,transcriber's ,note ,this version of the text cannot represent certain typographical effects4 ,italics are delimited with the '' character as italic4 ,the 'oe' ligature is printed as separate characters4 ,non-,english language quotations are given as printed4 ,passages in ,greek are transliterated1 and denoted as ,greek3 ,athiopas toi 4444 ,footnotes have been consolidated and moved to directly follow the paragraph where they are referenced4 ,in the printed version1 footnotes were numbered consecutively1 beginning anew with each chapter4 ,here1 they have been re-sequenced for uniqueness4 ,references to those notes in the text and the transcriber's errata are to the new numbers4 ,there are several footnotes that appear in other footnotes4 ,these have been lettered as ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 and follow the note containing the reference4 ,in a number of places1 passages are compared by placing them in parallel columns1 usually across several pages4 ,the left hand column is given contiguously with a wide right margin1 and then the right hand column1 with a large left margin4 ,on p4 #bfb1 four columns are used for comparison4 ,each is given in turn1 with no attempt to simulate the format4 ,please see the notes at the end of this text for a more detailed list of specific issues encountered and the resolutions of each4 ,,tradition ,,principally ,,with ,,reference ,,to ,,mythology ,,and ,,the ,,law ,,of ,,nations4 ,,printed ,,by ,,ballantyne ,,and ,,company ,,edinburgh ,,and ,,london ,,tradition ,,principally ,,with ,,reference ,,to ,,mythology ,,and ,,the ,,law ,,of ,,nations4 ,,by ,,lord ,,arundell ,,of ,,wardour4 ,,london3 ,,burns1 ,,oates1 ,,company1 #ag #ah ,,portman ,,street1 ,,and #fc ,,paternoster ,,row4 #ahgb4 ,,contents4 ,,chap4 ,,page ,,preface1 ix ,,memoir ,,of ,,colonel ,,george ,,macdonell1 ,c4,b41 xix ,i4 ,,the ,,law ,,of ,,nations1 #a ,,ii4 ,,the ,,law ,,of ,,nature1 #bj ,,iii4 ,,primitive ,,life1 #bf ,,iv4 ,,chronology ,,from ,,the ,,point ,,of ,,view ,,of ,,tradition1 #ee ,v4 ,,chronology ,,from ,,the ,,point ,,of ,,view ,,of ,,science1 #gb ,,vi4 ,,palmer ,,on ,,egyptian ,,chronology1 #ib ,,vii4 ,,the ,,tradition ,,of ,,the ,,human ,,race1 #aje ,,viii4 ,,mythology1 #aeg ,,ix4 ,,assyrian ,,mythology1 #ahb ,x4 ,,the ,,tradition ,,of ,,noah ,,and ,,the ,,deluge1 #baj ,,xi4 ,,diluvian ,,traditions ,,in ,,africa ,,and ,,america1 #bdb ,,xii4 ,,sir ,,john ,,lubbock ,,on ,,tradition1 #bhc ,,xiii4 ,,noah ,,and ,,the ,,golden ,,age1 #cbc ,,xiv4 ,,sir ,h4 ,,maine ,,on ,,the ,,law ,,of ,,nations1 #cch ,,xv4 ,,the ,,declaration ,,of ,,war1 #chf ,,preface4 ,i shall have no hope of conveying to the reader1 within the narrow limits of a preface1 any fuller idea of the purport of this work than its title expresses2 and as the chapters are necessarily interdependent1 ,i can indicate no short-cut in the perusal by which this information can be obtained4 ,i venture to think that those who are interested in the special matters referred to will find something in these pages which may attract on account of its novelty--and some other things1 new at least in their application--e4g4 the comparison of ,boulanger's theory with the narratives of ,captain ,r4 ,burton and ,catlin4 ,the frequent introduction and the length of the notes1 must1 ,i am aware1 give to these pages a repellent aspect1 but the necessity of bringing various points under comparison has compelled this arrangement2 and ,i regret to say that the argument runs through the whole1 and that almost as much matter requiring consideration will be found in the notes and appendices as in the text4 ,i trust that these imperfections may not be so great as to estrange the few1 among whom only ,i can hope to find much sympathy1 who wish to see the true foundations of peace and order re-established in the world1 and who may therefore to some extent be indulgent towards efforts which have for their aim and motive the attempt to erect barriers which would render the recurrence of the evils which have lately deluged mankind difficult1 if not impossible4 ,there are others whom the recent scenes of horror have inspired with a love of peace and order1 or of whom it would be more true to say1 that the horrors of the late war and revolution have deepened in them the sentiment of peace and order which they have always entertained1 but who still do not desire these things on the conditions upon which alone they can be secured4 ,from them ,i can only ask such passing examination as may be demanded for the conscientious rejection of the evidence ,i have collected1 or for its adjustment with more accepted theories4 ,there will remain for me much ground in common with all who retain their faith in the inspiration of ,holy ,writ1 and who wish to see its authority sustained against the aggressive infidelity of the day2 and even among those who reject the authority of divine revelation1 there may be still some who are wearied in the arid wastes1 and who would gladly retrace their steps to the green pastures and the abundant streams4 ,among such ,i may perhaps expect to find friendly criticism4 ,at the same time1 ,i do not disguise from myself that1 in its present mood1 the world is much more anxious to be cut adrift from tradition than to be held to its moorings2 and that it will impatiently learn that fresh facts have to be considered before its emancipation can be declared1 or before it can be let loose without the evident certainty of shipwreck4 ,although the exigencies of the argument have compelled research over a somewhat extended field of inquiry1 the exploration has no pretensions to being exhaustive1 but at most suggestive2 not attempting to work the mine1 or1 except incidentally1 to produce the ore1 but only indicating the positions in which it is likely to be found4 ,in the main position of the mythological chapters1 that the heroes of mythological legend embody the reminiscences of the characters and incidents of the biblical narrative1 ,i do nothing more than carry on a tradition1 as the reader will see in my references to ,calmet1 ,bryant1 ,palmer1 and others4#a ,i should add1 that ,i limit the full application of ,de ,maistre's theory to the times preceding the coming of our ,lord4 #a ,it has curiously happened that ,i have never seen the work which1 after ,bryant1 would probably have afforded the largest repertory of facts--,g4 ,stanley ,faber's ,dissertation on the ,mysteries of the ,cabiri2 and it is only recently1 since these pages were in print1 that ,i have become acquainted with ,davies' ,celtic ,researches and ,the ,mythology and ,rites of the ,british ,druids4 ,the ,celtic traditions respecting their god ,hu1 are so important from more than one point of view1 that ,i cannot forbear making the following extracts from the latter author1 which ,i trust the reader will refer back to and compare in chap4 ix4 with the ,babylonian ,hoa1 at p4 #ff with the ,chinese ,yu1 and at p4 #bfb with the ,african ,hu4 ,davies' ,celtic ,researches1 p4 #ahd1 says1 ,though ,hu ,gadarn primarily denoted the ,supreme ,being compare chap4 ix41 ,i think his actions have a secondary reference to the history of ,noah4 ,the following particulars are told of him in the above-cited selection3--7#a47 ,his branching or elevated oxen compare p4 #bje and chap4 xi4 444 at the ,deluge1 drew the destroyer out of the water1 so that the lake burst forth no more compare chap4 iv4 7#b47 ,he instructed the primitive race in the cultivation of the earth compare p4 #bci4 7#c47 ,he first collected and disposed them into various tribes compare p4 #bci4 7#d47 ,he first gave laws1 traditions1 c41 and adapted verse to memorials compare p4 #bci4 7#e47 ,he first brought the ,cymry into ,britain and ,gaul compare p4 #ff1 because he would not have them possess lands by war and contention1 but of right and peace compare chaps4 xiii4 and xv4 ,it is true that these traditions come to us in ballads attributed to ,welsh bards of the #acth and #adth centuries ,a4,d42 but1 as the ,rev4 ,mr ,davies said1 that such a superstition should have been fabricated by the bards in the middle ages of ,christianity1 is a supposition utterly irreconcileable with probability4 ,and ,i think the improbability will be widely extended if the readers will take the trouble1 after perusal1 to make the references as above4 ,my attention was first drawn to the coincidences of mythology with scriptural history by the late ,colonel ,g4 ,macdonell4#b ,colonel ,macdonell's coincidences were founded upon a peculiar theory of his own1 and must necessarily have been exclusively upon the lines of ,hebrew derivation4 ,there is nothing1 however1 in these pages drawn from that source4 ,i may add1 for the satisfaction of ,colonel ,macdonell's friends1 that as ,colonel ,macdonell's ,,mss4 exist1 and are in the possession of ,colonel ,i4 ,j4 ,macdonell1 ,i have 7except at p4 #bdc1 when quoting from ,boulanger17 expressly excluded the consideration of the influence of the ,hebrew upon general tradition1 which1 however1 will be necessary for the full discussion of the question4 #b ,i have appended a short biographical notice of ,colonel ,g4 ,macdonell1 which ,i venture to think may contain matter of public interest4 ,whatever1 therefore1 ,colonel ,macdonell may have written will remain over and above in illustration of the tradition4 ,but whether on the lines of ,hebrew or primeval tradition1 these views will inevitably run counter to the mythological theories now in the ascendant4 ,these views1 indeed1 have been so long relegated to darkness1 and perhaps appropriately1 on account of their opposition to the prevalent solar theories1 flouted like owls and bats whenever they have ventured into the daylight1 that it will be with something amounting to absolute astonishment that the learned will hear that there are people who still entertain them3 itaque ea nolui scribere1 qu nec indocti intelligere possent1 nec docti legere curarent 7,cic4 ,acad4 ,qus41 #a4 i4 #b74 ,i can sincerely say1 however1 that although my theories place me in a position of antagonism to modern science1 yet that ,i have written in no spirit of hostility to science or the cause of science4 ,i have throughout excluded the geological argument1 for the first and sufficient reason that ,i am not a geologist2 and secondly1 by the same right and title1 that geologists1 e4g4 ,sir ,c4 ,lyell1 in his ,antiquity of ,man1 ignores the arguments and facts to which ,i have directed special attention4 ,nevertheless1 ,i find that competent witnesses have come to conclusions not materially different from those which have been arrived at1 on the ground of history1 within their own department of geology4 ,i have more especially in my mind the following passage from a series of papers1 ,on ,some ,evidences of the ,antiquity of ,man1 by the ,rev4 ,a4 ,weld1 in the ,month 7#ahga71 written with full knowledge and in a spirit of careful and fair appreciation of the evidence4 ,he says3-- ,these evidences1 such as they are1 are fully treated in the work of ,sir ,c4 ,lyell1 entitled ',antiquity of ,man1' which exhausted the whole question as it stood1 when the last edition was published in the year #ahfc4 ,it is worthy of note that though the conclusion at which the geologist arrives is hesitating and suggestive1 rather than decisive1 and though nothing of importance1 as far as we are aware1 has been added to the geological aspect of the question since that time--except that the reality of the discovery of human remains has been verified1 and many additional discoveries of a similar character have been made--still the opinion1 which was then new and startling1 has gradually gained ground1 until we find writers assuming as a thing that needs no further proof1 that the period of man's habitation on the earth is to be reckoned in tens of thousands of years4--,the ,month 7,may and ,june #ahga71 p4 #dcg4 ,among various works1 bearing on matters contained in these pages1 which have come to hand during the course of publication1 ,i may mention-- ,the ,mythology of the ,aryan ,nations1 by the ,rev4 ,g4 ,w4 ,cox1 referred to in notes at pp4 #aeh1 #afe1 #cif4 ,the third edition of ,sir ,john ,lubbock's ,pre-historic ,times4 ,mr ,e4 ,b4 ,tylor's ,primitive ,culture1 referred to in notes at pp4 #da1 #acf1 #cjj4 ,mr ,st ,george ,mivart's ,genesis of ,species4 ,mr ,f4 ,seebohm on ,international ,reform4 ,sir ,h4 ,s4 ,maine's ,village ,communities4 ,the ,archbishop of ,westminster's paper1 read before the ,royal ,institution1 ,on the ,dmon of ,socrates4 ,orsini's ,life of the ,blessed ,virgin1 translated by the ,very ,rev4 ,dr ,husenbeth4 ,hints and ,facts on the ,origin of ,man1 by the ,very ,rev4 ,dr ,p4 ,melia1 #ahgb1 who says 7p4 #ei71 ,considering the great length of life of the first patriarchs1 ,moses must have had every information through non-interrupted tradition4 ,if we reflect that ,shem for many years saw ,methuselah1 a contemporary of ,adam1 and that ,shem himself lived to the time of ,abraham1 444 that ,abraham died after the birth of ,jacob1 and that ,jacob saw many who were alive when ,moses was born1 we see that a few generations connect ,moses not only with ,noah1 but also with ,adam4 ,i quote this passage as it is important to place in the foreground of this inquiry the unassailable truth that 7apart from revelation7 the historical account of the origin of the human race1 to which all others converge1 is consistent with itself1 and bears intrinsic evidence of credibility4 ,an analogous argument with reference to ,christian tradition was sketched in a lecture by ,mr ,edward ,lucas1 and published in #ahfb1 ,on the ,first ,two ,centuries of ,christianity4 ,with reference to other parts of these pages1 much supplemental matter will be found in-- ,historical ,illustrations of the ,old ,testament1 by the ,rev4 ,g4 ,rawlinson1 ,m4,a41 ,camden ,prof41 where1 at pp4 #ai1 #bj1 will be found direct testimony to what ,i had conjectured from indirect evidence at pp4 #bgj1 #bga--viz41 that the ,polynesian islanders have a clear and distinct tradition of a ,deluge1 from which one family only1 eight in number1 was saved in a canoe4 ,also1 but from a different point of view1 in ,legends of ,old ,testament ,characters1 by ,rev4 ,s4 ,baring ,gould1 ,m4,a4 ,the articles in the ,tablet ,on ,arbitration instead of ,war1 to which ,i have referred in chap4 xiv4 at p4 #chj1 have recently been collected and reprinted by ,lord ,robert ,montagu1 ,m4,p4 ,if ,i have exceeded in quotation1 ,i must direct my readers1 for the defence of this mode of composition1 from the point of view of tradition1 to a work which ,i trust some in this busy age still find leisure to read1 ,mr ,kenelm ,digby's ,mores ,catholici1 i4 #dj4 ,i must1 moreover1 add a passage from the general preface to the recent republication of ,mr ,disraeli's works1 which ,i came upon too late to introduce into the body of this book1 but which ,i feel sure the reader1 even if he has met with it before1 will not be reluctant to reperuse3-- ,the sceptical effects of the discoveries of science1 and the uneasy feeling that they cannot co-exist with our old religious convictions have their origin in the circumstance that the general body who have suddenly become conscious of these physical truths are not so well acquainted as is desirable with the past history of man4 ,astonished by their unprepared emergence from ignorance to a certain degree of information1 their amazed intelligence takes refuge in the theory of what is conveniently called progress1 and every step in scientific discovery seems further to remove them from the path of primval inspiration4 ,but there is no fallacy so flagrant as to suppose that the modern ages have the peculiar privilege of scientific discovery1 or that they are distinguished as the epochs of the most illustrious inventions4 ,on the contrary1 scientific invention has always gone on simultaneously with the revelation of spiritual truths2 and more1 the greatest discoveries are not those of modern ages4 ,no one for a moment can pretend that printing is so great a discovery as writing1 or algebra as language4 ,what are the most brilliant of our chemical discoveries compared with the invention of fire and the metals8 ,it is a vulgar belief that our astronomical knowledge dates only from the recent century1 when it was rescued from the monks who imprisoned ,galileo2 but ,hipparchus1 who lived before our ,divine ,master1 and who1 among other sublime achievements1 discovered the precession of the equinoxes1 ranks with the ,newtons and the ,keplers2 and ,copernicus1 the modern father of our celestial science1 avows himself1 in his famous work1 as only the champion of ,pythagoras1 whose system he enforces and illustrates4 ,even the most modish schemes of the day on the origin of things1 which captivate as much by their novelty as their truth1 may find their precursors in ancient sages2 and after a careful analysis of the blended elements of imagination and induction which characterise the new theories1 they will be found mainly to rest on the atom of ,epicurus and the monad of ,thales4 ,scientific1 like spiritual truth1 has ever from the beginning been descending from ,heaven to man4 ,he is a being who organically demands direct relations with his ,creator1 and he would not have been so organised if his requirements could not be satisfied4 ,we may analyse the sun and penetrate the stars2 but man is conscious that he is made in ,god's own image1 and in his perplexity he will ever appeal to our ,father which art in ,heaven4 ,,memoir ,,of ,,colonel ,,george ,,macdonell1 ,c4,b4 ,the following notice appeared in the ,times1 ,may #bc1 #ahgj--;,in our obituary column of ,saturday we announced the death of ,colonel ,george ,macdonell1 ,c4,b41 at the advanced age of ninety4 ,this officer1 who was a cadet of the ancient and loyal ,scottish house of ,macdonell of ,glengarry1 was the son of an officer who served under the flag1 and who1 as we have been told1 was on the staff1 of ,prince ,charles ,edward ,stuart at the battle of ,culloden1 where he was severely wounded4 ,his son1 the ,colonel now deceased1 was born in #aggi1 or early in the following year2 obtained his first commission in #agif1 and was nominated a ,companion of the ,bath in #ahag4 ,he saw active service in the war in ,north ,america with the #gith ,foot1 and received the gold medal for the action at ,chteaugay2 and had he not accepted the retirement a few years since1 he would have been1 at his death1 almost the senior officer in the army holding ,her ,majesty's commission4 ,the late ,colonel ,macdonell1 who adhered to the ,roman ,catholic religion professed by his ancestors1 and for which they fought so gallantly under the ,stuart banners1 married1 in #ahbj1 the ,hon4 ,laura ,arundell1 sister of the ,lord ,arundell of ,wardour1 but was left a widower in ,may #ahed4 ,his son1 ,colonel ,i4 ,j4 ,macdonell1 now commands the #gast ,highlanders4 ,i take this opportunity of adding a few facts1 not without interest1 to the above brief summary of a not uneventful life1 as they might otherwise pass unrecorded4 ,in the sentiment of the ,gaelic saying--,curri mi clach er do cuirn 7,wilson1 ,archol4 ,scot41 p4 #ei7--;,i will add a stone to your cairn4 ,colonel ,macdonell's father1 as stated in the above account1 was wounded at ,culloden in the thigh1 but was able to crawl on all-fours1 after the battle1 eighteen miles1 to a barn belonging to a member of the ,grant family4 ,he there remained in concealment for six months1 leaving nature to heal the wound2 but the search in the neighbourhood in time becoming too hot1 he had to decamp1 and walked with a stick all the way to ,newcastle1 where he was not greatly re-assured by meeting a soldier who had just been drummed out of his regiment as a ,catholic1 with the word ,papist placarded on his back4 ,he1 however1 escaped all dangers1 and reached ,hull1 and subsequently ,versailles or ,st ,germains1 where he remained three years1 or at least till the events following the ,peace of ,aix-la-,chapelle dispersed the ,prince's adherents4 ,he then returned to ,england under the ,act of ,indemnity1 entered the royal army1 and was present with ,general ,wolfe at the taking of ,quebec4 ,if ,i remember rightly1 he had the good fortune to take an aide-de-camp of ,montcalm's prisoner1 with important dispatches4 ,colonel ,macdonell's maternal uncle1 ,major ,macdonald 7,keppoch71 was taken prisoner at the battle of ,falkirk4 ,he was said to have been the first man who drew blood in the war4 ,by a curious revenue of fortune1 he was carried back into the enemy's ranks by the horse of a trooper whom he had captured4 ,he was executed at ,carlisle1 and the circumstances of his execution supplied ,sir ,walter ,scott1 ,i believe1 with the incidents which he worked up into the narrative of ,mac,ivor's execution in ,waverley4 ,his sword is in the possession of ,mr ,p4 ,howard of ,corby ,castle1 near ,carlisle4 ,fortune1 however1 had in store another revenge2 for the ,duke of ,cumberland being present1 many years afterwards1 at a ball at ,bath1 by a most unhappy selection indicated as the person with whom he wished to dance a beautiful girl who turned out to be no other than the daughter of ,major ,macdonald 7afterwards married to ,mr ,chichester of ,calverley7 the circumstances of whose execution have just been referred to4 ,she rose in deference to royalty1 but replied1 in a tone which utterly discomfited1 and put his ,royal ,highness to flight--,no1 ,i will never dance with the murderer of my father6 ,with these antecedents1 it is needless to add that ,colonel ,g4 ,macdonell was a warm admirer of the ,stuarts1 and not unnaturally extended his sympathy and adhesion to the kindred cause of legitimacy in ,france2 and the one event to which he always looked forward1 and confidently predicted--the restoration of the monarchy in the person of ,henri ,v4--is now1 if not imminent1 at least the more probable of possible events4 ,there was1 however1 a belief which somewhat conflicted in his mind with the above anticipation--namely1 his unshaken conviction that the ,dauphin did not die in the ,temple4 ,he was frequently at ,holyrood when the palace was occupied by ,charles ,x41 and he accompanied the ,duchess de ,berri to the place of embarkation for her unfortunate expedition to ,france4 ,colonel ,macdonell also acted as the medium of communication between the ,french ,royalists and the ,english ,government2 and on one important occasion conveyed intelligence to ,lord ,bathurst or ,lord ,sidmouth respecting the movements of the secret societies in ,spain in #ahbc some hours before it reached them by the ordinary channel4 ,part of the communication was made on information supplied by the ,abb ,barruel2 and in reply1 ,lord ,sidmouth said--,well1 ,i remember ,edmund ,burke telling me that he believed every word that ,barruel had written1 and ,i fully accept the authority4 ,colonel ,macdonell was under the impression that he was unwittingly and remotely the cause of the break up of the ,ministry of all the talents4 ,as this is an obscure point in history1 it may be worth while to give the following facts4 ,the impression produced by ,marengo and ,austerlitz had led to the ,army ,reform ,bill of #ahjf1 in which the points discussed were almost identical with those which lately excited the public mind4 ,the disasters which accompanied our descent on ,egypt in #ahjg1 and the consequent evacuation of ,alexandria1 created considerable discontent and re-opened the question1 and as further reforms on minor points were contemplated1 suggestions from officers in the army were invited4 ,colonel ,macdonell 7then only lieutenant71 wrote to ,mr ,windham1 the ,secretary at ,war1 to point out that any broken attorney might create considerable embarrassment at any critical moment1 seeing that1 as the law then stood 7an ,act of ,george ,i4 had extended the obligation of taking the sacrament to privates71 any soldier could obtain1 if not his own1 his comrade's discharge by pointing him out as a ,papist4 ,the danger was recognised1 and ,mr ,windham brought in a bill directed to meet the case1 but its introduction revived the larger question of the repeal of the ,tests' ,acts and of the ,catholic claims2 and the discussion eventuated in ,lord ,howick's bill1 which was met by the ,king's refusal1 and the consequent resignation of the ,ministry4 ,this may explain the statement 7mentioned in the obituary notice in the ,times of the ,marquis of ,lansdowne71 that he 7,lord ,lansdowne7 could never understand how the ,ministry came to be dissolved4 ,he had heard instances of men running their heads against a wall1 but never of men building up a wall against which to run their heads4#c #c ,sir ,h4 ,lytton ,bulwer1 in his ,life of ,lord ,palmerston1 says1 i4 p4 #fb1 ,there has seldom happened in this country so sudden and unexpected a change of ,ministers as that which took place in ,march #ahjg4 ,it has been mentioned that ,colonel ,macdonell entered the army when quite a boy2 and there were few men1 ,i fancy1 living1 when he died last year1 who could boast1 as he could1 of having served in the ,duke of ,york's campaign in the last century1 but ,i am not able to state in what regiment4 ,he was for some time previously in ,lord ,darlington's regiment of ,fencibles4 ,he was at one period in the #hth1 and at another in the #ejth regiment1 in which latter1 ,i think1 he went out to the ,west ,indies and ,canada4 ,it was in ,canada1 however1 that his principal services were rendered1 which indeed were considerable1 and have never been adequately acknowledged4 ,when the ,americans invaded ,canada upon the declaration of war in #ahab1 it is hardly necessary to remind the reader that almost all our available troops were engaged in the ,peninsula1 and that ,canada was pretty well left to its own resources4 ,under these circumstances it will be recognised as of some importance that ,colonel ,macdonell was able to raise a regiment among the ,macdonells of his clan who had settled there4 ,but the conditions made with him were not fulfilled1 and the command of the regiment1 almost immediately after it was raised1 was transferred to the command of a ,protestant and an ,orangeman1 which caused a mutiny which was with difficulty suppressed4 ,now1 it must be borne in mind that the regiment was only raised through his personal influence with the clan1 and through that of its pastor1 ,bishop ,macdonell1 and that the adhesion of the ,catholic ,macdonells went far to determine the attitude of the ,french ,canadians also4 ,there were not more than #abjj regular troops in ,upper ,canada during the war4#d #d ,w4 ,james1 ,military ,occurrences of ,late ,war1 i4 #ef1 says1 #adej regular troops2 ,murray1 ,history of ,british ,america1 i4 #ahi1 says1 #bajj troops4 ,before referring to the actions in which ,colonel ,macdonell was engaged1 ,i will add the following particulars as to the ,highland settlement which ,colonel ,macdonell gave me4 ,in #agih1 the submission of the ,highland chiefs to the ,house of ,hanover having been of some standing1 and their adhesion being1 moreover1 cemented in a common sentiment of abhorrence of the ,french ,revolution1 they were willingly induced to raise regiments among their clans4 ,this was done by ,glengarry1 ,macleod1 and others4 ,at the peace these regiments were disbanded1 but finding that complications of various sorts had necessarily arisen during their absence respecting their lands and holdings at home1 and1 in point of fact1 that they had no homes to return to1 the greater part remained temporarily domiciled at ,glasgow1 the place of their disbandment4 ,i infer that they remained under the charge and direction of ,bishop ,macdonell1 who had accompanied them in their campaigns as chaplain1 and was the first ,catholic priest officially recognised in the capacity of regimental chaplain4 ,at ,glasgow 7previously only served as a flying mission71 he hired a storehouse1 which he opened as a chapel1 but stealthily only1 as two of the congregation were always posted as a guard at the entrance on ,sunday4 ,he found only eighteen ,catholics at ,glasgow at that time1 i4e41 ,i suppose1 previously to the disbandment of the ,highlanders4 ,through ,bishop ,macdonell's influence with ,lord ,sidmouth--who1 although a strong opponent of the ,catholic claims1 always acted in his relations with him1 he said1 in the most honourable and straightforward way--the emigration of the ,highlanders to ,canada was shortly afterwards arranged4 ,colonel ,macdonell was subsequently partially reinstated in his command of the ,glengarry regiment4 ,the important services rendered by ,colonel ,macdonell in ,canada1 to which ,i have alluded1 were--#a4 ,the taking of ,ogdensburg at a critical moment1 on his own responsibility1 and contrary to orders1 which had the effect of diverting the ,american attack from ,upper ,canada at a moment when it was entirely undefended2 and1 #b4 ,bringing the regiment of ,french ,canadian militia1 then temporarily under his command1 from ,kingston1 by a forced run down the rapids of the ,st ,lawrence without pilots 7passing the point where ,lord ,amherst lost eighty men71 in time enough 7he arrived the day before1 unknown to the ,americans7 to support ,de ,saluberry at the decisive action at ,chateaugay4 ,de ,saluberry indeed had only #cjj ,french ,canadians under his command1 which1 with the #fjj brought up by ,colonel ,macdonell1 only made up a force of #ijj 7with about #ajj ,indians71 with which to check ,general ,hampton's advance with some #gjjj 7the ,americans stated the force at #eebj infantry and #ahj cavalry1 ,james1 i4 #cje7 in his advance on ,montreal4 ,in point of fact1 ,colonel ,macdonell must be considered1 on any impartial review of the facts1 to have won the day 7vide infra71 yet he was not even mentioned in ,sir ,g4 ,prevost's dispatch4 ,colonel ,macdonell received the ,companionship of the ,bath for the taking of ,ogdensburg1 and the gold medal for his conduct in the action at ,chateaugay4 ,i append the following accounts of the affairs at ,ogdensburg and ,chateaugay1 adding a few particulars in correction and explanation--,alison1 ,history of ,europe1 xix4 #aba 7#gth ed471 says--,shortly after ,colonel ,m',donnell 7,macdonell71 with two companies of the ,glengarry ,fencibles1 and two of the #hth1 converted a feigned attack which he was ordered to make on ,fort ,ogdensburg into a real one4 ,the assault was made under circumstances of the utmost difficulty2 deep snow impeded the assailants at every step1 and the ,american marksmen1 from behind their defences1 kept up a very heavy fire2 but the gallantry of the ,british overcame every obstacle1 and the fort was carried1 with eleven guns1 all its stores1 and two armed schooners in the harbour4 ,the difficulties1 as ,i have understood from ,colonel ,macdonell1 were not so much from the impediments of the snow1 as from the dangerous state of the ,st ,lawrence at the time1 the ice literally waving under the tramp of his men as he passed them over 7ten paces apart74 ,the stroke of the axe1 by which they judged1 told it indeed to be only barely safe1 and it had never been crossed by troops before at that point1 as it was deemed insecure1 being within three miles of the ,gallops ,rapids4 7,among the guns were some taken from ,general ,burgoyne47 ,a fuller account of the taking of ,ogdensburg may be read in ,mr ,w4 ,james' ,full and ,correct ,account of the ,military ,occurrences of the late ,war between ,great ,britain and the ,united ,states of ,america1 vol4 i4 p4 #ace-ada3 ,london1 #ahah2 he adds1 ,previously to dismissing the affair at ,ogdensburg it may be right to mention that ,sir ,g4 ,prevost's secretary1 or some person who had the transcribing of ,major 7,colonel7 ,macdonnell's 7,macdonell's7 official letter1 must have inserted by mistake the words ',in consequence of the commands of his ,excellency4' ,of this there needs no stronger proof than that ,major 7,colonel7 ,macdonnell 7,macdonell7 while he was in the heat of the battle1 received a private note from ,sir ,g4 dated from ',flint's ,inn at #i o'clock1' repeating his orders not to make the attack2 and even in the first private letter which ,sir ,g4 wrote to ,major ,macdonnell 7,colonel ,macdonell7 after being informed of his success1 he could not help qualifying his admiration of the exploit with a remark that the latter had rather exceeded his instructions--7,note4--,both of these letters the author has seen71 vol4 i4 #adj4 ,colonel ,macdonell's explanation to me of his taking this responsibility on himself was simply that he saw that the fate of the whole of ,upper ,canada depended upon it4 ,colonel ,macdonell had received information that #ejjj ,american troops were moving up in the direction of ,ogdensburg1 and they1 in fact1 came up a week after it was taken1 under ,general ,pike2 but seeing the altered aspect of affairs1 they moved off1 and fell back upon ,sackett's ,harbour1 anticipating a similar attack at that point4 ,colonel ,macdonell always spoke with much emotion of the gallant conduct of a ,captain ,jenkins1 a young officer under his command1 who1 although he had both arms shattered by two successive shots1 struggled on at the head of his men until he swooned4 ,he survived some years1 but died of the overcharge of blood to the head consequent on the loss of his limbs4 ,as ,ogdensburg was a frontier town on the ,american side of the ,st ,lawrence1 ,sir ,g4 ,prevost authorised payment for any plunder by the troops1 but ,colonel ,macdonell received a certificate from the inhabitants that they had not lost a single shilling--which must be recorded to the credit of the ,glengarry ,highlanders under his command4 ,as ,i have already said1 although ,colonel ,macdonell commanded the larger force1 and by an independent command1 at the action of ,chateaugay1 his name is not mentioned in ,sir ,g4 ,prevost's dispatch1 nor in ,alison1 who apparently follows the official account 7xix4 #aca1 #gth ed47 ,in ,alison1 ,de ,saluberry is called1 by a clerical error1 ,de ,salavary--such1 after all1 is fame6 saith ,hyperion4 ,although his troops1 raw levies1 broke1 and ,colonel ,de ,saluberry was virtually a prisoner when ,colonel ,macdonell came up to the support1 it was through no fault of his disposition of his men--7,colonel ,macdonell always spoke of him as an excellent officer1 who behaved on the occasion in the most noble and intrepid manner74 ,the ,american troops at ,chateaugay are variously stated at #gjjj to #egjj 7,alison says1 #djjj effective infantry and #bjjj militia1 and #aj guns1 xix4 #aca74 ,the ,british1 #cjj ,french ,canadian militia1 under ,de ,saluberry2 #fjj under ,colonel ,macdonell1 and some ,indians1 without artillery4 ,a full1 but1 ,colonel ,macdonell said1 inaccurate account 7from imperfect information7 will be found in ,mr ,w4 ,james' ,military ,occurrences1 above referred to4 ,i extract the following passages1 i4 #cjg3--,the ,british advanced corps1 stationed near the frontiers1 was commanded by ,lieutenant-,colonel ,de ,saluberry of the ,canadian ,fencibles1 and consisted of the two flank companies of that corps and four companies of voltigeurs1 and six flank companies of embodied militia and ,chateaugay chasseurs1 placed under the immediate orders of ,lieutenant-,colonel ,macdonell1 late of the ,glengarrys1 who so distinguished himself at ,ogdensburg4 ,the whole of this force did not exceed #hjj rank and file4 ,there were also at the post #agb ,indians under ,captain ,lamotte4 ,colonel ,macdonell's account differed substantially4 ,it has been already mentioned that he had brought up his troops by a forced march the night before1 and held them under a separate command4 ,i conclude with the following passage as bearing out ,colonel ,macdonell's version3--,the ,americans1 although they did not occupy one foot of the 'abatis1' nor ,lieutenant-,colonel ,de ,saluberry retire one inch from the ground on which he had been standing1 celebrated this partial retiring as a retreat4444 ,by way of animating his little band when thus momentarily pressed ,colonel ,macdonell's version was1 that although the troops were driven back1 ,colonel ,de ,saluberry literally refused to retire one inch himself1 and virtually remained a prisoner until-- ,colonel ,de ,saluberry ordered the bugleman to sound the advance4 ,this was heard by ,lieutenant-,colonel ,macdonell1 who thinking the ,colonel was in want of support1 caused his own bugles to answer1 and immediately advanced with two 'six' of his companies4 ,he at the same time sent ten or twelve buglemen into the adjoining woods with orders to separate 'widely'1 and blow with all their might4 ,this little 'ruse de guerre' led the ,americans to believe that they had more thousands than hundreds to contend with1 and deterred them from even attempting to penetrate the 'abatis4' ,for the rest of the account ,i must refer my readers to ,mr ,w4 ,james' ,history1 as above2 though1 if a complete and accurate account of an engagement which probably saved ,british ,canada were ever thought desirable1 ,colonel ,macdonell's commentaries 7,,ms47 on the above and the official accounts1 would afford valuable supplementary information4#e #e ,the following corrections have been supplied to me by the ,hon4 ,l4 ,d43--,lieut4-,colonel ,george ,macdonell was born on the #abth ,august #aghj1 at ,st ,johns1 ,newfoundland1 where his father1 ,captain ,macdonell1 was stationed4 ,he was the second son of ,captain ,macdonell 7who had been one of the body-guard of ,prince ,charles71 by his wife1 ,miss ,leslie of ,fetternear1 ,aberdeenshire4 ,george was rated on the navy by the ,admiral of the station1 who was a personal friend of ,captain ,macdonell1 and his name accordingly remained on the list for years1 but he never joined4 ,i believe he entered in #agie the regiment raised by ,lord ,darlington1 and afterwards served with the ,duke of ,york in the war in ,holland4 ,he was1 ,i know1 at one time in the #hth infantry1 for ,i remember ,sir ,greathed ,harris saying that he was always a well-remembered and honoured officer in that regiment4 ,he ultimately had the post of ,inspecting ,field-,officer in ,canada4 ,,tradition ,,principally ,,with ,,reference ,,to ,,mythology ,,and ,,the ,,law ,,of ,,nations4 ,,tradition ,,principally ,,with ,,reference ,,to ,,mythology ,,and ,,the ,,law ,,of ,,nations4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,the ,,law ,,of ,,nations4 ,the increasing number of essays1 pamphlets1 works1 and reviews of works on speculative subjects1 with which the literature of ,england at present teems1 compels the conclusion that the public mind has been greatly unsettled or strangely transformed since the days when ,john ,bull was the plain matter-of-fact old gentleman that ,washington ,irving pleasantly described him4 ,remembering the many sterling and noble qualities whimsically associated with this practical turn of mind1 it will be felt by many to be a change for the worse4 ,but if old ,english convictions1 maxims1 and ways of thought have lost their meaning2 if in fine it is true that the mind of ,england has become unsettled1 it says much for the practical good sense of ,englishmen that they should have overcome their natural repugnances1 and should so earnestly turn to the discussion of these questions1 not indeed with the true zest for speculation1 but in the practical conviction that it is in this arena that the battle of the ,constitution must be fought4 ,there is1 as it has been truly observed1#f an instinctive feeling that any speculation which affects this 7the speculation in question being the effect of the ,darwinian theory on conscience71 must also affect1 sooner or later1 the practical principles and conduct of men in their daily lives4 ,this naturally comes much closer to us than any question as to the comparative nearness of our kinship to the gorilla or the orang can be expected to do4 ,no great modification of opinion takes place with respect to the moral faculties1 which does not ultimately and in some degree modify the ethical practice and political working of the society in which it comes to prevail4 #f ,pall ,mall ,gazette1 ,april #ab1 #ahga2 article1 ,mr ,darwin on ,conscience4 ,there is perhaps no question which lies more at the root of political constitutions1 and which must more directly determine the conduct of states in their relations to each other1 than the question whether or not1 or in what sense1 there was such a thing as natural law1 i4e4 a law antecedent to the formation of individual political societies1 and which is common to and binding on them all4 ,it may be worth while1 therefore1 to examine whether a stricter discrimination may not be made between things which are sometimes confounded1 viz43--,the ,law of ,nations and ,international ,law1 natural law and the state of nature2 and even if the attempt at discrimination should fail in exactitude1 it may yet1 by opening out fresh views1 contribute light to minds of greater precision1 who may thus be enabled to hit upon the exact truth4 ,this view was partially exposed in an article which was inserted in the ,tablet1 ,september #bh1 #ahfa1g entitled ,international ,law and the ,law of ,nations1 and1 all things considered1 ,i do not think that ,i can better consult the interests of my readers1 than by reproducing an extract from it here1 as a convenient basis of operation from which to advance into a somewhat unexplored country3-- ,it has been the fashion since ,bentham's#h time1 to substitute the phrase ',international ,law' for the ',law of ,nations1' as if they were convertible terms4 ,the substitution1 however1 covers a distinction sufficiently important4 ,the ',law of ,nations' is an obligation which binds the consciences of nations to respect the eternal principle of justice in their relations with each other4 ',international law' is the system of rules1 precedents1 and maxims accumulated in recognition of the eternal law4 ,but as men may build a theatre or a gambling-house upon the foundations constructed for a religious edifice1 and upon a stone consecrated for an altar1 so has it been possible for diplomacy to substitute a system of chicanery for the simple laws which were intended to facilitate the intercourse of nations1 and with such effect as in a great number of cases to place international law in contradiction with the law of nations--as1 for instance1 when in a certain case the law of nations says that it is wrong to invade a neighbour's territory1 international law is made to say that it is lawful to invade in such a case1 because such-and-such monarchs in past history have done so4 ,practically the effect of the substitution is1 that the sentiment of justice disappears1 that wars which formerly were called unjust1 are now called inevitable1 so that good men1 disheartened at the conflicting evidence of precedents1 yield their sense of right and wrong1 and defer to the adjudication of diplomatists4 ,this is particularly satisfactory to the modern spirit which will admit nothing to be law which is superior to1 and distinct from1 that which the human intellect has determined to be law4 ,but the sense of right and wrong in good men is that which gives its whole efficacy to the law of nations4 ,there is nothing else in the last resort1 to restrain the ambition and passion of princes1 but the reprobation of mankind--nothing but the fear of invading that moral territory#i which even bad men find it necessary to conquer1 'dans l'ame des peuples ses voisins4' ,on the other hand1 the whole mass of precedents to which diplomatists appeal1 which are rarely carefully collated with those which legists have accumulated and digested1 is nothing but a veil which thinly covers the supremacy of might and the right of force4 ,in fact1 the conventional deference which is paid to them1 is at best only the hypocritical homage which force is constrained to pay to justice before it strikes its blow4 ,international law1 therefore1 as accumulated in the precedents of diplomatists1 is a parasitical growth upon that tree which has its roots in the hearts of nations1 and which may be compared to one of those old oaks under which kings used to sit and administer justice4 ,it was a dream of ,dodwell's that the 'law of nations was a divine revelation made to the family preserved in the ark4' ,in the grotesqueness and wildness of this theory we detect a true idea4 ,the law of nations is an unwritten law1 tradited in the memories of the people1 or1 so far as it is written1 to be found in the works of writers on public law1 like ,grotius1 whose authorities1 as ,sir ,j4 ,mackintosh remarks1 are in great part1 and very properly1 made up of the sayings of the poets and orators of the world1 'for they address themselves to the general feelings and sympathies of mankind4' ,it is in this that the ,scriptural saying about the people is so true--',but they will maintain the state of the world4' ,and it is a just observation1 that 'the people are often wrong in their opinions1 but in their sentiments rarely4' ,you may produce state papers and manifestoes1 written with all the dexterity of ,talleyrand1 and the lying tact of ,fouch1 but you will not convince the people4 ,you have your opportunity4 ,the ,liberal press of ,europe1 at this moment1 may be said to be in possession of the whole field of political literature2 nevertheless1 nothing will prevent its being recorded in history1#aj that ,victor ,emmanuel in seizing upon the patrimony of ,st ,peter was a robber1 and his conquest an usurpation4 #g ,this article1 and perhaps four or five others on miscellaneous subjects1 written within a few weeks of the above date1 were my only contributions to the ,tablet1 at that time owned and edited by my friend ,mr ,j4 ,e4 ,wallis1 who1 during some ten or twelve eventful years1 continued to uphold the standard of ,tradition1 with singular ability and at great personal sacrifice4 #h ,all that ,bentham wrote on this subject 7,international ,law7 is comprised within a comparatively small compass 7,works1 vol4 ii4 #ece-efj1 iii4 #bjj-faa1 ix4 #eh-chb74 ,but it would be unpardonable to omit all mention of a science which he was the means of revolutionising1 and which1 previously to his taking it in hand1 had not even received a proper distinctive name4--,john ,hill ,burton1 ,benthamiana1 p4 #cif4 ,from ,bentham's point of view1 ,international ,law is the proper distinctive name4 #i ,montalembert1 ,correspondant1 ,aout1 #ahfa4 #aj ,c'est une des plus admirables choses de ce monde que jamais nul empire1 et nul succs n'ont pu s'assujetir l'histoire et en imposer par elle la posterit4 ,des generations de rois issus du mme sang se sont succd pendant dix sicles au gouvernement du mme peuple1 et malgr cette perpetuit d'intrt et de commandement1 ils n'ont pu couvrir aux yeux du monde les fautes de leurs pres et maintenir sur leur tombe le faux clat de leur vie4--,lacordaire3 vid4 ,correspondant1 ,nov4 #ahef4 ,i have observed that ,international ,law is the more appropriate term from ,bentham's point of view1 and as ,bentham is the most redoubtable opponent of natural right and the law of nations1 ,i will quote him at some length3-- ,another man says that there is an eternal and immutable rule of right1 and that that rule of right dictates so-and-so4 ,and then he begins giving you his sentiments upon anything that comes uppermost2 and these sentiments 7you are to take it for granted7 are so many branches of the eternal rule of right4444 ,a great multitude of people are continually talking of the law of nature2 and they go on giving you their sentiments about what is right and what is wrong1 and these sentiments1 you are to understand1 are so many chapters and sections of the law of nature4 ,instead of the phrase1 law of nature1 you have sometimes law of reason1 right reason1 natural justice1 natural equity1 good order4 ,any of them will do equally well4 ,this latter is most used in politics4 ,the three last are much more tolerable than the others1 because they do not very explicitly claim to be anything more than phrases4 ,they insist1 but feebly1 upon the being looked upon as so many positive standards of themselves1 and seem content to be taken1 upon occasion1 for phrases expressive of the conformity of the thing in question to the proper standard1 whatever that may be4 ,on most occasions1 however1 it will be better to say utility--utility is clearer1 as referring more especially to pain and pleasure4 ,in truth1 although ,mr ,bentham indulges a pleasant ridicule1 yet the ridicule and the thing ridiculed being eliminated1 the fact that there is a belief in a law of nature remains untouched4 ,it is probable1 therefore1 that appeals will be frequent to what is believed to be the eternal and immutable rule of right1 to the law of nature1 c41 i4e4 each and every individual1 all mankind distributively1 so appeal1 because there is a deep conviction among mankind1 severally and collectively1 that there is this eternal and immutable rule of right1 blurred and obscured though it may be1 or concealed behind a cloud of human passion and error3 and most men1 moreover1 will have an instinct which will tell them when an individual is substituting his own ideas for the eternal and immutable law1--as1 for instance1 when at the conclusion of the sentence quoted1 ,mr ,bentham seeks to substitute his own peculiar crochet1 as embodied in the word utility 7which may be used indifferently in the sense of the absolute or relative1 the supernatural or the natural1 the immediate or the remote utility71 as synonymous with natural justice1 natural equity1 and good order4 ,so1 again1 when ,mr ,bentham comes to the discussion of ,international ,law1 after pointing out1 very properly1 that whereas internal laws have always a super-ordinate authority to enforce them1 that when nations fall into disputes there is no such super-ordinate impartial authority to bind them to conformity with any fixed rules1 ,mr ,bentham goes on to say1 though there is no distinct official authority capable of enforcing right principles of international law1 there is a power bearing with more or less influence on the conduct of all nations1 as of all individuals1 however transcendently potent they may be1 this is the power of public opinion4 ,public opinion6 not then of public opinion threatening coercion1 for in that case we should have a super-ordinate impartial authority binding to conformity with fixed rules1 but public opinion as a moral expression4 ,if1 however1 you take from it the expression of right and wrong1 of natural justice1 and of the eternal and immutable law2 if its expression is not reprobation1 and1 so to speak1 a fore-judgment of the retribution of the ,most ,high1 but only dissatisfaction or the mere pronouncement of the inutility of the action1 whatever it may be1 what even with ,benthamites can be its efficacy and worth8 ,the vanquished say to their conqueror1 the multitudes to their oppressor1 this oppression is not according to utility4 ,utility6 he replies1 useful to whom8 ,to you6 ,fancy the look of ,prince ,bismarck as he would reply to such an address4 ,what are men if you take away the notion of right and wrong but the flies of a summer8 ,how different was the expression of ,napoleon after his ill-usage of ,pius ,,vii41 ,j'ai frisson les nations4 ,napoleon had a conscience1#aa and in his moments of calm reflection felt in its full force the reprobation of mankind4 #aa ,vide ,sentiment de ,napoleon ,i4 sur ,le ,christianisme1 d'apres des temoignages recueillis par feu le ,chevalier de ,beauterne4 ,nouvelle edition1 par ,m4 ----2 ,bray1 ,paris1 #ahfj4 ,when ,bentham1 still speaking of public opinion1 adds3-- ,the power in question has1 it is true1 various degrees of influence4 ,the strong are better able to put it at defiance than the weak4 ,countries which1 being the most populous1 are likely also to be the strongest1 carry a certain support of public opinion with all their acts whatever they may be4 ,but still it is the only power which can be moved to good purposes in this case2 and1 however high some may appear to be above it1 there are in reality none who are not more or less subject to its influence4 ,here ,bentham is again in imagination gathering men together like the flies of a summer1--the force of their opinion depending on their numbers4 ,but what1 again1 is the force of all this buzzing if it is the mere expression of pleasure1 or pain1 of satisfaction or dissatisfaction in the masses8 ,conquerors may not always be relentless1 they may at times exhibit some sympathy with their fellow men2 but as a rule they are so dominated by some one idea or passion1 or at best are so absorbed in the interests of their own people1 as to be deaf to such appeals4 ,prince ,bismarck's sentiments towards ,france during the late war are pretty well known2 but it is said that after the conflict was over1 and when ,france was in the throes of its terrible internecine conflict1 he was asked1 ,what is your ,excellency's opinion of the present state of ,france8 he replied1 ,das ist mit ganz wurst1 which is equivalent to ,i don't care two straws about it4#ab ,how are men of this stamp to be affected by any exclamations of pleasure or pain8 ,if on the contrary it is the voice of reprobation which they hear1 and if in their case the saying vox populi vox ,dei is felt to have its full application1 there is then a public opinion expressed which is calculated to strike the conscience and inspire terror1 and that is quite another matter4 #ab ,neue ,freie ,presse of ,vienna4 ,pall ,mall ,gazette1 ,may #d1 #ahga4 ,de ,tocqueville1 from his own point of view1 puts the argument in favour of natural justice very forcibly1 and in a certain construction would express the identical truth for which ,i contend4 ,i hold it to be an impious and an execrable maxim that1 politically speaking1 a people has a right to do whatever it pleases2 and yet ,i have asserted that all authority originates in the will of the majority4 ,am ,i1 then1 in contradiction with myself8 ,a general law which bears the name of ,justice has been made and sanctioned1 not only by a majority of this or that people1 but by a majority of mankind4 ,the rights of every people are consequently confined within the limits of what is just4 ,a nation may be considered in the light of a jury which is empowered to represent society at large1 and to apply the great general law of justice4 ,ought such a jury1 which represents society1 to have more power than the society in which the laws it applies originate4--,m4 de ,tocqueville's ,democracy in ,america1 ii4 #aea4 ,although ,m4 de ,tocqueville's view does not go to the full length of the argument1 still1 regarded in this light1 the voice of the majority of mankind1 or of any large masses of mankind1 has a very different significance from what it bears in the writings of ,bentham4 ,let us now consider the doctrines of ,bentham in their more recent exposition4 ,the ,pall ,mall ,gazette1 ,oct4 #f1 #ahgj1 says3-- ,laws have been described as definitions of pre-existing rights1 relations between man and man1 reflections of divine ordinances1 anything but what they really are1--forms of organised constraint4 ,it says little for the assumed clear-headedness of ,englishmen1 that they have very generally preferred the ornate jargon of ,hooker1 to the accurate and intelligible account of law and government which forms the basis of ,bentham's juridical system4 ,it says much1 however1 for their strong political sense and sagacity4 ,if this is the true and only description of law1 it is tantamount to saying that law is force and force is law2 in other words1 that the commands of a legitimate government need not be regarded when it is weak1 but that the enactments of power must always be obeyed1 however it is acquired1 and whether its decrees are in accordance with right or contrary to justice4 ,it is a ready justification for tyranny1 equally sanctioning the lettres de cachet of the ancient regime1 and the proscriptions of the ,convention1 equally at hand for the ,national ,assembly at ,versailles1 or for the ,commune at ,paris4 ,but however much it may be disguised1 it is the only alternative definition of law1 when once you say that law is not of divine ordinance and tradition4 ,if no regard is to be had to the definition of right1 but the term law is to be applied to any adequate act of repression1 there is in truth nothing but force4 ,yet why should force adequate to its purpose seek to cloak itself in the forms of law8 ,i suppose the question must have been put and answered before2 but the answer can only be because law is felt to import a totally different set of ideas from force4 ,it is necessary1 more especially now that the utilitarian theory is dominant1 to enter a protest according to the turn the argument may take1 but in the end nothing more can be said than was said by ,cicero in the century before our ,lord3-- ,est enim unum jus1 quo devincta est hominum societas1 et quod lex constituit una2 qu lex est recta ratio imperandi atque prohibendi3 quam qui ignorat is est injustus1 sive est illa scripta uspiam1 sive nusquam4 ,quod si justitia est obtemperatio scriptis legibus institutisque populorum1 et si1 ut iidem dicunt utilitate omnia metienda sunt1 negliget leges1 easque perrumpit1 si poterit1 is1 qui sibi eam rem fructuosam putabit fore4 ,ita fit1 ut nulla sit omnino justitia2 si neque natur est1 eaque propter utilitatem constituitur1 utilitate alia convellitur4--,de ,legibus1 i4 #ae4 ,it is only upon this construction that the ,law of ,nations can be said to exist1 as there is no superordinate authority to enforce it4 ,it is accordingly asserted that the law of nations is not really law4 ,but is not this only when it is regarded from the point of view of organised constraint8#ac ,if it is regarded as a divine ordinance1 or even as under the divine sanction1 then it is law in a much higher degree than simple internal or municipal law1 for it more immediately and directly depends upon this sanction2 and hence nations may more confidently appeal to heaven for the redress of wrong here below than individuals--seeing that1 as ,bossuet somewhere says1 ,god rewards and chastises nations in this world1 since it is not according to ,his divine dispensation to reward them corporately in the next4 #ac ,utiles esse autem opiniones has quis neget1 quum intelligat quam multa firmentur jure jurando1 quant salutis sint foederum religiones8 quam multos divini supplicii metus a scelere revocaverit8 quamque sancta sit societas civium inter ipsos diis immortalibus interpositis tum judicibus tum testibus8--,cicero1 ,de ,legibus1 ii4 #g4 ,more recently1 however1 the extraordinary successes and subversions which we have witnessed during this last year1 have brought the ,pall ,mall ,gazette face to face with problems pressing for immediate and anxious settlement2 and in a series of articles it has discussed the question of the law of nations with much depth and earnestness4 ,i there observe phrases which ,i can hardly distinguish from those ,i have just employed4 ,combating ,mr ,mill's view1 the writer says3-- ,nobody knows better than he that ,international ,law is not really law1 and why it is not law2 but he seems to have jumped to the conclusion that it is therefore the same thing as morality4444 ,there cannot1 in truth1 be any closer analogy than that which we drew the other day between the law of nations and the law of honour1 and between public war and private duelling4 ,this is upon an assumption that there is nothing essentially immoral in the code of honour1 as to a great extent it coincided with morality4 ,but it differed from simple morality in that its precepts were enforced1 not by general disapprobation1 but by a challenge to the offender by anybody who supposed himself to be aggrieved by the offence4 ,the possible result always was1 that the champion of the law might himself be shot1 and this was the weakness of the system4 ,but this is exactly the weakness of international law1 and the original idea at the basis both of public war and of private duelling was precisely the same1--that ,god ,almighty somehow interposed in favour of the combatant who had the juster cause4 ,there is clear historical evidence that the feuds which became duels were supposed to be fought out under divine supervision1 just as battles were believed to be decided by the ,god of battles4 ,i believe that if history could be re-written from this point of view that many startling revelations would be brought to light4 ,it is with reluctance that ,i turn from the points upon which ,i approach to agreement with the writer1 to those upon which we fundamentally differ4 ,and here ,i must remark1 that the accurate and intelligible account of law and government which forms the basis of ,bentham's juridical system#ad 7supra1 p4 #i71 is not distinguishable from1 and in any case ultimately depends upon1 his theory of utility as a foundation1 or1 as his later disciples say1 a standard of morals4 ,such a standard is the negation of all morality2 and if it ever came to stand alone every notion of morals would be obliterated1 because1 being open to every interpretation1 and incapable of supplying any definite rule itself1 it would abrogate every other1 and under a plausible form abandon mankind to its lusts and passions4 #ad ,from utility1 then1 we may denominate a principle that may serve to preside over and govern1 as it were1 such arrangements as shall be made of the several institutions1 or combinations of institutions1 that compose the matter of this science4 ,bentham's ,fragment on ,government1 xliii41 and at p4 #de1 the principle of utility is declared all-sufficient1 444 that principle which furnishes us with that reason1 which alone depends not upon any higher reason1 but which is itself the sole and all-sufficient reason for every point of practice whatsoever4 ,in the ,pall ,mall ,gazette1 ,april #ab1 #ahga1 an article entitled ,mr ,darwin on ,conscience1 discusses ,benthamism with reference to ,darwinism4 ,there is a fitness in this which does not immediately appear4 ,the writer says3-- ,what is called the question of the moral sense is really two3 how the moral faculty is acquired1 and how it is regulated4 ,why do we obey conscience or feel pain in disobeying it8 ,and why does conscience prescribe one kind of actions and condemn another kind8 ,to put it more technically1 there is the question of the subjective existence of conscience1 and there is the question of its objective prescriptions4 ,i will avail myself of this distinction1 and1 setting aside the questions referring to the subjective existence of conscience1 ,i will ask attention only to its objective prescriptions4 ,assuming1 then1 the operations of conscience in the individual man1 there will necessarily also have been in the course of history some outward expression of this inward feeling in maxims1 precepts1 and laws1 if not also reminiscences of primeval revelations and divine commands4 ,it will be true1 therefore1 to say1 without touching the deeper question of the foundation of morals1 that there has been a tradition of morals which cannot but have had its influence in all ages upon the social feelings in which1 according to the ,pall ,mall ,gazette1 it will always be necessary to lay the basis of conscience4 ,now is this tradition of morals identical with utilitarian precept8 ,if the tradition of morals is identical with the greatest happiness principle1 then that principle was no discovery of ,bentham's1#ae neither can ,benthamism be regarded as the new application of an old principle4 ,bentham in that case simply informed mankind that they had been talking prose all their lives without knowing it6 ,benthamism1 however1 in point of fact1 is felt as a new principle precisely in so far as it discards the old morality4 ,the question which ,i ask is1 how does it account for these old notions of morality obtaining among mankind8 ,how is it that mankind has so long and so persistently1 both in their notion of what was good and their sense of what was evil1 departed from the line of their true interests1 as disclosed in the utilitarian philosophy8 ,if the history of man is what the ,scriptures tell us it was1 the manner in which this has come about is sufficiently explained2 and there is no mystery as to the notion of sin1 the necessity of expiation1 the restraints and limitations of natural desires1 the excellence of contemplation1 and the obligation of sacrifices and prayers4 ,now1 if the history of mankind is not to be invoked in explanation1 it is difficult to see how these notions should not conflict with any theory and plan of life based on a principle of utility4#af ,it is not unnatural1 therefore1 that the utilitarians should turn to ,darwinism and other such kindred systems for the solution of their difficulties4 #ae ,bentham speaks of his enunciation of the greatest happiness principle in the following terms3--,throughout the whole horizon of morals and of politics1 the consequences were glorious and vast4 ,it might be said without danger of exaggeration1 that they who sat in darkness had seen a great light4 ,with reference to this ,lord ,macaulay says1 ,we blamed the utilitarians for claiming the credit of a discovery1 when they had merely stolen that morality 7the morality of the gospel7 and spoiled it in the stealing4 ,they have taken the precept of ,christ and left the motive1 and they demand the praise of a most wonderful and beneficial invention1 when all they have done has been to make a most useful maxim useless by separating it from its sanction4 ,on religious principles it is true that every individual will best promote his own happiness by promoting the happiness of others4 ,but if religious considerations be left out of the question it is not true4 ,if we do not reason on the supposition of a future state1 where is the motive8 ,if we do reason on that supposition1 where is the discovery8--,vide ,lord ,macaulay's ,essays on ,westminster ,reviewer's ,defence of ,mill1 and ,the ,utilitarian ,theory of ,government in ,lord ,macaulay's ,miscellaneous ,writings4 #af ,there was a way in which the argument was formerly stated by utilitarians which was much more plausible1 but which ,i observe is now seldom if ever resorted to by the modern exponents of this theory4 ,the ,pall ,mall ,gazette1 ,april #ab1 #ahga1 says3 ,the now prevailing doctrine that there is no absolute standard of right and wrong1 but that the right and wrong of an action or a motive depend upon the influence of the action1 or the motive upon the general good4 ,the argument to which ,i refer is thus stated by ,mr ,w4 ,o4 ,manning in his ,commentaries on the ,law of ,nations1 #ahci3--;,everything around us proves that ,god designed the happiness of ,his creatures4 ,it is the will of ,god that man should be happy4 ,to ascertain the will of ,god regarding any action1 we have1 therefore1 to consider the tendency of that action to promote or diminish human happiness1 p4 #ei4 ,it is perfectly true that man was created by ,god for happiness1 and that ultimate happiness1 if he does not forfeit it1 is the end to which he is still destined4 ,it is moreover true that even in this world he may enjoy a conditional and comparative happiness4 ,how it is that this happiness cannot be complete and perfect here below is precisely the secret which tradition reveals to him4 ,it is important1 from the point of view of happiness1 both for individuals and nations1 that the truth of this revelation should be ascertained1 and that the conditions and limitations within which happiness is possible should be known1 otherwise life will be consumed in chimerical pursuits of the unattainable1 and in the case of nations will be certain to end1 at some time or another1 in catastrophes such as we have recently witnessed in ,paris4 ,in an enlarged sense it is therefore true to say that the divine will has regard to utility2 but the view has this implied condition1 that what we regard as utility should in the first place be conformable to what is directly or indirectly known to be the divine precept and command2 and1 on the other hand1 if no advertence is made to revelation or the tradition of the human race1 what is called utility1 however large and disinterested the speculation may be1 it can never be more than the view of an individual or of a section of mankind1 which it is highly probable that other individuals and sections of mankind1 looking at the same facts1 from a different point of view1 will see reason to contradict4 ,the ,pall ,mall ,gazette1 ,april #ab1 #ahga1 says3-- ,between ,mr ,darwin and utilitarians1 as utilitarians1 there is no such quarrel as he would appear to suppose4 ,the narrowest utilitarian could say little more than ,mr ,darwin says 7ii4 #cic73--';,as all men desire their own happiness1 praise or blame is bestowed on actions and motives according as they tend to this end2 and as happiness is an essential part of the general good1 the greatest happiness principle indirectly serves as a nearly safe standard of right and wrong4' ,now1 there is nothing in this reiteration of ,benthamism which has not been thrice refuted by ,lord ,macaulay in the ,essays above referred to4 ,i append an extract more exactly to the point4#ag #ag ,if the magnificent principle is thus stated1 mankind ought to pursue their greatest happiness1 it must be borne in mind that there are persons whose interests are opposed to the greatest happiness of mankind4 ,lord ,macaulay's opponent replies1 ought is not predicable of such persons2 for the word ought has no meaning unless it be used in reference to some interest4 ,lord ,macaulay replied1 that interest was synonymous with greatest happiness2 and that1 therefore1 ,,if the word ought has no meaning unless used with reference to interest1 then1 to say that mankind ought to pursue their greatest happiness1 is simply to say that the greatest happiness is the greatest happiness2 that every individual pursues his own happiness2 that either what he thinks his happiness must coincide with the greatest happiness of society or not2 that if what he thinks his happiness coincides with the greatest happiness of society1 he will attempt to promote the greatest happiness of society whether he ever heard of the greatest happiness principle or not2 and that1 by the admission of the ,westminster ,reviewer1 ,,if his happiness is inconsistent with the greatest happiness of society1 there is no reason why he should promote the greatest happiness of society4 ,now1 that there are individuals who think that for their happiness which is not for the greatest happiness of society1 is evident4444 ,the question is not whether men have some motives for promoting the greatest happiness1 but whether the stronger motives be those which impel them to promote the greatest happiness4--,lord ,macaulay's ,miscellaneous ,writings1 ,utilitarian ,theory of ,government1 pp4 #agg-i4 ,i refer to it because it will be interesting to see how the argument looks in its application to ,darwinism4 ,it will be seen that if the conditions of unlimited enjoyment anywhere existed1 ,lord ,macaulay's strictures would lose something of their force4 ,if1 indeed1 there was superabundance and superfluity of everything for all in this life1 then anything which conduces to the satisfaction of the individual would add to1 or at least would not detract from1 the sum of happiness of all mankind4 ,but unless you can show this--if even the reverse of this is the truth--then the greatest happiness will be in proportion to the self-abnegation of those who possess more1 or have the greatest faculties or facilities of producing more4 ,now1 if there is one view more prominent than another in ,mr ,darwin's work1 it is embodied in the phrase to which he has given a new sense and significance1 the struggle for existence4 ,in the midst of this struggle for existence1 what is there in the greatest happiness principle to bind the individual to abnegation8 ,why should he postpone his certain and immediate gratification to the remote advantage of others1 or of distant and contingent advantage to himself8 ,if1 on the other hand1 he regards the transitoriness of the enjoyment1 and balances it against the fixity and eternity of the consequences1 the argument takes altogether different proportions1 and the temptation to enjoyment is inversely to the intensity of the struggle for existence4 ,i will take another test of ,benthamism by ,darwinism1 which will more exactly bring out the argument for which ,i contend4 ,we have a traditional horror of infanticide which revolts all our best feelings and shocks our principles4 ,but if ,mr ,darwin has demonstrated this struggle for existence existing from all time2 if also we are disembarrassed from all advertence to another world2 if1 further1 ,mr ,malthus1 before ,mr ,darwin1 has shown reason to believe that over-population is the cause of half the evils of this life1 what is there in ,benthamite principles which should prevent our sacrificing these unconscious innocents to the greatest happiness of the greatest number8 ,nothing1 except the horror we should excite among mankind still imbued with the old superstitions6 ,a person who did not hold to ,mr ,malthus' views might demur2 but a ,malthusian1 who was also a disciple of ,mr ,bentham1 could only hold back because his feelings were better than his principles4 ,a disciple of ,mr ,darwin's would probably stand aloof1 and would merely see in our notions an artificial interference with the working of his theory1 preventing the struggle for existence going on according to natural laws4 ,this seems to me to be almost said in the same article from the ,pall ,mall ,gazette1 from which ,i have quoted4 ,mr ,darwin1 in his ,origin of ,species 7p4 #bdi71 has pointed out that we ought to admire the savage instinct which leads the queen-bee to destroy her young daughters as soon as born1 because this is for the good of the community4 ,and in his new book he says1 firmly and unmistakably 7i4 #gc71 that if men were reared under precisely the same conditions as hive-bees1 there can hardly be a doubt that our unmarried females would1 like the worker-bees1 think it a sacred duty to kill their brothers1 and mothers would strive to kill their fertile daughters1 and no one would think of interfering4 ,the ,pall ,mall continues-- ,if1 from one point of view1 this is apt to shock a timorous and unreflecting mind1 by asserting that the most cherished of our affections might have been1 under certain circumstances1 a vicious piece of self-indulgence1 and its place in the scale of morality taken by what is now the most atrocious kind of crime2 nevertheless1 from another point of view1 such an assertion is as reassuring as the most absolute of moralists could desire1 for it is tantamount to saying that the foundations of morality1 the distinctions of right and wrong1 are deeply laid in the very conditions of social existence2 that there is1 in the face of these conditions1 a positive and definite difference between the moral and the immoral1 the virtuous and the vicious1 the right and the wrong1 in the actions of individuals partaking of that social existence4 ,this is very well4 ,it is so now1 because of the traditional sentiments and principles which still retain their force--but how long will it continue8 ,i invite attention to the following passage from ,mr ,hepworth ,dixon's ,new ,america 7vol4 i4 p4 #cab1 #fth edition71 which ,i must say struck me very forcibly when ,i read it4 ,he narrates a conversation which he had with ,brigham ,young on the subject of incest3--,speaking for himself1 not for the church1 he 7,brigham ,young7 said he saw none at all 7i4e4 no objection at all74 ,he added1 however1 that he would not do it himself1--'my prejudices prevent me4' ,upon which ,mr ,hepworth ,dixon observes-- ,this remnant of an old feeling brought from the ,gentile world1 and this alone1 would seem to prevent the saints 7,mormons7 from rushing into the higher forms of incest4 ,how long will these ,gentile sentiments remain in force8 ',you will find here1' said elder ,stenhouse to me1 talking on another subject1 'polygamists of the third generation4 ,when these boys and girls grow up and marry1 you will have in these valleys the true feeling of patriarchal life4 ,the old world is about us yet1 and we are always thinking of what people may say in the ,scottish hills and the ,midland shires4' ,here1 and in the previous extract1 we seem to catch glimpses of what the morality of the future is likely to be1 at any rate in such matters as infanticide and incest1 if old notions are to be discarded1 and men are left1 in each generation1 to no higher rule than their own individual calculation as to pleasure and pain1 or to the prevailing sense or determination of the community as to what the conditions of utility may permit4 ,the nineteenth century is now verging on its decline1 and of it1 too1 may we say that it has been better than its principles4 ,yet1 in spite of its philanthropy1 and its aspirations for good1 the destructive principles which it has nursed are rapidly gaining on its instincts3 and if we may not truly at this moment paint its glories1 as they have been depicted1 ,i think by ,alexandre ,dumas1 as the livery of heroism1 turned up with assassination and incest1 is the time very remote when the description will apply8 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,the ,,law ,,of ,,nature4 ,but underlying the question of the law of nations1 and determining it1 is the question whether or not there is a law of nature--a rule of right and wrong1 independent of1 and anterior to1 positive legislative or international enactment4 ,to prevent misconception1 however1 as to the scope of the inquiry1 it is as well that ,i should state that ,i am only regarding the law of nature as the law of conscience 7by which the ,gentiles were a law unto themselves1 ,rom4 ii4 #ad71 in so far as it has manifested itself in laws and maxims2 and the question ,i am here concerned with is1 whether in any sense which history can take cognizance of1 there was a rule of right and wrong previous to legislative enactment8 ,at the first glance1 the question would seem sufficiently disposed of by saying that men never were in a state of nature2 which is true in this sense1 that mankind never formed a multitude of isolated individuals1 or a promiscuous herd of men and women4 ,a totally different solution supposes a state of nature2 but which1 whether it depicts it as a golden age or an age of barbarism1 still contemplates mankind in this state as a mere congeries of individuals1 without law1 or else without the necessity of law--in either case an aggregate of isolated individuals1 eventually to be brought into the state of civil society by a social compact4 ,now my intention is not to combat this view--which at the present moment may be considered to be exploded--but to account for it4 ,i think that ,i shall do something towards clearing up this mystery by pointing out that this latter solution1 although in great vogue with the publicists of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries1 is traced beyond them to the classical times1 and was derived by them through the tradition of the ,roman law from ,paganism4 ,a theory of the lawyers1 and a theory of the philosophers1 concreted with a true but distorted fact in tradition in order to produce this belief1 viz41 that society was founded by a contract among men who were originally equal4#ah #ah ,it will be seen1 later on1 in what this view differs from ,sir ,henry ,maine's4 ,i shall in a subsequent chapter state to what extent ,i believe it to be true that society was founded upon a contract1 and also the way in which this impression was confirmed1 from the actual circumstances of the formation of the early communities of ,greece and ,italy2 and ,i shall then examine the true tradition1 such as ,i believe it to be1 of a state of nature associated with the reminiscence of a golden age1 as contrasted with the distinct yet parallel tradition of a state of nature identified with a state of barbarism 7vide ch4 vii4 and ch4 xiii47 ,this latter tradition ,i believe to have been a recollection of that period of temporary privation after the ,flood1 when mankind clung to the caverns and the mountains 7vide p4 #acg71 until1 incited by the example of ,noah1 they were brought into the plains1 and instructed in the arts of husbandry by the patriarch2 and the notion of the primitive equality#ai of condition ,i believe to have originated in the ,bacchanalian traditions of the same patriarch4#bj #ai ,in all the ,diluvian commemorative festivals1 to which ,i shall draw attention 7ch4 xi471 there is one day set apart for the commemoration of this primitive equality1 accompanied with ,bacchanalian festivities and ceremonials4 #bj ,sir ,h4 ,maine 7,ancient ,law1 p4 #ie7 says1 ,like all other deductions from the hypothesis of a law natural1 and like the belief itself in a law of nature1 it was languidly assented to1 until it passed out of the possession of the lawyers into that of the literary men of the eighteenth century1 and the public which sat at their feet4 ,with them it became the most distinct tenet of their creed1 and was even regarded as the summary of all the others4 ,if we start with a belief in the primitive equality of conditions1 the only way out of the mesh is apparently by a theory of a compact4 ,from the ,roman law downwards1 says ,sir ,g4 ,c4 ,lewis1 there has been a strong tendency among jurists to deduce recognised rights and obligations from a supposed1 but non-existing contract4 ,when an express contract exists1 the legal rights and duties which it creates are in general distinct and well-defined4 ,hence1 in cases where it is wished that similar legal consequences should be drawn1 which come within the spirit of the rules applicable to a contract1 though they do not themselves involve any contract1 the lawyer cuts the knot by saying that a contract is presumed1 that there is a contract by intendment of law1 that there are certain rights and obligations quasi ex contractu4 ,thus the ,roman law held that a guardian was bound to his ward by a quasi contract4--,sir ,g4 ,c4 ,lewis1 ,on the ,methods of ,observation1 c41 in ,politics1 i4 #dbc2 ,on the ,social ,compact1 pp4 #dbd-dca4 ,it is not difficult to see how such a fiction of the law would tend to give shape and system to the vague tradition as to the fact among the populace4 ,the way in which the philosopher came to his conclusion was somewhat more complex4 ,it will have been seen that the notion of the state of nature and the social compact was1 among the ancients1 in the main1 a figment of the imagination1 and not a tradition4 ,but there was also a tradition of a law of nature which did not at all correspond to a state of license1 of equality1 and of barbarism1 such as the state of nature was conceived to be4 ,it was1 on the contrary1 a law of decorum and restraint4 ,what1 then1 the ,roman probably meant by the law of nature was a reminiscence of a primitive revelation1 or a tradition of the maxims of right and wrong by which men were guided in their relations to one another1 when fresh from the hand of ,god--a diis recentes--when family life still subsisted1 and before men had settled down into states and communities4 ,it was not a law of nature as nature then was1 but an aspiration after a lost rule of life1 as after a higher standard1 and an attempt to trace it back1 through the corruption of mankind4 ,dim and uncertain as these notions were1 they were not without their influence4 ,but their ideas as to the cosmogony were more shadowy still4 ,when1 then1 in reasoning from a law of nature to a state of nature1 mankind discovered that they knew or remembered nothing of their origin1 or of the history of the human race1 except indirectly through legendary lore1 they then had recourse to the philosophers4 ,these latter then did what philosophers incline to do in such cases of difficulty4 ,they regarded the existing state of things1 and finding it to be artificial1 they1 by a process of abstraction1 resolved it into its elements1 and1 having thus reduced society into an assemblage of individuals1 substituted their last analysis for the commencement of all things4 ,in this analysis they found men1 what historically and in fact they had never been1 alike free1 equal1 and independent4 ,the theory of the social compact among men individually free and equal was in the main a fiction1 started posteriori to account for relations otherwise obscure1 or1 as ,sir ,henry ,maine explains1 to facilitate modifications which were felt to be desirable2 and we cannot be astonished that ,paganism should take this view1 unless we are prepared to believe that the traditions truly embodying the history of the world were more direct1 vivid1 and potential than ,i suppose them to have been4 ,it is at least remarkable1 that in proportion as men lose their faith1 they fall back1 as if by some necessary law1 upon some theory which directly or indirectly contemplates mankind as a collection of atoms2 and if ever society should lose again the history of its origin1 as would happen if ever infidelity were to gain complete ascendancy1 it would return by the same processes to the same conclusion4 ,but however sceptical individual minds may become1 or however general may be the disposition to reject or ignore the scriptural narrative1 the general framework of its statements is now too firmly embedded in the belief of mankind to be easily overthrown4 ,the notion of a social compact1 in more recent times1 obtained a certain credence#ba so long as the discussion was confined to ,hobbes1 ,locke1 and their disciples4 ,and it must be borne in mind that this is a very taking theory1 a ready and convenient starting point1 and conformable to much that is true in history and politics4 ,but it is long since exploded2 and even the fervid advocacy of ,rousseau1 in an age peculiarly predisposed for its reception1 could not secure for it even temporary recognition among mankind2 and why8 ,because1 whenever the discussion cools1 men will inevitably ask each other the question1 ,if such a compact took place1 where shall we locate it consistently with the evidence recorded in ,genesis8 ,remove the evidence in ,genesis1 and such a theory becomes at once a tenable and plausible conjecture4 #ba ,the earlier advocates of the doctrine of the social compact maintained it on the ground of its actual existence4 ,they asserted that this account of the origin of political societies was historically true4 ,thus ,locke1 c4--,sir ,g4 ,c4 ,lewis1 ,meth4 of ,reasoning in ,pol4 i4 p4 #dbi4 ,as ,i shall have occasion1 later on1 to come into collision with ,sir ,henry ,maine upon some points1 ,i have the greater satisfaction here in invoking his testimony4 ,this acute and learned writer 7,ancient ,law1 p4 #ij7 regrets that the ,voltairean prejudices of the last century prevented reference to the only primitive records worth studying--the early history of the ,jews#bb4444 ,one of the few characteristics which the school of ,rousseau had in common with the school of ,voltaire was an utter disdain of all religious antiquities1 and more than all of those of the ,hebrew race4 ,it is well known that it was a point of honour with the reasoners of that day to assume1 not merely that the institutions called after ,moses were not divinely dictated1 444 but that they and the entire ,pentateuch were a gratuitous forgery executed after the return from the ,captivity4 ,debarred1 therefore1 from one chief security against speculative delusion1 the philosophers of ,france1 in their eagerness to escape from what they deemed a superstition of the priests1 flung themselves headlong into a superstition of the lawyers4 #bb ,the only reliable materials which we possess1 besides the ,pentateuch1 for the history of the period which it embraces1 consist of some fragments of ,berosus and ,manetho1 an epitome of the early ,egyptian history of the latter1 a certain number of ,egyptian and ,babylonian inscriptions1 and two or three valuable papyri4--,rawlinson1 ,bampton ,lectures4 ,oxford1 #ahei1 ii4 #ee4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,primitive ,,life4 ,the scriptural narrative seems to establish3--7#a47 ,that human society did not commence with the fortuitous concurrence of individuals1 but that1 though originating with a single pair1 for the purposes of practical inquiry it commences with a group of families--the family of ,noah and his sons1 together with their families1 and whose dispersion in other families is subsequently recorded4 7#b47 ,that men were not primitively in a state of savagery1 barbarism1 and ignorance of civil life2 but that1 on the contrary1 it is presumable that ,noah and his family brought with them out of the ark the traditions and experiences of two thousand years1 and1 not to speak of special revelations1 the arts of civil life and acquaintance with cities4 7#c47 ,that1 although everything in the early state of mankind would have led to dispersion1 and although there is mention of one great and complete dispersion1 yet this dispersion of mankind was a dispersion of families and not of individuals4 ,in all our speculations1 therefore1 as to society and government1 it is the family and not the individual whom we must regard as the elementary constituent4 ,moreover1 so long as family government sufficed1 there was nothing but the family4 ,the state would have existed only in germ 7vide infra1 p4 #cda71 and would have remained thus inchoate even during that subsequent period when families were affiliated in tribal connection1 though not yet coalesced into tribal union4 ,it is my impression1 that the period during which family government sufficed1 continued much longer than is generally supposed2 for1 until the world became peopled and crowded1 everything led to dispersion and the continuance of the pastoral state of life4 ,from the necessities of pastoral life1 mankind in early times could not have been gregarious--herds would have become intermixed1 keep would have become short1 the broad plains were spread out before them2#bc e4g4 ,gen4 chap4 xiii4-- ,but ,lot also1 who was with ,abraham1 had flocks of sheep1 and herds and tents4 #f4 ,neither was the land able to bear them1 that they might dwell together4 #g4 ,whereupon there arose a strife between the herdsmen of ,abraham and ,lot2 and at that time the ,canaanite and the ,perizzite dwelt in that country4 #h4 ,abraham therefore said1 ,let there be no quarrel4 #i4 ,behold the whole land is before thee4#bd #bc ,i indicated this view in a pamphlet1 ,inviolability of ,property by the ,state1 by an ,english ,landlord4 #ahff4 #bd ,again ,esau and ,jacob separated1 after the death of the patriarch ,isaac1 because their stock in herds and flocks had so increased that1 according to the scriptural phrase1 it was more than they might dwell together1 and further1 the land would not bear them because of their cattle4--,gen4 chap1 xxxvi42 ,vide ,pinkerton1 ,voy4 i4 #ebh4 ,writing with reference to the ,hamitic dynasty1 founded at ,babylon by ,nimrod 7vide ,rawlinson1 ,anc4 ,mon471 and the conquests of ,kudur-,lagamer1 identified by ,rawlinson as ,chedor-,laomer1 ,mr ,brace adds 7,ethnology1 p4 #bh73--,this at a period1 as ,professor ,rawlinson remarks1 when the kings of ,egypt had never ventured beyond their borders1 and when no monarch in ,asia held dominion over more than a few petty tribes and a few hundred miles of territory4--,vide ch4 xiii4 ,a ,golden ,age4 ,it is scarcely to be believed1 that in such a state of society there would have been feuds1 in the sense of inherited or hereditary quarrels1 but at most contentions for particular localities2 in which case the weaker or the discomfited party would have pushed on to other ground4 ,there was no long contest1 because there was nothing worth contesting4 ,it has been noticed that only the highly civilised man1 and the savage who has tasted blood1 love fighting for the mere sake and ardour of the conflict4 ,the simple barbarian does not fight until he is attacked1 neither do the wild animals of the desert2 their ferocity is limited and regulated by the necessity and the provocation4 ,it is the exception1 rather than the rule1 for animals to fight among themselves4 ,it is not in the nature of man or beast to fight without a reason4 ,accordingly1 there is no such fomenter of war as war4 ,carver notices that the wars carried on between the ,indian nations are principally on motives of revenge1 and1 when not on motives of revenge1 their reasons for going to war are in general more rational and just than such as are fought by ,europeans1 c4--,carver's ,travels in ,north ,america1 pp4 #cea1 #big4be #be ,such seems1 at a comparatively recent period 7#agfb71 to have been the state of things at a widely different point among the ,samoides3--,the real spot where the habitations of the ,samoides begin1--if any case be pointed out among a people which is continually changing residence1--is in the district of ,mozine1 beyond the river of that name1 three or four hundred wersts from ,archangel4 ,the colony1 which is actually met with there1 and which lives dispersed according to the usage of those people1 each family by itself1 without forming villages and communities1 does not consist of more than three hundred families1 or thereabouts1 which are all descended from two different tribes1 the one called ,laghe and the other ,wanonte--distinctions carefully regarded by them4--,vide ,pinkerton1 ,voy4 i4 #ebd4 ,it is also said 7p4 #ehb7 of certain moral observances amongst them 7vide infra1 p4 #aee73--;,all these customs1 religiously observed among them1 are no other than the fruits of tradition1 handed down to them from their ancestors2 and this tradition1 with some reason1 may be looked upon as law4 ,it is a common idea amongst us that the word home is a peculiarly ,english word1 and1 ,i confess1 it was my own impression1 but ,i am set musing by finding among these same ,samoides the word chome as their word for their tents1 to which they cling so closely4--,vide ,pinkerton1 i4 #fc4 ,i visited four other villages or goungs1 and there may be as many more in ,assam1 each containing about three or four hundred people4 ,every community is under the patriarchal government of a chief1 from whom the village takes its name4444 ,the chiefs of villages would combine against a common enemy1 but are as independent of each other as the old ,highland heads of clans4444 ,i was curiously reminded of the clan distinctions1 by observing that the home-grown cotton cloths differed in pattern in the different villages4 ,in all cases chequered patterns were worn1 presenting as various combinations of colours and stripes as our own tartans1 and each village possessed a pattern peculiar to itself1 generally1 though not universally1 affected by the inhabitants4--,travels in ,northern ,assam1 ,field1 i41 #ahgj2 vide also ,hunter's ,rural ,bengal1 #ahfh1 p4 #bag4 ,the same tendencies1 under similar circumstances1 where the tribes were not crowded or in fear of warlike neighbours1 was noticed among the ,red ,indians some forty years ago4 ,now1 ,i suppose1 instances would be rare4 ,when a nation of ,indians becomes too numerous conveniently to procure subsistence from its own hunting-grounds1 it is no uncommon occurrence for it to send out a colony1 or1 in other words1 to separate into tribes4444 ,the tribe so separated maintains all its relations independent of the parent nation1 though the most friendly intercourse is commonly maintained1 and they are almost uniformly allies4 ,separations sometimes take place from party dissensions1 growing generally out of the jealousies of the principal chiefs1 and1 not unfrequently1 out of petty quarrels4 ,in such instances1 in order to prevent the unnecessary and wanton effusion of blood1 and consequent enfeebling of the nation1 the weaker party moves off usually without the observance of much ceremony4#bf #bf ,hunter's ,memoir of his ,captivity 7from childhood to the age of nineteen7 among the ,indians1 p4 #ahj1 #aha4 ,he also adds 7p4 #cjg73--,the ,indians do not pretend to any correct knowledge of the tumuli or mounds that are occasionally met with in their country4444 ,one tradition of the ,quapaws states that a nation differing very much from themselves inhabited the country many hundred snows ago1 when game was so plenty that it required only slight efforts to procure subsistence1 and when there existed no hostile neighbours to render the pursuit of war necessary4 ,and ,stephen's ,central ,america 7i4 #adb7 notices the absence of all weapons of war from the representations in sculpture at ,copan1 and says3--,in other countries1 battle scenes1 warriors1 and weapons of war1 are among the most prominent subjects of sculpture2 and from the entire absence of them here1 there is reason to believe that the people were not warlike1 but peaceable1 and easily subdued4 ,mr ,grote in his ,plato#bg says-- ,there existed1 even in his 7,plato's7 time1 a great variety of distinct communities--some in the simplest1 most patriarchal1 cyclopian condition1 nothing more than families2 some highly advanced in civilisation1 with its accompanying good and evil1 some in each intermediate stage between these two extremes4 ,each little family or sept exists at first separately1 with a patriarch whom all implicitly obey1 and peculiar customs of its own4 ,several of these septs gradually coalesce together into a community1 choosing one or a few lawgivers to adjust and modify their respective customs into harmonious order4#bh #bg ,,iii41 ch4 xxxvii4 ,leges1 #ccg4 #bh ,i find incidental corroboration of this view in ,the ,archology of ,prehistoric ,annals of ,scotland1 by ,dr ,wilson--,the infancy of all written history is necessarily involved in fable4 ,long ere scattered families had conjoined their patriarchal unions into tribes1 and clans acknowledging some common chief1 and submitting their differences to the rude legislation of the arch-priest or civil head of the commonwealth1 treacherous tradition has converted the story of their birth into the wildest admixture of myth and legendary fable4--,introd41 p4 #ab4 ,even in the plain of ,sennaar 7,shinar7 we see something of this fusion of tribes--,besides these two main constituents of the ,chaldan race there is reason to believe that both a ,semitic and ,aryan element existed4444 ,the subjects of the early kings are continually designated in the inscriptions by the title of ',kiprat-arbat1' which is interpreted to mean 'the four nations' or 'tongues' 7,rawlinson's ,ancient ,monarchies1 i4 p4 #fi74 ,professor ,rawlinson is also of opinion1 that the league of the four kings in ,abraham's time seems correspondent to a four-fold ethnic division4 ,does not the above also correspond to the four-fold ethnic division of the ,vedas8--,vide infra1 p4 #ci4 ,compare also the four-fold division of the world or of ,peru1 according to various ,indian traditions1 between ,manco ,capac and his brothers4--,vide ,hakluyt ,society's edition of ,garcilasso de la ,vega1 i4 #ga-ge4 ,if these are not traditions of fusions of races1 they can only be diluvian traditions of the four couples who came out of the ark1 which was the conjecture of the ,spaniards in the case of ,manco ,capac4 ,in the situations1 however1 where the more powerful families had seized the vantage-ground1 or established themselves in the richest and most coveted valleys1 the tendency to consolidation and permanent settlement would have more rapidly manifested itself4 ,as the tendency to family dispersion became restrained1 and its scope restricted1 disputes as to meum and tuum would have become more frequent as between families1 some more central authority than the family headship would have been demanded for the protection1 discrimination1 and regulation of property4 ,in these instances the state may be said to have arisen out of the expansion of the family into the tribes--the families1 probably1 never having ceased to dwell together in semi-aggregation2 and1 when greater concentration was required1 they simply had to fall back upon the patriarchal chieftain4 ,we seem to see a tradition of this in the ,anax ,andron4 ,but equally as regards the rest there must inevitably have come a time when1 as the world became crowded1 the same necessity of defending their possessions1 would have caused families1 among whom there was no affinity of race1 to coalesce1 intermix1 succumb1 and form communities and states4 ,these two modes of settlement into communities and states were1 however1 essentially dissimilar1 and the basis thus laid would have remained permanently different4 ,the one was the basis of custom1 the other of contract2 the one the settlement of the ,east1 the other of the ,west2 and it will be seen1 ,i think1 that whilst the one was more favourable to the conservation of traditions of religion and history1 the other would have better preserved the tradition of right4 ,these are points to which ,i shall return in a subsequent chapter1 when ,i shall avail myself of the investigations of ,sir ,henry ,maine4 ,this simple outline1 however1 of human history1 conformable1 as ,i believe it to be1 with the scriptural narrative1 conflicts with at least three theories now much in vogue4 ,the first1 which is substantially that of ,sir ,john ,lubbock1 ,mr ,mill1#bi and ,mr ,b4 ,gould1 is thus conveniently summarised by ,mr ,hepworth ,dixon4#cj ,every one who has read the annals of our race--a page of nature with its counterfoil in the history of everything having life--is aware that1 in our progress from the savage to the civilised state1 man has had to pass through three grand stages1 corresponding1 as it were1 to his childhood1 to his youth1 and to his manhood4 ,in the first stage of his career he is a hunter1 living mainly by the chase2 in the second1 he is a herdsman2 444 in the third stage1 he is a husbandman4444 ,then these conditions of human life may be considered as finding their purest types in such races as the ,iroquois1 the ,arabian1 the ,gothic1 in their present stage2 but each condition is1 in itself and for itself1 an affair of development and not of race4 ,the ,arab1 who is now a shepherd1 was once a hunter4 ,the ,saxon1 who is now a cultivator of the soil1 was first a hunter1 then a herdsman1 before he became a husbandman4 ,man's progress from stage to stage is continuous in its course1 obeying the laws of physical and moral change4 ,it is slow1 it is uniform1 it is silent1 it is unseen4 ,in one word1 it is growth4444 ,these three stages in our progress upward are strongly marked2 the interval dividing an ,iroquois from an ,arab being as wide as that which separates an ,arab from a ,saxon4 #bi ,this view will be found in the first chapter of ,mr ,j4 ,s4 ,mill's ,principles of ,political ,economy1 ch4 i4 p4 #f4 ,there is perhaps no people or community now existing which subsist entirely on the spontaneous produce of vegetation4 ,whether mankind ever lived entirely on1 c41 may be questioned1 but it is implied in ,gen4 ix4 #c that man did not subsist on animal food until after the ,deluge1 a fact which lies at the foundation of ,porphyry's work1 ,de ,abstinentia4 ,but many tribes still live exclusively1 or almost exclusively1 on wild animals1 the produce of hunting or fishing4444 ,the first great advance beyond this state consists in the domestication of the more useful animals3 giving rise to the the pastoral or nomad state4444 ,from this state of society to the agricultural1 the transition is not indeed easy 7for no great change in the habits of mankind is otherwise than difficult1 and in general either painful or very slow71 but it lies in what may be called the spontaneous course of events4 #cj ,mr ,hepworth ,dixon's ,new ,america1 vol4 i4 p4 #aac4 ,now1 in the first place1 ,i must remark that the ,iroquois and the ,arab have never progressed2#ca neither does the ,arab at the present show any signs of a transition to the third stage of necessary growth1 nor does ,mr ,hepworth ,dixon1 although he gives some sound practical advice as to the best mode in which the red man is to be restrained1 venture to suggest any mode by which he is to be reclaimed from the first to the third stage1 either with or without a transition through the second stage of development4 ,the conclusion therefore1 one would think1 would be inevitable that it is an affair of race and not of development4 ,the ,arab and the ,iroquois1 after the lapse of so many centuries1 are still found with the evidences of primitive life strong upon them2 and so1 ,i imagine1 we shall find it wherever we come upon a pure race of homogeneous origin4 ,on the contrary1 we shall find that mixed races1 by the very law and reason of their admixture1 have shown the greatest adaptibility1 and1 whenever circumstances were favourable1 very rapid growth4 ,again1 ,i very much question whether the three stages1 or rather three phases of life were ever1 as a rule1 progressive2 and whether1 in the cases in which they might chance to have been successive1 anything occurred in the transition at all resembling an uniform law of growth4 ,it is very much more probable that the three were from the earliest period contemporaneous#cb--;and ,abel was a shepherd1 and ,cain an husbandman 7,gen4 iv47--the determination of the sons to the avocations of shepherd1 husbandman1 and hunter respectively 7the latter most probably being the last selected71 being influenced by taste1 character1 and the division of the inheritance1 the authority of the father1 the geographical conditions of the route1 and chance circumstances4 #ca ,vide ,sir ,s4 ,baker2 vide note1 ch4 xiii41 ,noah4 #cb ,the following passage1 inter alia1 from ,herodotus seems to sustain this--,to the eastward of those ,scythians1 who apply themselves to the culture of the land1 and on the other side of the river ,panticapes1 the country is inhabited by ,scythians who neither plough nor sow1 but are employed in keeping cattle4--,herod41 iv41 ,mel4 ,and this is the more confirmed when we consider that when once the hunter started on his career1 he would have determined their avocation also for his posterity4 ,at his death he would not have had herds of cattle to apportion to any one of his sons1 and thus the taste for wild life1 necessarily perpetuated1 would be bred in the bone1 as an indomitable characteristic of race1 and the first hunter by choice would inevitably come to be the progenitor of generations of hunters by instinct and necessity4 ,the second theory depicts the opening scene of human existence as a state of conflict1 which1 it must be allowed1 is perfectly consistent with the theory that it was one of savagery4 ,the theory ,i am now combating was originally the theory of ,hobbes2 and ,i might have regarded it as now obsolete1 were it not that it has cropped up quite recently in a most respectable quarter4 ,mr ,hunter1 in his charming work1 ,the ,annals of ,rural ,bengal1 has a passage which1 as ,i think1 has been taken for more than it intends1 though not for more than it expresses4 ,mr ,hunter says1 p4 #hi-- ,the inquiry leads us back to that far-off time which we love to associate with patriarchal stillness4 ,yet the echoes of ancient life in ,india little resemble a ,sicilian idyl or the strains of ,pan's pipe1 but strike the ear rather as the cries of oppressed and wandering nations1 of people in constant motion and pain4 ,early ,indian researches1 however1 while they make havoc of the pastoral landscapes of ,genesis and ,job1 have a consolation peculiarly suited to this age4 ,they plainly tell us1 that as in ,europe so in ,asia1 the primitive state of mankind was a state of unrest2 and that civilisation1 despite its exactions and nervous city life1 is a state of repose4 ,it is plain that there is here question of restlessness rather than of violence2 but grant that there was violence too1 the account of ,mr4 ,hunter when examined1 so far from conflicting with1 appears to me to fall exactly into1 the lines ,i have indicated4 ,is not the scene1 from before which ,mr4 ,hunter lifts the curtain1 the scene of that age following the dispersion 7of which1 p4 #deb1 there is such distinct tradition in his pages71 which is traditionally known to us as the iron age8 ,the error1 then1 of ,mr4 ,hunter is to confound the patriarchal with the iron age4 ,it need not therefore cause surprise that in early ,indian history we should hear of conflict1 for it is just at the period and under the circumstances when we should consider the collision probable4 ,mr4 ,hunter1 indeed1 speaks of the aboriginal races as mysterious in their origin4 ,but from the point of view of ,genesis1 there seems to be no greater mystery about them than about their conquerors the ,aryans4 ,one representative1 at least1 of the aboriginal race1 the ,santals1 retain to this day the most vivid traditions of the ,flood and the ,dispersion#cc 7pp4 #aea1 #deb74 ,now1 if there had existed any race anterior to the ,santals1 ,i think we should have heard of them4 ,on this point we may consider ,mr4 ,hunter's negative testimony as conclusive1 both on account of his extensive knowledge of the subject1 and his evident predisposition 7p4 #aji7 to have discovered a prior race1 if it had existed2 and there is nothing to show that the same line of argument would not have applied to it if its existence had been demonstrated4 ,it must be mentioned that besides their tradition of the dispersion1 the ,santals retain dim recollections--borne out by comparative evidence--of having travelled to their present homes from the north-east1 whereas the ,aryans came unmistakeably from the north-west4 #cc ,these legends1 shown to be aboriginal1 are very curious4 ,they are1 however1 too long to be extracted here4 ,they would repay perusal4 ,here1 then1 just as might have been predicted priori1 these rival currents of the dispersion met from opposite points1 and ran into a cul de sac1 from which1 as there was no egress1 there necessarily ensued a struggle for mastery4 ,let us now regard the two people more closely4 ,our earliest glimpses of the human family in ,india1 disclose two tribes of widely different origin1 struggling for the mastery4 ,in the primitive time1 which lies on the horizon even of inductive history1 a tall1 fair-complexioned race passed the ,himalaya4 ,they came of a conquering stock4 ,they had known the safety and the plenty which can only be enjoyed in regular communities4#cd ,they brought with them a store of legends and devotional strains2 and chief of all they were at the time of their migration southward through ,bengal1 if not at their first arrival in ,india1 imbued with that high sense of nationality1 which burns in the heart of a people who believe themselves the depositary of a divine revelation4 ,there is no record of the newcomers' first struggle for life with the people of the land4--,hunter's ,annals1 p4 #ij4 ,here we see the more intellectual1 the more spiritual 7p4 #aaf71 monotheistic 7p4 #aae7 ,aryan race overpowering the black race which had earliest pre-occupied the ground1 and which was already tainted with demon worship4 ,this contrast invites further inquiry2 but first let me clear up and direct the immediate drift of my argument4 #cd ,mr ,max ,mller also says 7,chips1 ii4 p4 #da7--;,it should be observed that most of the terms connected with the chase and warfare differ in each of the ,aryan dialects1 while words connected with more peaceful occupations belong1 generally1 to the common heirloom of the ,aryan language1 which proves that all the ,aryan nations had led a long life of peace before they separated1 and that their language acquired individuality and nationality1 as each colony started in search of new homes1--new generations forming new terms connected with the warlike and adventurous life of their onward migrations4 ,hence it is that not only ,greek and ,latin1 but all ,aryan languages have their peaceful words in common4 ,also vide p4 #bh1 #bi4 ,if we estimate--taking the minimum or the maximum either according to the ,hebrew or ,septuagint version--the time it would have taken these populations1 according to the slow progress of the dispersion1 to have arrived at their destinations from the plain of ,sennaar 7,mesopotamia71 the period may be equally conjectured to correspond with that which tradition marks as the commencement of the iron age1 when the world was becoming overcrowded1 and the increasing populations came into collision4 ,neither is it a difficulty1#ce it rather appears to me in accordance with tradition1 that if this surmise be correct1 the earliest arrival in the ,indian ,peninsula should have been of those who took the longest route4 ,for it is natural to suppose that the proscribed and weakest races1 e4g4 the ,canaanitish1 would have been the first to depart1 and to depart by the north-east and west1 the more powerful families having passed down and closed the south-east exit by way of the lower valleys of the ,euphrates4 ,these latter would have spread themselves out in the direction of ,india leisurely and at a subsequent period4 #ce ,i find this conjecture confirmed in the pages of the most recent authority on the subject1 ,mr ,brace1 ,ethnology1 p4 #ac1 #ad--,on the continent of ,asia the ,turanians were probably the first who figured as nations in the ante-historical period4 ,their emigrations began long before the wanderings of the ,aryans and ,semites1 who1 wherever they went1 always discovered a previous population1 apparently of ,turanian origin1 which they either expelled or subdued4 ,according to ,max ,mller's hypothesis there were two migrations1 one northern and one southern corresponding to the migration as above1 the latter settling on the rivers ,meikong1 ,meinam1 ,irrawaddy1 and ,bramapootra1 444 a third to the south probably an advance of the previous one1 is believed to tend toward ,thibet and ,india1 and in later times pours its hordes through the ,himalaya1 and forms the original population of ,india4 ,analogy may be discovered in the two streams or lines of ,celtic migration1 which1 says ,bunsen 7,philosophy of ,univ4 ,hist4 i4 #adh7 we may distinguish by the names of the ,western and ,eastern stream1 the former1 although the less direct1 seems to be historically the more ancient1 and to have reached this country 7,britain7 several centuries before the other4 ,following these lines of migration1 the ,aryan at some period came upon the black ,turanian race 7vide infra1 ,chap4 v472 and ,mr ,hunter 7p4 #aaj7 records the embittered feelings with which the recollection of the strife remained in tradition4 ,why should this have been8 ,it might suffice to say1 in consistency with what has already been advanced1 that this was their first encounter1 the first check in their advance4 ,another solution seems to me equally ready to hand1 and to solve so much more4 ,but first1 how does ,mr ,hunter account for this bitter feeling8 ,he suggests contempt for their uncouth talk1 their gross habits of eating1 and1 what comes near to the truth1 as ,i apprehend it1 their blackness and their paganism4 ,suppose1 then1 we go a step further1 and say that the highly intellectual ,japhetic race met thus suddenly and unexpectedly the outcast ,canaanitish race1 with the curse upon them1 recognisable in their colour and deficiencies1 and of whom they would have remembered that it had been said1 that they should be the servants of their brethren--will not this explain something of their animosity8 ,i must here remark that although scientific inquiry takes designations of its own1 in order the more conveniently to express its distinctions1 yet whether we accept the ethnological or philological demarcations of mankind1 it is curious how inevitably1 as ,i think ,de ,maistre remarked1 we are led back to ,shem1 ,ham1 and ,japhet4 ,and this is as true now after a half century of scientific progress1 as it was when ,de ,maistre wrote4 ,without asserting that the divisions may ever be distinctly traced with the minuteness of ,bochart in his ,geog4 ,sacra1 ,i still say1 that the broad lines of the traditional apportionment of the world1 and the three-fold or four-fold division of the race indicated in ,scripture1 is seen behind the ultimate divisions into which science is brought to separate mankind1 whether into ,caucasian1 ,ethiopian1 ,mongol1 with two intermediate varieties1 as by ,blumenbach2 or into ,australioid1 ,negroid1 ,mongoloid1 and ,xanthochroic1 as by ,huxley2 or into ,brace's division into ,aryan1 ,semitic1 ,turanian1 and ,hamitic4 ,behind these various systems1 as behind a grill1 we seem to see the forms and faces of the progenitors of the human race discernible1 but their existence not capable of contact and actual demonstration1 because of the intercepting bars and lattice work4#cf #cf ,i am throughout assuming acquaintance1 on the part of my readers1 with the third and fourth of ,cardinal ,wiseman's ,lectures on ,science and ,revealed ,religion2 for although my argument is distinct from that of the ,cardinal1 yet ,i everywhere regard his argument as the background and support of my position2 and it is1 moreover1 part of the aim and intention of this work to show that the general ground and framework 7this is1 in fact1 understating the truth7 of ,cardinal ,wiseman's argument remains intact4 ,there is1 ,i think1 somewhere in the ,cardinal's works1 a passage to the above effect1 but ,i have not been able to recover it4 ,i have spoken above of a three-fold and four-fold division as equally indicated in ,scripture1 and ,i think1 from non-observance of this1 the close approximation of these systems to ,genesis is not sufficiently recognised4 ,i refer to the three progenital races1 and the ,canaanite marked off and distinguished from the rest by a curse4 ,i shall enlarge upon this point in another chapter 7,chap4 v74 ,i will only observe now that ,i do not venture to say that the ,canaanite is co-extensive with the ,turanian1 which is more a philological than an ethnological division of mankind1 or that their characteristics in all respects correspond4#cg ,i limit my argument now to indicating the correspondence between the ,canaanite and the aboriginal tribes in ,india4 #cg ,if space allowed1 ,i think the traditional lines might be indicated as plainly from the philological as from the ethnological point of view4 ,this correspondence ,i find not only in the features already noted--their blackness and their intellectual inferiority--but in their enslavement to the superior races of mankind whenever they came into contact and collision with them4 ,is not this everywhere also the mark of the ,turanian race8 are not these conflicts in primitive life always with the ,turanian race8 and are they not in ,asia1 as in ,africa1 in a state of subjugation or dependence8 ,at any rate1 this is the condition in which we find the ,turanian in ,india1 so fully expressed in their name of ,sudras4#ch #ch ,according to the sacred law-book1 entitled the ,ordinances of ,menu1 the ,creator1 that the human race might be multiplied1 caused the ,brahmin1 ,cshatriya1 the ,vaisya1 and the ,sudra 7so named from ,scripture1 protection1 wealth1 and labour71 to proceed from his mouth1 arm1 thigh1 and foot4--,brit4 ,ency4 ,the ,fatimala1 a ,sanskrit work on ,hindu castes1 says1 the other1 i4e41 the ,sudra1 should voluntarily serve the three other tribes1 and therefore he became a ,sudra2 he should humble himself at their feet4 ,against this literal fulfilment of ,gen4 ix4 #be--;,cursed be ,canaan1 a servant of servants shall he be to his brethren--as regards the ,indian ,sudra1 the text in ,gen4 x4 #ai--;,and the limits of ,chanaan were from ,sidon 444 to ,gaza 444 even to ,sesa--may be objected4 ,but ,i construe this text only to refer to ,chanaan proper1 and to be spoken rather with reference to the limits of the ,promised ,land and the ,hebrews1 than to the allocation of the tribes of ,chanaan2 for the text immediately preceding seems to me to have its significance--viz4 ,gen4 x4 #ah1ci where it is said in a marked manner1 and of the descendants of ,chanaan alone1 ,the families of the ,canaanites were spread abroad4 ,but if we are to suppose the whole descent of ,chanaan to have been confined between the limits of ,sidon and ,sesa1 it could hardly have been said to have had the diffusion of the other ,hamitic races1 and the families of the ,chanaanites will not have been spread abroad in any noticeable or striking manner4 ,it appears to me1 also1 that it may be proved in another way4 ,st ,paul1 ,acts xiii4 #ai1 says that ,god destroyed seven nations in the land of ,chanaan1 whereas ,gen4 x4 enumerates eleven4 #ci ,homer's expression 7,od4 i4 #bc1 #bd71 that the ,ethiopians divided in twain1 were the most remote of men-- ,greek3 ,athiopas1 toi dichtha dedaiatai eschatoi andrn1 ,hoi men dysomenoi ,yperionos oi d' aniontos1 approximates to the scriptural phrase1 and seems to imply a wider dispersion than is suggested by ,professor ,rawlinson1 i4 #ei4 ,again1 ,kalisch 7,hist4 and ,crit4 ,com4 on ,old ,testament1 trans4 #aheh7 makes it a difficulty against ,gen4 ix4 that ,canaan should not only fall into the hands of ,shem1 i4e4 the people of ,israel1 but also of ,japhet 7i4 #bbf74 ,a remote fulfilment of the prediction may be seen in the ,median conquest of ,phoenicia1 and the ,roman destruction of ,carthage2 but if ,i have truly indicated the order of events1 it will be seen that it had already come about in the earliest times4 ,the text1 indeed1 of ,gen4 ix4 #bg--,may ,god enlarge ,japhet1 and may he dwell in the tents of ,shem1 and ,canaan be his servant--is so clear as almost to require some such fulfilment4 ,but the fulfilment is seen1 not only in the degradation of ,chanaan1 but in the prosperity of ,japhet2#dj and this is so correlative1 that ,i shall still be enforcing the argument whilst connecting a link which may appear to be wanting1 viz4 the identity of ,japhet with the more favoured nations of the world4 ,the identity of the ,indo-,germanic races with the descendants of ,japhet may almost be said to be a truth qui saute aux yeux1 but it may still be worth while to collect the links of tradition which establish it4 #dj ,tylor 7,primitive ,culture1 i4 p4 #dd7 says1 ,the ,semitic family1 which represents one of the oldest known civilizations of the world1 includes ,arabs1 ,jews1 ,phoenicians 7871 ,syrians1 c41 and may have an older as well as a newer connection in ,north ,africa4 ,this family takes in some rude tribes1 but none which would be classed as savages4 ,the ,aryan family has