,transcriber's note3 ,table of ,contents added by ,transcriber4 ,bold text is indicated with equals signs1 italics with underscores4 ,,contents ,advance of ,astronomy ,during the ,nineteenth ,century #bhi ,the ,applications of ,explosives #cjj ,a ,paradoxical ,anarchist #cab ,what ,makes the ,trolley ,car ,go #caf ,woman's ,struggle ,for ,liberty in ,germany #cbh ,scenes on the ,planets #ccg ,professor ,ward on 8,naturalism and ,agnosticism0 #cdi ,destructive ,effects of ,vagrant ,electricity #ceg ,winter ,birds in a ,city ,park #cff ,old ,rattler and the ,king ,snake #cga ,remarkable ,volcanic ,eruptions in the ,philippines #cgd ,the ,scavengers of the ,body #cgi ,editor's ,table #che ,fragments of ,science #chh ,minor ,paragraphs #cie ,publications ,received #cii ,established by ,edward ,l4 ,youmans ,,appletons' ,,popular ,,science ,,monthly ,,edited ,,by ,,william ,,jay ,,youmans ,,vol4 ,,lvi ,,november1 #ahii1 ,,to ,,april1 #aijj ,,new ,,york ,d4 ,,appleton ,,and ,,company #aijj ,,copyright1 #aijj1 ,,by ,d4 ,,appleton ,,and ,,company4 ,,appletons' ,,popular ,,science ,,monthly4 ,,january1 #aijj4 ,,advance ,,of ,,astronomy ,,during ,,the ,,nineteenth ,,century4 ,,by ,,sir ,,robert ,,ball1 ,,lowndean ,,professor ,,of ,,astronomy ,,at ,,the ,,university ,,of ,,cambridge1 ,,england4 ,one of the most remarkable chapters in the astronomy of the past century was commenced on the very first night with which that century began4 ,it was1 indeed1 on the #ast of ,january1 #ahja1 that the discovery of a new planet was announced4 ,the five great orbs--,jupiter1 ,saturn1 ,mercury1 ,mars1 and ,venus--had been known from the earliest times of which we have records1 and the planet ,uranus had been discovered nearly twenty years before the previous century closed4 ,the solar system was thus thought to consist of these six planets and1 of course1 the earth4 ,on the memorable night to which ,i have referred1 ,piazzi1 the astronomer1 made a remarkable advance4 ,he discovered yet another planet--the seventh1 or eighth1 if the earth be included4 ,the new body was a small object in comparison with those which were previously known4 ,it was invisible to the unaided eye1 and seemed no more than a starlike point even when viewed through a telescope4 ,it revolved around the sun in the wide region between the orbits of ,mars and ,jupiter4 ,this discovery was speedily followed by others of the same kind1 and1 as the century has advanced to its close1 the numbers of these planets--asteroids1 as they are generally called--has been gradually increasing1 so much so that now1 of these little bodies known to astronomers1 the number amounts to about four hundred and fifty4 ,but just as the beginning of the century was heralded by the discovery of the first of these asteroids1 so the close of the century will be signalized in the history of astronomy by the detection among these little objects of one which has entirely cast into the shade all other discoveries of the same nature4 ,on the night of the #acth of ,august1 #ahih1 a ,german astronomer1 ,herr ,witt1 exposed a photographic plate to the heavens in his telescope in the ,observatory of ,urania1 at ,berlin4 ,on that plate a picture of the heavens was obtained1 and in that picture a new planet was revealed4 ,at first the discovery of one more asteroid does not imply very much4 ,hundreds of such planets might be found1 and indeed have been found1 and yet no particular comment has been called forth4 ,but this planet found by ,witt is a unique object2 it is more interesting than the whole of the four hundred and thirty-two other minor planets which have preceded it--not1 indeed1 on account of its size1 for ,witt's planet is a wholly insignificant object from this point of view4 ,the special interest which this new planet has for us dwellers on the earth lies in the fact that it seems to be the nearest to the earth of all the other worlds in space--the moon1 of course1 excepted4 ,this is the reason why the attention of all who are interested in the science of astronomy has been concentrated on ,witt's discovery4 ,it is certainly the most interesting telescopic revelation which has been made for many years4 ,it may illustrate a characteristic feature in the progress of modern astronomy if ,i describe how ,witt succeeded in obtaining this picture4 ,he had selected one of the most rapid plates that the skilled manufacturer can supply to the photographer4 ,he put this plate into his telescope1 and he directed it to the heavens4 ,if that plate had been used in broad daylight for the more ordinary purpose of obtaining a photographic portrait1 an exposure of half a second would have been quite long enough4 ,but the very faint stars can not work their charm on the plate with equal rapidity2 a second is not long enough1 nor is ten seconds1 nor even ten minutes4 ,if we desire to secure an imprint of the faintest stars we must expose the plate for an hour1 and sometimes for even much longer than an hour4 ,of course1 an exposure of such duration would utterly ruin the picture if a gleam of any other light obtained access4 ,but in the darkness of night the plate is secure from this danger4 ,each star is thus given time enough to impress its little image at leisure4 ,the photographer has often occasion to deplore the poorness of his light4 ,it is1 of course1 in the endeavor to counteract the poorness of the light that so long an exposure is frequently given4 ,but it will not be any longer supposed that1 from the astronomer's point of view1 a tedious exposure must necessarily be a disadvantage4 ,let it be henceforth recollected that it was the very requirement of a long exposure which led to the present important discovery4 ,if the stars had been bright enough to be photographed by an exposure not longer than a few seconds or even than a few minutes1 then this new and wonderful planet ,eros would not have been revealed4 ,many points of light which were undoubtedly stars1 and merely stars1 were shown on this picture taken by the ,german astronomer at ,urania4 ,among these points of light was1 however1 one object which1 though in appearance hardly distinguishable from a faint star1 was in truth a body of a very different character4 ,no telescope1 however powerful1 would show by mere inspection any appreciable difference between the dot of light indicating a star and the dot of light indicating the asteroid ,eros4 ,the fundamental difference between the star and ,eros was1 however1 revealed by the long exposure4 ,the stars in such a picture are1 of course1 at rest4 ,they have occupied for years and for centuries the places where we now find them4 ,if they are moving at all1 their movements are so slow that they need not now be considered4 ,but this starlike point1 or1 as we may at once call it1 this asteroid1 ,eros1 is moving4 ,not that its movements seem very rapid from the distance at which alone we are compelled to view it4 ,no casual glance would indicate that ,eros was flying along4 ,the ordinary observer would see no change in its place in a second--no change in its place even in a minute4 ,but when the exposure has lasted for an hour this asteroid1 in the course of the hour1 has moved quite appreciably4 ,hence arose a great difference between the representation which the photograph has given of the stars1 properly so called1 and of the asteroid4 ,each star is depicted as a sharp1 well-defined point4 ,this little body which is not a star1 this unsteady sitter in the picture1 could not be so represented2 it merely appeared as a streak4 ,the completed photograph accordingly shows a large number of well-marked dots for the stars1 and among them one faint line for the asteroid4 ,such a feature on a picture1 though very unusual1 does sometimes present itself4 ,to detect such a streak on a photograph of the stars is a moment of transcendent joy to the astronomer4 ,it is often for him the exciting occasion on which a discovery is made4 ,this little moving point is in actual fact as different from a star as a pebble is different from a brilliant electric light4 ,the resemblance of the asteroid to a star is merely casual2 the resemblance would wholly disappear if we were able to make a closer inspection4 ,the star is a brilliant blazing orb like a sun1 but so far away that its luster is diminished to that of a point2 the planet is comparatively near us2 it is a dark body like our earth1 and is like our earth also in this further respect that all the light it enjoys has been derived from the sun4 ,though there is this immense difference between a star and a planet1 yet the observer must not expect to notice any such difference by merely taking a peep through the telescope4 ,it was only the long exposure in the photograph that revealed the little body4 ,such is the manner in which an asteroid is generally discovered in these latter days4 ,a discovery like this comes as the well-earned reward of the skill and patience of the astronomical photographer4 ,there are1 indeed1 a large number of known asteroids2 our catalogues contained four hundred and thirty-two of them up to the time when ,witt exposed his now famous plate4 ,had the asteroid ,witt then found been merely as other asteroids1 it would never have received the prominent position that has now to be assigned to it in any account of the astronomy of the century4 ,that object found by ,witt on this night which is to be henceforth memorable in astronomy is of a wholly exceptional kind4 ,had ,eros been merely an ordinary asteroid1 ,witt might no doubt have received the credit to which his labors and success would have entitled him4 ,another asteroid would have been added to the long list of such objects already known1 but the newspapers would never have troubled their readers about the matter1 and the only persons who would have been affected would have been the astronomers1 and perhaps even among them no particular sympathy would have been felt in certain quarters4 ,those particular astronomers to whom has been intrusted the special work of looking after the asteroids and of calculating the tables of their movements might even have received with no very great enthusiasm the announcement of this further addition to the burden on their heavily laden shoulders4 ,i have said that ,eros is quite a small globe2 it may be well for us fully to realize how small that asteroid actually is4 ,if the moon were to be crushed into two million equal fragments1 each of those parts would be as big as ,eros4 ,if the whole of ,eros were to be covered with houses1 the city thus formed would not be so large as greater ,london4 ,so far as mere size is concerned1 ,eros is quite unimportant4 ,we can further illustrate this if we compare ,eros with some of the other planets4 ,the well-known evening star1 ,venus1 the goddess of love1 is a hundred million times as big as that tiny orb we now call ,eros1 the god of love4 ,after all this it may seem strange to have to maintain what is1 however1 undoubtedly the fact1 that the discovery of ,eros is one of the most remarkable discoveries of this century4 ,until ,eros was discovered1 our nearest neighbors among the planets were considered to be ,venus on one side and ,mars on the other4 ,the other great planets are much more distant1 while1 of course1 the stars properly so called are millions of times as far4 ,great1 then1 was the astonishment of the astronomers when1 by the discovery of ,eros1 ,mars and ,venus were suddenly dethroned from their position of being the earth's nearest neighbors among the planetary host4 ,this little ,eros will1 under favorable circumstances1 approach the earth to within about one third the distance of ,mars when nearest1 or about one half the distance of ,venus when nearest4 ,we thus concentrate on ,eros all the interest which arises from the fact that1 the moon of course excepted1 ,eros is the nearest globe to the earth in the wide expanse of heaven4 ,to the astronomer this statement is of the utmost significance2 when ,eros comes so close it will be possible to determine its distance with a precision hitherto unattainable in such measurements4 ,once the distance of ,eros is known1 the distance of the sun and of all the other planets can be determined4 ,the importance of the new discovery arises1 then1 from the fact that by the help of ,eros all our measurements in the celestial spaces will gain that for which every astronomer strives--namely1 increased accuracy4 ,seeing that the existence of intelligence is a characteristic feature of this earth1 we feel naturally very much interested in the question as to whether there can be intelligent beings dwelling on other worlds around us4 ,it is only regrettable that our means of solving this problem are so inadequate4 ,indeed1 until quite lately it would have been almost futile to discuss this question at all4 ,all that could then have been said on the subject amounted to little more than the statement that it would be intolerable presumption for man to suppose that he alone1 of all beings in the universe1 was endowed with intelligence1 and that his insignificant little earth1 alone amid the myriad globes of space1 enjoyed the distinction of being the abode of life4 ,recent discovery has1 however1 given a new aspect to this question4 ,at the end of this century certain observations have been made disclosing features in the neighboring planet1 ,mars1 which have riveted the attention of the world4 ,on this question1 above most others1 extreme caution is necessary4 ,it is especially the duty of the man of science to weigh carefully the evidence offered to him on a subject so important4 ,he will test that evidence by every means in his power1 and if he finds the evidence establishes certain conclusions1 then he is bound to accept such conclusions irrespective of all other circumstances4 ,mr4 ,percival ,lowell has an observatory in an eminently favorable position at ,flagstaff1 in ,arizona4 ,he has a superb telescope1 and enjoys a perfect climate for astronomical work4 ,aided by skillful assistants1 he has observed ,mars under the most favorable circumstances with great care for some years4 ,i must be permitted to say that1 having carefully studied what ,mr4 ,lowell has set forth1 and having tested his facts and figures in every way in my power1 most astronomers have come to the conclusion that1 however astonishing his observations may seem to be1 we can not refuse to accept them4 ,no one has ever seen inhabitants on ,mars1 but ,mr4 ,percival ,lowell and one or two other equally favored observers have seen features on that planet which1 so far as our experience goes1 can be explained in no other way than by supposing that they were made by an intelligent designer for an intelligent purpose4 ,mr4 ,lowell has discovered that there are certain operations in progress on the surface of ,mars which1 if we met with on this earth1 we should certainly conclude1 without the slightest hesitation1 were the result of operations conducted under what we consider rational guidance4 ,a river1 as ,nature has made it1 wends its way to and fro2 it never takes the shortest route from one point to another2 the width of the river is incessantly changing2 sometimes it expands into a lake1 sometimes it divides so as to inclose an island4 ,if we could discern through our telescopes a winding line such as ,i have described on ,mars it might perhaps represent a river4 ,but suppose1 instead of a winding line1 there was a perfectly straight line1 or rather a great circle on the globe drawn as straight as a surveyor could lay it out--if we beheld an object like that on ,mars ,i think we should certainly infer that it was not a river made in the ordinary course of natural operations2 no natural river ever runs in that regular fashion4 ,if such a straight line were indeed a river1 then it must have been designedly straightened by human agency or by some other intelligent agency for some particular purpose4 ,in its larger features ,nature does not work by straight lines4 ,a long and perfectly straight object1 if found on our earth1 might be a canal or it might be a road2 it might be a railway or a terrace of some kind2 but assuredly no one would expect it to be a natural object4 ,we have the testimony of ,schiaparelli1 now strengthened by that of ,mr4 ,lowell and his assistants1 that there are many straight lines of this kind on ,mars4 ,they appear to be just as straight as a railway would have to be if laid across the flat and boundless prairie1 where the engineer encountered no obstacle whatever to make him swerve from the direct path4 ,these lines on ,mars run for hundreds of miles1 sometimes1 indeed1 ,i should say for thousands of miles4 ,they are far wider than any terrestrial river1 except perhaps the ,amazon for a short part of its course4 ,the lines on ,mars are about forty miles wide4 ,indeed1 the planet is so distant that if these lines were much narrower than forty miles they would be invisible4 ,each of them is marvelous in its uniformity throughout its entire length4 ,the existence of these straight lines on the planet contains perhaps the first suggestion of the presence of some intelligent beings on ,mars4 ,the mere occurrence of a number of perfectly straight1 uniform lines on such a globe would in itself be a sufficiently remarkable circumstance4 ,but there are other features exhibited by these objects which also suggest the astonishing surmise that they have been constructed by some intelligent beings for some intelligent purposes4 ,sometimes two of these lines will start from a certain junction1 sometimes there will be a third or a fourth from the same junction2 in one case there are as many as seven radiating from the same point4 ,such an arrangement of these straight lines is certainly unlike anything that we find in ,nature4 ,we are led to seek for some other explanation of the phenomenon1 and here is the explanation which ,mr4 ,lowell offers3 ,it has recently been found that there are no oceans of water on the planet ,mars4 ,in earlier days it used no doubt to be believed that the dark marks easily seen in the telescope could represent nothing but oceans1 but ,i think we must now give up the notion that these are watery expanses4 ,indeed1 there is not much water on that globe anywhere in comparison with the abundance of water on our earth4 ,it is the scarcity of water which seems to give a clew to some of the mysteries discovered on ,mars by ,schiaparelli and ,lowell4 ,as our earth moves round the sun we have1 of course1 the changing seasons of the year4 ,in a somewhat similar manner ,mars revolves around the sun1 and accordingly this planet has also its due succession of seasons4 ,there is a summer on ,mars1 and there is a winter2 during the winter on that globe the poles of the planet are much colder than at other seasons1 and the water there accumulates in the form of ice or snow to make those ice-caps that telescopic observers have so long noticed4 ,in this respect ,mars1 of course1 is like our earth4 ,the ice-cap at each pole of our globe is so vast that even the hottest summer does not suffice to melt the accumulation2 much of the ice and snow there remains to form the eternal snow which every arctic explorer so well knows4 ,it would seem1 however1 that the contrast between winter and summer on ,mars must be much more deeply marked than the contrast between winter and summer on our earth4 ,during the summer of ,mars ice and snow vanish altogether from the poles of that planet4 ,mr4 ,lowell supposes that water is so scarce on ,mars that the inhabitants have found it necessary to economize to the utmost whatever stock there may be of this most necessary element4 ,the observations at ,flagstaff tend to show that the dark lines on ,mars mark the course of the canals by which the water melted in summer in the arctic regions is conducted over the globe to the tracts where the water is wanted4 ,not that the line as we see it represents actually the water itself2 the straight line so characteristic of ,mars's globe seems rather to correspond to the zones of vegetation which are brought into culture by means of water that flows along a canal in its center4 ,in much the same way would the course of the ,nile be exhibited to an inhabitant on ,mars who was directing a telescope toward this earth3 the river itself would not be visible1 but the cultivated tracts which owe their fertility to the irrigation from the river would be broad enough to be distinguishable4 ,the appearance of these irrigated zones would vary1 of course1 with the seasons2 and we observe1 as might have been expected1 changes in the lines on ,mars corresponding to the changes in the seasons of the planet4 ,a noteworthy development of astronomy in the last century has been the erection of mighty telescopes for the study of the heavens4 ,it must here suffice to mention1 as the latest and most remarkable of these1 the famous instrument at the ,yerkes ,observatory1 which belongs to the ,university of ,chicago4 ,just as the century is drawing to its close1 the ,yerkes telescope has begun to enter on its sublime task of exhibiting the heavens under greater advantages than have ever been previously afforded to any astronomers since the world began4 ,the ,university of ,chicago having been recently founded1 it was desired to associate with the university an astronomical observatory which should be worthy of the astonishing place that this wonderful city has assumed in the world's history4 ,mr4 ,yerkes1 an ,american millionaire1 generously undertook to provide the cost of this observatory4 ,two noble disks of glass1 forty inches in diameter1 were produced at the furnaces of ,messrs4 ,mantois1 in ,paris2 these disks were worked by ,mr4 ,alvan ,clark1 of ,boston1 into the famous object glass which1 weighing nearly half a ton1 has now been mounted in what we may describe as a temple or a palace such as had never been dreamed of before in the whole annals of astronomy4 ,perhaps if we could now place the science of the nineteenth century in its proper perspective the most remarkable discovery which it contains would be that of the planet ,neptune4 ,indeed1 the whole annals of science present no incident of a more dramatic character4 ,it will be remembered that at the latter part of the eighteenth century ,william ,herschel had immortalized himself by the discovery of a great planet1 to which was presently assigned the name of ,uranus4 ,after the movements of ,uranus had been carefully studied1 it was found that on many previous occasions ,uranus had been unwittingly observed by astronomers1 who regarded it as a star4 ,when these observations were all brought together1 and when the track which ,uranus followed through the heavens was thus opened to investigation1 it was found that the movements of the planet presented considerable anomalies4 ,the planet did not move precisely as it would have moved had it been subjected solely to the supreme attractive power of the sun4 ,astronomers are1 of course1 accustomed to irregularities of this description in the movements of the planets4 ,these irregularities have as their origin the attractions of the various other members of the solar system4 ,it is possible to submit these attractions to calculation and thus to estimate their amount4 ,the effect1 for instance1 of ,saturn in disturbing ,jupiter can be allowed for1 and the nature of ,jupiter's motion as thus modified can be precisely estimated4 ,in like manner1 the influence of the earth on ,venus can be determined1 and so for the other planets2 and thus1 generally speaking1 it was found that when the proper allowances had been made for the action of known causes of disturbance1 then the calculated movement of each planet could be reconciled with observation4 ,the circumstances of ,uranus were1 however1 in this respect wholly exceptional4 ,due allowance was first made for the attraction of ,uranus by ,saturn1 and for the attraction of ,uranus by ,jupiter1 as well as by the other planets4 ,it was thus found that the irregularities of ,uranus could be to some extent explained1 but that it was not possible in this manner to account for those irregularities completely4 ,it was therefore evident that some influence must be at work affecting the movement of ,uranus1 in addition to those arising from any planet of which astronomers hitherto had cognizance4 ,the only available supposition would be that some other planet1 at present unrecognized1 must be in our system1 and that the attraction of this unknown body must give rise to those irregularities of ,uranus which remained still outstanding4 ,a great problem was thus proposed for mathematicians4 ,it was nothing less than to affect the determination of the orbit and the position of this unknown planet1 the sole guide to the solution of the problem being afforded by the discrepancies between the places of ,uranus as actually observed and the places which were indicated by the calculations1 when every allowance had been made for known causes4 ,the problem was indeed a difficult one1 but1 fortunately1 two mathematicians proved to be equal to the task of solving it--,adams1 in ,england1 and ,le ,verrier1 in ,france4 ,each of these astronomers1 in independence of the other1 succeeded in determining the place of the planet in the sky4 ,the dramatic incident of this discovery was afforded when the mathematicians had done their work4 ,when the place of the planet had been ascertained1 then the telescopic search was undertaken to verify if it were indeed the case that a planet hitherto unknown did actually lurk in the spot to which the calculations pointed4 ,every one who has ever read a book on astronomy is well acquainted with the wonderful manner in which this verification was made4 ,just where the mathematicians indicated1 there was the great planet discovered6 ,to this object the name of 8,neptune0 has been assigned1 and its discovery may be said to mark an epoch in the history of gravitation4 ,it provided a most striking illustration of the truth of those great laws which ,newton had discovered4 ,the latter half of the century will be also remarkable in the history of science from the fact that within that period mankind has been enabled to make some acquaintance with the chemistry of the celestial bodies4 ,it was in #ahei that ,kirchhoff and ,bunsen first expounded to the world the true meaning of the dark lines in the solar spectrum4 ,in this they were following out a line of reasoning that had been previously suggested by ,prof4 ,sir ,g4 ,stokes1 of ,cambridge1 ,england4 ,those who are at all conversant with that wonderful branch of knowledge known as spectrum analysis are aware how these discoveries have rendered it possible for us to determine in many cases the actual material elements found in the most distant bodies4 ,one of the striking results to which this investigation has led is the demonstration of the substantial unity of the materials from which the earth and the various heavenly bodies have been constructed4 ,those elements which enter most abundantly into the composition of the earth are also the elements which appear to enter most abundantly into the composition of the sun and of the stars4 ,the iron and the hydrogen1 the sodium and the many other materials of which our globe is so largely formed1 are also the selfsame materials which1 in widely different proportions and in very different associations1 go to form the heavenly bodies4 ,this conclusion is as interesting as it was unexpected4 ,it might naturally have been thought that1 seeing the sun is separated from us by nearly a hundred million miles1 and seeing that the stars are separated from us by millions of millions of miles1 all these celestial bodies must be constructed in quite a different manner and of substances quite distinct from the substances which we know on this earth4 ,but this is not the case4 ,indeed1 at the present moment it seems doubtful if there be any element which spectrum analysis has hitherto disclosed in the celestial bodies which is not also a recognized terrestrial body4 ,the well-known case of helium gives a striking illustration4 ,in the year #ahfh ,sir ,norman ,lockyer detected the presence of rays in the solar spectrum which were unknown at that time in terrestrial chemistry4 ,these rays appeared to emanate from some substance which1 though present in the sun1 did not then appear to belong to the earth4 ,this element was accordingly named 8helium10 to indicate its solar origin4 ,twenty-five years later ,professor ,ramsay discovered a substance on the earth which had been hitherto unrecognized1 and which1 on examination1 yielded in the spectrum precisely those same rays which had been found in the so-called helium from the sun4 ,in consequence of this discovery this element is now recognized as a terrestrial body4 ,it is indeed a remarkable illustration of the extraordinary character of modern methods of research that a substance should have first been discovered at a distance of nearly one hundred million miles1 that same substance being all the time1 though no doubt in very small quantities1 a constituent of our earth as well as of the sun4 ,much has been done within the past century in many other branches of astronomy4 ,i must especially mention the important subject of meteoric showers4 ,for the development of our knowledge of this attractive part of astronomy we are largely indebted to the labors of the late ,prof4 ,h4 ,newton1 of ,yale4 ,by his investigations1 in conjunction with those of the late ,professor ,adams1 it was demonstrated that the shower of shooting stars which usually appears in the middle of ,november is derived from a shoal of small bodies which revolve around the sun in an elliptic track1 and accomplish that circuit in about thirty-three years and a quarter4 ,the earth crosses the track of these meteors in the middle of ,november4 ,if it should happen that the great shoal is passing through the junction at the time the earth also arrives there1 then the earth rushes through the shoal of little bodies4 ,these plunge into our atmosphere1 they are ignited by the friction1 and a great shower is observed4 ,it is thus that we account for the recurrence of specially superb displays at intervals of about thirty-three years4 ,but one more great astronomical discovery of this century must be mentioned1 and here again1 as in so many other instances1 we are indebted to ,american astronomers4 ,it was in #ahgg that ,prof4 ,asaph ,hall discovered that the planet ,mars was attended by two satellites4 ,this was indeed a great achievement1 and excited the liveliest interest and attention4 ,since the days when telescopes were first invented all the astronomers have been looking at ,mars1 and yet they never noticed 7their telescopes were not good enough7 those interesting satellites which the acute observation of ,professor ,hall detected with the help of the great telescope of the ,naval ,observatory at ,washington4 ,this discovery was followed by another of a still more delicate nature1 when that consummate observer1 ,professor ,barnard1 using the great ,lick telescope1 detected the fifth satellite of ,jupiter4 ,this is indeed a most difficult object to observe1 requiring1 as it does1 the highest optical power1 the most perfect atmospheric conditions1 and the most skillful of astronomical observers4 ,we may take this observation to represent the high-water mark of telescopic astronomy in the nineteenth century4 ,this being so1 it may fitly conclude this brief account of some of the most remarkable astronomical discoveries which that century has produced4 ,,the ,,applications ,,of ,,explosives4 ,,by ,,charles ,e4 ,,munroe1 ,,professor ,,of ,,chemistry1 ,,columbian ,,university4 ,illustration3 ,,gun-,,cotton ,,factory4 ,dipping cotton in nitrating troughs4 ,there is something about fire which fascinates every one1 yet the action of explosives arouses even a livelier interest1 since the accompanying fiery phenomena are more intense and are attended with a shocking report and a violent destruction of the surrounding material1 while this train of events1 with all its marked effects1 is set in operation by what appears to be a very slight initial cause4 ,it is evident on brief consideration that these bodies1 like a coiled spring1 a bent bow1 or a head of water1 are enormous reservoirs of energy which can be released at a touch1 and which1 if the explosive be properly placed in well-proportioned amounts and discharged at the right time1 can be made to do useful and important work that can not be as conveniently and quickly accomplished in most cases1 and in some cases can not be accomplished at all by any other means4 ,illustration3 ,,gun-,,cotton ,,factory4 ,digestion troughs4 ,the marked characteristic of all explosive substances1 and especially of the so-called high explosives1 is that the energy1 as developed1 is at high potential1 and the uses to which energy in this condition can be economically put are so manifold that the production of explosives has become one of the most important of our chemical industries1 this country alone producing1 in #ahij1 #ajh1gce1ihj pounds1 having a value of nearly #aa1jjj1jjj4 ,the number of possible substances possessing explosive properties is exceedingly large2 the number actually known is so great that it has taxed the ingenuity of inventors to provide them with suitable names2 but these various explosive substances vary to so great an extent in the energy they will develop in practice and in their safety in storage1 transportation1 and use that but a comparatively small number have met with wide acceptance4 ,all may be classified under the heads of physical mixtures like gunpowder1 or chemical compounds like nitroglycerin1 and they owe their development of energy to the fact that1 like gunpowder1 they are mixtures in which combustible substances such as charcoal are mixed with supporters of combustion such as niter2 or that1 like chloride of nitrogen1 they are chemical compounds1 the formation of whose molecules is attended with the absorption of heat2 or that1 like gun cotton1 they are chemical compounds whose molecules contain both the combustible and the supporter of combustion1 and whose formation from their elements is attended with the absorption of heat2 while occupying a middle place between the gunpowder and the gun cotton class1 and possessing also to some degree the properties of the nitrogen-chloride class1 are the nitro-substitution explosives1 of which melinite1 emmensite1 lyddite1 and joveite furnish conspicuous examples4 ,illustration3 ,,gun-,,cotton ,,factory4 ,final press4 ,it may lead to a clearer understanding of what is said regarding the applications of explosives to dwell briefly on the methods by which some of them are produced1 since1 although the raw material in each case is different and the details of the operations vary1 the underlying principles of the methods are the same1 and a good example is found in the military gun cotton as made by the ,abel process at the ,united ,states ,naval ,torpedo ,station4 ,illustration3 ,,gunpowder ,,grains4 ,the large ones are over five pounds weight1 each4 ,the material employed is cotton1 but whether fresh from the field or in the form of waste1 it must first be freed from dirt by hand picking and sorting1 and from grease and incrusting substances by boiling in a weak soda solution4 ,the cotton is now dried by wringing in a centrifugal wringer and exposing to a current of hot air in a metal closet2 but as the compacted mass of cotton holds moisture with great persistency1 after partial drying the cotton is passed through a cotton picker to open the fiber1 so that it not only yields its contained water more readily and completely1 but it also absorbs the acids more speedily in the dipping process to which it is subsequently exposed4 ,illustration3 ,,burning ,,disk ,,of ,,gun ,,cotton4 ,illustration3 ,,extinguishing ,,burning ,,gun ,,cotton4 ,when the moisture1 by the final drying1 is reduced to one half of one per cent the cotton is1 while hot1 placed in copper tanks which close hermetically1 where it cools to the atmospheric temperature and in which it is transported to the dipping room1 where a battery of large iron troughs1 filled with a mixture of one part of the most concentrated nitric acid and three parts of the most concentrated sulphuric acid1 set in a large iron water bath to keep the mixture at a uniform temperature1 is placed under a hood against the wall4 ,the fluffy cotton1 in one-pound lots1 is dipped handful by handful under the acid1 by means of an iron fork1 where it is allowed to remain for ten minutes1 when it is raised to the grating at the rear of the trough and squeezed with the lever press to remove the excess of acid4 ,it still retains about ten pounds of the acid mixture1 and in this condition is placed in an acid-proof stoneware crock1 where it is squeezed by another iron press to cause the contained acid to rise above the surface of the partly converted cotton4 ,the covered crock is now placed with others in wooden troughs containing running water so as to keep the temperature uniform1 where the cotton is allowed to digest for about twenty-four hours4 ,the acid is then wrung