,,transcriber',s ,,note oe ligatures have been expanded4 ,the footnote in ,paragraph #ce on page #fi 7the only one in the book7 was moved to follow the paragraph from which it is referenced4 ,eight pages of advertisements that preceded the title page have been moved to the end of the book and placed before the two pages of advertisements that closed the book4 ,obvious typographical errors and punctuation errors have been corrected after careful comparison with other occurrences within the text and consultation of external sources4 ,more detail can be found at the end of the book4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,horse',s ,,mouth1 ,,showing ,,the ,,age ,,by ,,the ,,teeth4 ,,the ,,horse',s ,,mouth1 ,,showing ,,the ,,age ,,by ,,the ,,teeth4 ,,containing ,a ,,full ,,description ,,of ,,the ,,periods ,,when ,,the ,,teeth ,,are ,,cut2 ,,the ,,appearances ,,they ,,present2 ,,the ,,tricks ,,to ,,which ,,they ,,are ,,exposed2 ,,the ,,eccentricities ,,to ,,which ,,they ,,are ,,liable2 ,,and ,,the ,,diseases ,,to ,,which ,,they ,,are ,,subject4 ,,by ,,edward ,,mayhew1 ,m4 ,r4 ,c4 ,v4 ,s4 ,,dedicated1 ,,by ,,permission1 ,,to ,,the ,,president ,,and ,,council ,,of ,the ,royal ,college of ,veterinary ,surgeons1 ,,and ,,embellished ,,with ,,numerous ,,coloured ,,engravings ,,from ,,drawings ,,made ,,expressly ,,for ,,the ,,work1 ,,and ,,taken ,,from ,,authenticated ,,mouths2 ,,with ,,thirty-,,two ,,wood-,,cuts1 ,,illustrative ,,of ,,the ,,letter-,,press4 ,,fourth ,,edition4 ,,london3 ,,messrs4 ,,fores1 #da1 ,,piccadilly4 ,,to ,,the ,,president ,,and ,,council ,,of ,,the ,,royal ,,college ,,of ,,veterinary ,,surgeons1 ,,this ,,work ,,is 7,,by ,,permission7 ,,respectfully ,,dedicated1 ,,by ,,their ,,obliged ,,and ,,very ,,obedient ,,servants1 ,,the ,,publishers4 #da1 ,piccadilly4 ,,illustrations4 ,,coloured ,,engravings4 ,page4 ,frontispiece--,the ,head of a ,horse with the teeth exposed ,nine months old1 and #b years old #gj ,three years old1 and #c years off #hj ,rising #d years1 and #d years old #hb ,rising #e years1 and #e years old #id ,five years off1 and #f years off #if ,seven years off1 and #h years off #ajd ,twelve years old1 and #bj years old #aab ,sixteen years old1 and #cj years old #abj ,,wood ,,cuts4 ,section of an incisor tooth #ba ,arrangement of the substances composing a molar tooth #bf ,view of a molar tooth #bi ,a permanent and temporary incisor tooth #dh ,molar tooth about to be shed #fb ,molar tooth recently cut #fb ,table of the #c year old incisor tooth #gi ,table of the #c year off incisor tooth #gi ,tables of the incisor teeth at #d years off #he ,tables and arrangement of the incisor teeth rising #e years #ib ,tables and arrangement of the incisor teeth at #e years old #ie ,tables and arrangement of the incisor teeth at #f years old #ii ,tables and arrangement of the incisor teeth at #g years off #ajc ,tables of the incisor teeth at #h years off #ajf ,tables of the incisor teeth at #i years old #aji ,tables of the incisor teeth at #aj years old #aaj ,tables of the incisor teeth at #ab years old #aab ,tables of the incisor teeth at #ad years old #aab ,tables of the incisor teeth at #af years old #aae ,tables and arrangement of the incisor teeth at #bh years old #aai ,tables and arrangement of the incisor teeth at #bi years old #abj ,tables of the incisor teeth at #cj years old #aba ,irregularity in the growth of the corner incisor tooth #adj ,a parrot mouth #adg ,changes caused by a diseased tooth #age ,mr4 ,gowing's tooth forceps #ahc ,the lever to ditto #ahd ,the forceps1 fixed #ahe ,mr4 ,gowing's framed chisel #ahh ,mr4 ,gowing's guarded chisel #aij ,mr4 ,gowing's repeller for the guarded chisel #aia ,mr4 ,gowing's lateral repeller for the guarded chisel #aic ,,contents4 ,par4 ,page4 #a4 ,that the teeth of the horse denote the age of the animal c4 #a #b4 ,in every case the evidence of the teeth is secondary to direct and substantiated testimony2 c4 #c #c4 ,some of the causes which induce certain persons to doubt c4 #d #d4 ,the teeth more frequently contradict an arbitrary calculation than disagree with fact4 #g #e4 ,for the security of the purchaser of a horse1 not connected with the turf1 the teeth are a sufficient guard1 c4 #aj #f4 ,the description of the teeth c4 #ad #g4 ,the teeth are situated c4 #ae #h4 ,the teeth are organised1 c4 #af #i4 ,the horse possesses forty teeth1 c4 #af #aj4 ,three substances enter into the composition of the horse's tooth4 #ah #aa4 ,the crusta petrosa c4 #ah #ab4 ,the enamel c4 #bj #ac4 ,the ivory c4 #bj #ad4 ,the uses of the ivory1 enamel1 and crusta petrosa c4 #bb #ae4 ,the separate uses of the three component structures1 c4 #bd #af4 ,the various parts and peculiarities of form1 c4 #cb #ag4 ,there are infundibula also in the molar teeth1 c4 #ce #ah4 ,to distinguish an upper from a lower molar tooth c4 #cf #ai4 ,the teeth of the horse are very firmly implanted in the jaws1 c4 #cg #bj4 ,the molars of the lower jaw are the active agents of mastication1 c4 #cg #ba4 ,provision has been made by ,nature to meet the wear to which the horse's teeth are subjected4 #ch #bb4 ,the cavity of the pulp c4 #db #bc4 ,nature provides the horse with two sets of teeth4 #dc #bd4 ,to know the temporary from the permanent teeth1 c4 #df #be4 ,to recognise a milk incisor tooth c4 #df #bf4 ,the permanent incisors are indicated by their greater size1 c4 #di #bg4 ,the temporary cannot be well distinguished from the permanent molars1 while the horse is alive4 #ea #bh4 ,the various points which denote youth c4 #eb #bi4 ,the indications of age c4 #ec #cj4 ,the incisor teeth in old age1 c4 #ed #ca4 ,some judges depend upon the tushes as indicative of the age1 c4 #eg #cb4 ,the wolf's teeth or eye teeth aid us in judging of the age2 c4 #ei #cc4 ,the mode in which the horse cuts his teeth c4 #fj #cd4 ,the manner of examining the teeth c4 #fe #ce4 ,at birth c4 #fi #cf4 ,at six weeks1 c4 #fi #cg4 ,at six months1 c4 #fi #ch4 ,at nine months old1 the corner milk teeth are up1 but their edges do not yet meet4 #gj #ci4 ,at one year1 c4 #gj #dj4 ,at eighteen months1 c4 #ga #da4 ,at two years old1 there is a full mouth of milk incisors1 all of which show considerable wear4 #ga #db4 ,at three years old1 the centre horse teeth are well up1 and are distinguished by their size1 shape1 and colour4 #gb #dc4 ,at three years off1 the lateral milk teeth are shed1 and the permanent teeth are coming up4 #hj #dd4 ,when rising four years old the lateral horse teeth are in the mouth1 but their edges do not fairly meet4 #ha #de4 ,at four years1 four pair of horse teeth are well up1 but the corner milk teeth are retained4 #hb #df4 ,when rising five years old all the horse teeth are in the mouth1 but the corner teeth have yet to meet4 #ij #dg4 ,at five years old there is a full mouth of horse incisors1 all the edges of which fairly meet4 #id #dh4 ,at five years off the corner teeth only show slight wear1 and the posterior margins are round4 #ie #di4 ,at six years of age the corner teeth look more firmly set1 and their edges begin to be uneven2 c4 #ig #ej4 ,at seven years off1 the corner teeth1 without showing age1 exhibit further evidence of wear4 #ii #ea4 ,at eight years off1 the gum of the lower corner tooth has become square1 and the lower tush blunt4 #ajd #eb4 ,after the eighth year1 c4 #ajf #ec4 ,at twelve years old1 there may be tartar on the lower tush4 ,the teeth are longer1 narrower1 and the enamel darker4 #aaj #ed4 ,at sixteen years old1 when the teeth are viewed from the side1 only two incisors can be seen in the lower jaw1 c4 #aab #ee4 ,at twenty years old1 the form of the mouth has changed1 and the lower teeth are imperfectly seen from the front4 #aae #ef4 ,at thirty years old1 the jaws are contracted2 the lower are not seen when the upper teeth are in view4 #aag #eg4 ,the tricks that are practised on the teeth1 c4 #abc #eh4 ,the irregularities of growth in the horse's teeth c4 #ach #ei4 ,the diseases to which the teeth of the horse are subjected1 c4 #adi #fj4 ,the agents which are likely to injure the teeth1 c4 #agg #fa4 ,the instruments used in connexion with the teeth of the horse c4 #aha ,,preface4 ,when submitting to the reader this my first work on ,veterinary ,science1 ,i cannot forbear from addressing to him a few remarks1 in the hope of explaining some of those peculiarities which it may appear to present4 ,at a period of life1 when many men retire from active business1 ,i commenced the study of a new profession4 ,my mind was not prepared to receive instruction through the ordinary process1 and ,i was1 by necessity1 obliged to be1 in a great measure1 my own tutor4 ,i found that ,i could learn only through observation1 and this circumstance led me into inquiries which often left me in opposition with established opinions4 ,hence many of the facts announced in the following pages are new1 and not very much contained in them is strictly accordant with the acknowledged authorities4 ,the latter circumstance ,i may regret1 but ,i have no apology to offer for it4 ,my convictions are derived from the study of ,nature1 and are conclusions gained from a higher source than conjecture or opinion sanctioned by time or approved by professors4 ,short as may have been my experience1 nothing herein set down will be found which is not the result of practice1 or the consequence of reasoning4 ,perhaps a longer professional existence would have given more weight to that which is either novel in its announcement1 or may appear to be bold in its assurance4 ,truth1 however1 is speedily read by those who are intent on deciphering it1 and facts are not rendered more clear to the mental vision by years of conventional dependence4 ,the teaching of our ,english ,veterinary ,school has1 for too long a period1 been traditional2 what one had said1 he who succeeded him repeated1 and when ,i entered as a pupil1 there existed no spirit of inquiry1 or thought of extending the boundaries of knowledge4 ,to what a degree an evil system had been established1 ,i may here state as an instance1 that in the first horse which ,i dissected1 ,i was able to demonstrate the existence of four muscles that had previously been unnoticed by my teachers4 ,under such circumstances1 it is not surprising if a fresh intruder1 on a comparatively unexplored soil1 did turn up something which1 though it laid near to the surface1 had not before been exposed4 ,on the teeth1 my investigations began from the beginning2 and though ,i cannot but say ,i have been greatly assisted by the information derived from the labours of previous writers1 yet ,i have1 in every instance1 accepted their assertions only after ,i had tested them1 and found them to be correct4 ,to the members of my profession1 ,i am deeply indebted4 ,when they knew the subject on which ,i was engaged1 each volunteered to aid me1 and generously gave me the benefit of that experience1 which personally ,i was unfortunate in not possessing4 ,it was acknowledged1 that upon the teeth1 some work which might be depended upon1 was sadly needed1 and to render the present worthy of the confidence of the public1 all to whom ,i applied cheerfully gave their utmost help4 ,from their cordial communications and disinterested co-operation1 ,i learnt much1 and gained many valuable ideas4 #af1 ,spring ,street1 ,westbourne ,terrace4 ,,the ,,horse',s ,,mouth1 ,,showing ,,the ,,age ,,by ,,the ,,teeth4 #a4 ,that the teeth of the horse denoted the age of the animal appears to have been a very ancient belief1 which the experience of centuries seems in no degree to have weakened4 ,as a general rule1 applied within certain limitations1 the impression is certainly well founded2 for perhaps no development is more regular than the teeth of the horse1 and no natural process so little exposed to the distortions of artifice4 ,we are1 nevertheless1 not to expect that the animal carries about in its mouth a certificate of birth1 written in characters so deep or legible that they cannot be obliterated or misinterpreted4 ,the indications to be discovered by an inspection of the mouth of the horse1 however1 are so generally true1 that in these dependence may be placed2 although they are not so arbitrary or invariable1 that upon them in every instance an absolute opinion can hastily be pronounced4 ,he who would judge of the age by the teeth1 must therefore be content to study and prepared to encounter difficulties4 ,in proportion as he has done the one1 and is fortified thereby to overcome the other1 will be his success4 ,there is no secret charm which will enable man to unravel ,nature's mysteries4 ,her ways are regular1 but they are not uniform--her laws are fixed1 but her acts cannot be measured by a system of rule or compass4 ,the qualified judge alone will read the teeth correctly2 but in proportion as the task is difficult1 will be the candour and caution of him who fulfils it properly4 ,he will make allowance where certain marks are indistinct or absent--he will not feel himself degraded by a confession of inability to speak with certainty when the signs are complex or confused--and above all1 he will be cautious before he pronounces a final opinion1 and gives it forth as a decision1 against which there ought to be no appeal4 ,the ,veterinary ,practitioner knows from repeated trials1 tested by long experience1 that the teeth of the horse are worthy of attention2 he feels that their indications1 scientifically interpreted1 will seldom mislead2 but he does not regard them with a reverence resembling that originating from an antiquated superstition1 or look upon them as the exemplifications of a principle which admits of no exceptions4 #b4 ,in every case the evidence of the teeth is secondary to direct and substantiated testimony2 for as there is no limit to possibility1 so no man can be prepared to say what ,nature may or may not do4 ,in the absence1 however1 of positive and corroborated testimony1 the teeth become the best evidence1 and that on which reliance should be placed4 ,when opposed to the indications of the mouth1 the oath of a single individual1 for obvious reasons1 would be of no weight4 ,a foal can hardly be born without many parties being cognizant of the fact--the colt cannot change its master without several persons being made aware of the transaction--and horses1 for honest purposes1 are not generally sold or bought in secret4 ,proof of the age can generally be adduced1 if the parties interested think proper to seek it2 or when it is not possible to adduce such proof1 the teeth deserve more confidence than an uncorroborated assertion4 ,an individual may be interested to mis-state1 or may be mistaken in his belief2 whereas the teeth1 being natural growths1 are removed from such suspicions4 #c4 ,some of the causes which induce certain persons to doubt the possibility of the horse's age being accurately told from the teeth1 are not difficult to explain away4 ,the ,jockey ,club has seen reason to declare1 that all thorough-bred animals shall be born on the #ast of ,january1 or if any should make their appearances at a later period1 such shall be esteemed one year old when the #cast of ,december has expired4 ,all blood horses have but one birth-day1 nor do they in that respect differ from their brethren of the coarser breeds2 only those of the last description are supposed to begin their existences upon the #ast of ,may4 ,if a racer has seen six ,januaries1 it is said to be six years old2 and if a nag had looked upon half a dozen ,mays it would be pronounced to be of a similar age4 ,these customs are convenient1 as affording a point from which to date the age of an animal2 but under such regulations1 confusion will and does frequently arise4 ,in a long number of years1 a few months may be of little importance2 but at the earlier period the difference of several weeks may1 in the calculation of the age1 be a serious matter4 ,i will endeavour to show how far1 in an extreme case1 confusion may be created by the operation of these customs1 and to prove1 that he who should read the teeth correctly1 would be unable to satisfactorily pronounce the accepted age of a colt4 ,according to the received laws1 a blood foal dropt on the #cast of ,december1 and a foal not thorough-bred1 born on the #cjth of ,april1 would each1 the second day of life1 complete the first year of its existence4 ,let it be supposed that a blood mare bore a foal in the latter end of ,december--the animal would be entered in the stud book according to the year of its birth1 but for obvious reasons could never be put into training2 it would be kept until another ,january arrived1 when1 although but one year and a few days of age1 it could1 in strict accordance with the established custom1 be sold as a two-year-old2 and the entry being in the stud book1 of course the point would not be disputed4 ,the colt is bought and taken into an ordinary stable1 where all the horses not being thorough-bred advance a year when the #ast of ,may appears2 and when that day dawns1 the blood colt1 not eighteen months of age1 rising with the rest1 is called three years off4 ,now in such a case1 the man who judged by the teeth would be certain to be wrong2 and if it is possible under any circumstances for truth to be discredited1 we may imagine that many apparent mistakes would1 on inquiry1 be cleared up4 ,the age of a horse is seldom correctly stated even in a court of law4 ,witnesses swear by the customs of men1 and it never seems to occur to them that ,nature has not yet given in her adherence to the codes by which their consciences are narcotized4 ,horses are born at all times and seasons4 ,the regular breeder1 it is true1 takes care towards the observance of the regulations2 but all who may think proper to have a foal out of the old mare when she's done up for work1 are by no means nice in that particular4 ,stallions are paraded for service in the autumn1 and there are to be found men who will argue stoutly in favour of a late get4 #d4 ,the teeth more frequently contradict an arbitrary calculation than disagree with fact4 ,the mouth declares only the positive age1 reckoned from the actual day of birth1 and ,i know of no evidence of a similar description which may be more confidently trusted4 ,occasional exceptions are to be found1 and of these notice will be hereafter taken2 such exceptions1 however1 are not sufficiently frequent to upset the rule1 and were the testimony of the teeth to be rejected1 ,i know of no other that could be substituted4 ,we are therefore necessitated to retain the test1 and consequently should know how to apply it4 ,almost every one within or about the stable pretends to be able to do this1 but some even of those who have studied the subject are not capable of doing it correctly4 ,the evidence is often true when the judgment is false1 and in this circumstance1 perhaps1 lies the chief danger of the test4 ,a knowledge of the teeth is by no means universal2 but where that knowledge is profound1 though the test may seldom disappoint1 yet because it will occasionally do so1 the indications of the mouth ought to be corroborated4 ,to proceed summarily 7as in the case of the ,queen of ,cyprus7 upon an inspection of the teeth1 is certainly not justifiable1 since the mouth may possibly be eccentric1 or the judgment pronounced upon it may be erroneous4 ,the teeth in every horse case are of importance4 ,the suggestions to which they give rise should not be disregarded2 yet at the same time no opinion of a final kind should be based upon their showing4 ,the utmost that the inspection of the teeth could warrant is a doubt1 certainly a strong one1 as to the reported age of the animal4 ,that doubt would justify inquiry1 and the teeth can substantiate no more than the right to inquire4 ,some may be disposed to think that such a right would not be worth possessing2 but it must be remembered1 that until the inquiry were ended1 no decision as to the qualification of the animal could be arrived at4 ,a valid doubt would have been created4 ,let the owner of the suspected horse dispel it1 or the party who is interested to do so have time to seek the evidence which would convert it into certainty4 ,the umpire1 on the showing of the teeth1 would be bound to withhold his judgment1 not called upon to decide4 ,were such the rule1 all fear of injustice would be guarded against2 and as gentlemen connected with the turf cannot endure suspicion1 and are not very patient of delay1 those who were the owners of animals1 the mouths of which presented any peculiarities1 ought to notify the fact some days before the horses started4 ,by forbearing to do so1 gentlemen expose themselves to accusation4 ,by examining the animal at the moment of starting1 and founding a decision thereon1 no good can be done1 but injustice may be perpetrated2 for supposing the suspected horse is pronounced to exhibit the tokens of the lawful age1 the inspection of its mouth by a stranger may1 by exciting its irritability1 lose the race4 ,at the same time1 to permit an unqualified animal to start1 would be unjust2 and therefore the greater necessity for such a timely inspection as would allow of a preliminary investigation of the proofs that could be brought forward in contradiction of the teeth4 ,these suggestions are made with the less hesitation1 as the writer feels that were they adopted1 few cases would spring out of them2 for the mouths of racers are so regular in their development1 that the age of this description of animal can with more certainty be pronounced than that of any other kind of horse4 #e4 ,for the security of the purchaser of a horse not connected with the turf1 the teeth are a sufficient guard1 and their indications1 when properly understood1 may be confidently acted upon4 ,this opinion is put forth after a matured consideration of the subject1 and probably there is no dealer who would dissent from the decision at which the author has arrived4 ,the purchasers possibly may1 on reflection1 see less reason to be satisfied1 because the teeth would1 perhaps1 in many instances1 seem to favour the interest opposed to theirs4 ,let the matter1 however1 be deliberately weighed1 and perhaps it may be found that neither party is likely to gain considerably1 or to be seriously injured4 ,in ordinary trade1 the word of the seller is not much regarded2 but in horse transactions1 the assertion of the dealer is never received4 ,one source of evidence is therefore discarded1 and some other must be sought4 ,now1 where horses are concerned1 even the oaths of men appear to be of little force2 hard swearing is expected in every business of that nature1 and such expectation almost disqualifies all those persons to whose testimony the dealer could appeal4 ,let it be remembered that it is not the dealer who refuses to give evidence1 or to adduce it2 but the purchaser1 who is prejudiced against accepting it4 ,this act on the purchaser's part limits the proof he might demand2 for as attestation is rejected by him1 not denied to him1 he is by his conduct left without cause of complaint1 and bound to seek the evidence which he will accept4 ,such evidence he looks for in the mouth of the animal1 and is seldom deceived when capable of interpreting it4 ,the teeth1 in fact1 are the only testimony that his caution leaves him to decide upon2 and it will be hereafter shown1 that even when the teeth are early in their development1 the purchaser is not virtually wronged4 ,all men1 however1 seek to arm themselves by suspicion1 when dealing in horse-flesh2 and the tricks that are played upon the teeth1 rise immediately to the mind4 ,such tricks certainly are played1 but they are assuredly more talked about than practised4 ,there is a superstitious idea afloat1 that breeders can make horses appear of any age they please1 by torturing the mouths of the poor animals4 ,the folly of such a belief will be exposed in another part of this work2 it is sufficient for the present to state1 that the credulity of the public in this matter has no foundation4 ,a colt cannot be made by any barbarity to look like a horse2 and an old horse cannot be forced to exhibit the mouth of a colt4 ,that attempts are made to disguise the teeth1 and that such attempts occasionally impose upon the buyer1 is not denied2 but all of such practices are shallow in the extreme1 and so easily detected1 that the person deceived by them is not an object of pity4 ,if people will presume to judge before they have learnt to recognize1 their temerity is more to be blamed than its consequence is to be commiserated4 ,no one goes to buy a horse unwarned of the dangers that will surround him2 and if in his conceit he rather prefers to hazard these than to seek protection1 what right has he to murmur at a result which it needed no conjurer to foretell8 ,is there any market in the world where ignorance is secure from imposition8 ,the world is not yet so honest that the affairs of the horse mart are a subject worthy of its special wonder2 and it may be doubted if the principles which regulate the conduct of the horse dealer1 are not those which influence the transactions of the most honourable traders4 ,there are men of the highest character living by the sale of horses2 and it is creditable to humanity1 that after all of a certain class have been unscrupulously stigmatized and openly reproached1 there may still among its members be found1 beings preserving honour for the sake of itself alone4 ,the liberal public1 however1 in its wisdom1 has pronounced the character of the horse dealer2 it has rejected his attestations1 and refused to listen to the testimony of those with whom he has communication4 ,the age of a horse is not taken from the mouth of its owner1 but looked for in that of the animal4 ,this mode of procedure is convenient--the record is at hand1 the evidence brief1 and the decision to which it leads is that to which the purchaser by choice appeals4 ,the dealer stands by and knows that his voice is to be restrained4 ,the teeth denote the age1 and when the word of the owner is not to be accepted1 there is no other evidence at hand4 ,were additional proof to be required1 in some instances it could not be procured1 and in the majority its production would be attended with an expense perhaps equal to the price of the horse which it concerned4 ,the expence1 the seller of course could not be expected to bear1 and the buyer equally would resist its infliction4 ,nothing is more high priced than absolute proof of any kind2 and there is always a further difficulty in the difference of opinion which prevails1 as to what constitutes absolute proof4 ,a cursory glance at the matter is enough to convince us1 that the custom of inspecting the teeth of the horse to ascertain the age of the animal1 is one which has had its origin in necessity4 ,experience has taught that the mouth of the horse affords the most satisfactory evidence1 and the author's investigations on this subject have convinced him that the public need require no better or more conclusive testimony4 ,the reader1 however1 before he ventures to abide by his own interpretation of the signs which the horse's teeth exhibit1 must be content to study1 and prepared to find the task somewhat difficult4 ,all that can be done to render the subject plain and clear1 the author will attempt4 #f4 ,the description of the teeth cannot be rendered pleasing2 but as it is a necessary part of the subject1 the reader must exert his patience1 while the matter is briefly discussed4 ,teeth are anatomically classed with bones1 which in many respects they resemble4 ,a tooth is divided into two parts1 or into crown and fang4 ,the crown is that portion which projects above the gum into the mouth2 therefore so much as can be seen while the animal lives1 is the crown of the tooth4 ,the fang1 the end of which is called the root1 is that part of the tooth which is hidden from view1 and is inserted into the jaw4 ,for the convenience of description1 however1 other portions of the tooth have received distinct names1 and the neck and table are spoken of4 ,the neck is that portion of the tooth which is immediately surrounded by the gum4 ,the table is the upper surface1 or the part which touches the corresponding tooth of the opposing jaw when the mouth is closed4 ,such is the division made1 and it will hereafter be found to assist the description of the various changes which the teeth undergo4 #g4 ,the teeth are situated in the maxillary bones1 in which certain osseous cups1 like indentations or holes1 called the alveolar cavities1 are developed for their reception4 ,each tooth has its separate cavity1 and however close the crowns may appear1 nevertheless each fang is divided from those before and behind by bony plates4 ,the alveolar cavity always corresponds to the fang4 ,as the fang alters in form1 or diminishes in length1 so does the shape of the cavity simultaneously change2 and should the tooth be removed1 the space1 no longer needed1 is filled up2 the alveolar cavity being obliterated by a growth of bony matter4 #h4 ,teeth are organised1 that is1 they possess nerves1 arteries1 veins1 and absorbents1 or are endowed with those vessels needed to resist decay1 and to promote nutrition4 ,that a tooth possesses nerves1 no one who has submitted to have these members filed by the dentist1 or who has endured the tooth-ache1 can for an instant doubt2 and that they are even1 in some degree1 susceptible of external impressions1 the sensation produced by certain acids seems to render probable4 ,the growth they exhibit shows they are gifted with arteries and veins2 and these vessels can be traced directly to and from1 though not unto1 their substance4 ,the existence of absorbents some have doubted2 but the removal by nature of the fangs of the temporary teeth1 clearly testifies the presence of these vessels4 #i4 ,the horse possesses forty teeth1 viz41 twelve incisors1 four tushes1 and twenty-four molars4 ,the incisors1 sometimes called nippers1 are those which1 situated in front of the mouth1 are seen when the lips are parted4 ,they are the instruments1 by means of which the animal bites its food1 and are placed six in the upper1 and six in the lower jaw4 ,they are classed as pairs1 being generally cut or developed after that fashion4 ,the middle two1 in both jaws1 are called the centre incisors2 the two most backward1 on either side of the mouth1 the corner incisors2 and the teeth1 by which the corners and centres are separated1 the lateral incisors4 ,of the tushes1 the two placed in the lower jaw are the most forward4 ,these teeth1 which are sometimes termed canines1 and sometimes cuspidati1 7from cuspis1 a point17 are isolated1 appearing in the space which divides the incisors from the molars4 ,they are only fully developed in the male1 the mare often being without any indication of them1 and never displaying them in so prominent a degree as the horse4 ,their use is not very apparent1 but they certainly would be employed in those combats to which stallions seem naturally predisposed1 and would render the grasp1 and the wound it could inflict1 more severe4 ,because the mare is of a more pacific temperament1 ,nature seems to have denied to her a perfect tush1 by the presence or absence of which1 the sex is indicated by the mouth1 and upon which castration appears to exercise no influence1 since the gelding has as well-formed a tush as the perfect male4 ,the molars are ranged in companies of six1 one company on either side of the upper1 and a like number similarly situated in the lower jaw4 ,the molars are the instruments which enable the horse to grind down the fibrous and hard food upon which it subsists1 and they are distinguished by their locality1 as first1 second1 third1 fourth1 fifth1 or sixth molar tooth of the near or off side in the upper or lower jaw2 the first being that growing in front1 or nearest to the incisors1 and the sixth that placed most backward in the cavity of the mouth4 #aj4 ,three substances enter into the composition of the horse's tooth4 ,each of these substances is distinct1 and can be distinguished from either of the others4 ,the names given to the various parts are--#a1 crusta petrosa1 or hard crust2 #b1 enamel2 and #c1 ivory4 #aa4 ,the crusta petrosa is the most externally situated1 and when the tooth first appears in the mouth1 it is entirely coated by this substance1 having a somewhat dull and dark appearance1 which is only lost when the hard crust is removed by attrition1 and the enamel thereby exposed4 ,in amount1 the crusta petrosa is second to the ivory1 being more in quantity than the enamel4 ,in composition1 it is characterized by containing a great amount of animal substance2 and1 in structure1 it is peculiar for exhibiting1 