existed in ,asia and ,europe certainly for several thousand years1 and there are well known and marked traces of early barbaric condition1 which has perhaps survived with least change among secluded tribes in the valleys of the ,hindu ,kush and ,himalaya4 ,query1 ,what is the nature of the evidence that they have survived1 and have not degenerated8 ,mr ,tylor continues1 ,there seems1 again1 no known case of any full ,aryan tribe having become savage4 ,the gipsies and other outcasts are1 no doubt1 partly ,aryan in blood1 but their degraded condition is not savagery4 ,in ,india there are tribes ,aryan by language1 but whose physique is rather of indigenous type1 and whose ancestry is mainly from indigenous stocks1 with more or less mixture of the dominant ,hindu4 ,compare infra1 ch4 v41 and ,de ,maistre1 p4 #bgb4 ,in truth1 it appears to us a self-evident proposition1 simply because tradition has familiarised us with the belief that ,europe was peopled by the descendants of ,japhet1 and because philology has recently demonstrated the ,indo-,germanic race to include this demarcation 7together with ,central and ,western ,asia72 but ,i think that if we exclude the testimony of tradition1 we should have difficulty in establishing the point either upon the text of ,gen4 x4 #e1 or from the evidence of philology4 ,that the race of ,japhet spread themselves over the islands1 and colonised the coasts of the ,mediterranean1 is the traditional interpretation of that text2 and it receives confirmation1 in the first place1 in the tradition that ,japetus being the father of ,prometheus1 was regarded by the ,greeks as the ancestor of the human race4--,smith's ,myth4 ,dict4 ,we have1 ,i think1 become familiar with such transpositions as ,deucalion the son of ,prometheus1 and ,prometheus the son of ,deucalion1 c4 ,certainly ,prometheus 7vide ,appendix to ,chap4 viii4 p4 #ahj1 and ,chap4 x4 p4 #bcb71 supposing ,prometheus to be ,adam1#da would naturally stand at the head of every genealogy2 but ,japetus1 supposing him to be identified with ,japhet as the particular founder of the race 7after so distinct and definite a starting-point as the ,deluge71 would also1 in his way1 have claims to be placed at the head of their genealogy2 and probably about the time that he began to be called old ,japetus1 and to be typical of antiquity1 his claims would have been regarded as paramount1 and ,prometheus would have been accordingly displaced in his favour4 ,this is conjectural1 but must be taken as one link4 #da ,just as ,hercules 7vide ,hercules1 p4 #ahj71 who embodied in another line the tradition of ,adam1 is said by ,mr ,grote1 ,hist4 of ,greece1 i4 p4 #abh-i1 to have been the most renowned and most ubiquitous of all the semi-divine personages worshipped by the ,hellenes1 so that distinguished families are everywhere to be traced who have his patronymic1 and glory in the belief that they are his descendants4 ,to whom would they trace back more naturally than to ,adam8 ,well1 the 7,indian7 ,aryans also1 according to ,mr ,hunter 7,rural ,bengal1 #ajc71 held 7,book of ,manu and the ,vishnu ,purana7 that the ,greeks and ,persians were sprung from errant ,kshatryas1 who had lost their caste--i4e4 from their own race4 ,they are called in the same books ,yavanas and ,pahlavas4 ,now no one1 ,i think1 will call it a forced analogy to see in ,yavana the name of ,javan1 the son of ,japhet4#db ,this ,i may call link the second4 #db ,this must be taken in connection with what ,i have said1 ch4 x4 ,but the ,aryans1 as we have seen1 are one of the three or four primitive races to which both philology and ethnology lead us back4 ,they are contrasted1 on the one side1 with the ,semitic1 and1 on the other1 with the ,hamitic or ,turanian race4 ,we will assume1 then1 on the strength of the philological and scriptural lines being so nearly conterminous1 that at least1 looking from the point of view of ,scripture1 the ,aryan may be identified with great probability as the ,japhetic race4 ,if1 then1 the ,aryan is the ,japhetic race in its elder branch--to which its later migration would seem to testify--we should exactly expect that it would designate a kindred but collateral race1 not by the name of their common ancestor1 but by the name of the progenitor from whom they were more immediately descended--not as from ,japhet1 but from ,javan4 ,thus the links seem to join2 and here ,i leave them1 till there may chance to come some one who will gather up all the links in the chain of tradition1 dislocated and dispersed by the catastrophes which have been consequent upon the derelictions of mankind4 ,the third view to which ,i wish to advert1 is that put forward by ,mr ,john ,f4 ,m',lennan in his ,primitive ,marriage1 #ahfe1 which also revives the theory of a savage state1 and moreover professes to discover primitive mankind living in a state of promiscuity1 little1 if at all1 elevated above the brute1 and this during the long period which was required to develop #a4 the tribe2 #b4 the gens2 #c4 the family4 ,it will be difficult for any one1 who comes fresh from the perusal of ,genesis1 to realise the possibility of such a view being held2 but1 in truth1 there is no view too grotesque for men in whose survey mankind appear originally on the scene as a mass of units coming into the world1 no one knows how1 like locusts rising above the horizon1 or covering the earth perhaps like toads after a shower6 ,yet ,mr ,m',lennan's theory is virtually endorsed 7vide infra7 by ,sir ,j4 ,lubbock1 who refers to it 7p4 #fj1 note71 as ,mr ,m',lennan's masterly work4 ,if1 then1 we must discuss the theory upon its merits1 the objection which ,i should take1 in limine1 is that it is a partial generalisation from facts1 irrespective of the historical evidence as a whole4 ,there stands against it1 of course1 the direct evidence of the ,bible1 also there stands against it the researches of oriental archaeology1 and1 again1 what ,mr ,m',lennan calls the so-called revelation of philology1 which shows that mankind1 in the period previous to their dispersion1 had marriage laws regulating the rights and obligations of husbands and wives1 of parents and children4 ,this evidence he rejects because the preface of general history must be compiled from the materials presented by barbarism 7p4 #i71 thus assuming barbarism to have been the primitive state4 ,mr ,m',lennan struggles vainly for universal facts on which to build1 and seems to find one in what he has termed exogamy 7i4e4 marriage outside the tribe71 combined with the capture of wives and the infanticide of female children within the tribe4 ,impossible6 ,if this state of things had been universal1 the human race would have exterminated itself long before the historic period6 ,the theory necessarily supposes that some tribes were addicted to these practices1 whilst others were not4 ,exogamy1 therefore1 is not a universal fact2 but neither could endogamy have been1 for the conversion of an endogamous tribe into an exogamous tribe is inconceivable1 p4 #adf4 ,but as ,mr ,m',lennan is as much constrained to choose between exogamy and endogamy as was ,mons4 ,jourdain between poetry and prose1 he apparently elects in favour of the universal primitive prevalence of exogamy1 i4e4 he supposes mankind to have commenced under conditions which would have ensured its proximate extinction4 ,mr ,m',lennan 7p4 #add7 says1 the two types of organisation 7viz4 exogamy and endogamy7 may be equally archaic2 but it is evident that he inclines to the opinion that exogamy is the more archaic2 and his analysis at p4 #adb1 commencing with ,exogamy ,pure1 ,no4 #a1 and continuing on to 444 ,endogamy ,pure1 ,no4 #f1 is the analysis of a series of phenomena which appears to form a progression 7#ada74 ,moreover1 the difficulties which ,i have just urged will immediately recur if we allow the two types to have been equally archaic4 ,the supposed exogamous tribes1 according to the theory1 enforcing the infanticide of female children1 and not permitting marriage within the tribe1 must have been wholly dependent upon the endogamous groups for their women4 ,these latter groups must either have succumbed1 and so have become speedily extinguished through the loss of their women 7for they could not have acquired others who were not of their stock1 without ceasing to be endogamous72 or they must have resisted successfully1 and even if the matter went no farther1 the exogamous tribes must have died out or abandoned exogamy2 or the endogamous tribes must have resisted and retaliated1 in which case we should have this further complication that they themselves would have ceased to be endogamous1 and without any reason or necessity for becoming exogamous2 for with the seizure of the females of the exogamous tribes1 or even1 under the special circumstances1 with the recovery of their own1 the element of heterogeneity would have been introduced1 and the system of endogamy would have been no longer true in theory1 or possible in fact4 ,all these results must have been immediately consequent upon the first collision1 which from the very conditions of exogamy1 must have occurred at the outset6 ,postulating exogamy1 it must therefore rapidly have extirpated or absorbed every other system1 and yet it could never have stood alone4 ,mr ,m',lennan himself allows that wherever kinship through females1 the most ancient system in which the idea of blood relationship was embodied 7#adh7 was known1 there would have been a tendency among the exogamous groups to become heterogeneous1 and that thus the system of capturing wives would have been superseded4#dc ,in other words1 exogamy would have become extinct4 ,but if kinship through females was not discovered by the first children of the first mothers1 how was it subsequently discovered8 ,we are given no clue except that the order of nature is progressive6 #dc ,at p4 #hh1 ,mr ,m',lennan sees evidence of the form of capture and the fact of capture among the ,jews2 but he will at least allow the appeal to be made to the ,scriptures1 as their most authentic history4 ,what do we find at the commencement8 ,in the first marriage contract recorded1 i4e4 of ,isaac and ,rebecca8 ,why1 the reverse of capture4 ,genesis xxvi4 #h1 ,but if the woman will not follow thee thou shalt not be bound by the oath4 ,also v4 #ci1 #dj4 ,mr ,m',lennan 7p4 #bi71 with reference to the hurling stones and bamboos at the head of the devoted bridegroom in ,khondistan1 says1 the hurling of old shoes after the bridegroom among ourselves may be a relic of a similar custom4 ,but this custom would seem to be much more directly traced to the custom among the ,jews of taking the shoes from the man who refused to marry his brother's widow 7,deuteronomy71 and which is more generally stated in ,ruth iv4 #g1 as a token of cession of right--the man put off his shoe1 and gave it to his neighbour1 this was the testimony of a cession of right in ,israel 7,ruth iv4 #g74 ,this compels the remark that if ,mr ,m',lennan fails to prove that exogamy was universal1 as a stage of human progress1 or1 to use a phrase of his own1 on such a scale as to entitle it to rank among the normal phenomena of human development1 there is nothing to exclude the likelihood of its being much more satisfactorily and directly traced as the result of degeneracy4 ,mr ,m',lennan should clear his ground by demonstrating that the circumstances exclude the possibility of this conjecture4 ,on the contrary1 and on his own showing1 they would appear much more certainly to affirm it4 ,although exogamy is the earliest fact which he believes to be demonstrable by evidence1 he assumes an initial promiscuity2 and seems to see his way out of this initial promiscuity through the system of rude polyandry 7when one woman was common to a determinate number of men unrelated7 as distinguished from regulated polyandry 7where one woman was common to several brothers74 ,it must be noted that before these polyandrous families1 if we may so call them1 at first necessarily limited1 could theoretically or in fact have become the tribal exogamous groups1 many difficulties must be disposed of1 and many stages traced1 of which we are told nothing more than that we are forced to regard all the exogamous races as having originally been polyandrous 7p4 #bbf74 ,that these families1 if it is not an abuse of terms to call them so1 could not have become tribal by grouping1 ,mr ,m',lennan himself maintains1 p4 #bcb4 ,the two systems which ,mr ,m',lennan distinguishes as rude and regulated polyandry1 are so essentially different that ,i fail to trace the possibility of progression from one to the other4 ,rude polyandry is barely distinguishable from promiscuity1 and not at all if we regard it as only promiscuity1 necessarily limited through infanticide1 or other causes destroying the balance of the sexes4 ,the latter has peculiar features--arising in some way out of1 and fixed in the idea of the relationship of brothers--an idea which it is just conceivable might arise directly out of a state of promiscuity--where theoretically the children might be supposed to be in contact with the mother only1 but which the system of rude polyandry1 by introducing conflicting and complicated claims1 would immediately tend to weaken and obliterate4 ,let us see1 then1 if we can trace the custom better on the lines of degeneracy4 ,if we start with the belief in the existence of many primitive ceremonies and regulations we may then suppose that in the downward progression to promiscuity1 the stages of the descent will be traceable in the corruptions of these customs4 ,such surmises at least are as good as the contrary surmises of ,mr ,m',lennan4 ,now1 we have already seen#dd that ,mr ,m',lennan alludes to the law of ,deuteronomy1 which imposed the obligation of the younger brother marrying the widow of the elder--and it will1 moreover1 be seen 7,mr ,m',lennan1 p4 #bai7 that this was also prescribed in the law of ,menu4 #dd ,dr ,latham would invert the order of development by producing the ruder fact--polyandry--from the less rude obligation4 ,but clearly this is an inversion of the order of nature1 which is progressive1 c4--,m',lennan1 ,prim4 ,marriage1 p4 #bjf4 ,whatever may be the true solution of this coincidence the least likely account would seem to be that they had both1 under different conditions 7different at any rate from the point of divergence1 be it exogamy or polyandry71 advanced to it independently and by similar stages4 ,such fortuitous coincidences would imply not merely a succession of similar developments1 but also a corresponding succession of accidental circumstances4 ,if1 however1 the custom of the younger brother marrying the widow of the elder was of primitive institution 7compare ,genesis xxxviii4 and the ,code of ,menu71 the corruption of this custom into polyandry1 in circumstances which may at any time have disturbed the balance of the sexes in the overcrowded ,east1 though it revolts will not absolutely astonish us2 whereas the converse1 i4e4 restriction to successive appropriation contingent upon widowhood1 from a state of virtual promiscuity1 is so uphill a reform and so contrary to probability that it requires some internal evidence of the stages1 and some warrant in modern observation to make it plausible4 ,none are given4 ,for the fact that we find both the rude and the regulated form existing side by side cuts both ways2#de and the discovery of a form of capture--the ,rakshasa1 among the eight forms sanctioned by the code of ,menu1 enforces our argument--it would exactly correspond to the military exemption among the ,jews 7,mr ,m',lennan1 p4 #hb71 supposing we were able to read ,deuteronomy xx4 #aj-ad in the same sense as ,mr ,m',lennan4 ,in that case1 therefore1 it would be a departure from or relaxation of a rule laid down--a view which is confirmed when we find that the authority quoted 7,dr ,muir1 ,sanscrit ,texts1 the ,ramayana7 tells that ,ravana1 the most terrible of all the ,rakshasas1 is stigmatised as a destroyer of religious duties1 and ravisher of the wives of others 7,prim4 ,mar4 p4 #cji71 which testifies to degeneracy at some period2 whereas if ,mr ,m',lennan's view is true1 this hero must be relegated to a time when the conception of religious duties1 and even of other men's wives were unknown4 #de ,it seems to me that ,turner's account of polyandry in ,tibet1 quoted by ,mr ,m',lennan1 p4 #aic1 gives plain evidence of the transition from the ,jewish custom to the regulated polyandry4 ,it is said that the choice of a wife is the privilege of the elder brother4 ,we have seen 7supra1 #df71 that when mankind had got1 we know not how1 into tribal exogamous groups1 kinship through females would have a tendency1 and a moment's consideration will show an immediate tendency1 to render the exogamous groups heterogeneous1 and thus to supersede the system of capturing wives4 ,we ask why did they capture wives8 ,mr ,m',lennan implies that their ideas of incest forbade marriage within the tribe4#df ,apparently1 then1 the groups must have been exogamous#dg previously to the time when they had attained to the knowledge of kinship through females1 else kinship through females would from the first have operated to produce a state of things which would have rendered exogamy unnecessary and inexplicable4 ,the corollary is curious2 they must1 therefore1 have had the idea of incest before they had the idea of kinship through females6 #df ,instead of endogamy we might1 after some explanations1 have used the word caste4 ,but caste connotes several ideas besides that on which we desire to fix attention4 ,on the other hand1 the rule which declares the union of persons of the same blood to be incest has been hitherto unnamed 7p4 #di71 and he terms it exogamy2 and 7p4 #acj7 he says1 in all the modern instances in which the symbol of capture is most marked we have found that marriage within the tribe is prohibited as incest4 #dg ,mr ,m',lennan 7p4 #adh7 says1 ,we shall endeavour to establish the following propositions3--#a4 ,that the most ancient system in which the idea of blood relationship was embodied1 was the system of kinship through females only4 #b4 ,that the primitive groups were1 or were assumed to be homogeneous4 #c4 ,that the system of kinship through females only1 tended to render the exogamous groups heterogeneous1 and thus to supersede the system of capturing wives4 ,that some tribes should have arrived at some such state through a perverted traditional notion of incest1 would1 on the other hand1 perfectly fit into the theory of degeneracy4 ,i had intended to have pursued this subject1 but the chapter has already run to too great length4 ,as allusion however1 has been made to ,sir ,john ,lubbock1 ,i append an extract 7see p4 #dg7 from which it will be seen that his view1 although equally remote from historical truth1 has a greater priori probability4 ,indeed1 if we could only consent to start on the assumption of an initial state of hetairism1 nothing would be more complete than the following theory3-- ,for reasons to be given shortly1 ,i believe that communal marriage was gradually superseded by individual marriages founded on capture1 and that this led firstly to exogamy1 and then to female infanticide2 thus reversing ,m',lennan's order of sequence4 ,endogamy and regulated polyandry1 though frequent1 ,i regard as exceptional1 and as not entering into the normal progress of development4 ,like ,m',lennan and ,bachojen1 ,i believe that our present social relations have arisen from an initial stage of hetairism or communal marriage4 ,it is obvious1 however1 that even under communal marriage1 a warrior who had captured a beautiful girl in some marauding expedition1 would claim a peculiar right to her1 and1 when possible1 would set custom at defiance4 ,we have already seen that there are other cases of the existence of marriage1 under two forms1 side by side in one country1 and that there is1 therefore1 no real difficulty in assuming the co-existence of communal and individual marriage4 ,it is true that1 under a communal marriage system1 no man could appropriate a girl entirely to himself1 without infringing the rights of the whole tribe4444 ,a war-captive1 however1 was in a peculiar position1 the tribe had no right to her2 her capturer might have killed her if he chose2 444 he did as he liked1 the tribe was no sufferer4--,sir ,j4 ,lubbock's ,origin of ,civilisation1 pp4 #gj1 #ga4 ,i will only ask one question4 ,at what period does ,sir ,j4 ,lubbock suppose the custom of inheritance through females arose8 ,this as nearly approaches a universal fact as any which ,sir ,j4 ,lubbock adduces 7vide p4 #aje1 et seq472 and1 on the point of its having been a prevalent custom1 ,i can have no difficulty4 ,whenever through degeneracy man arrived at the state of promiscuity or communal marriages1 such inheritance as there might be1 in such a community1 would only be claimed through females1 as the paternity would always be uncertain 7vide infra1 p4 #abi74 ,if1 however1 mankind commenced with communal marriages1 inheritance and relationship through females would also have been from the commencement4 ,let us now turn to ,sir ,j4 ,lubbock's theory1 as expressed in the extract above1 in which he shows us how marriage by capture would quite naturally have arisen out of the state of communal marriage4 ,but if natural1 it would have been natural from the commencement1 quid vetat8 ,there must then have been a system also in operation from the commencement1 the inevitable tendency of which1 by making paternity distinct and recognisable1 would have been to substitute inheritance through males2 and this system1 by introducing a more robust posterity1 would rapidly have gained upon the other system4 ,male inheritance1 it would then appear1 commenced and established itself at the outset1 and to the displacement of inheritance through females4 ,how1 then1 do we find traces of the latter custom so prevalent8 ,from this point of view the more instances ,sir ,j4 ,lubbock accumulates1 the more he will excite our incredulity and surprise4 ,this theory again1 equally with ,mr ,m',lennan's1 supposes mankind originally in a state of hetairism1 in which case it is futile to talk of tribes and of marriage out of the tribe2 for how did they emerge into this tribal separation out of the state of promiscuity8 ,the difficulty gets more complicated since1 ex hypothesi1 after emerging from1 they still remain within the tribal limits1 in the state of hetairism4 ,these preliminaries must be settled before the argument can be carried further4 ,the usual philosophic formula is1 of course1 at hand--these changes must have required an indefinite lapse of ages6 ,into this swamp we shall see one philosopher after another disappear1 leaving a delusive light behind him6 ,if we could only1 ,dante like1 recall one of these philosophers to life1 after he has passed into his state of ,nirvana1 we would ask1 as in this instance1 why1 supposing the state of promiscuity1 it would require an indefinite lapse of ages to pass from it1 according to the conditions of ,sir ,john ,lubbock's argument 7i4e4 to the state of exogamy72 considering that1 vide supra1 it is obvious that1 even under communal marriage1 a warrior who had captured1 c41 would claim a peculiar right to her1 and1 when possible1 would set custom at defiance4 ,clearly1 then1 it only required the man and the opportunity4 ,,appendix ,,to ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,the view at p4 #bf substantially coincides with the lines laid down by ,blackstone 7compare ,plato2 ,grote's ,plato1 iii4 #ccg71 which are the subject of ,bentham's attack1 and to which the recent contributions of ,sir ,henry ,maine to our knowledge in these matters would seem to run counter4 ,blackstone1 ,comm4 i4 #dg1 said-- ,this notion1 of an actually existing unconnected state of nature1 is too wild to be seriously admitted3 and1 besides1 it is plainly contradictory to the revealed accounts of the primitive origin of mankind and their preservation two thousand years afterwards1 both which were effected by the means of single families4 ,these formed the first society among themselves1 which every day extended its limits2 and when it grew too large to subsist with convenience in that pastoral state wherein the ,patriarchs appear to have lived1 it necessarily subdivided itself by various migrations into more4 ,afterwards1 as agriculture increased1 which employs and can maintain a much greater number of hands1 migrations became less frequent1 and various tribes1 which had formerly separated1 reunited again1 sometimes by compulsion and conquest1 sometimes by accident1 and sometimes1 perhaps1 by compact4444 ,and this is what we mean by the original contract of society1 which1 though perhaps in no instance it has ever been formally expressed at the first institution of a state1 yet1 in nature1 reason must always be understood and implied in the very act of associating together4444 ,when society is once formed1 government results1 of course1 as necessary to preserve and to keep that society in order 444 unless some superior were constituted 444 they would still remain in a state of nature4 ,bentham says of this passage from ,blackstone1 that 'society1' in one place1 means the same thing as a 'state of nature' does3 in another place1 it means the same as 'government4' ,here we are required to believe there never was such a state as a state of nature3 then we are given to understand there has been4 ,in like manner1 with respect to an original contract1 we are given to understand that such a thing never existed1 that the notion of it is even ridiculous2 at the same time1 that there is no speaking nor stirring without supposing that there was one4--,bentham's ,fragment on ,government1 p4 #i 7,london1 #ahbc74 ,the previous and subsequent chapters 7ii41 xiii471 will be found to meet these strictures of ,bentham1 although not originally written with reference to them4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,chronology ,,from ,,the ,,point ,,of ,,view ,,of ,,tradition4 ,to many it may seem a fundamental objection that my theory supposes a chronology altogether out of keeping with modern discovery2 and ,i fancy there is a somewhat general impression that modern science has an historical basis1 to which not even the ,septuagint chronology can be made to conform4 ,this really is not the case2 but assuming it to be true1 ,i must still remark1 that if facts of primeval tradition have been established1 the long lapse of ages will only enhance our notions of the persistency of tradition2 or if the lapse of ages is disproved1 this conclusion will be in recognition of a truth to which tradition testifies4 ,i shall now proceed to establish that the strictly historical testimony1 and the direct historical evidence1 is strikingly concurrent in favour of the scriptural chronology1 allowing the margin of difference between the ,hebrew and ,,lxx4 versions4#dh #dh ,aucune des trois chronologies bibliques1 l ou elles ne s'accordent pas entre elles1 ne s'impose avec une autorite suffisante soit au fidele1 soit au savant4 ,l',eglise catholique a laiss le choix libre entre ces chronologies et elles n'oblige pas mme en adopter une4--,le ,monde et ,l',homme ,primitif selon la ,bible1 par ,mgr4 ,meignan1 ,evque de ,chalons-sur-,marne1 #ahfi4 ,with this view ,i shall successively examine the chronology of the principal nations whose annals profess to go back to the commencement of things--the ,aryan 7including the ,indian1 the ,persian1 the ,greek1 and the ,roman71 the ,babylonian1 the ,chinese1 ,phoenician1 and ,egyptian4 ,indian ,chronology4--,there was a time when the ,indian 7,aryan7 chronology was believed to attain to the most remote antiquity of all1 and this belief was sustained by the apparently irrefragable testimony of astronomical evidence4 ,who upholds this evidence now8 ,on this head ,i must refer to ,cardinal ,wiseman's seventh lecture 7,on ,science and ,revealed ,religion71 where the reader will find a clear and careful precis of the discussion on the subject between ,bailly and ,delambre1 the ,edinburgh ,review and ,bentley1 to which ,i am not aware that anything of consequence has to be added4 ,if1 on the other hand1 we turn to what ,i am exclusively directing my attention--the strict historical investigation--we find that the cautious inquiries of such men as ,sir ,w4 ,jones and ,heeren concur in placing the ,aryan invasion at the antecedently very probable date1 from the point of view of ,scripture1 of some #bjjj years ,b4,c4 ,at the present moment the discussion takes the form of philological inquiry1 and into the antiquity 7upon internal evidence7 of the ancient ,sanscrit literature4 ,in so far1 therefore1 as it is philological1 it belongs to the indirect argument1 which ,i am now excluding4 ,in so far as the ,sanscrit literature is historical1 ,i have discussed the testimony which it brings in the preceding chapter4 ,professor ,rawlinson1 however1 in his recent ,manual of ,ancient ,history1 refuses to discuss the question1 as he does not regard the ,maha-,bharata and ,ramayana as trustworthy sources of history1 and commences his ,persian history with the accession of ,cyrus1 previously to which he does not consider the ,aryan migration and settlement to have been completed4 ,apart1 then1 from the peculiar line of argument to which ,i shall presently refer1 it would appear that the ,indian chronology1 as reconstructed from history and tradition1 falls easily within the lines1 not only of the ,,lxx41 but of the ,hebrew version4 ,the ,indians1 it is true 7,hales' ,chron41 i4 #aif71 themselves say that their history goes back #dcb1jjj1jjj years4 ,although ,hales gives a solution which may be deemed satisfactory1 ,i think that1 if considered in connection with the ,babylonian computation1 it will be seen that1 though inexact in their figure1 they are accurate in their tradition4 ,the primary figure in their 7,indian7 calculation--#dcb1jjj--;is arrived at through the extended multiplication of the ,chaldean sossos1 neros1 and saros1 or of their own traditional figures corresponding to them 7vide infra74 ,in the ,chaldean system 7vide ,rawlinson1 ,anc4 ,mon41 i471 #f and #aj were employed as alternate multipliers4 ,thus a soss #fj years 7#aj #f71 a ner #fjj 7#fj #aj71 a sar #cfjj 7#fjj #f72 and if the multiplication be continued1 the next figure would be #cf1jjj 7#cfjj #aj71 next #baf1jjj 7#cf1jjj #f74 ,the ,indian figure #dcb1jjj1di is made up of twice #baf1jjj4 #di #dcb1jjj is also the figure to which ,berosus extends the ,assyrian chronology4 ,thus the ,indian fabrication commences at the point where ,berosus ends4 ,professor ,rawlinson 7,anc4 ,mon41 i4 #aib7 gives in detail1 and endorses a remarkable eclaircissement of ,m4 ,gutschmid on the mythical traditions of ,assyrian chronology4 ,babylonian ,chronology4--,rawlinson says-- ,assuming that the division between the earlier and later ,assyrian dynasty synchronises with the celebrated era of ,nabonassar 7#gdg ,b4,c471 which is probable1 but not certain1 and taking the year ,b4,c4 #ech as the admitted date of the conquest of the last ,chaldan king by ,cyrus1 he obtains for the seventh or second ,assyrian dynasty #abb years 7#gdg to #fbe74 ,assuming1 next1 that ,b4,c4 #bbcd1 from which the ,babylonians counted their stellar observations1 must be a year of note in ,chaldan history1 and finding that it cannot well represent the first year of the second or ,median dynasty1 since in that case eleven kings of the third dynasty would have reigned no more than thirty-four years1 he concludes it must mark the expulsion of the ,medes and accession of the third dynasty 7which he regards as a native dynasty74 ,from his previous calculations1 it follows that the fourth dynasty began ,b4,c4 #aigf2 between which and ,b4,c4 #bbcd are #beh years1 a period which may be fairly assigned to eleven monarchs4 ,this much is conjecture 444 the proof now suddenly flashes on us4 ,if the numbers are taken in the way assigned1 and then added to the years of the first or purely mythical dynasty1 we get #cf1jjj1 equal to the next term1 to the sar 7saros1 vide supra71 in the ,babylonian system of cycles4 ,it will be more apparent in the following table from ,rawlinson1 idem-- ---------------------------------------- ------ ,years4 ,b4,c4 ---------------------------------------- ----- ,mythical #hf ,chaldans #cd1hjj #h ,medes #bbd #bdeh #aa ,chaldans 7#beh7 #bbcd #di ,chaldans #deh #aigf ,historical4 #i ,arab #bde #aeah #de ,assyrian #ebf #abgc #h ,assyrian #abb #gdg #f ,chaldans #hg #fbe ---------------------------------------- ---- #cf1jjj ---------------------------------------- ---- ,chinese ,chronology4--,the ,chinese1 also--though1 be it observed1 the ,chinese of modern date1 according to ,klaproth 7,mem4 ,relatifs4 l',asie1 i4 #dje2 ,klaproth places the commencement of the uncertain history of ,china #bfcg ,b4,c41 the certain history #ghb ,b4,c471#ej in the first year of our era1 but more systematically in the ninth century--forged a mythological history1 which carried the empire back #b1bgf1jjj years 7another calculation1 #c1bgf1jjj74 ,he adds1 however1 that the ,chinese themselves do not consider the ,wai-ki1 the authority for these statements1 to be historical4 #ej ,bunsen 7,egypt1 iii4 #dje7 says1 ,systematic ,chinese history and chronology hardly go back as far as the year #bjjj ,b4,c41 i4e4 to the reign of ,y 7#aiia74 ,yet upon indirect philological conclusions1 he would really take their history back beyond the ,egyptian--iii4 p4 #cgi4 ,an explanation must be given why it 7the ,chinese history7 commences at a later period 7as above7 than ,egyptian chronology2 much later1 indeed1 than is generally supposed4 ,search must be made in other quarters than the regular extant chronology for proofs of that vast antiquity1 which the numerous records of language compel us to assign to the origines of the ,chinese4 ,this vast antiquity may be measured by the fact that1 ex hypothesi1 it transcends the ,egyptian1 and for the ,egyptian in his theory of progress and development1 he requires at least #bj1jjj years before the ,christian era4 ,again1 if we allow ourselves to be entangled in certain astronomical disputations1 the question may become complicated and confused2 but the astronomical discussion must depend1 in the end1 upon a point which history must determine--i4e4 whether the astronomical knowledge and observations referred to had come down in primitive tradition1 or had been imported at a later date4 ,although it need not exclude a belief in a tradition of primitive knowledge of astronomy1 yet the doubt will ever cause a fatal uncertainty in any calculations1 since1 if the knowledge1 or the knowledge of the particular observations and facts1 had at any time been imported1 they might have calculated back their eclipses1 as has been proved to have been done in ,india4 ,let us then1 excluding the purely astronomical calculations1 closely scrutinise the evidence which tradition affords2 for if we can discover tradition of appearances of rare occurrence1 and which are difficult to calculate1 such as many of the planetary conjunctions1 they must1 as ,baron ,bunsen observes 7,egypt1 iii4 p4 #chi71 either be pure inventions1 or contemporary notations of some extraordinary natural phenomena4 ,baron ,bunsen proceeds to say3--,one instance that may be cited is the traditional observation of a conjunction of five planets 7among which the sun and moon are mentioned71 on the first day of ,litshin1 in the time of ,tshuen-hi1 the second successor of ,hoang-ti4 ,suppose this should have been the great conjunction of the three upper planets which recurs every #gid years and four months1 and to which ,kepler first turned his attention in reference to the year of the nativity of ,christ4 ,it took place in the following years4 ,the one which occurred in historical times was in ,november1 seven years ,b4,c42 consequently the conjunctions prior to it occurred in-- ,yrs4 ,mos4 ,dys4 #gid #d #ab #g #aj #ab --------------------- #ghf #f #j #gid #d #ab --------------------- #aehj #aj #ab ,and the conjunction in #gid #d #ab --------------------- ,the time of ,tshuen-hi in #bcge #b #bd ,according to the official ,chinese tables1 as given by ,ideler1 he reigned from #beac ,b4,c4 to #bdcf ,b4,c42 but the dates vary to the extent of more than #bjj years1 and the year #bcge comes within the limits of these deviations4 ,baron ,bunsen1 we may then assume1 has very skilfully brought back ,chinese chronology to within two generations of ,hoang-ti 7supra74 ,if we could further identify ,hoang-ti with ,noah1 two patriarchal generations would bring us close to the date of the ,deluge as fixed by the ,septuagint1 if we referred them1 in the first instance1 to the death of ,noah4 ,before proceeding to this identification1 ,i must point to another chronological fact in ,chinese tradition1 which would give to this identification an antecedent probability4 ,it was stated 7,bunsen1 ,egypt1 iii4 #chc7 that ,hoang-ti established the astronomical cycle of #fj years in the sixty-first year of his reign4 ,at p4 #chg1 ,bunsen says3 ,the scientific problem thus offered for our solution is the following--,it is admitted that the ,chinese1 from the earliest times1 made use of a sexagesimal cycle for the division of the year #f #fj days 7#cfj days71 and they marked the years by a cycle of #fj years1 running concurrently with the cycle of days4 ,this cycle1 therefore1 must have been originally instituted at a time when the first day of the daily cycle coincided with the first year of the annual cycle1 i4e4 when they commenced on the same day4 ,ideler thinks it impossible to ascertain this1 owing to the irregularity of the old calendar4 ,we may ask1 then1 what year that could be named would so exactly satisfy these conditions as the sixty-first year of the reign of ,noah after the ,deluge8#ea ,let us1 moreover1 consider how traditional this cycle of sixty years has been 7p4 #chf71--,scaliger made the remark that the twelve yearly zodiacal cycle1 which is in use among the ,tartars 7,mongols1 ,mandshus1 ,igurians71 the inhabitants of ,thibet1 the ,japanese and ,siamese dated from the earliest times4 ,among the ,tartaric populations1 however1 this is a cycle of sixty years 7#ab #e72 of the ,indians we have already spoken4 #ea ,martini 7,historia ,sinica1 p4 #ad1 edit4 ,monac47 asserts that the ,egyptians computed by the era of sixty years of ,hoangho4 ,see ,de ,vignolle's ,miscellanea ,berolinensia1 ,i4 iv4 #cg1 on the cycle of months4 ,compare ,ideler1 ,app4 ix41 note from ,bunsen1 iii4 #che4 ,humboldt 7,vues des ,cordillres1 p4 #adi2 ,prescott1 ,mex41 i4 #aje7 seems to say that1 among the ,chinese1 ,japanese1 ,moghols1 ,mantchous1 and other families of the ,tartar race 7compare ,mexican1 do471 their series was composed of symbols of their five elements1 and the twelve zodiacal signs1 making a cycle of sixty years duration4 ,this is not incompatible with1 the allegation that it is the era of sixty years of ,hoangho4 ,it will have already been seen that the cycle of sixty years entered into the ,chaldean system--viz4 cycle of #fj years a sossos1 #fjj years a saros1 #cfjj years a neros4 ,now when we find 7,bunsen1 p4 #chg7 that six hundred years gives an excess of exactly one lunar month1 with far greater accuracy than the ,julian year1 such a cycle must have been indispensable when that of sixty years was in use1 and consequently must have been employed by the ,chinese1 or1 at all events1 have been known to those from whom they borrowed the latter4 ,josephus also calls six hundred years the great year1 which may have been observed by the patriarch4 ,and at p4 #djg1 in summing up the general chronological result1 he says3-- a4 444 ,the earliest ,chinese chronology rests upon a conventional basis peculiar to itself1 that of limiting the lunar year by a cycle of six hundred years1 which is common to the whole of ,north ,asia and the ,chaldeans2 and probably 7as it is also met with in ,india7 to the ,bactrians also3 this basis is historical4 b4 ,the communication took place before the ,chaldees invented the cycle of six hundred years4 ,from our point of view1 believing that the ,chaldees never invented the cycle but held to it traditionally1 the above conclusion must be construed to mean that the communication1 or diffusion of the knowledge1 must have taken place before the lapse of the first six hundred years after the ,deluge1 which will be further confirmed by conclusion c4 c4 ,the ,chinese observation is based upon the ,babylonian gnomon1 which appears to me tantamount to the admission that it took place1 in the plains of ,mesopotamia1 previous to the ,dispersion4 ,in arriving1 then1 at the sixty-first year of the reign of ,hoang-ti1 we are led up to such close proximity to the epoch of the ,deluge1 that the presumption that ,hoang-ti was ,noah would be strong1 even if no other evidence was at hand to corroborate it4 ,it is with this supplementary evidence that ,i now propose to deal4 ,although the tradition of the ,chinese is remarkably accurate1 up to a certain point1 yet in the period beyond that point1 where the confusion is manifest1 there is no reason why we should not expect to find the same reduplications and amalgamations of ante and post diluvian traditions1 which we have already found in the history of other nations4 ,without attempting to unravel all complications1 let us turn again to ,bunsen 7iii4 #chb71 and setting aside ,pu-an-ku1 the primeval man who came out of the mundane egg and lived eighteen thousand years1 and who has resemblances with the ,assyrian ,ra and ,ana1 and the ,egyptian ,ra1 the son of ,ptha 7to whom thirty thousand are allotted1 vide infra1 p4 #ig-ajj71 and ,sui-shin1 who discovered fire1 and who is the counterpart of ,prometheus 7vide p4 #ahj74 ,regarding ,pu-an-ku1 the cosmical1 and ,sui-shin1 as the mythical tradition of ,adam1 we come to the historical tradition in the person of ,fohi4 ,i4 ,fohi the great1 the brilliant 7,tai-hao7 cultivator of astronomy and religion1 as well as writing4 ,he reigned one hundred and ten years4 ,then came fifteen reigns4 ,,ii4 ,shin-nong 7divine husbandman72 institution of agriculture2 the knowledge of simples applied as the art of medicine4 ,compare pp4 #baj-bad1 ,saturn1 ,bacchus1 sculapius4 ,,iii4 ,hoang-ti 7great ruler7 came to the throne in consequence of an armed insurrection 7new dynasty71 and was obliged to put down a revolt4 ,in his reign the magnetic needle was discovered2 the smelting of copper for making weapons2#eb vases of high art1 and money2 improvement in the written character1 said to be borrowed from the lines on the tortoise-shell4 ,it consists of five hundred hieroglyphics1 of which two hundred can still be pointed out4 ,he established fixed habitations throughout his dominions1 and the astronomical cycle of sixty years in the sixty-first year of his reign 7vide supra1 #fa72 musical instruments4 ,it was in his time also that the fabulous bird ,sin appeared4 ,the empire was considerably extended to the southward4--,bunsen1 #chb4 #eb ,this tradition would seem to confirm ,bryant's 7,mythology1 iii4 #ehd7 conjecture that ,hoang-ti was ,ham4 ,but ,hoang-ti as ,ham1 may absorb and incorporate1 as we have seen in other instances1 the history of his progenitors2 and1 moreover1 whether he is ,noah or ,ham1 would scarcely affect the chronological argument4 ,if we take ,fohi as ,adam1 the fifteen reigns which follow will bear analogy with the fifteen generations of the ,cynic cycle 7vide ,palmer i4 p4 #h1 #bc-cg2 also vide infra71 and will correspond to the thirteen generations1 viz4 the ten antediluvian1 and the three survivors 7excluding ,noah7 of the ,deluge in the ,egyptian chronology 7vide infra74 ,shin-nong1 the divine husbandman1 will be ,noah1 and ,hoang-ti1 ,shem or ,ham1 or else the two will be reduplicate traditions of ,noah4 ,compare the attributions of ,hoang-ti with those of ,hoa in the ,assyrian tradition1 p4 #bci4 ,certain statements regarding him--e4g4 that he suppressed an insurrection1 accord more nearly with epithets applied to ,nin1 the fish-god1 whom ,i have considered a duplicate of ,hoa 7p4 #bja71 e4g4 the destroyer of enemies1--the reducer of the disobedient1--the exterminator of rebels4 ,compare with the ,phoenician tradition1 p4 #baa1 of ,saturn causing the destruction of his son ,sadid by the ,deluge4 ,the appearance of the fabulous bird ,sin1 seems a reminiscence of the birds sent out of the ark1 which is so frequent in tradition4 ,compare the mystery bird 7the dove7 in the ,mandan ceremonies1--the worship of the pigeon in ,cashmere1#ec c4 ,other coincidences might be pointed if space allowed4 #ec ,on the worship of the pigeon in ,cashmere1 vide ,travels in ,kashmir1 by ,g4 ,g4 ,vigne1 ,esq41 ,f4,g4,s41 ii4 p4 #aa1 #ac4 #ahdd4 ,but analogous to the double tradition of the ,deluge in ,assyria in the persons of ,hoa and ,nin2 and1 again1 by a distinct channel of tradition in ,xisuthrus 7vide pp4 #bjh1 #bji71 as in ,china1 there seems to have been a similar reduplication in ,china in their kings ,hoang-ti and ,yao or ,yu4#ed #ed ,the reduplication may have occurred in this way4 ,hoang-ti being ,noah1 ,yao or ,yu may have been his descendant under whom they settled in ,china at the termination of their migration4 ,this is confirmed by ,bunsen's view1 iii4 #dje 7iv4 and v47 ,in which case it would not be at all unnatural to suppose that the traditions appertaining to the remote progenitor1 would in time settle down upon the head of the actual founder4 ,chevalier de ,paravey 7vide ,gainet1 i4 #ic71 a trouv un hieroglyphe chinois qui nomme la femme de ,hoang-ti ',adamon' terre jaune1 et si non signifie celle qui entrane les autres dans son propre mal4 ,this would merely be the confusion between ,noah and ,adam which we have seen to occur in almost every instance4 ,is not the ,japanese god ,amida ,adima1 or perhaps to ,adamon--i4e41 confused in relationship to ,hoang-ti or ,noah8 what confirms the impression is1 that ,adima's son is ,canon4 ,query1 ,chanaan4 ,now under this ,yao or ,yu1 according to ,chinese tradition 7preserved1 moreover1 in the inscription of ,yu71 there happened the ,deluge1 or a ,deluge4 ,but as there is a confusion between ,hoang-ti and ,yao1 so there is between ,yao and ,yu4 ,bunsen1 however1 admits these latter to be identical4 ,but although ,bunsen asserts the authenticity of the inscription 7as also does ,klaproth71 he utterly scouts the idea that it is a tradition of the ,deluge1 and maintains that it is itself evidence of a local inundation4 ,let us see4 ,all the confusion or ignorance1 says ,bunsen 7#cih71 of the missionaries in this matter1 arises from their believing that this event referred to the ,flood of ,noah1 which never reached this country4 ,and 7p4 #djf71 he says the inundation in the reign of ,yao had just as much to do with ,noah's flood as the dams he created1 and the canals he dug1 had to do with the ark4 ,this is said with reference to the short ,chinese account of it published by ,klaproth1 viz4-- ,in the sixty-first year of the reign of the ,emperor ,yao1 serious mischief was caused by inundations4 ,the emperor took counsel with the great men of the empire1 who advised him to employ ,kuen to drain off the water4 ,kuen was engaged upon it for nine years without success1 and was condemned to be imprisoned for life4 ,his son ,yu was appointed in his stead4 ,at the end of nineteen years he succeeded in stopping the inundation1 and made a report to the emperor upon the subject4 ,let us turn1 however1 from this later gloss to the inscription itself1 translated by ,bunsen1 p4 #cii-- ,the ,emperor said1 ',oh thou ,governor of the four mountains of the ,empire6 ,the swelling flood is producing mischief2 ,it spreads itself far and wide2 ,it surrounds the hills1 it overflows the dams2 ,rushing impetuously along it rises up to ,heaven3 ,the common people complain and sigh4' --,vide supra1 p4 #cif4 ,the venerable ,emperor exclaimed with a sigh1 ',ho assistant ,counsellor6 the islands great and small up to the mountain's top2 ,the door of the birds and of beasts1 all is overflowed together-- ,is swamped3 be it thy care to open the way1 to let off the water4' ,he then says3-- ,my task is completed2 my sacrifice ,i have offered in the second month1 trouble is at an end1 the dark destiny is changed2 the streams of the south flow down to the sea2 garments are prepared2 food is provided2 all the nations have rest2 the people enjoy themselves with gambols and dancing4--7,compare ,commemorative ,festivals1 infra1 p4 #bdi74 ,i should have thought that all these phrases pointed much more to a universal ,deluge than to a local inundation4 ,but ,bunsen says 7#cih7-- ,the fact is fully proved both by the inscription and the work of ,yu itself4 ,the inscription was on the top of the mountain1 ,yu-lu-fun1 in the district of ,shen-shu-lu4 ,owing to its having become illegible in early times1 it was removed to the top of an adjoining mountain4 444 ,the former locality tallies exactly with the very interesting description of the empire in the time of ,yu1 which we find at the opening of the second book of the ,shuking4 ,and ,bunsen concludes1 ,it may be presumed after this verification1 that in future nobody will seriously doubt the strictly epic description of the ,shuking in the ,canon of ,yu1 as above4 ,so far from being impressed by the discovery of the monument on the top of the local mountain1 as evidence of the local deluge1 ,i can see in it only a memorial of the universal ,deluge localised2 and ,i cannot help considering it in connection with the worship of the tops of mountains1 of which we shall find traces elsewhere 7p4 #bdd-df74 ,surely ,baron ,bunsen proves too much1 and describes to us a deluge which must have been on the scale of the universal ,deluge for all countries below the level of the mountain ,yu-lu-fun4 ,but1 let it be said1 that this description1 so accordant with the description of the flood1 was merely ,chinese exaggeration4 ,i here wish to point out two curious coincidences4 ,what if we shall find works similar of those to ,yao or ,yu1 ascribed to the original founders in ,egypt and ,cashmere8 ,as in the first instance1 ,i shall have to quote from ,baron ,bunsen himself1 ,i am surprised that the coincidence should have escaped his observation4 ,this is the account given of ,menes the first king of ,egypt by ,herodotus--,menes1 the first king of ,egypt1 as the priests informed me1 protected ,memphis by a dam against the river which ran towards the sandy chain of the ,libyan ,mountains4 ,about #ajj stadia above ,memphis1 he made an embankment against the bend of the river1 which is on the south side4 ,the effect of this was to dry up its ancient bed1 as well as to force the stream between the two chains of mountains4 ,this bend of the ,nile1 which is confined within the embankment walls1 was very carefully attended to by the ,persians1 and repaired every year4 ,for1 if the river were to burst through its banks and overflow at this point1 all ,memphis would be in danger of being swamped4 ,menes1 the oldest of their kings1 having thus drained the tract of land by means of the dyke1 built upon it the city now called ,memphis1 which lies in the mountain valley of ,egypt4 ,to the west and north he dug a lake round it1 which communicates with the river--on the east it is bounded by the ,nile--and afterwards erected in it a temple to ,vulcan1 a splendid edifice1 deserving of especial notice 7ii4 #dh74 ,bunsen fully endorses this account--,herodotus1 therefore1 has recorded the following fact1 that before the time of ,menes the ,nile overflowed the tract of country which he fixed upon as the site of his new metropolis 7p4 #di and p4 #ea74 ,there is no foundation whatever for ,andriossy's hypothesis that the story originated in the fact of the ,nile having once run westward from the ,pyramid mountains to ,bahr ,bela ,ma 7stream without water7 and the ,natron and ,mareotic ,lakes4 ,herodotus mentions an historical fact1 and describes the work of an historical king4 ,andriossy's hypothesis1 if well founded1 would belong to geology4 ,a sagacious and well-founded remark on the part of ,baron ,bunsen1 but1 as ,i submit1 equally applicable to the work of ,yao or ,yu4 ,merely noting that1 if the above work was really carried out by ,menes1 and it would have been1 from the point of view of ,genesis1 so carried out at a period contemporary with that of ,yao or ,yu--and1 moreover1 conceding to it in any case 7,i mean the work of ,menes7 a certain historical basis--let us dispassionately compare both with the passage from ,klaproth1 which ,i shall now extract4 ,it is taken from the ,sanscrit ,history of ,cashmere4#ee #ee ,klaproth says3--,the only ,sanscrit history deserving the name of the chronicle of the kings of ,kashmir1 ,radja ,paringin'i1 translated by ,w4 ,h4 ,wilson4--,klaproth1 ,mem4 ,relatif ,l',asie4 ,klaproth says3-- ,the ,hindoo history of ,kashmir assures us that the beautiful valley which forms this kingdom was originally a vast lake1 called ,satisaras4 ,this account is also agreeable to the local traditions of this country4 ,it was ,kasy'apa1 a holy person who1 according to the ,hindoo historians1 caused the waters which covered this valley to escape4 ,he was the son of ,marichi1 the son of ,brahma4 ,the ,mahometan writers call him ,kachef or ,kacheb1 and many of them pretend that he was a god1 or a genius1 and servant of ,soliman1 under whose orders he effected the drying up of ,kashmir4 ,to execute this task he made1 near ,baramanleh1 a passage across the mountains1 through which the water passed4444 ,the territory1 recovered in this way by ,kasy'apa1 was also peopled by this holy man1 with the assistance of the superior gods1 whom he brought for this purpose from heaven1 at the commencement of the seventh manwantara1 or that in which we are now4 ,klaproth adds3--,we must therefore suppose that ,kashmir has been subjected to the same periodical revolutions as the other parts of the world1 if we would reconcile this date with the ordinary chronology4#ef #ef ,compare the following account of existing customs in ,cashmir with the above extract from ,klaproth and ch4 xi41 with commemorative festivals of the ,deluge4 ,mr ,g4 ,g4 ,vigne 7,travels in ,kashmir1 ii4 #ic7 says3--,what has been poetically termed the feast of roses1 has of late years been rather the feast of signaras or water-nuts4 ,it is held1 ,i believe1 about the #ast ,may1 when plum-trees and roses are in full bloom1 and is called the ,shakergal1 from the ,persian shakergan1 to blow a blossom the ,mandan ceremony took place when the willow flowered4--,catlin1 p4 #f4 ,the richer classes come in boats to the foot of the ,tukt1 ascend it1 and have a feast upon the summit1 eating more particularly of signaras 7water-nuts74 ,the feast of the ,no-warh 7new place7 takes place at the vernal equinox compare ,noah1 ,taurus1 at which period the valley is said to have been drained4 ,it is held chiefly at the ,but or idol stone on ,hari parbut4 ,query--,can this be the ark or big canoe in the ,mandan celebration8 ,considering the prominence of boats in all these mysteries1 and considering the resemblance of but to boat1 and the like analogies in so many languages 7,sanskrit1 pota boat7 7vide ,vicomte d',anselme1 infra1 p4 #aif71 may we be permitted the conjecture until corrected4 ,compare also p4 #bfh1 ,ogilby's ,japan1 ,cook4 c41 p4 #bga4 ,it must1 ,i think1 be conceded that we have now before us three very similar accounts of works undertaken with reference to the reclamation of inundated land4 ,all are undertaken by the first founders of their respective kingdoms--kingdoms widely separated and inhabited by people of diverse race--and all1 more or less1 contemporaneously4 ,the ,egyptians and ,kashmerian have points in common as to their mode of reclamation1 whilst the ,chinese and ,kashmerian have still more in common with the narrative in ,genesis4#eg #eg ,i have since found this identical tradition 7vide p4 #cbe7 among the ,mozca ,indians4 ,boshicha1 it is said1 taught them to build and to sow1 formed them into communities1 ,,gave ,,an ,,outlet ,,to ,,the ,,waters ,,of ,,the ,,great ,,lake1 c4 ,this seems demonstratively to prove1 either that the ,mozca ,indians 7,south ,america7 came from ,china1 ,india1 or ,egypt--which ,i have contended for at p4 #bff--or else1 which makes the argument ,i have in hand stronger1 they have transmitted an identical tradition by a different channel4 ,four solutions occur to me as possible4 ,either they were obscure or perverted traditions of the ,deluge1 or their works were traditions of similar works effected by ,noah after the ,deluge2 or these works were actually carried out upon the precedent and model of similar works effected by ,noah2 or they were fortuitous coincidences4 ,upon either of the three former conclusions1 it will be shown that traditions of the ,deluge1 direct or indirect1 exist both in ,egypt and ,china1 where it has been so confidently asserted that no tradition is to be found2 and in the latter case1 what is more especially to my purpose1 a tradition which brings ,yao into relation with ,noah and ,hoang-ti4 ,in conclusion1 ,i must remark that when it is urged that there is no tradition1 or but slight tradition1 of the flood in ,egypt1 we have a right to reply that there is no country where we should have so little reason to expect it4 ,if there is any country where we should think it likely that the reminiscences of the ,deluge would be effaced1 it would be in a country periodically subject to inundations1 where the people are annually made familiar with its incidents1 and where its recurrence is not to them a cause of alarm1 but a matter of expectation and joy4#eh #eh ,the ,chinese who migrated before the ,deluge 7sic7 have no reminiscences1 any more than the ,egyptians1 of the great catastrophe which we know by the name of the ,flood of ,noah 7,bunsen's ,egypt1 iii4 #cig74 ,palmer 7,egypt4 ,chron41 i4 p4 #ch7 says1 with reference to a certain date--,this is only for such as know the true date of the flood1 the end of the old world--an epoch by no means to be named1 nor even directly alluded to1 by any ,egyptian4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,chronology ,,from ,,the ,,point ,,of ,,view ,,of ,,science4 ,although the testimony of history is definite and decisive as to the chronology of the world1 within the limits of a few hundred years1 there is a general assumption1 in all branches of scientific inquiry1 that man must have existed many thousand years beyond the period thus assigned to him4 ,lyell speaks of the vastness of time#ei required for his development1 and ,bunsen1 as we have seen1 requires twenty thousand years1 at least1 between the ,deluge and the nativity of our ,lord3 and wherefore this discrepancy8 ,because of a fundamental assumption--not merely hypothetical for the convenience of inquiry--but confident and absolute2 an assumption which1 so far as the argument is concerned1 is the very matter in dispute--that man must have progressed and developed to the point at which we see him4 #ei ,principles of ,geology1 tenth edition1 #ahfh1 ii4 p4 #dga4 ,at the same time1 the actual chronology cannot be altogether ignored1 and some cognisance must be taken of the facts which history presents to us2 and it is this unfortunate exigency1 interrupting the placid course of development1 which not unfrequently lands scientific inquirers of the first eminence in difficulties from which it will take an indefinite lapse of time to extricate them2 ex4 gra41 ,bunsen1 in his ,egypt1 iii4 #cgi1 says-- ,it has been more than once remarked1 in the course of this work1 that the connection between the ,chinese and the ,egyptians belongs1 in several of its phases1 to the general history of the world4 ,the ,chinese language is the furthest point beyond that of the formation of the ,egyptian language1 which represents1 as compared with it1 the middle ages of mankind1--viz41 the ,turanian and ,chamitic stages of development4 ,the conclusion of philology 7vide also ,brace's ,ethnology1 p4 #aad7 is1 therefore1 that the ,turanian or ,chamitic grew out of the more inorganic and elementary ,chinese4 ,now1 let us compare ,lyell's conclusions with ,bunsen's4 ,lyell equally believes 7,principles of ,geology1 ii4 #dga7 that three or four thousand years is but a minute fraction of the time required to bring about such wide divergence from a common parent stock1 'as between' the ,negroes and ,greeks and ,jews1 ,mongols and ,hindoos1 represented on the ,egyptian monuments4 ,at the same time1 he endorses ,sir ,john ,lubbock's view1 and pronounces1 upon what appears to me very light and insufficient grounds 7ii4 #dgi71 that the theory1 therefore1 that the savage races have been degraded from a previous state of civilisation may be rejected3 and by implication that the civilised races have progressed from the savage state may be affirmed4#fj #fj ,the ground upon which ,lyell pronounces this judgment is 7ii4 #dgi7 that no fragment of pottery has been found among the nations of ,australia1 ,new ,zealand1 and the ,polynesian islands any more than ancient architectural remains1 in all which respects1 these rude men now living1 resemble the men of the ,palolithic age2 when pottery is known to all1 it is always abundant1 and1 though easy to break1 is difficult to destroy4 ,it is improbable that so useful an art should ever have been lost by any race of man4 ,the argument is strongly put1 but many things are left out of consideration4 ,supposing the primitive knowledge1 is not pottery one of the arts which would be most likely to be lost in a migration across the seas8 ,again1 that they had no pottery1 and that the ,palolithic age had no pottery1 shows that in the interval there had been no progress4 ,when will there be8 ,as to the circumstance that it is the same among the ,australians and ,polynesians1 the fact cuts both ways4 ,you assume that there is a uniformity in progress1 but may not there be the same uniformity in the processes of degradation8 and1 assuming the fact1 may it not simply prove that these savages have reached the same depth as the other savages8--,vide appendix to ch4 xii4 ,i have1 then1 only to assume one point that ,sir ,c4 ,lyell will concede1 the order of progress or development to have been from black to white1 and that he will pay us the compliment of being the more favoured race4 ,but of all the races that are akin to the ,mongol or ,turanian1 the ,chinese are the whitest1 and most nearly approach the ,european in colour4 ,how many years1 then1 may we suppose that it took the ,chinese to progress from the black state of the ,egyptian8 as many1 let us conjecture1 as it took the ,egyptian to progress linguistically from the state of the ,chinese or ,mongol6 ,this is one instance of the entanglement in which the theory of progress1 pure and simple1 from a parent stock will involve us4 ,the obvious mode of escape would be to deny the unity of the human race1 a conclusion which would at once land us in the darkness of a still lower abyss1 and convert our processes from being scientific in form and hopeful of result1 into empirical and aimless conjectures4 ,for either the theory is started that the various races of mankind were created separately1 in which case we fly into the face of the only account we have of creation1 and also of the multiform testimonies which history and science bring to attest this truth1 and we1 moreover1 debar ourselves from falling back upon any uniform theory applicable to the whole human race2 or if1 without advertence to creation1 we suppose mankind to have been variously developed1 here again we shall equally find ourselves cut off from the application of any uniform historical theory1 equally unable to account for or to exclude the testimony of history1 and in the end reduced to the evidences1 whatever they may be worth1 of certain real or fancied analogies4#fa ,at this point1 the historical inquiry will be virtually abandoned1 and the records of the past merged in the phenomena of life1 will be considered only in the light of some pantheistic or materialistic theory1 or1 so far as it is distinguishable1 of some theory of evolution4 #fa ,the following passage from ,m4 ,a4 ,bastian's article in ,the ,academy1 ,june #ae1 #ahga1 ,on the ,people of ,india1 seems to me to afford an illustration in point--,the natural system becomes an indispensable necessity in every science1 so soon as it is clearly seen that the question is not of classification1 but of observation of1 and insight into1 law4 ,classification was long held to be the sole end1 instead of being merely or mainly the means of study4 ,as1 in this respect1 systematic botany gave place to vegetable physiology1 so1 in like manner1 ethnology will have to look upon its classification of race--with which the school books hitherto have been almost exclusively occupied--as merely a preliminary step towards a physiology of mankind1 and to a science of the laws which govern its spiritual growth4 ,now1 if no physiology of mankind1 in the sense here intended1 can be traced1 and if the science of the laws which govern its spiritual growth 7vide infra1 an exposition of ,mr ,baring ,gould's theory7 has come to no definite conclusion1 then the only result1 as far as science is concerned1 will have been the revolutionising of its classifications1 and the classifications of the different races of men 7and1 in so far as they have been accurately ascertained1 their confusion will be matter of regret7 is the legitimate and ultimate end of ethnology under normal conditions4 ,i am no longer concerned with any of these theories the moment they discard the historical element2 and ,i shall1 accordingly1 return to the theory of ,sir ,john ,lubbock1 which is honestly based upon it4 ,when all is said1 ,i cannot make out that ,sir ,john adduces any argument in favour of the antiquity of the human race which does not resolve itself into the contrast between our civilisation and the degradation of savages2 and that the time which must have elapsed to bring about this transformation is measured by the fact that the negro1 of the true ,nigritian stamp1 appears upon the ,egyptian monuments1 at least as far back as ,b4,c4 #bdjj4 ,historians1 philologists1 and physiologists have alike admitted that the short period allowed in ,archbishop ,usher's chronology could hardly be reconciled with the history of some ,eastern nations1 and that it did not leave room for the development either of the different languages or of the numerous physical peculiarities by which various races of men are distinguished4#fb ,as no facts in the history of ,eastern nations are adduced1 ,i shall consider that this part of the argument has been sufficiently disposed of in the preceding chapters1 and if they had been adduced1 ,i venture to think that they would have been interpreted by the latter part of the sentence1 and would have been incompatible with the chronology1 only because they did not allow sufficient time for the development1 c4 ,of this sort of fact1 ,i admit1 nothing stronger can be adduced than the case of the negro on the ,egyptian monuments1 only ,i wish to direct attention to the different aspect these facts will bear when the theory of progress is not assumed as an infallible proposition4 ,moreover1 as ,mr ,poole1 whom ,sir ,j4 ,lubbock very candidly quotes1 points out1 in the interval between this and #bdjj ,b4,c4 we do not find the least change in the negro or the ,arab2 and even the type which seems to be intermediate between them1 is virtually as unaltered4 ,those who consider that length of time can change a type of man1 will do well to consider the fact that three thousand years give no ratio on which a calculation could be founded4 ,so that if ,arch4 ,usher had expanded his chronology so as to take in the twenty thousand years ,bunsen requires1 it really would not appreciably have affected the argument4 ,sir ,j4 ,lubbock1 indeed1 says 7p4 #dgg7--;,i am1 however1 not aware that it is supposed by any school of ethnologists that 'time' alone1 without a change of external conditions1 will produce an alteration of type4 ,let us1 he continues1 turn now to the instances relied on by ,mr ,crawford4 ,the millions1 he says1 of ,african negroes that have1 during three centuries1 been transported to the ,new ,world and its islands1 are the same in colour as the present inhabitants of the parent country of their forefathers4 ,the ,creole ,spaniards 444 are as fair as the people of ,arragon and ,andalusia4 ,the pure ,dutch ,creole colonists of the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 after dwelling two centuries among black ,caffres and yellow ,hottentots1 do not differ in colour from the people of ,holland4 ,the strongest case is1 perhaps1 that of the ,american ,indians1 who do not vary from a uniform copper colour in north or south--in ,canada or on the line4#fc ,in these instances1 ,sir ,j4 ,lubbock says3--,we have great change of circumstances1 but a very insufficient lapse of time1 and1 in fact1 there is no well authenticated case he does not1 however1 advert to the case of the ,indians1 which seems to satisfy both conditions in which these two requisites are united1 444 and adds1 there is already a marked difference between the ,english of ,europe and the ,english of ,america2 but is full allowance made here for admixture of race8 and1 also1 is his instance to the point8 ,is not the difficulty rather that1 whereas climate1 food1 change of circumstances have 7for1 ,i think1 the balance of the argument is on that side71 in many ways1 modified other races 7though whether to the extent of destroying the characteristic type1 may be open to question71 the negro has resisted these influences1 and has remained the same negro that we find him #bdjj ,b4,c48 ,consider that it is only a question of degree1 and that it is merely true that the negro has resisted these influences more persistently than other races4#fd ,still the contrast is not the less startling when we find the negro in the same relative position1 and with the same stamp of inferiority1 that we find indelibly impressed upon him four thousand years ago8 ,it is a case which neither the theory of progress1 nor the theory of degeneracy1 seems to touch4 #fb ,sir ,j4 ,lubbock's ,prehistoric ,times1 p4 #cac4 #fc ,it has almost passed into a proverb1 says ,morton--who is among those who know the ,americans best--that he who has seen one ,indian tribe has seen them all1 so closely do the individuals of this race resemble each other1 whatever may be the variety or the extent of the countries they inhabit4 ,reusch's ,la ,bible et la ,nature1 vide also ,card4 ,wiseman's ,lect4 on ,science and ,rev4 ,rel4 lect4 iv41 vide1 however1 ,reusch1 p4 #dih1 where a remarkable difference in the cranium is noticed1 sometimes approaching the ,malay1 sometimes the ,mongol shape4 #fd ,that the negro has undergone modifications1 seems established by the fact that we nowhere find all the characteristics of the negro united in any one case--unless1 perhaps1 in the case of the negroes of ,guinea1 to which ,i have alluded4 ,yet1 in the people who border them1 there has been noticed un retour vers des formes superieures4 ,the ,yoloss1 out le front lev1 des machoires peu saillantes1 leurs dents sont droites1 et ils sont en gnral bein constitus1 mais ils sont tout fait noirs4 ,leurs voisins1 les ,mandingues1 tiennent beaucoup plus du type ngre 444 mais leur teint est beaucoup moins noir4--,de ,bur4 ap4 ,reusch1 p4 #eje4 ,but under no influences of climate has the negro ever become white like the ,european1 or the ,european black like the inhabitant of ,guinea2 if they become darker1 c'est simplement la teint particulier leur race qui gagne en intensit4--,burminster1 ap4 ,reusch1 p4 #eji4 ,but it is a case which ,de ,maistre's view exactly solves4 ,now1 however much we may rebel against ,de ,maistre's theory1 that the early races of mankind were endowed with higher and more intuitive moral faculties than ours1 and1 whether or not1 we accept his dictum that great punishments pre-suppose great knowledge1 and reversely1 that higher knowledge implies the liability to great punishments1 ,i do not see how we can refuse to consider the matter1 so far as to see whether the view solves all the difficulties of the question4 ,it is not the first time that the blackness of the ,african race has been connected in theory with a curse2 but ,de ,maistre's theory throws a new light on the malediction--whether it be the curse of ,cham or of ,chanaan1 or whether both were smitten1 according to different degrees of culpability3 and ,i maintain1 further1 that it is adequate to the explanation of the phenomena1 that it does not clash with history1 and that it is sustained by tradition4 ,nevertheless1 ,i apprehend that this view will be as much combated from the point of view of scriptural exegesis1 as of scientific speculation4 ,yet the curse of ,cham1 or of ,chanaan1 affecting all their posterity1 ought not in reason to be more revolting even to those who have never realised what sin is1 than the narrative of the fall of ,adam and ,eve with its direful consequences4 ,the theory seems perfectly conformable to ,scripture1 and to what we know of the secrets of the ,divine judgments4 ,the picture of ,cham1 or ,chanaan1 stricken with blackness1 does not present a more sudden or more terrible retribution to the mind than the ,fall of the ,angels4 ,how many thousand years did it take to transform ,lucifer into ,satan8 or the primitive ,adam into the ,adam feeling shame1 and conscious of decay1 want1 and the doom of death8 ,on the other hand1 blackness1 from the commencement1 has been associated with evil4 ,to this it may be replied that this is the sentiment merely of the white races--a natural prejudice of colour1 an ex parte deduction2 and to this argument1 if such is the view really taken by the black races1 and if no consciousness can be detected of their degradation amongst themselves1 ,i see no other reply than this1 ,that since1 ex hypothesi1 they are black because they are cursed1 the tradition of this curse would be more naturally preserved by the white races than by the black4 ,but is there no consciousness of this inferiority in the true negro8 ,without looking at the matter from the same point of view1 ,i may appeal to ,captain ,burton's statements on this point as to a fully competent1 if not the highest1 authority that can be quoted on points of ,african travel4 ,in the first place1 he notices the confusion of the mixed and the mulatto with the full-blooded negro4 ,by the latter word ,i understand the various tribes of intertropical ,africa1 unmixed with ,european or ,asiatic blood 7,dahome1 ii4 #ahg72 and p4 #aic1 ,i have elsewhere given reasons for suspecting1 in the great ,kafir family1 a considerable mixture of ,arab1 ,persian1 and other ,asiatic blood3 and as to the particular point in question1 he says 7p4 #bjj71 ,the negro will obey a white man more readily than a mulatto1 and a mulatto rather than one of his own colour4 ,he never thinks of claiming equality with the ,aryan race except when taught4 ,at ,whydat1 the ,french missionaries remark that their scholars always translate 'white and black by master and slave4' ,p4 #ahi1 ,one of ,mr ,prichard's few good generalisations is1 that as a rule the darker and dingier the ,african tribe1 the more degraded is its organisation4#fe ,i find a very similar testimony in ,crawford's ,hist4 of the ,indian ,archipelago1 i4 #ah4 ,he says1 ,the brown and negro races of the ,archipelago may be considered to present1 in their physical and moral characters1 a complete parallel with the white and negro races in the western world4 ,the first has always displayed as great a relative superiority over the second1 as the race of white men have done over the negroes of the west4 ,yet at p4 #bj he says1 ,the ,javanese1 who live most comfortably1 are among the darkest people in the ,archipelago1 the wretched ,dyaks1 or cannibals of ,borneo1 among the fairest4 ,it must be noted1 however1 that the ,javanese have also preserved something of primitive tradition--e4g4 their marriage ceremony4 ,and1 moreover1 it is not at all essential to the argument to prove that the negroes are the most degraded race4 ,let it be said that they have had their curse1 and that the sign of the curse is in their blackness--this is merely equivalent to saying that they are cursed pro tanto2 but it by no means follows that other races have not fallen to lower depths1 and incurred a deeper reprobation4#ff #fe ,captain ,burton 7ii4 #afe7 also quotes a ,catholic and a ,protestant missionary as to this point4 ,m4 ,wallon says1 ,avec leur tendance nous considrer comme rellement suprieurs eux1 et leur croyance que cette supriorit nous est acquise par celle de notre ,dieu1 ils renonceraient bientt aux leurs idoles pour adorer celui qui nous leur prions de connatre4 ,mr ,dawson says1 ,fetish has been strengthened by the white man1 whom the ignorant blacks would not scruple to call a god if he could avoid death4 ,assuming the identity of ,bacchus and ,noah1 it is a striking circumstance1 from this point of view1 that the name of ,bacchus1 among the ,phoenicians1 was a synonymous term for mourning4--,vide ,hesychius in ,bryant's ,mythology1 ii4 #cce2 vide also the verses of ,theocritus4 ,comp4 p4 #bdg1 note 7,boulanger74 #ff ,perhaps ,captain ,burton's phrase 7ii4 #agh71 the arrested physical development of the negro1 may1 if extended to his mental development1 exactly hit the truth1 the standard being fixed by the age at which we conceive the boy ,chanaan's development to have been arrested4--,comp4 ,wallace1 infra1 p4 #ia2 comp4 #bag4 ,among the ,sioux ,indians1 and in the isle of ,tonga 7,oceanica71 ,i find trace of the tradition of blackness as a curse1 and ,i should think it likely that other instances might be discovered4 ,the former 7the ,sioux71 in their reminiscences of the ,deluge1 relate1 ,the water remained on the earth only two days 7for the two months during which the ,scripture says it was at its height71 at the expiration of which the ,master of ,life1 seeing that they had need of fire1 sent it them by a white crow1 which1 stopping to devour carrion1 allowed the fire to be extinguished4 ,he returned to heaven to seek it4 ,the ,great ,spirit drove it away1 and punished it by striking it black4--,annales de la ,prop4 de la ,foi1 l4 iv4 #ecg2 ,gainet1 i4 #baa4 ,in ,tonga1 the tradition is connected with this history of ,cain3-- ,the god ,tangaloa1#fg who first inhabited this earth1 is this ,adam4 ,he had two sons1 who went to live at ,boloton4444 ,the younger was very clever4 ,tonbo 7the eldest7 was very different2 he did nothing but walk about1 sleep1 and covet the works of his brother4 ,one day he met his brother out walking1 and knocked him down4 ,then their father arrived at ,boloton1 and in great anger said1 ',why has thou killed thy brother4 ,fly1 wretched man2 fly4 ,your race shall be black1 and your soul depraved2 you shall labour without success4 ,begone2 you shall not go to the land of your brother1 but your brother shall come sometimes to trade with you4' ,and he said to the family of the victim1 ',go towards the great land2 your skin shall be white2 you shall excel in all good things4'--,gainet1 i4 #ic4fh #fg ,annales de ,philos4 ,chret41 t4 xiii4 p4 #bce4 #fh ,the expressions in the latter part of this narration recall the blessing of ,jacob1 and suggests the possibility of the tradition having come through descendants of ,esau4 ,cardinal ,wiseman 7in his ,science and ,revealed ,religion1 lect4 iii471 says1 with reference to ,aristotle's distribution of mankind into races by colour3-- ,there is a passage in ,julius ,firmicus1 overlooked by the commentators of ,aristotle1 which gives us the same ternary division1 with the colours of each race4 ',in the first place1' he writes1 'speaking of the characters and colours of men1 they agree in saying1--if by the mixed influence of the stars1 the characters and complexions of men are distributed2 and if the course of the heavenly bodies1 by a certain kind of artful painting1 form the lineaments of mortal bodies2 that is1 if the moon makes men white1 ,mars red1 and ,saturn black1 how comes it that in ,ethiopia all are born black1 in ,germany white1 and in ,thrace red8'--,astronomicon1 lib4 i41 c4 i41 ed4 ,basil4 #aeea1 p4 #c4 ,now this passage seems to me to have a still further significance in the words ,i have italicised1 with reference to the argument ,i have in hand4 ,it transpires1 therefore1 that the ancients had the notion that ,saturn made men black1 which provoked the natural query1 why then are only the ,ethiopians black8 ,that it should ever have been supposed that the distant ,saturn1 astronomically regarded1 should have had such an influence is preposterous1 but if the mythological personage1 ,saturn1 ch4 x41 has been sufficiently identified with ,noah1 and the deification of the hero in the planet 7comp4 pp4 #aei1 #afa7 probable1 the notion that he made men black1 must be the tradition of the event we are considering4 ,i have elsewhere traced the fulfilment of the text which says that ,canaan shall be the servant of servants to his brethren2 but as the following extract from ,klaproth1 in evidence of the same1 has also its significance with reference to the point ,i am now considering--viz4 the curse of blackness--,i prefer to give it a place here3--,sakhalian oudehounga est expliqu en ,chinois par ',khian chon1' et par 'li chu1' ce qui signifie les 'ttes noires' et le 'peuple noir1' expression par laquelle on designe la 'bas peuple' ou les 'paysans4' ,cette une expression usite dans plusieures pays ,asiatiques ainsi qu'en ,russie4--,klaproth1 ,mem4 ,relatif a l',asie2 vide strictures on ,pere ,amyot's ,mandchou ,dict4 ,in the oldest books of the ,zendavasta1 virtue and vice are personified as white and black4 ,the contrast between good and evil is strongly and sharply marked in the ,gths4444 ,they go a step further and personify the two parties to the struggle4 ,one is a 'white1' or holy spirit 7spent mainyus71 and the other1 a 'dark' spirit 7angr mainyus74 ,but this personification is merely poetical or metaphysical1 not real4--,rawlinson's ,ancient ,monarchies1 iii4 p4 #ajf4 ,the contrast1 however1 between good and evil1 as white and black was the genuine expression of their idea or tradition4 7,hung4 ap4 ,bunsen1 iii4 p4 #dgf1 admits1 at least in one instance in the ,gths1 an angra 7'black'7 is put in opposition to the white1 or more holy spirit47 ,mr ,hunter 7,rural ,bengal1 p4 #aad7 says of the primitive ,aryans in ,india--,the ancient singer praises the god who 'destroyed the ,dasyans and protected the ,aryan colour 7,rig4 ,veda41 iii4 pp4 #cd-ci71 and the thunderer1 who bestowed on his white friends the fields1 c4 ,whatever obscurity may attach to the latter passage1 there can be no doubt of the abhorrence with which the singers speak1 again and again1 of the black skin1 444 e4g4 the sacrificer poured out thanks to his god for 'scattering the slave bands of black descent4' ,although ,i believe the idea was traditional and had reference to the curse1 ,i will concede that it might have arisen primarily in the contrast of night and day1 light and darkness4 ,but does this settle the question8 ,on the contrary1 fortified with this explanation1 ,i return to my argument with those1 who say that blackness is a mere prejudice of race1 and that it is not demonstrable that it is the sign of a curse1 or the mark of inferiority4 ,does not ,nature herself proclaim it1 in her contrast of light and darkness8 ,day and night1 ,i imagine1 would be recognised as apt symbols of error and evil as opposed to truth and goodness1 even among the black races1 irrespective of any consciousness or reminiscence of their degradation4 ,accordingly1 the deeds of evil in ,scripture are spoken of as the works of darkness4 ,it may be1 therefore1 that the idea of blackness as a curse is derived primitively from its association with the darkness of night2 but the fact remains that blackness is connected in our minds with a curse1#fi and there is the further fact that a black race exists1 and has existed during four thousand years1 with this mark of inferiority upon it 7compare sup4 ch4 iii4 ix47 #fi ,this is so much in tradition as to be a matter of common parlance--for instance1 when the late ,emperor of the ,french is depicted1 this is the language which1 upon a certain construction1 appears most natural--,on the other side stands a phalanx of satirists1 represented by ,victor ,hugo4 ,the only colour on the palette of those artists is lamp black4 ,morally they paint the ex-,emperor as dark as a negro1 array him in the livery of the devil1 and then invoke the execration of history4--,spectator1 ,sept4 #agth1 #ahgj4 ,but a point of some difficulty remains to be determined--viz4 what precisely was the race which came under this ban4 ,was it the whole descent of ,ham1 or only the posterity of ,chanaan 8 ,hales1 in his learned work on chronology 7i4 p4 #cdd71 discusses this question4 ,he says that1 whereas-- ,even the most learned expositors 7,bochart and ,mede7 have implicitly adopted the appropriation of the curse of servitude to ,ham and his posterity4 ,yet the integrity of the received text of prophecy1 limiting the curse to ',canaan' singly1 is fully supported by the concurrence of the ,massorite and ,samaritan ,hebrew texts1 with all the other ancient versions except the ,arabian2 and is acknowledged1 we see1 by ,josephus and ,abulfaragi 7sup471 who evidently confine the curse to ,canaan--though they inconsistently consider ,ham as the offender1 and are not a little embarrassed to exempt him and the rest of his children#gj from the operation of the curse--an exemption1 indeed1 attested by sacred and profane history2 for ,ham himself had his full share of earthly blessings1 his son ,misr colonised ,egypt1 thence styled the land of ,ham 7,ps4 cv4 #bc71 which soon became one of the earliest1 most civilised1 and flourishing kingdoms of antiquity1 and was established before ,abraham's days 7,gen4 xii4 #ad-bj71 and in the glorious reign of ,sesostris 444 while ,ham's posterity1 in the line of ,cush1 not only founded the first ,assyrian empire1 under ,nimrod1 but also the ,persian 7871 the ,grecian 7871 and the ,roman 787 empires1 in direct contradiction to the unguarded assertion of ,mede that 'there hath never yet been a son of ,ham that hath shaken a sceptre over the head of ,japheth4' ,how1 then1 is the propriety of the curse exclusively to ,canaan to be vindicated8--evidently by considering him as the only guilty person 444 upon the very ingenious conjecture of ,faber1 that the 'youngest son' who offended was not ,ham1 but ,canaan--not the son1 but the grandson of ,noah4 ,for the original1 'his little son1' according to the latitude of the ,hebrew idiom1 may denote a grandson1 by the same analogy that ,nimrod4444 this 7the former7 interpretation is supported by ancient ,jewish tradition1 ',boresith ,rabba1' sec4 #cg1 recorded also by ,theodoret 444 the tradition1 indeed1 also adds that ,ham joined in the mockery1 but for this addition there seems no sufficient grounds4 #gj ,the italics are mine4 ,there is1 however1 the tradition1 and1 moreover1 a distinct tradition that ,ham was black4 ,sir ,j4 ,gardner ,wilkinson1 in his ,manners and ,customs of the ,ancient ,egyptians1 i41 says-- ,the ,hebrew word ,ham is identical with the ,egyptian ,khem1 being properly written ,khm1 ,kham1 or ,khem1 and is the same which the ,egyptians themselves gave to their country in the sculptures of the earliest and latest periods 7#bfa74 ,egypt was denominated ,chemi 7,khemi71 or the land of ,ham1 as we find in the hieroglyphic legends2 and the city of ,khem1 or ,panopolis1 was called in ,egyptian ,chemmo1 of which evident traces are preserved in that of the modern town ,e',khmim 7#bfj74 ,besides the hieroglyphic group1 composed of the two above alluded to 7#bfj71 indicating ,egypt1 was one consisting of an eye1 and the sign land1 which bore the same signification2 and since the pupil1 or black of the eye1 was called ,chemi1 we may conclude this to be a phonetic mode of writing the name of ,egypt1 which ,plutarch pretends was called ,chemmia1 from the blackness of its soil 7#bfc74 ,chame is black in ,coptic1 ,egypt is ,chemi1 and it is remarkable that khom or chom is used in ,hebrew for black or brown1 as in ,gen4 xxx4 #cb-dj4--;,id4 ,here then1 at any rate1 the name of ,ham or ,cham is curiously associated with blackness1 and must have been so associated from the commencement of ,egyptian history4 ,i leave it to the ,egyptologist to decide whether the presumption is stronger that the name of ,egypt1 identical with that of ,ham1 was originally derived from the blackness of its soil1 or from the blackness of him whose name was identical with it 7the land of ,ham being both the scriptural and ,egyptian appellation71 more especially when the eye 7apparently a personal or historical1 not certainly a geographical allusion7 was used as an equivalent hieroglyphic symbol for land4#ga #ga ,the eye would be the very most apposite symbol for blackness1 if we consider that blackness lingers there after the skin has become white1 and1 in the case of half-breeds1 is the test of descent in gradations even beyond1 ,i believe1 the octoroon4 ,captain ,king 7,narrative of a ,survey of the ,intertropical and ,western ,coasts of ,australia1 ii4 ,append47 says1 ,that although there is the greatest diversity of words among the ,australian tribes1 the equivalent for 'eye' is common to them all4 ,here1 as in other instances1 if we follow the strict lines of tradition1 it seems to me that we shall escape all the difficulties which are usually alleged against it4 ,it will result then that1 although according to the text of ,scripture1 the curse of servitude was limited to the posterity of ,chanaan2 yet1 seeing that the criminality was common to ,ham and ,chanaan1 according to the tradition referred to1 and as is1 moreover1 implied in the marked manner in which ,scripture 7,gen4 xviii4 #bb7 indicates ,cham as the father of ,chanaan1 it is presumable that1 if blackness was the concomitant of the curse1 it extended to both ,ham and ,chanaan1 and1 by implication1 to their posterity1 but then after the curse4 ,as ,chanaan1 according to the tradition1 was then a boy1 all his children would have been affected by the curse2 but does it follow that all ,ham's descent was involved in the malediction8 ,this would be to suppose a retrospective curse1 for which the only analogy would be the hypothesis that if ,adam had sinned after the birth of ,cain and ,abel1 they and their posterity would also have incurred the guilt of original sin4 ,now the sons of ,ham were 7,gen4 x4 #f7 ,chus and ,mesram and ,phuth and ,chanaan1 i4e41 ,chus and ,mesram and ,phuth were the elder brothers of ,chanaan1 and therefore not the children of ,ham after the pronouncement of the curse4 ,if1 then1 we find the children of ,mesram dark1 but without the negro features or the blackness of ,canaan2 if ,sesostris1 his descendant1 was a great conqueror2 if ,nimrod1 the son of ,chus1 was a powerful chieftain1 and the founder of the ,assyrian empire2 if nothing is known of the posterity of ,phuth beyond the conjecture that they were the ,lybians--in a word1 if the descent from these three sons does not bear out the evidence of the curse1 can it be said to militate at all against the hypothesis of the curse of ,ham as well as of ,canaan8 ,moreover1 if there are differences among the black races which may present difficulties1 would not the knowledge that there may have been a posterity of ,ham1 born after the curse1#gb go far to remove them8 ,hales1 indeed1 assumes that ,ham himself had his full share of earthly blessings2 his son ,misr colonised ,egypt1 c4 7as sup472 but this prosperity1 as he indicates it1 is only seen in the prosperity of his three sons1 whom ,i assume to have been exempt from the curse4 ,it must be remembered1 however1 that the occult science of the ,cainites was said to have been preserved by the family of ,ham1 and1 as we have seen1 the taint was in the race4#gc #gb ,lenormant1 ,manuel d',histoire ,ancienne1 i4 #bc1 makes a similar suggestion as to this point--,la texte de la ,bible n'a rien qui s'oppose formellement l'hypothse que ,no aurait eu1 postrieurement au deluge1 d'autres enfants que ,sem1 ,cham1 et ,japhet1 d'o seraient sorties les races qui ne figurent pas dans la gnalogie de ces trois personnages4 ,but two objections seem to me to be fatal to this view4 ,the races about whom this difficulty would be raised would be the red and black races3 why should it be surmised that the supposed posterity of ,noah1 after the ,deluge1 should have this mark of inferiority8 ,in the second place1 it does seem to be formally opposed to ,gen4 x4 #cb--,these are the families of ,noe1 according to their peoples and nations4 ,by these were the nations divided on the earth after the flood4 ,the red races might perhaps be accounted for by ,gen4 xxv4 #bc-be4 #gc ,there appears to me1 however1 a text to which attention might be directed4 ,we know that the ,ethiopians were black1 but in ,amos ix4 #g1 where ,god is expressing ,his anger against ,his people1 ,he says1 ,are you not as the children of the ,ethiopians unto me1 ,o children of ,israel1 saith the ,lord4 ,i am very far from claiming for these theories any special ecclesiastical countenance and authority4 ,i have already intimated my opinion that1 on the whole1 they would be as much opposed from the point of view of scriptural exegesis as from that of unbelief4 ,it will be said1 for instance1 that there is evidence in ,scripture of the curse of ,canaan1 but no proof that blackness was the concomitant effect of the curse2 and certainly it is not ,scripture which affirms this1 but only tradition4 ,to those who admit the curse1 but deny the consequences which tradition attributes to it1 ,i would oppose an almost identical argument with that which accounts for all differences in the human race by geographical location4 ,i do not know where this argument is more forcibly put than in ,latham's ,ethnology4 ,there it is seemingly demonstrated that certain conditions1 not merely of colour1 but moral and intellectual1 are the inseparable accompaniments of geographical location4 ,grant it1 pro argumento1 but ,i am arguing now upon the scriptural evidence1 and with one with whom ,i assume ,i have a common belief in its inspiration4 ,it is true1 then1 that the curse of blackness is not recorded1 but the distribution of the races is at least implied3 ,deut4 xxxii4 #h1 ,when the ,most ,high divided the nations1 when ,he separated the sons of ,adam1 he appointed the bounds of people according to the number of the children of ,israel2 and ,acts xvii4 #bf1 ,and hath made of one all mankind1 to dwell upon the whole face of the earth1 determining appointed times1 and the limits of their habitation4 7,the ,prot4 version translates1 ,having appointed the predetermined seasons and boundaries of their dwellings4 ,vide ,hales's ,chron41 i4 #cea1 who adds that this was conformable to their own allegory that ,chronos1 the god of time1 or ,saturn1 divided the universe among his three sons47#gd #gd ,vide also ch4 x41 p4 #bci4 ,the tradition that ,phoroneus1 the father of mankind1 distributed the nations over the earth1 idem nationes distribuit4 ,if1 then1 the different races of mankind1 according to their merits or demerits1 were apportioned to1 or miraculously directed or impelled to1 respective portions of the earth1 which necessarily superinduced certain effects1 is not the curse as apparent in its indirect operation as it would have been in its suddenness and directness8 ,this consideration must1 ,i think1 bring those who raise scriptural difficulties against the theory to the admission that blackness was a sign of inferiority1 and that certain races were either smitten with1 or were predestined to1 in consequence of culpability1 this degradation4 ,this1 ,i admit1 is no reply to those who argue from the evidence of the ,egyptian monuments4 ,but the evidence from the monuments1 so far from embarrassing my conclusion1 seems absolutely to enforce it4 ,if1 indeed1 the evidence from the monuments did not stare one in the face1 we might fall back upon the line of argument which ,i have just indicated1 and whilst recognising in their blackness the operation of a curse1 trace it in the lapse of centuries and the influences of the torrid zone4 ,but they are recorded as being black on the earliest monuments known to us1 and within a few centuries of the ,deluge4 ,the conclusion1 therefore1 seems inevitable1 that they were so from the commencement1 which exactly hits in with the tradition of the curse of ,canaan4 ,such1 from his own point of view1 is the conclusion of ,sir ,j4 ,lubbock 7,prehistoric ,times1 p4 #dgh7-- ,if there is any truth in this view of the subject 7p4 #dgh71 it will necessarily follow that the principal varieties of man are of great antiquity1 and1 in fact1 go back almost to the very origin of the human race4 ,we may then cease to wonder that the earliest paintings on ,egyptian tombs represent so accurately several various varieties still existing in those regions1 and that the ,engis skull1 probably the most ancient yet found in ,europe1 so closely resembles many that may be seen even at the present day4 ,the following conclusion of ,mr ,wallace also exactly coincides with ,de ,maistre's view4 ,lyell1 in his ,principles of ,geology 7ii4 #dga7 says-- ,wallace suggests that at some former period man's corporeal frame must have been more pliant and variable than it is now2 for1 according to the observed rate of fluctuation in modern times1 scarcely any conceivable lapse of ages would suffice to give rise to such an amount of differentiation4 ,he therefore concludes1 that when first the mental and moral qualities of man acquired predominance1 his bodily frame ceased to vary4 ,but1 although science in its own way may arrive at approximations to the truth1 yet1 if the traditional solution be true1 assuredly it is not a solution which will be reached by any merely scientific process2 and therefore1 if it should be the truth1 the ethnological difficulty will remain an enigma and embarrassment to the learned in all time to come4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,palmer ,,on ,,egyptian ,,chronology4 ,having probed the chronologies of ,india1 ,babylonia1 ,phoenicia1#ge ,china1 c41 and having found that one and all1 when touched with the talisman of history1 shrink within the limits of the ,septuagint1 and even of the ,hebrew text1 we come1 perforce1 to the conclusion1 that there is one nation1 and one only1 which presents a prim facie antiquity irreconcileable with ,holy ,writ--viz4 ,egypt4 #ge ,vide ante ch4 iv42 and also vide ,palmer1 i4 #di4 ,this impression is sustained by the knowledge1 somewhat indefinite and in something disturbed1 that the ,egyptian tradition had always attributed a fabulous antiquity to the dynasties of its kings1 and that these dynasties have been marvellously resuscitated through the discovery which has enabled us to decipher the inscriptions on their tombs and monuments4 ,my reader need not fear1 however1 lest ,i should plunge him into the chaos of hieroglyphics2 not1 indeed1 that much has not been rescued from the abyss1 and that there is not good expectation of more to come1 but when once it is established1 as we may now consider to be the case1 that many of these dynasties were cotemporaneous1 and not successive1 an uncertainty is introduced which again reduces the chronology to primitive chaos1 although floating objects in it1 the dbris of tombs and dynasties1 remain clearly distinguishable1 and1 in point of fact1 have been perfectly identified4 ,if we had no other evidence1 ,i should feel irresistibly drawn to the dictum of ,m4 ,mariette 7ap4 ,mgr4 ,meignan1 ,l',homme ,primitif1 p4 #cia71 ,le plus grand de tous les obstacles l'tablissement d'une chronologie gyptienne regulire1 c'est que les ,egyptiens eux-mmes n'ont jamais eu de chronologie4 ,i shall1 on the contrary1 from another point of view1 attempt to show1 not only that they had a chronology1 but that this chronology has actually been re-discovered and re-constituted4 ,in the conviction that this is the case1 and that it is not sufficiently known that it is so1 ,i shall devote some space to an abstract of ,mr ,william ,palmer's ,egyptian ,chronicles 7#ahfa71 in which it appears to me that this exposition and solution is to be found4 ,mr ,palmer at least has brought the ,egyptian chronology 7upon the system of the ,old ,chronicle7 to so close a reconciliation with ,scripture 7upon the basis of a collation of the ,septuagint and ,josephus71 that we have a right to compare any ,egyptologist making an attempt to advance into the interior to the monuments1 whilst disregarding it1 to a commander leaving an important fortress in his rear4#gf ,as ,mr ,palmer takes his stand upon the ,old ,chronicle1 and as the ,old ,chronicle has been in considerable disrepute with ,egyptologists 7,bunsen1 i4 #baf71 ,i do not see that ,i can adopt a better plan of bringing the whole subject before the reader1 than by confronting ,mr ,w4 ,palmer's discovery and exposition with ,baron ,bunsen's strictures on the ,old ,chronicle4 #gf ,and yet1 with the exception of ,professor ,rawlinson's ,manual of ,ancient ,history1 where mention is made of ,mr ,palmer's work as among eight principal works to be referred to on the subject of ,egyptian chronology1 and of a series of articles in the ,month on the same subject1 ,i do not recollect to have seen allusion made to it4 ,a previous perusal of the articles in the ,month above referred to will greatly facilitate the study of this question4 ,bunsen 7i4 #bad-bag7 says 7the italics are mine7-- ',the ,egyptians1' says ,syncellus1 'boast of a certain ,old ,chronicle1 by which also1 in my opinion1 ,manetho 7the impostor7 was led astray4' 444 ,the origin of this fiction is obvious4 ,its object1 as well as that of the pseudo-,manetho1 is to represent the great year of the world of #cf1ebe years1 or twenty-five ,sothic cycles4 ,the timeless space of the book of ,sothis becomes the rule of ,vulcan4444 ,the number fixed for the other gods1 #cihd1 is quite original2 perhaps it may not be mere accident that it agrees with the computation of some chronographers for the period from the ,creation to ,b4,c4 ,the dynasty of the demigods reflects the same judicious moderation as in the scheme of the pseudo-,manetho 7#bad-a_/b74 ,then comes a series of corruptions of the genuine ,manetho1 i4e41 of the ,manetho of the thirty historical ,egyptian dynasties4 ,he is1 however1 confounded with the ,manetho of the ,dog-star1 and hence it is that the fifteen dynasties of ,manetho are called the fifteen dynasties of the ,sothiac cycle4 ,but how is the number #ddc to be explained8 ,is this entry to be understood in the same sense as the similar one in ,clemens1 namely1 that the first fifteen dynasties comprehended the #ddc years prior to the beginning of the last cycle1 consequently prior to #acbb8 or is it simply taken1 with a slight alteration by ,eusebius1 to the fourteenth and fifteenth dynasties 7#dce78 ,the following dates for the length of reigns are in the gross evidently borrowed from ,eusebius4444 ,in the sequel1 there is no more reckoning by dynasties1 but seventy-five generations are numbered1 in order to make up the #aac of ,manetho4 ,so palpable is that14444 ,lastly1 the dates and numbers 444 are brought into shape by various arbitrary expedients2 but ,eusebius on all occasions appears as the authority4444 ,as the dates of the individual dynasties now run1 #ahd years are wanting to make up the promised #cf1ebe years4 ,it is scarcely worth while to inquire where the mistake lies4 ,he finally pronounces the ,old ,chronicle to be the compilation of a ,jewish or ,christian impostor of the third century1 or later4 ,as ,mr ,palmer has not directly adverted to this passage from ,bunsen in his ,egyptian ,chronicles1 ,i will give an extract from a letter which ,i have received from ,mr ,palmer on the subject1 which will clear off some of the tissues of confusion into which the strictures of ,baron ,bunsen have got entangled4 ,i assert1 in the first instance 7there being nothing whatever to the contrary71 that we have the ,old ,chronicle in a perfectly genuine form1 i4e4 in the text of ,syncellus and ,africanus1 but by no means in ,bunsen2 and further1 that it really is1 and they from whom we have it tell us it was1 the oldest ,greco-,egyptian writing of the kind current in the time of ,africanus4444 ,bunsen pronounces the ,old ,chronicle to be the compilation of a ,jewish or ,christian impostor of the third century 7',eusebius appearing on all occasions as the authority1' c47 ,in the ,old ,chronicle1 as given by ,syncellus and ,africanus1 there is nothing whatever borrowed from ,eusebius2 but ,eusebius has borrowed from and altered the ,old ,chronicle1 so as to suit his own sacred chronology4 ,the ',book of ,sothis1' too1 has worked up and altered the ,old ,chronicle1 with which it is by no means to be identified4444 ,but ,i deal with three so-called ,manethos--viz4 7#a47 the original ,manetho of ,josephus and ,eratosthenes1 who had only twenty-three historical dynasties of his total of thirty dynasties 7the ,old ,chronicle1 from which he took the number of thirty1 having twenty-nine historical and one that of the sun god unhistorical72 7#b47 the ,manetho of ,ptolemy of ,mendes1 which is the ,manetho of ,africanus1 who has thirty-one dynasties1 all pretending to be historical2 and1 lastly1 the ,manetho of the ',book of ,sothis1' used by ,anianus and ,panadorus 7to which last alone ,bunsen's 444 mention of 'fifteen dynasties of the ,dog-star' refers74444 ,if any figures in the ,manetho of the ',book of ,sothis' of the fifth century ,a4,d41 are borrowed from ,eusebius1 there is nothing in this1 ,eusebius himself having used and altered the ,old ,chronicle before1 just as the author of the ,book of ,sothis or ,anianus may have used ,eusebius and the old chronicle4 ,but ,i am not now dealing with the question of fact1 whether ,eusebius' figures were so followed or not4444 ,when ,bunsen says1 ',perhaps it may not be mere accident that the figures #cihd agrees1' c42 he should have said rather that some 'chronographers' 'agree' 'with it1' and perhaps so agree not by accident4 ,i do not remember whether any one1 or who in particular1 of modern chronographers agree with it2 but certainly if any do1 it is quite by accident4 ,the number #cihd1 as given by the ,old ,chronicle to ,chronos and the other twelve gods1 has no relation whatever to any reckoning of the year of the world to ,christ2 and a chronologer might as well adapt his sum of years from the ,creation to ,christ1 or to any other fanciful number1 as to this4 ,the truth is1 that with the shorter numbers of the ,vulgate1 many chronologers have made out sums of about four thousand years1 some rather more1 some less4 ,in the somewhat lengthened extract which ,i have made 7sup4 p4 #id7 from ,bunsen1 four figures 7#cihd1 #bag1 #ddc1 and #ahd7 will have struck the eye1 which baffle even ,bunsen's penetration1 and only make twice confounded what was confused before4 ,but what if these four figures should all be accounted for8 and1 when accounted for1 fitted into the chronology so as to be in keeping1 not only with the other figures of the ,chronicle1 but also with the systems of ,manetho and ,eratosthenes1 as exactly as the key fits the wards of the lock8 7vide infra1 p4 #ccb71 will not the matter begin to wear a different aspect8 ,when the figures are shown to be imbedded in all the different systems which have been transmitted to us1 will it then be said that the figures are evidently borrowed from ,eusebius8 ,but1 in fact1 it is also demonstrated by internal evidence that the ,chronicle1 as we have it1 must be referred to the date #cje ,b4,c4 ,this1 then1 is how the argument stands2 but it is a matter of some difficulty to compass ,mr ,palmer's elaborate argument1 and ,i cannot attempt to do more than to indicate its most salient points4 ,premising that the ,sothic cycle 7a period of #adfa vague1 or #adfj fixed sidereal years7 was connected by the ,egyptians with their recurring periods of transformation and renovation 7common to the mythologies of ,egypt and ,india71 and also that two such periods 7#adfa #b7 #bibb corresponded with the antediluvian period1 or rather with the sum of the lives or reigns of the antediluvian patriarchs1 inclusive of survivors of the ,deluge1 with something added in order to throw the whole into cyclical form1 all which is shown in detail in ,egyptian ,chronicles1 i4 #bc-cg1 ,i may now proceed to ,mr ,palmer's analysis of the scheme of the ,old ,chronicle1 which is thus given by ,syncellus1 probably from the ,manetho of ,africanus 7,palmer's ,egypt4 ,chron41 i4 #g73-- ,there is extant among the ,egyptians a certain ,old ,chronicle1 the source1 ,i suppose1 which led ,manetho astray1 exhibiting xxx dynasties and again cxiii generations1 with an infinite space of time 7not the same either as that of ,manetho71 viz4 three myriads1 six thousand five hundred and twenty-five years--#ast1 ,of the ,aerit2 #b;dly1 ,of the ,mestrans2 and1 #c;dly1 ,of the ,egyptians1--being word for word as follows3-- ,dynasty ,i4 to ,,xv4 inclusive of the chronicle of the gods3-- ,time of ,phtha there is none1 as he shines equally by night and by day but all generations being from him ,first dynasty ,greek3 ,hlios i4e4 ,ra1 the sun-god1 son of ,phtha1 reigned three myriads of years1 #cj1jjj ,then ,dynasty ,,ii4 to ,,xiv4 inclusive1 and generations ,,ii4 to ,,xiv4 inclusive ,greek3 ,kronos or ,greek3 ,chronos1 i4e4 ,seb1 and all the other xii gods who are the ,aerit perhaps of ,eusebius and ,africanus1 reigned years #cihd ,then ,dynasty ,,xv4 viii demigod kings the ,mestrans of ,eusebius and ,africanus reigned as viii generations but one dynasty1 years #bag ,and after them xv generations of the ,cynic cycle were registered in years #ddc ,then ,dynasty ,,xvi4 of ,tanites1 generations viii1 years #aij ,then ,dynasty ,,xvii4 of ,memphites1 generations iv1 years of the same generations #ajc ,after whom there followed-- ,dynasty ,,xviii4 of ,memphites1 generations xiv1 years of the same generations #cdh ,then ,dynasty ,,xix4 of ,diospolites1 generations v1 years #aid ,then ,dynasty ,,xx4 of ,diospolites1 generations viii1 years of the same generations #bbh ,then ,dynasty ,,xxi4 of ,tanites1 generations vi1 years #aba ,then ,dynasty ,,xxii4 of ,tanites1 generations iii1 years #dh ,then ,dynasty ,,xxiii4 of ,diospolites1 generations ii1 years of the same generations #ai ,then ,dynasty ,,xxiv4 of ,saites1 generations iii1 years #dd ,besides whom is to be reckoned-- ,dynasty ,,xxv4 of ,ethiopians1 generations iii1 years of the same generations #dd ,after whom again there followed-- ,dynasty ,,xxvi4 of ,memphites1 generations vii1 years of the same generations #agg ,and then after-- ,dynasty ,,xxvii4 ,here the designation1 generations1 and years are purposely omitted2 but the years are implied by the sum total1 which follows below1 to be certainly #ahd ,dynasty ,,xxviii4 of ,persians1 generations v1 years of the same generations #abd ,then ,dynasty ,,xxix4 of ,tanites1 generations 1 years #ci ,and1 lastly1 after all the above-- ,dynasty ,,xxx4 of one ,tanite king1 years ------ ,generations cxiii1 years #cf1ebe ,sum of all the years of the ,,xxx4 ,dynasties1 three myriads1 six thousand five hundred and twenty-five 7,kings #ahha years74 ,these #cf1ebe years1 when divided by #adfa1 the ,sothic cycle 7as noted by ,syncellus71 give the quotient xxv4 ,we need not digress into the conjectural reasons why twenty-five such periods were taken1 rather than any other number4 ,we will be content at starting to see in its relation to the cycle evidence of the purely fictitious character of its myriads of years1 and a clue to the significance of the indication1 after them xv generations of the ,cynic cycle1 c4 ,mr ,palmer 7i4 xxiii47 says1 that the question which first suggested itself to him was-- ,to what ,sothic cycle are these #ddc years or xv generations said to belong8 for there was the doubt whether there was any real ,sothic cycle at all4 ,for a ,sothic cycle is not merely a space of #adfa ,egyptian years1 but it is that particular space of #adfa such years1 and that only1 which begins from the conjunction of the movable new year or ,thoth1 with the heliacal rising of ,sirius1 fixed to #bjth ,july of our ,gregorian calendar for that part of ,egypt which is just above ,memphis4444 ,for the author of a chronicle ending with ,nectanebo1 or at any date between the ,sothic epochs1 #bjth ,july ,b4,c4 #acbb 7the known commencement of a cycle71 and #bjth ,july ,a4,d4 #aci1 'the ,sothic cycle1' could only mean the cycle actually current i4e4 ,b4,c4 #acbb to ,a4,d4 #aci #adfa4444 ,after this discovery1 if the perception of a truism can be called a discovery1 it followed naturally to observe further that in constructing a fanciful scheme 444 ending at any other date than a true cyclical epoch1 the first operation 444 must be to cut off all those years of the true current cycle which were yet to run out1 below the date fixed upon1 and to throw them back so that they might be reckoned as past instead of being looked forward to as future4 ,this1 then1 was what the author of the ,old ,chronicle had done2 and1 with an ironical humour common among the ,egyptians1 he had told his readers to their faces the nature of his trick1 ticketing and labelling the key to it 7the #ddc years7 and tying it in the lock1 or rather leaving it in the lock itself4 ,counting1 then1 back #aci years of the #ddc from the #bjth ,july ,a4,d4 #aci to #bjth ,july ,b4,c4 #a1 and #cjd more from #bjth ,july ,b4,c4 #a1 we come to #bjth ,july in #cje ,b4,c4 7if the years be fixed1 sidereal1 or solar years71 or to #hth ,november #cje1 if they be 7as they really are7 vague ,egyptian years 7#cje ,b4,c4 being the year in which ,ptolemy ,lagi assumed the crown74 ,for the discrepancy between this date and the conquest of ,ochus1 at which the series of the ,chronicle ostensibly ends1 vide ,egypt4 ,chron41 p4 xxiv4 ,let the reader now return to the scheme of the chronicle 7sup4 p4 #ig74 ,the analysis of the whole sum1 #cf1ebe years1 gives #cj1jjj years 7to the sun71 #cihd 7to xiii gods71 #bag 7to viii demigods71 #ddc 7to the ,sothic cycle71 #ahha to kings from ,menes to ,nectanebo 7the last native sovereign74 ,so far we have only #ahha years1 corresponding to an historical period1 #ddc of the cycle thrown up4 ,it has been previously noted1 however1 that #bibb 7two ,sothic cycles7 correspond to the antediluvian and patriarchal period 7i4 #cg74 ,the intricate part of the scrutiny will be found in the discrimination of the #bibb years 7which1 with #bag #ahha1 make up the sequence of human time1 ,a4,m41 to ,nectanebo7 from the figures #cihd years in the analysis above4 ,for the full and scientific discrimination1 ,i must refer the reader to ,egyptian ,chronicles1 i4 #ag2 but for a simple demonstration1 we may take the historical figures as above--viz4 #bibb #bag #ahha1 added to the figures thrown in to complete the cycle 7vide infra71 viz4 #cda #dhc1 all which figures #ehdd1 and deduct them from the whole cyclical number thus-- #cf1ebe #e1hdd ------ #cj1fha ,now1 reverting to the scheme of the ,chronicle1 we shall see the round number #cj1jjj years 7being as it were an ,egyptian month1 in thousands of years instead of days7 apportioned off to the sun-god4 ,to obtain this round number1 the fractional number #fha would have to be detached1 and there being at hand the cyclical number #bibb years 7two perfect ,sothic cycles71 any number in reason of fractional remainders might be added to it1 since with the symmetrical nucleus1 the agglomeration would always be recognisable by the initiated1 i4e4 by the priests4 ,the #fha years were therefore added to #bibb1 and also the #cda fictitious years 7to make time from the beginning to run in the form of ,sothic cycles7 were added1 because there they would cause no confusion2 whereas if they had been added to the #bag years of the demigods1 no one could any longer have distinguished the original fraction4 ,we thus collect1 therefore1 those various figures into the sum which was the figure of difficulty--viz4 #cihd 7#fha #bibb #cda #dj71 the forty years included having merely reference to the point at which the current ,sothic cycle was thrown up--being the years intervening between the flight of ,nectanebo in ,b4,c4 #cde1 and the coronation of ,ptolemy ,lagi in ,b4,c4 #cje4 ,upon his own method1 based upon ,josephus1 who follows in the main the ,septuagint 7on a principle of compromise such as all readers1 whatever may be their system1 may agree in accepting provisionally1 and as an approximation71 ,mr ,palmer 7i4 #bb-bi7 brings the ,scripture ,a4,m4 to ,b4,c4 #a1 to a synchronism of five years four months and some days1 with the ,egyptian computation4 ,but the same key is made to unlock all the systems of ,egyptian chronology1 and in the course of his two volumes of close and learned investigation1 ,mr ,palmer demonstrates that ,manetho1 ,eratosthenes1 ,ptolemy of ,mendes1 ,diodorus1 ,josephus1 ,africanus1 ,eusebius1 ,anianus1 ,panodorus1 and ,syncellus1 have1 either of themselves or by following others1 transferred dynasties1 generations1 and years of the gods and demigods of the ,chronicle1 and even fifteen generations of ,ptolemies and ,csars1 as yet unborn at the date of the ,chronicle1 to kings after ,menes4 ,let the above scheme of the ,chronicle be compared1 for instance1 with the scheme of ,diogenes ,laertius 7which ,mr ,palmer conjectures1 upon intrinsic evidence1 to have been transmitted through ,aristotle74 ,diogenes ,laertius' whole figure is #dh1hfc years1 which contains for its fictitious part thirty times #adfa #dc1hcj1 which1 being deducted from #dh1hfc1 #dc1hcj ------ #e1jcc leaves #ejcc for true human time4 ,now #ejcc years are equal to those #bibb years #bag years #ahha years1 which alone in the ,chronicle belong properly and originally to the xiii gods and viii demigods and the last xv dynasties of the kings from ,menes to ,nectanebo1 with only thirteen surplus years1 i4e4 from the conquest of ,darius ,ochus to ,alexander2 seemingly to the autumn of ,b4,c4 #ccb1 when he first entered ,egypt4 ,here ,i might conclude my outline of ,mr ,palmer's scheme1 so far as is necessary to the vindication of the ,chronicle as against ,bunsen1 were it not for the remaining figure 7all the others1 if the reader will refer back1 have been accounted for7--viz4 #ahd1 to which ,bunsen refers4 ,this figure is shown to correspond with the #ahd years of the ,hyksos or ,shepherds 7i4 #acd1 #ace1 et seq41 #aee1 #bhe1 #bii74 ,dynasty ,,xxvii41 to which the #ahd years in the ,chronicle are attributed1 has been displaced from between ,dynasties ,,xvii4 and ,,xviii4 of the ,chronicle1 and its #ahd years are restored to their true place and to the ,shepherds by ,manetho1 and are given by the ,theban priests1 i4e4 by ,eratosthenes1 suppressing the ,shepherds1 to the kings of ,upper ,egypt4 ,as regards ,manetho 7i4 #bhd7 having1 besides the #ahha years of the ,chronicle1 #afgd additional years of kings1 of which 7#bb #bag 7 #bci only are in themselves1 though not in their attributions1 chronological1 and having given of these #adia 7which are thrice #dgg and #fj over7 to his six early dynasties of ,lower ,egypt 7and sixteen inconvenient years he isolated between his ,dynasties ,,xiv4 and ,,xv41 so as to include them in his ,book i471 he gave to the three early dynasties of ,upper ,egypt no other unchronological years than two complementary sums1 the one of #dc 7to the first71 and the other1 of #abd years1 to the second of the three dynasties1 that these same sums might both coalesce with the remainder of sixty years belonging to the sum of the six dynasties of ,lower ,egypt1 so as to make with it1 or rather to indicate1 the one of them the sum of #ajc1 the other the sum of #ahd4 ,vide table1 p4 #bhe4444 ,sum of six dynasties of ,lower ,egypt1 #adia4 ,but this sum #adia is equivalent to #aij #ajc #ahd #dgg #aij #ajc #ahd #dgg #aij #ajc #ahd #dgg ---- ,but #fj 7#adca #fj7 #adia #dc ---- 7#adca #fj7 #dc #ajc 7#dc of ,dyn4 ,,xiv4 of ,upper ,egypt47 7#adca #fj7 #abd ---- #ahd 7#abd of ,dyn4 ,,xv4 of ,upper ,egypt in ,book ii47 ,the place of the #ahd years of the ,shepherd ,dynasty will be seen as clearly in the analysis of ,eratosthenes' scheme ,f4 in ,egyptian ,chronicles 7i4 #bii71 and if ,i had space ,i should like to give it in extenso1 because it is upon his #ajgf from ,menes to ,,xviii4 ,dynasty1 that ,bunsen mainly relies for his fundamental theory 7,bunsen's ,egypt1 ii4 xvi47 ,as the confutation of ,bunsen does not enter into ,mr ,palmer's plan1 ,i think it worth while to add1 that these #ajgf years are thus made up #dgg1 the true historical length of the epoch 7from ,menes to ,,xviii4 ,dynasty71 as we know from the chronicle 7vide ,palmer's supra71 hence the significance of this figure in table above1 #ddc of the cycle added1 #aef of ,dyn4 ,,xviii4 encroached upon#gg for the symmetrical purpose displayed in scheme ,f1 in which scheme it will be seen that the #ahd years of the ,shepherds again enter as a constituent part4 #gg ,it will be understood that1 in the above scheme and throughout1 ,mr ,palmer assumes the existence of cotemporaneous dynasties elsewhere demonstrated4 ,it is admitted1 on all hands1 that cotemporary dynasties ceased with the ,,xviii4 ,dynasty2 and1 in the other direction1 all schemes commence with ,menes4 ,if1 then1 this interval of time is known or determined by one part of a scheme 7as it is known from the chronicle to be #dgg years71 and at the same time1 the exigences of the case 7owing to fictitious additions7 require the location of other figures within the interval1 then the super-additions must overlap 7apparently to those who know #dgg years to be the true historical figure7 at one end or the other4 ,one hundred and fifty-six years 7as above7 is the extent of the overlapping 7the #ddc years of the cycle standing apart7 in the scheme of ,eratosthenes4 ,but as ,i am merely indicating the scheme1 and not elaborating the argument1 ,i must here part company with ,mr ,palmer4 ,if1 however1 any one wishes to examine the question more in detail1 and seeks to know in what manner