,frontispiece3 ,schopenhauer            
,,schopenhauer      ,,by ,,margrieta    
,,beer1 ,m4,a4          ,,london3 ,t4   
,c4  ,e4 ,c4 ,,jack    #fg ,,long       
,,acre1 ,w4,c41 ,,and ,,edinburgh       
,,new ,,york3 ,,dodge ,,publishing ,,co4
          ,,contents    ,,chap4         
,,introduction    ,i4 ,,schopenhauer',s 
,,life    ,,ii4 ,,pessimism    ,,iii4   
,,art    ,,iv4 ,,virtue                 
,,bibliography    ,,index          #g   
,,arthur ,,schopenhauer                 
,,introduction    ,schopenhauer differs 
from most other philosophers in that he 
has  influenced not only the development
 of the history of thought1 the  course 
along which modern philosophy has       
proceeded1 but in that his  views have  
been welcomed as an inspiration1        
accepted almost in the  spirit of a     
religious faith by workers in quite     
other departments of  life4    ,no      
philosopher has so directly touched and 
influenced the great art  movements of  
modern times4  ,it is now nearly one    

hundred years since  the publication of 
his greatest work1 and his philosophy is
 a more  potent and vitalising force    
to-day than in his own lifetime4  ,it   
has  been a source of inspiration to    
artists and has directly stimulated     
their creative activity1 probably more  
than any other abstract system  has ever
 done4    ,poetry has always been       
influenced subtly by philosophy4        
,spenser and  ,shelley are imbued       
through and through with the doctrines  
of ,plato4  ,goethe wrote some of his   
finest work under the spell of ,spinoza1
 and  some of ,wordsworth's deepest     
experiences were interpreted to him     
through the ideas of ,kant4  ,it is to  
all artists1 but especially to          
musicians1 that ,schopenhauer makes his 
most intimate appeal4  ,for in  his     
system music plays a strangely important
 part1 above and apart #h  from all the 
other arts4  ,in analysing its spiritual
 character1 he  endows it with mystic   
significance4  ,one famous instance of  

this  influence is that of ,wagner4     
,his acquaintance with ,schopenhauer's  
philosophy marked a turning-point in his
 artistic life4  ,it gave a  tremendous 
stimulus to his musical productivity1   
and while under its  influence he       
composed his greatest works4            
,schopenhauer's system expresses1       
according to his own statement1 only a  
single thought1 viewed in different     
aspects4  ,he considers it from the     
metaphysical1 sthetic1 and ethical      
points of view4  ,this fundamental      
thought1 which lies at the root of his  
entire philosophy1 is concerned  with   
the significance of the will4  ,the will
 alone gives the key to the             
understanding of man's existence4       
,every force in nature is to be         
regarded as will1 and the inner reality 
of the universe is to be found  only in 
will4    ,while it is especially to     
those who are concerned with the        
problems  arising out of the function   
and significance of art that            

,schopenhauer  offers such fruitful and 
fascinating suggestions1 the other      
aspects of  his system offer solutions  
in the sphere of ethics and metaphysics 
of  almost equally vital importance4    
,his insistence on the significance of  
instinct and intuition in all the lower 
and higher forms of life is of  great   
importance in the history of philosophy4
  ,it is an aspect of the  subject which
 until later times had been strangely   
neglected4  ,this  prominence which is  
given to instinct and intuition1 is     
connected  directly with his philosophy 
of the will4    ,schopenhauer1 unlike   
most philosophers1 has always been read 
and  appreciated by the general reader  
and student of life1 as distinguished   
from the specialised #i student of      
philosophy4  ,his fundamental  attitude 
towards philosophy explains this to a   
great extent4  ,notwithstanding his     
marked leaning towards mysticism1 he    
brought  philosophy down to earth1 and  
into relation with1 the actual facts of 

life4  ,he exchanged abstractions for   
realities4  ,philosophy had always  been
 far too much concerned1 he maintained1 
with abstract conceptions1  and the     
philosopher had tended too exclusively  
to be a mere man of  books and learning4
  ,the true philosopher1 on the         
contrary1 should be a  guide to fine    
living as well as to high thinking4     
,philosophy should express the real life
 of things4  ,but the deepest  things in
 life are not known by way of the       
intellect1 but are lived and  felt4     
,the profoundest truths of life we know 
intuitively and directly1  with a deeper
 certainty than the understanding can   
give4    ,that ,schopenhauer has a wider
 public than have most philosophers is  
due  partly to his style4  ,he writes in
 language so singularly clear and       
lucid1 that it can be followed easily by
 the general reader1 not  specially     
trained in a technical philosophical    
vocabulary4  ,of all  ,german           
philosophers he is the greatest from a  

literary point of view4  ,the true      
philosopher1 he writes1 will always seek
 after light and  clearness1 and will   
endeavour to resemble a ,swiss lake1    
which through  its peacefulness is able 
to unite great depth with great         
clearness1 the  depth revealing itself  
precisely by the clearness1 rather than 
a  turbid1 impetuous mountain torrent4  
,philosophers have not always  given    
much heed to this counsel of perfection4
  ,obscurity of expression  is merely   
the cloak in which men seek to hide     
their poverty of thought  and triteness 
of mind4  ,everyone1 says ,schopenhauer1
 who possesses a  beautiful and rich    
mind will always express himself in the 
most #aj  natural1 direct1 and simple   
way1 concerned to communicate his       
thoughts  to others and thus relieve the
 loneliness that he must feel in such a 
world as this4    ,schopenhauer is a    
temperamental pessimist4  ,in words of  
glowing and  passionate eloquence he    
sets out to prove that all life is      

essentially  sorrow4  ,from his earliest
 days he had been abnormally sensitive  
to the  misery that lies beneath the    
surface of life4  ,pain is essential to 
life and cannot be evaded4  ,if it can  
find entrance in no other form1  then it
 comes in the sad1 grey garments of     
tedium and ennui4    ,the purest joy in 
life is that which lifts us out of our  
daily  existence1 and transforms us into
 disinterested spectators of it4  ,this 
divine release from the common ways of  
men can only be found through  art4     
,but even this release1 which is        
accessible only to the few1  increases  
the capacity for suffering4    ,the     
final and only permanent solution of    
life is to be found in the  life of the 
saint4  ,true morality passes through   
virtue1 which is  rooted in sympathy1   
into asceticism4  ,art gives a          
marvellous  consolation in life1 but    
renunciation and self-surrender offer a 
complete release from the terrors and   
evils of existence4  ,the veil of       

,my--the web of illusion--is lifted from
 man's eyes4  ,he now shudders  at the  
pleasures which recognise the assertion 
of life1 and attains to  the state of   
voluntary renunciation1 resignation1 and
 true  indifference4  ,buddhism1        
,schopenhauer maintained1 comes nearest 
of all  religions to expressing this    
truth4  ,it is here that he shows how   
profoundly ,indian philosophy and       
religion had influenced him4            
,throughout his life ,schopenhauer was  
aggressively hostile towards all        
contemporary philosophers4  ,to some    
extent1 no doubt1 his own failure  to   
obtain academic #aa recognition         
embittered him4  ,but partly his        
attitude may be explained by the        
complete difference of method between   
them4  ,schopenhauer cares nothing at   
all about method4  ,to ,hegel and  his  
contemporaries method was all-important4
  ,the historical method was  the       
pathway which was followed with most    
enthusiasm at the time4  ,it is         

especially for the historical method    
that ,schopenhauer has the frankest     
contempt4  ,hegel and others were       
attempting to interpret present  reality
 through history1 seeking to show that  
through the slow process  of history1   
unfolding itself in time1 are revealed  
the organic  principles which underlie  
the whole of life4  ,schopenhauer       
attaches  practically no value to       
history as a highroad for philosophical 
inquiry4  ,this way1 he says1 lie merely
 the dry bones of archology and         
antiquarianism4  ,to examine things     
historically is to look along a         
horizontal line4  ,to think             
philosophically is to look along a      
vertical  line4  ,the latter is the     
rational and the more profound point of 
view4  ,what history narrates is in fact
 only the long1 heavy1 and confused     
dream of humanity4  ,it is our inmost   
consciousness which is the real  concern
 of the philosopher4  ,the true         
philosophy of history1 he says1         

consists in the insight into the causes 
of all these endless changes  and their 
confusion4  ,we have always before us   
the same even1  unchanging nature1 which
 to-day acts in the same way as         
yesterday4  ,thus it ought to recognise 
the identical in all events1 in ancient 
as  in modern times1 in the ,east as in 
the ,west1 and in spite of all          
difference in special circumstances1 of 
costume and of custom1 to see           
everywhere the same humanity4  ,if one  
has read ,herodotus1 then in a          
philosophical regard one has read enough
 history4  ,for everything is  already  
there that makes up the subsequent      
history of the world4    #ab    ,that   
which is significant in itself1 not in  
its relations1 is to be  found far more 
profoundly and distinctly in poetry than
 in history4  ,there is1 therefore1 far 
more real1 inner truth in poetry than in
  history4  ,aristotle held the same    
view1 maintaining that poetry reveals  a
 higher truth than history1 for it      

strives to express the universal4       
,poetry1 he says1 is a more             
philosophical1 and a higher thing than  
history4    ,in ,schopenhauer's view1   
the true philosopher is the genius4     
,his  penetrative imagination will see  
farther and deeper than the learning  of
 the mere scholar4  ,the genius is a    
clear mirror of the inner nature  of the
 universe4  ,to him knowledge is the sun
 which reveals the world4  ,his work may
 be regarded as an inspiration1 as an   
interpretation of the  spirit of beauty 
in art4  ,he has been endowed by nature 
with a special  faculty of inner vision1
 and uses his power to open the eyes of 
ordinary men4  ,it is the genius who    
knows the inner nature of things1  just 
as in ,plato true philosophers are      
defined as the lovers of the  vision of 
truth1 who are able to distinguish the  
idea from the objects  which participate
 in the idea1 and whose eyes are ever   
directed towards  fixed and immutable   
principles4  ,it is the genius1 says    

,schopenhauer1  who interprets his      
vision to the rest of mankind4  ,he     
enables us to see  the world through his
 eyes4    ,there was a wide difference1 
too1 between ,schopenhauer and other    
contemporary philosophers1 in their     
attitude towards religion4              
,schopenhauer's freedom from academic   
fetters enabled him to steer an         
independent way4  ,the ,german          
university professor was almost always  
dominated by the need for reconciling   
his philosophical theories with a       
theological creed4  ,at times to square 
accounts between the two  involved #ac  
considerable ingenuity1 as in the case  
of ,kant4  ,to  ,schopenhauer1 to whom  
orthodox religion had always been a mere
 form1  such attempts savoured of       
hypocrisy4  ,hence he always speaks     
slightingly of philosophy-professors1   
and throughout his writings he  makes   
bitter attacks upon them4  ,hegel's work
 is described as  three-fourths utter   
absurdity1 and one quarter as paradox1  

and he  himself alluded to as that      
intellectual ,caliban4  ,plato's        
contempt  for the sophists stands on    
very much the same plane of thought4    
,in spite of this attitude there is much
 in ,schopenhauer's system1 which  is   
closely akin to ,christianity on its    
mystical side4  ,in his ethical  theory 
he shows extraordinary points of        
agreement with the medival  mystics4    
,materialism was utterly alien to his   
spirit4  ,materialists1  he said1       
possess neither humanities nor culture1 
and their point of  view filled him with
 the ,olympian laughter of the gods4    
,he always  maintained that his theory  
of pessimism was more truly ,christian1 
and  more closely in accord with the    
spirit of primitive ,christianity than  
the shallow optimism which crept into   
the later developments of that  system4 
,its ascetic spirit he considered the   
kernel of ,christianity4  ,protestantism
 represented for him a falling away from
 the earlier and  purer form1 and a     

transition to shallow rationalism4      
,his thought was much influenced by     
ancient ,indian philosophy1 and         
especially by ,buddhism4  ,the          
,upanishads had been published in       
,germany  in #ahja in a ,latin          
translation from a ,persian version of  
the ,sanscrit  original4  ,in these     
treatises are set forth the general     
system of  mystical pantheism1 which    
grew out of the more theosophic elements
 of  the ,vedas4  ,in reading them      
,schopenhauer immediately acknowledged a
  kindred spirit4  ,in speaking of this 
work he says1 ,how #ad does  everyone   
who by diligent reading has familiarised
 himself with this  incomparable book1  
feel himself stirred to the innermost by
 that  spirit4  ,the mind is here washed
 clean of all its early ingrafted       
superstition1 and all philosophy servile
 to that superstition4  ,it is  the most
 profitable and the most elevating      
reading which is possible in  the world4
  ,it has been the consolation of my    

life1 and will be the  consolation of my
 death4          #ae    ,,chapter ,i    
,,schopenhauer',s ,,life    ,arthur     
,schopenhauer led the outwardly         
uneventful life of a scholar and  a     
thinker1 taking no part in public       
affairs4  ,the great movements in       
,european history1 through which he     
lived1 left him untroubled and  unmoved 
in his scholar's seclusion4  ,there is  
little therefore to  chronicle with     
regard to the outer history of his life4
  ,it is the more  easy to escape the   
criticism of ,schopenhauer himself1 who 
says that  those who1 instead of        
studying the thoughts of a philosopher1 
make  themselves acquainted with his    
life and history1 are like people who   
instead of occupying themselves with a  
picture1 are rather occupied  with its  
frame1 reflecting on the taste of its   
carving and the nature  of its gilding4 
,the little that there is to tell is1   
however1 of great significance  with    
regard to the development of his        

thought4  ,for of no philosopher  can it
 be more truly said than of             
,schopenhauer1 that his thought is the  
expression of his character4            
,schopenhauer was born at ,dantzig on   
,february #bb1 #aghh4  ,he traced his   
descent through both parents to ,dutch  
ancestors4  ,the family had  settled at 
,dantzig in the course of commerce4     
,for several generations  the head of   
the family had combined the career of a 
merchant with  landed pursuits4         
,schopenhauer's great-grandfather1      
,andreas  ,schopenhauer1 leased one of  
the #af large farms belonging to the    
municipality1 while following the       
business of a merchant4  ,his son       
,andreas acquired property near         
,dantzig1 and there the father of the   
philosopher1 ,heinrich ,floris          
,schopenhauer1 was born4  ,some mental  
weakness seems to have been inherited4  
,the eldest son of ,andreas was  an     
imbecile from his youth1 and the other  
children1 with the exception  of        

,schopenhauer's father1 all had some    
curious mental or moral twist4          
,heinrich ,floris ,schopenhauer1        
however1 was a man of strong            
intelligence  and character4  ,he       
followed a merchant's career with great 
success1  raising his firm to the first 
position in the town4  ,he was a        
disciple  of the school of ,voltaire1   
read ,french and ,english literature1   
and had  a keen admiration for ,english 
life and institutions4  ,his wife1      
,johanna1 belonged1 too1 to one of the  
leading families of ,dantzig4  ,she  had
 been educated on broader lines than was
 usual for girls at the  time1 and had a
 love for art and letters which extended
 her interests  beyond the domestic     
concerns of her home4  ,later on1 during
 her  widowhood1 these were to find a   
wider field and opportunity1 and she    
became a well-known authoress in the    
,germany of her day4  ,she married  in  
#aghe1 at the age of eighteen1 being    
twenty years younger than her  husband4 

,the marriage was an unhappy one1 owing 
to differences of  temperament4  ,there 
were two children of the marriage4      
,they suffered  for the                 
incompatibilities of their parents4     
,both were burdened with  abnormally    
strong desires for the pleasures of     
life1 together with an  extraordinary   
capacity for suffering4    ,arthur1 the 
future philosopher1 was the first child 
of the marriage4  ,he was given the name
 of ,arthur to satisfy the              
cosmopolitanism of his  father1 the name
 being spelt alike in several languages4
  ,his earliest  #ag years were spent at
 the country house near ,dantzig1 or at 
the  farm1 between the sea and the      
pine-woods1 which had been rented many  
years before by his great-grandfather4  
,in #agic1 when ,schopenhauer was five  
years old1 the family migrated to       
,hamburg4  ,the free city of ,dantzig1  
which had a constitution of its  own1   
was annexed by ,prussia in #agic1 at the
 second partition of ,poland1  and      

,heinrich ,schopenhauer was too stern a 
republican to adapt himself  to the new 
rule4  ,he carried on his business in   
,hamburg for the next  twelve years1 but
 never became a naturalised citizen4    
,he had resolved that his son should    
follow the family career of a  merchant1
 and his education was planned          
accordingly on those lines4  ,he  was   
taken to ,france in #agig1 and left at  
,havre for two years4  ,for the  next   
three years he attended a private school
 at ,hamburg4  ,during this  time1      
discontent with his father's plans for  
his future was gradually  ripening      
within him4  ,to reconcile him1 he was  
promised a trip to  ,france and         
,england1 on the condition that he      
promised to give up his  own desires and
 ambitions1 and to be loyal to his      
father's wishes4  ,the  prospect of the 
journey was too alluring1 and he gave   
the required  promise4  ,after six weeks
 had been spent in ,london1 his parents 
left  him at a boarding-school at       

,wimbledon4  ,in letters to his mother1 
he  complains of the mechanical         
instruction1 the dreary ,sunday         
services1  and the tedious routine of   
the school4  ,she1 in reply1 warns him  
not to  give way to bombast and empty   
pathos4    ,he became proficient in     
,english1 and always held ,english      
character and  intelligence in          
admiration1 although he was impressed by
 the prevalent  hypocrisy and the       
oppressive pietism of the time4  ,he was
 busy #ah  already recording his        
impressions1 describing                 
characteristically the  feelings and    
ideas awakened in him rather than the   
actual facts and  events4  ,the         
travellers returned through ,france1    
from ,geneva to ,vienna1  and thence to 
,berlin4    ,for about four months      
,schopenhauer now worked in a ,dantzig  
office1  trying to acquire the rudiments
 of a business training4  ,when almost  
seventeen1 he entered the employment of 
a firm in ,hamburg4  ,he himself  has   

recorded that there never was a worse   
clerk in a merchant's office4  ,in his  
leisure1 and during office hours        
whenever possible1 he was  reading      
voraciously4    ,in #ahje his father    
died1 whether by accident or by his own 
hand remains  uncertain4  ,for two years
 longer ,schopenhauer stuck to his hated
 task1  out of loyalty to his father1   
and the promise made him some years     
earlier4  ,but at last he could stifle  
his ambitions and yearnings  towards a  
purely intellectual life no longer1 and 
he obtained his  mother's consent to    
leave his office1 and to begin          
preparation for a  learned career4      
,his mother meanwhile1 with her daughter
 ,adle1 had left ,hamburg and  settled  
at ,weimar1 at that time the            
intellectual centre of ,germany4        
,goethe was here the sun round which the
 lesser lights of the artistic  and     
intellectual world revolved4  ,at the   
age of forty1 ,johanna  ,schopenhauer   
had entered on a new life1 and was      

finding scope and free  development for 
untried capabilities4  ,she played a    
prominent part in  the social life of   
the place1 and her receptions were      
remarkable for  the circle she gathered 
round her4  ,goethe himself was a       
frequent  visitor there4  ,she also took
 part in the theatrical performances1   
which were so conspicuous a feature of  
the life at ,weimar4  ,with help  and   
encouragement from ,fernow1 a           
distinguished scholar and #ai art       
critic1 she began to write1 and         
published with considerable popular     
success travel sketches1 art            
biographies1 and novels4  ,her daughter1
 in  describing their life at ,weimar1  
tells how her mother experienced ever   
fresh delight in intercourse with the   
famous men living there4  ,she  was     
liked1 her society was agreeable4  ,her 
pleasing manners made her  house a      
centre of intellectual activity1 where  
everyone felt at home1  and freely      
contributed the best he had to bring4   

,besides ,goethe1  ,schlegel1 ,grimm1   
,wieland and others were frequent guests
 under her  roof4  ,freed from his hated
 bondage1 ,schopenhauer now left        
,hamburg and  entered the gymnasium1 or 
grammar school1 at ,gotha1 but a lampoon
 on  one of the masters was so resented 
that he was obliged to leave4  ,he  then
 came to ,weimar1 at his mother's       
suggestion1 and worked at classics  in  
the house of a well-known scholar1 who  
had a real enthusiasm for all  things   
,greek4  ,something of his spirit he    
communicated to his pupil1  and the     
passion for ,greek art and thought grew 
into a moulding  principle in           
,schopenhauer's views of life and       
religion4  ,at the same  time that he   
was entering into the spirit of         
classical literature1 he  was           
cultivating his musical ability1 and    
thus feeling his way towards a  full and
 intense understanding of the art1 which
 entered later with  such significance  
into the development of his philosophy4 