under the microscope1 numerous corpuscles or cells1 from which pores or minute tubes appear to radiate4 ,within the alveolar cavity1 the crusta petrosa1 which around the fang becomes of considerable thickness1 is of a yellowish white colour2 but where1 in connexion with the crown of the tooth1 it is exposed to the chemical action of the food and air1 it presents a darker aspect and looks like an accumulation of tartar1 for which indeed it has been mistaken4 ,it fills up the infundibula of the molars of the upper jaw1 and lines those of the incisors1 being pierced by all the vessels which nourish the teeth4 ,if a tooth be subjected to the action of dilute hydrochloric acid1 the enamel will be removed1 and the ivory and crusta petrosa be rendered separate and distinct4 #ab4 ,the enamel of the horse's tooth appears to be unorganized1 and to contain no animal matter4 ,hydrochloric acid entirely dissolves it with a slight effervescence1 and though a few and a very few threads remain1 these rather seem to be connexions between the ivory and crusta petrosa1 than component parts of the enamel itself4 ,that the enamel is an unorganized substance1 it may be essential to state1 is asserted only of this body in the tooth of the horse2 for the enamel of the cow's tooth is of a different nature1 since hydrochloric acid does not dissolve it1 affect its whiteness1 or destroy its form4 ,the enamel is the least of the three components of the tooth2 of a whitish semi-transparent shining aspect1 it forms a thin crust to the ivory1 lying immediately under the crusta petrosa1 and extending nearly to the root4 #ac4 ,the ivory forms the main bulk of the tooth1 and though blood vessels can be traced to1 but not within its substance1 yet it presents numerous pores or minute canals1 radiating from the centre to the circumference1 which the mind naturally associates with nutrition4 ,these pores cannot be traced to the cells or corpuscles of the crusta petrosa1 though in works of high authority1 drawings obviously indicating such a connexion1 are presented2 they are limited to the ivory1 and terminate within it4 ,what their exact use may be1 is not known1 but that they are of service1 their presence is sufficient proof4 ,like the minute canals of bone1 they probably convey a serous or colourless fluid1 for the nutrition of the part in which they are developed4 ,illustration ,the relative positions of the various structures that enter into the composition of the incisor tooth1 will be better understood by reference to the accompanying wood-cut1 which represents one of those members divided down its centre3--a indicates the crusta petrosa1 which can be traced to enclose the organ1 and to dip down the infundibulum ,b4 ,the crusta petrosa is shown to be thicker at the root of the fang1 and at the base of the infundibulum1 than at other parts4 b denotes the ivory1 which forms the principal and central portion of the tooth1 in the middle of which is the darker space marked by the letter d4 ,this last is intended to represent the cavity of the pulp1 which1 in the young incisor is1 as in the diagram1 of great length4 ,between the ivory b1 and the crusta petrosa a1 is a white line c1 which indicates the position of the enamel1 and will be seen to cover the upper surface of the tooth dipping into the infundibulum1 but not to extend quite to the root4 #ad4 ,the uses of the ivory1 enamel1 and crusta petrosa must be now noticed4 ,the ivory is less dense than the enamel1 and harder than the crusta petrosa4 ,on the external surface of the incisor teeth1 the crusta petrosa is1 by the attrition to which this part must be subjected during the gathering of the food1 soon sufficiently removed to expose a portion of the enamel3 as the years of the animal increase1 the outer coating is almost worn away1 and not being reproduced1 little of the crusta petrosa will be found on the nippers of very old horses4 ,the ivory1 however1 is always nearly on a level with the enamel1 notwithstanding the greater attrition which the substance forming the principal portion of the table of the tooth must necessarily endure4 ,a sufficient indentation of the ivory1 nevertheless1 can be observed1 to render prominent the ridge of enamel1 and to indicate that the last-named material is endowed with the greatest power of resistance4 ,the enamel1 in fact1 is as hard as flint1 and by striking it against a steel1 fire can be drawn forth4 ,the three structures1 therefore1 vary in hardness1 and in an opposite direction they contrast to one another in toughness4 ,the ivory is sometimes fractured1 but not frequently4 ,i have never seen the crusta petrosa of a living tooth exhibit such an injury2 but the enamel is rarely inspected without its being discovered to be more or less in a ragged1 chipped1 and broken condition1 especially at the anterior edge of the table of the incisors4 #ae4 ,the separate uses of the three component structures1 however1 is not well shown in the incisors2 for as the crusta petrosa is by a natural process removed1 and the ivory is not of essential service in cutting the food1 it might be supposed that the first was no more than a temporary covering to1 and the last only a basement for1 the enamel4 ,when the mind1 however1 is directed to the observation of the molars or double teeth1 the properties and uses of all become apparent4 ,the sense of touch in the horse resides in the lips2 with those organs he gathers together the food before he grasps it with the incisors4 ,delicate1 however1 as the animal's sense of touch is1 the selection of the food is further aided by the sight and smell4 ,the most fragrant1 the softest1 and the cleanest portions1 therefore1 are selected2 but it would be too much to suppose1 that no particle of dirt1 sand1 or grit1 was ever taken into the mouth4 ,that much is necessarily bitten1 the incisors of those horses which pasture on sandy soils1 afford sufficient proof1 as such animals generally exhibit the anterior edges of those teeth considerably jagged or notched4 ,in the best fields1 the grass is never free from adherent impurities1 and the manger1 as well as the rack1 is not always remarkable in that respect4 ,all1 however1 that is gathered by the lips1 or grasped by the incisors1 passes to the molars to be comminuted and mixed with the saliva previous to being swallowed4 ,the molars1 in fact1 are animal grindstones1 and the different degrees of hardness which the three component substances display1 by wearing unevenly1 always keep the grinding surfaces irregular or sharp4 ,the inequality of the grinding surfaces of the molars enables the horse to reduce the toughest fibre to a pulpy mass2 but as many substances little less hard than the tooth itself must frequently be ground up with the food1 the molars would1 at first sight1 appear to be subject to injury1 especially as they have ten times the work of the incisors to perform1 and the senses of touch1 smell1 and sight1 cannot operate for their protection4 ,nature1 however1 has provided against the danger to which they appear to be exposed2 for if1 notwithstanding the guarding agency of the senses1 the incisors are so often injured1 the molars1 blindly employed1 and used when the full power of the horse's jaw is exerted1 certainly needed some provision against fracture4 ,the crusta petrosa gives all the security that could be desired2 it encircles these teeth1 dips into their fissures1 and fills their infundibula1 forming no small part of the substance of the molars4 ,the subjoined wood-cut will better explain the manner in which the various substances are arranged4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4 ,figure #a represents the table of one of the molars taken from the upper jaw4 ,figure #b the table of a molar extracted from the lower jaw4 ,the difference of size between the two organs is thus well marked1 as also the difference of shape4 ,the white line indicates the enamel1 and the variegated substance which is encircled by it1 denotes the comparative quantity and position of the ivory4 ,the crusta petrosa is represented by the somewhat darker shade situated on the exterior of the enamel4 ,in figure #a1 however1 the reader will observe two patches enclosed by white lines4 ,these are the representatives of the two infundibula which exist in all of the molars of the upper jaw1 but which are not developed in the lower teeth4 ,the similar direction of the lines will enable the reader to connect them with the crusta petrosa1 which substance1 save in the newly-cut tooth1 generally fills up these cavities1 although the enamel lining extends almost to the root4 ,the intricacy of the arrangement is1 by this diagram1 made apparent1 and the purpose rendered plain4 ,without such a provision1 the first meal of the animal consumed would probably shatter the instruments of mastication into innumerable atoms2 but girded round1 and bound up with the tough and resistant crusta petrosa1 however hard may be the fibre the animal chews--however much of grit or sand may be contained in it--or however great may be the force by which the molars are pressed together1 and made to pass at the same time from side to side--not a particle of the brittle enamel is fractured4 ,like a thin layer of glass1 guarded between two pieces of wood1 it performs its office in security2 and as the necessity for the provision1 towards which ,i have directed attention1 is obvious1 so is it the more strange that the thick coating of the crusta petrosa around the molars should by authors have been mistaken for an accumulation of tartar4 ,the mistake was certainly extraordinary1 as the crusta petrosa in the horse's tooth is of physiological importance1 and will presently be shown to merit the attention of the pathologist4 ,i am aware1 when making this statement1 that contradiction is offered to the opinions of many and deservedly esteemed authorities2 and while ,i regret the necessity of differing with such writers1 ,i also lament that my opinion as to the supposed use of the outer membrane of the newly-developed organ1 does not coincide with theirs4 ,the nature of this treatise will not allow me to enter into the subject of the development of the teeth2 but ,i may here say1 that the outer membrane has been generally stated to secrete the enamel4 ,it is that membrane which1 thickening with the growth of the tooth1 becomes the crusta petrosa2 but with regard to its secretive powers1 ,i do not imagine it is endowed with any function of that description1 or that it is in any way concerned in the production of the enamel4 ,my reasons for making such and so bold an assertion are well considered1 not hastily advanced4 ,i have before me the left anterior molar1 taken from the jaw of a colt which was rising four4 ,a representation of the tooth alluded to is here given4 ,illustration a denotes the crusta petrosa1 b the outer surface of the enamel1 the lines representing the plated or finely grooved aspect1 which this part exhibits on its exterior4 c1 which letter will1 on inspection1 be discovered in the centre of the darkened space to the right of the lower portion of the enamel1 indicates a spot where disease was existing1 and to which reference will be hereafter made4 d denotes the roots1 which1 as will be seen1 are 7although the tooth had been in active employment for twelve months7 still incomplete1 and not enveloped by crusta petrosa4 ,the above wood-cut1 the accuracy of which is not to be disputed1 shows a comparatively large portion of the assumed secretive membrane to be absent4 ,the deficient part of the outer covering1 ,i may here state1 was removed by a natural process1 as ,i myself extracted the tooth4 ,nevertheless where the crusta petrosa is deficient1 the laminated external surface of the enamel is exposed in perfect and normal condition4 ,this evidence appears pretty conclusive1 for where the secretive substance is absent1 the secretion would hardly appear4 ,on the other hand1 if the secretion of the enamel were the special function of the crusta petrosa1 then wherever the one was found1 the other would also be present4 ,let the reader1 however1 refer to the wood-cut inserted at page #ba4 ,in that diagram1 the crusta petrosa is faithfully represented as thickest at the root2 but at this very point the enamel is seen to be entirely wanting4 ,the conclusion towards which such facts point1 is almost decisive2 but1 nevertheless1 there are many inferences which help to support it4 ,if a longitudinal section of a tooth be made1 a very thin white line may be plainly seen1 indicating1 probably between the ivory and the enamel1 another source for the production of the substance which the crusta petrosa has been said to secrete4 ,moreover1 if a tooth be boiled for some hours1 a very little force will enable any person to pull off the enamel from the ivory2 and this experiment likewise suggests the intervention of some gelatinous membrane between the two structures4 ,the microscope also confirms the opinion ,i advance1 and shows that1 in the old tooth1 the membrane is absorbed1 for its remains can only be detected in isolated places4 ,i am fully aware that none of the arguments here advanced are1 with the exception of the first1 at all conclusive4 ,appearances are deceptive1 and results consequent upon artificial processes by no means to be trusted4 ,after all1 however1 the necessity for such a secretive membrane is by no means imperative for the production of the enamel4 ,our views on these points may be too circumscribed1 since at the extremities of the bones we see cartilage and osseous structure connected1 without any such interposition2 and no one expects such a matrix for the vitreous table of the cranial parietes4 ,the crusta petrosa may have its uses apart from any conjectural function of secretion2 and1 in further proof that it does not secrete1 it can1 in the young subject1 before the tooth has emerged from its primary cavity1 be separated with the greatest facility from the enamel4 ,it serves to protect the enamel1 but it likewise answers the end of keeping the tooth firm in the jaw3 around the neck of the molars it becomes thickened to a great extent2 and at the roots1 especially of old teeth1 it exhibits considerable substance4 ,the horse's molars are continually being wrenched from side to side while the food is being ground1 and unless they were very firmly mortised1 the vessels which nurture them would be continually lacerated3 this the crusta petrosa1 by entirely filling the alveolar cavity1 prevents2 and as the molars wear down with age1 the thickening of the membrane enables the jaw to retain with security the latest portion of the tooth4 ,i have specimens taken from very aged subjects1 where the fang having been worn away1 the molar consists merely of the roots of teeth embedded in a mass of crusta petrosa4 #af4 ,the various parts and peculiarities of form1 now require consideration4 ,if the table of an incisor tooth be observed1 a cavity will be seen in the centre of it3 this cavity1 called the infundibulum1 is of variable depth4 ,in the temporary or milk teeth1 it extends only half way down the crown2 in the permanent or horse incisors1 it is from three quarters of an inch to an inch and a quarter deep1 being of greater depth in the teeth of the upper than in those of the lower jaw1 and not of the same magnitude in all horses4 ,the infundibula are indentations in the body of the ivory1 and they possess two coverings1 an external one of crusta petrosa1 and internal investment of enamel3 the enamel does not materially vary in thickness upon this part1 but the crusta petrosa of the infundibula is1 in different subjects1 of very unequal extent4 ,in some animals it becomes very thick1 and in such1 the infundibula seem soon to be obliterated1 owing to the crusta petrosa filling up the cavity4 ,a good specimen of the early obliteration of the cavity1 by the thickness of its investing membrane1 is shown by the teeth preserved with the jaw of the horse ,leander1 which is now in the possession of ,mr4 ,w4 ,field4 ,that animal1 though but four years old1 had lost the marks in the central incisors4 ,a white line1 however1 shows that the enamel dips deep into the substance of the ivory1 and indicates what would have been the form of the infundibula1 had not the crusta petrosa filled up the cavities4 ,the infundibula have received special attention from horsemen1 and have been thought to indicate correctly the age of the horse2 their lining membrane speedily becomes blackened by the chemical action of the food1 c41 constituting what are called the marks of the mouth2 and as the teeth undergo wear1 these marks are ultimately lost4 ,the period at which they may disappear1 and the appearances which they may put on1 are well shown in a plate which ,mr4 ,fores has published1 entitled ,the ,age of the ,horse1 and to that plate ,i therefore refer the reader2 but1 while doing so1 ,i must caution him not to depend too much upon a sign1 which is only true as a general rule2 for as the infundibula in all animals are not of the same depth1 or supposing them to be of one depth1 the crusta petrosa is seldom of the like thickness in any two horses1 and the teeth do not wear uniformly in different subjects1 of course the indications they exhibit cannot be absolutely relied upon4 ,those indications1 however1 ought to be known1 and should never be disregarded4 ,some animals of seventeen years of age1 and even in rare instances of twenty-eight years old1 will retain the marks in two or more of the incisors2 nevertheless1 as a general rule1 these signs are worthy of attention1 and1 taken in conjunction with the illustrations presented in this work1 afford all that can be obtained to confirm the judgment4 #ag4 ,there are infundibula also in the molar teeth1 but not in all of them4 ,those of the lower jaw have no infundibula1 but only grooves or fissures1 into which the crusta petrosa dips1 and which it fills up4 ,the manner of the arrangement will be seen in the table of one of these teeth represented in figure #b1 page #bf4 ,in the same place1 the wood-cut1 figure #a1 depicts the grinding surface of one of the superior molars4 ,every tooth of the last description1 possesses two infundibula1 which extend almost to the root1 and are possessed of the same coverings as the like cavities in the incisors4 ,the crusta petrosa1 however1 which lines the infundibula of the superior molars1 is much thicker than the similar membrane inverting the like parts in the incisors2 consequently1 absolute cavities1 answering to the marks of the nippers1 are of comparatively slight extent1 soon obliterated1 and not generally found in any of these teeth after the horse is six years old2 indeed all the marks are often obliterated before the fifth year4 #ah4 ,to distinguish an upper from a lower molar tooth is not difficult4 ,the presence of the infundibula in the first would alone enable it to be pointed out2 but there are other indications that are worthy of a passing notice4 ,the table of the upper molars is much broader1 being compared to those of the lower jaw as nine is to five4 ,then the form of the table is different in each4 ,the table of the lower tooth is indented on either side1 the indentation extending downwards along the fang4 ,the table of the upper molars present two narrow prominences1 and two broad grooves on the outer side2 and also exhibits one broad prominence upon the centre of the inner side--all of these developments being likewise contained along the fang4 ,the slant of the tables also differs4 ,in the upper jaw1 the outer edge is the lowest4 ,in the lower jaw1 the tables incline in the opposite direction4 #ai4 ,the teeth of the horse are very firmly implanted in the jaws4 ,the fangs are of a length which they who have only seen the teeth extracted from the mouth of a human being would hardly imagine4 ,the length of fang of course gives the teeth some security2 but this is not the only provision made for that end4 ,the teeth radiate towards a common centre1 being widely separated at their roots1 but approximating at the crowns4 ,they also incline laterally from the perpendicular1 so that the force applied to them never acts in a direct line1 or is concentrated upon one particular point4 #bj4 ,the molars of the lower jaw are the active agents of mastication1 for motion1 during this process1 only takes place in that part of the head in which those teeth are placed4 ,the inferior molars are the instruments that grind--the upper molars are simply the surfaces upon which the food is ground4 ,the whole of the molars1 however1 are never simultaneously employed4 ,the horse can chew but on one side at a time1 for as the inferior maxillary bone is considerably narrower than the superior1 if the teeth on one side are brought into apposition1 those of the opposite side are necessarily separated4 ,any one who has observed a horse feeding1 will have remarked that the animal1 during the act1 continually abducts and adducts1 the lower jaw not causing it to describe a circle1 as does the cow1 but urging it first to one side and then to the other4 ,it will be seen1 therefore1 that the whole force of those strong muscles1 which close the mouth of the horse1 is employed on a portion of the jaw at the same moment1 and the power then exerted must obviously be very great4 ,recognizing this fact1 the reason for all that has been pointed out--the shelving tables--the grooved or indented sides--the double inclination1 and the great length of the fangs is at once perceived1 for the action is a wrenching one2 and the greater extent of1 and more uneven1 surface presented by the molars of the upper jaw1 facilitates the comminution1 without imposing weight upon the muscular activity4 ,had the larger teeth been implanted in the inferior maxillary bone1 the labour imposed would have been much augmented1 and the end attained have been in no way expedited4 #ba4 ,provision has been made by ,nature to meet the wear to which the horse's teeth are subjected4 ,such provision1 however1 ,i am of opinion1 has been somewhat mis-stated by the majority of writers who have treated of this matter4 ,many of these authors dwell greatly upon the growth of the teeth of the horse1 as though this function were in constant activity during the life of the animal4 ,the arguments by which their views are supported1 are primarily drawn from analogy rather than deduced from observation4 ,because the teeth of certain animals1 especially those classed by naturalists as rodentia1 and of which the rat and rabbit are familiar types--because the teeth of these creatures are known to grow1 and those of the elephant are also proved to increase--the same is assumed of the horse4 ,the inference is certainly of strength1 but nevertheless it is far short of proof2 a similarity between the animals is not demonstrated1 and a sameness cannot be shown4 ,moreover1 in another direction1 an evidence is attempted to be made of the consequence which ensues when one of the molar teeth loses its vitality2 the tooth that so suffers is rapidly worn down1 and the opposing tooth becomes of an unnatural length1 projecting far beyond its fellows4 ,the increase of length in such a case has been supposed to go on in the sound organ at the natural rate1 and the growth of the diseased tooth only has been thought to be stopped2 hence the amount of wear and of growth is attempted to be measured2 but on consideration it will be seen1 that something more than the mere cessation of increase has to be calculated4 ,the carious tooth had ceased to be a part of the living body1 and with its vitality the organ lost its capability of self-preservation4 ,the condition of the part had changed1 and of the strength which vitality bestows1 all persons must be conscious4 ,to argue from the results produced upon dead matter1 and then apply the deductions to living organs1 is a course which no physiologist will sanction4 ,the tooth that had ceased to live1 might be quickly worn down1 for other reasons than that it had ceased to grow4 ,this is so clear1 and the inference to which allusion was formerly made so obviously untenable1 that ,i shall not longer detain the reader by dwelling upon either1 but proceed to state my own views of the subject4 ,i admit the teeth of the horse do grow1 and only doubt if the process has been properly described4 ,when the crown of the tooth first appears in the mouth1 the fang is not completed1 and the root has not even been developed4 ,the horse is seven years old before all the roots are perfected1 and when these are completed1 ,i doubt if the after growth is material4 ,if the jaw of an old horse be examined1 the alveolar cavities will be found to be shallow1 showing that the loss1 consequent upon the wear1 was compensated by the tooth being projected into the mouth1 and not by any increase of substance4 ,again1 those animals1 the incisors of which retain the marks in extreme old age1 may show long teeth1 but not of that excessive length which growth would suppose2 only such as the want of wear would occasion1 supposing the increase to cease when the root was perfected4 ,the fang1 in fact1 is so much tooth in reserve1 and as such answers the purpose for which growth was supposed to be necessitated4 ,i have by me1 specimens of old teeth1 but the measurement of none of them contradicts the opinion ,i have advanced1 there being but a material increase of the crusta petrosa1 which at the root blends with the ivory1 and cannot be clearly separated from it4 ,the thickening of the crusta petrosa around the root and neck1 probably never ceases during the health of the animal2 but to this substance alone is confined the imaginary growth of the horse's teeth4 ,when the roots are perfected1 the length of the tooth is completed1 and the only after process consists in a gradual deposition of earthy matter1 within the body of the member1 the bulk of which is defined4 ,in old teeth1 the ivory becomes very dense2 and he who attempts to cut through an old and young tooth1 will be made aware of a contrast4 ,the pulp in the teeth1 after the formation of the root1 gradually diminishes and ultimately disappears1 in consequence of the ossific deposition4 ,in fact1 when growth ceases1 consolidation has taken place1 and rendered its continuance no longer necessary4 #bb4 ,the cavity of the pulp has been always stated to exist in the tooth of the horse4 ,in the human tooth it occupies the extremity of the fang1 being situated within the substance of the ivory2 and the double teeth are known to have as many cavities of this kind as there are roots to the part4 ,the same has been assumed to be the case also with the horse1 but ,i cannot say that investigation enables me to corroborate this opinion4 ,i find no cavity1 that is no empty space1 constantly present in the fangs of the horse's teeth1 and no separate or defined cavities at the roots of the molars4 ,the bone or ivory may be deficient1 more or less1 towards the centre of the fang2 but this space1 not yet occupied by the osseous deposit1 is filled by a membraneous substance which is continuous with the crusta petrosa of the root1 and will ultimately be converted into bone4 ,i cannot separate the tissues forming the pulp1 from the crusta petrosa itself2 and ,i assume the two to be continuous4 ,the only difference ,i can observe is1 that the tissue of the pulp is the finest2 but as the vessels of the one primarily pierce through and ramify upon the other1 ,i cannot perceive the necessity for their separation4 ,it will be understood1 that ,i am speaking of these parts in a fresh subject1 and not alluding to a mascerated and dried specimen1 the appearance presented by the last being calculated to mislead4 ,with age1 the pulp diminishes2 and in a tooth extracted from a very old animal1 no positive remains of it will be found--osseous matter filling up the space which the pulp once occupied4 #bc4 ,nature provides the horse with two sets of teeth4 ,the first are small1 or of a size proportioned to the diminutive stature of the foal1 and are called milk teeth--colt's teeth--or temporary teeth--either of which terms equally well characterizes them4 ,the temporary teeth are twenty-four in number--six incisors in either jaw1 and three molars on both sides of the upper and also of the lower jaw4 ,the incisors sometimes begin to appear in the mouth before birth1 though generally the gums are unbroken when the foal is dropped2 they commence to be shed when the colt is two years and a half old--none remaining in the jaws after the fifth year4 ,the molars1 which are the first1 second1 and third1 or the anterior three1 begin to be cast off at two years and a half1 being entirely removed between the third and fourth year4 ,it used to be asserted that the last temporary molar was shed between the fourth and fifth year of the animal's life2 but while ,i was connected with the ,veterinary ,college1 ,i inspected several heads and found none that corroborated the doctrine1 which1 for half a century1 had been inculcated at that ,institution4 ,my observations were at first violently contested1 and opportunities were sought to uphold the received and old manner of teaching4 ,by slow degrees1 however1 the truth prevailed2 and ,i have now the pleasure of knowing1 that what ,i pointed out to the professors1 those gentlemen at present communicate to their pupils4 ,several parties1 however1 have been mean enough to pretend they either are ignorant of what ,i effected1 or believe what ,i accomplished was the work of another person2 while ,i am sorry to add1 that a professor has even gone so far as to lay claim to a discovery1 which at the time cost me some pains to fully make out1 and more to firmly establish4 ,my observations were1 in the first instance1 made alone1 and the only person who eventually assisted me was ,mr4 ,i4 ,k4 ,lord1 of ,tavistock4 ,that gentleman did afford me much help1 and to him ,i beg publicly to record my sense of obligation4 ,no other individual was in any manner concerned in the investigation1 and ,i regret that ,i should be necessitated to make such an assertion4 ,the point1 however1 is now fully established2 and it will be seen1 that it may be of practical importance4 ,the molars1 as truthfully as the incisors1 denote the age2 and1 as corroborators1 they should1 in every doubtful case1 be inspected4 #bd4 ,to know the temporary from the permanent teeth1 or to be able to distinguish one from the other1 is very essential2 but such knowledge is not so common as may be generally imagined4 ,dealers have blundered1 and many a gentleman having purchased a yearling for a horse1 has afterwards been surprised to discover that the animal was losing some of its front teeth4 ,these kind of mistakes are mostly confined to the smaller breeds--with ponies the incident is common enough1 but even with horses it has occurred4 ,i may therefore be excused if ,i enter rather minutely into those points of difference which distinguish the one from the other4 ,the reader must be content to study well this portion of the treatise1 for the age is best marked by the number of milk teeth retained in the jaw1 and easiest told during those years when these teeth are in the course of being shed4 #be4 ,to recognize a milk incisor tooth the reader must bear in mind that it is of a temporary nature1 and intended only to exist during the few first years of the animal's life1 or during its colthood2 for when all the permanent teeth are fairly up1 the creature becomes a horse4 ,the recollection of their temporary character will cause them to be the more easily distinguished3 they look less solid and less firm2 they are smaller1 more white1 and if ideas of beauty and sentiment befit such a subject1 have a prettier and more innocent appearance4 ,this is perfectly true as a general rule1 but nevertheless must not be absolutely applied2 for ,i have seen rare instances in which the milk teeth were1 from constitutional or other causes1 so discoloured1 as altogether to lose their infantine and prepossessing character--the permanent incisors appearing cleanly by the contrast4 ,on account of so singular a circumstance occasionally happening1 if for no stronger reason1 it is imperative therefore1 even at the risk of being tedious1 to enter minutely into this part of the subject4 ,in colour these teeth are white1 because the coating of crusta petrosa which originally invests them is particularly thin1 and soon1 for the most part1 disappears1 exposing the enamel2 their crowns are shorter1 and the neck is well developed1 because their fangs are narrow and of less length4 ,in the annexed wood-cut1 for the purpose of making the dissimilarity the more