the years in the above scheme are apportioned among the different generations and dynasties1 he must take up with ,mr ,palmer at i4 p4 #cjj4 ,my purpose is sufficiently answered by establishing that a scheme exists1 if not irrefutable1 at least up to this unconfuted1 which perfectly harmonises the scriptural with the ,egyptian chronology4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,the ,,tradition ,,of ,,the ,,human ,,race4 ,tradition reveals the past to us1 and consequently it reveals to us also the future4 ,it is the tie which binds the past1 the present1 and the future together1 and is the science of them all4 ,if we possessed the memory of mankind1 as we do that of our personal existence1 we should know all4 ,but if we have not the memory of mankind1 does not mankind possess it8 ,is mankind without memory1 without tradition8444 ,there is no nation which does not exist through tradition1 not only historical traditions relative to its earthly existence1 but through religious traditions relative to its eternal destiny4 ,to despise this treasure1 what is it but to despise life1 and that which constitutes its connection1 its unity1 its light1 as we have just seen8444 ,when ,god spoke to men ,his ,word passed into time 444 ,happily tradition seized upon it as soon as it left the threshold of eternity2 and tradition is neither an ear1 nor a mouth1 nor an isolated memory1 but the ear1 the mouth1 and the memory of generations united together by tradition itself1 and imparting to it an existence superior to the caprices and weakness of individuals4 ,nevertheless1 ,god would not trust to oral tradition alone 444 ,symbolical tradition was to add itself to oral tradition by sustaining and confirming it 444 ,the five terms constituting the mystery of good and evil3 the existence of ,god1 the creation of the world and of man by ,god1 the fall of man1 his restoration by a great act of divine mercy1 and1 lastly1 the final judgment of mankind 444 and that which oral tradition declared1 symbolical tradition should repeat at all times and in all places1 in order that the obscured or deceived memory of man might be brought back again to truth by an external1 a public1 an universal1 all-powerful spectacle4 ,lacordaire is speaking principally with reference to sacrifice and the sacrifice of ,mount ,calvary4 444 ,each time that oral tradition underwent a movement of renovation by the breath of ,god1 symbolical tradition felt the effects of it4 ,the sacrifice of ,abel marks the era of patriarchal tradition2 the sacrifice of ,abraham marks the era of ,hebrew tradition2 the sacrifice of ,jesus ,christ1 the final and consummating sacrifice1 marks the era of ,christian tradition4444 ,such is the nature of tradition1 and such its history4 ,tradition is the connection of the present with the past1 of the past with the future2 it is the principle of identity and continuity which forms persons1 families1 nations1 and mankind4 ,it flows in the human race by three great streams which are clearly perceptible--the ,christian1 the ,hebrew1 and the patriarchal or primitive2 in all these three it is oral and symbolical1 and whether as oral or symbolical it speaks of ,god1 the creation1 the fall1 reparation and judgment4444 ,without occupying ourselves with the question as to whether ,scripture was a gift from above or an invention of men1 we see that there exists two kinds of it--human and sacred scripture4 ,i understand by human scripture1 that which is considered by men as the expression of the ideas of a man2 ,i understand by sacred scripture that which is venerated by nations as containing something more than the ideas of a man4444 ,there are in the world an innumerable quantity of books1 nevertheless there are but six of them which have been venerated by nations as sacred4 ,these are the ',kings' of ,china1 the ,vedas of ,india1 the ,zend-,avesta of the ,persians1 the ,koran of the ,arabs1 the ,law of the ,jews1 and the ,gospel4 ,and at first sight ,i am struck with this rarity of sacred writings4 ,so many legislators have founded cities1 so many men of genius have governed the human understanding1 and yet all these legislators1 all these men of genius1 have not been able to cause the existence of more than six sacred books upon earth6444 ,every sacred book is a traditional book1 it was venerated before it existed1 it existed before it appeared4 ,the ,koran1 which is the last of the sacred writings in the order of time1 offers to us a proof of this worthy of our thoughtful attention4 ,without doubt1 ,mahommed relied upon pretended revelations2 however1 it is clear to all those who read the ,koran1 that the ,abrahamic tradition was the true source of its power4444 ,the same traditional character shines upon each page of the ,christian and ,hebrew books2 we find it also in the ,zend-,avesta1 the ,vedas1 and the ,kings of the ,chinese4 ,tradition is everywhere the mother of religion2 it precedes and engenders sacred books1 as language precedes and engenders scripture2 its existence is rendered immovable in the sacred books 444 a sacred book is a religious tradition which has had strength enough to sign its name4444 ,the sacred writings are1 then1 traditional2 it is their first character4 ,i add that they are constituent1 that is to say1 they possess a marvellous power for giving vitality and duration to empires4 ,strange to say1 the most magnificent books of philosophers have not been able to found1 ,i do not say a people1 but a small philosophical society2 and the sacred writings1 without exception1 have founded very great and lasting nations4 ,thus the ,kings founded ,china1 the ,vedas ,india1 c4444 ,look at ,plato 444 how is it that ,plato has not been able to constitute1 ,i do not say a nation1 but simply a permanent school8 ,how is it that communities totter when thinkers meddle with them1 and that the precise moment of their fall is that when men announce to them that mind is emancipated1 that the old forms which bound together human activity are broken1 that the altar is undermined and reason is all-powerful8 ,philosophers6 if you speak the truth1 how is it that the moment when all the elements of society become more refined and develop themselves1 is the moment of its dissolution8--,from ,pre ,lacordaire's ,conferences4 ,conf4 #i and #aj4 7,tran4 ,h4 ,langdon2 ,richardson1 #aheb47 ,i should also wish ,m4 ,auguste ,nicolas' ,etudes ,philosophiques sur le ,christianisme--particularly lib4 ,i4 chap4 v41 ,necessite d'une revelation ,primitive2 and lib4 ,,ii4 chap4 iv41 ,traditions universelles--to be read in connection with the following chapter4 ,i did not become acquainted with ,m4 ,nicolas until after the chapter was concluded4 ,i have1 however1 fulfilled my obligations in the above extract from ,l',abbe ,lacordaire1 which lies more au fond of my view than the chapters referred to in ,m4 ,nicolas4 ,i also wish to direct attention to a remarkable article in the ,home and ,foreign ,review1 ,jan4 #ahfd1 entitled ,classical ,myths in relation to the ,antiquity of ,man1 signed ,f4 ,a4 ,p4 ,tradition1 in the sense in which we have just seen it used by ,lacordaire1 in what we may call its widest signification1 is not limited to oral tradition1 but may be termed the connection of evidence which establishes the unity of the human race2 and1 with this evidence1 establishes the identity and continuity of its belief1 laws1 institutions1 customs1 and manners 7,manners1 vide ,goguet's ,origin of ,laws1 i4 #cbg-cbi74 ,the more closely the tradition is investigated1 the more thoroughly will it be found to attest a common origin1 and the more fully will its conformity with the scriptural narrative be made apparent4 ,now1 although in all ages there have been men of great intellect who have held to tradition1 it may be stated as one of those truths1 qui saute aux yeux1 and which will not be gainsaid1 that the human intellect has been throughout opposed to tradition1 has been its most constant adversary1 equally when it was the tradition of a corrupt polytheism1 as when it was the tradition of uncontested truth2 and so active has been this antagonism1 that the marvel is that anything of primitive tradition should have remained4 ,hence arose the divergence between religion and philosophy--a divergence which1 as it seems to me1 is inexplicable from the point of view of those who believe that1 in the centuries which preceded the coming of our ,lord1#gh religion simply was not1 had ceased to be2 unless we suppose that a tradition of the antagonism had survived1 which would still partially disclose how it came about that when religion had ceased to be 7pro argumento71 or had become corrupt1 philosophy1 which then 7ex hypothesi7 alone soared above the intellect of the crowd1 did not1 and could not become a religion to them1 infra1 pp4 #adb1 #ade1 #adf4 #gh ,such appears to me to be the conclusion of ,mr ,allies in his learned work 7,the ,formation of ,christendom1 ii4 chap4 viii4 #eg71 ,universality of false worship in the most diverse nations the summing up of man's whole history4 ,i request attention1 however1 to the following passage1 at page #chb1 which has an especial bearing upon my argument3--,no doubt the ,greek mind had lived and brooded for ages upon the remains of original revelation1 nor can any learning now completely unravel the interwoven threads of tradition and reason so as to distinguish their separate work4 ,however1 it is certain that in the sixth century ,b4,c41 the ,greeks were without a hierarchy1 and without a definite theology3 not indeed without individual priesthoods1 traditionary rites1 and an existing worship1 as well as certain mysteries which professed to communicate a higher and more recondite doctrine than that exposed to the public gaze4 ,but in the absence of any hierarchy 444 a very large range indeed was given to the mind1 acting upon this shadowy religious belief1 and re-acted upon by it1 to form their philosophy4 ,the ,greeks did not1 any more than antiquity in general1 use the acts of religious service for instruction by religious discourse4 ,in other words1 there was no such thing as preaching among them4 ,a domain1 therefore1 was open to the philosopher1 on which he might stand without directly impeaching the ancestral worship1 while he examined its grounds1 and perhaps sapped its foundations4 ,he was therein taking up a position which these priests1 the civil functionaries of religious rites1 scarcely any longer retaining a spiritual meaning or a moral cogency1 had not occupied4 ,and the history of this antagonism seems to be1 that the human intellect has ever had1 and now more confidently than ever1 the aim and ambition to substitute something better than the revelation of primitive tradition1 and the experiences of the human race4 ,it is quite conceivable that human life and human institutions might have been arranged upon some scheme different from that of the divine appointment2 and although we may believe that any such scheme would result in ultimate confusion and the final extinction of the human race1 it is still theoretically possible that the experiment might have been made4#gi #gi ,take for instance ,mr ,j4 ,s4 ,mill's peculiar views as to the status of women1 ,the law of servitude in marriage ,wives be obedient to your husbands1 ,st ,paul1 he says1 is in monstrous contradiction to all the principles of the modern world 7p4 #adg74 ,marriage is the only actual bondage known to our law1 id4 ,but at p4 #di1 ,mr ,mill says1 ,the general opinion of men is supposed to be1 that the natural vocation of a woman is that of a wife and mother4 ,but he then adds 7p4 #cg71 ,it will not do to assert in general terms that the experience of mankind has pronounced in favour of the existing system4 ,experience cannot possibly have decided between two courses1 so long as there has only been experience of one4 ,if it be said that the doctrine of the equality of the sexes rests only on theory1 it must be remembered that the contrary doctrine also has only theory to rest upon4 ,all that is proved in its favour by direct experience1 is that mankind have been able to exist under it1 and to attain the degree of improvement and prosperity which we now see2 but whether that prosperity has been attained sooner1 or is now greater than it would have been under the other system1 experience does not say4 ,take in illustration1 again1 the communistic schemes as against the institution of property4 ,now1 although ,christianity has realised all that will ever be possible in the way of communism in its religious orders1 the communistic sects have always instinctively directed their first efforts against religion as against the basis of the social order of things which they attacked4 ,this was forcibly brought out in certain letters on ,european ,radicalism1 in the ,pall ,mall ,gazette1 ,october and ,november #ahfi1 e4g4 all the contests on the three capital questions 7'government1 property1 religion'7 which we are now engaged in1 are but continuations of the original divergence of opinion 7before settled government71 considerably modified1 of course1 under the influence of time1 the various traditional notions mankind preserves under the name of beliefs1 and the whole stock of experience it has accumulated under the name of knowledge4 ,so like1 indeed1 are the ancient and modern contests on these matters1 c4444 7,letter ,i47 ,again 7,letter ,v471 speaking of our ,english socialist discussing the necessity of building social edifices upon material1 not religious grounds1 the writer adds1 that among continental socialists no one thinks there of the possibility of matters standing otherwise2 and that in the socialist workshops of ,france and ,germany it is well known that the very basis of social radicalism requires the abandonment of all kinds of religious discussion1 as matter of purely personal inclination1 and the abolition of all kinds of privileges as incompatible with equality4 ,all this has been put out of date by the deeds of the ,commune and the programme of the ,international ,society--viz4 ,the burning of ,paris we accept the responsibility of4 ,the old society must and will perish4 ,the ,spectator1 ,december #ahfi1 speaks still more explicitly3--,infirm and crippled though she be1 the ,roman ,church is still the only one who has the courage to be cosmopolitan1 and claim the right to link nation with nation1 and literature with literature4 ,such an assembly as the ,council is1 at least1 an extraordinary testimony to the cosmopolitanism of the great ,church which seems trembling to its fall2 and who can doubt that that fall1 whenever it comes1 will be followed by a great temporary loosening of the faith in human unity--in spite of the electric telegraph--by a deepening of the chasm between nation and nation1 by the loss of at least a most potent spell over the imagination of the world1 by a contraction of the spiritual ideal of every church8 ,this ideal1 even ,protestants1 even ,sceptics1 even ,positivists have owed1 and have owned that they owed1 to the ,roman ,church1 the only ,church which has really succeeded in uniting the bond between any one ecclesiastical centre and the distant circumference of human intelligence and energy4 ,but if the consequence of the collapse of ,romanism would be in this way a loss of power to the human race1 think only of the gain of power which would result from the final death of sacerdotal ideas1 from the final blow to the system of arbitrary authority exercised over the intellect and the conscience1 from the new life which would flow into a faith and science resting on the steady accumulation of moral and intellectual facts and the personal life of the conscience in ,christ--from the final triumph of moral and intellectual order and freedom4 ,it would doubtless be a new life1 subject to great anarchy at first2 but the old authoritative systems have themselves been of late little more than anarchy just kept under by the authority of prescription and tradition2 and one can only hope for the new order from the complete recognition that it is to have no arbitrary or capricious foundation4 ,here comes in1 with its full significance1 the great saying of ,lacordaire's--,order ,i compare to a pyramid reaching from heaven to earth4 ,men cannot overthrow its base1 because the finger of ,god rests upon its apex4 ,if the finger of ,god did not so rest1 there is no assignable reason why this pyramid--this incubus1 as some would call it--which goes back1 stone upon stone1 to the primitive ages1 should not have been overturned1 and some system purely atheistical1 purely material1 purely communistic1 substituted for it4 ,but ,i believe that no democratic organisation1 however extended among the masses1 will overthrow the established order of things1 so long as the possessors of property1 the upper classes1 are true to the objects for which property was instituted4 ,considering how much man has effected in the material order1 and considering also the varied intellectual faculties with which he is endowed1 it strikes one as strange1 as something which has to be accounted for1 that he has been able to effect so little in the moral order4 ,it is the same whether we regard the action of the intellect upon the individual man1 or upon society4 ,and from this latter point of view it is so true1 that it is more than doubtful whether those epochs in which man has attained the highest point of intellectual and material civilisation1 are not those also in which he has reached the lowest depths of immorality2#hj and in which--having touched the lowest point of corruption--the human intellect is unable to devise any better plan for the government of mankind1 than the repression of despotism4#ha #hj ,it is1 upon the whole1 extremely doubtful whether those periods which are the richest in literature1 possess the greatest shares1 either of moral excellence or of political happiness4 ,we are well aware that the true and happy ages of ,roman greatness long preceded that of ,roman refinement and ,roman authors2 and1 ,i fear1 there is but too much reason to suppose that in the history of the modern nations we may find many examples of the same kind 7,f4 ,schlegel's ,history of ,literature1 i4 #cgc74 ,see also the account of the corruption of morals in ,rome in the ,augustan period 7,allies' ,form4 of ,christendom1 ,i4 ,lect4 ,i47 ,it is curious to observe that the more eloquent1 polite1 and learned the ,greeks became1 in the same proportion they became the more degraded and corrupt in their national religion 7,godfrey ,higgins' ,celtic ,druids1 #ahbi1 p4 #bjg74 #ha ,il n'y a1 ,messieurs1 que deux sortes de repression possibles3 l'une intrieure1 l'autre extrieure4444 ,elles sont de telle nature que quand le thermomtre politique est lev1 le thermomtre de la religion est bas1 et quand le thermomtre religieux est bas1 le thermomtre politique1 la repression politique1 la tyrannie s'lve4 ,ceci est une loi de l'humanit1 une loi de l'histoire4 ,vide ,disc4 de ,donoso ,cortes 7,marq4 de ,valdegamas71 #dth ,january #ahdi2 in which he pursues this remarkable parallelism throughout history4 ,but if the human intellect cannot prevent or control corruption1 cannot it disenchant vice of its evil1 and so counteract its effects8 ,is there no new conception of virtue with which to allure mankind8 ,no second decalogue which will attract by its novelty1 or convince by logical cogency and force8 ,the ,comtists1 ,i believe1 have a scheme for setting all these things right4 ,but what portion of mankind do they influence8 ,they are at present formidable only as may be the cloud on the horizon1 nor have they found sympathy even where they might have had some expectation of finding it4 ,if there was any separate section of mankind which might have given them countenance1 it would1 one would think1 be the rationalist section1 whose principles would disincline them to regard old modes of thought with undue partiality4 ,it is from this quarter1 if ,i mistake not1 that the unkindest cut has come1 and that it has been said that the latter half of ,comte's career and writings is the despair and bewilderment of those who admire the preceding half2 yet in this latter half he only aimed at converting rationalism from a negative to a positive system4 ,but1 allowing that a system of some sort might thus be constructed1 can positivism be defined as more than the system of those who are positive by mutual consent and agreement without faith or certainty1 and who are the more positive in proportion as they recede from ,catholic truth and tradition4 ,we1 however1 who believe in the identity of ,catholicism and ,christianity1 may still appreciate ,professor ,huxley's definition of positivism1 viz4--,catholicism minus ,christianity4#hb #hb ,montalembert 7,disc4 de ,reception1 #aheb1 ,discours iii4 pp4 #fad1 #fae1 #fba1 #fbb7 says of the ,constituent ,assembly of #aghi--;,it was the ,assembly of #aghi which made the word revolution the synonyme of methodical destruction1 of permanent war against all order and all authority4444 ,it had that mania for uniformity which is the parody of unity1 and which ,montesquieu called the passion of mediocre minds4444 ,in a word1 the ,constituent ,assembly was wanting not only in justice1 courage1 and humanity1 but it was also deficient in good sense4 ,the evil which it created has survived it4 ,it has made us believe that it is possible to destroy everything and to reconstruct everything in a day4444 ,god has chastised it1 above all1 by the sterility of its work4 ,it had had the pretence of laying the foundations of liberty for ever1 and it had for its successors the most sanguinary tyrants who ever dishonoured any nation4 ,its mission was to re-establish the finances1 the empire of the law1 and it has bequeathed to ,france bankruptcy1 anarchy1 and despotism--despotism without even the repose which they have wrongly taken as the compensation of servitude4 ,it has done more3 it has left pretexts for every abuse of force1 and precedents for any excess of future anarchy4 ,montalembert could hardly have foreseen the last application of its principles which we have recently witnessed in ,paris by the ,commune1 which1 too1 forsooth1 was to have inaugurated a new era for humanity4 ,but it 7this ,constituent ,assembly7 founded nothing--,nothing6 ,the ancient society which it reversed had lasted1 in spite of its abuses1 a thousand years4 ,can any one adduce a more typical representative of the clear1 powerful1 penetrating intellect of man than ,voltaire6 ,voltaire1 moreover1 had the aim and ambition 7ecraser l'infame7 to obliterate the tradition of the past2 yet can there be a better example of the impotence of the intellect in the moral order8 ,does it not seem startling that1 when the human intellect1 as in the case of ,voltaire1 should be able to detect with so much acumen1 so much wit1 what is wrong1 that it should be wholly struck with sterility when it attempts to tell us what is right1 to reveal to man any truth in the moral order not traditionally known to them4 ,and if the disciples of ,voltaire have occasionally1 in spasmodic efforts1 attempted this1 it has not been in the manner of ,voltaire2 it has been in the spirit of eclecticism1 of reconstruction out of the elements of the past--that is to say 7with pardon1 if the phrase has been used before71 an attempt to create1 out of the elements he would have spurned1 edifices which he would have derided4 ,now1 the pretension of the human intellect is quite contrary to this experience4 ,it claims to have progressively elevated mankind out of a state of primitive barbarism1 to have indoctrinated them with the ideas of morality which they possess1 to have humanised them1 and thus affirms the converse of the theory of tradition which it pursues with much unreasoning and implacable animosity4 ,the ,saturday ,review 7,july #bd1 #ahfi71 in reviewing ,mr ,gladstone's ,juventus ,mundi1 says--,mr ,gladstone is doubtless well aware that there was no portion of his ,homeric studies which was received with more surprise1 or with more unfavourable comment1 than his speculations on what he described as the traditive and the inventive elements in the ,homeric mythology4#hc ,in consequence1 ,mr ,gladstone says he has endeavoured to avoid in his more recent work a certain crudity of expression4 ,the ,saturday ,review1 however1 says--,that 'the crudity of expression' here referred to seems to have been corrected and modified to some extent by disguising the process of argument by which it was sustained1 and by the adoption of a lighter touch and slighter treatment of the subject than in the former book4 ,but the theory itself1 we believe1 remains the same4 #hc ,from a purely philosophical point of view1 why should these speculations of ,mr ,gladstone have been received with more surprise and unfavourable comment than any other portions of his ,homeric studies8 ,i may assume1 then1 that the passage which ,i have elsewhere quoted from ,mr ,gladstone1 and laid as the basis of my argument1 still has his countenance and support1 in spite of the manifest antagonism it has provoked4 ,and this passage1 ,i venture to think1 acquires fresh light and an accession of force when placed in juxtaposition with the parallel passages from ,de ,maistre and ,dr ,newman4 ,these passages will present no difficulties to the believer in the ,bible4 ,how far the view is sustainable1 with reference to the more recent conclusions in chronology1 ,i shall consider in another chapter2 but1 assuming that it is not chronologically disproved1 there is no intrinsic impossibility which will debar belief4 ,the general probability of tradition being thus avouched1#hd ,i proceed to examine certain statements that have been made as to its necessary variability1 and as to the uncertainty and indefiniteness of its utterances4 #hd ,in one way1 nothing is so uncertain as tradition1 and1 moreover1 tradition is rarely positive and direct1 but1 on the contrary1 prone to concrete into strange1 fragmentary1 and distorted shapes4 ,as an instance1 we may take the tradition which ,genesis attests1--,when ,abraham's hand had been stayed by the angel from the sacrifice of ,isaac1 444 ,he called the name of that place ',the ,lord seeth4' ,whereupon1 even to this day it is said1 ',in the mountain the ,lord will see4'--,gen4 xxii4 #ad4 ,in illustration of the mode and manner of tradition1 is the anecdote of ,mr ,hookham ,frere1 who states1 that when the ,maltese talk without reserve upon religious subjects1 they say1 ,everybody knows that ,adam was the first man1 but we alone know that he possessed fishing-boats2 which ,bunsen says ,can be nothing but a ,phoenician reminiscence4--,egypt1 iv4 #bae1 the reminiscence of the legend of the ,fisherman4 ,compare the ,fisherman and his wife in ,grimm's ,popular ,stories from ,oral ,tradition4 ,in the first place1 as to its variability1 it is true that tested by the experience which we possess of the persistency and exactness of family and local traditions1 tradition in the broader sense which ,i have indicated may appear to be of little value4 ,i have elsewhere attended a closer argument on this point in reply to ,sir ,john ,lubbock 7ch4 xii471 but ,i may also make what appears to me1 as regards this matter1 a sufficiently important distinction4 ,family tradition is so confused1 because at each remove in each generation1 it is necessarily crossed through marriage with the traditions of another family4 ,these may be either rival or irreconcileable4 ,but this remark will apply with much less force1 it will only secondarily and accidentally apply at all to the common traditions1 the inheritance of all families starting from a common origin4 ,if these traditions acquired some dross through the intermarriage of families1 they will1 on the other hand1 through the very action of intermarriages1 have been more frequently compared1 more vividly1 therefore1 kept in remembrance1 and more recognisable in their distortion1 because the distortion is more likely to have been in the way of super-addition of what was thought congruous and supplemental4 ,and this seems to me to meet ,mr ,max ,mller's objection in the ,contemporary ,review for ,april #ahgj4 ,comparative philology1 he says1 has taught again and again1 that when we find exactly the same name in ,greek and ,sanscrit1 we may be certain that it cannot be the same word2 for we here see reason why and how these traditions have been specially protected against the natural action and law which it is the peculiar province of philology to trace4 ,i say this more especially with reference to the etymology in ,bryant's and other kindred works1 which it is now the fashion to set aside with much hauteur2 and ,i assert it without impugning in any way the results of modern philological inquiry1 extending1 of course1 over a much wider field than the writers of the last century could embrace4 ,but ,i do contend1 that when the discussion has reference to the common progenitors of the human race1 or the incidents of primitive life--for instance1 the names of the ark1 and what ,i may call its accessories1 the dove and the rainbow#he--;a certain probability of identity may be presumed in such sort that it may chance that the probabilities of tradition must be held to override the conjectures1 and in some cases even the conclusions of philology4#hf #he ,vide ,bryant's ,mythology1 ii4 #hf ,after the exposition of his own theory1 ,mr ,grote says--,it is in this point of view that the myths are important for any one who would correctly appreciate the general tone of ,grecian thought and feeling1 for they were the universal mental stock of the ,hellenic world1 common to men and women1 rich and poor1 ignorant and instructed1 they were in every one's memory and in every one's mouth1 while science and history were confined to comparatively few4 ,we know from ,thucydides how erroneously and carelessly the ,athenian public of his day retained the history of ,pisistratus1 only one century past2 but the adventures of the gods and heroes1 the numberless explanatory legends attached to visible objects and periodical ceremonies1 were the theme of general talk1 and every man unacquainted with them would have found himself partially excluded from the sympathies of his neighbours4--,hist4 ,greece1 i4 p4 #fjh2 comp4 infra1 ch4 xi4 ,i incline1 moreover1 to the belief that the fidelity and persistency of local tradition is greater than is generally supposed4 ,sir ,h4 ,maine#hg says--,the truth is1 that the stable part of our mental1 moral1 and physical constitution is the largest part of it1 and the resistance it opposes to change is such that1 though the variations of human society in a portion of the world are plain enough1 they are neither so rapid nor so extensive that their amount of character and general direction cannot be ascertained4 ,this establishes a presumption1 at any rate1 in favour of tradition1 although ,i admit that the quotation from ,sir ,h4 ,maine does not go further than point to a tradition of usages2 but ,i contend that a tradition of usage would enable us1 after the manner of ,boulanger1#hh to disclose ,l'antiquite devoile par ses usages1 and to establish the main points and basis of the history of the human race1 e4g4 the ,fall1 the ,deluge1 the ,dispersion1 the early knowledge and civilisation of mankind1 the primitive monotheism1 the confusion of tongues1 the family system1 marriages1 the institution of property1 the tradition of a common morality1#hi and of the law of nations4 #hg ,ancient ,law1 p4 #aag4 #hh ,pour trouver le veritable objet de ces dernires solemnits1 dont les motifs sont compliqus1 nous nous attachons analyser leur crmoniel et chercher l'esprit de leurs usages2 et cet esprit achve de nous faire reconnatre l'objet que nous n'avions d'abord qu'entrevu ou souponn1 quelquefois mme il nous dveloppe encore la nature des motifs trangers et mythologiques1 et ces motifs se trouvent pour la plpart n'tre que des traditions du mme fait qui ont t ou corrompus par le temps1 ou travesties par des allgories4--,boulanger1 ,l',antiquite devoile par ses ,usages1 i4 #ca4 #hi ,vide other lines of tradition indicated in ,b4 iii41 ,c4 iii41 of ,de ,maistre1 ,du ,pape4 ,this inquiry might no doubt form a department either of scriptural exegesis1 universal history1 or of ethnological research2 but1 in point of fact1 its scope is too large practically to fall within such limits2 whereas1 if it were recognised as a separate branch of study1 it would1 ,i venture to think1 in the progress of its investigation1 bring all these different branches of inquiry into harmony and completeness4 ,and ,i further contend1 that the conclusions thus attained are as well-deserving of consideration as the conclusions of science from the implements of the drift1 or as the evidence of some bones1 from the pliocene beds of ,st ,prest1 which appear to show the marks of knives2#ij which are adduced in evidence of a ,palolithic age4 ,so that1 when on one side it is said that science 7meaning the science of geology or philology1 c47 has proved this or that fact apparently contrary to the scriptural narrative1 it can1 on the other hand1 be asserted that the facts1 or the inferences from them1 are incompatible with the testimony of the science of tradition4 ,the defenders of ,scripture will thus secure foothold on the ground of science1 which1 when properly entrenched1 will stand good against the most formidable recognizances or assaults of the enemy4 #ij ,sir ,j4 ,lubbock1 ,intro4 to ,nillson's ,stone ,age1 xii4 ,i cannot help thinking that some such thought lurks in the following passage of ,cardinal ,wiseman's ,second ,lecture on ,science and ,revealed ,religion 7#eth ,edition1 p4 #gc7-- ,here again ,i cannot but regret our inability to comprehend in one glance the bearings and connections of different sciences2 for1 if it appears that ages must have been required to bring languages to the state wherein we first find them1 other researches would show us that these ages never existed2 and we should thus be driven to discover some shaping power1 some ever-ruling influence1 which could do at once what nature would take centuries to effect2 and the ,book of ,genesis hath alone solved this problem4 ,no doubt a greater general acquaintance and power to grasp--or better still1 an intuitive glance--with which to comprehend the bearings and connections of different sciences1 would tend to circumscribe the aberrations of any particular science2 but the special intervention which appears to me destined to bring the various sciences into harmony1 will be the elevation of the particular department of history or archology which has to do with the traditions of the human race as to its origin into a separate and recognised branch of inquiry2 and ,i am satisfied that if any portion of that intellect1 which is cunning in the reconstruction of the mastodon from its vertebral bone1 had been directed to the great lines of human tradition1 that enough of the reliqui and vestiges of the past remain to establish their conformity with that which alone has solved this problem--the ,book of ,genesis2 and which1 apart from the consideration of its inspiration1 will ever remain the most venerable and best attested of human records4#ia #ia ,e4g41 ,mr ,grote says1 in his ,introduction1 that through the combination and illustration of scanty facts1 the general picture of the ,grecian world may now be conceived with a degree of fidelity which1 considering our imperfect materials1 it is curious to contemplate4 ,the ,duke of ,argyll 7,primeval ,man1 p4 #bd7 says--,within certain limits it is not open to dispute that the early condition of mankind is accessible to research4 ,contemporary history reaches back a certain way4 ,existing monuments afford their evidence for a considerable distance farther4 ,tradition has its own province still more remote2 and latterly geology and archology have met upon common ground--ground in which man and the mammoth have been found together4 ,it is much too readily assumed that traditions must be worthless where no records are kept4 ,gibbon1#ib ,i think1 was the first who took this position4 ,to this ,i reply1 that although records are valuable for the attestation1 they are not guarantees for the fidelity of tradition4#ic ,i do not assert that the tradition is more trustworthy than the record2 but that1 when mankind trust mainly to tradition1 the faculties by which it is sustained will be more strongly developed1 and the adaptation of society for its transmission more exactly conformed4 ,in other words1 tradition in ancient times seemed to flow as from a fountain-head1 and the world was everywhere grooved for its reception4 ,we may take in evidence the strange resemblances in mythological tradition in various parts of the world on the one hand1 and on the other the oral tradition of the ,homeric verses2 the frequent concourse of citizens1 and at recurring festivals of the surrounding populations1 to listen to their recital4 ,and not only was there oral tradition in verse1 but all public events were recorded in the attestations of the market-place4 ,when a treaty was ratified it was commonly before some temple1 or in some place of public resort1 and its terms were committed to memory by some hundred witnesses2 and in like manner was the recollection of other public events and memorable facts preserved4#id 7,vide ,pastoret's ,hist4 de la ,lgislation1 i4 #ga2 also1 account of ,annales ,maximi in ,dyer's ,rome1 xvii47 #ib ,gibbon 7,decline and ,fall1 i4 #cec7 says1 ,but all this well-laboured system of ,german antiquities is annihilated by a single fact1 too well attested to admit of any doubt1 and of too decisive a nature to leave room for any reply4 ,the ,germans1 in the days of ,tacitus1 were unacquainted with the use of letters1 and the use of letters is the principal circumstance which distinguishes a civilised people from a herd of savages1 incapable of knowledge or reflection4 ,without that artificial help1 the human memory ever dissipates or corrupts the ideas intrusted to her charge4 ,compare with ,coleridge1 infra1 p4 #abb2 ,ozanam1 infra1 ch4 xiii4 #ic ,eusebius 7,ecclesiastical ,hist41 ch4 xxxvi47 says1 speaking of ,st ,ignatius--,he exhorted them to adhere firmly to the tradition of the apostles2 which1 for the sake of greater security1 he deemed it necessary to attest by committing it to writing4 ,i do not remember to have seen this quoted in testimony and proof of ecclesiastical tradition4 #id ,goguet 7,origin of ,laws1 i4 #bi7 says--,the first laws of all nations were composed in verse1 and sung4 ,apollo1 according to a very ancient tradition1 was one of the first legislators4 ,the same tradition says that he published his laws to the sound of his lyre2 that is to say1 that he had set them to music4 ,we have certain proof that the first laws of ,greece were a kind of song4 ,the laws of the ancient inhabitants of ,spain were verses1 which they sung4 ,tuiston was regarded by the ,germans as their first lawgiver4 ,they said he put his laws into verses and songs4 ,this ancient custom was long kept up by several nations4 ,e4 ,warburton 7,conquest of ,canada1 i4 #bad7 says--,the want of any written or hieroglyphic records of the past among the ,northern ,indians was to some extent supplied by the accurate memories of their old men2 they were able to repeat speeches of four or five hours' duration1 and delivered many years before1 without error1 or even hesitation2 and to hand them down from generation to generation with equal accuracy4444 ,on great and solemn occasions belts of wampum were used as aids to recollection 444 when a treaty or compact was negotiated4 ,yet1 although during long periods oral transmission was for mankind the main channel of tradition1 it must not necessarily be concluded that writing was unknown1 and was not employed for monumental and other purposes4 ,what strikes one most forcibly in contemplating these ages1 is the contrast between their intellectual knowledge and their mechanical and material contrivances for its application4 ,during these centuries in which the #cj1jjj hexameters of the ,iliad and ,odyssey were transmitted in memory1 by repetition1 at public festivals1 oral tradition was doubtless employed1 because during this period paper1 parchment1 or even the smoothed hides1 as adapted for the purposes of writing1 were unknown4#ie ,this1 whilst it certainly is in evidence of the paucity of their available resources1 at the same time establishes the retentive strength of their memory1#if and their intellectual familiarity with great truths4 #ie ,vide ,h4 ,n4 ,coleridge 7,greek ,classic ,poets1 p4 #ch-db71 in speaking of the ,dionysiacs1 the ,thebaids1 the ,epigoniads1 ,naupactica1 genealogies1 and the other works of that sort1 p4 #dd1 he adds--,just as in the ,indian and ,persian epics1 in the ,northern ,eddas1 in the poem of the ',cid1' in the early chronicles of every nation with which we are acquainted1 one story follows another story in the order of mere history2 and the skill and fire of the poet are shown1 not in the artifice of grouping a hundred figures into one picture1 but in raising admiration by the separate beauty of each successive picture4 ,they tell the tale as the tale had been told to them1 and leave out nothing4 #if ,according to the account which the ,chinese themselves give of their annals1 the works of ,confucius were proscribed1 after his death1 by the ,emperor ,chi-,hoangti1 and all the copies1 including the ,chu-,king1 were recovered from the dictation of an old man who had retained them in memory4 ,the great moralist of the ,east himself1 ,confucius1 asserted--that he only wrought on materials already existing4 ,vide ,klaproth ap41 ,cardinal ,wiseman1 ,science and ,rev4 ,religion1 ii4 p4 #di4 ,in the article in the ,cornhill ,magazine1 ,nov4 #ahga1 containing the valuable collection of ,dravidian 7,south ,indian7 folk-songs1 it is said1 p4 #egg1 that they are handed down from generation to generation1 entirely viv voce1 and from the minstrels have passed into public use4 ,and this seems to me the sufficient reply to ,sir ,charles ,lyell's somewhat captious objection1 that if the intellectual knowledge of the primitive age was so great1 we ought now to be digging up steam engines instead of flint implements4 ,every age has its own peculiar superiority1 as hath each individual mind--non omnia possumus omnes--and it is as reasonable to object to an age of philosophic thought1 or of intuitive perception1 that it was not rich in the wealth of material civilisation1 as it would be to object to ,plato or ,shakspeare1 that they did not acquire dominion over mankind2 or to ,alexander1 that he did not excel ,aristotle2 or to ,sir ,c4 ,lyell1 supposing geology to be certain1 that he did not anticipate ,darwin1 supposing ,darwinism to be true4 ,and if it should be more precisely objected that1 if in those ages there was the knowledge of writing for monumental purposes1 we ought at least to find monuments1#ig ,i say that the onus probandi lies with the objector to prove the invention or introduction of writing in the interval between the age of ,homer and the age of ,pericles1 as against us who believe in its primeval transmission2 or to show that its introduction was more probable at this latter period than at the former4#ih #ig ,the ,duke of ,argyll 7,primeval ,man1 p4 #cj7 says--,knowledge1 for example1 or ignorance of the use of metals are1 as we shall see1 characteristics on which great stress is laid 7by the advocates of the savage theory74 ,now1 as regards this point1 as ,whately truly says1 the narrative of ,genesis distinctly states that this kind of knowledge did not belong to mankind at first4444 ,it is assumed in the savage theory that the presence or absence of this knowledge stands in close and natural connection with the presence or absence of other and higher kinds of knowledge1 of which an acquaintance with metals is but a symbol and a type4 ,within certain limits this is true4 #ih ,presuming total ignorance of writing--its invention at any period seems to me much more marvellous than the discovery of printing after the invention of writing4 ,for the rest we have seen that writing was known at an early period to the ,chaldans and ,egyptians1 and probably to the ,chinese and ,japanese1 and to the ,medians 7ch4 xii47 ,plutarch tells us that a law of ,theseus1 written on a column of stone1 remained even to the time of ,demosthenes4 ,schlegel says#ii-- ,i have laid it down as an invariable maxim to follow historical tradition1 and to hold fast by that clue1 even when many things in the testimony and declarations of tradition appear strange and almost inexplicable2 or1 at least1 enigmatical2 for so soon as1 in the investigations of ancient history1 we let slip that thread of ,ariadne1 we can find no outlet from the labyrinth of fanciful theories and the chaos of clashing opinion4 #ii ,phil4 ,hist4 ,i propose to give a few instances of tradition1 casually selected1 which appear to me to be in illustration of this dictum of ,schlegel's4 ,take1 in illustration1 the question whether mankind commenced with the state of monogamy4 ,not that there is any obscurity on this point in the ,book of ,genesis4 ,it is indeed sometimes loosely said that we find instances of polygamy in patriarchal times2 but1 as our ,lord said1 it was not so in the beginning2 and the ,book of ,genesis exhibits mankind as commencing with a single pair1 and subsequently as re-propagated through a group of families1 all represented to us at their commencement as monogamous4 ,but if this highest testimony is discarded1 and men gravely discuss whether or not they commenced with a state of promiscuity1 the argument from tradition will go for as much as the argument from the analogy of circumstances and conditions as inferred from the existing state of savages1 since this state1 from our point of view1 must have been the result of degeneracy4#ajj #ajj ,burke 7,regicide ,peace17 says--,the practice of divorce1 though in some countries permitted1 has been discouraged in all4 ,in the ,east polygamy and divorce are in discredit1 and the manners correct the laws4 ,i must1 moreover1 contend that the practice of monogamy1 in any one case1 must weigh for very much more than the practice of polygamy in ten parallel instances2 because the natural degeneracy and proclivity of man in his fallen state is in this direction4 ,and also1 polygamy is much more naturally regarded as the departure from monogamy1 than the latter as the restraint of1 or advance out of1 a state of promiscuity4 ,it may further1 ,i think1 be maintained that monogamy--in the way of separation with a single woman by reason of strong love or preference--would be the more probable escape from the state of promiscuity than through the intermediary and progressive stage of polygamy4#aja #aja ,this was written before the appearance of ,sir ,j4 ,lubbock's chapter on ,marriage1 in his ,origin of ,civilization1 to which reference is made at pp4 #ea1 #eb4 ,now1 ,i need scarcely say1 that the opponents of monogamy can show no instance of an advance out of the state of promiscuity either to monogamy or polygamy4 ,but they can point to certain communities in ancient and modern times in a state of polygamy4 ,either1 then1 they must have degenerated into this state from the primitive monogamous family system1 or they must have arrived at the stage in growth and progress out of a state of promiscuity4 ,does tradition give any clue out of this labyrinth8 ,to simplify the question1 ,i will consent to appeal to the identical tradition to which the advocates of an original promiscuity direct our attention4 ,mr ,j4 ,f4 ,m',lennan1 who1 in his ,primitive ,marriage1 #ahfe 7vide supra71 apparently describes mankind as originally in a state of promiscuity1 subsequently limited by customs of tribal exogamy and endogamy1 in a recent article in the ,fortnightly ,review 7,oct4 #ahfi71 ,totems and ,totemism1 sees further evidence of his theory in the following traditions from ,sanchoniathon3-- ,few traditions respecting the primitive condition of mankind are more remarkable1 and perhaps none are more ancient1 than those that have been preserved by ,sanchoniatho2 or rather1 we should say1 that are to be found in the fragments ascribed to that writer by ,eusebius4 ,they present us with an outline of the earlier stages of human progress in religious speculation1 which is shown by the results of modern inquiry to be wonderfully correct4 ,they tell us for instance that 'the first men consecrated the plants shooting out of the earth1 and judged them gods1 and worshipped them upon whom they themselves lived1 and all their posterity1 and all before them1 and to these they made their meat and drink offerings4'#ajb ,they further tell us that the first men believed the heavenly bodies to be animals1 only differently shaped and circumstanced from any on the earth4 ',there were certain animals which had no sense1 out of which were begotten intelligent animals 444 and they were formed alike in the shape of an egg4 ,thus shone out ,mt the luminous vault of heaven81 the sun and the moon1 and the less and the greater stars4' ,next they relate1 in an account of the successive generations of men1 that in the first generation the way was found out of taking food from trees2 that1 in the second1 men1 having suffered from droughts1 began to worship the sun--the ,lord of heaven2 that in the third1 ,light1 ,fire1 and ,flame conceived as persons1 were begotten2 that in the fourth giants appeared2 while in the fifth1 'men were named from their mothers' because of the uncertainty of male parentage1 this generation being distinguished also by the introduction of 'pillar' worship4 ,it was not till the twelfth generation that the gods appeared that figure most in the old mythologies1 such as ,kronos1 ,dagon1 ,zeus1 ,belus1 ,apollo1 and ,typhon2 and then the queen of them all was the ,bull-headed ,astarte4 ,the sum of the statements is1 that men first worshipped plants2 next the heavenly bodies1 supposed to be animals2 then 'pillars2' 444 and1 last of all1 the anthropomorphic gods4 ,not the least remarkable statement is1 that in primitive times there was kinship through mothers only1 owing to the uncertainty of fatherhood4#ajc #ajb ,a tradition of the constellations1 a proof from tradition that they were so named in the ante-diluvian period4 #ajc ,sanchoniatho's ,phoenician ,history1 by the ,right ,rev4 ,r4 ,cumberland4 ,london1 #agbj1 pp4 #b1 #c1 #bc1 et seq4 ,eusebius1 ,prpar4 ,evangel4 lib4 i4 cap4 #aj4 ,the fragments of ,sanchoniathon here referred to are found at earlier date than ,eusebius1 having been copiously extracted by ,philo 7vide ,bunsen's ,egypt74 ,sanchoniathon was to ,phoenicia what ,berosus was to ,assyria2 that is to say1 the earliest post-diluvian compilers of history when tradition was becoming obscure4 ,let us scrutinise his testimony4 ,we are here told that the first men consecrated the plants shooting out of the earth1 and judged them gods4444 ,next they relate1 in an account of the successive generations of men1 that in the first generation the way was found out of taking food from trees4 ,here1 ,i submit1 that we have plainly and unmistakably a tradition of that first commencement of evil1 the first man and woman plucking the apple from the tree1 thinking they would become as gods 7,gen4 iii4 #d1 #e71 444 and the serpent said 444 for ,god doth know that in what day soever you shall eat thereof 444 and you shall be as gods1 knowing good and evil4 ,then follows the succession of ages 7vide infra1 ch4 xiii471 of which there is a curious parallel tradition in ,hesiod and ,apollodorus1 and partial correspondences in the traditions of ,india1 ,china1 and ,mexico 7infra1 ch4 xiii474#ajd #ajd ,vide ,grote1 i4 ,it will be noted1 however1 that whilst running into the tradition of ,hesiod on the one side 7in ,hesiod and in the ,chinese tradition there is trace of a double tradition1 ante and post-diluvian71 ,sanchoniathon still more closely runs in with the narrative of ,genesis on the other1 thus connecting the links of the chain of tradition4#aje #aje ,this chapter was written before ,i became acquainted with ,mr ,palmer's ,chronicles of ,egypt 7vide ch4 vi47 ,if the reader will refer to chap4 i41 he will there find a learned and exhaustive exposition of the ages of ,sanchoniathon1 identifying them with ,scripture on the one side1 and ,egyptian tradition on the other4 ,in the succession of ages we have in outline the history of mankind in the ante-diluvian period--the ,fall1 supra--followed in the succeeding age by a great drought--compare this tradition with the following passage in ,fran4 ,lenormant's ,histoire ,ancienne1 i4 p4 #e1 #b;d ed41 ,paris #ahfh--;and when geology shows us the first ante-diluvian men who came into our part of the world1 living in the midst of ice1 under conditions of climate analogous to those under which the ,esquimaux live at the present day 444 one is naturally brought to the recollection of that ancient tradition of the ,persians1 fully conformable to the information which the ,bible supplies on the subject of the fall of man1 444 which ranks among the first of the chastisements which followed the fall1 along with death and other calamities1 the advent of an intense and permanent cold which man could scarcely endure1 and which rendered the earth almost uninhabitable4#ajf ,it is to this period1 and the short period immediately following the ,deluge 7vide ch4 ii4 p4 #ba1 and infra1 pp4 #acf1 #acg71 that ,i am inclined to trace the notions of a primitive barbarism--compare1 for instance1 the facts which ,goguet1 in his ,origin of ,laws1 i4 p4 #gb1 adduces in proof of his progress from barbarism1 with the above tradition of the ,persians recorded by ,lenormant4 #ajf ,is not this the meaning of the cxlvii4 psalm1 in the expression1 ante faciem frigoris ejus quis sustinebit8 ,does not the psalm recount to the ,jewish people1 in rapid allusions1 all that ,god had done for them1 in contrast to the chastisements that had befallen other nations2 and if it is objected that there is no allusion to the ,deluge1 unless in its indirect and beneficial influences1 in the words1 flavit spiritus ejus et fluent aqu1 ,i reply that to the survivors1 the ,deluge1 regarded largely1 and in its permanent effects1 was no calamity1 but the commencement of a new and more favoured era4 ,goguet says--,the ,egyptians1 ,persians1 ,phoenicians1 ,greeks1 and several other nations 7vide his references1 p4 #gb71 acknowledged that their ancestors were once without the use of fire4 ,the ,chinese confess the same of their progenitors4444 ,pomponius1 ,mela1 ,pliny1 ,plutarch1 and other ancient authors speak of nations1 who1 at the time they wrote1 knew not the use of fire1 or had only just learned it4 ,facts of the same kind are attested by several modern relations4 ,let this latter statement be compared with infra1 pp4 #acf1 #acg 4 ,in the third age we are told--,light1 ,fire1 and ,flame 7conceived as persons7 were begotten1 which looks like a tradition of ,vulcan1 ,tubalcain1 c4 7vide ch4 xii4 infra72 and in the fourth1 giants appeared2 while in the fifth1 the corruption of mankind is indicated1 as is declared in ,genesis vi4 #d3 ,now giants were upon the earth in those days4 ,for after the sons of ,god went in to the daughters of men and brought forth children1 c41 ver4 #ab1 and when ,god had seen that the earth was corrupted 7for all flesh had corrupted its way upon the earth71 ver4 #ac1 ,he said to ,noe1 c4 ,it was not till the twelfth generation that the gods appeared that figured most in the old mythologies1 says ,mr ,m',lennan1 quoting ,sanchoniathon1 or what is believed to be his testimony4 ,i trust that this fragment of tradition may be remembered in connection with what ,i have written in chapters viii41 ix41 x4 #ajg #ajg ,compare ch4 xiii4 ,the successive ages of ,hesiod1 more especially the lines describing the iron age1 parallel to the tradition1 supra1 that in the fifth age men were named from their mothers4 ,no fathers in their sons their features trace1 ,the sons reflect no more their father's face2 ,the host with kindness greets his guest no more1 ,and friends and brethren love not as of yore4 --,,hesiod4 ,president ,goguet 7,origin of ,laws1 i4 #ba17 had noticed the ancient allusions to kinship through mothers1 and his statement that women belonged to the man who seized them first4444 ,the children who sprang from this irregular intercourse scarce ever knew who were their fathers4 ,they knew only their mothers1 for which reason they always bore their name4 ,for this statement he also quotes ,sanchoniathon1 ap4 ,eus4 p4 #cd1 as his principal authority4 ,but ,sanchoniathon's statement1 as we have seen1 refers to the ante-diluvian period1 in which it is borne out by ,genesis vi4 #d4 ,there is one fact adduced by ,goguet 7i4 #dc71 viz4 that the ,assyrians had an analogous ceremony which must be decisive for us1 though not1 perhaps1 for ,mr ,m',lennan1 that the custom of seizure was ante-diluvian1 since the commencement of the ,assyrian monarchy in the times immediately following the flood1 is one of the best established foundations of history4 ,vide ,genesis and ,rawlinson4 ,this race of many languaged man4 ,to any one who rightly grasps the bearing of the argument1 the appositeness of this quotation will1 ,i think1 be rather strengthened than diminished by the evidence that the lines of ,hesiod plainly refer to post-diluvian times 7vide ch4 xiii47 ,the sum of the statements then1 so regarded1 is to confirm the tradition of the human race as recorded in ,genesis1 that they sprang from three brothers and their three wives1 forming three monogamous pairs who accompanied their father ,noah into the ark1 with his wife2 and who again were more remotely descended from a single pair4 ,if1 then1 in the two most ancient traditions of which we have any record1 we find concordance on some points and divergence on others1 the circumstance of identity at all is so much more startling than the occurrence of discrepancy1 that it will fairly be taken to warrant the presumption of a common origin2 and this conformity will also be naturally claimed in support of our narrative as against the other on the points of disagreement1 which will then be set down to the corruption of that which is deemed the most ancient and authentic4 ,for those1 therefore1 who believe the ,bible to be the revealed ,word of ,god1 and even for those who regard it as the most ancient record1 the coincidences with ,sanchoniathon will afford a striking testimony2 whereas the coincidence of the fifth age of ,sanchoniathon with ,genesis 7chap4 vi4 #a1 #b1 #d7 and the tradition of ,hesiod1 must be an embarrassment to those who seek in this tradition evidence that what was characteristic of the fifth age1 was true of the preceding and pristine ages4 ,to take a second instance1 more exactly in illustration of the quotation from ,f4 ,schlegel1 supra1 p4 #abd1 there is no such barrier to tradition 7regarded retrospectively7 as the notion1 if we accept it1 which crept over many nations1 that they were autochthones4 ,like the sand-drifts known to geologists as dunes1 such notions1 if they had been received absolutely1 would have involved all tradition in a general extinction4 ,but as the dunes1 when minutely measured and submitted to calculation1 have afforded the best evidence in favour of what may be called the diluvian chronology1 so will this notion that men sprang out of the soil in which they dwelt1 when analysed1 contribute fresh evidence to the truth and persistence of tradition4 ,but first of all1 will any one start with the theory--that any nation that had this notion about itself--the ,greeks1 for instance1 were really autochthones8 ,there is1 then1 simply a confusion of ideas1 a difficulty which has to be unravelled2 but seeing that the ,greeks notoriously believed themselves to be autochthones1 it becomes an obstruction in the main channel of tradition1 and it is especially incumbent upon us to consider the facts4 ,in the ,supplicants of schylus--and ,i am not aware that the notion crops up at earlier date--,pelasgus is introduced as saying-- ,pelasgus bids you1 sovereign of the land1 ,my sire1 ,palcthon1 of high ancestry1 ,original with this earth2 from me1 their king1 ,the people take their name1 and boast themselves ,pelasgians4 --v4 #bge4 ,here the high descent1 and the origin from the soil1 the ancestry referred to in the same breath with the allusion to his sire1 original with this earth1 strikes one as incongruous4 ,and the incongruity appears still greater when we recollect that ,pelasgus is the person whom all historical evidence proves to have been the first settler in the country2 it being also borne in mind that the term autochthones1 whether in a primary or a secondary sense1 is always applied to the supposed aboriginals of the country1 and therefore excludes the hypothesis of any more primitive colonisation4#ajh #ajh ,the ,phoenician cosmogony seems to me to clinch the argument4 ,there 7vide ,bunsen1 ,egypt1 iv4 #bcd71 ,the son of ,eliun is called by ,philo1 ,epigeios or autokhthon1 'the earth-born1' primeval inhabitant4 ,by the latter of these expressions we have no doubt that ,adam-,tadmon 7'the ,kadmos of the ,greeks1' p4 #aie71 the first man1 the man of ,god1 is implied 7,eliun1 i4e4 ,helyun1 ,god the ,most ,high1 p4 #bcb74 ,there is an analogy in their confused tradition of the creation4 ,eudemus says1 according to the ,phoenician mythology1 which was invented by ,mkhos1 the first principle was ther and air2 from these two beginnings sprang ,ulmos 7the eternal71 the rational 7conscious7 ,god 7,bunsen1 iv4 #agi74 ,bunsen1 7#agh7 adds1 as regards ,mkhos the thing is clear enough2 the old materialistic philosopher is matter1 and that in the sense of primeval slime4 ,whence it has been suggested that we derive our word ,muck1 ,mkh1 or ,mkhos4 ,this beginning ,bunsen considers 7p4 #agi7 a philosophising amplification of the simply sublime words of ,genesis3 ',the earth was without form1 and void1 and darkness was over the face of the waters4' ,here we see the human reason hampered by the tradition that confused matter or chaos was somehow at the commencement1 and with the conflicting tradition and conclusion of the intellect that it was1 and must have been1 created by a power superior to matter 7,in the beginning ,god created heaven and earth71 emancipating itself1 so far as to identify the ,creator with the ther and air1 as nearer the conception of a pure ,spirit1 and personifying matter1 and so shunting it aside as the inventor of the mythology4 ,but if we regard it as a corruption of the tradition that man was created out of the earth 7for dust thou art1 and unto dust thou shalt return1 ,genesis iii4 #ai71 does not this solve all difficulties8 ,the extension of the knowledge that they were created out of the earth1 to the notion that they were created out of this or that particular clay1 is not violent4 ,is it not this same schylus#aji who has the allusion to the earth drinking the blood of the two rival brothers1 the one slain by the other4 ,it will be seen at p4 #age1 that the ,mexicans believed that the first race of men were created out of the earth1 and the third out of a tree1 a reminiscence of the creation1 and of the fall1 the intermediate event being probably the creation of ,eve4 ,in like manner1 the ,red ,indians have a tradition that they were created out of the red clay by the ,great ,spirit2 and to go to another part of the world1 the supposed aboriginal tribes of ,china were called ,miautze1 or soil children4#aaj #aji ,vide ,de ,maistre 7ch4 xii47 #aaj ,max ,mller1 ,chips1 c41 ii4 #bgd4 ,the ,titans were also said to be earth-born4 ,bryant 7iii4 #dde7 says ,berosus gives the following tradition of the ,creation4 ,belus after deification being confounded with the ,creator1 as we have seen ,prometheus1 id4 #ajd--;,belus1 the deity above mentioned1 cut off his own head1 upon which the other gods mixed the blood as it gushed out with the earth1 and from thence men were formed4 ,on this account it is that they are rational and partake of divine knowledge4 ,this ,belus1 whom men called ,dis1 divided the darkness and separated the heavens from the earth1 c4 ,this testimony must be connected with the phrase so startling in the seventh ode of the fourth book of ,horace1 pulvis et umbra sumus1 and with the text in ,genesis iii4 #ai1 for dust thou art4#aaa ,it may possibly be said that this is merely matter of every day's experience4 ,but it is precisely at this point that we must ask those who dispute tradition to discard tradition4 ,do bodies--so far as the exterior senses tell us--return to dust1 or to other forms of life8 ,if it is true that we return to dust--,scripture apart--it is tradition and not experience which attests it1 and yet so common is the belief1 that it might readily pass as the result of common observation4 #aaa ,compare ,cicero1 ,de ,legibus1 i4 #h3 ,est igitur homini cum deo similitudo2 and with ,gen4 ii4 #bf1 #bg3 and ,god created man in his own likeness4 ,so general a tradition that man was created1 and created out of the ground1#aab is so completely in accordance with the text of ,genesis1 that one can hardly see what more can be demanded2 yet ,catlin says#aac--,though there is not a tribe in ,america but what has some theory of man's creation1 there is not one amongst them all that bears the slightest resemblance to the ,mosaic account4 ,catlin instances the traditions of the ,mandans1 ,choctaws1 and the ,sioux--#ast1 ,the ,mandans 7who have the ceremony commemorative of the ,deluge referred to1 ch4 xi471 believe that they were created under the ground4 #b;d1 ,the ,choctaws assert that they were created crawfish1 living alternately under the ground and above it as they chose2 and1 creeping out at their little holes in the earth to get the warmth of the sun one sunny day1 a portion of the tribe was driven away and could not return2 they built the ,choctaw village1 and the remainder of the tribe are still living under the ground4 ,the ,iroquois1 however1 believe that they came out of the ground1 which is identical with the ,greek notion of their being autochthones 7vide ,colden1 ii4 #ajc71 where one of their chiefs speaks thus--,for we must tell you that long before one hundred years our ancestors came out of this very ground4444 ,you came out of the ground in a country that lies beyond the seas4 ,now1 even if we consent to detach the ,iroquois tradition1 there is still in both the ,mandan and ,choctaw tradition1 a common idea of their having come from under the ground1 which seems to me the tradition that they were created out of the ground at one remove4 ,to this it would seem the ,choctaws have super-added their recollection of some incident of their tribe1 possibly that they were an offshoot of the ,esquimaux1 or were at one period in their latitude and lived their life1 which would be in accordance with the theory of their migrations from ,asia by ,behring's ,straits4 #c;d1 ,about the ,sioux1 the third instance of contrariety adduced by ,catlin1 it seems to me that there is no room for argument1 the ,sioux having the tradition referred to above1 that the ,great ,spirit told them that ,the red stone was their flesh4 ,to these three instances ,mr ,catlin adds--,other tribes were created under the water1 and at least one half of the tribes in ,america represent that man was created under the ground or in the rocky caverns of the mountains4 ,why this diversity of theories of the ,creation if these people brought their traditions of the ,deluge from the land of inspiration8#aad #aab ,the ,chinese cosmogony speaks as follows of the creation of man--',god took some yellow earth1 and ,he made man en deux sexes4' ,this is the true origin of the human race4 ,a ,hebrew tradition says that it was of the red earth1 which is the same idea4 ,the ,hebrew word ,adam expresses this idea4 ,this correspondence as to the manner in which the body of the first man was formed1 between two people who have never had relations1 is very remarkable4 ,indian and ,african cosmogonies relate that the name of the first man was ',adimo1' that of his wife ',hava1' and that they were the last work of the ,creator4--,gainet1 ,la ,bible sans la ,bible1 i4 p4 #gd4 ,i must note1 too1 the identity of the ,american ,indian 7supra7 and the ,hebrew tradition1 which is curious1 as it might naturally be supposed that the tradition of the ,red ,indian took its colour from his own complexion4 ,max ,mller 7,lect4 on the ,science of ,language1 #ast series1 p4 #cfg7 says of man--,the ,latin word homo1 the ,french l'homme1 444 is derived from the same root1 which we have in humus1 soil1 humilis1 humble4 ,homo1 therefore1 would express the idea of being made out of the dust of the earth4 ,bunsen also 7,phil4 ,univ4 ,hist4 i4 #gh7 says--,the common word for man in all ,german dialects is 'manna1' containing the same root as ,sanscrit 'manusha' and 'manueshya4' ,the ,latin 'homo' is intimately connected with 'humus' and ,greek3 chamai and means earth-born2 ,greek3 anthrpn chamaigenen1 says ,pindar4 ,but what is ,greek3 anthrpos8 #aac ,last ,rambles1 p4 #cbd4 #aad ,the following tradition of the ,tartar tribes seems to supply a link4 ,in their tradition of the ,deluge 7vide ,gainet1 i4 #bji7 it is said1 that those who saved themselves from the ,deluge shut themselves up with their provisions in the crevices of mountains1 and that after the scourge had passed they came out of their caverns4 ,and compare1 again1 with the tradition of ,kronos 7,noah1 vide ,bryant's ,mythology1 iii4 #ejc7--;,he is said to have had three sons 7,sanch4 ap4 ,euseb4 ,p4 ,e41 lib4 i4 c4 #aj1 #cg71 and in a time of danger he formed a large cavern in the ocean1 and in this he shut himself up1 together with these sons1 and thus escaped the danger4--,porph4 de ,nymphar4 ,antro41 p4 #aji4 ,bryant 7,mythology1 iii4 #dje7 says--,i have shown that ,gaia1 in its original sense1 signified a sacred cavern1 a hollow in the earth1 which1 from its gloom1 was looked upon as an emblem of the ark4 ,hence ,gaia1 like ,hasta ,rhoia ,cybele1 is often represented as the mother of mankind4 ,the following is very important with reference to my argument above3--,the ,scholiast upon ,euripides says--,greek3 ,meta ton kataklysmon en oresin oikountn tn ,argein prtos autous synkisen ,inachos4 ,when the ,argivi or ,arkites1 after the ,deluge1 lived dispersed on the mountains1 ,inachus first brought them together and formed them into communities4--,comp4 infra1 p4 #aeg1 #aeh1 #aic1 #ccb4 ,the instances adduced of myths connecting man with the monkey are1 as a rule1 traditions of degeneracy1 i4e4 of men turned into monkeys 7vide ,tylor's ,primitive ,culture1 i4 #cdj71 and to which ,i would add the rabbinical tradition of men turned into monkeys at the ,tower of ,babel 7,de ,quincey1 ,works1 xiii4 #bce71 and the classical epic of the ,ceropes1 founded on the transformation of a set of jugglers into monkeys4 ,but if compared with the above tradition1 ,i think that the only two instances 7,tylor1 i4 #cda7 which seem to bear out the opposite theory will wear a different aspect4 ,i quote from ,tylor as above--,wild tribes of the ,malay peninsula1 looked down upon as lower animals by the more warlike and civilised ,malays1 have among them traditions of their own descent from a pair of the unka-putch or white monkeys1 who reared their young ones and sent them into the plains1 and there they perfected so well that they and their descendants became men1 but those who returned to the mountains still remained apes4 ,the ,buddhist legend relates the origin of the flat-nosed uncouth tribes of ,tibet1 offspring of two miraculous apes1 transformed to people the snow-kingdom4 ,taught to till the ground1 when they had grown corn and eaten it1 their tails and hair gradually disappeared1 they began to speak1 became men1 and clothed themselves with leaves4 ,the population grew closer1 the land was more and more cultivated1 and at last a prince of the race of ,sakya1 driven from his home in ,india1 united their isolated tribes into a single kingdom4--,comp4 ,cecrops1 c41 p4 #ccb1 infra4 ,now1 just as the tribes who said they were created under the ground implied the same tradition as those who said they were created out of the ground1 so1 too1 the tribes who said they were created under the water probably held the tradition that the creation of the race preceded the ,deluge4 ,the tradition which connects the creation with the rocky caverns of the mountains is more recondite--may it possibly be a recollection of the commencement of civil life after the ,deluge1 when ,noah led them1 according to tradition1 from the mountains to the plains8 ,m4 ,l',abb ,gainet says 7i4 #agf7--,the ,lord repeated four times the promise that ,he would not send another deluge4444 ,the children of ,noah were long scared by the recollection of the dreadful calamity4444 ,it is probable that they did not decide upon leaving the 'plateaux' of the mountains till quite late4 ,moreover1 caverns have been found in the mountains of the ,himalaya1 and in many other elevated regions of ,asia1 which they suppose to have been formed by the first generations of man after the ,deluge4 ,the works of the learned ,m4 de ,paravey make frequent mention of them4 ,this tradition is supported by the lines of ,virgil referring to ,saturn 7vide infra1 p4 #baj74 ,is genus indocile1 ac dispersum montibus altis ,composuit2 legesque dedit4--n4 viii4 #cae4 ,i give these suggestions for what they may be worth4#aae ,truly1 where some see nothing but harmony1 others see nothing but diversity4 ,only to put it to a fair test1 ,i should like to see ,mr ,catlin or some one else group these various traditions round any one tradition which they believe to be at variance with the revelation of ,genesis1 and which1 at the same time1 they happen to consider to be the true one4 ,it must be conceded that in one way the facts accord with ,mr ,catlin's theory--contradicted1 however1 by other evidence 7infra1 ch4 xi47--that the ,indians were created on the ,american continent4 ,but upon any theory that they were not created at all1 but existed always in pantheistic transformation1 or had progressed from the monkey1 or had been developed in evolution from some protoplasm1 is not the tradition incongruous and inexplicable8 #aae ,it occurs to me as possible that these various traditions may have had their foundation in the recollection of hardship1 at some early period of their subsequent migration1 which were transferred back and connected with their tradition of the altered state of things after the ,deluge1 arising out of the substitution of animal for vegetable food--of which the notion that man once lived on acorns may have been only an extreme form of expression4 ,the following tradition of ,saturn 7vide infra1 ,saturn1 p4 #baj71 seems to tend in this direction3 ,diodorus ,siculus gives the same history of ,saturn as is by ,plutarch above given of ,janus--,greek3 ex agriou diaits eis meron ,bion metarsa anthrpous4--,diodorus1 #a4 #e1 p4 #ccd4 ,he brought mankind from their foul and savage way of feeding to a more mild and rational diet4--,bryant1 ii4 #bfa4 ,to take another instance4 ,the ,hindoos had a fanciful notion that the world was supported by an elephant1 and the elephant by a tortoise4 ,nothing can be imagined more incongruous and grotesque4 ,yet ,dr ,falconer has recently discovered1 in his explorations in ,india1 a fossil tortoise adequate to the support of an elephant4 ,the incongruity then of the tradition disappears2 its grotesqueness remains4 ,i cannot help thinking1 however1 that it may have been the embodiment in symbol1 or else the systematisation of the confused medley of their tradition of the order1 i4e4 of the sequence of days of the creation 7vide ,appendix to this chapter74#aaf #aaf ,this fable of the tortoise is also among the ,mandans1 whom1 ,catlin 7supra1 #ace7 says1 had no other tradition of the ,creation than that they were created under the ground4 ,their tradition is confused with the ,deluge1 which dominates in their tradition4 ,the ,mandans believed that the earth rests on four tortoises4 ,they say that each tortoise rained ten days1 making forty days in all1 and the waters covered the earth 7vide ,o-kea-pa1 p4 #ci1 infra1 ch4 xi47 ,does not this tradition of the tortoise decide the ,oriental origin of the ,north ,american ,mandans8 ,falconer's ,palontological ,mem41 #ahfh1 i4 #big1 ii4 #cgg-egc1 c41 ,as the pterodactyle more than realised the most extravagant idea of the winged dragon1 so does this huge tortoise come up to the lofty conceptions of ,hindoo mythology2 and could we but recall the monsters to life1 it were not difficult to imagine an elephant supported on its back7i4 #bg74 ,the ,new ,zealanders have a curious tradition of their ancestors having encountered a gigantic saurian species of reptile1 which must have been before they arrived in ,new ,zealand4 ,vide ,shortland's ,traditions of the ,new ,zealanders1 p4 #gc4 ,i have alluded1 p4 #aii1 to the tradition preserved by ,berosus1 that ,oannes1 whom ,i identify with ,noah1 left writings upon the origin of the world1 in which he says1 that there was a time when all was darkness and water1 and that this darkness and water contained monstrous animals4 ,here1 perhaps1 two distinct traditions are confused2 but is not the tradition of animals so much out of the ordinary nature of things as to be called monstrous sufficiently marked to make us ask if the discovery of the skeleton of the megatherium ought to have come upon the scientific world as a surprise8 ,might they not have anticipated the discovery if they had duly trusted tradition8 ,other instances might doubtless be adduced4 ,my present object is merely to suggest that there may be truths in tradition not dreamt of by modern philosophy4 ,if the human intellect were as capacious as it is acute1 we might then listen with greater submission to its strictures upon tradition2 because then we might at least believe that its vision extended to all the facts4 ,but in truth1 no intellect1 however encyclopdic1 can grasp them all4 ,indeed1 knowledge in many departments is becoming more and more the tradition of experts1 and must be taken by the outside world on faith4 ,how many facts1 again1 once in tradition1 but at some period put on record1 lie as deeply shrouded in the dust of libraries as they had previously lain hidden in the depths of ages8 ,who will say what facts are traditional in different localities8 ,barely do we move from place to place without eliciting some information strange and new4 ,who again will say what ideas are traditional in different minds8 ,barely is there a discussion which provokes traditional lore or traditional sentiment which does not bring to light some such thought or experience1 re-appearing1 like the lines in family feature1 after the lapse of several generations4 ,whenever1 then1 mankind is called upon to discard its traditions at the voice of any intellect1 however powerful1 is it unreasonable to demand that some cognizance should be taken of these facts4#aag #aag ,i have elsewhere 7vide ch4 iv41 et seq41 x41 xi47 traced the tradition of the ,deluge1 of the chronology of the world1 c41 c4 ,let us now1 returning to the tradition we have more especially in view1 ask this further question1--,what could the human intellect have done towards the regeneration of the race if there had been no revelation and no tradition8 ,it is not often that unbelief is constructive and supplies us with the necessary data with which to furnish the answer4 ,but recently a work which is said to embody considerable learning has appeared1 entitled1 ,the ,origin and ,development of ,religious ,belief1 which is written from a philosophic and not from a religious point of view2 in which the existence of a ,god is not assumed1 the truth of revelation is not assumed1 and the ,bible is quoted not as an authoritative1 but as an historical record open to criticism4--,mr ,baring ,gould1 ,origin and ,development of ,religious ,belief1 preface1 #ahfi4 ,here then1 if anywhere1 we are likely to get the solution from the point of view of unbelief4 ,at p4 #aai1 ,mr ,b4 ,gould thus summarises his views3-- ,religion1 as has been already shown1 is the synthesis of thought and sentiment4 ,it is the representation of a philosophic idea4 ,it always reposes on some hypothesis4 ,at first it is full of vigour1 constantly on the alert to win converts4 ,then the hypothesis is acquiesced in1 it is received as final1 its significance evaporates4 ,the priests of ancient times were also philosophers1 but not being able always to preserve their intellectual superiority1 their doctrines became void of meaning1 hieroglyphs of which they had lost the key2 and then speculation ate its way out of religion1 and left it an empty shell of ritual observance1 void of vital principle4 ,philosophy alone is not religion1 nor is sentiment alone religion2 but religion is that which1 based on an intelligent principle1 teaches that principle as dogma1 exhibits it in worship1 and applies it in discipline4 ,dogma worship and discipline are the constituents1 so to speak1 the mind spirit1 and body of religion4--,origin and ,development of ,religious ,belief4 ,by ,s4 ,baring ,gould1 ,m4,a4 ,rivingtons1 #ahfi4 ,part i41 p4 #aai4 ,here it is said that religion is the representative of a philosophic idea4 ,it always reposes on some hypothesis4 ,this philosophic idea may be that there must necessarily be a ,creator4 ,but also it may not be1 for the existence of ,god is not assumed 7vide preface74 ,if it is not1 then1 according to this definition1 religion may be the representative of any philosophic idea 7i4e4 any idea of any philosopher71 even that which may be diametrically opposed to the existence and goodness of ,god4#aah ,but if1 on the other hand1 the existence of ,god is this primary philosophic idea1 then all other philosophic ideas must succumb to it4 ,it is a point which you must settle at starting in your definition of religion4 #aah ,devil-worship is based upon the hypothesis that the evil spirit exists1 and is the influence from which man has most to dread4 ,prudence suggests that it is wise to propitiate evil when it is powerful2 and if the existence of ,god is not assumed1 or the conception of ,god not yet developed1 it is hard to see how the conclusion can be impugned2 and 7vide next page7 ,mr ,baring ,gould endorses ,grimm's opinion that man's first idea of ,god is the idea of a devil4 ,what follows seems to assume that some individual1 or some set of individuals1 at a period more or less remote1 evolved the idea of ,god and religion out of their own consciousness2 but that1 as the descendants of these individuals had not the same intellectual vigour1 the conception lapsed1--their doctrines became hieroglyphs of which they had lost the key4 ,nothing can be more conformable to the theory of tradition2#aai but from the point of view of ,mr ,baring ,gould1 what was to forbid other individuals broaching fresh conceptions8 ,is there1 however1 any instance known to us8 ,is there any instance of a religion not eclectic or pantheistic 7the one being the mere revivalism or reconstruction of the elements of former beliefs1 and the other their absorption71 any religion based on an intelligible principle1 heretofore unknown to mankind1 rising up and obtaining even a temporary ascendancy among mankind8 ,no2 mankind1 even in the darkness of ,paganism1 persistently distinguished between religion and philosophy1 priests and sophists--though intellectually so much alike--and this ,i consider to be a master-key to the history of the past 7ante1 p4 #aji74 #aai ,the most favourable review of ,mr ,b4 ,gould's work which ,i have seen says3--,in tracing the origin and development of religious belief1 the object of ,mr ,baring ,gould is to establish the foundation of ,christian doctrine on the nature1 the intuitions1 and the reason of man1 rather than upon traditionary dogmas1 historical documents1 or written inspirations4 ,he is of opinion that the elements of true religion are to be found in a revelation naturally impressed upon the soul of man1 and that the investigation of man's moral nature will be found to disclose the surest proofs of his religious wants and destination4 ,the author holds that if theological doctrines can be inculcated by demonstrative evidence of their harmony with man's intellectual and moral constitution1 they will be received with more perfect acquiescence and conviction than when appeals are made simply to man's veneration for antiquity and authority4 ,i think ,i am1 at any rate1 right in taking ,mr ,b4 ,g4's as the view most directly opposed to tradition1 and it is from this point of view that ,i am brought into collision with him4 ,there is a further point which ,mr ,baring ,gould must settle4 ,religion may be theoretically regarded as an affair of growth1 progressive1 or as an affair of revelation1 or something so nearly counterfeiting revelation as to arise spontaneously2 but it cannot well be both4 ,now1 in the pages of ,mr ,baring ,gould it appears at one time springing into life 7p4 #aji71 and1 as in the passage above1 analogously to a conception in the mind3--,at first it is full of vigour1 constantly on the alert to win converts2 at another1 as a conception slowly evolved2 then all at once a living belief1 vividly luminous 7p4 #aji74 ,again 7p4 #aaj71 ,religion does not reach perfection of development at a bound2 generations pass away1 before1 c42 and 7p4 #cbi7 we find that in all primitive religions the idea of ,god is the idea of a devil1 or 7id47 that the first stage in the conception of a devil is the attribution of evil to ,god1 which is different1 inasmuch as it supposes man to start with the knowledge of ,god1 and is1 moreover1 inconsistent with what is said at page #aac3--,the shapeless religion of a primitive people gradually assumes a definite form4 ,it is that of nature worship4 ,it progresses through polytheism and idolatry1 and emerges into monotheism or pantheism4 ,of course this is said upon the assumption that the primitive man was barbarous4 ,but however remote from the fact1 it is theoretically as conceivable that man should worship nature as an ideal of beauty and power1 as that he should regard it from the first as an apparition of terror2 or1 in other words1 that taking nature-worship for granted1 ,mr ,max ,mller's view of it1 viz43--,he begins to lift up his eyes1 he stares at the tent of heaven1 and asks who supports it8 ,he opens his eyes to the winds1 and asks them whence and whither8 ,he is awakened from darkness and slumber by the light of the sun1 and ,him whom his eyes cannot behold1 and who seems to grant him the daily pittance of his existence1 he calls 'his life1 his breath1 his brilliant ,lord and ,protector' 7,chips1 i4 #fi1 apud ,b4 ,g41 #aci71--;is as likely to be the true one as ,mr ,baring ,gould's1#abj viz43--,at first man is 444 antitheist2 but presently he feels resistances4444 ,the convulsions of nature1 the storm1 the thunder1 the exploding volcano1 the raging seas1 fill him with a sense of there being a power superior to his own1 before which he must bow4 ,his religious thought1 vague and undetermined1 is roused by the opposition of nature to his will 7p4 #acg74 #abj ,vide1 however1 ,dr ,newman's ,grammar of ,assent1 p4 #chf1 et seq4 ,mr ,baring ,gould postulates1 ,i am aware1 the lapse of several generations for the evolution of these ideas4 ,but there is nothing in ,mr ,baring ,gould's statement of the progression or development of the conception of the ,deity among mankind which might not pass in rapid sequence through the mind of the primitive man1--call him ,areios1 if you shrink from close contact with history1 and refuse to call him ,adam4 ,why then the indefinite lapse of time8 why the progressive advance of the idea through successive generations of mankind8 ,why1 except that the primitive barbarism must be assumed2 and because 7p4 #bci71 in the examination of the springs of religious thought1 we have to return again and again to the wild bog of savageism in which they bubble up4 ,but if the savagery was so great1 the perplexity how man ever came to make the first step in the induction is much greater than that1 having made it1 he should proceed on to make the last4 ,it is certain that reason can prove the existence of ,god and ,his goodness1 and this knowledge evokes the instincts of love and worship4 ,it is true also that man has a conscience of right and wrong1 and that among its dictates is a sense of the obligation of love and worship4 ,still this will not account for the existence of religion in the world4 ,much less will ,mr ,baring ,gould's theory of an induction by mankind collectively1 spread over several centuries1 account either for the notion or for the institution4 ,neither1 apart from direct or indirect revelation1 would it prove more than that man was religious1 though without religion2 capable of arriving at the knowledge of ,god's existence1 but without any knowledge how to propitiate him2 seeking ,god1 but not able to find ,him4 ,therefore1 ,mr ,baring ,gould truly says--,philosophy alone is not religion4 ,philosophy1 as we have seen1 may prove the existence of ,god4 ,but religion1 from the commencement of the world1 has conveyed the idea that there is a particular mode in which ,god must be worshipped4 ,here philosophy is entirely at fault4 ,mr ,baring ,gould again truly says that dogma1 worship1 and discipline are the constituents1 so to speak1 the mind1 spirit1 and body of religion 7p4 #aai74 ,but he goes no further1 and does not explain how it came about that mankind in all ages have adhered with singular pertinacity to the notion that religion could teach that on which philosophy must perforce be silent4 ,has not the greater intellect ever been on the side of philosophy8 ,nay1#aba in the epochs in which intellectual superiority was undeniably on the side of philosophy1 did the populace go to the academy or to the oracles8 ,if the human intellect had originally framed the ritualistic observances1 which bore so strange a resemblance in different parts of the world2 if human sagacity had originated the idea of sacrifice 7and wherefore sacrifice from the point of view of human sagacity872 if philosophy had revealed to them the religious conceptions which they retained1 and had been able to define the relation of man to the ,divinity--would not mankind1 in all ages1 have had recourse to its greatest intellects for the solution of its doubts1 rather than to the guardians of an obscure and corrupt tradition8 ,the question no doubt is complicated with the evidence as to demonolatry2 but the extent to which this prevailed only enforces the argument against ,mr ,baring ,gould1 to whom1 apparently1 the demon 7p4 #ace7 is not a real existence1 but only the embodiment of a phase of thought1 and must seriously embarrass those who attribute the regeneration of man from savagery to intellectual growth and natural progress4 #aba ,the lively ,grecian1 in a land of hills1 ,rivers1 and fertile plains1 and sounding shores1 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,in despite ,of the gross fictions chanted in the streets ,by wandering rhapsodists1 and in contempt ,of doubt and bold denial hourly urged ,amid the wrangling schools1 a ,spirit hung1 ,beautiful region6 o'er thy towns and farms1 ,statues and temples1 and memorial tombs2 ,and emanations were perceived1 and acts ,of immortality1 in nature's course1 ,exemplified by mysteries that were felt ,as bonds1 on grave philosopher imposed1 ,and armed warrior2 and in every grove ,a gay or pensive tenderness prevailed1 ,when piety more awful had relaxed4 --,,wordsworth1 ,excursion1 ,b4 iv4 ,but demonology apart1 what would have countervailed against the superiority of reason and the intellectual prestige of the world except a belief in a tradition of primitive revelation8 ,what else will account for the different recognitions of philosophy and religion--priests and sophists8 ,what else would have prevented mankind from resorting in their difficulties to where the greatest intellect was found8 ,at page #acd1 this truth seems to gain partial recognition in the pages of ,mr ,baring ,gould3-- ,in conclusion1 it seems certain that for man's spiritual well-being1 these forces 7'the tendency to crystallise1 and the tendency to dissolve'7 need co-ordination4 ,under an infallible guide1 regulating every moral and theological item of his spiritual being1 his mental faculties are given him that they may be atrophied1 like the eyes of the oyster1 which1 being useless in the sludge of its bed1 are re-absorbed4 ,under a perpetual modification of religious belief1 his convictions become weak and watery1 without force1 and destitute of purpose4 ,in the barren wilderness of ,sinai there are here and there green and pleasant oases4 ,how come they there8 ,by basaltic dykes arresting the rapid drainage which leaves the major part of that land bald and waste4 ,so in the region of religion1 revelations and theocratic systems have been the dykes saving it from barrenness1 and encouraging mental and sentimental fertility 7p4 #acd74 ,it is impossible that we should quarrel with this illustration1 it is so exactly to our point4 ,is it not another way of affirming the position which ,i maintain against ,sir ,john ,lubbock8 7ch4 xii47 ,may not we1 too1 take our stand upon these oases of tradition1 which revelations and theocratic systems have formed1 and ask what the human intellect has been able to achieve for the spiritual cravings of man in the waste around8 ,mr ,baring ,gould1 indeed1 says 7p4 #fa73-- ,a power of free volition within or outside all matter in motion was a rational solution to the problems of effects of which man could not account himself the cause4 ,such is the origin of the idea of ,god--of ,god whether many1 inhabiting each brook and plant1 and breeze and planet1 or as being a world-soul1 or as a supreme cause1 the ,creator and sustainer of the universe4 ,the common consent of mankind has been adduced as a proof of a tradition of a revelation in past times2 but the fact that most races of men believe in one or more deities proves nothing more than that all men have drawn the same inference from the same premises4 ,it is idle to speak of a ',sensus ,numinis' as existing as a primary conviction in man1 when the conception may be reduced to more rudimentary ideas4 ,the revelation is in man's being1 in his conviction of the truth of the principle of causation1 and thus it is a revelation made to every rational being4 ,grant that it is so1 there is nothing here which militates against our position1 which is this1--not certainly that there is not a revelation of ,god in man's being1 made to every rational creature1 but that there has been an express revelation superadded to it2 and that it is not true that the common consent of mankind to the existence of ,god has been adduced as a proof of a tradition of a revelation in past times1 but that the mode and manner of the consent attests the fact of tradition and the fact of revelation4 ,but what have we just heard8 ,that there is a revelation of ,god's existence in man's nature1 i4e4 in each man's nature--it is a revelation made to every man's nature4 ,then the indefinite lapse of time demanded for the evolution of the ideas1 which we have just been combating1 is not after all necessary4 ,habemus reum confitentum4 ,but inasmuch as the consent of mankind is only to one or more deities1 it is only so far a testimony to the existence of ,god as it is shown that polytheism arose out of the corruption of this belief2 and1 moreover1 by no means proves that all men have drawn the same inference from the same premises1 even if it were possible to reconcile this statement with what is said at page #aac--,the shapeless religion of a primitive people gradually assumes a definite form4 ,it is that of nature-worship4 ,it progresses through polytheism and idolatry1 and emerges into monotheism or pantheism 7vide infra74 ,at this point ,i should wish to put in the accumulation of evidence which ,l',abbe ,gainet has collected to prove that monotheism was the primitive belief4#abb ,when this evidence is dispersed1 it will be time enough to return to the subject4 #abb ,monotheisme des ,peuples ,primitifs1 in vol4 iii4 of ,la ,bible sans la ,bible4 ,in any case1 we may fall back upon the following testimony in ,mr ,baring ,gould3-- ,it is the glory of the ,semitic race to have given to the world1 in a compact and luminous form1 that monotheism which the philosophers of ,greece and ,rome only vaguely apprehended1 and which has become the heritage of the ,christian and ,mohammedan alike4 ,of the ,semitic race1 however1 one small branch1 ,jewdom1 preserved and communicated the idea4 ,every other branch of that race sank into polytheism 7vide supra74444 ,it is at first sight inexplicable that ,jewish monotheism1 which was in time to exercise such a prodigious influence over men's minds1 should have so long remained the peculiar property of an insignificant people4 ,but every religious idea has its season1 and the thoughts of men have their avatars4444 ,it was apparently necessary that mankind should be given full scope for unfettered development1 that they should feel in all directions after ,god1 if haply they might find ,him1 in order that the foundations of inductive philosophy might be laid1 that the religious idea might run itself out through polytheistic channels for the development of art4 ,certainly ,jewish monotheism remained in a state of congelation till the religious thought of antiquity had exhausted its own vitality1 and had worked out every other problem of theodicy2 then suddenly thawing1 it poured over the world its fertilising streams 7p4 #bei74abc #abc ,mr ,b4 ,gould also says1 p4 #ajd--,the ,semitic divine names bear indelibly on their front the stamp of their origin1 and the language itself testifies against the insulation and abstraction of these names from polytheism4 ,the ,aryan's tongue bore no such testimony to him4 ,the spirit of his language led him away from monotheism1 whilst that of the ,shemite was an ever-present monitor1 directing him to a ,god1 sole and undivided4 ',the glory of the ,semitic race is this1' says ,m4 ,renan1 'that from its earliest days it grasped that notion of the ,deity which all other people have had to adopt from its example1 and on the faith of its declaration4' ,from all this it results that1 so far as the testimony of the ,semitic race is concerned 7which1 by the by1 a concurrence of tradition points to as the oldest71 the human race did not emerge into monotheism1 but sank into polytheism2 that monotheism was their belief from their earliest days1 and their language bearing testimony to the same1 shows also that it was primitively so4 ,it moreover results1 that although mankind may have been allowed to sink into polytheism1 as a warning or a chastisement1 it certainly could not have been in order that the foundations of inductive philosophy might be laid2 for it is quite apparent from this extract that the induction was never made that man did not emerge into monotheism2 but that having exhausted its vitality1 and worked out every problem of theodicy in the way of corruption1 it received monotheism back again from the only people who had preserved it intact4 ,at any rate1 monotheism came to it ab extra1 and before polytheism had attained the full scope of that development which was necessary for the perfection of art6 ,but ,mr ,baring ,gould having a perception that this admission 7although he has not apparently seen its full significance7 is fatal to his theory1 hastens to unsay it at page #bfa1 ,whence did the ,jews derive their monotheism8 ,monotheism is not a feature of any primitive religion2 but that which is a feature of secondary religions is the appropriation to a tribe of a particular god1 which that tribe exalts above all other gods4 ,in support of this view1 ,mr ,baring ,gould quotes certain texts of ,scripture--,isa4 xxxvi4 #ai1 #bj 7i4e4 words spoken by ,rabsaces the ,assyrian71 and ,jos4 xxiv4 #ae1 ,but if it seem evil to you to serve the ,lord1 you have your choice3 choose this day that which pleaseth you1 whom you would rather serve1 whether the gods which your fathers served in ,mesopotamia query1 an allusion to the idolatry in the patriarchal households8 ,gen4 xxxv4 #b1 the gods being of the same kind with the gods of the ,amorites1 or the gods of the ,amorites1 in whose land you dwell2 but as for me and my house1 we will serve the ,lord4 ,one would have thought this text too plain to be cavilled at4 ,is not the ,lord whom ,josue invokes the same ,lord who 7,gen4 i4 #a7 in the beginning created heaven and earth1 and who said to ,noah 7,gen4 vi4 #g71 ,i will destroy man whom ,i have created1 from the face of the earth2 and who 7,exod4 iii4 #b7 appeared to ,moses in a flame of fire in the bush which was not consumed2 and to whom ,moses said1 ,lo1 ,i shall go to the children of ,israel1 and say to them1 ,the ,god of your fathers hath sent me to you2 if they should say to me1 ,what is ,his name8 what shall ,i say to them8 7ver4 #ad71 ,god said to ,moses1 ,i am who am3 ,he said thus shalt thou say to the children of ,israel1 ,he who is hath sent me to you4 ,when or where has monotheism been more explicitly declared8 ,is there any phrase which the human mind could invent in which it could be more adequately defined8 ,and when ,god speaks as the ,god of ,abraham1 of ,isaac1 and of ,jacob1 is it not as if ,he would say1 ,i am not only the ,god who speaks to the individual heart1 but who is also traditionally known to you all collectively through my manifestations and revelations to your forefathers8 ,compare ,matt4 xxii4 #cb4 ,inter alia1 ,mr ,b4 ,gould also instances such unmistakable orientalisms as ',among the gods there is none like unto ,thee1 ,o ,lord1' says ,david1 and he exalts ,jehovah above the others as a ',king above all gods4' ,where1 then1 may we ask1 is the monotheism1 the glory of the ,semitic race1 to be found1 if not in the time of ,david8 ,the proof which follows is more clinching still-- ,jacob seems to have made a sort of bargain with ,jehovah that he would serve ,him instead of other gods1 on condition that ,he took care of him during his exile from home4 ,the next stage in popular ,jewish theology was a denial of the power of the ,gentile gods1 and the treatment of them as idols4 ,tradition and history point to ,abraham as the first on whom the idea of the impotence of the deities of his father's house first broke4 ,he is said to have smashed the images in ,nahor's oratory1 and to have put a hammer into the hands of one idol which he left standing1 as a sign to ,nahor that that one had destroyed all the rest4 ,unfortunately for this view--according to the only authentic narrative we have of the facts1 ,gen4 xii4--,abraham must have preceded ,jacob by at least two generations6 ,i think that1 after this1 we may fairly ask ,mr ,baring ,gould1 who is learned in medieval myths1 to trace for us more distinctly the notion of the chronicler who had a theory that ,henry ,,ii4 lived before ,henry ,i4 ,with this passage ,i shall conclude this chapter1 merely observing1 that if any department of study existed which had for its special object the investigation of tradition1#abd it is simply impossible that a work 7clever in many respects7 such as that of ,mr ,baring ,gould should ever have been written4 #abd ,i append1 however1 the following passage from ,mr ,baring ,gould1 as it may be serviceable in tracing tradition1 and to which ,i may have occasion to recur 7p4 #afa73--;,among the ,american ,indians an object of worship1 and the centre of a cycle of legend1 is ,michabo1 the great hare or rabbit4 ,from the remotest wilds of the north-west to the coast of the ,atlantic1 from the southern boundaries of ,carolina to the cheerless swamps of ,hudson's ,bay1 the ,algonquins are never tired of gathering round the winter fire1 and repeating the story of ,manibozho or ,michabo1 the ,great ,hare4 ,with entire unanimity1 their various branches1 the ,powhatans1 c41 444 and the western tribes1 perhaps without exception1 spoke of this 'chimerical beast1' as one of the old missionaries called it1 as their common ancestor 7,brinton's ,myths of the ,new ,world1 p4 #afb74 ,michabo is described as having been four-legged1 monstrous1 crouching on the face of the primeval waste of waters1 with all his court1 composed of four-footed creatures1 around him4 ,he formed the earth out of a grain of sand taken from the bottom of the ocean4 ,it is strange that such an insignificant creature as a hare should have received this apotheosis1 and it has been generally regarded as an instance of the senseless brute-worship of savages4 ,but its prevalence leads the mythologist to suspect that some confusion of words has led to a confusion of ideas1 a suspicion which becomes a certainty when the name is analysed1 for it is then found to be ,the ,great ,white ,one1 or ,great ,light1 and to be in reality the sun1 a fact of which the modern ,indians are utterly unaware4 ,if ,mr ,baring ,gould finds that the word ,michabo also signifies ,the ,great ,light1 or ,the ,great ,white ,one1 it goes far to identify the worship of the hare with the worship of the sun1 more especially when it is noted 7vide ,prescott's ,conquest of ,mexico1 i4 #ajc7 that the hare was one of the four hieroglyphics of the year among the ancient ,mexicans4,a ,animal worship seems here plainly connected with sun-worship4 ,but above and beyond it1 do we not here also get a glimpse of more celestial light8 ,the ,great ,light is also ,the ,great ,white ,one4 ,he is described as crouching on the face of the primeval waste of waters4 ,in these phrases we seem almost to read the text of ,gen4 i4 #c1 ,and ,god said1 ,be light1 and light was made2 ver4 #b1 ,darkness was on the face of the deep1 and the ,spirit of ,god moved over the waters4 ,the ,indians also say that he formed the earth out of a grain of sand taken from the bottom of the ocean4 ,does not this not only embody the tradition that ,god created the world out of nothing1 but also the mode of the creation by the separation of the water from the land3 ver4 #i1 ,god also said1 ,let the waters that are under the heavens be gathered together in one place2 and let the dry land appear4444 ,and ,god called the dry land earth1 and the gathering together of the waters ,he called seas4 ,a ,these hieroglyphics were symbolical of the four elements4 ,prescott adds--,it is not easy to see the connection between the terms 'rabbit' and 'air1' which lead the respective series4 ,possibly he may not have been aware of the tradition of the ,algonquins as above4 ,,appendix ,,to ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,cardinal ,,wiseman 7,lectures on ,science and ,religion1 ii4 #bbh-bcb71 in speaking of what was characteristic of most ,oriental religions--a belief in the existence of emanated influences intermediate between the divine and earthly natures1 is led on to give an account of the curious ,gnostic sect1 the ,nazarians--,the first of these errors was common1 perhaps1 to other ,gnostic sects2 but in the ,codex ,nasarus we have the two especially distinguished as different beings--light and life4 ,in it the first emanation from ,god is the king of light2 the second1 fire2 the third1 water2 the fourth1 life4 ,i wish to note that1 whether or not their notions as to emanations originally meant more than the act of creation1 a tradition as to the successive order of the creation seems clearly embodied in the text4 ,god created first of all light2 then the sun 7the firmament7 is fire 7the distinct creation of the light and the sun in ,genesis is so marked as to create a special difficulty in the cosmogony72 then water2 then life1 in beasts1 birds1 reptiles1 c42 lastly1 man4 ,comp4 with supra1 p4 #ach1 and with the above legend of ,michabo4 ,a ,,slavonian ,,account ,,of ,,creation4--,the current issue of the ,literary ,society of ,prague includes a volume of popular tales collected in all the ,slavonian countries1 and translated by ,m4 ,erben into ,czech4 ,we extract the shortest--',in the beginning there was only ,god1 and ,he lay asleep and dreamed4 ,at last it was time for ,him to wake and look at the world4 ,wherever ,he looked through the sky1 a star came out4 ,he wondered what it was1 and got up and began to walk4 ,at last ,he came to our earth2 ,he was very tired2 the sweat ran down ,his forehead1 and a drop fell on the ground4 ,we are all made of this drop1 and that is why we are the sons of ,god4 ,man was not made for pleasure2 he was born of the sweat of ,god's face1 and now he must live by the sweat of his own3 that is why men have no rest4'--,the ,academy1 ,feb4 #ab1 #ahgj4 ,i wish also to examine1 in greater detail than ,i should have had space for in a note1 how far the case of the ,samoyeds bears out ,mr ,baring ,gould's theory of the development of idolatry from its grosser to its more refined manifestations1 or of the progress of the human race from barbarism to the light of religion and of civilisation4 ,mr ,baring ,gould says1 p4 #acf-- ',when a ,schaman is aware that ,i have no household god1' said a ,samoyed to ,m4 ,castren1 the linguist1 'he comes to me1 and ,i give him a squirrel1 or an ermine skin4' ,this skin he brings back moulded 'into a human shape4' 444 ',this ,los is a fetish2 it is not altogether an idol2 it is a spirit entangled in a material object4 ,what that object is matters little2 a stump of a tree1 a stone1 a rag1 or an animal1 serves the purpose of condensing the impalpable deity into a tangible reality4' ,through this coarse superstition glimmers an intelligent conception4 ,it is that of an all-pervading ,deity1 who is focussed1 so to speak1 in the fetish4 ,this deity is called ,num4 ',i have heard some ,samoyeds declare that the earth1 the sea--all nature1 in short--are ,num4' ',where is ,num8 asked ,castren of a ,samoyed1 and the man pointed to the blue sea3 but an old woman told him that the sun was ,num4 ,the ,siethas1 worshipped by the ,lapps1 had no certain figure or shape formed by nature or art2 they were either trees or rough stones1 much worn by water4 ,tomus says they were often mere tree stumps with the roots upwards4#abe #abe ,is not ,num cognate to ,numen8 and their worship of trees and worn stones worship of memorials of the ,deluge8 ,compare ,boulanger1 infra1 ch4 xi41 and on the regard for boulders in ,india 7vide ,gainet1 vol4 i47 ,bryant 7,mythology1 iii4 #ecb7 says1 speaking of the ,egyptians--,i have mentioned that they showed a reverential regard to fragments of rock which were particularly uncouth and horrid2 and this practice seems to have prevailed in many other countries4 ,probably for the same reason the ,lapps worshipped their lakes and rivers1 as is known from the names annexed to them--,ailekes ,jauvre1 that is1 sacred lake1 c4 ,vide ,pinkerton1 i4 #dfh4 7,leems47 ,it is curious to contrast this recent account of the ,samoides with an account1 apparently well informed and discriminating1 in #agfb4 ,pinkerton1 i4 #ebb--,the religion of the ,samoides is very simple4444 ,they admit the existence of a ,supreme ,being1 ,creator of all things1 eminently good and beneficent2 a quality which1 according to their mode of thinking1 dispenses them from any adoration of ,him1 or addressing their prayers to ,him1 because they suppose this ,being takes no interest in mundane affairs2 and consequently1 does not exact nor need the worship of man4 ,they join to this idea that of a being eternal and invisible1 very powerful1 though subordinate to the first1 and disposed to evil4 ,it is to this being that they ascribe all the misfortunes which befall them in this life4 ,nevertheless1 they do not worship1 although much in fear of him4 ,if they place any reliance in the counsels of ,koedesnicks or ,tadebes 7the ',schamans' referred to above71 it is only on account of the connection which they esteem these people to have with this evil being2 otherwise they submit themselves with perfect apathy to all the misfortunes which can befall them4 ,the sun and moon1 as well1 hold the place of subaltern deities4 ,it is by their intervention1 they imagine1 that the ,supreme ,being dispenses ,his favours2 but they worship them as little as the idols or fitches 7fetishes7 which they carry about them according to the recommendation of their ,koedesnicks4 ,without pursuing the investigation further1 it seems plain that the ,samoides1 from being 7at least7 ,deists in the last century 7,dr ,hooker1 ,himalayan ,journal1 gives a similar account of the ,lepchas71 have lapsed1 apparently through sun-worship1 to a state of ,pantheism1 if not ,fetishism4 ,of the ,tongusy1 a people who1 if not kin to the ,samoides1 have an analogous worship--7,they are altogether unacquainted with any kind of literature1 and worship the sun and moon4 ,they have many ,shamans among them1 who differ little from those ,i formerly described4--,bell's ,travels in ,asia1 ,siberia7--,bell1 travelling in ,siberia1 #agbj1 says--,although ,i have observed that the ,tongusy in general worship the sun and moon1 there are many exceptions to this observation4 ,i have found intelligent people among them who believed there was a ,being superior to both sun and moon1 and who created them and all the world4 ,if1 then1 we may connect the ,tongusy with the ,samoides1 it would appear that whereas ,mr ,baring ,gould 7i4e41 ,castren7 finds the latter sunk in ,fetishism1 they were1 the one in #agfb1 the other in #agbj1 the worshippers of the sun and moon1 joined with the knowledge and tradition of the true ,god still subsisting amongst them4 ,f4 ,schlegel 7,phil4 of ,history1 p4 #ach7 says--,the ,greeks1 who described ,india in the time of ,alexander the ,great1 divided the ,indian religious sects into ,brachmans and ,samaneans4444 ,but by the ,greek denomination of ,samaneans we must certainly understand the ,buddhists1 as among the rude nations of ,central ,asia1 as in other countries1 the priests of the religion of ,fo bear at this day the name of ,schamans4 ,compare ,professor ,rawlinson1 ,ancient ,monarchies1 i4 #aci1 #agb4 7,vide infra1 p4 #afc1 #afd1 #bje47 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,mythology4 ,since all antediluvian traditions meet in ,noah1 and are transmitted through him1 there is an priori probability that we shall find all the antediluvian traditions confused in ,noah4 ,i shall discuss this further when ,i come to regard him under the aspect of ,saturn4 ,as a consequence1 we must not expect to find 7the process of corruption having commenced in the race of ,ham1 almost contemporaneously with ,noah7 a pure and unadulterated tradition anywhere2 and ,i allege more specifically1 that whenever we find a tradition of ,noah and the ,deluge1 we shall find it complicated and confused with previous communications with the ,almighty1 and also with traditions of ,adam and ,paradise4 ,but inasmuch as the tradition is necessarily through ,noah1 and in any case applies to him at one remove1 it does not greatly affect the argument ,i have in hand4 ,there is a further probability which confronts us on the outset1 that in every tradition1 with the lapse of time1 though the events themselves are likely to be substantially transmitted1 they may become transposed in their order of succession4 ,we shall see this in the case of ,noah and his posterity4 ,the principal cause being1 that the immediate founder of the race is1 as a rule1 among all the nations of antiquity1 deified and placed at the head of every genealogy and history4 ,joves omnes reges vocrunt antiqui4 ,thus ,belus1 whom modern discovery seems certainly to have identified with ,nimrod1 in the ,chaldean mythology appears as ,jupiter1 and even as the creator separating light from darkness 7,rawlinson1 ,ancient ,monarchies1 i4 #aha2 ,gainet1 ,hist4 de l',anc4 et ,nouv4 ,test41 i4 #abj74 ,but ,nimrod is also mixed up with ,jupiter in the god ,bel-,merodach4 ,in more natural connection ,nimrod--7who may have been worshipped in different parts of ,chaldea under different titles1 ,rawlinson1 i4 #agb7--,nimrod appears as the father of ,hurki the moon-god1 whose worship he probably introduced2 and1 what is much more to the point1 he appears as the father of ,nin 7whom ,i shall presently identify with ,noah72 whilst in one instance1 at least1 the genealogy is inverted1 and he appears as the son of ,nin4 ,thus1 too1 ,hercules and ,saturn are confounded1 just as we find ,adam and ,noah confounded 7many classical traditions1 we must remember1 identified ,hercules with ,saturn1 vide ,rawlinson1 i4 #aff74 ,also in ,grecian mythology ,prometheus 7,adam7 figures as the son of ,deucalion 7,noah71 and also of ,japetus 7,japhet72 and so1 too1 ,adam and ,noah1 in the ,mahabharata1 are equally in tradition in the person of ,manou 7vide ,gainet1 i4 #aii71 and in ,mexico in the person of the god ,quetzalcoatl 7vide infra1 p4 #cbf74 ,before1 however1 pursuing the special subject of this inquiry further1 it appears to me impossible to avoid an argument on a subject long debated1 temporarily abandoned through the exhaustion of the combatants1 and now again recently brought into prominence through the writings of ,mr ,gladstone1 ,dr ,dollinger1 ,mr ,max ,mller1 and others--the source and origin of mythology4#abf #abf ,this chapter was written before the publication of ,mr ,cox's ,mythology of the ,aryan ,nations4 ,it will be seen1 however1 that ,i indulge the hope that much that is seductive1 and much even that is systematic1 in ,mr ,cox's view1 will be found to be compatible with the line ,i have indicated4 ,now1 here1 ,i am quite ready to adopt1 in the first place1 the opinion of ,l',abb ,gainet1 that every exclusive system must come to naught1 que toutes les tentatives qu'on ai faites pour expliquer le polythisme par un systme exclusif tombent faux et n'expliquent rien4 ,yet1 whilst fully admitting an early and perhaps concurrent admixture of ,sabaism1#abg ,i consider that the facts and evidence contained in the pages of ,rawlinson will enable us to arrive at the history of idolatry by a mode much more direct than conjecture4 ,the pages of ,rawlinson prove the identity of ,nimrod and ,belus1 and his worship in the earliest times4 ,on the other hand1 there has been a pretty constant tradition#abh that ,nimrod first raised the standard of revolt against the ,lord2 and the erection of the tower of ,babel seems to show a state of things ripe for idolatry4 ,here recent discovery and ancient tradition concur in establishing hero-worship as among the earliest forms of idolatry4 ,but further1 the ,arab tradition of ,nimrod's apotheosis1 analogous to the mysterious and miraculous disappearance of ,enoch 7vide infra1 p4 #aib71 suggests how hero-worship might become almost identical with the worship of spirits1 which ,l',abb ,gainet inclines to think the first and most natural mode4 ,if there was a tradition among them that one of their ancestors was raised up to heaven1#abi why may they not have argued1 when their minds had become thoroughly corrupted1 that their immediate ancestor1 the mighty ,nimrod1 had been so raised8 and when one ancestor was deified the rest would have been deified in sequence1 or according to their relationship to him4 ,what1 again1 more likely than that1 when through the corruptions of mankind the communications of the ,most ,high ceased1 they should turn to those to whom the communications had been made1 at first perhaps innocently in intercession1 and1 as corruption deepened1 in worship8#acj #abg ,philo4 apud ,eusebius1 who has transmitted the ,phoenician tradition 7vide ,bunsen's ,egypt1 iv4 #bha71 seems to me to indicate the mode in which it came about in the following words--,now ,chronos1 whose ,phoenician epithet was ,el1 a ruler of the land1 and subsequently after his death1 deified in the constellation of ,kronos 7,saturn71 c4 ,as to ,saturn1 vide ch4 x4 ,in the cosmical theory there is analogy as to the process of deification--,in the ,phoenician cosmogonies1 the connection between the highest ,god and a subordinate male and female demiurgic principle is of frequent occurrence 7,bunsen1 iv4 #ddg74 ,it would seemingly be more in fitness with a cosmical theory to find direct adoration of the principle1 without evidence of any previous or concurrent process of deification4 ,mr ,w4 ,palmer 7,egyptian ,chronicles1 i4 #cg7 says--,but when we find the rulers of the first two periods in the ,chronicle1 its xiii4 gods and viii4 demigods1 answering closely to the two generations of the antediluvian and post-diluvian patriarchs in number1 and therefore also in the average length of the reigns and generations2 and when we know1 besides1 as we do1 that the ,pantheon of the ,egyptians and other nations1 which they said had all borrowed from them1 was peopled1 in part at least1 with deified ancestors--for even the heavenly luminaries1 and the elements1 and powers of nature1 and notions of the true ,god still remaining1 or of angels and demons1 so far as they were invested with humanity and sex1 were identified with human ancestors2 we cannot doubt that ,kronos1 c4 #abh ,venator contra ,dominum1 ,st ,augustine2 ,cit de ,dieu1 xvi4 ch4 iv42 ,pastoret1 ,hist4 de la ,legislation4 #abi ,gen4 v4 #bd1 says only--,and he walked with ,god1 and was seen no more3 because ,god took him4 7,vide also ,john iii4 #ac47 ,there might still have been the belief and tradition 7according to appearances7 that he was so raised4 7,compare #d ,kings ii4 #aa1 and ,ecclesiasticus1 xliv4 #af47 #acj ,i believe1 however1 that the apostasy in the ,hamitic race generally was much more direct2 and ,i entirely agree with ,bryant that it must have resulted at an early period in a systematic scheme of mixed solar and ancestral worship4 ,therefore1 in any ,hamitic tradition1 we shall not be startled at finding 7even in the commemorative ceremonies of the ,deluge7 evidence of solar mythology inextricably blended with ancestral traditions4 ,we1 however1 are only concerned with the ancestral traditions1 and in so far as we can discriminate them1 ,mr ,cox's evidence of solar mythology will form no barrier to our inquiry4 ,in the preceding page ,i have quoted a passage from ,sanchoniathon1 which seems to indicate the mode in which the mixed system arose2 but there ,cronos 7,noah7 is deified in the planet ,saturn4 ,as a rule1 however1 we find him deified in the sun 