,he was  striving to realise an ideal of
 the fullest and most complete culture1 
in which not only the life of thought1  
but also the life of art should  find   
consummate satisfaction4    ,the        
estrangement between his mother and     
himself began to widen now that  they   
were thrown constantly together4  ,by   
arrangement1 he dined daily  with her1  
and came to her receptions4  ,but       
,schopenhauer was #bj too  uncontrolled 
in his temper1 and too uncompromising in
 his egoism to  make an agreeable       
companion4  ,his mother1 driven to write
 to him1  asserts that his constant     
grumbling1 gloomy looks1 and intolerant 
dogmatism depress her4  ,it is necessary
 to her happiness to know that  he is   
happy1 but not necessary that she should
 be a witness to it4  ,therefore1 if    
they are to agree they must consent to  
live apart4  ,both  mother and son were 
bent on self-development1 and in        
character were too  dissimilar to       
understand each other4  ,schopenhauer   

was jealous1  uncontrolled in his moods1
 and boorish in his manners4  ,that     
all-consuming egoism1 which all his life
 spoiled his relations with  everyone   
with whom he came in contact1 made a    
congenial family life  impossible4  ,he 
resented his mother's freedom and       
independence1 and  insulted her friends4
  ,in a way that is very characteristic 
of him1 he  generalises from his own    
personal experience1 and in his views on
 women  we find reflected all the       
bitterness which had grown round the    
relations between himself and his       
mother4    ,in #ahji he attained his    
majority1 and received his share of his 
father's fortune1 amounting to about    
#aej a year4  ,he was now  independent1 
and could pursue the career he had      
marked out for himself4  ,he valued all 
his life the liberty which this         
competency secured him4  ,a draft       
dedication1 intended for the second     
edition of ,the ,world as  ,will and    
,idea1 was addressed to the manes of my 

father4  ,noble1  beneficent spirit6  to
 whom ,i owe everything that ,i am4444  
,as thou  didst bring into the world a  
son such as ,i am1 thou didst also make 
provision that in a world like this1    
such a son should be able to  subsist   
and to develop himself4444  ,in my mind 
the tendency to its only  proper        
vocation was too decidedly implanted to 
let me #ba do violence  to my nature1   
and so to subjugate it that1 recking    
nought of existence  in general1 and    
active only for my personal existence1  
it should find  its sole task in        
procuring daily bread4444  ,thou seemest
 to have  foreseen that thy son1 thou   
proud republican1 could not possess the 
talent to compete in cringing before    
ministers and councillors1  ,mcenases1  
and their advisers1 basely to beg for   
the hard-earned piece  of bread1 or to  
flatter self-conceited commonplaceness1 
and humbly join  himself to the         
eulogistic retinue of bungling          
charlatans4444  ,that ,i  could expand  

the forces nature gave me and apply them
 to their destined  purpose1 that ,i    
could follow my natural instinct and    
think and work for  beings without      
number1 while no one does anything for  
me1 for that ,i  thank thee1 my father1 
thank thy activity1 prudence1 thrift1   
and  provision for the future4    ,in   
#ahji he entered the ,university of     
,gttingen as a student of  medicine4    
,in his second year he changed his      
course to philosophy4  ,wieland1 the    
poet1 on the occasion of a visit from   
,schopenhauer1 tried  to dissuade him   
from philosophy as a career4  ,the reply
 was1 ,life is a  ticklish business4  ,i
 have decided to spend it in reflecting 
on it4    ,in #ahaa ,schopenhauer left  
,gttingen1 and entered the ,university  
of  ,berlin4  ,here1 too1 he gave       
special attention to natural science4   
,throughout his notebooks are scattered 
critical remarks on his teachers  and   
their lectures4  ,fichte especially was 
a butt for his sarcasms4  ,against a    

statement of ,schleiermacher's1 that ,no
 man can be a  philosopher without being
 religious1 he writes1 ,no man who is   
religious takes to philosophy3 he does  
not need it4    ,the ,napoleonic wars   
were at this time disorganising #bb the 
whole of  ,europe4  ,berlin was in the  
hands of a ,french garrison4  ,but after
 the  disastrous campaign of ,napoleon  
in ,russia1 the entire nation rose      
against the invader4  ,university       
classes were broken up4  ,fichte stayed 
behind to nurse the wounded1 and died   
next year at his post4  ,schopenhauer1 a
 prey to fears1 which tormented him all 
his life1 fled  for safety to ,dresden4 
,he settled finally at ,rudolstadt1 and 
wrote  there an essay1 to qualify for   
the degree of doctor of philosophy at   
,jena4  ,this he obtained1 and his essay
 was published as ,a  ,philosophical    
,treatise on the ,four-fold ,root of the
 ,principle of  ,sufficient ,reason4    
,this work he describes in his later    
books as a  preliminary part of his     

system1 which must be studied if the    
remainder  is to be understood4  ,it is 
written entirely under the influence of 
,kant4  ,the title refers to the four   
branches of knowledge3 physical         
science1 mathematics1 logic1 and ethics4
    ,after the publication of his book1 
,schopenhauer returned to ,weimar1 and  
stayed for a few months with his mother4
  ,the experiment resulted in  complete 
estrangement4  ,he was overbearing and  
dogmatic1 insulting his  mother's       
friends1 and censorious towards herself4
  ,she wrote to him  again1 to avoid an 
unpleasant personal interview1 and      
complained of his  contemptuous bearing 
and peremptory manner4  ,he left ,weimar
 and never  saw his mother again1       
although she lived for twenty-four years
 after  their separation4  ,it is a     
curious commentary on his relations to  
his  parents1 that his highest praise of
 his father lay in the fact that he     
had1 by his thrift1 left his son an     
adequate income2 and that his main      

censure on his mother is that she spends
 her money too negligently4    ,his     
visits to his mother at ,weimar were of 
considerable #bc importance  in the     
subsequent development of his thought1  
for it was there that he  made the      
acquaintance1 not only of ,goethe1 who  
influenced him  profoundly for a time1  
but also of ,f4 ,mayer1 the orientalist1
 who  directed his attention to the     
philosophical literature of ancient     
,india4  ,this literature left a        
permanent mark upon his mind4    ,for   
the next four years he lived at         
,dresden4  ,in #ahaf he published an    
essay ,on ,vision and ,colours1 which   
has reference to the controversy  which 
,goethe was waging on the theory of     
light4  ,schopenhauer's theory  is      
fantastic4  ,it is not submitted to     
experimental evidence1 and rests1  as he
 admits1 on intuitive certainty4        
,this early work is hardly in the direct
 line of the development of             
,schopenhauer's thought4  ,it is really 

a deviation1 for which ,goethe's        
all-compelling influence is responsible4
  ,goethe was at first inclined  to     
regard ,schopenhauer as an opponent1 for
 the essay is rather a  transformation  
of ,goethe's theory than an expansion of
 it4    ,his residence at ,dresden was  
the best he could have chosen from the  
point of view of his own system of      
philosophy4  ,here he could study       
better than in almost any other town of 
,europe the works of art1 in  which he  
was to see a revelation of the meaning  
of life4  ,the art  collections of the  
town are among the most famous in       
,europe1 and the  music1 both operatic  
and orchestral1 was then1 as now1 of the
 highest  quality4  ,in this home of    
art1 ,schopenhauer's great system was   
now  taking shape4    ,during his daily 
walks along the banks of the ,elbe1 he  
was thinking out  his theories1 making  
notes occasionally in a note-book1 and  
then  striding on again #bd with the    
rapid pace by which he was recognised   

even as an old man4    ,more and more   
strongly it was borne in upon him that  
inward discord is  the very law of human
 nature4  ,all his life his thoughts had
 struck  the note of genuine pessimism4 
,he was always in revolt against the    
pain and misery that lie hidden beneath 
the surface of life4  ,that this        
pessimistic bias was fundamentally one  
of temperament1 there can be no  doubt4 
,in letters to him from his mother1 we  
find her constantly  urging him1 even as
 a child1 to look upon the brighter side
 of things4  ,in a letter written to him
 in #ahjf1 she writes1 ,i could tell you
  things that would make your hair stand
 on end1 but ,i refrain1 for ,i  know   
how you love to brood over human misery 
in any case4    ,even in happiness and  
success he recognised illusion4         
,everywhere in  nature we see strife and
 conflict4  ,one species preys upon     
another4  ,the will to live necessarily 
expresses itself as a struggle4         
,hegel at this time reigned supreme in  

the kingdom of philosophy4  ,it  was    
hardly possible to escape his influence4
  ,schopenhauer1 in striving  to give   
expression to a system which would lay  
bare the real inner  nature of our life 
and destiny1 was at the same time       
protesting  passionately against the    
,hegelian view4  ,it was as a protest   
against  the all-powerful idealism of   
this philosophy that his system was     
directed in the first place4  ,he       
represents a reaction against the       
absorption of everything in reason4  ,as
 opposed to this view1  ,schopenhauer   
urged the priority of the will and the  
feelings as the  fundamental factors in 
determining the mental life4    ,the    
will is the reality behind all life4    
,the intellect is merely a  tool in the 
service of the will4  ,it is #be        
impossible to find in  reason a complete
 knowledge of the essence of the world4 
,a merely  intellectual philosophy of   
life is bound to be thin and hollow1 and
 we  should aim rather at a clear and   

direct insight into life4    ,now the   
will1 into which every form of life can 
be resolved1 is the  source of all human
 misery and unhappiness4  ,the only way 
in which men  can free themselves from  
the bondage of the will1 and throw off  
its  yoke1 is by looking upon beauty4   
,it is in art that eternal truth is     
revealed with a directness and certainty
 to which science never  attains4  ,this
 theory is connected with the ,platonic 
theory of ,ideas4  ,the real inner      
nature of things1 the ,ideas in the     
,platonic sense1 are  revealed in       
creative and imaginative art4  ,the     
faculty of vision1 which  enables men to
 divine this reality behind appearances1
 and to interpret  it to others1 is the 
gift of the artistic genius4  ,he       
understands the  half-uttered speech of 
nature1 and articulates clearly what she
 only  stammered forth4  ,the man of    
genius produces works of art by         
intuitive  insight4  ,he sees through   
the outer shell to the inner            

significance  that lies at the heart of 
things4  ,genius is the faculty of      
renouncing  entirely one's own          
personality for the time being1 so as to
 become  clear vision of the world1 free
 of subjectivity4  ,the genius must have
  imagination1 above all things1 in     
order to see in things not that which   
nature has actually made1 but that which
 she endeavoured to make1 but  could    
not4    ,art1 however1 does not deliver 
us permanently from life1 but only for  
moments4  ,it is therefore not a path   
out of life1 but only an  occasional    
consolation in life4    ,it is the      
saint1 who through the surrender of all 
willing1 through the  intentional       
mortification of his own desires1       
attains to true  resignation4           
,happiness #bf and unhappiness become   
then a matter of  indifference1 and the 
spell of the illusion1 which held us    
chained in  the bonds of this world1 is 
broken for ever4    ,these were the     
views which found expression in         

,schopenhauer's great  work1 ,the ,world
 as ,will and ,idea1 which was finished 
in #ahah4  ,he  found a publisher in    
,brockhaus of ,leipsic4  ,while the work
 was going  through the press1 he       
attacked his publisher with such violent
  rudeness1 that ,brockhaus wrote       
declining all further correspondence    
with one whose letters in their supreme 
coarseness and rusticity  savour more of
 the cabman than of the philosopher4    
,the work appeared when ,schopenhauer   
was thirty years of age1 an             
extraordinarily early date at which to  
produce so complete and  elaborate a    
system of philosophy4  ,in this work the
 outlines of his  whole system are      
permanently fixed4  ,the whole contains1
 he says1 but a  single thought4  ,that 
thought exhibits itself as metaphysics1 
sthetics1 and ethics4  ,he wrote later  
many essays and supplements1 but  these 
all go towards confirmation and         
expansion of his earlier work4  ,for the
 rest of his life he was repeating his  

original theories1 with  infinite       
variation in expression4  ,this is      
entirely in accord with his  own theory 
of age4  ,at thirty1 he maintained1 the 
intellectual and  moral endowment has   
reached its highest development4  ,all  
that is done  later is to vary and      
expand the main principles already laid 
down4    ,his book fell still-born from 
the press4  ,twenty years later he      
succeeded in getting his publishers to  
undertake a second edition1 but  this   
too received but scant recognition4     
,schopenhauer had built great  hopes on 
his work1 and his disappointment was    
bitter when no word of  notice greeted  
its appearance4  ,i dread silence #bg   
about my system1  as a burnt child      
dreads the fire1 he wrote on one        
occasion4  ,when  bringing his          
manuscript to the notice of the         
publisher1 he had written  that the work
 would hereafter be the source of a     
hundred other books4  ,he confided to a 
disciple that upon completing the work1 

he had felt so  convinced that he had   
solved the enigma of the world1 that he 
had  thought of having his signet-ring  
carved with the image of the sphinx     
throwing herself down the abyss4  ,my   
philosophy1 he wrote1 is the  real      
solution of the enigma of the world4    
,in this sense it may be  called a      
revelation4    ,before the book         
appeared1 ,schopenhauer travelled to    
,italy4  ,he first  spent some weeks in 
,venice1 where ,byron was living at the 
time4  ,the  two1 however1 did not meet4
  ,he then set out for ,rome1 by way of 
,bologna and ,florence1 and there he    
spent the winter4  ,his time was  spent 
mostly in the art collections1 and in   
the study of ,italian4  ,he  kept1 as he
 always did in travelling1 a diary1     
recording not so much  his observations 
on things seen1 as his moods and        
moralisings on them4    ,in ,may of the 
following year1 as he was returning     
home1 he received the  news of the      
bankruptcy of the ,dantzig house in     

which almost the entire  means of his   
mother and his sister were invested4    
,he himself had a far  smaller amount at
 stake4  ,the business arrangements     
connected with the  winding-up of the   
firm1 which his mother accepted1 were   
not to  ,schopenhauer's taste1 and the  
estrangement between himself and his    
relatives now became permanent4  ,he    
showed his usual promptness to  suspect 
evil1 and his angry accusations were so 
bitter1 that a silence  of eleven years 
fell between himself and his mother and 
sister4  ,his  struggle with the firm in
 question lasted for two years4         
,schopenhauer  came #bh off triumphant  
financially1 his capital with interest  
being  paid in full1 whereas the other  
creditors obtained only thirty per cent4
    ,his great work having now been     
launched in the philosophical world1    
,schopenhauer turned his thoughts to the
 chances of an academic  appointment4   
,after many inquiries he decided finally
 on ,berlin1 and  made an application4  

,specimen copies of his published works 
were sent  in1 and a private trial      
lecture delivered4  ,here in #ahbj he   
began his  career as assistant lecturer1
 and a course of lectures was announced1
  of six hours a week1 on philosophy in 
general4  ,he chose as his lecture  hour
 the very time at which ,hegel delivered
 his principal course1  thinking to     
enter into direct competition with him1 
and carry off his  students4  ,his      
hopes1 however1 misled him4  ,the       
students were not to be  beguiled away  
from the omnipotent ,hegel1 and         
,schopenhauer's course was  a complete  
failure4  ,he was not a good lecturer1  
and the course fell  through before the 
end of the term4  ,the lectures were    
never again  delivered4    ,the six     
years he spent in ,berlin were not in   
other respects happy ones4  ,he was on  
bad terms with all his colleagues1 and  
even in his private  life he contrived  
to bring worry and legal trouble upon   
himself4  ,in a  small entrance hall1   

common ground to himself and another    
lodger1 he1  one day1 found three women 
engaged in conversation4  ,he demanded  
their  withdrawal4  ,two complied1 but  
one1 a sempstress lodging in the same   
house1 refused4  ,thereupon             
,schopenhauer1 stick in hand1 threw her 
forcibly twice out of the house4  ,she  
fell1 and on the following day  brought 
her case before the court4  ,after six  
months1 the verdict went  in            
,schopenhauer's favour1 but an appeal   
was lodged1 and1 in his  absence1 the   
court inflicted a fine of twenty        
thalers1 #bi as  compensation for       
injuries inflicted4  ,some months later 
the sempstress  brought a further       
action4  ,she claimed that her injuries 
were more  serious than had first       
appeared1 and that she was now          
permanently  incapacitated for work4    
,schopenhauer was condemned to pay her  
sixty  thalers a year as aliment1 and   
five-sixths of the costs of the case4   
,this sum he paid until the time of her 

death1 twenty years later4  ,on  her    
death certificate he wrote1 obit anus1  
abit onus4  ,the episode  throws light  
on the character of the philosopher1    
with its marked  strain of coarseness   
and ill-controlled passion4             
,meanwhile1 ,schopenhauer continued to  
philosophise1 still hoping against  hope
 for the university professorship1 which
 never came1 but sustained  by immense  
self-confidence in the importance of his
 message4  ,he lived  at ,berlin in     
absolute seclusion4  ,social life had no
 attractions for  him4  ,he was a       
constant visitor to the theatre1 the    
opera-house1 and  the concert-room1 and 
at home his flute was a constant        
diversion4  ,these were his chief       
distractions4    ,from time to time the 
thought of marriage had entered into his
 plans1  but his habits of solitude were
 growing stronger1 and his cynical views
  on women were obtaining an ever firmer
 hold on his mind4  ,his nature  was    
strongly sensual1 and intermittent      

amorous experience is not the  best     
school in which to foster the growth of 
fine feeling or noble  thoughts on the  
relations of the sexes4  ,it is not     
surprising to find1  therefore1 in his  
views on women the unmistakable stamp of
 his personal  experience1 a fatal      
blindness to all but the physical side  
of sex4  ,the  subject is not one that  
he passes over with indifference1 for it
  amounts almost to an obsession with   
him4  ,he left behind him notes on  #cj 
love and marriage1 which were held by   
his literary executor to be  unfit for  
publication1 and these were burned      
accordingly4    ,it was during these    
years at ,berlin1 embittered by the lack
 of  recognition of his philosophical   
work1 and by his failure in the         
academic world1 that his attacks on     
university professors grew so  virulent4
  ,he attributed his failure in both    
respects to conspiracy on  the part of  
those in power4  ,his attacks on ,hegel 
grew ever fiercer4    ,in #ahbi he was  

anxious to undertake a translation into 
,english of  ,kant's chief works4  ,he  
wrote to the publishers1 urging his     
claims1  saying a century may pass      
before there shall again meet in the    
same  head so much ,kantian philosophy  
with so much ,english1 as happen to     
dwell together in mine4  ,the proposal  
came to nothing1 and ,kant's  ,critique 
had to wait for nearly ten years longer 
before it appeared  in an ,english form4
    ,in #ahca the cholera broke out in  
,berlin1 and ,schopenhauer immediately  
took to flight4  ,hegel was one of the  
victims of this outbreak4  ,in one  of  
his later works1 ,schopenhauer describes
 how he had been moved to  leave        
,berlin1 on the entry of the cholera1 by
 means of a dream4  ,he had  dreamed of 
a little schoolfellow and playmate1 who 
died in childhood1  ,it may have been1  
he says1 of hypothetical truth1 a       
warning in  short1 that if ,i had       
remained1 ,i should have died of the    
cholera4  ,immediately after my arrival 

in ,frankfurt1 ,i was the subject of a  
perfectly distinct apparition1 as ,i    
believe1 of my parents1 and  signifying 
that ,i should survive my mother1 who   
was still alive2 my  father1 already    
deceased1 carried a light in his hand4  
,this is  significant1 as showing       
,schopenhauer's belief in the           
supernatural1 and  in mystical          
influences4    ,after leaving ,berlin1  
,schopenhauer settled at ,frankfurt1 #ca
 and with  the exception of one year1   
which was spent at ,mannheim1 he lived  
there  until his death twenty-seven     
years later4  ,for twenty years after   
coming to ,frankfurt he lived in entire 
isolation4  ,now and again1 at  rare    
intervals1 an article from his pen      
appeared1 but this is the only  sign of 
life4  ,we hear nothing of his personal 
life during this period4  ,friends he   
seems to have had none1 and all personal
 intercourse with  acquaintances        
invariably came to an abrupt end1 owing 
to his intolerant  attitude towards     

those who dared to disagree with any of 
his views4    ,only when he reaches the 
verge of old age do we once again have  
some  record of him4  ,this latter part 
of his life was spent with unvaried     
regularity4  ,his chief occupation and  
solace is philosophy4  ,his daily       
routine was mapped out1 according to a  
regular plan1 which hardly  varied from 
day to day4  ,he worked during the      
forenoon for three or  four hours4  ,at 
noon he enjoyed half an hour's          
relaxation on the flute4  ,he dined     
daily at a hotel4  ,after an hour's     
rest1 the afternoon was  given up to    
lighter literature4  ,his favourite     
authors1 among poets1  were ,petrarch1  
,shakespeare1 and ,calderon4  ,the study
 of the great  classical writers was all
 his life his greatest delight4  ,the   
degradation in style of contemporary    
literature1 which he constantly         
bemoaned1 he held to be due largely to  
the neglect of classical  literature4   
,without ,latin1 he wrote1 a man must be

 content to be  counted amongst the     
vulgar4  ,he regretted the disuse of the
 ,latin  language as a means of         
communication between scholars4  ,apart 
altogether from the educational value of
 the classics1 he thought no  other     
literature afforded the same refreshment
 and enjoyment for the  mind4  ,to take 
one of the classics in one's hand1 even 
for half #cb an  hour1 is to feel       
refreshed1 purified1 elevated1 and      
strengthened1  exactly as if one had    
drunk from a fresh rock spring4    ,in  
the afternoon1 whatever the weather1    
,schopenhauer took his daily  walk1     
together with his dog1 his invariable   
companion4  ,the two were  well-known   
figures in ,frankfurt1 as they took     
their customary exercise  together4     
,schopenhauer's devotion to his dog was 
boundless4  ,for the  animal world      
altogether he had a special tenderness1 
pitying animals as  the tortured souls  
of the earth1 and holding that in all   
essentials  they are the same as man4   