conspicuous1 a temporary and a permanent incisor are contrasted4 ,figure #a is the horse1 ,figure #b the milk tooth4 ,the fang of the milk tooth is properly represented of considerable less diameter than the crown2 and just where it arises will be observed a little shading1 which indicates a sinking in1 or nipping up1 at that particular spot3 the place so narrowed is the neck1 which in the temporary teeth of the colt is not badly developed4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4 ,however1 while the milk tooth is retained in the mouth the neck is not particularly well shown1 because the gum encircling the crown in a great measure conceals that part4 ,but the form of the outer surface of the crown can hardly be mistaken4 ,in the foal's tooth it more or less approaches to a semi-circle1 from which the permanent teeth greatly differ1 as will be seen by comparing the representations of the two as given in the plates4 ,the outer surface likewise is characterized by peculiar indentations3 a number of small channels run along it1 taking a course from the neck towards the margin of the table1 and giving an irregular fluted appearance to the enamel4 ,there will be seen1 on the crown of ,figure #b1 lines intended to convey an idea of the situation and direction of these little grooves4 ,the table is always oblong1 but the infundibula are generally absent after the second year1 and when they are present1 the cavities are narrow1 and obviously of little depth4 ,these numerous signs enable the milk tooth to be recognized with facility1 at a single glance1 for it is seldom that one of the various indications is absent2 and after all have been impressed by observation1 the milk tooth can hardly be mistaken4 #bf4 ,the permanent incisors are indicated by their greater size1 a circumstance which the foregoing wood-cut does not exaggerate4 ,the gum is much further retracted1 and this gives to these organs an irregular oblong figure1 which is very different from the semi-circular shape of the milk teeth4 ,the incisors1 however1 are not of equal length in all horses1 and in some the gum may be so prominent as to give the permanent somewhat the appearance of a temporary incisor2 other indications1 however1 even then1 enable the different nature of each to be with certainty distinguished4 ,the enamel is only partially exposed in the horse tooth2 the shaded portion of ,figure #a1 in the preceding wood-cut1 denotes the extent to which it is generally covered during the period of dentition2 and when the teeth first appear1 the enamel is wholly concealed by a covering of crusta petrosa4 ,that covering is never entirely removed--a small portion of it1 even in the oldest mouths1 is seen near to the gums4 ,it looks like an accumulation of tartar1 and is most conspicuous in the tooth that has been newly cut4 ,the presence or absence of this substance1 therefore1 should be noted1 and moreover1 the enamel surface should be further inspected4 ,the numerous channels that give so peculiar a fluted appearance to the milk tooth1 are not to be seen upon that of a permanent description2 but in the stead are to be detected only one or two broad grooves1 which extend the entire length of the crown4 ,figure #a1 at page #dh1 indicates the shape and direction of the grooves upon the surface of the permanent tooth1 though probably a better idea of them is to be derived from an inspection of the coloured engravings1 in which they are more prominently exhibited4 ,by means of such guides1 the opinion is rendered positive1 and the inspection of the table is hardly needed to confirm it2 but the table affords corroborative evidence1 which may be of service4 ,the table is broader1 and the infundibulum is deeper4 ,in this latter cavity1 food accumulates in the permanent1 but rarely in the temporary incisor4 ,the gum may so contract as to give to the tooth some appearance of possessing a neck1 but in reality no such part is developed in the horse incisors1 as will be seen by referring to the previous cut1 which may1 with profit1 be compared with the coloured engravings1 which depict these members as they are exhibited in the mouth of the living animal4 #bg4 ,the temporary cannot be well distinguished from the permanent molars1 while the horse is alive4 ,it is true that the table of the first is somewhat narrower than1 though of equal length1 with that of the last2 but the difference is not so marked as to justify an opinion being pronounced upon the imperfect inspection which1 under the most favourable circumstances1 can be made of these organs4 ,the number of the molars may1 however1 be counted1 and from this the age of the animal deduced with correctness4 ,the operation can be at all times performed1 and the fact ascertained4 ,when1 however1 removed from the jaw1 the character of the molar is easily recognized1 for the difference in the length and shape of the fang renders it then impossible to confound the temporary with the permanent tooth4 #bh4 ,the various points which denote youth must now be noticed4 ,the remarks on this subject1 however1 must be confined to the mouth1 to which this treatise is devoted4 ,in the foal1 the membrane of the mouth is of a delicate pink colour1 suggestive of its high vascularity4 ,the gums are prominent1 for as the permanent are cut posteriorly to the milk incisors1 and the germs of the horse teeth are developed even at the time of birth1 the anterior part of the jaw is pushed forward to make room for their growth4 ,this gives the little animal somewhat the appearance of being parrot-mouthed1 as will be observed by referring to the coloured plate of nine months4 ,then the palate is low in its position1 and the bars appear almost on a level with the tables of the upper teeth1 and may even descend beyond them4 ,the lower jaw1 also1 if felt1 will be found to be quite round2 and the face1 if observed at that part under which the molar teeth are situated1 will seem full1 or the cheek will look a little blown out4 ,these last signs1 more or less1 remain till the process of dentition is completed4 #bi4 ,the indications of age are no less deserving of notice4 ,the edges of the lower jaw become sharp1 and ultimately retracted2 the cheeks grow flat2 the membrane of the mouth loses its vascularity1 and puts on a dull yellowish colour2 the gums look hard1 and the front of the jaw becomes narrower1 while at the same time it inclines more backward1 causing the teeth to project horizontally4 ,the inclination which age gives to the teeth1 will be easily perceived by comparing the coloured engravings with each other2 and the peculiarity of the upper and lower incisors not being perceptible at the same time in the mouth of a thirty-years old1 entirely springs from the acuteness of the angle which they form at that period4 ,the bars1 as years accumulate1 also change their positions1 being drawn upwards4 ,from the space between the corner incisors and the first molars1 the tongue on either side protrudes1 as if the narrowed cavity left not sufficient room for the organ to repose in4 ,the extent to which the tongue will project may be conjectured1 by regarding the representation of it given in the coloured plate of the thirty-year old mouth4 ,at that age1 the protrusion is too strongly marked to escape the observation of any one whose attention has once been directed to the circumstance4 ,accompanying the inability to retain the tongue within the jaws1 is a constant flow of saliva1 which continually falls from the mouth of the old horse when the lips be held apart4 ,the latter fact1 the author1 when he made the drawings for the present work1 had ample experience of1 as in some instances it occasioned serious delay4 #cj4 ,the incisor teeth1 in old age1 have their characteristic signs4 ,mostly they appear unnaturally long1 though in rare instances they are worn down almost to the gums4 ,when long1 they will generally show interstices dividing them1 such interstices1 however1 not being free1 but occupied by a compact mass of foreign matter1 derived from the food1 and having a black colour4 ,the reader will1 by turning to the coloured plates of twenty and thirty years1 see these accumulations indicated4 ,when the incisors are very short1 they are arranged in a different order to those of the young animal4 ,the tables of the teeth of the young horse1 form almost a semi-circle2 in the adult animal1 they gradually assume a crescentic order1 and as age progresses1 they ultimately range1 more or less1 in a straight line4 ,the teeth also look narrower as the fangs descend with the wear of the organs1 and in colour they slightly change4 ,the enamel loses much of its semi-opaque and characteristic appearance1 assuming a more dull aspect1 and a yellowish tint4 ,the crusta petrosa is to be seen only near to the gums1 and within the grooves1 which often are deep and very well defined1 and within which the remains of the once-investing membrane becomes almost black4 ,then again1 the tables themselves change their shape as the years increase4 ,at first1 these surfaces are of an oblong and somewhat oval figure2 by degrees1 however1 they become angular1 and ultimately more or less square4 ,the continental authors have been very minute1 and not a little profuse upon the changes of form which the tables undergo1 and attribute the alteration to the gradual wear of the teeth4 ,the correctness of this view they endeavour to establish by sawing a tooth through at various places1 and attempting to show1 that the forms of the surfaces exposed by this process correspond to the shapes assumed by the table during the progress of age4 ,their deductions can1 in the study1 be made to appear true1 but in the stable will not bear the absolute application to which these writers would put them4 ,by means of this test1 ,pessina asserted he would tell the age of a horse1 accurately1 up to the twenty-second year4 ,the ,girards acknowledge the tables will not guide them so far1 but nevertheless are willing to apply them during the first seventeen years of the animal's life4 ,i leave the reader to form his own opinion of the value of such speculations--for while ,i confess they are of some worth as guides to the primary study1 and helps to the proper understanding of the cause of those changes of figure to be anticipated--,i am not satisfied that any rule drawn from them can be depended upon4 ,for that reason ,i shall hereafter present the reader with figures of the tables taken from authenticated mouths1 rather than amuse him with speculations1 which1 however imposing they may seem to the ignorant1 practice soon discovers to be no more than remote and plausible possibilities4 #ca4 ,some judges depend upon the tushes as indicative of the age1 and taken in conjunction with the other parts they afford corroborative evidence2 singly1 however1 they should not be relied upon1 nor should too much weight at any time be placed upon their appearance4 ,in the first place1 the tushes are cut irregularly2 they may appear in the mouth between the second and third1 and they may not pierce the gums so late even as the eighth year2 the periods named being of course the extremes4 ,as a general rule1 however1 they come up between the fourth and fifth year4 ,the custom1 however1 which ,nature so frequently disregards1 can afford no positive guide to the judgment1 and the wear which may begin thus early or late1 should not be too particularly insisted upon4 ,the tushes when they first show are shaped somewhat like a spear head1 smooth and rounded on their external surfaces1 but grooved on the side which touches the tongue1 pointed at their extremities1 and sharp at their edges4 ,the inclination of the young tush is oblique1 standing forward1 and the situation is comparatively near to the incisors4 ,as the animal's age advances1 the tushes retract1 the grooves on the inner surfaces wear out1 and the space which separates them from the incisors increases3 all observations1 however1 concerning the tushes1 must be accepted with much allowance1 for these teeth are very irregular4 ,as a general rule1 the lower tush becomes blunt1 or rounded at its point and edges1 and also of considerable length1 while the upper is often so diminished as to be worn almost to the level of the gum4 ,in stallions1 kept only for service1 the lower tush1 however1 frequently attains a great length1 presenting the appearance depicted in the coloured engravings of the mouths at twelve and sixteen years4 ,in those plates1 the reader will observe the tushes no longer point in a forward direction1 but have a decided inclination outward1 and somewhat backward also4 ,another indication of extreme age is also worthy of notice1 although1 if too absolutely relied upon1 it may occasionally mislead4 ,tartar1 not generally found in any quantity upon the other teeth in the horse1 accumulates around the tush1 and in very old animals almost conceals it4 ,this excessive deposit ,i have rarely observed in horses of moderate age4 #cb4 ,the wolf's teeth or eye teeth aid us in judging of the age2 though we are bound to state of these that they can be received only as presumptive evidence4 ,the wolf's teeth have not been before alluded to1 because they are not concerned in mastication1 and are no more than the representatives of those organs which form the continuous chain in the mouths of some other animals4 ,these teeth appear to be of no use to the horse4 ,they are little nodules of tooth-like structure1 having minute fangs1 which are inserted immediately anterior to the first molars of the upper1 being rarely seen in the lower jaw1 and when present there1 always being even yet more diminutive4 ,these wolf's teeth are generally shed with the first temporary molars1 and therefore if they can be seen1 it may be assumed that the permanent molars have not begun to appear4 ,the assumption1 however1 must not be converted into an assertion2 for in some instances the wolf's teeth are retained1 and1 in a few heads1 will remain after the horse has reached an age far beyond that of colthood3 their presence1 therefore1 rather leads our expectations than confirms our judgment4 #cc4 ,the mode in which the horse cuts his teeth remains to be pointed out4 ,it is generally said1 that the tooth1 originally growing in its circumscribed cavity1 pushes its way through the parts which oppose its entrance into the mouth4 ,so mechanical an idea is characterized by a small amount of physiological knowledge1 and it is time the notions which attributed development to mere force were discarded4 ,the tooth is first a pulpy mass1 very soft and highly vascular2 the superior part1 or that part which primarily shows itself above the gum1 is the first to become consolidated4 ,enamel and ivory are there simultaneously deposited1 and gradually these extend towards the fang4 ,when a portion of the fang is completed1 and the time has arrived for the tooth to be cut1 those structures which oppose the egress of the tooth are absorbed2 the absorption taking place1 not only on the internal surface1 against which the young tooth has been supposed to exert its force1 but also upon the external parts1 upon which it could have no effect4 ,by absorption the barrier is removed and the tooth then comes forward4 ,the process is very beautiful1 and no less worthy of admiration is the manner in which the milk teeth are shed4 ,the incisors lose their fangs1 and just when the permanent teeth appear1 the crown of the temporary ones is removed from the mouth4 ,the removal of the fangs of the milk incisors is the result also of absorption1 and the same process effects the removal of the temporary molars1 only its operation is not precisely similar2 for in these last1 not only the fang but the greater portion of the crown is taken away1 and little more than the table is cast off when the remnant of what once was a tooth is at length shed4 ,the process of cutting the molar teeth will be more clearly comprehended by referring to the annexed wood-cut1 in which the darkened spots indicated by the line running from a denotes the permanent tooth already through the gum and in the mouth1 though still covered and partially concealed by the retained table of the temporary grinder c4 ,the appearance of the table of the temporary molar when cast off is shown in the figure immediately underneath1 to which the letter c is also affixed1 and the projecting portions ascending from its edges exhibit the last remnants of what originally was the fang3 b b are molars1 well up and worn to a level4 ,illustration ,the next wood-cut exhibits the molar a1 immediately after it has lost its covering4 ,at this time the table is very uneven1 presenting points which the finger would readily recognize1 but in a short time these wear off1 and an even surface is obtained1 rendering it level with the other teeth1 b b4 ,illustration ,as is here seen1 when the crown has been removed1 the permanent molar is well up1 although it occupies the same place1 and fills the same alveolar cavity which the temporary molar originally held4 ,the horse incisors do not occupy the same cavities in which the milk incisors were placed1 but are developed in cells formed especially for their reception1 and come up rather behind than absolutely under the primary teeth4 ,the form of the anterior part of the jaw in the foal admits of such an arrangement1 and its greater comparative bulk gives all the space that was required4 ,the space1 however1 between the branches of the lower jaw where the molars are developed1 is filled by important muscles2 and while any thickening externally would deteriorate from the symmetry of the head1 any internal enlargement would have interfered with the free motion of the tongue and hyoideal appendages1 the movements of both being as essential to perfect mastication as the presence of the teeth themselves4 ,hence the grinders are in their development regulated by a different law to the incisors2 nor is the ordinization which declared the first should be well up1 and the last scarcely to be seen when the period for casting off the temporary teeth arrived1 to be passed over in silence4 ,the molars are more important to the welfare of the animal than the incisors can be supposed to be4 ,if the front teeth are irregular1 the horse1 nevertheless1 can manage to feed2 and if some are even wanting1 the animal can subsist4 ,a few would serve to grasp a sufficiency of food1 especially such food as the state of the mouth1 during the period of dentition1 would dispose the colt to partake of4 ,the animal is then in an inflammatory condition--the system is excited--and it is a wise provision which leaves the creature inclined only1 at such a time1 to consume a soft and laxative herbage1 not in too great a quantity4 ,the molars1 on the contrary1 if irregular in their growth1 or uneven upon their surfaces for any lengthened period1 would produce great local pain1 and much constitutional disturbance4 ,the food1 in consequence of the rugged condition of these teeth1 would be imperfectly masticated1 the organs of digestion would become impaired1 and the whole frame would suffer4 ,to prevent this1 the molars are fully cut before the temporary tables are cast off1 nor do both the tables leave the mouth at the same time4 ,the one on the upper jaw is first shed1 and it is not until this has1 by attrition1 been rendered somewhat flat1 so as to present a surface upon1 or against which the food can be ground that the permanent molar of the lower jaw is uncovered4 ,the unevenness of the grinding agent becomes now of less moment1 since the part over which it is to be moved has been rendered fit for its uses1 and since there are other teeth that present all their surfaces1 suited for the purposes of mastication4 #cd4 ,the manner of examining the teeth is simple enough1 and yet a few remarks may as well be made upon this part of the subject4 ,to see the incisors1 all that is necessary is to part the lips2 but many horses are naturally shy when their mouths are touched1 and more are rendered so by unnecessary severity in the administration of medicine1 or by the tricks to which they may have been subjected4 ,a certain degree of caution is always needed when an animal is strange to the examiner4 ,where the horse shows a disposition to resist1 the groom who attends upon it1 if present1 should be allowed to handle the mouth1 the judge being content to look and form his opinion from what he sees4 ,if the groom be not in the way and the horse seems nervous1 let the neck be patted1 the face below the eye gently rubbed1 then the nose caressed2 and when the timid animal is assured that no harm is intended1 the lips may be freely drawn asunder3 but should the head be snatched away1 when the first attempt to see the teeth is made1 let the hand immediately release the mouth1 rather than endeavour to retain the hold4 ,it is far better to begin again than justify the fears of the horse1 by a needless and worse than useless struggle1 which in the end will probably be of no avail4 ,after the horse has by forbearance been rendered quiet1 while the lips are held asunder1 the shape1 colour1 length1 and obliquity of the teeth are noted1 and the presence or absence of milk teeth observed4 ,when this is done without violence1 the animal will not often offer any opposition to the finger being introduced to feel the tushes1 or to the sides of the mouth being separated so as to obtain a fair view of them4 ,the examiner now places himself in front of the horse1 and by introducing one finger behind the incisors and getting it under the tongue1 will cause the animal to open its mouth1 or the tongue may be seized and drawn out of the mouth2 and if confidence is established1 no opposition will be offered to the jaws being kept for a short time apart4 ,of this1 advantage is taken to observe the arrangement of the teeth1 to inspect the tables1 and to note the shape or depth of the infundibula4 ,when all this has been accomplished1 in less time perhaps than it takes to read a description of the process1 the business is generally finished1 and a conclusion has been arrived at that amounts to positive conviction4 ,on certain occasions1 however1 it may be desirable to inspect the molars2 and to do this properly requires a little tact4 ,some persons cast the horse for this slight operation3 indeed1 there are people who throw horses as though they imagined nothing could be done without the hobbles4 ,there is1 however1 generally no occasion for such a proceeding2 the twitch in the great majority of cases is all that is needed1 and1 with a little patience1 even that instrument of torture may be dispensed with4 ,a stool1 or if nothing better is at hand1 the stable pail is fetched for the operator to stand upon1 so as to look with ease into the mouth of the elevated head4 ,the animal is led into a good light1 the balling iron placed between its jaws to keep them asunder1 the tongue being drawn out to the side1 removed from that which it is desired to inspect4 ,while the mouth is thus distended1 the person who is to judge1 mounts the stool or pail1 and looks into it till he is satisfied4 ,should the operator be desirous of feeling the teeth1 he descends from his rostrum1 and having pulled off his coat and bared his arm1 introduces it into the mouth1 while the tongue is drawn to one side by the assistant who holds the iron2 always1 however1 taking care if possible1 to have a balling iron which is open on one side1 the arm being so introduced that the elbow is towards the free space4 ,should this precaution be neglected1 if the horse prove suddenly restive1 an accident may ensue4 ,the lower jaw being easiest felt1 and the teeth therein situated being most readily counted1 that is the part generally manipulated4 ,this is not difficult unless made so1 and often rendered dangerous by the intemperance of the party who undertakes to accomplish it4 ,having described it1 the author will now proceed to state the times at which the different teeth appear1 and the signs which they exhibit4 #ce4 ,at birth the foal has usually three molar teeth on either side of each jaw199 and perhaps two front incisors1 which last are then lateral in situation1 and appear to be very large in proportion to the age of the animal4 ,it is1 however1 usually a fortnight or three weeks after birth before the incisors appear4 ,i have to acknowledge the greatest obligations to the ,messrs4 ,tattersall1 for the valuable opportunities afforded me of inspecting blood stock1 at their large and admirably-conducted establishment at ,willesden ,paddocks4 ,footnote 993 ,the wolf's teeth at the anterior of the two rows of upper molars are generally present or indicated at birth2 but as they are not invariably found1 and are by no means to be depended upon as significant of the age1 no direct notice need be taken of their existence4 #cf4 ,at six weeks1 two more incisors are generally cut in either jaw1 and those which originally seemed to grow from the sides1 have1 by this time1 taken a position more directly in the front of the mouth4 #cg4 ,at six months1 the incisors have moved almost into the situation they will hereafter occupy1 and the jaw appears somewhat elongated2 but1 if the gums be observed1 it will be seen that nature is preparing to cut the corner milk teeth1 which may even be through the gum4 #ch4 ,at nine months old1 the corner milk teeth are up1 but their edges do not yet meet4 ,the coloured engraving will show the appearance they present1 and likewise exhibit the protruded state of the gums at this age4 ,the drawing was made from a head in the author's possession4 ,it has been tested several times1 and its correctness fully ascertained4 ,the last occasion1 when it was authenticated1 was by the mouth of a bay colt1 by ,muley ,moloch1 out of ,canaletti's dam1 with which it perfectly agreed4 ,illustration3 ,,nine ,,months ,,old4 ,the ,corner ,milk-teeth up1 but their edges do not yet meet4 ,illustration3 ,,two ,,years ,,old4 ,a full ,mouth of ,milk ,incisors1 all of which show considerable wear4 #ci4 ,at one year1 all the temporary teeth are up and in apposition2 but by this time two pairs of permanent teeth1 which are the fourth molars1 have made their appearance1 and the yearling therefore has sixteen molars and twelve incisors1 or twenty-eight teeth4 ,the large number of yearlings annually brought into the market afford such frequent opportunities of examining the mouth at this age1 that ,i need not state here the means by which the drawing has been authenticated4 ,it would be a task of supererrogation to allude further to a fact which is so well known and thoroughly established4 #dj4 ,at eighteen months1 the incisors show some wear1 the infundibula look as if they would soon be obliterated2 indeed some of them may be lost4 ,at or about this time also four more permanent molars1 one on each side of either jaw1 being the fifth in situation1 protrude into the mouth4 #da4 ,at two years old1 there is a full mouth of milk incisors1 all of which show considerable wear4 ,the coloured engraving of the two-year old mouth1 will convey an accurate idea of the features which it presents at that age4 ,the original drawing was made for the ,jockey ,club in anticipation of the celebrated ,running ,rein trial4 ,accepted by such authority1 it perhaps hardly requires further proof of its correctness1 but it has since been repeatedly tested4 ,on the last occasion it was compared with the mouth of a chesnut filly1 by ,calmuck out of ,miss ,greatrex1 and was found to agree with the indication therein presented4 ,at two years1 the infundibula are lost in the temporary incisors1 and the fifth molars are in perfect apposition2 indeed the smooth surfaces of these last are the best evidence that the animal is two years old1 for he cannot then be far below that age4 ,the incisors having been for some time employed1 but still being to be retained for some months1 have an aspect of wear and strength conjoined4 ,the two-year old mouth1 therefore1 by those who cannot distinguish the milk from the horse teeth1 7none of the latter being present to help the judgment by the contrast they exhibit7 is likely to be mistaken for that of a five-year old2 especially if the colt chances to be somewhat fully developed4 ,a regular horseman1 however1 would not require the aid of the mouth to discover the animal was still in its colthood4 #db4 ,at three years old1 the centre horse teeth are well up1 and are distinguished by their size1 shape1 and colour4 ,the appearance which the mouth will exhibit1 the coloured engraving represents4 ,the original drawing is in the possession of the ,jockey ,club1 for whom it was made4 ,it has1 however1 been repeatedly tested1 in order to place its correctness beyond doubt4 ,both colts and fillies have been inspected for this purpose1 and equally have the different breeds been consulted4 ,as the public1 however1 place the greater confidence in blood stock1 it may here be mentioned that the appearances perfectly coincided with those exhibited by a brown colt by ,muley ,moloch out of ,miss ,greatrex1 and ,roxey1 a brown filly1 by ,lanercost1 out of ,ellen ,percy1 besides various others which it would be both needless and tedious to recapitulate4 ,the mouth1 at this period1 indeed is so marked1 and in general so regular1 that it is the more readily recognized4 ,the new horse incisors1 by their size1 contrast with the milk teeth which are still retained4 ,the comparative length and squareness of their figure cannot fail to attract attention1 and their deeper colour can hardly be unobserved2 that colour is caused by much of the primitive coating of crusta petrosa being retained1 or only removed from the edges where the enamel is bright4 ,but as a vast number of horses are sold at this age1 and many are started for heavy stakes1 it will be imperative now to proceed more cautiously in the description4 ,about this time the terms rising three1 or coming three1 or three next birth-day1 are made use of1 as well as three off--the first phrases indicating that the colt is yet between its second and third year1 or will in a month or more be three years old1 and the last term meaning that the animal has attained its third year1 and has recently entered the fourth year of its existence4 ,the season here materially aids the judgment2 for if a blood horse shows a fair three-year old mouth in ,december1 it is unhesitatingly pronounced to be coming three2 and if it exhibits the same appearance in ,january the animal is declared to be three off4 ,the same holds good with the coarser breeds1 only1 as before stated1 the month of ,april would then be estimated as that of ,december in the former case1 and ,may would answer to ,january4 ,coming three1 however1 can1 with a little stretching of the term1 be applied to any foal2 and is commonly used when the colt is strictly but two off2 for the terms are somewhat loosely used1 though in their stringent sense a horse is only rising three1 four1 or five1 after the mouth has began to assume the form which characterizes the respective ages4 ,when the colt is two off1 that is two years and three months old1 the milk teeth are all retained1 and to a casual observer1 the mouth would still say two4 ,a little closer observation will1 however1 correct the judgment1 for looking attentively1 perhaps a slight1 and only a slight difference in the colour of the central incisors may be remarked4 ,the tinting of the enamel may be a thought darker1 and yet the contrast so delicate1 that the difference can only be seen in a certain light4 ,then again casting the eye to the gums of the upper central incisors which are first shed1 that part of them immediately covering the neck of one of these teeth may show a little redness1 and the other exhibit nothing of the kind4 ,the redness indicates that nature is making ready for the appearance of the permanent incisors1 and on evidence no heavier than this1 the animal is pronounced to be two off4 ,the redness1 it may be said1 can be artificially produced--so it may be1 but the natural character can hardly be imitated4 ,the colour in the normal mouth is not deep or angry2 it is not caused by inflammation1 but is only increased vascularity of the part1 and it is at first limited to the edge of the gum4 ,the colt shows no symptoms of tenderness in the reddened gum1 but stands quite as still1 and even more quiet when it is pressed1 than when the opposite one is handled4 ,if the part had been tampered with1 the animal would probably tell tales when the finger touched it1 and the redness would be more intense on the prominent or bulging portion of the gum than where the margin encircles the neck of the tooth2 while it