,transcrib]'s ,note ,text emphasis is display$ z ,italics & ,bold respectively4 ,sup]script *>act]s are d5ot$ ) ! c>at "* 7i4e41 #h;e74 ,:ole & fractional p>ts are display$ z #e-a_/b4 ,,fragm5ts ,,( ,,e>? ,,lore ,illu/ration3 ,,plate ,i ,,orographic ,,map ,,( ,,scotl& ,,fragm5ts ,,( ,,e>? ,,lore ,,sket*es ,,addresses ,geological & ,geographical ,,by ,,james ,,geikie1 ,d4,c4,l41 ,,ll4,d41 ,f4,r4,s41 c4 ,,mur*ison-,,pr(essor ,,( ,,geology ,,& ,,m9]alogy ,,9 ,,! ,,univ]sity ,,( ,,ed9burgh ,,=m]ly ,,( ,h4,m4 ,,geological ,,survey ,,( ,,scotl& ,,) ,,maps ,,& ,,illu/rations ,,ed9burgh ,,john ,,b>?olomew ,,co4 ,,london3 ,,simpk91 ,,m>%all1 ,,hamilton1 ,,k5t ,co41 ,ltd4 #ahic ,,preface4 ,! articles 9 ?is volume deal *iefly ) ! hi/ory ( ,glacial times & ! orig9 ( surface-features4 ,z !y 7 n writt5 ) any view to _! subsequ5t appe>ance 9 a collect$ =m1 ea* is s f> indep5d5t & complete 9 itself4 ,"u ^! circum/ances "s repetition 0 unavoidable1 if ! articles 7 n to be reca/1 & ,i did n ?9k x advisable to make su* radical alt]ation4 ,) ! exception ( v]bal *anges & "s excisions1 !re=e1 ! pap]s rema9 sub/antially 9 _! orig9al /ate4 ,"h & !re a footnote has be5 add$ to indicate :]e ! views express$ 9 ! text h s9ce be5 modifi$2 b ,i h n be5 c>eful to ins]t su* notes ?r\gh\t4 ,geologi/s1 l o!r folk1 live & le>n1 & ! read] w probably discov] t ! op9ions set =? 9 "s ( ! lat] articles are occasionally 9 advance ( ^? ma9ta9$ 9 ! writ]'s e>li] days4 ,i h to ?ank ! ,publi%]s ( ,good ,words = all[+ me to republi% ! articles on ! ,*eviot ,hills & ! ,out] ,hebrides4 ,my ackn[l$gm5ts are also due to ,mr4 ,b>?olomew = ! excell5t maps ) :i* ! volume is s well illu/rat$4 ,ed9burgh1 ,april #e?1 #ahic4 ,,li/ ,,( ,,maps4 ,plate ,i4 ,,physical ,,features ,,( ,,scotl& ,frontispiece ,,ii4 ,,/ructure ,,( ,,m\nta9s #fj ,,iii4 ,,pa/ ,,& ,,pres5t ,,glaciation ,,( ,,! ,,_w #aic ,,iv4 ,,ice ,,age ,,9 ,,nor!rn ,,europe #cbd ,v4 ,,! ,,geographical ,,evolution ,,( ,,cont95ts #cdh ,,vi4 ,,ba?y-,,hypsometrical ,,map1 ,,illu/rat+ ,,developm5t ,,( ,,coa/-,,l9es #dbh ,,cont5ts4 ,,*ap4 ,,page ,i4 ,,geography ,,& ,,geology #a ,,ii4 ,,! ,,physical ,,features ,,( ,,scotl& #ad ,,iii4 ,,m\nta9s3 ,,_! ,,orig91 ,,gr[?1 ,,& ,,decay #cf ,,iv4 ,,! ,,*eviot ,,hills #fb ,v4 ,,! ,,long ,,isl&1 ,,or ,,out] ,,hebrides #abe ,,vi4 ,,! ,,ice ,,age ,,9 ,,europe ,,& ,,nor? ,,am]ica #afj ,,vii4 ,,! ,,int]cross+ ,,( ,,erratics ,,9 ,,glacial ,,deposits #aid ,,viii4 ,,rec5t ,,rese>*es ,,9 ,,! ,,glacial ,,geology ,,( ,,! ,,cont95t #bbj ,,ix4 ,,! ,,glacial ,,p]iod ,,& ,,! ,,e>?-,,movem5t ,,hypo!sis #bdh ,x4 ,,! ,,glacial ,,succession ,,9 ,,europe #bhh ,,xi4 ,,! ,,geographical ,,evolution ,,( ,,europe #cbf ,,xii4 ,,! ,,evolution ,,( ,,climate #cdi ,,xiii4 ,,! ,,sci5tific ,,results ,,( ,,dr4 ,,nanss5',s ,,exp$ition #chb ,,xiv4 ,,! ,,geographical ,,developm5t ,,( ,,coa/-,,l9es #cic ,i4 ,geography & ,geology4,a ,a ,portion ( a lecture giv5 9 #ahhf to ! ,class ( ,geology 9 ! ,univ]sity ( ,ed9burgh4 ,! tea*+ ( ,geography naturally occupies a prom95t place 9 e s*ool curriculum4 ,x is rightly consid]$ ess5tial t we %\ld f an e>ly age beg9 to "k some?+ ( our own & o!r c\ntries4 ,i am n sure1 h[ev]1 t ,geography is always taught 9 ! mo/ int]e/+ & effective mann]4 ,inde$1 accord+ to "s geograph]s1 :o are well qualifi$ to express an op9ion1 ! mann] 9 :i* _! subject is pres5t$ 9 _m ( our s*ools leaves mu* to be desir$4 ,b a decid$ advance has be5 made 9 rec5t ye>s1 & ) ! multiplication ( excell5t text-books1 maps1 & o!r appliances1 ,i h no d\bt t ?is improvem5t w cont9ue4 ,:5 ,i att5d$ s*ool ! text-books us$ by my tea*]s 7 ab\t z repell5t z !y c\ld be4 ,our mo/ important lesson 0 to commit to memory a multitude ( place-names1 & ! maps :i* 7 suppos$ to illu/rate ! text-books 71 if possible1 less int]e/+ & in/ructive4 ,n[adays1 h[ev]1 tea*]s h a numb] ( m or less excell5t manuals at _! s]vice1 & ! educational maps issu$ by our c>tograph]s %[ 9 _m cases a v great advance on ! bald & mislead+ c>icatures :i* did duty 9 my "y days z pictures ( ! e>?'s surface4 ,dur+ ! progress ( "s w> we (t5 rem>k t ! task ( foll[+ ! milit>y op]ations compels u to bru% up our ,geography4 ,i am un*>itable en\gh to suspect t x w\ld frequ5tly be tru] to say t1 be=e ^! campaigns comm5c$1 we _h no su* k to bru% up4 ,! c\ntries involv$ 9 ! commotion 7 probably m]e names to _m ( u4 ,we _h no imm$iate int]e/ 9 !m or _! inhabitants1 & _h we be5 ask$1 be=e ! outbreak ( ho/ilities1 to indicate ! precise positions ( ! places ^u a map1 "s ( u p]haps might h be5 sorely puzzl$ to d s4 ,nor is su* ignorance always discr$itable4 ,"o _c "k ev]y?+2 ! l&-surface ( ! globe conta9s upw>ds ( #ej millions ( squ>e miles1 & "o may surely be excus$ = n hav+ a detail$ k ( ?is va/ area4 ,i h ref]r$ to ! subject simply because ,i ?9k x gives u a h9t z to h[ ! tea*+ ( ,political ,geography might be made mo/ in/ructive & int]e/+4 ,hi/orical n>rative might (t5 be int]wov5 ) ! subject 9 su* a way z to fix geographical features indelibly on ! memory4 ,/rik+ & picturesque incid5ts1 ev5tful w>s1 ! rise & progress ( p>ticul> trades1 ! r\tes foll[$ by comm]ce1 ! immigration & emigration ( races1 ! gradual developm5t ( ! exi/+ political divisions ( ! ,old ,_w1 ! /ory ( ,columbus & ! e>ly voyag]s1 ! geographical discov]ies ( lat] times--all ^!1 & su* z ^!1 might be introduc$ into our lessons 9 ,political ,geography4 ,! w&]+s ( a ,mungo ,p>k1 a ,bruce1 a ,liv+/one1 a ,/anley1 trac$ on a good map1 c\ld n fail to arre/ ! att5tion ( ! y\?ful /ud5t ( ,african geography4 ,9 l mann]1 ! campaigns ( ! great ,napoleon might be made to d good s]vice 9 illu/rat+ ! geographical features ( l>ge portions ( our own cont95t4 ,!n1 z reg>ds ,brita91 :at a _w ( poetry & romantic /ory cl+s to e portion ( its surface--:y1 ! v place-names !mselves might sugge/ to any intellig5t tea*] !mes & incid5ts1 ! deft treatm5t ( :i* w\ld make ! acquisition ( ,geography a delightful task to ! dulle/ boy or girl4 ,! intimate relation t obta9s betwe5 ,political ,geography & ,hi/ory has inde$ long be5 recognis$1 & is 9 fact self-evid5t4 ,& we are all well aw>e t 9 our s*ool manuals ( ,geography x has be5 usual = v _m ye>s to note ! sc5es ( rem>kable ev5ts4 ,su* notes1 h[ev]1 are ( necessity extremely brief2 & x ne$ h>dly be said t to fully incorporate hi/ory 9 a text-book ( g5]al ,geography w\ld be q impracticable4 ,x might be done to a c]ta9 ext5t = our own & a few ( ! m important c\ntries2 b simil> detail ne$ n be attempt$ 9 reg>d to regions :i* are ( less consequ5ce f ! political po9t ( view4 ,inde$1 ,i %\ld be incl9$ to leave ! prop] application ( hi/orical k 9 ! tea*+ ( ,geography v mu* to ! tea*] himself1 :o w\ld naturally select su* !mes & incid5ts z seem$ be/ adapt$ to attract ! att5tion ( 8 pupils4 ,be t1 h[ev]1 z x may1 x is en\gh = my pres5t purpose if ,i insi/ ^u ! fact t ! prop] /udy ( ,political ,geography involves ! acquisition ( "s hi/orical k4 ,"o c h>dly conceive ! possibility ( an intellig5t /ud5t tak+ pa9s to become acqua9t$ ) ! political geography ( a c\ntry )\t at ! same "t endeav\r+ to le>n some?+ ( its hi/ory--o!rwise1 8 geographical atta9m5ts w\ld h>dly surpass ^? ( a comm]cial travell]1 ^: geographical /udies h be5 conf9$ to ! maps & tables ( 8 ,brad%aw4 ,b if x be impossible to ignore ,hi/ory 9 ! tea*+ ( ,political ,geography1 x is j z impossible to exclude f our att5tion great physical features & *>act]i/ics4 ,surface-configuration1 climate1 & natural products all claim our att5tion4 ,x is obvi\s1 9 fact1 t ! prop] /udy ( ,political ,geography mu/ give u at lea/ a g5]al notion ( ! configuration1 ! riv]-sy/ems1 & climatic conditions ( _m diff]5t l&s4 ,= has n ! political developm5t ( races dep5d$ mo/ l>gely on ! physical conditions & natural res\rces ( ! c\ntries occupi$ by !m8 ,s f>1 !n1 z ^! h s5sibly influ5c$ ! progress ( peoples1 !y come naturally "u ! consid]ation ( ,political ,geography4 ,?us1 if ,political ,geography be closely connect$ & int]wov51 z x 71 ) ,hi/ory1 n less intimate are its relations to ,physical ,geography4 ,x does n embrace all ,physical ,geography1 b x introduces u to _m facts & ph5om5a1 ! causes & mutual relations ( :i* we _c und]/& )\t fir/ ma/]+ ! tea*+s ( ,physical ,geography4 ,9 ! /udy ( ?is latt] sci5ce we come m closely into contact ) ,nature2 we cease to ?9k ( ! surface ( ! e>? z p>cell$ out into s _m lots by its human occupants--we no long] contemplate t surface f ! limit$ po9t ( view ( ! political geograph]--we are n[ n m]ely memb]s ( "o p>ticul> community1 b h become true citiz5s ( ! _w4 ,to u nor? & s\?1 ea/ & we/ are ( equal int]e/ & importance4 ,our desire n[ is to und]/&1 if haply we may1 ! complex sy/em ( :i* we ourselves =m a "p4 ,! di/ribution ( l& & wat]--! configuration ( cont95tal areas & oceanic bas9s--! circulation ( oceanic & t]re/rial wat]s--e>?-movem5ts & volcanoes--ice-=mations--! atmosph]e--climatology--! geographical di/ribution ( plants & animals--9 a ^w1 ! _w z "o organic :ole n[ =ms ! subject ( our contemplation4 ,su* be+ ! scope ( ,physical ,geography1 x is satisfactory to "k t its importance z a subject ( /udy 9 our s*ools has be5 fully recognis$4 ,?is be+ admitt$1 ,i %all n[ proce$ to %[ t ,physical ,geography1 al?\gh1 l ,political ,geography1 x is a sep>ate & di/9ct subject1 yet1 j z ! /udy ( ! latt] involves "s k ( ,hi/ory1 s ! prosecution ( ,physical ,geography compels u to make a c]ta9 acqua9tance ) ,geology4 ,we _c1 9 fact1 le>n mu* ab\t ! atmosph]e1 ab\t ra9 & riv]s1 glaci]s & iceb]gs1 e>?quakes & volcanoes1 & ! causes ( climate1 )\t at ! same "t becom+ m or less famili> ) ! gr\ndwork on :i* geological inve/igations are bas$4 ,& j z a k ( hi/ory enables u bett] to und]/& ! facts ( ,political ,geography1 s "s acqua9tance ) ! results ( geological inquiry are necess>y be=e we c hope to compreh5d _m ( ! ph5om5a ( :i* ,physical ,geography treats4 ,let me try to make ?is pla94 ,! physical geograph]1 we %all suppose1 is consid]+ ! subject ( t]re/rial wat]s4 ,he tells u :at is meant by ! dra9age-sy/em ( a c\ntry1 po9ts out h[ ! v>i\s m9or wat]-c\rses or brooks & /reams unite to =m a riv]1 describes = u ! %ape ( ! valley ?r\gh :i* a typical riv] makes its way--h[ ! valley-slope dim9i%es f ! m\nta9s onw>ds to ! sea-coa/--h[1 at fir/1 9 its upp] or m\nta9-track1 ! fl[ ( ! riv] is torr5tial--h[1 z ! slope ( ! valley decreases1 ! riv] beg9s to w9d ab\t m freely1 until x rea*es ! head ( its pla9-track or delta1 :51 no long] receiv+ afflu5ts1 x beg9s to divide1 & ent]s ! sea at la/ by _m m\?s4 ,he tells u fur!r :at proportion ( ! ra9fall ( ! c\ntry passes seaw>ds 9 our riv]1 & he c measure = u ! quantity ( wat] :i* is actually dis*>g$4 ,all ?is is purely ,physical ,geography2 b :5 we come to ask :y "s riv]s fl[ 9 deep caons1 l ^? ( ! ,colorado--:y valleys %\ld wid5 out 9 "o "p & contract1 z x 71 else:]e--:y ! c\rses ( "s riv]s are int]rupt$ by wat]falls & rapids1 & _m o!r simil> que/ions1 ! physical geograph] mu/ "k some?+ ( ,geology be=e he c give an answ]4 ,he c describe ! actual exi/+ conditions2 )\t ! aid ( ,geology1 he c tell u no?+ ( _! orig9 & cause4 ,s ! political geograph] c map out = u ! pres5t limits ( ! v>i\s c\ntries ( ,europe1 b ,hi/ory mu/ be invok$ if we w\ld "k h[ ^? b\nd>ies came to be det]m9$4 ,! mom5t1 !re=e1 ! physical geograph] beg9s to inquire into ! orig9 ( any p>ticul> physical feature1 he ent]s ^u ! doma9s ( ! geologi/4 ,& z he _c possibly avoid do+ s1 x is q common n[ to f9d a good deal ( ! subject-matt] ( ,geology treat$ ( 9 text-books ( ,physical ,geography4 ,i /ate ?is m]ely to %[ h[ v closely ! two sci5ces are int]lock$4 ,take1 = example1 ! configuration ( riv] valleys j ref]r$ to4 ,! physical geograph] recognises ! fact t a riv] p]=ms "w2 by means ( ! s$im5t :i* x c>ries 9 susp5sion & rolls along its c\rse1 x erodes its b$ 9 _m places1 & und]m9es its banks1 & ?us its *annel is deep5$ & wid5$4 ,he c measure ! am\nt ( s$im5t :i* x c>ries d[n to ! sea1 & ! quantity ( sal9e matt]s :i* its wat]s hold 9 solution3 & kn[+ t all ^! sub/ances h be5 ab/ract$ f ! l&1 he is able to e/imate approximately ! am\nt ( mat]ial :i* is annually transf]r$ f ! surface ( ! dra9age-area involv$4 ,he discov]s ?is to be s relatively enorm\s t he has no difficulty 9 believ+ t ! valleys 9 :i* riv]s fl[ might h be5 holl[$ out by ! riv]s !mselves4 ,b1 )\t trespass+ fur!r into ! geologi/'s doma9s1 he _c g beyond ?is3 & y w at once p]ceive t some?+ m is requir$ to prove t any p>ticul> valley owes its orig9 to ! erosive action ( runn+ wat]4 ,suppose someone 7 to sugge/ to him t 8 riv]-valley might be a m9or wr9kle 9 ! e>?'s cru/ caus$ by e>?-movem5ts1 or t x might indicate ! l9e ( a fissure or dislocation1 due to "s comp>atively rec5t convulsion--h[ c\ld 8 computation ( ! am\nt ( mat]ial at pres5t c>ri$ seaw>ds by ! riv] prove su* sugge/ions to be errone\s8 ,& :at light c\ld x ?r[ ^u ! orig9 ( ! v>i$ configuration ( ! riv]-valley--h[ w\ld x expla9 ! pres5ce or abs5ce ( cascades & rapids1 ( n>r[ gorges & op5 expanses8 ,none ( ^! ph5om5a c be int]pret$ & acc\nt$ = )\t ! aid ( ! geologi/3 )\t "s k ( rocks & rock-/ructures1 ! orig9 ( ! e>?'s surface-features is q inexplicable4 ,to give an adequate explanation ( all ! surface-features ( a c\ntry 9 detail w\ld ( c\rse require a pr(\nd /udy ( ,geology2 b a g5]al acqua9tance only ) its elem5t>y facts is q suffici5t to enable u to =m a reasonable & intellig5t view ( ! cause & orig9 ( ! ma9 features ( ! l& z a :ole4 ,?us a few lessons 9 elem5t>y ,geology w\ld make cle> to any *ild h[ riv]s h excavat$ valleys1 :y cat>acts & gorges occur "h1 & op5 valleys ) g5tly-fl[+ wat]s else:]e4 ,let me select yet ano!r example to %[ h[ dep5d5t ,physical ,geography is ^u ,geology4 ,! physical geograph]1 9 describ+ ! features ( ! l&1 tells u h[ ! great cont95tal areas are trav]s$ 9 v>i\s directions by :at he calls m\nta9-*a9s4 ,?us1 9 speak+ ( ,am]ica1 he tells u t x may be tak5 z a type ( ! cont95tal /ructure--namely a va/ expanse ( l&1 l[ or bas9-l 9 ! int]ior1 & flank$ along ! m>itime regions by elevat$ m\nta9 bord]s--! highe/ bord] fac+ ! deepe/ ocean4 ,he po9ts out fur!r t ! great cont95tal areas are cross$ f we/ to ea/ by well-m>k$ depressions1 to a l>ge ext5t occupi$ by wat]4 ,?us ,europe is sep>at$ f ,africa by ! ,m$it]ranean1 a depression :i* is cont9u$ ea/w>d ?r\gh ! ,black ,sea into ! ,aralo-,caspian area4 ,s\? ,am]ica is all b cut away f ,nor? ,am]ica1 :ile ,au/ralia is sep>at$ f ,asia by ! ,ea/ ,india ,seas4 ,we f9d1 9 fact1 all ov] ! _w t well-m>k$ natural features are con/antly be+ repeat$4 ,n only d ! great l&-masses ( ! globe be> c]ta9 resemblances to ea* o!r1 b ev5 9 _! detail$ /ructure simil> p>allelisms recur4 ,! physical geograph] notes all ^! rem>kable ph5om5a1 b he c give u no clue to _! mean+4 ,he may describe ) admirable skill ! *>act]i/ic features ( pla9s & plateaux1 ( volcanic m\nta9s & m\nta9-*a9s1 b he _c tell u :y pla9s %\ld occur "h & m\nta9s !re2 nor c he expla9 :y "s m\nta9s1 su* z ^? ( ,scotl& or ,norway1 diff] s mu* 9 configuration f ! ,alps & ! ,pyr5ees4 ,! answ] to all ^! que/ions c only be giv5 by ,geology4 ,x is f ?is sci5ce we le>n h[ cont95tal areas & oceanic bas9s h be5 evolv$4 ,! pati5t /udy ( ! rocks has reveal$ ! orig9 ( ! pres5t configuration ( ! l&4 ,!re is n a hill or valley1 n a plateau or m\nta9-region1 :i* does n reveal its own hi/ory4 ,! geologi/ c tell y :y cont95ts are bord]$ by coa/-ranges1 & :y _! int]iors are g5]ally comp>atively l[ & bas9-%ap$4 ,! oceanic bas9s & cont95tal areas1 we le>n1 are primeval wr9kles 9 ! e>?'s cru/1 caus$ by its irregul> subsid5ce ^u ! gradually cool+ & contract+ nucleus4 ,! cont95ts are imm5se plateau-l areas ris+ m or less abruptly above ^? /up5d\s depressions ( ! e>?'s cru/ :i* are occupi$ by ! ocean4 ,:ile ^? depressions are 9 progress ! m>itime bord]s ( ! l&-areas are subject$ to enorm\s squeez+ & cru%+1 & coa/-ranges are ! result--! elevation ( ^? ranges necess>ily hold+ "s relation to ! dep? ( ! contigu\s ocean4 ,=1 ! deep] ! ocean ! great] has be5 ! depression "u ! sea1 &1 consequ5tly1 ! m int5se ! upheaval along ! cont95tal bord]s4 ,x is = ! same reason t de/ructive e>?quakes are mo/ likely to occur 9 ! vic9ity ( coa/-ranges :i* are ( comp>atively rec5t geological age4 ,^!1 & inde$ all1 m\nta9s ( elevation are l9es ( weakness along :i* e>?-movem5ts may cont9ue f "t to "t to take place4 ,b all m\nta9s are n m\nta9s ( elevation2 _m elevat$ regions owe _! m\nta9\s "* simply to ! erosive action ( sub-arial ag5ts1 su* z ra91 fro/1 ice1 & runn+ wat]1 ! =ms assum$ by ! m\nta9s be+ due to _! petrological "* & geological /ructure4 ,!re are1 = example1 no true m\nta9s ( elevation 9 ,scotl&2 h5ce to write ( ! *a9 ( ! ,grampians or ! range ( ! ,l[!rs is incorrect & actually mislead+4 ,)\t ! aid ( ,geology ! geograph] _c1 9 fact1 discrim9ate betwe5 m\nta9s ( elevation & m\nta9s ( d5udation2 h5ce geographical t]ms s con/antly 9 use z m\nta9-range & m\nta9-*a9 are v (t5 appli$ by writ]s1 ignorant ( geological /ructure1 to elevat$ regions :i* h no claim to be describ$ ei!r z *a9s or ranges4 ,"s k ( ,geology1 !re=e1 is ess5tial to u if we w\ld h correct views ( _m ( ! gr&e/ features ( ! globe4 ,b x w be said t1 aft] all1 ! physical geograph] deals ) ! e>? z we n[ f9d x2 he does n ne$ to tr\ble himself ) ! orig9 ( ! ph5om5a he describes4 ,well1 z ,i h j %[n1 he _c1 ev5 if he w\ld1 escape tr5*+ on ,geology2 & if he c\ld1 8 subject w\ld be %orn ( mu* ( its int]e/4 ,he recognises t ! _w he /udies has 9 x ! elem5ts ( *ange--! =ces ( ,nature are ev]y:]e modify+ ! e>?'s surface--consid]able *anges are sometimes br\ght ab\t ev5 9 "o's lifetime1 :ile )9 ! c\rse ( hi/orical ages /ill great] mutations h tak5 place--he becomes consci\s1 9 %ort1 t ! exi/+ /ate ( ?+s is b ! late/ phase ( an int]m9able s]ies ( *anges /ret*+ back into ! illimitable pa/1 & de/9$ to be prolong$ into ! indef9ite future4 ,?us he gladly welcomes ! lab\rs ( ! geologi/1 ^: rese>*es into ! pa/ h ?r[n su* a flood ( light ^u ! pres5t4 ,9 fact1 he c no m divorce 8 att5tion f ! results ( geological inquiry ?an ! political geograph] c %ut 8 eyes to ! facts ( ,hi/ory4 ,let me1 9 conclusion1 give "o fur!r illu/ration ( ! close int]-dep5d5ce ( ! two sci5ces ( :i* ,i am speak+4 ,"o ( ! subjects treat$ ( by ,physical ,geography is ! pres5t geographical di/ribution ( plants & animals4 ,! l&-surface ( ! globe has be5 mapp$ out into s _m biological regions1 ea* ( :i* is *>act]is$ by its special fauna & flora4 ,! greate/ *anges 9 ! flora & fauna ( a cont95t are met ) z we pass f s\? to nor?1 or vice v]sa4 ,proce$+ 9 ! direction ( ! latitude1 ! *anges enc\nt]$ are mu* less /rik+4 ,n[1 ^! facts are readily expla9$ by ! physical geograph]1 :o po9ts out t ! di/ribution is due *iefly to climatic conditions--a conclusion :i* is obvi\s en\gh4 ,b :5 we g into details we f9d t m]e latitude w n acc\nt = all ! ph5om5a4 ,take1 = example1 ! case ( ! ,sc&9avian flora ( our own ,cont95t4 ,x is true t ?is flora is l>gely conf9$ to nor!rn latitudes2 b isolat$ colonies occur 9 our own m\nta9s & 9 ! m\nta9s ( middle & s\!rn ,europe4 ,h[ are ^! to be acc\nt$ =8 ,! physical geograph] says t ! plants gr[ !re simply because !y obta9 at high levels 9 l[ latitudes ! fav\rable climatic conditions und]nea? :i* !y fl\ri% at l[ levels 9 high latitudes4 ,he !re=e concludes t ! di/ribution ( life-=ms is due to v>y+ climatic & physical conditions4 ,b if we ask him h[ ^? curi\s colonies ( =eign]s come to be plant$ on our m\nta9s1 he _c tell4 ,to get our answ] we mu/ come to ! geologi/2 & he w expla9 t !y are1 z x 71 liv+ fossils--monum5ts ( =m] great physical & climatic *anges4 ,he w prove to u t ! climate ( ,europe 0 at a rec5t geological p]iod s cold t ! ,sc&9avian flora spread s\? into middle ,europe1 :]e x occupi$ ! l[ gr\nds4 ,:5 ! climate became mild]1 !n ! nor!rn invad]s gradually retir$--! ma9 body migrat+ back to ! nor?--:ile "s /raggl]s1 retreat+ be=e ! /rong] ,g]manic flora1 took %elt] 9 ! m\nta9s1 :i!r ! latt] c\ld n or w\ld n foll[1 & s !re our ,sc&9avians rema91 ! sil5t witnesses ( a /up5d\s climatic revolution4 ,n[1 all ! _w ov]1 plants & animals h simil> wond]ful tales to tell ( =m] geographical *anges4 ,! flora & fauna ( our c\ntry1 = example1 prove t ! ,briti% ,isl&s =m$ "p ( ! ,cont95t at a v rec5t geological p]iod2 & s1 f simil> evid5ce1 we "k t n long ago ,europe 0 jo9$ on to ,africa4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! facts connect$ ) ! pres5t di/ribution ( life demon/rate t "s areas1 su* z ,au/ralia1 h be5 sep>at$ f ! ne>e/ cont95tal l& = va/ly prolong$ p]iods ( "t4 ,x w\ld be a v easy matt] to adduce _m fur!r illu/rations to %[ h[ close is ! connection betwe5 ! /udies ( ! physical geograph] & ! geologi/4 ,i d n inde$ exagg]ate :5 ,i say t no "o c hope to become a geologi/ :o is n well v]s$ 9 ,physical ,geography2 nor1 on ! o!r h&1 c ! physical geograph] possibly disp5se ) ! aid ( ,geology4 ,! two subjects are z closely relat$ & int]wov51 ! "o ) ! o!r1 z ,hi/ory is ) ,political ,geography4 ,i d n see !re=e h[ educationi/s :o h admitt$ ! great importance ( ,physical ,geography z a bran* ( g5]al education1 c logically exclude ,geology z a subject ( in/ruction 9 s*ools4 ,already1 inde$1 x has be5 introduc$ by _m tea*]s1 & ,i am confid5t t ere long x w be z g5]ally taught z ,physical ,geography4 ,i w\ld n1 h[ev]1 pres5t ! subject to "y p z a lesson to be le>n$ f books4 ,a good tea*] %\ld be able to disp5se ) ^! helps1 or r h9drances--= su* !y really are to a "y beg9n]4 ,8 pupils ought to h previ\sly /udi$ ! subject ( ,physical ,geography1 & if !y h be5 well taught !y ought to h already acquir$ no mean /ore ( geological k4 ,!y ought1 9 fact1 to h le>n$ a good deal ab\t ! great =ces :i* are cont9ually modify+ ! surface ( ! globe1 & :at !y h n[ to d is to /udy m p>ticul>ly ! results :i* h foll[$ f ! con/ant op]ation ( ^? =ces4 ,we %all suppose1 = example1 t ! tea*] has describ$ h[ riv]s erode _! *annels1 & waves t5d to cut back a coa/-l9e1 & h[ ! products ( erosion1 consi/+ ( gravel1 s&1 & mud1 are di/ribut$ along riv]-valleys & accumulat$ 9 lakes & seas4 ,he n[ exhibits to 8 class good-siz$ fragm5ts ( conglom]ate1 s&/one1 & %ale1 & po9ts out h[ ea* ( ^! rocks is ( ess5tially ! same "*1 & mu/ !re=e h _h ! same orig91 z mod]n s$im5t>y accumulations4 ,8 pupils %\ld be enc\rag$ to exam9e ! rocks ( _! own neighb\rhood1 :e!r exhibit$ 9 natural sections or artificial exposures1 & to comp>e ^! ) ! products ( mod]n geological action4 ,"o h\r's in/ruction 9 ! field is1 9 fact1 wor? tw5ty h\rs ( read+ or li/5+ to lectures4 ,k at fir/ h& is :at is want$4 ,!re are _m excell5t popul> or elem5t>y treatises deal+ ) ,hi/orical ,geology1 & ^! h _! uses1 & may be read ) pr(it z well z pleasure4 ,b ! m]e read+ ( su* books1 x is ne$less to say1 w nev] make u geologi/s4 ,!y help no d\bt to /ore ! m9d ) int]e/+ & ent]ta9+ k1 b !y d n cultivate ! faculties ( obs]vation & reason+4 ,& unless geology is s taught z to accompli% ?is result1 ,i d n see :y x %\ld ent] into any s*ool curriculum4 ,fur!r1 ,i w\ld rem>k t1 h[ev] int]e/+ a geological treatise may be1 x _c possibly /imulate ! imag9ation z ! practical /udy ( ! sci5ce is b\nd to d4 ,"o may put into ! h&s ( a y\? a cle> & well-writt5 description ( "s p>ticul> fossilif]\s lime/one1 & he may by d9t ( slavi% toil be able to repeat v]batim all t he has read4 ,t is h[ a good deal ( book-k ( sci5ce is acquir$4 ,only ?9k1 h[ev]1 ( ! drudg]y x involves--! absolute wa/e ( "t & en]gy4 ,b let u illu/rate our lesson by means ( a lump ( ! lime/one itself2 let u %[ him ! "* ( ! rock & ! nature ( its fossil cont5ts1 & 8 difficulties disappe>4 ,bett] /ill--let u take him1 if we c1 into a lime/one qu>ry1 & he w be a dull boy inde$ if he fails fully to und]/& :at lime/one is1 or to realise ! fact t ! rock he is look+ at accumulat$ sl[ly1 l exi/+ oceanic =mations1 at ! bottom ( a sea t teem$ ) animal life4 ,x is unnecess>y1 h[ev]1 t ,i %\ld illu/rate ?is subject fur!r4 ,i w\ld only repeat t ! beg9n] %\ld be taught f ! v fir/ to use 8 own eyes1 & to draw logical conclusions f ! facts :i* he obs]ves4 ,tra9$ aft] ?is mann]1 he w\ld acquire1 n only a precise & def9ite k ( :at geological data really are1 b he w\ld le>n also h[ to int]pret ^? data4 ,he w\ld become famili>1 9 fact1 ) ! guid+ pr9ciples ( geological inquiry4 ,h[ mu* or h[ little ( ,hi/orical ,geology %\ld be giv5 9 s*ools w dep5d ^u circum/ances4 ,great c>e1 h[ev]1 %\ld be tak5 to avoid we>y+ ! y\?ful /ud5t ) /r+s ( m]e names4 ,:at good is ga9$ by le>n+ to repeat ! names ( fifty or a hundr$ fossils1 if y _c recognise any "o ( ^! :5 x is put into y\r h&8 ,) "y beg9n]s ,i %\ld n attempt any?+ ( t k9d4 ,if ! neighb\rhood *anc$ to be ri* 9 fossils1 ,i %\ld take my pupils out on ,saturday to ! sections :]e !y 7 f\nd1 & let !m ply _! hamm]s & collect specim5s = !mselves4 ,i %\ld describe no fossils :i* !y _h n se5 & h&l$4 ,( ! m rem>kable =ms ( ext9ct animals & plants1 :i* are (t5 repres5t$ by only fragm5t>y rema9s1 ,i %\ld exhibit draw+s %[+ ! creatures z !y h be5 re/or$ by ! lab\rs ( comp>ative anatomi/s4 ,su* re/orations & ideal views ( geological sc5es l ^? giv5 by ,he]1 ,dana1 ,saporta1 & o!rs1 convey f> m vivid impressions ( ! life ( a geological p]iod ?an ! mo/ elaborate description4 ,9 f9e1 ! /ory ( our e>? %\ld be told mu* 9 ! same mann] z ,scott wrote ! hi/ory ( ,scotl& = 8 gr&son4 ,!re is no m reason = requir+ ! juv5ile /ud5t to drudge ?r\gh m9ute geological data be=e introduc+ him to ! gr& results ( geological inve/igation1 ?an !re is = compell+ him to /udy ! manuscripts 9 our ,record ,(fices be=e all[+ him to read ! hi/ory :i* has be5 drawn f ^! & simil> s\rces ( in=mation4 ,x is en\gh if at ! beg9n+ ( 8 /udies he has already le>n$ ! g5]al nature ( geological evid5ce & ! me?od ( its int]pretation4 ,provid$ ) su* a /ock ( geological k z ,i h indicat$1 our y\? w\ld leave s*ool ) "s intellig5t appreciation ( exi/+ physical conditions1 & a n inadequate conception ( _w-hi/ory4 ,,ii4 ,! ,physical ,features ( ,scotl&4,b ,b ,scotti% ,geographical ,magaz9e1 vol4 i41 #ahhe4 ,scotl&1 l all ,gaul1 is divid$ into ?ree p>ts1 namely1 ! ,highl&s1 ! ,c5tral ,l[l&s1 & ! ,s\!rn ,upl&s4 ,^!1 z a correctly drawn map w %[1 are natural divisions1 = !y are 9 accordance n only ) ! actual configuration ( ! surface1 b ) ! geological /ructure ( ! c\ntry4 ,! b\nd>ies ( ^! pr9cipal di/ricts are well def9$4 ,?us1 an approximately /raight or g5tly undulat+ l9e tak5 f ,/onehav51 9 a s\?-we/ direction1 along ! nor!rn outskirts ( ,/ra?more to ,gl5 ,artney1 & !nce ?r\gh ! l[] rea*es ( ,lo* ,lomond to ! ,fir? ( ,clyde at ,kilcreggan1 m>ks out ) precision ! s\!rn limits ( ! ,highl& area & ! nor!rn b\nd>y ( ! ,c5tral ,l[l&s4 ,! l9e t sep>ates ! ,c5tral ,l[l&s f ! ,s\!rn ,upl&s is h>dly s prom95tly m>k$ ?r\gh\t its entire c\rse1 b x foll[s precisely ! same nor?-ea/ & s\?-we/ tr5d1 & may be trac$ f ,dunb> along ! base ( ! ,lamm]moor & ,moorfoot ,hills1 ! ,l[!rs1 & ! hills ( ,gall[ay & ,c>rick1 to ,girvan4 ,9 ea* ( ! two m\nta9-tracts--! ,highl&s & ! ,s\!rn ,upl&s--areas ( l[-ly+ l& occur1 :ile 9 ! int]m$iate ,c5tral ,l[l&s isolat$ prom95ces & c]ta9 well-def9$ belts ( hilly gr\nd make _! appe>ance4 ,! /atem5t1 s frequ5tly repeat$ 9 class-books & manuals ( geography1 t ! m\nta9s ( ,scotl& consi/ ( ?ree 7"s writ]s say five7 ranges is errone\s & mislead+4 ,! orig9al au?or ( ?is /range /atem5t probably d]iv$ 8 ignorance ( ! physical features ( ! c\ntry f a /udy ( ^? antiquat$ maps ^u :i* ! m\nta9s ( poor ,scotl& are repres5t$ z sprawl+ & wriggl+ ab\t l s _m inebriat$ c5tip$es & convuls$ cat]pill>s4 ,prop]ly speak+1 !re is n a true m\nta9-range 9 ! c\ntry4 ,if we take ?is t]m1 :i* has be5 v loosely us$1 to signify a l9e> belt ( m\nta9s--t is1 an elevat$ ridge not*$ by cols or passes & trav]s$ by transv]se valleys--!n 9 place ( ?ree or five su* ranges we might j z well enum]ate fifty or sixty1 or m1 9 ! ,highl&s & ,s\!rn ,upl&s4 ,or1 %\ld any numb] ( su* dom9ant ridges be includ$ "u ! t]m m\nta9-range1 !re seems no reason :y all ! m\nta9s ( ! c\ntry %\ld n be mass$ "u "o head & /yl$ ! ,scotti% ,range4 ,a m\nta9-range1 prop]ly s call$1 is a belt ( high gr\nd :i* has be5 ridg$ up by e>?-movem5ts4 ,x is a fold1 puck]1 or wr9kle 9 ! e>?'s cru/1 & its g5]al ext]nal =m co9cides m or less closely ) ! /ructure or arrangem5t ( ! rock-masses ( :i* x is compos$4 ,a m\nta9-range ( ?is *>act]i/ic type1 h[ev]1 seldom occurs s+ly1 b is usually associat$ ) o!r p>allel ranges ( ! same k9d--! :ole =m+ toge!r :at is call$ a m\nta9-*a91 ( :i* ! ,alps may be tak5 z an example4 ,t *a9 consi/s ( a va/ succession ( v>i\s k9ds ( rocks1 :i* at "o "t 7 dispos$ 9 horizontal lay]s or /rata4 ,b dur+ subsequ5t e>?-movem5ts ^? horizontal b$s 7 compress$ lat]ally1 squeez$1 crumpl$1 contort$1 & ?r[n1 z x 71 into gigantic undulations & %>p] folds & plications4 ,&1 not)/&+ ! enorm\s erosion or d5udation to :i* ! long p>allel ridges or ranges h be5 subject$1 we c yet see t ! g5]al cont\r ( ^! corresponds 9 l>ge measure to ! plications or fold+s ( ! /rata4 ,?is is well %[n 9 ! ,jura1 ! p>allel ranges & int]m$iate holl[s ( :i* are =m$ by undulations ( ! fold$ /rata--! tops ( ! long hills co9cid+ m or less closely ) ! ar*es1 & ! int]v5+ holl[s ) ! tr\ghs4 ,n[ fold$1 crumpl$1 & contort$ rock-masses are common en\gh 9 ! m\nta9\s p>ts ( ,scotl&1 b ! configuration ( ! surface r>ely or nev] co9cides ) ! incl9ation ( ! und]ly+ /rata4 ,! m\nta9-cre/s1 s f> f be+ =m$ by ! tops ( great folds ( ! /rata1 frequ5tly %[ precisely ! opposite k9d ( /ructure4 ,9 o!r words1 ! rocks1 in/ead ( be+ incl9$ away f ! hill-tops l ! ro( ( a h\se f its c5tral ridge1 (t5 dip into ! m\nta9s4 ,:5 !y d s on opposite sides ! /rata ( :i* ! m\nta9s are built up seem arrang$ l a pile ( sauc]s1 "o )9 ano!r4 ,!re is yet ano!r feature :i* br+s out cle>ly ! fact t ! slopes ( ! surface h n be5 det]m9$ by ! incl9ation ( ! /rata4 ,! ma9 wat]-p>t+ t sep>ates ! dra9age-sy/em ( ! we/ f t ( ! ea/ ( ,scotl& does n co9cide ) any axis ( elevation4 ,x is n =m$ by an anticl9al fold or saddleback4 ,9 po9t ( fact x trav]ses ! /rata at all angles to _! incl9ation4 ,b ?is w\ld n h be5 ! case _h ! ,scotti% m\nta9s consi/$ ( a *a9 ( true m\nta9-ranges4 ,our m\nta9s1 !re=e1 are m]ely monum5ts ( d5udation1 !y are ! relics ( elevat$ plateaux :i* h be5 deeply furr[$ & tr5*$ by runn+ wat] & o!r ag5ts ( erosion4 ,a %ort sket* ( ! lead+ features pres5t$ by ! ?ree divisions ( ! c\ntry w s]ve to make ?is pla94 99 99 99 99 99 ,! ,highl&s4--,! s\!rn b\nd>y ( ?is1 ! mo/ ext5sive ( ! ?ree divisions1 has already be5 def9$4 ,! /raightness ( t b\nd>y is due to ! fact t x co9cides ) a great l9e ( fracture ( ! e>?'s cru/--on ! nor? or ,highl& side ( :i* occur slates1 s*i/s1 & v>i\s o!r h>d & t\gh rocks1 :ile on ! s\? side ! prevail+ /rata are s&/ones1 etc41 :i* are n ( s durable a "*4 ,! latt]1 9 consequ5ce ( ! comp>ative ease ) :i* !y yield to ! attacks ( ! erod+ ag5ts--ra9 & riv]s1 fro/ & ice--h be5 worn away to a great] ext5t ?an ! =m]1 & h5ce ! ,highl&s1 along _! s\!rn m>g91 abut m or less abruptly ^u ! ,l[l&s4 ,look+ across ,/ra?more f ! ,sidlaws or ! ,o*ils1 ! m\nta9s seem to spr+ sudd5ly f ! l[ gr\nds at _! base1 & to ext5d nor?-ea/ & s\?-we/1 z a great wall-l ramp>t4 ,! :ole area nor? & we/ ( ?is l9e may be said to be m\nta9\s1 its av]age elevation be+ probably n less ?an #aejj feet above ! sea4 ,a glance at ! cont\r$ or ! %ad$ %eets ( ! ,ordnance ,survey's map ( ,scotl& w %[ bett] ?an any v]bal description ! mann] 9 :i* our ,highl& m\nta9s are gr\p$4 ,x w be at once se5 t to apply ! t]m range to any p>ticul> area ( ^? high gr\nds is simply a misuse ( t]ms4 ,n only are ! m\nta9s n =m$ by plications & folds1 b !y d n ev5 tr5d 9 l9e> directions4 ,x is true t a well-tra9$ eye c detect c]ta9 diff]5ces 9 ! =m & (t5 9 ! col\r+ ( ! m\nta9s :5 ^! are trav]s$ f s\?-ea/ to nor?-we/4 ,su* diff]5ces correspond to *anges 9 ! composition & /ructure ( ! rock-masses1 :i* are dispos$ or arrang$ 9 a s]ies ( broad belts & n>r[] b&s1 runn+ f s\?-we/ to nor?-ea/ across ! :ole bread? ( ! ,highl&s4 ,ea* p>ticul> k9d ( rock gives rise to a special configuration1 or to c]ta9 *>act]i/ic features4 ,?us1 ! m\nta9s t occur )9 a belt ( slate1 (t5 %[ a %>ply cut outl9e1 ) m or less po9t$ peaks & some:at s]rat$ ridges--! ,ab]u*ill ,hills1 ne> ,comrie1 are an example4 ,9 regions ( gneiss & granite ! m\nta9s are usually r\nd$ & lumpy 9 =m4 ,among/ ! s*i/s1 aga91 ! outl9es are g5]ally m angul>4 ,qu>tz-rock (t5 %[s peak$ & jagg$ outl9es2 :ile ea* v>iety ( rock has its own p>ticul> col\r1 & ?is 9 c]ta9 /ates ( ! atmosph]e is v m>k$4 ,! mode 9 :i* ! v>i\s rocks yield to ! wea!r--! =ms ( _! cliffs & corries--^! & _m o!r features /rike a geologi/ at once2 & !re=e1 if we are to subdivide ! ,highl& m\nta9s into ranges1 a geological classification seems ! only natural arrangem5t t c be foll[$4 ,un=tunately1 h[ev]1 our geological l9es1 sep>at+ "o belt or range f ano!r1 (t5 run across ! v he>t ( great m\nta9-masses4 ,our ranges are di/+ui%$ f ea* o!r simply by sup]ficial diff]5ces ( feature & /ructure4 ,no long p>allel holl[s sep>ate a range ( s*i/-m\nta9s f ! succe$+ ranges ( qu>tz-rock1 gneiss1 or granite4 ,& no degree ( c>eful cont\r+ c\ld succe$ 9 express+ ! niceties ( configuration j ref]r$ to1 unless ! maps 7 on a v l>ge scale inde$4 ,a geological classification or gr\p+ ( ! m\nta9s into l9e> belts _c !re=e be %[n ^u any ord9>y orographical map4 ,su* a map c pres5t only ! relative heights & disposition ( ! m\nta9-masses1 & ^! la/1 9 ! case ( ! ,highl&s1 z we h se51 _c be call$ ranges )\t /ra9+ ! use ( t t]m4 ,any wide tract ( ! ,highl&s1 :5 view$ f a comm&+ position1 looks l a tumbl$ ocean 9 :i* ! waves appe> to be mov+ 9 all directions4 ,"o is also impress$ ) ! fact t ! undulations ( ! surface1 h[ev] int]rupt$ !y may be1 are broad--! m\nta9s1 h[ev] !y may v>y 9 detail accord+ to ! "* ( ! rocks1 are massive1 & g5]ally r\nd-%\ld]$ & (t5 some:at flat-topp$1 :ile !re is no great disp>ity ( height among/ ! dom9ant po9ts ( any individual gr\p4 ,let u take1 = example1 ! knot ( m\nta9s betwe5 ,lo* ,m>ee & ,lo* ,torridon4 ,!re we h a clu/] ( eight pyramidal m\nta9-masses1 ! summits ( :i* d n diff] mu* 9 elevation4 ,?us 9 ,lia?a* two po9ts rea* #cceh feet & #cdhf feet2 9 ,be9n ,allig9 !re are also two po9ts rea*+ #cjba feet & #cbcb feet respectively2 9 ,be9n ,de>g we h a height ( #biie feet2 9 ,be9n ,eighe are ?ree dom9ant po9ts--#cahh feet1 #cbag feet1 & #ccji feet4 ,! f\r pyramids to ! nor? are some:at l[]--_! elevations be+ #bhfj feet1 #bhja feet1 #bcgj feet1 & #bhib feet4 ,! m\nta9s ( ,lo*ab] & ! ,monadhlia? ,m\nta9s exhibit simil> relation%ips2 & ! same holds good ) all ! m\nta9-masses ( ! ,highl&s4 ,no geologi/ c d\bt t su* relation%ip is ! result ( d5udation4 ,! m\nta9s are monum5ts ( erosion--!y are ! wreck ( an old table-l&--! upp] surface & orig9al incl9ation ( :i* are approximately indicat$ by ! summits ( ! v>i\s m\nta9-masses & ! direction ( ! pr9cipal wat]-fl[s4 ,if we 9 imag9ation fill up ! valleys ) ! rock-mat]ial :i* =m]ly occupi$ _! place1 we %all 9 "s measure re/ore ! g5]al aspect ( ! ,highl& area be=e its m\nta9s began to be %ap$ out by ,nature's saws & *isels4 ,x w be obs]v$ t :ile /reams desc5d f ! v>i\s m\nta9s to e po9t 9 ! compass1 _! c\rses hav+ (t5 be5 det]m9$ by geological /ructure1 etc41 _! wat]s yet t5d ev5tually to collect & fl[ z l>ge riv]s 9 c]ta9 def9ite directions4 ,^! l>ge riv]s fl[ 9 ! direction ( ! av]age slope ( ! anci5t table-l&1 :ile ! ma9 wat]-p>t+s t sep>ate ! m ext5sive dra9age-areas ( ! c\ntry m>k out1 9 l mann]1 ! dom9ant portions ( ! same old l&-surface4 ,! wat]-p>t+ ( ! ,nor?-we/ ,highl&s runs ne>ly nor? & s\?1 keep+ q close to ! we/]n %ore1 s t ne>ly all ! dra9age ( t region fl[s inl&4 ,! g5]al incl9ation ( ! ,nor?-we/ ,highl&s is !re=e ea/]ly t[>ds ,gl5more & ! ,moray ,fir?4 ,9 ! region ly+ ea/ ( ,gl5more ! av]age slopes ( ! l& are indicat$ by ! directions ( ! riv]s ,spey1 ,don1 & ,tay4 ,^! two regions--! ,nor?-we/ & ,s\?-ea/ ,highl&s--are cle>ly sep>at$ by ! rem>kable depression ( ,gl5more1 :i* ext5ds ?r\gh ,lo* ,l9nhe1 ,lo* ,lo*y1 & ,lo* ,ness1 & ! fur!r ext5sion ( :i* t[>ds ! nor?-ea/ is indicat$ by ! /raight coa/-l9e ( ! ,moray ,fir? z f> z ,t>bat ,ness4 ,n[1 ?is long depression m>ks a l9e ( fracture & displacem5t ( v great geological antiquity4 ,! old plateau ( ! ,highl&s 0 fissur$ & split 9 two--t portion :i* lay to ! nor?-we/ s9k+ along ! l9e ( fissure to a great b at pres5t unasc]ta9$ dep?4 ,?us ! wat]s t fl[$ d[n ! slopes ( ! nor?-we/ portion ( ! brok5 plateau 7 damm$ by ! long wall ( rock on ! up-ca/1 or s\?-ea/ side ( ! fissure1 & compell$ to fl[ (f to nor?-ea/ & s\?-we/ along ! l9e ( breakage4 ,! erosion ?us induc$ suffic$ 9 ! c\rse ( "t to holl[ out ,gl5more & all ! m\nta9-valleys t op5 ^u x f ! we/4 ,! incl9ation ( t portion ( ! fissur$ plateau :i* lay to ! s\?-ea/ is indicat$1 z already rem>k$1 by ! tr5d ( ! pr9cipal riv]s4 ,x 0 nor?-ea/ 9 ! ,spey di/rict1 ne>ly due ea/ 9 ! area dra9$ by ! ,don1 ea/ & s\?-ea/ 9 t trav]s$ by ! ,tay & its afflu5ts1 we/]ly & s\?-we/]ly 9 ! di/rict ly+ ea/ ( ,lo* ,l9nhe4,c ,?us1 a l9e drawn f ,b5 ,nevis ?r\gh ! ,cairngorm & ,b5 ,mui* ,dhui ,m\nta9s to ,k9naird ,po9t passes ?r\gh ! highe/ l& 9 ! ,s\?-ea/ ,highl&s1 & probably indicates approximately ! dom9ant portion ( ! anci5t plateau4 ,nor? ( t l9e ! dra9age is t[>ds ! ,moray ,fir?2 ea/ ( x ! riv]s dis*>ge to ! ,nor? ,sea2 :ile an irregul> w9d+ l9e1 drawn f ,b5 ,nevis ea/w>d ?r\gh ! ,moor ( ,ranno* & s\?w>d to ,b5 ,lomond1 =ms ! wat]-p>t+ betwe5 ! ,nor? ,sea & ! ,atlantic1 & d\btless m>ks ano!r dom9ant area ( ! old table-l&4 ,c ,! geological read] h>dly requires to be rem9d$ t _m ( ! m9or /reams w\ld h _! c\rses det]m9$1 or greatly modifi$1 by ! geological /ructure ( ! gr\nd4 ,?us1 su* /reams (t5 fl[ along ! /rike & o!r l9es ( weakness1 & simil> causes1 d\btless1 influ5c$ ! ma9 riv]s dur+ ! gradual excavation ( _! valleys4 ,t ! valleys :i* dis*>ge _! wat]-fl[ nor? & ea/ to ! ,moray ,fir? & ! ,nor? ,sea h be5 excavat$ by riv]s & ! alli$ ag5ts ( erosion1 is suffici5tly evid5t4 ,all ! l>ge riv]s ( t wide region are typical4 ,!y %[ ! or?odox ?ree c\rses--namely1 a torr5tial or m\nta9-track1 a middle or valley-track1 & a l[] or pla9-track4 ,! same is ! case ) "s ( ! riv]s t fl[ ea/ f ! great nor?-&-s\? wat]-p>t+ ( ! ,nor?-we/ ,highl&s1 z1 = example1 ^? t ent] ! heads ( ,beauly ,fir?1 ,crom>ty ,fir?1 & ,dorno* ,fir?4 ,^?1 h[ev]1 :i* desc5d to ,lo* ,lo*y & ,lo* ,l9nhe1 & ! sea-lo*s ( ,argyll%ire1 h no l[] or pla9-track4 ,:5 we cross ! nor?-&-s\? wat]-p>t+ ( ! ,nor?-we/ ,highl&s1 we f9d t _m ( ! /reams are de/itute ( ev5 a middle or valley-track4 ,! majority are m]e m\nta9-torr5ts :5 !y rea* ! sea4 ,aga91 on ! ea/]n wat]%$ ( ! same region1 a l>ge numb] ( ! valleys conta9 lakes 9 _! upp] & middle rea*es1 & ?is is ! case also ) n a few ( ! valleys t op5 ^u ! ,atlantic4 ,m frequ5tly1 h[ev]1 ! wat]s fl[+ we/ pass ?r\gh no lakes1 b ent] ! sea at ! heads ( long sea-lo*s or fiords4 ,?is /rik+ contra/ betwe5 ! ea/ & we/ is n due to any diff]5ce 9 ! orig9 ( ! valleys4 ,! we/]n valleys are z mu* ! result ( erosion z ^? ( ! ea/4 ,! pres5t contra/1 9 fact1 is m app>5t ?an real1 & arises f ! fact t ! l& area on ! ,atlantic side has be5 greatly r$uc$ 9 ext5t by subsid5ce4 ,! we/]n fiords are m]ely subm]g$ l&-valleys4 ,=m]ly ! ,inn] & ,out] ,hebrides 7 unit$ to !mselves & ! ma9l&1 ! c\ntry ( :i* !y =m$ a "p /ret*+ we/ into ! ,atlantic1 z f> probably z ! pres5t #ajj fa?oms l9e4 ,7 t dr[n$ l& to be re-elevat$1 ea* ( ! great sea-lo*s w\ld appe> z a deep m\nta9-valley conta9+ "o or m lake-bas9s ( precisely ! same "* z ^? t occur 9 s _m valleys on ! ea/]n wat]%$4 ,?us we mu/ consid] all ! isl&s ly+ (f ! we/ coa/ ( ! ,highl&s1 includ+ ! major portions ( ,arran & ,bute1 z =m+ "p & p>cel ( ! ,highl& division ( ,scotl&4 ,! pres5ce ( ! sea is a m]e accid5t2 ! old l&s n[ subm]g$ 7 above its level dur+ a v rec5t geological p]iod--a p]iod well )9 ! lifetime ( ! exi/+ fauna & flora4 ,! old table-l& ( :i* ! ,highl&s & ,isl&s are ! d5ud$ & unsubm]g$ relics1 is ( va/ geological antiquity4 ,x 0 c]ta9ly 9 exi/5ce1 & _h ev5 und]gone v consid]able erosion1 be=e ! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one p]iod1 z is prov$ by ! fact t l>ge tracts ( ! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one =mation are f\nd occupy+ holl[s 9 its surface4 ,gl5more _h already be5 excavat$ :5 ! conglom]ates ( ! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one began to be laid d[n4 ,"s ( ! l[-ly+ m>itime tracts ( ! ,highl& area 9 ,cai?ness1 & ! bord]s ( ! ,moray ,fir?1 are cov]$ ) ! s&/ones ( t age2 & !re is evid5ce to %[ t ^! /rata =m]ly ext5d$ ov] wide regions1 f :i* !y h s9ce be5 remov$ by erosion4 ,! fact t ! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one deposits /ill occupy su* ext5sive areas 9 ! nor?-ea/ ( ! ma9l&1 & 9 ,orkney1 %[s t ! old table-l& %elv$ away gradually to nor? & ea/1 & ! same conclusion may be drawn1 z we h se51 f ! direction foll[$ by ! ma9 l9es ( ! exi/+ dra9age-sy/em4 ,we see1 9 %ort1 9 ! table-l& ( ! ,highl&s1 "o ( ! olde/ elevat$ regions ( ,europe--a region :i* has be5 aga9 & aga9 subm]g$ ei!r 9 :ole or 9 "p1 & cov]$ ) ! deposits ( anci5t seas & lakes1 only to be re-elevat$1 "t aft] "t1 & ?us to h ^? deposits 9 l>ge measure swept away f its surface by ! long-cont9u$ action ( runn+ wat] & o!r ag5ts ( d5udation4 99 99 99 99 99 ,! ,c5tral ,l[l&s4--,! belt ( l[-ly+ gr\nd t sep>ates ! ,highl&s f ! ,s\!rn ,upl&s is1 z we h se51 v well def9$4 ,9 _m places ! ,upl&s rise along its s\!rn m>g9 z abruptly z ! ,highl&s 9 ! nor?4 ,! s\!rn m>g9 co9cides1 9 fact1 = a consid]able di/ance 7f ,girvan to ! base ( ! ,moorfoots7 ) a great fracture t runs 9 ! same direction z ! b\nd+ fracture or fault ( ! ,highl&s4 ,! ,c5tral ,l[l&s may be describ$1 9 a ^w1 z a broad depression betwe5 two table-l&s4 ,a glance at ! map w %[ t ! pr9cipal features ( ! ,l[l&s h a nor?-ea/]ly tr5d--! same tr5d1 9 fact1 z ! b\nd+ l9es ( ! division4 ,to ?is arrangem5t !re are "s exceptions1 ! pr9cipal be+ ! belt ( hilly gr\nd t ext5ds f ! neighb\rhood ( ,paisley1 s\?-ea/ ?r\gh ! bord]s ( ,r5frew%ire & ,ayr%ire1 to ! vic9ity ( ,muirkirk4 ,! major "p ( ! ,l[l&s is "u #ejj feet 9 height1 b "s consid]able portions exce$ an elevation ( #ajjj feet1 :ile "h & !re ! hills approa* a height ( #bjjj feet--! two highe/ po9ts 7#bceb & #bcce feet7 be+ atta9$ 9 ,b5 ,cleugh1 "o ( ! ,o*ils1 & 9 ,t9to4 ,probably ! av]age elevation ( ! ,l[l& division does n exce$ #cej or #djj feet4 ,speak+ g5]ally1 ! belts ( hilly gr\nd1 & ! m or less isolat$ prom95ces1 are =m$ ( m durable rocks ?an are met ) 9 ! adjac5t l[]-ly+ tracts4 ,?us ! ,sidlaws1 ! ,o*il ,hills1 & ! heights 9 ,r5frew%ire & ,ayr%ire1 are compos$ *iefly ( m or less h>d & t\gh volcanic rocks2 & :5 s&/ones ent] into ! =mation ( a l9e ( hills1 z 9 ! ,sidlaws1 !y g5]ally owe _! pres]vation to ! pres5ce ( ! volcanic rocks ) :i* !y are associat$4 ,?is is well illu/rat$ by ! ,lomond ,hills 9 ,fife%ire1 ! basal & l>g] portion ( :i* consi/s *iefly ( some:at s(t s&/ones1 :i* h be5 protect$ f erosion by an ov]ly+ %eet ( h>d basalt-rock4 ,all ! isolat$ hills 9 ! bas9 ( ! ,=? are =m$ ( knobs1 bosses1 & %eets ( v>i\s k9ds ( igne\s rock1 :i* are m durable ?an ! s&/ones1 %ales1 & o!r s$im5t>y /rata by :i* !y are surr\nd$4 ,h5ce x is v evid5t t ! configuration ( ! ,l[l& tracts ( ,c5tral ,scotl& is due to d5udation4 ,! s(t] & m readily dis9tegrat$ rocks h be5 worn away to a great] ext5t ?an ! h>d] & less yield+ masses4 ,only 9 a few cases d ! slopes ( ! hill-belts co9cide ) folds ( ! /rata4 ,?us1 ! nor!rn flanks ( ! ,sidlaws & ! ,o*ils slope t[>ds ! nor?-we/1 & ?is also is ! g5]al incl9ation ( ! old lavas & o!r rocks ( :i* ^? hills are compos$4 ,! s\!rn flanks ( ! same hill-belt slope 9 ,fife%ire t[>ds ! s\?-ea/--?is be+ also ! dip or incl9ation ( ! rocks4 ,! cre/ ( ! ,o*ils co9cides1 !re=e1 m or less closely1 ) an anticl9al ar* or fold ( ! /rata4 ,b :5 we foll[ ! axis ( ?is ar* t[>ds ! nor?-ea/ into ! ,sidlaws1 we f9d x brok5 ?r\gh by ! ,tay valley--! axial l9e runn+ d[n ?r\gh ! ,c>se ( ,g[rie to ! nor? ( ,dundee4 ,f ! fact t _m simil> anticl9al axes occur ?r\gh\t ! ,l[l&s1 :i* yet give rise to no correspond+ features at ! surface1 we may conclude t ! p>tial pres]vation ( ! anticl9e ( ! ,o*ils & ,sidlaws is simply ow+ to ! great] durability ( ! mat]ials ( :i* ^? hills consi/4 ,_h ! ar* be5 compos$ ( s&/ones & %ales x w\ld mo/ probably h giv5 rise to no su* prom95t features z are n[ visible4 ,ano!r hilly belt1 :i* at fir/ sight appe>s to correspond r\ghly to an anticl9al axis1 is t broad tract ( igne\s rocks :i* sep>ates ! ,kilm>nock coal-field f ! coal-fields ( ! ,clyde bas94 ,b al?\gh ! old lavas ( t hilly tract slope nor?-ea/ & s\?-we/1 ) ! same g5]al incl9ation z ! surface1 yet exam9ation %[s t ! hills d n =m a true anticl9e4 ,!y are built up ( a great v>iety ( anci5t lavas & fragm5tal tuffs or a%es1 :i* are incl9$ 9 _m diff]5t directions4 ,9 %ort1 we h 9 ^? hills ! degrad$ & sorely d5ud$ fragm5ts ( an anci5t volcanic bank1 =m$ by eruptions t began ^u ! bottom ( a %all[ sea 9 e>ly ,c>bonif]\s times1 & subsequ5tly became sub-arial4 ,& !re is evid5ce to %[ t aft] ! eruptions ceas$ ! volcanic bank 0 sl[ly subm]g$1 & ev5tually buri$ b5ea? ! accumulat+ s$im5ts ( lat] ,c>bonif]\s times4 ,! exposure ( ! anci5t volcanic bank at ! surface has be5 accompli%$ by ! d5udation ( ! /ratifi$ masses :i* =m]ly cov]$ x1 & its exi/5ce z a dom9ant elevation at ! pres5t day is solely due to ! fact t x is built up ( m resi/ant mat]ials ?an occur 9 ! adjac5t l[-ly+ areas4 ,! ,o*ils & ! ,sidlaws are ( great] antiquity1 b h a some:at simil> hi/ory4 ,into ?is1 h[ev]1 x is n necess>y to g4 ,! pr9cipal hills ( ! ,l[l&s =m two int]rupt$ belts1 ext5d+ nor?-ea/ & s\?-we/1 "o ( !m1 :i* we may call ! ,nor!rn ,heights1 fac+ ! ,highl&s1 & ! o!r1 :i* may 9 l mann] be t]m$ ! ,s\!rn ,heights1 flank+ ! great ,upl&s ( ! s\?4 ,! =m] ( ^! two belts is repres5t$ by ! ,g>vock ,hills1 ly+ betwe5 ,/onehav5 & ! valley ( ! ,nor? ,esk2 ! ,sidlaws1 ext5d+ f ! neighb\rhood ( ,montrose to ! valley ( ! ,tay at ,p]?2 ! ,o*il ,hills1 /ret*+ along ! s\? side ( ! ,fir? ( ,tay to ! valley ( ! ,=? at ,bridge-(-,allan2 ! ,l5nox ,hills1 rang+ f ! neighb\rhood ( ,/irl+ to ,dumb>ton2 ! ,kilb>*an ,hills1 ly+ betwe5 ,gre5ock & ,ardrossan2 ! ,cumbrae ,isl&s & ! s\!rn half ( ,arran2 & ! same l9e ( heights reappe>s 9 ! s\? end ( ,k9tyre4 ,a well-m>k$ holl[1 tr\gh1 or undulat+ pla9 ( v>iable wid?1 sep>ates ^! ,nor!rn ,heights f ! ,highl&s1 & may be foll[$ all ! way f ne> ,/onehav51 ?r\gh ,/ra?more1 to ,crieff & ,au*t]>d]4 ,betwe5 ! valleys ( ! ,e>n & ,tei? ?is pla9 atta9s an abnormal height 7! ,braes ( ,d\ne72 b f ! ,tei?1 s\?-we/ by ,fl&]s ,moss & ! l[] end ( ,lo* ,lomond to ! ,clyde at ,hel5sburgh1 x resumes its *>act]i/ic features4 ,x w be obs]v$ also t a holl[ sep>ates ! s\!rn portion ( ,arran f ! mu* l(ti] nor!rn or ,highl& area4 ,! tract kn[n z ! ,braes ( ,d\ne1 ext5d+ f ,gl5 ,artney s\?-ea/ to ,/ra? ,allan1 al?\gh abutt+ ^u ! ,highl&s1 is cle>ly m>k$ (f f t great division by geological composition & /ructure1 by elevation & configuration4 ,x is simply a less deeply erod$ portion ( ! long tr\gh or holl[4 ,pass+ n[ to ! ,s\!rn ,heights ( ! ,l[l&s1 we f9d t ^! =m a /ill m int]rupt$ belt ?an ! ,nor!rn ,heights1 & t !y are less cle>ly sep>at$ by an int]m$iate depression f ! great ,upl&s :i* !y flank4 ,!y beg9 9 ! nor?-ea/ ) ! isolat$ ,g>leton ,hills1 betwe5 :i* & ! ,lamm]moors a n>r[ l[-ly+ tr\gh or holl[ appe>s4 ,a consid]able wid? ( l[ gr\nd n[ int]v5es be=e we rea* ! ,p5tl& ,hills1 :i* are 9 l mann] sep>at$ f ! ,s\!rn ,upl&s by a broad l[-ly+ tract4 ,at _! s\!rn extremity1 h[ev]1 ! ,p5tl&s m]ge m or less gradually into a some:at brok5 & int]rupt$ gr\p ( hills :i* abut abruptly on ! ,s\!rn ,upl&s1 9 ! same mann] z ! ,braes ( ,d\ne abut ^u ! slate hills ( ! ,highl& bord]s4 ,9 ?is region ! greate/ heights rea*$ are 9 ,t9to 7#bcce feet71 & ,cairntable 7#ahdd feet71 &1 at ! same "t1 ! hills broad5 out t[>ds nor?-we/1 :]e !y are cont9u$ by ! belt ( volcanic rocks already describ$ z ext5d+ betwe5 ! coal-fields ( ! ,clyde & ,kilm>nock4 ,al?\gh ! ,s\!rn ,heights abut s closely ^u ! ,upl&s ly+ to ! s\?1 !re is no difficulty 9 draw+ a firm l9e ( dem>cation betwe5 ! two areas--geologically & physically !y are readily di/+ui%$4 ,no "o ) any eye = =m1 no matt] h[ ignorant he may be ( geology1 c fail to see h[ /rongly contra/$ are su* hills z ,t9to & ,cairntable ) ^? ( ! ,upl&s1 :i* !y face4 ,! ,s\!rn ,heights are aga9 int]rupt$ t[>ds ! s\?-ea/ by ! valleys ( ! ,ayr & ! ,doon1 b !y reappe> 9 ! hills t ext5d f ! ,heads ( ,ayr to ! valley ( ! ,girvan4 ,betwixt ! ,nor!rn & ,s\!rn ,heights spread ! broad ,l[l& tracts t dra9 t[>ds ! ,=?1 toge!r ) ! l[] rea*es ( ! ,clyde valley1 & ! wide moors t =m ! wat]-p>t+ betwe5 t riv] & ! e/u>y ( ! ,=?4 ,! hills t occur )9 ?is inn] region ( ! ,c5tral ,l[l&s are usually m or less isolat$1 & are inv>iably =m$ by outcrops ( igne\s rock4 ,_! outl9e & g5]al aspect v>y accord+ to ! geological "* ( ! rocks ( :i* !y are compos$--"s =m+ m or less prom95t esc>pm5ts l ^? ( ! ,ba?gate ,hills & ! heights beh9d ,burntisl& & ,k+horn1 o!rs %[+ a s(t r\nd$ cont\r l ! ,sal9e ,hills 9 ! we/ ( ,fife%ire4 ,( ! same g5]al "* z ?is inn] ,l[l& region is ! simil> tract wat]$ by ! ,irv9e1 ! ,ayr1 & ! ,doon4 ,?is tract1 z we h se51 is sep>at$ f ! l>g] inn] region ly+ to ! ea/ by ! volcanic hills t ext5d f ! ,s\!rn ,heights nor?-we/ into ,r5frew%ire4 ,! l>ge/ riv]s t trav]se ! ,c5tral ,l[l&s take _! rise1 z might be expect$1 9 ! m\nta9\s table-l&s to ! nor? & s\?4 ,( ^! ! pr9cipal are ! ,nor? & ,s\? ,esks1 ! ,tay & ! ,isla1 ! ,e>n1 & ! ,=?1 all ( :i*1 ) num]\s tribut>ies1 desc5d f ! ,highl&s4 ,& x w be obs]v$ t !y h brea*$ ! l9e ( ! ,nor!rn ,heights 9 ?ree places--namely1 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ,montrose1 ,p]?1 & ,/irl+4 ,! only /reams ( importance com+ nor? f ! ,s\!rn ,upl&s are ! ,clyde & ! ,doon1 bo? ( :i* 9 l mann] h brok5 ?r\gh ! ,s\!rn ,heights4 ,n[1 j z ! ma9 wat]-fl[s ( ! ,highl&s indicate ! av]age slope ( ! anci5t l&-surface be=e x 0 tr5*$ & furr[$ by ! innum]able valleys t n[ int]sect x1 s ! direction foll[$ by ! great] riv]s t trav]se ! ,l[l&s m>k out ! primeval slopes ( t area4 ,"o sees at a glance1 !n1 t ! pres5t configuration ( ?is latt] division has be5 br\ght ab\t by ! erosive action ( ! pr9cipal riv]s & _! c\ntless afflu5ts1 aid$ by ! sub-arial ag5ts g5]ally--ra91 fro/1 ice1 etc4 ,! hills rise above ! av]age level ( ! gr\nd1 n because !y h be5 ridg$ up f bel[1 b simply ow+ to ! m durable nature ( _! compon5t rocks4 ,t ! ,nor!rn & ,s\!rn ,heights are brea*$ only %[s t ! l[ gr\nds1 n[ sep>at+ ^? heights f ! adjac5t ,highl&s & ,s\!rn ,upl&s1 =m]ly /ood at a high] level1 & s all[$ ! riv]s to make _! way m or less directly to ! sea4 ,?us1 = example1 ! long tr\gh ( ,/ra?more has be5 excavat$ out ( s&/ones1 ! upp] surface ( :i* once rea*$ a mu* great] height1 & slop$ outw>ds f ! ,highl&s across :at is n[ ! ridge ( ! ,sidlaw ,hills4 ,"h !n1 9 ! ,c5tral ,l[l&s1 z 9 ! ,highl&s1 true m\nta9- or hill-ranges are abs5t4 ,b if we are p]mitt$ to t]m any well-m>k$ l9e or belt ( high gr\nd a range1 !n ! ,nor!rn & ,s\!rn ,heights ( ! ,l[l&s are bett] entitl$ to be s designat$ ?an any s]ies ( m\nta9s 9 ! ,highl&s4 99 99 99 99 99 ,! ,s\!rn ,upl&s4--,! nor!rn m>g9 ( ?is wide division hav+ already be5 def9$1 we may n[ proce$ to exam9e ! di/ribution ( its m\nta9-masses4 ,be=e do+ s1 h[ev]1 x may be z well to po9t out t consid]able tracts 9 ,twe$dale1 ,teviotdale1 & ,liddesdale1 toge!r ) ! ,*eviot ,hills1 d n prop]ly belong to ! ,s\!rn ,upl&s4 ,9 fact1 ! ,*eviots be> ! same relation to ^? ,upl&s z ! ,nor!rn ,heights d to ! ,highl&s4 ,l !m !y are sep>at$ by a broad holl[ f ! ,upl&s1 :i* !y face--a holl[ t rea*es its greate/ ext5t 9 ,twe$dale1 & rapidly w$ges out to s\?-we/1 :]e ! ,*eviots abut abruptly on ! ,upl&s4 ,ev5 :]e ?is abrupt contact takes place1 h[ev]1 ! diff]5t configuration ( ! two regions w\ld enable any geologi/ to sep>ate ! "o set ( m\nta9s f ! o!r4 ,b = geographical purposes we may conv5i5tly disreg>d ^! geological contra/s1 & include )9 ! ,s\!rn ,upl&s all ! area ly+ betwe5 ! ,c5tral ,l[l&s & ! ,engli% ,bord]4 ,if !re are no m\nta9s 9 ! ,highl&s s gr\p$ & arrang$ z to be prop]ly t]m$ ranges1 ?is is n less true ( ! ,s\!rn ,upl&s4 ,p]haps x is ! appe>ance :i* ^? ,upl&s pres5t :5 view$ f ! ,c5tral ,l[l&s t fir/ sugge/$ ! notion t !y 7 ranges4 ,!y seem to rise l a wall out ( ! l[ gr\nds at _! base1 & ext5d f> z eye c rea* 9 an approximately /raight l9e4 ,x seems m probable1 h[ev]1 t our e>li] c>tograph]s m]ely meant1 by _! conv5tional hill-%ad+1 to m>k out def9itely ! wat]-p>t+s4 ,b to d s 9 ?is mann] n[1 :5 ! l>ge cont\r maps ( ! ,ordnance ,survey may be 9 any "o's h&s1 is inexcusable4 ,a /udy ( ^? maps1 or1 bett] /ill1 a visit to ! tops ( a few ( ! dom9ant po9ts 9 ! area "u review1 w effectually dispel ! idea t ! ,s\!rn ,upl&s consi/ ( a s]ies ( ridges zigzagg+ across ! c\ntry4 ,l ! ,highl&s1 ! area ( ! ,s\!rn ,upl&s is simply an old table-l&1 furr[$ into rav9e & valley by ! op]ation ( ! v>i\s ag5ts ( erosion4 ,beg9n+ our survey ( ^! ,upl&s 9 ! ea/1 we enc\nt] fir/ ! ,lamm]moor ,hills--a broad undulat+ plateau--! highe/ elevations ( :i* d n rea* #bjjj feet4 ,we/ ( ?is come ! ,moorfoot ,hills & ! high gr\nds ly+ betwe5 ! ,gala & ! ,twe$--a tract :i* av]ages a some:at high] elevation--two po9ts exce$+ #bjjj feet 9 height4 ,! next gr\p ( m\nta9s we meet is t ( ! ,m(fat ,hills1 9 :i* head a numb] ( important riv]s--! ,twe$1 ! ,y>r[1 ! ,ettrick1 & ! ,annan4 ,_m po9ts 9 ?is region exce$ #bjjj feet1 o!rs approa* #bejj feet2 & "s rea* ne>ly #cjjj feet1 su* z ,broad ,law 7#bged feet71 & ,doll> ,law 7#bfhj feet74 ,9 ! s\?-we/ comes ! gr\p ( ! ,l[!rs1 ) dom9ant elevations ( m ?an #bjjj feet4 ,!n foll[ ! m\nta9-masses 9 :i* ! ,ni?1 ! ,k51 ! ,cree1 ! ,doon1 & ! ,girvan take _! rise1 _m ( ! heights exce$+ #bjjj feet1 & a numb] rea*+ & ev5 pass+ #bejj feet1 ! dom9ant po9t be+ rea*$ 9 ! noble m\nta9-mass ( ! ,m]rick 7#bgfd feet74 ,9 ! extreme s\?-we/ ! ,upl&s t]m9ate 9 a broad undulat+ plateau1 ( :i* ! highe/ po9t is b little ov] #ajjj feet4 ,all ! m\nta9-gr\ps n[ ref]r$ to are mass$ along ! nor!rn bord]s ( ! ,s\!rn ,upl&s4 ,9 ! s\?-we/ ! g5]al surface falls m or less gradually away t[>ds ! ,solway--! #ejj feet cont\r l9e be+ rea*$ at fifte5 miles1 ^u an av]age1 f ! sea-coa/4 ,9 ! extreme nor?-ea/ ! high gr\nds desc5d 9 l mann] into ! ri* l[ gr\nds ( ! ,m]se4 ,betwe5 ^! l[ gr\nds & ,ann&ale1 h[ev]1 ! ,upl&s m]ge1 z x 71 into ! broad elevat$ moory tract t ext5ds s\?-ea/1 to unite ) ! ,*eviots--a belt ( hills ris+ along ! ,engli% ,bord] to heights ( #aifd feet 7,peel ,fell71 & #bfgf feet 7! ,*eviot74 ,! g5]al configuration ( ! ma9 mass ( ! ,s\!rn ,upl&s--t is to say1 ! m\nta9-gr\ps ext5d+ along ! nor!rn portion ( ! area "u review1 f ,lo* ,ryan to ! coa/ betwe5 ,dunb> & ,/4 ,abb's ,head--is some:at tame & monoton\s4 ,! m\nta9s are flat-topp$ elevations1 ) broad1 r\nd$ %\ld]s & smoo? grassy slopes4 ,/&+ on ! summits ( ! ,high] hills1 "o seems to be 9 ! mid/ ( a wide1 g5tly undulat+ pla91 ! surface ( :i* is n brok5 by ! appe>ance ( any isolat$ peaks or em95ces4 ,/ruggl+ across ! bogs & peat-mosses t cov] s _m ( ^? flat-topp$ m\nta9s1 ! w&]] ev] & anon sudd5ly f9ds himself on ! br9k ( a deep gre5 dale4 ,he discov]s1 9 %ort1 t he is trav]s+ an elevat$ undulat+ table-l&1 int]sect$ by n>r[ & broad tr5*-l valleys t radiate outw>ds 9 all directions f ! dom9ant bosses & swell+s ( ! plateau4 ,! m\nta9s1 !re=e1 are m]ely broad ridges & banks sep>at+ contigu\s valleys2 9 a ^w1 !y are1 l ! m\nta9s ( ! ,highl&s1 monum5ts ( erosion1 :i* d n run 9 l9e> directions1 b =m irregul> gr\ps & masses4 ,! rocks t ent] into ! =mation ( ?is portion ( ! ,s\!rn ,upl&s h mu* ! same "* ?r\gh\t4 ,consequ5tly !re is less v>iety ( cont\r & col\r ?an 9 ! ,highl&s4 ,! hills are n only flatt] atop1 b are mu* smoo!r 9 outl9e1 !re be+ a g5]al abs5ce ( ^? beetl+ crags & precipices :i* are s common 9 ! ,highl& regions4 ,n[ & aga91 h[ev]1 ! m\nta9s assume a r\gh] aspect4 ,?is is especially ! case ) ^? ( ,c>rick & ,gall[ay1 among/ :i* we enc\nt] a wildness & gr&eur :i* are 9 /rik+ contra/ to ! g5tle pa/oral "* ( ! ,l[!rs & simil> tracts ext5d+ along ! nor!rn & high] p>ts ( ! ,s\!rn ,upl&s4 ,desc5d+ to details1 ! geologi/ c obs]ve also modifications ( cont\r ev5 among ^? monoton\s r\nd$ hills4 ,su* modifications are due to diff]5ces 9 ! "* ( ! compon5t rocks1 b !y are r>ely s /rik+ z ! modifications t arise f ! same cause 9 ! ,highl&s4 ,to ! tra9$ eye1 h[ev]1 !y are suffici5tly manife/1 & ^u a geologically col\r$ map1 :i* %[s ! v>i\s belts ( rock t trav]se ! ,upl&s f s\?-we/ to nor?-ea/1 x w be f\nd t ! m\nta9s occurr+ )9 ea* ( ^? sep>ate belts h c]ta9 di/9ctive features4 ,su* features1 h[ev]1 _c be depict$ ^u a small orographical map4 ,! sep>ation ( ^? m\nta9s into di/9ct ranges1 by ref]5ce to _! physical aspect1 is ev5 less possible "h ?an 9 ! ,highl&s4 ,n[ & aga91 b&s ( c]ta9 rocks1 :i* are ( a m durable "* ?an ! o!r /rata 9 _! neighb\rhood1 give rise to pron\nc$ ridges & banks1 :ile holl[s & valleys occasionally co9cide m or less closely ) ! outcrops ( ! m readily erod$ /rata2 b su* features are m]e m9or details 9 ! g5]al configuration ( ! c\ntry4 ,! c\rses ( brooks & /reams may h be5 frequ5tly det]m9$ by ! nature & arrangem5t ( ! rocks1 b ! g5]al slope ( ! ,upl&s & ! direction ( ! ma9 l9es ( wat]-fl[ are at "r angles to ! tr5d ( ! /rata1 & _c !re=e h be5 det]m9$ 9 t way4 ,! /rata g5]ally are incl9$ at high angles--!y occur1 9 %ort1 z a s]ies ( great anticl9al ar*es & syncl9al curves1 b ! tops ( ! gr& folds h be5 plan$ (f1 & ! axes ( ! syncl9al tr\ghs1 s f> f co9cid+ ) valleys1 v (t5 run along ! tops ( ! highe/ hills4 ,! fold+s & plications d n1 9 a ^w1 produce any correspond+ undulations ( ! surface4 ,m5tion has be5 made ( ! elevat$ moory tracts t s]ve to connect ! ,*eviots ) ! l(ti] ,upl&s ly+ to nor?-we/4 ,! configuration ( ^! moors is tam] ev5 ?an t ( ! regions j describ$1 b ! same g5]al =m prevails f ! neighb\rhood ( ! ,m(fat ,hills to ! head-wat]s ( ! ,teviot4 ,!re1 h[ev]1 o!r v>ieties ( rock appe>1 & produce correspond+ *anges 9 ! aspect ( ! high gr\nds4 ,n a few ( ! hills 9 ?is di/rict /& out prom95tly4 ,!y are m or less pyramidal & conical 9 %ape1 be+ built up ( s&/ones (t5 cr[n$ atop ) a capp+ ( "s cry/all9e igne\s rock1 su* z basalt4 ,! ,maid5 ,paps1 ,leap ,hill1 ,ne$s ,law1 & o!rs are examples4 ,! heights dra9+ t[>ds ,liddesdale & l[] rea*es ( ,eskdale1 compos$ *iefly ( s&/ones1 ) "h & !re int]calat$ %eets ( h>d] igne\s rock1 frequ5tly %[ esc>pm5ts & t]rac$ outl9es1 b h a g5]al undulat+ cont\r2 & simil> features are *>act]i/ic ( ! s&/one m\nta9s t =m ! s\?-we/ portion ( ! ,*eviots4 ,t[>ds ! nor?-ea/1 h[ev]1 ! s&/ones give place to v>i\s igne\s rocks1 s t ! hills 9 ! nor?-ea/ section ( ! ,*eviots diff] v mu* 9 aspect & configuration f ^? at ! o!r extremity ( ! belt4 ,!y h a m v>i$ & brok5 outl9e1 closely resembl+ _m p>ts ( ! ,o*ils & o!r portions ( ! ,nor!rn & ,s\!rn ,heights ( ! ,c5tral ,l[l&s4 ,! l[-ly+ tracts ( ,roxburgh%ire & ! ,m]se1 9 l mann]1 pres5t features :i* are common to ! inn] region ( ! ,c5tral ,l[l&s4 ,occasional ridges ( hills rise above ! g5]al level ( ! l&1 z at ,smailholm & ,/it*ell to ! nor? ( ,kelso1 :ile isolat$ knolls & prom95ces--"s bald & abrupt1 o!rs smoo? & r\nd$--help to div]sify ! surface4 ,bon*e/] ,hill1 ,rub]s ,law1 ! ,dunian1 ,p5ielheugh1 ,m9to ,hills1 & ! ,eildons may be m5tion$ z examples4 ,all ( ^! are ( igne\s orig91 "s be+ m]e caps ( basalt re/+ ^u a f\ndation ( s&/one1 :ile o!rs are ! /umps ( isolat$ volcanoes4 ,9 ! m>itime tracts ( ,gall[ay ! l[ gr\nds repeat1 on a small] scale1 ! configuration ( ! l(ty ,upl&s beh9d1 = !y are compos$ ( ! same k9ds ( rock4 ,_! mo/ rem>kable feature is ! heavy m\nta9-mass ( ,criffel1 ris+ ne> ! m\? ( ! ,ni? to a height ( #ahjj feet4 ,ev]y:]e1 !re=e1 ?r\gh\t ! region ( ! ,s\!rn ,upl&s1 9 hilly & l[-ly+ tracts alike1 we see t ! l& has be5 modell$ & cont\r$ by ! ag5ts ( erosion4 ,we are deal+1 z 9 ! ,highl&s1 ) an old table-l&1 9 :i* valleys h be5 excavat$ by runn+ wat] & its helpmates4 ,n[h]e d we enc\nt] any l9e> banks1 ridges1 or ranges z we f9d describ$ 9 ! class-books1 & repres5t$ ^u _m g5]al maps ( ! c\ntry4 ,9 "o ( ^? manuals we read t 9 ! s\!rn di/rict ! pr9cipal range ( m\nta9s is t kn[n z ! ,l[!r ,hills1 :i* spr+s (f f ! ,*eviots1 &1 runn+ 9 a zigzag direction to ! s\?-we/1 t]m9ates on ! we/ coa/ ne> ,lo* ,ryan4 ,?is is q true1 accord+ to _m common maps1 b un=tunately ! range exi/s ^u ^? maps & n[h]e else4 ,! zigzag l9e describ$ is n a range ( m\nta9s1 b a wat]-p>t+1 :i* is q ano!r matt]4 ,! table-l& ( ! ,s\!rn ,upl&s1 l t ( ! ,highl&s1 is ( imm5se antiquity4 ,long be=e ! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one p]iod1 x _h be5 furr[$ & tr5*$ by runn+ wat]4 ,( ! orig9al cont\r ( its surface1 all we c say is t x =m$ an undulat+ plateau1 ! g5]al slope ( :i* 0 t[>ds s\?-ea/4 ,?is is %[n by ! tr5d ( ! m important riv]s1 su* z ! ,ni? & ! ,annan1 ! ,gala & ! ,lead]2 & by ! di/ribution ( ! v>i\s /rata p]ta9+ to ! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one & lat] geological p]iods4 ,?us1 /rata ( ,old ,r$ ,s&/one & ,c>bonif]\s age occupy ! ,m]se & ! l[] rea*es ( ,teviotdale1 & ext5d up ! valleys ( ! ,:iteadd] & ! ,lead] into ! he>t ( ! ,silurian ,upl&s4 ,9 l mann] ,p]mian s&/ones are well develop$ 9 ! anci5t holl[s ( ,ann&ale & ,ni?sdale4 ,along ! nor!rn bord]s ( ! ,s\!rn ,upl&s we meet ) simil> evid5ce to %[ t ev5 z e>ly z ,old ,r$ ,s&/one times ! old plateau1 along :at is n[ its nor!rn m>g91 0 p5etrat$ by valleys t dra9$ t[>ds ! nor?4 ,! ma9 dra9age1 h[ev]1 !n z n[1 0 direct$ t[>ds s\?-ea/4 ,_m geological facts conspire to %[ t ! ,silurian table-l& ( ^! ,upl&s has be5 subm]g$1 l ! ,highl&s1 9 :ole or 9 "p4 ,?is happ5$ at v>i\s p]iods1 & ea* "t ! l& w5t d[n x receiv$ a cov]+ ( new] accumulations--pat*es ( :i* /ill rema9 to te/ify to ! =m] ext5t ( ! subm]g5ces4 ,f ! high] portions ( ! ,upl&s ^? accumulations h be5 almo/ :olly swept away1 b !y h n be5 entirely cle>$ out ( ! anci5t valleys4 ,!y /ill mantle ! bord]s ( ! ,silurian area1 p>ticul>ly 9 ! nor?-ea/1 :]e !y atta9 a great ?ickness 9 ! moors ( ,liddesdale & ! ,*eviot ,hills4 ,! details ( ! evolution ( ! :ole area ( ! ,s\!rn ,upl&s =m an int]e/+ /udy1 b ?is p]ta9s r to ,geology ?an to ,physical ,geography4 ,x is en\gh1 f our pres5t po9t ( view1 to be assur$ t ! ma9 features ( ! c\ntry 7 *alk$ out1 z x 71 at a v di/ant geological p]iod1 & t all ! inf9ite v>iety 9 ! relief ( our l& has be5 br\ght ab\t directly1 n by titanic convulsions & e>?-movem5ts1 b by ! long-cont9u$ work+ ( ra9 & riv]s--( fro/ & sn[ & ice1 supplem5t$ f "t to "t by ! action ( ! sea4 ,! physical features m p>ticul>ly ref]r$ to 9 ?is pap] are ( c\rse only ! bold] & m prom95t cont\rs--^? namely :i* c be express$ ) suffici5t accuracy ^u %eets ( su* a size z ! accompany+ orographical map ( ,scotl& 7,plate ,i474 ,) l>g] maps consid]ably m detail c be add$1 & _m *>act]i/ic & di/+ui%+ features w appe> accord+ to ! c>e ) :i* su* maps are drawn4 ,9 ! case ( ! ,ordnance ,survey map1 on ! scale ( #a in* to a mile1 ! v>y+ =ms ( ! surface are s fai?fully del9eat$ z frequ5tly to indicate to a tra9$ obs]v] ! nature ( ! rocks & ! geological /ructure ( ! gr\nd4 ,! arti/s :o sket*$ ! hills mu/ inde$ h _h good eyes = =m4 ,s c>efully has _! "w be5 done1 t x is (t5 n difficult to di/+ui% ^u _! maps hills =m$ ( su* rocks z s&/one f ^? t are compos$ ( m durable k9ds4 ,! individual *>act]i/ics ( m\nta9s ( s*i/1 ( granite1 ( qu>tz-rock1 ( slate1 are (t5 well depict$3 nay1 ev5 ! v>ieties ( igne\s rock :i* ent] into ! =mation ( ! num]\s hills & knolls ( ! ,l[l&s c frequ5tly be detect$ by ! features :i* ! arti/s h s intellig5tly caught4 ,ano!r set ( features :i* _! maps display are ^? due to glaciation4 ,^! are admirably br\ght out1 ev5 d[n to ! smalle/ details4 ,a glance at su* maps z ^? ( ,teviotdale & ! ,m]se1 = example1 %[s at once ! direction tak5 by ! old m] de glace4 ,! long p>allel flut+s ( ! hill-slopes1 ro*es m\tonnes1 project+ knolls & hills ) _! tails1 ! great s]ies ( banks & ridges ( /ony clay :i* tr5d d[n ! valley ( ! ,twe$--^!1 & _m m details ( int]e/ to speciali/s1 are %[n ^u ! maps4 ,all ov] ,scotl& simil> ph5om5a are common1 & h be5 reproduc$ ) m>vell\s skill on ! %ad$ %eets issu$ by ! ,ordnance ,survey4 ,& yet ! arti/s 7 n geologi/s4 ,! pres5t writ] is glad ( ?is opportunity ( record+ 8 obligations to ^? g5tlem54 ,_! fai?ful del9eations ( physical features h giv5 him _m valuable sugge/ions1 & h l$ up to c]ta9 obs]vations :i* might o!rwise n h be5 made4 ,,iii4 ,m\nta9s3 ,_! ,orig91 ,gr[?1 & ,decay4,d ,d ,scotti% ,geographical ,magaz9e1 vol4 ii41 #ahhf4 ,m\nta9s h long _h a fasc9ation = lov]s ( nature4 ,"t 01 h[ev]1 :5 mo/ civilis$ folk look$ ^u !m ) feel+s ak9 to horror2 & good p1 inde$1 h writt5 books to %[ t !y are ! curs$ places ( ! e>?--! ru9 & desolation ( _! gorges & defiles af=d+ indubitable pro( ( ! evils :i* befell ! _w :5 man laps$ f 8 primitive /ate ( innoc5ce & purity4 ,all ?is has *ang$4 ,x is ! fa%ion n[ to (f] a k9d ( wor%ip to m\nta9s2 & e ye> _! solitudes are invad$ by devotees--"s1 accord+ to wor?y ,meg ,dods1 r9n+ up hill & d[n dale1 knapp+ ! *uckie-/anes to pieces wi' hamm]s1 l sae mony roadmak]s run daft--to see1 z !y say1 h[ ! w>ld 0 made--o!rs try+ to transf] "s ( ! beauty ar\nd !m to pap] or canvas--yet o!rs1 & ^! p]haps n ! lea/ wise1 cont5t1 z old ,sir ,?omas ,br[ne has x1 to />e ab\t ) a gross ru/icity1 & humbly ?ankful t !y are beyond ! rea* ( telegrams1 & see no?+ to rem9d !m ( ! fumun et opes /repitumque ,rom4 ,b if ! s5tim5t ) :i* m\nta9s are reg>d$ has greatly *ang$1 s likewise h ! views ( sci5tific m5 z to _! orig9 & hi/ory4 ,ye>s ago no "o d\bt$ t all m\nta9s 7 simply ! result ( titanic convulsions4 ,! cru/ ( ! e>? _h be5 pu%$ up f bel[1 toss$ into great bill[s1 %iv]$ & %att]$--! m\nta9s correspond+ to ! cre/s ( huge e>?-waves1 ! valleys to ! int]v5+ depressions1 or to gap+ fractures & dislocations4 ,?is view ( ! orig9 ( m\nta9s has always appe>$ reasonable to ^? :o d n "k :at is meant by geological /ructure1 & 9 "s cases x is pretty ne> ! tru?4 ,a true m\nta9-*a91 l t ( ! ,alps1 does inde$ owe its orig9 to gigantic di/urbances ( ! e>?'s cru/1 & 9 su* a region ! l>g] features ( ! surface (t5 correspond m or less closely ) ! incl9ation ( ! und]ly+ rocks4 ,b 9 _m elevat$ tracts1 compos$ ( highly di/urb$ & convolut$ /rata1 no su* co9cid5ce ( surface-features & und]gr\nd /ructure c be trac$4 ,! m\nta9s d n correspond to great swell+s ( ! cru/--! valleys nei!r lie 9 tr\gh-%ap$ /rata1 nor d !y co9cide ) gap+ fractures4 ,aga91 _m consid]able m\nta9s are built up ( rocks :i* h n be5 convolut$ at all1 b occur 9 approximately horizontal b$s4 ,evid5tly1 !re=e1 "s =ce o!r ?an subt]ranean action mu/ be call$ ^u to expla9 ! orig9 ( _m ( ! mo/ /rik+ surface-features ( ! l&4 ,e geologi/ admits--x is "o ( ! truisms ( 8 sci5ce--t corrugations & plications are ! result ( subt]ranean action4 ,nor does any "o d5y t :5 a true m\nta9-*a9 0 fir/ upheav$ ! great] undulations ( ! fold$ /rata probably gave rise to simil> undulations at ! surface4 ,"s ( ! l>g] fractures & dislocations might also h appe>$ at ! surface & produc$ mural precipices4 ,s long a "t1 h[ev]1 has elaps$ s9ce ! elevation ( ev5 ! y\nge/ m\nta9-*a9s ( ! globe t ! sub-arial ag5ts ( erosion--ra91 fro/1 riv]s1 glaci]s1 etc4--h be5 enabl$ greatly to modify _! primeval features4 ,= ^! m\nta9s1 !re=e1 x is only p>tially true t _! pres5t slopes co9cide ) ^? ( ! und]ly+ /rata4 ,su* be+ ! case ) s "y a *a9 z ! ,alps1 we ne$ n be surpris$ to meet ) modifications on a /ill gr&] scale 9 m\nta9-regions ( mu* great] antiquity4 ,9 _m su* tracts ! primeval configuration due to subt]ranean action has be5 entirely remodell$1 s t hills n[ /& :]e deep holl[s =m]ly exi/$1 :ile valleys frequ5tly h replac$ m\nta9s4 ,& ?is new] configuration is ! direct result ( erosion1 guid$ by ! m9]alogical composition & /ructural peculi>ities ( ! rocks4 ,x is difficult1 or ev5 impossible1 = "o :o is ignorant ( geological /ructure to realise t ! app>5tly insignificant ag5ts ( erosion h play$ s important a rle 9 ! evolution ( notable e>?-features4 ,x may be well1 !re=e1 to illu/rate ! matt] by ref]5ce to "o or two regions :]e ! geological /ructure is too simple to be misund]/ood4 ,! fir/ examples ,i %all give are f tracts ( horizontal /rata4 ,_m read]s are d\btless aw>e ( ! fact t our rock-masses consi/ = ! mo/ "p ( ! m or less indurat$ & compact$ s$im5ts ( =m] riv]s1 lakes1 & seas4 ,frequ5tly ^? anci5t wat]-=m$ rocks h be5 v mu* alt]$1 s z ev5 sometimes to acquire a cry/all9e "*4 ,b x is en\gh = u n[ to rememb] t ! cru/ ( ! globe1 s f> z t is accessible to obs]vation1 is built up mo/ly ( rocks :i* 7 orig9ally accumulat$ z aque\s s$im5ts4 ,su* be+ ! case1 x is obvi\s t our /rata ( s&/one1 conglom]ate1 %ale1 lime/one1 etc41 mu/ at fir/ h be5 spread out 9 approximately horizontal or g5tly incl9$ %eets or lay]s4 ,we judge s f :at we "k ( s$im5ts :i* are accumulat+ at pres5t4 ,! wide flats ( our riv] valleys1 ! broad pla9s t occupy ! sites ( silt$-up lakes1 ! ext5sive deltas ( su* riv]s z ! ,nile & ! ,po1 ! n>r[ & wide belts ( l[-ly+ l& :i* )9 a rec5t p]iod h be5 ga9$ f ! sea1 are all made up ( v>i\s k9ds ( s$im5t arrang$ 9 approximately horizontal lay]s4 ,n[1 ov] wide regions ( ! e>?'s surface ! s$im5t>y /rata /ill lie horizontally1 & we c (t5 tell at :at geological p]iod !y became conv]t$ into dry l&4 ,?us1 = example1 we "k t ! elevat$ plateau ?r\gh :i* ! riv] ,colorado fl[s is built up ( a great s]ies ( ne>ly horizontal b$s ( v>i\s s$im5t>y deposits1 :i* rea* a ?ickness ( _m ?\s& feet4 ,x is self-evid5t t ! y\nge/ /rata mu/ be ^? :i* occur at ! surface ( ! plateau1 & !y1 z we "k1 are ( lacu/r9e orig9 & belong to ! ,t]ti>y p]iod4 ,n[1 ,am]ican geologi/s h %[n t s9ce t p]iod sev]al ?\s&s ( feet ( rock-mat]ials h be5 remov$ f ! surface ( t plateau--! ?ickness ( rock s c>ri$ away am\nt+ 9 "s places to ne>ly #aj1jjj feet4 ,yet all t prodigi\s erosion has be5 effect$ s9ce e>ly ,t]ti>y times4 ,inde$1 x c be prov$ t ! excavation ( ! ,gr& ,caon ( ! ,colorado1 probably ! mo/ rem>kable riv]-tr5* 9 ! _w1 has be5 accompli%$ s9ce ! close ( ! ,t]ti>y p]iod1 & is !re=e a "w ( m rec5t date ?an ! la/ great upheaval ( ! ,swiss ,alps4 ,! orig9 ( ! caon is self-evid5t--x is a magnific5t example ( riv]-erosion1 & ! m]e /atem5t ( its dim5sions gives "o a =cible impression ( ! pot5cy ( sub-arial d5udation4 ,! riv]-cutt+ is ab\t #cjj miles long1 #aa or #ab miles broad1 & v>ies f #cjjj to #fjjj feet 9 dep?4 ,take ano!r example ( :at d5ud+ ag5ts h done )9 a rec5t geological p]iod4 ,! ,f>e ,isl&s1 "s tw5ty 9 numb]1 ext5d ov] an area measur+ ab\t #gj miles f s\? to nor?1 & ne>ly #ej miles f we/ to ea/4 ,^! isl&s are compos$ ( volcanic rocks--b$s ( basalt ) int]v5+ lay]s ( f9e fragm5tal mat]ials1 & are obvi\sly ! relics ( :at =m]ly 0 "o cont9u\s plateau1 deeply tr5*$ by valleys runn+ 9 v>i\s directions4 ,subsequ5t depression ( ! l& introduc$ ! sea to ^! valleys1 & ! plateau 0 !n conv]t$ into a gr\p ( isl&s1 sep>at$ f ea* o!r by n>r[ s\nds & fiords4 ,7 ! great plateau ?r\gh :i* ! ,colorado fl[s to be p>tially subm]g$1 x w\ld reproduce on a l>g] scale ! g5]al ph5om5a pres5t$ by ?is lonely isl&-gr\p ( ! ,nor? ,atlantic4 ,! flat-topp$ buttes & mesas1 & ! pyramidal m\nta9s ( ! ,colorado di/rict w\ld =m isl&s comp>able to ^? ( ! ,f>es4 ,mo/ ( ! latt] atta9 a consid]able elevation above ! sea--heights ( #agjj1 #bjjj1 #bejj1 & #bhej feet be+ met ) 9 sev]al ( ! isl&s4 ,inde$1 ! av]age elevation ( ! l& 9 ?is nor!rn ar*ipelago c h>dly be less ?an #ijj feet4 ,! deep tr5*-l valleys are evid5tly only ! upp] rea*es ( valleys :i* began to be excavat$ :5 ! isl&s =m$ "p & p>cel ( "o & ! same plateau--! l[] rea*es be+ n[ occupi$ by fiords & s\nds4 ,x is q c]ta9 t all ^! valleys are ! "w ( erosion4 ,"o c trace ! b$s ( basalt cont9u\sly across ! bottoms1 & be q sure t ! valleys are n gap+ cracks or fractures4 ,n[1 z ! /rata are approximately horizontal1 x is obvi\s t ! holl[s ( ! surface h no?+ :atev] to d ) undulations produc$ by e>?-movem5ts4 ,! sub-arial erosion ( ! isl&s has result$ 9 ! developm5t ( massive flat-topp$ & pyramidal m\nta9s4 ,^! /& up z em95ces simply because ! rock-mat]ial :i* once surr\nd$ !m has be5 gradually brok5 up & c>ri$ away4 ,no?+ c well be m impressive to ! /ud5t ( physical geology ?an ! aspect pres5t$ by ^! relics ( an anci5t plateau 7,plate ,,ii4 ,fig4 #a74 ,/&+ on "s comm&+ elevation1 su* z ,nakk9 9 ,sud]e1 "o sees ris+ be=e him great truncat$ pyramids--built up ( horizontal b$s ( basalt ris+ ti] above ti]--! m\nta9s be+ sep>at$ f ea* o!r by wide & pr(\nd holl[s1 across :i* ! basalt-b$s 7 once cont9u\s4 ,ow+ to ! p>allel & undi/urb$ position ( ! /rata1 x is n h>d to =m an e/imate ( ! am\nt ( mat]ial :i* has be5 remov$ dur+ ! gradual excavation ( ! valleys4 ,9 ord] to d s we h simply to measure ! wid?1 dep?1 & l5g? ( ! valleys4 ,?us 9 ,sud]e1 :i* is #ai miles long & #f miles broad1 ! bottoms ( ! valleys are #ajjj feet at lea/ bel[ ! tops ( ! m\nta9s1 & "s ( ! holl[s 9 "q are a mile 9 wid?4 ,n[1 ! am\nt ( rock worn away f ?is "o little isl& by sub-arial erosion _c be less ?an t ( a mass measur+ #aj miles 9 l5g? by #f miles 9 bread?1 & #hjj feet 9 ?ickness4 ,& yet ! ,f>e ,isl&s are compos$ ( rocks :i* _h no exi/5ce :5 ! s(t clays1 etc41 ( ! ,london ,bas9 7 be+ accumulat$4 ,all ! erosion ref]r$ to has tak5 place s9ce ! great upheaval ( ! ,eoc5e /rata ( ! ,swiss ,alps4 ,b if ! evid5ce ( erosion be s conspicu\s 9 regions compos$ ( horizontal /rata1 x is n less s 9 c\ntries :]e ! rocks are incl9$ at v>i\s angles to ! horizon4 ,inde$1 ! v fact t incl9$ /rata crop out at ! surface is suffici5t evid5ce ( erosion4 ,= x is obvi\s t ^! outcrops are m]ely ! truncat$ ends ( b$s :i* mu/ =m]ly h _h a wid] ext5sion4 ,b :ile ! effects produc$ by ! erosion ( horizontal /rata are readily p]ceiv$ by ! lea/-in=m$ obs]v]1 x requires "s k ( geological /ructure to appreciate ! d5udation ( curv$ or undulat+ /rata4 ,& yet !re is really no my/]y 9 ! matt]4 ,all we h to d is by c>eful obs]vation to asc]ta9 ! mode ( arrangem5t ( ! rocks--?is accompli%$1 we h no difficulty 9 e/imat+ ! m9imum erosion :i* any set ( /rata may h exp]i5c$4 ,an illu/ration may s]ve to make ?is pla94 ,"h1 = example1 is a section across a region ( undulat+ /rata 7,fig4 #b74 ,let ! l9e ,a ,b repres5t ! surface ( ! gr\nd1 & ,c ,d be any datum l9e--say1 ! sea-level4 ,an obs]v] at ,a1 :o %\ld walk 9 ! direction ( ,b1 w\ld cross successively eight outcrops ( coal2 &1 7 he incapable ( read+ ! geological /ructure ( ! gr\nd1 he might imag9e t he _h come ^u eight sep>ate coal-seams4 ,a glance at ! section1 h[ev]1 %[s t 9 reality he _h met ) only two coals1 & t ! deceptive appe>ances1 :i* might be misread by an incauti\s obs]v]1 are simply ! result ( d5udation4 ,9 ?is case ! tops ( a s]ies ( curv$ or ar*$ b$s h be5 remov$ 7z at ,e71 &1 by protract+ ! l9es ( ! truncat$ b$s until !y meet1 we c e/imate ! m9imum am\nt ( erosion !y h su/a9$4 ,?us1 if ! /rata betwe5 o & p be #cjj feet ?ick1 x is self-evid5t t a some:at great] ?ickness ( rock mu/ h be5 remov$ f ! top ( ! anticl9al ar* or saddleback at ,e4 ,aga91 let u draw a section across /rata :i* h be5 fractur$ & dislocat$1 & we %all see h[ su* fractures likewise enable u to e/imate ! m9imum am\nt ( erosion :i* c]ta9 regions h exp]i5c$4 ,9 ,fig4 #c we h a s]ies ( /rata conta9+ a b$ ( lime/one ,l1 & a coal-seam a4 ,! pres5t surface ( ! gr\nd is repres5t$ by ! l9e ,a ,b4 ,at ,f ! /rata are trav]s$ by a fault or dislocation--! b$s be+ ?r[n d[n = say #ejj feet on ! l[ side ( ! fault--s t ! coal at a#b occurs n[ at a dep? ( #ejj feet bel[ its cont9uation at a#a4 ,at ! surface ( ! gr\nd !re is no inequality ( level--! b$s ov]ly+ ! coal 7a7 hav+ be5 remov$ by d5udation4 ,7 ! miss+ rocks to be replac$1 !y w\ld occupy ! space conta9$ )9 ! dott$ l9es above ! pres5t surface ,a ,b4 ,su* dislocations are ( common occurr5ce 9 our coal-fields1 & x is n (t5 t !y give rise to any features at ! surface4 ,we may ?us trav]se _m level or g5tly-undulat+ tracts1 & be q unconsci\s ( ! fact t geologically we h frequ5tly leap$ up or dropp$ d[n = hundr$s ( feet 9 a s+le /ep4 ,nay1 "s ,scotti% /reams & riv]s fl[ across dislocations by :i* ! /rata h be5 %ift$ up or d[n = ?\s&s ( feet1 & 9 "s places "o c h ! satisfaction ( sitt+ ^u rocks :i* are geologically #cjjj y>ds bel[ or above ^? on :i* he re/s 8 feet4 ,9 o!r words1 ?\s&s ( feet ( /rata h be5 remov$ by d5udation f ! high sides ( faults4 ,^!1 z ,i h said1 (t5 give rise to no feature at ! surface2 b1 occasionally1 :5 s(t rocks h be5 %ift$ by dislocations1 & br\ght aga9/ h>d rocks1 ! latt]1 by bett] resi/+ d5udation ?an ! =m]1 cause a m or less well-m>k$ feature at ! surface1 & ?us betray ! pres5ce ( a fault to ! geologi/4 ,! ph5om5a pres5t$ by faults1 !re=e1 are j z eloqu5t ( d5udation z is ! truncat$ appe>ance ( our /rata2 & only aft] we h c>efully exam9$ ! pres5t ext5sion & mutual relations ( our rock-masses1 _! v>i$ incl9ation1 & ! size ( ! dislocations by :i* !y are trav]s$1 c we prop]ly appreciate ! degree ( erosion :i* !y h su/a9$4 ,be=e we are entitl$ to express any op9ion z to ! orig9 ( ! surface-features ( a c\ntry1 we mu/ fir/ "k its geological /ructure4 ,until we h atta9$ su* k1 all our views z to ! orig9 ( m\nta9s are ( less value ?an ! pap] !y are writt5 ^u4 ,i h spok5 ( ! evid5ce ( d5udation :i* we f9d 9 our truncat$ & dislocat$ rock-masses2 !re is yet ano!r l9e ( evid5ce :i* ,i may v %ortly po9t out4 ,z e "o kn[s1 !re exi/ 9 ?is & _m o!r c\ntries enorm\s masses ( igne\s rocks1 :i* h c]ta9ly be5 extrud$ f bel[4 ,n[1 "s ( ^! rocks1 su* z granite1 belong to :at is call$ ! plutonic class ( rocks2 !y are ( deep-seat$ orig9--t is to say1 !y nev] 7 erupt$ at ! surface1 b cool$ & consolidat$ at great dep?s 9 ! e>?'s cru/4 ,i ne$ n g into any detail to %[ t ?is is ! case--x is a conclusion bas$ ^u incontrov]tible facts1 & accept$ by e practical geologi/4 ,:51 !re=e1 we enc\nt] at ! actual surface ( ! e>? great m\nta9-masses ( granite1 we "k t 9 su* regions enorm\s d5udation has tak5 place4 ,! granite appe>s at ! surface simply because ! ?ick rock-masses "u :i* x solidifi$ h be5 gradually remov$ by erosion4 ,! facts :i* ,i h n[ briefly pass$ 9 review mu/ conv9ce u t erosion is "o ( ! mo/ pot5t factors ) :i* ! geologi/ has to deal4 ,we h se5 :at x has be5 able to effect 9 c]ta9 tracts compos$ ( /rata :i* date back to a rec5t geological p]iod1 su* z ! plateau ( ! ,colorado & ! pyramidal m\nta9s ( ! ,f>e ,isl&s4 ,if 9 regions built up ( /rata s "y z ! rocks ( ^? tracts ! am\nt ( erosion be s great1 we may well expect to meet ) evid5ce ( mu* m ext5sive d5udation 9 regions :i* h be5 subject$ = enorm\sly long] p]iods to ! action ( ! erod+ ag5ts4 ,! /udy ( geological /ructure1 or ! ar*itecture ( ! e>?'s cru/1 has enabl$ u to gr\p all m\nta9s "u ^! ?ree pr9cipal heads3-- #a4 ,m\nta9s ( ,accumulation4 #b4 ,m\nta9s ( ,elevation4 #c4 ,m\nta9s ( ,circumd5udation4 #a4 ,m\nta9s ( ,accumulation4--,volcanoes may be tak5 z ! type ( ?is class ( m\nta9s4 ,^! are1 ( c\rse1 =m$ by ! accumulation ( igne\s mat]ials ar\nd ! focus or foci ( eruption1 & _! mode ( orig9 is s g5]ally und]/ood1 &1 inde$1 s obvi\s1 t ,i ne$ d no m ?an m5tion !m4 ,( c\rse1 !y are all subject to erosion1 & _m long-ext9ct volcanoes are highly d5ud$4 ,"s v anci5t ones1 z ^? ( our own c\ntry1 h be5 s demoli%$ t frequ5tly all t rema9s are ! n[ plugg$-up pipes or flues ?r\gh :i* ! heat$ mat]ials f\nd a passage to ! surface--all ^? mat]ials1 consi/+ ( lavas & a%es1 hav+ 9 _m cases entirely disappe>$4 ,9 =m] times volcanic eruptions (t5 took place along ! l9e ( an ext5sive fissure--! lava1 in/ead ( be+ extrud$ at "o or m po9ts1 well$-up & ov]fl[$ along ! :ole l5g? ( ! fissure1 s z to flood ! surr\nd+ regions4 ,& ?is happ5+ aga9 & aga91 va/ plateaux ( igne\s rock came to be built up1 su* z ^? ( ! ,rocky ,m\nta9s1 ,icel&1 ! ,f>es1 ,antrim & ,mull1 ,abyss9ia & ! ,deccan4 ,^! are call$ plateaux ( accumulation 7see ,fig4 #a71 & all ( !m are m or less highly d5ud$1 s t 9 _m cases ! plateaux h q a m\nta9\s appe>ance4 ,( c\rse1 plateaux ( accumulation are n always =m$ ( igne\s rocks4 ,any area ( approximately horizontal /rata ( aque\s orig91 ris+ to a height ( a ?\s& feet or m above ! sea1 w\ld come "u ?is class ( plateau--! plateau ( ! ,colorado be+ a good example4 ,al?\gh t plateau is ( rec5t orig91 yet its surface1 z we h se51 has be5 pr(\ndly modifi$ by sup]ficial erosion2 & ?is is true to a great] ext5t ( plateaux :i* h be5 mu* long] expos$ to d5udation4 ,x is obvi\s t ev5 m\nta9s & plateaux ( accumulation (t5 owe _m ( _! pres5t features to ! action ( ! surface-ag5ts ( *ange4 #b4 ,m\nta9s ( ,elevation4--,we h se5 t ! /rata :i* ent] mo/ l>gely into ! composition ( ! e>?'s cru/1 s f> z t is op5 to obs]vation1 consi/ ( rocks :i* mu/ orig9ally h be5 dispos$ 9 horizontal or approximately horizontal lay]s4 ,b1 z e "o kn[s1 ! /ratifi$ rocks are n always horizontally arrang$4 ,9 ,scotl& !y r>ely are s4 ,on ! contr>y1 !y are incl9$ at all angles f ! horizon1 & n infrequ5tly !y ev5 /& on end4 ,moreov]1 !y are (t5 trav]s$ by dislocations1 l>ge & small4 ,no "o d\bts t ^! tilt$ & di/urb$ rocks are evid5ce ( wide-spread e>?-movem5ts4 ,& x has be5 long kn[n to geologi/s t su* movem5ts h happ5$ aga9 & aga9 9 ?is & _m o!r c\ntries :]e simil> di/urb$ /rata occur4 ,"s ( ^! movem5ts1 result+ 9 ! upheaval ( enorm\s m\nta9-masses1 h tak5 place )9 comp>atively rec5t geological times4 ,o!rs aga9 date back to p]iods inconceivably remote4 ,! ,pyr5ees1 ! ,alps1 ! ,caucasus1 ! ,himalaya1 :i* =m ! back-bone ( ,eurasia1 are among ! y\nge/ m\nta9s ( ! globe4 ,! ,highl&s ( ,scotl& & ,sc&9avia are immeasurably m anci5t2 !y are1 9 po9t ( fact1 ! olde/ high gr\nds 9 ,europe1 nor are !re any m\nta9-masses else:]e :i* c be %[n to be old]4 ,b :ile ! ,alps & o!r rec5t m\nta9s ( elevation /ill reta9 mu* ( _! orig9al configuration1 n a ve/ige ( ! primeval configuration ( our own ,highl&s has be5 pres]v$2 _! pres5t surface-features h no direct connection ) ^? :i* mu/ h di/+ui%$ !m 9 late ,silurian times4 ,our exi/+ m\nta9s are n1 l ^? ( ! ,alps1 m\nta9s ( elevation4 ,! /ructure ( a true m\nta9-*a9 is frequ5tly v complicat$1 b ! g5]al ph5om5a c be readily express$ 9 a simple diagram4 ,let ,fig4 #e be a section tak5 across a m\nta9-*a91 i4e4 at "r angles to its tr5d or direction4 ,! dom9ant po9t ( ! *a9 is %[n at ,b1 :ile ,a & ,c repres5t ! l[ gr\nds4 ,n[1 an obs]v] at ,a1 advanc+ t[>ds ,b1 w\ld note t ! /rata1 at fir/ horizontal1 w\ld gradually become undulat+ z he proce$$ on 8 way--! undulations gett+ always m & m pron\nc$4 ,he w\ld obs]ve1 moreov]1 t ! undulations1 at fir/ symmetrical1 z at a1 w\ld become less s z he advanc$--"o limb ( an ar* or anticl9e1 z x is t]m$1 be+ incl9$ at a great] angle ?an ! o!r1 z at b4 ,approa*+ /ill ne>] to ,b1 ! ar*es or anticl9es w\ld be se5 ev5tually to b5d ov] ^u ea* o!r1 s z to produce a g5]al dip or incl9ation ( ! /rata t[>ds ! c5tral axis ( ! *a94 ,cross+ t axis 7,b71 & walk+ 9 ! direction ( ! l[ gr\nds 7,c71 ! obs]v] w\ld aga9 enc\nt] ! same /ructural arrangem5t1 b ( c\rse 9 rev]se ord]4 ,?us1 9 its simple/ expression1 a true m\nta9-*a9 consi/s ( /rata arrang$ 9 a s]ies ( p>allel undulations--! great] m\nta9 ridges & int]v5+ holl[s correspond+ m or less closely to ! l>g] undulations & folds ( ! /rata4 ,n[1 c\ld ^! plicat$ /rata be pull$ out1 c\ld ! folds & r$uplications be smoo!d away1 s z to cause ! /rata to assume _! orig9al horizontal position1 x is obvi\s t ! rocks w\ld occupy a great] sup]ficial area4 ,we see1 !n1 t su* a m\nta9-*a9 mu/ owe its orig9 to a process ( tang5tial or lat]al ?ru/+ & cru%+4 ,! orig9ally horizontal /rata h be5 squeez$ lat]ally1 & h yield$ to ! =ce act+ ^u !m by fold+ & d\bl+ up4 ,x seems mo/ probable t ! l>g] contortions & fold+s :i* are visible 9 all true m\nta9-*a9s1 owe _! orig9 to ! s9k+ d[n ( ! e>?'s cru/ ^u ! cool+ & contract+ nucleus4 ,dur+ su* depressions ( ! cru/ ! /rata are necess>ily subject$ to enorm\s lat]al compression2 !y are =c$ to occupy less space at ! surface1 & ?is !y c only d by fold+ & d\bl+-back ^u !mselves4 ,if ! /rata are equally unyield+ ?r\gh\t a wide area1 !n g5]al undulation may ensue2 b %\ld !y yield unequally1 !n fold+ & contortion w take place along "o or m l9es ( weakness4 ,9 o!r words1 ! pressure w be reliev$ by ! =mation ( true m\nta9-*a9s4 ,?us1 p>adoxical z x may seem1 ! l(tie/ m\nta9s ( ! globe be> witness to pr(\nd depression or subsid5ce ( ! cru/4 ,! ,&es1 = example1 appe> to owe _! orig9 to ! s9k+ d[n ( ! e>?'s cru/ "u ! ,pacific2 & s 9 l mann] ! ,alps w\ld seem to h be5 ridg$ up by depression ( ! cru/ 9 ! area ( ! ,m$it]ranean4 ,m\nta9-*a9s1 !re=e1 are true wr9kles 9 ! cru/ ( ! e>?2 !y are l9es ( weakness along :i* ! /rata h yield$ to enorm\s lat]al pressure4 ,a glance at ! geological /ructure ( ! ,alps & ! ,jura %[s u t ^! m\nta9s are a typical example ( su* a *a92 !y are m\nta9s ( elevation4 ,9 ! ,jura ! m\nta9s =m a s]ies ( long p>allel ridges sep>at$ by int]v5+ holl[s2 & ! =m or %ape ( ! gr\nd co9cides 9 a /rik+ mann] ) ! fold+s ( ! /rata4 ,9 ^! m\nta9s we see a succession ( symmetrical flexures1 ! b$s dipp+ 9 opposite directions at ! same angle f ! axis ( ea* individual anticl9e4 ,!re ea* m\nta9-ridge corresponds to an anticl9e1 & ea* valley to a syncl9e1 or tr\gh-%ap$ arrangem5t ( /rata4 ,b z we approa* ! ,alps ! flexures become less & less symmetrical1 until 9 ! ,alps !mselves ! mo/ extraord9>y convolutions & intricate plications appe>1 ! /rata be+ (t5 rev]s$ or turn$ completely upside d[n4 ,?\gh x is true t ! slopes ( ?is great m\nta9-*a9 n infrequ5tly correspond m or less closely to ! slope or incl9ation ( ! und]ly+ rocks1 x mu/ n be suppos$ t ?is correspond5ce is (t5 complete4 ,sometimes1 inde$1 we f9d t ! m\nta9s1 s f> f co9cid+ ) anticl9es1 are 9 reality built up ( syncl9al or bas9-%ap$ /rata2 :ile 9 o!r cases deep & broad valleys run along ! l9es ( anticl9al axes 7,fig4 #f74 ,all ?is speaks to enorm\s erosion4 ,a /udy ( ! geological /ructure ( ! ,alps demon/rates t ?\s&s ( feet ( rock h be5 remov$ f ^? m\nta9s s9ce ! "t ( _! elevation4 ,a section drawn across any "p ( ! *a9 w\ld %[ t ! /rata h be5 erod$ to su* an ext5t1 & ! :ole configuration s pr(\ndly modifi$1 t x is (t5 difficult1 or ev5 impossible1 to tell :at may h be5 ! orig9al =m ( ! surface :5 ! *a9 0 upheav$4 ,& yet ! ,alps1 x mu/ be rememb]$1 are ( comp>atively rec5t age1 "s ( _! highly-confus$ & contort$ rocks consi/+ ( m>9e /rata :i* are ( no great] antiquity ?an ! incoh]5t clays & s&s ( ! ,london ,t]ti>y bas94 ,n[1 :5 we reflect ^u ! fact t1 9 ! case ( s "y a m\nta9-*a91 ! configuration due to undulations ( ! /rata has be5 s greatly modifi$1 & ev5 9 _m places oblit]at$1 x is n h>d to believe t aft] suffici5t "t has elaps$--aft] ! ,alps h exi/$ = z long a p]iod1 say1 z ! m\nta9s ( middle ,g]many--e m\nta9 =m$ ( anticl9al /rata %all h disappe>$1 & ^? syncl9es :i* n[ co9cide ) valleys %all h develop$ into hills4 ,! read] :o may h paid little or no att5tion to geological /ructure & its influ5ce ^u ! =m ( ! gr\nd1 w probably ?9k ?is a /range & extravagant /atem5t2 yet ,i hope to %[ pres5tly t x is support$ by all t we "k ( regions ( fold$ /rata :i* h be5 = long p]iods ( "t subject$ to d5udation4 99 99 99 99 99 #c4 ,m\nta9s ( ,circumd5udation4--,9 c\ntries compos$ ( undulat+ & fold$ /rata :i* h be5 = long ages expos$ to ! action ( erod+ ag5ts1 ! ultimate =m assum$ by ! gr\nd is directly dep5d5t on ! "* ( ! rocks1 & ! mode ( _! arrangem5t4 ,! v>i\s rock-masses :i* occur 9 su* a neighb\rhood z ,ed9burgh1 = example1 diff] consid]ably 9 _! p[] ( resi/+ d5udation4 ,h5ce ! less readily erod$ rocks h come 9 "t to =m hills ( less or great] prom95ce4 ,su* is ! case ) ! ,ca/le ,rock1 ,cor/orph9e ,hill1 ! ,braids1 ! ,p5tl&s1 etc4 ,^! hills owe _! exi/5ce1 z su*1 to ! fact t !y are compos$ ( m endur+ k9ds ( rock ?an ! s(t] s&/ones & %ales by :i* !y are surr\nd$1 & und]nea? :i* !y 7 =m]ly buri$ to great dep?s4 ,"s hills1 aga91 :i* are = ! mo/ "p built up ( rocks hav+ ! same "* z ! /rata t occur 9 ! adjac5t l[ gr\nds1 /& up z prom95ces simply because !y h be5 pres]v$ by ov]ly+ caps or cov]+s ( h>d] rocks--rocks :i* h (f]$ a /rong] resi/ance to ! action ( ! d5ud+ ag5ts4 ,! ,lomond ,hills are good examples4 ,^? hills consi/ *iefly ( s&/ones :i* h be5 pres]v$ f demolition by an ov]ly+ %eet ( basalt-rock4 ,b ! mode 9 :i* rocks are arrang$ is a n less important factor 9 det]m9+ ! %ape :i* ! gr\nd assumes "u ! action ( ! ag5ts ( erosion4 ,?us1 z we h already se51 flat-topp$1 pyramidal m\nta9s1 & m or less /eep-sid$ or tr5*-l valleys1 are *>act]i/ic features 9 regions ( horizontal /rata4 ,:5 /rata dip or incl9e 9 "o g5]al direction1 !n we h a succession ( esc>pm5ts or dip-slopes1 correspond+ to ! outcrops ( h>d] or less readily erod$ b$s1 & sep>at$ f ea* o!r by long valleys1 holl[s1 or undulat+ pla9s1 :i* h ! same tr5d z ! esc>pm5ts 7,fig4 #g74 ,?is k9d ( configuration is well exemplifi$ ov] a l>ge "p ( ,engl&4 ,! g5]al dip or incl9ation ( ! ,mesozoic or ,second>y /rata ?r\gh\t t c\ntry1 betwe5 ! %ores ( ! ,nor? ,sea & ! ,engli% ,*annel1 is ea/]ly & s\?-ea/]ly--s t ! outcrops ( ! m durable /rata =m well-def9$ esc>pm5ts t face ! we/ & nor?-we/1 & c be foll[$ almo/ cont9u\sly f nor? to s\?4 ,pass+ f ! ,malv]n ,hills 9 a s\?-ea/]ly direction1 we trav]se two great esc>pm5ts--! fir/ co9cid+ ) ! outcrop ( ! ,oolite1 & =m+ ! ,cotswold ,hills2 & ! second correspond+ to ! outcrop ( ! ,*alk1 & =m+ ! ,*ilt]n ,hills4 ,! pla9s & l[ undulat+ tracts t sep>ate ^! esc>pm5ts m>k ! outcrops ( m yield+ /rata--! l[ gr\nds t int]v5e betwe5 ! ,cotswolds & ! ,malv]n ,hills be+ compos$ ( ,liassic & ,triassic clays & s&/ones4 ,9 ,scotl& simil> esc>pm5ts occur1 b ow+ to sudd5 *anges ( ! dip1 & v>i\s int]ruptions ( ! /rata1 ! ,scotti% esc>pm5ts are n s cont9u\s z ^? ( ! si/]-c\ntry4 ,_m ( ! belts ( hilly gr\nd 9 ! ,scotti% ,l[l&s1 h[ev]1 exemplify ! ph5om5a ( esc>pm5t & dip-slope4 ,?us1 ! ,sidlaws 9 ,=f>%ire consi/ ( a s]ies ( h>d igne\s rocks & int]b$d$ s&/ones & flags--! outcrops ( :i* =m a succession ( esc>pm5ts ) int]v5+ holl[s4 ,! same appe>ances recur aga9 & aga9 all ov] ! ,l[l&s4 ,:]ev]1 inde$1 any consid]able b$ ( h>d rock occurs 9 a s]ies ( less endur+ /rata--! outcrop ( ! h>d] rock inv>iably =ms a well-m>k$ feature or esc>pm5t4 ,z examples1 ,i may ref] to ,salisbury ,crags1 ,craiglockh>t ,hill1 ,dalmahoy ,crags1 ! ,ba?gate ,hills1 ,k+ ,alex&]'s ,crag1 etc4 ,all ^! are conspicu\s examples ( ! "w ( d5udation--= x c be demon/rat$ t ea* ( ^! rock-masses 0 at "o "t deeply buri$ "u s&/ones & %ales1 & !y n[ crop out at ! surface1 & =m prom95t features simply because ! b$s :i* =m]ly cov]$ & surr\nd$ !m h be5 gradually remov$4 ,f :at has n[ be5 said x w be readily und]/ood t 9 regions compos$ ( /rata ! incl9ation or dip ( :i* is n con/ant b cont9ually *ang+ 9 direction1 ! surface-features mu/ be m or less irregul>4 ,if ! /rata dip ea/ ! outcrops ( ! h>d] b$s w =m esc>pm5ts fac+ ! we/1 & ! direction ( ! esc>pm5ts w obvi\sly *ange ) ! direction ( ! dip4 ,undulat+ /rata ( v>iable composition w1 9 %ort1 give rise to an undulat+ surface1 b ! sup]ficial undulations w n co9cide ) ^? ( ! /rata4 ,on ! contr>y1 9 regions consi/+ ( undulat+ /rata ( div]se consi/5cy ! hills g5]ally correspond ) syncl9al tr\ghs--or1 9 o!r words1 tr\gh-%ap$ /rata t5d to =m hills2 :ile1 on ! o!r h&1 ar*-%ap$ or anticl9al /rata mo/ usually give rise to holl[s 7see ,fig4 #b74 ,?is rem>kable fact is "o ( ! fir/ to arre/ ! att5tion ( e /ud5t ( physical geology1 & its explanation is simple en\gh4 ,an anticl9al arrangem5t ( /rata is a weak /ructure--x readily succumbs to ! attacks ( ! d5ud+ ag5ts2 a syncl9al arrangem5t on ! contr>y1 is a /rong /ructure1 :i* is mu* less readily brok5 up4 ,h5ce x is t 9 all regions :i* h be5 expos$ = prolong$ p]iods to sub-arial d5udation syncl9al /rata naturally come to =m hills1 & anticl9al /rata valleys or l[ gr\nds4 ,9 ! case ( a m\nta9-*a9 s rec5tly elevat$ z t ( ! ,alps1 ! m\nta9-ridges1 z we h se51 (t5 co9cide r\ghly ) ! great] folds ( ! /rata4 ,su* anticl9al m\nta9s are weakly built1 & consequ5tly rock-falls & l&slips are ( common occurr5ce among !m--f> m common1 & on a mu* l>g] scale1 ?an among ! immeasurably old] m\nta9s ( ,sc&9avia & ,scotl&4 ,! valleys ( ! ,pyr5ees1 ! ,alps1 & ! ,ap5n9es1 are cumb]$ ) enorm\s *aotic heaps ( fall5 rock-masses4 ,f "t to "t peaks & :ole m\nta9-sides give way1 & slide into ! valleys1 bury+ hamlets & villages1 & cov]+ wide tracts ( cultivat$ l&4 ,hundr$s ( su* disa/r\s rock-falls h occurr$ 9 ! ,alps )9 hi/orical ages1 & mu/ cont9ue to take place until e weakly-=m$ m\nta9 has be5 demoli%$4 ,! hills & m\nta9s ( ,scotl& h long s9ce pass$ ?r\gh ?is phase ( un/able equilibrium4 ,aft] c\ntless ages ( erosion our high] gr\nds h acquir$ a configuration ess5tially diff]5t f t ( a true m\nta9-*a94 ,enorm\s l&slips l t ( ! ,rossb]g are "h impossible1 = all su* weakly-con/ruct$ m\nta9s h disappe>$4 ,a little consid]ation w s]ve to %[ h[ su* modifications & *anges h come ab\t4 ,:5 /rata are crumpl$ up !y naturally crack across1 = !y are n ela/ic4 ,dur+ ! great movem5ts :i* h orig9at$ all m\nta9s ( elevation1 x is evid5t t ! /rata =m+ ! actual surface ( ! gr\nd w\ld (t5 be greatly fissur$ & %att]$ along ! cre/s ( ! %>p] anticl9al ridges4 ,9 ! syncl9al tr\ghs1 h[ev]1 al?