,he condemned vivisection1 on the ground
 that  animals have rights4    ,for two 
hours he took his customary walk1 at a  
rapid pace1 in  accordance with his     
theory that quick movement is essential 
to health4  ,then he visited the        
reading-room of the town1 never omitting
 to look  through the ,times4  ,the     
evening was spent frequently at the     
theatre1  or in the concert-room4  ,in  
his later years1 his growing deafness   
robbed him of much of the pleasure which
 he had always won from music4  ,on     
returning home1 he read for an hour1 and
 then retired to rest4  ,all  his life  
he was afraid of robbers1 and took      
extraordinary precautions  against them4
  ,he slept invariably with loaded      
weapons by his bedside1  and his        
valuables were hidden away with great   
ingenuity in various  corners of his    
rooms4  ,he believed that a thinker     
needed more than the  ordinary amount of
 sleep to recuperate after the day's    
labours4  ,his  rule of life was        

modelled on that of ,kant1 but of       
,kant's early rising  he strongly       
disapproved1 believing it to be a       
reckless waste of vital  energy4        
,thus the latter part of his life is    
occupied with careful rules for the     
preservation of his health1 which was   
#cc naturally robust4  ,the             
contradiction is at once obvious between
 his actual mode of life and  his own   
moral ideal1 as set forth in his works4 
,some of his most  eloquent writing is  
on the subject of holiness1 attained    
through  renunciation and self-denial4  
,poverty1 chastity1 and constant        
mortification of the will are the ways  
along which man must travel to  gain the
 highest moral solution of life4        
,schopenhauer was perfectly  conscious  
of this contradiction between his ideals
 and his own way of  life4  ,but1 he    
says1 it is just as little needful that 
a saint should  be a philosopher1 as    
that a philosopher should be a saint4   
,in the same  way1 it is not necessary  

that a perfectly beautiful man should be
 a  great sculptor1 or that a great     
sculptor should himself be a beautiful  
man4  ,it is a strange demand1 that a   
moralist should teach no other  virtue  
than that which he himself possesses4   
,after #ahah1 when ,the ,world as ,will 
and ,idea appeared1 he published        
nothing further until #ahcf4  ,in that  
year1 a small book called ,on the  ,will
 in ,nature appeared4  ,it was described
 on the title-page as a  discussion of  
the corroborations which the philosophy 
of the author  has1 since its first     
appearance1 received at the hands of    
empirical  science4  ,during these      
eighteen years1 in which no new work of 
his was  published1 he had been         
collecting from all that he read1 or    
saw1 or  heard1 everything that could in
 any way be brought to bear as evidence 
towards the proof of his main theories  
and principles4  ,especially had  he    
been on the alert with regard to        
scientific investigation1 believing     

that his own sceptical generation would 
be most strongly influenced by  anything
 that science could bring forward as    
confirmation of his  metaphysical       
principles4  ,physics1 he thought1 had  
arrived at the point  where it touches  
#cd metaphysics4  ,he was now confident 
that the time  for his philosophy was   
ripening4  ,but in spite of this        
confidence1 the  book met with no more  
recognition than had his previous works4
    ,in #ahch he competed successfully  
for a prize offered by the ,scientific  
,society of ,drontheim1 in ,norway1 for 
the best essay on the question  whether 
free-will could be proved from the      
evidence of consciousness4  ,the subject
 could not have been more happily chosen
 to suit him4  ,his  essay won the      
prize1 and he was elected a member of   
the ,society4  ,he  obtained permission 
from the ,society to publish his essay  
in ,germany4    ,meanwhile he was       
competing for another prize1 offered by 
the ,royal  ,danish ,academy of the     

,sciences1 at ,copenhagen1 on the       
subject of the  sources or the basis of 
morality4  ,he was confident of success1
 and  wrote to the ,academy asking that 
the award might be speedily made        
public1 as he proposed to publish his   
essay along with the one which  had been
 successful in ,norway4  ,his confidence
 was premature1 for when  the ,danish   
,academy made known its decision1 it    
announced that  ,schopenhauer's essay   
was the only one sent in1 but that it   
was unworthy  of the prize on several   
grounds1 one of which was1 that several 
of the  chief philosophers had been     
treated with contempt4    ,from this    
time his rage against the three         
philosophers1 ,hegel1 ,fichte1  and     
,schelling1 knows no bounds4  ,he       
attributed his failure to win           
recognition to a conspiracy among them  
and their followers4  ,his  writings    
abound in violent invective against     
them4  ,in several ways  there are      
points of contact between the system of 

,schopenhauer and that  of ,hegel1 but  
,schopenhauer refused to admit any      
kinship between them4    ,his two       
treatises were published together1 as he
 had #ce intended4  ,they appeared in   
#ahda as ,the ,two ,fundamental         
,problems of ,ethics4  ,these two       
problems are the freedom of the will and
 the basis of  morality4  ,the treatment
 is little more than an expansion of the
  theories set forth in his chief work4 
,he finds the roots of morality  in     
sympathy4  ,the sense of brotherhood1   
which binds together individual  and    
individual1 and welds them into an      
organic whole1 is the foundation  on    
which all the moral sentiments are      
built4  ,all goodness1 love1  virtue1   
and nobility of character spring from   
the same source1 from  sympathy1 which  
is the same in its nature as pure love4 
,beyond the  egoism1 which is fostered  
by the world around us1 there exists    
also the  principle of altruism1        
impelling men to self-sacrifice1        

unselfishness1  and devotion4    ,the   
second edition of ,the ,world as ,will  
and ,idea1 which appeared in  #ahdd1    
seemed at first as likely to fail of    
attaining recognition as the  earlier   
one4  ,but a change was now at hand4    
,the reign of optimistic  pantheism was 
approaching its end in ,germany4  ,the  
lofty idealism1  which was the strength 
of the dominant school of thought1 and  
which  found political expression in the
 revolutionary movements of #ahdh1 was  
now followed by a wave of reaction4     
,the democratic movement1 after         
obtaining some temporary triumphs1 was  
checked completely for the time1  and a 
wave of weariness and discouragement    
passed over the country4  ,schopenhauer 
looked on1 while ,frankfurt was torn    
violently asunder in  the throes of its 
revolution4  ,his sentiments were       
against the  democratic party1 and he   
seems to have feared1 above all else1   
the  possibility of losing his private  
means4  ,in letters written at this     

time to his friends1 ,schopenhauer      
expresses his dislike and disapproval   
of the great national movement of #ahdh4
  ,he #cf was a thorough-going          
individualist1 and the movement1 which  
stirred to the depths the finest        
natures of the time1 found no response  
in ,schopenhauer's heart4  ,his  room   
was used by ,austrian soldiers1 who shot
 from the windows upon the  democrats   
below4    ,his political views are      
expressed again in his will1 made in    
#aheb1 in  which ,schopenhauer left the 
greater part of his estate to be spent  
for  the benefit of the soldiers who had
 been wounded at ,berlin1 in #ahah1 in  
defence of the royal party against the  
democratic revolutionaries4  ,in  his   
view1 the ,state exists only to secure  
safety of persons and  property4  ,it is
 a strange error1 he says1 to attribute 
to the ,state  any moral function4  ,it 
is to be regarded merely as the         
night-watchman1  who protects us from   
thieves and robbers4    ,the ,german    

,parliament1 which sat at ,frankfurt1   
had but a short-lived  existence4  ,in  
the reaction which followed1            
,schopenhauer's philosophy  found an    
open door4  ,disciples attached         
themselves gradually to the             
philosopher1 and by degrees his system  
gained ground at home and abroad4       
,the work which won for him more        
popularity than any other1 was ,parerga 
and ,paralipomena 7,chips and ,scraps71 
published in #ahea4  ,the work had  been
 declined by three publishers before a  
,berlin firm agreed to  publish1 without
 any payment to the author4  ,the book  
consists of  essays of a very           
heterogeneous kind1 and of varying      
length4  ,most of  the chief problems   
discussed in his larger works are       
treated again in  the essays4           
,religion1 education1 archology1        
,sanscrit1 style1 noise1  ghosts1 and   
immortality are a few of the subjects   
dealt with4  ,schopenhauer's reading was
 wide4  ,his quotations range freely    

over  oriental1 classical1 and modern   
literature4    ,the success which       
followed the publication of this #cg    
book was  reflected on the earlier      
works1 and it was now possible to bring 
out  further editions4  ,schopenhauer's 
delight at this tardy recognition was   
unbounded4  ,every scrap of applause was
 gathered and absorbed with  eagerness4 
,in his letters during this period1     
everyone who differs  from him is       
denounced as a charlatan and a windbag4 
,everyone who says  anything at all     
similar is attacked as a plagiarist4    
,every adversary  is moved by the       
meanest motives4  ,so virulent is his   
abuse1 and so  coarse his language1 that
 words in his letters have sometimes to 
be  changed for an initial4  ,nothing   
short of adulation1 could satisfy his   
hungry vanity4  ,even when the          
universities at last acknowledged him1  
and offered a prize for the best        
exposition and criticism of his  system1
 he was enraged at the award of the     

prize to a student who  treated him as  
of more importance in a literary than in
 a philosophical  capacity4  ,praise of 
any other philosophy than his own filled
 him with  bitterness4  ,his            
correspondence with ,frauenstadt1       
,lindner1 and ,asher is  full of such   
weakness4  ,it may be doubted whether   
any great man ever  left behind him     
letters of so trifling a nature1 so     
steeped in vanity  and so resentful of  
any breath of criticism4    ,he was     
active to the end of his life1 though   
the first fine rapture of  his          
passionate love for all that is best in 
art was dimmed inevitably  with the     
passing years4  ,there is a pathetic    
reference in a letter to  this dulling  
of his power of vision4  ,in the time1  
he writes1 when  my spirit was at its   
zenith1 whatever object my eye rested   
upon made  revelations to me4  ,now that
 ,i am old1 it may happen that ,i stand 
in  front of ,raphael's ,madonna1 and   
she says nothing to me4    ,he died     

suddenly1 in #ahfj1 at the age of       
seventy-two4  ,the stone which  marks   
his grave bears as inscription the sole 
words ,arthur  ,schopenhauer4           
#ch    ,,chapter ,,ii    ,,pessimism    
,schopenhauer's system is set forth in  
all its fulness in his great  work1 ,the
 ,world as ,will and ,idea4  ,all that  
he wrote after the  appearance of this  
book was confirmation and expansion of  
the theories  already laid down4  ,it   
differs from his earlier books in       
method4  ,he no  longer follows academic
 lines4  ,he looks upon the work as a   
revelation  of the meaning of life1     
based on a clear and direct intuition   
into  life1 and the style shapes itself 
accordingly4  ,metaphor frequently      
takes the place of argument1 and his    
theories are developed in a flow  of    
passionate eloquence1 contrasting       
remarkably with the severer  methods of 
the ordinary metaphysician4             
,schopenhauer takes as his              
starting-point certain theories from the

  philosophies of ,plato and ,kant4     
,things1 as we know them in experience1 
said ,kant1 are made up partly of forms 
or moulds1 which are in the  mind1 and  
partly of something outside the mind4   
,that which we know1  our actual        
experience1 is a combination of the two 
elements1 the  subjective and the       
objective element4  ,that part of       
experience which  lies outside the mind1
 the reality1 the thing-in-itself or the
 noumenon  in philosophical language1 we
 can never know4  ,for in order to be   
known  by us1 it has to run into the    
forms or moulds supplied by the mind1   
and  in this transition its nature has  
been changed4  ,to know it as it is1    
before it enters into contact with our  
minds1 is impossible4  ,that we  #ci    
appear to have objective knowledge is   
therefore a deception and an  illusion4 
,schopenhauer accepts ,kant's analysis  
of experience1 but denies that the      
thing-in-itself is unknowable4  ,for    
that which is real in our  experience is

 not outside us altogether1 as in       
,kant's theory4  ,it lies  within       
ourselves2 it is the only real and      
essential part of our nature1  and we   
have a direct knowledge of it4  ,this   
reality ,schopenhauer finds  in the     
will4  ,now the will is fully known to  
us through internal  perception1 through
 intuition4  ,it is the real1 inner     
nature of  everything in the world4  ,it
 affords the key to the knowledge of the
  inmost being of the whole of nature4  
,it is the kernel of every  individual  
thing1 and also of the whole universe4  
,it is important to note1 that          
,schopenhauer's use of the word will is 
far wider than that of common usage4    
,it includes not only conscious  desire1
 but also unconscious instinct1 and the 
forces of inorganic  nature4  ,he       
recognises will not only in the         
existences which resemble  our own1 in  
men and animals1 but also in the force  
which germinates and  vegetates in the  
plant1 the force through which the      

crystal is formed1  that by which the   
magnet turns to the north pole1 the     
force which  appears in the elective    
affinities of matter as repulsion and   
attraction1 decomposition and           
combination1 and lastly even as         
gravitation1 which draws the stone to   
the earth and the earth to the  sun4    
,all these in their inner nature are    
identical4  ,it is the same  force in   
every manifestation of nature1 as in    
each preconsidered action  of man4  ,the
 difference is merely one of degree4    
,the body is the most real thing for    
everyone4  ,if we analyse the  reality  
of this body1 we find nothing but the   
will4  ,with this its  reality is       
exhausted4  ,the word #dj will1 like a  
magic spell1 he says1  reveals the      
inmost being of all nature4  ,spinoza   
says1 that if a stone1  which has been  
projected through the air1 had          
consciousness1 it would  believe that it
 was moving of its own will4            
,schopenhauer adds that the  stone would

 be right4  ,the impulse given it1 is   
for the stone what the  motive is for   
us4  ,all blindly impelling force1 all  
forces which act in  nature in          
accordance with universal laws1 are     
equally in their inner  nature to be    
recognised as will4  ,it is everywhere  
one and the same1  just as the first dim
 light of dawn must share the name of   
sunlight  with the rays of the full     
midday4    ,now the will expresses      
itself necessarily as a struggle4       
,everywhere in  nature we see strife1   
conflict1 and alternation of victory4   
,every  grade of will fights for the    
matter1 the space1 and the time of the  
others4  ,for each desires to express   
its own inmost nature4  ,nature  exists 
only through such struggle4  ,this      
universal conflict is most  distinctly  
visible in the animal kingdom4  ,for    
animals have the whole  of the vegetable
 kingdom for their food1 and even within
 the animal  kingdom every beast is the 
prey and the food of another4  ,each    

animal  can maintain its existence only 
by the constant destruction of some     
other life4    ,this is the will to live
 which everywhere preys upon itself1    
until  finally the human race regards   
nature as a manufactory for its own use4
  ,this strife manifests itself just as 
characteristically in the lower  grades 
of will1 e4g4 the ivy which encircles   
the oak until the tree  withers as if   
choked1 the parasite which fastens      
itself on the animal  and kills it4     
,even crude matter has its existence    
only in the strife  of conflicting      
forces4    ,man has need of the beasts  
for his support1 the beasts in their    
turn  have need of each other as well as
 plants1 #da which in their turn        
require the ground1 water1 and chemical 
elements and their  combinations4  ,thus
 in nature everything preys on some     
other form of  life4  ,for the will must
 live on itself2 there exists nothing   
beside  it1 and it is a hungry will4    
,this theory of the will is connected by

 ,schopenhauer with pessimism4  ,eternal
 becoming1 endless flux characterises   
the inner nature of the  will4  ,in the 
human race this character of the will is
 most clearly  marked4  ,all our        
endeavours and desires delude us by     
presenting their  satisfaction as the   
final end of will4  ,but as soon as we  
attain our  desires1 they no longer     
appear the same4  ,they soon grow stale 
and are  forgotten1 and then are thrown 
aside as useless illusions4  ,the       
enchantment of distance shows us        
paradises1 which vanish like optical    
delusions1 as soon as we have allowed   
ourselves to be mocked by them4  ,we are
 fortunate if there still remains       
something to wish for and to  strive    
after1 that the game may be kept up of  
constant transition from  desire to     
satisfaction1 and from satisfaction to a
 new desire4    ,happiness1 therefore1  
always lies in the future1 or else in   
the past4  ,the present1 ,schopenhauer  
compares to a small dark cloud1 which   

the  wind drives over the sunny plain4  
,before and behind it all is bright1    
but the cloud itself always casts a     
shadow4  ,the present is always         
insufficient1 the future is uncertain1  
and the past irrevocable4    ,the will  
strives always1 for striving is its real
 nature4  ,no  attainment of the goal   
can put an end to this constant         
striving4  ,it is  not susceptible1     
therefore1 of any final satisfaction1   
for in itself it  goes on for ever4  ,as
 in the life of the plant1 so in the    
life of all  men4  ,there is the same   
restless1 unsatisfied striving1 a       
ceaseless  #db movement through         
ever-ascending forms1 until finally the 
seed  becomes a new starting-point4     
,this is repeated ad infinitum1 nowhere 
an end1 nowhere a final satisfaction1   
nowhere a resting-place4  ,no  possible 
satisfaction in the world can suffice to
 still the cravings of  the will1 to set
 a goal to its infinite aspirations1 and
 to fill the  bottomless abyss of its   

heart4    ,the hindrance of this        
striving1 through an obstacle1 we call  
suffering2  the attainment of its       
temporary end is well-being or          
happiness4  ,but as  there is no final  
end of striving1 there is no measure and
 end of  suffering4  ,in proportion as  
knowledge attains to distinctness1 as   
consciousness ascends in the scale of   
organic life1 pain increases  also4  ,it
 reaches its highest capacity1          
therefore1 in man4  ,the more           
intelligence a man has1 the greater his 
capacity for suffering2 the man  who is 
gifted with genius suffers most of all4 
,suffering is in the  very nature of all
 life1 and the ceaseless efforts which  
we make to  banish it succeed only in   
making it change its form4  ,yet we     
pursue our  lives1 absorbed in the      
interests of the moment1 just as we blow
 out a  soap bubble as large as         
possible1 although we know perfectly    
well that  it will burst4  ,willing or  
striving may be compared to an          

unquenchable  thirst4  ,every act of    
willing presupposes a want4  ,the basis 
of all  willing is need or deficiency4  
,the nature of man1 therefore1 is       
subject to pain originally and through  
its very nature4    ,if1 on the other   
hand1 man lacks objects of desire1 being
 deprived of  them by too easy          
satisfaction1 then a terrible emptiness 
and sense of  boredom1 comes over him4  
,his very existence becomes an          
unbearable  burden to him4  ,thus life  
swings like a pendulum backwards and    
forwards  between pain and boredom4     
,men have #dc expressed this truth      
oddly1  says ,schopenhauer1 in          
transferring all pain and torments to   
hell1 and  in leaving what remains1 that
 is1 boredom1 for heaven4  ,man is of   
all  animals the most full of wants and 
needs4  ,he is a concretion of a        
thousand necessities4  ,driven by these1
 he wanders through life1  uncertain    
about everything except his own need and
 misery4  ,the care  for the maintenance

 of his existence occupies1 as a rule1  
the whole of  human life4  ,a second    
claim1 that of the reproduction of the  
species1  is related directly to this4  
,at the same time1 he is threatened from
  all sides by different kinds of       
dangers1 from which it requires         
constant watchfulness to escape4  ,with 
cautious steps and casting  anxious     
glances round him1 he pursues his path1 
for a thousand  accidents and a thousand
 enemies lie in wait for him4  ,thus he 
went  while yet a savage1 thus he goes  
in civilised life4  ,there is no        
security for him4    ,the majority of   
men wage a constant battle for their    
very existence1  with nothing before    
them but the certainty of losing it at  
last4  ,man's  greatest care in avoiding
 the rocks and whirlpools of life1 only 
bring  him nearer at every step to the  
greatest1 inevitable1 and irremediable  
shipwreck of death4  ,this is the final 
goal of the laborious voyage4           
,whatever nature and fortune may have   