is ten to one inflammation had been produced rather than vascularity excited4 ,little occasion1 therefore1 is there to fear imposition1 and little room for those who would practise it to hope for success4 ,the next indication of advancing age is given by the gums growing more vascular1 even now looking inflamed1 while a yellow deposit 7the nature of which is not well understood7 may be seen upon the neck of the tooth1 and the central incisors of the upper jaw1 if felt1 may probably be found loose4 ,in another or about the sixth month1 one of the central incisors is removed4 ,it does not fall out1 as is generally stated1 but while the animal is feeding1 the tooth is1 as by accident1 wrenched off4 ,the gum bleeds1 and being slightly lacerated1 looks sore and angry for some time4 ,the sharp edge of the new brown-coated permanent incisor is now seen protruding4 ,in a week or two the remaining milk central incisor of the upper jaw is1 by a seeming accident1 forced out2 and the mouth now has an irregular appearance1 the edges of the upper central incisors not being level with the tables of the lateral milk teeth4 ,the lower central incisors1 when the upper milk teeth are lost1 generally are loose1 and their gums inflamed2 but a month or sometimes six weeks may elapse before these are gone3 by that time the upper permanent teeth have grown considerably4 ,when the central milk incisors have disappeared1 the molars begin to change1 and those of the upper jaw are the first uncovered2 not in any regular order1 or the two teeth on the same day1 but generally the first molar before the second1 the wolf's teeth mostly departing at the same time4 ,a week or two subsequent1 the first two permanent molars of the lower jaw are laid bare1 so that at or about the ninth month1 the horse has all those teeth1 which denote the animal to be three years old1 fairly in the mouth2 that is1 he has between the second and third year cut four horse incisors and eight permanent molars4 ,lest the description should not be perfectly clear1 or such as to enable the reader to readily understand which teeth by this time are shed1 a drawing of the head of an adult animal1 which forms the frontispiece of this work1 was designed4 ,it will enable the reader to form some notion of the extent of the horse's mouth and likewise of the positions of the teeth4 ,near to the teeth will be seen figures which do not denote the periods when these organs first appear1 but the time at which they are fairly up1 or to some extent exhibit wear4 ,in that engraving no further notice is taken of the milk teeth than is conveyed by the small star associated with such of the figures as indicate the places from which they have been displaced3 thus the figures #a1 #b1 and the last #d1 having no star1 indicate that those molars are developed only as permanent teeth4 ,the figures #c991 #c991 #c991 having stars1 denote that milk teeth originally occupied the situations where these teeth are shown3 those figures will be seen above and below the central incisors and the first two molars of either jaw2 and as but one side of the face could be displayed1 of course the number has to be doubled1 the colt getting twelve additional permanent teeth by the time it completes the third year4 ,at three years1 therefore1 the central permanent nippers are in apposition1 and show wear1 though to only a limited extent4 ,the infundibulum is broad1 as depicted in the accompanying cut4 ,illustration ,in the above representation of the table of a three year old tooth1 it will be remarked that the infundibulum appears in the outward direction to extend quite across the surface4 ,this aspect is produced by an indentation at that part1 which1 by the completion of the third year1 is in most instances not worn out1 but after the third year is attained1 it speedily disappears2 so the table of the three year off has become somewhat broader1 and the infundibulum circumscribed1 or well defined1 as it is shown in the subjoined wood-cut4 ,illustration ,in fact1 the shape of the table is here the best guide1 and should be carefully studied1 as otherwise the judgment can never be assured4 ,at this age1 one tush may be peeping through4 ,i have never seen more than one present at three years1 and then these teeth have always been slightly developed1 rather indicating what was to grow than exhibiting that which had actually grown4 ,the tushes1 however1 now in almost every case1 may be felt under the membrane through which they are ultimately to protrude1 and can most readily be felt in the upper jaw4 ,nevertheless1 the tushes of the lower jaw always make their appearance first1 because the membrane covering these is less loose1 and therefore more easily penetrated2 and also because the lower jaw being the active agent of mastication1 as well as the resting place for the bit1 it is naturally subjected to greater wear1 thereby assisting the egress of the tushes4 ,in the upper jaw they are often concealed by the loose membrane long after they are fully developed4 ,the tushes1 at this age1 however1 are no guides4 ,the three year old colt1 for general purposes1 is easily recognized1 when the lips only are separated4 ,illustration3 ,,three ,,years ,,old4 ,the ,centre ,horse ,teeth well up and distinguished by size1 shape1 and ,colour4 ,illustration3 ,,three ,,years ,,off4 ,one of the lateral ,milk-teeth shed1 and the permanent ,tooth coming up4 #dc4 ,at three years off1 the lateral milk teeth are shed1 and the permanent teeth are coming up4 ,the coloured engraving1 the original of which is also the property of the ,jockey ,club1 for whom it was executed1 was made from the mouth of a bay gelding1 by ,almack1 out of a mare by ,rubens1 ,jun41 belonging to--,goring1 ,esq4 ,the state of the mouth therein exhibited is so peculiar to the age1 and so decided in its indications1 that it can hardly be mistaken4 ,one of the lateral milk teeth from the lower jaw has been recently lost4 ,the gum is sore1 and the top of the permanent incisor is seen rising up4 ,by comparing the temporary incisor1 which is speedily to fall from the upper jaw1 with those representations of the same teeth given in the previous plates1 the gum will be observed to have considerably retracted4 ,preparation is evidently being made for the change which will in a few weeks take place4 ,the milk teeth begin to be shed about the seventh or eighth month after the completion of the third year1 those in the lower jaw being the first to quit the mouth2 and all that was observed on the subject in the former paragraph1 may be applied to the present1 only making allowance for the differences of position in the teeth4 #dd4 ,when rising four years old the lateral horse teeth are in the mouth1 but their edges do not fairly meet4 ,the coloured engraving of this age will denote the altered aspect of the mouth1 consequent upon the development of a few months1 when the colt may want only a dozen weeks for the completion of its fourth year4 ,the original sketch for this plate was taken from the mouth of a horse called the ,general1 the property of ,sir ,samuel ,spry4 ,to test it1 however1 it has been largely applied1 and in every case it has been confirmed4 ,if the mention of names is here required1 ,i may repeat those of ,blackbird1 ,marquiss of ,conyngham1 and a host of others4 ,the plate1 therefore1 may be regarded as fully established1 and the reader1 without fear1 may depend upon its correctness4 ,as is shown in the engraving1 the lateral incisors1 at this age1 touch1 but nevertheless do not meet so as to be of any service in nipping the food4 ,it is of some importance to attend to this peculiarity1 inasmuch as were the presence of the indicative teeth alone remarked1 an animal wanting some months to be four years old might be purchased for one that was rising five4 ,illustration3 ,,rising ,,four ,,years4 ,the lateral ,horse ,teeth in the ,mouth1 but their edges not fairly meeting4 ,illustration3 ,,four ,,years ,,old4 ,four pairs of ,horse ,teeth well up1 but the ,corner ,milk teeth retained4 #de4 ,at four years1 four pairs of horse teeth are well up1 but the corner milk teeth are retained4 ,such a state of the mouth is very characteristic of the age1 and not likely to be mistaken4 ,the appearance which the teeth present1 if viewed from the front when the lips are separated1 is shown in the coloured engraving1 and it is such as no person can well mistake4 ,the original drawing in this case was also made for the ,jockey ,club1 and was produced upon the famous trial4 ,on all occasions that presented themselves1 which have indeed been numerous1 it has been compared with the mouths of living animals1 and in no single instance has it been found to be contradicted4 ,this has not only been done with colts1 but also with fillies1 among which last ,i may mention ,lupine1 ,mora1 ,nightcap1 ,chamois1 and ,jew ,girl4 ,to the plate1 therefore1 the reader should refer2 and supposing him to have done so1 the other indications which the mouth presents between the third and fourth year will now be enlarged upon4 ,the state of the molars at this period may be regarded as demonstrative of the age of the animal4 ,the reader will remember1 that according to what has been pointed out1 the colt at three years old has five molar teeth on either side of both jaws1 and that of these teeth1 one only1 the third in situation1 marked thus1 #d99 in the frontispiece1 is of a temporary nature4 ,shortly after the upper lateral milk incisors have been cast off1 and sometimes previous to that occurrence1 the point of the sixth molar penetrates through the gum1 and before it is fully up the covering of the third permanent molar is removed4 ,this effected1 the colt has six molars on either side of both jaws1 and whenever that number is found they may be assumed to be all of a permanent character2 so at four years old the tables of the central incisors exhibit some considerable wear1 the infundibula no longer extend entirely across1 but have become circumscribed and well defined4 ,the tables of the lateral incisors1 on the contrary1 are only beginning to be formed1 and very often the part posterior to the infundibulum has not received any attrition4 ,the infundibula in these last extend the entire breadth of the table1 and in consequence of an indentation on that side which touches the corner milk teeth1 the space is there free4 ,the reader will comprehend this particular formation1 by referring to the wood-cut of the table of the tooth presented at page #gi1 the appearance being so much alike as not to necessitate a repetition to enforce it4 ,when the fourth year1 however1 has been for a month or two perfected1 the tables then assume the form represented in the following wood-cut1 which exhibits the change that has taken place in the central incisor1 and also the appearance of the more recent lateral tooth when the colt is fairly four years off4 ,illustration ,one or more of the tushes may also be well up3 the whole may have made their appearance2 but more frequently only the two originating from the lower jaw are through the gum4 ,no dependence1 however1 can be placed on the presence or absence of the tushes1 which repeated proof has shown to be irregular in their development3 nor is the state of the mouth during the fourth year such as justifies an off-hand opinion being pronounced2 for though during that period the growth of the teeth is generally well marked1 nevertheless exceptions more frequently happen than between the second and third years4 ,an instance illustrative of this fact occurred at the ,veterinary ,college1 at ,st4 ,pancras1 during ,november1 #ahdd4 ,to that ,institution was brought a dun colt1 which the professors1 one and all1 pronounced to be rising three4 ,mr4 ,robb1 a gentleman of great talent1 and then a pupil at the school1 having looked at the animal's mouth1 pronounced it to be three off1 or rising four4 ,here was a difference of opinion to the extent of a whole year2 and of course the pupil was sneered at for his ignorance and presumption4 ,mr4 ,robb1 however1 had reasons for his conviction2 he would not give up the point1 but wrote to the breeder1 and obtained a reply which showed the teachers had yet to learn4 ,being an acute observer1 ,mr4 ,robb had attended to the wear of the tables2 had seen the infundibula had become defined1 and the surrounding surface broad4 ,he had also remarked the gums1 and seen that those of the lower jaw were slightly red2 and1 taking these tokens in conjunction with the appearance of the colt1 arrived at a conclusion which the result proved to be correct1 and which did not show the mouth deficient in its symbols4 ,mr4 ,goodwin1 veterinary surgeon to the ,queen1 has casts of mouths taken from horses of known ages4 ,no gentleman connected with the veterinary profession1 perhaps1 has enjoyed such peculiar opportunities as ,mr4 ,goodwin1 and no one could be characterized by a greater inclination to take advantage of them4 ,with a natural talent for observation1 and an innate love for scientific inquiry1 combined with enthusiasm in the cause of truth1 ,mr4 ,goodwin has1 in the midst of ill health1 pursued his researches1 and spite of an opposition1 which did not stop short of calumny1 fearlessly advanced his opinions4 ,those opinions1 ,mr4 ,goodwin's position1 and his acknowledged ability should have claimed consideration for4 ,the conclusions which had not been hastily arrived at1 ought to have been deliberately weighed4 ,the author of this work is proud to acknowledge the obligation under which the courtesy of ,mr4 ,goodwin has placed him1 and with pleasure confesses that he has1 in that gentleman's society1 learned much upon a subject which he had previously diligently studied to become the master of4 ,the facts which ,mr4 ,goodwin brings forward in support of his convictions1 are strange and startling4 ,the candour with which he courts investigation1 enforces belief4 ,he is certainly right in his own sphere2 so far as his observations have extended1 his conclusion cannot be overthrown4 ,to the information he has generously afforded the author1 allusion will repeatedly be made in the course of this work2 but at present the remarks must be confined to the models in ,mr4 ,goodwin's possession4 ,one of these exhibits the mouth of a colt called ,julius1 7which was ridden by ,her ,majesty7 retaining the lateral milk incisors1 when but a few days were wanting for the completion of the fourth year4 ,the teeth that should have been shed1 however1 are evidently on the eve of leaving the jaw1 and therefore though an exception1 it is not so much so as to grossly mislead the judgment beyond a few months4 ,it is to be regretted that the molars of this horse were not examined1 and to the tables of the incisors1 as shown in the model1 ,i make no allusion1 because these parts evidently have not received the particular attention of the artist1 and consequently cannot be argued upon4 ,the same gentleman has also favoured me with the inspection of a model of the teeth of a horse known to have wanted three months of the third year3 nevertheless the mouth is that of a colt which would be pronounced to be rising four4 ,the lateral incisors on both sides1 and in both jaws are fully up1 and they possess tables1 which1 if correctly depicted1 indicate that for some time they have been in apposition4 ,a lusus natur of this sort is beyond the pale of reason4 ,connected with it there is no record of the development of the molars2 and on the state of the tables as shown in the cast1 ,i am1 for the causes before stated1 not inclined to place any great reliance4 ,the growth of the incisors shows the colt to be rising four2 the evidence declares it only to be coming three4 ,here is an exception to a general rule3 one which ,i believe is unique2 at all events ,i am aware of the existence of no similar specimen2 and it is to be lamented that the growth of the incisors1 from the earliest period1 had not in this horse been observed4 ,as a unique specimen it is curious1 but as a premature and extraordinary development1 it cannot be opposed to a general rule4 ,children have been born with three legs1 or joined together at various parts2 but the race of men are nevertheless described as having two inferior extremities1 and as being independent in their existence4 ,a solitary instance is no more than a curiosity1 and1 until it is proved to be the exemplification of a general rule1 must not be made the basis of a general deduction4 ,such occurrences1 however rare1 nevertheless deserve consideration2 and had the animal last alluded to been trained1 there is no doubt any qualified judge would have pronounced it beyond the actual age4 ,therefore1 gentlemen possessed of racing studs1 should1 from time to time1 have the mouths of their horses examined by approved members of the ,royal ,college of ,veterinary ,surgeons1 that any irregularity of development may be known and stated4 ,to neglect so simple and reasonable a precaution1 is to incur a needless hazard4 ,by adopting it1 the proprietor would be prepared to meet objection2 and the idle reports that every year get into circulation would be quashed at their birth4 ,a firmer basis for the authenticity of the age would be established than the reputation of the owner2 and gentlemen would not annually be subjected to having their characters questioned by a host of interested ignoramuses4 ,the turf is bound to adopt some measure of this kind for its own defence1 especially as the honour of its members is1 on every occasion1 called into question1 and a single instance of suspicion1 seems1 in the public eye1 to warrant a general aspersion4 #df4 ,when rising five years old all the horse teeth are in the mouth1 but the corner teeth have yet to meet4 ,the peculiar sign of this particular age is the loss of the corner temporary incisors4 ,it is scarcely possible to mistake the last milk tooth of the four year old1 for the horse incisor which is characteristic of the fifth year2 the difference between them is so great1 that no person ought to confound one with the other4 ,the corner milk tooth is often by the third year worn almost to a stump2 its table being somewhat triangular1 or occasionally round4 ,by the fourth year it generally becomes a mere stump1 or so changed in appearance that it contrasts in size with the other nippers1 and seems incapable of performing any active function4 ,at first1 the permanent tooth when it makes its appearance1 strikes us by its greater breadth1 the gum not then having sufficiently retracted1 or the tooth sufficiently grown to allow its after length being estimated4 ,when the corner teeth are in the mouth1 some time will elapse before they touch1 but the incisors are then arranged so as to represent almost a semi-circle4 ,the annexed wood-cut will convey an idea of the manner in which they are placed1 and also of the shape of the tables of the central and lateral nippers1 at the time when the corner teeth do not approximate1 although they are through the gums4 ,illustration ,the periods when the teeth which characterize the fifth year make their appearance1 must now be described4 ,when the animal is four years and three months of age1 the gums of the upper corner teeth begin to redden1 and before it is three months older1 one of the corner milk teeth may have been removed4 ,the opposite milk tooth speedily follows1 and then the corner horse incisors grow down1 and seem almost to be fully developed before the corner milk teeth of the lower jaw are shed4 ,when1 however1 all the milk teeth are lost1 the corner incisors will not touch for some time2 and by the completion of the fifth year1 though the teeth approximate1 their tables are not formed1 nor do their edges denote any amount of attrition4 ,the corner tooth at five years old1 looks young1 and is principally covered by the membraneous crusta petrosa1 which give to it a dark aspect1 as though it were encrusted with tartar1 little of the enamel being to be seen1 while the shape of the gum is also characteristic4 ,the five year old mouth1 therefore1 is easy of recognition1 the shelly character of the corner teeth being very marked and not subject to much eccentricity in its figure4 ,as five however1 is the age when1 for general purposes1 the majority of high priced horses are brought into the market1 the changes which take place before and after this period have been illustrated in the coloured engravings4 ,when the animal is near to or rising five1 the corner teeth are dark coloured1 and though they touch1 nevertheless their edges are not fairly together4 ,the superior surfaces exhibit no tables1 and the general aspect is such as is depicted in the engraving2 the original of which was made from recollection of the appearances presented by the mouth of ,mr4 ,payne's ,rebel1 which horse was seen at ,hampton ,court4 ,the drawing was more recently corroborated and corrected by the mouth of a fine young black hunter1 the property ,e4 ,c4 ,crowley1 ,esq4 ,the peculiarities of this age1 as denoted by the corner teeth not closing1 should be remarked4 ,it is not altogether unimportant to observe this circumstance1 as animals are esteemed suitable for particular uses1 only after the fifth year has been completed1 and certainly all are less liable to disease when the mouth has been perfected4 ,the distinction1 therefore1 is of some moment2 and the better to enforce it1 the reader will remember1 that not until the accomplishment of the fifth year do the tables of the corner teeth begin to show3 even at that time1 however1 they are very imperfect4 ,illustration3 ,,five ,,years ,,old4 ,a full ,mouth of ,horse ,incisors1 all the edges of which fairly meet4 ,illustration3 ,,rising ,,five ,,years4 ,all the ,horse ,teeth in the ,mouth1 but the ,corner ,teeth have yet to meet4 #dg4 ,at five years old there is a full mouth of horse incisors1 all the edges of which fairly meet4 ,the coloured engraving--which has been amply proved1 by comparing it with the mouths of horses of various breed1 among which those of blood have not been forgotten1 since it was last tested by the aspect presented by the teeth of the well-known horse1 ,the ,baron1--will instruct the reader in the altered character which the mouth now assumes4 ,it looks more huge1 and far more powerful than it did at the fourth year4 ,the teeth fairly close1 but on inspection there can be detected slight signs of wear4 ,the tables are not yet formed4 ,the anterior edges alone are rendered level2 all posterior to the infundibulum being as yet untouched4 ,the tables then present the appearance indicated in the following wood-cut1 which also represents the semi-circular order in which they are arranged4 ,illustration #dh4 ,at five years off the corner teeth only show slight wear1 and the posterior margins are round4 ,much of the original coating of the crusta petrosa is retained1 but in colour it may not at this time be dark4 ,at those places where it has been recently worn down1 it is often of a yellow tint1 which is but a little deeper than the enamel1 which last1 however1 is nevertheless easily distinguished by its greater transparency and more pearly appearance4 ,this peculiarity in the crusta petrosa not unseldom gives to the six year old mouth a darker aspect than is presented by the teeth of the younger animal2 and the author1 to convey to the reader some idea of this fact1 has purposely rendered the incisors of the next representation of the mouth1 as they frequently are seen4 ,such a circumstance1 however1 will not confuse the judgment4 ,the corner nippers still look young to him who is acquainted with those signs which denote youth in the horse's teeth1 and the coloured engraving will convey a fair idea of the aspect they now put on4 ,the corner nipper1 in fact1 after the fourth year1 leads1 in a great measure1 if it does not entirely sway1 the judgment4 ,this tooth is sometimes called the shell tooth1 on account of its infundibulum being1 for the most part1 better exhibited and longer retained than in the other incisors4 ,the tables1 however1 of the other teeth should also receive some attention3 those of the centre nippers may exhibit the infundibula shallow1 or1 in certain instances1 when the crusta petrosa which lines these cavities is very thick1 no infundibula may be distinguishable3 even then1 however1 on close inspection1 the form of the cavity will be discovered1 marked out by a line of enamel1 and the space that is usually vacant filled up with a substance1 which in appearance differs little from the ivory4 ,the tables of the lateral incisors will be fully formed1 and the infundibulum is rarely obliterated1 while its margin is always circumscribed and well defined1 as the previous wood-cuts will indicate4 ,illustration3 ,,five ,,years ,,off4 ,the ,corner ,teeth only show slight wear1 and the posterior ,margins are round4 ,illustration3 ,,six ,,years ,,off4 ,the ,corner ,teeth look more firmly set1 and their edges begin to be uneven4 #di4 ,at six years of age1 the corner teeth look more firmly set1 and their edges begin to be uneven2 they have become more square in the figure of the external surface2 the edges of the teeth1 when the mouth is closed1 fairly meet2 the round appearance of the posterior border is nearly lost1 and the teeth are altogether of a most prominent character4 ,the table of the corner teeth1 nevertheless1 is still confined to the part anterior to the infundibulum1 which cavity is not yet fairly circumscribed or surrounded by a level margin4 ,the infundibula may be lost in the central incisors1 and those of the lateral teeth may begin to look shallow2 but more generally these cavities are retained at six years old4 ,the tables1 likewise1 have somewhat changed their positions1 and the semi-circle which they formed at the fifth year1 now is hardly so perfect1 though still well marked4 ,the above description will be the better understood by reference to the coloured engraving1 which has been compared with the mouths of numerous animals1 viz41 ,skeleton ,sorella1 and a brown horse1 the property of ,mr4 ,t4 ,brown1 c41 c4 ,the reader1 however1 will at once recognise the general truth of the drawing1 the purpose of which the accompanying wood-cut will serve to explain4 ,the alteration in the semi-circular arrangement will be better perceived by contrasting the present diagram with the one which preceded it1 and though the change may not seem very great1 nevertheless1 sufficient is indicated to instruct the eye accustomed to observe it4 ,the corner teeth have now acquired a degree of surface which will fairly represent a table1 though it is still imperfect4 ,the more darkly shaded portion of the separated table denotes the part which has yet received no attrition1 but notwithstanding it is readily discerned that the nipper has come into active use4 ,illustration #ej4 ,at seven years off1 the corner teeth1 without showing age1 exhibit further evidence of wear4 ,the coloured engraving to which the reader must refer1 exhibits those alterations which have now taken place4 ,the original sketch was made from the mouth of a horse in the possession of the author's father1 and having been corroborated by the inspection of numerous others1 it is confidently put forward as characteristic of the age4 ,i cannot here forbear from acknowledging the personal kindness and professional attention bestowed upon me by ,mr4 ,percival1 who1 on being made aware that ,i was engaged upon a work illustrative of the horse's teeth1 not only allowed me to inspect the mouths of the animals under his charge1 but honoured me by accompanying me and assisted my endeavours to arrive at a just conclusion by his remarks4 ,i have also to express my thanks to ,mr4 ,braby for the liberty to inspect the large stud of heavy dray horses in the stables of ,messrs4 ,barclay and ,perkins1 the eminent brewers4 ,the advantages ,i derived from comparing so many mouths of the same age at the same time1 and the facilities which were given of minutely examining each1 enable me with more certainty to speak upon a subject which otherwise it would have been prudent to mention only in the most qualified terms4 ,however1 after such ample investigation1 ,i can1 with confidence1 refer to the plate depicting the mouth at seven years off4 ,looking at it1 the reader will see the teeth have become more white1 in consequence of the crusta petrosa having1 by the natural wear1 been to a greater extent removed4 ,the tushes are exhibited as fully up1 in which condition they are generally seen4 ,where the corner teeth meet1 they close in such a manner as denotes considerable use4 ,the way in which the gums encircle the necks of the shell teeth has also changed4 ,by referring back to the engraving of the five-year off mouth1 the difference will be more readily understood1 the round arrangement of the gums at the earlier age being very significant4 ,the tables of the teeth1 however1 at this period ought never to be overlooked2 they afford1 perhaps1 the best indications on which the judgment can be based4 ,the infundibula may or may not be gone in the lateral teeth2 but those of the corner teeth have at this age become defined4 ,where the corner teeth meet1 in consequence of those of the lower jaw being1 in many horses1 a little the most forward1 the upper shell teeth may present posteriorly a small projection1 which is seldom seen prior to the seventh year4 ,when this is present1 it is so obvious as not to escape observation1 therefore1 it has not been depicted in the coloured engraving1 which has purposely been made to represent the less marked indication that is more difficult to judge by4 ,the reader will see the projection alluded to slightly indicated in the previous coloured engraving1 portraying the mouth at six years off4 ,where the two shell teeth meet1 he will observe that the most backward portion of the upper1 not being opposed by the lower tooth1 and consequently suffering no wear1 bulges slightly downwards4 ,it is this particular part1 which often at the seventh year1 by the wearing down of the upper tooth1 becomes so apparent as to be significant of the age4 ,it is1 however1 not constantly present1 and the tables consequently become of the greater importance1 as they are always to be found4 ,those of the lateral incisors begin to depart from their oval figure1 and those of the central nippers are growing decidedly angular3 the tushes may have the edges slightly rounded1 and the semi-circle which the tables of the incisors formed when the animal was five years old1 may exhibit some inclination to change in favour of the lineal arrangement that is in many horses so prominently marked in old age4 ,this semi-circular arrangement of the incisors is most conspicuous when the colt is rising five2 and from that period gradually alters1 till in very old subjects the tables will occasionally be ranged almost in a straight line4 ,the alteration which takes place in this respect is1 however1 by no means uniform1 and though1 consequently1 no rule can be absolutely laid down concerning it1 yet1 from the known inclination of the teeth to assume a certain figure1 an inference can be drawn which1 connected with other signs1 enables a pretty close opinion to be formed4 ,at the seventh year1 however1 the corner teeth1 their external figure1 and the form of their tables1 taken in conjunction with the wear exhibited by the central and lateral incisors1 and considered with the narrowed but not yet sharp edge of the lower jaw1 enable the judge to arrive1 with tolerable certainty1 at a conclusion4 ,the following representation of the tables1 taken in conjunction with the coloured engraving of the seven-year old mouth1 will convey an idea of its appearance at that age4 ,the reader will remark the infundibulum of the corner tooth has become circumscribed1 being now encircled by a flattened surface1 which posteriorly is of some width4 ,illustration ,illustration3 ,,seven ,,years ,,off4 ,the ,corner ,teeth without showing age1 exhibit further evidence of wear4 ,illustration3 ,,eight ,,years ,,off4 ,the ,gum of the lower ,corner ,teeth has become ,square1 and the lower ,tush blunt4 #ea4 ,at eight years off1 the gum of the lower corner tooth has become square1 and the lower tush blunt4 ,the original drawing was made from the teeth of that noted horse1 ,oakley2 and in order to render it as perfect as possible1 the mouths of mares 7,meal1 ,edgworth1 ,bess1 c47 have been compared4 ,the departure from the circular form of the gum1 as depicted in the coloured engraving1 is even more marked than it was at the seventh year4 ,added to this change of figure1 the gums appear more hard and less delicate2 the mouth