,transcriber's ,note3 ,italic text is   
represented by underscores4    ,small   
capitals in the original have been      
converted to all capitals4    ,footnotes
 have been moved to the end of the text4
            ,a ,,treatise      ,,on     
,,hat-,,making ,,and ,,felting1         
,,including ,a ,,full      ,,exposition 
,,of ,,the ,,singular ,,properties      
,,of ,,fur1 ,,wool1 ,,and ,,hair4       
,,by      ,,john ,,thomson1    ,a       
,,practical ,,hatter4                   
,,philadelphia3    ,,henry ,,carey      
,,baird1    ,,industrial ,,publisher1   
#djf ,walnut ,street4      ,,london3    
,e4  ,f4 ,n4 ,,spon1    #dh ,charing    
,cross4      #ahfh4            ,entered 
according to ,act of ,congress1 in the  
year #ahfh1 by      ,,henry ,,carey     
,,baird1      in the ,clerk's ,office of
 the ,district ,court of the ,united    
,states    in and for the ,eastern      
,district of ,pennsylvania4             
,,philadelphia3    ,,collins1 ,,printer1
 #gje ,,jayne ,,street4                 

,,contents4        ,descriptions of     
furs1 wools1 hairs1 c4      #aa         
,the fulling mill                       
#bd      ,history of hats and hatting   
#be      ,the fashions                  
#bh      ,preparation of materials      
#bi      ,stiffening and water-proofing 
materials      #ca      ,the blowing    
machine                          #ce    
,the manufacture of hats                
#cf      ,shaving                       
#dd      ,stiffening process            
#dd      ,ruffing or napping            
#de      ,blocking                      
#dg      ,dyeing                        
#dg      ,pumicing or pouncing          
#dh      ,finishing                     
#di      ,silk hatting                  
#eb      ,forming machines              
#ef      ,shoes and gaiters of felt     
#fj      ,printer's sheets              
#fa      ,cloth hats                    
#fc      ,conclusion                    
#fe          ,,treatise ,,on            
,,hat-,,making ,,and ,,felting4      ,it

 is conceded as an axiom1 that theory   
and practice1 in the pursuit of  any    
object1 are in their natures essentially
 different and distinct4  ,but at the   
same time they long for a mutual        
understanding each to  confirm the      
assertions of the other1 the            
consummation of all practical  results  
being the mutual embrace and perfect    
reconciliation of these  two attributes4
    ,the writer of these pages1 being a 
practical hatter1 desires to  describe  
intelligibly his calling1 dispensing    
with all technical  terms1 at the same  
time conscious of being liable to       
receive an unfair  criticism from his   
brother tradesmen1 although perfectly   
innocent  on their part1 resulting from 
the prejudices engendered by the many   
would-be secrets that pertain to the    
different work-shops1 together  with    
their various modes and methods of      
working1 all of which most  generally   
are but trifles merely to gain a name4  
,the practice of a trade without a      

knowledge of the why and the  wherefore 
of certain usages is a sad defect in any
 workman1 but  more especially in       
certain trades3 ,hatting being one of   
those which  depends upon second causes 
for its proficiency1 we venture here an 
explanation with perfect confidence1    
hoping that the fraternity of  hatters  
will be indulgent1 and that they may    
profit by an experience  of many years  
in the trade1 and that for one error or 
omission in the  writing of these sheets
 they will find compensation in the new 
ideas  that will spring from their      
perusal1 which may be an incentive to   
further improvements in the business    
resulting beneficially to all4          
,theory without practice1 or practice   
without theory1 is like groping in  the 
dark1 and perfection in no trade can be 
attained till every effect  can be      
traced to its cause1 and vice versa4    
,it is much to be regretted that        
practical operative workmen are so      
diffident in writing and publishing     