\gh mu* fissur+ w\ld take place1 yet ! /rata w\ld be compell$ by ! pressure to keep toge!r4 ,n[1 :5 we /udy ! /ructure ( su* a region z ! ,alps1 we f9d t ! tops ( ! anticl9es h almo/ inv>iably be5 remov$1 s z to expose ! truncat$ ends ( ! /rata--! ruptur$ & %att]$ rock-masses hav+ 9 ! c\rse ( "t be5 c>ri$ away by ! ag5ts ( erosion4 ,su* m\nta9s are pre-em95tly weak /ructures4 ,let u suppose t ! m\nta9s repres5t$ 9 ! diagram 7,fig4 #h7 consi/ ( a succession ( /rata1 "s ( :i* are m or less p]meable by wat]1 :ile o!rs are practically imp]meable4 ,x is obvi\s t wat] soak+ d[n f ! surface w f9d its way ?r\gh ! por\s /rata 7p71 & come out on ! slopes ( ! m\nta9s along ! jo9ts & cracks 7c7 by :i* all /rata are trav]s$4 ,"u ! influ5ce ( su* spr+s & ! action ( fro/1 ! rock at ! surface w ev5tually be brok5 up1 & ev] & anon l>g] & small] portions w slide d[nw>ds ov] ! surface ( ! und]ly+ imp]meable /ratum4 ,! und]m9+ action ( riv]s w greatly int5sify ?is dis9tegrat+ & disrupt+ process4 ,z ! riv] deep5s & wid5s its valley 7v71 x is app>5t t 9 do+ s x mu/ truncate ! /rata t are incl9$ t[>ds x4 ,! b$s w !n crop out ^u ! slopes ( ! valley 7z at b1 b71 & s ! conditions mo/ fav\rable = a l&slip w arise4 ,und]gr\nd wat]1 p]colat+ ?r\gh ! por\s b$s 7p71 & ov] ! surface ( ! und]ly+ imp]meable b$s 7i1 i1 i71 mu/ ev5tually br+ ab\t a collapse4 ,! rocks =m+ ! surface-slopes ( ! m\nta9 w f "t to "t give & slide into ! valley1 or ! :ole ?ickness ( ! truncat$ /rata may break away & ru% d[nw>ds2 & ?is process mu/ cont9ue s long z any portion ( ! anticl9al ar* rema9s above ! level ( ! adjac5t syncl9al tr\ghs4 ,?us x w be se5 t an anticl9al ar* is a weak /ructure--a m\nta9 s con/ruct$ falls a ready prey to ! d5ud+ ag5ts2 & h5ce 9 regions :i* h be5 expos$ to d5udation = z long a p]iod z ! ,scotti% or ,sc&9avian upl&s1 a m\nta9 =m$ ( anticl9ally arrang$ /rata is ( v exceptional occurr5ce4 ,:5 x does appe>1 x is only because ! rocks ( :i* x is compos$ happ5 to be ( a m endur+ "* ?an ^? ( ! adjac5t tracts4 ,! ,o*il ,hills exemplify ?is po9t4 ,^! hills consi/ ( a great s]ies ( h>d igne\s rocks1 :i* are arrang$ 9 ! =m ( a depress$ anticl9al ar*--! l[ gr\nds ly+ to ! nor? & s\? be+ compos$ *iefly ( s&/ones & %ales4 ,"h x is ow+ to ! m endur+ "* ( ! igne\s rocks t ! anticl9al ar* has n be5 entirely remov$4 ,we "k1 h[ev]1 t ^! igne\s rocks 7 =m]ly buri$ "u a great ?ickness ( /rata1 & t _! pres5t appe>ance at ! surface is simply ! result ( d5udation4 ,if an anticl9al ar* be a weak /ructure1 a syncl9al arrangem5t ( /rata is q ! opposite4 ,9 ! case ( ! =m] ea* b$ has a t5d5cy to slip or slide away f ! axis1 :ile 9 a syncl9e x is j ! rev]se--! /rata be+ incl9$ t[>ds & n away f ! axis4 ,und]gr\nd wat]1 spr+s1 & fro/ are enabl$ to play havoc ) anticl9al /rata1 = ! /ructure is entirely 9 _! fav\r4 ,b 9 syncl9al b$s ! action ( ^! p[]ful ag5ts is oppos$ by ! /ructure ( ! rocks--& great rock-falls & l&slips _c take place4 ,syncl9al /rata !re=e endure1 :ile anticl9al /rata are worn m readily away4 ,ev5 9 a true m\nta9-range s "y z ! ,alps1 d5udation has already demoli%$ _m weakly-built anticl9al m\nta9s1 & op5$ up valleys along _! axes2 :ile1 on ! o!r h&1 syncl9al tr\ghs h be5 conv]t$ into m\nta9s4 ,& if ?is be true ( ! ,alps1 x is /ill m s ( mu* old] m\nta9-regions1 9 :i* ! orig9al cont\rs due to convolutions ( ! /rata h entirely disappe>$ 7see ,fig4 #i74 ,! m\nta9s ( su* regions1 hav+ be5 c>v$ out & modell$ by d5ud+ ag5ts1 are rightly t]m$ m\nta9s ( circumd5udation1 = !y are j z mu* ! "w ( erosion z ! flat-topp$ & pyramidal m\nta9s :i* h be5 c>v$ out ( horizontal /rata4 ,! ,scotti% ,highl&s af=d u an admirable example ( a m\nta9\s region ( undulat+ & (t5 highly-flex$ /rata1 9 :i* ! pres5t surface-features are ! result ( long-cont9u$ erosion4 ,z already rem>k$1 ?is region is "o ( ! olde/ l&-surfaces 9 ! _w4 ,9 comp>ison ) x1 ! ,pyr5ees1 ! ,alps1 & ! ,himalayas are creations ( ye/]day4 ,! orig9al surface or configuration assum$ by ! rocks compos+ our ,highl& area at ! "t :5 ^! 7 fir/ cru%$ & fold$ into anticl9es & syncl9es _h already be5 demoli%$ at a p]iod inconceivably m remote ?an ! late/ gr& upheaval ( ! ,alps4 ,ev5 be=e ! comm5cem5t ( ,old ,r$ ,s&/one times1 our ,ar*an1 ,cambrian1 & ,silurian rocks _h be5 plan$ d[n = ?\s&s ( feet1 s t ! bottom b$s ( ! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one 7 deposit$ ^u a g5tly undulat+ surface1 :i* cuts across anticl9es & syncl9es alike4 ,9 late ,silurian & e>ly po/-,silurian times ! ,nor?-we/ ,highl&s probably exi/$ z a true m\nta9-*a91 consi/+ ( a s]ies ( p>allel ranges =m$ by ! fold+ & r$uplication ( ! /rata4 ,! rec5t obs]vations ( my fri5ds1 ,pr(essor ,lapwor? & ,messrs4 ,pea* & ,horne1 9 ,su!rl&1 h br\ght to light ! evid5ce ( gigantic e>?-movem5ts1 by :i* enorm\s masses ( /rata h be5 convolut$ & pu%$ = miles out ( place4 ,we see 9 t region "p ( a dissect$ m\nta9-*a94 ,! m\nta9-masses :i* are !re expos$ to view are ! basal or l[] portions ( enorm\s %eets ( disrupt$ rock1 ! upp] p>ts ( :i* h be5 remov$ by d5udation4 ,9 a ^w1 ! m\nta9s ( ,su!rl& are m\nta9s ( circumd5udation--!y h be5 c>v$ out ( elevat$ masses by ! long-cont9u$ action ( erosion4 ,to prove ?is1 "o has only to draw an accurate section across ! ,nor?-we/ ,highl&s1 :5 x becomes app>5t t ! =m or %ape ( ! gr\nd does n correspond or co9cide ) ! convolutions ( ! /rata1 & t a ?ickness ( ?\s&s ( feet ( rock has be5 d5ud$ away s9ce ^? /rata 7 fold$ & fractur$4 ,all ov] ! ,highl&s we meet ) simil> evid5ce ( enorm\s d5udation4 ,! great masses ( granite :i* appe> at ! surface 9 _m places are eloqu5t ( ! result produc$ by erosion cont9u$ = immeasurable p]iods ( "t4 ,e geologi/ kn[s t granite is a rock :i* c\ld only h be5 =m$ & consolidat$ at great dep?s4 ,:51 !re=e1 su* a rock occurs at ! surface1 x is evid5ce beyond all d\bt ( prodigi\s erosion4 ,! granite has be5 laid b>e by ! removal ( ! ?ick rock-masses und]nea? :i* x cool$ & consolidat$4 ,a glance at any map ( ,scotl& w %[ t _m riv]-valleys1 & n a few lakes1 ( ! ,highl&s h a nor?-ea/ & s\?-we/ tr5d4 ,?is tr5d corresponds to :at geologi/s call ! /rike ( ! /rata4 ,! rocks ( ! ,highl&s h be5 compress$ into a s]ies ( folds or anticl9es & syncl9es1 :i* h ! direction j /at$--namely1 nor?-ea/ & s\?-we/4 ,a c>eless obs]v] might !re=e ra%ly conclude t ^! surface-features resembl$ ^? ( ! ,jura--9 o!r words1 t ! long p>allel holl[s 7 syncl9al tr\ghs1 & t ! int]v5+ ridges & high gr\nds 7 anticl9al ar*es or saddle-backs4 ,no?+ c\ld be fur!r f ! tru?4 ,a geological exam9ation ( ! gr\nd w\ld %[ t ! features 9 "q 7 ev]y:]e ! result ( d5udation1 guid$ by ! petrological "* & geological /ructure ( ! rocks4 ,sev]al ( ! mo/ m>k$ holl[s run along ! backs ( anticl9al axes1 :ile "s ( ! mo/ conspicu\s m\nta9s are built up ( syncl9al or tr\gh-%ap$ /rata4 ,b5 ,law]s1 & ! depression occupi$ by ,lo* ,tay1 are excell5t examples2 & s9ce t di/rict has rec5tly be5 mapp$ 9 detail by ,mr4 ,j4 ,grant ,wilson1 ( ! ,geological ,survey1 ,i %all give a section 7,fig4 #aj7 to %[ ! relation betwe5 ! =m ( ! gr\nd & ! geological /ructure ( ! rocks4 ,?is section speaks = itself4 ,"h evid5tly is a case :]e valleys h be5 exalt$ & m\nta9s made l[4 ,a well-m>k$ syncl9e1 x w be obs]v$1 passes ?r\gh ,b5 ,law]s1 :ile ,lo* ,tay occupies a depression scoop$ out ( an equally well-def9$ anticl9e--a /ructure :i* is j ! opposite ( t :i* we %\ld expect to f9d 9 a true m\nta9-*a94 ,x w be also not$ t ,gl5-,lyon co9cides nei!r ) a syncl9e nor a fault2 x has be5 erod$ along ! outcrops ( ! /rata4 ,_m ( ! nor?-ea/ & s\?-we/ holl[s ( ! ,highl&s inde$ run along ! base ( :at are really great esc>pm5ts--a feature :i*1 z we h se51 is con/antly met ) 9 e region :]e ! /rata /rike m or less /eadily 9 "o direction4 ,9 ! ,highl&s ! /rata are mo/ frequ5tly incl9$ at consid]able angles1 s t ! esc>pm5ts succe$ ea* o!r m rapidly ?an w\ld be ! case if ! /rata 7 less /eeply incl9$4 ,9 no case does any nor?-ea/ & s\?-we/ holl[ co9cide ) a /ructural cavity4 ,lo* ,awe has be5 cit$ z an example ( a sup]ficial depression =m$ by ! inw>d dip ( ! /rata on ei!r side4 ,b1 z 0 %[n _m ye>s ago by my bro!r1 ,a4 ,geikie1,e ?is lake w9ds across ! /rike ( ! /rata4 ,moreov]1 if x ow$ its exi/5ce to a great syncl9al fold1 :y1 he asks1 does x n run along ! same l9e z f> z ! same /ructure cont9ues8 ,x does n d s3 x is n cont9u\s ) ! syncl9al fold1 :ile v]tical /rata appe> 9 ! middle ( ! lake1 :]e1 z my bro!r rem>ks1 !y h cle>ly no bus9ess to be if ! sides ( ! lake are =m$ by ! inw>d dip ( ! s*i/s4 ,e ,trans4 ,ed94 ,geol4 ,soc4 vol4 ii4 p4 #bfg4 ,! ,great ,gl51 z ,i m5tion$ 9 ! prec$+ article1 co9cides ) a fracture or dislocation--a l9e ( weakness along :i* ! d5ud+ ag5ts _h work$ = _m ages be=e ! beg9n+ ( ,old ,r$ ,s&/one times2 & x is possible t small] dislocations may yet be detect$ 9 o!r valleys4 ,b 9 ea* & e case ! valleys z we n[ see !m are valleys ( erosion2 9 ea* & e case ! m\nta9s are m\nta9s ( circumd5udation2 !y project z em95ces because ! rock-masses :i* =m]ly surr\nd$ !m h be5 gradually remov$4 ,we h only to protract ! outcrops ( ! d5ud$ /rata--to re/ore _! cont9uations--to =m "s fa9t idea ( ! enorm\s masses ( rock :i* h be5 c>ri$ away f ! surface ( ! ,highl& area s9ce ! /rata 7 fold$ & fractur$4 ,all ?is erosion speaks to ! lapse ( long ages4 ,! m\nta9s ( elevation :i* d\btless at "o "t exi/$ )9 ! ,highl& area _h already1 z we h se51 suff]$ extreme erosion be=e ! beg9n+ ( ,old ,r$ ,s&/one times1 mu* ( ! area hav+ be5 conv]t$ into an undulat+ plateau or pla91 :i*1 becom+ subm]g$ 9 "p1 0 gradually ov]spread by ! s$im5t>y deposits ( ! succe$+ ,old ,r$ ,s&/one p]iod4 ,^? s$im5ts 7 d\btless d]iv$ 9 l>ge measure f ! d5udation ( ! old] rocks ( ! ,highl&s1 & s9ce !y atta9 9 places a ?ickness ( #bj1jjj feet1 & cov] _m squ>e miles1 !y help u to realise 9 "s measure ! va/ erosion ! ,highl& area _h su/a9$ be=e ! comm5cem5t ( ! ,c>bonif]\s p]iod4 ,nor mu/ we =get t ! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one =mation :i* bord]s ! ,highl&s has itself exp]i5c$ excessive d5udation3 x =m]ly _h a mu* great] ext5sion1 & d\btless at "o "t ov]spread l>ge tracts ( ! ,highl&s4 ,aga91 we h to rememb] t dur+ ! ,c>bonif]\s & ,p]mian p]iods1 & ! lat] ,mesozoic & ,ca9ozoic eras1 ! ,highl&s probably rema9$ m or less cont9u\sly 9 ! condition ( l&4 ,be>+ ?is 9 m9d1 we ne$ n be surpris$ t n a ve/ige ( ! primeval configuration br\ght ab\t by ! great e>?-movem5ts ( late ,silurian times has be5 pres]v$4 ,inde$1 _h ! ,highl& area1 aft] ! disappe>ance ( ! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one inl& seas1 rema9$ undi/urb$ by any movem5t ( elevation or depression1 x mu/ long ago h be5 r$uc$ by sub-arial erosion to ! condition ( a l[-ly+ undulat+ pla94 ,b elevation en masse f "t to "t took place1 & s runn+ wat] & its num]\s allies h be5 enabl$ to c>ry on ! "w ( d5udation4 ,?us 9 ! geological hi/ory ( ! ,scotti% ,highl&s we may trace ! successive phases ?r\gh :i* _m o!r elevat$ tracts h pass$4 ,! ,sc&9avian plateau1 & _m ( ! m\nta9s ( middle ,g]many--su*1 = example1 z ! ,h>z1 ! ,erzgebirge1 ! ,?r+]-,wald1 etc4--%[ by _! /ructure t !y h und]gone simil> *anges4 ,fir/ we h an epo* ( m\nta9-elevation1 :5 ! /rata are squeez$ & cru%$ lat]ally1 fractur$ & %att]$--! result be+ ! production ( a s]ies ( m or less p>allel anticl9es & syncl9es1 or1 9 o!r words1 a true m\nta9-*a94 ,next we h a prolong$ p]iod ( erosion1 dur+ :i* runn+ wat] fl[s ?r\gh syncl9al tr\ghs1 works along ! backs ( brok5 & %att]$ anticl9es1 & makes its way by jo9ts1 gap+ cracks1 & dislocations1 to ! l[ gr\nds4 ,z "t goes on1 ! v>y+ "* ( ! rocks & ! mode ( _! arrangem5t beg9 to tell3 ! weak] /ructures are brok5 up2 rock-falls & l&slips ev] & anon take place2 anticl9al ridges are gradually demoli%$1 :ile syncl9es t5d to endure1 & ?us gr[1 z x 71 into hills1 by ! gradual removal ( ! m weakly-con/ruct$ rock-masses t surr\nd !m4 ,valleys cont9ue to be deep5$ & wid5$1 :ile ! int]v5+ m\nta9s1 eat5 into by ! riv]s & _! c\ntless fe$]s1 & %att]$ & pulv]is$ by spr+s & fro/s1 are gradually n>r[$1 int]rupt$1 & r$uc$1 until ev5tually :at 0 =m]ly a great m\nta9-*a9 becomes conv]t$ into a l[-ly+ undulat+ pla94 ,%\ld ! region n[ exp]i5ce a movem5t ( depression1 & s9k "u ! sea1 new s$im5t>y deposits w ga!r ov] its surface to a dep?1 x may be1 ( _m hundr$s or ev5 ?\s&s ( feet4 ,%\ld ?is sunk5 area be once m elevat$ en masse--pu%$ up bodily until x atta9s a height ( sev]al ?\s& feet--x w =m a plateau1 compos$ ( a s]ies ( horizontal /rata re/+ on ! contort$ & convolut$ rocks ( ! anci5t d5ud$ m\nta9-*a94 ,! surface ( ! plateau w n[ be trav]s$ by /reams & riv]s1 & 9 c\rse ( "t x mu/ become deeply cleft & furr[$1 ! gr\nd betwe5 ! v>i\s valleys ris+ into m\nta9-masses4 ,%\ld ! l& rema9 /ation>y1 its =m] fate %all aga9 ov]take x2 x w inevitably be degrad$ & worn d[n by ! sub-arial ag5ts ( erosion1 until once m x assumes ! "* ( a l[-ly+ undulat+ pla94 ,?r\gh su* phases our ,highl&s h c]ta9ly pass$4 ,at a v e>ly epo* ! ,ar*an rocks ( ! nor?-we/ 7 ridg$ up into great m\nta9-masses1 b be=e ! beg9n+ ( ! pre-,cambrian p]iod wide areas ( ^? highly-contort$ rocks _h already be5 plan$ across1 s t :5 subsid5ce ensu$ ! pre-,cambrian s&/ones 7 deposit$ ^u a g5tly undulat+ surface ( highly convolut$ /rata4 ,ano!r great epo* ( m\nta9-mak+ took place aft] ,l[] ,silurian times1 & true m\nta9-ranges once m appe>$ 9 ! ,highl& area4 ,we _c tell h[ high ^? m\nta9s may h be51 b !y might well h rivall$ ! ,alps4 ,aft] _! elevation a prolong$ p]iod ( erosion ensu$1 & ! l(ty m\nta9-l& 0 r$uc$ 9 l>ge measure to ! condition ( a pla91 wide areas ( :i* 7 subsequ5tly ov]fl[$ by ! inl& seas ( ,old ,r$ ,s&/one times--s t ! s$im5ts ( ^? seas or lakes n[ re/ ) a viol5t uncon=mity on ! upturn$ & d5ud$ edges ( ! fold$ & contort$ ,silurian /rata4 ,at a lat] geological p]iod ! :ole ,highl& area 0 elevat$ en masse1 =m+ an undulat+ plateau1 trav]s$ by c\ntless /reams & riv]s1 "s ( :i* fl[$ 9 holl[s t _h exi/$ be=e ! beg9n+ ( ,old ,r$ ,s&/one times4 ,s9ce t epo* ( elevation ! ,highl& area1 al?\gh subject to occasional oscillations ( level1 w\ld appe> to h rema9$ m or less cont9u\sly 9 ! condition ( dry l&4 ,! result is1 t ! anci5t plateau ( erosion has be5 deeply incis$--! d5ud+ ag5ts h c>v$ x into m\nta9 & gl5--! =ms & directions ( :i* h be5 det]m9$ p>tly by ! orig9al surface-slopes ( ! plateau1 & p>tly by ! petrological "* ( ! rocks & ! geological /ructure ( ! gr\nd4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate ,,ii4 ,,influ5ce ,,( ,,rock ,,/ructure ,,on ,,! ,,=m ,,( ,,! ,,gr\nd4 ,,fig4 #a4 ,,plateau ,,( ,,accumulation3 ,,horizontal ,,/rata1 ,,d5ud$4 ,,fig4 #b4 ,,syncl9al 7,s4,o47 ,,& ,,anticl9al 7,e47 ,,/rata1 ,,d5ud$4 ,,fig4 #c4 ,,fault$ ,,/rata1 ,,%[+ ,,d5udation4 ,,fig4 #d4 ,,m\nta9 ,,( ,,accumulation1--,,volcano4 ,,fig4 #e4 ,,diagrammatic ,,section ,,( ,a ,,typical ,,m\nta9 ,,*a91 ,,or ,,m\nta9s ,,( ,,upheaval4 ,,fig4 #f4 ,,types ,,( ,,rock ,,/ructure ,,9 ,,! ,,alps 7,,aft] ,,pr(4 ,,heim7 ,! dott$ l9es %[ portions ( /rata1 d5ud$4 ,,fig4 #g4 ,,esc>pm5ts 7e7 ,,& ,,dip ,,slopes 7d74 ,,fig4 #h4 ,,erosion ,,( ,,anticl9al ,,m\nta9s4 ,,fig4 #i4 ,,plateau ,,( ,,erosion1 ,,%[+ ,,m\nta9s ,,( ,,circumd5udation 7aa74 ,,fig #aj4 ,,section ,,across ,,b5 ,,law]s ,,& ,,lo* ,,tay1 ,,%[+ ,,m\nta9s ,,( ,,circumd5udation4 ,! ,ed9burgh ,geographical ,in/itute ,j4 ,g4 ,b>?olomew ,f4,r4,g4,s4 ,?us1 9 ! evolution ( ! surface-features ( ! e>?1 ! work+ ( two great classes ( geological ag5ts is conspicu\s--! subt]ranean & ! sub-arial4 ,! s9k+ d[n ( ! cru/ ^u ! cool+ nucleus w\ld appe> to h giv5 rise to ! great oceanic depressions & cont95tal ridges1 j z ! m9or depressions )9 our cont95tal areas h orig9at$ _m m\nta9-*a9s4 ,9 ! area und]go+ depression ! /rata are subject$ to int5se lat]al pressure1 to :i* !y yield along c]ta9 l9es by fold+ up4 ,! /rata =m+ ! ,alps1 :i* are #acj miles broad1 orig9ally occupi$ a wid? ( #bjj miles2 & simil> evid5ce ( enorm\s compression is conspicu\s 9 ! /ructure ( all m\nta9s ( elevation4 ,great elevation1 h[ev]1 may take place ) little or no di/urbance ( /ratification3 wide cont95tal areas h be5 sl[ly upheav$ en masse1 & sea-bottoms & l[-ly+ pla9s h 9 ?is way be5 conv]t$ into l(ty plateaux4,f ,_m ( ! mo/ conspicu\s features ( ! e>?'s surface1 !re=e1 are due directly to subt]ranean action4 ,all ^? features1 h[ev]1 become modifi$ by d5udation1 & ev5tually ! primeval configuration may be entirely de/roy$1 & replac$ by cont\rs :i* be> no direct relation to ! =m ( ! orig9al surface4 7,see ,fig4 #i47 ,9 ! new] m\nta9-*a9s ( ! globe ! surface-features are /ill l>gely ^? due directly to upheaval2 s 9 "s rec5tly elevat$ plateaux ! gr\nd has n yet be5 cut up & conv]t$ into irregul> m\nta9-masses4 ,_m ( ! m anci5t m\nta9-*a9s & ranges1 h[ev]1 h be5 expos$ s long to ! abrad+ action ( ! d5ud+ ag5ts t all trace ( _! orig9al cont\r has vani%$4 ,& 9 l mann] plateaux ( great age h be5 s highly d5ud$1 s cut & c>v$ by ! tools ( erosion1 t _! plateau "* has become obscur$4 ,!y h be5 conv]t$ into undulat+ m\nta9\s & hilly regions4 ,ev]y:]e ?r\gh\t ! _w we read ! same tale ( subsid5ce & accumulation1 ( upheaval & d5udation4 ,! anci5t s$im5t>y deposits :i* =m ! major portion ( our l&-surfaces1 are ! wa/e mat]ials d]iv$ f ! demolition ( pla9s1 plateaux1 & m\nta9s ( elevation4 ,9 "s m\nta9-regions we read ! evid5ce ( successive epo*s ( uplift1 sep>at$ by long int]v5+ p]iods ( erosion1 foll[$ by depression & accumulation ( new] s$im5ts ov] ! d5ud$ surface4 ,?us ! ,alps began to be elevat$ t[>ds ! close ( ,palozoic times4 ,erosion foll[$1 & subsequ5tly ! l& became depress$1 & a va/ succession ( deposits accumulat$ ov] its surface dur+ ! long-cont9u$ ,mesozoic era into e>ly ,ca9ozoic times4 ,aga91 a great upheaval ensu$1 & ! ,mesozoic & ,eoc5e /rata 7 viol5tly contort$ & fold$ along ! flanks ( ! *a94 ,!n succe$$ ano!r p]iod ( erosion & depression1 :i* 0 aga9 int]rupt$ by "o or m ext5sive upheavals4 ,away f ^? l9es ( weakness :i* we call m\nta9-*a9s1 we con/antly enc\nt] evid5ce ( widespread movem5ts ( elevation1 dur+ :i* broad areas ( sea-bottom h be5 upheav$ to ! light ( day1 &1 aft] suff]+ ext5sive d5udation h subsid$1 to be aga9 ov]spread ) ! spoils ( adjac5t l&s1 & !n upheav$ once m4 ,& su* oscillations ( level h occurr$ aga9 & aga94 ,look+ back ?r\gh ! long vi/a ( ! pa/1 we see ea* cont95tal area 9 a /ate ( flux--l& alt]nat+ ) sea1 & sea ) l&--m\nta9s & plateaux appe>+ & disappe>+--a con/ant succession ( modifications1 br\ght ab\t by ! antagoni/ic subt]ranean & sub-arial ag5ts4 ,! hills are %ad[s1 & !y fl[ ,f =m to =m1 & no?+ /&s2 ,!y melt l mi/s1 ! solid l&s1 ,l cl\ds !y %ape !mselves & g4 ,f ,?is is ! g5]ally accept$ view ( mod]n geologi/s4 ,x is v difficult1 h[ev]1 to und]/& h[ a wide cont95tal area c be v]tically upheav$4 ,x seems m probable t ! upheaval ( ! l& is only app>5t4 ,! l& seems to rise because ! sea retreats z ! result ( ! subsid5ce ( ! cru/ )9 ! great oceanic bas9s4 ,see ,article xiv4 7#ahib47 ,,iv4 ,! ,*eviot ,hills4,g ,g ,f ,good ,words = #ahgf4 ,i4 ,! ridge ( high gr\nd t sep>ates ,engl& f ,scotl& is n1 l _m o!r hilly di/ricts1 ! belov$ ( t\ri/s4 ,no guide-book expatiates ^u ! attractiv5ess ( ! ,*eviots2 no cunn+ly-word$ hotel-puffs lure ! unw>y vagrant 9 se>* ( heal?1 or sport1 or ! picturesque1 to ! quiet dells & pa/oral upl&s ( ! ,bord]s4 ,s9ce ! biograph] ( ,d&ie ,d9mont1 ( joy\s memory1 jo9$ ! %ades1 no magic s5t5ces1 ei!r 9 v]se or prose1 h turn$ any appreciable portion ( ! annual /ream ( t\ri/s 9 ! direction ( ! ,*eviots4 ,! sc5]y is n ( a nature to satisfy ! desires ( ^? :o look = some?+ piquant--some?+ s5sational1 z x 74 ,x is !re=e highly improbable t ! primeval repose ( ^! ,bord] upl&s w ev] be di/urb$ by inroads ( ! travell+ public1 ev5 %\ld "s second ,burns arise to r5d] ! names ( hills & /reams z famili> z h\sehold words4 ,& yet ^? :o c sp>e ! "t to make !mselves well acqua9t$ ) t region %\ld d s2 !y w h no reason to regret _! visit1 b v mu* ! rev]se4 ,= ! sc5]y is ( a k9d :i* gr[s ^u "o4 ,x %[s no clamant beauties--y _c h its *>ms photograph$--! pass+ /rang] may see no?+ 9 x to deta9 him2 b only t>ry = a :ile among/ ^! gre5 upl&s1 & y %all f9d a /range attraction 9 _! s(t outl9es1 9 _! utt] quiet & re/fulness4 ,= ^? :o are we>i$ ) ! cru% & d9 ( life1 ,i _c ?9k ( a bett] retreat4 ,"o may w&] at w among/ ! breezy hills1 & inhale ! mo/ invigorat+ air2 spr+s ( ! coole/ & cle>e/ wat] ab\nd1 & !re are few ( ! brooks 9 _! upp] rea*es :i* w n furni% natural %[]-ba?s4 ,did ! read] ev] indulge 9 su* a m\nta9-ba?8 ,if n1 !n let him on a summ] day seek out "s rocky pool1 %elt]$ f ! sun1 if possible1 by bir* & m\nta9-a%1 &1 creep+ 9 bel[ ! /ream :]e x leaps f ! l$ges above1 all[ ! cool wat] to break ^u 8 head1 & he w confess to hav+ discov]$ a new aque\s luxury4 ,!n f ! slopes & tops ( ! hills y h "s ( ! f9e/ panoramic views to be se5 9 ?is isl&4 ,nor are !re want+ picturesque nooks1 & /rik+ rock sc5]y among/ ! hills !mselves3 ! sides ( ! ,*eviot are seam$ ) "s wild1 rugg$ *asms1 :i* are j z weird 9 _! way z _m ( ! rocky rav9es t eat into ! he>t ( our ,highl& m\nta9s4 ,! beauty ( ! l[] rea*es ( "s ( ! /reams t issue f ! ,*eviots is well kn[n2 & few t\ri/s :o ent] ! vale ( ! ,teviot neglect to make ! acqua9tance ( ! sylvan ,j$4 ,b o!r /reams1 su* z ! ,b[mont1 ! ,kale1 ! ,oxnam1 & ! ,rule w also well repay a visit4 ,9 addition to all ^! natural *>ms1 ! ,*eviot di/rict ab\nds 9 o!r attractions4 ,^? :o are fond ( ,bord] lore1 :o love to seek out ! sites ( old =ays1 & battles1 & romantic incid5ts1 w f9d mu* to engage !m2 = e /ream1 & almo/ e hill1 is not$ 9 tale & ballad4 ,or if ! visitor h antiqu>ian ta/es1 he may rival old ,monkb>ns1 & d 8 be/ to expla9 ! hi/ory ( ! endless camps1 ramp>ts1 dit*es1 & t]races :i* ab\nd ev]y:]e1 especially t[>ds ! heads ( ! valleys4 ,to ! geologi/ ! di/rict is n less int]e/+1 z ,i hope to be able1 9 ! c\rse ( ^! pap]s1 to %[4 ,! geological hi/ory ( ! ,*eviots might be %ortly summ$ up1 & giv5 9 a n>rative =m1 b x w p]haps be m int]e/+1 &1 at ! same "t m in/ructive1 if we %all1 in/ead1 g a little into detail1 & %[ fir/ :at ! nature ( ! evid5ce is1 &1 second1 h[ t evid5ce may be piec$ toge!r s z to tell its own /ory4 ,i may j premise t my descriptions ref] almo/ exclusively to ! ,scotti% side ( ! ,*eviots--:i* is n only ! mo/ picturesque1 b also ! mo/ int]e/+1 bo? f an antiqu>ian & geological po9t ( view4 ,! ,*eviots ext5d f ! head ( ! ,tyne 9 ,nor?umb]l&1 & ( ! ,liddel 9 ,roxburgh%ire1 to ,yeav]+ ,bell & ! heights 9 its neighb\rhood 7ne> ,wool]71 a di/ance ( upw>ds ( ?irty miles4 ,"s w h x t ! range goes we/w>d s z to include ! heights ab\t ! s\rce ( ! ,teviot1 b ?is is c]ta9ly a mi/ake1 = aft] leav+ ,peel ,fell & cross+ to ! heights on ! o!r side ( ! ,liddel ,wat]1 we ent] a region :i*1 bo? 9 its physical aspect & its geological /ructure1 diff]s consid]ably f ! hilly di/rict t lies betwe5 ,peel ,fell & ! high-gr\nds t roll d[n to ! wide pla9s wat]$ by ! ,gl5 & ! ,till4 ,! highe/ po9t 9 ! range is t :i* gives its "n to ! hills--namely1 ! ,*eviot--a massive broad-topp$ hill1 :i* rea*es an elevation ( #bgfg feet above ! sea1 & f :i* a wond]ful panorama c be scann$ on a cle> day4 ,! top ( ! hill is coat$ ) peat1 fifte5 to tw5ty feet ?ick1 9 "s places4 ,a numb] ( deep rav9es tr5* its slopes1 ! mo/ not$ ( :i* are ,h5 ,hole & ! ,bizzle4 ,peel ,fell1 at ! o!r extremity ( ! range1 is only #aifd feet high1 :ile ! dom9ant po9ts betwe5 ,peel ,fell & ! ,*eviot are /ill l[]--rang+ f #aejj feet to #ahjj feet4 ,! g5]al "* ( ! hills is t ( smoo? r\nd$ masses1 ) long fl[+ outl9es4 ,!re are no peaks1 nor s]rat$ ridges1 su* z are occasionally met ) 9 ! nor!rn ,highl&s2 & ! valleys z a rule %[ no precipit\s crags & rocky precipices1 ! mo/ conspicu\s exceptions be+ ! deep clefts m5tion$ z occurr+ 9 ! ,*eviot4 ,! hills fall away ) a long g5tle slope into ,engl&1 :ile on ! ,scotti% side ! desc5t is some:at abrupt2 s t ^u ! :ole ! nor!rn or ,scotti% portion ( ! ,*eviots has m ( ! picturesque to comm5d x ?an ! correspond+ di/ricts 9 ,engl&4 ,inde$1 ! opposite slopes ( ! range %[ "s r /rik+ contra/s4 ,! long1 flat-topp$ elevations on ! ,engli% side1 t sweep s\? & s\?-we/ f ,c>t] ,fell & ,h>d5 ,edge1 & :i* are dra9$ by ! ,tyne1 ! ,r$e ,wat]1 & ! ,coquet1 are cov]$ = ! mo/ "p ) peat4 ,sometimes1 h[ev]1 :5 ! slope is too great to admit ( its gr[?1 ! peat gives place to r\gh scanty grass & scrubby hea?1 :i* b>ely suffice to hide ! und]ly+ b>r5 s&/one rocks4 ,"o com+ f ! ,scotti% side is h>dly prep>$1 inde$1 = ! dre>y aspect ( ?is region z view$ f ! dom9ant ridge ( ! ,*eviots4 ,if 9 _! physical aspect ! ,engli% slopes ( ^! hills are = ! mo/ "p less attractive ?an ! ,scotti%1 x is true also t !y (f] less v>iety ( int]e/ to ! geologi/4 ,^? :o h j\rney$ 9 /agecoa*+ times f ,engl& into ,scotl& by ,c>t] ,fell1 w rememb] ! relief !y felt :51 hav+ surm\nt$ ! hill above ,:itelee1 & escap$ f ! dre>y b>r5s ( ! ,engli% bord]1 !y sudd5ly caught a sight ( ! gre5 slopes ( ! ,scotti% hills1 & ! well-wood$ vales ( ,edg]/on ,burn & ,j$ ,wat]4 ,on a cle> day ! view f ?is po9t is v *>m+4 ,away to ! we/ /ret* 9 seem+ly endless undulations ! swell+ hills t circle r\nd ! upp] rea*es ( ,teviotdale4 ,to ea/ & nor?-ea/ ! eye glances along ! bright-gre5 ,*eviots ( ! ,scotti% bord]1 & m>ks h[ !y plunge1 = ! mo/ "p some:at sudd5ly1 into ! l[ gr\nds1 save "h & !re1 :]e !y s9k 9 g5tl] slopes1 or ?r[ out a few scatt]$ outpo/s--abrupt v]dant hills t someh[ look z if !y _h brok5 away f ! ma9 mass ( ! range4 ,f ! same /&po9t "o traces ! valleys ( ! ,rule & ! ,j$--sweete/ ( bord] /reams--/ret*+ nor? into ! well-clo!d vale ( ! ,teviot4 ,inde$1 ne>ly ! :ole ( t highly-cultivat$ & (t5 ri*ly-wood$ c\ntry t ext5ds f ! base ( ! ,*eviots to ! foot ( ! ,lamm]muirs1 lies /ret*$ be=e "o4 ,"h & !re abrupt isolat$ hills rise up amid ! undulat+ l[ gr\nds1 to hide ! c\ntry beh9d !m4 ,( ^! ! mo/ picturesque are d>k ,rub]s ,law1 ov]look+ ! ,rule ,wat]2 ,m9to ,crags1 & ,p5ielheugh ) its ugly excresc5ce ( a monum5t1 bo? on ! nor? side ( ! ,teviot2 & ! ,eildon ,hills1 :i*1 z all ! _w kn[s1 are ne> ,melrose4 ,aft] he has sat$ himself ) ! r>e beauty ( ?is l&scape 7& /ill f9] panoramic views are to be _h f ! top ( ,blackhall ,hill1 ,h[nam ,law1 ! ,*eviot1 z also f v>i\s po9ts on ! l9e ( ! ,roman ,road & o!r pa?s across ! hills into ,engl&71 ! obs]v] w h>dly fail to be /ruck by ! great v>iety ( outl9es exhibit$4 ,"s ( ! hills1 especially ^? to ! we/ & nor?-we/1 are gr\p$ 9 heavy masses1 & pres5t = ! mo/ "p a s(t1 r\nd$ cont\r1 ! hills be+ broad atop & fl[+ into ea* o!r ) long1 smoo? slopes4 ,o!r elevations1 su* z ^? to ! ea/ & nor?-ea/ ( ,c>t] ,fell1 :ile %[+ simil> long g5tle slopes1 yet are some:at m irregul> 9 =m & brok5 9 outl9e1 ! hills hav+ frequ5tly a lumpy cont\r4 ,v notewor?y objects 9 ! l&scape also are ! little isolat$ hills ( ! l[ gr\nds1 su* z ,rub]s ,law1 & ! ,dunian1 above ,j$burgh4 ,!y rise1 z ,i h said1 q sudd5ly out ( t l[ g5tly undulat+ c\ntry t s9ks s(tly into ! vales ( ! ,teviot & ! ,twe$4 ,?is v>iety arises f ! geological /ructure ( ! di/rict4 ,! hills v>y 9 outl9e p>tly because !y are made up ( diff]5t k9ds ( rock1 & p>tly ow+ to ! mode 9 :i* ^! rocks h be5 arrang$4 ,b not)/&+ all ?is v>iety ( outl9e1 "o may notice a c]ta9 sam5ess too4 ,fl[+ outl9es are m or less conspicu\s all ov] ! l&scape4 ,_m ( ! hills1 especially z we desc5d into ,teviotdale1 seem to h be5 smoo!d or r\nd$ (f1 z x 71 s z to pres5t _! /eepe/ faces z a rule t[>ds ! s\?-we/4 ,& if we take ! compass-be>+ ( ! hill-ridges ( ! same di/rict1 we %all f9d t ^! g5]ally tr5d f s\?-we/ to nor?-ea/ ,s mu*1 !n1 at pres5t = ! surface configuration ( ! ,*eviot region4 ,:5 we come to treat ( ! v>i\s rock-masses1 & to describe ! sup]ficial accumulations und]nea? :i* ^! are (t5 conceal$1 we %all be 9 a bett] position to give an intelligible acc\nt ( ! peculi> =m ( ! gr\nd1 & ! causes to :i* t configuration mu/ be ascrib$4 ,! solid rocks :i* ent] into ! composition ( ! ,*eviots consi/ ma9ly ( 7#a7 h>d grey & blue rocks1 call$ greywack by geologi/s1 ) :i* are associat$ blue & grey %ale2 7#b7 v>i\s old igne\s rocks2 & 7#c7 s&/ones1 r$ & :ite1 int]b$d$ ) :i* occur occasional d>k %ales4 ,n[1 be=e we c make any endeav\r t[>ds recon/ruct+ 9 outl9e ! physical geography ( ! ,*eviot ,hills dur+ pa/ ages1 x is necess>y t we %\ld discov] ! ord] 9 :i* ! rock-masses j ref]r$ to h be5 amass$4 ,i %all fir/ describe1 !re=e1 "s sections :]e ! memb]s ( ! diff]5t s]ies are f\nd 9 juxtaposition1 = ! purpose ( po9t+ out :i* is ! l[e/-ly+1 & consequ5tly ! olde/1 & :i* occupy ! upp]mo/ & int]m$iate positions4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig #a4--;,conglom]ate & ,r$ ,s&/one1 etc41 c1 re/+ on ,greywack & ,%ale1 g4 ,! fir/ section to :i* ref]5ce may be made is expos$ 9 ! c\rse ( ! ,riv] ,j$1 at ,all>s ,mill1 a little above ,j$burgh4 ,?is section is fam\s 9 its way z hav+ be5 describ$ & figur$ by ,dr4 ,hutton1 :o may be said to h f\nd$ ! pres5t sy/em ( physical geology4 ,9 ! b$ ( ! /ream are se5 c]ta9 confus$ ridges ( a greyi% blue rock runn+ "r across ! riv] c\rse--t is1 9 a direction a little nor? ( ea/ & s\? ( we/4 ,^! ridges are ! expos$ edges ( b$s ( greywack & %ale1 :i* are "h /&+ on end4 ,! b$s are some:at irregul>1 be+ incl9$ f ! v]tical1 n[ 9 "o direction & n[ 9 ano!r1 or1 z a geologi/ w\ld say1 ! dip *anges rapidly1 sometimes be+ up ! valley & sometimes d[n4 ,! same b$s cont9ue up ! /eep bank ( ! riv] = a y>d or two1 & are !re capp$ by ano!r set ( rocks altoge!r1 namely1 by s(t r$ s&y b$s :i* at ! bottom become conglom]atic--t is to say1 !y are *>g$ ) wat]-worn /ones4 ,! annex$ diagram 7,fig4 #a7 w %[ ! g5]al appe>ances pres5t$3 g repres5ts ! v]tical greywack & %ale1 & c ! ov]ly+ deposits ( conglom]ate & r$ s&y b$s4 ,n[ let u see :at ?is section means4 ,:at1 9 ! fir/ place1 is greywack8 ,! t]m itself has really no mean+1 be+ a "n giv5 by ! m9]s 9 ! ,h>z ,m\nta9s to ! unproductive rocks associat$ ) ! ve9-/ones :i* !y "w4 ,:5 we break ! rock we may obs]ve t x is a granul> mixture ( small p>ticles ( qu>tz1 to :i* sometimes felsp> & o!r m9]als are add$4 ,! gra9s are b\nd toge!r 9 a h>d5$ matrix ( argillace\s or clayey & silici\s matt]1 blue1 or grey1 or gre51 or br[n & yell[1 z ! case may be4 ,at ,all>s ,mill1 & g5]ally ?r\gh\t ! ,*eviot di/rict1 ! prevail+ col\r is a pale greyi% blue or blui% grey2 b %ades ( gre5 & br[n (t5 occur4 ,! compon5t p>ticles ( ! rock are usually r\nd$ or wat]-worn4 ,aga91 we notice t ! ridges & b&s ( rock t trav]se ! c\rse ( ! ,j$ at ,all>s ,mill are m]ely ! outcrops ( successive /rata or b$s4 ,x is cle> !n t greywack & ! grey %ales t accompany x are aque\s rocks--t is to say1 !y consi/ ( h>d5$ s$im5t1 :i* has und\bt$ly be5 deposit$ 9 successive lay]s ( v>iable ?ickness by wat] 9 motion4 ,b s9ce ! s$im5ts ( riv]s & curr5ts are laid d[n 9 approximately horizontal planes1 x is evid5t t if ! greywack & %ale be s$im5t>y deposits !y h suff]$ consid]able di/urbance s9ce ! "t ( _! =mation2 =1 z we h se51 ! b$s1 in/ead ( be+ horizontal or only g5tly incl9$1 actually approa* ! v]tical4 ,! fact is1 t ! outcrops :i* we see are only ! truncat$ portions ( :at 7 =m]ly rapid undulations or folds ( ! /rata1 ! tops ( ! folds or ar*es hav+ be5 cut away by geological ag5cies1 to :i* ,i %all ref] by-&-by4 ,:at 7 at "o "t horizontal /rata h be5 crumpl$ up into great folds1 ! folds be+ squeez$ tightly toge!r1 & _! upp] portions plan$ away be=e ! ov]ly+ r$ s&y b$s 7 laid d[n4 ,! accompany+ diagram 7,fig4 #b7 may s]ve to make all ?is cle>]4 ,let ,a ,a repres5t ! pres5t surface ( ! gr\nd1 & ,b ,b a dep? ( say fifty feet or a hundr$ feet f ! surface4 ,! cont9u\s l9es betwe5 ,a & ,b repres5t ! greywack b$s z we n[ see !m 9 section2 ! dott$ l9es above ,a ,a indicate ! =m] ext5sion ( ! /rata1 & ! dott$ l9es bel[ ,b ,b _! cont9uation bel[ t datum l9e4 ,h5ce x is obvi\s t 9 a succession ( v]tical or highly incl9$ b$s1 we may h ! same /rata repeat$ _m times1 ! same b$s com+ aga9 & aga9 to ! surface4 ,?us ! /ratum at ,s is evid5tly ! same b$ z t at ,w1 ,x1 ,y1 & ,z4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig #b4 ,su* great fold+s or r$\bl+s ( /rata are mo/ probably orig9at$ dur+ subsid5ce ( a portion ( ! e>?'s cru/4 ,:ile ! gr\nd is sl[ly s9k+ d[n1 ! /rata und]nea? are p]=ce compell$ to occupy less space lat]ally1 & ?is !y c only d by yield+ among/ !mselves4 ,all fold+ or contortion on ! l>ge scale--t1 namely1 :i* has affect$ areas ( /rata ext5d+ ov] :ole c\ntries--seems to h tak5 place "u great pressure2 9 o!r words1 to h be5 produc$ at consid]able dep?s f ! e>?'s surface4 ,we c conceive1 !re=e1 ( a wide tract ( l& s9k+ d[n = hundr$s ( feet1 & produc+ at ! surface comp>atively little *ange4 ,b a depression ( a few hundr$ feet at ! surface implies a consid]ably great] depression at a dep? ( sev]al ?\s& feet f ! surface1 & x is at great dep?s1 !re=e1 t ! mo/ viol5t fold+ mu/ take place4 ,consequ5tly consid]able contortion1 & mu* fold+1 & lat]al cru%+ & r$uplication ( /rata may occur1 & yet no trace ( ?is be obs]vable at ! surface1 save only a g5tle depression4 ,= example1 9 ,gre5l&1 a movem5t ( subsid5ce has be5 go+ on = _m ye>s--! l& has be5 sl[ly s9k+ d[n4 ,! rocks at ! surface are ( c\rse q undi/urb$ by ?is widely-ext5d$ movem5t1 b ! /rata at great dep?s may be und]go+ mu* compression & contortion4 ,x foll[s f su* consid]ations1 t if we n[ get highly contort$ /rata cov]+ wide areas at ! surface1 we suspect t v consid]able d5udation has tak5 place4 ,t is to say1 l>ge masses ( rock h be5 remov$ by ! geological ag5ts ( *ange1 s z to expose ! once deeply-buri$ tops ( ! ar*$ or curv$ & fold$ /rata4 ,we may !re=e inf] f a /udy ( ! ph5om5a 9 ! ,j$ at ,all>s ,mill1 fir/1 t ! r$ s&y b$s are y\ng] ?an ! greywack & %ale1 see+ t !y re/ ^u !m2 &1 second1 t a v long p]iod ( "t mu/ h elaps$ betwe5 ! deposition ( ! old] & ! accumulation ( ! y\ng] set ( /rata2 = x is obvi\s t consid]able "t 0 requir$ = ! consolidation & fold+ ( ! greywack1 & an incalculable lapse ( ages 0 also necess>y to all[ ( ! gradual we>+ away by ra91 fro/1 & runn+ wat] ( ! great ?ickness ( rocks und]nea? :i* ! greywack 0 crumpl$4 ,& all ?is took place be=e ! horizontally-b$d$ r$ s&/one & conglom]ate ga!r$ ov] ! upturn$ ends ( ! und]ly+ /rata4 ,! succession ( rocks at ,all>s ,mill is se5 9 _m o!r places 9 ! ,*eviot di/rict1 b en\gh has be5 said to prove t ! greywack b$s are ! old] ( ! two sets ( /rata4 ,!re is ano!r class ( rocks1 ! relative position ( :i* we mu/ n[ asc]ta91 = no "o %all w&] mu* or f> among ! ,*eviots )\t becom+ aw>e ( ! exi/5ce ( o!r k9ds ( rock ?an greywack & s&/one4 ,_m ( ! hills ea/ ( ,oxnam & ,j$ ,wat]s1 = example1 are compos$ ( igne\s masses--( rocks :i* h _h a volcanic orig94 ,z we %all aft]w>ds see1 ! :ole nor?-ea/]n section ( ! ,*eviots is built up ( su* rocks4 ,at pres5t1 h[ev]1 we are only conc]n$ ) ! relation :i* ^! be> to ! greywack & ! r$ s&y b$s4 ,n[ at v>i\s localities--= example1 9 ,edg]/on ,burn1 on ! hill-face s\? ( ,pl5d]lei?1 & aga9 along ! /eep front ( ,h9dhope & ,blackball ,hills1 :i* are on ! cre/ ( ! ,*eviots--we f9d t ! igne\s rocks re/ ^u ! greywack & %ale 7see ,fig4 #c7 precisely 9 ! same way z d ! r$ s&y b$s4 ,!y !re=e belong to a lat] date ?an ! greywack4 ,9 o!r places1 aga91 we meet ) ! conglom]ates & r$ s&/ones 7c1 ,fig4 #d7 re/+ ^u & wrapp+ r\nd ! igne\s rocks1 i1 & ?us x becomes q obvi\s t ! latt] occupy an int]m$iate position betwe5 ! greywack & %ale on ! "o h&1 & ! conglom]ate & r$ s&/one ^u ! o!r4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #c4--;,igne\s rocks 7i1 a7 re/+ on ,greywack & ,%ale1 g4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #d4--;c1 ,conglom]ate & ,s&/ones1 re/+ on ,igne\s rocks1 i4 ,we h n[ cle>$ ! way s f>1 prep>atory to an attempt to trace ! geological hi/ory ( ! ,*eviots4 ,! ?ree sets ( rocks1 ^: mutual relations we h be5 /udy+1 are ^? ( :i* ! di/rict is *iefly compos$2 b1 z we %all see 9 ! sequel1 !re are o!rs1 n c]ta9ly ( mu* ext5t1 b nev]!less hav+ an int]e/+ /ory to tell u4 ,nor %all we omit to notice ! sup]ficial accumulations ( clay1 gravel1 s&1 silt1 alluvium1 & peat2 monum5ts z !y are ( c]ta9 great *anges1 climatic & geographical1 :i* h *>act]is$ n ! ,*eviots only1 b a mu* wid] area4 ,,ii4 ,if we draw a some:at /raight l9e f ,girvan1 on ! coa/ ( ,ayr%ire1 9 a nor?-ea/ direction to ! %ores ( ! ,nor? ,sea1 ne> ,dunb>1 we %all f9d t s\? ( t l9e1 up to ! ,engli% bord]1 ne>ly ! :ole c\ntry is compos$ ( v>i\s k9ds ( greywack & %ale l ! basem5t b$s ( ! ,*eviot di/rict4 ,"h & !re1 h[ev]1 especially 9 c]ta9 ( ! valleys & "s ( ! l[-ly+ portions ( ?is s\!rn section ( ,scotl&1 "o comes ^u small isolat$ pat*es & occasional wid] areas ( y\ng] /rata1 :i* re/ ^u & conceal ! greywacks & %ales4 ,su* is ! case 9 ,teviotdale1 ! ,*eviot di/rict1 & ! c\ntry wat]$ by ! l[] rea*es ( ! ,twe$1 9 :i* regions ! bottom b$s are hidd5 = sev]al hundr$s ( squ>e miles und]nea? y\ng] rocks4 ,inde$1 ! greywack & %ale =m b a v small portion ( ! surface 9 ! ,*eviots1 appe>+ ^u a col\r$ geological map l s _m isl&s or fragm5ts1 z x 71 :i* h someh[ be5 deta*$ f ! ma9 masses ( greywack ( :i* ! ,lamm]muirs & ! upl&s ( ,dumfries & ,selkirk %ires are compos$4 ,al?\gh ! bottom rocks ( ! ,*eviot ,hills are ?us app>5tly sep>at$ f ! great greywack area1 !re c be no d\bt t !y are really connect$ ) x1 ! connection be+ obscur$ by ! ov]ly+ y\ng] /rata4 ,= if we c\ld only /rip (f ^! latt]1 if we c\ld only lift aside ! great masses ( igne\s rock & s&/one t are pil$ up 9 ! ,*eviot ,hills & ! adjo9+ di/ricts1 we %\ld f9d t ! bottom ^u :i* ^! re/ is ev]y:]e greywack & %ale4 ,9 "p pro( ( ?is x may be m5tion$ t at v>i\s places 9 ^? di/ricts :i* are entirely occupi$ by s&/one & igne\s rock1 ! /reams h cut "r d[n ?r\gh ! y\ng] rocks s z to expose ! bottom b$s1 z 9 ,j$ ,wat] at ,all>s ,mill4 ,aga91 :5 we trace out ! b\nd>ies ( any deta*$ areas ( greywack we inv>iably f9d ^! bottom b$s disappe>+ on all sides und]nea? ! y\ng] /rata by :i* !y are surr\nd$4 ,"o su* isolat$ area occurs 9 ! bas9 ( ! ,oxnam ,wat]1 betwe5 ,littletonleys & ,bloodylaws1 a section across :i* w\ld exhibit ! g5]al appe>ance %[n 9 ! accompany+ diagram 7,fig4 #e74 ,ano!r simil>ly isolat$ pat* is int]sect$ by ,edg]/on ,burn & ! ,j$ ,wat] betwe5 ,paton ,haugh & ,doves=d4 ,b ! l>ge/ ( ^! deta*$ portions appe>s1 =m+ ! cre/ ( ! ,*eviots1 at ! head ( ! ,riv] ,coquet4 ,!re ! basem5t b$s occupy ! wat]%$1 ext5d+ we/w>d1 "s ?ree or f\r miles1 z f> z ! s&/ones ( ,hungry ,law1 :ile to ! nor? & ea/ !y plunge "u ! igne\s rocks ( ,br[nh>t ,law & ! ,h9dhope ,hills4 ,n[ x is evid5t t all ^? deta*$ & isolat$ areas ( greywack & %ale are really connect$ und]gr\nd1 & n only s1 b !y also piece on 9 ! same way to ! great belt ( simil> /rata t /ret*es f sea to sea across ! :ole bread? ( ,scotl&4 ,inde$1 we may obs]ve 9 ! ,*eviot di/rict h[ long & massive promontories ( greywack jut out f t great belt1 & ext5d (t5 = miles into ! areas t are cov]$ ) y\ng] /rata1 z1 = example1 9 ! ,brockilaw & ,wolfelee ,hills4 ,a g5]alis$ section across ! greywack regions ( ! ,*eviot ,hills w\ld !re=e pres5t ! appe>ances %[n 9 ! annex$ diagram 7,fig4 #f71 9 :i* ,g repres5ts ! basem5t b$s1 ,i ! igne\s rocks1 & ,c ! r$ s&/ones1 etc4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #e4--,section across ,greywack area ( ,oxnam ,wat]2 ,g1 ,greywack & ,%ale2 ,c1 ,s&/one1 etc4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #f4--;,diagram section across ,greywack di/ricts ( ,*eviot ,hills4 ,?r\gh\t ! :ole ( ! di/rict "u review ! bottom b$s are obs]v$ to dip at a high angle--! /rata 9 _m places be+ actually v]tical--& ! edges or crops ( ! /rata run some:at p]si/5tly 9 "o direction1 namely1 f s\? by we/ to nor? by ea/2 or1 z a geologi/ w\ld express x1 ! b$s h an approximately s\?-we/ & nor?-ea/ /rike4 ,n[ z ! dip is sometimes to nor?-we/ & sometimes to s\?-ea/1 x is evid5t t ! rocks h be5 fold$ up 9 a s]ies ( rapid convolutions1 & t "s ( ! b$s mu/ be (t5 repeat$4 ,f ! "* ( ! fossils :i* ! bottom b$s h yield$ we le>n t ! /rata belong to t division ( pa/ "t :i* is kn[n z ! ,silurian age4 ,^! fossils appe> to be ( infrequ5t occurr5ce1 & ! creatures ( :i* !y are ! relics occupi$ r a humble place 9 ! scale ( be+4 ,!y are call$ graptolites 7f _! resemblance to p5s71 an ext9ct gr\p ( hydroid zoophytes1 app>5tly resembl+ ! s]tul>ians ( our own seas4 ,! g5]al appe>ance ( ! ,silurian /rata ( ! ,*eviots is indicative ( deposition 9 comp>atively quiet wat]1 b h[ deep t wat] 0 "o _c say4 ,^u ! :ole1 ! b$s look n unlike ! s$im5ts t ga!r 9 calm rea*es ( ! sea1 su* z e/u>ies1 betok5+ ! pres5ce ( "s n di/ant l& f :i* f9e mud & s& 7 wa%$ d[n4 ,ano!r pro( t "s ( ! /rata at all ev5ts 7 accumulat$ n f> f a %ore-l9e1 is f\nd 9 c]ta9 co>se b&s ( grit & pebbles1 :i* are n likely to h be5 =m$ 9 deep wat]4 ,?is evid5ce1 h[ev]1 _c be consid]$ decisive1 & 9 ! pres5t /ate ( our k all t we c ass]t ) any?+ l confid5ce is simply ?is3--,t dur+ ! deposition ( ! ,silurian /rata ! :ole ( ! ,*eviot area lay "u wat]--exi/$1 9 %ort1 z a muddy sea-bottom1 9 ! slime ( :i* fl\ri%$ "h & !re1 9 fav\rable spots1 ^? m9ute hydroid animals call$ graptolites4 ,betwe5 ! deposition ( ! ,silurian & ! =mation ( ! rocks t come next 9 ord] a long int]val elaps$1 dur+ :i* ! mud1 s&1 & grit t ga!r$ on ! floor ( ! anci5t sea 7 h>d5$ into solid masses1 & ev5tually squeez$ toge!r into great folds & undulations4 ,x has already be5 po9t$ out t ^! *anges c\ld h>dly h be5 effect$ save "u extreme pressure1 & ?is consid]ation leads u to inf] t a great ?ickness ( /rata has be5 remov$ entirely f ! ,*eviot di/rict1 s z to leave no trace ( its =m] exi/5ce4 ,long be=e ! deposition ( ! y\ng] /rata t n[ re/ ^u & conceal ! ,silurian rocks1 ! action ( ! d5ud+ =ces--! sea1 fro/s1 ra91 & riv]s--_h succe$$ 9 n only sweep+ gradually away ! /rata und]nea? :i* ! bottom b$s 7 fold$1 b 9 deeply sc>p+ & c>v+ ^! bottom b$s !mselves4 ,c we =m any reasonable conjecture z to ! geological age ( ! /rata und]nea? :i* ! bottom b$s ( ! ,*eviots 7 fold$1 & :i*1 z we h se51 _h entirely disappe>$ be=e ! y\ng] rocks ( ! di/rict 7 accumulat$8 ,well1 x is obvi\s t ! miss+ /rata mu/ h be5 ( lat] =mation ?an ! bottom b$s1 & x is equally evid5t t !y mu/ h be5 ( mu* m anci5t date ?an ! igne\s rocks ( ! ,*eviot ,hills4 ,n[1 z we %all aft]w>ds see1 ^! igne\s rocks belong to ! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one age1 t is to say1 to ! age t succe$$ ! ,silurian4 ,h[ is x !n1 if ! bottom b$s be really ( ,silurian & ! igne\s rocks ( ,old ,r$ ,s&/one age1 t a gap is said to exi/ betwe5 !m8 ,! explanation ( ?is app>5t contradiction is n f> to seek4 ,:5 we comp>e ! fossils t occur 9 ! ,silurian /rata ( ! ,*eviot ,hills & ! di/ricts to ! we/1 ) ! organic rema9s dis9t]r$ f simil> /rata else:]e1 z 9 ,wales = example1 we f9d t ! bottom b$s ( ! ,*eviots 7 9 all probability accumulat$ at approximately ! same "t z c]ta9 /rata t occur 9 ! middle division ( ! ,upp] ,silurian4 ,9 ,wales & 9 ,cumb]l& ! /rata t approximate 9 age to ! ,silurian ( ! ,*eviots are cov]$ by y\ng] /rata belong+ to ! same =mation :i* rea* a ?ickness ( sev]al ?\s& feet4 ,x may q well be1 !re=e1 t ! succession ( ,silurian /rata 9 ! ,*eviots 0 at "o "t m complete ?an x is n[4 ,! upp] portions ( ! =mation :i* are s well develop$ 9 ,wales & ,cumb]l&1 & :i* are likewise repres5t$ to a small ext5t 9 ,scotl&1 _h 9 all probability _! equival5ts 9 :at are our bord] di/ricts4 ,9 o!r words1 !re are good gr\nds = believ+ t ! exi/+ ,silurian rocks ( ! ,*eviots 7 9 times prec$+ ! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one age cov]$ ) y\ng] /rata belong+ to ! same great sy/em4 ,! miss+ ,silurian /rata ( ! ,*eviots may h atta9$ a ?ickness ( sev]al ?\s& feet1 & und]nea? su* a mass ( solid rock ! l[]-ly+ /rata might well h be5 consolidat$ & subsequ5tly squeez$ into folds4 ,we n[ pass on to consid] ! next *apt] 9 ! geological hi/ory ( ! ,*eviot ,hills4 ,z we proce$ 9 our inve/igations x w be notic$ t ! evid5ce becomes m abundant1 & we are ?us enabl$ to build up ! /ory ( ! pa/ ) m confid5ce1 & ) full] details4 ,= x is ) geological hi/ory z ) human records--! fur!r back we g 9 "t ! scanti] d ! facts become4 ,! rocks ^u :i* ,nature writes h] own hi/ory are palimpse/s1 on :i* ! lat] writ+ is ev] ! mo/ easily deciph]$4 ,nay1 %e _c compile h] new] records )\t fir/ de/roy+ "s ( ^? compil$ 9 e>li] times4 ,! s$im5ts accumulat+ 9 mod]n lake & sea are b ! mat]ials d]iv$ f ! degradation ( ! rocks we see ar\nd u1 j z ^! 9 l mann] h orig9at$ f ! demolition ( yet old] /rata4 ,?us ! fur!r we trace back ! hi/ory ( our e>?1 ! m fragm5t>y mu/ we expect ! evid5ce to be2 & conv]sely1 ! ne>] we approa* to ! pres5t condition ( ?+s ! m abundant & satisfactory mu/ ! records become4 ,accord+ly1 we f9d t ! igne\s rocks ( ! ,*eviot ,hills tell u consid]ably m ?an ! anci5t ,silurian deposits ^u :i* !y re/4 ,! surface ( ! latt] appe>s to be some:at irregul> und]nea? ! igne\s rocks1 %[+ t hills & valleys1 or an undulat+ table-l&1 exi/$ 9 ! ,*eviot di/rict prior to ! appe>ance ( ! y\ng] =mation4 ,b be=e we attempt to summ>ise ! hi/ory ( t =mation1 x is necess>y to give "s description1 h[ev] %ort1 ( ! rocks t compose x4 ,^! consi/ *iefly ( num]\s v>ieties ( a rock call$ porphyrite by geologi/s1 pil$ 9 m or less irregul> b$s1 "o on top ( ano!r1 9 a some:at confus$ mann]4 ,! col\r ( ! fre%ly fractur$ rocks is v v>iable1 be+ usually "s %ade ( blue or purple2 b p9k1 r$1 br[n1 gre5i%1 & d>k grey or almo/ black v>ieties also occur4 ,"s ( ! rocks are f9ely cry/all9e2 o!rs1 aga91 are mu* co>s]1 :ile _m are compact1 or ne>ly s1 a l5s be+ requir$ to detect a cry/all9e texture4 ,! m9]al call$ felsp> is usually scatt]$ m or less abundantly ?r\gh ! matrix or base1 :i* itself is compos$ pr9cipally ( felspa?ic mat]ials4 ,besides di/9ct scatt]$ cry/als ( felsp>1 o!r m9]als (t5 occur 9 a simil> mann]2 mica & hornbl5de be+ ! commone/4 ,occasionally ! rocks conta9 num]\s circul>1 oval1 or flatt5$ cavities1 :i* are sometimes s abundant z to give ! appe>ance ( a k9d ( co>se slag to ! porphyrite4 ,^! little cavities1 h[ev]1 are usually fill$ up ) m9]al matt]--su* z calcsp>1 calc$ony1 jasp]1 qu>tz1 etc4 ,sometimes also cracks1 crannies1 & crevices ( "s size h be5 seal$ up ) simil> m9]als4 ,n[ ne>ly all ^! appe>ances are specially *>act]i/ic ( rocks :i* h at "o "t be5 9 a /ate ( igne\s fusion2 nor c !re be any d\bt t ! ,*eviot porphyrites are m]ely solidifi$ lava-b$s1 :i* h be5 p\r$ out f ! b[els ( ! e>?4 ,9 mod]n lavas we may notice n only a cry/all9e texture1 b frequ5tly also we obs]ve ^? 9 our porphyrites4 ,su* cavities are due to ! expansive =ce ( ! vap\rs imprison$ 9 ! molt5 mass at ! "t ( eruption4 ,!y =m *iefly t[>ds ! upp] surface ( a lava /ream1 & are (t5 drawn out or flatt5$ 9 ! direction 9 :i* ! lava fl[s4 ,?us a /ream ( lava1 z x creeps on its way1 becomes slaggy & scoriace\s or c9d]y above & 9 front1 & z ! molt5 mass )9 cont9ues to fl[1 ! slags & c9d]s t cov] its face tumble d[n be=e x1 & =m ! pavem5t ^u :i* ! /ream advances4 ,9 ?is way slags & c9d]s become incorporat$ ) ! bottom ( ! lava1 & h5ce x is t s _m volcanic rocks are scoriace\s1 z well bel[ z above4 ,! vap\rs :i* produce ! cavities usually conta9 m9]als 9 solution1 & ^!1 z ! lava cools1 are frequ5tly deposit$1 p>tially fill+ up ! vesicles1 s z to =m :at are call$ geodes4 ,b _m ( ! cavities h be5 fill$ 9 ano!r way--by ! subsequ5t infiltration ( wat] c>ry+ m9]al matt] 9 solution4 ,& s9ce we "k t all rocks are s p]meat$ by wat]1 x is cle> t ! cavities may h receiv$ _! cont5ts dur+ _m successive p]iods1 aft] ! solidification ( ! rock 9 :i* !y occur4 ,x is 9 ?is mann] t ! jasp]s1 calc$ony1 & beautiful agates ( comm]ce h be5 =m$4 ,rocks abundantly *>g$ ) cavities are said to be vesicul>1 & :5 ! vesicles are fill$ ) m9]al matt]1 !n ! mass becomes1 9 geological language1 amygdaloidal1 f ! almond-l %ape assum$ by ! flatt5$ vesicles4 ,n[ all ! appe>ances describ$ above1 & _m o!rs h>dly less *>act]i/ic ( true lavas1 are to be met ) among/ ^? porphyrites :i*1 z ,i h said1 =m ! major portion ( ! ,*eviot ,hills4 ,f ! valley ( ! ,oxnam1 ea/ by ,cess=d1 ,morebattle1 & ,hoselaw1 & s\? by ,edg]/on1 ,le?am1 ,br[ndeanlaws1 & ,h9dhope1 ! porphyrites ext5d ov] ! :ole area1 sweep+ nor?-ea/ across ! bord] on to ! heights above ! ,riv]s ,gl5 & ,till4 ,9 ! hills at ,h9dhope we notice a good display ( ! olde/ b$s ( ! s]ies4 ,at ! base occurs a v peculi> rock re/+ ^u ! ,silurian1 & ?us =m+ ! f\ndation ( ! porphyrites4 ,x v>ies 9 col\r1 be+ p9k1 grey1 gre51 r$1 br[n1 or v>i\sly mottl$4 ,sometimes x is f9e-gra9$ & gritty1 l a s(t1 co>se-gra9$ s&/one2 at o!r times x is n unlike a granul> porphyrite2 b :5 mo/ typically develop$ x consi/s ( a k9d ( co>se angul> gravel emb$d$ 9 a gritty matrix4 ,! /ones sometimes %[ di/9ct traces ( arrangem5t into lay]s2 b !y are (t5 heap$ rudely toge!r ) little or no /ratification at all4 ,!y consi/ *iefly ( fragm5ts ( porphyrites2 b bits ( ,silurian rocks also occur among/ !m4 ,?is peculi> deposit unque/ionably answ]s to ! heaps ( du/1 s&1 /ones1 & bombs :i* are %ot out ( mod]n volcanoes2 x is a true tuff--t is1 a collection ( loose volcanic ejectam5ta4 ,^u :at k9d ( surface did x fall8 ,long be=e ! eruptions began1 ! ,silurian rocks _h be5 sculptur$ into hills & valleys by ! action *iefly ( ! sub-arial =ces1 & x 0 ^u ^! hills & 9 ^! valleys t ! igne\s mat]ials accumulat$4 ,x is difficult to say1 h[ev]1 :e!r at ?is p]iod ! ,*eviot di/rict 0 above or "u wat]4 ,! traces ( b$d+ 9 ! tuff w\ld seem to indicate ! assort+ p[] ( wat]2 b ! evid5ce is too slight to f\nd ^u1 because we "k t 9 mod]n eruptions1 loose ejectam5ta frequ5tly assume a k9d ( irregul> b$d$ arrangem5t4 ,= aught we c say to ! contr>y1 !re=e1 dry l& may h ext5d$ across :at is n[ s\!rn ,scotl& & nor!rn ,engl& :5 ! fir/ rumbl+s ( volcanic di/urbance %ook ! ,*eviot area4 ,be t z x may1 we "k t ! volcanic outbur/s began 9 ^? old times1 z !y almo/ inv>iably comm5ce n[1 by a dis*>ge ( s&1 small /ones1 blocks1 & c9d]s4 ,^!1 we may inf]1 cov]$ a wide area r\nd ! c5tre ( disp]sion--! *ief focus ( eruption be+ probably 9 ! vic9ity ( ! big ,*eviot1 :]e a mass ( granite seems to occupy ! core or deep-seat$ portion ( ! old volcanic c5tre4 ,! locality :]e ! tuff occurs is "s n9e miles or s di/ant f ?is po9t1 & ! int]v5+ gr\nd c\ld h>dly h escap$ be+ m or less ?ickly spr9kl$ ) ! same mat]ials4 ,! :ole ( t int]v5+ gr\nd1 h[ev]1 n[ lies deeply buri$ "u ! massive /reams ( once-molt5 rock t foll[$ 9 succession aft] ! fir/ disp]sion ( /ones & dbris4 ,al?\gh1 z ,i h said1 x may be d\bt$ :e!r at ! beg9n+ ( _! activity ! ,*eviot volcanoes 7 sub-aque\s1 yet !re are n a few facts t lead to ! inf]5ce t ! eruption ( ! porphyrites took place = ! mo/ "p1 if n exclusively1 "u wat]4 ,! b$s are occasionally sep>at$ by lay]s ( s&/one1 grit1 & conglom]ate2 b su* b$s are r>e1 & true tuffs are r>] /ill4 ,if ! outbur/s _h be5 sub-arial1 we ought surely to h met ) ^! latt] 9 great] abundance1 :ile we %\ld h>dly h expect$ to f9d su* evid5tly wat]-arrang$ /rata z d occur "h & !re4 ,! porphyrites !mselves pres5t c]ta9 appe>ances :i* lead to ! same conclusion4 ,?us we may obs]ve h[ ! bottoms ( ! b$s frequ5tly conta9 bak$ or h>d5$ s& & mud1 %[+ t ! molt5 rock _h be5 p\r$ out ov] "s muddy or s&y bottom1 & _h caught up & enclos$ ! s(t1 s$im5t>y mat]ials1 :i* n[ be> all ! m>ks ( hav+ be5 subject$ to ! action ( int5se heat4 ,sometimes1 inde$1 ! old lava-/reams seem to h lick$ up b$s ( unconsolidat$ gravel1 ! wat]-worn /ones be+ n[ scatt]$ ?r\gh _! "u portions4 ,z no fossils occur 9 any ( ! b$s associat$ ) ! porphyrites1 "o _c say :e!r ! latt] fl[$ into ! sea or into great fre%wat] lakes4 ,nei!r c we be c]ta9 t t[>ds _! close ! eruptions 7 n sub-arial4 ,!y may q well h be5 s4 ,! porphyrites atta9 a ?ickness ( probably n less ?an fifte5 hundr$ or two ?\s& feet1 & ! b$s :i* we n[ see are only ! basal1 & !re=e ! old] portions ( ! old volcanoes4 ,! upp] p>ts h long s9ce disappe>$1 ! wa/e ( ! igne\s masses hav+ be5 s great t only ! v olde/ portions n[ rema91 & ^!1 aga91 are hewn & c>v$ into hill & valley4 ,any loose accumulation ( /ones & dbris1 !re=e1 :i* may h be5 ?r[n out 9 ! lat] /ages ( ! eruptions1 mu/ long ere ?is h utt]ly disappe>$4 ,we c po9t to ! b$s :i* m>k ! beg9n+ ( volcanic activity 9 ! ,*eviots2 we c prove t volcanoes cont9u$ 9 action !re = long ages1 great /reams ( lava be+ p\r$ out--! eruptions ( :i* 7 prec$$ & sometimes succe$$ by %[]s ( /ones & dbris2 we c %[1 also1 t p]iods ( quiesc5ce1 m or less prolong$1 occasionally int]v5$1 at :i* times wat] assort$ ! s& & mud1 & r\nd$ ! /ones1 spread+ !m out 9 lay]s4 ,b :e!r ?is wat] action took place 9 ! sea or 9 a lake we _c tell4 ,inde$1 = aught "o c say1 "s ( ! masses ( r\nd$ /ones ,i ref] to may po9t to ! action ( m\nta9 torr5ts1 & ?us be "p evid5ce t ! volcanoes 7 sub-arial4 ,if we are ?us 9 d\bt z to "s ( ! physical conditions t obta9$ 9 ! ,*eviot di/rict dur+ ! accumulation ( ! porphyrites & _! associat$ b$s1 we are left entirely to conjecture :5 we seek to inquire into ! conditions t prevail$ t[>ds ! close ( ! volcanic p]iod4 ,= j z we h pro( t be=e ?is p]iod began ! ,silurian /rata _h be5 subject$ to ! mo/ int5se d5udation--_h1 9 %ort1 be5 worn into hill & valley--s d we le>n f abundant evid5ce t ! rocks repres5t+ ! old volcanoes ( ! ,*eviots are m]ely ! wrecks ( =m]ly ext5sive masses4 ,n only h ! upp] portions ( ^! volcanoes be5 swept away1 b _! l[] portions1 likewise1 h be5 deeply incis$1 & ?\s&s ( feet ( solid rock h be5 c>ri$ (f by ! d5ud+ =ces4 ,& by mu* ! great] "p ( all ?is wa/e took place be=e ! accumulation ( ^? s&/ones :i* n[ re/ ^u ! worn outskirts ( ! old volcanic region4 ,,iii4 ,"s ref]5ce has already be5 made 7see p4 #fd7 to ! g5]al appe>ance pres5t$ by ! valleys ( ! ,*eviots4 ,9 _! upp] rea*es !y are (t5 r\gh & craggy2 n>r[ dells1 9 fact1 flank$ ) /eep %+le-cov]$ slopes1 & occasionally ov]look$ by beetl+ cliffs1 or fr+$ ) l(ty scaurs ( decompos+ rocks4 ,z we foll[ d[n ! valleys !y gradually wid5 out2 ! hill-slopes becom+ less /eep1 & retir+ f ! /ream s z to leave a n>r[ /rip ( mead[-l& ?r\gh :i* ! cle> wat]s cant] gaily on to ! l[ gr\nds ( ! ,teviot4 ,9 _! middle rea*es ^! upl& dales are n infrequ5tly well cultivat$ to a consid]able height1 z 9 ! di/ricts betwe5 ,h[nam & ,morebattle1 & betwe5 ,bel=d & ,ye?olm--! =m] 9 ! valley ( ! ,kale1 & ! latt] 9 t ( ! ,b[mont4 ,x is noticeable t all ! n>r[] & /eep] rea*es lie among ,silurian /rata & ,old ,r$ ,s&/one porphyrites4 ,no soon] d we leave ! regions occupi$ by ^! t\gh & h>d rock-masses ?an ! :ole aspect ( ! sc5]y *anges4 ,! surr\nd+ hills imm$iately lose 9 height & fall away into a s(tly undulat+ c\ntry1 ?r\gh :i* ! /reams & riv]s h dug = !mselves deep romantic *annels4 ,nev]!less1 x is a fact1 z we %all see by-&-by1 t s\?-we/ ( ! region occupi$ by ! igne\s rocks ( ! ,*eviot ,hills1 all ! high] portions ( ! range 7,hungry ,law1 ,c>t] ,fell1 ,peel ,fell1 etc47 are built up ( s&/ones4 ,= ! pres5t1 h[ev]1 ,i conf9e att5tion to ^? valleys ^: upp] rea*es lie ei!r :olly or 9 "p among igne\s rocks or ,silurian /rata4 ,a typical & c]ta9ly ! mo/ beautiful example is furni%$ u by ! vale ( ! ,riv] ,j$4 ,?is /ream rises among ! s&/one heights :i* h j be5 m5tion$ z compos+ ! s\?-we/ portion ( ! ,*eviot range4 ,! fir/ sev5 or eight miles ( its c\rse lead u ?r\gh a broad op5 valley1 :i* has be5 holl[$ out almo/ exclusively 9 s&/ones & %ales2 by-&-by1 h[ev]1 we are l$ into a ,silurian tract1 & !reupon ! valley contracts & ! hill-slopes desc5d m /eeply to ! /ream4 ,b we soon leave ! grassy glades ( ?is ,silurian tract & ent] all at once ^u :at may be t]m$ ! l[] rea*es ( ! ,j$4 ,no long] coop$ up 9 ! rocky gully1 pa9fully worn = itself 9 ! h>d greywack & %ales1 ! /ream n[ w9ds ?r\gh a mu* deep] & broad] *annel :i* has evid5tly be5 excavat$ ) great] ease4 ,precipit\s banks & scaurs "h ov]look ! riv] at e b5d1 ! banks becom+ high] & high] & retir+ fur!r & fur!r f ea* o!r1 z ! wat] glides on its way1 until at la/ !y fairly op5 ^u ! broad vale ( ! ,teviot4 ,sometimes ! riv] fl[s along "o side ( its valley = a consid]able di/ance1 & :5ev] ?is is ! case1 x gives u a l9e ( bold cliffs :i* are usually flank$ on ! opposite side by slop+ gr\nd4 ,?is is ! g5]al "* ( all valleys ( erosion1 & especially ( ! l[] rea*es ( ! ,j$4 ,a glance at ! cliffs & scaurs ( ! ,j$ %[s t !y consi/ ( horizontal or g5tly undulat+ /rata ( s(t e>?y1 friable1 %aly s&/one1 arrang$ 9 ?9 b$s & b&s1 :i* alt]nate rapidly ) crumbl+1 s&y1 & e>?y %ales2 ! :ole =m+ a loose & unconsolidat$ mass t readily becomes a prey to ! action ( ! wea!r1 ra91 fro/1 & runn+ wat]4 ,! prevail+ col\r is a dull r$1 b pale yell[1 :ite1 gre51 & purple discolorations are visible :5 ! /rata are closely scann$4 ,! f9e/ sections occur betwe5 ,gl5 ,d\glas & ,in*bonnie1 & at ,mossburn=d1 b ! cliffs ?r\gh\t pres5t ! same g5]al appe>ance1 & are picturesque 9 ! highe/ degree4 ,ev]y:]e ! banks are ?ickly wood$1 & ev5 ! /eep r$ scaurs are da%$ & fleck$ ) gre5]y1 :i* droops & spr+s f e l$ge & crevice 9 :i* a root c fix itself4 ,h[ vivid & /rik+ is ! contra/ betwe5 ! fre% delicate gre5 ( e>ly summ] & ! ri* w>m t9t ( ^! rocks1 :i* :5 lit up by ! sett+ sun seem almo/ to gl[ & burn6 ,well may ! good folk ( ,j$burgh be pr\d ( ! lovely valley 9 :i* _! lot is ca/4 ,9 no simil> di/rict 9 ,scotl& w ! arti/ meet ) a great] numb] ( su* delici\s bits1 9 :i* all ! *>ms ( wood & wat]1 ( mead[ & rock are s h>moni\sly comb9$4 ,x is n ) ! sc5ic beauties ( ! ,j$1 h[ev]1 t we h at pres5t to d4 ,i wi% ! read] to exam9e ) me c]ta9 appe>ances visible at ! base ( ! r$ b$s1 :]e ^! re/ ^u ^? old] rocks :i* h =m$ ! subject ( ! prec$+ pap]s4 ,9 ! b$ ( ! riv] at ,j$burgh1 we see ! junction betwe5 ! r$ b$s & ! ,silurian /rata1 & may obs]ve h[ ! bottom portions ( ! =m]1 :i* repose imm$iately ^u ! greywacks1 are abundantly *>g$ ) well-r\nd$ & wat]-worn /ones4 ,_m ( ^! /ones consi/ ( greywack1 h>d5$ grit1 & o!r k9ds ( rock1 & mo/ ( !m und\bt$ly h be5 d]iv$ f ,silurian /rata4 ,9 o!r di/ricts :]e ! old igne\s rocks ( ! ,*eviots =m ! pavem5t ^u :i* ! r$ b$s repose1 ! /ones 9 ! l[] portions ( ! latt] are made up *iefly ( r\nd$ fragm5ts ( ! und]ly+ porphyrites4 ,all :i* cle>ly %[s t ! r$ b$s h be5 built out ( ! ru9s ( ! old] /rata ( ! di/rict4 ,?is is unque/ionably ! orig9 n only ( ! conglom]ates1 b ( all ! r$ b$s ?r\gh :i* ! ,riv] ,j$ cuts its way f ! base ( ! hills to ! ,teviot4 ,:5 we trace out ! b\nd>y ( ^! b$s1 we f9d t ?is leads u along ! base ( ! hills1 close to ! hill-foot2 & n only s1 b x frequ5tly takes u into ! hill-valleys also4 ,& ?is %[s t ! ,*eviots _h already be5 deeply excavat$ by /reams be=e any portion ( ! r$ b$s 0 deposit$4 ,i h said t ! r$ b$s are approximately horizontal2 sometimes1 h[ev]1 !y h a decid$ dip or incl9ation1 & :5 ?is is cont9u\s1 x is inv>iably 9 a direction away f ! hills4 ,?us z we trav]se ! gr\nd f ! hill-foot to ! ,teviot1 we pass ov] ! outcrops ( ! r$ b$s & sl[ly rise f a l[] to a high] geological position4 ,! /rata1 h[ev]1 are g5]ally s flat t _! dip is (t5 n great] ?an ! av]age slope or incl9ation ( ! gr\nd4 ,h5ce :5 we asc5d ! valley-slopes f ! /ream1 we soon rea* ! high] b$s ( ! s]ies1 z1 = example1 9 ! undulat+ heights t ov]look ! ,j$ 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ,j$burgh4 ,9 t di/rict a numb] ( qu>ries h be5 op5$1 9 :i* ! upp] b$s ( ! r$ s]ies are well expos$1 z at ,f]niehir/1 ,tudhope1 etc4 ,^! consi/ ( ?ick b$s ( greyi% :ite1 yell[i%1 & r$di% s&/ones1 :i*1 unlike ! crumbl+ e>?y deposits bel[1 are q suitable = build+ purposes4 ,scales ( fi% & plant rema9s are (t5 met ) 9 ! ?ick s&/ones1 b ! und]ly+ e>?y1 friable r$ b$s appe> to be q de/itute ( any organic rema9s4 ,let u n[ briefly recapitulate ! ma9 facts we h j asc]ta9$4 ,!y are ^!3--#a4 ,all ! l[ gr\nds t abut ^u ! hills are compos$ ( horizontal or ne>ly horizontal /rata1 :i* consi/ *iefly ( r$ e>?y b$s1 pass+ d[n into conglom]ates1 & up into :iti% & r$di% s&/ones4 #b4 ,! conglom]atic portion =ms ! b\nd>y ( ! s]ies1 fr++ ! outskirts ( ! hills1 & re/+ sometimes ^u ,silurian /rata & sometimes ^u ,old ,r$ ,s&/one igne\s rocks4 #c4 ,fossils occur 9 ! :ite & r$ s&/ones1 b seem to be want+ 9 ! und]ly+ r$ e>?y b$s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #g4--,s1 ,silurian /rata2 i1 ,old ,r$ ,s&/one ,igne\s ,rocks2 a#a1 ,conglom]ate2 a#b1 ,r$ e>?y b$s2 a#c1 ,:ite & ,r$ ,s&/ones4 ,! accompany+ diagram 7,fig4 #g7 gives a g5]alis$ view ( ! relation borne by ! r$ b$s to ! old] rocks ( ! ,*eviots4 ,x w be se5 t ! =m] re/ uncon=mably ^u ! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one igne\s rocks1 & also1 ( c\rse1 ^u ! ,silurian /rata4 ,! section %[s t ! r$ b$s lie ^u a worn & d5ud$ surface4 ,n[ ?is speaks to ! lapse ( a long p]iod ( "t4 ,x may be rememb]$ t we _h "s gr\nds = believ+ t ! late/ eruptions ( ! ,*eviot volcanoes 7 sub-arial4 ,! evid5ce n[ enables u to advance fur!r1 & to /ate t aft] ! close ( ! volcanic p]iod1 ! :ole ,*eviot di/rict exi/$ z an elevat$ tract ( dry l&1 f :i* /reams fl[$ nor? & s\?4 ,& = s long a "t did ^! conditions endure1 t ! rivulets & /reams 7 enabl$ to scoop out _m *annels & broad valleys be=e any ( ! outly+ r$ b$s _h come into exi/5ce4 ,be=e ! conglom]ate b$s 7 laid d[n1 ! anci5t volcanic bank ( ! ,*eviots _h ?us suff]$ great erosion4 ,?is is :at uncon=mability means4 ,x po9ts to ! prolong$ cont9uance ( a l&-surface1 subject z t mu/ always be to ! we>+ action ( ! sub-arial =ces4 ,ra9 & fro/ dis9tegrate ! rocks1 & runn+ wat] rolls ! dbris f high] to l[] levels1 & piles x up 9 ! =m ( gravel1 s&1 & mud 9 lakes & ! sea4 ,:ile ! old volcanic c\ntry ( ! ,*eviots 0 be+ ?us d5ud$1 x w\ld appe> t a wide ext5t ( l& exi/$ 9 ! ,nor!rn ,highl&s & ,s\!rn ,upl&s ( ,scotl&1 & also 9 :at are n[ ! lake di/ricts ( ,engl& & ! hilly tracts ( ,wales4 ,& 9 all ^! regions valleys 7 =m$1 :i* at a subsequ5t "t 7 m or less fill$ up ) new] deposits4 ,! pres5ce ( ! r$ b$s t sweep r\nd ! base ( ! ,*eviot ,hills %[s unmi/akably t a p]iod ( subm]g5ce foll[$ ^! l& conditions4 ,all ! l[ gr\nds ( ,s\!rn ,scotl& disappe>$ b5ea? a wide %eet ( wat]1 :i* /ret*$ f ! foot ( ! ,lamm]muirs up to ! base ( ! ,*eviots1 & "h & !re ent]$ ! valleys1 & s ext5d$ into ! hills4 ,?is wat]1 h[ev]1 does n seem to h be5 t ( an op5 sea2 r 0 x portion ( a great fre%wat] lake1 bracki% lagoon1 or inl& sea4 ,! l[e/ b$s ( ! r$ s]ies are m]ely h>d5$ lay]s & masses ( gravel & roll$ %+le1 :i* w\ld seem at fir/ sight to indicate ! =m] action ( waves along a sea-bea*4 ,!re are c]ta9 appe>ances1 h[ev]1 :i* lead "o to suspect t ^! anci5t %+le b$s may h _h q ano!r orig94 ,9 "s places ! /ones exactly resemble ^? :i* are f\nd s abundantly 9 glacial deposits4 ,!y are sub-angul> & blunt$1 &1 l glaciat$ /ones1 occasionally %[ /ri or scrat*es4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 is v r>ely ! case4 ,mo/ ( ! /ones appe> subsequ5tly to h be5 roll$ ab\t 9 wat]1 & 9 ?is process !y mu/ h lo/ any ice-m>k+s !y may h _h1 & become smoo!d & r\nd$ l ord9>y gravel /ones4 ,! same appe>ances may be not$ 9 ! glaci] valleys ( ,norway & ,switz]l&1 :]e at ! pres5t day ! glaciat$ /ones :i* are pu%$ out at ! l[] ends ( ! glaci]s are roll$ ab\t 9 ! /reams1 & soon lose all trace ( ice-"w4 ,x is impossible1 h[ev]1 to ent] "h into all ! details ( ! evid5ce :i* lead "o to suspect t glaci]s may h exi/$ at ?is e>ly p]iod among ! ,*eviot & ,lamm]muir ,hills4 ,9 ! latt] di/rict1 ! conglom]ates occur 9 su* masses & s exactly resemble ! mora9ic dbris & ice-rubbi% ( mod]n glacial regions1 t ! late ,sir ,a4 ,c4 ,ramsay long ago sugge/$ _! ice-orig94 ,let u conceive1 !n1 t :5 ! anci5t lake or inl& sea ( :i* ,i h spok5 rea*$ ! base ( ! ,*eviots1 glaci]s may h ne/l$ 9 ! valleys4 ,/reams issu+ f ! l[] ends ( ^! w\ld sweep great quantities ( gravel d[n ! valleys to ! m>g9 ( ! lake1 & x is q possible t !re might be en\gh wave-action to spread ! gravel out along ! %ores4 ,x is evid5t1 h[ev]1 t ! ma9 heaps ( %+le w\ld ga!r opposite :at 7 at t "t ! m\?s ( glaci] valleys2 & x is j 9 su* positions t we n[ meet ) ! ?icke/ masses ( conglom]ate4 ,ere long1 h[ev]1 ! suppos$ glaci]s w\ld seem to h melt$ away1 & only f9e s& & mud1 ) "h & !re small r\nd$ /ones & grit1 accumulat$ r\nd ! %ores ( ! anci5t lake4 ,( c\rse1 dur+ all ?is "t f9e-gra9$ s$im5t ga!r$ ov] ! deep] p>ts ( ! lake-bottom4 ,we h no evid5ce to %[ :at k9d ( creatures1 if any1 inhabit$ ! l& at ?is "t2 nor d any fossils occur 9 ! r$ e>?y b$s to ?r[ light ^u ! conditions ( life t may h obta9$ 9 ! lake4 ,if glaci]s really exi/$ & s5t d[n ice-cold wat]1 ! conditions w\ld h>dly be fav\rable to life ( any k9d2 = glacial lakes are g5]ally b>r54 ,b ! abs5ce ( fossils may be due to o!r causes ?an ?is4 ,x is a rem>kable fact1 t r$ /rata are1 z a rule1 unfossilif]\s1 & ! few fossils :i* !y d sometimes yield are g5]ally indicative r ( lacu/r9e & bracki%-wat]1 ?an m>9e conditions4 ,! paucity or abs5ce ( organic rema9s seems to h be5 (t5 due to ! pres5ce 9 ! wat] ( a sup]abundance ( salts4 ,n[ ?is excessive sal9ity may h aris5 9 ei!r ( two ways4 ,fir/1 we may suppose "s wide rea* ( ! sea to h be5 cut (f f communication ) ! op5 ocean by an elevation ( a portion ( its b$2 & 9 ?is case we %\ld h a lagoon ( saltwat]1 :i* evaporation w\ld t5d to conc5trate to su* a degree1 t by-&-by no?+ w\ld be able to live 9 its wat]s4 ,or1 aga91 we may h a lake s poison$ by ! influx ( spr+s & /reams1 c>ry+ v>i\s salts 9 solution1 z to r5d] x un9habitable by life ( any k9d1 ei!r animal or vegetable4 ,_m r$ s&/one deposits1 z ,sir ,a4 ,c4 ,ramsay has po9t$ out1 are evid5tly lagoon-=mations1 :i* is prov$ by ! pres5ce ( associat$ b$s ( rock-salt1 gypsum1 & magnesian lime/one4 ,!y h sl[ly accumulat$ 9 great inl& seas or lakes hav+ no outlet1 ^: wat]s 7 subject to evaporation & conc5tration1 al?\gh n[ & !n !y seem to h communicat$ m or less freely ) ! ocean4 ,! r$ e>?y b$s ( ! ,j$1 h[ev]1 ?\gh unfossilif]\s1 yet conta9 no trace ( rock-salt or magnesian lime/one4 ,! only "* !y h 9 common ) ! salt-be>+ /rata ( ! ,new ,r$ ,s&/one ( ,engl& is _! col\r1 due to ! pres5ce ( p]oxide ( iron1 :i* we c h>dly conceive c\ld h be5 deposit$ 9 ! mud ( a sea communicat+ freely ) ! ocean4 ,b a quiet lake1 f$ by rivulets & /reams t dra9$ an old volcanic di/rict1 is precisely ! k9d ( wat]-bas9 9 :i* highly f]rug9\s mud & s& might be expect$ to accumulate4 ,su* a lake1 ta9t$ ) ! v>i\s salts1 etc41 c>ri$ into x by /reams & spr+s 7"s ( :i* may h be5 !rmal2 =1 z we %all see pres5tly1 ! volcanic =ces1 al?\gh quiesc5t1 7 yet n ext9ct71 might well be unfitt$ = ei!r animal or plant1 & probably ?is is "o reason :y ! r$ e>?y b$s ( ! ,j$ are s unfossilif]\s4 ,aft] "s "t1 ! physical conditions 9 ! regions "u review exp]i5c$ "s fur!r modification4 ,consid]able depression ( ! l& sup]v5$1 & ! wat]s ( our inl& sea or lake rose high on ! slopes ( ! ,*eviots4 ,m>k n[ h[ ! "* ( ! s$im5t *anges4 ,! prevail+ r$ col\r has disappe>$1 & :ite1 yell[1 & pale gre5i% or grey s& beg9s to be p\r$ ov] ! b$ ( ! lake4 ,ev5 yet1 h[ev]1 f]rug9\s matt] exi/s 9 suffici5t quantity to t9t ! s$im5t r$ 9 "s places4 ,) ! appe>ance ( ^! light]-col\r$ s&y deposits1 ! conditions seem to h become bett] fitt$ to su/a9 life4 ,fi% ( peculi> =ms1 :i*1 l ! g>-pike ( ,nor? ,am]ican lakes1 7 provid$ ) a /rong scaly arm\r ( t\gh bone1 began to ab\nd1 we$s grew 9 ! wat]1 & ! neighb\r+ l& support$ a vegetation n[ v meagrely repres5t$ by ! few rema9s ( plants :i* h be5 pres]v$4 ,9 "s places fi%-scales are f\nd 9 consid]able abundance4 ,!y belong to sev]al g5]a & species :i* are m or less *>act]i/ic ( ! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one =mation4 ,! mo/ rem>kable =m 0 ! ,pt]i*?ys1 or w+-f9n$ fi%4 ,its blunt-%ap$ head & ! ant]ior portion ( its body 7 %ea!d 9 a solid case ( bone1 =m$ by ! union ( num]\s bony scales or plates4 ,two curi\s curv$ sp9e-l arms occupi$ ! place ( pectoral f9s1 & may h be5 us$ by ! creature 9 paddl+ along ! bottom ( ! sea or lake 9 :i* x liv$4 ,! po/]ior "p ( ! body 0 cov]$ ) bony scales1 b ^! 7 n suturally unit$4 ,o!r k9ds ( fi% 7 ! ,holopty*ius & ,cocco/eus1 bo? ( :i* 71 l ! ,pt]i*?ys1 furni%$ ) bony scales4 ,! scales ( ! =m] ov]lapp$1 & _h a curi\s wr9kl$ surface4 ,! head ( ! ,cocco/eus 0 protect$ by a l>ge bony %ield or buckl]1 & a simil> bony arm\r cov]$ ! v5tral region4 ,! organic rema9s ( ^! fi%-be>+ /rata are too scanty1 h[ev]1 to enable u to =m any idea ( ! k9d ( climate :i* *>act]is$ ! di/rict at ?is long-pa/ p]iod2 b if we rely ^u ! fossils :i* h be5 met ) 9 /rata ( ! same or approximately ! same age else:]e1 we may be pretty sure ! climate 0 g5ial1 & n\ri%$ on ! l& an abundant vegetation1 consi/+ ( f]ns1 great re$s1 & club-mosses1 :i* atta9$ ! dim5sions ( l>ge trees1 conif]s1 & o!r /range trees :i* h no liv+ analogues4 ,x seems mo/ likely t :5 ! l& sank d[n 9 ! ,*eviot di/rict1 s z to all[ ! old lake to rea* z x 7 a high] level1 "s communication ) ! outly+ ocean 0 effect$4 ,r$ f]rug9\s mud w\ld !n cease to accumulate1 or ga!r only n[ & !n2 ! deposits w\ld = ! mo/ "p be :ite or yell[1 or pale gre52 & fi% w\ld be able to come 9 f ! sea4 ,! communication ) ! ocean1 h[ev]1 0 probably nev] v free1 b liable to frequ5t int]ruption4 ,"h1 !n1 ends ! ?ird great p]iod ( "t repres5t$ by ! rocks ( ! ,*eviot di/rict4 ,! fir/ p]iod1 z we h se51 clos$ ) ! deposition ( ! ,silurian /rata4 ,!reaft] sup]v5$ a va/ lapse ( "t1 n record$ 9 ! ,*eviots by ! pres5ce ( any rocks1 b repres5t$ 9 o!r regions by y\ng] memb]s ( ! ,silurian sy/em4 ,dur+ ?is unrecord$ portion ( pa/ "t1 ! ,silurian /rata ( ! ,*eviots 7 h>d5$1 compress$1 fold$1 upheav$ to ! light ( day1 & worn into hills & valleys by ! action ( ! sub-arial =ces4 ,!n began ! second p]iod ( rock-=m+ 9 our di/rict4 ,volcanoes p\r$ out successive b$s ( molt5 matt] & %[]s ( /ones & a%es1 & s built up ! rock-masses ( ! highe/ p>ts ( ! ,*eviot ,hills4 ,^! eruptions belong to ! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one age1 & =m a portion ( :at we t]m ! ,l[] ,old ,r$ ,s&/one4 ,aft] ! ext9ction ( ! volcanoes1 ano!r prolong$ p]iod elaps$1 :i* is n acc\nt$ = 9 ! ,*eviots by ! pres5ce ( any rocks4 ,!n x 01 z we "k1 t ! great volcanic bank 0 d5ud$ & worn into a sy/em ( hills & valleys4 ,n[1 s9ce x is evid5t t ! r$ b$s ( ! ,j$ & o!r places are also ( ,old ,r$ ,s&/one age1 x foll[s t !y mu/ belong to a high] place 9 ! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one =mation ?an ! mu*-d5ud$ igne\s rocks ^u :i* !y re/ uncon=mably4 ,! reasonable conclusion seems to be t ! d5udation or we>+ away ( ! ,l[] ,old ,r$ ,s&/one igne\s rocks ( ! ,*eviots 0 effect$ dur+ t p]iod :i* is repres5t$ 9 o!r di/ricts ( ,scotl& by :at is call$ ! ,middle ,old ,r$ ,s&/one1 s t ! ,j$ b$s w ?us rank z ,upp] ,old ,r$ ,s&/one4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #h4--s1 ,silurian /rata2 i1 ,*eviot ,igne\s ,rocks 7,l[] ,old ,r$ ,s&/one72 r1 ,upp] ,old ,r$ ,s&/one s]ies2 c1 ,kelso ,igne\s ,rocks 7,l[] ,c>bonif]\s72 d1 ,l[] ,c>bonif]\s ,s&/ones1 ,%ales1 etc4 ,i come n[ to speak ( c]ta9 rocks :i*1 al?\gh !y are develop$ *iefly beyond ! limits ( our di/rict1 yet require a little consid]ation be=e we c complete our acc\nt ( ! geological hi/ory ( ! ,*eviots4 ,! rocks ref]r$ to consi/ *iefly ( old lava-b$s1 :i* v closely resemble ^? ( ! ,l[] ,old ,r$ ,s&/one4 ,!y appe> on ! s\? side ( ! ,twe$ valley bel[ ,kelso1 :5ce !y ext5d s\?-we/ & we/1 cross+ ! riv] at ,mak]/\n1 & sweep+ nor? to =m ! hills ab\t ,smailholm1 ,/i*ill1 & ,hume 7,fig4 #h74 ,all to ! ea/ ( ^! rocks1 ! valley ( ! ,twe$ is occupi$ by a great ?ickness ( grey s&/ones1 & grey & blue %ales & clays1 ) :i* are associat$ ?9 cem5t-/one b&s1 & occasional co>se s&y lime/ones call$ corn/one4 ,^! /rata re/ ^u ! outskirts ( ! ,kelso igne\s rocks1 & are cle>ly ( lat] date ?an ^!1 s9ce 9 _! l[] b$s1 :i* are (t5 conglom]atic1 we f9d num]\s r\nd$ fragm5ts ( ! igne\s rocks ^u :i* ! s&/ones & %ales abut4 ,! latt] h yield$ a numb] ( fossils1 bo? animals & plants1 to :i* ,i %all ref] pres5tly4 ,9 ! b$ ( ! ,teviot ne> ,roxburgh1 & else:]e1 ! ,kelso igne\s rocks are f\nd repos+ ^u :iti% & r$di% s&/ones1 :i* are evid5tly ! upp] memb]s ( ! r$ b$s ( ! ,j$ ,wat] & o!r localities4 ,/rata closely resembl+ ! grey s&/ones & %ales ( ! ,twe$ valley appe> among ! ,*eviot ,hills at ! head ( ! ,j$ ,wat]1 :]e !y are m>k$ by ! pres5ce ( ?ick massive s&/ones1 :i* =m all ! tops ( ! hills betwe5 ,hungry ,law & ! heights t ov]look ! s\rces ( ! ,liddel ,wat]--! greate/ height rea*$ be+ at ,c>t] ,fell1 :i* is #ahae feet above ! sea-level4 ,! /rata at ?is place conta9 "s impure lime/one & ?9 seams ( coal1 :ile b$s ( lava & tuff appe> int]calat$ 9 ! s]ies4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #i4--,section across old volcanic neck4 ,! dott$ l9e above sugge/s ! orig9al =m ( ! volcano2 b1 plug ( igne\s rock :i* rose 9 a molt5 /ate & cool$ 9 ! v5t4 ,n[ let u rapidly sum up :at seem to be ! inf]5ces sugge/$ by ^! briefly-/at$ facts4 ,we h se5 t ! ,upp] ,old ,r$ ,s&/one began to be deposit$ 9 a lake :i*1 z "t wore on1 probably communicat$ ) ! sea1 :ile ! l& 0 und]go+ a process ( depression1 s t ! area ( deposition 0 ?us widely increas$1 & s$im5t gradually accumulat$ 9 places & at levels :i* _h exi/$ z l& :5 ! anci5t lake fir/ appe>$ 9 ! ,*eviot di/rict4 ,! old lava-b$s ( ,kelso %[ t ! volcanic =ces1 :i* _h long be5 quiesc5t1 aga9 became active4 ,great floods ( molt5 matt] issu$ f ! b[els ( ! e>?1 & p\r$ ov] ! bottom ( ! inl& sea4 ,b all ! l>g] volcanoes ( ?is p]iod 7 conf9$ to ! c5tre ( ! ,twe$ valley4 ,n a few little isolat$ volcanoes1 h[ev]1 seem to h dott$ ! sea-bottom beyond ! limits ( ! ,kelso area4 ,f ^!1 %[]s ( /ones 7 eject$1 & sometimes also !y p\r$ out molt5 matt]4 ,_! sites are n[ repres5t$ by r\nd$ hills :i* /& up1 m or less abruptly1 above ! level ( ! undulat+ tracts 9 :i* !y occur 7,fig4 #i74 ,among ! mo/ m>k$ are ,rub]s ,law1 ,black ,law1 ! ,dunian1 & ,lanton ,hill4 ,( c\rse x is only ! plugg$-up v5ts or necks t n[ rema92 all ! loose ejectam5ta by :i* ^! mu/ at "o "t h be5 surr\nd$ h long s9ce be5 worn & wa%$ away4 ,at la/ ! ,kelso volcanoes became ext9ct1 & ! little ones also probably di$ out at ! same "t4 ,ano!r long p]iod n[ ensu$1 dur+ :i* ! inl& sea disappe>$1 & its dri$-up b$ 0 subject$ to ! d5ud+ action ( ! sub-arial =ces4 ,! volcanic rocks ( ! ,kelso di/rict suff]$ consid]able erosion1 :ile ! s(t] s&y /rata among/ :i* !y 7 erupt$ no d\bt exp]i5c$ /ill great] wa/e4 ,ere long1 h[ev]1 ! sc5e aga9 *anges2 & :at is n[ ! vale ( ,twe$ becomes a wide e/u>y1 ! %ores ( :i* are =m$ at fir/ by ! ,kelso igne\s rocks4 ,into ?is e/u>y1 riv]s & /reams c>ry ! spoil ( ! ,s\!rn ,upl&s1 & /rew its b$ ) s& & mud4 ,occasionally f]ns & l>ge conif]\s trees are float$ d[n1 &1 gett+ wat]-logg$1 s9k to ! bottom1 :]e !y become entomb$ 9 ! sl[ly accumulat+ s$im5t4 ,! "* ( ^! buri$ plants %[s t ! climate mu/ h be5 g5ial4 ,!y belong to species :i* are *>act]i/ic ( ! ,c>bonif]\s sy/em1 & we look ^u !m ) int]e/ z ! =]unn]s ( t va/ plant-gr[? :i* by-&-by 0 to cov] wide areas 9 ,brita91 & to give rise to our coal-seams1 ! s\rce ( s mu* national weal?4 ,9 ! wat]s ( ! e/u>y1 m9ute cru/ace\s creatures call$ cyprides ab\nd$1 & ) ^! 0 associat$ a numb] ( small molluscs1 *iefly univalves4 ,"h & !re consid]able quantities ( calc>e\s mud & s& ga!r$ on ! b$ ( ! e/u>y1 & =m$ 9 "t b$s ( cem5t-/one1 & impure lime/one or corn/one4 ,h[ long t condition ( ?+s obta9$ 9 ! ,twe$ valley we _c tell2 b we "k t aft] a v consid]able ?ickness ( s$im5t _h accumulat$1 e/u>9e conditions prevail$ ov] ! s\?-we/ end ( :at is n[ ! ,*eviot range4 ,?is po9ts to a consid]able depression ( ! l&4 ,9 ?is same region volcanic action appe>$1 & /reams ( lava & %[]s ( fragm5tal mat]ials 7 eject$--! rema9s ( :i* are se5 9 ,hungry ,law1 ,catcleugh ,%91 & ! head-wat]s ( ! ,j$4 ,g5ial climatic conditions cont9u$2 & "h & !re1 along :at 7 ei!r l[ islets or ! flat muddy %ores ( ! e/u>y1 plants grew 9 suffici5t quantity to =m masses ( vegetation :i*1 subsequ5tly buri$ "u mud & s&1 7 compress$ & m9]alis$1 & s became coal4 ,! only place :]e ^! are n[ met ) is on ! cre/ ( ! ,*eviots at ,c>t] ,fell4 ,! process ( depression /ill cont9u+1 ?ick s& gradually spread ov] ! site ( ! subm]g$ =e/s4 ,to trace ! physical hi/ory imm$iately aft] ?is1 we mu/ g out ( ! ,*eviot di/rict2 & x may suffice if ,i m]ely /ate t ^! e/u>9e or lacu/r9e conditions1 :i* prevail$ = a long "t n only ov] ! ,twe$ & ,*eviot areas b 9 v>i\s o!r p>ts ( ,scotl&1 at la/ gave place to ! sea4 ,9 ?is sea1 corals1 sea-lilies1 & num]\s molluscs & fi%es ab\nd$--all po9t+ to ! preval5ce ( g5ial climatic conditions4 ,! organic rema9s & ! geological position ( ! e/u>9e b$s ( ! ,twe$ & ! ,*eviots--re/+ z !y d ^u ! ,upp] ,old ,r$ ,s&/one--prove !m to belong to ! ,l[] s]ies ( ! great ,c>bonif]\s sy/em4 ,x 0 "s "t dur+ ! ,c>bonif]\s p]iod t wide %eets ( melt$ matt] 7 =cibly intrud$ among ! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one & ! ,l[] ,c>bonif]\s /rata ( ! ,*eviot di/rict2 b al?\gh ^! are n[ visible at ! surface1 z at ,s\?dean1 ,bon*e/]1 etc41 !y nev] actually rea*$ t surface at ! "t ( _! irruption4 ,!y cool$ 9 ! cru/ ( ! e>? among/ ! /rata betwe5 :i* !y 7 intrud$1 & h only be5 expos$ to view by ! action ( ! d5ud+ =ces :i* h worn away ! s$im5t>y b$s by :i* !y 7 =m]ly cov]$4 ,a v wide blank next occurs 9 ! geological hi/ory ( ! ,*eviots4 ,we h no trace ( ! _m great sy/ems1 compris+ va/ s]ies ( /rata & repres5t+ long eras ( "t1 :i* we "k1 f ! evid5ce suppli$ by o!r regions1 foll[$ aft] ! deposition ( ! ,l[] ,c>bonif]\s /rata4 ,! ,middle & ,upp] ,c>bonif]\s gr\ps are totally want+1 s likewise is ! ,p]mian sy/em2 & all ! great s]ies ( ,second>y sy/ems1 ( :i* ! major portion ( ,engl& is compos$1 are equally abs5t4 ,nay1 ev5 ,t]ti>y accumulations are want+4 ,!re is "o v rem>kable relic1 h[ev]1 ( ,t]ti>y times1 & t is a long dyke or v]tical wall ( basalt-rock :i* trav]ses ! c\ntry f ea/ to we/1 cross+ ! cre/ ( ! ,*eviots ne> ,br[nh>t ,law1 & /rik+ we/ by nor? ?r\gh ,bell+ ,hill1 by ! ,rule ,wat] at ,hallrule ,mill1 on t[>ds ,hawick4 ,?is is "o ( a s]ies ( su* dykes1 common en\gh 9 "s p>ts ( ,scotl&1 :i* become m num]\s z we approa* ! we/ coa/1 :]e !y are f\nd associat$ ) c]ta9 volcanic rocks ( ,t]ti>y age1 9 su* a way z to lead to ! belief t !y all belong to ! same p]iod4 ,! melt$ rock seems to h ris5 & cool$ 9 great cracks or fissures1 & seldom to h ov]fl[$ at ! surface4 ,inde$ x is highly probable t _m or ev5 mo/ ( ! dykes nev] rea*$ ! surface at all1 b h be5 expos$ by subsequ5t d5udation ( ! rocks t once ov]laid !m4 ,su* w\ld appe> to h be5 ! case ) ! great dyke ( ! ,*eviot di/rict4 ,we c only conjecture :at ! condition ( ?is "p ( s\!rn ,scotl& 0 9 ! long ages t elaps$ betwe5 ! t]m9ation ( ! ,l[] ,c>bonif]\s p]iod & ! close ( ! ,t]ti>y ages4 ,x is m ?an likely t x %>$ 9 "s ( ! subm]g5ces t ensu$ dur+ ! deposition ( ! upp] gr\p ( ! ,c>bonif]\s sy/em2 b aft] t x may h rema9$1 = aught we c tell1 9 ! condition ( dry l& all ?r\gh ^? prolong$ p]iods :i* are unrecord$ 9 ! rocks ( ! ,*eviot ,hills1 b h left beh9d !m su* notewor?y rema9s 9 ,engl& & o!r c\ntries4 ,( "o ?+ we may be sure1 t dur+ a l>ge "p ( ^? unrecord$ ages ! ,*eviot di/rict c\ld n h be5 an area ( deposition4 ,r mu/ x h exi/$ = untold eras z dry l&2 & ?is expla9s & acc\nts = ! enorm\s d5udation :i* ! :ole c\ntry has exp]i5c$2 = !re c be little d\bt t ! ,l[] ,c>bonif]\s /rata ( ,c>t] ,fell 7 at "o "t cont9u\s ) ! simil> /rata ( ! l[] rea*es ( ! ,twe$ valley4 ,yet h>dly a trace ( ! miss+ b$s rema9s 9 any "p ( ! c\ntry betwe5 ! ridge ( ! hills at ! head ( ! ,j$ ,wat] & ! ,twe$ at ,kelso4 ,only little pat*es are f\nd capp+ ! high gr\nd opposite ,j$burgh1 z at ,hun?ill1 etc4 ,?us m ?an a ?\s& feet ( ,l[] ,c>bonif]\s /rata1 & probably n less ?an five hundr$ or six hundr$ feet ( ,old ,r$ ,s&/one rocks1 h be5 sl[ly c>ri$ away1 gra9 by gra91 f ! face ( ! ,*eviot di/rict s9ce ! close ( ! ,l[] ,c>bonif]\s p]iod4 ,,iv4 ,9 ! fir/ ( ^! pap]s "s ref]5ce 0 made to ! configuration ( ! gr\nd 9 ! ,*eviot di/rict4 ,we h se5 t ! outl9es assum$ by ! c\ntry h be5 det]m9$ 9 l>ge measure by ! nature ( ! rocks4 ,?us :]e igne\s masses ab\nd1 ! hills pres5t a m or less irregul>1 & brok5 or lumpy cont\r1 :ile ! valleys are frequ5tly n>r[ & deep4 ,9 ! tracts occupi$ by ,silurian /rata1 we h1 z a rule1 broad-topp$ hill-masses ) a smoo?ly-r\nd$ outl9e1 ^: slopes g5]ally fall away ) a long g5tle sweep into s(t gre5 valleys1 along ! bottoms ( :i* ! /reams (t5 fl[ 9 deep gullies & rav9es4 ,:]e ! c\ntry is =m$ ( s&/ones1 & o!r associat$ /rata1 ! hills are g5]ally broad & well-r\nd$1 b ! outl9e is n infrequ5tly int]rupt$ by l9es ( cliff & esc>pm5t4 ,^! /rata1 h[ev]1 are conf9$ *iefly to ! l[-gr\nds1 :]e !y =m a g5tly-undulat+ c\ntry1 brok5 "h & !re1 z 9 ,dunian ,hill1 ,bon*e/] ,hill1 ,rub]s ,law1 etc41 by abrupt cones & knobs ( igne\s rock4 ,x is evid5t1 !n1 t ! div]sifi$ "* ( ! ,*eviot ,hills & ! adjo9+ l[-gr\nds dep5ds on ! "* ( ! rocks & also1 z we %all see pres5tly1 ^u geological /ructure4 ,ea* k9d ( rock has its own peculi> mode ( wea!r+4 ,all d n crumble away "u ! action ( ra91 fro/1 & runn+ wat] 9 precisely ! same mann]4 ,"s :i* yield equally & uni=mly give rise to smoo? outl9es1 o!rs ( m irregul> composition1 su* z _m igne\s rocks1 break up & crumble unequally 9 a caprici\s & ecc5tric way1 & ^! 9 ! c\rse ( "t pres5t a hummocky1 lumpy1 & r\gh irregul> configuration4 ,& z s(t & readily-wea!r$ rocks mu/ we> away m rapidly ?an indurat$ & durable masses1 x foll[s t ! =m] w n[ be f\nd mo/ abundantly at l[ levels1 :ile ! latt] w ent] mo/ ext5sively into ! composition ( ! hills4 ,b ! cont\r ( a c\ntry dep5ds n only ^u ! relative durability ( ! rocks1 b also ^u ! mode ( _! occurr5ce 9 ! cru/ ( ! e>?4 ,/rata1 z we h se51 d n all lie 9 "o way2 "s are horizontal1 o!rs are incl9$ to ! horizon1 :ile yet o!rs are v]tical4 ,aga91 _m rocks are amorph\s2 t is to say1 !y occur 9 some:at ?ick masses :i* %[ no trace ( a b$d$ arrangem5t4 ,su* diff]5ces ( /ructure & arrangem5t influ5ce 9 no small degree ! wea!r+ & d5udation ( rocks1 & _c be left out ( acc\nt :5 we are seek+ to discov] ! orig9 ( ! pres5t configuration ( our hills & valleys4 ,?us1 esc>pm5ts & ! t]rac$ aspect ( _m hill-slopes are due to inequalities 9 ! /rata ( :i* su* hills are built up4 ,! s(t] /rata crumble away m rapidly "u ! t\* ( ! atmosph]ic =ces ?an ! h>d] b$s :i* re/ ^u !m1 & h5ce ! latt] are und]m9$1 & _! expos$ ends or crops1 los+ support1 fall away & roll d[n ! slopes4 ,! igne\s rocks ( ! ,*eviots are arrang$ 9 b$s2 b s massive are ^!1 t frequ5tly a hill proves to be compos$ f base to summit ( "o & ! same %eet ( old lava4 ,h5ce !re is a g5]al abs5ce ( t t]rac$ aspect :i* is s conspicu\s 9 hills t are built up ( b$d$ rock-masses4 ,"h & !re1 h[ev]1 ! b$s are n s massive1 sev]al cropp+ out ^u a hill-side2 & :5ev] ?is is ! case 7z ne> ,ye?olm7 we f9d ! hill-slopes pres5t+ ! usual t]rac$ appe>ance--a s]ies ( cliffs & esc>pm5ts1 sep>at$ by int]v5+ slopes1 ris+ "o above ! o!r4 ,9 ! ,silurian di/ricts no su* t]races or esc>pm5ts exi/1 ! g5]al high dip ( ! /rata1 :i* (t5 approa*es ! v]tical1 preclud+ any su* cont\r4 ,9 a region compos$ ( highly-incl9$ greywack & %ale1 h[ev]1 we %\ld expect to f9d t :]e ! /rata are ( unequal durability1 ! h>d] b$s w /& up 9 long n>r[ ridges1 sep>at$ by int]v5+ holl[s1 :i* h be5 worn out along ! outcrops ( ! s(t] & m easily-d5ud$ b$s4 ,& su* appe>ances d %[ !mselves 9 "s p>ts ( ! ,silurian area4 ,z a rule1 h[ev]1 ! ,silurian /rata are n ?ick-b$d$1 & h>d] & s(t] b&s alt]nate s rapidly t !y yield on ! :ole a smoo? surface "u ! action ( ! atmosph]ic =ces4 ,9 ! l[-ly+ di/ricts1 :i*1 z ,i h said1 are mo/ly occupi$ by s&/ones & %aly b$s1 all ! abrupt isolat$ hills are =m$ ( igne\s rocks1 :i* are mu* h>d] & t\gh] ?an ! /rata t surr\nd !m4 ,x is q evid5t t ^! hills owe _! pres5t appe>ance to ! durable nature ( _! con/itu5t rocks1 :i* n[ project above ! g5]al level ( ! surface1 simply because !y h be5 bett] able to resi/ ! d5ud+ ag5ts ?an ! s(t] rocks t once cov]$ & conceal$ !m4 ,we see1 !n1 t ea* k9d ( rock has its own p>ticul> mode ( wea!r+1 & t ! configuration ( a c\ntry dep5ds prim>ily ^u ?is & ^u geological /ructure4 ,inde$1 s close is ! connection betwe5 ! geology & ! surface-outl9e ( a c\ntry1 t to a practis$ obs]v] ! latt] acts z an unfail+ index to ! g5]al nature ( ! und]ly+ rocks1 & tells him at a glance :e!r ^! are igne\s l basalt & porphyrite1 aque\s l s&/one & %ale1 or h>d5$ & alt]$ /rata l greywack4 ,b :ile "o _c help notic+ h[ 9 ! ,*eviot di/rict ! "* ( ! sc5]y dep5ds l>gely ^u ! nature & /ructure ( ! rocks1 he %all1 nev]!less1 h>dly fail to obs]ve t fl[+ outl9es are m or less conspicu\s ov] all ! region4 ,& z he desc5ds into ! ma9 valleys1 he %all be /ruck ) ! fact t ! hill-slopes seem to be smoo!d (f 9 a direction t co9cides ) ! tr5d ( ^! valleys4 ,9 %ort1 he _c help notic+ t ! v>i$ configuration t results f ! wea!r+ ( diff]5t rock-masses has be5 subsequ5tly modifi$ by "s ag5t :i* seems to h act$ univ]sally ov] ! :ole c\ntry4 ,9 ! upp] rea*es ( ! ,*eviot valleys1 ! rocks h evid5tly be5 r\nd$ (f by "s =ce press+ ^u !m 9 a direction co9cid+ ) t ( ! valleys2 b soon aft] ent]+ ^u _! l[] rea*es1 we notice t ! d5ud+ or m\ld+ =ce mu/ h turn$ gradually away to ! nor?-ea/--! nor!rn spurs ( ! ,*eviots1 & ! l[-gr\nds t abut ^u ^! be+ smoo!d (f 9 a direction t corresponds exactly ) ! tr5d ( t great /ra? ?r\gh :i* fl[ ! ,teviot & ! ,twe$1 f ,melrose d[nw>ds4 ,?r\gh\t ?is broad /ra?1 :i* ext5ds f ! base ( ! ,lamm]muirs to ! foot ( ! ,*eviots1 & includes ! :ole ( ,teviotdale1 ! gr\nd pres5ts a rem>kable closely-wr9kl$ surface1 ! ridges & int]v5+ holl[s all co9cid+ 9 direction ) ! g5]al tr5d ( ! great /ra?1 :i* is s\?-we/ & nor?-ea/2 b turn+ gradually r\nd to ea/1 z we approa* ! l[] rea*es ( ! ,twe$4 ,pass+ r\nd ! nor?-ea/]n extremity ( ! ,*eviot range into ,nor?umb]l&1 we obs]ve t ! same s]ies ( ridges & holl[s cont9ues to foll[ an ea/]ly direction until we ne> ! sea-bo>d1 :5 ! tr5d gradually sw+s r\nd to ! s\?-ea/1 z 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ,bel=d & ,bambor\gh1 :]e ! ridges run p>allel ) ! coa/-l9e4 ,! ridges & holl[s are mo/ conspicu\s 9 ! l[-gr\nds ( ,roxburgh%ire & ,b]wick%ire1 especially 9 ! regions betwe5 ,kelso & ,smailholm1 & betwe5 ,duns & ,cold/ream4 ,! dwell]s along ! banks ( ! ,twe$ are q famili> ) ! fact t ! roads :i* run p>allel ) ! riv] are smoo? & level1 = !y co9cide ) ! tr5d ( ! ridges & holl[s2 :il/ ^? t cross ! c\ntry at "r angles to ?is direction mu/ ( c\rse trav]se ridge aft] ridge1 & are !re=e exce$+ly unev54 ,9 ?is l[-ly+ di/rict mo/ ( ! ridges are compos$ ( sup]ficial deposits ( /ony & gravelly clay & s&1 & ! same is ! case ) ^? t sweep r\nd ! nor?-ea/]n spurs ( ! ,*eviots by ,cold/ream & ,ancr(t4 ,"s ridges1 h[ev]1 consi/ ei!r ( solid rock alone1 z ne> ,/i*ill1 or ( rock & ov]ly+ masses ( clay & /ones4 ,9 ! hilly regions1 aga91 ne>ly all ! ridges are ( rock alone1 especially 9 ! di/ricts ly+ betwe5 ,melrose & ,selkirk & betwe5 ,selkirk & ,hawick4 ,inde$1 ! hills dra9$ by ! upp] rea*es ( ! ,teviot & its tribut>ies are m or less flut$ & *annell$1 z x 7--_m long p>allel n>r[ holl[s hav+ be5 driv5 out along _! slopes & ev5 frequ5tly across _! broad tops4 ,?is scollop$ & ridg$ aspect ( ! hills1 h[ev]1 disappe>s z we approa* ! upp] rea*es ( ! hill-valleys4 ,f ,skelfhill ,p5 7#agde feet7 by ,w9dburgh ,hill 7#affb feet71 on ?r\gh ! ridge ( ! ,*eviot wat]%$1 none ( ! hills %[s any appe>ance ( a uni=mly-wr9kl$ surface4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aj4--,r\nd$ ,rocks1 ) sup]ficial deposits1 t t t1 heap$ up aga9/ /eep faces4 ,! arr[s indicate direction foll[$ by ! smoo?+ ag5t4 ,a close inspection ( ! rock-ridges satisfies "o t !y h be5 smoo!d (f by "s ag5t press+ ^u !m 9 a direction t co9cides ) _! own tr5d2 & n only s1 b ! smoo?+ ag5t1 x is cle>ly se51 mu/ h come f ! wat]%$s & !n press$ outw>ds to ! l[-gr\nds :i* are n[ wat]$ by ! ,teviot & ! ,twe$4 ,?is is %[n by ! mann] 9 :i* ! rocks h be5 smoo!d (f1 = _! smoo? faces look t[>ds ! dom9ant wat]%$s1 :ile _! r\gh & unpoli%$ sides po9t away 9 ! opposite direction4 ,sometimes1 h[ev]1 we f9d t m or less /eeply project+ rocks face ! dom9ant wat]%$s4 ,:5 su* is ! case1 !re is usually a long slop+ tail beh9d ! crag--a tail :i* is compos$ *iefly ( sup]ficial deposits4 ,! hills betwe5 ,hume & ,/i*ill af=d "s good examples4 ,! two k9ds ( appe>ances are exhibit$ 9 ! accompany+ diagram 7,figs4 #aj1 #aa47 ,! appe>ance %[n 9 ,fig4 #aj is ( mo/ common occurr5ce 9 ! upl& p>ts ( ! c\ntry1 :ile crag & tail 7z %[n 9 ,fig4 #aa7 is se5 to greate/ advantage 9 ! op5 l[-gr\nds4 ,9 bo? cases x w be obs]v$ t sup]ficial deposits 7t7 ne/le beh9d a m or less /eep face ( rock4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aa4--;,crag & ,tail2 boss ( h>d rock1 c2 int]sect+ s&/ones1 s2 sup]ficial deposits heap$ up 9 re> ( crag1 t4 ,! arr[ indicates direction foll[$ by smoo?+ ag5t4 ,:5 ! rocks h n be5 mu* expos$ to ! action ( ! wea!r1 !y (t5 %[ a poli%$ surface cov]$ ) long p>allel grooves & /ri or scrat*es4 ,su* poli%$ & scrat*$ surfaces are be/ se5 :5 ! sup]ficial deposits h be5 only rec5tly remov$4 ,(t51 too1 :5 we te> away ! ?ick turf t mantles ! hill-slopes1 we f9d ! same ph5om5a4 ,inde$1 :]ev] ! rocks h n be5 mu* act$ ^u by ! wea!r1 & ?us brok5 up & decompos$1 we may expect to meet ) m or less well-m>k$ grooves & /ride4 ,n[ ! rem>kable circum/ance ab\t ^! scrat*es is ?is--!y agree 9 direction ) ! tr5d ( ! rock-ridges & ! holl[s describ$ above4 ,nor c we d\bt t ! sup]ficial m>k+s h all be5 produc$ by "o & ! same ag5t4 ,9 ! upp] valleys ( ! ,*eviots1 ! scrat*es co9cide 9 direction ) ! valleys1 :i* is1 speak+ g5]ally1 f s\? to nor?1 b z we approa* ! l[-gr\nds !y beg9 to turn m to ! ea/ 7j1 z we h se51 is ! case ) ! ridges & holl[s71 until we ent] ,engl& to ! ea/ ( ,cold/ream1 :]e ! /ri po9t fir/ ne>ly due ea/1 b ev5tually sw+ r\nd to ! s\?-ea/1 z is well se5 ^u ! lime/one rocks betwe5 ,l[ick & ,bel=d4 ,9 ,teviotdale ! g5]al tr5d ( ! /ri is f s\?-we/ to nor?-ea/1 a direction :i* cont9ues to hold good until ! l[] rea*es ( ! ,twe$ are approa*$1 :51 z we h j m5tion$1 !y beg9 to turn m & m to ! ea/4 ,?us x becomes evid5t t ! d5ud+ ag5t1 :atev] x 01 t gave rise to ^! ridges & scrat*$ rock-surfaces mu/ h press$ outw>ds f all ! dom9ant wat]%$s1 &1 sweep+ d[n ?r\gh ! great undulat+ /ra? t lies betwe5 ! ,*eviots & ! ,lamm]muirs1 mu/ h gradually turn$ away to ! ea/ & s\? z x r\nd$ ! nor!rn spurs ( ! =m] range1 s z to pass s\?-ea/ ov] ! contigu\s m>itime di/ricts ( ,nor?umb]l&4 ,a few words n[ z to ! "* ( ! sup]ficial deposits :i* ent] s l>gely into ! composition ( ! long p>allel banks & ridges 9 ! l[-gr\nds ( ,roxburgh%ire1 ,b]wick%ire1 & ! nor!rn "p ( ,nor?umb]l&4 ,! mo/ conspicu\s & notewor?y deposit is a h>d t\gh t5aci\s clay1 :i* is always m or less well-*>g$ ) blunt$ & sub-angul> /ones & b\ld]s1 scatt]$ pell-mell ?r\gh ! mass4 ,?is clay is z a rule q un/ratifi$--x %[s no l9es ( b$d+1 & al?\gh "h & !re x conta9s irregul> pat*es & b$s ( gravel & s&1 yet x evid5tly does n owe its orig9 to ! action ( wat]4 ,its col\r 9 ! upp] "p ( ,teviotdale & ! ,*eviots is g5]ally a drab-br[n1 or pale grey & sometimes yell[1 :ile "h & !re1 z 9 ! upp] rea*es ( ! ,j$ valley1 x is a d>k d+y blui% grey4 ,9 ! l[] p>ts ( ,teviotdale & 9 ! ,twe$ di/rict x is g5]ally r$ or r$di% br[n4 ,! /ones 9 ! clay h all be5 d]iv$ f ! rocks ( ! region 9 :i* x occurs4 ,?us 9 ,teviotdale we f9d t 9 ! high] rea*es ( ! dale :i* are ,silurian ! /ones & b\ld]s consi/ ( v>i\s k9ds ( greywack1 etc4 ,9 ! l[] rea*es1 h[ev]1 :5 we pass into ! ,r$ ,s&/one area1 we note t ! clay beg9s to conta9 fragm5ts ( r$ s&/one1 :ile ! clay itself takes on a r$di% t+e1 until we get d[n to ! vale ( ! ,twe$1 :]e n only is ! clay v decid$ly r$1 b its s&/one b\ld]s also are v num]\s4 ,! same appe>ances pres5t !mselves 9 pass+ outw>ds f ! ,*eviots4 ,at fir/ ! clay conta9s only /ones t h be5 d]iv$ f ! upp] p>ts ( ! hills1 b by-&-by1 z we ne> ! l[-gr\nds1 o!r k9ds beg9 to make _! appe>ance1 s t by ! "t we rea* ! ,twe$ we may obta9 f ! clay specim5s ( e k9d ( rock t occurs )9 ! dra9age-area ( ! ,teviot & ! l[] rea*es ( ! ,riv] ,twe$4 ,look at ! /ones1 & y %all obs]ve t all ! h>d] & f9]-gra9$ specim5s are well-smoo!d & cov]$ ) /ri or scrat*es1 ! be/ m>k$ ( :i* run p>allel ) ! long] axis ( ea* /one & b\ld]4 ,^! scrat*es are evid5tly v simil> to ^? m>k+s t cov] ! surface ( ! und]ly+ solid rock1 & we may feel sure1 !re=e1 t ! d5ud+ ag5t :i* smoo!d & scrat*$ ! solid rocks _h also some?+ to d ) ! /ones & b\ld]s ( ! clay4 ,und]nea? ! /ony clay1 or ,till1 z x is call$1 we f9d "h & !re c]ta9 old riv] gravels4 ,we "k t ^! gravels are riv]-=mations1 because n only d !y lie at ! bottom ( ! riv]-valleys1 b ! /ones1 we c see1 h be5 arrang$ by wat] runn+ 9 "o con/ant direction1 & t direction is always d[n ! valley 9 :i* ! gravels *ance to occur4 ,frequ5tly1 h[ev]1 !re is no trace ( su* und]ly+ gravels1 b ! till re/s directly ^u ! solid rocks4 ,n[ :at d all ^! appe>ances mean8 ,x is cle> t !re is no natural ag5t 9 ?is c\ntry engag$ 9 r\nd+ & scrat*+ ! rocks1 or 9 accumulat+ a /ony clay l till4 ,9 alp9e regions1 h[ev]1 we "k t glaci]s1 z !y sl[ly creep d[n _! valleys1 gr9d & poli% & scrat* ! rocks ov] :i* !y pass1 & t und]nea? ! mov+ ice "o may detect smoo!d & /riat$ /ones precisely resembl+ ^? t occur 9 till4 ,fro/ 9 su* alp9e regions splits up ! rocks ( ! cliffs & m\nta9-slopes t ov]look a glaci]1 & imm5se masses ( angul> /ones & dbris1 ?us loos5$1 roll d[n & accumulate along ! flanks ( ! ice-/reams4 ,ev5tually su* accumulations are borne sl[ly d[n ! valley ^u ! back ( ! glaci]1 & are dropp$ at la/ ov] ! t]m9al front ( ! ice1 :]e !y become int]m+l$ ) ! /ones & rubbi%1 :i* are pu%$ or wa%$ out f und]nea? ! ice4 ,^! heaps & masses ( angul> dbris & /ones are call$ mora9es1 & "o c see t 9 ,switz]l& ! glaci]s mu/ at "s "t h be5 mu* l>g]1 = anci5t mora9es occur f> d[n 9 ! l[-gr\nds ( t c\ntry--! glaci]s be+ n[ conf9$ to ! upp]mo/ rea*es ( ! deep m\nta9-valleys4 ,moreov]1 we may note h[ ! m\nta9-slopes ov]look+ ! pres5t puny glaci]s h be5 rubb$ by ice up to a height ( sometimes a ?