,dr4 ,,youmans3 ,the inclosed1 from an anonymous but appreciative source1 may interest you4 ,it is doubtless true that the philosophy of ,neminism goes back to ,india1 through ,hegel and ,plato1 but the high priestess does not know this4 ,she made it all out of her own head4 ,truly yours1 ,,david ,s4 ,,jordan4 ,,the ,,university ,,of ,,mentiphysics1 ,,lynn1 ,,mass41 ,december #f1 #ahii4 ,president ,david ,starr ,jordan1 ,leland ,stanford ,university1 ,california4 ,,sir3 ,i have before me the last issue of one of our two or three great scientific magazines1 in which ,mr4 ,giddings lays down the exact method we are to follow in sociology1 thereby creating the pleasing impression that hereafter he intends to stick to it himself4 ,but1 sir1 ,i wish to say1 as a student of 8,neminism10 as you call it1 that my emotions were far less agreeable on perusing your brilliant plagiarism1 the doctrine of ,nihil nemini nocet1 an aphorism which apparently you wish to make rival the ,cogito ergo sum of the ,cartesian philosophy4 ,i will concede to you 7,i being1 as it is perhaps necessary for me to remark1 a literary person7 the undoubted right all real literary persons have of appropriating everything of a literary nature that they can lay their hands upon2 but1 while we are in perfect harmony upon this occasion1 in regard to that point1 ,i regret to insist that the thing must be done judiciously--that is the art4 ,any mere plebeian can accumulate facts--that is the raison d'tre of the plebeian2 his duty is to work--but the real ethereal literary man1 such as the monthly magazines nourish1 must disdain facts and theories and the truth1 and must float in the pure1 soft twilight of his own imagination while he writes about people who never existed1 in a language which nobody can understand4 ,yet1 sir1 in your unblushing appropriation of the late ,professor ,hegel's dictum of ,sein und nicht ,sein sind dieselbe 7which ,i presume you1 sir1 to exculpate yourself1 will swear you do not understand71 and in your changing that immortal antithesis to your ,nihil nemini nocet--in doing all this ,i declare that you have violated one of the most sacred principles1 in fact1 the very essence of ,neminism2 for to say1 as you have said1 that nothing hurts nobody1 is to say a very dull1 prosaic1 vulgar fact which any fool can understand2 but to say that 8to be and not to be are the same0 is to say something that is not only very beautiful1 but1 what is far more to the point1 is likewise utterly incomprehensible2 yet to do this is the essence of ,neminism1 as you yourself have shown4 ,as a confirmed ,neminist glorying in his ,neminism1 as ,pascal's ,father ,joseph1 the ,jesuit1 gloried in 8interpretation0 of the words 8murder0 and 8charity10 ,i am1 sir 7and ,i hope my frequent use of this monosyllable will not annoy you1 for the first ,neminist1 ,plato1 uses ,greek3 ,skrates quite as frequently1 though his expression requires four times as much wind or space as mine71 ,i say1 then1 that ,i am always anxious to be thought well of by people who are on top or are getting there1 in order1 to use your own undignified and cruel metaphor in the ,rev4 ,mr4 ,lyman ,abbott's journal of news and ,christianity1 that ,i may continue 8to hold down0 my position as the janitor and ,professor of ,leibnitzian ,monadology in the ,university of ,mentiphysics4 ,but there are times1 sir1 when even a feminist rises above his interest1 and1 like ,richelieu in the play1 exchanges the lion's and the fox's skins4 ,in short1 ,i beg to inform you that ,i believe that you1 seeing the growing attachment of the vulgar mob for the ,wissenshaftliche ,pdagogie of the ,robinson ,crusoeans or concentrationists1 have had the thought to sap the foundations of their success by vulgarizing our noble monopoly of ,neministic science1 and ,i should not be at all surprised to see your name1 after a little1 as the editor of a 8,journal of ,psycho-,materno-,kinder ,apperceptics10 or of a strictly ,american 8,great ,educator ,series10 beginning with ,pontiac and ending with ,jim ,fiske4 ,or perhaps1 sir1 you are actuated by deeper motives4 ,our university has not yet received the complimentary copy of your work on ,imperial ,democracy1 the ,government probably holding it back until ,general ,young can catch ,mr4 ,aguinaldo1 but ,i see by the publishers' lists that it is out4 ,now1 it is easy to see that if ,imperial ,democracy gets within a stone's throw of ,china it will get into ,china1 and1 with your knowledge of ,aristotle's ,politics and the ,highbinders in ,chinatown1 you can not have failed to have recognized that ,neminism and ,orientalism are very similar4 ,to be or not to be2 to be alive or to be dead2 to be drunk or to be sober--'tis all the same for the people2 'tis ,nirvana4 ,you wish to vulgarize ,neminism4 ,what follows your success8 ,immediately every ,state will make it an obligatory study in the public schools1 and when1 in the distant future1 we meet the ,chinamen face to face1 we will be ready to exterminate them or be exterminated by them2 for it is an axiom of sociology1 which it is to be hoped ,mr4 ,giddings will see the value of and will in the next edition of his ,social ,euclid make number one1 that when two societies completely differing in origin1 history1 manners1 institutions1 and laws come together they start in the more quickly to cut each other's throats when they have a common idea in which they can locate a difference1 and hence find a logical excuse to begin4 ,i would have preferred that our president had taken up this unpleasant task of criticising your mischievous efforts to vulgarize our beautiful science1 which1 like the true religion of the ,egyptians1 should be retained sub rosa in the temples2 but she1 as you yourself have said1 does not like controversial publicity1 and has often remarked that our science is like the mushroom1 for1 though it is the child of darkness and ,byzantian filth1 it is eminently adapted to be retained by weak stomachs1 while for others it may be nauseating4 ,i am1 sir1 very respectfully1 ,,anacharsis ,,pangloss1 ,m4 ,plane4 ,though religiously refraining from introducing my own personality in the foregoing1 it being a cardinal point in our science that it is good form to appear modest--videri quam esse1 as was said of ,cato--,i am1 nevertheless1 obliged to observe that ,i am not at all in any way related to the ,dr4 ,pangloss1 ,,ll4 ,d41 ,a4 ,s4 ,s41 mentioned in the play of the ,heir at ,law1 nor yet1 though perhaps more spiritually akin1 to that other ,dr4 ,pangloss--,dr4 ,leibnitz ,pangloss1 the tutor of ,candide mentioned by the late ,monsieur ,voltaire of happy memory4 ,dr4 ,l4 ,pangloss1 a fine old fellow at bottom1 was engaged in showing how1 in the best possible words1 a cause always precedes its effect2 for instance1 ,monsieur the ,baron ,thunder den ,trockendorf has a nose1 argues he--it will carry spectacles1 hence the nose was created for spectacles1 and spectacles are created4 ,it is plain that ,dr4 ,l4 ,pangloss was a scientist4 ,now1 ,i am a sociologist1 and it is the hope of my life to fill the chair of ,monadology in the new ,american university1 where ,i intend to show that while the rich are becoming richer the poor will become richer than the rich in contemplating how much more satisfaction the rich get out of their riches than they1 the poor1 get out of their poverty4 ,this1 as you will at once recognize1 is in the line of what ,mr4 ,lester ,ward calls ,dynamic ,sociology1 and1 though it is not the acme of the application of dynamics such as that which knocked ,hebraism out of ,saul of ,tarsus1 ,i beg to remind you that1 until ,german science has made further progress in the application of electricity1 we lack the means of producing the necessary phenomena by which alone such effects can be secured4 ,a4 ,p4 ,correspondence4 ,,faith ,,and ,,knowledge4 ,editor ,popular ,science ,monthly3 ,,sir3 ,in your editorial1 in the issue of ,september1 you speak of 8faith as the organ of religious apprehension40 ,this suggests some important facts that are not always apprehended1 or are forgotten4 ,there is no organ for the discovery1 the proof1 or the apprehension of truth but reason1 whether facts of ,nature or of religion4 8,faith0 is not a sixth sense which we do not use in scientific pursuits1 but which comes to our help when we seek for religious truth4 ,much of the difficulty comes from the fact that the word 8faith0 is ambiguous1 having two meanings1 which are not distinguished4 ,it is 7#a7 simply belief of a fact because of evidence presented to and apprehended by the reason2 or is it 7#b7 trust1 confidence in1 belief in1 as in a person1 resting on the belief of that person's competency and truthfulness1 that belief resting on evidence apprehended by the reason4 ,because of this 8faith0 in the person we accept his testimony as to facts beyond our personal cognizance1 we believe them not because we have discovered them1 or may be are competent to discover them1 but because of our 8faith0 in a person whom we have seen reason to believe is trustworthy--i4 e41 competent and truthful4 ,now1 these two meanings of 8faith0 are often confused1 interchanged4 ,hence the discredit thrown upon belief of religious