looks more firm1 and seems to have attained the perfection of its strength4 ,the margin of the lower jaw is now comparatively sharp1 and the cheeks are flat4 ,the crusta petrosa on the upper teeth is in a great degree removed2 the enamel not yet1 however1 having a marked yellow tinge4 ,on the lower corner incisors the crusta petrosa may still continue1 but it no longer has a dull brown aspect3 it is never prominent at this age1 but rather speckled over the outer surface1 than regularly enveloping any portion of it4 ,it has a somewhat rough and worm-eaten aspect1 and in colour is nearer to a dirty yellow than a dull brown4 ,if the posterior angle of the upper corner incisor is pendant1 or exhibits that species of notch1 which was alluded to in the previous paragraph1 it is at the eighth year well shown1 and the table has undergone considerable alteration4 ,there is now on the shell tooth1 a full table1 the infundibulum of which1 if not obliterated1 is always of lessened size1 well marked out1 and on all sides surrounded by a broad and a flattened surface4 ,the other teeth have also changed their figures4 ,the tables of the centre nippers have taken on a decided angular shape1 and those of the lateral display no dubious tendency to assume that form4 ,the infundibula may be obliterated1 but more generally those in the lateral and corner teeth are retained1 or if now absent1 the circle of enamel will1 on inspection1 show that the cavity is only filled up by crusta petrosa1 not absolutely worn out4 ,the following wood-cuts exhibit the changes which the tables undergo2 and as the eighth year is an important one1 inasmuch as the horse which has attained it is called aged1 a double set is here introduced1 to show the difference of figure which these parts may present4 ,in those tables1 it will be seen the infundibulum has gone from a central nipper only2 but even in that instance1 a white mark indicates that the cavity is merely filled up by crusta petrosa1 the enamelled lining not being yet worn out4 ,the alteration in the form and magnitude of the infundibula cannot1 if the accompanying wood-cut be compared with those which have preceded it1 fail to strike the reader2 indeed these changes1 aided by the worn appearance of tables of the shell teeth1 are now the principal guides when judging of the age by the mouth4 ,illustration #eb4 ,after the eighth year1 there is no certainty in any opinion drawn from the teeth4 ,a guess may be hazarded1 and very often that guess will prove correct1 but at the same time it should be received only as a conjecture4 ,the chance of naming the age decreases as the number of years increase4 ,after the twelfth1 the probability of hitting the exact year is very small4 ,after the sixteenth year1 all is confusion1 and there remains no sign which could warrant any person in pretending he could pronounce the age by the teeth4 ,it is true that certain tokens may induce a conviction that an animal is much older than sixteen1 and this conviction may be so justified as to amount almost to a certainty2 but no man1 ,i imagine1 could form any opinion with regard to the number of years by which a horse exceeded sixteen1 or pronounce a decision that should have any appearance of exactitude4 ,they who pretend to an ability of this kind1 may1 in a few solitary instances1 strike the point2 but repeated failures will show that there is no positive principle in operation to guide the judgment4 ,indeed the age is most correctly told during the periods of dentition1 and up to the sixth year4 ,after the sixth year1 the certainty is not so great1 but a very fair1 if not a positive judgment can be pronounced until the eighth year is accomplished4 ,after the eighth year1 no man should give an unqualified opinion concerning the age of a horse4 ,after the twelfth1 whatever may be pronounced should be offered only as a conjecture2 and1 after the sixteenth1 the practitioner had better be silent4 ,when stating this the author must be understood as expressing the conviction at which almost exclusive attention to the subject1 and much necessary consideration1 has enabled him to arrive4 ,it must not1 however1 be thought that he is arrogating a power of measuring the capabilities of genius2 his wish is only to declare the truth as he perceives it4 ,the intention to publish a work upon the teeth has not been concealed2 opinions have been solicited and information sought2 the author has many obligations to acknowledge2 all to whom he has made application have been liberal in their communications2 but from no one has he been able to obtain anything opposed to the conclusions he has here promulgated4 ,it may be that hereafter the power of judging of the age shall be extended4 ,pessina and the ,girards thought it could be done with exactitude up to an extreme point1 and saw a principle in the latest changes which the teeth undergo4 ,the general experience in this country1 however1 seems to have decided that1 after the eighth year1 there is no certainty4 ,with that decision the author is reluctantly obliged to acquiesce1 and even to add that certainty is not to be obtained after the sixth year4 ,this limitation1 coupled as it is with a confession of inability1 may seem to be a backward movement2 but truth cannot retrograde4 ,by ascertaining how far our present knowledge leads us1 a motive is given to genius by the opportunity created for its exercise4 ,no pains have been spared to investigate the hypotheses which have been made known2 they have been candidly put to the test1 and on the proof of their inefficiency discarded4 ,that the reader may judge for himself1 the tables of teeth1 and mouths of various ages are presented4 ,the altered aspect of the tables at the ninth year is indicated in the following wood-cut1 which exhibits these surfaces as gaining depth and narrowing from side to side4 ,this appearance they generally assume1 and at the same time the infundibula are either lost or much contracted4 ,illustration ,the next wood-cut1 which depicts the form of the tables at the tenth year1 though true in its general character1 will serve to show how far dependence may be placed in ordinary signs1 since the infundibulum of the lateral nipper shows a well-marked cavity1 while from the other teeth it seems to be upon the eve of disappearing4 ,on inspection1 however1 it will be seen that in figures the tables approach more towards the square1 which is the last form these surfaces assume4 ,illustration #ec4 ,at twelve years old1 there may be tartar on the lower tush4 ,the teeth are longer1 narrower1 and the enamel darker4 ,the coloured engraving1 which was1 on the last occasion justified by a comparison with the mouth of that famous horse1 ,charles the ,twelfth1 will convey a general idea of the prevailing characteristics of this age4 ,the teeth have lost the white and firm set aspect they bore at the eighth year4 ,often1 at this period1 they have1 by wear1 become irregular generally1 as exhibited in the plate2 the grooves1 extending down the length of the upper incisors1 contain the remnants of the crusta petrosa1 which is almost black4 ,the upper tush is usually much diminished1 while the lower is long1 especially in stallions kept for service4 ,the teeth project more outward and begin to arrange themselves more in a line1 no longer showing the crescentic order which they assumed at five years old4 ,also1 by the twelfth year1 the tongue1 when the jaws are closed1 protrudes from the open space between the incisors and molars4 ,the degree in which these alterations have taken place1 together with the protrusion of the incisors1 is all that is present to guide the judgment2 and practical experience is needed1 to give him1 who attempts to decide upon such weak evidence1 any chance of success4 ,as in cases of this description every thing that can help the judgment is eagerly seized upon1 the general appearance of the animal is always to be considered2 and that may warn the practitioner to modify his opinion4 ,the lower jaw is sharp1 the cheeks flat1 and around the tushes there may be an accumulation of tartar4 ,it is true the tables1 consequent on the wear of the teeth1 will have undergone some change1 but that alteration is now so slightly marked as not to enforce itself upon the observation4 ,it is easily overlooked1 and by no means easily recognised4 ,the annexed wood-cut will suggest the nature of the change4 ,in it will be seen a further remove from the oval form of these parts in the young mouth4 ,the surfaces have become square or angular1 and the corners are only sufficiently rounded to indicate what once was the shape which they exhibited4 ,illustration ,the following wood-cut depicts the tables at the completion of the fourteenth year1 and only by careful comparison could the increase of age which they denote be detected4 ,on inspection1 however1 it will be seen that the irregularities of outline are less prominent even than at the twelfth year4 ,illustration ,illustration3 ,,twelve ,,years ,,old4 ,tartar on the lower ,tush4 ,the teeth longer1 narrower1 and the enamel darker4 ,illustration3 ,,twenty ,,years ,,old4 ,the ,form of the ,mouth changed1 and the lower ,teeth imperfectly seen from the front4 #ed4 ,at sixteen years old1 when the teeth are viewed from the side1 only two incisors can be seen in the lower jaw1 as depicted in the coloured engraving1 which was last authenticated by the mouth of ,muley ,moloch1 which favourite stallion ,i was1 by the kindness of ,mr4 ,theobald1 permitted to examine at his well-known establishment1 where ,i also saw many other horses of the purest blood and highest promise4 ,of the excellence of the arrangements and the value of the animals1 which give character to that gentleman's establishment1 it would be presumption of me to speak4 ,i have only to express my admiration of what ,i beheld1 and tender my thanks for the attention ,i received4 ,the engraving1 however1 was fortunately corroborated1 and its general indications may therefore be accepted4 ,the enamel has entirely lost its white and pearly tone4 ,the tushes1 perhaps1 loaded with tartar in both jaws1 are blunt1 and generally either very short or long1 inclining somewhat outward4 ,the extension of the crescentic arrangement of the lower teeth enables only two to be seen when the parts are viewed from the side4 ,the tongue protrudes to an obvious degree1 and the saliva runs from the mouth when the jaws are separated4 ,the edge of the lower jaw is very sharp and somewhat retracted1 while the incisors have taken a horizontal direction4 ,no sign1 however1 save the protrusion of the tongue1 is positive4 ,the general character is that of advanced age1 and this general character1 at once recognised by the eye of experience1 is more to be depended upon than the teeth themselves4 ,the teeth have now assumed the permanent character of old age2 and in the figure of the tables will undergo no further alteration upon which any dependence can be placed4 ,up to the sixteenth year1 however1 the tables deserve to be consulted4 ,below is exhibited such evidence as they present1 which the reader will perceive is so nice and delicately marked as to be easily misinterpreted4 ,in the tables which belonged to the fourteenth year1 it will be seen the infundibula are almost gone1 a speck alone denotes their latest trace2 nevertheless1 the next wood-cut1 which exhibits the tables at the sixteenth year1 will show that the absence of the infundibula is not to be relied upon4 ,still the advance in age is1 though feebly1 indicated4 ,the central incisor has assumed a form which is peculiarly characteristic of age in the horse4 ,it is seldom that at sixteen years all the tables take so marked a shape1 but some of them1 and generally those in the centre1 will1 at this period1 be symbolical of the truth4 ,illustration ,had it not been for the very conspicuous indication of the central tables1 the others in the former wood-cut might have been reasonably decided to be more juvenile in their aspect4 #ee4 ,at twenty years old1 the form of the mouth has changed1 and the lower teeth are imperfectly seen from the front4 ,this circumstance springs from the more horizontal direction which the teeth have now assumed1 and the acuteness of the angle which they consequently form when closed4 ,the engraving also depicts that alteration in position which disables a person1 standing in front1 from well seeing both rows of incisors when the lips are separated4 ,when the upper incisors are fairly presented to the sight1 a partial view only of the lower teeth is obtained1 and as the age advances even that is lost4 ,further inspection also shows additional changes in position1 shape1 and tint4 ,the grooves are broad1 deep1 and well marked by their dark colour4 ,between the upper incisors there are interspaces in which the food has accumulated and become black1 giving to the mouth the appearance represented in the coloured plate4 ,the upper tush1 which is now of a brownish hue1 may be worn to the gum1 and the lower continue long and surrounded by tartar1 or both may be reduced to mere stumps4 ,the tongue protrudes greatly2 the membrane of the mouth seems hard2 and no longer vascular1 it is thrown into wrinkles4 ,the edge of the lower jaw is sensibly retracted1 and its sides are flattened or narrowed4 ,the general appearance indicates the decay of nature4 ,here again1 however1 nothing is positive1 save the yellowness of the teeth and the protrusion of the tongue4 ,the general character of the animal is of more value than the indications of the mouth2 and1 persons familiar with horses can1 sometimes by this1 guess the age of an animal with the same approach to accuracy1 which most people exhibit1 when pronouncing the extent of an individual's life1 by simply looking at a man's face4 ,in neither instance1 perhaps1 could the basis of the opinion1 which possibly shall approach very close to correctness1 be accurately stated4 ,proof1 as to the evidence upon which a conclusion is in such cases based1 cannot be anticipated1 and to the inquiry how they were able to tell the age1 each would probably answer1 by the looks1 but neither would be capable of precisely defining in what these looks consisted4 #ef4 ,at thirty years old1 the jaws are contracted2 the lower are not seen when the upper teeth are in view4 ,the coloured engraving1 which at first sight seems to suggest that the animal possessed only a single jaw1 exhibits the mouth as it appears at the thirtieth year4 ,the animal1 the mouth of which is here depicted1 had a lower jaw with excellent teeth considering its age1 but without elevating its head these could not1 while the mouth was closed1 be seen1 or when seen1 the view of those in the upper jaw was lost4 ,this peculiarity arises from the teeth having taken a still more horizontal inclination2 they are now crowded together2 and1 from the irregularity of their wear1 may assume the pointed figure indicated in the plate4 ,the change of colour also has become more decided1 and the general indications1 which have been before alluded to1 are more marked4 ,after what has been so frequently repeated concerning the deceptive character of the tables in extreme age1 little1 perhaps1 need be added to that subject4 ,nevertheless1 to convey an idea of the appearances which these surfaces may assume1 subjoined are wood-cuts taken from authenticated mouths1 for the inspection of which ,i am indebted to the liberality of ,mr4 ,ernes1 of ,dockhead1 who has paid great attention to the changes of the teeth4 ,to the honour of that gentleman1 ,i may1 while confessing the heavy obligations under which his generosity has placed me1 here mention1 that no member of the veterinary profession had1 to my knowledge1 under his care so great a number of animals working at a period of life when the horse is usually supposed to be worthless4 ,the majority of these were in good condition1 active1 and capable of doing every kind of ordinary service4 ,they presented a pleasing spectacle1 more than creditable to the talent of him under whose charge they had retained health and vigour4 ,the aspects which the tables of the teeth exhibited1 however1 were such as set judgment at defiance1 and for the purpose of enabling the reader to form his own opinion on the matter1 engravings of a few of them are here introduced4 ,illustration ,the above wood-cut exhibits the tables and arrangement of the incisors as they were seen in the mouth of an animal which was proved to be no less than twenty-eight years old4 ,any one1 who should base his opinion solely on the marks1 must have pronounced the creature to have been no more than five1 since none of the infundibula are lost4 ,the semi-circular arrangement also had suffered no very material change1 and altogether the contrast with the next representation of the same parts1 as they appeared in the mouth of a horse which was but one year older1 is very striking4 ,illustration ,in the above engraving the teeth are seen to be ranged almost in a line1 which is the form they have a disposition to take at this great age4 ,the appearance1 here delineated1 is more true than the foregoing in its general character1 the infundibula being entirely worn out2 for the specks in the centre of the tables show1 not the remains of the last portion of the marks1 but the exposure of the upper extremity of what once was the cavity of the pulp4 ,in the next wood-cut1 however1 which depicts the tables of the teeth which were in the jaw of a horse1 that had reached its thirtieth year1 and from which the drawing for the coloured engraving was made1 displays a portion of the infundibulum still retained in the corner incisor4 ,the true character of age nevertheless is conspicuous in the form of the tables4 ,illustration3 ,,thirty ,,years ,,old4 ,the jaw contracted4 ,the lower teeth not seen when the upper are in view4 ,illustration3 ,,sixteen ,,years ,,old4 ,viewed from the side1 only two ,incisors can be seen in the lower jaw4 ,illustration ,such contradictory indications admit of being to a certain degree reconciled4 ,the representations of the tables are correctly given1 but1 in the living mouths1 these were corrected by the appearances of the teeth themselves4 ,the incisors of the horse which was twenty-eight years old had suffered but little wear4 ,an unusual degree of hardness1 or an extraordinary power of self-preservation1 contributed to keep them1 so far as the tables were concerned1 in appearance1 young1 long after the season of youth had passed4 ,almost from the fifth year the tables would seem to have suffered but a very gradual change2 for even when twenty-eight1 these parts do not indicate the horse to be more than aged4 ,the absence of wear may1 in some measure1 be attributed to the kind of food which the animal had consumed1 it having been chiefly fed from the manger2 and also to its being of a quiet disposition1 or not inclined to bite and snap when the groom was dressing it4 ,the want of wear1 however1 did not necessitate the cessation of growth1 which went on at the natural rate2 therefore1 though the tables had a very youthful look1 the teeth were1 nevertheless1 unusually long1 and gave to the mouth a decided appearance of age4 ,their colour1 and the removal of almost every vestige of the crusta petrosa1 together with the general appearance of the horse1 was sufficient to awaken those suspicions which would warn the practitioner4 ,the eccentricities1 however1 which particular parts can exhibit1 will teach the student1 that a conclusion should only be drawn from observation and comparison of all the various signs which the teeth present4 ,no sign can be singly relied on2 but1 by weighing the evidence1 and placing the contradictory indications in opposition1 something approaching to truth may1 even in extreme age1 be deduced2 though such deductions1 for obvious reasons1 ought to be expressed with caution1 and never1 under any circumstances1 positively advanced4 ,mr4 ,henderson1 the respected veterinary surgeon to ,her ,majesty the ,queen ,dowager1 possesses in his museum many interesting specimens of the teeth4 ,among the rest1 he has the jaw of an animal which was ascertained to have reached the thirty-eighth year4 ,this preparation1 however1 exhibits no sign that could characterize the extreme age which the horse had attained1 and ,i allude to it1 only as a confirmation of the opinion ,i have expressed1 that1 as the period of life advances1 the mouth of the horse becomes more and more difficult of interpretation4 #eg4 ,the tricks1 that are practised on the teeth1 are so much talked about and so generally feared1 that the subject demands a few words in explanation4 ,the breeders are known to extract the milk teeth1 hoping thereby to hasten the growth of the permanent incisors1 and to increase the apparent age of the colt4 ,the gums they are likewise known to touch with the hot iron1 or to freely lance for the same purpose4 ,all of these practices are common enough2 but that they accomplish the design of the persons who employ them is not at all certain4 ,by either of these practices the animal is pained1 and pain does not favour development1 but1 on the contrary1 retards it4 ,the suffering1 however1 may be brief1 yet the effect does not stop there4 ,if the milk tooth is firm in the mouth1 when the attempt is made to extract it1 in nineteen cases out of twenty1 it will be broken and the fang left in the jaw4 ,when the extraction of the milk teeth has been general1 ,i have seen numbers of horses1 with the broken fangs in their mouths1 palpable evidences that the animals have been tampered with4 ,but1 supposing all of the tooth to be removed1 nothing would be thereby gained4 ,the permanent tooth does not push out the temporary2 nor does the temporary1 so directly obstruct the coming up of the permanent1 as to render its presence or absence of much consequence4 ,if the fang be removed1 there may be nothing to absorb1 but on that account it does not follow that there will be anything more deposited4 ,the body of a man does not grow larger because one or more of his limbs have been amputated4 ,on the contrary1 the shock occasioned to the system by the operation1 and the consequence ensuing on the loss of blood1 may cause an immediate diminution of the frame4 ,so1 if a horse's tooth be drawn1 the animal is alarmed1 tortured--and1 if the creature recovers from these effects very speedily1 so that no loss of growth could be estimated1 certainly the most favourable circumstances would not allow us to imagine any stimulus to development had been created4 ,there will be some loss of blood1 and this1 however slight it may be1 nevertheless being taken from the immediate part1 must act as a local depletion4 ,now to deplete is to check growth by abstracting the very source of nutriment4 ,the hemorrhage1 however small1 must be injurious2 and the mouth being made more or less sore1 the inclination to feed1 as a natural consequence1 is diminished1 thereby further checking the development4 ,i cannot see in what manner the extraction of the milk teeth is to hasten the growth of the permanent incisors2 but ,i can perceive that the operation may have the opposite effect2 and ,i have known the practice to have been followed by the non-appearance of the very tooth1 the protrusion of which through the gum1 it was employed to quicken4 ,the tooth1 which previously seemed to be on the eve of piercing the gum1 after the extraction of the milk incisor never came up1--nor will any person who has thought for an instant1 wonder if the violence1 necessarily used1 does occasionally injure or rupture the delicate vessels and gelatinous tissues of the pulp4 ,more often the breeder's impatient interference breaks the tooth off at the neck and leaves the fang in the jaw4 ,this he has not the skill to extract1 and as it is not afterwards absorbed but speedily assumes a dark colour1 it remains a tell-tale and an eye-sore during the life of the animal4 ,had the colt been left alone1 the fang in a few months would1 by the natural process1 have been absorbed3 but the force which broke the tooth1 though incapable of extracting it1 probably ruptured the delicate tubes of the absorbent vessels4 ,the broken member is left in the mouth1 either to act as a foreign body1 or to become united by anchylosis to the jaw1 and continue for life a deformity4 ,the folly of the practice will surely on reflection be evident to all2 and the other means employed for the same end are in a like degree injurious4 ,the breeder will consult his own interest best by studying the feelings of his animals4 ,for the sake of profit1 if not for the love of humanity1 he had better cease to torture the poor beasts by which he hopes to gain4 ,suffering will neither engender spirit1 growth1 or fat1 and the market pays price for each of these4 ,the mouth of the horse is too important towards the value of the animal to be ignorantly mutilated4 ,let the mind reflect1 before the hand is permitted even to use the lancet4 ,to lance the gums of the human infant was once a favourite practice2 nor has the custom at the present time fallen quite into disuse1 but it is generally resorted to only during the cutting of the primary teeth1 and not commonly adopted to facilitate the appearance of those teeth which the horse-dealer employs it to quicken4 ,in the latter case1 on man the gum lancet is not employed2 and1 if found useless on one animal1 a strong inference is created as to the inutility of constantly experimentalizing with the instrument upon another4 ,by incising the gums a wound is created1 the part is thickened1 and a cicatrix induced2 the effects of which are to cause an impediment to the growing tooth2 and this being seen and corroborated by practical observation1 the best dentists and surgeons of the present day are not very enthusiastic in the use of the gum lancet1 which they have in a great measure cast aside1 and which is beneficial only in scientific hands4 ,the loss of blood likewise is to be considered1 and that certainly aids in retarding the growth1 which the adoption of the other means1 general with the breeders of horses1 could not accelerate4 ,the employment of the cautery1 to expedite the appearance of the teeth1 is so strange a resort1 that ,i can only account for the use of that agent by imagining certain persons to be totally ignorant of its action4 ,in the first place1 it destroys the part with which it comes in contact2 inflammation follows and suppuration ensues2 a quantity of blood is diverted to the surface1 and of course drawn from the pulp of the new tooth1 which originally it flowed to and nurtured4 ,a slough must take place1 and the mouth remain sore till the escar is thrown off and the exposed granulating surface cicatrized4 ,but wherever the hot iron is applied the immediate part is thickened1 rendered more hard and tense4 ,which of these effects is it the horse-dealer regards as likely to promote his wishes8 ,a little knowledge would inform any one1 that the cautery must act in the opposite direction to that1 which it is supposed1 by ignorant people1 to favour4 ,indeed1 ,i do not think1 that horse-dealers or others have yet obtained so great a mastery over nature1 that the dame can be made to hurry at their bidding1 however cruelly their orders may be enforced4 ,a ,yorkshire five may sound well1 but there is no more possibility of making a four-year old colt1 by barbarity1 show the development of a five-year old horse1 than there is1 by wrenching1 cutting1 and burning1 of making a boy of fifteen look like a man of twenty4 ,nature obeys her own laws1 and is not yet subjected to human practices4 ,careful rearing1 nutritious food1 sufficient exercise1 and no work does promote development1 and of the growth thereby engendered1 the purchaser has no reason to be in fear2 for if one part shows maturity1 he may be assured1 that the other parts are also equally matured4 ,the time the animal has lived is not of half the consequence1 that the use which has been made of its life is1 to the future possessor4 ,the horse that has a mouth indicating five1 and that can be proved to be five1 if it has been worked from its earliest year and stinted in its food1 has less energy and life than a younger creature forwarded by the fostering care of the breeder4 ,the two animals are not to be compared4 ,supposing the one to be no more than four1 it possesses the vigour and development of five2 while the other1 which is five1 may have the decrepitude and constitutional infirmity of twenty4 ,let not the buyer fear the deceit of the breeder1 but without dread accept the mouth as proof of the age2 if the animal is not in years1 he is in development1 that which the teeth declare4 ,to this conclusion1 however1 some will oppose their opinions4 ,the animal1 they will argue1 has been stimulated to exhibit an unnatural maturity1 and the seeds of future disease have thereby been planted in the system2 therefore1 it will be urged1 the worth is depreciated4 ,the statement looks well1 but it is of no value1 for a little inquiry will prove it to be based on false principles4 ,excessive stimulus checks the growth1 or causes early disease1 sacrificing either the health or life of the being4 ,the feeder knows1 from experience1 that the quantity of nutriment must be measured by the powers of the creature that consumes it2 and that over-feeding1 by impairing the digestion1 destroys or weakens rather than nurtures the body4 ,the stimulus1 pushed beyond a certain point1 would keep the horse in the infirmary1 and never fit it for the market4 ,every dealer knows this1 and though such persons are1 by the prejudice of the public1 obliged to keep their animals loaded with fat1 or in what is called bloomy condition1 they nevertheless fear to maintain this state of body for too long a period2 and while it lasts1 constantly resort to drugs1 to counteract that tendency to disease which it engenders4 ,they treat their stock1 almost as a physician would treat so many city aldermen2 and give dinner or digestive pills almost as regularly4 ,a fatted beast is always diseased1 but an animal liberally fed is thereby rendered the more healthy4 ,in fact1 the dread of those results which ensue from comfort is1 with regard to the horse1 quite as unfounded as the fear1 that mankind once had1 of the miseries of the rich1 and the envy1 poets taught them to indulge1 towards the starvation of the poor4 ,such idle fancies may be dismissed with profit to the person who discards them2 but at the same time there are some practices the reader needs to be cautioned against4 ,to give the face of the horse a youthful appearance1 some of the class of dealers who frequent public markets1 low auctions1 and country fairs1 puncture the skin at that part where the falling or depression is seen above the eyes in old animals4 ,having inserted into the orifice a small quill1 they then blow into the part1 thereby inflating the subjacent tissue1 and concealing the cavity4 ,this notable artifice1 which is called puffing the glym ought to impose upon no one4 ,should the trick be suspected1 let the hand be carelessly raised to pat the neck and cheek of the animal1 when it can1 under pretence of likewise stroking the face1 be passed over the part which is supposed to have been tampered with2 and in the act a little pressure may be made upon the suspicious region3 then1 if the swelling has been induced in the manner stated1 the passage of the hand is sufficient to squeeze out the air1 and the contrast which the two sides of the face will afterwards present1 gives to the countenance of the poor horse1 a very knowing and peculiar expression4 ,let the person1 however1 who thus undertakes to expose roguery1 be assured of his ability to protect himself in the office he has assumed2 for the gentlemen who display their ingenuity on horses1 are not averse to occasionally mutilating the human frame4 ,to lay bare and detect such low1 mean1 and obvious cheatery1 as the above1 properly belongs to the police2 and the least acute of the force1 ought to be equal to the detection of so gross an imposition4 ,the swelling1 when caused by inflation1 always has an unnatural aspect1 such as a school-boy would find no difficulty in recognising1 after his attention has been directed to the point4 ,it looks puffed1 and when the jaw moves1 the part does not play freely with the motion4 ,these circumstances1 at a glance1 declare the cheat which the pressure of the hand can1 in an instant1 prove to have been practised4 ,the artifice1 however1 when adopted1 ought to be of no avail4 ,young horses often exhibit the depression above the eye1 of great depth2 nor is it unusual to see old