\s& feet & m above ! level ( ! exi/+ ice-/reams4 ,n[ s9ce ! aspect pres5t$ by ! glaciat$ rock-surfaces ( ,switz]l& is exactly p>allel$ by ! r\nd$ & smoo!d rocks ( ,scotl&1 !re c be no d\bt t ! latt] h _h a simil> orig94 ,aga91 we f9d ?r\gh\t ! l[-gr\nds ( ,switz]l& a deposit ( till precisely resembl+ t :i* is s well develop$ 9 ,teviotdale & ! valley ( ! ,twe$4 ,& z !re c be no d\bt t ! ,swiss till has be5 produc$ by ! action ( glaci] ice1 we are compell$ to believe ! same ( ! till 9 ,scotl&4 ,let u fur!r note t 9 ! deep m\nta9-valleys ( ,switz]l& ! glacial deposits consi/ = ! mo/ "p ( co>se mora9ic dbris--( su* mat]ials1 9 %ort1 z ! t]m9al mora9es ( exi/+ glaci]s are ma9ly compos$4 ,n infrequ5tly ?is mora9ic dbris has be5 m or less act$ ^u by ! riv]s t escape f ! glaci]s1 & ! angul> /ones h be5 r\nd$ & arrang$ 9 b$d$ masses4 ,x is only :5 we get out ( ! m\nta9-valleys & approa* ! l[-gr\nds t ! till1 or /ony clay1 beg9s to appe> abundantly4 ,! same ph5om5a *>act]ise ! ,*eviot di/rict4 ,9 ! upp] rea*es ( ! m\nta9-valleys at ! heads ( ! ,teviot1 ! ,kale1 ! ,b[mont1 etc41 ei!r till does n occur or x is ?9 & (t5 conceal$ bel[ masses ( rude mora9ic dbris & gravel4 ,out 9 ! l[-gr\nds1 h[ev]1 till1 z we h already rem>k$1 is ! mo/ conspicu\s ( all ! sup]ficial deposits4 ,f ^! facts x may be inf]r$ t till indicates ! =m] pres5ce ( great conflu5t glaci]s1 :ile mora9ic dbris 9 hill-valleys po9ts to ! action ( comp>atively small local & isolat$ glaci]s4 ,:at1 !n1 are ! g5]al conclusions :i* may be d]iv$ f a /udy ( ! rock-ridges1 flut+s1 & /ri1 & ! till ( ! ,*eviot di/rict8 ,cle>ly ?is3 t ! :ole c\ntry has at "o "t be5 deeply buri$ "u glaci] ice4 ,! evid5ce %[s u t ! broad /ra? /ret*+ betwe5 ! ,lamm]muirs & ! ,*eviots mu/ h be5 fill$ to ov]fl[+ ) a great mass ( ice t desc5d$ f ! upl&s ( ,peebles & ,selkirk & ! broad-topp$ heights t ov]look ! s\rces ( ! ,teviot4 ,! ,*eviots appe> to h be5 q buri$ und]nea? ?is wide sea ( ice1 & s likewise 7 ! ,lamm]muirs4 ,at ! same "t1 z we "k1 all ,scotl& 0 simil>ly envelop$ 9 a va/ %eet ( sn[ & ice1 :i* /ream$ out f ! ma9 wat]%$s ( ! c\ntry1 & foll[$ ! l9es ( ! *ief /ra?s--t is to say1 ! g5]al slope ( ! gr\nd4 ,! track ( ! ice 9 ! ,*eviot di/rict is v di/9ctly m>k$4 ,9 ,teviotdale x foll[$ ! tr5d ( ! valley1 &1 gr9d+ along ! outcrop ( ! ,silurian /rata1 deep5$ old holl[s & scoop$ out new ones 9 ! s(t %aly b$s1 :ile ! int]v5+ h>d] /rata1 :i* (f]$ great] resi/ance to ! d5ud+ action ( ! ice1 did n we> s easily1 & s 7 r\nd$ (f1 & =m$ a s]ies ( ridges runn+ p>allel to ! erod$ holl[s4 ,! /ones & rubbi%1 dragg$ along und]nea? ! ice1 necess>ily increas$ z ! glaci] mass crept on its way4 ,! rocks 7 scrat*$ & groov$ by ! /ones t 7 =c$ ov] !m1 & ! poli%+ 0 complet$ by ! f9] s& & clay :i* result$ f ! gr9d+ process4 ,:]ev] a rock project$ !re w\ld be a t5d5cy = ! /ones & clay & s& to ga!r beh9d x4 ,"o may notice ! same k9d ( action ^u ! b$ ( a /ream1 :]e ! s$im5t t5ds to collect 9 ! re> ( prom95t /ones & b\ld]s4 ,& we c h>dly fail to h obs]v$ fur!r t ! s$im5t ( a riv] (t5 arranges itself "u ! action ( ! curr5t 9 long banks1 :i* run p>allel to ! c\rse ( ! wat]4 ,und]nea? ! ice-%eet ! /ones1 s&1 & clay behav$ 9 ! same way4 ,beh9d project+ rocks 9 %elt]$ nooks & holl[s1 !y accumulat$1 :ile 9 places expos$ to ! full sweep ( ! ice-/ream !y 7 pil$ up & drawn out into long p>allel banks & ridges1 ! tr5d ( :i* co9cid$ ) t ( ! ice-fl[4 ,! pres5ce ( confus$ & irregul> pat*es & l5ticul> b$s ( s&1 clay1 & gravel 9 ! till is n difficult to und]/& :5 we "k t !re is always m or less wat] fl[+ on und]nea? a glaci]4 ,su* /reams mu/ assort ! dbris1 & roll angul> fragm5ts into r\nd$ /ones & pebbles2 b ! mat]ials ?us assort$ 9 lay]s w ev] & anon be cru%$ up s z to be ei!r p>tially or :olly oblit]at$ by ! sl[ly mov+ glaci]4 ,z ! /ones & clay 7 d]iv$ f ! und]ly+ rocks1 x is no wond] t ! col\r ( ! till %\ld v>y4 ,9 ! ,silurian tracts x is pale yell[i%1 or blui% grey1 & ! /ones consi/ *iefly ( fragm5ts ( ,silurian rocks1 all blunt$ & smoo!d1 & (t5 beautifully poli%$ & /riat$4 ,:5 we get into ! ,r$ ,s&/one region ( ! l[-gr\nds ! col\r ( ! clay beg9s by-&-by to *ange1 & fragm5ts ( r$ s&/one become comm+l$ ) ! ,silurian /ones1 until ere long ! col\r ( ! deposit is decid$ly r$1 & s&/one fragm5ts ab\nd4 ,ev]y:]e ! /ones %[ t !y h be5 c>ri$ p]si/5tly 9 "o direction1 & t is out f ! wat]%$1 & d[n ! ma9 valleys4 ,! direction ( ! ice-m>ks ^u ! solid rocks1 & ! tr5d ( ! drums1 z ! p>allel ridges ( till are t]m$1 %[ t ! ice-%eet ( ,teviotdale & ,twe$ gradually turn$ away to ! ea/ & s\?-ea/ z x swept r\nd ! nor?-ea/]n spurs ( ! ,*eviots4 ,n[ we may well ask :y ! ice did n g "r out into ! ,nor? ,sea1 :i* is app>5tly ! c\rse x ought to h foll[$4 ,! same curi\s deflection affect$ ! great ice-/ream t occupi$ ! bas9 ( ! ,=?4 ,:5 x got pa/ ,nor? ,b]wick1 t /ream1 in/ead ( fl[+ directly ea/ into ! ,nor? ,sea1 turn$ away to ! s\?-ea/ & ov]fl[$ ! nor!rn spurs ( ! ,lamm]muirs1 br++ ) x into ! valley ( ! ,twe$ /ones & b\ld]s :i* _h travell$ all ! way f ! ,highl&s4 ,x is obvi\s !re mu/ h be5 "s imp$im5t to ! fl[ ( ! ,scotti% ice into ! bas9 ( ! ,nor? ,sea4 ,:at c\ld h block$ its passage 9 t direction8 ,at ! v "t t ,scotl& lay conceal$ b5ea? its ice-%eet1 ,norway & ,sw$5 7 likewise smo!r$ 9 ice :i* atta9$ a ?ickness ( n less ?an five or six ?\s& feet4 ,! :ole bas9 ( ! ,baltic 0 occupi$ by a va/ glaci] :i* fl[$ s\? into ,nor!rn ,g]many1 & ?is %eet 0 cont9u\s ) glaci]-ice t cross$ ov] ,d5m>k4 ,:5 we consid] h[ %all[ ! ,nor? ,sea is 7x does n av]age m ?an =ty fa?oms betwe5 ,scotl& & ! ,cont95t71 we _c d\bt t ! imm5se masses ( ice desc5d+ f ,norway c\ld n possibly h float$ (f1 b mu/ actually h crept across ! bottom ( t sea until !y abutt$ ^u & coalesc$ ) ! ,scotti% ice1 s z to =m "o va/ m] de glace4 ,?us x 0 t ! ,sc&9avian ice block$ up ! pa? ( ! ,scotti% glaci]s into ! bas9 ( ! ,nor? ,sea1 & compell$ !m to fl[ s\?-ea/ into ,engl&4,h ,_h !re be5 no su* ob/ruction to ! passage ( ! ,scotti% glaci]s1 x is impossible to believe t sn[ & ice c\ld ev] h accumulat$ to su* a dep? 9 ,scotl&4 ,! ,scotti% ice rea*$ a ?ickness ( "s ?ree ?\s& feet 9 its deep] p>ts4 ,x is evid5t1 h[ev]1 t _h !re be5 a free c\rse = ! glaci]s1 !y w\ld h mov$ (f be=e !y c\ld h atta9$ ?is ?ickness4 ,& we c h>dly d\bt1 !re=e1 t x 0 ! damm+-up ( _! outlet by ! great ,sc&9avian ice-%eet t enabl$ !m to deep5 to su* an ext5t 9 ! valleys & l[-gr\nds ( ,scotl&4 ,h ,9 ! extreme nor? ( ,scotl& we f9d t ! ,scotti% ice 01 9 l mann]1 compell$ to turn aside & ov]fl[ ,cai?ness f s\?-ea/ to nor?-we/4 ,:5 ! ice-%eet 0 at its ?icke/1 ! ,*eviots 7 completely cov]$1 nev]!less !y s]v$ to divide ! ice-fl[ betwe5 ,scotl& & ,engl&1 al?\gh "h & !re "o f9ds t ! ice pass$ ov] "s ( ! l[] summits1 c>ry+ ) x b\ld]s & /ones4 ,?is is by no means an uncommon circum/ance 9 ,scotl& & o!r glaciat$ c\ntries4 ,?us we note t ,highl& b\ld]s h be5 br\ght into ! vale ( ! ,twe$ across ! ,lamm]muirs2 & 9 ! same way b\ld]s f ! heights ov]look+ ,eskdale h be5 c>ri$ ov] "s ( ! l[] hill-tops into ! vale ( ! ,teviot4 ,9 l mann] ! ,sw$i% ice occasionally ov]fl[$ ! l[] m\nta9-tops ( ! divid+ ridge or wat]%$ into ,norway4 ,:at wond] n[ t ! ,*eviot area %\ld exhibit s _m fl[+ outl9es1 t ! hills %\ld be s smoo!d & r\nd$ & flut$1 t ! l[-gr\nds %\ld be cumb]$ ) su* heaps ( clay & /riat$ /ones8 ,long be=e ! great glaci]s appe>$1 ! rocks 7 wea!r$ & worn by ! action ( ! usual atmosph]ic =ces1 & ea* _h assum$ its own peculi> outl9e2 b h[ greatly has ?is be5 modifi$ by ! gr9d+ action ( ! ice-%eet6 ,to :at an ext5t h project+ rocks be5 rubb$1 & h[ great is ! de/ruction t has befall5 ! loose accumulations ( riv] gravel1 s&1 & clay t ga!r$ 9 ! valleys be=e ! adv5t ( ! ,ice ,age6 ,all t n[ rema9s ( ^! are a few pat*es pres]v$ "h & _! und]nea? ! till4 ,! ,*eviots c tell u no?+ ( ! k9ds ( plants & animals t clo!d & peopl$ ! c\ntry 9 pre-glacial times4 ,all we le>n is t /reams & riv]s fl[$ z !y fl[ n[1 & t by-&-by ev]y?+ 0 *ang$1 & ! l& disappe>$ und]nea? a va/ cov]+ ( sn[ & ice4 ,9 my conclud+ pap] ,i w %[ h[ ?is ice p]iod pass$ away1 & h[ ! pres5t condition ( ?+s succe$$4 ,v4 ,i h describ$ ! condition ( ! ,*eviot di/rict dur+ ! climax ( ! ,ice ,age z "o ( int5se arctic cold1 ! :ole ridge ( hills be+ !n completely smo!r$ 9 sn[ & ice4 ,?is excessive climate1 h[ev]1 did n la/ cont9u\sly ?r\gh\t ! s-call$ glacial p]iod1 b 0 int]rupt$ by m ?an "o mild int]glacial epo*4 ,we h evid5ce 9 ,scotl&1 z 9 o!r c\ntries1 to %[ t ! great conflu5t ice-masses melt$ away s z to uncov] all ! l[-gr\nds & p]mit ! reappe>ance ( plants & animals4 ,riv]s aga9 wat]$ ! l&1 & num]\s lakes div]sifi$ ! face ( ! c\ntry4 ,will[s1 hazels1 & ald]s grew 9 ! %elt]$ valleys1 oak-trees fl\ri%$ 9 ! l[-gr\nds1 & ,scots firs clu/]$ ^u ! hill-slopes4 ,a /rong1 grassy vegetation cov]$ wide areas1 & s$ges & ru%es luxuriat$ 9 m>%y places & encroa*$ ^u ! m>g9s ( ! lakes4 ,! mammo?1 or woolly-coat$ elephant1 roam$ ov] ! l&1 & among its cong5]s 7 ! ext9ct ox1 ! horse1 ! ,iri% elk1 & ! re9de]4 ,aft] su* a temp]ate condition ( ?+s _h cont9u$ = "s "t--p]haps = ?\s&s ( ye>s--! l&1 dur+ ! la/ int]glacial epo*1 became gradually subm]g$ to a dep? ( sev]al hundr$ feet1 & a cold1 ung5ial sea1 9 :i* fl\ri%$ species ( nor!rn & arctic %ells1 cov]$ ! l[-gr\nds ( ,scotl&4 ,! cold cont9u+ to increase1 our glaci]s desc5d$ = ! la/ "t f ! m\nta9s & encroa*$ ^u ! b$ ( ! sea1 until !y became conflu5t1 fairly usurp+ ! floor ( ! ,g]man ,ocean1 & pu%+ back ! we/]n seas z f> z1 & ev5 beyond1 ! isl&s ( ! ,out] ,hebrides4 ,!re is good reason to believe t su* great *anges ( climate occurr$ sev]al times dur+ ! glacial p]iod1 :i* ?us seems to h consi/$ ( an alt]nation ( cold & g5ial epo*s4 ,b z ! la/ phase 9 ?is extraord9>y s]ies ( *anges 0 a cold "o1 dur+ :i* great glaci]s sc\r$ ! face ( ! c\ntry1 we n[ obta9 only a few scatt]$ traces ( ! g5ial conditions t *>act]is$ ! prec$+ mild int]glacial epo*s4 ,vegetable accumulations1 lake & riv] deposits ) mammalian rema9s1 m>9e b$s & _! %elly cont5ts1 7 all pl\gh$ up by ! ice1 & to a v l>ge ext5t demoli%$4 ,"h & !re1 h[ev]1 we f9d 9 ! till or b\ld]-clay t m>ks ! la/ cold epo*1 wa/$ fragm5ts ( trees1 tusks ( mammo?s1 & brok5 sea-%ells2 :ile und]nea? ! till we occasionally come ^u old lake deposits ) vegetable & mammalian rema9s1 or1 z ! case may be1 b$s ( m>9e orig9 well /ock$ ) sea-%ells ( arctic species4 ,& ^! fre%wat] & m>9e b$s repose1 9 _m cases1 ^u an old] accumulation ( till1 :i* belongs to an e>li] cold epo* ( ! glacial p]iod4 ,9 ! ,*eviot di/rict prop]1 ! traces ( mild1 int]glacial conditions are v slight1 b 9 ! imm$iate neighb\rhood we f9d !m m /rongly m>k$4 ,?us1 9 ! valley ( ! ,slitrig1 ne> ,hawick1 we notice fre%wat] b$s ) peaty matt] ly+ betwe5 a l[] & an upp] till or b\ld]-clay2 & int]glacial fre%wat] b$s also appe> 9 ! neighb\r+ c\nty ( ,peebles1 p>ticul>ly 9 ! valley ( ! ,lei?an ,wat]4 ,aga91 9 ! valley ( ! ,twe$ ne> ,c>ham1 !re occur int]glacial b$s 9 :i* ,i detect$ num]\s bones ( wat]-rats & frogs4 ,^! int]glacial rema9s acquire a peculi> int]e/ :5 we come to view ! sup]ficial deposits ( ,scotl& 9 connection ) ^? ( ,engl& & ! ,cont95t2 =1 z ,i h endeav\r$ to %[ else:]e1,i x is mo/ likely t ! anci5t gravels ( ,engl&1 :i* conta9 ! e>lie/ traces ( man1 belong = ! mo/ "p to int]glacial times2 & ! extraord9>y *anges ( climate describ$ above may !re=e h be5 actually witness$ by human eyes4 ,inde$1 ,i believe x 0 ! adv5t ( ! la/ cold epo* ( ! ,ice ,age t drove out ! old tribes :o us$ ! rude fl9t implem5ts t are n[ f\nd 9 ! gravel deposits & caves ( ,engl&1 & :o occupi$ ! ,briti% area along ) hippopotami1 rh9oc]oses1 elephants1 lions1 hynas1 & o!r animals4 ,! m5 :o ent]$ ,brita9 aft] ! f9al disappe>ance ( arctic conditions1 7 m advanc$ 9 civilisation1 & 7 accompani$ by a v diff]5t assemblage ( animals--by a gr\p repres5t$ by ox51 %eep1 dogs1 & o!r creatures1 mo/ ( :i* are /ill indig5\s to ,brita94 ,i ,great ,ice ,age4 ,b to return to ! ,*eviots4 ,:5 ! f9al cold epo* _h rea*$ its climax1 & ! ice-%eet began to melt away = ! la/ "t1 ! tops ( ! hills !n once m became uncov]$1 & l>ge blocks1 deta*$ by ! action ( ! fro/1 fell ^u ! surface ( ! glaci]s1 & 7 borne d[n ! valleys1 "s ( !m to become /r&$ "h & !re on hill-slopes1 o!rs to be c>ri$ f> away f ! ,*eviot area & dropp$ at la/ ov] ,nor?umb]l& & ,durham1 or ev5 fur!r s\?4 ,z ! melt+ ( ! ice cont9u$1 & ! glaci] ( ! ,twe$ ceas$ to rea* ! sea1 great accumulations ( gravel & s& 7 =m$4 ,und]nea? ! ice1 sub-glacial /reams pl\gh$ out ! till1 & pav$ _! hidd5 c\rses ) gravel & s&4 ,9 summ]-"t1 ! :ole surface ( ! ,twe$ glaci] 0 abundantly wa%$ ) wat]1 :i*1 p\r+ d[n by clefts & holes 9 ! ice1 swell$ all ! sub-glacial /reams & riv]s4 ,at ! same "t1 floods desc5d+ f ! ,lamm]muirs & ! ,*eviots1 pu%$ ) !m va/ quantities ( %+le1 gravel1 & s&1 "p ( :i* 0 swept ^u ! surface ( ! ,twe$ glaci]1 :ile mu* seems to h ga!r$ along its flanks1 =m+ banks & ridges runn+ p>allel ) ! c\rse ( ! valley4 ,at la/ ! "t came :5 ! ice _h fairly vani%$ f ! l[] rea*es ( ! ,twe$1 & we n[ walk ov] its b$ & m>k ! long ridges & banks ( %+le & gravel t 7 =m$ by ! sub-glacial /reams & riv]s1 & ! some:at simil> accumulations t ga!r$ along ! sides ( ! glaci] at ! foot ( ! ,lamm]muir ,hills4 ,"h & !re1 also1 we note ! heaps 7i4e4 mora9es7 ( %+le1 e>?1 clay1 & dbris1 ) l>ge erratics :i* travell$ on ! surface ( ! ice1 & 7 dropp$ ^u ! gr\nd z t ice melt$ away4 ,all ! loose erratics t lie at ! surface 9 ! l[] rea*es ( ! ,twe$ valley h come f ! we/4 ,"s ( !m re/ ^u h>d rock1 o!rs ^u till1 & yet o!rs cr[n ! tops & slopes ( gravel & s& hillocks1 or appe> 9 l[ m\nds ( mora9ic orig94 ,9 ! valleys ( ! ,*eviot ,hills "o traces ! foot/eps ( ! retir+ glaci]s 9 m\nds & hummocks ( rude e>?y dbris1 blocks1 & rock-rubbi%4 ,^! are t]m9al mora9es1 & !y indicate c]ta9 pauses 9 ! recession ( ! ice4 ,! mo/ rem>kable examples occur 9 ! valley ( ! ,kale ,wat] at ,bl9kbonny1 a mile or s above ! village ( ,eck=d4 ,at t place a bank ( mora9ic matt] at "o "t block$ up ! valley ( ! ,kale1 & ?us =m$ a wide & ext5sive lake t /ret*$ up to & beyond ,morebattle4 ,num]\s curi\s hillocks ( gravel & s& are bank$ aga9/ ! mora9e1 & po9t to ! action ( ! flood-wat]s t escap$ f ! melt+ glaci]4 ,o!r gravelly mora9e m\nds occur high] up ! same valley1 z ne> ,grubbit ,mill4 ,^! la/ tell u ( a "t :5 ! ,kale glaci] _h retreat$ /ill fur!r1 s z to h its t]m9al front ne> :]e ,morebattle n[ is4 ,wrea?s & hummocks ( gravel & s&1 ext5d+ f ,grubbit to ! nor?-ea/1 along ! holl[ 9 ! hills t leads to ,ye?olm ,lo*1 indicate ! c\rse tak5 by a portion ( ! torr5ts t escap$ f ! ice 9 summ]-"t4 ,9 o!r hill-valleys1 simil> indications ( anci5t local glaci]s may be se54 ,"s ( ! mo/ conspicu\s ( ^! appe> ^u ! slopes & 9 ! high valleys )9 ! dra9age-areas ( ! ,j$ & ! ,kale4 ,!y consi/ *iefly ( m\nds & hillocks1 made up ( co>se e>?y dbris & rock-rubbi%2 sometimes ^! are solit>y & re/ 9 ! ?roat ( a valley1 at o!r times !y are scatt]$ all ov] ! hill-slopes & valley-bottom4 ,"o c h no d\bt z to :at !y mean3 !y indicate cle>ly ! pres5ce ( insignificant glaci]s t 7 soon to vani% away4 ,! l>g] & bett]-def9$ m\nds are true t]m9al mora9es1 :ile ! scatt]$ heaps ( rubbi% po9t out = u ! b$s 9 :i* ! glaci]s lay4 ,?us1 f ! sea-coa/ up to ! highe/ ridge ( ?is bord] c\ntry1 we foll[ ! spoor ( ! melt+ ice2 pass+ f massive & wide-spread deposits ( till1 gravel1 & s&1 & angul> dbris 9 ! l[-gr\nds1 up to insignificant heaps & scatt]+s ( rock-rubbi% & angul> b\ld]s at ! high] levels ( ! c\ntry4 ,sev]al m or less ext5sive flats 9 ! hill-valleys indicate ! =m] pres5ce ( lakes :i* h become oblit]at$ by ! action ( ! /reams4 ,b by f> ! mo/ conspicu\s example ( su* silt$-up lakes is t ( ! ,kale valley1 to :i* ref]5ce has already be5 made4 ,9 ! lat] /ages ( ! ,ice ,age t riv]-valley mu/ h exi/$ z a lake f ,m>lfield up to & beyond ,morebattle4 ,inde$1 !re is evid5ce to %[ t ev5 )9 hi/orical times a consid]able lake ov]spread ! flat gr\nds 9 ?is neighb\rhood4 ,! "n ,morebattle is suppos$ to mean ! village by ! lake1 &1 up to a few ye>s ago1 !re 0 a %eet ( wat] call$ ,l9ton ,lo* a little to ! ea/ ( ,morebattle4 ,b ?is has be5 dra9$ by ! proprietor1 & is n[ repres5t$ by only two insignificant pools4 ,! pres5t c\rse ( ! ,kale betwe5 ,m>lfield & ,kalem\? is ( po/-glacial age--! old pre-glacial & int]glacial c\rse be+ fill$ up ) drift$ mat]ials4 ,z ! appe>ances at ?is place are some:at typical ( _m ( ! valleys ( ! ,*eviot di/rict1 ,i may briefly summ>ise ! hi/ory ( ! ,morebattle lake4 ,be=e ! adv5t ( ! la/ great age ( ice ! ,kale w\ld seem to h fl[$ f ,m>lfield1 close to ! l9e n[ foll[$ by ! turnpike road z f> z ,ea/] ,wood51 aft] :i* x pass$ ne> ! pres5t sites ( ,bl9kbonny & ,mos/[]1 & s on to ! ,teviot1 :i* x jo9$ "s little di/ance above ,kalem\?4 ,dur+ ! ,ice ,age _m ( ! old riv]-c\rses 7 completely *ok$ up ) clay1 /ones1 & gravel1 s t :5 ! ice melt$ away ! riv]s did n always or ev5 (t5 rega9 _! old *annels4 ,?us1 9 ! case ( ! ,kale1 we f9d t ! pres5t c\rse ( ! riv] bel[ ,m>lfield is ( rec5t or po/-glacial age1 hav+ be5 excavat$ by ! riv] s9ce ! close ( ! glacial epo*4 ,! old or pre-glacial c\rse lies completely *ok$ up & conceal$ "u ! rubbi% %ot into x at a "t :5 glaci]-ice fill$ all ! valley ( ! ,kale d[n to ,m>lfield4 ,at ?is latt] place ! ,kale glaci] seems to h made a consid]able pause--x ceas$ = "s "t to retreat--& ?us a heavy bank ( gravel1 s&1 %+le1 e>?1 blocks1 & angul> rubbi% ga!r$ 9 front ( x1 & oblit]at$ ! old riv]-c\rse into :i* !y 7 dropp$4 ,:5 ! glaci] at la/ disappe>$1 a lake 0 =m$ above ! mora9ic dam t clos$ ! valley bel[ ,m>lfield1 & ! outfl[ ( ! lake took place at a po9t ly+ "s little di/ance to ! nor? ( ! old or pre-glacial c\rse ( ! ,kale4 ,by sl[ degrees ! riv] excavat$ a new *annel = itself 9 ! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one rocks1 & 9 do+ s gradually l[]$ ! level ( ! wat]s4 ,?is & ! silt+ action ( ! ,kale & its fe$]s sl[ly conv]t$ ! lake-holl[ into a broad alluvial flat ?r\gh :i* ! riv] n[ w9ds its way4 ,ano!r ext5sive lake seems to h occupi$ ! vale ( ! ,teviot betwe5 ,j$foot & ,eck=d1 & simil> old lake-b$s occur 9 sev]al ( ! hill-valleys4 ,"o good example is se5 9 ! valley ( ! ,oxnam ,wat]1 :]e ! flat tract t ext5ds f ! old village ( ,oxnam up to ! foot ( ! ,r[ ,hill indicates ! =m] pres5ce ( a lake :i* has be5 dra9$ by ! /ream cutt+ = itself a gorge 9 ,silurian greywacks & %ales4 ,9 _m o!r valleys x is easy to see t ! /reams d n always occupy _! pre-glacial c\rses1 & "s ( ! old =sak5 c\rses are /ill pat5t en\gh4 ,?us1 a glance at ! holl[ t ext5ds f ,mossburn=d on ! ,j$ to ,h>d5peel on ! ,oxnam is en\gh to conv9ce "o t 9 pre-glacial1 & probably 9 e>ly po/-glacial times also1 a consid]able /ream has fl[$ f :at is n[ ! vale ( ! ,j$ into ! valley ( ! ,oxnam4 ,9 all ! valleys we meet ) /rik+ evid5ce to %[ t ! /reams & riv]s mu/ =m]ly h be5 l>g] ?an !y are n[4 ,c]ta9 banks & ridges ( gravel fr+e ! valley-slopes at consid]able heights1 & indicate ! action ( deep] & broad] curr5ts ?an n[ make _! way t[>ds ! sea4 ,x is probable t ^! high-level gravel t]races date _! exi/5ce back to ! close ( ! ,ice ,age1 :5 local glaci]s /ill l+]$ 9 "s ( ! m\nta9-valleys1 & :5 9 summ]-"t great floods & torr5ts desc5d$ f ! hills4 ,an extremely humid climate seems to h *>act]is$ ,scotl& ev5 9 po/-glacial times1 z may be ga!r$ f ! ph5om5a ( h] peat-mosses4 ,v little peat occurs on ! ,scotti% side ( ! ,*eviots1 & x is conspicu\s *iefly on ! v cre/ ( ! hills1 :]e x atta9s a ?ickness t v>ies f a foot or two up to five or six y>ds4 ,"h & !re we detect ! rema9s ( bir* "u ! peat1 b ! peat itself is compos$ *iefly ( bog-moss & hea!r4 ,! evid5ce s abundantly suppli$ by ! peat-mosses 9 o!r p>ts ( ,scotl& %[s t aft] ! ,ice ,age _h pass$ away ! ,scotti% area became clo!d ) luxuriant =e/s ( oak1 p9e1 & o!r trees4 ,at t "t ! ,briti% ,isl&s appe> to h be5 jo9$ to !mselves & ! ,cont95t across ! uprais$ b$s ( ! ,iri% ,sea & ! ,g]man ,ocean4 ,races ( m5 :o us$ poli%$ /one implem5ts & sail$ 9 canoes t 7 holl[$ out ( s+le oaks inhabit$ ! c\ntry1 toge!r ) c]ta9 species ( ox5 7n[ ei!r ext9ct or dome/icat$71 ! elk1 ! beav]1 ! wolf1 & o!r animals1 su* z ! dog & ! %eep1 :i* are /ill indig5\s4 ,! climate 0 m excessive !n ?an x is n[--! summ]s be+ w>m] & ! w9t]s cold]4 ,by-&-by1 h[ev]1 subm]g5ce ensu$1 ! great wood$ pla9 t seems once to h ext5d$ betwe5 ,brita9 & ! ,cont95t disappe>$ bel[ ! waves1 & ! climate ( ?is c\ntry became m humid4 ,! old =e/s began to decay & ! peat-mosses to increase1 until by-&-by l>ge areas 9 ! l[-gr\nds pass$ into ! condition ( dre>y moor & morass1 & ev5 ! bru%wood & /unt$ trees ( ! hills di$ d[n & became envelop$ 9 a mantle ( bog-moss4 ,a /udy ( ! pres5t condition ( ! ,scotti% peat-mosses leads "o to believe t ! rate ( increase is n[ mu* exce$$ by ! rate ( decay1 & t ! ev5tual disappe>ance ( ! peat t clo!s hill-tops & valley-bottoms is only a "q ( "t4 ,dra9+ & o!r agricultural op]ations h no d\bt influ5c$ to "s ext5t ?is g5]al decay ( ! peat-mosses2 b !re is reason to suspect t ! *ange ( climate1 to :i* ! decay ( ! peat is due1 may really be ow+ to "s cosmical cause4 ,q rec5tly an accompli%$ ,norwegian botani/ has come to simil> conclusions reg>d+ ! peat-mosses ( ! ,sc&9avian p59sula4 ,we h n[ trac$ ! geological hi/ory ( ! ,*eviot di/rict d[n to ! ,rec5t ,p]iod4 ,f ?is po9t ! /ory ( ! pa/ mu/ be cont9u$ by ! ar*ologi/1 & into 8 prov9ce ,i w n trespass fur!r ?an to indicate "s ( ! m rem>kable traces :i* ! e>ly human occupants ( ! upl& valleys left beh9d !m4 ,be=e do+ s1 h[ev]1 ,i may briefly recapitulate ! g5]al results we h obta9$ f our rapid review ( ! glacial & po/-glacial deposits4 ,a /udy ( ^! has taught u t ! ,*eviot ,hills & ! adjo9+ l[-gr\nds p>ticipat$ 9 ^? arctic conditions "u ! influ5ce ( :i* all ,scotl& & a l>ge portion ( ,engl& 7 buri$ b5ea? a wide-spread m] de glace4 ,! ,*eviots !mselves 7 completely smo!r$ "u a mass ( glaci]-ice :i* ext5d$ across ! vale ( ! ,twe$1 & 0 cont9u\s ov] ! ,lamm]muirs ) ! va/ %eet t fill$ all ! great l[l&s ( c5tral ,scotl&4 ,b al?\gh ! ,*eviots 7 ?us ov]:elm$1 !y yet s]v$ to divide ! ice-fl[1 = we f9d t ! gelid masses mov$ outw>ds f ! hills t[>ds ! valley ( ! ,twe$1 turn+ gradually away to ea/ & s\?-ea/ to creep ov] ! nor? "p ( ,engl&4 ,h[ f> s\? ! ice-%eet rea*$ has n yet be5 det]m9$1 b its mora9e pr(onde or till may be trac$ to ! edge ( ! ,?ames valley2 & ,i h pick$ up 9 ,norfolk ice-worn fragm5ts ( igne\s rock1 :i* h be5 d]iv$ f ! ,*eviots !mselves1 %[+ t ,scotti% ice actually invad$ ! l[-gr\nds s\? ( ! ,wa%4 ,su* sev]e glacial conditions1 aft] cont9u+ = a long "t1 7 int]rupt$ m ?an once by int]v5+ p]iods *>act]is$ by a mild] & m g5ial climate4 ,! great m] de glace !n melt$ out ( ! valleys1 & = aught t we c say ! sn[ & ice may ev5 h vani%$ f ! hills !mselves4 ,vegetation n[ cov]$ ! c\ntry1 & h]ds ( ! mammo?1 ! old ext9ct ox1 ! ,iri% elk1 ! re9de]1 ! horse1 & probably o!r creatures1 roam$ ov] ! n[ des]t$ b$s ( ! glaci]s4 ,x 0 probably at ?is "t t ,paloli?ic man liv$ 9 ,brita94 ,he 0 contemporane\s ) lions1 elephants1 rh9oc]oses1 hippopotami1 mammo?s1 re9de]1 & o!r animals ( s\!rn & nor!rn habitats1 ! =m] liv+ 9 ,engl& :5 ! climate 0 g5ial1 b be+ replac$ by ! nor!rn species :5 ! temp]ature began aga9 to fall1 & sn[ & glaci]s once m reappe>$ & crept d[nw>ds & outw>ds f ! hills4 ,t[>ds ! close ( ! int]glacial p]iod ! l& became subm]g$ to a consid]able ext5t1 & species ( arctic %ells liv$ ov] ! sites ( ! dr[n$ l& :]e ! mammo? & its cong5]s _h fl\ri%$4 ,by-&-by ! cold s f> increas$ t ano!r great ice-%eet fill$ up ! %all[ sea1 & z x sl[ly gr\nd ov] ! face ( ! l& & ! sea-bottom1 x sc\r$ out & demoli%$ to a l>ge ext5t all loose fluviatile1 lacu/r9e1 & m>9e accumulations4 ,:5 at la/ ! ice melt$ away1 x left ! gr\nd cumb]$ ) /ony clay1 & ) mu* gravel & s& & mora9ic dbris4 ,x is und]nea? ^! deposits t we yet obta9 n[ & aga9 fragm5ts ( ! life ( t int]glacial epo*4 ,b 9 all ! regions visit$ by ! la/ great incursion ( ! m] de glace1 su* relics are comp>atively r>e2 x is only :5 we get beyond ! di/ricts t 7 ov]:elm$ t ! anci5t int]glacial rema9s are well pres]v$4 ,beyond ! s\!rn extremity rea*$ by ! late/ g5]al ice-%eet--t is to say1 9 ! regions s\? ( ! ,humb]1 we f9d ! c\ntry (t5 spr9kl$ ) tumultu\s heaps & wide-spread %eets ( gravel & brick-e>?1 :i* seem to owe _! orig9 to ! floods & torr5ts t escap$ f ! melt+ ice4 ,^! wat]s1 sweep+ ov] ! l&1 c>ri$ along ) !m su* relics ( man & bea/ z lay at ! surface1 wa%+ away int]glacial riv]-deposits1 & scatt]+ ! mat]ials f> & wide ov] ! undulat+ l[-gr\nds ( c5tral & ea/]n ,engl&4 ,mr4 ,s4 ,b4 ,j4 ,sk]t*ly1 ( ! ,geological ,survey ( ,engl&1 has %[n t su* is ! orig9 ( ! s-call$ riv]-gravels ) anci5t fl9t implem5ts & mammalian rema9s 9 ! di/ricts wat]$ by ! ,little ,ouse1 ! ,wav5ey1 & o!r riv]s 9 t "p ( ,engl&4 ,^! gravels c\ld n possibly h be5 deposit$ by ! pres5t riv]s1 = !y are f\nd capp+ ! hills at a height ( m ?an eighty feet above ! s\rces ( ! /reams4 ,! :ole aspect ( ! gravels1 inde$1 betok5s ! action ( rapid floods & torr5ts1 su* z mu/ h be5 dis*>g$ abundantly 9 summ]-"t f ! melt+ ice-%eet t lay at no great di/ance to ! nor?4 ,:5 ! ice-%eet vani%$ away1 x left ! gr\nd cov]$ ?ickly 9 _m places ) its v>i\s deposits4 ,riv]s & /reams 7 ?us (t5 deb>r$ f _! old *annels1 & 7 =c$ to cut out = !mselves new c\rses1 p>tly 9 drift$ mat]ials1 & p>tly 9 solid rock4 ,a numb] ( lakes !n exi/$ :i* h s9ce be5 silt$ up4 ,s long z glaci]s l+]$ 9 ! hill-valleys1 ! riv]s seem to h fl[$ 9 great] volume ?an !y n[ d4 ,by-&-by ! b>e & treeless c\ntry became clo!d ) a luxuriant =e/-gr[?1 & 0 t5ant$ by animals1 _m ( :i* are /ill indig5\s to our c\ntry1 :ile o!rs h become locally ext9ct1 su* z wolf1 beav]1 & wild bo>4 ,9 c]ta9 ( ! old lake-b$s ( ! ,*eviot di/rict num]\s rema9s ( r$-de] & o!r animals h be5 turn$ out 9 ! se>* = m>l1 & 9 l& dra9age & reclamation op]ations--! r$-de] antl]s be+ sometimes ( noble dim5sions4 ,x seems probable t 9 e>ly po/-glacial times our c\ntry 0 jo9$ to ! ,cont95t & %>$ 9 a cont95tal climate1 ! summ]s be+ !n w>m] & ! w9t]s cold] ?an n[4 ,! m5 :o liv$ 9 ,brita9 aft] ! f9al disappe>ance ( ! great glaci]s us$ /one implem5ts1 :i* 7 (t5 poli%$ & highly f9i%$1 & !y sail$ 9 canoes1 be+ probably a race ( active hunt]s & fi%]s4 ,!y belong to ! ar*ologi/'s ,neoli?ic or new-/one p]iod--! ,paloli?ic or old-/one p]iod be+ ( mu* old] date1 & sep>at$1 z ,i believe1 f ,neoli?ic times by ! int]v5tion ( ! la/ cold epo* ( ! ,ice ,age4 ,to ! =e/ epo* succe$$ a "t :5 ! climate became v humid1 a result :i* may h be5 due 9 l>ge "p to ! sep>ation ( ,brita9 f ! ,cont95t4 ,x 0 !n t ! anci5t =e/s began to decay1 & peat-mosses to increase4 ,h[ long su* humid conditions ( climate *>act]is$ ! c\ntry we c h>dly say1 b we "k t n[adays our peat-mosses d n gr[ s rapidly z !y once did1 & inde$ almo/ ev]y:]e ! rate ( decay is great] ?an ! rate ( increase4 ,?is po9ts to a fur!r *ange ( climate1 & br+s u at once face to face ) ! pres5t4 ,& n[ a few words1 9 conclusion1 z to ! old camps & o!r rema9s t occur s abundantly 9 ! valleys ( ! ,*eviot ,hills4 ,9 _m ( ! hill-valleys1 especially t[>ds _! upp] rea*es1 z 9 ! valleys ( ! ,kale & ! ,b[mont1 almo/ e hill is m>k$ by ! pres5ce ( "o or m circul> or oval camps or =ts4 ,!y are g5]ally plac$ 9 ! mo/ def5sible positions1 on ! v tops ( ! hills or on project+ spurs & ridges4 ,mo/ ( !m are ( inconsid]able dim5sions1 & c\ld n h af=d$ protection to any l>ge numb] ( m51 = _m h>dly exce$ "o hundr$ feet 9 diamet]4 ,n a few consi/ ( only a s+le circul> or oval ramp>t ) an ext]nal dit*--! ramp>t be+ compos$ ( ! rude dbris :i* 0 dug out to =m ! dit*4 ,o!rs1 h[ev]1 are n only mu* l>g] 7five to six hundr$ feet 9 diamet]71 b surr\nd$1 9 :ole or 9 "p1 ) two or m ramp>ts sep>at$ by int]v5+ dit*es2 & ,i h notic$ t z a rule ! side :i* mu/ h be5 mo/ easily assailable 0 protect$ by sev]al ramp>ts ris+ "o above ! o!r4 ,f ! extraord9>y numb] ( ^! hill-=ts "o has ! impression t ! upp] valleys ( ! ,*eviots mu/ at "o "t h be5 ?ickly peopl$1 probably 9 pre-,roman times4 ,x is easy to see t ! camps or =ts ov]look+ a valley (t5 be> a c]ta9 relation to ea* o!r1 z if ! "o _h be5 rais$ to support ! o!r1 & n infrequ5tly we c trace well-m>k$ intr5*m5ts ext5d+ across a hill-ridge1 or along a hill-slope = a di/ance ( n mu* %ort ( a mile1 & evid5tly hav+ "s /rategic connection ) ! =ts or camps 9 _! vic9ity4 ,i f\nd no trace ( any dwell+s1 ei!r ne> ! =ts or 9 ! vic9ity ( ! t]races4 ,! only indications ( :at may h be5 ! walls ( su* appe> )9 a =tifi$ camp1 call$ ! ,moat ,hill1 at ,bu*trig4 ,?is is an isolat$ knoll ( rock1 :i* has be5 /rongly =tifi$--l>ge slabs & blocks ( ! porphyrite ( :i* x is compos$ hav+ be5 w$g$ out ) inf9ite pa9s to =m circul> ramp>ts4 ,! walls are ( c\rse ne>ly level ) ! gr\nd & grass$ ov]1 b !y indicate little squ>e enclosures1 :i* may v possibly h be5 huts closely huddl$ toge!r4 ,?is =t is oval1 & measures five hundr$ feet by two hundr$ & sev5ty4 ,9 ! same neighb\rhood we also meet ) pl5tiful m>ks ( anci5t cultivation & ) places ( sepulture--all ( :i* may )\t mu* d\bt be ref]r$ to ! same p]iod z ! camps & =ts4 ,! slopes ( ! hills are (t5 m>k$ ) broad horizontal t]races1 t rem9d "o /rongly ( ! lazy-b$s ( ! ,hebrides4 ,!y are evid5tly ! cultivat$ gr\nds ( ! hill-m51 & d\btless ! hill-slopes 7 select$ = v>i\s reasons1 *ief among :i* w\ld be _! retir$ & some:at inaccessible position4 ,! ease ) :i* !y c\ld be dra9$ & irrigat$ w\ld be ano!r ( _! recomm5dations2 & we mu/ be> 9 m9d t at ?is e>ly date ! l[-gr\nds 7 cov]$ ) =e/s & morasses1 & !re=e n s easily cultivat$ z ! hill-slopes4 ,"h & !re we notice also little conical hillocks or tumuli4 ,!y 7 =m]ly mu* m num]\s1 & by-&-by !y w d\btless all disappe>4 ,numb]s1 ev5 )9 rec5t ye>s1 h be5 pull$ d[n1 p>tly to cle> ! gr\nd1 & p>tly = ! sake ( ! /ones ( :i* !y are compos$4 ,?is is mu* to be regrett$2 = _! de/ruction simply means ! oblit]ation ( hi/orical records1 ! loss ( :i* c nev] be made good4 ,i ask$ a f>m] :at _h become ( ! tumuli :i* at "o "t1 accord+ to ! ,ordnance ,survey map1 7 dott$ ov] ! hill beh9d 8 h\se4 ,if x's ! wee kn[es 7knolls7 y mean1 ,i pu'd !m d[n1 = !y 7 ji/ 9 ! way4 ,!re 0 nae?+ o' importance bel[ ! /anes1 only a :e5 wor?less bits o' pott]y6 ,& ! wor?y po9t$ to a heap ( /ones beh9d a neighb\r+ dyke1 :]e ,i aft]w>ds f\nd "s fragm5ts ( ! pott]y :i* _h be5 s ru?lessly demoli%$4 ,^! tumuli are no d\bt old burial-places1 & mu* in=mation conc]n+ ! habits ( our anci5t pr$ecessors might (t5 be obta9$ by a c>eful exam9ation ( ! m\nds1 :5 x is deem$ ess5tial to remove !m4 ,b1 surely1 aft] all1 !y might be sp>$1 = !y c seldom be s v mu* 9 ! way2 &1 at all ev5ts1 if !y mu/ be remov$1 might x n be well to communicate ! fact ( _! approa*+ demolition to "s local ar*ological society1 or to any memb] ( ! ,b]wick%ire ,naturali/s' ,club1 :o = ! sake ( sci5ce w\ld1 ,i feel c]ta91 d :at 0 possible to pres]ve an accurate acc\nt ( _! cont5ts8 ,/&+-/ones are met ) n[ & aga91 ei!r s+ly or 9 gr\ps1 & sometimes !y =m circles4 ,x is mo/ likely t !y 7 rais$ by ! same p :o made ! =ts & till$ ! horizontal lazy-b$s4 ,"o c only conjecture t !y may h be5 design$ z memorial /ones1 to m>k ! place :]e a *ief or p]son ( consequ5ce 0 sla9 9 battle4 ,!y may also m>k burial-places1 or indicate ! site ( "s de$ ( pr[ess or o!r action or circum/ance wor?y ( be+ rememb]$4 ,antiqu>ians at "o "t consid]$ t all ^! /ones 7 relics ( druidical wor%ip2 b x is ne$less to say t ?is view has long be5 ab&on$4 ,t ! anci5t inhabitants ( ! ,*eviots may h _h "s k9d ( religion is exce$+ly probable1 b x mu/ h be5 ( a v primitive k9d1 n m advanc$ ?an t ( ! ,nor? ,am]ican ,indians4 ,su* are "s ( ! m notable relics ( ! p :o liv$ 9 ! valleys ( ! ,*eviot ,hills 9 pre-,roman times4 ,^! valleys1 z ,i h said1 seem to h support$ a num]\s population1 :o till$ ! slopes & probably hunt$ 9 ! =e/s ( ! adjo9+ l[-gr\nds4 ,t !y liv$ 9 fe> ( foes is suffici5tly evid5t f ! numb] ( _! intr5*m5ts & =tifi$ camps1 to :i* !y w\ld betake !mselves :5ev] _! enemies appe>$4 ,:at effect ! ,roman occupation _h on ! dwell]s among ^! hills we _c tell4 ,! great ,watl+ ,/reet passes across ! ,*eviots1 & !re are "s old circul> =ts & camps q close to t wond]ful road1 along :i* _m a battalion ( ,roman soldi]s mu/ h m>*$2 & ^! =ts1 if ( pre-,roman age1 7 n at all likely to h be5 held by ! natives aft] ,watl+ ,/reet 0 made4 ,9 ! remot] fa/nesses ( ! hills1 h[ev]1 ! old tribes may h cont9u$ to crop _! lazy-b$s1 to hunt1 & t5d _! h]ds1 dur+ ! ,roman occupation1 & ! old =ts may h be5 9 requisition long aft] ! la/ ,roman _h disappe>$ ov] ! bord]s4 ,b ,i h already1 ,i fe>1 delay$ too long ov] ! old hi/ory ( ! ,*eviot ,hills1 & mu/ n[ draw my meagre sket*es to a close4 ,9 my fir/ pap] ,i said t ^! hills 7 a t]ra incognita to ! t\ri/4 ,^? :o visit ! di/rict mu/ n !re=e expect to meet ) hotel accommodation4 ,b kn[+ p$e/rians w n be mu* di/urb$ ) ?is in=mation1 & w probably f9d1 aft] !y h conclud$ _! w&]+s1 t ! hospitality & g5]al he>t9ess = :i* our /alw>t ,bord]]s 7 fam\s 9 o!r days are /ill z notewor?y *>act]i/ics z !y us$ to be4 ,v4 ,! ,long ,isl&1 or ,out] ,hebrides4,j ,j ,good ,words1 #ahgi4 ,i4 ,t long range ( isl&s & islets :i*1 ext5d+ f latitude #ef #dg' ,n4 to latitude #eh #cb' ,n41 acts z a great natural breakwat] to protect ! nor?-we/ coa/ ( ,scotl& f ! rude assaults ( ! ,atlantic bill[s is n mu* visit$ by ! ord9>y t\ri/4 ,dur+ ! season ! /eam]s n[ & aga91 x is true1 deposit a few w&]]s at ,t>b]t & ,/orn[ay1 "s ( :om may l+] = a %ort] or long] "t to try a ca/ = salmon 9 ,lo* ,laxdail1 :ile o!rs1 on simil> piscatorial de$s int5t1 may v5ture inl& z f> z ,ge>aidh nah ,aimhne 7,g>rynah9e74 ,o!rs1 aga91 :o are curi\s 9 ! matt] ( antiquities1 may visit ! weird /&+-/ones ( ,call]ni%1 or ev5 brave ! jolt+ ( a trap along ! some:at r\gh road t leads f ,t>b]t to ,rodel1 9 ord] to inspect ! picturesque little *apel !re1 & take rubb+s ( its qua9t tomb/ones ) _! recumb5t effigies ( knights1 & ,crusad]s' swords1 & some:at incompreh5sible ,lat9ity4 ,occasionally a few bold] spirits may be tempt$ by ! guide-books to visit ,b>ra ,head1 ) its ruddy cliffs & cl\ds ( noisy sea-birds1 or ev5 to run nor? to ! extremity ( ! ,long ,isl& to view ! wond]s ( ! ,butt ( ,lewis4 ,b1 z a rule1 ! few summ] visitants :o are l&$ at ,/orn[ay cont5t !mselves ) a g5]al inspection ( ! gr\nds ab\t ,sir ,james ,ma?ieson's resid5ce1 :ile ^? :o are dropp$ at ,t>b]t on ,saturday are usually q ready to dep>t on ,monday ) ! /eam] t br\ght !m4 ,! fact is t hotel accommodation 9 ! ,out] ,hebrides is r limit$1 & ! means ( locomotion ?r\gh ! isl&s is on ! same sl5d] scale4 ,^?1 !re=e1 :o are n able & will+ to r\gh x _h bett] n v5ture f> beyond ,t>b]t & ,/orn[ay4 ,:5 ! isl&s are fir/ approa*$ !y pres5t1 x mu/ be confess$1 a some:at =bidd+ aspect4 ,b>e1 bleak rocks1 ) a monoton\s r\nd$ outl9e1 cr[d along ! %ore1 & seem to =m all b ! v highe/ portions ( ! l& t meet our view1 :ile su* areas ( l[-gr\nd z we c cat* a glimpse ( appe> to be ev]y:]e cov]$ ) a dusky mantle ( hea? & peat4 ,b1 al?\gh ! g5]al "* ( ! sc5]y is ?us tame & sombre1 yet !re are c]ta9 di/ricts :i* 9 _! wild picturesqu5ess are h>dly surpass$ by _m places 9 ! nor!rn ,highl&s1 :ile "o may se>* ! coa/-l9e ( ! ma9l& 9 va9 = cliffs to comp>e ) ^? gaunt walls ( rock1 aga9/ :i* ! great roll]s ( ! ,atlantic cont9ually surge & ?und]4 ,x is wond]ful1 too1 h[1 "u ! influ5ce ( a light-blue sky1 fleck$ ) %9+ silv]y cl\ds1 ! sombre peat-l&s light5 up & gl[ ) regal purple & ruddy br[n4 ,) su* a sky above him1 & ) a lively breeze fre% f ! ,atlantic & lad5 ) ! sweetness ( clov] & mead[-hay & hea!r-bloom sweep+ gaily pa/ him1 :at w&]] 9 ! ,out] ,hebrides ne$ be piti$8 ,& su* days are by no means s r>e 9 ^! isl&s z _m a jaundic$ ,l[l&] has ma9ta9$4 ,x is true t heavy mi/s & drizzl+ ra9 are (t5 provok+ly preval5t1 & ,i _c =get ! exp]i5ce ( a sad-he>t$ exile1 :o _h resid$ cont9u\sly = a ye> 9 ,lewis1 & :o1 ^u be+ ask$ :at k9d ( climate t isl& enjoy$1 repli$3 ,sir1 x has no climate4 ,!re are n9e mon?s ( w9t]1 & ?ree mon?s ( v bad wea!r4 ,= myself1 ,i c say t my exp]i5ce ( ! climate 9 ,june1 ,july1 & e>ly ,augu/ ( sev]al ye>s has be5 decid$ly fav\rable4 ,dur+ ^? mon?s ,i f\nd comp>atively few days 9 :i* a v fair am\nt ( walk+ & climb+ c\ld n be accompli%$ ) ease & pleasure1 & t is a good deal m ?an "o c\ld v5ture to say ( ,skye & _m p>ts ( ! we/ coa/ ( ! ma9l&4 ,! greate/ drawback to "o's com=t are ! midges1 :i* 9 ^! isl&s are beyond measure blood?ir/y1 & q z obnoxi\s z ! mo/ c>nivor\s mosquitoes4 ,smok+1 & all ! o!r arts & devices by :i* ! designs ( ^! t9y pe/s are usually circumv5t$1 h no effect ^u ! ,hebridean vampires4 ,9 ! l[-gr\nds especially !y make life a burd54 ,b ^? :o h already become acqua9t$ ) ! ,ross-%ire midges1 & yet h pres]v$ _! equanimity1 may feel ju/ifi$ 9 brav+ ! f]ocity ( ! ,hebridean ho/s4 ,& if !y d s ,i believe !y w be well repaid = _! c\rage4 ,to ! h>dy p$e/rian1 especially1 :o likes to escape f ! beat5 track laid d[n 9 guide-books1 x w be a pleasure 9 itself to roam ov] a region :i* has n yet come entirely "u ! dom9ion ( ,mr4 ,cook4 ,if he be simply a lov] ( ! picturesque he w yet n be disappo9t$1 & possibly he may pick up a few h9ts 9 ^! notes z to ^? di/ricts :i* are mo/ likely to repay him = 8 toil 9 rea*+ !m4 ,b if to 8 love ( ! picturesque he jo9s a ta/e = ar*ological pursuits1 !n ,i c assure him !re is a ri* & by no means exhau/$ field ( /udy 9 ! antiquities ( ! ,long ,isl&4 ,int]e/+1 h[ev]1 z are ! relics ( prehi/oric & lat] times :i* "o meets )1 yet x is ! geologi/1 p]haps1 :o w be mo/ rew>d$ by a visit to ^! isl&s4 ,! physical features ( ! ,out] ,hebrides are1 z already /at$1 some:at monoton\s1 b ?is is q consi/5t ) consid]able v>iety ( sc5ic effect4 ,all ! isl&s are n equally attractive1 al?\gh ! configuration ( hills & l[-gr\nds rema9s p]si/5tly ! same f ! ,butt ( ,lewis to ,b>ra ,head4 ,! mo/ consid]able isl& is t ( :i* ,lewis & ,h>ris =m ! nor!rn & s\!rn portions respectively4 ,by f> ! l>g] "p ( ! =m] is undulat+ moorl&1 ! only really m\nta9\s di/rict be+ t :i* adjo9s ,h>ris 9 ! s\?4 ,a good g5]al idea ( ! moorl&s is obta9$ by cross+ ! isl& f ,/orn[ay to ,g>rynah9e4 ,:at appe>$ at fir/ to be only "o va/ ext5d$ peat-bog is !n se5 to be a g5tly-undulat+ c\ntry1 coat$1 x is true1 ) mu* peat 9 ! holl[s1 b clad = ! mo/ "p ) hea?1 ?r\gh :i* ev] & anon pe] b>e rocks & rocky dbris4 ,n[ & aga91 inde$1 especially t[>ds ! c5tre ( ! isl&1 ! gr\nd rises into r\gh r\nd-topp$ hills1 spr9kl$ sp>+ly ) vegetation4 ,"o ( ! mo/ /rik+ features ( ! l[-gr\nds1 h[ev]1 is ! enorm\s numb] ( fre%wat] lakes1 :i* are s abundant z to =m no small proportion ( ! surface4 ,!y are1 z a rule1 mo/ irregul> 9 outl9e1 b h a t5d5cy to arrange !mselves 9 two directions--"o set tr5d+ f s\?-ea/ to nor?-we/1 :ile ano!r s]ies is drawn out1 z x 71 f s\?-we/ to nor?-ea/4 ,i am sure t ,i am )9 ! m>k 9 e/imat+ ! fre%wat] lakes 9 ! l[-gr\nds ( ,lewis to be at lea/ five hundr$ 9 numb]4 ,9 ! m\nta9-di/rict ! lakes are1 ( c\rse1 conf9$ to ! valleys1 & v>y 9 direction accord+ly4 ,h>ris & ! s\!rn "p ( ,lewis are :olly m\nta9\s1 & %[ h>dly a s+le acre ( level gr\nd4 ,! m\nta9s are (t5 bold & picturesque1 especially ^? :i* are ov] #afjj feet 9 height4 ,!y are also exce$+ly b>e & desolate1 ! vegetation on _! slopes be+ poor & scanty 9 ! extreme4 ,"s ( ! hills1 inde$1 are absolutely b>r54 ,9 ,nor? ,h>ris we f9d ! highe/ peaks ( ! ,out] ,hebrides3 ^! are ! ,cli%am1 #bfbb feet1 & ! ,langa1 #bdch feet4 ,! gl5s 9 ?is elevat$ di/rict are (t5 wild & rugg$1 su* z ! ,beala*-,miavag & ! ,beala*-na-,ci/e1 bo? ( :i* op5 on ,we/ ,lo* ,t>b]t4 ,b amid all ?is rugg$ness & wild disord] ( brok5 crag & beetl+ precipice1 ev5 a v non-obs]vant eye c h>dly fail to notice t ! g5]al cont\r or configuration ( ! hills is smoo?1 r\nd$1 & fl[+1 up to a r well-m>k$ level1 above :i* ! outl9e becomes brok5 & int]rupt$1 & all ! r\nd$ & smoo!d appe>ance vani%es4 ,! contra/ betwe5 ! smoo?ly-fl[+ cont\r ( ! l[] elevations & ! %att]$ & riv5 aspect ( ! h>% ridges1 %>p peaks1 & craggy tors above1 is p>ticul>ly /rik+4 ,! mammillat$ & dome-%ap$ masses h a pale1 gha/ly grey hue1 _! broad b>e surfaces reflect+ ! light freely1 :ile at high] elevations ! abundant irregul>ities ( ! rocks ?r[ _m %ad[s1 & imp>t a d>k] aspect to ! m\nta9-tops4 ,! appe>ances n[ describ$ are v well se5 along ! %ores ( ,we/ ,lo* ,t>b]t4 ,all ! hills t abut ^u t lo* %[ smoo!d & r\nd$ faces1 & ?is "* prevails up to a height ( #afjj feet1 or !reab\t1 :5 all at once x gives way1 & a brok51 int]rupt$ cont\r succe$s4 ,?us ! top ( ! ,t>call ridge 9 ,s\? ,h>ris is d>k1 r\gh1 & irregul>1 :ile ! slopes bel[ are grey1 smoo?1 & fl[+4 ,! same is conspicu\sly ! case ) ! m\nta9s 9 ,nor? ,h>ris1 ! ru9\s & sombre-look+ summits ( ! ,langa & ! ,cli%am so>+ = sev]al hundr$ feet above ! pale grey mammillat$ hills t sweep d[nw>ds to ! sea4 ,aft] hav+ famili>is$ !mselves ) ! aspect ( ! hills z se5 f bel[1 ! lov] ( ! picturesque1 n less ?an ! geologi/1 w d well to asc5d "s dom9ant po9t f :i* an ext5sive bird's-eye view c be obta9$4 ,= su* purpose ,i c recomm5d ! ,t>call & ,roneval 9 ,s\? ,h>ris1 ! ,cli%am & ! ,langa 9 ,nor? ,h>ris1 & ,sua9abhal 9 ,lewis4 ,! view f ^! hills is wond]fully ext5sive & v impressive4 ,f ,sua9abhal "o comm&s ne>ly all ,lewis2 & :at a weird picture ( desolation x is6 ,an endless succession ( b>e1 grey1 r\nd-back$ rocks & hills1 ) c\ntless lakes & lakelets ne/l+ 9 _! holl[s1 undulates outw>ds ov] ! di/ricts ( ,uig & ,pairc4 ,away to ! nor? spread ! great moorl&s ) _! lo*ans1 :ile imm$iately to ! s\? "o cat*es a f9e panoramic view ( ! m\nta9s ( ,h>ris4 ,& !n ^? long /raggl+ arms ( ! sea1 rea*+ into ! v he>t ( ! isl&--h[ blue1 & bright1 & fre% !y look6 ,i suppose ! natives ( ! ,lewis mu/ h be5 fi%]m5 f ! v e>lie/ times4 ,x seems h>dly possible o!rwise to believe t ! b>e rocks & peat-bogs1 :i* =m ! major portion ( its surface1 c\ld ev] h support$ a l>ge population2 & yet !re is e evid5ce to %[ t ?is "p ( ! ,long ,isl& 0 tol]ably well populat$ 9 v e>ly days4 ,! great /&+-/ones ( ,call]ni% & ! _m o!r monoli?s1 bo? solit>y & 9 gr\ps1 t are scatt]$ along ! we/ coa/ ( ,lewis1 surely betok5 z mu*4 ,& ^? curi\s r\nd t[]s1 or places ( refuge & def5ce1 :i* are s well repres5t$ 9 ! same di/rict1 al?\gh !y may be mu* y\ng] 9 date ?an ! monoli?s ( ,call]ni%1 tell ! same tale4 ,f ! summits ( ! ,cli%am & ! ,langa ! view is f9] ?an t obta9$ f ,sua9abhal4 ,! =m] ov]look all ! high-gr\nds ( ,h>ris & ,lewis1 & ! monoton\s moors ) _! c\ntless /raggl+ lakes & peaty t>ns4 ,inde$1 !y dom9ate ne>ly ! :ole ( ! ,long ,isl&1 ! hills ( di/ant ,b>ra be+ q di/+ui%able4 ,( c\rse1 ! l(ty isl& ( ,rum1 & ,skye ) its ,cool9s1 are bo? cle>ly visible1 ! :ole view be+ fram$ 9 to ea/w>d by ! m\nta9s ( ,ross & ,su!rl&4 ,on a cle> day1 :i*1 un=tunately1 ,i did n get1 "o %\ld be q able to see ,/4 ,kilda4 ,h>dly less ext5sive is ! view obta9$ f ,roneval 7#aejf feet7 9 ! s\? ( ,h>ris4 ,f> away to ! we/ lie ,/4 ,kilda & its little si/] islet ( ,bor]ey4 ,s\?w>ds /ret* ! v>i\s isl&s ( ! ,out] ,hebrides--,nor? ,ui/1 ,b5becula1 ,s\? ,ui/1 & ,b>ra4 ,h[ pla9ly visible !y all are--a scre5 ( high m\nta9s fac+ ! ,m9*1 & ext5d+1 app>5tly1 along _! :ole ea/]n m>g9--) broad lake-dappl$ pla9s sweep+ out f ! foot-hills to ! ,atlantic4 ,9 ! ea/1 ,skye ) its spiky ,cool9s spreads be=e "o1 & nor? ( ,skye we easily di/+ui% ,b5 ,slio* & ! m\nta9s ( ,lo* ,m>ee & ,lo* ,torridon4 ,s\? ,h>ris lies1 ( c\rse1 "u our feet1 & x is h>d to give "o :o has n se5 x an adequate notion ( its /]ile desolation4 ,r\nd-back$ hills & rocks innum]able1 scrap$ b>e ( any soil1 & support+ h>dly a ve/ige ( vegetation2 heavy m\nta9-masses ) a simil> r\nd$ cont\r1 & equally nak$ & desolate2 blue lakelets scatt]$ 9 hundr$s among ! holl[s & depressions ( ! l&3 su* is ! g5]al appe>ance ( ! rocky wild]ness t /ret*es inl& f ! %ores ( ! ,m9*4 ,!n all ar\nd lies ! great blue sea1 %9+ l sapphire 9 ! sun1 & fleck$ ) t9y sails1 :]e ! fi%]m5 are busy at _! call+4 ,f :at has n[ be5 said1 x w readily be und]/ood t !re is n mu* cultivable l& 9 ,h>ris & ! hilly p>ts ( ,lewis4 ,:at little !re is occurs *iefly along ! we/ coa/1 a "* :i* we %all f9d is common to mo/ ( ! isl&s ( ! ,out] ,hebrides4 ,9 ! neighb\rhood ( ,/orn[ay1 & ov] consid]able areas along ! :ole we/ coa/ ( ,lewis1 ! moorl&s h be5 brok5 9 ^u by spade & pl\gh1 ) m or less success4 ,b natural mead[-l&s1 su* z are frequ5tly met ) on ! we/ side ( _m ( ! isl&s bo? ( ! ,out] & ,inn] ,hebrides1 are n v common 9 ,lewis4 ,"o ( ! mo/ notable features ( ! hilli] p>ts ( ! ,long ,isl& are ! enorm\s numb]s ( loose /ones & b\ld]s :i* are ev]y:]e scatt]$ ab\t on hill-top1 hill-side1 & valley-bottom4 ,h>ris is lit]ally pepp]$ ) !m1 & !y are h>dly less abundant 9 ! o!r isl&s4 ,!y are ( all %apes & sizes--r\nd1 sub-angul>1 & angul>4 ,"o great block 9 ,b>ra ,i e/imat$ to weigh sev5 hundr$ & sev5ty tons4 ,_m measure ov] ?ree or f\r y>ds across1 :ile myriads are mu* small]4 ,^! b\ld]s are sometimes utilis$ 9 a s+ul> way4 ,9 ,h>ris1 !re be+ only "o burial-place1 ! poor p h (t5 to c>ry _! dead a long di/ance1 & ?is ( c\rse necessitates re/+ on ! j\rney4 ,to m>k ! spot :]e !y h re/$1 ! m\rn]s are wont to erect little cairns by ! road-side1 _m ( :i* are neatly built 9 ! =m ( cones & pyramids1 :ile o!rs are m]e %apeless heaps ( /ones ?r[n loosely toge!r4 ,in/ead ( rais+ cairns1 h[ev]1 !y occasionally select "s b\ld]1 & make x s]ve ! purpose by cant+ x up & ins]t+ "o or m /ones und]nea?4 ,occasionally ,i h se5 9 v>i\s p>ts ( ! ma9l& great b\ld]s cock$ up at "o end 9 ! same way4 ,"s ( ^! may be 9 _! natural position1 b z !y (t5 occupy conspicu\s & comm&+ situations1 ,i am incl9$ to ?9k t ! cromle*-build]s may h tamp]$ ) !m = memorial purposes4 ,! pres5t cu/om ( ! ,h>ris m5 may !re=e be a survival f t f>-di/ant p]iod :5 ,call]ni% 0 9 its glory4 ,nor? ,ui/ is truly a l& ( desolation & dre>9ess4 ,b>e1 rocky hills1 :i* are rem>kable = _! /]ile nak$ness ev5 9 ! ,long ,isl&1 =m ! ea/]n m>g91 & f ! foot ( ^! ! l[1 undulat+ rocky & peaty l& /ret*es = "s t5 or twelve miles to ! ,atlantic4 ,! l& is ev]y:]e int]sect$ by long1 /raggl+ inlets ( sea-wat]1 & spr9kl$ ) lakes & peaty t>ns innum]able4 ,along ! flat ,atlantic coa/1 :i* is ov]look$ by "s sp>sely-clad hills1 are dre>y /ret*es ( yell[ s& bl[n up into dunes4 ,ne> ^! are a few huts & a kirk & manse4 ,n a tree1 n ev5 a bu% high] ?an hea!r1 is to be se54 ,peat1 & wat]1 & rock2 rock1 & wat]1 & peat--t is ,nor? ,ui/4 ,! neighb\rhood ( ,lo*maddy1 :i* is ! resid5ce ( a %]iff-sub/itute1 & rejoices besides 9 ! possession ( a jail1 is depress+ 9 ! extreme4 ,x is made up ( irregul> bits ( flat l& all jumbl$ ab\t 9 a %all[ sea1 s t to get to a place "o mile 9 direct di/ance y may h to walk five or six miles1 or ev5 m4 ,i c\ld n b agree ) ! natives ( ! m coh]5t p>ts ( ! ,long ,isl&1 :o are wont to decl>e t ,lo*maddy is only ! clipp+s ( creation--! odds & ends & scraps left ov] aft] ! bett] l&s 7 f9i%$4 ,nor? ,ui/1 h[ev]1 boa/s ( "s int]e/+ antiquities--,picts' h\ses1 & a great cairn call$ ! ,b>p1 inside ( :i*1 accord+ to tradition1 re/ ! rema9s ( a wick$ pr9ce ( ! good old days4 ,not)/&+ ^!1 !re are probably few visitors :o w n pron\nce ,nor? ,ui/ to be a dre>y isl&4 ,b5becula is precisely l ,nor? ,ui/1 b x lacks ! b>e m\nta9s ( ! latt]4 ,!re is only "o hill1 inde$1 9 ,b5becula2 all ! re/ is morass1 peat1 & wat]4 ,massive m\nta9s fr+e all ! ea/]n %ores ( ,s\? ,ui/1 & s5d we/w>d num]\s spurs & foot-hills t encroa* ^u ! ma*>s1 or good l&s1 s z to r$uce !n to a m]e n>r[ /rip1 bord]+ on ! ,atlantic4 ,save ! summits ( ,be9n ,mhor 7#bjcc feet7 & ,hecla 7#aihh feet71 :i* are peak$ & rugg$1 all ! hills %[ ! *>act]i/ic fl[+ outl9e :i* has already be5 describ$ 9 connection ) ! physical features ( ,h>ris4 ,! l[-gr\nds are1 z usual1 ?ickly /udd$ ) lakes1 & l>ge loose b\ld]s are scatt]$ ab\t 9 all directions4 ,b>ra is :olly m\nta9\s1 &1 except t x is some:at less /]ile1 closely resembles ,h>ris 9 its physical features1 ! hills be+ smoo!d1 r\nd$1 & b>e1 especially on ! side ( ! isl& t faces ! ,m9*4 ,( ! small] isl&s t lie to ! s\?1 su* z ,papey1 ,miuley1 & ,be>n>ey1 ! mo/ notewor?y features are ! l(ty cliffs :i* !y pres5t to ! ,atlantic4 ,= ! re/1 !y %[ precisely ! same appe>ances z ! hilli] & b>] portions ( ! l>g] isl&s--r\nd$ rocks ) an undulat+ outl9e1 dott$ ov] ) loose /ones & b\ld]s1 & n[ & aga9 half-smo!r$ 9 yell[ s&1 :i* ! /rong w9ds bl[ 9 ^u !m4 ,!re is ?us1 z ,i h said1 consid]able uni=mity & ev5 monotony ?r\gh\t ! :ole range ( ! ,out] ,hebrides4 ,i speak1 h[ev]1 *iefly z a geologi/4 ,an arti/1 no d\bt1 w f9d inf9ite v>iety1 & z he w5ds 8 way by moorl&1 or m\nta9-gl51 or sea-%ore1 sc5es are con/antly com+ into view :i* he w be fa9 to transf] to 8 sket*-book4 ,! col\r-effects1 too1 are (t5 surpris+ly beautiful4 ,:5 ! ri* mead[-l&s ( ! we/ coa/ are 9 all _! glory1 !y %[ _m dazzl+ t9ts & %ades1 ! deep t5d] gre5 be+ da%$ & flu%$ ) yell[1 & purple1 & sc>let1 & blue1 ov] :i* ! delight$ eye w&]s to a belt ( bright s& ^u ! %ore1 & ! va/ azure expanse ( ! ,atlantic beyond4 ,inl& are ! hea?-clad moors1 spr9kl$ ) grey b\ld]s & masses ( b>r5 rock1 & int]sp]s$ ) lakes1 "s ( :i* are />r$ ) clu/]s ( lovely wat]-lilies4 ,beh9d ! moorl&s1 aga91 rise ! grim1 bald m\nta9s1 seam$ & sc>r$ ) gullies1 & 9 _! v g5]al nak$ness & /]ility (f]+ ! /ronge/ contra/ to ! v>iegat$ bord] ( russet moor1 & gre5 mead[1 & yell[ bea* t fr+e ! ,atlantic coa/4 ,all ?r\gh ! isl&s1 inde$1 ! arti/ w come ^u int]e/+ subjects4 ,a mo/ impressive sc5e may sometimes be witness$ on cross+ ! ,nor? ,=d1 betwe5 ,nor? ,ui/ & ,b5becula4 ,at l[-wat]1 ! *annel or s\nd betwe5 ^! two isl&s1 :i* is five miles 9 bread?1 disappe>s & leaves expos$ a wide expanse ( wet s& & silt1 dott$ ) black rocks & l[ tangle-cov]$ reefs & sk]ries4 ,on ! morn+ ,i pass$ ov]1 ragg$ %eets ( mi/ hung l[ d[n on ! ne> horizon1 half-obscur+ & half-reveal+ ! /ony islets1 & crags1 & hills t lay betwe5 ! =d & ! ,m9*4 ,se5 ?r\gh su* a m$ium1 ! rocks assum$ ! mo/ surpris+ =ms1 sometimes t[]+ into great peaks & cliffs1 at o!r times break+ up1 z x 71 into l[ reefs & %oals1 & anon dissolv+ 9 grey mi/ & vap\r4 ,at o!r times ! ?9 cl\d-curta9 w\ld lift1 & !n "o fanci$ "o saw "s va/ city ) pond]\s walls & battlem5ts1 & l(ty t[]s & /eeples1 ris+ into ! mi/-wrea?s t hung above x1 :ile f _m po9ts on ! ,b5becula coa/1 :]e kelp 0 be+ prep>$1 cl\ds ( smoke curl$ sl[ly upw>ds1 z if f ! camp-fires ( "s besieg+ army4 ,! track ( ! =d w9ds r\nd & ab\t innum]able rocks1 ^u :i* a numb] ( natives1 ea* /oop+ solit>y & sil5t to 8 or h] "w1 7 reap+ ! luxuriant seawe$ = kelp-mak+4 ,_! sil5ce 0 q 9 keep+ ) ! g5]al /illness1 :i* w\ld h be5 unbrok5 b = ! h>% scream ( ! sea-birds1 z !y ev] & anon rose sc>$ f _! fav\rite fe$+-gr\nds :ile we plodd$ & pla%$ on our way4 ,! arti/ :o c\ld successfully cope ) su* a sc5e w\ld pa9t a s+ul>ly weird & sugge/ive picture4 ,b1 to return to ! physical features ( ! ,long ,isl&1 :at1 we may ask1 is ! cause ( t g5]al monotony ( outl9e to :i* ref]5ce has s frequ5tly be5 made8 ,at fir/ we seem to get an answ] to our "q :5 we are told t ! isl&s ( ! ,out] ,hebrides are compos$ *iefly ( "o & ! same k9d ( rock4 ,ev]yone n[adays has "s k ( ! fact t ! peculi> features ( any giv5 di/rict are greatly due to ! "* & arrangem5t ( ! rock-masses4 ,= example1 :o is n famili> ) ! outl9e ( a *alk c\ntry1 z di/+ui%$ f ! cont\r ( a region ! rocks ( :i* are compos$1 let u say1 ( alt]nat+ b$s ( lime/one & s&/one & masses ( old volcanic mat]ial8 ,! *alk c\ntry1 ow+ to ! homog5e\sness ( its compon5t /rata1 has be5 m\ld$ by ! action ( wea!r & runn+ wat] into an undulat+ region ) a s(tly-fl[+ outl9e1 :ile ! di/rict ( composite =mation has yield$ unequally to ! action ( ,"t's work]s--ra9s1 & fro/s1 & riv]s--& s is div]sifi$ ) ridge1 & esc>pm5t1 & knolls1 & crags4 ,:51 !re=e1 we le>n t ! ,out] ,hebrides are compos$ = ! mo/ "p ( ! rock call$ gneiss & its v>ieties1 we seem to h at once f\nd ! mean+ ( ! uni=mity & monotony4 ,x is true t al?\gh p9k & grey gneiss & s*i/ose rocks prevail f ! ,butt ( ,lewis to ,b>ra ,head1 yet !re are "s o!r v>ieties occasionally met )--?us s(t r$ s&/one & conglom]ate re/ ^u ! gneissic rocks ne> ,/orn[ay1 b !y occur n[h]e else ?r\gh\t ! ,long ,isl&4 ,n[ & aga91 h[ev]1 ! gneiss gives place to granite1 z on ! we/ coa/ ( ,lewis ne> ,c>l[ay2 & "h & !re ! /rata are pi]c$ by v]tical dykes & curi\s twi/$ & reticulat$ ve9s ( basalt-rock4 ,all ^!1 h[ev]1 hold b a m9or & unimportant place z con/itu5ts ( ! isl&s4 ,gneiss is beyond "q ! mo/ preval5t rock1 & we seem ju/ifi$ 9 assign+ ! peculi> monotony ( ! ,out] ,hebridean sc5]y to t fact4 ,b :5 we come to exam9e ! matt] m att5tively1 we f9d t !re is /ill "s important factor want+4 ,we h n got q to ! solution ( ! "q4 ,:5 we /udy ! mann] 9 :i* ! gneiss & gneissic rocks dis9tegrate & break up at ! sea-coa/ or along ! flanks ( "s rugg$ m\nta9-gl51 we see !y give rise to an irregul> unev5 surface4 ,!y d n naturally decompose & exfoliate into r\nd$ dome-%ap$ masses1 su* z are s commonly met ) all ?r\gh ! isl&s1 b r t5d to assume ! aspect ( rugg$ tors1 & peaks1 & ridges4 ,! reason = ?is w be m readily und]/ood :5 x is le>n$ t ! gneissic rocks ( ! ,out] ,hebrides are = ! mo/ "p arrang$ 9 /rata1 :i*1 not)/&+ _! imm5se antiquity--7!y are ! olde/ rocks 9 ,europe7--& ! _m *anges !y h und]gone1 are yet1 z a rule1 q di/+ui%able4 ,! /rata are seldom or nev] horizontal1 b are usually incl9$ at a high angle1 ei!r to nor?-ea/ or s\?-we/1 al?\gh sometimes1 z 9 ! vic9ity ( ,/orn[ay1 ! dip or incl9ation ( ! b$s is to s\?-ea/4 ,?r\gh\t ! major portion ( ! ,long ,isl&1 h[ev]1 ! outcrop ( ! /rata runs transv]sely across ! l& f s\?-ea/ to nor?-we/4 ,n[ we "k t :5 ?is is ! case /rata ( v>iable composition & "* give rise to long esc>pm5ts & int]v5+ holl[s--! esc>pm5ts m>k+ ! outcrops ( ! h>d] & m durable b$s1 & ! holl[s ^? /rata t are s(t] & m easily erod$ by ! action ( ! d5ud+ =ces1 wat] & fro/4 ,:5 ! dip ( ! /rata is nor?-ea/ we expect ! esc>pm5ts to face ! s\?-we/1 & ! rev]se w be ! case :5 ! /rata incl9e 9 ! opposite direction4 ,see+ !n t ! ,out] ,hebrides are compos$ *iefly ( gneissic rocks & s*i/s :i* yield unequally to ! wea!r1 & :i*1 9 ! c\rse ( "t1 w\ld naturally give rise to l9es ( %>p-edg$ esc>pm5ts or ridges & int]v5+ holl[s1 ) n[ & aga9 massive hills & m\nta9s %[+ great cliffs & a g5]ally brok5 & irregul> outl9e1 :y is x t su* rugg$ features are s seldom pres5t at l[ levels1 & are only conspicu\s at ! v highe/ elevations8 ,! rocks ( ! ,out] ,hebrides are ( imm5se antiquity1 & !re has !re=e be5 "t en\gh = !m to assume ! irregul> cont\r :i* we might h expect$4 ,b 9 place ( %>p-rimm$ esc>pm5ts1 & tors1 & brok5 %att]$ ridges1 we see ev]y:]e a r\nd$ & smoo?ly-fl[+ configuration :i* prevails up to a height ( #afjj feet or !reab\t1 above :i* ! rocks take on ! rugg$ appe>ance :i* is natural to !m4 ,by :at magic h ! /rata at ! l[] levels escap$ 9 su* l>ge measure f ! action ( ra9 & fro/1 :i* h furr[$ & %att]$ ! high] m\nta9-tops8 ,i h said t long l9es ( esc>pm5t & ridges1 correspond+ to ! outcrops ( ! h>d] & m durable /rata1 are n app>5t 9 ^! isl&s4 ,a tra9$ eye1 h[ev]1 is n long 9 discov]+ t su* features1 al?\gh mask$ & obscur$1 are yet really pres5t4 ,! r\nd-back$ rocks are drawn out1 z x 71 9 "o p]si/5t direction1 :i* always agrees ) ! /rike or outcrop ( ! /rata2 & 9 _m di/ricts "o notices also t long holl[s trav]se ! l& f s\?-ea/ to nor?-we/ 9 ! same way4 ,su* alt]nat+ holl[s & r\nd$ ridges are v conspicu\s 9 ,b>ra & ! small] isl&s to ! s\?1 & !y may likewise be not$ 9 mo/ ( ! l>g] isl&s also4 ,look+ at ^! & o!r features1 ! geologi/ has no hesitation 9 conclud+ t ! :ole ( ! isl&s h be5 subject$ to "s p[]ful abrad+ =ce1 :i* has succe$$ to a l>ge ext5t 9 oblit]at+ ! prim>y configuration ( ! l&4 ,! r\gh ridges h be5 r\nd$ (f1 ! %>p esc>pm5ts h be5 bevell$1 ! abrupt tors & peaks h be5 smoo!d d[n4 ,"h & !re1 x is true1 ! dome-%ap$ rock-masses are beg9n+ aga9 to break up "u ! action ( ! wea!r s z to resume _! orig9al irregul> configuration4 ,&1 d\btless1 aft] ! lapse ( _m ages1 ra9 & fro/ w gradually succe$ 9 de/roy+ ! pres5t *>act]i/ic fl[+ outl9es1 & ! isl&s w !n rev]t to _! =m] condition1 & rugg$ esc>pm5ts1 %>p peaks1 & r\gh brok5 hummocks & tors w aga9 become ! rule4 ,b = a long "t to come ^! grey ,we/]n ,isl&s w cont9ue to pres5t u ) "s ( ! mo/ in/ructive examples ( r\nd$ & mammillat$ rock-masses to be met ) 9 ,europe4 ,f ,b>ra ,head 9 ,be>n>ey to ! ,butt ( ,lewis we are con/antly confront$ by pro(s ( ! =m] pres5ce ( t my/]i\s abrad+ p[]1 :i* has accommodat$ itself to all ! s9uosities ( ! gr\nd1 s t f ! sea-level up to a height ( #afjj feet at lea/1 ! eye re/s almo/ ev]y:]e ^u b>e r\nd-back$ rocks & smoo!d surfaces4 ,,ii4 ,9 ! prec$+ article ,i h describ$ ! peculi> configuration ( ! ,long ,isl&--r\nd$ & fl[+ = ! mo/ "p--& h po9t$ out h[ t s(t5$ outl9e is n su* z ! rocks w\ld naturally assume "u ! influ5ce ( ! ord9>y ag5ts ( erosion ) :i* we are famili> 9 ?is c\ntry4 ,! pres5t cont\r has sup]s$$ an old] set ( features1 :i*1 al?\gh highly modifi$ or disguis$1 & (t5 well-nigh oblit]at$1 are yet capable ( be+ trac$1 & are1 no d\bt1 ! con=mation assum$ by ! rocks "u ! long-cont9u$ action ( ra9 & fro/ & runn+ wat]4 ,we h n[ to inquire :at x 0 t remov$ or s(t5$ d[n ! primal configuration ,i ref] to1 & gave to ! isl&s _! pres5t monoton\s1 undulat+ cont\r4 ,any "o fre% f ! glaci]-valleys ( ,switz]l& or ,norway c\ld h little d\bt z to ! cause ( ! trans=mation4 ,! smoo!d & r\nd$ masses ( ! ,out] ,hebrides are s exactly p>allel$ by ! ice-worn1 dome-%ap$ rocks ov] :i* a glaci] has fl[$1 t our visitor w\ld h small hesitation 9 ascrib+ to !m a simil> orig92 & ! pres5ce ( ! c\ntless p]*$ blocks & b\ld]s :i* are scatt]$ broadca/ ov] ! isl&s w\ld t5d to confirm him 9 8 belief4 ,a clos] inspection ( ! ph5om5a w\ld soon bani% all d\bt f 8 m9d2 =1 on ! less-wea!r$ surfaces1 he w\ld detect ^? long p>allel scrat*es & furr[s :i* are ! sure signs ( glacial action1 :ile1 9 ! holl[s & ov] ! l[-gr\nds1 he w\ld be confront$ ) t peculi> deposit ( clay & s& & glaciat$ /ones & b\ld]s :i* are dragg$ on und]nea? fl[+ ice4 ,hav+ satisfi$ ourselves t ! r\nd$ outl9e ( ! gr\nd is ! result ( =m] glacial action1 our next /ep is to discov]1 if we c1 9 :at direction ! abrad+ ag5t mov$4 ,did ! ice1 z we might h suppos$1 come out ( ! m\nta9-valleys & ov]fl[ ! l[ c\ntry8 ,if t _h be5 ! case1 !n we %\ld expect to f9d ! glacial m>k+s radiat+ outw>ds 9 all directions f ! high] elevations4 ,?us ! l[-gr\nds ( ,uig1 9 ,lewis1 %\ld give evid5ce ( hav+ be5 ov]fl[$ by ice com+ f ! ,=e/ ( ,h>ris2 ! undulat+1 rocky1 & lake-dappl$ region t ext5ds betwe5 ,lo* ,roag & ,lo* ,erisort %\ld be abrad$ & /riat$ f s\?-we/ to nor?-ea/4 ,in/ead ( ?is1 h[ev]1 ! movem5t has cle>ly be5 f s\?-ea/ to nor?-we/4 ,all ! prom95t rock-faces t look t[>ds ! ,m9* h be5 smoo!d (f & r\nd$1 :ile 9 _! re> ! m>ks ( rubb+ & abrad+ are mu* less conspicu\s4 ,x is evid5t t ! s\?-ea/ exposure has borne ! full brunt ( ! ice-gr9d+--! surfaces t are turn$ 9 ! opposite direction1 or t[>ds ! ,atlantic1 hav+ be5 9 a measure protect$ or %elt]$ by _! position4 ,! /riations or scrat*es t are se5 ^u ! less-wea!r$ surfaces po9t inv>iably t[>ds ! nor?-we/1 & f _! "* & ! mode 9 :i* !y h be5 grav$ ^u ! rock1 we are left 9 no d\bt z to ! tr5d ( ! old ice-pl\gh--:i* 0 cle>ly f s\?-ea/ to nor?-we/4 ,nor is x only ! l[-gr\nds t are m>k$ 9 ?is direction4 ,asc5d ,sua9a 7#acjj feet71 & y %all f9d x %[+ evid5t signs ( hav+ be5 abrad$ all ov]1 f base to summit4 ,! same1 inde$1 is ! case ) all ! hills t /ret* f sea to sea betwe5 ,uig & ,lo* ,sea=?4 ,be9n ,mheadona*1 ,ceann ,resort1 ,griosamul1 & ,liu?aid1 are all /rongly glaciat$ f s\?-ea/ to nor?-we/4 ,nor? & ,s\? ,h>ris yield unequivocal evid5ce ( hav+ be5 ov]fl[$ by ice :i* did n /ream out ( ! m\nta9-valleys1 b cross$ ! isl& f ! ,m9* to ! ,atlantic4 ,a numb] ( m\nta9-gl5s1 com+ d[n f ! ,=e/ ( ,h>ris1 op5 out ^u ,we/ ,lo* ,t>b]t1 & ^! we see h be5 cross$ at "r angles by ! ice--! m\nta9s betwe5 !m be+ /rongly abrad$ f s\?-ea/ to nor?-we/4 ,x is ! same all ov] ,s\? ,h>ris1 :i* af=ds ! geologi/ e evid5ce ( hav+ be5 lit]ally smo!r$ 9 ice1 :i* has mov$ 9 ! same p]si/5t direction4 ,! rock-faces t look t[>ds ! ,m9* are all excessively nak$2 !y h be5 t]ribly gr\nd d[n & scrap$1 & ! same holds good ) e "p ( ! isl& expos$ to ! s\?-ea/4 ,n[1 ! mode 9 :i* ! rocks h be5 s gr\nd1 scrap$1 r\nd$1 & smoo!d betok5s v cle>ly ! action ( l&-ice1 & n ( float+-ice or iceb]gs4 ,! abrad+ ag5t has accommodat$ itself to all ! s9uosities ( ! gr\nd1 slid+ into holl[s & creep+ out ( !m1 m\ld+ itself ov] project+ rocks1 s z ev5tually to gr9d away all _! asp]ities1 & conv]t rugg$ tors & peaks into r\nd-back$1 dome-%ap$ masses4 ,x has c>ri$ away ! %>p edges ( esc>pm5ts & ridges1 & has deep5$ ! int]v5+ holl[s 9 a some:at irregul> way1 s t n[ ^! cat* ! dra9age ( ! l& & =m lakes4 ,/eep rocks fac+ ! ,m9* h be5 bevell$ (f & r\nd$ atop1 :ile 9 _! re> ! ice-pl\gh1 n be+ able to act ) effect1 has n succe$$ 9 remov+ ! primeval rugg$ness ( ! wea!r$ /rata4 ,i h said t ! movem5t ( ! ice 0 f s\?-ea/ to nor?-we/4 ,b a close exam9ation ( ! ice-m>k+s w %[ t ! fl[ 0 v frequ5tly influ5c$ by ! =m ( ! gr\nd4 ,m9or features x 0 able to disreg>d1 b "s prom95t project+ rock-masses succe$$ 9 deflect+ ! ice t fl[$ aga9/ !m4 ,= example1 if we /udy ! rocks 9 ,nor? ,h>ris1 we %all f9d t ! ,langa & ! ,cli%am h s]v$ z a w$ge to divide ! ice1 "p ( :i* fl[$ away into ,lewis1 :ile ! o!r curr5t or /ream crept out to sea by ,we/ ,lo* ,t>b]t4 ,! ,langa & ! ,cli%am1 inde$1 rais$ _! heads above ! glaci] mass--!y 7 islets 9 a sea ( ice4 ,x is = ?is reason t !y & ! ,t>cull ridge 9 ,s\? ,h>ris h n be5 smoo!d & abrad$1 b /ill pres]ve _! wea!r$ outl9e4 ,all surfaces bel[ a height ( #afjj feet :i* are expos$ to ! s\?-ea/1 & :i* h n be5 9 rec5t times brok5 up by ! action ( ra9 & fro/1 exhibit /rongly-m>k$ glaciation4 ,b above t level no signs ( anci5t ice-"w c be recognis$4 ,we see n[ :y x is t ! hill-slopes opposite ! ,m9* %\ld1 z a rule1 be s mu* m /]ile ?an ^? :i* slope d[n to ! ,atlantic4 ,! full =ce ( ! ice 0 ex]t$ ^u ! s\?-ea/ front1 9 ! re> ( :i* !re w\ld necess>ily be comp>atively quiet ice4 ,= ! same reason we %\ld expect to f9d mu* ( ! rock dbris :i* ! ice swept (f ! s\?-ea/ front %elt]+ on ! opposite side4 ,nei!r clay nor s& nor /ones w\ld ga!r "u ! ice ^u ! /eep rocks t face ! ,m9*4 ,! movem5t !re 0 too sev]e to p]mit ( any su* accumulation4 ,b /ones & clay & s& 7 c>ri$ ov] & swept r\nd ! hills1 & gradually accumulat$ 9 ! re> ( ! ice-worn rocks1 j 9 ! same way z gravel & s& are heap$ up beh9d project+ /ones & b\ld]s 9 ! b$ ( a /ream4 ,h5ce x is t ! we/]n m>g9 ( ,h>ris is s mu* less bleak ?an ! opposite side4 ,consid]able taluses ( till1 z ! sub-glacial dbris is call$1 ga!r beh9d ! /eep] crags1 & ragg$ %eets ( ! same mat]ial ext5d ov] ! l[-gr\nds4 ,all ! l[-gr\nds ( ,lewis are 9 l mann] spr9kl$ ) till4 ,ov] t region ! ice met ) b few ob/acles to its c\rse1 & consequ5tly ! dbris x =c$ along und]nea? 0 spread out some:at equally4 ,b :]ev] hills & peaks & hummocks ( rock broke ! regul>ity ( ! surface1 !re great abrasion took place & no till 0 accumulat$4 ,?us ! position & di/ribution ( ?is sub-glacial dbris or bottom-mora9e tell ! same tale z ! abrad$ rocks & glacial /ri1 & cle>ly indicate an ice-fl[ f ! s\?-ea/4 ,?is is /ill fur!r prov$ by ! mann] 9 :i* ! upturn$ ends ( ! /rata are frequ5tly b5t ov] und]nea? ! till 9 a nor?-we/]ly direction1 :ile ! fragm5ts dislodg$ f !m & enclos$ 9 ! sub-glacial dbris /ream away z x 7 to ! same po9t ( ! compass4 ,n only s1 b 9 ! we/ ( ,lewis1 :]e no r$ s&/one occurs1 we f9d b\ld]s ( r$ s&/one enclos$ 9 ! till1 :i* c\ld n h be5 d]iv$ f any place ne>] ?an ,/orn[ay4 ,9 o!r words1 ^! b\ld]s h travell$ across ! isl& f ! %ores ( ! ,m9* to ! ,atlantic sea-bo>d4 ,hav+ said s mu* ab\t ! glaciation ( ,lewis & ,h>ris1 ,i ne$ n d m ?an indicate v briefly "s ( ! m int]e/+ features ( ! isl&s fur!r s\?4 ,i sp5t "s "t cruis+ up & d[n ! ,s\nd ( ,h>ris1 & f\nd t all ! islets !re _h be5 gr\nd & scrap$ by ice fl[+ 9 ! normal nor?-we/ direction1 & sub-glacial dbris occurs on at lea/ "o ( ! little isl&s--,h>metrey4 ,b all ! ph5om5a ( glaciation are met ) 9 mo/ abundance 9 ! dre>y isl& ( ,nor? ,ui/4 ,! ridge ( m\nta9s t gu>ds its ea/ coa/ has be5 batt]$1 & gr\nd d[n1 & scrap$ b>e 9 ! mo/ wond]ful mann]1 :ile ! melan*oly moorl&s are ev]y:]e spr9kl$ ) till1 full ( glaciat$ /ones1 _m ( :i* h travell$ we/ f ! coa/ range4 ,b5becula %[s 9 l mann] a consid]able spr9kl+ ( till1 & ! tr5d ( ! glacial /ri is ! same !re z 9 ,nor? ,ui/1 namely1 a little nor? ( we/4 ,!re are no hills ( any consequ5ce 9 ,b5becula1 b ! highly-abrad$ & b>r5-look+ m\nta9s t fr+e ! ea/]n m>g9 ( ,nor? ,ui/ are cont9u$ s\? 9 ! isl&s ( ,roney & ,fuiey1 ei!r ( :i* x w\ld be h>d to surpass z examples ( ! prodigi\s effect ( l&-ice 9 sc\r+1 scrap+1 & gr9d+ ! surface ov] :i* x moves4 ,s\? ,ui/ pres5ts ! same g5]al configuration z ,nor? ,ui/1 its ea/ coa/ be+ =m$ ( a long range ( int5sely glaciat$ m\nta9s1 9 ! re> ( :i* ragg$ %eets & heaps ( sub-glacial dbris are ?r[n & scatt]$ ov] ! l[1 undulat+ tract t bord]s ! ,atlantic4 ,no "p ( ei!r ,b5becula or ,nor? ,ui/ has escap$ ! action ( ice1 b 9 ,s\? ,ui/ t knot ( high-gr\nd :i* is dom9at$ by ! f9e m\nta9s ( ,be9n ,mhor & ,hecla t[]$ above ! level ( ! glaci]-mass1 & h ?us be5 ! cause ( consid]able deflection ( ! ice-fl[4 ,! ice-/ream divid$1 z x 71 "p fl[+ r\nd ! nor? flank ( ,hecla1 & "p /ream+ pa/ ! s\!rn slopes ( ,be9n ,mhor4 ,b ! ice-fl[ ?us divid$ spe$ily reunit$ 9 ! re> ( ! m\nta9s1 ! s\!rn /ream creep+ 9 f ! s\?-ea/1 & ! nor!rn /ream /eal+ r\nd ,hecla t[>ds ! s\?-we/4 ,! track ( ?is rem>kable deflection & reunion is cle>ly m>k$ out by num]\s /ri all ov] ! l[-gr\nds t slope outw>ds to ! ,atlantic coa/4 ,! till1 x ne$ h>dly be add$1 af=ds ! same k9d ( evid5ce z ! sub-glacial deposits ( ! o!r isl&s1 & po9ts unmi/akably to a g5]al ice-movem5t across ,s\? ,ui/ f ! ,m9* to ! ,atlantic4 ,! influ5ce :i* an irregul> surface has 9 caus+ local deflections ( an ice-fl[ is also well se5 9 ,b>ra1 :]e ! /ri sometimes po9t "s #e or #aj1 & sometimes #be & ev5 #ce nor? ( we/--^! v>iations be+ entirely due to ! configuration ( ! gr\nd4 ,?is isl& is extremely b>e 9 _m places1 m especially ov] all ! region t slopes to ! ,m9*4 ,! ,atlantic bord] is some:at bett] cov]$ ) soil1 z is ! case ) ,s\? ,ui/ & ! o!r isl&s already describ$4 ,vat]sey1 ,saundry1 ,papey1 ,miuley1 & ,be>n>ey1 are all equally well glaciat$2 b z !y %[ little or no l[-gr\nd ) g5tle slopes1 !y h pres]v$ few traces ( sub-glacial dbris4 ,9 ?is respect !y resemble ! rocki] & hilli] p>ts ( ! l>ge isl&s to ! nor?4 ,till1 h[ev]1 is occasionally met )1 z = example on ! l[ %ores ( ,vat]sey ,bay1 & on ! s\!rn m>g9 ( ,miuley4 ,d\btless1 if x 7 c>efully look$ = x w\ld be f\nd %elt]+ 9 pat*es 9 _m nooks & holl[s1 protect$ f ! gr9d ( ! ice t advanc$ f ! s\?-ea/4 ,i saw x 9 sev]al su* places 9 ! islet ( ,be>n>ey1 :]e ! /ri indicat$ an ice-fl[ z usual t[>ds ! nor?-we/4 ,we h n[ se5 t ! :ole ( ! ,long ,isl& has be5 gr\nd1 & rubb$1 & scrap$ by l&- or glaci]-ice :i* has trav]s$ ! gr\nd 9 a preval5t s\?-ea/ & nor?-we/ direction4 ,we h se5 also t ?is ice atta9$ s great a ?ickness t x 0 able to ov]fl[ all ! hills up to a height ( #afjj feet above ! sea4 ,x is ne$less to say t su* a mass c\ld n h be5 nurtur$ on ! isl&s !mselves4 ,!y h no ga!r+ gr\nds ( suffici5t ext5t1 & if !y _h1 ! ice w\ld n h tak5 ! peculi> direction x did4 ,in/ead ( fl[+ across ! isl&s x w\ld h radiat$ outw>ds f ! m\nta9-valleys4 ,:]e1 !n1 did ! ice come f8 ,look+ across ! ,m9* we see ,skye & ! m\nta9s ( ! nor?-we/ ,highl&s1 & ^? regions1 z we "k1 h also be5 subject$ to extreme glaciation4 ,f ! appe>ances pres5t$ by ! m\nta9s ( ,ross-%ire we are compell$ to believe t all t region 0 buri$ 9 ice up to a height ( n less ?an #cjjj feet--! ice-%eet 0 probably ev5 z mu* z #cejj feet 9 ?ickness4 ,! evid5ce %[s t ! "u portion ( ?is va/ ice-%eet fl[$ sl[ly (f ! c\ntry into ! ,m9* by way ( ! great sea-lo*s4 ,?us we "k t an enorm\s mass crept d[n ,lo* ,c>ron & unit$ ) ano!r great /ream /eal+ out f ! m\nta9s ( ,skye1 to fl[ nor? ?r\gh ! holl[s ( ,raasay ,s\nd & ! ,inn] ,s\nd into ! ,m9*4 ,s deep 0 ! ice t x completely smo!r$ ! isl& ( ,raasay 7#abgb feet high7 & ov]fl[$ all ! l(ty trappean table-l&s ( ,skye4 ,f ! ,cool9s1 z a c5tre-po9t1 ano!r movem5t ( ! ice-%eet 0 t[>ds ! s\?-we/1 aga9/ ! isl&s ( ,rum1 ,cannay1 & ,eigg4 ,fur!r nor? simil> va/ masses ( ice /ream$ out into ! ,m9*1 f ,lo* ,torridon1 ,gairlo*1 ,lo* ,ewe1 & ,lo* ,broom4 ,! direction ( ! glaciation 9 ! nor? ( ,skye1 :i* is t[>ds nor?-we/1 %[s t ! glaci]-mass :i* ov]fl[$ t area mu/ ev5tually h rea*$ ! %ores ( ! ,long ,isl&4 ,9 %ort1 !re _c be a reasonable d\bt t ! imm5se %eet ( ice t /ream$ (f ! nor?-we/ ,highl&s mu/ h fill$ up entirely ! bas9 ( ! ,m9*1 & !reaft] /ream$ across ! ,out] ,hebrides4 ,b x may be object$ t if ! ,out] ,hebrides 7 ov]fl[$ by ice t /ream$ f ! ma9l& across ! nor? end ( ,skye1 we ought to get _m fragm5ts ( ,skye rocks & ,ross-%ire rocks too 9 ! sub-glacial dbris or till ( ,lewis & ,h>ris1 & ! nor? end ( ,nor? ,ui/4 ,b all su* fragm5ts are app>5tly want+4 ,true1 !re are bits ( /one l ! igne\s rocks ( ,skye (t5 met ) 9 ! ,hebridean till1 b z ve9s or dykes ( precisely ! same k9d ( rock occur 9 ! ,long ,isl& itself1 we _c say t ! /ones ref]r$ to are o!r ?an native4 ,a little reflection w %[ u1 h[ev]1 t x is extremely improbable inde$ t /ones d]iv$ f ,skye & ! ma9l& %\ld ev] h be5 dragg$ on "u ! ice1 & deposit$ among/ ! till ( ! ,long ,isl&4 ,!re is only "o "p ( ! :ole ,out] ,hebrides :]e we might h anticipat$ t fragm5ts f ! ma9l& %\ld occur2 & !re1 sure en\gh1 !y put 9 an appe>ance4 ,b be=e ,i attempt to expla9 ! non-occurr5ce ( ,skye rocks 9 ! till ( ! ,out] ,hebrides1 let me %[ 9 a few words :at ! glaciation ( ! ,long ,isl&1 ,skye1 & ! nor?-we/ ,highl&s tea*es u z to ! g5]al aspect pres5t$ by ! ice-%eet4 ,! height rea*$ by ! surface ( ! ice 9 ,ross-%ire & ! ,long ,isl& respectively indicates ( c\rse t ! ma9 movem5t 0 f ! ma9l&4 ,we mu/ conceive ( an imm5se %eet ( solid ice fill+ up all ! inequalities ( ! l&1 oblit]at+ ! gl5s1 & sweep+ across ! hill-tops2 & n only s1 b occupy+ ! wide bas9 ( ! ,m9* to ! entire exclusion ( ! sea1 ! surface ( ! ice ris+ s high t x ov]topp$ ! :ole ( ! ,out] ,hebrides1 & left only ! tips ( a few ( ! high] m\nta9s uncov]$4 ,! slope ( ! surface 0 p]si/5tly outw>ds f ! ma9l&1 & ! /riation ( ! ,long ,isl& indicates cle>ly t ! dip or incl9ation ( t surface 0 t[>ds ! nor?-we/4 ,nay1 m ?an ?is1 we are n[ enabl$ = ! fir/ "t to say ) "s approa* to c]ta9ty :at 0 ! precise angle ( t incl9ation4 ,if we take ! upp] surface ( ! ice 9 ,ross-%ire to h be5 #cjjj feet 7& x 0 n less71 !n ! slope betwe5 ! ma9l& & ! ,out] ,hebrides 0 only #be feet 9 ! mile1 or ab\t #a 9 #baj4 ,x is q possible1 h[ev]1 & ev5 probable1 t ! actual height atta9$ by ! ice-%eet 9 ! nor?-we/ ,highl&s 0 m ?an #cjjj feet4 ,i ?9k x may yet turn out to h be5 #cejj feet1 & if ?is 7 s x w\ld give an incl9ation = ! surface ( ! ice ( ab\t #ce feet 9 ! mile4 ,9 ei!r case ! slope 0 s v g5tle t to ! eye x w\ld h appe>$ l a level pla94 ,ov] ! surface ( ?is pla9 w\ld be scatt]$ "h & !re a solit>y big erratic or two1 :ile 9 o!r places long tra9s ( l>ge & small angul> b\ld]s w\ld /ream outw>ds4 ,all ^! w\ld be d]iv$ f su* m\nta9 9 ,skye & ! ma9l& z 7 able to keep _! heads above ! level ( ! ice-fl[2 :ile a few also might be dislodg$ by ! fro/ & roll$ d[n ^u ! glaci] f ! tips ( ! ,cli%am & ! ,langa 9 ,h>ris1 & ,hecla & ,be9n ,mhor 9 ,s\? ,ui/4 ,e su* block1 x is evid5t1 w\ld be c>ri$ across ! buri$ ,hebrides1 out into ! ,atlantic 9 ! direction indicat$ by ! glaciation ( ! ,long ,isl&--t is1 t[>ds ! nor?-we/4 ,b :ile ! upp] /rata ( ! ice d\btless foll[$ t p>ticul> c\rse1 x is obvi\s t ?is c\ld n be ! case ) ! "u portion ( ! great %eet1 ! pa? ( :i* w\ld be controll$ 9 l>ge measure by ! =m ( ! gr\nd ov] :i* ! ice mov$4 ,! upp] /rata t ov]fl[$ ! ,out] ,hebrides1 z we h se51 7 locally deflect$ aga9 & aga9 by important ob/acles1 & x is q c]ta9 t ! same w\ld take place ) ! deep] portions ( ! ice-fl[4 ,x is well kn[n t ! sea along ! inn] m>g9 ( ! ,long ,isl& is v deep4 ,9 _m places x rea*es a dep? ( #fjj feet1 & occasionally ! s\nd+-lead plunges d[n = upw>ds ( #gjj feet4 ,x w\ld seem1 h[ev]1 t ^! great dep?s did n exi/ be=e ! adv5t ( ! ice-%eet1 b t ! bottom ( ! ,m9* along ! ea/]n bord]s ( ! ,long ,isl& 0 !n "s #bej or #cjj feet %all[] ?an n[1 ! floor ( ! sea hav+ s9ce be5 excavat$ 9 ! mann] ,i %all pres5tly describe4 ,x is q app>5t1 !re=e1 t ! long ridge ( ! ,out] ,hebrides mu/ h (f]$ an insup]able ob/acle to ! direct passage ( ! bottom-ice out to ! ,atlantic4 ,"h 0 a great wall ( rock %oot+ up f ! floor ( ! ,m9*1 at a high angle1 to a height rang+ 9 elevation f #djj feet to upw>ds ( #cjjj feet4 ,x is simply impossible t ! l[] /rata ( ! ice t occupi$ ! b$ ( ! ,m9* c\ld climb t precipit\s b>ricade4 ,!y 7 necess>ily deflect$1 "o portion creep+ to nor?-ea/ & ano!r to s\?-we/1 b bo? hugg+ ! great wall ( rock all ! way4 ,we see precisely ! same result tak+ place 9 ! b$ ( e /ream4 ,let u /& ^u an almo/ subm]g$ b\ld]1 & note h[ ! wat] is deflect$ to "r & left1 & we %all obs]ve at ! same "t t ! b\ld]1 by ob/ruct+ ! curr5t1 =ces ! wat] d[nw>ds ^u ! b$ ( ! /ream1 ! result be+ t a holl[ is dug out 9 front4 ,n[1 9 a simil> mann]1 ! ice1 squeez$ & press$ aga9/ ! ,hebridean ridge by ! /eady fl[ ( ! great curr5t t cross$ ! ,m9*1 necess>ily act$ ) int5se erosive =ce ^u its b$4 ,h5ce 9 ! c\rse ( "t x scoop$ out a s]ies ( broad deep tr5*es along ! :ole inn] m>g9 ( ! ,long ,isl&1 ! am\nt ( ! excavation rea*+ f #bjj to #cjj feet4 ,simil> excavat$ bas9s occur 9 l positions opposite all ! precipit\s isl&s ( ! ,inn] ,hebrides4 ,:]ev]1 inde$1 ! ice-%eet met ) any great ob/ruction to its fl[1 !re excessive erosion took place1 & a m or less deep holl[ 0 dug out 9 front ( ! oppos+ cliff1 or crag1 or precipit\s m\nta94 ,:ile1 !re=e1 ! upp] /rata ( ! ice-%eet ov]fl[$ ! ,out] ,hebrides f s\?-ea/ to nor?-we/1 ! "u portions ( ! same great ice-fl[ 7 compell$ by ! cont\r ( ! gr\nd to creep away to nor?-ea/ & s\?-we/1 until !y c\ld /eal r\nd ! ridge & s escape outw>ds to ! ,atlantic4 ,?is be+ ! case1 we h a v simple & obvi\s explanation ( ! abs5ce ( ,skye rocks 9 ! till ( ! ,long ,isl&4 ,"o sees readily en\gh t ! sub-glacial dbris dragg$ across ! ,m9* w\ld naturally be c>ri$ away to s\?-we/ & nor?-ea/ by ! "u-t[ or deflect$ ice4 ,x is q impossible t any ,skye fragm5ts or bits ( rock f ! ma9l& c\ld travel ov] ! b$ ( ! ,m9*1 & !n be pu%$ up ! precipit\s rock wall ( ! ,long ,isl&4 ,!re is only "o place 9 all ! ,out] ,hebrides :]e we might expect to meet ) extrane\s b\ld]s 9 ! till1 & t is 9 ! nor? ( ,lewis1 :]e ! l& %elves g5tly into ! sea1 & ! great rocky ridge t]m9ates4 ,"h ! "u-/rata ( ! ice w\ld beg9 to /eal up ^u ! l&1 fav\r$ by its g5tle incl9ation1 & 9 t v place accord+ly we meet ) a deposit ( till 9 :i* are f\nd _m b\ld]s ( a h>d r$ s&/one1 & "s ( v>i\s porphyries :i* are q ali5 to ! ,long ,isl&4 ,moreov]1 ! till itself 9 t locality is mu* m ( a clay ?an ! usual sub-glacial dbris 9 o!r p>ts ( ,lewis1 & conta9s num]\s fragm5ts ( sea-%ells4 ,all ?is is q 9 keep+ ) ! o!r evid5ce4 ,! extreme nor? end ( ,lewis 0 ov]fl[$ by ! "u-curr5t t crept up ! b$ ( ! ,m9*1 hugg+ ! ,hebridean ridge1 & dragg+ along ) x a muddy mass int]sp]s$ ) ! %ells & o!r m>9e exuvi t lay 9 its pa?1 & num]\s /ones1 "s ( :i* may h come f ,skye1 :ile o!rs 7 d]iv$ f ! ma9l&4 ,i h already said en\gh1 p]haps1 ab\t ! abrasion ( ! ,hebrides1 b ,i may add a few words ^u ! orig9 ( ! fre%wat] lakes4 ,_m ( ^! re/ 9 complete rock-bas9s2 o!rs1 aga91 seem to lie p>tly ^u solid rock & p>tly ^u till2 :ile yet o!rs appe> to occupy m]e %all[ depressions 9 ! surface ( ! till4 ,all ( !m ?us owe _! orig9 to ! action ( ! ice-%eet4 ,z "o might h expect$1 ! great majority lie along ! outcrop ( ! gneissic /rata1 :i*1 z a rule1 corresponds pretty closely to ! fl[ ( ! ice4 ,h5ce ! g5]al tr5d ( ! lakes is f s\?-ea/ to nor?-we/4 ,9 _m cases 9 fa%ion+ ^! rock-bas9s ! ice has m]ely deep5$ 9 an irregul> mann] previ\sly exi/+ holl[s1 :i* are n[1 ( c\rse1 fill$ ) wat]4 ,9 n a few places1 h[ev]1 ! lakes are drawn out 9 o!r directions--?is be+ due usually to *anges 9 ! /rike or outcrop ( ! /rata4 ,= example1 ov] a consid]able di/rict 9 ! s\? ( ,lewis _m lake-holl[s ext5d f s\?-we/ to nor?-ea/1 or at "r angles to ! direction ( ! ice-fl[4 ,su* lakes are usually damm$ up at "o or bo? extremities by glacial dbris4 ,?us mo/ ( ! features *>act]i/ic ( ! ,out] ,hebrides owe _! orig9 directly or indirectly to ! action ( t great %eet ( ice :i* swept ov] ! isl&s dur+ :at is call$ ! ,glacial ,p]iod4 ,& !re is no region 9 nor!rn ,europe :]e ! imm5sity ( ! abrad+ ag5t c be m vividly realis$4 ,f a /udy ( ! ph5om5a !re exhibit$ we = ! fir/ "t obta9 a def9ite idea ( ! surface-slope1 & are able to plumb ! old ice-%eet1 & asc]ta9 ) "s approa* to accuracy its exact ?ickness4 ,9 ! deep] p>ts ( ! area1 betwe5 ! ma9l& & ! ,long ,isl&1 its ?ickness 0 n less ?an #chjj feet4 ,( c\rse ?is great dep? ( ice c\ld n h be5 d]iv$ exclusively f ! sn[ t fell on ! m\nta9s ( ! nor?-we/ ,highl&s4 ,d\btless ! precipitation took place ov] its :ole surface1 j z is ! case 9 ,gre5l& & ov] ! ,ant>ctic cont95t4 ,! w9t] cold mu/ h be5 excessive1 b ! precipitation necess>y to su/a9 su* a mass ( ice implies great evaporation2 9 o!r words1 ! direct heat ( ! sun p] diem 9 summ]-"t 0 probably consid]ably 9 excess ( :at x is n[ 9 ^! latitudes4 ,! we/ & s\?-we/ w9ds mu/ h be5 lad5 ) moi/ure1 ! great] portion ( :i* w\ld necess>ily fall 9 ! =m ( sn[4 ,we see some?+ analog\s to ?is tak+ place 9 ! ,ant>ctic regions at ! pres5t day4 ,t qu>t] ( ! globe has its summ] 9 p]ihelion1 &1 !re=e1 mu/ be receiv+ !n m heat p] diem ?an our hemisph]e does 9 its summ] season1 :i*1 z e "o kn[s1 happ5s :5 ! e>? is fur!/ remov$ f ! sun4 ,b1 not)/&+ ?is1 ! summ] ( ! ,ant>ctic cont95t is cold & ung5ial--! pres5ce ( ! great ice-%eet !re cool+ ! air & caus+ mo/ ( ! moi/ure to fall z sn[4 ,p>adoxical z x may seem1 !re=e great summ] heat is almo/1 if n q1 z necess>y z excessive w9t] cold = ! production & ma9t5ance ( a wide cont95tal glaci]4 ,,iii4 ,:5 we la/ took a peep at ! ,out] ,hebrides we f\nd ^? luckless isl&s all b oblit]at$ "u an imm5se %eet ( ice ext5d+ f ! ma9l& out into ! ,atlantic4 ,h[ f> we/ ! great glaci] spread itself we _c z yet positively say2 b if ! kn[n slope ( its surface betwe5 ! nor?-we/ ,highl&s & ! ,long ,isl& cont9u$1 z !re is e reason to believe x w\ld1 !n x is extremely probable t ! ice fl[$ out to ! edge ( ! great ,scotti% subm>9e plateau4 ,"h ! sudd5 deep5+ ( ! ,atlantic w\ld arre/ its progress & cause x to break up into iceb]gs4 ,9 ^? old times1 !re=e1 a /eep wall ( ice w\ld ext5d all along ! l9e ( :at is n[ ! edge ( ! #ajj-;fa?oms plateau4 ,f ?is wall l>ge tabul> masses w\ld ev] & anon break away & float (f into ! ,atlantic--a condition ( ?+s :i* is closely p>allel$ at pres5t along ! bord]s ( ! ice-dr[n$ ,ant>ctic cont95t4 ,by-&-by1 h[ev]1 a great *ange took place1 & ! big ice-%eet melt$ (f ! ,long ,isl& & vani%$ f ! ,m9*4 ,we read ! evid5ce = ?is *ange ( climate 9 c]ta9 int]e/+ deposits :i* occur 9 consid]able bulk at ! nor!rn extremity ( ,lewis1 & 9 small] pat*es 9 ! ,eye p59sula ( ! same isl&4 ,9 ^? di/ricts ! old sub-glacial dbris or till is cov]$ ) b$s ( clay & s& 9 :i* _m m>9e exuvi are f\nd--%ells ( molluscs1 entomo/raca1 =am9if]a1 etc4 ,!y cle>ly prove1 !n1 t aft] ! ice-%eet _h vani%$ ,lewis 0 subm]g$ 9 ! sea to a dep? ( n less ?an #bjj feet1 & !y also prove t ! temp]ature ( ! sea 0 mu* ! same !n z n[1 = ! %ells all belong to species t are /ill liv+ 9 ^! nor!rn wat]s4 ,x is v rem>kable t ! m>9e deposits 9 "q seem to occur n[h]e else 9 any "p ( ! ,long ,isl&4 ,we _c believe t ! subm]g5ce 0 re/rict$ to ! v limit$ areas :]e ! %ell-b$s are met )3 x mu/1 on ! contr>y1 h affect$ a v l>ge portion1 if n ! :ole1 ( ! ,out] ,hebrides4 ,:y1 !n1 d n we meet ) %elly s&s & clays1 ) rais$ bea*es & o!r relics ( ! =m] occupation ( ^! isl&s by ! sea1 cov]+ wide areas 9 ! l[-gr\nds8 ,h[ c we expla9 ! abs5ce ( su* relics f all ^? di/ricts :i*1 be+ mu* "u ! level ( #bjj feet1 mu/ necess>ily h at "o "t =m$ "p ( ! sea-floor8 ,! explanation is n difficult to discov]4 ,re/+ ^u ! surface ( ! %ell-b$s at ,ness & ,g>abo/ we f9d an upp] or ov]ly+ accumulation ( sub-glacial dbris or till4 ,at ,ness ?is upp] till closely resembles1 9 g5]al appe>ance1 ! l[] deposit t re/s directly ^u ! rocks4 ,x is a pell-mell accumulation ( silty clay1 cramm$ ) glaciat$ /ones1 among/ :i* are _m fragm5ts ( r$ s&/one & "s extra-,hebridean rocks1 & int]sp]s$ ?r\gh x occur also brok5 fragm5ts ( sea-%ells4 ,! m>9e deposits ly+ bel[ are usually mu* confus$ & contort$1 & "h & !re !y are ev5 viol5tly comm+l$ ) ! upp] till4 ,!y %[1 g5]ally1 a mo/ irregul> surface "u t accumulation1 & are evid5tly only ! wreck ( :at !y mu/ at "o "t h be54 ,n[ ! pres5ce ( ?is upp] till proves beyond d\bt t ! int5se arctic conditions ( climate once m sup]v5$4 ,a big ice-%eet aga9 fill$ up ! bas9 ( ! ,m9* & fl[$ ov] ! ,long ,isl&--its "u-t[ creep+ along ! inn] m>g9 ( ! l(ty rock-b>ri] z be=e1 & ev5tually /eal+ ov] ! l[-gr\nd at ! ,butt1 :]e its bottom-mora9e or till 0 dragg$ ov] ! m>9e deposits1 & confus$ly comm+l$ ) !m4 ,! upp] /rata ( ! ice t /ream$ across ! isl&s r5ew$ ! "w ( abrasion1 & succe$$ 9 scrap+ away all traces ( ! late occupation by ! sea4 ,if any su* n[ exi/ !y mu/ lie buri$ "u ! till t cloaks ! l[-gr\nd on ! we/]n m>g9s ( ! isl&s4 ,h5ce x is t we f9d n a ve/ige ( %elly b$s 9 any "p ( ! ,long ,isl& :i* 0 expos$ to ! full brunt ( ! ice-fl[4 ,at ,g>abo/ !y h be5 pl\gh$ ?r\gh 9 ! mo/ wond]ful mann]1 & only little pat*es rema94 ,at ,ness1 h[ev]1 !y are m cont9u\s4 ,?is is ow+ to ! circum/ance t ! gr\nd 9 t neighb\rhood is l[-ly+ & (f]$ no ob/acle to ! passage ( ! ice out to sea4 ,h5ce ! %ell-b$s 7 n subject$ to su* excessive erosion z ov]took !m along ! :ole ea/]n bord] ( ! ,long ,isl&4 ,ev5tually1 h[ev]1 ?is lat] advance ( ! ice-%eet ceas$4 ,! climate grew less arctic1 & ! great glaci] began to melt away1 until ! "t came t its upp] /rata ceas$ to ov]fl[ ! isl&s4 ,!y !n pass$ away to nor? & s\?1 along ! holl[ n[ occupi$ by ! ,m9*1 foll[+ ! same pa? z ! bottom-ice4 ,consid]able sn[-fields1 h[ev]1 /ill cov]$ ! ,out] ,hebrides1 & l>ge local glaci]s occupi$ all ! m\nta9-valleys1 &1 desc5d+ to l[ levels1 pil$ up _! t]m9al mora9es4 ,"s ( ^! local glaci]s appe> to h gone "r out into ! ,m9*1 z 9 ,s\? ,ui/1 & may h coalesc$ ) ! great glaci] t /ill fill$ t bas94 ,x 0 dur+ ?is condition ( ?+s t mo/ ( ! great p]*$ blocks t are scatt]$ s pr(usely ov] ! isl&s began to be dropt into _! pres5t positions4 ,dur+ ! climax ( glacial cold1 :5 ! upp] /rata ( ! ice-%eet /ream$ across ! ,hebrides1 l>ge fragm5ts ( rock w\ld c]ta9ly be wr5*$ (f & c>ri$ on und]nea? ! ice2 b z only a few ( ! ,hebridean m\nta9-tops 7 !n expos$1 !re w\ld be a g5]al abs5ce ( su* enorm\s erratics z are deta*$ by fro/ & roll$ d[n ^u ! surface ( a glaci]1 & any su* sup]ficially-borne erratics w\ld be transport$1 ( c\rse1 f> beyond ! ,long ,isl& into ! ,atlantic4 ,:5 ! ice _h ceas$ to ov]fl[ ! isl&s1 b\ld]s d]iv$ f ,skye & ! ma9l& w\ld no long] be c>ri$ s directly out to ! ,atlantic1 b w\ld travel ?i!r by ! m circuit\s r\te1 :i* ! n[ dim9i%$ ice-%eet 0 compell$ to foll[4 ,z ! sn[ & ice melt$ (f ! ,hebrides1 ! rocks w\ld beg9 to be expos$ to ! action ( int5se fro/1 & _m fragm5ts1 becom+ dislodg$ & fall+ ^u nv1 small local ice-%eets1 & glaci]s1 w\ld be /r&$ on hill-slopes & spr9kl$ ov] ! l[-gr\nds1 along ) mu* brok5 dbris & rock-rubbi%4 ,ev5tually all ! l[]-gr\nds w\ld be des]t$ by ! ice1 glaci]s w\ld die out ( ! less elevat$ valleys1 & l+] 9 only a few ( ! gl5s t dra9 ! high] m\nta9-masses4 ,su* local glaci]s h fl[$ (t5 at "r angles to ! direction foll[$ by ! great ice-%eet4 ,?us1 ! ice-m>k+s 9 ! gl5s t come d[n f ! ,=e/ ( ,h>ris to ,we/ ,lo* ,t>b]t1 run f nor? to s\?1 :ile ! tr5d ( ! old] glaciation on ! int]v5+ high-gr\nds is f s\?-ea/ to nor?-we/4 ,! mora9ic rubbi% & erratics ( ?is late/ phase 9 ! glacial hi/ory ( ! ,long ,isl& may be trac$ d[n almo/ to ! wat]'s edge1 %[+ pla9ly t !re has be5 no great subm]g5ce ( t region s9ce ! disappe>ance ( glacial conditions4 ,?is is some:at rem>kable1 because along ! %ores ( c5tral & s\!rn ,scotl& we h indisputable evid5ce to %[ t ! l& 0 dr[n$ to ! dep? ( at lea/ fifty feet 9 po/-glacial times4 ,9 ! ,out] ,hebrides1 h[ev]1 !re are no traces ( any po/-glacial subm]g5ce exce$+ a doz5 feet or s2 t is to say1 !re is no pro( t ! ,out] ,hebrides h be5 ( mu* less ext5t ?an !y are n[4 ,on ! contr>y1 we h _m reasons = believ+ t !y 7 )9 comp>atively rec5t times ( consid]ably l>g] size1 & 7 ev5 9 all probability unit$ to ! ma9l&4 ,! abundance ( l>ge trees 9 ! peat-mosses1 & ! fact t ^! anci5t peat-cov]$ =e/s ext5d out to sea1 are alone suffici5t to conv9ce "o t ! ,out] ,hebrides h be5 mu* r$uc$ 9 area s9ce ! close ( ! glacial p]iod4 ,^! n[ bleak isl&s at "o "t support$ ext5sive =e/s1 al?\gh n[adays a tree w h>dly gr[ unless x be c>efully look$ aft]4 ,t old =e/ p]iod co9cid$ 9 all probability ) ! late/ cont95tal condition ( ! ,briti% ,isl&s--:5 ! broad pla9s :i* are n[ dr[n$ "u ! ,g]man ,ocean =m$ "p ( a great =e/-l&1 t includ$ all ! ,briti% ,isl&s1 & ext5d$ we/ = "s di/ance into tracts ov] :i* n[ roll ! waves ( ! ,atlantic4 ,! palmy days ( ! great ,briti% =e/s1 h[ev]1 pass$ away :5 ! ,g]man ,ocean came into exi/5ce4 ,! climatic conditions 7 !n n s fav\rable = ! gr[? ( l>ge trees2 & 9 ! upl&s ( our c\ntry1 & :at are n[ our m>itime di/ricts1 ! =e/s decay$1 & 7 gradually ov]gr[n by & buri$ "u peat-mosses4 ,! subm]g5ce ( ! l& cont9u$ aft] t1 until c5tral & s\!rn ,scotl& 7 r$uc$ to a consid]ably small] size ?an n[1 & !n by-&-by ! process 0 rev]s$1 & ! sea once m retreat$1 leav+ beh9d x a numb] ( old rais$ bea*es to m>k ! levels at :i* x =m]ly /ood4 ,! greate/ subm]g5ce t ov]took c5tral & s\!rn ,scotl& 9 times po/]ior to ! late/ cont95tal condition ( ,brita9 did n exce$ fifty feet1 or !reab\t2 & ! extreme limits rea*$ by ! sea 9 ! p]iod t sup]v5$ betwe5 ! close ( ! glacial epo* & ! age ( =e/s 0 n m ?an "o hundr$ feet4 ,! ,out] ,hebrides1 h[ev]1 7 c]ta9ly n small] 9 po/-glacial times ?an !y are n[1 & we h no evid5ce to %[ t aft] ! age ( =e/s _h pass$ away ! sea rose high] ?an a doz5 feet or s above its pres5t level4 ,n[ !re are only two ways 9 :i* all ?is c be acc\nt$ =4 ,ei!r ! ,hebrides rema9$ /ation>y1 or /ood at a level high] ?an n[1 :ile ! c5tral & s\!rn p>ts ( ,scotl& 7 be+ subm]g$2 or else !re has be5 a v rec5t depression )9 ! ,hebridean area1 :i* has c>ri$ d[n bel[ ! sea all traces ( late glacial & po/-glacial rais$ bea*es4 ,all we "k = c]ta9 is1 t ! only rais$ bea*es 9 ! ,long ,isl& are met ) 9 l[ m>itime regions at only a few feet above ! pres5t high-wat] m>k4 ,my own impression is t ! :ole di/rict has be5 subm]g$ )9 comp>atively rec5t times2 = if ! pres5t coa/-l9e _h endur$ s9ce ! close ( ! glacial p]iod1 or ev5 s9ce ! la/ cont95tal condition ( ,brita91 ,i %\ld h expect$ ! sea to h done m ?an x has 9 ! way ( excavation & erosion4 ,9 a =m] article ,i h spok5 ( ! s&-dunes & s&y flats ( ! we/ coa/ ( ! ,long ,isl&4 ,^! receive _! greate/ developm5t 9 ,nor? ,ui/1 ,b5becula1 & ,s\? ,ui/4 ,along ! :ole we/]n m>g9 ( ^! isl&s /ret* wide %oals & banks ( yell[ s& & silt1 & simil> %oals & banks cov] ! b$ ( ! %all[ s\nds or *annels4 ,9 ! middle ( ! ,s\nd ( ,h>ris "o may (t5 t\* ! bottom ) an o>1 & ev5 run "o's boat agr\nd4 ,x is ! same 9 ! ,s\nd ( ,b>ra1 :ile1 z ,i h already m5tion$1 "o may walk at l[-wat] f ,b5becula into ! adjac5t isl&s ( ,nor? & ,s\? ,ui/4 ,:]e does all ?is s& come f8 ,c]ta9ly n f ! degradation ( ! isl&s by ! sea1 = ! s\nds appe> to be silt+ up1 & ! g5]al appe>ance ( ! s&y flats along ! we/ coa/ indicates t ! l& is ^u ! :ole ga9+ r ?an los+4 ,i h no d\bt at all t ?is s& & silt are m]ely ! old sub-glacial dbris :i* ! ice-%eet spread ov] ! l[ %elv+ plateau t ext5ds we/ "u ! ,atlantic to ! #ajj-;fa?oms l9e4 ,t plateau mu/ h be5 ?ickly cov]$ ) till1 & ) heaps & %eets ( gravel & s& & silt1 & x is ^! deposits1 sift$ & w9n[$ by ! sea1 :i* ! tides & waves sweep up along ! ,atlantic m>g9 ( ! isl&s4 ,!re are _m o!r po9ts ( int]e/ to t ,i might t\* ^u1 b ,i h said en\gh p]haps to indicate to any intellig5t obs]v] ! k9d ( c\ntry he may be l$ to expect 9 ! ,long ,isl&4 ,( c\rse ! hi/ory ( ! glacial p]iod is v well illu/rat$ 9 _m p>ts ( ! ma9l&1 :i* are mu* easi] ( access ?an ! ,out] ,hebrides4 ,b ^! isl&s conta91 at lea/1 "o bit ( evid5ce :i* does n occur any:]e else 9 ,brita94 ,9 !m we obta91 = ! fir/ "t1 data = measur+ ! actual slope ( ! ice-%eet4 ,x does n foll[1 h[ev]1 t ! incl9ation ( ! surface t[>ds ! ,atlantic 0 ! same all ov] ! area cov]$ by ! ice-%eet4 ,! slope ( ! %eet t fl[$ ea/ into ! bas9 ( ! ,g]man ,ocean1 = example1 may h be51 & probably 01 less ?an t ( ! ,hebridean ice-fl[4 ,b ap>t altoge!r f ?is p>ticul> po9t1 ,i ?9k !re is no "p ( ! ,briti% ,isl&s :]e ! evid5ce = ! =m] action ( a great ice-%eet is m abundant & m easily read1 or :]e "o may realise ) su* vividness ! conditions t obta9$ dur+ t p]iod ( extraord9>y climatic vicissitudes1 :i* geologi/s call ! ,glacial ,epo*4 ,leav+ ^! old arctic sc5es1 & com+ d[n to ! actual pres5t1 no "o1 ,i ?9k1 c w&] mu* ab\t ! ,out] ,hebrides )\t pond]+ ov] ! fate ( ! isl&]s !mselves4 ,_m writ]s h ass]t$ t ! ,celt ( ^! r out-(-!-way places is a lazy1 wor?less creature1 :om we ,saxons %\ld d our be/ to we$ out4 ,"o _c help feel+ t ?is ass]tion is unfair & cruel4 ,! fact is1 we judge him by a wrong /&>d4 ,he is by nature & long-inh]it$ habits a fi%]man1 & has be5 wont to cultivate only s mu* l& z %\ld suffice = ! su/5ance ( himself & ^? imm$iately dep5d5t ^u him4 ,9 old times he 0 (t5 en\gh call$ ^u to fight1 wrongly or rightly1 & ?us acquir$ t pr\d be>+ :i* x has tak5 s _m long ye>s ( mis]y to cru% out4 ,he is1 z a rule1 totally unfit = ! close conf9em5t & h>d "w :i* are ! lot ( ! great mass ( our me*anics--does n see ! beauty ( t1 & has r a k9d ( contempt = ! monoton\s drudg]y ( l>ge manufactur+ t[ns4 ,"o ( ! few situations 9 t[n t he c>es to fill is t ( police-con/able4 ,give him a life 9 ! op5 air1 h[ev] try+ x may be1 & he w be q cont5t if he c make en\gh to fe$ himself & family4 ,if ! fi%+ *ance to be v pr(itable he does n1 z a rule1 ?9k ( sav+ ! surplus he has made1 b looks =w>d r to a spell ( idl5ess1 :5 he c smoke 8 pipe & talk int]m9able long talks ) 8 neighb\rs4 ,no d\bt ?is1 judg$ by our own /&>d1 is all v %ock+4 ,:y doesn't he put 8 money 9 ! sav+s-bank1 & by-&-by die & leave x to ^? :o come aft] him8 ,simply because he is a ,celt1 & n a ,saxon4 ,( c\rse "o kn[s h[ x w all end4 ,ere long ! unadult]at$ ,celt w be driv5 or improv$ out ( ^! isl&s1 & w retire to o!r l&s1 :]e1 m+l+ & int]m>ry+ ) ,teutons1 he w ev5tually disappe>1 b n )\t leav5+ ! races among/ :i* he is de/9$ to vani%4 ,& :o w take 8 place 9 ! ,long ,isl&8 ,probably a few f>m]s1 a few %eph]ds1 & a spr9kl+ ( gamekeep]s2 & x is j possible t a few fi%]m5 also may be all[$ to settle d[n "h & !re ^u ! coa/4 ,"o may see ! process go+ on at pres5t4 ,l>ge tracts t once support$ _m villages are n[ q depopulat$4 ,! "t w come :5 somebody 9 ,p>liam5t w move = ! r$uction ( ! ,civil ,s]vice e/imates by ! am\nt ( ! %]iff-sub/itute's sal>y1 & :5 ! jail at ,lo*maddy w h no?+ high] 9 ! scale ( be+ to imprison ?an "s refractory ram4 ,"o may be p>don$ = wi%+ t he c\ld =etell = ! isl&s ano!r fate ?an ?is4 ,x is sad to ?9k t a f9e race ( p is ?us surely pass+ away f among/ u1 =1 despite all t c be urg$ aga9/ !m1 !y are :at ,i say4 ,! fi%]m5 ( ,lewis & ,b>ra are bold1 /alw>t fell[s1 :om x w\ld be difficult to pe] among/ any simil> class ( m5 on ! ma9l&4 ,& all ?r\gh ! isl& "o meets ) equally excell5t specim5s ( our k9d4 ,_m a brave soldi] :o f\ght our battles 9 ! great ,fr5* w>s hail$ f ^! out] isl&s4 ,pity x is t no feasible plan to prev5t ! ?reat5$ scatt]+ ( ! race has yet be5 br\ght =w>d4 ,"s day we may regret ?is1 & come to ?9k t ?\gh mutton & wool 9 ! ,long ,isl& are desirable1 yet isl&]s w\ld h be5 bett]4 ,po/script4--,on pages #aec4d ,i h describ$ ! second g5]al ice-%eet t ov]fl[$ ! ,out] ,hebrides z hav+ ev5tually become resolv$ into a s]ies ( local ice-%eets & glaci]s4 ,subsequ5t rese>*1 h[ev]1 has s9ce l$ me to believe t ! di/rict ice-%eets & local glaci]s ref]r$ to 7 n ! direct desc5dants ( ! la/ great ice-%eet4 ,!y appe> to h come into exi/5ce long aft] t ice-%eet _h entirely disappe>$4 ,see ,article ,x4 ,,vi4 ,! ,ice ,age 9 ,europe & ,nor? ,am]ica4,k ,k ,address to ! ,geological ,society ( ,ed9burgh1 #ahhd4 ,9 ca/+ ab\t = a subject ^u :i* to address y ?is ev5+1 ,i ?\ght ,i c\ld h>dly d bett] ?an give y ! result ( a comp>ison :i* ,i h rec5tly be5 able to make betwe5 ! glacial ph5om5a ( ,europe & ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,! subject ( glaciation seems to be n[ some:at worn2 b ,i ga!r f ! fact t writ]s c /ill be f\nd :o see 9 our sup]ficial deposits /rong evid5ce ( ! ,deluge1 t a %ort outl9e ( :at we really d "k may n be unacceptable4 ,9 ! %ort "t at our disposal1 x is obvi\s t ,i _c ent] into mu* detail1 & t _m int]e/+ que/ions mu/ rema9 unt\*$4 ,x w be z well1 !re=e1 t ,i %\ld at ! outset def9e ! limits ( ! pres5t inquiry1 & /ate cle>ly :at are ! *ief po9ts to :i* ,i wi% to direct y\r att5tion4 ,my ma9 object1 !n1 w be to br+ into prom95ce su* evid5ce z seems to betok5 9 a special mann] ! uni=mity ( conditions t obta9$ 9 ! nor!rn hemisph]e dur+ ! ,ice ,age4 ,9 o!r words1 ,i %all conf9e myself to a description ( c]ta9 *>act]i/ic & repres5tative ph5om5a :i* are common to ,europe & ,nor? ,am]ica1 ) ! view ( %[+ t ! physical conditions ( ! glacial p]iod 7 practically ! same 9 bo? cont95ts4 ,! ph5om5a :i* might be consid]$ "u ?is head embrace ne>ly all ! facts ) :i* glaciali/s are famili>1 b ,i purpose re/rict+ myself to ?ree que/ions only1 viz43-- #a/4 ,! ext5t ( glaciation4 #bnd4 ,*anges ( climate dur+ ! ,ice ,age4 #crd4 ,! results ( fluvio-glacial action4 ,! consid]ation ( ^! que/ions1 ev5 if x 7 exhau/ive 7:i* x _c be on ?is occasion71 w\ld /ill leave ! g5]al subject v incomplete1 = we mu/ =ego ! discussion ( all su* int]e/+ topics z ! connection betwe5 glaciation & subm]g5ce1 ! =mation ( rock-bas9s1 & ! orig9 ( ! geographical di/ribution ( our faunas & floras4 ,conf9+ my inquiry )9 ! limits j specifi$1 ,i %all beg9 by sket*+ broadly ! g5]al results obta9$ by glaciali/s 9 ,europe1 & !reaft] ,i %all proce$ to give an outl9e ( ! correspond+ conclusions arriv$ at by ,am]ican obs]v]s4 ,i4 ,! ,ext5t ( ,glaciation 9 ,europe4 ,to :at ext5t1 !n1 let u ask1 has ,europe be5 glaciat$8 ,:at areas h be5 cov]$ ) p]5nial sn[ & ice8 ,ow+ to ! fulness & cle>ness ( ! evid5ce1 we are able to give a v def9ite answ] to ?is "q4 ,x is h>dly too mu* to say t we are z well acqua9t$ ) ! di/ribution ( glaci]-ice 9 ,europe dur+ ! ,ice ,age z we are ) t ( exi/+ sn[-fields & glaci]s4 ,! nature ( ! evid5ce ^u :i* our k is bas$ is d\btless famili> to _m :om ,i h ! pleasure ( n[ address+1 b = ! sake ( ^? :o h n su* famili>ity ) ! subject ,i may be all[$ to indicate v briefly its g5]al "*4 ,a rock-surface ov] :i* ice has fl[$ = any consid]able "t exhibits ei!r an abrad$1 worn1 & smoo!d appe>ance1 or ! rocks are disrupt$ & brok51 & l>g] or small] fragm5ts are f\nd to h be5 remov$ & c>ri$ =w>d 9 ! direction foll[$ by ! ice4 ,n[1 ice-worn & %att]$ rock-surfaces ( ?is description1 su* z c be se5 und]nea? exi/+ glaci]s1 occur m or less abundantly ov] va/ regions 9 ,europe4 ,!y are met ) f ! ,nor? ,cape s\? z f> z ,leipzig1 & f ! ,out] ,hebrides ea/ to ! valley ( ! ,pet*ora & ! foot-slopes ( ! ,ural ,m\nta9s4 ,nor are !y conf9$ to nor!rn ,europe4 ,!y appe> aga9 & aga9 9 ,france & ,spa9 & ,italy1 & 9 ! l[-gr\nds ( middle ,europe1 :]e !y occupy positions n[ f> remov$ f ! influ5ce ( glacial action4 ,su* ice-worn & disrupt$ rock-surfaces n only prove t glaci]-ice =m]ly cov]$ l>ge portions ( our ,cont95t1 b !y also indicate = u ! directions 9 :i* t envelop+ ice mov$4 ,! smoo!r surfaces 9 "q are v frequ5tly m>k$ ) co>se & f9e p>allel scrat*es & grooves ( precisely ! same nature & orig9 z ! scrat*es & grooves :i* *>act]ise ! rocky b$ ( a mod]n glaci]4 ,& ^! m>k+s1 hav+ be5 produc$ by ! s&1 grit1 & /ones :i* are pu%$ & dragg$ ov] ! rocks by fl[+ ice1 necess>ily discov] = u ! pa? ( glacial movem5t4 ,b all rocks subject$ to glacial action are n necess>ily smoo!d & poli%$4 ,sometimes1 ow+ to /ructural peculi>ities1 & = v>i\s o!r reasons1 rocks _c resi/ ! pressure ( ! ice1 b are cru%$ & brok51 & ! result+ fragm5ts are roll$ & dragg$ =w>d 9 ! direction ( ice-fl[4 ,9 ?is mann] ! pa? ( a glaci] becomes /rew$ ) dbris :i* has f "t to "t be5 =c$ f its rocky b$4 ,!re is really no my/]y1 !re=e 9 track+ ! spoor ( ext9ct glaci]s2 = we h two sets ( facts to aid u1 ei!r ( :i* might suffice to indicate ! ext5t & direction ( glaciation4 ,consid]1 h[ev]1 = a mom5t1 :at "o obs]ves 9 connection ) rock-/riation4 ,we h1 9 ! fir/ place1 ! r\nd+ & smoo?