done1 whoever a man be1 and  whatever he
 may possess1 the pain of life cannot be
 cast off4  ,excessive joy and excessive
 suffering always occur in the same     
person1  for they condition each other  
reciprocally1 and are conditioned by    
great activity of the mind4  ,error and 
delusion lie at the foundation  of keen 
joy or grief4  ,joy rests on the        
delusion that lasting  satisfaction has 
been found for the desires4  ,the       
inevitable result is  that when the #dd 
delusion vanishes1 we pay for it with   
pain as bitter  as the joy was keen4    
,the greater the height from which we   
drop1 the  more severe the fall4    ,for
 the most part we close our minds to the
 knowledge that happiness is  a         
delusion4  ,we strive unweariedly from  
wish to wish1 and from desire  to       
desire4  ,it is incredible how          
meaningless when viewed from without1   
how dull and unenlightened by intellect 
when felt from within1 is the  course of
 life of the great mass of men4  ,it is 

a weary longing and  complaining1 a     
dreamlike staggering through the four   
ages of life to  death1 accompanied only
 by trivial thoughts4  ,such men go like
  clockwork1 without knowing the reason 
why4  ,the life of every  individual1 if
 we survey it as a whole1 is always a   
tragedy1 but looked  at in detail1 it   
has all the character of a comedy4      
,everyone who has  awakened from the    
first dream of youth1 who has reflected 
on his own  experience and on that of   
others1 must conclude inevitably that   
this  human world is the kingdom of     
chance and error1 which rule without    
mercy in great things and in small4     
,everything better struggles  through   
only with difficulty4  ,that which is   
noble and wise seldom  attains to       
expression4  ,the absurd and the        
perverse in the sphere of  thought1 the 
dull and tasteless in the sphere of art1
 the wicked and  deceitful in the sphere
 of action1 assert a supremacy which is 
rarely  disturbed4    ,nothing external 

has power to deliver man from this      
dominion of woe4  ,in vain does he make 
to himself gods1 in order to get from   
them by  prayers and flattery what can  
be accomplished only by his own         
will-power4    ,the most beautiful part 
of life1 its purest joy1 is pure        
knowledge4  ,it  is removed from all    
willing1 and lifts us out of real       
existence4  ,this  relief1 however1 is  
granted #de only to a few1 because it   
demands rare  talents and rare          
opportunities4  ,even the few1 to whom  
it comes only as  a passing dream1 are  
made susceptible of far greater         
suffering than  duller minds can ever   
feel4  ,they are placed in lonely       
isolation by  their nature1 which is    
different from that of others4  ,to the 
great  mass of men1 purely intellectual 
pleasures are not accessible4  ,they    
are almost incapable of the joys which  
lie in pure knowledge4  ,their  lives   
are given up to willing4    ,if we could
 bring clearly to a man's sight the     

terrible sufferings and  miseries to    
which his life is exposed1 he would be  
seized with horror4  ,the brevity of    
life may be the best quality it         
possesses4    ,all happiness is negative
 in character1 and never positive4      
,only pain  and want can be felt        
positively4  ,happiness is merely the   
absence of  pain1 for it follows upon   
the satisfaction of a wish4  ,some want 
or  need is the condition which precedes
 every pleasure4  ,but with the         
satisfaction1 the wish1 and therefore   
the pleasure1 cease4  ,the  satisfaction
 can never be more than deliverance from
 a pain or want4  ,we observe that the  
days of our life were happy after they  
have given  place to unhappy ones4  ,in 
proportion as pleasures increase1 the   
capacity for them decreases4  ,what is  
customary is no longer felt as a        
pleasure4  ,achievement is difficult1   
but when attained it is nothing  but    
deliverance from some sorrow or want4   
,therefore we value our  blessings and  

advantages only when we have lost them1 
for the  deprivation1 the need1 is the  
positive factor4    ,man's real         
existence is only in the present1 and   
the present is  slipping ever into the  
past4  ,there is thus a constant        
transition into  death4  ,the future is 
quite uncertain1 and always short4  ,our
  existence1 therefore1 is a constant   
hurrying of the present1 into the  dead 
past1 #df a constant dying4  ,on the    
physical side1 the life of  the body is 
but an ever-postponed death4  ,in the   
end death must  conquer1 and he only    
plays for a little with his prey before 
he  swallows it up4    ,with such       
intensity did ,schopenhauer feel that   
pessimism was the only  possible        
conclusion1 that he maintained that     
optimism was not only  absurd1 but      
really a wicked way of thought4  ,for   
optimism is a bitter  mockery of the    
unspeakable suffering of humanity4  ,he 
revolted against  the theory of         
,leibnitz1 who maintained that this is  

the best of all  possible worlds4  ,it  
is1 on the contrary1 he declared1 the   
worst of all  possible worlds4          
,optimism is at bottom the unmerited    
self-praise of  the will to live1 the   
real originator of the world1 which     
views itself  complacently in its works4
  ,it is not only a false1 but also a   
pernicious doctrine4  ,for it presents  
life to us as a desirable  condition1   
and happiness as its end4  ,everyone    
believes that he has a  just claim to   
happiness and pleasure1 and if these do 
not fall to his  lot1 he believes that  
he is wronged4  ,it is far more correct 
to regard  misery and suffering1 crowned
 by death1 as the end of our life1 for  
it  is these which lead to the denial of
 the will to live4  ,it is difficult  to
 conceive how men can deceive themselves
 and be persuaded that life  is there to
 be thankfully enjoyed1 and that man    
exists in order to be  happy4  ,the     
constant illusion and disillusion seem  
intended to awaken  the conviction1 that

 nothing at all is worth our striving1  
our efforts1  or our struggles1 and that
 all good things are but empty vanity4  
,the  truth is1 he says1 we ought to be 
wretched and we are4    ,the world is a 
hell1 which surpasses that of ,dante4   
,one need look only  at man's treatment 
of his fellow-men4    ,schopenhauer     
points to the children1 who are sent #dg
 into factories  to work there daily for
 long hours1 performing day after day   
the same  mechanical task4  ,this1 he   
adds1 is to purchase dearly the         
satisfaction  of drawing breath4        
,everyone would have declined the gift  
of life1 if  he could have seen it and  
tested it beforehand4  ,but life has    
never  been chosen freely4  ,everyone   
would retire from the struggle gladly1  
but want and boredom are the whips which
 keep the top spinning4  ,every         
individual bears the stamp of a forced  
condition4  ,inwardly weary1 he  longs  
for rest1 but yet he must press forward4
  ,all movement is forced1  and men are 

pushed from behind4  ,it is not life    
that tempts them on1  but necessity that
 drives them forward4    ,suicide is no 
solution of the problem of life4  ,it is
 not to be  regarded as a crime1 as in  
the code of modern society4  ,but there 
is a  valid moral reason against it1 in 
that it substitutes for the real        
emancipation from the world of          
suffering1 a merely apparent one4  ,so  
far from being a denial of the will1    
suicide is indeed a strong  assertion of
 the will4  ,the suicide destroys merely
 the individual  manifestation of life4 
,the wilful destruction of the single   
existence  is a vain and foolish act4   
,the suicide gives up living1 because he
  cannot give up willing4  ,he denies   
the individual only1 not the  species4  
,there is a more adequate way of        
conquering life than by  destroying it1 
which ,schopenhauer expounds when he    
deals with the  ethical aspect of his   
philosophy4    ,his analysis of the     
worth of human life1 as represented in  

this theory  of pessimism1 is the most  
passionate and terrible indictment of   
existence which has ever found          
expression4  ,his sense of              
disenchantment  is felt with such       
intensity1 that it colours and distorts 
the whole  fabric of his vision of life4
    ,there is much affinity between the 
character and #dh work of  ,schopenhauer
 and that of ,leopardi4  ,in both are   
displayed penetrating  profundity of    
thought1 extraordinary beauty of        
expression1 and deep  insight into the  
workings of the human mind1 while the   
same passionate  revolt against the     
misery of life colours the outlook and  
achievement  of philosopher and poet    
alike4  ,schopenhauer was acquainted    
with the  writings of ,leopardi1 and had
 great admiration for his work4  ,his   
subject1 he says1 is always the mockery 
and wretchedness of existence1  and he  
presents it with such wealth of imagery1
 such multiplicity of  forms and        
applications1 that he never wearies us1 

but is always  entertaining and         
exciting4  ,this estimate of the work of
 ,leopardi might  with equal justice be 
applied to ,schopenhauer himself4    ,as
 his philosophy gained ground gradually1
 and became known1 he won  many         
disciples and enthusiastic followers1   
and for a time his theories  of         
pessimism became fashionable4  ,certain 
literary groups adopted them  with      
enthusiasm1 but in that direction his   
influence was not permanent4  ,it is not
 in ,schopenhauer's theory of pessimism 
that his true  importance and real      
significance lie4  ,in philosophy this  
influence has  but faintly shown itself4
  ,schopenhauer's direct successor on   
these  lines of thought is ,eduard von  
,hartmann4  ,he rejects ,schopenhauer's 
doctrine that all pleasure is merely    
relief from pain1 but admits that  the  
greater number of pleasures are of this 
kind4  ,satisfaction1 he  asserts1 is   
always brief1 while dissatisfaction is  
enduring as life  itself4  ,the pain in 

the universe greatly preponderates over 
the  pleasure1 even for those who are   
regarded as the fortunate ones in the   
eyes of the world4  ,the future1        
moreover1 seems likely to bring us only 
increased misery4  ,hartmann's practical
 conclusion is that we should  aim at   
the negation of the will to live1 not   
each for himself1 as  ,schopenhauer #di 
taught1 but universally1 by working     
towards the  annihilation of all        
existence4  ,schopenhauer's influence is
 here1  obviously1 very strongly marked4
    ,another disciple1 and a far more   
famous one1 is ,nietzsche4  ,he came    
under ,schopenhauer's influence while a 
student at the university1 and  threw   
himself with passionate enthusiasm under
 the spell of his  philosophy4          
,although in his later development he   
reacted strongly in  an opposite        
direction1 yet all his work bears the   
mark of the deep  impress which         
,schopenhauer had made upon his mind4   
,his outlook on life  had been changed  

profoundly by that wonderful            
heart-stirring  philosophy1 as he calls 
it4  ,one of his earliest works was an  
essay on  ,schopenhauer as ,educator1 in
 which he bases the greatness of        
,schopenhauer on his power to see the   
picture of life as a unity1 and to      
express it as such4  ,he is held up as  
the ideal philosopher1 and as one  of   
three models for future man1 the other  
two being ,goethe and  ,rousseau4       
,schopenhauer's insistence on action as 
the proper sphere of  man1 as contrasted
 with the mere life of thought1 made a  
strong appeal  to ,nietzsche4  ,a       
philosopher1 says ,nietzsche1 must be   
not only a great  thinker1 but a living 
man4  ,schopenhauer had not been spoilt1
 as was  ,kant1 by his education4  ,he  
had seen life as well as studied books1 
and  so was able to see how the free1   
strong man could be evolved4  ,many of  
,nietzsche's most characteristic        
doctrines are suggested in this early   
essay1 and are read partially into      

,schopenhauer's philosophy4    ,it is   
more especially ,schopenhauer's theories
 of art which influenced  ,nietzsche's  
thought1 and left the deepest and most  
permanent mark on  his work4  ,he       
adopted in his early days the pessimism 
along with the  rest of ,schopenhauer's 
system4  ,but this conception #ej of    
life was  not really native to his mind1
 and it was against this aspect of      
,schopenhauer's philosophy that he      
reacted most violently in later life4   
,nietzsche stands1 above all else1 for  
the affirmation of life1  ,schopenhauer 
for the negation of life4  ,in his      
protest against  pessimism1 ,nietzsche  
reaffirms with passionate intensity the 
worth of  life and the splendour of     
human destiny4  ,he told men to believe 
in the  glory of things1 and bade them  
shout for the joy of living4  ,all      
that's joyful shall be true1 he says in 
one of his poems4  ,in another  passage 
he insists that it is necessary to      
remain bravely at the  surface1 to      

worship appearance1 to believe in forms1
 in tones1 in  words1 in the whole      
,olympus of appearance4  ,it is clear   
that by this  time nothing of the       
pessimistic outlook on life had been    
left in  ,nietzsche's philosophy4       
,pessimism will always find an echo in  
the minds of those who by  temperament  
tend to see only the darker colours of  
the picture of life4  ,too much         
questioning and too little              
responsibility lead down to the  abyss1 
as ,william ,james points out4          
,pessimism1 he says1 is essentially  a  
religious disease4  ,it consists in     
nothing but a religious demand1 to      
which there comes no normal religious   
reply4    ,to the great mass of mankind 
there is something alien and repellent  
in  this grim and bitter outlook of     
hopelessness4  ,it finds little or no   
response in the heart of the normal     
human being1 even though at times  the  
nightmare view may force itself upon    
him4  ,deliverance1 says the  ,indian   

poet ,tagore1 is not for me in          
renunciation4  ,i feel the embrace  of  
freedom in a thousand bonds of delight4 
,all my illusions will burn  into       
illumination of joy and all my desires  
ripen into fruits of love4    #ea       
,for ,schopenhauer the way of escape lay
 in two directions4  ,in  considering   
his sthetic theories1 we shall see how  
he found in art a  temporary release    
from the bondage of life1 and in his    
ethical system  he points the way to a  
permanent deliverance4    ,it is in     
these statements1 the sthetic and the   
ethical aspects of his  system1 that we 
find the most significant part of       
,schopenhauer's  philosophy4  ,his      
pessimism left little permanent mark on 
the course of  philosophic thought4  ,it
 is to the other side of his work that  
we must  look for a fruitful issue1 to  
his statement of the function of art and
  its meaning for life2 his insistence  
on the will1 the active element1  as    
that which has most reality and         

significance in life2 to the part  which
 the feelings1 instinct1 and impulse    
play in his system4  ,in all  these     
directions1 ,schopenhauer's influence   
has been powerful and  far-reaching4    
,to-day he is a stronger force than any 
other of the  great thinkers of his     
time1 overshadowed though he was by them
 during  his lifetime4  ,in ,germany    
especially1 his influence is felt as a  
powerful factor in the thought of the   
present day4          #eb    ,,chapter  
,,iii    ,,art    ,schopenhauer's theory
 of the beautiful is the side of his    
philosophy  which has always made so    
potent an appeal to artists1 and to all 
those  lovers of the beautiful1 for whom
 art represents the supreme             
significance of life4    ,the present   
for ,schopenhauer is only an            
infinitesimal moment between  two       
eternities1 the past and the future4    
,it is a flash of light  between two    
darknesses4  ,now how is man to make the
 best of this brief  moment1 under the  

hard conditions of his destiny8  ,the   
answer to this  question ,schopenhauer  
finds in his theory of the function of  
art4  ,he  links up into intimate       
relation his theory of sthetic with his 
philosophical pessimism1 but his        
pessimism is modified considerably in   
the process4    ,there are certain men1 
he maintains1 who can free themselves   
from the  bondage of the will4  ,they   
can throw off its yoke1 and1 released   
from  all the aims of desire1 they can  
become disinterested spectators of the  
real1 essential nature of the world4    
,the inner meaning of their clear1  deep
 vision they can interpret to others4   
,such men are artists1 and  the         
interpretation of their vision is the   
work of art4  ,in art are  revealed the 
eternal truths of the nature of man and 
the universe1  revealed with a power and
 directness to which science can never  
attain4  ,artists1 then1 are the seers1 
the visionaries1 who penetrate into the 
hidden1 vital principles of things4     

,they alone have power to interpret  #ec
 the half-uttered speech of nature1 and 
disentangle that which is  real and     
essential1 the inner truth1 from that   
which is accidental and  transitory4    
,the road to philosophy1 then1 leads    
through the gateway of  art4    ,in this
 theory ,schopenhauer starts from       
,plato's doctrine of the ,ideas4  ,the  
particular objects of sense1 which we   
know1 are mere appearances4  ,they have 
no reality in themselves4  ,they arise  
and pass away1 they  always become and  
never are4  ,but there exist also the   
types and  eternal forms of things1     
which do not enter into time and space1 
and  which remain fixed1 subject to no  
change4  ,these constitute the sole     
reality4  ,plato called them the ,ideas1
 and ,schopenhauer adopts this  term    
from the ,platonic philosophy4  ,the    
,ideas for ,schopenhauer  represent the 
different grades of the objectification 
of the will1  which are manifested in   
the individuals4  ,these are the eternal

 forms  or prototypes of individual     
things4    ,our knowledge of the        
ordinary things of sense-experience is  
indirect1  it is gained by way of the   
intellect4  ,our knowledge of the       
,ideas1 on  the other hand1 is direct   
and immediate1 it is gained through     
intuition4  ,in his account of the      
,ideas1 or the real1 essential nature   
of things1 ,schopenhauer is treading    
already the path of mysticism1  along   
which he works out his theories of      
ethics4    ,now the whole function of   
art is to reproduce the eternal ideas1  
to  seize on that which is essential and
 abiding in all the phenomena of  the   
world4  ,the one and only source of art 
is the knowledge of true  reality1 of   
the ,ideas4  ,the one aim of art is the 
communication of this  knowledge4       
,according to the material in which this
 vision of true  reality is reproduced1 
it is architecture1 sculpture1 painting1
 poetry1  or music4    #ed    ,science  
can only follow the unresting and       

inconstant stream of  appearances4  ,it 
can never reach a final goal nor attain 
complete  satisfaction1 any more than by
 running we can reach the place where   
the  clouds touch the horizon4  ,but    
art1 on the other hand1 is everywhere at
  its goal4  ,it plucks the object of   
its contemplation out of the stream  of 
things as they seem1 and holds it       
isolated before its vision4  ,and  this 
particular thing1 which in the stream of
 the world's course was a  small        
perishing part1 becomes to art the      
representative of the whole1  the type  
of the endless multitude in space and   
time4  ,art1 therefore1  pauses before  
this reality1 which it perceives in the 
particular thing4  ,the course of time  
stands still2 relations vanish before   
it2 only the  essential1 the ,idea1     
remains as the object of the artist's   
vision4  ,in  the multitudinous and     
manifold forms of human life1 and in the
  unceasing change of events1 the artist
 looks only on the ,idea1 knowing  it as

 the abiding and the essential1 as that 
which is known with equal  truth for all
 time4  ,art1 therefore1 is the bridge  
between two worlds4  ,it leads us from  
things as they seem to things as they   
really are4    ,it is the genius who    
possesses this power of vision1 and     
whose magic  works can unfold before the
 eyes of ordinary mortals the spirit of 
beauty as she has revealed herself to   
him4  ,entirely in this spirit  does    
,blake express his sense of the poet's  
mission3          ,i rest not from my   
great task    ,to open the eternal      
worlds1 to open the immortal eyes    ,of
 man inwards2 into the worlds of        
thought2 into ,eternity    ,ever        
expanding in the bosom of ,god1 the     
human ,imagination4      ,the method of 
genius is always artistic1 as opposed to
 scientific4  ,the  nature of genius    
consists in a surpassing capacity for   
the pure  contemplation of ,ideas4  #ee 
,it is the faculty of continuing in the 
state of pure perception1 of losing the 

personality in perception1 and  of      
enlisting in this service the knowledge 
which existed originally  only for the  
service of the will4  ,genius1 then1 is 
the power of  leaving one's own         
interests1 wishes1 and aims entirely out
 of sight1 of  renouncing entirely one's
 own personality for a time1 so as to   
remain  pure knowing subject1 clear     
vision of the world4  ,this state must  
be  achieved1 not merely at moments1 but
 for a sufficient length of time1  and  
with sufficient consciousness1 to enable
 the artist to reproduce by  deliberate 
art what has thus been seized by his    
inner vision4  ,he must  fix in lasting 
thoughts the wavering images that float 
before the mind3      ,but from these   
create he can    ,forms more real than  
living man1    ,nurslings of            
immortality4      ,it is as if1 says    
,schopenhauer1 when genius appears in an
 individual1 a  far greater measure of  
the power of knowledge falls to his lot 
than is  necessary for ordinary men4    