animals1 in which the cavity is naturally shallow4 ,the qualified judge1 therefore1 glances at1 but never permits the state of1 the part1 to influence his decision2 and the trick1 when resorted to1 can impose only on those who are too vain to acknowledge their ignorance1 or too mean to pay for protection4 ,other indications are of greater worth1 and to these1 observation is directed4 ,the roundness or flatness of the cheek1 the sharpness or fulness of the lower jaw1 no art can imitate3 these1 consequently1 receive more attention4 ,the eye is directed to the mouth2 and still supposing the reader to be present at such places as the parties who practise tricks with horse flesh mostly frequent1 let him be thought desirous of purchasing the animal1 and therefore proceed with an examination3 it will not be long before the teeth will be inspected4 ,when the lips are separated1 the incisors may be long and horizontal in their inclination2 and1 by the time this is noted1 the seller probably has volunteered the information1 that the horse he is most reluctantly obliged to part from1 was six years old last grass4 ,the expression of surprise such a statement elicits1 is answered by oaths as to the fact1 and direct accusations of ignorance against any one who would assert the animal to be a day older4 ,the jaws are pulled asunder1 and all the marks are seen4 ,here is proof2 no man who knows anything of horses1 he is told1 would reject such evidence2 and a host of ready bye-standers stare at the mouth1 and only doubt if the creature is full six yet4 ,the judge also looks at the marks1 and then walks away3 he has formed his opinion1 and the sight of the marks confirms him in the conclusion he had arrived at4 ,the absence of the police may caution him not to expose himself by noticing the shout of defiance1 and bellowed taunts1 that signalize his retreat2 but he has seen the animal is a bishop4 ,now what promoted the poor brute to ecclesiastical dignity8 ,the term in horse slang1 simply means that the marks are not natural1 but have been made4 ,there are two means by which that can be done4 ,when time presses1 and tools or skill are wanted1 the tables of the teeth are touched only with a red hot wire1 which leaves a black mark wherever it is applied4 ,this1 however1 is a coarse expedient1 and the more usual practice is1 to dig out the cavities with a kind of engraver's tool1 and then to blacken the spaces thus created4 ,the infundibula are imitated with much nicity2 but the resemblance1 however close it may be1 never for a moment imposes on the qualified judge4 ,the shape of the table1 characteristic of the old tooth1 cannot be altered1 nor can the edge of enamel1 which should gird the infundibulum1 be artificially produced4 ,moreover1 many of the people who bishop horses1 are content to perform the operation only on the lower jaw1 leaving the upper teeth untouched1 because these are not generally inspected4 ,should such be the case1 of course the marks will be more or less faded1 where naturally they would be most fresh2 for the infundibula of the lower jaw are lost some years prior to those of the upper disappearing4 ,the attempted deception1 therefore1 is never successful1 save when the copers are fortunate enough to meet with a flat1 who has just knowledge enough to be very wise in his own conceit4 ,it must1 however1 be remembered1 that the lower class of dealers are not limited in their transactions1 and often dispose of animals to persons of respectability2 therefore1 it is not unusual to find horses standing for sale at commission stables1 with mouths of a most conspicuous character4 ,the owners of such horses may be gentlemen of the highest probity1 and in ignorance the age may be mis-stated4 ,for this reason1 no man should purchase a horse of any individual1 without having the animal previously examined by a certificated member of the ,royal ,college of ,veterinary ,surgeons4 ,the money so spent1 is the smallest item in the account2 and the sum saved by following this rule is often disproportioned to the expenditure1--to make no estimate of the disappointment and vexation which may be prevented4 ,respectable dealers will not knowingly allow the character of their stables to be injured by the presence of a bishoped animal4 ,this class of persons are very scrupulous in that respect1 but they are not always able to detect the truth--their education is often limited1 and though good ordinary judges1 they cannot1 under every circumstance1 decide correctly--they unconsciously deceive1 being themselves deceived2 and consequently every purchaser should take the precaution pointed out1 no matter whence1 or from whom1 he may be buying a horse4 ,were all to act in the way indicated1 much law would be spared1 and a great deal of anger allowed to slumber4 ,the dealers are not the rogues the enlightened public are fond of believing--many among them are as honourable as all men should be--some of the class1 however1 never let a horse escape out of their hands unmutilated4 ,the teeth invariably receive the primary attention3 if long1 they are1 by the application of a file1 reduced to the length which the self-taught equine dentist supposes proper to youth4 ,an acid is also applied to the enamelled surface1 in order to render it white4 ,no vast good is effected1 but if the means were not designed to impose1 no great harm would perhaps be done4 ,the acid is not allowed to corrode the tooth1 and the diminution of the length may possibly in some degree benefit the animal4 ,the welfare of the creature1 however1 is not the object sought--the hope is to cheat2 but no person who ought to be trusted1 or even to trust himself to purchase a horse1 should be so imposed upon4 ,whiteness is no sign of youth in the tooth of a horse1 and the file cannot make the tables assume the juvenile figure4 ,horses that show such mouths1 may be easily recognised--perhaps they are quiet while their legs are handled1 but shy when the head is touched--they are not vicious1 but timid1 and the teeth tell the reason of their fear4 ,it is well to pass them by1 and dangerous to accept them at any price4 ,if the teeth have been tampered with1 what tricks may not have been practised to conceal other defects8 #eh4 ,irregularity of growth in the horse's teeth1 should1 in all cases1 be early noticed1 and speedily attended to1 for so much of the worth of the horse depends on the animal's ability to feed1 that it may be said1 no teeth no horse4 ,the milk teeth are so regular in their growth1 that ,i have not been able to hear of1 or meet with a specimen1 in which they were eccentric4 ,the permanent teeth1 however1 are not unusually irregular2 the most common irregularity which they exhibit1 is that of retention of one or more of the milk incisors1 and this more frequently is to be seen in the lower than in the upper jaw4 ,mr4 ,ernes1 of whom ,i have before spoken as an excellent judge of the teeth1 and a most able practitioner1 was kind enough to show me the mouth of a cart horse which was under his care2 the lower jaw had eleven incisors1 but of these five were milk teeth4 ,the appearance which the mouth presented was rather that of some foreign animal than of an ordinary horse4 ,the bone had become deformed1 and the gums were in several places in an inflammatory condition4 ,mr4 ,henderson possesses a most curious preparation of the lower jaw of a horse1 in which there is exhibited eleven permanent teeth4 ,the appearance which this specimen presents is extraordinary1 and the existence of such a monstrosity1 showing the extent to which nature may violate her own laws1 deserves special attention4 ,the possibility of so great a variation being encountered1 will prepare the mind to expect and to consider the less marked deformities1 which in practice are not unusually met with4 ,it is not unusual to find horses with eight teeth in one jaw1 two of which are generally1 on inspection1 found to be retained milk incisors4 ,the milk teeth1 if allowed to remain after the horse incisors are fairly up1 often give to these last a very strange appearance4 ,the following wood-cut depicts the mouth of a mare1 to which my notice was directed by ,mr4 ,henderson1 the gentleman to whose generosity ,i have before had occasion to confess my obligations4 ,illustration ,the corner milk tooth here not having been extracted after nature had failed to remove it by the process of absorption1 has caused the last permanent incisor to take an unnatural situation1 where1 being removed from attrition1 it has become of extraordinary length1 and looks as much like a curious tush as the thing it really is4 ,such a state of the mouth is far from rare1 and because of its frequency1 being the more likely to be met with in practice1 it was chosen for illustration4 ,the molar teeth are less subject to distortion1 but1 nevertheless1 are sometimes irregular1 and from the same causes4 ,i have seen the palate pierced by a tooth which grew in an unnatural direction4 ,the treatment1 in both cases1 would be alike4 ,the milk teeth should never be allowed to remain in the mouth after the corresponding permanent teeth are fairly up4 ,if removal prior to this period does no good1 now the operation is suggested by its accordance with the natural process1 and the sooner it is undertaken the better3 any delay will only create difficulty1 and render the restoration of the displaced tooth1 more problematical4 ,the unabsorbing fang1 will1 in time1 become united to the bone2 and if its extraction is then attempted1 fracture of the jaw may be the consequence4 ,in no instance should the stable keeper be told to pull out the teeth3 he has not the proper instruments for the purpose1 and must use unnecessary violence even if he does no greater injury4 ,the animal1 besides1 is rendered shy of him1 in whom it is essential it should be educated to repose confidence2 and many a horse1 by the bungling efforts of such people1 pretending to operate1 is ultimately rendered dangerous in the stable4 ,moreover1 the horse owner cannot be too seriously cautioned1 against giving permission to those who attend on his animals1 to overstep their lawful limits4 ,in the first instance he may1 perhaps1 congratulate himself upon the result1 but speedy experience will convince him1 to his cost1 of the danger of the system4 ,if the operation should have been delayed so long1 as to allow the teeth to have become of unequal lengths1 then1 after the milk incisors are extracted1 the permanent teeth must be rendered level2 and1 however far apart they may at first be1 in time they will approximate4 ,the operation1 which is recommended1 any ,member of the ,royal ,college of ,veterinary ,surgeons will execute2 and1 as in skilful hands1 it is never dangerous1 so it should1 on no account1 be entrusted to quacks or pretenders4 ,for some irregularities1 however1 there is no help2 for instance1 when the lower jaw exhibits only four permanent incisors1 which is by no means unusual1 and which1 in the majority of cases1 could be traced to the efforts made to extract the corner milk teeth1 before the time had arrived for their removal4 ,an animal with such a mouth is obviously deteriorated4 ,the lessened number of its teeth may be of little consequence while it is young and kept in the stable4 ,during the earlier years1 the corner nippers1 which are those most frequently wanting1 are not in perfect apposition1 nor are the incisors of so great importance1 when the food is to be pulled from the rack or gathered from the manger4 ,but at grass1 especially in old age1 when horses are most frequently turned out1 and when the spreading of the semi-circle brings all the teeth into play1 none can be spared4 ,the absence of one-third of the nippers in the active jaw1 would then cause the animal more work for its livelihood1 and probably counteract all the benefit which the run was intended to produce1 even if more serious evils did not ensue4 ,the eccentricities of the teeth should always be regarded1 to conjecture how far they may retard the welfare of the horse4 ,the presence of an additional molar in each jaw is sometimes seen1 and is hardly to be counted a defect3 such supernumerary teeth are generally posteriorly situated1 and of small size2 they may cause no inconvenience1 and their existence not be suspected during the life of the animal4 ,the reverse1 however1 is the case when an extra tooth is found only in one jaw4 ,i am indebted to ,mr4 ,dunsford1 a gentleman who pays more than usual attention to every case entrusted to his care1 for a fine specimen of the evil which may result from an abnormal molar4 ,in the lower jaw1 on the near side1 are seen seven molar teeth2 and the last has1 from the absence of attrition1 grown to a length which caused it to do serious injury to the mouth4 ,the teeth are placed one behind the other in a perfect row2 hence1 as well as from their all being of the full size1 one1 the last in position1 was occasioned to project1 forcing itself through the gum1 even into the substance of the superior maxillary bone4 ,the horse was destroyed1 having become useless1 in consequence of its inability to masticate its food4 ,another defect in the molars is observed1 in these teeth sometimes being placed apart from one another1 leaving interspaces between them1 in which the food accumulates1 and inflaming the gums1 causes the animal much pain whenever it attempts to feed4 ,for this1 nothing can be done1 beyond giving the poor beast its meat artificially prepared2 but with all care the unfortunate animal becomes emaciated1 and is speedily consigned to the knacker4 ,fortunately1 however1 the molars are not often irregular in their growth4 ,in fact1 most irregularities of the teeth must be carefully sought for1 but one form which is not rare by any means ought to be always observed4 ,in certain animals the lower jaw is so short1 that the creatures cannot place the incisors together or in apposition3 the consequence is1 that the lower incisors being active instruments1 have to perform their functions at considerable disadvantage2 but1 nevertheless1 they act and receive wear4 ,the upper incisors1 however1 are1 in such mouths1 subjected to little attrition2 the corner1 and a portion of the lateral nippers alone1 meeting each other2 hence the central nippers1 which grow more forward than they ought1 at length project downwards1 and overhang those of the lower jaw4 ,this arrangement of the incisors constitutes what is called a parrot mouth1 because of the resemblance which the teeth bear to the bill of the bird4 ,most old horses are more or less parrot-mouthed2 but young horses also occasionally exhibit mouths of this description1 and in these last it is certainly a defect1 for in a state of nature1 or at grass1 the animal would be necessitated to tear rather than bite its food4 ,the proprietor of such a beast1 therefore1 can or ought never to turn the creature out1 but keep it constantly in the stable1 and under many circumstances this would entail inconvenience and expense4 ,there is nothing to be done for such a malformation1 but an allowance should be made for it in the price4 ,that the reader may be able to recognise it1 a copy of a mouth1 in which the deformity was well marked1 is here presented4 ,the animal1 which was introduced to my notice by my talented friend1 ,mr4 ,broad1 of ,paddington1 was twenty-one years of age2 and though more conspicuous cases of the kind are sometimes seen1 the one ,i have chosen for illustration shows a rather greater malformation than is usually met with2 but1 nevertheless1 it well illustrates the point upon which ,i have been dwelling4 ,illustration ,the molars sometimes wear unevenly1 their edges becoming as sharp as knives1 and their tables slanting in an unnatural degree4 ,the slanting tables cannot perfectly comminute the food1 so that which is swallowed1 not being properly prepared1 affords little sustenance2 while the sharp edges cutting the inside of the mouth1 and causing it to ulcerate1 render the animal1 from the pain1 disinclined to eat4 ,the contraction of the bones of the lower jaw1 in some old horses1 by disabling them from bringing the tables of the molars in perfect apposition1 is the cause of these teeth assuming such a shape2 for in young animals this species of distortion is never witnessed1 save as the consequence of disease4 ,the horse not feeding1 attracts the attention of the groom1 and rarely does his intelligence detect the cause4 ,any member of the ,royal ,college of ,veterinary ,surgeons1 however1 will soon discover the seat of mischief2 by reducing the cutting edges of the molars1 and invigorating the constitution1 while the ulcerated mouth is properly treated1 and the food carefully attended to1 he will soon restore the horse once more to health and activity4 ,the proprietor1 however1 must ever after have the horse1 from time to time1 attended to1 as the symptoms denote a relapse2 and with such precaution the animal may continue in full work for a number of years4 ,not a few horses show the edges of the incisor teeth perfectly rounded1 so that when the mouth is closed the tables no longer touch in every part2 indeed the form of the tables is destroyed1 and the age of the animal can by them hardly be conjectured4 ,these rounded teeth have been supposed to denote crib-biting1 and gentlemen have for fifty years been told1 to set down every horse presenting such a mouth1 as a confirmed cribber4 ,the notion1 however1 is not supported by fact1 for cribbers generally exhibit even mouths2 and ,i have not yet been able to discover an instance in which this habit had caused the tabulated surfaces of the teeth to be convex4 ,the round form of the tables results from the horse biting when being groomed1 and generally is seen in those which are of an excitable nature4 ,these animals are usually good servants1 but this shape of teeth unfits them for being turned out to grass1 as the cutting edges of the nippers are destroyed4 #ei4 ,the diseases to which the teeth of the horse are subjected1 are1 fortunately1 not very common2 though this assertion must not induce any person to imagine that his animals may not be afflicted in this respect4 ,every owner should be particularly watchful on such a point2 for so important are the teeth to the welfare of the animal1 and so difficult of cure are neglected cases of this description1 that numbers of valuable horses have been and will be slaughtered1 simply on their account4 ,no animal is exempt from this species of affliction4 ,one man may during his life possess many horses1 and die without knowing how fatal are the diseases of the teeth4 ,another person1 whose stable shall contain but a single nag1 may1 in a few months1 be taught how dreadful are the ravages which this affection can induce4 ,all therefore should1 for the security of their property1 be aware of the first indication of this species of disease4 ,though the teeth are not vital organs1 and the course of the malady is generally slow1 nevertheless1 the consequences to which it gives rise are such as in every case1 deteriorate the value of the animal2 and1 in many1 nay1 perhaps the majority of instances1 render it alike prudent and humane to deprive the poor beast of existence4 ,probably ,i do not assert too much when ,i add that1 in the ordinary examination of horses1 little attention is paid to the condition of the teeth4 ,the incisors are inspected to ascertain the age1 and any peculiarity in these is particularly noted2 but for the most part the molars are passed over without comment4 ,here the rarity of disease may shield the negligence of the practitioner1 who1 nevertheless1 is in every case exposed to blame through his inattention4 ,such a man may pass through a long practice1 and escape reproach2 but1 nevertheless1 the first horse on which he pronounced an opinion1 might have blighted his reputation1 by exhibiting the disease he had taken no pains to detect4 ,every animal purchased of a party whose warranty might be at all suspicious1 ought to be seen to feed before a conclusion as to soundness is pronounced4 ,if then the molars are affected1 the truth would be made obvious2 and there is nothing can render a horse more unsound than disease of these teeth4 ,the animal so afflicted1 may1 for a time1 be equal to its work3 yet to render it capable of exertion it requires continual care1 and in the end1 spite of all precaution1 it may become worthless4 ,some means should therefore be adopted to ascertain that the grinders are free from disease1 and a little corn will enable the fact to be conjectured4 ,should any suspicion be created1 a further examination will discover the truth4 ,the molars1 in the judgment of every one who has thought upon the matter1 are the teeth which1 especially in aged animals1 require attention4 ,the incisors indicate the age1 but they are not usually liable to disease4 ,i have not met with a single case in which the incisors were affected1 nor in which the tushes were diseased4 ,i am1 however1 informed by ,mr4 ,field1 whose high reputation and extensive practice give weight to his assertion1 that he has had to treat horses for disease of the incisor teeth1 and has even been obliged to remove a portion of the lower jaw in order to procure relief4 ,other practitioners1 of whom inquiry has been made1 have not known such a form of disease1 neither have ,i witnessed it3 instances of this kind1 therefore1 are rare1 and hitherto have not attracted attention4 ,the honour of making known the possibility of their existence1 belongs to a gentleman whose name is proudly associated with the science which it has so long adorned4 ,the incisors of the colt are not1 however1 liable to be seriously affected3 when those teeth decay1 age must have advanced4 ,during colthood1 nevertheless1 the teeth1 if exempt from disease1 may be the causes of great constitutional disturbance4 ,mr4 ,percival1 the gentleman who1 as editor of the ,veterinarian1 and author of the best and most elaborate works on the diseases of the horse that have yet appeared in the ,english language1 attaches much importance to those ailments incidental to dentition4 ,of the consequences that may ensue from the cutting of the tushes1 he adduces positive proof1 and from his admirable work on ,hippopathology1 page #agb1 vol4 #b1 ,i cannot forbear extracting the following most valuable case3-- ,i was requested to give my opinion concerning a horse1 then in his fifth year1 who had fed so sparingly for the last fortnight1 and so rapidly declined in condition in consequence1 that his owner1 a veterinary surgeon1 was under no light apprehensions about his life4 ,he had himself examined his mouth1 without having discovered any defect or disease2 though another veterinary surgeon was of opinion1 that the averseness or inability manifested in mastication1 and the consequent cudding1 arose from preternatural bluntness of the surfaces of the molar teeth1 which were1 in consequence1 filed2 but without beneficial result4 ,it was after this that ,i saw the horse2 and ,i confess ,i was1 at my first examination1 quite as much at a loss to offer any thing satisfactory as others had been4 ,while meditating1 however1 after my inspection1 on the apparently extraordinary nature of the case1 it struck me that ,i had not seen the tusks4 ,i went back1 and discovered two little tumours1 red and hard1 in the situation of the inferior tusks1 which1 when pressed1 gave the animal insufferable pain4 ,i instantly took a pocket-knife1 and made crucial incisions through them1 down to the coming teeth1 from which moment the horse recovered his appetite1 and by degrees his wonted condition4 ,the fact here recorded has certainly been generally overlooked2 and ,mr4 ,percival deserves the gratitude of his professional brethren for directing their observation to the point4 ,every practitioner1 however1 has met with instances in which the molars were implicated4 ,there are two forms of disease to which these teeth are liable2 caries1 or decay1 and a loss of vitality1 or death4 ,the death of a tooth has not hitherto been observed upon by veterinary authors1 but it is not rare4 ,the causes which may give rise to it cannot be accurately stated1 though they may be conjectured4 ,the vessels that nurture the fang and ramify through the pulp1 are small and delicate2 the alveolar cavities are thin1 some of them in the upper jaw being not thicker in parts of their walls than brown paper4 ,the force of the masticatory muscles is very great1 and if any hard substance be taken between the teeth1 it is easy to imagine that the minute arteries of the fang should thereby be ruptured4 ,the effect produced upon the pulp1 and the transient agony occasioned by biting a piece of hard crust1 are familiar to every human being2 nor can we suppose that the horse's teeth1 especially when the greater strength of its muscles is duly considered1 are not liable to similar and proportionably greater injury4 ,there may be no history to such a case1 no record of the date when the occurrence took place2 for the horse is not always watched during the time of its feeding1 nor were it watched1 is it possible that the groom would attribute the sudden exhibition of pain to the right cause4 ,the primary effect is therefore misinterpreted or unnoticed2 but after a time it is remarked that the creature is longer than its companions emptying the manger2 then it begins to quid its hay1--that is1 the hay is taken into the mouth partially masticated and formed into a pellet or round mass2 but instead of being swallowed1 the prepared morsel is allowed to fall from the mouth4 ,should no advice be taken1 the horse becomes bad in its coat1 and loses flesh4 ,no amount of corn1 or extra grooming1 will restore it to condition2 medicines may be administered with no better effect4 ,the disease is strictly local in its nature1 and the constitutional symptoms are only sympathetic4 ,should the affection still be suffered to proceed unchecked1 the animal is continually moving its lips2 either it is restless in the stable1 or leans the head against the manger1 and neglecting the food which is before it1 remains dull and quiet1 the eyes half closed1 and the breathing quickened4 ,a dose of medicine seems to do it some temporary good1 but the purgation has hardly ceased before the symptoms reappear2 saliva runs from the mouth1 and the food in the manger is rendered sloppy1 almost like to a mash1 before it is eaten2 the bones of the face at last swell2 the breath becomes fetid2 and a thick offensive purulent discharge issues from one of the nostrils4 ,that discharge is not continuous2 sometimes it will cease for days1 and the proprietor congratulates himself that the horse is getting well2 the fetor1 however1 remains1 and after a time it breaks forth again with redoubled vigour4 ,the animal becomes daily worse1 and would linger on1 but the patience of the owner is exhausted2 the knacker is employed to cut short the hopeless trouble and expense1 and then a hasty examination is made for the cause of all this mischief4 ,such is a condensed description of the customary incidents1 in the order in which they ensue2 but of course the intelligent reader is aware that the symptoms of disease cannot be mapped down1 as though they were results obtained from inorganic matter4 ,such symptoms always more or less vary1 though upon the whole they present sufficient similarity to enable them1 in every case1 to be interpreted2 and hence the value of practical experience1 which enables the party possessing it to recognise a fact1 when not fully declared4 ,the writer cannot1 to the like extent1 communicate instruction2 he must condense his remarks1 and be content to speak a general truth2 for if he descends to particulars he becomes tedious1 and that which he would teach is disregarded4 ,of course the symptoms vary3 all may not be present1 yet one or more will lead the practised mind to the seat of injury4 ,the history1 however1 which has been recorded1 supposes the dead tooth to be located in the upper jaw3 should it be situated in the lower jaw1 some difference will be presented in the effect2 for then the injury is not so serious4 ,the discharge from the nostrils does not ensue1 but the inferior maxillary bone enlarges1 and the breath becomes offensive4 ,the swelling of the bone takes place immediately under the tooth which has ceased to be a part of the living frame2 and at this point also an abscess forms2 this bursts1 and discharges an unhealthy matter3 unlike ordinary abscesses1 however1 which1 when they have thrown out their contents1 close1 this1 notwithstanding that the orifice is dependent1 exhibits no disposition to heal up3 a thin stinking liquid continuously issues from the opening1 which becomes hard around its edges1 and the hair about which sticks out1 looking coarse and ragged4 ,such outward and visible signs are hardly to be misunderstood2 and attention being directed to the mouth1 the examination of the teeth will confirm them4 ,from one jaw will be felt a molar projecting far above the level of the rest1 and in a like degree will the opposing tooth in the other jaw be found depressed--worn down actually to the gum4 ,all is now clear2 and the question is1 what shall be done8 ,in the first place the condition of the mouth has certainly deranged the digestive organs1 and1 where there is room for choice1 no operation1 however simple or apparently safe1 should be undertaken while the stomach is out of order4 ,the seat of the disease is known1 but the general health is first attended to2 and when that has been in some measure re-established1 the great object of the surgeon is fit to be accomplished4 ,the question is1 which of the teeth are to be interfered with8 ,one is diseased or dead1 and there can be no doubt that the diseased tooth should be removed4 ,that which is unnaturally long1 obviously indicates that its power of growth is retained2 and though hypertrophy is an abnormal action1 teeth are not parts liable to that species of affection4 ,the one which by its growth indicates vitality1 therefore displays no symptom of disease2 but the tooth that is reduced to the level of the gums1 tells us that its power of self-preservation has ceased1 and that its vitality is gone4 ,if that tooth be felt1 it will1 in the majority of instances1 be found loose1 and therefore it can be easily extracted3 the operation1 however1 is not then ended4 ,should the affected organ have occupied the upper jaw1 a quantity of pus may flow freely into the mouth on its extraction1 but more frequently such will not be the case3 nevertheless1 the discharge from the nostril1 7should the case have been of long standing17 together with the softened and swollen condition of the facial bones1 may convince the attendant that matter is locked up in the maxillary sinuses4 ,some writers speak of the antrum as the part most seriously affected2 but ,i cannot find any thing corresponding to the antrum in the horse's head4 ,that animal has no development of this description1 and therefore it only shows ignorance to operate with a special view to opening an imaginary cavity4 ,the maxillary sinuses are spacious cells1 and freely communicate with the frontal sinuses1 which are also large4 ,these facial sinuses have but a limited and kind of valvular opening into the nasal chambers1 and if pus is allowed to remain within them there is little hope of cure3 therefore a means must be found for its escape4 ,to this end the finger is employed to probe the alveolar cavity1 whence the tooth was taken1 and it will probably prove to be of no great depth4 ,an instrument constructed for the purpose is now used1 and with it a hole is made through the walls of the alveolar1 directly into the maxillary sinus--his knowledge of anatomy teaching the operator so to direct his hand that none of the important nerves and vessels1 which ramify through the parts he is penetrating into1 may be injured4 ,on the withdrawal of the instrument1 pus will mostly follow1 but not gush forth as from an ordinary abscess4 ,a dependent orifice has now been established1 and if the case is not a severe one1 that may be sufficient3 if1 however1 the disease is aggravated1 it will be necessary to trepline the frontal and perhaps the maxillary bone1 leaving in each a free space1 from which a circular piece has been removed4 ,through the superior opening1 warm water is injected2 but if the stench be very offensive1 a weak solution of chloride of lime or of creosote may be employed1 and must be daily repeated4 ,none of the coarse applications which some ignorant persons recommend1 ought to be used4 ,a strong solution of the sulphate of copper or of