out in a steel centrifugal1 and the wrung gun cotton is thrown in small lots into an immersion tank containing a large volume of flowing water1 in which a paddle wheel is revolving so as to rapidly dilute and wash away the residual acid in the gun cotton without permitting any considerable rise of temperature from the reaction of the water with the acid4 ,illustration3 ,,making ,,mercury ,,fulminate4 ,even these severe means are not enough1 for1 as the cotton fiber is in the form of hairlike tubes1 traces of the acid sufficient to bring about the subsequent decomposition of the gun cotton are retained by capillarity4 ,therefore1 after boiling with a dilute solution of sodium carbonate1 the gun cotton is pulped and washed in a beater or rag engine until the fiber is reduced to the fineness of corn meal1 and a sample of it will pass the 8heat test40 ,this is a test of the resistance of gun cotton to decomposition1 and requires that when the air-dried sample of gun cotton is heated to #fe4e ,c4 in a closed tube in which a moistened strip of potassium iodide and starch paper is suspended1 the paper should not become discolored in less than fifteen minutes' exposure4 ,illustration3 ,,detonator ,,used ,,in ,,the ,,united ,,states ,,navy4 ,contains thirty-five grains of fulminate of mercury4 ,this pulping of the gun cotton not only enables one to more completely purify it1 but it also renders it possible to mold it into convenient forms and to compress it so as to greatly increase its efficiency in use4 ,for this purpose the pulp is suspended in water and pumped to a molding press1 where1 under a hydraulic pressure of one hundred pounds to the square inch1 it is molded into cylinders or prisms about three inches in diameter and five inches and a half high1 and these are compressed to two inches in height by a final press exerting a pressure of about sixty-eight hundred pounds to the square inch4 ,as this is regarded as a somewhat hazardous operation1 the press is surrounded by a mantlet woven from stout rope to protect the workmen from flying pieces of metal in case of an accident4 ,the operation is analogous to that employed in powder-making1 where the gunpowder has been pressed in a great variety of forms and into single grains weighing several pounds apiece4 ,illustration3 ,,torpedo ,,cases ,,and ,,blocks ,,of ,,wood ,,destroyed ,,by ,a ,,naval ,,detonator4 ,illustration3 ,,testing ,,detonators ,,on ,,iron ,,plates4 ,illustration3 ,,iron ,,cylinder ,,filled ,,with ,,water ,,and ,,containing ,a ,,naval ,,detonator4 ,before and after firing1 shows the work accomplished by thirty-five grains of mercury fulminate4 ,even under the enormous pressure of the final press the compressed gun cotton still retains from twelve to sixteen per cent of water1 and in this form it is quite safe to store and handle4 ,when dry it is very combustible and burns readily when ignited1 but it can be quenched by pouring water upon it4 ,when confined in the chamber of a gun or the bore-hole of a rock1 gun cotton will burn like gunpowder when ignited1 if dry1 and produce an explosion1 but1 in common with nitroglycerin and other high explosives1 gun cotton is best exploded and develops its maximum effect when detonated1 a result which is secured by exploding a small quantity of mercury fulminate in contact with the dry material4 ,illustration3 ,,smokeless ,,powders4 ,in the bottle is indurite in flake grains4 ,the larger grains are cylindrical and hexagonal multiperforated ,united ,states army grains4 ,the bent grain in the foreground1 looking like a piece of rubber tubing1 is a grain of ,maxim powder with a single canal4 ,the flat strips in the foreground on the left are grains of the ,french ,b4 ,n4 powder4 ,the flat strips in the foreground on the right are grains of the ,united ,states navy 8pyrocellulose0 powder4 ,mercury fulminate is made by dissolving mercury in nitric acid and pouring the solution thus produced into alcohol1 when a violent reaction takes place and the fulminate is deposited as a crystalline gray powder4 ,this powder is loaded in copper cases and1 after drying1 it is primed with dry-mealed gun cotton1 the mouth of the case being closed with a sulphur-glass plug1 through which pass two copper leading wires joined by a bridge of platinum-iridium wire1 two one-thousandths of an inch in diameter1 which becomes heated to incandescence when an electric current is sent through it4 ,this device is what is known as the naval detonator4 ,mercury fulminate is so employed because it is the most violent of all explosives in common use1 and exerts a pressure of forty-eight thousand atmospheres when fired in contact4 ,although the naval detonator contains but thirty-five grains of mercury fulminate1 yet it will rupture stout iron and heavy tin torpedo cases when fired suspended in them1 it will rend thick blocks of wood when placed in a hole and fired within them1 and it will even pierce holes through plates of the finest wrought iron one-sixteenth inch in thickness if only the base of the detonator is in contact with the plate1 and this has been used as a test of their efficiency4 ,its force is markedly shown by firing one in a stout iron cylinder filled with water and closed tightly1 when the cylinder is blown into a shredded sphere4 ,when used to detonate gun cotton1 either when confined or in the open1 the detonator is placed in the hole which has been molded in the center of the gun cotton disk or block1 so that it shall be in close contact with the gun cotton4 ,i have found that perfectly dry compressed gun cotton is detonated by #b4hc grains of mercury fulminate2 but as a torpedo attack is necessarily in the nature of a forlorn hope and should be provided with every possible provision against failure1 and since if the detonator fails the attack fails1 the naval detonator is supplied with thirty-five grains1 so as to give a large coefficient of assurance4 ,illustration3 ,,blending ,,machine ,,for ,,cordite4 ,illustration3 ,,cartridge ,,of ,,cordite ,,smokeless ,,powder4 ,charge for #f-;inch #b ,f gun1 #ac pounds1 #d ounces4 ,cords1 #bb inches long1 #c inches in diameter4 ,a characteristic feature of gun cotton is that it may be detonated even when completely saturated with and immersed in water1 if only some dry gun cotton be detonated in contact with it4 ,thus in one experiment a disk of dry gun cotton was covered with a water-proof coating and the detonator inserted in the detonator hole of this disk4 ,this dry disk was laid upon four uncoated disks1 the five lashed tightly together1 and sunk in ,newport ,harbor1 where the column remained until the uncoated disks were saturated with salt water1 when the mine was fired and the saturated disks were found by measurement of the work done to have been completely exploded4 ,i have found that three ounces of dry compressed gun cotton will cause the detonation of wet compressed gun cotton in contact with it1 but forty ounces of dry gun cotton are used as the primer in our naval mines and torpedoes1 so as to give a large coefficient of assurance4 ,illustration3 ,,gun-,,cotton ,,spar ,,torpedo4 ,illustration3 ,,blowing ,,up ,,the ,,schooner ,,joseph ,,henry4 ,in the mining and other industries the fulminate is used in smaller quantities and it is generally mixed with potassium chlorate1 the mixture being compressed in small copper cases and sold as blasting caps4 ,they are fired by means of a piece of ,bickford or running fuse1 consisting of a woven cotton or hemp tube containing a core of gunpowder1 which is inserted in the mouth of the copper cap and made fast within it by crimping4 ,the capped fuse is then inserted in a dynamite cartridge so that the cap is firmly in contact with the dynamite1 the mouth of the cartridge is fastened securely1 and the charge inserted in the bore-hole in the rock and tamped4 ,the protruding end of the fuse is lighted1 and the fire travels at the rate of three feet per minute down the train of gunpowder to the fulminate1 which then detonates and causes the detonation of the dynamite4 ,although gun cotton1 nitroglycerin1 and their congeners can be and usually are fired by detonation1 there has within recent years been a great number of compositions invented which1 while formed from gun cotton alone or mixtures of it with nitroglycerin1 burn progressively when ignited and are therefore available for use as propellants2 and since the products of their burning are almost wholly gaseous1 they produce but little or no smoke and are therefore called smokeless powders4 ,as upward of fifty-seven per cent of the products of the burning of ordinary gunpowder are solids or easily compressed vapors1 this comparative smokelessness of the modern powders is a very important characteristic1 and when used in battle they seriously modify our former accepted methods of handling troops4 ,while this is the feature of these powders which has attracted popular attention1 a far more important quality which they possess is the power to impart to a projectile a much higher velocity than black powder does1 without exerting an undue pressure on the gun4 ,a velocity of over twenty-four hundred feet per second has been imparted to a one-hundred-pound projectile with the powder that ,i have invented for our navy1 while the pressure on the gun was less than fifteen tons to the square inch4 ,illustration3 ,,torpedo ,,practice4 ,bow discharge4 ,prior to my work in this field all the so-called smokeless powders were mixtures of several ingredients1 resembling gunpowder in this respect4 ,but1 considering the precise and difficult work that was expected of these high-powered powders and the difficulty which had always been found in securing uniformity in mixtures1 and that this difficulty had become the more apparent as the gun became more highly developed1 ,i sought to produce a powder which should consist of a single chemical substance in a state of chemical purity1 and which could be formed into grains of such form and size as were most suitable for the piece in which the powder was to be used4 ,i succeeded in so treating cellulose nitrate of the highest degree of nitration as to convert it into a mass like ivory and yet leave it pure4 ,in this indurated condition the gun cotton will burn freely1 but it has not been possible to detonate it even when closely confined and exposed to the initial detonation of large masses of mercury fulminate4 ,illustration3 ,,torpedo ,,practice ,,on ,,the ,,cushing4 ,broadside discharge4 ,i am happy to say that this principle has now been adopted by the ,russian ,government1 and by our navy in its specifications for smokeless powder2 but they have1 ,i think unwisely1 selected a cellulose nitrate containing #ab4e per cent or less of nitrogen instead of that of the highest nitration4 ,this work was completed1 a factory established1 and the processes well marked out when ,i left the torpedo station in #ahib4 ,besides this1 there were then already commercial works established elsewhere in this country for the manufacture of the nitroglycerin-nitrocellulose powders of the ballistite class1 while large quantities of many varieties could be easily procured abroad4 ,considering these facts1 and that ,france and ,germany had already adopted smokeless powders in #ahhg1 that ,italy adopted one in #ahhh1 and ,england about the same time1 it is unpardonable that our services should not yet have adopted any of the smokeless powders available when we were drawn into the conflict with ,spain4 ,besides their use as ballistic agents1 gun cotton1 dynamite1 and explosive gelatin in their ordinary condition have found employment and been adopted as service explosives in military and naval mining1 as their great energy and the violence with which they explode1 even when unconfined1 especially adapt them for use in the various kinds of torpedoes and mines which are in vogue in the service4 ,illustration3 ,,launching ,,patrick ,,torpedo ,,from ,,the ,,ways4 ,one form of these torpedoes was attached to the end of a spar or pole which was rigged out from the bow of a launch or vessel so that it could be thrust under the enemy's vessel1 and the detonators of such spar torpedoes were not only connected with electric generators1 so that they could be fired at will1 but they1 in common with mines1 were frequently provided with a system of levers so arranged that the enemy's vessel fired the torpedoes and mines automatically as it came in contact with the levers4 ,it was with such a contact-spar torpedo1 containing thirty-three pounds of gun cotton1 that the schooner ,joseph ,henry was blown up in ,newport ,harbor in #ahhd4 ,illustration3 ,,patrick ,,torpedo ,,under ,,way4 ,moving at the rate of twenty-three knots per hour4 ,there are many types of the automobile torpedo4 ,among them the ,hall1 ,patrick1 ,whitehead1 and ,howell may be cited4 ,the first three are propelled by the energy resident in compressed gases2 the ,howell by the energy stored in a heavy fly wheel1 which also1 by acting on the gyroscopic principle1 serves to maintain the direction imparted to the torpedo as it is launched4 ,the ,hall1 ,whitehead1 and ,howell are launched from tubes or guns by means of light powder charges1 and are independent of exterior control after launching4 ,the ,patrick is launched from ways1 and is controlled from the shore or boat by a wire through which an electric current may be sent to its steering mechanism4 ,the charges are quite variable1 but the war heads of the larger torpedoes contain as much as five hundred pounds of gun cotton4 ,to be concluded4 ,a ,,paradoxical ,,anarchist4 ,,by ,,prof4 ,,cesare ,,lombroso4 ,while ,i have had the privilege of making several indirect studies of anarchists by means of the data furnished by legal processes1 the journals1 and the handwriting of the subjects1 ,i have only rarely been able to examine one directly and make those measurements and craniological determinations upon him without which any study can be only approximate1 or1 we might even say1 hypothetical4 ,i had1 however1 an opportunity a short time ago to observe a real anarchist in person1 and study him according to the methods of my criminological clinic4 ,the results have been singular1 and it seems to me that they should cast some light upon the dark world of these agitators1 and especially upon the phenomena of the strange contradictions presented in their life2 manifestations which jurists and police officers1 intent only on achieving the judicial triumph of a conviction1 consider and call simulations and falsehoods4 ,illustration3 7,unclear handwritten inscription7 ,he was a fellow who had caused a great excitement1 during the crowded days of the exposition at ,turin1 by saying that he wanted to kill the king4 ,in fact1 he gave himself up to the police1 saying that the anarchists of ,alexandria were seeking the assassination of the king1 and had written him a letter directing him to arm himself1 but that he1 wishing anything else than to commit regicide1 had surrendered in order to denounce the scheme4 ,there was no real basis of criminal intent1 but our police put him in prison1 and there ,i found him4 ,his physiognomy presented all the characteristics of the born criminal and of the foolhardy and sanguinary anarchist4 ,he had flaring ears1 premature and deep wrinkles1 small1 sinister eyes sunk back in their orbits1 a hollowed flat nose1 and small beard--in short1 he presented an extraordinary resemblance to ,ravachol1 as may be seen from their portraits4 ,the cranium was a little smaller than the normal1 and the upper part of the skull was much rounded and deformed1 with a cephalic index of #ia--;considerably more rounded than the head of ,luccheni4 ,the horizontal fold of the hand was of a type much like that of ,ravachol4 ,i add that the biological study1 which was made directly1 and therefore more satisfactorily than was practicable with ,caserio and ,luccheni1 revealed a series of very singular anomalies2 a touch six times more obtuse than the normal--six millimetres on the right1 five on the left2 a remarkably blunt sensitiveness to pain and dull perception of location2 an extraordinarily reduced visual field1 particularly in the left eye2 a somewhat tremulous handwriting1 and slight defects of articulation in speech2 and thin hair4 ,there was nothing very striking in his affective nature4 ,he spoke kindly of his parents1 whom he would be glad to see4 ,but he had a blunt moral sense1 and had committed frequent thefts1 especially against his family1 so that he had been put into a house of correction4 ,and it was just while he was still in this establishment1 at sixteen years of age1 that he pretended to have been invited to attend a meeting of about thirty anarchists at ,brescia1 where he was made to swear1 kissing a dagger1 to kill the king4 ,he described the room1 and spoke of the individual persons present1 and then said that he thought no more of the matter after he returned to the house2 but a few days ago it had come into his mind to go to the post office1 and there he had found a letter from the anarchists of ,alexandria1 urging him to arm himself to kill the king4 ,he repeated this story minutely and with great persistence1 notwithstanding the postal authorities denied having given him the letter1 in the face of the asseverations of the prefects that there were not thirty anarchists in ,brescia1 where he was in correction1 and although all the facts were against him4 ,observe that he was in prison1 that he had been there three months1 and that he was told he would be likely to stay there as long as he adhered to his story4 ,illustration3 ,,ravachol4 ,efforts to account for the phenomenon were unsuccessful1 because his friends and relatives made no mention of any traces of insanity4 ,light began to break upon the case when it was learned that he had attempted suicide1 a few years before1 in grief at the death of his mother1 and also that on the day before he gave himself up he had stolen a small sum from his drunken brother4 ,these1 however1 were only distant hints4 ,the matter was fully explained when1 after he had drunk a litre of wine in the prison1 he began to exclaim1 8,viva l'anarchio60 7,hurrah for anarchy671 8,morte al ,re60 7,death to the king671 to kiss a dagger1 to break various things against imaginary guards1 and1 after a short period of quiet1 to swear and forswear himself that his companions had done what he had done1 that they had shouted for anarchy1 had broken the vases1 and had desired to kill the king4 ,illustration3 ,,visual ,,field 7,,left ,,eye7 ,,of ,,chie 444 ,,giac 444 ,the thin line indicates the normal visual field 7left eye74 ,the thick line indicates the visual field 7left eye7 under alcoholic excitement4 ,this cleared up the matter at once for me1 but ,i wished to complete the elucidation with an experiment4 ,i began by giving him ten1 then twenty1 then thirty1 then forty grammes of alcohol1 up to eighty4 ,i observed that his personality began to change after forty grammes4 ,he became somewhat insolent and suspicious1 and had vague delirious imaginings of persecutions4 ,when invited to sing anarchistic songs he refused1 evidently fearing to compromise himself1 but sang them voluntarily in an undertone4 ,when the dose of alcohol was increased to ninety grammes his personality seemed immediately to undergo a full change2 his touch became twice as fine 7three millimetres71 and his visual field increased threefold2 he declared that there was a spy around4 ,when put into his cell he sang anarchistic hymns1 threatened death to the king1 handled a box as if brandishing a dagger1 climbed to a window and insulted the sentinel1 resisted five men who tried to disarm him1 and continued in this condition for eight hours4 ,the next day he denied having done any of these things1 avowed that he was a good monarchist and a good citizen1 and declared distinctly that he had not done what he had done1 in the face of the concurrent testimony of several witnesses4 ,on renewing the experiment a few days afterward with eighty grammes of alcohol1 the same series of phenomena recurred--a real anarchistic raving1 a genuine mania for regicide1 which would certainly have ended in some act if he had not been restrained by force2 and this person1 who had at first presented an evident obtusity of touch and an extraordinary contraction of the visual field1 now exhibited an almost normal touch of three millimetres and a visual field enlarged to triple its extent when he was sober4 ,on the day after this he recollected none of all the things that had happened the day before4 ,this double personality was determined in him by alcohol1 as it is in others by misery or by fanaticism1 while it rests with all upon a congenital basis4 ,the fact helps us to explain how some inoffensive man may have a type of physiognomy quite similar to that of ,ravachol1 showing how often there are true criminals in potency1 whose physiognomy1 or rather the anomalies of it1 bears a prophetic relation to the crime which breaks out on the first determining circumstance4 ,and we have here another explanation of such contradictory characters as those of ,ravachol1 ,caserio1 and ,luccheni1 who1 having been once well-behaved1 end by becoming criminals4 99 99 99 99 99 ,applied science was defined by ,sir ,w4 ,roberts ,austen1 in his presidential address to the ,iron and ,steel ,institute1 #ahii1 as 8nothing but the application of pure science to particular classes of problems40 ,,what ,,makes ,,the ,,trolley ,,car ,,go4 ,,by ,,william ,,baxter1 ,,jr41 ,c4 ,e4 ,i4 ,of all the wonderful operations accomplished by the aid of electricity at the present time1 none so completely mystifies the beholder as the action of the trolley car4 ,the electric light1 although incomprehensible to the average layman1 does not excite his curiosity to the same extent4 ,the glowing filament of an incandescent lamp or the dazzling carbon points of an arc light stimulate the inquisitive proclivities to some extent1 but as the popular notion with respect to the nature of electricity is that it is some kind of fluid that can flow through wires and other things like water through a pipe1 the conclusion arrived at is that the current1 in its passage through the filament or the carbon points1 generates a sufficient amount of heat to raise the temperature of the material to the luminous point4 ,the fact that energy is required to raise the temperature of the mass to the incandescent point is not taken into consideration by those not versed in technical matters1 owing to the fact that1 as nothing moves1 it is not supposed that power can be expended4 ,when a trolley car is seen coming down the street at a high rate of speed the effect upon the mind is very different4 ,here we see a vast amount of weight propelled at a high velocity1 and yet the only source through which the power to accomplish this result is supplied is a small wire4 ,the mystifying cause does not stop here1 for if we look further into the matter we see that the energy has to pass from the trolley wire to the car through the very small contact between it and the trolley wheel4 ,after contemplating these facts1 it appears remarkable that the energy that can creep through this diminutive passage can by any means be made to develop the force necessary to propel a car with a heavy load up a steep grade4 ,an electrical engineer1 if asked to explain the action1 would say that the force of magnetic attraction was made use of to accomplish the result1 but this explanation would fail to throw any light upon the subject4 ,in what follows1 it is proposed to explain the matter in a simple manner1 and then it will be seen that what appears to be an incomprehensible mystery1 when not understood1 is1 in fact1 no mystery at all4 ,,note4--,the illustrations of railway motor1 generator1 and switchboard 7,figs4 #ae1 #af1 #ag7 were made from photographs kindly furnished by the manufacturers1 the ,westinghouse ,electric and ,manufacturing ,company4 ,electricity and magnetism are two forces that are intimately associated with each other1 and1 although radically different1 it is difficult1 if not impossible1 to obtain one without the other1 although it is a simple matter to make one inactive under certain conditions4 ,it is very generally understood that a magnet possesses the power of attraction1 and that it will draw toward it pieces of iron1 steel1 and other magnets4 ,the laws governing the attractive properties of magnets1 however1 are not so well understood1 and many are not aware of the fact that under certain conditions one magnet will repel another1 but such is nevertheless the case4 ,illustration3 ,,figs4 #a1 #b1 #c4--;,,diagrams ,,illustrating ,,the ,,attraction ,,and ,,repulsion ,,of ,,magnets4 ,in ,fig4 #a the lower outline1 ,m1 represents a magnet fixed in position1 and the upper bar represents another magnet arranged to swing freely around the pivot a4 ,a magnet1 as is generally known1 will arrange itself in a north-to-south position if suspended from its center1 like a scale beam1 and allowed to swing freely1 and the same end will always point toward the north4 ,on this account the ends of a magnet are called its poles1 and the one that will point toward the north is designated the north pole1 while the other one is the south pole4 ,the terms north and south poles were applied to magnets centuries ago1 but at the present time the ends are more commonly designated as positive and negative4 ,in ,fig4 #a it will be noticed that the stationary magnet has its positive end upward1 and this attracts the negative end of the swinging magnet4 ,if the order of the poles is reversed1 so that the positive of the swinging magnet will come opposite the positive of the stationary one1 then there will be a repulsive action instead of an attraction1 as is shown in ,fig4 #b4 ,if the two negative ends were placed opposite1 the effect would be the same4 ,from this we see that to obtain an attraction we must place the magnets so that opposite poles come together1 and that by reversing the order we obtain a repulsive action4 ,if the swinging magnet is replaced by a bar of iron1 as is shown in ,fig4 #c1 there will be an attraction1 no matter what end of the magnet may be uppermost1 thus showing that either end of a magnet will attract a bar of iron4 ,the explanation of these different actions is that when two magnets are brought into proximity to each other each one exerts its force without any regard to the other1 and if the two are set to act together they will attract one another1 but if set to act in opposition they will repel4 ,when one of the bars is not a magnet1 but simply a piece of iron or steel1 this bar1 having no attractive or repulsive force of its own1 can only obey the attractive action of the other1 which is the only one that exerts a force4 ,illustration3 ,,figs #d1 #e4--;,,diagrams ,,illustrating ,,the ,,method ,,of ,,obtaining ,,rotary ,,motion ,,with ,,magnets4 ,in ,fig4 #d ,m is a magnet bent into the form of a ,u1 commonly called a horseshoe magnet4 ,the short bar set between the upper ends is also a magnet1 and is arranged so as to revolve around the shaft s4 ,from what has just been explained in connection with ,figs4 #a and #b it will be understood that1 with the poles as indicated by the letters1 there will be an attractive force set up between the top end of the straight bar and the ,p end of the horseshoe1 and thus rotation will be produced in the direction of the arrow4 ,the rotation1 however1 will necessarily stop when the bar reaches the position shown in ,fig4 #e1 for then the attraction between the poles will resist further movement4 ,if the straight bar were not a magnet1 but simply a piece of iron or steel1 it is evident that when in the position of ,fig4 #d the attraction would be just as much toward the right as toward the left1 and if the bar were placed accurately in the central position it would not swing in either direction4 ,it would be in the condition called1 in mechanics1 unstable equilibrium4 ,in practice this condition could not be very well realized1 as it would be difficult to set and retain the bar in a position where the attraction from both sides would be the same1 therefore the rotation would be in one direction or the other2 but whichever way the bar might move1 it would only swing through one quarter of a revolution1 into the horizontal position of ,fig4 #e4 ,if we reflect upon these actions we can see that if we could destroy the magnetism of both parts before the straight bar reaches the position of ,fig4 #e it would be possible to obtain rotation through a greater distance than one quarter of a turn1 for then the headway acquired by the rotating part would cause it to continue its motion4 ,if1 after the completion of one half of a revolution1 we could remagnetize both parts1 we would then set up an attraction between the lower end of the straight bar and the left side of the horseshoe1 for then the polarity of the former would be the reverse of that shown in ,fig4 #d--that is1 the lower end would be negative4 ,by means of this second attraction we would cause the bar to rotate through the third quarter of the revolution1 and if1 just before completing this last quarter1 we were to remove all the magnetism again1 the headway would keep up the motion through the final quarter of the revolution1 thus completing one full turn4 ,from this it will be realized that if we could magnetize and demagnetize the two parts twice in each revolution a continuous rotation could be obtained4 ,if the magnetizing and demagnetizing action were only applied to the rotating part we would fail to keep up a continuous rotation1 for1 as was shown in connection with ,fig4 #c1 the action when the straight bar reached the position of ,fig4 #e would be the same as if it were magnetized1 owing to the fact that a magnet always exerts an attraction upon a mass of iron4 ,suppose1 however1 that we were to reverse the polarity of the rotating part just as it reaches the position of ,fig4 #e1 then there would be two poles of the same polarity opposite each other1 and1 as shown in ,fig4 #b1 the force acting between them would be repulsive1 and would push the bar around in the direction of rotation4 ,not only would the right-side pole of the horseshoe force the end of the bar away from it1 but the negative pole1 on the left side1 would attract this same end1 and thus a force would be exerted by the two poles of ,m to keep up the rotation through the next half of a circle4 ,on reaching this last position the rotation would stop if the polarity of the revolving bar were left unchanged1 for then the poles facing each other would be of opposite polarity4 ,if1 however1 we again reversed the polarity1 a repulsion would be set up between the poles facing each other1 and thus a force would be exerted to continue the rotation4 ,thus we see that if the polarity of the horseshoe magnet is not disturbed it is necessary to reverse that of the rotating part to obtain a continuous motion1 but if we change the magnetic conditions of both parts1 then it is only necessary to magnetize and demagnetize them alternately4 ,from the foregoing it is seen that there are two ways in which the force of magnetism could be utilized to keep up a continuous rotation1 and the question now is1 ,can either of them be made available in practice8 ,to this we answer that1 by the aid of the relations existing between electricity and magnetism1 both can be and are made available1 as will be shown in the following paragraphs3 ,illustration3 ,,figs4 #f1 #g1 #h4--;,,diagrams ,,illustrating ,,the ,,principles ,,of ,,electro-,,magnets4 ,in ,fig4 #f ,w represents a coil of wire provided with a cotton covering1 so that there may be no actual contact between the adjoining convolutions4 ,if the ends p n of this coil are connected with a source of electric energy1 an electric current will flow through it1 and if a bar1 as indicated by ,n ,p1 of iron or steel is placed within the coil it will become magnetized4 ,if the bar is made of steel and is hardened it will retain the magnetism1 and become what is called a permanent magnet2 such a magnet1 in fact1 as we have considered in all the previous figures4 ,if the bar is made of iron it will not retain the magnetism1 but will only be a magnet as long as the electric current flows through the coil ,w4 ,a magnet of the latter type is called an electro-magnet4 ,if the iron is of poor quality--that is1 from an electrical standpoint--it will require an appreciable time to lose its magnetism1 but if it is soft and high grade1 electrically considered1 it will lose its magnetism instantly1 or nearly so4 ,if we take two bars of soft iron and arrange them side by side1 as in ,fig4 #g1 and wind coils around them as indicated each one will become magnetized when the ends p n of the coils are connected with an electric circuit4 ,if the lower ends of the two bars are joined by a piece1 as shown at ,m1 we will have a horseshoe electro-magnet4 ,if we take a round disk of iron1 as in ,fig4 #h1 and wind a coil around it1 it will also become a magnet when an electric current traverses the coil4 ,thus it will be seen that it makes little difference what the shape of the iron may be1 providing it is surrounded by a coil of wire and an electric current is passed through the latter4 ,this being the case1 it is evident that either of the processes explained in connection with ,figs4 #d and #e can be made available for the production of a continuous rotation by the aid of electro-magnets4 ,suppose we make a drum1 as shown in ,fig4 #i1 and wind a wire coil around it in the direction indicated1 then when a current passes through the wire the drum will be magnetized1 with poles at top and bottom4 ,if the electric current passes through the wire from end p to end n the drum will be magnetized positively at the top and negatively at the bottom1 and if the direction of the current through the wire is reversed the polarity of the drum will be reversed4 ,if we construct a horseshoe magnet of the shape shown in ,fig4 #aj1 and place within the circular opening between its ends the drum of ,fig4 #i1 we will have a device that is capable of developing a continuous rotation1 providing we have suitable means for reversing the direction of the electric current through the wire coil2 and this machine constitutes an electric motor in its simplest form4 ,illustration3 ,,figs4 #i1 #aj4--;,,diagrams ,,illustrating ,,the ,,principles ,,of ,,the ,,electric ,,motor4 ,in an electric motor the horseshoe magnet is called the field magnet1 and the rotating part is called the armature1 while the device by means of which the direction of the current through the armature coil is reversed is called the commutator4 ,in this last figure it will be noticed that the coils wound upon the field magnet are represented as of wire much finer than that wound upon the armature4 ,in actual practice machines are sometimes wound in this way1 and sometimes the field wire is twice as large as that on the armature4 ,when the field wire is very much finer than that of the armature the machine is what is known as shunt wound1 which means that only a small portion of the current that passed through the armature passes through the field coils4 ,although with this type of winding the current that passes through the field coils is very weak1 the magnetism developed thereby can be made greater than that of the armature if desired4 ,this result is accomplished by increasing the number of turns of wire in the field coils4 ,thus if the current through the armature is one hundred times as strong as that through the field coils1 the latter can be made to equal the effect of the former by increasing the number of turns in the proportion of one hundred to one1 and if the increase is still greater the field coils will develop the strongest magnetism4 ,the reason why a small current passing around a magnet a great many times will develop as strong a magnetization as a large current1 can be readily understood when we say that the magnetism is in proportion to the total strength of the electric current that circulates around the magnet4 ,suppose we have two currents1 one of which is one thousand times as strong as the other1 then if the weak one is passed through a coil consisting of one thousand turns it will develop just as strong a magnetization as the large current passing through a coil of only one turn4 ,this last explanation enables us to see how it is that the comparatively small current that can pass through the contact between the trolley wire and the trolley wheel can develop in the motor force sufficient to propel a heavy car up a steep grade4 ,when that small current reaches the car motors it passes through a thousand or more turns of wire1 and thus its effect is increased a corresponding number of times4 ,a motor having a single coil of wire upon the armature1 as in ,fig4 #aj1 would not give very satisfactory results1 owing to the fact that the rotative force developed by it would not be uniform4 ,such motors are made in very small sizes1 but never when a machine of any capacity is required4 ,for large machines it is necessary to wind the armature with a number of coils1 