,this excess of knowledge1 being free1  
now  becomes subject purified from will1
 a clear mirror of the inner nature  of 
the world4    ,imagination is an        
essential element in genius1 and it is a
 necessary  condition that it should be 
possessed in an extraordinary degree4   
,imagination extends the horizon far    
beyond the limits of actual  personal   
experience1 and so enables the artist to
 construct the whole  dream1 the        
complete vision1 out of the little that 
comes into his own  actual apperception4
    ,the actual objects are almost      
always but imperfect copies of the ideas
  expressed in them4  ,therefore the    
artist requires imagination in order  to
 see in things1 not that which nature   
has actually made1 but that  which #ef  
she endeavoured to make1 but could not1 
because of the  never-ceasing conflict  
between the various forms of will4      
,through the  penetrating vision of this
 imagination1 the artist recognises the 
,idea4  ,he understands the half-uttered

 speech of nature1 and is able to       
articulate clearly what she only        
stammered forth4    ,the common mortal1 
he says1 that manufacture of nature1    
which she  produces by the thousand     
every day1 is not capable of observation
 that  is wholly disinterested in every 
sense4  ,he can turn his attention to   
things only so far as they have some    
relation to his will1 however  indirect 
it may be4  ,this is why he is so soon  
done with everything1  with works of    
art1 objects of natural beauty1 and     
everywhere with all  that is truly      
significant in the various scenes of    
life4  ,he does not  linger in the      
pursuit of beauty1 but seeks only to    
gain his own way in  life4  ,on the     
consideration of the significance of    
life as a whole1 he  wastes no time4    
,the artist1 on the other hand1 strives 
to understand  the inner nature of      
everything4  ,his faculty of vision is  
to him the  sum which reveals the world4
    ,in spite of his contempt for the   

majority of men1 ,schopenhauer has to   
admit that the faculty of perceiving the
 ,idea1 the inner reality1 must  exist  
in nearly all men1 in a smaller and     
different degree1 otherwise  they would 
be just as incapable of enjoying works  
of art as of  producing them4  ,they    
would have no susceptibility to beauty1 
nor to  sublimity4  ,all men1 therefore1
 who are capable of sthetic pleasure at 
all1 must be capable to some extent of  
knowing the ,idea in things1 and  in    
responding to the call of beauty1 of    
transcending their personality  for the 
moment4    sthetic pleasure is the same 
whether it is evoked by a work of art or
  by the contemplation of nature1 for   
#eg the ,idea remains unchanged and  the
 same4  ,the work of art is only a means
 of making permanent the  vision in     
which this pleasure consists4  ,the     
artist does not add the  gleam1 the     
light that never was on sea or land1 but
 his vision is more  finely attuned to  
the reality than that of ordinary men4  

,he makes  permanent in the various     
media of art the consecration and the   
poet's  dream4  ,his work acts as a     
communicating spark from mind to mind4  
,in one of ,carlyle's most suggestive   
passages1 he insists on the  spiritual  
and symbolic nature of the work of art1 
in words that echo  curiously the       
thought of ,schopenhauer4  ,in all true 
works of art1 he  says1 thou wilt       
discern eternity looking through time1  
the godlike  rendered visible 444 a     
hierarch therefore1 and pontiff of the  
world  will we call him1 the poet and   
inspired maker1 who ,prometheus-like can
  shape new symbols1 and bring new fire 
from heaven to fix it there4    ,that   
the ,idea1 the true reality behind      
appearance1 is revealed with so  much   
more force and clearness in the         
productions of art than directly  in    
nature is due to the power of the artist
 to abstract the pure ,idea1  the       
reality1 from the actual and the        
accidental1 omitting all  disturbing1   

non-essential qualities4  ,he           
disentangles that which is  real and    
essential from the confused mass        
presented in experience4  ,the  artist  
lets us see the real world through his  
eyes4  ,that he has these  eyes1 that he
 knows the inner nature of things1 apart
 from all their  relations1 is the gift 
of genius4  ,this gift is inborn1 and   
cannot be  acquired4  ,but that the     
artist is able to lend us this gift1 and
 let us  see through his eyes1 is       
acquired4  ,this is the technical side  
of his  art4    ,primarily1 then1 the   
genius is the artist4  ,scientific #eh  
genius  finds no place in               
,schopenhauer's scheme4  ,statesmen are 
of very  different fibre4  ,their       
intellect retains a practical tendency1 
and is  concerned with the choice of the
 best means to practical ends1          
remaining therefore in the service of   
the will4  ,the eminent man1 who  is    
fitted for great achievement in the     
practical sphere of life1 is so  because

 objects rouse his will in a strong     
degree1 and spur him on to  the         
investigation of their relations4  ,his 
intellect1 therefore1 has  grown up in  
close connection with his will4         
,talent is limited to detecting the     
relations which exist between           
individual phenomena1 whereas genius    
rises to a vision of the universal  in  
the individual4  ,the genius has a      
vision of another and a deeper  world1  
because he sees more profoundly into the
 world which lies before  him4  ,to     
compare useful people with men of genius
 is like comparing  building stone with 
diamonds4  ,mere men of talent come     
always at the  right time1 for they are 
called forth by the needs of their own  
age4  ,the genius1 on the other hand1   
comes into his age like a comet1 whose  
eccentric course is foreign to its      
well-regulated order4  ,genius  appears 
only as a perfectly isolated exception4 
,schopenhauer never states definitely   
that a philosopher may be a  genius1 but

 he always seems to assume that he      
himself belongs to the  heavenly        
company4  ,he gives a detailed          
description of the genius1 even  to his 
physical appearance4  ,with his usual   
habit of generalising from  his own     
particular case1 he endows the genius   
with many of his own  personal          
characteristics1 even to his dislike of 
mathematics4    ,the ,platonic theory of
 ,ideas was the basis on which          
,schopenhauer built  his philosophy of  
art4  ,but ,plato's own theory of the   
function of art  differed fundamentally 
#ei from that of ,schopenhauer1 and it  
is  interesting to compare the two      
views4  ,to ,plato it seemed that art   
was  concerned with the imitation of    
things as they seem1 not as they really 
are2 with the objects of sense          
perception and not with the ,ideas4     
,the  artist mutates the illusory       
appearances of concrete things4         
,consequently the work of art is still  
further removed from true  reality1 from

 the ,idea1 than is the thing of        
experience4  ,it is a copy  of a copy4  
,this led him to the statement that     
works of art are thrice  removed from   
the truth4  ,they can be produced easily
 without any  knowledge of the truth1   
for they are concerned only with        
appearances1  and not with the reality  
that lies behind appearances4  ,hence   
,plato's  rejection of art4  ,in his    
system it is not art1 but philosophy    
that  gives a direct revelation of      
truth4  ,schopenhauer1 on the other     
hand1  maintains that it is not the     
concrete object of experience1 but the  
reality itself which lies behind that   
object1 with which the artist is        
supremely concerned4  ,the artist alone 
among men has the capacity of  vision to
 see and grasp the truth of this        
reality4  ,such capacity of  vision is  
reserved by ,plato for philosophers1    
those whom he calls  lovers of the      
vision of truth4    ,in his earlier     
works1 ,plato approximates far more     

closely to  ,schopenhauer's theory4  ,he
 speaks there of the poet as a light and
  winged and holy thing4  ,there is no  
invention in him until he has been      
inspired4444  ,beautiful poems are not  
human or the work of man1 but  divine   
and the work of ,god4  ,the poets are   
only the interpreters of the  gods1 by  
whom they are severally possessed4      
,the value of art for ,schopenhauer lies
 mainly in its power to deliver  us from
 the slavery of the will4  ,in the quiet
 contemplation of beauty  revealed in   
art1 we are #fj delivered from the      
misery of life4  ,willing1 he maintains1
 arises from want1 and therefore from   
suffering4  ,the satisfaction of a wish 
ends it1 but every satisfied wish at    
once  makes room for a new one1 and both
 are illusions4  ,no attained object  of
 desire can give lasting satisfaction1  
but merely a fleeting  gratification4   
,it is like the alms thrown to the      
beggar1 that keeps  him alive today1    
that his misery may be prolonged till   

the morrow4    ,without peace no true   
well-being is possible4  ,but when some 
external  cause or inward disposition   
lifts us suddenly out of the endless    
stream  of willing1 and knowledge is    
delivered from the slavery of the will1 
we  have a vision of things free from   
this relation of the will4  ,we can     
observe them without personal interest1 
without subjectivity4  ,then1  all at   
once1 the peace which we are always     
seeking1 but which always  fled from us 
on the path of the desires1 comes to us 
of its own accord1  and it is well with 
us4  ,this is the painless state1 which 
,epicurus  prized as the highest good1  
and as the state of the gods4  ,we are  
then  set free from the miserable       
striving of the will4  ,it is this      
deliverance that art effects for us1 and
 which is accomplished only by  the     
inner power of the artistic nature4     
,art frees us from all  subjectivity1   
from the bondage of the will4  ,this    
freeing of knowledge  lifts us out of   

all the misery of endless desire1 as    
wholly and  entirely as do sleep and    
dreams4  ,happiness and unhappiness have
  disappeared4  ,we are no longer       
individuals4  ,we are only that one eye 
of the world1 which looks out from all  
knowing creatures1 but which can  become
 perfectly free from the service of the 
will in man alone4  ,art  provides us   
with a sphere1 in which we can escape   
from all our misery1  and can attain to 
a state of temporary peace and          
painlessness4    #fa    ,there is a     
curious affinity between the sthetic    
theories of one of the  medival mystics 
and those of ,schopenhauer4  ,st4       
,thomas ,aquinas1 the  greatest of the  
schoolmen1 expounded views in the       
thirteenth century  akin in many        
respects to those set forth by          
,schopenhauer at the  beginning of the  
nineteenth century4  ,beauty1 he held1  
is the  revelation of reason in sensuous
 shape1 and he proceeds further to say  
that in the realisation of beauty desire

 is quieted4    ,art is the most        
joy-giving and the only innocent side of
 life4  ,it is1  says ,schopenhauer1 in 
the full significance of the word1 the  
flower of  life4  ,the pleasure which we
 receive from all beauty1 the           
consolation  which art affords1 enables 
us to forget the cares of life4  ,this  
pleasure consists in the contemplation  
of the ,ideas1 in the  contemplation of 
the inner truth of life1 which reveals  
to us a drama  full of significance4    
,in entering into the state of pure     
contemplation1 our happiness lies in the
 sense of being lifted1 for the  time   
being1 above all willing1 beyond all    
wishes and desires4  ,we  become freed  
from ourselves4  ,these moments when1   
sunk in contemplation  and enjoyment of 
the work of art1 we are delivered from  
the ardent  striving of the will1 when  
we seem to rise out of the heavy        
atmosphere  of earth1 these moments are 
the happiest which we ever know4    ,the
 arts themselves ,schopenhauer arranges 

according to their  subject-matter      
rather than according to their medium4  
,he places them  in very much the same  
order as that in which ,hegel puts them4
  ,architecture1 painting and sculpture1
 poetry and music are each  discussed in
 turn4    ,music4--,music is the apex of
 his whole system of sthetics4  ,it is  
placed by itself1 outside and above all 
the other arts4  ,for it is not1  like  
the other arts1 a copy #fb of the       
,ideas1 but it is the copy of  the will 
itself4  ,in the main ,schopenhauer's   
treatment of music is  mystical4  ,hegel
 too gave to music the supreme position 
among the arts4  ,it was the central    
romantic art in his system1 and the     
mysterious  magical enchantment of music
 is painted by him with glowing         
eloquence4    ,the effect of music1 says
 ,schopenhauer1 on the inmost nature of 
man1 is  powerful beyond that of any of 
the other arts4  ,for that great and    
exceedingly noble art stands alone1     
quite apart from the other arts4  ,in it

 there is no copy or repetition of any  
,idea of existence in the  world4  ,it  
is understood by man in his inmost      
consciousness as a  universal language1 
the distinctness of which surpasses that
 of the  visible world itself4  ,the    
basis of modern music lies in the       
numerical  relations which underlie     
sounds4  ,arithmetical proportions enter
 into  and have some part in the        
pleasure which we derive from music1 as 
,leibnitz points out1 but this does not 
account for that passionate  delight    
with which we hear the deepest recesses 
of our nature find  expression in sound4
  ,if we take the sthetic effect as a   
criterion1 we  must attribute to music a
 far deeper and more vital significance 
than  that which lies at the basis of   
the other arts4  ,this is connected with
  the inmost nature of man and the      
world4  ,its representative relation to 
the world must be very deep1 absolutely 
true1 and extraordinarily  accurate1    
because it is understood immediately by 

everyone4  ,it has the  appearance of a 
certain infallibility1 because its form 
may be reduced  to quite definite rules1
 expressed in numbers1 from which it    
cannot  free itself without ceasing to  
be music4  ,the obscure relation of     
music  to the world has never been made 
clear4    ,in order to explain this     
relation1 ,schopenhauer says #fc he gave
 his  mind entirely to the impression of
 music in all its aspects1 and then     
returned to apply his reflections to his
 system of thought4  ,we know  that he  
had invaluable opportunities of studying
 music1 in its various  forms1 during   
the time that he was working out his    
system at ,dresden4  ,he himself        
practised daily the use of a musical    
instrument4  ,the result  of his        
investigation is an explanation1 which  
he admits is impossible  of proof1      
because it regards music as the copy of 
an original1 which  can never itself be 
presented directly as idea4  ,but he    
maintains that  in order to assent with 

full conviction to his theory of the    
significance of this art1 it is only    
necessary to listen frequently to       
music1 testing the theory at the time1  
and reflecting constantly upon  it4     
,the other arts represent the ,ideas in 
the particular things1 the  realities   
that lie behind the visible world1 but  
music is independent  altogether of the 
world of concrete things4  ,it ignores  
completely this  aspect of life4  ,it   
could to a certain extent exist even if 
there was  no world at all4  ,music1    
then1 is not the copy of the ,ideas1 but
 the  copy of the ,will itself4  ,that  
is why the effect of music is so much   
more powerful and penetrating than that 
of the other arts1 for they  speak only 
of shadows1 but it speaks of the thing  
itself4    ,browning relates music to   
the will in one of his best-known poems1
 when  he makes ,abt ,vogler say3       
,but here is the finger of ,god1 a flash
 of the will that can1    ,existent     
behind all laws1 that made them1 and lo1

 they are6    ,and ,i know not if1 save 
in this1 such gift be allowed to man1   
,that out of three sounds he frame1 not 
a fourth sound1 but a star4             
,schopenhauer1 in working out the       
details of his theory1 tries to         
establish an analogy between music and  
#fd the ,ideas of the visible  world1   
connecting the lower tones with the     
lowest grades of the  objectification of
 the will1 those of inorganic nature1   
and leading up  gradually through the   
intermediate grades until the higher    
tones are  reached1 representing the    
other end of the scale1 the highest     
organic  forms of life4  ,the melody1   
the high singing part1 represents the   
intelligent life and effort of man1 and 
progresses with unrestrained  freedom1  
while it dominates the whole4  ,this    
represents the unbroken1  significant   
connection of one continuous thought4   
,the melody1  therefore1 has significant
 intentional connection from beginning  
to  end4  ,it records the history of the

 will enlightened by intellect4  ,in    
the world of experience the will        
expresses itself in action4  ,but       
melody does more1 it expresses the inner
 side of the action1 drawing  out from  
the deeps its secret history1 its       
motives and efforts1 its  passionate    
yearning and inner excitements1 all that
 which the reason  includes in the      
concept of feeling4  ,for this reason   
music has been  called the language of  
feeling and passion1 as words are the   
language  of the reason4  ,in melody    
there is a constant deviation from the  
keynote in a thousand ways1 yet there   
always follows a constant return  to the
 keynote4  ,in all these digressions and
 deviations melody  expresses the       
manifold efforts of the will4  ,its     
satisfaction is also  expressed by the  
final return to a harmonious interval1  
and to the  keynote4  ,in melody1       
therefore1 the composer reveals all the 
deepest  secrets of human willing and   
feeling4    ,his work lies far from all 

reflection and conscious intention1 and 
flows directly from inspiration4  ,the  
abstract conception is here1 as         
everywhere in art1 unfruitful4  ,the    
composer reveals the inner nature  of   
the world1 and expresses the deepest    
wisdom in a language #fe which  his     
reason does not understand4  ,in the    
same way1 a person under the  influence 
of mesmerism tells things of which he   
has no conception when  he wakes4  ,in  
the composer1 more than in any other    
artist1 the man is  entirely separate   
and distinct from the artist4    ,as    
quick transition from wish to           
satisfaction is well-being1 so quick    
melodies are cheerful4  ,slow melodies  
are analogous to the delayed and        
hardly-won satisfaction1 and are sad4   
,quick dance music seems to speak  only 
of easily attained and common pleasure4 
,adagio movements speak of  the pain of 
a great and noble striving1 which       
despises all trivial  happiness4    ,the
 effect of the major and the minor key  

is equally marked4  ,in  general1 music 
consists of a constant succession of    
more or less  disquieting chords1 chords
 which excite immortal longings1 and    
also  of more or less quieting and      
satisfying chords1 just as the life of  
the  heart is a constant succession of  
feelings of disquietude and of peace1   
following desire and satisfaction4      
,just as there are two general          
fundamental moods of the feelings1      
serenity and sadness1 so music has  two 
keys1 which correspond to these1 the    
major and the minor4  ,since  music is  
founded deeply in the nature of man1 the
 dominant national  mood is reproduced  
invariably in a country's music4  ,we   
find  accordingly that the minor key    
prevails in ,russian music1 while       
allegro  in the minor is characteristic 
of ,french music1 as if one danced while
  one's shoe pinched4    ,but in all    
these analogies music has no direct1 but
 only an indirect  relation to them4    
,it does not express particular and     

definite joys1  sorrows1 pains1 or      
horrors1 but joy1 sorrow1 pain1 or      
horror itself1  the real1 inner nature  
of each emotion4  ,it is the essential  
character  of these emotions that is    
represented1 without disturbing #ff     
accessories4  ,music expresses only the 
quintessence of life and its  events1   
never the events themselves4  ,this     
inner meaning of life1 the  eternal     
truth of things1 is felt and understood 
immediately when we  listen to great    
music4  ,all things eternal1 wrote      
,wagner1 can be  expressed with         
unmistakable certainty in music4  ,and  
in another  passage1 he says1 ,music can
 never and in no possible alliance cease
 to  be the highest1 the redeeming art4 
,it is of her nature1 that what all  the
 other arts but hint at1 through her and
 in her becomes the most  indubitable of
 certainties1 the most direct and       
definite of truths4    ,it is for this  
reason that our imagination is excited  
so easily by  music1 and that we seek to

 give it form by clothing it with words4
  ,this is the origin of opera and      
songs4    ,wagner built up a whole      
theory of music1 based on the philosophy
 of  ,schopenhauer4  ,but in their views
 on opera they differed fundamentally4  
,the text of opera1 says ,schopenhauer1 
should never forsake a  subordinate     
position4  ,the music should never      
become a mere means of  expressing the  
words4  ,that is a great misconception  
of the function of  music1 for music    
should always be universal4  ,it is just
 its  universality1 which belongs       
exclusively to it1 that gives music its 
high worth as the panacea for all our   
woes4  ,if music is too closely  united 
to the words1 and tries to express      
itself according to outward  events1 it 
is striving to speak a language which is
 not its own4  ,schopenhauer mentions   
,rossini as the composer who is most    
free from  this mistake4  ,his music    
speaks so clearly that it requires no   
words to  explain it4    ,nature and    

music1 then1 are merely two different   
expressions of the  same thing4  ,music 
is a universal #fg language1 expressing 
the inner  nature of the world4  ,it    
resembles geometrical figures and       
numbers4  ,they are the universal forms 
of all possible objects of experience1  
and  yet are not abstract1 but concrete 
and determined4  ,all that goes on in   
the heart of man1 and that is included  
in the concept of feeling1 may  be      
expressed by an infinite number of      
possible melodies1 but always           
universally4  ,music represents the     
inmost soul of the event1 without  the  
body4  ,we might therefore just as well 
call the world embodied  music as       
embodied will4  ,for this reason music  
makes every scene of  real life1 and of 
the world1 more profoundly significant4 
,it lays bare  the inmost kernel which  
lies hidden in the heart of all things4 
,it  penetrates to the very heart of    
nature4  ,the ineffable joy which we    
derive from music1 which haunts our     

consciousness as the vision of a        
distant paradise1 restores to us all the
 emotions of our inmost nature1  but    
divested entirely of the sting of       
actuality1 and far removed from  its    
pain4    ,it is interesting to compare  
the view of ,schopenhauer1 that music is
 a  copy of the will itself1 with the   
theory of ,plato and ,aristotle1 which  
maintained that music is a direct       
reflection of character4  ,the modern   
art of music was not developed in their 
day1 and yet both these  philosophers   
seem to have had prophetic insight in   
understanding the  nature of the        
marvellous spell and power of sound4    
,music to them was  an imitation1 a copy
 of character1 and as such of profound  
importance  in education4  ,music       
reflects character1 and therefore moulds
 and  influences it4  ,the foundations  
of character1 says ,plato1 are laid in  
music1 which charms the souls of the    
young into the path of virtue4  ,rhythm 
and harmony find their way into the     

secret places of the soul1  making the  
soul harmonious and graceful4  #fh ,if  
our youth are to do  their work in life1
 they must make harmony their perpetual 
aim1 and  the soul can only be reached  
and educated in this way through music4 
,it is ,schopenhauer's theory of music  
which has influenced most directly  the 
world of art4  ,it was hailed by ,wagner
 as a revelation1 and it  determined his
 musical development and all his sthetic
 theories4  ,through ,wagner it may be  
said to have revolutionised much of     
modern  music4  ,after reading ,the     
,world as ,will and ,idea1 ,wagner      
wrote1 ,i  must confess to having       
arrived at a clear understanding of my  
own works  of art through the help of   
another1 who has provided me with the   
reasoned conceptions corresponding to my
 intuitive principles4  ,this           
philosophy contained1 he said1 the      
intellectual demonstration of the       
conflict of human forces1 which he      
himself had demonstrated  artistically4 