+1 & ! p>allel ruts & /ri4 ,n only s1 b we frequ5tly f9d t "o side ( prom95t project+ knolls & hills is m highly worn & abrad$ ?an ! o!r4 ,(t51 inde$1 "o side may %[ no trace :atsoev] ( abrasion4 ,"h1 aga91 we h cle> evid5ce ( ! direction ( ice-fl[4 ,:o c d\bt t ! worn & abrad$ rocks look t[>ds ! po9t :5ce ! ice came1 & t ! non-glaciat$ rocks 9 ! re> h be5 %elt]$ by ! rocks 9 front8 ,x is = ?is reason t 9 ! m\nta9\s regions ( nor!rn ,europe ! /riat$ & smoo!d rock-surfaces inv>iably look up ! valleys1 :ile ! brok5 & unworn rock-l$ges face 9 ! opposite direction4 ,once m1 note ! mann] 9 :i* ! sub-glacial rock-rubbi%1 consi/+ ( clay1 s&1 grit1 /ones1 & b\ld]s1 has be5 amass$4 ,9 places :]e ! ice mu/ h mov$ m or less rapidly1 z on consid]able slopes1 no accumulation took place1 :ile 9 ! re> ( project+ crags & knobs ( rock1 sub-glacial mat]ials (t5 ga!r$ deeply4 ,aga91 ov] l[-ly+ tracts1 :]e ! motion ( ! ice w\ld necess>ily be ret>d$1 clay1 s&1 & /ones t5d$ to collect4 ,& ?is p>ticul>ly appe>s to h be5 ! case 9 ^? regions :]e ! sl[-creep+ & gradually ?9n+ ice-%eet approa*$ its t]m9al l9e4 ,h5ce x is t we enc\nt] su* ?ick & wide-spread %eets ( sub-glacial detritus ^u ! undulat+ l[-gr\nds & pla9s ( s\!rn ,sw$51 ,d5m>k1 ,s*leswig-,hol/e91 ,holl&1 nor!rn ,g]many1 ,pol&1 & ,russia4 ,! sub-glacial dbris to :i* ,i specially ref] is kn[n z ,till or ,b\ld]-clay 9 ?is c\ntry1 z ,kros/5sl]a 9 ,sw$51 z ,ges*iebelehm or ,ges*iebem]gel 9 ,g]many1 & z ,grundmorne or ,mora9e pr(onde 9 ,switz]l&4 ,its g5]al *>act]s are too well kn[n to require m ?an ! briefe/ summ>y4 ,9 g5]al ?is peculi> accumulation is an un/ratifi$ clay1 conta9+1 scatt]$ higgl$y-piggl$y ?r\gh x1 /ones & b\ld]s ( all %apes & sizes4 ,_m ( ^! rock-fragm5ts are smoo!d & /riat$1 & ev5 ! smalle/ p>ticles1 :5 view$ "u ! microscope1 (t5 %[ delicate scrat*es4 ,frequ5tly1 too1 ! clay is excessively h>d & t\gh1 & 9 _m places x %[s a k9d ( pseudo-lam9ation1 :i* is g5]ally m or less crumpl$1 & (t5 highly involv$4 ,^! appe>ances prove t ! clay has n only be5 subject$ to int5se pressure1 b has actually be5 roll$ ov] ^u itself4 ,i ne$ only ref] to ! pl5tiful occurr5ce ( slick5sides 9 su* clays--! jo9ts by :i* ! clay is (t5 trav]s$ %[+ su* poli%+ cle>ly on _! faces4 ,^!1 & _m o!r facts :i* "t =bids me to m5tion1 h receiv$ an explanation :i* has n[ be5 g5]ally adopt$ by ,european glaciali/s4 ,! b\ld]-clay or till is consid]$ by !m to repres5t ! gr\nd- or bottom-mora9e ( glaci]-ice4 ,!re us$ to be a notion preval5t among/ geologi/s 9 our c\ntry t ?is clay 0 almo/ peculi> to ^! isl&s4 ,x occurs1 h[ev]1 9 mo/ c\ntries ( ,europe4 ,va/ regions 9 ! nor? are m or less cont9u\sly cov]$ by x1 & we meet ) x abundantly also ^u ! l[-gr\nds ( ,switz]l&1 f :i* x may be foll[$ f> d[n ! great valley ( ! ,rhone into ! sunny pla9s ( ,france4 ,! l[] valleys ( ! ,pyr5ees & o!r ,spani% ranges %[ x well1 & x is conspicu\s likewise 9 nor!rn ,italy1 especially ov] ! l[ tracts at ! m\?s ( ! great lake-valleys4 ,9 all ^? places "o c see b\ld]-clay ( z pron\nc$ a "* z any to be met ) 9 ,scotl&4 ,dani%1 ,dut*1 ,g]man1 & ,russian geologi/s h ( late ye>s devot$ mu* att5tion to ! /udy ( ?is clay1 :i* is s rem>kably develop$ 9 _! respective c\ntries4 ,x has be5 long well kn[n t a l>ge proportion ( ! /ones & b\ld]s conta9$ 9 ! till are ( nor!rn d]ivation1 b x is only ( rec5t ye>s t we h asc]ta9$ ! p>ticul> r\tes by :i* ^? w&]]s or erratics h travell$4 ,! rock-fragm5ts 9 "q h be5 track$ back1 z x 71 to _! p>5t masses1 & ?us1 p>tly 9 ?is way1 & p>tly by ! evid5ce ( ice-worn surfaces1 we h be5 enabl$ to foll[ ! spoor ( ! great nor!rn ice-%eet 9 a mo/ satisfactory mann]4 ,let "o or two examples suffice4 ,b\ld]s d]iv$ f ,lapl& & ,f9l& occur 9 ! till at ,/4 ,pet]sburg1 & h be5 trac$ s\?-ea/ to ,mosc[4 ,aga91 fragm5ts c>ri$ f ,gottl&1 9 ! ,baltic1 are met ) 9 ! b\ld]-clay ( ea/ ,prussia1 & h be5 foll[$ s\? to beyond ,b]l94 ,9 l mann] b\ld]s ( well-kn[n ,scanian rocks appe> 9 ! b\ld]-clay ( ,leipzig4 ,s also ,sw$i% & ,norwegian rock-fragm5ts are se5 9 ! b\ld]-clay ( ,d5m>k1 ,hanov]1 & ,holl&4 ,v wide areas 9 nor!rn ,g]many are cov]$ ) an almo/ cont9u\s %eet ( glacial detritus1 s t x is only occasionally t ! und]ly+ rocks crop out at ! surface4 ,/riat$ rock-surfaces are !re=e by no means s commonly expos$ z 9 regions l ! ,l[l&s ( ,scotl&4 ,!y are n want+1 h[ev]1 & _! evid5ce is v /rik+4 ,?us1 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ,leipzig & ,dresd51 we f9d glacial /ri impress$ ^u c]ta9 highly-abrad$ & ice-worn hillocks ( porphyry1 ! /ri be+ ! "w ( ice :i* fl[$ into ,saxony f ! nor?4 ,simil> /ri21 hav+ a g5]al s\!rly tr5d1 occur at ,rd]sdorf1 ne> ,b]l91 at ,gomm]n1 ne> ,magdeburg1 at ,velpke 9 ,brunswick1 at ,osnabrck 9 ,hanov]1 & at o!r places4 ,aga91 we enc\nt] rem>kable evid5ce ( ! p[]ful pressure ex]t$ by ! ice 9 ! displacem5t & removal ( huge blocks ( /rata4 ,9 ,saxony1 = example1 ! ,t]ti>y /rata are turn$ up1 pu%$ out ( place1 & involv$ 9 b\ld]-clay to su* an ext5t t ! br[n coals h (t5 be5 m9$ = 9 ?is /range position4 ,witness also ! ext5sive displacem5ts & dislocations ( ! ,cretace\s =mation 9 ! ,dani% isl&s ( ! ,baltic4 ,s great are ! contortions & displacem5ts ( ! ,*alk 9 ,mo51 t ^! di/urbances 7 =m]ly attribut$ to subt]ranean action4 ,along ! nor?-ea/ coa/ ( t isl&1 cliffs #djj feet 9 height exhibit ! ,cretace\s b$s ?r[n ^u end1 twi/$1 b5t1 & ev5 inv]t$1 b\ld]-clay be+ squeez$ into & betwe5 ! disjo9t$ & ruptur$ rock-masses4 ,f a /udy ( ^! & simil> ph5om5a1 x has be5 demon/rat$ t dur+ ! climax ( ! ,ice ,age a v l>ge "p ( nor!rn ,europe 0 buri$ "u a ?ick cov]+ ( glaci]-ice4 ,& x has be5 conclusively %[n t ?is ice-%eet /ream$ outw>ds 9 all directions f ! high-gr\nds ( ,sc&9avia1 = :i* reason x is (t5 spok5 ( z ! ,sc&9avian ice-%eet4 ,b z x 0 f$1 n f ! sn[-fields ( ,sc&9avia alone1 b f ! precipitation ( sn[ ov] its :ole surface1 x is bett]1 ,i ?9k1 to speak ( x z ! nor!rn ice-%eet4 ,9 ! extreme nor? ( ,sc&9avia ! ice fl[$ nor?w>d into ! ,arctic ,ocean1 :ile s\? ( ! dom9ant wat]%$ ( ,lapl& & ,sw$5 its c\rse 9 ^? high latitudes 0 ea/ & s\?-ea/4 ,x fill$ up ! depressions ( ! ,:ite ,sea1 ! ,gulf ( ,bo?nia1 & ! ,baltic1 ext5d+ ea/ to ! valley ( ! ,pet*ora & ! base ( ! ,ural ,m\nta9s1 & s\?-ea/ to ,kazan1 "s #bjj miles ea/ ( ,nijnii-,novgorod4 ,f ?is po9t its t]m9al front tr5d$ a little we/ ( s\?1 until x rea*$ ! fiftie? p>allel ( latitude4 ,undulat+ a few miles s\? & nor? ( ?is p>allel1 x swept directly we/ ?r\gh ,russia into ,galicia1 till x t\*$ ! foot-hills ( ! ,c>pa?ian range4 ,aft] ?is we foll[ x along ! nor!rn base ( ! ,ries5 ,gebirge1 ! ,erz ,gebirge1 & ! ,h>z1 & !nce we/w>d ?r\gh ,hanov]1 & into ! ,l[ ,c\ntries1 z f> s\? at lea/ z ! m\? ( ! ,rh9e4 ,?r\gh\t ! va/ regions ly+ we/ & nor? ( ?is t]m9al l9e1 ! track foll[$ by ! ice has be5 well asc]ta9$4 ,x 0 ea/ & s\?-ea/ 9 ,russia1 s\!rly 9 ea/ ,prussia1 s\?-we/]ly 9 ,d5m>k1 ,hanov]1 & ,holl&4 ,! action ( a mass ( glaci]-ice1 rea*+ a ?ickness ( sev]al ?\s& feet1 mu/ necess>ily h result$ 9 ext5sive erosion ( ! rocks ov] :i* x pass$4 ,ev]y:]e1 !re=e1 ?r\gh\t ! va/ area j indicat$1 we meet ) evid5ce ( sev]e erosion4 ,b1 z "o %\ld expect1 su* erosion is mo/ m>k$ 9 ! hilly regions--9 ^? areas :]e /eep slopes induc$ m rapid motion ( ! ice1 & :]e project+ crags & hills oppos$ ! advance ( ! erod+ ag5t4 ,all su* prom95t ob/ructions 7 en]getically assail$--abrad$1 r\nd$1 worn1 & smoo!d1 or cru%$1 %att]$1 dislocat$1 & displac$4 ,! high-gr\nds ( ,sc&9avia & ,f9l&1 =m$ = ! mo/ "p ( t\gh1 cry/all9e rocks1 or ( m or less durable /rata1 %[ ev]y:]e ro*es m\tonnes--smoo!d & r\nd$ rocks--:ile innum]able rock-bas9s h be5 scoop$ out 9 front ( prom95t crags & hills4 ,9 ,d5m>k & o!r c\ntries1 :]e less durable rocks prevail1 ! /rata h (t5 be5 brok5 & disrupt$1 & pu%$ out ( place4 ,b z regions =m$ ( su* rocks are g5]ally g5tly-undulat+1 & seldom %[ abrupt crags & hills1 !y oppose few ob/ructions to ! advance ( an ice-%eet4 ,:5 ! nor!rn ice-%eet fl[$ into ,russia & ,g]many1 x crept ov] a l[-ly+ &1 = ! mo/ "p1 g5tly-undulat+ surface2 & al?\gh "h & !re ! =m ( ! gr\nd fav\r$ glacial erosion & disruption1 & ext5sive displacem5ts ( rock-masses took place1 yet1 ^u ! :ole ! l[-ly+ regions ref]r$ to became areas ( accumulation4 ,! sub-glacial detritus--gr\nd out or wr5*$ away f ! r\gh ,sc&9avian plateau & ! upl&s ( ,f9l&--0 dragg$ on und]nea? ! ice1 & spread ov] ! great pla9s ly+ to ! s\?-ea/ & s\?1 z ! gradually att5uat$ ice-%eet crawl$ to its t]m9al l9e4 ,my fri5d ,dr4 ,amund ,hell&1 ! well-kn[n ,norwegian geologi/1 has made an e/imate ( ! am\nt ( rock-dbris d]iv$ f ,sc&9avia & ,f9l& :i* lies scatt]$ ov] ! l[-gr\nds ( nor!rn ,europe4 ,accord+ to him1 ! area 9 ,d5m>k1 ,holl&1 ,g]many1 & ,russia 7exclusive ( ,f9l&71 ov] :i* nor!rn detritus is scatt]$1 conta9s ab\t #b1ajj1jjj squ>e kilometres1 & ! av]age ?ickness ( ! deposits is ab\t #aej feet1 ( :i*1 h[ev]1 only two-?irds1 or #ajj feet1 are ( nor!rn orig91 ! rema9+ ?ird consi/+ ( local mat]ials4 ,tak+1 !n1 #ajj feet z fairly repres5t+ ! av]age ?ickness ( ! rock-rubbi% d]iv$ f ,f9l& & ,sc&9avia1 ! area ( :i* is giv5 z #hjj1jjj squ>e kilometres1 !re is en\gh ( ?is mat]ial to raise ! g5]al surface ( ^? l&s by #bee feet4 ,! same am\nt ( mat]ial w\ld suffice to fill up all ! num]\s lakes ( ,f9l& & ,sw$5 sixte5 or sev5te5 times ov]4 ,or1 if tumbl$ into ! ,baltic1 x w\ld fill ! bas9 ( t sea "o & a half times4 ,9 %ort1 en\gh nor!rn rock-dbris lies ^u ! l[-gr\nds ( nor!rn ,europe1 :i*1 7 x re/or$ to ! c\ntries f :i* x has be5 tak51 w\ld oblit]ate all ! lake-holl[s ( ,f9l& & ,sw$51 raise ! level ( ^? l&s by #hj feet1 & fill up ! entire bas9 ( ! ,baltic1 ) all its bays4 ,& yet ?is e/imate leaves out ( acc\nt all ! mat]ial :i* ! ice-%eet c>ri$ away f ,norway & ! ,briti% ,isl&s4 ,( ! glaciation ( our own l& ,i ne$ say v little4 ,! configuration ( our c\ntry necess>ily made x a c5tre ( disp]sion dur+ ! ,ice ,age1 & ! ice :i* cov]$ ,irel&1 ,scotl&1 & ! major portion ( ,engl& radiat$ outw>ds f ! dom9ant elevations ( ! l&4 ,b z ! ice creep+ outw>ds f ^? c5tres became conflu5t1 ! directions :i* x foll[$ 7 (t5 consid]ably modifi$1 especially ^u ! l[-gr\nds4 ,we "k t ! ,briti% ice-%eet n only cov]$ ! l& up to ne> ! tops ( our high] m\nta9s1 b fill$ up all our seas & ext5d$ into ! ,atlantic beyond ! coa/s ( ,irel& & ! ,out] ,hebrides--^! latt] isl&s hav+ be5 glaciat$ f ! ea/ by ! ice t fl[$ outw>ds f ! ma9l&4 ,ano!r po9t ^u :i* we are n[ well assur$ is ! fact t ! ,briti% & ,sc&9avian ice-%eets coalesc$1 s t ! bas9 ( ! ,nor? ,sea completely brimm$ ov] ) glaci]-ice4 ,f9ally1 !n1 9 contemplat+ ! physical conditions t obta9$ 9 nor!rn ,europe at ! climax ( ! ,ice ,age1 we h to picture to ourselves ! almo/ total oblit]ation "u a va/ ice-%eet ( all ! l&-features ( ! ,briti% ,isl&s1 ,sc&9avia1 & ,f9l&1 & ! adjac5t l[-ly+ tracts ( ,d5m>k1 ,holl&1 ,g]many1 ,pol&1 & ,russia4 ,if at t di/ant date a prehi/oric man c\ld h /ood on ! summit ( ,snaehatt51 he w\ld h se5 an app>5tly int]m9able pla9 ( sn[ & ice1 b\nd$ only by ! visible horizon4 ,c\ld he h foll[$ ! pla9 s\?w>ds 9 hopes ( escap+ f x1 he w\ld h desc5d$ its g5tly-slop+ surface by imp]ceptible gradations = a di/ance ( #gjj miles1 be=e he rea*$ its t]m9ation at ! foot ( ! m\nta9s ( middle ,g]many4 ,or1 c\ld he h set out ^u an ea/]ly c\rse1 he w\ld h cross$ ! ,gulf ( ,bo?nia1 buri$ sev]al ?\s& feet b5ea? him1 & t\*$ ! foot-slopes ( ! ,ural ,m\nta9s be=e he ga9$ ! t]m9al front ( ! ice-cap1 a di/ance ( #afjj miles4 ,on ! o!r h&1 _h he walk$ s\?-we/ 9 ! direction ( ,irel&1 he w\ld h trav]s$ ! area ( ! ,nor? ,sea at a height ( sev]al ?\s& feet above its b$1 &1 cross+ ! ,briti% area1 w\ld only h rea*$ ! ice-front at a po9t "s #ej miles beyond ! coa/ ( ,irel&4 ,"h he w\ld h se5 ! ice-%eet pres5t+ a /eep face to ! assaults ( ! ,atlantic1 & break+ away 9 massive tabul> b]gs1 l ^? :i* are calv$ by ! ice-cap ( ! ,ant>ctic regions4 ,i mu/ n[ pass rapidly 9 review ! facts relat+ to ! glaciation ( ! m\nta9\s regions :i* lay outside ( ! area cov]$ by ! nor!rn ice-%eet4 ,! glaci]s ( ! ,alps ( ,switz]l&1 ab\t :i* s mu* has be5 writt51 & ! /udy ( :i* fir/ gave ,v5etz1 ,*>p5ti]1 & ,agassiz ! clue to ! mean+ ( /riat$ rocks1 b\ld]-clay1 & erratics1 are1 z is well kn[n1 ! puny desc5dants ( =m] gigantic ice-fl[s4 ,at ! culm9ation ( ! ,ice ,age all ! m\nta9-valleys ( ,switz]l& & nor!rn ,italy 7 *ok$ ) glaci]s t /ream$ out ^u ! l[-gr\nds4 ,along ! nor!rn slopes ( ! ,alps1 z 9 ,bav>ia & ,wrtemb]g1 ^! glaci]s coalesc$ to =m a consid]able ice-%eet1 & s likewise did ! glaci]s t desc5d$ f ,switz]l&1 ,savoy1 & ,dauph9y1 into ! great valley ( ! ,rhone4 ,ev5 9 nor? ,italy ! same 0 ! case ) ! glaci]s t occupi$ ! valleys 9 :i* n[ lie ,lakes ,orta1 ,maggiore1 ,v>ese1 ,lugano1 & ,como--! unit$ ice-fl[s ( ^? valleys =m+ a glaci] :i* deploy$ ^u ! pla9s ( ! ,po1 ) a frontage ( n less ?an #dj miles4 ,to ! nor? ( ! ,alps1 ! ,vosges ,m\nta9s & ! ,black ,=e/1 ! ,h>z1 ! ,erz ,gebirge1 ! ,ries5 ,gebirge1 & ! ,bhm]-,wald--all _h _! p]5nial ice & glaci]s1 al?\gh none ( ^? elevat$ tracts n[ rea*es ! sn[-l9e4 ,x 0 ! same ) ! ,c>pa?ians & ! ,urals1 among/ :i* we meet ) relics ( mu* l>g] ice-/reams ?an any t n[ exi/ 9 ! ,alps4 ,consid]ably fur!r s\? 7 ! glaci]s ( ! ,despoto ,dagh ( ,r\melia4 ,great glaci]s also 9 =m] times desc5d$ f ! ,caucasus1 & 9 _m hilly regions ( ,asia ,m9or indubitable traces ( simil> l>ge ice-fl[s h be5 detect$4 ,! high-gr\nds ( c5tral ,france1 & ! m\nta9s ( ,beaujolais & ,lyonnais support$ consid]able glaci]s1 :ile f ! ,pyr5ees num]\s glaci]s ( ! fir/ class fl[$ out ^u ! l[-gr\nds ( ,france1 & consid]able ice-/reams occupi$ ! m\nta9-valleys on ! ,spani% side4 ,o!r ,p59sul> *a9s--! ,s]ra da ,e/rella1 ! ,si]ra ,guad>ama1 & ! ,si]ra ,nevada--_h likewise _! sn[-fields & ice-/reams4 ,! same 0 ! case ) ! ,ap5n9es & ! ,apuan ,alps ( ,italy1 ! traces ( =m] glacial action be+ conspicu\s ov] a consid]able "p ( ,tuscany4 ,ev5 9 ,corsica we enc\nt] ! same evid5ce ( glaciation--/riat$ rock-surfaces & mora9es--:i* po9t to ! =m] desc5t ( consid]able glaci]s f ,monte ,rotondo4 ,b rock-/ri & mora9es are n ! only pro(s ( =m] cold & humid conditions hav+ prevail$ ov] middle & s\!rn ,europe at ! climax ( ! glacial p]iod4 ,! lime/one-breccias ( ,gibralt> h be5 describ$ by ,pr(essor ,ramsay & myself1 & we h %[n t ^! c\ld only h be5 =m$ "u ! influ5ce ( excessive fro/ & melt+ sn[s4 ,! lime/one ( ! ,rock has be5 brok5 up along ! ridge1 & its fragm5ts %[]$ d[n ! slopes1 at a "t :5 ^! 7 m or less ?ickly cov]$ ) sn[4 ,re/+ ^u & imb$d$ 9 ?is sn[1 ! rock-rubbi% w\ld be c>ri$ d[nw>d & outw>d dur+ ! gradual melt+ t took place 9 summ]4 ,& 9 ?is way imm5se accumulations ( dbris 7 borne =w>ds ov] ! l[-gr\nds t ext5d$ f ! base ( ! ,rock into regions :i* are n[ p>tially subm]g$4 ,breccias :i* h probably _h a simil> orig9 occur also 9 ,corsica1 ,malta1 & ,cyprus1 & d\btless !y w yet be recognis$ 9 _m o!r places4 ,aga91 ov] wide areas 9 nor!rn ,france & ! s\? ( ,engl&1 we meet ) ext5sive %eets ( e>?y clay & rock-rubbi%1 :i* h c]ta9ly be5 heap$ up "u v diff]5t conditions ( climate ?an obta9 n[4 ,?is /ony e>? has evid5tly travell$ d[n ! g5tle slopes ( ! l&1 "u ! influ5ce ( fro/ & melt+ sn[1 9 mu* ! same way z ice-driv5 rock-rubbi% & soil move sl[ly d[n ! slopes ( su* dre>y regions z ,patagonia & c]ta9 l[-ly+ tracts )9 ! ,arctic ,circle4 ,,ii4 ,*anges ( ,climate 9 ,europe dur+ ! ,ice ,age4 ,we come next to ! v int]e/+ "q ( alt]nations ( climate dur+ ! ,ice ,age4 ,! evid5ce "u ?is head has accumulat$ to su* an ext5t )9 rec5t ye>s z to conv9ce mo/ /ud5ts ( ,plei/oc5e geology t v ext5sive *anges ( climate *>act]is$ ! glacial p]iod4 ,h[ _m su* *anges took place we are n yet 9 a position to say1 b we "k t ! int5sely arctic condition ( ?+s :i* has j be5 describ$ 0 int]rupt$ m ?an once by :at h be5 t]m$ int]glacial epo*s1 dur+ :i* a mild & g5ial climate prevail$ ov] middle & nor!rn ,europe4 ,= "s "t x 0 believ$ t su* int]glacial epo*s _h only a local significance1 t !y bespoke m]e transitory retreats ( ! ice-fields1 su* z are kn[n to h tak5 place )9 hi/orical times 9 ! glaci]-valleys ( ! ,alps4 ,b increas$ obs]vation & reflection h %[n t ?is explanation ( ! ph5om5a ( int]glacial b$s w n suffice4 ,x is impossible to ent] "h ^u details1 b ,i may briefly /ate t ! evid5ce 9 "q is two-fold4 ,fir/1 we h ! /ratigraphical evid5ce4 ,we h asc]ta9$ ! exi/5ce1 ov] wide areas 9 ?is & o!r glaciat$ c\ntries1 ( sev]al successive %eets ( b\ld]-clay1 :i* are (t5 sep>at$ f ea* o!r by fossilif]\s aque\s /rata4 ,x has be5 demon/rat$ t ea* ( ^! %eets ( sub-glacial detritus is ! accumulation ( a sep>ate & di/9ct ice-fl[4 ,second1 we h ! evid5ce ( fossil organic rema9s4 ,we f9d1 = example1 t ! flora :i* cov]$ ! l[-gr\nds ( middle & temp]ate ,europe dur+ a c]ta9 /age ( ! glacial or ,plei/oc5e p]iod1 consi/$ ( plants :i* are n[ re/rict$ to ! tops ( our m\nta9s & to nor!rn ,sc&9avia4 ,! *>act]i/ic fauna associat$ ) t flora embrac$ ! re9de]1 glutton1 mammo?1 woolly rh9oc]os1 ,arctic fox lemm+1 *amois1 & s =?4 ,we "k1 inde$1 t man hunt$ ! re9de] & ! mammo? 9 ! s\? ( ,france4 ,simil> te/imony to ! coldness & humidity ( ! climate is borne by ! l&- & fre%wat] %ells :i* occur 9 c]ta9 ,plei/oc5e deposits 9 ,italy1 ,corsica1 s\!rn ,france1 ,switz]l&1 ,g]many1 etc4 ,t ?is flora & fauna 7 contemporane\s ) ! great glaciation ( our ,cont95t has be5 z well asc]ta9$ z ! fact ( ! ,roman occupation ( ,brita94 ,b if ! evid5ce ( organic rema9s /rongly confirms & supports t suppli$ by ! di/ribution ( glacial deposits 9 ,europe1 no less =cibly does x corroborate ! physical evid5ce z to ! =m] exi/5ce ( a w>m & g5ial int]glacial climate4 ,dur+ int]glacial times a mo/ abundant mammalian fauna roam$ ov] all temp]ate ,europe--a fauna compris+ su* animals z ,iri% de]1 urus1 bison1 horse1 /ag1 saiga1 br[n be>1 grisly be>1 sev]al species ( elephant1 rh9oc]os1 & hippopotamus1 hyna1 lion1 leop>d1 etc4 ,a l tale ( g5ial conditions is told by ! l&- & fre%wat] %ells1 :i* occur 9 "s ( ! ,plei/oc5e deposits ( ,engl&1 ,france1 ,belgium1 ,g]many1 ,switz]l&1 & ,italy4 ,! te/imony ( ! associat$ flora is j z /rik+4 ,h[ g5ial & equable mu/ h be5 ! climate :i* p]mitt$ plants l ! ,can>y laurel1 ! ,judas-tree1 ! fig-tree1 & o!rs to fl\ri% side by side 9 ! nor? ( ,france1 ) su* =ms z ! hazel1 will[1 a%1 & sycamore6 ,! mo/ notewor?y additions to our k ( int]glacial conditions :i* h rec5tly be5 made are ! results obta9$ by ,m4 ,gaudry 9 ! valley ( ! ,se9e1 & by ,dr4 ,p5ck 9 ,bav>ian ,tyrol1 ! latt] ( :om has %[n t !re h be5 at lea/ ?ree great advances ( ! ,alp9e glaci]s1 sep>at$ by long-cont9u$ mild conditions1 dur+ :i* ! glaci]s rec$$ f> into ! m\nta9s4 ,x is int]e/+ to obs]ve t we h1 especially 9 our own isl&s1 good evid5ce to %[ t dur+ ! glacial p]iod consid]able oscillations ( ! relative level ( l& & sea took place4 ,?us1 x has be5 asc]ta9$1 t j be=e ! late/ epo* ( ext5sive glaciation1 ! ,briti% ,isl&s 7 l>gely subm]g$ 9 ! sea4 ,to :at dep? ?is rem>kable subm]g5ce 0 c>ri$ we d n "k1 because any m>9e deposits :i* may h be5 accumulat$ at t "t ov] ! dr[n$ c\ntry 7 = ! mo/ "p oblit]at$ by ! action ( ! ice-%eet :i* subsequ5tly cov]$ & reglaciat$ our l&s4,l ,b ! few fragm5ts ( su* m>9e deposits z h be5 pres]v$ %[ u t ! depression rea*$ m ?an #ejj feet 9 ,scotl& 7i4e41 measur$ f ! pres5t sea-level71 & exce$+ #ajjj feet 9 ,wales & ,irel&4 ,we note1 !n1 9 pass+1 t ! only great ,plei/oc5e subm]g5ce ( ^! l&s ( :i* geologi/s h any k took place be=e ! appe>ance ( ! la/ g5]al ice-%eet t ov]fl[$ our l[-gr\nds4 ,! subm]g5ces ( a lat] date 7 ( inconsid]able importance1 h>dly exce$+ #ajj feet or !reab\ts bel[ ! pres5t sea-level4 ,! late/ occupant ( our isl&s & ( nor!rn ,europe 0 n ! sea1 b ice4 ,! ,palocry/ic ,sea1 :i* we h be5 rec5tly assur$ w\ld acc\nt = our glacial ph5om5a1 is ( ! /uff t dreams are made (4 ,!re is n a jot or tittle ( evid5ce = ! =m] exi/5ce ( su* a sea ov] any "p ( ,brita9 or ! cont95t ( ,europe4 ,l ,i no long] believe 9 ?is great subm]g5ce4 ,! m>9e %ells 9 ! high-level drift-deposits ( our isl&s are erratics1 c>ri$ by ! ice-%eet :i* occupi$ ! bas9 ( ! ,iri% ,sea4 ,t ! l[-gr\nds 7 subm]g$ b ! am\nt ( ! subm]g5ce has n be5 asc]ta9$2 probably x did n exce$ a few hundr$ feet4 ,x is n necess>y = my pres5t purpose to ent] fur!r into ! evid5ce ( int]glacial conditions4 ,! late/ nor!rn ice-%eet 0 prec$$ by a long epo* ( mild & g5ial conditions1 dur+ :i* elephants & hippopotami rang$ nor? z f> at lea/ z ,york%ire2 :ile middle ,g]many1 z we "k f ! te/imony ( its int]glacial deposits1 enjoy$ a simil> delightful climate4 ,& yet ! imm$iately prec$+ glacial epo* _h se5 all ^? f]tile regions cov]$ ) an ice-%eet t ext5d$ s\? z f> z ! fiftie? p>allel ( latitude4 ,n[ ! "q ) :i* ,i am at pres5t conc]n$ is ! ext5t ( ! late/ g5]al glaciation4 ,did ! la/ great ice-%eet rea* z f> s\? z its pr$ecessor8 ,x c]ta9ly did n4 ,its bottom-mora9e has n[ be5 mapp$ out & di/+ui%$ f t ( ! old] ice-%eet1 & we "k t x does n ext5d s f> s\? z ! latt]4 ,x is entirely abs5t ov] all ! region to ! we/ ( ! ,riv] ,elbe1 f ne> ,dresd5 to ,hamburg & ! coa/ ( ,holl&4,m ,s t we/]n ,g]many & ,holl&1 :i* 7 cov]$ by ice dur+ ! epo* ( greate/ glaciation1 7 n invad$ by ! ice-%eet und]nea? :i* ! upp] b\ld]-clay 0 accumulat$4 ,?is late/ ice-%eet1 h[ev]1 ov]:elm$ all ,meckl5burg & ,m>k ,br&5burg1 & /ream$ s\? ne>ly z f> z ,saxony2 its s\!rn m>g9 ext5d$ ea/ ?r\gh ,silesia1 by ,liegnitz & ,breslau1 into ,pol& & ,russia4 ,b ! precise l9e x foll[$ 9 ! latt] c\ntry has yet to be asc]ta9$4 ,we may surmise1 h[ev]1 t x n[h]e rea*$ s f> s\? or ea/ z ! ice-fl[ ( ! e>li] epo*4 ,i may add t ! s\!rn t]m9ation ( ! late/ ice-%eet is 9 _m places m>k$ out by heaps1 m\nds1 & ridges ( e>?y s&1 gravel1 roll$ /ones1 & erratics2 9 %ort1 by t]m9al mora9es4 ,^!1 h[ev]1 are frequ5tly highly degrad$ & wa%$ d[n4 ,m ,klockmann1 ,jahrb4 d] k4 preuss4 geol4 ,l&esan/alt fr #ahhc1 p4 #ccj4 ,( ! ext5sion ( glaci]-ice 9 ! ,briti% ,isl&s at ! epo* 9 "q ,i %all only say t ! glaciation ( ,scotl& 0 h>dly1 if at all1 less ext5sive ?an dur+ ! climax ( ! ,ice ,age4 ,irel&1 too1 appe>s to h be5 almo/ z ?ickly mantl$2 b ! ice-%eet t cov]$ ,engl& & ,wales did n ext5d s f> s\? z t ( ! p5ultimate glacial epo*1 a consid]able area 9 ,ea/ ,anglia & ! midl& c\nties rema9+ app>5tly free f invasion4 ,! ,sc&9avian & ,briti% ice-%eets1 h[ev]1 aga9 coalesc$ ^u ! floor ( ! ,nor? ,sea4 ,,iii4 ,! ,results ( ,fluvio-glacial ,action 9 ,europe4 ,! ?ird "q :i* ,i n[ proce$ to consid] is ! result produc$ by ! riv]s & torr5ts ( ! ,ice ,age4 ,?is1 ,i am aw>e1 is a wide subject1 & "o ^u :i* mu* has be5 writt54 ,b !re are a few po9ts :i* may be advantage\sly discuss$ = ! purpose ( br++ into prom95t view ! conditions :i* obta9$ 9 ! riv]-valleys ( ,europe dur+ ! la/ great ext5sion ( glaci]-ice4 ,a little consid]ation w s]ve to conv9ce "o t ! int5se glacial conditions t obta9$ 9 our ,cont95t dur+ ! cold epo*s ( ! glacial p]iod 7 due to a l[ temp]ature1 comb9$ ) excessive sn[-fall4 ,! w9t]s1 we c h no d\bt1 mu/ h be5 prolong$ & sev]e4 ,b m]e l[ temp]ature w n acc\nt = ! enorm\s precipitation ( sn[4 ,= ?is1 great evaporation 0 requir$4 ,& we are !re=e =c$ to admit t ! direct heat ( ! sun 9 summ] mu/ h be5 great] ?an x is 9 ! same regions at ! pres5t day4 ,n[1 if ?is 7 really ! case 7& ,i d n see h[ o!rwise ! facts c be expla9$71 !n we ought to meet ) evid5ce ( swoll5 riv]s1 torr5ts1 & widespread inundations ev]y:]e outside ( ! glaciat$ areas4 ,& ?is is precisely :at we d f9d4 ,imm5se accumulations ( co>se gravels are widely spread ov] all ! valleys t head 9 regions :i* 7 =m]ly ! sites ( sn[-fields & glaci]s4 ,^! gravels are ( su* a "* & are s di/ribut$ z to make x c]ta9 t !y c\ld n h be5 transport$ to & deposit$ 9 _! pres5t positions by riv]s l ^? :i* n[ w9d _! way d[n ! valleys ( middle ,europe4 ,/ill m rem>kable are ! enorm\s %eets ( loam :i* are spread ov] mu* wid] areas & rea* to m consid]able heights ?an ! gravels4 ,! orig9 ( ! gravels is suffici5tly evid5t2 !y are simply ! co>s] detritus1 swept along by ! enorm\sly flood$ riv]s ( ! glacial p]iod1 & meet ) _! analogues 9 ! torr5tial gravels ( mod]n glaci]-valleys 9 ! ,alps & o!r elevat$ regions4 ,! m widely-spread loams1 accord+ to ! op9ion ( mo/ glaciali/s1 repres5t ! f9] mud & silt deposit$ f ! muddy wat]s ( ! same p]iod4 ,b ! height to :i* su* gravels & loams asc5d is s great t ^? :o hold !m to be ( fluvio-glacial orig9 h f\nd x difficult to ma9ta9 ?is view4 ,"s writ]s1 inde$1 :o h n suffici5tly consid]$ ! weight ( ! evid5ce 9 its fav\r1 h set x aside1 & boldly sugge/$ all k9ds ( wond]ful hypo!ses 9 its place4 ,"o imag9ative au?or1 = example1 believes ! wide-spread loams to be ( volcanic orig91 :ile ano!r f9ds 9 ! same deposits /rong evid5ce ( ! ,deluge4 ,by a well-kn[n & exp]i5c$ obs]v]1 ! fam\s lss ( middle ,europe is consid]$ to be an olian accumulation--t is to say1 a w9d-bl[n deposit--! result ( long-cont9u$ or frequ5tly-repeat$ du/-/orms4 ,?is is ! op9ion ( ,b>on ,ri*?(51 ^: great "w on ,*9a is s ju/ly e/eem$4 ,he inf]s t at ! "t ( ! =mation ( our lss c5tral ,europe 0 a dry desiccat$ region1 j z wide areas 9 c5tral ,asia are 9 our own day4 ,he does n attempt to %[ u1 h[ev]1 h[ su* climatic conditions c\ld ev] obta9 9 ,europe4 ,9 po9t ( fact1 ! geographical conditions ( our ,cont95t h n *ang$ mat]ially s9ce ,plei/oc5e times1 & ! pres5ce ( ! wide ,atlantic ,ocean1 t laves all our we/]n %ores1 is ( itself suffici5t to preclude ! possibility ( su* a climate hav+ obta9$ 9 middle ,europe4 ,ri*?(5's !ory likewise fails to acc\nt = ! geographical di/ribution ( ! lss1 & = _m facts relat+ to its geology4 ,only "o ( ^! la/ %all ,i m5tion4 ,! lss is intimately associat$ ) accumulations1 ! glacial & fluvio-glacial orig9 ( :i* _c be d\bt$4 ,x belongs1 9 fact1 to ! glacial s]ies1 & 0 laid d[n at a "t :5 va/ sn[-fields & ice-%eets exi/$1 & :5 x is q impossible t a dry climate c\ld h *>act]is$ any "p ( our ,cont95t4 ,9 common ) mo/ geologi/s1 ,i believe t ! lss is simply an inundation-mud1 deposit$ 9 tempor>y lakes & ov] flood$ areas dur+ ! summ] melt+s ( ! sn[- & ice-fields2 & ,i %all n[ try to %[ h[ ! occurr5ce at high levels ( gravels & su* loams z ! lss may be acc\nt$ = )\t hav+ rec\rse to volcanic action or to w9ds1 or ev5 to ! ,deluge4 ,i %all invoke no ag5cies o!r ?an ^? :i* we are p]fectly well assur$ 7 9 full op]ation dur+ ! ,ice ,age4 ,n[1 ,i ask y1 9 ! fir/ place1 to be> 9 m9d t :ile a glacial epo* cont9u$1 extreme conditions c\ld n h be5 re/rict$ to ! areas und]go+ glaciation4 ,!re is abundant evid5ce1 inde$1 to %[ t heavy1 sn[s occasionally cov]$ o!r regions1 & t 9 su* places sev]e fro/s act$ ^u ! rocks & soils ev5 ( ! l[-gr\nds4 ,ne$ we wond] if at a "t :5 ! nor!rn ice-%eet approa*$ ! fiftie? p>allel ( latitude 9 middle ,europe1 :5 almo/ e m\nta9-gr\p ( c5tral & s\!rn ,europe _h its sn[-fields & glaci]s--ne$ we wond] if at su* a "t ! climate ( wide areas outside ( ! glaciat$ tracts 0 extremely ung5ial8 ,! m closely ! sup]ficial accumulations ( su* areas are /udi$1 ! m cle>ly d we p]ceive 9 !m ! evid5ce ( cold & humid conditions4 ,try1 !n1 to picture to y\rselves ! probable aspect ( ^? regions dur+ a glacial epo*4 ,imm$iately s\? ( ! nor!rn ice-%eet deep sn[s mu/ h buri$ l>ge tracts ( c\ntry1 & su* sn[s may h endur$ (t5 = long ye>s1 not)/&+ ! great melt+ t took place 9 summ]4 ,ev5 mu* fur!r s\?1 z 9 ,spa9 & ,italy1 deep sn[s w\ld cov] ! less] hills & hill-ranges1 :ile fro/ w\ld act en]getically 9 _m a di/rict :]e su* action is n[ ei!r inconsid]able or unkn[n4 ,su* be+ ! g5]al conditions t mu/ h obta9$ 9 ! non-glaciat$ areas1 let u v briefly consid] :at ! results ( su* conditions mu/ necess>ily h be54 ,e "o has notic$1 dur+ ! m or less rapid melt+ ( sn[ 9 w9t] & e>ly spr+1 t our /reams & riv]s are !n mu* muddi] ?an :5 9 summ] & autumn !y are swoll5 by heavy ra9s4 ,?is ( c\rse is due to ! action ( fro/1 by means ( :i* rocks are dis9tegrat$ & soils are brok5 up & pulv]is$1 s t :5 ?aw sup]v5es1 ! sup]ficial cov]+ becomes soak$ ) moi/ure l a sponge4 ,to su* an ext5t does ?is take place1 t "o may (t5 see ! saturat$ soil creep+1 slipp+1 & ev5 fl[+ d[n ! slopes4 ,! effect ( m]e ?aw is ( c\rse mu* int5sifi$ :5 ! wat] d]iv$ f melt+ sn[s is pres5t4 ,rills & t9y brooks !n become conv]t$ into d>k muddy torr5ts1 & enorm\s quantities ( f9e-gra9$ detritus are ev5tually swept into ! riv]s4 ,! riv]s rise 9 flood & inundate _! pla9s1 ov] ! surface ( :i* consid]able deposits ( loam & silt (t5 accumulate4 ,we _c d\bt t simil> b mu* m int5se action mu/ h tak5 place ov] v wide regions 9 ,europe dur+ a glacial epo*4 ,su* hav+ necess>ily be5 ! case1 we are n requir$ to suppose t ! lss & simil> loams h be5 deposit$ entirely by riv]s fl[+ f glaci]s4 ,x is d\btless true t mo/ ( ! riv]s head$ 9 ^? days 9 glaci] regions1 & mu/ 9 consequ5ce h be5 highly discol\r$ ) glacial mud1 & probably a v l>ge proportion ( ! loams 9 "q consi/s ( ! f9e fl\r ( rocks--! result ( glacial gr9d+4 ,b ! action ( fro/ & ?aw & melt+ sn[ ^u ! l[-gr\nds1 su* z ,i h describ$1 _c be ignor$1 & seems to h play$ a m important rle ?an has yet be5 recognis$4 ,i ?9k x helps u bett] to expla9 ! well-kn[n fact t l&-%ells are m or less commonly di/ribut$ ?r\gh ! lss4 ,"o c readily und]/&1 at all ev5ts1 h[ snail-%ells might be swept d[n ! slopes ( ! l& at ! "t ( ! spr+ ?aws1 & h[ l>ge numb]s might f9d _! way ev5tually into ! swoll5 glacial riv]s4 ,i h (t5 obs]v$1 dur+ ! melt+ ( sn[ & ! ?aw+ ( soils1 quantities ( snail-%ells 9 ! v act ( be+ swept into our brooks & rills4 ,& we are all famili> ) ! fact t1 aft] a spr+-flood has subsid$1 snail-%ells1 along ) vegetable dbris1 are (t5 pl5tifully /r&$ ^u ! valley-slopes & flood-pla9s ( our riv]s4 ,admitt+1 !n1 t ! lss & simil> accumulations are simply inundation-loams =m$ at a "t :5 glaci]s 7 dis*>g+ imm5se volumes ( muddy wat]1 & :5 ! l[-gr\nds 7 liable e summ] to ! d5ud+ action ( melt+ sn[s1 & s =?1 ,i h yet to acc\nt = ! fact t ^! suppos$ inundation-loams sometimes occur at a height ( #ajj feet1 or ev5 ( #cjj feet1 above ! pres5t levels ( ! riv]s4 ,two !ories h be5 advanc$ 9 explanation1 ea* ( :i* seems to me to conta9 an elem5t ( tru?4 ,x has1 9 ! fir/ place1 be5 ma9ta9$1 z by ,pre/wi*1 t ! lss at ! high] levels 0 probably deposit$ long be=e ! riv]s _h excavat$ _! *annels to _! pres5t dep?s4 ,?us1 dur+ flood1 !y w\ld be enabl$ to ov]fl[ tracts :i* !y c\ld n possibly h rea*$ :5 !y _h deep5$ _! valleys to a mu* great] degree4 ,b :ile we mu/ fully admit t ! erosion effect$ by ! riv]s ( ! ,plei/oc5e or ,glacial p]iod 0 excessive1 yet we f9d x difficult or impossible to believe t great valleys1 sev]al miles 9 wid?1 & two or ?ree hundr$ feet 9 dep?1 7 excavat$ 9 h>d ,devonian & o!r equally durable rocks by ! swoll5 & active riv]s ( ! ,ice ,age4 ,& al?\gh x is extremely probable t ! lss at ! highe/ levels is old] ?an ! simil> deposit at ! l[e/ levels ( su* a valley z ! ,rh9e1 yet ?is does n get u out ( our difficulty4 ,! o!r view to :i* ,i h allud$ takes little or no acc\nt ( riv]-erosion1 b ma9ta9s t ! floods ( ! ,ice ,age 7 suffici5tly great to rea* ! highe/ levels at :i* riv]-gravels & loams occur4 ,x is likely en\gh t1 "u pres5t conditions1 we c =m b a v inadequate idea ( ! va/ bodies ( fre%wat] :i* =m]ly swept d[n our valleys1 b we may be p>don$ if we express our inability to conceive ( our ,european riv]s fl[+ ) a bread? ( _m miles1 & a dep? ( two or ?ree hundr$ feet4 ,a few ye>s be=e 8 dea?1 ,mr4 ,d>w9 made a sugge/ion to me1 :i* ,i ?9k gives u ! true solution ( ! problem4 ,he ?\ght t dur+ an ,ice ,age great b$s ( froz5 sn[ might h accumulat$ ov] ! l[-gr\nds outside ( ! glaciat$ areas 79 ! mann] ,i h already describ$71 & t _m valleys might h be5 fill$ to a consid]able dep? dur+ a l>ge "p ( ! ye> ) bl[n sn[1 aft]w>ds congeal$4 ,9 autumn1 :5 ! runn+ wat] fail$1 ! l9es ( dra9age might 9 _m cases be m or less *ok$1 & x w\ld be a m]e *ance :e!r ! dra9age1 toge!r ) gravel1 s&1 & mud1 w\ld foll[ precisely ! same l9es dur+ ! next summ]4 ,su* action be+ repeat$ ye> aft] ye>1 x might well happ5 t _m riv]-valleys might become l>gely fill$ ) rudely alt]nat+ lay]s ( froz5 sn[ & fluviatile detritus4 ,& if ?is 7 s1 ! flood$ riv]s 9 summ] w\ld be enabl$ to ov]fl[ mu* wid] & m elevat$ tracts ?an !y c\ld o!rwise h rea*$4 ,z ! climate became less excessive1 we c conceive ( ! froz5 sn[s gradually melt+1 & ( riv]-detritus be+ deposit$ at l[] & l[] levels 9 ! valleys4 ,! probability ( su* froz5 masses hav+ *ok$ up valleys & imp$$ ! dra9age dur+ ! ,ice ,age is n a m]e plausible conjecture4 ,9 ! f> nor? ( ,alaska--9 a region :i* 0 c]ta9ly n ov]fl[$ by ! ,nor? ,am]ican ice-cap--ext5sive %eets ( ice occur1 m or less deeply buri$ "u ?ick soil4 ,nor c !re be mu* d\bt t ^! ice-masses date back to ! ,glacial p]iod itself1 see+ t 9 ! soils :i* ov]lie !m we meet ) rema9s ( ! mammo? & o!r contemporane\s mammalian =ms4 ,"h1 !n1 we h direct pro( ( ! fact ( froz5 sn[ & ice hav+ accumulat$ 9 ! holl[s ( ! l& outside ( ! glaciat$ areas4,n ,n ,i h giv5 ,mr4 ,d>w9's views1 & discuss$ ! orig9 ( ! ,plei/oc5e fluvio-glacial deposits at "s l5g? 9 ,prehi/oric ,europe1 *aps1 viii4 & ix4 ,to ?is "w ,i ref] = detail$ geological evid5ce 9 support ( ! view advocat$ above4 ,n[1 if su* conditions exi/$ 9 ! valleys ( middle ,europe1 ! widespread loss ( ^? regions is readily acc\nt$ =4 ,! occurr5ce ( irregul> %eets & %r$s ( gravel & loam at heights ( m ?an a hundr$ feet above a valley-bottom (f]s no difficulty--x is 9 fact precisely ! k9d ( ph5om5on we might h expect$4 ,we are !re=e n requir$ to g out ( our way to dream ab\t impossible volcanic action1 or to call ^u ! w9ds ( heav5 to help u1 or ^u ! wat]s ( ! ,deluge to float u out ( our difficulties4 ,b :ile ,i believe ! views ,i h n[ advocat$ suffici5tly acc\nt = ! appe>ances pres5t$ by ! anci5t valley-gravels & loams ( c5tral ,europe1 !re are two v consid]able areas ( lss :i* require "s fur!r explanation4 ,! fir/ ( ^! is t broad belt ( lss :i* ext5ds f we/ to ea/ across ! pla9s ( nor!rn ,g]many1 & ! nor!rn b\nd>y ( :i* co9cides ) ! limits rea*$ by ! la/ great ice-%eet1 f :i* x spreads s\? to ! foot-hills ( ! ,h>z1 & o!r m\nta9s ( middle ,europe4 ,"h we h a %eet ( lss :i* be>s no app>5t relation to ! valley-sy/ems ( ! region 9 :i* x occurs4 ,b ! fact ( its nor!rn b\nd>y be+ co9cid5t ) ! t]m9al front ( ! la/ great nor!rn ice-%eet at once sugge/s its orig94 ,x is evid5t t ?is ice-%eet mu/ h block$ ! riv]s fl[+ nor?1 & damm$ back _! wat]s4,o ,a wide %eet ( muddy wat] mu/ !re=e h ext5d$ ea/ & we/ ov] ! v area :i* is n[ cov]$ by ! belt ( lss 9 "q4 ,?is tempor>y lake w\ld d\btless be subject to great alt]nations ( level--a portion dra9+ away p]haps "u ! ice-%eet--b ! wat] w\ld = ! mo/ "p make its way we/w>d1 & ev5tually escape into ! ,engli% ,*annel4 ,f ! wat]s ( ?is great lake1 f$ by _m l>ge glacial riv]s1 abundant precipitation ( loam & silt mu/ h tak5 place4 ,o ,! late ,mr4 ,belt1 z is well kn[n1 0 ( op9ion t all ! riv]s fl[+ nor? 9 ,europe & ,asia 7 damm$ back by a great ,pol> glaci]1 & t all ! l[-tracts 9 ! nor!rn portions ( ! two cont95ts 7 ?us cov]$ by wide inl& seas ( fre%wat]4 ,z ,i d n believe t su* a ,pol> ice-cap exi/$ dur+ ! ,glacial p]iod1 ,i _c agree ) ,mr4 ,belt t ! alluvial pla9s ( nor!rn ,sib]ia m>k ! sites ( ice-damm$ lakes4 ,! second & by f> ! mo/ ext5sive %eet ( lss 9 ,europe is ! s-call$ black e>?1 or t*]nozem1 ) :i* su* enorm\s tracts 9 s\!rn ,russia are cov]$4 ,?is widespread lss--= su* x really is--,i h else:]e tri$ to %[ consi/s ( ! flood-loam & inundation-muds laid d[n by ! wat] escap+ along ! m>g9 ( ! nor!rn ice-%eet1 :i* dis*>g$ its dra9age 9 ! direction ( ! ,black ,sea1 its black col\r be+ due to ! gr9d+ d[n & pulv]is+ ( ! black ,jurassic %ales :i* ext5d ov] su* wide regions 9 middle ,russia4 ,,iv4 ,! ,ext5t ( ,glaciation 9 ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,! v>i\s ph5om5a ( glaciation :i* g to prove t a great ice-%eet =m]ly cov]$ a wide region 9 nor!rn ,europe are develop$ on a /ill m ext5sive scale 9 ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,smoo!d & /riat$ rock-surfaces1 cru%$ & dislocat$ rock-masses1 & enorm\s accumulations ( mora9ic dbris & fluvio-glacial detritus1 all comb9e to tell ! same tale4 ,! mora9ic accumulations ( ,nor? ,am]ica h be5 di/ribut$ ^u ! same pr9ciples z ! simil> deposits ( our own ,cont95t4 ,b\ld]-clay ( precisely ! same "* z t ( ,scotl& & ,sc&9avia1 ( ,switz]l& & nor? ,italy1 cov]s va/ tracts 9 ! l[-gr\nds ( ! ,briti% ,possessions & ! nor!rn ,/ates ( ! ,union1 :]e x =ms enorm\s %eets1 v>y+ 9 ?ickness f #cj or #ej up to #ajj feet or m4 ,9 ! r\gh ,laur5tian high-l&s1 h[ev]1 x is m sp>+ly develop$1 & ! same is ! case 9 ! hilly regions ( ,new ,engl&4 ,9 %ort1 x ?ick5s out ^u ! l[-gr\nds1 & ?9s (f ^u ! /eep] slopes1 :ile x atta9s its greate/ ?ickness & =ms ! mo/ cont9u\s %eets 9 ! c\ntry t lies s\? ( ! great lakes4 ,! s\!rn limits ( ?is deposit =m a k9d ( rude semi-circle4 ,f ,new ,york ! b\nd>y-l9e has be5 foll[$ nor?-we/ ?r\gh ,new ,j]sey & ,p5nsylvania to beyond ! =ty-second p>allel1 aft] :i* x turns to ! s\?-we/1 pass+ d[n ?r\gh ,ohio to ,c9c9nati 7#ci72 !n1 /rik+ we/ & s\?-we/ ?r\gh ,indiana1 x trav]ses ! s\!rn portion ( ,ill9ois4 ,its c\rse aft] x rea*es ! valley ( ! ,miss\ri has be5 only approximately det]m9$1 b x turns at la/ r abruptly to ! nor?-we/1 sweep+ away 9 t direction ?r\gh ,kansas1 ,nebraska1 ,dakota1 & ,montana4 ,! g5]al c\rse foll[$ by ! ice-%eet und]nea? :i* ?is b\ld]-clay 0 =m$ has be5 well asc]ta9$1 p>tly by ! evid5ce ( ! clay & its cont5ts1 & p>tly by t ( ro*es m\tonnes & /riat$ rocks4 ,! obs]vations ( geologi/s 9 ,canada & ! ,/ates leave x 9 no d\bt t an enorm\s %eet ( ice fl[$ s\? ov] all ! tracts :i* are n[ cov]$ ) b\ld]-clay4 ,dur+ a rec5t visit to ,canada & ! ,/ates1 ,i _h opportunities ( exam9+ ! glacial deposits at v>i\s po9ts ov] a some:at ext5sive area1 & ev]y:]e ,i f\nd ! exact c\nt]p>ts ( our own accumulations4 ,9 ,m9nesota1 ,wiscons91 ,i[a1 ,ill9ois1 ,indiana1 & ,ohio1 & aga9 9 ,new ,york1 ,connecticut1 & ,massa*usetts1 & ! l[-gr\nds ( ,canada1 ,i recognis$ b\ld]-clay ( precisely ! same "* z t ) :i* we are famili> at home4 ,! glacial ph5om5a ( ! ,hudson valley & ( ! l[] "p ( ! ,connecticut ,riv] 7 especially int]e/+4 ,9 ^? regions ! evid5ce ( a s\?w>d fl[ ( ! ice is mo/ conspicu\s1 & ! ph5om5a1 d[n to ! smalle/ details1 exactly recall$ ^? ( _m p>ts ( ,europe4 ,pr(essor ,dana1 "u ^: guidance ,i visit$ ! ,connecticut valley1 %[$ me1 at a consid]able height ^u ! valley-slope1 an anci5t wat]-c\rse1 *>g$ ) gravel & %+le1 :i* c\ld n possibly h be5 laid d[n "u pres5t conditions4 ,x 01 9 fact1 a sub-glacial wat]-c\rse1 & resembl$ ! simil> wat]-c\rses :i* are associat$ ) b\ld]-clay 9 our own c\ntry4 ,if ,i met ) only famili> glacial ph5om5a 9 ! l[-ly+ tracts trav]s$ by me1 ,i c]ta9ly saw no?+ /range or abnormal 9 ! hilli] tracts4 ,9 pass+ ov] ! dre>y regions betwe5 ! valley ( ! ,r$ ,riv] & ,lake ,sup]ior ,i 0 con/antly rem9d$ ( ! bleak tracts ( ,ar*an gneiss 9 ! nor?-we/ ( ,scotl&1 & ( ! simil> r\gh brok5 upl&s 9 _m p>ts ( ,sc&9avia & ,f9l&4 ,! :ole ( t wild l& is m\tonne4 ,r\gh tors & crags are smoo!d (f1 :ile b\ld]-clay ne/les on ! lee-side4 ,9 ! holl[s betwe5 ! ro*es m\tonnes are /raggl+ lakes & pools & bogs innum]able4 ,frequ5tly1 too1 "o comes ^u r\nd$ cones & smoo? banks ( mora9ic gravel & s&1 & heaps ( co>se %+le & b\ld]s1 :ile erratics 9 ?\s&s are scatt]$ ov] ! :ole di/rict4 ,if y wi% to h a fair notion ( ! geological aspect ( ! region ,i ref] to1 y w f9d samples ( x 9 _m p>ts ( ! ,out] ,hebrides & we/]n ,ross-%ire & ,su!rl&4 ,cov] ^? latt] di/ricts ) scraggy p9es1 & _! resemblance to ! upl&s ( ,canada w be complete4 ,f descriptions giv5 by travell]s x w\ld appe> t mora9ic detritus--m\nds & %eets ( /ony clay1 gravel & s&1 %+le1 b\ld]s1 & erratics--are m or less pl5tifully spr9kl$ ov] all ! ,briti% ,possessions & ! isl&s ( ! ,arctic ,ar*ipelago2 s t we h e reason to believe t ! ice-%eet :i* left its mora9es at ,new ,york & ,c9c9nati ext5d$ nor?w>ds to ! ,arctic ,ocean4 ,nor c !re be mu* d\bt t ?is same m] de glace became conflu5t 9 ! we/ ) ! great glaci]s t /ream$ outw>ds f ! ,rocky ,m\nta9s2 :ile we "k = a c]ta9ty t ! s\!rn portion ( ,alaska1 toge!r ) ,briti% ,columbia & ,vanc\v] ,isl&1 7 buri$ 9 ice t fl[$ outw>ds into ! ,pacific4 ,along ! ea/]n sea-bo>d nor? ( ,new ,york city !re is no tract :i* has n be5 ov]fl[$ by ice4 ,! isl&s 9 ,bo/on ,h>b\r are made up = ! mo/ "p ( t\gh b\ld]-clay2 & b\ld]-clay & /riat$ rocks occur also 9 ,ma9e1 ,new ,brunswick1 ,nova ,scotia1 & ,newf\ndl&4 ,?us we may say t ! ice-cov]$ region ( ,nor? ,am]ica 0 b\nd$ on ! nor? by ! ,arctic1 on ! we/ by ! ,pacific1 & on ! ea/ by ! ,atlantic ,oceans4 ,! ,rocky ,m\nta9s1 h[ev]1 divid$ ! great m] de glace t ov]fl[$ ,canada & ! ,/ates f ! ice t /ream$ outw>ds to ! ,pacific4 ,measur$ f ! base ( ! ,rockies to ! ,atlantic1 ! m] de glace ( ,canada & ! ,/ates mu/ h exce$$ #bejj miles 9 wid?1 & x /ret*$ f nor? to s\? ov] #dj degrees ( latitude4 ,outside ( ?is va/ region & ! great m\nta9-ranges ( ! f> we/1 !re are few hilly areas 9 ! ,/ates :i* rea* any consid]able elevation4 ,s\? ( ! m]s de glace ( ! nor? & we/1 no su* m\nta9-gr\ps z ^? ( middle & s\!rn ,europe occur1 & consequ5tly we d n expect to meet ) _m traces ( local glaciation4 ,nev]!less1 ^! h be5 recognis$ 9 ! ,alleghany ,m\nta9s1 ,we/ ,virg9ia1 & 9 ! ,unaka ,m\nta9s1 betwe5 ,t5nessee & ,nor? ,c>ol9a4 ,b ! glaci]s ( ^? m9or hill-ranges 7 ( c\rse m]e pigmies 9 comp>ison ) ! enorm\s ice-/reams t fl[$ d[n ! valleys ( ! ,rocky ,m\nta9s & ! ,si]ra ,nevada4 ,ev5 z f> s\? z ! ,si]ra ,madre ( ,mexico glaci]s seem =m]ly to h exi/$2 & ,mr4 ,belt has describ$ ! occurr5ce ( :at he consid]$ to be b\ld]-clays at a height ( #bjjj to #cjjj feet 9 ,nic>agua4 ,i h m5tion$ ! fact t 9 ,europe we h1 outside ( ! glaciat$ areas1 c]ta9 accumulations 7su* z ! ,gibralt> breccias7 :i* c\ld only h be5 =m$ "u ! influ5ce ( extreme cold4 ,simil> accumulations occur 9 ,nor? ,c>ol9a1 :]e !y h be5 c>efully /udi$ by ,mr4 ,w4 ,c4 ,k]r4 ,accord+ to ,mr4 ,k]r1 ^! deposits h crept d[n ! declivities ( ! gr\nd "u ! influ5ce ( successive freez+s & ?aw+s2 & n[ t att5tion has be5 call$ to su* ph5om5a1 our ,am]ican fri5ds w d\btless detect simil> appe>ances 9 _m o!r places4 ,! facts :i* ,i h n[ briefly indicat$ suffice to %[ t dur+ ! climax ( glaciation ,nor? ,am]ica mu/ h pres5t$ v mu* ! same appe>ance z ,europe4 ,ea* cont95t _h its great nor!rn ice-%eet1 s\? ( :i* local glaci]s exi/$ 9 hilly di/ricts1 _m ( :i* are n[ f> bel[ ! limits ( p]5nial sn[4 ,we may note1 also1 t 9 ea* cont95t ! m]s de glace atta9$ _! greate/ developm5t ov] ^? regions :i* at ! pres5t day h ! l>ge/ ra9fall4 ,foll[+ ! s\!rn limits ( glaciation 9 ,europe1 we are l$ at fir/ directly ea/1 until we rea* c5tral ,russia1 :5 ! l9e we foll[ tr5ds rapidly away to ! nor?-ea/4 ,! l is ! case ) ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,trace ! s\!rn b\nd>y ( ! ice-%eet we/ ( ,new ,york1 & y f9d1 :5 y rea* ! valley ( ! ,miss\ri1 t x b5ds away to ! nor?-we/4 ,n[ we c h>dly d\bt t "o pr9cipal reason = ! non-appe>ance ( ! m] de glace 9 ! f> ea/ ( ,europe & ! f> we/ ( ,am]ica 0 simply a dim9i%+ sn[-fall4 ,^? non-glaciat$ regions :i* lay nor? ( ! latitudes rea*$ by ! ice-%eets 7 dry regions 9 glacial times = ! same reasons t !y are dry /ill4 ,! only diff]5ces betwe5 glacial ,europe & ,am]ica 7 diff]5ces due to geographical position & physical features4 ,! glaciation ( ! ,urals 0 comp>atively unimportant1 because ^? m\nta9s1 be+ flank$ on ei!r side by va/ l&-areas1 c\ld h _h only a limit$ sn[-fall2 :ile ! m\nta9-ranges ( we/]n ,nor? ,am]ica1 on ! o!r h&1 be+ situat$ ne> ! ,pacific1 c\ld n fail to be copi\sly suppli$4 ,= obvi\s reasons1 also1 ! ,nor? ,am]ican ice-%eet greatly exce$$ t ( ,europe4 ,9 all o!r respects ! conditions 7 simil> 9 bo? cont95ts4 ,v4 ,*anges ( ,climate 9 ,nor? ,am]ica dur+ ! ,ice ,age4 ,am]ican geologi/s are n[ pretty well agre$ t _! int]glacial deposits--! exi/5ce ( :i* is n disput$--h precisely ! same mean+ z ! simil> deposits :i* occur 9 ,europe4 ,!y tell ( great climatic *anges4 ,at pres5t1 h[ev]1 !re is no c]ta9 evid5ce 9 ! ,am]ican deposits ( m ?an "o int]glacial epo*2 b ! pro(s ( su* an epo* hav+ obta9$ are ov]:elm+4 ,! occurr5ce aga9 & aga9 ( fossilif]\s b$s int]calat$ betwe5 two sep>ate & di/9ct %eets ( b\ld]-clay & mora9ic accumulations1 leaves u 9 no d\bt t we are deal+ ) precisely ! same ph5om5a :i* confront u 9 ,europe4 ,no m]e p>tial recession & re-advance ( ! m] de glace w acc\nt = ! facts4 ,we h se5 t dur+ ! culm9ation ( ! ,glacial p]iod ! ,am]ican ice-%eet ov]fl[$ ,ohio1 ,indiana1 & ,ill9ois4 ,n[ int]glacial deposits occur z f> nor? z ! ,canadian %ores ( ,lakes ,ont>io & ,sup]ior1 s t all ! c\ntry to ! s\? mu/ h be5 uncov]$ by ice be=e ^? int]glacial deposits 7 laid d[n4 ,b ! evid5ce entitles u to say mu* m ?an ?is4 ,! int]glacial b$s ( ,ohio1 ,indiana1 ,ill9ois1 & o!r ,/ates1 af=d abundant evid5ce ( a great =e/-gr[? hav+ cov]$ ! regions vacat$ by ! ice ( ! p5ultimate glacial epo*4 ,! trees ( ?is =e/-l& includ$ sycamore1 bee*1 hickory1 r$-c$>1 & o!rs2 & among/ ! plants 7 grape v9es ( enorm\s gr[?1 :i*1 accord+ to ,pr(essor ,cox1 indicate p]haps ! luxuriance ( a w>m] climate4 ,at all ev5ts1 ! climate t n\ri%$ su* a =e/-gr[? c\ld n h be5 less g5ial ?an ! pres5t4 ,& su* be+ ! case1 we may reasonably inf] t ! va/ regions to ! nor? ( ! lakes 7 no m inhospitable !n ?an !y are n[4 ,to ?is g5ial int]glacial epo* succe$$ ! la/ glacial epo*1 :5 a great ice-%eet once m envelop$ a wide area4 ,9 ! extreme ea/ ?is late/ m] de glace appe>s to h rea*$ z f> s\? z t ( ! e>li] epo*2 b z we foll[ its t]m9al mora9es we/w>d !y lead u fur!r & fur!r away f ! s\!rn limits atta9$ by ! prec$+ ice-%eet4 ,^! great t]m9al mora9es =m an int]e/+ /udy1 & ! g5]al results obta9$ by ,am]ican obs]v]s h be5 v c>efully put toge!r by ,pr(essor ,*amb]l94 ,i trav]s$ wide regions ( ^? mora9es 9 ,indiana1 ,ill9ois1 ,wiscons91 & ,m9nesota1 &1 s f> z my obs]vations w5t1 ,i c\ld only confirm ! conclusions arriv$ at by ,pr(essor ,*amb]l9 & o!rs4 ,! m\nds1 banks1 cones1 & ridges are unque/ionably mora9es--( enorm\s dim5sions1 no d\bt1 b 9 all _! ph5om5a /rictly analog\s to simil> gravelly mora9es 9 our own c\ntry & ! ,cont95t4 ,_m ( ! ,am]ican mora9es consi/ almo/ entirely ( wat]-worn mat]ial--s&1 gravel1 %+le1 & b\ld]s1 toge!r ) l>ge angul> & sub-angul> erratics4 ,^! deposits are g5]ally /ratifi$1 & frequ5tly %[ diagonal or false-b$d+4 ,9 ?is & o!r respects !y exactly reproduce--b ( c\rse on a mu* l>g] scale--our ,scotti% kames1 & ! simil> accumulations ( nor? ,g]many & ,f9l&1 & ! l[-gr\nds ( ,italy opposite ! m\?s ( ! great ,alp9e lakes4 ,! kames ( ,wiscons9 aga9 & aga9 rem9d$ me ( ! gravelly mora9es t cov] ! gr\nd = _m miles r\nd ! l[] end ( ,lake ,g>da4 ,x is ?is gravelly & s&y aspect ( ! ,am]ican mora9es t is mo/ conspicu\s1 wat]-assort$ mat]ials seem+ ev]y:]e to =m _! upp] & out] portions4 ,n[ & aga91 h[ev]1 a deep cutt+ discloses und]nea? & beh9d su* wat]-worn detritus a mass ( confus$ mat]ials1 consi/+ ( clay1 s&1 gravel1 %+le1 & b\ld]s1 :i* are angul> & sub-angul>1 (t5 smoo!d & /riat$1 & ( all %apes & sizes4 ,accord+ to ,mr4 ,*amb]l91 ?is un/ratifi$ mat]ial is indi/+ui%able f true till1 & is d\btless to be reg>d$ z till pu%$ up into corrugations by ! me*anical action ( ! ice4 ,?is gr& s]ies ( mora9es /ret*es f ! p59sula ( ,cape ,cod across ! nor!rn ,/ates1 & passes 9 a nor?-we/]ly direction into ! ,briti% ,possessions1 ov] :i* x has be5 foll[$ = "s #djj miles4 ,! disposition ( ! mora9es1 =m+ z !y d a s]ies ( great loops1 %[s t ! ice-%eet t]m9at$ 9 a numb] ( lobes or gigantic tongue-l processes4 ,no?+ se5 by me sugge/$ any m>9e action2 on ! contr>y1 e appe>ance1 z ,i h said1 betok5$ ! mora9ic orig9 ( ! m\nds2 & ,mr4 ,*amb]l9 assur$ me t _! peculi> di/ribution 0 ev]y:]e sugge/ive ( ?is orig94 ,no "o :o has trav]s$ ! regions ,i ref] to is at all likely to agree ) ,sir ,w4 ,dawson's view1 t ! ,am]ican m\nds1 etc41 are ! %ore-accumulations ( an ice-lad5 sea4 ,! mora9ic orig9 ( ^! accumulations hav+ be5 demon/rat$ by ,am]ican geologi/s1 we are n[ able to draw ano!r p>allel betwe5 ! ,european & ,am]ican glacial deposits4 ,we h se5 t 9 ,europe ! ice-%eet ( ! late/ glacial epo* 0 by no means s ext5sive z t ( ! prec$+ glacial epo*4 ,! same 0 ! case 9 ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,moreov]1 9 ,am]ica1 j z 9 ,europe1 ! late/ occupant ( ! l& 0 n ! sea1 b glaci]-ice4 ,9 ,scotl& & ,sc&9avia ! gradual disappe>ance ( ! late/ ice-%eets 0 m>k$ by a p>tial subm]g5ce1 :i* 9 ! =m] c\ntry did n greatly exce$ #ajj feet1 & 9 ! latt] #gjj feet4 ,9 ,am]ica1 9 l mann]1 we f9d traces ( a simil> p>tial subm]g5ce4 ,9 ,connecticut ?is did n exce$ #dj or #ej feet1 b increas$ to "s #ejj feet 9 ! ,/4 ,lawr5ce1 & to ov] #ajjj feet 9 ! ,arctic regions4 ,if !re ev] 0 dur+ ! ,glacial p]iod a great] subm]g5ce ?an ?is 9 ,nor? ,am]ica x mu/ h tak5 place 9 e>li] glacial or int]glacial times1 b ( su* a subm]g5ce no trace has yet be5 recognis$4 ,9 ?is respect ! ,am]ican record diff]s some:at f our own1 = 9 ,brita9 we h evid5ce ( a subm]g5ce ( ov] #ajjj feet1 :i* sup]v5$ 9 times imm$iately prec$+ ! late/ great ext5sion ( cont95tal ice4,p ,b n[h]e 9 middle ,europe1 & n[h]e 9 ,nor? ,am]ica1 9 ! region s\? & we/ ( ! great lakes1 is !re any trace ( a g5]al m>9e subm]g5ce4 ,! ,palocry/ic ,sea is z idle a dream = ! nor!rn ,/ates ( ,am]ica z x is = any "p ( ,europe4 ,p ,see footnote1 p4 #agc4 ,,vi4 ,! ,results ( ,fluvio-glacial ,action 9 ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,! close analogies :i* obta9 betwe5 ! glacial & int]glacial deposits ( ,europe & ,nor? ,am]ica are equally *>act]i/ic ( ! fluvio-glacial accumulations ( ! two cont95ts4 ,z 9 ,europe1 s 9 ,am]ica we meet ) consid]able %eets ( gravel & %+le1 s&1 f9e clay1 & loam1 :i* are evid5tly ( fre%wat] orig94 ,9 ! g5tly-undulat+ tracts ( ! nor!rn ,/ates ^? deposits (t5 spread cont9u\sly ov] wide regions2 9 ! hilli] di/ricts1 h[ev]1 !y are mo/ *>act]i/ic ( ! valleys4 ,!y are v well repres5t$1 = example1 9 ! ,connecticut valley1 :]e !y h be5 c>efully /udi$ by ,pr(essor ,dana4 ,l ! simil> deposits ( our own ,cont95t1 !y h be5 laid d[n by ! torr5ts & swoll5 riv]s ( ! ,glacial p]iod4 ,! great range ( mora9es :i* m>ks ! extreme limits rea*$ by ! late/ ice-%eet is g5]ally associat$ ) %eets ( gravel & s&1 :i* "o c see at a glance are ( contemporane\s orig91 hav+ be5 spread out by ! wat] escap+ f ! melt+ ice4 ,nor c "o d\bt t ! va/ %eets ( lss 9 ! ,miss\ri & ,mississippi valleys are /rictly analog\s 9 orig91 z !y are 9 /ructure & disposition1 to ! lss ( ,europe4 ,i h spok5 ( ! probable exi/5ce ( a glacial lake =m$ by ! damm+ back ( ! ,rh9e & o!r riv]s by ! ,european ice-%eet4 ,n[1 9 ,nor? ,am]ica we meet ) evid5ce ( ! same ph5om5on4 ,:5 ! la/ ice-%eet ( t cont95t atta9$ its maximum developm5t1 all ! wat] escap+ f its m>g9 9 ! nor? ,/ates necess>ily fl[$ s\? into ! ,mississippi & ,miss\ri riv]s4 ,b 9 c\rse ( "t ! ice melt$ away beyond ! dra9age-area ( ^? riv]s1 & disappe>$ f ! valley ( ! ,r$ ,riv] ( ! nor?1 :i*1 x w be rememb]$1 empties itself nor?w>d into ,lake ,w9nipeg4 ,:5 ! ice-front _h retir$ s f> x naturally imp$$ ! dra9age ( ! ,r$ ,riv] bas91 & ?us =m$ a va/ glacial lake1 ! limits ( :i* h be5 approximately mapp$ out by ,mr4 ,upham1 by :om ! anci5t lake has be5 designat$ ,lake ,agassiz4 ,! deposits laid d[n 9 ?is lake consi/ ( f9ely lam9at$ clays1 etc41 :i* resemble 9 e p>ticul> ! simil> unfossilif]\s clays s frequ5tly f\nd associat$ ) glacial accumulations 9 ,europe4 ,_h ! dra9age ( ! ,r$ ,riv] valley be5 s\? in/ead ( nor?1 ! clays & loams ( ! f> nor?-we/ w\ld n h be5 arre/$ & spread out :]e !y n[ are1 & ,manitoba w\ld h be5 cov]$ = ! mo/ "p ) loose %+le1 gravel1 & s&4 ,?us ! f9al disappe>ance ( ! ,am]ican ice-%eet 0 m>k$ by ! =mation n only ( mora9es1 b ( flood-gravels & torr5tial- & inundation-deposits ( ! same "* z ^? ) :i* we are famili> at home4 ,:]ev] simil> geographical conditions prevail$1 !re simil> geological results foll[$4 ,,vii4 ,conclusion4 ,!re are _m o!r po9ts ( resemblance betwe5 ! glacial & fluvio-glacial accumulations ( ! two cont95ts1 b to ^! "t =bids any ref]5ce4 ,inde$1 ,i _c recall any signal diff]5ce4 ,su* diff]5ces z d occur are due simply to ! v>y+ conditions ( ! two cont95tal areas4 ,! glacial ph5om5a ( ,nor? ,am]ica are a repetition ( ^? ( ,europe1 b ^u a mu* gr&] scale4 ,! b\ld]-clays ( ! =m] cont95t1 9 _! composition1 /ructure1 & di/ribution1 exactly recall our own4 ,int]glacial b$s occur "u simil> circum/ances 9 bo? cont95ts2 & ! same is ! case ) ! gravelly mora9es & fluvio-glacial accumulations4 ,we are driv51 !n1 to ! conclusion t ! physical conditions ( ! ,glacial p]iod 7 practically ! same 9 ,europe & ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,:at ^? conditions 7 ,i h already indicat$1 & h %[n t ! results arriv$ at by geologi/s are n vague dreams & speculations1 b a logical induction f well-asc]ta9$ facts4 ,be=e we c believe t volcanic eruptions1 a g5]al deluge1 or a ,palocry/ic ,sea h produc$ ! _m v>i$ ph5om5a ( our glacial =mations1 ei!r 9 :ole or 9 "p1 we mu/ fir/ %ut our eyes & !n erase f our m9ds all k ( ! facts :i* h be5 s labori\sly ga!r$ by a long succession ( compet5t obs]v]s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate ,,iii ,,di/ribution ,,( ,,ice ,,pa/ ,,& ,,pres5t4 ,,pol> ,,view ,,( ,,! ,,_w ,,on ,,lamb]ts ,,equal ,,area ,,projection ,,vii4 ,! ,int]cross+ ( ,erratics 9 ,glacial ,deposits4,q ,q ,! ,scotti% ,naturali/1 #ahha4 ,among ! _m ph5om5a connect$ ) ! glacial deposits ( ?is c\ntry :i* h puzzl$ geologi/s !re is none m rem>kable ?an ! int]cross+ ( erratics4 ,! fact t su* w&]$ blocks h app>5tly cross$ ea* o!r's tracks 9 _! j\rneys appe>s at fir/ sight inexplicable on ! assumption t _! transport has be5 effect$ by l&-ice4 ,! ph5om5a 9 "q1 !re=e1 h always be5 appeal$ to by ^? :o uphold ! iceb]g orig9 ( our b\ld]-clays1 etc41 z evid5ce decisively 9 fav\r ( _! views4 ,no "o c d5y t any degree & am\nt ( int]cross+ might take place 9 ! case ( iceb]gs4 ,we c readily conceive h[ float+ ice1 deta*$ f a long l9e ( coa/1 might be compell$ by %ift+ w9ds & *ang+ curr5ts to tack ab\t aga9 & aga91 s z to pursue ! mo/ devi\s c\rse1 & scatt] _! /ony burd5s 9 ! mo/ erratic mann] ov] ! sea-bottom2 :ile1 on ! o!r h&1 x is q impossible to und]/& h[ a simil> irregul> di/ribution ( erratics c\ld take place "u "o & ! same glaci] fl[+ 9 a det]m9ate direction4 ,x is little wond]1 !n1 t ! curi\s ph5om5a ( ! int]cross+ ( erratics %\ld h _h mu* importance atta*$ to x by ! uphold]s ( ! iceb]g !ory1 see+ t all ! o!r pro(s :i* h be5 adduc$ 9 fav\r ( ?is !ory h only s]v$ to demon/rate its insuffici5cy4 ,^u ! facts connect$ ) ! int]cross+ ( erratics1 ! support]s ( ?is "t-hon\r$ !ory are n[ mak+ :at ,i mu/ believe is _! la/ /&4 ,i purpose !re=e1 9 ?is pap]1 to give a %ort outl9e ( ^? facts1 ) ! view ( %[+ t s f> f be+ antagoni/ic to ! l&-ice !ory1 !y are 9 complete h>mony ) x2 & inde$ mu/ be consid]$ z af=d+ an additional demon/ration ( its tru?4 ,"s ye>s ago ,i call$ att5tion to ! fact t 9 ! middle di/ricts ( ,scotl& ! b\ld]-clay n infrequ5tly conta9s a curi\s comm+l+ ( nor!rn & s\!rn erratics4,r ,i %[$ t ?is 0 ! case ?r\gh\t a belt ( c\ntry ext5d+ f ! sea-coa/ ne> ,ayr1 nor?-ea/ to ! valley ( ! ,irv9e1 & !nce across ! wat]%$ into ! ,avon1 & ea/ to ,lesmahag[1 !n d[n ! valley ( ! ,clyde to ,c>luke1 /ret*+ away to ! ea/ by ,wilsont[n1 & !reaft] cont9u+ along ! cre/ ( ! ,p5tl&s & ! nor!rn slopes ( ! ,lamm]muir ,hills1 by ,re/on & ,ayton1 to ! sea4 ,all along ?is l9e1 ,i rem>k$1 we h a 'debatable gr\nd' ( v>iable bread?1 ?r\gh\t :i* we f9d a comm+l+ 9 ! till ( /ones :i* h come f nor? & f s\?4 ,s\? ( x1 *>act]i/ic ,highl& /ones d n occur1 & nor? ( x /ones d]iv$ f ! s\? are simil>ly abs5t4 ,! explanation ( ^! facts is obvi\s4 ,! belt ( gr\nd ref]r$ to 0 evid5tly ! meet+-place ( ! ,highl& & s\!rn m]s de glace4 ,"h ! two oppos+ ice-fl[s coalesc$ & became deflect$ by _! mutual pressure to "r & left--"o great curr5t go+ ea/ & ano!r we/4 ,x is evid5t t ! l9e ( junction betwe5 ! two m]s de glace c\ld n be rigor\sly ma9ta9$ 9 "o & ! same position dur+ a p]iod ( glaciation1 b w\ld t5d to oscillate backw>ds & =w>ds1 accord+ z "o or ! o!r ice-%eet prevail$4 ,sometimes ! s\!rn ice-%eet w\ld be enabl$ to pu% back ! nor!rn m] de glace1 :ile at o!r times ! conv]se w\ld take place4 ,nor is x necess>y to suppose t ! advance ( "o ice-%eet 0 g5]al along ! :ole l9e4 ,on ! contr>y1 x is mo/ likely t ! movem5t 0 q irregul>--an ice-%eet advanc+ 9 "s places1 :ile at o!r po9ts its l9e ( junction ) ! oppos+ ice-%eet rema9$ /ation>y1 or ev5 retrograd$4 ,su* movem5ts w\ld obvi\sly give rise to oscillations 9 ! sub-glacial dbris ( clay & /ones2 & ?us we h a simple & natural explanation ( ^? int]cross+s ( erratics :i* are s *>act]i/ic ( t region :i* ,i h t]m$ ! debatable gr\nd4 ,& ?is conclusion is borne out by ! fact t ! glacial /ri ( ! same debatable gr\nd af=d l evid5ce ( oscillation 9 ! tr5d ( ! ice-fl[4 ,r ,great ,ice ,age1 #bnd edit41 p4 #fji4 ,along ! base ( ! ,highl& m\nta9s 9 ,=f>%ire1 etc41 we meet ) simil> int]cross+s ( erratics4 ,?us we occasionally enc\nt] 9 ! b\ld]-clays ov]ly+ ! ,silurian regions erratics ( ,old ,r$ ,s&/one rocks :i* h come f ! ea/ or s\?-ea/2 :ile ! abundant pres5ce ( erratics ( ,silurian orig91 on ! o!r h&1 bespeak an ice-fl[ f ! we/ t[>ds ! l[-gr\nds4 ,9 "s places )9 ! ,silurian area we enc\nt] a greyi%-blue b\ld]-clay conta9+ ,silurian fragm5ts only1 :ile 9 o!r places )9 ! same area ! b\ld]-clay becomes r$di%1 & is *>g$ ) _m b\ld]s ( ,old ,r$ ,s&/one rocks4 ,n[ ! greyi%-blue till c\ld only h be5 laid d[n by glaci]-ice desc5d+ f ! ,silurian high-gr\nds to ,/ra?more1 :ile ! r$ b\ld]-clay po9ts to a p>tial invasion ( ! ,silurian regions by l&-ice1 :i* _h previ\sly trav]s$ ! l[]-ly+ ,old ,r$ ,s&/one areas4 ,^! app>5tly contradictory movem5ts are readily acc\nt$ = by ! =m] pres5ce 9 ! area ( ! ,nor? ,sea ( ! great ,sc&9avian m] de glace4 ,dr4 ,james ,croll 0 ! fir/ to po9t out t ! glacial ph5om5a ( ,cai?ness & ! ,%etl&s c\ld only be acc\nt$ = by ! advance ( ! ,sc&9avian ice-%eet t[>ds our coa/s1 :]e x enc\nt]$ & deflect$ ! ,scotti% ice-%eet out ( its normal c\rse--a sagaci\s induction1 :i* ! admirable & exhau/ive rese>*es ( my colleagues1 ,messrs4 ,b4 ,n4 ,pea* & ,j4 ,horne1 h n[ firmly e/abli%$4 ,! l[] blue b\ld]-clay 0 evid5tly accumulat$ at a "t :5 ! ,scotti% ice 0 able to fl[ m or less directly ea/ or s\?-ea/ t[>ds :at is n[ ! coa/-l9e2 :ile ! ov]ly+ r$ b\ld]-clay po9ts to a subsequ5t p]iod :5 ! pres5ce ( ! ,sc&9avian m] de glace 0 suffici5tly great to compel ! ,scotti% ice out ( its normal c\rse1 & cause x to fl[ 9 a nor?-ea/]ly direction4 ,9 do+ s x n[ & aga9 pass$ f tracts ( ,old ,r$ ,s&/one to invade ! ,silurian area1 & ?us an ov]ly+ r$ b\ld]-clay 0 "h & !re accumulat$ ^u ! surface ( a greyi%-blue till 9 :i* n a s+le fragm5t ( any ,old ,r$ ,s&/one rock occurs4 ,rec5tly ,messrs4 ,b4 ,n4 ,pea* & ,j4 ,horne1 9 a mo/ in/ructive pap] on ! ,glaciation ( ,cai?ness1,s h describ$ "s rem>kable comm+l+s ( mat]ial :i* occur 9 a region :]e ! glacial /ri af=d equally /rik+ evid5ce ( conflict+ ice-movem5ts4 ,^! ph5om5a are develop$ "h & !re along a l9e :i* indicates ! meet+-place ( two rival ice-/reams1 on ea* side ( :i* ! b\ld]-clay pres5ts diff]5t *>act]i/ics--! "o b\ld]-clay be+ ! mora9e pr(onde ( ! ice t fl[$ ,,ene4 & ,,nne4 t[>ds ! ,cai?ness pla91 :ile ! o!r is an accumulation =m$ und]nea? ! ice t /ream$ across t pla9 f ,,se4 to ,,nw4 ,^! ph5om5a are ?us1 z my colleagues rem>k1 q analog\s to ^? met ) 9 ! middle di/ricts ( ,scotl&1 z describ$ by me1 & ref]r$ to 9 a prec$+ p>agraph4 ,n[ x is obvi\s t :ile ^! examples ( int]cross+s ( erratics & cross-hat*+ ( /ri all g /rongly to support ! l&-ice !ory ( ! glacial ph5om5a1 !y at ! same "t negative ! notion ( float+-ice hav+ _h any?+ to d ) ! production ( ! ph5om5a "u review4 ,s ,proce$+s ,royal ,physical ,society1 ,ed9burgh1 #ahha4 ,be=e consid]+ ! evid5ce adduc$ by ,mr4 ,mack9to% & o!rs z to ! int]cross+s ( erratics 9 ! drift-deposits ( ,engl&1 ,i %all m5tion "s ( ! m rem>kable examples ( ! same ph5om5a :i* h be5 notic$ by cont95tal geologi/s4 ,! fir/ cases ,i %all cite are ^? :i* h be5 obs]v$ 9 ! glacial accumulations ( ! ,rhone valley 9 ea/]n ,france4 ,! l&-ice orig9 ( ^! accumulations has nev] be5 call$ 9 "q1 & z ! int]cross+s ( erratics 9 t region are n only m common1 b mu* m /rik+ & app>5tly inexplicable ?an any :i* h be5 notic$ else:]e1 x w be admitt$ t !y ( !mselves af=d a /rong presumption t ! conflict+ c\rses foll[$ by ! erratics 9 c]ta9 regions ( our own c\ntry are ! result r ( oscillations 9 ! fl[ ( l&-ice ?an ( ! r&om & ecc5tric action ( iceb]gs4 ,! rese>*es ( ,swiss & ,fr5* glaciali/s h prov$ t dur+ ! climax ( ! ,glacial p]iod an enorm\s area 9 ! l[-gr\nds ( ea/]n ,france 0 cov]$ ) a huge m] de glace1 =m$ by ! union ( ! great ,rhone glaci] ) ! glaci]s desc5d+ f ! m\nta9s ( ,savoy & ,dauph9y4 ,a l9e drawn f ,b\rg by way ( ,*atillon1 ,vill5euve1 ,trv\x1 & ,lyons to ,vi5ne1 & !nce s\?-ea/ by ,beaurepaire to ! valley ( ! ,isre1 a few miles above ,/4 ,m>cell91 indicates r\ghly ! fur!/ limits rea*$ by ! m] de glace4 ,ov] all ! l[-gr\nds betwe5 t t]m9al l9e & ! m\nta9s are f\nd widespread %eets ( b\ld]-clay & s& & gravel1 toge!r ) loose erratics4 ,n[ & aga91 too1 well-m>k$ t]m9al mora9es make _! appe>ance1 :ile ! rock-surfaces1 :5 ^! are visible & capable ( be>+ & reta9+ glacial m>k+s1 pres5t ! usual aspect ( ro*es m\tonnes4 ,! same k9ds ( mora9ic mat]ials & ice-m>k+s may ( c\rse be foll[$ up into ! valleys n only ( ! ,alps prop]ly s-call$1 b also into ^? ( ! hills ( ,bugey & ! second>y m\nta9-*a9 ( ,savoy & ,dauph9y4 ,x has inde$ long be5 kn[n t local glaci]s =m]ly occupi$ ! m\nta9-valleys ( ,bugey4 ,= example1 a numb] ( small glaci]s h desc5d$ f ! slopes ( ! m\nta9s we/ ( ,belley 7su* z ,bois de la ,morgue1 ,bois de ,l9d1 etc47 to ! ,rhone1 & aga9 f ,mont du ,*at to ! nor?-we/4 ,^! glaci]s 7 q indep5d5t ( ! great] ice-/reams ( ! neighb\r+ ,alps ( ,savoy1 & ! same 0 ! case ) ! glaci]s ( t m\nta9\s tract :i* ext5ds f ,nantua s\? to ,culoz1 betwe5 ! valleys ( ! ,a9 & ! ,rhone4 ,f ?is elevat$ region _m local glaci]s desc5d$1 su* z t ( ! ,valromey1 :i* fl[$ = a di/ance ( "s tw5ty miles f nor? to s\?4 ,aga91 simil> local glaci]s h left abundant traces ( _! =m] pres5ce ?r\gh\t ! m\nta9\s belt ( l& t /ret*es betwe5 ,*amb]y & ,gr5oble to ! we/ ( ! valley ( ! ,isre4 ,! mora9es ( all ^? local glaci]s1 *>g$ z !y are ) ! dbris ( ! neighb\r+ heights1 cle>ly indicate t ! local glaci]s fl[$ ea* d[n its own p>ticul> valley4 ,!re are c]ta9 o!r appe>ances1 h[ev]1 :i* seem at fir/ sight to contradict ?is view4 ,sometimes1 = example1 we enc\nt] 9 ! same valleys erratics :i* d n belong to ! dra9age-sy/em )9 :i* !y occur1 b h )\t d\bt be5 d]iv$ f ! high] ,alps ( ,switz]l& & ,savoy4 ,& ! c\rse foll[$ by ^! =eign erratics has cross$ at all angles t :i* ! local glaci]s h c]ta9ly pursu$--occasionally1 inde$1 ! "o set ( erratics has travell$ 9 a direction exactly oppos$ to ! tr5d tak5 by ! o!rs4 ,z examples1 ,i may cite ! case ( ! erratics :i* occur 9 ,petit ,bugey4 ,9 ?is di/rict we enc\nt] _m locally-d]iv$ erratics :i* h come f ,mont du ,*at to ! we/ ( ! ,lac du ,b\rget--t is to say1 !y h travell$ 9 a nor?-we/]ly direction4 ,b 9 ! same neighb\rhood are f\nd _m erratics ( ,alp9e orig9 :i* h be5 c>ri$ f nor?-ea/ to s\?-we/1 or at "r angles to ! c\rse foll[$ by ! local erratics4 ,aga91 9 ! valley ( ! ,s]an we h evid5ce 9 erratics & t]m9al mora9es ( a local glaci] :i* fl[$ s\? z f> z ! ,lyons & ,g5eva ,railway1 9 ! neighb\rhood ( :i*1 a few miles to ! we/ ( ,culoz1 its t]m9al mora9es may be obs]v$4 ,?is is ! ext9ct ,glaci] du ,valromey ( ,,mm4 ,falsan & ,*antre4 ,n[ x is especially wor?y ( note t 9 ! same valley we h di/9ct evid5ce ( an ice-fl[ f s\? to nor?--i4e41 up ! valley4 ,erratics & mora9ic mat]ials :i* are unque/ionably ( ,alp9e orig9 h be5 foll[$ a long way up ! ,s]an valley--= two-?irds ( its l5g? at lea/4 ,be=e !y c\ld h ent]$ t valley & approa*$ ! slopes ( ,romey1 !y mu/ h travell$ d[n ! valley ( ! ,rhone f ! high] ,alps ( ,savoy 9 a s\?-we/ & s\? direction until !y r\nd$ ! ,montagne du ,gr& ,colombi]4 ,x 0 only aft] !y _h r\nd$ ?is massive m\nta9-ridge t !y c\ld pursue _! c\rse up ! valley ( ! ,s]an1 9 a direction precisely opposite to t :i* !y _h previ\sly foll[$4 ,^! & _m simil> & ev5 m rem>kable examples ( ! int]cross+s ( /reams ( erratics are describ$ by ,,mm4 ,falsan & ,*antre1 & graphically portray$ 9 _! beautiful & in/ructive "w on ! ,anci5t ,glaci]s & ,erratic ,deposits ( ! ,bas9 ( ! ,rhone2 & ! explanation ( ! ph5om5a giv5 by !m is extremely simple & conv9c+4 ,! local erratics & mora9es p]ta9 p>tly to ! comm5cem5t & p>tly to ! clos+ /age ( ! ,glacial p]iod4 ,long be=e ! s\? bran* ( ! great glaci] ( ! ,rhone _h unit$ ) ! glaci] ( ! ,arve1 & ?is la/ ) ! glaci]s ( ,annecy & ,beaufurt1 & be=e ^! _h become conflu5t ) ! glaci] ( ! ,isre1 etc41 ! second>y m\nta9-ranges ( ,savoy & ,dauph9y & ! hills ( ,bugey 7 cov]$ ) v consid]able sn[-fields1 f :i* local glaci]s desc5d$ all ! valleys to ! l[-gr\nd4 ,b :5 ! va/ ice-fl[s ( ,switz]l&1 ,upp] ,savoy1 etc41 at la/ became conflu5t1 !y completely ov]fl[$ _m ( ! hilly di/ricts :i* _h =m]ly support$ indep5d5t sn[-fields & glaci]s1 & deposit$ _! bottom-mora9es ov] ! mora9ic dbris ( ! local glaci]s4 ,9 o!r cases1 :]e ! second>y hill-ranges 7 too l(ty to be completely dr[n$ 9 ! great m] de glace1 long tongues ( ice dilat$ into ! valleys1 & compell$ ! local ice out ( its c\rse2 sometimes1 z 9 ! case ( ! ,valromey1 =c+ x backw>d up ! valleys d[n :i* x =m]ly fl[$4 ,b :5 once m ! mighty m] de glace 0 on ! wane1 !n ! local glaci]s came aga9 into exi/5ce1 & reoccupi$ _! old c\rses4 ,& ?us x is t 9 ! hilly regions at ! base ( ! high] ,alps1 & ev5 out ^u ! l[-gr\nds & pla9s1 we enc\nt] t rem>kable comm+l+ ( erratics :i* has be5 describ$ above4 ,n infrequ5tly1 inde$1 we f9d "o set ( mora9es sup]pos$ ^u ano!r1 j z 9 ! l[-gr\nds ( nor!rn ,g]many1 etc41 we may obs]ve "o b\ld]-clay ov]ly+ ano!r1 ! erratics 9 :i* give evid5ce ( transport 9 diff]5t directions4 ,! obs]vations record$ by ,,mm4 ,falsan & ,*antre1 & _! colleagues1 ?us demon/rate t int]cross+s ( erratics ( ! mo/ pron\nc$ "* h be5 br\ght ab\t solely by ! action ( glaci]s4 ,9 ! case ( ! erratics & mora9ic accumulations ( ! bas9 ( ! ,rhone1 ! action ( iceb]gs is entirely preclud$4 ,i may n[ m5tion "s ( ! m rem>kable examples ( int]cross+s ( erratics :i* h be5 record$ f ! glacial accumulations ( nor? ,g]many1 etc4 ,an exam9ation ( ! glacial /ri1 ro*es m\tonnes1 & b\ld]-clays ( ,saxony leads to ! conviction1 accord+ to ,cr$n]1 ,p5ck1 ,torell1 ,hell&1 & o!rs1 t ! :ole ( t region has be5 invad$ by ! great ,sc&9avian m] de glace :i* fl[$ into ,saxony f ,,nne4 to ,,ssw4 ,erratics f s\!rn ,sw$5 & ,go?l& occur 9 ! b\ld]-clay1 & ! pres5ce ( ^!1 tak5 9 connection ) ! direction ( ! glaciation1 leaves u no alt]native b to agree ) ! conclusions arriv$ at by ! ,saxon geologi/s4 ,b1 app>5tly 9 direct contradiction ( ?is conclusion1 we h evid5ce to %[ t b\ld]s ( ! same k9ds ( rock occur 9 ,d5m>k & ,holl&1 po9t+ to a =m] ice-fl[ f nor?-ea/ to s\?-we/ & we/4 ,?us b\ld]s d]iv$ f ,go?l& occur at ,grn+5 9 ,holl&1 :ile fragm5ts f ! isl& ( l& are met ) 9 ,fax2 & erratics f ! bord]s ( ! ,gulf ( ,f9l& are enc\nt]$ at ,hamburg4 ,inde$1 :5 geologi/s come to exam9e ! erratics 9 nor? ,g]many & ,pol& g5]ally1 !y f9d evid5ce ( app>5tly two ice-fl[s--"o ( :i* w5t s\?-s\?-we/1 s\?1 & s\?-ea/--spread+ out1 z x 71 9 a fan-%ape t[>ds ! s\!rn limits rea*$ by ! great ,nor!rn ,drift1--:ile ! o!r seems to h foll[$ ! c\rse ( ! ,baltic depression1 ov]fl[+ ! l[-gr\nds ( nor!rn ,prussia1 ,holl&1 etc41 9 a s\?-we/ & we/ direction4 ,n[1 x is q evid5t t no "o m] de glace c\ld h foll[$ ^! v>i\s directions at "o & ! same "t4 ,! explanation ( ! app>5t anomaly1 h[ev]1 is n f> to seek4 ,x is reasonable to inf] t long be=e ! m] de glace _h atta9$ its maximum dim5sions1 :5 z yet x 0 conf9$ to ! bas9 ( ! ,baltic & 0 only able to ov]fl[ ! nor!rn regions ( ,prussia1 etc41 its c\rse w\ld be det]m9$ by ! cont\r ( ! pavem5t ^u :i* x advanc$4 ,x w\ld1 !re=e1 be compell$ to foll[ ! ,baltic depression1 & = a long "t x w\ld c>ry erratics f ,f9l&1 ! ,baltic isl&s1 & ea/]n ,sw$5 9 a s\?-we/ & we/-s\?-we/ direction4 ,& ?is w\ld cont9ue to be ! direction ev5 aft] a consid]able portion ( ! l[-gr\nds ( ,prussia1 etc41 _h be5 ov]fl[$4 ,b :5 ! ice-%eet 0 enabl$ to advance s\? into ,saxony1 ,pol&1 & ,li?uania1 erratics f ,f9l&1 ! ,baltic isl&s1 etc41 w\ld necess>ily cease to travel t[>ds ! we/1 & hold on a s\?-s\?-ea/1 s\?1 & s\?-s\?-we/ c\rse4 ,aga91 :5 ! m] de glace 0 on ! decl9e1 a "t w\ld return :5 ! ice1 z be=e1 w\ld be controll$ 9 its fl[ by ! ,baltic depression1 & ?is w\ld give rise to a fur!r di/ribution ( erratics 9 a preval5t we/-by-s\? direction4,t ,t ,= a full] discussion ( ! di/ribution ( erratics on ! ,cont95t1 ,i may ref] to ,app5dix1 ,note ,b1 9 ,prehi/oric ,europe1 :]e ! read] w f9d ref]5ces to ! lit]ature ( ?is int]e/+ subject4 ,cont95tal geologi/s n[ recognise a di/9ct /age ( ! ,ice ,age1 dur+ :i* _! ,upp] ,diluvium 0 deposit$ by a great glaci] t occupi$ ! bas9 ( ! ,baltic4 ,?is ,great ,baltic ,glaci] appe>s to h be5 contemporane\s ) ! local ice-%eets & valley-glaci]s ( ! ,highl&s & o!r m\nta9-tracts ( our isl&4 ,see ,article ,x4 #ahib4 ,no "o ( late ye>s has be5 m assidu\s 9 ! collection ( facts relat+ to ! int]cross+ ( erratics 9 ! drift-deposits ( ,engl& ?an ,mr4 ,d4 ,mack9to%4,u ,he has writt5 _m in/ructive & int]e/+ descriptions ( ! ph5om5a 9 "q1 :i* he ju/ly ?9ks are ( prime importance f a !oretical po9t ( view4 ,9 a rec5t pap],v he pres5ts u ) ! results ( a sy/ematic survey ( ! direction & limits ( disp]sion ( ! erratics ( ! we/ ( ,engl& & ea/ ( ,wales1 :i* he evid5tly is ( op9ion af=d /rong support to ! iceb]g !ory1 :ile at ! same "t !y are directly oppos$ to ! !ory ( transport by l&-ice4 ,i h att5tively consid]$ all ! argum5ts advanc$ by ,mr4 ,mack9to% 9 fav\r ( 8 views--! "o ^u :i* he app>5tly lays mo/ /ress be+ t ( ! int]cross+s ( erratics obs]v$ by him--& ,i %all n[ proce$ to po9t out h[ ! ph5om5a describ$ by him are mo/ satisfactorily expla9$ by ! l&-ice !ory4 ,!y seem to me1 inde$1 to l5d additional support to t !ory1 9 ! same mann] z ! int]cross+s ( b\ld]s obs]v$ 9 ,scotl&1 nor!rn ,g]many1 etc41 & sub-alp9e regions ( ,france4 ,mr4 ,mack9to% calls att5tion to ! fact t erratics ( ! well-kn[n ,criffel granite are f\nd scatt]$ ov] a l>ge "p ( ! pla9 ( ,cumb]l&1 f :i* !y ext5d s\? along ! coa/ to ne> ! m\? ( ! e/u>y ( ! ,duddon4 ,!y reappe> on ! coa/ 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ,blackpool & ,liv]pool1 & aga9 at int]vals on ! coa/s ( nor? ,wales f ,fl9t to ,colwyn ,bay1 & !nce to ,p5ma5mawr & ! neighb\rhood ( ,beaum>is4 ,!y are disp]s$ ov] ! p59sula ( ,wirral & ! ,*e%ire pla91 etc41 & !y h be5 foll[$ s\?-ea/ z f> z ! neighb\rhood ( ,c>d+ton1 ne> ,*ur* ,/retton1 ,burton1 ,wolv]hampton1 ,/af=d1 ,h>e ,ca/le1 ,macclesfield1 & ,man*e/]4 ,?is great /ream ( b\ld]s1 !re=e1 spreads out to s\?-ea/1 s\?1 & s\?-we/3 ! erratics1 to quote ,mr4 ,mack9to%1 h radiat$ f an area mu* small] ?an _! t]m9al bread?4 ,! same is ! case1 ,i may rem>k 9 pass+1 ) erratics 9 ! b\ld]-clays ( ,scotl&1 ,sc&9avia1 nor? ,g]many1 etc41 z also ) ^? 9 ! drift-deposits ( ! great ,rhone glaci] & o!r anci5t glaci]s bo? on ! nor? & s\? side ( ! ,alps4 ,n[1 ! c\rse foll[$ by ! ,criffel erratics is cross$ at an acute angle by ! pa? pursu$ by _m b\ld]s ( ,eskdale granite1 & v>i\s felspa?ic rocks d]iv$ f ! ,cumb]l& m\nta9s4 ,= example1 ,cumb]l& erratics ( ! k9ds m5tion$ occur ne> ,/4 ,asaph & ,moel-y-,tryfane & 9 ,anglesey1 & !y h be5 foll[$ ov] a wide di/rict 9 ,*e%ire1 etc41 ext5d+ z f> s\? z ,*ur* ,/retton & ,wolv]hampton1 & z f> ea/ z ,ro*dale4 ,m ?an ?is1 we f9d t num]\s erratics ( fel/one1 d]iv$ f ! m\nta9 ( ,great ,ar5ig1 9 nor? ,wales1 h gone to nor?-ea/ z f> z ,halk9 ,m\nta91 9 ,fl9t%ire1 ,eryrys1 ne> ,llan>mon1 & ,*irk1 f :i* la/-nam$ place !y h be5 trac$ 9 a s\?-ea/]ly direction to ,birm+ham1 ,bromsgrove1 etc4 ,a glance at ! map ( ,engl& w %[ t ?is s\?-ea/]ly drift ( erratics crosses at an acute angle ! pa?s foll[$ by ! ,criffel granite b\ld]s & ! erratics d]iv$ f ,cumb]l&1 s t we h n[ sev]al int]cross+s to acc\nt =4 ,h[ c ?is be done by ! l&-ice !ory8 ,u ,?is en?usia/ic geologi/ di$ 9 #ahia4 ,v ,qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,geol4 ,soc41 vol4 xxxv4 p4 #dbe ,! explanation seems to me obvi\s1 = ! ph5om5a are1 aft] all1 less /rik+ ?an simil> appe>ances :i* h be5 obs]v$ 9 ,scotl&1 especially by my colleagues1 ,messrs4 ,pea* & ,horne1 9 ,cai?ness & ! ,orkney & ,%etl& ,isl&s2 & !y are c]ta9ly less intricate ?an ! facts record$ by ,,mm4 ,falsan & ,*antre conc]n+ ! int]cross+1 int]osculation1 & direct opposition ( erratic pa?s 9 ,savoy & ,dauph9y4 ,we h only to reflect t ! great m] de glace--to :i*1 z ,i believe1 all ! ,engli% ph5om5a are due--did n come into exi/5ce & atta9 its maximum dim5sions 9 ! tw9kl+ ( an eye1 nor c\ld x aft]w>ds h disappe>$ 9 ! same sudd5 mann]4 ,on ! contr>y1 a p]iod ( local glaciation mu/ h prec$$ ! appe>ance ( ! great ice-%eet4 ,at fir/1 & = a long "t1 p]man5t sn[ w\ld be conf9$ to ! high] elevations ( ! l&1 & glaci]s w\ld be limit$ to m\nta9-valleys2 b z ! temp]ature fell ! sn[-l9e w\ld gradually desc5d1 until at la/1 probably aft] a prolong$ p]iod1 x rea*$ :at is n[ ! sea-level4 ,?us ! =mation ( nv & glaci]-ice w\ld ev5tually take place ov] :at are n[ our l[-gr\nds1 & o!r tracts also1 :i* are n[ subm]g$4 ,x is q impossible t ! va/ %eets ( ice :i* c be demon/rat$ to h cov]$ ,scotl&1 a l>ge "p ( ,engl&1 ,irel&1 ,sc&9avia1 & nor? ,g]many1 & ev5 ! limit$ area ( ! ,f>e ,isl&s1 c\ld possibly h be5 f$ by ! sn[-fields ( m\nta9-heights only4 ,! precipitation & accumulation ( sn[1 & ! =mation ( nv & glaci]-ice1 mu/ h tak5 place ov] enorm\s regions 9 :at are n[ ! temp]ate latitudes ( ,europe4 ,x is obvi\s t ! direction ( ice-fl[ 9 ! bas9 ( ! ,iri% ,sea opposite ! s\? ( ,scotl& & ! we/ ( ,engl&1 :ile pres]v+ a g5]al s\!rly tr5d1 w\ld v>y at diff]5t p]iods4 ,be=e ! m] de glace 9 t bas9 _h atta9$ its climax !re mu/ h be5 a "t :5 ! ice1 /ream+ outw>ds f ! high-gr\nds ( ,cumb]l&1 0 enabl$ to pu% its way f> we/w>d out into ! bas9 ( ! ,iri% ,sea4 ,at t "t x 0 /ill able to hold its own aga9/ ! pressure ex]t$ by ! ,scotti% ice4 ,b z ! g5]al m] de glace increas$ 9 ?ickness1 ! c\rse ( ! ,cumb]l& ice w\ld be div]t$ ev] fur!r & fur!r to ! s\?-ea/1 until1 ev5tually1 ! ,scotti% ice came to hug ! coa/ ( ,cumb]l&1 & to ov]fl[ ,lanca%ire 9 its progress t[>ds ! s\?-ea/4 ,s gorg$ ) ice did ! bas9 ( ! ,iri% ,sea become1 t a portion ( ! ,scotti% ice 0 =c$ ov] ! pla9 ( ,cumb]l& & up ! valley ( ! ,ed51 :]e x coalesc$ ) ! ice com+ nor? f ! ,%ap di/rict1 & !reaft] fl[$ 9 an ea/]ly direction to jo9 ! great m] de glace ( ! ,nor? ,sea bas94 ,?us ! int]cross+s ( ! ,criffel & ,cumb]l& erratics describ$ by ,mr4 ,mack9to% receive a ready explanation by ! l&-ice !ory4 ,nor d ! int]cross+s ( ! ,wel% erratics ) ^? d]iv$ f ,scotl& & ,cumb]l& (f] any difficulty4 ,! ice com+ f ! ,wel% m\nta9s w\ld naturally be deflect$ t[>ds s\?-ea/ by ! m] de glace t /ream$ 9 t direction1 & might q well h c>ri$ its *>act]i/ic b\ld]s z f> z ,birm+ham be=e ! g5]al m] de glace _h atta9$ its greate/ dim5sions4 ,b :5 t p]iod ( maximum glaciation arriv$1 ! ,wel% b\ld]s w\ld be unable to travel s f> t[>ds ! ea/1 & ! ,scotti% & ,cumb]l& b\ld]s w\ld !n cross ! pa? =m]ly foll[$ by ! fel/one erratics f ,great ,ar5ig4 ,aga91 x is evid5t t :5 ! m] de glace 0 gradually decreas+ simil> oscillations ( ! ice-fl[ w\ld take place1 b 9 rev]se ord]1 & ?us w\ld give rise to a second s]ies ( int]cross+s4 ,moreov]1 we mu/ rememb] t ! ,glacial p]iod 0 *>act]is$ by sev]al great *anges ( climate4 ,x 0 n "o cont9u\s & prolong$ p]iod ( cold conditions1 b consi/$ r ( a succession ( arctic & g5ial climates2 s t ! same c\ntries 7 ov]run at diff]5t epo*s by successive m]s de glace1 ea* ( :i* w\ld rework1 d5ude1 & r$i/ribute to a l>ge ext5t ! mora9ic mat]ials ( its pr$ecessor1 & ?us might well cause ev5 great] complexity 9 ! disp]sion ( erratics ?an has yet be5 recognis$ any:]e 9 ^! isl&s4 ,mr4 ,mack9to% ref]s to ! occurr5ce ( *alk-fl9ts & ,lias fossils associat$ ) nor!rn erratics 9 ! drift-deposits ( ! we/ ( ,engl&1 ! pres5ce ( :i*1 he ?9ks1 is fatal to ! !ory ( transport by l&-ice4 ,?us1 he says1 *alk-fl9ts1 etc41 h be5 met ) at ,lillie%all 7ea/ ( ,well+ton71 at ,/re?ill 7ne> ,ironbridge71 at ,seisdon 7betwe5 ,wolv]hampton & ,bridg5or?71 at ,wolv]hampton1 ne> ,/af=d1 & ne> ,bu%bury4 ,*alk-fl9ts h also be5 f\nd z f> we/ z ,malv]n & ,hatfield ,camp1 s\? ( ,l$bury4 ,all ^! erratics h cross$ ,engl& f ! ea/1 accord+ to ,mr4 ,mack9to% & o!r obs]v]s4 ,n only s1 b1 z ,mr4 ,mack9to% rem>ks1 ^? f\nd at ,wolv]hampton1 ,birm+ham1 etc41 mu/ h cross$ ! c\rse ( ! nor!rn b\ld]s ne> its s\!rly t]m9ation4 ,& s9ce bo? nor!rn & ea/]n erratics are f\nd associat$ 9 ! same drift-deposit1 x seems to him impossible to expla9 ! int]cross+ by l&-ice or glaci]s4 ,n[1 on ! contr>y1 ^? ea/]n erratics are scatt]$ ov] ! v di/ricts :]e ,i %\ld h expect$ to f9d !m4 ,! obs]vations ( geologi/s 9 ,ea/ ,anglia h %[n t t region has be5 invad$ by ! m] de glace ( ! ,nor? ,sea bas94,w ,?is rem>kable glacial invasion is prov$ n only by ! direction foll[$ by /ones ( local d]ivation1 & by b\ld]s :i* h come s\? f ,scotl& & ! nor!rn c\nties1 b by ! occurr5ce 9 ! b\ld]-clay at ,c>nelian ,bay & ,hold]ness ( erratics ( c]ta9 well-kn[n ,norwegian rocks1 :i* h be5 recognis$ by ,mr4 ,amund ,hell&4 ,! occurr5ce ( *alk-fl9ts & fragm5ts ( ,oolitic rocks 9 ! neighb\rhoods m5tion$ by ,mr4 ,mack9to% ?us only af=ds additional evid5ce 9 fav\r ( ! l&-ice orig9 ( ! drift-deposits describ$ by him4 ,! m] de glace t fl[$ d[n ! ea/ coa/ ( ,engl& seems to h encroa*$ m & m ^u ! l&1 until ev5tually x swept ov] ! l[-ly+ ,midl&s 9 a s\?-we/]ly direction1 & coalesc$ ) ! m] de glace t /ream$ inl& f ! bas9 ( ! ,iri% ,sea1 & ! ice t fl[$ outw>ds f ! high-gr\nds ( ,wales4 ,! unit$ ice-/ream w\ld !reaft] cont9ue on its s\?-we/]ly c\rse d[n ! ,sev]n valley to ! ,bri/ol ,*annel4 ,i h no d\bt t ,mr4 ,mack9to% w yet *ronicle ! occurr5ce ( *alk-fl9ts & o!r ea/]n erratics f localities mu* fur!r to ! s\? ?an ,l$bury4 ,w ,see ,mr4 ,sk]t*ly's description ( ,ea/ ,anglian deposits 9 ,great ,ice ,age1 #bnd edit41 p4 #ceh4 ,aga91 consid]able /ress has be5 laid by ,mr4 ,mack9to% ^u ! occurr5ce ( *alk-fl9ts 9 ! drift-deposits ( ,blackpool1 ,dawpool1 ,p>kgate1 ,halk9 ,m\nta91 ,wrexham1 ! p59sula ( ,wirral1 ,runcorn1 ,delam]e1 ,crewe1 ,leyl&s1 ,pie?orne 7ne> ,ro*dale71 & o!r places4 ,all ^! fl9ts1 ,mr4 ,mack9to% rem>ks1 belong to ! bas9 ( ! ,iri% ,sea1 & h almo/ c]ta9ly cross$ ! g5]al c\rse ( ! nor!rn b\ld]s on _! way f ,irel&4 ,"h1 un=tunately1 ! ,iri% ,sea int]v5es to conceal ! evid5ce t is ne$$ to enable u to track ! exact pa? foll[$ by ! erratics 9 "q4 ,i am n s c]ta9 z ,mr4 ,mack9to% t ! *alk-fl9ts he ref]s to came f ! nor? ( ,irel&4 ,*alk-fl9ts occur pretty num]\sly 9 ! drift-deposits 9 ! m>itime di/ricts ( nor?-ea/]n ,scotl&1 :i* we h e reason to believe h be5 d]iv$ f an area ( ,cretace\s rocks cov]+ ! bottom ( ! adjac5t sea2 & = aught "o c say to ! contr>y1 pat*es ( *alk-)-fl9ts may occur 9 l mann] 9 ! b$ ( ! ,iri% ,sea4 ,i _c at pres5t rememb] :e!r any b\ld]s ( ! basalt-rocks1 :i* are associat$ ) ! ,*alk 9 ! nor? ( ,irel&1 h be5 recognis$ 9 ! drifts ( ! we/ ( ,engl&2 b if ! *alk-fl9ts really came f ,antrim1 x is m ?an probable t !y w\ld be accompani$ by fragm5ts ( ! h>d igne\s rocks :i* ov]lie ! ,cretace\s /rata ( nor? ,irel&4 ,*alk & *alk-fl9ts occur 9 ! b\ld]-clay ( ! ,isle ( ,man1 :]e !y are associat$1 ,mr4 ,horne tells u1 ) ,criffel granite & fragm5ts ( a d>k trap-rock4,x ,possibly ^! la/ are basalt-rocks f ,antrim4 ,x seems reasonable1 !re=e1 to believe t erratics ( ,iri% orig9 h f\nd _! way to ! ,isle ( ,man2 & if ?is be s1 x may be p]missible to assume t ! *alk-fl9ts ( ,blackpool1 etc4 7& p]haps also "s ( ! basalt-rocks71 h come f ! same qu>t]4 ,mr4 ,horne has no d\bt t ! ,iri% erratics 7 br\ght to ! ,isle ( ,man by l&-ice4 ,ref]r+ to ! conclusion arriv$ at by ,mr4 ,close t ! ,iri% m] de glace 0 probably n less ?an #cjjj feet 9 dep?1 he rem>ks3 ,x is highly probable t ?is great mass ( ,iri% ice succe$$1 aft] a h>d battle 7i4e41 ) ! ,scotti% ice-%eet71 9 rea*+ ! ,manx coa/-l9e4 ,x is n to be suppos$ t ! normal mom5tum ( ! respective ice-%eets rema9$ con/ant4 ,! mov+ =ce mu/ h v>i$ ) *ang+ conditions4 ,on ! o!r h&1 x is q possible t !re may h be5 an '"u-t[' ( ! ice f ! nor?-ea/ coa/ ( ,irel&1 :i* w\ld easily acc\nt = ,antrim *alk & *alk-fl9ts 9 ! ,manx till4 ,i w\ld g fur!r1 & /ate my conviction t be=e ! unit$ ice-%eets _h atta9$ _! maximum developm5t1 x is almo/ c]ta9 t ! ice fl[+ into ! ,iri% ,sea bas9 by ! ,nor? ,*annel w\ld = a long "t exce$ 9 mass ! coalesc5t glaci]s t desc5d$ f ! ,s\!rn ,upl&s ( ,scotl&1 & w\ld !re=e be enabl$ to ext5d mu* fur!r to ! ea/ ?an x c\ld at a lat] date1 :5 ! g5]al m] de glace _h rea*$ its climax4 ,x might ?us h advanc$ z f> z & ev5 beyond ! ,isle ( ,man4 ,?is inf]5ce is bas$ ^u ! simple fact t ! area dra9$ by ! m] de glace ( ! ,nor? ,*annel 0 v mu* great] ?an ! area ext5d+ f ! wat]%$ ( ! ,s\!rn ,upl&s ( ,scotl& to ! ,isle ( ,man4 ,erratics f ! nor? ( ,irel& w\ld ?us travel d[n ! b$ ( ! ,nor? ,*annel1 & ev5tually be di/ribut$ ov] a wide area up to & possibly ev5 "s di/ance beyond ! ,isle ( ,man4 ,b z ! ,scotti% & ,cumbrian ice-fl[s gradually increas$ 9 importance1 ! m] de glace com+ f ! ,nor? ,*annel w\ld be =c$ fur!r & fur!r to ! we/1 until ! ice-fl[ issu+ f ! high-gr\nds ( ,kirkcudbright at la/ succe$$ 9 rea*+ ! middle ( ! ,iri% ,sea bas94 ,?is gradual modification ( ! g5]al ice-fl[ 9 t bas9 w\ld ( c\rse give rise to a r$i/ribution ( ! gr\nd-mora9e1 & ! ,iri% erratics w\ld !n travel onw>ds und]nea? ! ,scotti% ice1 & ev5tually rea* ! l[-gr\nds ( ,lanca%ire & ,*e%ire1 along ) erratics f ,criffel & ! ,cumbrian m\nta9s4 ,x is1 !re=e1 q unnecess>y to suppose t ! m] de glace ( ! ,nor? ,*annel actually cross$ ! :ole bread? ( ! bas9 ( ! ,iri% ,sea to invade ,lanca%ire1 ,*e%ire1 & nor? ,wales4 ,_h ?is be5 ! case1 *alk-fl9ts1 *alk1 & _m o!r k9ds ( rock d]iv$ f ! nor? ( ,irel&1 & ev5 f ,arran & ,argyll1 w\ld h ab\nd$ 9 ! drifts ( ! we/ ( ,engl&4 ,erratics com+ f ,irel& c\ld n possibly h travell$ und]nea? ,iri% ice fur!r ea/ ?an ! ,isle ( ,man4 ,!re or !reab\ts1 z ,i h said1 ! m] de glace ( ! ,nor? ,*annel w\ld beg9 to enc\nt] ! ice /ream+ d[n f ! upl&s ( ,gall[ay & ! m\nta9s ( ,cumb]l&3 & z ! ice f ^! qu>t]s increas$ 9 ?ickness1 x w\ld gradually ov]ride :at _h =m]ly be5 ! bottom-mora9e or till ( ! ,nor? ,*annel m] de glace4 ,?us ,iri% erratics w\ld become comm+l$ ) erratics f ,criffel1 etc41 & be c>ri$ =w>d 9 a s\!rly & s\?-ea/]ly direction4 ,! *alk-fl9ts 9 ! drifts ( ,lanca%ire1 ,*e%ire1 etc41 are probably !re=e remanis--! relics ( ! bottom-mora9e ( ! ,nor? ,*annel m] de glace re>rang$ & r$i/ribut$4 ,& ?is is :y !y & o!r ,iri% rocks are s comp>atively r>e 9 ! glacial accumulations ( ! we/ ( ,engl&4 ,x ,trans4 ,ed94 ,geol4 ,soc41 vol4 ii41 #ahgd4 ,?us all ! in/ances ( int]cross+s adduc$ by ,mr4 ,mack9to% z fav\r+ ! iceb]g !ory1 & condemn+ its rival1 ,i w\ld cite z prov+ exactly ! opposite4 ,s f> f pres5t+ any real difficulty to an uphold] ( ! l&-ice !ory1 !y1 9 po9t ( fact1 z ,i h already rem>k$1 l5d t view additional support4 ,x is n my purpose to criticise all ! argum5ts & reasons advanc$ by ,mr4 ,mack9to% 9 fav\r ( 8 special views1 b ,i may be all[$ a few rem>ks on ! some:at extraord9>y "* ( ! ag5ts :i*1 accord+ to him1 7 ma9ly in/rum5tal 9 produc+ ! drift-ph5om5a ( we/]n ,engl&4 ,be=e do+ s1 h[ev]1 ,i may po9t out t1 9 ascrib+ ! transport ( erratics 9 t region 7&1 by implication1 ! =mation ( ! b\ld]-clays1 etc41 ) :i* mo/ ( ^! erratics are associat$7 to float+-ice & sea-curr5ts1 ,mr4 ,mack9to% has fail$ to furni% u ) any fossil evid5ce to %[ t we/]n ,engl& 0 "u wat] at ! "t ! b\ld]-clays & erratics 7 be+ accumulat$4 ,he speaks ( cold & w>m curr5ts1 b :]e d we f9d any traces ( ! m>9e organisms :i* mu/ h ab\nd$ 9 ^? wat]s8 ,:]e are ! rais$ sea-bea*es :i* mu/ h m>k$ ! retreat ( ! sea8 ,:]e d we enc\nt] any organic relics t might help u to map out ! zones ( %all[ & deep wat]8 ,! sea-%ells1 etc41 :i* occur 9 ! b\ld]-clays are und5iably remanis2 !y are erratics j z mu* z ! rock-fragm5ts ) :i* !y are associat$4 ,simil> assemblages ( organic rema9s are met ) 9 ! till ( ,cai?ness1 :]e %all[-wat] & deep-sea %ells1 & %ells indicative ( g5ial & aga9 ( cold conditions1 are all confus$ly di/ribut$ ?r\gh\t "o & ! same deposit4 ,! same or analog\s facts are enc\nt]$ 9 ! ,blocklehm ( "s p>ts ( ,prussia1 m>9e & fre%wat] %ells occurr+ comm+l$ 9 ! b\ld]-clay4 ,nay1 ev5 9 ! mora9e pr(onde ( ! anci5t ,rhone glaci]1 brok5 & well-pres]v$ %ells ( ,mioc5e & ,plioc5e species appe> enclos$ 9 ! tumultu\s accumulation ( clay1 s&1 & erratics4 ,& precisely simil> ph5om5a confront u 9 ! glacial deposits ( ! neighb\rhood ( ,lago ,lugano4 ,mr4 ,mack9to% ref]s to ! s-call$ /ratification ( ! b\ld]-clay1 z if t 7 a pro( ( accumulation 9 wat]4 ,b a rude k9d ( b$d+1 g5]ally m>k$ by diff]5ces ( col\r1 & sometimes by l9es ( /ones1 0 ! inevitable result ( ! sub-glacial =mation ( ! b\ld]-clay4 ,! l9es ( b$d+ are due to ! %e>+ ( ! clay "u great pressure1 & may be /udi$ 9 ! b\ld]-clay ( ,switz]l& & ,italy1 & 9 ! till n only ( ! ,l[l&s b ( ! ,highl&s ( ,scotl&4 ,occasionally ! l9es are s close t ! clay sometimes pres5ts ! appe>ance ( rude & (t5 wavy & irregul> lam9ation--a section ( su* a b\ld]-clay rem9d+ "o sometimes ( t ( a gn>l$ gneiss or crumpl$ s*i/4 ,& ^! appe>ances may be not$ 9 b\ld]-clays :i* occupy positions t preclude ! possibility ( _! be+ m>9e--z 9 c]ta9 valleys ( ! ,highl&s1 su* z ,/ra?braan1 & 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ,como1 9 ,italy4 ,?is lam9ation is m]ely indicative ( ! int5se pressure to :i* ! till 0 subject$ dur+ its gradual accumulation "u ! ice4 ,x is assur$ly n ! result ( aque\s action4 ,aque\s lam9ation is due to sift+ & w9n[+--! co>s] or heavi] & f9] or light] p>ticles be+ sep>at$ 9 ob$i5ce to _! diff]5t specific gravity1 & arrang$ 9 lay]s ( m or less regul>ity accord+ to circum/ances4 ,!re is no?+ ( ?is k9d ( arrangem5t1 h[ev]1 9 ! s-call$ /ratifi$ b\ld]-clay4 ,if ! clay ( an individual lam9a be wa%$ & c>efully sift$1 x w be f\nd to be compos$ ( gra9s ( all %apes1 sizes1 & weights1 d[n to ! f9e/ & mo/ impalpable fl\r4 ,x is impossible to believe t su* a het]og5e\s assemblage ( gra9s c\ld h be5 dropt into wat] )\t ! p>ticles be+ sep>at$ & sift$ 9 _! progress to ! bottom4 ,( c\rse1 e "o kn[s t pat*es & b$s ( lam9at$ clay & s& ( v]itable aque\s orig9 occur n[ & aga9 9 b\ld]-clay4 ,i suppose !re is no b\ld]-clay )\t !m4 ,i h se5 !m 9 ! till ( ,italy & ,switz]l&1 :]e !y %[ precisely ! same features z ! simil> lam9at$ clays 9 ! till ( our own isl&s4 ,b ^! includ$ pat*es & b$s po9t m]ely to ! action ( sub-glacial wat]s1 su* z we "k circulate "u ! glaci]s ( ! ,alps1 ( ,norway1 & ( ,gre5l&4 ,aga91 ,i w\ld rem>k t ,mr4 ,mack9to% has ignor$ all ! evid5ce :i* has be5 br\ght =w>d f "t to "t to demon/rate ! sub-glacial orig9 ( b\ld]-clay1 & to prove ! utt] insuffici5cy ( float+-ice to acc\nt = ! ph5om5a4 ,& he adduces no new facts 9 support ( ! n[ discr$it$ iceb]g !ory1 unless x be 8 /atem5t t flat /riat$ rock-surfaces 7su* z ^? ne> ,birk5head7 h be5 caus$ by float+-ice--! dome-%ap$ ro*es m\tonnes be+1 on ! o!r h& ! "w ( l&-ice4 ,z a matt] ( p]sonal obs]vation1 ,i c assure ,mr4 ,mack9to% t flat /riat$ surfaces are by no means uncommonly associat$ 9 "o & ! same region ) ro*es m\tonnes4 ,:at are ro*es m\tonnes b ! r\nd$ relics ( :at 7 =m]ly r\gh unev5 tors1 project+ bosses1 & prom95t rocks8 ,! g5]al t5d5cy ( glacial action is to r$uce ! asp]ities ( a l&-surface2 h5ce project+ po9ts are r\nd$ (f1 :ile flat surfaces are simply1 z a rule1 plan$ smoo!r4 ,mr4 ,mack9to% might trav]se acres ( su* smoo!d rock-surfaces 9 regions :]e ! /rata are comp>atively horizontal--= example1 9 ! case ( ! basaltic plateaux ( ! ,f>es & ( ,icel&1 :i* h c]ta9ly be5 glaciat$ by l&-ice4 ,simil> flat glaciat$ surfaces are met ) aga9 & aga9 bo? 9 ! ,highl&s & ,l[l&s ( ,scotl&1 occupy+ positions & associat$ ) ro*es m\tonnes & till ( su* a "* z to prove beyond any d\bt t !y no less c]ta9ly are ! result ( ! action ( l&-ice4 ,b x is ne$less to discuss ! probability or possibility ( glaciation ( any k9d be+ due to float+-ice4 ,we "k t glaci]s c & d poli% & /riate rock-surfaces2 no "o1 h[ev]1 c say ! same ( iceb]gs3 & until "s "o c prove to u t iceb]gs h p]=m$ ?is feat1 or c furni% u ) well-consid]$ reasons = believ+ !m to be capable ( x1 glaciali/s w cont9ue sceptical4 ,b leav+ ^! & o!r po9ts :i* s]ve to %[ ! weakness ( ! cause :i* ,mr4 ,mack9to% supports ) su* ke5 en?usiasm1 ,i may1 9 conclusion1 draw att5tion to c]ta9 v rem>kable !oretical views ( 8 :i* seem to me to be n only self-contradictory1 b oppos$ to well-kn[n natural laws4 ,briefly /at$1 8 g5]al view is t ! erratics ( ! we/ ( ,engl& h be5 di/ribut$ by float+-ice dur+ a p]iod ( subm]g5ce--! scatt]+ ( erratics & ! accumulation ( ! associat$ glacial deposits hav+ comm5c$ at or ab\t ! "t :5 ! l& began to s9k1 & cont9u$ until ! subm]g5ce rea*$ "s #bjjj feet bel[ ! pres5t sea-level4 ,9 apply+ ?is hypo!sis to expla9 ! ph5om5a1 ,mr4 ,mack9to% makes r free use ( sea-curr5ts & w9ds4 ,= example1 he holds t a curr5t com+ f ,criffel c>ri$ ) x b\ld]-lad5 ice :i* fl[$ s\?-we/ to ! ,isle ( ,man1 s\? to nor? ,wales1 & s\?-ea/ 9 ! direction ( ,blackpool & ,man*e/]1 ,liv]pool & ,wolv]hampton1 ,dawpool & ,*ur* ,/retton4 ,n[1 9 ! fir/ place1 x is v /range t !re is n a ve/ige or trace ( any su* subm]g5ce1 ei!r 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ,criffel itself or 9 ! region to ! nor? ( x4 ,! :ole ( t region has be5 /riat$ & rubb$ by l&-ice com+ d[n f ! wat]%$ ( ! ,gall[ay m\nta9s1 to ! nor? ( :i* ! /ri1 ro*es m\tonnes1 & tracks foll[$ by erratics1 indicate an ice-fl[ t[>ds ! nor?-we/1 nor?1 & nor?-ea/4 ,x is1 !re=e1 absolutely c]ta9 t at ! "t ! granite erratics are suppos$ to h sail$ away f ,criffel on float+-ice1 ! :ole ( ! ,s\!rn ,upl&s ( ,scotl& 7 cov]$ ) a great ice-field ext5d+ f ,wigt[n to ,b]wick%ire2 s t1 accord+ to ,mr4 ,mack9to%'s hypo!sis1 we %\ld be =c$ to believe t an ocean-curr5t orig9at$ 9 ,criffel itself6 ,b waiv+ ?is & o!r insup]able objections :i* w occur to any geologi/ :o is famili> ) ! glacial ph5om5a ( ! s\? ( ,scotl&1 & conf9+ myself to ! evid5ce suppli$ by ! ,engli% drifts1 ,i w\ld rem>k t ,mr4 ,mack9to%'s hypo!sis is n consi/5t ) itself4 ,a curr5t fl[+ 9 ! direction suppos$ c\ld n possibly h p]mitt$ float+-ice to sail f ,cumbria to ! ,isle ( ,man1 to ,moel-y-,tryfane & ,colwyn ,bay4 ,mr4 ,mack9to% admits ?is himself1 b inf]s t ! transport ( ! ,cumbrian erratics may h tak5 place at a diff]5t "t4 ,b h[ c\ld ?is be1 see+ t ! ,criffel & ,cumbrian erratics occur side by side 9 "o & ! same deposit8 ,aga91 ! hypo!sis ( an ocean-curr5t com+ f ,criffel is inconsi/5t ) ! pres5ce ( ! ,iri% *alk-fl9ts 9 ! drifts ( ! we/ ( ,engl&4 ,did ^! also come at a diff]5t "t8 ,& :at ab\t ! disp]sion ( erratics f ,great ,ar5ig1 :i* h gone nor?-ea/ & nor?-nor?-ea/1 almo/ exactly 9 ! face ( ! suppos$ ,criffel curr5t8 ,"h an ocean-curr5t is obvi\sly out ( ! "q2 & accord+ly we are told t ?is disp]sion ( ,wel% b\ld]s 0 probably ! result ( w9d4 ,b :y %\ld ?is w9d h propell$ ! float+-ice s f> & no fur!r 9 an ea/]ly direction8 ,surely if float+-ice 0 swept outw>ds f ,great ,ar5ig z f> z ,eryrys1 b]gs mu/ h be5 c>ri$ n[ & aga9 mu* fur!r to ! ea/4 ,& if !y did n sail ea/w>ds1 :at became ( !m8 ,did !y all melt away imm$iately :5 !y came into ! ice-lad5 curr5t t fl[$ t[>ds ! s\?-ea/8,y ,a /ill great] difficulty rema9s4 ,! ,criffel & ,cumbrian erratics sudd5ly cease :5 !y are foll[$ to ! s\?1 great quantities ( !m be+ accumulat$ ov] a belt ( c\ntry ext5d+ f beyond ,wolv]hampton to ,bridg5or?4 ,:at 0 x t def9$ ! s\!rn limits ( ^! nor!rn b\ld]s8 ,x is cle> t x c\ld n h be5 high-gr\nd1 = ! ,sev]n valley1 n to speak ( l[-ly+ regions fur!r to ! nor?-ea/1 mu/ h be5 subm]g$ accord+ to ,mr4 ,mack9to%'s hypo!sis4 ,!re 0 !re=e pl5ty ( sea-room = ! float+-ice to escape s\?w>ds4 ,& yet1 not)/&+ ?is1 va/ multitudes ( b]gs & floes1 z soon z !y arriv$ at c]ta9 po9ts1 sudd5ly melt$ away & dropt _! burd5s6 ,9 :at region "u ! sun does any?