truth1 because an illegitimate use is made of the place of 8faith0 in its justification4 ,and writers defending religious belief have been great sinners in this illegitimate use of 8faith40 ,the place of 8faith0 is the same in science as in religion--i4 e41 it is the condition and justification of our acceptance of truth which is beyond our personal cognizance4 ,we accept it because of the testimony of men in whom we have learned to have faith--e4g41 ,how few of us who accept the revelations of the spectrum analysis as to the composition of the stars have any other justification for accepting them than just this8 ,we believe them simply because men1 whom we1 in the exercise of our reason1 have come to believe competent and truthful1 tell us what they have seen4 ,we believe on their testimony because we trust them4 ,our process involves three steps3 7#a7 ,belief of their competence through appeal to reason2 7#b7 trust in them because of this belief2 7#c7 belief of their testimony because of this trust or 8faith0 in them4 ,the only organ we have used is reason1 in its initial act of belief of the competence and truthfulness of the witnesses4 ,error in the use of reason here vitiates all that follows4 ,correct use of reason here gives a legitimate condition for correct results of the other steps4 ,but reason must go along with us and guide us in these1 that we may come to a rationally accepted belief of the truth4 ,here is the place of 8faith0 in science1 as belief and as trust4 ,by its use we accept the great issues of scientific truth which we believe1 and do it legitimately4 ,it is the same in all right acceptance of religious truth4 ,here appears a person in human history claiming to reveal facts beyond our sphere of cognizance4 ,now1 the first 7#a7 step is belief in his competence and truthfulness as a witness1 just as in cases of science4 ,his only appeal is to reason1 our only organ for apprehending truth4 ,we1 because of the evidence presented to our reason1 believe him competent and truthful--i4 e41 trustworthy--and we take the second step 7#b71 as in case of search for scientific truth4 ,we trust him1 we have 8faith0 in him4 ,then 7#c7 we believe his testimony as to facts beyond our cognizance1 as to ,god1 as to the inner world and life1 as to his own person and work1 and his agency in helping us to the true life4 ,here are the same three steps as in our believing the great facts of science1 and they are equally legitimate1 and the belief is equally legitimate1 and with the same use of 8faith0 in both cases1 which use is legitimate if we have applied our reason correctly4 ,it may be said that there is this difference in the two cases3 ,we are1 it may be1 competent with training to perceive with our reason the facts to which the scientists witness1 whereas in religion we are not competent by any training1 in our present state1 to see what ,jesus ,christ testified to2 therefore the believing him is not legitimate4 ,space forbids arguing this point1 but the writer is confident it can be shown that this does not vitiate the process in the least4 ,the only point now argued is that reason is the only organ of man for the apprehension of truth1 and that 8faith0 acts the same part in scientific and religious belief4 ,,john ,r4 ,,thurston4 ,,whitinsville1 ,,mass41 ,september #cj1 #ahii4 ,the point which our correspondent discusses is one which falls rather within the province of theology or philosophy than within that of science4 ,in the article to which he refers we did not distinctly say that 8faith0 was 8the organ of religious apprehension40 ,what we said was that granting such was the case1 the question still remained to be settled where the line should be drawn between faith and knowledge4 ,we doubt whether the account which our correspondent gives of faith would be widely accepted by those who approach the subject from the theological side1 while those who approach it from the scientific side would--at least many of them would--be disposed to consider the term one which might better be dispensed with in favor of the less ambiguous word 8belief40 ,belief is the inclination of the mind toward a proposition for which absolute or demonstrative proof is wanting1 and it is this condition of mind1 it seems to us1 that our correspondent has in view4 ,faith in the religious sense1 unless we are mistaken1 is something different4 ,it is an affirmation made by the human conscience or consciousness in its own behalf--a certain instinctive recognition of a presence and power in the universe which1 though inaccessible to scientific investigation1 sustains an intimate1 profound1 and all-essential relation to man's moral nature4 ,if trust in an individual ever rises to the level of faith in this sense1 it is because the influence of the individual harmonizes with and re-enforces the primal instinct4 ,that1 at least1 is how we view the matter4--,,editor4 ,,fiske',s ,,views ,,compared4 ,editor ,popular ,science ,monthly3 ,,sir3 ,will you permit me to say a few words supplementing your review of ,through ,nature to ,god8 ,to those who have perused ,mr4 ,fiske's latest three scientifico-theological booklets1 and also his ,cosmic ,philosophy1 it can not be new that their author has become entangled in hopeless contradictions of himself4 ,the limited space of a letter does not allow of adducing more than one remarkable passage from ,cosmic ,philosophy1 demonstrating the antithesis between the arguments of this work and ,mr4 ,fiske's latest opinions1 these new thoughts having been developed1 as he tells us1 by 8carrying such a subject about in his mind for0 twenty-five years4 ,we are told in ,through ,nature to ,god 7page #ab7 that 8it has usually been found necessary to represent the ,creator as finite either in power or in goodness1 although the limitation is seldom avowed1 except by writers who have a leaning toward atheism and take a grim pleasure in pointing out flaws in the constitution of things4 ,among modern writers0 ,comte and ,mill are conspicuous for such a 8leaning toward atheism40 ,then we are informed 7page #bj7 that the 8shock which such a clear1 bold statement gives to our religious feelings is no greater than the shock with which it strikes counter to our modern scientific philosophy40 ,and a little further on we find that 8the ,god which ,mr4 ,mill offers us1 shorn of the attribute of omnipotence1 is no ,god at all40 ,if the reader will now open ,cosmic ,philosophy1 he is told in vigorous language 7vol4 ii1 p4 #dje7 that 8if there exist a personal ,creator of the universe who is infinitely intelligent and powerful1 he can not be infinitely good2 if1 on the other hand1 he be infinite in goodness1 then he must be lamentably finite in power or in intelligence4 ,by this two-edged difficulty1 theology has ever been foiled40 ,then 7vol4 ii1 p4 #djf7 ,mr4 ,fiske1 quoting from ,mill1 expresses his entire concurrence with the views of this eminent thinker1 and adds 7vol4 ii1 p4 #djg71 8,with ,mr4 ,mill1 therefore1 #8,i will call no being good who is not what ,i mean when ,i apply that epithet to my fellow-creatures4' ,and1 going a step further1 ,i will add that it is impossible to call that being good who1 existing prior to the phenomenal universe and creating it out of the plenitude of infinite power and foreknowledge1 endowed it with such properties that its material and moral development must inevitably be attended by the misery of untold millions of sentient creatures for whose existence their ,creator is ultimately alone responsible40 ,no comment of mine can show more clearly than the passages cited above the 8conversion0 of ,mr4 ,fiske1 against which imputation so much subtle ingenuity is expended in the preface to ,the ,idea of ,god4 ,that ,mr4 ,fiske is merely reviving gross anthropocentric views he himself admits4 ,to him1 man is 8the goal toward which ,nature's work has been tending from the first40 ,but might not also some pithecoid ancestors of ours have deemed themselves the 8goal toward which ,nature had been tending from the first08 ,what is ,nature's goal in the endless cycle of evolution in which life is but an infinitesimal part8 ,but with ,huxley ,i believe that 8it would be a new thing in history if a priori philosophers were daunted by a factious opposition of experience40 ,mr4 ,fiske's latest writings1 as all theodicies1 bear testimony to the truth of ,huxley's scathing remark4 ,but granting1 for the sake of the argument1 that 8in the deepest sense it is as true as it ever was held to be1 that the world was made for man10 there is an objection to be raised on moral grounds stronger than any that could be founded on scientific arguments4 ,had this world been created for man1 entailing1 as it does1 the 8misery of untold millions of sentient creatures10 who but the crassest egotist could worship this ,fiskean ,god of iniquity8 ,the careful student of ,thomas ,huxley's works may be surprised to find ,through ,nature to ,god 8consecrated0 to the memory of him whose life work was devoted to 8untiring opposition to that ecclesiastical spirit0 that shines through every page of ,mr4 ,fiske's latest writings4 ,i echo ,mr4 ,fiske's words3 8,i can never cease to regret that ,huxley should have passed