7,bryant1 ii4 #fj1 #bjj1 #bbj74 ,ham1 however1 is sometimes also deified in the sun2 and in cases where ,ham is so deified1 it is not unlikely that we shall find the patriarch relegated to ,saturn4 ,l',abb ,gainet1 in another part of his work1 draws attention to the worship of ancestors in ,china1 and asks whether the idols of ,laban had reference to more than some such secondary objects8 ,it will be recollected that it was precisely the extent to which this veneration was to be considered culpable which was the subject-matter of the unfortunate disputes between certain religious orders in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries 7vide ,huc's ,chinese ,empire1 and ,cretineau ,joly's ,hist4 de la ,com4 de ,jesus1 vol4 iii4 chap4 iii41 and vol4 v4 chap4 i47 ,indeed1 among the ,semitic races it may never have degenerated into idolatry4 ,still it appears to me that weight should be attached to this tendency1 more especially in primitive times1 when the recollection of ancestors who had been driven out of ,paradise1 to whom direct revelations had been made1 and who were naturally reputed to have been nearer to the gods 7,plato1 ,cicero#aca71 would have been all in all to their descendants4 ,then1 again1 as we have just seen1 there was the tradition among them of one man who had been carried up into heaven1 and accordingly1 when hero-worship culminated in the deification of man1 we are not surprised to find it taking the form of this apotheosis as in the identification of ,nimrod and ,enoch4 #aca ,quoniam antiquitas proxime accedit ad deos4--,de ,legibus1 ii4 #aa4 ,this tendency to idolatry through hero-worship seems to me so natural and direct1 that ,i think1 apart from the facts priori1 ,i should have been led to the conclusion that it was the actual manner in which it was brought about4#acb ,it is not denied1 on the other hand1 that there always has been a tendency to nature-worship also2 and1 indeed1 there is probably a stage during which every mythology will be found to have come under its influence4 ,but the inclination at the present moment is unmistakably to an exclusive astral or solar system4 ,the point of interest which excites me to this inquiry is simply to determine the value of the historical traditions which may lie embedded in these systems2 and ,i shall be content to find them1 whether or not they form the primary nucleus1 or whether only subsequently imported into1 and blended with1 solar mythology4 ,it is easy to conceive how a mythology embodying historical traditions could pass into an astral system4 ,in this case incongruity would not startle2 but it is difficult to imagine a pure astral system which would not be too harmonious and symmetrical to admit of the grossness1 inconsistency1 and incongruity to which the process of adaptation would inevitably give rise1 and to which hero-worship is inherently prone4 ,as ,mr ,gladstone says 7,homer1 ii4 #ab73-- ,there is much in the theo-mythology of ,homer which1 if it had been a system founded on fable1 could not have appeared there4 ,it stands before us like one of our old churches1 having different parts of its fabric in the different styles of architecture1 each of which speaks for itself1 and which we know to belong to the several epochs in the history of the art when their characteristic combinations were respectively in vogue4 #acb ,the adverse decision1 in the matter of the ceremonies1 did not1 ,i apprehend1 touch the question we are now considering1 albeit the ceremonies had reference to deceased ancestors4 ,this will be apparent1 ,i think1 from consideration of the grounds upon which the question was debated4 ,the ,jesuits relied upon the sense in which the ceremonies were regarded by the ,mandarins and literary men whom they consulted1 whilst their opponents supported their arguments by reference to the popular notions and the superstitious practices introduced by the ,bonzes4 7,vide ,cretineau ,joly's ,hist4 de la ,com4 de ,jesus1 vol4 v4 chap4 i47 ,mr ,gladstone 7passim7 victoriously combats the theory of nature-worship as applied to ,grecian mythology2 but it appears to me that his argument and mode of reasoning would apply with tenfold effect to the ,chaldean mythology1 where there is a likelihood at least that we shall view idolatry in its early commencements4 ,i consider that this view is borne out by the following passage from ,professor ,rawlinson's ,ancient ,monarchies1 i4 #aci3-- ,in the first place1 it must be noticed that the religion was to a certain extent astral4 ,the heaven itself1 the sun1 the moon1 and the five planets1 have each their representative in the ,chaldean ,pantheon among the chief objects of worship4 ,at the same time it is to be observed1 that the astral element is not universal1 but partial2 and that even where it has place1 it is but one aspect of the mythology1 not by any means its full and complete exposition4 ,the ,chaldean religion even here is far from being mere ,sabeanism--the simple worship of the 'host of heaven4' ,the ether1 the sun1 the moon1 and still more the five planetary gods1 are something above and beyond those parts of nature4 ,like the classical ,apollo and ,diana1 ,mars and ,venus1 they are real persons1 with a life and a history1 a power and an influence1 which no ingenuity can translate into a metaphorical representation of phenomena attaching to the air and to the heavenly bodies4 ,it is doubtful1 indeed1 whether this class of gods are really of astronomical origin1 and not rather primitive deities1 whose characters and attributes were1 to a great extent1 fixed and settled before the notion arose of connecting them with certain parts of nature4 ,occasionally they seem to represent heroes rather than celestial bodies2 and they have all attributes quite distinct from their physical and astronomical character4 ,secondly1 the striking resemblance of the ,chaldean system to that of the classical mythology1 seems worthy of particular attention4 ,this resemblance is too general and too close in some respects to allow of the supposition that mere accident has produced the coincidence4 ,the evidence in the ,ancient ,monarchies seems to me to decide the point1 not only for perhaps the earliest mythology with which we are acquainted1 but also for the ,grecian mythology1 which has generally been the ground of dispute4 ,it is curiously in illustration1 however1 of the common origin of mythology1 that the mythology of ,greece should be equally well traced to ,assyria and ,egypt4 ,as evidence of the theory according to the ,assyrian origin1 let us turn1 for instance1 to ,professor ,rawlinson's identification of ,nergal with ,mars4 ,it is true he appears as the planet ,mars under the form of ,nerig1 and he also figures as the storm-ruler2 but can anything well be more human than the rest of his titles8 ,his name is evidently compounded of the two ,hamitic roots 'nir' a man1 and 'gula' great2 so that he is 'the great man' or 'the great hero4' ,his titles are 'the king of battle1' 'the champion of the gods1' 'the strong begetter1' 'the tutelar god of ,babylonia1' and 'the god of the chase4'444 ,we have no evidence that ,nergal was worshipped in the primitive times4 ,he is just mentioned by some of the early ,assyrian kings1 who regard him as their ancestor4444 ,it is conjectured that1 like ,bil-,nipru1 he represents the deified hero ,nimrod1 who may have been worshipped in different parts of ,chaldea under different titles4444 ,it is probable that ,nergal's symbol was the man-lion4 ,nir is sometimes used in the inscriptions in the meaning of lion1 and the ,semitic name for the god himself is 'aria1' the ordinary term for the king of beasts both in ,hebrew and ,syriac4 ,perhaps we have here the true derivation of the ,greek name for the god of war ',ares' 7,greek3 ,ars71 which has long puzzled classical scholars4 ,the lion would symbolise both the hunting and the fighting propensities of the god1 for he not only engages in combats1 but often chases his prey and runs it down like a hunter4 ,again1 if ,nergal is the man-lion1 his association in the buildings with the man-bull would be exactly parallel with the conjunction which we so constantly find between him and ,nin in the inscriptions4#acc--,rawlinson1 i4 #agb-agd4 #acc ,notwithstanding his stature1 beauty1 hand1 and voice1 which constitute1 taken together1 a proud appearance1 it seems as if ,mars had stood lower in the mind of ,homer than any ,olympian deity who takes part in the ,trojan war1 except ,venus only4--,gladstone's ,homer1 ii4 #bbe4 ,i must draw attention also to the remarkable absence here of all the monotheistic epithets we shall find attached to ,ana1 ,enu1 and ,hoa4#acd #acd ,vide infra1 next chap4 ix4 ,let us now turn to the theory which is most in the ascendant1 and which professes to see in the old mythological legends only the thoughts and metaphors of a mythic period4 ,this theory1 which was ,mr ,max ,mller's in the first instance1 being not only exclusively drawn from the conclusions of philology1 but also exclusive in itself1 cannot be anywhere stronger than its weakest point4 ,if it is shown in the instance of one primary myth1 that it was the embodiment of an historical legend1 or theological belief1 the whole ideal structure of a mythic period must collapse2 for the rejection of eclecticism in any form1 which would embrace a ,biblical or euhemeristic interpretation of the myths1 is at the foundation of ,mr ,max ,mller's idea1 and1 indeed1 would be incompatible with the theory of a mythic period such as he conceives it4 ,the connection of ,nimrod with ,nergal in the ,assyrian mythology1 of ,nergal with their planet ,nerig1 and of the ,semitic name of the god ,aria with the ,greek ,greek3 ,ars and the ,latin ,mars1 must1 ,i think1 form a chain of evidence destined to embarass ,mr ,max ,mller and ,mr ,cox3 for1 apart from the numerous points of contact of the ,assyrian and ,egyptian with the ,greek mythologies1 it can hardly be contended that there was a mythic period for the ,aryan which was not common to the whole human race4 ,it would be natural to suppose1 that a mythology which was generated in a mythic period--which was the invention of mankind in a peculiar state of the imagination--would have been developed in its fulness and completeness1 like ,minerva starting from the brain of ,jupiter1 and would have borne the evidence of its origin in the symmetry of its form4 ,mr ,max ,mller1 on the contrary1 seems to yield the whole position1 in what1 from his point of view1 looks like an inadvertent phrase1 that there were myths before there was a mythology4 ,it is not that the view is not true1 or that it is inconsistent with his analysis of the myths1 but that it is so perfectly consistent with ours6 ,incongruity1 such as would come from the confusion of separate myths1 would be no difficulty for us2 but it is hard to understand how mere fragmentary legends--sometimes attractive1 but more frequently repulsive and revolting1 having no hold on what is nearest the heart of a people1 the traditions of its past--should have been so tenaciously preserved for so long a time under such different conditions in various countries4 ,solar legends1 spun out of confused metaphors1 seem an inadequate explanation1 unless we also suppose idolatry of the sun4 ,in that case1 the mythology1 in so far as it was solar1 would precede the myths2 in other words1 the myths would be radiations from a central idea4 ,that in the day when mankind prevaricated after this fashion1 and committed the act of idolatry in their hearts1 everything1 from the phenomena of nature to the remote events of their history1 would come under the influence of a new set of ideas may be easily conceived4 ,at such a period--and the commencement of these things at least was not impossible in the days when1 in the spirit of mistrust or defiance1 men drew together to build the city and tower in the plain of ,sennaar 7,shinar7--much of what ,mr ,cox supposes to have been the common parlance of mankind becomes natural1 and a mythic period within these limits conceivable4 ,but such a theory would not necessarily be exclusive of other forms of idolatry--as1 for instance1 the worship of ancestors--whilst it might clear up obscure points in the evidence which tends to establish the latter4 ,the theory1 however1 must embrace many shades and gradations--from the ,hamitic extreme to the protomyths1 which in time obscured the monotheism of the ,aryan of ancient ,greece1 and of the ,peruvian ,incas4 7p4 #cjd47 ,this would seem1 unless they ignore all difficulties1 a better standpoint for those who think1 through the application of the solar legends1 to unlock almost all the secrets of mythologies2 and any theory connected with the sun and sun-worship has this advantage1 that it can be extended to everything under the sun6 ,it is sufficiently obvious that no system can be held to have settled these questions1 which1 if there were myths before there was a mythology1 does not appropriate these antecedent myths1 or exclude counter explanations2 and it is equally clear that there can have been no mythology of which the solar legends were the offspring1 if the legends embody thoughts which transcend the mythology2 and no mythic period if they testify to facts and ideas incompatible with its existence4 ,allowing for a certain confusion arising out of polyonomy1 this sort of confusion1 if there were nothing else1 ought not to baffle the ingenuity of experts like ,mr ,max ,mller and ,mr ,cox4 ,such complications should be as easily disentangled as the superadded figures in ,egyptian chronology 7vide chapter vi47 when the key has been found4 ,but does ,mr ,max ,mller profess to have brought the various legends into harmony8 ,on the contrary 7ii4 #adb71 he frankly admits--,much1 no doubt1 remains to be done1 and even with the assistance of the ,veda1 the whole of ,greek mythology will never be deciphered and translated4 ,i have no wish to push an admission unfairly1 but this appears to me fatal as regards the argument with which ,i am dealing4#ace ,if there are myths which never will be deciphered1 this must be because they have had some non-astral or non-solar origin1 which ,i consider to be almost equivalent to saying that they must have had some pre-astral origin4 ,what that precise origin was ,i think ,i have been able sufficiently to indicate in italicising the subjoined sentences from ,mr ,max ,mller4 ,if these enigmas can be shown to be strictly local and ,grecian1 cadit qustio2 but if they are common to other mythologies1 and these the oldest1 ,i must say they have the look of antecedent existence4 ,at any rate1 like those inconvenient boulders in the sand and gravel strata1 they require the intervention of some glacial period to account for them4#acf #ace ,mr ,cox 7,mythology1 p4 xiv47 says--,mythology1 as we call it now1 is simply a collection of the sayings by which men1 once upon a time1 described whatever they saw or heard in the countries where they lived4 ,this key1 which has unlocked almost all the secrets of mythology1 was placed in our hands by ,professor ,max ,mller1 who has done more than all other writers to bring out the exquisite and touching poetry which underlies those ancient legends4 ,he has shown us that in this1 their first shape1 these sayings were all perfectly natural1 and marvellously beautiful and true4 ,we see the lovely evening twilight die out1 c4444 ,they said that the beautiful ,eurydice1 c4 7vide infra1 p4 #agc74 ,it would appear1 however1 from ,mr ,cox's more extended work1 ,the ,mythology of the ,aryan ,nations1 that the sayings of mankind in the mythic period did not extend to speculations as to their origin and destiny1 or embrace the facts of their history1 or the deeds of their ancestors1 but that their whole converse was upon the sun and moon1 and the phenomena of the outward world4 #acf ,mr ,max ,mller makes the distinction between primitive or organic legends 7and it is to these ,i wish to limit the discussion7 and the second1 those which were imported in later times from one literature to another4444 ,the former represents one common ancient stratum of language and thought reaching from ,india to ,europe2 the latter consist of boulders of various strata carried along by natural and artificial means from one country to another 7ii4 #bde74 ,it is clear that ,mr ,max ,mller looks for harmony in his system--,we naturally look back to the scenes on which the curtain of the past has fallen1 for we believe that there ought to be one thought pervading the whole drama of mankind4 ,and here history steps in1 and gives us the thread which connects the present with the past 7p4 #g74 ,why it was that harmony was not attained seems to be disclosed1 if we read the passage in our sense and with a certain transposition of parts1 at p4 #c--,there were at ,athens then1 as there have been at all times and in all countries1 men who had no sense for the miraculous and supernatural1 and who1 without having the moral courage to deny altogether what they could not bring themselves to believe1 endeavoured to find some plausible explanation by which the sacred legends which tradition had handed down to them1 and which had been hallowed by religious observances1 and sanctioned by the authority of the law1 might be brought into harmony with the dictates of reason and the laws of nature4 7,compare with infra1 p4 #cea1 ,maine47 ,i have already hinted that a further consideration appears to me to incapacitate the theory of nature-worship1 in any of its disguises1 from being taken as the exclusive1 or even the primitive form of idolatry1 or of perverted tradition2 and it is this1--that all the explanations1 even the most ingenious1 even those which would be accounted primitive and organic1 have their counter explanations1 traceable in the corruptions of truth and the perversions of hero-worship4 ,take1 for instance1 the name ,zeus1 which is in evidence of the primitive monotheism1 and which stood in ,greece1 as ,il or ,ra in ,assyria1 for the true ,lord and ,god1 and which has its equivalents in ,dyaus 7from the ,sanscrit word which means 'to shine'72 ,dyaus-pater 7,zeus-pater71 ,jupiter2 ,tiu 7,anglo-,saxon1 whence ,tuesday72 and ,zia 7,high ,german7--vide ,cox's ,mythology4 ,what more natural than to associate the ,almighty with the heaven where ,he dwelt8 ,mr ,max ,mller 7,comparative ,myth41 ,chips1 ii4 #gb7 says--,thus ,greek3 ,zeus1 being originally a name of the sky1 like the ,sanscrit ,dyaus1 became gradually a proper name1 which betrayed its appellative meaning only in a few proverbial expressions1 such as ,greek3 ,zeus hyei1 or sub ,jove frigido4 ,taking this passage in connection with what is said 7p4 #adh1 of ,welcker7--,when we ascend with him to the most distant heights of ,greek history1 the idea of ,god as the ,supreme ,being stands before us as a simple fact4 ,next to the adoration of one ,god1 the ,father of heaven1 the ,father of men1 we find in ,greece a worship of nature4 ,i conclude that ,mr ,max ,mller means1 as ,mr ,cox means1 that the names1 ,zeus or ,dyaus1 was applied to the one true ,god1 whose existence was otherwise and previously known to them4#acg ,at starting1 therefore1 we find that the language borrowed from nature was only called in to give a colouring and expression to a previously known and familiar truth2 and here1 too1 we also see the commencement of incongruity4 ,the simple idea of the heavens might have been harmoniously extended by the imagination2 but1 complicated with the idea of personality1 it gave birth to the awkward and incongruous expression1 ,greek3 ,zes huei1 or sub ,jove frigido1 a phrase which never could have been originated by the ,grecian mind1 unless the personality of ,jove had been the idea most prominently before the mind4 ,but if the knowledge of the ,deity1 or even the conception of the personality of ,zeus was operative in the mythic period1 it must have been operative to the extent of embodying what was known or recollected of his dealings in love and anger with mankind1 in the legends which they wove1 and also of blending them with the confusions which polyonomy occasioned4 ,the introduction of this element would seriously embarass ,mr ,cox1 and would give to ,mr ,gladstone's explanation an priori probability4 #acg ,mr ,max ,mller1 in his essay on ,semitic ,monotheism1 when opposing ,m4 ,renan's view that the monotheism of the ,semitic race was instinctive1 seems to say this still more explicitly--,he thunders and ,dyaus thunders became synonymous expressions2 and by the mere habit of speech ,he became ,dyaus and ,dyaus became ,he 7,chips1 i4 #ceh74 ,at first the names of ,god1 c41 were honest attempts at expressing or representing an idea which could never find adequate expression or representation4444 ,if the ,greeks had remembered that ,zeus was but a name or symbol of the ,deity1 there would have been no more harm in calling ,god by that name than by any other 7#cei74 ,it must be remembered that after the name of ,zeus1 or ,dyaus1 sky1 had been adopted1 they still retained the conception of the ,divine nature and personality1 as is evidenced in the words of the oracle of ,dodona--,greek3 ,zes n1 ,zeus stn1 ,zeus essetai megale ,zeu1--,he was1 ,he is1 ,he will be1 ,o great ,zeus6 ,also 7ii4 #ae7 in the ,orphic lines-- ,zeus is the beginning1 ,zeus the middle2 ,out of ,zeus all things have been made4 ,if we are agreed upon this1 then ,i have no contention with ,mr ,max ,mller2 but with ,max ,mller as an auxiliary1 ,i direct my argument to the attack of ,dr ,dollinger's position 7,the ,gentile and the ,jew1 ,i4 ,b4 ii4 p4 #fd7--,the beginnings of ,greek polytheism1 viz41 the deification of ,nature and her powers1 or of particular sensible objects1 lay at the root of all the heathen religions1 as they existed from old time1 amongst the nations now united under the ,roman empire4 ,according to ,mr ,lewes 7,hist4 of ,phil41 i4 #dd71 it was ,xenophanes who first confused the sky with the ,deity--,overarching him was the deep blue infinite vault1 immovable and unchangeable1 embracing him and all things--that he proclaimed to be ,god4 7,contrast the ,peruvian tradition1 infra1 p4 #cjd47 ,st ,clement of ,alexandria 7,strom4 v4 p4 #fja1 ,max ,mller1 chapter i4 p4 #cff47 says1 on the contrary1 that ,xenophanes maintained that there was but one ,god1 and that he was not like unto men1 either in body or mind4 ,take1 again1 the following passage from ,mr ,max ,mller 7p4 #ajg7--,the idea of a young hero1 whether he is called ,baldr1 or ,sigurd1 or ,sigrit1 or ,achilles1 or ,meleager1 or ,kephalos1 dying in the fulness of youth--a story so frequently told1 localised1 and individualised--was first suggested by the sun dying in all his youthful vigour1 either at the end of a day1 conquered by the powers of darkness1 or at the end of the sunny season1 stung by the thorn of winter4 ,here is a myth evidently very widely diffused4 ,let it be interpreted by what is told us at p4 #ajh-- ,baldr1 in the ,scandinavian ,edda1 the divine prototype of ,sigurd and ,sigrit1 is beloved by the whole world4 ,gods and men1 the whole of nature1 all that grows and lives1 had sworn to his mother not to hurt the bright hero4 ,the mistletoe alone1 that does not grow on the earth1 but on trees1 had been forgotten1 and with it ,baldr was killed at the winter solstice4444 ,baldr1 whom no weapon pierced or clove1 ,but in his breast stood fix'd the fatal bough ,of mistletoe1 which ,lok1 the accuser1 gave ,to ,hoder1 and the unwitting ,hoder threw2 ',gainst that alone had ,baldr's life no charm4 ,thus ,infendiyar1 in the ,persian epic1 cannot be wounded by any weapon4444 ,all these are fragments of solar myths4 ,one hardly likes to disturb such illusions4 ,solar myths6 well1 allow me at least to repeat the history which seems to me so very like this myth4 ,many centuries ago1 in a beautiful garden which a concurrence of tradition places somewhere in ,central ,asia1 a man1 the first man of our race1 framed according to the divine prototype1 dwelt beloved by the whole world4 ,god and the angels1 and the whole of nature--all that grows and lives1 were agreed that nothing should do him harm4 ,one fruit or growth alone--the mistletoe it may have been--something that does not grow on the earth1 but on trees1 was excepted2 and it was told to this man1 whose name was--but we will not anticipate--that on the day on which he touched this fruit he should die the death4 ,it so came about that the accuser1 whom some call the serpent1 had previously handed it to his companion1 and his unwitting companion gave it to him4 ,he took it1 and he died4 ,against that fatal bough his life had no charm4 ,no weapon pierced or clove him2 for ,baldr--,i should say ,adam--was invulnerable1 as was ,achilles and ,meleager1 except in one single respect4 ,i believe that instances might be indefinitely multiplied4 ,i shall content myself1 however1 with the following1 which ,i think will be generally considered among the happiest illustrations of nature worship4#ach #ach ,granting the tendency to nature-worship1 ,i conclude that the conspicuous luminaries of the heavens would become primary objects of such worship4 ,in amusing illustration of this ,i remember a friend of mine telling me that he happened to ask a young lad1 the son of one of his tenants1 who had just returned from a voyage to the ,northern seas1 how he liked his captain8 ,he said1 ,oh1 he was an awful man--he swore by the sun1 moon1 and stars4 ,still less do ,i deny the tendency to sun-worship4 ,it was1 as ,gibbon tells us 7ii4 #dch1 iii4 #aej71 the last superstition ,constantine abandoned before his conversion1 and the first to which ,julian betook himself after his apostacy4 ,it may1 moreover1 be urged1 that the sun figures in all these legends4 ,i say1 on the other hand1 so also does the serpent4 ,this serpent may be the serpent of darkness1 and still be the serpent of tradition1 but how darkness or night is aptly personified by a serpent ,i am at a loss to perceive4 ,then again the sun may always be only the symbol of what is bright and heavenly4 ,but when 7,max ,mller1 ii4 #aga7 we see this serpent ,zohak1 called by the ,persians by the name of ,dehak1 i4e41 ten evils1 because he introduced ten evils into the world1 we cannot help recalling the profane expressions attributed to the devil when he saw the ten commandments--proscribing the ten evils in question4 ,and as it is with this sad and beautiful tale of ,orpheus and ,euridike 7,euridice74 ,the story of ,euridice was this--',euridice was bitten by a serpent1 she dies1 and descends into the lower regions4 ,orpheus follows her1 and obtains from the gods that his wife should follow him if he promised not to look back1 c4' ,it reads to me like a sad reminiscence of ,adam and ,eve4 ,mr ,max ,mller proceeds--'so it is with all those which may seem to you coarse1 or dull1 or ugly4 ,they are so only because the real meaning of the names has been half-forgotten or wholly lost4 ,o,edipus and ,perseus 7vide ,appendix71 we are told1 killed their parents1 but it was only because the sun was said to kill the darkness from which it seemed to spring4'#aci #aci ,mr ,max ,mller may perhaps lay stress upon the circumstance that ,baldr dies at the winter solstice4 ,but this equally bears out the tradition noticed by ,lenormant1 that immediately after the ,fall1 there came upon the world a great cold4 7,vide supra1 ch4 vii47 ,but why is darkness called the parent of the sun1 and not rather light the parent of darkness8 and why not a contrary legend founded on this surmise8 ,is it merely accidental that the metaphor is not reversed8 ,compare the above speculation of ,mr ,max ,mller's with the following passage from ,gainet1 ,hist4 de l',ancien4 ,nouv4 ,test41 i42 ,les ,souvenirs du genre ,humain1 p4 #gi3-- ,chaos was placed at the commencement of all things in the ,phoenician cosmogony 7,euseb4 ,prp4 ,evan4 l4 i471 as in that of ,hesiod 7,theog41 p4 #e74 ,the latter calls upon the ,muses to tell him what were the beings that appeared first in existence1 and he replies--',at the commencement of all things was ,chaos1 and from ,chaos was born ,erebus and dark night4' ,thus1 in the order of existence1 as in the order of time1 there is a concurrence of profane tradition to place night before day4 ,this is the reason why the ,scandinavians1 the ,gauls1 the ,germans1 the ,kalmucks1 the ,numidians1 the ,egyptians1 and ,athenians1 according to ,varro and ,macrobius1 count their days1 commencing with sunset and not with sunrise4 ,curiously enough1 in another chapter on a different subject1 ,mr ,max ,mller enables me to clinch this argument against himself4 ,in an article on the ,norsemen in ,iceland1 he says--in proof of the genuineness of the ,edda--,there are passages in the ,edda which sound like verses from the ,veda4 ,but what are these verses from the ends of the earth which are identical8 ,let us listen-- ',twas the morning of time ,when yet naught was1 ,nor sand nor sea were there1 ,nor cooling streams2 ,earth was not formed1 ,nor ,heaven above2 ,a yawning gap there was1 ,and grass nowhere4#adj #adj ,from the ,elder ,edda4 7,quoted from ,dr ,dasent's ,norsemen in ,iceland4 ,oxford ,essays1 #aheh47 ,under these conditions1 ,i think it will be conceded that there was also darkness--and therefore1 that the tradition of the precedence of chaos and darkness is confirmed4 ,a hymn1 continues ,mr ,max ,mller1 of the ,veda begins in a very similar way-- ,nor aught1 nor naught existed2 yon bright sky ,was not1 nor ,heaven's broad roof outstretch'd above1 ,what cover'd all8 what shelter'd8 what conceal'd8 ,was it the waters' fathomless abyss8 c4 ,mr ,max ,mller adds1 ,there are several mythological expressions common to the ,edda and ,homer4 ,in the ,edda1 man is said to have been created out of an ash tree4 ,in ,hesiod1 ,zeus created the third race of men out of ash trees1 and that this tradition was not unknown to ,homer we learn from ,penelope's address to ,ulysses--,tell me thy family from whence thou art3 for thou art not sprung from the olden trees1 or from the rocks 7,max ,mller1 ii4 #aie74 ,the tradition about the ash tree in ,hesiod1 ,homer1 and the ,edda1#ada is curious but inexplicable3 the general drift of the tradition may be determined by the recollection of two facts--that man was created1 and that a tree was inseparably connected with his history from its earliest commencement4 ,but ,i have quoted the passage more especially with reference to its confirmation of the extract from ,gainet1 which attests the wide-spread tradition--so exactly in accordance with the cosmogony of ,scripture--that ,chaos was at the commencement of all things1 and that darkness existed before light4#adb ,i conclude by asking why this should be8 ,when we are in the midst of solar and astral systems and legends1 it seems natural that a theory of cosmogony should commence with light rather than darkness--at least1 as well that it should commence with light as with darkness4 ,but no1 the universal tradition seems against it4 ,much more strange is this if we connect the solar and astral legends with any system of ,sabaism4 ,these considerations make it plain to me that the solar and astral legends embodied anterior traditions4 #ada ,what is still more remarkable1 the same tradition is found in the ,popol ,vul 7,mexican traditions71 and as it is there given1 fits in still more exactly with the solution ,i have suggested4 ,it is there said that the first race of men were created out the earth1 the third out of a tree called ,tzit4,b ,if the ,popol ,vul came under ,christian or ,european influences in the #agth century1 it would have been more likely to have been brought into harmony with the ,bible1 rather than with either ,homer1 ,hesiod1 or the ,edda4 ,let us pursue the myth a little further4 ,mr ,w4 ,k4 ,kelly1 ,indo-,europ4 ,tradition and ,folklore 7vide ,max ,mller1 ii4 #aig7 says1 ,this healing virtue1 which the mistletoe shares with the ash1 is a long descended tradition1 for the ,kushtha 444 a healing plant1 was one that grew beneath the heavenly ,asvattha1 which is elsewhere called the imperishable ,asvattha or ,peepul 7,ficus religiosus71 out of which the immortals shaped the heaven and the earth1 which legend ,mr ,kelly further traces in the ,german ,yggdrasil 7although ,mr ,max ,mller from his own point of view dissents72 at the foot of which tree 7p4 #bjg7 lies the serpent ,nidhggr1 and gnaws its roots4 ,neither ,mr ,max ,mller nor ,mr ,kelly discuss the point with reference to the view suggested above4 ,b ,tiki was the great progenitor among ,new ,zealanders4--,shortland1 p4 #ef4 #adb ,gen4 i4 #a1 ,in the beginning ,god created heaven and earth4 #b4 ,and the earth was void and empty1 and darkness was upon the face of the deep2 and the spirit of ,god moved over the waters4 #e4 ,and ,he called the light day and the darkness night2 and there was evening and morning one day4 ,in addition to the instances adduced by ,gainet1 it will be remembered that the ,jewish sabbath was from evening to evening1 and with us the astronomical day commences at noon1 and the commencement and termination of the civil day at mean midnight4 ,in the second ,chinese dynasty the day commenced at mid-day4 ,wei-,wang1 the founder of the third dynasty1 fixed it at midnight4 7,bunsen's ,egypt1 vol4 iii4 p4 #cij47 ,in the ,phoenician cosmogony the beginning of all was a dark and stormy atmosphere1 thick1 unfathomable black chaos4 7,vide ,bunsen's ,egypt1 iv4 #agf47 ,the ,new ,zealanders have preserved the tradition with still greater distinctness4 ,in the beginning of time was ,te ,po 7the night or darkness74 ,in the generations that followed ,te ,po came ,te ,ao 7the light7 c41 c4 7,vide ,shortland's ,traditions of the ,new ,zealanders1 p4 #ee47 ,vide ,gladstone1 ,homer1 ii4 #aee2 ,cox1 ,mythology of ,aryan ,nations1 i4 #ae1 on the relation of ,phoibos to ,leto4 ,this is precisely the relation in which the mythical night stood to the day which was to be born of her4 ,vide on this point ,wilkinson's ,ancient ,egyptians 7,i4 chap4 xiii47 ,the ,mygale1 says ,champollion1 received divine honours by the ,egyptians1 because it is blind1 and darkness is more ancient than light4 ,the ,arabs have the expression night and day 7vide ,wilkinson74 ,aristotle says ,the theologians consider all things to have been born of night4 ,the ,orphean fragments call night the ,genesis of all things4444 ,the ,anglo-,saxons also1 like the ,eastern nations1 began their computations of time from night1 and the years from that day corresponding with our ,christmas1 which they called ,mother ,night1 and the ,otaheitans refer the existence of their principal deities to a state of darkness1 which they consider the origin of all things4 7,vide ,gen4 i4 #b1 #c2 id4 p4 #bgc-d47 ,i think ,mr ,max ,mller will at least recognise them as spots on the disk of his solar theory1 and which must ever remain obscure to those who refuse the light of ,scripture and tradition4 ,,appendix ,,to ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,oedipus1 ,,perseus4 ,here again1 the explanation of ,mr ,max ,mller1 si non vrai est vraisemblable1 and yet ,i cannot help seeing that the legends of ,perseus and ,,oedipus may just as well be supposed to embody primitive tradition4 ,let us read the histories of ,o,edipus and ,perseus in the light of the tradition concerning ,lamech 7,gen4 iv4 #bc1 #bd74 ,and ,lamech said to his wives1 ,adah and ,zillah 444 ,i have slain a man to the wounding of myself1 and a stripling to my own bruising4 ,sevenfold vengeance shall be taken for ,cain1 but for ,lamech seventy times sevenfold4 ,the note to the ,douay edition says--,it is the tradition of the ,hebrews that ,lamech1 in hunting1 slew ,cain1 mistaking him for a wild beast1 and that having discovered what he had done1 he beat so unmercifully the youth by whom he was led into that mistake that he died of the blows4 ,o,edipus was the son of ,laius1 who had supplanted his brother4 ,o,edipus was exposed to destruction as soon as born1 because his father had been warned that he must perish by the hand of his son1--but was rescued and brought up by shepherds4 ,hearing from the oracle of ,delphi 7the tradition is of course localised71 that if he returned home he must necessarily be the murderer of his father1 he avoided the house of ,polybus1 the only home he knew of1 and travelled towards ,phocis 7from west to east by the by74 7,comp4 with infra1 p4 #aid47 ,he met ,laius1 his father1 in a narrow road4 ,laius haughtily ordered ,o,edipus to make way for him1 which provoked an encounter1 in which ,laius and his armour-bearer were slain4 ,other circumstances1 either separate traditions of the same event1 or distinct legends1 are no doubt mixed up in the narration1 but still four facts remain as a residuum available for the comparison4 ,o,edipus was the son1 as ,lamech was the grandson1 of one who supplanted his brother1 both kill their respective progenitors1 and in the casual encounter in which in both instances the tragedy occurred1 two persons were slain4 ,in this there is a fair outline of resemblance4 ,in the legend of ,perseus1 certainly the legend is more indistinct1 et1 in one point1 that he inadvertently killed his grandfather1 the coincidence is perfect4 ,and it must be borne in mind that it is not a question of absolute but of comparative resemblance--in fact1 a choice between a mythical or an historical1 an astral or a scriptural solution1 and when you come to degrees of relationship1 the astral or solar explanation becomes more attenuated at each remove1--the father of the sun may be metaphorically intelligible1 but the grandfather of the sun6 ,i see further trace of the tradition of ,lamech in the ,phrygian legend of ,adrastus1 somewhat confused in the tradition of ,cain1 and in some points reversed4 ,adrastus1 the son of the ,phrygian king1 had inadvertently killed his brother1 and was in consequence expelled by his father and deprived of everything4 ,whilst an exile at the court of ,croesus1 he was sent out with ,prince ,atys as guardian to deliver the country from a wild boar4 ,adrastus had the misfortune to kill ,prince ,atys while aiming at the wild beast4 ,croesus pardoned the unfortunate man1 as he saw in this accident the will of the gods1 and the fulfilment of a prophecy1 but ,adrastus killed himself on the tomb of ,atys 7,herod4 i4 #ce2 ,smith1 ,myth4 ,dict47 ,now let us take up the proof at another point4 ,will any one refuse to see in the following tale from the ,gesta ,romanorum1#adc at least a medival corruption of the legend of ,o,edipus3--,a certain soldier1 called ,julian1 unwittingly killed his parents4 ,for being of noble blood1 and addicted as a youth frequently is to the sports of the field1 a stag which he hotly pursued suddenly turned round and addressed him--',thou who pursuest me thus fiercely shall be the destruction of thy parents4' ,these words greatly alarmed ,julian4444 ,leaving1 therefore1 his amusement1 he went privately into a distant country 444 where he marries4 ,it chances that his parents come into that country1 and in his absence were received kindly by his wife1 who1 'in consideration of the love she bore her husband1 put them into her own bed1 and commanded another to be prepared elsewhere for herself4' ,in the meantime1 ,julian returning abruptly home and discovering strangers in his bed1 in a fit of passion slays them4 ,when he discovers the parricidal crime he exclaims--',this accursed hand has murdered my parents and fulfilled the horrible prediction which ,i have struggled to avoid4' #adc ,gesta ,romanorum1 tale xviii4 ,swan4 ,rivingtons #ahbd4 ,now1 ,i submit that this is not a greater distortion of the classical stories of ,o,edipus1 ,adrastus1 c41 than are the classical legends of the biblical traditions of ,cain and ,lamech4 ,for further trace read ,bunsen1 iv4 #bce1 also1 #bec1 #bed4 ,mr ,cox 7,mythology of ,aryan ,nations7 says3--,the names ,theseus1 ,perseus1 ,oidipous1 had all been mere epithets of one and the same being2 but when they ceased to be mere appellatives1 these creations of mythical speech were regarded not only as different persons1 but as beings in no way connected with each other4444 ,nay1 the legends inter-change the method by which the parents seek the death of their children2 for there were tales which narrated that ,oidipous was shut up in an ark which was washed ashore at ,sikyon1 p4 #hj4 ,sicyon was the oldest ,greek city4 ,compare p4 #aeg of this ch41 and ch4 on ,deluge4 ,this was merely the traditional record that the tradition was preserved in the ,ark1 and subsequently emanated from ,sicyon4 ,,ii4 ,,prometheus ,,and ,,hercules ,,or ,,herakles4 ,i have elsewhere 7p4 #bjb7 alluded to the confusion of ,prometheus1 as the creator of man1 with ,prometheus1 the first man created4 ,but the most curious instance of reduplication is the further confusion of what ,i may call the human ,prometheus1 with his deliverer ,hercules1--,hercules and ,prometheus both in different ways embodying traditions of ,adam6 ,prometheus is the ,adam#add of ,paradise and the ,fall1 ,hercules is ,adam the outcast from ,paradise1 with his skin and club sent forth on his long labours and marches through the world4 ,but how can ,hercules1 who frees ,prometheus from the rock1 be the same as ,prometheus who is bound to the rock8 ,if1 however1 we are entitled to hope that ,adam in the labour of his long exile worked off the sentence and expiated the guilt on account of which ,adam1 the culprit1 was sentenced1 may we not accept this as an adequate explanation8 ,is it a forced figure that he should be said to unbind him from the rock1 to drive off the vulture which preys upon him1 and thus finally liberate him8 #add ,on this point1 that ,prometheus is ,adam1 vide ,m4 ,nicolas' ,etudes ,philos4 sur le ,christ41 #a4 ii4 ch4 v4 #cj 7#aith edit47 ,this disjunction of ,adam and separate personification in the two periods of his life1 before and after the ,fall1 will accord well enough with the addition in some legends of a brother ,epimetheus1 and ,i submit that this explanation is as good as that 7vide ,smith's ,myth4 ,dict47 which regards the legend as purely allegorical1 and ,prometheus and ,epimetheus as signifying forethought and afterthought4 ,the travels of ,hercules1 it must be confessed1 as traditionally recorded1 are somewhat eccentric4 ,but are they explicable on any solar theory8 ,he begins by travelling from west to east2 he then proceeds south1 and although he traverses ,africa westward1 he diverges abruptly to the north1 from which he proceeds south1 and ends as he began by travelling from west to east4 ,all this1 however1 is perfectly explicable if we are prepared to admit ,bryant's 7,mythology1 ii4 #gj7 historical surmises1 and to go along with him so far as to believe that the tradition was mainly preserved through ,cuthite or ,chusite channels4 ,we can1 then1 see a probability in the conjecture that the descendants of ,chus1 in preserving the tradition of the travels of ,hercules 7,herakles71 superadded or substituted the scenes and incidents of their own wanderings1 after they had settled down in the place of their final location4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,assyrian ,,mythology4 ,but surely there is nothing improbable in the supposition1 that in the poems of ,homer such vestiges may be found4 ,every recorded form of society bears some traces of those by which it has been preceded1 and in that highly primitive form1 which ,homer has been the instrument of embalming for all posterity1 the law of general reason obliges us to search for elements and vestiges more primitive still4444 ,the general proposition that we may expect to find the relics of scriptural traditions in the heroic age of ,greece1 though it leads1 if proved1 to important practical results1 is independent even of a belief in those traditions1 as they stand in the scheme of revealed truth4 ,they must be admitted to have been facts on earth1 even by those who would deny them to have been facts of heavenly origin1 in the shape in which ,christendom receives them2 and the question immediately before us is one of pure historical probability4 ,the descent of mankind from a single pair1 the lapse of that pair from original righteousness1 are apart from and ulterior to it4 ,we have traced the ,greek nation to a source1 and along a path of migration which must in all likelihood have placed its ancestry1 at some point or points1 in close local relations with the scenes of the earliest ,mosaic records3 the retentiveness of that people equalled its receptiveness1 and its close and fond association with the past1 made it prone indeed to incorporate novel matter into its religion1 but prone also to keep it there after its incorporation4 ,if such traditions existed1 and if the laws which guide historical inquiry require or lead us to suppose that the forefathers of the ,greeks must have lived within their circle1 then the burden of proof must lie not so properly with those who assert that the traces of them are to be found in the earliest1 that is1 the ,homeric form of the ,greek mythology1 as with those who deny it4 ,what became of those old traditions8 ,they must have decayed and disappeared1 not by a sudden process1 but by a gradual accumulation of the corrupt accretions1 in which at length they were so completely interred as to be invisible and inaccessible4 ,some period1 therefore1 there must have been at which they would remain clearly perceptible1 though in conjunction with much corrupt matter4 ,such a period might be made the subject of record1 and if such there were1 we might naturally expect to find it in the oldest known work of the ancient literature4 ,if the poems of ,homer do1 however1 contain a picture1 even though a defaced picture1 of the primeval religious traditions1 it is obvious that they afford a most valuable collateral support to the credit of the ,holy ,scripture1 considered as a document of history4 ,still we must not allow the desire of gaining this advantage to bias the mind in an inquiry1 which can only be of value if it is conducted according to the strictest rules of rational criticism4--,gladstone on ,tradition in ,homer and the ,homeric ,age1 vol4 ii4 sect4 i4 ,having laid1 as ,i think1 in what has been premised in the last chapter1 grounds for a presumption that primitive traditions may be shrouded in the ancient mythology1 ,i proceed to seek traditions of the patriarch ,noah among the inscriptions and monuments of the ,chaldans2 for then we shall find ourselves in a period when the results of modern archological science are in contact with the events and incidents of primitive patriarchal life recorded in ,scripture2 and1 in seeking them where we shall best find them1 in the able and discriminating pages of ,rawlinson1 we shall at least feel that we are treading on safe and solid ground4 ,the deities in the ,chaldan ,pantheon are thus enumerated by ,professor ,rawlinson-- ,the grouping of the principal ,chaldan deities is as follows3--,at the head of the ,pantheon stands a god ,il or ,ra1 of whom little is known4 ,next to him is a triad1 ,ana1 ,bil or ,belus1 and ,hea or ,hoa1 who correspond closely to the classical ,pluto1 ,jupiter1 and ,neptune4 ,each of these is accompanied by a female principle or wife4444 ,then follows a further triad1 consisting of ,sin or ,hurki the moon-god1 ,san or ,sanci the sun1 and ,vul 7or ,yem1 or ,ao1 or ,in1 or ,ina1 according to various readings of the hieroglyphics7 the god of the atmosphere 7again accompanied by female powers or wives74444 ,next in order to them we find a group of five minor deities1 the representatives of the five planets1 ,nin or ,ninip 7,saturn71 ,merodach 7,jupiter71 ,nergal 7,mars71 ,ishtar 7,venus71 and ,nebo 7,mercury74 ,the bracket indications are ,rawlinson's4444 ,these principal deities do not appear to have been connected like the ,egyptian and classical divinities into a single genealogical scheme 7i4 #ada74 ,in a note at p4 #adb it is said1 ,these schemes themselves were probably not genealogical at first 444 but after a while given to separate and independent deities1 recognised in different places by distinct communities1 or even by distinct races 7vide ,bunsen's ,egypt1 iv4 #ff2 ,english ,tran47 ,now to this opinion ,i venture unreservedly to adhere1 and ,i connect it with the statement 7id4 i4 #gb71 that ,chalda in the earliest times to which we can go back1 seems to have been inhabited by four principal tribes4 ,the early kings are continually represented in the monuments as sovereigns over the ,kiprat-arbat1 or ',four ,races' 7vide supra1 p4 #cj74 ,these ',four ,races' are sometimes called the ,arba ,lisun or ',four ,tongues1' whence we may conclude that they were distinguished from one another1 among other differences1 by a variety in their forms of speech 444 an examination of the written remains has furnished reasons for believing that the differences were great and marked2 the languages1 in fact1 belonging to the four great varieties of human speech1 the ,hamitic1 ,semitic1 ,aryan1 and ,turanian4 ,compare pp4 #ci1 #dj4 ,if it is allowed that there may have been mythological systems corresponding to these divers nationalities1 we may fairly conclude that the deities above enumerated may not necessarily have been different deities1 but the same deities viewed in different lights1 or included in duplicate in the way of incorporation1 or in recognition of subordinate nationalities4 ,if1 therefore1 ,i find the representation of ,noah in any one of these deities1 is there not a prima facie probability that ,i shall find the reduplication of him in others8 ,i consider1 at least1 that ,i shall have warrant for thus collecting the scattered traditions concerning the patriarch who stands at the head of the second propagation of our race4 ,but first as to the god ,il or ,ra-- ,,il ,,or ,,ra4 ,the form ,ra represents1 probably1 the native ,chaldan name of this deity1 while ,il is the ,semitic equivalent4 ,il1 of course1 is but a variant of ,el1 the root of the well-known biblical ,elohim1 as well as of the ,arabic ,allah4 ,it is this name which ,diodorus represents under the form of ,elus1 and ,sanchoniathon1 or rather ,philo ,biblius1 under that of ,elus1 or ,ilus4 ,the meaning of the word is simply ,god1 or perhaps ,the ,god emphatically4 ,ra1 the ,cushite equivalent1 must be considered to have had the same force originally1 though in ,egypt it received a special application to the sun1 and became the proper name of that particular deity4 ,the word is lost in the modern ,ethiopic4 ,it formed an element in the native name of ,babylon1 which was ,ka-ra1 the ,cushite equivalent of the ,semitic ,bab-il1 an expression signifying the gate of ,god4 ,ra is a god with few peculiar attributes4 ,he is a sort of fount and origin of deity1 too remote from man to be much worshipped1 or to excite any warm interest4 ,there is no evidence of his having had any temple in ,chalda during the early times4 ,a belief in his existence is implied rather than expressed in inscriptions of the primitive kings1 where the ,moon-god is said to be brother's son of ,ana1 and eldest son of ,bil or ,belus4 ,we gather from this1 that ,bel and ,ana were considered to have a common father1 and later documents sufficiently indicate that that common father was ,il or ,ra4--,rawlinson1 i4 p4 #adc4 ,if in the ,il or ,ra of the ,chaldans the primitive monotheism is not revealed1 ,i do not see how it can be discerned in the ,zeus of the ,greeks4 ,we have the same god in the same relation in the ,scandinavian1 or at any rate in the ,lapland mythology4 ,leems 7,account of ,danish ,lapland1 ,pinkerton1 i4 #deh7 says--,of the ,gods inhabiting the starry mansions the greatest is ,radien1 yet it is uncertain whether he is over every part of the sidereal sky1 or whether he governs only some part of it4 ,be this as it may1 ,i shall be bold to affirm that the ,laplanders never comprehended1 under the name of this false god1 the true ,god2 which is obvious from this1 that some have not scrupled to put the image or likeness of the true ,god by the side of their ,radien1 on ,runic boxes4#ade ,if1 however1 of their gods the greatest was ,radien1 they would not have placed the true ,god by his side until they had become acquainted with the true ,god1 or until they had come to commingle ,christianity and ,paganism2 but then would they not have placed ,ra by the side of the true ,god as ,his counterpart8 ,i am assuming that ,radien means simply the god ,ra1 as ,i suppose ,mr ,max ,mller would recognise dien as cognate to ,dyaus 444 ,dieu4 #ade ,in like manner1 the ,peruvians recognised ,pachacamac 7vide infra1 p4 #cjd71 in the description which the ,spaniards gave of the true ,god2 and in so far as they had retained the monotheistic belief1 this was true4 ,garcilasso de la ,vega1 a most competent witness who testifies to this1 adds--,if any one shall now ask me1 who am a ,catholic ,christian ,indian1 by the infinite mercy1 what name was given to ,god in my language1 ,i should say ,pachacamac4--,hakluyt ,society1 ed4 of ,garcil4 de la ,vega1 i4 #ajg4 ,yet it has been opposed1 in limine1 to ,m4 ,l',abbe ,gainet's valuable chapter on the ,monotheisme des ,peuples primitifs1 that he does not meet the specific assertions of historians such as ,rawlinson1 who finds idolatry prevalent among the ,chaldans on their first appearance on the stage of history4 ,i must submit1 however1 that although the discovery of idolatry at this early period may appear to disturb the particular theory1 yet on closer examination it will be found to sustain ,l',abbe ,gainet's argument1 on the whole1 by sustaining the truth of tradition upon which his main argument reposes2 for the idolatry which we find is intimately bound up with the worship of ,belus1 identified with ,nimrod1 whose rebellion against the ,lord has always been in tradition1 and is according to the more accepted interpretation of the sacred text4 ,the discovery of idolatry1 therefore1 under the particular circumstances1 is exactly what we should expect1 and affords a remarkable confirmation of the fidelity of tradition4 ,moreover1 there are ,chaldans and ,chaldans1 as we have just seen in ,rawlinson 7sup4 p4 #ahd71 and as will be made more evident in the following passage from ,gainet's ,monotheisme1 c4 ,it is sufficiently agreed1 says ,lebatteux 7,mem4 ,acad4 t4 xxvii4 p4 #agb71 that the ,babylonians recognised a supreme being1 the ,father and ,lord of all 7,diod4 ,sic4 l4 ii47 ,st ,justin ,cohortat4 ad gent4 ,eusebi4 ,prep4 ,evan41 l4 iii4 ,porphyry 7,life of ,pythagoras7 cites an oracle of ,zoroaster1 in which the ,chaldans are coupled in encomium with the ,hebrews for the sanctity of the worship which they paid to the ,eternal ,king4 ,these are the words of the oracles--,the ,chaldeans alone with the ,hebrews have wisdom for their share1 rendering a pure worship to ,god1 who is the ,eternal ,king4--,gainet1 iii4 #djh4 ,the pure monotheism here alluded to may have been preserved in ,chaldan families of ,semitic origin1 but the extract ,i have just given from ,rawlinson seems to prove that the knowledge was preserved also1 dimly and obscurely1 among the predominant ,chaldans of ,hamitic descent4 ,this will be more apparent from the monotheistic epithets attached to the three next deities4 ,,ana4 ,ana is the head of the first triad which follows immediately after the obscure god ,ra4 ,ana1 like ,il and ,ra1 is thought to have been a word originally signifying ,god in the highest sense4 ,he corresponds in many respects to the classical ,hades1 who1 like him1 heads#adf the triad to which he belongs4 ,in so far he is undistinguishable from ,il or ,ra1 and may only transmit the monotheistic tradition through a different channel4 ,but ,ana has human epithets applied to him very suggestive of hero-worship4 ,his epithets are chiefly such as mark priority and antiquity4 ,he is the ,old ,ana1 the original chief1 the father of the gods inter alia1 of ,bil ,nipru1 i4e4 ,nimrod4 ,he is also called--which imports another association of ideas--the lord of spirits and demons1 the king of the lower world1#adg the lord of darkness or death1 the ruler of the far-off city4 #adf ,this is not a mere arbitrary supposition1 for it is expressly said in ,holy ,writ1 that the first man1 ordained to be 'the father of the whole earth' 7as he is then called71 became1 on his reconciliation with his ,maker1 the wisest of all men1 and1 according to tradition1 the greatest of prophets1 who in his far-reaching ken1 foresaw the destinies of all mankind in all successive ages down to the end of the world4 ,all this must be taken in a strict historical sense1 for the moral interpretation we abandon to others4 ,the pre-eminence of the ,sethites chosen by ,god1 and entirely devoted to ,his service1 must be received as an undoubted historical fact1 to which we find many pointed allusions even in the traditions of the other ,asiatic nations4 ,nay1 the hostility between the ,sethites and ,cainites1 and the mutual relations of these two races1 form the chief clue to the history of the primitive world1 and even of many particular nations of antiquity4--,fred4 ,von ,schlegel's ,philosophy of ,hist41 ,robertson's trans41 p4 #aeb4 #adg ,compare these epithets1 and what was said above1 of resemblance to classical ,hades1 with the following verses from the ,oracula ,sybillina1 lib4 i4 #hj-- ,orcus eos cepit grco qui nomine dictus ,est ,ades1 quod primus eo descenderit ,adam1 ,expertus mortis legem1 c4 ,setting aside such titles as belong exclusively to the ,deity1 but assuming hero-worship--supposing man deified--who more appropriately placed in these primitive times at the head of the list1 than their original progenitor ,adam4#adh ,to whom would these titles1 the old ,ana1#adi the original chief1 the lord of darkness and death1 he who introduced death into the world1 more exactly apply8 ,rawlinson also says--,his position is well marked by ,damascius1 who gives the three gods ,anus1 ,illinus1 and ,as1 as next in succession to the primeval pair1 ,assorus and ,missara1 i4 #ade4 ,now1 it will not be contested1 ,i think1 that ,assorus is the same as ,alorus1 the first of the ten antediluvian 7deluge of ,xisuthrus7 ,assyrian kings enumerated by ,berosus1 and which correspond to the ten antediluvian patriarchs4 ,consequently ,assorus ,alorus ,adam4#aej #adh ,osiris also is the judge of the soul1 or the god of the world of spirits4 ,osiris is never represented in an animal form1 but is called the ,bull 7infra pp4 #bjc1 #bjd71 vide ,bunsen's ,egypt1 iv4 #ccb4 ,bunsen's own view is1 that the history of ,osiris is the history of the cycle of the year1 of the sun dying away and resuscitating himself again4 ,mr ,palmer 7,egyptian ,chronicles1 i4 p4 #c7 says--7and ,i think it as well that ,i should state that ,i had come to an almost identical conclusion1 and had written this and the following chapter before ,i became acquainted with ,mr ,palmer's profound and yet still neglected work1 vide ch4 vi47--,the first human 7',osiris ,adam and ,isis ,eve'7 having been thrown back into pairs of anthropomorphous deities 7p4 #b71 the original ,osiris and ,isis1 formed by the divine potter as parents of all1 disappear in name1 and are represented by ,seb and ,nutpe1 while ,osiris1 ,typhon1 and ,horus1 the progeny of ,seb and ,nutpe1 answers rather to ,cain1 ,abel1 and ,seth1 in the old world1 and to the three sons of ,noah in the new4444 ,from ,osiris-,seb 7whether he be viewed as ,adam or ,noah7 are derived downwards all the successive generations of ,egyptian1 gods and demigods1 patriarchs1 kings1 and other men and for a parallel exposition of the ,phoenician myth1 vide ,palmer1 p4 #ec and seq41 each dynast in turn1 in the early generations1 being identifiable at once with ,seb and ,osiris1 as father of those following1 with ,osiris again by sharing the same mortality1 and with ,horus as renewing his father's life and being the hope of the coming world4 ,so each ancestor in turn went1 it was said1 to the original ,osiris as patriarch of the dead1 and to his intermediate ,osirified fathers1 and was himself ,osirified like them1 all making one collective ,osiris4 ,i have not space to discuss the question at what stage the mythology became pantheistic4 ,waiting for that reunion and restoration which was to come through successive generations by the great expected ,horus1 who was to take up into himself the old1 and to be himself the new ,osiris4 #adi ,in a note to ,cardinal ,wiseman's ,science and ,revealed ,religion on ,conformity between ,semitic and ,indo-,europ4 grammatical forms1 it will be seen that ,ana in ,chaldaic is the pronoun of the first person singular1 and corresponds with the revealed appellation of the ,deity1 ,i ,am who ,am 7,exod4 iii4 #ad7 the ,greek3 t ,eg4 #aej ,max ,mller1 ,chips i4 #aec1 refers to ,dr ,windischmann's 7,zoroastrian ,studies7 discovery that there are ten generations between ,adam and ,noah1 as there are ten generations in the ,zendavesta between ,yima 7,adam7 and ,thrstouna 7,noah71 and without controverting the point4 ,mr ,palmer 7,egypt4 ,chron41 i4 #de7 says--,and though the fancy of making the ten kings to begin only after #ajeh years1 and to be not all named from the same city1 seems to distinguish them from ,adam and the nine patriarchs his descendants1 still ,xisuthrus1 the tenth1 being clearly identified with ,noah1 by the flood and the ark1 the very number ten1 and the relation of the succession in which they stand one to the other1 show that ,alorus1 the first of them1 is no other than ,adam4 ,here1 then1 we have a reduplication1 or else what ,i have above referred to1 the tendency to place the head of the dynasty at the top of the list superior to gods and men4 ,in any case1 granting this juxtaposition1 would there not have been the proximate risk and probability of the two running into one another and becoming confounded1 on the supposition that ,ana and ,alorus were not originally identical8 ,this will become more evident when we have considered the next in the triad-- ,,bil ,,or ,,enu4 ,but the evidence1 though it will more clearly establish the fact of hero-worship1 will perhaps raise a doubt whether we have rightly regarded ,adam as the object of hero-worship in ,ana1 a point which we will then consider4 ,rawlinson says of this god--,he is the ,illinus 7,il-,enu7 of ,damascius4 ,his name1 which seems to mean merely lord 7again the primitive monotheistic appellation7 is usually followed by a qualificative adjunct possessing great interest4 ,it is proposed to read this term as ,nipru1 or in the feminine ,niprut1 a word which cannot fail to recall the scriptural ,nimrod1 who is in the ,septuagint ,nebroth4 ,the term nipru seems to be formed from the root napar1 which is the ,syriac to pursue1 to make to flee1 and which has in ,assyrian nearly the same meaning4 ,thus ,bil ,nipru would be aptly translated as the hunter lord or the god presiding over the chase1 while at the same time it might combine the meaning of the conquering lord or the great conqueror4 ,here1 at any rate1 it must be admitted that we have1 in this instance1 an admixture of hero-worship in the ,chaldan religion 7,rawlinson1 i4 #adh74 ,but if in one instance what priori reason is there that it should not be so in others8 ,let us1 then1 examine further4 ,the name of this deity1 as ,bel ,nipru or ,nimrod1 has1 ,i consider1 been completely traced in the pages of ,rawlinson 7to which ,i must refer my readers74 ,but what are we to say about the alternative name of ,enu8 ,and why1 although no great stress can be laid upon the location of a deity in a genealogy or a system1 yet why is ,nimrod thus placed intermediate between ,adam and the third of the triad ,hoa1 whom1 on grounds quite irrespective of the similarity of name1 ,i identify with ,noah8#aea #aea ,gainet 7i4 #baa7 quotes as follows from ,ceremonies ,relig4 i4 vii43 ,the ,mandans pretend that the ,deluge was caused by the white men to destroy their ancestors4 ,the whites caused the waters to rise to such a height that the world was submerged4 ,then the first man1 whom they regard as one of their divinities1 inspired mankind with the idea of constructing1 upon an eminence1 a tower and fortress of wood1 and promised them that the water should not rise beyond this point4 ,here seems a very analogous confused tradition of ,adam and ,nimrod1 the ,deluge and the ,tower of ,babel4 ,comp4 with the distinct testimony to the ,mandan tradition1 infra1 ch4 xi4 ,if ,ana is ,adam1 and ,hoa ,noah1 why should not ,enu1 in another point of view1 be ,enoch8 ,there is1 ,i admit1 an absence of direct evidence1 but ,i think ,i discover a link of connection in a note in ,rawlinson 7i4 p4 #aif74 ,arab writers record a number of remarkable traditions1 in which he 7,nimrod7 plays a conspicuous part4 ,yacut declares that ,nimrod attempted to mount to heaven on the wings of an eagle1 and makes ,niffers 7,calneh7 the scene of this occurrence 7,lex4 ,geograph4 in voc4 ,niffer74 ,it is supposed that we have here an allusion to the building of the ,tower of ,babel4 ,but ,i cannot help regarding it as much more certainly like an allusion to ,enoch's disappearance from the earth4 ,at p4 #ahg1 ,prof4 ,rawlinson notices the confusion of ,xisuthrus with ,enoch1 which proves that the tradition of ,enoch was amongst them1 and would have been common also to the ,hamitic ,arabs4#aeb #aeb ,i find that the ,egyptians had the same confused tradition respecting ,menes1 who stood to them in the same relation as ,nimrod to the ,assyrians 7vide ,bunsen's ,egypt1 ii4 p4 #fe74 ,the statement in ,manetho's lists that ,menes was torn to pieces by a hippopotamus1 is probably an exaggeration of an early legend1 that he was carried away by a hippopotamus1 one of the symbols of the god of the lower world4 ,the great ruler was snatched away from the earth1 to distinguish him from other mortals1 just as ,romulus was4 ,i will now return to my doubt as to ,ana4 ,for although ,i feel tolerably certain that ,ana in his human attributes represents one or other of the antediluvian patriarchs1 it may well be that he is only a reduplication of ,enu ,enoch4 ,if we are to seek in the translation of ,enoch the clue to the origin of the deification of man1 and its commencement in the person of ,nimrod 7vide supra1 p4 #afj71 it is likely1 in the legend of the apotheosis of ,nimrod1 that all the analogies should have been sought for in the striking historical event which was in tradition4 ,there is1 moreover1 the analogy of name with ,annacus1 ,hannachus ,enoch4#aec ,if he is ,enoch1 he naturally also falls into his place as second to ,assorus4 #aec ,etienne de ,byzance dit qu' ',icone' 7'de urbibus' voce ',iconium'7 ville de ,lycaonie prs du ,mont ,taurus dans les rgions occupes par les habitants antediluviens regnait ,annacus dont la vie alla au-dla de trois cents ans4 ,tous les habitants d'alentour demandrent un oracle jusqu' quelle poque se prolongerait sa vie4 ,l'oracle rpondit que ce patriarche tant mort1 tout le monde devait s'attendre prir4 ,les ,phrygiens cette mnace jetrent les hauts cris1 d'o est venu le proverbe3 ',pleurer sous ,annacus1 ce que l'on dit de ceux qui se livrent des grands gmissements4 ,or le ,dluge tant survnu tous prirent4444 ,dans ces rcits tout est conform la ,bible4 ,annacus a vcu trois cents ans avant le ,dluge4 ,il a averti ses concitoyens3 il est entour du mme respect que le patriarche ,no lui-mme4 ,annacus parait venir d',enoch2 tout announce une identit de personnages4 7,gainet1 ,hist4 de ,l',anc4 et ,nouv4 ,test4 i4 #id1 #ie47 ,the connection between the death of ,enoch and the destruction of mankind may accord as well with the traditional belief in his reappearance at the end of the world4 ,compare the ,grecian tradition of ,inachus1 son of ,oceanus 7vide ,bryant1 ii4 #bfh71 and with it1 ,hor41 ,od4 #c1 lib4 ii43 ,divesne1 prisco et natus ab ,inacho1 ,nil interest1 an pauper1 et infim ,de gente1 c4 ,i retain1 however1 my original opinion1 that ,ana is ,adam 7though possibly with some confusion with ,enoch71 in addition to the arguments already urged1 upon the following grounds3-- ,rawlinson mentions 7i4 #adg7 ,telane1 or the ,mound of ,ana1 distinct from ,kalneh or ,kalana4 ,we know that there has been a constant tradition that the bones of ,adam were preserved in the ark1 and this name of the ,mound of ,ana may be connected with it4 ,if so1 it will also account for ,ana 7,dis ,orcus7 being the patron deity of ,erech1 the great city of the dead1 the necropolis of ,lower ,babylonia 7,rawlinson i4 #adf74 ,the son of ,ana is ,vul4 ,if ,vul could be identified with ,vulcan1 and ,vulcan with ,tubalcain1 it would go far to decide the point that ,ana was ,adam4 ,but in the matter of etymology1 ,i do not know that we can advance beyond the quaint phrase of old ,sir ,walter ,raleigh in his ,history of the ,world1 that there is a certain likelihood of name between ,tubalcain and ,vulcan4 ,i rely more upon the wide-spread tradition of ,tubalcain in the legends of ,ddalus1 ,vulcan1 ,weland1 ,galant1 ,wielant1 ,wayland ,smith1 which approaches very nearly an identification4 ,vide ,wilson's ,archologia of ,scotland1 p4 #baj4 ,compare the ,phoenician tradition1 ,bunsen's ,egypt1 iv4 #bag1 #bai4 ,it is to be noted1 however1 that although ,ana 7vide ,rawlinson7 like ,adam had several sons1 he had only two of any celebrity 7we can suppose that ,abel had died out of the ,cainite tradition71 ,vul and another whose name represents 'darkness' or 'the west1' which might well be the view of ,seth from a ,cainite point of view 7and it is traditional that the ,cainite lore was preserved by ,cham in the ark74 ,now it is remarkable that the ,scripture 7,gen4 iv47 expressly says that ,cain dwelt on the east side of ,eden4 ,i now come to ,,hea ,,or ,,hoa4 ,the third god of the first triad was ,hea or ,hoa1 the ,ana of ,damascius4 ,this appellation is perhaps best rendered into ,greek by the ,greek3 of ,helladius1 the name given to the mystic animal1 half man half fish1 which came up from the ,persian ,gulf to teach astronomy and letters to the first settlers on the ,euphrates and ,tigris4 ,it is perhaps contained in the word by which ,berosus designates this same creature--,oannes 7,greek3 nns71 which may be explained as ,hoa-ana1 or the god ,hoa4 ,there are no means of strictly determining the precise meaning of the word in ,babylonian1 but it is perhaps allowable to connect it provisionally with the ,arabic ,hiya1 which is at once life and 'a serpent1' since1 according to the best authority1 'there are very strong grounds for connecting ,hea or ,hoa with the serpent of ,scripture1 and the paradisaical traditions of the tree of knowledge and the tree of life4' ,hoa occupies in the first triad the position which in the classical mythology is filled by ,poseidon or ,neptune1 and in some respects he corresponds to him4 ,he is 'the lord of the earth1' just as ,neptune is ,greek3 gaiochos2 he is the 'king of rivers1' and he comes from the sea to teach the ,babylonians1 but he is never called the 'lord of the sea4' ,that title belongs to ,nin or ,ninip4 ,hoa is the lord of the abyss or of 'the great deep1' which does not seem to be the sea1 but something distinct from it4 ,his most important titles are those which invest him with the character so prominently brought out in ,o and ,oannes1 of the god of science and knowledge4 ,he is 'the intelligent guide1' or1 according to another interpretation1 'the intelligent fish1' 'the teacher of mankind1' 'the lord of understanding4' ,one of his emblems is the 'wedge' or 'arrow-head1' the essential element of cuneiform writing1 which seems to be assigned to him as the inventor1 or at least the patron1 of the ,chaldan alphabet4 ,another is the serpent1 which occupies so conspicuous a place among the symbols of the gods on the black stones recording benefactions1 and which sometimes appears upon the cylinders4 ,this symbol here1 as elsewhere1 is emblematic of superhuman knowledge--a record of the primeval belief that 'the serpent was more subtle than any beast of the field4' ,the stellar name of ,hoa was ,kimmut4444 ,the monuments do not contain much evidence of the early worship of ,hoa4 ,his name appears on a very ancient stone tablet brought from ,mugheir 7,ur71 but otherwise his claim to be accounted one of the primeval gods must rest on the testimony of ,berosus and ,helladius1 who represent him as known to the first settlers4444 ,as ,kimmut1 ,hoa was also the father of ,nebo1 whose functions bear a general resemblance to his own4--,rawlinson's ,ancient ,monarchies1 i4 #aeb4aed #aed ,vide his other epithets1 infra1 p4 #bci2 also ,rawlinson 7,herod4 i4 p4 #fjj71 says that upon one of the tablets in the ,british ,museum there is a list of thirty-six synonyms indicating this god 7,hoa74 ,the greater part of them relate either to the abyss or to knowledge4 ,compare this with the following verses from the ,oracula ,sybillina1 i4 ver4 #ade-- ,collige1 ,no1 tuas vires 444 444 ,si scieris me ,divin te nulla rei secreta latebunt4 ,now1 without entering into the question of the authenticity of the ,sybilline verses1 ,i may at least quote them in evidence of the current tradition concerning ,noah in the second century of the ,christian era1 supposing them to have been forged at that period4 ,i have said that ,i shall not rely too much on the resemblance of name1 ,hoa2 but ,i must draw attention to the curious resemblance which lurks in the name ,as to the words upon which the ,vicomte ,d',anselme has founded an argument in the appended note4#aee #aee ,comment le nom du premier navigateur connu1 tel qu'il se pronona en ,hbreu et qu'il nous est transmis par la ,gnese1 ',noh1 ,naus1 ,noach1' serait-il devenu le nom d'une arche flottante1 d'un navire1 en ,sanscrit et en vingt autres langues8 ,nau1 sanscrit2 ,naw1 armenien2 ,naus1 grec2 7,navis1 latin72 ,noi1 hibernien2 ,neau1 bas breton2 ,nef1 nav4 franc2 ,noobh1 irlandais2 ,naone1 vanikoro2 ,nacho1 allemand vieux2 ,naw1 timor2 ,nachen1 allemand2 ,s'nechia1 islandais2 ,s'naeca ou ,naca1 anglo-sax42 ,s'nace1 ancien anglais2 ,sin-nau1 cambodge1 c4 ,enfin nous demandons comment le nom ,hbreu de l'arche de ,no4 ,tobe1 prononc comme on crivait gnralement en ,orient1 en sens inverse1 donne le nom d'un vaisseau dans vingt langues qui sont des dialectes du ,sanscrit8 ,l'criture boustrophedone1 qui fait les lignes alternativement droite et gauche sans interruption a pu donner naissance cette manire de lire3--,boat1 anglais2 boite1 franais2 bat1 anglo-saxon2 boot1 hollandais2 bat1 suedois1 baat1 danois2 batr1 islandais2 bad1 breton2 bote1 espagnol2 boar1 persan2 batillo1 italien2 pota1 sanscrit4 ,vide other similar proofs from ,vicomte d',anselme's ,monde ,paen1 c4 ,in ,gainet1 i4 #bbc1 a curious additional instance of the same word having connections with boat and arc 7tobe7 might be discovered in ,kibotos1 the name of a mountain in ,phrygia1 where the ark is said to have rested 7,gainet1 i4 #bbj74 ,also we have almost the same words--ark and arc--to express 7though according to a different etymology7 these dissimilar objects4 ,the words oar and rudder can be traced back to ,sanskrit1 and the name of the ship is identically the same in ,sanscrit 7naus1 nvas71 in ,latin 7navis71 in ,greek 7naus71 and in ,teutonic1 ,old ,high ,germ4 7nachs71 ,anglo-,saxon 7naca74--,max ,mller1 ,comp4 ,mythol41 p4 #di4 ,i may draw attention1 as having reference to other branches of this inquiry1 to a possible affinity with the name of the patriarch1 in the term ,noaaids1 applied by the ,laplanders to their magicians 7,pinkerton1 i4 #dei1 c472 and to the term ,koadernicks1 applied by the ,samoids to the same 7id4 #ecb74 ,i own there might be danger in pushing the inquiry further1 as ,i might even bring the patriarch ,noah into contact and connection with ,old ,nick6 ,i may also refer to the term ,janna 7,janus71 as applied to the officer who had the office of entertaining ambassadors at the court of ,kenghis ,khan 7id4 v4 #g1 p4 #dj2 ,rubruquis's ,embassy1 ,a4,d4 #abec1 also #ef74 ,in the above extract from ,rawlinson1 although ,hoa is said not to be the true fish-god1 yet he is called the intelligent fish1 and is associated with that mystic animal1 half man half fish1 which came up from the ,persian ,gulf to teach astronomy and letters to the first settlers on ,euphrates and ,tigris4 ,let us compare this information with the following ,history of the ,fish1 which the ,abb ,gainet1 i4 #aii1 has translated from the ,mahbhrata4 ,the same history has been translated from the ,bhagavad ,pourana by ,sir ,w4 ,jones 7,asiatic ,researches74 ,indeed1 as the ,abb ,gainet argues1 as this same history is found in all the religious poems of ,india1 there is a certain security that it would not have been taken from the ,hebrews4 ,i shall merely attempt to give the drift of the legend from the ,abb ,gainet's original translation of that portion of the ,matysia ,pourana which has reference to ,noah3-- ,the son of ,vaivaswata 7the sun7 was a king1 and a great sage1 a prince of men1 resembling ,pradjapati in eclat4 ,in his strength1 splendour1 prosperity1 and above all1 his penitence1 ,manou surpassed his father and his grandfather4#aef444 ,one day a small fish approached him1 and begged him to remove him from the water where he was1 'because the great fish always eat the little fish--it is our eternal condition4' ,manou complies1 and the fish promises eternal gratitude4 ,after several such migrations1 through the intervention of ,manou1 the fish at each removal increasing in bulk1 he is at length launched in the ocean4 ,the fish then holds this discourse with ,manou3--',soon1 oh blessed ,manou1 everything that is by nature fixed and stationary in the terrestrial world1 will undergo a general immersion and a complete dissolution4 ,this temporary immersion of the world is near at hand1 and therefore it is that ,i announce to you to-day what you ought to do for your safety4' ,he instructs him to build a strong and solid ship1 and to enter it with the seven richis or sages4#aeg ,he instructs him also to take with him all sorts of seeds1 according to certain ,brahminical indications4 ',and when you are in the vessel you will perceive me coming towards you1 oh well-beloved of the saints1 ,i will approach you with a horn on my head1 by which you will recognise me4' ,manou did all that was prescribed to him by the fish1 and the earth was submerged accordingly1 as he had predicted4 ',neither the earth1 nor the sky1 nor the intermediate space1 was visible2 all was water4' ',in the middle of the world thus submerged1 ,o ,prince of ,bharatidians1 were seen the seven richis or sages1 ,manou1 and the fish4 ,thus1 ,o ,king1 did this fish cause the vessel to sail' 7with a rope tied to its horn71 'for many years1 without wearying1 in this immensity of water4' ,at length the ship was dragged by the fish on to the highest point of the ,himalaya4 ',that is why the highest summit of the ,himaran 7,himalaya7 was called ,nanbundhanam1 or the place to which the ship was attached1 a name which it bears to this day--,sache cela1 ,o ,prince des ,bharatidians4' ,then le gracieux1 with placid gaze1 thus addressed the richis--',i am ,brahma1 the ancestor 7l'ancestre7 of all creatures4 ,no one is greater than ,i4 ,under the form of a fish ,i came to save you from the terrors of death4 ,from ,manou1 now1 shall all creatures1 with the gods1 the demons 7au souras71 and mankind1 be born4444 ,this is the ancient and celebrated history which bears the name of the ',history of the ,fish4'#aeh #aef ,comp4 ,traditions of the ,new ,zealanders4 #aeg ,do not the seven richis or sages correspond to the seven 7or eight7 7,phoenician7 ,kabiri4 7,there were seven or eight persons in the ark1 accordingly as we take separate account or not of ,noah47 ,as regards the ,kabiri1 their number 7seven or eight1 accordingly as we include sculapius7 must be the clue to the solution of the most obscure and mysterious question in mythology4 ,bunsen 7,egypt1 iv4 #bbi7 says of an astral explanation3--,it does not enable us to explain the details of those representations which do not contain the number seven 7or eight71 and1 in fact1 seven brothers4 ,it will suffice1 from our point of view1 if there are numerically seven persons4 ,bunsen 7iv4 p4 #bia7 says--,it is quite clear that the fundamental number of the gods in the oldest mythologies of ,phoenicia1 and all ,asia1 as well as ,egypt1 was seven4 ,there were seven ,kabiri1 with the seven ,titans4 ,there are also seven ,titans mentioned in other genealogies of the race of ,kronos4 ,of the latter1 one dies a virgin and disappears4 ,but as with the ,kabiri we have seen the number seven1 or eight1 accordingly as sculapius is included or not1 so 7vide p4 #cad7 we see the primitive gods of ,egypt either seven or eight1 accordingly as ,thoth1 the eighth1 or ,horus1 figure as the last divine king 7p4 #cai74 ,when ,horus so figures1 he is frequently represented as the eighth1 conducting the bark of the gods1 with the seven great gods1 c4 ,moreover1 it is elsewhere 7p4 #cdg7 said that the ,phoenicians1 in their sacred books1 stated that the ,kabiri embarked in ships1 and landed near ,mount ,kaison4 ,this legend was corroborated by the existence of a shrine on that coast in historic times4 ,query1 ,the tradition of the ,deluge localised1 and the shrine commemorative of that catastrophe 7vide ,boulanger1 c41 infra1 p4 #bdd72 and supposing that the tradition of the number saved in the ,flood had been preserved down to a certain date1 we should then expect that the number would become rigid and fixed4 ,but that if the tradition of the actual survivors had become indistinct1 what more natural than that the eight principal characters of ante-diluvian1 or even post-diluvian1 history should be substituted for them1 and that the same confusion and agglomeration of legend should take place as we shall see occurring in the tradition of ,noah8 ,in the ,persian or ,iranian legend of ,shh-nmeh1 the three sons of ,ferdn--,ireg1 ,tur1 and ,selm--are mentioned as their patriarchs1 and among them the whole earth was divided4 ,but in the more ancient ,gths there is mention of the seven-surfaced or seven-portioned earth4 ,query--apportioned by the eighth8 ,vide ,bunsen's ,egypt1 iii4 #dgh4 ,for the ,indian tradition compare the following from ,hunter's ,bengal 7i4 p4 #aea7--;,another coincidence--,i do not venture to call it an analogy--is to be found in the number of children born to the first pair4 ,as the ,santal legend immediately divides the human species into seven families1 so the ,sanscrit tradition assigns the propagation of our race after the flood to seven rishis4 ,i also find in ,f4 ,schlegel's ,philosophy of ,history 7p4 #aej1 ,robertson's trans47--,the ,indian traditions acknowledge and revere the succession of the first ancestors of mankind1 or the holy patriarchs of the primitive world1 under the name of the seven great rishis1 or sages of hoary antiquity1 though they invest their history with a cloud of fictions4 #aeh ,syncellus1 quoting ,berosus 7vide ,abb de ,tressan1 ,mythology1 p4 #aj71 says that ,oannes 7the mysterious fish1 vide ante7 left some writings upon the origin of the world4 ,these1 no doubt1 correspond to the ,liber ,noachi4 ,i do not disguise that this statement is probably derived from what is called the false ,berosus4 ,the reference1 however1 which ,i have made to these writings at p4 #aci may raise doubt whether they did not embody true traditions4 ,here we seem to see what looks like the commencement of the legendary origin of the fish symbol2 and here also we see it unmistakeably in connection with ,noah4 ,we have1 moreover1 seen the connection of ,hoa with the fish4#aei #aei ,i fancy it might be traced also in the ,phoenician fish-god1 ,dagon4 ,the ,saturday ,review 7,june #d1 #ahgj7 in its review of ,cox's ,mythology1 says--,dagon cannot be divided ,dag-on1 the fish ',on1' for a ,semitic syllable cannot begin with a vowel2 and if the necessary breathing 'aleph' were inserted 7which it is very unsafe to do71 it would then mean 'the fish of ,on1' which is not the signification required4 ,but it is the signification which would fit in here2 moreover1 might not the terminal aon1 or haon1 suggested1 have been originally1 i4e4 before displacement by boustrophedon--,noa or ,noah8 ,i give this suggestion with all proper diffidence1 and with some genuine misgiving as to the breathing aleph4 ,i find that ,bryant 7,mythology1 iii4 p4 #aaf7 makes a similar suggestion4 ,bunsen 7,egypt1 iv4 #bdc7 says--,dagon is ,dagan1 i4e4 corn4 ,this is also implied by the ,greek form of it--,sitn1 wheat-field 7comp4 p4 #bai74 ,we have in the ,bible1 ,dagon1 a god of the ,philistines1 a name usually supposed to be derived from 'dag1' fish2 the god has a human form ending in a fish1 like the fish-shaped goddess1 ,derketo-,atergatis4 ,it is clear1 from ,philo's own account1 that the ,phoenician ,poseidon was a god of this kind1 and it is difficult to find any other name for him4 ,yet we cannot say that ,dagon is very clearly explained4 ,here is a god of agriculture1 well authenticated1 both linguistically and documentally1 ,dagan1 i4e4 wheat1 and he is the ,zeus of agriculture4 ,vide p4 #bai4 ,p4 #bfa says ,dagon must not be confounded with ,dagan1 but without reconciling it with the above at p4 #bdc1 on the contrary1 we find ,dagon1 ,dagan corn 7the fish-man74 ,at p4 #bda1 quoting from the text of ,philo1 it is said still more pointedly--,dagon1 after he had discovered corn and the plough1 was called ,zeus ,arotnios4 ,comp4 p4 #bjd4 ,believing 7vide ch4 xii47 in the tradition of mythology1 even among savages1 ,i could not but be much struck on coming upon the following passage in ,roggeveen's voyage1 to find--in his account of the ,eastern ,islanders--the same conjunction of the bull and fish implied in the traditional names of their idols3--,the name of the largest idol was called ,taurico1 and the other ,dago2 at least1 these were the words they called to them by1 and wherewith they worshipped them4 ,these savages had great respect for the two idols1 ,taurico and ,dago1 and approached them with great reverence 444 and to supplicate for help against us1 and to call upon with a frightful shout and howling of ,dago6 ,dago6 7,historical ,account of ,voyages ,round the ,world1 #aggd1 i4 #dfi1 #dgj47 ,after showing the resemblance of a feast at ,argos to other commemorative feasts of the ,deluge1 ,boulanger 7vide infra1 i4 #hc7 says--,les ,argiens avoient encore une autre fte pendant laquelle ils prcipitoent dans un abme un agneau4444 ils toient arms de javelines1 ils appelloient ,bacchus au son des trompettes et l'invitoient semontrer hors de l'eau2 cette apparition n'arrivoit pas frquemment sans doute 7comp4 supra1 #aig1 and #bcg74 ,plutarque remarque que lors qu'ils prcipitoient l'agneau1 ils avoient soin de cacher leurs trompettes et leurs javelines4 ,nous ne prtendons point expliquer tous ces mystres4 ,is it that they feared1 with armed weapons in their hands1 to evoke the apparition of the old man whose conquests were all peaceful 7p4 #baf71 and who1 as ,manco ,capac 7p4 #cbf71 shut his ears when they spoke to him of war4 ,let us now turn to his reduplication1 as ,i conceive1 in ,nin1 or ,ninip1 who is said to be the true fish god4 ,his names1 ,bar and ,nin1 are respectively a ,semitic and a ,hamitic term1 signifying ',lord1' or ',master1' 7p4 #aff74 ,astronomically ,nin should be ,saturn4 ,however1 a set of epithets which seem to point to his stellar character are very difficult to reconcile with the notion that1 as a celestial luminary1 he was 7the dark and distant7 ,saturn4 ,we find him called1 the light of heaven and earth1 he who1 like the sun1 the light of the gods1 irradiates the nations4 ,all this is very difficult to reconcile with legends arising out of the simple worship of a celestial luminary1 but perfectly consistent with the supposition of the patriarch ,noah1 after deification1 being located in the planetary system4 ,the phrase1 he who1 like the sun1 the light of the gods1 irradiates the nations1 is perfectly applicable to him who1 as ,oannes1 we have ever regarded as the god of science and of knowledge2 and who taught astronomy and letters to the first settlers on the ,euphrates and ,tigris4 ,let us glance at the other epithets applied to ,nin in the inscriptions4 ,he is the lord of the brave1 the champion1 the warrior who subdues foes1 he who strengthens the hearts of his followers4 ,the ,scripture mentions the repeated assurances of the ,almighty to ,noah1 that there should not be another ,deluge2 and the above is in keeping with the tradition that the early inhabitants long hesitated to quit the mountains for the plains1 and only did so incited by the example of the patriarch4 ,the destroyer of enemies1 the reducer of the disobedient1 the exterminator of rebels1 he whose sword is good4 ,like ,nergal1 or ,mars1 he is a god of battle and the chase4 7,i shall refer later on to these warlike epithets as applied to ,noah47 ,at the same time he has qualities which seem wholly unconnected with any that have been hitherto mentioned4 ,he is the true fish-god of ,berosus1 and is figured as such in the ,scriptures4 7,i hope ,i may persuade some reader1 who may be interested in this inquiry1 to compare the figure of ,nin1 in ,rawlinson1 i4 #afg1 with figure #bc1 ,dupaix's ,new ,spain in ,lord ,kingsborough's ,mexico1 representing an emblematic figure with fish#afj 7as in the representation of ,nin7 over a human head1 which also has inverted tusks4 ,compare also with representations of ,neph1 associated with snake and ram's head1 and also with ,history of the ,fish1 supra1 p4 #aig47 ,to continue--in this point of view he 7,nin7 is called the god of the sea1 he who dwells in the deep2 and again1 somewhat curiously1 the opener of the aqueducts4 ,now1 as applied to ,noah1 this is not at all strange1 and corresponds to the ,scriptural phrase1 ,he opened the fountains of the deeps4 ,subsequently to deification we cannot be surprised to find all that was done by the ,almighty attributed to the individual to whom it was done2 as in ,prometheus we have a double legend of the ,creator1 who created man with the vital spark1 and of ,prometheus1 the man who was so created4 ,besides these epithets he has many of a more general character1 as 'the powerful chief1' 'the supreme1' 'the favourite of the gods1' 'the chief of the spirits1' and the like4 #afj ,this closely corresponds to the description of ,oannes given by ,sanchoniathon1 ,ap4 ,euseb4 7,bryant1 ii4 #cja71 i4e4 with two heads 7comp4 infra1 p4 #bbj71 the human head being placed below the head of a fish3--,greek3 alln kephaln hypokat ts tou ichthyos kephals4 ,i must1 moreover1 request attention to the following from ,rawlinson1 i4 #afh1--,nin's emblem in ,assyria is the man-bull1 the impersonation of strength and power4 ,he guards the palaces of the ,assyrian kings1 who reckon him their tutelary god1 and gives his name to their capital city4 ,we may conjecture that in ,babylonia his emblem was the sacred fish1 which is often seen in different forms upon the cylinders4#afa #afa ,vide similar traditions of the man-bull in ,india and ,japan4 ,bryant1 iii4 #ehi1 who adds1 ,we shall find hereafter that in this 7,parsee7 mythology there were two ancient personages represented under the same character1 and named ,l',homme ,taureau2 each of whom was looked upon as the father of mankind4 ,compare pp4 #aeh1 #ahi1 the two ,menus and the two ,osiris4 ,i turn to ,gainet1 i4 #aih1 and ,i find this legend concerning the man-bull from ,bertrand's ,dict4 des ,religions1 #ch1 i4 ii4#afb #afb ,the prayer used in the worship of ,dionysos at ,elis1 preserved by ,plutarch1 ended with ,greek3 ,axie ,taure--,axie ,taure1 worthy bull6 7vide ,bunsen's ,egypt1 iv4 #ddf47 ,compare p4 #bae with ,dionysius ,bacchus ,noah2 also of the three ,samothracian names of the ,kabiri--viz41 ,axieros1 ,axiokerse1 ,axiokersos4 ,bunsen says1 the syllable ,axi or ,axie which is found in all three1 cannot be anything but the ,greek word ',axios1' which was used in the worship of ,dionysos at ,elis 7id41 vide infra74 ,on this symbol of the bull in connection with ,noah and the ,ark vide ,bryant 7ii4 #daf1 et seq4 #dci74 ,he says1 ,every personage that had any connection with the history of the ,ark was described with some reference to this hieroglyphic 444 that the ,apis and ,mnenis 7,menes7 were both representations of an ancient personage is certain2 and who that personage was may be known from the account given of him by ,diodorus4 ,he speaks of him by the name of ,mnenes1 but confines his history to ,egypt1 as the history of ,saturn was limited to ,italy2 ,inachus and ,phoroneus to ,argos2 ,deucalion to ,thessaly 444 the same person who in ,crete was styled ,minos1 ,min-nous1 and whose city was ,min-,noa2 the same who was represented under the emblem of ,men-taur1 or ,mino-taurus 7,minotaur74 ,diodorus speaks of ,mnenes as the first lawgiver1 c41 c4444 ,mnenes or ,menes may embody traditions of ,noah and ,misraim1 as ,osiris does of ,adam and ,noah4 ,at p4 #dbb-dce plate1 we find ,menes represented as a bull with the sacred dove4444 ,plutarch 7,isis and ,osiris7 says the bulls1 ,apis and ,mnenes1 were sacred to ,osiris 444 and ,eustath4 7in ,dion4 v4 #cjh7 says of the ,tauric ,chersonese1 that the ,tauric nation was so named from the animal ,taurus or bull1 which was looked upon as a memorial of the great husbandman ,osiris1 who first taught agriculture1 and to whom was ascribed the invention of the plough4 444 ,lycophron 7v4 #bji and scholia7 says1 ,greek3 ,tauros1 ,greek3 ,dionysos4 ,plutarch says ,dionusus 7vide supra1 p4 #bjc7 was styled ,greek3 ,bougens1 or the offspring of a bull1 by the people of ,argos1 who used to invoke him as a resident of the sea1 and entreat him to come out of the waters4 ,the author of the ,orphic hymns calls him ,taurogenes4 ,greek3 ,taurogens ,dionysos euphrosunn pore ,thntois4 ,greek3 ,taurogens1 is precisely of the same purport as ,greek3 ,thbaigens ark-born1 and the words of this passage certainly mean that the ark-born deity ,dionusus restored peace and happiness to mortals4 ,noah's name in ,scripture signifies peace and consolation--,greek3 ,ne hebrasianapaysis 7rest71 ,hesychius4444 ,the title given to ,diana--viz4 ,taurione1 is remarkable1 for ,taurus was an emblem of the ,ark1 and by ,taurione was signified the arkite dove4 ,taurus1 and ione from ,greek3 ,oinas of the ,greeks1 and ,ionas of the eastern nations dove1 and curiously in an inscription in ,gruter1 ,diana is at the same time called ,regina undarum1 and decus nemorum 7,bryant1 ii4 #dcd74 ,the connection of ,diana1 ,juno1 and ,venus with the dove and rainbow is very striking1 but would lead to too long a digression4 ,so1 too1 would a discussion as to how ,noah or the ,ark 7secondarily7 came to be associated with the bull1 as a hieroglyphic4 ,compare the above with the ox-heads and bull dance in the ,mandan commemoration of the ,deluge1 infra1 ch4 xi4 ,d'aprs les livres ,parsis1 le souverain ,crateur sut que le mauvais gnie se disposait tenter l'homme4 ,il ne jugea pas propos de l'empcher par lui-mme2 il se contenta d'envoyer des anges pour veiller sur l'homme4 ,cependant le mal augmenta2 l'homme se perdit2 ,dieu envoya un ,deluge1 qui dura dix jours et dix nuits et dtruisit le genre humain4 ,l'apparition de ,kaioumons 7l'homme-taureau71 le premier homme1 y est aussi prcde de la creation d'une grande eau4 ,here1 in a confused tradition1 with ,adam--just as ,nin is confused with ,hercules and ,saturn--the man-bull is apparently associated with a great flood4 ,in the curious ,etruscan monument commemorative of the ,deluge--discovered in #afif--;and to which ,cardinal ,wiseman draws attention in his ,conferences 7vide ,gainet1 i4 #aij71 being a vase supposed to represent the ark1 and containing figures of twenty couples of 7#ab7 animals1 7#f7 birds1 7#b7 serpents1 c41 and several human figures represented in the act of escaping from an inundation1 there were also discovered certain signets and amulets4 ,these consisted of hands joined1 heads of oxen1 and olives4 ,now the olive in connection with the ,deluge will speak for itself1--the hands joined are the symbol of ,janus 7vide next chapter71 and heads of oxen--here unmistakably connected with the ,deluge--may also be conjectured to have allusion to the man-bull above referred to4 ,thus ,nin1 through both his emblems 7bull and fish71 is brought into contact with the ,noachic tradition4#afc ,it is also said 7,rawlinson1 i4 #agd7 of ,nergal1 vide supra1 who is clearly identified with ,nimrod1--,again1 if ,nergal is the man-lion1 his association in the buildings with the man-bull would be exactly parallel with the conjunction which we so constantly find between him and ,nin in the inscriptions4 #afc ,since writing the above ,i have found the following note in ,rawlinson's ,herodotus1 i4 #fbc1 on ,ninip3--,there is1 however1 another explanation of the name ,bar-sam or ,bur-shem1 of which some notice must be taken4 ,it has been already stated that if the ,noachid triad be compared with the ,assyrian1 ,ana will correspond with ,ham1 ,bel-,nimrod with ,shem1 and ,hoa with ,japhet4 ,the following passage1 also from ,rawlinson's ,herodotus1 i4 #fji1 appears to me valuable in proof of the transition from ancestral to solar worship1 or at least of their interfusion3--,the sun was probably named in ,babylonia both ,san and ,sanei1 before his title took the definite ,semitic form of ,shamas1 by which he is known in ,assyrian and in all the languages of that family4 ,now1 standing by itself1 this might not appear very significant2 but compare it with the following passages connecting ,ham with the sun3--,by the ,syrians the sun and heat were called 444 ,chamba2 by the ,persians1 ,hama2 and the temple of the sun1 the temple of ,ammon or ,hammon4 ,mr ,bryant shows that ,ham was esteemed the ,zeus of ,greece and the ,jupiter of ,latium4 ,mr ,g4 ,higgins' ,anacalypsis1 p4 #de4 ,bryant says1 the worship of ,ham1 or the sun1 as it was the most ancient1 so it was the most universal of any in the world4 ,these passages may possibly be so interpreted as to support a solar theory1 but is it not at least suspicious to see the name of the central luminary so apparently identified with historical characters whose memory is distinctly preserved aliunde in the traditions of their descendants8 ,compare ,nimrod1 ch4 viii4 #afd1 et seq4 ,it is true that the majority of the inscriptions1 p4 #afi1 assert that ,nin was the son of ,bel-,nimrod4 ,this may be referred to that tendency1 previously noted in ancient nations1 to place the ancestor with whom they were themselves identified at the head of every genealogy4 ,one inscription1 however1 makes ,bel-,nimrod the son of ,nin instead of his father4 ,nin1 in any case1 is unquestionably brought into close historical relationship with ,bel-,nimrod1 an historical character1 and we must1 in fine1 choose whether we shall admit him to be ,noah--to whom all the epithets would apply--or whether1 upon the more literal construction of the inscriptions1 we shall believe him to be some nameless son or successor of ,nimrod4 ,there is one god more in whom ,i fancy ,i see a counterpart of ,noah1 or at least a counterpart of ,hoa and ,nin--viz4 ,,nebo4 ,i base my conclusion upon the epithets applied to him in common with ,hoa and ,nin1 and inconsistently applied if1 according to the evidence1 p4 #agg1 mythologically he was a deity of no very great eminence1 but in no way conflicting with the supposition that he represented the tradition of ,noah1 the counterpart to the tradition of ,hoa and ,nin1 among some subordinate nationality1 and such appears to be the fact4 ,when ,nebo first appears in ,assyria1 it is as a foreign god1 whose worship is brought thither from ,babylonia1 p4 #agh4 ,of ,nebo it is said1 his name is the same or nearly so1 both in ,babylonian and ,assyrian1 and we may perhaps assign it a ,semitic derivation1 from the root 'nibbah1' to prophesy4 ,it is his special function to preside over knowledge and learning4 ,he is called 'the god who possesses intelligence'--'he who hears from afar'--'he who teaches1' or 'he who teaches and instructs4' ,in this point of view he of course approximates to ,hoa1 whose son he is called in some inscriptions1 and to whom he bears a general resemblance4 ,like ,hoa1 he is symbolised by the simple wedge or arrow-head1 the primary and essential element of cuneiform writing1 to mark his joint presidency with that god over writing and literature4 ,at the same time ,nebo has1 like so many of the ,chaldan gods1 a number of general titles1 implying divine powers1 which1 if they had belonged to him only1 would have seemed to prove him the supreme deity4 ,he is 'the lord of lords1 who has no equal in power1' 'the supreme chief1' 'the sustainer1' 'the supporter1' the 'ever ready1' 'the guardian over the heavens and the earth1' 'the lord of the constellations1' 'the holder of the sceptre of power1' 'he who grants to kings the sceptre of royalty for the governance of their people' 7,rawlinson1 i4 #agg74 ,there is just a possibility1 however1 that ,nebo may be ,sem or ,shem4 ,he would be the son of ,hoa as ,nebo was stated to be4 ,i think1 moreover1 a striking resemblance will be seen between the above epithets and the traditions concerning ,shem1 collected by ,calmet 7,dict4 ,sem47 ,the ,jews attribute to ,sem the theological tradition of the things which ,noah taught to the first men4444 ,they say that he is the same as ,melchisedek4444 ,in fine1 the ,hebrews believe that he taught men the law of justice1 the manner of counting the months and years1 and the intercalations of the months4 ,they pretend that ,god gave him the spirit of prophecy one hundred years after the ,deluge1 and that he continued to prophesy during four hundred years1 with little fruit among mankind1 who had become very corrupt4 ,methodius says that he remained in the isle of the sun1 that he invented astronomy1 and that he was the first king who ruled over the earth4#afd #afd ,rawlinson says that there is no doubt that ,nebo represents the planet ,mercury1 and between the attributes of ,mercury or ,hermes1 the epithets of ,nebo1 and the traditions concerning ,shem1 there is something in common4 ,he is the god of eloquence and persuasion--the god of alliances and peace4 ,he contributed to civilise the manners and cultivate the minds of the people4 ,he united them by commerce and good laws4 ,the ,egyptian ,mercury or ,thaut first invented landmarks4 ,finally1 ,he was consulted by the ,titans1 his relations1 as an augur1 which gave occasion to the poets to describe him as interpreter of the will of the gods4--,l',abbe de ,tressan1 ,mythology4 ,the difficulty1 however1 is in understanding how the worship of ,shem came to ,assyria from ,babylonia4 ,i can only reconcile it upon a theory that all idolatry came from ,babylonia1 i4e4 from the ,hamitic race4 ,there remains a difficulty which will doubtless occur to every one who has read the chapter in ,rawlinson to which ,i must acknowledge myself so much indebted1 and it is a difficulty which ,i ought1 perhaps1 to have dealt with before2 and that is1 that there is in the pages of ,rawlinson 7,i4 vii4 #ahd7 the most distinct identification of ,noah with ,xisuthrus4 ,of this there can be no doubt1 from his direct connection with the ,deluge1 the circumstances of which are perfectly recorded in the ,babylonian tradition4#afe ,this establishes the fact that the tradition of ,noah and the ,deluge was still among them when ,berosus wrote4 ,but if ,xisuthrus is ,noah1 then it may be said ,hoa1 ,oannes1 and ,nin cannot be ,noah4 ,it is a non sequitur1 but will still1 ,i fear1 be very influential with many4 ,it is difficult to understand the tendency to reduplication1 and still more difficult to realise how a tradition so clear and decided could be contemporaneous with other identical traditions so entangled and confused4 ,i believe this explanation to be that the account of ,xisuthrus was part of the esoteric tradition to which ,rawlinson refers1 and which was also the tradition of their learned men--,vixere fortes ante ,agamemnon2--and we cannot suppose that ,berosus 7of whom we should have known nothing if his works had not been preserved to us at third or fourth hand7 was the first chronicler of his nation4#aff #afe ,notwithstanding the difficulty of ascending to so distant a period1 there will always be found some traces by which truth may be discovered4444 ,the historian ,josephus relates that the ,chaldans from the earliest times carefully preserved the remembrance of past events by public inscriptions on their monuments4 ,he says they caused these annals to be written by the wisest men of their nation4--,l',abbe de ,tressan1 ,hist4 of ,heathen ,mythology4 ,london1 #ahjf4 #aff ,i had come to the above conclusion upon the perusal of ,rawlinson1 and before ,i had read ,bryant1 who1 ,i find1 had already come to this identical conclusion4 7,mythology1 iii4 #aji47 ,speaking of ,berosus' account of ,oannes and ,xisuthrus1 he says1 ,the latter was undoubtedly taken from the archives of the ,chaldans4 ,the former is allegorical and obscure1 and was copied from hieroglyphical representations which could not be precisely deciphered4444 ,in consequence of his borrowing from records so very different1 we find him1 without his being apprized of it1 giving two histories of the same person4 ,under the character of the man of the sea1 whose name was ,oannes1 we have an allegorical representation of the great patriarch2 whom in his other history he calls ,sisuthrus4 ,i shall pursue this inquiry into the classical mythology in the next chapter1 and then recapitulate the results as regards this inquiry4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,the ,,tradition ,,of ,,noah ,,and ,,the ,,deluge4 ,i now come to a different set of illustrations still more germane to my subject4 ,calmet says3--,plusieurs scavans out remarqu que les pagans ont confondu ,saturne1 ,deucalion1 ,ogyges1 le ,dieu ,coelus ou ,ouranus1 ,janus1 ,prothe1 ,promthe1 ,virtumnus1 ,bacchus1 ,osiris1 ,vadimon1 ,nisuthrus avec ,no4 ,i must add that this enumeration by no means exhausts the list4 ,it is not my purpose1 however1 to pursue the subject in all its ramifications4 ,i shall limit myself to the examination of one or two of these counterparts of ,noah4 99 99 99 99 99 ,i4 ,and in the first place1 ,him of mazy counsel1 ,saturn1 the expression of ,hesiod 7,greek3 t' ,iapeton te ide ,kronon agkylomtn71 ,hesiod4 ,theog4 v4 #ai1 which so well befits the intermediary between ,god and the survivors of the ,deluge4 ,under ,saturn1 as ,plutarch tells us1 was the golden age4 ,calmet says 7,dict4 ,saturne71 ,quant aux traits de ressemblance qui se trouvent entre ,no et ,saturne1 ils ne peuvent tre plus sensibles4#afg ,il 7,saturne7 est reprsent avec une faulx comme inventeur de l'agriculture#afh3 ,no est nomm 'vir agricola' 7,gen4 ix4 #bj7 et il est dit qu'il commena cultiver la terre4 ,les ,saturnales1 qu'on clbrait dans le vin et dans la licence et o les serviteurs s'galoient leurs maitres--marquent l'ivresse de ,no et sa maldiction qui assujettit ,chanaan ses frres tout gal qu'il leur toit par sa naissance4 ,i have little doubt that this ,bacchanalian recollection originated the tradition of the equality of conditions in the golden age1 contrary to the facts of ,scripture and history4 ,on disoit que ,no avait dvor tous ses enfans l'exception de ,jupiter1 de ,neptune1 et de ,pluton4 ,no vit prir dans les eaux du dluge tous les hommes de son temps dont plusieurs toient ses parents et plus jeunes que lui4 ,dans la stile de l'criture on dit souvent que l'on fait ce qu'on n'empche pas1 ou mme ce que l'on prdit4 ,further resemblances are traced in ,calmet4 #afg ,bochart also says 7,geog4 ,sacra1 lib4 i47 ,noam esse ,saturnum tam multa docent1 ut vix sit dubitandi locus4 #afh ,cum falce1 messis insigne4--,macrobius1 ,saturn4 ,now1 ,i find in ,sanchoniathon1#afi i4e4 in the most ancient ,phoenician historian1 a tradition running exactly parallel with this ,greek tradition as interpreted by ,calmet3--,ces genies1 ces sages1 ces dieux1 nous expliquent les autres dieux qui1 d'aprs ,berose1 forment l'homme du sang de ,blus1 et tous les dieux que ,sanchoniaton nous reprsente saisis d'pouvante la vue de ,saturne1 faisant prir par le dluge son fils ,sadid4--7,le ,peuple ,primitif2 ,rougemont1 i4 #cjc1 quoted by ,gainet1 iii4 #efa1 with reference to the worship of spirits47 ,i adduce it in evidence of the connection in tradition between ,saturn and the ,deluge1 and in corroboration of ,calmet's interpretation1 which clears the ,greek myth of what is grotesque and repulsive in it4 #afi ,sanchoniathon1 vide supra ,m',lennan 7ch4 vii47 ,if ,i have sufficiently identified ,saturn with ,noah and the period of the ,deluge1 the lines of ,virgil 7neid1 #hth ,book1 #cae71 besides bearing testimony in the same direction1 appear to me to acquire a new meaning and significance3-- ,primus ab therio venit ,saturnus ,olympo1 ,arma ,jovis fugiens1 et regnis exul ademptis1 ,is genus indocile1 ac dispersum montibus altis ,composuit2 legesque dedit2 ,latiumque vocari ,maluit4444 ,aurea1 qu perhibent1 illo sub rege fuerunt ,scula2 sed placid populos in pace regebat1 ,deterior donec paulatim ac discolor tas ,et belli rabies et amor successit habendi4#agj #agj ,bryant 7,mythology1 ii4 #bfa7 says3--,he is by ,lucian made to say of himself ,greek3 oudeis hyp' emou doulos n4 ,the ,latins in great measure confine his history to their own country1 where1 like ,janus1 he is represented as refining and modelling mankind1 and giving them laws4 ,at other times he is introduced as prior to law2 which are seeming contrarieties very easy to be reconciled4 ,there were traditions also of ,saturn in ,crete and ,sparta4--,bryant1 iii4 #dad4 ,allowing for the confusion incidental to the deification of ,noah in the person of ,saturn1 which necessitates his descent from heaven1 the rest of the verses seem merely to describe what is recorded in tradition1 if not implied in the scriptural narrative1 that ,noah1 a voyager and exile1 his possessions having been lost in the ,flood1 flying the wrath--not indeed as directed against himself1 but the consequences of the wrath of the ,almighty#aga--persuaded the survivors of the ,flood to abandon the mountains1 to which they clung in fear of a second ,deluge1 and brought them into the plains1 incited and encouraged by his example1--he who1 if he be the same 7vide supra1 #bjh1 #bji7 with ,nin and ,nebo1 we have seen called the sustainer1 the supporter1 he who strengthens the hearts of his followers1 who taught them the cultivation of the soil1 and of whom it is now said more distinctly than we have seen it heretofore stated1 legesque dedit4#agb #aga ,vide supra1 p4 #baa4 #agb ,an indirect argument in proof of the identity of ,saturn and ,noah might be adduced if ,i had space to incorporate ,boulanger's evidence of the ceremonies among the ancients' commemoration of the ,deluge1 7,vestiges d'usages hydrophoriques dans plusieurs ftes anciennes et modernes74 ,this being assumed1 is it not of some significance that when the ,roman pontiffs proceeded to the banks of the ,tiber to perform their annual 7commemorative7 ceremonial1 that they should make their expiatory sacrifices to ,saturn8 ,the points that ,bryant takes 7ii4 #bfb7 are very striking3--,he was looked upon as the author of time1 ',ipse qui auctor temporum' 7,macrob4 i4 #bad74 ,his medals had on the reverse the figure of a ship4 ,they represented him as of an uncommon age1 with hair white as snow2 they had a notion that he would return to second childhood4 ',ipsius autem canities primosis nivibus candicabat2 licet etiam ille puer posse fieri crederetur4'--,martianus ,capella4 ,martial's address to him1 though short1 has in it something remarkable1 for he speaks of him as a native of the former world-- ',antiqui rex magne poli1 mundique prioris1 ,sub quo prima quies1 nec labor ullus erat4'--l4 #ab1 ,e4 #fc4 ,i have mentioned that he was supposed1 ,greek3 katapinein1 to have swallowed up his children2 he was also said to have ruined all things2 which1 however1 were restored with a vast increase4--,orphic ,hymn1 #ab1 v4 #c4 ,compare ,calmet1 supra1 pp4 #baa and #bab4 ,martianus ,capella and ,varro de ,ling4 ,lat4 lib4 i4 #ah1 call him ,sator1 a sower1 ,saturnus ,sator4 ,now it is curious that the ancient ,germans had a god of the name of ,sator4 ,he is described by ,verstegan as standing upon a fish1 with a wheel in one hand1 and in the other a vessel of water filled with fruits and flowers4 ,n4,b4--,i was surprised to find in ,carver's ,travels in ,north ,america 7p4 #bhb7 the phrase among the ,north ,american ,indians1 of things being done at the instigation of the ,grand ,sautor4 ,there is no doubt much that is monstrous and grotesque in the classical conception of ,saturn1 but ,i must again suggest that as all traditions met in ,noah1 and were tradited through him1 we must not be surprised to find all antediluvian traditions confused in ,noah4 ,thus even the tradition of ,lamech1 which we have seen 7vide supra1 #agh7 variously distorted in the legends of ,perseus and ,o,edipus1 are again repeated in the legends of ,saturn4 ,there are1 no doubt1 also divers astral complications arising out of ,saturn's place in the planetary system4 ,when1 however1 we are told that ,saturn was son of ,coelus and ,tellus or ,coelus and ,vesta1#agc the same as ,terra 7,montfauon71 it seems to occur to us1 as a thing qui saute aux yeux1 that this was only a mode of expressing a truth1 applicable to all men in general1 and ,saturn as a primal progenitor in particular1 and having reference to the composite nature of man2 in other words1 that this was simply the tradition which ,noah would have handed down that he was created1#agd as were all other men1 out of the earth1 yet with something ethereal in his composition which came direct from the ,deity4 ,what the astral explanation may be ,i am at a loss to imagine4 ,it cannot by any possibility be supposed to have reference to their relative positions in the heavens4 #agc ,saturn is by ,plato supposed to have been the son of ,oceanus4--,bryant1 ii4 #bfa4 #agd ,vide ,autochthones1 ch4 vii4 ,i shall return to ,saturn1 under the representation of ,oceanus1 when ,i come to speak of ,janus4 ,,ii4 ,bacchus4--,the ,saturnalia may be taken as the connecting link between ,saturn and ,bacchus1 and ,i think that it is sufficiently remarkable that there should be this link of connection4 ,but as the legends of ,saturn are not all derived from ,noah1 so neither do all the traditions concerning ,bacchus appertain to ,saturn4 ,i shall simply separate and note such as appear to me to be in common1 e4g4 that ,bacchus found out the making of wine1 the art of planting trees1 and many things else commodious for mankind4 ,and ,noah1 a husbandman1 began to till the ground1 and planted a vineyard1 and drinking the wine was made drunk1 ,gen4 ix4 #bj4age ,it is said there were several ,bacchuses4 ,this may be only a reduplication1 such as we have seen in the case of ,oannes1 ,nin1 and ,nebo1 or as in the multiplications of ,jupiter4 ,joves omnes reges vocarunt antiqui4#agf #age ,the ,scriptures tell us that ,noah cultivated the vine2 and all profane historians agree in placing ,bacchus in the first ages of the world 7in proof of early cultivation of the vine74--,goguet1 ,origin of ,laws1 i4 #aaf4 ,compare supra1 p4 #bac1 ,saturnus ,sator4 ,bryant says1 ,the history of ,dionusus is closely connected with that of ,bacchus1 though they are two distinct persons4 ,he supposes ,dionusus to be ,noah1 and ,bacchus ,ham4 ,but he may very well have embodied the traditions of both4 ,pausanius 7lib4 iii4 #bgb7 says ,dionusus was exposed in an ark and wonderfully preserved4 ,he was also said to have been twice born1 and to have had two fathers and two mothers1 in allusion to the two periods of his existence separated by the ,deluge4 ,dionusus 7,orphic ,hymn1 #dd1 #a7 is addressed as ,greek3 elthe1 makar ,dionyse1 pyrispore tauroumetpe4 #agf ,the phrase ,father ,bacchus1 current among the ancients 7vide ,hor4 ,odes4 i4 xviii47 has always struck me as singular4 ,it is perfectly congruous with the tradition of ,noah2 but who will tell us its appropriate solar or astral application8 ,on this subject ,montfauon says 7i4 #aee7agg apropos of a point to which ,i shall again refer1 viz4 that ,bacchus was ,tauricornis4 ,diodorus ,siculus says that the horns are only ascribed to the second ,bacchus1 the son of ,jupiter and ,proserpine2 but these distinctions of various ,bacchus were minded only in the more ancient times1 hardly known in their worship4444 ,this will also hold good of most of the other gods who were multiplied in the same manner4 #agg ,montfauon1 from whom ,i have quoted1 was simply an antiquarian--a very erudite and laborious antiquarian1 but one whose sole concern was to discriminate facts without reference to their bearings1 and who would have had1 ,i have little doubt1 a supreme contempt for the speculations in which ,i have indulged4 ,he says in his preface--,i have a due regard for those great men who have excelled in this sort of learning1 but must own at the same time ,i have no taste for it4444 ,it signifies very little to us to know whether they who tell us ,vulcan was the same with ,tubalcain1 or they who say he was the same with ,moses1 make the best guess in the matter4 ,though the general opinion may not incline any more now than then to the biblical interpretation1 yet ,i think a great change has taken place in public opinion as to the importance of the inquiry4 ,triptolemus was also said to have been the inventor of the plough and of agriculture1 and of civilisation1 which is the result of it1 and to have instituted the ,elusinian mysteries4 ,like ,bacchus he is also said to have ridden all over the earth1 making men acquainted with the blessings of agriculture4--,smith4 ,myth4 ,dict42 vide also infra1 p4 #bbd3 ,deucalion4 ,vicomte d',anselme 7,gainet1 i4 #bbd71 asks with reference to his ,greek name of ,dionysius1 ,pourquoi les ,grecs donnaient-ils le nom de ,dionysos ou de divin ,noush 7dios nous ou ,no7 l'inventeur du vin8--,vide supra1 ch4 ix42 vide also ,gainet1 i4 #bbe4 ,bacchus is by some called ,tauricornis 7compare supra1 p4 #bjc1 ,nin7 or ,bucornis1 and moreover he is frequently so represented1 7i4e4 not only with the horn in hand1 a bull's horn1 as he is sometimes1 which might be a drinking horn or cornucopia1 in its way emblematical of the vir agricola71 but also with horns on the head4 ,horace calls him ,bicorniger1 ,orpheus1 ,greek3 ,boukers2 ,nicander1 ,greek3 ,taurokers4--,montfauon1 i4 #adg1 #aee2 comp4 p4 #bjd1 note to ,nin4 ,one ,bacchus1 ,cicero tells us1 was ,king of ,asia and author of the ,laws called ,subazian4--,montfauon1 i4 #add4 ,it is1 moreover1 said that ,bacchus travelled through all nations as far as ,india1#agh doing good in all places1 and teaching many things profitable to the life of man4 ,his conquests are said to have been easy and without bloodshed4 ,but it is also noted that amidst his benevolence to mankind1 he was relentless in punishing all want of respect for his divinity1 and indeed the conduct and punishment of ,chanaan may be said to be narrated in the history of ,pentheus4--,vide ,montf4 i4 #afa4agi #agh ,dionusus like ,bacchus came to ,india from the west4--,philostratus1 lib4 ii4 #fd2 ,byrant1 ii4 #gh4 ,the ,indian ,bacchus appears in the character of a wise and distinguished oriental monarch2 his features an expression of sublime tranquillity and mildness4--,smith1 ,myth4 ,dic4 #agi ,this appears to me still more apparent in the #bfth ,idyll of ,theocritus1 where1 when the ,bacchanals were at their revels1 ,perched on the sheer cliff ,pentheus would espy ,all4444 7,for profaning thus these mysteries weird that must not be profaned by vulgar eyes1 ,pentheus is torn to pieces by the ,bacchanals74444 ,warned by this tale1 let no man dare defy ,great ,bacchus2 lest a death more awful should he die4 ,and when he counts nine years or scarcely ten ,rush to his ruin4 ,may ,i pass my days ,uprightly1 and be loved by upright men4 ,and take this motto1 all who covet praise 7',twas gis-bearing ,jove that spoke it first71 ,the godly seed fares well1 the wicked is accurst4 --,caverley's ,theocritus1 xxvi4 ,this seems to bear out what is perhaps only vaguely implied in the sacred text that the curse was on ,chanaan--the boy and his posterity--and not on the whole race of ,cham4--,vide ante3 also compare the ,bacch of ,euripides1 in the following passage from ,grote's ,plato 7iii4 #ccc73--,so in the ',bacch' of ,euripides1 the two old men1 ,kadmus and ,teiresias1 after vainly attempting to inculcate upon ,pentheus the belief in and the worship of ,dionysus1 at last appeal to his prudence and admonish him of the danger of unbelief2 which1 if it be tradition1 would look as if ,chanaan's offence was only the final and overt expression of previous unbelief4 ,,iii4 ,janus4--,janus represented the most ancient tradition of ,noah in ,italy2 subsequent migrations brought in the legend of ,saturn1 and thus we find them variously confounded--,saturn sometimes figuring as his guest1 sometimes as his son1 sometimes as his colleague on the throne4 ,like ,saturn he appears as double-headed or bifrons1 he is said to have introduced civilisation among the wild tribes of ,italy1 and under him1 as under ,saturn1 there appears to have been a golden age4 ,i have made reference to ,saturn as ,oceanus 7vide ,montfauon1 i4 #e71 and as ,oceanus his representations are very remarkable4 ,in one he appears as an old man sitting on the waves of the sea1 with a sea monster on one side of him1 and his spear or rod in his hand4 ,in another as sitting on the waves of the sea with ships about him2 he is holding an urn and pours out water1 the symbol of the sea1 and also of rivers and fountains4 ,but ,janus is also represented in his medals with a prow of a ship on the reverse1 and he is said to have first invented crowns1 ships1 and boats1 and to have coined the first money4 ,according to the accounts of mythologists1 says ,macrobius1 all families in the time of ,janus were full of religion and holiness4 ,xenon says he was the first that built temples and instituted sacred rites1 and was therefore always mentioned at the beginning of sacrifices4 ,with reference to his description as bifrons1 ,macrobius says 7some say7 he was so called because he