,architecture4--,in ,schopenhauer's     
arrangement of the arts1 music1 as  we  
have seen1 occupies the supreme place1  
being the highest expression  in art    
which man can achieve4  ,at the other   
end of the scale stands  architecture4  
,its aim is to bring to greater         
distinctness some of the  ideas which   
represent the lowest grades of the will1
 such as gravity1  cohesion1 rigidity1  
and hardness4  ,these are the universal 
qualities of  stone1 and the simplest1  
most inarticulate manifestations of     
will4  ,they may be called the bass     
notes of nature4  ,the conflict between 
gravity and rigidity is the sole sthetic
 material of architecture4  ,its problem
 is to make this conflict appear        
distinctly in a multitude  of different 
ways4  ,the beauty of a building lies in
 the obvious  adaptation of every part  
to the stability of the whole4  ,the    
position1  size1 and form of every part 
must be so #fi related to the whole1    
that  it forms a necessary and          

inevitable part of an organic unity4    
,each  arch1 column1 and capital must be
 determined by its relation to the      
whole building4    ,it is the function  
of architecture to reveal also the      
nature of light4  ,for the light is     
intercepted1 confined1 and reflected by 
the mass of  the building4  ,it is      
thrown into high relief by the receding 
forms1  which supply the contrasting    
depths of shade4  ,it thus unfolds its  
nature and qualities in the clearest and
 most definite way4  ,it is not  merely 
form and symmetry which appeal to us in 
architecture1 but  primarily the        
fundamental forces of nature1 the       
simplest qualities of  matter4  ,the    
quality of the material1 therefore1 is  
of great  importance4  ,the fundamental 
law of architecture is that no burden   
shall be without sufficient support1 and
 no support without a suitable  burden4 
,the purest example of this principle is
 the column and  entablature4  ,in      
separating completely the support and   

burden in the  column and entablature1  
the reciprocal action of the two and    
their  relation to each other become    
perfectly clear4  ,for this reason the  
simplest building in ,italy gives       
sthetic pleasure1 due to the flatness   
of the roof4  ,a high roof is neither   
support nor burden1 for its two  halves 
support each other4  ,it serves merely a
 useful end1 presenting  to the eye an  
extended mass1 which is wholly alien to 
the sthetic  sense4  ,architecture      
requires large masses1 in order to be   
felt  adequately1 and it must work out  
its own character under the law of the  
most perfect clearness to the eye4  ,it 
exists in space-perception1 and  must   
make a direct and inevitable appeal to  
the sthetic sense4  ,this  demands      
symmetry1 which is necessary to mark out
 the work as a whole4  ,it is only      
through symmetry that a work of         
architecture reveals itself  as #gj an  
organic unity and as the development of 
a central thought4  ,architecture ought 

not to imitate the forms of nature1 and 
yet it  should work in the spirit of    
nature4  ,it should reveal the end in   
view  quite openly1 and should avoid    
everything which is merely aimless4     
,thus it achieves the grace which is the
 result of ease1 and the  subordination 
of every detail to its purpose4    ,it  
follows from ,schopenhauer's treatment  
of architecture that he held  ,greek    
work of the best period to be the       
highest type of building which  it is   
possible to attain4  ,in its best       
examples that style is perfect  and     
complete1 and is not susceptible of any 
important improvement4  ,the  modern    
architect1 he held1 cannot depart1 to   
any great extent1 from the  rules and   
models of the ,greeks1 without          
descending the path of  deterioration4  
,there remains nothing for him to do but
 to apply the  art transmitted to him1  
and to carry out the rules laid down1 so
 far as  he is able under the           
limitations of climate1 age1 and        

country4    ,schopenhauer1 therefore1   
had no appreciation of ,gothic          
architecture4  ,the simple rationality  
of the ,greek temple delights him1 but  
the ,gothic  cathedral leaves him cold  
and unmoved4  ,he makes the nave        
admission1  that approval of ,gothic    
architecture would upset all his        
theories of  the sthetic significance of
 architecture4  ,to compare the two is1 
he  says1 a barbarous presumption1      
although he allows1 somewhat grudgingly1
  that a certain beauty of its own      
cannot be denied to the ,gothic style4  
,our pleasure in it1 however1 is to be  
traced mainly to the association  of    
ideas1 and to historical memories4      
,that pure rationality by which  every  
part admits instantly of strict account 
in its subordination to  the plan as a  
whole1 is not to be found in ,gothic    
work4  ,greek  architecture is conceived
 in a #ga purely objective spirit1      
whereas  ,gothic is rather subjective in
 spirit4  ,but ,schopenhauer cannot     

reason  away entirely the impression    
created by the ,gothic interior4  ,that1
 he  admits1 is the finest part of the  
whole1 and it is here that the mind  is 
impressed by the effect of the groined  
vaulting1 borne by slender1  aspiring   
pillars1 soaring upwards4  ,all burden  
seems to have  disappeared1 promising   
eternal security4  ,most of the faults1 
however1  appear upon the exterior1     
whereas in ,greek buildings the exterior
 is  the finer2 in the interior the flat
 roof retains something depressing  and 
prosaic4    ,of the ideals and          
aspirations which the great builders of 
the ,middle  ,ages so wonderfully       
transmuted into stone1 ,schopenhauer has
 nothing to  tell us4  ,the men who sang
 their souls in stone were for him      
pre-eminently the builders of ,greek    
temples4    ,in his insistence on the   
open display of the relation between    
burden  and support1 and also on the    
importance of bringing out the qualities
  of the material1 ,schopenhauer's      

treatment of architecture recalls many  
passages in ,ruskin1 in which he insists
 repeatedly1 that both truth and        
feeling require that the conditions of  
support should be clearly  understood1  
and that the quality of the material    
must find expression4    ,the analogy of
 architecture to music is one of the    
most characteristic  and suggestive     
portions of ,schopenhauer's sthetic4    
,he emphasises the  great difference    
between the two arts1 pointing out that 
according to  their inner nature1 in    
their potency1 extent1 and significance 
they are  indeed true antipodes4        
,architecture exists in space1 unrelated
 to  time1 whereas music is in time     
alone1 having no relation to space4     
,but  the principle which gives         
coherency to architecture is symmetry1  
that  which gives coherency to music is 
rhythm4  ,the #gb close relationship    
between these two principles is obvious4
  ,it is this resemblance which  has led
 to the saying that architecture is     

frozen music1 which  ,schopenhauer      
quotes from ,goethe4    ,this relation  
between the two arts1 however1 extends  
only to the  outward form4  ,in their   
inner nature they are entirely          
different4  ,in  essential qualities1   
,schopenhauer maintains1 architecture is
 the most  limited and the weakest of   
all the arts1 whereas music is the most 
far-reaching1 and possesses the deepest 
significance4    ,painting and          
,sculpture4--,filling an intermediate   
position between  architecture and music
 come painting and sculpture4  ,these   
arts  represent more complex grades of  
the will than architecture1 and         
therefore convey the truth of life with 
deeper insight4  ,they too are          
concerned with the ,ideas1 and symbolise
 the inner reality of outward  things   
and events4  ,lowest in the scale of the
 various kinds of  painting come the    
painting of landscape and of still life1
 in which the  subjective side of       
sthetic pleasure is predominant4  ,our  

satisfaction  consists less in the      
vision and comprehension of the ,ideas  
than in the  state of mind aroused4  ,we
 receive a reflected sense of the deep  
spiritual peace and absolute silence of 
the will1 which are necessary  in order 
to enter so completely into the         
character of these lifeless  objects4   
,it would be impossible to bring the    
modern art of landscape  painting1 with 
its revolt against a purely objective   
representation of  nature1 into line    
with this analysis of ,schopenhauer's4  
,next in the scale comes the painting   
and sculpture of animals1 and then      
follows the plastic representation of   
the human form4  ,the artist  expresses 
in marble or paint that beauty of form  
which nature has  failed to complete1   
and which has to be disentangled from   
the #gc  obscuring cloud of trivial and 
accidental details4  ,in virtue of this 
anticipation through art1 it is possible
 for us to recognise beauty  when nature
 by a rare chance does achieve a        

masterpiece4  ,human beauty  is the     
fullest objectification of the will at  
the highest grade which  is known4  ,it 
is expressed through form4  ,in         
sculpture1 beauty and  grace are the    
principal qualities4  ,the special      
character of the mind1  represented by  
expression1 is the peculiar sphere of   
painting4  ,historical painting aims at 
beauty1 grace1 and character4  ,the     
inward  significance of an action1 which
 is the depth of insight into the ,idea 
which it reveals1 must be brought to    
light4  ,only the inward  significance  
concerns art1 the outward belongs to    
history4  ,the  countless scenes and    
events which make up the life of men are
 important  enough to be the object of  
art1 for by their rich variety they     
unfold  the many-sided ,idea of         
humanity4    ,no event of human life is 
excluded from painting4  ,the painters  
of the  ,dutch school1 for example1 are 
great artists1 not only in virtue of    
their technical skill1 but because they 

have seized the inner  significance of  
the things and actions they have        
depicted4  ,they have  real depth of    
insight into reality4  ,what is         
peculiarly significant is  not the      
individual1 nor the particular event1   
but that which is  universal in the     
individual4    ,schopenhauer held that  
the highest achievements of the art of  
painting  were reached by the ,italian  
painters of the early ,renaissance1     
especially by ,raphael and ,correggio4  
,we see in them1 says  ,schopenhauer1 a 
complete grasp of the ,ideas1 and thus  
the whole nature  of life and the world4
  ,in them we find the spirit of        
complete  resignation1 which is the     
inmost spirit of early ,christianity1 as
 well  as of ,indian philosophy4  ,there
 #gd are portrayed the surrender of all 
volition1 the suppression of the will4  
,in this way these great artists        
expressed the highest wisdom1 which is  
the summit of all art4                  
,poetry4--,poetry too represents the    

ideal in individual creations4  ,its    
aim1 like the other arts1 is the        
revelation of the ,ideas4  ,the poet    
must understand how to draw the abstract
 and universal out of the  concrete and 
individual1 by the manner in which he   
combines them4  ,the  universality of   
every concept must be narrowed more and 
more1 until we  reach the concrete      
image1 for the poet must express the    
universal in  concrete form4  ,the whole
 of nature can be represented in the    
medium of  poetry4  ,the extent of its  
province is boundless4  ,thoughts and   
emotions1 however1 are its peculiar     
province1 and here no other art can     
compete with it4  ,that which has       
significance in itself1 and not in its  
relations1 the real unfolding of the    
,idea1 is found definitely and          
distinctly in poetry4  ,more genuine    
inner truth is to be found in  poetry   
than in history4  ,the poet's knowledge 
is intuitive1 and by its  means he shows
 us in the mirror of his mind the ,idea1

 pure and  distinct1 bringing to the    
consciousness of others that which they 
feel  and do4  ,in the epic1 the poem of
 romance1 and the tragedy1 selected     
characters are placed in those          
circumstances in which all their special
  qualities unfold themselves1 and the  
depths of the human heart are  revealed1
 and become visible in significant      
actions4    ,tragedy is the summit of   
poetic art4  ,here the unspeakable pain1
 the  wail of humanity1 the triumph of  
evil1 the mastery of chance is  unfolded
 before us4  ,it is one and the same    
will that appears  throughout4          
,knowledge reaches the point at which it
 is no longer  deceived by the veil of  
,my1 the web of illusion4  ,thus the    
noblest  men1 after long conflict and   
suffering1 at last renounce for ever the
  ends they have so eagerly pursued4    
#ge ,the heroes and heroines of  tragedy
 die1 purified by suffering1 after the  
will to live is dead4  ,the true import 
of tragedy is that the hero expiates1   

not his own  individual sins1 but the   
crime of existence itself4  ,tragedy1   
then1  presents the highest grade of the
 objectification of the will1 in        
conflict with itself1 on a scale of     
grandeur and awful impressiveness4  ,the
 greatest poetry is symbolic in this    
deepest sense4    ,goethe may be        
considered one of the greatest          
symbolists among poets4  ,every event in
 life was symbolic for him4  ,it        
expressed something more  universal1    
more extensive1 more profound4  ,the    
concrete image1 the  whole full-blooded 
individual was always clearly before his
 mind1 but  beyond that he saw and      
realised something more universal1 from 
which it  necessarily and inevitably    
springs4  ,he saw that the truth of     
nature  does not lie on the surface1 but
 in a deeper unity1 which the           
penetrative insight of the artist alone 
can grasp4    ,in the system of         
,schopenhauer1 then1 art acquires almost
 the character  of a religion4  ,it     

becomes the means by which the ultimate 
essence1 the  soul of whatever exists1  
is disengaged from the world of matter4 
,and  in this dutiful waiting upon every
 symbol1 by which the soul of things    
can be made visible1 art at last attains
 liberty4  ,in speaking to us so        
intimately1 so solemnly1 as only        
religion had hitherto spoken to us1 it  
becomes itself a kind of religion1 with 
all the duties and  responsibilities of 
the sacred ritual4    ,there is a deep  
significance in the historical fact1    
that the birth of  religion is          
interwoven invariably with that of the  
origin of art4  ,aristotle connects     
closely the rise of various forms of    
poetry with  religious celebrations4    
,art and religion were born             
simultaneously1 and  have always been   
closely related in the history of       
mankind4          #gf    ,,chapter ,,iv 
,,virtue    ,art1 which ,schopenhauer   
calls the flower of life1 enables us to 
forget the cares and sufferings of life4

  ,the consolation which we  derive from
 beauty repays us for the miseries and  
terrors of existence4  ,the             
contemplation of beauty brings us       
deliverance from the deceptions  and    
illusions of life1 and gives us a pure1 
true1 and deep knowledge of  the inner  
nature of the world4  ,it acts as a     
quieter of the will1 and  such quiet    
contemplation of beauty is the nearest  
approach to pure  satisfaction that we  
can achieve4  ,this deliverance1        
however1 is not a  path out of life1 but
 only a consolation in life4  ,we must  
seek the  highest solution in proceeding
 farther in the same direction4  ,in his
  theories on ethics and religion1      
,schopenhauer points the way to a       
permanent escape from life4    ,true    
morality is summed up in self-surrender1
 in the denial of the will  to live4    
,there are two stages in this progress  
of morality4  ,the first  and lower is  
that attained in the perfecting of the  
good disposition4  ,this is ordinary    

virtue1 which is rooted in love and     
sympathy1 and  which rests on the       
recognition of the real identity of any 
one  individual with all other          
individuals4  ,the second and higher    
stage is  that of holiness1 and is      
attained only through asceticism1       
through the  complete self-surrender    
which turns away from all the pleasures 
#gg of  life1 and represses even the    
natural instincts4  ,man lays hold on   
that  which is real through complete    
resignation and surrender of the will4  
,only then is the veil of ,my1 the      
illusion of life1 torn asunder1 and  is 
it possible for man to be told the      
vision of truth4  ,this is the way  of  
virtue4  ,it cannot be taught any more  
than genius can be taught4  ,systems of 
ethics can produce virtuous and holy men
 no more than  sthetics can produce     
great poets or musicians4    ,in working
 out his ethical system1 ,schopenhauer  
was deeply influenced  by ancient       
,indian philosophy4  ,the complete      

release from the slavery of  the will is
 only to be found1 in his view1 in the  
asceticism which is  the fundamental    
principle of ,buddhism and of early     
,christianity4  ,the  disposition of    
mind1 which alone leads to true holiness
 and to  deliverance from the world of  
desire1 finds expression in             
renunciation4    ,schopenhauer expands  
his philosophy of art at far greater    
length than  he does his ethical system1
 and seems at times to attach more      
significance to it4  ,but in his final  
view it is only through virtue  and     
holiness that man attains to the gate of
 heaven4    ,it follows from his        
philosophy of the will that human action
 has a  significance far transcending   
all the possibilities of experience4    
,human action exceeds in importance all 
other things in the world4  ,the  sanest
 philosophers1 he held1 have been those 
who have played an active  part in life1
 and who have not devoted themselves    
merely to abstract  thought4  ,it is not

 the highest function of man to think   
and to  understand1 but to feel and to  
live4  ,in short1 understanding itself  
is  attained only through life4  ,for   
reality is greater than our knowledge   
of it4  ,knowledge itself is a poor     
thing at best1 an indirect way of       
seizing hold of reality4  ,we must #gh  
understand things by a deeper  knowledge
 than that of the intellect4  ,we must  
exchange head knowledge  for heart      
knowledge4  ,for head knowledge is      
concerned only with that  part of       
reality which rises above the threshold 
of consciousness4  ,our  total sense of 
reality is broader and deeper than a    
merely intellectual  knowledge4  ,it    
includes the subconscious depths of our 
personality1  making up a whole which is
 far richer in content than that mere   
surface  life which we know in          
consciousness4    ,this insistence on   
the importance of intuitive knowledge is
 closely  connected with ,schopenhauer's
 treatment of instinct4  ,he is         

supremely  interested in instinct1      
finding in it a positive quality1 which 
plays  frequently a more important part 
than the knowledge of the  understanding
 or the reason4  ,the one kind of       
knowledge is set  constantly against the
 other in his system4  ,his treatment of
 the whole  subject is of deep          
significance in his philosophy4    ,the 
typical case in which instinct is most  
highly developed is that of  animals4   
,they strive definitely towards an end1 
though this end is  unknown to them4    
,in all the instinctive actions of      
animals1 the will  is clearly as        
operative as in their other actions1 but
 it is in blind  activity4  ,in         
inorganic and vegetable nature the will 
acts as blind  impulse1 and so with     
infallible certainty4  ,animals are     
exposed already  to illusion and        
deception1 but in their case instinct   
comes to their  assistance4  ,though    
guided by no motive or knowledge1 they  
yet have the  appearance of performing  

their work from rational motives4  ,they
 work  with the greatest precision and  
definiteness towards an end which they  
do not know4  ,in man also the will is  
in many ways only blindly active4       
,though a tendency of the will1 instinct
 #gi does not act entirely from  within4
  ,it waits for some external           
circumstance for its action4  ,instinct 
gives the universal1 the rule2 intellect
 gives the particular1  the application4
  ,instinct seems always to be in       
accordance with the  conception of an   
end1 and yet is entirely without such an
 end4  ,schopenhauer also connects      
instinct with clairvoyance and dreams4  
,in  his own life he attached especial  
importance to dreams1 and on several    
critical occasions regulated his actions
 in accordance with them4  ,with  his   
treatment of instinct is bound up also  
his theory of sexual love4  ,the lover  
is deluded in thinking that he aims at  
his own happiness4  ,the will to live is
 forcing him1 for nature's own purposes1

 to aim at a  certain typical beauty1   
which has its end in the perfection of  
the  offspring4  ,the more perfectly two
 individuals are adapted to each  other1
 the stronger will be their mutual      
passion4  ,nature is striving  for a    
better realisation of the type1 and to  
attain its ends must  implant a certain 
illusion in the individual4  ,that which
 is good only  for the species appears  
to him as good for himself4  ,he serves 
the  species in imagining that he is    
serving himself4  ,this illusion is     
instinct4  ,the individual is but a     
helpless tool carrying out blindly  the 
designs of nature4    ,an instinctive   
character belongs also to the highest   
functions of human  life1 as in art and 
virtue4  ,wisdom proper1 says           
,schopenhauer1 is  something intuitive1 
and not something pertaining to the     
intellect4  ,it  does not consist in    
principles and thoughts1 which are      
carried about  ready in the mind1 as the
 result of research1 but it is the whole

  manner in which the world presents    
itself intuitively to the mind4  ,in    
real life the scholar is far surpassed  
by the man of the world1 for the        
strength of the latter consists in      
perfect intuitive knowledge4  ,the  #hj 
true view of life proceeds from the way 
in which the world is  known and        
understood1 not from abstract knowledge4
  ,the heart of all  knowledge is       
intuition4  ,upon this depends the      
infinite superiority of  genius to      
learning and scholarship4  ,they stand  
to each other as the  text of a classic 
to its commentary4  ,it was this        
emphasis1 which  ,schopenhauer laid on  
the instinctive and impulsive side in   
man1 rather  than on the conscious and  
deliberate1 which led him to the view   
that  man is a creature controlled and  
dominated by his instincts1 and         
therefore a mere puppet in the hands of 
nature4    ,this aspect of              
,schopenhauer's system acquires a       
special importance1  when compared with 