away without seeing my ,mr4 ,fiske's arguments and giving me the benefit of his comments40 ,the last stroke of ,huxley's pen was giving ,mr4 ,balfour 8the benefit of his comments02 would that he could have given them to the author of the excursion ,through ,nature to ,god6 ,b4 ,a4 ,,behrend4 ,,erie1 ,,pa41 ,december #e1 #ahii4 ,editor ,popular ,science ,monthly3 ,,sir3 ,your trenchant criticism of ,mr4 ,john ,fiske's discussion of the mystery of evil recalls ,mr4 ,spencer's reminder that 8there is a soul of truth in all things erroneous40 ,mr4 ,fiske certainly has not made it plain that the meaning of the universe is to be found 7exclusively7 in the higher developments of love and self-sacrifice2 but is it not equally a mistake to say inferentially that 8on a broad view of the world-wide struggle for life there are no moral elements to be seen08 ,if we define morality as the equivalent merely of love and self-sacrifice1 the ever-present love of mother and1 in a degree1 of father for the offspring imperatively negatives such a conclusion4 ,but morality is something more than love and self-sacrifice4 ,morality is right conduct1 and right conduct in the last analysis is conformity to the conditions of existence4 ,the nearer the conformity1 the more complete the life1 and life approaches completeness only as the activities of men cease to be impeded by each other's aggressions1 the highest life being reached when men help to complete one another's lives4 ,conversely1 evil must be defined as nonconformity to the conditions of existence4 ,slowly but surely man is learning these conditions1 and as he learns it is not to be doubted that 8evil0 will lessen4 ,if we affirm acquisition of knowledge by man1 we must postulate a precedent or 8necessary0 condition of ignorance4 ,hence it may be truthfully said that evil is a necessary correlative1 and in a manner the necessary condition of good2 and also1 ,i think1 that a broad view of the worldwide struggle for life shows not an absence of moral elements1 but rather that the ethical is inherent in the very nature of animate things4 ,we may not all share ,mr4 ,fiske's exuberant optimism1 and many can not accept his teleological implications1 but of the ultimate triumph of good over evil1 of knowledge over ignorance1 we may not doubt4 ,,frank ,m4 ,,loomis4 ,,buffalo1 ,november #aj1 #ahii4 ,,the ,,location ,,of ,,vinland4 ,editor ,popular ,science ,monthly3 ,,sir3 ,i beg to take exception to the exploded ,boston theory again revived by ,miss ,cornelia ,horsford in the last number of your valuable magazine4 ,it is astonishing to notice how little ,prof4 ,g4 ,storm's excellent prize essay and ,mr4 ,reeve's careful edition of the text of sagas seem to have availed against the misplaced patriotism that persists in carrying those ,norse explorers down to ,new ,england in the face of the numerous difficulties with which this feat is associated4 ,if ,i am not mistaken1 not a single historian or antiquarian of note has taken ,professor ,horsford's extremely unscientific treatment of the sagas or his ,norse discoveries seriously1 and the sober verdict of ,mr4 ,thorsteinn ,erlingsson and ,dr4 ,v4 ,gudmundsson on the alleged ,norse ruins seems to show that ,miss ,cornelia ,horsford has met with no better success4 ,to refute all the philological curiosities and illogical conclusions drawn by ,professor ,horsford in his ten treatises on the subject would1 however1 require a book of at least five hundred pages1 and nobody seems to think the question important enough to warrant such an output4 ,the fact that ,mr4 ,a4 ,h4 ,keane1 in his recent work1 ,man1 ,past and ,present1 takes it for granted that the ,norsemen met with ,eskimos in ,new ,england in the year #ajjj seems to prove1 however1 that this persistence in defending a baseless supposition is not merely a matter of innocent patriotism4 ,fortunately1 the current year1 which marks the nine hundredth anniversary of the discovery1 will be sure to see some valuable new treatises on the subject1 and those who are sufficiently interested furthermore need only consult the above-mentioned books to discover how many serious objections the ,new ,england theory really has to contend with4 ,permit me to mention one of them4 ,cape ,cod has1 it is true1 one singular feature that suggests the ,keel ,cape of the best version of the ,vinland manuscripts--viz41 sandy shores4 ,as everybody can see for himself1 however1 by consulting ,mr4 ,reeve's book1 the explorers sailed south from ,keel ,cape on the eastern shore till the country became indented with bays4 ,at the mouth of one of these they established their first winter quarters 7the so-called ,streamfirth71 and the next fall proceeded still farther south for a considerable time till they came to 8,hop10 the true ,wineland4 ,the extraordinary ease with which ,professor ,horsford1 in his book ,landfall of ,leif ,ericson1 undertakes to chop up this version1 in order to make the explorers return to ,boston from ,cape ,cod instead of continuing on their course1 is something remarkable in the annals of historical research4 ,but even then his theory fails utterly to satisfy the critical reader4 ,the trouble with most of the writers on this subject1 not excluding a professional historian like ,prof4 ,john ,fiske1 is that they have failed to sift the material or see the force of ,professor ,storm's criticism of the ,flat ,island version4 ,this being done1 everything falls into line for the ,nova ,scotia theory1 due consideration being given to the fact that an oral tradition of at least one hundred years intervened between the events narrated and the first somewhat extended written record4 ,while1 therefore1 owing to the last-mentioned fact1 it is not altogether impossible that the ,norsemen reached ,new ,england1 it should be distinctly understood that such a conclusion can only be drawn on archological lines1 the test of the sagas pointing clearly in the opposite direction4 ,,juul ,,dieserud4 ,,field ,,columbian ,,museum1 ,,chicago1 ,december #g1 #ahii4 ,editor's ,table4 ,,the ,,war ,,spirit4 ,it must be a matter of deep regret to all right-thinking men that there should have been during the latter half of the century now expiring so marked a revival of the war spirit4 ,in the middle of the century it was thought by many that the world had learned wisdom from the terrible experiences of the past1 and that with the development of international trade war would become an outworn mode of settling international controversies4 ,how different a turn things were destined to take need not here be told4 ,coming to recent events1 however1 we may say that it is lamentable our own country could not have won by peaceful means whatever advantages it has secured by its recent war with ,spain4 ,equally lamentable is it that ,great ,britain1 the other great representative of ,anglo-,saxon civilization1 should at this moment be engaged in a still bloodier struggle over questions which it is hard to believe could not have been settled by negotiation4 8,whence come wars and fightings among you80 is a question that was asked very long ago1 and we do not know that it is possible to improve on the answer then given3 8,from your lusts40 ,we do not say that a nation should not resist to the death a distinct aggression on its liberties or its independence4 ,we do not say that when horrors are being enacted in any part of the world force may not righteously be employed to arrest them2 but it is clear to our mind that1 in the present age1 wars between civilized countries might be almost wholly avoided if more reliance were placed upon moral force and less rein given to the impulse to employ physical force4 ,this is a matter for the people in any state enjoying free institutions to take to heart4 ,let every man in a time of national difficulty ask himself this question3 8,do ,i personally want to have blood shed over this matter80 ,or this one3 8,am ,i personally indifferent whether or not this dispute ends in bloodshed80 ,if a nation or the majority of a nation wants to have blood shed over a dispute with another nation1 or is indifferent as to whether that shall be the outcome1 the discussion will be carried on in a very different spirit from what it would be if there were a pronounced aversion to such a result4 ,with nations1 as with individuals1 everything depends upon the spirit and ulterior purpose with which a question is approached4 ,the cases must be very few in which a great nation1 safe itself from attack1 might not1 in any matter in which minor interests are involved1 resolve within itself that it will not resort to war--that it will work1 and continue to work1 on moral lines1 trusting that1 if it has right on its side1 it will in due time carry its point4 ,if blood cries from the ground against the slayer1 what must be the responsibility of those who heedlessly and ruthlessly give their voices for war1 when patience1 moderation1 and disinterestedness would have better accomplished every legitimate purpose8 ,slaughter is slaughter1 murder is murder1 however we may seek to weaken their import by a conventional treatment4 ,war is mutual murder carried on professionally and systematically4 ,yet the primal command still