knew the past and future things4444 ,some pretend to prove that ,janus is the ,sun1 and that he is represented with two faces1 because he is master of the two doors#ahj of heaven1 and opens the day at his rising and shuts it at his setting4 #ahj ,vide ,dr ,smith's ,myth4 ,dict4 art4 ,janus3--,whereas the worship of ,janus was introduced at ,rome by ,romulus1 that of ,sol was instituted by ,titus ,tatius4 ,a good secondary explanation is1#aha that as ,janus always began the year 7whence ,january7 the two heads do look on and import the old and new year2 but then occurs the question--and this is why ,i submit that it is only a secondary explanation--how came ,janus to commence the year8 #aha ,if ,janus is allowed to have been identified with ,saturn 7supra7 we may see through the analogy of ,saturn how these secondary functions came to be attributed to him--,saturn was also ,chronos that ,chronos ,noah1 vide ,palmer's ,egypt4 ,chron41 i4 p4 #fj2 but1 as ,dr ,smith says1 there is no resemblance between the deities1 except that both were regarded as the most ancient deities in their respective countries4 ,as ,chronos simply personifies antiquity itself1 this only means that ,saturn was the most ancient deity4 ,when subsequently he became merged in ,chronos1 his ancient sickle became converted into a scythe4 ,dr ,smith 7,dict4 ,myth47 says1 ,he held in his hand a crooked pruning knife1 and his feet were surrounded with a woollen riband2 and ,goguet 7,origin of ,laws1 i4 #id7 says1 ,all old traditions speak of the sickle of ,saturn1 who is said to have taught the people of his time to cultivate the earth4--,plut4 i4 p4 #b1 #bge2 ,macrob4 ,sat41 lib4 i4 #bag4 ,goguet 7,origin of ,laws1 i4 #bhc7 says1 ,several critics are of opinion that the ,janus of the ancients is the same with ,javan the son of ,japhet1 ,gen4 x4 #c4 ,it may afford a clue if ,i advert to the circumstance that whilst in the ,phoenician alphabet 7vide ,bunsen's ,egypt4 iv4 #bij1 #bic1 #big71 ,dagon1 ,dagan ,corn 7the ,fish-man1 vide supra1 p4 #bjj71 stands for the letter ,d4 ,the door is its hieroglyphic equivalent4 ,thus we get in strange juxtaposition what we may call symbols1 connecting ,janus with the ,fish-god and with the god of agriculture4--,vide supra1 p4 #bjj1 and infra4 ,in the nomenclature of the calendar connected with any system of hero worship1 worship of ancestors1 or even spirit worship1 who more fitly chosen to commence the year than ,janus1 supposing him to be ,noah8 ,there are1 however1 two what we may call primary explanations1 and we must take our choice4 ,the epithet is either applied to him1 as exactly according with the reminiscence of ,noah1 who was pre-eminently acquainted with the past and the future2 or we can take the astral explanation that ,janus was called ,bifrons1#ahb because he opened the sun at his rising and shut it at his setting4 ,as a symbol of ,noah this double head appears to me very simple and natural1 ,noah forming the connecting link between the antediluvian and modern worlds2 but as applied to the ,sun or to ,janus as in relation to the ,sun1 even allowing for personification1 this twofold head of man strikes me as incongruous in the extreme4 ,besides1 if it be allowed that it might apply to ,saturn and ,janus through the connecting idea of ,chronos1 how does it apply to ,bacchus8 ,let us press this argument further4 ,here is a symbol common to ,bacchus1 ,saturn1 and ,janus1 and combining harmoniously in each instance with the representation of ,noah4 ,can this symbol1 common to these three1 combine even congruously with any solar or astral legend8 ,i have somewhere seen it noted as suspicious and as tending to confirm the solar theory that these mythological personages all journey from east to west1 and meet their fate in the evening4 ,but is this so8 ,have we not just seen that ,bacchus1 according to mythology1 travelled from the west into ,india8 #ahb ,bryant 7,mythology1 ii4 #bed7 says1 ,many persons of great learning have not scrupled to determine that ,noah and ,janus were the same4 ,by ,plutarch he is called ,greek3 ,iannos1 and represented as an ancient prince who reigned in the infancy of the world4444 ,he was represented with two faces1 with which he looked both forwards and backwards2 and from hence he had the name of ,janus ,bifrons4 ,one of these faces was that of an aged man2 but in the other was often to be seen the countenance of a young and beautiful personage4 ,about him 444 many emblems4444 ,there was particularly a staff in one hand1 with which he pointed to a rock1 from whence issued a profusion of water4 ,in the other hand he held a key4444 ,he had generally near him some resemblance of a ship4444 ,plutarch does not accede to the common notion 7that it was the ship that brought ,saturn to ,italy71 but still makes it a question why the coins of this personage bore on one side the resemblance of ,janus ,bifrons1 and on the other the representation of either the hind part or the fore part of a ship4444 ,he is said to have first composed a chaplet1 and to him they attributed the invention of a ship4 ,upon the ,sicilian coins 7at the temple7 of ,eryx his figure often occurs with a twofold countenance1 and on the reverse is a dove encircled with a crown1 which seems to be of olive4 ,he is represented as a just man and a prophet 7comp4 pp4 #bjg-bjh71 and had the remarkable characteristics of being in a manner the author of time and the god of the year4 ,but not only were ,saturn1 ,janus1 and ,bacchus represented as bifrons1 but so also was ,cecrops4 ,cecrops will present a difficulty the more in the way of any solar theory2 but ,cecrops1#ahc like all founders or supposed founders of states1 has something in common with ,noah4 ,like ,saturn and ,janus in ,italy1 ,cecrops was said to have brought the population of ,attica into cities1 to have given them laws1 taught them the worship of the idols1 planted the olive1 and finally1 was represented as half man1 half serpent4#ahd #ahc ,megasthenes stated that the first king 7of ,india7 was ,dionysus4 ,he found a rude population in a savage state1 clothed in skins1 unacquainted with agriculture1 and without fixed habitations4 ,the length of his reign is not given4 ,the introduction of civilization and agriculture is a natural allusion to the immigration of the ,aryans into a country inhabited by ,turanian races4444 ,fifteen generations after ,dionysus1 ,hercules reigned4444 ,now all this is obviously pure ,indian tradition4 ,dionysus is the elder ,manu1 the divine primeval man1 son of the ,sun 7,vivasvat74 ,he holds the same position in the primeval history of ,india as does ,jima or ,gemshid1 another name of the primeval man in the ,iranian world4444 ,the first era1 then1 is represented by ,megasthenes as having fourteen generations of human kings1 with a god as the founder and a god as the destroyer of the dynasty1 in all fifteen or sixteen generations4--,bunsen's ,egypt1 iii4 #ebh4 ,compare those fifteen generations with ,palmer4 ,compare the confusion of ,dionysus and ,hercules with ,deucalion and ,prometheus1 c41 p4 #bcb4 ,pelasgus among the ,arcadians passed for the first man and the first legislator 7,boulanger1 i4 #acc74 ,of ,cadmus1 too1 it is said--,greece is indebted to him for alphabetical writing1 the art of cultivating the vine1 and the forging and working of metals4--,goguet1 ii4 #da4 #ahd ,vide supra1 ,oannes1 ch4 ix42 vide ,smith1 ,myth4 ,dict4 ,to return to ,janus4 ,before concluding ,i must note that ,janus is called ,eanus by ,cicero1 which may perhaps have analogy with ,hea and ,hoa 7ch4 ix471 and with ,eannes and ,oannes1 although ,cicero derives it from eundo4 ,janus was also called consivius a conserendo1 because he presided over generation1 a title singularly appropriate to ,noah as the second founder of the race1 and through whom the injunction was given to increase and multiply4#ahe ,he is moreover called ,quirinus or ,martialis1 because he presided over war1 which is precisely the aspect under which it is the original and main purpose of this dissertation to consider ,noah2 and here ,i think ,i am entitled to urge1 that if ,i have succeeded on other grounds in showing that ,nin1 ,hoa1 ,janus1 c41 represented ,noah1 then that these epithets1 ,quirinus1 ,martialis1 ,king of ,battle1 c41 can only be applied to him whose conquests were bloodless in the sense of controlling and regulating war4#ahf ,in connection with this title of ,martialis1 as applied to ,janus--and1 by the by1 all the traditions concerning him are altogether peaceful and bloodless--it will be remembered that his temple was open in war and shut in peace1 and closed for the third and last time at the moment of the birth of our ,lord4 #ahe ,all nations have given the honour of the discovery of agriculture to their first sovereigns4 ,the ,egyptians said that ,osiris 7vide supra1 p4 #bjd7 made men desist from eating each other1 by teaching them to cultivate the earth4 ,the ,chinese annals relate that ,gin-,hoang1 one of the first kings of that country1 invented agriculture1 and by that means collected men into society1 who before had wandered in the fields and woods like brute beasts4 7,goguet1 ,origin of ,laws47 ,i need not remind the reader that ,goguet's learned work is not written from our point of view4 ,compare infra1 p4 #bdj4 #ahf ,vide1 chap4 xiii4 ,golden age1 ,mexican tradition4 ,his name was also invoked first in religious ceremonies1 because1 as presiding over armies1 c41 through him only could prayers reach the immortal gods4 ,is not this a reminiscence of the communications of the ,almighty to man through ,noah8 ,,iv4 ,ogyges and ,deucalion4--,i might pass over these traditions of ,noah1 since1 having reference only to the fact of the ,deluge and the personality of ,noah1 they will not furnish matter for the special purpose of this inquiry2 but on these grounds the investigation may be justified1 and moreover seems necessary1 for the completion of this chapter1 and to indicate the independent source and derivation of the classical tradition4 ,it appears to me manifest that the deluges of ,ogyges and ,deucalion were neither locally historical nor partial deluges1 but merely the reminiscences of the universal ,deluge4 ,of the universal ,deluge1 whether we call it the ,mosaic ,deluge or not1 there is evidence and tradition in all parts of the world2 though in every instance it is localised in its details and its history of the survivors4#ahg #ahg ,although the greater number of these traditions have been localised1 yet in almost every case we shall find embodied in them some one incident or other of the universal ,deluge1 as recorded by ,moses4 ,kalisch 7,hist4 and ,crit4 ,commentary on the ,old ,testament7 says3--,it is unnecessary to observe that there is scarcely a single feature in the biblical account which is not discovered in one or several of the heathen traditions2 and the coincidences are not limited to desultory details1 they extend to the whole outlines1 and the very tenor and spirit of the narrative2 444 and it is certain that none of these accounts are derived from the pages of the ,bible--they are independent of each other4444 ,there must indisputably have been a common basis1 a universal source1 and this source is the general tradition of primitive generations4 ,it is not1 ,i think1 generally known how widespread these traditions are4 ,l',abb ,gainet has collected some thirty-five 7,la ,bible sans la ,bible72 but ,mr ,catlin 7vide infra1 p4 #bde7 says he found the tradition of a deluge among one hundred and twenty tribes which he visited in ,north1 ,south1 and ,central ,america4 ,this accords with ,humboldt's testimony 7,kalisch1 i4 #bjd71 who found the tradition of a general deluge vividly entertained among the wild tribes peopling the regions of ,orinoco4 ,to these ,i must add the evidence of the indirect testimony of the commemorative ceremonies which ,i have collected in another chapter 7vide p4 #bdb74 ,it has been said that the ,chinese tradition is too obscure to be adduced1 but we shall see 7p4 #fe7 whether1 when in contact with other traditions1 it cannot be made to give light2 and ,i shall refer my readers to the pages of ,mr ,palmer 7supra1 p4 #ga7 for evidence of the tradition in ,egypt1 where it had heretofore been believed that no such evidence was to be found4 ,in ,india 7vide ch4 ix47 the tradition is embodied in the history of ,manu and the fish2 and ,bunsen 7,egypt1 iii4 #dgj7 admits that there is evidence in the ,vedas1 however slight1 that the flood does form a part of the reminiscences of ,iran4 ,vide also p4 #fh1 evidence of the tradition in ,cashmere4 ,i wish also to direct attention here to two recent and important testimonies to the existence of the tradition in ,india and the ,himalayan range4 ,at pp4 #aea and #dej of ,hunter's ,bengal1 it will be seen that the ,santals have a distinct tradition of the ,creation1 flood1 intoxication of ,noah1 and the dispersion2 and of the ,vedic evidence1 which ,bunsen 7supra1 #bbc7 calls slight1 ,mr ,hunter says3--,on the other hand1 the ,sanscrit story of the ,deluge1 like that in the ,pentateuch1 makes no mystery of the matter4 ,a ship is built1 seeds are taken on board1 the ship is pulled about for some time by a fish1 and at last gets on shore upon a peak of the ,himalayas4 ,dr ,hooker 7,himalayan ,journal1 ii4 #c7 says3--,the ,lepchas have a curious legend of a man and woman having saved themselves on the summit of ,tendong 7a very fine mountain1 #hfac feet7 during a flood which once deluged ,sikhim1 which he authenticates on the spot4 ,here1 as in many of ,mr ,catlin's instances of local tradition1 ,i may observe that the event as recorded proves the universality of the ,deluge for the rest of the world1 or at least all the world below the level of ,tendong4 ,in speaking1 however1 of the universal ,deluge 7universal as far as the human race are concerned71 ,i do not enter into the geological argument1 or exclude the view 7permissible ,i believe1 vide ,reusch1 p4 #cfh1 and note to ,rev4 ,h4 ,j4 ,coleridge's fourth sermon on ,the ,latter ,days7 that it was not geographically universal4 ,i merely adhere to the testimony of tradition1 and from this point of view it would suffice 7vide ,reusch7 that it was universal so far as the horizon of the survivors extended4 ,since1 however1 there is nothing to be said against the possibility of subsequent partial inundations1 there will1 ,i suppose1 always be found persons ready to maintain that the deluges of ,ogyges and ,deucalion were partial and historical2 although ,i submit that the arguments which were formerly used to prove the priority of ,ogyges to ,deucalion1 and the posteriority of both to the general ,deluge1 turned upon points of chronology which will hardly be sustained at the present day4 ,if1 however1 ,i can succeed in showing that the deluge of ,deucalion is identical with the deluge of ,noah1 ,i shall consider that ,i shall have also proved the point for the deluge of ,ogyges1 which all agree to have been much older6 ,the following is ,mr ,grote's narrative collating the different traditions respecting the deluge of ,deucalion3-- ,deukalion is important in ,grecian mythical narration under two points of view4 ,first1 he is the person specially saved at the time of the general deluge2 next1 he is the father of ,helln1 the great eponym of the ,hellenic race2 at least that was the more current story1 though there were other statements which made ,helln the son of ,zeus4 ,this was merely the incipient process of the apotheosis of their more immediate founder4 ,the enormous iniquity with which the earth was contaminated1 as ,apollodorus says1 by the then existing brazen race1 or1 as others say1 by the fifty monstrous sons of ,sykorn1 provoked ,zeus to send a general deluge4 ,the latter account is given by ,dionys4 ,halic4 i4 #ag2 the former seems to have been given by ,hellenikus1 who affirmed that the ark after the ,deluge stopped upon ,mount ,othrys1 and not upon ,mount ,parnassus 7,schol4 ,pind4 ut supra71 the former being suitable for a settlement in ,thessaly4 ,i have already pointed out how the general tradition is everywhere localised4 ,an unremitting and terrible rain laid the whole of ,greece under water except the highest mountain-tops1 where a few stragglers found refuge4 ,deukalion was saved in a chest or ark1 which he had been forewarned by his father ,prometheus to construct4 ,after he had floated for nine days on the water1 he at length landed on the summit of ,mount ,parnassus4 ,zeus hearing1 sent ,hermes to him1 promising to grant whatever he asked4 ,he prayed that men and companions might be sent him in his solitude3 accordingly ,zeus directed both him and ,pyrrha to cast stones over their heads1 those cast by ,pyrrha became women1 those by ,deukalion men4 ,and thus the 'stony race of men' 7if we may be allowed to translate an etymology which the ,greek language presents exactly1 and which has not been disdained by ,hesiod1 by ,pindar1 by ,epicharmes1 and by ,virgil71 came to tenant the soil of ,greece4 ,deukalion on landing from the ark sacrificed a grateful offering to ,zeus ,phyxios1 or the ,god of ,escape2 he also erected altars in ,thessaly to the twelve great gods of ,olympus4 ,the reality of this deluge was firmly believed throughout the historical ages of ,greece 7localising it1 however1 and post-dating it to #aebh ,b4,c47 ,statements founded upon this event were in circulation throughout ,greece even to a very late date4 ,the ,magarians 444 and in the magnificent temple of the ,olympian ,zeus at ,athens1 a cavity in the earth was shown1 through which it was affirmed that the water of the ,deluge had retired4 ,even in the time of ,pausanias the priests poured into this cavity holy offerings of meal and honey4 ,in this1 as in other parts of ,greece1 the idea of the ,deukalionian deluge was blended with the religious impressions of the people1 and commemorated by their most sacred ceremonies4--,grote's ,history of ,greece1 vol4 i4 ch4 v4 #acb1 #acc1 ,the ,deluge4#ahh #ahh ,mr ,grote certainly says--,apollodorus connects this deluge with the wickedness of the brazen race in ,hesiod1 according to the practice general with the logographers of stringing together a sequence out of legends totally unconnected with each other4 ,one would have thought in one's simplicity that if any two legends linked well together1 uniting in common agreement with the scriptural account1 it would be the legends of the ,deluge and the brazen age4 ,mr ,max ,mller 7comp4 ,myth41 ,chips41 ii4 #ab71 incidentally speaking of the legend of ,deucalion1 treats it with great contempt4 ,what is more ridiculous1 he says1 than the mythological account of the creation of the human race by ,deucalion and ,pyrrha throwing stones behind them 7a myth which owes its origin to a mere pun on ,greek3 laos and ,greek3 laas74 ,and ridiculous it certainly is from any point of view from which ,mr ,max ,mller could regard it1 i4e4 either as the invention of a mythic period1 or as a fugitive allegory arising out of some astral or solar legend3 per contra1 ,i shall submit that there is nothing forced in supposing that this legend arose out of some one of the processes of corruption to which all tradition is prone1 of the known fact that the human race was re-propagated by ,deucalion or ,noah4#ahi ,if ,i am asked to explain how it came about that there should have been this identity between the word for a man and a stone1 ,i must simply confess my ignorance4 ,perhaps if ,mr ,max ,mller could be brought to look at things more from the point of view of biblical traditions1 he might be enabled to see it4 ,all that ,i can suggest is1 that perhaps it may have a common origin with that ,homeric expression quoted by ,mr ,max ,mller at p4 #age 7vide supra71 ,thou art not sprung from the olden tree or from the rock4 ,i consider that ,i shall definitely establish1 however1 that it originates in a tradition and not a mere pun1 and at any rate that it is not local1 it is not ,greek4 ,it is no doubt singular that the word for man1 ,greek3 laos1 populus1 should so closely resemble the word for a stone1 ,greek3 laas2 but not only is this coincidence found in the ,greek1 but we shall see that it is widely spread in all parts of the world4 ,in proof1 ,i adduce the following extract from ,dr ,hooker's inaugural lecture at ,norwich in #ahfh1 7since the publication of ,mr ,max ,mller's work73-- ,it is a curious fact that the ,khasian word for a stone1 'man1' as commonly occurs in the names of their villages and places as that of man1 maen1 and men does in those of ,brittany1 ,wales1 ,cornwall1 c42 thus ,mansmai signifies in ,khasia the ,stone of ,oath2 ,manloo1 the ,stone of ,salt2 ,manflong1 the ,grassy ,stone2 and just as in ,wales ,pen mn maur signifies the ,hill of the ,big ,stone2 and in ,britanny a ,menhir is a standing stone1 and a ,dolmen a table stone1 c4#aij #ahi ,let the significance of the following coincidence be considered in connection with the evidence at p4 #bdd1 ,boulanger1 ,ces ftes 7,atheniasmes1 ',anthisteries'7 avoient pour objet une commmoration 7of the ,deluge7 et l'on en attribuoit la fondation ,deucalion2 elles toient aussi consacres ,bacchus1 ce qui les a fait nomms les anciennes ou les grandes ,bacchanales4--,comp4 ch4 xi4 p4 #bdd1 also supra1 #bac4 #aij ,it is the fashion to deride ,bryant's etymology1 and no doubt he did not write in the light of modern science2 but ,i find 7,mythology1 iii4 #ecd7 that he had already given this information4 ,main1 from whence moenia1 signified in the primitive language a stone1 or stones1 and also a building4 ,here it is seen that the word for stone in these respective places is the same with our word man2 it is not specifically said that the word would carry this sense also in the places indicated1 but ,i infer it from the analogy which runs through homo1 homme1 and by a connection of ideas through the ,greek ,greek3 mos to the ,sanscrit--thus ma-ad 7,greek3 mos-ed71 are names applied in the ,sanscrit to barbarians who are cannibals4 7,max ,mller1 ii4 p4 #dd47 ,and ,i am not sure that ,mr ,max ,mller does not say so directly1 in reference to the word ,brahman1 for although the word originally is said to mean power 7i4 #cfc71 yet another word with the accent on the last syllable1 is ,brahmn1 the man who prays4--,max ,mller1 i4 #gb4aia ,also ,kenrick 7,essay on ,primval ,history1 p4 #ei71 ,thus the ,hindus attribute the origin of their institutions and race to ,manu1 whose name is equivalent to man4 ,the ,germans made ,tuisto 7,teutsch7 and his son ,mannus to be the origin and founder of their nation4 ,also ,sir ,w4 ,jones' ,asiat4 ,res4 i4 #bcj2 ,rawlinson's ,bamp4 ,lect4 lect4 ii4 #fg3--;,from ,manu the earth was re-peopled1 and from him mankind received their name ,manudsha4 ,gainet 7i4 #agj7 says3--,the stones changed then into men by ,deucalion and ,pyrrha1 are they not their children according to nature8 ,in ,syriac the word ',eben' signifies equally a child and a stone4 ,in spite of these confusions their accounts of the ,deluge are striking as well on account of their resemblance1 as on account of their universality1 as the reader will soon be able to convince himself4--,vide ,gainet1 i4 #afg4aib #aia ,mr ,max ,mller1 in his ,lectures on the ,science of ,language1 first series1 says of ,man3--,the ,latin word 'homo1' the ,french 'l'homme' 444 is derived from the same root1 which we have in 'humus1' soil1 'humilis1' humble4 ,homo1 therefore1 would express the idea of being made of the dust of the earth4444 ,there is a third name for man4444 ',ma1' in the ,sanscrit1 means to measure4444 ',man1' a derivative root1 means to think4 ,from this we have the ,sanscrit ',manu1' originally thinker1 then man4 ,in the later ,sanscrit we find derivations such as ',mnava1 ,mnasha1 ,manushya1' all expressing man4 ,in ,gothic we find both 'man1' and ',maunisk1' the modern ,german 'maun1' and 'mensch4' ,there were many more names for man1 as there were many names for all things in ancient language4 ,as an instance of the correspondence of ,old ,egyptian and ,welsh1 ,bunsen's ,philosophy of ,univ4 ,hist41 i4 #afi1 gives ,egyptian1 'man' rockstone2 ,welsh1 'maen2' ,irish1 'main' 7coll4 ,latin1 'moenia2' ,hebrew1 'e-ben'74 ,and 7p4 #gh7 ,bunsen says--,the divine ,mannus1 the ancestor of the ,germans1 is absolutely identical with ,manus1 who1 according to ancient ,indian mythology1 is the ,god who created man anew after the ,deluge1 just as ,deucalion did4 #aib ,the ,saturday ,review1 ,nov4 #ad1 #ahfh 7reviewing ,the ,indian ,tribes of ,guiana1 by the ,rev4 ,w4 ,brett71 says of the ,indian traditions3--,the 'old people's stories' of the creation and the deluge are highly characteristic4444 ,under the rule of ,sigu1 son of ,maikonaima1 the tree of life was planted1 in whose stem were pent up the whole of the waters which were to be let forth by measure to stock every river and lake with fish4 ,twarrika1 the mischievous monkey1 forced open the magic cover which kept down the waters1 and the next minute was swept away with all things living by the bursting flood4 ,the re-peopling of the world1 as described by the ,tamanacs of the ,orinoco recalls the legend of ,deucalion4 ,one man and one woman took refuge on the mountain ,tamanacu4 ,they then threw over their heads the fruits of the ,mauritia 7or ,ita7 palm1 from the kernel of which sprang men and women who once more peopled the earth4 ,but if the whole human race were re-propagated by ,deucalion and ,pyrrha1 how are we to locate the anterior legend of ,ogyges1 occurring among the same people8 ,it is barely possible that the memory of a long antecedent and partial deluge may have remained in the memories of the survivors of the subsequent and universal calamity1 but the much more reasonable conjecture seems to be that it was by a different channel the reminiscence of the same event4 ,it must be remembered that it was the ,ogygian deluge which was said to have been partial and to have inundated ,attica4 ,the deluge of ,deucalion by all accounts1 except by ,pindar1 was considered to have been universal1 and corresponds in its details with ,mosaic accounts1 e4g4 it was universal1 covering the tops of the highest mountains2 it was caused by the depravity of mankind2 the single pair who were saved1 were saved in a ship or an ark1 and floated many days on the waters4 ,in the end1 they settled on the top of a mountain1 went to consult the oracle 7as ,noah is said to have sacrificed and to have had communications with ,god71 and re-peopled the earth4 ,the version of ,lucian gives particulars which brings the tradition to almost exact correspondence4 ,deucalion and his wife were saved 7on account of their rectitude and piety7 together with his sons and their wives4 ,he was accompanied into the ark by the pigs1 horses1 lions1 and serpents1 who came to him in pairs4 ,if the account of ,lucian is somewhat recent1 on the other hand it is the account of a professed scoffer1 and moreover1 shows what ,i do not remember to have seen noted from this point of view that the tradition was common to ,syria as well as ,greece4 ,this brings us to the contrary1 but1 as it appears to me1 much less formidable objection--bearing in mind that the tradition of the ,deluge is common to ,mexico1 ,india1 ,china1 the islands of the ,pacific1 c4 c4--viz4 that the tradition came to ,greece from ,asia4 ,this is ,mr ,kenrick's objection#aic 7vide ,preface to ,grote's ,history of ,greece1 #b;d ed47 ,the most direct1 and1 as it appears to me1 sufficient answer1 seems to be that it was necessarily so2 since1 ex hypothesi1 the population itself came to ,greece from ,asia4 ,mr ,kenrick says1 ,it is doubtful whether the tradition of ,deucalion's flood is older than the time when the intercourse with ,greece began to be frequent1 i4e4 about the fifth century ,b4,c4 7p4 #ca47 ,but as the ,septuagint1 according to ,mr ,kenrick himself1 could not have influenced ,greece till the third century1 this tradition can only have been the primeval tradition4 ,mr ,kenrick is a fair opponent1 and ,i must do him the justice to add that he repudiates the ,voltairean suggestion that this tradition originated in a ,hebrew invention4 ,if then the inhabitants of ,greece1 who came originally from ,asia1 had not the tradition1 or had it imperfectly1 when they arrived1 it can only have been because they had lost it2 but as admittedly they recovered it at a later period1 the presumption1 even on this showing1 is1 at least for those who can realise how difficult it would be to make a pure fiction1 as distinguished from a corrupt tradition1 run current1 more especially among different nationalities and during a lengthened period1--that when circumstances brought them again into contact with ,asia1 they added fresh incidents1 only because they found the tradition fresher there than among themselves4 ,voila tout6 for ,mr ,kenrick's whole argument depends entirely upon this--that as we reach the time when the ,greeks enjoyed more extensive and leisurely communication with ,asia1 through the conquests of ,alexander 444 we find new circumstances introduced into the story which assimilates it more closely to the ,asiatic tradition4 #aic ,essay on ,primval ,history4 ,it has been allowed 7vide supra7 that the tradition of ,deucalion is as old as the fifth century ,b4,c41 and1 not to speak of the deluge of ,ogyges1 connected with what was earliest in ,grecian history1 the following passage from ,kenrick seems to me in evidence of long antecedent traditions among the ,greeks themselves1 which they must have brought with them originally from ,asia4#aid #aid ,according to the calculations of ,varro1 the deluge of ,ogyges occurred #djj years before ,inachus1 i4e4 #afjj years before the first ,olympiad1 which would bring it to #bcgf years before the ,christian era2 now1 according to the ,hebrew text1 the ,deluge of ,noah took place #bcdi ,b4,c41 which makes only a difference of #bg years4 ,it is true that many other authors have reconciled these epochs4 ,hesiod and ,homer are silent on the subject of both ,deucalion and ,ogyges4444 ,it results from these considerations that the traditions of the ancient nations of the world confirm the narrative of ,genesis1 not only as to the existence1 but even as to the epoch1 of this catastrophe as fixed by ,moses4 ,mersius 7apud ,gronovium1 iv4 #ajbc7 cites more than twenty ancient authors who speak of ,ogyges as appertaining in their eyes to what was most primitive in ,greece4 ,he is son of ,neptune4 ,he is the first founder of the kingdom of ,thebes4 ,servius represents him as coming immediately after ,saturn and the golden age which directly connects ,noah with ,saturn1 and the golden age with ,noah4 ,hesychius says of ,ogyges that he represented all that was most ancient in ,greece4 ,that1 indeed1 passed into a proverb2 they said1 'old as ,ogyges1' as if they said1 'old as ,adam' 7,gainet1 i4 #bbi74 ,mr ,kenrick says 7p4 #ca73-- ,the account of ,deucalion1 given by ,apollodorus 7i4 #g1 #b71 bears evident marks of being compounded of two fables originally distinct1 in one of which1 and probably the older1 the descent of the ,hellenes was traced through ,deucalion to ,prometheus and ,pandora1 without mention of a deluge4 ,in the other1 the destruction of the brazen race by a flood1 the re-peopling the earth by the casting of stones1 is related in the common way4 ,that these two narratives cannot originally have belonged to the same myths is evident from their incongruity2 for as mankind were created by ,prometheus1 the father of ,deucalion1 there was no time for them to have passed through those stages of degeneracy by which they reached the depravity of the brazen age4 ,here are evidently two early traditions1 ostensibly ,greek1 distinct1 it is true1 yet perfectly compatible4 ,the one the tradition of ,grecian descent through ,noah to ,adam and ,eve1 the other the tradition of the ,deluge4 ,but after what we have already seen 7vide supra1 pp4 #aeg1 #aeh7 of reduplications and inversions1 can a serious argument be based upon the expression that ,deucalion 7,noah7 was the son of ,prometheus 7,adam78#aie ,is it not a most natural and inevitable faon-de-parler to connect the descendant directly and immediately with his remote ancestor1 e4g4 ,fils de ,st ,louis--fils de ,louis ,capet--montez au ciel6 #aie ,in the same way we find ,mentuhotep1 or ,sesortasen ,i4 named1 when all other ancestors are omitted1 as the sole connecting link between ,amosis 7xviii4 dynasty7 and ,menes4 ,vide ,palmer's ,egyptian ,chronicles1 i4 #che4 ,so1 too1 are ,fohi 7whom ,i believe to be ,adam7 and ,shin-nong 7,noah7 connected and linked together in ,chinese chronology4 ,i4 ,fohi the great ,brilliant 7,tai-hao71 cultivation of astronomy and religion as well as writing4 ,he reigned #aaj years4 ,then came fifteen reigns4 ,,ii4 ,shin-nong 7divine husbandman74 ,institution of agriculture compare ante1 ch4 x4 ,the knowledge of simples applied as the art of medicine4--,bunsen's ,egypt1 iii4 #chc1 chap4 on ,chinese ,chronology4 ,vide ante1 #fa2 chap4 on ,tradition1 p4 #abi2 ,prometheus4 ,i do not of course attempt1 within this narrow compass1 to grasp ,mr ,kenrick's entire view4 ,i am merely dealing with the special argument2 but it is curious to note how the line of reasoning adopted by ,mr ,kenrick1 whilst it sustains the ,greek traditions1 as traditions 7though not ,greek71 unconsciously neutralises the arguments which would dispose of the testimonies derived from them1 by saying that they were not traditions of a general1 but of a local and a partial deluge4 ,these latter arguments appear to have had weight with one against whom ,i hardly venture to run counter1 ,frederick ,schlegel 7,phil4 of ,hist4 p4 #gi7--,the irruption of the ,black ,sea into the ,thracian ,bosphorus is regarded by very competent judges in such matters as an event perfectly historical1 or at least1 from its proximity to the historical times1 as not comparatively of so primitive a date4 ,compare with passage from ,mr ,kenrick4#aif ,schlegel adds3--,all these great physical changes are not necessarily and exclusively to be ascribed to the last general ,deluge4 ,the presumed irruption of the ,mediterranean into the ocean1 as well as many other mere partial revolutions in the earth and sea1 may have occurred much later1 and quite apart from this great event 7p4 #gi74 ,but it may also have occurred much earlier1 as is clear from the following passage from ,schlegel1 to which ,i wish to direct the attention of geologists1 and in which ,schlegel speaks according to the original insight of his own mind1 and not in deference to the opinions of others3-- ,these words 7'the earth was without form and void1 and darkness was upon the face of the deep2 but the ,spirit of ,god moved upon the face of the waters1' ,gen4 x471 which announce the presage of a new morn of ,creation1 not only represent a darker and wilder state of the globe1 but very clearly show the element of water to be still in predominant force4 ,even the division of the elements1 of the waters above the firmament1 and of the waters below it1 on the second day of creation1 the permanent limitation of the sea for the formation and visible appearance of the dry land1 necessarily imply a mighty revolution in the earth1 and afford additional proof that the ,mosaic history speaks not only of one but of many catastrophes of nature1 a circumstance that has not been near enough attended to in the geological interpretation and illustration of the ,bible4--,schlegel1 p4 #hb4 #aif ,kenrick 7p4 #cg7 says3--,the fact of traces of the action of water at a higher level in ancient times on these shores is unquestionable2 under the name of raised beaches such phenomena are familiar to geologists on many coasts2 but that the tradition 7in ,samothrace7 was produced by speculation on its cause1 not by an obscure recollection of its occurrence1 is also clear2 for it has been shown by physical proofs that a discharge of the waters of the ,euxine 7,black ,sea7 would not cause such a deluge as the tradition supposed 7,cuvier1 ,disc4 sur les ,revolutions du ,globe1 ed4 #ahbf74 ,if these speculations were made at the commencement of ,grecian history1 and the speculations had reference to evidence of diluvian disruption along the highway by which they passed into ,greece1 should we not expect that theories of the violent rather than the gentler and gradual action of water would dominate in their geological tradition8 ,colonel ,george ,greenwood1 in ,rain and ,rivers1 p4 #b1 says on the contrary--7with reference to the theory that valleys are formed by 'rain and rivers'7--,there is1 perhaps1 no creed of man which1 like this1 can be traced up to the most remote antiquity1 and traced down from the most remote antiquity to the present day4 ,lyell has himself quoted ,pythagoras for it1 through the medium of ,ovid3-- ',eluvie mons est deductus in quor ,quodquo fuit campus vallem decursus aquarum ,fecit4' ,but ,pythagoras only enunciates the doctrine of ,eastern antiquity2 that is1 of the ,egyptians1 the ,chaldans1 and the ,hindoos4 ,but since ,pythagoras introduced this doctrine in the ,west1 if it has ever slumbered1 it has perpetually re-originated4 ,lyell shows that among the ,greeks it was taught by ,aristotle2 among the ,romans by ,strabo2 among the ,saracens by ,avicenna2 in ,italy by ,moro1 ,geneselli1 and ,targioni2 and in ,england by ,ray1 ,hutton1 and ,playfair4--,rain and ,rivers1 by ,col4 ,george ,greenwood4 ,longmans1 #ahff4 #b;d edit4 ,the point that is material to this discussion is to decide whether or not those disruptions in ,thrace are historical and subsequent to the ,deluge4 ,now1 here ,mr ,kenrick's main theory1 that speculation is the source of tradition1 comes in with fatal effect to dispose of the arguments ,i am combating1 and yet in no way at this point militates against the view ,i am urging1 that these supposed inundations were localisations of the tradition of the general ,deluge which the ,pelasgi brought with them from ,asia4 ,mr ,kenrick says 7p4 #cf73-- ,it was a ,greek3 logos1 a popular legend1 among the ,greeks1 that ,thessaly had once been a lake1 and that ,neptune had opened a passage for the waters through the vale of ,tempe 7,herod4 #g1 #abi74 ,the occupation of the banks of the rivers of this district by the ,pelasgi tribes1 which must have been subsequent to the opening of the gorge1 is the earliest fact in ,greek history1 and the 'logos' itself no doubt originated in a very simple speculation4 ,the sight of a narrow gorge1 the sole outlet of the waters of a whole district1 naturally suggests the idea of its having once been closed1 and1 as the necessary consequence1 the inundation of the whole region which it now serves to drain4 ,now1 if this reasoning is just1 it seems to establish two things pretty conclusively3 ,first1 ,that the current legend among the ,greeks was not the tradition of a local deluge2 but1 if not a reminiscence1 was at any rate the observation of the evidences of a deluge previous to their arrival4 ,moreover1 the deluge of their tradition exceeding the actual facts is in evidence of their recollection of an event adequate to such effects4 ,second1 ,that the tradition1 if it arose out of a speculation1 must have arisen out of a speculation made in the earliest commencement of ,greek history4 ,it is difficult to reconcile the latter conclusion with ,mr ,kenrick's view that the tradition was imported from ,asia in the fifth century ,b4,c4 ,it is impossible to reconcile the former with the acceptation of a local and historical inundation in the time of the ,ogyges and ,deucalion of popular history4 ,this digression on the legend of ,deucalion has led me away from what is properly the subject-matter of this inquiry2 and ,i therefore propose now to summarise the results of the last two chapters4 ,to pursue the tradition of ,noah in all its ramifications would extend the inquiry beyond the scope which is necessary for the purposes of my argument4 ,it will have been seen1 ,i think1 that my object has not been merely antiquarian research4 ,i have sought to bring into prominence the reminiscences of ,noah1 which recall him at any rate as the depository of the traditions1 if not the expositor of the science of mankind1 as the channel1 if not the fountain-head1 of law1 which thus became the law of nations--as the intermediary through whom the communications of the ,most ,high passed to mankind1 and under whose authority mankind held together during some three hundred years4#aig #aig ,gen4 vi4 #ah2 viii4 #ae2 vi4 #ac2 ix4 #h2 viii4 #bj2 ix4 #bj2 and ,ecclesiasticus xliv4 #a1 #c1 #d1 #ai1 ,the covenants of the world were made with ,him4 ,let me collect more directly and more fully the epithets in this sense which are dispersed in the above traditions4 ,we have seen that ,calmet properly identifies ,saturn with ,noah2 that according to ,virgil and ,plutarch under ,saturn was the golden age2 ,saturn of whom ,hesiod says3--,him of mazy counsel1 ,saturn2 that in the tradition1 as we see it in ,virgil1 he is described as bringing his scattered people into social life1 and the noticeable phrase is used legesque dedit2#aih that in ,bacchus1 directly connected with ,saturn through the ,saturnalia1 we also see much in his characteristics in common with ,saturn1 all which equally identifies him with ,noah2 and ,bacchus1 as we are told by ,cicero1 was the author of the laws called ,subazian4#aii ,in ,janus1 too1 we find great resemblances to ,saturn1 and in the very respects which would identify him with ,noah4 ,under ,janus as under ,saturn was the golden age1 and it is added that in the time of ,janus1 all families were full of religion and holiness1 and although his rule is described as singularly peaceful1 he is called ,quirinus and ,martialis1 as presiding over war4 ,the closing and opening of his temple1 too1 had a conspicuous and direct connection with peace and war4 #aih ,i feel justified in bringing in attestation also the following verses of the ,oracula ,sybillina1 for1 as ,i have already said1 even if they be forgeries of the second century ,a4,d41 they at any rate represent the tradition at that date 7i4 v4 #bgj73-- ,no fidelis amans qui servata periclis ,egredere audenter1 simul et cum conjuge nati ,tresque nurus3 et vos terr loca vasta replete1 ,crescite multiplice numero1 sacrataque jura ,tradite natorum natis4444 ,hinc nova progenies hinc tas aurea prima ,exorta est hominum4444 444 ast illo se tempore regia primum ,imperia ostendent terris quum foedere facto ,tres justi reges1 divisis partibus quis1 ,sceptra diu populis imponent sanctaque tradent ,jura viris4444 ,compare also the following verses 7,orac4 ,sybil1 i4 #ade7 with the ,vedic tradition 7infra1 p4 #bch7 of the promise made to ,satiavrata1 and the ,babylonian tradition respecting ,hoa 7infra73 444 ,collige1 ,no1 tuas vires 444 444 ,si scieris me ,divin te nulla rei secreta latebunt4 #aii ,i only instance this as evidence that laws of some sort were attributed to ,bacchus1 whom the traditions also speak of as ,king of ,asia3 to judge of these laws by what we know of the ,subazian mysteries1 would be as if we were to form our opinion of the ,mandan ceremonies 7vide infra1 ch4 xi47 by the last day's orgies only4 ,in this matter we may say with ,cicero1 ,de ,legibus1 ii4 #ag--,omnia tum perditorum civium scelere 444 religionum jura polluta sunt4 ,if we turn back to the mythological prototypes in ,assyria we find him as ,hoa in connection with the mystic animal1 half-man half-fish1 which came up from the ,persian ,gulf to teach astronomy and letters to the first settlers on the ,euphrates and ,tigris1 himself known to the first settlers2 he is called the intelligent guide1 or1 according to another interpretation1 the intelligent fish1 the teacher of mankind1 the lord of understanding2 one of his emblems is the wedge or arrow-head1 the essential emblem of cuneiform writing1 which seems to be assigned to him as the inventor1 or at least the patron of the ,chaldan alphabet4 ,in the ,vedic tradition as ,satiavrata 7vide ,rawlinson's ,bampton ,lect41 lect4 ii4 #fg71 having been saved from the destroying waves in a large vessel sent from heaven for his use--which he entered accompanied by pairs of all brute animals--he is thus addressed1 ,then shalt thou know my true greatness1 rightly named the ,supreme ,godhead2 by my favour all thy questions shall be answered and thy mind abundantly instructed2 and it is added that after the deluge had abated1 ,satiavrata was instructed in all human and divine knowledge4 ,in fine1 if we recognise him as ,hoa1 we shall find his benefactions to mankind thus summed up in ,berosus4 7,vide the original in ,rawlinson's ,ancient ,monarchies1 i4 #aed47bjj #bjj ,layard 7,nineveh and ,babylon1 p4 #cdc7 says1 ,we can scarcely hesitate to identify this mythic form 7at ,kosyundik7 with the ,oannes or sacred man-fish1 who1 according to the traditions preserved by ,berosus1 issued from the ,erethran sea1 instructed the ,chaldans in all wisdom1 in the sciences and the fine arts1 and was afterwards worshipped as a god in the temples of ,babylonia4444 ,five such monsters rose from the ,persian ,gulf at fabulous intervals of time 7,cory's ,fragments1 p4 #cj74 ,it has been conjectured that this myth denotes the conquest of ,chalda at some remote and pre-historic period by a comparatively civilised nation coming in ships to the mouth of the ,euphrates4444 ,the ,dagon of the ,philistines and of the inhabitants of the ,phoenician coast was worshipped1 according to the united opinion of the ,hebrew commentators on the ,bible1 under the same form4 ,the five apparitions at long intervals may have been the confusion of the previous revelations to the patriarchs with those made to ,noah--or they may be reduplications 7vide supra1 p4 #aeg74 ,he is said to have transmitted to mankind the knowledge of grammar and mathematics1 and of all the arts1 of the polity of cities1 the construction and dedication of temples1 the introduction of laws 7,greek3 kai nomn eisgseis72 to have taught them geometry1 and to have shown them by example the modes of sowing the seed and gathering the fruits of the earth1 the vir agricola of ,genesis1 and along with them to have tradited all the secrets which tend to humanise life4 ,and no one else at that time was found more super-eminent than he4--,vide ,rawlinson1 i4 #aee4 ,we have seen that he was known to the first settlers on the ,euphrates and ,tigris4 ,the ,abb de ,tressan says1 ,berosus begins his history with these words3--,in the first year appeared this extraordinary man 7,oannes74 ,now1 with the early settlers on the ,euphrates and ,tigris the commencement of all things would have been naturally dated from the ,deluge4 ,it appears to me worth while1 in conclusion1 to place more succinctly before the reader the identical terms in which the ancients 7various authors7 spoke of the first founders of states or their earliest progenitor--compelling the conclusion that allusion was made to one and the same individual and epoch4 ,bryant 7,myth4 ii4 #bec7 says that ,noah was represented as ,thoth1 ,hermes1 ,menes1 ,osiris1 ,zeuth1 ,atlas1 ,phoroneus1 and ,prometheus1 c4 c4 ,there are none wherein his history is delineated more plainly1 than in those of ,saturn and ,janus4 ,these ,i will now omit1 as we have just seen them to be identical--and so too ,bacchus1 who equally with them plants the vine1 teaches them to sow1 and gives them laws4 ,phoroneus1 an ancient poet quoted by ,clemens ,alex4 7i4 #chj7 calls him the first of mortals1 ,greek3 phyroneus patr thntn anthrpn4 ,the first deluge took place under ,phoroneus3 ,he was also the first who built an altar4 ,he first collected men together and formed them into petty communities4--,pausanias1 lib4 #b1 #ade4 ,he first gave laws and distributed justice4--,syncellus1 #fg1 #abe4 ,they ascribed to him the distribution of mankind1 idem nationes distribuit 7,hyginus' ,fab4 #adc71 which is a circumstance very remarkable4 ,poseidon's epithets connected with the ark are very striking 7,bryant1 ii4 #bfi1 ,deucalion1 vide ante1 p4 #bcb72 but he is also said 7,apollon4 ,rhod4 lib4 #c1 v4 #ajhe7 to have been the first man through whom religious rites were renewed1 cities built1 and civil polity established in the world4 ,cecrops 7vide ante1 p4 #bbj71 the identical terms are used4 ,myrmidon1 a person of great justice4 ,he is said to have collected people together1 humanised mankind1 enacted laws1 and first established civil polity4--,scholia in ,pindar1 ,ode #c1 v4 #ba4 ,cadmus1 vide ante1 p4 #bba4 ,pelasgus also is described as equally a benefactor to mankind1 and instructed them in many arts4--,pausanias1 #h1 #eii4 ,he is said to have built the first temple to the deity dem ,jovi ,olympis primum fecit ,pelasgus4--,hyginus' ,fab4 #bbe1 #cdf4 ,bryant says1 ,i have taken notice that as ,noah was said to have been ,greek3 hanthrpos gs1 a man of the earth--this characteristic is observable in every history of the primitive persons2 and they are represented as ',greek3 nomioi1' ',greek3 agrioi'1 and ',greek3 ggeneis4' ,pelasgus accordingly had this title 7schy4 ,supplicants1 v4 #bej71 and it is particularly mentioned of him that he was the first husbandman4 ,pelasgus first found out all that is necessary for the cultivation of the ground4--,schol4 in ,eurip4 ,orestes1 v4 #icj4 ,osiris4--,the account of ,osiris in ,diodorus ,siculus is exactly similar4 ,he travels into all countries like ,bacchus4 ,he builds cities2 and although represented as at the head of an army1 is described with the muses and sciences in his retinue4 ,in every region he instructed the people in planting1 sowing1 and other useful acts4--,tibullus1 i4 ,e4 #h1 v4 #bi4 ,he particularly introduced the vine1 and when that was not adapted to the soil1 the use of ferment and wine of barley4 ,he first built temples1 and was a lawgiver and king 7,diod4 ,sic474--,bryant1 ii4 #fj4 ,chin-nong 7vide also ,bunsen1 supra1 p4 #fc7 was a husbandman1 and taught the ,chinese agriculture1 c41 discovered the virtues of many plants4 ,he was represented with the head of an ox1 and sometimes only with two horns4--,comp4 ,bryant1 iii4 #ehd4 ,manco ,capac4--,peru1 vide infra1 ch4 xiii42 very curious4 ,strabo1 #c1 #bjd1 says of the ,turditani in ,spain 7,iberia71 ,they are well acquainted with grammar1 and have many written records of high antiquity4 ,they have also large collections of poetry 7comp4 ch4 vii471 and even their laws are described in verse1 which they say is of six thousand years standing4 ,deucalion1 according to ,lucian1 was saved from the ,deluge on account of his wisdom and piety--,greek3 euboulis te kai euebis heineka4 ,greek3 euboulia--literally1 good counsel4 ,mercury gave ,egypt its laws--,atque ,egyptiis leges et literas tradidisse4--,cicero1 ,de ,natura ,deorum1 iii4 #bb4 ,apollo4--,cicero says the fourth ,apollo gave laws to the ,arcadians 7comp4 infra1 p4 #cca73 ,quem ,arcades ,greek3 ,nomion appellant1 quod ab eo se leges ferunt accepisse1 id4 iii4 #bc2 vide also ,plato1 ,leges1 i4 #a4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,diluvian ,,traditions ,,in ,,africa ,,and ,,america4 ,boulanger 7#agbb-ei71 a freethinker1 and the friend and correspondent of ,voltaire1 was so dominated by his belief in the universal ,deluge as a fact1 that he made its consequences the foundation of all his theories4 ,writing in the midst of a scepticism very much resembling that of the present day1 he says1 ,what6 you believe in the ,deluge8 ,such will be the exclamation of a certain school of opinion1 and this school a very large one4 ,nevertheless1 this profound writer1 by the exigencies of his theory1 was irresistibly brought to the recognition of the fact4 ,we must take1 he continues1 a fact in the traditions of mankind1 the truth of which shall be universally recognised4 ,what is it8 ,i do not see any1 of which the evidence is more generally attested1 than those which have transmitted to us that famous physical revolution which1 they tell us1 has altered the face of our globe1 and which has occasioned a total renovation of human society3 in a word1 the ,deluge appears to me the true starting-point 7la veritable epoque7 in the history of nations4 ,not only is the tradition which has transmitted this fact the most ancient of all1 but it is moreover clear and intelligible2 it presents a fact which can be justified and confirmed4 ,he proceeds1 and the drift and animus of the writer will be sufficiently apparent in the passage--,it is then by the ,deluge that the history of the existing nations and societies has commenced4 ,if there have been false and pernicious religions in the world it is to the ,deluge that ,i trace them back as to their source2 if doctrines inimical to society have been broached1 ,i see their principles in the consequences of the ,deluge2 if there have existed vicious legislations and innumerable bad governments1 it will be upon the ,deluge that ,i lay the charge4 ,it is1 then1 only in attestation of the fact that ,i adduce this author2 and in his proof he has accumulated a large mass of indirect evidence1 which a certain school of opinion find it convenient altogether to ignore in reference to this subject4 ,in this class are the various institutions among different nations to preserve the memory of the ,deluge1 as for instance1 the ,hydrophories ou la fte du ,deluge ,athenes1 and at gina1 the feast of the goddess of ,syria at ,hierapolis1 both having strange resemblances with the ,jewish feasts of ,nisue ha ,mim1 or the effusion of waters1 and the tabernacles1 in their traditional aspects1 i4e4 in their observances not commanded by ,moses2 the effusion des eaux a ,ithome 444 et de ,siloe2 the feast of the ,deluge 7of ,inachus7 at ,argos2 a feast1 the effusion of water1 in ,persia1 anterior to its ,mahometanism2 similar festivals in ,pegu1 ,china1 and ,japan2 in the mysteries of ,eleusis2 in the peloria1 anthisteria1 and ,saturnalia2 and finally in the pilgrimages to rivers in ,india#bja and other parts of the world2 of the multitude of traditions preserved in the diluvian festivals and commemorative usages of the gulphs1 apertures1 and abysses which have at one time or another vomited forth or absorbed waters 7i4 #hd72 again1 the pilgrimages to the summits of mountains in ,india1 ,china1 ,tartary1 the ,caucasus1#bjb ,peru1 c4 ,it is easy to see1 he adds 7p4 #cbj71 that this veneration is based upon a corrupted tradition1 which has taught these people that their fathers formerly took refuge on the top of this mountain at the time of the ,deluge1 and subsequently descended from it to inhabit the plains4 #bja ,dionysius ,periegesis says the women of the ,british ,amnit celebrated the rites of ,dionysos3-- ,as the ,bistonians on ,apsinthus banks ,shout to the clamorous ,eiraphiates2 ,or as the ,indians on dark-rolling ,ganges ,hold revels to ,dionysos the noisy1 ,so do the ,british women shout ,evo4 7v4 #cge47 7,qy4 ,eno47 ,vide ,the ,bhilsa ,topes1 by ,major ,a4 ,cunningham1 p4 #f4 #bjb ,i would specially draw attention to the instances of temples constructed upon the model of ships1 concerning which vide ,bryant's ,mythology1 ii4 #bba1 #bbf1 #bbg1 #bdj2 and compare with ,plate ,,xviii4 in ,montfauon1 ii4 ,i shall have occasion to refer again more in detail to some of these customs#bjc when drawing attention to the resemblances which ,i shall presently point out2 but ,i wish previously to give1 more in extenso1 his description of the ,hydrophoria at ,athens3-- ,this name denoted the custom which the ,athenians had on the day of this feast of carrying water in ewers and vases with great ceremony2 in memory of the ,deluge1 they proceeded each year to pour this water into an opening or gulf1 which was found near the temple of ,jupiter ,olympus1 and on this occasion they recalled the sad memory of their ancestors having been submerged4 ,this ceremony is simple and very suitable to its subject2 it was well calculated to perpetuate the memory of the catastrophe caused by the waters of the ,deluge4 ,superstition added some other customs4444 ,they threw into the same gulf cakes of corn and honey2 it was an offering to appease the infernal deities4444 ,the ,greeks placed it in the rank of their unlucky days 7also 'un jour triste et lugubre'72 and thus they remarked that ,sylla had taken their city of ,athens the very day that they had made this commemoration of the ,deluge4 ,superstition observes everything1 not to correct itself1 but to confirm itself more and more in its errors4 ,it was1 according to the fable1 by the opening of this gulf that the waters which had covered ,attica had disappeared2 it was also said that ,deucalion had raised near to this place an altar which he had dedicated to ,jove the ,preserver4 ',tradition also attributed to ,deucalion the temple of ,jupiter ,olympus1' in which these mournful ceremonies were performed4 ',this temple was celebrated and respected by the pagan nations as far as we can trace history back4' ,it was reconstructed on a scale of magnificence by ,pisistratus2 every town and prince in ,greece contributed to its adornment2 it was completed by the ,emperor ,adrian in #abf of our era4 ,the antiquity of this monument1 the respect which all nations have shown it1 and the character of the traditions which they have of its origin1 ought to establish for the festival of the ,hydrophoria a great antiquity4 ,the feasts1 in general1 are more ancient than the temples4--,boulanger1 i4 #ch-dj4 #bjc ,compare ,bryant4 ,i will now ask the reader1 if he has not read 7and seen the illustrations in7 ,mr ,catlin's ,o-kee-pa1#bjd to compare the following extract with the preceding3-- ,the ,o-kee-pa1 an annual ceremony to the strict observance of which those ignorant and superstitious people attributed not only their enjoyment in life but their very existence2 for traditions1 their only history1 instructed them in the belief that the singular forms of this ceremony produced the buffaloes for their supply of food1 and that the omission of this annual ceremony1 with its sacrifices to the waters1 would bring upon them a repetition of the calamity which their traditions say once befell them1 destroying the whole human race excepting one man1 who landed from his canoe on a high mountain in the west4#bje ,this tradition1 however1 was not peculiar to the ,mandan tribe1 for among one hundred and twenty different tribes that ,i have visited in ,north1 ,south1 and ,central ,america1 not a tribe exists that has not related to me distinct or vague traditions of such a calamity in which one or three or eight persons were saved above the waters on the top of a high mountain4 ,some of them1 at the base of the ,rocky ,mountains1 and in the plains of ,venezuela and the ,pampa del ,sacramento in ,south ,america1 make annual pilgrimages to the fancied summits where the antediluvian species were saved in canoes or otherwise1 and under the mysterious regulations of their medicine 7mystery7 men tender their prayers and sacrifices to the ,great ,spirit to ensure their exemption from a similar catastrophe4--,p4 #b4 #bjd ,o-kee-pa1 a ,religious ,ceremony1 and other ,customs of the ,mandans1 ,trbner ,co4 ,london1 #ahfg4 ,mr ,catlin's statements are attested by the certificates of three educated and intelligent men who witnessed the ceremonies with him1 and is further corroborated by a letter addressed to ,mr ,catlin by ,prince ,maximilian of ,neuwied1 the celebrated traveller among the ,north ,american ,indians1 who had previously referred to them 7he spent a winter among the ,mandans74 #bje ,i read in the ,times1 ,march #f1 #ahga1 that ,the ,american papers state that workmen in ,iowa1 excavating for the projected ,dubuque and ,minnesota railroad1 in the limestone at the foot of a bluff1 discovered recently some caves and rock chambers1 and1 on raising a foot slab1 a vault filled with human skeletons of unusual size1 the largest being seven feet eight inches high4 ,a figured sun on the walls is taken as indicating that the skeletons belonged to a people who worshipped that luminary compare supra1 p4 #aeb and the representation of a man with a dove stepping out of a boat1 as an allusion to a tradition of the ,deluge4 ,the fingers of the largest skeleton clasped a pearl ornament1 and traces of cloth were found crumbled at the feet of the remains4 ,many copper implements were found1 and it is thought that the ,lake ,superior mines may have been worked at an early period4 ,the remains were to be removed to the ,iowa ,institute of ,arts and ,sciences at ,dubuque4 ,yet1 strange to say1 this is no proof to ,mr ,catlin of the universal ,deluge recorded in ,scripture4 ,if1 he says1 it were shown that inspired history of the ,deluge and of the ,creation restricted those events to one continent alone1 then it might be that the ,american races came from the ,eastern continent1 bringing these traditions with them1 for until that is proved1 the ,american traditions of the ,deluge are no evidence whatever of an eastern origin4 ,if it were so1 and the aborigines of ,america brought their traditions of the ,deluge from the ,east1 why did they not bring inspired history of the ,creation8#bjf--,p4 #c4 7,vide pp4 #acd1 #ace47 #bjf ,compare account of ,mandan tradition of the ,creation1 from ,hist4 des ,ceremonies ,religieuses1 supra1 p4 #aia4 ,the ,o-kee-pa1 ,mr ,catlin says1 was a strictly religious ceremony1 444 with the solemnity of religious worship1 with abstinence1 with sacrifices1 with prayer2 whilst there were three other distinct and ostensible objects for which it was held1--#a4 ,as an annual celebration of the 'subsiding of the waters' of the ,deluge4 #b4 ,for the purpose of dancing what they call the ,bull-dance1 to the strict performance of which they attributed the coming of buffaloes4 #c4 ,for purpose of conducting the young men through an ordeal of privation and bodily torture1 which1 while it was supposed to harden their muscles and prepare them for extreme endurance1 enabled their chiefs 444 to decide upon their comparative bodily strength1 endurance1 c4--,p4 #i4 ,the torture no doubt subserved this subsidiary purpose1 but it appears to me that the original intention and idea was torture for the purpose of expiation1 as in the ceremonies in ancient ,greece4#bjg ,sundry incidents narrated by ,catlin seem to establish this4 ,they prepare themselves by fasting 7p4 #be72 after having sunk under the infliction of these horrible tortures 7and from every point of view they are truly horrible71 no one was allowed to offer them aid when they lay in this condition4 ,they were here enjoying their inestimable privilege of voluntarily intrusting their lives to the keeping of the ,great ,spirit1 and chose to remain there until the ,great ,spirit gave them strength to get up and walk away 7p4 #bh72 and when so far recovered1 in each instance they presented the little finger of the left hand1 and some also the forefinger of the same hand and the little finger of the right hand 7all tending to make them pro tanto inefficient warriors7 as an offering to the ,great ,spirit1 as a sacrifice for having listened to their prayers1 and protected their lives in what they had just gone through 7p4 #bh74 #bjg ,supra1 p4 #ce4 ,these tortures have their exact counterpart in ,india1 e4g4 the ceremony of the ,pota 7compare ,sanscrit1 pota boat71 thus described by ,hunter 7,rural ,bengal1 #ahfh1 p4 #dfc73--,pota 7hook-swinging71 now stopped by ,government1 but still practised 7#ahfe7 among the ,northern ,santals who have the distinct tradition of the ,deluge and dispersion referred to1 supra in ,april or ,may4 ,lasted about one month4 ,young men used to swing with hooks through their back as seen in ,catlin's illustrations1 as in the ,charak ,puja of the ,hindus4 ,the swingers used to fast the day preceding and the day following the operation1 and to sleep the intermediate night on thorns4 ,on pleuroit et l'on s'attristoit dans les ftes les plus gayes et plus dissolues2 les cultes d',isis et d',osiris1 ainsi que ceux de ,bacchus1 de ,cres1 d',adonis1 d',atys1 c41 toient accompagns de macrations et de larmes4--,boulanger1 iii4 #cee4 ,for the description of the bull-dance1#bjh and for the subsequent history and final extinction of the ,mandans1 ,i must refer my readers to ,mr ,catlin's valuable testimony to the truth of ,scripture1 and important contributions to ethnological science4 #bjh ,bryant 7,myth4 ii4 #dcb7 says1 ,there were many arkite 7i4e4 commemorative of ark7 ceremonies in different parts of the world1 which were generally styled ,taurica sacra 7from taurus bull74 ,these mysteries were of old attended with acts of great cruelty4 ,of these ,i have given instances1 taken from different parts of the world2 from ,egypt1 ,syria1 ,cyprus1 ,crete1 and ,sicily4 ,i shall now proceed to show analogies in what will be admitted to be most unlikely ground--in the ,king of ,dahome's celebrated ,so-sin customs1 described by ,captain ,richard ,burton4 ,before1 however1 proceeding further1 ,i must point out the following features in the ceremonies or customs as common to ,grecian and antique pagan2 to the ,mandan 7,indian of ,north ,america71 and to the tropical ,african4#bji ,in the first place they are cyclical2 they are all of a mournful character2 all are interrupted at intervals by processions1 dances1 and songs of a traditional character2 they all close in scenes of rejoicing or rather in ,bacchanalian 7yet still traditionally vide page #bdg1 note ,boulanger ,bacchanalian7 scenes of riot and debauchery4 ,the duration of the festivals varies from three and four to five days2 the days have fantastic names1 which1 although different1 still in their very peculiarity1 and also in the drift and meaning of the names so far as it can be gathered1 are suggestive of a common origin1 e4g4 the first day of the ,anthesteria1 at ,athens was called ,greek3 ,pithoigia1 apo tou pithous oigein1 because they tapped their casks4 ,the fourth day of the ,king of ,dahome's customs is named ,so 7horse7 nan-wen 7will break7 kan 7rope7 'gbe 7to-day74--,burton1 ii4 #h4 ,one part of the ,mandan ceremony is called ,mee-ne-ro-ka-,ha-sha1 or the settling down of the waters1 which name again closely corresponds to the ceremonies at ,athens and at ,hierapolis in ,syria 7ante71 where water was poured into the opening where the waters of the ,deluge were supposed to have disappeared4 ,the fifth day of the ,dahome customs is named ,minai afunfun khi ,uhun-jro men ,dadda ,gezowe go to the small mat tent under which the king sits4--,burton1 ii4 #bg4 ,this approximates to the scene described by ,catlin 7p4 #bj7 at the close of the bull-dance 7fourth day71 when the master of ceremonies 7corresponding to the king at ,dahome7 cried out for all the dancers1 musicians1 and the representatives of animals and birds1 to gather again around him4 ,he is described as coming out of the mystery lodge and collecting them round the big canoe4 #bji ,let the following points of resemblance be noted also in the ,panathena4 ,the lesser1 and it is supposed the annual festival1 was celebrated on the #bjth of ,thargelion1 corresponding to the #eth ,may 7compare ,catlin74 ,every citizen contributed olive branches and an ox 7vide ,catlin7 at the greater festival4 ,in the ceremonies without the city there was an engine built in the form of a ship1 on purpose for this solemnity2 upon this the sacred garment of ,minerva was hung in the manner of a sail1 the whole conveyed to the temple of ,ceres ,elusinia4 ,this procession was led by old men1 together1 as some say1 with old women carrying olive branches in their hands4 ,after them came the men of full age with shields and spears1 being attended by the ,greek3 ,metoikoi1 or sojourners1 who carried little boats as a token of their being foreigners1 and were called on that account boat-bearers2 then followed the women attended by the sojourner's wives1 who were named ,greek3 hydriaphoroi1 from bearing water pots4--,compare ,burton1 ,catlin4 ,then followed select virgins1 covered with millet1 called basket-bearers1 the baskets containing necessaries for the celebration4 ,these virgins were attended by the sojourner's daughters1 who carried umbrellas 7vide ,pongol ,festival1 appendix71 little seats1 whence they were called seat-carriers4--,compare ,burton 7vide ,potter's ,antiquities1 i4 #dai47 ,compare also the following in the ,dionysia or festivals in honour of ,bacchus 7ante1 p4 #bae7 with ,catlin4 ,they carried thyrsi1 drums1 pipes1 flutes1 and rattles1 and crowned themselves with garlands of trees sacred to ,bacchus1 ivy1 vine1 c4 ,some imitated ,silenus1 ,pan1 and the ,satyrs1 exposing themselves in comical dresses and antic motions2 and in this manner ran about the hills invoking ,bacchus4 ,at ,athens this frantic rout was followed by persons carrying certain sacred vessels1 the first of which was filled with water4 ,bryant 7,mythology1 ii4 #bai7 speaking of ,egypt 7the priests of ,ammon who at particular seasons used to carry in procession a boat1 concerning which refer to page #bed71 says--,part of the ceremony in most of the ancient mysteries consisted in carrying about a kind of ship or boat1 which custom upon due examination will be found to relate to nothing else but ,noah and the ,deluge4 ,he adds that the name of the navicular shrines was ,baris1 which is very remarkable2 for it is the very name of the mountain1 according to ,nicolaus ,damascenus1 on which the ark of ,noah rested1 the same as ,ararat in ,armenia4 ,herodotus speaks of ,baris as the ,egyptian name of a ship1 l4 #b1 #if2 ,eurip4 ,iphig4 in ,aulis1 v4 #big2 schylus1 ,pers1 #aea2 ,lycophron1 v4 #gdg1 refer to names of ships in connection with ,noah4 ,sup41 p4 #aif4 ,query--is our word barge a corruption of baris8 or perhaps of baris in connection with argus1 also a term for the ark4 7,with reference to this etymology vide my remark1 p4 #aaf1 and d',anselme1 p4 #aif1 and ,bryant1 ii4 #bea47 ,but the closest connection is in the nature and order of the ceremonies on the fourth day at ,dahome and among the ,mandans4 ,among the latter1 interrupting the bull-dance on that day1 there is an apparition of the evil spirit1#baj graphically described by ,mr ,catlin 7p4 #bb71 and at ,dahome 7,burton1 ii4 #ah71 there intervenes between the fourth and fifth days' ceremonies what is called the evil night 7there are two evil nights7 which is the night of the horrible massacre4 ,but on this night also1 at the close of the fourth day's ceremonies among the ,mandans1 the infliction of tortures 7very horrible1 but mild in comparison with the ,african butchery7 commence4 ,now1 ,i have already ventured the opinion that these tortures were originally of an expiatory character1 and this gains confirmation by the assurance made to ,captain ,r4 ,burton that the victims on the evil night were only criminals and prisoners of war1 the people of ,dahome1 on all occasions 7vide infra71 preferring a vicarious mode of expiation4 ,captain ,r4 ,burton 7ii4 #ai7 says of these massacres3--,the king takes no pleasure in the tortures and death or in the sight of blood1 as will presently appear4 ,the #bjjj killed in one day1 the canoe#baa paddled in a pool of gore1 and other grisly nursery tales1 must be derived from ,whydah1 where the slave-traders invented them1 probably to deter ,englishmen from visiting the king4 ,it is useless to go over the ground of human sacrifice from the days of the wild ,hindu's ,naramadha to the burnings of the ,druids1 and to the awful massacres of ,peru and ,mexico4 ,in ,europe the extinction of the custom began from the time of the polite ,augustus1 i4e4 commenced with the advent of our ,lord4 ,vide a reference to ,,ms4 of ,sir ,j4 ,acton in ,mr ,gladstone's address to the ,university of ,edinburgh1 #ahfe1 from which it would appear that the final extinction was not until the triumph of ,christianity4 #baj ,compare the ,bhain-sasur or buffalo-demon at ,usayagiri1 carrying a trident4 ,vide ,the ,bhilsa ,tope1 ,major ,alex4 ,cunningham1 #ahed4 #baa ,it is as well to note1 however1 that the ,dahomans have recently altered their customs4 ,the one ,captain ,burton witnessed 7ii4 #cd7 was a mixed custom1 and elsewhere allusion is made to the new ceremony4 ,without carrying rashness to the excess of disputing the interpretation of ,dahoman words with ,captain ,burton1 ,i may yet demur to accepting his explanation of the term ,so-sin 7the ,so-sin customs7 absolute et simpliciter4 ,he says 7i4 #cae71 ,the ,sogan 7',so' horse1 'gan' captain7 opens the customs by taking all the chargers from their owners and by tying them up1 whence the word ,so-sin4 ,the animals must be redeemed in a few days with a bag of cowries4#bab ,this is certainly a very likely definition1 and although secondary1 is no doubt the explanation current among the present generation of ,dahomans4 ,all ,i shall venture to do is to supplement it4 ,but may not the old and primitive idea still lurk in the name8 ,at i4 #bdb1 ,i perceive ,captain ,burton says so and sin mean water1#bac and the compound word amma-sin means medicine leaf-water1 and again at #bdd the same word ,sin is twice used to signify liquid4 ,if so1 in the very name of the feast we find the word water1 which links it into connection with the ,mandan custom and the festivals of ancient ,greece4 #bab ,analogies may perhaps be discovered in the representations of the procession escorting a relic casket on the architraves of the western gate at ,sanchi4 7,vide ,the ,bhilsa ,tope1 by ,major ,alex4 ,cunningham1 p4 #bbg47 ,street of a city on the left1 houses on each side filled with spectators1444 a few horsemen heading a procession1 444 immediately outside the gate are four persons bearing either trophies or some peculiar instruments of office4 ,then follows a led horse1 444 a soldier with a bell-shaped shield1 two fifers1 three drummers1 and two men blowing conches4 ,next comes the king on an elephant1 carrying the holy relic casket on his head and supporting it with his right hand4 ,then follows two peculiarly dressed men on horseback1 perhaps prisoners4 ,they wear a kind of cap 7now only known in ,barmawar1 on the upper course of the ,ravi7 and boots or leggings4 ,the procession is closed by two horsemen 7one either the minister or a member of the royal family7 and by an elephant with two riders4 ,it may have had connection with the ,aswarnedha or horse sacrifice 7,cunningham1 p4 #cfc47 ,boulanger 7i4 #aji7 says1 ,that after the winter solstice the ancient inhabitants of ,india descended with their king to the banks of the ,indus2 they there sacrificed horses and black bulls1 signs of a funeral ceremony2 they then threw a bushel measure into the water without their assigning any reason for it4 ,compare the throwing the cakes into the gulf at ,athens1 and the hatchets into the water at the ,mandan custom4 ,could it be that at the ,dahoman ceremony the horses were redeemed because the wretched victims were substituted1 carrying out the idea of vicarious sacrifice and expiation8 ,sir ,john ,lubbock 7,origin of ,civilization1 p4 #aii7 says1 speaking of water worship1 ,the kelpie or spirit of the waters assumed various forms1 those of a man1 woman1 horse1 or bull being the most common4 ,compare supra1 pp4 #aif1 #bjb1 #bjd1 ,manou1 ,bacchus4 ,homer 7,hom4 ,il41 ,heynii1 xxi4 #acj1 ,lord ,derby1 #ade71 says-- ,shall aught avail ye1 though to him 7the river ,scamander7 ,in sacrifice1 the blood of countless bulls you pay1 ,and living horses in his waters sink2 and 7#baj7 ,asteropoeus is called river-born1 because the son of ,pelegon1 who to broadly flowing ,axius owed his birth4 ,remembering the belief of certain tribes of ,indians 7supra1 p4 #acg7 that they were created under the water1 which ,i have construed to mean1 that they were created on the other side of the ,deluge1 so we may take in a similar sense the traditions of these ,homeric heroes that they were river-born2 and does the expression1 son of ,pelegon 7compare son of ,prometheus1 supra1 p4 #bcb71 imply more than that he was the descendant of ,phaleg1 or1 if not in the line of descent1 the descendant of progenitors who had retained the tradition that ,phaleg was so called1 because in his days the earth was divided8--,gen4 ch4 x4 #be4 ,compare ancient ,welsh ballad 7,davies' ,mythology of ,british ,druids1 p4 #ajj7-- ,truly ,i was in the ship ,with ,dylan 7,deucalion71 son of the sea4444 ,when 444 the floods came forth ,from heaven to the great deep4 #bac ,the name for river in the ,chitral or ,little ,kashghar vocabulary 7,vigne1 ,travels in ,kashmir7 is river sin2 also in the ,dangon1 on the ,indus1 voc4 7id47 river sin2 in the ,affghan 7,kalproth7 the sea sind4 ,sindhu is the ,sanscrit name for river 7,max ,mller1 ,science of ,lang41 #ast series1 #bae72 and has also its equivalent in ancient ,persian4 ,in ,danish1 river or lake so2 in ,icelandic1 sjor 7sjo72 in ,bultistan1 touh2 ,german1 see2 ,english1 sea2 in ,kashmir1 sar marse2 ,icelandic1 saus4 ,compare ,rivers ,saar1 ,soane1 ,seine1 ,irish ,suir2 perhaps also ,esk and ,usk 7,vigne1 ,trav4 in ,kashmir74 ,horse shtah1 in ,bultistan4 ,has not so analogy with eau1 augr 7,chittral71 water8 ,sara water in ,sanscrit 7,max ,mller1 ,chips1 ii4 #dg72 ,sanscrit1 vari1 more generic term for water2 ,latin1 mare2 ,gothic1 marie2 ,slavonic1 more2 ,irish and ,scotch1 muir 7id47 ,compare ,chinese ma horse2 ,mongol1 mon horse2 ,german1 machre2 ,english1 mare4 ,conclusion1 either there is the same word for horse and water in certain languages1 which may have occurred in the way of secondary derivation from these mysteries1 or if so means water1 then ,so-sin may only be a reduplication1 as in the names of some of our rivers--e4g4 ,dwfr-,dwy water1 of ,deva ,dee-river 7,archol4 ,journal1 xvii4 #ih74 ,bryant 7,myth4 ii4 #djh7 says ,the ,greek3 hippos1 hippus 7horse71 alluded to in the early mythology was certainly a float or ship1 the same as the ceto4 ,there is1 moreover1 the analogy in the ,latin of aqua and equus4 ,another ,sanscrit word for water1 ap 7,max ,mller1 ,sc4 of ,l41 #ajc7 has analogy with the ,greek ,greek3 hippos horse4 ,it appears 7,sc4 of ,l41 #bnd series1 p4 #cf71 that the ,tahitians have substituted the word pape for vai water2 but both words pape1 to ap1 vai1 to vari1 seem to have analogies to ,sanscrit as above4 ,plato 7,cratylus1 c4 #cf1 ,sc4 of ,l41 #ast series1 p4 #aaf7 mentions that the name for water was the same in ,phrygian and ,greek4 ,at p4 #bce1 #ast series1 ,mr ,max ,mller says that ,persian ,harya is the same as ,sanscrit ,saroya2 which latter is derived from a root 'sar' or 'sri1' to go1 to run2 from which 'saras1' water1 'sarit1' river1 and ',sarayu1' the proper name of the river near ,oude4 ,here at any rate in the ,sanskrit sar1 to run1 we may1 if the above conjecture is rejected1 start the words horse and water from a common root4 ,the word1 ,so horse1 will therefore still remain1 and may perhaps stand in the same relation to the water celebration1 that the bull does to the ,mandan celebration of the ,deluge4 ,captain ,burton1 for instance1 tells us 7ii4 #ae71 a ,so was brought up to us 7on the fourth day of the ,so-sin custom1 and on the fourth day of the ,mandan custom the bull-dance was performed sixteen times round the big canoe72 but ,i will place the two descriptions side by side4 ,,captain ,,burton1 ii4 #ae4 ,a ',so' was brought up to us1 a bull-face mask of natural size1 painted black1 with glaring eyes and peep-holes1 the horns were hung with red and white rag strips1 and beneath was a dress of bamboo fibre covering the feet1 and ruddy at the ends4 ,it danced with head on one side and swayed itself about1 to the great amusement of the people4 ,vide also p4 #ic1 ,four tall men singularly dressed1 and with bullocks' tails1 c4 ,,mr ,,catlin1 p4 #af4 ,the chief actors in these strange scenes 7bull-dance7 were eight men1 with the entire skins of buffaloes thrown over them1 enabling them closely to imitate the appearance and motions of those animals1 as the bodies were kept in as horizontal a position1 the horns and tails of the animals remaining on the skins1 and the skins of the animals' heads served as masks through the eyes of which the dancers were looking4 ,the legs of the dancers were painted red and white 7plate #f47 ,if we might 7on the strength of so many words of primary necessity being in common7 connect ,so horse1 with the ,saxon soc or plough 7as in the soc and service tenure71 we could then see a way in which the same word might apply indifferently to ox or horse2 and we would1 moreover1 see through the common relation to ,noah how the water ceremony came to be associated with the worship of ,ceres in the mysteries of ,eleusis4 ,vide ,boulanger1 i4 #gj-ajg4bad #bad ,compare 7,klaproth1 ,mem4 ,asiat4 ii4 #ab7--;,eng4 ox2 ,mongol1 char2 ,hebrew1 chor2 ,french1 charrue 7plough47 ,klaproth1 ii4 #dje1 ,les cheveux en ,thou ,khin 7whom he identifies with the ,turks7 portaient le nom de ,sogo ou soko2 cest le mme nom que le ,turc stch ou sadg4 ,can it have affinity with ,chinese sa 7,chinese szu boeuf sauvage72 ,german1 sen2 ,swedish1 s2 ,french1 semer2 ,english to sou2 ,peruvian1 sara maize2 also ,french1 coudre1 to sow with ,english corn2 ,sanscrit1 go2 ,high ,german1 chus2 ,sclavonic1 gows 7,max ,mller1 ,chips1 ii4 #bg72 and ,kashmir and ,dongan1 gau2 ,icelandic1 ku8 ,in ,affghan a bull sakhendar and soukhandar4 ,in the extinct ,tartar ,coman 7vide ,klaproth7 ox ogus or seger ,turkish1 okus2 ,sanscrit1 oukcha2 ,german1 ochse4 ,plough ,sanscrit1 sinam2 ,irish1 serak2 ,persian1 siar4 ,horse asp1 ,persian2 ess1 ,sclavonic ,english ass2 and in ,chittral on ,indus 7vide horse or bull used in ceremonies on banks of ,indus1 infra7 horse astor4 7,has not tor here affinity with taureau47 ,corn ,aslek 7,kirghish7 and ,ashlyk 787 ,turkish4 ,max ,mller 7,science of ,language1 p4 #bca71 says--,aspa was the ,persian name for horse1 and in the ,scythian names1 ,aspabota1 ,aspakara1 and ,asparatha1 we can hardly fail to recognise the same element4 ,also1 p4 #bdb1 ,the comparison of ploughing and sowing is of frequent occurrence in ancient language4 ,eng41 plough2 ,sclav41 ploug ,sanscrit1 plava1 ship ,gk4 ,greek3 ploion1 ship4 ,in ,english dialects1 plough is used as a waggon or conveyance4 ,in the ,vale of ,blackmore1 a waggon is called a plough1 or plow1 and ,zull 7,a4-,s41 syl7 is used for aratrum4--,barnes1 ,dorset ,dialect1 p4 #cfi1 ap4 ,max ,mller4 ,the above enumeration does not exhaust the points of resemblance4 ,compare the following3-- ,,burton1 ii4 #bc4 ,conspicuous objects on the left of the pavilion were two ,ajalela or fetish pots made by the present king 7according to the customs47 ,vide note #af4 ,both are lamp black1 shaped like amphor 7amphor1 for holding wine7 about #d feet high1 and planted on tripods4 ,the larger was solid1 the smaller callendered with many small holes1 and both were decorated with brass and silver crescents1 stars1 and similar ornaments4 ,the second1 when filled with water and medicine allows none to escape1 so great is its fetish power2 an army guarded by it can never be defeated1 and it will lead the way to ,absokuta4 ,compare ,pongol ceremony1 p4 #bge4 ,,catlin1 p4 #h4 ,in an open area in the centre of the village stands the ark or 'big canoe1' around which a great proportion of the ceremonies were performed4 ,this rude symbol1 of #h or #aj feet in height1 was constructed of planks and hoops1 having somewhat the appearance of a large hogshead standing on its end1 and containing some mysterious things1 which none but the medicine 7mystery7 men were allowed to examine4 ,this must be considered in connection with the following4 ,,burton4 ,in the opening procession of the third day's customs1 ,captain ,burton tells us 7ii4 #b71 ,first came a procession of eighteen ,tansi-no or fetish women1 who have charge of the last monarch's grave4444 ,they were preceded by bundles of matting1 eight large stools1 calabashes1 pipes1 baskets of water1 grog1 and meat with segments of gourd above and below1 tobacco bags1 and other commissariat articles2 and they were followed by a band of horns and rattles4#bae #bae ,compare the procession in the ,panathena and ,dionysia1 supra1 p4 #bdh4 ,in another procession 7ii4 #dg71 ,the party was brought up by slave girls carrying baskets and calabashes4 7,query1 of water87 ,these1 preceded by six bellowing horns1 stalked in slowly1 and with measured gait the eight ,tansi-no1 who serve and pray for the ghosts of dead kings4 7,query1 eight dead kings87 ,in front went their ensign1 a copper measuring rod #ae feet long and tapering to a very fine end2 behind it were two chauris and seven mysterious pots and calabashes wrapped in white and red checks1 and presently three brass1 four copper1 and six iron pots1 curiosities on account of their great size4444 ,eight images1 of which three were apparently ship's figureheads whitewashed1 and the rest very hideous efforts of native art4#baf #baf ,eight men representing eight buffalo bulls1 in ,mandan celebration1 took their positions on the four sides of the ark or 'big canoe4'--,catlin1 p4 #ag4 ,the chief actors in these strange scenes were eight men with skins of buffaloes1 c4 p4 #af4 ,four images were suspended on poles above the mystery lodge1 p4 #h4 ,,catlin4 ,in ,captain ,burton's account of the articles paraded in the procession1 the pipes 7to which great mystery is attached71 the horns and rattles 7vide pl471 and the baskets of water are common to the ,mandan ceremony4 ,may not the eight stools be representative of the eight diluvian survivors4 ,vide supra1 #aig1 ,cabiri8 ,let us1 however1 confine our attention to the baskets of water4 ,compare with the following account in ,catlin4 ,in the medicine 7mystery7 lodge 444 there were also four articles of veneration and importance lying on the ground1 which were sacks containing each some three or four gallons of water4 ,these seemed to be objects of great superstitious regard1 and had been made with much labour and ingenuity1 being constructed of the skins of the buffaloes' neck1 and sewed together in the forms of large tortoises lying on their backs 7comp4 p4 #ach2 also p4 #bfi71 each having a sort of tail made of raven's quills and a stick like a drumstick lying on it1 with which1 as will be seen in a subsequent part of the ceremony1 the musicians beat upon the sacks as instruments of music for their strange dances4 ,by the sides of these sacks1 which they called ,ech-tee-ka 7drums71 there were two other articles of equal importance which they called ,ech-na-da 7rattles7 made of undressed skins shaped into the form of gourd shells1 c4 7,note the segments of gourd accompanying the water baskets in the ,dahome procession1 supra47 ,catlin adds--,the sacks of water had the appearance of great antiquity1 and the ,mandans pretended that the water had been contained in them ever since the ,deluge4--pp4 #ae1 #af4bag #bag ,in the ,japanese 7vide p4 #bfi7 version of the legend of the bull breaking the mundane egg 7vide p4 #cif71 a gourd or pumpkin is also broken which contained the first man4--,vide ,bryant's ,mythology1 iii4 #egi4 ,i have mentioned that the ark was looked upon as the mother of mankind1 and styled ,da-,mater1 and it was on this account figured under the semblance of a pomegranate1 as it abounds with seed--,bryant1 ii4 #chj4 ,vide also plate 7,bryant1 ii4 #daj71 where ,juno 7vide1 p4 #cie7 holds a dove in one hand and a pomegranate in the other4 ,,burton1 ii4 #ce4 ,it must be remembered that at ,dahome1 royalty as there represented has absorbed and monopolized the most important parts of the ceremonial3 it is natural1 therefore1 to expect that the conspicuous figures in the original 7or in the ,mandan71 which conflicted or would not consort with royalty1 would be thrown into the background4 ,accordingly ,i am only able to get a glimpse of the conspicuous figures opposite in the following passage3--,the jesters were followed by a dozen pursuivants armed with gong-gongs1 who advanced bending towards the throne1 and shouted the 'strong names' or titles4 ,conspicuous amongst them was an oldster in a crimson sleeveless tunic and yellow shorts3 his head was red with dust1 he carried a large bill-hook1#bah and he went about attended by four drums and one cymbal4 #bah ,compare also sup41 p4 #baj1 with ,saturn4 ,ipsius autem canities1 c41 and cum falce messis insigne4 ,it will be remembered 7if my readers have read ,mr ,catlin1 p4 #aa1 #ab7 that the first thing the aged white man does on entering the mystery lodge is to call on the chiefs to furnish him with four men1 and the next is to receive at the door of every ,mandan's wigwam some edged tool to be given to the water as a sacrifice1 as it was with such tools that the big canoe was built4#bai #bai ,compare again these two figures1 one figuring in the ,dahoman procession1 the other in the ,mandan bull dance4 ,,catlin1 p4 #aj4 ,the opening scene in the ,mandan customs1 effectively described by ,mr ,catlin1 begins with a solitary human figure descending the prairie hills and approaching the village1 in appearance a very aged man1 a centenarian white man1 dressed in a robe of four white wolves' skins4 ,he was met by the head chief and the council of chiefs1 and addressed by them as ,nu-mohk-muck-a-nah 7the first and only man47 ,he then harangued them for a few minutes1 reminding them that every human being on the surface of the earth had been destroyed by the water excepting himself1 who had landed on a high mountain in the west in his canoe1 where he still resided1 and from whence he had come to open the medicine 7mystery7 lodge1 that the ,mandans might celebrate the subsiding of the waters1 and make the proper sacrifices to the water1 lest the same calamity should again happen to them4 ,,burton1 ii4 #ch4 ,the ministers 444 they were conducted by a ',lali' or half-head1 with right side of his pericranium clean shaven1 and the left in a casing of silver that looked like a cast or a half melon4 99 99 99 99 99 ,burton says 7ii4 #hg71 ,one of the ,dahoman monarch's peculiarities is that he is double1 not merely binonymous1 nor dual1 like the spiritual ,mickado and temporal ,tycoon of ,japan1 but two in one4 ,gelele1 for instance1 is king of the city and addo-kpon of the 'bush'2 i4e4 of the farmer folk and the country as opposed to the city4 ,this country ruler has his official mother1 the ,dank-li-ke4444 ,thus ,dahome has two points of interest to the ethnologist--the distinct precedence of women and the double king4--,vide also p4 #hj4 ,,catlin1 p4 #cj4 ,compare with the two athletic young men 7vide ,plate ,,xiii47 assigned to each of the young men who underwent the torture--their bodies painted one half red and the other blue1 and carrying a bunch of willow-boughs in one hand4 ,here two or three questions suggest themselves4 ,if this ceremony is primitive1 will not dual royalty give a clue to the duality we find so commonly in mythology1 assuming the basis of mythology to be historical8 #b;d1 ,is there no clue in the name1 official name1 of ,dank-li-ke8 ,what does the reader guess the meaning to be8 7p4 #eh47 ,mr ,burton tells us it means1 ,dank 7the rainbow71 li 7stand71 and ke 7the world74 ,is it a forced paraphrase to construe this to mean--,the rainbow is the sign that the world shall stand8 ,upon the point of the precedence of woman1 to which the ,dahoman ceremony testifies1 but to which it gives no clue1 ,i shall1 as it is so very important in more bearings than one1 give at some length the following scene from ,catlin3-- ,when 'the evil spirit' enters the camp during the ceremony1 he proceeds to make various attacks1 which are defeated by the intervention of the master of the ceremonies4 ,in several attempts of this kind the evil spirit was thus defeated1 after which he came wandering back amongst the dancers1 apparently much fatigued and disappointed4444 ,in this distressing dilemma he was approached by an old matron1 who came up slyly behind him1 with both hands full of yellow dirt1 which 7by reaching around him7 she suddenly dashed in his face1 covering him from head to foot1 and changing his colour1 as the dirt adhered to the undried bear's grease on his skin2 444 at length another snatched his wand from his hand and broke it across her knee 444 his power was thus gone 444 bolting through the crowd1 he made his way to the prairies4--,p4 #bd4 ,we shall not be surprised to learn1 then1 that when the ,feast of the ,buffaloes 7distinct from the bull-dance7 commences 7p4 #cc71 several old men perambulated the village in various directions1 in the character of criers1 with rattles in their hands1 proclaiming that the whole government of the ,mandans was then in the hands of one woman--she who had disarmed the evil spirit 444 that the chiefs that night were old women2 that they had nothing to say2 that no one was allowed to be out of their wigwams excepting the favoured ones whom 'the governing woman' had invited1 c4 ,will not this give a clue to the precedence in ,dahome1 probandis probatis1 and is not the precedence in ,dahome thus interpreted1 and the interlude above described evidence of the tradition1 that the woman should break the head of the serpent8 7,gen4 iii4 #ae74 ,it is of great significance1 and1 if so many points of comparison had not occurred1 ought to have been stated at the outset1 that at ,dahome the ,sin-kwain 7sin1 water--kwain1 sprinkling71 or water-sprinkling custom follows closely upon the ,so-sin or ,horse-tie rites4--,vide ,burton1 ii4 #afg4 ,now1 if the reader will turn to ,boulanger1 i4 #ij1 #ia1 he will find this identical custom in ,persia1 ,pegu1 ,china1 and ,japan4 ,but ,i relinquish the details1 as ,i fear ,i shall have exhausted the patience of the few readers ,i shall have carried with me to this point2 and because the ,king of ,dahome has a custom perhaps still more demonstrably cognate to not only the ancient ,grecian ceremonies on the shores of the ocean and on the banks of rivers1 but with widely diffused tradition4 ,i shall here place four writers in juxtaposition1 and with this testimony ,i shall conclude3-- ,,boulanger4 ,the ancient inhabitants of ,italy repaired once a year to the ,lake ,cutilia1 where they made sacrifices and celebrated secret mysteries or ceremonies 7,dion4 ,halicarnassus1 i4 #b74 ,the pontiffs in ancient ,rome also went annually to the banks of the ,tiber1 l ils faisoient des sacrifices expiatoires ,saturne1 ce ,dieu chronique1 c4 7,dion4 ,hal4 i4 #h47 ,in the kingdom of ,saka in ,africa their greatest solemnity was celebrated on the banks of the rivers2 the king himself presides at it 7,hist4 ,gener4 des ,voy41 iii4 #fci74 ,the same custom has been already 7supra1 p4 #beb7 noticed on the ,indus4 ,in all these cases human sacrifices were offered1 or substitutes4--,boulanger1 i4 pp4 #aaj-aa4 ,compare supra1 p4 #bdc1 lines from ,dionysius ,periegesis4 ,,burton4 ,at ,whydat the youngest brother of their triad is ,hu1 the ocean or sea4 ,compare with ,assyrian ,hoa1 supra1 p4 #aid1 and ,chinese ,yu1 p4 #fh4 ,the ,hu-no1 or ocean priest1 is now considered the highest of all4444 ,at times the king sends as an ocean sacrifice from ,agborne a man carried in a hammock1 with the dress1 the stool1 and the umbrella of a ,caboceer2 a canoe takes him out to sea1 where he is thrown to the sharks4 ,the custom for this element is made at ,whydat1 in a place near the greater market1 and called ,hu-kpa-man4 ,it is a round hut1 with thatch and chalked walls3 outside is a heap of bones1 whilst skulls1 carapaces of the tortoise1 and similar materials1 cumber the interior4 ,the priest is a fetish woman1 who offers water and kola nuts to1 and expects rum from1 white visitors4--ii4 p4 #ada4 ,compare also supra1 in ,preface1 extract from ,davies' ,celtic ,researches on the ,celtic god ,hu4 ,,catlin4 ,the water ceremonies in ,catlin's account have already been sufficiently adverted to4 ,he thus describes the medicine or mystery lodge in which they took place4 ,exteriorly1 with the exception of the four images1 it differed only in dimensions from the other wigwams1 which are thus described8 ,they were covered with earth4 ,they were all of one form2 the frames or shells constructed of timbers1 and covered with a thatching of willow boughs1 and over and on that with a foot or two in thickness of a concrete of tough clay and gravel1 which became so hard as to admit the whole group of inmates to recline on their tops4 ,they varied in size from thirty to sixty feet1 and were perfectly round4 ,for extract describing interior1 vide supra1 p4 #beg1 noting 7vide ,plate iii4 in ,catlin7 the four human and four ox skulls2 the sacks of water in the form of large tortoises lying on their backs4 ,n4,b4--,with reference to the tortoise1 vide ante p4 #beg4 ,compare the ,buddhist ,topes in ,major ,cunningham's ,bhilsa ,tope1 vide p4 #bdc4 ,,hunter4 ,hunter 7,annals of ,rural ,bengal1 p4 #aec7 says of the ,santals3 ,the only stream of any consequence in their present country--the ,damouda--is regarded with a veneration altogether disproportionate to its size4 ,thither the superstitious ,santal repairs to consult the prophets and diviners1 and once a year the tribes make a pilgrimage to its banks in commemoration of their forefathers4444 ,however remote the jungle in which the ,santal may die1 his nearest kinsman carries a little relic of the deceased to the river1 and places it in the current to be conveyed to the far-off eastern land from which his ancestors came4 ,in connection with the above1 it must be remembered 7vide ,appendix ,g1 p4 #dhj1 ,santal ,traditions7 that they have1 although confused with the ,creation1 an unmistakable tradition of the ,deluge1 the intoxication of ,noah1 and the dispersion4 ,if1 then1 ,i have shown that the custom1 for the preservation of which from oblivion1 so far as the ,mandans 7now extinct7 are concerned1 we are indebted to ,mr ,catlin1 and which so plainly tells its own tale1 is common to ,europe1 ,asia1 and ,africa1 as well as ,america1 ,i shall have established it as a tradition1 not of a local ,american1 but of an universal ,deluge2 and if the tradition of the universal ,deluge is proved1 then1 according to ,mr ,catlin's narrative itself1 there is tradition of the ,creation also 7vide pp4 #g1 #ac1 #db74bbj #bbj ,i allude to the opening of the ceremony by the centenarian white man1 the first and only man4 ,mr ,catlin is of opinion that this incident was introduced and superadded by some missionaries1 though he adds it would be still more strange if the 7,jesuit7 missionaries had instructed them in the other modes4 ,this1 however1 is understating the case4 ,it is conceivable that missionaries should have come among them1 but in this case we should have expected some trace of ,christian practices and dogmas2 it is difficult to conjecture what set of missionaries could have indoctrinated them with the recondite pagan mysteries of ,eleusis and ,hierapolis4 ,i have replied more fully1 in chap4 vii41 to ,mr ,catlin's objection--that though they have a tradition of a deluge1 it is not the tradition of the ,deluge1 because they have not also the tradition of the ,creation4 ,mr ,catlin argues upon the view that the ,american race were created upon the ground on which they were found 7,last ,rambles1 p4 #cba1 #ahfh72 and 7p4 #cai7 adds1 ,i can find nothing in history1 sacred or profane1 against this4 ,he takes his stand 7in ,o-kee-pa7 upon this--that there is nothing in the ,mandan tradition which can be brought in proof of their migration from another continent4 ,in reply ,i shall adduce their very name4 ,the ,american continent may have been peopled by way of ,behring's ,straits1 or from ,europe in the ,east by way of ,greenland1 or by the connection of the ,pacific ,islands from the opposite coasts of ,japan1 ,china1 and the ,corea1 or from the ,polynesian groups in the south4 ,the population may have poured in by all these routes4 ,it is said 7,prescott1 ,conquest of ,mexico1 ii4 #dgc7bba that ,,mss4 exist at ,copenhagen proving that the ,american coast was visited by the ,northmen in the eleventh century4 ,the ,polynesian route we may leave out of consideration1 as it will not probably have been the one by which the ,mandans came4 ,as to the route by ,behring's ,straits1 ,mr ,catlin admits it is a possibility1 and therefore they say it is probable 7p4 #bag1 ,last ,rambles74 ,but if1 as there appears to me reason to think1 they came from the opposite coast of the ,corea1 it might as reasonably be conjectured that the migration took the route of ,behring's ,straits1 or by way of the ,sandwich ,islands4 ,the possibility of the former is conceded4 ,i will confine my attention1 therefore1 to the latter1 which ,mr ,catlin pronounces absolutely impossible4 ,in the first place1 the distance between the ,sandwich ,islands and ,america is not greater than between ,otaheite and ,new ,zealand4#bbb ,now it is admitted that ,new ,zealand was peopled from ,otaheite4 ,moreover 7vide ,sir ,j4 ,lubbock1 ,pre-historic ,times1 p4 #cij71 the inhabitants of the ,sandwich ,islands1 at two thousand miles distance1 belong to the same race as those of ,tahiti 7,otaheite7 and ,new ,zealand1 and resemble them in religion1 languages1 canoes1 houses1 weapons1 food1 habits1 c4#bbc ,the canoes of the ,pacific islanders generally 7vide ,captain ,cook passim7 were of considerable size1 and of very perfect workmanship4 ,but also ,prescott 7,conquest of ,mexico1 ii4 #dgc1 quoting ,beechey's ,voyage to ,pacific1 #ahca1 p4 #b ,appendix1 ,humboldt's ,examen4 ,critique de l',hist4 de la ,geog4 and ,nuov4 ,cont4 ii4 #ee7 says1 ,it would be easy for the inhabitant of ,eastern ,tartary or ,japan to steer his canoe from islet to islet quite across to the ,american shore1 without ever being on the ocean more than two days at a time4#bbd #bba ,vide also ,giebel1 ,tagesfragen1 p4 #ia2 apud ,reusch1 p4 #ejj4 #bbb ,vide ,cook's ,voyages1 i4 #aii2 ,prescott1 ii4 #dgf4 #bbc ,there have been recent instances of ,japanese vessels having been thrown by shipwreck upon the coasts of the ,sandwich ,islands1 and even on the mouth of the ,columbia4--,reusch1 ,la ,bible et la ,nature1 p4 #dii4 ,since the north-west coast of ,america and the north-east of ,asia have been explored1 little difficulty remains on this subject4444 ,small boats can safely pass the narrow strait4 ,ten degrees farther south1 the ,aleutian and ,fox islands form a continuous chain between ,kamschatka and the peninsula of ,alaska in such a manner as to leave the passage across a matter of no difficulty4--,warburton's ,conquest of ,canada1 i4 #aid4 ,ellis 7,polynesian ,researches1 ii4 #df7 says3 ,there are also many points of resemblance in language1 manners1 and customs between the ,south ,sea ,islanders and the inhabitants of ,madagascar in the west2 the inhabitants of the ,aleutian and ,kurile islands in the north1 which stretch along the mouth of ,behring's ,straits1 and forms the chain which connects the old and new worlds1 c4 #bbd ,the ,sandwich ,islands1 with a population of #ejj1jjj1 are more than two thousand miles from the coast of ,south ,america4 ,how did the population of those islands get there8 ,certainly not in canoes over ocean waves of two thousand miles4 ,but ,i am told 'the ,sandwich islanders are ,polynesians2' not a bit of it2 they are two thousand miles north of the ,polynesian group1 with the same impossibility of canoe navigation1 and are as different in physiological traits of character and language from the ,polynesian1 as they are different from the ,american races4--,last ,rambles 7,catlin71 p4 #cag4 #ahfh4 ,captain ,king1 ,transactions on returning to ,sandwich ,islands1 c41 continuation of ,cook's voyages1 ,pinkerton 7xi4 #gcj7 says on the contrary3 ,the inhabitants of the ,sandwich ,islands are undoubtedly of the same race with those of ,new ,zealand1 the ,society and ,friendly ,islands1 ,easter ,islands1 and the ,marquesas4 ,this fact1 which1 extraordinary as it is1 might be thought sufficiently proved by the striking similarity of their manners and customs1 and the general resemblance of their persons is established beyond all controversy by the absolute identity of their language4 ,shortland says that the ,new ,zealanders1 when speaking of any old practice1 regarding the origin of which you may inquire1 have the expression constantly in their mouths1 ',e hara i te mea poka hou mai2 no ,hawaika mai ano4'--,it is not a modern invention2 but a practice brought from ,hawaiki1 ,sandwich ,islands74--,shortland's ,traditions of the ,new ,zealanders1 p4 #fa4 ,we may agree1 then1 that the ,mandans might have come by this route4 ,is there anything which makes it probable that they came8 ,well1 yes2 in the first place their name4 ,mr ,catlin tells us 7,o-kee-pa1 p4 #e71 ,the ,mandans 7,nu-mak-k-kee1 pheasants1 as they call themselves7 have been known from the time of the first visits made to them1 to the day of their destruction1 as one of the most friendly and hospitable tribes on the ,united ,states frontier4 ,it transpires1 therefore1 that they are called pheasants4 ,is the pheasant a native of ,america8--on the other hand1 is it not common on the opposite ,asiatic continent1 and on the islands adjacent to it from ,new ,guinea to the ,corea8 ,i have never heard of the pheasant in the ,american continent2#bbe but in reading the accounts of the missionaries of the ,corea 7the only foreigners who have penetrated into the country71 ,i read1 that clouds of pheasants and birds of all kinds perch at night in the branches of the trees 7,life of ,henri ,dorie1 translated by ,lady ,herbert2 ,burns ,oates1 p4 #gg72 and if the reader will turn to p4 #gi in the same ,life1 and will compare the description of the ,coreans1 which he will find there1 with the description and portraits of the ,mandans in ,mr ,catlin's ,o-kee-pa1 pp4 #d1 #e1 he will1 ,i think1 recognise a sufficient resemblance to warrant and sustain the presumption created by their name4#bbf #bbe ,as far as ,i can ascertain1 the pheasant is not a native of ,america4 ,yarrell speaks of it as ,asiatic1 and that it has been domesticated in all parts of the old continent4 ,so also ,gould4 ,of the ,american writers1 neither ,wilson1 ,audubon1 ,bonaparte1 ,nuttall1 ,richardson1 or ,jameson include the pheasant4 ,mr ,catlin1 however1 says1 p4 #dd3 ,from the translation of their name1 already mentioned 7,nu-mah-k-kee1 pheasants71 an important inference may be drawn in support of the probability of their having formerly lived much farther to the south1 as that bird does not exist on the prairies of the ,upper ,missouri1 and is not to be met with short of the hoary forests of ,ohio and ,indiana1 eighteen hundred miles south of the last residence of the ,mandans4 ,in their familiar name of ,mandan1 which is not an ,indian word1 there are equally singular and important features4 ,in the first place1 that they knew nothing of the name or how they got it2 and next1 that the word ,mandan in the ,welsh language ,mr ,c4's theory is that they are the survivors of ,prince ,madoc's expedition from ,wales in the fourteenth century means red dye1 of which further mention will be made4 ,on the legend of the ,welsh expedition1 vide ,warburton's ,conquest of ,canada1 ii41 ,appendix iv4 #bbf ,the ,indians resemble the people of north-eastern ,asia in form and feature more than any other of the human race2 their population is most dense along the districts nearest to ,asia2 and among the ,mexicans1 whose records of the past deserve credence1 there is a constant tradition that their ,aztec and ,toltec chiefs came from the north-west4--,warburton's ,conquest of ,canada1 i4 #aie4 ,brace 7,manual of ,ethnology1 p4 #aae7 says1 after noting that whereas the prominence in the head is anterior in the ,chinese rather than lateral1 as in the ,american ,indians and the ,tangusic tribes1 adds1 ,the peculiar distinguishing characteristics are the smallness of the eyes and the obliquity of the eyelids4 ,the nose is usually small and depressed1 though sometimes1 in favourable physical conditions1 natives are found with a slightly aquiline nose1 giving the face a close resemblance to that of the ,american ,indians or ,new ,zealanders4 ,refer to argument at p4 #gj1 with reference to the ,mozca ,indians4 ,to the peculiarity of name1 and resemblance of feature1 ,i shall now proceed to add the evidence of some traces of their peculiar customs1 or at least of some trace of the tradition out of which they arose4 ,i am not at present in possession of evidence to show this in the ,corea itself 7almost totally unknown and unexplored71 but in the island of ,formosa the same mode of burial is observed1 only that among the ,formosans other customs are added1 which remind one of the commemorative customs of the ,mandans4 ,,catlin1 p4 #h4 ,their 7,mandan7 dead1 partially embalmed1 are tightly wrapped in buffalo hides softened with glue and water1 and placed on slight scaffolds1 above the reach of animals or human hands1 each body having its separate scaffold4 ,the ,mandan dance was round the big canoe1 and a part of their ceremony on the roof of their wigwams4 ,among the ,opischeschaht ,indians 7vide ,field1 ,oct4 #b1 #ahfi7 there was a dance which they called the roof dance4 ,while the dance and song were going on below1 leaped up and down between the roof-board1 pushed aside for that purpose1 making a noise like thunder4444 ,after the dance was finished an old ,seshaaht came forward1 and remarked1 that as it was a dance peculiar to his tribe it could not be omitted1 though very injurious to the roof4 ,,ogilby',s ,,japan1 p4 #eb4 ,the manner of disposing of their 7,formosans'7 dead and funeral obsequies is thus3 ,when any one dies1 the corpse being laid out1 after twenty-four hours they elevate it upon a convenient scaffold or stage1 four feet high1 matted with reeds and rushes1 near which they make a fire1 so that the corpse may dry by degrees4444 ,they drink intoxicating liquors4 ,one beats on a drum made like a chest1 but longer and broader1 and turning the bottom upwards2 the women get up1 and two by two1 back to back1 move their legs and arms in a dancing time and measure1 which pace1 or taboring tread1 sends a kind of murmuring or doleful sound from the hollow tree4 ,n4,b4--,their boats were constructed by hollowing out a tree 7vide ,catlin's ,last ,rambles1 p4 #ii74bbg #bbg ,compare what ,ogilby 7p4 #cf7 says3 ,near ,firando 7,japan7 at an inlet of the sea stands an idol1 being nothing but a chest of wood1 about three feet high1 standing like an altar the big canoe was placed on end among the ,mandans1 whither women1 when they suppose they have conceived1 go in pilgrimage1 offering on their knees rice or other presents4 ,at p4 #acf1 at ,jado1 it is said1 somewhat farther stands a temple dedicated to all sorts of animals with a very high double roof4 7,query1 ,noah's ark87 ,in the ,illustrated ,london ,news1 ,january #ac1 #ahgb1 its correspondent from ,yokohama gives a short account of the ,japanese religious festivals1 in which among other coincidences ,i note the following3 ,the most absurd1 he says1 is one in which the foul fiend is simultaneously expelled from every house by dint of pelting him with boiled peas4 ,the devil is chased out of the town with a dance of derision1 by young fellows in grotesque costumes1 for the public mirth4 ,compare with the scene in the ,mandan ceremonies1 described by ,catlin1 vide supra1 p4 #bfj4 ,now1 compare with the above1 and also with the extracts from ,burton and ,catlin1 at p4 #bed1 remembering the prominence of the ox or bull 7the ox and bull dance7 in the ,mandan customs1 and the connection of the bull with ,nin or ,ninip1 p4 #bjj1 #bjc1 and other mythological figures of which ,i believe ,noah to have been the antitype4 ,the following description of the most curious traditional representation in ,japan 7,ogilby1 p4 #bgi73-- ,moreover1 besides the ox temple in ,meaco1 there is also to be seen the stately chapel dedicated to the ,creator of all things 7the ox in the above-mentioned temple is represented as breaking the mundane egg1 vide supra1 p4 #beg71 who is represented in a very strange manner4 ,in the middle of the temple is a great pot full of water surrounded with a wall1 seven feet high from the ground1 in the middle of which appears an exceeding great tortoise1 whose shell1 feet1 and head stands in the water2 out of its back rises the body of a great tree1 on the top of which sits a strange and horrible figure 444 then follows a good deal which has its explanation1 but must be curtailed 444 the image hath four arms 444 in one the hand grasps a cruse1 from whence water issues continually2 the other hand holds a sceptre4444 ,the tree whereon he sits is of brass1 444 about the middle of this tree an exceeding great serpent hath wreathed itself twice1 whose head and body is on the right side held fast by two horrible shapes1 the remaining part thereof to the tail1 two kings and one of ,japan sages stretch forth evidently representing the contending influences 7as in ,mandan dance71 one of the kings having the duplicated ,janus head1 supra1 p4 #bbj4bbh #bbh ,compare p4 #ddh in ,flint ,chips1 7,e4 ,t4 ,stevens74 ,the ,omahas possess a sacred shell1 which is regarded as an object of great sanctity by the whole nation4 ,it has been transmitted from generation to generation1 and its origin is unknown4 ,a skin lodge is appropriated to it1 and in this lodge a man1 appointed as a guard to the shell1 constantly resides4 ,it is placed upon a stand1 and is never suffered to touch the earth4 ,it is concealed from sight by a number of mats made of strips of skin plaited4 ,the whole forms a large package1 from which tobacco 7comp4 ,stevens' ,flint ,chips1 p4 #cae1 and ,catlin1 supra7 and the roots of trees 7comp4 supra1 p4 #aee71 and other objects are suspended1 c4 c4 ,at pp4 #dgg-gh there is perhaps a still more definite tradition of the ,deluge 7confused as usual with traditions of the ,creation7 in connection with the idol ,topan4 ,not far from ,mettogamma 7said the interpreter7 lies an exceeding high mountain 444 the top of which stand several temples which may be seen a great distance off at sea4 ,in these temples the ,bonzies worshipped that great ,god which formerly created the sun1 moon1 and stars1 but also fifteen lesser deities which some ages since conversed upon the earth 7compare pp4 #fc1 #ig47 ,then follows their account of the ,creation4 ,mankind not only increased in number but also in wickedness1 differing more and more from their heavenly extract1 growing still worse and worse1 mocking at thunder1 rainbows1 and fire2 nay1 they blasphemed the great ,god himself 7whom when the interpreter named1 he bowed his head to the ground71 whereupon ,he called ,his inferior deities about ,him1 telling them that ,he resolved to destroy and ruin all things 444 and make a round globe1 in which the four elements should be all resolved into their former mass2 and chiefly ,he commanded the idol ,topan to make thunder balls to shoot through the air and fire all the kingdoms with lightning 444 so that none were saved except one man and his family1 that had entertained and duly worshipped the gods4 ,of the god ,topan it had been previously said that some years since he saw the temple of the idol ,topan1 whose image stood on a copper altar1 cast like clouds1 himself armed as a warrior1 a coronet helmet on his head1 his hand grasping a mighty club1 and seeming to fly through the sky and moving his club to occasion thunder4 ,when it thundered1 a ,bonzi1 whose head was adorned with consecrated leaves ,query1 the olive or willow8 which no thunder could harm1 offered several fishes4 7,comp4 #aig1 #bjc47 ,vide also p4 #id1 representation of the fish-god in the person of their god ,canon where we read of their gods ,canon and ,camis or ,chamis2 if we were to substitute ,canaan and ,cham1 quid vetat8#bbi #bbi ,vide ,japanese tradition of the ,deluge 7,bertrand1 ,dict4 des ,relig41 ,gainet1 i4 #bjh2 also id471 it is said that the ,japanese commemorate this event in their third annual festival1 which takes place on the fifth day of the fifth month4 ,compare with ,mandan's1 supra4 ,to complete the circle of evidence1 as regards the general tradition1 ,i must add the following extracts from ,captain ,cook's voyages1 i4 #aaj 7,london1 #ahdf73--;,in the island of ,huahieine1 thirty-one leagues from ,otaheite ,n4-,w41 ,captain ,cook came upon an erection1 of which he says--,the general resemblance between this repository and the ark of the ,lord among the ,jews is remarkable2 but it is still more remarkable that upon inquiring of a boy what it was called1 he said ',ewharre no ,eatua1' it is the house of ,god4 ,he could1 however1 give no account of its signification or use4 ,at p4 #aaa1 ,saw 7at ,uliatea7 several ,ewharre-no-,eatua or houses of ,god1 to which carriage poles were attached as at ,huahieine4444 ,from thence we went to a long house not far distant1 where among rolls of cloth and several other things we saw the model of a canoe1 about three feet long1 to which were tied eight human jawbones eight the number saved in the ark4 ,compare p4 #aig with ,kabiri4 ,compare with ,ogilby 7,japan1 #agg71 where the god ,canon 7,canaan7 is represented with seven heads on his breast1 eight with himself1 he having been substituted for ,noah as the head of the race4 ,captain ,cook adds1 however1 ,we had already learnt that these1 like scalps among the ,indians of ,north ,america1 were trophies of war1 and suggests that the canoe may be a symbol of invasion4 ,that ,i must leave to the reader to decide1 but the heads might be trophies of conquest1 and at the same time memorial heads1--the memorial heads having necessarily been replaced many times since the custom was first instituted4#bcj #bcj ,captain ,cook1 speaking of their dances 7p4 #aae71 says1 ,between the dances of the women the men performed a kind of dramatic interlude1 in which there was dialogue as well as dancing2 but we were not sufficiently acquainted with their language to understand the subject4 ,some gentlemen saw a much more regular entertainment of the dramatic kind1 which was divided into four acts4 ,vide ,abbe ,gainet1 ,la ,bible sans la ,bible1 i4 #bac1 quotes l',abbe ,domenech1 who speaks of the dance of the ,deluge among many nations of the north and west of ,america4 ,gainet also says that there were two distinct traditions of the ,deluge in the east and west groups of the ,society ,islands 7,otaheite74 ,l',abbe ,gainet 7i4 #baa7 gives an account of the ,mandans from ,ceremones ,religieuses1 i4 #g1 which it will be interesting to compare with ,catlin1 as it was written a century previous to his visit4 ,the ,mandans pretend that the ,deluge was formerly raised up against them by the white men to destroy their ancestors4444 ,then the first man1 whom they regard as one of their divinities1 inspired mankind with the idea of constructing upon an eminence a town and fortress in wood1 and promised them that the water should not pass that point4 ,they followed his advice and constructed the ark on the banks of the ,heart river4 ,it was of a very large size1 so that a part of their nation found safety there whilst the rest perished4 ,in memory of this memorable event they place in each of their villages a small model of this edifice which may account for the erect position of 'the big canoe'1 this model still exists4 ,the waters abated after that1 and to this day they celebrate1 in memory of this ark1 the fte of the ',okippe1' which lasts four days4 ,this leads me to the final question1 ,when was this custom instituted8 ,up to this ,i have not considered whether the custom was good or bad1 demoniac or only corrupted2 and as to the time of its institution ,i have merely assumed from the fact of its universality that it was primeval4 ,before expressing my opinion1 ,i must fortify myself with an extract from the ,rev4 ,w4 ,smith's very able work on the ,pentateuch4#bca #bca ,longmans1 #ahfh1 i4 #bij4 ,strange1 too1 though it may appear1 there is much in the outward ceremonial of the ,levitical worship that indicates an ,egyptian type4 ,the fact need startle no one4 ,for it is derogatory neither to the holiness of the ,almighty nor to the inspiration of his delegate1 that ,moses should have borrowed from others rites which were good in themselves1 and which became idolatrous only then1 when employed in the worship of false gods4 ,the most of external forms are in themselves indifferent and receive their determinate value from the feeling that prompts them1 and the object to which they are directed3 when given to ,god they are divine worship--when given to idols1 they are idolatry4 ,nor is inspiration jeopardised because the material details may have come from a human source4 ,care and study and observation are not dispensed with in the mind that receives the divine communications2 and ,moses was instructed in all the wisdom and learning of the ,egyptians for the very purpose of enabling him to use it to the best advantage 444 as the ,church consecrated to a higher purpose the temples and the rites and festivals found among the pagan populations at their conversion4 ,we need not then be scandalised if we find the ark of ,jehovah to be the counterpart of the shrine of ,amun4 ,the resemblance strikes us at once on a glance at the woodcut token from ,lepsius' ,denkmler1 ,ab4 iii41 ,bl4 #aji4 ,let the reader refer to the engravings in ,rev4 ,w4 ,smith's ,pentateuch1 #bia1 #bib4 ,dr ,smith does not discuss the point further1 only he says 7p4 #bid71 ,in ,egypt it is the canopied boat in which the ,deity is steered on the heavenly ocean2 in ,israel it is the covered chest1 the form best adapted for holding the stone tables of the law4 ,but if the canopied boat should have corresponded among the ,egyptians to the big canoe among the ,mandans1 and the other similar memorials we have come upon1 what more appropriate symbol could ,moses have incorporated8 ,was not the ark of the covenant1 in which the law was preserved in the widespread inundation of corruption1 the counterpart of the ark in which mankind1 in the persons of ,noah and his family1 were saved8 and in carrying on and embodying the tradition1 we may see a motive why there may have been an intentional alteration of the symbol--viz4 in order to wean his people from the corruption into which the whole ,egyptian ceremonial had sunk8#bcb ,and why should it not have been so8 ,is there not a probability and fitness in the conjecture of some such commemorative sacrifices and memorials among mankind when they lived together before the dispersion in the times immediately following the ,deluge8 #bcb ,cardinal ,wiseman in his letters to ,john ,poynder1 ,esq4 7,essays