so that the rotating force may be uniform1 and also so that the current may be reversed by the commutator without producing sparks so large as to destroy the device4 ,when an armature is wound with a number of coils the direction of the current is reversed1 by the commutator1 in each coil as it reaches the point where its usefulness ends1 and where1 if it continued to flow in the same direction1 it would act to hold the armature back4 ,the effect of this reversal of the current in one coil after another is to maintain the polarity of the armature practically at the same point1 so that the strongest pull is exerted between it and the field magnet poles at all times4 ,to explain clearly the way in which the commutator reverses the current in one coil at a time it will be necessary to make use of a diagram illustrating what is called a ring armature4 ,such a diagram is shown in ,fig4 #aa4 ,the ring ,a is the armature core1 and is made of iron2 the wire coils are represented as consisting of one turn to each coil1 and are marked w w w4 ,the current enters the wire through the spring ,b1 and passes out through ,c4 ,as can be seen1 the current from ,b can flow through the coils w w in both directions1 thus dividing into two currents1 each one of which will traverse one half of the wire wound upon the armature4 ,the two half currents will meet at ,c4 ,if the armature is rotated the springs ,b and ,c 7which are called commutator brushes7 will pass from one turn of the wire coil to another just back of it as the rotation progresses1 and each time that contact is made with a new turn the direction of the current in the turn just ahead will be reversed4 ,the current in the wire as a whole1 however1 will always be in the same direction--that is1 in all the turns to the right of the two brushes2 the current will flow toward the center of the shaft on the front side of the armature1 and away from the shaft in all the turns on the left side4 ,as the direction of the current on opposite sides of the brushes is always the same1 the poles of the armature will remain under ,b and ,c1 therefore the relation between the position of the poles of the armature and the field magnet will be the same substantially as that illustrated in ,fig4 #aj1 and1 as a result1 the force tending to produce rotation will at all times be the greatest possible for the strength of the current used and the size of the magnets4 ,armatures are wound with a number of turns of wire in each coil1 unless the machine is very large1 and present an appearance more like ,fig4 #ab4 ,in this figure the brushes are arranged to make contact with the outer surface of the ring ,c1 which is the commutator4 ,the segments s s are connected with the ends of the armature coils c c c1 but are separated from each other by some kind of material that will not conduct electricity--that is1 they are electrically insulated4 ,as will be noticed from this1 the armature in ,fig4 #aa acts as a commutator as well as an armature1 its outer surface performing the former office4 ,in the winding the difference between ,figs4 #aa and #ab is simply in the number of turns in each coil1 there being one turn in ,fig4 #aa and several in ,fig4 #ab4 ,illustration3 ,,figs4 #aa1 #ab4--;,,diagrams ,,illustrating ,,the ,,method ,,of ,,winding ,,armatures ,,of ,,electric ,,motors ,,and ,,generators4 ,the armature shown in ,fig4 #aj is of the type called drum armature1 but it can be wound so as to produce the same result as the ring1 although it is not so easy to explain this style of winding4 ,it will be sufficient for the present explanation to say that whatever type of armature may be used1 the winding is always such that the direction of the current through the wire coils is reversed progressively1 so that the magnetic polarity is maintained practically at the same point2 therefore there is a continuous pull between this point of the armature core and the poles of the field magnet4 ,the commutator is secured to the armature shaft1 and the brushes through which the current enters and leaves are held stationary2 keeping this fact in mind1 it can be seen at once that in ,fig4 #ab the current will flow from the brush a through the two sides of the armature wire to brush b1 hence all the coils on the right of the vertical line will be traversed by the current in the same direction--that is1 either to or from the center of the shaft--and in the coils on the left the direction will be opposite1 which is just the same order as was explained in connection with ,fig4 #aa4 ,illustration3 ,,figs4 #ac1 #ad4--;,,diagrams ,,illustrating ,,the ,,difference ,,between ,,an ,,electric ,,motor ,,and ,a ,,generator4 ,an electric motor can be turned into an electric generator by simply reversing the direction in which the armature rotates--that is1 any electric machine is either a generator or a motor4 ,this fact can be illustrated by means of ,figs4 #ac and #ad1 both of which show the armature and the poles of the field magnet4 ,the first figure represents an electric motor1 and1 as can be seen1 the pull between the ,n pole of the armature and the ,p pole of the field is in the direction of arrow b1 hence the armature will rotate in the same direction1 as indicated by arrow a4 ,to obtain the polarity of the armature and field it is necessary to pass an electric current through both--that is to say1 we must expend electrical energy to obtain power from the machine4 ,as soon as the current ceases to flow1 the polarity of the armature and field dies out1 and the rotation of the former comes to an end4 ,the magnetism1 however1 does not die out entirely2 a small residue is always left1 although it is never sufficient to produce rotation1 and even if it were it could only cause the armature to revolve through one quarter of a turn4 ,if1 after the current has been shut off1 the armature shaft is rotated in the reverse direction1 as indicated by arrow a in ,fig4 #ad1 the motion will be against the pull of the magnetism2 therefore1 although the poles may be very weak1 an amount of power sufficient to overcome their attraction must be applied to the pulley1 otherwise rotation can not be accomplished4 ,in consequence of the backward rotation a current is generated in the armature coils1 and this current1 as it traverses the field coils as well as those of the armature1 causes the polarity of both parts to increase4 ,as a result of the increased polarity the resistance to rotation is increased1 and more power has to be applied to the pulley4 ,the increase in the strength of the poles results in increasing the current generated1 and this in turn further increases the pole strength1 so that one effect helps the other1 the result being that the current1 which starts with an infinitesimal strength1 soon rises to the maximum capacity of the machine4 ,the motor shown in ,fig4 #aj does not in any way resemble an electric railway motor1 nevertheless the principle of action is precisely the same in both4 ,the design of a machine of any kind has to conform to the practical requirements1 and this is true of railway motors1 just as it is true of printing presses1 sawmills1 or any other mechanism4 ,a railway motor must be designed to run at a comparatively slow speed and to develop a strong rotative force1 or torque1 as it is technically called4 ,it must also be so constructed that it will not be injured if covered with mud and water4 ,it must be compact1 strong1 and light1 and capable of withstanding a severe strain without giving out4 ,to render the machine water- and mud-proof it is formed with an outer iron shell1 which entirely incases the internal parts4 ,the first railway motors were not inclosed1 and the result was that they frequently came to grief from the effects of a shower of mud4 ,when the modern inclosed type of motor1 which is called the iron-clad type1 first made its appearance it was frequently spoken of as the clam-shell type1 and the name is not altogether inappropriate1 for while the outside may be covered with mud to such an extent as to entirely obliterate the design1 the interior will remain perfectly clean and dry1 and therefore its effectiveness will not be impaired4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ae4--;,,external ,,view ,,of ,,electric ,,railway ,,motor ,,mounted ,,upon ,,car-,,wheel ,,axle4 ,to enable the motor to give a strong torque and run at a slow speed the number of poles in the field and armature is increased4 ,the design of ,fig4 #aj has two poles in the field and two in the armature1 and is what is known as the bipolar type4 ,machines having more than two poles in each part are called multipolar machines4 ,the number of poles can be increased by pairs1 but not by a single pole--that is1 we can have four1 six1 eight1 or any other even number of poles1 but not five1 seven1 or any odd number4 ,this is owing to the fact that there must always be as many positive as negative poles1 no more and no less4 ,railway motors at the present time are made with four poles4 ,the external appearance can be understood from ,fig4 #ae1 while ,fig4 #af and ,fig4 #ag will serve to elucidate the internal construction4 ,in ,fig4 #ae the motor casing is marked ,m1 and1 as will be seen1 it forms a complete shell4 ,the motion of the armature shaft is transmitted to the car-wheel axle ,f through a pinion1 which engages with a spur gear secured to the latter4 ,in ,fig4 #af the pinion and gear are marked ,n and ,l respectively4 ,as it is necessary that the armature shaft and the axle be kept in perfect alignment1 the motor casing ,m is provided with suitable bearings for both1 those for the armature shaft being marked ,p ,p in ,fig4 #af1 and one of those for the axle being marked ,t in ,fig4 #ae4 ,it will be understood from the foregoing that the motor is mounted so as to swing around the car-wheel axle as a center1 but1 as it is not desirable to have all this dead weight resting upon the wheels without any elasticity1 the motor is carried by the crossbars ,b ,b1 ,fig4 #ae1 which rest upon springs s s at each end4 ,the beam ,a and a similar one at the farther end of the ,b ,b bars extend out to the sides of the car truck and are suitably secured to the latter4 ,the coils w w are the ends of the field coils and the armature connections1 and to these the wires conveying the current from the trolley are connected4 ,the cover ,c on top of the motor at one end closes an opening through which access to the commutator brushes is obtained4 ,the armature is shown at ,h in ,fig4 #af and the commutator at ,k in the same figure4 ,directly under the armature may be seen one of the field magnet coils1 it being marked ,r4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #af4--,,railway ,,motor ,,with ,,casing ,,open1 ,,showing ,,armature ,,in ,,lower ,,half4 ,as will be noticed in ,fig4 #af1 the motor casing is made so as to open along the central line1 and the lower half is secured to the top by means of hinges1 g g1 ,fig4 #ae1 and also by a number of bolts1 which are not so clearly shown4 ,the gear wheels are also located within a casing1 which 7,fig4 #af7 is made so as to be readily opened whenever it becomes necessary4 ,all the vital parts of the machine are entirely covered1 and are not easily injured by mud or water4 ,the construction of the armature and commutator is well illustrated in ,fig4 #ag1 which shows this part of the machine by itself4 ,the armature is marked ,a1 the shaft ,b1 and the commutator ,c4 ,in the diagrams1 ,figs4 #i1 #aj1 #aa1 and #ab1 the wire coils are represented as wound upon the surface of the armature core1 but1 from ,fig4 #ag1 it will be noticed that they are located in grooves4 ,a railway motor armature core1 when seen without the wire coils1 looks very much like a wide-faced cog wheel with extra long teeth1 not very well shaped for gear teeth4 ,in ,fig4 #ag the ends of the teeth are marked ,d1 and the grooves within which the wire is wound are marked ,e4 ,the coils are not wound so that their sides are on diametrically opposite sides of the armature core1 but so that they may be one quarter of the circumference apart1 and1 as will be noticed1 the wires are arranged so as to fit neatly into each other at the ends of the armature core4 ,the bands marked ,f ,f ,f ,f are provided for the purpose of holding the wire coils within the grooves4 ,the flanges ,h and ,i are simply shields to prevent oil1 grease1 or even water1 if it should pass through the bearings1 from being thrown upon the commutator or armature4 ,the pinion through which the armature imparts motion to the car-wheel axle is not shown in ,fig4 #ag1 but it is mounted upon the taper end of the shaft4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ag4--;,,armature ,,of ,,electric ,,railway ,,motor4 ,an electric railway motor is a machine that is characterized by extreme simplicity 7there being only one moving part71 compactness1 and great strength4 ,in addition1 as none of the working parts is exposed it can not be injured1 no matter how much mud may accumulate upon it4 ,one of the reasons why the electric railway motor has met with such unparalleled success is that it is a machine that can withstand the roughest kind of usage without being damaged thereby4 ,another reason is that an electric motor can1 if called upon1 develop an amount of power two or three times greater than its full-rated capacity without injury1 providing the strain is not maintained too long4 ,a steam engine or any other type of motor that has ever been used for railway propulsion if loaded beyond its capacity will come to a standstill--that is1 it will be stalled--but an electric motor can not be stalled with any strain that is likely to be placed upon it4 ,if the load is increased the motor will run slower and the current will become greater1 thus increasing the pull1 but the armature will continue to rotate until the current becomes so great as to burn out the insulation4 ,a railway motor calculated to work up to twenty-five-horse power will have to develop on an average about six-or seven-horse power1 but if the car runs off the track on a steep grade1 and has such a heavy load that the motor is called upon to develop one-hundred-horse power for a few seconds1 the machine will be equal to the occasion4 ,this result a steam1 gas1 or any other type of engine can not accomplish1 and it is this fact as much as anything else that has given the electric motor the control of the street-railway field4 ,to be continued4 ,,woman',s ,,struggle ,,for ,,liberty ,,in ,,germany4 ,,by ,,mary ,,mills ,,patrick1 ,,ph4 ,d41 ,,president ,,of ,,the ,,american ,,college ,,for ,,girls ,,at ,,constantinople4 ,it is during the latter part of the present century that a general movement has arisen to give women their rights in business life and in political and social affairs4 ,it is the intention of this article to treat of this movement1 especially in its relation to education1 in ,germany1 where1 of all civilized lands1 it has had apparently the smallest results4 ,progress in the direction indicated has been1 however1 far greater than appears on the surface1 and the movement is slowly taking shape in a form that will gain official recognition and support1 and the way is being prepared for scholarly attainments among the women of ,germany1 superior1 possibly1 to those of the women of other nations4 ,there is1 moreover1 an ideal side to this movement in ,germany not altogether found in other lands4 ,the motive for advanced study is more largely joy in the study itself1 and desire to supply the spiritual needs of an idle life4 ,in order to understand this ideal tendency it is necessary to cast a glance backward over nearly three hundred years4 ,let us begin with the contest which was waged so successfully for the development and protection of the ,german language1 first against the ,latin and later against the ,french4 ,in this struggle women took a prominent part1 especially through membership in the society called the 8,order of the ,palms10 which1 before the beginning of the ,thirty ,years' ,war1 united the strongest spirits of ,germany for this purpose4 ,the first woman to join this society was ,sophie ,elizabeth1 ,princess of ,mecklenburg1 married in #afcf to the ,herzog of ,braunschweig4 ,she was followed by many others1 both of the nobility and the common people1 and was named by virtue of this leadership 8,the ,deliverer40 ,in the eighteenth century we have the founder of the ,german theater1 ,caroline ,neuber4 ,in the artistic sense she was the first director of the ,german stage1 the first to turn the attention of the greatest actors of her day to the ideal side of dramatic presentation4 ,early in the eighteenth century women began to take up university studies4 ,a certain ,frau von ,zingler received a prize from the ,university of ,wittenberg for literary work1 and the wife of ,professor ,gottscheds entered upon a contest for a prize in poetry with her husband4 ,we find some old verses published in ,leipsic1 in a book of students' songs1 in #agcf1 recognizing the fact that women attended lectures in the university there1 although the reference is rather sarcastic1 speaking of 8beauty coming to listen in the halls of learning40 ,in #aged the first woman received her degree of ,doctor of ,medicine in ,halle--,dorothea ,christine ,erxleben1 ne ,leborin1 a daughter of a physician1 who attained to this result only after many years of painstaking effort4 ,with her father's help she studied the classics and medicine1 and gradually1 in spite of the objections of his brother physicians1 began to practice as a doctor under her father's protection4 ,she is said to have cured her patients cito tuto1 jucunde1 and in #agdb she published a book on the right of women to study1 the title of which1 according to the custom of the day1 included the full table of contents4 ,this book passed through two editions1 and enabled her to gain the attention of ,frederick ,,ii1 who was persuaded to order the ,university of ,halle to grant her the privilege of taking her examination there4 ,the day arrived1 and the hall was crowded for the occasion2 the candidate passed the ordeal in a brilliant manner1 and took the oath for the doctor's degree amid a storm of applause from the listeners present4 ,in the present century the germ of the movement for educational rights for women came into consciousness in ,germany in the stormy year #ahdh1 and first found expression and life through the work of two women--,louise ,otto ,peters and ,auguste ,schmidt4 ,the former founded the ,universal ,association for ,women in ,germany1 and through this society both these women worked for thirty years and did much toward preparing the way for the broader efforts of the present time4 ,it is a fact granted by all the educational world that scholarship attains a depth and thoroughness in ,germany not found in other lands1 and this very perfection has been in part the cause of the backwardness of the educational movement among the women1 for a high degree of scholarship has often been acquired by the men at the expense of the devoted service of the women connected with them4 ,yet when the women of ,germany demand their educational rights it will be to share also in the rich intellectual inheritance of their land4 ,the majority of the men thus far regard the movement with distrust and suspicion1 but are powerless to crush it out4 ,an amusing instance occurred last year in the family of an official in one of the large university towns4 ,he was a conservative man who had his immediate family in a proper state of subjection1 but his mother-in-law1 alas6 he could not control1 and to his dismay she enrolled herself at the university as a ,hospitant1 and1 in spite of the protestations of her son-in-law1 she was a regular attendant upon the courses of lectures that she had elected4 ,the regular schools for girls in ,germany1 above the common schools attended by girls and boys together1 are of two grades--the middle schools and the high schools4 ,the avowed object of these schools is to fit girls for society and for the position of housewife1 as ,herr ,dr4 ,bosse1 the ,minister of ,public ,instruction for the ,german ,empire1 states in his report on the condition of girls' schools in ,germany1 and as he publicly declared before the ,german ,parliament in the discussion regarding the establishment of a girls' gymnasium in ,breslau1 referred to later on in this paper4 ,the girls' schools established by the ,government provide well for the study of the modern languages1 and it is the exception to find women in the upper classes who do not speak ,french and ,english4 ,literature1 religion1 gymnastics1 and needlework are also well taught4 ,the course of study in the high school includes a little mathematics1 offered under the name of reckoning1 and sufficient to enable a woman to keep the accounts of a household1 and also a little science of the kind that can be learned without a knowledge of mathematics4 ,let me quote a paragraph from the report of the ,minister of ,public ,instruction for the year #ahih in regard to the aim of the mathematical course in the girls' high schools3 8,accuracy in reckoning with numbers and the ability to use numbers in the common relations of life1 especially in housekeeping4 ,great weight is laid upon quick mental computations1 but in all grades the choice of problems should be such as especially apply to the keeping of a house40 ,this is the opportunity which is offered to girls by the ,government in the department of mathematics6 ,in addition to the two grades of schools mentioned there are seminaries in many of the large cities for the purpose of educating women teachers4 ,the instructors in these seminaries are well prepared for their positions1 are mostly men1 and the instruction given is very superior to that given in the girls' high schools4 ,latin and ,greek are1 however1 not studied in these seminaries1 and mathematics and science are expurgated1 we might say1 of points that might prove difficult for the feminine intellect4 ,the ability to learn ,latin and ,greek seems in the ,german mind to especially mark the dividing line between the masculine and feminine brain4 ,the writer was at one time studying a subject in ,greek philosophy1 in the ,city ,library of ,munich1 requiring the use of a number of ,greek and ,latin books1 and it was amusing to notice the astonishment of the men present that a woman should know the classic languages6 ,the women who hold certificates from the seminaries are allowed1 according to a new law passed in #ahid1 to continue their studies and to take the higher teachers' examinations4 ,this is considered a great step in advance1 for a woman who has successfully passed this latter examination can hold any position in the girls' schools1 and can even be director of such a school4 ,that ,german women have long been discontented with the education provided for them by the ,government is proved by the fact that the number of higher institutions offering private opportunities to girls is constantly increasing4 ,as far back as #ahfh the ,victoria ,lyceum was founded by a ,scotch woman--,miss ,georgina ,archer--at her own expense and on her own responsibility1 and this institution was well sustained from the beginning4 ,it is now under the patronage of the ,empress ,frederick1 and offers courses to women that run parallel to a certain extent with those given on the same subjects in the university4 ,professors from the university lecture in the ,victoria ,lyceum1 but a young woman who had listened to the same professor in both places informed me that he 7perhaps unconsciously7 simplified his lectures very much for the ,victoria ,lyceum4 ,fraulein ,anna von ,cotta is the director of the institution4 ,among the women who teach there we note the name of the well-known ,fraulein ,lange1 who lectures on psychology and ,german literature4 ,there are several girls' gymnasia in ,germany which testify to the demand for higher education4 ,these institutions are all but one private1 and three of them--one in ,leipsic1 one in ,berlin1 and a third1 opened in ,october1 #ahih1 in ,knigsberg--are called 8gymnasial courses10 and are for girls who have finished the girls' high school1 and who must pass entrance examinations in order to be received into them4 ,there has been for some time a girls' gymnasium which corresponds exactly to those for boys in ,carlsruhe1 under the auspices of the 8,society for ,reform in the ,education of ,women10 which receives girls of twelve who must have finished the six lower classes of a girls' school4 ,this society1 to which the girls of ,germany owe much1 is planning to open another gymnasium in ,hannover1 to which girls will be received from the junior class of the girls' high school2 the course of study will occupy five years1 and will fit girls for the same official examinations as the boys' gymnasia4 ,the language courses in the highest class will be elective1 providing either for ,greek or the modern languages1 but ,latin is obligatory in all the classes4 ,the girls from all these gymnasia are debarred from taking any of the official examinations for which their studies have prepared them4 ,the next step in the matter of gymnasial education for girls was what might have been expected4 ,the people of the wide-awake city of ,breslau voted1 by an overwhelming majority1 to establish a girls' gymnasium under the same laws and furnishing the same advantages as the boys' gymnasia4 ,the completed plan was sent to the ,minister of ,public ,instruction in ,berlin in ,january1 #ahih1 for approval1 with the intention of opening the gymnasium at ,easter1 for which twenty-six girls were already enrolled4 ,herr ,dr4 ,bosse1 however1 foreseeing the results such an undertaking would involve1 consulted the other departments of the ministry1 and two months later a decided refusal came like a thunderbolt upon the people of ,breslau4 ,on the #cjth of ,april1 #ahih1 ,herr ,dr4 ,bosse was called to account in the ,reichstag for his action in the matter1 which he justified on the ground that ,government approval of girls' gymnasia would mean the acceptance of the diploma for matriculation in the universities and the opening to women of all ,government professional examinations1 and that to have granted it would have been to take a step in the direction of the modern movement for women which could never have been recalled1 and would open the lecture rooms of ,germany in general to women4 ,he contended1 further1 that the founding of official gymnasia for girls would delegate the existing girls' high school to a secondary place1 an institution which had been planned thoughtfully by the ,government for the purpose of educating women in the best manner1 not to become rivals of men1 but help-meets and able housekeepers4 ,the demand of the people of ,breslau1 ,dr4 ,bosse said1 was an unnatural one1 and his refusal was founded on the fear that such a movement would increase and threaten the social foundations of all ,germany1 as the idea that women can compete with men in all careers is a false one4 ,the petition of the magistrate of ,breslau was supported in the discussion by some of the national-liberal1 free-conservative1 and ,polish representatives4 ,these took the broad ground that girls have a right to equal education with boys1 and that the educational institutions of ,germany which have so long stood at the head of those of the world should not1 in the matter of education of women1 leave the question to be decided according to the whims of private individuals4 ,some of the arguments of those who spoke in favor of the enterprise were amusing4 ,one said that the girls of ,germany would be grateful if the ,minister of ,public ,instruction would furnish them with husbands1 but1 as there were not enough to go around1 the others should have some career provided for them4 ,another1 that about forty per cent of the girls of the higher classes no longer marry1 and they should not be allowed to suffer the consequences of the fact that young men of the present day do not care to marry1 but they have a right that the way be shown them to such careers as are suited to their feminine nature4 ,an objector said that he could not understand how any man of pedagogical culture could approve of a girls' gymnasium1 for it is evident that any such progress for women as that would imply must be at the expense of the men1 who would gain less on account of the increased number of candidates for work of all kinds and would more seldom be able to offer the best of all existences to a woman--that of wifehood4 ,the city of ,breslau was obliged1 therefore1 to give up the undertaking for the present1 but the agitation of the question has probably prepared the way for more extended plans in the future in the same direction in ,prussia4 ,a similar undertaking in ,carlsruhe1 in ,baden1 has met with better success1 and resulted in the opening of the first official gymnasium for girls in ,germany1 in ,september1 #ahih4 ,this gymnasium was planned about the same time as that of ,breslau1 and as the permission of the ,minister of ,public ,instruction in ,baden was obtained without difficulty1 the institution came into existence according to the will of the people of ,carlsruhe4 ,seventy-nine of the members of the ,brgerauschuss voted in favor of the undertaking in the meeting in which the final action was taken early in the summer of #ahih4 ,the ,christian-conservative party only decidedly opposed it4 ,the leader of this party was very much excited over the matter1 and called out1 when the action was taken1 8,i ask you1 gentlemen1 on your honor1 if any of you would marry a girl from a gymnasium80 ,the opening of the ,government gymnasium will remove the necessity for continuing the private one in ,carlsruhe1 under the society in charge of it1 and leave that society free to direct its efforts elsewhere4 ,there had already been several references to the general subject of the education of women in the ,reichstag before the question of the gymnasium in ,breslau came up4 ,in ,january1 #ahih1 ,prince ,carolath spoke in favor of founding several girls' gymnasia1 and admitting women legally to the universities and to pedagogical and to medical state professional examinations1 remarking that in all other civilized lands the universities are more open to women than in ,germany4 ,coming now to the present attitude of the universities to the higher education of women1 we find that a great change has taken place during the last few years4 ,while it is still the fact that no ,german woman can matriculate in any university in ,germany1 yet the problem of the stand which the universities should take is working out its own solution in the right direction4 ,the ,university of ,berlin1 the largest and in many respects the leading one1 has made progress in the matter1 although women still work there under great limitations4 ,the cause was injured at the outset in ,berlin by the fact that women1 often foreigners1 who had not the required preparation1 rushed into lecture rooms which were open to them from motives of curiosity4 ,this caused such strong feeling among the professors that in one instance a professor1 on entering his classroom1 saw a lady sitting in the rear1 walked up to her1 offered her his arm1 and led her out of the room4 ,the first step in the right direction has been to demand either a diploma from some well-known institution1 or1 as that could not be complied with by ,german women1 the certificate of the teachers' examinations4 ,the possessors of such credentials may attend lectures in any course1 where the professor is willing1 as ,hospitants4 ,the conditions under which women may attend the ,university of ,berlin are the following3 #a4 ,a written permission must be obtained from the curator of the university on presentation of a satisfactory diploma1 a passport1 and1 by ,russian applicants1 a written permission from the police authorities to study in ,germany4 #b4 ,written permission from the rector4 #c4 ,written permission from the professors or docents whose lectures the applicant wishes to attend4 #d4 ,the permission from the rector must be obtained each semester1 but from the curator only when a new subject is chosen4 #e4 ,the same fee is demanded from women as from men1 and women are requested to always carry with them1 in attending lectures1 the written permission from the rector4 ,at the public installation of ,rector ,waldeyer1 in ,october1 #ahih1 both in his address and in that of the resigning rector1 ,geheimrath ,professor ,schmoller1 the subject of education of women received attention4 ,geheimrath ,schmoller said that the first condition of further concessions in the matter must be better preparation on the part of the women1 and when this deficiency should be provided for the faculty of the university could make the conditions of their attending lectures lighter1 perhaps even the same as those for men4 ,geheimrath ,waldeyer made the subject one of three to which he gave equal space1 and which he said called for immediate attention in the educational affairs of ,germany4 ,the other two subjects were the relation of technical schools to the universities1 and university extension4 ,geheimrath ,waldeyer said that he had formerly been opposed to the higher education of women1 but had been led to change his mind from seeing that the movement is not an artificial one1 but rather the natural result of the present social condition of society1 and on the simple ground of right should be forwarded in a legitimate manner4 ,he spoke strongly1 however1 in favor of the establishment of separate universities for men and women1 on account of the natural differences in the working of their minds and the necessity of adapting methods in both instances to their needs4 ,the number of women in the ,university of ,berlin has increased very rapidly1 being in the autumn of #ahif thirty-nine1 in the winter of the same year ninety-five4 ,the next year the largest number was nearly two hundred1 and in #ahig-'ih three hundred and fifty-two were in all inscribed4 ,nearly half of these were ,german women4 ,most of the women in the ,university of ,berlin are in the department of philosophy1 but several are pursuing courses in theology and law4 ,these women are of all ages4 ,one from ,charlottenburg was sixty-two years old1 and1 besides this honored lady1 there were five others whose white hair testified to an age of from fifty to fifty-five1 while the youngest of all was a ,bulgarian girl of seventeen4 ,the first woman to take her degree in the ,university of ,berlin was ,dr4 ,else ,neumann1 in ,december1 #ahih1 in physics and mathematics1 who succeeded1 notwithstanding the difficulties to be contended with in the absence of preparatory study and the necessity for private preparation4 ,it is not1 however1 only in ,berlin that the desire for university study has taken a strong hold on the ,german women1 but it is shown in other places1 not simply by the fact that many of them attend the universities of ,switzerland1 which are everywhere open to them1 but by their also obtaining the advantages in their own land which have so long been denied them4 ,heidelberg was the first university in ,germany to grant the doctor examination to women1 and this was done several years before lectures were open to them4 ,the writer called upon ,prof4 ,kuno ,fischer one day in the summer of #ahij to ask permission to attend a lecture which he was to give that afternoon on ,helmholtz4 ,he said that he was very sorry indeed1 but he was obliged to refuse women the privilege of listening to him1 as they were not admitted to the university4 ,i asked when they would probably be admitted1 and he replied1 speaking in ,french1 8,jamais1 mademoiselle1 jamais60 ,four years later1 however1 a friend of mine took her degree there in the department of philosophy1 thus proving that the wisest of men sometimes make mistakes4 ,women have for years studied as ,hospitants in the ,universities of ,leipsic and ,gttingen1 but since ,november1 #ahig1 the conditions of their admission in ,gttingen have been made more difficult4 ,in ,kiel the professors who are not willing to allow women to attend their lectures put a star opposite their names in the university programme of the lecture courses1 and this star is unfortunately seen opposite the names of all the professors of theology and many of those of medicine4 ,women began to attend the ,university of ,tbingen in the autumn of #ahih1 ,dr4 ,maria ,grfin von ,linden being the first1 who was soon followed by many others4 ,the degree of ,doctor of ,philosophy honoris causa has been conferred on two women by the ,university of ,munich--in ,december1 #ahig1 on the ,princess ,theresa1 and in ,october1 #ahih1 on ,lady ,blennerhassett1 an author1 for her researches in modern languages4 ,the ,dean of the ,philosophical ,faculty1 accompanied by three professors1 visited her in her home in ,munich to communicate to her the honor which she had received4 ,the ,university of ,breslau offers better conditions to women than are provided elsewhere1 as might naturally be expected1 especially in the department of medicine4 ,germany was represented in the ,international ,council of ,women1 held in ,london in ,june of this present year1 by ,frau ,anna ,simson1 ,frau ,bieber ,boehm1 and ,fran ,marie ,stritt1 of ,dresden4 ,it was also decided at this congress that the next ,quinquennial ,international ,council of ,women should be held in ,berlin1 and it will without doubt be an occasion that will mark an era in the history of the progress of liberty for the women of ,germany4 ,,scenes ,,on ,,the ,,planets4 ,,by ,,garrett ,p4 ,,serviss4 ,although amateurs have played a conspicuous part in telescopic discovery among the heavenly bodies1 yet every owner of a small telescope should not expect to attach his name to a star4 ,but he certainly can do something perhaps more useful to himself and his friends4 ,he can follow the discoveries that others1 with better appliances and opportunities1 have made1 and can thus impart to those discoveries that sense of reality which only comes from seeing things with one's own eyes4 ,there are hundreds of things continually referred to in books and writings on astronomy which have but a misty and uncertain significance for the mere reader1 but which he can easily verify for himself with the aid of a telescope of four or five inches' aperture1 and which1 when actually confronted by the senses1 assume a meaning1 a beauty1 and an importance that would otherwise entirely have escaped him4 ,henceforth every allusion to the objects he has seen is eloquent with intelligence and suggestion4 ,take1 for instance1 the planets that have been the subject of so many observations and speculations of late years--,mars1 ,jupiter1 ,saturn1 ,venus4 ,for the ordinary reader much that is said about them makes very little impression upon his mind1 and is almost unintelligible4 ,he reads of the 8snow patches0 on ,mars1 but unless he has actually seen the whitened poles of that planet he can form no clear image in his mind of what is meant4 ,so the 8belts of ,jupiter0 is a confusing and misleading phrase for almost everybody except the astronomer1 and the rings of ,saturn are beyond comprehension unless they have actually been seen4 ,it is true that pictures and photographs partially supply the place of observation1 but by no means so successfully as many imagine4 ,the most realistic drawings and the sharpest photographs in astronomy are those of the moon1 yet ,i think nobody would maintain that any picture in existence is capable of imparting a really satisfactory visual impression of the appearance of the lunar globe4 ,nobody who has not seen the moon with a telescope--it need not be a large one--can form a correct and definite idea of what the moon is like4 ,the satisfaction of viewing with one's own eyes some of the things the astronomers write and talk about is very great1 and the illumination that comes from such viewing is equally great4 ,just as in foreign travel the actual seeing of a famous city1 a great gallery filled with masterpieces1 or a battlefield where decisive issues have been fought out illuminates1 for the traveler's mind1 the events of history1 the criticisms of artists1 and the occurrences of contemporary life in foreign lands1 so an acquaintance with the sights of the heavens gives a grasp on astronomical problems that can not be acquired in any other way4 ,the person who has been in ,rome1 though he may be no archologist1 gets a far more vivid conception of a new discovery in the ,forum than does the reader who has never seen the city of the ,seven ,hills2 and the amateur who has looked at ,jupiter with a telescope1 though he may be no astronomer1 finds that the announcement of some change among the wonderful belts of that cloudy planet has for him a meaning and an interest in which the ordinary reader can not share4 ,illustration3 ,,jupiter ,,seen ,,with ,a ,,five-,,inch ,,telescope4 ,shadow of a satellite visible4 ,jupiter is perhaps the easiest of all the planets for the amateur observer4 ,a three-inch telescope gives beautiful views of the great planet1 although a four-inch or a five-inch is of course better4 ,but there is no necessity for going beyond six inches' aperture in any case4 ,for myself1 ,i think ,i should care for nothing better than my five-inch of fifty-two inches' focal distance4 ,with such a glass more details are visible in the dark belts and along the bright equatorial girdle than can be correctly represented in a sketch before the rotation of the planet has altered their aspect1 while the shadows of the satellites thrown upon the broad disk1 and the satellites themselves when in transit1 can be seen sometimes with exquisite clearness4 ,the contrasting colors of various parts of the disk are also easily studied with a glass of four or five inches' aperture4 ,there is a charm about the great planet when he rides high in a clear evening sky1 lording it over the fixed stars with his serene1 unflickering luminousness1 which no possessor of a telescope can resist4 ,you turn the glass upon him and he floats into the field of view1 with his cortge of satellites1 like a yellow-and-red moon1 attended by four miniatures of itself4 ,you instantly comprehend ,jupiter's mastery over his satellites--their allegiance is evident4 ,no one would for an instant mistake them for stars accidentally seen in the same field of view4 ,although it requires a very large telescope to magnify their disks to measurable dimensions1 yet the smallest glass differentiates them at once from the fixed stars4 ,there is something almost startling in their appearance of companionship with the huge planet--this sudden verification to your eyes of the laws of gravitation and of central forces4 ,it is easy1 while looking at ,jupiter amid his family1 to understand the consternation of the churchmen when ,galileo's telescope revealed that miniature of the solar system1 and it is gratifying to gaze upon one of the first battle grounds whereon science gained a decisive victory for truth4 ,the swift changing of place among the satellites1 as well as the rapidity of ,jupiter's axial rotation1 give the attraction of visible movement to the ,jovian spectacle4 ,the planet rotates in four or five minutes less than ten hours--in other words1 it makes two turns and four tenths of a third turn while the earth is turning once upon its axis4 ,a point on ,jupiter's equator moves about twenty-seven thousand miles1 or considerably more than the entire circumference of the earth1 in a single hour4 ,the effect of this motion is clearly perceptible to the observer with a telescope on account of the diversified markings and colors of the moving disk1 and to watch it is one of the greatest pleasures that the telescope affords4 ,it would be possible1 when the planet is favorably situated1 to witness an entire rotation of ,jupiter in the course of one night1 but the beginning and end of the observation would be more or less interfered with by the effects of low altitude1 to say nothing of the tedium of so long a vigil4 ,but by looking at the planet for an hour at a time in the course of a few nights every side of it will have been presented to view4 ,suppose the first observation is made between nine and ten o'clock on any night which may have been selected4 ,then on the following night between ten and eleven o'clock ,jupiter will have made two and a half turns upon his axis1 and the side diametrically opposite to that seen on the first night will be visible4 ,on the third night between eleven and twelve o'clock ,jupiter will have performed five complete rotations1 and the side originally viewed will be visible again4 ,illustration3 ,,eclipses ,,and ,,transits ,,of ,,jupiter',s ,,satellites4 ,satellite ,i and the shadow of ,,iii are seen in transit4 ,,iv is about to be eclipsed4 ,owing to the rotundity of the planet1 only the central part of the disk is sharply defined1 and markings which can be easily seen when centrally located become indistinct or disappear altogether when near the limb4 ,approach to the edge of the disk also causes a foreshortening which sometimes entirely alters the aspect of a marking4 ,it is advisable1 therefore1 to confine the attention mainly to the middle of the disk4 ,as time passes1 clearly defined markings on or between the cloudy belts will be seen to approach the western edge of the disk1 gradually losing their distinctness and altering their appearance1 while from the region of indistinct definition near the eastern edge other markings slowly emerge and advance toward the center1 becoming sharper in outline and more clearly defined in color as they swing into view4 ,watching these changes1 the observer is carried away by the reflection that he actually sees the turning of another distant world upon its axis of rotation1 just as he might view the revolving earth from a standpoint on the moon4 ,belts of reddish clouds1 many thousands of miles across1 are stretched along on each side of the equator of the great planet he is watching2 the equatorial belt itself1 brilliantly lemon-hued1 or sometimes ruddy1 is diversified with white globular and balloon-shaped masses1 which almost recall the appearance of summer cloud domes hanging over a terrestrial landscape1 while toward the poles shadowy expanses of gradually deepening blue or blue-gray suggest the comparative coolness of those regions which lie always under a low sun4 ,after a few nights' observation even the veriest amateur finds himself recognizing certain shapes or appearances--a narrow dark belt running slopingly across the equator from one of the main cloud zones to the other1 or a rift in one of the colored bands1 or a rotund white mass apparently floating above the equator1 or a broad scallop in the edge of a belt like that near the site of the celebrated 8red spot10 whose changes of color and aspect since its first appearance in #ahgh1 together with the light it has thrown on the constitution of ,jupiter's disk1 have all but created a new ,jovian literature1 so thoroughly and so frequently have they been discussed4 ,and1 having noticed these recurring features1 the observer will begin to note their relations to one another1 and will thus be led to observe that some of them gradually drift apart1 while others drift nearer2 and after a time1 without any aid from books or hints from observatories1 he will discover for himself that there is a law governing the movements on ,jupiter's disk4 ,upon the whole he will find that the swiftest motions are near the equator1 and the slowest near the poles1 although1 if he is persistent and has a good eye and a good instrument1 he will note exceptions to this rule1 probably arising1 as ,professor ,hough suggests1 from differences of altitude in ,jupiter's atmosphere4 ,finally1 he will conclude that the colossal globe before him is1 exteriorly at least1 a vast ball of clouds and vapors1 subject to tremendous vicissitudes1 possibly intensely heated1 and altogether different in its physical constitution1 although made up of similar elements1 from the earth4 ,then1 if he chooses1 he can sail off into the delightful cloud-land of astronomical speculation1 and make of the striped and spotted sphere of ,jove just such a world as may please his fancy--for a world of some kind it certainly is4 ,for many observers the satellites of ,jupiter possess even greater attractions than the gigantic ball itself4 ,as ,i have already remarked1 their movements are very noticeable and lend a wonderful animation to the scene4 ,although they bear classical names1 they are almost universally referred to by their ,roman numbers1 beginning with the innermost1 whose symbol is ,i1 and running outward in regular order ,,ii1 ,,iii1 and ,,iv4 ,the minute satellite much nearer to the planet than any of the others1 which ,mr4 ,barnard discovered with the ,lick telescope in #ahib1 is called the fifth1 although in the order of distance it would be the first4 ,in size and importance1 however1 it can not rank with its comparatively gigantic brothers4 ,of course1 no amateur's telescope can show the faintest glimpse of it4 ,satellite ,i1 situated at a mean distance of #bfa1jjj miles from ,jupiter's center--about #bb1jjj miles farther than the moon is from the earth--is urged by its master's overpowering attraction to a speed of #cbj miles per minute1 so that it performs a complete revolution in about forty-two hours and a half4 ,the others1 of course1 move more slowly1 but even the most distant performs its revolution in several hours less than sixteen days4 ,the plane of their orbits is presented edgewise toward the earth1 from which it follows that they appear to move back and forth nearly in straight lines1 some apparently approaching the planet1 while others are receding from it4 ,the changes in their relative positions1 which can be detected from hour to hour1 are very striking night after night1 and lead to a great variety of arrangements always pleasing to the eye4 ,the most interesting phenomena that they present are their transits and those of their round1 black shadows across the face of the planet2 their eclipses by the planet's shadow1 when they disappear and afterward reappear with astonishing suddenness2 and their occultations by the globe of ,jupiter4 ,upon the whole1 the most interesting thing for the amateur to watch is the passage of the shadows across ,jupiter4 ,the distinctness with which they can be seen when the air is steady is likely to surprise1 as it is certain to delight1 the observer4 ,when it falls upon a light part of the disk the shadow of a satellite is as black and sharply outlined as a drop of ink2 on a dark-colored belt it can not so easily be seen4 ,it is more difficult to see the satellites themselves in transit4 ,there appears to be some difference among them as to visibility in such circumstances4 ,owing to their luminosity they are best seen when they have a dark belt for a background1 and are least easily visible when they appear against a bright portion of the planet4 ,every observer should provide himself with a copy of the ,american ,ephemeris for the current year1 wherein he will find all the information needed to enable him to identify the various satellites and to predict1 by turning ,washington mean time into his own local time1 the various phenomena of the transits and eclipses4 ,while a faithful study of the phenomena of ,jupiter is likely to lead the student to the conclusion that the greatest planet in our system is not a suitable abode for life1 yet the problem of its future1 always fascinating to the imagination1 is open2 and whosoever may be disposed to record his observations in a systematic manner may at least hope to render aid in the solution of that problem4 ,illustration3 ,,saturn ,,seen ,,with ,a ,,five-,,inch ,,telescope4 ,saturn ranks next to ,jupiter in attractiveness for the observer with a telescope4 ,the rings are almost as mystifying to-day as they were in the time of ,herschel4 ,there is probably no single telescopic view that can compare in the power to excite wonder with that of ,saturn when the ring system is not so widely opened but that both poles of the planet project beyond it4 ,one returns to it again and again with unflagging interest1 and the beauty of the spectacle quite matches its singularity4 ,when ,saturn is in view the owner of a telescope may become a recruiting officer for astronomy by simply inviting his friends to gaze at the wonderful planet4 ,the silvery color of the ball1 delicately chased with half-visible shadings1 merging one into another from the bright equatorial band to the bluish polar caps2 the grand arch of the rings1 sweeping across the planet with a perceptible edging of shadow2 their sudden disappearance close to the margin of the ball1 where they go behind it and fall straightway into night2 the manifest contrast of brightness1 if not of color1 between the two principal rings2 the fine curve of the black line marking the #a1fjj-mile gap between their edges--these are some of the elements of a picture that can never fade from the memory of any one who has once beheld it in its full glory4 ,saturn's moons are by no means so interesting to watch as are those of ,jupiter4 ,even the effect of their surprising number 7raised to nine by ,professor ,pickering's discovery last spring of a new one which is almost at the limit of visibility1 and was found only with the aid of photography7 is lost1 because most of them are too faint to be seen with ordinary telescopes1 or1 if seen1 to make any notable impression upon the eye4 ,the two largest--,titan and ,japetus--are easily found1 and ,titan is conspicuous1 but they give none of that sense of companionship and obedience to a central authority which strikes even the careless observer of ,jupiter's system4 ,this is owing partly to their more deliberate movements and partly to the inclination of the plane of their orbits1 which seldom lies edgewise toward the earth4 ,illustration3 ,,polar ,,view ,,of ,,saturn',s ,,system4 ,the orbits of the five nearest satellites are shown4 ,the dotted line outside the rings shows ,roche's limit4 ,but the charm of the peerless rings is abiding1 and the interest of the spectator is heightened by recalling what science has recently established as to their composition4 ,it is marvelous to think1 while looking upon their broad1 level surfaces--as smooth1 apparently1 as polished steel1 though thirty thousand miles across--that they are in reality vast circling currents of meteoritic particles or dust1 through which run immense waves1 condensation and rarefaction succeeding one another as in the undulations of sound4 ,yet1 with all their inferential tumult1 they may actually be as soundless as the depths of interstellar space1 for ,struve has shown that those spectacular rings possess no appreciable mass1 and1 viewed from ,saturn itself1 their 7to us7 gorgeous seeming bow may appear only as a wreath of shimmering vapor spanning the sky and paled by the rivalry of the brighter stars4 ,in view of the theory of tidal action disrupting a satellite within a critical distance from the center of its primary1 the thoughtful observer of ,saturn will find himself wondering what may have been the origin of the rings4 ,the critical distance referred to1 and which is known as ,roche's limit1 lies1 according to the most trustworthy estimates1 just outside the outermost edge of the rings4 ,it follows that if the matter composing the rings were collected into a single body that body would inevitably be torn to pieces and scattered into rings2 and so1 too1 if instead of one there were several or many bodies of considerable size occupying the place of the rings1 all of these bodies would be disrupted and scattered4 ,if one of the present moons of ,saturn--for instance1 ,mimas1 the innermost hitherto discovered--should wander within the magic circle of ,roche's limit it would suffer a similar fate1 and its particles would be disseminated among the rings4 ,one can hardly help wondering whether the rings have originated from the demolition of satellites--,saturn devouring his children1 as the ancient myths represent1 and encircling himself1 amid the fury of destruction1 with the dust of his disintegrated victims4 ,at any rate1 the amateur student of ,saturn will find in the revelations of his telescope the inspirations of poetry as well as those of science1 and the bent of his mind will determine which he shall follow4 ,professor ,pickering's discovery of a ninth satellite of ,saturn1 situated at the great distance of nearly eight million miles from the planet1 serves to call attention to the vastness of the 8sphere of activity0 over which the ringed planet reigns4 ,surprising as the distance of the new satellite appears when compared with that of our moon1 it is yet far from the limit where ,saturn's control ceases and that of the sun becomes predominant4 ,that limit1 according to ,prof4 ,asaph ,hall's calculation1 is nearly #cj1jjj1jjj miles from ,saturn's center1 while if our moon were removed to a distance a little exceeding #ejj1jjj miles the earth would be in danger of losing its satellite through the elopement of ,artemis with ,apollo4 ,although1 as already remarked1 the satellites of ,saturn are not especially interesting to the amateur telescopist1 yet it may be well to mention that1 in addition to ,titan and ,japetus1 the satellite named ,rhea1 the fifth in order of distance from the planet1 is not a difficult object for a three-or four-inch telescope1 and two others considerably fainter than ,rhea--,dione 7the fourth7 and ,tethys 7the third7--may be seen in favorable circumstances4 ,the others--,mimas 7the first71 ,enceladus 7the second71 and ,hyperion 7the seventh7--are beyond the reach of all but large telescopes4 ,the ninth satellite1 which has received the name of ,phbe1 is much fainter than any of the others1 its stellar magnitude being reckoned by its discoverer at about #ae4e4 ,mars1 the best advertised of all the planets1 is nearly the least satisfactory to look at except during a favorable opposition1 like those of #ahgg and #ahib1 when its comparative nearness to the earth renders some of its characteristic features visible in a small telescope4 ,the next favorable opposition will occur in #aijg4 ,illustration3 ,,mars ,,seen ,,with ,a ,,five-,,inch ,,telescope4 ,when well seen with an ordinary telescope1 say a four-or five-inch glass1 ,mars shows three peculiarities that may be called fairly conspicuous--viz41 its white polar cap1 its general reddish1 or orange-yellow1 hue1 and its dark markings1 one of the clearest of which is the so-called ,syrtis ,major1 or1 as it was once named on account of its shape1 8,hourglass ,sea40 ,other dark expanses in the southern hemisphere are not difficult to be seen1 although their outlines are more or less misty and indistinct4 ,the gradual diminution of the polar cap1 which certainly behaves in this respect as a mass of snow and ice would do1 is a most interesting spectacle4 ,as summer advances in the southern hemisphere of ,mars1 the white circular patch surrounding the pole becomes smaller1 night after night1 until it sometimes disappears entirely even from the ken of the largest telescopes4 ,at the same time the dark expanses become more distinct1 as if the melting of the polar snows had supplied them with a greater depth of water1 or the advance of the season had darkened them with a heavier growth of vegetation4 ,the phenomena mentioned above are about all that a small telescope will reveal4 ,occasionally a dark streak1 which large instruments show is connected with the mysterious system of 8canals10 can be detected1 but the 8canals0 themselves are far beyond the reach of any telescope except a few of the giants handled by experienced observers4 ,the conviction which seems to have forced its way into the minds even of some conservative astronomers1 that on ,mars the conditions1 to use the expression of ,professor ,young1 8are more nearly earthlike than on any other of the heavenly bodies which we can see with our present telescopes10 is sufficient to make the planet a center of undying interest notwithstanding the difficulties with which the amateur is confronted in his endeavors to see the details of its markings4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,illumination ,,of ,,venus',s ,,atmosphere ,,at ,,the ,,beginning ,,of ,,her ,,transit ,,across ,,the ,,sun4 ,in ,venus 8the fatal gift of beauty0 may be said1 as far as our observations are concerned1 to be matched by the equally fatal gift of brilliance4 ,whether it be due to atmospheric reflection alone or to the prevalence of clouds1 ,venus is so bright that considerable doubt exists as to the actual visibility of any permanent markings on her surface4 ,the detailed representations of the disk of ,venus by ,mr4 ,percival ,lowell1 showing in some respects a resemblance to the stripings of ,mars1 can not yet be accepted as decisive4 ,more experienced astronomers than ,mr4 ,lowell have been unable to see at all things which he draws with a fearless and unhesitating pencil4 ,that there are some shadowy features of the planet's surface to be seen in favorable circumstances is probable1 but the time for drawing a 8map of ,venus0 has not yet come4 ,the previous work of ,schiaparelli lends a certain degree of probability to ,mr4 ,lowell's observations on the rotation of ,venus4 ,this rotation1 according to the original announcement of ,schiaparelli1 is probably performed in the same period as the revolution around the sun4 ,in other words1 ,venus1 if ,schiaparelli and ,lowell are right1 always presents the same side to the sun1 possessing1 in consequence1 a day hemisphere and a night hemisphere which never interchange places4 ,this condition is so antagonistic to all our ideas of what constitutes habitability for a planet that one hesitates to accept it as proved1 and almost hopes that it may turn out to have no real existence4 ,venus1 as the twin of the earth in size1 is a planet which the imagination1 warmed by its sunny aspect1 would fain people with intelligent beings a little fairer than ourselves2 but how can such ideas be reconciled with the picture of a world one half of which is subjected to the merciless rays of a never-setting sun1 while the other half is buried in the fearful gloom and icy chill of unending night8 ,any amateur observer who wishes to test his eyesight and his telescope in the search of shades or markings on the disk of ,venus by the aid of which the question of its rotation may finally be settled should do his work while the sun is still above the horizon4 ,schiaparelli adopted that plan years ago1 and others have followed him with advantage4 ,the diffused light of day serves to take off the glare which is so serious an obstacle to the successful observation of ,venus when seen against a dark sky4 ,knowing the location of ,venus in the sky1 which can be ascertained from the ,ephemeris1 the observer can find it by day4 ,if his telescope is not permanently mounted and provided with 8circles0 this may not prove an easy thing to do1 yet a little perseverance and ingenuity will effect it4 ,one way is to find1 with a star chart1 some star whose declination is the same1 or very nearly the same1 as that of ,venus1 and which crosses the meridian say twelve hours ahead of her4 ,then set the telescope upon that star1 when it is on the meridian at night1 and leave it there1 and the next day1 twelve hours after the star crossed the meridian1 look into your telescope and you will see ,venus1 or1 if not1 a slight motion of the tube one way or another will bring her into view4 ,for many amateurs the phases of ,venus will alone supply sufficient interest for telescopic observation4 ,the changes in her form1 from that of a round full moon when she is near superior conjunction to the gibbous1 and finally the half-moon phase as she approaches her eastern elongation1 followed by the gradually narrowing and lengthening crescent1 until she becomes a mere silver sickle as she swings in between the sun and the earth1 form a succession of delightful pictures for the eye4 ,not very much can be said for ,mercury as a telescopic object4 ,the little planet presents phases like those of ,venus1 and1 according to ,schiaparelli and ,lowell1 it resembles ,venus in its rotation1 keeping always the same side to the sun4 ,in fact1 ,schiaparelli's discovery of this peculiarity in the case of ,mercury preceded the similar discovery in the case of ,venus4 ,there are perceptible markings on ,mercury which have reminded some astronomers of the appearance of the moon1 and there are various reasons for thinking that the planet can not be a suitable abode for living beings1 at least for beings resembling the inhabitants of the earth4 ,uranus and ,neptune are too far away to present any attraction for amateur observation4 ,,professor ,,ward ,,on 8,,naturalism ,,and ,,agnosticism40 ,,by ,,herbert ,,spencer4 ,in a recent advertisement1 ,professor ,ward's work entitled as above was characterized as 8one of the most important contributions to philosophy made in our time in ,england10 and this was joined with the prophecy that it 8may even do something to restore to philosophy the prominent place it once occupied in ,english thought40 ,along with laudatory expressions1 ,i have observed in some notices reprobation of the manner adopted by ,professor ,ward in his attack upon my views--,i might almost say upon me2 and one of the reviewers gives examples of the words he uses--8ridiculous10 8absurd10 8blunder10 8nonsense10 8amazing fallacy10 8our oracle40 ,when1 some time ago1 ,i glanced at one of the volumes1 ,i came upon a passage which at once stamped the book by displaying the attitude of the writer2 but1 being then otherwise occupied1 ,i decided not to disturb myself by reading more4 ,now1 however1 partly by the reviews ,i have seen1 and partly by the comments of a friend1 ,i have been shown that ,i can not let the book pass without remark4 ,the assumption that a critic states rightly the doctrine he criticises is so generally made1 that in the absence of proof to the contrary his criticisms are almost certain to be regarded as valid4 ,and when the critic is a ,cambridge ,professor and an ,honorary ,,ll4 ,d41 the assumption will be thought fully warranted4 99 99 99 99 99 ,let me set out by quoting some passages disclosing the kind of feeling by which ,professor ,ward's criticisms are influenced1 if not prompted4 ,in his preface he says3-- 8,when at length ,naturalism is forced to take account of the facts of life and mind1 we find the strain on the mechanical theory is more than it will bear4 ,mr4 ,spencer has blandly to confess that #8two volumes' of his ,synthetic ,philosophy are missing1 the volumes that should connect inorganic with biological1 evolution40 ,respecting the first of these sentences1 ,i have only to remark that ,i have said 7as in ,first ,principles1 #fb7 and repeatedly implied1 that force or energy in the sense which a 8mechanical theory0 connotes1 can not be that ,ultimate ,cause whence all things proceed1 and that there is as much warrant for calling it spiritual as for calling it material4 ,as was asserted at the close of that work 7p4 #eeh71 the 8implications are no more materialistic than they are spiritualistic2 and no more spiritualistic than they are materialistic02 and as was contended in the ,principles of ,sociology1 #fei1 8the ,power manifested throughout the ,universe distinguished as material1 is the same ,power which in ourselves wells up under the form of consciousness40 ,but it is to the second sentence ,i here chiefly draw attention4 ,whether or not there be a sarcasm behind the words 8blandly to confess10 it is clear that the sentence is meant to imply some dereliction on my part4 ,now in the programme of the ,synthetic ,philosophy1 the division dealing with inorganic nature was avowedly omitted1 8because even without it the scheme is too extensive02 and this undue extensiveness was so conspicuous that ,i was thought absurd or almost insane4 ,yet ,i am now tacitly reproached because ,i did not make it more extensive still--because an undertaking deemed scarcely possible was not made quite impossible4 ,when blamed for attempting too much1 it never entered my thoughts that ,i might in after years be blamed for not attempting more4 ,repeated reference to ,first ,principles as 8the stereotyped philosophy0 are manifestly intended by ,professor ,ward to reflect on me1 either for having left that work during many years unchanged1 or for implying that no change is needed4 ,much as ,i dislike personal explanations1 ,i am here compelled to make them4 ,if1 in #ahif1 when the ten volumes constituting the ,synthetic ,philosophy were completed1 ,i had done nothing toward revision of them1 the omission would not have been considered by most men a reason for complaint4 ,the facts1 however1 are1 that in #ahfg ,i issued a recast and revised edition of ,first ,principles2 in #ahgj an edition of the ,principles of ,psychology1 of which half was revised1 and ten years later an enlarged edition of the same work2 in #ahhe a revised edition of the first volume of the ,principles of ,sociology2 and now ,i have fortunately been able to finish a revised and enlarged edition of the ,principles of ,biology4 ,any one not willfully blind might have seen that when persisting1 under great difficulties1 in trying to execute the entire work as originally outlined1 it was not practicable at the same time to bring all earlier parts of it up to date4 ,professor ,ward1 however1 thinks that ,i should have sacrificed the end to improve the beginning1 or else that ,i should have found energy enough to re-revise an earlier volume while writing the later ones2 and my failure to do both prompts sarcastic allusions4,a ,a ,candor often brings penalties1 as witness the announcement 8stereotyped edition40 ,when another thousand of a work has been ordered1 the printers do not always refer to the author for correction of the title-page1 but1 as a matter of course1 put 8second edition10 or 8third edition10 as the case may be4 ,when my attention has been drawn to such matters1 however1 ,i have directed that the words 8stereotyped edition0 shall be put on the title-page if the printing is from plates1 and if the work is unaltered3 objecting to a usage which betrays readers into the false belief that new matter is forthcoming4 ,i did not perceive that an antagonist might transform the words 8stereotyped edition0 into an assertion that the work needed no changes4 ,experience should have warned me that adverse interpretations are inevitable wherever they are possible4 ,to the question--8,why did you stereotype80 the obvious reply is--8,from motives of economy40 ,in further illustration of the feeling ,professor ,ward brings to his task1 ,i may quote the following passage1 in which he interposes comments on my mode of writing3-- 8,by the persistence of ,force capital ,f1 we really mean the persistence of some ,power capital ,p which transcends our knowledge and conception4 ,the manifestations1 as recurring either in ourselves or outside of us1 do not persist2 but that which persists is the ,unknown ,cause capitals again of these manifestations40 ,the matter itself is trivial enough4 ,it is worth noticing only as indicating a state of mind4 ,supposing even that capitals were in such cases inappropriate--supposing even that small initial letters would have been more appropriate2 it is clear that only one having a strong animus would have gone out of his way to notice it4 ,after thus enabling the reader to judge in what temper the criticisms of ,professor ,ward are made1 ,i may pass on4 99 99 99 99 99 ,as implied at the outset1 my intention is not to discuss ,professor ,ward's own philosophy--the less so because ,i discussed a like philosophy nearly a generation ago4 ,his position is that 8,once materialism is abandoned and dualism found untenable1 a spiritualistic monism remains the one stable position4 ,it is only in terms of mind that we can understand the unity1 activity1 and regularity that nature presents4 ,in so understanding we see that ,nature is ,spirit40 7,preface47 ,this was the position of ,dr4 ,martineau in #ahgb 7and probably is now74 ,he argued1 that to account for this infinitude of physical changes everywhere going on1 8,mind must be conceived as there10 8under the guise of simple ,dynamics40 ,my criticisms on this view1 given in an essay entitled 8,mr4 ,martineau on ,evolution10 can not here be repeated4 ,but ,i held then1 as ,i hold now1 that 8the ,ultimate ,power is no more representable in terms of human consciousness than human consciousness is representable in terms of a plant's functions40 ,briefly the result is1 that in saying 8,nature is ,spirit0 7capital ,n and capital ,s671 ,professor ,ward implies that he knows all about it2 while ,i1 on the other hand1 am sure that ,i know nothing about it4 99 99 99 99 99 ,and now1 passing to my essential purpose1 let me exemplify ,professor ,ward's controversial method4 ,specifying an hypothesis of the late ,dr4 ,croll 7who1 he thinks1 had 8incomparably more right to an opinion on the question0 than ,i have71 he says1 that it 8at least recognizes a problem with which ,mr4 ,spencer scarcely attempts to deal--,i mean the evolution of the chemical elements4 ,it thus suffices to convict ,mr4 ,spencer's work of a certain incompleteness0 7i41 #aij74 ,apparently the words 8scarcely attempts0 refer to a passage in the above-named essay1 8,mr4 ,martineau on ,evolution10 where several reasons are given for thinking that the 8so-called elements arise by compounding and recompounding40 ,more than this has been done1 however4 ,the evolution of the elements1 if not systematically dealt with within the limits of the ,synthetic ,philosophy1 has not been ignored4 ,in an essay on 8,the ,nebular ,hypothesis0 7,essays1 i41 pp4 #aef-i71 it is argued1 that 8the general law of evolution1 if it does not actually involve the conclusion that the so-called elements are compounds1 yet affords a priori ground for suspecting that they are such02 and five groups of traits are enumerated which support the belief that they originated by a process of evolution like that everywhere going on4 ,but the point ,i here chiefly emphasize is that1 having reflected