their experience in their several       
trades and occupations1 quietly         
permitting theorists ignorant of  the   
business to glean as best they can from 
other parties the most  intricate and   
complicated particulars of a trade1 and 
hence the attempt  to illustrate the    
most useful branches of an art often    
results in crude  and even erroneous    
descriptions of things of the greatest  
moment1 and  the dissemination as       
correct1 of that which is altogether at 
variance  with the truth4 ,in           
confirmation of the above1 we may       
instance the  manufacture of hats as    
described in a work of much merit1 and  
which is  accounted as worthy of all    
confidence1 wherein the error above     
spoken  of is but too plainly visible4  
,thus1 in the supplement to the third   
edition of that most respectable work   
the ,edinburgh ,encyclopedia            
,britannica1 in the article ,hat1 an    
apology is made for the original        
treatise upon that subject1 it being    

acknowledged as both defective  and     
erroneous from the imperfect source of  
the information4 ,such  a confession1   
and from such a source1 sufficiently    
exonerates any  one from egotism in an  
attempt to write a more perfect and     
correct  description1 coupling theory   
with practice2 relieving the felting    
process from its misty obscurity by a   
faithful expose of the whole  system3   
well knowing that an increase of        
business1 like free trade1  will be the 
result of a right understanding of a    
formerly supposed  mystery1 viz41 the   
,true cause of ,felting4    ,felt and   
felted articles being already in use1 in
 many trades in  addition to that of    
hat-making1 necessitates a general and  
indeed a  very full and lucid           
description of the materials of which   
they are made4      ,descriptions of    
,furs1 ,wools1 ,hair1 c4    ,fur1       
properly speaking1 signifies the skins  
of various species of  animals1 dressed 
in alum or some other preparation with  

the hair on1  and made into articles of 
wearing apparel2 but the term fur also  
signifies the stuff that is cut from the
 skin1 for the use of the  hatter1 and  
in this sense alone it will be employed 
in the following  pages4    ,hair1 wool1
 fur1 and animal down are simply slender
 filaments or  thread-like fibres       
issuing out of the pores of the skins of
 animals1  and all partaking of the same
 general nature1 such as great          
ductility1  flexibility1 elasticity1 and
 tenacity1 differing entirely from the  
vegetable wools and downs1 such as      
cotton1 c41 which contain neither  of   
these four great characteristics to any 
valuable or appreciable  extent4    ,to 
characterize in a familiar way these    
several grades of material1 it  may be  
said that fur is distinguished from wool
 by its greater fineness  and softness1 
and hair from wool by its straightness  
and stiffness4  ,the nature of all these
 bearing some relation to each other1 it
 will  be necessary in this treatise to 

use the word hair occasionally to       
designate one and all of them1 that word
 being most convenient1 and  tending to 
avoid confusion4    ,simple as the idea 
may be1 and though trifling in          
appearance1 yet  the study of a single  
hair is particularly interesting1 both  
to the  naturalist and the man of       
business1 as will be seen when we       
mention  a few of its many              
peculiarities2 hoping it will prove a   
source of  enjoyment to the one and a   
profit to the other4    ,hair1 wool1    
fur1 c41 form quite an extraneous       
appendage to the skin1  or body         
producing them1 not at all directly     
dependent on the life of  the animal for
 their own existence1 for they have been
 known to live  and grow for some time  
after the death of the animal itself4   
,we also  know that they live1 grow1 and
 die1 showing all the signs of youth1   
maturity1 and old age4 ,hair possesses  
no sensation at any period of its       
existence2 of itself it has no feeling  

of touch1 nor has it the power  of      
voluntary action4    ,the growth of hair
 is peculiar as it projects and grows in
 length from  the root1 and not by the  
top as with vegetable productions1 the  
lower  portion lengthens out1 and the   
top is merely projected forward2 and    
when once cut1 it never again resumes   
its tapering point4    ,hair or fur of  
whatever quality1 consists of a single  
slender filament1  without a branch or  
knot of any kind1 and that filament is a
 tube1  which is filled with a fat oil1 
the color of the hair being derived     
from this oil4    ,by the chemical      
analysis of hair it is found to consist 
of nine  different substances3 #ast1    
gelatine or animal matter1 which        
constitutes  its greater part2 #b;d1 a  
white concrete oil in small quantity2   
#c;d1  another oil of a grayish-green   
color more abundant1 these oils         
comprising about one-fourth of the      
entire weight2 #dth1 a few particles  of
 oxide of manganese2 #eth1 iron1 the    