makes its solemn appeal to the human heart and conscience3 8,thou shalt not kill40 ,it is1 unfortunately1 only too easy to cultivate the military spirit in almost any nation1 and the military spirit1 it need hardly be said1 is the spirit that seeks quarrels4 ,to the military man war means excitement1 emulation1 reputation1 promotion1 subject of course to the possibility of injury or death4 ,no one denies that deeds of heroism and self-devotion are done on the battlefield2 but that men should acquit themselves nobly in the field is no compensation for the horrors of a war brought on by the predominance of the military spirit4 8#8,great fame the ,duke of ,marlborough won1 ,and our good ,prince ,eugene4'-- #8,oh1 'twas a very wicked thing1' ,said little ,wilhelmine40 ,and every war is wicked and detestable that could consistently with national honor be avoided4 ,when we say 8honor0 we do not mean 8reputation40 ,reputation depends on the canons of judgment prevailing among those who presume to award it4 ,in a dueling community a man's reputation might suffer by declining a challenge1 but his honor would be intact if he declined from sincere unwillingness to do a wrong act4 ,there is much honor sometimes in sacrificing reputation1 particularly the 8bubble reputation0 that is won 8in the cannon's mouth40 ,every appeal to the sword weakens the reliance placed upon principles of justice1 and thus undoes a vast amount of the work of peace4 ,when war is once set on foot1 the national judgment is more or less blinded4 ,true1 it is the action of a majority of the people only--admitting that a majority wanted it--but who is uncompromising enough1 when his country's armies are in the field1 to proclaim that they are fighting in a wrong cause8 ,a few may do it1 but they do it at their peril4 ,in all other matters a minority may censure with any degree of severity the policy of the majority1 but not in the matter of a war once entered on4 ,yet how perverting such a situation is to right judgment1 and how injurious an effect it must have on the rising generation1 are only too apparent4 ,these reflections may not at first sight seem to have a very direct bearing on the interests for which this magazine is supposed to stand1 but to our mind science1 in the broad sense1 has no function so important as that of settling the education of the young upon a right moral basis4 ,no system of education deserves to be called scientific that does not place the idea of justice at the very foundation of human life4 ,you can not do this1 however1 without making it a working principle1 and without inculcating a belief in it as such4 ,applying the principle to national affairs1 we see at once that a strong nation which desires to be just will take no advantage of its strength in its dealings with other nations4 ,if it has a demand to make1 it will make it simply in the name of justice1 and cast no sidelong glances at its up-to-date battle ships or its well-equipped battalions4 ,it will have unbounded patience with weaker communities1 which1 rightly or wrongly1 may seem to think they have right on their side4 ,it will not be ashamed to shrink from the shedding of blood4 ,the 8young barbarians0 of our public schools are always only too ready to exalt might above right2 but the judicious teacher into whom the true spirit of science has entered will seize every favorable opportunity for inculcating the great lesson that the moral law has a way of vindicating itself in the end1 and that the inheritance of the earth has been promised not to the quarrelsome or the overweening1 but to the meek4 ,a generation brought up on these principles would be slow to make war1 and their influence on the world would be in every way powerful for good4 ,,language ,,and ,,life4 ,the ordinary school education in language and grammar is doubtless responsible for the impression which we find existing in so many minds that1 in all matters of verbal expression1 there is some one absolute standard of authority to which it implies simply ignorance not to bow--some supreme court1 as it were1 empowered to decide for us what words we are to use1 how we are to pronounce them1 and what rules of syntax we are to follow4 ,it would be difficult1 doubtless1 to impart to children or very young people the wider and more scientific view of language1 inasmuch as they need1 in the first place1 clear guidance as regards usage rather than correct theory4 ,the idea1 therefore1 with which they grow up1 if their school studies take any hold upon them at all and if no wider culture comes to change their way of looking at things1 is that some very wise man made an infallible grammar and another very wise man an infallible dictionary1 and that no one need be in doubt in regard to what is orthodox in language who has access to these tables of the law4 ,we have known grown-up persons to turn away with a very skeptical air1 and a kind of look as if they had found out a weak spot in your educational armor1 when they were told that really it was impossible to say which of two pronunciations of a word was right and which was wrong--that either might be employed without mortal offense against elegance of speech or good breeding4 ,a hidebound view of language tends so much to narrow thought on general subjects that it seems to us of importance that the true and scientific view of the subject should be brought forward whenever opportunity offers4 ,mr4 ,william ,archer1 the well-known ,english critic1 contributed an article not long ago to the ,pall ,mall ,magazine which might be read with much advantage by pedants and purists1 and all blind followers of authority4 ,he takes the broad ground that language is a transcript1 as it were1 of life1 and that as life widens and becomes more varied1 language must do the same4 ,it must reflect the fancy1 the imagination1 and the humor of the day1 and not merely the fancy1 imagination1 and humor of past generations4 ,if we want a language that is fixed and unalterable in its forms we must seek one that has ceased to be spoken by men4 ,even then we can not always get absolute decisions4 ,cicero is perhaps the best standard of ,latin prose1 but no competent critic would say that his writing was flawless4 ,we know that grammatical questions were much debated among the ancients1 and we have no doubt that many such questions were left unsettled4 ,in a living language there must be unsettled questions4 ,there is a constant struggle for life going on among the words and phrases with which men endeavor to express their ideas1 and1 at a given moment1 it is impossible to say which shall prosper1 this or that4 ,the word or phrase that prospers--that commends itself1 after adequate trial1 for expressiveness1 convenience1 or euphony1 or for any combination of useful qualities--will survive and become classic2 the expression that has nothing special to commend it1 beyond its novelty and slanginess1 will probably pass1 after a brief and partial currency1 into the vast limbo of the unfit4 ,all we can say of a word at a given moment is how far it has actually become current and what kind of society it keeps4 ,what its fortune will be we can only guess4 ,just as in the financial world great fortunes are sometimes very suddenly made and names before obscure spring into world-wide notoriety1 so1 in the realm of language1 a word of very uncertain ancestry and no social repute may assert its right to recognition and take its place among the best4 ,it does not follow from this that it can ever be a matter of indifference what words we use or what tricks we play with language1 any more than it can be a matter of indifference what personal habits we adopt4 ,language is the clothing of our thoughts1 and as such it may exhibit the same qualities which attach to the clothing of our bodies4 ,it may be marked by neatness and propriety1 or by slovenliness and want of taste4 ,some men are over-dressed1 and some affect over-fine language4 ,some go after the latest novelties in the tailoring world1 and some after the latest slang1 asserting thereby their resolution to be up to date4 ,it is needless to draw the parallel further1 but it is evident that there is wide scope in the choice of language for the exhibition of personal preference and personal character4 ,we think it safe to say that the interests of a language1 considered as an instrument of thought1 will be best promoted by those who pay due respect to its established forms1 and only countenance such neologisms as make good their claim to acceptance by supplying a real want4 ,mr4 ,archer1 in the article we have referred to1 states1 and we do not doubt with truth1 that the ,english language has been greatly enriched and strengthened by the fact that it has been spoken and written by millions of people on this side of the ,atlantic1 leading an intense and vigorous life of their own1 under conditions very different in many respects from those prevailing in the mother country4 ,the language moves with a freer step1 beats with a stronger pulse1 and assumes a more imperial bearing from the fact that it expresses the activity and sums up the life of the foremost communities of the human race in both hemispheres4 ,a great classical scholar not