upon me for omitting two volumes1 ,professor ,ward again reflects upon me for having omitted something which one of these volumes would have contained4 8,sir1 you have neglected to build that house which was wanted6 ,moreover1 you have not supplied the stairs60 99 99 99 99 99 ,from a sin of omission let us pass to a sin of commission4 ,professor ,ward quotes from me the sentence--8,the absolutely homogeneous must lose its equilibrium2 and the relatively homogeneous must lapse into the relatively less homogeneous40--,first ,principles1 p4 #dbi4 ,then presently he writes3-- 8,in truth1 however1 homogeneity is not necessarily instability4 ,quite otherwise4 ,if the homogeneity be absolute--that of ,lord ,kelvin's primordial medium1 say--the stability will be absolute too4 ,in other words1 if #8the indefinite1 incoherent homogeneity1' in which1 according to ,mr4 ,spencer1 some rearrangement must result1 be a state devoid of all qualitative diversity and without assignable bounds1 then1 as we saw in discussing mechanical ideals1 any #8rearrangement' can result only from external interference2 it can not begin from within0 7i41 #bbc74 ,and then he goes on to argue that 8,thus1 the very first step in ,mr4 ,spencer's evolution seems to necessitate a breach of continuity4 ,this fatal defect1 c40 7ibid474 ,observe the words 8without assignable bounds0--without knowable limits1 infinite4 ,so that the law of the instability of the homogeneous is disposed of because it does not apply to an infinite homogeneous medium4 ,but since infinity is inconceivable by us1 this alleged case of stable homogeneity is inconceivable too4 ,hence the proposal is to shelve the law displayed in all things we know1 because it is inapplicable to a hypothetical thing we can not know1 and can not even conceive6 ,now let me turn to the essential point4 ,this nominally-exceptional case was fully recognized by me in the chapter he is criticising4 ,in #aee of ,first ,principles 7p4 #dbi71 it is written3-- 8,one stable homogeneity only1 is hypothetically possible4 ,if centers of force1 absolutely uniform in their powers1 were diffused with absolute uniformity through unlimited space1 they would remain in equilibrium4 ,this1 however1 though a verbally intelligible supposition1 is one that can not be represented in thought2 since unlimited space is inconceivable40 ,so that this nominal exception which ,professor ,ward urges against me as a 8fatal defect10 was set forth by me thirty-seven years ago6 ,a somewhat more involved case may next be dealt with4 ,professor ,ward writes3-- 8,moreover1 on the physical assumption from which ,mr4 ,spencer sets out1 viz41 that the mass of the universe and the energy of the universe are fixed in quantity--which ought to mean are finite in quantity--there can be no such alternations of evolution and dissolution as he supposes0 7i41 #aib74 ,after some two pages of argument1 he goes on3-- 8,and so while all transformations of energy lead directly or indirectly to transformation into heat1 from that transformation there is no complete return1 and1 therefore finally no return at all4 ,this then is the conclusion to which ,mr4 ,spencer's premises lead4 ,two eminent physicists who accept those premises may be cited at this point3 #8,it is absolutely certain1' they say1 #8that life1 so far as it is physical1 depends essentially upon transformations of energy2 it is also absolutely certain that age after age the possibility of such transformations is becoming less and less2 and1 so far as we yet know1 the final state of the present universe must be an aggregation 7into one mass7 of all the matter it contains1 i4 e4 the potential energy gone1 and a practically useless state of kinetic energy1 i4 e4 uniform temperature throughout that mass4444 ,the present visible universe began in time and will in time come to an end'0 7p4 #aid74 ,mark now1 however1 that this opinion of 8two eminent physicists10 quoted to disprove my position1 and tacitly assumed to have validity in so far as it serves that end1 is forthwith dismissed as having1 for other purposes1 no validity4 ,his next paragraph runs3-- 8,to this conclusion we are surely led from such premises4 ,but again ,i ask what warrant is there for the premises8 ,our experience certainly does not embrace the totality of things1 is1 in fact1 ridiculously far from it4 ,we have no evidence of definite space or time limits2 quite the contrary4 ,every advance of knowledge only opens up new vistas into a remoter past and discloses further depths of immensity teeming with worlds40 ,thus the truth urged against me is that we can not know anything about these ultimate physical principles in their application to the ultra-visible universe4 ,but1 unhappily for ,professor ,ward's criticism1 ,i entered this same caveat long ago4 ,demurring to that doctrine of the dissipation of energy to which he now demurs1 ,i wrote3-- 8,here1 indeed1 we arrive at a barrier to our reasonings2 since we can not know whether this condition is or is not fulfilled4 ,if the ether which fills the interspaces of our ,sidereal system has a limit somewhere beyond the outermost stars1 then it is inferable that motion is not lost by radiation beyond this limit2 and if so1 the original degree of diffusion may be resumed4 ,or supposing the ethereal medium to have no such limit1 yet1 on the hypothesis of an unlimited space1 containing1 at certain intervals1 ,sidereal ,systems like our own1 it may be that the quantity of molecular motion radiated into the region occupied by our ,sidereal ,system1 is equal to that which our ,sidereal ,system radiates2 in which case the quantity of motion possessed by it1 remaining undiminished1 it may continue during unlimited time its alternate concentrations and diffusions4 ,but if1 on the other hand1 throughout boundless space filled with ether1 there exist no other ,sidereal ,systems subject to like changes1 or if such other ,sidereal ,systems exist at more than a certain average distance from one another2 then it seems an unavoidable conclusion that the quantity of motion possessed1 must diminish by radiation2 and that so1 on each successive resumption of the nebulous form1 the matter of our ,sidereal ,system will occupy a less space2 until it reaches either a state in which its concentrations and diffusions are relatively small1 or a state of complete aggregation and rest4 ,since1 however1 we have no evidence showing the existence or non-existence of ,sidereal ,systems throughout remote space2 and since1 even had we such evidence1 a legitimate conclusion could not be drawn from premises of which one element 7unlimited space7 is inconceivable2 we must be forever without answer to this transcendent question40 7,first ,principles1 #ahb1 pp4 #ece-f47 ,see1 then1 how the case stands4 ,after urging against me the argument of 8two eminent physicists0 as fatal to my conclusions1 he thereupon expresses dissent from the premises of that argument2 and the reasons he gives for dissenting are like those given by me before he was out of his teens6 99 99 99 99 99 ,it is not always easy to disentangle misrepresentations2 especially when they are woven into a fabric4 ,for elucidation of this matter there needs another section4 ,it may fitly begin with an analogy4 ,an astronomer who 8saw reason to think0 that the swarm of ,november meteors this year would be greater than usual1 would be surprised if the occurrence of a smaller number were cited in disproof of his astronomical beliefs at large4 ,it would be held that so undecided a phrase as 8saw reason to think10 not implying a definite deduction1 did not implicate his general conceptions nor appreciably discredit them4 ,professor ,ward1 however1 thinks a tentative opinion is equivalent to a positive assertion4 ,in the course of the foregoing argument 7p4 #aia7 he represents me as saying that 8there is an alternation of evolution and dissolution in the totality of things40 ,he does not quote the whole clause1 which runs thus3--8,for if1 as we saw reason to think1 there is an alternation of evolution and dissolution in the totality of things1 c40 ,here1 then1 are two qualifying expressions which he suppresses2 and not only does he here suppress them1 but elsewhere he refers to this passage as not speculative1 but quite positive4 ,on p4 #aig he says3-- 8,but of a single supreme evolution embracing them all we have no title to speak3 not even to assume that it is1 much less to say what it is2 least of all to affirm confidently that it can be embraced in such a meaningless formula as the integration of matter and the dissipation of motion40 ,the italics are mine4 ,so that a hypothetical inference 7implied by 8if071 drawn from avowedly uncertain data 7implied by 8reason to think071 he transforms into an unhesitating assertion4 ,he does this in presence of my statement that respecting transformations of the ,universe as a whole1 no 8legitimate conclusions0 can be drawn1 and that we must be forever 8without answer to this transcendent question40 ,nay1 he does it in presence of a still more specific repudiation of certainty4 ,section #ahb begins3-- 8,here we come to the question raised at the close of the last chapter--does ,evolution as a whole1 like ,evolution in detail1 advance toward complete quiescence8 ,is that motionless state called death1 which ends ,evolution in organic bodies1 typical of the universal death in which ,evolution at large must end8444 8,to so speculative an inquiry1 none but a speculative answer is to be expected4 ,such answer as may be ventured1 must be taken less as a positive answer than as a demurrer to the conclusion that the proximate result must be the ultimate result0 7p4 #ebi74 ,instead of being a positive answer1 it is intended to exclude a positive answer4 ,one more instance may be given to illustrate ,professor ,ward's mode of discrediting views which he dislikes4 ,on p4 #aih of his first volume occurs the sentence-- 8,at any rate such a conception is less conjectural and more adequate than ,mr4 ,spencer's ridiculous comparison of the universe to a spinning top that begins by #8wabbling1' passes into a state of steady motion or equilibrium mobile1 and finally comes to rest40 ,the reader who seeks a warrant for this representation will seek in vain4 ,if1 in the chapter of ,first ,principles on 8,equilibration10 he turns to section #aga1 where the celestial applications of the general law are considered1 he will find the ,solar ,system alone instanced as having progressed toward a moving equilibrium2 and the moving equilibrium even of this not compared as alleged4 ,neither in that section nor in any subsequent section of the chapter1 is any larger celestial aggregate mentioned as progressing toward a moving equilibrium4 ,contrariwise1 in the succeeding chapter on 8,dissolution10 it is said that 8the irregular distribution of our ,sidereal ,system0 is 8such as to render even a temporary moving equilibrium impossible0 7p4 #eca74 ,on pp4 #ecc-d it is contended that even local aggregations of stars1 still more the whole ,sidereal ,system1 must eventually reach a diffused state without passing through any such stage4 ,and had not conclusions respecting the changes of the ,universe been excluded as exceeding the bounds even of speculation 7p4 #ecf71 it is clear that still more of the ,universe would no moving equilibrium have been alleged2 but1 had anything been alleged1 it would have been the reverse4 ,how1 then1 has it been possible1 the reader will ask1 for ,professor ,ward to write the sentence above quoted8 ,if instead of vainly seeking through the sections devoted to 8,equilibration0 and 8,dissolution0 in relation to celestial phenomena1 he turns back to some introductory pages he will find a clew4 ,i have pointed out that in an aggregate having compounded motions1 one of the constituent motions may be dissipated while the rest continue2 and that in some such cases there is established a moving equilibrium4 ,in illustration ,i have taken 8the most familiar example0--8that of the spinning top02 and to remind the reader of one of the movements thus dissipated while the rest continue1 ,i have used the word 8wabbling02 there being no other descriptive word4 ,what then has ,professor ,ward done8 ,that mode of establishing an equilibrium which the spinning top exemplifies1 he represents as extended by me to celestial phenomena1 though no such comparison is made nor any such word used4 ,nay1 he has done so notwithstanding my assertion that a moving equilibrium of our sidereal system is negatived1 and regardless of the implied assertion that still more would be negatived a moving equilibrium of the ,universe1 could we with any rationality speculate about it4 ,actually in defiance of all this1 he says ,i compare the motion of the ,universe to that of a 8wabbling0 top4 ,having constructed a grotesque fancy1 he labels it 8ridiculous0 and then debits me with it4 ,i can not pursue further this examination of ,professor ,ward's criticisms3 other things have to be done4 ,whether what has been said will lead readers to discount the laudatory expressions ,i quoted at the outset1 it is not for me to say4 ,but ,i think ,i have said enough to warn them that before accepting ,professor ,ward's versions of my views1 it will be prudent to verify them4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,postscript4--,i said that ,i did not propose to discuss ,professor ,ward's own philosophy1 and ,i contented myself with quoting his summary of it--8,nature is ,spirit40 ,it occurs to me1 however1 that as showing the point of view from which his criticisms are made1 it may not be amiss to give readers a rather more specific conception of his philosophy1 by reproducing a laudatory quotation he makes4 ,here it is3-- 8,if #8rational synthesis' of things is what we seek1 it is surely more reasonable to say with ,lotze3 #8,what lies beneath all is not a quantity which is bound eternally to the same limits and compelled through many diverse arrangements1 continuously varied1 to manifest always the very same total4 ,on the contrary1 should the self-realization of the ,idea 6 require it1 there is nothing to hinder the working elements of the world being at one period more numerous and yet more intense2 at another period less intense as well as fewer'0 7i41 #bah74 ,the italics are mine4 ,it is worth remarking that on the opposite page some of my views are characterized as 8astounding feats of philosophical jugglery06 ,,destructive ,,effects ,,of ,,vagrant ,,electricity4 ,,by ,,hubert ,s4 ,,wynkoop1 ,m4 ,e4 ,reverting to the dictionary for a definition1 electrolysis is 8the process of decomposing a chemical compound by the passage of an electric current through it40 ,electroplating is a popular illustration of this definition1 having been numbered among the industrial arts for nearly a century4 ,if in a bath of sulphate-of-copper solution are placed a copper plate and a plumbago-covered wax mold1 the passage of an electric current through the solution1 from the plate to the mold1 will result in the deposition of copper upon the mold1 or negative electrode1 and the wasting away of the plate of copper1 or positive electrode4 ,generalizing from this and other experiments1 it may be broadly stated that the passage of an electric current through a solution of electrolyzable metallic salt1 from an oxidizable metal to some other conductor1 will be attended by the separation of the salt into two parts3 first1 the metal1 appearing at the negative electrode2 and1 second1 an unstable compound of the remaining elements4 ,this unstable compound is supposed to unite with the hydrogen of the water1 liberating oxygen1 and forming an acid4 ,both oxygen and acid appear only at the positive electrode1 which is thus made subject to a double decay--a corrosion by oxygen and a solution by acid4 ,there is nothing new about this4 ,it is not even a novel statement of a fundamental electro-chemical truth4 ,in times past1 however1 we were wont to consider this matter as pertaining solely to the laboratory or to the electroplating industry2 now we are forced to see that the reproduction of this experiment on a grand scale is attended with results as disagreeable as they are widespread4 ,hidden beneath our highways lie gas pipes1 water pipes1 railway tracks1 ,edison tubes1 cement-lined iron subway ducts1 and lead-covered cables4 ,these are the electrodes4 ,in contact with these conductors is the soil1 containing an electrolyzable salt--chloride1 nitrate or sulphate of ammonia1 potash1 soda1 or magnesia1 generally4 ,in the presence of moisture this soil becomes an electrolyte1 or salt solution4 ,in the absence of electricity no appreciable damage occurs2 but the passage of an electric current1 no matter how small1 from one pipe to another is sure1 sooner or later1 to leave its traces upon the positive conductor in the form of a decay other than mere oxidation4 ,it is to this decay that has been given the name of electrolysis2 so that when this heading appears in the daily press or in technical journals one may interpret the term popularly as 8the electrolytic corrosion of metals buried in the soil40 ,illustration3 ,,copper ,,drip ,,pipe ,,after ,,seventeen ,,days' ,,exposure ,,in ,,salt ,,water ,,to ,,the ,,action ,,of ,,electricity4 ,half size4 ,to produce electrolytic disintegration of pipes1 etc41 on a scale grand enough to cause apprehension1 a bountiful source of electricity is essential4 ,unfortunately1 this condition is not lacking to-day in any town in which the usual overhead trolley electric railway is in operation4 ,this system of electric propulsion is based upon the use of a 8ground return0--that is to say1 the electricity passes out from the power house to the bare trolley wire1 thence to the pole on the roof of the car1 thence through the motors to the wheels1 whence it is expected to return to the power house1 via the rails4 ,as a matter of fact1 however1 the released electricity by no means confines itself to the rails and the copper return feeders--legitimate paths provided for it4 ,it avails itself1 on the other hand1 of what may be termed1 for brevity's sake1 the illegitimate return--comprising all underground electrical conductors except the rails and return feeders1 and including subterranean water-courses1 sewers1 and metallic earth veins4 ,illustration3 ,,wrought-,,iron ,,service ,,pipe ,,for ,,water ,,after ,,one ,,year',s ,,burial ,,beneath ,a ,,trolley ,,track4 ,the fibrous appearance of the surface is characteristic of wrought iron and steel4 ,in the light of our experience of the last eight years1 it is easy to identify as electrolysis the effects shown in the accompanying cuts of buried metals that have been actually subjected to a flow of electricity4 ,it is not to be inferred that the destructive action here depicted is universal throughout our towns1 but1 rather1 that the damage occurs in spots1 its rate of progress being dependent upon the amount of current and the duration of the flow4 ,dry1 sandy soils tend to keep down the flow of current by interposing a high resistance1 so that in such localities electrolytic effects are not as pronounced as in wet1 loamy soils4 ,in the same way1 the character of the pipe surface--or coating1 if there be any--acts as a partial barrier to check the passage of electricity4 ,until recently it was generally supposed that cast iron was not attacked--at least not rapidly enough to cause alarm4 ,in ,brooklyn the water mains1 of very hard1 dense1 even-grained cast iron1 containing alloyed rather than combined carbon1 have not been appreciably corroded4 ,at ,dayton1 ,ohio1 on the other hand1 seventy-seven thousand dollars' worth of damage has already resulted4 ,one peculiarity of electrolyzed cast iron is that the original shape is usually retained1 the iron being eaten away and leaving a punky formation of pure or nearly pure graphite4 ,in such a case a superficial examination detects nothing wrong1 and it requires a mechanical scraping to show that the strength is not there4 ,for this reason good photographs of cast-iron electrolysis are somewhat hard to obtain4 ,illustration3 ,,lead ,,service ,,pipe ,,after ,,eight ,,months' ,,burial ,,in ,,builders' ,,sand4 ,the collapsed appearance of the pipe is due entirely to the removal of the lead by electrolysis1 the bore retaining its original shape4 ,the dark spot on the upper surface of the pipe is the point of rupture4 ,one third size4 ,the reason for the comparative immunity of cast iron is not as yet definitely understood4 ,it certainly does not lie particularly in the asphaltic varnish usually applied1 for this varnish affords little or no protection when used upon wrought iron or other metals4 ,nor can it be accounted for by the composition of cast iron itself1 inasmuch as a fractured or brightly scraped surface of cast iron shows approximately the same symptoms as other metals when acted upon by a given current for a given time4 ,whether the iron oxide is the saving feature1 or whether the 8skin0 due to the process of casting acts as an insulator1 is not yet settled4 ,when the trouble first appeared in ,boston1 in #ahia1 its cause was promptly identified4 ,the electric-railway construction of those days was so crude1 however1 that many well-informed electricians fell into the error of assuming that heavier rails1 more and larger return feeders1 and better bonding 7i4 e41 wire connections from rail to rail1 around the joints1 designed to decrease the resistance7 would prove a panacea for all electrolytic ills4 ,indeed1 this view is still held by a surprisingly large number of men versed in matters electrical4 ,i am of the opinion that it is impossible1 from a financial standpoint1 to provide so satisfactory a legitimate return that considerable electricity will not seek a path through pipes1 cable covers1 etc42 for1 in order to confine the electric current to the rails1 the resistance of the earth and its contained pipes would have to be infinitely great1 and this condition can be realized only by making the resistance of the rail infinitely small as compared with that of the earth4 ,the cost of arriving at this condition is prohibitive1 and the improved track return is1 and always must be1 a palliative merely1 not a cure4 ,illustration3 ,,lead ,,service ,,pipe ,,showing ,,the ,,effects ,,of ,,eight ,,months' ,,electrolytic ,,action1 ,,and ,,clearly ,,illustrating ,,the ,,fact ,,that ,,damage ,,occurs ,,only ,,where ,,the ,,electricity ,,leaves ,,the ,,conductor4 ,the interior surface is unattacked4 ,assuming1 then1 that under the most favorable character of electric-railway construction some of the current may be expected to stray from the straight and narrow path1 it behooves us to consider how it may best be cared for in order that it may not cause electrolysis4 ,since corrosion of this nature occurs only at those points where electricity leaves the metal1 one might suppose that the attachment of a conducting wire to the affected part would result in the harmless carrying away of the current4 ,in isolated cases1 in small towns1 such a plan might accomplish the desired result4 ,it is open to the objection1 however1 that it in a measure legalizes the conveyance of electricity on conductors other than those designed for the purpose4 ,in larger towns1 with more than one power house and with car lines radiating from and circumscribing the business center1 the attachment of conducting wires entails a ceaseless disturbance of the electrical equilibrium1 curing the evil in spots and developing new danger points4 ,furthermore1 these connections tend to decrease the resistance of the total illegitimate return1 thereby tempting a greater flow of electricity along other paths than the rails and track feeders4 ,it has been generally believed that this increased current would develop electrolysis at the ends of the pipes1 due to the jumping of the electricity around the presumably high resistance of the joints2 and1 indeed1 many samples of such corrosion are in existence4 ,i have found1 however1 that it is possible to calk a bell-and-spigot joint in cast-iron pipe in such a manner that the resistance is practically nil2 and as for wrought iron or steel1 the joint resistance may be made as low as we please by fitting the surfaces so carefully that white-leading is unnecessary4 ,arguing from the fact that the negative electrode is not attacked1 it has been suggested to employ an auxiliary dynamo and a special system of wiring1 in order to maintain the pipes1 etc41 at all times and at all points1 negative to the rails4 ,could this ideal condition be realized1 the rails alone would suffer4 ,we can not hope1 however1 to thus easily solve the problem in towns where the distribution of buried conductors is at all complex4 ,illustration3 ,,lead ,,service ,,pipe ,,showing ,,the ,,irregularity ,,of ,,electrolytic ,,action1 ,,or ,,what ,,is ,,technically ,,known ,,as 8,,pitting40 ,it has been suggested1 also1 to discourage the flow of electricity along pipes and cable covers by inserting insulating sections of wood or terra cotta4 ,this plan has never been tried on a scale large enough to afford a suitable demonstration of its utility4 ,while it might reasonably be tried on new construction1 its application to old work is almost prohibited by the attendant expense4 ,illustration3 ,,lead ,,service ,,pipe ,,illustrating ,,the ,,local ,,effects ,,of ,,eight ,,months' ,,electrolysis4 ,the other side of this pipe is smooth and clean4 ,attacking the problem from a directly opposite standpoint1 there seems to be a chance of successfully invoking the aid of some purely chemical method of rendering lead and iron innocuous1 electrolytically speaking4 ,if we can obtain an insulating oxide1 lacquer1 or varnish that will retain its high-resistance properties during the ordinary lifetime of the buried metal1 it will be possible to effectually protect pipes and cable coverings by coating them prior to burial4 ,or1 if we can stumble upon an electrolysis-proof alloy1 formed by the addition of a few per cent of some foreign metal to the pipe material during manufacture1 the buried conductor will need no protection whatever4 ,but1 supposing that we discover this lacquer or this alloy and by such means guard against damage to all new construction1 how are we to care for the metals already buried8 ,we can not dig them all up and paint them1 neither can we attempt to replace them by the new alloy4 ,i do not see that the state of the art to-day presents any solution of the difficulty1 other than the banishment of the single trolley system4 ,none of the electrical remedies 7so called7 offers more than partial and temporary relief1 and the chemical field is just beginning to be explored4 ,permit me to state most emphatically that this is not intended as an argument in favor of the abolishment of single trolley systems4 ,our civilization owes more to them than could be rehearsed in catalogue form within the limits of one issue of this magazine4 ,we have nothing at present that can be employed as a satisfactory substitute for the ordinary electric railway4 ,the underground trolley is a safe substitute1 but the great expense of installation renders it available for very few localities4 ,the overhead trolley1 with two wires and no ground return1 is cumbersome1 vexatious1 and unsightly4 ,the storage battery is more or less experimental in its nature4 ,the electro-magnetic contact systems1 with plates set in the pavement at stated intervals1 make no pretense of avoiding electrolytic troubles4 ,the compressed-air motor has yet to receive popular approval4 ,illustration3 ,,lead ,,service ,,pipe ,,showing ,,the ,,depth ,,to ,,which ,,the ,,pipe ,,has ,,been ,,affected4 ,in this instance the outer covering consists of a salt of lead1 having no strength whatever4 ,there seems to be a mistaken impression abroad that the railway companies are indifferent to this subject4 ,so far as my experience and information go1 this is not the case4 ,they are only too anxious to find a remedy--not1 as some electricians have stated1 to save their coal-pile1 for energy is wasted in forcing the electricity back to the power house1 no matter what the path1 but because they fear that at some future date the taxpayer1 the corporation1 and the municipality will band together1 present overwhelming bills for damages1 and sweep the trolleys off the face of the earth4 ,the instinct of self-preservation1 if nothing else1 demands that the electric-railway companies should put forth every endeavor to solve the electrolysis problem4 ,and yet1 conservative judgment requires that the railway companies should not take the initiative4 ,it is one of boyhood's maxims not to shoot arrows at a hornet's nest unless one has mud handy to apply to the subsequently afflicted part4 ,thus it happens that the railway company remains apparently inactive1 bearing the burden of public condemnation1 while we1 whose lethargy is responsible for failing pipes1 read electrolysis articles in the daily press and wonder how soon the impending catastrophe is likely to occur4 ,this condition of affairs is deplorable2 for1 while we may not care how extensively or how frequently the city authorities or the private corporations are obliged to renew their underground metals1 we are at least vitally concerned as to whether the stray electricity is endangering our steel office buildings1 our bridges1 our water supply1 our immunity from conflagrations1 and the safety of the hundred and one appliances that go to make up our modern civilization4 ,are the ,brooklyn ,bridge anchor plates going to pieces1 or are they not8 ,are the elevated railroad structures about to fall apart1 or are they not8 ,the consulting electrical engineer says 8,yes10 the railway man says 8,no40 ,the municipal authorities say nothing4 8,when doctors disagree----0 ,i deem it doubly unfortunate that so much valuable brain energy has been inefficiently expended in the discussion of electrolysis4 ,each writer has viewed it from his own standpoint4 ,electrical literature has acquired in this way a series of views1 interesting and instructive1 but also bewildering4 ,there is no composite view1 such as might be obtained from the report of a commission composed of a technical representative of each of the interests affected4 ,so far as ,i am able to learn1 such a commission has never existed4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a curious coincidence of superstitions1 illustrating anew how all men are kin1 is exemplified in the native belief1 mentioned in ,mrs4 ,r4 ,langloh ,perkins's book of ,more ,australian ,legendary ,tales1 that any child who touches one of the brilliant fungi growing on dead trees--which are called 8devil's bread0--will be spirited away by ghosts4 ,an ,english reviewer of the book remembers having been dragged away from a fungus of this kind for the same reason4 ,in the north of ,england children used to be told that1 if they touched the dangerous growths1 a fungus of the same kind would grow from the tip of every finger4 ,,winter ,,birds ,,in ,a ,,city ,,park4 ,,by ,,james ,b4 ,,carrington4 ,most of us are so used to thinking of birds1 if we notice them at all1 as belonging to spring and summer that we easily fail to see or hear the comparatively few feathered winter visitors4 ,among these1 however1 are some of the most attractive and amusing of birds1 and to hear their cheery notes and to watch their busy hunt for food on a cold winter day adds a very considerable pleasure to a walk in a city park or the near-by woods4 ,in ,new ,york city bird lovers have learned that ,central ,park is one of the very best places in which to watch birds both summer and winter4 ,there is room enough there and the conditions are varied enough to offer congenial dwelling places for nearly all of the better-known birds4 ,in the spring and fall the beautiful and tiny migrating wood warblers find the park a good feeding ground1 and a safe place wherein to linger for a brief time on their journeys north and south4 ,illustration3 ,,mr4 ,,chickadee ,,taking ,,observations4 ,with the approach of winter the innumerable fat and saucy robins that have hunted angleworms and strutted about the lawns of the park since early spring disappear1 except for an occasional hardy fellow who perhaps prefers the dangers of a northern winter to those of the long journey southward4 ,the wood- and the hermit-thrush2 the veery1 or ,wilson's thrush2 the yellow warbler1 so abundant and so musical2 the perky little redstart1 whose song of 8,sweet1 sweet1 sweeter0 closely resembles the yellow warbler's2 the somber-colored blackbirds2 the ,baltimore and the orchard oriole2 the scarlet tanager2 the catbird2 ,phbe2 ,jenny ,wren2 the tiny chipping sparrow2 the vireos2 and many other familiar warm-weather friends have also journeyed southward4 ,the bare trees and the ground brown with fallen leaves have to some a bleak and dreary look1 but this is because a wrong impression has gone abroad concerning them4 ,nature in winter is not dead1 not even sleeping2 she is all the time storing up energy to enable her to greet the returning sun in her very best dress4 ,if you will look carefully at the bare limbs and branches of the trees and bushes1 you will see the little buds that are slowly but surely swelling up with the pride of young1 active1 vigorous life1 only waiting1 with the great patience of ,nature1 for the proper and suitable time to break away from their winter retirement and take up their part in the new year4 ,illustration3 ,,getting ,,acquainted4 ,some of the pleasantest days ,i have ever known in the open have been spent in the winter woods1 when the snow was on the ground and everything seemed still and unfamiliar4 ,every little sound is accented on a cold day1 and the creaking of a swaying limb or the note of a bird comes to you with almost startling distinctness4 ,somehow you feel on such days that you are more a part of the things about you than in the full flush of summer4 ,it is like meeting people stripped of all the artificial distinctions of clothes and position4 ,there is something fine in the way the trees stand up in winter2 no one can fail to understand what is meant by the 8sturdy oak40 ,they seem to feel pretty much as you do1 and show a spirit of vigorous resistance and power to enjoy and cope with the worst that ,jack ,frost can bring1 and the bright sun sends the sap tingling through their limbs just as it does the blood through yours4 ,one day especially that ,i remember in ,central ,park brought me a somewhat novel experience1 and gave me the privilege of transferring some old bird acquaintance to the list of my bird friends4 ,it was after a fall of snow1 and the air was crisp and sharp1 indeed it was nipping1 and standing still was a chilly occupation4 ,from long familiarity ,i knew just about where to go to find certain birds1 and ,i was not disappointed in my hunt4 ,my overcoat pocket1 it is needless to say1 was fully stocked with peanuts and a box of bird seed1 and demands were very soon made upon the peanut supply by the fat and friendly gray squirrels that come bravely up to your hand to be fed4 ,they have a most attractive and appealing way of approaching you4 ,the more timid ones stop often to sit up inquiringly1 and put one hand on their heart1 as if to stop its excited beating4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,silent ,,winter ,,woods4 ,the first birds ,i saw were the rugged and noisy ,english sparrows1 written down in most bird books as 8pests10 but ,i confess ,i could not resist giving them a crumb or two1 for they appeal to my sympathies much as the plucky little gamin newsboys of the streets do1 and then1 too1 ,i have learned that their loud chatter and rush for food attract more desirable acquaintances4 ,i soon heard the sharp1 shrill peep of the white-throated sparrows1 and listened to their scratching 8with both feet0 under the bushes4 ,now and then one would try his throat with his full song1 two sweet whistles followed by very plain calls for 8,peabody1 peabody1 peabody40 ,they are called the peabody bird by many4 ,there is no mistaking this beautiful sparrow4 ,among a bunch of his noisy ,english neighbors the rich brown of his feathers is easily seen1 and the three white stripes on his head and the white patch on the throat attract your eye at once4 ,in a group of thirty or forty whitethroats that were feeding on my bird seed ,i noticed also two plump song sparrows4 ,they are brown1 too1 but smaller than the whitethroats1 and their breasts are streaked with dark-brown stripes1 with a spot right in the center4 ,this is the sparrow that makes music for us from very early spring until late in the autumn4 ,i have heard them in ,february1 with the snow yet on the ground1 perched on the tip of some bush and singing away with a joyfulness that made everything take on a more cheerful look4 ,while ,i was watching the whitethroats ,i heard the jolly little song that ,i especially hoped for1 and very soon had a near view of wee ,mr4 ,chickadee himself1 with his jet-black head1 throat1 and chin1 and gray cheeks4 ,he1 in company with several of his friends1 came down to feed at once1 and hopped about my feet