zinc1 by coming in contact with a large surface of granulating mucous membrane1 can hardly be expected to allay its irritability1 or dispose it to take on a healthy action2 and a seton1 forced barbarously through the orifices made with the trephine1 can only exist as a foreign agent1 keeping up the action which the surgeon is desirous should terminate4 ,gentle means are1 in every sense1 the ones to be adopted4 ,mild tepid injections are to be employed1 with the intention to wash out the accumulated pus1 allay the inflammation that caused it to be secreted1 and correct the diseased tendency of the part4 ,all stronger agents are barbarous2 and ,i have witnessed animals rendered dangerously vicious by their employment4 ,when1 however1 the acute stage has past2 when the inflamed and secreting surface has lost its activity1 not unfrequently succeeds a dull1 lethargic state1 which the mild treatment1 hitherto advised1 will not touch3 now it is that stimulating injections are beneficial2 and however much reason there was in the first instance to denounce their employment1 they are now indicated by the soundest principles of scientific practice4 ,even at this time1 however1 they must not be pushed too far4 ,the constitution should be stimulated1 that their effect may be aided1 and their continuance necessitated for the shortest possible period4 ,the sulphate of copper or of zinc2 the acetate of copper or of zinc2 the chloride of zinc or of lime2 the nitrate of silver or of mercury2 the black or yellow wash1 in strength proportioned to the symptoms1 may here be of service4 ,it is well1 however1 to remember that these agents soon lose the efficacy1 and the greatest benefit1 therefore1 is obtained when they are occasionally changed on the first sign of their potency decreasing4 ,still injections alone cannot be expected to effect a restoration1 and1 therefore1 topical measures must be combined with constitutional treatment4 ,a course of mercury may be tried1 or some of the many agents1 which1 like balsams1 peppers1 and essential oils1 act on the mucous system1 can be administered1--never1 however1 relying upon any one medicine for too long a period2 but1 as in the previous case of injections1 changing it wherever the drug appears either to have no effect1 or to have lost its power over the system4 ,by such treatment1 actively employed and combined with a proper attention to exercise and diet1 the case must be aggravated indeed which is beyond relief4 ,the cure1 however1 we must not expect to be quick2 but it will generally in the end be realized4 ,perseverance may be required1 but barbarity will not hasten success4 ,i object to many of the practices which the veterinary professors of the ,london ,college inculcate to their pupils2 because those practices1 in my opinion1 being based on false principles1 are needlessly severe4 ,of the potent solutions habitually employed at the ,st4 ,pancras ,school1 ,i have spoken2 but there is another practice to which ,i have not alluded3 corks are forcibly thrust into the holes made by the trephine1 under the notion that by such means the opening can be kept free1 and the wound uncorked and corked up like the mouth of a bottle4 ,mr4 ,percival has spared me the trouble of exposing the folly of the idea1 and the inutility of the practice4 ,that gentleman tried the notable experiment1 and found that the cork in no degree delayed the consequence it was employed to retard4 ,the presence of a foreign body thrust into immediate connexion with a diseased surface1 and violently there retained1 must cause excruciating agony--promote serious irritation--and might lead to the worst possible results4 ,the ignorance should indeed be gross1 which could conjecture such a vulgar resort was capable of inducing the slightest benefit4 ,equally objectionable is the custom recommended by the veterinary professors1 of shutting an animal up in a close stable1 and causing it to inhale the fumes of chlorine gas4 ,chlorine is an irritant to mucous membranes4 ,if the nasal cavities were the seat of the disease1 the passage of the air being rapid through these channels1 and retained for a comparatively long period in the bronchia1 the supposed remedy would be far more likely to affect the lungs1 than to act immediately on the part which it was intended to benefit4 ,in respiration1 however1 it is not probable that even during health1 any large quantity of air enters the sinuses1 which1 in these cases1 are the seats of the disease2 and when those cavities are blocked up by an abnormal secretion1 none could possibly gain admittance to them4 ,chlorine1 therefore1 obviously is inoperative in the direction where its remedial agency is desired to act2 and it does some injury4 ,it violently affects the animal which requires to be soothed2 causes it to endure much inconvenience and even suffering2 produces quickened respiration with violent cough1 and may be reasonably supposed to lay the foundation of subsequent disease4 ,the advantages of its employment have not been demonstrated1 but the results of practice rather show it to be injurious4 ,by the members of the veterinary profession it is not generally used3 gentler measures are of greater importance1 and these ought1 only under very peculiar circumstances1 to be abandoned4 ,there1 however1 yet remains to be described1 the mode of proceeding when the diseased tooth is seated in the lower jaw4 ,in that case1 a sinus or canal1 discharging an unhealthy matter1 is present4 ,no treatment will cause that sinus to close1 while the diseased tooth is retained2 and until its removal is effected1 all applications designed for that end are thrown away4 ,after the tooth has been extracted1 a solution of sulphate of zinc may1 with advantage1 be daily injected1 and constitutional measures at the same time adopted1 till an altered action has been called forth1 when the annoyance will quickly cease4 ,the enlarged bone will1 however1 remain2 and1 in the majority of cases1 it may be best no further to interfere with it1 than by the external application of such agents as are likely to promote absorption4 ,in such cases1 however1 no means are very speedily beneficial1 and time must be given for their operation3 but should the deformity be great1 the firing iron may be employed to cause exfoliation of the part4 ,yet as in the removal of one blemish1 it is not justifiable to create another1 the violent agent must be applied after a particular manner4 ,the integument should be first divided1 and the edges of the incision drawn asunder1 so as to expose the bone1 which alone should be touched with the cautery4 ,by this simple expedient the osseous structure will be destroyed2 and as such structure is not highly sensitive1 the suffering of the animal will be slight1 while after exfoliation has taken place1 the trivial cicatrix will be concealed by the hair4 ,when caries is present1 the symptoms do not materially differ from those described as indicating the death of a tooth4 ,the disease may commence at any part of the fang or crown2 but the structure which it generally first involves in the horse1 is the crusta petrosa3 for however far the caries had proceeded1 ,i have usually recognised it working from this substance into the ivory4 ,the crusta petrosa is the least osseous1 and most vascular of all the structures that enter the composition of the tooth4 ,in proportion to the vascularity1 may be estimated the disposition to assume disease2 and when it is further remembered that the crusta petrosa being the external1 is the most exposed portion of the tooth1 and that any wrenching action1 or other violence1 would first affect this part1 the dullest comprehension will perceive why the crusta petrosa is likely to be the primary seat of caries4 ,enamel is not subject to caries1 nor is it otherwise involved than by being deprived of its supports1 and chemically acted upon by the decomposed matters with which it is in contact4 ,the ivory1 however1 may1 in exceptionable cases1 be the original seat of the affection2 and when decay has commenced1 this part of the tooth is speedily diseased4 ,when caries begins1 there is only partial death of the tooth2 but the portions which retain their vitality and are becoming affected1 cause excruciating fits of agony4 ,before anything can be perceived by manipulating the molars1 the animal may exhibit frequent slight fits of illness1 being occasionally dull--off its feed--sluggish at its work--soon fatigued--resting the head on the manger1 and displaying symptoms of transient attacks of fever4 ,on other days the animal is lively2 eats well1 looks well1 and works well1 and is all the owner could desire4 ,something is evidently wrong1 but as yet all is doubt3 then the hay is quidded and another examination of the molars is made1 when there may be detected a little roughness on some part of one of those teeth1 and the mystery is explained4 ,there may be no1 or a very slight increased growth of the molar1 which1 in the opposing jaw1 corresponds to that which is evidently carious4 ,the carious tooth may be firmly implanted2 and yet1 notwithstanding the firm manner in which it is fixed in the jaw1 no time ought to be lost in its removal4 ,the operation may occupy some time1 and should be conducted with proper caution if the horse be young2 and ,i have by me a molar taken from the jaw of a colt that was rising four1 in which the crusta petrosa was diseased4 ,a wood-cut representing that tooth1 is inserted at page #bi2 and the darker spot indicates the place where decay had commenced4 ,during youth the fangs of the molars are of great length1 consequently1 any violence would be likely to do injury to the thin plates of the alveolar cavity4 ,in old animals the fangs being shorter1 greater speed may be allowable2 but in every instance where the tooth is firm1 judgment must be exercised4 ,supposing the horse to be young1 the following method will be found to answer3--,the precise position of the tooth having been ascertained1 and the animal cast1 traction1 with a proper instrument1 is made in the right direction4 ,in the first attempt the force is not designed to extract the tooth2 if it can be perceptibly moved or raised upward1 so that the nerves and arteries of the pulp may be broken or ruptured1 a great point has been gained1 and the molar should be no further drawn in the first instance4 ,the instrument should be then loosened1 and another hold having been taken1 a renewed effort should be made1 when a little additional way may be gained4 ,after this1 a further hold should be taken1 and thus adapting the grasp of the instrument to each pull1 and proceeding gradually1 the molar may be extracted4 ,the operator1 however1 must not1 in every instance1 anticipate that he will be thus successful4 ,the tooth may be perceptibly moved1 but after this it may resist all subsequent attempts4 ,the surgeon will become aware that only great force could accomplish his wishes1 and he will therefore reflect whether the employment of the necessary violence might not fracture the jaw as well as extract the tooth4 ,something has been gained by rupturing the arteries and nerves4 ,the pain and course of the disease has1 in a degree1 been checked4 ,the molar is no longer a part of the body1 but a foreign substance2 and ,nature1 if left alone1 will proceed in her own way to eject it4 ,the course1 however1 that ,nature1 if unaided1 would pursue1 might be too slow to prevent evil consequences4 ,the operator1 therefore1 discontinues his attempts for the present2 and though some foolish persons will think slightly of him1 for not at once doing the thing he desired to accomplish1 he orders the animal to be let up1 and led back into the stable4 ,many a proprietor has been so displeased by this1 that he has thereupon sought other advice2 and the next operator has pleasingly surprised him1 by extracting1 with ease1 the tooth which the first wisely forbore to wrench out of the jaw4 ,the fact is1 that the time which intervened had made a material change2 the molar had become loose1 and he who properly refused in the first instance to drag it forth1 would now1 had he been permitted1 have taken it out without difficulty4 ,indeed in every case where the operator is made conscious of great opposition from natural causes1 it is better to cease all attempts for the present--to wait for a week or two1 and then renew the trial2 and even make a third effort1 after a like pause1 rather than by unjustifiable violence hazard an accident1 perhaps more fatal in its consequences than the evil which it was desired should be removed4 ,the course of the malady allows the surgeon to exercise his patience1 without effort2 and even if danger threatened1 his principles teach him that force is never justifiable4 ,gentle1 resolute1 and collected1 must such a person be at all times3 the violence he seems to employ is but the proper application of his art1 and the speed he appears to make is but the graceful use of the time and means at his command4 ,often does he to the ignorant appear to be idle1 when he is only anxiously waiting for the proper time to commence his operations2 and frequently is he accused of precipitation1 when he knows that activity alone can crown his efforts with success4 ,let there then be no authority exercised over him whose painful duty it is to deal with disease4 ,the means at his command are confessedly small1 the end to be accomplished is acknowledged to be great4 ,the labour is harrassing1 the result is dubious1 and any interference can but deteriorate from the success of the issue4 ,a wise person will therefore see often1 observe much1 and think long1 before he presumes to suggest anything to a medical practitioner1 and never will a command issue from his mouth4 ,all1 however1 within and about the stable1 are1 for the most part1 in their own conceits1 qualified to cure the horse2 and curious are the suggestions obtrusively volunteered1 and the judgments pronounced during every operation4 ,frequently1 indeed1 is the animal sacrificed by the ignorance of its anxious attendants1 who1 in their zeal1 will often1 out of their scanty wages1 purchase injurious nostrums1 notwithstanding a member of the ,royal ,college of ,veterinary ,surgeons may be in regular attendance4 ,happily for the teeth1 no specifics are yet declared1 and the groom is therefore unwillingly obliged to be idle4 ,the owner should also be passive1 seeing that which is ordered is administered1 and taking care that no charms are employed4 ,when the tooth that was carious is in the early stage extracted1 the animal is by a little constitutional treatment1 afterwards quickly restored1 but from time to time will require attention2 for the teeth that have once been operated on1 will1 at intervals1 ever after during the life of the horse1 need the hand of the surgeon4 ,if caries1 however1 is neglected1 and proceeds to the last stage1 cure is all but hopeless4 ,during the death of a tooth1 the symptoms are continuous4 ,in caries1 there are intermissions1 seasons of uncertain duration1 during which the horse appears to be free from suffering2 but the effects1 if not so rapid in their development1 are more frequently fatal in their termination4 ,when a tooth has lost its vitality1 it becomes a foreign body1 which ,nature1 in time1 will cast out4 ,the retention irritates the surrounding structures1 but the irritation may in part be regarded as a restorative process4 ,when caries takes place1 a portion only dies1 but that portion has all the injurious effect which could be attributed to the former case1 and even more1 for the remaining vitality in the unaffected part of the tooth1 prevents ,nature from resorting to that process by which she would otherwise cast off the dead matter4 ,in consequence of this1 a foreign substance is retained for a longer period1 and at the same time disease is progressing4 ,here1 therefore1 is an additional cause at work1 and hence the excess of effect4 ,the arteries which nourish the pulp1 and the crusta petrosa1 proceed from the vessels which nurture the bone1 and supply the mucous membrane of the sinuses with the means of secretion4 ,the same1 likewise1 may be stated of the nerves going to the tooth1 and though through these last the constitution is affected1 it is mainly through the agency of the blood vessels1 that the sinuses become diseased4 ,hence the necessity for decision1 and the need of judgment1 in the application of the remedy4 ,to enforce the foregoing remarks1 and convey to the reader a slight idea of the consequences which ensue from a carious tooth1 the accompanying wood-cut is introduced4 ,the specimen selected for illustration1 does not exhibit a rare or extraordinary proof of the results of this species of disease4 ,illustration ,the head of a horse has been divided below the orbits1 and a back view of the facial portion is here shown1 the spectator being supposed to look into the cavities1 which have been thereby exposed4 a indicates the molar teeth on that side which was not the seat of disease1 and they are of the natural length and obliquity4 b denotes the teeth on that side where the disease was seated1 and shows them to be not only unusually slanting on their grinding surfaces or tables1 but also of considerable length4 ,it was the last tooth on this side which was carious1 and the shape of the molars has been occasioned by the animal during its life1 being unable1 because of pain1 to freely use these organs in chewing its food4 ,the effort to avoid any stress upon the diseased tooth1 has caused those on the same side to suffer only partial attrition2 hence they have become long and slanting1 presenting sharp pointed edges1 which lacerated the lining membrane of the mouth4 ,the incisors1 a distant view of which is given1 likewise display the consequence of the animal's mode of feeding4 ,turning from the teeth to the exposed cavities above them1 it will be seen that these are not symmetrical1 or of equal dimensions1 which in the head of a healthy subject1 they undoubtedly ought to be4 ,those on the diseased side are not only the largest1 but differently formed4 ,the alteration has resulted from the inflammation and accumulation of pus within them4 ,something besides pus1 however1 has been thrown out4 e represents the healthy maxillary sinus as an empty space3 d is the like part1 but it is here filled by a fine cellular structure composed of bone1 which has been produced by the action of disease4 ,the plates which form the cells are delicately thin1 and beautifully arranged3 the little cavities were once full of a thick and sanguineous matter1 and the larger spaces above them contained a very fetid but almost solid substance1 which was pus1 that1 by being pent up1 had become of a cheesy consistency4 c indicates the nasal division1 or cartilaginous wall1 which separates the two chambers of the nose4 ,as will be observed1 it has been forced on one side by the enlargement of the affected parts4 #fj4 ,the agents which are likely to injure the teeth1 have been1 perhaps1 too little regarded1 especially when the importance of these organs to the horse is considered4 ,some grooms1 to increase the appetites of the animals under their care1 sprinkle vitriol1 or sulphuric acid upon the food2 and the horse will ultimately become fond of this kind of seasoning to his corn4 ,some veterinary surgeons1 even of high standing1 will administer monstrous doses of the sulphates in solution2 and others will mingle1 for a lengthened period1 large quantities of the acids in the animal's water4 ,no suspicion seems hitherto to have been entertained of the ill effects likely to ensue upon a mode of treatment1 which is often prolonged for months4 ,the human physician1 however1 has remarked1 that most acids have a tendency to affect the teeth1 and that sulphuric acid1 whether in the diluted state1 or in combination with substances of low affinity1 is particularly destructive in this respect4 ,the patient who now takes the soluble preparations of iron1 is provided with an instrument to convey the liquid into the pharynx1 and prevent any portion of it from coming in contact with the teeth4 ,those who swallow such a form of medicine1 without employing the tube1 soon exhibit the consequence in the general discolourization and decay of the mouth4 ,the man1 however1 gulps his physic1 and can rinse out his mouth if the taste be retained2 the horse1 when it takes a drench1 holds the liquid for a considerable time before it swallows1 and the administration of the fluid is not very quickly accomplished4 ,now1 in proportion to the duration of contact would be the effect2 and if the hasty deglutition of the one being cannot save the teeth from the ravage of the sulphate1 is the prolonged retention of the substance likely to be without effect upon the same organs in the other8 ,the horse1 however1 takes the sulphates of a strength which the human being would not survive--where the one for a dose swallows a grain1 the other may imbibe a drachm4 ,the consequences must bear some proportion to the quantity1 nor will the composition of the horse's tooth allow us to suppose that it is less affected by chemical agents4 ,the enamel of the horse is more speedily acted upon than that of any other animal ,i am acquainted with2 and the substance being unorganized1 the results obtained by experiments tried on it when removed from the body1 are as conclusive as any effects produced during the life of the animal4 ,the sulphates are potent and valuable medicines2 the ,veterinary ,pharmacopoeia could not afford to discard them2 but they can be administered in substance1 and should with caution be exhibited in a liquid form4 ,i am positive when promulgating this opinion1 and nevertheless ,i have no instance of their injurious effects to adduce4 ,i have not been able to trace caries in the horse to the use of the sulphates or of acids1 but the mind often recognises what the senses fail to perceive2 and the fact is so clear to reason1 that it is not disproved1 because it hitherto has not been rendered plain to the vision4 ,neither does it invalidate my conclusion to adduce instances where the horse had been observed to exhibit no affection subsequent to the use of these medicines4 ,the negative can establish nothing4 ,the cause has not been suspected1 and the effect1 of course1 has not yet been observed2 but we abuse our reason1 if we refuse to listen to its teachings4 ,i am not likely to have met with the proof it may be desirable ,i should adduce2 for perceiving the evil ,i early forbore1 to render possible any evidence of its tendency in my own practice4 ,herein lies my excuse2 and though it may not be satisfactory to all1 the arguments ,i have advanced1 ,i think1 must be plain to everybody4 ,the sulphates1 in substance1 are as efficacious as when given in solution2 and if so large doses cannot be administered in the former manner1 the necessity for such prodigious quantities has never been demonstrated4 ,let it1 therefore1 only be admitted1 that there is room for suspicion1 and perseverance in the old practice is no longer justifiable4 ,the number of horses that exhibit diseased teeth1 teaches us to look for some cause4 ,i cannot attribute every case to derangement of the digestive organs1 or to idiosyncracy4 ,the latter term rather avoids the question than elucidates it2 and the former effect is as likely to be produced by imperfect mastication1 consequent upon chemical injury to the teeth1 as to be the primary cause of the disease of the masticatory organs4 #fa4 ,the instruments used in connexion with the teeth of the horse are not very numerous4 ,the gum lancet1 shaped like that used by the human surgeon1 and employed after the same manner1 is seldom required1 save for the tushes1 when any knife will be found equally if not even more convenient4 ,the rasp or file1 for it is either1 according to the taste of the surgeon1 though most commonly the former1 consists of the necessary part that gives the name to the instrument attached to a long lever1 which is inserted into a handle4 ,its employment is rather laborious than difficult1 and demands more endurance than skill on the part of the practitioner4 ,several of different degrees of coarseness should be used1 and during the operation1 a pail of water ought to be at hand1 so that the roughened surface may be constantly washed and moistened1 to increase its cutting power1 and prevent it becoming clogged4 ,the rasp1 however1 though fitted to reduce any slight inequality1 or take down the sharp edges of the teeth1 is not sufficiently operative to level the long projections that are often found in the horse's mouth4 ,for that purpose a guarded chisel has been employed2 but the blow of the hammer or mallet very often fractures the alveolar cavities1 and the cutting edge1 despite the guard1 generally wounds the mouth4 ,the rasp may be tedious1 but the chisel is dangerous2 and neither one or the other are proper for the purpose1 though till lately1 these rude tools were the only dental instruments the veterinary surgeon could boast of4 ,a want of some more surgical and appropriate means of shortening the projecting molars has long been seriously felt2 and that want the ingenuity of ,mr4 ,t4 ,w4 ,gowing1 the esteemed practitioner of ,camden ,town1 to whose inventive genius the members of the veterinary profession are so largely indebted1 has at length supplied4 ,the instruments he has constructed have two grand recommendations3 they are equally simple and effective4 ,seeing how little complexity they exhibit1 it seems strange that no one should have previously thought of them2 but the same thing is generally said of every invention of real utility4 ,the only difficulty in these matters is to catch the idea1 and this ,mr4 ,gowing has most happily accomplished4 ,he has produced a complete set of veterinary dental instruments2 discarding all of those which have hitherto been employed1 with the exception of the mouth rasp1 which he leaves untouched4 ,instead of the old tooth key which was so formidable to look at1 but so difficult and often impossible to use1 he employs a pair of forceps1 of which the following wood-cut will give the reader some idea4 ,illustration ,they are about twenty-two inches long1 in order that they may be applied1 if required1 to the most backward of the grinders1 and of such substance1 as renders impossible any springy action which might cause the bite to be lost when the force was applied4 ,as will be imagined1 forceps of such dimensions are not to be used by the unassisted hand4 ,the reader1 by looking at the end of the handles1 will observe that one is comparatively large3 the smaller of the two contains within it a female screw1 and the other is only a plain eye4 ,to act on these1 a cross handle or lever is added1 and of this the following is an outline4 ,illustration ,this1 as is shown in the wood-cut1 consists of two pieces1 the smaller of which works freely in a hole made for its reception1 and being curved at one end1 can be either extended in the manner represented above1 or laid close to the lever in the way depicted in the next view of the instrument4 ,it is what is technically called a tommy1 and its use is to gain dispatch and power in the employment of the forceps4 ,the main part consists of a rod of steel1 having in the centre a screw1 which at the end towards the tommy exhibits an enlargement or shoulder4 ,such are the various parts1 and when using them1 the operator having fixed the claws of the forceps upon the tooth he wishes to extract1 gives the forceps to an assistant1 whom he orders to hold them firmly in their situation4 ,he then takes the handle1 and introducing it through the open eye with the tommy as rapidly as possible1 winds it round until he feels the grasp is secure4 ,any amount of power can be thus obtained2 for as the screw threads through one handle1 the shoulder presses against the other1 and thus forcing the claws together1 fixes them upon the substance which may be placed between them4 ,when this is done1 the operator closes or folds up the free lever1 and using both hands1 has at his command a power which will not necessitate employment of his utmost strength4 ,illustration ,the above wood-cut depicts the forceps as they appear when put together2 and to render their mode of action more clear1 a body indicative of the situation which the tooth would occupy1 has been introduced4 ,the advantages which these forceps have over the tooth-key in common use1 are so obvious1 that the reader will not require they should be pointed out4 ,the benefits which this instrument confers1 are indeed great2 neither can it be supposed that the principle can be changed1 or its adaptation improved upon4 ,for its purpose1 the thing appears perfect2 and ,i can speak confidently as to the admirable manner in which it acts4 ,one caution1 however1 may not be unnecessary4 ,all surgical instruments are capable of being abused1 and in exact proportion to their utility is their liability to abuse4 ,with ,mr4 ,gowing's forceps a horse's jaw could be easily broken1 or he who did not know the power of the screw1 would1 if he kept on winding the handle1 crush the tooth it was his intention to secure4 ,so much strength is gained that the judgment must be employed to regulate it4 ,huge as the instrument looks1 it requires delicacy in the hand which uses it4 ,with such a tool at his command1 a child is in power equal to a giant2 and the man therefore must exercise his mind rather than strain his muscles1 when he has to operate with it4 ,in cautious hands it gives every facility that could be desired1 and is both more certain in its action1 and more expeditious in its results than anything of the kind which we at present possess1 besides having the further advantage of not requiring those adjustments and unsatisfactory changes which the common instruments necessitate to be made4 ,for extraction1 nothing beyond these forceps is wanted3 they answer every purpose2 but the veterinary surgeon is less frequently called upon to extract1 than to shorten the horse's teeth4 ,to this subject ,mr4 ,gowing has likewise given his attention1 and it is pleasant to state he has equally succeeded4 ,the ordinary chisel was alike inefficient and dangerous4 ,the guard was not sufficient to prevent the edge from seriously wounding the mouth1 and the chisel could remove but a small portion at a time4 ,the shock1 moreover1 was sustained by the tooth itself1 which1 transferring the force to the alveolar cavity1 was too often the cause of fracture4 ,when cautiously conducted1 the operation was tedious1 and the struggles of the horse were not devoid of danger4 ,we were possessed of nothing which1 at a single blow1 could remove the entire bulk of a projecting tooth4 ,to supply this desideratum was ,mr4 ,gowing's object1 and the annexed wood-cut will1 at a glance1 convince the reader that the requirement has been satisfactorily complied with4 ,illustration ,a long cylindrical tube1 of sufficient stoutness to afford the requisite strength1 forms the handle of this instrument1 and being hollow1 permits a chisel to work freely within it4 ,indeed the chisel would work too freely if some means were not employed to steady it1 therefore a large bulb1 which is filled with packing and constitutes a stuffing box1 is fixed at one end1 and by pressing against the shaft of the chisel prevents it from being too readily displaced2 though at the same time it allows of the cutting agent being propelled1 with all the force that could be desired4 ,the bulb likewise serves another purpose1 as it gives the operator a firm grasp1 and prevents the danger of the hold being lost when the instrument is struck4 ,at the opposite end of the handle there is a frame1 the further part or base of which is sharp upon the inner side2 within this frame the chisel plays1 and by it therefore is securely guarded4 ,when the instrument is used1 the chisel is drawn back to about the extent represented in the foregoing wood-cut1 and into the space thus created is introduced the projecting tooth1 which consequently is encircled on every side1 and both before and behind is between two cutting edges4 ,the operator then firmly grasps the handle1 and applies to it such force as he calculates will be sufficient to counteract the effect of that blow which he is about to deliver4 ,with a hammer of adequate weight he now strikes the head of the chisel1 and the tooth flies off4 ,the operation is instantaneous1 and so far it is an advantage2 but beyond this is the safety which accompanies it4 ,the softer parts cannot be wounded1 for the action is strictly circumscribed in every direction1 but