state of which in the hair is  unknown2 
#fth1 phosphate of lime2 #gth1 carbonate
 of lime in very  small quantity2 #hth1 
silex in greater abundance2 #ith1 and   
lastly1 a  considerable amount of       
sulphur--such is the constitution of all
 furs1  wools1 hair1 c41 most of which  
may be dissolved in pure water heated   
to a temperature above #bcj of          
,fahrenheit1 by which it is partially   
decomposed4 ,hair is likewise soluble in
 alkalies1 with which it forms  soap4   
,chlorine gas immediately decomposes it1
 producing a viscid mass4    ,it is     
worthy of particular remark1 that of all
 animal products1 hair  is the one least
 liable to spontaneous change1 evidence 
of which may  be found in the fact that 
the ,peruvian1 ,mexican1 and ,brazilian 
mummy  hair is still perfect1 and is    
supposed to be from #bejj to #cjjj years
  old1 and stands the hygrometric test  
with equal firmness4 ,from this we      
should suppose the body or substance of 
hair and wool to be exceedingly  hard   

and solid1 which is really the case1 as 
no pressure has yet been  applied       
sufficiently powerful to entirely       
deprive wool of the water  with which it
 has been washed--the interstices       
between the fibres of  the assemblage   
never having been closed by the power   
applied1 as the  water therein collected
 may still be drained off when the      
pressure is  removed4    ,although hair 
is of a tubular construction1 yet all   
varieties are  not of a completely      
cylindrical form2 a curl is the result  
of all  flat-sided or oval hairs1 the   
exceeding oval being the unfailing      
characteristic of the negro race4 ,a    
cross section of a hair1 if  circular1  
denotes the long1 soft1 and lank fibre  
of a cold northern  animal2 but if the  
cross section shows an extreme          
flat-sided hair1 that  hair will be     
crisp and frizzled1 and of a tropical   
extraction4 ,quite  a gradual change in 
the form of the fibre of hair is        
observed in all  animals as we ascend   

from the equator to the highest         
latitudes1 other  things being equal4   
,it has long been a desideratum how to  
discriminate between the various        
qualities of hatters' fine furs1 and no 
really reliable test has  yet been      
obtained1 superior to the judgment of   
the human eye1 the  fineness of fibre   
for the hatter being of most essential  
importance1  particularly that allotted 
for the flowing nap upon the outside of 
the  hat4 ,although the thickness of the
 fibre of the finer furs has never  been
 properly gauged1 it will be a source of
 some satisfaction to know  that the    
diameter of the human hair varies from  
the #bejth to the #fjjth  part of an    
inch1 while the fibre of the coarsest   
wool is about the  #ejjth and the finest
 about the #aejjth part of an inch4     
,hair may be bleached on the grass like 
linen1 after previous washing  and      
steeping in a bleaching liquid1 after   
which it may be dyed of any  color4     
,it is very doubtful whether the growth 

of hair can by any artificial  means be 
expedited1 or the hair itself increased 
in length1 in quality1  or in density4  
,a fine field of enterprise would be    
opened for the  fortunate inventor who  
could increase the produce of the finer 
and more  expensive furs4 ,in           
contradistinction to this1 however1 it  
may be stated  that the inhabitants of  
some countries1 the ,malays1 for        
instance1  purposely destroy their hair 
by using quick-lime4    ,we come next to
 describe minutely another peculiarity  
appertaining  to hair1 upon which all   
felting or shrinking of a fabric        
depends2  that grand secret that has    
been a mystery in all ages1 until within
  a few years1 or at best was only      
surmised4 ,upon this property alone     
depends the whole art of hatting and of 
felt making1 whether in sheets  or      
otherwise1 as well as the fulling of    
cloth and the shrinking of  flannels1   
and all articles the material of which  
is made of wool1 hair1  or fur4    ,as  