long ago wrote a letter to an ,english weekly newspaper expressing a very contemptuous estimate of the ,french language1 as being only a degraded form of ,latin4 ,he thought it a great disgrace to the language that it had no better word for 8much0 than beaucoup1 which1 as he learnedly explained1 came from two ,latin words meaning 8fine0 and 8blow40 ,the most cursory examination of any language will show that it abounds in just such verbal devices4 ,we do not in ,english put the words 8great0 and 8stroke0 together1 but1 using them separately1 we say 8a great stroke0 of luck and of many other things when there is no question of 8striking0 at all4 ,in the same way we would say 8a great hit10 when there is no question of hitting1 except by remote analogy4 ,languages grow rich and flexible precisely by the adoption of such convenient combinations4 ,what they may originally have meant becomes a matter of little moment when once they have become thoroughly accepted and thoroughly expressive4 ,after they have become welded together1 as sometimes happens1 in one word1 it is an advantage rather than otherwise if the separate meanings of their constituent parts become lost to all except the professional etymologist4 ,as long as the separate parts retain their separate meaning some sense of incongruity will sometimes arise in connection with the use of the term4 ,thus to say 8a handful of corn0 is all right1 but one might feel that it was not all right to say 8a mere handful of men40 ,yet it would be futile to criticise the expression which has become idiomatic ,english4 ,if the word 8handful0 had parted with its essential meaning as completely as say the word 8troop0 has1 for all but etymologists1 there would be no kind of incongruity in its employment for any small number or quantity whatsoever4 ,the scientific view of language1 then1 is that it represents the effort of mankind to use audible symbols for the expression of thought2 that it follows the development of man's activity and enlarges with his enlarging knowledge1 and comprehension of things2 that while its object is essentially a practical one it gathers beauty with use and age1 and begins to react on the minds of its makers2 that its makers are the people1 not the grammarians1 these being merely its policemen1 who1 useful in general1 are sometimes too officious2 that great writers are the architects who felicitously arrange materials which the people have gathered and shaped1 placing the best of such materials where they can be seen to best advantage2 finally1 that the language of each nation is its most precious possession1 the record of its civilization1 and the repository of all that is best in its moral and intellectual life1 and that it is therefore the duty of all who make any pretensions to liberal training to watch over their heritage and1 while allowing all reasonable scope for further development1 to guard it by all means in their power against degradation and pollution4 ,a great people will have a great language3 when a language shows signs of weakness or declension1 there is reason to fear for the civilization of which it is the expression4 ,fragments of ,science4 8,dark ,lightning40--,the attention of meteorologists and photographers has been engaged to a considerable extent1 within a few months past1 with the appearance on photographs of lightning of what seemed to be dark flashes as well as bright ones4 ,in the effort to account satisfactorily for the phenomenon it has been referred to photographic reversal1 due to extreme brilliancy2 to a predominance of infra-red radiations2 to the existence of flashes deficient in actinic rays2 to changes in the density of the air occasioned by the spark1 when a dark line with a light line within it is shown if the air is compressed1 and a light line inclosing a dark one if it is rarefied2 and to some qualities of the photographic plate4 ,the first real light was thrown on the subject by some experiments described by ,mr4 ,a4 ,w4 ,clayden1 who1 having photographed some electric sparks of different intensities1 before developing the plates exposed them to the diffused light of a gas flame4 ,the brilliant sparks then yielded images which might either be called normal with a reversed margin1 or reversed with a normal core1 while the fainter images were completely reversed--or1 in other words1 came out darker than the background4 ,the 8fogging0 of the picture1 to produce this reversal1 must be done after the image of the flash is impressed2 for if it is done before1 the image appears lighter than the background4 ,this effect1 which is called the 8,clayden effect10 is accepted as a satisfactory explanation of the phenomenon by two of the authors who have most studied it--,dr4 ,w4 ,j4 ,s4 ,lockyer and ,prof4 ,r4 ,w4 ,wood1 of the ,university of ,wisconsin4 ,professor ,wood1 on repeating ,mr4 ,clayden's experiment1 obtained dark flashes without any difficulty1 but as they failed to appear when the light of an incandescent lamp was substituted for the electric spark1 he concludes that there is something in the spark essential to the reversal4 ,dr4 ,lockyer summarizes his conclusion by saying that dark-lightning flashes 8do not exist in ,nature1 but their appearances on photographs are due to some chemical action which takes place in the gelatin film40 99 99 99 99 99 8,warming ,up40--8,warming up0 is the expressive term of general currency1 which ,dr4 ,e4 ,g4 ,lancaster adopts to denote the process in which one starting on any work in a little while suffers a short period of fatigue1 from which he soon recovers1 to go on with new and increased vigor4 ,this occurs in the course of walks1 with students engaged in earnest reading or in writing1 and in animals1 as in dogs on the chase1 the animals pursued1 and racehorses4 8,it is said of two famous trotters1 each of which has reduced the world's record within a few years1 that the period of warming up was very characteristic4444 ,athletes1 especially ball players1 realize the importance of practice just before the games1 to be followed by a slight rest4 ,a pitcher would hardly enter the box till he had got his arm in working order by a few minutes' practice4 ,orators often are dull at first1 but warm up4 ,it is said that ,wendell ,phillips was often hissed for his slow1 uninteresting speech1 but rallied to the occasion at such times with his masterly oratory40 ,dr4 ,lancaster has experimented on the phenomena1 using a method like those of ,mosso and of ,lombard in the psychological laboratory at ,clark ,university1 and publishes the results1 with details and curves1 in the papers of the ,colorado ,college ,scientific ,society4 ,he tried ten or twelve subjects1 experimenting on the middle finger of the right hand1 and gaining most of his results from four or five persons4 ,he finds that warming up is general1 but not universal4 ,one subject always did his best work first4 ,he likewise showed no warming up in his mental work4 ,the phenomenon called 8second mind0 is closely allied to warming up1 but is not the same4 ,the author is of the opinion that the importance of this process is greatly misunderstood4 99 99 99 99 99 ,sixty ,years' ,improvements in ,steamships4--,a review of what has been accomplished in sixty years in the improvement of transatlantic traffic1 given by ,sir ,william ,h4 ,white in his address at the ,british ,association on ,steam ,navigation at ,high ,speeds1 shows that speed has been increased from eight and a half to twenty-two and a half knots an hour1 and the time of the voyage has been brought down to about thirty-eight per cent of what it was in #ahch4 ,ships have been more than trebled in length1 about doubled in breadth1 and increased tenfold in displacement4 ,the number of passengers carried by a steamship has been enlarged from about one hundred to nearly two thousand4 ,the engine power has been made forty times as great4 ,the ratio of horse power to the weight driven has been quadrupled4 ,the rate of coal consumption per horse power per hour is now only about one third what it was in #ahdj4 ,had the old rate of coal consumption continued1 instead of three thousand tons of coal1 nine thousand would have been required for a voyage at twenty-two knots4 ,had the engines been proportionately as heavy as those in use sixty years ago1 they would have weighed about fourteen thousand tons4 ,in other words1 machinery1 boilers1 and coal would have exceeded the total weight of the ,campania as she floats to-day4 8,there could not be a more striking illustration than this of the close relation between improvements in marine engineering at high speed4 ,equally true is it that this development could not have been accomplished but for the use of improved materials and structural arrangements40 99 99 99 99 99 ,american ,advances in ,forestry4--,the ,department of ,agriculture having determined to prepare a book for the ,paris ,exposition1 reviewing what has been accomplished in scientific agriculture in the ,united ,states1 the ,division of ,forestry will contribute to it a short history of forestry in the ,united ,states1 with an account of the efforts of private landholders to apply the principles of forestry4 ,much more has been accomplished in the ,united ,states in the way of forestry than has been supposed4 ,mr4 ,pinchot1 the forester of the division1 holds that wherever private owners have made the effort to use the merchantable timber on their woodland without injuring its productive power1 and to establish new forests1 there has been the intention of true forestry4 ,the methods may have been imperfect1 but they have tended toward economic forest management so far as their object was the continued use of the land for producing woods4 ,among the measures looking in this direction ,mr4 ,pinchot mentions in his circular the practice which has been adopted 8because it pays10 in some of the spruce lands of the ,northwest1 of leaving the small trees standing1 so that the lumbermen can return for a second crop earlier than would otherwise be possible2 and the adoption by farmers of methods in getting their wood1 for saving the best trees and promoting their growth and that of the new ones2 of keeping sprout lands to be cut over regularly and systematically1 for periodical renewal1 and of tree planting on waste places1 hillsides liable to be washed1 and the banks of streams4 ,other forms of planting are the institution of wind breaks in the treeless ,west1 and special plantations for fence posts1 etc4 ,a kind of forestry practice is likewise indicated in the special pains that are taken by farmers and in lumbering districts to lessen the danger of fires4 ,forester ,pinchot desires that all the information that can be gained be communicated to him for the proposed article4 99 99 99 99 99 ,professor ,putnam on the ,origins of the ,american ,races4--,in his address as retiring ,president of the ,american ,association1 ,prof4 ,f4 ,w4 ,putnam1 after expressing his high opinion of the late ,dr4 ,d4 ,g4 ,brinton and his scientific labors1 referred to the differences of opinion that had existed between them in respect to the origin of the ,american peoples1 and proceeded to expound his own views on the subject4 ,he regarded the term 8mound-builders0 as comprehensive enough to include all the peoples who had left the marks of their former presence in this country4 ,even the shell heaps could not be regarded as the work of one people4 ,from the time of the earliest deposits--which were of great antiquity--to the present1 such refuse piles had been made and many of the sites reoccupied1 sometimes even by a different people4 ,so with the mounds of earth and stone2 many of them are of great antiquity1 while others were made within the historic period1 and even during the first half of the present century4 ,these works were devoted to a variety of purposes1 and there are many different kinds of them4 ,besides the mounds1 there are groups of earthworks of a different order of structure1 that must be considered by themselves--great embankments1 fortifications1 and singular structures on hills and plateaus that are in marked contrast to the ordinary conical mounds1 and mounds in the form of animals and of man4 ,the considerable antiquity of these older earthworks is proved by the accumulation of mold and the forest growth upon them4 8,if all mounds of shell1 earth1 or stone1 fortifications on hills1 or places of religious and ceremonial rites1 are classed1 irrespective of their structure1 contents1 or time of formation1 as the work of one people1 and that people is designated as the #8,american ,indian' or the #8,american race1' and considered the only people ever inhabiting ,america north and south1 we are simply 444 not giving fair consideration to differences1 while overestimating resemblances40 ,citing analogies between our earthworks and ,mexican structures1 and looking upon the ,pueblos as a connecting link1 8we must regard the culture of the builders of the ancient earthworks as one and the same with that of ancient ,mexico1 although modified by environment4 ,our northern and eastern tribes came in contact with this people when they pushed their way southward and westward1 and many of their arts and customs still linger among some of our ,indian tribes4 ,it is this absorption and admixture of the stocks that has in the course of thousands of years brought all our peoples into a certain uniformity4 ,this does not1 however1 prove a unity of race40 99 99 99 99 99 ,heat ,insulators4--,mr4 ,c4 ,l4 ,norton has made experiments1 at the request of ,mr4 ,edward ,atkinson1 in order to determine the relative efficiency of several kinds of steam-pipe covering now on the market2 to ascertain the fire risk attendant upon the use of certain methods and materials employed for insulation of steam pipes2 to show the gain in economy attendant upon the increase of thickness of coverings2 and to find the exact financial return that may be expected from a given outlay for covering steam pipes4 ,a method of experimentation was adopted which represented as nearly as practicable the conditions existing in the actual use of steam pipes4 ,of sixteen non-conducting preparations tried1 the most efficient were found to be those made of cork2 next was a cover composed of an inner jacket of earthy material and an outer jacket of wool felt2 and next magnesia4 ,in reference to the last substance it is1 however1 observed that1 while it is a most effective non-conductor1 the name has been applied to many compounds of which the greater part consist of carbonate of lime or plaster of ,paris1 materials which are not good as heat retardents4 ,asbestos is merely a non-combustible material in which air may be entrapped1 but1 when non-porous1 is a good conductor of heat4 ,generally speaking1 a cover saves heat enough to pay for itself in a little less than a year at three hundred and ten ten-hour days1 and in about four months at three hundred and sixty-five twenty-four-hour days4 ,the decision as to the choice of cover must1 however1 come from other considerations1 as well as from that of non-conductivity4 ,ability to withstand the action of heat for a prolonged period without being destroyed or rendered less efficient is of vital importance4 ,the cork coverings were found to respond to this test extremely well1 and there can be no question respecting magnesia2 but ,mr4 ,norton does not consider it safe to put upon a steam pipe wool1 hair1 felt1 or woolen felt in any form1 though the danger is not likely to accrue when an inch of fireproof material stands between the felt and the pipe4 ,in general it may be said that if five years is the life of a cover1 one inch is the most economical thickness1 while a cover which has a life of ten years may to advantage be made two inches thick4 ,the method of judging a pipe cover by the warmth felt on putting the hand upon it is fallacious2 the sensation depends so much upon the nature of the surface that it utterly fails to give any idea of the actual temperature4 99 99 99 99 99 ,effect of ,sea ,water on ,soil4--,in a paper read at the ,british ,association1 #ahii1 on the chemical effect of the salts of the salt-water flood of ,november #bg1 #ahig1 on the east coast of ,england1 ,messrs4 ,t4 ,s4 ,dymond and ,f4 ,hughes recorded the remarkable result that1 although the proportion of salt left in the soil was insufficient to prove injurious to growing crops1 the earthworms were entirely removed1 with the consequence that very few crops were worth harvesting the following year4 ,in the next year nine tenths of the salt at first present had disappeared from the soil1 and young worms had again made their appearance1 but still the condition of the soil remained unsatisfactory1 the rate of percolation of water through the flooded earth being only one half as rapid as through the unflooded4 ,the authors ascribe this to the action of the chlorides of the sea water on the silicates of the soil with the formation of silicate of alumina in a gelatinous condition4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,war against ,monopolies4--,mr4 ,robert ,ewen writes1 in the ,westminster ,review1 demanding free bank circulation as likely to be a very effective weapon to be used in 8the coming contest with monopolists40 ,the subject seems to have attracted official attention in ,england in #ahge1 when ,sir ,stafford ,northcote was ,chancellor of the ,exchequer4 ,as chairman of the committee appointed to inquire into the working of the ,bank ,acts1 he submitted a memorandum showing that1 while certain items of the monopoly enjoyed by the ,bank of ,england had been withdrawn1 a residuum of restrictions on issuing banks still remained unrepealed4 ,some other countries have found a way of giving elasticity to the currency by buying in and laying aside their bonds1 as the ,united ,states has recently been doing4 ,this can not be done in ,great ,britain1 because the ,bank of ,england and the other bank monopolists block the way4 ,the bank is tied down by acts of ,parliament to buy and sell gold at a fixed price1 and this restriction has been a cause of panics1 whereas had gold been allowed to rise and fall in price1 according to supply and demand1 and the bank got a free hand in dealing with that commodity and in issuing legal notes to supply the circulating medium1 8all would have gone well40 ,foreign protectionists now have the power to prevent ,british goods from getting into their