on ,various ,subjects1 i4 #beg71 says1 ,dr ,spencer1 a learned divine of the ,established ,church1 published two folio volumes replete with extraordinary erudition1 entitled ',de ,legibus ,hebrorum ritualibus et eorum ratione1' which has gone through many editions both here and on the ,continent4 ,now1 the entire drift and purport of this work is manifestly twofold--first1 to prove that the great design of ,god1 in giving rites and ceremonies to the ,jews1 was to prevent their falling into idolatry2 secondly1 to demonstrate that almost every practice1 rite1 ceremony1 and act so given was directly borrowed from the ,egyptian heathens2 444 that whether we speak of the more solemn and especial injunctions1 or of the minutest details of the ceremonial law1 of circumcision and of sacrifice in all its varieties1 and with all its distinctive ceremonies of purification and lustrations and new moons2 of the ark of the covenant and the cherubim2 of the temple and its oracles2 of the ,urim and ,thummim1 and the emissary goat2 of them all ,spencer has endeavoured to prove1 and that to the satisfaction of many learned men1 that they pre-existed among the ,egyptians and other neighbouring nations4 ,i have not met with ,dr ,spencer's work4 ,i may mention1 however1 the pomegranates in the ,levitical robe as an instance4 ,vide references in this chapter and appendix4 ,,appendix ,,to ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,the ,,pongol ,,festival4 ,the ,pongol ,festival in ,southern ,india1 by ,charles ,e4 ,govat4 ,journal of the ,royal ,asiatic ,society of ,great ,britain and ,ireland1 new series1 vol4 v41 part i4 7#ahgj47 ,i had seen the ,pongol1 the touching domestic festival it is now my chief object to describe4 ,it had proved by its simple pathos that the ,hindus were akin to the noblest nations of the world1 and that in their antiquity they were worthy of the honour that has come to them of being the best and the least altered representatives of the ',juventus ,mundi1' which all nations count to have been the golden age4 ,he contrasts it with the worship in the great temple at ,siringham near ,trichinopoly1 in which there was ample justification for every epithet employed by ,ward1 ,dubois1 or ,wilberforce4 ,yet the ,pongol declared with equal force in favour of domestic love and chastity1 of simple thanksgiving and rural contentment4444 ,there is much reason to suppose that the ,pongol is one of the most complete and interesting of these remnants of primitive life4 ,that it is primitive is shown by the fact that the old ,vedic deities are alone worshipped4 ,indra is the presiding deity4 ,agni is the main object of worship4 ,a further proof of this point is given by the efforts that have constantly been made by the ,brahmans to corrupt the ritual1 and introduce ,pauranic deities4 ,krishna is always declared by the ,brahmans to be the ,pongol god1 but the tradition itself bears witness that the feast is older than the god4 ,the tale is that when the great wave of ,krishna worship passed over the ,peninsula1 the people were so enamoured of him that they ceased to perform the ,pongol rites to ,indra4 ,this made the latter deity so angry that he poured down a flood upon the earth4 ,the affrighted people ran to ,krishna1 who seized the great mountain ,govardhanas1 wrenched it from its place1 and held it aloft on the tip of his little finger1 like some huge umbrella4 ,the people then ran beneath with their flocks and were saved4444 ,the occasion of the festival is also primitive1 for the ,pongol is another feast of ingathering1 the centre of ,hebrew festivals1 as this is of those of ,southern ,india4444 ,the ,pongol is remarkable1 as will be seen1 for the strange combination of pastoral1 hunting1 and agricultural life4 ,there are 'harvest homes' in almost every nation1 but ,i do not know of any other example of the combination4 ,the great days of the feast are two--one of these devoted to the new crops1 the other to the cattle alone 444 while the feast winds up with a grand hunt1 first of the cattle themselves and next of a hare4 ,compare ch4 vii42 compare ,patagonian4 ,long before the commencement of the feast an unwonted activity pervades native society4 ,the ,pongol is the social festival of the year1 and must be celebrated with due honour1 else an ineffaceable stain will rest on the family name4 ,it is the ,christmas and ,whitsuntide of ,england made into one4444 ,so soon as the rains have finished1 and this may be expected by about the first week in ,december1 the carpenter1 the builder1 and the artists are in full work repairing the houses4444 ,the sides of the road in the bazaar are heaped with 'chatties' of all sizes and shapes4 ,presents are bought for children4 ,distant relatives have no fields of their own from which to get their rice1 so a sack of the new grain from the ancestral acres goes off to each4 ,to this is added a pot of ghee1 a set of brass pots1 or perhaps a jewel2 that the ,pongol may not lack wherewith to make it joyful4 ,creditors and debtors are often brought then to a compromise1 or the process is postponed till after ,pongol4 ,all must be ready by the early part of ,january1 when1 according to the ,hindu astrologers1 the sun enters the tropic of ,capricorn4 ,the feast hangs upon this1 and it will be seen that the most interesting event of the celebration must exactly coincide with the passage of the sun4 ,the festival commences on the previous day1 and lasts for seven days1 of which the second marks the sun's passage1 and is called ,mah 7or great7 ,pongol1 444 the next day is ,bhgi ,pongol1 or ,pongol of rejoicing1 equally well known by the name of ,indra1 444 bonfires and torches are illuminated 7compare ,boulanger1 lib4 i4 ch4 ii47 ,the feast is now begun1 and all turn from the fire1 as it is extinguished by the rising sun1 to the bath1 with which every religious rite must commence4 ,no image is used during the whole course of the celebration1 except that of ,ganesa4444 ,indra is represented on ordinary occasions as a white man sitting on an elephant4 ,in his left hand is a bow 7compare ch4 xv471 and in his right a thunderbolt1 while his body is studded with a thousand eyes4 ,query1 a reference to the peacock8 ,compare ch4 xv4 ,agni has also his special image1 that of a stout man1 red and hairy as ,esau1 riding on a goat compare ,bacchus1 p4 #bad4 ,srya is also a red man1 sitting on a water lily4 ,he has four arms and three eyes4 ,but none of these 7deities7 are known at ,pongol any more than they were at the time when the hymns of the ,rig ,veda were composed4444 ,the gifts are laid out on trays1--a vase of sugar1 or perhaps an idol1 peacock or elephant1 round which will be grouped smaller works in sugar for the children4444 ,one thing may not be forgotten1 that is a lime compare 'gourd1' p4 #bef4 ,this must be as large as money can buy1 and then be carefully encased in gold leaf till it looks like one of the golden apples of antiquity4 ,the next day is ,mah 7or great7 ,pongol4 ,it is often called ,srya ,pongol4 ,at noon the sun will cross the equator1 and bring the culminating glory of the feast4 ,so great a day must commence with appropriate ceremonial1 and in this instance it is bathing4 ,in country places the women run early in the morning to the nearest tank and plunge bodily in without undressing4 ,this is alluded to by ,mr ,gover as an innovation so uncomfortable and possibly dangerous2 but no evidence is adduced of its being an innovation1 and its being the custom of the country parts would incline us to the contrary belief4 ,the men also bathe very carefully1 as if the occasion were very solemn4 ,reference is made to the ,rig ,veda1 i4 #bc1 #ae-bd 7,wilson1 i4 #eg72 but in these verses occur the words1 waters take away whatever sin has been found in me4 ,dripping wet1 the women proceed1 without changing their clothes1 to prepare the feast1 444 new chatties1 or earthen vessels had been purchased for the occasion2 one of them is now taken and is filled with rice1 milk1 sugar1 dholghee or clarified butter1 grain1 and other substances1 calculated to produce a tasty dish4444 ,the ingathering must be celebrated with things that have just been garnered4 ,usually ,hindoos will not eat new rice1 as it is indigestible 7refer to ,leviticus xxiii4 #aj-ad74 ,another incident is that--,the head of the house approaches the image 7of ,ganesa71 and performs pja4 ,then follows a procession of the young married couples to propitiate their mothers-in-law4444 ,so a present1 the best the house can provide1 is carefully put together on a tray4 ,it may be fruit1 or brass pots1 or ghee1 or whatever else may be thought most acceptable4 ,then a small procession is formed4 ,in front go three or four men1 beating on tom-toms and blowing pipes4 ,then follows the gift1 held aloft4 ,over it1 if the family be respectable1 is held an umbrella1 carried by a servant who walks behind the bearer of the gift4444 ,the nearest relative steps forward and asks that the daughter and her husband may come to the 'boiling1' to fill up the family circle4 ,then follows the boiling of the pot2 'as the milk boils1 so will the coming year be4' ,the ,pongol is one long series of visits1 entertainments1 and social joys4 7,comp4 ,mandan ,festival1 supra47 ,the third day of the feast is ,mttu ,pongol1 or the ,pongol of the cattle4 ,it commences with a general wash4 ,they betake themselves to the nearest sacred tank1 driving or dragging with them the whole bovine possessions of the village4 ,they are then driven home1 and adornment commences2 the horns are carefully painted red1 blue1 green1 or yellow1--if the owner be rich1 gold leaf is employed1--heavy garlands of flowers placed on the horns4 ,meanwhile the women have prepared another new chatty1 filling it with water1 steeping within saffron1 cotton seeds1 and mangora leaves4 ,the master of the ceremonial1 usually the head of the house1 comes for it1 and places himself at the head of a procession of all the men--the women may not see the rite we now describe4 ,in solemn silence they march round each animal four times1 while the first man sprinkles the bitter water upon it and the ground as often as they pass the four cardinal points of the compass4444 ,this done1 the women and children are again admitted4 ,the patient cattle are led out one by one to receive their final adornment4444 ,then1 at a given signal1 every rope is untied1 every tom-tom1 pipe1 and guitar is banged or blown to the extreme of its endurance1 and in an instant the herd1 hitherto so patient1 is careering down the street in an extremity of terror4444 ,any one may possess himself of whatever is carried by the cattle4 ,no little skill and a vast amount of courage are shown by the 'timid' ,hindoos in this dangerous and exciting pell-mell4 ,the next day is ,kanen ,pongol1 or ,pongol of the calves4 ,on the evening of this day we find the only token of corruption in the ceremonial4 444 ,then follows a dance1 just as is described by ,catlin as closing the ,mandan ceremonial1 in which very similar scenes occur4 ,before adverting to the points of contrast between the ,pongol and the ,mandan and ,dahoman ceremonies1 ,i will give an extract from a book recently published1 giving an account of a country hitherto unexplored--viz4 ,northern ,patagonia4 ,traces ,i think will be recognised of the same primitive custom1 though with evidences of corruption4 ,three ,years ,slavery among the ,patagonians1 by ,guinnard 7,bentley1 #ahga71 p4 #bfi4bcc #bcc ,much doubt has been expressed as to the veracity of ,m4 ,guinnard's narrative1 but the scenes and customs referred to are not likely to have been invented2 and on the supposition of a fictitious narrative 7although ,i see nothing incredible7 they will probably have been imported from true narratives of other tribes4 ,in either case they supply additional evidence4 ,at certain periods of the year the ,indians keep religious festivals4 ,the first takes place in the summer1 and is consecrated to ,vita-ounetrou 7the god of goodness7 for the purpose of thanking him for all his past favours1 and of begging him to continue them in the future4 ,it is generally the grand cacique who fixes the date and duration of the festival4444 ,the preparations are made with all the religious pomp of which they are capable2 the ,indians grease their hair and paint their faces with greater care than usual4444 ,at the commencement of the ceremony the women move their tents provisionally to the centre of the spot chosen by the cacique4 ,the men do not arrive until these preparations are finished1 they ride three times round the place at full gallop1 shouting their war cry and shaking their lances4 ,then1 their rides ended1 they range themselves in single file1 and tilt their lances with such perfect regularity as to make it a striking sight4 ,the women afterwards take the places of their husbands 7compare ,catlin1 sup41 p4 #bfj71 who1 after dismounting and tying up their horses1 form a second rank behind them4 ,the dance then commences without change of place1 except from right to left4 ,the women sing in a plaintive tone laughter being expressly forbidden during the whole continuance of the ceremonies1 accompanying themselves by striking a wooden drum4 ,compare ,catlin1 sup41 #beg4 ,it is also said 7,guinnard1 p4 #aih71 ,the drum is composed of a sort of wooden bowl1 more or less large1 over which a wild-cat skin is stretched1 or a piece of the paunch of a horse4 ,this instrument 444 is much used by them1 especially in their religious festivals and character dances4 ,the drum is decorated with colours and designs similar to those on their faces4 ,the men pirouette1 limping upon the opposite leg to that of the women4 ,compare ,catlin1 #bed1 #bfj4 ,at a signal given by the cacique presiding over the festival1 cries of alarm are raised1 the men spring into their saddles1 abruptly interrupting the dance to take part in a fantastic cavalcade round the site of the festival1 all waving their weapons1 and raising the sinister cry they utter in their pillages4 ,in the intervals of these exciting diversions everybody goes visiting in the hope of tasting a little rotted milk kept in a horse-hide4 ,compare ,pongol ,festival1 p4 #bhj4 ,at a very early hour on the fourth day1 to close the ceremony1 a young horse1 an ox1 and two sheep1 given by the richest men amongst them1 are sacrificed to their god4 ,the head turned towards the east1 and the heart still palpitating is hung upon a lance and inclined towards the rising sun4 ,the second festival takes place in the autumn2 it is celebrated in honour of ,houacouvou 7director of the evil spirits74 ,the object of it is to conjure him to preserve them from all enchantment4 ,as in the first festival1 the ,indians dress themselves in their best1 and assemble by tribes only1 headed by their cacique4 ,an assemblage of all the cattle takes place en masse4 ,the men form a double circle around1 galloping unceasingly in opposite directions1 so that none of these unruly animals may escape4 ,they invoke ,houacouvou aloud1 throwing down1 drop by drop1 fermented milk out of bull's horns1 handed to them by their wives1 while they are riding round the cattle4 ,after repeating this ceremony three or four times1 they sprinkle the horses and oxen with whatever remains of the milk1 with the view1 they say1 of preserving them from all maladies2 this done1 each man separates his own cattle1 and drives it to some distance1 then returns for the purpose of assembling round the cacique1 who1 in a long and fervid address1 advises them never to forget ,houacouvou in their prayers1 and to lose no time in preparing themselves to please him1 by carrying desolation amongst the ,christians1 and increasing the number of their own flocks and herds4 ,this festival1 therefore1 in its original conception would not appear to be a worship of the evil spirit1 but of him who curbs him2 the same idea of the subordination of the evil spirit will be seen in ,catlin's account of the ,mandans4 ,there is nothing certainly in this account which directly connects these ,patagonian ceremonies with the diluvian commemorations1 unless1 perhaps1 the sacred drum2 but there is much in common with the ,pongol and the ,mandan which we have seen to have been commemorative4 ,the prominence of sun worship will not have escaped observation2 but this discovery cannot militate against my position1 for ,i have already shown 7p4 #afj7 that such admixture was probable1 and also indicated how it was likely to have come about4 ,any hostile argument which would seek to deprive those ceremonies of their significance must be directed to the extrusion of the diluvian symbols4 ,further trace of these diluvian ceremonies might be traced in the ,buddhist systems2 but it would open out too large a question for discussion here4 ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,sir ,,john ,,lubbock ,,on ,,tradition4 ,,de ,,maistre',s ,,view4#bcd ,we have little knowledge of the times which preceded the ,deluge4444 ,a single consideration interests us1 and it must never be lost sight of1 and that is1 that chastisements are ever proportioned to crimes1 and crimes always proportioned to the knowledge of the criminal2 in such sort that the ,deluge supposes unheard-of crimes1 and that these crimes suppose a knowledge infinitely transcending that which we possess4444 ,this knowledge1 freed from the evil which had rendered it so noxious1 survived in the first family the destruction of the human race4 ,we are blinded as to the nature and advance of science by a gross sophism which has fascinated every eye2 it is to judge of times when men saw effects in their causes by those in which men painfully ascend from effects to causes1 in which they are only concerned with effects1 in which they say it is useless to occupy themselves with causes1 and in which they do not know what constitutes a cause4 ,they never cease repeating--',think of the time that has been required to know such and such a thing4' ,what inconceivable blindness6 ,a moment only was required4 ,if man would know the cause of a single phenomenon of nature1 he would probably comprehend all the rest4 ,we are unwilling to see that truths1 the most difficult to discover1 are very easy to understand4444 ',these things1' as ,plato says1 'are perfectly and easily learned if any one teaches them1 ,greek3 ei didaskoi tis2 but1' he adds1 'no one will teach them us1 unless1 indeed1 ,god shows him the road1 ,greek3 all oud an didaxeien ei m ,theos yphgoito4' ',i doubt not1' said ,hippocrates1 'that the arts were in the first instance favours 7,greek3 then charitas7 granted to men by the gods4'444 ,listen to sage antiquity in its account of the first men3 it will tell you that they were marvellous men1 and that beings of a superior order deigned to favour them with the most precious communications4 ,on this point there is no disagreement1 444 reason1 revelation1 all human tradition make up a demonstration which the mouth only can contradict4 ,not only1 then1 did mankind commence with science1 but with a science different from ours1 and superior to ours4444 ,no one knows to what epoch remounts1 ,i do not say the early commencements of society1 but the great institutions1 the profound knowledge1 and the most magnificent monuments of human industry and human power4444 ,asia1 having been the theatre of the greatest marvels1 it is not astonishing that its people should have preserved a leaning to the marvellous stronger than what is natural to man in general1 and than each one recognises in himself individually4 ,hence it comes that they have always shown so little taste and talent for our science of conclusions4 ,one would say rather that they recalled something of primitive science and of the era of intuition4 ,would the enchained eagle ask for a balloon to raise himself into the air8 ,no1 he would demand only that his fetters should be broken4 ,and who knows if these people are not destined yet to contemplate sights which will be refused to the cavilling genius of ,europe8 ,however this may be1 observe1 ,i pray you1 that it is impossible to think of modern art without seeing it constantly environed with all the contrivances of the intellect and all the methods of art4444 ,on the contrary4 ,so far as it is possible to discover the science of primitive times at such an enormous distance1 we see it always free and isolated1 flying rather than marching1 and presenting in all its characteristics something of the rial and supernatural4#bce444 ,but then comes the corollary4444 ,if all men descend from the three couples who repeopled the universe1 and if the human race commenced with knowledge1 the savage cannot be more1 as ,i have said to you1 than a branch detached from the social tree4444 ,now1 what matter does it make at what epoch such and such a branch was separated from the tree8 ,it suffices that it is detached3 no doubt as to its degradation2 and ,i venture to say no doubt as to the cause of degradation1 which can only have been some crime4 ,a chief of a nation having altered the principle of morality in his household by one of those prevarications which1 so far as we can judge1 are no longer possible in the actual state of things1 because happily our knowledge is no longer such as to allow us to become culpable in this degree2 this chief of a nation1 ,i say1 transmits the curse to his posterity2 and every constant force being accelerating in its nature1 this degradation1 weighing incessantly upon his descendants1 has ended in making them what we call savages4 ,two causes extremely different have thrown a deceptive cloud over the lamentable state of savages3 the one of ancient date1 the other belonging to our century4444 ,one cannot for an instant regard the savage without reading the curse written1 ,i do not say only in his soul1 but even in the exterior form of his body4 ,he is an infant1 robust1 yet deformed and ferocious1 in whom the flame of intelligence no longer throws more than a lurid and intermittent glare4444 ,i cannot abandon this subject without suggesting an important observation3 ,the barbarian who is intermediate between the civilised man and the savage1 has been and may be again civilised by some sort of religion2 but the savage1 properly so called1 has never been so except by ,christianity4 ,it is a prodigy of the first order1 a species of redemption1 exclusively reserved to the true priesthood4#bcf444 ,for the rest1 we must not confound the savage with the barbarian4 #bcd ,i need not remind my reader that these speculations of ,de ,maistre anticipated by many years the analogous1 though at the same time independent1 conclusions of ,archbishop ,whately1 in his lecture ,on the ,origin of ,civilisation1 published in #ahed4 #bce ,we ought then to recognise that the state of civilisation and of science is1 in a certain sense1 the natural and primitive state of man4 ,thus1 all oriental traditions commenced with a state of perfection and light1 and1 ,i repeat it1 of supernatural light2 and ,greece--lying ,greece1 which 'has dared everything in history'--renders homage to this truth1 in placing its ,golden ,age at the beginning of things4 ,it is no less remarkable that it does not attribute to the following ages1 even to the iron age1 the state of savagery1 so that all that it has told us of those primitive men living on acorns1 c41 puts it in contradiction with itself1 and can only have reference to particular cases1 i4e4 to some races degraded1 and then reclaimed to a state of nature1 which is a state of civilisation4--,de ,maistre's ,soires de ,st ,petersbourg i4 ,deux3 ,entretien1 p4 #ih4 #bcf ,i consider that this remark has been fully substantiated in ,marshall's ,christian ,missions4 ,no language could possibly have been invented1 either by a single man1 who could not have extorted obedience1 or by many who would not have made themselves understood to each other4444 ,but ,i would wish1 before concluding this subject1 to recommend to your notice an observation which has always struck me4 ,whence comes it that in the primitive language of every ancient people1 we find words which necessarily suppose a knowledge foreign to these people8 ,whence1 for instance1 have the ,greeks1 three thousand years ago at least1 found the epithet 'physizoos' 7giving or possessing life71 which ,homer sometimes gives to the earth84444 ,where have they taken the still more singular epithet of 'philomate' 7liking or thirsting for blood71 given to this same earth in a tragedy8 7,euripides1 ,phoen4 v4 #agi74 schylus had alluded before 'to the earth drinking the blood of the two rival brothers1 the one slain by the other4'#bcg ,humboldt 7',monum4 des ,peuples ,indignes de l',amerique1' ,paris1 #ahaf7 has said3 ',many idioms which at present belong only to barbarous nations seem to be the remains of rich and flexible languages1 which indicate a high culture4444 ,but tell me1 ,i pray you1 how it entered the heads of the ancient ,latins1 at a time when they were only acquainted with the arts of war and of tillage1 to express by the same word the idea of prayer and of punishment8 ,who taught them to call fever the purifier1 or the expiator8'#bch ,would not one say that there was here a judgment1 a veritable knowledge of the cause1 by virtue of which the people affirmed the name so justly8 ,but do you believe that these sorts of judgments could possibly have belonged to a time when they scarcely knew how to write1 when the ,dictator dug his garden1 and in which they composed verses which ,varro and ,cicero no longer understood8444 ,the ,greeks had preserved some obscure traditions in this regard--,mr ,gladstone has shown them to be neither few nor obscure1--and who knows if ,homer does not attest the same truth1 perhaps without knowing it1 when he speaks of certain men and certain things 'which the gods called after one manner1 and men after another8'--,count ,joseph de ,maistre1 ,soires de ,st ,petersbourg1 i4 ,deux3 ,entretien4#bci #bcg ,compare with ,gainet1 i4 #ib1 #ic4 #bch ,now it is clear that the train of thought which leads from purification to penance1 or from purification to punishment1 reveals a moral and even a religious sentiment in the conception and naming of poena1 and it shows us that in the very infancy of criminal justice punishment was looked upon 7,mr ,max ,mller is speaking with reference to what ,i may call briefly the ,sanscrit epoch7 not simply a retribution or revenge1 but as a correction1 as a removal of guilt4 ,we do not feel the presence of these early thoughts when we speak of corporal punishment or castigation2 yet castigation too was originally chastening1 from 'castus1' pure2 and 'incestum' was impurity or sin1 which1 according to ,roman law1 the priests had to make good1 or to punish by a 'supplicium1' or supplication or prostration before the gods4 #bci ,compare with ,max ,mller1 ,chips1 ii4 #bef4 ,against this view of ,de ,maistre1 which ,i consider to be indirectly sustained by the testimony of all antiquity1 stands the theory of ,sir ,john ,lubbock4 ,there is the constant historical tradition and testimony of the human race on one side1 and there is the history of ,pre-historic ,times on the other4 ,nevertheless1 ,i venture to say1 that the author of ,pre-historic ,times only takes up with man at the point where ,de ,maistre leaves him4 ,of course ,i do not seek to detach ,sir ,john ,lubbock from the evidence he has collected2 neither do ,i forget that he is the representative of an opinion and a school2 at any rate1 that there is an opinion of which he is the most conspicuous exponent4 ,so far as my limited acquaintance with the special subjects with which ,sir ,john ,lubbock deals extends 7and with these ,i am only indirectly concerned71 he appears perfectly straightforward and candid2 and1 moreover1 ,i must acknowledge my obligations to him1 for he has written with remarkable breadth and ability2 and it is with the aid of the interesting matter which he has accumulated1#bdj expressly in disparagement of tradition1 that ,i venture to undertake to reinstate it in honour4 #bdj ,vide chapter on ,savage ,life in ,pre-historic ,times4 ,neither do ,i wish to ignore that ,sir ,john ,lubbock's main argument is the geological argument derived from the discovery of the fossils and implements in the drift4 ,but on this point ,i beg to be allowed to say a word in protest4 ,as a geologist ,sir ,john ,lubbock may be entitled to rely mainly upon the geological evidence of a palolithic age2#bda but as an ethnologist dealing with history and writing on the subject of tradition1 his argument1 however incontrovertible he may deem it1 sinks to the second rank2 and secondary ,i shall take the liberty of considering it4 ,on the same grounds1 though ,i think with more reason1 that ,sir ,j4 ,lubbock seeks to be relieved from the embarrassing interference of tradition 7,pre-historic ,times1 p4 #ccf71 ,i protest1 when tradition is the subject-matter of the discussion1 against a geological argument being brought to take the ground from under our feet6 #bda ,it may perhaps be doubtful to what extent ,sir ,j4 ,lubbock maintains his theory of a ,stone ,age2 although ,sir ,john formally excludes ,china and ,japan from the argument1 he nevertheless appears to me to assume the existence of universal transitional periods through which the human race necessarily passed4 ,it would appear that pre-historic archology may be divided into four great epochs4 ,firstly1 that of the ,drift3 when man shared the possession of ,europe with the mammoth1 c4 ,this we may call the 'palolithic period4' ,secondly1 the later or polished ,stone ,age2 a period1 c4 ,thirdly1 the ,bronze ,age1 c4 ,fourthly1 the ,iron ,age4 ,sir ,john adds1 certainly--,in order to prevent misapprehension1 it may be well to state at once1 that for the present ,i only apply this classification to ,europe1 though in all probability it might be extended also to the neighbouring parts of ,asia and ,africa4 ,as regards other civilised countries1 ,china and ,japan for instance1 we as yet know nothing of their pre-historic archology4 ,i should rather say1 as we as yet have no reason to suppose that they have ever lost the knowledge of metals4 ,it is evident also that some nations1 such as the ,fuegians1 ,andamaners1 c41 are even now only in an age of stone4 ,but even in this limited sense1 the above classification has not met with general acceptance2 there are still some archologists who believe that the arms and implements--stone1 bronze1 and iron--were used contemporaneously4--,pre-historic ,times1 pp4 #b1 #c4 ,i think that the concluding sentence makes it quite clear that ,sir ,john assumes the existence of universal progressive periods as above4 ,in any case it may be proved in this way4 ,sir ,john argues upon the hypothesis of the unity of the human race2 and ,i also think that he will not refuse the unbroken testimony to the fact of the civilisation of ,europe from ,asia4 ,either1 then1 the first colonisation took place when ,asia was in the state of the ,drift1 or in the later polished ,stone ,age1 or else the migration left ,asia with the knowledge of bronze or iron4 ,on the latter supposition the argument ,i contend for is conceded1 and original civilisation and subsequent degeneracy is established4 ,to escape this alternative the universality of a ,stone ,age in ,asia as well as in ,europe1 must be proved or assumed4 ,this assumption ,i maintain is essential to ,sir ,john's argument4 ,in the first place1 ,i beg to urge that if ,sir ,j4 ,lubbuck's argument be well founded1 ,professor ,rawlinson's reconstruction of ,assyrian history cannot be true4 ,now ,i assume that the one order of facts is as well established as the other4 ,if ,professor ,rawlinson takes back ,assyrian history and corroborates history and tradition by the evidence of recent excavations to ,b4,c4 #bbcd1 identifies the ,erech of ,scripture with the ,huruk of the cuneiform tablets and the modern ,urka2 similarly identifies the other three cities of ,nimrod2 and1 finally1 identifies ,nimrod himself as ,bil-,nipru2 and if1 further1 bronze implements are found 7,rawlinson1 i4 #aja1 #abc1 #baa71 along with flint doubtless 7but this was common throughout the bronze age1 as ,sir ,john himself admits71 at an early period2--and bronze1 though comparatively rare1 yet exists among the very early ,assyrian remains--there seems no good reason to suppose that the knowledge of metals1 which we know 7,gen4 iv4 #bb7 to have existed before the ,deluge1 and which the construction of the ark presupposes1 was ever lost4 ,a stone age1 exclusive of metals1 common to the whole world and to all mankind1 is therefore an untenable hypothesis according to the testimony of history4 ,if it existed anywhere it must have been only partially1 locally1 and contemporaneously with this traditional knowledge of metals1 which seems to be historically proved4#bdb ,i may at least be permitted to believe in the accuracy of ,professor ,rawlinson's conclusions1 and to regard them as the verdict of history3 and if the historical arguments so pronounce1 why should the geological or palontological argument override it8 ,is not history supreme on its own ground--and if ,scripture is always found in perfect consistency with history1 is it not as much as in strictness we should have a right to expect8 ,tradidit mundum disputationi eorum 7,eccles4 iii4 #aa74 #bdb ,wilson 7,archologia of ,scotland1 #cfj7 says1 ,but after all it is to ,asia we are forced to return for the true source of nearly all our primitive arts1 nor will the canons of archology be established on a safe foundation till the antiquities of that older continent have been explored and classified4 ,not only bronze but iron has been found in the ,east in use at an early period 7vide ,layard1 ,nineveh and ,babylon1 #agh-i1 #aid74 ,at ,nimroud1 ,dr ,percy 7id4 #fgj7 says the iron was used to economise the bronze2 if so it must have been cheaper1 and therefore probably more abundant2 and he is of opinion that iron was more extensively used by the ancients than seems to be generally admitted4 ,philology seems also to establish an early common knowledge1 and subsequent tradition of the use of metals4 ,mr ,max ,mller 7ii4 #de7 says1 ,that the value and usefulness of some of the metals was known before the separation of the ,aryan race can be proved only by a few words2 for the names of most of the metals differ in different countries4 ,yet there can be no doubt that iron was known1 and its value appreciated1 whether for defence or attack4 ,whatever its old ,aryan name may have been1 it is clear that ,sanscrit 'ayas1' ,latin 'ahes1' in 'ahencus' and even the contracted form 's1 ris'2 the ,gothic 'ais1' the old ,german 'er1' and the ,english iron1 are names cast in the same mould1 and only slightly corroded even now by the rust of so many centuries4 ,the ,swedish ,gothic race had no tradition but of weapons of iron4 7,professor ,nillson's ,stone ,age1 p4 #aib47 ,i find in ,captain ,cook's ,voyages that in ,otaheite their word for iron is eure-eure4 ,germans 7apud ,tacitus7 called their iron lances framea1 which has great resemblance to ferrum4 7,vide ,wilson1 #aie47 ,the following passage from ,wilson's ,archologia seems to prove this common terminology still more extensively--,the ,saxon 'gold' differs not more essentially from the ,greek ',greek3 chrysos' than from the ,latin 'aurum'2 iron from ',greek3 sideros' or 'ferrum'2 but when we come to examine the ,celtic names of the metals it is otherwise4 ,the ,celtic terms are3 ,gold3 ,gael1 'or1' golden1 'orail'2 ,welsh1 'aur'2 ,latin1 ' aurum4' ,silver3 ,gael1 'airgiod1' made of silver1 'airgiodach'2 ,welsh1 'ariant'2 ,latin1 'argentum'--derived in the ,celtic from 'arg1' white1 or milk1 like the ,greek ',greek3 argos1' whence they also formed their ',greek3 argyros4' ,now1 is it improbable that the ,latin 'ferrum' and the ,english 'iron' spring indirectly from the same ,celtic root8 ,gael1 'iarunn'2 ,welsh1 'haiarn'2 ,saxon1 iron2 ,danish1 'iern'2 ,spanish1 'hierro1' which last furnishes no remote approximation to 'ferrum4' ,nor with the older metals is it greatly different1 as bronze1 ,gael1 'umha' or 'prais'2 ,welsh1 'pres1' whence our ,english 'brass1' a name bearing no very indistinct resemblance to the ,roman 's4' ,lead in like manner has its peculiar ,gaelic name 'luaidha1' like the ,saxon 'ld' 7lead71 while the ,welsh 'plwm' closely approximates to the ,latin 'plumbum4' ,it may undoubtedly be argued that the ,latin is the root instead of the offshoot of these ,celtic names1 but the entire archological proofs are opposed to this idea1 p4 #cej4 ,sir ,j4 ,lubbock1 ,pre-historic ,times 7p4 #cgb7 says1 ,the tools of the ,tahitians when first discovered were made of stone1 bone1 shell1 or wood4 ,of metal they had no idea4 ,when they first obtained nails they mistook them for the young shoots of some very hard wood1 and hoping that life might not be quite extinct1 planted a number of them carefully in their gardens4 ,captain ,wallis1 however1 speaking of the islands within the ,polynesian group1 remarks as an extraordinary circumstance that although no sort of metal was seen on any of the lately discovered islands1 yet the nations were no sooner possessed of a piece of iron1 than they began to sharpen it1 but did not treat copper or brass in the same manner4--,voyages of ,english ,navigators round the ,world1 iii4 #ajh4 ,would not these different appreciations of iron and brass be accounted for if we suppose iron to be the last metal they had been traditionally acquainted with8 iron being the more common and inexpensive metal4 ,now1 secondly1 as it happens that bronze is only a combination of copper and tin in certain proportions1 and as neither existed on the spot 7in the ,mesopotamian valley71 it is a curious question how they could have hit upon the discovery through actual experiment4 ,tin1 for instance1 is only found in ,cornwall1 ,banca 7between ,sumatra and ,borneo71 ,spain1 ,saxony1 and ,siberia4 ,now1 how did it enter the heads of even these wise ,chaldans to go to these distant countries in search of this metal unless they knew beforehand through tradition1 that if procured along with copper it would produce the useful amalgam they sought8 ,true1 it might have been brought to them through commerce1 but in that case there must have been some other race more advanced in civilisation than themselves4 ,if the ,phoenicians1 much the same argument will recur4 ,if some race in the countries where tin was procured1 where is it now8 ,if it exists it must be represented by some race at present or historically known to have been in a state of barbarism4 ,this1 however1 at this stage of the argument1 would be too precipitate an admission of degeneracy6 ,now1 in a certain modified sense1 ,i should be quite prepared to admit a stone age4 ,nothing more probable than that in the dispersion certain families would have taken only what came readiest to hand4 ,those who made long marches1 and came to countries where minerals were scarce1 would have been in the way of losing the knowledge of metals altogether1 except in so far as they preserved the tradition of them2 and this would much depend upon how far they preserved other traditions4#bdc ,some instance should be given us--and as there are savages who are still using nothing but flint1 there is still the chance--of some set of savages who have spontaneously hit upon the plan of fusing different metals1 or even of smelting metals which were under their eye8 ,certainly not our supposed flint ancestors1 who1 as ,professor ,nillson and ,sir ,j4 ,lubbock agree1 must have got their knowledge of bronze from ,asia3 ,sir ,j4 ,lubbock inclining to an ,indo-,european1 ,professor ,nillson to a ,phoenician origin of the bronze age civilisation4 7,pre-historic ,times1 p4 #di47 ,all this perfectly coincides with the view ,i have indicated1 that the contrast arose through the divergence of the lines of the dispersion1 leading the tribes to varied fortunes1 some losing and others retaining the tradition2 and those who retained it eventually communicating it to those who had lapsed4 ,but then there are those unfortunate ,bashkirs1 who1 ,professor ,nillson tells us1 are still in their stone age1 and who have remained ,bashkirs since ,herodotus described them as such #bcjj years ago4 ,as they have resisted the contact of civilisation so long1 one can only watch with careful curiosity the transitionary process by which they will pass by internal development from their stone to their bronze age4#bdd #bdc ,mr ,vaux of the ,british ,museum has added the following interesting note on the metallurgy of the ancients4 #ast1 ,the earliest form of metal work appears to have been employed in the ornamentation of sacred vessels for temples1 c4444 ,occasionally the floor or foundation of some temples was of brass3 thus ,greek3 chalkeos oudos 7,soph4 ,o,ed4 ,col471 perhaps like the room at ,delphi called ,greek3 lanos oudos1 itself also a treasury4--,layard1 ,nineveh and ,babylon1 p4 #fgc4 ,boulanger1 ,l'antiquit dvoile par ses usage1 7iii4 #cei71 says1 ,ce sont les mystres qui out tir les hommes de la vie sauvage pour les ramener la vie sociale et police4 ,ces mystres toient un compos de crmonies religieuses 444 leur origine remonte au temps des hros et des demi-dieux4 #bdd ,of all the different phases of civilisation1 those which a nation must pass before it attains the highest grade of development1 the first rude state is the most enduring and the most difficult to get over4--,professor ,nillson's ,stone ,age1 #aia4 ,the evidence of the transition from a stone to a bronze age among the ,egyptians appears merely to be the use of a stone knife found in their catacombs1 and used for the sacred incision into the dead1 although they used bronze and iron knives for ordinary purposes1 and whereas the stone knife was used by the early ,hebrews in circumcision1 and by the priests of ,montezuma as instruments of human sacrifice4--,wilson's ,archologia1 p4 #bi4 ,i must now revert to what ,i at present wish to limit the discussion1 viz4 ,sir ,j4 ,lubbock's views on the subject of tradition4 ,sir ,john says that history can throw no light upon the question of the stone and bronze age1 because the use of metals has in all cases preceded that of writing4 ,i should like to know whether ,sir ,john is prepared to adhere to this dictum under all circumstances1 inasmuch as1 if he does1 he must allow me to trace the use of metals in ,assyria even beyond the date at which ,professor ,rawlinson seems actually to have found evidence of their use2 for 7pp4 #hj1 #aih7 in the ruins of ,warka1 the ancient ,huruk or ,erech 7the city of ,nimrod7 we find inscriptions on bricks of the date of the reign of ,urukh or ,orchamus1 who1 according to classical tradition1 was the seventh in succession from ,bel or ,nimrod2 which tradition1 says ,rawlinson 7p4 #ahi71 accords very curiously with the information derived from the inscriptions4 ,there is nothing to indicate that the bricks here discovered were the first bricks ever inscribed2 on the contrary1 wherever we find bricks and metals there will be a prima facie presumption as to their previous use4#bde ,only upon ,sir ,john ,lubbock's dictum1 finding evidence of writing at this date1 we must necessarily conclude that the use of metals preceded it4 ,this would bring us well up the seven reigns1 and into close contact with the time of ,nimrod4 #bde ,it amounts to this1 that we are requested first of all to discard and absolutely exclude all that we do know through direct historical evidence of our origin1 and to determine it merely by scientific induction4 ,sir ,j4 ,lubbock says in his introduction to ,professor ,nillson's ,stone ,age 7which is a summary of the whole question71 ,i have purposely avoided all reference to history1 all use of historical data1 because ,i have been particularly anxious to show that in archology we can arrive at definite and satisfactory conclusions1 on independent grounds1 without any assistance from history2 consequently regarding times before writing was invented1 and therefore before written history had commenced 7p4 xlii47 ,compare with supra1 ch4 vii4 ,nor1 says ,sir ,j4 ,lubbock 7p4 #cce71 will tradition supply the place of history4 ,at best it is untrustworthy and shortlived4 ,thus in #aggj the ,new ,zealanders had no recollection of ,tasman's visit4 ,yet this took place in #afdc1 less than one hundred and thirty years before1 and must have been to them an event of the greatest possible importance and interest4444 ,i do not mean to say that tradition would never preserve for a long period the memory of any remarkable event4 ,the above-mentioned facts 7,de ,soto's expedition is also referred to7 prove only that it will not always do so2 but it is unnecessary for us to discuss this question1 as there is in ,europe no tradition of the ,stone ,age1 and when arrow-heads are found the ignorant peasantry refer them to the elves or fairies2 stone axes are regarded as thunderbolts1 and are used not only in ,europe but also in various other parts of the world for magical purposes 7p4 #ccf74 ,relieved then from the embarrassing interference of tradition1 the archologist can only follow the methods which have been so successfully pursued in geology 7p4 #ccf74bdf ,this is partly a limitation of the question to oral tradition1 and partly an anticipated denial of what ,i shall now venture to assert1 namely1 that we can only look for the savages' traditions of things known to them before they were savages1 religious impressions which have not been effaced from their minds1 legends connected with their race1 facts which have determined their destiny4 ,the very characteristic of the savage is that he lives only for the present2 that he has little memory for the past1 and no forecast for the future2 that his mind is stricken with a hopeless sterility and fixedness1 so that he only seems to remember things that are bred in the bone1 and the tradition of which he cannot divest himself4#bdg #bdf ,it must not be forgot to the honour of the ,babylonians that they are acknowledged1 by all antiquity1 to have been the first who made use of writing in their public and judicial acts1 but at what period it is not known4--,goguet1 ,origin of ,laws1 i4 #de4 ,diodorus1 however1 says of the ,egyptians 7vide p4 #dh71 ,menes without doubt has been esteemed the first legislator of ,egypt1 because he was the first who put his laws in writing4 ,for before him ,vulcan1 ,helius1 and ,osiris 7vide ante1 p4 #ahi7 had given laws to ,egypt4--,diod4 l4 #a1 #ag-ah4 ,but also it must be recollected that the copper mines of ,egypt were worked from the earliest period4 #bdg ,but there are savages and savages2 or rather there are savages who are strictly such1 and savages who have still the germ of life and who are more properly distinguished as barbarians4 ,vide ante1 p4 #bhe1 ,de ,maistre's definition of the barbarian4 ,and so the ignorant peasantry when these flints were first dug up1 although they had no tradition1 rushed instinctively upon these hatchets and considered them magical1 apparently on no better grounds than that they had belonged to a former race of men whom they associated with elves and fairies4 ,was not this their way of saying with ,cicero1 ,antiquitas proxime accedit ad deos4#bdh #bdh ,i find curious testimony to the belief in ,m4 ,maupertius' 7,pinkerton1 i4 #beb-d7 account of an expedition of thirty leagues which he was induced to make into the interior of ,lapland1 by the accounts which he had received of a monument which the ,laplanders looked upon as the wonder of their country1 and in which they conceived was contained the knowledge of everything of which they were ignorant4 ,in the end a monument was found bearing on it the appearance of great antiquity1 and an inscription which ,m4 ,celsius1 his companion 7very well acquainted with the ,runic71 could not read4 ,m4 ,maupertius indeed says1 ,if the tradition of the country be consulted1 all the ,laplanders assure us that they are characters of great antiquity1 containing valuable secrets2 but what can one believe in regard to antiquity from those people who do not even know their own age1 and who for the greater part are ignorant who were their mothers4 ,without supposing that the mysterious stone actually concealed any valuable and recondite knowledge1 ,i am still struck by this attestation to the belief that antiquity shrouded such secrets2 and if1 which does not altogether accord with other accounts1 the ,lapps are as ignorant as they are here represented1 then it would seem to be true that when mankind lose the knowledge of everything else1 they still retain the tradition of their loss and the knowledge of their degradation4 ,concerning the superstitious veneration for stone arrow-heads very generally diffused1 vide ,mr ,e4 ,t4 ,stevens' ,flint ,chips 7,salisbury1 #ahgj1 p4 #hi47 ,and so far from tradition supplying us with no clue to solve the problem of the stone age1 does it not in this way suggest a very decided though an antagonistic view to that of ,sir ,john ,lubbock4 ,the superstitious regard of the peasantry for these newly found relics--which ,i presume came under ,sir ,john's own observation when exploring the northern coast-finds--is really very curious1 because it shows that their ideas and feelings in these matters were1 after the lapse of at any rate a thousand years1 identical with those of their ancestors4 ,in evidence of which ,i adduce the following passage from ,professor ,nillson1 having reference to the legend of the guse arrows or ,orvar ,odd's saga3-- ,this ancient romance shows very clearly that at the time when it was composed1 neither arrows1 nor other weapons of stone were in common use as weapons1 but that even then the opinion was generally current that these stone weapons1 which owed their existence to the dwarf race skilled in sorcery1 were endowed with a magic power against witches and witchcraft which no other weapons possessed4--,professor ,nillson1 ,stone ,age1 p4 #aii4 ,but this suggests the further reflection1 whether this stone age among certain tribes was not as much in rejection as in ignorance of metals4 ,professor ,nillson 7p4 #ig1 #ih7 shows that flint was used for sacred sacrificial purposes by the ,jews1 ,egyptians1 ,phoenicians1 and ,latins1 long after they were acquainted with weapons of metal4 ,among these the traditional idea about flint1 whatever it was1 was kept in due subordination2 but among tribes that had sunk into savagery it is conceivable that it may have become a superstition1 and dominated4 ,i am not sure that we do not underrate the capacity for tradition among savages where it has once taken hold2 still1 if it had been a question of mere savages1 at the first glance ,i should have been disposed to agree with ,sir ,john ,lubbock4 ,but let us take the case of ,tasman1 which ,sir ,john puts forward as a sort of crucial case1 and which may be accepted as such1 seeing that the ,new ,zealanders may fairly claim to be regarded as barbarians4#bdi #bdi ,vide ,sir ,george ,grey's ,polynesian ,mythology1 p4 xiii42 ,f4 ,a4 ,weld's 7,governor of ,western ,australia7 ,notes on ,new ,zealand1 pp4 #ae1 #fj4 ,in the first place1 ,i find the following in a note to ,cook's ,voyages 7,smith1 #ahdf73--,mr ,polack1 in his ',narrative of ,travels and ,adventures during a residence in ,new ,zealand between the years #ahca-cg1' collected all the particulars relating to ,cook's brush with the natives1 #agfi1 on the spot4 ,next1 let us see what ,cook says on the subject of ,tasman 7,cook's ,voyages1 i4 #afd7-- ,but the ,indians still continued near the ship1 rowing round many times hardly the most favourable conditions under which to recover a tradition1 conversing with ,tupia the ,otaheitan interpreter chiefly concerning the traditions they had among them with respect to the antiquities of their country4 ,to this subject they were led by the inquiries which ,tupia had been directed to make1 whether they had ever seen such a vessel as ours1 or had ever heard that any such had been on their coast4 ,these inquiries were all answered in the negative1 so that tradition has preserved among them no memorial of ,tasman1 though by an observation made this day we find we are only fifteen miles south of ,murderers' ,bay6 ,evidently the shrewd and gallant investigator himself was not satisfied with the cross-examination1 for we find at p4 #agj-- ,when we were under sail one old man1 ,topaa a native1 came on board to take leave of us2 and as we were still desirous of making further inquiries whether any memory of ,tasman had been preserved among their people1 ,tupia was directed to ask him whether he had ever heard that such a vessel as ours had before visited the country4 ,to this he replied in the negative2 but said that his ancestors had told him there had once come to this place a small vessel from a distant country called ,ulimaroa1 in which were four men1 who upon coming on shore were all killed4 ,upon being asked where this distant land lay he pointed to the northward4 ,but what does ,tasman himself say8-- ,on the #agth ,december these savages began to grow a little bolder and more familiar1 insomuch that at last they ventured on board the ,heemskirk1 in order to trade with those in the vessel4 ,as soon as ,i perceived it1 being apprehensive that they might attempt to surprise that ship1 ,i sent my shallop1 with seven men1 to put the people in the ,heemskirk on their guard1 and to direct them not to place any confidence in these people4 ,my seven men1 being without arms1 were attacked by these savages1 who killed three of the seven1 and forced the other four to swim for their lives2 which occasioned my giving that place the name of the ,bay of ,murderers4#bej ,our ship's company would undoubtedly have taken a severe revenge if the rough weather had not prevented them4--,tasman's ,voyage of ,discovery1 ,pinkerton1 xi4 #bej ,this was a recognition on ,tasman's part that there was a violation of the law of nations1 which he evidently considered ought to have been recognised by these people4 ,for killing unarmed men he does not stigmatise them as savages1 but as murderers1 which name has clung to the spot and to the transaction to this day4 ,now1 ,i submit that this old man ,topaa's recollection of the tradition of an event which occurred one hundred and thirty years before his time1 was much more perfect than ,captain ,cook's1 ,sir ,joseph ,banks'1 ,dr ,solander's1 and ,sir ,j4 ,lubbock's recollection of the same event from geographical records4 ,emboldened by this instance of the fallibility of scientific men1 ,i now proceed to question the truth of the two following propositions of ,sir ,j4 ,lubbock1 after which ,i shall ask to be allowed to enunciate a proposition of my own4 ,first1 ,sir ,j4 ,lubbock says3 ,it has been asserted over and over again that there is no race of man so degraded as to be entirely without a religion--without some idea of the ,deity4 ,so far from this being true1 the very reverse is the case 7p4 #dfg74bea #bea ,i am aware that what ,i have opposed to ,sir ,j4 ,lubbock is only the contrary and not the contradictory of his proposition4 ,i find1 however1 that a very competent authority1 ,wilson1 ,archology and ,pre-historic ,annals of ,scotland1 p4 #db1 says3 ,no people1 however rude or debased be their state1 have yet been met with so degraded to the level of the brutes as to entertain no notion of a ,supreme ,being1 or no anticipation of a future state4 ,all polytheism is based on monotheism2 idolatry implies religious feeling4--,bunsen's ,egypt1 iv4 #fi4 ,but in truth it was not a priest or a missionary who first enunciated the contradictory of ,sir ,john ,lubbock's proposition--it was ,cicero4 ,itaque ex tot generibus nullum est animal1 prter hominem1 quod habeat notitiam aliquam dei3 ipsisque in hominibus nulla gens est1 neque tam immansueta1 neque tam fera1 qu non etiam si ignoret qualem habere deum deceat1 tamen habendum sciat4 ,de ,legibus2 i4 #h4 ,second1 ,it is a common opinion that savages are1 as a general rule1 only the miserable remnants of nations once more civilised2 but although there are some well-established cases of national decay1 there is no scientific evidence which would justify us in asserting that this is generally the case 7p4 #ccg74 ,in opposition to the first proposition1 ,i maintain that there is no race of men so degraded as to be without some vestige of religion4 ,and in opposition to the second1 ,i assert that if they have a vestige of religion1 and nothing else1 they have still that which will convict them of degeneracy4 ,first1 ,to say that a savage has no idea of the ,deity1 is to say merely that he is a savage2 and it appears to me that this extinction of all knowledge of the ,deity among a people1 precisely marks the point where the barbarian lapses into the savage4 ,taking the range of the authorities quoted by ,sir ,j4 ,lubbock1#beb ,i find a great concurrence of testimony to the fact that there is some vestige of religion4 ,one only--whose authority on any other point incidental to ,african travel ,i should regard as of the highest value--,captain ,richard ,burton1 asserts without qualification1 and in language sufficiently explicit1 that some of the tribes of the lake district of ,central ,africa admit neither ,god1 nor angel1 nor devil4 ,others assert the same negatively--they did not come upon any signs of religion1 any external observances1 any trace of ceremonial worship4 ,for instance1 it is said that the ,tasmanians had no word for a ,creator 7p4 #dfh1 ,lubbock71 which need not excite surprise1 as it is also said of them that they were incapable of forming any abstract ideas at all 7p4 #cee1 ,lubbock74 ,again1 in many of those cases where it is more or less roundly asserted that there is no vestige of religion1 we find it plainly intimated that there is a belief in the devil1 e4g4 ,lubbock1 p4 #dfi4 #beb ,i should not have considered it necessary to have entered so elaborately into this argument1 if ,i had previously read the chapter on ,animism in ,mr ,tylor's ,primitive ,culture4 ,the instances1 however1 which follow will stand as supplementary4 ,the ,tonpinambas of ,brazil had no religion1 though if the name is applied ' des notions fantastiques d'tres surnaturals et puissans on ne sauroit nier qu'ils n'eussent une croyance religieuse et mme une sorte de culte exterieur4'--,freycinet1 i4 #aec4 ,now1 although the devil may1 and in many instances no doubt has1#bec made a special revelation of himself to his votaries1 the ordinary channel of information concerning him is through tradition1 and through the tradition of the fall of man4 #bec ,sir ,j4 ,lubbock says 7p4 #cgj7 of the ,feegee islanders3 ,they did not worship idols1 but many of the priests seem to have really thought that they had been in actual communication with the ,atona2 and some of the early missionaries were inclined to believe that ,satan may have been permitted to practise a deception upon them1 in order to strengthen his power4 ,however extraordinary this may appear1 the same was the case in ,tahiti4 ,but ,i ask further of those who dispute this1 ,if savages are found with this fear of the supernatural world1 after they have lost the idea of ,god1 how do they get it8 ,if not from tradition1 then from reflection8 ,but savages do not reason 7,lubbock1 p4 #dfe74 ,moreover1 at p4 #dgj1 ,sir ,j4 ,lubbock says1 what really brings us very nearly to agreement1 ,how1 for instance1 can a people who are unable to count their own fingers1 possibly raise their minds so far as to admit even the rudiments of a religion8 ,this is said with reference to a previous allegation1 ,that those who assert that even the lowest savages believe in a ,deity1 affirm that which is entirely contrary to the evidence 7p4 #dgj74 ,but there is a great concurrence of evidence that even the lowest savages believe in the devil4 ,belief in the devil involves a realisation more or less obscure of the fallen angel1 of the ,spirit of ,evil--and this for the savage who cannot count his fingers is as great an intellectual effort as would be1 merely considered as an intellectual effort1 a belief in the ,deity4 ,on any theory of growth or development how could he 7the lowest savage7 have got the idea8 ,several writers who are quoted1 whilst they deny the existence of any notion of religion among a particular people1 mention facts which are incompatible with that statement4 ,i may also say1 parenthetically1 that to detect or elicit the sentiment of religion in others1 one must have something of the sentiment in ourselves2 e4g4 there is the instance of ,kolben 7,lubbock1 p4 #dfi71 who1 in spite of the assertions of the natives themselves1 felt quite sure that certain dances must be of a religious character1 let the ,hottentots say what they will4 ,now ,i must say there is great priori probability in the truth of ,kolben's conviction1 although he was probably led to it merely by the insight of his own mind4 ,let it be taken in connection with the following evidence in ,washington ,irving's ,life of ,columbus1 iii4 #abb-abd3-- ,the dances to which the natives seemed so immoderately addicted1 and which had been at first considered by the ,spaniards mere idle pastimes1 were found to be often ceremonials of a serious and mystic character4 ,again--,peter ,martyn observes that they performed these dances to the chant of certain metres and ballads handed down from generation to generation1 in which were rehearsed the deeds of their ancestors4 ,some of these ballads were of a sacred character1 containing their traditional notions of theology1 and the superstitions and fables which comprised their religious creeds4 ,pritchard1 ,researches into ,phys4 ,hist4 of ,man 7i4 p4 #bje71 quoting ,oldendorp1 and speaking of the ,african negroes1 says3--,at the annual harvest feast1 which nearly all the nations of ,guinea solemnise1 thank-offerings are brought to the ,deity4 ,these festivals are days of rejoicing1 which the negroes pass with feasting and dancing4 ,vide also ,hist4 of ,indian ,tribes of ,north ,america1 #abj portraits from the ,ind4 ,gal4 in ,depart4 of ,war at ,washington1 by ,t4 ,m',kenney 7late ,ind4 ,dep4 ,wash47 and ,j4 ,hall of ,cincinnati 7,philadelphia1 #ahcg74 ,dancing is among the most prominent of the aboriginal ceremonies2 there is no tribe in which it is not practised4 ,the ,indians have their war dance and their peace dance1 their dance of mourning for the dead1 their begging dance1 their pipe dance1 their green-corn dance1 and their ,wabana 7an offering to the devil74 ,each of these is distinguished by some peculiarity 444 though to a stranger they appear much alike1 except the last4444 ,it is a ceremony and not a recreation1 and is conducted with a seriousness belonging to an important public duty4 ,at p4 #dcg 7,lubbock7 it is said1 ,admiral ,fitzroy never witnessed or heard of any act of a decidedly religious character among the ,fuegians4 ,still1 as ,sir ,john admits1 some of the natives suppose that there is a great black man in the woods who knows everything1 and cannot be escaped4 ,if this is not the devil1 it looks very like him4 ,again1 p4 #dfi1 ,mr ,mathews says1 speaking of the ,fuegians1 he sometimes heard a great howling or lamentation about sunrise in the morning2 and upon asking ,jemmy ,button what occasioned the outcry1 he could obtain no satisfactory answer2 the boy only saying1 'people very sad1 cry very much4' ,upon which ,sir ,john remarks1 ,this appears so natural and sufficient an explanation1 that why the outcry should be 'supposed to be devotional' ,i must confess myself unable to see 7#dfi74 ,now1 if this was not their traditional notion and mode of prayer1 degraded according to the measure of their degeneracy1 the degeneracy is at least proved in another way1 for1 being still reasonable beings1 they had1 according to the account1 congregated together to send up a lamentation1 which1 if it was not prayer1 could be likened only to the moonlight howling of wolves4 ,this mode of prayer resembles what ,father ,loyer and the missionary ,oldendorp 7,pritchard1 i4 #aig7 tells us of the negroes4 ,father ,loyer declares that they have a belief in a universally powerful ,being1 and to him they address prayers4 ,every morning after they rise they go to the river side to wash1 and throwing a handful of water on their head1 or pouring sand with it to express their humility1 they join their hands and then open them1 whisper softly the word 'exsuvais4' ,oldendorp says 7p4 #bjb73 ,the negroes profess their dependence on the ,deity1 444 they pray at the rising and setting of the sun1#bed on eating and drinking1 and when they go to war4 ,compare also ,helps' ,spanish ,conquest in ,america1 i4 #bhe3-- ,the worship of the ,peruvians was not the mere worship of the sun alone as of the most beautiful and powerful thing which they beheld2 but they had also a worship of a far more elevated and refined nature1 addressed to ,pachacamac1 the soul of the universe1 whom they hardly dared to name2 and when they were obliged to name this ,being1 they did so inclining the head and the whole body1 now lifting up the eyes to heaven1 now lowering them to the ground1 and giving kisses in the air4 ,to ,pachacamac they made no temple and offered no sacrifices1 but they adored him in their hearts4#bee #bed ,after all1 is there not something in their mode of prayer which recalls the language of ,psalm cxl41 ,dirigatur oratio mea sicut incensum in conspectu tuo3 elevatio manuum mearum sacrificium vespertinum4 ,if the reader will refer to ,bunsen's ,egypt1 c4 vol4 i4 p4 #dig1 he will find a man with uplifted arms as the ideographic sign 7#ai7 for to praise1 glorification1 which is in evidence not only that it was the natural but the traditional mode4 #bee ,garcilasso de la ,vega's authority is so unimpeachable1 and at the same time his testimony is so unmistakable on this point1 that it will be as well to give his own words1 as he was well acquainted with the ,peruvian traditions1 through his mother1 who was one of the ,yncas4 ,he adds3 ,when the ,indians were asked who ,pachacamac was1 they replied that he it was who gave life to the universe1 and supported it2 but that they knew him not1 for they had never seen him1 and that for this reason they did not build temples to him1 nor offer him sacrifices2 but that they worshipped him in their hearts 7mentally71 and considered him to be an unknown ,god4444 ,from this it is clear1 that these ,indians considered him to be the maker of all things4 ,hakluyt ed4 of ,garcil4 de la ,vega's ,royal ,commentaries of the ,yncas1 ed4 ,c4 ,markham1 #ahfi1 i4 #ajg4 ,he further remarks that1 whereas they hesitated to pronounce the name of ,pachacamac1 they spoke of the sun on every occasion4 ,compare the accounts we have of the ,guanches4 ,m4 ,pegot ,ogier1 ,the ,fortunate ,isles 7,canaries71 #ahga1 says 7p4 #bhc71 that a comparison of the ,chronicles of the ,conquest shows that1 far from being idolaters1 the ,guanches worshipped one ,god1 the ,creator and ,preserver of the world1 and that 7p4 #bhb71 in their worship1 they raised their hands to heaven1 and sacrificed on the mountains by pouring milk on the ground from a height2 their milk was carried in a sacred vase called ganigo4 ,the name of their god1 ,achoron ,achaman ,he who upholds the heaven and earth1 and ,achuhuyahan ,achuhucanac ,he who sustains every one1 has resemblances with ,pachacamac ,pacha1 the earth2 and camac participle of camani1 ,i create4--7,c4 ,markham1 ,hakluyt ed4 of ,garcil4 de la ,vega1 i4 #aja47 ,at p4 #dfh ,sir ,john somewhat too roundly asserts that ,dr ,hooker tells us that the ,lepchas of ,northern ,india have no religion4 ,turning to ,dr ,hooker's ,himalayan ,journal1 ,i find 7i4 #ace71 ,the ,lepchas profess no religion1 though acknowledging the existence of good and bad spirits4444 ,both ,lepchas and ,limboos had1 before the introduction of ,lama ,boodhism from ,tibet1 many features in common with the natives of ,arracan1 especially in their creed1 sacrifices1 faith in omens1 worship of many spirits1 absence of idols1 and of the doctrine of metempsychosis 7p4 #adj74 ,we have already seen 7supra1 p4 #bbd7 that they had a very distinct tradition of the ,deluge2 indeed there is much in the account of them which reminds us of the primitive monotheism4 ,so1 too1 ,sir ,john asserts1 p4 #dfi1 ,once more ,dr ,hooker states that the ,khasias1 an ,indian tribe1 had no religion4 ,col4 ,yule1 on the contrary1 says that they have1 but he admits that breaking hens' eggs is the principal part of their religious practice4 ,it is true that ,dr ,hooker says 7ii4 #bgf71 ,the ,khasias are superstitious1 but have no religion2 he adds1 however1 like the ,lepchas1 they believe in a ,supreme ,being1 and in deities of the grove1 cave1 and stream4 ,it seems1 however1 that the only outward manifestation of their religion is in breaking hens' eggs6 ,what can be more ludicrous6 yet here1 too1 would seem to be a vestige of primitive tradition4 ,we know 7vide ,wilkinson1 ,ancient ,egyptians1 second series7 how primitive truth was concealed under material symbols4 ,gainet 7i4 #abg7 also says1 ,even upon the hypothesis that these fragments of the ,egyptian cosmogony were lost1 one of the hieroglyphics which this people has left us would suffice to convince us of their belief in a ,creator4 ,it is the image of the god ,kneph1 whom they represent with an egg in his mouth2 this egg being the natural image of the world taking its birth from this divinity4 ,again1 p4 #aae1 ,in the mysteries of ,bacchus#bef the dogma of the ,creation was proposed under the emblem of that celebrated egg1 of which the poets have so often spoken1 which contained the germ of all things4 ,the egg1 says ,plutarch1 is consecrated to the sacred ceremonies of ,bacchus1 as a representation of the ,author of nature who produces and comprehends all things in himself4 ,there is a passage in ,athenagoras to the same effect4 #bef ,compare with pp4 #aef1 #bad4 ,superstitions were also connected with cocks and hens in ,khasia4 ,whether these again were connected with the symbolical representation of the egg can only be conjectured4 ,it may possibly be that the representation had a common origin with the cock of ,apollo and the cock of sculapius1 if1 indeed1 these were not also originally derived from the same primal conception4 ,this would be only to renew the old classical dispute as to whether the hen proceeded from the egg1 or the egg from the hen1 which ,i take to be only the form in which the great question of the ,first ,cause was debated by the ,gentile world after their ideas of a ,creator had become indistinct1 and with reference to this ancient symbol4 ,however that may be1 ,i wish to point out that this ceremonial use of the cock may be traced in ,europe1 ,asia1 and ,africa3 e4g4 ,asia--,the ,lepchas scatter eggs and pebbles over the graves of their friends4444 ,among the ,limboos1 the priests of a higher order than the ,lepcha1 ,bijoras officiate at marriages1 when a cock is put into the bride-groom's hands1 and a hen into those of the bride4 ,the ,phedangbo then cuts off the birds' heads1 when the blood is caught in a plantain leaf1 and runs into pools1 from which omens are drawn 7,dr ,hooker1 ,himalayan ,journal1 i4 #bch74 ,africa--vide ,pritchard1 ,phys4 ,hist4 of ,man1 i4 #bjc1 #bjd1 #bjh3 ,even the dead are not buried without sacrifices4 ,a white hen is slain by the priest before the corpse comes to the grave1 and the bier whereon the body lies is sprinkled with its blood4 ,this custom was introduced by the nation of ,kagraut4 ,europe--,if any one will turn to the ,illustrated ,london ,news of ,nov4 #ad1 #ahfh1 he will find an account and illustration of a local ceremony peculiar to the village of ,gorbio in the ,maritime ,alps1 in which the priest1 on a particular day in the year1 is solemnly presented with four cocks hung upon a halberd--together with an apple by the bachelors and spinsters of the village--from which it would seem to have had originally some connection1 as we have seen above1 with a marriage ceremony4 ,wilson 7,archologia7 remarks that the custom of ,easter1 or1 in the north1 ,paste eggs 7,pasch71 was very prevalent in the north4#beg #beg ,compare the following passage in the ,bishop of ,chalons' ,le ,monde et l',homme ,primitif 7with reference to ,gen4 i4--the ,creation74 ,at p4 #aa the ,bishop says1 ,that when the ,book of the ,law of ,manou and the ,mahabarata relate that ,god1 who contains within ,himself his own principle in the first instance1 the water1 and gave it fecundity1 and that the produce of this fecundity became an egg1 444 can we see in this anything else than the fantastic translation of this phrase of ,scripture1 ',l'esprit de ,dieu couvait la surface des eaux--,rouha ,elohim meharephet hal pene hammam4' ,vide also p4 #aa 7as to universality of tradition7 and p4 #cd as to text also4 ,j4 ,g4 ,vance 7,archol4 xix47 says1 upon the mundane egg the whole system of ancient religion was based 7,j4 ,b4 ,waring1 ,stone ,monuments of ,remote ,ages1 p4 #e1 #ahgj74 ,it strikes me that it would be difficult to assign a ,christian origin for the custom4 ,it must then have been a custom which the ,church diverted or sanctioned in giving it an innocent or ,christian application2 in which case1 in so far as it is pagan1 it may possibly be traced to a common origin with the practices in ,khasia among the ,lepchas4 ,it would extend the inquiry too far to follow ,sir ,j4 ,lubbock through all the cases adduced by him4 ,i will conclude1 therefore1 with his account of the ,andaman islander--who1 with the ,australians1 ,esquimaux1 and ,fuegians1 dispute the point of being considered the lowest of mankind4 ,it is said of the ,andamans1 that they have no idea of a ,supreme ,being1 no religion1 or any belief in a future state of existence 7p4 #cdf74 ,it is1 however1 casually mentioned that1 after death1 the corpse is buried in a sitting posture4 ,now this mode of burial is common to them with ,esquimaux 7p4 #dji71 the ,australians 7p4 #cec71 the ,maories 7p4 #cfi71 and the natives of the ,feegee ,islands 7p4 #cfa71 among whom we seem to get a clue to this strange mode of burial2 the fact is1 they 7the ,feegee islanders7 not only believe in a future state1 but are persuaded that as they leave this life1 so will they rise again4 ,sir ,j4 ,lubbock1 in his ,introduction to ,prof4 ,nillson 7xxxiii471 says that this was the common mode of burial in the ,stone ,age2 and ,prescott 7,hist4 of ,mexico1 ii4 #dhe7 says1 ,who can doubt the existence of an affinity1 or at least an intercourse1 between tribes1 who had the same strange habit of burying the dead in a sitting position1 as was practised to some extent by most if not all of the aborigines from ,canada to ,patagonia8#beh ,but not only may it be presumed that they had an affinity and intercourse1 but a common religious idea4 ,it may be doubted then whether even the naked ,andaman is so entirely destitute of all religious impressions as he is supposed to be4 #beh ,i find1 in ,archological ,journal1 ,no4 #hi1 #ahff1 p4 #bg1 that corpses in a sitting posture were found under the long cromlechs in ,south ,jutland4 ,i have already urged that if any vestiges of religion remain they must be considered as evidence of tradition and proof of degeneracy4 ,i think the following reflection will tend to clench this argument4 ,although it is obscure and disputed to what extent certain savages do retain glimmerings of religion1 it is certain and admitted that some savages have religion and a religious ceremonial4 ,now1 as ,sir ,j4 ,lubbock says1 ,how1 for instance1 can a people who are unable to count upon their fingers possibly raise their minds so far as to admit even the rudiments of religion4 ,it is clear1 then1 that the lowest grade of mankind did not invent it1 how then did the higher grade get it1 assuming always the unity of the human race8 ,finally1 if man commenced with the knowledge of the devil1 how did they proceed on to the idea of ,god8 ,the first idea of a ,god is almost always as an evil spirit 7,lubbock1 p4 #dfh74 ,how then did they advance to the knowledge of the ,god of purity and love1 or even of the ,great ,spirit of the ,indians8#bei #bei ,vide ,dr ,newman's ,grammar of ,assent1 p4 #chf1 et seq4 ,let us at least know whether it is supposed that this was the order of knowledge ordained by ,divine ,providence1 or whether it is believed that man in this manner developed the idea of ,god out of his own consciousness1 his primitive1 or perhaps innate1 idea being1 the conception of evil and of the evil spirit4#bfj ,sir ,john says 7p4 #dhg71 ,there are no just grounds for expecting man to be ever endued with a sixth sense4 ,but why not8 ,if by his own mental vigour he can out of the primitive idea of evil generate the idea of good--what may we not expect8 #bfj ,per contra1 ,i invite ,sir ,j4 ,lubbock's attention to the following passage from ,mr ,gladstone's ,homer 7ii4 #dd71 ,as the derivative idea of sin depended upon that of goodness1 and as the shadow ceases to be visible when the object shadowed has become more dim1 we might well expect that the contraction and obscuration of the true idea of goodness would bring about a more than proportionate loss of knowledge concerning the true nature of evil4 ,the impersonation of evil could only be upheld in a lively or effectual manner as the opposite of the impersonation of good2 and when the moral standard of ,godhead had so greatly degenerated1 as we find to be the case even in the works of ,homer1 the negation of that standard could not but cease to be either interesting or intelligible4 ,accordingly we find that the process of disintegration1 followed by that of arbitrary reassortment and combination of elements1 had proceeded to a more advanced stage with respect to the tradition of the evil one than in the other cases4 ,yet1 if any one will compare the evidence which ,sir ,john has collected1 he will come1 ,i think1 to the conclusion1 that the invention and adaptability of the savage is very slight indeed4 ,he will find 7p4 #cej7 that the inhabitants of ,botany ,bay had fish-hooks1 but no nets2 those of ,western ,australia1 nets but not hooks2 that those who had the throwing-stick and boomerang1 were ignorant both of slings and bows and arrows2 that those who had retained the knowledge of the bow did not pass on to the use of the bola2 that the northern tribes visited by ,kane were skilful in the capture of birds with nets1 yet were entirely ignorant of fishing 7#deb72 that the nearest approach to the ,south ,american bola is among the ,esquimaux 7#dej72 that the throwing-stick is common only to the widely distant ,esquimaux1 ,australians1 and some of the ,brazilian tribes 7id472 that the sumpitan or blowpipe of the ,malays occurs only in the valley of the ,amazons4 ,does not this point to a traditional knowledge of these things8 ,nevertheless1 this mass of evidence seems to have produced the very opposite conviction with ,sir ,j4 ,lubbock4 ,on the whole1 then1 from a review of all these and other similar facts which might have been mentioned1 it seems to me most probable that many of the simpler weapons1 implements1 c41 have been invented independently by various savage tribes1 although there are no doubt also cases in which they have been borrowed by one tribe from another 7p4 #dea74 ,instances in which they have been borrowed from each other are not infrequent1 but then neither are they inconsistent with the theory of tradition2 but the instances of invention are limited to one4 7,see for instance p4 #cid47 ,at p4 #cid we find--,although they 7the ,esquimaux7 had no knowledge of pottery1 ,captain ,cook saw at ,unalashka vessels of flat stone1 with sides of clay1 not unlike a standing pye4 ,we here obtain an idea of the manner in which the knowledge of pottery may have been developed4 ,after using clay to raise the sides of their stone vessels1 it would naturally occur to them1 that the same substance would serve for the bottom also1 and thus the use of stone might be replaced by a more convenient material4 ,recollecting how roast pig came to be discovered1 it cannot be said to be impossible that pottery may thus have been invented2 but in this instance it might equally have been the rough substitute for the pottery of their recollection4 ,besides1 the proof is wanting that they ever did pass on to the invention of pottery4 ,it may1 for anything we know to the contrary1 be in this inchoate state amongst them still4 ,now1 until further evidence is forthcoming1 ,i shall take the liberty of maintaining that savages seem to show no inventive faculty or power of recovery in themselves4#bfa ,whatever they possess seems to be limited to what they have retained of primitive civilisation1 and what they have retained of civilisation seems exactly in proportion to what they have retained of primitive religion4 #bfa ,sir ,j4 ,lubbock 7,pre-historic ,times1 p4 #ccg7 says1 ,the largest erection in ,tahiti was constructed by the generation living at the time of ,captain ,cook's visit1 and the practice of cannibalism had been recently abandoned4 ,for these statements he refers to ,forster1 ,observations made during a ,voyage round the ,world1 p4 #cbg1 a work ,i have not at hand1 and also ,ellis1 ,polynesian ,researches1 ii4 p4 #bi4 ,i have made the reference to the latter1 but ,i do not find a syllable about cannibalism2 and as to the other point ,ellis says1 ,in the bottom of every valley1 even to the recesses in the mountains 444 stone pavements of their dwellings and courtyards1 foundations of houses and ruins of family temples1 are numerous4444 ,all these relics are of the same kind as those observed among the nations at the time of their discovery1 evidently proving that they belong to the same race1 though to a more populous era of their history4 ,i draw attention to this inadvertence1 as the above instances 7two7 are the most important of the four which ,sir ,j4 ,lubbock adduces in support of his view4 ,vide ,appendix4 ,in supporting this proposition ,i shall hardly have occasion to go beyond the four corners of ,sir ,j4 ,lubbock's ,pre-historic ,times4 ,it is indeed a moot point with the travellers and ethnologists who have given their attention to the subject1 which race of savages is the lowest in the scale of civilisation4 ,in this competitive examination a concurrence of opinion seems to decide in favour of the ,fuegian1 who at any rate is miserable enough1 living1 when better food fails him1 on raw and putrid flesh1 eked out with cannibalism2 and whose clothing 7in ,central ,fuego7 consists in a scrap of otter skin1 about as large as a pocket handkerchief1 laced across the breast with strings1 and shifted according to the wind 7,darwin1 apud ,lubbock74 ,their religion1 as we have just seen1 consists in a vague apprehension of the black man who lives up in the woods--and their prayer is something slightly elevated above the howl of the wolf4 ,their civilisation1 therefore1 like their religion1 may be considered to be at a minimum4 ,the ,australians have been called the miserablest people in the world 7p4 #dde74 ,they are said to have no religion or any kind of prayer1 but most of them believe in evil spirits1 and all have a dread of witchcraft 7p4 #cec74 ,here again we see their civilisation degraded pari-passu with their religious belief--so1 too1 with the ,andaman 7vide supra7 and the ,tasmanian 7p4 #cee74 ,when1 however1 we come to the inhabitants of the ,feegee ,islands1 not greatly different from the people surrounding them1 their characteristics1 manners1 and customs being partly ,nigrito and partly ,polynesian1 although in the matter of cannibalism they are simply horrible1 and eat their kind1 not on any high notion that they are appropriating the spirit and glory of him whom they devour 7vide ,lubbock1 #cga71 but from a repulsive preference2 yet they have a distinct notion of religion1 with temples1 and ceremonies1 and we are told they look down upon the ,samoans because they had no religion4 ,well1 we find the ,feegeeans in a state of material civilisation exactly corresponding--they live in well built houses1 #bj to #cj feet long and #ae feet high1 in fortified towns1 with earthen ramparts1 surmounted by a reed fence1 c4 ,their temples were pyramidal in form1 and were often erected on terraced mounds like those of ,central ,america 7p4 #ceg74 ,they had efficient weapons1 agricultural implements1 well-constructed canoes1 and 7p4 #cgb7 pottery4#bfb #bfb ,the ,duke of ,argyll1 balancing the conclusions of ,archbishop ,whately and ,sir ,j4 ,lubbock 7,primeval ,man1 p4 #aci71 says1 ,whately defies the supporter of ,development to produce a single case of savages having raised themselves4 ,sir ,j4 ,lubbock replies by defying his opponent to show that it has not been done and done often4 ,he urges1 and urges as it seems to me with truth1 that the great difficulty of teaching many savages the arts of civilised life1 is no proof whatever that the various degrees of advance towards the knowledge of those arts which are actually found among semi-barbarous nations may not have been of strictly indigenous growth4 ,thus it appears that one tribe of red ,indians called ,mandans practised the art of fortifying their towns4 ,surrounding tribes1 although they saw the advantage derived from this art1 yet never practised it1 and never learned it4 ,so far as to the fact4 ,the ,duke of ,argyll continues the argument on the side of ,sir ,j4 ,lubbock4 ,but what ,i wish to indicate is that this crucial instance of the ,mandans may be triumphantly adduced in support of my proposition4 ,why1 these are the very ,mandans among whom ,catlin and the ,prince ,maxmilian of ,neuwied discovered the curious commemorative ceremony of the ,deluge6 ,vide ch4 xi4 ,when1 however1 we come to the ,tahitians we find a very high state of civilisation4 ,of their religion it is said--,that though they worshipped numerous deities1 and sometimes sacrificed to them1 yet they were not idolators4 ,captain ,cook found their religion1 like that of most other countries1 involved in mystery and perplexed with apparent inconsistencies4 ,they had a priesthood 7p4 #chg74 ,they believed in the immortality of the soul1 and in two situations of different degrees of happiness somewhat analogous to our heaven and hell1 though not regarded as places of reward and punishment2 but the one intended 'for the chief and superior classes1' 'the other for the people of inferior rank4' ,this is substantially ,captain ,cook's account of the ,tahitians1 and allowing it to be exact1 although ,i have a suspicion that a missionary would have put it somewhat differently1#bfc it shows a comparative state of religion very much elevated above anything we have yet seen4 ,they had besides curious customs1 such as that of eating apart4 ,they ate alone1 they said1 because it was right1 but why it was right they were unable to explain--a custom which is common to them with the ,bachapins 7p4 #chd71 7who1 by the way1 are also among the races classified as of no religion74 ,although the inhabitants of ,tahiti present to us a much higher standard of religion and morality than we have yet met with1 also they1 on the whole1 may be taken as representing the highest stage in civilisation to which man has in any country raised himself1 before the discovery or introduction of metallic implements 7,lubbock1 p4 #cgb74 #bfc ,since writing the above1 ,i have referred to ,wallis and ,bougainville4 ,wallis could not discover that these people had any kind of religious worship among them4 ,bougainville says that their principal deity is called ',ein-t-era1' i4e4 'king of light' or 'of the sun'2 besides whom they acknowledge a number of inferior divinities1 some of whom produce evil and others good2 that the general name for these ministering spirits is ,eatona2 and that the natives suppose two of these divinities attend each affair of consequence in human life1 determining its fate either advantageously or otherwise4 ,to one circumstance our author speaks in decisive terms4 ,he says1 when the moon exhibits a certain aspect which bears the name of ',malama ,tamai' 7the moon is in a state of war71 the natives offer up human sacrifices4444 ,when any one sneezes1 his companions cry out ',eva-rona-t-eatona1' i4e4 ',may the good genius awaken thee1' or ',may not the evil genius lull thee asleep4' ,captain ,king 7,journal of ,transactions on returning to the ,sandwich ,islands1 c41 ,pinkerton1 xi4 #gcg7 says of the ,sandwich ,islanders1 ,the religion of these people resembles in most of its principal features that of the ,society and ,friendly ,islands4 ,their morais1 their whattas1 their idols1 their sacrifices1 and their sacred songs1 all of which they have in common with each other1 are convincing proofs that their religious notions are derived from the same source4 ,it is impossible within these limits to investigate every case4 ,i have taken the more salient cases1 as instanced by ,sir ,j4 ,lubbock1 and contrasted them4 ,i now wish to present the contrast in somewhat livelier form1 and ,i do not see that ,i can do better than to present to the reader two scenes precisely similar1 as to substance1 yet under different conditions1 in different parts of the world4 ,the first shall be a description of a whale ashore1 by ,sir ,j4 ,lubbock1 among the ,australians2 and the second1 a description of the same scene by ,catlin 7,last ,rambles1 c41 among the ,indians of ,vancouver's ,island74 ,i must preface that ,sir ,j4 ,lubbock says that the ,australians have no religion nor any idea of prayer1 but most of them believe in evil spirits1 and all have great dread of witchcraft 7p4 #cec74 ,the following is the scene to which ,i refer3-- ,they are not1 so far as ,i am aware1 able to kill whales for themselves1 but when one is washed on shore it is a real godsend to them4 ,fires are immediately lit to give notice of the joyful event4444 ,for days they remain by the carcase1 rubbed from head to foot with the stinking blubber1 gorged to repletion with putrid meat1 out of temper from indigestion1 and therefore engaged in constant frays1 suffering from a continuous disorder from high feeding1 and altogether a disgusting spectacle4--,capt4 ,grey1 apud ,lubbock1 p4 #cdg4 ,this is one picture2 now for the other4 ,it may be said that it is only the different idiosyncrasies of the writers transferred to their pages--that one is the narrative of ,jean qui pleure1 c41 or of the mdicin tant pis1 c42 but ,i do not think so4 ,mr ,catlin premises by telling us that the scene occurred when on a visit with the chief of the ,klah-o-gnats1 of whom he says that he knew at first sight by his actions that he was a chief1 and by the expression of his face that he was a good man1 and whom his companion described as a very fine old fellow2 that man is a gentleman2 ,i'd trust myself anywhere with that man4 ,of their religion1 the chief himself told ,catlin that on that western coast of ,vancouver's ,island they all believed in a ,great ,spirit1 who created them and all things1 and that they all have times and places when and where they pray to that ,spirit1 that he may not be angry with them4 ,one day came the startling announcement that a whale was ashore4 ,the sight was imposing when we came near to it1 but not until we came around it on the shore side had ,i any idea of the scene ,i was to witness4 ,some hundreds1 if not thousands of ,indians1 of all ages and sexes1 and in all colours1 were gathered around it1 and others constantly arriving4 ,some were lying1 others standing and sitting in groups2 some were asleep and others eating and drinking1 and others were singing and dancing4 ,the monster was secured by twenty or thirty harpoons1 to which ropes were attached4 ,these were watched1 and at every lift of a wave moving the monster nearer the shore1 they were tightened on the harpoons1 and at low tide the carcass is left on dry land1 a great distance from the water4444 ,the dissection of this monstrous creature1 and its distribution amongst the thousands who would yet be a day or two in getting together1 the interpreter informed us1 would not be commenced until all the claimants arrived4 ,several immense baskets had been brought in which to carry away the blubber4 ,the possession of these baskets made all the difference in the scene which followed4 ,to some this will be a sufficient explanation4 ,how1 then1 did the others come to know nothing of baskets8 ,truly there are people who cannot be made to see the effect of character upon clover4 ,i rely1 however1 upon the broad lines of the contrast4 ,the absence in this latter scene of the disgusting sights above so graphically described--their quick use of the harpoons--and the general order and equity of the distribution4 ,a whale ashore1 ,mr ,catlin says 7,last ,rambles1 p4 #aje71 is surely a gift from heaven for these poor people1 and they receive it and use it as such4 ,whilst quoting from ,catlin1 ,i must be allowed to refer my readers to the very striking proof 7p4 #bdh7 he incidentally affords of the theory of degeneracy in his comparative illustration of the heads of the alto and bas ,peruvian1 and of the ,crow and modern ,flathead3-- ,the ,crow of the ,rocky ,mountains and the alto-,peruvian of the ,andes1 being the two great original fountains of ,american man1 to whom all the tribes point as their origin1 and on whom1 of course1 all the tribes have looked as the beau ideals of the ,indian race4 ,the ,flathead 7letter c71 aiming at the ,crow skull 7like the copyists of most fashions71 has carried the copy into a caricature2 and the ,bas-,peruvian 7d71 aiming at the elevated frontal of the mountain regions1 has squeezed his up with circular bandages to equally monstrous proportions4 ,also vide ,prescott's ,mexico1 ii4 #dic1 #fth ed41 #ahej4 ,anatomists also have discerned in crania disinterred from the mounds1 and in those of the inhabitants of the high plains of the ,cordilleras an obvious difference from those of the more barbarous tribes4 ,this is seen especially in the ampler forehead1 intimating a decided intellectual superiority4444 ,such is the conclusion of ,dr ,warren1 whose excellent collection has afforded him ample means for study and comparison4 ,before quitting this subject ,i must revive a question which ,i think ,sir ,john ,lubbock will admit1 if he turns to the evidence dispersed in his pages1 is at present involved in some obscurity4 ,it is simply this1 ,how did the savage come by the knowledge of fire8 ,sir ,john ,lubbock suggests 7p4 #dgc7 that in making flint instruments sparks would be produced2 in polishing them it would not fail to be observed that they became hot1 and in this way it is easy to see how the two methods of obtaining fire may have originated4444 ,in obtaining fire two totally different methods are followed2 some savages1 as for instance the ,fuegians1 using percussion1 while others1 as the ,south-,sea ,islanders1 rub one piece of wood against another4444 ,opinions are divided whether we have any trustworthy record of a people without the means of obtaining fire 7p4 #dec74 ,to this point ,i shall recur4 ,i will now give ,sir ,john's quotation from ,mr ,dove3 ,although fire was well known to them 7the ,tasmanians71 some tribes at least appear to have been ignorant whence it was originally obtained1 or how1 if extinguished1 it could be relighted4 ,in all their wanderings1 says ,mr ,dove1 they were particularly careful to bear in their hands the materials for kindling a fire4 ,their memory supplies them with no instances of a period in which they were obliged to draw upon their inventive powers for the means of resuscitating an element so essential to their health and comfort as flame4 ,how it came originally into their possession is unknown4 ,whether it may be viewed as the gift of nature or the product of art and sagacity1 they cannot recollect a period when it was a desideratum 7,tasmanian ,journal of ,natural ,science1 i4 #bej1 apud ,lubbock1 p4 #cee74bfd #bfd ,the ,popul ,vul 7pp4 #bbc-bbg1 ,paris1 #ahfa1 vide ,baring ,gould1 ,origin and ,development of ,religious ,belief1 p4 #chc7 gives an instance--or embodies a reminiscence--of a people who had lost the tradition of fire4 ,then arrived the tribes perishing with cold1 444 and all the tribes were gathered1 shivering and quaking with cold1 when they came before the leaders of the ,iniches4444 ,great was their misery4 ',will you not compassionate us1' they asked2 'we ask only a little fire4 ,were we not all one1 and with one country1 when we were first created8 ,have pity on us4' ',what will you give us that we should compassionate you1' was the answer made to them4444 ,it was answered1 ',we will inquire of ,tohil' 7their fire-god72 and then follows the horrible condition of human sacrifices to be offered to their fire-god ,tohil1 with reference to which ,mr ,b4 ,gould quotes it4 ,vide supra1 p4 #ha1 tradition among the ,sioux ,indians1 of fire having been sent to them from heaven after the ,deluge4 ,in ,colden's ,five ,indian ,nations1 p4 #afg1 ,i find an ,indian chief says3 ,now before the ,christians arrived1 the general council of the ,five ,nations was held at ,onondaga1 where there has from the ,beginning a continual fire been kept burning2 it is made of two great logs1 whose fire never extinguishes4 ,now1 if it is a tenable opinion--and at least these are the statements of ,father ,gobien1 and of ,alvaro de ,saavedra1 and of ,commodore ,wilkes1 to whose testimony ,i shall revert1 that there are some tribes who are unacquainted with fire--that there are some who have and some who have not the art of rekindling fire1 then arises the question whether those who have it not have lost the art1 or whether those who now possess it invented it4 ,if they did not invent it1 they must have held it as a tradition1 until1 reaching a lower point of degradation still1 they lost it4 ,mr ,dove's testimony to this effect is very strong4 ,what an emblem that never-extinguished torch of primitive tradition6 ,we find the same tradition among the ,american ,indians4 ,the ,chippeways and ,natchez tribes are said to have an institution for keeping up a perpetual fire1 certain persons being set aside and devoted to this occupation 7,lubbock1 p4 #dba74 ,freycinet certainly declares that ,per ,gobien's statement1 that the inhabitants of the ,ladrone were totally unacquainted with fire until ,magellan burnt one of their villages1 to be entirely without foundation4 ,the language1 he says1 of the inhabitants contains words for fire1 burning1 charcoal1 oven1 grilling1 boiling1 c4 ,again1 as against ,commodore ,wilkes' assertion as an eye-witness1 that he saw no appearance of fire in the island of ,fakaafo1 and that the natives were very much alarmed when they saw sparks struck from flint and steel1 we are told that ,hale gives a list of ,faakaafo words in which we find asi for fire 7,lubbock1 p4 #ded74 ,however1 ,sir ,john does not attribute to this argument the same force that ,mr ,tylor does1 as asi is evidently the same word as the ,new ,zealand ahi1 which denotes light and heat as well as fire4#bfe ,if1 then1 we have positive evidence that they have not the thing 7,wilkes71 and also evidence that they have the word 7vide note71 does not this prove that it is a tradition which they have lost8 and is there not the presumption that they have lost it through degeneracy8 #bfe ,i find1 in ,falkner's ,description of ,patagonia1 c41 #aggd 7,falkner resided near #dj #g' in those parts71 that in the vocabulary of the ,moluches1 although the word for 'fire' is 'k'tal1' the word for 'hot' is 'asee1' 'cold' 'chosea4' ,but ,sir ,j4 ,lubbock admits asi is the same word as ahi1 and if ahi denotes light and heat1 it also signifies fire4 ,should we not expect1 at least ought it to cause surprise1 that the word for fire1 where poverty of language may be presumed1 should stand also for light and heat8 ,in the ,andaman vocabulary 7,earl's ,papuans7 ahay is their word for the sun--in which the two senses seem to combine4 ,in ,shortland's ,comp4 ,table of ,polynesian ,dialects 7,traditions of the ,new ,zealanders71 ,i find ahi means fire1 and not light4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,new ,zealand4 ,raratonga4 ,navigator's ,sandwich ,islands 7,savaii74 7,hawaii74 ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,fire ,ahi4,c ,ai4 ,afi4 ,ahi4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,c ,and as would appear from ,shortland 7id4 pp4 #ee1 #ef1 ao1 a seemingly cognate though not identical word with ahi1 is the ,new ,zealand word for light4 ,but in ,bougainville's ,vocabulary of ,faiti 7,otaheite7 ,island1 ,i find again ea1 i4e4 their word for fire1 whereas their word for light1 not darkness1 is ,eourama and ,po day light71 whilst they have a distinct word for hot ,ivera--,era being the sun4 ,compare ,sanscrit aghni ignis1 fire4--,vide ,card4 ,wiseman1 ,science and ,revealed ,religion1 p4 #dj1 #eth ed4 ,,appendix ,,to ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,compare the following account of the ,new ,zealanders3-- ,shut out from the rest of the world1 without any to set them a pattern of what was right or to reprove what was wrong1 is it surprising that morally they should have degenerated1 even from the standard of their forefathers8 ,they were not always addicted to war1 neither were they always cannibals2 the remembrance of the origin of these horrid customs is still preserved amongst them4 ,if the progressive development theory were true1 aboriginal races should have progressively advanced2 every successive generation should have added some improvement to the one which preceded it2 but experience proves the contrary4 ,a remarkable instance of this may be adduced in the fact1 that the ,new ,zealanders have retrograded1 even since the days of ,captain ,cook2 they then possessed large double canoes1 decked1 with houses on them similar to those of ,tahiti and ,hawaii1 in which1 traditionally1 their ancestors arrived2 it is now more than half a century since the last was seen4 ,tradition also states that they had finer garments in former days and of different kinds2 that1 like their reputed ancestors1 they made cloth from the bark of trees--the name is preserved1 but the manufacture has ceased4 ,there are remains also in their language which would lead us to suppose that1 like the inhabitants of ,tonga1 they once possessed a kingly form of government1 and though they have now no term to express that high office1 still they have words which are evidently derived from the very one denoting a king in ,tonga4 ,their traditions1 which are preserved1 also establish the same fact1 and perhaps one of the strongest proofs is their language2 its fulness1 its richness1 and close affinity not only in words but in grammar to the ,sanscrit1 carries the mind back to a time when literature could not have been unknown4 ,from ,te ,ika a ,maui1 or ,new ,zealand and its ,inhabitants1 by the ,rev4 ,richard ,taylor1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,g4,s41 a ,missionary in ,new ,zealand for more than thirty years1 pp4 #e1 #f4 ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,noah ,,and ,,the ,,golden ,,age4 ,taking as the basis of this theory that the law of nations forms part of a tradition1 that the stream of this tradition has never ceased to flow1 and that the diffusion of its waters has ever been the source and condition of fecundity2 and further1 that this tradition in its main current has run in the channels which ,dr ,newman 7infra1 p4 #cch7 has indicated--for although there are other reservoirs1 they have become stagnant1 and exist like the fresh-water lake1 the ,bahr-i-,nedjig 7vide ,rawlinson's ,ancient ,monarchies1 i4 #ah71 whose waters are fresh and sweet so long as they communicate with the ,euphrates1 but when they are cut off become unpalatable1 so that those who dwell in the vicinity are no longer able to drink of it--taking these various facts as the basis1 we come inevitably to the question--,whence this tradition arose1 and upon what authority and sanction it rests8 ,in answer to this ,i do not hesitate to affirm that presumptively it goes back to the commencement of human history1 and more demonstrably to that commencement--which for historical and practical purposes is sufficient--the era of ,noah4 ,i propose now to inquire how near this theory can be brought to the facts4 ,a fairer opportunity could hardly have been afforded for ascertaining the force and fulness of primitive tradition than the discovery of the ,american continent2 yet this opportunity was totally disregarded by the ,spanish conquerors1#bff--rough men1 and for the most part the offscourings of ,spain1--and its evidences were but sparsely and negligently collected by the explorers of a different character who followed at a later date4 #bff ,the works of ,garcilasso de la ,vega1 ,valera1 ,p4 de ,cieza1 and ,de ,sahagun must be excepted4 ,as an instance of the neglect which we have reason to regret1 the former gives an account of one only 7the ,raymi7 of the four annual festivals of the ,peruvians4--,hakluyt ,soc4 ed4 ii4 #aee4 ,he gives the name1 however1 of another--namely1 the ,situa4 ,something1 however1 of primitive tradition has been thus preserved 7vide ,help's ,spanish ,conquest of ,america1 i4 #bgh1 #bhf1 #bij2 ,prescott1 ,mexico1 i4 #ed74 ,indeed1 the approximation to the biblical narrative is so close that the suspicion would be quite reasonable that missionaries of whom we have no record had found their way to these people before the continent became known to us2 or that the people themselves were of ,jewish descent2 or that they had left the ,asiatic mainland subsequently to the preaching of ,st ,thomas the apostle4 ,manco ,capac 7vide infra71 according to this conjecture1 may have been one of these missionaries2 or it may even be that in the venerable image which the description calls up we see in vision the apostle himself4 ,when1 however1 the description is compared with the traditions ,i have collated of a patriarchal character--still more remote and venerable1 ,him of mazy counsel--,saturn 7,hesiod71 ,i shall ask the reader to decide whether the more improbable conjecture1 measured according to time and distance1 has not the greater weight of evidence4 ,i proceed to place in juxtaposition a recapitulation of the classical and oriental traditions1 and the quotations from ,helps above referred to4 ,one peculiar circumstance1 as ,humboldt remarks1 is very much to be noted in the ancient records and traditions of the ,indian nations4 ,in no less than three remarkable instances has superior civilisation been attributed to the sudden presence amongst them of persons differing from themselves in appearance and descent4 ,as to the argument to be derived from colour and appearance1 vide supra1 p4 #gi4 ,bochica1 a white man with a beard1 appeared to the ,mozca ,indians in the plains of ,bogota1 taught them how to build and to sow1 formed them into communities1 gave an outlet to the waters of the great lake compare supra1 p4 #gj1 ,chronology1 and having settled the government1 civil and ecclesiastical1 retired into a monastic state of penitence for two thousand years4#bfg #bfg ,probably a tradition of the penitence of ,adam4 ,in like manner ,manco ,capac1 accompanied by his sister ,mama ,ocllo1 descended amongst the ,peruvians1 gave them a code of admirable laws1 reduced them into communities1 and then ascended to his father the ,sun4#bfh 7,a confusion with the tradition of ,enoch1 parallel to the like confusion in the person of ,xisuthrus1#bfi unmistakably identified with ,noah in the ,babylonian tradition47 #bfh ,here1 the admixture of sun-worship1 as identifying the mythology at any rate with the ,hamitic and ,cuthite1 directly militates in favour of my view against the conjecture that ,manco ,capac was a missionary4 #bfi ,vide also the like confused tradition of ,nimrod 7,assyria7 and ,menes 7,egypt71 ,bunsen1 p4 #aib4 ,amongst the ,mexicans there suddenly appeared ,quetzalcohuatl1 the green-feathered 7i4e4 elegant7 snake 7compare with ,chaldan fish-god1 p4 #aii71 a white and bearded man of broad brow1 dressed in strange dress1 a legislator who recommended severe penances1 lacerating his own body with the prickles of the agave and the thorns of the cactus1 but who dissuaded his followers from human sacrifices4 ,while he remained in ,anahuana it was a ,saturnian reign2 but this great legislator1 after moving on to the plains of ,cholulas1 and governing the ,cholulans with wisdom1 passed away to a distant country if this looks more like the movement among them of some apostolic missionary1 it is also in keeping with the journey of ,bacchus1 travelling through all nations1 c41 and was never heard of more4 ,it is said briefly of him1 that he ordained sacrifices of flowers and fruit1 and stopped his ears1 when he was spoken to of war4#bgj ,such a saint is needed in all times1 even in the present advanced state of civilisation in the old world4#bga--;,help's ,spanish ,conquest of ,america1 i4 #bhf4 #bgj ,if an identity has been established between ,quetzalcohuatl and ,manco ,capac 7vide ,prescott ,conquest of ,peru1 i4 #i71 it will appear that this legislator1 who shut his ears when he was spoken to of war1 did nevertheless leave them admirable maxims 7compare with ,indian 7,aryan7 maxims1 p4 #djj7 and laws of war1 e4g4 ,prescott1 ,peru1 p4 #fi4 ,compare extract from ,davies--vide supra1 preface4 ,the ,peruvian soldier was forbidden to commit any trespass on the property of the inhabitants whose territory lay in the line of march4 ,from the moment war was proclaimed1 c41 in every stage of the war he was open to propositions for peace1 and although he sought to reduce his enemies by carrying off their harvests and destressing them by famine1 the ,peruvian monarch allowed his troops to commit no unnecessary outrage on person or property4 ,it is not to the point that these rules were not always observed4 #bga ,compare supra1 p4 #bja1 note to ,manou 7,bacchus74 ,i have shown 7p4 #baa7 that ,calmet 7and other authorities of the same date might be adduced7 identifies ,saturn with ,noah4 ,among other proofs he points to the tradition of ,saturn devouring his children 7with the exception of three71 as a distorted tradition of the destruction of mankind according to the prediction of ,noah1 upon the canon of interpretation1 that men are said often to do what they do not prevent1 or even what they predict4 ,i have also shown that this conjecture receives attestation from a fragment of ,sanchoniathon's 7,phoenician71important whether regarded as a more ancient parallel tradition1 or as the same tradition nearer the fountain-head4 ,without recapitulating the other points of resemblance 7vide ch4 x471 let us compare what is said of ,saturn with what is said of ,bochica1 ,manco ,capac1 c4 ,under ,saturn1 says ,plutarch1 was the golden age4 ,saturn is represented with a scythe1 as the inventor of agriculture4 ,virgil 7n4 viii4 #cae7 describes ,saturn as bringing the dispersed people from the mountains and giving them laws4 ,i have also drawn attention to the ,saturnalia as connecting ,bacchus with ,saturn4 ,now ,cicero tells us that one ,bacchus was king of ,asia1 and author of laws called ,subazian2 and ,bacchus is also said to have travelled through all nations doing good1 in all places1 and teaching many things profitable to the life of man4 ,noah has also been identified with ,janus1 and under ,janus as under ,saturn was the golden age2 and it is1 moreover1 said 7vide p4 #bah71 that in the time of ,janus all families were full of religion and holiness4 ,he is said to have been the first that built temples and instituted sacred rites1 and was therefore always mentioned at the beginning of sacrifices4 ,this1 in common with what is said of ,quetzalcohuatl is again possibly a combined tradition of ,enoch and ,noah4 ,let both these traditions be compared with ,berosus' account of ,hoa1 or the fish-god 7vide ,rawlinson1 ,anct4 ,mon4 i4 p4 #aee1 and supra1 p4 #bch74 ,he is said to have transmitted to mankind the knowledge of grammar and mathematics1 and of all arts 7or of any kind of art71 and of the polity of cities1 the construction and dedication of temples1 the introduction of laws1 to have taught them geometry1 and to have shown them by example1 the mode of sowing the seed and gathering the fruits of the earth2 and along with them to have tradated all the secrets which tend to harmonise life4 ,and no one else in that time was found so experienced as he4#bgb #bgb ,compare with ,gen4 vi4 #ah1 viii4 #ae1 ,and ,god spoke to ,noe1 saying2 also vi4 #ac1 ix4 #h2 and ,gen4 viii4 #bj--;,and ,noe built an altar unto the ,lord1 and taking of all cattle2 and ix4 #bj--;,and ,noe1 a husbandman1 began to till the ground1 and planted a vineyard4 ,also ,ecclesiasticus xliv4 #a1 #c1 #d1 #ai1 ,the covenants of the world were made with him4 ,compare also with the ,oracula ,sybillina1 supra1 p4 #bcg4 ,in the traditions1 however1 which connect ,noah with the ,saturnian reign1#bgc it appears to me that threefold confusion has to be disentangled4 #bgc ,it may be well here to recall to recollection the well-known lines of ,virgil-- ,ultima ,cumi venit jam carminis tas3 ,magnus ab integro seclorum nascitur ordo1 ,jam redit et ,virgo1 redeunt ,saturnia regna ,jam nova progenies coelo dimittitur alto4 ,eclogues ,,iv4 ,i4 ,there is a tradition of a golden and of a silver age frequently transfused4 ,,ii4 ,when thus transfused there is often along with the tradition of a golden or silver age trace of a subordinate and incongruous tradition of a state of nature as a state of barbarism--both at the early commencement of things4 ,,iii4 ,there is a double tradition of the succession of ages1 the one ante-1 the other post-diluvian4 99 99 99 99 99 ,i4 ,the tradition of the golden age is primarily the tradition of ,paradise1 to which succeeded in gradation of degeneracy a silver1 brass1 and iron age4 ,of this line of tradition we have seen distinct trace in ,sanchoniathon 7supra1 p4 #abg74 ,but there is also1 as we have just seen1 a tradition of another golden age connected with ,saturn1 ,janus1 c41 and of this perhaps we have the most direct testimony in the ,chinese tradition4 ,the ,chinese traditions1 says ,professor ,rawlinson 7,bampton ,lectures1 ii41 quoting ,hor ,mos4 iv4 #adg7 are said to be less clear and decisive 7than the ,babylonian74 ,they speak of a 'first heaven' and age of innocence when 'the whole creation enjoyed a state of happiness2 when everything was beautiful1 everything was good2 all things were perfect in their kind4 ,whereunto succeeded a second heaven1 introduced by a great convulsion1 in which the pillars of heaven were broken1 the earth shook to its foundations1 the heavens sank lower towards the north1 the sun1 moon1 and stars changed their motions1 the earth fell to pieces1 and the waters enclosed within its bosom burst forth with violence and overflowed1' c4 ,here1 then1 is a tradition of a second heaven1 or a ,saturnian reign1 following a convulsion which will perhaps be conceded to be a tradition of the universal ,deluge 7vide p4 #bbc71 and which links the tradition of the ,saturnian reign with the patriarch ,noah8#bgd #bgd ,boulanger 7,l',antiquit ,devoile1 i4 #aj71 recognises1 although it perplexes him1 the tradition which places the gold and silver age after the ,deluge-- la suite de cet venement1 les traditions de l'age d'or1 et du regne des ,dieux paroissent encore plus bizarres2 also id4 iii4 #cch2 also #cjh4 ,also #cbh1 ,ce n'est donc point un tat politique qu'il faut chercher dans l'age d'or1 ce fut un tat tout religieux4 ,chaque famille pntre des jugemens d'en haut1 vecut quelque temps sous la conduite des pres qui rassembloient leurs enfans4 ,it is thus that ,seneca depicts the golden age4 ,vide p4 #bca4 ,i ask now to be allowed to look at the same tradition from a different point of view4 ,i have elsewhere shown 7p4 #bg7 that according to the operation of natural causes everything in the primitive ages would have led to dispersion1 but however probable or even certain these conjectures may be1 we know as a fact that they did not operate 7,gen4 xi4 #a1 #c1 #h7 for some three hundred years or more1 probably until after the death of ,noah4 ,does not this look as if mankind were kept together for a period1 in order that they might become settled in their ideas and confirmed in their maxims1 under the influence and direction of the second father of mankind1 whose direct communications with the ,most ,high had been manifest1 and whose authority necessarily commanded universal respect--,him of mazy counsel1 ,saturn8 7,hesiod1 ,theog47#bge #bge ,it might be a sufficient answer to say that they did not operate because a miraculous intervention ordained it otherwise2 but if we seek the explanation in natural causes they will be found such as will exactly confirm the theory4 ,the causes which lead to dispersion are the necessities of the pastoral life4 ,if there1 then1 was no dispersion1 the conclusion is that during the three or four centuries after the ,deluge mankind were mainly engaged in husbandry--and ,noe1 a husbandman1 began to till the ground4 ,but husbandry is the first and essential condition of civilisation4 ,we have seen that ,mr ,mill1 ,mr ,hepworth ,dixon1 c41 believe that mankind slowly arrived at this stage through the intermediate stages of shepherd and hunter4 ,on the contrary it would appear that they started in this career4 ,again1 given the conditions which ,genesis describes--families living in patriarchal subjection to a chief who had the knowledge of husbandry--cultivation would be the natural consequence2 for the one and only hindrance to cultivation1 supposing the knowledge1 is insecurity4 ,most critical of all are the causes which conduce to agriculture1 agriculture at once the most fruitful and the most dangerous expedients for life4 ,he who tills the soil exposes his valuable stores to the malice or enmity of the whole world4 ,any marauder1 c4 7,miscell4 by ,francis ,w4 ,newman1 #ahfi74 ,but as the conditions described in ,genesis exclude the probability of such interruption--agriculture would have been the preferable resource of life--and so it would have continued until circumstances led to the extension of the pastoral mode4 ,so far1 then1 as we are brought to regard the different modes of life as progressive or successive 7,i believe that even at this early stage they were contemporaneous71 the order of the succession according to the theory now in vogue must be reversed2 and we must regard mankind as first a community of husbandmen1 gradually extending themselves as shepherds1 to be finally still more dispersed in some of their branches as hunters4 ,if this theory appears far-fetched and fanciful1 let it be recollected1 on the other hand1 that there has long subsisted a tradition among mankind of a code of nature as connected with a state of nature1 which has to be accounted for 7vide chap4 ii47 ,and when we consider how the impulsion which a nation receives at the commencement of its history continues--how much1 for instance1 at the distance of a thousand years we resemble our ,saxon ancestors of the eighth century1 and even our ancestors of the ,german forest in identity of character1 sentiment1 and institution--we must not make the lapse of centuries an impassable barrier to a belief in the traditions of mankind in the early periods of history4 ,let us also1 in regarding the golden or silver age1 glance beyond it to that iron age which ultimately followed it1 in which the world1 becoming crowded and also corrupted1 many families and tribes collected together for warfare1 and in which one nation swallowed another until all came to be absorbed1 at least on the ,asiatic continent1 into one or two great empires1 which again contended for supreme dominion4 ,an age of universal war1 of many sorrows1 of great perturbations1 but one in which the process of dispersion was stayed1 and mankind settled down within certain definite lines of demarcation1 which in great part have continued to this day4 ,no wonder1 then1 that men turned to each other in these dark days1 and talked with regret of the simple agricultural and pastoral age which had passed1 and which came variously to be called1 in their recollection1 the second heaven1 the ,arcadian era1 the ,saturnia regna1#bgf the golden age4 ,neither is it surprising that the idea of a state of nature misconceived as to the facts1 and of a law of nature dimly remembered and distorted by human perversity1 has so often obtained among mankind in modern times and also in antiquity4 ,this is a point which ,i shall discuss with reference to the historical evidence in another chapter4 #bgf ,and truly there is a sap in nations as well as in trees1 a vigorous inward power1 ever tending upwards1 drawing its freshest energies from the simplest institutions1 and the purest virtues and the healthiest moral action4444 ,and if of nations we may so speak1 what shall we say of the entire human race1 when all its energies were1 in a manner1 pent up in its early and few progenitors2 when the children of ,noah1 removed but a few generations from the recollections and lessons of ,eden1 and possessing the accumulated wisdom of long-lived patriarchs1 were marvellously fitted to receive those strange and novel impressions1 which a world1 just burst forth in all its newness1 was calculated to make8--,card4 ,wiseman1 ,science and ,revealed ,religion1 ,lect4 ii4 ,it is to this period that ,i am inclined to refer the belief in an age of high chivalry and virtue1 with subsequent degeneracy1 widely diffused in the legends of ,king ,arthur4 ,i will surrender my opinion whenever the historical information respecting that monarch shall have been more exactly determined4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,ii4 ,the conception of the state of nature 7chap4 ii47 as a basis of theory and belief arose in the main out of the speculations of lawyers and philosophers2 yet it is curious that we frequently come upon a concurrent yet always subordinate tradition of equality associated with the tradition of a golden age which1 if the age of ,noah1 we know aliunde to have been a state of hierarchical subordination to a patriarchal chief2 and1 along with a reminiscence of a time of peaceful prosperity at the commencement of things1 the tradition of the primitive age as one of great barbarism and privation1 man living on acorns1 c4 ,that these testimonies of tradition are incongruous and confused1 ,i am bound to admit2 but then1 looked