and a near-by bench to pick up the bits of peanut ,i had dropped for his benefit4 ,the chickadees are always 8chummy0 little birds1 and seem to have found their human acquaintances in general pretty good sort of people4 ,after a time ,i put some peanut crumbs in my hand and held it out invitingly4 ,the chickadees would alight on the tree over my head1 sing their song1 look down inquiringly1 and then fly off1 apparently interested in searching for some important business they had overlooked on the bark of another tree4 ,gradually1 however1 one became more familiar and finally lighted on my hand with entire confidence1 selected the largest piece of peanut to be had1 and flew away to eat it4 ,he held the bit between both feet on a bench1 and leaned forward and pecked away until it disappeared4 ,occasionally he would hold a small piece in one foot only4 ,one little fellow stopped to sing me his ,chick-a-dee-dee-dee1 as he perched on my little finger1 before selecting his morsel4 ,they followed me about the paths1 and wherever ,i stopped there were sure to be several chickadees peeping about the tree trunks asking me to please give them more peanuts4 ,while this was going on ,i heard a hoarse 8,quank1 quank1 quank60 that sounded very near1 and on looking up saw a white-breasted nuthatch1 a blue-gray bird with a very distinct black band on the top of his head that extends back across his shoulders4 ,his short tail and legs make him look very funny when on the ground4 ,on a tree1 however1 he is a regular circus1 walking head up or head down on the limbs and trunk1 and now and then doing the giant swing1 completely circling some twig1 just to show what he can do when he tries4 ,he was attracted by the noise and conduct of the chickadees1 his winter companions1 and was calling for something for himself4 ,his long1 slim bill is not made for cracking things as the sparrows can with their short1 strong bills1 but he punches holes in them very much as the woodpeckers do4 ,when he came down to the path and picked up a peanut he flew off to a near-by tree and hunted up and down until he found a place in the bark where he could wedge the nut in and then proceeded to hatch or crack it into bits to suit his taste4 ,a brown creeper was walking up his tree a short distance away very much as the nuthatch does1 poking his long1 curved bill into the bark1 though ,i did not see him for some time1 as his brown and gray feathers were so like the color of the tree on which he walked4 ,he circles round the trunk or limb1 and you have to keep a sharp lookout to get more than an occasional rapid glance at him4 ,a loud rapping and a noise that sounded a good deal like a giggle attracted my attention to a downy black-and-white woodpecker1 with a bright-red spot on the back of his head4 ,he was hammering away with all his might1 and the limb on which he hung1 back down1 fairly rattled as he drove his chisel-like bill into the wood4 ,another woodpecker1 the big and beautifully marked flicker1 with his brown back barred with black1 his spotted breast with its big black crescent and the red band on the back of his head1 stopped for a minute or two on a tree a hundred feet away4 ,his cry of alarm rang out shrilly as he flew away4 ,all of these birds are handsomely marked1 though none of them compare1 in the mere matter of color1 with some of the many beautiful summer species4 ,there was one bird there that day1 though1 whose brilliant plumage and altogether tropical aspect comes as a great surprise to the unaccustomed visitor to the park in winter4 ,as he lighted on the snow-covered ground among a group of feeding whitethroats the cardinal1 with his splendid crest1 stood out like a jet of flame1 and the black spot at the base of his bill only made the rest of him seem the brighter4 ,mr4 and ,mrs4 ,cardinal spend their winters regularly in ,central ,park1 and ,i hear or see them every time ,i go there4 ,his only note now is a sharp squeak of alarm1 but a little later he will perch high up in some tree near the lake and awake the echoes with his loud whistling4 ,high over my head1 mere specks of shining white against the blue-gray of the sky1 ,i could see several gulls floating along on their way to the reservoir1 where hundreds of them often gather in the open water that is usually found in the center4 ,as ,i walked toward the entrance of the park1 on my way to the car1 ,i heard1 on some cedars near the border of the lake1 the gurgling music of a party of goldfinches4 ,they had on their winter coats of yellowish brown1 but their song and dipping flight made them easily recognizable4 ,once you become acquainted with a few birds1 every flutter of a wing or cheep or peep becomes an object of interest and a motive for many days in the open4 ,it is very easy also to sentimentalize about ,nature and to assume a patronizing air toward her1 but the more you know of her and her ways the sooner you get over this4 ,you can not help being impressed with the fact that the life and ways of the animals and birds are1 after all1 in many ways very like your own4 ,birds1 you will find1 are very human indeed1 and show a wide diversity in disposition and habit4 ,there is one thing sure to follow an interest of this kind1 and that is a greater respect and care for wild life4 ,the cruelty of egg-collecting and the wanton destruction of birds for millinery purposes are becoming less tolerable every year in civilized communities4 ,,old ,,rattler ,,and ,,the ,,king ,,snake4 ,,by ,,david ,,starr ,,jordan1 ,,president ,,of ,,leland ,,stanford ,,junior ,,university4 8,i only know thee humble1 bold1 ,haughty1 with miseries untold1 ,and the old curse that left thee cold1 ,and drove thee ever to the sun ,on blistering rocks4444 ,thou whose fame ,searchest the grass with tongue of flame1 ,making all creatures seem thy game1 ,when the whole woods before thee run1 ,asked but--when all is said and done-- ,to lie1 untrodden1 in the sun60--,,bret ,,harte4 ,old ,rattler was a snake1 of course1 and he lived in the ,king's ,river ,caon1 high up and down deep in the mountains of ,california4 ,he had a hole behind and below a large1 flat granite rock1 not far from the river1 and he called it his home2 for in it he slept all night and all winter1 but when the sun came back in the spring and took the frost out of the air and the rocks1 then he crawled out to lie until he got warm4 ,the stream was clear and swift in the caon1 the waterfalls sang in the side gulch of ,roaring ,river1 the wind rustled in the long needles of the yellow pines1 and the birds called to their mates in the branches4 ,but ,old ,rattler did not care for such things4 ,he was just a snake1 you know1 and his neighbors did not think him a good snake at that1 for he was surly and silent1 and his big1 three-cornered1 8coffin-shaped0 head1 set on a slim1 flat neck1 was very ugly to see4 ,but when he opened his mouth he was uglier still1 for in his upper jaw he had two long fangs1 and each one was filled with deadly poison4 ,his vicious old head was covered with gray and wrinkled scales1 and his black1 beadlike eyes snapped when he opened his mouth to find out whether his fangs were both in working order4 ,old ,rattler was pretty stiff when he first came from his hole on the morning of this story4 ,he had lain all night coiled up like a rope among the rocks1 and his tail felt very cold4 ,but the glad sun warmed the cockles of his heart1 and in an hour or two he became limber1 and this made him happy in his snaky fashion4 ,but1 being warm1 he began to be hungry1 for it had been a whole month since he had eaten anything4 ,when the first new moon of ,august came1 his skin loosened everywhere and slipped down over his eyes like a veil1 so that he could see nothing about him1 and could not hunt for frogs by the river nor for chipmunks among the trees4 ,but with the new moon of ,september all this was over4 ,the rusty brown old coat was changed for a new suit of gray and black1 and the diamond-shaped checkers all over it were clean and shiny as a set of new clothes ought to be4 ,there was a little striped chipmunk running up and down the sugar-pine tree over his head1 pursing his little mouth and throwing himself into pretty attitudes1 as though he were the center of an admiring audience1 and ,old ,rattler kept a steady eye on him4 ,but he was in no hurry about it all4 ,he must first get the kinks out of his neck1 and the cold cramps from his tail4 ,there was an old curse on his family1 so the other beasts had heard1 that kept him always cold1 and his tail was the coldest part of all4 ,so he shook it a little1 just to show that it was growing limber1 and the bone clappers on the end rustled with a sharp1 angry noise4 ,fifteen rattles he had in all--fifteen and a button--and to have so many showed that he was no common member of his hated family4 ,then he shook his tail again1 and more sharply4 ,this was to show all the world that he1 ,old ,rattler1 was wide awake1 and whoever stepped on him would better look out4 ,then all the big beasts and little beasts who heard the noise fled away just as fast as ever they could2 and to run away was the best thing they could do1 for when ,old ,rattler struck one of them with his fangs all was over with him4 ,so there were many in the caon1 beasts and birds and snakes too1 who hated ,old ,rattler1 but only a few dared face him4 ,and one of these was ,glittershield1,b whom men call the ,king of ,snakes1 and in a minute ,i shall tell you why4 ,b ,lampropeltis zonatus4 ,and when ,old ,rattler was doing all that ,i have said1 the ,king ,snake lay low on a bed of pine needles1 behind a bunch of fern1 and watched with keen1 sharp eye4 ,the angry buzz of ,rattler's tail1 which scared the chipmunks and the bullfrogs and all the rest of the beast folk1 was music for ,glittershield4 ,he was a snake too1 and snakes understand some things better than any of the rest of us4 ,glittershield was slim and wiry in his body1 as long as ,old ,rattler himself1 but not so large around4 ,his coat was smooth and glossy1 not rough and wrinkly like ,old ,rattler's1 and his upraised head was small and pretty--for a snake4 ,he was the best dressed of all his kind1 and he looked his finest as he faced ,old ,rattler4 ,his head was shiny black1 his throat and neck as white as milk1 while all down his body to the end of his tail he was painted with rings1 first white1 then black1 then crimson1 and every ring was bright as if it had just been freshly polished that very day4 ,so the ,king ,snake passed the sheltering fern and came right up to ,old ,rattler4 ,rattler opened his sleepy eyes1 threw himself on guard with a snap and a buzz1 and shook his bony clappers savagely4 ,but the ,king of ,snakes was not afraid4 ,every snake has a weak spot somewhere1 and that is the place to strike him4 ,if he hadn't a weak spot no one else could live about him1 and then perhaps he would starve to death at last4 ,if he had not some strong points1 where no one could harm him1 he couldn't live himself4 ,as the black crest rose1 ,old ,rattler's tail grew cold1 his head dropped1 his mouth closed1 he straightened out his coil1 and staggered helplessly toward his hole4 ,this was the chance for ,glittershield4 ,with a dash so swift that all the rings on his body--red1 white1 and black--melted into one purple flash1 he seized ,old ,rattler by his throat4 ,he carried no weapons1 to be sure4 ,he had neither fangs nor venom4 ,he won his victories by force and dash1 not by mean advantage4 ,he was quick and strong1 and his little hooked teeth held like the claws of a hawk4 ,old ,rattler closed his mouth because he couldn't help it1 and the fangs he could not use were folded back against the roof of his jaw4 ,the ,king ,snake leaped forward1 wound his body in a 8love-knot0 around ,old ,rattler's neck1 took a 8half-hitch0 with his tail about the stomach1 while the rest of his body lay in a curve like the letter ,s between the two knots4 ,then all he had to do was to stiffen up his muscles1 and ,old ,rattler's backbone was snapped off at the neck4 ,all that remained to ,glittershield was to swallow his enemy4 ,first he rubbed his lips all over the body1 from the head to the tail1 till it was slippery with slime4 ,then he opened his mouth very wide1 with a huge snaky yawn1 and face to face he began on ,old ,rattler4 ,the ugly head was hard to manage1 but1 after much straining1 he clasped his jaws around it1 and the venom trickled down his throat like some fiery sauce4 ,slowly head and neck and body disappeared1 and the tail wriggled despairingly1 for the tail of the snake folk can not die till sundown1 and when it went at last the fifteen rattles and the button were keeping up an angry buzz4 ,and all night long the ,king of ,snakes1 twice as big as he ought to be1 lay gorged and motionless upon ,old ,rattler's rock4 ,and in the morning the little chipmunk ran out on a limb above him1 pursed up his lips1 and made all kinds of faces1 as much as to say1 8,i did all this1 and the whole world was watching while ,i did it40 ,,remarkable ,,volcanic ,,eruptions ,,in ,,the ,,philippines4 ,,by ,r4 ,l4 ,,packard4 ,every one knows that the ,philippine archipelago1 like other regions in its neighborhood1 abounds in volcanoes1 some of which are still active1 while the majority are extinct4 ,some geologists have tried to distribute the ,philippine volcanoes into two parallel belts or lines running in a general northwest and southeast direction1 following the trend of the island group1 and extending from the southern end of ,mindanao to the northern part of ,luzon--some sixteen degrees of latitude4 ,early1 possibly prehistoric1 volcanic activity in the group has left its imprint upon the native mythology1 as was the case in the ,mediterranean1 and an explanation of some of the mythical stories is to be found in earth movements4 ,the ,spaniards have given accounts of many eruptions in the last three hundred years1 which were remarkable either from the destruction they caused or the terror they inspired4 ,some of these accounts were written by the terrified eyewitnesses themselves1 such as the monks in charge of parishes where the greatest damage was done1 and are sufficiently vivid1 however much they may lack of what would now be called 8scientific0 accuracy4 ,probably the most remarkable volcanic outburst in historical times1 on account of the distance apart of the simultaneous eruptions1 although its intensity might not be regarded as great when compared with that of ,krakatoa1 was that of ,january #d1 #afda1 when a volcano on the southeastern extremity of ,mindanao1 another on the northern coast of the island of ,sulu to the west1 and a third in ,luzon far to the north1 became active at the same time4 ,a translation of the original ,spanish report of this extraordinary phenomenon1 which is extremely rare and practically inaccessible to students1 is given in ,jagor's ,reisen in den ,philippinen4 ,from this it appears that upon two occasions1 toward the end of ,december1 #afdj1 volcanic ashes fell at ,zamboanga 7on the southwest coast of ,mindanao7 and covered the fields like a light frost4 ,on ,january #a1 #afda1 the auxiliary fleet carrying troops from ,manila to the island of ,ternate was off ,zamboanga1 and on the #c;d1 at about #g ,p4 ,m41 people in the latter place heard what they supposed was artillery and musketry firing at some miles' distance4 ,believing that an enemy was attacking the coast1 preparations were made to meet him1 and the commander of the galleys sent a boat out to see if any of the vessels of the fleet needed assistance1 but the boat returned without finding the fleet4 ,on the next day1 ,january #d1 #afda1 at about #i ,a4 ,m41 the noise of the supposed cannonading increased to such an extent that it was feared in ,zamboanga that the ,spanish fleet had been attacked by the ,dutch1 with whom the ,spaniards were then at war4 ,this noise lasted about half an hour1 when it became evident that it was not caused by artillery1 but proceeded from the outbreak of a volcano1 for1 toward noon1 thick darkness began to spread over the sky to the south1 which soon covered that part of the heavens and gradually spread over the whole sky1 so that by #a ,p4 ,m4 it was as dark as night1 and by #b ,p4 ,m4 the darkness had so increased that one could not distinguish objects a short distance off4 ,candles were lighted1 and a great fear fell upon the people1 who fled to the churches to pray and confess4 ,this darkness1 during which no light was visible in the whole horizon1 lasted until #b ,a4 ,m41 when the moon became visible1 to the great joy of both ,spaniards and ,indians1 who were afraid of being buried beneath the ashes which had been falling since #b ,p4 ,m4 ,the fleet1 which was then passing the southern end of ,mindanao1 was thrown into confusion by the tumult of the elements1 and was in darkness earlier than ,zamboanga--viz41 at #aj ,a4 ,m4--because it was nearer the volcano4 ,the darkness was so intense that the crews believed the last day had come1 and the vessels were endangered by the heavy shower of stones1 ashes1 and earth which fell upon them and which the men hastened to throw overboard4 ,the ships' lanterns were lighted as at night4 ,the volcano could be seen1 at a considerable distance1 throwing up columns of flame which1 on descending1 set the neighboring woods on fire4 ,the darkness covered the greater part of ,mindanao1 which is a very large island1 and the ashes were carried to ,cebu1 ,panay1 and other islands1 and there was an especially heavy fall on the island of ,jolo 7,sulu71 which is more than forty leagues west by south from the southeast point of ,mindanao1 where the volcano burst out4 ,on this island1 on account of the darkness and the general uproar1 the source of the ashes which fell there was not known at the time1 but when it became light enough to see it was found that at the same time with the eruption on ,mindanao a second volcano had burst out upon a small island which lies off the mouth of the principal river of ,sulu4 ,there the earth had opened with a violent commotion1 and had vomited out flames mingled with trees and huge stones4 ,so great was the disturbance that the sea bottom was mingled with the interior of the earth1 and the volcano threw out quantities of shells and other things that grow upon the bottom of the sea4 ,the mouth of this volcano remained open afterward4 ,it was very broad1 and the eruption had burned up everything upon the island4 ,but what excited the greatest amazement was that a third volcano broke out on the same day and hour with the two just mentioned1 in the province of ,ilocos1 in ,luzon1 and at least six hundred miles north2 and this volcano ejected water4 ,the outbreak was preceded by a violent storm and earthquake4 ,the earth swallowed up three mountains1 on the sides of one of which were three villages4 ,all three mountains were torn from their foundations and blown into the air1 together with a vast amount of water1 and the chasm which took their place formed a broad lake1 that showed no trace of the mountains which had stood on the spot4 ,the letter from which the foregoing account is taken goes on to say that the noise of this outbreak1 which occurred between #i and #aj ,a4 ,m41 was heard not only in ,manila but in all the ,philippine ,islands and the ,moluccas4 ,it even reached the mainland of ,asia in the kingdoms of ,cochin ,china1 ,champa1 and ,cambodia1 as was learned from priests and others who came to ,manila from those countries afterward4 ,the noise sounded like heavy artillery and musketry fire at two or three leagues' distance4 ,in ,manila it was supposed that the firing was going on in ,cavite1 while at ,cavite it was referred to ,manila1 and messengers were sent from one place to the other to make inquiries1 and a similar impression prevailed in all the islands1 cities1 and villages in a circuit of nine hundred leagues1 within which the noise was heard4 ,malacca was taken by the ,dutch on the #acth of ,january1 and was already hard pressed on the #dth1 and many pious ,spaniards believed1 after the news had come of the capture of the place1 that ,heaven had taken this volcanic means of warning them of the great injury which would result to the archipelago from the loss of so important a city4 ,the missionaries in ,cochin ,china gave ,january #eth as the date of the outbreak1 instead of the #dth1 there being one day's difference between the reckoning of the ,portuguese1 who sailed from west to east1 and that of the ,spaniards1 who sailed from east to west1 to their ,eastern possessions4 ,the volcano of ,mayon1 or ,albay1 in the province of ,camarines1 has been in frequent eruption from #afaf down to within thirty years4 ,some of the eruptions were very destructive to life and property4 ,after an activity in ,july1 #agff1 of six days' duration1 accompanied by a great flow of lava1 on ,october #bc1 #agff1 during a violent storm1 which began at about #g ,p4 ,m4 from north-northwest and at #c ,a4 ,m4 suddenly veered to the south and blew down all the houses of one of the villages in the neighborhood1 the volcano ejected such a vast quantity of water that several torrents of thirty varas 7ninety feet7 wide ran down to the sea between the villages ,tibog and ,albay4 ,between ,bacacay and ,malinao the floods were over eighty varas 7two hundred and forty feet7 wide1 and the highways were obliterated4 ,one village was entirely destroyed1 nearly all the houses of the region were swept away1 and the fields were covered with sand2 another village was partly destroyed1 its remainder forming an island1 or rather a hill1 surrounded by deep1 broad ravines1 through which the stream of sand and water ran4 ,in another place palms and other trees were buried in sand to their tops4 ,some fifty persons lost their lives4 ,as far as could be judged1 the account declares1 this cold8 water came from the interior of the volcano1 while we should be inclined to regard it as a cloudburst4 ,the outbreak of ,february #a1 #ahad1 however1 was the most destructive of all4 ,an eyewitness writes that at about #h ,a4 ,m4 the mountain suddenly threw out a thick column of stones1 sand1 and ashes1 which quickly rose to the highest layers of the air4 ,the sides of the volcano became veiled and disappeared from the view of the spectators1 while a stream of fire ran down the mountain and threatened to annihilate them4 ,every one fled to the highest attainable point for safety1 while the roar of the volcano struck terror into all4 ,the darkness increased1 and many of the fleeing ones were struck down by the falling stones4 ,houses afforded no protection1 because the red-hot stones set them on fire1 and the most flourishing villages of the ,camarines were thus laid in ashes4 ,toward #aj ,a4 ,m4 the rain of stones ceased1 and was replaced by one of sand1 and at about #b ,p4 ,m4 the noise had lessened and the sky began to clear4 ,twelve thousand persons were killed and many wounded by this eruption4 ,after the mountain had become quiet it presented a frightful appearance1 its former picturesque1 highly cultivated slopes being covered with barren sand1 which enveloped the cocoanut trees to their tops1 and some one hundred and twenty feet of its summit had been carried away during the eruption4 ,an enormous opening had been formed on its southern side1 near which three other mouths appeared1 which continued to emit ashes and smoke4 ,the finest villages of the ,camarines were destroyed1 and the best part of the province was converted into a sandy waste4 ,this mountain has been active at short intervals down to the present time4 ,sometimes its activity has been continuous for a year or more4 ,its eruptions were frequently accompanied by earthquakes and storms4 ,the next outbreak after that described above was in #ahbg4 ,in #ahcd and #ahce the mountain was active nearly all the time4 ,there was no eruption of ashes1 but every night a stream of molten lava could be seen running into the higher ravines4 ,in #ahde there was an eruption of ashes which lasted several days2 a violent eruption occurred in #ahdf1 two unimportant ones in #ahea1 and another violent ash and stone eruption occurred on ,july #bg1 #ahec1 during which thirty-one persons were killed4 ,others occurred in #ahee1 #aheg1 #aheh1 #ahei1 #ahfj1 #ahfe1 and #ahga4 ,the heights of the ,philippine volcanoes vary from ten thousand and nine thousand feet 7,albay or ,mayon7 down to ,taal1 only seven hundred and eighty feet high4 ,this curious volcano is upon an islet in the middle of ,lake ,bombon1 south of ,manila4 ,lake ,bombon was originally probably a vast crater4 ,it is separated from the ,china ,sea by a narrow isthmus4 ,taal contains secondary craters1 crevasses emitting vapors1 and lakelets of acid water4 ,it is the principal 8show0 volcano of the islands1 and was in action in #ahhe1 when all the vegetation upon the island was burned up4 ,lake ,bombon was doubtless formerly connected with the sea1 the intervening barrier being formed of eruptive scori4 ,its water is still saline1 and its marine fauna has adapted itself to its modified environment4 ,on the small island ,camiguin1 on the northwest coast of ,mindanao1 is the extinct volcano ,catarman1 with a crater lake upon its summit whose level has been subject to great fluctuations4 ,sometimes the lake dried up1 and again it has overflowed and inundated the low lands in the neighborhood1 as in #ahbg and #ahfb4 ,often its water has been set boiling by escaping gases4 ,it would be interesting to know what varying pressure caused the changes in the level of this lake on the top of ,mount ,catarman4 ,a further idea of the volcanic activity of this region may be gained from the circumstance that a volcanic island emerged from the sea on the north coast of ,luzon in #ahef1 which grew to seven hundred feet in height by #ahfj1 and is now about eight hundred feet high4 ,every one has seen photographs of the streets of ,manila after an earthquake1 which form of subterranean activity is so common that it is taken into account in building4 ,,the ,,scavengers ,,of ,,the ,,body4 ,,by ,m4 ,a4 ,,dastre4 ,the labors of ,m4 ,metchnikoff have made known one of the most curious mechanisms--perhaps the most effective--which ,nature employs to protect the organism against the invasion and ravages of microbes4 ,we are only beginning to learn the means which are provided for our defense against the countless swarms of enemies of this class1 some of them exceedingly dangerous1 among which we have to live and move4 ,in the first rank of these defenses is phagocytosis4 ,the struggle of the organism against its minute assailants is an image of human wars4 ,the cutaneous or mucous integument1 continuous over the whole body1 constitutes a kind of fortified inclosure which the microbe can not penetrate1 except where some breach has been made4 ,on one side of that wall1 in the living city1 the phagocytes or leucocytes 7white cells7 form an immense defensive army in a state of continual mobilization1 or1 as ,m4 ,duclaux would say1 an innumerable and vigilant police4 ,these phagocytes or leucocytes are the nomadic elements of our economy4 ,the animal body may be compared to an organized city in which all the living corpuscles1 all the cellular elements1 are sedentary1 each having its place and staying there4 ,hence the comparison1 often made1 with the stones of a building1 which is not exact1 however1 because these vital elements grow and increase1 enlarging the structure without change of arrangement1 while the stones do not4 ,the growth and nutrition of these anatomical elements1 it should be added1 are carried on exclusively at the expense of liquid matters4 ,nothing solid can enter them or come out from them4 ,an exception to these two fundamental rules is found in the single case of the leucocytes or white globules of the blood4 ,they have no fixed or determined place in the organism4 ,besides being carried passively by the flow of the blood in a perpetual circulation along with the red corpuscles1 they possess a motion of their own4 ,they can swim in the current that carries them1 fix themselves to the walls1 and travel in a sort of creeping way1 which has been called the amboid motion4 ,they are also exceptions to the second law1 according to which living cells can dispose only of liquefied matters4 ,all solid bodies that pass within reach of the leucocytes are seized and incorporated by them1 provided they are small or inert enough to be enveloped4 ,the nature of the body is of little import4 ,whatever it may be1 it is swallowed and quickly inclosed within the mass of the leucocyte and submitted to the dissolving action of its juices--or1 in a way1 eaten4 ,hence the names 8phagocyte10 or devouring cell1 given to the enveloping white globule1 and 8phagocytosis0 to the process4 ,no other element of the organism1 or hardly any other1 possesses this singular faculty of seizure and swallowing 7inglobement74 ,all the other characteristics of the white globules flow from these two of mobility and phagocytism1 the significance of which has been set in a clear light by ,m4 ,metchnikoff4 ,these characteristics are the attributes of the most primitive types of animal life4 ,they appertain to cells not yet differentiated1 to the unicellular organisms which occupy the first stages of life4 ,they translate the vital energy of elements still independent and isolated1 without definite place in the social organization and as yet without special high function1 but for that very reason better adapted to the needs of the simplest animality4 ,their voracity is useful for the preservation of the social organism4 ,by eliminating old1 exhausted1 diseased cells they rejuvenate the structure and prepare the way for new generations4 ,and when the fecundity of these is exhausted the leucocytes come in to occupy the vacated situations1 and conduct the organism thus patched up through a senile degeneracy to natural death4 ,the leucocytes1 white globules1 or phagocytes1 by virtue of their mobility1 are found everywhere--in the blood1 in all the organs1 and in all parts of the body--but are perhaps most abundant in the blood4 ,the study of them proceeds slowly1 and we are still engaged in distinguishing the varieties among them4 ,the most abundant and best known of them--those which answer most closely the description we have given--are those called the polynuclear1 neutrophilous leucocytes4 ,they are colored with neutral hues1 and have a nucleus like a rolled-up scroll in structure4 ,other varieties--the eosinophiles1 lymphocytes1 etc4--are less mobile and have still less marked phagocytic properties4 ,the roll-call of the phagocytic army would be a long task4 ,the phagocytes are numerous in the sanguineous fluid1 but are still six hundred and fifty times less so than the red corpuscles4 ,they are almost as numerous in the lymph and the conjunctival tissue1 where1 besides occurring in their normal condition1 they sport into a variety which appears to have abandoned its migratory habit1 for a time at least1 and into a giant variety one hundred times larger than the ordinary leucocytes1 which ,m4 ,ranvier calls clasmatocytes4 ,they are further found in such tissues as the skin and the mucous membrane1 where1 notwithstanding the cells are so crowded1 they make their way into the intestine1 and1 by a sort of diapedesis 7passage through the pores or interstices7 called the phenomenon of ,stoehr1 toward all the free surfaces1 whither exterior soluble substances invite them4 ,as they go they destroy the microbes which1 advancing in an inverse direction1 would invade the organism and provoke an infection of intestinal origin4 ,the fact that this immense army of phagocytes is always in motion was first clearly recognized by ,cohnheim1 in #ahfg4 ,he saw1 in inflamed regions1 where the vessels are gorged and distended1 the white globules thrusting out a prolongation which seemed to pierce the wall1 but in reality simply insinuated itself between its elements1 and elongating itself1 drew its entire body1 as it were1 through the narrow channel4 ,this emigration1 which is produced without making a break1 through the pores and interstices of the vascular wall1 has been designated diapedesis4 ,it is ordinarily provoked by some foreign body1 a pathogenic microbe1 for instance1 which has introduced itself into the place and spread its irritating secretion or cause of infection there4 ,the phagocytes1 attracted from the interior of the vessel1 come up and devour the invader4 ,but if they are incapable of dissolving it they bear it away to work their own ruin2 they degenerate in their turn1 become transformed into globules of pus1 and the inflammation results in purulence4 ,the study of the mechanism by means of which the leucocytes traverse the tissues is very interesting4 ,these remarkable wandering elements are found in all classes of animals1 and in all present the same essential characteristics4 ,they are more like free existences than the other cells living in society which compose the bodies of animals1 and their history is substantially like that of the naked one-celled organisms4 ,their various functions and properties are of the highest interest in all departments of physiology4 ,it has been demonstrated1 in particular1 that the white globules of the blood give rise to the most energetic and most special agencies of living chemistry1 to the ferments which determine the coagulation of the blood when drawn from the vessels 7coagulating ferment1 or thrombosis7 and the consumption of sugar 7glycolytic ferment71 and to numerous diastases4 ,the presence of nuclein in their bodies involves consequences which we are only beginning to perceive4 ,behaving like independent beings1 the leucocytes or phagocytes perform similar functions with those of the highest animals1 feeding1 respiring1 and reproducing themselves2 they move and feel--that is1 are impressed by internal excitants4 ,these operations1 however1 assume with them a character of extreme simplicity4 ,they seem to be the direct result of the physical and chemical properties of the protoplasm that composes them1 so that the mysterious side of those vital functions nearly vanishes when we scan them in these their very beginnings4 ,their respiration is the effect of a sort of affinity between their substance and the vital gas--a chimiotactism directing them toward oxygen4 ,this may be illustrated by forming a microscopic preparation of fresh lymph1 imprisoning a few bubbles of air1 and sealing it hermetically with paraffin4 ,after two or three hours we can see the leucocytes grouped around the bubbles4 ,when the provision of air is exhausted1 several hours afterward1 the leucocytes will cease to move and become inert4 ,on inserting a needle1 the contact of the air revives them4 ,the faculty possessed by the leucocytes of seizing solid corpuscles coming in contact with them1 inglobing them1 and absorbing them1 or1 as ,m4 ,metchnikoff calls it1 intracellular digestion or phagocytosis1 is easily observed4 ,if we mix fine granulations of carmine or cinnabar1 mingled with slightly salted water1 with a drop of lymph1 we can see the coloring matter penetrating the leucocytary protoplasmic mass1 which is soon stuffed with it4 ,the anatomo-pathologists had already observed1 in tattooed subjects1 white globules charged with grains of charcoal or vermilion4 ,it is legitimate to conclude that some parts of the coloring matter that had been introduced under the epidermis had been taken up by the white globules4 ,this proceeding has been observed in the very act by ,m4 ,metchnikoff4 ,a classic experiment illustrating this operation is now common in our laboratories1 and the fact of phagocytosis has come to be regarded as incontestable4 ,the generality of the phenomenon results from the leucocyte preserving its phagocytic faculty in all its peregrinations1 and these peregrinations are unlimited4 ,the tendency of the nomadic elements to push on and insinuate themselves into the finest interstices and the narrowest passages is a rudiment of a tactile sense1 to this extent simply a physical phenomenon1 which ,,mm4 ,mascart and ,bordet have clearly distinguished4 ,as soon as a leucocyte touches a resisting body it reacts to the contact by applying the largest possible surface to it4 ,it spreads out1 becomes thin1 stretches itself along1 and ceases deforming itself only after it has obtained the maximum of contact4 ,by such mechanism it penetrates objects that offer it any breach and overcomes them4 ,when the foreign body has been disaggregated into fragments1 into small enough grains1 phagocytosis intervenes and disposes of the remains4 ,in this way the organism sometimes rids itself of splinters of bone that remain in the tissues after a fracture4 ,so1 too1 the leucocytes1 when occasion arises1 repair the blunders of surgeons by extracting and absorbing forgotten objects left in wounds1 while at other times they act as auxiliaries by destroying things that have been voluntarily abandoned in them1 like threads of catgut in buried sutures and drains of decalcified bone4 ,there are two conditions1 under normal circumstances1 in which phagocytosis plays a marked part4 ,the