+ l t happ5 at ! pres5t day8 ,mr4 ,mack9to% ?9ks t ! m or less %>ply-def9$ b\nd>y-l9e rea*$ by ! erratics c\ld only h result$ f close proximity to a p]si/5t curr5t ( wat] 7or air87 suffici5tly w>m to melt ! b\ld]-lad5 ice4 ,he does n tell u1 h[ev]1 :]e ?is w>m curr5t ( wat] or air came f1 or 9 :at direction x travell$4 ,he =gets "s ( 8 own facts connect$ ) ! appe>ance ( erratics ( ea/]n d]ivation1 & :i*1 accord+ to him1 po9t to an ocean-curr5t t fl[$ across f ,l9coln%ire into ! v sea 9 :i* ! ,criffel granite & ,cumbrian b\ld]s 7 be+ dropt4 ,! suppos$ w>m ocean-curr5t1 !n1 if su* x 0 r ?an air1 c\ld h>dly h come f ! ea/4 ,nei!r is x at all likely t x c\ld h come f ! we/1 %elt]$ z ! region ( ! ,sev]n valley mu/ h be5 by ! ice-lad5 m\nta9s ( ,wales4 ,aga91 ! s\? is %ut to u2 = !re are no erratics 9 ! s\? ( ,engl& f :i* to inf] a subm]g5ce ( t di/rict4 ,if x be true t all ! nor!rn erratics :i* are scatt]$ ov] ! l[-gr\nds ( ,engl&1 ,d5m>k1 ,holl&1 ,g]many1 ,pol&1 & ,russia1 owe _! orig9 to b\ld]-lad5 ice c>ri$ by ocean-curr5ts1 no su* w>m wat] z ,mr4 ,mack9to% desid]ates c\ld possibly h come f ! ea/ or s\?-ea/4 ,we are left1 !n1 to inf] t ! suppos$ w>m curr5t,z mu/ h fl[$ up ! ,sev]n valley directly 9 ! face ( ! ,criffel curr5t1 und]nea? :i* x sudd5ly plung$ at a high temp]ature1 ! l9e ( junction betwe5 x & ! cold wat] be+ %>ply def9$1 & reta9+ its position un*ang$ = a long p]iod ( "t6 ,h[ev] absurd ?is conclusion may be1 x is =c$ ^u u if we admit ! hypo!sis at pres5t "u review4 ,= we mu/ rememb] t ! float+-ice is suppos$ to h melt$ :5ev] x came into contact ) ! w>m curr5t4 ,! erratics occur up to a c]ta9 b\nd>y-l9e1 :]e !y are conc5trat$ 9 enorm\s numb]s1 & s\? ( :i* !y d n appe>4 ,"h1 !n1 l>ge & small floes alike mu/ h vani%$ at once6 ,c]ta9ly a v extraord9>y case ( dissolution4 ,y ,mr4 ,mack9to% says no?+ ab\t ! c>ry or direction ( ! erratics 9 we/ & s\? ,wales4 ,7 ! pa?s ( ^! erratics del9eat$ ^u a map1 we %\ld f9d x necess>y to suppose t ! w9d- or sea-curr5t by :i* ! float+-ice 0 propell$ _h fl[$ outw>ds 9 all directions f ! dom9ant heights6 ,z ,x mu/ h likewise fl[$ 9 m or less direct opposition to ! curr5t :i*1 9 accordance ) ! iceb]g hypo!sis1 transport$ b\ld]s s\?w>ds f ! high-gr\nds ( s\? ,wales6 ,if we dismiss ! notion ( a w>m ocean-curr5t = t ( a w>m w9d1 we d n improve our position a :it4 ,:]e did ! w>m w9d come f8 ,n1 c]ta9ly1 f ! ice-lad5 seas to ! ea/4 ,are we to suppose1 !n1 t x fl[$ 9 f ! s\? or s\?-we/8 ,if s1 we might well ask h[ x came to pass t 9 ! imm$iate proximity ( su* a v w>m w9d z ! hypo!sis dem&s1 great sn[-fields & glaci]s 7 all[$ to exi/ 9 ,wales8 ,pass+ t objection1 we h /ill to ask h[ ?is w9d succe$$ 9 melt+ l>ge & small masses ( float+-ice ) su* rapidity t x prev5t$ any ( !m ev] trespass+ s\? ( a c]ta9 l9e8 ,x is obvi\s t x mu/ h be5 an exce$+ly hot w9d2 & t1 j z ! hypo!tical w>m ocean-curr5t mu/ h sudd5ly div$ "u ! cold wat] com+ f ! nor?1 s ! hot w9d1 aft] pass+ ov] ! surface ( ! sea until x rea*$ a c]ta9 m or less well-def9$ l9e1 mu/ h ris5 all at once & fl[$ v]tically upw>ds into ! cold regions above4 ,?us1 9 seek+ to escape f :at he d\btless consid]s ! errone\s & extravagant views ( l&-glaciali/s1 ,mr4 ,mack9to% adopts a hypo!sis :i* l&s him 9 self-contradictions & a p]fect sea ( tr\bles--a k9d ( *aos1 9 fact4 ,9 attempt+ to expla9 ! drifts ( we/]n ,engl& & ea/ ,wales he has ignor$ ! conditions t mu/ h obta9$ 9 contigu\s regions--?us =gett+ t no?+ 9 ! _w is s+le1 & t "o ought n to inf] physical conditions = "o limit$ area )\t /opp+ to inquire :e!r ^! are 9 consonance ) :at is kn[n ( adjac5t di/ricts1 or 9 h>mony ) ! exi/+ ph5om5a ( nature4 ,i h s /rongly oppos$ ,mr4 ,mack9to%'s explanation ( ! sudd5 t]m9ation ( ! nor!rn erratics 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ,wolv]hampton & else:]e1 t p]haps ,i ought to (f] an explanation ( my own1 t x may1 9 its turn1 und]go exam9ation4 ,i lab\r "u ! disadvantage1 h[ev]1 ( n hav+ /udi$ ! drifts 9 & ar\nd ,wolv]hampton1 etc41 & ! sugge/ion :i* ,i %all ?r[ out mu/ !re=e be tak5 = :at x is wor?4 ,x seems to me1 !n1 t ! conc5tration ( b\ld]s 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ,wolv]hampton1 & ! limits rea*$ by ! nor!rn erratics g5]ally1 m>k out1 9 all probability1 ! l9e ( junction betwe5 ! m] de glace com+ f ! bas9 ( ! ,iri% ,sea & t fl[+ across ! c\ntry f ! va/ m] de glace t occupi$ ! bas9 ( ! ,g]man ,ocean4 ,along ?is l9e ! s\!rly transport ( ! nor!rn b\ld]s w\ld cease1 & "h !y w\ld !re=e t5d to become conc5trat$4 ,b x is mo/ likely t n[ & aga9 !y w\ld get und]nea? ! ice-fl[ t set d[n ! ,sev]n valley1 & ,i %\ld anticipate t !y w yet be detect$1 along ) erratics ( ea/]n orig91 z f> s\? ev5 z ! ,bri/ol ,*annel4 ,if x be object$ to ?is view t erratics f ,great ,ar5ig h be5 met ) s\? ( ,wolv]hampton1 at ,birm+ham & ,bromsgrove1 ,i w\ld reply t ^! erratics 7 probably c>ri$ s\? ei!r be=e or aft] ! g5]al m] de glace _h atta9$ its climax--at a p]iod :5 ! ,wel% ice 0 able to creep out fur!r to ! ea/ ?an x c\ld :5 ! invasion ( ! ,nor? ,sea ice 0 at its height4 ,i _c conclude ?is pap] )\t express+ my admiration = ! long-cont9u$ & successful lab\rs ( ! well-kn[n geologi/ ^: views ,i h be5 controv]t+4 ,al?\gh ,i h ent]$ my prote/ aga9/ 8 iceb]g hypo!sis1 & h freely criticis$ 8 !oretical op9ions1 ,i mo/ will+ly admit t ! practical results ( 8 unwe>i$ devotion to ! /udy ( ^? int]e/+ ph5om5a ) :i* he is s famili> h laid all 8 fell[-work]s "u a debt ( gratitude4 ,,viii4 ,rec5t ,rese>*es 9 ! ,glacial ,geology ( ! ,cont95t4,,aa ,,aa ,presid5tial ,address to ! ,geological ,section ( ! ,briti% ,association1 ,newca/le1 #ahhi4 ,,! ,presid5t ( ?is section mu/ (t5 h "s difficulty 9 select+ a subject = 8 address4 ,x is no long] possible to give an int]e/+ & in/ructive summ>y ( ! "w done by ! devotees ( our sci5ce dur+ ev5 "o ye>4 ,s num]\s h ! /ud5ts ( geological sci5ce become--s f]tile are ! fields !y cultivate--s abundant ! h>ve/s !y reap1 t "o 9 my pres5t position may well despair ( be+ able to take /ock ( ! num]\s additions to our k :i* h accumulat$ )9 ! la/ twelve mon?s4 ,nei!r is !re any burn+ "q :i* at ?is "t y\r ,presid5t ne$ feel call$ ^u to discuss4 ,true1 !re are controv]sies t are likely to rema9 unsettl$ = ye>s to come--!re are /ill n a few matt]s ^u :i* we mu/ agree to diff]--we d n yet see eye to eye 9 all ?+s geological4 ,b exp]i5ce has %[n t z ye>s advance tru? is gradually evolv$1 & old controv]sies die out1 & s d\btless x w cont9ue to be4 ,! day :5 controv]sies %all cease1 h[ev]1 is yet1 ,i hope1 f> 9 ! future2 = %\ld t dull & unhappy "t ev] arrive1 x is q c]ta9 t m9]alogi/s1 petrologi/s1 palontologi/s1 & geologi/s %all h di$ out ( ! _w4 ,foll[+ ! example ( _m ( my pr$ecessors1 ,i %all conf9e my rem>ks to c]ta9 que/ions 9 :i* ,i h be5 specially int]e/$2 & 9 do+ s ,i %all endeav\r to /e] cle>1 z f> z ,i c1 ( controv]sial matt]s4 ,my purpose1 !n1 is to give an outl9e ( "s ( ! results obta9$ dur+ ! la/ few ye>s by ,cont95tal work]s 9 ! doma9 ( glacial geology4 ,^? :o are n geologi/s w probably smile :5 !y he> "o decl>e t wield]s ( ! hamm] are extremely cons]vative--t !y are sl[ to accept novel views1 & v t5aci\s ( op9ions :i* h once f\nd fav\r 9 _! eyes4 ,nev]!less1 su* is ! case1 & well = u t x is s4 ,h[ev] captivat+1 h[ev] impos+1 h[ev] /rongly support$ by evid5ce a new view may appe> to be1 we d well to criticise1 to sift ! evid5ce1 & to call = m facts & exp]im5ts1 if su* are possible1 until ! pro(s become s /rong z to approa* z ne> a demon/ration z geologi/s c 9 mo/ cases expect su* pro(s to g4 ,! hi/ory ( our sci5ce1 & inde$ ( mo/ sci5ces1 af=ds abundant illu/ration ( :at ,i say4 ,h[ _m long ye>s 7 ! views ( sub-arial erosion1 z taught by ,hutton & ,playfair1 canvass$ & controv]t$ be=e !y became accept$6 ,& ev5 aft] _! g5]al s\ndness _h be5 e/abli%$1 h[ (t5 h we he>d nom9al disciples ( ^! fa!rs ( physical geology refuse to g s f> z to admit t ! riv]-valleys ( our isl&s h be5 excavat$ by epig5e ag5ts6 ,if1 z a rule1 x takes "s "t = a novel view to ga9 acceptance1 x is equally true t views :i* h long be5 held are only ) difficulty disc>d$4 ,betwe5 ! new & ! old !re is a con/ant /ruggle = exi/5ce1 & if ! latt] %\ld happ5 to survive1 x is only 9 a modifi$ =m4 ,i h (t5 ?\ght t a hi/ory ( ! evolution ( geological !ories w\ld make a v ent]ta9+ & in/ructive "w4 ,we %\ld le>n f x1 among/ o!r ?+s1 t ! advance ( our sci5ce has n always be5 cont9u\s--n[ & aga91 inde$1 x has almo/ seem$ z if ! movem5t _h be5 retrograde4 ,k has n come 9 l an ov]:elm+ flood--z a broad maje/ic riv]--b r l a g5tly-fl[+ tide1 n[ advanc+1 n[ retir+1 b ev]1 ^u ! :ole1 /eadily ga9+ gr\nd4 ,! hi/ory ,i speak ( w\ld also tea* u t _m ( ! g5]al views & hypo!ses :i* h be5 f "t to "t ab&on$ z unworkable1 are h>dly des]v+ ( ! reproa* & ridicule :i* we 9 ^! latt] days may be incl9$ to ca/ ^u !m4 ,z ! ,scots prov]b says3 ,x is easy to be wise beh9dh&4 ,x c\ld be readily %[n t n a few disc>d$ notions & op9ions h frequ5tly work$ = good1 & h r /imulat$ ?an *eck$ inquiry4 ,su* reflections %\ld be enc\rag+ to e inve/igator1 :e!r he be a def5d] ( ! old or an advocate ( ! new4 ,"t tries all1 & ea* work] may claim a %>e 9 ! f9al e/abli%m5t ( ! tru?4 ,p]haps !re is no dep>tm5t ( geological inquiry t has giv5 rise to m controv]sy ?an t :i* ,i h select$ = ! subject ( ?is address4 ,h>dly a s+le /ep 9 advance has be5 tak5 )\t vehem5t opposition4 ,b ! d9 ( cont5d+ sides is n s l\d n[--! du/ ( ! conflict has to "s ext5t cle>$ away1 & ! positions :i* h be5 lo/ or ma9ta9$1 z ! case may be1 c be readily disc]n$4 ,! glaciali/ :o c look back ov] ! la/ tw5ty-five ye>s ( wordy conflict has e reason to be jubilant & hopeful4 ,_m ( ^? :o =m]ly oppos$ him h come ov] to 8 side4 ,x is true he has n _h ev]y?+ 8 own way4 ,"s extreme views h be5 ab&on$ 9 ! /ruggle2 t ( a great ,pol> ice-%eet1 = example1 z conceiv$ ( by ,agassiz4 ,i am n aw>e1 h[ev]1 t _m s]i\s /ud5ts ( glacial geology ev] adopt$ t view4 ,b x 0 q an excusable hypo!sis1 & has be5 abundantly sugge/ive4 ,_h ,agassiz liv$ to see ! detail$ "w ( ^! lat] days1 he w\ld d\btless h modifi$ 8 notion & come to accept ! view ( l>ge cont95tal glaci]s :i* has tak5 its place4 ,! results obta9$ by geologi/s :o h be5 /udy+ ! p]iph]al areas ( ! drift-cov]$ regions ( our ,cont95t1 are su* z to satisfy u t ! drifts ( ^? regions are n iceb]g-dropp+s1 z we us$ to suppose1 b true mora9ic matt] & fluvio-glacial detritus4 ,geologi/s h n jump$ to ?is conclusion--!y h only accept$ x aft] labori\s inve/igation ( ! evid5ce4 ,s9ce ,dr4 ,otto ,torell1 9 #ahge1 fir/ /at$ 8 belief t ! ,diluvium ( nor? ,g]many 0 ( glacial orig9 a great lit]ature on ! subject has sprung up1 a p]usal ( :i* w %[ t ) our ,g]man fri5ds glacial geology has pass$ ?r\gh mu* ! same succession ( controv]sial phases z ) u4 ,at fir/ iceb]gs are appeal$ to z expla9+ ev]y?+--next we meet ) sundry +5i\s attempts at a compromise betwe5 float+-ice & a cont9u\s ice-%eet4 ,z obs]vations multiply1 h[ev]1 ! elem5t ( float+-ice is gradually elim9at$1 & all ! ph5om5a are expla9$ by means ( l&-ice & ,s*melz-wass] alone4 ,x is a rem>kable fact t ! iceb]g hypo!sis has always be5 mo/ /r5u\sly upheld by geologi/s ^: lab\rs h be5 l>gely conf9$ to ! p]iph]al areas ( drift-cov]$ c\ntries4 ,9 ! upl& & m\nta9\s tracts1 on ! o!r h&1 t hypo!sis has nev] be5 able to survive a mod]ate am\nt ( accurate obs]vation4 ,ev5 9 ,switz]l&--! l& ( glaci]s--geologi/s at "o "t 7 ( op9ion t ! b\ld]-clays ( ! l[-gr\nds _h a diff]5t orig9 f ^? :i* occur 9 ! m\nta9-valleys4 ,?us1 x 0 suppos$ t at ! close ( ! ,plei/oc5e p]iod ! ,alps 7 surr\nd$ by great lakes or by gulfs ( "s inl& sea1 into :i* ! glaci]s ( ! high valleys fl[$ & calv$ _! iceb]gs--^! latt] scatt]+ erratics & e>?y dbris ov] ! dr[n$ areas4 ,s>torius von ,walt]%aus5,,ab set =? ?is view 9 an elaborate & well-illu/rat$ pap]4 ,un=tunately = 8 hypo!sis no trace ( ! suppos$ great lakes or ! inl& sea has ev] be5 detect$3 on ! contr>y1 ! "* ( ! mora9ic accumulations1 & ! symmetrical gr\p+ & radiation ( ! erratics & p]*$ blocks ov] ! foot-hills & l[-gr\nds1 %[ t ^! la/ h be5 invad$ & ov]fl[$ by ! glaci]s !mselves4 ,ev5 ! mo/ /r5u\s uphold]s ( ! efficacy ( iceb]gs z orig9ators ( "s b\ld]-clays1 admit t ! b\ld]-clay or till1 ( :at we may call ! inn] or c5tral region ( a glaciat$ tract is ! product ( l&-ice4 ,"u ?is category comes ! b\ld]-clay ( ,norway1 ,sw$51 & ,f9l&1 & ( ! ,alp9e ,l&s ( c5tral ,europe1 n to speak ( ! hilly p>ts ( our own isl&s4 ,,ab ,unt]su*ung5 b] die ,klimate d] ,geg5w>t und d] ,vorwelt1 etc4--,natuurkundige ,v]h&el+5 v4 d4 ,holl&4 ,maats*4 d4 ,wet5s*4 te ,ha>lem1 #ahfe4 ,:5 we come to /udy ! drifts ( ! p]iph]al areas1 x is n difficult to see :y ^! %\ld be consid]$ to h _h a diff]5t orig94 ,!y pres5t c]ta9 features :i*1 al?\gh n abs5t f ! glacial deposits ( ! inn] region1 are n ne>ly s *>act]i/ic ( su* upl& tracts4 ,i ref] especially to ! frequ5t int]/ratification ( b\ld]-clays ) well-b$d$ deposits ( clay1 s&1 & gravel2 & to ! fact t ^! b\ld]-clays are (t5 less compress$ ?an ^? ( ! inn] region1 & h ev5 occasionally a silt-l "*4 ,su* appe>ances d seem at fir/ to be readily expla9$ on ! assumption t ! deposits h be5 accumulat$ 9 wat] opposite ! m>g9 ( a cont95tal glaci] or ice-%eet--& ?is 0 ! view :i* sev]al able inve/igators 9 ,g]many 7 = "s "t incl9$ to adopt4 ,b :5 ! ph5om5a came to be /udi$ 9 great] detail1 & ov] a wid] area1 ?is prelim9>y hypo!sis did n prove satisfactory4 ,x 0 discov]$1 = example1 t giants' kettles,,ac 7 m or less commonly di/ribut$ "u ! glacial deposits1 & su* kettles c\ld only h orig9at$ at ! bottom ( a glaci]4 ,aga91 x 0 f\nd t pre-glacial accumulations 7 pl5tifully develop$ 9 c]ta9 places bel[ ! drift1 & 7 (t5 involv$ ) ! latt] 9 a rem>kable way4 ,! br[n-coal =mation 9 l mann] 0 viol5tly di/urb$ & displac$1 to su* a degree t frequ5tly ! b\ld]-clay is f\nd to und]lie x4 ,simil> ph5om5a 7 enc\nt]$ 9 regions :]e ! drift ov]lies ! ,*alk--! latt] pres5t+ ! appe>ance ( hav+ be5 sma%$ & %att]$--! fragm5ts hav+ (t5 be5 dragg$ "s di/ance1 s z to =m a k9d ( friction-breccia und]ly+ ! drift1 :ile l>ge masses are (t5 includ$ 9 ! clay itself4 ,all ! facts po9t$ to ! conclusion t ^! di/urbances 7 due to tang5tial ?ru/+ or cru%+1 & 7 n ! result ( v]tical displacem5ts1 su* z are produc$ by normal fault+1 = ! di/urbances 9 "q die out f above d[nw>ds4 ,evid5ce ( simil> ?ru/+ or cru%+ is se5 9 ! rem>kable faults & contortions t s (t5 *>act]ise ! clays & s&s t occur 9 ! b\ld]-clay itself4 ,! only ag5t t c\ld produce ! appe>ances1 n[ briefly ref]r$ to1 is l&-ice1 & we mu/ !re=e agree ) ,g]man geologi/s t glaci]-ice has ov]fl[$ all ! drift-cov]$ regions ( ! p]iph]al area4 ,no evid5ce ( m>9e action 9 ! =mation ( ! /ony clays is =?com+--n a trace ( any sea-bea* has be5 detect$4 ,& yet1 if ^! clays _h be5 laid d[n 9 ! sea dur+ ! retreat ( ! ice-%eet f ,g]many1 surely su* evid5ce z ,i h indicat$ ought to be met )4 ,to ! be/ ( my k ! only p>ticul> facts :i* h be5 appeal$ to1 z pro(s ( m>9e action1 are ! appe>ance ( b$d$ deposits 9 ! b\ld]-clays1 & ! occasional occurr5ce 9 ! clays !mselves ( a sea-%ell4 ,b o!r organic rema9s are also met ) n[ & aga9 9 simil> positions1 su* z mammalian bones & fre%wat] %ells4 ,all ^!1 h[ev]1 h be5 %[n to be d]ivative 9 _! orig9--!y are j z mu* erratics z ! /ones & b\ld]s ) :i* !y are associat$4 ,! only ph5om5a1 !re=e1 t ! glaciali/ has to acc\nt = are ! b$d$ deposits :i* occur s frequ5tly 9 ! b\ld]-clays ( ! p]iph]al regions1 & ! occasional silty & uncompress$ "* ( ! clays !mselves4 ,,ac ,^! appe> to h be5 fir/ detect$ by ,pr(essor ,b]5dt & ,pr(essor ,e4 ,ge9itz4 ,! int]calat$ b$s are1 aft] all1 n h>d to expla94 ,if we consid] = a mom5t ! geographical di/ribution ( ! b\ld]-clays1 & _! associat$ aque\s deposits1 we %all f9d a clue to _! orig94 ,speak+ 9 g5]al t]ms1 ! /ony clays ?ick5 out z !y are foll[$ f ! m\nta9\s & high-ly+ tracts to ! l[-gr\nds4 ,?us !y are ( inconsid]able ?ickness 9 ,norway1 ! high] p>ts ( ,sw$51 & 9 ,f9l&1 j z we f9d is ! case 9 ,scotl&1 nor!rn ,engl&1 ,wales1 & ! hilly p>ts ( ,irel&4 ,trac$ s\? f ! upl&s ( ,sc&9avia & ,f9l&1 !y gradually ?ick5 out z ! l[-gr\nds are approa*$4 ,?us 9 s\!rn ,sw$5 !y rea* a ?ickness ( #dc metres or !reab\t1 & ( #hj metres 9 ! nor!rn p>ts ( ,prussia1 :ile ov] ! wide l[-ly+ regions to ! s\? !y atta9 a mu* great] ?ickness--rea*+ 9 ,hol/e91 ,meckl5burg1 ,pom]ania1 & we/ ,prussia1 a dep? ( #abj to #adj metres1 & /ill great] dep?s 9 ,hanov]1 ,m>k ,br&5burg1 & ,saxony4 ,9 ^? regions1 h[ev]1 a consid]able portion ( ! diluvium consi/s1 z we %all see pres5tly1 ( wat]-=m$ b$s4 ,! geographical di/ribution ( ! aque\s deposits1 :i* are associat$ ) ! /ony clays1 is some:at simil>4 ,!y are v sp>+ly develop$ 9 di/ricts :]e ! b\ld]-clays are ?94 ,?us !y are ei!r want+1 or only occur sporadically 9 ?9 irregul> b$s1 9 ! high-gr\nds ( nor!rn ,europe g5]ally4 ,fur!r s\?1 h[ev]1 !y gradually acquire m importance1 until 9 ! p]iph]al regions ( ! drift-cov]$ tracts !y come to equal & ev5tually to surpass ! b\ld]-clays 9 prom95ce4 ,^! latt]1 9 fact1 at la/ cease to appe>1 & ! :ole bulk ( ! diluvium1 along ! s\!rn m>g9 ( ! drift area1 appe>s to consi/ ( aque\s accumulations alone4 ,! explanations ( ^! facts advanc$ by ,g]man geologi/s are q 9 accordance ) ! views :i* h long be5 held by glaciali/s else:]e1 & h be5 t]sely summ$ up by ,dr4 ,j5tzs*4,,ad ,! nor!rn regions1 he says1 7 ! fe$+-gr\nds ( ! inl&-ice4 ,9 ^? regions melt+ 0 at a m9imum1 :ile ! gr9d+ action ( ! ice 0 mo/ effective4 ,"h1 !re=e1 erosion rea*$ its maximum--gr\nd-mora9e or b\ld]-clay be+ unable to accumulate to any ?ickness4 ,fur!r s\? melt+ greatly increas$1 :ile gr\nd-mora9e at ! same "t t5d$ to accumulate--! conjo9t action ( glaci]-ice & sub-glacial wat] result+ 9 ! complex drifts ( ! p]iph]al area4 ,9 ! disposition & appe>ance ( ! aque\s deposits ( ! diluvium we h evid5ce ( an ext5sive sub-glacial wat]-circulation--glaci]-mills t gave rise to giants' kettles--*a9s ( sub-glacial lakes 9 :i* f9e clays ga!r$--/reams & riv]s t fl[$ 9 tunnels "u ! ice1 & ^: c\rses 7 pav$ ) s& & gravel4 ,n[h]e d ,g]man geologi/s f9d any evid5ce ( m>9e action4 ,on ! contr>y1 ! dovetail+ & int]osculation ( b\ld]-clay ) aque\s deposits are expla9$ by ! relation ( ! ice to ! surface ov] :i* x fl[$4 ,?r\gh\t ! p]iph]al area x did n re/ s cont9u\sly ^u ! gr\nd z 0 ! case 9 ! inn] region ( maximum erosion4 ,9 _m places x 0 tunnell$ by rapid /reams & riv]s1 & "h & !re x ar*$ ov] sub-glacial lakes1 s t accumulation ( gr\nd-mora9e proce$$ side by side ) ! =mation ( aque\s s$im5ts4 ,mu* ( t gr\nd-mora9e is ( ! usual t\gh & h>d-press$ "*1 b "h & !re x is some:at less coh]5t & ev5 silt-l4 ,n[ a /udy ( ! gr\nd-mora9es ( mod]n glaci]s af=ds u a reasonable explanation ( su* diff]5ces4 ,dr4 ,brckn],,ae has %[n t 9 _m places ! gr\nd-mora9e ( ! ,alp9e glaci]s is includ$ 9 ! bottom ( ! ice itself4 ,! gr\nd-mora9e1 he says1 frequ5tly appe>s z an ice-/ratum abundantly impregnat$ ) silt & rock-fragm5ts--x is l a conglom]ate or breccia :i* has ice = its b9d+ mat]ial4 ,:5 ?is gr\nd-mora9e melts out ( ! ice--no runn+ wat] be+ pres5t--x =ms a lay] ( un/ratifi$ silt or clay1 ) /ones scatt]$ irregul>ly ?r\gh x4 ,su* be+ ! case 9 mod]n glaci]s1 we c h>dly d\bt t ov] ! p]iph]al areas occupi$ by ! old nor!rn ice-%eet b\ld]-clay mu/ frequ5tly h be5 accumulat$ 9 ! same way4 ,nay1 :5 ! gr\nd-mora9e melt$ out & dropt "h & !re into quietly-fl[+ wat] x might ev5 acquire 9 "p a b$d$ "*4 ,,ad ,jahrb4 d4 knigl4 preuss4 geologis*5 ,l&esan/alt fr #ahhd1 p4 #dch4 ,,ae ,die ,v]glets*]ung des ,salza*gebietes1 etc43 ,geographis*e ,abh&lung5 h]ausgegeb5 v4 ,a4 ,p5ck1 ,b& i4 ,heft #a4 ,! limits rea*$ by ! inl&-ice dur+ its greate/ ext5sion are becom+ m & m cle>ly def9$1 al?\gh its s\!rn m>g9 w probably nev] be s accurately det]m9$ z t ( ! late/ epo* ( g5]al glaciation4 ,! reasons = ?is are obvi\s4 ,:5 ! inl&-ice fl[$ s\? to ! ,h>z & ! hills ( ,saxony x =m$ no great t]m9al mora9es4 ,d\btless _m erratics & mu* rock-rubbi% 7 %[]$ ^u ! surface ( ! ice f ! high] m\nta9s ( ,sc&9avia1 b ow+ to ! fann+-out ( ! ice on its s\?w>d m>*1 su* sup]ficial dbris 0 necess>ily spread ov] a con/antly-wid5+ area4 ,x may well be d\bt$1 !re=e1 :e!r x ev] rea*$ ! t]m9al front ( ! ice-%eet 9 suffici5t bulk to =m conspicu\s mora9es4 ,x seems mo/ probable t ! t]m9al mora9es ( ! great inl&-ice w\ld consi/ ( l[ banks ( b\ld]-clay & aque\s mat]ials-! latt]1 p]haps1 /rongly pr$om9at+1 & conta9+ "h & !re l>g] & small] angul> erratics :i* _h travell$ on ! surface ( ! ice4 ,h[ev] t may be1 x is c]ta9 t ! :ole region 9 "q has be5 consid]ably modifi$ by subsequ5t d5udation1 & to a l>ge ext5t is n[ conceal$ "u deposits belong+ to lat] /ages ( ! ,plei/oc5e p]iod4 ,! extreme limits rea*$ by ! ice are det]m9$ r by ! occasional pres5ce ( rock-/ri & ro*es m\tonnes1 ( b\ld]-clay & nor!rn erratics1 ?an by recognisable t]m9al mora9es4 ,! s\!rn limits rea*$ by ! old inl&-ice appe> 9 ?is way to h be5 tol]ably well asc]ta9$ ov] a consid]able portion ( c5tral ,europe4 ,"s ye>s ago ,i publi%$ a small sket*-map,,af %[+ ! ext5t ( surface =m]ly cov]$ by ice4 ,on ?is map ,i did n v5ture to draw ! s\!rn m>g9 ( ! ice-%eet 9 ,belgium fur!r s\? ?an ,antw]p1 :]e nor!rn erratics 7 kn[n to occur1 b ! m rec5t rese>*es ( ,belgian geologi/s %[ t ! ice probably fl[$ s\? = "s little di/ance beyond ,brussels4,,ag ,"h & !re 9 o!r p>ts ( ! ,cont95t ! s\!rn limits rea*$ by ! nor!rn drift h also be5 m accurately det]m9$1 b1 s f> z ,i "k1 none ( ^! lat] obs]vations involves any s]i\s modification ( ! sket*-map ref]r$ to4 ,,af ,prehi/oric ,europe1 #ahha4 ,,ag ,see a pap] by ,m4 ,e4 ,delvaux3 ,ann4 de la4 ,soc4 gol4 de ,belg41 t4 xiii4 p4 #aeh4 ,i h n[ said en\gh1 h[ev]1 to %[ t ! notion ( a g5]al ice-%eet hav+ cov]$ s l>ge a "p ( ,europe1 :i* a few ye>s ago 0 look$ ^u z a wild dream1 has be5 amply ju/ifi$ by ! lab\rs ( ^? :o are s assidu\sly inve/igat+ ! p]iph]al areas ( ! great nor!rn drift4 ,& p]haps ,i may be all[$ to express my own belief t ! drifts ( middle & s\!rn ,engl&1 :i* exhibit ! same complexity z ! ,l[] ,diluvium ( ! ,cont95t1 w ev5tually be g5]ally ackn[l$g$ to h _h a simil> orig94 ,i h (t5 ?\ght t :il/ politically we are happy 9 hav+ ! sea all r\nd u1 geologically we %\ld h ga9$ p]haps by its great] di/ance4 ,at all ev5ts we %\ld h be5 less ready to invoke its assi/ance to expla9 e puzzl+ appe>ance pres5t$ by our glacial accumulations4 ,i n[ pass on to review "s ( ! g5]al results obta9$ by cont95tal geologi/s z to ! ext5t ( area occupi$ by inl&-ice dur+ ! la/ great ext5sion ( glaci]-ice 9 ,europe4 ,x is well kn[n t ?is late/ ice-%eet did n ov]fl[ ne>ly s wide a region z t und]nea? :i* ! l[e/ b\ld]-clay 0 accumulat$4 ,?is is %[n n only by ! geographical di/ribution ( ! y\nge/ b\ld]-clay1 b by ! direction ( rock-/ri1 ! tr5d ( erratics1 & ! position ( well-m>k$ t]m9al mora9es4 ,g]>d de ,ge] has giv5 a summ>y,,ah ( ! g5]al results obta9$ by himself & 8 fell[-work]s 9 ,sw$5 & ,norway2 & ^! h be5 supplem5t$ by ! lab\rs ( ,b]5dt1 ,e4 ,ge9itz1 ,hau*ecorne1 ,keilhack1 ,klockmann1 ,s*rd]1 ,wahns*affe1 & o!rs 9 ,g]many1 & by ,s$]holm 9 ,f9l&4,,ai ,f !m we le>n t ! end-mora9es ( ! ice circle r\nd ! s\!rn coa/s ( ,norway1 f :5ce !y sweep s\?-ea/ by ea/ across ! prov9ce ( ,gottl& 9 ,sw$51 pass+ ?r\gh ! l[] ends ( ,lakes ,w5] & ,wett]1 :ile simil> mora9es m>k out = u ! t]m9al front ( ! inl&-ice 9 ,f9l&--at lea/ two p>allel frontal mora9es pass+ inl& f ,hango ,head on ! ,gulf ( ,f9l& ?r\gh ! s\!rn "p ( t prov9ce to ! nor? ( ,lake ,ladoga4 ,fur!r nor?-ea/ ?an ?is !y h n be5 trac$2 b1 f "s obs]vations by ,helm]s51 ,s$]holm ?9ks x probable t ! t]m9al ice-front ext5d$ nor?-ea/ by ! nor? ( ,lake ,onega to ! ea/]n %ores ( ! ,:ite ,sea4 ,betwe5 ,sw$5 & ,f9l& lies ! bas9 ( ! ,baltic1 :i* at ! p]iod 9 "q 0 fill$ ) ice1 =m+ a great ,baltic glaci] :i* ov]fl[$ ! l& ,isl&s1 ,gottl&1 & l&1 & :i*1 fann+-out z x pass$ t[>ds ! s\?-we/1 invad$1 on ! s\? side1 ! ,baltic prov9ces ( ,g]many1 :ile1 on ! nor?1 x cross$ ! s\!rn "p ( ,scania 9 ,sw$5 & ! ,dani% isl&s to ent] ,jutl&4 ,,ah ,zeits*rift d4 deuts*4 geolog4 ,ges41 ,bd4 xxxvii41 p4 #agg4 ,,ai ,= pap]s by ,b]5dt & 8 associates see especially ! ,jahrbu* d4 k4 preuss4 geol4 ,l&esan/alt1 & ! ,zaits*r4 d4 deuts*4 geol4 ,ges4 = ! pa/ few ye>s4 ,ge9itz3 ,=s*4 z4 d4 ,l&s- u4 ,volkskunde1 i4 #e2 ,leopold9a1 xxii41 p4 #cg2 ,i4 ,beitrag z4 ,geologie ,meckl5burgs1 #ahhj1 pp4 #df1 #ef4 ,s$]holm3 ,f5nia1 ,i4 ,no4 #g4 ,! upp] b\ld]-clay ( ^? regions is n[ recognis$ z ! gr\nd-mora9e ( ?is late/ ice-%eet4 ,9 _m places x is sep>at$ f ! old] b\ld]-clay by int]glacial deposits--"s ( :i* are m>9e1 :ile o!rs are ( fre%wat] & t]re/rial orig94 ,dur+ int]glacial times ! sea t ov]fl[$ a consid]able portion ( nor? ,g]many 0 evid5tly cont9u\s ) ! ,nor? ,sea1 z is %[n n only by ! geographical di/ribution ( ! int]glacial m>9e deposits1 b by _! ,nor? ,sea fauna4 ,g]man geologi/s g5]ally gr\p all ! int]glacial deposits toge!r1 z if !y belong$ to "o & ! same int]glacial epo*4 ,?is p]haps we mu/ look ^u z only a provisional arrangem5t4 ,c]ta9 x is t ! fre%wat] & t]re/rial b$s :i* frequ5tly occur on ! same or a l[] level1 & at no great di/ance f ! m>9e deposits1 _c 9 all cases be contemporane\s ) ! latt]4 ,possibly1 h[ev]1 su* discordances may be acc\nt$ = by oscillations 9 ! level ( ! int]glacial sea--l& & wat] hav+ alt]nately prevail$ ov] ! same area4 ,two b\ld]-clays1 z we h se51 h be5 recognis$ ov] a wide region 9 ! nor? ( ,g]many4 ,9 "s places1 h[ev]1 ?ree or m su* b\ld]-clays h be5 obs]v$ ov]ly+ "o ano!r ?r\gh\t consid]able areas1 & ^! clays are describ$ z be+ di/9ctly sep>ate & di/+ui%able ! "o f ! o!r4,,aj ,:e!r !y1 ) _! int]calat$ aque\s deposits1 indicate great oscillations ( "o & ! same ice-%eet--n[ advanc+1 n[ retreat+--or :e!r ! /ony clays may n be ! gr\nd-mora9es ( s _m diff]5t ice-%eets1 sep>at$ ! "o f ! o!r by true int]glacial conditions1 future inve/igations mu/ be left to decide4 ,,aj ,h4 ,s*rd]3 ,jahrb4 d4 k4 preuss4 geol4 ,l&esan/alt fr #ahhg 1 p4 #cfj4 ,! g5]al conclusions arriv$ at by ^? :o are at pres5t inve/igat+ ! glacial accumulations ( nor!rn ,europe may be summ>is$ z foll[s3-- #a4 ,be=e ! invasion ( nor!rn ,g]many by ! inl&-ice ! l[-gr\nds bord]+ on ! ,baltic 7 ov]fl[$ by a sea :i* conta9$ a boreal & arctic fauna4 ,^! m>9e conditions are indicat$ by ! pres5ce "u ! l[] b\ld]-clay ( m or less well-b$d$ fossilif]\s deposits4 ,on ! same horizon occur also b$s ( s&1 conta9+ fre%wat] %ells1 & n[ & aga9 mammalian rema9s1 "s ( :i* imply cold & o!rs temp]ate climatic conditions4 ,obvi\sly all ^! deposits may p]ta9 to "o & ! same p]iod1 or m prop]ly to diff]5t /ages ( ! same p]iod--"s dat+ back to a "t :5 ! climate 0 /ill temp]ate1 :ile o!rs cle>ly indicate ! preval5ce ( cold conditions1 & are !re=e probably some:at y\ng]4 #b4 ,! next geological horizon 9 asc5d+ ord] is t :i* is m>k$ by ! ,l[] ,diluvium--! glacial & fluvio-glacial detritus ( ! great ice-%eet :i* fl[$ s\? to ! foot ( ! ,h>z ,m\nta9s4 ,! b\ld]-clay on ?is horizon n[ & aga9 conta9s m>9e1 fre%wat]1 & t]re/rial organic rema9s--d]iv$ und\bt$ly f ! s-call$ pre-glacial b$s already ref]r$ to4 ,^! latt]1 x w\ld appe>1 7 pl\gh$ up & l>gely incorporat$ ) ! old gr\nd-mora9e4 #c4 ,! int]glacial b$s :i* next succe$ conta9 rema9s ( a well-m>k$ temp]ate fauna & flora1 :i* po9t to some?+ m ?an a m]e p>tial or local retreat ( ! inl&-ice4 ,! geographical di/ribution ( ! b$s1 & ! pres5ce 9 ^! ( su* =ms z ,elephas antiquus1 ,c]vus elephas1 ,c4 megac]os1 & a flora comp>able to t n[ exi/+ 9 nor!rn ,g]many1 ju/ify geologi/s 9 conclud+ t ! int]glacial epo* 0 "o ( long duration1 & *>act]is$ 9 ,g]many by climatic conditions app>5tly n less temp]ate ?an ^? t n[ obta94 ,"o ( ! phases ( t int]glacial epo*1 z we h se51 0 ! ov]fl[+ ( ! ,baltic prov9ces by ! wat]s ( ! ,nor? ,sea4 #d4 ,to ?is well-m>k$ int]glacial epo* succe$$ ano!r epo* ( arctic conditions1 :5 ! ,sc&9avian inl&-ice once m invad$ ,g]many1 pl\gh+ ?r\gh ! int]glacial deposits1 & work+ ^! up 9 its gr\nd-mora9e4 ,s f> z ,i c le>n1 ! preval5t belief among geologi/s 9 nor? ,g]many is t !re 0 only "o int]glacial epo*2 b1 z already /at$1 d\bt has be5 express$ :e!r all ! facts c be ?us acc\nt$ =4 ,!re mu/ always be great difficulty 9 ! correlation ( widely-sep>at$ int]glacial deposits1 & ! "t does n seem to me to h yet come :5 we c def9itely ass]t t all ^? int]glacial b$s belong to "o & ! same geological horizon4 ,i h dwelt ^u ! rec5t "w ( geologi/s 9 ! p]iph]al areas ( ! drift-cov]$ regions ( nor!rn ,europe1 because ,i ?9k ! results obta9$ are ( great int]e/ to glaciali/s 9 ?is c\ntry4 ,& = ! same reason ,i wi% next to call att5tion to :at has be5 done ( late ye>s 9 elucidat+ ! glacial geology ( ! ,alp9e ,l&s ( c5tral ,europe--& m p>ticul>ly ( ! l[-gr\nds t /ret* out f ! foot ( ! m\nta9s4 ,any obs]vations t t5d to ?r[ light ^u ! hi/ory ( ! complex drifts ( our own p]iph]al areas _c b be ( s]vice4 ,x is q impossible to d ju/ice 9 ?is brief sket* to ! lab\rs ( ! _m en?usia/ic geologi/s :o )9 rec5t ye>s h increas$ our k ( ! glaciation ( ! ,alp9e ,l&s4 ,at pres5t1 h[ev]1 ,i am n s mu* conc]n$ ) ! pro(s ( g5]al glaciation z ) ! evid5ce t goes to %[ h[ ! ,alp9e gr\nd-mora9es h be5 =m$1 & ) ! facts :i* h l$ c]ta9 obs]v]s to conclude t ! ,alps h endur$ sev]al di/9ct glaciations )9 ,plei/oc5e times4 ,swiss geologi/s are agre$ t ! gr\nd-mora9es :i* clo! ! bottoms ( ! great ,alp9e valleys1 & ext5d outw>ds sometimes = _m miles ^u ! l[-gr\nds beyond1 are ( true glacial orig94 ,n[ ^! gr\nd-mora9es are closely simil> to ! b\ld]-clays ( ?is c\ntry & nor!rn ,europe--l !m1 !y are frequ5tly t\gh & h>d-press$1 b n[ & aga9 some:at loos]1 & less firmly coh]5t4 ,frequ5tly also !y conta9 l5ticul> b$s1 & m or less ?ick %eets ( aque\s deposits--9 "s places ! /ony clays ev5 exhibit+ a k9d ( /ratification--& ev] & anon su* wat]-assort$ mat]ials are comm+l$ ) /ony clay 9 ! mo/ complex mann]4 ,^! latt] appe>ances are1 h[ev]1 ^u ! :ole be/ develop$ ^u ! l[-gr\nds t sweep out f ! base ( ! ,alps4 ,! only "q conc]n+ ! gr\nd-mora9es t has rec5tly giv5 rise to mu* discussion is ! orig9 ( ! mat]ials !mselves4 ,x is obvi\s t !re are only ?ree possible modes 9 :i* ^? mat]ials c\ld h be5 introduc$ to ! gr\nd-mora9e3 ei!r !y consi/ ( sup]ficial mora9ic dbris :i* has f\nd its way d[n to ! bottom ( ! old glaci]s by crevasses2 or !y may be made up ( ! rock-rubbi%1 %+le1 gravel1 etc41 :i* d\btless /rew$ ! valleys be=e ^! 7 occupi$ by ice2 or1 la/ly1 !y may h be5 d]iv$ 9 *ief measure f ! und]ly+ rocks !mselves by ! action ( ! ice t ov]fl[$ !m4 ,! inve/igations ( ,p5ck1 ,blaas1 ,bhm1 & ,brckn] appe> to me to h demon/rat$ t ! gr\nd-mora9es are compos$ mo/ly ( mat]ials :i* h be5 deta*$ f ! und]ly+ rocks by ! erosive action ( ! glaci]s !mselves4 ,_! obs]vations %[ t ! regions /udi$ by !m 9 great detail 7 almo/ completely buri$ "u ice--s t ! accumulation ( sup]ficial mora9es 0 = ! mo/ "p impossible2 & !y advance a numb] ( facts :i* prove positively t ! gr\nd-mora9es 7 =m$ & accumulat$ "u ice4 ,i _c "h recapitulate ! evid5ce1 b mu/ cont5t myself by a ref]5ce to ! pap]s 9 :i* ?is is fully discuss$4,,ak ,^! geologi/s d n d5y t "s ( ! mat]ial may occasionally h come f above1 nor d !y d\bt t pre-exi/+ masses ( rock-rubbi% & alluvial accumulations may also h be5 incorporat$ ) ! gr\nd-mora9es2 b ! enorm\s ext5t ( ! latt]1 & ! direction ( transport & di/ribution ( ! erratics :i* !y conta9 _c be ?us acc\nt$ =1 :ile all ! facts are readily expla9$ by ! action ( ! ice itself1 :i* us$ its sub-glacial dbris z tools ) :i* to c>ry on ! "w ( erosion4 ,,ak ,p5ck3 ,die ,v]glets*]ung d] deuts*5 ,alp54 ,blaas3 ,zeits*rift d4 ,f]d9&eums1 #ahhe4 ,bhm3 ,jahrb4 d4 k4 k4 geol4 ,rei*san/alt1 #ahhe1 ,bd4 xxxv41 ,heft #c4 ,brckn]3 ,die ,v]glets*]ung d4 ,salza*gebietes1 etc41 #ahhf4 ,pr(essor ,heim & o!rs h frequ5tly ass]t$ t glaci]s h little or no erod+ p[]1 s9ce at ! l[] ends ( exi/+ glaci]s we f9d no evid5ce ( su* erosion be+ 9 op]ation4 ,b ! *ief "w ( a glaci] _c be c>ri$ on at its l[] end1 :]e motion is r$uc$ to a m9imum1 & :]e ! ice is p]=at$ by sub-glacial tunnels & ar*es1 und]nea? :i* no glacial erosion c possibly take place2 & yet x is ^u obs]vations made 9 j su* places t ! pr9cipal argum5ts aga9/ ! erosive action ( glaci]s h be5 bas$4 ,if all t we c\ld ev] "k ( glacial action 7 conf9$ to :at we c le>n f pe]+ into ! grottoes at ! t]m9al fronts ( exi/+ glaci]s1 we %\ld inde$ come to ! conclusion t glaci]s d n erode _! rocky b$s to any appreciable ext5t4 ,b z we d n look = ! /ronge/ evid5ce ( fluviatile erosion at ! m\? ( a riv]1 b 9 its valley--& m\nta9-tracks1 s if we wi% to le>n :at glaci]-ice c accompli%1 we mu/ /udy 9 detail "s wide region f :i* ! ice has completely disappe>$4 ,:5 ?is plan has be5 foll[$1 x has happ5$ t "s ( ! /ronge/ oppon5ts ( glacial erosion h be5 compell$ by ! =ce ( ! evid5ce to g ov] to ! o!r camp4 ,dr4 ,blaas1 = example1 has be5 l$ by 8 obs]vations on ! glacial =mations ( ! ,inn valley to recant 8 =m] views1 & to become a =midable advocate ( ! v !ory :i* he =m]ly oppos$4 ,to 8 "w & ! memoirs by ,p5ck1 ,brckn]1 & ,bhm already cit$1 & especially to ! admirable *apt] on glaci]-erosion by ! la/-nam$ au?or1 ,i w\ld ref] ^? :o may be anxi\s to "k ! la/ ^w on ?is mu*-debat$ "q4 ,! evid5ce ( int]glacial conditions )9 ! ,alp9e l&s cont9ues to increase4 ,^! are repres5t$ by alluvial deposits ( silt1 s&1 gravel1 conglom]ate1 breccia1 & lignites4 ,p5ck1 ,bhm1 & ,brckn] f9d evid5ce ( two int]glacial epo*s1 & ma9ta9 t !re h be5 ?ree di/9ct & sep>ate epo*s ( glaciation 9 ! ,alps4 ,no m]e tempor>y retreat & re-advance ( ! glaci]s1 accord+ to !m1 w acc\nt = ! v>i\s ph5om5a pres5t$ by ! int]glacial deposits & associat$ mora9ic accumulations4 ,dur+ int]glacial times ! glaci]s disappe>$ f ! l[] valleys ( ! ,alps--! climate 0 temp]ate1 & probably ! sn[-fields & glaci]s approximat$ 9 ext5t to ^? ( ! pres5t day4 ,all ! evid5ce conspires to %[ t an int]glacial epo* 0 ( prolong$ duration4 ,dr4 ,brckn] has obs]v$ t ! mora9es ( ! la/ glacial epo* re/ "h & !re ^u lss1 & he confirms ,p5ck's obs]vations 9 s\? ,bav>ia t ?is rem>kable =mation nev] ov]lies ! mora9ic accumulations ( ! late/ glacial epo*4 ,accord+ to ,p5ck & ,brckn]1 !re=e1 ! lss is ( int]glacial age4 ,!re c be little d\bt1 h[ev]1 t lss does n belong to any "o p>ticul> horizon4 ,wahns*affe,,al & o!rs h %[n t ?r\gh\t wide areas 9 nor? ,g]many x is ! equival5t 9 age ( ! ,upp] ,diluvium1 :ile ,s*uma*],,am po9ts out t 9 ! ,rh9e valley x occurs on two sep>ate & di/9ct horizons4 ,pr(essor ,&re has likewise %[n,,an t !re is an upp] & l[] lss 9 ,alsace--ea* *>act]is$ by its own special fauna4 ,,al ,abh&l4 z4 geol4 ,specialk>te v4 ,preuss51 etc41 ,bd4 vii4 ,heft #a2 ,zeits*r4 d4 ,zeuts*4 geol4 ,ges41 #ahhe1 p4 #ijd2 #ahhf1 p4 #cfg4 ,,am ,hygi5is*e ,topographie von ,/rassburg i4 ,e41 #ahhe4 ,,an ,abh&l4 z4 geol4 ,specialk>te a4 ,elsass-,lo?r+51 ,bd4 iv4 ,heft #b4 ,!re is /ill consid]able diff]5ce ( op9ion z to ! mode ( =mation ( ?is rem>kable accumulation4 ,by _m x is consid]$ to be an aque\s deposit2 o!rs1 foll[+ ,ri*?(51 are ( op9ion t x is a w9d-bl[n accumulation2 :ile "s incl9e to ! belief t x is p>tly ! "o & p>tly ! o!r4 ,nor d ! uphold]s ( ^! v>i\s hypo!ses agree among/ !mselves z to ! precise mann] 9 :i* wat] or w9d has work$ to produce ! obs]v$ results4 ,?us1 among/ ! support]s ( ! aque\s orig9 ( ! lss1 we f9d ?is attribut$ to ! action ( heavy ra9s wa%+ ov] & re>rang+ ! mat]ial ( ! b\ld]-clays4,,ao ,_m1 aga91 h held x probable t lss is simply ! f9e/ loam di/ribut$ ov] ! l[-gr\nds by ! flood-wat]s t escap$ f ! nor!rn inl&-ice & ! m]s de glace ( ! ,alp9e l&s ( c5tral ,europe4 ,ano!r sugge/ion is t mu* ( ! mat]ial ( ! lss may h be5 d]iv$ f ! d5udation ( ! b\ld]-clays by flood-wat]1 dur+ ! clos+ /ages ( ! la/ cold p]iod4 ,x is po9t$ out t 9 "s regions1 at lea/1 ! lss is und]laid by a lay] ( erratics1 :i* are believ$ to be ! residue ( ! d5ud$ b\ld]-clay4 ,we are rem9d$ by ,klockmann,,ap & ,wahns*affe,,aq t ! inl&-ice mu/ h act$ z a great dam1 & t wide areas 9 ,g]many1 etc41 w\ld be flood$1 p>tly by wat] d]iv$ f ! melt+ inl&-ice1 & p>tly by wat]s fl[+ nor? f ! hilly tracts ( middle ,g]many4 ,9 ! great bas9s ?us =m$ !re w\ld be a comm+l+ ( f9e silt mat]ial d]iv$ f nor? & s\?1 :i* w\ld necess>ily come to =m a deposit hav+ mu* ! same "* ?r\gh\t4 ,,ao ,laspeyres3 ,erlut]ung5 z4 geol ,specialk>et v ,preuss51 etc41 ,blatt4 ,grbzig1 ,zrbig1 und ,pet]sb]g4 ,,ap ,klockmann3 ,jahrb4 d4 k4 preuss4 geol4 ,l&esan/alt fr #ahhc1 p4 #bfb4 ,,aq ,wahns*affe3 ,op4 cit41 & ,zeits*r4 d4 deuts*4 geol4 ,ges41 #ahhf1 p4 #cfg4 ,f :at ,i h myself se5 ( ! lss 9 v>i\s p>ts ( ,g]many1 & f all t ,i h ga!r$ f read+ & 9 conv]sation ) ^? :o h work$ ov] lss-cov]$ regions1 ,i incl9e to ! op9ion t lss is = ! mo/ "p ( aque\s orig94 ,9 _m cases ?is c be demon/rat$1 z by ! occurr5ce ( b$d+ & ! int]calation ( lay]s ( /ones1 s&1 gravel1 etc41 9 ! deposit2 aga91 by ! n infrequ5t appe>ance ( fre%wat] %ells2 b1 p]haps1 *iefly by ! rem>kable uni=mity ( "* :i* ! lss itself displays4 ,x seems to me reasonable also to believe t ! flood-wat]s ( glacial times mu/ ne$s h be5 highly *>g$ ) f9ely-divid$ s$im5t1 & t su* s$im5t w\ld be spread ov] wide regions 9 ! l[-gr\nds--9 ! slackwat]s ( ! great riv]s & 9 ! innum]able tempor>y lakes :i* occupi$1 or p>tly occupi$1 _m ( ! valleys & depressions ( ! l&4 ,!re are diff]5t k9ds ( lss or lss-l deposits1 h[ev]1 & all ne$ n h be5 =m$ 9 ! same way4 ,probably "s may h be5 d]iv$1 z ,wahns*affe has sugge/$1 f d5udation ( b\ld]-clay4 ,possibly also1 "s lss may owe its orig9 to ! action ( ra9 on ! /ony clays1 produc+ :at we 9 ?is c\ntry w\ld call ra9-wa%4 ,!re are o!r accumulations1 h[ev]1 :i* no aque\s !ory w satisfactorily expla94 ,"u ?is category comes mu* ( ! s-call$ ,b]glss1 ) its abundant l&-%ells1 & its g5]ally un/ratifi$ "*4 ,x seems likely t su* lss is simply ! result ( sub-arial action1 & owes its orig9 to ra91 fro/1 & w9d act+ ^u ! sup]ficial =mations1 & re>rang+ _! f9]-gra9$ con/itu5ts4 ,& x is q possible t ! upp] portion ( mu* ( ! lss ( ! l[]-gr\nds may h be5 re-work$ 9 ! same way4 ,b ,i confess ,i _c yet f9d 9 ! facts adduc$ by ,g]man geologi/s any evid5ce ( a dry-z-du/ epo* hav+ obta9$ 9 ,europe dur+ any /age ( ! ,plei/oc5e p]iod4 ,! geographical position ( our ,cont95t seems to me to =bid ! possibility ( su* climatic conditions1 :ile all ! positive evid5ce we h po9ts to humidity r ?an dryness z ! preval5t feature ( ,plei/oc5e climates4 ,x is obvi\s1 h[ev]1 t aft] ! flood-wat]s _h disappe>$ f ! l[-gr\nds ( ! ,cont95t1 sub-arial action w\ld come into play ov] ! wide regions cov]$ by ! glacial & fluvio-glacial deposits4 ,?us1 9 ! c\rse ( "t1 ^! deposits w\ld become modifi$1--j z simil> accumulations 9 ^! isl&s h be5 top-dress$1 z x 71 & to "s ext5t ev5 re>rang$4 ,i am /r5g!n$ 9 ^! views by ! conclusions arriv$ at by ,m4 ,falsan--! em95t ,fr5* glaciali/4 ,cov]+ ! plateaux ( ! ,dombes1 & widely spread ?r\gh\t ! valleys ( ! ,rhone1 ! ,a91 ! ,isre1 etc41 9 ,france !re is a deposit ( lss1 he says1 :i* has be5 d]iv$ f ! wa%+ ( ! anci5t mora9es4 ,at ! foot ( ! ,alps1 :]e black s*i/s are l>gely develop$1 ! lss is d>k grey1 b we/ ( ! second>y *a9 ! same deposit is yell[i%1 & compos$ almo/ entirely ( silici\s mat]ials1 ) only a v little c>bonate ( lime4 ,?is limon or lss1 h[ev]1 is v g5]ally modifi$ t[>ds ! top by ! *emical action ( ra9--! yell[ lss acquir+ a r$ col\r4 ,sometimes x is cr[d$ ) calc>e\s concretions1 b at o!r times x has be5 depriv$ ( its calc>e\s elem5t & conv]t$ into a k9d ( pulv]ul5t silica or qu>tz4 ,?is1 ! true lss1 is di/+ui%$ f ano!r lehm1 :i* ,falsan recognises z ! product ( atmosph]ic action--=m$1 9 fact1 9 situ1 f ! dis9tegration & decomposition ( ! subjac5t rocks4 ,ev5 ?is lehm has be5 modifi$ by runn+ wat]--disp]s$ or accumulat$ locally1 z ! case may be4,,ar ,,ar ,falsan3 ,la ,priode glaciaire1 p4 #ha4 ,all t we "k ( ! lss & its fossils compels u to include ?is accumulation z a product ( ! ,plei/oc5e p]iod4 ,x is n ( po/-glacial age--ev5 mu* ( :at "o may call ! remodifi$ lss be+ ( late ,glacial or ,plei/oc5e age4 ,i _c attempt to give "h a summ>y ( :at has be5 le>n$ )9 rec5t ye>s z to ! fauna ( ! lss4 ,! rese>*es ( ,nehr+ & ,liebe h famili>is$ u ) ! fact t1 at "s p>ticul> /age 9 ! ,plei/oc5e p]iod1 a fauna l t ( ! alp9e /eppe-l&s ( we/]n ,asia 0 indig5\s to middle ,europe1 & ! rec5t inve/igations by ,woldri* h increas$ our k ( ?is fauna4 ,at :at horizon1 !n1 does ?is /eppe-fauna make its appe>ance8 ,at ,?i$e ,dr4 ,nehr+ discov]$ 9 s-call$ lss ?ree successive horizons1 ea* *>act]is$ by a special fauna4 ,! l[e/ ( ^! faunas 0 decid$ly arctic 9 type2 above t came a /eppe-fauna1 :i* la/ 0 succe$$ by a fauna compris+ su* =ms z mammo?1 woolly rh9oc]os1 ,bos1 ,c]vus1 horse1 hyna1 & lion4 ,n[1 if we comp>e ?is la/ fauna ) ! =ms :i* h be5 obta9$ f true po/-glacial deposits--^? deposits1 namely1 :i* ov]lie ! y\ng] b\ld]-clays & flood-accumulations ( ! late/ glacial epo*1 we f9d little 9 common4 ,! lion1 ! mammo?1 & ! rh9oc]os are conspicu\s by _! abs5ce f ! po/-glacial b$s ( ,europe4 ,9 place ( !m we meet ) a m or less arctic fauna1 & a high-alp9e & arctic flora1 :i* z we all "k ev5tually gave place to ! flora & fauna ) :i* ,neoli?ic man 0 contemporane\s4 ,z ?is is ! case ?r\gh\t nor?-we/]n & c5tral ,europe1 we seem ju/ifi$ 9 assign+ ! ,?i$e b$s to ! ,plei/oc5e p]iod1 & to t int]glacial /age :i* prec$$ & gradually m]g$ into ! la/ glacial epo*4 ,t ! /eppe-fauna indicates relatively dri] conditions ( climate ?an obta9$ :5 p]5nial sn[ & ice cov]$ wide areas ( ! l[-gr\nd goes )\t say+1 b ,i am unable to agree ) ^? :o ma9ta9 t x implies a dry-z-du/ climate1 l t ( "s ( ! /eppe-regions ( our own day4 ,! rem>kable comm+l+ ( arctic- & /eppe-faunas discov]$ 9 ! ,bhm]-,wald,,z by ,woldri* %[s1 ,i ?9k1 t ! j]boas1 m>mots1 & ham/]-rats 7 n incapable ( liv+ 9 ! same regions contemporane\sly ) lemm+s1 arctic h>es1 ,sib]ian social voles1 etc4 ,b :5 a cold epo* 0 pass+ away ! /eppe-=ms probably gradually replac$ _! arctic cong5]s1 z ^! migrat$ nor?w>ds dur+ ! cont9u\s amelioration ( ! climate4 ,,z ,woldri*3 ,sitzungsb4 d4 kais4 ,akad4 d4 ,w4 ma?4 nat4 ,cl41 #ahhj1 p4 #g2 #ahha1 p4 #agg2 #ahhc1 p4 #igh4 ,if ! /ud5t ( ! ,plei/oc5e faunas has c]ta9 advantages 9 ! fact t he has to deal ) =ms _m ( :i* are /ill liv+1 he lab\rs at ! same "t "u disadvantages :i* are unkn[n to 8 colleagues :o are engag$ 9 ! /udy ( ! life ( f> old] p]iods4 ,! ,plei/oc5e p]iod 0 di/+ui%$ above all ?+s by its great oscillations ( climate--! successive *anges be+ repeat$ & produc+ correlative migrations ( floras & faunas4 ,we "k t arctic & temp]ate faunas & floras fl\ri%$ dur+ int]glacial times1 & a l succession ( life-=ms foll[$ ! f9al disappe>ance ( glacial conditions4 ,a /udy ( ! organic rema9s met ) 9 any p>ticul> deposit w n necess>ily1 !re=e1 enable u to assign ^! to _! prop] horizon4 ,! geographical position ( ! deposit1 & its relation to ,plei/oc5e accumulations else:]e1 mu/ cle>ly be tak5 into acc\nt4 ,already1 h[ev]1 mu* has be5 done 9 ?is direction1 & x is probable t ere long we %all be able to arrive at a fair k ( ! v>i\s modifications :i* ! ,plei/oc5e floras & faunas exp]i5c$ dur+ t protract$ p]iod ( climatic *anges ( :i* ,i h be5 speak+4 ,we %all ev5 possibly le>n h[ (t5 ! arctic1 /eppe-1 prairie-1 & =e/-faunas1 z !y h be5 def9$ by ,woldri*1 replac$ ea* o!r4 ,ev5 n[ "s approximation to ?is bett] k has be5 made4 ,dr4 ,pohlig1,,at = example1 has comp>$ ! rema9s ( ! ,plei/oc5e faunas obta9$ at _m diff]5t places 9 ,europe1 & has pres5t$ u ) a classification :i*1 al?\gh confess$ly incomplete1 yet s]ves to %[ ! direction 9 :i* we mu/ look = fur!r advances 9 ?is dep>tm5t ( inquiry4 ,,at ,pohlig3 ,sitzungsb4 d4 ni$]rhe9is*5 ,gesells*aft zu ,bonn1 #ahhd2 ,zeits*r4 d4 deuts*4 geolog4 ,ges41 #ahhg1 p4 #gih4 ,= a v full acc\nt ( ! diluvial ,european & nor!rn ,asiatic mammalian faunas by ,woldri*1 see ,mm4 de l',acad4 des ,sci5ces de ,/4 ,pt]sb\rg1 viie sr41 t4 xxxv41 #ahhg4 ,dur+ ! la/ tw5ty ye>s ! evid5ce ( int]glacial conditions bo? 9 ,europe & ,am]ica has s increas$ t geologi/s g5]ally no long] d\bt t ! ,plei/oc5e p]iod 0 *>act]is$ by great *anges ( climate4 ,! occurr5ce at _m diff]5t localities on ! ,cont95t ( b$s ( lignite & fre%wat] alluvia1 conta9+ rema9s ( ,plei/oc5e mammalia1 int]calat$ betwe5 sep>ate & di/9ct b\ld]-clays has left u no o!r alt]native4 ,! int]glacial b$s ( ! ,alp9e ,l&s ( c5tral ,europe are p>allel$ by simil> deposits 9 ,brita91 ,sc&9avia1 ,g]many1 & ,france4 ,b op9ions diff] z to ! numb] ( glacial & int]glacial epo*s--_m hold+ t we h evid5ce ( only two cold /ages & "o g5]al int]glacial /age4 ,?is1 z ,i h said1 is ! view ent]ta9$ by mo/ geologi/s :o are at "w on ! glacial accumulations ( ,sc&9avia & nor? ,g]many4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ,dr4 ,p5ck & o!rs1 f a /udy ( drifts ( ! ,g]man ,alp9e ,l&s1 believe t !y h met ) evid5ce ( ?ree di/9ct epo*s ( glaciation1 & two epo*s ( int]glacial conditions4 ,9 ,france1 :ile "s obs]v]s are ( op9ion t !re h be5 only two epo*s ( g5]al glaciation1 o!rs1 z1 = example1 ,m4 ,t>dy1 f9d :at !y consid] to be evid5ce ( sev]al su* epo*s4 ,o!rs aga91 z ,m4 ,falsan1 d n believe 9 ! exi/5ce ( any int]glacial /ages1 al?\gh !y readily admit t !re 7 great advances & retreats ( ! ice dur+ ! ,glacial p]iod4 ,m4 ,falsan1 9 %ort1 believes 9 oscillations1 b is ( op9ion t ^! 7 n s ext5sive z o!rs h ma9ta9$4 ,x is1 !re=e1 simply a "q ( degree1 & :e!r we speak ( oscillations or ( epo*s1 we mu/ ne$s admit ! fact t ?r\gh\t all ! glaciat$ tracts ( ,europe1 fossilif]\s deposits occur int]calat$ among glacial accumulations4 ,! successive advance & retreat ( ! ice1 !re=e1 0 n a local ph5om5on1 b *>act]is$ all ! glaciat$ areas4 ,& ! evid5ce %[s t ! oscillations ref]r$ to 7 on a gigantic scale4 ,! relation borne to ! glacial accumulations by ! old riv] alluvia :i* conta9 relics ( paloli?ic man e>ly attract$ att5tion4 ,f ! fact t ^! alluvia 9 "s places ov]lie glacial deposits1 ! g5]al op9ion 7/ill held by "s7 0 t paloli?ic man mu/ ne$s be ( po/-glacial age4 ,b s9ce we h le>n$ t all b\ld]-clay does n belong to "o & ! same geological horizon--t1 9 %ort1 !re h be5 at lea/ two1 & probably m1 epo*s ( glaciation--x is obvi\s t ! m]e occurr5ce ( glacial deposits und]nea? paloli?ic gravels does n prove ^! latt] to be po/-glacial4 ,all t we are entitl$ 9 su* a case to say is simply t ! implem5t-be>+ b$s are y\ng] ?an ! glacial accumulations ^u :i* !y re/4 ,_! horizon mu/ be det]m9$ by fir/ asc]ta9+ ! relative position 9 ! glacial s]ies ( ! und]ly+ deposits4 ,n[1 x is a rem>kable fact t ! b\ld]-clays :i* und]lie su* old alluvia belong1 )\t exception1 to ! e>li] /ages ( ! ,glacial p]iod4 ,?is has be5 prov$ aga9 & aga91 n only = ?is c\ntry b = ,europe g5]ally4 ,i am sorry to reflect t "s tw5ty ye>s h n[ elaps$ s9ce ,i 0 l$ to suspect t ! paloli?ic deposits 7 n ( po/-glacial b ( glacial & int]glacial age4 ,9 #ahga-gb ,i publi%$ a s]ies ( pap]s 9 ! ,geological ,magaz9e 9 :i* 7 set =? ! views ,i _h come to =m ^u ?is int]e/+ "q4 ,9 ^! pap]s x 0 ma9ta9$ t ! alluvia & cave-deposits c\ld n be ( po/-glacial age1 b mu/ be assign$ to pre-glacial & int]glacial times1 & 9 *ief measure to ! latt]4 ,evid5ce 0 l$ to %[ t ! late/ great developm5t ( glaci]-ice 9 ,europe took place aft] ! s\!rn pa*yd]ms & paloli?ic man _h vacat$ ,engl&--t dur+ ?is la/ /age ( ! ,glacial p]iod man liv$ contemporane\sly ) a nor!rn & alp9e fauna 9 su* regions z s\!rn ,france--& la/ly1 t paloli?ic man & ! s\!rn mammalia nev] revisit$ nor?-we/]n ,europe aft] extreme glacial conditions _h disappe>$4 ,^! conclusions 7 arriv$ at aft] a some:at detail$ exam9ation ( all ! evid5ce !n available--! rem>kable di/ribution ( ! paloli?ic & ossif]\s alluvia hav+1 z ,i h said1 p>ticul>ly impress$ me4 ,i col\r$ a map to %[ at once ! areas cov]$ by ! glacial & fluvio-glacial deposits ( ! la/ glacial epo*1 & ! regions 9 :i* ! implem5t-be>+ & ossif]\s alluvia _h be5 met )1 :5 x became app>5t t ! latt] nev] occurr$ at ! surface )9 ! regions occupi$ by ! =m]4 ,if ossif]\s alluvia did "h & !re appe> )9 ! rec5tly glaciat$ areas x 0 always ei!r 9 caves1 or z infra- or int]glacial deposits4 ,s9ce ! date ( ^! rese>*es our k ( ! geographical di/ribution ( ,plei/oc5e deposits has greatly increas$1 & implem5ts & o!r relics ( paloli?ic man h be5 record$ f _m new localities ?r\gh\t ,europe4 ,b none ( ?is fre% evid5ce contradicts ! conclusions ,i _h previ\sly arriv$ at2 on ! contr>y1 x has greatly /r5g!n$ my g5]al argum5t4 ,pr(essor ,p5ck 01 ,i ?9k1 ! fir/ on ! ,cont95t to adopt ! views ref]r$ to4 ,he 0 among ! e>lie/ to recognise ! evid5ce ( int]glacial conditions 9 ! drift-cov]$ regions ( nor!rn ,g]many1 & x 0 ! reflections :i* ^? rem>kable int]glacial b$s 7 s well calculat$ to sugge/ t l$ him into ! same pa? z myself4 ,dr4 ,p5ck has publi%$ a map,,au %[+ ! areas cov]$ by ! e>li] & lat] glacial deposits 9 nor!rn ,europe & ! ,alp9e ,l&s1 & indicat+ at ! same "t ! v>i\s localities :]e paloli?ic f9ds h occurr$1 & 9 n a s+le case d any ( ! latt] appe> )9 ! areas cov]$ by ! accumulations ( ! la/ glacial epo*4 ,,au ,ar*iv fr ,an?ropologie1 ,bd4 xv4 ,heft #c1 #ahhd4 ,a glance at ! pap]s :i* h be5 publi%$ 9 ,g]many )9 ! la/ few ye>s w %[ h[ greatly /ud5ts ( ! ,plei/oc5e ossif]\s b$s h be5 influ5c$ by :at is n[ kn[n ( ! int]glacial deposits & _! organic rema9s4 ,pr(essors ,ro?pletz,,av & ,&re1,,aw ,dr4 ,pohlig,,ax & o!rs1 d n n[ hesitate to correlate ) ^? b$s ! old ossif]\s & implem5t-be>+ alluvia :i* lie altoge!r outside ( glaciat$ regions4 ,,av ,ro?pletz3 ,d5ks*rift d4 s*weiz]4 ,ges4 fr d4 gesammt4 ,nat41 ,bd4 xxviii4 #ahha4 ,,aw ,&re3 ,abh&l4 z4 geolog4 ,specialk>te v4 ,elsass-,lo?r+51 ,bd4 iv4 ,heft #b1 #ahhd4 ,,ax ,pohlig3 op4 cit4 ,! relation ( ! ,plei/oc5e alluvia ( ,france to ! glacial deposits ( t & o!r c\ntries has be5 especially canvass$4 ,ro?pletz1 9 ! pap] ,i h cit$1 includes ^! alluvia among/ ! int]glacial deposits1 & 9 ! pres5t ye> 7#ahhi7 we h an int]e/+ essay on ! same subject by ! accompli%$ secret>y ( ! ,an?ropological & ,ar*ological ,congress :i* met rec5tly 9 ,p>is4 ,m4 ,b\le,,ay correlates ! paloli?ic cave- & riv]-deposits ( ,france ) ^? ( o!r c\ntries1 & %[s t !y mu/ be ( int]glacial age4 ,8 classification1 ,i am gratifi$ to f9d1 does n mat]ially diff] f t giv5 by myself a numb] ( ye>s ago4 ,he is satisfi$ t 9 ,france !re is evid5ce ( ?ree glacial epo*s & two well-m>k$ int]glacial horizons4 ,! olde/ ( ! paloli?ic /ages ( ,mortillet 7,*ellenne7 culm9at$ accord+ to ,b\le dur+ ! la/ int]glacial epo*1 :ile ! m rec5t paloli?ic /ages 7,m\/ri5ne1 ,solutrenne1 & ,magdalni5ne7 co9cid$ ) ! la/ great developm5t ( glaci]-ice4 ,! ,paloli?ic age1 s f> z ,europe is conc]n$1 came to a close dur+ ?is la/ cold phase ( ! ,glacial p]iod4 ,,ay ,b\le3 ,revue d',an?ropologie1 #ahhi1 t4 #a4 ,!re are _m o!r po9ts relat+ to glacial geology :i* h ( late ye>s be5 canvass$ by ,cont95tal work]s1 b ^! ,i _c discuss "h4 ,i h purposely inde$ re/rict$ my rem>ks to su* p>ts ( a wide subject z ,i ?\ght might h int]e/ = glaciali/s 9 ?is c\ntry1 "s ( :om may n h _h _! att5tion direct$ to ! results :i* h rec5tly be5 atta9$ by _! fell[-lab\r]s 9 o!r l&s4 ,_h "t p]mitt$ ,i %\ld gladly h dwelt ^u ! notewor?y advances made by our ,am]ican bre?r5 9 ! same dep>tm5t ( inquiry4 ,especially %\ld ,i h wi%$ to direct att5tion to ! rem>kable evid5ce adduc$ 9 fav\r ( ! p]iodicity ( glacial action4 ,?us ,messrs4 ,*amb]l9 & ,salisbury1 aft] a g5]al review ( t evid5ce1 ma9ta9 t ! ,ice ,age 0 int]rupt$ by "o *ief int]glacial epo* & also by ?ree int]glacial sub-epo*s or episodes ( deglaciation4 ,^! au?ors discuss at "s l5g? ! orig9 ( ! lss1 & come to ! g5]al conclusion t :ile deposits ( ?is "* may h be5 =m$ at diff]5t /ages ( ! ,glacial p]iod1 & "u diff]5t conditions1 yet ^u ! :ole !y are be/ expla9$ by aque\s action4 ,inde$ a p]usal ( ! rec5t geological lit]ature ( ,am]ica %[s a close accord betwe5 ! !oretical op9ions ( _m ,transatlantic & ,european geologi/s4 ,?us z ye>s advance ! picture ( ,plei/oc5e times becomes m & m cle>ly develop$4 ,! conditions "u :i* our old paloli?ic pr$ecessors liv$--! climatic & geographical *anges ( :i* !y 7 ! witnesses--are gradually be+ reveal$ ) a precision t only a few ye>s ago might well h seem$ impossible4 ,?is ( itself is extremely int]e/+1 b ,i feel sure t ,i speak ! conviction ( _m work]s 9 ?is field ( lab\r :5 ,i say t ! cle>+ up ( ! hi/ory ( ,plei/oc5e times is n ! only end :i* !y h 9 view4 ,"o c h>dly d\bt t :5 ! conditions ( t p]iod & ! causes :i* gave rise to ^! h be5 m fully & def9itely asc]ta9$ we %all h advanc$ "s way t[>ds ! bett] und]/&+ ( ! climatic conditions ( /ill e>li] p]iods4 ,= x _c be d5i$ t our k ( ,palozoic1 ,mesozoic1 & ev5 e>ly ,ca9ozoic climates is unsatisfactory4 ,b we may look =w>d to ! "t :5 mu* ( ?is unc]ta9ty w disappe>4 ,meteorologi/s are e day acquir+ a cle>] conception ( ! di/ribution ( atmosph]ic pressure & temp]ature & ! causes by :i* t di/ribution is det]m9$1 & ! day is approa*+ :5 we %all be bett] able ?an we are n[ to apply ?is ext5d$ meteorological k to ! explanation ( ! climates ( =m] p]iods 9 ! _w's hi/ory4 ,"o ( ! *ief factors 9 ! pres5t di/ribution ( atmosph]ic temp]ature & pressure is d\btless ! relative position ( ! great l&- & wat]-areas2 & if ?is be true ( ! pres5t1 x mu/ be true also ( ! pa/4 ,x w\ld almo/ seem1 !n1 z if all "o _h to d to asc]ta9 ! climatic conditions ( any p>ticul> p]iod1 0 to prep>e a map depict+ ) "s approa* to accuracy ! =m] relative position ( l& & sea4 ,) su* a map c\ld our meteorologi/s inf] :at ! climatic conditions mu/ h be58 ,yes1 provid$ we c\ld assure !m t 9 o!r respects ! physical conditions did n diff] f ! pres5t4 ,n[ !re is no p]iod 9 ! pa/ hi/ory ( our globe ! geographical conditions ( :i* are bett] kn[n ?an ! ,plei/oc5e4 ,& yet1 :5 we h indicat$ ^! ^u a map1 we f9d t !y d n give ! results :i* we might h expect$4 ,! climatic conditions :i* !y seem to imply are n su* z we "k did actually obta94 ,x is obvi\s1 !re=e1 t "s additional & p]haps exceptional factor 0 at "w to produce ! recognis$ results4 ,:at 0 ?is di/urb+ elem5t1 & h we any evid5ce ( its int]f]5ce ) ! op]ation ( ! normal ag5ts ( climatic *ange 9 e>li] p]iods ( ! _w's hi/ory8 ,we all "k t v>i\s answ]s h be5 giv5 to su* que/ions4 ,:e!r among/ ^! ! correct solution ( ! enigma is to be f\nd1 "t w %[4 ,mean:ile1 z all hypo!sis & !ory mu/ />ve )\t facts to fe$ on1 x behoves u z work+ geologi/s to d our be/ to add to ! supply4 ,! success ) :i* o!r problems h be5 attack$ by geologi/s =bids u to d\bt t ere long we %all h done mu* to dispel "s ( ! my/]y :i* /ill envelopes ! "q ( geological climates4 ,,ix4 ,! ,glacial ,p]iod & ! ,e>?-,movem5t ,hypo!sis4,,az ,,az ,?is article conta9s ! sub/ance ( two pap]s1 "o read be=e ! ,victoria ,in/itute1 9 #ahib2 ! o!r an address deliv]$ to ! ,geological ,society ( ,ed9burgh1 9 #ahia4 ,p]haps no portion ( ! geological record has be5 m assidu\sly /udi$ dur+ ! la/ qu>t] ( a c5tury ?an its clos+ *apt]s4 ,we are n[ 9 possession ( manifold data conc]n+ ! int]pretation ( :i* !re seems to be g5]al agreem5t4 ,b :ile t is ! case1 !re rema91 nev]!less1 c]ta9 facts or gr\ps ( facts :i* are v>i\sly acc\nt$ =4 ,nor h all ! ph5om5a ( ! ,plei/oc5e p]iod receiv$ equal att5tion f ^? :o h rec5tly speculat$ & g5]alis$ on ! subject ( ,plei/oc5e climate & geography4 ,yet1 we may be sure1 geologi/s are n likely to arrive at any safe conclusions z to ! conditions t obta9$ 9 ,plei/oc5e times1 unless ! evid5ce be c&idly consid]$ 9 all its be>+s4 ,no int]pretation ( t evid5ce :i* does n recognise e out/&+ gr\p ( facts c be expect$ to endure4 ,x may be possible to frame a plausible !ory to acc\nt = "s p>ticul> conspicu\s ph5om5a1 b %\ld t !ory leave unexpla9$ a residuum ( less conspicu\s b nev]!less well-prov$ facts1 !n1 h[ev] /rongly x may be =tifi$1 x mu/ assur$ly fall4 ,z already rem>k$1 !re are _m ph5om5a 9 ! int]pretation ( :i* geologi/s are g5]ally agre$4 ,x is1 = example1 no long] disput$ t 9 ,plei/oc5e times va/ %eets ( ice--cont95tal m]s de glace--cov]$ broad areas 9 ,europe & ,nor? ,am]ica1 & t ext5sive sn[-fields & l>ge local glaci]s exi/$ 9 _m m\nta9-regions :]e sn[-fields & glaci]s are n[ unkn[n1 or only meagrely develop$4 ,x is q unnecess>y1 h[ev]1 t ,i %\ld give ev5 ! slighte/ sket* ( ! aspect pres5t$ by ! glaciat$ tracts ( our hemisph]e at ! climax ( ! ,ice ,age4 ,! geographical di/ribution & ext5t ( ! old sn[-fields1 glaci]s1 & ice-%eets is matt] n[ ( common k4 ,x w be well1 h[ev]1 to und]/& cle>ly ! nature ( ! conditions :i* obta9$ at ! climax ( glacial cold--at t /age1 namely1 :5 ! ,alp9e glaci]s rea*$ _! greate/ developm5t1 & :5 s mu* ( ,europe 0 cas$ 9 sn[ & ice4 ,?is we %all be/ d by comp>+ ! pres5t ) ! pa/4 ,n[ 9 our day ! limits ( p]5nial sn[ are atta9$ at heights t necess>ily v>y ) ! latitude4 ,?is is %[n z foll[s3-- ,region4 ,n4 ,lat4 ,height ( ,sn[-,l9e4 ,icel&1 #fe #c1jgj feet4 ,norway1 #fa #e1ahj-e1egj ,n4 ,urals1 #ei #cj' #d1gij ,alps1 #df #h1hhd or #i1jjj ,caucasus1 #dc #aj1fjj-aa1jjj ,ap5n9es1 #db #cj' #i1ebj ,etna1 #cg #cj' #i1ecj ,si]ra ,nevada1 #cg #aa1ahg ,?us 9 trav]s+ ,europe f nor? to s\? ! sn[-l9e may be said to rise f #cjjj feet to #aa1jjj feet 9 r\nd numb]s4 ,x is possible f su* data to draw across ! map a s]ies ( iso*ional l9es1 or l9es ( equal p]5nial sn[1 & ?is has be5 done by my fri5d1 ,pr(essor ,p5ck ( ,vi5na4,,ba ,x w be und]/ood t ea* iso*ional l9e trav]ses ^? regions above :i* ! l9e ( nv is e/imat$ to occur at ! same height4 ,?us ! iso*ional l9e ( #ajjj metres 7#cbhj feet7 runs f ! nor? ( ,norway d[n to lat4 #fd on ! we/ coa/1 :5ce x mu/ pass we/ to ! s\? ( ,icel&4 ,! l9e ( #aejj metres 7#dibj ft47 is trac$ f ! nor? end ( ! ,urals 9 a we/]ly direction4 ,x !n foll[s ! back-bone ( ! ,sc&9avian p59sula1 passes ov] to ,scotl&1 & !nce /rikes we/ along lat4 #ee4 ,= ea* ( ^! l9es good data are obta9able4 ,! l9e ( #bjjj metres 7#fefj ft47 is1 h[ev]1 hypo!tical4 ,x is e/imat$ to ext5d f ! ,ural ,m\nta9s1 ab\t ! lat4 ( #eg1 ov] ! m\nta9s ( middle ,g]many & above ! nor? ( ,france4 ,! l9e ( #bejj metres 7#hbjj ft47 passes f ! s\!rn t]m9ation ( ! ,urals1 9 lat4 #ea1 to ! ea/ ,c>pa?ians1 !nce along ! nor? face ( ! ,alps1 !reaft] s\?-we/ across ! ,cev5nes to ! nor?-we/ end ( ! ,pyr5ees2 & !nce above ! ,cantabrian & ! ,portuguese ,highl&s to ! coa/ 9 lat4 #ci4 ,! l9e ( #cjjj metres 7#ihdj ft47 is e/imat$ to occur above ! ,caspian ,sea1 ne> lat4 #dd1 & ext5ds we/ ?r\gh ! nor? end ( ! ,caucasus to ! ,balkans4 ,!nce x is trac$ nor?-we/ to ! ,alps1 s\?-we/ to ! ,pyr5ees1 :i* range x foll[s to ! we/1 & !reaft] sweeps s\? above ! coa/ at ,cadiz4 ,! l9e ( #cejj metres 7#aa1dhj ft47 runs f ! ,caucasus s\?-we/ across ,asia ,m9or to ! ,lebanon ,m\nta9s2 !nce x foll[s ! direction ( ! ,m$it]ranean1 & trav]ses ,morocco above ! nor? face ( ! ,atlas range4 ,f9ally ! l9e ( #djjj metres 7#ac1abj feet7 is e/imat$ to tr5d 9 ! same g5]al direction z ! la/-m5tion$ l9e1 b1 ( c\rse1 fur!r to ! s\?4 ,al?\gh ^! iso*ional l9es are to "s ext5t conjectural1 yet ! data ^u :i* !y are bas$ are suffici5tly num]\s & well-kn[n to prev5t any great error1 & we may admit t ! l9es repres5t ) tol]able accuracy ! g5]al position ( ! sn[-l9e ov] our ,cont95t4 ,s greatly has our k ( ! glaciation ( ,europe increas$ dur+ rec5t ye>s1 t ! height ( ! sn[-l9e ( ! ,glacial p]iod has be5 det]m9$ by ,,mm4 ,simony1 ,p>ts*1 ,p5ck1 & ,hf]4 ,_! me?od is simple en\gh4 ,!y fir/ asc]ta9 ! l[e/ p>ts ( a glaciat$ region f :i* indep5d5t glaci]s h fl[$4 ,?is gives ! maximum height ( ! old sn[-l9e4 ,next !y det]m9e ! l[e/ po9t rea*$ by su* glaci]s4 ,x is obvi\s t ! sn[-l9e w\ld occur high] up ?an t1 b at a l[] level ?an ! actual s\rce ( ! glaci]s2 & ?us ! m9imum height ( ! =m] sn[-l9e is approximately asc]ta9$4 ,! l[e/ level f :i* indep5d5t glaci]s =m]ly fl[$1 & ! t]m9al po9t rea*$ by ! highe/-ly+ glaci]s hav+ be5 duly asc]ta9$1 x is possible to det]m9e ) suffici5t accuracy ! mean height ( ! old sn[-l9e4 ,! requir$ data are be/ obta9$1 z "o might h expect$1 9 ! ,pyr5ees & among/ ! m\nta9s ( middle & s\!rn ,europe4 ,9 ^? regions ! sn[-l9e w\ld seem to h be5 "s #cjjj feet or s l[] ?an n[4 ,f su* data ,pr(essor ,p5ck has con/ruct$ a map %[+ ! iso*ional l9es ( ! ,glacial p]iod4 ,^! l9es are1 ,i ne$ h>dly say1 only approximations1 b !y are suffici5tly ne> ! tru? to br+ out ! contra/ betwe5 ! ,ice ,age & ! pres5t4 ,?us ! iso*ional ( #ajjj metres1 :i* at pres5t lies above nor!rn ,sc&9avia1 0 pu%$ s\? to ! latitude ( s\!rn ,france & nor? ,italy2 :ile ! iso*ional ( #bjjj metres 7n[ ov]ly+ ! extreme nor? ( ,france & nor? ,g]many7 pass$ 9 glacial times ov] ! nor!rn "p ( ! ,m$it]ranean4,,bb ,,ba ,geographis*e ,wirkung5 d] ,eiszeit1 ,v]h&l4 d4 vi]t5 deuts*5 ,geograph5tages zu ,mn*51 #ahhd4 ,,bb ,x is int]e/+ to note t :ile 9 ! ,tatra 7nor? ,c>pa?ians7 ! sn[-l9e 0 depress$ 9 glacial times to ! ext5t ( #bgjj feet only1 9 ! ,alps x desc5d$ "s #djjj feet or m bel[ its pres5t level4 ,) ! sn[-l9e ( t great *a9 at su* an elevation x is obvi\s t only a few ( ! high] po9ts ( ! ,ap5n9es c\ld rise into ! region ( nv4 ,?is is ! reason :y mora9es are met ) 9 only ! high] valleys ( t range4 ,iso*ional l9es are n iso!rms4 ,_! height & direction are det]m9$ n only by temp]ature1 b by ! am\nt & di/ribution ( ! sn[-fall4 ,nev]!less1 ! position ( ! sn[-l9e 9 ,europe dur+ ! ,ice ,age enables u to =m a r\gh e/imate ( ! temp]ature4 ,at pres5t 9 middle ,europe ! temp]ature falls #a ,f4 = e #cjj feet ( asc5t4 ,h5ce if we take ! av]age depression ( ! sn[-l9e 9 glacial times at #cjjj feet1 t w\ld correspond approximately to a l[]+ ( ! temp]ature by #aj4;,,bc ,?is may n appe> to be mu*1 b1 z ,p5ck po9ts out1 7 ! mean annual temp]ature to be l[]$ to t ext5t x w\ld br+ ! climate ( nor!rn ,norway d[n to s\!rn ,g]many1 & ! climate ( ,sw$5 to ,au/ria & ,moravia1 :ile t ( ! ,alps w\ld be met ) ov] ! bas9 ( ! ,m$it]ranean4 ,,bc ,pr(essor ,brckn] ?9ks ! g5]al l[]+ ( temp]ature may n h exce$$ #e-a_/b to #g ,f4 ,v]h&lung5 d] #gc ,jahresv]sammlung d] s*weiz]is*5 ,natur=s*5d5 ,gesells*aft 9 ,davos1 #ahij4 ,let x be not$ fur!r t ?is l[]+ ( ! temp]ature--?is displacem5t ( climatic zones1 0 exp]i5c$ ov] ! :ole cont95t--ext5d+ on ! "o h& s\? into ,africa1 & on ! o!r ea/ into ,asia4 ,b :ile ! conditions 9 nor!rn & c5tral ,europe 7 m>k$ly glacial1 fur!r s\? only m or less isolat$ sn[-capp$ m\nta9s & local glaci]s appe>$--su*1 = example1 z ^? ( ! ,si]ra ,nevada1 ! ,ap5n9es1 ,corsica1 ! ,atlas1 ! ,lebanon1 etc4 ,9 connection ) ^! facts we may note also t ! ,azores 7 rea*$ by float+ ice2 & ,i ne$ only ref] 9 a ^w to ! evid5ce ( cold wet conditions z furni%$ by ! plant & animal rema9s ( ! ,plei/oc5e tufas1 alluvia1 & peat ( s\!rn ,europe4 ,aga9 9 nor? ,africa & ,syria we f9d1 9 desiccat$ regions1 widespread fluviatile accumulations1 :i*1 9 ! op9ion ( a numb] ( compet5t obs]v]s1 are indicative ( ra9y conditions contemporane\s ) ! ,glacial p]iod ( ,europe4 ,:5 we comp>e ! conditions ( ! ,ice ,age ) ^? ( ! pres5t we are /ruck ) ! fact t ! =m] 7 only an exagg]ation ( ! latt]4 ,! developm5t ( glaciation 0 9 /rict accordance ) exi/+ conditions4 ,?us 9 ,plei/oc5e times ,nor? ,am]ica 0 m ext5sively glaciat$ ?an nor!rn ,europe1 j z to-day ,gre5l& %[s m sn[ & ice ?an ,sc&9avia4 ,no traces ( glaciation h be5 obs]v$ z yet 9 nor!rn ,asia or 9 nor!rn ,alaska1 & to-day ! only glaci]s & ice-%eets t exi/ 9 nor!rn regions are conf9$ to ! =m]ly glaciat$ areas4 ,aga91 9 ,plei/oc5e ,europe glacial ph5om5a 7 m /rongly develop$ 9 ! we/ ?an 9 ! ea/4 ,l>ge glaci]s1 = example1 exi/$ 9 c5tral ,france1 & a consid]able ice-fl[ p\r$ into ! bas9 ( ! ,d\ro4 ,b 9 ! same latitudes ( ea/]n ,europe we meet ) few or no traces ( ice-action4 ,aga91 ! ,vosges appe> to h be5 m sev]ely glaciat$ ?an ! m\nta9s ( middle ,g]many2 & s likewise ! old glaci]s ( ! we/]n ,alps 7 on a mu* m ext5sive scale ?an ^? t[>ds ! ea/ end ( ! *a94 ,simil> contra/s may be not$ at ! pres5t day4 ,?us we f9d glaci]s 9 ,norway "u lat4 #fj1 :ile 9 ! ,ural ,m\nta9s 9 ! same latitude !re is none4 ,! glaci]s ( ! we/]n ,alps1 aga91 are l>g] ?an ^? 9 ! ea/]n "p ( ! *a94 ,! ,caucasus region1 x is true1 has consid]able glaci]s1 b !n ! m\nta9s are high]4 ,n[ turn = a mom5t to ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,! ea/]n area 0 cov]$ by "o imm5se ice-%eet1 :ile 9 ! m\nta9\s region ( ! we/ gigantic glaci]s exi/$4 ,9 our own day we see a simil> contra/4 ,9 ! nor?-ea/ lies ,gre5l& well-nigh dr[n$ 9 ice1 :ile ! nor?-we/ region on ! o!r h&1 al?\gh consid]ably high] & occurr+ 9 ! same latitude1 holds only local glaci]s4 ,we may fur!r note t at ! pres5t day v dry regions1 ev5 :5 ^! are relatively l(ty & 9 high latitudes1 su* z ! upl&s ( ,sib]ia1 conta9 no glaci]s4 ,& ! same 0 ! case 9 ! ,glacial p]iod4 ,^! facts are suffici5t to %[ t ! conditions ( glacial times bore an intimate relation to ^? t n[ obta94 ,c\ld ! requisite increase ( precipitation & l[]+ ( temp]ature take place1 we _c d\bt t ice-%eets & glaci]s w\ld reappe> 9 precisely ! same regions :]e !y 7 =m]ly s ext5sively develop$4 ,no *ange 9 ! relative elevation ( ! l& w\ld be requir$--increas$ precipitation accompani$ by a g5]al l[]+ ( ! sn[-l9e = #cjjj or #cejj feet w\ld suffice to re9troduce ! ,ice ,age4 ,f ! =ego+ consid]ations we may conclude3--7#a7 ,t ! cold ( ! ,glacial p]iod 0 a g5]al ph5om5on1 due to "s widely-act+ cause--a cause suffici5t to influ5ce contemporane\sly ! climate ( ,europe & ,nor? ,am]ica2 7#b7 t glaciation 9 our cont95t increas$ 9 int5sity f ea/ to we/1 & f s\? to nor?2 7#c7 t :]e n[ we h ! greate/ ra9fall1 9 glacial times ! greate/ sn[-fall took place1 & ! sn[ t5d$ mo/ to accumulate2 7#d7 t 9 ! extreme s\? ( ,europe1 & 9 nor? ,africa & we/ ,asia1 increas$ ra9 precipitation accompani$ l[]+ ( temp]ature1 f :i* x may be inf]r$ t precipitation 9 glacial times 0 great] g5]ally ?an x is n[4 ,hav+ consid]$ ! climatic conditions t obta9$ at ! climax ( ! ,glacial p]iod1 ,i h next to recapitulate :at is kn[n z to ! climatic *anges ( ,plei/oc5e times4 ,x is g5]ally admitt$ t ! glacial conditions ( :i* ,i h be5 speak+ 7 repeat$ twice1 "s say ?ree times1 dur+ ! ,plei/oc5e p]iod2 :ile o!rs ma9ta9 t ev5 a l>g] numb] ( glacial episodes may h occurr$4 ,two glacial epo*s1 at all ev5ts1 h be5 recognis$ g5]ally bo? 9 ,europe & ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,^! 7 sep>at$ by an int]glacial /age ( m g5ial conditions1 ! evid5ce = :i* is /eadily increas+4 ,no "o n[ calls 9 "q ! exi/5ce ( int]glacial deposits1 b1 z _! occurr5ce is r a /umbl+-block 9 ! way ( c]ta9 rec5tly resuscitat$ hypo!ses1 "s attempt has be5 made to m9imise _! importance--to expla9 !m away1 9 fact4 ,x has be5 sugge/$1 = example--7& ! sugge/ion is by no means new7--t ! deposits 9 "q only %[ t !re 7 local oscillations dur+ ! advance & retreat ( ! old ice-%eets & glaci]s4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 is n ! view ( ^? :o h obs]v$ & describ$ int]glacial b$s--:o "k ! nature ( ! organic rema9s :i* !y h yield$1 & ! conditions "u :i* ! b$s mu/ h be5 accumulat$4 ,i ne$ n ref] to ! int]glacial deposits ( our own c\ntry fur!r ?an to rem>k t !y c]ta9ly _c be expla9$ away 9 t summ>y fa%ion4 ,! peat & fre%wat] b$s t lie betwe5 ! l[] & upp] tills 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ,ed9burgh1 = example1 are ( !mselves suffici5t to prove a m>k$ & decid$ *ange ( climate4 ,no m]e tempor>y retreat & re-advance ( ! ice-%eet w acc\nt = _! occurr5ce4 ,! l[] till is unque/ionably ! bottom-mora9e ( an ice-%eet :i*1 9 t region1 fl[$ t[>ds ! ea/4 ,:5 ! geographical position ( ! deposits 9 "q is consid]$ x becomes cle> t an ea/]ly fl[ ( ice 9 ,mid-,lo?ian proves beyond ga9say+ t dur+ ! accumulation ( ! l[] till all ,scotl& 0 dr[n$ 9 ice4 ,b :5 wat] once m fl[$ ov] ! l&-surface--:5 a temp]ate flora1 compos$ ( hazels & o!r plants1 aga9 appe>$1 x is obvi\s t ! ice-%eet _h already vani%$ f c5tral ,scotl&4 ,?is is n ! case ( a m]e tempor>y recession ( ! ice-front4 ,x is impossible to believe t a temp]ate or ev5 cold-temp]ate flora c\ld h fl\ri%$ 9 c5tral ,scotl& at a p]iod :5 ?ick glaci]-ice mantl$ any portion ( our ,l[l&s4 ,aga91 9 ! upp] till we read ! evid5ce ( a recurr5ce ( extreme glacial conditions--:5 c5tral ,scotl& 0 once m ov]:elm$ by conflu5t ice-/reams com+ f ! ,highl&s & ! s\!rn ,upl&s4 ,simil> evid5ce ( recurr5t glacial conditions1 ,i ne$ h>dly rem9d y1 has be5 detect$ 9 o!r p>ts ( ! c\ntry4 ,we are ju/ifi$1 !n1 9 ma9ta9+ t our int]glacial b$s po9t to di/9ct oscillations ( climate--oscillations :i* imply a long lapse ( "t4 ,cont95tal obs]v]s are equally conv9c$ t ! int]glacial epo*1 ( :i* s _m int]e/+ relics h be5 pres]v$ ov] a wide region1 0 m>k$ at its climax by a temp]ate climate & endur$ = a long p]iod4 ,! int]glacial b$s ( nor!rn & c5tral ,europe =m ev]y:]e m>k$ horizons 9 ! glacial s]ies4 ,geologi/s sometimes =get t 9 e region :]e glacial accumulations are well develop$1 good obs]v]s _h recognis$ an upp] & l[] s]ies ( drift-deposits long be=e ! idea ( two sep>ate glacial epo*s _h pres5t$ itself4 ,?us1 9 nor? ,g]many1 s cle>ly is ! ,upp] diff]5tiat$ f ! ,l[] ,diluvium t ! two s]ies _h be5 not$ & mapp$ z sep>ate accumulations = ye>s be=e geologi/s _h =mulat$ ! !ory ( successive ice-epo*s4,,bd ,! division ( ! ,g]man ,diluvium into an upp] & a l[] s]ies is z firmly e/abli%$ z any o!r well-m>k$ division 9 hi/orical geology4 ,! /ratigraphical evid5ce has be5 mu* /r5g!n$1 h[ev]1 by ! discov]y betwe5 upp] & l[] b\ld]-clays ( true int]glacial b$s1 conta9+ lignite1 peat1 diatomace\s e>?1 & m>9e1 bracki%1 & fre%wat] molluscs1 fi%1 etc41 & n[ & aga9 bones ( ,plei/oc5e mammals4,,be ,a simil> /rongly-m>k$ division *>act]ises ! glacial accumulations ( ,sw$51 z has be5 cle>ly %[n by ,de ,ge]1,,bf :o ?9ks t ! old] & y\ng] epo*s ( glaciation 7 sep>at$ by a protract$ p]iod ( int]glacial conditions4 ,9 %ort1 evid5ce ( a break 9 ! glacial succession has be5 trac$ at int]vals across ! :ole wid? ( ! ,cont95t1 f ! bord]s ( ! ,nor? ,sea to c5tral ,russia4 ,m4 ,kris*taf[its* has rec5tly detect$ 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ,mosc[,,bg c]ta9 fossilif]\s int]glacial b$s1 ! flora & fauna ( :i* indicate a w>m] & moi/] climate ?an ! pres5t4 ,! int]glacial /age1 he says1 mu/ h be5 ( long duration1 & sep>at$ 9 ,russia z 9 we/]n ,europe two di/9ct epo*s ( glaciation4 ,,bd ,wahns*affe3 ,=s*ung5 zur deuts*5 ,l&es- und ,volkskunde von ,dr4 ,a4 ,kir*h(f1 ,bd4 vi41 ,heft #a4 ,,be ,= int]glacial b$s ( nor? ,g]many see ,hell&3 ,zeits*r4 d4 deuts*4 geol4 ,ges41 xxxi41 #hgi2 ,p5ck3 ,ibid41 xxxi41 #aeg2 ,lnd]kunde von ,europa 7,das deuts*e ,rei*71 #ahhg1 #eab2 ,dames3 ,samml4 geme9v]/ndl4 wiss5s*4 ,vortrge1 von ,vir*[ u4 ,holtz5dorff3 xx4 ,s]41 #dgi ,heft2 ,s*rd]3 ,jahrb4 d4 k4 geol4 ,l&5san/4 f4 #ahhe1 p4 #bai4 ,= fur!r ref]5ces see ,wahns*affe1 op4 cit4 ,i h n ?\ght x wor? :ile 9 ?is pap] to ref] to ! int]glacial deposits ( our own isl&s4 ,a g5]al acc\nt ( !m w be f\nd 9 my ,great ,ice ,age1 & ,prehi/oric ,europe4 ,! int]glacial ph5om5a ( ! ,cont95t seem to be less kn[n "h ?an !y ought to be4 ,,bf ,zeits*rift d4 deuts*4 geolog4 ,gesells*aft1 ,bd4 xxxvii1 p4 #aig4 ,,bg ,anzei*5 e9] int]glazir5 ,epo*e 9 ,c5tral-,russl&1 ,moskau1 #ahia4 ,no m]e tempor>y retreat & re-advance ( ! ice-front c acc\nt = ^! ph5om5a4 ,! occurr5ce ( rema9s ( ! great pa*yd]ms at ,rixdorf1 ne> ,b]l91 & ! "* ( ! flora met ) 9 ! int]glacial b$s ( nor? ,g]many & ,russia are incompatible ) glacial conditions 9 ! l[-gr\nds ( nor!rn ,europe4 ,! int]glacial b$s1 describ$ by ,dr4 ,c4 ,web],,bh z occurr+ ne> ,grn5?al1 9 ,hol/e91 are among ! m rec5t discov]ies ( ?is k9d4 ,^! deposits re/ ^u b\ld]-clay1 & are ov]laid by ano!r %eet ( ! same "*1 & belong1 accord+ to ,web]1 to t great int]glacial p]iod :i* prec$$ ! la/ ice-%eet ( nor!rn ,europe4 ,! section %[s #h feet ( peat re/+ on fre%wat] clay1 #b feet ?ick1 :i* is und]laid by "s #aj feet ( coral s&1 ) bryozoa4 ,! flora & fauna h a di/9ctly temp]ate facies4 ,x is no wond]1 !n1 t ,cont95tal geologi/s are g5]ally incl9$ to admit t nor? ,g]many & ! contigu\s c\ntries h be5 invad$ at lea/ twice by ! ice-%eets ( two sep>ate & di/9ct glacial epo*s4 ,?is is n all1 h[ev]4 ,:ile e obs]v] ackn[l$ges t ! ,diluvium is prop]ly divid$ into an upp] & a l[] s]ies1 !re are "s geologi/s :o h describ$ ! occurr5ce ( ?ree1 & ev5 m b\ld]-clays--! "o cle>ly diff]5tiat$ f ! o!r1 & traceable ov] wide areas4 ,is ea* ( ^! to be consid]$ ! product ( an indep5d5t ice-%eet1 or d !y only indicate m or less ext5sive oscillations ( ! ice-front8 ,! b\ld]-clays are p>t$ f ea* o!r by ?ick b$s ( s& & clay1 9 "s ( :i* fossils h occasionally be5 detect$4 ,x is q possible t su* /ratifi$ b$s 7 deposit$ dur+ a tempor>y retreat ( ! ice-front1 :i* :5 x re-advanc$ cov]$ !m up ) its bottom-mora9e4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! ph5om5a are equally explicable on ! assumption t ea* b\ld]-clay repres5ts a sep>ate epo* ( glaciation4 ,until ! /ratifi$ b$s h yield$ m abundant traces ( ! life ( ! p]iod1 our judgm5t z to ! conditions impli$ by !m mu/ be susp5d$4 ,x is wor?y ( note 9 ?is connection1 h[ev]1 t 9 ,nor? ,am]ica ! exi/5ce ( "o prolong$ int]glacial epo* has be5 well e/abli%$1 :ile di/9ct evid5ce is =?com+ ( :at ,*amb]l9 discrim9ates z /ages ( deglaciation & re-advanc+ ice4,,bi ,,bh ,neues ,jahrbu* f4 ,m9]alogie1 ,geologie1 u4 ,palontologie1 #ahia1 ,bd4 ii41 pp4 #fb1 #bbh2 #ahib1 ,bd4 i41 p4 #aad4 ,,bi ,six? ,annual ,report1 ,u4 ,s4 ,geol4 ,survey1 #ahhd-e1 ,p4 #cae4 ,:5 we turn to ! ,alp9e ,l&s1 we f9d t !re also ! occurr5ce ( =m] int]glacial conditions has be5 recognis$4 ,! int]glacial deposits1 z describ$ by ,he] & o!rs1 are well kn[n4 ,^! =m z def9ite a geological horizon z ! simil> fossilif]\s zone 9 ! ,diluvium ( nor!rn ,g]many4 ,! lignites1 z ,he] po9t$ out1 repres5t a long p]iod ( "t1 & ?is is /ill fur!r illu/rat$ by ! fact t consid]able fluviatile erosion sup]v5$ betwe5 ! close ( ! fir/ & ! adv5t ( ! lat] glacial epo*4 ,no m]e tempor>y retreat & re-advance ( ! ice w acc\nt = ! ph5om5a4 ,let u = a mom5t consid] ! conditions "u :i* ! accumulations 9 "q 7 laid d[n4 ,! glacial deposits und]ly+ ! lignite b$s conta91 among/ o!r erratics1 b\ld]s :i* h come f ! upp] valley ( ! ,rh9e4 ,?is means1 ( c\rse1 t ! anci5t glaci] ( ! ,rh9e succe$$ 9 rea*+ ! ,lake ( ,zuri*2 & x is well kn[n t x ext5d$ at ! same "t to ,lake ,con/ance4 ,t glaci]1 !re=e exce$$ sixty miles 9 l5g?4 ,"o _c d\bt t ! climatic conditions impli$ by ?is great ext5sion 7 excessive1 & q incompatible ) ! appe>ance 9 ! l[-gr\nds ( ,switz]l& ( su* a flora z t ( ! lignites4 ,! organic rema9s ( ! lignite b$s indicate a climate c]ta9ly n less temp]ate ?an t :i* at pres5t *>act]ises ! di/rict r\nd ! ,lake ( ,zuri*4 ,we may safely inf]1 !re=e1 t dur+ int]glacial times ! glaci]s ( ! ,alps 7 n m ext5sively develop$ ?an at pres5t4 ,aga91 z ! lignites are ov]laid by glacial deposits1 x is obvi\s t ! ,rh9e glaci] once m rea*$ ,lake ,zuri*--9 o!r words1 !re 0 a return ( ! excessive climate t induc$ ! fir/ great advance ( t & o!r ,swiss glaci]s4 ,t ^! advances 7 really due to extreme climatic conditions is %[n by ! fact t x 0 only "u su* conditions t ! ,sc&9avian flora c\ld h invad$ ! l[-gr\nds ( ,europe1 & ent]$ ,switz]l&4 ,x is impossible1 !re=e1 t ! int]glacial flora c\ld h fl\ri%$ 9 ,switz]l& :ile ! immigration ( ^! nor!rn plants 0 tak+ place4 ,lignites ( ! same age z ^? ( ,drnt5 & ,utzna* occur 9 _m places bo? on ! nor? & s\? sides ( ! ,alp9e *a94 ,at ,imb]g1 ne> ,son?(51 9 ,bav>ia1 = example1 !y are describ$ by ,p5ck,,bj z be+ und]laid & ov]laid by ?ick glacial accumulations4 ,! deposits 9 "q =m a t]race along ! flanks ( ! hills1 at a height ( #gjj feet above ! ,ill]4 ,! flora ( ! lignite has n yet be5 fully /udi$1 b x is compos$ *iefly ( conif]s1 :i* mu/ h gr[n ne> :]e _! rema9s n[ occur--t is at #cjjj feet1 or !reab\t1 above ! sea4 ,x is incr$ible t conif]\s =e/s c\ld h fl\ri%$ at t elevation dur+ a glacial epo*4 ,a l[]+ ( ! mean annual temp]ature by #c ,c4 only w\ld r5d] ! gr[? ( trees at t height almo/ impossible1 & c]ta9ly w\ld be insuffici5t to cause ! glaci]s ( ,algau to desc5d to ! foot ( ! m\nta9s1 z we "k !y did--a di/ance ( at lea/ tw5ty-f\r miles4 ,! ,imb]g lignites1 !re=e1 are evid5ce ( a climate n less temp]ate ?an ! pres5t4 ,m ?an ?is1 !re is cle> pro( t ! int]glacial /age 0 long cont9u$1 = dur+ t epo* ! ,ill] _h "t to effect v consid]able erosion4 ,! succession ( *anges %[n by ! sections ne> ,son?(5 are z foll[s4 #a4 ,! ,ill] ,valley is fill$ ) glaci]-ice :i* fl[s out ^u ! l[-gr\nds at ! base ( ! ,alps4 #b4 ,! glaci] retreats1 & great %eets ( %+le & gravel are spread ov] ! valley4 #c4 ,conif]\s =e/s n[ gr[ ov] ! surface ( ! gravels2 & z ! lignite =m$ ( _! rema9s atta9s a ?ickness ( t5 feet 9 all1 x obvi\sly po9ts to ! lapse ( "s consid]able "t4 #d4 ,ev5tually ! =e/s decay1 & _! dbris is buri$ "u new accumulations ( %+le & gravel4 #e4 ,! ,ill] cuts its way d[n ?r\gh all ! deposits to dep?s ( #fhj to #gbj feet4 #f4 ,a glaci] aga9 desc5ds & fills ! valley1 b does n fl[ s f> z t ( ! e>li] glacial /age4 ,,bj ,die ,v]glets*]ung d] deuts*5 ,alp51 #ahhb1 p4 #bef4 ,9 ?is section1 z 9 ^? at ,drnt5 & ,utzna*1 we h conclusive evid5ce ( two glacial epo*s1 %>ply m>k$ (f ! "o f ! o!r4 ,nor does t evid5ce /& alone1 = at v>i\s po9ts betwe5 ,lake ,g5eva & ! l[] valley ( ! ,inn simil> int]glacial deposits occur4 ,sometimes ^! appe> at ! foot ( ! m\nta9s1 z at ,mrs*weil on ,lake ,con/ance2 sometimes j )9 ! m\nta9 area1 z at ,imb]g2 sometimes f> 9 ! he>t ( ! ,alp9e ,l&s1 z at ,innsbruck4 ,pr(essor ,p5ck has fur!r %[n1 & 8 obs]vations h be5 confirm$ by ,brckn]1 ,blaas1 & ,bhm1 t massive %eets ( fluviatile gravel are frequ5tly met ) ?r\gh\t ! valleys ( ! ,alps1 occupy+ int]glacial positions4 ,^! gravels are exactly comp>able to ! int]glacial gravels ( ! ,son?(5 sections4 ,& x has be5 demon/rat$ t !y occur on two horizons1 sep>at$ ! "o f ! o!r by *>act]i/ic gr\nd-mora9e1 or b\ld]-clay4 ,! l[] gravels re/ on gr\nd-mora9e1 & ! upp] gravels are ov]laid by %eets ( ! same k9d ( glacial detritus4 ,9 %ort1 ?ree sep>ate & di/9ct gr\nd-mora9es are recognis$4 ,! gravels1 "o _c d\bt1 are simply ! torr5tial & fluviatile deposits laid d[n be=e advanc+ & retreat+ glaci]s2 & x is especially to be not$ t ea* %eet ( gravel1 aft] its accumulation1 0 mu* d5ud$ & cut ?r\gh by riv]-action4 ,9 a ^w1 z ,p5ck & o!rs h %[n1 ! valleys ( ,upp] ,bav>ia h be5 occupi$ by glaci]s at ?ree successive epo*s--ea* sep>at$ f ! o!r by a p]iod dur+ :i* mu* riv]-gravel 0 deposit$ & great erosion ( ! valley-bottoms 0 effect$4 ,on ! ,italian side ( ! ,alps1 simil> evid5ce ( climatic *anges is =?com+4 ,! lignites & lacu/r9e /rata ( ,val ,g&9o1 & ( ,val ,borlezza1 z ,i h else:]e %[n1,,bk are cle>ly ( int]glacial age4 ,f ^! deposits _m organic rema9s h be5 obta9$--among/ ! animals be+ ,rh9oc]os hemitoe*us & ,r4 leptorh9us4 ,accord+ to ,sordelli1 ! plants indicate a climate z g5ial z t ( ! pla9s ( ,lomb>dy & ,v5etia1 & w>m] !re=e ?an t ( ! upl& valleys 9 :i* ! int]glacial b$s occur4 ,pr(essor ,p5ck in=ms me t "s "t ago he detect$ evid5ce 9 ! di/rict ( ,lake ,g>da ( ?ree successive glacial epo*s--! evid5ce be+ ( ! same "* z t recognis$ 9 ! valleys ( ! ,bav>ian ,alps4 ,,bk ,prehi/oric ,europe1 p4 #cjc4 ,9 ! glaciat$ di/ricts ( ,france simil> ph5om5a are met )4 ,?us 9 ,cantal1 accord+ to ,m4 ,rames1,,bl ! glacial deposits belong to two sep>ate epo*s4 ,! old] mora9ic accumulations are scatt]$ ov] ! surface ( ! plateau ( ,ar*an s*i/ose rocks1 & ext5d up ! slopes ( ! great volcanic cone ( t region to heights ( #bcjj to #ccjj feet4 ,"o ( ! features ( ^! accumulations are ! innum]able gigantic erratics1 kn[n to ! c\ntry folk z cimetire des enrags4 ,%eets ( fluvio-glacial gravel are also associat$ ) ! mora9es1 & x is wor?y ( note t bo? h ! aspect ( consid]able age--!y h evid5tly be5 subject$ to mu* d5udation4 ,9 ! valleys ( ! same region occurs a y\ng] s]ies ( glacial deposits1 consi/+ ( conspicu\s lat]al & t]m9al mora9es1 :i*1 unlike ! old] accumulations1 h a v fre% & well-pres]v$ appe>ance4 ,) !m1 z ) ! old] mora9es1 fluvio-glacial gravels are associat$4 ,m4 ,rames %[s t ! int]val t sup]v5$ betwe5 ! =mation ( ! two s]ies ( glacial deposits mu/ h be5 prolong$1 = ! valleys dur+ t int]val 7 9 "s places erod$ to a dep? ( #ijj feet4 ,n only 0 ! volcanic massif deeply incis$1 b ev5 ! old plateau ( cry/all9e rocks on :i* ! volcanic cone reposes suff]$ ext5sive d5udation 9 int]glacial times4 ,m4 ,rames fur!r recognises t ! second glacial epo* 0 m>k$ by two advances ( ! valley-glaci]s1 sep>at$ by a m>k$ episode ( fusion1 ! evid5ce = :i* is conspicu\s 9 ! valley ( ! ,cre4 ,,bl ,bull4 ,soc4 ,gol4 de ,france1 #ahhd4 ,! glacial & int]glacial ph5om5a ( ,auv]gne are q analog\s to ^? ( ,cantal4 ,dr4 ,juli5 has describ$ ! mora9ic accumulations ( a l>ge glaci] t fl[$ f ,mont ,dore4 ,aft] t glaci] _h retreat$ a prolong$ p]iod ( erosion foll[$1 :5 ! mora9ic deposits 7 deeply tr5*$1 & ! und]ly+ rocks cut into4 ,9 ! valleys & holl[s ?us excavat$ fre%wat] b$s occur1 conta9+ ! relics ( an abundant flora1 toge!r ) ! rema9s ( elephant 7,e4 m]idionalis71 rh9oc]os 7,r4 leptorh9us71 hippopotamus1 horse1 cave-be>1 hyna1 etc4--a fauna comp>able to t ( ! ,italian int]glacial deposits4 ,aft] ! deposition ( ! fre%wat] b$s1 glaci]s aga9 desc5d$ ! ,auv]gne valleys & cov]$ ! b$s 9 "q ) _! mora9es4,,bm ,,bm ,des ,phnomnes glaciaires dans le ,plateau c5tral de ,france1 etc4 ,accord+ to ! rese>*es ( ,m>t9s1 ,collomb1 ,g>rig\1 ,piette1 & ,p5ck1 !re is cle> evid5ce 9 ! ,pyr5ees ( two p]iods ( glaciation1 sep>at$ by an int]val ( mu* erosion & valley-excavation4 ,p5ck1 inde$1 has %[n t ! valleys ( ! ,pyr5ees h be5 occupi$ at ?ree successive epo*s by glaci]s--ea* epo* be+ repres5t$ by its s]ies ( mora9es & by t]races ( fluvio-glacial detritus1 :i* occur at successively l[] levels4 ,i h ref]r$ 9 "s detail to ^! discov]ies ( int]glacial ph5om5a because !y s /rongly corroborate ! conclusions arriv$ at a numb] ( ye>s ago by glaciali/s 9 our own c\ntry4 ,_m additional examples might be cit$ f o!r p>ts ( ,europe1 b ^? already giv5 may s]ve to %[ t at lea/ "o epo* ( int]glacial conditions sup]v5$ dur+ ! ,plei/oc5e p]iod4 ,be=e leav+ ?is "p ( my subject1 h[ev]1 ,i may po9t out ! significant circum/ance t long be=e mu* 0 kn[n ( glaciation1 & c]ta9ly be=e ! p]iodicity ( ice-epo*s _h be5 recognis$1 ,collomb _h detect$ 9 ! ,vosges conspicu\s evid5ce ( two successive glaciations4,,bn ,,bn ,preuves de l'exi/5ce d'anci5s glaci]s dans les valles des ,vosges1 #ahdg1 p4 #ada4 ,hav+ %[n t alike 9 ! regions =m]ly occupi$ by ! great nor!rn ice-%eet1 & 9 ! ,alp9e ,l&s ( c5tral & s\!rn ,europe1 alt]nations ( cold & g5ial conditions *>act]is$ ! s-call$ ,glacial p]iod1 we may n[ glance at ! evid5ce suppli$ by ^? ,plei/oc5e deposits t lie outside ( ! glaciat$ areas4 ,( ^! we h a typical example 9 ! riv]-accumulations ( ! ,rh9e ,valley betwe5 ,ble & ,b+54 ,"h & !re ^! deposits h yield$ rema9s ( ext9ct & no long] indig5\s mammals & relics ( ,paloli?ic man--"o ( ! mo/ int]e/+ deposits f :i* mammalian rema9s h be5 obta9$ be+ ! ,s&s ( ,mosba*1 betwe5 ,wiesbad5 & ,may5ce4 ,! fauna 9 "q is *>act]i/ically ,plei/oc5e1 nor c x be d\bt$ t ! ,mosba* ,s&s belong to ! same geological horizon z ! simil> fluviatile deposits ( ! ,se9e1 ! ,?ames1 & o!r riv]-valleys 9 we/]n ,europe4 ,dr4 ,k9kel9 has %[n1,,bo & ) him ,dr4 ,s*uma*] agrees1,,bp t ! ,mosba* deposits are ( int]glacial age2 :ile ,dr4 ,pohlig has no hesitation 9 assign+ !m to ! same horizon4,,bq ,x is true !re are no glacial accumulations 9 ! region :]e !y occur1 b !y re/ ^u a s]ies ( unfossilif]\s gravels :i* are recognis$ z ! equival5ts ( ! fluvio-glacial & glacial deposits ( ! ,vosges1 ! ,black ,=e/1 ! ,alps1 etc4 ,^! gravels are trac$ at int]vals up to consid]able heights above ! ,rh9e1 & conta9 num]\s erratics1 "s ( :i* are sev]al feet 9 diamet]1 :ile a l>ge proportion are n at all wat]-worn1 b r\ghly & %>ply angul>4 ,! blocks h unque/ionably be5 transport$ by riv]-ice1 & imply !re=e cold climatic conditions4 ,! ov]ly+ ,mosba* ,s&s h yield$ n only ,elephas antiquus & ,hippopotamus major1 b ! re9de]1 ! mammo?1 & ! m>mot--two /rongly contra/$ faunas1 betok5+ climatic *anges simil> to ^? t m>k$ ! accumulation ( ! riv]-deposits ( ! ,?ames1 ! ,se9e1 etc4 ,( y\ng] date ?an ! ,mosba* ,s&s is ano!r s]ies ( unfossilif]\s gravels1 :i*1 l ! old] s]ies1 are *>g$ ) ice-float$ erratics4 ,! b$s at ,mosba* are ?us %[n to be ( int]glacial age3 !y occupy ! same geological horizon z ! int]glacial b$s ( ,switz]l& & o!r glaciat$ tracts 9 c5tral & nor!rn ,europe4 ,,bo ,k9kel93 ,b]i*t b] die ,s5ck5b]g4 naturf4 ,ges4 9 ,frankfurt a4 ,m41 #ahhi4 ,,bp ,s*uma*]3 ,mit!ilung5 d4 ,commission fr d4 geolog4 ,l&es-,unt]su*4 v4 ,elsass-,lo?r+51 ,bd4 ii41 #ahij1 p4 #ahd4 ,,bq ,zeits*r4 d4 deuts*4 geolog4 ,ges41 #ahhg1 p4 #hjf4 ,to ?is position mu/ likewise be assign$ ! ,plei/oc5e riv]-alluvia ( o!r di/ricts4 ,!re is no o!r horizon1 inde$1 on :i* ^! c be plac$4 ,t !y are n ( po/-glacial age is %[n by ! fact t 9 _m places ! angul> gravels & flood-loams ( ! ,glacial p]iod ov]lie !m4 ,& t !y _c all belong to pre-glacial times is prov$ by ! frequ5t occurr5ce und]nea? !m ( glacial or fluvio-glacial accumulations4 ,x is q possible1 ( c\rse1 t "h & !re 9 ! valleys ( we/]n & s\!rn ,europe "s ( ! ,plei/oc5e alluvia may be ( pre-glacial age4 ,b 9 ! ma9 ^! alluvia mu/ be reg>d$ z ! equival5ts ( ! glacial & int]glacial deposits ( nor!rn & ,alp9e di/ricts4 ,?is w appe> a reasonable conclusion :5 we be> 9 m9d t long be=e ! ,plioc5e p]iod came to a close ! climate ( ,europe _h begun to det]iorate4 ,9 ,engl&1 z we "k1 glacial conditions sup]v5$ almo/ at ! adv5t ( ! ,plei/oc5e p]iod4 ,& ! same 0 ! case 9 ! ,alp9e ,l&s ( ! s\?4 ,aga91 9 ! glaciat$ areas ( nor? & s\? alike1 ! clos+ /age ( ! ,plei/oc5e 0 *>act]is$ by cold climatic conditions4 ,& ?us 9 ^? regions ! glacial & int]glacial epo*s 7 co-ext5sive ) t p]iod4 ,x foll[s1 !re=e1 t ! ,plei/oc5e deposits ( extra-glacial areas mu/ be ! equival5ts ( ! glacial & int]glacial accumulations else:]e4 ,if we refus$ to admit ?is we %\ld be puzzl$ inde$ to tell :at ! riv]s ( we/]n & s\!rn ,europe 7 do+ ?r\gh\t ! long-cont9u$ ,glacial p]iod4 ,!re is no escape f ! conclusion t ! ,plei/oc5e riv]-alluvia & cave-accumulations mu/ be assign$ to ! same g5]al horizon z ! glacial & int]glacial deposits4 ,?is is n[ admitt$ by ,cont95tal palontologi/s :o f9d 9 ! "* ( ,plei/oc5e organic rema9s abundant pro( t ! old riv]-alluvia & cave-accumulations 7 laid d[n "u *ang+ climatic conditions4 ,did nei!r glacial nor int]glacial deposits exi/1 ! relics ( ! ,plei/oc5e flora & fauna met ) 9 extra-glacial regions w\ld yet lead u to ! conclusion t aft] ! close ( ! ,plioc5e p]iod1 extremely cold & v g5ial climates alt]nat$ up to ! dawn ( ! pres5t4 ,?us dur+ "o /age ( ! ,plei/oc5e clem5t w9t]s & cool summ]s p]mitt$ ! wide diffusion & intimate association ( plants :i* h n[ a v diff]5t range4 ,temp]ate & s\!rn species l ! a%1 ! popl>1 ! sycamore1 ! fig-tree1 ! judas-tree1 etc41 ov]spread all ! l[-gr\nds ( ,france z f> nor? at lea/ z ,p>is4 ,x 0 "u su* conditions t ! elephants1 rh9oc]oses1 hippopotamuses1 & ! va/ h]ds ( temp]ate c]v9e & bov9e species rang$ ov] ,europe1 f ! %ores ( ! ,m$it]ranean up to ! latitude ( ,york%ire1 & probably ev5 fur!r nor? /ill1 & f ! bord]s ( ,asia to ! we/]n ocean4 ,despite ! pres5ce ( num]\s fi]ce c>nivora--lions1 hynas1 tig]s1 & o!rs--,europe at t "t1 ) its %ady =e/s1 its laurel-m>g9$ /reams1 its broad & deep-fl[+ riv]s--a c\ntry 9 e way suit$ to ! ne$s ( a race ( hunt]s & fi%]s--mu/ h be5 no unpleasant habitation = ,paloli?ic man4 ,b dur+ ano!r /age ( ! ,plei/oc5e p]iod1 ! climate ( our cont95t pres5t$ ! /ronge/ contra/ to ^? g5ial conditions4 ,at t "t ! dw>f bir* ( ! ,scotti% ,highl&s1 & ! ,arctic will[1 ) _! nor!rn cong5]s1 grew ^u ! l[-gr\nds ( middle ,europe4 ,arctic animals1 su* z ! musk-%eep & ! re9de]1 liv$ !n1 all ! ye> r\nd1 9 ! s\? ( ,france2 ! mammo? rang$ into ,spa9 & ,italy2 ! glutton desc5d$ to ! %ores ( ! ,m$it]ranean2 ! m>mot came d[n to ! l[-gr\nds at ! foot ( ! ,ap5n9es2 & ! lagomys inhabitat$ ! l[-ly+ m>itime di/ricts ( ,corsica & ,s>d9ia4 ,! l& & fre%wat] molluscs ( _m ,plei/oc5e deposits tell a simil> tale3 high alp9e1 boreal1 & hyp]borean =ms are *>act]i/ic ( ^? deposits 9 c5tral ,europe2 ev5 9 ! s\!rn regions ( our cont95t ! %ells te/ify to a =m] cold] & wett] climate4 ,x 0 dur+ ! climax ( ^! conditions t ! caves ( ,aquita9e 7 occupi$ by ^? arti/ic m5 :o appe> to h delight$ 9 c>v+ & engrav+4,,br ,su*1 9 brief1 is ! te/imony ( ! ,plei/oc5e flora & fauna ( extra-glacial regions4 ,x is f ! deposits 9 ^! regions1 !re=e1 t we d]ive our fulle/ k ( ! life ( ! p]iod4 ,b a comp>ison ( _! organic rema9s ) ^? t occur 9 ! glacial & int]glacial deposits ( alp9e & nor!rn l&s %[s u t ! ,plei/oc5e accumulations ( glacial & extra-glacial c\ntries are contemporane\s--= !re is n a s+le life-=m obta9$ f int]glacial b$s :i* does n also occur 9 ! deposits ( extra-glacial regions4 ,! conv]se is n true--nor is t to be wond]$ at1 = int]glacial deposits h only be5 sp>+ly pres]v$4 ,9 regions liable to glaciation su* sup]ficial accumulations mu/ frequ5tly h be5 pl\gh$ up & incorporat$ ) gr\nd-mora9e4 ,x 0 only 9 ! extra-glacial tracts t alluvia ( int]glacial age 7 at all likely to be pres]v$ 9 any abundance4 ,to appreciate fully ! climatic conditions ( ! ,plei/oc5e p]iod1 !re=e1 x is necess>y to comb9e ! evid5ce d]iv$ f ! glaciat$ areas ) t obta9$ f ! l&s t lay beyond ! rea* ( ! ice-pl\gh4 ,! "o is ! complem5t ( ! o!r1 & ?is be+ s1 x is obvi\s t any attempt$ explanation ( ! orig9 ( ! ,glacial p]iod :i* does n fully realise ! importance ( ! int]glacial phase ( t p]iod _c be accept$4 ,,br ,prehi/oric ,europe1 p4 #fg4 ,b if ! climatic *anges ( ,plei/oc5e times are ! mo/ important ph5om5a :i* ! geologi/ :o essays to trace ! hi/ory ( t p]iod is call$ ^u to consid]1 he _c ignore ! evid5ce ( contemporane\s geographical mutations4 ,^! are s g5]ally admitt$1 h[ev]1 t x is only necess>y "h to /ate ! well-kn[n fact t ev]y:]e ?r\gh\t ! m>itime tracts ( ! glaciat$ l&s ( ,europe & ,nor? ,am]ica frequ5t *anges 9 ! relative level ( l& & sea took place dur+ ,plei/oc5e & po/-glacial times4 ,i mu/ n[ v briefly review ! evid5ce be>+ on ! climatic conditions ( po/-glacial times4 ,& fir/1 let x be not$ t ! clos+ /age ( ! ,plei/oc5e p]iod 0 "o ( cold conditions1 accompani$ 9 nor?-we/]n ,europe by p>tial depression ( ! l& bel[ its pres5t level4 ,?is is %[n by ! late-glacial m>9e deposits ( c5tral ,scotl& & ! coa/-l&s ( ,sc&9avia4 ,! hi/orical records ( ! succe$+ po/-glacial p]iod are furni%$ *iefly by rais$ bea*es1 riv]- & lake-alluvia1 calc>e\s tufas1 & peat-bogs4 ,an exam9ation ( ^! has %[n t ! climate1 at fir/ cold1 gradually became less ung5ial1 s t ! ,arctic-alp9e flora & nor!rn fauna 7 ev5tually supplant$ 9 our latitude by ^? temp]ate =ms :i*1 z a gr\p1 /ill occupy ?is region4 ,! amelioration ( ! climate 0 accompani$ by /rik+ geographical *anges1 ! ,briti% ,isl&s becom+ unit$ ) !mselves & ! opposite coa/s ( ! cont95t4 ,! g5ial "* ( ! climate at ?is "t is %[n by ! great developm5t ( =e/s1 ! rema9s ( :i* occur "u our olde/ peat-bogs4 ,n only did trees !n gr[ at great] altitudes 9 ^! regions ?an is at pres5t ! case1 b =e/s rang$ mu* fur!r nor?1 & fl\ri%$ 9 l&s :]e !y _c n[ exi/4 ,9 ,orkney & ,%etl&1 9 ! f> nor? ( ,norway1 & ev5 9 ! ,f>e ,isl&s & 9 ,icel& relics ( ?is old =e/-epo* are met )4 ,9 connection ) ^! facts ref]5ce may be made to ! evid5ce obta9$ f c]ta9 rais$ bea*es on bo? sides ( ! ,n4 ,atlantic1 & f rec5t dr$g+s 9 ! int]v5+ sea4 ,! occurr5ce ( isolat$ colonies ( s\!rn molluscs 9 our nor!rn seas1 & ! appe>ance 9 rais$ bea*es ( _m =ms :i* are n[ conf9$ to ! wat]s ( m s\!rn latitudes1 seem to %[ t 9 e>ly po/-glacial times ! seas ( ^! nor!rn latitudes 7 w>m] ?an n[4 ,& x is q c]ta9 t ! s\!rn =ms ref]r$ to are n ! relics ( any pre-glacial or int]glacial immigration4 ,!y c\ld only h ent]$ our nor!rn seas aft] ! close ( ! ,glacial p]iod1 & _! evid5ce tak5 9 connection ) t furni%$ by ! buri$ trees ( our peat-bogs1 leads to ! conclusion t a g5ial climate sup]v5$ aft] ! cold ( ! la/ glacial epo* & ( e>lie/ po/-glacial times _h pass$ away4 ,to ?is g5ial /age succe$$ an epo* ( cold humid conditions1 accompani$ by geographical *anges :i* result$ 9 ! insulation ( ,brita9 & ,irel&--! sea encroa*+ to "s ext5t on :at are n[ our m>itime regions4 ,! climate 0 less fav\rable to ! gr[? ( =e/s1 :i* began to decay & to become buri$ "u widespread accumulations ( gr[+ peat4 ,at ?is "t glaci]s reappe>$ 9 ! gl5s ( ! ,scotti% ,highl&s1 & "h & !re desc5d$ to ! sea4 ,! evid5ce = ^! is q conspicu\s1 = ! mora9es are f\nd re/+ on ! surface ( po/-glacial bea*es4 ,?us my fri5d ,mr4 ,l4 ,h9xman1 ( ! ,geological ,survey1 tells u t at ! foot ( ,gl5 ,?raill well-=m$ mora9es are se5 9 section repos+ on bea*-deposits at ! di/ance ( ab\t ?ree-qu>t]s ( a mile above ! head ( ,lo* ,torridon4,,bs ,! evid5ce ( ?is recrudesc5ce ( glacial conditions 9 po/-glacial times is n conf9$ to ,scotl&4 ,i believe x w yet be recognis$ 9 _m o!r m\nta9-regions2 b already ,pr(4 ,p5ck has detect$ x 9 ! valleys ( ! ,pyr5ees4,,bt ,dr4 ,k]n] von ,m>ilaun has also describ$ simil> ph5om5a 9 ! high] valleys ( ,tyrol1 :ile ,pr(essor ,brckn] has obta9$ l evid5ce 9 ! ,salza* region4,,bu ,,bs ,= ,scotti% po/-glacial glaci]s see ,j4 ,geikie3 ,scotti% ,naturali/1 ,jan41 #ahhj2 ,prehi/oric ,europe1 pp4 #chf1djg2 ,p5ck3 ,deuts*e geographis*e ,bltt]1 ,bd4 vi41 p4 #cbc2 ,v]h&4 d4 ,ges4 f4 ,erdkunde1 ,b]l91 #ahhd1 ,heft #a2 ,h9xman3 ,trans4 ,ed94 ,geol4 ,soc41 vol4 vi41 p4 #bdi4 ,,bt ,die ,eiszeit 9 d5 ,pyr5en3 ,mit?4 d4 ,v]e9s4 f4 ,erdkunde1 ,leipzig1 #ahhc4 ,,bu ,k]n]3 ,mit?4 k4 k4 geograph4 ,ges4 ,wi51 #ahij1 p4 #cjg2 ,sitzungsb4 d4 kais4 ,akad4 d4 ,wiss5s*4 9 ,wi51 ,bd4 c41 ,ab?4 i41 #ahia2 ,brckn]3 ,x4 ,jahresb]i*t d4 geograph4 ,ges4 v4 ,b]n1 #ahia4 ,i h else:]e trac$ ! hi/ory ( ! succe$+ /ages ( ! po/-glacial p]iod1 & br\ght =w>d evid5ce ( simil> b less /rongly-m>k$ climatic *anges hav+ foll[$ ^u ^? j ref]r$ to1 & my conclusions1 ,i may add1 h be5 support$ by ! indep5d5t rese>*es ( ,pr(essor ,blytt 9 ,norway4 ,b ^! lat] *anges ne$ n be consid]$ "h1 & ,i %all leave !m out ( acc\nt 9 ! discussion t foll[s4 ,x is suffici5t = my pres5t purpose to conf9e att5tion to ! well-prov$ conclusion t 9 e>ly po/-glacial times g5ial climatic conditions obta9$1 & t ^! 