at from the point of view of tradition1 they seem to me to have their explanation4 ,if this happens to be deemed somewhat fanciful1 ,i contend that the test in all these cases must be--7#a47 ,does the key fit the lock8 7#b47 ,is there any other key producible8#bgg ,i venture1 then1 to suggest 7p4 #baa7 that the notion of the primitive equality may be traced through the ,bacchanalian traditions2 and the tradition of a primitive age of great privation ,i believe to be the recollection of that brief but probably sharp period of suffering during which mankind clung to the mountains in distrust of the ,divine injunction and promise1 until brought into the plains by ,noah4#bgh 7,vide p4 #acg47 #bgg ,the evidence1 therefore1 of the meaning of this part of the ,homeric system is like that which is obtained1 when1 upon applying a new key to some lock that we have been unable to open1 we find it fits the wards and puts back the bolt4--,gladstone1 ,homer and the ,homeric ,age1 ii4 #cj4 #bgh ,plato's testimony to this tradition is remarkable 7,plato de ,legibus1 lib4 i47 ,boulanger extracts the passage with reference to the golden age 7iii4 #bif74 7,vide also ,grote's ,plato1 iii4 #ccg47 ,plato says--,that it is a tradition that there was formerly a great destruction of mankind caused by inundations and other general calamities are not these calamities those to which ,horace alludes1 ,i4 ,ode iii41 ,semotique prius tarda necessitas ,lethi corripuit gradum1 from which only a few escaped8 those who were spared led a pastoral life on the mountains4 ,we may suppose1 he adds1 that these men possessed the knowledge of some useful arts1 of some usages to which they had previously conformed4 ,plato indeed goes on to tell how this knowledge must have been lost1 and one reason he gives is1 mankind remained many centuries on the summits of the highest mountains--fear and remembrance of the past did not permit them to descend into the plains4 ,strabo 7apud ,boulanger1 iii4 #cja7 also discusses this question4 ,he says that mankind descended into the plains at different periods according to their courage and sociability 7lib4 xiii47 ,varro 7,de re ,rustica1 lib4 xiii4 cap4 i47 says they were a long time before they descended4 ,now1 in these passages from ,plato1 ,strabo1 and ,varro1 there is distinct testimony to the fact of mankind remaining on the mountains after the ,deluge1 and their subsequent inferences are drawn from the fact that they supposed them to have remained there a long time4 ,is not this merely that they have recorded one tradition to the exclusion of another--viz41 that mankind were brought into the plains by ,saturn1 in accordance with the indications in ,genesis ix4 #bj1 and ,noe1 a husbandman began to till the ground4 ,compare supra1 p4 #acg1 and p4 #bab2 ,bryant1 ,mythology1 iii4 p4 #bb1 following ,st ,epiphanius1 says the descendants of ,noah remained #fei years in the vicinity of ,ararat--i4e4 five generations4 ,moreover1 the characteristics of this subsequent period1 when mankind were living together in groups of families under the mild sway of the patriarch1 when all families were good 7p4 #bah71 and when 444 ,with abundant goods midst quiet lands1 ,all willing shared the gatherings of their hands4 was just that semi-state of nature which it only required the ,bacchanalian tradition on the one side to transform into the fiction of the state of savage and absolute equality1 or the touch of poetry to convert into the golden reminiscence on the other4 ,in this way1 in the person of the patriarch ,noah1 the fiction of a state of nature was brought into contact with the tradition of a law of nature and a law of nations1 regarded as the law of mankind when men were nearest the gods4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,iii4 ,i have already noticed 7p4 #abg7 the double tradition of the succession of ages1 the tradition from the fragment of ,sanchoniathon1 upon which ,mr ,m',lennan relies1 being ante-1 that of ,hesiod partly ante- and partly post-diluvian4 ,the following lines of ,hesiod1 for instance1 bearing allusion to the confusion of tongues and the shortening of life1 being plainly post-diluvian3-- ,when ,gods alike and mortals rose to birth1 ,the immortals formed a golden race on earth ,of many-languaged men2 they lived of old1 ,when ,saturn reigned in ,heaven2 an age of gold4 ,the ,sire of ,heaven and earth created then ,a race the third1 of many-languaged men1 ,unlike the silver they2 of brazen mould1 ,strong with the ashen spear1 and fierce and bold4#bgi #bgi ,with reference to the stone age1 vide p4 #bhh4 ,and again1 of the iron race which followed them1 he says-- ,jove on this race of many-languaged men ,speeds the swift ruin which but slow began2 ,for scarcely spring they to the light of day ,e'er age untimely strews their temples grey4 ,i must here1 too1 point out how curiously the testimonies of tradition and science coincide4#bhj ,both are agreed as to the transition from a brass 7bronze7 to an iron age2 but in one it is referred to as evidence of degeneracy--in the other1 the transition is adduced in proof of progress4 ,but the fact is established by the evidence of tradition1 as certainly as by the conclusions of science1 and is referred to accordingly by ,sir ,john ,lubbock 7,pre-historic ,times1 p4 #f74 #bhj ,concerning the evident tradition of the dispersion in ,hesiod1 ,theog4 v4 #hcf1 vide ,bryant's ,mythology1 iii4 #ea1 et seq4 ,the lines of ,lucretius are certainly remarkable-- ,arma antiqua1 manus ungues dentesque fuerunt1 ,et lapides1 et item sylvarum fragmina rami ,posterius ferri vis est1 risque reperta1 ,sed prior ris erat1 quam ferri cognitus usus4 ,quo facilis magis est natura et copia major re solum terr tractabunt1 reque belli ,miscebant fluctus4--,de ,rerum ,natura1 lib4 #e4 ,but here ,i cannot help thinking the tradition has reference rather to the use than to the knowledge of metals4 ,we have seen1 for instance1 that the cultivation of the ground commenced with ,noah--the fact being attested both by ,scripture and tradition4 ,now1 in the above passage1 although the primitive weapons are referred to1 as of stones1 yet it is said reque solum terr tractabunt1 an averment which no doubt has reference to the brazen age2 yet nothing forbids the construction1 which on other grounds seems the more natural that the land was from the first so cultivated1#bha and that in strictness the commencement of the brazen age was identical with the commencement of cultivation1 although in the mind of the poet it had reference to the introduction of bronze weapons and implements of war4 ,moreover1 the sylvarum fragmina rami may point to the period immediately preceding cultivation1 when the human race clung to the mountains4 ,the testimony of ,scripture to the point seems plain4 ,not only does the construction of the ark appear to imply the use of metals1 but the reference to ,tubalcain1 who was a hammerer and artificer in every work of brass and iron 7,gen4 iv4 #bb71 seems to put the antediluvian knowledge of metals beyond question4 #bha ,this appears to me to be borne out by the ,sanscrit root ar1 to plough1 being seemingly cognate with s1 ris1 and with the produce corn arista1 aroum1 aratrum1 ,greek ,greek3 arsma1 c4 ,sanscrit1 ar1 to plough1 vide note #a in ,brace's ,ethnology4 ,vide also ,max ,mller1 ,science of ,language1 id4 ,vide also ,max ,mller1 ,chips1 ii4 p4 #de4 ,the name of the plough 7in ,egypt7 was ,greek3 ,z,hbix1 ploughed land1 appears to have been ,greek3 art1 a word still traced in the ,arabic 'hart1' which has the same import2 and the ,greek ,greek3 artron and ,roman aratrum appears to indicate1 like the ,greek3 aroura1 an ,egyptian origin4--,wilkinson's ,ancient ,egyptians1 i4 #de4 ,if ar1 as in ,greek3 aristos1 should be proposed as the primitive root1 it must be after rejection of the evidence of secondary derivation2 but does not our common parlance still run to the comparison of virtues with metals1 good as gold1 hard as iron1 true as steel4 ,why then at a later period should not brass have become the expression for best in the brazen or warlike age1 when courage was the virtue principally regarded8 ,if this is accepted1 ,greek3 ,ars1 or ,mars1 so far from being the root1 would be a tertiary derivation--the embodiment and deification of what was regarded as best in the brazen age4 ,gladstone 7,homer1 ii4 p4 #bbe71 shows that ,mars was a deity of late invention1 and not one of the traditionary deities4 ,rawlinson1 vide supra1 p4 #afd1 identifying ,ares with ,nimrod4 ,bunsen 7,egypt1 iii4 #dff71 says in a note1 ,arya in ,indian means lord4 ,its original meaning was equivalent to upper noble4 ,the popular name ,arja is derived from it1 and means descended from a noble4 ,i will only add that ,ari in ,egyptian means honourable 7in ,nofruari74 ,but ar might mean to plough2 for the ,aryans were originally and essentially an agricultural1 and therefore a peasant race4 ,agriculture at the time we are contemplating would have been the most honourable employment 7supra1 p4 #cbi71 it would not have been an agricultural and therefore peasant employment till insecurity brought about the state of dependence and vassalage4 ,the ,aryans would have been noble as being of the ,japhetic race4 ,in the first commencement after the ,deluge1 unless miraculously supplied1 there would have been no grain or bread food until time had been allowed for its production4 ,during this interval acorns1 c41 may have been the only food4 ,perhaps it was so ordained to incite to the new permission to eat flesh meat4 ,on the other hand1 ,i ask1 in those ages when men were supposed to live exclusively on acorns1 was not flesh meat eaten1--were there no hunters8 ,had man no control over the domestic animals8 ,that in a peaceful period1 and the intercommunication of families previous to the dispersion implies a state of peace 7ch4 xiii471 in a period in which1 if we follow the other traditions1 all families were good1 and were under the rule of an old man1 who held his hands to his ears when they spoke to him of war1 it is not surprising to learn either that they had no weapons1 or that they were of the simplest description4 ,it is characteristic of an age which piques itself upon the perfection of its artillery1 and whose greatest triumphs and inventions have been in the science of destruction1 to look back upon a totally different age which happened only to have stone weapons1 as necessarily an age of barbarism4 ,but from our point of view it must be regarded not as an age of barbarism1 but of prosperity1--not as a state of equality1 but of the subordination of the members of the family to each chief1 and of families relatively to each other2 an age of much mental vigour and spiritual intuition1 and1 so far from being a period of misery1 it left reminiscences of happiness such as lingered long in the memory of mankind4 ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,sir ,h4 ,,maine ,,on ,,the ,,law ,,of ,,nations4 ,dr ,newman in his inaugural discourse as ,rector of the ,dublin ,university 7,on the ,place held by the ,faculty of ,arts in the ,university ,course71 which ,i think never received the attention it deserved1 has with a few masterly touches sketched the history of ,western civilisation1 which in its main lines may be considered to run into1 and be found identical with1 the tradition ,i am now regarding--with this difference1 that ,dr ,newman regards ,western civilisation in its progressive1 whereas we are concerned with its traditive aspects4 ,dr ,newman says3 ,i take things as ,i find them on the surface of history1 and am but classing phenomena 7,i have nothing to do with ethnology74 ,looking1 then1 at the countries which surround the ,mediterranean seas as a whole1 ,i see them from time immemorial the seat of an association of intellect and mind such as to deserve to be called the intellect and mind of human kind4 ,starting and advancing from certain centres1 till their respective influences intersect and conflict1 and then at length intermingle and combine1 a common thought has been generated1 and a common civilisation defined and established4 ,egypt is one starting-point1 ,syria another1 ,greece a third1 ,italy a fourth 7of which1 as time goes on1 the ,roman empire is the maturity1 and the most intelligible expression71 ,north ,africa a fifth1 444 and this association or social commonwealth1 with whatever reverses1 changes1 and momentary dissolutions1 continues down to this day4444 ,i call it1 then1 pre-eminently and emphatically ,human ,society1 and its ,intellect the ,human ,mind1 and its decisions the sense of mankind and its humanised and cultivated states--civilisation in the abstract2 and the territory on which it lies the orbis terrarum1 or the world4 ,for unless the illustration be fanciful1 the object which ,i am contemplating is like the impression of a seal upon the wax2 which rounds off and gives form to the greater portion of the soft material1 and presents something definite to the eye1 and pre-occupies the space against any second figure1 so that we overlook and leave out of our thoughts the jagged outline or unmeaning lumps outside of it1 intent upon the harmonious circle which fills the imagination within it4 7,there are indeed great outlying portions of mankind1 444 still they are outlying portions and nothing else1 fragmentary1 c41 protesting and revolting against the grand central formation of which ,i am speaking1 but not uniting with each other into a second whole47 ,the same orbis terrarum1 which has been the seat of civilisation1 has been the seat of the ,christian polity4 ,the natural and the divine associations are not indeed exactly coincident1 nor ever have been4 ,christianity has fallen partly outside civilisation and civilisation partly outside ,christianity2 but on the whole the two have occupied one and the same orbis terrarum4444 ,the centre of the tradition is transferred from ,greece to ,rome4444 ,at length the temple of ,jerusalem is rooted up by the armies of ,titus1 and the effete schools of ,athens are stifled by the edict of ,justinian4444 ,the grace stored in ,jerusalem1 and the gifts which radiate from ,athens1 are made over and concentrated in ,rome4 ,this is true as a matter of history4 ,rome has inherited both sacred and profane learning2 she has perpetuated and dispensed the traditions of ,moses and ,david in the supernatural order1 and of ,homer and ,aristotle in the natural4 ,to separate these distinct teachings1 human and divine1 is to retrograde2 it is to rebuild the ,jewish temple and to plant anew the groves of ,academus2 444 and though these were times when the old traditions seemed to be on the point of failing1 somehow it has happened that they have never failed4444 ,even in the lowest state of learning the tradition was kept up2 444 and this experience of the past we may apply to the present1 for as there was a movement against the classics in the ,middle ,ages1 so has there been now4444 ,civilisation has its common principles1 and views1 and teaching1 and especially its books1 which have more or less been given from the earliest times1 and are in fact in equal esteem and respect1 in equal use1 now1 as they were when they were received in the beginning4 ,in a word1 the classics and the subjects of thought and study to which they give rise1 or to use the term most to our present purpose1 the arts have ever on the whole been the instruments which the civilised orbis terrarum has adopted2 just as inspired works1 and the lives of saints1 and the articles of faith and the ,catechism have been the instrument of education in the case of ,christianity4 ,and this consideration you see1 gentlemen 7to drop down at once upon the subject of discussion which has brought us together71 invests the opening of the schools in arts#bhb with a solemnity and moment of a peculiar kind1 for we are but engaged in reiterating an old tradition1 and carrying on those august methods of enlarging the mind1 and cultivating the intellect and ripening the feelings1 in which the process of civilisation has ever consisted4--,dr ,newman on ,civilisation4 #bhb ,i4e41 ,the teaching and government of the ,university remained in the ,faculty of ,arts1 and not in the faculty of theology or law or modern philosophy4 ,i have for my own purposes of condensation been obliged to take certain unpardonable liberties of transposition in the above abstract1 for which ,i can only plead my necessity4 ,i should not in any case have so exceeded in quotation1 were this very masterly address at all accessible1 but1 as far as ,i know1 it is only to be found in the ,catholic ,university ,gazette1 ,november #af1 #ahed4 ,in order to show the full significance of these extracts from ,dr ,newman1 and also their bearing on points still to be discussed1 ,i will append the following suggestive passage from ,sir ,h4 ,maine's ,ancient ,law1 p4 #bb3--;,it is only with the progressive societies that we are concerned1 and nothing is more remarkable than their extreme fewness4 ,in spite of overwhelming evidence1 it is most difficult for a citizen of ,western ,europe to bring thoroughly home to himself the truth that the civilisation which surrounds him is a rare exception in the history of the world4 ,the tone of thought common among us1 all our hopes1 fears1 and speculations1 would be materially affected1 if we had vividly before us the relation of the progressive races to the totality of human life4 ,it is indisputable that much the greatest part of mankind has never shown a particular desire that its civil institutions should be improved since the moment when external completeness was first given to them by their embodiment in some permanent record4444 ,there has been a material civilisation1 but instead of the civilisation expanding the law1 the law has limited the civilisation4 ,i must also express my belief that if ,mr ,lowe had read the lecture of ,dr ,newman1 he would have very much modified the views he enunciated in his lecture on ,primary and ,university ,education1 at the ,philosophical ,institution at ,edinburgh4--,times1 ,november #d1 #ahfg4 ,before examining ,sir ,h4 ,maine's view on the ,law of ,nature and the ,law of ,nations1 it will perhaps facilitate the inquiry if ,i gather up1 out of the evidence which has accumulated in the previous chapters1 such conclusions as will show how we stand in regard to ,sir ,h4 ,maine's general theory4 ,i4 ,accepting ,sir ,h4 ,maine's dictum that the family and not the individual was the unit of ancient society2 and1 in a certain sense1 the further position1 that it is difficult to know where to stop1 to say of what races of men it is not allowable to lay down that the society in which they are united was originally organised on the patriarchal model1#bhc ,i venture to maintain against ,sir ,h4 ,maine the continuance of family life in a quasi state of nature1 before either the development or creation of the ,state4 #bhc ,ancient ,law1 p4 #abc4 ,,ii4 ,but in maintaining that there was a period in human history anterior to the formation of governments1 ,i am far from asserting--on the contrary1 ,i distinctly repudiate the notion--that there was ever an ante-social state4 ,society is complete within the family circle2#bhd and society in any wider organisation is only the requirement and consequence of imperfection and corruption within the family1 or of collision between families4 ,undoubtedly1 there were instances in which the ,state grew up imperceptibly out of the extension of the family into the patriarchal system2#bhe but these instances will probably have occurred among the families who remained stationary1 whether by right of seniority1 or by virtue of superior power1 at the central point from which the ,dispersion commenced4 ,so long1 however1 as family government sufficed1 there would have been nothing but the family2 but when mankind increased1 and actual relationship died out1 disputes must have multiplied and become complicated--not only between individuals but between families2 hence the necessity of ,state government--hence the necessity of an appeal on the part of individuals from the family to some supreme authority4 ,this would be the first mode in which governments would have arisen among those who came under the action of the ,dispersion4 ,but even here--assuming the family groups to have descended from the same progenitor--we see first the family1 first property1 then the ,state4 ,the second mode would be where several families1 differing in language and race1 came together and formed ,states4#bhf ,although they would have come together on unequal and varying conditions1 yet they would necessarily have come together on some conditions1 and for the mutual protection of their rights1 their property1 and their personal security4 ,in all such cases there would have been something of a recognition and adjustment of rights1 something of the nature of a compact more or less explicit1 but much more formal and explicit in this mode than in the former4 ,in any case1 the end and intention of the formation of ,states and governments would have been the security of rights1 as ,cicero tells us3--,hanc enim ob causam maxime ut sua tuerentur respublic civitatesque constitut sunt4 ,nam etsi1 duce natur1 congregabantur homines1 tamen spe custodi rerum suarum urbium prsidia qurebant4 ,but does not ,sir ,h4 ,maine himself supply similar testimony8 ,referring to the notions of primitive antiquity1 he says3-- ,how little the notion of injury to the community had to do with the earliest interferences of the ,state1 through its tribunals1 is shown by the curious circumstance1 that in the original administration of justice the proceedings were a close imitation of the series of acts which were likely to be gone through in private life by persons who were disputing1 but who afterwards suffered their quarrel to be appeased4 ,the magistrate carefully simulated the demeanour of a private arbitrator1 casually called in4--,chap4 x4 #cgd2 vide also pp4 #cge1 #cgf4 #bhd ,it by no means follows that ,god does not will1 and did not foreordain society in its wider organisation1 according to the conditions and circumstances out of which it arose4 #bhe ,sir ,h4 ,maine says 7p4 #abd73--,the points which lie on the surface of history are these3 the eldest male parent--the eldest ascendant--is absolutely supreme in his household4 ,his dominion extends to life and death1 and is as unqualified over their children and their houses as over his slaves4 ,the flocks and herds of the children are the flocks and herds of the father4 ,this is not borne out by what we read of ,abraham and ,lot1 ,esau and ,jacob--e4g41 ,but ,lot also1 who was with ,abraham1 had flocks of sheep1 and herds and tents4 ,neither was the land able to bear them1 that they might dwell together 7,gen4 xiii47 ,and the possessions of the parent1 which he holds in a representative rather than a proprietary character1 are equally divided at his death among his descendants in the first degree1 the eldest son sometimes receiving a double share1 under the name of birthright1 but more generally endowed with no hereditary advantage beyond an honorary precedence4 ,the separation then commenced with the division of the inheritance2 and whether it was ever an equal division1 and not proportioned to the respective ages of the sons1 or determined by other motives1 or again1 a division of different kinds of property1 may be open to question2 but at any rate a division took place1 and a separation of families was consequent upon it4 ,the division was not only the sign and token1 but the efficient cause of the separation2 and so not only the dispersion of families1 but separate ownerships commenced with the descendants in the first degree4 #bhf ,compare ,plato1 ,leges2 ,grote's ,plato1 iii4 #ccg4 ,,iii4 ,we come to the conclusion that the collation of the sentiments and maxims1 as preserved in tradition by the families who had coalesced into ,states1 would have formed the basis of the morality and of the jurisprudence of the ,states so constituted2 and that in every case of oppression appeal would have been made to their pre-existing and natural rights4 ,,iv4 ,that whilst certain traditions--the tradition of religion1 for instance--would have been perhaps more faithfully preserved in the patriarchal governments of the ,east1 and we find evidence of this in the monotheism of the ,persians2 on the other hand1 if there was a tradition of a law common to all nations1 it would be more likely to be preserved in ,states formed by the amalgamation of many distinct families and races4#bhg #bhg ,in that old heathenism of the ,roman world1 into which it was the will of ,god that the ,christian religion should be introduced by the apostles1 there were then diverse and often conflicting elements4 ,there was a good element1 which came from ,god2 there was a thoroughly bad element1 which came from ,satan2 and there was a corrupt element1 which was the fruit of the workings of unregenerate human nature upon society1 and upon the objects of sense and intelligence with which man is placed in relation4 ,the good element we see embodied in great part of the laws and institutions of the ancient world1 as also in much of the literature1 the poetry1 the philosophy of ,greece and ,rome1 which literature consequently--after having been purified1 and as it were baptized--has always been used by the ,christian ,church in the education of her children4 ,this element1 ,i say1 was originally the gift of ,god1 the ,author of nature1 to man1 the offspring of reason and conscience1 the tradition of a society of which ,god was ,himself the founder4 ,it enshrined whatever fragments of primeval truth as to ,god1 the world1 and man himself1 still lingered1 in whatever shape1 among the far-wandering children of ,adam4 ,st ,paul alludes to this element 7,acts xvii4 #bb72 444 and his words altogether seem to imply that ,god watched over it1 supported it and fostered it1 as far as men were worthy of it1 and that it might even have been expanded into a perfect system of natural religion and of reasonable virtue1 had men been grateful enough to earn larger measures of grace from ,god1 who left not ,himself without witness in ,his daily providence1 and was not far from 'any one of ,his children4'--,four ,sermons1 by the ,rev4 ,henry ,j4 ,coleridge1 ,s4 ,j4 ,burns ,oates4 #ahfi4 ,p4 #eb4 7#dh47 ,v4 ,that such was the origin and history of the ,greeks and ,romans--the two nations which formed the nucleus of the orbis terrarum within which1 as ,dr ,newman tells us 7supra1 p4 #cci71 is found the centre of ,christianity and the seat of civilisation4 ,,vi4 ,that1 whether the ,roman law goes back in tradition1 or1 as ,sir ,h4 ,maine will say1 in fiction only--the fact remains1 that it does so trace itself back to remote antiquity1 and that the ,roman law subsists to this day as the foundation of most of the codes of ,europe1 and has extended its ramifications to all2 and that outside the circle of its influence other nations equally retrace their codes to remote antiquity1 and1 as a rule1 to revelations made to their earliest founder4 ,that nothing is more striking in ancient times than the manner in which their codes1 which are the embodiment of laws previously in tradition1 were held as a sacred deposit4 ,this was the reason why the laws of the ,medes and the ,persians might not be altered2 and that1 according to the laws of the ,visigoths1 no judge would decide in any suit unless he found in their code a law applicable to the case2 and perhaps we may find trace of it in the phrases familiar to us--nolumus leges ,angli mutari1 stare super vias antiquas1 and so1 too1 in the ita scriptum est1 which1 as ,sir ,h4 ,maine says 7p4 #ca71 silenced all objections in the ,middle ,ages4 ,,vii4 ,that the fact of a tradition of a law common to all nations and of a lost code of nature1 is in accordance with the historical and scriptural evidence which would render such a tradition probable4 99 99 99 99 99 ,sir ,h4 ,maine1 with whose argument ,i now propose to deal1 is1 as far as ,i am aware1 the most conspicuous opponent of the common belief in the ,law of ,nations2 and yet it appears to me that we shall find testimony to the tradition even in the very terms in which he repudiates it4 ,i must at least consider this a recognition on his part of the strength and inveteracy of the opposite view4 ,in the following extracts ,i shall suppose my readers fresh from the perusal of ,sir ,h4 ,maine4 ,sir ,h4 ,maine says 7,ancient ,law1 pp4 #g1 #h71 that the further we penetrate into the primitive history of thought1 the further we find ourselves from the conception of law of any sort4 ,and again1 ,it is certain that in the infancy of mankind1 no sort of legislation1 not even a distinct author of law1 is contemplated or conceived of4 ,now if ,sir ,h4 ,maine had said nothing more1 ,i should have felt bound to take this assertion upon his authority2 but ,sir ,h4 ,maine adds3--,law has scarcely reached the footing of custom2 it is rather a habit4 ,it is1 to use a ,french phrase1 'in the air1' ,is not ,sir ,h4 ,maine here hunting for a phrase which shall not imply that it is in tradition8 ,the only authoritative statement of right and wrong is a judicial sentence after the facts1 not one presupposing a law which has been violated1 but one which is breathed for the first time by a higher power into the judge's mind at the moment of adjudication4 ,this passage may be adduced in evidence of the tradition of ,noah and his heavenly-inspired judgments1 but apparently it is in contradiction to the view of a law of nature1 since it supposes the judge to decide through direct inspiration1 or in the way of stet pro ratione voluntas1 and not with reference to a law which has been violated4 ,now1 ,sir ,h4 ,maine comes to his conclusion upon the ground of the ,themistes of the ,homeric poems4 ,the earliest notions connected with the conception 444 of a law or rule of life are those contained in the ,homeric words ',themis' and ',themistes' 7p4 #d74 ,the literature of the heroic ages discloses to us law in the germ under the ',themistes1' and a little more developed in the conception of ',dike' 7p4 #i74 ,if this were so1 law according to the conception of ,themistes and law according to the conception of ,dike were never contemporaneous1 but necessarily successive1 or rather progressive2 but at page #h we read1 ,the ,homeric word for a custom in the embryo is sometimes ',themis' in the singular1 more often ',dike1' the meaning of which visibly fluctuates between 'a judgment' and a 'custom' or 'usage4' ',greek3 ,nomos1' a law 444 does not occur in ,homer4#bhh #bhh ,the word ',greek3 nomos' is found in the ,hymn to ,apollo1 v4 #bj1 attributed to ,homer the term ,greek3 themistes also1 v4 #cia--;and in ,hesiod1 ,op4 et ,dies1 v4 #bgf4--;,goguet1 ii4 #gh4 ,in the ,hymn to ,apollo it is only applied to song4 ,the ,greeks had the same word1 however--viz4 ,greek3 nomoi1 as for laws1 songs1 and pastures--that is to say1 the term law1 ,greek3 nomos1 is applied to the instrument of its transmission1 and to what would then have been its most ordinary subject matter4 ,this seems to me in evidence of its primitive use4 ,take1 moreover1 the following passage in the ,first ,book of the ,iliad1 v4 #bcc3-- ,greek3 ',all' ek toi ere1 kai epi megan horkon omoumai nai ma tode skptron1 to men oupote phylla kai ozous physei1 epeid prta tomn en oressi leloipen1 oud' anathlsei2 peri gar rha he chalkos elepse phylla te kai phloion2 nyn aute min hyies ,achain en palams phoreousi1 dikaspoloi1 hoite ,themistas pros ,dios heiryatai2 ho de toi megas essetai horkos4 --,heyne's ,homer1 i4 v4 #bcc-bci4 ,but this ,i say1 and with an oath confirm1 ,by this my royal staff1 which never more ,shall put forth leaf nor spray since first it left ,upon the mountain side its parent stem1 ,nor blossom more2 since all around1 the axe ,hath lopped both leaf and bark1 and now 'tis borne1 ,emblem of justice1 by the sons of ,greece1 ,who guard the sacred ministry of law ,before the face of ,jove6 a mighty oath4 ,the time shall come when all the sons of ,greece ,shall mourn ,achilles' loss1 c4 --,lord ,derby's ,translation1 #bge-bhe4 ,here we have the term dike not merely in embryo1 but in the compound word dikaspoloi1 administrators of justice1 implying something akin to judges1 and a condition of things in which law was reduced to a state in which there was something to guard and administer4 ,not only so1 but the staff1 the emblem of justice1 is borne by them when they guard the ,themistes before the gods4 ,it will not only be curious to discover1 but the discovery of vestiges in modern times of the old traditional modes and ceremonial will throw light upon the administration of justice in ancient times4 ,i dare say many other instances may be indicated4 ,i will adduce the following3--,if my readers will turn to the ,pall ,mall ,gazette 7,july #ab1 #ahgj71 they will find an account of ,the ,manx ,thing1 or the ancient custom of the ,ruler1 his ,council1 and the ,commons meeting together in the open air to proclaim the law to the people standing around4 ,the ,lieutenant-,governor is the representative of the ,king1 and takes an oath to deal truly and uprightly between our sovereign lady the ,queen and her people1 and as indifferently betwixt party and party as this staff now standeth4 ,he is assisted by two demesters or supreme judges1 who must deem the law truly1 as they will answer to the ,lord of the ,isle4 ,here1 as in ,homer1 there is reference to an emblem and a ceremonial repugnant to the notion that 7infra7 every man under the patriarchal despotism was practically controlled by a regimen not of law but of caprice4 ,mr ,adams describes the following scene in one of the islands in the archipelago off the mainland of ,korea--,the chief1 who really has something very noble and majestic about him1 as is generally the case with men in high authority among the natives of these islands4444 ,the demeanour of those of his countrymen who surrounded him was as free and independent as his own was reserved and dignified4444 ,in his hand he held his badge of office1 a wand of ebony with a green silken cord entwined about it like the serpent of sculapius4--,travels of a ,naturalist in ,japan and ,manchuria1 by ,arthur ,adams1 ,f4,l4,s4 #ahgj4 ,compare also with infra1 p4 #cij4 ,well1 allow that there need not be as yet the metaphysical conception of law1 or law as a positive enactment1 embracing indifferently a variety of cases4 ,eliminate the word law4 ,instead of the phrase law of nature substitute natural justice1 and the sense of right and wrong2 and it suffices that we detect usage1 custom1 right2 for even if it were conceded that right is a post-,homeric rendering of ,greek3 dik1 yet custom and usage in their definition would have been in recognition of pre-existing right4 ,this becomes more clear if we consider the alternative opinion4 ,sir ,h4 ,maine says that under the patriarchal despotism1 every man was practically controlled in all his actions by a regimen not of law but of caprice 7p4 #h74 ,the judgments1 then1 of the patriarchal times were mere caprice1 and rights were defined without reference to any sense of justice4 ,from ,themistes of caprice they would proceed to legislation upon caprice1 and1 ultimately1 to codes which would represent nothing but a digest of the precedents of caprice4 ,it is difficult1 then1 to understand in what way and at what point the sense of justice1 the conception of dike1 originated1 and most of all1 if this is true1 it is difficult to account for the ,themistes being regarded as akin to inspiration1 as well as for the veneration with which1 we have the authority of ,sir ,h4 ,maine 7vide infra7 for saying1 that ,archaic law was held1 and1 moreover1 for the persistent tendency to revert to the past4#bhi #bhi ,i feel very much supported in my argument by the following passage from ,mr ,gladstone's ,homer 7ii4 #dbj73 ,mr ,grote says that 'the primitive import' of the words ,greek3 hagathos1 ,greek3 esthlos1 and ,greek3 kakos1 relates to power and not to worth2 and that the ethical meaning of these is a later growth1 which 'hardly appears until the discussions raised by ,socrates1 and prosecuted by his disciples4' ,i ask permission to protest against whatever savours of the idea that any ,socrates whatever was the patentee of that sentiment of right and wrong which is the most precious part of the patrimony of mankind4 ,the movement of ,greek morality with the lapse of time was chiefly downward and not upward4444 ,but as to the words ,greek3 hagathos and ,greek3 kakos1 the case is far more clear2 and here ,i ask1 ,can it be shown that ,homer ever applies the word ,greek3 hagathos to that which is morally bad8 or the word ,greek3 kakos to that which is morally good8 ,if it can1 cadit qustio2 if it cannot1 then we have advanced a considerable way in proving the ethical signification4444 ,in the word ,greek3 dikaios1 however1 we have an instance of the epithet never employed except in order to signify a moral or a religious idea4 ,like the word righteous among ourselves1 it is derived from a source which would make it immediately designate duty as between man and man1 and also as it arises out of civil relations4 ,but it is applied in ,homer to both the great branches of duty4 ,and surely there cannot be a stronger proof of the existence of definite moral ideas among a people1 than the very fact that they employ a word founded on the observance of relative rights to describe also the religious character4 ,it is when religion and morality are torn asunder1 that the existence of moral ideas is endangered4 ,if1 however1 we follow ,sir ,h4 ,maine in his illustration taken from ,english law1 we shall find ourselves reinstated in our original convictions4 ,sir ,h4 ,maine says 7p4 #h71 ,an ,englishman should be better able than a foreigner to appreciate the historical fact that the ',themistes' preceded any conception of law2 but at page #cb1 he says1 ,probably it will be found that originally it was the received doctrine that somewhere in nubibus ,q4 in the air1 or in gremio magistratuum there existed a complete1 coherent1 symmetrical body of ,english law1 of an amplitude sufficient to furnish principles which would apply to any conceivable combination of circumstances4 ,if1 then1 we take the analogy of the ,english law1 we come also to the identical conclusion for which ,i contend--viz4 that the ,themistes1 whether they partook of the character of commands or of judgments1 were still in recognition of a law which was violated4 ,if the ,themistes had no reference to a law which was violated2 if they were mere caprice1 ,i have already asked1 whence arose the regard for ancient law among the nations of antiquity8 and ,i may add1 how came it about that their ideas of justice were inseparably connected with the notions of morality8 ,does ,sir ,h4 ,maine deny either of these facts8 ,on the contrary1 he affirms them3-- ,quite enough1 too1 remains of these collections 'ancient codes' both in the ,east and in the ,west1 to show that they mingled up religious1 civil1 and merely moral ordinances without any regard to differences in their essential character2 and this is consistent with all we know of ancient thought from other sources1 the severance of law from morality1 and of religion from law1 belonging very distinctly to the later stages of mental progress 7p4 #af74 ,and at p4 #aba1 ,much of the old law which has descended to us1 was preserved merely because it was old4 ,those who practised and obeyed it did not pretend to understand it2 and in some cases they even ridiculed and despised it4 ,they offered no account of it except that it had come down to them from their ancestors4 ,does ,sir ,h4 ,maine dispute the persistency of tradition in general8 ,no4 ,at p4 #aag1 vide supra1 ,i have quoted a passage in which he explicitly maintains it4 ,i must observe further1 that in the very passages in which he repudiates the notion of a law of nature1 two things irresistibly transpire--7#a47 ,that there was a persistent tradition in ancient society of a law of nature2 7#b47 ,that this tradition was invariably associated with the golden age1 e4g43-- ,after nature had become a household word in the mouths of the ,romans1 the belief gradually prevailed among the ,roman lawyers1#bij that the old jus gentium was in fact the lost code of nature1 and that the prtors1 in framing an edictal jurisprudence on the principles of the jus gentium1 were gradually restoring a type from which law had only departed to deteriorate 7p4 #ef74 ,but then1 while the jus gentium had little or no antecedent credit at ,rome1 the theory of a law of nature came in surrounded with all the prestige of philosophical authority1 and invested with the charms of association with an elder and more blissful condition of the race 7p4 #fj74 ,the law of nature confused the past and the present4 ,logically it implied a state of nature which had once been regulated by natural law2 yet the juris-consults do not speak clearly or confidently of the existence of such a state1 which indeed is little noticed by the ancients except when it finds a poetical expression in the fancy of a golden age 7p4 #gc74 ,yet it was not on account of their simplicity and harmony that these finer elements were primarily respected1 but on the score of their descent from the aboriginal reign of nature 7p4 #gd74 ,yet it is a remarkable proof of the essentially historical character of the conception that1 after all the efforts which have been made to evolve the code of nature from the necessary characteristics of the natural state i4e4 priori so much of the result is just what it would have been if men had been satisfied to adopt the dicta of the ,roman lawyers without questioning or reviewing them4 ,setting aside the conventional or treaty law of nations1 it is surprising how large a part of the system is made up of pure ,roman law 7p4 #ig74 ,because the ,roman law was in the main stream of the tradition4#bia #bij ,either1 then1 the ,roman lawyers fell back upon the old traditions1 or else the lawyers introduced the superstition of the law of nature1 and then became victims to the superstition they had invented4 ,in any case1 the belief in the lost code of nature gradually prevailed4 ,i am presently going to discuss with ,sir ,h4 ,maine how far in the latter case such a belief is likely to have prevailed4 #bia ,vide also ,sir ,h4 ,maine1 p4 #gg3 ,it is important1 too1 to observe that this model system1 unlike many of those which have mocked men's hopes in later days1 was not entirely the product of imagination4 ,it was never thought of as founded on quite untested principles4 ,the notion was that it underlay existing law1 and must be looked for through it4 ,its functions were1 in short1 remedial1 not revolutionary or anarchical4 ,and this unfortunately is the exact point at which the modern view of a law of nature has often ceased to resemble the ancient4 ,i now come to what ,i may call the exposition of ,sir ,h4 ,maine's argument proper1 and1 although ,i feel the full difficulty of doing this1 in the case of so subtle and able a writer1 ,i shall endeavour to condense into as short a space as possible whatever is material to ,sir ,h4 ,maine's position4 ,sir ,h4 ,maine says 7p4 #df73-- ,i shall attempt to discover the origin of these famous phrases1 ,law of ,nations1 ,law of ,nature1 ,equity1 and to determine how the conceptions which they indicate are related to one another4 ,the most superficial student of ,roman history must be struck by the extraordinary degree in which the fortunes of the ,republic were affected by the presence of foreigners under different names on her soil4 ,the causes of this immigration are discernible enough at a later period1 for we can readily understand why men of all races should flock to the ,mistress of the ,world2 but the same phenomenon of a large population of foreigners and denizens meets us in the very earliest records of the ,roman ,state--no doubt the instability of society in ancient ,italy4444 ,it is probable1 however1 that this explanation is imperfect1 and it could only be completed by taking into account those active commercial relations1 which though they are little reflected in the military traditions of the ,republic1 ,rome appears certainly to have had with ,carthage and with the interior of ,italy in pre-historic times4444 ,in the early ,roman ,republic the principle of the absolute exclusion of foreigners pervaded the civil law no less than the constitution4 ,the alien or denizen could have no share in any institution supposed to be coeval with the ,state4 ,he could not have the benefit of the ,quiritarian ,law1 c4444 ,still neither the interest nor the security of ,rome permitted him to be quite outlawed4444 ,moreover1 at no period of ,roman history was foreign trade entirely neglected4 ,it was therefore probably half as a measure of policy and half in furtherance of commerce that jurisdiction was first assumed in disputes to which the parties were either foreigners or a native and a foreigner4 ,the assumption of such a jurisdiction brought with it the immediate necessity of discovering some principles on which the questions to be adjudicated upon could be settled4444 ,they refused1 as ,i have said before1 to decide the new cases by pure ,roman civil law4 ,they refused1 no doubt1 because it seemed to involve some kind of degradation1 to apply the law of the particular ,state from which the foreign litigant came4 ,the expedient to which they resorted was that of selecting the rules of law common to ,rome1 and to the different ,italian communities in which the immigrants were born4 ,in other words1 they set themselves to form a system answering to the primitive and literal meaning of jus gentium1 i4e4 law common to all nations4 ,jus gentium was1 in fact1 the sum of the common ingredients in the customs of the old ,italian tribes1 for they were all the nations whom the ,romans had the means of observing1 and who sent successive swarms of immigrants to the ,roman soil4444 ,the jus gentium was1 accordingly1 a collection of rules and principles determined by observation to be common to the institutions which prevailed among the various ,italian tribes4 ,the circumstances of the origin of the jus gentium was probably a sufficient safeguard against the mistake of supposing that the ,roman lawyers had any special respect for it4 ,it was the fruit in part of their disdain of all foreign law1 and in part of their disinclination to give the foreigner the advantage of their own indigenous jus civile4 ,it is true that we1 at the present day1 should probably take a very different view of the jus gentium4444 ,we should have a sort of respect for rules and principles so universal4444 ,but the results to which modern ideas conduct the observer1 are1 as nearly as possible1 the reverse of those which were instinctively brought home to the primitive ,roman4 ,what we respect or admire1 he disliked or regarded with jealous dread4 ,the points of jurisprudence which he looked upon with affection were exactly those which a modern theorist leaves out of consideration as accidental and transitory--the solemn gestures 444 the endless formalities1 c4444 ,the jus gentium was merely a system forced on his attention by a political necessity4 ,he loved it as little as he loved the foreigners from whose institutions it was derived1 and for whose benefit it was intended4 ,a complete revolution in his ideas was required before it could challenge his respect4444 ,this crisis arrived when the ,greek theory of a law of nature was applied to the practical ,roman administration of the law common to all nations4--,sir ,h4 ,maine's ,ancient ,law1 #df-eb4 ,sir ,h4 ,maine's theory may be summarised as an attempt to identify the ,law of ,nations with the history of ,roman law1 leaving out of sight the tradition of it which may be traced in other nations4 ,now1 although there is nothing1 as ,napoleon used to say1 which one nation hates more than another nation--and this certainly holds true of the ,roman people--yet it is scarcely possible to point to any which1 from the circumstances of its origin1 would have been less predisposed to look in the abstract with disdain upon the laws and customs of surrounding nations1 however much they may have hated them as concrete nationalities2 and least of all would they have had this feeling for the institutions of the ,latins1 a people whom1 from their peculiar connection with themselves1 they would principally have had as residents among them4 ,sir ,h4 ,maine seems unable to shake off the prepossession1 which the analysis of ,roman law1 to the exclusion of other evidence1 would tend to lead him1 viz4 that the ,romans were a homogeneous people1 and we have just heard him speak of their own indigenous jus civile4 ,this indigenous jus civile was compounded1 as was their nationality1 of many miscellaneous elements4 ,whatever truth may be attached to the legends as to the foundation of ,rome1 and they are various1 it cannot well be disputed that there was a strong trace of ,sabine#bib and ,etruscan1#bic in addition to the original miscellaneous ,roman1 or1 if not miscellaneous1 pure ,latin element2 to which1 in any case1 in the subsequent reigns a large ,latin immigration must be added1 when ,rome1 through the conquest of ,alba ,longa1 became the head of the ,latin league1 and the infusion of a ,greek in addition to an ,etruscan element in the dynasty of the ,tarquins4 ,the ,latin league has its significance over and above its bearing upon the present argument2 and to this ,i shall presently revert4 ,but to go no further1 does not the existence of the ,latin league#bid sufficiently account for the large influx of strangers into ,rome1 on account of which ,sir ,h4 ,maine sees the necessity for an extension of the ,roman jurisprudence8 ,but1 if this be so1 his theory must fall to the ground2 for1 if the ,roman element was distinctive at all1 and was a pure ,latin population1 miscellaneously collected by ,romulus1 and not a miscellaneous population of various tribes--it was ,latin qu ,roman4 ,how then1 supposing the ,roman element to have become predominant1 did it come to contemn the ,latin element and the law of the ,latins8 ,that it excluded them is another thing1 or that they were kept in a subordinate position1 and not admitted to the full privileges of naturalisation1 is quite conceivable on other grounds2 but that there should have existed a feeling of contempt for the laws and customs of the people among whom1 if their legends were true 7and at any rate we have nothing else to go upon71 was found the cradle of their race1 is hard to understand1 yet this assumption is essential to ,sir ,h4 ,maine's position4 #bib ,i shall consider that ,dr ,dyer has fairly reinstated a large portion of early ,roman history until ,i see his arguments refuted4 ,without endorsing his opinion ,i may quote what ,dr ,dyer says 7,hist4 of the ,city of ,rome1 p4 #bg7 in evidence of the admixture of the ,sabine element3-- ,the importance of the ,sabine element at ,rome has not perhaps been sufficiently considered4 ,the late ,m4 ,ampere has discussed the subject with great learning and ability in his interesting work1 ',l',histoire ,romaine ,rome4' ,he remarks that not only did the ,romans borrow from the ,sabines almost all their religious and much of their political and social organisation1 their customs1 ceremonies1 arms1 c41 but also that the far greater part of the primitive population of ,rome was ,sabine1 that most of the men who played a part in ,roman history were of ,sabine extraction1 and that what is called the ,latin tongue contains a strong infusion of ,sabine elements4 #bic ,evidences of the ,etruscan element are so marked1 that ,niebhr1 in his first edition1 asserted the ,etruscan origin of the city4 ,he subsequently1 however1 came to the conclusion that there was so much in the ,roman state that was peculiar to ,rome and ,latium1 as to be incompatible with the supposition of ,rome being an ,etruscan colony4--,appendix to ,travers ,twiss' ,epitome of ,niebhr4 #bid ,a federal union existed between the ,roman people and the ,latins in the reign of ,servius ,tullius 7,niebhr1 i4 ch4 xxv47 ,the old ,latin towns had retained their ancient rights1 and the colonies1 that together with them formed the ,latin nation1 had all received the full freedom of ,rome1 and had become municipia a full century before the ,consul ,junius ,norbanus introduced the franchise of the ,latin freedmen4444 ,the towns on the north of the ,po1 inhabited by a mixed population of ,italians and ,celts speaking ,latin1444 were termed the ',lesser ,latium4'444 ,a law which regarded ,latin citizens as foreigners1 and applied to them the principle that the child follows the condition of the baser parent1 can only have related to this inferior ,latium4 7,niebhr1 ii4 ch4 vi47 ,again1 the ,roman family and tribal system1 with their principle of agnatic relationship1 was in all probability part of their organisation for war3 it was the secret of their strength4 ,grant that they shrank from applying the principles of their domestic law1 which in their application would have involved in time an organisation in conformity with it1 we can at once see why they withheld the principles of their jurisprudence without withholding it in mere scorn of an alien nationality4 ,we rather see influences which would have predisposed them to look with reverence on the laws and customs of a people among whom they must have known that they had sprung1 even if there had been no tradition of a law common to all nations of the lost code of nature1 a notion which the edicts of the prtors of the later period would hardly have generated if it had had no foundation in tradition4 ,if you change the venue to ,etruria1 the same arguments will apply4 ,in proof1 ,i quote the following passage from a competent1 if somewhat antiquated 7#ahcg7 authority--7,pastoret1 ,hist4 de la ,legislation1 xi4 #cee7--more especially as it mentions a circumstance to which ,i do not remember that ,sir ,h4 ,maine adverts1 and which would make it a matter of some difficulty for the prtors to introduce laws and principles of their own making3 ,peu amis de la guerre1 ,ancus ,martius voulut du moins ajouter l'art de la faire quelques formalits pour la declarer2 elles toint d'usage avant lui chez des peuples voisins2 ce sont les lois fciales1 lois que nous avons dj fait connotre 7c4 iii4 #bhf74 ,l'adoption des lois trusques par les ,romains reoit une force nouvelle d'un fait conserv par ,dnys et ,halicarnasse 7,liv4 ii4 #bg72 c'est que aprs l'abolition de la monarchie on exposa dans la place publique de ,rome la vue de tous les citoyens toutes les lois et coutmes de la patrie1 avec les lois trangeres nouvellement introduites1 afin que le droit publie ne changet pas en mme temps que les pouvoirs du magistrat4 ,sir ,h4 ,maine says1 at p4 #aea1 ,the prtors early laid hold on cognation as the natural form of kinship1 and spared no pains in purifying their system from the older conception i4e4 older according to ,roman law4 ,their ideas have descended to us1 but still traces of agnation are to be seen in many of the modern rules of succession after death4 ,the reader will find 7from p4 #adf to #afj7bie in ,sir ,h4 ,maine the distinction between cognation and agnation very completely and lucidly stated4 ,i may say roughly1 however1 that cognation is the form of relationship which we acknowledge and which is familiar to us1 descending in graduated degrees1 including males and females alike1 from common ancestors4 ,agnatic relationship is rigidly confined to the male lines1 excluding the connections and descendants of females1 upon the maxim1 ,mulier est finis famili1 though including unmarried females on the side of the father4 #bie ,vide also ,de ,fresquet1 ,droit ,romain1 ii4 #be-bi4 ,now1 ,i venture to think that the argument which may be drawn from the passage which ,i have quoted ought not lightly to be dismissed as a mere argumentum ad hominem4 ,sir ,h4 ,maine says that the prtors early laid hold on cognation as the natural form of kinship4 ,either1 then1 they did this really detecting this principle as inhering in the natural law which was in tradition1 or as detecting it as the law common to all the nations known to the ,romans4 ,in the latter case1 it shows that1 whereas cognation was common among the surrounding nations1 agnation obtained among the ,romans4 ,the latter was therefore their peculiar institution1 which sustains the argument which ,i have just put4 ,if1 on the contrary1 they detected cognation underlying the institutions of all nations1 and as part of their traditional law of nature1 we cannot wish for a better and clearer instance of the natural law cropping up4 ,and it is an instance1 too1 of the advantage at which those argue who have on their side the authority of ,scripture1 indicating the landmarks4 ,knowing that mankind sprang from a single pair1 we can see that cognation must have been the law from the commencement3 for it stands to reason that commencing with common ancestors the normal and natural mode would be to include all the relations according to degrees of descent1 until there was some object in excluding them4 ,with some political necessity or expediency for the limitation to males and the exclusion of females would agnation have commenced4 ,if we require a case in point we have it in the relationship of ,laban to ,jacob4 ,according to agnatic relationship they were second cousins1 but according to cognatic relationship ,laban was his maternal uncle1 and such accordingly he is called in the sacred text 7,gen4 xxviii4 #b74 ,but in the seventh century before ,christ1 in the thickness of ,paganism1 men would scarcely have come to this conclusion1 since they had apparently lost1 as far as we know1 the knowledge of their origin2 although1 as we have already seen1 they retained dimly the tradition of many things of which they had forgotten the specific history4 ,from the information we derive from ,sir ,h4 ,maine1 the memory of cognation1 as the earliest and most natural scheme of kinship1 must somehow have subsisted in tradition4 ,it was not certainly in their power to verify the truth of the tradition as we can by a reference to revelation1 and yet it would seem as if1 having come to this conclusion1 that it was almost within the grasp of human reason to have inferred from it the origin from a single pair1 and thus to have recovered the knowledge they had lost from the tradition they had preserved4#bif #bif ,the above table shows that before the separation of the ,aryan race1 every one of the degrees of affinity had received expression and sanction in language1 for1 although some spaces had to be left empty1 the coincidences1 such as they are1 are sufficient to warrant one general conclusion4--,vide table1 ,max ,mller's ,essays1 ii4 p4 #ca4 ,of course1 ,i am speaking only of the actual affinity1 not of laws of succession founded upon it4 ,these must be controlled by other considerations1 and by other natural rights1 as1 for instance1 the right of testation or by reasons of ,state requiring hereditary succession and a ,salic law1 or by reasons of family compelling the agnatic rule as the only mode of preserving the ancestral domain to the family--a necessity which applies as stringently to small freeholds as to broad manors4 ,in illustration1 ,i quote the following passage from the ,rev4 ,w4 ,smith's ,pentateuch 7above referred to1 ch4 xiii41 ,indirect internal evidence of ,mosaic authorship1 vol4 i4 #cjg7--;,as the journey 7,exodus7 proceeds so laws originate from the accidents of the way4444 ,the laws regulating the succession to property furnish an example of the same kind4 ,in ,numbers xxvi4 #cb-cf it is ordained in accordance with patriarchal usage1 that the family inheritance descend by the male line4 ,but a case immediately turns up where there happens to be no male issue4 ,zelophahad had left no sons1 but only daughters1 and what was to become of the property8 ,how was the succession to be regulated8 ,to meet the case1 ,jehovah orders ,moses to proclaim the law of ,numbers xxvii4 #h-aa1 in virtue of which daughters1 in failure of sons1 are to succeed4 ,shortly after1 a new difficulty arises4 ,as heiresses1 the daughters of ,zelophahad were now to have property of their own4 ,but if they married out of their tribe1 was the property to go with them8 7,num4 xxxvi4 #a-i47 ,such a condition would at once have upset the fundamental laws of inheritance4 ,hence1 to avoid the evil1 they are enjoined to marry within their own tribe2 and a general law to the same effect is promulgated 7xxxvi4 #h1 #i74 ,a few points in ,sir ,h4 ,maine's argument 7supra1 p4 #ceb7 remain to be noticed4 ,i must take exception1 for instance1 to his averment that what we respect and admire1 viz4 principles so universal1 the ,roman regarded with jealous dread4 ,the parts of jurisprudence which he looked upon with affection1 and the solemn gestures1 c41 were the parts which a modern theorist leaves out of consideration1 for he seems to have recognised their justice1 and allowed them to operate so effectually that his whole system of jurisprudence1 which was originally based on agnatic kinship1 came round to the principle of cognation4#big ,in the process1 and through the action so skilfully evolved and unfolded in ,sir ,h4 ,maine's pages1 two principles1 equally to our mind1 were brought into gradual recollection1 viz4 the comity of nations and equality before the law4 ,the solemn gestures1 the nicely-adjusted questions and answers of the verbal contract1 the endless formalities1 are at least in evidence of the tradition4 #big ,we should know almost nothing about it 7agnation7 if we had only the compilations of ,justinian to consult2 but the discovery of the ,,ms4 of ,gaius discloses it to us at a most interesting epoch1 just when it had fallen into complete discredit1 and was verging on extinction4--,ancient ,law1 p4 #aec4 ,and this suggests a reflection upon the basis of ,sir ,h4 ,maine's argument1 viz4 that the ,romans could only draw their induction from the customs of the old ,italian tribes1 as these were all the nations whom the ,romans had the means of observing4 ,now1 if we attach the weight which is due to ,dr ,newman's remarkable view 7vide supra7 as to the course and confines of civilisation1 we shall be1 ,i think1 struck with the fact that the two nationalities of ,greece and ,rome1 which were destined to form its heart and centre1 had as their common substratum a very peculiar people1 whose characteristics exactly adapted them to retain traditions1 and to carry out the scriptural saying about the people1 ,and they shall maintain the state of the world--a people who were the first occupiers of the soil of ,greece and ,italy1 and who1 if not directly and historically1 can through philology be traced back to the most primitive times2#bih a people tenacious of customs and traditions1#bii who were the guardians of the worship and tradition of the ,dodonan ,jupiter1#cjj and in possession of his shrine when the worship of ,jupiter was only the thinly-disguised corruption of the worship of the true ,god2#cja a people to whom1 according to ,mr ,gladstone1 the ,greek religion owed its sacerdotal and ceremonial development1#cjb and who also inclines to the opinion1 which has a more especial significance1 and bearing on the present argument1 that the ,amphictyonic ,council was a ,pelasgian institution4 #bih ,gladstone's ,homer1 i4 #cje-cgb4 #bii ,id4 i4 #ajf-ajh4 #cjj ,the ,greek mythology was derived from the ,pelasgians1 and the oracle of ,dodona belonged to them4--,niebhr1 ,hist4 i4 #bh4 ,the ,pelasgians were a different nation from the ,hellenes3 their language was peculiar1 and not ,greek4444 ,the ,pelasgians1 as well as the ,hellenes1 were members of the ,amphictyonic association1 the main tie of which was religion1 in which both nations agreed4--,niebhr1 ,hist4 i4 7,travers ,twiss' ,epitome1 ch4 iii47 ,the royal laws became odious or obsolete1 the mysterious deposit was silently preserved by the priests and the nobles1 and at the end of sixty years the citizens of ,rome still complained that they were ruled by the arbitrary sentence of the magistrate2 yet the positive institutions of the kings had blended themselves with the public and private manners of the city2 some fragments of that venerable jurisprudence were compiled by the diligence of antiquarians1 and above twenty texts still speak the rudeness of the ,pelasgic idiom of the ,latins4--,gibbon's ,decline and ,fall1 vol4 viii4 ch4 xiv4 #cja ,gladstone1 ii4 #agc1 c42 ,strabo4 #cjb ,id4 i4 #bid4 ,now1 let us consider this special significance of the ,amphictyonic ,council4 ,on the one hand1 it is attributed to ,amphictyon1 the son of ,deucalion2 on the other hand 7as ,i shall presently show71 we see the almost identical institution in ,italy in contact with ,roman law4 ,what1 then1 was the ,amphictyonic ,council8 ,those who have written upon it appear to me to have endeavoured to regard it too much as a federation4 ,hence a double error4 ,on the one side it was found that1 instead of being a federation of all ,greece1 at most it was only a federation of twelve cities2 it was further found that it had no external action1 and that on occasions1 as1 e4g4 the ,persian war1 in which the whole nation of ,greece acted as one people1 it made no appearance4#cjc ,a feeling of disappointment necessarily supervened1 and it was asked1 if not a federation1 what was it8 ,on the other hand1 although not a federation for the purposes of government or war1 it would be an equal error to deny that it was a federation for certain purposes1 more or less invisible to the eye1 and which for such purposes retained sufficient vitality to assemble deputies twice a year1 and during several centuries1 for it is certain that it subsisted to the close of ,grecian history1 when1 indeed1 we are astonished to find that when faith in everything else had died out1 belief in the ,amphictyons again flickers into life4 ,it is true that we know little1 but the little that has transpired implies so much more4 ,were it not for a casual passage in a speech of schines1 we should hardly have known more than of their existence4 ,as it is1 we are thrown back upon conjecture1 and upon what we can recover indirectly from tradition4 ,now1 if we suppose the ,amphictyonic ,council to have tradited down1 and to have been a federation for the purposes of traditing down from primitive times1 even in their rudimentary form1 the rules and principles of the laws of nations1 much that is strange and mysterious in its history will disappear4#cjd ,it will at once account for its duration and prestige1 in spite of its inactivity and merely passive existence1 even supposing that it is reduced in our estimation to a sort of convocation1 powerless for action1 and merely keeping alive a tradition of the past4 ,from this point of view1 the fact of its merely being a federation of twelve ,states1 which is generally adduced to reduce it to unimportance1 taken in connection with another fact which ,i shall presently substantiate1 really militates in favour of my argument4 ,it shows that instead of being the one typical institution of the sort1 it is only the one which stands out most prominently in history1 and merely handed down a tradition which was common to many others4 ,i have already alluded to the ,latin league1 through which1 apparently1 the ,romans recovered their tradition of the law common to all nations4 ,if all these isolated federations retained their tradition of a law common to all nations--although practically limited to the members of their own confederation--is it not at once in evidence of the action of the ,dispersion and at the same time of a tradition anterior to the disruption8 ,without pretending to have gone over the ground necessary to present an exhaustive catalogue of such federations1 ,i may present the following facts in evidence and illustration4 #cjc ,vide1 ,pastoret1 ,hist4 de la ,legislation1 v4 #ba4 #cjd ,the oath taken by the deputies bound the ,amphictyons not to destroy any of the ,amphictyonic cities1 or to debar them from the use of their fountains in peace or war2 to make war on any who should transgress in these particulars 444 or who should plunder the property of the god 7the ,delphine ,apollo74444 ,this is the oldest form of the ,amphictyonic oath which has been recorded1 and is expressly called by skines the ancient oath of the ,amphictyons4--,cyclop4 of ,arts and ,sciences4 ,outside the ,amphictyonic union there were other federations1 even within the confines of ,greece itself3-- ,qui avoient le mme caractre1 et peut-tre un caractre plus intime d'association entre des etats voisins1 pour honorer ensemble des dieux1 ou pour se prter1 dans certains cas1 un appui necessaire4 ,il s'en reunissoit une non loin de ,trezime ou ,argolide1 une autre ,corinthe1 une autre ,onchiste en ,beotie2 on en trouve de semblables encore dans plusieurs les de la ,grece1 et dans les colonies de l',asie ,mineure4#cje ,ces associations1 au reste1 ne seconderent pas moins la civilisation generale que n'auroit pu le faire un ,amphictyonat universel4--,pastoret1 ,hist4 de la ,legis41 v4 #bg4 #cje ,the ,ionian federation1 composed also of twelve cities1 was almost identical4 ,l'association s'etoit forme d'abord entre les douze cits1 en y comprenant les deux les voisines de ,samos et de ,chio4444 ,on s'assembloit dans un lieu sacr du ,mont ,mycale1 que les ,ionians avoient dedis en commun ,neptune4--,pastoret1 ix4 #agj4 ,there was also a confederacy of seven states1 which met in the temple of ,neptune1 in the island of ,calauria1 and which is even called by ,strabo1 viii4 #cgd1 an ,amphictyonic ,council4--,cyclop4 of ,arts and ,sciences1 art4 ,amphic4 ,council4 ,we find the same federations when we come to ,italy3-- ,among the other works of ,servius ,tullius was a temple of ,diana1 which he erected on the ,aventine1 apparently near the present church of ,sta4 ,prisca4 ,this temple1 in imitation of the ,amphictyonic confederacy1 was to be the common sanctuary and place of meeting for the cities belonging to the ,latin league1 of which ,rome had become the chief through the conquest of ,alba ,longa2 and her supremacy was tacitly acknowledged by the temple being erected with money contributed by the ,latin cities4 ,it is said to have been an imitation of the ,artemisium1 or temple of ,diana at ,ephesus4 7,liv4 i4 #de2 ,dionys4 iv4 #bf2 ,varro1 ,l4 ,l4 v4 #dc2 ,val4 ,max41 vii4 #c1 #a47 ,the brazen column containing the terms of the league1 and the names of the cities belonging to it1 was preserved in the time of ,dionysius4--,dyer's ,hist4 of ,city of ,rome1 p4 #ea4 ,compare this with ,niebhr1 ,hist4 ii4 chap4 ii4 7,travers ,twiss' ,epitome47 ,so long as ,latium had a dictator1 none but he could offer sacrifice on the ,alban mount1 and preside at the ,latin holidays1 as the ,alban dictator had done before4 ,he sacrificed on behalf of the ,romans likewise1 as they did in the temple of ,diana on the ,aventine for themselves and the ,latins4444 ,the opinion that the last ,tarquinius or his father constituted the festival is quite erroneous1 as its antiquity is proved to have been far higher4 ,it is true that ,tarquinius converted it into a ,roman festival1 and probably1 too1 by throwing it open to a larger body1 transformed the national worship of the ,latins into the means of hallowing and cementing the union between the states4 ,the three allied republics had each its own place of meeting--at ,rome1 at the spring of ,ferentina1 and at ,anagnia1 where the concilium of the ,hernican tribes was held in the circus2 that the sittings of the diets were connected with the ,latin festival1 seems to be evinced by the usage1 that the consuls never took the field till after it was solemnised2 and by its variableness1 which implies that it was regulated by special proclamation4 ,like the ,greek festivals it ensured a sacred truce4 ,in these extracts we come upon a federation resembling the ,amphictyonic league1 whose union is also cemented at a religious festival1 the origin of which must be sought for in remote antiquity1 and which festival has a direct connection with questions of peace and war4 ,we also catch glimpses of similar federation among the ,hernici and ,marsi4 ,now1 let us go to quite an opposite point2 and1 if we find the same stratification cropping up1 may we not conjecture it to have been once the same throughout4 ,when the ,europeans made their first settlements in ,america1 six such nations had formed a league1 had their ,amphictyons or states-general1 and by the firmness of their union1 and the ability of their councils1 had obtained an ascendant from the mouth of the ,st ,lawrence to that of the ,mississippi4 ,they appeared to understand the objects of the confederacy as well as those of separate nations2 they studied a balance of power4444 ,they had their alliances and treaties1 which1 like the nations of ,europe1 they maintained or they broke upon reasons of state1 and remained at peace from a sense of necessity or expediency1 and went to war upon any emergency of provocation or jealousy4#cjf #cjf ,adam ,fergusson1 ,essay on ,civil ,society1 #acj4 ,whatever the conduct of the ,iroquois or ,five ,nations 7sometimes counted as six7 may have been towards surrounding nations1 the fidelity with which they held to their compacts among themselves is fully acknowledged4 ,colden 7,history of the ,five ,indian ,nations7 says1 ,this union has continued so long that the ,christians know nothing of the original of it4444 ,each of these nations is an absolute republick by itself1 and every castle in each nation makes an independent republick and is governed by its own ',sachems' or old men4444 ,they have certain customs which they observe in their publick transactions with other nations1 and in their private affairs among themselves2 which it is scandalous for any one among them not to observe1 and these always draw after them either publick or private resentment whenever they are broke4 ,in ,plato's ,republic1 ,it is laid down that the ,greeks are natural enemies of the barbarians1 but are natural friends and allies of one another1 so that all hostilities between ,greek states are to be avoided--are to be conducted on principles of mildness and forbearance1 and to be considered as civil discord rather than foreign war4 ,the ten kings of the ,atlantic island were never to make war on each other--there was a sort of ,congress between them4 ,critias1 chap4 #ae4 ,sir ,g4 ,c4 ,lewis1 ,method1 c41 ii4 #bcd4 ,this1 taken in connection with what we know of the ,amphictyonic ,council1 reads more like tradition than fiction4 ,in ,mexico also there was that remarkable league1 which indeed has no parallel in history 787 ,it was agreed between the ,states of ,mexico1 ,tezcuco1 and the neighbouring little kingdom of ,tlascopan1 that they should mutually support each other in their wars1 offensive and defensive1 and that in the distribution of the spoil one-fifth should be assigned to ,tlascopan1 and the remainder be divided--in what proportions is uncertain--between the two other powers4444 ,what is more extraordinary than the treaty itself1 however1 is the fidelity with which it was maintained4--,prescott's ,mexico1 i4 p4 #ag4 ,and in the republic of ,tlascala1 it is said 7id4 i4 #cgh7 after the lapse of years1 the institutions of the nation underwent an important change they had previously separated into three divisions1 of which ,tlascala was the largest4 ,the monarchy was divided1 first into two1 afterwards into four separate states1 bound together by a sort of federal compact1 probably not very nicely defined4 ,each state1 however1 had its lord or superior chief1 independent in his own territories1 and possessed of co-ordinate authority with the others in all matters concerning the whole republic4 ,the affairs of government1 especially all those relating to peace and war1 were settled in a senate or council1 consisting of the four lords1 with their inferior nobles4 ,the ,tlascalans subsequently incorporated the ,othonius1 or ,otomius 7p4 #cgh74 ,here1 as in the ,greek and ,latin ,leagues1 the primary objects of the law of nations seem to have been secured within the limits of their confederation1 or of what they would have deemed the pale of civilization4 ,the requirements of their horrible worship 7i4e4 the necessity of procuring human victims for their sacrifices7 seems1 however1 to have overridden every other consideration1 and to have impelled them to frequent wars with the nations outside the pale4 ,in the case of the ,tlascalans1 the traditional lines seem more clearly defined4 ,i have already hinted1 in a note1 with reference to the ,greek and ,latin ,leagues that the ,atlantis of ,plato was1 as indeed it professes to be1 an embodiment of tradition1 and not1 as it is commonly regarded1 as a figment of the imagination2 but this strikes me still more forcibly when the ,league of the ,ten ,kings in the ,atlantis is compared with the ,league of the ,tlascalans4 ,plato says3 ,the particulars respecting the governors were instituted from the beginning as follows4 ,each of the ten kings possessed absolute authority1 both over the men and the greater part of the laws in his own division and in his own city1 punishing and putting to death whomsoever he pleased4 ,but the government and communion of these kings with each other were conformable to the mandates given by ,neptune2 and this was likewise the case with their laws4 ,these mandates were delivered to them by their ancestors on a pillar of orichalcum1 which was erected about the middle of the island1 in the temple of ,neptune4 ,these kings1 therefore1 assembled together every fifth1 and alternately1 every sixth year1 for the purpose of distributing an equal part both of the even and the odd2 and when they assembled they deliberated on the public affairs1 inquired if any one had acted improperly 444 a sacrifice of bulls was made in the temple of ,neptune1 at the foot of the pillar of orichalcum4444 ,but on the pillar1 besides the laws1 there was an oath1 supplicating mighty imprecations against those who were disobedient4444 ,there were also many other laws respecting sacred concerns1 and such as were peculiar to the several kings2 but the greatest were the following3 that they should never wage war against each other1 and that all of them should give assistance if any one person in some one of their cities should endeavour to extirpate the royal race4 ,and as they consulted in common respecting war1 and other actions1 in the same manner as their ancestors1 they assigned the empire to the ,atlantis family4--,plato's ,works1 ,sydenham and ,taylor's tr41 ii4 #ehi4 ,i think it will then be conceded1 that whether or not there was a tradition of a law common to all nations1 there were at any rate channels provided1 well adapted to conduct and disseminate it1 and that these channels everywhere converge upon the most primitive times4 ,before proceeding to ascertain whether anything has in fact been transmitted1 ,i must draw attention more particularly to the circumstance that the tradition of all law is everywhere closely connected with the traditions of religion1 has been handed down in a similar manner2 and1 so far as it retains the purity of primitive truth1 under the same sanction4 ,from this point of view the following passages from ,cicero appears to me to be very significant3 ,hanc igitur video sapientissimorum fuisse sententiam legem neque hominum ingeniis excogitatum1 neque scitum aliquod esse populorum1 sed ternum quiddam quod universum mundum regerat imperandi1 prohibendique sapienti4444 ,qu non tum denique incipit lex esse1 cum scriptum est1 sed tum cum orta est2 orta autem simul est cum mente divina4 ,jam ritus famili patrumque servari1 id est quoniam antiquitas proxima accedit ad ,deos1 a ,deis quasi traditam1 religionem tueri4--,cicero de ,legibus1 ii4 #d1 #aa4 ,there is another curious passage which seems to prove that the oracles originally existed simply for the preservation of the primitive tradition2 and1 although mixed up with imposture1 that they seem to have had the knowledge1 or at least the instinct1 that their prestige and power of influence was within the limits of the traditions which they had corrupted or preserved4#cjg #cjg ,the general assemblies of ,greece were held at ,delos1 ,comme ,mtropole du ,culte1 ,pastoret ix4 #ac4 ,ce qu'il y a d'assur1 c'est que le ,pontife exeroit sur plusieurs objets une vritable administration de la justice4 ,la dcision n'en appartenoit qu' lui4 ,les rgles qu'il devoit suivre1 le caractre et l'tendue de ses droits1 toient pareillement tablis dans le recueil connu sous le nom de ,jus ,pontificum 7,macrobe parle deux fois de ce ,jus ,pontificum1 mais comme d'un ouvrage perdu4 ,saturn1 vii4 chap4 xiii47 ,un fils du pontife romain ,publius ,scvola est mme cit dans le livre des ,lois comme prtendant qu'on ne pouvoit exercer un si haut ministre sans savoir le droit civil4 ,quoi1 tout entier8 dit ,cicron1 qui le refute2 et qui font au pontife le droit des mers1 le droit des eaux1 ou d'autres droits semblables8--,pastoret ix4 #bjc4 ,torts1 then1 are copiously enlarged upon in primitive jurisprudence4 ,it must be added that ,sins are known to it also4 ,of the ,teutonic codes it is almost unnecessary to make this assertion4444 ,but it is also true that non-,christian bodies of archaic law entail penal consequences on certain classes of acts and on certain classes of omissions1 as being violations of divine prescriptions and commands4 ,the law administered at ,athens by the senate of the ,areopagus was probably a special religious code2 and at ,rome1 apparently from a very early period1 the ,pontifical jurisprudence punished adultery1 sacrilege1 and perhaps murder4 ,there were1 therefore1 in the ,athenian and in the ,roman states laws punishing sins4--,sir ,h4 ,maine1 pp4 #cga1 #cgb4 ,the expression unwritten laws 7,greek3 agraphoi nomoi7 first occurs in the funeral oration of ,pericles 7,thuc4 ii4 #cg71 when it appears to denote those laws of the state which are corroborated by the moral sanction4 ,it next occurs4444 ,xenophon1 ,mem4 iv4 #d1 #ai1 #be1 444 the expression was doubtless adopted by ,socrates from popular usage4 ,thus ,plato speaks of ,greek3 ta kaloumena hypo tn polln agrapha nomima 7,leg4 vii4 #gic74 ,vide ,sir ,g4 ,c4 ,lewis1 ,method of ,rea4 in ,pol41 ii4 #bg4 ,the laws called unwritten by the multitude must evidently imply laws known to the multitude but in tradition4 ,cicero1 ,de ,natura ,deorum1 iii41 says1 ,habes1 ,balba1 quid ,cotta1 quid pontifex sentiat4 ,fac nunc1 ego intelligam1 quid tu sentias3 a te enim philosopho rationem accipere debes religionis2 majoribus autem nostris etiam nulla ratione reddita credere4 ,lex est cui homines obtemperare convenit1 cum ob alia multa1 tum ab eo maxime quod lex omnis inventus quidem1 ac dei munus est4 ,lex est sanctio sancta1 jubens honesta1 prohibens contraria4 ,deinceps in lege est1 ut de ritibus patriis coluntur optimi1 de quo cum consulerent ,athenienses ,apollinem ,pythium1 quas potissimum religiones tenerent1 oraculum editum est eas qu essent in more majorum4 ,quo cum iterum venissent1 majorumque morem dixissent1 spe esse mutatum1 qusivissentque quem morem potissimum sequerentur1 e variis respondit1 optimum4 ,et perfecto ita est ut id habendum sit antiquissimum et a ,deo proximum quod sit optimum4#cjh--;,cicero de ,legibus1 ii4 #af4 #cjh ,this last sentence is only a gloss of ,cicero's from the stoical point of view1 since clearly the enunciation of the oracle would compel the conclusion1 that what was most ancient and nearest the gods was the best1 and not that the best1 as abstractly conceived1 was to be held the most ancient1 c4 ,a moment's consideration will suffice to show that in this substitution is involved the whole extent of the difference between the principle of conservation and the principle of change4 ,demosthne qui avait en faire tant de mauvaises lois1 prononait que toutes les lois sont l'ouvrage et le prsent des dieux et c'tait ce titre qu'il rclamit pour elles l'obissance des hommes4 ,socrate professait la mme doctrine4--,ozanam1 ,les ,germains avant le ,christianisme1 i41 #aei4 ,again1 ,quand on tudie les lois indiennes on y voit tout un grand peuple enchan par la terreur des dieux4 ,le livre de la loi s'annonce comme une revelation4444 ,les prescriptions du droit sacr enveloppent pour ainsi dire toute la vie civile1 et c'est l qu'on decouvre enfin la raison de tant de coutumes dont les ,occidentaux avaient conserv la lettre1 mais non l'esprit4--,id4 p4 #afa4 ,if the customs and institutions of barbarians have one characteristic more striking than another1 it is their extreme uniformity 7,maine's ,ancient ,law1 p4 #cff74 ,there are in nature certain fountains of justice whence all civil laws are derived but as streams2 and like as waters do take tinctures and tastes from the soils through which they run1 so do civil laws vary according to the regions and governments where they are planted1 though they proceed from the same fountains4 7,bacon1 ,advancement of ,learning1 ,b4 ii4 ,w4 iii4 #dge1 ap42 ,d4 ,rowland1 ,on the ,moral ,commandments1 p4 #he47 ,but this sentiment and tradition was not only common to the people of ,greece and ,rome1 but to the yet uncivilised tribes of ,germany4 ,or les dispositions1 o la coutume barbare et la loi romaine s'accordent1 sont encore celles qui semblent faire le fond des lgislations grques3 non que les douze tables aient t copies1 comme on l'a cru1 sur les lois de ,solon1 mais cause de l'troite parent des peuples de la ,grce et du ,latium4 ,a travers l'obscurit des sicles hroques1 on dcouvre un sacerdoce puissant qui a ses premiers tablissements en ,thrace1 en ,samothrace1 ,dodone1 et qui perptuera son autorit par l'institution des mystres4 ,on voit aussi la resistance d'une race belliqueuse4--,ozanam1 ,les ,germains avant le ,christianisme1 vol4 i4 chap4 ,les ,lois4 ,au premier abord rien ne semble plus contraire aux moeurs barbares que la loi romaine1 si subtile1 si prcise1 si bien obie4 ,cependant si l'on en considre les origines1 on n'y trouve pas d'autres principes que ceux dont la trace subsistait dans les vieilles coutumes de la ,germanie4 ,le droit primitif du ,rome1 comme celui du ,nord1 est un droit sacr4--,ib4 p4 #adh4 ,il existait chez les ,germains une autorit religieuse1 dpositaire de la tradition1 et qui y trouvait l'idal et le principe de tout l'ordre civil4 ,cette autorit avait cr la proprit immobilire en la rendant respectable par des rites et des symboles1 444 elle l'engageait dans les liens de la famille lgitime1 consacre par la saintet du mariage1 par le culte des anctres1 par la solidarit du sang3 elle l'enveloppait dans le corps de la nation sdentaire1 ou elle avait tabli une hierarchie de caste et de pouvoir1 l'exemple de la hierarchie divine de la cration 7p4 #adg74 ,dans cette suite de scnes dont se compose pour ainsi dire le drame judiciaire1 on reconnat un pouvoir religieux1 qui cherche sauver la paix1 dsarmer la guerre et qui s'y prend de trois faons diffrentes 7p4 #adb74 ,now1 if we are agreed that fitting channels for the diffusion of the tradition existed2 if1 further1 we find that all law seems to trace itself back to a common source of supernatural revelation2 if the resemblances in the traditions concerning the lawgivers of antiquity--and1 with the exception of ,lycurgus1 the agreement in the fundamentals of their codes--in the great lines of the family1 property1 and the external relations of life1 seems to require the supposition of some common fountain-head at which they all filled the pitcher--we shall1 ,i think1 when we come to the question of public law1 only require further some evidence of a tradition of maxims1 rules1 and precedents of procedure in war1 founded on and appealing to natural right1 and claiming the sanction of the gods1 to establish the existence of a law common to all nations different from that which would have arisen from the judgment of the prtors1 merely applying the rules and maxims common to the ,romans and the adjoining nations1 in case of conflict where the law of the ,state was not allowed to be applied 7supra1 ,maine74 ,i shall1 doubtless1 be reminded that this was only part of ,sir ,h4 ,maine's argument1 and that it was this1 taken in connection with the influence of the ,stoics on ,roman law1 and the stoical conception of nature1#cji which created the fiction of a law of nature1 and of a law common to all nations4 #cji ,l'erreur a t de croire qu'il n'est rien de plus facile l'homme que de suivre la nature1 tandis que c'est au contraire le chef-d'oeuvre de l'art que de la contenir dans les bornes que la nature lui prescrit3 c'est o peuvent peine parvenir les legislateurs les plus sages4 ,que de prjugs teindre6 que d'erreurs combattre6 que d'habitudes vaincre6 toutes choses qui dans tous les temps commandent imprieusement au genre humain4--,l',antiquit dvoile par ses usages1 i4 #a4 ii4 ch4 iii4 par ,boulanger4 ,let it then be granted that the theories and maxims of the ,stoics had their influence on ,roman society and ,roman law4 ,it was only part of the influence which stole over and everywhere impregnated the field of primitive tradition4 ,sir ,h4 ,maine shows us how it at once seized upon the element of law1 which1 be it in fiction only1 was said to be common to all nations4 ,would it the less have seized upon it if1 instead of being a fiction1 it had been a reality8-- fortiori1 it would have done so4 ,therefore ,sir ,h4 ,maine leaves the question as to the belief among the ancients in a law common to all nations still open1 or rather1 so far as there is an argument1 it is only with the previous part of his theory that it is necessary to deal2 for all that ,sir ,h4 ,maine's finely-drawn reasoning and subtle detection of the influence of ,grecian stoicism on ,roman law accounts for--so far as the present argument is concerned--is the greater attention and respect which was henceforward paid to the fiction1 supposing that it had not heretofore and always been paid to the fact1 that there was a traditional law common to all nations4 ,i have previously 7p4 #c7 pointed out the distinction between the law of nations and international law1 and ,i am under the impression that ,i made the distinction before the publication of ,sir ,h4 ,maine's work--certainly before ,i had become acquainted with it4 ,the manner in which ,sir ,h4 ,maine makes the distinction does not appear to me to be quite accurate4 ,he says3--,it is almost unnecessary to add that the confusion between jus gentium1 or law common to all nations1 and international law1 is entirely modern4 ,the classical expression for international law is jus feciale1 or the law of negotiation and diplomacy 7p4 #ec74 ,the ,fecial ,college was very far from corresponding with our ,corps ,diplomatique1 neither was its law a law of negotiation and diplomacy2 and the distinction between the law of nations and international law was made in modern times1 precisely because in antiquity treaty law was subordinate to1 and identified with1 the traditional law4 ,the ,fecial ,college corresponded much more nearly to what our ,heralds' ,college would be1 supposing the ,heralds' ,college invested with the authority of our ,admiralty ,courts1 and also made the trustees of the foundation for the study of international law1 which ,dr ,whewell's bequest had the intention of instituting at ,cambridge4 ,we should then have1 as in ancient times1 a body of men who would be at once the depositaries1 the interpreters1 and the heralds of a tradition1 though1 to complete the picture1 we should have to invest them with a sacred character1 and in some way to give to their decisions the sanction of religion4 ,dionysius of ,halicarnassus tells us that they were priests chosen from the best families at ,rome1 and that their special intention was to see that the ,romans never made an unjust war4 ,the seventh part of the ,sacred ,laws was devoted to the college of the ,fecials1 whom the ,greeks call ,greek3 eirnodikai4#caj ,they are men selected from the most illustrious families1 and are dedicated during their whole life to this priesthood4444 ,it would take long to enumerate all the various duties of the ,fecials1 which were multifarious1 444 but in the main they are these1--to take heed lest the ,romans should ever undertake an unjust war with a city with which they were in league 7,lib4 ii472 it was their duty to demand reparation1 and1 failing1 to declare war2 in case of differences with allies1 they acted as mediators1 and they adjudicated in case of disputes4 ,it was for them to decide what constituted an injury to the person of an ambassador1 and whether or not the generals had acted according to their oaths2 to draw up the articles of treaties1 truces1 and the like2 and to decide as to their nullity and validity1 and to communicate accordingly with the ,senate1 which deliberated upon their report4 #caj ,greek3 ,eirnodikai--,feciales quia interpretes et arbitri sunt pacis et belli4--,lexicon1 ,ben-,hederic1 ,ernesti4 ,vide also ,plutarch1 ,numa2 ,livy1 lib4 i4 c4 #cd4 ,vattel1 iii4 c4 iv41 says3--,it is surprising to find among the ,romans such justice1 such moderation and prudence1 at a time too when apparently nothing but courage and ferocity was to be expected from them4 ,what ,cicero tells us is not less to the point3-- ,there are certain peculiar laws of war also1 which are of all things most strictly to be observed4444 ,as we are bound to be merciful to those whom we have actually conquered1 so should those also be received into favour who have laid down their arms4444 ,our good forefathers were most strictly just as to this particular1 the custom of those times making him the patron of a conquered city or people who first received them into the faith and allegiance of the people of ,rome4 ,in short1 the whole right and all the duties of war are most rigorously set down in the fecial laws1 out of which it is manifest that no war can be justly undertaken unless satisfaction has been first demanded1 and proclamation of it made publicly beforehand4--,cicero1 ,offices1 i4 xi42 again1 also1 vide iii4 xxxi4 ,compare these passages with ,mr ,gladstone's account of the ,homeric age3-- ,in that early age1 despite the prevalence of piracy1 even that idea of political justice and public right1 which is the germ of the law of nations1 was not unknown to the ,greeks4 ,it would appear that war could not be made without an appropriate cause1 and that the offer of redress made it the duty of the injured to come to terms4 ,hence the offer of ,paris in the third ,iliad is at once readily accepted2 and hence1 even after the breach of the act1 arises ,agamemnon's fear1 at the moment when he anticipates the death of ,menelaus1 that by that event the claim to the restoration of ,helen will be practically disposed of1 and the ,greeks will have to return home without reparation for a wrong1 of which the corpus1 as it were1 will have disappeared4--,iliad1 iv4 #afj-fb4caa #caa ,gladstone1 ,homer and the ,homeric ,age1 iii4 #d4 ,it is certainly not within the scope of this chapter to indicate the multiform applications of the law of nations1 which it would require a legist's special knowledge 7to which the writer can lay no claim7 to determine with any exactness4 ,my object has been merely to sustain the traditional belief against those who deny it4 ,i shall indeed1 for the purposes of illustration1 go into detail on one point1 viz4 the declaration of war2 but ,i may mention incidentally that the ,fecial and ,amphictyonic law presumably extended to many other points1 such as treaties1 trophies1#cab truces1#cac hostages1 and the like4 ,moreover1 the maritime law of ,rhodes and the islands of the gean1 known to the ,romans long before it was embodied in their code 7which was not probably until they had extended maritime relations71 presents1 as ,pastoret 7ix4 #aah7 informs us1 analogies et rapprochemens multiplis with modern maritime legislation from the time of the ,romans to the ordonnance de la marine drawn up by order of ,louis ,,xiv4 #cab ,to demolish a trophy was looked on as unlawful1 and a kind of sacrilege1 because they were all dedicated to some deity2 nor was it less a crime to pay crime to pay divine adoration before them1 or to repair them when decayed1 as may be likewise observed of the ,roman triumphal arches4444 ,for the same reason1 those ,grecians who introduced the custom of erecting pillars for trophies incurred a severe censure from the ages they lived in4--,potters ,archologia1 ii4 c4 #ab4 ,before the ,greeks engaged themselves in war it was usual to publish a declaration of the injuries they had received1 and to demand satisfaction by ambassadors2 which custom was observed even in the most early ages4444 ,it is therefore no wonder what ,polybius relates of the tolians1 that they were held for the common outlaws and robbers of ,greece1 it being their manner to strike without warning1 and make war without any previous or public declaration4--,id4 ii4 c4 vii4 p4 #fd4 7,compare infra1 ch4 xv47 #cac ,omnes portas concionabundus ipse imperator circumiit1 et quibuscumque irritamentis poterat1 iras militum accuebat1 nunc fraudem hostium incusans1 qui1 pace petita1 induciis datis1 per ipsum induciarum tempus1 contra jus gentium ad castra oppugnando venisset4--,p4 ,livius1 #a4 xc4 ,in an article on ,belligerent ,rights at ,sea 7in the ,home and ,foreign ,review1 ,july #ahfc71 in which there will be found a nice discrimination of these questions1 ,mr ,e4 ,ryley says3-- ,the very largest rule of belligerent rights limits the voluntary destruction of life and property by the necessity of the occasion and the object of the war4 ,bynkershock and ,wolf insist that everything done against the enemy is lawful1 and admit fraud1 poison1 and the murder1 as we should call it1 of non-combatants1 as permissible expedients for attaining the object of the war4 ,but these are the writers who lay the foundations of the law of nations in reason and custom1 and ignore that perception and judgment of right and wrong which ,god has communicated to man4 ,it is true that for the most part1 and practically1 we know the law of nations by reason and usage2 but this law is founded not on that by which we know its decisions1 but on justice2 and reason must admit1 and usage must adopt1 whatever is clearly shown to be just and right1 however this may be against precedent1 and what has hitherto been held to be sound reason4 ,there is no law without justice1 nor any justice without conscience1 nor any conscience without ,god4 ,grotius thus admirably expresses himself3--',jus naturale est dictatum rect rationis1 indicans actui aliqui1 ex ejus convenienti aut disconvenienti cum ipsa natur rationali1 inesse moralem turpitudinem1 aut necessitatem moralem1 ac consequenter ab auctore natur1 ,deo1 talem actum vetari aut prcipi4 ,actus1 de quibus tale extat dictatum1 debiti sunt aut illiciti per se1 atque ideo a ,deo necessario prcepti aut vetiti intelliguntur4'#cad ,and this principle obtains greater force from the objections which have been made to it1 and the efforts to establish another foundation for the law of nations4 ,thus the principle of utility is only a feeble attempt to give another name to the law of justice which ,god has implanted in ,his creatures2 and to pretend to found a law on general usage and tacit consent is to mistake the evidence of justice for justice itself4 #cad ,de ,jure ,belli ac ,pacis1 l4 i4 c4 l4 x4 n n1 #a et #b4 ,at first sight the passage quoted from ,mr ,ryley's article would seem to militate against my position2 in reality we merely take up different weapons against ,bynkershock and ,wolf4 ,if custom means merely precedent1 it may or may not be in accordance with that perception of right and wrong which ,god has communicated to man2 but if there is a tradition of a law of nations1 the fact creates so great a presumption in favour of its pronouncements1 that what is of usage and custom will be the criterion of what is right until the human intellect has shown that what has hitherto been held to be permissible was founded in a precedent of iniquity4 ,on the other hand1 we are agreed that the law of nations must be such as to stand the test of the perception and judgment of right and wrong4 ,as this perception1 however1 has never wholly died out among mankind1 whatever is of general acceptance carries with it an assurance that it has stood this test2 and general usage and the tacit consent is so much the evidence of justice1 that it has practically been taken1 or mistaken by mankind for justice itself1 and the law of nations has always been discussed on the basis of usage4 ,this1 ,i contend1 would not have been the case if there had not been behind usage the immemorial sanction and tradition1 or if the tacit consent had been only acquiescence in wrong4 ,i am the more confirmed in this view on perceiving that ,mr ,ryley1 after stating his own opinion as to the right of blockade1 finds his conclusions1 when he has discriminated such precedents as were of an exceptional and retaliatory character1 to be in conformity with usage and the decision of legists4 ,from this point of view those who contend for the basis of tradition and those who contend for the basis of natural justice mean the same thing4 ,they both affirm that there are limitations to human passion even in war4 ,they are both opposed to precedents based on force1 and are equally hostile to the principle of utility1 for if1 as ,mr ,ryley puts it1 the principle of utility is only another name for the law of justice which ,god has implanted in ,his creatures1 the phrase is an understatement of the truth1 liable to misconstruction1 and tends to lower the standard of right2 and if it means something different or distinct from this1 it means that against which the tradition of mankind protests4 ,i have already said that international law1 as distinguished from the law of nations1 requires to be constantly discriminated by the intellect or the conscience of mankind1 and more especially now that diplomatists are no longer legists4 ,there was a certain indirect and collateral influence arising out of the tradition of a law of nations from the fact that a body of men existing as its interpreters1 or at least as its depositaries1 which it appears to me was destined to operate powerfully in the interests of peace4 ,the existence of such a body of men perpetuated a public opinion in these matters1 they fostered an esprit de corps stronger even than the spirit of nationality which then reigned supreme and dominated society4 ,when a violation of treaties or an unjust aggression took place there was thus found a body of men who would stigmatise or at least recognise it as such4 ,the sentiment thus sustained was not all-influential for the purposes of peace1 but it was operative to the extent of arresting the attention and perturbing the consciences of mankind4 ,in like manner ,i venture to say that the diplomatic body1 although the depositaries only of a bastard tradition1 subserve this purpose also after a fashion1 and ,i much doubt whether many well-intentioned men1 in striving to compass its abolition would not1 as matters stand1 destroy the last breakwater which secures the peace of ,europe4 ,in ancient times the comity of nations was virtually restricted to groups of cities or nations of kindred descent1 or which had become confederate by reason of contiguity4 ,this circumstance has been adduced by ,sir ,g4 ,c4 ,lewis to stop in limine the theory of a law of nations2#cae as if it was necessarily in denial of a tradition of morality common to all nations4 ,yet1 ,i think that ,i shall be able to show instances of its recognition as between the groups1 but it is precisely in its restricted application within the groups1 and in the channels thus provided1 that ,i think we shall find common features1 and dimly and obscurely1 though certainly1 catch glimpses of the tradition4 #cae ,sir ,g4 ,c4 ,lewis 7,method1 c41 of ,reasoning in ,politics1 ii4 #ce71 quotes ,mr ,ward1 ,history of ,law of ,nations 7i4 #abg71 to the effect ,that what is commonly called the law of nations1 is not the law of all nations1 but only of such sets or classes of them as are united together by similar religions and systems of morality4 ,sir ,g4 ,c4 ,lewis' view is that as there are no universal principles of civil jurisprudence which belongs to each community1 so there are no universal principles of international law which are common to all communities4--,id4 ,if ,i may complete my thought1 these confederations were so many types and anticipations of that ,amphictyonic ,council1 which1 if things had not persistently gone wrong in the world1 might have been formed in medival times by ,christendom under the presidency of the ,popes1#caf and which may yet be realised in the triumph of religion which seems to be signified in the motto lumen in coelo1 as attaching to the successor of the present ,pope1 whose pontificate has been so singularly prefigured in the indication crux de cruce4#cag #caf ,since writing the above1 ,i have read a series of papers 7which commenced ,i think in ,august #ahga7 in the ,tablet under the title of ,arbitration instead of ,war1 and ,i perceive that the writer arrives by a different route at a similar conclusion4 ,i should have had pleasure in incorporating the argument with this chapter1 but ,i shall do better if ,i induce my readers to peruse and weigh it as it deserves4 #cag ,i allude to the ancient prophecy of ,st ,malachy4 ,its authenticity as the prophecy of ,st ,malachy may be questioned2 but the antiquity of the prediction1 and its existence in print early in the sixteenth century is1 ,i believe1 fully established4 ,the copy which lies before me will be found in ,moreri's ,dictionary of #agcb1 in the ,pontificate of ,innocent ,,xiii4 ,twelve mottoes given in prediction from that date1 fits the motto crux de cruce1 to the #abth successor of ,innocent1 viz4 ,pius ,,ix4 ,ten other mottoes follow commencing with lumen in coelo4 ,in the ,times1 ,november #bi1 #ahfg1 it was said1 ,if this theory 'the states of ,christendom constituted as a species of commonwealth' could be rendered effectual1 international law would be furnished at once with its greatest need1 a court to enforce its behests2 but nothing is plainer than that for such arbitration the arbitrators must be fetched from another planet4 ,but1 inasmuch as ,abraham ,lincoln practically remarked1 you cannot have a cabinet of angels in this world1 the thing is to discover the arbitrator who is the furthest removed from sublunary influences4 ,now1 how strong soever may be our national mistrusts and prejudices1 we cannot refuse to recognise that the ,papacy ostensibly satisfies these conditions1 and this irrespective of the belief of the preponderant section of the ,christian world that he is the infallible guide1 and the divinely appointed interpreter of the tradition of morals4 ,its representatives being always old men naturally inclined to peace1#cah the sovereign of a small state which a general war would imperil--professing maxims and therefore pledged to a programme of peace--7so that any deviation from it1 as in the case of ,julius ,,ii41 would render glaring and abnormal acts which would have been unnoticed in an ordinary sovereign71 a sovereign without a family 7and whatever may be said of nepotism1 it must be conceded that a man who has only collateral relatives is less tempted to found a family than one who has sons71 a sovereign1 in fine1 representing the oldest line of succession in the world1#cai in the oldest city1 in the centre of tradition1 and like ,noah in the traditional symbols 7ante1 p4 #bbj71 linking the new world with the old4 #cah ,the pontifical power is1 from its essential constitution1 the least subject to the caprices of politics4 ,he who wields it is1 moreover1 always aged1 unmarried1 and a priest2 all which circumstances exclude ninety-nine hundredths of all the errors and passions which disturb states4--,de ,maistre1 ,du ,pape1 ,b4 ,,ii4 chap4 iv4 #cai ,the history of that ,church joins together the two great ages of human civilisation4 ,no other institution is left standing which carries the mind back to the times when the smoke of sacrifice rose from the ,pantheon1 and when the cameleopards and tigers bounded in the ,flavian amphitheatre4 ,the proudest royal houses are but of yesterday when compared with the line of the supreme ,pontiffs4 ,that line we trace back in an unbroken series1 from the ,pope who crowned ,napoleon in the nineteenth century1 to the ,pope who crowned ,pepin in the eighth2 and far beyond the time of ,pepin the august dynasty extends1 till it is lost in the twilight of fable4444 ,the ,catholic ,church is still sending forth to the farthest ends of the world missionaries as zealous as those who landed in ,kent with ,augustine1 and still confronting hostile kings with the same spirit with which she confronted ,attila4--,macaulay's ,essays1 ,review of ,ranke's ,popes4 ,this1 ,i find 7,i quote from a series of important papers on ,english statesmen and the independence of ,popes1 ,tablet1 ,november #ahgj71 was fully recognised by our greatest minister1 ,mr ,pitt4 ,in #agid1 ,pitt suggested1 through ,franois de ,conzi1 ,bishop of ,arras1 that the ,pope should put himself at the head of a ,european league4 ,on more than one occasion1 he wrote1 ,i have seen the continental courts draw back before the divergences of opinion and of religion which separate us4 ,i think that a common bond ought to unite us all4 ,the ,pope alone can be this centre4444 ,we are too much divided by personal interests or by political views4 ,rome alone can raise an impartial voice1 and one free from all exterior preoccupations4 ,rome1 then1 ought to speak according to the measure of her duties1 and not merely of her good wishes1 which no one doubts4 ,there have been at different periods of the world various projects of universal pacification2#cbj but it is worthy of remark that they have almost all1 from that of ,henri ,,iv4 to the one recently broached by the ,professor of ,modern ,history at ,cambridge1 taken the traditional lines of a confederation of states more or less circumscribed with an amphictyonic council4 ,this has its significance from the point of view ,i am indicating1 but ,i do not see that it is satisfactorily accounted for on any other view4#cba #cbj ,sir ,g4 ,c4 ,lewis1 ,method1 c41 ii4 #bhe1 enumerates several4 #cba ,in ,de ,quincey's ,works1 xii4 #adj1 there is a disquisition on ,kant's scheme of a universal society founded on the empire of political justice1 where it is competent that as the result of wars man must be inevitably brought to quit the barbarous condition of lawless power and to enter into a federal league of nations1 in which even the weakest number looks for its rights and protection--not to its own power1 or its own adjudication1 but to this great confederation 7foedus amphictyonum71 to the united power1 and the adjudication of the collective will1 and is said to be the inevitable resource and mode of escape under that pressure of evil which nations reciprocally inflict1 and which seems to contemplate a situation like the present4 ,finally war itself becomes gradually not only so artificial a process1 so uncertain in its issue1 but also is the after-pains of inextinguishable national debts 7a contrivance of modern times7 so anxious and burdensome2 444 that at length those governments which have no immediate participation in the war1 under a sense of their own danger1 offer themselves as mediators1 though as yet without any sanction of law1 and thus prepare all things from afar for the formation of a great primary state-body or cosmopolitic ,areopagus1 such as is wholly unprecedented in all preceding ages4 ,i am fully aware of the divergence of this view from that which ,i have indicated1 but ,i wish to point out that it is only unprecedented in so far as it is cosmopolitic and extends to all humanity2 but so extending it ought not to include the traditional notions of an ,areopagus--foedus amphictyonum--or confederation of states4 ,it ought rather to talk of an interfusion of states1 the only condition upon which the cosmopolitic ,areopagus would be possible2 yet it inevitably falls into the traditionary lines4 ,moreover1 before mankind can attain to this inter-fusion of states1 one supreme difficulty1 which seems always to be over-looked1 must be overcome1 we must bring mankind back to be of one lip and one speech4 ,the scheme1 on the other hand1 of a federation cannot be pronounced impracticable until it has been tried2 yet1 although it lies latent in the idea of ,christendom1 and although it has had a sort of informal recognition in the theory and policy of the balance of power1 there has never been any understanding from which we can gather what the results would be1 if the bond of federation were ever cemented by any solemn pledge or sanction4 ,it would seem1 then1 that there has always existed in the world the tradition1 and since the triumph of ,christianity1 the conditions by which1 if it had so willed1 it might have recovered the golden age of peace and happiness of which it has never entirely lost the tradition4 ,until this consummation we must fall back upon the law of nations1#cbb though even here it must be borne in mind that ,christianity has exercised an indirect influence1 and has raised the standard of morality for the world at large4#cbc ,but when all is abated the law of nations remains the lex legum1 deeply founded in the maxims1 sentiments1 and usages of mankind4 ,these maxims in their tradition have been concurrently interpreted1 adapted1 and in a certain sense moulded by the intellect of legists1 whose discriminations or conclusions have received the tacit approbation of mankind4 ,rarely has the production of any profane writer received such an unanimous ratification as the great work of ,hugo ,grotius1 mainly1 as we have seen 7ante1 p4 #d71 based on tradition4 ,again1 the agreement and correspondence among the legists of different nationalities is substantial1 and is only to be accounted for upon the supposition that each in his own groove faithfully incorporated and elaborated a tradition2 and if you say that this was only an argument among the separate traditions of the ,roman law1 you only put back the argument one remove1 as ,i have attempted to demonstrate4 ,if conversely you say that the law of nations as we find it is purely the work and elaboration of legists1 and the conclusions of abstract reason1 put it to this test1 bring all the legists of the world into a congress--such a congress is much needed just now--with instructions to create a new code on abstract principles1 and upon the basis of the rejection of what is of custom and tradition1 and see what they will accomplish6 ,do not all our difficulties begin exactly where1 owing to the complications of modern civilisation1 tradition ceases8 ,for the rest we shall presently see what the ,congress of ,paris1 in #ahef1 was able to effect in this kind4 #cbb ,historicus 7,letter in the ,times1 ,february #ab1 #ahfh7 writes--,the system of international law professes to be a code of rules which ought to govern1 and in fact in a great degree does govern1 the conduct of independent nations in their dealings with one another4444 ,how can one doubt that in fact such a rule exists and does operate8 ,let us test the matter by an example4 ,when the news of the affair of the ,trent reached ,england1 what was the first question that every one asked8 ,was it not this1 ',is this act conformable to the law of nations1 or is it not8' ,did not the ,english ,cabinet summon all the most distinguished jurists to advise them what the law of nations was8 ,was not the decision absolutely dependent on their advice4444 ,the code of the law of nations1 based on all other laws1 on morality1 deduced by the reasoning of jurists from well established principles1 illustrated by precedents1 gathered from usage1 confirmed by experience1 has become from age to age more and more respected as the arbiter of the rights and duties of nations1 444 and now1 after this system has been elaborated with so much care1 and has yielded results so beneficial to the human race1 we are to be told that the only real question in differences between nations is1 ',whether1 all things considered1 it is or is not worth while to go to war8' not1 be it observed1 right or wrong to go to war4 ,this is exactly the doctrine set forth in the celebrated ,thelian controversy recorded in ,thucydides4 ,w4 ,oke ,manning1 ,commentaries on the ,law of ,nations 7p4 #ag71 says1 ,sir ,j4 ,mackintosh in his ',hist4 of the ,progress of ,ethical ,philosophy' 7prefixed to the ',encyclopdia ,britannica1' p4 #cae71 speaks of ,suarez as the writer who first saw that international law was composed not only of the simple principles of justice applied to intercourse between states1 but of those usages long observed in that intercourse by the ,european race which have since been more exactly distinguished as the consuetudinary law acknowledged by the ,christian nations of ,europe and ,america4 ,but ,suarez himself speaks of this distinction as already recognised by previous writers4 #cbc ,la religion ,chrtienne1 qui ne semble avoir d'objet que la flicit de l'autre vie1 fait encore notre bonheur dans celle-ci4444 ,que d'un ct1 l'on se mette devant les yeux les massacres continuels des rois et des chefs grecs et romains1 444 et nous verrons que nous devons au ,christianisme1 et dans le gouvernement un certain droit politique1 et dans la guerre un certain droit des gens1 que la nature humaine ne saurait assez reconnatre4--,montesquieu1 ,esprit des ,lois1 i4 xxiv4 chap4 #c4 ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,,the ,,declaration ,,of ,,war4 ,i think we have already distinct evidence that the ,fecial ,law was something more than our ,treaty and ,diplomatic ,law4 ,let us examine it more particularly in action4 ,if the law of nations ever was appealed to1 and1 if over and above1 there was a tradition of a ,divine revelation1 or even of a prescriptive law founded on natural right1 and having reference to war1 which was ever invoked1 it would have been in the first instance of aggression1 supposing1 as is implied in the term1 that it was without fair cause and without fair warning4 ,the declaration of war1 therefore1 is manifestly the hinge upon which the whole system of the law of nations turns4#cbd ,accordingly1 the further we go back the more solemn and formal do we find the declaration of war to be4 #cbd ,i must here do ,mr ,urquhart the justice to point out that he has been the principal advocate of this doctrine1 that the declaration of war is the turning-point upon which everything depends1 and more than any other man has laboured to enforce it4 7,vide ,effects on the ,world of the ,restoration of ,canon ,law1 by ,d4 ,urquhart1 #ahfi47 ,at p4 #fa1 ,mr ,urquhart refers to the action taken by the ,fecials4 ,i have the misfortune to differ with ,mr ,urquhart on many points1 but ,i have pleasure in bearing testimony as above4 ,in every instance the declaration of war was accompanied by religious formalities4 ,when the ,senate believed that it had cause of complaint against a nation1 it sent a ,fecial to his frontier4 ,there the pontiff1 his head bound with a woollen veil1#cbe exposed the griefs of the ,romans and demanded satisfaction4 ,if it was not granted1 he went back to render an account of his mission to the ,senate1 444 and after a delay of thirty or thirty-three days they voted a declaration of war4 ,then the ,fecial returned to the frontier1 and1 casting a javelin into the enemy's country1 he pronounced the following formula--',quod populus ,hermundulus1' c4444 ,every war which had not been declared in this manner was considered as unjust1 and certain to incur the displeasure of the gods4 ,in the course of time this solemn declaration was replaced by a vain formality4#cbf #cbe ,the ,very ,rev4 ,dr ,rock 7,textile ,fabrics1 p4 xii47 says--,the ancient ,british speciality was wool1 and the postulants asking admission to the different castes1 the sacerdotal1 bardic1 and the leeches or natural philosophers1 were distinguished by stripes of white ,cicero 7,de ,legibus1 ii4 #ah7 says1 ,color autem albus prcipere decorus deo est quum in cateris tum maxima in textili1 blue1 and green severally on their mantles1 although the bards themselves were distinguished by some one of the colours above-mentioned 7vide infra74 ,the significance of this will be noted at p4 #cia4 ,i may further remark1 parenthetically1 that here is an instance of national civilisation being pari passu with religious traditions4 ,the ,british speciality was wool--query1 because of the heavy stress laid upon the rule which taught that the official colour in their dress1 c4 7,id41 vide ante1 chap4 xii4 p4 #bib47 ,st ,paul says 7,heb4 ix4 #ai71 ,for when every commandment of the ,lord had been read by ,moses to all the people1 he took the blood of calves and goats1 with water1 and scarlet wool1 and hyssop1 and sprinkled both the book itself and all the people 7,goguet1 ,origin of ,laws1 ii4 p4 #i74 ,the ,spaniards in #afdc made a treaty of peace with the ,indians of ,chili2 they have preserved the memory of the forms used at the ratification4 ,it is said that the ,indians killed many sheep1 and stained in their blood a branch of the cane-tree1 which the deputy of the ,caciques put into the hands of the ,spanish general in token of peace and alliance4 ,goguet also refers to ,heb4 ix4 #ai4 #cbf ,de ,fresquet1 ,droit ,romain1 i4 #dh4 ,montfauon 7,l',antiquit ,explique1 ii4 #a1 p4 iv41 p4 #ce7 says3-- ,lorsqu'ils alloient parlementer1 ils avoient sur la tte un voile tissu de laine1#cbg et ils toient couronnz de vervaine3 leur office toit d'impcher que les ,romains n'entreprissent point de guerre injuste3 d'aller comme legats vers les nations qui violoient les traitez1 etc4444 ils prenoient aussi connaissance faits au legats de part et d'autre4 ,quand la paix ne se trouvoit pas faite selon les loix1 ils la declaroient nulle4 ,si les commandans avoient fait quelque chose contre la justice et contre le droit des gens1 ils reparoient leur faute et expioient leur crime1 444 cause du violement des traites faits devant ,numance1 dit ,ciceron par un dcret du ,senat le ,patrapatratus livra1 ,c4 ,mancinus aux ,numantins4#cbh #cbg ,compare with the description of ,saturn1 ,saturnus1 velato capite falcam gerens4--,fulgent4 ,mythol4 i4 c4 #b4 #cbh ,in the above extract from ,montfauon it should have been added1 that when the ,romans sent one of their fecials to declare war he went in sacerdotal habit--,arrivant au confins de la ville1 il appelloit temoins ,jupiter et les autres dieux comme il alloit demander rparation de l'injure au nom des ,romains1 il faisoit des imprcations sur lui et sur la ville de ,rome1 s'il disoit rien contre la vrit1 et continuoit son chemin 444 s'il rencontroient quelque citoien quelque payisan 7paysan7 il reptoit toujours ses imprcations1 c4 ,we must content ourselves1 of course1 with what evidence we may get of similar institutions elsewhere2 but what strikes me as strange in the contrast of modern civilisation with barbarism1 is1 that whereas our advances1 whether in the sense of peace and war 7whenever they are formally made71 are commonly understood1 the corresponding demonstrations on the side of barbarism are invariably misconstrued4 ,when1 for instance1 ,captain ,cook approached the shores of ,bolabola1 he describes the following scene1 which reads to me very like the account we have just been reading of the ,roman herald3-- ,soon after a single man ran along the shore armed with his lance1 and when he came abreast of the boat he began to dance1 brandish his weapon1 and call out in a very shrill tone1 which ,tupia a native of an adjacent island who was on board said was a defiance from the people4444 ,as the boat rowed slowly along the shore back again1 another champion came down1 shouting defiance1 and brandishing his lance4 ,his appearance was more formidable than that of the other1 for he wore a large cap made of the tail feathers of the topia bird1 and his body was covered with stripes of different coloured cloth1 yellow1 red1 and brown4444 ,soon after a more grave and elderly man came down to the beach1 and hailing the people in the boat1 inquired who they were1 and from whence they came4#cbi444 ,after a short conference they all began to pray very loud4 ,tupia made his responses1 but continued to tell us they were not our friends 7i4 #aai74 #cbi ,a somewhat similar scene is also indistinctly traced in the following3--,wood relates that on his visit to ,st ,julian in #afgj1 in walking inland he 'met seven savages1 who came running down the hill to us1 making several signs for us to go back again1 with much warning and noise1 yet did not offer to draw their arrows4 ,but one of them who was an old man came nearer to us than the rest1 and made also signs we should depart1 to whom ,i threw a knife1 a bottle of brandy1 and a neckcloth1 to pacify him2 but seeing him persist in the same signs as before1 and that the savageness of the people seemed incorrigible1 we returned on board again4' ,quoted by ,r4 ,o4 ,cunningham1 ,natural ,history of the ,straits of ,magellan and ,west ,coast of ,patagonia1 #ahga1 p4 #adc4 ,a similar scene is described by ,roggerwsen in his voyage1 ,i think1 to ,easter ,island4 ,this1 in connection with the scene at ,bolabola1 recalls the mode of procedure in the ,odyssey1 ix4 #ie 7,pope71 when ,ulysses reaches ,the land of ,lotus and the flowering coast4 ,we climbed the beach and springs of water found1 ,then spread our hasty banquet on the ground4 ,three men were sent deputed from the crew 7,a herald one7 the dubious coast to view1 ,and learn what habitants possessed the place4 ,they went and found a hospitable race1 ,not prone to ill1 nor strange to foreign guest3 ,as our dire neighbours of ,cyclopean birth4 ,let this be taken in connection with the following narrative3--#ccj ,the large canoes came close round the ship1 some of the ,indians playing on a kind of flute1 others singing1 and the rest blowing on a sort of shells4 ,soon after1 a large canoe advanced1 in which was an awning1 on the top of which sat one of the natives holding some yellow and red feathers in his hand4 ,the captain having consented to his coming alongside1 he delivered the feathers1 and while a present was preparing for him1 he put back from the ship1 and threw the branch of a cocoa-tree in the air4 ,this was doubtless the signal for an onset1 for there was an instant shout from all the canoes1 which1 approaching the ship1 threw volleys of stones into every part of her4 #ccj ,vide ,captain ,wallis' ,voyage1 in ,hist4 ,account of all the ,voyages round the ,world1 #aggc1 iii4 p4 #gi4 ,here the question appears to me to be whether this act of throwing the branch1 so analogous to the throwing the javelin1 which was the final act in the ,roman declaration of war 7and to which our throwing down the glove or the gauntlet has analogy71 was merely the signal to themselves1 or whether it was not also the notice of attack to the enemy4 ,upon this will depend whether we are to consider it a treacherous ruse 7and the presentation of the feathers has that aspect71 or whether it was their traditional mode of declaration of war1 and construed to be a treacherous attack1 because the gallant navigator belonged to a nation more ignorant of the laws of nations than the savages they encountered4 ,from the very fact of their having enacted this comedy or ceremonial1 it must be inferred either that they attached some superstitious importance to its performance1 and expected some good effects from it to themselves1 or that they thought that it would be understood by their adversaries1 in which case they must implicitly have believed it to be common to all nations4 ,in either case it is just possible that after the manner of savages1 they may have confused the symbols of peace and war1 and ran into one what the ,romans had carefully distinguished--the caduceatores1#cca who went to demand peace1 and the fecials1 who were sent to denounce war4 #cca ,caduceatores--compare supra1 p4 #cdh4 ,in connection with these latter1 let us inquire more particularly as to their wand of office1 the caduceus4 ,in its oldest form it was merely a bough twined round with white wool2 afterwards a white or gilded staff with imitations of foliage and ribands was substituted for the old rude symbol4 ,these were probably not turned into snakes till a much later age1 when that reptile had acquired a mystic character4 ,mller's explanation is that it was originally the olive branch with the stemmata1 which latter became developed into serpents4--,encyc4 of ,arts and ,sciences4 ,if1 therefore1 ,mller's explanation is correct1 the oldest form of the symbol of office of those who were the depositaries of laws of nations in the matter of peace and war1 was a symbol which has a special history and significance in connection with the ,deluge4 ,will this not tend to identify their institution with that epoch8 ,it will1 perhaps1 be said that the branch of a tree is in any case a natural symbol of peace4 ,but why a symbol or token at all8 ,why more than a simple gesture of salutation8 unless the symbol embodied some idea which conveyed a pledge over and above8 ,what1 then1 was this idea1 unless the traditional idea8 ,it may appear to us a natural emblem1 but it is not so from association of ideas with the scriptural dove and olive branch8 and yet consider how universal it is4 ,captain ,cook's ,voyages 7i4 p4 #ch2 ,london1 #ahdf7 says1 ,it is remarkable that the chief1 like the people in the canoes1 presented to us the same symbol of peace that is known to have been in use among the ancient and mighty nations of the northern hemisphere1 the green branch of a tree4 ,this occurred both in ,new ,zealand and ,otaheite4 ,wallis 7,voyages round the ,world1 iii4 #ih7 says that on an occasion when the ,otaheitans wished to testify fidelity and friendliness1 the ,indians cut branches from the trees and laid them in a ceremonious manner at the feet of the seamen2 they painted themselves red with the berries of a tree1 and stained their garments yellow with the bark of another4 ,we have1 as we have just seen1 found this symbol in the caduceus1 and it appears to me that the caduceus in its earlier form of a staff with foliage and ribands1 is recognisable in the ,gothic monuments as given in ,stephens' ,central ,america4 ,vide also ,cunningham's ,bhilsa ,topes4 ,washington ,irving 7,life of ,columbus1 iii4 #bad7 speaks of the natives coming forward to meet them with white flags2 and the same1 if ,i remember rightly1 is recorded in ,cook's visit to the ,sandwich ,islanders4 ,the white flag is our own symbol2 but what is the white flag but the development and refinement of the staff and white wool8 ,again1 why are stripes1 in a variety of combination of colour1 the characteristic symbol of flags8 ,the reader will find the answer on returning to the text1 where he will also learn the significance of the red and yellow1 in the above descriptions4 ,the red and yellow colours of the feathers in the above account may afford a clue1 when it is remembered 7vide note71 that they coincide with the colour used by the ,otaheitans to testify fidelity and friendliness2 but1 to appreciate this in its full significance1 it will be necessary to show how commonly the traditional symbols of peace among the ancients had reference to the diluvian traditions1 more especially the ,dove and the ,rainbow4 ,assuming for the moment that ,bryant is right in his derivation of the names of ,juno and ,venus from ,jnah 7,hebrew71 and ,greek3 ,oinas 7,greek7 ,dove1#ccb ,i ask attention to the following1 in connection with the red and yellow feathers of the ,polynesians1 and the tail feathers of the topia bird mentioned by ,cook 7supra1 p4 #chh74ccc 7,bryant1 ii4 #cde71 ,as the peacock1 in the full expansion of his plumes1 displays all the beautiful colours of the ,iris 7the rainbow71 it was probably for that reason made the bird of ,juno1 instead of the dove1 which was appropriated to ,venus4 ,the same history was variously depicted in different places1 and consequently as variously interpreted4 7,compare p4 #bgi47 #ccb ,,ii4 p4 #cag4 #ccc ,vide also in ,carver's ,north ,america 7p4 #bif71 an engraving of the ,indian ,calumet of ,peace1--the stem is of a light wood curiously painted with hieroglyphics in various colours1 and adorned with the feathers of the most beautiful birds4 ,it is not in my power to convey an idea of the various tints and pleasing ornaments of this much-esteemed ,indian implement7p4 #cei74 ,if this is true1 if the rainbow is the symbol of peace1 and the peacock is the symbol of the rainbow1 will it absolutely surprise us to find feathers of various colours presented as tokens of peace8 ,i am prepared for the reply1 that ,bryant's etymology is now considered obsolete2 but ,i shall fall back upon the argument which ,i have urged elsewhere1 that in cases where tradition renders the transmission of certain words probable1 there is a presumption which overrides the ordinary canons of philological criticism4 ,philologers very properly lay down1 e4g4 ,mr ,max ,mller's ,chapter of ,accidents in ,comparative ,theology1 ,contemp4 ,rev41 ,april #ahgj1 p4 #h3-- ,comparative philology has taught us again and again that when we find a word exactly the same in ,greek and ,sanscrit1 we may be certain that it cannot be the same word2 and the same applies to comparative mythology 444 for the simple reason that ,sanscrit and ,greek have deviated from each other1 have both followed their own way1 have both suffered their own phonetic corruptions1 and hence1 if they do possess the same word1 they can only possess it either in its ,greek or in its ,sanscrit disguise4 ,this is of course only upon the assumption that the languages have gone their own way1 have followed their own corruptions2 but if it can be shown that certain words1 c4 c41 were preserved in tradition1 and so guarded as not to come under the laws of deviation which philology traces out1 or to come under them on different conditions1 then1 on the contrary1 it is exceedingly probable that we should find them identical1 or at least recognisable2 in any case1 this is a point which must be decided according to the evidences of tradition1 and not according to the laws of philology4 ,this will be better understood from a case in point4 ,i append the evidence respecting the traditions of the ,dove and the ,rainbow--which are just the incidents which are likely to have impressed the imagination and memory of mankind4#ccd #ccd ,it will hardly be denied that the tradition of the rainbow as a sign and pledge to man existed among the ancients4 ,vide ,bryant1 ii4 #cdh4 ,the goddess ,iris1 who was sent with the messages of the gods1 bore the same name as the rainbow ,iris4 ,e4g4 ,homer-- ,greek3 ,irissin eoikotes has te ,kronin en nephehi strixe1 teras meropn anthrpn4--,il4 xi4 #bg4 ,like to the bow which ,jove amid the clouds ,placed as a token to desponding man4 ,also--,il4 xvii4 #edg4 ,greek3 hute porphyren irin thntoisi tanhuss ,zeus ex ouranothen teras emmenai4 ,just as when ,jove mid the high heavens displays ,his bow mysterious for a lasting sign4 ,and the lines 7,theog4 v4 #gjj7 in ,hesiod1 in which ,iris is called the daughter of ,wonder1 who is sent over the broad surface of the sea when strife and discord arose among the immortals1 and who is also called the great oath of the gods--,this is the token of the covenant between you and me1 for perpetual generations1 ,gen4 ix4 #ab4--who is told to bring from afar in her golden pitcher the many-named water4 ,iris is called the daughter of ,thaumas 7which so closely approximates to the ,greek ,greek3 ,thauma wonder1 ,bryant says to the ,egyptian ,thaumus74 ,bryant further thinks that ,iris and ,eros were originally the same term1 but that in time the latter was formed into the boyish deity ,cupid ,eros4 ,according to some1 ,iris was the mother of ,eros by ,zephyrus4 ,there were indeed three ,eroses1 which mark three different lines of tradition1 vide ,gladstone on ,iris 7the rainbow71 ,homer and the ,homeric ,age1 ii4 #aef4 ,eros 7,cupid71 though a boy1 was supposed to have been at the commencement of all things2 and ,lucian says1 ,how came you with that childish face1 when we know you to be as old as ,japetus8 ,the union of ,cupid and ,chaos 7the ,deluge is frequently alluded to as chaos1 vide ,bryant7 gave birth to men and all the animals4 ,hesiod makes ,eros the first to appear after ,chaos4 ,at this season 7,deluge7 another era began2 the earth was supposed to be renewed1 and time to return to a second infancy4 ,they therefore formed an emblem of a child with a rainbow1 to denote this renovation of the world1 and called him ,eros1 or ,divine ,love1 444 yet esteemed the most ancient among the gods4--,bryant1 ii4 #cdi4 7,cupid is represented with a bow1 as is also ,apollo and ,diana1 which was an allusion to the supposed resemblance of the bow and the rainbow47 ,probably from his connection with ,iris1 he is represented as breaking the thunderbolts of ,jupiter1 and riding on dolphins and subduing other monsters of the sea4 ,smith 7,myth4 ,dict47 says ,iris is derived from ,greek3 er eir1 so that ,iris would mean the speaker or messenger1 444 but it is not impossible that it may be connected with ,greek3 eir1 ',i join1' whence ,greek3 eirn2 so that ,iris1 the goddess of the rainbow1 would be the joiner1 or conciliator1 or the messenger of heaven1 who restores peace in nature1 ,it appears to me more likely that ,greek3 eirn peace 7derivation uncertain--,liddell and ,scott7 was derived directly from ,iris1 in accordance with the tradition1 and that the ,greek word for wool1 ,greek3 eiros1 was cognate to ,greek3 eirn1 from being an emblem of peace 7e4g4 the pontiff's caduceator1 woollen veil74 ,in the same way1 if we do not actually find the rainbow as the token of the herald or caduceator1 may we not discover it conversely in the circumstance that ,iris is represented as carrying in her hand a herald's staff8 ,it is curious that we actually find1 what ,i may call the sister emblem1 viz4 the ,dove1 used by the ancients1 though just as we find1 if ,i am right in the conjecture1 the rainbow among the ,polynesians1 used in a perverted way as an ensign of war4 ,it was possibly in superstitious remembrance of the tradition which we find more directly among the ancient ,aryans and the ,peruvians 7p4 #cbf-djj71 that war ought only to be made with a disposition towards peace2 and that they thought to place themselves under the sanction of heaven by carrying this emblem as their ensign of war4 ,such1 however1 was the fact4 ,bryant 7ii4 #cjb7 says3--,the dove became a favourite hieroglyphic among the ,babylonians and ,chaldees4444 ,in respect to the ,babylonians1 it seems to have been taken by them for their national ensign1 and to have been depicted on their military standard when they went to war4 ,they seem likewise to have been styled ,inim1 or the children of the ,dove2 and they are thus alluded to by the ,prophet ,jeremiah1 ch4 xxv4 ver4 #ch 7id47 ,bryant says 7ii4 #bhe71 ,the name of the ,dove among the ancient ,amonians 7by which term he intends the descendants of ,chus7 was ,in and ,inah2 sometimes expressed ,inas1 from whence came the ,greek3 ,oinas of the ,greeks4 ,i should rather put it that we find the word for the ,dove common to the ,hebrew and the ,greek 7,inah1 ,hebrew2 ,greek3 ,oivas1 ,greek71 and1 as ,bryant seems to imply1 among other nations also--e4g4 the ,babylonians--which is precisely what we should have expected4 ,but if this identity is allowed1 we must proceed with ,bryant to see in ,juno1 ,venus1 and ,diana1 simply embodiments of the tradition of the ,dove4 ,bryant says that ,juno is the same as ,ina1 and although1 as we have seen1 the peacock is said to be her bird 7with reference to the other symbol1 the rainbow71 and although ,ovid 7,bryant1 #cdd7 sends her to heaven accompanied by ,iris 7rainbow71 yet in the plate 7from ,gruter7 p4 #daj1 she will be seen with a dove on her wand1 and a pomegranate1 as symbol of the ark 7vide p4 #chj71 in her hand4 ,bryant1 moreover 7#cdd71 considers ,juno to be identical with ,venus4 ,there was a statue in ,laconia called ,venus-,junonia4 ,of ,dione and ,venus ,bryant says 7ii4 #cda73--;,i have mentioned that the name ,diona was properly ,ad1 or ,ada1 ,ina4 ,hence came the term ,idione2 which ,idione was an object of idolatry as early as the days of ,moses4 ,but there was a similar personage named ,deione4444 ,this was a compound of ,de ,ine1 the dove2 and ,venus ,dionoea may sometimes have been formed in the same manner4444 ,dionusus was likewise called ,thyomus4 ,vide also ,bryant1 pp4 #caf1 #cag4 ,in ,genesis viii4 #i1 the dove returned to the ark1 not having found where her foot might rest4 ,in the hieroglyphical sculptures and paintings where this history was represented1 the dove could not well be depicted otherwise than as hovering over the face of the deep4 ,hence it is that ,venus or ,dione is said to have risen from the sea4 ,hence it is1 also1 that she is said to preside over waters2 to appease the troubled ocean2 and to cause by her presence an universal calm2 that to her were owing on the retiring of the waters the fruits of the earth4444 ,she was the ,oenas 7',greek3 ,oinas'7 of the ,greeks2 whence came the ,venus of the ,latins4 ,the address of ,lucretius to this deity concludes with two lines of remarkable significance-- ,te ,dea1 te fugiunt venti2 te nubila coeli ,adventumque tuum2 tibi rident quora ponti2 ,pacatumque nitet diffuso lumine coelum4 ,in ,sicily1 upon ,mount ,eryx1 was a celebrated temple of this goddess1 which is taken notice of by ,cicero and other writers4 ,doves were here held as sacred as they were in ,palestine or ,syria vide also in ,cashmere1 p4 #fd4 ,it is remarkable that there were two days of the year set apart in this place for festivals1 called ,greek3 ,anaggia and ,greek3 ,kataggia1 at which time ,venus was supposed to depart over the sea1 and after a season to return4 ,there were also sacred pigeons1 which then took their flight from the island2 but one of them was observed on the ninth day to come back from the sea1 and to fly to the shrine of the goddess4 ,this was upon the festival of ,greek3 ,anaggia4 ,upon this day it is said that there were great rejoicings4 ,on what account can we imagine this veneration for the bird to be kept up1 444 but for a memorial of the dove sent out of the ark1 and of its return from the deep to ,noah8 ,the history is recorded upon the ancient coins of ,eryx2 which have on one side the head of ,janus bifrons1 and on the other the sacred dove4--,bryant1 ii4 #cai4 ,mr ,cox's 7,mythology1 ii4 ch4 ii4 sec4 vii47 counter-explanation1 if ,i rightly gather it1 is that on ,aphrodit 7,venus71 the child of the froth or foam of the sea1 was lavished all the wealth of words denoting the loveliness of the morning2 and thus the ,hesiodic poet goes on at once to say that the grass sprung up under her feet as she moved1 that ,eros1 ,love1 walked by her side1 and ,himeros1 longing1 followed after her4 ,this is but saying1 in other words1 that the morning1 the child of the heavens1 springs up first from the sea1 as ,athene is born by the water-side4 ,but why should the morning spring first from the sea8--more particularly when the effects of her rising is noted in the springing up of flowers on the land8 ,if the rainbow1 we see the reason in her connection with the ,deluge1 and her connection with the subsequent renovation of nature4 ,mr ,cox also says 7p4 #c73--;,in her brilliant beauty she is ,argun1 a name which appears again in that of ,arguna1 the companion of ,krishna and the ,hellenic ,argynius4 ,does not this complete the chain of her connection with ,juno8 ,mr ,cox 7p4 #h7 says3--,the ,latin ,venus is1 in strictness of speech1 a mere name1 to which any epithet might be attached according to the conveniences or the needs of the worshipper4444 ,the name itself has been1 it would seem1 with good reason1 connected with the ,sanscrit root 'van1' to desire love or favour1--a derivation which equally accords with ,bryant's view4 ,then there is the striking connection of ,venus with ,dionusos 7vide p4 #cie74 ,mr ,cox 7p4 #i7 says1 ,the myth of ,adonis links the legends of ,aphrodite 7,venus7 with those of ,dionusos4 ,like the ,theban wine-god ,adonis1 born only on the death of his mother2 and the two myths are1 in one version1 so far the same that ,dionysos1 like ,adonis1 is placed in a chest1 which1 being cast into the sea1 is carried to ,brasi1 where the body of his mother is buried4 7,comp4 ,kabiri1 ,bunsen47 ,mr ,cox connects ,athene with ,aphrodite 7,venus7 7p4 #d74 ,therefore we must ask him to reconsider his explanation of the ,athenian maidens embroidering the sacred peplos for the ship presented to ,athne at the great ,dionysiac festival4 ,compare evidence1 supra1 in chap4 on ,boulanger1 c42 ,catlin4 ,the digression we have just made involves some risk of distracting attention from the point it was intended to enforce--viz4 the traditionary character of the mode1 and1 by implication1 the traditionary recognition of the obligation1 of the declaration of war4 ,we have already seen in ,ozanam 7supra1 p4 #cga7 indications of the probability of similar traditions among the primitive tribes of ,germany4 ,will it clench the argument if we find ,romans and ,gauls on a common understanding in these matters1 when brought for the first time into contact since their original separation8-- ,the great misfortunes which befel the city from the ,gauls1 are said to have proceeded from the violation of these sacred rites4 ,for when the barbarians were besieging ,clusium1 ,fabius ,ambustus was sent ambassador to their camp with proposals of peace1 in favour of the besieged4 ,but receiving a harsh answer1 he thought himself released from his character of ambassador1 and rashly taking up arms for the ,clusians1 challenged the bravest man in the ,gaulish army4 ,he proved victorious1 444 but the ,gauls having discovered who he was1 sent a herald to ,rome to accuse ,fabius of bearing arms against them1 contrary to treaties and good faith1 and without a declaration of war4 ,upon this the ,feciales exhorted the ,senate to deliver him up to the ,gauls1 but he appealed to the people1 and1 being a favourite with them1 was screened from the sentence4 ,soon after this1 the ,gauls marched to ,rome1 and sacked the whole city except the ,capitol1 as we have related at large in the life of ,camillus4--,plutarch's ,numa4 ,i venture further to think that the traditionary modes of the declaration of war may be detected among the ,gauls in ,csar's time1 in the manner of their challenge4 ,e4g4 it so came about that ,csar wished to draw the enemy 7the ,nervii7 to his side of the valley and to engage them at a disadvantage before his camp4 ,to this end he simulated fear4 ,our men meanwhile retiring from the rampart1 they approached still nearer1 cast their darts on all sides within the trenches and sent heralds round the camp to proclaim1 c4 7,duncan's ,csar1 ,b4 v4 xlii47 ,we will now turn to the ,greek tradition4 ,i quote from an old author who has examined the matter more fully than ,i find it treated elsewhere4 ,rous4 7,archologi ,attic1 lib4 #f1 s4 #c1 civ47 says3--,as careful and cunning as they were in warlike affairs1 ,i cannot find but that they did 'propere signi qu piget inchoare1' bear a great affection to peace2 as may appear in their honourable receiving of ambassadors1 to whom they gave hearing in no worse place than a temple4444 ,the usual ensign carried by ,greek ambassadours was ,greek3 krykeon1 caduceus1#cce a right staff of wood with snakes twisted about it and looking one another in the face4444 ,if the peace could not be kept1 but they must needs have war1 yet they would be sure to give warning and fair play1 and make proclamations of their intentions before they marcht4 ,the manner in proclaiming war was to send a fellow of purpose either to cast a spear or let loose a lamb into the borders of the country1 or into the city itself whither they were marching 7which ,hesychius rather thinks to have been the signal before a battel71 thereby showing them1 that what was then a habitation for men1 should shortly be a pasture for sheep4#ccf ,i should rather have thought that it had analogy with the ,jewish scapegoat2 but1 whatever the idea1 it was apparently symbolled and commemorated in the woollen veil prescribed to the ,roman pontiff in the declaration of war4 ,it would seem1 however1 that the signal for battle 7chap4 v47 was instead of sounding a trumpet1 they had fellows whom they called ,greek3 pyrphorous1 that went before with torches1 and throwing them down in the midst between the two armies1 gave the sign4444 ,now1 this business they might do safely and without any danger1 444 for the torch-bearers were peculiarly protected by ,mars1 and accounted sacred4#ccg #cce ,vide ante1 #cia4 ,that the entwined snakes were of late date would appear1 ,i think1 from the allusions to the suppliants' wands in schylus1 e4g4 7vide ,plumtre's schylus1 ,libation ,pourers1 v4 #ajbd7 when ,orestes puts on the suppliants wreaths1 and takes the olive branch in his hand-- ,the branch of olive from the topmost growth1 ,with amplest tufts of white wool meetly wreathed4 and in the ,supplicants 7#bb7-- ,holding in one hand the branches ,suppliant1 wreathed with white wool fillets4 #ccf ,also1 ,joannis ,meursii ,themis ,athica1 sive de ,legibus ,alticis1 i4 xi4 says1 ,postquam vero exercitus eductus esset pugnam inire1 non licebat antiquam emissum agmen hostium quis1 hunc expectans accepisset4 #ccg ,this has something in common with the fiery cross sent round by the ,highlanders as the summons to war4 ,in another aspect it has resemblances with the ,indian mode of declaration of war4 ,the manner in which the ,indians declare war against each other is by sending a slave with a hatchet1 the handle of which is painted red1 to the nation which they intend to break with2 and the messenger1 notwithstanding the danger to which he is exposed from the sudden fury of those whom he thus sets at defiance1 executes his commission with great fidelity4--,carver's ,travels in ,north ,america1 p4 #cjg4 ,the sense of national responsibility in war1 and the reluctance of kings to involve themselves without the consent of their people would appear from ,o,eschylos' ,supplicants 7v4 #cic1 #cfc74 ,i have referred 7p4 #cbf7 to the ,peruvian traditions of ,manco ,capac's laws of war1 and that in every stage of the war the ,peruvian was open to propositions for peace4 ,from the ,hindoo tradition1 apparently1 ,manu's code was conceived in an identical spirit4 7,vide ,hist4 of ,india1 ,the ,hindu and ,mahometan ,periods1 by the ,hon4 ,mountstuart ,elphinstone2 ,murray1 #ahff1 ch4 ii4 p4 #bf47 ,the laws of war 7,manu's code7 are honourable and humane4 ,poisoned arrows and mischievously barbed arrows and fire arrows are all prohibited4 ,dr ,hooker1 in his ,himalayan ,journal1 mentions a similar tradition among the ,limboos1 ,i think1 or ,lepchas4#cch ,there are many situations in which it is by no means allowable to destroy the enemy4 ,among those who must always be spared are unarmed or wounded men1 and those who have broken their weapons1 and one who says1 ',i am thy captive4' ,other prohibitions are still more generous4444 ,the settlement of a conquered country is conducted on equally liberal principles4 ,immediate security is to be assured to all by proclamation4 ,the religion and laws of the country are to be maintained and respected4 ,and ,i have fancied 7vide #cie7 that the recognition at least of such a tradition1 if it be only the homage which vice pays to virtue1 is to be read in the devices carried by the ,babylonians4#cci #cch ,that there may be limitations to the horrors of war1 seems to be established by the instance of the prohibition of explosive bullets4 ,i read in the ,times 7,march #aa1 #ahga73--,the ,british ,medical ,journal declares its opinion that the charges which have been put forward of explosive bullets having been used by the contending armies have been groundless2 and is inclined to believe that the articles of the ,st ,petersburg ,convention have been faithfully adhered to1 notwithstanding the mutual recriminations to the contrary by both ,french and ,german ,governments4 #cci ,indirect evidence of the importance formerly attached to the declaration of war may1 ,i think1 be discovered in the formal addresses and invocations of the gods by the ,homeric heroes previous to combat1 which to us seem so forced and unnatural2 and the same sentiment was noticed by the ,spaniards1 when they first came over1 among the ,peruvians1 who did not neglect the punctilio of the declaration of war even in their most high-handed aggressions1 e4g4 ,garcilasso de la ,vega 7,hakluyt ,soc4 ed4 ii4 #ada7 says--,the invaders sent the usual summons that the people might not be able to allege afterwards that they had been taken unawares4 ,there was1 moreover1 a law at ,athens which forbade them to declare war until after a deliberation of three days--,bellum vero antequam decerneretur1 triduo deliberare lex jubebat 7,apsines1 ,marcell4 in ,hermog4 ap4 ,j4 ,meursii ,them4 ,att41 l4 i4 c4 xi472 and we have seen that the ,senate at ,rome postponed the declaration of war for thirty days4 ,i cannot help thinking1 though it is the merest surmise1 that it is in the dim recollection of some such tradition that we must account for the meaningless and superstitious delays which we occasionally read of in the warfare of barbarous nations2 e4g4 ,csar 7,de ,bello ,gallico1 i4 xl4 c47 had drawn up his troops and offered the enemy battle1 but ,ariovistus thought proper to sound a retreat4 ,csar inquiring of the prisoners why ,ariovistus so obstinately refused an engagement1 found that it was the custom among the ,germans for the women to decide by lots and divination when it was proper to decide a battle2 and that these had declared the army would not be victorious if they fought before the new moon4#cdj ,there was also a law at ,athens that it was not lawful to lead forth an army before the seventh day of the month4 ,vetitum ,athenis erat1 exercitum educere ante diem septimum4 ,j4 ,muersii1 id4 #cdj ,carver 7,travels in ,north ,america1 p4 #cja7 says of the ,indians--,sometimes private chiefs make excursions4444 ,these irregular sallies1 however1 are not always approved of by the elder chiefs1 though they are often obliged to connive at them4444 ,but when war is national1 and undertaken by the community1 their deliberations are formal and slow4 ,the elders assemble in council1 to which all the head warriors and young men are admitted1 when they deliver their opinions in solemn speeches2 weighing with maturity the nature of the enterprise they are about to engage in1 and balancing with great sagacity the advantages or inconveniences that will arise from it4 ,their priests are also consulted on the subject1 and even sometimes the advice of the most intelligent of their women is asked4 ,if the determination be for war they prepare for it with much ceremony4 ,i have discussed the ancient mode of declaration of war at some length as an instance of tradition4 ,there are some1 ,i am afraid1 to whom the discussion will appear ineffably trifling2 and ,i may even be misconstrued to say that everything would be set right in ,europe1 if only a herald were sent in proper form to declare war4 ,there are men of a certain cast of mind to whom forms are repugnant2 there are others to whom they are unintelligible4 ,it has been observed1 however1 that the rejection of forms is one thing1 the neglect of them another4 ,the rejection of forms may be1 on some principle1 good1 though misapplied1 often does unconscious homage when it means to spurn1 and may be compensated for in other ways4 ,the neglect of them is simply evidence of laxity4 ,cromwell perfectly well knew the divinity which attached to forms when he said1 ,take away that bauble2 and1 on the other hand1 no one better than he would have judged the state of an army 7not his own7 in which he was told that it was the custom of soldiers not to salute their officers4 ,the declaration of war without any solemnity1 still more the commencement of hostilities without any declaration at all1#cda seems to me closely analogous--as a sign of disorganisation--to the absence of any form of salute at a parade4 ,i am far from contending that old forms1 when they have become obsolete1 can be resuscitated2 but ,i do contend for the resuscitation of ancient maxims and ideas4 ,in any age fully imbued with the responsibility of war1 in which it was considered unseemly to declare it until after a three days' deliberation in solemn conclave1 and which even then protracted the declaration till the seventh or the thirtieth day1 would it have been possible for two great nations to have gone to war because there had been a breach of etiquette1 if indeed there was a breach of etiquette1 at a ,german watering-place8#cdb ,allowing that this was merely the ostensible pretext1 and that the real grounds remained behind--if these long deliberations had been necessarily interposed1 would there not have been a thousand chances in favour of such a ,european intervention as saved the peace of ,europe three years before in the affair of ,luxembourg8 ,yet1 so far as we know at present1 the following is the history of the commencement of the most horrible1 the most destructive1 and the most barbarous war#cdc of modern times4 #cda ,in ancient times war was solemnly declared either by certain fixed ceremonies or by the announcement of heralds2 and a war commenced without such declaration was regarded as informal and irregular1 and contrary to the usages of nations4 ,grotius says that a declaration of war is not necessary by the law of nations--,naturali jure nulla requiritur declaratio1 but that it was required by the law of nations1 jure gentium1 by which term1 be it remembered1 he means the usages of nations4 ,and in this he was right1 as until the age in which he lived wars were almost invariably preceded by solemn declarations4 ,the ,romans1 according to ,albericus ,gentilis1 did not grant a triumph for any war which had been commenced without a formal declaration 7,de ,jure ,belli1 c4 ii4 i472 but the ,greeks do not seem to have been at all regular in the observance of the custom 7,bynkershock1 ,qus4 ,jur4 ,pub41 l4 i4 c4 ii47 ,during the times of chivalry declarations of war were usually given with great formality1 the habits of knighthood being carried into the customs of general warfare1 and it being held mean to fall upon an adversary when unprepared to defend himself 7,ward1 ,introd4 ii4 #bjf-bcj74 ,with the decline of chivalry this custom fell into disuse4 ,gustavus ,adolphus invaded ,germany without any declaration of war 7,zouch1 ,de ,judicio inter ,gentes1 ,p4 ii4 x4 #a72 but this appears to have been an exception to the usages of the age1 and ,clarendon speaks of declarations of war as being customary in his time1 and blames the war in which the ,duke of ,buckingham went to ,france1 as entered into 'without so much as the formality of a declaration from the king1 containing the ground and provocation and end of it1 according to custom and obligation in the like cases4' ,formal denunciations of war by heralds were discontinued about the time of ,grotius2 the last instance having been1 according to ,voltaire1 when ,louis ,,xiii4 sent a herald to ,brussels to declare war against ,spain in #afce4--,w4 ,oke ,manning's ,commentaries on ,law of ,nations4 #cdb ,looking back on the history of the autumn 444 we may yet be impressed by the conviction that1 had the union of the ,european family of nations been strengthened as it might have been before the war broke out1 it might never have been begun1 or would have long since terminated4 ,the ,treaty of ,paris put on record a declaration in favour of arbitration1 but it proved to be worthless when sought to be applied4--,times1 ,feb4 #ae1 #ahga4 ,i shall have a word to say presently on the declaration of the ,treaty of ,paris4 #cdc ,it must not be forgotten1 however1 that it was the revolution in ,paris which gave this war its abnormal character1 and created situations for which the law of nations had no precedents1 or precedents only which were of doubtful application4 ,a private letter from ,paris relates that the ,duc de ,grammont1 who has taken to spend his evenings at the ,jockey ,club1 was lately asked there1 ',how he came to blunder into such a fatal war8'#cdd ,he replied1 ',i asked the ,minister of ,war1 ,leboeuf1 if he was ready1 and he answered1 ,ready6 ay1 and doubly ready2 otherwise1' added the ,duc1 ',i should have taken care not to have counselled a war which there were twenty modes of averting4'--,times1 ,sept4 #a1 #ahgj4cde #cdd ,compare infra1 p4 #dab4 #cde ,compare with the following account of the declaration of war by ,m4 ,f4 de ,champagny1 de ,l',acad4 ,fr41 in the ,correspondant1 #be ,juin #ahga3--;,a government wrongly inspired proposed to us a war4 ,without asking it why it wished to make it1 without asking if it could make it1 without reflection1 without discussion1 without listening to the men of name and experience1 who implored of us at least twenty-four hours for reflection1 we accepted this war1 ,i do not say with enthusiasm1 but with frivolous levity1 not as crusaders1 but as children4 ,it seemed to us sufficient to tipple in the 'cafs1' singing the ',marseillaise1' to intoxicate the soldiers1 to throw squibs into what were then called sensational journals1 to cry ' ,berlin6' in order to go right off to ,berlin4 ,and when it was discovered that we were not going on at all to ,berlin1 but that ,berlin was coming to ,paris1 that this enthusiasm of the 'caf' did not cause armies to spring into life1 what was our resource8 ,always the same3 to overthrow a government6 ,the extent of the disorganisation and the laxity into which we have fallen1 appears perhaps as strikingly as in any anything else in the frequency of the complaints of the little regard paid to parlmentaires and officers bearing flags of truce4 ,but what startles us more than all is the light manner in which this transgression of the law of nations is referred to even by the parties aggrieved4 ,i will here place two extracts which ,i have made in juxtaposition3-- ,carver 7,travels in ,north ,america1 p4 #ceh7 says1 that when a deputation sets out together for their enemy's country with propositions of peace1 ,they bear before them the pipe of peace1 which1 ,i need not inform my readers1 is of the same nature as a flag of truce among the ,europeans1 and is treated with the greatest respect and veneration even by the most barbarous nations4 ,i never heard of an instance wherein the bearers of this sacred badge of friendship were ever treated disrespectfully1 or its rights violated4 ,the ,indians believe that the ,great ,spirit never suffers an infraction of this kind to go unpunished4 ,count ,chandordy1 in his reply to ,count ,bismarck1 dated ,bordeaux1 ,jan4 #be1 #ahga1 says3--,count ,bismarck reproaches the ,french armies with having fired on parlmentaires4 ,an accusation of this nature had already been brought to the knowledge of the ,paris ,government1 and we may quote the following words of ,m4 ,jules ,favre in his circular of #abth ,january--,i have the satisfaction to acquaint your excellency that the ,governor of ,paris has hastened to order an inquiry into the facts alleged by ,count ,bismarck1 and in announcing this to him he has brought much more numerous facts of the same nature to his own cognizance which are imputed to ,prussian sentinels1 but which he never would have allowed to interrupt ordinary relations4 ,i do not know whether this contrast between barbarism1 such as it existed in the last century1 and modern civilisation1 will astonish those partisans of success whom in truth nothing in all the multiform atrocities of this dreadful war seems to have astonished or shocked1 so that it was at times almost ludicrous to hear these introuvables declare such things as the bombardment of hospitals and churches1 as at ,strasburg and ,paris1 quite right1 which even the ,german commanders1 when the matter was brought to their attention1 admitted to be wrong4 ,this perhaps is the worst symptom of corruption we have yet seen1 and yet there was a time1 and that quite recent1 when a different sentiment prevailed4 ,i have just referred#cdf to the declaration in the ,treaty of ,paris1 which thought to inaugurate a new era by bringing all causes of conflict in ,europe to a settlement of arbitration4 ,but let no one be discouraged or cease to believe in the possibility of such a consummation because of the result4 ,there never was a stronger instance of the intellect of the world vainly striving to create an international code and system for itself which was to be distinct from the law of nations2 for at the same moment that the diplomatists who were collected in ,paris set to work upon their tower1 which was to erect itself above the waters of any future inundation1 they one and all agreed to demolish1 and as a first step to pull down1 the cornerstone from the temple of the past4 ,how this was brought about will best be told in an extract from the ,count de ,montalembert's ,pie ,,ix4 et la ,france en #ahdi et #ahei1 p4 #aj3-- ,let us go back to the origin of the evil1 444 it dates back more especially from the ,congress of ,paris in #ahef1 from that diplomatic reunion which1 after having solemnly declared that none of the contracting powers had the right to interfere either collectively or individually in the relations of a sovereign with his subjects 7,protocol of #ahth ,march71 after having proclaimed the principle of the absolute independence of the sovereigns1 for the benefit of the ,turkish ,sultan against his ,christian subjects1 thought it within its competency1 in its protocol of the #hth of ,april1 and in the absence of any representative of the august accused1 to proclaim that the situation of the ,pontifical ,states was 'abnormal' and 'irregular4' ,this accusation developed and exaggerated at the ,tribune1 and elsewhere by ,lord ,palmerston and ,count ,cavour1 was equally formulated under the ,presidency and upon the initiative of the ,minister of ,foreign ,affairs in ,france1 and it is consequently ,france which must bear the principal responsibility before the ,church and ,europe4 ,we can recall the grief and surprise which this strange proceeding created in the ,catholic world4 #cdf ,vide note #ai1 p4 #djc4 ,thus was the game set rolling2 and the policy thus indicated was pursued with the eager and unrelenting pertinacity of some1 and with the tacit approval of the rest of the co-signatories4 ,the war declared by ,france against ,austria1 which was the precipitating cause of the storm which broke upon the ,papal ,states1 can1 it is true1 only be regarded as evidence of the conspiracy--inasmuch as it was declared by one of the conspirators at the instigation of another1 whose ultimate aim was the seizure of the ,states of the ,church and of the other independent ,italian sovereignties to the profit of ,piedmont4 ,so soon as the victory of the ,french arms was decided1 the ,emperor's proclamation from ,milan appeared1 inciting the populations to insurrection4 ,all then followed in sequence--the revolt of the ,romagnas four days after the ,milan manifesto1 their annexation along with the other independent states of ,central ,italy by ,piedmont1 this annexation being effected with the connivance1 if not the consent1 of ,france1 and for which payment was eventually made in the cession of ,nice and ,savoy 7all this being in contravention of the treaties of ,villafranca and ,zurich74 ,but what mattered the contravention of treaties in comparison with the scenes which followed8 ,the programme of the congress1 or1 if that is denied1 the programme of two 7if not three1 for it is difficult to acquit ,lord ,palmerston and ,lord ,john ,russell of participation by consent7 of the powers who had entered into the conspiracy against ,european order1 and these1 at that time1 the powers in the highest state of military efficiency1 was to be carried out per fas et nefas4 ,naples and the patrimony of ,st ,peter had to be secured1 and as they morally presented no vulnerable side1 they were seized by the hand of the marauder in defiance of all law1 human and divine4#cdg ,garibaldi's descent on ,sicily1 effected under the cover of the ,english navy1 was simply a brusque and flagrant act of piracy1 for which no plea of justification has ever been set up4 ,the usurpation of the ,papal ,states1 though not less ruthlessly accomplished in the end1 was carried through with more regard to form in its preliminary stages2 yet at the last the diplomatic mask was torn off1 and the invasion was made without any pretext or justification known to the law of nations1 and without even a declaration of war4 #cdg ,these were the words which the ,marquis of ,bath had the courage to use in the ,house of ,lords when everybody else was joining in a ludicrous dirge of homage to ,cavour4 ,i wish to put this protest1 as well as the similar protests of the ,marquis of ,normanby and the ,earl of ,donoughmore on record1 as there may come a time when ,england will be glad to recur to them4 ,here1 again1 the ,imperial diplomacy and ,italian intrigue went hand in hand4 ,lamoriciere1 in reliance upon the honour of ,france1 had made all his dispositions against ,garibaldi1 and had received a letter from the ,french ambassador as late as the #gth ,september 7bearing the same date as the so-called ultimatum of ,cavour1 although the ,piedmontese troops had crossed the frontier before it was delivered71 which ,i shall here reproduce1 seeing that it is not on record in the ,annuaire des ,deux ,mondes 7#ahfj7--;,i inform you by the ,emperor's orders that the ,piedmontese will not enter the ,roman ,states1 and that #bj1jjj ,french are about to occupy the different places of those states4 ,make1 then1 all your dispositions against ,garibaldi4--,le ,duc de ,grammont4#cdh 7,this letter was dated ,september #g1 #ahfj1 the battle of ,castelgidardo was fought on the #ahth ,september #ahfj47 ,it is needless to add that no reinforcements from ,france appeared1 and that the assurance served no other purpose than to mislead1 and to throw ,lamoriciere off his guard4 ,indeed1 in spite of various protestations and the subsequent withdrawal of the ,french ambassador from ,turin1 the ,catholic world settled down into the belief1 not only that the ,emperor of the ,french had never had the intention of sending troops to the rescue1 but that the whole scheme of the invasion had been deliberately devised at the ominous interview which took place on the #bhth of ,august previous1 between the ,emperor1 ,farini1 and ,general ,cialdini4 ,it was even said that the words used by the ,emperor on the occasion transpired1 frappez fort et frappez vite1--a terse and striking phrase1 which will fitly perpetuate in the human memory the most flagrant violation of the law of nations which history affords4#cdi #cdh ,vide ,current ,events1 in ,rambler1 #ahfj4 #cdi ,does the faith of treaties1 the right of treaties1 still exist8 ,look at what has happened in ,europe during the last twenty years4 ,the treaties made with the ,church were the first violated2 they have declared that a 'concordat' is nothing more than a law of the ,state1 which the ,state can alter at will--in other words1 that1 unlike all other contracts1 conventions of this nature1 inviolable for one of the parties1 can be broken by the other at its pleasure2 kings have thus put the ,church outside the law of nations4 ,but1 in consequence1 they have excluded themselves4 ,when the most sacred of all treaties were thus trampled upon1 how would they have the others respected8 ,they have even written1 or caused to be written1 on a solemn occasion 7',napoleon ,,iii4 et ,l',italie1 #ahei'7 that treaties no longer bind when the general sentiment declares against them2 in other terms1 when they displease us4 ,at this epoch1 in #ahei1 we were disputing with ,austria a possession which all treaties had guaranteed to her1 and the neutral signatories of these treaties did not protest4 ,victorious over ,austria1 we have in our turn made a treaty with her2 and this treaty was violated when scarcely signed2 and neither we nor the rest of ,europe protested4 ,later on1 the dissensions between ,germany and ,denmark ended in a treaty1 which the rest of ,europe guaranteed2 but soon ,germany broke this treaty by force of arms1 and ,europe did not say a word4 ,i omit here the convention of ,september1 444 the treaty of #ahef4 ,on all these occasions the indifference of third parties has come to the aid of the cupidity of the aggressors2 and the moral sense has been so far wanting in the ,cabinets that they have assisted and applauded acts of brigandage for the love of the art1 and without even thinking that the brigand1 when he grew strong1 would fall on the morrow on themselves4 ,will you find in ,european history twelve years so fruitful in pledges and perjuries8 ,all this was done with the undisguised satisfaction of several veteran ,english statesmen1 who were1 moreover1 directly or indirectly represented at the same congress which sought to bind the ,european powers to call in the arbitration of a friendly power1 in case of disagreement1 before making an appeal to arms4 ,now there is no reason why this rule1 good in itself1 and congruous to the spirit and maxims of the law of nations1 should not have been embodied as a fundamental article in the code2 for the law of nations is not a dead-letter1 but1 like everything that is of tradition1 easily lending itself to adaptation and development according to the changing circumstances of the world4 ,can we be surprised that this principle1 good and according to reason1 but which nevertheless presupposes certain sentiments in the world in correspondence with it1 should in the actual circumstances have been barren of results8 ,is it wonderful that it should have miscarried in the hands of men who were parties to the invasion1 without even the form of a declaration of war1 of the ,state predestined by divine ,providence to be the cornerstone of ,christendom8 ,would it have been befitting that this beneficent arrangement should have been destined to be the work of men who1 either by participation or as accessories after the fact1 had set their hands to a deed which shocked every principle of morality1 and made the very notion of public law in ,europe ridiculous8 ,the early commencements of this policy cannot be studied at a more appropriate moment than now1 when we are witnessing its denouement4 ,what has been the result to ,france of its ,italian policy8 ,to ,austria8 ,to ,england8 ,to ,europe8 ,has any power prospered that had a hand in setting the ball rolling1 or1 for that matter1 any power that had the responsibility of staying the parricidal hand1 and held back8 ,if ,austria1 the first victim1 had firmly and strenuously resisted the early instigations of evil1 would she ever1 according to human calculations1 have had to fight at ,magenta and ,solferino8 and1 in another way1 was there not something dramatic in the sudden reverse and displacement of ,count ,buol1 who had been the ,austrian representative at the ,congress1 immediately after he had hurled the fatal ultimatum8 ,the retort will be triumphant4 ,did not ,france1 the great culprit of all1 who both cast its own responsibility to the winds and sowed the hurricane1 conquer at ,solferino8 ,truly she did2 but respice finem1 or rather1 we may say1 we have lived to see the end4 ,did not ,solferino1 after some ten years of delusive prosperity1 lead up to ,sedan8 ,of ,england ,i do not wish to say more than that since that date she has unaccountably fallen in the esteem of men2 has1 in her turn1 met with injustice1 and no longer maintains the same relative position which she held during the fifty years preceding the ,congress4 ,everything1 in fine1 since that date1 seems to have gone in favour of that ,european power which remained in the background1 and which1 if it did no good act at the ,congress1 at least had the worldly wisdom to fold its arms and refrain from sacrilege4 ,yes1 ,prussia has had her victory2 but by all accounts there never was a victory which has made a nation so sad and mournful1 and which was greeted with fewer manifestations of joy4 ,it was peace rather than victory which was welcomed home4 ,here1 too1 we seem to see the subtle and nicely-measured retaliation4 ,again1 was there no significance in the unlooked-for disasters at ,forbach and ,woerth1 occurring coincidently with the final abandonment of ,rome by ,france8 ,these are things which strike the eye1 but which are difficult of demonstration1 and it would appear a hopeless errand to convince a generation which has witnessed the burning of ,paris1 if not without emotion1 at any rate without serious reflection1 and1 in spite of manifest prediction1 has refused to see in it the finger of retribution and the hand of ,god4 ,and yet belief in this retribution of heaven is at the foundation of the law of nations4 ,previously to the astounding experiences of the recent war1 during those years so fruitful in pledges and perjuries1 it was a common phrase1 and most frequently used with reference to ,france1 that war was no longer an affair of divine ,providence1 but that ,providence was always on the side of the big battalions4 ,with one word as to the significance of this phrase1 which is tantamount to a negation of the law of nations1 ,i shall conclude4 ,it may certainly happen1 that in a contest one party may be consciously hypocrite1 whilst the other is conscious of its rectitude2 but presumedly1 and until the contrary is manifested1 both parties must be supposed to believe themselves in the right1 and to run the tilt like knights in the medival tournament4 ,nevertheless1 as ,dr ,johnson said1 there are arguments for a plenum and for a vacuum1 but one conclusion only can be true2 and in some way in every conflict1 which is true and which is just is known only to the inscrutable judgment of the ,most ,high4 ,we do not know all the secrets of courts1 neither could we exactly determine the point if we had before us all the deliberations of councils1 it is sufficient for us to know that victory is not always on the side of the big battalions1 as witness1 inter alia1 ,marathon1 ,morgarten1 ,bannockburn1 ,lepanto1 ,mentana4 ,will any ,englishman maintain the proposition that victory is always on the side of the big battalions8 ,then1 beginning with ,cressy and ,poictiers1 and following ,marlborough through the fields of ,blenheim1 ,ramilies1 and ,malplaquet1 and the ,duke of ,wellington through the ,peninsular ,war1 we must renounce that which gives the clat to all our victories4 ,doubtless1 then1 the quality of troops will in some instances weigh far more than numbers4 ,you allow it8 ,we now introduce an element of great uncertainty1 and about which there will always be much dispute1 and moreover it will always be a matter concerning which religion and morality will have much to say4 ,it is no longer an affair of big battalions1 it is no longer reduced to a matter of calculation1 on which side the victory is to be4 ,let me further remark1 that whilst there is one set of writers who will be ready to say that ,providence is on the side of the big battalions1 there is another set of writers1 and these the men who are more conversant with the details1 who will with great acuteness undertake to prove to you that it is so much an affair of ,providence that in each case the victory was scarcely a victory1 and only such because some casualty on the other side intervened to convert what would otherwise have been a victory into a defeat4 ,it is unfortunately true that this latter class of historians and strategists do not1 as a rule1 trace in the turn of events the retribution of ,providence4 ,still1 the presumption will always be that victory favours the righteous cause1 although it may be only pro hac vice1 and ultimate success may not crown the career of the victorious nation1 because its virtues may not have merited more than a signal and single success2--or it may even be that its merits may be of a kind such as to gain it a reward which transcends the rewards of earthly victory2 or1 again1 the career of victory must be explained and measured by the depths of the final catastrophe and discomfiture4 ,in any case1 it is a great thing for a nation to have won a victory in a rightful cause4 ,the reward of virtue remains and gladdens the heart in the day of disaster and distress4 ,whatever may chance to us1 there will always lie in store for us the consolation of reading the history of the battle of ,waterloo2 not1 let us say1 as the victory of one nation over another nation1 but as the great and final triumph of a righteous over an unrighteous cause1 gained by ,england4 ,it is1 thank ,god6 impossible alike for the conqueror and the revolutionary multitude to destroy the ,past4 ,,index4 ,aboriginal races1 their mysterious origin1 #ce4 ,acton1 ,lord1 #bea4 ,adam1 supposed identity with ,prometheus and ,hercules1 #db1 #ahj2 with ,fohi1 #fd1 #bcb2 meaning of the word1 #acd2 correspondence of1 with ,chaldan god1 ,ana1 #ahi4 ,adams1 ,mr ,arthur1 #cdh4 ,adaptability of law of nations1 #daj4 ,adonis and ,venus1 myths of1 #cif1 #cig4 ,adrastus1 the legend of1 #agi4 neid1 the1 of ,virgil quoted1 #bab4 schylus1 the ,supplicants of1 quoted1 #aca4 ,africa1 commemorative ceremonies of ,deluge1 #bdh1 #bej2 ,captain ,burton's account of1 #bea2 compared with ,catlin's narrative1 #bed-bfj4 ,see also ,deluge1 ,commemorative ,festivals4 ,africanus1 #ie4 ,age of ,bronze1 the1 #ccd1 #cce2 commencement of1 #ccf4 ,age1 the ,golden1 #cbc2 theory of and commencement1 #cbc2 tradition of1 #cbh4 ,age1 the ,iron1 #abi4 ,agnatic relationship1 #ceg1 #ceh1 #cfj4 ,algonquins1 the1 #aeb4 ,allies1 ,mr1 on divergence between religion and philosophy1 #ajh4 ,america1 the ,mozca ,indians of1 #gj2 diluvian traditions in1 #bdb2 the ,o-kee-pa of the ,mandans1 #bde1 #bdf2 ,catlin's account of ceremonies1 #bed-bfb2 the ,peruvian deity1 #ahf2 ,peruvian worship1 #cjd4 ,see also ,deluge1 ,commemorative ,festivals4 ,america1 the discovery of1 a proof of tradition1 #cbd4 ,american continent1 source of peoples of1 #bfc-bff4 ,american ,indians1 the legend of ,michabo among the1 #aeb1 #aec2 tradition of fire among1 #cbj4 ,amida or ,adima1 the ,japanese god1 #fe4 ,amphictyonic ,council and ,league1 #cfa-cfe4 ,ana1 a ,chaldan god1 #ahg2 traditional identity of with ,adam1 #ahi2 a reduplication of ,enu or ,enoch1 #aib4 ,ancestors1 worship of1 #afa1 #bje4 ,ancient society1 the unit of1 #cci4 ,andamans1 the1 #cjh1 #cac4 ,andriossy's hypothesis regarding overflow of the ,nile1 #fh4 ,anthisteries1 the1 #bbf4 ,antiquity of man1 #ia4 ,apollo1 #bda4 ,apotheosis of ,nimrod1 #afj4 ,arab and ,iroquois1 exceptional instances of human progress1 #cc4 ,arba-,lisun1 the1 or ,four ,tongues1 #ahd4 ,arbitration instead of war1 #chj4 ,areopagus1 a cosmopolitic1 #chc4 ,argos1 feast of the deluge at1 #bdc4 ,argyll1 ,duke of1 on tradition1 #abj1 #abc2 on capability of savage races1 #cad4 ,arrival and conflict of different races in ,india1 #ce-ch4 ,aryan nations in ,india1 their struggle with the ,santals1 #cf2 their dialect1 #cf2 ,mr ,tylor on1 #da2 one of the primitive races1 #dc2 probable identity with ,japhetic race1 #dc2 their colour1 #hd2 their mythology1 #afh4 ,ash1 the1 tradition regarding1 #age1 #agf4 ,assemblies of ,greece1 the1 #cfi4 ,assyrian history1 corroboration of1 #bhi4 ,assyrian mythology1 #ahb2 deities of1 #ahc2 ,il or ,ra1 #ahe2 ,l',abbe ,gainet on1 #ahg2 ,ana1 #ahg2 ,bil or ,enu1 #aij2 ,hea or ,hoa1 #aid2 ,nebo1 #bjf4 ,asteropoeus1 #beb4 ,astral religion1 #afc4 ,astronomical cycle of ,china1 #fa4 ,athens1 the ,hydrophoria at1 #bdd4 ,atlantis1 the1 of ,plato an embodiment of tradition1 #cfg4 ,autochthones1 or earth-born1 #aca4 ,avocations of primitive life--hunter1 husbandman1 and shepherd1 #cc4 ,babylonian chronology1 #eg1 #eh2 ,hales on1 #eg4 ,bacchus1 connection of1 with ,saturnalia1 #bad2 reduplications of1 #bae1 #baf4 ,baldr1 the legend of1 localised and individualised1 #aga2 in the ,scandinavian ,edda1 #agb2 paralleled with an account of the ,fall1 #agb4 ,ballad1 ,welsh1 quoted1 #bec4 ,basis of international law1 #aa4 ,basis of theory of ,golden ,age1 #cbc4 ,baskets of water1 the1 parallel accounts of by ,burton and ,catlin1 #bef4 ,bastian1 ,m4,a41 on human progress1 #ge4 ,bath1 the ,marquis of1 #djh4 ,bel ,nipru or ,nimrod1 #aia4 ,belligerent ,rights1 #cgf1 #cgg4 ,belus1 the god1 #acc2 identity of with ,nimrod1 #aei4 ,bentham1 on ,international ,law1 #c1 #e2 his peculiar crotchet1 utility1 #f2 on public opinion1 #g2 the greatest happiness principle1 #ac2 criticism on ,blackstone's views of primitive life1 #ed4 ,benthamism tested by ,darwinism1 #ag4 ,berosus' account of ,hoa1 #cbg4 ,bertrand1 ,m41 legend concerning the man-bull1 #bjc4 ,bhilsa ,tope1 the1 #beb4 ,bifrons1 a name applied to several gods1 #bbj4 ,big battalions1 #dab1 #dac4 ,big canoe1 the1 parallel accounts of1 by ,burton and ,catlin1 #bee2 correspondence of to the canopied boat of ,egyptians1 #bgc4 ,bil or ,enu1 a ,chaldan deity1 #aij4 ,blackness of complexion1 the result of the curse of ,canaan1 #gi2 associated with evil1 #gi2 traditions regarding1 #ha1 #hb2 a mark of inferiority1 #hd2 how used by satirists1 #he2 operation as a curse1 #hi1 #ij4 ,blackstone on primitive life and a state of nature1 #ed4 ,boat1 philology of the word1 #aif4 ,bochica1 #cbe4 ,bolabola1 declaration of war at1 #chh1 #chi4 ,bonzies1 the1 #bgj4 ,book of ,genesis1 the1 #abj4 ,book of ,sothis1 #ie4 ,bougainville on divinities of the ,tahitians1 #cae4 ,boulanger1 ,m41 quoted1 #aah2 on diluvian tradition1 #bdb1 #bdc1 #bdg1 #bfb2 on the ,golden ,age1 #cbh1 #cbi4 ,brace1 ,mr1 his ,ethnology1 quoted1 #bg1 #cg1 #bfg4 ,breach of etiquette1 a1 consequences of1 #djc2 the ostensible pretext of ,franco-,german war1 #djd4 ,brigham ,young and the ,mormons1 #ah4 ,british ,medical ,journal on explosive bullets1 #djj4 ,bronze ,age1 the1 #bic1 #ccd1 #cce2 its commencement1 #ccf4 ,bryant1 ,mr ,j41 xi42 on creation of man1 #acc1 #acf2 on the symbol of the bull1 #bjc2 on ,dionusus1 #bae2 on ,noah and ,janus1 #bai2 his derivation of ,juno and ,venus1 #cib2 on the dove1 #cie4 ,buddhist legend1 #acf4 ,buffaloes1 ,feast of the1 #bfj4 ,bull-dance1 the1 #bed2 parallel accounts of1 by ,burton and ,catlin1 #bed4 ,bunsen1 ,baron1 #cg2 on ,chinese and ,egyptian chronology1 #eh-fb1 #gc2 on ,egyptian chronicles1 #id-if2 on tradition of creation1 #acb2 on the ,kabiri1 #aih2 on ,arya1 #cce4 ,burial customs among ,mandans and ,formosans1 #bfh4 ,burial1 mode of1 common to several savage nations1 #cjh4 ,burton1 ,capt4 ,richard1 on ,fetish1 #hj2 on ,dahome customs1 #bej2 the bull-dance1 #bed2 the big canoe1 #bee2 the baskets of water1 #bef2 the gourds or calabashes1 #beg2 the aged white man1 #beh1 #bei2 customs at ,whydat1 #bfb4 ,burton1 ,j4 ,hill1 #c4 ,cadmus and alphabetic writing1 #bba4 ,caduceatores1 the1 #cij4 ,cain1 tradition in ,tonga connected with1 #hb4 ,calmet on ,sem1 or ,shem1 #bjg2 on ,saturn1 #baj4 ,canaan4 ,see ,chanaan4 ,canada1 ,col4 ,macdonell's service in1 xxiii41 xxiv4 ,canaanite race1 the correspondence between and aboriginal tribes in ,india1 #ci1 #dh2 literal fulfilment of prophecy regarding1 #dj1 #da1 #hc1 #he4 ,canopied boat1 the1 of the ,egyptians1 #bgc4 ,carver1 ,mr1 on ,indian wars1 #bh2 the ,indian mode of declaration of war1 #cii1 #dja2 ,indian flags of truce1 #dje4 ,cashmir1 tradition of ,deluge in1 #fh2 commemorative festival in1 #fi4 ,catholicism and ,christianity1 identity of1 #aac4 ,catlin1 ,mr ,g41 on traditions of ,creation among the ,indians1 #acd1 #ach2 of ,deluge1 #bbc2 the ,o-kee-pa1 #bde2 the big canoe1 #bee2 the baskets of water1 #bef2 the gourds or calabashes used by the ,indians1 #beg2 the first man1 #beh1 #bei2 the evil spirit1 #bfj2 water ceremonies1 #bfb2 on the pheasant1 #bff2 description of a whale ashore at ,vancouver's ,island1 #cag2 on the cranial development of the ,flathead and ,crow ,indians1 #cah4 ,caverley's ,theocritus quoted1 #bag4 ,centre of tradition1 the1 #cci4 ,ceremony at ,gorbio1 #cjg4 ,chalda1 early inhabitants of1 #ahd4 ,chaldan ,pantheon1 deities of the1 #ahc4 ,chaldan system of chronology1 #eg2 religion1 #afc4 ,champagny1 ,m4 ,f4 de1 #djd1 #dji4 ,chanaan1 or ,canaan1 the curse of1 #gi2 tradition of this curse among the ,sioux ,indians1 #ha2 in ,tonga1 #hb4 ,chandordy1 ,count1 #dje4 ,chaos in the ,phoenician cosmogony1 #agd2 the commencement of all things1 #agd-agg4 ,chateaugay1 xxviii4 ,china1 certain and uncertain history of1 #eh1 #ei2 astronomical cycle of1 #fa2 aboriginal tribes1 #acc2 belief in1 as to creation of man1 #acd4 ,chinese chronology1 #eh-fe2 confusion in1 #fe4 ,chinese tradition of first and second heaven1 #cbh4 ,chin-nong1 #bdj4 ,chippeways and ,natchez tribes1 institution of perpetual fire among1 #cbj4 ,choctaw ,indians1 tradition regarding creation of man1 #acd4 ,christian doctrine1 the foundation of1 #adb4 ,chronicles of ,egypt1 #ic4 ,chronology1 ,egyptian1 ,palmer on1 #ib-ajd2 the ,sothic cycle1 #if-ajj2 various systems of1 #aja4 ,chronology1 from the point of view of science1 #gb2 ,bunsen's views1 #gc2 ,lyell's1 #gc2 ,sir ,john ,lubbock's1 #gc-ge2 ,hales on1 #he4 ,chronology1 from the point of view of tradition1 #ee2 historical testimony and evidence in favour of ,scriptural1 #ee2 ,indian1 #ef2 ,babylonian1 #eg2 ,hales1 ,rev4 ,w41 on1 #eg2 ,chinese1 #eh-fe4 ,chronos1 ,saturn as1 #bah4 ,cicero1 on ,international ,law1 #aj2 ,de ,legibus quoted1 #cfh2 the ,offices1 #cge4 ,civilisation1 a state of1 the primitive condition of man1 #bhd4 ,civilisation1 principles and teaching of1 #cci4 ,civilisation1 progress of man to1 #cbi1 #cca4 ,cognation and agnation among the ,romans1 #ceg1 #ceh4 ,coincidences of the ,bible with ,sanchoniathon1 #acj4 ,coleridge1 ,h4 ,n41 on oral transmission of tradition1 #abb4 ,coleridge1 ,rev4 ,henry ,j41 #bbd2 on conflicting elements of heathenism1 #cdd4 ,college1 the ,fecial1 #cgc4 ,colour in man1 persistency of1 #gg4 ,coloured cloth and feathers1 emblematic of peace and war1 #chh-cib1 #cih4 ,commemorative ,festivals4 ,see ,festivals1 ,commemorative4 ,comity of nations1 restriction of the #cgi4 ,communal marriage1 #ea1 #eb4 ,commune1 the1 #aaj4 ,communistic schemes1 #aji4 ,comte and the ,comtists1 #aab4 ,conflicting elements of heathenism1 #cdd4 ,confusion of tongues1 ,hesiod on the1 #ccd4 ,confusion of tradition of ,enoch with ,xisuthrus and ,noah1 #cbf4 ,conscience1 ,mr ,darwin on1 #b1 #ab2 its subjective existence1 #ab2 outward expression1 #ac4 ,constituent ,assembly1 the1 of #aghi1 ,montalembert on1 #aac4 ,cook1 ,capt41 on customs at ,huaheine1 #bga1 #bgb2 quoted1 #bih2 on declaration of war at ,bolabola1 #chh1 #chi4 ,copan1 the peaceable people of1 #bi4 ,cosmogony1 ,roman ideas of the1 #bc4 ,cosmopolitic ,areopagus1 a1 #chc4 ,cox1 ,rev4 ,g4 ,w41 xiv42 on mythology1 #aeh1 #afe1 #afh2 on myths of ,venus and ,adonis1 #cif1 #cig4 ,cranial development of ,flathead and ,crow ,indians1 #cah4 ,creation of man1 tradition of among ,red ,indians1 #acc2 ,max ,mller on1 #acc4 ,creation1 the1 ,mexican tradition of1 #aeb1 #aec2 ,slavonian account of1 #aed4 ,creoles1 the persistency of colour in1 #gg4 ,cunningham1 ,major1 the ,bhilsa ,tope1 #beb4 ,curse of ,canaan1 the1 #gi2 traditions of1 #ha-he1 #bag4 ,customs of the ,samoides1 #bh2 at ,huaheine1 #bga4 ,cycle1 astronomical1 of ,china1 #fa2 the ,sothic1 #if1 #ih-ajj4 ,dagon1 the god of the ,philistines1 #bjj2 the ,fish-man1 #bai2 ,mr ,layard on1 #bch4 ,dahome1 the ,so-sin customs of1 #bej1 #bea1 #bed-bfb2 precedence of women in1 #bei4 ,dancing an ,indian ceremonial1 #cjb1 #cjc4 ,d',anselme1 ,vicomte1 on philology of ,noah and boat1 #aif4 ,darkness1 associated with the ,serpent1 #agc2 the parent of light1 #agd-agg4 ,darwinism1 ,benthamism tested by1 #ag4 ,darwin on ,conscience1 #b1 #ab2 and the utilitarians1 #ae-ag4 ,davies1 ,rev4 ,e41 xi41 #bec4 ,day and night1 used as symbols1 #hd4 ,declaration of war1 the1 #chf2 accompanied by religious formalities1 #chf1 #chg2 method of1 at ,bolabola1 #chh1 #chi2 at ,st ,julian1 #chi2 symbols used at1 #chi-cib2 ,plutarch on1 #cig2 traditionary modes of1 #cih-djj2 importance attached to forms of1 #djb2 consequences of the violation of forms of1 #djf-daa4 ,deities of the ,chaldan ,pantheon1 #ahc4 ,de ,legibus quoted1 #aj1 #acc4 ,de ,quincey1 quoted1 #chc4 ,deluge of ,deucalion1 the1 #bbd1 #bbe1 #bbi4 ,deluge of ,ogyges1 the1 #bbi2 anterior to that of ,deucalion1 #bcj2 its date1 #bca4 ,deluge1 the--traditions of1 localised in ,china1 #fe-fg2 commemorative monument of1 #fg2 traditions of1 in ,egypt1 #fg2 in ,cashmir1 #fh2 among ,sioux ,indians1 #ha2 among ,tartar tribes1 #ace2 ,l',abb ,gainet on1 #acg2 ,phrygian legend of1 #aic2 ,phoenician legend of1 localised1 #aih2 ,santal legend of1 #aii2 ,etruscan monument commemorative of1 #bjd2 connection of ,saturn with1 #baj-bab2 of ,ogyges and ,deucalion1 #bbb2 traditions of1 among ,indian tribes1 #bbc2 ,sanscrit story of1 #bbd2 its date1 #bca2 traditions of1 among ,greeks1 #bcj-bce2 ,frederick ,schlegel on1 #bcc1 #bcd2 traditions of1 in ,africa and ,america1 #bdb2 ,boulanger on1 #bdb1 #bdc2 commemorative festivals of1 #bdc-bdf1 #beb-bfb1 #bge-bhb2 the dove and rainbow of1 #cic1 #cif4 ,see also ,noah4 ,democracy in ,america1 ,tocqueville's1 #h4 ,demonolatry1 #adf4 ,de ,rerum ,natura quoted1 #ccd4 ,deucalion1 #bbb2 ,mr ,grote on traditions of1 #bbd1 #bbe2 ,max ,mller on legend of1 #bbf2 ,mr ,kenrick on1 #bcj-bcb1 #bda2 connected with ,hydrophoria at ,athens1 #bdd4 ,devil1 the1 belief in among savages #cjb4 ,devil-worship1 #ada4 ,diana1 the temple of1 #cfd4 ,diffusion of ,hamitic races1 #da4 ,dike and dikaspoloi1 #cdg4 ,diluvian tradition4 ,see ,noah1 ,deluge4 ,diluvian traditions in ,africa and ,america1 #bdb-bhb4 ,see ,deluge4 ,festivals 7commemorative74 ,diogenes ,laertius' scheme of chronology1 #aja4 ,dionusus1 identified with ,noah1 #bae2 the first king of ,india1 #bbj1 #bba4 ,dionysia1 #bdi4 ,discovery of ,america1 the1 a proof of tradition1 #cbd4 ,dispersion1 the1 #cbi1 #ccf2 rise of government under1 #cdb4 ,disraeli1 ,mr1 on sceptical effects of discoveries of science1 xvi41 xvii4 ,distribution of races1 #hi4 ,divergence between religion and philosophy1 #ajh4 ,divinities of the ,tahitians1 #cae4 ,divinity attaching to forms1 #djb1 #djc4 ,dixon1 ,hepworth1 his conversation with ,brigham ,young1 #ah2 his views of human progress1 #cb4 ,donoughmore1 ,earl of1 #djh4 ,dove1 the bird of ,venus1 #cib2 traditions of1 #cid-cif4 ,duc de ,grammont1 the1 #djd4 ,dyaks and ,javanese1 contrast in colour1 #ha4 ,dyans1 #agj4 ,dyer1 ,dr1 on the ,sabines1 #ceb2 the temple of ,diana1 #cfd4 ,dynasties of ,egypt1 #ig1 #ih1 #ajb1 #ajc4 ,dynasty of the ,popes1 #cha1 #chb4 ,eastern ,islanders1 tradition among the1 #bjj4 ,egg1 the mundane1 tradition of1 #cjf2 an emblem of the ,creation1 #cjg2 the ,mahabarata account of1 #cjh4 ,egypt1 chronology of1 #ib2 its ,chronicles1 #ic2 dynasties of1 #ig2 commemorative festival of the ,deluge in1 #bdi4 ,egyptian chronology1 ,palmer on1 #ib-ajd4 ,egyptians1 the1 canopied boat of1 #bgc2 ,jewish rites and ceremonies borrowed from1 #bgd4 ,ellis's ,polynesian ,researches quoted1 #bfe2 on ,tahitian relics1 #cab4 ,endogamy1 #de-dg1 #ej4 ,english socialists1 #aaj4 ,enoch1 result of his disappearance regarding ,nimrod1 #afj2 embodied traditionally in ,chaldan gods ,ana and ,enu1 #aib4 ,enu or ,bil1 a ,chaldan deity1 #aij2 a reduplication of ,enoch1 #aib4 ,epimetheus 7afterthought7 and ,prometheus 7forethought71 #ahj4 ,epochs of prehistoric archology1 #bhg1 #bhh4 ,equality of the sexes1 #aji4 ,eratosthenes1 #ie2 scheme of chronology of1 #ajc4 ,eros and ,iris1 #cid4 ,eschylus1 the ,supplicants quoted1 #cih4 ,esquimaux1 the1 #caa4 ,ethnological difficulties1 #hi-ia4 ,etruscan monument commemorative of the ,deluge1 #bjd4 ,etymologies--of man1 #acd1 #bbg1 #bbh2 ,noah1 #aif2 boat1 #aif2 river1 #bec2 horse1 #bec1 #bee2 plough1 #bee2 names of metals1 #bij2 fire1 #cba2 plough1 #cce4 ,euridike and ,orpheus1 #agc4 ,european league1 a general1 #cha1 #chb4 ,european radicalism1 #aaj4 ,eusebius' testimony to value of tradition1 #abj4 ,evil associated with blackness1 #gi4 ,evil ,spirit1 the1 in ,mandan ceremonies1 #bfj4 ,excursion1 the1 of ,wordsworth quoted1 #ade4 ,exogamy1 #de-dg4 ,falconer's ,palontological ,mem41 #aci4 ,fall1 the1 ,lenormant on1 #abh4 ,family1 the1 #bf2 tendency to dispersion of1 #bg2 gradual consolidation and expansion into tribes and then to states1 #cj1 #ca2 the unit of ancient society1 #cci4 ,family tradition1 confusion of1 #aaf4 ,fatimala1 the1 #dj4 ,feast of the ,buffaloes1 the1 #bfj4 ,feathers1 coloured1 emblematic of peace and war1 #chi-cib4 ,fecial ,college1 the1 #cgc2 correspondence of1 with ,herald's ,college1 #cgd4 ,federal union between ,romans and ,latins1 #cee4 ,feegees1 the1 religion among1 #cja2 their characteristics and civilisation1 #cac4 ,fergusson1 ,adam1 on the ,six ,nations1 #cfe4 ,festivals1 commemorative1 of the ,deluge1 #ff2 in ,cashmir1 #fi2 among various nations1 #bdc2 the ,hydrophoria at ,athens1 #bdd2 the ,o-kee-pa1 #bde2 the ,panathena1 #bdh2 the ,dionysia1 #bdi2 in ,egypt1 #bdi2 among the ,mandan ,indians1 #bej2 the ,so-sin customs of ,dahome1 #bej1 #bea2 at ,sanchi1 #beb2 the 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deity1 #aid2 the inventor of cuneiform writing1 #aie4 ,heathenism1 conflicting elements of1 #cdd4 ,heavens1 ,first and ,second1 ,chinese tradition of1 #cbh4 ,helps1 ,mr1 on worship of ,peruvians1 #cjd2 his traditions of ,peru compared with classical and oriental traditions1 #cbe-cbg4 ,hercules or ,herakles1 supposed identity with ,adam1 #db2 confusion of traditions regarding1 #aeh1 #ahj4 ,herodotus quoted1 #cc1 #fh4 ,hero-worship an early form of idolatry1 #afj1 #afa2 among the ,chaldans a source of deification1 #ahh1 #aij1 #aia4 ,hesiod and the ,iron ,age1 #abi2 on the confusion of tongues1 #ccd4 ,hetairism1 #ec4 ,heterogeneity1 #df4 ,hieroglyphic of the ,dove1 #cie4 ,hindoo laws of war1 #djj4 ,hindoos1 curious belief as to the world's support1 #ach4 ,historicus 7in ,times7 on ,international law1 #chd4 ,history of the ,fish1 #aig4 ,history of ,western civilisation1 ,dr ,newman on1 #cch-cdj4 ,hoa or ,hea1 #aid4 ,hoa1 account of1 by ,berosus1 #cbg4 ,hoang-ti1 #fj1 #fc2 identified with 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#ahe4 ,iliad1 the1 quoted1 #cdg4 ,illustrated ,london ,news on ,japanese religious festivals1 #bfh2 on ceremony at ,gorbio1 #cjg4 ,impersonation of good and evil1 ,mr ,gladstone on1 #caj4 ,indian ceremonials1 ,washington ,irving on1 #cjb4 ,indian chronology1 #ef4 ,indian mode of declaration of war1 #cii1 #dja4 ,indian tribes1 close resemblance of one to another1 #gg4 ,indian wars1 their causes1 #bh1 #bi4 ,indians1 ,red1 tradition regarding creation of man1 #acc2 of the earth1 by ,michabo1 #aeb1 #aec2 ordeals and tortures1 #bdg4 ,indians1 traditions among ,mozca1 #gj4 ,indo-,germanic races identified with descendants of ,japheth1 #db4 ,influence of ,stoics on ,roman law1 #cgb4 ,inheritance through females1 #eb4 ,interfusion of ancestral and solar worship1 #bje4 ,international ,law1 the ,tablet on1 #c2 ,bentham on1 #c1 #e1 #f2 its origin and growth1 #d2 an unwritten law1 #d2 ,de ,tocqueville on1 #h2 ,pall ,mall ,gazette on1 #i1 #aa2 ,cicero on1 #aj2 an organised constraint1 #aj2 analogy with law of honour1 #aa2 original idea at its basis1 #aa2 relation to utilitarianism1 #ad1 #ae2 the jus feciale1 #cgc2 ,historicus on1 #chd4 ,international ,society1 the1 #aaj4 ,invention of writing1 #abc4 ,inventiveness of savage races1 ,sir ,j4 ,lubbock on1 #caj4 ,ionian federation1 the1 #cfd4 ,iris and ,eros1 #cid4 ,iron ,age1 the1 #abi4 ,iroquois1 traditions regarding creation of man1 #ace4 ,irving1 ,washington1 on ,indian ceremonials1 #cjb4 ,jacob1 #aea4 ,james1 ,w41 xxiii4 ,janus1 #bag2 derivation of ,january1 #bah2 a double-headed god1 #bai1 #bbj2 identified with ,noah1 #cbf4 ,japan1 commemorative festival of the ,deluge in1 #bfh1 #bfi4 ,japanese legend of the bull and the egg1 #beg4 ,japetus1 identity of with ,japheth1 #dc4 ,japheth1 fulfilment of prophecy regarding the race of1 #da2 their prosperity1 #da2 identity with ,indo-,germanic races1 #db4 ,javan1 son of ,japheth1 identified with ,yavana1 #dc4 ,javanese and ,dyaks1 contrast in colour1 #ha4 ,jenkins1 ,captain1 xxvii4 ,jewish monotheism1 #adi4 ,jewish rites and ceremonies borrowed from ,egyptians1 #bgb-bgd4 ,juno and ,venus1 derivation of names of1 #cib4 ,jus ,feciale1 the1 #cgc4 ,jus ,gentium1 the1 #cea1 #cec1 #cgc4 ,kabiri1 the1 #aig2 ,bunsen on1 #aih4 ,kant's scheme of a universal society1 #chc4 ,kenrick1 ,mr1 on ,manu1 #bbh2 the tradition of ,deucalion1 #bcj-bcb4 ,khasias1 the1 superstitions of the1 #cjf4 ,king1 ,captain1 quoted1 #bfe2 on ,sandwich ,islanders1 #cae4 ,kinship through females1 #df1 #dg1 #ea2 ,goguet on1 #abi4 ,kiprat-,arbat1 the1 or ,four ,races1 #ahd4 ,klaproth1 on ,sanscrit history1 #fh2 on the curse of ,canaan1 #hc4 ,kronos1 or ,noah1 #acf4 ,lacordaire1 ,l',abb1 #d2 on tradition1 #aje-ajg4 ,laertius'1 ,diogenes1 scheme of chronology1 #aja4 ,lamech1 the story of1 embodied in various traditions1 #agh1 #agi4 ,lapland tradition1 a1 #bif4 ,last ,rambles1 the1 of ,catlin1 quoted1 #acd4 ,latin ,league1 the1 #cee4 ,law connected with religion1 #cfh4 ,law1 ,international4 ,see ,international ,law4 ,law of honour1 the1 #aa4 ,law of ,nations1 the1 an unwritten law1 #d2 ,sir ,henry ,maine on the1 #cch2 common to all nations1 #cde2 testimony to in the ,manx ,thing1 #cdg2 ancient codes of1 #cej2 the jus gentium1 #cea2 origin of the phrase1 #ceb1 #cec2 the ,amphictyonic ,council1 #cfa2 primary objects of1 #cfg2 common source1 #cga2 discussed on the basis of usage1 #cgh2 the lex legum of mankind1 #che2 a modern transgression of1 #dje2 the seizure of ,papal ,states a flagrant violation of1 #djg-dji2 adaptability of1 #daj2 foundation of1 #dab4 ,see ,international ,law4 ,law of ,nature1 the1 #bj2 question whether there is or is not a1 #bj2 different solutions of this question1 #bj2 ,sir ,g4 ,c4 ,lewis on1 #bb2 ,sir ,h4 ,maine on1 #bb1 #be2 what the ,roman meant by it1 #bc2 among the ancients1 #bc2 a social compact1 #bc1 #bd2 tradition of1 #cej2 origin of the phrase1 #ceb1 #cec4 ,law1 unwritten1 #cfi2 ,ozanam on1 #cgj1 #cga4 ,laws1 the first1 of all nations1 #aba4 ,layard1 ,mr1 on the man-fish1 #bch4 ,league of the ,ten ,kings1 #cfg4 ,legend of the tortoise1 #ach1 #aci2 of ,michabo1 #aeb1 #aec2 of the bull and the egg1 #beg4 ,legends of ,o,edipus and ,perseus1 #agh4 ,legists of different nationalities1 their agreement accounted for1 #che4 ,lenormant1 on ,noe1 #hh2 on the ,fall1 #abh4 ,lepchas1 the1 curious legend of1 #bbd2 religion among the1 #cje1 #cjg4 ,letters1 the use of1 a distinction between a civilised and savage people1 #abj4 ,levitical worship1 the ceremonial borrowed from ,egypt1 #bgb1 #bgc4 ,lewis1 ,sir ,g4 ,c1 on ,law of ,nature1 #bb1 #bd1 #chj4 ,light and darkness1 as symbols1 #hd4 ,limitations to horrors of war1 #djj4 ,local tradition1 persistency of1 #aag4 ,lower ,egypt1 dynasties of1 #ajc4 ,lowest races of savages1 the1 #cac4 ,lubbock1 ,sir ,john1 on primitive marriage1 #ea2 on the antiquity of man1 #ia2 on water-worship1 #beb2 on tradition1 #bhc2 his theory opposed to that of ,de ,maistre1 #bhg2 division of pre-historic archology1 #bhg1bhh2 untrustworthiness of tradition for evidence of history1 #bid2 on religion among savage races1 #bii1 #cjj1 #cjh2 his suppositions regarding inventiveness of savage races1 #caj-cad2 views supported by ,duke of ,argyll1 #cad2 description of a whale ashore in ,australia1 #caf2 on the knowledge of fire1 #cah-cba4 ,lucas1 ,mr ,edward1 xv4 ,lucretius' ,de ,rerum ,natura quoted1 #ccd4 ,lyell1 ,sir ,c41 xiii42 on human progress1 #gc1 #abc4 ,macaulay1 ,lord1 on ,benthamism1 #ac1 #ae2 the dynasty of the ,popes1 #cha1 #chb4 ,macdonell1 ,col4 ,george1 xii42 memoir of1 xix42 parentage1 xx42 an admirer of the ,stuarts1 xxi42 results of a letter to the ,war ,secretary1 xxii42 raises a regiment of ,macdonells1 xxiii42 service in ,canada1 xxiv42 the taking of ,ogdensburg1 xxv4-xxix4 ,m',lennan1 ,mr1 on primitive marriage1 #dd2 on marriage customs1 #dg1 #abe4 ,macrobius1 on ,janus ,bifrons1 #bah4 ,maine1 ,sir ,henry1 xv42 on the law of nature1 #bb1 #be2 on the law of nations1 #cch2 the unit of ancient society1 #cda2 notions of primitive antiquity1 #cdc2 on ancient codes1 #cej2 the jus gentium1 #cea2 origin of name of law of nations1 of nature1 c41 #ceb1 #cec2 the foundation of ,roman law1 #ceg1 #ceh2 his distinction between jus gentium and jus feciale1 #cgc4 ,maistre1 ,count ,joseph de1 his theory regarding the early races of man1 #gh2 his view of tradition1 #bhc-bhf2 on the pontifical power1 #cha4 ,malays1 traditions among the1 #acf4 ,malthus1 ,mr1 theories regarding over-population1 #ag4 ,man1 ,max ,mller on derivation of the word1 #acd2 its etymology1 #bbg1 #bbh4 ,man and the monkey1 traditions connecting the1 #acf4 ,man-bull1 the1 traditions of1 #bjc4 ,manco-,capac1 #bdj2 the lawgiver of ,peru1 #cbe2 identity of with ,quetzalcohuatl1 #cbf4 ,mandan ,indians1 traditions among the1 #acd1 #ach2 tradition of the ,deluge1 #aia2 commemorative festivals among1 #bej1 #bed-bfb2 the ,evil ,spirit of1 #bjj2 source and origin of1 #bfc-bff2 mode of burial of1 #bfh2 art of fortifying their towns1 #cad4 ,manetho1 #id2 system of chronology of1 #ie1 #if4 ,man-fish1 ,mr ,layard on the1 #bch4 ,manning1 ,dr4 ,see ,westminster4 ,manning1 ,w4 ,oke1 #ad1 #chd4 ,man's progress1 from a savage to a civilised state1 #cb2 exceptional cases of the ,arab and ,iroquois1 #cc2 ,lyell's views of1 #gc2 ,lubbock's views1 #gc1 #ge2 ,bastian's views1 #ge4 ,manx ,thing1 the1 #cdg4 ,maritime ,alps1 local ceremony in the1 #cjg4 ,marriage1 primitive1 #dd1 #abe2 customs1 #dg2 communal1 #ea1 #eb4 ,maupertuis'1 ,m41 account of a ,lapland tradition1 #bif4 ,meaco1 ceremony in the temple of1 at ,japan1 #bfi4 ,meaning of the word ,adam1 #acd4 ,melia1 ,very ,rev4 ,dr ,p41 xv4 ,memoir of ,colonel ,macdonell1 xix-xxix4 ,memphis1 #fg4 ,menes1 the first king of ,egypt1 #fg2 early legend regarding1 #aib2 the first who put laws in writing1 #bie4 ,menu1 ,ordinances of1 #dj1 #di4 ,metallic weapons of ancient races1 #bij1 #bic4 ,metallurgy of the ancients1 ,mr ,vaux on the1 #bib4 ,mexico1 the 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mythology1 #afe1 #afg-agj2 on legend of ,deucalion1 #bbf2 ,comparative ,philology quoted1 #cic4 ,mundane egg1 the1 #cjf1 #cjg4 ,myrmidon1 #bdj4 ,mysterious origin of aboriginal races1 #ce4 ,mythological tradition among the ,eastern ,islanders1 #bjj4 ,mythology1 #aeg2 source and origin of1 #aei-afd2 solar1 #aff2 ,rev4 ,g4 ,w4 ,cox on1 #afh2 ,max ,mller on1 #afg-agj2 complications and confusion in1 #aga-aha2 ,assyrian1 see ,assyrian mythology4 ,myths connecting man with the monkey1 #acf4 ,myths1 their importance1 #aag4 ,natchez tribes1 institution of perpetual fire among1 #cbj4 ,nations1 law of4 ,see ,international ,law1 ,law of ,nations4 ,natural right1 #e4 ,nature1 law of4 ,see ,law of ,nature4 ,nature-worship1 #adc1 #afc1 #agc4 ,nazarians1 the1 a curious ,gnostic sect1 #aed4 ,nebo1 a ,chaldan deity1 #bjf2 resemblance of1 to ,shem1 #bjg4 ,necessities of the pastoral life1 #bg4 ,negro1 the1 persistency of colour in1 #gg2 subserviency of1 #hj4 ,ner1 soss1 and sar1 ,chaldan periods of time1 #eg4 ,nergal identified with ,mars1 #afd4 ,newman1 ,dr1 #caj1 #cbc2 on history of ,western civilisation1 #cch-cdj4 ,new ,zealanders1 curious tradition among1 #aci2 their degeneration and retrogression1 #cba1 #cbb4 ,nicolas1 ,mon4 ,a41 #ajg4 ,niebhr1 quoted1 #cfd4 ,nillson1 ,professor1 on the ,stone ,age1 #bij1 #bib2 quoted1 #big4 ,nimrod1 a powerful chieftain1 #hh2 in the ,chaldan mythology1 #aeh2 identity with ,belus1 #aei2 his apotheosis confounded with ,enoch's disappearance1 #afj4 ,nin or ,ninip1 the true fish-god1 #bjj2 identification with ,noah1 #bjb2 emblem of1 in ,assyria1 #bjc2 note of ,rawlinson on1 #bje4 ,noah 7or ,noe71 identified with ,shin-nong1 #fd1 #bcb2 with ,oannes1 #aci2 confusion of traditions regarding1 #aeh2 traditions of1 among the ,chaldans1 #ahc2 philology of the name1 #aif2 warlike epithets applied to1 #bjb2 correspondence of ,nin to1 #bjb2 ,nebo a counterpart of1 #bjf2 identifications of 7with ,xisuthrus7 #bjh1 7with ,saturn7 #baj-bab1 7with ,bacchus7 #bae1 7with ,janus7 #bag1 #cbf1 7with ,ogyges and ,deucalion7 #bbb2 the depositary of tradition and channel of law1 #bcf2 summary of evidence regarding traditional identifications1 #bcf-bda2 and the ,golden ,age1 #cbc2 proofs of identity with ,saturn1 #cbe2 associations of dove and rainbow with1 #cic1 #cif4 ,see also ,deluge1 ,festivals1 commemorative4 ,nomadic life1 #bg4 ,normandy1 the ,marquis of1 #djh4 ,notions of primitive antiquity1 #cdc4 ,num1 the deity of ,samoides1 #aee4 ,oannes1 the mysterious fish1 #aii2 the god of science and knowledge1 #bja4 ,oceanus1 ,saturn identified as1 #bag4 ,o,edipus1 legend of1 #agh2 identified with ,lamech1 #agh2 corruption of the legend in the ,gesta ,romanorum1 #agi4 ,offices1 the1 of ,cicero quoted1 #cgc4 ,ogdensburg1 the taking of1 xxvii4 ,ogier1 ,m4 ,pegot1 on the worship of the ,guanches1 #cje4 ,ogilby's ,japan1 quoted1 #bfh1 #bfi4 ,ogyges and ,deucalion1 traditional connection of1 with ,deluge1 #bbb4 ,o-kee-pa1 the1 a religious ceremony of ,mandans1 #bde1 #bdf4 ,old ,chronicle of ,egypt1 the1 #ic2 analysis of1 #ig4 ,opischeschaht ,indians1 ceremonies among the1 #bfh4 ,oracula ,sybillina1 the1 quoted1 #ahh1 #aie1 #bcf1 #bcg4 ,oral transmission of tradition1 #aba1 #abb2 ,h4 ,n4 ,coleridge on1 #abb4 ,orbis terrarum1 the1 #cch1 #cci2 nucleus of1 #cdd4 ,ordeals among the ,indians1 #bdg4 ,ordinances of ,menu1 #dj1 #di4 ,oriental religions1 ,cardinal ,wiseman on the1 #aed4 ,origin and ,development of ,religious ,belief1 ,mr ,baring ,gould on1 #adj-aec4 ,origin and growth of ,international law1 #d4 ,origin of ,laws1 ,goguet's1 quoted1 #abh4 ,origin of ,mosaic law1 #cei4 ,orpheus and ,euridike1 #agc4 ,orvar ,odd's saga1 #bif1 #big4 ,osiris1 the judge of the soul1 #ahi1 #bdj4 ,over-population1 ,malthus' views regarding1 #ag4 ,ox ,temple of ,meaco1 ceremony in the1 #bfi4 ,ozanam1 on ,laws1 #cgj1 #cga4 ,pachacamac1 the ,peruvian deity1 #ahf1 #cjd1 #cje4 ,pagan view of the social compact1 #bc4 ,pall ,mall ,gazette1 the1 on the ,darwinian theory of conscience1 #b1 #ab2 on laws1 #i1 #aa2 on utilitarianism1 #ad1 #ah2 on ,european radicalism1 #aaj2 on the custom of the ,manx ,thing1 #cdg4 ,palmer1 ,mr ,william1 on ,egyptian chronology1 #ib-ajd1 #aei2 on ,osiris1 #ahi4 ,panathena1 the1 #bdh4 ,pantheon1 the1 of the ,egyptians1 #aei2 of the ,chaldans1 #afc4 ,papacy1 the1 head of a general ,european league1 #cha1 #chb4 ,papal ,states1 seizure of the1 #djg-dji4 ,paralleled traditions1 #bed-bfb2 customs1 #bfh2 festivals1 #bge-bhb1 #cbe-cbg4 ,parlementaires1 #dje4 ,pastoral life1 necessities of1 #bg4 ,pastoret's ,history1 quoted1 on ,amphictyonic ,council1 #cfc1 #cfd1 #cfi4 ,patagonians1 religious festivals among the1 #bge-bgi4 ,peace and war1 symbols of1 #chh-cib4 ,peacock1 the1 symbol of the rainbow1 #chh-cib4 ,pelasgians1 the1 #cfa4 ,pelasgus1 #bdj4 ,pentateuch1 the ,rev4 ,w4 ,smith's work on1 quoted1 #bgb1 #bgc1 #cei4 ,pentheus1 the fate of1 #bag4 ,peopling of ,american ,continent1 how accomplished1 #bfc-bff4 ,persistency of colour in ,african races and others1 #gg4 ,perseus1 legend of1 #agh4 ,persians1 ancient tradition of the1 #abh4 ,peru1 the deity of1 #ahf4 ,peruvians1 worship of the1 #cjd2 ,garcilasso de la ,vega on1 #cje4 ,pheasant1 the1 relation of1 to the ,mandans1 #bff4 ,philology1 comparative1 #aaf4 ,philosophy alone is not religion1 #ade4 ,phoenician tradition of ,deluge1 #baa2 cosmogonies1 #acb1 #aei4 ,phoroneus1 the father of mankind1 #ij1 #bci4 ,phrygian legend of the ,deluge1 #aic4 ,pinkerton's account of religion of the ,samoides1 #aee4 ,plato1 tradition of condition of families recorded by1 #cj1 #ccb2 his ,atlantis1 an embodiment of tradition1 #cfg4 ,plough1 etymology of the word1 #bee1 #cce4 ,plumtre's schylus1 #cij4 ,plutarch's ,numa1 quoted1 #cig4 ,polyandry1 regulated and rude1 #dh1 #di4 ,polygamy1 #abe4 ,polynesian ,researches1 quoted1 #bfe4 ,polytheism and monotheism1 #adi-aea4 ,pongol festival of ,southern ,india1 #bge-bhb4 ,pontifical power1 the1 #cha4 ,poole1 ,mr1 #gf4 ,pope1 the1 centre of a ,european league1 #chb4 ,pope's ,odyssey quoted1 #chi4 ,poseidon1 #bdj4 ,positivism1 ,huxley's definition of1 #aac4 ,posterity of ,ham1 the1 #hg1 #hh4 ,precedence of women in ,dahome1 #bei4 ,pottery1 the art of1 an evidence of progress1 #gc1 #caa4 ,pre-historic ,archology divided into four epochs1 #bhg1 #bhh4 ,prayer and ,punishment1 expressed by same word by ,latins1 #bhf4 ,prescott's ,history of ,mexico quoted1 #cji1 #cff4 ,prevost1 ,sir ,g41 xxv41 xxvi4 ,primary objects of ,law of ,nations1 #cfg4 ,primitive condition of mankind1 traditions regarding1 from ,sanchoniathon1 #abf1 #bhd4 ,primitive life1 #bf2 the family1 #bf2 society and government1 #bf2 necessities of pastoral1 #bg2 origin of feuds and wars1 #bg-bi2 tendency to dispersion1 #bg2 gradual consolidation1 #cj1 #ca2 ,mr ,j4 ,s4 ,mill on1 #cb2 progress from a savage to a civilised state1 #cb2 the ,arab and ,iroquois exceptional instances1 #cc2 distinctive avocations of hunter1 husbandman1 and shepherd1 #cc2 in ,india1 ,mr ,hunter on1 #cd1 #cf2 exogamous tribes1 #df2 polyandrous families1 #dh2 marriage1 #di-ea2 views of ,blackstone on1 #ed4 ,primitive marriage1 ,mr ,m',lennan's theory of1 #dd2 ,sir ,john ,lubbock on1 #ea4 ,primitive races1 #dc4 ,prophecy of ,st ,malachy1 #chj4 ,progress of man to civilisation1 #cbi1 #cca4 ,prometheus1 supposed identity with ,adam1 #db2 confusion of traditions regarding1 #aeh1 #ahj4 ,promiscuity1 #dg1 #abe4 ,pu-an-ku1 the primeval man1 #fc4 ,public opinion1 #f1 #g4 ,purification and punishment1 association of1 #bhf4 ,pythagoras1 #bcc4 ,quapaws1 tradition of the1 #bi4 ,quetzalcohuatl1 identity of with ,manco ,capac1 #cbf4 ,quincey1 ,de1 #acf2 on ,kant's scheme of a universal society1 #chc4 ,rabbit1 the ,great1 tradition of1 #aeb1 #aec4 ,races1 primitive1 #dc4 ,radicalism1 ,european1 #aaj4 ,radien1 the deity of ,scandinavian mythology1 #ahf4 ,rain and ,rivers1 the1 of ,col4 ,g4 ,greenwood1 quoted1 #bcc1 #bcd4 ,rainbow1 the symbol of peace1 #cib2 tradition of the1 #cic-cie4 ,ra or ,il1 the ,chaldan deity1 #ahc2 account of1 by ,rawlinson1 #ahe4 ,ravana1 #ej4 ,rawlinson1 ,professor1 xvi41 #be1 #cj2 on ,babylonian chronology1 #eg1 #eh2 on good and evil personifications1 #hc2 identification of ,nergal with ,mars1 #afd2 on deities of ,chaldan ,pantheon1 #ahc1 #ahe1 #aij1 #aid2 on ,nin or ,ninip1 #bje2 on ,noah1 #bci2 corroboration of ,assyrian history1 #bhi2 the use of metals1 #bic4 ,reduplication and confusion of deities1 #aij4 ,reduplications--of ,yao and ,hoang-ti1 #fe2 of ,enoch1 #aib2 of ,bacchus1 #bae1 #baf4 ,relics of ,scriptural tradition in ,greece1 #ahb4 ,religion and philosophy1 divergence between1 #ajh4 ,religion of the ,samoides1 #aee2 among savage races1 #bii2 the ,tonpinambas of ,brazil1 #cja2 the ,feegees1 #cja2 among ,indians1 #cjb1 #cjc2 in ,guinea1 #cjc2 among the ,fuegians1 #cjc1 #cjd2 among ,peruvians1 #cjd1 #cje2 among ,lepchas and ,limboos1 #cje2 among the ,khasias1 #cjf2 among ,andamans1 #cjh2 among ,tahitians1 #cad1 #cae2 among ,sandwich ,islanders1 #cae2 in ,vancouver's ,island1 #cag4 ,religion1 gradual progress of1 among primitive peoples1 #adc1 #add1 #adh1 #aed4 ,religion the representation of a philosophic idea1 #ada4 ,religious formalities on declaration of war1 #chf4 ,restriction of the comity of nations1 #cgi4 ,revelation1 primitive1 #adf1 #adg4 ,rites1 ,levitical1 borrowed from the ,egyptians1 #bgb1 #bgc4 ,river1 etymology of the word1 #bec4 ,rock1 the ,very ,rev4 ,dr1 #chg4 ,roman ,church1 the ,spectator on1 #aaj4 ,roman law1 #cea-cec2 influence of ,stoics on1 #cgb4 ,roman ideas of the cosmogony1 #bc4 ,romans and ,latins1 political union of the1 #cee4 ,rude and regulated polyandry1 #dh1 #di4 ,ryley1 ,mr ,e41 on ,belligerent ,rights1 #cgf1 #cgg4 ,sabines1 the1 #ceb4 ,sacrifices in the ,temple of ,neptune1 #cfh4 ,sacrificial weapons1 #bic4 ,st ,julian1 scene at1 #chi4 ,st ,malachy1 ancient prophecy of1 #chj4 ,saluberry1 ,general ,de1 xxvii4 ,samoans1 the1 #cac4 ,samoides1 customs of the1 #bh2 their religion1 #aee1 #aef4 ,samoyed traditions of ,creation1 #aed1 #aee4 ,sanchi1 commemorative festival of ,deluge at1 #beb4 ,sanchoniathon1 traditions from1 #abf2 relation of1 to ,genesis1 #abg1 #abh1 #acj2 on diluvian tradition1 #baa4 ,sandwich ,islanders1 religion among the1 #cae4 ,sanscrit literature1 #ef2 etymology of the word plough1 #cce4 ,sanscrit story of the ,deluge1 #bbd4 ,santals1 the1 #ce2 struggle with the ,aryans for the mastery1 #cf2 traditions of1 #bbc2 customs of1 #bfb4 ,satirists1 use of blackness of complexion by1 #he4 ,saturday ,review1 the1 on ,mr ,gladstone's ,juventus ,mundi1 #aad2 on ,indian traditions1 #bbh4 ,saturnalia1 the1 #bad4 ,saturn1 identified as ,nin1 #bja2 traditional connection of1 with ,deluge1 #baj-bab2 reference to as ,oceanus1 #bag2 the inventor of agriculture1 #cbe4 ,savage belief in the devil1 #cjb4 ,savage races1 vestiges of religion among1 #bii1 #cjj4 ,scandinavian ,edda1 story of ,baldrin1 #agb2 quoted1 #age4 ,scandinavian mythology1 the deity of1 #ahf4 ,sceptical effect of discoveries in science1 xvi41 xvii4 ,scheme of a universal society1 ,kant's1 #chc4 ,schemes1 communistic1 #aaj4 ,schlegel on tradition1 #abd2 on ,chaldan mythology1 #ahh2 on ,indian traditions1 #aii2 on diluvian tradition1 #bcc1 #bcd4 ,scriptural chronology1 historical testimony and evidence in favour of1 #ee4 ,scriptural tradition1 relics of in ,greece1 #ahb4 ,scripture and tradition1 #aai4 ,scythians1 the1 #cc4 ,seebohm1 ,mr ,f41 xv4 ,semitic monotheism1 #agj4 ,serpent1 the1 associated with darkness1 #agc4 ,servitude in marriage1 the law of1 #aji4 ,sethites and ,cainites1 #ahh4 ,shakergal1 the feast of roses in ,cashmir1 #fi4 ,shem1 resemblance of ,nebo to1 #bjg4 ,shepherds1 dynasty of the1 #ajb4 ,shin-nong1 the divine husbandman1 #fc2 identified with ,noah1 #fd1 #bcb4 ,siethas1 the1 worshipped by the ,lapps1 #aee4 ,sioux ,indians1 tradition among the1 regarding blackness of complexion1 #ha2 of creation of man1 #acd4 ,six ,nations1 tribes of the1 #cfe4 ,slavonian account of the ,creation1 #aed4 ,smith1 ,rev4 ,dr1 on the ,pentateuch1 #bgb1 #bgc2 origin of ,mosaic law1 #cei4 ,social compact1 the1 ,pagan view of1 #bc4 ,socialists1 ,english1 #aaj4 ,society and government1 elementary constituent of1 #bf4 ,society1 human1 founded upon a contract1 #ba4 ,solar and ancestral worship1 interfusion of1 #bje4 ,solar mythology1 #aff1 #agb4 ,so-sin1 the1 commemorative festival in ,dahome1 #bej1 #bed4 ,soss1 sar1 and ner1 ,chaldean periods of time1 #eg4 ,sothic cycle1 the1 #if1 #ih-ajj4 ,sothis1 ,book of1 #ie4 ,southern ,india1 ,pongol festival of1 #bge-bhb4 ,spanish ,conquest of ,america1 the1 of ,helps1 quoted1 #cjd1 #cbe-cbg4 ,spectator1 the1 on the ,roman ,church1 #aaj4 ,spencer1 ,dr1 #bgd4 ,state of nature1 a1 #cca-ccc4 ,states1 formation of1 #cdb-cdc4 ,stephens' ,central ,america quoted1 #bi4 ,stevens1 ,mr ,e4 ,t41 #bfi1 #bif4 ,stoics1 the1 their influence on ,roman law1 #cgb4 ,stone ,age1 the1 untenable hypothesis of1 #bhi2 ,professor ,nillson on1 #bij1 #bib1 #big2 evidence in favour of1 #bif1 #big2 mode of burial in1 #cjh1 #cji4 ,stripes of coloured cloth1 emblematic1 #chh4 ,struggle for existence1 the1 #af4 ,subjective existence of conscience1 #ab4 ,sudra1 the1 #dj4 ,sun-worship1 #aed-aef1 #afc4 ,superstitions of the ,khasias1 #cjf4 ,supplicants1 the1 of schylus quoted1 #aca4 ,symbols of peace and war1 #chh-cib4 ,syncellus1 #id1 #ie1 #ig2 quoted1 #aii4 ,tablet1 ,the1 quoted1 #b2 on ,arbitration instead of ,war1 #chj2 on position of the ,papacy1 #chb4 ,tahitians1 the1 tools of1 #bij2 religion and civilisation of1 #cad1 #cae4 ,tamanacs1 tradition of the1 #bbi4 ,tangaloa1 the ,tonga god1 #hb4 ,tartar tribes1 tradition of ,deluge among1 #ace4 ,tasman's ,voyage of ,discovery quoted1 #bih1 #bii4 ,tasmanians1 knowledge of fire among the1 #cai4 ,taurus1 #bjd4 ,taylor1 ,rev4 ,richard1 on the ,new ,zealanders1 #cba1 #cbb4 ,temple of ,diana1 the1 #cfd4 ,temple of ,neptune1 sacrifices in the1 #cfh4 ,tendency of tradition to uncertainty and distortion1 #aae1 #aaf2 to reduplication1 #bji4 ,ten ,kings1 ,league of the1 #cfg4 ,themis and ,themistes1 #cdf1 #cdh1 #cdi4 ,three stages of progress with man1 #cb4 ,times1 ,the1 quoted1 #bde1 #chj2 on ,franco-,german war1 #djc4 ,tlascala1 the republic of1 #cff1 #cfg4 ,tlascopan1 the kingdom of1 #cff4 ,tocqueville1 ,de1 on international law1 #h4 ,tohil1 the fire-god1 #cai4 ,tonga1 tradition in1 regarding blackness of complexion1 #hb4 ,tongusy1 the religion of the1 #aef4 ,tonpinambas1 the1 of ,brazil1 #cja4 ,topan1 the idol1 #bfi4 ,tortoise1 curious belief regarding the1 #ach1 #aci4 ,tortures among the ,indians1 #bdg4 ,totems and ,totemism1 #abe4 ,tradition--among ,mozca ,indians1 #gj2 of the human race1 #aje2 ,pre ,lacordaire on1 #aje-ajg2 common origin of1 #ajh2 antagonism of religion to1 #aji2 tendency of1 to uncertainty and distortion1 #aae1 #aaf2 confusion of family tradition1 #aaf2 persistency of local1 #aag2 unity of ,scripture with1 #aai2 ,duke of ,argyll on1 #abj2 testimony of ,eusebius to value of1 #abj2 oral transmission1 the main channel of1 #abb2 ,schlegel on1 #abd2 ,sanchoniathon on1 #abf2 concordance and divergence in1 #acj2 truth and persistence of1 #aca2 of the creation of man1 #aca-acg2 intellectual strictures upon1 #aci2 opposition of ,baring ,gould's views1 #adb2 relics of scriptural1 in ,greece1 #ahb2 of the man-bull1 #bjc2 of the ,deluge among ,american ,indians1 #bbc2 among ,santals and ,lepchas1 #bbd2 the ,saturday ,review on ,indian1 #bbh2 ,sir ,john ,lubbock on1 #bhc2 ,de ,maistre's view1 #bhc-bhf2 untrustworthiness and uncertainty of1 according to ,lubbock1 #bid2 a ,lapland1 #bif2 capacity of savages for transmission of1 #big-bii2 evidences of1 in religion of savage nations1 #cja-cjf2 of the mundane egg1 #cjf-cjh2 of fire1 #cai1 #cbj2 the discovery of ,america a proof of1 #cbd2 of ,bochica among ,mozca ,indians1 #cbe2 ,peruvian1 compared with classical and oriental1 #cbe-cbg2 transfusion and intermixture of1 #cbg1 #cbh2 of ,golden ,age1 #cbh2 of first and second heavens among ,chinese1 #cbh2 of age of primitive equality1 #ccb2 coincidence of science with1 #ccd2 the centre of1 #cci2 preservation of1 under patriarchal governments1 #cdc2 of a law common to all nations1 #cde2 of a law of nature1 #cej2 the ,atlantis of ,plato an embodiment of1 #cfg2 of law connecting religion1 #cfh2 of the rainbow1 #cic-cie2 of the dove1 #cic-cif2 of modes of declaration of war1 #cih4 ,see also ,deluge1 ,festivals1 ,noah4 ,traditions connecting man with the monkey1 #acf4 ,traditions1 paralleled and compared1 of diluvian customs1 #bed-bfb1 #bfh4 ,transition from ,stone to ,bronze ,age1 #bic4 ,treaties1 the violation of1 #dji1 #daj4 ,treaty of ,paris1 the1 #djc4 ,tressan1 ,l',abbe1 on mythology1 #bjh4 ,tribes of the ,malay peninsula1 #acf2 of the ,six ,nations1 #cfe4 ,triptolemus1 the inventor of the plough1 #baf4 ,truth and persistence of tradition1 #aca4 ,turanian race1 their migrations1 #cg4 ,turditani1 the1 #bdj4 ,tylor1 ,mr ,e4 ,b41 xiv41 #da2 on myths connecting man with the monkey1 #acf2 on ,animism1 #cjj4 ,union of ,romans and ,latins1 the1 #cee4 ,universal society1 scheme of a1 #chc4 ,unwritten laws1 #cfi4 ,usage the basis of law of nations1 #cgh4 ,untenable hypothesis of a ,stone ,age1 #bhi4 ,urquhart1 ,mr ,d41 #chf4 ,utilitarianism and international law1 #ad1 #ae4 ,utility1 ,bentham's peculiar crotchet1 #f2 the basis of his juridical system1 #ab4 ,vaivaswata1 #aig4 ,valdegamas1 ,marquis de1 #aab4 ,vancouver's ,island1 scene on1 #cag4 ,vaux1 ,mr1 on metallurgy of the ancients1 #bib4 ,vega1 ,garcilasso de la1 on ,peruvian religion1 #cje4 ,venus1 #cif2 myths of1 #cif1 #cig4 ,vestiges of religion among savage races1 #bii1 #cjj4 ,vigne1 ,mr ,g4 ,g41 #fd1 #fi4 ,violation of treaties1 the1 #dji1 #daj4 ,virgil1 lines of1 on ,saturn1 #acg2 his neid quoted1 #baa2 the ,eclogues1 #cbg4 ,virtue and vice personified as white and black in the ,zendavesta1 #hc4 ,voltaire1 the intellect of1 #aac4 ,voltairean prejudices against primitive records1 #be4 ,vul1 the son of ,ana1 #aic4 ,wallace1 ,mr1 #ha2 on man1 #ia4 ,wallis1 ,captain1 #bia1 #chi4 ,wallis1 ,mr ,j4 ,e41 #b4 ,war and peace1 symbols of1 #chh-cib4 ,war1 the ,declaration of1 #chf4 ,see ,declaration of ,war4 ,warburton1 ,e41 on oral transmission of past events among the ,indians1 #aba4 ,waring1 ,mr ,j4 ,b41 #cjh4 ,warlike epithets applied to ,noah1 #bjb4 ,water1 etymology of the word1 #bec4 ,weapons of metal among ancient races1 #bij1 #bic4 ,weld1 ,rev4 ,a41 xiv4 ,weld1 ,f4 ,a41 ,governor of ,western ,australia1 #big4 ,welsh ballad quoted1 #bec4 ,westminster1 ,archbishop of1 xv4 ,whale ashore1 a1 contrasted descriptions of1 by ,catlin and ,sir ,john ,lubbock1 #caf1 #cag4 ,whately1 ,archbishop1 #bhc4 ,white and black personifications of vice and virtue in the ,zendavesta1 #hc4 ,white flag1 the1 a symbol of peace1 #cia4 ,wilkinson1 ,sir ,j4 ,g41 on ,ham1 #hf2 his ,ancient ,egyptians quoted1 #cce4 ,wilson's ,archologia of ,scotland quoted1 #bhi1 #bic4 ,wiseman1 ,cardinal1 #ci2 on the distribution of man1 #hb2 the unity of ,scripture with tradition1 #aai2 the ,oriental religions1 #aed2 conformity of grammatical forms1 #ahi2 ,jewish rites and ceremonies1 #bgd2 the growth of nations1 #cca4 ,wordsworth's ,excursion quoted1 #ade4 ,women1 their status1 #aji2 precedence of1 in ,dahome1 #bei4 ,worship1 mode of1 among the ,peruvians1 #cjd4 ,worship of ancestors1 #afa1 #bje4 ,writing1 its invention1 #abc2 cuneiform1 #aie2 ,greece indebted to ,cadmus for1 #bba4 ,xisuthrus1 attempted identification of with ,noah1 #bjh4 ,yao or ,yu1 #fe2 erection of monument by1 commemorative of the ,deluge1 #fg4 ,yavana identified with ,javan1 son of ,japheth1 #dc4 ,yokohama1 religious festivals at1 #bfh4 ,zendavesta1 the1 #hc4 ,zeus1 #afi-aga4 ,,printed ,,by ,,ballantyne ,,and ,,company ,,edinburgh ,,and ,,london ,,burns1 ,,oates ,,co4',s ,,list4 ,narratives of ,remarkable ,conversions2 containing ,mrs4 ,seton1 ,hermann ,cohen1 ,david ,richard1 ,alphonse ,ratisbonne1 ,comte ,laferronays1 c4 ,cloth1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,tales of the ,french ,revolution4 ,fcp41 cloth1 #cs4 ,this interesting volume contains eight ,historical ,tales1 illustrating the ,faith and ,heroism of ,clergy and ,laity in those troubled times4 ,christian ,schools and ,scholars4 ,by the ,author of the ,three ,chancellors1 ,knights of ,st4 ,john1 c4 ,two vols4 #hvo1 #cjs42 cash1 #bes4 ,this important and interesting work should be in every library4 ,life of ,st4 ,ignatius4 ,by ,father ,,bartoli1 ,s4,j4 #b vols4 #ads4 ,life of ,blessed ,charles ,spinola1 ,s4,j4 ,by ,father ,,brockaert1 ,s4,j4 #fs4 ,the ,path which led a ,protestant ,lawyer to the ,catholic ,church4 ,by ,p4 ,h4 ,,burnett4 #hvo4 #hs4 #f;d4 ,balmez' ,fundamental ,philosophy4 ,by ,,brownson4 #b vols4 #afs4 ,irish ,homes and ,irish ,hearts4 ,by ,,fanny ,,taylor1 ,author of ,eastern ,hospitals1 ,tyborne1 c4 ,handsome cloth1 #fs4 ,,works ,,by ,,fathers ,,of ,,the ,,society ,,of ,,jesus4 ,reply to ,dr4 ,pusey's ,eirenicon4 ,by ,rev4 ,father ,,harper4 #hvo1 #aes4 ,vita ,vit nostri1 ,meditantibus proposita4 ,by the ,rev4 ,h4 ,j4 ,,coleridge4 ,cloth1 #gs4 #f;d42 calf1 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,life of ,blessed ,margaret ,mary ,alacoque4 ,by ,rev4 ,g4 ,,tickell4 #gs4 #f;d4 ,sermons1 ,part ,i4 ,by ,fathers ,,coleridge and ,,hathaway4 #bs4--,part ,,ii4 ,by ,fathers ,,gallwey and ,,parkinson4 #bs4--,part ,,iii4 ,by ,fathers ,,parkinson1 ,,coleridge1 and ,,harper4 #bs4 ,ditto1 the ,three ,parts in ,one4 ,cloth1 #fs4 ,union with ,rome4 ,by ,father ,,christie4 #as4 ,the ,church of ,st4 ,patrick4 ,by ,father ,,waterworth4 #bs4 #f;d4 ,the ,papacy and ,schism4 ,by ,father ,,bottalla4 #bs4 #f;d4 ,infallibility of the ,pope4 ,by the same4 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,reply to ,renouf on ,pope ,honorius4 ,by the same4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,the ,life and ,letters of ,st4 ,francis ,xavier4 ,the narrative and arrangement by the ,rev4 ,h4 ,j4 ,,coleridge4 7,preparing47 ,a',kempis4 ,the following of ,christ1 in four books2 a new translation1 beautifully printed in royal #afmo1 with borders round each page1 and illustrative engravings after designs by the best ,german artists4 ,cloth1 #cs4 #f;d42 calf1 #fs4 #f;d42 morocco1 #hs42 gilt1 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,ditto1 antique morocco1 with clasp1 and beautifully illustrated with numerous engravings1 #bes4 ,vesper ,book for the ,laity4 ,this volume contains the ,office of ,vespers 7including ,compline and ,benediction71 complete for the first time for every day in the year1 with the ,new ,offices and ,supplements4 ,roan1 gilt edges1 #cs4 #f;d42 calf1 #es4 #f;d42 morocco1 #fs4 #f;d42 gilt1 #gs4 #f;d4 ,the same1 in thin vellum1 half an inch thick1 same prices4 ,lives of the ,roman ,pontiffs4 #d vols4 #dto1 in half antique calf1 #dj beautiful steel engravings1 #dl4 #ds42 cloth1 #bl4 #ahs4 ,butler's ,lives of the ,saints4 #d vols4 #dto1 best edition1 calf1 #cl4 #ajs4 ,imitation of the ,sacred ,heart4 ,by ,father ,,arnold1 ,s4,j4 ,calf1 #hs42 morocco1 #is42 ditto1 with flaps1 #abs42 illustrated with numerous engravings1 antique morocco1 gilt1 with clasp1 #bes4 ,new ,meditations for every ,day in the ,year4 ,by a ,father of the ,society of ,jesus4 ,new and revised edition4 #b vols4 calf1 #afs42 morocco1 #ags4 ,rodriguez' ,christian ,perfection4 #b vols4 calf1 #abs42 morocco1 #ads4 ,manresa2 or ,spiritual ,exercises of ,st4 ,ignatius4 ,calf1 #fs4 #f;d42 morocco1 #gs4 #f;d42 ditto1 gilt1 #hs4 #f;d4 ,practical ,piety4 ,st4 ,,francis of ,sales4 ,calf1 #fs42 morocco1 #gs42 ditto1 gilt1 #hs4 ,lyra ,liturgica4 ,calf1 #gs4 #f;d42 morocco1 #is42 ditto1 gilt1 #ajs4 ,spiritual ,combat4 #afmo1 calf1 #fs42 morocco1 #gs42 ditto1 gilt1 #hs4 ,formularium ,sacerdotale2 containing the ,form of erecting the ,via ,crucis2 ,blessing of ,scapulars1 ,rosaries1 c42 ,ritual of ,admission into the ,third ,orders2 and other forms useful to the ,clergy4 ,edited by ,rev4 ,j4 ,,morris4 ,cloth1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,fullerton's1 ,lady ,g41 ,life of ,st4 ,frances of ,rome4 #bs42 cheap edition1 #as4 #h;d4--,laurentia1 a ,tale of ,japan4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,liguori 7,st4 ,alphonso74 ,new and improved ,translation of the ,complete ,works of ,st4 ,alphonso1 edited by ,father ,coffin3 ,vol4 ,i4 ,the ,christian ,virtues1 and the means for obtaining them4 ,cloth elegant1 #ds4--,or1 separately3 7#a47 ,the ,love of our ,lord ,jesus ,christ1 #as4 #d;d4 7#b47 ,treatise on ,prayer1 #as4 #d;d4 7,in the ordinary editions a great part of this work is omitted47 7#c47 ,a ,christian's ,rule of ,life1 #as4 ,vol4 ,,ii4 ,the ,mysteries of the ,faith--the ,incarnation2 containing ,meditations and ,devotions on the ,birth and ,infancy of ,jesus ,christ1 etc42 suited for ,advent and ,christmas4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,cheap edition1 #bs4 ,vol4 ,,iii4 ,the ,mysteries of the ,faith--the ,blessed ,sacrament4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,cheap edition1 #bs4 ,vol4 ,,iv4 ,eternal ,truths--,preparation for ,death4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,cheap edition1 #bs4 ,vol4 ,v4 ,treatises on the ,passion4 ,containing1 ,jesus hath loved us1 etc4 #cs4 ,cheap edition1 #bs4 ,st4 ,liguori's ,,jesus ,,hath ,,loved ,,us1 separately1 new and correct edition1 #i;d4 cloth4 ,visits to the ,b4 ,sacrament and to the ,b4 ,v4 ,mary4 ,an entirely new translation by the ,redemptorist ,fathers4 #as4 cloth2 bound1 roan1 #as4 #f;d42 ,french morocco1 #bs4 #f;d42 calf1 #ds42 morocco plain1 #ds4 #f;d42 morocco gilt1 #es4 #f;d4 ,little ,flower-,garden1 or ,tales for the ,young4 ,first ,series4 ,price1 in a packet1 #bs42 cloth1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,ellen's ,dream1 c4 ,lucy's ,pilgrimage4 ,the ,shepherd ,boy4 ,requiescat in ,pace4 ,little ,adam4 ,the ,cherries1 etc4 ,the ,rosary4 ,no ,virtue without ,struggle4 ,little ,martin4 ,tale of the ,ardennes4 ,the ,two ,mothers4 ,the ,two ,italians4 ,manna of the ,new ,covenant3 ,meditations for ,communion4 ,by the ,rev4 ,dr4 ,,pagani4 ,cloth1 neat1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,works ,,by ,,dr4 ,,newman4 ,the ,grammar of ,assent4 ,cloth1 #hs4 #f;d4 #crd ,edition4 ,verses on various ,occasions1 now collected for the first time4 ,fcap4 #hvo1 #bnd edit41 #es4 ,the ,dream of ,gerontius4 ,separately1 #f;d42 cloth1 #as4 ,the ,church of the ,fathers4 ,new edition1 #es4 ,callista4 ,fcap4 #hvo1 cloth1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,loss and ,gain4 ,fcap4 #hvo1 cloth1 #ds4 ,lectures on the ,turks4 #ds4 ,occasional ,sermons4 ,fcap4 #hvo1 cloth1 #fs4 ,an ,essay on ,development4 #abs4 ,the ,life of ,s4 ,teresa1 written by herself3 a new translation from the last ,spanish ,edition4 ,to which is added for the first time in ,english ,,the ,,relations1 or the ,manifestations of her ,spiritual ,state which the ,saint submitted to her ,confessors4 ,translated by ,,david ,,lewis4 ,in a handsome volume1 #hvo1 cloth1 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,the work is incomparable2 and ,mr4 ,lewis's rare faithfulness and felicity as a translator are known so well1 that no word of ours can be necessary to make the volume eagerly looked for4--,dublin ,review4 ,we have in this grand book perhaps the most copious spiritual autobiography of a ,saint1 and of a highly-favoured ,saint1 that exists4--,month4 ,life of ,st4 ,paula4 ,from the1 ,french4 ,with beautiful ,frontispiece4 ,small #hvo1 #as4 #f;d42 neat cloth1 #bs4 ,the ,unity of the ,episcopate considered with reference to certain ,anglican ,difficulties and ,pretensions4 ,by ,,edward ,,healy ,,thompson1 ,m4,a4 ,cloth1 #ds4 ,the object of this work 7a few copies of which remain on hand7 is to show the necessary connection which subsists between the ,papal ,prerogatives and the ,organic ,unity of the ,church4 ,the ,martyrdom of ,st4 ,cecilia3 a ,drama4 ,by ,,albany ,j4 ,,christie1 ,s4,j4 ,with a ,frontispiece after ,moltor4 ,cloth elegant1 #es4 ,life of ,mother ,margaret1 of the ,third ,order of ,st4 ,dominic4 #bnd ,edition1 #ajs4 ,the ,rivers of ,damascus and ,jordan3 a ,causerie4 ,by a ,tertiary of the ,order of ,st4 ,dominic4 ,price #ds4 ,the ,invitation ,heeded3 ,reasons for a ,return to ,catholic ,unity4 ,by ,,james ,,kent ,,stone1 late ,president of ,kenyon ,college1 ,gambier1 ,ohio1 and of ,hobart ,college4 ,cloth1 #es4 #f;d4 ,dr4 ,stone's book has a deep interest1 both as a statement of his reasons for his return to ,catholic ,unity1 and as one of the ablest1 most learned1 and satisfactory arguments for the ,church that a convert from ,anglicanism has given us4 ,as far as argument can avail anything against such an enemy1 his book is the death-warrant of ,anglicanism4--,,dr4 ,,brownson in the ,new ,york ,tablet4 ,the ,hidden ,life of ,jesus3 a ,lesson and ,model to ,christians4 ,translated from the ,french of ,,boudon4 ,cloth1 #cs4 ,devotion to the ,nine ,choirs of ,holy ,angels1 and especially to the ,angel-,guardians4 ,translated from the same4 #cs4 ,disputationes ,theologic de ,justitia et ,jure ad ,normam ,juris ,municipalis ,britannici et ,hibernic conformat4 ,auctore ,,georgio ,,crolly1 in ,collegio ,s4 ,patricii apud ,maynooth ,sacr ,theologi ,dogmatic et ,moralis ,professore4 #abmo1 #gs4 #f;d4 ,faith and ,reason4 ,a translation of the well-known work of the ,abb ,,martinet1 well adapted for circulation in the present day4 #hvo1 cloth1 #es4 #f;d4 ,the ,new ,testament ,narrative1 in the ,words of the ,sacred ,writers4 ,with ,notes1 ,chronological ,tables1 and ,maps4 ,a book for those who1 as a matter of education or of devotion1 wish to be thoroughly well acquainted with the ,life of our ,lord4 ,what is narrated by each of ,his ,evangelists is woven into a continuous and chronological narrative4 ,thus the study of the ,gospels is complete and yet easy4 ,cloth1 #bs4 ,the compilers deserve great praise for the manner in which they have performed their task4 ,we commend his little volume as well and carefully printed1 and as furnishing its readers1 moreover1 with a great amount of useful information in the tables inserted at the end4--,month4 ,it is at once clear1 complete1 and beautiful4--,catholic ,opinion4 ,the ,countess of ,glosswood3 a ,tale of the ,times of the ,stuarts4 ,from the ,french4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,the tale is well written1 and the translation seems cleverly done4--,month4 ,this volume is prettily got up1 and we can strongly recommend it to all as an excellent and instructive little book to place in the hands of the young4--,westminister ,gazette4 ,an excellent translation1 and a very pretty tale1 well told4--,catholic ,opinion4 ,this is a pretty tale of a ,puritan conversion in the time of ,charles ,,ii41 prettily got up1 and a pleasing addition to our lending-libraries4--,tablet4 ,this tale belongs to a class of which we have had to thank ,messrs4 ,burns for many beautiful specimens4 ,such books1 while they are delightful reading to us who are happily ,catholics1 have another important merit--they set forth the claims of ,catholicism1 and must do a vast deal of good among ,protestants who casually meet with and peruse them4 ,the book before us is beautifully got up1 and would be an ornament to any table4--,weekly ,register4 ,the ,agonising ,heart3 ,salvation of the ,dying1 ,consolation of the ,afflicted4 ,by the ,rev4 ,father ,,blot1 ,author of ,the ,agony of ,jesus4 ,with approbation of the ,bishop of ,mans4 ,price #ds4 #b vols4 ,the ,love of our ,lord ,jesus ,christ4 ,three vols4 #hvo1 #cas4 #f;d4 ,a translation for the first time of the standard work of ,,st4 ,,jure4 ,the ,glories of ,mary4 ,by ,st4 ,,alphonsus ,,liguori4 ,edited by the ,rev4 ,f4 ,,coffin1 ,provincial of the ,redemptorists4 ,new edition1 cloth1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,this is the only edition which has the ,work of the ,saint entire1 and in a correct translation4 ,the ,raccolta of ,indulgenced ,prayers4 ,translated 7by authority7 by the ,rev4 ,father ,,st4 ,,john4 ,new edition1 cloth1 #cs4 #f;d42 calf1 #fs4 ,supplement to former editions1 #f;d4--,also1 uniform1 ,sarra on ,indulgences1 #as4 ,memorials of those who suffered for the ,faith in ,ireland in the ,sixteenth1 ,seventeenth1 and ,eighteenth ,centuries4 ,collected from authentic and original documents by ,,myles ,o',,reilly1 ,b4,a41 ,,ll4,d4 #hvo1 cloth1 #gs4 #f;d4 ,a very valuable compendium of the martyrology of ,ireland during the times of active ,protestant persecution4 ,the language of many of these original records is inexpressibly touching4--,dublin ,review4 ,very interesting memories4--,month4 ,the ,doctrine of the ,spiritual ,life4 ,by ,father ,,lallemant1 ,s4,j4 ,new edition1 #es4 ,a ,harmony of the ,gospels4 ,by the ,rev4 ,father ,,law1 of the ,oratory4 #as4 ,little ,book of the ,love of ,god4 ,by ,count ,,stolberg4 ,with ,life of the ,author4 ,cloth1 #bs4 ,an admirable little treatise1 perfectly adapted to our language and modes of thought4--,,bishop ,,of ,,birmingham4 ,heroines of ,charity4 ,containing ,popular ,lives of ,mme4 de ,miramion4 ,mme4 de ,pollalion4 ,mdlle4 de ,lamoignon4 ,louise de ,marillac4 ,duchess de ,aiguillon4 ,the ,sisters of ,vincennes4 ,jeanne ,biscot4 ,anne de ,melun4 ,the ,little ,sisters of the ,poor4 ,cloth neat1 #bs4 #f;d4 #ag #ah ,portman ,street1 #fc ,paternoster ,row4 ,transcriber's ,note ,footnotes in the original were numbered consecutively for each chapter4 ,they have been renumbered to be unique to the text4 ,references to notes below follow the newly numbered sequence4 ,for those issues which occur in footnotes1 the page number refers to the page on which the note begins4 ,the punctuation of many quoted passages is haphazard1 with quotation marks incorrectly or incompletely indicating the nesting thereof4 ,for example1 ,footnote #aab on p4 #acd consists in part of a quotation ending with 444the last work of the ,creator4 ,here1 the punctuation of nested quotations is incorrect4 ,it is not clear where the boundary of the quote should be4 ,unless the scope is very clear1 no attempt has been made to correct these lapses1 and the text stands as printed4 ,we note the following paragraphs which remain as printed3 p4 #acd n4 #aab ,the ,chinese cosmogony444 p4 #ach n4 #aaf ,the ,mandans believed444 p4 #agf n4 #adb ,in the second 444 fixed it at midnight4 p4 #ahe ,ra is a god with few peculiar444 p4 #aia ,rawlinson says of this god444 p4 #aie n4 #aed ,vide his other epithets444 p4 #baf ,bachus is by some called444 p4 #bci ,he is said to have transmitted to mankind444 p4 #bed ,the chief actors in these strange scenes444 p4 #beh ,it will be remembered444 ,the opening scene in the ,mandan customs444 p4 #bfj ,we shall not be surprised to learn444 p4 #bfb ,at ,whydat 444 white visitors4 p4 #bfe n4 #bbd ,the ,sandwich ,islands444 p4 #bgj ,at pp4 #dgg-gh there is perhaps444 p4 #bge ,mr ,max ,mller adds444 p4 #cbg ,amongst the ,mexicans 444 in the old world4 p4 #chg n4 #cbe ,the ,very ,rev4 ,dr ,rock444 ,st ,paul says444 p4 #cib n4 #ccc ,vide also in ,carver's444 ,this text is dense with citations1 some of which seem incorrect4 ,for example1 the reference to ,genesis i4 #b4 on p4 #bcd is attributed to ,gen4 x44 ,no attempt was made to correct any attributions4 ,in note #cje on p4 #cfd1 the quoted passage from ,pastoret's 7ix1 #agj7 was corrupted1 and is corrected3 ,on s'assembloit dans au lien_/un lieu sacr du ,mont ,mycale4 ,on p4 #cii1 the name schylus appears1 unaccountably as ,o,eschylos1 but is retained4 ,this text is generally followed as printed4 ,corrections are made only where there are obvious printer's errors or where there are numerous examples of a correct spelling4 ,where the issue appears in quoted passages1 no corrections were made4 ,this includes foreign language citations 7,french1 ,latin and ,greek71 where spelling and accents1 in particular1 may not appear as expected4 ,in the index and advertisements1 incidental inconsistencies of punctuation are corrected without further notice4 ,the following table describes textual issues encountered during the preparation of this text1 and the resolution of each4 p4 xxviii occcupy ,removed4 p4 #cj ethnic division4 ,added4 p4 #fa n4 #ea ,vues des ,cordillres1 ,added4 p4 #fi n4 #ef 7,sanskrit1 pota boat7 ,added4 p4 #gj n4 #eg ,,to ,,the ,,waters ,,of ,,the ,,great ,,lake1 c4 ,added4 p4 #gg n4 #fc the extent of the countries they sic4 ,opening inhabit4 quote missing4 p4 #gi according to different different degrees ,removed4 p4 #hc a 'dark' spirit ,added4 p4 #if 7#adfa _/ #b7 #bibb ,corrected4 p4 #ih generations 1 years sic4 ,missing4 p4 #aaa acccounted ,removed4 p #aae ',in the mountain the ,lord will see4' ,added4 p4 #aji n4 #gi cosmopolitanism ,added4 p4 #aah n4 #hh ,l',antiquite devoile par ses ,usages ,added4 p4 #acc n4 #aaj ,mu_/ller ,corrected4 p4 #ace are still living under the ground4 ,added4 p4 #aie 'arrow-head1' ,added4 p4 #bjc 'the chief of the spirits1' ,added4 p4 #bje n4 #afc ,anacalypsis1'_/ ,corrected4 p4 #bbf which owes its origin ,added4 p4 #bbh mischievous ,added4 p4 #bdj with two horns4 ,added4 p4 #bdd ,montfauc_/on ,corrected4 p4 #bdh n4 #bji noted also in the ,panathena4 ,added4 p4 #bej kan 7rope7 'gbe 7to-day74 ,added4 p4 #beb n4 #bab being the most common4 ,added4 p4 #bfb which are thus described8 sic4 '3'8 p4 #bff n4 #bbd ,hawaiki1 7,sandwich ,islands74 sic4 8 p4 #bfg in the branches of the trees ,added4 p4 #bfg n4 #bbf ,the ,indians resemble ,added4 p4 #bga gods ,canon and ,camis or ,chamis2 ,added4 p4 #bgb n4 #bcj divided into four acts4 ,added4 p4 #bhd n4 #bce '_/,soires de ,st ,petersbourg ,corrected4 p4 #bhi ,lubbu_/ock's ,corrected4 p4 #cjd n4 #bee and camac participle of camani1 ,i create4 ,added4 p4 #caf to the the reader ,line break repetition4 p4 #cba n4 #bfe 7,traditions of the ,new ,zealanders7 ,added4 p4 #cda n4 #bhe 7,gen4 xiii47 sic4 8 p4 #cee n4 #bid 7,niebhr1 ii4 ch4 vi47 ,added4 p4 #cfc n4 #cjd ,the oath taken by ,added4 p4 #cgb n4 #cji ,l',antiquit dvoile par ses usages ,removed4 p4 #che n4 #cbc ne saurait assez reconnatre4 ,added4 p4 #chg n4 #cbf ,droit ,romain1 i4 #dh4 ,added4 p4 #cij the caduceatores ,added4 p4 #cid n4 #ccd ,smith 7,myth4 ,dict47 ,added4 p4 #dba ,romans and and ,latins ,line break repetition4 p4 #dbf ,normam_/nby ,corrected4 ,goq_/guet's ,corrected4