first is the case where vital action brings on the destruction of the organs or the tissues1 or1 to use exact language1 their disintegration in a solid form4 ,the wastes of organic activity are usually in liquid form1 and1 turned into the blood1 they are eliminated in that state through the natural emunctories4 ,sometimes1 however1 disintegration results in solid wastes1 and the phagocytes do the work of carrying them away4 ,this is the case with the red globules of the blood1 which1 after a longer or shorter career1 are deposited in the spleen and break up into dbris1 some of the parts of which are insoluble in the interstitial liquids4 ,the leucocytes collect around these residues so thickly as sometimes to fuse themselves into a solid mass1 a sort of plasmodium or giant cell which digests the dbris4 ,at other times1 and more rarely the isolated leucocytes are not able to absorb the incorporated matters4 ,they then conduct them to the surface of the intestine and discharge them there4 ,a like phenomenon occurs in the liver4 ,the coloring matter of the blood frequently gives rise to insoluble ferruginous deposits which the leucocytes have to convey to the digestive tube4 ,this occurs when a wound provokes an effusion of blood and a mortification of the red globules or of the neighboring anatomical elements4 ,all of the waste that can not take the liquid form and pass in that condition into the circulatory passages is incorporated within the phagocytes4 ,the mechanism of resorption of bone does not seem different4 ,the phagocytes perform a similar function in another process which very frequently takes place in various animals that pass through metamorphoses1 as in insects whose organs are transformed in changing from one stage of their existence to another1 and in tadpoles which lose their tails in becoming frogs2 the old parts that disappear are devoured by phagocytes4 ,especially in the case of infectious diseases has the protective part performed by the leucocytary phagocytes been brought into full view by ,m4 ,metchnikoff4 ,he has shown that the white globules rush to meet the bacterides of inflammation that are introduced through any wound1 absorb them1 and render them powerless to do harm4 ,in the lymphatic organs--the spleen1 the lymphatic ganglions1 and the marrow--the white globules are normally accumulated1 and there is where the struggle is most active between the bacterides of inflammation which are swarming in the blood and the defensive agents of the organism4 ,the same takes place with the spirilla of recurrent typhus and the microbe of erysipelas4 ,the leucocytes are capable of adapting themselves to conditions different from those in which they usually live1 provided the change is not too abrupt4 ,it may sometimes occur that the poison secreted by a microbe will paralyze and kill the leucocyte1 unless care has been taken1 by inoculations of virus1 at first attenuated and afterward gradually increasing in virulence1 to create an immunity in the phagocyte1 to make it refractory to the poison and capable of swallowing the toxic bacterium without suffering from it4 ,explanations have been sought in this property for the virtue of vaccination and the immunity that results from it1 but they are evidently only fragmentary1 and there are other theories of immunity4 ,the leucocytes are not always victorious over the microbes1 and when these excel in numbers or force it sometimes comes to pass that they are overcome and succumb4 ,poisoned by the substance they have incorporated1 they undergo a fatty degeneration and become globules of pus4 ,pus is therefore formed of the cadavers of conquered leucocytes4 ,although that humor ought1 for the good of the system1 to be rejected1 like every other mortified part1 it is nevertheless true that the production of it is a beneficent effort1 and a salutary reaction of ,nature against the morbid agent4 ,it will be an enduring honor to the name of ,m4 ,metchnikoff that he has revealed the importance of the function of phagocytes1 and has enriched science with a large number of new truths4 ,a part of this honor will be reflected upon the ,pasteur ,institute1 which has welcomed the eminent biologist for many years1 and has intrusted the direction of one of its services to him4 ,the learned ,russian1 in creating the study of phagocytism1 with its causes1 mechanism1 and consequences1 has opened a very extensive field of research to which we have given only a distant and cursory glance4--,translated for the ,popular ,science ,monthly from the ,revue des ,deux ,mondes4 ,editor's ,table4 ,,liberal ,,education ,,and ,,democracy4 ,in a most thoughtful article1 in the ,modern ,education ,series of ,the ,cosmopolitan1 ,president ,hadley1 of ,yale1 remarks that the conception of a liberal education changes as forms of government change4 8,it takes one shape10 he proceeds to say1 8in a military state1 and quite another shape in a state ruled by public opinion4 ,in the former case it will teach the sterner virtues of courage and pride4 ,in the latter case it will teach respect for law1 progressiveness1 and human sympathy4 ,but in either case a liberal education is an education for citizenship2 a development of those distinguishing qualities moral1 intellectual1 and physical by which the people are to be ruled40 ,it is a happy definition of 8a liberal education0 to say that it is 8an education for citizenship40 ,from this point of view the most liberally educated man will be he who is educated to be a citizen of the world and to feel his relation not only to the present but to the past1 and the future as well4 ,comte had much the same idea when he taught that the moral and social education of the individual was accomplished first by the family1 then by the state1 and finally by the race4 ,in other words1 the egoism of the individual is first tamed by family life1 then broadened by political life1 and1 lastly1 humanized in the full sense by conscious participation in the age-long progress of mankind4 ,president ,hadley has well chosen the qualities which he says a liberal education under a democracy should aim at developing1 but we think he might with much advantage have added another4 ,he will remember that when the poet ,horace would describe the character of a high-principled citizen1 a man just and firm of purpose1 he says that his mind is shaken neither by the lowering countenance of a tyrant nor by the frenzy of the populace commanding vicious courses of policy4 ,in our land and time the vultus instantis tyranni is no longer1 if it ever was1 an object of terror1 but the civium ardor prava jubentium is a danger1 we fear1 which has yet to be reckoned with4 ,in a state1 therefore1 which is ruled by public opinion one of the qualities which a liberal education should most distinctly aim to impart is firmness to resist popular pressure when exerted in a wrong direction4 ,in like manner1 under an aristocracy a truly liberal education would not be one that would tend to perpetuate in the rising generation the faults of the preceding one1 or to shut out all criticism of the established rgime2 on the contrary1 its tendency should be to temper whatever was extreme or one-sided in the views of the ruling class4 ,the liberality of an education comes in just here1 in opening out wider views than would probably be acquired in actual contact with private business or public affairs4 ,when ,william ,pitt1 while ,prime ,minister of ,england1 betook himself to the study of ,adam ,smith's recently published ,wealth of ,nations1 and began to consider how he could apply the enlightened and philosophical views contained therein to the fiscal policy of the ,british ,empire1 he was converting his old-fashioned liberal education into a liberal education of the best kind4 ,a liberal education1 let it be thoroughly understood1 is not one which delivers over an individual to the dominant influences of his place and time1 whatever they may be1 but one which enables him to react1 when necessary1 against such influences under the guidance of wider views and deeper principles4 ,it is an illiberal education1 let it embrace what it may1 which simply equips a man for exploiting for his own benefit the conditions and tendencies which he finds prevailing in the society around him2 and too much of what passes for liberal education has1 we fear1 had no better result4 ,in a country like ours1 liable to be swept by gusts of popular excitement1 not to say passion1 the aim of all higher education should be to create a class of citizens trained for social influence1 and yet able to stand on their guard against sensational politics1 to distinguish between true and false patriotism1 and to uphold the claims of justice and honor when threatened by popular infatuation and tumult4 ,we read in ,thucydides that ,cleon1 the typical demagogue of ancient ,athens1 did not hesitate to tell his fellow-citizens that republics were not adapted for holding distant territories in subjection4 ,if ,cleon was a demagogue1 what are we to think of the highly educated men who in our country echo the popular cry for an imperial policy1 and say that millions of people beyond sea who ask only for liberty should be compelled by force of arms to be our subjects8 ,let our colleges and universities see to it that they understand 8a liberal education0 in the right sense4 ,,external ,,and ,,internal ,,aggression4 ,much surprise has been expressed at the unusual prevalence of violence of all kinds in the ,united ,states during the past year4 ,it has seemed quite extraordinary that in a nation devoted1 as the ,american nation is1 to vast schemes of philanthropy at home and abroad1 such atrocious crimes as the mutilation and burning of negroes and the explosion of dynamite under street cars should be committed4 ,from the sympathetic and self-sacrificing spirit manifested in the enthusiastic response to the appeal to arms to free ,cuba and ,puerto ,rico from ,spanish cruelty and despotism1 and the repression of the insurrection in the ,philippine ,islands for the purpose of introducing order and civilization1 something quite different was expected4 ,there should have been a deeper interest in the welfare of the negro and a greater effort to protect him in the enjoyment of his rights4 ,there should have been created a tie between capital and labor that no differences about wages or hours of toil could have ruptured with murderous animosities4 ,in a word1 there should have been a manifestation of fraternal feeling among all classes and in all sections that would have advanced the ,united ,states a long step toward the goal of civilization4 ,so general has been the anticipation of these fruits from the war with ,spain that one of the most familiar arguments in favor of it has been the subjective regeneration that would follow the attempt at objective regeneration4 ,that is to say1 the ,american people were to find a cure for their own moral disorders in their cure of the moral disorders of their neighbors4 ,to a student of the social philosophy of ,herbert ,spencer it will be no surprise nor disappointment that this expectation1 so worthy of a generous and self-sacrificing people1 has not been and is not likely to be realized4 ,no truth set forth in his works is more firmly established than his profound induction that external aggression always begets internal aggression--that assaults upon the rights of others abroad leads to assaults upon the rights of others at home4 8,as it is incredible10 he says1 8that men should be courageous in the face of foes and cowardly in the face of friends1 so it is incredible that other feelings fostered by perpetual conflicts abroad should not come into play at home4 ,we have just seen10 he adds1 alluding to the proofs of this truth that he has given1 8that with the pursuit of vengeance outside the society there goes the pursuit of vengeance inside the society1 and whatever other habits of thought and action constant war necessitates must show their effects on social life at large40 ,the facts in support of ,mr4 ,spencer's generalization are to be found in the history of every militant people4 ,he mentions himself the ,fijian's sacrifice of their own people at their cannibal festivals1 and the prevalence of assassination among the ,turks from the earliest times down to the present4 ,he mentions also the hideous acts of cruelty that are to be found in the records of ,greek and ,roman civilization4 ,to these examples may be added the atrocities committed by ,italians upon ,italians during the last days of the medival republics1 and those committed by ,frenchmen upon ,frenchmen during the ,french ,revolution4 8,the victories of the ,plantagenets in ,france10 said ,goldwin ,smith1 pointing out not long ago the futility of war as a cure for national factiousness1 8were followed by insurrections and civil wars at home1 largely owing to the spirit of violence that the raids in ,france excited4 ,the victories of ,chatham were followed by disgraceful scenes of cabal and faction1 as well as corruption1 terminating in the prostration of patriotism and the domination of ,george ,,iii and ,north40 ,it is impossible to hope that the ,united ,states can be an exception to the social law thus established4 ,however pure the motive that may lie at the bottom of a war of aggression1 it can not annul the law4 ,the shedding of blood and the seizure of territory produce a callousness of feeling and a perverted view of the rights of others that are certain to turn the hands striking a foreign foe to the work of domestic strife4 ,already we have seen with what bitterness such men as ,prof4 ,charles ,eliot ,norton and ,mr4 ,edward ,atkinson have been assailed4 ,we have seen1 too1 how attempts have been made to discredit the principles of the ,declaration of ,independence1 and to show that the ,constitution must not be permitted to stand in the way of what has been politely called the fulfillment of the destiny of the ,united ,states4 ,we have seen1 finally1 how proposals for the disfranchisement of ,american citizens have been listened to in all parts of the country with a toleration that must cause the old abolitionists to turn in their graves4 ,but the spirit thus manifested has not1 we may be sure1 failed to contribute to the perpetration of the outrages that have shocked every right-minded observer of current events4 ,it is not a difference of kind but only one of degree that separates the slaughter of ,spaniards in ,cuba and ,tagals in ,luzon from the slaughter of negroes in the ,south and the explosion of dynamite under street cars in the ,north4 ,the inhuman instincts that impel to the one impel to the other4 ,fragments of ,science4 ,zola's ,anthropological ,traits4--,mr4 ,arthur ,mac,donald has published1 originally in the ,open ,court1 a minute anthropological study of the personality of mile ,zola4 ,passing all the physical points noted1 we select a few only of the most peculiar mental traits mentioned by the author4 ,fear is spoken of as ,zola's principal emotion1 connected in him with the instinct of self-preservation4 ,he is not much afraid of the bicycle1 but shrinks from a ride through a forest at night4 ,he has no fear of being buried alive1 yet sometimes when in a tunnel on a railroad train he has been beset with the idea of the two ends of the tunnel falling in and burying him4 ,some morbid ideas have developed in him1 but they do not cause him pain when not satisfied4 ,he lets them run into their 8manias10 and is then contented4 ,the idea of doubt is one4 ,he is always in fear of not being able to do his daily task1 or of being incapable of completing a book4 ,he never rereads his novels1 for fear of making bad discoveries4 ,he has an arithmetical mania1 and when in the street he counts the gas jets1 the number of doors1 and especially the number of hacks4 ,in his home he counts the steps of the staircases1 the different things on his bureau4 ,he must touch the same pieces of furniture a certain number of times before he goes to sleep4 ,some numbers have a bad influence for him1 and there are good numbers4 ,in the night he opens his eyes seven times1 to prove that he is not going to die4 ,he is regarded by the author as a neuropath1 or a man whose nervous system is painful but does not seem to affect the soundness of his mind4 8,in brief1 the qualities of ,zola are fineness and exactitude of perception1 clearness of conception1 power of attention1 sureness in judgment1 sense of order1 power of co-ordination1 extraordinary tenacity of effort1 and1 above all1 a great practical utilitarian sense40 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,simplon ,tunnel4--,the following facts are taken from a brief account of this great engineering feat in the ,engineering ,magazine3 ,there is at present no direct rail connection between western ,switzerland and ,italy1 and to reach ,milan it has been necessary to go around to ,lucerne and so on through by the ,st4 ,gothard route4 ,the distance by rail from ,milan to ,calais by the ,mont ,cenis is #ffe miles1 and by the ,st4 ,gothard #fhj miles4 ,the distance by way of the ,simplon ,tunnel will be only #ehe miles4 ,the ,jura-,simplon ,railway from ,geneva around the lake and up the ,rhone ,valley ascends to ,brieg at an altitude of about #b1cjj feet1 while on the ,italian side the railway from ,milan stops at ,domodossola1 at an altitude of #ijj feet4 ,between the two1 which are #da miles apart and over an elevation of #f1eij feet1 lies the famous ,simplon ,pass4 ,connection is now made by diligence1 the trip occupying a whole day4 ,the plan of the new railway includes the prolongation of the present line on the ,italian side to ,iselle1 at an altitude of about #b1ajj feet1 where the ,italian entrance to the tunnel was begun in ,august1 #ahih4 ,on the ,swiss side the entrance is at ,brieg1 and the tunnel will connect these two towns1 being #ab4bf miles long4 ,this is nearly three miles longer than the ,st4 ,gothard1 but the altitude is only #b1cjj feet above the sea1 instead of #c1hjj feet1 as at the ,st4 ,gothard4 ,the tunnel is to be straight laterally1 but higher in the middle than at either end1 the grade being #a in #adc on the ,italian and #a in #ejj on the ,swiss side4 ,the principal difference between the ,simplon ,tunnel and those previously pierced through the ,alps is that1 instead of one single tunnel1 two separate tunnels1 fifty-five feet apart1 are to be constructed1 connected by lateral passageways every #fej feet4 ,at first but one of these is to be completed to the full dimensions1 the other being carried through at only about a quarter of the ultimate cross-section1 and not enlarged and put into use until the traffic demands it4 ,both tunnels are now being bored by the use of the ,brandt hydraulic rotary drills1 water being supplied at a pressure of #gj to #ajj atmospheres4 ,the borings are through gneiss1 limestone1 and slate4 ,holes two inches and three quarters in diameter and four or five feet deep are bored and the rock dislodged by means of dynamite4 ,a narrow-gauge railway is used to remove the dbris4 ,it is expected that the tunnel will be completed in five years and a half4 ,at the close of #ahih1 #cjj feet had been penetrated on the south side and #a1cjj on the north4 ,the estimated cost of the complete double-track tunnels is #fi1jjj1jjj francs4 ,this does not include the construction of the permanent way4 ,the ,mont ,cenis ,tunnel cost #ge1jjj1jjj francs1 and the ,st4 ,gothard #ei1gej1jjj francs4 ,the work is practically controlled by the ,jura-,simplon ,railway4 99 99 99 99 99 ,grant ,allen4--,the death of our contributor1 ,mr4 ,grant ,allen1 was mentioned in the last number of the ,popular ,science ,monthly4 ,mr4 ,allen was born in ,february1 #ahdh1 the son of the ,rev4 ,j4 ,a4 ,allen1 of ,wolfe ,island1 ,canada4 ,he attended schools in the ,united ,states1 in ,france1 and in ,birmingham1 ,england1 and entered ,merton ,college1 ,oxford1 whence he took his degree of ,b4 ,a4 in #ahgj4 ,he afterward spent a few years in ,jamaica as principal of a college for the higher education of the negro1 which had only a brief career4 ,he returned to ,england and settled down in ,london for literary work1 writing rather on social and scientific than political subjects1 for various journals4 ,while he loved and appreciated scientific truth1 he rather regarded his subject from the sthetic side1 and this gave a peculiar charm to his articles4 ,he published books on ,physiological sthetics and ,the ,color ,sense1 which did not prove profitable4 ,finding it hard to gain a livelihood from his scientific work1 he turned to fiction1 and soon found1 as the ,london ,times has it1 8that his worst fiction was more profitable than his best science40 ,his love of science1 however1 8approached enthusiasm10 and he contributed frequent popular scientific articles to the magazines1 so that 8for years past hardly one of those publications has been reckoned complete0 without contribution of this character from him4 ,he removed from ,london to ,dorking1 and afterward went to southern ,france and ,italy for his health4 ,then1 having so far recovered that he could spend his winters in ,england1 he made himself a home at ,hindhead1 ,surrey4 ,here he died1 ,october #beth1 after several weeks' suffering from a painful internal malady4 ,among his scientific works1 his books on ,physiological sthetics1 ,the ,color ,sense1 and the ,evolution of the ,idea of ,god deserve special mention4 99 99 99 99 99 ,japanese ,paper4--,the peculiar qualities of ,japanese paper1 most of them excellent ones1 and the great variety of uses to which it is applied1 are known everywhere4 ,it is a wood or bark paper1 and derives its properties from the substances of which it is made and the method of its manufacture4 ,several plants are cultivated for the manufacture1 which1 in the absence of ,english names1 must be called by their ,japanese or scientific ones1 of which the principal are 8mitsumata0 7,edgeworthia papyrifera71 the 8sozo0 7,brossonia papyrifera71 and the 8gampiju0 7,wiekstroannia canecensis74 ,bamboo bark also furnishes a good paper1 but is not much used4 ,the mitsumata ramifies into three branches1 and is cultivated in plantations1 being propagated from seeds and by cuttings4 ,it is fit for use in the second year if the soil is good4 ,its cultivation and exportation have reached an enormous importance1 largely because the ,imperial ,printing ,office uses it for bank notes and official documents4 ,the sozo is propagated by seeds1 and somewhat resembles the mulberry4 ,the gampiju is a small shrub which is cut in its third year4 ,to make paper1 the bark is steeped in a kettle with buckwheat ashes to extract the resin in it4 ,when it is reduced to a pulp1 a sieve-bottomed frame with silk or hempen threads is plunged within1 very much as in ,western paper-making4 ,this1 letting out the water1 holds the pulp1 which1 felting1 is to form the future sheet of paper4 ,this is pressed1 to squeeze all the water out1 and is left to dry4 ,the uses made of paper in ,japan are innumerable1 particularly in old ,japan1 which treasures up its past4 ,the papers1 though all made in a similar way1 are called by different names1 according to the uses to which they are applied and their origin4 ,window lights are made of paper1 and partitions between rooms1 when it is stretched on frames1 which work as sliding doors4 ,the celebrated lanterns1 called gifu1 are made of it at ,tokio and ,osaka4 ,under the name of shibuganni it is applied to the covering of umbrellas which are sold in ,china and ,korea4 ,as zedogawa shi bank notes are printed on it4 ,oiled it is kappa1 impermeable and suitable for covering packages and for making waterproof garments4 ,handkerchiefs are made from it1 cords by twisting4 ,for light1 solid articles it is mixed and compressed very much as our papier-mach4 ,covered with thick paste and pounded1 it forms tapestries4 ,imitations of ,cordova leather are made of it by spreading it and pressing it with hard brushes upon boards in which suitable designs have been cut4 ,it is then covered with oil and varnish4 ,japan produced nearly five million dollars' worth of paper in #ahib4 ,unfortunately1 ,european methods of manufacture have been introduced1 and there is danger of the paper losing its distinctive qualities4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,deeps of the ,ocean4--,in his geographical address at the ,british ,association1 ,sir ,john ,murray showed that the deep oceanic soundings are scattered over the different ocean basins in varying proportions1 that they are now most numerous in the ,north ,atlantic and ,southwest ,pacific1 and in these two regions the contour lines of depth may be drawn with greater confidence than in the other divisions of the great ocean basins4 ,on the whole1 it may be said that the general tendency of recent soundings is to extend the area with depths greater than one thousand fathoms1 and to show that numerous volcanic cones rise from the general level of the floor of the ocean basins up to various levels beneath the sea surface4 ,considerably more than half of the sea floor lies at a depth exceeding two thousand fathoms1 or more than two geographical miles4 ,on the ,challenger charts all areas where the depth exceeds three thousand fathoms have been called 8deeps10 and distinctive names have been conferred upon them4 ,forty-two such depressions are now known--twenty-four in the ,pacific ,ocean1 three in the ,indian ,ocean1 fifteen in the ,atlantic ,ocean1 and one in the ,southern and ,antarctic ,oceans4 ,the area occupied by these deeps is estimated at #g1aeb1jjj geographical square miles1 or about seven per cent of the total water surface of the globe4 ,within these deeps more than #bej soundings have been recorded1 of which twenty-four exceed #b1jjj fathoms1 including three exceeding #e1jjj fathoms4 ,depths exceeding #d1jjj fathoms1 or four geographical miles1 have been recorded in eight of the deeps4 ,depths exceeding #e1jjj fathoms have been hitherto recorded only within the ,aldrich ,deep of the ,south ,pacific1 to the east of the ,kermadecs and ,friendly ,islands1 where the greatest depth is #e1aee fathoms1 or #ecj feet more than five geographical miles4 ,this is about #b1jjj feet more below the level of the sea than the summit of ,mount ,everest1 in the ,himalayas1 is above it4 99 99 99 99 99 ,death of ,sir ,william ,dawson4--,by the death of ,sir ,j4 ,william ,dawson1 at ,montreal1 ,november #aith1 ,america loses one of its most highly distinguished geologists4 ,sir ,william was born at ,pictou1 ,nova ,scotia1 in ,october1 #ahbj1 and was deeply interested in the study of ,nature from his early college days1 when he made extensive collections of various kinds4 ,when he was twenty-two years old a happy fortune brought him in contact with ,sir ,charles ,lyell1 then visiting ,america1 and he was that eminent geologist's traveling companion during his scientific tour of ,nova ,scotia4 ,he studied chemistry at the ,university of ,edinburgh4 ,returning to ,nova ,scotia in #ahej1 he engaged in teaching1 and was associated with the first normal school in the province4 ,he was afterward connected with the new ,university of ,new ,brunswick1 and from #ahee to #ahic was ,principal of ,mc,gill ,college and ,university4 ,although his duties in the college were very exacting1 ,professor ,dawson's industry in scientific research was never relaxed1 and he was the author of contributions of very great value to the geology and paleontology of ,canada4 ,among these were the discoveries of the ,dendrepeton acadianum--the first reptile found in the ,american coal formations--and the ,pupa vetusta--the first-known ,paleozoic land shell4 ,his discovery and exposition of the ,eozoon canadense attracted great attention1 and was much discussed1 but his views of its importance do not seem to have been justified1 for some doubts now exist among geologists whether it represents any organic structure4 ,he was the first ,president of the ,royal ,society of ,canada1 which was organized in #ahhb2 was one of the sectional presidents of the ,british ,association at its ,montreal meeting 7#ahhd71 and was president of that body at its ,birmingham meeting1 #ahhf4 ,among his published works are the ,description of the ,devonian and ,carboniferous ,flora of ,eastern ,north ,america1 constituting two volumes of the ,reports of the ,geological ,survey of ,canada2 ,air-,breathers of the ,coal ,formation2 ,acadian ,geology2 ,the ,story of the ,earth and ,man2 ,origin of ,animal ,life2 ,fossil ,men2 the ,canadian ,ice ,age2 the ,meeting ,place of ,geology and ,history2 the ,geological ,history of ,plants 7in the ,international ,scientific ,series72 ,relics of ,primeval ,life 7,lowell ,lectures72 ,the ,chain of ,life in ,geological ,times2 ,modern ,science in ,bible ,lands2 the ,dawn of ,life2 ,modern ,ideas of ,evolution2 a book of travels in ,egypt and ,syria2 and many contributions to scientific periodicals4 ,he received numerous degrees and honors from learned bodies and institutions1 among them the ,lyell medal of the ,geological ,society of ,london1 in #ahhb4 ,a sketch of ,principal ,dawson1 as he was then called1 was published1 with a portrait1 in the ,popular ,science ,monthly for ,december1 #ahge 7vol4 viii1 p4 #acb74 99 99 99 99 99 ,glacial ,lakes in ,new ,york4--,a glacial lake is defined by ,h4 ,p4 ,fairchild1 in his paper on ,glacial ,waters in the ,finger ,lake ,region of ,new ,york 7,geological ,society of ,america1 ,rochester1 ,n4 ,y471 as a body of static water existing by virtue of a barrier of ice4 ,such impounded waters may exist where a glacier blocks a stream1 or where the general land surface inclines toward the glacier foot4 ,the lakes described in ,mr4 ,fairchild's paper belongs to the second class1 and were formed in the southern part of the ,ontario basin1 where the land slopes northward from a plateau of two thousand feet elevation down to ,lake ,ontario1 two hundred and forty-six feet4 ,the high plateau was deeply gashed by the preglacial stream erosion1 and in these trenches along the northern border of the plateau lie the present 8,finger ,lakes40 ,the topography was peculiarly favorable to the production against the bold ice front of a series of distinct valley lakes1 in many respects unequaled elsewhere4 ,between twenty and thirty of these lakes are described in ,professor ,fairchild's paper1 which occupied sites now partly represented by nineteen streams and lakes1 beginning with ,tonawanda ,creek on the west and extending to ,butternut ,creek 7,jamesburg and ,apulia7 on the east4 ,the local lakes were not of long duration1 and their surface level was unstable1 changing with the down-cutting of the outlets and with the greatly increased volume of the summer melting of the ice sheet4 ,consequently1 true beaches are usually wanting4 ,the conspicuous evidences are the deltas of land streams1 with their terraces1 embankments1 bars and spits1 and the outlet channels4 ,the records of these extinct waters are the very latest phenomena connected with the ice invasion1 and are the connecting link between the glacial condition and the present hydrography4 ,they are of lively interest1 perhaps1 to only a few persons1 but the details are necessary to the more general study of the ,pleistocene4 ,no economic or practical result from the knowledge is foreseen1 8but as pure science the study of these waterless lakes1 waveless shores1 and streamless channels has a fascination and romance40 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,environment ,in ,education4--8,two considerations of equal and fundamental importance10 says ,mr4 ,wilbur ,s4 ,jackman1 8are included in teaching--the choice of the subject-matter and its presentation1 and the reaction of the pupil as the result of the presentation4 ,no presentation ever reaches consciousness without a reaction1 however feeble1 from which results an immediate and inevitable corresponding mental construction4 ,certain instincts called primitive1 it may be generally agreed1 exist in children1 and1 by taking intelligent advantage of these1 definite educative presentation may be begun at a much earlier age than was once supposed4 ,under the theory that the child repeats the racial history in its growth1 a practice has arisen of meeting the early instincts of childhood with presentations from the adult lives of primitive peoples4 ,presentations are made to stimulate the idea of hunting and fishing1 of building wigwams and the like40 ,but it is a fundamental error1 ,mr4 ,jackman believes1 to suppose that while the child may be ,indianlike in his instincts he is to be considered or treated as an ,indian4 ,another factor of which evolution makes a great deal--the nature of the environment--must be considered1 and it is very powerful4 ,the material for satisfying the cravings of the early instincts should therefore be chosen from the immediate environment1 to which the pupil's reaction is at once positive and definite4 8,it is scarcely possible to overmagnify the benefits of an education that seeks first to make the most out of the immediate things of life4 ,its results and its ideals are about us everywhere4 ,the ability to use in the most intelligent and skillful way the materials of our environment is the necessary condition for the highest purposes and the most glorified ideals4 ,one must have a profound respect for the education that proposes to give us clean cities and hygienic homes40 99 99 99 99 99 ,an ,athabascan ,indian ,lodge4--,the caribou-skin lodge of the northern ,athabascan ,indians is described by ,mr4 ,frank ,russell1 in his ,explorations in the ,far ,north1 as supported by a framework of from twelve to thirty poles4 ,in pitching camp in winter1 sticks are thrust through the snow in order to find solid earth for a floor4 ,if the stick enters soft moss the place is avoided1 as the camp fire would spread and undermine the lodge4 ,when a suitable site is found1 the men clear away the snow with their snowshoes1 and perhaps assist the women in cutting and carrying the lodge poles4 ,it is the women's duty to carry bundles of spruce boughs with which to cover the floor of the lodge4 ,the brush is carefully laid1 branch by branch1 so that the stems are under the tops and point away from the center4 ,this floor is renewed every ,saturday afternoon4 ,the fireplace is surrounded by a pole of green wood1 three or four inches in diameter1 cut so as to be bent in the form of a polygon4 ,above the doorway a pole eight feet long is lashed to the lodge-poles in a horizontal position1 six feet from the ground2 this1 and a similar pole on the opposite side1 support from six to twelve poles1 crossing above the fire1 making a stage on which to thaw and dry meat4 ,each hunter's powder-horn and shot-pouch are suspended from a lodge-pole or his back1 while his gun stands in its cover against a pole or lies on a stage outside4 ,near the door flap are several hungry and watchful dogs1 which1 by constantly running in and out1 make an opening for the cold wind to enter4 ,the dogs are tied at night4 ,the side of the fire next to the entrance is allotted to the children and visiting women4 ,on either side sit the wives1 for there are usually two families in one lodge4 ,behind them are muskimoots and an inextricable confusion of rags1 blankets1 bones1 meat1 etc4 ,if a crooked knife1 a tea bag1 or anything that is in the heap is needed1 everything is tumbled about until it is found4 ,the sled-wrapper is extended behind the lodge-poles and serves as a catch-all for stores of meat1 bones to be pounded and boiled to extract the grease1 and odds and ends not in constant use4 ,the next space is occupied by the men of the house2 that farthest from the door is reserved for the young men and the men guests4 ,at night each adult rolls up in a single three-point blanket or a caribou-skin robe1 and sleeps on an undressed caribou skin4 ,a piece of an old blanket generally covers the small children in a bunch4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,sand ,grouse4--,pallas's sand grouse is a native of the ,kirghiz steppes of central ,asia1 and occasionally1 driven by some pressure of circumstances of which we can only conjecture the nature1 makes visits to ,england4 ,its presence in that country has never been recorded till this century--more1 perhaps1 for lack of observers than of migrating birds--but it has appeared in #ahfc1 #ahgb1 #ahgc1 #ahhh1 #ahhi1 and #ahii4 ,the principal migration in recent years was in #ahhh1 when many examples were seen and shot in different parts of the country4 ,in the same year it was seen 8far and wide0 in western ,europe1 and as far north as ,trondhjem1 in western ,norway4 ,a writer in the ,saturday ,review remarks on the resemblance of this sand grouse1 as described by ,prjevalski in central ,asia1 to the various sand grouse he has seen in ,south ,africa4 ,at the drinking places they circle round the water4 ,presently they alight and1 ,prjevalski says1 8hastily drink and rise again1 and1 in cases where the flocks are large1 the birds in front get up before those at the back have time to alight4 ,they know their drinking places