7 foll[$ by cold & humid conditions1 dur+ ! preval5ce ( :i* consid]able local glaci]s reappe>$ 9 c]ta9 m\nta9-valleys4,,bv ,,bv ,= a full /atem5t ( ! evid5ce see ,prehi/oric ,europe1 *aps4 xvi41 xvii4 ,we speak ( ,plei/oc5e or ,glacial & ( ,po/-glacial p]iods z if ! "o 7 m or less %>ply m>k$ (f f ! o!r4 ,( c\rse1 t is n ! case1 & 9 po9t ( fact x w\ld be = _m reasons pref]able to include !m "u "s g5]al t]m4 ,tak5 toge!r !y =m "o tol]ably well-def9$ cycle ( "t1 *>act]is$ above all by its rem>kable climatic *anges--by alt]nations ( cold & g5ial conditions1 :i* 7 mo/ /rongly contra/$ 9 ! e>li] /ages ( ! p]iod4 ,x is fur!r wor?y ( note t v>i\s oscillations ( ! sea-level appe> to h tak5 place aga9 & aga9 bo? 9 ! e>li] & lat] /ages ( ! cycle4 ,we may n[ proce$ to inquire :e!r ! ph5om5a we h be5 consid]+ c be acc\nt$ = by movem5ts ( ! e>?'s cru/--a view :i* has rec5tly receiv$ consid]able support1 m especially 9 ,am]ica4 ,i ne$ h>dly say t ! view 9 "q is no novelty4 ,_m ye>s ago1 :ile our k ( ! ,plei/oc5e ph5om5a 0 some:at rudim5t>y1 x 0 usual to inf] t glaciation _h be5 induc$ by elevation ( ! l&4 ,?is did n seem an unreasonable conclusion1 = above our heads1 at a less or great] elevation1 accord+ to latitude1 an ,arctic climate prevails4 ,"o c\ld n d\bt1 !re=e1 t if a l&-surface 7 only suffici5tly uplift$ x w\ld rea* ! sn[-l9e1 & become m or less ext5sively glaciat$4 ,b ) ! increase ( our k ( ,plei/oc5e & po/-glacial conditions1 su* a ready int]pretation fail$ to satisfy1 al?\gh n a few geologi/s h cont9u$ to def5d ! e>?-movem5t hypo!sis1 z acc\nt+ fairly well = ! ph5om5a ( ! ,glacial p]iod4 ,by ^! /aun* believ]s 9 ! adequacy ( t view1 x has be5 po9t$ out t elevation might n only lift l&s into ! region ( et]nal sn[1 b1 by conv]t+ l>ge areas ( ! sea-b$ into l&1 w\ld greatly modify ! direction ( ocean-curr5ts1 & ?us influ5ce ! climate4 ,:at might n be expect$ to happ5 7 ! ,gulf ,/ream to be exclud$ f nor!rn regions8 ,:at w\ld be ! fate ( ! temp]ate latitudes ( ,nor? ,am]ica & ,europe 7 t g5ial ocean-riv] to be deflect$ into ! ,pacific across a subm]g$ ,i/hmus ( ,panama8 ,! possibility ( su* *anges hav+ sup]v5$ 9 ,plei/oc5e times has (t5 be5 pres5t to my m9d1 b ,i long ago came to ! conclusion t !y c\ld n acc\nt = ! facts4 ,moreov]1 ,i h nev] be5 able to meet ) any evid5ce 9 fav\r ( ! po/ulat$ e>?-movem5ts4 ,hav+ c>efully /udi$ all t has be5 advanc$ ( late ye>s 9 support ( ! hypo!sis 9 "q ,i f9d myself m ?an ev] con/ra9$ to oppose x1 n only because x is gr\nd$ on no basis ( fact1 b because x altoge!r fails to expla9 ! conditions t obta9$ 9 ,plei/oc5e & po/-glacial times4 ,!re are v>i\s =ms 9 :i* ! hypo!sis has appe>$1 & ^! ,i %all n[ consid] s]iatim1 & ) su* brevity z may be4 ,x has be5 ma9ta9$1 = example1 t at ! adv5t ( ! ,glacial p]iod va/ areas ( nor!rn & nor?-we/]n ,europe1 toge!r ) enorm\s regions 9 ! correspond+ latitudes ( ,nor? ,am]ica1 /ood sev]al ?\s& feet high] ?an at pres5t4 ,b :5 we ask :at evid5ce c be adduc$ to prove ?is we get no satisfactory reply4 ,we are simply in=m$ t a glacial climate mu/ h result$ f great elevation1 & t ! latt]1 !re=e1 mu/ h tak5 place at ! beg9n+ ( ! ,glacial p]iod4 ,"s writ]s1 h[ev]1 h v5tur$ to give reasons = _! fai?4 ,?us ,mr4 ,w4 ,upham1 po9t+ to ! evid5ce ( ! fiords ( ,nor? ,am]ica1 & to ! fact t dr[n$ riv]-valleys h be5 trac$ outw>ds across ! #ajj-;fa?oms l9e ( ! m>g9al plateau to dep?s ( ov] #cejj feet1 ma9ta9s t ! :ole cont95t nor? ( ! ,gulf ( ,mexico /ood at ! comm5cem5t ( ! ,glacial p]iod "s #cjjj feet at lea/ high] ?an n[4 ,( c\rse he cites ! fiords ( ,europe z evid5ce ( a simil> great upheaval = ! nor!rn & nor?-we/]n regions ( our ,cont95t4 ,mr4 ,upham ev5 fav\rs ! notion t dur+ glacial times a l&-connection probably exi/$ betwe5 ,nor? ,am]ica & ,europe1 by way ( ! ,briti% ,isl&s1 ,icel&1 & ,gre5l&4 ,:5 ?is uplift+ atta9$ its maximum1 & br\ght on ! ,glacial p]iod1 he says1 ,nor? ,am]ica & nor?-we/]n ,europe /ood #bejj to #cjjj feet above _! pres5t height4,,bw ,,bw ,am]ican ,geologi/1 vi41 p4 #cbg4 ,t fiords are simply subm]g$ l&-valleys has long be5 recognis$3 t !y h be5 =m$ ma9ly by ! action ( runn+ wat]--j 9 ! same way z ! m\nta9-valleys ( ,norway & ,scotl&--has be5 ! belief = _m ye>s ( mo/ /ud5ts ( physical geology4 ,b x is h>d to und]/& :y !y %\ld h be5 cit$ by ,mr4 ,upham 9 support ( 8 cont5tion1 see+ t _! evid5ce seems to militate /rongly aga9/ ! v hypo!sis he /rives to ma9ta94 ,no "o acqua9t$ ) ! physical features & geological /ructure ( ,scotl& & ,norway c d\bt t ! valleys :i* t]m9ate 9 fiords are ( great geological antiquity4 ,_! excavation by fluviatile action c]ta9ly dates back to a p]iod long ant]ior to ! adv5t ( ! ,ice ,age4 ,& a l tale is told by ! fiords & dr[n$ valley-tr\ghs ( ,nor? ,am]ica1 :i* _c be ref]r$ to s rec5t a p]iod z po/-,t]ti>y times4 ,^? :o are conv9c$ t our cont95tal areas h p]si/$ ?r\gh\t long ons ( geological "t1 & t riv]s frequ5tly h surviv$ great geological revolutions--cutt+ _! way across m\nta9-elevations z fa/ z ^! 7 uplift$--w readily believe t "s ( ! subm>9e riv]-tr\ghs ( ,nor? ,am]ica1 su* z t ( ! ,hudson1 may belong ev5 to ,second>y times4,,bx ,x w\ld be h>d to say at :at p>ticul> date ! excavation ( ! ,scotti% ,highl& valleys comm5c$--b x 0 probably dur+ ! lat] "p ( ! ,palozoic era4 ,! process has d\btless be5 ret>d$ & accel]at$ frequ5tly en\gh1 dur+ successive movem5ts ( depression & elevation1 b x 0 practically complet$ be=e ! beg9n+ ( ,plei/oc5e times1 & t is all t we may tr\ble ab\t "h4 ,precisely ! same conclusion holds good = ,norway3 & su* be+ ! case x is obvi\s t ! "q ( ! orig9 & age ( ! fiords has no be>+ on ! problem ( ! glacial climate & its cause4 ,9 po9t ( fact ! evid5ce1 z already rem>k$1 tells aga9/ ! e>?-movem5t hypo!sis1 = x %[s u t1 dur+ a p]iod :5 ,europe & ,nor? ,am]ica /ood sev]al ?\s& feet high]1 & ext5d$ mu* fur!r seaw>ds1 riv]s1 & n glaci]s1 7 ! occupants ( our m\nta9-valleys4 ,x 0 n until all ^? valleys _h come to assume mu* ! appe>ance !y n[ pres5t t g5]al glaciation sup]v5$4 ,,bx ,pr(essor ,dana incl9es to date ! erosion ( ! ,hudson tr\gh s f> back z ! ,jura-,trias p]iod4--,am]ican ,j\rn4 ,sci5ce1 xl41 p4 #dce4 ,we are n )\t direct evid5ce1 h[ev]1 z to ! geographical conditions t obta9$ 9 ! ages t imm$iately prec$$ ! ,plei/oc5e p]iod4 ,! di/ribution ( ! ,plioc5e m>9e b$s ( ,brita9 entitles u to assume t at ! "t ( _! accumulation our l&s did n ext5d q s f> to ! s\? & ea/ z n[4 ,! abs5ce ( simil> deposits f ! coa/-l&s ( ,nor? ,am]ica is suppos$ to support ! view ( great cont95tal elevation 9 pre-glacial times4 ,all x seems to prove1 h[ev]1 is t 9 ,plioc5e times ! ,nor? ,am]ican cont95t 0 n less ext5sive ?an x is at pres5t4 ,x is ev5 q possible t 9 glacial times pre-exi/+ ,plioc5e b$s may h be5 pl\gh$ out by ! ice1 j z seems to h be5 ! case 9 ! nor?-ea/ ( ,scotl&4 ,b )\t go+ s f> back z ,plioc5e times1 we meet ) evid5ce almo/ ev]y:]e ?r\gh\t ! m>itime regions ( ! glaciat$ areas ( ,europe & ,nor? ,am]ica1 to %[ t imm$iately be=e ^? tracts became swa!d 9 ice ! geographical conditions 7 mu* ! same z at pres5t4 ,! %elly b\ld]-clays 9 v>i\s p>ts ( our isl&s1 & ! simil> occurr5ce ( m>9e & bracki%-wat] %ells 9 & und]nea? ! ,diluvium ( nor? ,g]many1 etc41 prove cle>ly en\gh t j be=e ! com+-on ( glacial conditions nei!r ,brita9 nor ! pres5t m>itime l&s ( ! ,cont95t 7 f> remov$ f ! sea4 ,x is true t ! buri$ riv]-*annels ( ,scotl& indicate a pre-glacial elevation ( "s #bjj or #cjj feet above ! exi/+ sea-level1 b x is q c]ta9 t ! ,m9*1 ,/4 ,george's ,*annel1 ! ,iri% ,sea1 ! ,nor? ,sea1 & ! ,baltic 7 all 9 exi/5ce at ! comm5cem5t ( ! ,glacial p]iod4 ,& we are l$ to simil> conclusions ) reg>d to ! geographical conditions ( ,nor? ,am]ica at t "t1 f ! occurr5ce ( m>9e %ells 9 ! b\ld]-clays ( ,canada & ,new ,engl&4 ,we note inde$ t !re is abundant evid5ce ( l&-subm]g5ce dur+ glacial times4 ,inde$1 we may say t ! ,plei/oc5e m>9e deposits ( nor!rn latitudes are almo/ inv>iably indicative ( cold] conditions ?an n[ obta94 ,if x be true t cold climatic conditions 7 contemporane\s 9 our latitude ) subm]g5ce1 x is equally true t an ext5sive l&-surface 9 nor?-we/ ,europe has1 sometimes at lea/1 co-exi/$ ) m>k$ly g5ial conditions4 ,9 ,t]ti>y times1 = example1 z ! ,oligoc5e deposits ( ,scotl&1 ! ,f>e ,isl&s1 ,icel&1 & ,gre5l& te/ify1 a l&-connection exi/$ betwe5 ,europe & ! ,nor? ,am]ican cont95t4 ,aga91 x has be5 %[n t dur+ ! int]glacial phase ( ! ,plei/oc5e p]iod ,brita9 0 cont95tal1 & enjoy$ at ! "t a peculi>ly g5ial climate4 ,& some:at simil> geographical & climatic conditions aga9 sup]v5$ 9 po/-glacial times4 ,9 o!r words1 :5 ! l& 0 m elevat$ & ext5sive ?an n[1 x enjoy$ a w>m] climate4 ,nor c we escape ! conclusion t ! excavation ( ! fiord-valleys ( nor!rn latitudes1 :i* is a v old /ory 7f> old] ?an ! ,plei/oc5e71 0 ! "w n ( glaci]s b ( runn+ wat]1 at a "t :5 nor?-we/]n ,europe & ! correspond+ regions ( ,am]ica 7 mu* m elevat$ ?an !y are n[4 ,?us !re appe>s to be no evid5ce ei!r direct or indirect 9 fav\r ( ! view t glacial conditions 7 sup]9duc$ by great cont95tal elevation4 ,b x may be argu$ t ev5 al?\gh no evid5ce c be cit$ 9 pro( ( su* elevation1 /ill1 if ! glacial ph5om5a c be well expla9$ by its means1 we may be ju/ifi$ 9 admitt+ x z a work+ hypo!sis4 ,movem5ts ( elevation & depression h frequ5tly tak5 place--! ,plei/oc5e m>9e deposits !mselves te/ify to oscillations ( ! sea-level--& !re c be no objection1 !re=e1 to su* po/ulations z are made by ! hypo!sis "u review4 ,all ?is is readily grant$1 b ,i d5y t ! conditions t obta9$ 9 ,plei/oc5e times c be acc\nt$ = by elevation & depression4 ,let u see h[ ! desid]at$ elevation ( nor!rn l&s w\ld "w4 ,7 nor?-we/]n ,europe & ! correspond+ latitudes ( ,nor? ,am]ica to be upheav$ = #cjjj feet1 & a l&-passage to obta9 betwe5 ! two cont95ts by way ( ! ,f>e ,isl&s1 ,icel&1 & ,gre5l&1 h[ w\ld ! climate be affect$8 ,x is obvi\s t "u su* *ang$ conditions ! elevat$ l&s 9 high] latitudes might well be subject$ to m or less ext5sive glaciation4 ,norway w\ld become un9habitable & glaci]s might well appe> 9 ! m\nta9-valleys ( ,scotl&4 ,b x may be d\bt$ :e!r ! climate ( ,france & ,spa91 or ! correspond+ latitudes ( ,nor? ,am]ica1 w\ld be mu* affect$4 ,= 7 a l&-passage to appe> betwe5 ,brita9 & ,gre5l& no ,arctic curr5t w\ld fl[ into ! ,nor? ,atlantic1 :ile no portion ( ! ,gulf ,/ream w\ld be lo/ 9 ,arctic seas4 ,! ,nor? ,atlantic w\ld !n =m a great gulf r\nd :i* a w>m ocean-curr5t w\ld circulate4 ,! temp]ature ( t sea1 !re=e1 w\ld be rais$ & ! prevail+ we/]ly & s\?-we/]ly w9ds ( ,europe w\ld be w>m] ?an n[4 ,h[ev] mu* su* w>m moi/ w9ds might increase ! sn[-fall 9 ,nor? ,brita9 & ,sc&9avia1 we _c suppose !y c\ld h mu* influ5ce 9 c5tral & s\!rn ,europe1 & 9 ,nor? ,africa2 & /ill less c\ld !y affect ! climate ( ,asia ,m9or & ! m\nta9\s regions ( ! f> ea/1 9 mo/ ( :i* evid5ce ( ext5sive glaciation occurs4 ,& h[1 we may ask1 c\ld ! po/ulat$ geographical *anges br+ ab\t ! glaciation ( ! m\nta9\s tracts on ! ,pacific sea-bo>d8 ,9 f9e1 we may conclude t h[ev] mu* ! geographical *anges ref]r$ to might affect nor?-we/]n ,europe & nor?-ea/]n ,am]ica1 !y are :olly insuffici5t to acc\nt = ! glacial ph5om5a ( o!r regions4 ,! cont9u\s rese>* ( rec5t ye>s has %[n t ! l[]+ ( temp]ature ( glacial times 0 n limit$ to ! l&s :i* w\ld be affect$ by any su* elevation z t we are consid]+4 ,a m>k$ & g5]al displacem5t ( climatic zones took place ov] ! :ole cont95t ( ,europe2 & simil> *anges sup]v5$ 9 ,nor? ,am]ica & ,asia4 ,are we !n to suppose t all ! l&s )9 ! ,nor!rn ,hemisph]e 7 ext5sively & contemporane\sly upheav$8 ,we may n[ consid] ano!r =m ( ! e>?-movem5t hypo!sis4 ,x has frequ5tly be5 sugge/$ t our glacial ph5om5a may h be5 caus$ by ! subm]g5ce ( ! ,i/hmus ( ,panama1 & ! deflection ( ! ,equatorial ,curr5t into ! ,pacific4 ,b x may be d\bt$ :e!r a subm]g5ce ( t i/hmus1 unless v ext5sive inde$1 w\ld result 9 m ?an a p>tial escape ( ,atlantic wat] into ! ,pacific bas94 ,! ,c\nt] ,curr5t ( ! ,pacific :i* n[ /rikes aga9/ ! i/hmus might ev5 sweep into ! ,c>ibbean ,sea1 & jo9 ! ,equatorial on its way to ! ,gulf ( ,mexico4 ,b putt+ t consid]ation aside1 :at evid5ce h we t ! ,i/hmus ( ,panama 0 subm]g$ dur+ ! glacial epo*8 ,none :atsoev]1 x may be repli$4 ,x is only a pi\s op9ion4 ,consid]able movem5ts ( elevation & depression ( ! isl&s 9 ! ,c>ibbean ,sea w\ld seem to h tak5 place at a comp>atively rec5t date1 b ^? movem5ts may q well belong to ,plioc5e times4 ,:e!r !y be ( ,plioc5e or ,plei/oc5e age1 h[ev]1 no "o has yet prov$ t ! ,i/hmus ( ,panama 0 suffici5tly subm]g$1 ei!r at ! "o "t or ! o!r1 to p]mit ! escape ( ! ,atlantic ,equatorial into ! ,pacific bas94 ,b let x be suppos$ t ! i/hmus has become s deeply subm]g$ t ! ,equatorial ,curr5t is :olly deflect$1 & t no ,gulf ,/ream issues ?r\gh ! ,/raits ( ,florida to temp] ! climate ( high] latitudes4 ,:at w\ld result f su* an unhappy *ange8 ,c any "o conv]sant ) ! geographical di/ribution ( ! glacial ph5om5a imag9e t ! conditions ( ! ,glacial p]iod c\ld be ?us reproduc$8 ,norway might inde$ become a second s\? ,gre5l&1 & p]5nial sn[ & ice might appe> 9 ! m\nta9\s tracts ( ! ,briti% ,isl&s4 ,! climate ( ,hudson's ,bay & ! surr\nd+ l&s might be exp]i5c$ 9 ! ,baltic & its neighb\rhood1 & :at are n[ ! temp]ate latitudes ( ,europe1 nor? ( ! #ej? p>allel1 w\ld possibly approa* ,sib]ia 9 "*4 ,b surely ^! *anges are n comp>able to ! conditions ( ! ,glacial p]iod4 ,! abs5ce ( a ,gulf ,/ream w\ld n s5sibly affect ! climate ( s\?-ea/]n ,europe & ,asia1 & c\ld n h ! smalle/ influ5ce on t ( ! ,pacific coa/-l&s ( ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,yes1 b if we conceive ! subm]g5ce ( ! ,i/hmus ( ,panama to co9cide ) great elevation ( nor!rn l&s1 w\ld n su* geographical conditions br+ ab\t a glacial epo* comp>able to t ( ,plei/oc5e times8 ,x is h>d to see h[ !y c\ld4 ,no d\bt ! climate ( all ^? regions t w\ld be affect$ by ! )drawal ( ! ,gulf ,/ream alone w\ld become /ill m det]iorat$ if !y /ood "s #cjjj feet high] ?an n[4 ,a va/ area 9 ! nor?-we/ ( ,europe w\ld c]ta9ly be un9habitable1 b x is = ! advocates ( ! e>?-movem5t hypo!sis to expla9 :y ^? inhospitable regions %\ld necess>ily be cov]$ ) an ice-%eet4 ,= ! production ( great sn[-fields & cont95tal ice-%eets1 consid]able precipitation1 no less ?an a l[ temp]ature1 is requisite4 ,"u ! conditions we h be5 imag9+1 h[ev]1 precipitation w\ld probably be mu* less ?an x is at pres5t4 ,b to :atev] ext5t nor?-we/ ,europe might be glaciat$1 x is obvi\s t ! geographical revolutions ref]r$ to c\ld h little influ5ce on ! climate ( s\?-ea/]n ,europe1 n to m5tion c5tral & ea/]n ,asia4 ,nor c\ld !y possibly influ5ce ! climate ( ! ,pacific coa/-l&s ( ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,& yet1 z is well kn[n1 ! climate ( all ^? regions 0 m or less pr(\ndly affect$ dur+ ! ,glacial p]iod4 ,to acc\nt = ! widespread evid5ces ( glaciation by means ( elevation x w\ld !re=e seem necess>y to inf] t all ! affect$ areas 7 9 ,plei/oc5e times uplift$ en masse into ! ,arctic zone t /ret*es above our heads4 ,n[ x seems easi] to believe t ! sn[-l9e 0 l[]$ by sev]al ?\s& feet ?an t ! cont95ts 7 elevat$ to ! same ext5t4 ,glaciation1 z we h se51 0 develop$ 9 ! same directions & ov] ! same areas z we %\ld expect x to be 7 ! sn[-l9e to be g5]ally depress$4 ,to put x 9 ano!r way1 7 ! sn[-l9e by "s means or o!r to be l[]$ ov] ,europe1 ,asia1 & ,nor? ,am]ica1 !n1 ) suffici5t precipitation1 great ice-fields & glaci]s w\ld reappe> 9 ! v regions :i* !y visit$ dur+ ,plei/oc5e times4 ,nei!r elevation nor depression ( ! l& w\ld be requir$ to br+ ab\t su* a result4 ,c]ta9 advocates ( ! e>?-movem5t hypo!sis1 h[ev]1 d n ma9ta9 t all ! glaciat$ areas 7 uplift$ at "o & ! same "t4 ,! glaciation ( ! ,alps1 !y ?9k1 may h tak5 place e>li] or lat] ?an t ( nor?-we/]n ,europe1 :ile ! ice-p]iod ( ! ,rocky ,m\nta9s may n h co9cid$ ) t ( ea/]n ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,x is n impossible1 !y suppose1 t ! glaciation ( ! ,himalayas may h be5 caus$ by an uplift+ ( t great *a91 q indep5d5t ( simil> e>?-movem5ts 9 o!r places4 ,x c be demon/rat$1 h[ev]1 t ! glaciation ( ! ,alps & ( nor!rn ,europe 7 contemporane\s1 & ! facts g f> to prove t ! glaci]s ( ! ,rocky ,m\nta9s & ! inl&-ice ( nor?-ea/ ,am]ica likewise co-exi/$4 ,at all ev5ts all ! old glacial accumulations ( our hemisph]e are ( ,plei/oc5e age1 & x is = ! advocates ( ! hypo!sis "u review to prove t !y are n contemporane\s4 ,_! d\bts on ! subject probably arise f ! simple fact t !y are well aw>e h[ highly improbable or ev5 impossible x is t all ^? glaciat$ l&s c\ld h be5 pu%$ up )9 ! sn[-l9e at "o & ! same "t4 ,let me1 h[ev]1 advance to ano!r objection4 ,we "k t ! ,glacial p]iod 0 int]rupt$ by at lea/ "o int]glacial epo* ( temp]ate & ev5 g5ial conditions4 ,two glacial epo*s ) "o protract$ int]glacial epo* are n[ g5]ally admitt$4 ,h[ d ! support]s ( ! e>?-movem5t hypo!sis expla9 ?is rem>kable succession ( climatic *anges8 ,_! views z to ! cause ( glacial conditions we h consid]$4 ,if we c believe t ! glacial ph5om5a 7 due to elevation ( ! l&1 !n we ne$ h no difficulty 9 und]/&+ h[ glacial conditions w\ld disappe> :5 ! cont95ts aga9 subsid$ to a l[] level4 ,n only did ,nor? ,am]ica & ,europe lose all _! e>ly glacial elevation1 b by a lucky co9cid5ce ! ,i/hmus ( ,panama reappe>$1 & ! ,gulf ,/ream resum$ its b5efic5t c\rse into ! ,nor? ,atlantic4 ,?is we are to suppose 0 ! cause ( ! int]glacial epo*4 ,b ,i w\ld po9t out t ! geographical conditions :i* are ?us inf]r$ to h br\ght ab\t ! disappe>ance ( ! glacial climate1 & to h u%]$ 9 ! int]glacial epo*1 are precisely ^? t n[ obta9--&1 nev]!less1 we are n yet 9 ! enjoym5t ( a climate l t ( int]glacial times4 ,! /rangely equable conditions t p]mitt$ ! developm5t ( ! rem>kable ,plei/oc5e flora & fauna are n exp]i5c$ 9 ! ,europe ( our day4 ,& :at ab\t ! second glacial epo*8 ,are we to suppose t once m ! l&s 7 greatly uplift$1 & t conv5i5t ,i/hmus ( ,panama 0 aga9 depress$8 ,did ! ,alps1 ! ,pyr5ees1 & ! plateau ( c5tral ,france--9 all ( :i* we h di/9ct evid5ce ( at lea/ two glacial epo*s--did ^! heights1 "o may ask1 rise up to br+ ab\t _! e>li] glaciation1 s9k d[n aga9 to induce int]glacial conditions1 & once m become uplift$ at ! succe$+ cold epo*1 to subside ev5tually 9 ord] to cause a f9al retreat ( _! glaci]s8 ,b ! climatic *anges to be acc\nt$ = 7 9 all probability m num]\s & complex ?an ^? j ref]r$ to4 ,compet5t obs]v]s h adduc$ unmi/akable evid5ce ( ?ree epo*s ( glaciation 9 ! ,alp9e ,l&s ( ,europe4 ,& we are n )\t di/9ct h9ts t simil> *anges h tak5 place 9 nor!rn & we/]n ,europe4 ,nor 9 ?is connection c we ignore ! evid5ce ( sev]al int]glacial episodes :i* ,mr4 ,*amb]l9 & o!rs h detect$ 9 ! glaciat$ tracts ( ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,ev5 ?is is n all1 = ! uphold]s ( ! e>?-movem5t hypo!sis h /ill fur!r to acc\nt = ! climatic oscillations ( po/-glacial times4 ,if x be h>d en\gh to all[ ! possibility ( "o great movem5t ( elevation hav+ affect$ s enorm\s an area ( our hemisph]e1 if we f9d x extremely difficult to believe ei!r t "o su* widespread movem5t1 or t a multitude ( local movem5ts1 ea* m or less indep5d5t ( ! o!r1 c\ld h lift$ ! glaciat$ regions successively )9 rea* ( ! sn[-l9e--we %all yet f9d x impossible to admit t su* rem>kable upheavals c\ld be repeat$ aga9 & aga94 ,we seem driv5 to conclude1 !re=e1 t ! e>?-movem5t hypo!sis fails to expla9 ! ph5om5a ( ,plei/oc5e times4 ,"o _c d5y1 inde$1 t glaciation might be induc$ locally by elevation ( ! l&4 ,x is q conceivable t m\nta9s n[ bel[ ! limits ( p]5nial sn[ might come to be ridg$ up to su* an ext5t z to be capable ( su/a9+ sn[-fields & glaci]s4 ,& su* local movem5ts may possibly h happ5$ "h & !re dur+ ! long-cont9u$ ,plei/oc5e p]iod4 ,b ! glacial ph5om5a ( t p]iod are on mu* too gr& a scale & f> too widely di/ribut$ to be acc\nt$ = 9 t way4 ,& if ! occurr5ce ( ev5 "o glacial epo* _c be ?us expla9$1 we may leave ! support]s ( ! e>?-movem5t hypo!sis to %[ u :at light is ?r[n by _! urim & ?ummim on ! orig9 ( succe$+ int]glacial & glacial climates4 ,!re is yet ano!r physical condition ( ! ,plei/oc5e & po/-glacial p]iods :i* any adequate explanation mu/ embrace4 ,i ref] to ! oscillation ( sea-level1 ( :i* s _m pro(s are =?com+4 ,x is v rem>kable t almo/ ev]y:]e ?r\gh\t ! m>itime regions ( =m]ly glaciat$ areas we f9d evid5ce ( subm]g5ce4 ,s commonly is ?is ! case1 t geologi/s h long suspect$ t ! connection betwe5 glaciation & subm]g5ce might be "o ( cause & effect4 ,! possible influ5ce ( great ice-%eets 9 di/urb+ ! relative level ( l& & sea is a "q1 !re=e1 ( v great importance4 ,x is "o1 h[ev]1 :i* mu/ be solv$ by physici/s4 ,croll & o!rs h advocat$ ! view t ! great accumulations ( ice ( ! ,glacial p]iod may h displac$ ! e>?'s c5tre ( gravity1 & ?us caus$ ! sea to rise ^u ! glaciat$ hemisph]e4 ,! v>i\s results arriv$ at by physici/s are h>dly comp>able1 because ea* has us$ diff]5t data1 b x seems probable t we h 9 ?is view a v]a causa ( oscillations ( ! sea-level4 ,ano!r hypo!sis w\ld expla9 ! rise ( ! sea z due to ! attractive influ5ce ( ! great ice-masses1 b ,dr4 ,drygalski's & ,mr4 ,woodw>d's elaborate inve/igations w\ld seem to h demon/rat$ t ?is notion does n acc\nt = ! facts4 ,yet ano!r speculation has be5 advanc$4 ,mr4 ,jamieson has sugge/$ t ! m]e weight ( ! ice-%eets w\ld suffice to press d[n ! e>?'s cru/ into a suppos$ liquid sub/ratum1 & ?is explanation has met ) mu* acceptance4 ,un=tunately our k ( ! condition ( ! e>?'s int]ior is s v limit$ t we _c be c]ta9 z to h[ ! cru/ w\ld be affect$ by ! weight ( an ice-%eet4 ,no d\bt ,mr4 ,jamieson's hypo!sis gives a speci\s explanation ( c]ta9 geological ph5om5a1 b if !re be no liquid sub/ratum und]ly+ a ?9 cru/ x _c be true4 ,at pres5t ! preval5t view ( physici/s appe>s to be t ! e>? is sub/antially solid4 ,pr(essor ,george ,d>w9 has %[n t ! prom95t inequalities ( ! e>?'s surface c\ld n be su/a9$ unless ! cru/ be z rigid z granite = a dep? ( #ajjj miles4 ,if ! e>? be solid ?r\gh\t1 he rem>ks1 !n at #ajjj miles f ! surface ! mat]ial mu/ be z /rong z granite4 ,if x be fluid or gase\s inside1 & ! cru/ #ajjj miles ?ick1 t cru/ mu/ be /rong] ?an granite1 & if only #bjj or #cjj miles 9 ?ickness1 mu* /rong] ?an granite4 ,?is conclusion is obvi\sly /rongly confirmatory ( ,sir ,william ,?omson's view1 t ! e>? is solid ?r\gh\t4 ,b _m geologi/s f9d x h>d to acc\nt = ! convolutions ( /rata & o!r /ructural ph5om5a on ! supposition t ! e>? is entirely solid1 & !y are incl9$1 !re=e1 to adopt ! hypo!sis ( a sub-cru/ lay] ( liquid matt]4 ,:e!r ?is be actually ! condition or n physici/s mu/ be left to det]m9e4 ,all t we ne$ note is1 t if !re be any =ce 9 ,pr(essor ,d>w9's argum5t1 x is obvi\s t ! cru/ is possess$ ( great rigidity1 & c\ld n be readily de=m$ by ! m]e weight ( an ice-%eet4 ,accord+ to ,dr4 ,drygalski1 h[ev]1 ! pres5ce ( an ice-%eet1 by r$uc+ ! temp]ature ( ! und]ly+ cru/1 w\ld br+ ab\t contraction1 & 9 ?is way cause ! surface to s9k4 ,:5 ! ice-%eet _h disappe>$1 !n free radiation ( e>?-heat w\ld be resum$1 ! depress$ isogeo!rms w\ld rise1 & a g5]al w>m+ ( ! upp] portion ( ! li?osph]e w\ld take place4 ,b ! space occupi$ by ! depress$ section1 ow+ to ! sph]oidal =m ( ! e>?1 w\ld be small] ?an t :i* x occupi$ be=e s9k+ _h comm5c$1 & consequ5tly :5 ! ice vani%$ expansion ( ! cru/ w\ld foll[1 & ! l&-surface w\ld !n rise aga94 ,! :ole "q is "o = physici/s to decide ^u1 b ,i may po9t out t if ,drygalski's explanation be well f\nd$1 !n x is obvi\s t x ?r[s no light ^u ! orig9 & subsequ5t disappe>ance ( an ice-%eet4 ,someh[ or o!r ?is ice-%eet comes into exi/5ce1 & ! cool+ & contract+ cru/ s9ks bel[ x2 & t depress$ condition ( ! glaciat$ area mu/ cont9ue s long z ! ice-%eet rema9s unmelt$4 ,re-elevation c only take place :51 ow+ to "s o!r cause or causes1 ! climate *anges & ! ice-%eet vani%es4 ,^? :o advocate ! e>?-movem5t hypo!sis z an explanation ( ! orig9 ( ext5sive glaciation h welcom$ ,mr4 ,jamieson's view z h>monis+ well ) _! conclusions4 ,!y cont5d1 z we h se51 t glacial conditions 7 induc$ by an ext5sive upheaval ( ! cru/ 9 nor!rn latitudes1 accompani$ by a depression ( ! ,i/hmus ( ,panama4 ,!y !n proce$ to po9t out t ! ice-%eets br\ght ab\t _! own dissolution by press+ d[n ! cru/1 & introduc+ ) subm]g5ce a disappe>ance ( glacial conditions4 ,see n[ h[ mu* !y take = grant$4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 !y assume an am\nt ( pre-glacial or e>ly glacial elevation ( nor!rn regions = :i* n a scrap ( evid5ce c be adduc$1 :ile !y c give no pro( ( contemporane\s depression ( ! ,i/hmus ( ,panama4 ,next1 rely+ on ,mr4 ,jamieson's hypo!sis1 !y take = grant$ t ! ice-%eets1 call$ into exi/5ce by _! po/ulat$ e>?-movem5ts1 succe$$ 9 depress+ ! e>?'s surface ev5 bel[ its pres5t level4 ,t is to say1 ! l&1 :i*1 accord+ to !m1 0 9 glacial times "s #cjjj feet high] ?an n[1 sank d[n "u ! weight ( its glacial cov]+ =1 say1 #cfjj feet 9 nor?-we/]n ,europe4 ,9 ,nor? ,am]ica1 9 l mann]1 all ! pre-glacial elevation 0 lo/--! l& s9k+ bel[ its pres5t level = "s #bjj feet 9 ,new ,engl&1 = #ebj feet at ,montreal1 = #ajjj to #aejj feet 9 ,labrador1 & = #ajjj to #bjjj feet 9 ! ,arctic regions4 ,n[1 ev5 if we conc$e ! reasonabl5ess ( ,mr4 ,jamieson's hypo!sis1 & admit t a c]ta9 degree ( de=mation may take place "u ! m]e weight ( an ice-%eet1 x is difficult to believe t ! cru/ c be s readily de=m$ z ! support]s ( ! e>?-movem5t hypo!sis seem to imply4 ,if x c\ld yield s readily to pressure1 "o is at a loss to und]/& h[ a great ice-%eet c\ld accumulate--! ice w\ld simply float (f z ! l& subsid$4 ,take ! case ( nor?-we/]n ,europe4 ,! ice-%eet t cov]$ ,scotl& did n atta91 on ! av]age1 #cjjj feet 9 ?ickness1 & yet we are to suppose t x 0 able to depress ! l& = "s #fjj feet bel[ its pres5t level--t is to say1 = #cfjj feet bel[ its assum$ pre-glacial elevation4 ,ei!r ! ice depress$ ! cru/ to t rem>kable ext5t1 or ! l& ^u :i* ! ice accumulat$ 0 n ne>ly s high z ! advocates ( ! e>?-movem5t hypo!sis h suppos$4 ,b ! av]age ,i h tak5 = ! ?ickness ( ! ,scotti% ice-%eet is excessive1 = x 0 only 9 ! l[-gr\nds t ! m] de glace atta9$ su* a dep?4 ,a l>ge "p ( our c\ntry1 h[ev]1 is m\nta9\s1 & ! m\nta9-tops 71 ( c\rse1 n ne>ly s ?ickly mantl$ ) ice z ! valleys4 ,& ! same to ev5 a l>g] ext5t holds good = ! ,sc&9avian p59sula4 ,if we take ! ?ickness ( ! ,sc&9avian ice-%eet t coalesc$ ) t ( ,scotl& z #djjj feet1 we %all be ov] ! m>k4 ,n[1 ,i ask1 is x possible to believe t a %eet ( ice ( t ?ickness actually press$ d[n ! cru/ ( ! e>? = n less ?an #cfjj feet8 ,b if we accept ! e>?-movem5t hypo!sis1 z x has be5 rec5tly advocat$1 t is :at we mu/ believe4 ,if we _c d s1 !n we _c accept ! assumption ( great elevation ( ! l& 9 pre-glacial & glacial times4 ,let me put ! case %ortly3 if ! glacial m>9e b$s & rais$ bea*es ( ! ,atlantic bord]s ( ,europe & ,nor? ,am]ica owe _! orig9 to depression induc$ by ! weight ( an ice-%eet1 !n x is q c]ta9 t at ! adv5t ( glacial conditions ! l& c\ld n h be5 s highly elevat$ z ! advocates ( ! e>?-movem5t hypo!sis suppose4 ,b if we are to accept ! notion ( great elevation ( ! l&1 !n we mu/ conclude t ! subm]g5ce to :i* ! rais$ bea*es te/ify _c h be5 caus$ by ! pressure ( ice-%eets4 ,x is h>dly necess>y to pursue ?is p>ticul> subject fur!r1 b be=e leav+ x1 att5tion may be drawn = a mom5t to ! curi\s conclusion t ! ice-%eets 7 self-de/ructive4 ,"o is left to guess at :at p>ticul> /age ! s9k+ process began1 b if ! e>?'s cru/ 7 z readily de=m$ z ! extreme views ,i h be5 exam9+ w\ld compel "o to imply1 !n depression mu/ h comm5c$ almo/ imm$iately ) ! accumulation ( sn[ & ice4 ,! sev]al ice-%eets mu/ soon h atta9$ _! maximum ?ickness1 & _! disappe>ance mu/ h be5 correspond+ly rapid4 ,& yet all ! evid5ce goes to %[ t a glacial epo* endur$ = a comp>atively long "t--= a "t suffici5t to acc\nt = a prodigi\s am\nt ( rock-erosion1 & = ! accumulation ( va/ %eets ( glacial dbris & fluvio-glacial detritus4,,by ,,by ,x mu/ n be inf]r$ f ! above rem>ks t ,i d5y ! possibility ( de=mation ( ! cru/ hav+ be5 induc$ by ! old ice-%eets4 ,! geological evid5ce is c]ta9ly sugge/ive ( su* hav+ be5 ! case4 ,b ,i mu* d\bt :e!r ! s9k+ ( ! surface 0 br\ght ab\t by ! m]e weight ( ! ice press+ ! cru/ d[n into a subjac5t liquid lay]4 ,dr4 ,drygalski's explanation w\ld bett] acc\nt = ! geological ph5om5a1 b1 accord+ to ,rev4 ,osmond ,fi%]1 x _c be ma9ta9$4 ,if x be difficult to und]/& h[ ! e>?-movem5t hypo!sis c acc\nt = ! orig9 ( "o glacial epo*1 ! difficulty is n less5$ :5 we rememb] t !re are two or m su* epo*s to acc\nt =4 ,& until ! advocates ( t hypo!sis c furni% u ) "s reliable evid5ce1 !y c h>dly expect u to believe 9 _! my/]i\s upheavals & depressions ( nor!rn & temp]ate regions1 & 9 ! no less wond]fully rhy?mic movem5ts ( ! ,i/hmus ( ,panama4 ,9 f9e1 ! views :i* ,i h be5 controv]t+ seem to me to be unt5able1 inasmu* z !y are f\nd$ on m]e assumptions1 & d n ev5 give a reasonable & intelligible explanation ( ! ph5om5a ( glaciat$ regions1 :ile !y practically ignore or leave unsolv$ ! problem ( int]glacial conditions4 ,"s five-&-tw5ty ye>s h n[ elaps$ s9ce my lam5t$ fri5d & colleague1 ,james ,croll1 publi%$ 8 well-kn[n physical !ory ( ! ,glacial p]iod4 ,t !ory1 z y all "k1 has be5 frequ5tly criticis$ by physici/s & o!rs1 to ^: objections ,croll made a f9al reply 9 8 ,climate & ,cosmology4 ,9 t "w he has successfully def5d$ 8 views1 & ev5 add$ consid]ably to ! /r5g? ( 8 g5]al argum5t4 ,i am n aw>e t s9ce !n any s]i\s objections to ,croll's !ory h appe>$4 ,! only "o inde$ t seems to h attract$ att5tion is t :i* has be5 urg$ especially by c]ta9 ,am]ican geologi/s4 ,_! belief is t ! close ( ! ,glacial p]iod mu/ h tak5 place at a mu* m rec5t date ?an ,croll has inf]r$4 ,& ?is belief ( !irs is bas$ ^u v>i\s e/imates :i* h be5 made z to ! "t requir$ = ! erosion ( valleys & ! accumulation ( alluvial deposits s9ce ! ,glacial p]iod4 ,?us1 accord+ to ,mr4 ,gilb]t1 ! po/-glacial gorge ( ,niag>a1 at ! pres5t rate ( erosion1 mu/ h be5 excavat$ )9 #gjjj ye>s2 :ile ,mr4 ,w9*ell1 f simil> measurem5ts ( ! po/-glacial erosion ( ! ,falls ( ,/4 ,an?ony1 concludes t #hjjj ye>s h elaps$ s9ce ! close ( ! ,ice ,age4 ,i might cite a numb] ( simil> e/imates t t5d to %[ t s9ce ! close ( ! ,glacial p]iod only #gjjj or #aj1jjj ye>s h elaps$4 ,:at w ar*ologi/s say to ?is conclusion8 ,we "k t ,egypt 0 already occupi$ by a civilis$ p ne>ly #fjjj ye>s ago1 & _! m>vell\sly advanc$ civilisation at t "t presupposes1 accord+ to ,egyptologi/s1 _m ?\s&s ( ye>s ( developm5t4 ,are we1 !n1 prep>$ to admit t ! close ( ! ,ice ,age co9cid$ ) ! dawn ( ,egyptian civilisation8 ,b all ,am]ican obs]v]s are n s p>simoni\s ) reg>d to po/-glacial "t4 ,?us ,pr(essor ,sp5c] has giv5 ! age ( ! ,falls ( ,niag>a z #bd1jjj ye>s1 & he in=m$ me rec5tly t ?is does n repres5t half ( ! "t s9ce ! =mation ( ! ?ird great s]ies ( glacial deposits ( ! ,canadian upl&s4 ,9 our own ,cont95t simil> e/imates h be5 bas$ on ! rate ( erosion ( riv]-valleys1 ! rate ( accumulation ( alluvial deposits1 ( peat-bogs1 ( /alagmite 9 caves1 & :at n1 ) results t1 to say ! lea/1 are r discordant4 ,! fact is t all su* measurem5ts & e/imates1 h[ev] c>efully conduct$ & cauti\sly made1 are 9 ! nature ( ?+s unreliable4 ,we are insuffici5tly acqua9t$ ) all ! factors ( ! problem to be solv$1 & ,i _c !re=e agree ) ^? :o attribute mu* weight to conclusions bas$ on su* unc]ta9 data4 ,dr4 ,croll's !ory may ev5tually be modifi$1 b ,i feel sure t x w n be ov]turn$ by ! inconclusive & unsatisfactory e/imates to :i* ,i h ref]r$4 ,moreov]1 oppon5ts ( t !ory may be rem9d$ t its tru? does n re/ on ! accuracy ( its au?or's conclusion z to ! date ( ! la/ ,ice ,age4 ,t p]iods ( high ecc5tricity ( ! e>?'s orbit h occurr$ is beyond all d\bt1 b :e!r ! =mul employ$ by ,croll 9 calculat+ ! date ( ! la/ great cycle c be reli$ ^u = t purpose is q ano!r "q4 ,at pres5t1 s f> z ,i und]/& ! facts1 ! glacial & ! int]glacial ph5om5a are expla9$ by ! a/ronomical !ory1 & by no o!r4 ,x gives a simple1 coh]5t1 & consi/5t int]pretation ( ! climatic vicissitudes ( ! ,plei/oc5e & po/-glacial p]iods1 & 9 especial x is ! only !ory t ?r[s any light on ! v rem>kable climates ( int]glacial times4 ,x4 ,! ,glacial ,succession 9 ,europe4,,bz ,,bz ,trans4 ,royal ,soc4 ,ed9burgh1 vol4 xxxvii4 7#ahib74 ,= _m ye>s geologi/s h recognis$ ! occurr5ce ( at lea/ two b\ld]-clays 9 ! ,briti% ,isl&s & ! correspond+ latitudes ( ! ,cont95t4 ,x is no long] d\bt$ t ^! are ! products ( two sep>ate & di/9ct glacial epo*s4 ,?is has be5 demon/rat$ by ! appe>ance ( int]calat$ deposits ( t]re/rial1 fre%wat]1 or1 z ! case may be1 m>9e orig94 ,su* int]glacial accumulations h be5 met ) aga9 & aga9 9 ,brita91 & !y h likewise be5 detect$ at _m places on ! ,cont95t1 betwe5 ! bord] ( ! ,nor? ,sea & ! he>t ( ,russia4 ,_! organic cont5ts indicate 9 "s cases cold climatic conditions2 9 o!rs1 !y imply a climate n less temp]ate or ev5 m g5ial ?an t :i* n[ obta9s 9 ! regions :]e !y occur4 ,nor are su* int]glacial b$s conf9$ to nor!rn & nor?-we/]n ,europe4 ,9 ! ,alp9e ,l&s ( ! c5tral & s\!rn regions ( our ,cont95t !y are equally well develop$4 ,impress$ by ! gr[+ /r5g? ( ! evid5ce1 x is no wond] t geologi/s1 aft] a season ( d\bt1 %\ld at la/ agree 9 ! conclusion t ! glacial conditions ( ! ,plei/oc5e p]iod 7 int]rupt$ by at lea/ "o protract$ int]glacial epo*4 ,n a few obs]v]s g fur!r1 & ma9ta9 t ! evid5ce indicates m ?an ?is4 ,!y hold t ?ree or ev5 m glacial epo*s sup]v5$ 9 ,plei/oc5e times4 ,?is is ! conclusion ,i rea*$ _m ye>s ago1 & ,i n[ purpose review+ ! evid5ce :i* has accumulat$ s9ce !n1 9 ord] to %[ h[ f> x goes to support t conclusion4 ,9 our isl&s we h1 z already rem>k$1 two b\ld]-clays1 ( :i* ! l[] or old] has ! wid] ext5sion s\?w>ds1 = x has be5 trac$ z f> z ! valley ( ! ,?ames4 ,! upp] b\ld]-clay1 on ! o!r h&1 does n ext5d s\? ( ! midl&s ( ,engl&4 ,9 ! nor? ( ,engl&1 & ?r\gh\t ,scotl& & ! major portion ( ,irel&1 x is ?is upp] b\ld]-clay :i* usually %[s at ! surface4 ,! two clays1 h[ev]1 frequ5tly occur toge!r1 & are expos$ aga9 & aga9 9 deep artificial & natural sections1 z 9 pits1 railway-cutt+s1 qu>ries1 riv]-banks1 & sea-cliffs4 ,sometimes ! upp] clay re/s directly ^u ! l[]2 at o!r times !y are sep>at$ by alluvial & peaty accumulations or by m>9e deposits4 ,! wid] di/ribution ( ! l[] till1 ! direction ( transport ( its includ$ erratics1 & ! tr5d ( ! und]ly+ ro*es m\tonnes & rock-/ri1 cle>ly %[ t ! e>li] m] de glace cov]$ a wid] area ?an its successor1 & 0 conflu5t on ! floor ( ! ,nor? ,sea ) ! ,sc&9avian ice-%eet4 ,x 0 dur+ ! =mation ( ! l[] till1 9 %ort1 t glaciation 9 ^! isl&s atta9$ its maximum developm5t4 ,! int]glacial b$s1 :i* 9 _m places sep>ate ! l[] f ! upp] till1 %[ t aft] ! retreat ( ! e>li] m] de glace ! climate became progressively m temp]ate1 until ev5tually ! c\ntry 0 clo!d ) a flora ess5tially ! same z ! pres5t4 ,wild ox51 ! great ,iri% de]1 & ! horse1 elephant1 rh9oc]os1 & o!r mammals !n liv$ 9 ,brita94 ,f ! pres5ce ( su* a flora & fauna we may reasonably inf] t ! climate dur+ ! climax ( int]glacial times 0 z g5ial z n[4 ,! occurr5ce ( m>9e deposits associat$ ) "s ( ! int]glacial peaty b$s %[s t ev5tually subm]g5ce ensu$2 & z ! %ells 9 "s ( ! m>9e b$s are boreal & arctic =ms1 !y prove t cold climatic conditions accompani$ ! depression ( ! l&4 ,to :at ext5t ! l& sank "u wat] we _c tell4 ,x may h be5 #ejj feet or n s mu*1 = ! evid5ce is some:at unsatisfactory4 ,! upp] b\ld]-clay ( our isl&s is ! product ( ano!r m] de glace1 :i* 9 ,scotl& w\ld seem to h be5 h>dly less ?ick & ext5sive ?an its pr$ecessor4 ,l ! latt]1 x cov]$ ! :ole c\ntry1 ov]fl[$ ! ,out] ,hebrides1 & became conflu5t ) ! ,sc&9avian inl&-ice on ! b$ ( ! ,nor? ,sea4 ,b x did n fl[ s f> to ! s\? z ! e>li] ice-%eet4 ,x is well kn[n t ?is lat] m] de glace 0 succe$$ 9 our m\nta9-regions by a s]ies ( l>ge local glaci]s1 :i* geologi/s g5]ally believe 7 its direct desc5dants4 ,x is suppos$1 9 %ort1 t ! inl&-ice1 aft] retreat+ f ! l[-gr\nds1 p]si/$ = a "t 9 ! =m ( local glaci]s 9 m\nta9-valleys4 ,?is view ,i also =m]ly held1 al?\gh !re 7 c]ta9 appe>ances :i* seem$ to indicate t1 aft] ! ice-%eet _h melt$ away f ! ,l[l&s & %runk f> into ! m\nta9s1 a g5]al advance ( great valley-glaci]s _h tak5 place4 ,i _h obs]v$1 = example1 t ! upp] b\ld]-clay is (t5 well develop$ 9 ! l[] rea*es ( our m\nta9-valleys--t1 9 fact1 x may be met ) m or less abundantly up to ! po9t at :i* l>ge t]m9al mora9es are enc\nt]$4 ,m ?an ?is1 ,i _h notic$ t upl& valleys1 9 :i* no local or t]m9al mora9es occur1 are usually clo!d & pav$ ) b\ld]-clay ?r\gh\t4 ,aga91 ! aspect ( valleys :i* h be5 occupi$ by l>ge local glaci]s is v sugge/ive4 ,above ! po9t at :i* t]m9al mora9es occur only meagre pat*es ( till are met ) on ! bottoms ( ! valleys4 ,! adjac5t hill-slopes up to a c]ta9 l9e may %[ b>e rock1 spr9kl$ p]*ance ) erratics & sup]ficial mora9ic detritus2 b above ?is l9e1 if ! acclivity be n too great1 b\ld]-clay (t5 comes on aga94 ,^! appe>ances are mo/ conspicu\sly display$ 9 ! s\!rn ,upl&s ( ,scotl&1 p>ticul>ly 9 s\? ,ayr%ire & ,gall[ay1 & long ago !y l$ me to suspect t ! local glaci]s into :i* our late/ m] de glace 0 resolv$1 aft] retreat+ cont9u\sly t[>ds ! heads ( _! valleys1 s z to leave ! b\ld]-clay 9 a comp>atively unmodifi$ condition1 _h aga9 advanc$ & pl\gh$ ?is out1 d[n to ! po9t at :i* !y dropp$ _! t]m9al mora9es4 ,subsequ5t obs]vations 9 ! ,highl&s & ! ,inn] & ,out] ,hebrides confirm$ me 9 my suspicion1 = 9 all ^? regions we meet ) ph5om5a ( precisely ! same k9d4 ,my fri5ds & colleagues1 ,messrs4 ,pea* & ,horne1 _h indep5d5tly come to a simil> conclusion2 & ! m rec5t "w ( ! ,geological ,survey 9 ! nor?-we/ ,highl&s1 z !y in=m me1 has demon/rat$ t aft] ! dissolution ( ! g5]al ice-%eet und]nea? :i* ! upp] b\ld]-clay 0 accumulat$1 a /rong recrudesc5ce ( glacial conditions sup]v5$1 & a g5]al advance ( great valley-glaci]s took place--! glaci]s 9 _m places coalesc+ ^u ! l[-gr\nds to =m unit$ m]s de glace ( consid]able ext5t4 ,! developm5t ( ^! l>ge glaci]s1 !re=e1 =ms a di/9ct /age 9 ! hi/ory ( ! ,glacial p]iod4 ,!y 7 ( suffici5t ext5t to occupy all ! fiords ( ! nor!rn & we/]n ,highl&s1 at ! m\?s ( :i* !y calv$ _! iceb]gs1 & !y desc5d$ ! valleys on ! ea/]n slopes ( ! l& into ! region ( ! great lakes1 at ! l[] ends ( :i* we enc\nt] _! out]mo/ t]m9al mora9es4 ,! ,%etl& & ,orkney ,isl&s & ! ,inn] & ,out] ,hebrides at ! same "t n\ri%$ local glaci]s1 n a few ( :i* fl[$ into ! sea4 ,su*1 = example1 0 ! case 9 ,skye1 ,h>ris1 ,s\? ,ui/1 & ,arran4 ,! broad ,upl&s ( ! s\? 7 likewise clo!d ) sn[-fields t f$ num]\s glaci]s4 ,^! 7 especially conspicu\s 9 ! wilds ( ,gall[ay1 b !y appe>$ likewise 9 ! ,peebles%ire hills2 & ev5 9 less elevat$ tracts !y h left m or less well-m>k$ traces ( _! =m] pres5ce4 ,x is to ?is ?ird epo* ( glaciation t ,i w\ld assign ! f9al scoop+ out ( our lake-bas9s & ! completion ( ! deep depressions 9 ! b$s ( our ,highl& fiords4 ,all ! evid5ce1 inde$1 leads to ! conviction t ! epo* 0 "o ( long duration4 ,x goes )\t say+ t :at holds good = ,scotl& mu/1 )9 c]ta9 limits1 hold good also = ,irel& & ,engl&4 ,9 ,wales & ! ,cumb]l& lake di/rict1 & 9 ! m\nta9-regions ( ! si/] isl&1 we meet ) evid5ce ( simil> conditions4 ,ea* ( ^? areas has obvi\sly exp]i5c$ int5se local glaciation subsequ5t to ! disappe>ance ( ! la/ big ice-%eet4 ,att5tion mu/ n[ be direct$ to ano!r s]ies ( facts :i* help u to realise ! g5]al conditions t obta9$ dur+ ! epo* ( local glaciation4 ,9 ! bas9 ( ! e/u>y ( ! ,clyde1 & at v>i\s o!r places bo? on ! we/ & ea/ coa/s ( ,scotl&1 occur c]ta9 clays & s&s1 :i* ov]lie ! upp] b\ld]-clay1 & 9 "s places are f\nd wrapp+ r\nd ! kames & os> ( ! la/ great ice-%eet4 ,^! b$s are *>g$ ) ! relics ( a boreal & arctic fauna1 & indicate a subm]g5ce ( r m ?an #ajj feet4 ,9 ! l[] rea*es ( ! riv]s ,clyde1 ,=?1 & ,tay ! clays & s&s =m a well-m>k$ t]race1 & a rais$ sea-bea*1 conta9+ simil> organisms1 occurs "h & !re on ! sea-coa/1 z betwe5 ,dundee & ,arbroa?1 on ! s\!rn %ores ( ! ,moray ,fir?1 & else:]e4 ,:5 ! t]races are trac$ inl& !y are f\nd to pass into high-level fluviatile gravels1 :i* may be foll[$ into ! m\nta9-valleys1 until ev5tually !y %ade (f into fluvio-glacial detritus associat$ ) ! t]m9al mora9es ( ! great local glaci]s4 ,x is obvi\s1 9 %ort1 t ! epo* ( local ice-%eets & l>ge valley-glaci]s 0 "o also ( p>tial subm]g5ce4 ,?is is fur!r %[n by ! fact t 9 "s places ! glaci]s t rea*$ ! sea ?rew d[n _! mora9es on ! #ajj-;feet bea*4 ,x mu/ h be5 an epo* ( mu* float+ ice1 z ! m>9e deposits conta9 n[ & aga9 _m erratics1 l>ge & small1 & are1 moreov]1 frequ5tly di/urb$ & contort$ z if f ! gr\nd+ ( pack-ice4 ,! ph5om5a :i* ,i h ?us briefly sket*$ suffice to %[ t ! epo* ( local glaciation is to be cle>ly di/+ui%$ f t ( ! late/ g5]al m] de glace4 ,i h long suspect$1 inde$1 t ! two may h be5 sep>at$ by z wide an int]val ( "t z t :i* divid$ ! e>li] f ! lat] epo* ( g5]al glaciation4 ,aga9 & aga9 ,i h se>*$ und]nea? ! t]m9al mora9es1 9 ! fa9t hope ( detect+ int]glacial accumulations4 ,my failure to discov] ^!1 h[ev]1 did n weak5 my conviction1 = x 0 only by ! m]e/ *ance t int]glacial b$s c\ld ev] h be5 pres]v$ 9 su* places4 ,i feel sure1 h[ev]1 t !y mu/ occur among ! old] alluvia ( our ,l[l&s4 ,inde$1 z ,i %all po9t out 9 ! sequel1 x is highly probable t !y are already kn[n1 & t we h hi!rto fail$ to recognise _! true position 9 ! glacial s]ies4 ,al?\gh we h no direct evid5ce to prove t a long int]glacial epo* ( mild conditions imm$iately prec$$ ! adv5t ( our local ice-%eets & l>ge valley-glaci]s1 yet ! indirect evid5ce is s /rong t we seem driv5 to admit t su* mu/ h be5 ! case4 ,to %[ ?is ,i mu/ briefly recapitulate :at is n[ kn[n z to ! glacial succession on ! ,cont95t4 ,x has be5 asc]ta9$1 !n1 t ! ,sc&9avian ice has invad$ ! l[-gr\nds ( ,g]many on two sep>ate occasions1 :i* are spok5 ( by ,cont95tal geologi/s z ! fir/ & second glacial epo*s4 ,! e>li] ( ^! 0 ! epo* ( maximum glaciation1 :5 ! inl& ice fl[$ s\? into ,saxony1 & ov]spread a va/ area betwe5 ! bord]s ( ! ,nor? ,sea & ! base ( ! ,ural ,m\nta9s4 ,?is ice-%eet unque/ionably coalesc$ ) ! m] de glace ( ! ,briti% ,isl&s4 ,its bottom-mora9e & ! associat$ fluvio-glacial detritus are kn[n 9 ,g]many z ,l[] ,diluvium1 & ! v>i\s ph5om5a connect$ ) x cle>ly %[ t ! inl&-ice radiat$ outw>ds f ! high-gr\nds ( ,sc&9avia4 ,! t]m9al front ( t va/ m] de glace is r\ghly indicat$ by a l9e drawn f ! s\? coa/ ( ,belgium r\nd ! nor? base ( ! ,h>z1 & by ,leipzig & ,dresd5 to ,krak[1 !nce nor?-ea/ to ,nijnii ,novgorod1 & fur!r nor? to ! head-wat]s ( ! ,dv9a & ! %ores ( ! ,arctic ,sea ne> ! ,t*eskaia ,gulf4 ,! l[] diluvium is cov]$ 9 c]ta9 places by int]glacial deposits & an ov]ly+ upp] diluvium--a succession cle>ly indicative ( climatic *anges4 ,9 ! int]glacial b$s occur rema9s ( ,elephas antiquus & o!r ,plei/oc5e mammals1 & a flora :i* d5otes a g5ial temp]ate climate4 ,"o ( ! late/ discov]ies ( int]glacial rema9s is t ( two peat-b$s ly+ betwe5 ! l[] & upp] diluvium ne> ,grn5?al 9 ,hol/e94,,ca ,among ! abundant plant-relics are p9es & firs 7no long] indig5\s to ,s*leswig-,hol/e971 asp51 will[1 :ite bir*1 hazel1 hornbeam1 oak1 & junip]4 ,associat$ ) ^! are ,ilex & ,trapa natans1 ! pres5ce ( :i*1 z ,dr4 ,web] rem>ks1 betok5s a climate l t ( we/]n middle ,g]many4 ,among/ ! plants is a wat]-lily1 :i* occurs also 9 ! int]glacial b$s ( ,switz]l&1 b is n n[ f\nd 9 ,europe4 ,! evid5ce furni%$ by ?is & o!r int]glacial deposits 9 nor? ,g]many %[s t1 aft] ! ice-%eet ( ! l[] diluvium _h melt$ away1 ! climate became z temp]ate z t n[ exp]i5c$ 9 ,europe4 ,ano!r rec5t f9d ( ! same k9d,,cb is ! diluvial peat1 etc41 ( ,kl+e1 9 ,br&5burg1 describ$ by ,pr(essor ,nehr+4 ,^! b$s h yield$ rema9s ( elk 7,c]vus alces71 rh9oc]os 7species n det]m9$71 a small fox 7871 & ,megac]os4 ,?is latt] is n ! typical great ,iri% de]1 b a v>iety 7,c4 megac]os1 v>4 ,ruffii1 ,nehr+74 ,! plant-rema9s include p9e1 fir 7,picea excelsa71 hornbeam1 w>ty bir* 7,betula v]rucosa71 v>i\s will[s 7,salix rep5s1 ,s4 aurita1 ,s4 caprea 81 ,s4 c9]ea71 hazel1 popl> 7871 common holly1 etc4 ,x is wor?y ( note t "h also ! int]glacial wat]-lily 7,cratopleura7 ( ,s*leswig-,hol/e9 & ,switz]l& makes its appe>ance4 ,dr4 ,web] writes me t ! facies ( ?is flora implies a well-m>k$ temp]ate insul> climate 7,seeklima74 ,! occurr5ce ( holly 9 ! he>t ( ! ,cont95t1 :]e x no long] gr[s wild1 is p>ticul>ly notewor?y4 ,! evid5ce furni%$ by su* a flora leads "o to conclude t at ! climax ( ! g5ial int]glacial epo*1 ! ,sc&9avian sn[-fields & glaci]s 7 n m ext5sive ?an !y are at pres5t4 ,,ca ,neues ,jahrbu* f4 ,m94 ,geol4 u4 ,palont41 #ahia1 ii41 pp4 #fb1 #bbh2 ,ibid41 #ahib1 i41 p4 #aad4 ,,cb ,naturwiss5s*aftli*e ,wo*5s*rift1 ,bd4 vii4 7#ahib71 ,no4 #d1 p4 #ca4 ,! plants 7 det]m9$ by ,dr4 ,web]1 ,pr(essor ,wittmack1 & ,h]r ,w>n/orf4 ,m rec5t inve/igations h consid]ably increas$ our k ( ?is flora4 ,see ,naturwiss5s*aftli*e ,wo*5s*rift1 ,bd4 vii4 7#ahib71 ,nr4 #bd1 #be4 ,ausl&1 #ahib1 ,nr4 #bj2 ,neues ,jahrb4 f4 ,m941 etc41 #ahic1 ,bd4 i41 p4 #ie4 ,! pres5ce ( ! upp] diluvium1 h[ev]1 proves t su* g5ial conditions ev5tually pass$ away1 & t an ice-%eet aga9 invad$ nor? ,g]many4 ,b ?is lat] invasion 0 n on ! same scale z t ( ! prec$+ "o4 ,! geographical di/ribution ( ! upp] diluvium & ! position ( l>ge t]m9al mora9es put ?is q beyond d\bt4 ,! b\ld]-clay 9 "q spreads ov] ! ,baltic prov9ces ( ,g]many1 ext5d+ s\? z f> z ,b]l91,,cc & we/ into ,s*leswig-,hol/e9 & ,d5m>k4 ,at ! climax ( ?is lat] cold epo* glaci]s occupi$ all ! fiords ( ,norway1 b did n advance beyond ! g5]al coa/-l9e4 ,norway at t "t mu/ h greatly resembl$ ,gre5l&--! inl&-ice cov]+ ! int]ior ( ! c\ntry1 & s5d+ seaw>ds l>ge glaci]s t calv$ _! iceb]gs at ! m\?s ( ! great fiords4 ,9 ! extreme s\?1 h[ev]1 ! glaci]s did n q rea* ! sea1 b pil$ up l>ge t]m9al mora9es on ! coa/-l&s1 :i* may be foll[$ !nce into ,sw$5 9 an ea/]ly direction by ! l[] end ( ,lake ,w5] & ?r\gh ,lake ,wett]4 ,a simil> belt ( mora9es m>ks out ! s\!rn t]m9ation ( ! ice-%eet 9 ,f9l&4 ,betwe5 ,sw$5 & ,f9l& lies ! bas9 ( ! ,baltic1 :i*1 at ! epo* 9 "q 0 fill$ ) ice1 =m+ a great ,baltic glaci]4 ,?is glaci] ov]fl[$ ! l& ,isl&s1 ,gottl&1 & l&1 fann+ out z x pass$ t[>ds ! s\?-we/ & we/1 s z to invade on ! s\? ! ,baltic prov9ces ( ,g]many1 :ile 9 ! nor? x trav]s$ ! s\!rn "p ( ,scania1 & ov]:elm$ ! ,dani% isl&s z x spread into ,jutl& & ,s*leswig-,hol/e94 ,! c\rse ( ?is second ice-%eet is indicat$ by ! direction ( transport ( erratics1 etc41 & by ! tr5d ( rock-/ri & ro*es m\tonnes1 z well z by ! position ( its t]m9al & lat]al mora9es4 ,,cc ,n q s f> s\?4 ,!re is no reason to believe t ! ice-%eet ( ! s-call$ ,great ,baltic ,glaci] advanc$ beyond ! ,baltic ridge4 ,! upp] b\ld]-clay s\? ( t ridge is ! gr\nd-mora9e ( an e>li] glaciation--! equival5t ( our upp] b\ld]-clay4 ,see note1 page #cbd4 ,nov4 #a1 #ahib4 ,su*1 !n1 is ! glacial succession :i* has be5 e/abli%$ by geologi/s 9 ,sc&9avia1 nor? ,g]many1 & ,f9l&4 ,! occurr5ce ( two glacial epo*s1 sep>at$ by a long int]val ( temp]ate conditions1 has be5 prov$4 ,! evid5ce1 h[ev]1 does n %[ t !re may n h be5 m ?an two glacial epo*s4 ,!re are c]ta9 ph5om5a1 inde$1 connect$ ) ! glacial accumulations ( ! regions 9 "q :i* /rongly sugge/ t ! succession ( *anges 0 m complex ?an is g5]ally und]/ood4 ,sev]al ye>s ago ,dr4 ,a4 ,g4 ,na?or/ adduc$ evid5ce to %[ t a great ,baltic glaci]1 simil> to t und]nea? :i* ! upp] diluvium 0 amass$1 exi/$ be=e ! adv5t ( ! va/ m] de glace ( ! s-call$ fir/ glacial epo*1,,cd & 8 obs]vations h be5 confirm$ & ext5d$ by ,h4 ,lundbohm4,,ce ,! facts set =? by !m prove beyond d\bt t ?is e>ly ,baltic glaci] smoo!d & glaciat$ ! rocks 9 s\!rn ,sw$5 9 a direction f s\?-ea/ to nor?-we/1 & accumulat$ a bottom-mora9e ^: includ$ erratics are equally cog5t evid5ce z to ! tr5d ( glaciation4 ,t old mora9e is ov]laid by ! l[] diluvium--i4e41 ! b\ld]-clay1 etc41 ( ! succe$+ va/ m] de glace t fl[$ s\? to ! foot ( ! ,h>z--! transport ( ! /ones 9 ! sup]jac5t clay indicat+ a movem5t f ,,nne4 to ,,ssw41 or ne>ly at "r angles to ! tr5d ( ! e>li] ,baltic glaci]4 ,x is difficult to avoid ! conclusion t we h "h to d ) ! products ( two di/9ct ice-epo*s4 ,b hi!rto no int]glacial deposits h be5 detect$ betwe5 ! b\ld]-clays 9 "q4 ,x might1 !re=e1 be held t ! e>ly ,baltic glaci] 0 sep>at$ by no long int]val ( "t f ! succe$+ great m] de glace1 b may h be5 m]ely a /age 9 ! developm5t ( ! latt]4 ,x is at all ev5ts conceivable t be=e ! great m] de glace atta9$ its maximum ext5sion1 x might h exi/$ = a "t z a l>ge ,baltic glaci]4 ,i w\ld po9t out1 h[ev]1 t if no int]glacial b$s _h be5 recognis$ betwe5 ! l[] & ! upp] diluvium1 geologi/s w\ld probably h consid]$ t ! la/ great ,baltic glaci] 0 simply ! att5uat$ successor ( ! prec$+ cont95tal m] de glace4 ,b we "k ?is 0 n s2 ! two 7 actually sep>at$ by a long epo* ( g5ial temp]ate conditions4 ,,cd ,beskrifn+4 till geol4 ,k>tbl4 ,trolleholm3 ,sv]iges ,geologiska ,und]skn+1 ,s]4 ,aa41 ,nr4 #hg4 ,,ce ,om de ldre baltiska is/rmm5 i sdra ,sv]ige3 ,geolog4 ,fr5+4 i ,/ockholm ,frh&l41 ,bd4 x41 p4 #aeg4 ,!re are c]ta9 o!r facts t may lead u to d\bt :e!r 9 ! glacial ph5om5a ( ! ,baltic coa/-l&s we h n ! evid5ce ( m ?an two glacial epo*s4 ,?ree1 & ev5 f\r1 b\ld]-clays h be5 obs]v$ 9 ea/ & we/ ,prussia4 ,!y are sep>at$1 ! "o f ! o!r1 by ext5sive aque\s deposits1 :i* are sometimes fossilif]\s4 ,moreov]1 ! b\ld]-clays 9 "q h be5 foll[$ cont9u\sly ov] consid]able areas4 ,x is q possible1 ( c\rse1 t all ^? b\ld]-clays may be ! product ( "o epo*1 laid d[n dur+ m or less consid]able oscillations ( an ice-%eet4 ,9 ?is view ( ! case ! int]calat$ aque\s deposits w\ld indicate tempor>y retreats1 :ile ! b\ld]-clays w\ld repres5t successive re-advances ( "o & ! same m] de glace4 ,on ! o!r h&1 x is equally possible1 if n m probable1 t ! b\ld]-clays & int]calat$ b$s are evid5ce ( s _m sep>ate glacial & int]glacial epo*s4 ,we _c yet say :i* is ! true explanation ( ! facts4 ,b ^! be+ z !y are1 we may d\bt if ,g]man glaciali/s are ju/ifi$ 9 s confid5tly ma9ta9+ t _! l[] & upp] diluvial accumulations are ! products ( ! fir/ & second glacial epo*s4 ,inde$1 z ,i %all %[ pres5tly1 ! upp] diluvium ( nor? ,g]many & ,f9l& _c repres5t ! second glacial epo* ( o!r p>ts ( ,europe4 ,= a long "t x has be5 suppos$ t ! glacial deposits ( ! c5tral regions ( ,russia 7 accumulat$ dur+ ! advance & retreat ( "o & ! same ice-%eet4 ,9 #ahhh1 h[ev]1 ,pr(essor ,pavl[ br\ght =w>d evid5ce to %[ t ! prov9ce ( ,nijnii ,novgorod _h be5 twice invad$ by a g5]al m] de glace4 ,dur+ ! fir/ epo* ( glaciation ! ice-%eet ov]fl[$ ! :ole prov9ce1 :ile only ! nor!rn half ( ! same region 0 cov]$ by ! m] de glace ( ! second invasion4 ,aga91 ,pr(essor ,arma*evsky has po9t$ out t 9 ! prov9ce ( ,t*]nig[ two types ( glacial deposits appe>1 s unlike 9 "* & s diff]5tly di/ribut$ t !y c h>dly be ! products ( "o & ! same ice-%eet4 ,b until rec5tly no int]glacial deposits _h be5 detect$1 & ! obs]vations j ref]r$ to fail$1 !re=e1 to make mu* impression4 ,! miss+ l9k 9 ! mat]ial evid5ce has n[ happily be5 suppli$ by ,m4 ,kris*taf[its*4,,cf ,at ,trozkoje1 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ,mosc[1 occur c]ta9 lacu/r9e =mations :i* h be5 long kn[n to ,russian geologi/s4 ,^! h be5 v>i\sly assign$ to ,t]ti>y1 l[] glacial1 po/-glacial1 & pre-glacial horizons4 ,!y are n[ prov$1 h[ev]1 to be ( int]glacial age1 = !y re/ ^u & are cov]$ by glacial accumulations4 ,among/ _! organic rema9s are oak 7,qu]cus p$unculata71 ald] 7,alnus glut9osa1 ,a4 incana71 :ite bir*1 hazel1 ,norway maple 7,ac] platanoides71 ,scots fir1 will[1 wat]-lilies 7,nuph>1 ,nympha71 mammo?1 pike1 p]*1 ,anadonta1 w+-cases ( beetles1 etc4 ,! "* ( ! plants %[s t ! climate ( c5tral ,russia 0 mild] & m humid ?an x is to-day4 ,,cf ,bull4 de la ,soc4 ,impr4 des ,naturali/es de ,moskau1 ,no4 #d1 #ahij4 ,x is obvi\s t ! upp] & l[] glacial deposits ( c5tral ,russia _c be ! equival5ts ( ! upp] & l[] diluvium ( ! ,baltic coa/-l&s4 ,! upp] diluvium ( ^? regions is ! bottom-mora9e ( ! s-call$ great ,baltic glaci]4 ,at ! "t t glaci] invad$ nor? ,g]many1 ,f9l& 0 likewise cov]$ ) an ice-%eet1 :i* fl[$ t[>ds ! s\?-ea/1 b did n advance q s f> z ! nor!rn %ores ( ,lake ,ladoga4 ,a d\ble l9e ( t]m9al mora9es1 trac$ f ,hango ,head on ! ,gulf ( ,f9l&1 nor?-ea/ to beyond ,jo5suu1 puts ?is beyond d\bt4,,cg ,! mora9ic deposits t ov]lie ! int]glacial b$s ( c5tral ,russia _c1 !re=e1 belong to ! epo* ( ! great ,baltic glaci]4 ,!y are necess>ily old]4 ,9 %ort1 x is obvi\s t ! upp] & l[] glacial accumulations ne> ,mosc[ mu/ be on ! horizon ( ! l[] diluvium ( nor? ,g]many4 ,& if ?is be s1 !n x is cle> t ! latt] _c be entirely ! product ( "o & ! same m] de glace4 ,:5 ! sev]al b\ld]-clays describ$ by ,s*rd] & o!rs z occurr+ 9 ! ,baltic prov9ces ( ,g]many are re9ve/igat$1 !y may prove to be ! bottom-mora9es ( z _m di/9ct & sep>ate glacial epo*s4 ,,cg ,s$]holm1 ,f5nia1 i41 ,no4 #g2 ,fro/]us1 ibid41 iii41 ,no4 #h2 ,ramsay1 ibid41 iv41 ,no4 #b4 ,x may be cont5d$ t ! glacial & int]glacial deposits ( c5tral ,russia are p]haps only local developm5ts--t _! evid5ce may be acc\nt$ = by ! oscillations ( "o s+le m] de glace4 ,?is explanation1 z already po9t$ out1 has be5 appli$ to ! b\ld]-clays & int]calat$ aque\s b$s ( ! l[] diluvium ( nor? ,g]many1 & ! preval5t "* ( ! associat$ organic rema9s makes x appe> plausible4 ,x is q inapplicable1 h[ev]1 to ! simil> accumulations 9 c5tral ,russia4 ,dur+ ! =mation ( ! fre%wat] b$s ( ,trozkoje1 no "p ( ,russia c\ld h be5 occupi$ by an ice-%eet2 ! climate 0 m g5ial & less cont95tal ?an ! pres5t4 ,yet t mild int]glacial epo* 0 prec$$ & succe$$ by extremely arctic conditions4 ,x is impossible t su* excessive *anges c\ld h be5 conf9$ to c5tral ,russia4 ,g]many1 & inde$ all nor!rn & nor?-we/]n ,europe1 mu/ h p>ticipat$ 9 ! climatic revolutions4 ,s f>1 !n1 z ! evid5ce has be5 consid]$1 we may conclude t ?ree glacial & two int]glacial epo*s at lea/ h be5 e/abli%$ = nor!rn ,europe4 ,if ?is be ! case1 !n a simil> succession ought to occur 9 our own isl&s2 & a little consid]ation ( ! evid5ce already adduc$ w suffice to %[ t x does4 ,x w be rememb]$ t ! l[] & upp] b\ld]-clays ( ! ,briti% ,isl&s are ! bottom-mora9es ( two sep>ate & di/9ct ice-%eets1 ea* ( :i* 9 its "t coalesc$ on ! floor ( ! ,nor? ,sea ) ! inl&-ice ( ,sc&9avia4 ,x is obvi\s1 !re=e1 t our upp] b\ld]-clay _c be ! equival5t ( ! upp] diluvium ( ! ,baltic coa/-l&s1 ( ,sw$51 ,d5m>k1 & ,s*leswig-,hol/e94 ,de ,ge] & o!rs h %[n t :ile ! great ,baltic glaci] 0 accumulat+ ! upp] diluvium ( ,nor? ,g]many1 etc41 ! inl&-ice ( ,norway calv$ its iceb]gs at ! m\?s ( ! great fiords4 ,?us1 dur+ ! s-call$ second glacial epo* ( ,sc&9avian & ,g]man geologi/s1 ! ,norwegian inl&-ice did n coalesce ) any ,briti% m] de glace4 ,! true equival5t 9 ?is c\ntry ( ! upp] diluvium is n our upp] b\ld]-clay1 b ! great valley-mora9es ( our m\nta9-regions4 ,x is our epo* ( l>ge valley-glaci]s :i* corresponds to t ( ! great ,baltic ice-fl[4 ,our upp] & l[] b\ld]-clays are on ! horizon ( ! l[] diluvium ( ,g]many & ! glacial deposits ( c5tral ,russia4 ,x w n[ be se5 t ! evid5ce 9 ,brita9 is fully borne out by :at is kn[n ( ! glacial succession 9 ! correspond+ latitudes ( ! ,cont95t4 ,i _h inf]r$ t our epo* ( l>ge valley-glaci]s =m$ a di/9ct /age by itself1 & 0 probably sep>at$ f t ( ! prec$+ ice-%eet by a prolong$ int]val ( int]glacial conditions4 ,"o l9k 9 ! *a9 ( evid5ce1 h[ev]1 0 want+3 ,i c\ld n po9t to ! occurr5ce ( int]glacial deposits und]nea? ! great valley-mora9es4 ,b ^!1 z we h se51 =m a well-m>k$ horizon on ! ,cont95t1 & we _c d\bt t a simil> int]glacial /age obta9$ 9 ^! isl&s4 ,we may feel confid5t1 9 fact1 t g5ial climatic conditions sup]v5$ on ! dissolution ( ! la/ great m] de glace 9 ,brita91 & t ! subsequ5t developm5t ( ext5sive sn[-fields & glaci]s 9 our m\nta9-regions 0 contemporane\s ) ! appe>ance ( ! la/ great ,baltic glaci]4 ,we ne$ n be surpris$ t int]glacial b$s %\ld be well develop$ und]nea? ! bottom-mora9e ( t great glaci]1 :ile !y h n yet be5 recognis$ bel[ ! correspond+ mora9ic accumulations ( our ,highl&s & ,upl&s4 ,! conditions 9 ! l[-gr\nds ( ! ,baltic coa/-l&s fav\r$ _! pres]vation1 = ! ice 9 ^? regions =m$ a broad m] de glace1 "u ! p]iph]al areas ( :i* sub-glacial erosion 0 necess>ily at a m9imum & ! accumulation at a maximum4 ,9 our ,scotti% m\nta9-valleys1 h[ev]1 ! v opposite 0 ! case4 ,! conditions obta9+ !re 7 n at all comp>able to ^? t *>act]is$ ! l[-gr\nds ( nor!rn ,g]many1 etc41 b 7 q analog\s to ^? ( ,norway1 :]e1 z 9 our own m\nta9-regions1 int]glacial b$s are simil>ly want+4 ,x is q possible1 h[ev]1 t pat*es ( su* deposits may yet be met ) und]nea? our y\ng] mora9es1 & !y ought c]ta9ly to be look$ =4 ,b :e!r !y occur or n 9 our m\nta9-valleys1 x is c]ta9 t "s ( ! old] alluvia ( our ,l[l&s mu/ belong to ?is horizon4 ,hi!rto all alluvial b$s t ov]lie our upp] b\ld]-clay h be5 classifi$ z po/-glacial2 b s9ce we h asc]ta9$ t our late/ m] de glace 0 succe$$ by g5ial int]glacial conditions1 we may be sure t records ( t temp]ate epo* w yet be recognis$ 9 su* ,l[l& tracts z 7 nev] rea*$ by ! glaci]s ( ! succe$+ cold epo*4 ,h5ce1 ,i believe t "s ( our s-call$ po/-glacial alluvia w ev5tually be assign$ to an int]glacial horizon4 ,among/ ^! may be cit$ ! old peat & fre%wat] b$s t re/ ^u ! upp] b\ld]-clay at ,hailes ,qu>ry1 ne> ,ed9burgh4 ,to ! same horizon1 9 all probability1 belong ! clays1 ) ,megac]os1 etc41 :i* occur s frequ5tly und]nea? ! peat-bogs ( ,irel&4 ,an int]e/+ acc\nt ( ^! 0 giv5 "s ye>s ago by ,mr4 ,williams1,,* :o1 z a collector ( ,megac]os rema9s1 _h ! be/ opportunity ( asc]ta9+ ! nature ( ! deposits 9 :i* ^! occur4 ,he gives a section ( ,ballybetagh ,bog1 n9e miles s\?-ea/ ( ,dubl91 :i* is z foll[s3-- #a4 ,b\ld]-clay4 #b4 ,f9e t5aci\s clay1 )\t /ones4 #c4 ,yell[i% clay1 l>gely compos$ ( vegetable matt]4 #d4 ,br[ni% clay1 ) rema9s ( ,megac]os4 #e4 ,greyi% clay4 #f4 ,peat4 ,,* ,geol4 ,mag41 #ahha1 p4 #ced4 ,! b$s ov]ly+ ! b\ld]-clay are evid5tly ( lacu/r9e orig94 ,! f9e clay 7,no4 #b71 accord+ to ,mr4 ,williams1 is simply recon/ruct$ b\ld]-clay4 ,aft] ! disappe>ance ( ! m] de glace ! l& w\ld = "s "t be practically de/itute ( any vegetable cov]+1 & ra9 w\ld ?us be enabl$ to wa% d[n ! f9] +r$i5ts ( ! b\ld]-clay t cov]$ ! adjac5t slopes1 & sweep !m into ! lake4 ,! clay =m$ 9 ?is way is describ$ z atta9+ a consid]able ?ickness ne> ! c5tre ( ! old lake1 b x ?9s (f t[>ds ! sides4 ,! succe$+ b$ 7,no4 #c7 consi/s s l>gely ( vegetable dbris t x c h>dly be call$ a clay4 ,mr4 ,williams describes x z a b$ ( pure vegetable rema9s t has be5 ages "u pressure4 ,he notes t !re is a total abs5ce 9 ?is b$ ( any t5aci\s clay l t ( ! und]ly+ /ratum1 & inf]s1 !re=e1 t ! ra9fall dur+ ! gr[? ( ! lacu/r9e vegetation 0 n s great z :5 ! subjac5t clay 0 be+ accumulat$4 ,! rema9s ( ,megac]os occur re/+ on ! surface ( ! plant-b$ & at v>i\s levels 9 ! ov]ly+ br[ni% clay1 :i* atta9s a ?ickness ( ?ree to f\r feet4 ,! latt] is a true lacu/r9e s$im5t1 conta9+ a consid]able proportion ( vegetable matt]1 int]/ratifi$ ) seams ( clay & f9e qu>tz-s&4 ,accord+ to ,mr4 ,williams1 x 0 accumulat$ "u g5ial or temp]ate climatic conditions l ! pres5t4 ,betwe5 ?is b$ & ! ov]ly+ greyi% clay 7f #cj in*es to #c feet ?ick7 !re is always 9 all ! bog deposits exam9$ by ,mr4 ,williams a /rongly-m>k$ l9e ( sep>ation4 ,! greyi% clay consi/s exclusively ( m9]al matt]1 & has evid5tly be5 d]iv$ f ! dis9tegration ( ! adjac5t granitic hills4 ,mr4 ,williams is ( op9ion t ?is clay is ( aqueo-glacial =mation4 ,?is he inf]s f its nature & texture1 & f its abundance4 ,:y1 he asks1 did n ?is m9]al matt] come d[n 9 l quantity all ! "t ( ! deposit ( ! br[n clay :i* und]lies x8 ,simply because1 dur+ ! g5ial conditions :i* !n exi/$1 ! hills 7 ev]y:]e cov]$ ) vegetation2 :5 ! ra9 fell x soak$ into ! soil1 & ! clay be+ b\nd toge!r by ! roots ( ! grasses1 0 n wa%$ d[n1 j z at ! pres5t "t1 :5 !re is h>dly any degradation ( ^! hills tak+ place4 ,he m5tions1 fur!r1 t 9 ! grey clay he obta9$ ! antl] ( a re9de]1 & t 9 "o case ! antl]s ( a ,megac]os1 f\nd emb$d$ 9 ! upp] surface ( ! br[n clay1 imm$iately "u ! grey clay1 7 scor$ l a /riat$ b\ld]1 :ile ! "u side %[$ no m>k+s4 ,mr4 ,williams also emphasises ! fact t ! antl]s ( ,megac]os frequ5tly occur 9 a brok5 /ate--^? ne> ! surface ( ! br[n clay be+ mo/ brok51 :ile ^? at great] dep?s are mu* less s4 ,he %[s t ?is c\ld n be ! result ( tumultu\s riv]-action--! elevation ( ! valley preclud+ ! possibility ( its receiv+ a riv] capable ( produc+ su* effects4 ,moreov]1 ! rema9s %[ no trace ( hav+ be5 wat]-worn1 ! edges ( ! tee? ( ! great de] be+ z %>p z if ! animal _h di$ b ye/]day4 ,mr4 ,williams ?9ks t ! brok5 /ate ( ! antl]s is due to ! pressure ( great masses ( ice on ! surface ( ! clay 9 :i* !y 7 emb$d$1 ! wide expanse ( ! palms ( ! antl]s expos+ !m to pressure & liability to breakage2 & ev51 9 _m in/ances1 :5 !re 0 #ab or #ad in*es 9 circumf]5ce ( solid bone almo/ z h>d & s\nd z ivory1 x 0 snapp$ across4 ,x is rem>kable t 9 ?is "o small bog ne>ly "o hundr$ heads ( ,megac]os h be5 dug up4 ,mr4 ,williams' obs]vations %[ u t ! ,megac]os-b$s are c]ta9ly old] ?an ! peat-bogs ) _! buri$ timb]4 ,:5 he fir/ in=m$ me ( ! result ( 8 rese>*es 7#ahhj71 ,i did n believe ! ,megac]os-b$s c\ld be old] ?an ! late/ cold phase ( ! ,ice ,age4 ,i ?\ght t !y 7 lat] 9 date ?an our la/ g5]al m] de glace1 & ,i ?9k s /ill1 = !y obvi\sly re/ ^u its gr\nd-mora9e4 ,b s9ce ,i n[ recognise t our upp] b\ld]-clay is n ! product ( ! la/ glacial epo*1 x seems to me highly probable t ! ,megac]os-b$s are ( int]glacial age--t1 9 %ort1 !y occupy ! horizon ( ! int]glacial deposits ( nor? ,g]many1 etc4 ,! appe>ances describ$ by ,mr4 ,williams 9 connection ) ! grey clay seem /rongly sugge/ive ( ice-action4 ,ballybetagh ,bog occurs at an elevation ( #hjj feet above ! sea1 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ! ,?ree ,rock ,m\nta9 7#adgi feet71 & dur+ ! epo* ( great valley-glaci]s ! climatic conditions ( t region mu/ h be5 sev]e4 ,b )\t hav+ visit$ ! locality 9 "q ,i %\ld hesitate to say t ! ph5om5a necess>ily po9t to local glaciation4 ,probably fro/1 lake-ice1 & ?ick accumulations ( sn[ & nv might suffice to acc\nt = ! v>i\s facts cit$ by ,mr4 ,williams4 ,i h call$ special att5tion to ^! ,iri% lacu/r9e b$s1 because x is highly probable t ! po/-glacial age ( simil> alluvia occurr+ 9 _m o!r places 9 ^! isl&s has hi!rto be5 assum$ & n prov$4 ,n[ t we "k1 h[ev]1 t a long int]glacial /age succe$$ ! disappe>ance ( ! la/ g5]al m] de glace1 we may feel sure t ! old] alluvia ( our ,l[l& di/ricts _c belong exclusively to po/-glacial times4 ,! local ice-%eets & great glaci]s ( our ?ird glacial epo* 7 conf9$ to our m\nta9-regions2 & 9 ! ,l[l&s1 !re=e1 :i* 7 n invad$1 we ought to h ! lacu/r9e & fluviatile accumulations ( ! prec$+ int]glacial /age4 ,a fre% int]e/ n[ atta*es to our old] alluvia1 :i* mu/ be c>efully re-exam9$ 9 ! new light ?us ?r[n ^u !m4 ,turn+ next to ! ,alp9e ,l&s ( c5tral ,europe1 we f9d t geologi/s !re h = _m ye>s recognis$ two glacial epo*s4 ,h5ce1 l _! confrres 9 nor!rn ,europe1 !y speak ( fir/ & second glacial epo*s4,,ci ,)9 rec5t ye>s1 h[ev]1 ,pr(essor ,p5ck has %[n t ! ,alps h exp]i5c$ at lea/ ?ree sep>ate p]iods ( glaciation4 ,he describes ?ree di/9ct gr\nd-mora9es1 ) associat$ riv]-t]races & int]glacial deposits 9 ! valleys ( ! ,bav>ian ,alps1 & 8 obs]vations h be5 confirm$ by ,pr(essor ,brckn] & ,dr4 ,bhm4,,cj ,! same glaciali/s1 ,i und]/&1 h ne>ly complet$ an elaborate survey ( ! ea/]n ,alps1 ( :i* !y int5d %ortly to publi% an ext5d$ acc\nt4 ,! results obta9$ by !m are v int]e/+1 & fully be> out ! conclusions already arriv$ at f _! exploration ( ! ,bav>ian ,alps4,,ck ,a simil> succession ( glacial epo*s has q rec5tly be5 det]m9$ by ,dr4 ,du ,pasqui] 9 nor? ,switz]l&4,,cl ,nor is ?is k9d ( evid5ce conf9$ to ! nor? side ( ! ,alps4 ,on ! %ores ( ,lake ,g>da1 betwe5 ,sal & ,brescia1 ?ree gr\nd-mora9es1 sep>at$ by int]glacial accumulations1 are se5 9 section4 ,! int]glacial deposits consi/ *iefly ( loams--! result ( sub-arial wea!r+--& atta9 a consid]able ?ickness4 ,f ?is ,p5ck inf]s t ! "t :i* has elaps$ s9ce ! late/ glaciation is less ?an t requir$ = ! accumulation ( ei!r ( ! two int]glacial s]ies--a conclusion :i*1 he says1 is borne out by simil> obs]vations 9 o!r p>ts ( ! ,alp9e region4,,cm ,,ci ,morlot3 ,bullet9 de la ,soc4 ,vaud4 d4 ,sci5ces nat41 #ahed1 #aheh1 #ahfj4 ,deicke3 ,b]i*t4 d4 ,/4 ,gall4 naturf4 ges41 #aheh4 ,he]3 ,urwelt d] ,s*weiz4 ,mhlb]g3 ,fe/s*rift d4 a>g4 naturf4 ,ges4 z4 ,fei] ihr] #ejj ,sitz41 #ahfi4 ,ro?pletz3 ,d5ks*r4 d4 s*weiz]4 ,ges4 f4 d4 ges4 ,naturwiss5s*41 ,bd4 xxviii41 #ahha4 ,wett/e93 ,geologie v4 ,zuri* u4 ,umgebung1 #ahhe4 ,baltz]3 ,mitteil4 d4 naturf4 ,ges4 ,b]n1 #ahhg4 ,r5evi]3 ,bull4 de la ,soc4 helvt4 d4 ,sci5ces nat41 #ahhg4 ,,cj ,p5ck3 ,die ,v]glets*]ung d4 deuts*5 ,alp51 #ahhb4 ,brckn]3 ,die ,v]glets*]ung des ,salza*gebietes1 ,geogr4 ,abh&l4 ,wi51 ,bd4 i4 ,bhm3 ,jahrb4 d] k4 k4 geol4 ,rei*san/41 #ahhd1 #ahhe4 ,see also ,o4 ,fraas1 ,neues ,jahrb4 f4 ,m94 ,geol4 u4 ,palont41 #ahhj1 ,bd4 i4 p4 #bah2 ,e4 ,fugg] & ,c4 ,ka/n]1 ,v]h&l4 d4 k4 k4 geol4 ,rei*san/41 #ahhc1 p4 #acf4 ,,ck ,mit!il4 des deuts*4 u4 oe/]rei*4 ,alp5v]e9s1 #ahij1 ,no4 #bj u4 #bc4 ,,cl ,beitrge z4 geolog4 ,k>te d] ,s*weiz1 #ca ,lief41 #ahia2 ,ar*iv4 d4 ,sci5ces phys4 et nat41 #ahia1 p4 #dd4 ,,cm ,die grosse ,eiszeit1 ,himmel u4 ,erde4 ,al?\gh ! occurr5ce ( su* sub-erial products int]calat$ betwe5 sep>ate mora9ic accumulations is evid5ce ( climatic *anges1 /ill x does n tell u h[ f> ! glaci]s retreat$ dur+ an int]glacial /age4 ,=tunately1 h[ev]1 lignite b$s & o!r deposits *>g$ ) plant rema9s are met ) occupy+ a simil> position1 & f ^! we ga!r t dur+ int]glacial times ! glaci]s sometimes retir$ to ! v heads ( ! m\nta9-valleys1 & mu/ h be5 small] ?an _! pres5t repres5tatives4 ,( su* int]glacial plant-b$s1 :i* h be5 met ) 9 "s tw5ty localities1 ! mo/ int]e/+1 p]haps1 is ! breccia ( ,htt+1 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ,innsbruck4,,cn ,?is breccia re/s ^u old mora9ic accumulations1 & is aga9 ov]laid by ! lat] mora9es ( ! great ,inn glaci]4 ,f ! fact t ! breccia yield$ a numb] ( suppos$ ext9ct species ( plants1 palontologi/s 7 incl9$ to assign x to ! ,plioc5e4 ,pr(essor ,p5ck1 h[ev]1 pref]s to include x 9 ! ,plei/oc5e sy/em1 along ) all ! glacial & int]glacial deposits ( ! ,alp9e ,l&s4 ,accord+ to ,dr4 von ,wett/e91 ! flora 9 "q is n ,alp9e b ,pontic4 ,at ! "t ( ! =mation ( ! breccia ! l>ge-leav$ ,rhodod5dron ponticum fl\ri%$ 9 ! ,inn ,valley at a height ( #abjj metres above ! sea2 ! :ole "* ( ! flora1 9 %ort1 indicates a w>m] climate ?an is n[ exp]i5c$ 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ,innsbruck4 ,x is obvi\s1 !re=e1 t 9 int]glacial times ! glaci]s mu/ h %runk back1 z ,pr(essor ,p5ck rem>ks1 to ! highe/ ridges ( ! m\nta9s4 ,,cn ,p5ck3 ,die ,v]glets*]ung d] deuts*5 ,alp51 p4 #bbh4 ,v]h&l4 d4 k4 k4 geol4 ,rei*san/41 #ahhg1 ,no4 #e2 ,himmel und ,erde1 #ahia4 ,bhm3 ,jahrb4 d4 k4 k4 geol4 ,rei*san/41 #ahhd1 p4 #adg4 ,blaas3 ,f]d9&eums ,zeits*r41 iv4 ,folge2 ,b]i*t4 d4 naturwiss5s*4 ,v]e9s1 #ahhi1 p4 #ig4 ,we may n[ glance at ! glacial succession :i* has be5 e/abli%$ = c5tral ,france4 ,m ?an tw5ty ye>s ago ,dr4 ,juli5 br\ght =w>d evid5ce to %[ t ! region ( ! ,puy de ,dme _h witness$ two glacial epo*s4,,co ,dur+ ! fir/ ( ^! epo*s a l>ge glaci] fl[$ f ,mont ,dore4 ,aft] its retreat a prolong$ int]glacial epo* foll[$1 dur+ :i* ! old mora9ic deposits & ! rocks !y re/ ^u 7 mu* erod$4 ,9 ! valleys & holl[s ?us excavat$ fre%wat] b$s occur :i* h yield$ relics ( an abundant flora1 toge!r ) ! rema9s ( ,elephas m]idionalis1 ,rh9oc]os leptorh9us1 etc4 ,aft] ! deposition ( ^! fre%wat] alluvia1 glaci]s aga9 desc5d$ ! valleys & cov]$ ! int]glacial b$s ) _! mora9es4 ,simil> results h be5 obta9$ by ,m4 ,rames f a /udy ( ! glacial ph5om5on ( ,cantal1 :i* he %[s belong to two sep>ate epo*s4,,cp ,! int]val betwe5 ! =mation ( ! two s]ies ( glacial accumulations mu/ h be5 prolong$1 = ! valleys dur+ t int]val 7 9 "s places erod$ to a dep? ( #ijj feet4 ,m4 ,rames fur!r recognises t ! second glacial epo* 0 di/+ui%$ by two advances ( valley-glaci]s1 sep>at$ by a m>k$ episode ( fusion4 ,dr4 ,juli5 has likewise not$ ! evid5ce = two episodes ( fusion dur+ ! fir/ ext5sion ( ! glaci]s ( ! ,puy de ,dme4 ,,co ,des ,phnomnes glaciaires dans le ,plateau c5tral de la ,france1 c42 ,p>is1 #ahfi4 ,,cp ,bull4 ,soc4 gol4 de ,france1 #ahhd2 see also ,m4 ,b\le1 ,bull4 de la ,soc4 philoma?4 de ,p>is1 #h;e sr4 i41 p4 #hg4 ,two glacial epo*s h simil>ly be5 admitt$ = ! ,pyr5ees2,,cq b ,dr4 ,p5ck "s ye>s ago br\ght =w>d evid5ce to %[ t ^! m\nta9s1 l ! ,alps1 h exp]i5c$ ?ree sep>ate & di/9ct p]iods ( glaciation4,,cr ,,cq ,g>rig\3 ,bull4 ,soc4 gol4 de ,france1 #b;e sr4 xxiv41 p4 #egg4 ,jeanb]nat3 ,bull4 de ,soc4 d',hi/4 nat4 de ,t\l\se1 iv41 pp4 #aad1 #ach4 ,piette3 ,bull4 ,soc4 gol4 de ,france1 #c;e sr4 ii41 pp4 #ejc1 #ejg4 ,,cr ,mitteilung5 d4 ,v]e9s f4 ,erdkunde zu ,leipzig1 #ahhc4 ,we may n[ return to ,scotl&1 & consid] briefly ! *anges t foll[$ ^u ! disappe>ance ( ! local ice-%eets & l>ge valley-glaci]s ( our m\nta9-regions4 ,! evid5ce is =tunately cle> & complete4 ,9 ! valley ( ! ,tay1 = example1 at & bel[ ,p]?1 we enc\nt] ! foll[+ succession ( deposits3-- #f4 ,rec5t alluvia4 #e4 ,c>se-deposits1 #de feet above sea-level4 #d4 ,peat & =e/ b$4 #c4 ,old alluvia4 #b4 ,clays1 etc41 ( #ajj-;feet bea*4 #a4 ,b\ld]-clay4 ,! old alluvia 7#c7 are obvi\sly ( fluviatile orig91 & %[ u t aft] ! deposition ( ! clays1 etc41 ( ! #ajj-;feet bea* ! sea retreat$1 & all[$ ! ,tay & its tribut>ies to pl\gh _! way d[n ?r\gh ! m>9e & e/u>9e deposits ( ! ?ird glacial epo*4 ,^! deposits w\ld appe> to h ext5d$ at fir/ z a broad & approximately level pla9 ov] all ! l[] rea*es ( ! valleys4 ,?r\gh ?is pla9 ! ,tay & ! ,e>n cut _! way to a dep? ( m ?an #ajj feet1 & gradually remov$ all ! mat]ial ov] a c\rse :i* c h>dly be less ?an #b miles 9 bread? bel[ ! ,bridge ( ,e>n1 & consid]ably exce$s t 9 ! ,c>se ( ,g[rie4 ,no organic rema9s occur 9 ! old alluvia1 b ! deposits consi/ pr9cipally ( gravel & s&1 & %[ n a trace ( ice-action4 ,imm$iately ov]ly+ !m comes ! well-kn[n peat-b$ 7#d74 ,?is is a mass ( vegetable matt]1 v>y+ 9 ?ickness f a few in*es up to #c or #d feet4 ,9 "s places x seems to be made up *iefly ( re$-l plants & s$ges & occasional mosses1 comm+l$ ) :i* are abundant fragm5ts ( bir*1 ald]1 will[1 hazel1 & p9e4 ,9 o!r places x conta9s trunks & /ools ( oak & hazel1 ) hazel-nuts--! trees be+ root$ 9 ! subjac5t deposits4 ,x is g5]ally highly compress$ & readily splits into lam91 ^u ! surface ( :i* _m small re$s1 & n[ & aga9 w+-cases ( beetles1 may be detect$4 ,a l>ge proportion ( ! woody dbris--twigs1 bran*es1 & trunks--appe>s to h be5 drift$4 ,a dug-out canoe ( p9e 0 f\nd1 along ) trunks ( ! same tree1 9 ! peat at ,p]?4 ,! ,c>se-deposits 7#e71 consi/+ pr9cipally ( clay & silt1 re/ ^u ! peat-b$4 ,! occurr5ce 9 ^! deposits ( ,scrobicul>ia pip]ata & oy/]-%ells leaves u 9 no d\bt z to _! m>9e orig94 ,!y v>y 9 ?ickness f #aj up to fully #dj feet4,,cs ,,cs ,= a p>ticul> acc\nt ( ! ,tay-valley ,succession1 see ,prehi/oric ,europe1 p4 #che4 ,a simil> succession ( deposits is met ) 9 ! valley ( ! ,=?1,,ct & we _c d\bt t ^! tell precisely ! same tale4 ,i h else:]e,,cu adduc$ evid5ce to %[ t ! peat-b$1 ) drift$ vegetable dbris1 :i* und]lies ! ,c>se accumulations ( ! ,=? & ,tay is on ! same horizon z ! l[] buri$ =e/ ( our olde/ peat-bogs1 & ! simil> bogs t occur 9 ,norway1 ,sw$51 ,d5m>k1 ,s*leswig-,hol/e91 ,holl&1 etc4 ,und]nea? ! l[] buri$ =e/ ( ^? regions occur n[ & aga9 fre%wat] clays1 *>g$ ) ! relics ( an arctic-alp9e flora2 & q rec5tly simil> plant rema9s h be5 detect$ 9 old alluvia at ,cor/orph9e1 ne> ,ed9burgh4 ,:5 ! b$s bel[ our old] peat-bogs are m c>efully exam9$1 traces ( t old arctic flora w d\btless be met ) 9 _m o!r p>ts ( ^! isl&s4 ,x 0 ?is flora t clo!d nor?-we/]n ,europe dur+ ! decay ( ! la/ di/rict ice-%eets ( ,brita9 & ! disappe>ance ( ! great ,baltic glaci]4 ,,ct ,proc4 ,roy4 ,soc4 ,ed94 #ahhc-hd1 p4 #gde2 ,mem4 ,geol4 ,survey1 ,scotl&1 ,explanation ( ,%eet #ca4 ,,cu ,prehi/oric ,europe1 *aps4 xvi41 xvii4 ,! dissolution ( ! l>ge valley-glaci]s ( ?is c\ntry 0 accompani$ by a g5]al retreat ( ! sea--all ! evid5ce lead+ to ! conviction t our isl&s ev5tually became unit$ to ! ,cont95t4 ,! climatic conditions1 z evid5c$ by ! flora ( ! l[] buri$ =e/1 7 decid$ly temp]ate--probably ev5 m g5ial ?an !y are n[1 = ! =e/s atta9$ at t "t a mu* great] horizontal & v]tical range4 ,?is epo* ( mild climate & cont95tal connection 0 ev5tually succe$$ by "o ( subm]g5ce1 accompani$ by cold] conditions4 ,brita9 0 aga9 insulat$--! sea-level 9 ,scotl& rea*+ a height ( #de-ej feet above pres5t high-wat]4 ,to ?is epo* p]ta9 ! ,c>se-clays ( ! ,=? & ,tay4 ,a few erratics occur 9 ^! deposits1 probably betok5+ ! action ( float+ ice1 b ! b$s m closely resemble ! mod]n alluvial silts ( our e/u>ies ?an ! t5aci\s clays ( ! #ajj-;feet t]race4 ,:5 ! ,c>se-clays are foll[$ inl&1 h[ev]1 !y pass into co>se riv]-gravel & %+le1 =m+ a well-m>k$ high-level alluvial t]race ( mu* ! same "* z ! yet high]-level fluviatile t]race :i* is associat$ 9 l mann] ) ! m>9e deposits ( ! #ajj-;feet bea*4 ,( contemporane\s age ) ! ,c>se-clays1 ) :i* inde$ !y are cont9u\s1 are ! rais$ bea*es at #de-ej feet4 ,^! bea*es occur at _m places along ! ,scotti% coa/s1 b !y are seldom se5 at ! heads ( our sea-lo*s4 ,:5 ! sea /ood at ?is level1 glaci]s ( consid]able size occupi$ _m ( our m\nta9-valleys4 ,9 ! we/ !y came d[n 9 places to ! sea-coa/1 & dropp$ _! t]m9al mora9es ^u ! bea*-deposits accumulat+ !re4 ,?us1 9 ,arran,,cv & 9 ,su!rl&1,,cw ^! mora9es are se5 repos+ on ! rais$ bea*es ( t epo*4 ,& ,i ?9k x is probable t ! abs5ce ( su* bea*es at ! heads ( _m ( ! sea-lo*s ( ! ,highl& area is to be expla9$ by ! pres5ce !re ( l>ge glaci]s1 :i* prev5t$ _! =mation4 ,,cv ,briti% ,association ,reports 7#ahed73 ,trans4 ( ,sections1 p4 #gh4 ,,cw ,l4 ,h9xman3 ,pap] read be=e ,ed94 ,geol4 ,soc41 ,april #ahib4 ,?us1 !re is cle> evid5ce to %[ t aft] ! g5ial epo* repres5t$ by ! l[] buri$ =e/1 a recrudesc5ce ( glacial conditions sup]v5$ 9 ,scotl&4 ,_m ( ! small mora9es t occur at ! heads ( our m\nta9-valleys1 bo? 9 ! ,highl&s & ,s\!rn ,upl&s1 belong 9 all probability to ?is epo*4 ,!y are *>act]is$ by _! v fre% & well-pres]v$ appe>ance4,,cx ,x is n at all likely t ^! lat] climatic *anges c\ld h be5 conf9$ to ,scotl&4 ,o!r regions mu/ h be5 simil>ly affect$4 ,b ! evid5ce w probably be h>d] to read ?an x is ) u4 ,_h x n be5 = ! exi/5ce ( our l[] buri$ =e/1 ) ! ov]ly+ ,c>se-deposits1 we c\ld h>dly h be5 able to di/+ui% s readily betwe5 ! mora9es ( our ?ird glacial epo* & ^? ( ! lat] epo* to :i* ,i n[ ref]4 ,! latt]1 we might h suppos$1 simply m>k$ a /age 9 ! f9al retreat ( ! antec$5t great valley-glaci]s4 ,,cx ,prehi/oric ,europe 7*aps4 xvi41 xvii47 gives a full] /atem5t ( ! evid5ce4 ,i h else:]e trac$ ! hi/ory ( ! succe$+ /ages ( ! ,plei/oc5e p]iod1 & adduc$ evid5ce ( simil>1 b less /rongly-m>k$1 climatic *anges hav+ foll[$ ^u ^? j ref]r$ to1 & my conclusions h be5 support$ by ! indep5d5t rese>*es ( ,pr(essor ,blytt 9 ,norway4 ,b ^! lat] *anges ne$ n be consid]$ "h4 ,x is suffici5t = my g5]al purpose to conf9e att5tion to ! well-prov$ conclusion t aft] ! decay ( ! la/ di/rict ice-%eets & great glaci]s ( our ?ird glacial epo* g5ial conditions obta9$1 & t ^! 7 foll[$ by cold & humid conditions1 dur+ ! preval5ce ( :i* glaci]s reappe>$ 9 _m m\nta9-valleys4 ,we h ?us1 z x seems to me1 cle> evid5ce 9 ,europe ( f\r glacial epo*s1 sep>at$ ! "o f ! o!r by protract$ int]vals ( g5ial temp]ate conditions4 ,s f>1 "o's conclusions are bas$ on data :i* _c be ga9said1 b !re are c]ta9 consid]ations :i* lead to ! suspicion t ! :ole ( ! complex tale has n yet be5 unravell$1 & t ! climatic *anges 7 ev5 m num]\s ?an ^? t ,i h indicat$4 ,let x be not$ t glacial conditions atta9$ _! maximum dur+ ! e>lie/ ( our recognis$ glacial epo*s4 ,) ea* recurr+ cold p]iod ! ice-%eets & glaci]s successively dim9i%$ 9 importance4 ,t is "o ( ! out/&+ facts ) :i* we h to deal4 ,:atev] may h be5 ! cause or causes ( glacial & int]glacial conditions1 x is obvi\s t ^? causes1 aft] atta9+ a maximum influ5ce1 gradually became less effective 9 _! op]ation4 ,su* hav+ be5 ! case1 "o c h>dly help suspect+ t our epo* ( greate/ glaciation may h be5 prec$$ by an alt]nation ( cold & g5ial /ages analog\s to ^? t foll[$ x4 ,if ?ree cold epo*s ( progressively dim9i%$ sev]ity succe$$ ! epo* ( maximum glaciation1 ! latt] may h be5 prec$$ by "o or m epo*s ( progressively increas$ sev]ity4 ,t some?+ ( ! k9d may h tak5 place is sugge/$ by ! occurr5ce ( ! old mora9e ( t great ,baltic glaci] t prec$$ ! appe>ance ( ! mo/ ext5sive m] de glace ( nor!rn ,europe4 ,! old mora9e 9 "q1 x w be rememb]$1 und]lies ! l[] diluvium4 ,un=tunately1 ! v conditions t att5d$ ! glaciation ( ,europe r5d] x improbable t any conspicu\s traces ( glacial epo*s t may h occurr$ prior to ! p]iod ( maximum glaciation c\ld h be5 pres]v$ )9 ! regions cov]$ by ! great inl&-ice4 ,_! abs5ce1 !re=e1 _c be held z prov+ t ! l[] b\ld]-clays ( ,brita9 & nor!rn ,europe are ! repres5tatives ( ! e>lie/ glacial epo*4 ,! l[e/ b\ld]-clay1 ,i believe1 has yet to be discov]$4 ,x is 9 ! ,alp9e ,l&s t we enc\nt] ! mo/ /rik+ evid5ce ( glacial conditions ant]ior to ! epo* ( maximum glaciation4 ,! fam\s breccia ( ,htt+ has already be5 ref]r$ to z ( int]glacial age4 ,f ! "* ( its flora1 ,ett+haus5 consid]$ ?is accumulation to be ( ,t]ti>y age4 ,! assemblage ( plants is c]ta9ly n comp>able to ! well-kn[n int]glacial flora ( ,drnt54 ,accord+ to ! rese>*es ( ,dr4 ,r4 von ,wett/e91,,cy ! ,htt+ flora has mo/ aff9ity ) t ( ! ,pontic ,m\nta9s1 ! ,caucasus1 & s\!rn ,spa91 & implies a consid]ably w>m] climate ?an is n[ exp]i5c$ 9 ! ,inn ,valley4 ,?is rem>kable deposit1 z ,dr4 ,p5ck po9t$ out "s t5 ye>s ago1 is cle>ly ( int]glacial age4 ,8 conclusions 7 at once *all5g$1 on ! gr\nd t ! flora _h a ,t]ti>y & n a ,plei/oc5e facies2 consequ5tly1 x 0 urg$ t1 z all glacial deposits 7 ( ,plei/oc5e age1 ?is p>ticul> breccia c\ld n be int]glacial4 ,b 9 ?is1 z 9 simil> cases1 ! palontologi/'s cont5tion has n be5 su/a9$ by ! /ratigraphical evid5ce1 & ,dr4 ,p5ck's obs]vations h be5 confirm$ by sev]al highly-compet5t geologi/s1 z by ,,mm4 ,bhm & ,du ,pasqui]4 ,! breccia is se5 9 sev]al well-expos$ sections re/+ ^u ! mora9e ( a local glaci] :i* =m]ly desc5d$ ! nor!rn flanks ( ! ,inn ,valley1 opposite ,innsbruck1 :]e ! m\nta9-slopes "u exi/+ conditions are free f sn[ & ice4 ,nor is ?is all1 = c]ta9 erratics appe> 9 ! breccia1 :i* c\ld only h be5 d]iv$ f pre-exi/+ glacial accumulations1 & _! occurr5ce 9 ?is accumulation at a height ( #aaej metres %[s t be=e ! adv5t ( ! ,htt+ flora ! :ole ,inn ,valley mu/ h be5 fill$ ) ice4 ,! plant-be>+ b$s are 9 _! turn cov]$ by ! gr\nd-mora9e ( a lat] & m ext5sive glaciation4 ,to br+ ab\t ! glacial conditions t obta9$ be=e ! =mation ( ! breccia1 ! sn[-l9e1 accord+ to ,p5ck1 mu/ h be5 at lea/ #ajjj metres l[] ?an n[2 :ile1 to induce ! succe$+ glaciation1 ! depression ( ! sn[-l9e c\ld n h be5 less ?an #abjj metres4 ,^! obs]vations h be5 ext5d$ to _m o!r p>ts ( ! ,alps1 & ! conclusion arriv$ at by ,pr(essor ,p5ck & 8 colleagues1 ,pr(essor ,brckn] & ,dr4 ,bhm1 is briefly ?is--t ! maximum glaciation ( ^? regions did n fall 9 ! fir/ b 9 ! second ,alp9e glacial epo*4 ,,cy ,sitzungsb]i*te d4 ,kais4 ,acad4 d4 ,wiss5s*4 9 ,wi51 ma!m4-naturw4 ,classe1 ,bd4 xcvii4 ,ab?4 i41 #ahhh4 ,! glacial ph5om5a ( nor!rn & c5tral ,europe are s simil>--! climatic oscillations :i* appe> to h tak5 place _h s mu* 9 common1 & 7 on s gr& a scale--t we _c d\bt !y 7 syn*ron\s4 ,we may feel sure1 !re=e1 t ! epo* ( maximum glaciation 9 ! ,alps 0 contemporane\s ) ! simil> epo* 9 ! nor?4 ,& if ?is be s1 !n 9 ! olde/ gr\nd-mora9es ( ! ,alps we h ! records ( an e>li] glacial epo* ?an t :i* is repres5t$ by ! l[] b\ld]-clays ( ,brita9 & ! correspond+ latitudes ( ! ,cont95t4 ,9 o!r words1 ! ,htt+ flora belongs to an old] /age ( ! ,glacial p]iod ?an any ( ! ackn[l$g$ int]glacial accumulations ( nor!rn ,europe4 ,! "* ( ! plants is 9 keep+ ) ?is conclusion4 ,! flora has evid5tly mu* less connection ) ! pres5t flora ( ! ,alps ?an ! int]glacial floras ( ,brita9 & nor!rn ,europe h ) ^? t n[ occupy _! place4 ,! ,htt+ flora1 moreov]1 implies a consid]ably w>m] climate ?an n[ obta9s 9 ! ,alp9e regions1 :ile t ( our int]glacial b$s indicates a temp]ate insul> climate1 app>5tly mu* l ! pres5t4 ,! high probability t oscillations ( climate prec$$ ! adv5t ( ! s-call$ fir/ m] de glace ( nor!rn ,europe mu/ lead to a re-exam9ation ( our ,plioc5e deposits1 ) a view to see :e!r ^! yield conclusive evid5ce aga9/ su* climatic *anges hav+ obta9$ imm$iately be=e ,plei/oc5e times4 ,by draw+ ! l9e ( sep>ation betwe5 ! ,plei/oc5e & ! ,plioc5e at ! base ( our glacial s]ies1 ! two sy/ems 9 ,brita9 are /rongly m>k$ (f ! "o f ! o!r4 ,!re is1 9 %ort1 a di/9ct break 9 ! succession4 ,f ! ,crom] ,=e/-b$1 ) its abundant mammalian fauna & temp]ate flora1 we pass at once to ! ov]ly+ arctic fre%wat] b$ & ! sup]jac5t b\ld]-clay t m>ks ! epo* ( maximum glaciation4,,cz ,among/ ! mammalian fauna ( ! ,=e/-b$ are elephants 7,elephas m]idionalis1 ,e4 antiquus71 hippopotamus1 rh9oc]os1 7,r4 etruscus71 horses1 bison1 bo>1 & _m k9ds ( de]1 toge!r ) su* c>nivores z be>s1 ,ma*rodus1 spott$ hyna1 etc4 ,! fre%wat] & e/u>9e b$s :i* conta9 ?is ext5sive fauna re/ imm$iately ^u m>9e deposits 7,weyb\rn ,crag71 ! organic rema9s ( :i* h a decid$ly arctic facies4 ,"h1 !n1 we h :at at fir/ sight w\ld seem to be ano!r break 9 ! succession4 ,! ,=e/-b$1 "o might suppose1 indicat$ an int]glacial epo*1 sep>at+ two cold epo*s4 ,b ,mr4 ,clem5t ,reid1 :o has work$ out ! geology ( ! ,plioc5e ) admirable skill1,,da has ano!r explanation ( ! ph5om5a4 ,x has long be5 kn[n t ! organic rema9s ( ! m>9e ,plioc5e ( ,brita9 d5ote a progressive l[]+ ( temp]ature4 ,! l[] memb] ( ! sy/em is cr[d$ ) s\!rn =ms1 :i* indicate w>m-temp]ate conditions4 ,b :5 we leave ! ,old] & pass upw>ds into ! ,new] ,plioc5e ^? s\!rn =ms progressively disappe>1 :ile at ! same "t immigrants f ! nor? increase 9 numb]s1 until ev5tually1 9 ! b$s imm$iately und]ly+ ! ,=e/-b$1 ! fauna pres5ts a ?or\ghly arctic facies4 ,dur+ ! =mation ( ! ,old] ,plioc5e ) its s\!rn fauna our area 0 consid]ably subm]g$1 s t ! ,g]man ,ocean _h !n a mu* wid] communication ) ! seas ( l[] latitudes4 ,at ! beg9n+ ( ,new] ,plioc5e times1 h[ev]1 ! l& em]g$ to "s ext5t1 & all connection betwe5 ! ,g]man ,ocean & m s\!rn seas 0 cut (f4 ,:5 at la/ ! ,=e/-b$ s]ies began to be accumulat$1 ! s\!rn half ( ! ,nor? ,sea bas9 _h become dry l&1 & 0 trav]s$ by ! ,rh9e 9 its c\rse t[>ds ! nor?1 ! ,=e/-b$ repres5t+ ! alluvial & e/u>9e deposits ( t riv]4 ,,cz ,9 "s places1 h[ev]1 c]ta9 m>9e deposits 7,l$a myalis b$7 imm$iately ov]lie ! ,=e/-b$4 ,,da ,mem4 ( ,geol4 ,survey1 ,plioc5e ,deposits ( ,brita94 ,see po/ea1 footnote1 p4 #cag4 ,mr4 ,reid1 9 ref]r+ to ! progressive *ange indicat$ by ! ,plioc5e m>9e fauna1 is incl9$ to agree ) ,pr(essor ,pre/wi* t ?is 0 n altoge!r ! result ( a g5]al climatic *ange4 ,he ?9ks ! successive dy+ out ( s\!rn =ms & ! cont9u\s arrival ( boreal species 0 pr9cipally due to ! ,nor? ,sea rema9+ fully op5 to ! nor?1 :ile all connection ) s\!rn seas 0 cut (f4 ,"u su* conditions1 he says1 !re 0 a con/ant supply ( arctic species br\ght by e tide or /orm1 :ile at ! same "t ! s\!rn =ms _h to hold _! own )\t any aid f )\t2 & if "o 0 ext]m9at$ x c\ld n be replac$4 ,d\btless ! isolation ( ! ,nor? ,sea mu/ h ha/5$ ! ext]m9ation ( ! s\!rn =ms1 b ! *ange c\ld n h be5 :olly due to su* local causes4 ,simil>1 if less /rongly-m>k$1 *anges *>act]ise ! m>9e ,plioc5e ( ! ,m$it]ranean area1 :ile ! fre%wat] alluvia ( ,france1 etc41 furni% evid5ce 9 ! same direction4 ,! ,crom] ,=e/-b$ ov]lies ! ,weyb\rn ,crag1 ! m>9e fauna ( :i* has a di/9ctly ,arctic facies4 ,! two _c1 !re=e1 be exactly contemporane\s3 ! m>9e equival5ts ( ! ,=e/-b$ are n repres5t$4 ,b ,mr4 ,reid po9ts out t sev]al arctic m>9e %ells ( ! ,weyb\rn ,crag occur also 9 ! ,=e/-b$1 :ile c]ta9 s\!rn fre%wat] & t]re/rial %ells common 9 ! latt] are met ) likewise 9 ! =m]1 comm+l$ ) ! prevail+ arctic m>9e species4 ,he ?9ks1 !re=e1 t we may fairly conclude t ! two faunas occupi$ adjac5t areas4 ,"o c h>dly accept ?is conclusion )\t res]ve4 ,x is difficult to believe t a temp]ate flora & mammalian fauna l ^? ( ! ,=e/-b$ clo!d & peopl$ ea/]n ,engl& :5 ! adjac5t sea 0 occupi$ by arctic molluscs1 etc4 ,surely ! occurr5ce ( a few =ms1 :i* are common to ! ,=e/-b$ & ! und]ly+ ,crag1 does n necess>ily prove t ! two faunas occupi$ adjac5t di/ricts4 ,mr4 ,reid1 inde$1 admits t "s ( ! m>9e %ells 9 ! ,=e/-b$ s]ies may h be5 d]iv$ f ! und]ly+ ,crag4 ,7 ! m>9e equival5ts ( ! ,=e/-b$ =?com+ we might well expect !m to conta9 _m ,crag =ms1 b ! facies ( ! fauna w\ld mo/ probably resemble t ( ! exi/+ ,nor? ,sea fauna4 ,aga91 ! appe>ance 9 ! ,weyb\rn ,crag ( a few s\!rn %ells common to ! ,=e/-b$ does n seem to prove m ?an t su* %ells 7 contemporane\s some:]e ) an arctic m>9e fauna4 ,b x is q possible t !y might h be5 c>ri$ = a long di/ance f ! s\?2 &1 ev5 if !y actually exi/$ 9 ! ne> neighb\rhood ( an arctic m>9e fauna1 we may easily atta* too mu* importance to _! evid5ce4,,db ,i _c ?9k1 !re=e1 t ,mr4 ,reid's conclusion is entirely satisfactory4 ,aft] all1 ! ,crom] ,=e/-b$ re/s ^u ! ,weyb\rn ,crag1 & ! evid5ce z x /&s is explicable 9 ano!r way4 ,x is q possible1 = example1 t ! ,=e/-b$ really indicates an epo* ( g5ial or temp]ate conditions1 prec$$1 z x c]ta9ly 0 ev5tually succe$$1 by cold] conditions4 ,,db ,! inf]5ce t ! ,=e/-b$ occupies an int]glacial position is /r5g!n$ by ! evid5ce ( c]ta9 m>9e deposits :i* imm$iately ov]lie x4 ,^! 7kn[n collectively z ! ,l$a myalis b$7 occur 9 irregul> pat*es1 :i*1 f ! "* ( _! organic rema9s1 _c all be precisely ( ! same age4 ,9 "o place1 = example1 !y are abundantly *>g$ ) oy/]s1 hav+ valves unit$1 & ) ^! are associat$ o!r species ( molluscs t /ill live 9 ,briti% seas4 ,at ano!r place no oy/]s occur1 b ! b$s yield two arctic %ells1 ,l$a myalis & ,a/>te borealis1 & "s o!r =ms :i* h no special significance4 ,pr(essor ,otto ,torell po9t$ out to ,mr4 ,reid t ^! sep>ate deposits c\ld n be ( ! same age1 = ! oy/] is s5sitive to cold & does n inhabit ! seas :]e ,l$a myalis & ,a/>te borealis fl\ri%4 ,f a consid]ation ( ?is & o!r evid5ce ,mr4 ,reid concludes t x is possible t ! deposits indicate a p]iod ( consid]able l5g?1 dur+ :i* ! dep? ( wat] v>i$ & ! climate *ang$4 ,two additional facts may be not$3 ,l$a myalis does n occur 9 any ( ! und]ly+ ,plioc5e b$s1 :ile ! oy/] is n f\nd 9 ! ,weyb\rn & ,*illes=d ,crag1 ?\gh common l[] d[n 9 ! ,plioc5e s]ies4 ,^! facts seem to me to h a /rong be>+ on ! climatic conditions ( ! ,=e/-b$ epo*4 ,!y %[ u t ! oy/] fl\ri%$ 9 ! ,nor? ,sea be=e ! p]iod ( ! ,weyb\rn ,crag--t x did n live side by side ) ! arctic =ms ( t p]iod--& t x reappe>$ 9 our seas :5 fav\rable conditions return$4 ,:5 ! climate aga9 became cold an arctic fauna 7includ+ a new-com]1 ,l$a myalis7 once m occupi$ ! ,nor? ,sea4 ,if x be object$ t ?is w\ld include z int]glacial :at has hi!rto be5 reg>d$ by mo/ z a ,plioc5e mammalian fauna1,,dc ,i w\ld reply t ! int]glacial age ( t fauna has already be5 prov$ 9 c5tral ,france4 ,! int]glacial b$s ( ,auv]gne1 ) ,elephas m]idionalis1 re/ ^u & are cov]$ by mora9es1,,dd & ) ^! h be5 correlat$ ! deposits ( ,sa9t-,pre/4 ,aga91 9 nor!rn ,italy ! lignites ( ,leffe & ,pianico1 :i*1 z ,i %[$ a numb] ( ye>s ago1,,de occupy an int]glacial position1 h likewise yield$ ,elephas m]idionalis & o!r associat$ mammalian =ms4 ,,dc ,elephas m]idionalis is usually reg>d$ z a type-=m ( ! ,new] ,plioc5e1 b long ago ,dr4 ,fu*s po9t$ out t 9 ,hung>y ?is species is ( quat]n>y age3 ,v]h&l4 d4 k4 k4 geolog4 ,rei*san/alt1 #ahgi1 pp4 #di1 #bgj4 ,x matt]s little :e!r we relegate to ! top ( ! ,plioc5e or to ! base ( ! ,plei/oc5e ! b$s 9 :i* ?is species occurs4 ,t x is met ) ^u an int]glacial horizon is c]ta92 & if we are to make ! ,plei/oc5e co-ext5sive ) ! glacial & int]glacial s]ies we %all be compell$ to include 9 t sy/em "s portion ( ! ,new] ,plioc5e4 ,,dd ,juli53 ,des ,phnomnes glaciaires dans le ,plateau c5tral1 etc41 #ahfi4 ,b\le3 ,revue d',an?ropologie1 #ahgi4 ,,de ,prehi/oric ,europe1 p4 #cjf4 ,pr(essor ,p5ck writes me t he & ! ,swiss glaciali/1 ,dr4 ,du ,pasqui]1 h rec5tly exam9$ ^! deposits1 & are able to confirm my conclusion z to _! int]glacial position4 ,!re c be no d\bt1 !n--inde$ x is g5]ally admitt$--t ! cold conditions t culm9at$ 9 our ,glacial p]iod began to manife/ !mselves 9 ,plioc5e times4 ,moreov]1 z x c be %[n t ,elephas m]idionalis & its cong5]s liv$ 9 c5tral ,europe aft] an epo* ( ext5sive glaciation1 x is highly probable t ! ,=e/-b$1 :i* conta9s ! relics ( ! same mammalian fauna1 is equival5t 9 age to ! e>ly int]glacial b$s ( ,france & ! ,alp9e ,l&s4 ,we seem1 !re=e1 ju/ifi$ 9 conclud+ t ! alt]nation ( g5ial & cold climates t succe$$ ! disappe>ance ( ! greate/ ( our ice-%eets 0 prec$$ by analog\s climatic *anges 9 late ,plioc5e times4 ,i %all n[ briefly summ>ise :at seems to h be5 ! glacial succession 9 ,europe3-- #a4 ,weyb\rn ,crag2 gr\nd-mora9e ( great ,baltic glaci] und]ly+ l[] diluvium2 ! olde/ recognis$ gr\nd-mora9es ( c5tral ,europe4 ,glacial ,^! accumulations repres5t ! e>lie/ glacial epo* ( :i* any trace has be5 discov]$4 ,x w\ld appe> to h be5 "o ( consid]able sev]ity1 b n s sev]e z ! cold p]iod t foll[$4 #b4 ,=e/-b$ ( ,crom]2 ,htt+ breccia2 lignites ( ,leffe & ,pianico2 int]glacial b$s ( ,int]glacial c5tral ,france4 ,e>lie/ recognis$ int]glacial epo*2 climate v g5ial4 #c4 ,l[] b\ld]-clays ( ,brita92 l[] diluvium ( ,sc&9avia & nor? ,g]many 79 "p72 l[] glacial deposits ( s\? ,g]many & c5tral ,russia2 gr\nd-mora9es & high-level gravel-t]races ( ,alp9e ,l&s1 etc42 ,glacial t]m9al mora9es ( out] zone4 ,! epo* ( maximum glaciation2 ! ,briti% & ,sc&9avian ice-%eets conflu5t2 ! ,alp9e glaci]s atta9 _! greate/ developm5t4 #d4 ,int]glacial fre%wat] alluvia1 peat1 lignite1 etc41 ) mammalian rema9s 7,brita91 ,g]many1 etc41 c5tral ,russia1 ,alp9e ,l&s1 etc472 & m>9e deposits 7,brita91 ,baltic coa/-l&s74 ,int]glacial ,cont95tal condition ( ,briti% area2 climate at fir/ cold1 b ev5tually temp]ate4 ,subm]g5ce ensu$ t[>ds close ( ! p]iod1 ) conditions pass+ f temp]ate to arctic4 #e4 ,upp] b\ld]-clay ( ,brita92 l[] diluvium ( ,sc&9avia1 ,g]many1 etc41 9 "p2 upp] glacial s]ies 9 c5tral ,russia2 gr\nd-mora9es & gravel-t]races 9 ,alp9e ,l&s4 ,sc&9avian & ,briti% ice-%eets aga9 ,glacial conflu5t1 b m] de glace does n ext5d q s f> z t ( ! prec$+ cold epo*4 ,conditions1 h[ev]1 mu* m sev]e ?an ^? ( ! next succe$+ cold epo*4 ,alp9e glaci]s deposit ! mora9es ( ! inn] zone4 #f4 ,fre%wat] alluvia1 lignite1 peat1 etc4 7"s ( ! s-call$ po/-glacial alluvia ( ,brita92 int]glacial b$s ( nor? ,g]many1 etc42 ,alp9e ,l&s7872 m>9e deposits ( ,brita9 & ,baltic coa/-l&s74 ,int]glacial ,brita9 probably aga9 cont95tal2 climate at fir/ temp]ate & some:at insul>2 subm]g5ce ensues ) cold climatic conditions--,scotl& depress$ = #ajj feet2 ,baltic prov9ces ( ,g]many1 etc41 invad$ by ! wat]s ( ! ,nor? ,sea4 #g4 ,gr\nd-mora9es1 t]m9al mora9es1 etc41 ( ! m\nta9 regions ( ,brita92 upp] diluvium ( ,sc&9avia1 ,f9l&1 nor? ,g]many1 etc42 great t]m9al mora9es ( same regions2 t]m9al mora9es 9 ! l>ge longitud9al valleys ( ! ,alps 7,p5ck74 ,major portion ( ,scotti% ,highl&s cov]$ ,glacial by ice-%eet2 local ice-%eets 9 ,s\!rn ,upl&s ( ,scotl& & m\nta9 di/ricts 9 o!r p>ts ( ,brita92 great valley-glaci]s sometimes coalesce on l[-gr\nds2 iceb]gs calv$ at m\?s ( ,highl& sea-lo*s2 t]m9al mora9es dropp$ ^u m>9e deposits !n =m+ 7#ajj-;feet bea*74 ,sc&9avia %r\d$ 9 a great ice-%eet1 :i* broke away 9 iceb]gs along ! :ole we/ coa/ ( ,norway4 ,epo* ( ! la/ great ,baltic glaci]4 #h4 ,fre%wat] alluvia 7) arctic plants72 l[] buri$ =e/ & peat 7,brita9 & nor?-we/ ,europe g5]ally74 ,c>se-clays & rais$ bea*es ( #de to #ej-;feet level 9 ,scotl&4 ,int]glacial ,brita9 aga9 cont95tal2 climate at fir/ cold1 subsequ5tly becom+ temp]ate3 great =e/s4 ,ev5tual insulation ( ,brita92 climate humid1 & probably cold] ?an n[4 #i4 ,local mora9es 9 m\nta9-valleys ( ,brita91 "h & !re re/+ on #de to #ej-;feet bea*2 s-call$ po/-glacial mora9es 9 ! upp] valleys ( ! ,alps4 ,probably f9al appe>ance ( glaci]s 9 our ,glacial isl&s4 ,"s ( ^! glaci]s atta9$ a consid]able size1 rea*+ ! sea & %$d+ iceb]gs4 ,x may be not$ "h t ! decay ( ^! late/ glaci]s 0 aga9 foll[$ by em]g5ce ( ! l& & a recrudesc5ce ( =e/-gr[? 