the main principle of the invention remains to be pointed out4 ,however great may be the force employed1 no sensible jar is communicated to the jaw4 ,the writer has held between his fingers a tooth which has been divided with this instrument at a single blow1 and the shock was so trivial as to be unworthy of any notice4 ,the concussion is received upon the guard resting against the hind part of the tooth1 and beyond that annoyance which the accompanying sound may excite1 the horse suffers no inconvenience4 ,fracture of the alveolar processes is rendered impossible1 and the ease with which the instrument is applied1 considerably enhances its value4 ,it would1 however1 be of service only when the tooth was large1 and the entire body projected above the level of the other molars4 ,it is not unfrequent for portions of the grinders1 worn into various angles1 to present themselves1 and to occasion very serious effects upon the health of the horse4 ,to remove these is of no less importance than to cut off the more regular and larger substance2 and ,mr4 ,gowing has produced instruments capable of fulfilling these intentions4 ,in the first place he has improved upon the old guarded chisel1 concerning the danger and inefficiency of which1 remarks have been already made4 ,illustration ,in the old tool the cutting surface was small1 being rarely more than three quarters of an inch broad1 and the blunt sides afforded rather a show of protection than any positive security4 ,mr4 ,gowing has increased the breadth needed to make the chisel useful1 and he has also added two falling sides1 that1 dropping over the lateral surfaces of the molars1 guide the instrument1 which works as in a groove4 ,more steadiness is thus obtained1 and the operator1 consequently1 can act with decision4 ,the new chisel1 however1 is not intended to be used alone2 if singly employed1 it might do some damage1 and fracture almost as readily be induced as formerly4 ,to prevent such an accident other aids were imperative1 and perceiving this1 the instrument1 which the following wood-cut represents1 was invented by ,mr4 ,gowing4 ,illustration ,it is carved1 so as to be suited to the shape of the horse's mouth1 and at one end has a handle1 while at the other is a cutting edge1 between two circular guards1 which prevent any injury being done to the softer parts4 ,when a shelving projection of tooth is to be removed1 this instrument is introduced into the mouth1 and the sharp edge is lodged against the back of the tooth1 when it is given to an assistant to hold1 while the operator1 taking the chisel1 proceeds to employ it in the way before mentioned4 ,the object here is two-fold4 ,in the first place1 the chisel is restrained or prevented from being urged against the posterior of the mouth by the stroke of the hammer2 and in the next place1 the concussion is received upon the instrument1 and taken from the jaw4 ,sometimes when a tooth is loose1 but not either of sufficient size1 or fitting shape1 for the application of the forceps1 the sharp edge can be got to a certain degree behind1 and under it1 when by a wrenching action it can be either elevated or forced out4 ,there are1 however1 cases in which none of the instruments hitherto described answer so well as might be wished4 ,frequently little pieces or sharp corners of teeth project1 and to remove these1 demands more variety of position on the part of the operator1 than the previous instruments will admit of4 ,to meet this difficulty1 ,mr4 ,gowing1 who to the surgery of the teeth has devoted more study than any person has hitherto bestowed upon the subject1 invented the instrument represented in the annexed wood-cut4 ,illustration ,in principle it is similar to the one which preceded it1 but the handle being at the side instead of above1 it can be adapted to those irregularities which the former would not readily catch4 ,the operator can move it about at his pleasure1 and where nicety is required1 he can1 with it1 take off particles1 such as the previous instruments would not enable him to touch4 ,it consists of a cutting edge1 guarded on one side by the handle1 and on the other by a rounded projection4 ,in the manner of its application1 it is similar to the last1 and like that is held by an assistant when used in operation4 ,for many points this is of much service1 but in order to be prepared for every difficulty1 a pair of them suited to the opposite sides are required4 ,possessed of these the veterinary surgeon has1 for the first time1 what may be regarded as a complete set of dental instruments1 with which he can operate1 with ease to himself1 and without hazard to his patient4 ,the mouth rasp is all that he requires1 in addition to what has been depicted2 and thus armed1 he can overcome obstacles which once bid defiance to his skill4 ,,finis4 ,g4 ,j4 ,e4 ,,wilson1 ,printers1 ,george ,court1 ,piccadilly4 ,,fores',s ,,sporting ,,engravings1 ,,accurately ,,coloured ,,from ,,the ,,original ,,pictures4 ,,fores',s ,,national ,,sports4 ,,fox ,,hunting4 ,from the ,original ,pictures by ,,mr4 ,j4 ,f4 ,,herring1 ,sen4 ,a ,,series ,,of ,,four ,,admirably ,,coloured ,,engravings4 ,price to ,subscribers1 #aj #ajs4--,size1 with margin for ,framing1 #de inches long by #bf high4 ,the ,set comprises-- ,plate ,i4--,,the ,,meet4 ,delightful scene6 ,where all around is gay--men1 horses1 dogs1 ,and in each smiling countenance appears ,fresh blooming health and universal joy4 ,then to the copse1 ,thick with entangling grass or prickly furze1 ,with silence lead thy many-coloured hounds ,in all their beauty's pride4--,,somervile4 ,plate ,,ii4--,,the ,,find4 ,hark6 what loud shouts ,re-echo thro' the groves3 he breaks away2 ,shrill horns proclaim his flight2 each straggling hound ,strains o'er the lawn to reach the distant pack4 ',tis triumph all and joy4 ,hark6 on the drag ,i hear ,their doubtful notes preluding to a cry2 ,more nobly full1 and swell'd with every mouth4--,,somervile4 ,plate ,,iii4--,,the ,,run4 ,the riders bend ,o'er their arch'd necks2 with steady hands1 by turns ,indulge their speed1 or moderate their rage4 ,happy the man who with unrivall'd speed ,can pass his fellows1 and with pleasure view ,the struggling pack4--,,somervile4 ,plate ,,iv4--,,the ,,kill4 ,the pack inquisitive1 with clamour loud1 ,drag out their trembling prize2 and on his blood ,with greedy transport feast4 ,a chosen few ,alone the sport enjoy1 nor droop beneath ,their pleasing toils4--,,somervile4 ,corresponding in ,size and ,style with ,,fores',s ,,national ,,sports-- ,plate ,i4--,the ,,start ,,for ,,the ,,derby4 ,plate ,,ii4--,,steeple-,,chase ,,cracks4 ,price #c #cs4 #j;d4 each4 ,coloured in close imitation of the ,original ,pictures by ,,mr4 ,j4 ,f4 ,,herring1 ,,sen4 ,,london3 ,,published ,,by ,,messrs4 ,,fores1 #da1 ,,piccadilly1 7,,corner ,,of ,,sackville ,,street47 ,,fores',s ,,hunting ,,scenes1 ,price #abs4 each1 ,coloured1 from ,pictures by ,h4 ,,alken4 ,plate #a4 ,the ,first introduction to ,hounds4 ,a string of young horses1 crossed by a pack of hounds in full cry1 put on their mettle for the chase1 proving ,what's bred in the bone will show in the flesh4 ,plate #b4 ,renewal of ,acquaintance with ,hounds4 ,the young bloods represented in ,plate #a41 having had their day1 now form a team1 and being brought out for the change1 are startled by the well-known music of hounds giving tongue1 and dash after them in true hunting style1 as they were wont to do4 ,,fores',s ,,hunting ,,accomplishments1 ,,indispensable ,,with ,,hounds4 ,six ,plates1 price #a #es41 ,coloured1 from ,original ,drawings by ,h4 ,,alken4 #a4 ,,going ,,along ,a ,,slapping ,,pace4 #b4 ,,topping ,a ,,flight ,,of ,,rails1 ,,and ,,coming ,,well ,,into ,,the ,,next ,,field4 #c4 ,,swishing ,a ,,rasper4 #d4 ,,in ,,and ,,out ,,clever4 #e4 ,,charging ,,an ,,ox ,,fence4 #f4 ,,facing ,a ,,brook4 ,,fores',s ,,hunting ,,casualties1 ,,that ,,may ,,occur ,,with ,,hounds4 ,six ,plates1 price #a #es41 ,coloured1 from ,original ,drawings by ,h4 ,,alken4 #a4 ,a ,,turn ,,of ,,speed ,,over ,,the ,,flat4 ,the result of being broke in a grazing country4 #b4 ,a ,,strange ,,country4 ,only give him his head1 and he'll bring you in at the death4 #c4 ,,despatched ,,to ,,head ,,quarters4 ,taking it with a ,military ,seat4 #d4 ,,up ,,to ,,sixteen ,,stone4 ,master of my weight1 but would rather my weight was master of him4 #e4 ,a ,,rare ,,sort ,,for ,,the ,,downs4 ,they told me he'd leave everything behind him4 #f4 ,a ,,mutual ,,determination4 ,if he goes on at this rate ,i'm afraid ,i must part with him4 ,,left ,,at ,,home1 ,,from ,,the ,,original ,,picture ,,by ,,mr4 ,r4 ,b4 ,,davis4 ,,proofs 444 #b #b #j ,,prints1 ,,coloured #a #aa #f ,represents a fine stamp of ,hunter1 and ,hounds of perfect form1 excited by the sound of the huntsman's horn4--,a subject full of life1 and possessing inexpressible charms for the eye of a sportsman4 ,price #es41 post free1 #es4 #f;d4 ,fores's ,hunting ,diary1 ,to record the sport of the season with ,fox ,hounds1 ,stag ,hounds1 and ,harriers4 ,coloured1 price #ajs41 ,fores's ,hunting ,rack1 ,a ,receptacle for the ,appointment ,cards4 ,appointment ,cards for ,ditto1 #es4 ,arranged for the ,meets of ,three ,packs4 ,pocket ,hunting ,maps1 price #cs4 #f;d4 and #es4 each4 ,,published ,,by ,,messrs4 ,,fores1 #da1 ,,piccadilly1 7,,corner ,,of ,,sackville ,,street47 ,,fores',s ,,contrasts1 ,,from ,,original ,,pictures ,,by ,,mr4 ,h4 ,,alken4 ,price #ajs4 each ,plate1 ,coloured1 ,illustrative of the ,road1 the ,rail1 c4 ,i4--,,the ,,driver 7,coachman7 of #ahcb--,,the ,,driver 7,engineer7 of #aheb4 ,,ii4--,,the ,,guard 7,coach7 of #ahcb--,,the ,,guard 7locomotive7 of #aheb4 ,,iii4--,,the ,,driver of the ,,mail of #ahcb--,,the ,,driver of the ,,mail of #aheb4 ,,iv4--,,st4 ,,george',s--,,st4 ,,giles',s4 ,,fores',s ,,series ,,of ,,the ,,british ,,stud4 ,,portraits ,,of ,,celebrated ,,stallions ,,and ,,mares ,whose ,performances and ,produce are well known on the ,turf1 ,price #a #as4 each1 coloured1 from the ,original ,pictures by ,mr4 ,j4 ,f4 ,,herring1 sen4 #a4 ,sir ,hercules and ,beeswing4 #b4 ,touchstone and ,emma4 #c4 ,pantaloon and ,languish4 #d4 ,camel and ,banter4 #e4 ,muley ,moloch and ,rebecca4 #f4 ,lanercost and ,crucifix4 #g4 ,bay ,middleton and ,barbelle4 7,the ,sire and ,dam of ,,the ,,flying ,,dutchman47 ,,fores',s ,,racing ,,scenes4 ,price #bas4 each1 coloured1 from ,pictures painted expressly by ,,mr4 ,j4 ,f4 ,,herring1 sen4 ,plate #a4 ,,ascot4 ,,the ,,emperor1 ,,faugh ,a ,,ballagh1 and ,,alice ,,hawthorn1 ,,running ,,for ,,the ,,emperor',s ,,plate1 ,,value #ejj ,,sovs4 ,plate #b4 ,,york4 ,,the ,,flying ,,dutchman ,,and ,,voltigeur ,,running ,,the ,,great ,,match ,,for #ajjj ,,sovs4 ,a ,,side4 ,,fores',s ,,celebrated ,,winners4 ,price #bas4 each1 coloured1 from ,pictures by ,,mr4 ,j4 ,f4 ,,herring1 sen41 and others4 #a4 ,,the ,,hero1 ,,with ,,john ,,day1 ,,sen41 ,,and ,,alfred ,,day4 #b4 ,,the ,,flying ,,dutchman1 ,,with ,j4 ,,fobert ,,and ,c4 ,,marlow4 #c4 ,,teddington1 ,,with ,a4 ,,taylor ,,and ,,job ,,marson4 ,,published ,,by ,,messrs4 ,,fores1 #da1 ,,piccadilly1 7,,corner ,,of ,,sackville ,,street74 ,,fores',s ,,stable ,,scenes4 ,,engraved ,,from ,,paintings ,,by ,,mr4 ,j4 ,f4 ,,herring1 ,,sen4 ,price #d #ds4 the set of ,four1 highly coloured4 #a4 ,,the ,,mail ,,change4 #b4 ,,the ,,hunting ,,stud4 #c4 ,,thorough-,,breds4 #d4 ,,the ,,team4 ,,fores',s ,,coaching ,,recollections4 ,,engraved ,,from ,,paintings ,,by ,,mr4 ,c4 ,c4 ,,henderson4 ,price #e #es4 the set of ,five1 highly coloured4 #a4 ,,changing ,,horses4 #b4 ,,all ,,right4 #c4 ,,pulling ,,up ,,to ,,unskid4 #d4 ,,waking ,,up4 #e4 ,,the ,,olden ,,time4 ,,fores',s ,,coaching ,,incidents4 ,,engraved ,,from ,,paintings ,,by ,,mr4 ,c4 ,c4 ,,henderson3 ,price #d #ajs4 the set of ,six1 highly coloured4 #a4 ,,knee ,,deep4 #b4 ,,stuck ,,fast4 #c4 ,,flooded4 #d4 ,,the ,,road v4 ,,the ,,rail4 #e4 ,,in ,,time ,,for ,,the ,,coach4 #f4 ,,late ,,for ,,the ,,mail4 ,,fores',s ,,sporting ,,traps4 ,,from ,,the ,,original ,,pictures ,,by ,,mr4 ,c4 ,c4 ,,henderson4 ,price #bas4 each1 coloured1 ,,to ,,range ,,with ,,the ,,stable ,,scenes ,,and ,,coaching ,,recollections4 #a4 ,,going ,,to ,,the ,,moors4 #b4 ,,going ,,to ,,cover4 ,,fores',s ,,road ,,scenes4 ,,going ,,to ,a ,,fair4 ,,painted ,,by ,,mr4 ,c4 ,c4 ,,henderson4 ,price #aes4 each1 coloured4 #a4 ,,hunters ,,and ,,hacks4 #b4 ,,cart ,,horses4 ,,published ,,by ,,messrs4 ,,fores1 ,,at ,,their ,sporting and ,fine ,engraving ,repository and ,frame ,manufactory1 #da1 ,,piccadilly1 7,,corner ,,of ,,sackville ,,street47 ,fores's ,marine ,sketches4 ,price #ajs4 each1 coloured2 tinted1 #es4 each4 ,the ,cutter ,yacht ,,maria1 #agj ,tons4 ,the ,schooner ,yacht ,,america1 #ahj ,tons4 ,the ,schooner ,yacht ,,alarm1 #bdh ,tons4 ,the ,cutter ,yacht ,,volante1 #di ,tons4 ,the ,emperor of ,russia's ,iron ,steam ,yacht ,,alexandria4 ,the ,cutter ,yacht ,,cynthia1 #ej ,tons4 ,the ,schooner ,yacht ,,nancy ,,dawson1 #afj ,tons4 ,the ,schooner ,yacht ,,wyvern1 #bje ,tons4 ,a ,pair4 ,the ,schooner ,yacht ,,leda1 #abj ,tons4 ,a ,pair4 ,,yachting--,,scene ,,off ,,cowes1 ,,isle ,,of ,,wight4 ,the ,,royal ,,navy--,the ,,victory ,,saluting ,,her ,,majesty4 ,price #bas4 each1 coloured2 #ajs4 #f;d4 plain4 ,the ,,kestrel1 ,r4,y4,s4 ,the ,,dolphin1 ,r4,t4,y4,c4 ,a ,,collection ,,of ,,marine ,,pictures ,,and ,,drawings ,,by ,,superior ,,artists4 ,,fores',s ,,sporting ,,scraps1 ,price #gs4 per sheet1 coloured2 or #bs4 each mounted as ,drawings4 #a4 ,,steeplechasing4 ,,the ,,start4 ,,the ,,wall4 ,,the ,,brook4 ,,the ,,finish4 #b4 ,,hunting4 ,,going ,,to ,,the ,,meet4 ,,the ,,meet4 ,,cover ,,side4 ,,drawing ,,cover4 #c4 ,,hunting4 ,,tally ,,ho6 ,,the ,,burst4 ,a ,,check4 ,,full ,,cry4 #d4 ,,hunting4 ,,run ,,to ,,earth4 ,,bolting ,,the ,,fox4 ,,whoop4 ,,the ,,return ,,home4 #e4 ,,racing4 ,,saddling4 ,,ready ,,for ,a ,,canter4 ,,the ,,start4 ,,the ,,struggle4 #f4 ,,coursing4 ,,going ,,out4 ,,soho6 ,,the ,,course4 ,,the ,,death4 #g4 ,,boating4 ,,four-,,oar',d ,,outrigger4 ,,pair-,,oar',d ,,outrigger4 ,a ,,funny ,,sculler',s ,,outrigger4 ,,fores',s ,,steeplechase ,,scenes4 ,six ,plates1 coloured1 price #b #abs4 #f;d41 from ,original ,drawings by ,,mr4 ,h4 ,,alken4 #a4 ,,the ,,starting ,,field4 ,a picked lot1 possessed of judgment and confidence4 #b4 ,,wattle ,,fence ,,with ,a ,,deep ,,drop4 ,skill and nerve brought into play4 #c4 ,,in ,,and ,,out ,,of ,,the ,,lane4 ,science and a firm seat put to the test4 #d4 ,,the ,,warren ,,wall4 ,a quick eye and steady hand often save a fall4 #e4 ,,the ,,brook4 ,the pace and pluck clear it gallantly4 #f4 ,,the ,,run ,,in4 ,a good finisher1 backed by luck1 lands him a winner4 ,,fores',s ,,anatomical ,,plates ,,of ,,the ,,horse4 ,price #fs41 mounted on ,cloth to fold up like a ,map1 ,the ,age ,exhibited by the ,shape of the ,teeth4 ,price #es4 each1 mounted on ,cloth to fold up like a ,map4 ,the ,age ,exhibited by the ,tables of the ,teeth4 ,the ,structure of the ,foot clearly defined4 ,the ,muscles and ,tendons accurately delineated4 ,,published ,,by ,,messrs4 ,,fores1 #da1 ,,piccadilly1 7,,corner ,,of ,,sackville ,,street47 ,,fine ,,engravings1 ,,published ,,or ,,in ,,progress4 ,,the ,,arctic ,,council4 ,painted by ,s4 ,,pearce1 ,esq4 ,engraved by ,j4 ,,scott4 ,artists' ,proofs1 #f #fs42 ,prints1 #b #bs4 ,,there',s ,,life ,,in ,,the ,,old ,,dog ,,yet4 ,,painted ,,by ,,sir ,e4 ,,landseer4 ,,engraved ,,by ,h4 ,t4 ,,ryall1 ,,esq4 ,artists' ,proofs1 #ab #abs4 ,prints1 #c #cs4 ,,weighing ,,the ,,stag4 ,painted by ,f4 ,,tayler1 ,esq4 ,engraved by ,t4 ,l4 ,,atkinson1 ,esq4 ,artists' ,proofs1 #ab #abs4 ,prints #d #ds4 ,,sir ,,richard ,,sutton',s ,,hounds4 ,painted by ,f4 ,,grant1 ,esq4 ,engraved by ,f4 ,,bromley1 ,esq4 ,proofs before ,letters1 #f #fs4 ,prints1 #c #cs4 ,,the ,,best ,,run ,,of ,,the ,,season4 ,painted by ,,sir ,e4 ,,landseer4 ,engraved by ,t4 ,,landseer1 ,esq4 ,artists' ,proofs1 #h #hs4 ,prints1 #b #bs4 ,,the ,,monarch ,,of ,,the ,,glen4 ,,painted ,,by ,,sir ,e4 ,,landseer4 ,,engraved ,,by ,t4 ,,landseer1 ,,esq4 ,artists' ,proofs1 #aj #ajs4 ,prints1 #c #cs4 ,,napoleon ,,crossing ,,the ,,alps4 ,,painted ,,by ,m4 ,,paul ,,delaroche4 ,,engraved ,,by ,m4 ,,francois4 ,artists' ,proofs1 #ab #abs4 ,prints1 #b #abs4 #f;d4 ,,sympathy4 ,painted by ,,frank ,,stone1 ,esq4 ,engraved by ,t4 ,l4 ,,atkinson1 ,esq4 ,artists' ,proofs1 #d #ds4 ,prints1 #a #as4 ,,portrait ,,of ,,lord ,,william ,,beresford4 ,,painted ,,by ,r4 ,,thorburn1 ,,esq4 ,,engraved ,,by ,w4 ,j4 ,,edwards1 ,,esq4 ,proofs1 #b #bs4 ,prints1 #a #as4 ,,the ,,duke ,,of ,,cambridge4 ,,painted ,,by ,j4 ,,crowley1 ,esq4 ,,engraved ,,by ,t4 ,l4 ,,atkinson1 ,esq4 ,artists' ,proofs1 #e #es4 ,prints1 #a #aas4 #f;d4 ,a ,,dialogue ,,at ,,waterloo4 ,painted by ,,sir ,e4 ,,landseer4 ,engraved by ,t4 ,l4 ,,atkinson1 ,esq4 ,artists' ,proofs1 #ae #aes4 ,prints1 #g #gs4 ,,the ,,rubber ,,at ,,whist4 ,painted by ,t4 ,,webster1 ,esq4 ,engraved by ,l4 ,,stocks1 ,esq4 ,artists' ,proofs1 #h #hs4 ,prints1 #b #bs4 ,,the ,,forester',s ,,family4 ,,painted ,,by ,,sir ,e4 ,,landseer4 ,,engraved ,,by ,t4 ,l4 ,,atkinson1 ,,esq4 ,artists' ,proofs1 #aj #ajs4 ,prints1 #d #ds4 ,,messrs4 ,,fores',s ,,repository ,,of ,,works ,,of ,,art1 #da1 ,,piccadilly 7,corner of ,sackville ,street7 ,,london4 ,,sporting ,,and ,,veterinary ,,works4 4s4 d4 ,,chamois ,,hunting by ,boner #j #ah #j ,,breeding ,,and ,,training ,,greyhounds ,stonehenge ,,yacht ,,list ,hunt #j #d #j ,,yacht ,,signals ,ackers #a #j #j ,,section ,,of ,a ,,line ,,of ,,battle ,,ship #aca ,,guns1 ,,in ,a ,,case ,pickering #a #e #j ,,seaman',s ,,manual ,dana #j #e #j ,,naval ,,architecture ,lord ,r4 ,montagu #j #f #j ,,mr4 ,,sponge',s ,,sporting ,,tour #j #ad #j ,,management ,,of ,,hounds ,scrutator #j #ae #j ,,the ,,life ,,of ,a ,,sportsman ,nimrod #b #b #j ,,the ,,life ,,of ,,john ,,mytton1 ,,esq4 ,ditto #a #e #j ,,the ,,condition ,,of ,,hunters ,ditto #j #ae #j ,,hunting ,,tours ,ditto #j #ae #j ,,the ,,chase1 ,,turf1 ,,and ,,road ,ditto #j #f #j ,,analysis ,,of ,,the ,,hunting ,,field #a #aa #f ,,jorrock',s ,,jaunts ,,and ,,jollities #a #e #j ,,the ,,roadster',s ,,album #a #aa #f ,,hunting ,,reminiscences ,wildrake #j #af #j ,,pictorial ,,gallery ,,of ,,english ,,race ,,horses ,geo4 ,tattersall #a #aj #j ,,sporting ,,architecture ,ditto #a #a #j ,,stable ,,talk ,,and ,,table ,,talk1 #b ,,vols ,harry ,hieover #a #d #j ,,the ,,pocket ,,and ,,the ,,stud ,ditto #j #e #j ,,the ,,stud ,,for ,,practical ,,purposes ,ditto #j #e #j ,,practical ,,horsemanship ,ditto #j #e #j ,,the ,,hunting ,,field ,ditto #j #e #j ,,the ,,proper ,,condition ,,for ,,all ,,horses ,ditto #j #e #j ,,sporting ,,facts ,,and ,,sporting ,,fancies ,ditto #j #ab #j ,,diary ,,of ,a ,,huntsman ,t4 ,smith #j #e #f ,,the ,,life ,,of ,a ,,fox ,ditto #j #c #j ,,the ,,life ,,of ,a ,,fox ,,hound ,j4 ,mills #j #aj #f ,,the ,,noble ,,science ,d4 ,radcliffe #j #ad #j ,,fores',s ,,guide ,,to ,,the ,,hounds ,,of ,,england ,glert #j #e #j ,,fores',s ,,hunting ,,rack #j #aj #j ,,appointment ,,cards ,,for ,,do4 #j #e #j ,,fores',s ,,hunting ,,diary #j #e #j ,,fores',s ,,game ,,book #j #b #f ,,the ,,stud ,,farm ,cecil #j #e #j ,,stable ,,practice ,ditto #j #e #j ,,hunting ,,atlas ,hobson #d #d #j ,,turf ,,reckoner ,,or ,,book ,,of ,,the ,,odds ,green #j #b #j ,,the ,,laws ,,of ,,horse ,,racing ,capt4 ,rous #j #c #f ,,training ,,the ,,race ,,horse1 #b ,,vols4 ,darvill #a #aj #j ,,deer ,,stalking ,w4 ,scrope #a #j #j ,,salmon ,,fishing ,ditto #b #b #j ,,hand ,,book ,,of ,,angling ,ephemera #j #i #j ,,british ,,angler',s ,,manual ,hofland #a #a #j ,,angler',s ,,companion ,stoddart #j #aj #f ,,wild ,,sports ,,of ,,the ,,highlands ,st4 ,john #j #f #j ,,the ,,bat ,felix #j #ab #j ,,the ,,cricket ,,field #j #e #j ,,dog ,,breaking ,hutchinson #j #g #f ,,the ,,modern ,,shooter ,lacy #a #a #j ,,gamekeeper',s ,,directory ,johnson #j #e #j ,,encyclop,,dia ,,of ,,rural ,,sports ,blaine #b #aj #j ,,veterinary ,,art ,ditto #a #a #j ,,canine ,,pathology ,ditto #j #i #j ,,white',s ,,farriery ,spooner #j #ad #j ,,farriery ,brown #j #ac #f ,,the ,,horse ,youatt #j #aj #j ,,the ,,dog ,ditto #j #f #j ,,the ,,horse',s ,,mouth ,mayhew #j #aj #f ,,the ,,horse',s ,,foot ,spooner #j #g #f ,,the ,,horse',s ,,foot ,miles #j #aj #f ,,two ,,casts ,,of ,,ditto ,ditto #j #f #j ,,the ,,ages ,,of ,,the ,,horse ,,in ,,case #j #e #j ,,the ,,muscles ,,of ,,the ,,horse ,,ditto #j #e #j ,,the ,,anatomy ,,of ,,the ,,horse',s ,,foot ,,ditto #j #e #j ,,stable ,,economy ,stewart #j #f #f ,,advice ,,to ,,purchasers ,,of ,,horses ,ditto #j #b #f ,,nature ,,and ,,management ,,of ,,the ,,horse ,roper #j #c #j ,,the ,,anatomy ,,of ,,the ,,horse ,percivall #a #j #j ,,hippopathology1 #e ,,vols4 ,ditto #c #ag #f ,,form ,,and ,,action ,,of ,,the ,,horse ,percivall #j #ab #j ,,veterinary ,,pharmacy ,morton #j #aj #j ,,notitia ,,venatica ,vyner #j #ae #j ,,the ,,racing ,,calendar4 ,,steeple-,,chase ,,calendar4 ,,stud ,,book1 ,,and ,,guide ,,to ,,the ,,turf4 ,,london1 ,,messrs4 ,,fores1 #da1 ,,piccadilly1 7,,corner ,,of ,,sackville ,,street47 ,may and ,december1 ,,from ,,the ,,admirable ,,picture ,,by ,,mr4 ,j4 ,l4 ,,brodie1 ,,exhibited ,,at ,,the ,,royal ,,academy1 ,engraved in ,mezzotint1 highly finished1 ,,by ,,mr4 ,w4 ,h4 ,,simmons4 ,,size ,,of ,,the ,,engraving1 ,,with ,,margin ,,for ,,framing1 #cj ,,by #be ,,inches4 ,artists' ,proofs #c #c #j ,proofs ,before ,letters #b #b #j ,prints #a #a #j ,prints1 ,coloured from the ,original ,picture #b #b #j ,,may ,,and ,,december4 ,engraved by ,w4 ,h4 ,simmons1 from a ,painting by ,j4 ,lamont ,brodie4--,fores ,co4 ,the visitors to the ,royal ,academy ,exhibition of the past year1 such at least of them as have an eye for the pleasing1 the merry1 and the bright--the admirers of ,allegro1 rather than her more solemn sister-nymph ,penseroso--must have noticed1 and having noticed1 been attracted1 by the clever painting of ,mr4 ,brodie1 bearing the title of ,may and ,december4 ,the original picture1 which can throw sunshine but on one apartment1 is now multiplied2 and numerous cheerful rays may beam from the walls of humbler persons of taste1 less fortunate than the possessor of the artist's first conception4 ,mr4 ,simmons has well performed his task of transferring from the canvas to the plate1 the spirit1 the mind1 the vis comica of the original1 while the depth of the middle-tinting and the chalklike softness of the flesh are evidences of his skilful care in the mechanical details4 ,the subject1 we may observe1 for the information of those who did not visit the ,exhibition1 is a fine ripe laughing lass1 a long way in her teens1 if not just coming out of them2 her face1 which smiles all over1 is turned full towards the spectator1 and her half-delighted1 half-mischievous eyes1 are glittering with a mixture of gratified vanity1 and a sense of the ludicrous absurdity of the situation of herself and her aged innamorato4 ,the latter is indeed ,december personified4 ,imagine a beetle-browed1 heavy-featured sexagenarian1 or perchance approximating the three-score-and-ten of man's pilgrimage1 bending1 with the devotion of an idol-worshipper1 over one of the plump hands of his earthly divinity1 which he holds in his gnarled and knotted fingers1 and presses to his sensual lips1 exposing over his artistically foreshortened face a polished cranium1 denuded of its hirsute covering1 except at the sides1 where two fiercely brushed tufts of white hair still stand upright in admirable agreement with the organic development of obstinacy in its general bony contour4 ,the accessories of the picture are also suggestive3 on the left1 where the mischievous maiden is seated1 are a modern flower-vase1 a guitar1 c41 and in the chimney glass is reflected the portrait of a moustached militaire 7doubtless a suitor for the fair hand here in the cold grasp of winter71 which looks down on the group with an expression of appealing regret4 ,on the right of the old man is a tankard of elegant chasing1 a pen1 and inkstand1 and the like emblems4 ,as a composition the picture is excellent1 and as a piece of genre painting1 and highly-finished engraving1 ,may and ,december is a most agreeable and talented work4--,morning ,advertiser4 ,,published ,,by ,,messrs4 ,,fores1 #da1 ,,piccadilly4 7,,corner ,,of ,,sackville ,,street47 ,london3 ,printed by ,,harrison ,,and ,,sons1 #de1 ,st4 ,martin's ,lane4 ,,fores',s ,,sporting ,,engravings4 ,fores's ,steeple-,chase ,scenes4 ,from ,original ,drawings1 by ,h4 ,,alken1 ,sen4 #a4 ,,the ,,starting ,,field4 #b4 ,,wattle ,,fence ,,with ,,deep ,,drop4 #c4 ,,in ,,and ,,out ,,of ,,the ,,lane4 #d4 ,,the ,,warren ,,wall4 #e4 ,,the ,,brook4 #f4 ,,the ,,run ,,in4 ,price #b4 #abs4 #f;d4 the ,set1 colored4 ,fores's ,national ,sports--,plates #a #b4 ,,the ,,start ,,for ,,the ,,memorable ,,derby4 ,,steeple-,,chase ,,cracks1 7,,going ,,at ,a ,,wall ,,full ,,tilt17 ,from ,pictures by ,mr4 ,j4 ,f4 ,,herring1 ,sen4 ,size of the ,engravings1 #db in4 by #ba4 ,price #c4 #cs4 each1 colored in close imitation of the ,original ,pictures4 ,fores's ,coaching ,recollections4 ,the ,set of ,five1 colored1 price #e4 #es4 ,by ,c4 ,c4 ,,henderson1 ,esq4 #a4 ,,changing ,,horses4 #b4 ,,all ,,right4 #c4 ,,pulling ,,up ,,to ,,unskid4 #d4 ,,waking ,,up4 #e4 ,,the ,,olden ,,time4 ,fores's ,stable ,scenes4 ,the ,set of ,four1 colored1 price #d4 #ds4 ,by ,mr4 ,j4 ,f4 ,,herring1 ,sen4 #a4 ,,the ,,mail ,,change4 #b4 ,,the ,,hunting ,,stud4 #c4 ,,thorough ,,breds4 #d4 ,,the ,,team4 ,fores's ,sporting ,traps4 ,from the ,original ,pictures1 by ,c4 ,c4 ,,henderson1 ,esq4 ,price #bas4 each1 colored4 ,to range with the ,stable ,scenes and ,coaching ,recollections4 ,plate #a4 ,,going ,,to ,,the ,,moors4 ,plate #b4 ,,going ,,to ,,cover4 ,fores's ,series of the ,british ,stud4 ,comprising ,portraits of the most celebrated ,thorough-bred ,stallions and ,mares4 #a4 ,,sir ,,hercules ,,and ,,beeswing4 #b4 ,,touchstone ,,and ,,emma4 #c4 ,,pantaloon ,,and ,,languish4 #d4 ,,camel ,,and ,,banter4 #e4 ,,muley ,,moloch ,,and ,,rebecca4 #f4 ,,lanercost ,,and ,,crucifix4 ,price #a4 #as4 each plate1 colored in close imitation of the ,original ,pictures1 painted expressly1 by ,mr4 ,j4 ,f4 ,,herring1 ,sen41 for this ,work4 ,fores's ,coaching ,incidents4 ,plate #a4 ,,knee ,,deep4 #b4 ,,stuck ,,fast4 #c4 ,,flooded4 #d4 ,,the ,,road ,,versus ,,rail4 #e4 ,,in ,,time ,,for ,,the ,,coach4 #f4 ,,late ,,for ,,the ,,mail4 ,price #aes4 each1 colored from the ,original ,pictures1 by ,c4 ,c4 ,,henderson1 ,esq4 ,fores's ,celebrated ,winners4 ,the ,,hero4 ,with ,portraits of ,,john ,,day1 ,sen41 and ,,alfred ,,day4 ,price #bas41 colored from the ,original ,picture4 ,painted expressly at ,danebury4 ,fores's ,steeple-,chase ,winners4 ,,brunette4 ,an admirable ,portrait of this extraordinary ,animal4 ,painted by ,mr4 ,j4 ,f4 ,,herring1 ,sen4 ,price #bas4 colored4 ,fores's ,racing ,scenes4 ,plate #a4 ,,ascot4 ,,the ,,emperor1 ,ridden by ,whitehouse4 ,,faugh ,a ,,ballagh1 ,bell4 ,,alice ,,hawthorn1 ,robinson4 ,running for the ,emperor's ,cup1 value #ejj4 ,price #bas41 colored from the ,original ,picture1 by ,mr4 ,j4 ,f4 ,,herring1 ,sen4 ,fores's ,road ,scenes4 ,price #a4 #ajs4 the ,pair1 colored from the ,original ,pictures1 by ,c4 ,c4 ,,henderson1 ,esq4 ,,horses ,,going ,,to ,a ,,fair4 #a4 ,,hunters ,,and ,,hacks4 #b4 ,,cart ,,horses4 ,fores's ,instructive ,anatomical ,plates of the ,horse4 ,the ,age exhibited by the ,tables of the ,teeth--the ,structure of the ,foot clearly defined--the ,muscles and ,tendons accurately delineated4 ,price #ds4 each ,plate colored1 #es4 each in a case pocket size1 or #es4 #f;d4 postage free4 ,,london3 ,published by ,,messrs4 ,,fores1 at their ,sporting ,fine ,print ,repository and ,frame ,manufactory1 #da1 ,piccadilly1 corner of ,sackville ,street4 ,,sporting ,,veterinary ,,works4 4s4 d4 ,,the ,,life ,,of ,a ,,sportsman by ,nimrod #b #b #j ,,the ,,life ,,of ,,john ,,mytton1 ,,esq4 ,ditto #a #e #j ,,the ,,condition ,,of ,,hunters ,ditto #j #ae #j ,,the ,,horse ,,and ,,the ,,hound ,ditto #j #ab #j ,,the ,,chase1 ,,turf1 ,,and ,,road ,ditto #j #i #f ,,hunting ,,tours ,ditto #j #ae #j ,,analysis ,,of ,,the ,,hunting ,,field #a #aa #f ,,the ,,roadster',s ,,album #b #ab #f ,,hunting ,,reminiscences ,wildrake #j #af #j ,,pictorial ,,gallery ,,of ,,english ,,race ,,horses ,ditto #j #ah #j ,,fores',s ,,turf ,,companion1 ,,containing #dj ,,portraits #a #aa #f ,,of ,,celebrated ,,old ,,race ,,horses ,,stable ,,talk ,,and ,,table ,,talk1 #b vols4 ,harry ,hieover #a #d #j ,,the ,,pocket ,,and ,,the ,,stud ,ditto #j #e #j ,,the ,,life ,,of ,a ,,fox ,t4 ,smith #j #h #f ,,diary ,,of ,a ,,huntsman ,ditto #j #aj #f ,,the ,,life ,,of ,a ,,fox ,,hound ,j4 ,mills #j #aj #f ,,the ,,noble ,,science ,d4 ,radcliffe #j #ad #j ,,deer ,,stalking ,w4 ,scrope #a #j #j ,,salmon ,,fishing ,ditto #b #b #j ,,wild ,,sports ,,of ,,the ,,highlands ,st4 ,john #j #f #j ,,the ,,bat ,felix #j #ab #j ,,hand ,,book ,,of ,,angling ,ephemera #j #i #j ,,dog ,,breaking ,hutchinson #j #f #j ,,the ,,modern ,,shooter ,lacy #a #a #j ,,training ,,the ,,race ,,horse1 #b vols4 ,darvill #a #aj #j ,,the ,,horse',s ,,mouth ,mayhew #j #aj #f ,,white',s ,,farriery ,spooner #j #af #j ,,white ,,on ,,cattle ,,medicine ,ditto #j #i #j ,,the ,,horse ,youatt #j #aj #j ,,the ,,dog ,ditto #j #f #j ,,canine ,,pathology ,blaine #j #i #j ,,encyclop,,dia ,,of ,,rural ,,sports ,ditto #b #aj #j ,,the ,,horse',s ,,foot ,miles #j #i #j ,,set ,,of ,,four ,,casts ,,of ,,ditto ,ditto #j #aj #f ,,stable ,,economy ,stewart #j #f #f ,,advice ,,to ,,purchasers ,,of ,,horses ,ditto #j #b #f ,,the ,,horse ,,in ,,health ,,and ,,disease ,winter #j #aj #f ,,nature ,,and ,,management ,,of ,,the ,,horse ,roper #j #c #j ,,the ,,anatomy ,,of ,,the ,,horse ,percivall #a #j #j ,,hippopathology1 #c vols4 ,ditto #a #ah #f ,,veterinary ,,pharmacy ,morton #j #aj #j ,,veterinary ,,art ,blaine #a #a #j ,,adventures ,,of ,a ,,gentleman ,,in ,,search ,,of ,a ,sir ,geo4 ,stephen #j #g #f ,,horse ,,the ,,horse 7,library ,useful ,knowledge7 #j #f #f ,,cattle 7,library ,useful ,knowledge7 #j #aj #f ,,british ,,husbandry 7,library ,useful ,knowledge7 #j #aj #f ,,gamekeeper',s ,,directory ,johnson #j #e #f ,,notitia ,,venatica ,vyner #j #ae #j ,,the ,,complete ,,grazier #j #ag #j ,,gardening ,loudon #b #aj #j ,,agriculture ,ditto #b #aj #j ,,cottage1 ,,farm1 ,,and ,,villa ,,agriculture ,ditto #c #c #j ,,the ,,gun ,greener #j #ae #j ,,guide ,,to ,,the ,,hounds ,,of ,,england ,glert #j #f #f ,,the ,,poultry ,,yard ,boswell #j #b #f ,,the ,,moor ,,and ,,the ,,lock ,colquhoun #j #i #f ,,the ,,rod ,,and ,,gun ,wilson ,oakleigh#j #aj #f ,,british ,,angler',s ,,manual ,hofland #a #a #j ,,fly ,,fishing ,oliver #j #h #j ,,complete ,,angler ,j4 ,major #j #ah #j ,,domesticated ,,animals ,low #a #e #j ,,farriery ,brown #j #ac #f ,,every ,,man ,,his ,,own ,,farrier ,clater #j #f #j ,,every ,,man ,,his ,,own ,,cattle ,,doctor ,ditto #j #f #j ,,sportsman',s ,,directory ,mayer #j #e #j ,,the ,,racing ,,calendar4 ,,steeple-,,chase ,,calendar4 ,,stud ,,book ,,ruff',s ,,guide ,,to ,,the ,,turf4 ,the ,turf ,ready ,reckoner4 ,hunting ,maps and ,game ,books4 ,,london3 ,,messrs4 ,,fores1 #da1 ,,piccadilly4 ,corner of ,sackville ,street4 ,,transcriber',s ,,note ,the footnote in ,paragraph #ce on page #fi 7the only one in the book7 was moved to follow the paragraph from which it is referenced4 ,eight pages of advertisements that preceded the title page have been moved to the end of the book and placed before the two pages of advertisements that closed the book4 ,obvious typographical errors and punctuation errors have been corrected after careful comparison with other occurrences within the text and consultation of external sources4 ,except for those changes noted below1 misspelling by the author1 and inconsistent or archaic usage1 has been retained4 ,for example1 ,milk teeth1 ,milk-teeth2 ,steeplechase1 ,steeple-,chase2 ,thorough ,breds1 ,thorough-,breds4 ,page ,error #i 'unqalified' changed to 'unqualified' #ab 'foretel8' changed to 'foretell8' #cf 'development' changed to 'developments' #dd 'temporay' changed to 'temporary' #ei 'have not began' changed to 'have not begun' #fd 'imflammatory' changed to 'inflammatory' #gf 'lascerated' changed to 'lacerated' #ig 'infundibula is' changed to 'infundibulum is' #aje 'infundibula of which' changed to 'infundibulum of which' #ajh 'exteme' changed to 'extreme' #aaj 'dependance' changed to 'dependence' #aad 'dependance' changed to 'dependence' #abb 'vestage' changed to 'vestige' #abb 'excentricities1' changed to 'eccentricities1' #ach 'is to seen' changed to 'is to be seen' #add 'obnormal' changed to 'abnormal' #aff 'sensative' changed to 'sensitive' #afg 'transcient' changed to 'transient' #afi 'perceptably' changed to 'perceptibly' #agh 'rince' changed to 'rinse' #ahg 'stuggles' changed to 'struggles'