very well1 and very often go to them from distances of tens of miles1 especially in the mornings1 between nine and ten o'clock1 but after twelve at noon they seldom visit these spots40 ,in the ,kalahari country1 at the scant desert waters1 the ,saturday ,review writer says1 three kinds of sand grouse 8are to be seen flocking in from all parts of the country from eight to ten o'clock ,a4 ,m4 for their day's drink4 ,circling swiftly round the pool with sharp cries1 they suddenly stoop together toward the water4 ,the noisy rustle of their wings as they alight and ascend is most remarkable4 ,we noticed that the birds nearest the water drank quickly and moved off1 allowing those in the rear to take their places and slake their thirst1 the whole process being accomplished with unfailing order and regularity4444 ,the spectacle of these punctual creatures1 streaming in from all points of the compass with unfailing regularity between eight and ten o'clock was always most fascinating4 ,after drinking they circled once or twice round the water pool1 and then flew off with amazing swiftness for their day of feeding in the dry1 sun-scorched desert4 ,the seeds of grass and other desert plants seem to constitute their principal food4 ,the sand grouse has some characteristics of the pigeon and some of the grouse1 which suggest a #8singular blending' of the two orders40 99 99 99 99 99 ,plantations for ,rural ,school ,grounds4--,a paper on the ,laying out and ,adornment of ,rural ,school ,grounds1 by ,prof4 ,l4 ,h4 ,bailey1 published as a ,bulletin of ,cornell ,university ,experiment ,station1 lays down as a general principle in plantation that it should be in the main for foliage effects4 8,select those trees and shrubs which are the commonest1 because they are the cheapest1 hardiest1 and likeliest to grow4 ,there is no district so poor and bare that enough plants can not be secured without money for the school yard4 ,you will find them in the woods1 in old yards1 along the fences4444 ,scatter in a few trees along the fences and about the buildings4 ,maples1 basswood1 elms1 ashes1 buttonwood1 pepperidge1 oaks1 beeches1 birches1 hickories1 poplars1 a few trees of pine or spruce or hemlock--any of these are excellent4 ,if the country is bleak1 a rather heavy planting of evergreens about the border1 in the place of so much shrubbery1 is very good4 ,for shrubs1 use the common things to be found in the woods and swales1 together with the roots which can be found in every old yard4 ,willows1 osiers1 witch-hazel1 dogwood1 wild roses1 thorn apples1 haws1 elders1 sumac1 wild honeysuckles--these and others can be found in every school district4 ,from the farmyards can be secured snowballs1 spireas1 lilacs1 forsythias1 mock-oranges1 roses1 snowberries1 barberries1 flowering currants1 honeysuckles1 and the like4 ,vines can be used to excellent purpose on the outbuildings or on the schoolhouse itself4 ,the common wild ,virginia creeper is the most serviceable on brick or stone schoolhouses4 ,the ,boston ivy or the ,japanese ampelopsis may be used1 unless the location is very bleak4 ,honeysuckle1 clematis1 and bittersweet are also attractive40 ,flowers may be used for decorations4 99 99 99 99 99 ,destruction of the ,birds4--,a circular sent us by the ,new ,york ,zological ,society opens with the declaration which is only a moderate expression of the truth1 that 8the annihilation of the finest birds and quadrupeds of the ,united ,states is a crime against civilization which should call forth the disapproval of every intelligent ,american40 ,the second annual report of the society 7for #ahig7 contains an article on this subject by ,mr4 ,william ,t4 ,hornaday1 which sets forth some remarkable facts concerning the rate at which the destruction of ,nature's fair creatures is proceeding4 ,it is not creditable to ,american science or ,american manhood that most of the measures that have been adopted for the protection of animal life in this country have been taken in the interest and at the urgency of sportsmen2 or1 to prevent killing the poor creatures in an irregular way1 in order that they may be more conveniently killed in the regular way4 ,mr4 ,hornaday has a fairly satisfactory number of reports in answer to his inquiries concerning the rate at which birds are disappearing from thirty-six ,states4 ,from these he has compiled a graphic table for thirty ,states1 taking care to keep within the conservative limit in every particular1 which shows that forty-six per cent of the birds of the country have been destroyed within the last fifteen years--the ,state averages ranging from ten per cent in ,nebraska and twenty-seven per cent in ,massachusetts to seventy-five per cent in ,connecticut1 ,indian ,territory1 and ,montana1 and seventy-seven per cent in ,florida4 ,in ,north ,carolina1 ,oregon1 and ,california the balance of bird life has been maintained2 and in ,kansas1 ,wyoming1 ,washington1 and ,utah it has increased--,kansas1 with its law absolutely forbidding traffic in certain birds1 being the 8banner ,state40 8,the western part of the ,state of ,washington reveals the uncommon paradox of a locality being filled up with bird forms because of the clearing away of the timber40 ,the agencies bringing about the destruction of our animal life are many and various4 ,there are the 8sportsmen10 of whom ,mr4 ,hornaday registers five kinds1 all eager to 8kill something10 hunting for one hundred and fifty-four species of 8game birds10 and when these fail1 taking the song birds in their place4 ,if the reports are true1 the boys of ,america are the chief destroyers of our passerine birds and other small non-edible birds generally4 8,the majority of them shoot the birds1 a great many devote their energies to gathering eggs1 and some do both40 ,then there are the women wearing birds or feathers in their hats4 ,egg collecting1 which was fostered at one time as encouraging interest in natural history1 has increased till it has become an abuse as dangerous and destructive as any of the others1 and even genuine scientific collectors are advised to call a halt4 ,mr4 ,hornaday concludes that 8under present conditions1 and excepting in a few localities1 the practical annihilation of all our birds1 except the smallest species1 and within a comparatively short period1 may be regarded as absolutely certain to occur40 99 99 99 99 99 ,annual ,flowers4--,in a ,cornell ,university ,agricultural ,experiment bulletin on ,annual ,flowers the authors1 ,g4 ,n4 ,lauman and ,prof4 ,l4 ,h4 ,bailey1 teach that the main planting of any place should be trees and shrubs4 ,the flowers may then be used as decorations4 ,they may be thrown in freely about the borders of the place1 but not in beds in the center of the lawn4 ,they show off better when seen against a background1 which may be foliage1 a building1 a rock1 or a fence4 ,where to plant flowers is really more important than what to plant4 8,in front of bushes1 in the corner of the steps1 against the foundation of the residence or outhouse1 along a fence or a walk--these are places for flowers4 ,a single petunia plant against a background of foliage is worth a dozen similar plants in the center of the lawn4444 ,the open-centered yard may be a picture2 the promiscuously planted yard may be a nursery or a forest4 ,a little color scattered here and there puts the finish to the picture40 ,if the person wants a flower garden1 the primary question is one not of decoration of the yard1 but of growing flowers for flowers' sake4 ,the flower garden1 therefore1 should be at one side of the residence or at the rear1 for it is not allowable to spoil a good lawn even with flowers4 ,a good small garden is much more satisfactory than a poor large garden4 ,many annual plants make effective screens and covers for unsightly places4 ,wild cucumber1 coba1 and sweet peas may be used to decorate the tennis screen or the chicken-yard fence4 ,efficient screens can be made of many strong-growing and large-leaved plants1 such as cannas1 castor-beans1 sunflowers1 or tobacco4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a ,thirteenth-,century ,miracle4--,the legend of ,st4 ,prokopy relates that on the #beth of ,june1 #abij1 the city of ,wilikij ,ustjug1 government of ,vologda1 southern ,russia1 was imminently threatened by a violent storm4 ,the populace appealed to the saint1 and1 by virtue of his prayers1 the storm changed its direction1 and1 passing on one side of the city1 spent its fury upon a desert spot about fifteen miles away1 where it left1 with hail1 a mass of fire-marked stones1 the fall of which wrought great havoc with the undergrowth4 ,the incident made a deep impression upon the minds of the people1 so that the story is still current and alive after the lapse of six hundred years4 ,a testimony to what the people believe is its truth may be found by visiting the spot1 where a surface extending along about four miles is covered with blocks of stone1 assumed to be meteorites4 ,a church dedicated to ,st4 ,prokopy has been built in the neighboring village of ,loboff or ,catoval1 and near it stands a curious little wooden chapel of great antiquity1 the foundation of which was made of the stones that fell4 ,the church is decorated with pictures of ,st4 ,prokopy and of incidents of the meteoric storm1 and one of the stones that fell has been mounted on a pedestal in the cathedral of ,ustjug1 where it is an object of devotion4 ,mr4 ,melnikoff1 ,conservator of the ,mineralogical ,collections of the ,mining ,institute of ,st4 ,petersburg1 has examined the place and the stones1 and finds that they are not meteoric and heavenly at all1 but simply earthly granite and sandstone4 ,yet ,m4 ,stanislas ,meunier suggests1 in ,la ,nature1 that the story1 so carefully treasured up for six hundred years1 may have a foundation4 ,that such stones as lie on the ground at ,catoval may have been taken up and transplanted by a tornado of extreme violence he regards as within the possibilities4 ,m4 ,meunier has himself investigated a phenomenon of the kind in ,france1 where the ground was 8mitrailled0 with stones measuring one1 two1 and three cubic centimetres1 which had been brought a distance of one hundred and fifty kilometres4 ,another possible explanation is that the stones were already there1 so concealed by the dense growth as not to attract particular attention1 but became more plainly obvious when the ground had been cleared by the tornado4 ,,minor ,,paragraphs4 ,while it recognizes the desirability of agreeing upon some language as a general medium of communication between nations1 the ,london ,spectator presents certain forcible reasons for not seeking to institute one universal language4 8,mankind10 it says1 8will never adopt a universal language1 nor is it to be desired that it should4 ,the instrument for expressing thought must vary with the character1 history1 and mental range of those who have thoughts to express1 and if all men spoke alike1 ninety-nine per cent of them would be speaking stiffly--not using1 that is1 a natural and self-developed vehicle of expression4 ,arabic could not have grown up among ,englishmen1 or ,english among ,arabs4 ,the seclusion of nations1 too1 from one another by the want of a common tongue is by no means all loss1 and we may doubt with reason why the higher races would not be degraded if they understood without effort all that the lower races say to one another4 ,they would be bred1 as it were1 in the servants' hall1 not to their advantage40 99 99 99 99 99 ,in a recent address on ,the ,chemistry of the ,infinitely ,little1 ,m4 ,grimaux referred to the fact1 with which all who have thought about it have been struck1 that pathogenic microbes being diffused all through the atmosphere1 everybody must breathe and absorb all sorts of them1 including germs of typhoid fever1 scarlet fever1 diphtheria1 etc41 and yet we are not all attacked with those diseases4 ,why8 ,because each person has a peculiar temperament1 and cells adapted1 to a greater or less extent1 to resist the microbe1 to destroy it when it enters the organism1 and thus constitutes1 as the case may be1 a good or a bad cultural medium4 ,every one1 we might say1 is immune against some or other of the pathogenic microbes4 ,like immunity belongs also to certain animal species1 and if a microbe pathogenic to man or to some other species is injected into them they will resist it4 ,the blood of refractory animals probably contains principles not yet known which oppose the development of the infectious microbe4 ,from this fact the idea has been suggested of injecting the blood of refractory animals and communicating an artificial immunity to the individual to whom the injection is applied4 99 99 99 99 99 ,m4 ,j4 ,,cr,,pin1 of ,paris1 8an enthusiast concerning the goat10 as ,m4 de ,parville calls him in ,la ,nature1 has established a model goat dairy1 and is endeavoring to diffuse a taste for goat's milk and its products4 ,as a means to this end1 he has sought to procure an improved breed of goats1 and has obtained a stock of very satisfactory quality by crossing the best native goats with the ,nubian buck4 ,the latter animal is rather awkward in form and movement1 but ,m4 ,crpin hopes to breed that out4 ,otherwise the ,nubian is well acclimated1 vigorous1 and indifferent to cold1 hornless1 and a most excellent milker4 ,goat's milk generally is richer in caseine than cow's milk1 and owes some of its special qualities to this fact1 and to the further circumstance that the flecks of goat-milk cheese are smaller1 softer1 and more easily broken up--consequently more digestible--than those of cow's milk4 ,further1 goat's milk is more nearly than any other common milk like in composition to human mother's milk2 and it has the very great advantage that1 the goat being less subject to attacks of tuberculosis and other dangerous disorders1 it is comparatively free from the liability to convey infection4 ,a single objection to the general use of goat's milk is the odor which is supposed to be characteristic of it1 but ,m4 ,crpin affirms that this is not apparent when the goats are properly bred and kept4 ,m4 ,crpin is experimenting with butter from goat's milk1 and represents that he finds it very nice4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the fundamental principle involved in the new form of telemeter1 or instrument for estimating the distance of visible objects without actual measurement1 invented by ,herr ,zeiss1 of ,jena1 is that of the stereoscopic effect which appears in natural vision1 where the inclination of the eyes in concentrating on the object gives the sense of distance4 ,the base line between the eyes is increased in the ,zeiss instrument by means of a system of prisms so as to give a widened base of binocular vision1 and of mirrors which give magnifying power4 ,double images are formed1 the distance between which varies in proportion to the distance from the observer1 and appliances are provided for measuring how far apart they are4 ,the arrangement is fairly satisfactory for moderate distances--say of #c1jjj metres1 or about #aj1jjj feet4 99 99 99 99 99 ,m4 ,moissan believes that he has found a solution of the problem of the manufacture of ammonia from the atmosphere1 and consequently of rendering atmospheric nitrogen available in agriculture1 by the artificial production of calcium nitride4 ,while calcium undergoes no change in contact with nitrogen at the ordinary temperature1 it is affected by it under the operation of heat1 and finally burns in it1 absorbing it rapidly and giving rise to a bronze-colored nitride4 ,thrown into water1 this substance decomposes with effervescence1 producing ammonia and calcium hydrate4 99 99 99 99 99 ,prof4 ,a4 ,e4 ,dolbear1 of ,tufts ,college1 ,massachusetts1 patented an invention for telegraphing without wires in #ahhf1 which he claims covers all that ,marconi is doing4 ,he has sent messages with it for as long distances as five miles4 ,according to his account he invented the system and made successful experiments with it as far back as #ahhb4 ,he made an application for a patent1 which was rejected by the ,patent ,office with the statement that it was contrary to science and would not work4 8,but as it did work1 the claim was maintained in the office1 and four years later1 in #ahhf1 a patent for it was issued40 ,professor ,dolbear does not wish it to be understood that his patent is on the 8art of wireless telegraphy10 but that it covers everything that has been so far done in the art4 99 99 99 99 99 ,on the occasion of the visit of the ,french ,association to the ,british ,association1 ,prof4 ,j4 ,j4 ,thomson gave an exposition of the lines of research by which it has been concluded that the atom is not the smallest existing quantity of matter4 ,electro-chemical phenomena teach us to associate a definite amount of electricity with each atom of matter2 but these recent researches indicate that under certain circumstances a much larger quantity of negative electricity may be conveyed by the atom1 or else that the negative electrical charge resides on a small detachable portion of the 8atom10 which alone is concerned in the experiments4 ,the positive charge seems to be distributed over the whole mass of the atom4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the merits of two methods of clarifying sewage--by dilution and by bacterial action--are discussed by ,mr4 ,rudolph ,hering in articles in the ,engineering ,magazine4 ,disposal by dilution in large streams of water is regarded as satisfactory in many places--where the water of the stream is not to be used for drinking or cooking--provided the flow of the stream is always copious enough to dilute and disperse the sewage so widely as to prevent putrefaction and substitute oxidation4 ,for purification by bacterial action no single method is found adapted to all conditions4 ,the method by filtration and aration is declared practicable only in localities where a sufficient area of porous land is available1 upon which the crude sewage can be spread in sufficient quantity1 into which it can filter with the proper velocity1 and from which it can emerge as a thoroughly purified water4 ,where these conditions are absent1 other methods must be adopted1 of which the experiments in artificial filtration by tanks1 as practiced at ,exeter and ,sutton1 ,england1 are described4 ,these experiments promise to improve the present method1 but perhaps not as greatly as is anticipated by the promoters4 ,the author regards a prior separation of the suspended or dissolved organic matter as essential to permanent success when the amount of land is limited4 99 99 99 99 99 ,by using the tuberculin test the faculty of the ,ohio ,agricultural ,experiment ,station have learned that in cattle the tubercle bacillus usually first obtains its foothold in some of the minor glands1 that it may exist there for months and years before any other organs are affected1 and that it is only in advanced cases that the lungs become diseased4 ,while the growth of the organism is limited to these minor glands the health of the animal usually shows no sign of impairment4 ,during this period there is no evidence that any unwholesome effect is being produced upon the flesh1 and so long as the infection is localized in this way in one or two organs the ,government inspectors pass the meat as sound4 ,tuberculosis1 therefore1 is a very different complaint from such diseases as pleuropneumonia or ,texas fever1 in which the whole system is saturated from the first instant with the febrile symptoms4 ,,notes4 ,mr4 ,james ,weir tells of a spider which stretched its web in the division between two parts of a sawmill1 where the lower fastenings of the structure were frequently broken by the repeated passing of lumber through4 ,discovering the situation1 the insect gave up the use of guy threads1 and1 finding a nail1 wove it into the lower edge of its web1 so that it should operate as a sinker to keep the web stretched4 99 99 99 99 99 ,n4 ,g4 ,johnson1 of the ,maryland ,agricultural ,experiment ,station1 telling the ,society for the ,promotion of ,agricultural ,science the story of his fight with the pea louse1 represented that the pea raisers in his ,state had lost this year more than three million dollars by the ravages of this insect4 ,a parasite had been discovered which practically annihilated the pest1 but the discovery was not made in time to save the crops in some parts of the ,state from destruction4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,american ,society for the ,promotion of ,agricultural ,science1 after hearing the account of the work of the ,gypsy ,moth ,commission of ,massachusetts1 which has spent more than a million and a half of dollars in trying to exterminate the mischievous insect1 approved the action of the ,massachusetts ,legislature in maintaining the commission1 and requested that the work be kept up for a short time longer4 ,this was because it was represented that the moth was now confined to a limited area1 and could be easily exterminated by the expenditure of a small amount more of money4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the history of science has sustained a great loss by the burning of most of the relics which had been collected for the ,volta ,centenary ,exhibition at ,como1 ,italy4 ,only a few things were saved1 comprising a sword presented by ,napoleon ,bonaparte to ,volta1 a cast of the skull of the great electrician1 his watch1 and a few personal relics4 ,on the other hand1 his books and manuscripts1 his collection of batteries1 the only authentic portrait of him1 and his will1 were destroyed4 ,nevertheless1 the celebration was not stopped4 ,the fire was attributed to the fusing of some electric wires4 99 99 99 99 99 ,an example of patient industry is the sorting of hogs' bristles as it is carried on at ,tientsin1 ,china4 ,each one of the hairs of the six hundred thousand kilogrammes exported from that place in #ahig had to be picked out1 measured1 and placed in the bundle of hairs of corresponding length2 and the different lengths by which the hairs are sorted are very numerous4 99 99 99 99 99 ,it is stated by ,m4 ,lon ,vaillant that the late ,m4 ,a4 d',abbadie had and used an effective remedy against the bites of insects and the infections they bring by fumigating the entire body with sulphur4 ,for this purpose he covered the unclothed body with a suitable envelope1 under which the sulphur was burned4 ,the remedy was communicated to ,m4 d',abbadie by a hippopotamus hunter who had1 by using it1 escaped all the diseases incident to the swamps to which he had to resort4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,gregorian ,calendar is to be adopted by the ,russian ,government on ,january #a1 #aija1 or at the beginning of the new century4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the following figures1 from the ,engineering and ,mining ,journal1 are of interest as showing the enormous quantity of iron and steel which was manufactured in #ahih1 and the leading position which the ,united ,states has already assumed in the industry3 ,,iron ,,and ,,steel ,,production1 ,,in ,,metric ,,tons4,c ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,,pig ,,iron4 ,,steel4 ,,countries4 ---------------------------------------- -------- #ahig4 #ahih4 #ahig4 #ahih4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,united ,states #i1hjg1abc #aa1ifb1hag #g1bhi1cjj #i1jde1hae ,united ,kingdom #h1ihj1jhh #h1gfi1bdi #d1eei1gcf #d1fci1jdb ,germany #f1hhi1jhg #g1djb1gag #e1jia1bid #e1ghd1hjg ---------------------------------------- -------- ,total #be1fbf1bif #bh1acd1chc #af1idj1ccj #ai1dah1ffd ,austria-,hungary #a1bje1jjj #a1bej1jjj #eec1jjj #fje1ejj ,belgium #a1jbd1fff #ihb1gdh #faf1fjd #feh1acj ,canada #da1ejj #df1hhj -- -- ,france #b1dgb1adc #b1ehd1dbg #a1bha1eie #a1dda1fch ,italy #ab1ejj #ab1hej #eg1bej #eh1gej ,russia #a1heg1jjj #b1bbh1hej #hca1jjj #a1jie1jjj ,spain #bhb1aga #bfa1gii #aba1hjj #aab1fje ,sweden #ecc1hjj #egj1eej #bfh1cjj #bhi1gej ,all other #dej1jjj #ede1jjj #caj1jjj #cee1jjj ---------------------------------------- -------- ,grand total #cc1ejf1jgf #cf1ejg1dhg #bj1igi1agi #bd1jcj1jcb ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,c ,a metric ton is about #b1bjj pounds4 99 99 99 99 99 ,although fewer casual members or members for the year than usual were present at the recent meeting of the ,british ,association at ,dover1 the attendance of distinguished men of science and of active scientific workers1 according to the ,london ,times1 seemed to be greater4 ,and so far as the proper work of the association is concerned1 the meeting should take a high rank4 ,excellent and serious work was done in all the sections4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a paper has been published by ,pliny ,t4 ,sexton1 of ,palmyra1 ,n4 ,y41 setting forth reasons for favoring the unification of the whole educational system of the ,state of ,new ,york under the jurisdiction of a single board--that of the ,regents of the ,university4 ,the reasons are presented in the form of various newspaper articles which were published last year against a proposition of an opposite character--to abolish the present ,department of ,public ,instruction and create a ,state ,commission of ,education1 the affiliations of which would be political4 ,mr4 ,sexton has further offered two prizes of one hundred dollars each for articles or essays by women and similar productions by men in support of the proposed unification4 99 99 99 99 99 ,m4 ,hildebert ,richard1 of ,avignon1 ,france1 relates that he experimented upon two adult geranium plants1 both healthy and of vigorous growth1 under like conditions of exposure1 watering one 7,a7 with well water and the other 7,b7 with water containing a measured proportion of butylic alcohol daily4 ,a kept on with its healthy growth4 ,b1 after four days of alcoholization1 showed an enfeebled growth1 with symptoms of jaundice1 drowsiness1 and intoxication2 a special odor perceptible in all parts of the plant1 partially burned spots1 and melanosis and geotropism in the leaves4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in his papers on ,the ,art and ,customs of ,benin1 ,mr4 ,ling ,roth concludes that the art of that savage land consists of mixed elements1 partly ,european forms which the native mind was prone to copy1 partly introduced from other parts of ,africa4 ,it is characterized by boldness1 freedom1 clearness in execution1 originality1 and variety4 ,among the customs he mentions are the practice of human sacrifice and the sprinkling of the blood of the animals killed at the periodical sacrifices on the ivories and on the cast-iron or bronze figure-heads placed on the altars4 ,when there was too much rain1 a woman had a message saluting the rain god put into her mouth4 ,she was then killed and set up in the execution tree1 so that the rain might see4 99 99 99 99 99 ,our scientific obituary list of the month includes the names of ,sir ,william ,dawson1 the distinguished ,canadian geologist1 of whom a fuller notice is given in another place2 ,dr4 ,luther ,dana ,woodbridge1 ,professor of ,anatomy and ,physiology in ,williams ,college1 at ,williamstown1 ,mass41 of heart disease1 ,november #c;d1 aged forty-nine years2 ,dr4 ,oscar ,baumann1 ,african explorer1 geographer to the ,austrian ,congo ,expedition of #ahhe1 who made studies for the projected railroad from ,tanga to ,karog2 ,dr4 ,f4 ,kuhla1 botanical explorer1 at ,manos1 ,brazil2 ,percy ,b4 ,pilcher1 inventor of flying machines1 from an accident while experimenting1 ,september #b;d2 ,professor ,hayduck1 ,privat ,docent in ,chemistry in ,berlin2 ,m4 ,a4 ,snow1 ,instructor in ,entomology in ,leland ,stanford ,junior ,university1 drowned ,october #ajth in ,san ,francisco ,harbor2 he had also been ,instructor in ,entomology in the ,universities of ,kansas and of ,illinois1 and was the author of several systematic papers on ,diptera2 ,prof4 ,j4 ,b4 ,carnoy1 of the ,catholic ,university of ,louvain1 author of ,biologie ,cellulaire and of papers on the development of sexual elements1 and founder of the journal ,la ,cellule1 at ,schuls1 ,switzerland1 ,september #fth2 ,dr4 ,a ,ernst1 ,director of the ,national ,museum1 ,caracas1 ,venezuela2 ,dr4 ,edward ,petri1 ,professor of ,geography and ,anthropology in the ,university of ,st4 ,petersburg1 aged forty-five years2 ,dr4 ,ottmar ,mergenthaler1 inventor of the linotype type machine1 in ,baltimore1 ,md41 ,october #bhth2 and ,dr4 ,henry ,hicks1 an ,english geologist and ,lyell medalist1 at ,hendon1 ,england1 ,november #ahth1 aged sixty-two years4 ,,publications ,,received4 ,agricultural ,experiment ,stations4 ,bulletins and ,reports4 ,delaware ,college3 ,no4 #de4 ,the ,pruning of ,young ,fruit ,trees4 ,by ,g4 ,harold ,powell4 ,pp4 #af4--,new ,jersey3 ,no4 #acg4 ,dairy ,experiments1 etc4 ,pp4 #bd2 ,no4 #ach4 ,crude ,petroleum as an ,insecticide4 ,pp4 #bb2 ,no4 #aci4 ,fertilizer ,analyses4 ,pp4 #fj4--,ohio3 ,press ,bulletin ,no4 #aii4 ,plums 7,comparison of ,varieties74 ,pp4 #b2 ,no4 #bjj4 ,fall ,treatment of ,insect ,pests4 ,pp4 #b4--,united ,states ,department of ,agriculture3 ,results of a ,biological ,survey of ,mount ,shasta1 ,california4 ,by ,c4 ,hart ,merriam4 ,wilt ,disease of ,cotton1 ,watermelon1 and ,cowpea4 ,by ,erwin ,f4 ,smith4 ,pp4 #ed1 with plates4 ,association ,review1 ,the4 ,frank ,w4 ,booth1 editor4 ,bimonthly4 ,vol4 ,i1 ,no4 #a4 ,an ,educational ,magazine4 ,published by the ,american ,association to promote the ,teaching of ,speech to the ,deaf4 ,mount ,airy1 ,philadelphia4 ,pp4 #abh4 #b4ej a year4 ,bullard1 ,frank ,d4 ,the ,aristophilon4 ,a ,nemesis of ,faith 7,poem74 ,chicago3 ,r4 ,r4 ,donnelly ,sons ,company4 ,pp4 #aji4 ,bulletins1 ,reports1 and ,proceedings4 ,alabama ,geological ,survey3 ,map of the ,warrior ,coal ,basin4 ,by ,henry ,mc,calley1 ,assistant ,state ,geologist4--,boston ,society of ,natural ,history3 ,the ,blood-,vessels of the ,heart in ,carcharis1 ,baja1 and ,amia4 ,by ,g4 ,h4 ,parker and ,frederick ,k4 ,davis4 ,pp4 #af1 with plates2 ,marine ,mollusca of ,cold ,spring ,harbor1 ,long ,island4 ,by ,f4 ,n4 ,balch4 ,pp4 #cj1 with plates2 ,the ,development of ,persilia ,schmackeri1 ,richard4 ,by ,m4 ,t4 ,sudler4 ,pp4 #bj4--;,colorado ,college ,studies4 ,three ,papers4 ,pp4 #dh4--;,buitenzorg ,botanical ,institute3 ,bulletin1 ,no4 #a4 ,pp4 #dj2 ,united ,states ,department of ,labor2 ,no4 #bd4 ,statistics of ,cities4 ,pp4 #adj4--;,iowa1 ,state ,university of3 ,report on the ,ophiuroidea collected by the ,bahama ,expedition in #ahic4 ,by ,prof4 ,a4 ,e4 ,varrill4 ,pp4 #hf1 with plates4--,linnan ,society of ,new ,york3 ,the ,turtles and ,lizards of the ,vicinity of ,new ,york ,city4 ,pp4 #cf--,wagner ,free ,institute of ,science1 ,philadelphia3 ,the ,salenodont ,artiodactyles of the ,uinta ,eocene4 ,by ,w4 ,b4 ,scott4 ,pp4 #aba1 with plates4 ,constantin1 ,j4 ,la ,nature ,tropicale4 7,tropical ,nature47 ,paris3 ,flix ,alcan4 7,bibliothque ,scientifique ,internationale47 ,pp4 #cae4 ,demoor1 ,jean1 ,massart1 ,jean1 and ,vandervelde1 ,emile4 ,evolution by ,atrophy4 ,new ,york3 ,d4 ,appleton and ,company4 7,international ,scientific ,series47 ,pp4 #cbb4 #a4ej4 ,fiske1 ,john4 ,a ,century of ,science1 and other ,essays4 ,boston and ,new ,york3 ,houghton1 ,mifflin ,co4 ,pp4 #dgg4 #b4 ,germania4 ,a ,monthly ,magazine for the ,study of the ,german ,language and ,literature4 ,a4 ,w4 ,spanhoofd and ,p4 ,e4 ,kunzer1 editors4 ,boston3 ,new ,england ,college of ,languages4 ,pp4 #bg4 #ae cents4 #a a year4 ,gilman1 ,nicholas ,paine4 ,a ,dividend to ,labor4 ,a ,study of ,employers' ,welfare ,institutions4 ,boston and ,new ,york3 ,houghton1 ,mifflin ,co4 ,pp4 #djj4 #a4ej4 ,hill1 ,robert ,t4 ,the ,geology and ,physical ,geography of ,jamaica4 ,a ,study of a ,type of ,antillean ,development4 ,with an ,appendix on ,corals by ,t4 ,w4 ,vaughan4 ,cambridge1 ,mass43 ,museum of ,comparative ,zology of ,harvard ,college4 ,pp4 #bej1 with plates4 ,holden1 ,edward ,s4 ,the ,family of the ,sun4 ,conversations with a ,child4 7,appletons' ,home-,reading ,books47 ,new ,york3 ,d4 ,appleton and ,company4 ,pp4 #beb4 #ej cents4 ,interstate ,commerce ,commission4 ,eleventh ,annual ,report on the ,statistics of ,railways in the ,united ,states for the ,year ending ,june #cj1 #ahih4 ,washington4 ,pp4 #fib4 ,jordan1 ,david ,starr4 ,the ,story of ,knight and ,barbara4 ,being a ,series of ,stories ,told to ,children4 ,new ,york3 ,d4 ,appleton and ,company4 ,pp4 #bfe4 #a4ej4 ,jordan1 ,david ,starr1 ,stejneger1 ,leonhard1 ,lucas1 ,f4 ,a41 and other official associates4 ,the ,fur ,seals and ,fur-,seal ,islands of the ,north ,pacific ,ocean4 ,washington3 ,government ,printing ,office4 ,pp4 #fbi4 ,mac,corkle1 ,w4 ,a4 ,some ,phases of the ,race ,question4 ,cincinnati3 ,the ,robert ,clarke ,company4 ,pp4 #di4 ,mac,gregor1 ,prof4 ,j4 ,g4 ,on the ,utility of ,knowledge-making as a ,means of ,liberal ,training4 ,halifax1 ,n4 ,s4 ,pp4 #bd4 ,mac,millan1 ,conway4 ,minnesota ,plant ,life4 ,st4 ,paul3 ,state ,botanical ,survey4 ,pp4 #efh4 ,newman1 ,george4 ,bacteria1 especially as they are related to the ,economy of ,nature1 to ,industrial ,processes1 and to the ,public ,health4 ,new ,york3 ,g4 ,p4 ,putnam's ,sons4 ,pp4 #cdh4 ,reprints4 ,chesmit1 ,v4 ,k4 ,preliminary ,catalogue of ,plants ,poisonous to ,stock4 ,pp4 #cf4--;,fernow1 ,b4 ,g4 ,forest ,policies and ,forest ,management in ,germany and ,british ,india4 ,pp4 #fd2 ,forestry in the ,united ,states ,department of ,agriculture4 ,pp4 #dd2 ,brief ,history of the ,forestry ,movement in the ,united ,states4 ,pp4 #dd4--;,gerhard1 ,william ,paul4 ,the ,safety of ,theatre ,audiences and of the ,stage ,personnel against ,danger from ,fire and ,panic4 ,pp4 #cj4--;,girsdansky1 ,max4 ,dust in the ,etiology of ,tuberculosis4 ,pp4 #aj4--;,hay1 ,o4 ,p4 ,on ,some ,changes in the ,names1 ,generic and ,specific1 of ,certain ,fossil ,fishes4 ,pp4 #aj2 ,two new ,species of ,tortoises from the ,tertiary of the ,united ,states4 ,pp4 #bd1 with plates4--,howard1 ,w4 ,l4 ,physiologic ,rhythms4 ,the ,practical ,value of their ,recognition in the ,treatment of ,functional ,neuroses4 ,pp4 #g4--,langmuir1 ,a4 ,c41 and ,baskerville1 ,charles4 ,index to the ,literature of ,zirconium4 7,smithsonian ,miscellaneous ,collections47 ,pp4 #cb4--,prosser1 ,charles ,s4 ,correlation of ,carboniferous ,rocks of ,nebraska with those of ,kansas4--,roth1 ,filibert4 ,rsum of ,investigations carried on in the ,united ,states ,division of ,forestry1 #ahhi to #ahih4 ,pp4 #fd4 ,schimmell ,co4 7,fritzsche ,brothers47 ,leipsic and ,new ,york4 ,semi-annual ,report1 ,october1 #ahii4 7,essential ,oils1 etc47 ,pp4 #ge4 ,steel ,portland ,cement4 ,chicago3 ,illinois ,steel ,company4 ,pp4 #if4 ,stewart1 ,sara ,elizabeth1 and ,day1 ,r4 ,e4 ,two ,prize ,essays on ,educational ,unification in the ,state of ,new ,york4 ,palmyra1 ,n4 ,y43 ,the ,unification ,prize ,committee4 ,pp4 #ai4 ,swift1 ,morrison ,i4 ,imperialism and ,liberty4 ,los ,angeles1 ,cal43 ,the ,ronbroke ,press4 ,pp4 #dia4 ,united ,states ,commission of ,fish and ,fisheries4 ,bulletin ,no4 #dji4 ,list of ,fishes known to inhabit the ,waters of the ,district of ,columbia and ,vicinity4 ,by ,h4 ,m4 ,smith and ,b4 ,a4 ,bean ,pp4 #hj2 ,no4 #daj4 ,notes on a ,collection of ,tide-,pool ,fishes from ,kadiak ,island1 ,alaska4 ,by ,c4 ,m4 ,rutter4 ,pp4 #d2 ,no4 #daa4 ,the ,southern ,spring ,mackerel ,fishery of the ,united ,states4 ,by ,hugh ,m4 ,smith4 ,pp4 #hj2 ,no4 #dab4 ,notice of ,filefish ,new to the ,fauna of the ,united ,states4 ,by ,h4 ,m4 ,smith4 ,pp4 #h2 ,no4 #dac4 ,the ,pearly ,fresh-,water ,mussels of the ,united ,states4 ,by ,charles ,t4 ,simpson4 ,pp4 #aj2 ,no4 #dad4 ,the ,mussel ,fishery and ,pearl-,button ,industry of the ,mississippi ,river4 ,by ,h4 ,m4 ,smith4 ,pp4 #bd2 ,no4 #dae4 ,the ,peripheral ,nervous ,system of the ,bony ,fishes4 ,by ,c4 ,j4 ,herrick4 ,pp4 #f2 ,no4 #daf4 ,the ,reappearance of the ,tilefish4 ,by ,h4 ,c4 ,bumpus4 ,pp4 #ab2 ,no4 #dbc4 ,a ,review of the ,fisheries in the ,contiguous ,waters of the ,state of ,washington and ,british ,columbia4 ,by ,richard ,rathbun4 ,pp4 #if1 with plates4 ,united ,states ,geological ,survey4 ,nineteenth ,annual ,report4 ,part ,,ii4 ,papers1 chiefly of a ,theoretic ,nature4 ,pp4 #ieh2 ,principles and ,conditions of the ,movements of ,ground ,water4 ,by ,f4 ,h4 ,king4 ,with a ,theoretical ,investigation of the ,motion of ,ground ,waters4 ,by ,c4 ,s4 ,richter4 ,pp4 #chd4 ,wiechmann1 ,f4 ,g4 ,chemistry1 its ,evolution and ,achievements4 ,new ,york3 ,w4 ,r4 ,jenkins4 ,pp4 #agf4 ,transcribers' ,notes ,punctuation1 hyphenation1 and spelling were made consistent when a predominant preference was found in this book2 otherwise they were not changed4 ,simple typographical errors were corrected2 occasional unbalanced quotation marks retained4 ,ambiguous hyphens at the ends of lines were retained4 ,page #cae3 ,the illustration's caption1 describing line thickness1 was printed as actual lines1 but has been changed to words by the ,transcriber4 ,page #cbi3 8cito tuto0 may be two separate terms that should be separated with a comma4 ,page #cci3 8cortge0 was printed with an acute accent4 ,page #ceb3 ,unmatched right-parenthesis removed after 8p4 #dbi40