7upp] buri$ =e/74 ,a ^w ( ref]5ce may n[ be made to t rem>kable association ( evid5ce ( subm]g5ce1 ) pro(s ( glacial conditions1 :i* has s frequ5tly be5 not$ by geologi/s4 ,take1 = example1 ! succession 9 ,scotl&1 & obs]ve h[ ea* glacial epo* 0 prec$$ & app>5tly accompani$ by p>tial subm]g5ce ( ! l&3-- #a4 ,epo* ( ,greate/ ,m] de ,glace 7l[] b\ld]-clay72 ,briti% & ,sc&9avian ice-%eets coalesc5t4 ,foll[$ by wide l&-surface ,cont95tal ,brita91 ) g5ial climate4 ,subm]g5ce ( l&--to :at ext5t is unc]ta91 b app>5tly to #ejj feet or s4 #b4 ,epo* ( ,less] ,m] de ,glace 7upp] b\ld]-clay72 ,briti% & ,sc&9avian ice-%eets coalesc5t4 ,foll[$ by wide l&-surface ,cont95tal ,brita91 ) g5ial climate4 ,subm]g5ce ( l& = #ajj feet or !reab\t4 #c4 ,epo* ( ,local ,ice-%eets 9 ,m\nta9 ,di/ricts2 glaci]s "h & !re coalesce on ! l[-gr\nds2 iceb]gs calv$ at m\?s ( ,highl& sea-lo*s 7mora9es on #ajj-;feet bea*74 ,foll[$ by wide l&-surface ,cont95tal ,brita91 ) g5ial climate4 ,subm]g5ce ( l& = #ej feet or !reab\t4 #d4 ,epo* ( ,small ,local ,glaci]s1 "h & !re desc5d+ to sea 7mora9es on #ej-;feet bea*74 ,^! oscillations ( ! sea-level did n t]m9ate ) ! em]g5ce ( ! l& aft] ! =mation ( ! #ej-;feet bea*4 ,!re is evid5ce to %[ t subsequ5t to ! retreat ( ! small local glaci]s 7#d7 & ! em]g5ce ( ! l&1 our %ores ext5d$ seaw>ds beyond _! pres5t limits1 b h[ f> we _c tell4 ,) ?is epo* ( re-em]g5ce ! climate aga9 became m g5ial1 our =e/s once m atta9+ a great] v]tical & horizontal range4 ,subm]g5ce !n foll[$ 7! #be to #cj-;feet bea*71 accompani$ by cold] & m humid conditions1 :i*1 :ile unfav\rable to =e/-gr[?1 t5d$ greatly to increase ! spread ( peat-bogs4 ,we h no evid5ce1 h[ev]1 to %[ t small local glaci]s aga9 appe>$4 ,f9ally ! sea retir$1 & ! pres5t conditions ensu$4 ,x w be se5 t ! subm]g5ce :i* prec$$ & probably accompani$ ! adv5t ( ! less] m] de glace 7#b7 0 great] ?an t :i* h]ald$ ! appe>ance ( ! local ice-%eets 7#c71 z t 9 turn exce$$ ! depression t accompani$ ! late/ local glaci]s 7#d74 ,!re w\ld seem1 !re=e1 to be "s causal connection betwe5 cold climatic conditions & subm]g5ce4 ,?is is %[n by ! fact t n only did depression imm$iately prec$e & accompany ! appe>ance ( ice-%eets & glaci]s1 b ! degree ( subm]g5ce bore a rem>kable relation to ! ext5t ( glaciation4 ,_m speculations h be5 indulg$ 9 z to ! cause ( ?is curi\s connection betwe5 glaciation & depression2 ^!1 h[ev]1 ,i w n consid] "h4 ,none ( ! explanations hi!rto advanc$ is satisfactory1 b ! "q is "o well des]v+ ! att5tion ( physici/s1 & its solution w\ld be ( great s]vice to geology4 ,a /ill l>g] "q :i* ! hi/ory ( ^! times sugge/s is ! cause ( climatic oscillations4 ,i h ma9ta9$ t ! well-kn[n !ory advanc$ by ,james ,croll is ! only "o t seems to ?r[ any light ^u ! subject1 & ! obs]vations :i* h be5 made s9ce ,i discuss$ ! "q at l5g?1 "s fifte5 ye>s ago1 h add$ /r5g? to t conviction4 ,z ,sir ,rob]t ,ball has rem>k$1 ! a/ronomical !ory is really mu* /rong] ?an ,croll made x out to be4 ,9 8 rec5tly-publi%$ "w1 ,! ,cause ( an ,ice ,age1 ,sir ,rob]t says t ! !ory is s ?or\ghly well bas$ t !re is no long] any gr\nd = d\bt+ its tru?4 ,we h ev5 %[n1 he cont9ues1 t ! a/ronomical conditions are s def9ite t a/ronom]s are entitl$ to direct t vigor\s se>* be in/itut$ on ?is globe to discov] ! traces ( ^? va/ climatic *anges ?r\gh :i* a/ronomy decl>es t our e>? mu/ h pass$4 ,9 conclud+ ?is pap]1 !re=e1 ,i may %ortly indicate h[ f> ! geological evid5ce seems to answ] ! requirem5ts ( ! !ory4 ,foll[+ ,croll1 we f9d t ! la/ p]iod ( great ecc5tricity ( ! e>?'s orbit ext5d$ ov] #afj1jjj ye>s--! ecc5tricity rea*+ its highe/ value 9 ! e>li] /ages ( ! cycle4 ,x is obvi\s t dur+ ?is long cycle ! precession ( ! equ9ox mu/ h complet$ sev5 revolutions4 ,we might !re=e expect to meet ) geological evid5ce ( recurr5t cold or glacial & g5ial or int]glacial epo*s2 & n only s1 b ! records ought to %[ t ! e>li] glacial epo* or epo*s 7 cold] ?an ^? t foll[$4 ,n[ we f9d t ! epo* ( maximum glaciation sup]v5$ 9 e>ly ,plei/oc5e times1 & t ?ree sep>ate & di/9ct glacial epo*s ( dim9i%$ sev]ity foll[$4 ,( ^! ?ree1 ! fir/ w\ld appe> to h be5 almo/ z sev]e z t :i* prec$$ x1 & x c]ta9ly mu* surpass$ 9 sev]ity ! cold epo*s ( ! lat] /ages4 ,b ! epo* ( maximum glaciation1 or ! fir/ ( ! ,plei/oc5e s]ies1 0 n ! e>lie/ glacial epo*4 ,x seems to h be5 prec$$ by "o ( some:at less sev]ity ?an itself1 b :i* nev]!less1 z we ga!r f ! obs]vations ( ,p5ck & 8 collaborators1 0 ab\t z important z t :i* came aft] ! epo* ( maximum glaciation4 ,h5ce x w\ld appe> t ! correspond5ce ( ! geological evid5ce ) ! requirem5ts ( ! a/ronomical !ory is z close z we c\ld expect x to be4 ,f\r glacial ) int]v5+ g5ial epo*s appe> to h fall5 )9 ,plei/oc5e times2 :ile t[>ds ! close ( ! ,plioc5e1 or at ! beg9n+ ( ! ,plei/oc5e p]iod1 accord+ z we *oose to classify ! deposits1 an e>li] glacial epo* foll[$ by g5ial int]glacial conditions1 sup]v5$4 ,9 ?is outl9e ( a l>ge subject x has n be5 possible to d m ?an indicate v briefly ! g5]al nature ( ! evid5ce ^u :i* ! *ief conclusions are bas$4 ,i hope1 h[ev]1 to h an opportunity ere long ( deal+ ) ! :ole "q 9 detail4 ,note4--,s9ce ! orig9al publication ( ?is ,essay1 r5ew$ inve/igation & /udy h l$ me to conclude t ! correlation ( ! ,briti% & ,cont95tal glacial s]ies is ev5 m simple ?an ,i _h suppos$4 ,i believe ! use ( ! t]ms ,l[] & ,upp] 9 connection ) ! ,diluvial deposits ( ! ,cont95t has hi!rto bl9d$ u to ! obvi\s succession ( ! b\ld]-clays4 ,9 ,brita9 we h1 z %[n above1 a l[] b\ld]-clay1 an upp] b\ld]-clay1 & ! /ill y\ng] b\ld]-clays 7gr\nd-mora9es71 & t]m9al mora9es ( our di/rict ice-%eets & valley-glaci]s4 ,9 ! l[-gr\nds ( ! ,cont95t ! succession is precisely simil>4 ,?us ! l[] b\ld]-clay t sweeps s\? into ,saxony repres5ts ! l[] b\ld]-clay ( ,brita94 ,9 l mann]1 ! upp] b\ld]-clay ( we/]n & middle ,g]many1 ( ,pol&1 & we/]n & nor?-we/]n ,russia1 is ! equival5t ( our own upp] b\ld]-clay4 ,la/ly1 ! s-call$ upp] diluvium & ! great t]m9al mora9es ( ! ,baltic coa/-l&s are on ! horizon ( ! y\ng] b\ld]-clays & t]m9al mora9es ( ! m\nta9\s areas ( ! ,briti% ,isl&s4 ,! s-call$ l[] diluvium ( ! ,baltic coa/-l&s ?us repres5ts n ! l[] b ! upp] diluvium ( we/]n & middle ,g]many1 ,pol&1 etc4 ,g]man geologi/s are ( op9ion t ! upp] b\ld]-clays ( ! ,baltic coa/-l&s & ( ! valley ( ! ,elbe are ! gr\nd-mora9es ( "o & ! same ice-%eet1 :i*1 on its retreat1 pil$ up ! t]m9al mora9es ( ! ,baltic ,ridge4 ,i believe ! two b\ld]-clays 9 "q are q di/9ct1 & t ! t]m9al mora9es ref]r$ to m>k ! fur!/ advance ( ! la/ great ,baltic glaci]4 ,! contemporaneity ( ! two b\ld]-clays has be5 tak5 = grant$ simply because !y are ea* und]laid by a l[] b\ld]-clay4 ,b1 z we h se51 ! upp] b\ld]-clay ( ! ,baltic coa/-l&s is und]laid n by "o only1 b by two1 & 9 "s places ev5 by ?ree o!r b\ld]-clays--ph5om5a :i* nev] pres5t !mselves 9 ! regions n invad$ by ! la/ great ,baltic glaci]4 ,?ree or f\r b\ld]-clays occur 9 ! coa/-l&s ( ! ,baltic because ^? regions 7 ov]fl[$ successively by ?ree or f\r sep>ate ice-%eets4 ,only two b\ld]-clays are met ) s\? & ea/ ( ! ,baltic ,ridge1 because ! tracts ly+ s\? & s\?-ea/ ( t ridge 7 trav]s$ by only two m]s de glace--namely1 by t ( ! epo* ( maximum glaciation & by ! less ext5sive ice-%eet ( ! next succe$+ cold p]iod4 ,9 ! region betwe5 ! ,elbe & ! m\nta9s ( middle ,g]many only "o b\ld]-clay appe>s1 because t region has nev] be5 invad$ by m ?an "o ice-%eet4 ,! succession ?us indicat$ may be tabulat$ z foll[s3-- #a4 ,epo* ( ,e>lie/ ,baltic ,glaci]4 ,l[e/ b\ld]-clay ( s\!rn ,sw$52 l[e/ b\ld]-clay ( ,baltic prov9ces ( ,prussia2 horizon ( ! ,weyb\rn ,crag4 #b4 ,epo* ( ,greate/ ,m] de ,glace4 ,l[] b\ld]-clays ( middle & s\!rn ,g]many1 c5tral ,russia1 ,briti% ,isl&s2 second b\ld]-clay ( ,baltic prov9ces ( ,prussia4 #c4 ,epo* ( ,less] ,m] de ,glace4 ,upp] b\ld]-clay ( we/]n & middle ,g]many1 ,pol&1 & we/ c5tral ,russia2 upp] b\ld]-clay ( ,brita92 ?ird b\ld]-clay ( ,baltic prov9ces ( ,prussia4 #d4 ,epo* ( ,la/ ,great ,baltic ,glaci]4 ,upp] b\ld]-clay & t]m9al mora9es ( ,baltic coa/-l&s2 di/rict & valley-mora9es ( ,highl&s & ,upl&s ( ,briti% ,isl&s4 #e4 ,epo* ( ,small ,local ,glaci]s4 ,valley-mora9es 9 m\nta9\s regions ( ,brita91 etc4 ,! evid5ce on :i* ^! conclusions are bas$ is set =? at "s l5g? 9 a =?com+ re-issue ( my ,great ,ice ,age4--,nov4 #a1 #ahib4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate ,,iv ,,sket* ,,map ,,( ,,nor!rn ,,europe ,,%[+ ,,areas ,,cov]$ ,,by ,,ice ,,dur+ ,,! ,,epo* ,,( ,,maximum ,,glaciation1 ,,& ,,by ,,! ,,great ,,baltic ,,glaci] ,,& ,,! ,,local ,,ice-,,%eets ,,( ,,brita9 ,,at ,a ,,lat] ,,date4 ,! ,ed9burgh ,geographical ,in/itute ,j4 ,g4 ,b>?olomew ,f4,r4,g4,s 99 99 99 99 99 ,explanation ( ,plate ,,iv4 ,map ( ,europe %[+ ! areas occupi$ by ice dur+ ! ,epo* ( ,maximum ,glaciation 7,second ,glacial ,epo*71 & ! ext5t ( glaciation 9 ,sc&9avia1 ,f9l&1 ,baltic coa/-l&s1 etc41 & ! ,briti% ,isl&s dur+ ! ,f\r? ,glacial ,epo*4 ,= ! limits ( ! great] glaciation on ! ,cont95t1 ,hab5i*t1 ,p5ck1 ,nikit91 & ,na?or/ h be5 foll[$4 ,! ,great ,baltic ,glaci] is *iefly aft] ,de ,ge]4 ,,xi4 ,! ,geographical ,evolution ( ,europe4,,df ,,df ,! ,scotti% ,geographical ,magaz9e1 vol4 ii41 #ahhf4 ,x is "o ( ! commonplaces ( geology t ! ,pres5t is built up out ( ! ru9s ( ! ,pa/4 ,e rock b5ea? our feet has its /ory ( *ange to tell u4 ,m\nta9s1 valleys1 & pla9s1 cont95ts & isl&s1 h pass$ ?r\gh vicissitudes innum]able1 & be> )9 !m ! evid5ce ( a gradual developm5t or evolution4 ,look+ back ?r\gh ! vi/a ( ! pa/ "o sees ! dry l&s gradually sep>at+ f ! ocean1 & ga!r+ toge!r into cont95tal masses accord+ to a def9ite plan4 ,x is ?is sl[ gr[?1 ?is augu/ evolution1 c>ri$ on ?r\gh c\ntless ons1 :i* mo/ impresses ! /ud5t ( physical geology4 ,! e>? seems = ! "t z if end[$ ) life1 & l a plant or animal to pass ?r\gh its successive /ages ( developm5t until x culm9ates 9 ! pres5t beautiful _w4 ,?is conception is "o ( comp>atively rec5t gr[? 9 ! hi/ory ( geological sci5ce4 ,hutton1 ! fa!r ( physical geology1 _h inde$ cle>ly p]ceiv$ t ! dry l&s ( ! globe 7 l>gely compos$ ( ! dbris ( =m] l&-surfaces--t !re _h be5 alt]nate elevations & depressions ( ! e>?'s cru/1 caus+ n[ sea & n[ l& to pr$om9ate ov] giv5 areas4 ,b ! facts kn[n 9 ?is day c\ld n possibly h sugge/$ ^? mod]n ideas ( geographical evolution1 :i* are ! outcome ( ! multif>i\s obs]vation & rese>* ( lat] ye>s4 ,x is to ,pr(essor ,dana1 ! em95t ,am]ican geologi/1 t we are indebt$ = ! fir/ cle> enunciation ( ! views :i* ,i am n[ ab\t to illu/rate4 ,accord+ to him ! great oceanic bas9s & cont95tal ridges are ( primeval antiquity--_! orig9 is old] ?an t ( our olde/ s$im5t>y =mations4 ,x is n ma9ta9$ t ! pres5t l&s h always cont9u$ above ! level ( ! sea4 ,on ! contr>y1 x c be prov$ t _m oscillations ( level h tak5 place )9 ea* cont95tal area1 by :i* ! ext5t & outl9e ( ! l& h be5 modifi$ aga9 & aga94 ,not)/&+ su* *anges1 h[ev]1 ! great cont95tal ridges w\ld appe> to h p]si/$ f ! e>lie/ geological times z dom9ant elevations ( ! e>?'s cru/4 ,"s portions ( ^!1 z ,dana rem>ks1 may h be5 subm]g$ = ?\s&s ( feet1 b ! cont95ts h nev] *ang$ places ) ! oceans4 ,i %all pres5tly indicate ! nature ( ! evid5ce by :i* x is s\ght to prove ! va/ age ( our cont95tal masses1 b be=e do+ s x w be well to give an outl9e ( ! facts :i* g to %[ t ! oceanic depressions ( ! globe are likewise ( primeval antiquity4 ,! memorable voyage ( ! ,*all5g] has done mu* to increase our k ( ! deep seas & ! accumulations =m+ !re94 ,! rese>*es ( ! sci5tific /aff ( ! exp$ition1 & m p>ticul>ly ^? ( ,mr4 ,murray1 h inde$ giv5 a new impulse to ! /udy ( ! l>g] que/ions ( physical geology1 & h l5t /rong support to ! doctr9e ( ! p]man5ce ( ! oceanic bas9s & cont95tal ridges4 ,"o ( ! mo/ important facts br\ght be=e our att5tion by ,mr4 ,murray is ! abs5ce ( any l&-d]iv$ mat]ials f ! s$im5ts n[ ga!r+ 9 ! deep] abysses ( ! ocean4 ,! coa/s ( cont95ts & cont95tal isl&s are /rewn1 z e "o kn[s1 ) ! wreck ( ! l&--) gravel1 s&1 & mud1 d]iv$ f ! demolition ( our rocks & soils4 ,! co>s] dbris accumulates ^u bea*es & 9 %all[ littoral wat]s1 :ile ! f9] mat]ials are swept fur!r out to sea by tidal & o!r curr5ts--! s$im5t be+ gradually sift$ z x is borne outw>ds into deep] wat]1 until only ! f9e/ mud & silt rema9 to be swept =w>d4 ,z ! floor ( ! ocean %elves d[n to great] dep?s ! transport+ p[] ( curr5ts gradually less5s1 & f9ally l&-d]iv$ s$im5t ceases to appe>4 ,su* t]rig5\s mat]ials may be said to ext5d f ! littoral zone d[n to dep?s ( #bjjj feet & m1 & to a di/ance ( #fj to #cjj miles f %ore4 ,!y are conf9$1 !re=e1 to a comp>atively n>r[ belt r\nd ! m>g9s ( cont95ts & isl&s4 ,& ?us !re are va/ regions ( ! oceanic depressions ov] :i* no t]rig5\s or l&-d]iv$ mat]ials are accumulat+4 ,in/ead ( ^! we meet ) a rem>kable r$ clay & v>i\s k9ds ( ooze1 made up l>gely ( ! %ells ( =am9if]a1 pelagic mollusca1 & radiol>ians1 & ! fru/ules ( diatoms4 ,! r$ clay is ! mo/ widely di/ribut$ ( abysmal deposits4 ,inde$1 x seems to =m a c]ta9 proportion ( all ! deep-sea organic oozes1 & may be said1 !re=e1 to exi/ ev]y:]e 9 ! abysmal regions ( ! oceanic bas9s4 ,x is extremely f9e-gra9$1 & owes its deep br[n or r$ col\r to ! pres5ce ( ! oxides ( manganese & iron4 ,scatt]$ ?r\gh ! deposit occur p>ticles ( v>i\s m9]als ( volcanic orig91 toge!r ) lapilli & fragm5ts ( pumice1 i4e41 volcanic ejectam5ta4 ,su* mat]ials may h be5 ?r[n out f t]re/rial volcanoes & c>ri$ by ! w9ds or float$ by curr5ts until !y became wat]-logg$ & sank2 or !y may to "s ext5t be ! relics ( subm>9e eruptions4 ,:atev] may h be5 _! imm$iate s\rce1 !y are unque/ionably ( volcanic orig91 & are n associat$ ) any truly t]rig5\s s$im5t4 ,! r$ clay is evid5tly ! result ( ! *emical action ( sea-wat] on volcanic products2 & _m facts conspire to %[ t its =mation is an extremely sl[ process4 ,?us1 rema9s ( v]tebrates1 consi/+ ( ! e>-bones ( :ales1 beaks ( ziphius1 & tee? ( %>ks1 are (t5 pl5tifully pres5t1 & !re is no reason to suppose1 z ,,mm4 ,murray & ,r5>d po9t out1 t ! p>ts ( ! ocean :]e ^! rema9s occur are m frequ5t$ by :ales & %>ks ?an o!r regions :]e simil> relics are r>ely or nev] dr$g$ up4 ,( ^! rema9s "s h all ! appe>ance ( hav+ la9 ^u ! sea-bottom = a v long "t1 = !y belong to ext9ct species1 & are ei!r p>tially coat$ or entirely surr\nd$ ) ?ick lay]s ( manganese-iron4 ,9 ! same r$ clay occur small metallic sph]ules :i* are ( cosmic orig9--9 o!r words1 meteoric du/4 ,! accumulation ( all ^! sub/ances 9 su* relatively great abundance %[s u t ! oceanic bas9s h rema9$ un*ang$ = a va/ p]iod ( "t1 & assures u t ! =mation ( ! abysmal r$ clay is extremely sl[4 ,:5 we come to exam9e ! rocks :i* ent] into ! framework ( our cont95ts1 we f9d t !y may be r\ghly class$ "u ^! heads3-- #a/1 ,t]re/rial & ,aque\s ,rocks4 #b;d1 ,igne\s ,rocks4 #c;d1 ,cry/all9e ,s*i/s4 ,by f> ! l>ge/ areas ( l& are compos$ ( rocks belong+ to ! fir/ class4 ,^! consi/ *iefly ( ! m or less indurat$ s$im5ts ( anci5t riv]s1 lakes1 & seas--namely1 conglom]ate1 s&/one1 %ale1 lime/one1 etc4 ,& n[ & aga91 int]/ratifi$ ) su* aque\s b$s1 we meet ) rocks ( t]re/rial orig91 su* z lignite1 coal1 & ! dbris ( =m] glacial action4 ,n[1 mo/ ( our aque\s rocks h be5 accumulat$ 9 ! sea1 & ?us we arrive at ! conclusion t ! pres5t cont95tal areas h f "t to "t be5 l>gely subm]g$--t ! sea has frequ5tly cov]$ :at are n[ ! dry l&s ( ! globe4 ,b "o rem>kable fact /&s out1 & x is ?is3 ,n[h]e among/ ! s$im5t>y rocks ( ! e>?'s cru/ d we meet ) any anci5t s$im5ts :i* c be lik5$ to ! r$ clay n[ sl[ly accumulat+ 9 ! deep] abysses ( ! ocean4 ,!re are no rocks ( abysmal orig94 ,_m ( our lime/ones h und\bt$ly =m$ 9 deep1 cle> wat]1 b none ( ^! is abysmal4 ,portions ( ,europe may n[ & aga9 h be5 subm]g$ = sev]al ?\s& feet1 b no "p ( ?is or any o!r cont95t1 s f> z we yet "k1 has )9 geological "t be5 depress$ to dep?s comp>able to ^? ( ! pres5t oceanic bas9s4 ,nay1 by f> ! l>g] portions ( our m>9e =mations h accumulat$ 9 comp>atively %all[ wat]--s&/ones & %ales 7s& & mud7 be+ by f> ! mo/ common k9ds ( rock t we enc\nt]4 ,9 %ort1 aque\s /rata h1 z a rule1 be5 deposit$ at no great dep? & at no great di/ance f dry l&2 ! rocks are built up mo/ly ( t]rig5\s mat]ial2 & ev5 ! pur] lime/ones & *alks1 :i* we may suppose accumulat$ 9 seas ( mod]ate dep?1 n infrequ5tly conta9 "s t]re/rial relic :i* has be5 drift$ out to sea1 & af=d o!r evid5ce to %[ t ! ne>e/ l& 0 nev] v f> away4 ,foll[$ along _! outcrop su* rocks soon] or lat] become mix$ & int]b$d$ ) ord9>y s$im5t>y matt]4 ,?us1 = example1 ! ?ick c>bonif]\s lime/one ( ,wales & ! ,midl&s ( ,engl& mu/ h accumulat$ 9 ! cle> wat] ( a mod]ately deep sea4 ,b :5 ?is lime/one is trac$ nor? into ,nor?umb]l& x beg9s to receive int]calations ( s&/one & %ale1 :i* become m & m important1 until 9 ,scotl& !y =m by mu* ! l>g] portion ( ! s]ies--! enorm\s ?ick lime/ones ( ! s\? be+ repres5t$ by only a few inconsid]able b$s1 includ$1 along ) seams ( iron/one & coal1 9 a ?ick succession ( s&/ones & %ales4 ,( ! igne\s rocks & ! cry/all9e s*i/s ,i ne$ n speak at pres5t1 b ,i %all h some?+ to say ab\t !m be=e ,i h done4 ,hav+ le>n$ t no truly abysmal rocks ent] into ! composition ( our cont95ts1 ( :at k9d ( rocks1 we may ask1 are ! isl&s compos$8 ,well1 "s ( ^? isl&s are built up ( precisely ! same mat]ials z we f9d 9 ! cont95ts4 ,?is is ! case ) mo/ isl&s :i* are n sep>at$ f cont95tal areas by pr(\ndly deep seas4 ,?us our own isl&s ) _! num]\s satellites are geologically "o ) ! adjac5t cont95t4 ,_! pres5t sep>ation is a m]e accid5t4 ,7 ! ,european area1 ) ! adjac5t sea-b$1 to be elevat$ = a few hundr$ feet we %\ld f9d t ,brita9 & ,irel& =m geologically "p & p>cel ( ! cont95t4 ,& ! same is ! case ) ,nova ,zembla & ,spitzb]g5 9 ! nor?1 & ) ! ,m$it]ranean isl&s 9 ! s\?4 ,!re is ano!r l>ge class ( isl&s1 h[ev]1 :i* are *>act]is$ by ! total abs5ce ( any ( ^? s$im5t>y rocks ( :i*1 z ,i h j said1 our cont95ts & cont95tal isl&s are *iefly built up4 ,! isl&s ref]r$ to are scatt]$ ov] ! bosom ( ! great ocean1 & are surr\nd$ by pr(\ndly deep wat]4 ,"s are app>5tly compos$ entirely ( coral1 o!rs are ( volcanic orig91 & yet o!rs are =m$ p>tly ( volcanic rock & p>tly ( coral4 ,?us we h two di/9ct k9ds ( isl&3-- #a/1 ,isl&s :i* h at "o "t evid5tly be5 connect$ ) adjac5t cont95ts1 & :i* are !re=e t]m$ cont95tal isl&s2 & #b;d1 ,oceanic isl&s1 :i* rise1 z x 71 f pr(\nd dep?s 9 ! sea1 & :i* h nev] =m$ "p ( ! cont95ts4 ,! fauna & flora ( ! =m] class agree ) ^? ( ! neighb\r+ cont95ts1 al?\gh "s modifications are met )1 especially :5 ! insulation has be5 ( long /&+4 ,:5 su* has be5 ! case ! species ( plants & animals may be almo/ entirely di/9ct4 ,nev]!less1 su* anci5t cont95tal isl&s agree ) ^? :i* h be5 sep>at$ 9 m rec5t geological times 9 conta9+ bo? indig5\s amphibians & mammals4 ,oceanic isl&s1 on ! o!r h&1 conta9 no indig5\s mammals or amphibians1 _! life consi/+ *iefly ( insects & birds1 & usually "s reptiles--j su* a fauna z might h be5 introduc$ by ! influ5ce ( w9ds & ( oceanic curr5ts c>ry+ driftwood4 ,su* facts1 z h n[ be5 briefly summ>is$1 po9t cle>ly to ! conclusion t ! oceanic bas9s & cont95tal areas are ( primeval antiquity4 ,all ! geological facts g to prove t abysmal wat]s h nev] prevail$ ov] ! regions n[ occupi$ by dry l&2 nor is !re any evid5ce to %[ t cont95tal l&-masses ev] exi/$ 9 :at are n[ ! deepe/ portions ( ! ocean4 ,! islets dott$ ov] ! surface ( ! ,pacific & ! o!r great seas are n ! relics ( a va/ subm]g$ cont95t4 ,!y are ei!r ! tops ( subm>9e volcanic m\nta9s1 or !y are coral /ructures f\nd$ ^u ! %\ld]s ( degrad$ volcanoes & m\nta9-*a9s1 & built up to ! surface by ! indefatigable lab\rs ( ! humble polyp4 ,we come !n to ! g5]al conclusion t oceanic bas9s & int]v5+ cont95tal ridges are great primeval wr9kles 9 ! e>?'s cru/--t !y are due to ! s9k+ d[n ( t cru/ ^u ! cool+ & contract+ nucleus4 ,^! va/ wr9kles _h come into exi/5ce long be=e ! =mation ( our olde/ geological /rata4 ,all our rocks may1 9 %ort1 be look$ ^u z =m+ a m]e sup]ficial sk9 cov]+ & conceal+ ! cry/all9e mat]ials :i* no d\bt =m$ ! orig9al surface ( ! e>?'s cru/4 ,hav+ premis$ s mu*1 let me n[ turn to consid] ! geological hi/ory ( our own ,cont95t1 & endeav\r to trace out ! v>i\s /ages 9 its evolution4 ,( c\rse ,i c only d s 9 a v brief & g5]al mann]2 x is impossible to g into details4 ,we %all f9d1 h[ev]1 t ! hi/ory ( ! evolution ( ,europe1 ev5 :5 sket*$ 9 outl9e1 is "o full ( in/ruction = /ud5ts ( physical geography1 & t x amply be>s out ! view ( ! p]man5cy ( ! great] features ( ! e>?'s surface4 ,! olde/ rocks t we "k ( are ! cry/all9e s*i/s & gneiss1 belong+ to :at is call$ ! ,ar*an sy/em4 ,! orig9 ( ^! rocks is /ill a matt] ( controv]sy--"s hold+ !m to be "p ( ! primeval cru/ ( ! globe1 or ! *emical precipitates ( a primeval ocean1 o!rs ma9ta9+ t !y are alt]$ or metamorphos$ rocks ( div]se orig91 a l>ge proportion hav+ consi/$ orig9ally ( aque\s or s$im5t>y rocks1 su* z s&/one & %ale2 :ile n a few are suppos$ to h be5 orig9ally eruptive igne\s rocks4 ,accord+ to "s geologi/s1 !re=e1 ! ,ar*an rocks repres5t ! e>lie/ s$im5ts deposit$ ov] ! cont95tal ridges4 ,x is suppos$ t "h & !re ^? ridges rose above ! surface ( :at may h be5 a boil+ or highly-heat$ ocean1 f ^: wat]s copi\s *emical precipitations took place1 :ile gravel & %+le ga!r$ ar\nd ! %ores ( ! primeval l&s4 ,accord+ to o!r writ]s1 h[ev]1 ! ,ar*an rocks 7 probably accumulat$ "u normal conditions4 ,!y consi/1 x is cont5d$1 p>tly ( s$im5t wa%$ d[n f "s anci5t l&-surface1 & di/ribut$ ov] ! floor ( an old sea 7j z s$im5ts are be+ transport$ & deposit$ 9 our own day71 & p>tly ( anci5t igne\s rocks4 ,_! pres5t "* is attribut$ to subsequ5t *anges1 sup]9duc$ by heat & pressure1 at a "t :5 ! masses 9 "q 7 deeply buri$ "u lat] =mations1 :i* h s9ce be5 wa%$ away4 ,9 a ^w1 we are /ill q unc]ta9 z to ! true orig9 ( ! ,ar*an rocks4 ,n infrequ5tly !y %[ a b$d$ /ructure1 & 9 t respect !y simulate ! appe>ance ( /rata ( s$im5t>y orig94 ,x is v d\btful1 h[ev]1 :e!r ?is b$d$ /ructure is any evid5ce ( an orig9al aque\s arrangem5t4 ,we "k n[ t an appe>ance ( b$d+ has be5 induc$ 9 orig9ally amorph\s rocks dur+ great e>?-movem5ts4 ,granite masses1 = example1 h be5 s cru%$ & squeez$ z to assume a b$d$ aspect1 & a simil> /ructure has be5 develop$ 9 _m o!r k9ds ( rock subject$ to enorm\s pressure4 ,:atev] may h be5 ! orig9 ( ! b$d$ /ructure ( ! ,ar*an rocks1 x is c]ta9 t ! masses h be5 tilt$ up & convolut$ 9 ! mo/ rem>kable mann]4 ,hi!rto !y h yield$ no unequivocal trace ( organic rema9s--! fam\s ,eozoon be+ n[ g5]ally consid]$ z ( purely m9]al orig94 ,! physical conditions "u :i* ! ,ar*an gneiss & s*i/ came into exi/5ce are ?us q undet]m9$1 b geologi/s are agre$ t ! e>lie/ l&-surfaces1 ( ! =m] exi/5ce ( :i* we c be q c]ta91 7 compos$ ( rocks4 ,& ?is br+s u to ! beg9n+ ( reliable geological hi/ory4 ,all subsequ5t geological "t--t1 namely1 ( :i* we h any record pres]v$ 9 ! fossilif]\s /rata--is divid$ into f\r great eras1 namely ! ,palozoic1 ! ,mesozoic1 ! ,ca9ozoic1 & ! ,po/-,t]ti>y eras1 ea* ( :i* embraces v>i\s p]iods1 z foll[s3-- ,po/-,t]ti>y ,rec5t4 ,plei/oc5e4 ,plioc5e4 ,t]ti>y or ,mioc5e4 ,ca9ozoic ,oligoc5e4 ,eoc5e4 ,cretace\s4 ,second>y or ,jurassic4 ,mesozoic ,triassic4 ,p]mian4 ,c>bonif]\s4 ,prim>y or ,devonian & ,old ,r$ ,s&/one4 ,palozoic ,silurian4 ,cambrian4 ,ar*an1 ,fundam5tal ,gneiss4 ,leav+ ! ,ar*an1 we f9d t ! next olde/ /rata are ^? :i* 7 accumulat$ dur+ ! ,cambrian p]iod1 to :i* succe$$ ! ,silurian1 ! ,devonian & ,old ,r$ ,s&/one1 ! ,c>bonif]\s1 & ! ,p]mian p]iods--all repres5t$ by great ?icknesses ( /rata1 :i* ov]spread wide regions4 ,n[1 at ! beg9n+ ( ! ,cambrian p]iod1 we h evid5ce to %[ t ! primeval cont95tal ridge 0 /ill l>gely "u wat]1 ! dry l& be+ mass$ *iefly 9 ! nor?4 ,at t di/ant date a broad l&-surface ext5d$ f ! ,out] ,hebrides nor?-ea/w>ds ?r\gh ,sc&9avia1 ,f9l&1 & nor!rn ,russia4 ,h[ mu* fur!r nor? & nor?-we/ ( ! pres5t limits ( ,europe t anci5t l& may h ext5d$ we _c tell1 b x probably occupi$ wide regions :i* are n[ subm]g$ 9 ! %all[ wat]s ( ! ,arctic ,ocean4 ,9 ! nor? ( ,scotl& a l>ge inl& sea or lake exi/$ 9 ,cambrian times1,,dg & !re is "s evid5ce to sugge/ t simil> lacu/r9e conditions may h obta9$ 9 ! ,wel% area at ! beg9n+ ( ! p]iod4 ,s\? ( ! nor!rn l& lay a %all[ sea cov]+ all middle & s\!rn ,europe4 ,t sea1 h[ev]1 0 dott$ "h & !re ) a few isl&s ( ,ar*an rocks1 occupy+ ! site ( :at are n[ "s ( ! hills ( middle ,g]many1 su* z ! ,ries5 ,gebirge1 ! ,erz ,gebirge1 ! ,fi*tel ,gebirge1 etc41 & possibly "s ( ! ,ar*an di/ricts ( ,france & ! ,ib]ian p59sula4 ,,dg ,! ,r$ ,s&/ones ( ! nor?-we/ ,highl&s are n[ believ$ to be ( pre-,cambrian age4 ,! succe$+ p]iod 0 "o ( em95tly m>9e conditions1 ! wide di/ribution ( ,silurian /rata %[+ t dur+ ! accumulation ( ^!1 enorm\s tracts ( our ,cont95t 7 ov]fl[$ by ! sea4 ,none ( ^! deposits1 h[ev]1 is ( truly oceanic orig94 ,!y appe> = ! mo/ "p to h be5 laid d[n 9 %all[ seas1 :i* "h & !re may h be5 mod]ately deep4 ,dur+ ! =mation ( ! ,l[] ,silurian ! :ole ( ! ,briti% area1 ) ! exception p]haps ( "s ( ! ,ar*an tracts ( ! nor?-we/1 seems to h be5 "u wat]4 ,! subm]g5ce _h comm5c$ 9 ,cambrian times1 & 0 cont9u$ up to ! close ( ! ,l[] ,silurian p]iod4 ,dur+ ?is long-cont9u$ p]iod ( subm]g5ce volcanic activity manife/$ itself at v>i\s po9ts--our c\ntry be+ repres5t$ at t "t by gr\ps ( volcanic isl&s1 scatt]$ ov] ! site ( :at is n[ ,wales1 & ext5d+ we/w>d into ! ,iri% region1 & nor?w>ds into ! di/ricts ( ,cumb]l& & s\? ,ayr%ire4 ,t[>ds ! close ( ! ,l[] ,silurian p]iod consid]able e>?-movem5ts took place1 :i* _h ! effect ( increas+ ! am\nt ( dry l&1 ! mo/ cont9u\s mass or masses ( :i* /ill occupi$ ! nor!rn & nor?-we/]n "p ( our ,cont95t4 ,9 ! beg9n+ ( ,upp] ,silurian times a broad sea cov]$ ! major portion ( middle & probably all s\!rn ,europe4 ,num]\s isl&s1 h[ev]1 w\ld seem to h exi/$ 9 su* regions z ,wales1 & ! v>i\s tracts ( old] ,palozoic & ,ar*an rocks ( middle ,g]many4 ,_m ( ^! isl&s1 h[ev]1 7 p>tially & "s entirely subm]g$ be=e ! close ( ,silurian times4 ,! next great p]iod--t1 namely1 :i* witness$ ! accumulation ( ! ,devonian & ,old ,r$ ,s&/one /rata--0 9 "s respects /rongly contra/$ to ! prec$+ p]iod4 ,! ,silurian rocks1 z ,i h said1 are em95tly m>9e4 ,! ,old ,r$ ,s&/ones1 on ! o!r h&1 appe> to h be5 accumulat$ *iefly 9 great lakes or inl& seas1 & !y betok5 !re=e ! =m] exi/5ce ( ext5sive l&s1 :ile ! contemporane\s ,devonian /rata are ( m>9e orig94 ,t[>ds ! close ( ! ,upp] ,silurian p]iod1 !n1 we "k t consid]able upheavals ensu$ 9 we/]n & nor?-we/]n ,europe1 & wide /ret*es ( ! ,silurian sea-bottom 7 conv]t$ into dry l&4 ,! geographical di/ribution ( ! ,devonian 9 ,europe1 & ! relation ( t sy/em to ! ,silurian1 %[ t ! ,devonian sea did n cov] s broad an expanse z t ( ! ,upp] ,silurian4 ,! sea _h %all[$1 & ! area ( dry l& _h increas$ :5 ! ,devonian /rata began to accumulate4 ,9 try+ to realise ! conditions t obta9$ dur+ ! =mation ( ! ,devonian & ! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one1 we may picture to ourselves a "t :5 ! ,atlantic ,ocean ext5d$ ea/w>ds ov] ! s\? ( ,engl& & ! nor?-ea/ ( ,france1 & occupi$ ! major portion ( c5tral ,europe1 sweep+ nor?-ea/ into ,russia1 & h[ mu* fur!r we _c tell4 ,nor? ( t sea /ret*$ a wide l&-surface1 9 ! holl[s ( :i* lay great lakes or inl& seas1 :i* seem n[ & aga9 to h _h communication ) ! op5 ocean4 ,x 0 9 ^! lakes t ! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one 0 accumulat$1 :ile ! ,devonian or m>9e rocks 7 =m$ 9 ! wide wat]s ly+ to ! s\?4 ,subm>9e volcanoes 7 active at t "t 9 ,g]many2 & simil>ly 9 ,scotl& num]\s volcanoes exi/$1 su* z ^? ( ! ,sidlaw ,hills & ! ,*eviots4 ,! ,c>bonif]\s sy/em conta9s ! record ( a long & complex s]ies ( geographical *anges1 b ! *ief po9ts ( importance 9 ! pres5t rapid review may be v briefly summ$ up4 ,9 ! e>li] "p ( ! p]iod m>9e conditions prevail$4 ,?us we f9d evid5ce to %[ t ! sea ext5d$ fur!r nor? ?an x did dur+ ! prec$+ ,devonian p]iod4 ,dur+ ! =mation ( ! m\nta9-lime/one1 a deep sea cov]$ ! major portion ( ,irel& & ,engl&1 b %all[$ (f z x ent]$ ! ,scotti% area4 ,a few rocky islets 7 all t repres5t$ ,irel& & ,engl& at t "t4 ,pass+ ea/w>ds1 ! ,c>bonif]\s sea appe>s to h cov]$ ! l[-gr\nds ( middle ,europe & enorm\s tracts 9 ,russia4 ,! deepe/ "p ( ! sea lay ov] ! ,anglo-,hib]nian & ,franco-,belgian areas2 t[>ds ! ea/ x became %all[]4 ,probably ! same sea swept ov] all s\!rn ,europe1 b _m isl&s may h div]sifi$ its surface1 z 9 ,brittany & c5tral ,france1 9 ,spa9 & ,portugal1 & 9 ! v>i\s areas ( old] ,palozoic & ,ar*an rocks 9 c5tral & s\?-we/ ,europe4 ,9 ! latt] /ages ( ! ,c>bonif]\s p]iod1 ! limits ( ! sea 7 mu* circumscrib$1 & wide cont95tal conditions sup]v5$4 ,enorm\s m>%es1 jungles1 & =e/s n[ ov]spread ! newly-=m$ l&s4 ,ano!r feature ( ! ,c>bonif]\s 0 ! great numb] ( volcanoes--subm>9e & sub-arial--:i* 7 p>ticul>ly abundant 9 ,scotl&1 especially dur+ ! e>li] /ages ( ! p]iod4 ,! rocks ( ! ,p]mian p]iod seem to h be5 deposit$ *iefly 9 clos$ bas9s4 ,:51 ow+ to ! movem5t ( elevation or upheaval :i* took place 9 late ,c>bonif]\s times1 ! c>bonif]\s lime/one sea _h be5 dra9$ away f ext5sive areas 9 c5tral ,europe1 wide /ret*es ( sea /ill cov]$ c]ta9 consid]able tracts4 ,^!1 h[ev]1 z "t w5t on1 7 cut (f f ! ma9 ocean & conv]t$ into great salt lakes4 ,su* inl& seas ov]spread mu* ( ! l[-ly+ tracts ( ,brita9 & middle ,g]many1 & !y also ext5d$ ov] a broad space 9 ! nor?-ea/ ( ,russia4 ,x 0 9 ^! seas t ! ,p]mian /rata 7 accumulat$4 ,! p]iod1 x may be add$1 0 m>k$ by ! appe>ance ( volcanic action 9 ,scotl& & ,g]many4 ,s f>1 !n1 z our pres5t k goes1 t "p ( ! ,european cont95t :i* 0 ! e>lie/ to be evolv$ lay t[>ds ! nor?-we/ & nor?4 ,all ?r\gh ! ,palozoic era a l&-surface w\ld seem to h endur$ 9 t direction--a l&-surface f ! d5udation or we>+ d[n ( :i* ! m>9e s$im5t>y =mations ( ! bord]+ regions 7 d]iv$4 ,b :5 we reflect on ! great ?ickness & horizontal ext5t ( ^? s$im5ts1 we c h>dly d\bt t ! primeval l& mu/ h _h a mu* wid] range t[>ds ! nor? & nor?-we/ ?an is ! case ) mod]n ,europe4 ,! l&s1 f :i* ! old] ,palozoic m>9e s$im5ts ( ! ,briti% ,isl&s & ,sc&9avia 7 obta9$1 mu/1 = ! mo/ "p1 be n[ subm]g$4 ,9 lat] ,palozoic times l& began to ext5d 9 ! ,spani% p59sula1 nor!rn ,france1 & middle ,europe1 ! d5udation ( :i* d\btless furni%$ mat]ials = ! elaboration ( ! contemporane\s /rata ( ^? regions4 ,s\!rn ,europe is s l>gely compos$ ( ,mesozoic & ,ca9ozoic rocks t we c say v little z to ! condition ( t area 9 ,palozoic times1 b ! probabilities are t x cont9u$ = ! mo/ "p "u m>9e conditions4 ,9 few words1 !n1 we may conclude t :ile aft] ,ar*an times dry l& prevail$ 9 ! nor? & nor?-we/1 m>9e conditions pr$om9at$ fur!r s\?4 ,ev] & anon1 h[ev]1 ! sea vani%$ f wide regions 9 c5tral ,europe1 & 0 replac$ by t]re/rial & lacu/r9e conditions4 ,fur!r1 z none ( ! ,palozoic m>9e /rata indicates a deep ocean1 b all consi/ = ! mo/ "p ( accumulations =m$ at mod]ate dep?s1 x foll[s t !re mu/ h be5 a g5]al subsid5ce ( our area to all[ ( _! successive deposition--a subsid5ce1 h[ev]1 :i* 0 frequ5tly int]rupt$ by long pauses1 & sometimes by movem5ts 9 ! opposite direction4 ,! fir/ p]iod ( ! ,mesozoic era1 namely1 ! ,triassic1 0 *>act]is$ by mu* ! same k9d ( conditions z obta9$ t[>ds ! close ( ,palozoic times4 ,a l>ge inl& sea !n cov]$ a consid]able portion ( ,engl&1 & seems to h ext5d$ nor? into ! s\? ( ,scotl&1 & across ! area ( ! ,iri% ,sea into ! nor?-ea/ ( ,irel&4 ,ano!r inl& sea ext5d$ we/w>d f ! ,?r+]-,wald across ! ,vosges into ,france1 & /ret*$ nor?w>ds f ! conf9es ( ,switz]l& ov] :at are n[ ! l[-gr\nds ( ,holl& & nor!rn ,g]many4 ,9 ?is anci5t sea ! ,h>z ,m\nta9s =m$ a rocky isl&4 ,:ile t]re/rial & lacu/r9e conditions ?us obta9$ 9 c5tral & nor!rn ,europe1 an op5 sea exi/$ 9 ! m s\!rly regions ( ! cont95t4 ,t[>ds ! close ( ! p]iod subm]g5ce ensu$ 9 ! ,engli% & ,g]man areas1 & ! salt lakes became connect$ ) ! op5 sea4 ,dur+ ! ,jurassic p]iod ! regions n[ occupi$ 9 ,brita9 & ,irel& by ! old] rocks appe> to h be5 *iefly dry l&4 ,scotl& & ,irel&1 = ! mo/ "p1 /ood above ! sea-level1 :ile ne>ly all ,engl& 0 "u wat]--! hills ( ,cumb]l& & ,we/morel&1 ! ,p5n9e *a91 ,wales1 ! heights ( ,devon & ,cornwall1 & a ridge ( ,palozoic rocks :i* und]lies ,london1 be+ ! *ief l&s 9 s\? ,brita94 ,! same sea ov]fl[$ an ext5sive portion ( :at is n[ ! ,cont95t4 ,! old] rocks 9 ! nor?-we/ & nor?-ea/ ( ,france1 & ! c5tral plateau ( ! same c\ntry1 =m$ dry l&2 all ! re/ ( t c\ntry 0 subm]g$4 ,9 l mann] ! sea cov]$ mu* ( ea/]n ,spa94 ,9 middle ,europe x ov]fl[$ ne>ly all ! l[-gr\nds ( nor? ,g]many1 & ext5d$ f> ea/ into ! he>t ( ,russia4 ,x occupi$ ! site ( ! ,jura ,m\nta9s1 & pass$ ea/w>d into ,bohemia1 :ile on ! s\? side ( ! ,alps x spread ov] a l>ge "p ( ,italy1 ext5d+ ea/w>d s z to subm]ge a broad area 9 ,au/ria-,hung>y & ! ,turki% prov9ces4 ,?us ! nor!rn latitudes ( ,europe cont9u$ to be ! site ( ! *ief l&-masses1 :at are n[ ! c5tral & s\!rn portions ( ! ,cont95t be+ a great ar*ipelago ) num]\s isl&s1 l>ge & small4 ,! ,jurassic rocks1 atta9+ z !y d a ?ickness ( sev]al ?\s& feet1 po9t to v consid]able subsid5ce4 ,! movem5t1 h[ev]1 0 n cont9u\s1 b ev] & anon 0 int]rupt$ by pauses4 ,tak5 z a :ole1 ! /rata appe> to h accumulat$ 9 a comp>atively %all[ sea1 :i*1 h[ev]1 0 suffici5tly deep 9 places to all[ ( ! gr[?1 9 cle> wat]1 ( coral-reefs4 ,t[>ds ! close ( ! ,jurassic p]iod a movem5t ( elevation ensu$1 :i* caus$ ! sea to retreat f wide areas1 & ?us :5 ! ,cretace\s p]iod began ! ,briti% region 0 *iefly dry l&4 ,middle ,europe w\ld seem also to h p>ticipat$ 9 ?is upw>d movem5t4 ,ev5tually1 h[ev]1 subsid5ce aga9 ensu$4 ,mo/ ( :at are n[ ! l[-gr\nds ( ,brita9 7 subm]g$1 ! sea /ret*+ ea/w>ds ov] a va/ region 9 middle ,europe1 z f> z ! slopes ( ! ,urals4 ,! deepe/ "p ( ?is sea1 h[ev]1 0 9 ! we/1 & lay ov] ,engl& & nor!rn ,france4 ,fur!r ea/1 9 :at are n[ ,saxony & ,bohemia1 ! wat]s 7 %all[1 & gradually became silt$ up4 ,9 ! ,m$it]ranean bas9 a wide op5 sea exi/$1 cov]+ l>ge sections ( ea/]n ,spa9 & s\!rn ,france1 ov]fl[+ ! site ( ! ,jura ,m\nta9s1 dr[n+ mo/ ( ! ,alp9e ,l&s1 ! ,italian p59sula1 ! ea/]n bord]s ( ! ,adriatic1 & ,greece4 ,9 %ort1 !re are good gr\nds = believ+ t ! ,cretace\s ,m$it]ranean 0 n only mu* broad] ?an ! pres5t sea1 b t x ext5d$ into ,asia1 ov]:elm+ va/ regions !re1 & communicat$ ) ! ,indian ,ocean4 ,summ+ up :at we "k ( ! pr9cipal geographical *anges t took place dur+ ! ,mesozoic era1 we are impress$ ) ! fact t1 all ?r\gh ^? *anges1 a wide l&-surface p]si/$ 9 ! nor? & nor?-we/ ( ! ,european area1 j z 0 ! case 9 ,palozoic times4 ,! highe/ gr\nds 7 ! ,urals & ! upl&s ( ,sc&9avia & ,brita94 ,9 middle ,europe ! ,pyr5ees & ! ,alps 7 z yet inconsid]able heights1 ! l(tie/ l&s be+ ^? ( ! ,h>z1 ! ,ries5 ,gebirge1 & o!r regions ( ,palozoic & ,ar*an rocks4 ,! l[] p>ts ( ,engl& & ! great pla9s ( c5tral ,europe 7 sometimes subm]g$ 9 ! wat]s ( a m or less cont9u\s sea2 b ev] & anon elevation ensu$1 & ! sea 0 divid$1 z x 71 into a s]ies ( great lakes4 ,9 ! s\? ( ,europe a ,m$it]ranean ,sea w\ld appe> to h endur$ all ?r\gh ! ,mesozoic era--a ,m$it]ranean ( consid]ably great] ext5t1 h[ev]1 ?an ! pres5t4 ,?us we see ! ma9 features ( our ,cont95t 7 already cle>ly outl9$ be=e ! close ( ! ,cretace\s p]iod4 ,! cont95tal area !n1 z n[1 consi/$ ( a wide belt ( high-gr\nd 9 ! nor?1 ext5d+ r\ghly f s\?-we/ to nor?-ea/2 s\? ( ?is a va/ /ret* ( l[-gr\nds1 sweep+ f we/ to ea/ up to ! foot ( ! ,urals1 & b\nd$ on ! s\? by an irregul> zone ( elevat$ l& hav+ approximately ! same tr5d2 /ill fur!r s\?1 ! m>itime tracts ( ! ,m$it]ranean bas94 ,dur+ p]iods ( depression ! l[-gr\nds ( c5tral ,europe 7 invad$ by ! sea1 & ! ,m$it]ranean at ! same "t ext5d$ nor? ov] _m regions :i* are n[ dry l&4 ,x is 9 ^! two l[-ly+ tracts1 !re=e1 & ! c\ntry imm$iately adjo9+ !m1 t ! ,mesozoic /rata ( ,europe are *iefly develop$4 ,a g5]al movem5t ( upheaval,,dh sup]v5$ at ! close ( ! ,cretace\s p]iod1 & ! sea :i*1 dur+ t p]iod1 ov]fl[$ s mu* ( middle ,europe _h l>gely disappe>$ be=e ! beg9n+ ( ,eoc5e times4 ,! s\!rn portions ( ! cont95t1 h[ev]1 7 /ill mo/ly "u wat]1 :ile great bays & arms ( ! sea ext5d$ nor?w>ds n[ & aga9 into c5tral ,europe4 ,on to ! close ( ! ,mioc5e p]iod1 inde$1 s\!rn & s\?-ea/]n ,europe consi/$ ( a s]ies ( irregul> /raggl+ isl&s & p59sulas wa%$ by ! wat]s ( a g5ial sea4 ,t[>ds ! close ( e>ly ,ca9ozoic times1 ! ,alps1 :i* _h hi!rto be5 ( small importance1 7 greatly upheav$1 z 7 also ! ,pyr5ees & ! ,c>pa?ians4 ,! floor ( ! ,eoc5e sea 9 ! ,alp9e region 0 ridg$ up = _m ?\s&s ( feet1 its deposits be+ fold$1 twi/$1 inv]t$1 & metamorphos$4 ,ano!r great elevation ( ! same area 0 effect$ aft] ! ,mioc5e p]iod1 ! accumulations ( t p]iod n[ =m+ consid]able m\nta9s along ! nor!rn flanks ( ! ,alp9e *a94 ,not)/&+ ^! gigantic elevations 9 s\?-c5tral ,europe--p]haps 9 consequ5ce ( !m--! l[-ly+ tracts ( :at is n[ s\!rn ,europe cont9u$ to be l>gely subm]g$1 & ev5 ! middle regions ( ! cont95t 7 n[ & aga9 occupi$ by broad lakes :i* sometimes communicat$ ) ! sea4 ,9 ,mioc5e times1 = example1 an arm ( ! ,m$it]ranean ext5d$ up ! ,rhone valley1 & /ret*$ across ! nor? ( ,switz]l& to ! bas9 ( ! ,danube4 ,aft] ! elevation ( ! ,mioc5e /rata ^! inl& /ret*es ( sea disappe>$1 b ! ,m$it]ranean /ill ov]fl[$ wid] areas 9 s\!rn ,europe ?an x does 9 our day4 ,ev5tually1 h[ev]1 9 late ,plioc5e times1 ! b$ ( t sea exp]i5c$ consid]able elevation1 new] ,plioc5e /rata occurr+ 9 ,sicily up to a height ( #cjjj feet at lea/4 ,x 0 probably at or ab\t t p]iod t ! ,black ,sea & ! ,sea ( ,asov retreat$ f ! wide l[-gr\nds ( s\!rn ,russia1 & t ! inl& seas & lakes ( ,au/ria-,hung>y f9ally vani%$4 ,,dh ,i n[ d\bt :e!r any v]tical upheaval ( a wide cont95tal area is possible4 ,! s-call$ cont95tal uplifts are probably 9 mo/ cases r negative ?an positive elevations4 ,9 o!r words1 ! l& seems to rise simply because ! sea retreats ow+ p]haps to ! s9k+ ( ! cru/ )9 ! great oceanic bas9s4 ,see on ?is subject1 ,article ,,xiii4 ,! ,ca9ozoic era is di/+ui%$ 9 ,europe = its volcanic ph5om5a4 ,! gr&e/ eruptions 7 ^? ( ,oligoc5e times4 ,to t date belong ! basalts ( ,antrim1 ,mull1 ,skye1 ! ,f>e ,isl&s1 & ! old] s]ies ( volcanic rocks 9 ,icel&4 ,^! basalts speak to u ( prodigi\s fissure eruptions1 :5 molt5 rock well$ up along ! l9es ( great cracks 9 ! e>?'s cru/1 flood+ wide regions1 & build+ up enorm\s plateaux1 ( :i* we n[ behold ! m]e/ fragm5ts4 ,! anci5t volcanoes ( c5tral ,france1 ^? ( ! ,eifel c\ntry & _m o!r places 9 ,g]many1 & ! volcanic rocks ( ,hung>y1 are all ( ,ca9ozoic age2 :ile1 9 ! s\? ( ,europe1 ,etna1 ,vesuvius1 & o!r ,italian volcanoes date _! orig9 to ! lat] /ages ( ! same great era4 ,?us be=e ! beg9n+ ( ,plei/oc5e times all ! ma9 features ( ,europe _h come into exi/5ce4 ,s9ce ! close ( ! ,plioc5e p]iod !re h be5 _m great revolutions ( climate2 sev]al v consid]able oscillations ( ! sea-level h tak5 place1 & ! l& has be5 subject$ to p[]ful & long-cont9u$ erosion4 ,b ! great] cont\rs ( ! surface :i* began to appe> 9 ,palozoic times1 & :i* 9 ,mesozoic times 7 m /rongly pron\nc$1 _h be5 fully evolv$ by ! close ( ! ,plioc5e p]iod4 ,! mo/ rem>kable geographical *anges :i* h tak5 place s9ce !n h be5 successive elevations & depressions1 9 consequ5ce ( :i* ! area ( our ,cont95t has be5 alt]nately increas$ & dim9i%$4 ,at a "t well )9 ! human p]iod our own isl&s h be5 unit$ to !mselves & ! ,cont95t1 & ! dry l& has ext5d$ nor?-we/ & nor?1 s z to include ,spitzb]g51 ! ,f>e ,isl&s1 & p]haps ,icel&4 ,on ! o!r h&1 our isl&s h be5 )9 a rec5t p]iod l>gely subm]g$4 ,! g5]al conclusion1 !n1 to :i* we are l$ by a review ( ! great] geographical *anges ?r\gh :i* ! ,european cont95t has pass$ is simply ?is--t ! sub/ructure ^u :i* all our s$im5t>y /rata repose is ( primeval antiquity4 ,our dry l&s are built up ( rocks :i* h be5 accumulat$ ov] ! surface ( a great wr9kle ( ! e>?'s cru/4 ,!re h be5 endless movem5ts ( elevation & depression1 caus+ m9or de=mations1 z x 71 ( t wr9kle1 & induc+ con/ant *anges 9 ! di/ribution ( l& & wat]2 b no "p ( ! cont95tal ridge has ev] be5 depress$ to an abysmal dep?4 ,! ridge has endur$ ?r\gh all geological "t4 ,we c see also t ! l& has be5 evolv$ accord+ to a def9ite plan4 ,c]ta9 m>k$ features beg9 to appe> v e>ly 9 ,palozoic times1 & become m & m pron\nc$ z ! ages roll on4 ,all ! c\ntless oscillations ( level1 all ! myriad *anges 9 ! di/ribution ( l& & wat]1 all ! e>?quake di/urbances & volcanic eruptions--9 a ^w1 all ! complex mutations to :i* ! geological record be>s witness--h _h = _! end ! completion ( "o gr& design4 ,a /udy ( ! geological /ructure ( ,europe--an exam9ation ( ! mann] 9 :i* ! highly fold$ & di/urb$ /rata are develop$--?r[s no small light ^u ! orig9 ( ! l>g] or dom9ant features ( our ,cont95t4 ,! mo/ highly convolut$ rocks are ^? ( ,ar*an & ,palozoic age1 & ^! are develop$ *iefly 9 ! nor?-we/]n & we/]n p>ts ( ! ,cont95t4 ,highly contort$ /rata likewise appe> 9 all ! m\nta9-*a9s ( c5tral ,europe--"s ( ! rocks be+ ( ,palozoic1 :ile o!rs are ( ,mesozoic & ( ,ca9ozoic age4 ,leav+ ^! m\nta9s = ! mom5t out ( acc\nt1 we f9d t x is along ! we/]n & nor?-we/]n sea-bo>d :]e we enc\nt] ! wide/ regions ( highly-di/urb$ rocks4 ,! ,highl&s ( ,sc&9avia & ,brita9 are compos$1 = ! mo/ "p1 ( highly-flex$ & convolut$ rocks1 :i* speak to titanic movem5ts ( ! cru/2 & simil> mu*-cru%$ & tilt$ rock-masses occur 9 nor?-we/ ,france1 9 ,portugal1 & 9 we/]n ,spa94 ,b :5 we foll[ ! highly-fold$ ,palozoic /rata ( ,sc&9avia into ! l[-gr\nds ( ! great pla9s1 !y gradually flatt5 out1 until 9 ,russia !y occur 9 undi/urb$ horizontal positions4 ,ov] ?\s&s ( squ>e miles 9 t c\ntry ! ,palozoic rocks are j z little alt]$ & di/urb$ z /rata p]ta9+ to ,mesozoic & ,ca9ozoic times4 ,^! facts c h b "o mean+4 ,c\ld we smoo? out all ! puck]+s1 creases1 fold+s1 & flexures :i* *>act]ise ! ,ar*an & ,palozoic rocks ( we/]n & nor?-we/]n ,europe1 x is c]ta9 t ^! /rata w\ld /ret* = _m miles out into ! ,atlantic4 ,obvi\sly !y h be5 compress$ & crumpl$ up by "s =ce act+ ^u !m f ! we/4 ,n[1 if x be true t ! bas9 ( ! ,atlantic is ( primeval orig91 !n x is obvi\s t ! s9k+ d[n ( ! cru/ )9 t area w\ld ex]t enorm\s pressure ^u ! bord]s ( our cont95tal area4 ,z cool+ & contract+ ( ! nucleus cont9u$1 subsid5ce w\ld g on "u ! oceanic bas91 depression tak+ place ei!r sl[ly & gradually1 dur+ protract$ p]iods1 or n[ & aga9 m or less sudd5ly4 ,b :e!r gradually or sudd5ly effect$1 ! result ( ! subsid5ce w\ld be ! same ^u ! bord]s ( our ,cont95t2 ! /rata along ! :ole we/]n & nor?-we/]n m>g9s ( ! ,european ridge w\ld necess>ily be flex$ & di/urb$4 ,away to ! ea/1 h[ev]1 ! /rata1 n be+ subject to ! l pressure1 w\ld be left 9 _! orig9al horizontal positions4 ,n[ x c be %[n t ! m\nta9s ( ,sc&9avia & ! ,briti% ,isl&s are mu* old] ?an ! ,alps1 ! ,pyr5ees1 & _m o!r conspicu\s ranges 9 c5tral & s\!rn ,europe4 ,our m\nta9s & ^? ( ,sc&9avia are ! m]e wrecks ( _! =m] selves4 ,orig9ally !y may h rival$--!y probably exce$$--! ,alps 9 height & ext5t4 ,x is mo/ likely1 inde$1 t ! areas ( ,palozoic rocks 9 ,france1 ,portugal1 & ,spa9 also atta9$ m\nta9\s elevations4 ,b ! pr9cipal upheaval ( ! we/]n m>g9s ( our ,cont95t 0 practically complet$ be=e ! close ( ! ,palozoic p]iod1 & s9ce t "t ^? elevat$ regions h be5 subject$ to prodigi\s erosion1 ! lat] =mations be+ 9 l>ge measure compos$ ( _! dbris4 ,i d n1 ( c\rse1 wi% x to be und]/ood t !re has be5 no upheaval affect+ ! we/ ( ,europe s9ce ,palozoic times4 ,! tilt$ position ( _m ( our ,mesozoic /rata cle>ly proves ! contr>y4 ,b und\bt$ly ! ma9 di/urbances :i* produc$ ! fold+1 fractur+1 & contortion ( ! ,palozoic /rata ( we/]n ,europe took place be=e ! close ( ! ,palozoic p]iod4 ,! m\nta9s ( ,brita9 & ,sc&9avia are among/ ! olde/ 9 ,europe4 ,:5 we come to inquire into ! orig9 ( ! m\nta9s ( c5tral ,europe we h little difficulty 9 detect+ ! *ief factors 9 _! =mation4 ,an exam9ation ( ! ,pyr5ees1 ! ,alps1 & o!r hill-ranges hav+ ! same g5]al tr5d %[s u t !y consi/ ( flex$ & convolut$ rocks4 ,!y are1 9 %ort1 m\nta9s ( elevation1 ridg$ up by tang5tial ?ru/s4 ,( ?is we ne$ n h ! slighte/ d\bt4 ,if1 = example1 we approa* ! ,alps f ! l[-gr\nds ( ,france1 we obs]ve ! /rata z we come t[>ds ! ,jura beg9n+ to undulate--! undulations becom+ m & m m>k$1 & pass+ into %>p folds & plications1 until1 9 ! ,alps1 ! b$s become twi/$1 convolut$1 & b5t back ^u !mselves 9 ! wilde/ confusion4 ,n[1 speak+ 9 g5]al t]ms1 we may say t simil> facts confront u 9 connection ) e true m\nta9-range 9 c5tral ,europe4 ,let x be not$1 fur!r1 t all ^? ranges h ! same tr5d1 :i* we may take to be approximately ea/ & we/1 or ne>ly at "r angles to ! tr5d ( ! ,palozoic high-gr\nds ( we/]n & nor?-we/]n ,europe4 ,look$ at broadly1 our cont95tal ridge may be said to be trav]s$ f we/ to ea/ by two wide depressions or tr\ghs1 sep>at$ by ! int]v5+ belt ( high] gr\nds j ref]r$ to4 ,! =m] ( ^! tr\ghs corresponds to ! great c5tral pla91 :i* passes ?r\gh ! s\? ( ,engl&1 nor?-ea/ ,france1 ! ,l[ ,c\ntries1 & ,d5m>k1 :5ce x sweeps ea/ ?r\gh ,g]many1 & exp&s into ! wide l[-gr\nds ( ,russia4 ,! s\!rn tr\gh or depression embraces ! m>itime tracts ( ! ,m$it]ranean & ! regions :i* t sea cov]s4 ,su*1 !n1 are ! dom9ant features ( our ,cont95t1 to :i* all o!rs are ( subord9ate importance4 ,n[ x _c be d\bt$ t ! two great tr\ghs are belts ( subsid5ce 9 ! cont95tal ridge itself4 ,& _! exi/5ce expla9s ! orig9 ( ! m\nta9-ranges :i* sep>ate !m4 ,we "k t ! nor!rn tr\gh is ( extreme antiquity2 x is old]1 at all ev5ts1 ?an ! ,silurian p]iod4 ,ev5 at t di/ant date its s\!rn limits 7 m>k$ out by ridges ( ,ar*an rocks1 :i* seem to h =m$ isl&s 9 :at is n[ middle ,g]many1 & probably also 9 ,switz]l& & c5tral ,france4 ,! appe>ance ( ^? ,ar*an rocks 9 c5tral ,europe 0 d\btless due to a ridg+ up ( ! cru/ induc$ by ^? p>allel movem5ts ( subsid5ce :i* produc$ ! nor!rn & s\!rn tr\ghs4 ,! nor!rn tr\gh 0 probably always ! %all[] depression ( ! two1 = we h evid5ce to %[ t1 aga9 & aga9 9 ,mesozoic & lat] times1 ! seas :i* ov]fl[$ :at are n[ ! c5tral pla9s ( ,europe 7 ( less consid]able dep? ?an t :i* occupi$ ! ,m$it]ranean tr\gh4 ,z "t roll$ on1 !re=e1 ! nor!rn tr\gh ev5tually became silt$ up2 b s l[ ev5 n[ is ! level ( t tr\gh t a relatively slight depression w\ld cause ! sea to inundate mo/ ext5sive regions 9 middle ,europe4 ,9 ,ca9ozoic times1 z we h se51 ! la/ great elevation ( ! ,alps 0 effect$--an elevation :i* c h>dly h be5 due to any o!r cause ?an ! m or less abrupt depression ( ! e>?'s cru/ "u ! ,m$it]ranean bas94 ,! area ( t sea is n[ mu* less consid]able ?an x 0 9 ,t]ti>y times--a *ange due 9 "p to silt+ up1 b *iefly p]haps to ! s9k+ d[n ( its b$ to pr(\nd] dep?s4 ,?us we may conclude t f a v e>ly p]iod--a p]iod ante-dat+ ! =mation ( our olde/ fossilif]\s /rata--! physical /ructure ( our ,cont95t _h already be5 plann$4 ,! dom9ant features ( ! primeval cont95tal ridge are ^? :i* h endur$ ?r\gh all geological "t4 ,!y are ! l9es along :i* ! beautiful l&s 9 :i* we dwell h be5 con/ruct$4 ,tilt$ & convolut$1 brok5 & cru%$ by myriad e>?-movem5ts--sc>r$1 furr[$1 worn & degrad$ by ! fro/s1 ! ra9s1 ! riv]s1 & ! seas ( c\ntless ages--! rocks ( our ,cont95t are yet eloqu5t ( design4 ,:]e ! ignorant sees no?+ save confusion & discord1 ! ?\ghtful /ud5t beholds ev]y:]e ! evid5ce ( a well-ord]$ evolution4 ,su* is ! conclusion to :i* we are l$ by all geological rese>*4 ,illu/ration3 ,,sket*-,,maps ,,illu/rat+ ,,! ,,geographical ,,evolution ,,( ,,cont95tal ,,areas ,by ,,pr(essor ,,james ,,geikie1 ,,ll4,d41 ,d4,c4,l41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,,plate ,v ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,,map ,,%[+ ,,! ,,map ,,%[+ ,,! ,,area ,,( ,,cont95tal ,,plateau ,,area ,,( ,,cont95tal ,,plateau ,,occupi$ ,,by ,,sea ,,9 ,,occupi$ ,,by ,,sea ,,9 ,,pal,,ozoic ,,times4 ,,t]ti>y ,,times4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,,map ,,%[+ ,,! ,,map ,,%[+ ,,! ,,area ,,( ,,cont95tal ,,plateau ,,areas ,,( ,,dom9ant ,,depression ,,occupi$ ,,by ,,sea ,,9 ,,& ,,elevation4 ,,mesozoic ,,times4 7,bel[ ,above ! #ajjj fa?om ,cont\r ,l9e7 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,! ,ed9burgh ,geographic ,in/itute ,j4 ,g4 ,b>?olomew1 ,f4,r4,g4,s4 ,,xii4 ,! ,evolution ( ,climate4,,di ,,di ,address deliv]$ be=e ! ,royal ,physical ,society at ! op5+ ( ! ,session #ahhi-ij4 ,"o ( ! mo/ int]e/+ que/ions ) :i* geological sci5ce has to deal is t ( ! evolution ( climate4 ,al?\gh !re is no g5]al agreem5t z to h[ =m] climatic fluctuations came ab\t1 yet ! preval5t op9ion is t 9 ! pa/1 j z 9 ! pres5t1 ! "* ( ! climate mu/ h dep5d$ ma9ly on latitude & ! relative position ( ! great l&- & wat]-areas4 ,?is 0 ! doctr9e taught by ,lyell1 & its cog5cy none w v5ture to dispute4 ,x is true he po/ulat$ a total r$i/ribution ( oceans & cont95ts--a view :i* ! progress ( sci5ce has %[n to be unt5able4 ,we c no long] speculate ) him on ! possibility ( all ! great l&-areas hav+ be5 gr\p$ at "o "t r\nd ! equator1 & at "s o!r p]iod ab\t ! poles4 ,on ! contr>y1 ! evid5ce goes to %[ t ! cont95ts h nev] *ang$ places ) ! ocean--t ! dom9ant features ( ! e>?'s cru/ are ( primeval antiquity1 & ante-date ! olde/ ( ! fossilif]\s =mations4 ,! :ole "q ( climatic *anges1 !re=e1 mu/ be reconsid]$ f ! po9t ( view ( ! mod]n doctr9e ( ! p]man5cy ( cont95tal & oceanic areas4 ,b be=e proce$+ to ?is discussion1 x may be well to glance = a mom5t at ! evid5ce f :i* x has be5 inf]r$ t ! climate ( ! _w has v>i$4 ,among ! *ief pro(s ( climatic fluctuations are ! "* & ! di/ribution ( =m] floras & faunas4 ,x is true1 fossils are1 = ! mo/ "p1 relics ( ext9ct =ms1 & we _c ass]t ( any "o ( ^! t its environm5t mu/ h be5 ! same z t ( "s analog\s liv+ type4 ,b1 al?\gh we c base no argum5t on individual ext9ct =ms1 x does n foll[ t we are preclud$ f judg+ ( ! conditions "u :i* a :ole suite ( ext9ct organisms may h liv$4 ,d\btless1 we c only reason f ! analogy ( ! pres5t2 b1 :5 we take into acc\nt all ! =ms met ) 9 "s p>ticul> geological sy/em1 we seem ju/ifi$ 9 draw+ c]ta9 conclusions z to ! conditions "u :i* !y fl\ri%$4 ,?us1 %\ld we enc\nt] 9 "s great s]ies ( /rata _m reef-build+ corals1 associat$ ) l>ge cephalopods & ! rema9s ( tree-f]ns & cycads1 :i* la/ f _! p]fect /ate ( pres]vation c\ld n h drift$ f> be=e !y became buri$ 9 s$im5t1 we %\ld surely be entitl$ to conclude t ! /rata 9 "q _h be5 deposit$ 9 ! wat]s ( a g5ial sea1 & t ! neighb\r+ l& likewise enjoy$ a w>m climate4 ,aga9 %\ld a c]ta9 sy/em1 *>act]is$ by ! pres5ce ( "s p>ticul> & well-m>k$ flora & fauna1 be enc\nt]$ n only 9 sub-tropical & temp]ate latitudes b also f> )9 ! ,arctic ,circle1 we %\ld inf] t su* a flora & fauna liv$ "u climatic conditions ( a v diff]5t k9d f any t n[ exi/4 ,! v pres5ce1 9 ! f> nor?1 ( fossils hav+ su* a geographical di/ribution w\ld %[ t ! temp]ature ( pol> seas & l&s c\ld n h be5 less ?an temp]ate4 ,:5 su* broad me?ods ( int]pretation are appli$ to ! problems sugge/$ by =m] floras & faunas1 we seem compell$ to conclude t ! conditions :i* det]m9$ ! di/ribution ( life 9 bygone ages mu/ h be51 ^u ! :ole1 m uni=m & equable ?an !y are n[4 ,x is unnecess>y t ,i %\ld g into detail$ pro(2 b ,i may ref]1 by way ( illu/ration1 to :at is kn[n ( ! ,silurian & ,c>bonif]\s fossils ( ! arctic regions4 ,mo/ ( ^! occur also 9 ! temp]ate latitudes ( ,europe & ,nor? ,am]ica1 :ile _m are recognis$ z di/9ctive types ( ! same /rata ne>ly all ! _w ov]4 ,z %[+ h[ /rongly ! =m] broad di/ribution ( life-=ms is contra/$ ) _! pres5t re/rict$ range1 ,pr(essor ,heilpr9 has cit$ ! ,bra*iopoda4 ,tak+ exi/+ species & v>ieties z be+ #ace 9 numb]1 he rem>ks t !re is sc>cely a s+le species :i* c be said to be /rictly cosmopolitan 9 its range1 al?\gh n a few are v widely di/ribut$2 &1 if we except boreal & hyp]boreal =ms1 b a v limit$ numb] ^: range embraces opposite sides ( ! same ocean4 ,on ! o!r h&1 if we accept ! data furni%$ by ,ri*?(5 conc]n+ ! ,*9ese ,bra*iopoda we f9d t out ( a total ( ?irte5 ,silurian & tw5ty-f\r ,devonian species1 no less ?an t5 ( ! =m] & sixte5 ( ! latt] recur 9 ! equival5t deposits ( we/]n ,europe3 &1 fur!r1 t ! ,devonian species furni% elev51 or ne>ly #ej p] c5t4 ( ! entire numb]1 :i* are cosmopolitan or ne>ly s4 ,aga91 ( ! tw5ty-five ,c>bonif]\s species1 ,nor? ,am]ica holds fully fifte51 or #fj p] c5t41 & a v ne>ly equal numb] are cosmopolitan4 ,! same palontologi/ rem9ds u t by f> ! great] numb] ( fossils :i* occur 9 ! ,palozoic /rata ( ,au/ralia are pres5t also 9 regions ly+ well )9 ! limits ( ! nor? temp]ate zone4 ,9 fact1 he cont9ues1 ! relation%ip betwe5 ?is s\!rn fauna & ! faunas ( ,europe & ,nor? ,am]ica is s great z to practically am\nt to id5tity4 ,b1 side by side ) su* evid5ce ( broad di/ribution1 we are confront$ ) facts :i* g to %[ t1 ev5 at ! dawn ( ,palozoic times1 ! oceanic areas at all ev5ts _h _! m or less di/9ct life-prov9ces4 ,:ile _m ( ! old =ms 7 cosmopolitan1 o!rs 7 app>5tly re/rict$ 9 _! range4 ,x w\ld be /range1 inde$1 _h x be5 o!rwise2 =1 h[ev] uni=m ! climatic conditions may h be51 /ill t uni=mity 0 only comp>ative4 ,an absolutely uni=m _w-climate is well-nigh inconceivable4 ,all we c ma9ta9 is t ! conditions dur+ c]ta9 prolong$ p]iods 7 s equable z to all[ ( ! g5]al diffusion ( species ov] va/ly great] areas ?an n[2 & t su* conditions ext5d$ f l[ latitudes up to pol> regions4 ,n[1 among ! *ief factors :i* 9 our day det]m9e ! limitation ( faunas & floras1 we mu/ reckon latitude & ! geographical position ( l& & wat]4 ,:at1 !n1 x may be ask$1 7 ! causes :i* all[$ ( ! mu* broad] di/ribution ( species 9 =m] ages8 ,x is obvi\s t be=e a completely satisfactory answ] to t "q c be giv51 our k ( pa/ geographical conditions mu/ be consid]ably increas$4 ,if we c\ld prep>e approximately correct maps & *>ts to indicate ! position ( l& & sea dur+ ! =mation ( ! sev]al fossilif]\s sy/ems1 we %\ld be able to reason ) "s confid5ce on ! subject ( climate4 ,b1 un=tunately1 ! prep>ation ( su* correct maps & *>ts is impossible4 ,! data = compilations ( ! k9d requir$ are /ill inadequate1 & x may well be d\bt$ :e!r1 9 ! case ( ! old] sy/ems1 we %all ev] be able to arrive at any detail$ k ( _! geographical conditions4 ,nev]!less1 ! geological /ructure ( ! e>?'s cru/ has be5 s f> unravell$ z to all[ u to =m c]ta9 g5]al conceptions ( ! conditions t mu/ h att5d$ ! evolution ( our cont95ts4 ,& x is ) su* g5]al conceptions only t ,i h at pres5t to deal4 ,i said a little ago t ! "q ( geological climates mu/ n[ be consid]$ f ! po9t ( view ( ! p]man5cy ( ! great dom9ant features ( ! e>?'s cru/4 ,i ne$ n recapitulate ! evid5ce ^u :i* ,dana & 8 foll[]s h bas$ ?is doctr9e ( ! primeval antiquity ( our cont95tal & oceanic areas4 ,x is en\gh if ,i rem9d y t by cont95tal areas we simply mean c]ta9 ext5sive regions 9 :i* elevation has1 ^u ! :ole1 be5 9 excess ( depression2 by oceanic area1 on ! o!r h&1 is meant t va/ region ?r\gh\t :i* depression has exce$$ elevation4 ,?us1 :ile ! area ( p]man5t or prepond]at+ depression has1 f e>lie/ geological times1 be5 occupi$ by ! ocean1 ! cont95tal areas h be5 aga9 & aga9 invad$ by ! sea--& ev5 n[ ext5sive portions are "u wat]4 ,x is n only ! cont95tal dry l&1 !re=e1 b all ! bord]+ belt ( sea-floor :i* does n exce$ #ajjj fa?oms or s 9 dep?1 t mu/ be includ$ 9 ! region ( dom9ant elevation4 ,7 ! :ole ( ?is region to be rais$ above ! level ( ! sea1 ! pres5t cont95ts w\ld become connect$ s z to =m "o va/ l&-mass1 or cont95tal plateau4 7,d1 ,plate ,,iv47 ,all ! s$im5t>y /rata ) :i* we are acqua9t$ h be5 accumulat$ ov] ! surface ( t great plateau1 & consequ5tly are ( comp>atively %all[-wat] orig94 ,!y %[ u1 9 fact1 t at no "t 9 geological hi/ory has t plateau ev] be5 dr[n$ 9 dep?s at all comp>able to ^? ( ! deep] portions ( our oceanic tr\ghs4 ,! /ratifi$ rocks tea* u1 moreov]1 t ! pres5t l&-areas h be5 gradually evolv$1 & t1 not)/&+ _m oscillations ( level1 ^! areas h cont9u$ to increase 9 ext5t--s t !re is probably m l&-surface n[ ?an at any previ\s era 9 ! hi/ory ( our globe4 ,to give ev5 a meagre outl9e ( ! evid5ce be>+ ^u ?is int]e/+ subject is "h impossible4 ,all t ,i c d is to indicate v briefly "s ( ! g5]al results to :i* t evid5ce seems to lead4 ,! olde/ rocks ) :i* we are acqua9t$ are ! s-call$ ,ar*an s*i/s,,dj ,b ^! h hi!rto yield$ no unequivocal traces ( organic life1 & z _! orig9 is /ill d\btful1 x w\ld obvi\sly be futile to speculate ^u ! geographical conditions ( ! e>?'s surface at ! "t ( _! =mation4 ,reliable geological hi/ory only beg9s ) ! fossilif]\s /rata ( ! ,palozoic era4 ,f ^! we le>n t 9 ! ,european area ! ,ar*an rocks ( ,brita91 ,sc&9avia1 & ,f9l& =m$1 at t "t1 ! mo/ ext5sive tract ( dry l& 9 our "p ( ! _w4 ,h[ f> beyond ! pres5t limits ( ,europe t anci5t nor!rn l& ext5d$ we _c tell2 b x probably occupi$ consid]able regions :i* are n[ subm]g$ 9 ! wat]s ( ! ,arctic ,ocean4 ,fur!r s\?1 ! cont95tal plateau appe>s to h be51 = ! mo/ "p1 ov]fl[$ by a %all[ sea1 ! surface ( :i* 0 dott$ by a few isl&s ( ,ar*an rocks1 occupy+ ! sites ( :at are n[ "s ( ! hills ( middle ,g]many & ! ,ar*an di/ricts ( ,france & ! ,ib]ian ,p59sula4 ,ar*an rocks occur likewise 9 ,corsica & ,s>d9ia1 & aga9 9 ,turkey3 !y also =m ! nuclei ( mo/ ( ! great ,european m\nta9-*a9s1 z ! ,pyr5ees1 ! ,alps1 ! ,c>pa?ians1 & ! ,urals4 ,^! areas ( cry/all9e s*i/s may n1 x is true1 h exi/$ z isl&s at ! beg9n+ ( ,palozoic times1 = !y 7 d\btless ridg$ up by successive elevations at lat] dates2 b _! v pres5ce z m\nta9-nuclei is suffici5t to %[ t at a v e>ly geological p]iod1 ! cont95tal plateau c\ld n h be5 cov]$ by any great dep? ( sea4 ,we c g fur!r ?an ?is--= all ! evid5ce po9ts to ! conclusion t1 ev5 s f> back z ,cambrian times1 ! dom9ant features ( ! pres5t ,european cont95t _h be51 z x 71 sket*$ out4 ,look$ at broadly1 t "p ( ! great cont95tal plateau ^u :i* our ,european l&s h be5 gradually built up may be said to be trav]s$ f we/ to ea/ by two wide depressions1 sep>at$ by an int]v5+ elevat$ tract4 ,! =m] ( ^! depressions corresponds to ! great ,c5tral ,pla9 :i* passes ?r\gh ! s\? ( ,engl&1 nor?-ea/ ( ,france1 & ! ,l[ ,c\ntries1 :5ce x sweeps ?r\gh ,g]many1 to exp& into ! ext5sive l[-gr\nds ( c5tral & nor!rn ,russia4 ,! s\!rn depression embraces ! m>itime tracts ( ! ,m$it]ranean1 & ! regions :i* t sea cov]s4 ,to ^! dom9ant features all ! o!rs are ( subord9ate importance4 ,! two great tr\ghs are belts ( depression 9 ! cont95tal plateau itself4 ,! nor!rn "o is ( extreme antiquity--x is old]1 at all ev5ts1 ?an ! ,cambro-,silurian p]iod4 ,ev5 at t di/ant date its s\!rn limits 7 m>k$ out by ridges ( ,ar*an rock1 :i*1 z ,i h said1 seem to h =m$ isl&s 9 :at is n[ c5tral ,europe4 ,x 0 probably always ! %all[] depression ( ! two1 = we h evid5ce to %[ t aga9 & aga91 9 ,mesozoic & lat] times1 ! sea t ov]fl[$ :at are n[ ! c5tral l[l&s ( ,europe 0 ( less consid]able dep? ?an t :i* occupi$ ! ,m$it]ranean tr\gh4 ,,dj ,i ne$ h>dly rem9d geologi/s t "s ( ! s-call$ ,ar*an s*i/s may really be ! highly alt]$ accumulations ( lat] geological p]iods4 ,if we turn to ,nor? ,am]ica1 we f9d simil> reason to conclude1 ) ,pr(essor ,dana1 t ! g5]al topography ( t region _h likewise be5 =e%ad[$ z f> back z ! beg9n+ ( ! ,palozoic era4 ,dana tells u t ev5 !n ! =mation ( its *ief m\nta9-*a9s _h be5 comm5c$1 & its great int]m$iate bas9s 7 already def9$4 ,! olde/ l&s ( ,nor? ,am]ica 7 built up1 z 9 ,europe1 ( azoic rocks1 & 7 gr\p$ *iefly 9 ! nor?4 ,ar*an masses ext5d ov] an enorm\s region1 f ! %ores ( ! ,arctic ,ocean d[n to ! great lake c\ntry1 & !y are se5 likewise 9 ,gre5l& & _m ( ! ,arctic isl&s4 ,!y appe> also 9 ! long m\nta9-*a9s t run p>allel ) ! coa/-l9es ( ! ,cont95t4 ,9 a ^w1 ! pres5t di/ribution ( ! ,ar*an rocks1 & _! relation to ov]ly+ /rata1 lead to ! belief t 9 ,nor? ,am]ica1 j z 9 ,europe1 !y =m ! f\ndation-/ones ( t cont95t1 & /ret* cont9u\sly ?r\gh\t its :ole ext5t4 ,we "k comp>atively little ( ! geology ( ! o!r great l&-masses ( ! globe1 b f su* evid5ce z we h !re is reason to believe t ^! 9 _! g5]al /ructure h mu* ! same /ory to tell z ,europe & ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,9 ,s\? ,am]ica1 ,ar*an rocks ext5d ov] va/ areas 9 ! ea/ & nor?-ea/1 & reappe> 9 ! l(ty m\nta9-*a9s ( ! ,pacific bord]4 ,!y h be5 recognis$ also 9 v>i\s p>ts ( ,africa1 alike 9 ! nor? & ea/1 9 ! int]ior1 & 9 ! we/ & s\?4 ,9 ,asia1 aga91 !y occupy wide areas 9 ! ,indian ,p59sula2 !y are well develop$ 9 ! ,himalaya1 :ile 9 ,*9a & ! m\nta9s & plateaux ( c5tral ,asia1 azoic rocks1 :i* are probably ( ,ar*an age1 are well develop$4 ,! cry/all9e s*i/s1 :i* cov] ext5sive tracts 9 ,au/ralia & 9 ! nor!rn isl& ( ,new ,zeal&1 h also be5 ref]r$ to ! same age4 ,?us1 all ! _w ov]1 ,ar*an rocks seem to =m ! surface ( ! anci5t cont95tal plateau ^u :i* all o!r s$im5t>y /rata h be5 accumulat$4 ,& 9 e region :]e ,palozoic rocks occur1 we h evid5ce to prove t at ! "t ^! la/ 7 =m$ va/ areas ( ! old cont95tal plateau 7 "u wat]4 ,! geological /ructure ( ! ,palozoic tracts ( ,europe & ,am]ica has %[n u t1 dur+ ! protract$ p]iod ( _! accumulation1 & not)/&+ _m oscillations ( level1 ! l&-surface cont9u$ to increase4 ,! same gr[? ( dry l& *>act]is$ ,mesozoic & ,ca9ozoic times--! primeval depressions t trav]se ! cont95tal plateau became m & m silt$ up1 & ! sea ev5tually disappe>$ f ext5sive regions :i* x _h ov]fl[$ 9 ,palozoic ages4 ,?is l&-gr[?1 ( c\rse1 0 n ev]y:]e cont9u\s4 ,aga9 & aga91 ?r\gh\t wide tracts1 depression 0 9 excess ( s$im5tation & elevation4 ,ev5 at ! pres5t "t1 broad tracts ( :at 0 once dry l& are subm]g$4 ,b ! simple fact t ! y\ng] fossilif]\s /rata d n ext5d ov] su* wide areas z ! old] sy/ems1 is suffici5t pro( t our l&-masses h all along t5d$ to gr[1 & to become m & m consolidat$4 ,ref]5ce has already be5 made to ! rem>kable fact t no abysmal accumulations h yet be5 detect$ among/ ! /ratifi$ rocks ( ! e>?'s cru/4 ,ord9>y cla/ic rocks1 su* z %ale1 s&/one1 & conglom]ate--alt]$ or unalt]$1 z ! case may be--=m by f> ! l>ge/ proportion ( our aque\s /rata1 & speak to u only ( %all[ wat]s4 ,x is true t "s ( our lime/ones mu/ h accumulat$ 9 mod]ately deep cle> seas1 yet none ( ^! lime/ones is ( abysmal orig94 ,!y prove t portions ( ! cont95tal plateau h n[ & aga9 be5 subm]g$ = sev]al ?\s& feet1 b af=d no evid5ce ( dep?s comp>able to ^? ( ! pres5t oceanic bas9s4 ,! enorm\s ?ickness obta9$ by ! s$im5t>y /rata c only be expla9$ on ! supposition t deposition took place ov] a gradually s9k+ area4 ,& ?us x c be %[n t1 )9 ! cont95tal plateau1 movem5ts ( depression h be5 c>ri$ on m or less cont9u\sly dur+ va/ p]iods ( "t--& yet s gradually1 t s$im5tation 0 able to keep pace ) !m4 ,take1 = example1 ! ,cambrian /rata ( ,wales & ,%rop%ire--all1 app>5tly1 %all[-wat] deposits--:i* atta9 a ?ickness ( #cj1jjj feet1 or !reab\t2 or ! ,silurian /rata ( ! same regions1 :i* are n mu* less ?an #bj1jjj feet ?ick2 & simil> great dep?s ( s$im5t>y rocks might be cit$ f ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,pass+ on to lat] p]iods1 we f9d l evid5ce ( long-cont9u$ depression 9 ! ?ick s$im5ts ( ! y\ng] ,palozoic sy/ems4 ,x is notewor?y1 h[ev]1 t :5 we come d[n to /ill lat] ages1 ! movem5ts ( depression1 z measur$ by ! dep?s ( ! /rata1 appe> to h become less & less ext5sive & pr(\nd4 ,ea* su* movem5t ( depression 0 ev5tually br\ght to a close by "o or m movem5ts ( upheaval--sl[ly or m rapidly effect$1 z ! case may h be54 ,"h1 !n1 we are confront$ ) ! /rik+ fact t ! cont95tal plateau has1 f "t to "t1 sunk d[n ov] wide areas to dep?s exce$+ ^? ( exi/+ oceans1 & yet at s sl[ a rate1 t s$im5tation prev5t$ ! depress$ regions f becom+ abysmal4 ,x is obvi\s1 !n1 t su* areas are n[ dry l& simply because1 9 ! long-run1 s$im5tation & upheaval h be5 9 excess ( depression4 ,& yet1 not)/&+ ! num]\s upheavals :i* h tak5 place ov] ! cont95tal plateau1 ^! h succe$$ 9 do+ little m ?an dra9 away ! sea m or less completely f ! great primeval depressions by :i* t plateau is trav]s$4 ,if x be true1 !re=e1 t ! cont95tal plateau owes its exi/5ce to ! s9k+ d[n ( ! e>?'s cru/ )9 ! oceanic bas9s--if ! cont95ts h be5 squeez$ up by ! tang5tial ?ru/s ex]t$ by ! s9k+ areas t surr\nd !m--!n x foll[s t :ile l&s h be5 gradually ext5d+ ov] ! cont95tal plateau1 ! b$ ( ! ocean has be5 s9k+ to great] & great] dep?s4 ,if ?is g5]al conclusion holds good1 x is obvi\s t ! oceanic tr\ghs ( e>ly geological times c\ld n h be5 s deep z !y are n[4 ,dur+ ! ,palozoic p]iod1 ! mo/ cont9u\s areas ( dry l&1 z we h se51 7 di/ribut$ ov] ! nor!rn p>ts ( our hemisph]e1 :ile1 fur!r s\?1 gr\ps ( isl&s indicat$ ! cont9uation ( ! cont95tal plateau4 ,d\btless ,s\? ,am]ica1 ,africa1 ,asia1 & ,au/ralia 71 at t di/ant date1 repres5t$ by simil> deta*$ areas ( dry l&4 ,9 a ^w1 ! primeval cont95tal plateau 0 /ill l>gely "u wat]4 ,judg+ f ! "* & broad di/ribution ( ! ,palozoic m>9e faunas ! temp]ature ( ! sea 0 wond]fully uni=m4 ,!re is c]ta9ly no?+ to indicate ! exi/5ce ( su* climatic zones z ^? ( ! pres5t4 ,we "k v little ( ! t]re/rial life ( e>ly ,palozoic times--! ,cambro-,silurian /rata are ess5tially m>9e4 ,l&-plants1 h[ev]1 become m num]\s 9 ! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one1 &1 z e "o kn[s1 !y ab\nd 9 ! succe$+ ,c>bonif]\s & ,p]mian sy/ems4 ,& ! te/imony ( ^! floras po9ts to ! same conclusion z t furni%$ by ! m>9e faunas4 ,! ,c>bonif]\s floras ( ! arctic regions1 & ( temp]ate ,europe & ,am]ica1 n only h ! same facies1 b a consid]able numb] ( ! species is common to bo? areas2 :ile _m ,european species occur 9 ! ,c>bonif]\s /rata ( ,au/ralia & o!r di/ant l&s4 ,?is common facies1 & ! pres5ce ( num]\s cosmopolitan =ms1 surely indicate ! =m] preval5ce ( rem>kably uni=m climatic conditions4 ,! conditions1 ( c\rse1 ne$ n--inde$1 c\ld n--h be5 absolutely uni=m4 ,at pres5t ! v>i\s climates :i* our globe exp]i5ces dep5d ^u ! am\nt ( heat receiv$ directly & indirectly f ! sun--oceanic & arial curr5ts ev]y:]e modify+ ! results t are due to latitude4 ,x _c h be5 o!rwise 9 =m] times4 ,9 all ages ! tropics mu/ h receiv$ m direct sun-heat ?an temp]ate & pol> regions2 & h[ev] mu* ! climatic conditions ( ! ,palozoic era may h diff]$ f ! pres5t--h[ev] uni=mly temp]ature may h be5 di/ribut$--/ill1 z ,i h said1 absolute uni=mity 0 impossible4 ,x 0 d\btless ow+ to ! fact t ! dry l&s ( ,palozoic times 7 n only mu* less ext5sive ?an n[1 b m int]rupt$1 /raggl+1 & insul>1 t ! climate ( ! globe 0 s equable4 ,"u su* geographical conditions1 great oceanic curr5ts w\ld h a mu* fre] c\rse ?an is n[ possible1 & w>m wat] w\ld f9d its way readily across wide regions ( ! subm]g$ cont95tal plateau into ! highe/ latitudes4 ,! w9ds bl[+ a?w>t ! l& w\ld ev]y:]e be moi/ & w>m1 & no su* m>k$ diff]5ces ( temp]ature1 su* z n[ obta91 w\ld di/+ui% ! arctic seas f ^? ( mu* l[] latitudes4 ,at ! same "t1 ! comp>atively %all[ wat] ov]ly+ ! subm]g$ areas ( ! cont95tal plateau w\ld fav\r ! di/ribution ( species1 & ?us br+ ab\t t wide di/ribution ( cosmopolitan =ms & g5]al simil>ity ( facies1 :i* are su* m>k$ features ( ! ,palozoic faunas4 ,x is ev5 q possible t migration may h tak5 place "h & !re across ! great oceanic depression itself2 = x may well be d\bt$ :e!r1 at s e>ly a p]iod1 ! depression _h sunk d[n to its pres5t dep? bel[ ! level ( ! cont95tal plateau4 ,yet1 not)/&+ su* facilities = migration1 & ! consequ5t simil>ity ( facies ,i h ref]r$ to1 ! ,palozoic faunas ( diff]5t regions h usually c]ta9 di/9ctive *>act]s4 ,ev5 at ! v dawn ( ! era ! m>9e faunas 7 already gr\p$ into prov9ces1 sometimes widely sep>at$ f "o ano!r1 at o!r times closely adjac5t1 s t x is evid5t t b>ri]s to migration "h & !re exi/$4 ,x c\ld h>dly h be5 o!rwise2 = local & m widely-spread movem5ts ( elevation & depression took place aga9 & aga9 dur+ ,palozoic times4 ,:ile ! y\ng] ,palozoic sy/ems 7 be+ accumulat$1 excess ( upheaval ov] depression result$ 9 ! gradual increase ( ! l&4,,dk ,! cont95tal plateau came m & m to ! surface1 9 spite ( _m oscillations ( level4 ,x is q possible1 nay1 ev5 probable t ?is p]si/5t gr[? ( l&1 & consequ5t modification ( oceanic curr5ts may h r5d]$ ! climatic conditions ( lat] ,palozoic times less uni=m3 b1 if s1 su* dim9i%$ uni=mity has left no recognisable impress on ei!r faunas or floras2 = fossils *>act]i/ic ( ! ,devonian & ,c>bonif]\s /rata ( temp]ate latitudes occur f> )9 ! ,arctic ,circle4 ,,dk ,see footnote p4 #cda4 ,desc5d+ to ! ,mesozoic era1 we f9d t ! "* & di/ribution ( m>9e faunas are /ill indicative ( uni=mity4 ,!re c\ld h be5 little diff]5ce ( temp]ature at t "t betwe5 arctic seas & ^? ( our own latitude4 ,cosmopolitan species ab\nd$ 9 ! ,jurassic wat]s1 b 7 relatively less num]\s 9 ^? ( ! ,cretace\s p]iod4 ,pr(essor ,neumayr ma9ta9s t already1 9 ! ,jurassic p]iod1 ! climate _h become diff]5tiat$ into zones4 ,?is1 he ?9ks1 is indicat$ by ! fact t coral reefs ab\nd 9 ! ,jurassic /rata ( c5tral ,europe1 :ile !y are want+ 9 ! contemporane\s deposits ( boreal regions4 ,dr4 ,heilpr91 on ! o!r h&1 is ( op9ion t ?is & c]ta9 o!r di/9ctive features ( sep>ate ,jurassic life-prov9ces may n h be5 due to diff]5ces ( temp]ature1 b r to v>y+ physical conditions1 su* z "* ( ! sea-bottom1 dep? ( wat]1 & s =?4 ,p]haps ! safe/ conclusion we c come to1 9 ! pres5t /ate ( ! evid5ce1 is t ! climatic conditions ( ! ,mesozoic era 71 ^u ! :ole1 less obvi\sly uni=m ?an ^? ( e>li] ages1 b t m>k$ zones ( climate l ! pres5t _h n z yet be5 evolv$4 ,at ! same "t1 :5 we consid] h[ _m great geographical revolutions took place dur+ ! p]iod 9 "q1 we mu/ be prep>$ to admit t ^! c\ld h>dly fail to influ5ce ! climate1 & ?us to h induc$ modifications 9 ! di/ribution ( faunas & floras4 ,& probably evid5ce ( su* modifications w yet be recognis$1 if inde$ ! ph5om5a ref]r$ to by ,neumayr be n a case 9 po9t4 ,x may be not$1 fur!r1 t :ile1 accord+ to _m botani/s1 ! plants ( ! ,palozoic p]iods bespeak n only uni=m climatic conditions b ! abs5ce ( m>k$ seasonal *anges1 ^? ( late ,mesozoic times are indicative ( less uni=mity4 ,! ,cretace\s conif]s1 = example1 %[ regul> r+s ( gr[?1 & betok5 ! exi/5ce ( seasons1 :i* 7 less m>k$1 h[ev]1 ?an is n[ ! case4 ,! geographical *anges ( ,mesozoic times 7 notable 9 _m respects4 ,! dom9ant features ( ,europe1 already =e%ad[$ 9 e>ly ,palozoic times1 _h become m cle>ly outl9$ be=e ! close ( ! ,cretace\s p]iod4 ,not)/&+ _m movem5ts ( depression1 ! *ief l&-areas cont9u$ to %[ !mselves 9 ! nor? & nor?-we/4 ,! highe/ gr\nds 7 ! ,urals1 & ! upl&s ( ,sc&9avia & ,brita94 ,9 middle ,europe ! ,pyr5ees & ! ,alps 7 z yet inconsid]able heights1 ! l(tie/ l&s 9 t region be+ ^? ( ! ,h>z1 ! ,ries5 ,gebirge1 & o!r tracts ( ,ar*an & ,palozoic rocks4 ,! l[] p>ts ( ,engl& & ! great l[l& pla9s ( c5tral ,europe 7 sometimes subm]g$ 9 ! wat]s ( a wide1 %all[ sea1 b ev] & anon elevation ensu$1 new l&s appe>$1 & ^! wat]s became divid$ into a s]ies ( l>ge inl& seas & lakes4 ,9 ! s\?1 a deep ,m$it]ranean sea w\ld appe> to h p]si/$ all ?r\gh ! ,mesozoic era--a sea ( consid]ably great] ext5t1 h[ev]1 ?an ! pres5t4 ,:ile 9 ,europe ! dom9ant features ( ! cont95tal plateau run approximately ea/ & we/1 9 ,nor? ,am]ica !y foll[ ne>ly ! opposite direction4 ,9 e>ly ,mesozoic times1 va/ tracts ( dry l& ext5d$ across ! nor!rn & ea/]n sections ( ! latt] area4 ,ov] ! ,rocky ,m\nta9 region1 l[ l&s & sal9e lakes appe> to h /ret*$1 :ile fur!r we/ ! area ( ! ,great ,plateau & ! ,pacific slope 7 cov]$ by ! sea4 ,t[>ds ! end ( ! ,mesozoic era1 ! l& 9 ! f> we/ became m cont9u\s--a broad belt ext5d+ 9 ! direction ( ! ,pacific coa/-l9e f ,mexico up to high nor!rn latitudes4 ,9 %ort1 be=e ! ,cretace\s p]iod clos$1 ! major portion ( ,nor? ,am]ica _h be5 evolv$4 ,a consid]able tract ( :at is n[ ! we/]n m>g9 ( ! cont95t1 h[ev]1 0 /ill "u wat]1 :ile f ! ,gulf ( ,mexico 7!n mu* wid] ?an n[7 a broad ,m$it]ranean sea swept nor? & nor?-we/ ?r\gh ,texas & ! ,rocky ,m\nta9 region to communicate ) ! ,arctic ,ocean4 ,all to ! ea/ ( ?is inl& sea 0 !n1 z x is n[1 dry l&4 ,?us1 up to ! close ( ! ,cretace\s p]iod1 9 ,am]ica & ,europe alike1 oceanic curr5ts com+ f ! s\? _h ready access across ! primeval cont95tal plateau to ! high] latitudes4 ,s\!rn ,europe inde$1 dur+ ,mesozoic times1 0 simply a great ar*ipelago1 hav+ free communication on ! "o h& across ! l[-gr\nds ( c5tral & nor!rn ,russia ) ! arctic seas1 &1 on ! o!r1 across va/ regions 9 ,asia ) ! ,indian ,ocean4 ,( ! o!r great l&-masses ( ! globe our k is too limit$ to all[ u to trace _! geographical evolution ) any confid5ce4 ,b f ! v wide di/ribution ( ,mesozoic /rata 9 ,s\? ,am]ica1 ,africa1 ,asia1 & ,au/ralia1 !re c be no d\bt t1 at ! "t ( _! accumulation1 enorm\s tracts 9 ^? regions 7 !n "u wat]4 ,! l&-masses1 9 %ort1 7 n s cont9u\s & compact z !y are at pres5t4 ,& al?\gh we mu/ inf] t consid]able areas ( ,mesozoic l& are n[ subm]g$1 yet ^! _c b be> a v small proportion to ! wide regions :i* h be5 rais$ above ! sea-level s9ce ,mesozoic times4 ,9 %ort1 f :at we d "k ( ! geological /ructure ( ! cont95ts 9 "q1 we c h>dly d\bt t !y h pass$ ?r\gh geographical revolutions ( a l k9d ) ^? ( ,europe & ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,ev]y:]e ov] ! great cont95tal plateau elevation appe>s1 9 ! long-run1 to h be5 9 excess ( depression1 s t1 9 spite ( _m subsid5ces1 ! t5d5cy ( ! l& ?r\gh\t ! _w has be5 to ext5d its m>g9s1 & to become m & m consolidat$4 ,! ,mesozoic l&s 7 l>g] ?an ^? ( ! prec$+ ,palozoic era1 b !y 7 /ill p5etrat$ 9 _m places by ! sea1 & w>m curr5ts c\ld make _! way ov] wide tracts t are n[ rais$ above ! sea-level4 ,"u su* circum/ances approximately uni=m conditions ( climate c\ld n b obta94 ,great geographical *anges sup]v5$ ^u ! close ( ! ,cretace\s p]iod4 ,nor? ,am]ica !n acquir$ ne>ly its pres5t outl9e4 ,its ,m$it]ranean sea _h vani%$1 b ! ,gulf ( ,mexico /ill ov]fl[$ a consid]ably wid] region ?an n[1 :ile a n>r[ m>g9 ( ! ,pacific bord] ( ! cont95t cont9u$ subm]g$4 ,9 ,europe elevation ensu$1 & ! sea :i* _h ov]spread s mu* ( ! c5tral & ea/]n portions ( our ,cont95t disappe>$4 ,s\!rn ,europe1 h[ev]1 0 /ill l>gely "u wat]1 :ile bays & inlets ext5d$ nor?w>ds into :at are n[ ! c5tral regions ( ! ,cont95t4 ,on to ! close ( ! ,mioc5e p]iod1 inde$1 ! s\!rn & s\?-ea/]n tracts ( ,europe 7 repres5t$ by /raggl+ isl&s4 ,9 middle ,ca9ozoic times ! ,alps1 :i* _h hi!rto be5 ( small importance1 7 consid]ably upheav$1 z 7 also ! ,pyr5ees & ! ,c>pa?ians2 & a subsequ5t great elevation ( ! ,alp9e area 0 effect$ aft] ! ,mioc5e p]iod4 ,not)/&+ ^! gigantic movem5ts1 ! l[-ly+ tracts ( :at is n[ s\!rn ,europe cont9u$ to be l>gely subm]g$1 & ev5 ! c5tral regions ( ! ,cont95t 7 n[ & aga9 occupi$ by broad lakes1 :i* sometimes communicat$ ) ! sea4 ,aft] ! elevation ( ! ,mioc5e /rata1 ^! inl& seas disappe>$1 b ! ,m$it]ranean /ill ov]fl[$ wid] areas ?an x does to-day4 ,ev5tually1 h[ev]1 9 late ,plioc5e times1 ! b$ ( t sea exp]i5c$ consid]able elevation2 & x 0 probably at or ab\t ?is /age t ! ,black ,sea & ! ,sea ( ,asov retreat$ f ! broad l[-gr\nds ( s\!rn ,russia1 & t ! inl& seas & lakes ( ,au/ria-,hung>y f9ally vani%$4 ,! movem5ts ( upheaval1 :i* caus$ ! ,cretace\s seas to disappe> f su* broad areas ( ! cont95tal plateau1 induc$ _m *anges 9 ! floras & faunas ( ! globe4 ,a notable break 9 ! succession occurs betwe5 ! ,cretace\s & ! ,eoc5e1 h>dly "o species ( high] grade ?an ! protozoa pass+ f "o sy/em to ! o!r4 ,9 ! ,ca9ozoic deposits we are no long] confront$ ) num]\s cosmopolitan species--! range ( m>9e =ms has become mu* m re/rict$4 ,nev]!less1 ! faunas & floras cont9ue to be indicative ( mu* w>m] climates = arctic & temp]ate latitudes ?an n[ obta94 ,b1 at ! same "t1 diff]5tiation ( climate into zones is di/9ctly m>k$4 ,9 ! e>ly ,ca9ozoic p]iod1 our pres5t temp]ate latitudes support$ a flora ( decid$ly tropical aff9ities1 :ile ! fauna ( ! adjac5t seas _h a simil> "*4 ,lat] on ! climate ( ! same latitudes appe>s to h pass$ successively ?r\gh sub-tropical & temp]ate /ages4 ,9 %ort1 a gradual l[]+ ( ! temp]ature is ev9c$ by ! "* & di/ribution bo? ( floras & faunas4 ,! diff]5tiation ( ! climate dur+ "o /age ( ! ,ca9ozoic era is well illu/rat$ by ! ,mioc5e flora4 ,?us1 at a "t :5 ,italy 0 clo!d ) a tropical vegetation1 9 :i* palm-trees pr$om9at$1 middle ,europe _h its ext5sive =e/s ( ev]gre5s & conif]s1 :ile 9 ! region ( ! ,baltic conif]s & decidu\s trees 7 ! preval5t =ms4 ,:5 "o takes into consid]ation ! fact t1 not)/&+ _m oscillations ( level1 ! l& dur+ ,ca9ozoic times 0 gradually ext5d+1 & ! sea disappe>+ f wide regions :i* x _h =m]ly cov]$1 "o c h>dly d\bt t ! seem+ly gradual *ange f tropical to temp]ate conditions 0 due1 9 l>ge measure1 to t p]si/5t cont95tal gr[?4 ,i confess1 h[ev]1 t x is difficult to acc\nt = ! v g5ial climate :i* cont9u$ to prevail ov] ! arctic regions4 ,s f> z "o c ga!r f ! evid5ce at pres5t available1 "s ( ! m>9e approa*es to ^? latitudes _h be5 cut (f by ! movem5ts ( elevation :i* br\ght ! ,ca9ozoic era to a close1 :ile ! arctic l&s 7 p]haps m ext5sive ?an !y are n[4 ,! ,cretace\s ,m$it]ranean ,sea ( ,nor? ,am]ica _h vani%$1 & we _c prove t ! ,t]ti>y ,sea ( s\!rn ,europe communicat$ across ! l[-gr\nds ( ,russia ) ! ,arctic ,ocean4 ,we "k1 h[ev]1 t ! ar*ipelago ( s\!rn ,europe 0 9 direct connection ) ! ,indian ,ocean1 & x is mo/ probable t a wide arm ( ! same sea /ret*$ nor? f ! ,aralo-,caspa9 area ?r\gh ,sib]ia4 ,inde$1 mu* ( :at are n[ ! l[l&s ( we/]n & nor!rn ,asia 0 probably sea 9 ,t]ti>y times4 ,x seems likely1 !re=e1 t1 ev5 at ?is late p]iod1 m>9e curr5ts cont9u$ to rea* ! ,arctic ,zone across ! cont95tal plateau4 ,:5 ! w>m wat]s ( ! ,indian ,ocean ev5tually ceas$ to invade ,europe1 & ! ,m$it]ranean became mu* re/rict$ 9 area1 ! climate ( ! :ole ,cont95t c\ld n fail to be pr(\ndly affect$4 ,!re is yet ano!r l9e ( evid5ce to :i* brief ref]5ce may be made4 ,i h spok5 ( ! rem>kable uni=mity ( climatic conditions :i* obta9$ 9 ,palozoic times1 & ( ! gradual modification ( ^! conditions :i* subsequ5tly sup]v5$4 ,n[1 x is wor?y ( note t 9 _! li?ological *>act]s ! olde/ s$im5t>y /rata !mselves likewise exhibit a preval5t uni=mity :i* 9 lat] sy/ems becomes less & less conspicu\s4 ,! ,cambro-,silurian me*anical s$im5ts1 = example1 ma9ta9 mu* ! same "* all ! _w ov]2 & ! l is true1 al?\gh 9 a less degree1 ( ! m>9e accumulations ( ! ,devonian p]iod4 ,! correspond+ me*anical deposits ( lat] ,palozoic ages cont9ue to %[ m & m div]sity1 b at ! same "t !y pres]ve a simil>ity ( "* ov] mu* m ext5sive areas ?an is f\nd to be ! case ) ! analog\s s$im5ts ( ! ,mesozoic era4 ,f9ally1 ^! la/ are m or less /rongly contra/$ ) ! m>9e me*anical accumulations ( ,ca9ozoic times1 :i* are altoge!r m local 9 "*4 ,?is increas+ diff]5tiation is q 9 keep+ ) :at we "k ( ! evolution ( our l&-areas4 ,9 e>ly ,palozoic ages1 :5 insul> conditions prevail$ & ! major portion ( ! primeval cont95tal plateau 0 cov]$ by %all[ seas1 x is obvi\s t me*anical s$im5ts w\ld be swept by tidal & o!r curr5ts ov] enorm\s areas1 & t ^! s$im5ts w\ld necess>ily assume a m or less uni=m "*4 ,inde$1 ,i suspect t mu* ( ! s$im5t ( ^? e>ly seas may h be5 ! result ( tidal sc\r1 & t m>9e erosion 0 m g5]ally effective !n ?an x is n[4 ,) ! gradual gr[? ( ! l& & ! consequ5t deflection & limitation ( curr5ts1 m>9e me*anical s$im5ts w\ld t5d to become m & m local 9 "*4 ,?us ! increas+ diff]5tiation :i* we obs]ve 9 pass+ f ! e>li] to ! lat] geological sy/ems is j :at might h be5 expect$4 ,summ+ up1 n[1 ! results ( ?is rapid review ( ! evid5ce1 we seem ju/ifi$ 9 com+ to ! foll[+ conclusions3-- 7#a47 ,9 ,palozoic times1 ,europe & ,nor? ,am]ica 7 repres5t$ by consid]able areas ( dry l&1 mass$ *iefly 9 ! high] latitudes1 :ile fur!r s\? gr\ps ( small] isl&s 7 scatt]$ ov] ! subm]g$ surface ( ! primeval cont95tal plateau4 ,! o!r cont95ts appe>1 9 l mann]1 to h be5 repres5t$ by isl&s--"s ( :i* may h rea*$ cont95tal dim5sions4 ,a v rem>kable uni=mity ( climate accompani$ ^! peculi> geographical conditions4 7#b47 ,9 ,mesozoic times1 ! primeval cont95tal plateau came m & m to ! surface1 b ! l&-areas 7 /ill mu* int]rupt$1 s t curr5ts f tropical regions cont9u$ to h ready access to high latitudes4 ,! climate ( ! :ole globe1 !re=e1 0 /ill uni=m1 b app>5tly n s m>k$ly z 9 ! prec$+ era4 7#c47 ,9 ,ca9ozoic times1 ! l&-masses cont9u$ to ext5d1 & ! sea to retreat f hi!rto subm]g$ areas ( ! cont95tal plateau2 & ?is p]si/5t l&-gr[? 0 accompani$ by a gradual l[]+ ( ! temp]ature ( nor!rn & temp]ate latitudes1 & a m & m m>k$ diff]5tiation ( climate into zones4 ,hav+ ?us v briefly sket*$ ! geographical evolution ( ! l& dur+ ,palozoic1 ,mesozoic1 & ,t]ti>y times1 & come to ! g5]al conclusion t climate has v>i$ accord+ to ! relative position ( l& & sea1 ,i h next to consid] ! geographical & climatic conditions ( ! ,quat]n>y p]iod4 ,^!1 h[ev]1 are n[ s well kn[n1 t ,i ne$ to no m ?an rem9d y t1 s f> z ! *ief features ( our l&s are consid]$1 all ^! _h come into exi/5ce be=e ! dawn ( ! ,ice ,age4 ,! great] cont\rs ( ! surface1 :i* 7 =e%ad[$ 9 ,palozoic times1 & :i* 9 ,mesozoic times 7 m cle>ly indicat$1 _h be5 fully evolv$ by ! close ( ! ,plioc5e p]iod4 ,! connection betwe5 ! ,m$it]ranean & ! ,indian ,ocean probably ceas$ 9 late ,plioc5e times4 ,! mo/ rem>kable geographical *anges :i* h tak5 place s9ce !n )9 ,european regions h be5 successive elevations & depressions1 9 consequ5ce ( :i* ! area ( our ,cont95t has be5 alt]nately increas$ & dim9i%$4 ,at a "t well )9 ! human p]iod1 our own isl&s h be5 unit$ to !mselves & ! ,cont95t1 & ! dry l& has ext5d$ nor?-we/ & nor?1 s z to include ,spitzb]g51 ! ,f>e ,isl&s1 & p]haps ,icel&4 ,on ! o!r h&1 our isl&s h be5 )9 a rec5t p]iod l>gely subm]g$4 ,simil>ly1 9 ,nor? ,am]ica1 we are furni%$ ) _m pro(s ( l oscillations ( level hav+ tak5 place 9 ,quat]n>y times4 ,is x possible1 !n1 to expla9 ! climatic vicissitudes ( ! ,plei/oc5e p]iod by means ( su* oscillations8 ,_m geologi/s h tri$ to d s1 b all ^! attempts h fail$4 ,x is q true t a g5]al elevation ( ! l& 9 high latitudes w\ld greatly increase ! ice-fields ( arctic regions1 & might ev5 give rise to p]5nial sn[ & glaci]s 9 ! m\nta9-di/ricts ( our isl&s4 ,b x is inconceivable t any su* geographical *ange c\ld h br\ght ab\t t g5]al l[]+ ( temp]ature ov] ! :ole nor!rn hemisph]e :i* took place 9 ,plei/oc5e times4 ,= we h to acc\nt n only = ! excessive glaciation ( nor!rn & nor?-we/]n ,europe1 & ( ! nor!rn p>ts ( ,nor? ,am]ica1 b = ! appe>ance ( sn[-fields & glaci]s 9 mu* m s\!rn latitudes1 & 9 _m p>ts ( ,asia :]e no p]5nial sn[ n[ exi/s4 ,moreov]1 we h to rememb] t arctic conditions ( climate obta9$ 9 nor?-we/]n ,europe ev5 :5 ! l& 0 relatively mu* l[] ?an x is at pres5t4 ,! arctic %ell-b$s ( our own & o!r temp]ate regions suffici5tly prove t geographical conditions 7 n ! only factor conc]n$ 9 br++ ab\t ! peculi> climate ( ! ,plei/oc5e p]iod4 ,!n1 aga91 we mu/ n =get t at c]ta9 /ages ( ! same p]iod g5ial conditions ( climate 7 co9cid5t ) a mu* wid] l&-surface 9 nor?-we/]n ,europe ?an n[ exi/s4 ,! v fact t int]glacial deposits occur 9 e glaciat$ region is en\gh ( itself to %[ t ! arctic conditions ( ! ,plei/oc5e c\ld n h result$ entirely f a m]e elevation ( l& 9 ! nor!rn p>ts ( our hemisph]e4 ,! only explanation ( ! peculi> climatic vicissitudes 9 "q :i* seems to meet ! facts1 s f> z ^! h be5 asc]ta9$1 is ! well-kn[n !ory advanc$ by ,dr4 ,croll4 ,aft] c>efully consid]+ all ! objections :i* h be5 urg$ aga9/ t !ory1 !re is only "o1 z x seems to me1 t is des]v+ ( s]i\s att5tion4 ,?is objection is n bas$ on any facts connect$ ) ! ,plei/oc5e deposits !mselves1 b on evid5ce ( q ano!r k9d4 ,x is admitt$ t 7 ! ,plei/oc5e deposits alone consid]$1 ,croll's !ory w\ld fully acc\nt = ! ph5om5a4 ,b1 x is argu$1 we _c take ! ,plei/oc5e by itself1 = if t !ory be true1 !n climatic conditions simil> to ^? ( ! ,plei/oc5e mu/ h sup]v5$ aga9 & aga9 dur+ ! pa/4 ,:]e1 !n1 we are ask$1 is !re any evid5ce 9 ,palozoic1 ,mesozoic1 or ,ca9ozoic /rata ( =m] widespread glacial conditions8 ,if cont95tal ice-%eets1 comp>able to ^? ( ! ,plei/oc5e1 ev] exi/$ 9 ! e>li] ages1 surely we ought to f9d m or less unmi/akable traces ( !m4 ,n[1 at fir/ sight1 ?is looks a v plausible objection1 b x has always seem$ to me to be bas$ ^u an assumption t is n w>rant$ by our k ( geographical evolution4 ,dr4 ,croll always admitt$ implicitly t high ecc5tricity ( ! e>?'s orbit might h happ5$ aga9 & aga9 )\t induc+ glacial conditions l ^? ( ! ,plei/oc5e4 ,! objection takes no acc\nt ( ! fact t ! excessive climate ( ! ,glacial p]iod 0 only possible because ( special geographical conditions--conditions t d n appe> to h be5 fully evolv$ be=e ,plioc5e times4 ,no "o has se5 ?is m cle>ly ?an ,mr4 ,wallace1,,dl ) ! g5]al drift ( ^: argum5t ,i am q at "o4 ,9 e>li] ages1 ! w>m wat] ( ! tropics ov]fl[$ wide areas ( our pres5t cont95ts--mo/ ( ! dry l& 0 m or less insul>1 & ! seas )9 ! ,arctic ,circle 7 c]ta9ly n cold z at pres5t1 b temp]ate & ev5 g5ial4 ,if we g back to ,cambro-,silurian times1 we f9d only ! nuclei1 z x 71 ( our exi/+ cont95ts appe>+ above ! surface ( widespread %all[ seas4 ,x is q impossible1 !re=e1 t "u su* geographical conditions1 great cont9u\s ice-%eets1 l ^? ( ! ,plei/oc5e1 c\ld h exi/$--no matt] h[ high ! ecc5tricity ( ! e>?'s orbit may h be54 ,! mo/ t c\ld h happ5$ dur+ su* a p]iod ( ecc5tricity w\ld be ! accumulation ( sn[-fields on m\nta9s & plateaux ( suffici5t height1 ! =mation "h & !re ( local glaci]s1 & ! desc5t ( ^! 9 "s places to ! sea4 ,& :at evid5ce ( su* local glaciation might we n[ expect to f9d8 ,no old l&-surface ( t f>-di/ant p]iod has come d[n to u3 we look 9 va9 = ,cambro-,silurian ro*es m\tonnes & b\ld]-clay or mora9es4 ,! only evid5ce we c\ld expect is j t :i* actually occurs1 namely1 erratics 7"s ( !m measur+ five feet & m 9 diamet]7 emb$d$ 9 m>9e deposits4 ,x may be said t a few erratics are h>dly suffici5t to prove t a true ,glacial p]iod sup]v5$ 9 ,cambro-,silurian times1 & ,i d n insi/ t !y are4 ,b ,i c]ta9ly ma9ta9 t if any l[]+ ( ! temp]ature 7 induc$ by high ecc5tricity ( ! e>?'s orbit dur+ ,cambro-,silurian times1 !n ice-float$ erratics are ! only evid5ce ( refrig]ation t we ne$ ev] hope to f9d4 ,! geographical conditions ( e>ly ,palozoic times =bade ! =mation ( enorm\s ice-%eets l ^? ( ! ,plei/oc5e p]iod4 ,extreme climatic *anges 7 !n impossible1 & p]iods ( high ecc5tricity might h come & gone )\t induc+ any modifications ( flora & fauna :i* we c\ld n[ recognise4 ,we are ignorant ( ! t]re/rial life ( ! globe at t di/ant p]iod1 & our k ( ! m>9e fauna is n suffici5t to enable u to d5y ! possibility ( mod]ate fluctuations 9 ! temp]ature ( ! seas ( e>ly ,palozoic times4 ,moreov]1 we mu/ n =get !re 7 !n no su* b>ri]s to migration z n[ exi/4 ,if ! conditions became tempor>ily unsuitable1 m>9e organisms 7 free to migrate into m g5ial wat]s1 & to return to _! =m] habitats :5 ! unfav\rable conditions _h pass$ away4 ,,dl ,see ,isl& ,life4 ,! uni=m climate s *>act]i/ic ( ! ,cambro-,silurian p]iod appe>s to h prevail$ likewise dur+ ! lat] /ages ( ! ,palozoic era4 ,?is we ga!r f a g5]al consid]ation ( ! floras & faunas1 & _! geographical di/ribution4 ,! dry l&1 z we h se51 cont9u$ to increase 9 ext5t2 b va/ areas ( ! primeval cont95tal plateau ( ! globe /ill cont9u$ "u wat]1 & curr5ts f s\!rn latitudes fl[$ unre/rict$ into pol> regions4 ,dur+ ! protract$ lapse ( "t requir$ = ! =mation ( ! lat] ,palozoic sy/ems sev]al p]iods ( high ecc5tricity mu/ h occurr$4 ,b1 s f> z "o c judge1 ! disposition ( ! l>g] l&-areas 0 nev] su* z to induce a true ,ice ,age4 ,nev]!less we are n )\t evid5ce ( ice-action 9 ,old ,r$ ,s&/one1 ,c>bonif]\s1 & ,p]mian /rata4 ,& x seems to me probable t ! erratic accumulations ref]r$ to may really indicate local action1 ( m or less int5sity1 br\ght ab\t by su* l[]+ ( ! temp]ature z w\ld sup]v5e dur+ a p]iod ( high ecc5tricity4 ,x is true we may expla9 ! ph5om5a by inf]r+ ! exi/5ce ( m\nta9s ( suffici5t elevation--& ?is1 inde$1 is ! usual explanation4 ,b x is d\btful :e!r ^? :o adopt t view h fully consid]$ :at x involves4 ,take1 = example1 ! case ( ! breccias & conglom]ates ( ! ,lamm]muir ,hills1 :i* h all ! appe>ance ( be+ glacial & fluvio-glacial detritus4 ,^! deposits ov]lie ! highly-d5ud$ ,silurian greywacks ( ,hadd+ton%ire 9 ! nor? & ( ,b]wick%ire 9 ! s\?1 & h evid5tly be5 d]iv$ f ! int]v5+ high-gr\nds--! wid? ( :i* betwe5 ! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one accumulations 9 "q does n exce$ eight or n9e miles4 ,! breccias rea* a height ( #acjj feet1 :ile ! dom9at+ po9t ( ! int]v5+ upl&s is #agjj feet4 ,"u pres5t geographical conditions x is d\btful :e!r p]5nial sn[ & glaci]s ( any size at all c\ld exi/ 9 ! region ( ! ,lamm]muirs at a less altitude ?an #gjjj feet or m4 ,b betwe5 ! breccias ( ,hadd+ton%ire & ! equival5t deposits 9 ,b]wick%ire !re is no space = any int]m$iate range ( m\nta9s ( circumd5udation ( su* a height4 ,moreov]1 we mu/ rememb] t "u ! extremely uni=m conditions :i* obta9$ 9 ,palozoic times ! sn[-l9e c\ld n possibly h be5 atta9$ ev5 at t elevation4 ,:5 ! ,devonian coral-reefs describ$ by ,dupont 7 gr[+ 9 ! sea t ov]fl[$ we/]n ,europe1 to :at height mu/ ! s\!rn upl&s ( ,scotl& h be5 elevat$ 9 ord] to rea* ! sn[-l9e6 ,we may make :at all[ance we *oose = ! d5udation :i* ! ,silurian rocks ( ! ,lamm]muirs mu/ h exp]i5c$ s9ce ! deposition ( ! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one1 b x is simply a physical impossibility t m\nta9s ( circumd5udation ( ! desid]at$ height c\ld ev] h exi/$ 9 ! ,lamm]muir region at ! "t ! co>se breccias 7 be+ accumulat$4,,dm ,x seems to me1 !n1 t ^! breccias are 9 e way bett] acc\nt$ = by a l[]+ ( temp]ature due to increas$ ecc5tricity ( ! orbit4 ,?is view frees u f ! necessity ( po/ulat+ excessive upheavals ov] v re/rict$ areas1 & ( creat+ ,alps :]e no ,alps c\ld h exi/$4 ,,dm ,x may be object$ t ! conglom]ates 7 probably n m>9e1 b deposit$ 9 lakes1 ! b$s ( :i* may h be5 mu* above sea-level4 ,b f all t we "k ( ! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one ( ,scotl& x w\ld appe> t ! lakes ( ! p]iod n[ & aga9 communicat$ ) ! sea1 & 7 probably nev] mu* above its level4 ,:5 we consid] ! enorm\s ?ickness ( ! /rata t con/itute any ( our l>g] coal-fields1 we c h>dly d\bt t "o or m p]iods ( high ecc5tricity mu/ h occurr$ dur+ _! accumulation4 ,x does n foll[1 h[ev]1 t we %\ld be able to detect 9 ^! /rata any evid5ce ( alt]nat+ cold & w>m epo*s4 ,s long z ocean-curr5ts f ! tropics f\nd ready entrance to pol> regions across va/ tracts ( :at is n[ dry l&1 extreme & widespread glacial conditions 7 impossible4 ,any l[]+ ( temp]ature due to cosmical causes might inde$ induce new sn[-fields & glaci]s to appe>1 or exi/+ ones to ext5d !mselves 9 nor!rn regions & ! mo/ elevat$ l&s ( l[] latitudes2 b su* local glaciation ne$ n h s]i\sly affect$ any ( ! areas 9 :i* coal-seams 7 be+ =m$4 ,= no?+ appe>s m c]ta9 ?an ?is--t our coal-seams z a rule 7 =m$ ov] broad1 l[-ly+ alluvial l&s1 & 9 swamps & m>%es1 along ! m>g9s ( e/u>ies or %all[ bays ( ! sea4 ,"s seams1 x is true1 are evid5tly =m$ ( drift$ vegetable dbris1 b ! majority po9t to gr[? 9 situ4 ,! /rata ) :i* !y are associat$ are %all[-wat] s$im5ts :i* c\ld only h be5 deposit$ at "s consid]able di/ance f any m\nta9-regions 9 :i* glaci]s 7 likely to exi/4 ,x is idle1 !re=e1 to ask = evid5ce ( glacial action among/ /rata =m$ "u su* conditions4 ,! only evid5ce ( ice-"w we are likely to get is t ( erratics4 ,& ^! are n want+1 al?\gh x is probable t mo/ ( ^? :i* are f\nd emb$d$ 9 coals h be5 transport$ by rafts ( vegetable matt] or 9 ! roots ( trees4 ,! same explanation1 h[ev]1 w n acc\nt = ! b\ld]s :i* ,sir ,william ,dawson has record$ f ! coal-fields ( ,nova ,scotia4 ,he describes !m z occurr+ on ! outside ( a gigantic esk] ( ,c>bonif]\s age1 & ?9ks !y 7 probably dropp$ !re by float+-ice at a "t :5 coal-plants 7 fl\ri%+ 9 ! swamps on ! o!r side ( ! gravel embankm5t4 ,if ! disposition ( ! l&-areas 9 ,c>bonif]\s times r5d]$ su* an ice-age z t ( ! ,plei/oc5e impossible--9 o!r words1 if ! effects fl[+ f high ecc5tricity ( ! orbit mu/ to a l>ge ext5t h be5 neutralis$--! flora & fauna ( ! p]iod c h>dly be expect$ to yield any recognisable evid5ce ( fluctuat+ climatic conditions4 ,:5 our w9t] happ5$ 9 aphelion new sn[-fields might h appe>$1 or already exi/+ glaci]s might h increas$ 9 size2 :ile1 ) ! w9t] 9 p]ihelion1 ! temp]ature 9 nor!rn latitudes w\ld d\btless be rais$4 ,b ! g5]al result w\ld simply be an alt]nation ( w>m & some:at cool] conditions4 ,& su* fluctuations ( climate might readily h tak5 place )\t mat]ially modify+2 ! life ( ! p]iod4 ,! breccias ( ! ,p]mian sy/em h be5 describ$ by ,ramsay z ( glacial orig94 ,"s geologi/s agree ) him1 :ile o!rs d n--& _m h be5 ! +5i\s sugge/ions :i* ^! la/ h advanc$ 9 explanation ( ! ph5om5a4 ,"s h tri$ to %[ h[ ! /ones & blocks 9 ! breccias may h be5 /riat$ )\t hav+ rec\rse to ! ag5cy ( glaci]-ice1 b !y _c expla9 away ! fact t _m ( ! /ones 7:i* v>y 9 size f a few in*es to ?ree or f\r feet 9 diamet]7 h travell$ di/ances ( ?irty or =ty miles f ! p>5t rocks4 ,simil> erratic accumulations1 :i* may belong to ! same sy/em or to ! ,c>bonif]\s1 occur 9 ,india & ,au/ralia4 ,accord+ to ,dr4 ,blan=d1 ! ,indian b\ld]-b$s are cle>ly indicative ( ice-action1 & he does n ?9k t !y c be expla9$ by an assum$ =m] elevation ( ! ,himalaya4 ,on ! contr>y1 he is ( op9ion t ! facts are be/ acc\nt$ = by a g5]al l[]+ ( ! temp]ature1 due probably to ! action ( cosmical causes4 ,da9tree1 ,wilk9son1 ,r4 ,oldham1 & o!rs :o h /udi$ ! ,au/ralian erratic b$s h likewise /at$ _! belief t ^! are ( true glacial orig94 ,i may pass rapidly ov] ! ,mesozoic sy/ems1 tak+ note1 h[ev]1 ( ! fact t 9 !m we enc\nt] evid5ce ( ice-action ( mu* ! same k9d z t met ) 9 ,palozoic /rata4 ,:ile1 on ! "o h&1 ! ,mesozoic floras & faunas bespeak climatic conditions simil> to ^? ( e>li] ages1 b probably n q s uni=m2 on ! o!r1 ! occurr5ce ( erratics 9 v>i\s m>9e accumulations is suffici5t to %[ t n[ & aga9 ice float$ across seas1 ! floors ( :i* 7 t5ant$ by reef-build+ corals4 ,! geographical conditions cont9u$ unfav\rable to ! =mation ( ext5sive ice-%eets 9 temp]ate latitudes1 no matt] h[ high ! ecc5tricity ( ! orbit might h be54 ,! erratics :i* occur 9 c]ta9 ,jurassic & ,cretace\s deposits are admitt$ by mo/ geologi/s to h be5 ice-borne4 ,n[1 x is highly improbable t ! transport+ ag5t c\ld h be5 coa/-ice1 = x is h>dly possible to conceive ( ice =m+ on ! surface ( a sea 9 :i* fl\ri%$ an abundant ,mesozoic fauna4 ,! erratics1 !re=e1 seem to imply ! exi/5ce 9 ,mesozoic times ( local glaci]s1 :i* "h & !re desc5d$ to ! sea1 z 9 ! nor?-ea/ ( ,scotl&4 ,! erratics 9 ! ,scotti% ,jurassic are evid5tly ( native orig91 & x is mo/ improbable t ^? :i* h be5 met ) 9 ! ,*alk ( ,engl& & ,france c\ld h float$ f any v great di/ance4 ,h[1 !n1 c we expla9 ! appe>ance ( local glaci]s 9 ^! latitudes dur+ ,mesozoic times8 ,! geographical conditions ( ! p]iod c\ld n h fav\r$ ! =mation ( p]5nial sn[ & ice 9 our area1 unless our l&s 7 at t "t mu* m elevat$ ?an n[4 ,& ?is is ! usual explanation4 ,x is suppos$ t m\nta9s mu* high] ?an any we n[ possess probably exi/$ 9 su* regions z ! ,scotti% ,highl&s4 ,x is easy to imag9e ! =m] exi/5ce ( su* m\nta9s4 ,s long a "t has elaps$ s9ce ! ,jurassic p]iod1 t ! ,ar*an & ,palozoic areas _c b h suff]$ prodigi\s d5udation 9 ! int]val4 ,b1 :5 "o consid]s h[ v l(ty1 inde$1 ^? m\nta9s mu/ h be51 9 ord] to rea* ! sn[-l9e ( ,jurassic times1 "o may be excus$ = express+ a d\bt z to :e!r ! sugge/$ explanation is reasonable4 ,at all ev5ts1 ! ph5om5a are1 to say ! lea/1 z readily explicable on ! supposition t ! sn[-l9e 0 tempor>ily l[]$ by cosmical causes4 ,ev5 ) ecc5tricity at a high value1 no great ice-%eets1 inde$1 c\ld h exi/$1 b local sn[-fields & glaci]s might h appe>$ 9 su* m\nta9-regions z 7 ( suffici5t height4 ,& ?is might h happ5$ )\t produc+ any great diff]5ce 9 ! temp]ature ( ! sea1 or any m>k$ modification 9 ! di/ribution ( life4 ,9 %ort1 we %\ld simply h1 z be=e1 an alt]nation ( w>m & some:at cool] climates1 b no?