markets by imposing heavy duties on them1 and at the same time forcing their produce into ,british markets1 because ,english laws allow them to get gold from the ,english cheaper than their goods can be obtained4 8,suppose a merchant in ,britain buys #ajj1jjj worth of corn from ,america and gives a check on the ,bank of ,england for the amount of the purchase4 ,the ,american draws the #ajj1jjj in gold and takes it home2 he will have to pay no export or import duty thereon--indeed1 the probability is he may get a premium on the gold in ,america4 ,but reverse the transaction3 ,suppose the ,british merchant sold #ajj1jjj worth of his goods to ,america1 there would1 in the first place1 be the exorbitant duty imposed there upon our manufactures of from forty to fifty per cent4 ,or suppose our merchant wished to buy corn or any ,american produce in exchange for his goods in place of bringing money1 the case would be different--it would tell against the ,american farmer1 who would get a less price for his corn1 etc41 than he would have done by free trade40 ,this instance is given 8to show how free trade in gold would bring about free trade and reciprocity between the ,united ,states and ,britain1 and is applicable to every other state with which we trade4444 ,there should be full scope given to all good banks in the country1 large or small1 to carry on banking business in the best modern manner for the benefit of all parties1 so as to encourage and develop all trades and industries40 99 99 99 99 99 ,rats and the ,plague4--,in his introductory address at the opening of the ,london ,school of ,tropical ,medicine1 ,dr4 ,manson preached a war of extermination against rats with the vigor of ,cato calling for the destruction of ,carthage4 8,were ,i asked10 he said1 8how ,i would protect a state from plague1 ,i would certainly answer1 ,exterminate the rats as a first and most important measure40 ,he added1 8,at the present juncture1 were ,i the responsible sanitary head of any town in ,europe1 in anticipation of a possibility compared to which in horror and in destructiveness a general ,european war would be a trifle1 ,i would do my best to have every rat and1 if possible1 every mouse in my district promptly exterminated40 ,dr4 ,manson does not reveal his plan of campaign4 ,wholesale poisoning of sewers might have serious disadvantages1 and there would be difficulties about inveigling the rodent population of these subterranean health resorts 7as some enthusiasts consider them to be7 into a lethal chamber4 ,are we to cry havoc and let slip the cats of war8 or to hurl an army of snakes against the foe8 ,in either case we might find ourselves in the awkward position of a king who had called a too powerful auxiliary to his aid4 ,already action is being taken on the rat theory of plague4 ,the ,french ,government has ordered that special precautions are to be taken to prevent the importation of rats in vessels from plague-stricken places4 ,it is to be hoped that similar precautions will be taken in regard to the transports which convey the ,indian contingent to the ,cape1 or the situation there may become complicated by the intervention of an enemy who will deal destruction impartially to ,boers and to ,britons4 99 99 99 99 99 ,forestry in ,california4--,as a remedy for the devastation of the forest lands of ,california1 ,marsden ,manson1 having shown that ,government administrations with politics in them can not be trusted in the matter1 recommends that all forest reservations and public lands upon mountain slopes within the borders of the ,state be granted to the ,university of ,california in trust1 for the purpose of maintaining1 developing1 and extending the water supply of those regions forever4 ,for this purpose the regents should be empowered to lease1 under proper control1 the timber cutting and pasturage privileges of those areas1 and to use the resultant fund to protect the catchment areas1 to maintain a college of practical forestry1 to construct reservoirs at such points as may be necessary to the industries of the ,state1 and dispose of the water for the benefit of the trust1 to acquire mountain lands to be added to the catchment areas1 and to do all such things as may maintain wise systems of forest and water conservation and use4 ,the extent of income-bearing property which can be made available for forest preservation and storage of flood waters1 ,mr4 ,manson says1 is far beyond the general idea4 99 99 99 99 99 ,another ,new ,element4--,the mineral pitchblende is distinguished for its radio-activity1 or the property it has of emitting the peculiar light-rays which have recently attracted attention4 ,the property has been attributed to the presence of uranium1 one of the most radio-active among the known metals4 ,about a year ago the chemists ,m4 and ,madame ,curie1 examining the different substances in pitchblende1 found among them two new radiant substances1 both more active than uranium1 which they called polonium and radium4 ,polonium was found to be closely akin to bismuth1 accompanying that metal in all its reactions1 but separable from it by fractionation4 ,radium resembles barium in its chemical reactions4 ,recently ,m4 ,a4 ,debierne1 examining one of the products of solution and precipitation of pitchblende1 observed intensified radio-active properties in a portion containing titanium1 and on further investigation found still another substance showing the principal analytical properties of titanium1 but which emitted extremely active rays4 ,while these rays were comparable with those observed from polonium and radium1 the chemical properties are entirely different from those of these substances4 ,radium1 however1 is spontaneously luminous1 while the new substance is not4 ,,minor ,,paragraphs4 ,some recent experiments were made by ,armand ,gautier on the amount of the chlorides contained in sea air4 ,they were conducted at the lighthouse at ,rochedouvres1 situated about fifty-five kilometres from the coast1 during and after the long continuance of a good breeze directly inshore from the ,atlantic4 ,the air was drawn through a long tube containing glasswork1 and this well then analyzed4 ,he found that in a litre of air there was only #j4jbb of a gramme of chloride of sodium4 ,small as this quantity is1 it suffices1 perhaps1 with the aid of the traces of sodium present1 to give sea air its tonic qualities4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the second ,international ,congress on ,hypnotism is to be held in ,paris1 ,august #ab to #af1 #aijj1 ,dr4 ,jules ,voisin presiding4 ,the programme of discussions includes such topics as the terminology of hypnotism1 its relations to hysteria1 its application to general therapeutics1 the indications of it and suggestions for the treatment of mental disease and alcoholism1 its application to general pedagogy and mental orthopdics1 its value as a means of pathological investigation1 its relation to the practice of medicine and to jurisprudence1 and special responsibilities arising from the practice of experimental hypnotism4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the following is from a recent letter to ,science by ,prof4 ,james ,h4 ,hyslop1 of ,columbia ,university3 8,so much has been published far and wide this last summer about my intention #8to scientifically demonstrate the immortality of the soul within a year1' that it is due to the facts bearing upon the choice between materialism and spiritism to say that ,i have never made any such professions as have been alleged4 ,i wish the scientific public that still has the bad habit of reading and believing the newspapers to know that ,i was careful to deny that ,i made any such pretensions as were so generally attributed to me4 ,more than one half the interviews alleged to have been held with me were the fabrications of reporters who never saw me1 and the other half omitted what ,i did say and published what ,i did not say40 99 99 99 99 99 ,some novel results have been obtained by ,m4 ,baillaud1 of the ,toulouse ,observatory1 ,france1 from recent observations of the annular nebula in ,lyra and comparisons with photographs taken in #ahij4 ,among them are the discovery of small stars in the central space of the ring1 the existence of bright points on the ring itself1 a more distinct figure of the central star on the later photographs1 giving it the aspect of a true star1 and greater brightness in the central space1 and certain changes in the shape of the edge of the ring1 which shows at one point1 more distinctly than in #ahij1 an eminence indicating a jet of matter escaping from the ring4 ,other nebul1 especially that called the ,dumb-bell and the nebula in the ,crown1 are spoken of as exhibiting similar phenomena4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,chicago ,manual-,training ,school1 which is said to be the first independent manual-training school in the ,united ,states1 is now in its sixteenth year1 having been founded in #ahhc by the ,commercial ,club of ,chicago4 ,it has been1 since #ahig1 an integral part of the ,university of ,chicago4 ,while its peculiar feature is manual training1 it also furnishes instruction in the essential studies of a high-school course4 ,the shop work and drawing are eminently practical4 ,the making of a machine1 such as a lathe or steam engine1 is begun by the pupils in the drawing room1 and is followed by them through the pattern-making shop1 the foundry1 and the forge room1 and is perfected in the machine shop4 ,the forge tools and engine-lathe tools are made by pupils4 ,the courses of the school include a business course1 a technological course1 and a college preparatory course4 ,,notes4 ,the ,massachusetts ,institute of ,technology has received1 by the will of ,mr4 ,edward ,austin1 deceased at the age of ninety-four years1 a bequest of #djj1jjj1 the interest of which is to be used for the assistance of needy and meritorious teachers in prosecuting their studies4 ,in addition to this bequest1 the institute received1 during #ahih1 an accession of #ibh1jjj to its general funds1 and one of #df1jjj to its scholarship funds4 99 99 99 99 99 ,at the recent meeting of the ,allied ,scientific ,societies1 at ,new ,haven1 ,conn41 ,mr4 ,g4 ,k4 ,gilbert1 of the ,united ,states ,geological ,survey1 was chosen to act as retiring ,president of the ,american ,association for the ,advancement of ,science1 in place of ,prof4 ,edward ,orton1 deceased4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the meeting of the ,allied ,scientific ,societies of the ,united ,states was held in ,new ,haven1 ,conn41 during holiday week4 ,it was much larger than either of the meetings previously held1 and was attended by nearly five hundred members1 representing ten societies--viz41 the ,american ,society of ,naturalists1 the ,association of ,american ,anatomists1 the ,american ,morphological1 ,physiological1 ,psychological1 and ,chemical ,societies1 the ,society for ,plant ,morphology and ,physiology1 the ,american ,association for the ,advancement of ,science1 and the ,archological ,association of ,america4 ,the discussions were all interesting4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the great ,roman ,catholic ,missionary ,society1 the ,sacred ,congregation of the ,propagation of the ,faith1 is reported to have sent a circular to all its missionaries urging them to interest themselves in the collection of natural-history specimens for scientific societies and institutions4 ,this is intended1 it is said1 to interest and encourage missionaries who have a scientific bent1 and to inform the world that the ,church is not hostile to biological research4 99 99 99 99 99 ,we have to record1 among the later deaths of men in science1 the names of ,francis ,guthrie1 formerly ,professor of ,mathematics in ,graaff ,reinet ,college and afterward in ,south ,african ,college till #ahih1 aged sixty-eight years2 he was interested in botany1 on which he gave public lectures1 and1 with ,harry ,bolus1 revised the order of ,heaths for ,flora capensis2 ,prof4 ,p4 ,knuth1 botanist and author of researches on the relations of insects and flowers and on cross-fertilization1 at ,kiel1 ,germany1 aged forty-five years2 he had published two of the projected three volumes of the ,handbuch der ,blten ,biologie2 ,prof4 ,r4 ,yatube1 ,japanese botanist2 ,ferdinand ,tiemann1 honorary ,professor of ,chemistry in the ,university of ,berlin2 ,alexander ,mc,dougall1 inventor1 sixty years ago1 of an atmospheric railway1 and since of many useful mechanical and chemical appliances1 at ,southport1 ,england2 ,dr4 ,camera ,pestana1 chief of the ,bacteriological ,institute at ,lisbon1 ,portugal1 of plague1 which he contracted while experimenting with it at ,oporto2 and ,prof4 ,elliott ,coues1 an ,american naturalist1 most distinguished in ornithology1 in ,johns ,hopkins ,hospital1 ,baltimore1 ,december #beth1 after a surgical operation1 aged sixty-seven years2 he had been a professor in ,norwich ,university1 ,vermont1 and in the ,national ,medical ,college in ,washington1 and had done scientific work while in the military service of the ,government1 in the ,geological ,survey1 and in the ,united ,states ,northern ,boundary ,commission2 and was the author of several books on ornithology and on the ,fur-bearing ,animals1 besides editing the journals of ,lewis and ,clark and other books of ,american exploration4 ,,publications ,,received4 ,agricultural ,experiment ,stations4 ,bulletins and ,reports4 ,cornell ,university3 ,no4 #agb4 ,the ,cherry ,fruit-,fly4 ,a ,new ,cherry ,pest4 ,by ,m4 ,v4 ,slingerland4 ,pp4 #bj4--,maryland3 ,twelfth ,annual ,report4 ,pp4 #bab4--,michigan3 ,horticultural ,department4 ,no4 #agf4 ,strawberry ,notes for #ahii4 ,by ,l4 ,r4 ,taft and ,h4 ,p4 ,gladden4 ,pp4 #ad4--,ohio3 ,press ,bulletin ,no4 #bjb4 ,results of ,sugar-,beet ,investigations in #ahii1 etc4 ,pp4 #b4--,united ,states ,department of ,agriculture3 ,practical ,forestry in the ,adirondacks4 ,by ,henry ,s4 ,graves4 ,pp4 #hd4 ,american ,chemical ,society1 ,journal of the4 ,vol4 ,,xxi1 ,no4 #ab4 ,december1 #ahii4 ,blatchley1 ,w4 ,s4 ,gleanings from ,nature4 ,indianapolis3 ,the ,nature ,publishing ,company4 ,pp4 #cdh4 ,capon ,springs ,conference1 ,the ,second1 on ,education in the ,south4 #ahii4 ,proceedings4 ,pp4 #aji4 ,catlin1 ,charles ,a4 ,baking ,powders4 ,a ,treatise on the ,character1 ,methods for the ,determination of the ,values1 etc4 ,providence1 ,r4 ,i43 ,rumford ,chemical ,works4 ,pp4 #dj4 ,field ,columbian ,museum1 ,chicago4 ,zological ,series4 ,vol4 ,i1 ,no4 #af4 ,list of ,mammals obtained by ,thaddeus ,surber1 chiefly in ,oklahoma and ,indian ,territories4 ,by ,d4 ,g4 ,elliot2 ,no4 #ag4 ,notes on a ,collection of ,fishes and ,amphibia from ,muskoka and ,gull ,lakes4 ,pp4 #f4 ,by ,s4 ,e4 ,meek and ,d4 ,g4 ,elliot4 ,knight1 ,w4 ,c41 and ,slosson1 ,e4 ,e4 ,the ,oil ,fields of ,crook and ,uinta ,counties1 ,wyoming4 ,university of ,wyoming1 ,laramie4 7,petroleum ,series1 ,bulletin ,no4 #c47 ,pp4 #cj4 ,lange1 ,d4 ,our ,native ,birds4 ,how to protect them and attract them to our ,homes4 ,new ,york3 ,the ,macmillan ,company4 ,pp4 #afb4 #a4 ,manson1 ,marsden1 ,san ,francisco1 ,cal4 ,the ,evolution of ,climates4 ,pp4 #ajj4 ,morgan1 ,william1 #if ,bowery1 ,new ,york4 ,a ,new ,scientific ,discovery4 ,the ,correct ,reason why the ,magnetic ,needle points to the ,pole4 ,pp4 #ad4 ,new ,epoch1 ,the1 ,publishing ,company4 ,the ,bibliography of ,progressive ,literature4 ,new ,york4 ,p4 ,o4 ,box #acf1 ,madison ,square ,branch4 ,pp4 #if4 ,orcutt1 ,h4 ,e4 ,the ,empire of the ,invisibles4 ,new ,york3 ,the ,metaphysical ,publishing ,company4 ,pp4 #hj4 #a4 ,peabody ,education ,fund4 ,proceedings of the ,trustees at their ,twenty-eighth ,annual ,meeting4 ,new ,york1 ,october #d1 #ahii4 ,pp4 #eh4 ,sunset4 ,vol4 ,,iii1 ,no4 #f4 ,october1 #ahii4 ,monthly4 ,san ,francisco1 ,cal4 ,southern ,pacific ,railway ,company4 ,pp4 #bd4 ,starr1 ,frederick1 ,chicago1 ,ill4 ,some ,north ,american ,spear-,throwers4 ,pp4 #c1 with plate2 ,survivals of ,paganism in ,mexico1 ,pp4 #ad2 ,the ,international ,congress of ,prehistoric ,archology4 ,pp4 #h2 ,holy ,week in ,mexico4 ,pp4 #f2 ,the ,art of ,benin ,city1 ,pp4 #h4 ,turner1 ,mrs4 ,m4 ,m4 ,the ,bible ,god1 ,bible ,teachings1 ,selections from the ,writings of ,scientists4 7,library of ,liberal ,classics47 ,new ,york3 ,peter ,eckler4 ,pp4 #aci4 #be cents4 ,united ,states ,commission of ,fish and ,fisheries4 ,pamphlet ,no4 #dbd4 ,experiments in ,photography of ,live ,fishes4 ,by ,r4 ,w4 ,shufeldt4 ,pp4 #e1 with nine plates2 ,no4 #dbe4 ,notes on the ,tide-,pool ,fishes of ,california1 with a ,description of ,four ,new ,species4 ,by ,arthur ,white ,greeley4 ,pp4 #bj2 ,no4 #dbf4 ,the ,synaptas of the ,new ,england ,coast4 ,by ,hubert ,lyman ,clark4 ,pp4 #ab1 with plate2 ,no4 #dbg4 ,descriptions of ,new ,genera and ,species of ,fishes from ,puerto ,rico4 ,by ,barton ,w4 ,evermann and ,millard ,c4 ,marsh4 ,pp4 #ab4 ,united ,states ,national ,museum 7,smithsonian ,institution74 ,directions for collecting and rearing ,dragon ,flies1 ,stone ,flies1 and ,may ,flies4 ,by ,james ,g4 ,needham4 ,pp4 #ab2 ,contributions to the ,natural ,history of the ,commander ,islands4 7,a ,new ,species of ,stalked ,medus1 ,haliclystus ,stejnegeri47 ,by ,k4 ,kishinouye4 ,pp4 #e2 ,report for the ,year ending ,june #cj1 #ahig4 ,part ,i4 ,pp4 #ajba4 ,university of ,california4 ,the ,inauguration of ,benjamin ,ide ,wheeler as ,president of the ,university4 ,berkeley3 ,university ,press4 ,pp4 #cj4 ,ward1 ,lester ,f41 ,jenney1 ,w4 ,f41 ,fontaine1 ,w4 ,m41 and ,knowlton1 ,f4 ,h4 ,the ,cretaceous ,formation of the ,black ,hills as indicated by the ,fossil ,plants4 ,united ,states ,geological ,survey4 ,pp4 #ahh4 ,transcribers' ,notes ,punctuation1 hyphenation1 and spelling were made consistent when a predominant preference was found in this book2 otherwise they were not changed4 ,simple typographical errors were corrected2 occasional unbalanced quotation marks retained4 ,ambiguous hyphens at the ends of lines were retained4 ,words originally printed in ,greek are shown that way in some versions of this e,book4 ,english transliterations were added to all versions by the ,transcribers and are indicated by ,greek3 4 ,page #dfg3 8,magna ,charta0 was printed that way4 ,page #ejg3 ,quotation beginning 8we must regard0 was not ended by a closing quotation mark4 ,transcriber added one at the end of the paragraph1 after 8prove a unity of race40