much of the most modern philosophy4     
,there are  interesting points of       
contact with the views of ,m4 ,bergson1 
who  maintains that in the intuition of 
life we see reality as it is4    ,the   
intellect is merely a tool in the       
service of the will4  ,since  philosophy
 must express the real nature of life1  
we are driven to seek  reality through  
that which is felt4  ,since the time of 
,socrates1  ,schopenhauer maintained1   
philosophy has made a systematic misuse 
of  general conceptions4  ,we have an   
immediate experience of the will1 and   
therefore we may be said to have an     
immediate knowledge of the nature  of   
reality4  ,one of the most valuable     
contributions which ,schopenhauer  made 
to the history of thought1 was his      
insistence on the view that  philosophy 
must be brought back to the recognition 
of the richness of  an immediate and    
direct knowledge of reality4  ,it must  
learn that the  meaning of things is to 
be realised more by living than by      

thinking4  ,the philosopher1 therefore1 
must be before all things a real man1 a 
guide to fine living4  ,schopenhauer    
brought philosophy into relation  with  
life1 he drew it down from the icy      
heights1 where #ha abstract  conceptions
 alone can flourish1 to the sunny plains
 below1 where art1  with a spark of the 
divine fire1 warms and lightens the ways
 of man4  ,the intuitive insight of the 
genius1 which divines the truth through 
art1 is a far higher form of knowledge  
than that of the abstract  thinker4     
,it is suggestive to compare with this  
the view of ,pater1 that  philosophy    
serves culture1 not by the fancied gift 
of absolute or  transcendental          
knowledge1 but by suggesting questions  
which help one to  detect the passion1  
and strangeness1 and dramatic contrasts 
of life4    ,there is much significance 
in ,schopenhauer's exaltation of        
intuition  over reason4  ,philosophy has
 always tended to make too much of      
reason4  ,and in spite of many crudities

 in his psychology1 ,schopenhauer's     
treatment of the subject contains much  
of the greatest value4  ,in  emphasising
 the part played in the mental life by  
instinct1 habit1 and  impulse1 he       
anticipated much that has since been    
confirmed in the  modern science of     
psychology4    ,kant maintained that the
 only absolutely good thing in the world
 is the  good will1 and ,schopenhauer   
practically accepts this dictum4  ,right
  action springs from the will1 and not 
from the intellect1 for the true  nature
 of man lies in his will4  ,the problem 
of ethics for ,schopenhauer  is how the 
will is to be made good4  ,his treatment
 of the problem leads  him beyond a     
system of ethics to a philosophy of     
religion4    ,virtue to ,socrates was a 
knowledge of the good2 but no amount of 
mere  knowledge of the good can make the
 will good1 and therefore  ,schopenhauer
 maintained that ,socrates had done next
 to nothing in  ethics4  ,the real      
solution of the problem of moral        

obligation #hb lies  in sympathy4  ,it  
is through sympathy that man is able to 
attain virtue4  ,goodness of disposition
 shows itself as pure disinterested love
 towards  others4  ,and when such love  
becomes perfect it places the fate of   
other  individuals on a level with      
itself and its own fate4  ,the character
  which has thus attained the highest   
goodness and nobility will  sacrifice   
its own interests1 and even its life1   
for the well-being of  others4  ,great  
heroes in all ages have laid down their 
lives for their  country or their       
friends4  ,others have submitted        
voluntarily to death  or torture for the
 sake of truths or principles which they
 held dear4  ,socrates and ,giordano    
,bruno1 and many another hero1 have     
suffered death  rather than deny what   
they held to be true4  ,such heights are
 reached  only by rare natures among    
men4  ,but all the intermediate stages  
of  goodness spring from the same root  
of sympathy4  ,pure love is in its      

nature sympathy4    ,schopenhauer is    
here in direct contradiction to ,kant1  
who recognised  goodness and virtue only
 when they spring from abstract         
reflection1  from the conception of     
duty1 and who explained sympathy as     
weakness4  ,on the contrary1 says       
,schopenhauer1 the mere concept is as   
unfruitful  for virtue as it is for art4
  ,all true and pure love is sympathy1  
and  all love which is not sympathy is  
selfishness4  ,many of our sentiments   
are a combination of the two4           
,friendship is always1 he says1 a       
mixture  of selfishness and sympathy4   
,the selfishness lies in the pleasure   
which we experience in the presence of a
 friend1 the sympathy in the            
participation in his joy or grief1 and  
the sacrifices we make for his  sake4   
,genuine virtue springs from the        
knowledge1 which we have through        
intuition1 that other individuals are   
#hc of the same nature as  ourselves4   
,the source of morality is this inward  

principle of  solidarity between        
individual and individual4  ,this sense 
of  brotherhood1 which pervades the     
whole of humanity1 is the real and      
vital fact which makes the whole world  
kin4  ,transcending the spirit of       
egoism1 which is fostered by the actual 
conditions of life1 there  springs the  
spirit of altruism1 which strives to    
subordinate the good  of the individual 
to the good of the whole community1 and 
prompts the  individual to self-denial  
and unselfishness4    ,in dealing with  
men1 we should never1 he says1 take into
 consideration  their interested        
motives1 their limited intellectual     
capacity1 nor  their wrong-headedness1  
but we should think only of their       
sufferings1  their needs1 their         
anxieties and their misery4  ,only in   
this way can we  feel ourselves akin1   
and so enter into sympathy with others1 
that we  experience a fellow-feeling and
 a desire to help them in their need4   
,the two fundamental attitudes of mind1 

in which the virtues and vices  of men  
are rooted1 are envy and sympathy4      
,each man bears within  himself these   
two diametrically opposite              
characteristics4  ,one or the  other    
quality becomes the fundamental attitude
 of mind and the basis of  action       
according to the character of the       
individual4  ,envy builds up a  strong1 
impregnable wall between each man and   
his neighbour1 isolating  the individual
 in his crust of misanthropy1 which     
grows daily harder  and denser4         
,sympathy1 on the other hand1 breaks    
down the barriers  between man and man4 
,the sense of division grows thin and   
transparent1  until the individual feels
 himself a part of an organic whole1    
deriving  his sole usefulness and       
justification only in so far as he      
subordinates  his own personal ends to  
the common good4    ,schopenhauer's use 
of the factor of sympathy in #hd        
explaining  morality1 differs           
considerably from that of the ,english  

philosophers of  the eighteenth century1
 in whose systems of ethics sympathy    
played a  large part4  ,the sympathy1   
which ,hume presupposes as a principle  
in  human nature1 beyond which we cannot
 hope to find any principle more        
general1 is sympathy with the pleasure  
resulting from the effects of  virtuous 
action4    ,adam ,smith1 who also       
regarded sympathy as the ultimate       
element into  which moral sentiments may
 be analysed1 approached more nearly to 
the  position of ,schopenhauer4         
,morality arises in its simplest form   
from  direct sympathy or fellow-feeling 
with the passions of others1 which  a   
spectator feels from imagining himself  
in their situation4  ,it is of  two     
kinds1 and moves the spectator to enter 
into the sentiments of the  person      
concerned1 and also moves the person    
concerned to bring down  his emotions to
 what the spectator can go along with4  
,it is a power  which enables us to take
 a disinterested view of our own conduct

 by  putting ourselves in another's     
position4    ,in ,schopenhauer's view   
sympathy is a positive principle of     
conduct4  ,it  is based upon the        
recognition of the identity of all      
living beings4  ,it  alone makes moral  
conduct possible1 and moves us to feel  
and act  towards others as to ourselves4
    ,so far ,schopenhauer has described 
the first stage in the progress of      
morality1 that which is attained in     
ordinary virtue4  ,the higher stage1    
that which he calls holiness1 is        
attained through asceticism1 the  denial
 of the will to live4  ,on the path of  
virtue man has learned to  make no      
distinction between his own person and  
that of others1 to take  as much        
interest in the sufferings of others as 
in his own4  ,he is even  ready to      
sacrifice his own individuality1        
whenever such sacrifice will  #he       
benefit humanity4  ,it is no longer the 
changing joy and sorrow of  his own     
personality which concerns him1 but the 

joy and sorrow of all4  ,he attains to a
 vision of the real nature of life1 and 
realises the  vain striving1 the inward 
conflict1 and incessant suffering in    
which it  consists4  ,and with this     
knowledge he finds it impossible to     
assert the  egoistic desires of his own 
nature4  ,his will turns away from life4
  ,he  shudders at the pleasures which  
recognise the assertion of life4  ,he   
attains to the state of voluntary       
renunciation1 resignation1 and          
indifference4    ,the attainment of this
 goal is the hardest end of all to      
achieve4  ,only  the saint1 the perfect 
man1 ever attains it completely and     
finally4  ,weaker and less perfect      
natures are ever drawn back to life by  
the  sting of the desires1 for the veil 
of ,my1 the mist of illusion1 still     
clings about their feet4  ,the vanity   
and bitterness of life still holds      
them1 although the entrance to all      
suffering stands open while they are    
not yet purified by complete and final  

renunciation4  ,they cannot tear        
themselves free from the illusions of   
life1 from the allurements of  hope1 and
 the sweetness of pleasure4  ,those who 
see through the  deceptions of life1 and
 recognise the real nature of the world1
 are  already on the way to consolation4
  ,they withdraw from the struggle of   
life1 and no longer wish to assert their
 own individuality4  ,the  loftiest     
goodness means refraining from all      
willing4    ,this is the transition from
 virtue to asceticism4  ,a man who has  
reached so far ceases to will anything1 
he guards himself against  desire1 and  
strives to attain complete indifference 
to everything4  ,he  gives the lie to   
his own body1 and no longer desires any 
gratification4  ,voluntary and complete 
chastity and poverty are #hf necessary  
steps in  this asceticism4  ,man is at  
once the priest and the sacrifice4      
,every  kind of volition is suppressed  
intentionally4  ,the body is nourished  
sparingly1 lest its vigour and          

well-being should arouse the will4      
,every step is taken to break and       
destroy the will1 which is recognised   
as the source of all suffering4  ,death 
when it comes at last is  welcomed as a 
longed-for deliverance1 and hailed with 
gladness4    ,in this picture of the    
life of holiness and asceticism         
,schopenhauer  shows the strong         
influence which ,indian philosophy had  
exercised upon  his thought4  ,this is  
the ideal life1 the life of the saint1  
as  portrayed by the early ,christian   
mystics1 and in the ,indian religious   
books4    ,virtue and holiness proceed  
from inward1 direct and intuitive       
knowledge1 and not from abstract        
knowledge1 as so many earlier           
philosophers asserted4  ,the chasm      
between the two kinds of knowledge  can 
be bridged only by philosophy4          
,everyone is conscious intuitively  of  
philosophical truths1 but philosophy is 
necessary to bring them to  abstract    
knowledge and reflection4  ,hence       

,schopenhauer is at enmity  with all    
rational religion4  ,for religion has to
 do primarily not with  the intellect1  
but with the will and the feelings4  ,he
 felt this so  deeply that he left the  
rational element almost entirely out of 
his  definition of virtue4  ,we learn   
the meaning of virtue1 in his view1     
through the sympathy1 which makes us    
feel intuitively the underlying         
identity in the lives of other beings   
with our own life4  ,it is  possible to 
express abstractly the inner nature of  
holiness and  asceticism as the denial  
of the will to live1 but this abstract  
theory  has been known directly1 and    
carried into practice by countless      
saints  and ascetics1 who all possessed 
the same inward knowledge1 though they  
used very different language with regard
 to it1 #hg according to their  dogmas4 
,whether a saint is moved by the        
grossest superstition1 or  whether he be
 a philosopher1 makes no difference4    
,his conduct  testifies to his          

saintliness1 and this proceeds from an  
intuitive and  direct realisation of the
 nature of the world4  ,the dogmas he   
holds are  merely for the satisfaction  
of his intellect4  ,it is therefore not 
necessary that a saint should be a      
philosopher1 just as it is not          
necessary that a great sculptor should  
be himself a beautiful man4    ,the use 
of philosophy is to gather up the whole 
nature of the world in  concepts1       
abstractly and universally1 and thus to 
store up a reflected  image of it in    
permanent concepts always at the command
 of reason4  ,intuitive knowledge1 on   
the other hand1 is expressed most       
perfectly in  deeds and conduct1 not in 
abstract conceptions4  ,to understand it
  fully1 therefore1 we must know        
examples in experience and actual life4 
,a mere description of a beautiful soul 
is cold and abstract4  ,schopenhauer    
refers as models to the biographies of  
the early ,christian  and of the        
,buddhist saints1 and in later times to 

the biography of  ,spinoza4  ,he holds  
up with especial admiration the life of 
,st4 ,francis  of ,assisi4  ,these      
records of the lives of simple1         
self-denying men1  mixed as they are    
with superstition1 are for the          
philosopher far more  significant and   
important than the lives of the great   
fighters and  conquerors of the world4  
,the life of ,st4 ,francis is of greater
 import  than that of ,alexander the    
,great4  ,it is the ethical aspect of   
action  which is important1 and         
therefore the most significant life     
which the  world can show is not the    
conqueror of the world1 but he who has  
in  himself subdued the world4  ,it is  
the quiet1 unobserved life of the man   
who has learned to deny the will to live
 that is most profoundly  instructive4  
#hh    ,this ethical teaching is no new 
thing4  ,it is only the philosophical   
expression of it which is new4  ,as     
,christianity developed1 the seed of    
asceticism unfolded into full flower in 

the writings of the saints and  mystics4
  ,even more fully developed and more   
vividly expressed is this  teaching in  
the ancient ,indian writings4  ,in the  
,indian sacred books1  in their poems1  
myths1 and legends1 and in the lives of 
their saints1  the love of one's        
neighbour is taught1 and the complete   
surrender of  self enjoined4  ,such love
 is not confined to humanity1 but       
includes all  living creatures4  ,the   
path of asceticism is marked as the     
ideal way  for all who strive after true
 holiness4  ,there is wonderful harmony 
between the life of a ,christian mystic 
and that of a ,hindu saint4  ,in  each  
case the inward life and effort is the  
same4  ,the rule of life  enjoined on   
both shows striking resemblances4  ,the 
renunciation of all  possessions1 the   
choice of deep1 unbroken solitude1 which
 is spent in  silent contemplation1     
perfect chastity1 and voluntary penance1
 is the  teaching of ,christian and     
,hindu alike4  ,in such rare similarity 

of  teaching1 followed by races         
differing so radically in outward       
circumstances1 ,schopenhauer finds proof
 that this manifestation has its  root  
in the nature of man1 and appeals to an 
essential side of human1  nature4    ,in
 his treatment of art1 ,schopenhauer    
points out how happiness is  achieved in
 the contemplation of beauty4  ,in his  
treatment of ethics he  shows how       
permanent happiness may be attained4    
,it is the man alone who  follows the   
path of renunciation1 and who succeeds  
in denying the will  to live1 who       
attains perfect happiness4  ,he is      
filled with inward joy  and peace4      
,this joy is in no way akin to the      
passionate delight  experienced by those
 who love life4  ,that is a fleeting    
emotion1 which  has keen suffering as   
its correlative4  ,but it is a #hi peace
 that  cannot be shaken1 a deep rest and
 inward serenity1 a state which we      
cannot contemplate without the greatest 
longing1 when it is brought  before our 

imagination1 because we at once         
recognise it as that which  infinitely  
surpasses anything else4  ,then we feel 
that every  gratification won from the  
world is merely like the alms which the 
beggar receives from life to-day1 that  
he may hunger again on the  morrow4     
,resignation1 on the other hand1 is like
 an inherited estate1  it frees the     
owner for ever from all care4  ,he who  
can enter into the  spirit of the       
beautiful1 as revealed in art1 silences 
his will for the  moment1 but the saint 
who attains holiness is altogether      
blessed1 for  he silences his will1 not 
only for the moment1 but for ever4  ,his
 will  is wholly extinguished1 save for 
the last glimmering spark1 which        
retains his body in life1 and which will
 be extinguished only with his  death4  
,such a man has endured bitter struggles
 with his own nature1  but has emerged  
triumphant4  ,nothing can trouble him   
more1 nothing can  move him1 for he has 
cut all the thousand cords of will which

 hold us  bound to the world1 and as    
desire1 fear1 envy1 and anger drag us   
hither  and thither in constant pain4   
,he now looks back smiling and at rest  
on  the delusions of the world1 which   
once were able to agonise his spirit1   
but which now are as indifferent to him 
as the chessmen when the game  is ended4
  ,life passes before him as a fleeting 
illusion1 as a light  morning dream     
before half-waking eyes1 the real world 
already shining  through it4    ,it is  
interesting to compare ,schopenhauer's  
ideal of the highest form  of human life
 with that of ,aristotle4  ,for         
,aristotle too the highest  end of man  
was the life of pure contemplation4     
,this1 however1 was a  more purely      
intellectual state than ,schopenhauer   
had in mind1 but #ij  still an existence
 withdrawn from the cares and struggles 
of life1  wrapped securely in quiet     
contemplation4    ,it must not be       
supposed that when this self-surrender  
has been won1  that it never wavers or  

hesitates4  ,we can never rest upon it  
as an  assured possession4  ,it must    
ever be attained anew by a constant     
battle4  ,for so long as the body lives1
 the whole will to live exists          
potentially1 striving to realise itself 
and to burn again with its old          
intensity4  ,the peace and blessedness  
which is attained in the lives of  holy 
men is found only as the flower which   
blossoms after victory in  the constant 
battle with the will to live4  ,in the  
histories of the  saints we find their  
inner lives full of conflicts and       
temptations1 the  end which gives the   
deepest peace and opens the door of     
freedom  constantly eluding them4       
,the suffering which is experienced     
personally is that which most           
frequently produces the fullest         
resignation4  ,the illusions of life are
  a constant hindrance to the fullest   
self-surrender4  ,the will must  first  
be broken by great personal suffering   
before complete  self-conquest is       

reached4  ,then1 having passed through  
increasing  stages of affliction1 and   
being brought finally to the verge of   
despair1 a man knows himself and the    
world1 and rises above himself and  all 
suffering4  ,he renounces willingly     
everything he desired formerly1  and    
faces death joyfully4  ,this is the     
refined gold1 which is drawn out  of the
 purifying flame of suffering4  ,goethe 
has given an incomparable  picture of an
 unfolding of character to such ends1 in
 his drawing of  ,gretchen in ,faust4   
,the extent to which man is free to make
 himself good raises the  perennial     
question of the freedom of the will4    
,schopenhauer held that  the answer     
depends entirely on the statement of the
 problem4  ,in so far  as the real      
nature of man is will1 and man himself  
is only a #ia  phenomenon of this will1 
a particular action follows inevitably  
on a  given motive in a given character4
  ,it is just as absurd1 he says1 to    
doubt such inevitableness as to doubt   

that the three angles of any  triangle  
are together equal to two right angles4 
,if the character and  the motives were 
given completely1 it would be possible  
to calculate  the future conduct of a   
man as exactly as we can calculate an   
eclipse  of the sun or moon4  ,character
 is as consistent as nature4  ,there is 
no  independence of the law of          
causality1 the necessity of which       
extends to  man as to all else in       
nature4  ,but in the metaphysical world1
  ,schopenhauer1 following ,kant1       
maintains that the will is free4  ,in so
  far as the will represents the only   
reality1 it transcends experience4  ,it 
is outside time1 outside every form of  
the mind which limits or  moulds our    
experience4  ,it is above and beyond the
 forms of causality1  and therefore free
 transcendentally4  ,in that dim region 
where  character is formed we are our   
own creators4  ,action which is seen    
empirically to follow inevitably from a 
character already formed is  seen from  

another point of view to be but a form  
of self-realisation1  of                
self-expression4    ,mysticism is strong
 in ,schopenhauer4  ,now and again it   
breaks through  the even flow of        
,european thought1 usually1 as with     
,schopenhauer1  drawing its main        
inspiration from the ,east4  ,there is a
 recurring  period in the history of    
thought1 when the scientific point of   
view  does not make its accustomed      
appeal1 when it is felt intensely that  
science can give but a partial and      
limited view4  ,academic culture and    
science are felt to be inadequate1 are  
felt even to be leading away  from the  
real heart of the matter1 and putting us
 outside the deepest  current of        
existence4  ,intuitive and direct       
knowledge is given then an  importance  
#ib denied to the knowledge of the      
reason4  ,man retires  into himself1    
instead of searching outside himself for
 objective  knowledge4  ,he seeks the   
secret of the universe in the depths of 

his  own heart and will1 and strives to 
pluck out the heart of life's  mystery  
in waiting on the silent twilight of    
inner feeling4  ,the eyes  are shut on  
the outer world1 in order that one may  
see the more  inwardly4  ,then only does
 man experience the sense of solidarity 
and  kinship which runs through all     
things1 and feel himself one with the   
universe4    ,these recurring waves of  
mysticism seem always to appear in the  
history  of thought at the end of a     
specially brilliant intellectual period4
  ,it  is as though the human mind1     
having striven to the top of its        
capacity  on the lines of the intellect 
and the reason1 impatient at its own    
limitations1 and wearying of the        
discrepancy between its endeavours and  
its achievements1 turns eagerly in the  
opposite direction1 and directs  its    
gaze inward4  ,the great school of      
,neo-,platonists1 for example1  followed
 immediately the most brilliant age of  
,greek thought4  ,and the  same is true 

of the strong trend in the direction of 
mysticism1 which  is so marked towards  
the close of the eighteenth and the     
beginning of  the nineteenth centuries  
in ,germany1 a tendency which shows     
itself in  ,schopenhauer more strongly  
than in any other philosopher4    ,there
 is a strong appeal in this ideal of    
human life1 which  ,schopenhauer depicts
 in words of glowing eloquence4  ,based 
on the  pessimism which claims that all 
life is worthless1 it aims at           
conquering life by withdrawing          
altogether from it4  ,this is a negative
  solution of the problem of life4  ,it 
is possible to oppose to this           
philosophy a robuster view1 which would 
come to grips with the misery  and evil 
of existence on another plane4  #ic     
,william ,james points to  the spiritual
 gain that comes of fighting ills4  ,to 
wage war  obstinately against the odds  
of life fills us with courage and       
resolution1 and there is possibly a     
deeper satisfaction to be won from  the 

determined facing of the battle of life 
than in the attitude of  pessimism1     
which bids us draw back and take no part
 in the fray4  ,there  is a fine courage
 in the attitude of mind1 which admits  
the  deliciousness of insanities and    
realities1 strivings and deadnesses1    
hopes and fears1 agonies and            
exultations1 but which claims that we   
who  are born for the conflict1 the     
shifting struggle of the sunbeam in the 
gloom1 must accept it all as a vital    
part of the whole4  ,when the  healthy  
love of life is on one1 and all its     
forms and its appetites  seem so        
unutterably real2 when the most brutal  
and the most spiritual  things are lit  
by the same sun1 and each is an integral
 part of the  total richness1 it seems a
 grudging and sickly way of meeting so  
robust  a universe to shrink away from  
any of its facts and wish them not to   
be4  ,rather take the strictly dramatic 
point of view1 and treat the  whole     
thing as a great unending romance which 

the spirit of the  universe1 striving to
 realise its own content1 is eternally  
thinking  out and representing to       
itself4          #id    ,,bibliography  
,a4 ,,english    ,the ,world as ,will   
and ,idea4  ,translated by ,r4 ,b4      
,haldane and ,j4 ,kemp4  #c vols4       
#ahhc-f4  ,london3 ,the ,english and    
,foreign ,philosophical ,library4       
,two ,essays4  ,i4 ,on the ,fourfold    
,root of the ,principle of ,sufficient  
,reason4  ,,ii4 ,on the ,will in        
,nature4  ,bonn's ,philosophical        
,library4  #ahhi4    ,selected ,essays  
of ,arthur ,schopenhauer4  ,translated  
by ,e4 ,belfort  ,bax4  ,london3 ,bohn4 
,religion3 ,a ,dialogue2 and other      
,essays4  ,translated by ,t4 ,bailey    
,saunders4  #ahia4  ,london3 ,swan      
,sonnenschein4  ,pp4 #adj4    ,the      
,wisdom of ,life4  ,essays translated by
 ,t4 ,b4 ,saunders4  #ahij4  ,london3   
,swan ,sonnenschein4  and ,co4  ,pp4    
xxvi1 #ace4    ,counsels and ,maxims4   
,translated by ,t4 ,b4 ,saunders4       