+ approa*+ to ! glacial & int]glacial epo*s ( ! ,plei/oc5e4 ,^! conclusions seem to me to be /rongly support$ by ! evid5ce ( ice-action dur+ ,t]ti>y times4 ,! gigantic erratics ( ! ,alp9e ,eoc5e d n appe> to h be5 d]iv$ f ! ,alps1 b r f ! ,ar*an area ( s\!rn ,bohemia4 ,! /rata 9 :i* !y occur are1 = ! mo/ "p1 unfossilif]\s2 !y conta9 only fucoidal rema9s1 & are presumably m>9e4 ,h[ is x possible to acc\nt = ! appe>ance ( ^! erratics 9 m>9e deposits 9 c5tral ,europe at a "t :51 z evid5c$ by ! ,eoc5e flora & fauna ! climate 0 w>m8 ,are we to inf] ! =m] exi/5ce ( an extremely l(ty range ( ,bohemian ,alps :i* has s9ce vani%$8 ,is x n m probable t "h1 too1 we h evid5ce ( a l[]+ ( ! sn[-l9e1 induc$ by cosmical causes1 :i* br\ght ab\t ! appe>ance ( sn[-fields & glaci]s 9 a m\nta9-tract ( mu* less elevation ?an w\ld h be5 requir$ 9 ! abs5ce ( high ecc5tricity ( ! orbit8 ,if x be object$ t su* cosmical causes mu/ h _h "s effect ^u ! di/ribution ( life1 ,i reply t v probably !y _h1 al?\gh n to any extreme ext5t4 ,! rese>*es ( ,mr4 ,/>kie ,g>dn] h %[n t ! flora ( ! ,engli% ,eoc5e af=ds di/9ct evid5ce ( climatic *anges4 ,b z ! geographical conditions ( t p]iod preclud$ ! possibility ( ext5sive glaciation1 & c\ld only1 at ! mo/1 h induc$ local glaci]s to appe> 9 elevat$ m\nta9-regions1 x seems idle to cite ! non-occurr5ce ( erratics & mora9ic accumulations 9 ! ,eoc5e ( ,engl& & ,france z an argum5t aga9/ ! application ( ,croll's !ory to ! case ( ! erratics ( ! ,flys*4 ,i repeat1 !n1 t "u ! geographical conditions ( ! ,eoc5e1 all ! m obvi\s effects likely to h result$ f ! passage ( a p]iod ( high ecc5tricity w\ld be ! appe>ance ( a few local glaci]s1 ! exi/5ce ( :i* c\ld h _h no m influ5ce on ! climate ( adjac5t l[l&s ?an is notable 9 simil> circum/ances 9 our own day4 ,x is absurd1 !re=e1 to expect to f9d evid5ce 9 ,eoc5e /rata ( z /rongly contra/$ climates z ^? ( ! glacial & int]glacial deposits ( ! ,plei/oc5e4 ,!re mu/1 d\btless1 h be5 alt]nations ( climate 9 our hemisph]e2 b ^! w\ld consi/ simply ( passages f w>m to some:at cool] conditions--j su* *anges1 9 fact1 z are sugge/$ by ! plants ( ! ,engli% ,eoc5e4 ,! evid5ce ( ice-action 9 ! ,mioc5e /rata is ev5 m /rik+ ?an t ( :i* ,i h j be5 speak+4 ,! (t5-cit$ case ( ! erratics ( ! ,sup]ga ne> ,tur9 ,i ne$ d little m ?an m5tion4 ,^! erratics 7 und\bt$ly c>ri$ by iceb]gs1 calv$ f ,alp9e glaci]s at a "t :5 nor!rn ,italy 0 l>gely subm]g$4 ,! erratic deposits are unfossilif]\s1 & are und]laid & ov]laid by fossilif]\s /rata1 9 none ( :i* are any erratics to be f\nd4 ,:at is ! mean+ ( ^! int]calat$ glacial accumulations8 ,c we believe x possible t ! ,mioc5e glaci]s 7 enabl$ to rea* ! sea 9 consequ5ce ( a sudd5 movem5t ( elevation1 :i* mu/ h be5 conf9$ to ! ,alps !mselves8 ,!n1 if ?is be s1 we mu/ g a /ep fur!r1 & suppose t1 aft] "s little "t1 ! ,alps 7 aga9 sudd5ly depress$1 s t ! glaci]s at once ceas$ to rea* ! sea-coa/4 ,=1 z ,dr4 ,croll has rem>k$1 _h ! l[]+ ( ! ,alps be5 effect$ by ! sl[ process ( d5udation1 x mu/ h tak5 a long c\rse ( ages to h l[]$ !m to ! ext5t ( br++ ! glacial /ate to a close4 ,& we %\ld1 9 su* a case1 f9d a succession ( b$s indicat+ a m or less protract$ cont9uance ( glacial conditions1 & n "o set ( erratic accumulations int]calat$ among/ /rata1 ! organic rema9s 9 :i* are cle>ly sugge/ive ( a w>m climate4 ,! occurr5ce ( erratics 9 ! ,mioc5e ( ,italy is all ! m int]e/+ f ! fact t 9 ! ,mioc5e ( ,france & ,spa9 simil> evid5ce ( ice-action is =?com+4 ,oppon5ts ( ,dr4 ,croll's !ory h made mu* ( ,b>on ,nord5skild's /atem5t t he c\ld f9d no trace ( =m] glacial action 9 any ( ! fossilif]\s =mations )9 ! ,arctic regions4 ,he is conv9c$ t an exam9ation ( ! geogno/ic condition1 & an inve/igation ( ! fossil flora & fauna ( ! pol> l&s1 %[ no signs ( a glacial era hav+ exi/$ 9 ^? p>ts be=e ! t]m9ation ( ! ,mioc5e p]iod4 ,well1 z we h se51 !re is no reason to believe t ! geographical conditions 9 our hemisph]e1 at any "t previ\s to ! close ( ! ,plioc5e p]iod1 c\ld h induc$ glacial conditions comp>able to ^? ( ! ,plei/oc5e ,ice ,age4 ,! /rata ref]r$ to by ,nord5skild1 are1 = ! mo/ "p1 ( m>9e orig91 & _! faunas are suffici5t to %[ u t ! ,arctic seas 7 =m]ly temp]ate & g5ial4 ,if any ice exi/$ !n1 x c\ld only h be5 9 ! =m ( glaci]s on elevat$ l&s4 ,& x is q possible t ^!1 dur+ p]iods ( high ecc5tricity1 may h desc5d$ to ! sea & calv$ _! iceb]gs2 &1 if s1 erratics may yet be f\nd emb$d$ "h & !re 9 ! ,arctic fossilif]\s =mations1 al?\gh ,nord5skild fail$ to see !m4 ,"o might sail all r\nd ! ,palozoic coa/-l9es ( ,scotl& )\t be+ able to obs]ve erratics 9 ! /rata1 & yet1 z we "k1 ^! h be5 enc\nt]$ 9 ! int]ior ( ! c\ntry4 ,! :olesale scatt]+ ( erratics at any "t previ\s to ! ,plei/oc5e1 mu/ h be5 exceptional ev5 9 arctic regions1 & consequ5tly "o is n surpris$ t !y d n ev]y:]e />e ! obs]v] 9 ! face4 ,! g5]al conclusion1 !n1 to :i* ,i ?9k we may reasonably come1 is simply ?is3--,t geological climate has be5 det]m9$ *iefly by geographical conditions4 ,s long z ! l&s ( ! globe 7 discont9u\s & ( relatively small ext5t1 w>m ocean-curr5ts rea*+ pol> regions produc$ a g5]al uni=mity ( temp]ature--! climate ( ! t]re/rial areas be+ m or less m>k$ly insul> 9 "*4 ,"u ^! conditions1 ! sea w\ld n[h]e be froz54 ,b :5 ! l&-masses became m & m consolidat$1 :5 ow+ to ! gr[? ( ! cont95ts ! w>m ocean-curr5ts f\nd less ready access to arctic regions1 !n ! temp]ature ( ^? regions 0 gradually l[]$1 until ev5tually ! seas became fro/-b\nd1 & ! l&s 7 cov]$ ) sn[ & ice4 ,b :ile ! *ief det]m9+ cause ( climate has be5 ! relative di/ribution ( l& & wat]1 x is impossible to d\bt t dur+ p]iods ( high ecc5tricity ( ! orbit1 ! climate mu/ h be5 modifi$ to a great] or less ext5t4 ,9 our own day ! geographical conditions are su* t1 7 ecc5tricity to atta9 a high value1 ! climate ( ! ,plei/oc5e w\ld be reproduc$1 & our hemisph]e w\ld exp]i5ce a succession ( alt]nat+ cold & g5ial epo*s4 ,b 9 e>li] /ages ( ! _w's hi/ory1 ! geographical conditions 7 n ( a k9d to fav\r ! accumulation ( va/ ice-fields4 ,dur+ a p]iod ( extreme ecc5tricity1 !re w\ld probably be fluctuations ( temp]ature 9 high latitudes2 b no?+ l ! glacial & int]glacial epo*s ( ! ,plei/oc5e c\ld h occurr$4 ,at mo/1 !re w\ld be a g5]al l[]+ ( ! temp]ature1 suffici5t to r5d] ! climate ( arctic seas & l&s some:at cool]1 & probably to induce ! appe>ance 9 suitable places ( local glaci]s2 &1 ow+ to precession ( ! equ9ox1 ^! cool] conditions w\ld be foll[$ by a g5]al elevation ( ! temp]ature above ! normal = ! geographical conditions ( ! p]iod4 ,9 ,palozoic & ,mesozoic times1 ! effects ( high ecc5tricity ( ! orbit appe> to h be51 9 a great measure1 neutralis$ by ! geographical conditions1 ) a possible exception 9 ! ,p]mian p]iod4 ,b 9 ,t]ti>y times1 :5 ! l&-masses _h become m cont9u\s1 ! cosmical causes ( *ange ref]r$ to mu/ h _h great] influ5ce4 ,& ,i _c help agree+ ) ,dr4 ,croll t ! w>m climates ( ! ,arctic regions dur+ t era 71 to "s ext5t1 ! result ( high ecc5tricity4 ,9 conclud+ ?is discussion1 ,i readily admit t our k ( geographical evolution is z yet 9 its infancy4 ,we h /ill v mu* to le>n1 & no "o w v5ture to dogmatise ^u ! subject4 ,b ,i hope ,i h made x cle> t ! evid5ce1 s f> z x goes1 does n ju/ify ! confid5t ass]tions ( ,dr4 ,croll's oppon5ts1 t 8 !ory is contradict$ by :at we "k ( ! climatic conditions ( ,palozoic1 ,mesozoic1 & ,ca9ozoic times4 ,on ! contr>y1 x seems to me to ga9 additional support f ! v evid5ce to :i* ,nord5skild & o!rs h appeal$4 ,note4--,! accompany+ sket*-maps 7,plate ,,iv47 require a few words ( explanation4 ,! geology ( ! _w is /ill s imp]fectly kn[n t any attempt at graphic repres5tation ( =m] geographical conditions _c b be unsatisfactory4 ,! approximate positions ( ! *ief areas ( pr$om9ant elevation & depression dur+ /at$ p]iods ( ! pa/ may h be5 asc]ta9$ 9 a g5]al way2 b :5 we try to indicate ^! ^u a map1 su* provisional recon/ructions are apt to sugge/ a m precise & def9ite k ?an is at pres5t atta9able4 ,= x mu/ be confess$ t !re is h>dly a l9e ^u ! small maps 7,a1 ,b1 ,c7 :i* might n h be5 drawn diff]5tly4 ,?is1 ( c\rse1 is m especially true ( ,s\? ,am]ica1 ,africa1 ,asia--( l>ge areas ( :i* ! geological /ructure is unkn[n4 ,b al?\gh ! b\nd>ies ( ! l&-masses %[n ^u ! maps ref]r$ to are ?us confess$ly provisional1 ! maps nev]!less br+ out ! ma9 fact ( a gradual gr[? & consolidation ( ! l&-areas--a passage f insul> to cont95tal conditions4 ,i ne$ h>dly say ?is is no novel idea4 ,x 0 cle>ly set =? by ,pr(essor ,dana upw>ds ( =ty ye>s ago 7,silliman's ,j\rnal1 #ahdf1 p4 #ceb2 #ahdg1 pp4 #agf1 #cha71 & x receiv$ "s ye>s lat] fur!r illu/ration f ,pr(essor ,guyot1 :o insi/$ ^u ! insul> "* ( ! climate dur+ ,palozoic times 7,! ,e>? & ,man1 #ahej74 ,x mu/ be und]/ood t ! maps 7,a1 ,b1 ,c7 are n meant to exhibit ! geographical conditions ( ! _w at any "o po9t ( "t4 ,9 ,map ,a1 = example1 ! area col\r$ blue 0 n necess>ily cov]$ by sea at any p>ticul> /age 9 ! ,palozoic era4 ,x simply repres5ts approximately ! regions t5d$4 ,b1 z already /at$1 num]\s oscillations ( level occurr$ 9 ,palozoic times1 s t _m *anges 9 ! di/ribution ( l& & wat] mu/ h tak5 place d[n to ! close ( ! ,p]mian p]iod4 ,! l&-areas %[n ^u ! map are simply ^? :i* appe> to h be5 m or less p]si/5t ?r\gh all ! geographical *anges ref]r$ to4 ,simil> rem>ks apply to ! o!r maps repres5t+ ! m or less p]si/5t l&-areas ( ,mesozoic & ,t]ti>y times4 ,?us1 = example1 !re are reasons = believ+ t ,madagasc> 0 jo9$ to ! ma9l& ( ,africa at "s /age ( ! ,mesozoic era1 b 0 subsequ5tly insulat$ be=e ,t]ti>y times4 ,aga91 z ,mesozoic era a l&-connection obta9$ betwe5 ,new ,zeal& & ,au/ralia4 ,! same naturali/ also po9ts out t a *a9 ( isl&s1 n[ repres5t$ by num]\s islets & %oals1 s]v$ 9 ,t]ti>y times to l9k ,madagasc> to ,india4 ,map ,d %[s ! areas ( pr$om9ant elevation & depression4 ,! area col\r$ br[n repres5ts ! great cont95tal plateau1 :i* ext5ds d[nw>ds to #ajjj fa?oms or s bel[ ! pres5t sea-level4 ,! area t9t$ blue is ! oceanic depression4 ,f ! pres5t di/ribution ( plants & animals1 we inf] t consid]able tracts :i* are n[ subm]g$ h =m]ly be5 dry l&--"s ( ^! *anges hav+ tak5 place 9 v rec5t geological times4 ,& ! same conclusions are frequ5tly sugge/$ by geological evid5ce4 ,!re c be little d\bt t ,europe 9 ,t]ti>y times ext5d$ fur!r into ! ,nor!rn ,ocean ?an x does n[4 ,& x is q possible t 9 ! ,mesozoic & ,palozoic eras consid]able l&-areas may likewise h appe>$ "h & !re 9 ^? nor!rn regions :i* are at pres5t "u wat]4 ,!re is1 inde$1 h>dly any portion ( ! cont95tal plateau :i* is n[ subm]g$ t may n h be5 l& at "s "t or o!r4 ,b aft] mak+ all all[ance = su* possibilities1 ! geological evid5ce1 z f> z x goes1 nev]!less leads to ! conclusion t ^u ! :ole a wid] exp5se ( primeval cont95tal plateau has come to ! surface s9ce ,t]ti>y times ?an 0 ev] expos$ dur+ any =m] p]iod ( ! _w's hi/ory4 ,mr4 ,m>c\ /ates 7,am]ican ,geologi/1 #ahij1 p4 #bbi7 t ! idea ( a gradual gr[? ( l&-areas orig9at$ ) ,elie de ,beaumont1 :o 0 9 ! habit ( %[+ su* maps1 & us$ !m 9 8 lectures at ,p>is z e>ly z #ahcf4 ,pr(essor ,beudant publi%$ ?ree ( ^! same maps = ! ,jurassic1 ,cretace\s1 & ,t]ti>y seas 9 8 ,c\rs lm5taire de ,gologie 7#ahda72 & ,pr(essor ,c>l ,vogt 9 8 ,lehrbu* d] ,geologie und ,petrefact5kunde 7#ahde71 :i* 0 confess$ly bas$ on ,elie de ,beaumont's lectures dur+ #ahdd-df1 gives f\r maps ( ! ,c>bonif]\s1 ,jurassic1 ,cretace\s1 & ,t]ti>y seas4 ,,xiii4 ,! ,sci5tific ,results ( ,dr4 ,nans5's ,exp$ition4,,dn ,,dn ,f ,! ,scotti% ,geographical ,magaz9e1 #ahia4 ,9 ! ,app5dix to 8 mo/ int]e/+ & in/ructive "w1 ,! ,fir/ ,cross+ ( ,gre5l&1 ,dr4 ,nans5 treats ( ! sci5tific results ( 8 rem>kable j\rney4 ,! detail$ enum]ation ( ^! results1 he tells u1 w\ld h be5 out ( place 9 a g5]al acc\nt ( 8 exp$ition1 b w appe> 9 due "t else:]e4 ,h5ce he conf9es att5tion 9 8 pres5t "w to su* que/ions z are ( mo/ obvi\s int]e/1 su* z ! ext5t1 outw>d =m1 & elevation ( ! inl&-ice ( ,gre5l&4 ,by way ( introduction 8 read]s are pres5t$ ) "s acc\nt ( ! geological hi/ory ( ! c\ntry1 :i*1 al?\gh x conta9s no?+ t 0 n already famili> to geologi/s1 w d\btless prove int]e/+ to o!rs4 ,aft] indicat+ t ,gre5l& w\ld appe> to be compos$ almo/ exclusively ( ,ar*an s*i/s & granitoid eruptive rocks1 ! au?or glances at ! evid5ce :i* ! ,mesozoic & ,ca9ozoic /rata ( ! we/ coa/ h suppli$ z to ! =m] preval5ce ( g5ial climatic conditions4 ,he] is cit$ to %[ t dur+ ! =mation ( ! ,cretace\s b$s ! mean temp]ature ( nor? ,gre5l& 0 probably betwe5 #gj & #gb ,f41 :ile 9 lat] ,ca9ozoic times x c\ld n h be5 less ?an #ee ,f41 9 #gj ,n4,l4 ,^! conclusions are bas$ on ! "* ( ! fossil floras4 ,n[ ! mean annual temp]ature on ! we/ coa/ ( ,gre5l&1 :]e ! relics ( ^! old floras occur1 is ab\t #ae ,f41 f :i* x is inf]r$ t !re has be5 a decrease ( #dj s9ce ,ca9ozoic times4 ,9 ^? times1 says ,dr4 ,nans51 ! c\ntry mu/ h rejoic$ 9 a climate simil> to t ( ,naples1 :ile 9 ! e>li] ,cretace\s p]iod x mu/ h resembl$ t ( ,egypt4 ,he !n ref]s to ! well-kn[n fact t1 long aft] ! deposition ( ! ,ca9ozoic b$s ( ,gre5l&1 int5sely arctic conditions sup]v5$1 :5 ! inl&-ice ( t c\ntry ext5d$ mu* beyond its pres5t limits4 ,?is 0 ! ,glacial p]iod ( geologi/s1 dur+ :i* all ! nor!rn regions ( ,am]ica & ,europe1 d[n to :at are n[ temp]ate latitudes 7 likewise swa!d 9 ice4 ,v>i\s hypo!ses h be5 advanc$ 9 explanation ( ^! /range climatic vicissitudes1 & "s ( !m are v briefly discuss$ by ,dr4 ,nans54 ,none ( ! sugge/$ solutions ( ! problem q satisfies him2 b he appe>s to look ) mo/ fav\r on ! view t great climatic revolutions 9 :at are n[ pol> regions may h result$ f movem5ts ( ! e>?'s axis4 ,he admits1 h[ev]1 t !re are c]ta9 /rong objections to ?is hypo!sis1 & concludes t we h n yet got any satisfactory explanation to cov] all ! facts ( ! case4 ,9 discuss+ ! "q ( a possible w&]+ ( ! pole1 ! au?or cites c]ta9 a/ronomical obs]vations to %[ t ! position ( ! axis is ev5 n[ sl[ly *ang+1 ! movem5t am\nt+ to half a second 9 six mon?s4 ,?is is n mu*2 b if ! *ange1 z he rem>ks1 7 to cont9ue at ! same rate = #cfjj ye>s1 ! %ift w\ld am\nt to "o degree4 ,?us 9 a p]iod ( no m ?an #gb1jjj to #ajh1jjj ye>s ,gre5l& might be br\ght into ! latitude requir$ = ! gr[? ( su* floras z ^? ( ,ca9ozoic & ,mesozoic times4 ,geologi/s w readily conc$e ^! or long] p]iods if !y be requir$1 b !y w h grav] d\bts ?an ,dr4 ,nans5 z to :e!r any su* great *anges 9 ! axis are possible4 ,! a/ronomical obs]vations ref]r$ to1 ev5 if !y 7 fully confirm$1 d n %[ t ! movem5t is con/ant 9 "o direction4 ,!y indicat$1 z he m5tions1 a slight increase ( latitude dur+ ! fir/ qu>t] ( #ahhi1 foll[$ 9 ! second qu>t] ( ! same ye> by a decrease1 :i* cont9u$ to ,janu>y1 #ahij4 ,s9ce ! publication ( ,pr(essor ,george ,d>w9's ma/]ly pap] on ! influ5ce ( geological *anges on ! e>?'s axis ( rotation1 geologi/s h felt assur$ t ! great climatic revolutions to :i* ! /ratifi$ rocks be> witness mu/ be o!rwise expla9$ ?an by a w&]+ ( ! pole4 ,inde$1 ! geological evid5ce alone is en\gh to %[ t pr(\nd climatic *anges h tak5 place :ile ! pole has occupi$ its pres5t position4 ,?us1 !re is no reasonable gr\nds = d\bt+ t dur+ ! ,glacial p]iod ! pole 0 j :]e we f9d x to-day4 ,=1 "u exi/+ geographical conditions1 c\ld a suffici5t l[]+ ( temp]ature be br\ght ab\t1 sn[-fields & ice-%eets w\ld ga!r & increase ov] ! v same areas z we "k 7 glaciat$ 9 ,plei/oc5e times4 ,/ill fur!r1 we h only to recall ! fact t sev]al extreme revolutions ( climate sup]v5$ dur+ ! s-call$ ,glacial p]iod1 to see h[ impossible x is to acc\nt = ! ph5om5a by movem5ts ( ! e>?'s axis4 ,if x be true t ! great climatic *anges ( ! ,plei/oc5e p]iod did n result f a w&]+ to & fro ( ! pole1 !n x is n at all likely t ! ,mesozoic & ,ca9ozoic climates ( ,gre5l& 7 induc$ by any su* movem5t4 ,b does ! geological evid5ce ju/ify u 9 believ+ t ! climates 9 ,gre5l& dur+ ,cretace\s & ,t]ti>y times really resembl$ ^? ( ,egypt & s\!rn ,italy8 ,x may be /rongly d\bt$ if x does4 ,palontologi/s1 l o!r mortals1 f9d x h>d to escape ! influ5ce ( environm5t4 ,!y are apt to project ! actual pres5t into ! pa/1 )\t1 p]haps1 fully consid]+ h[ f> !y are ju/ifi$ 9 do+ s4 ,because !re occur 9 ,cretace\s & ,t]ti>y /rata1 )9 ,arctic regions1 c]ta9 assemblages ( plants :i* f9d _! ne>e/ repres5tatives 9 s\!rn ,italy & ,egypt1 surely x is r ra% to conclude t ,gre5l& has exp]i5c$ climates l ^? n[ *>act]i/ic ( ,m$it]ranean l&s4 ,all t ! evid5ce really entitles u to assume is simply t ! w9t] temp]ature ( ,gre5l& 0 =m]ly mu* high] ?an x is n[4 ,t great caution is requir$ 9 comp>+ pa/ ) pres5t climatological conditions may be se5 by glanc+ = a mom5t at ! "* ( ! flora :i* liv$ 9 ,europe dur+ ! int]glacial phase ( ! ,plei/oc5e p]iod4 ,! plants ( t p]iod are = ! mo/ "p liv+ species1 s t :ile deal+ ) ^! we are on saf] gr\nd ?an :5 we are treat+ ( ! floras ( p]iods s f> remov$ f u z ^? ( ,t]ti>y & ,cretace\s times4 ,n[1 9 ! ,plei/oc5e flora ( ,europe we f9d a /range comm+l+ ( species1 su* z we n[h]e see to-day ov] any equally wide area ( ! e>?'s surface4 ,dur+ ,plei/oc5e times _m plants :i* are /ill indig5\s to s\!rn ,france fl\ri%$ side by side 9 t area ) species :i* are no long] se5 9 ! same region2 "s ( ^! la/ hav+ retreat$ because unable to support ! cold ( w9t]1 :ile o!rs h retir$ to ! m\nta9s to escape ! dryness ( ! summ]4 ,simil> evid5ce is =?com+ f ! ,plei/oc5e accumulations ( ,italy1 nor!rn ,france1 & ,g]many4 ,9 a ^w1 clem5t w9t]s & relatively cool & humid summ]s p]mitt$ ! wide diffusion & intimate association ( plants :i* h n[ a v diff]5t di/ribution1 temp]ate & s\!rn species =m]ly fl\ri%+ toge!r ov] va/ areas ( s\!rn & c5tral ,europe4 ,& simil>ly we f9d t dur+ ! same p]iod ! regions 9 "q 7 t5ant$ by s\!rn & temp]ate =ms ( animal life--elephants1 rh9oc]oses1 & hippopotamuses1 toge!r ) c]v9e1 bov9e1 & o!r =ms1 n a few ( :i* are /ill indig5\s to our ,cont95t--t rang$ f ! %ores ( ! ,m$it]ranean up to our own latitudes4 ,we _c d\bt1 inde$1 t ! pres5t geographical di/ribution ( plants & animals diff]s m>k$ly f any?+ t has yet be5 disclos$ by ! rese>*es ( geologi/s4 ,! climatic conditions ( our day are exceptional z comp>$ ) ^? ( e>li] times1 & ! occurr5ce 9 ,gre5l& ( s\!rn types ( plants1 !re=e1 does n ju/ify u 9 conclud+ t climates l ^? ( s\!rn ,italy & ,egypt 7 ev] *>act]i/ic ( arctic regions4 ,x is a l[ w9t] temp]ature r ?an a want ( great summ] heat t re/ricts ! range nor?w>d ( s\!rn floras4 ,if ,gre5l& c\ld be dive/$ ( its inl&-ice--if its w9t] temp]ature nev] fell bel[ t ( our own isl&--x w\ld d\btless become clo!d 9 "t ) an abundant temp]ate flora4 ,judg+ f :at is kn[n ( ! v>i\s floras & faunas t h successively clo!d & peopl$ ! _w1 f ,palozoic d[n to ! close ( ,ca9ozoic times1 ! g5]al climatic conditions ( ! globe1 prior to ! ,glacial p]iod1 w\ld seem to h be5 preval5tly insul> r ?an cont95tal z !y are n[4 ,! l&s appe> to h be5 =m]ly mu* less cont9u\s1 & ocean curr5ts f s\!rn latitudes _h consequ5tly fre] access to high nor!rn regions ?an is at pres5t possible4 ,9 no o!r way c we acc\nt = ! facts connect$ ) ! geographical di/ribution & ext5t ( ! fossilif]\s =mations4 ,b are we to inf]1 f ! occurr5ce ( simil> assemblages ( m>9e organic rema9s 9 arctic1 temp]ate1 & tropical latitudes1 t ! %ores ( primeval ,gre5l& 7 wa%$ by wat]s z w>m z ^? ( ! tropics8 ,surely n3 an abs5ce ( v cold wat] 9 ! f> nor? is all t we seem ju/ifi$ 9 assum+4 ,& s1 9 l mann]1 ! pres5ce 9 ,gre5l& ( fossil floras hav+ ! same g5]al facies z ^? t occur 9 ! correspond+ /rata ( m s\!rn latitudes1 does n compel u to believe t conditions at all simil> to :at are n[ met ) 9 w>m-temp]ate & sub-tropical l&s ev] obta9$ 9 arctic regions4 ,a relatively high w9t] temp]ature alone w\ld p]mit ! range nor?w>d ( _m tribes ( plants :i* are n[ re/rict$ to s\!rn latitudes4 ,yet1 "u ! mo/ uni=m insul> climatic conditions t we c conceive (1 !re mu/ always h be5 diff]5ces due to latitude--al?\gh su* diff]5ces 7 nev] app>5tly s m>k$ z !y are n[4 ,9 ord] to appreciate ! "* ( ! climate :i* mu/ h prevail$ :5 ! l&s ( ! globe 7 mu* m int]rupt$ & insul> ?an at pres5t1 we h only to consid] h[ greatly iso!rmal l9es1 ev5 "u exi/+ cont95tal conditions1 are deflect$ by ocean-curr5ts4 ,9 ! ,nor? ,atlantic1 = example1 ! w9t] iso!rm ( #cb ,f4 is deflect$ nor?w>d f ! p>allel ( ,new ,york to t ( ,hamm]fe/--a displacem5t ( at lea/ #cj ( latitude4 ,! ,arctic ,sea n[ occupies a p>tially clos$ bas91 into :i* only "o consid]able curr5t ent]s f ! s\?4 ,b 9 e>li] ages ! case 0 o!rwise1 & !re 0 (t5 communication across :at are n[ our cont95tal areas4 ,in/ead ( be+ girdl$1 z at pres5t1 by an almo/ cont9u\s l&-mass1 ! ,arctic ,sea seems to h =m$ ) ! circumjac5t ocean "o great ar*ipelago4 ,?us freely op5 to ! influx ( s\!rn curr5ts1 x is n difficult to believe t ! seas ( ! f> nor? might nev] be froz51 & t an inl&-ice l t ( ,gre5l& w\ld be impossible4 ,! pres5t cold summ]s ( t c\ntry1 z ! late ,dr4 ,croll has insi/$1 are due n s mu* to high latitude z to ! pres5ce ( sn[ & ice4 ,c\ld ^! be remov$1 ! summ]s w\ld be z w>m at lea/ z ^? ( ,engl&4 ,n[ ! occurr5ce 9 arctic regions ( ,palozoic & ,mesozoic m>9e faunas is /rongly sugge/ive ( ! =m] pres5ce !re ( g5ial wat]s hav+ free communication ) l[] latitudes2 & x is to ! pres5ce ( ^! w>m curr5ts1 fl[+ un9t]rupt$ly ?r\gh pol> regions1 t we w\ld attribute ! high w9t] temp]ature & uni=m climate to :i* ! fossil floras & faunas ( ,gre5l& be> te/imony4 ,if ^! views be at all reasonable1 x seems unnecess>y to call to our aid hypo!tical *anges 9 ! position ( ! e>?'s axis4 ,x may be admitt$1 h[ev]1 t ! climate ( ! ,arctic regions mu/ h be5 f "t to "t m or less affect$ by ^? cosmical causes to :i* ,croll has appeal$4 ,s long1 h[ev]1 z insul> conditions prevail$1 ! *anges induc$ by a great increase 9 ! ecc5tricity ( ! e>?'s orbit w\ld n necess>ily be /rongly m>k$4 ,dr4 ,nans5 objects to ,croll's well-kn[n !ory t x _c acc\nt = ! recurr5ce ( conditions s fav\rable z to expla9 ! exi/5ce 9 ,gre5l& ( a climate comp>able to :at we n[ f9d 9 tropical regions4 ,no d\bt x _c1 b1 z we ma9ta91 !re is no good reason = suppos+ t tropical or sub-tropical climates ev] *>act]is$ any area )9 ! ,arctic ,circle4 ,! rem>kable association 9 ,europe1 dur+ s rec5t a p]iod z ! ,plei/oc5e1 ( s\!rn & temp]ate species ( plants & animals1 ought to w>n u aga9/ tak+ ! pres5t di/ribution ( life-=ms z an exact type ( ! k9d ( di/ribution :i* *>act]is$ e>li] ages4 ,x is safe to say t 7 our pres5t cont95tal areas to become brok5 up into gr\ps ( l>g] & small] isl&s1 s z to all[ ( a mu* less imp$$ oceanic circulation1 ! result+ climatic conditions w\ld (f] ! /ronge/ contra/ to ! pres5t4 ,& z ! l&s ( ! globe 7 app>5tly 9 =m] times m insul> ?an !y are n[1 x is haz>d\s to comp>e ! climates ( ! pres5t ) ^? ( ! pa/4 ,x is reasonable to inf]1 f ! occurr5ce 9 ,gre5l& ( fossil floras :i* f9d _! ne>e/ repres5tatives 9 s\!rn ,europe & nor? ,africa1 t ! w9t]s ( ! f> nor? 7 =m]ly mild & clem5t4 ,b we _c conclude1 f ! same evid5ce1 t ! ,arctic summ]s 7 ev] z hot z ^? ( our pres5t w>m-temp]ate & sub-tropical zones4 ,b if ! rec5t exp$ition has ?r[n no new light on ! disput$ "q z to ! cause ( ! high temp]ature :i* =m]ly prevail$ 9 ,gre5l&1 x is ne$less to say t x has add$ consid]ably to our k ( ! pres5t physical conditions ( t c\ntry4 ,! view held by _m t ,gre5l& mu/ be wrapp$ 9 ice has be5 amply ju/ifi$1 & we c n[ no long] d\bt t ! inl&-ice cov]s ! :ole c\ntry f ! #ge? p>allel s\?w>ds4 ,a section ( ,gre5l& 9 ! latitude at :i* x 0 cross$ by ,nans5 & 8 comrades gives an almo/ exact ma!matical curve1 approximat+ v closely to ! arc ( a circle describ$ ) a radius ( ab\t #fejj miles4 ,! :ole way across ! surface co9cides tol]ably accurately ) ?is arc1 ?\gh x falls away some:at abruptly at ! coa/s1 & a little m abruptly on ! ea/ side ?an ! we/4 ,tak+ ! obs]vations ( o!r ,arctic travell]s ) 8 own1 ,nans5 is l$ to ! conclusion t ! surface ( ! inl&-ice =ms "p ( a rem>kably regul> cyl9d]1 ! radius ( :i* nev]!less v>ies n a little at diff]5t latitudes1 increas+ m>k$ly f ! s\?1 & consequ5tly mak+ ! arc ( ! surface flatt] & flatt] z x advances nor?w>ds4 ,he po9ts out t ?is rem>kable configuration mu/ to a c]ta9 ext5t be indep5d5t ( ! =m ( ! und]ly+ l&-surface1 :i*1 to judge f ! "* ( ! wild & m\nta9\s coa/-l&s1 probably resembles ,norway 9 its g5]al configuration--if1 inde$ x be n a gr\p ( m\nta9\s isl&s4 ,! buri$ int]ior ( ,gre5l& mu/ 9 fact be a region ( high m\nta9s & deep valleys1 all ( :i* h totally disappe>$ "u ! envelop+ m] de glace4 ,x is obvi\s1 z ,dr4 ,nans5 rem>ks1 t ! m9or irregul>ities ( ! l& h _h no influ5ce :atev] ^u ! =m ( ! upp] surface ( ! ice-%eet4 ,t surface-=m has simply be5 det]m9$ by ! =ce ( pressure--! quasi-visc\s mass atta9+ its maximum ?ickness t[>ds ! c5tral l9e ( ! c\ntry1 :]e resi/ance to ! movem5t due to pressure mu/ necess>ily h be5 greate/4 ,?us al?\gh ! l>g] features ( ! ice-dr[n$ l& may h _h "s influ5ce 9 det]m9+ ! position ( ! ice-%$1 x is n by any means c]ta9 t ?is c5tral l9e co9cides ) ! dom9ant ridge or wat]%$ ( ! l& itself4 ,=1 z ,nans5 rem9ds u1 ! ice-%$ ( ! ,sc&9avian inl&-ice ( glacial times c]ta9ly lay ab\t #ajj miles to ! ea/ ( ! ma9 wat]-p>t+ ( ,norway & ,sw$54 ,simil> facts1 we may add1 h be5 notic$ 9 connection ) ! old ice-%eets ( ,scotl& & ,irel&4 ,! greate/ elevation atta9$ by ! exp$ition 0 #ijjj feet4 ,h[ deeply buri$ ! dom9at+ p>ts ( ! l&-surface may be at t elevation "o _c tell4 ,x is obvi\s1 h[ev]1 t ! m] de glace mu/ be v unequal 9 ?ickness4 ,accord+ to ,dr4 ,nans5 ! av]age elevation ( ! valleys 9 ! int]ior _c mu* exce$ #bcjj or #ccjj feet1 s t ! ice ly+ above su* depressions mu/ h a ?ickness ( #egjj to #fgjj feet4 ,x _c1 ( c\rse1 lie s deeply ov] m\nta9-ridges4 ,! erod+ p[] ( su* a glaci]-mass mu/ be enorm\s1 & ,dr4 ,nans5 does n d\bt t ! buri$ valleys ( ,gre5l& are be+ wid5$ & deep5$ by ! gr9d+ ( ! great ice-/reams t are ev] advanc+ t[>ds ! sea4 ,! exp$ition met ) no /reams ( surface-wat] on ! inl&-ice2 inde$1 ! am\nt ( sup]ficial melt+ 9 ! int]ior 0 q insignificant4 ,& yet1 z is well kn[n1 _m consid]able /reams & riv]s fl[ out f und]nea? ! inl&-ice all ! ye> r\nd4 ,x is obvi\s1 !re=e1 t ?is wat]-supply does n come f sup]ficial s\rces1 z1 accord+ to ,dr4 ,nans51 x is usually suppos$ to d4 ,b surely x has long be5 recognis$ t su* riv]s z ! ,m>y ,m9turn mu/ be d]iv$ f sub-glacial melt+4 ,& ! v>i\s causes to :i* our au?or attributes ?is melt+ h already frequ5tly be5 po9t$ out4 ,e>?-heat--! influ5ce ( pressure 9 l[]+ ! melt+-po9t ( ice--& ! friction induc$ by ! movem5t ( ! ice itself h all long ago be5 recognis$ z factors t5d+ to produce ! sub-glacial wat]-dra9age ( an ice-%eet4 ,dr4 ,nans5's speculations on ! orig9 ( ! druml9s & kames ( =m]ly glaciat$ areas w int]e/ geologi/s1 b are n s novel z he supposes4 ,8 description ( :at are kn[n z druml9s is n q correct4 ,^! long l5ticul> banks _c be said to lie ^u b\ld]-clay1 b are m]ely a /ructural =m ( t accumulation4 ,& x is h>dly ! case t geologi/s h p]=m$ ! mo/ acrobatic feats 9 try+ to expla9 ! orig9 ( ! banks 9 "q4 ,! usual explanation is t !y h be5 =m$ und]nea? ! ice z gr\nd-mora9e--! upp] surface ( :i* v>ies 9 configuration--be+ sometimes approximately ev51 z 9 broad m\nta9-valleys2 at o!r times ridg$ & corrugat$1 z 9 op5 l[l&s4 ,& ^! modifications ( surface are suppos$ to h result$ f ! v>y+ movem5t & pressure ( ! ov]ly+ ice-%eet4 ,! druml9s1 9 fact1 w\ld appe> to be analog\s to ! banks t accumulate 9 ! b$s ( riv]s4 ,_m druml9s1 inde$1 are compos$ p>tly ( solid rock & p>tly ( b\ld]-clay1 :i* w\ld seem to h accumulat$ 9 ! lee ( ! project+ rock1 mu* 9 ! same way z gravel & s& ga!r beh9d any l>ge b\ld] 9 a /ream-c\rse4 ,dr4 ,nans51 app>5tly1 to "s ext5t conf\nds druml9s ) kames & s>1 ( :i* c]ta9ly _m /range & conflict+ explanations h be5 haz>d$4 ,^!1 h[ev]1 diff] ess5tially f druml9s1 = !y consi/ exclusively1 or almo/ exclusively1 ( wat]-worn & m or less wat]-assort$ mat]ials4 ,& "o widely-accept$ view ( _! orig9 is t !y h accumulat$ 9 tunnels und]nea? an ice-%eet4 ,?is is practically ! same view z ,dr4 ,nans5's4 ,he ?9ks t :5 an ice-%eet has its "u-surface furr[$ by runn+ wat]1 ! gr\nd-mora9e w t5d to be press$ up into ! riv]-*annels4 ,! wat] w1 9 ?is way1 be compell$ to holl[ out ! ro( ( its tunnel to a great] degree1 & z ! /ream cont9ues to "w upw>ds ! mora9e w foll[ x1 s z to p>tially fill ! tunnel & =m a ridge along ! back ( :i* ! sub-glacial /ream w run4 ,! mat]ial =m+ ! upp] portion ( ! ridge w ?us come to be compos$ ma9ly ( wat]-worn & /ratifi$ detritus1 d]iv$ f ! erosion ( ! gr\nd-mora9e4 ,?is is an +5i\s sugge/ion :i* may be ( good s]vice 9 "s cases1 b x is c]ta9ly inapplicable to mo/ kames & s>4 ,if x 7 a complete explanation we ought to f9d ^! ridges consi/+ ( an upp] wat]-assort$ portion & a l[] unmodifi$ mora9ic portion 7b\ld]-clay74 ,b ?is is n ! case1 = mo/ kames consi/ entirely1 f top to bottom1 ( wat]-assort$ mat]ials4 ,!y are f\nd runn+ across an ev5 or g5tly-undulat+ surface ( b\ld]-clay1 & sometimes !y re/ n on b\ld]-clay b solid rock4 ,dr4 ,nans5 consid]s ano!r geological "q :i* has giv5 rise to mu* controv]sy1 & is /ill f> f be+ settl$--namely1 :e!r ! oscillations ( level :i* h left su* conspicu\s traces 9 nor!rn regions are 9 any way connect$ ) ! appe>ance & disappe>ance ( great ice-%eets4 ,c a big ice-%eet pu% d[n ! e>?'s cru/ by its weight8 & does ! cru/ rise aga9 z ! ice melts away8 ,c\ld a ?ick ice-%eet ex]cise suffici5t attraction ^u ! sea to cause x to rise ^u ! l&1 & ?us expla9 ! orig9 ( "s ( ! s-call$ rais$ bea*es ( ?is & o!r =m]ly glaciat$ l&s8 ,c ! weight ( a great ice-%eet %ift ! e>?'s c5tre ( gravity1 &1 if s1 to :at ext5t8 ,ea* ( ^! que/ions has be5 answ]$ 9 ! affirmative & ! negative by controv]siali/s1 &1 until ! geological evid5ce has be5 completely sift$1 ea*1 d\btless1 w cont9ue to be alt]nately affirm$ & d5i$4 ,all t ne$ be po9t$ out "h is t "s ( ! movem5ts :i* occurr$ dur+ ! ,plei/oc5e p]iod 7 on mu* too l>ge a scale to be explicable by any ( ! hypo!ses ref]r$ to4 ,,xiv4 ,! ,geographical ,developm5t ( ,coa/-l9es4,,d ,,d ,presid5tial ,address to ! ,geographical ,section ( ! ,briti% ,association1 ,ed9burgh1 #ahib4 ,among/ ! _m que/ions ^u :i* ( late ye>s light has be5 ?r[n by deep-sea exploration & geological rese>*1 n ! lea/ int]e/+ is t ( ! geographical developm5t ( coa/-l9es4 ,h[ is ! exi/+ di/ribution ( l& & wat] to be acc\nt$ =8 ,are ! revolutions 9 ! relative position ( l& & sea1 to :i* ! geological record be>s witness1 due to movem5ts ( ! e>?'s cru/ or ( ! hydrosph]e8 ,:y are coa/-l9es 9 "s regions extremely regul>1 :ile else:]e !y are mu* ind5t$8 ,ab\t #aej ye>s ago ! preval5t belief 0 t anci5t sea-m>g9s indicat$ a =m]ly high] ocean-level4 ,su* 0 ! view held by ,celsius1 :o1 f an exam9ation ( ! coa/-l&s ( ,sw$51 attribut$ ! retreat ( ! sea to a gradual dry+ up ( ! latt]4 ,b ?is desiccation hypo!sis 0 n accept$ by ,playfair1 :o ?\ght x mu* m likely t ! l& _h ris54 ,x 0 n1 h[ev]1 until aft] ,von ,bu* _h visit$ ,sw$5 7#ahjf-ahjh71 & publi%$ ! results ( 8 obs]vations1 t ,playfair's sugge/ion receiv$ mu* consid]ation4 ,von ,bu* conclud$ t ! app>5t retreat ( ! sea 0 n due to a g5]al depression ( ! ocean-level1 b to elevation ( ! l&--a conclusion :i* subsequ5tly obta9$ ! /rong support ( ,lyell4 ,! au?ority ( ^! celebrat$ m5 ga9$ = ! elevation !ory m or less complete ass5t1 & = _m ye>s x has be5 ! or?odox belief ( geologi/s t ! anci5t sea-m>g9s ( ,sw$5 & o!r l&s h result$ f v]tical movem5ts ( ! cru/4 ,x has long be5 admitt$1 h[ev]1 t highly-flex$ & di/urb$ /rata require "s o!r explanation4 ,obvi\sly su* /ructures are ! result ( lat]al compression & crumpl+4 ,h5ce geologi/s h ma9ta9$ t ! my/]i\s subt]ranean =ces h affect$ ! cru/ 9 diff]5t ways4 ,m\nta9-ranges1 !y conceive1 are ridg$ up by tang5tial ?ru/s & compression1 :ile va/ cont95tal areas sl[ly rise & fall1 ) little or no di/urbance ( ! /rata4 ,f ?is po9t ( view x is ! li?osph]e t is un/able1 all *anges 9 ! relative level ( l& & sea be+ due to cru/al movem5ts4 ,( late ye>s1 h[ev]1 ,trauts*old & o!rs h begun to d\bt :e!r ?is !ory is :olly true1 & to ma9ta9 t ! sea-level may h *ang$ )\t ref]5ce to movem5ts ( ! li?osph]e4 ,?us ,hilb] has sugge/$ t s9k+ ( ! sea-level may be due1 9 "p at lea/1 to absorption1 :ile ,s*mick believes t ! app>5t elevation & depression ( cont95tal areas are really ! results ( gr& secul> movem5ts ( ! ocean4 ,! sea1 accord+ to him1 p]iodically atta9s a high level 9 ea* hemisph]e alt]nately1 ! wat]s be+ at pres5t heap$ up 9 ! s\!rn hemisph]e4 ,pr(essor ,suess1 aga91 believ+ t 9 equatorial regions ! sea is1 on ! :ole1 ga9+ on ! l&1 :ile 9 o!r latitudes ! rev]se w\ld appe> to be ! case1 po9ts out ?is is 9 h>mony ) 8 view ( a p]iodical flux & reflux ( ! ocean betwe5 ! equator & ! poles4 ,he ?9ks we h no evid5ce ( any v]tical elevation affect+ wide areas1 & t ! only movem5ts ( elevation t take place are ^? by :i* m\nta9s are upheav$4 ,! broad invasions & transgressions ( ! cont95tal areas by ! sea1 :i* we "k h occurr$ aga9 & aga91 are attribut$ by him to secul> movem5ts ( ! hydrosph]e itself4 ,ap>t f all hypo!sis & !ory1 we le>n t ! surface ( ! sea is n exactly sph]oidal4 ,x rea*es a high] level on ! bord]s ( ! cont95ts ?an 9 mid-ocean1 & x v>ies likewise 9 height at diff]5t places on ! same coa/4 ,! attraction ( ! ,himalaya1 = example1 suffices to cause a diff]5ce ( #cjj feet betwe5 ! level ( ! sea at ! delta ( ! ,indus & on ! coa/ ( ,ceylon4 ,! recognition ( su* facts has l$ ,p5ck to sugge/ t ! subm]g5ce ( ! m>itime regions ( nor?-we/ ,europe & ! opposite coa/s ( ,nor? ,am]ica1 :i* took place at a rec5t geological date1 & f :i* ! l&s 9 "q h only p>tially recov]$1 may h be5 br\ght ab\t by ! attraction ex]t$ by ! va/ ice-%eets ( ! ,glacial p]iod4 ,b1 z ,drygalski1 ,woodw>d1 & o!rs h %[n1 ! heights at :i* rec5t m>9e deposits occur 9 ! regions ref]r$ to are mu* too great to be acc\nt$ = by any possible di/ortion ( ! hydrosph]e4 ,! late ,james ,croll _h previ\sly endeav\r$ to %[ t ! accumulation ( ice ov] nor!rn l&s dur+ glacial times w\ld suffice to displace ! e>?'s c5tre ( gravity1 & ?us cause ! sea to rise ^u ! glaciat$ tracts4 ,m rec5tly o!r views h be5 advanc$ to expla9 ! app>5tly causal connection betwe5 glaciation & subm]g5ce1 b ^! ne$ n be consid]$ "h4 ,:atev] degree ( importance may atta* to ! v>i\s hypo!ses ( secul> movem5ts ( ! sea1 x is obvi\s t ! g5]al tr5ds ( ! _w's coa/-l9es are det]m9$ 9 ! fir/ place by ! position ( ! dom9ant wr9kles ( ! li?osph]e4 ,ev5 if we conc$e t all rais$ bea*es1 s-call$1 are n necess>ily ! result ( e>?-movem5ts1 & t ! frequ5t transgressions ( ! cont95tal areas by oceanic wat]s 9 geological times may possibly h be5 due to indep5d5t movem5ts ( ! sea1 /ill we mu/ admit t ! solid cru/ ( ! globe has always be5 subject to di/ortion4 ,& ?is be+ s1 we _c d\bt t ! g5]al tr5ds ( ! _w's coa/-l9es mu/ h be5 modifi$ f "t to "t by movem5ts ( ! li?osph]e4 ,z geograph]s we are n imm$iately conc]n$ ) ! mode ( orig9 ( ^? va/ wr9kles1 nor ne$ we speculate on ! causes :i* may h det]m9$ _! direction4 ,x seems1 h[ev]1 to be ! g5]al op9ion t ! configuration ( ! li?osph]e is due simply to ! s9k+-9 & d\bl+-up ( ! cru/ on ! cool+ & contract+ nucleus4 ,b x mu/ be admitt$ t nei!r physici/s nor geologi/s are prep>$ ) a satisfactory hypo!sis to acc\nt = ! prom95t tr5ds ( ! great _w-ridges & tr\ghs4 ,accord+ to ! late ,pr(essor ,alex&] ,w9*ell1 ^! tr5ds may h be5 ! result ( primitive tidal action4 ,he 0 ( op9ion t ! transm]idional progress ( ! tidal swell 9 e>ly incru/ive times on our planet w\ld give ! =m+ cru/ /ructural *>act]i/ics & aptitudes tr5d+ f nor? to s\?4 ,! e>lie/ wr9kles to come into exi/5ce1 !re=e1 w\ld be m]idional or subm]idional1 & su*1 c]ta9ly1 is ! preval5t direction ( ! mo/ conspicu\s e>?-features4 ,!re are _m t]re/rial tr5ds1 h[ev]1 z ,pr(essor ,w9*ell knew1 :i* d n con=m to ! requirem5ts ( 8 hypo!sis2 b su* transm]idional features1 he ?\ght1 c\ld g5]ally be %[n to be ( lat] orig9 ?an ! o!rs4 ,?is is ! only speculation1 s f> z ,i "k1 :i* attempts1 p]haps n altoge!r unsuccessfully1 to expla9 ! orig9 ( ! ma9 tr5ds ( t]re/rial features4 ,accord+ to o!r au?orities1 h[ev]1 ! area ( ! e>?'s cru/ occupi$ by ! ocean is d5s] ?an t ov] :i* ! cont95tal regions are spread4 ,! depress$ d5s] "p balances ! light] elevat$ portion4 ,b :y ^! regions ( diff]5t d5sities %\ld be s di/ribut$ no "o has yet told u4 ,nei!r does ,le ,conte's view1 t ! cont95tal areas & ! oceanic depressions owe _! orig9 to unequal radial contraction ( ! e>? 9 its secul> cool+1 help u to und]/& :y ! l>g] features ( ! globe %\ld be dispos$ z !y are4 ,geograph]s mu/ = ! pres5t be cont5t to take ! _w z !y f9d x4 ,:at we d "k is t our l&s are di/ribut$ ov] ! surface ( a great cont95tal plateau ( irregul> =m1 ! b\nd+ slopes ( :i* plunge d[n m or less /eeply into a va/ oceanic depression4 ,s f> z geological rese>* has gone1 !re is reason to believe t ^! elevat$ & depress$ areas are ( primeval antiquity--t !y ante-date ! v olde/ ( ! s$im5t>y =mations4 ,!re is abundant evid5ce1 h[ev]1 to %[ t ! relatively elevat$ or cont95tal area has be5 aga9 & aga9 irregul>ly subm]g$ "u tol]ably deep & wide seas4 ,b all hi/orical geology seems to assure u t ! cont95tal plateau & ! oceanic holl[s h nev] *ang$ places1 al?\gh f "t to "t portions ( ! latt] h be5 ridg$ up & add$ to ! m>g9s ( ! =m]1 :ile ev] & anon m>g9al portions ( ! plateau h sunk to v consid]able dep?s4 ,we may ?us speak ( ! great _w-ridges z regions ( dom9ant elevation1 & ( ! pr(\nd oceanic tr\ghs z areas ( m or less p]si/5t depression4 ,f "o po9t ( view1 x is true1 no "p ( ! e>?'s surface c be look$ ^u z a region ( dom9ant elevation4 ,our globe is a cool+ & contract+ body1 & depression mu/ always be ! prevail+ movem5t ( ! li?osph]e4 ,! elevation ( ! cont95tal plateau is ?us only relative4 ,c\ld we conceive ! cru/ ?r\gh\t ! deep] portions ( ! oceanic depression to subside to /ill great] dep?s1 :ile at ! same "t ! cont95tal plateau rema9$ /ation>y1 or subsid$ m sl[ly1 ! sea w\ld necess>ily retreat f ! l&1 & ! latt] w\ld !n appe> to rise4 ,x is improbable1 h[ev]1 t any ext5sive subsid5ce ( ! cru/ "u ! ocean c\ld take place )\t accompany+ di/urbance ( ! cont95tal plateau2 & 9 ?is case ! latt] might exp]i5ce 9 places n only negative b positive elevation4 ,dur+ ! evolution ( our cont95ts1 cru/al movem5ts h aga9 & aga9 di/urb$ ! relative level ( l& & sea2 b s9ce ! g5]al result has be5 to increase ! l&-surface & to contract ! area occupi$ by ! sea1 x is conv5i5t to speak ( ! =m] z ! region ( dom9ant elevation1 & ( ! latt] z t ( preval5t depression4 ,prop]ly speak+1 bo? are s9k+ regions1 ! rate ( subsid5ce )9 ! oceanic tr\gh be+ 9 excess ( t exp]i5c$ ov] ! cont95tal plateau4 ,! "q ( ! geographical developm5t ( coa/-l9es is !re=e only t ( ! dry l&s !mselves4 ,! great] l&-masses are all situat$ ^u1 b are n[h]e co-ext5sive )1 ! area ( dom9ant elevation1 = v consid]able portions ( ! cont95tal plateau are /ill cov]$ by ! sea4 ,op9ions may diff] z to :i* fa?oms-l9e we %\ld take z m>k+ approximately ! b\nd>y betwe5 t region & ! oceanic depression2 & x is obvi\s1 inde$1 t any l9e select$ mu/ be arbitr>y & m or less mislead+1 = x is q c]ta9 t ! true b\nd>y ( ! cont95tal plateau _c lie p>allel to ! surface ( ! ocean4 ,9 "s regions x approa*es )9 a few hundr$s ( fa?oms ( ! sea-level2 9 o!r places x s9ks = consid]ably m ?an #ajjj fa?oms bel[ t level4 ,?us1 :ile a v mod]ate elevation w\ld 9 c]ta9 latitudes cause ! l& to ext5d to ! edge ( ! plateau1 an elevation ( at lea/ #aj1jjj feet w\ld be requir$ 9 "s o!r places to br+ ab\t a simil> result4 ,al?\gh x is true t ! l&-surface is n[h]e co-ext5sive ) ! great plateau1 yet ! exi/+ coa/-l9es may be said to tr5d 9 ! same g5]al direction z its m>g9s4 ,s abruptly does ! cont95tal plateau rise f ! oceanic tr\gh1 t a depression ( ! sea-level1 or an elevation ( ! plateau1 = #aj1jjj feet1 w\ld add only a n>r[ belt to ! ,pacific coa/ betwe5 ,alaska & ,cape ,horn1 :ile ! ga9 ( l& on ! ,atlantic slope ( ,am]ica betwe5 #cj ,n4,l4 & #dj ,s4,l4 w\ld n be mu* great]4 ,9 ! high] latitudes ( ! nor!rn hemisph]e1 h[ev]1 v consid]able geographical *anges w\ld be accompli%$ by a mu* less am\nt ( elevation ( ! plateau4 ,7 ! cont95tal plateau to be upheav$ = #cjjj feet1 ! major portion ( ! ,arctic ,sea w\ld become l&4 ,?us1 9 g5]al t]ms1 we may say t ! coa/-l9es ( arctic & temp]ate ,nor? ,am]ica & ,eurasia are fur!r )drawn f ! edge ( ! cont95tal plateau ?an ^? ( l[] latitudes4 ,9 regions :]e exi/+ coa/-l9es approa* ! m>g9 ( ! plateau1 !y are apt to run = long di/ances 9 "o det]m9ate direction1 &1 :e!r ! coa/al area be high or n1 to %[ a g5tle s9uosity4 ,_! c\rse is seldom int]rupt$ by bold project+ headl&s or p59sulas1 or by intrud+ inlets1 :ile fr++ or m>g9al isl&s r>ely occur4 ,to ^! appe>ances ! nor!rn regions1 z e "o kn[s1 (f] ! /ronge/ contra/4 ,n only d !y tr5d irregul>ly1 b _! cont9uity is con/antly int]rupt$ by promontories & p59sulas1 by inlets & fiords1 :ile fr++ isl&s ab\nd4 ,b an elevation ( "s #djj or #ejj fa?oms only w\ld revolutionise ! geography ( ^? regions1 & conf] ^u ! nor!rn coa/-l9es ( ! _w ! regul>ity :i* at pres5t *>act]ises ^? ( we/]n ,africa4 ,x is obvi\s1 !re=e1 t ! coa/-l9es ( su* l&s z ,africa owe _! regul>ity prim>ily to _! approximate co9cid5ce ) ! /eep b\nd>y-slopes ( ! cont95tal plateau1 :ile ! irregul>ities *>act]i/ic ( ! coa/-l9e ( nor?-we/]n ,europe & ! correspond+ latitudes ( ,nor? ,am]ica are det]m9$ by ! sup]ficial configuration ( ! same plateau1 :i* 9 ^? regions is relatively m depress$4 ,i h spok5 ( ! g5]al contra/ betwe5 high & l[ nor!rn latitudes2 b x is ne$less to say t 9 s\!rn regions ! coa/-l9es exhibit simil> contra/s4 ,! regul> coa/-l9es ( ,africa & ,s\? ,am]ica h already be5 ref]r$ to2 b we _c fail to recognise 9 ! mu*-ind5t$ sea-bo>d & ! num]\s coa/al isl&s ( s\!rn ,*ile a complete analogy to ! fiord regions ( high nor!rn latitudes4 ,bo? are areas ( comp>atively rec5t depression4 ,aga91 ! manifold irregul>ities ( ! coa/s ( s\?-ea/]n ,asia1 & ! multitudes ( isl&s t s]ve to l9k t cont95t to ,au/ralia & ,new ,zeal&1 are all evid5ce t ! surface ( ! cont95tal plateau 9 ^? regions is ext5sively invad$ by ! sea4 ,a ^w or two n[ z to ! configuration ( ! oceanic tr\gh4 ,!re c be no d\bt t ?is diff]s v consid]ably f t ( ! l&-surface4 ,x is1 ^u ! :ole1 flat or g5tly-undulat+4 ,"h & !re x swells g5tly upw>ds into broad elevat$ banks1 "s ( :i* h be5 trac$ = great di/ances4 ,9 o!r places n>r[] ridges & abrupt m\nta9-l elevations div]sify its surface1 & project aga9 & aga9 above ! level ( ! sea1 to =m ! num]\s islets ( ,oceania4 ,once m1 ! s\nd+-l9e has made u acqua9t$ ) ! notable fact t num]\s deep depressions--"s long & n>r[1 o!rs relatively %ort & broad--/ud ! floor ( ! great tr\gh4 ,i %all h occasion to ref] aga9 to ^! rem>kable depressions1 & ne$ at pres5t only call att5tion to ! fact t !y are especially well-develop$ 9 ! region ( ! we/]n ,pacific1 :]e ! floor ( ! sea1 at ! base ( ! b\nd+ slopes ( ! cont95tal plateau1 s9ks 9 places to dep?s ( ?ree & ev5 ( five miles bel[ ! exi/+ coa/-l9es4 ,"o may fur!r note ! fact t ! deepe/ areas ( ! ,atlantic are met ) 9 l mann] close to ! walls ( ! plateau--a long ridge1 :i* rises midway betwe5 ! cont95ts & runs 9 ! same g5]al direction z _! coa/-l9es1 s]v+ to divide ! tr\gh ( ! ,atlantic into two p>allel holl[s4 ,b1 to return to our coa/-l9es & ! "q ( _! developm5t1 x is obvi\s t _! g5]al tr5ds h be5 det]m9$ by cru/al movem5ts4 ,_! regul>ity is 9 direct proportion to ! clos5ess ( _! approa* to ! m>g9 ( ! cont95tal plateau4 ,! m ne>ly !y co9cide ) ! edge ( t plateau1 ! few] irregul>ities d !y pres5t2 ! fur!r !y rec$e f x1 ! m highly are !y ind5t$4 ,v>i\s o!r factors1 x is true1 h play$ a m or less important "p 9 _! developm5t1 b _! dom9ant tr5ds 7 und\bt$ly det]m9$ at a v e>ly p]iod 9 ! _w's hi/ory--_! det]m9ation necess>ily dates back1 9 %ort1 to ! "t :5 ! great _w-ridges & oceanic tr\ghs came into exi/5ce4 ,s f> z we c read ! /ory told by ! rocks1 h[ev]1 x w\ld seem t 9 ! e>lie/ ages ( :i* geology c speak ) any confid5ce1 ! coa/-l9es ( ! _w mu/ h be5 inf9itely m irregul> ?an n[4 ,9 ,palozoic times1 relatively small areas ( ! cont95tal plateau appe>$ above ! level ( ! sea4 ,insul> conditions ev]y:]e prevail$4 ,b z ages roll$ on1 wid] & wid] tracts ( ! plateau 7 expos$1 & ?is not)/&+ _m oscillations ( level4 ,s t "o may say !re has be51 ^u ! :ole1 a g5]al advance f insul> to cont95tal conditions4 ,9 o!r words1 ! sea has cont9u$ to retreat f ! surface ( ! cont95tal plateau4 ,to acc\nt = ?is *ange1 we mu/ suppose t depression ( ! cru/ has be5 9 excess )9 ! oceanic area1 & t n[ & aga9 positive elevation ( ! cont95tal plateau has tak5 place1 m especially along its m>g9s4 ,t movem5ts ( elevation1 positive or negative1 h aga9 & aga9 affect$ our l&-areas c be demon/rat$1 & x seems highly probable1 !re=e1 t simil> movem5ts may h be5 exp]i5c$ )9 ! oceanic tr\gh4 ,two k9ds ( cru/al movem5t1 z we h se51 are recognis$ by geologi/s4 ,sometimes ! cru/ appe>s to rise1 or1 z ! case may be1 to s9k ov] wide regions1 )\t mu* di/urbance or tilt+ ( /rata1 al?\gh ^! are n[ & aga9 m or less ext5sively fractur$ & displac$4 ,x may conduce to cle>ness if we speak ( ^! movem5ts z regional4 ,! o!r k9d ( cru/al di/urbance takes place m m>k$ly 9 l9e> directions1 & is always accompani$ by abrupt fold+ & ma%+ toge!r ( /rata1 along ) m or less fractur+ & displacem5t4 ,! plateau ( ! ,colorado has (t5 be5 cit$ z a good example ( regional elevation1 :]e we h a wide area ( approximately horizontal /rata app>5tly uplift$ )\t mu* rock-di/urbance1 :ile ! ,alps or any o!r *a9 ( highly-flex$ & convolut$ /rata w s]ve z an example ( :at we may t]m axial or l9e> uplifts4 ,x mu/ be und]/ood t bo? regional & axial movem5ts result f ! same cause--! adju/m5t ( ! solid cru/ to ! contract+ nucleus--& t ! t]m elevation1 !re=e1 is only relative4 ,sometimes ! s9k+ cru/ gets relief f ! enorm\s lat]al pressure to :i* x is subject$ by crumpl+ up along l9es ( weakness1 & !n m\nta9s ( elevation are =m$2 at o!r times1 ! pressure is reliev$ by ! =mation ( broad] swell+s1 :5 wide areas become uplift$ relatively to surr\nd+ regions4 ,geologi/s1 h[ev]1 are beg9n+ to d\bt :e!r upheaval ( ! latt] k9d c affect a broad cont95tal area4 ,probably1 9 mo/ cases1 ! app>5t elevation ( cont95tal regions is only negative4 ,! l& appe>s to h ris5 because ! floor ( ! oceanic bas9 has become depress$4 ,ev5 ! small] plateau-l elevations :i* occur )9 "s cont95tal regions may 9 a simil> way owe _! dom9ance to ! s9k+ ( contigu\s regions4 ,9 ! geographical developm5t ( our l&1 movem5ts ( elevation & depression h play$ an important "p4 ,b we _c ignore ! "w done by o!r ag5ts ( *ange4 ,if ! orographical features ( ! l& ev]y:]e atte/ ! pot5cy ( plutonic ag5ts1 !y no less =cibly assure u t ! inequalities ( surface result+ f su* movem5ts are univ]sally modifi$ by d5udation & s$im5tation4 ,elevat$ pla9s & m\nta9s are gradually demoli%$1 & ! holl[s & depressions ( ! great cont95tal plateau become sl[ly fill$ ) _! detritus4 ,?us inl&-seas t5d to vani%1 inlets & e/u>ies are silt$ up1 & ! l& 9 places advances seaw>d4 ,! en]gies ( ! sea1 aga91 come 9 to aid ^? ( ra9 & riv]s1 s t "u ! comb9$ action ( all ! sup]ficial ag5ts ( *ange1 ! irregul>ities ( coa/-l9es become r$uc$1 &1 7 no cru/al movem5t to int]v5e1 w\ld ev5tually disappe>4 ,! "w accompli%$ by ^? ag5ts ^u a coa/-l9e is mo/ conspicu\s 9 regions :]e ! surface ( ! cont95tal plateau is occupi$ by comp>atively %all[ seas4 ,"h full play is giv5 to s$im5tation & m>9e erosion1 :ile ! latt] alone comes into prom95ce ^u %ores t are wa%$ by deep] wat]s4 ,:5 ! coa/-l9es advance to ! edge ( ! cont95tal plateau1 !y naturally tr5d1 z we h se51 = great di/ances 9 "s p>ticul> direction4 ,%\ld !y pres]ve t position1 undi/urb$ by cru/al oscillation1 = a prolong$ p]iod ( "t1 !y w ev5tually be cut back by ! sea4 ,9 ?is way a %elf or t]race w be =m$1 n>r[ 9 "s places1 broad] 9 o!rs1 accord+ to ! resi/ance (f]$ by ! v>y+ "* ( ! rocks4 ,b no long inlets or fiords c result f su* action4 ,at mo/ ! h>d] & less readily demoli%$ rocks w =m headl&s1 :ile %all[ bays w be scoop$ out ( ! m yield+ masses4 ,9 %ort1 betwe5 ! n>r[] & broad] p>ts ( ! erod$ %elf or t]race a c]ta9 proportion w t5d to be pres]v$4 ,z ! %elf is wid5$1 s$im5tation w become m & m effective1 & 9 places may come to protect ! l& f fur!r m>9e erosion4 ,?is action is especially conspicu\s 9 tropical & sub-tropical regions1 :i* are *>act]is$ by well-m>k$ ra9y seasons4 ,9 su* regions imm5se quantities ( s$im5t are wa%$ d[n f ! l& to ! sea1 & t5d to accumulate along %ore1 =m+ l[ alluvial flats4 ,all long-e/abli%$ coa/-l9es ?us acquire a *>act]i/ically s9u\s =m1 & p]haps no bett] examples c\ld be cit$ ?an ^? ( we/]n ,africa4 ,to sum up1 !n1 we may say t ! *ief ag5ts conc]n$ 9 ! developm5t ( coa/-l9es are cru/al movem5ts1 s$im5tation1 & m>9e erosion4 ,all ! ma9 tr5ds are ! result ( elevation & depression4 ,consid]able geographical *anges1 h[ev]1 h be5 br\ght ab\t by ! silt+ up ( ^? %all[ & %elt]$ seas :i*1 9 c]ta9 regions1 ov]fl[ wide areas ( ! cont95tal plateau4 ,?r\gh\t all ! ages1 inde$1 epig5e ag5ts h /riv5 to r$uce ! sup]ficial inequalities ( t plateau1 by levell+ heights & fill+ up depressions1 & ?us1 z x 71 flatt5+ out ! l&-surface & caus+ x to ext5d4 ,! erosive action ( ! sea1 f our pres5t po9t ( view1 is ( comp>atively little importance4 ,x m]ely adds a few f9i%+ t\*es to ! "w p]=m$ by ! o!r ag5ts ( *ange4 ,a glance at ! geographical evolution ( our own ,cont95t w r5d] ?is suffici5tly evid5t4 ,view$ 9 detail1 ! /ructure ( ,europe is exce$+ly complicat$1 b !re are c]ta9 lead+ features 9 its ar*itecture :i* no pr(\nd analysis is requir$ to detect4 ,we note1 9 ! fir/ place1 t highly-di/urb$ rocks ( ,ar*an & ,palozoic age rea* _! greate/ developm5t along ! nor?-we/]n & we/]n bord]s ( our ,cont95t1 z 9 ,sc&9avia1 ! ,briti% ,isl&s1 nor?-we/ ,france1 & ! ,ib]ian p59sula4 ,ano!r belt ( simil>ly di/urb$ /rata ( l age trav]ses c5tral ,europe f we/ to ea/1 & is se5 9 ! s\? ( ,irel&1 ,cornwall1 nor?-we/ ,france1 ! ,ard5nes1 ! ,?r+]-,wald1 ! ,erz ,gebirge1 ! ,ries5 ,gebirge1 ! ,bhm]-,wald1 & o!r heights ( middle & s\!rn ,g]many4 ,/rata ( ,mesozoic & ,ca9ozoic age re/ ^u ! old] sy/ems 9 su* a way z to %[ t ! latt] _h be5 mu* fold$1 fractur$1 & d5ud$ be=e !y came to be cov]$ ) y\ng] =mations4 ,nor? & nor?-ea/ ( ! c5tral belt ( anci5t rocks j ref]r$ to1 ! s$im5t>y /rata t ext5d to ! %ores ( ! ,baltic & ov] a va/ region 9 ,russia1 range 9 age f ,palozoic d[n to ,ca9ozoic times1 & are dispos$ = ! mo/ "p 9 g5tle undulations--!y are ei!r approximately horizontal or slightly incl9$4 ,unlike ! di/urb$ rocks ( ! m>itime regions & ( c5tral ,europe1 !y h obvi\sly be5 subject$ to comp>atively little fold+ s9ce ! "t ( _! deposition4 ,to ! s\? ( ! primitive back-bone ( c5tral ,europe succe$s a region compos$ sup]ficially ( ,mesozoic & ,ca9ozoic /rata = ! mo/ "p1 :i*1 along ) und]ly+ ,palozoic & ,ar*an rocks1 are (t5 highly-flex$ & ridg$ up1 z 9 ! *a9s ( ! ,jura1 ! ,alps1 ! ,c>pa?ians1 etc4 ,"o may say1 9 g5]al t]ms1 t ?r\gh\t ! :ole ,m$it]ranean area ,ar*an & ,palozoic rocks appe> at ! surface only :5 !y =m ! nuclei ( m\nta9s ( elevation1 into ! composition ( :i* rocks ( y\ng] age l>gely ent]4 ,f ?is bald & meagre outl9e ( ! g5]al geological /ructure ( ,europe1 we may ga!r t ! lead+ orographical features ( our ,cont95t began to be develop$ at a v e>ly p]iod4 ,unque/ionably ! olde/ l&-areas are repres5t$ by ! di/urb$ ,ar*an & ,palozoic rocks ( ! ,atlantic sea-bo>d & c5tral ,europe4 ,exam9ation ( ^? tracts %[s t !y h exp]i5c$ excessive d5udation4 ,! ,ar*an & ,palozoic masses1 di/ribut$ along ! m>g9 ( ! ,atlantic1 are ! m]e wrecks ( :at1 9 e>li] ages1 mu/ h be5 l(ty regions1 ! m\nta9-*a9s ( :i* may well h rivall$ or ev5 exce$$ 9 height ! ,alps ( to-day4 ,!y1 toge!r ) ! old di/urb$ rocks ( c5tral ,europe1 =m$ = a long "t ! only l& 9 our area4 ,betwe5 ! anci5t ,sc&9avian tract 9 ! nor? & a n>r[ int]rupt$ belt 9 c5tral ,europe1 /ret*$ a %all[ sea1 :i* cov]$ all ! regions t n[ =m our ,great ,pla92 :ile imm$iately s\? ( ! c5tral belt lay ! wide depression ( ! ,m$it]ranean--= z yet ! ,pyr5ees1 ! ,alps1 & ! ,c>pa?ians 7 n4 ,bo? ! ,m$it]ranean & ! ,russo-,g]manic sea communicat$ ) ! ,atlantic4 ,z "t w5t on l& cont9u$ to be develop$ along ! same l9es1 a result due p>tly to cru/al movem5ts1 p>tly to s$im5tation4 ,?us ! relatively %all[ ,russo-,g]manic sea became silt$ up1 :ile ! ,m$it]ranean %ore-l9e advanc$ s\?w>ds4 ,x is int]e/+ to note t ! latt] sea1 d[n to ! close ( ,t]ti>y times1 seems always to h communicat$ freely ) ! ,atlantic1 & to h be5 relatively deep4 ,! ,russo-,g]manic sea1 on ! contr>y1 :ile n[ & aga9 op5+ widely into ! ,atlantic1 & atta9+ consid]able dep?s 9 its we/]n rea*es1 rema9$ on ! :ole %all[1 & ev] & anon vani%$ f wide areas to contract into a s]ies ( inl&-seas & l>ge salt lakes4 ,r$uc$ to its simple/ elem5ts1 !re=e1 ! /ructure ( ,europe %[s two primitive ridges--"o ext5d+ ) "s int]ruptions along ! ,atlantic sea-bo>d1 ! o!r trav]s+ c5tral ,europe f we/ to ea/1 & sep>at+ ! area ( ! ,great ,pla9 f ! ,m$it]ranean bas94 ,! excessive d5udation :i* ! m anci5t l&s h und]gone1 & ! great uplifts ( ,mesozoic & ( ,ca9ozoic times1 toge!r ) ! comp>atively rec5t subm]g5ce ( broad tracts 9 ! nor? & nor?-we/1 h n succe$$ 9 obscur+ ! dom9ant features 9 ! ar*itecture ( our ,cont95t4 ,i n[ proce$ to trace1 z rapidly z ,i c1 ! geographical developm5t ( ! coa/-l9es ( ! ,atlantic z a :ole1 & to po9t out ! *ief contra/s betwe5 !m & ! coa/-l9es ( ! ,pacific4 ,! extreme irregul>ity ( ! ,arctic & ,atlantic %ores ( ,europe at once sugge/s to a geologi/ a p>tially-dr[n$ l&1 ! sup]ficial inequalities ( :i* are acc\ntable = ! vag>ies ( ! coa/-l9es4 ,! fiords ( ,norway & ,scotl& occupy :at 7 at no di/ant date l&-valleys1 & ! num]\s m>g9al isl&s ( ^? regions are m]ely ! project+ portions ( a rec5tly-sunk5 area4 ,! cont95tal plateau ext5ds up to & a little beyond ! "o hundr$ fa?oms l9e1 & !re are _m indications t ! l& =m]ly rea*$ z f>4 ,?us ! sunk5 area is trav]s$ by valley-l depressions1 :i* wid5 z !y pass outw>ds to ! edge ( ! plateau1 & h all ! appe>ance ( be+ holl[s ( sub-arial erosion4 ,i h already m5tion$ ! fact t ! ,sc&9avian upl&s & ! ,scotti% ,highl&s are ! relics ( :at 7 at "o "t true m\nta9s ( elevation1 correspond+ 9 ! mode ( _! =mation to ^? ( ,switz]l&1 &1 l ^!1 atta9+ a great elevation4 ,dur+ subsequ5t /ages ( ,palozoic "t1 t highly-elevat$ region 0 subject$ to long-cont9u$ & pr(\nd erosion--! m\nta9-c\ntry 0 plan$ d[n ov] wide regions to sea-level1 & broad /ret*es ( ! r$uc$ l&-surface became subm]g$4 ,y\ng] ,palozoic =mations !n accumulat$ ^u ! dr[n$ l&1 until ev5tually r5ew$ cru/al di/urbance sup]v5$1 & ! m>g9al areas ( ! cont95tal plateau aga9 appe>$ z dry l&1 b n1 z be=e1 9 ! =m ( m\nta9s ( elevation4 ,l(ty table-l&s n[ took ! place ( abrupt & s]rat$ ranges & *a9s--table-l&s :i*1 9 _! turn1 7 de/9$ 9 ! c\rse ( long ages to be deeply sculptur$ & furr[$ by sub-arial ag5ts4 ,dur+ ?is process ! ,european coa/-l9e w\ld seem to h co9cid$ m or less closely ) ! edge ( ! cont95tal plateau4 ,f9ally1 aft] _m subsequ5t movem5ts ( ! cru/ 9 ^! latitudes1 ! l& became p>tially subm]g$--a condition f :i* nor?-we/]n & nor!rn ,europe w\ld appe> 9 rec5t times to be sl[ly recov]+4 ,?us ! highly-ind5t$ coa/-l9e ( ^? regions does n co9cide ) ! edge ( ! plateau1 b ) ^? irregul>ities ( its upp] surface :i* are ! result ( antec$5t sub-arial erosion4 ,m5tion has be5 made ( ! ,russo-,g]manic pla9 & ! ,m$it]ranean z repres5t+ orig9al depressions 9 ! cont95tal plateau1 & ( ! high-gr\nds t ext5d betwe5 !m z regions ( dom9ant elevation1 :i*1 ?r\gh\t all ! manifold revolutions ( ! pa/1 w\ld appe> to h p]si/$ z a m or less well-m>k$ b\nd>y1 sep>at+ ! nor!rn f ! s\!rn bas94 ,dur+ c]ta9 p]iods x 0 no d\bt 9 "s degree subm]g$1 b nev] app>5tly to ! same ext5t z ! depress$ areas x s]v$ to sep>ate4 ,f "t to "t uplifts cont9u$ to take place along ?is c5tral belt1 :i* ?us increas$ 9 bread?1 ! y\ng] =mations1 :i* 7 accumulat$ along ! m>g9s ( ! two bas9s1 be+ successively ridg$ up aga9/ nuclei ( old] rocks4 ,! late/ great cru/al movem5ts 9 our ,cont95t1 result+ 9 ! uplift ( ! ,alps & o!r ea/ & we/ ranges ( simil> age1 h /ill fur!r wid5$ t anci5t belt ( dom9ant elevation :i* 9 our day =ms ! mo/ m>k$ orographical feature ( ,europe4 ,! ,russo-,g]manic bas9 is n[ = ! mo/ "p l&1 ! ,baltic & ! ,nor? ,sea repres5t+ its /ill subm]g$ portions4 ,?is bas91 z already rem>k$1 0 probably nev] s deep z t ( ! ,m$it]ranean4 ,we ga!r z mu* f ! fact t1 :ile me*anical s$im5ts ( comp>atively %all[-wat] orig9 pr$om9ate 9 ! =m] area1 lime/ones are ! *>act]i/ic features ( ! s\!rn region4 ,its relative %all[ness helps u to und]/& :y ! nor!rn depression %\ld h be5 silt$ up m completely ?an ! ,m$it]ranean4 ,we mu/ rememb] also t = long ages x receiv$ ! dra9age ( a mu* m ext5sive l&-surface ?an ! latt]--! l& t slop$ t[>ds ! ,m$it]ranean 9 ,palozoic & ,mesozoic times be+ ( relatively little importance4 ,?us ! cru/al movem5ts :i* ev] & anon depress$ ! ,russo-,g]manic area 71 9 ! long-run1 c\nt]balanc$ by s$im5tation4 ,! uplift ( ! ,alps1 ! ,atlas1 & o!r ea/ & we/ ranges1 has greatly contract$ ! area ( ! ,m$it]ranean1 & s$im5tation has also act$ 9 ! same direction1 b x is highly probable t t sea is n[ z deep z1 or ev5 deep] ?an1 x has ev] be54 ,x occupies a primitive depression 9 :i* ! rate ( subsid5ce has exce$$ t ( s$im5tation4 ,9 _m respects1 inde$1 ?is rem>kable transm]idional holl[--cont9u$ ea/w>d 9 ! ,r$ ,sea1 ! ,black ,sea1 & ! ,aralo-,caspian depression--is analog\s1 z we %all see1 to ! great oceanic tr\gh itself4 ,9 ! e>li] geological p]iods l9e> or axial uplifts & volcanic action aga9 & aga9 m>k$ ! gr[? ( l& on ! ,atlantic sea-bo>d4 ,b aft] ,palozoic times1 no great m\nta9s ( elevation came into exi/5ce 9 t region1 :ile volcanic action almo/ ceas$4 ,9 ,t]ti>y times1 x is true1 !re 0 a rem>kable recrudesc5ce ( volcanic activity1 b ! massive eruptions ( ,antrim & we/]n ,scotl&1 ( ! ,f>e ,isl&s & ,icel&1 mu/ be consid]$ ap>t f ! g5]al geology ( our ,cont95t4 ,f ,mesozoic times onw>ds x 0 along ! bord]s ( ! ,m$it]ranean depression t great m\nta9 uplifts & volcanoes *iefly pres5t$ !mselves2 & z ! l&-surface ext5d$ s\?w>ds f c5tral ,europe1 & ! area ( ! ,m$it]ranean 0 contract$1 volcanic action foll[$ ! advanc+ %ore-l9es4 ,! occurr5ce ( num]\s ext9ct & ( /ill exi/+ volcanoes along ! bord]s ( ?is inl&-sea1 ! evid5ce ( rec5t cru/al movem5ts s commonly met ) ^u its m>g9s1 ! great irregul>ities ( its dep?s1 ! proximity ( va/ axial uplifts ( late geological age1 & ! frequ5cy ( e>?quake ph5om5a1 all indicate in/ability1 & rem9d u /rongly ( simil>ly con/ruct$ & di/urb$ regions )9 ! area ( ! va/ ,pacific4 ,let u n[ look at ! ,arctic & ,atlantic coa/-l9es ( ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,f ! extreme nor? d[n to ! latitude ( ,new ,york ! %ores are obvi\sly ^? ( a p>tially-subm]g$ region4 ,!y are ( ! same type z ! coa/s ( nor?-we/]n ,europe4 ,we h e reason to believe also t ! depression ( ,gre5l& & nor?-ea/ ,am]ica1 f :i* ^! l&s h only p>tially recov]$1 dates back to a comp>atively rec5t p]iod4 ,! fiords & inlets1 l ^? ( ,europe1 are m]ely half-dr[n$ l&-valleys1 & ! cont95tal %elf is cross$ by deep holl[s :i* are evid5tly only ! seaw>d cont9uations ( well-m>k$ t]re/rial features4 ,su*1 = example1 is ! case ) ! valleys ( ! ,hudson & ! ,/4 ,lawr5ce1 ! subm]g$ portions ( :i* c be foll[$ out to ! edge ( ! cont95tal plateau1 :i* is not*$ by !m at dep?s ( #dgd & #fbb fa?oms respectively4 ,!re is1 9 %ort1 a broad resemblance betwe5 ! coa/s ( ! entire ,arctic & ,nor? ,atlantic regions d[n to ! latitudes already m5tion$4 ,ev]y:]e !y are irregul> & fr+$ ) isl&s 9 less or great] abundance--highly-d5ud$ & deeply-incis$ plateaux be+ p5etrat$ by fiords1 :ile l[-ly+ & undulat+ l&s t %elve g5tly seaw>d are invad$ by %all[ bays & inlets4 ,comp>+ ! ,am]ican ) ! opposite ,european coa/s "o _c help be+ /ruck ) c]ta9 o!r resemblances4 ,?us ,hudson ,bay at once sugge/s ! ,baltic1 & ! ,gulf ( ,mexico1 ) ! ,c>ibbean ,sea1 recalls ! ,m$it]ranean4 ,b ! geological /ructure ( ! coa/-l&s ( ,gre5l& & ,nor? ,am]ica betrays a mu* clos] resemblance betwe5 ^! & ! opposite %ores ( ,europe ?an appe>s on a glance at ! map4 ,!re is some?+ m ?an a m]e sup]ficial simil>ity4 ,9 ea/]n ,nor? ,am]ica & ,gre5l&1 j z 9 we/]n ,europe1 no gr& m\nta9 uplifts h tak5 place = a prodigi\s "t4 ,! late/ great upheavals1 :i* 7 accompani$ by mu* fold+ & flex+ ( /rata1 are ^? ( ! ,appala*ian *a9 & ( ! coa/al ranges ext5d+ ?r\gh ,new ,engl&1 ,nova ,scotia1 & ,newf\ndl&1 all ( :i* are ( ,palozoic age4 ,consid]able cru/al movem5ts affect$ ! ,am]ican coa/-l9es 9 ,mesozoic times1 & dur+ ^! uplifts ! /rata suff]$ fracture & displacem5t1 b 7 subject$ to comp>atively little fold+4 ,aga91 along ! m>itime bord]s ( nor?-ea/ ,am]ica1 z 9 ! correspond+ coa/-l9es ( ,europe1 igne\s action1 m or less abundant 9 ,palozoic & e>ly ,mesozoic times1 has s9ce be5 quiesc5t4 ,f ! m\? ( ! ,hudson to ! ,/raits ( ,florida ! coa/-l9es are compos$ ( ,t]ti>y & ,quat]n>y deposits4 ,?is %[s t ! l& has cont9u$ d[n to rec5t times to ga9 ^u ! sea--a result br\ght ab\t p>tly by quiet cru/al movem5ts1 b to a l>ge ext5t by s$im5tation1 aid$1 on ! coa/s ( ,florida1 by ! action ( reef-build+ corals4 ,al?\gh volcanic action has long ceas$ on ! ,am]ican sea-bo>d1 we note t 9 ,gre5l&1 z 9 ! we/ ( ,scotl& & nor? ( ,irel&1 !re is abundant evid5ce ( volcanic activity at s late a p]iod z ! ,t]ti>y4 ,x w\ld appe> t ! great plateau-basalts ( ^? regions1 & ( ,icel& & ! ,f>e ,isl&s1 7 contemporane\s1 & 7 possibly connect$ ) an important cru/al movem5t4 ,x has long be5 sugge/$ t at a v e>ly geological p]iod ,europe & ,nor? ,am]ica may h be5 unit$4 ,! great ?ickness atta9$ by ! ,palozoic rocks 9 ! ea/]n areas ( ! latt] implies ! exi/5ce ( a wide l&-surface f :i* anci5t s$im5ts 7 d]iv$4 ,t old l& mu/ h ext5d$ beyond ! exi/+ coa/-l9e1 b h[ f> we _c tell4 ,simil>ly 9 nor?-we/ ,europe1 dur+ e>ly ,palozoic times1 ! l& probably /ret*$ fur!r into ! ,atlantic ?an at pres5t4 ,b :e!r1 z "s ?9k1 an actual l&-connection subsi/$ betwe5 ! two cont95ts x is impossible to say4 ,"s su* connection 0 =m]ly suppos$ necess>y to acc\nt = life common to ! ,palozoic /rata ( bo? cont95ts1 & :i*1 z !y 7 probably d5iz5s ( comp>atively %all[ wat]1 c\ld only h cross$ f "o area to ano!r along a %ore-l9e4 ,x is obvi\s1 inde$1 t if ! oceanic tr\ghs 9 ^? e>ly days 7 ( an abysmal "*1 a belt ( %all[ wat] w\ld be requir$ to expla9 ! geographical di/ribution ( cosmopolitan m>9e life-=ms4 ,b if x be true t subsid5ce ( ! cru/ has be5 go+ on ?r\gh all geological "t1 & t ! l&-areas h no?)/&+ cont9u$ to ext5d ov] ! cont95tal plateau1 !n x foll[s t ! oceanic tr\gh mu/ be deep] n[ ?an x 0 9 ,palozoic times4 ,!re are1 moreov]1 c]ta9 geological facts :i* seem h>dly explicable on ! assumption t ! seas ( pa/ ages atta9$ abysmal dep?s ov] any ext5sive areas4 ,! ,palozoic /rata :i* ent] s l>gely into ! framework ( our l&s h mu* ! same appe>ance all ! _w ov]1 & 7 accumulat$ = ! mo/ "p 9 comp>atively %all[ wat]4 ,a petrographical description ( ! ,palozoic me*anical s$im5ts ( ,europe w\ld s]ve almo/ equally well = ^? ( ,am]ica1 ( ,asia1 or ( ,au/ralia4 ,take 9 connection ) ?is ! fact t ,palozoic faunas _h a v mu* wid] range ?an ^? ( ,mesozoic & lat] ages1 & 7 *>act]is$ above all by ! pres5ce ( _m cosmopolitan species1 & we c h>dly resi/ ! conclusion t x 0 ! comp>ative %all[ness ( ! anci5t seas t fav\r$ t wide disp]sal ( species1 & enabl$ curr5ts to di/ribute s$im5ts ! same 9 k9d ov] su* va/ regions4 ,z ! oceanic area deep5$ & contract$1 & ! l&-surface increas$1 m>9e faunas 7 gradually re/rict$ 9 _! range1 & ! cosmopolitan m>9e =ms dim9i%$ 9 numb]s1 :ile s$im5ts1 ga!r+ 9 sep>ate regions1 became m & m diff]5tiat$4 ,= ^! & o!r reasons :i* ne$ n be ent]$ ^u "h1 ,i see no necessity = suppos+ t a ,palozoic ,atlantis connect$ ,europe ) ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,! broad ridge ^u :i* ! ,f>e ,isl&s & ,icel& are f\nd$ seems to p]ta9 z truly to ! oceanic depression z ! long ,dolph9 ,ridge ( ! ,s\? ,atlantic4 ,! tr5d ( ! cont95tal plateau 9 high latitudes is %[n1 z ,i ?9k1 by ! g5]al direction ( ! coa/-l9es ( nor?-we/]n ,europe & ea/ ,gre5l&1 ! cont95tal %elf be+ subm]g$ 9 ^? regions = a few hundr$ fa?oms only4 ,h[ ! ,icel&ic ridge came into exi/5ce1 & :at its age may be1 we c only conjecture4 ,x may be a wr9kle z old z ! oceanic tr\gh :i* x trav]ses1 or its orig9 may date back to a mu* m rec5t p]iod4 ,we may conceive x to be an area :i* has subsid$ m sl[ly ?an ! floor ( ! ocean to ! nor? & s\?2 or1 on ! o!r h&1 x may be a belt ( positive elevation4 ,p]haps ! latt] is ! m probable supposition1 = x seems v unlikely t cru/al di/urbances1 result+ 9 axial & regional uplifts1 %\ld h be5 conf9$ to ! cont95tal plateau only4 ,be t z x may1 !re is little d\bt t l&-connection did obta9 betwe5 ,gre5l& & ,europe 9 ! ,ca9ozoic times along ?is ,icel&ic ridge1 = relics ( ! same ,t]ti>y flora are f\nd 9 ,scotl&1 ! ,f>e ,isl&s1 ,icel&1 & ,gre5l&4 ,! deposits 9 :i* ^! plant-rema9s occur are associat$ ) great %eets ( volcanic rocks1 :i* 9 ! ,f>e ,isl&s & ,icel& rea* a ?ickness ( _m ?\s& feet4 ,( ! same age are ! massive basalts ( ,jan ,may51 ,spitzb]g51 ,franz-,joseph ,l&1 & ,gre5l&4 ,^! lavas seem seldom to h issu$ f isolat$ foci 9 ! mann] ( mod]n eruptions1 b r to h well$ up along ! l9es ( rectil9eal fissures4 ,f ! analogy ( simil> ph5om5a 9 o!r p>ts ( ! _w x might be inf]r$ t ! volcanic action ( ^! nor!rn regions may h be5 connect$ ) a movem5t ( elevation1 & t ! ,icel&ic ridge1 if x did n come into exi/5ce dur+ ! ,t]ti>y p]iod1 0 at all ev5ts greatly upheav$ at t "t4 ,x w\ld seem mo/ likely1 9 %ort1 t ! volcanic action 9 "q 0 connect$ ma9ly ) cru/al movem5ts 9 ! oceanic tr\gh4 ,simil> ph5om5a1 z is well kn[n1 are met ) fur!r s\? 9 ! tr\gh ( ! ,atlantic4 ,?us ! volcanic ,azores rise l ,icel& f ! surface ( a broad ridge :i* is sep>at$ f ! cont95tal plateau by wide & deep depressions4 ,& s aga91 f ! back ( ! great ,dolph9 ,ridge1 spr+ ! volcanic islets ( ,/4 ,paul's1 ,asc5sion1 & ,tri/an d',acunha4 ,i h treat$ ( ! ,icel&ic bank at "s l5g? = ! purpose ( %[+ t its volcanic ph5om5a d n really =m an exception to ! rule t su* eruptions ceas$ aft] ,palozoic or e>ly ,mesozoic times to di/urb ! ,atlantic coa/-l9es ( ,europe & ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,z ! bank 9 "q ext5ds betwe5 ,gre5l& & ! ,briti% ,isl&s1 x 0 only natural t bo? ^? regions %\ld be affect$ by its movem5ts4 ,b its hi/ory p]ta9s ess5tially to t ( ! ,atlantic tr\gh2 & x seems to %[ u h[ transm]idional movem5ts ( ! cru/1 accompani$ by va/ dis*>ges ( igne\s rock1 may come 9 "t to =m l&-connections betwe5 :at are n[ widely-sep>at$ areas4 ,let u next turn our att5tion to ! coa/-l9es ( ! ,gulf ( ,mexico & ! ,c>ibbean ,sea4 ,^! enclos$ seas h frequ5tly be5 comp>$ to ! ,m$it]ranean1 & ! resemblance is self-evid5t4 ,inde$1 x is s close t "o may say ! ,mexican-,c>ibbean ,sea & ! ,m$it]ranean are r homolog\s ?an simply analog\s4 ,! latt]1 z we h se51 occupies a primitive depression1 & =m]ly cov]$ a mu* wid] area4 ,x ext5d$ at "o "t ov] mu* ( s\!rn ,europe & nor!rn ,africa1 & appe>s to h _h full communication across ,asia ,m9or ) ! ,indian ,ocean1 & ) ! ,arctic ,ocean a?w>t ! l[-ly+ tracts ( nor?-we/]n ,asia4 ,simil>ly1 x w\ld seem1 ! ,mexican-,c>ibbean ,sea is ! rema9+ portion ( an anci5t inl&-sea :i* =m]ly /ret*$ nor? ?r\gh ! he>t ( ,nor? ,am]ica to ! ,arctic ,ocean4 ,l its ,european p>allel1 x has be5 dim9i%$ by s$im5tation & cru/al movem5ts4 ,x resembles ! latt] also 9 ! greatness & irregul>ity ( its dep?s1 & 9 ! evid5ce :i* its isl&s supply ( volcanic action z well z ( v consid]able cru/al movem5ts )9 rec5t geological times4 ,along ! :ole nor!rn bord]s ( ! ,gulf ( ,mexico ! coa/-l&s1 l ^? on ! ,atlantic sea-bo>d ( ! ,s\!rn ,/ates1 are compos$ ( ,t]ti>y & rec5t accumulations1 & ! same is ! case ) ,yucatan2 :ile simil> "y =mations are met ) on ! bord]s ( ! ,c>ibbean ,sea & 9 ! ,antilles4 ,! ,bahamas & ! ,w9dw>d ,isl&s m>k out = u ! m>g9 ( ! cont95tal plateau1 :i* "h falls away abruptly to pr(\nd dep?s4 ,"o feels assur$ t ?is portion ( ! plateau has be5 ridg$ up to its pres5t level at no di/ant geological date4 ,b not)/&+ all ! evid5ce ( rec5t ext5sive cru/al movem5ts 9 ?is region1 x is obvi\s t ! ,mexican-,c>ibbean depression1 h[ev] mu* x may h be5 subsequ5tly modifi$1 is ( primitive orig94,,dp ,,dp ,pr(essor ,suess ?9ks x is probable t ! ,c>ibbean ,sea & ! ,m$it]ranean are portions ( "o & ! same primitive depression :i* trav]s$ ! ,atlantic area 9 e>ly ,cretace\s times4 ,he fur!r sugge/s t x may h be5 ?r\gh ! gradual wid5+ ( ! c5tral ,m$it]ranean t ! ,atlantic 9 lat] times came into exi/5ce4 ,be=e we leave ! coa/-l&s ( ,nor? ,am]ica1 ,i w\ld aga9 po9t out _! lead+ geological features4 ,9 a ^w1 !n1 !y are compos$ = ! mo/ "p ( ,ar*an & ,palozoic rocks2 no great l9e> or axial uplifts m>k$ by mu* flexure ( /rata h tak5 place 9 ^? regions s9ce ,palozoic times2 :ile igne\s action virtually ceas$ ab\t ! close ( ! ,palozoic or ! comm5cem5t ( ! ,mesozoic p]iod4 ,x is n be=e we rea* ! %ores ( ! ,s\!rn ,/ates & ! coa/-l&s ( ! ,mexican-,c>ibbean ,sea t we enc\nt] notable accumulations ( ,mesozoic1 ,t]ti>y1 & y\ng] age4 ,^! occur 9 approximately horizontal positions r\nd ! ,gulf ( ,mexico2 b 9 ! ,si]ra ,nevada ( nor!rn ,colombia & ! ,cordill]as ( ,v5ezuela ! ,t]ti>y /rata ent] into ! =mation ( true m\nta9s ( elevation4 ,?us ! ,mexican-,c>ibbean depression1 l t ( ! ,m$it]ranean1 is *>act]is$ n only by its irregul> dep?s & its volcanic ph5om5a1 b by ! prop9quity ( rec5t m\nta9s ( upheaval1 :i* be> ! same relation to ! ,c>ibbean ,sea z ! m\nta9s ( nor? ,africa d to ! ,m$it]ranean4 ,we may n[ comp>e ! ,atlantic coa/s ( ,s\? ,am]ica ) ^? ( ,africa4 ,! =m] co9cide 9 g5]al direction ) ! edge ( ! cont95tal plateau1 to :i* !y closely approa* betwe5 ,cape ,/4 ,roque & ,cape ,frio4 ,9 ! nor?-ea/1 betwe5 ,cape ,p>ia1 opposite ,tr9idad1 & ,cape ,/4 ,roque1 ! cont95tal %elf atta9s a consid]ably great] bread?1 :ile s\? ( ,cape ,frio x gradually wid5s until1 9 ! extreme s\?1 x runs out t[>ds ! ea/ 9 ! =m ( a n>r[ ridge1 ^u ! top ( :i* rise ! ,falkl& ,isl&s & s\? ,georgia4 ,exclud+ f consid]ation = ! pres5t all rec5t alluvial & ,t]ti>y deposits1 we may say t ! coa/-l&s f ,v5ezuela d[n to ! s\? ( ,brazil are compos$ pr9cipally ( ,ar*an rocks2 ! ea/]n bord]s ( ! cont95t fur!r s\? be+ =m$ ( ,quat]n>y & ,t]ti>y accumulations4 ,s f> z we "k1 igne\s rocks are ( r>e occurr5ce on ! ,atlantic sea-bo>d4 ,palozoic /rata approa* ! coa/-l&s at v>i\s po9ts betwe5 ! m\?s ( ! ,amazons & ,la ,plata1 & ^!1 ) ! und]ly+ & surr\nd+ ,ar*an rocks1 are m or less fold$ & di/urb$1 :ile ! y\ng] /rata ( ,mesozoic & ,ca9ozoic age 7occupy+ wide regions 9 ! bas9 ( ! ,amazons1 & "h & !re fr++ ! sea-coa/7 occur 9 approximately horizontal positions4 ,x w\ld appe>1 !re=e1 t no great axial uplifts h tak5 place 9 ^? regions s9ce ,palozoic times4 ,! cru/al movem5ts ( lat] ages 7 regional r ?an axial2 ! y\ng] rocks are n flex$ & ma%$ toge!r1 & _! elevation 7negative or positive7 does n seem to h be5 accompani$ by conspicu\s volcanic action4 ,! v>y+ wid? ( ! cont95tal %elf is due to sev]al causes4 ,! ,or9oco1 ! ,amazons1 & o!r riv]s desc5d+ to ! nor?-ea/ coa/1 c>ry enorm\s quantities ( s$im5t1 mu* ( :i* comes to re/ on ! subm]g$ slopes ( ! cont95tal plateau1 s t ! cont95tal %elf t5ds to ext5d seaw>ds4 ,! same process takes place on ! s\?-ea/ coa/1 :]e ! ,rio de la ,plata dis*>ges its muddy wat]s4 ,s\? ( latitude #dj ,s41 h[ev]1 ano!r cause has come into play4 ,f ! m\? ( ! ,rio ,negro to ! t]m9al po9t ( ! cont95t ! :ole "* ( ! coa/ betok5s a geologically rec5t em]g5ce1 accompani$ & foll[$ by consid]able m>9e erosion4 ,s t 9 ?is region ! cont95tal %elf increases 9 wid? by ! retreat ( ! coa/-l9e1 :ile 9 ! nor?-ea/ x ga9s by advanc+ seaw>ds4 ,x is to be not$1 h[ev]1 t ev5 !re1 9 places :]e ! %ores are =m$ ( alluvia1 ! sea t5ds to encroa* ^u ! l&4 ,! ,atlantic coa/ ( ,africa resembles t ( ,s\? ,am]ica 9 c]ta9 respects1 b x also (f]s "s important contra/s4 ,z ! nor!rn coa/s ( ,v5ezuela & ,colombia mu/ be consid]$ 9 relation r to ! ,c>ibbean depression ?an to ! ,atlantic1 s ! ,african sea-bo>d betwe5 ,cape ,sp>tel & ,cape ,nun p]ta9s /ructurally to ! ,m$it]ranean region4 ,f ! s\!rn limits ( ,morocco to ,cape ,colony ! coa/al heights are compos$ *iefly ( ,ar*an & ,palozoic rocks1 ! l[ %ore-l&s %[+ "h & !re /rata ( ,mesozoic & ,t]ti>y age toge!r ) /ill m rec5t deposits4 ,! exi/+ coa/-l9es ev]y:]e advance close to ! edge ( ! cont95tal plateau1 s t ! subm>9e %elf is relatively n>r[] ?an t ( ea/]n ,s\? ,am]ica4 ,! ,african coa/ is /ill fur!r di/+ui%$ f t ( ,s\? ,am]ica by ! pres5ce ( sev]al gr\ps ( volcanic isl&s--,f]n&o ,po & o!rs 9 ! ,gulf ( ,gu9ea1 & ,cape ,v]de & ,can>y ,isl&s4 ,! la/-nam$ gr\p1 h[ev]1 not)/&+ its geographical position1 is probably relat$ r to ! ,m$it]ranean depression ?an to ! ,atlantic tr\gh4 ,! geological /ructure ( ! ,african coa/-l&s %[s t ! e>lie/ to come into exi/5ce 7 ^? t ext5d betwe5 ,cape ,nun & ! ,cape ( ,good ,hope4 ,! coa/al ranges ( t section are mu* d5ud$1 = !y are ( v great antiquity1 hav+ be5 ridg$ up 9 ,palozoic times4 ,! lat] uplifts 7negative or positive7 ( ! same region 7 n att5d$ by tilt+ & fold+ ( /rata1 = ! ,mesozoic & ,t]ti>y deposits1 l ^? ( ,s\? ,am]ica1 lie 9 comp>atively horizontal positions4 ,betwe5 ,cape ,nun & ,cape ,sp>tel ! rocks ( ! m>itime tracts range 9 age f ,palozoic to ,ca9ozoic1 & h be5 trac$ across ,morocco into ,alg]ia & ,tunis4 ,!y all belong to ! ,m$it]ranean region1 & 7 deposit$ at a "t :5 ! s\!rn %ores ( t inl& sea ext5d$ f a po9t opposite ! ,can>y ,isl&s along :at is n[ ! s\!rn m>g9 ( ,morocco1 ,alg]ia1 & ,tunis4 ,t[>ds ! close ( ! ,t]ti>y p]iod ! f9al upheaval ( ! ,atlas took place1 & ! ,m$it]ranean1 retreat+ nor?w>ds1 became an almo/ l&-lock$ sea4 ,i ne$ h>dly /op to po9t out h[ ! ,african coa/-l9es h be5 modifi$ by m>9e erosion & ! accumulation ( s$im5t ^u ! cont95tal %elf4 ,! extreme regul>ity ( ! coa/s is due p>tly to ! fact t ! l& is ne>ly co-ext5sive ) ! cont95tal plateau1 b x also results 9 l>ge measure f ! extreme antiquity ( ! l& itself4 ,?is has all[$ ( ! cutt+-back ( headl&s & ! rill+ up ( bays & inlets1 a process :i* has be5 go+ on betwe5 ,morocco & ,cape ,colony ) probably little int]ruption = a v prolong$ p]iod ( "t4 ,we may note also ! effect ( ! heavy ra9s ( ! equatorial region 9 wa%+ d[n detritus to ! %ores1 & 9 ?is way protect+ ! l& to "s ext5t f ! erosive action ( ! sea4 ,:at n[1 let u ask1 are ! out/&+ features ( ! coa/-l9es ( ! ,atlantic ,ocean8 ,we h se5 t along ! m>g9s ( ea* ( ! bord]+ cont95ts ! la/ s]ies ( great m\nta9-uplifts took place 9 ,palozoic times4 ,?is is true alike = ,nor? & ,s\? ,am]ica1 = ,europe & ,africa4 ,lat] movem5ts :i* h add$ to ! ext5t ( l& 7 n m>k$ by ! extreme fold+ ( /rata :i* att5d$ ! e>ly upheavals4 ,! ,mesozoic & ,ca9ozoic rocks1 :i* n[ & aga9 =m ! %ore-l&s1 occur 9 m or less undi/urb$ condition4 ,! only great l9e> uplifts or true m\nta9s ( elevation :i* h come into exi/5ce 9 we/]n ,europe & nor!rn ,africa s9ce ! ,palozoic p]iod tr5d approximately at "r angles to ! direction ( ! ,atlantic tr\gh1 & are obvi\sly relat$ to ! primitive depression ( ! ,m$it]ranean4 ,! ,pyr5ees & ! ,atlas1 !re=e1 al?\gh _! late/ elevation took place 9 ,t]ti>y times1 =m no exceptions to ! rule t ! extreme flex+ & fold+ ( /rata :i* is s conspicu\s a feature 9 ! geological /ructure ( ! ,atlantic sea-bo>d dates back to ! ,palozoic era4 ,& ! same holds true ( ,nor? & ,s\? ,am]ica4 ,!re all ! coa/al ranges ( highly flex$ & fold$ /rata are ( ,palozoic age4 ,! ,cordill]as ( ,v5ezuela are no d\bt a ,t]ti>y uplift1 b !y are z obvi\sly relat$ to ! ,c>ibbean depression z ! ,atlas ranges are to t ( ! ,m$it]ranean4 ,aga91 we note t volcanic activity along ! bord]s ( ! ,atlantic 0 mu* less pron\nc$ dur+ ! ,mesozoic p]iod ?an x appe>s to h be5 9 ! e>li] ages4 ,inde$1 if we except ! great ,t]ti>y basalt-fl[s ( ! ,icel&ic ridge & ! ,arctic regions1 we may say t volcanic action almo/ ceas$ aft] ! ,palozoic era to manife/ itself ^u ! ,atlantic coa/-l&s ( ,nor? ,am]ica & ,europe4 ,b :ile volcanic action has di$ out ^u ! ,atlantic m>g9s ( bo? cont95ts1 x has cont9u$ dur+ a prolong$ geological p]iod )9 ! area ( ! ,m$it]ranean depression4 ,& 9 l mann] ! correspond+ depression betwe5 ,nor? & ,s\? ,am]ica has be5 ! sc5e ( volcanic di/urbances f ,mesozoic d[n to rec5t times4 ,along ! ,african coa/s ! only displays ( rec5t volcanic action t app]ta9 to ! cont95tal m>g9 are ^? ( ! ,gulf ( ,gu9ea & ! ,cape de ,v]de ,isl&s4 ,! ,can>y ,isl&s & ,madeira may come "u ! same category1 b1 z we h se51 !y appe> to /& 9 relation%ip to ! ,m$it]ranean depression & ! ,t]ti>y uplift ( ,nor? ,africa4 ,( ,icel& & ! ,azores ,i h already spok51 & ( ,asc5sion & ! o!r volcanic islets ( ! ,s\? ,atlantic x is ne$less to say t !y are relat$ to wr9kles 9 ! tr\gh ( ! ocean1 & !re=e h no imm$iate connection ) ! cont95tal plateau4 ,?us 9 ! geographical developm5t ( ! ,atlantic coa/-l9es we may note ! foll[+ /ages3--,fir/1 9 ,palozoic times ! =mation ( great m\nta9-uplifts1 frequ5tly accompani$ by volcanic action4 ,second1 a prolong$ /age ( comp>ative coa/al tranquillity1 dur+ :i* ! m>itime ranges ref]r$ to 7 subject to su* excessive erosion t !y 7 plan$ d[n to l[ levels1 & 9 c]ta9 areas ev5 subm]g$4 ,?ird1 r5ew$ elevation 7negative or positive7 :]eby consid]able portions ( ! mu*-d5ud$ ,ar*an & ,palozoic rocks1 n[ l>gely cov]$ by y\ng] deposits1 7 conv]t$ into high-l&s4 ,dur+ ?is /age n mu* rock-fold+ took place1 nor 7 any true m\nta9s ( elevation =m$ p>allel to ! ,atlantic m>g9s4 ,x 0 o!rwise1 h[ev]1 9 ! ,m$it]ranean & ,c>ibbean depressions1 :]e coa/al movem5ts result$ 9 ! =mation ( enorm\s l9e> uplifts4 ,moreov]1 volcanic action is n[ & has = a long "t be5 m *>act]i/ic ( ^! depressions ?an ( ! ,atlantic coa/-l&s4 ,i mu/ n[ ask y to take a compreh5sive glance at ! coa/-l9es ( ! ,pacific ,ocean4 ,9 "s important respects ^! (f] a /rik+ contra/ to ^? we h be5 consid]+4 ,"t w n all[ me to ent] into detail$ description1 & ,i mu/ !re=e conf9e att5tion to c]ta9 sali5t features4 ,exam9+ fir/ ! %ores ( ! ,am]icas1 we f9d t !re are two well-m>k$ regions ( fiords & fr++ isl&s--namely1 ! coa/s ( ,alaska & ,briti% ,columbia1 & ( ,s\? ,am]ica f #dj ,s4,l4 to ,cape ,horn4 ,al?\gh ^! regions may be n[ ext5d+ seaw>ds 9 places1 x is obvi\s t !y h rec5tly be5 subject to subm]g5ce4 ,:5 ! fiords ( ,alaska & ,briti% ,columbia exi/$ z l&-valleys x is probable t a broad l&-connection obta9$ betwe5 ,nor? ,am]ica & ,asia4 ,! :ole ,pacific coa/ is m>g9$ by m\nta9-ranges1 :i* 9 elevation & boldness f> exce$ ^? ( ! ,atlantic sea-bo>d4 ,! rocks ent]+ into _! =mation range 9 age f ,ar*an & ,palozoic d[n to ,ca9ozoic1 & !y are almo/ ev]y:]e highly di/urb$ & flex$4 ,x is n necess>y1 ev5 if x 7 possible1 to consid] ! geological hi/ory ( all ^? uplift$ masses4 ,x is en\gh = my purpose to note ! fact t ! coa/al ranges ( ,nor? ,am]ica & ! pr9cipal *a9 ( ! ,&es 7 all elevat$ 9 ,t]ti>y times4 ,x may be rem>k$ fur!r t1 f ! ,mesozoic p]iod d[n to ! pres5t1 ! ,pacific bord]s ( ,am]ica h be5 ! sc5e ( volcanic activity f> 9 excess ( :at has be5 exp]i5c$ on ! ,atlantic sea-bo>d4 ,geographically ! ,asiatic coa/s ( ! ,pacific (f] a /rong contra/ to ^? ( ! ,am]ican bord]s4 ,! latt]1 z we h se51 are = ! mo/ "p n f> remov$ f ! edge ( ! cont95tal plateau4 ,! coa/s ( ! ma9l& ( ,asia1 on ! o!r h&1 retire to a great di/ance1 ! true m>g9 ( ! plateau be+ m>k$ out by t great *a9 ( isl&s :i* ext5ds f ,kam*atka s\? to ! ,philipp9es & ,new ,gu9ea4 ,! seas ly+ betwe5 ^? isl&s & ! ma9l& occupy depressions 9 ! cont95tal plateau4 ,7 t plateau to be lift$ up = #fjjj or #gjjj feet ! seas ref]r$ to w\ld be enclos$ by cont9u\s l&1 & all ! pr9cipal isl&s ( ! ,ea/ ,indian ,ar*ipelago--,sumatra1 ,java1 ,celebes1 & ,new ,gu9ea1 w\ld become unit$ to !mselves z well z to ,au/ralia & ,new ,zeal&4 ,9 %ort1 x is ! relatively depress$ condition ( ! cont95tal plateau along ! we/]n bord]s ( ! ,pacific bas9 t causes ! ,asiatic coa/-l9es to diff] s /rik+ly f ^? ( ,am]ica4 ,f a geological po9t ( view ! diff]5ces are less /rik+ ?an ! resemblances4 ,x is true t we h z yet a v imp]fect k ( ! geological /ructure ( ea/]n ,asia1 b we "k en\gh to ju/ify ! conclusion t 9 its ma9 features t region does n diff] ess5tially f we/]n ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,dur+ ,mesozoic & ,ca9ozoic times ! sea appe>s to h ov]fl[$ va/ tracts ( ,man*ooria & ,*9a1 & ev5 to h p5etrat$ into :at is n[ ! great ,des]t ( ,gobi4 ,subsequ5t cru/al movem5ts revolutionis$ ! geography ( all ^? regions4 ,great ranges ( l9e> uplifts came into exi/5ce1 & 9 ^! ! y\ng] =mations1 toge!r ) ! f\ndations on :i* !y re/$1 7 squeez$ into folds & ridg$ up aga9/ ! nuclei ( ,palozoic & ,ar*an rocks :i* _h hi!rto =m$ ! only dry l&4 ,! late/ ( ^! gr& upheavals are ( ,t]ti>y age1 &1 l ^? ( ! ,pacific slope ( ,am]ica1 !y 7 accompani$ by excessive volcanic action4 ,! long *a9s ( isl&s t flank ! %ores ( ,asia we mu/ look ^u z a s]ies ( p>tially subm]g$ or p>tially em]g$ m\nta9-ranges1 analog\s geographically to ! coa/-ranges ( ,nor? & ,c5tral ,am]ica1 & to ! y\nge/ ,cordill]as ( ,s\? ,am]ica4 ,! pres5ce ( num]\s active & rec5tly ext9ct volcanoes1 tak5 9 connection ) ! occurr5ce ( _m great depressions :i* furr[ ! floor ( ! sea 9 ! ,ea/ ,indian ,ar*ipelago1 & ! pr(\nd dep?s atta9$ by ! ,pacific tr\gh along ! bord]s ( ,japan & ! ,kurile & ,aleutian ,isl&s--all indicate conditions ( v consid]able in/ability ( ! li?osph]e4 ,we are n surpris$1 !re=e1 to meet ) mu* app>5tly conflict+ evid5ce ( elevation & depression 9 ! coa/-l&s ( ea/]n ,asia1 :]e 9 "s places ! sea w\ld seem to be encroa*+1 :ile 9 o!r regions x is retreat+4 ,9 all e>?quake-ridd5 & volcanic areas su* irregul> coa/al *anges may be look$ =4 ,s extreme are ! irregul>ities ( ! sea-floor 9 ! area ly+ betwe5 ,au/ralia1 ! ,solomon ,isl&s1 ! ,new ,hebrides1 & ,new ,zeal&1 & s great are ! dep?s atta9$ by _m ( ! depressions1 t ! m>g9s ( ! cont95tal plateau are h>d] to trace "h ?an any:]e else 9 ! _w4 ,! bottom ( ! oceanic tr\gh ?r\gh\t a l>ge portion ( ! s\!rn & we/]n ,pacific is1 9 fact1 trav]s$ by _m great m\nta9-ridges1 ! summits ( :i* approa* ! surface aga9 & aga9 to =m ! num]\s islets ( ,polynesia4 ,b not)/&+ ! consid]able dep?s t sep>ate ,au/ralia f ,new ,zeal& !re is geological evid5ce to %[ t a l&-connection =m]ly l9k$ bo? to ,asia4 ,! cont95tal plateau1 !re=e1 mu/ be held to include ,new ,cal$onia & ,new ,zeal&4 ,h5ce ! volcanic islets ( ! ,solomon & ,new ,hebrides gr\ps are relat$ to ,au/ralia 9 ! same way z ! ,liu-kiu1 ,japanese1 & ,kurile ,isl&s are to ,asia4 ,hav+ rapidly sket*$ ! m prom95t features ( ! ,pacific coa/-l9es1 we are 9 a position to realise ! rem>kable contra/ !y pres5t to ! coa/-l9es ( ! ,atlantic4 ,! highly-fold$ /rata ( ! ,atlantic sea-bo>d are ! relics ( great m\nta9s ( upheaval1 ! orig9 ( :i* _c be assign$ to a m rec5t date ?an ,palozoic times4 ,dur+ subsequ5t cru/al movem5ts no m\nta9s ( corrugat$ /rata 7 uplift$ along ! ,atlantic m>g9s1 ! ,mesozoic & ,ca9ozoic /rata ( ! coa/al regions %[+ little or no di/urbance4 ,x is q 9 keep+ ) all ?is t volcanic action appe>s to h be5 mo/ /rongly manife/$ 9 ,palozoic times4 ,s _m long ages h pass$ s9ce ! upheaval ( ! ,ar*an & ,palozoic m\nta9s ( ! ,atlantic sea-bo>d t ^! heights h ev]y:]e lo/ ! "* ( true m\nta9s ( elevation4 ,plan$ d[n to l[ levels1 p>tially subm]g$ & cov]$ to "s ext5t by new] =mations1 !y h 9 _m places be5 aga9 conv]t$ into dry l&s1 =m+ plateaux--n[ sorely d5ud$ & cut up into m\nta9s & valleys ( erosion4 ,:y ! lat] movem5ts along ! bord]s ( ! ,atlantic bas9 %\ld n h result$ 9 ! :olesale plication ( ! y\ng] s$im5t>y rocks is a "q = geologi/s4 ,x w\ld seem z if ! ,atlantic m>g9s _h rea*$ a /age ( comp>ative /ability long be=e ! gr& ,t]ti>y uplifts ( ! ,pacific bord]s _h tak5 place2 =1 z we h se51 ! ,mesozoic & ! ,ca9ozoic /rata ( ! ,atlantic coa/-l&s %[ little or no trace ( hav+ be5 subject$ to tang5tial ?ru/+ & cru%+4 ,h5ce "o _c help suspect+ t ! retreat ( ! sea dur+ ,mesozoic & ,ca9ozoic ages may h be5 due r to subsid5ce ( ! oceanic tr\gh & to s$im5tation )9 ! cont95tal area ?an to positive elevation ( ! l&4 ,ov] ! ,pacific tr\gh1 likewise1 depression has probably be5 9 progress m or less cont9u\sly s9ce ,palozoic times1 & ?is movem5t alone mu/ h t5d$ to )draw ! sea f ! surface ( ! cont95tal plateau 9 ,asia & ,am]ica4 ,b by f> ! mo/ important coa/al *anges 9 ^? regions h be5 br\ght ab\t by ! crumpl+-up ( ! plateau1 & ! =mation ( gigantic m\nta9s ( upheaval along its m>g9s4 ,f remote/ geological p]iods d[n almo/ to ! pres5t1 ! l&-area has be5 increas$ f "t to "t by ! d\bl+-up & consequ5t elevation ( coa/al accumulations1 & by ! eruption ( va/ masses ( volcanic mat]ials4 ,x is ?is long-cont9u$ activity ( ! plutonic =ces )9 ! ,pacific area :i* has caus$ ! coa/-l&s ( t bas9 to contra/ s /rongly ) ^? ( ! ,atlantic4 ,! latt] are incomp>ably old] ?an ! =m]--! heights ( ! ,atlantic bord]s be+ m\nta9s ( d5udation ( va/ geological antiquity1 :ile ! coa/al ranges ( ! ,pacific slope are creations b ( ye/]day z x 74 ,x may well be t ^? ,cordill]as & m\nta9-*a9s rea* a great] height ?an 0 ev] atta9$ by any ,palozoic uplifts ( ! ,atlantic bord]s4 ,b ! m>k$ disp>ity 9 elevation betwe5 ! coa/-l&s ( ! ,pacific & ! ,atlantic is due *iefly to a pr(\nd diff]5ce 9 age4 ,_h ! ,pacific coa/-l&s exi/$ = z long a p]iod & suff]$ z mu* erosion z ! anci5t rocks ( ! ,atlantic sea-bo>d1 !y w\ld n[ h little elevation to boa/ (4 ,! coa/-l9es ( ! ,indian ,ocean are n1 ^u ! :ole1 f> remov$ f ! m>g9 ( ! cont95tal plateau4 ,! elevation ( ,ea/ ,africa = #fjjj feet w\ld add only a n>r[ belt to ! l&4 ,?is w\ld /ill leave ,madagasc> an isl&1 b !re are geological reasons = conclud+ t ?is isl& 0 at a f> di/ant p]iod unit$ to ,africa1 & x mu/ !re=e be consid]$ z =m+ a portion ( ! cont95tal plateau4 ,! great dep?s :i* n[ sep>ate x f ! ma9l& are probably due to local subsid5ce1 connect$ ) volcanic action 9 ,madagasc> itself & 9 ! ,comoro ,isl&s4 ,! s\!rn coa/s ( ,asia1 l ^? ( ,ea/ ,africa1 approa* ! edge ( ! cont95tal plateau1 s t an elevation ( #fjjj feet w\ld make little addition to ! l&-area4 ,) ! same am\nt ( upheaval1 h[ev]1 ! ,malay ,p59sula1 ,sumatra1 ,java1 & ,we/ ,au/ralia w\ld become unit$1 b )\t ext5d+ mu* fur!r seaw>ds4 ,l&-connection1 z we "k1 exi/$ 9 ,mesozoic times betwe5 ,asia1 ,au/ralia1 & ,new ,zeal&1 b ! coa/-l9es ( t di/ant p]iod mu/ h diff]$ consid]ably f ^? t w\ld appe> 7 ! regions 9 "q to exp]i5ce n[ a g5]al elevation4 ,! ,ar*an & ! ,palozoic rocks ( ! ,malay ,p59sula & ,sumatra are flank$ on ! side ( ! ,indian ,ocean by great volcanic ridges1 & by uplifts ( ,t]ti>y /rata1 :i* cont9ue along ! l9e ( ! ,nicob> & ! ,&aman ,isl&s into ,burma4 ,?us ! coa/-l9es ( t section ( ! ,indian ,ocean exhibit a geographical developm5t simil> to t ( ! ,pacific sea-bo>d4 ,else:]e1 z 9 ,h9du/an1 ,arabia1 & ,ea/ ,africa1 ! coa/-l9es appe> to h be5 det]m9$ *iefly by regional elevations ( ! l& or subsid5ce ( ! oceanic tr\gh 9 ,mesozoic & ,ca9ozoic times1 accompani$ by ! out-well+ ( enorm\s floods ( lava4 ,see+1 !n1 t ! ,pacific & ! ,indian ,oceans are pre-em95tly regions :i*1 d[n to a rec5t date1 h be5 subject to great cru/al movem5ts & to excessive volcanic action1 we may inf] t 9 ! developm5t ( _! coa/-l9es ! sea play$ a v subord9ate "p4 ,! %ores1 inde$1 are l>gely protect$ f m>9e erosion by p>tially em]g$ volcanic ridges & by coral isl&s & reefs1 & to a consid]able ext5t also by ! s$im5t :i* 9 tropical regions especially is swept d[n to ! coa/ 9 great abundance by ra9s & riv]s4 ,moreov]1 z ! geological /ructure ( ^! regions assures u1 ! l& w\ld appe> seldom to h rema9$ suffici5tly long at "o level to p]mit ( mu* de/ruction by waves & tidal curr5ts4 ,9 f9e1 !n1 we arrive at ! g5]al conclusion t ! coa/-l9es ( ! globe are ( v unequal age4 ,^? ( ! ,atlantic 7 det]m9$ z f> back z ,palozoic times by great m\nta9-up lifts along ! m>g9 ( ! cont95tal plateau4 ,s9ce ! close ( t p]iod _m cru/al oscillations h tak5 place1 b no gr& m\nta9-ranges h aga9 be5 ridg$ up on ! ,atlantic sea-bo>d4 ,mean:ile ! ,palozoic m\nta9-*a9s1 z we h se51 h suff]$ ext5sive d5udation1 h be5 plan$ d[n to sea-level1 & ev5 subm]g$4 ,subsequ5tly conv]t$ into l&1 :olly or p>tially z ! case may h be51 !y n[ pres5t ! appe>ance ( pla9s & plateaux ( erosion1 (t5 deeply ind5t$ by ! sea4 ,no true m\nta9s ( elevation are met ) any:]e 9 ! coa/-l&s ( ! ,atlantic1 :ile volcanic action has well-nigh ceas$4 ,9 %ort1 ! ,atlantic m>g9s h rea*$ a /age ( comp>ative /ability4 ,! tr\gh itself1 h[ev]1 is trav]s$ by at lea/ two well-m>k$ banks ( upheaval--! great m]idional ,dolph9 ,ridge1 & ! approximately transm]idional ,f>e-,icel&ic belt--bo? ( !m be>+ volcanic isl&s4 ,b :ile all ! coa/-l&s ( ! ,atlantic prop] atta9$ relative /ability at an e>ly p]iod1 ^? ( ! ,m$it]ranean & ,c>ibbean depressions h up to rec5t times be5 ! sc5es ( great cru/al di/urbance4 ,gigantic m\nta9-*a9s 7 uplift$ along _! m>g9s at s late a p]iod z ! ,t]ti>y1 & _! %ores /ill witness volcanic activity4 ,x is ^u ! m>g9s & )9 ! tr\gh ( ! ,pacific ,ocean1 h[ev]1 t subt]ranean action is n[ mo/ rem>kably develop$4 ,! coa/-l9es ( t great bas9 are ev]y:]e =m$ ( gr& uplifts & volcanic ranges1 :i*1 broadly speak+1 are comp>able 9 age to ^? ( ! ,m$it]ranean & ,c>ibbean depressions4 ,along ! nor?-ea/]n m>g9 ( ! ,indian ,ocean ! coa/-l9es resemble ^? ( ! ,pacific1 be+ ( l rec5t age1 & simil>ly m>k$ by ! pres5ce ( num]\s volcanoes4 ,! nor!rn & we/]n %ores1 h[ev] 7z 9 ,h9du/an1 ,arabia1 & ,ea/ ,africa71 h be5 det]m9$ r by regional elevation or by subsid5ce ( ! ocean-floor ?an by axial uplifts--! *ief cru/al di/urbances dat+ back to an e>li] p]iod ?an ^? ( ! ,ea/ ,indian ,ar*ipelago4 ,x is 9 keep+ ) ?is great] age ( ! we/]n & nor!rn coa/-l&s ( ! ,indian ,ocean t volcanic action is n[ less /rongly manife/$ 9 _! vic9ity4 ,i h spok5 ( ! comp>ative /ability ( ! e>?'s cru/ )9 ! ,atlantic area z be+ evid5c$ by ! great] age ( its coa/al ranges & ! decl9+ importance ( its volcanic ph5om5a4 ,?is relative /ability is fur!r %[n by ! fact t ! ,atlantic sea-bo>d is n mu* di/urb$ by e>?quakes4 ,?is1 ( c\rse1 is :at might h be5 expect$1 = e>?quakes are mo/ *>act]i/ic ( volcanic regions & ( ^? areas 9 :i* m\nta9-uplifts ( rec5t geological age occur4 ,h5ce ! coa/-l&s ( ! ,pacific & ! ,ea/ ,indies1 ! bord]s ( ! ,c>ibbean ,sea1 ! volcanic ridges ( ! ,atlantic bas91 ! l&s ( ! ,m$it]ranean1 ! ,black ,sea1 & ! ,aralo-,caspian depressions1 ! %ores ( ! ,r$ ,sea1 & va/ tracts ( s\!rn ,asia1 are ! *ief e>?quake regions ( ! globe4 ,x may be not$1 fur!r1 t %ocks are n only mo/ frequ5t b mo/ int5se 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ! sea4 ,!y appe> to orig9ate sometimes 9 ! volcanic ridges & coa/al ranges1 sometimes "u ! floor ( ! sea itself4 ,n[ e>?quakes1 volcanoes1 & uplifts are all expressions ( ! "o great fundam5tal fact t ! e>? is a cool+ & contract+ body1 & !y indicate ! l9es ( weakness along :i* ! enorm\s pressures & /ra9s induc$ by ! subsid5ce ( ! cru/ ^u its nucleus f9d relief4 ,we _c tell :y ! coa/-l&s ( ! ,atlantic %\ld h atta9$ at s e>ly a p]iod a /age ( relative /ability--:y no axial uplifts %\ld h be5 develop$ along _! m>g9s s9ce ,palozoic times4 ,x may be t relief has be5 f\nd 9 ! wr9kl+-up ( ! floor ( ! oceanic tr\gh1 & consequ5t =mation ( ! ,dolph9 ,ridge & o!r great subm>9e fold+s ( ! cru/2 & x is possible t ! gr[? ( simil> great ridges & wr9kles ^u ! b$ ( ! ,pacific may 9 l mann] relieve ! coa/-l&s ( t va/ ocean1 & prev5t ! =mation ( y\ng] uplifts along _! bord]s4 ,i h already rem>k$ t two k9ds ( elevatory movem5ts ( ! cru/ are recognis$ by geologi/s--namely1 axial & regional uplifts4 ,"s1 h[ev]1 are beg9n+ to d\bt1 ) ,pr(essor ,suess1 :e!r any va/ regional uplifts are possible4 ,yet ! view t w\ld attribute all su* app>5t elevations ( ! l& to subsid5ce ( ! cru/ "u ! great oceanic tr\ghs is n )\t its difficulties4 ,=m] sea-m>g9s ( v rec5t geological age occur 9 all latitudes1 & if we are to expla9 ^! by sub-oceanic depression1 ?is w compel u to admit1 z ,suess has rem>k$1 a g5]al l[]+ ( ! sea-level ( upw>ds ( #ajjj feet4 ,b x is difficult to believe t ! sea-floor c\ld h subsid$ to su* an ext5t 9 rec5t times4 ,suess ?9ks x is mu* m probable t ! high-level bea*es ( tropical regions are n contemporane\s ) ^? ( high] latitudes1 & t ! ph5om5a are be/ expla9$ by 8 hypo!sis ( a secul> movem5t ( ! ocean--! wat] be+1 z he cont5ds1 alt]nately heap$ up at ! equator & ! poles4 ,! /r&-l9es 9 high latitudes1 h[ev]1 are c]ta9ly connect$ ) glaciation 9 "s way n yet und]/ood2 & if x _c be confid5tly affirm$ t !y indicate regional movem5ts ( ! l&1 ! evid5ce1 nev]!less1 seems to po9t 9 t direction4 ,9 conclud+ ?is imp]fect outl9e-sket* ( a l>ge subject1 ,i ought p]haps to apologise = hav+ trespass$ s mu* ^u ! doma9s ( geology4 ,b 9 do+ s ,i h only foll[$ ! example ( geologi/s !mselves1 ^: divagations 9 t]ritories adjo9+ _! own are naturally n infrequ5t4 ,f mu* t ,i h said1 x w be ga!r$ t ) reg>d to ! causes ( _m coa/al *anges we are /ill grop+ 9 ! d>k4 ,x seems n unlikely1 h[ev]1 t z light increases we may be compell$ to modify ! view t all oscillations ( ! sea-level are due to movem5ts ( ! li?osph]e alone4 ,t is a v h]etical sugge/ion2 b t a great deal c be said = x any "o w admit aft] a c&id p]usal ( ,suess's monum5tal "w1 ,das ,antlitz d] ,erde4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate ,,vi ,,ba?y-,,hypsometrical ,,map ,,( ,,! ,,_w ,,note ,! map is col\r$ to %[ ! surface relief ( ! ,globe )\t wat] 9 ! ,ocean ,bas9s4 ,,explanation ,,( ,,col\r+ ,! ,col\r+ is grad$ f ! ,d>ke/ ,t9t at ! ,highe/ ,level to ! ,lighte/ ,t9t on ! ,l[e/4 ,! ,ed9burgh ,geographical ,in/itute ,j4 ,g4 ,b>?olomew ,f4,r4,g4,s4 ,,ed9burgh ,,pr9t$ ,,by ,,/ ,,giles' ,,pr9t+ ,,company1 #cb ,,york ,,place4 ,,! ,,end4 ,o!r ,works by ,pr(essor ,james ,geikie4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,! ,great ,ice ,age4 7,new ,edition 9 ,prep>ation47 ,m$ium #hvo4 ,maps & ,illu/rations4 ,price1 #bds4 ,prehi/oric ,europe3 ,a ,geological ,sket*4 ,demy #hvo4 ,maps & ,illu/rations4 ,price1 #bes4 ,outl9es ( ,geology3 ,= ,junior ,/ud5ts & ,g5]al ,read]s4 ,po/ #hvo4 ,illu/rations4 ,price1 #abs4 ,songs & ,lyrics1 by ,he9ri* ,he9e & o!r ,g]man ,poets2 done into ,engli% ,v]se4 ,price1 #ds4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- 99 99 99 99 99 ,transcrib]'s ,note ,hyph5ation 0 n /&>diz$4 ,! section label$ ,explanation ( ,plate ,,iii4 7p4 #cbe7 9 ! orig9al pr9t$ v]sion appe>s to describe ,plate ,,iv & *ang$ accord+ly4 ,p>agraphs split by illu/rations 7 rejo9$4 ,"s plates 7 mov$ to end ( ! *apt]4