#ahie4  ,london3  ,swan ,sonnenschein4  
,pp4 #afb4    ,the ,art of ,literature4 
,essays translated by ,t4 ,b4 ,saunders4
  #ahia4  ,london3 ,swan ,sonnenschein  
,pp4 xiv1 #adi4    ,studies in          
,pessimism4  ,essays translated by ,t4  
,b4 ,saunders4  #ahia4  ,london3 ,swan  
,sonnenschein4  ,pp4 #adb4    ,on ,human
 ,nature4  ,essays translated by ,t4 ,b4
 ,saunders4  #aijb4  ,london3 ,swan     
,sonnenschein and ,co4  ,pp4 #acb4      
#ie    ,life of ,arthur ,schopenhauer4  
,w4 ,wallace4  #ahij4  ,london3 ,scott4 
,pp4  #bag4    ,arthur ,schopenhauer1   
,his ,life and ,his ,philosophy4  ,helen
 ,zimmern4  #ahgf4  ,london3 ,longmans4 
,pp4 #bdi4    ,schopenhauer's ,system in
 its ,philosophical ,significance4      
,caldwell4  #ahif4  ,edinburgh3         
,blackwood4  ,pp4 xviii1 #ech4          
,b4 ,,foreign    ,schopenhauer's        
,smmtliche ,werke4  ,herausgegeben von  
,j4 ,frauenstdt4  #f ,bde4  ,leipzig4   
#ahgc-d4    ,schopenhauer ,lexikon4     
,bearbeitet von ,j4 ,frauenstdt4  #b    

,bde4  ,leipzig4  #ahga4    ,la         
,philosophie de ,schopenhauer4  ,t4     
,bibot4  #bnd edit4  #ahhe4             
,schopenhauer's ,leben4  ,w4 von        
,gwinner4  #aiaj4  ,leipzig4  ,pp4 xv1  
#dci4    ,arthur ,schopenhauer4  ,j4    
,volkelt4  #aijg4  ,stuttgart1 ,pp4 xvi1
 #dei4    ,schopenhauer und ,nietzsche4 
,g4 ,simmel4  #aijg4  ,leipzig4  ,pp4   
#bfc4          #if    ,,index           
,architecture1 #fh    ,aristotle1 #ab1  
#fg1 #hi    ,art1 #aj1 #bc1 #be1 #eb    
,asceticism1 #be1 #gf1 #gg1 #hd1 #hh    
,bergson1 #hj    ,blake1 #ed            
,browning1 #fc    ,buddhism1 #aj1 #ac1  
#gg1 #hf1 #hg1 #hh        ,dreams1 #cj1 
#gi        ,epicurus1 #fj        ,st4   
,francis1 #hg        ,genius1 #ab1 #be1 
#ed    ,goethe1 #g1 #ai1 #bc1 #ge1 #ij  
,hartmann1 ,e4 von1 #dh    ,hegel1 #aa1 
#ac1 #bd1 #bh1 #cj1 #fa1 #fb            
,history1 #aa    ,hume1 #hd             
,instinct1 #h1 #ci1 #gh1 #gi1 #hj       
,james1 ,william1 #ej1 #ic        ,kant1
 #g1 #ac1 #bb1 #cj1 #cb1 #ch1 #ha1 #hb1 

#ia        ,leopardi1 #dh        ,music1
 #g1 #ai1 #fa    ,mysticism1 #ac1 #ec1  
#ia        ,nietzsche1 #di              
,opera1 #ff        ,painting1 #gb       
,parerga und ,paralipomena1 #cf         
,pater1 #ha    ,pessimism1 #aj1 #ac1    
#bd1 #ch    ,plato1 #g1 #ab1 #ac1 #be1  
#ch1 #ec1 #eh1 #fg    ,poetry1 #gd      
,religion1 #ab1 #ge    ,ruskin1 #ga     
,schopenhauer1 ,heinrich ,f41 #af       
,schopenhauer1 ,johanna1 #af1 #ah1 #ai1 
#bb    ,sculpture1 #gb    ,shelley1 #g  
,smith1 ,adam1 #hd    ,socrates1 #ha    
,spenser1 #g    ,spinoza1 #g1 #dj1 #hg  
,style1 #i    ,suicide1 #dg             
,symbolism1 #ge    ,sympathy1 #aj1 #gf1 
#hb1 #hd        ,st4 ,thomas ,aquinas1  
#fa    ,tragedy1 #gd        ,virtue1 #gj
        ,wagner1 #h1 #ff1 #fh    ,will1 
#h1 #bd1 #hj1 #ij    ,women1 views on1  
#bj1 #bi    ,wordsworth1 #g    ,world as
 ,will and ,idea1 #bj1 #bf1 #cc1 #ce1   
#ch1 #fh            ,printed by         
,,ballantyne1 ,,hanson  ,co4    at      
,paul's ,work1 ,edinburgh               

99      99      99      99      99      
,,the ,,people',s ,,books    ,general   
,editor--,h4 ,c4 ,o',,neill    ,with the
 ',people's ,books' in hand there should
 be nobody of average  intelligence     
unable to secure                        
self-education4--,sunday ,times4        
,,now ,,ready 7,february #aiad7    ,,the
 ,,first ,,ninety-,,six ,,volumes       
#a4 ,the ,foundations of ,science 4 4 4 
,by ,w4 ,c4 ,d4 ,whetham1 ,m4,a41       
,f4,r4,s4    #b4 ,embryology--,the      
,beginnings of ,life 4 4 4 ,by ,prof4   
,gerald ,leighton1 ,m4,d4    #c4        
,biology 4 4 4 ,by ,prof4 ,w4 ,d4       
,henderson1 ,m4,a4    #d4 ,zoology3 ,the
 ,study of ,animal ,life 4 4 4 ,by      
,prof4 ,e4 ,w4 ,mac,bride1              
,m4,a41 ,f4,r4,s4    #e4 ,botany2 ,the  
,modern ,study of ,plants 4 4 4 ,by ,m4 
,c4 ,stopes1 ,d4,sc41                   
,ph4,d41 ,f4,l4,s4    #g4 ,the          
,structure of the ,earth 4 4 4 ,by      
,prof4 ,t4 ,g4 ,bonney1 ,f4,r4,s4    #h4
 ,evolution 4 4 4 ,by ,e4 ,s4 ,goodrich1

 ,m4,a41 ,f4,r4,s4    #aj4 ,heredity 4 4
 4 ,by ,j4 ,a4 ,s4 ,watson1 ,b4,sc4     
#aa4 ,inorganic ,chemistry 4 4 4 ,by    
,prof4 ,e4 ,c4 ,c4 ,baly1 ,f4,r4,s4     
#ab4 ,organic ,chemistry 4 4 4 ,by      
,prof4 ,j4 ,b4 ,cohen1 ,b4,sc41         
,f4,r4,s4    #ac4 ,the ,principles of   
,electricity 4 4 4 ,by ,norman ,k4      
,campbell1 ,m4,a4    #ad4 ,radiation 4 4
 4 ,by ,p4 ,phillips1 ,d4,sc4    #ae4   
,the ,science of the ,stars 4 4 4 ,by   
,e4 ,w4 ,maunder1 ,f4,r4,a4,s4    #af4  
,the ,science of ,light 4 4 4 ,by ,p4   
,phillips1 ,d4,sc4    #ag4 ,weather     
,science 4 4 4 ,by ,r4 ,g4 ,k4          
,lempfert1 ,m4,a4    #ah4 ,hypnotism and
 ,self-,education 4 4 4 ,by ,a4 ,m4     
,hutchison1 ,m4,d4    #ai4 ,the ,baby3  
,a ,mother's ,book 4 4 4 ,by a          
,university ,woman4    #bj4 ,youth and  
,sex--,dangers and ,safeguards for ,boys
 and ,girls 4 4 4               ,by     
,mary ,scharlieb1 ,m4,d41 ,m4,s41 and   
,f4 ,arthur ,sibly1 ,m4,a41 ,,ll4,d4    
#ba4 ,marriage and ,motherhood 4 4 4 ,by

 ,h4 ,s4 ,davidson1 ,m4,b41             
,f4,r4,c4,s4,e4    #bb4 ,lord ,kelvin 4 
4 4 ,by ,a4 ,russell1 ,m4,a41 ,d4,sc41  
,m4,i4,e4,e4    #bc4 ,huxley 4 4 4 ,by  
,professor ,g4 ,leighton1 ,m4,d4    #bd4
 ,sir ,william ,huggins and             
,spectroscopic ,astronomy 4 4 4         
,by ,e4 ,w4 ,maunder1 ,f4,r4,a4,s41 of  
the ,royal ,observatory1 ,greenwich4    
#bf4 ,henri ,bergson 4 4 4 ,by ,h4      
,wildon ,carr1 ,litt4,d4    #bg4        
,psychology 4 4 4 ,by ,h4 ,j4 ,watt1    
,m4,a41 ,ph4,d41 ,d4,phil4    #bh4      
,ethics 4 4 4 ,by ,canon ,rashdall1     
,d4,litt41 ,f4,b4,a4    #bi4 ,kant's    
,philosophy 4 4 4 ,by ,a4 ,d4 ,lindsay1 
,m4,a41 of               ,balliol       
,college1 ,oxford4    #cb4 ,roman       
,catholicism 4 4 4 ,by ,h4 ,b4 ,coxon4  
,preface1 ,mgr4 ,r4 ,h4 ,benson4    #cc4
 ,the ,oxford ,movement 4 4 4 ,by       
,wilfrid ,ward4    #cd4 ,the ,bible and 
,criticism 4 4 4 ,by ,w4 ,h4 ,bennett1  
,d4,d41 ,litt4,p41               and ,w4
 ,f4 ,adeney1 ,d4,d4    #cf4 ,the       

,growth of ,freedom 4 4 4 ,by ,h4 ,w4   
,nevinson4    #cg4 ,bismarck and the    
,origin of the ,german ,empire 4 4 4    
,by ,professor ,f4 ,m4 ,powicke4    #ch4
 ,oliver ,cromwell 4 4 4 ,by ,hilda     
,johnstone1 ,m4,a4    #ci4 ,mary ,queen 
of ,scots 4 4 4 ,by ,e4 ,o',neill1      
,m4,a4    #dj4 ,cecil ,john ,rhodes1    
#ahec-aijb 4 4 4 ,by ,ian ,d4 ,colvin4  
#da4 ,julius ,csar 4 4 4 ,by ,hilary    
,hardinge4    #db4 ,england in the      
,making 4 4 4 ,by ,prof4 ,f4 ,j4 ,c4    
,hearnshaw1 ,m4,a41 ,,ll4,d4    #dc4    
,england in the ,middle ,ages 4 4 4 ,by 
,e4 ,o',neill1 ,m4,a4    #dd4 ,the      
,monarchy and the ,people 4 4 4 ,by ,w4 
,t4 ,waugh1 ,m4,a4    #de4 ,the         
,industrial ,revolution 4 4 4 ,by       
,arthur ,jones1 ,m4,a4    #df4 ,empire  
and ,democracy 4 4 4 ,by ,g4 ,s4        
,veitch1 ,m4,a41 ,litt4,d4    #dg4      
,women's ,suffrage 4 4 4 ,by ,m4 ,g4    
,fawcett1 ,,ll4,d4    #ea4 ,shakespeare 
4 4 4 ,by ,prof4 ,c4 ,h4 ,herford1      
,litt4,d4    #eb4 ,wordsworth 4 4 4 ,by 

,rosaline ,masson4    #ec4 ,pure        
,gold--,a ,choice of ,lyrics and        
,sonnets 4 4 4 by ,h4 ,c4 ,o',neill     
#ed4 ,francis ,bacon 4 4 4 ,by ,prof4   
,a4 ,r4 ,skemp1 ,m4,a4    #ee4 ,the     
,bronts 4 4 4 ,by ,flora ,masson4       
#ef4 ,carlyle 4 4 4 ,by ,l4 ,mac,lean   
,watt4    #eg4 ,dante 4 4 4 ,by ,a4 ,g4 
,ferrers ,howell4    #fj4 ,a ,dictionary
 of ,synonyms 4 4 4 ,by ,austin ,k4     
,gray1 ,b4,a4    #fa4 ,home ,rule 4 4 4 
,by ,l4 ,g4 ,redmond ,howard4           
,preface by ,robert ,harcourt1 ,m4,p4   
#fb4 ,practical ,astronomy 4 4 4 ,by ,h4
 ,macpherson1 ,jr41 ,f4,r4,a4,s4    #fc4
 ,aviation 4 4 4 ,by ,sydney ,f4        
,walker1 ,r4,n4    #fd4 ,navigation 4 4 
4 ,by ,william ,hall1 ,r4,n41 ,b4,a4    
#fe4 ,pond ,life 4 4 4 ,by ,e4 ,c4 ,ash1
 ,m4,r4,a4,c4    #ff4 ,dietetics 4 4 4  
,by ,alex4 ,bryce1 ,m4,d41 ,d4,p4,h4    
#fg4 ,aristotle 4 4 4 ,by ,prof4 ,a4 ,e4
 ,taylor1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,b4,a4    #fh4     
,friedrich ,nietzsche 4 4 4 ,by ,m4 ,a4 
,mgge4    #fi4 ,eucken3 ,a ,philosophy  

of ,life 4 4 4 ,by ,a4 ,j4 ,jones1      
,m4,a41 ,b4,sc41 ,ph4,d4    #gj4 ,the   
,experimental ,psychology of ,beauty 4 4
 4 ,by ,c4 ,w4 ,valentine1              
,b4,a41 ,d4,phil4    #ga4 ,the ,problem 
of ,truth 4 4 4 ,by ,h4 ,wildon ,carr1  
,litt4,d4    #gb4 ,the ,church of       
,england 4 4 4 ,by ,rev4 ,canon         
,masterman4    #gd4 ,the ,free ,churches
 4 4 4 ,by ,rev4 ,edward ,shillito1     
,m4,a4    #ge4 ,judaism 4 4 4 ,by       
,ephraim ,levine1 ,m4,a4    #gf4        
,theosophy 4 4 4 ,by ,annie ,besant4    
#gh4 ,wellington and ,waterloo 4 4 4 ,by
 ,major ,g4 ,w4 ,redway4    #gi4        
,medival ,socialism 4 4 4 ,by ,bede     
,jarrett1 ,o4,p41 ,m4,a4    #hj4        
,syndicalism 4 4 4 ,by ,j4 ,h4 ,harley1 
,m4,a4    #hb4 ,co-operation 4 4 4 ,by  
,joseph ,clayton4    #hc4 ,insurance as 
a ,means of ,investment 4 4 4 ,by ,w4   
,a4 ,robertson1 ,f4,f4,a4    #he4 ,a    
,history of ,english ,literature 4 4 4  
,by ,a4 ,compton-,rickett1 ,,ll4,d4     
#hg4 ,charles ,lamb 4 4 4 ,by ,flora    

,masson4    #hh4 ,goethe 4 4 4 ,by      
,prof4 ,c4 ,h4 ,herford1 ,litt4,d4      
#ib4 ,the ,training of the ,child 4 4 4 
,by ,g4 ,spiller4    #ic4 ,tennyson 4 4 
4 ,by ,aaron ,watson4    #id4 ,the      
,nature of ,mathematics 4 4 4 ,by ,p4   
,e4 ,b4 ,jourdain1 ,m4,a4    #ie4       
,applications of ,electricity 4 4 4 ,by 
,alex4 ,ogilvie1 ,b4,sc4    #if4        
,gardening 4 4 4 ,by ,a4 ,cecil         
,bartlett4    #ih4  ,atlas of the ,world
 4 4 4 ,by ,t4 ,bartholomew1            
,f4,r4,g4,s4    #aja4  ,luther and the  
,reformation 4 4 4 ,by ,leonard ,d4     
,agate1 ,m4,a4    #ajc4  ,turkey and the
 ,eastern ,question 4 4 4 ,by ,john     
,macdonald1 ,m4,a4    #ajd4             
,architecture 4 4 4 ,by ,mrs4 ,arthur   
,bell4    #aje4  ,trade ,unions 4 4 4   
,by ,joseph ,clayton4    #ajf4          
,everyday ,law 4 4 4 ,by ,j4 ,j4 ,adams4
    #ajh4  ,shelley 4 4 4 ,by ,sydney   
,waterlow1 ,m4,a4    #aaj4  ,british    
,birds 4 4 4 ,by ,f4 ,b ,kirkman1 ,b4,a4
    #aaa4  ,spiritualism 4 4 4 ,by ,j4  

,arthur ,hill4    #aab4  ,kindergarten  
,teaching at ,home 4 4 4 ,by ,two       
,members of the               ,national 
,froebel ,union4    #aac4  ,schopenhauer
 4 4 4 ,by ,margrieta ,beer1 ,m4,a4     
#aad4  ,the ,stock ,exchange 4 4 4 ,by  
,j4 ,f4 ,wheeler4    #aae4  ,coleridge 4
 4 4 ,by ,s4 ,l4 ,bensusan4    #aaf4    
,the ,crusades 4 4 4 ,by ,m4 ,m4 ,c4    
,calthrop4    #aag4  ,wild ,flowers 4 4 
4 ,by ,macgregor ,skene1 ,b4,sc4        
#aah4  ,principles of ,logic 4 4 4 ,by  
,stanley ,williams1 ,b4,a4    #aai4     
,the ,foundations of ,religion 4 4 4 ,by
 ,stanley ,a4 ,cook1 ,m4,a4    #abj4    
,history of ,rome 4 4 4 ,by ,a4 ,f4     
,giles1 ,m4,a4    #aba4  ,land1         
,industry1 and ,taxation 4 4 4 ,by      
,frederick ,verinder4          ,,london 
,,and ,,edinburgh3 ,t4 ,c4  ,e4 ,c4     
,,jack    ,,new ,,york3 ,,dodge         
,,publishing ,,co4