many branches of business depend for    
their success upon the  non-shrinking   
quality of their goods1 a study of the  
felting  principle becomes quite        
appropriate and interesting to those    
manufacturers1 whilst perusing that of  
the opposite4 ,pulled wools1  rather    
than cut or shorn wools1 must always    
have the preference with  the one class 
of manufacturers2 at the same time1 the 
other class must  adhere tenaciously to 
those which have been cut1 the roots of 
the hair  causing all the difference1   
for that remarkable quality1 the felting
  principle1 is upon all the same       
whether pulled or cut4    ,a few        
familiar facts dependent upon this      
inherent felting quality of  hair will  
aid the illustration4 ,when a hair is   
held by the top1 it can  be severed with
 a razor much more readily than if held 
by the root4  ,again1 a hair held by the
 root1 and drawn through between the    
finger  and thumb1 feels quite smooth1  
but when held by the top1 a rough and   

tremulous motion is perceived4          
,again1 place a hair of three or four   
inches in length by the middle1  between
 the finger and thumb1 and twirl it a   
few times1 when the hair  will be found 
to proceed towards one end1 as the      
twirling and rubbing  are continued1 and
 invariably advancing root end foremost1
 whichever  way the hair is placed      
between the fingers4 ,if two hairs are  
used in  this example1 lay the root of  
the one to the top of the other1 their  
respective motions will be doubly       
discernible4    ,the cause of all these 
singularities of the hair it is now     
designed to  explain1 which shall be    
done as explicitly and concisely as     
possible1  with a few proofs of its     
astonishing power in a collective       
capacity4    ,the above-mentioned       
phenomena are the result of that same   
long-hidden  property1 and which is     
nothing more than a certain clothing or 
covering1 entirely surrounding the stem 
of every hair1 in the form of  very     

minute scales1 so very minute1 indeed1  
that it requires the aid of  a very     
powerful microscope to enable the       
beholder to discern them1 and  even then
 but faintly4 ,these scales1 which cover
 thickly every filament  of animal hair1
 wool1 fur1 c41 are thin pointed lamina1
 quite similar  to the scales on a fish1
 and overlapping each other as do the   
shingles  or slates upon a house4 ,this 
state of the hair being understood1 the 
modus operandi of the above examples may
 be thus explained3 ,when the  hair was 
held by the point1 it was easily cut by 
the edge of the razor  entering under   
the scales2 but when held by the root1  
the instrument  slipped smoothly over   
them2 and the hair that was drawn       
through the  fingers1 when held by the  
point1 felt rough and tremulous1 from   
the  jagged points of the scales1 but   
smooth when drawn in their own          
direction4    ,the twirling of the hairs
 between the finger and thumb1 resulting
 in  their travelling motion1 was on    

account of the points of the scales     
catching on the fingers1 in the act of  
rubbing1 similar to the heads of  wheat 
or barley at harvest time which         
school-boys put into the sleeves  of    
their coats1 and which are sure to come 
out at some other extremity  to that at 
which they were put in1 caused by the   
working of the boy's  arm upon the jaggy
 beard or awn of the barley head4       
,the task of counting the number of     
these lamina that clothe the body  of   
these hairs1 must have been both tedious
 and difficult1 from their  very        
minuteness and profusion4 ,on a single  
filament of merino wool1  as many as    
#bdjj barbed scales1 like teeth1        
projecting from the centre  stem1 have  
been counted in the space of one inch4  
,on ,saxony wool there  were #bgjj1     
while other wools were as low as #ahfj1 
and none were found  to have so few as  
#ajjj to the inch4    ,no vegetable     
wools whatever1 such as cotton1 c41 have
 any such  appendage upon their fibres1 

and1 consequently1 cotton or cotton     
goods  never shrink in the act of       
washing1 as woollen goods do4 ,cotton1  
therefore1 never can become a suitable  
material for felting purposes1  every   
fibre being smooth from end to end in   
either direction1 and in                
contradistinction to fur1 which1 though 
equally smooth as the cotton in  one    
way1 rebels triumphantly when irritated 
in the contrary direction1  as already  
described4 ,mechanically speaking1      
cotton is smooth1 solid1  and           
triangular1 whilst wool is rough1       
tubular1 and cylindrical4    ,the grand 
cause of that mysterious and curious    
operation called  felting1 fulling1     
shrinking1 thickening1 and solidifying  
of a fabric1  whether of original loose 
wool1 fur1 or other stuff1 or of that   
spun  into yarn and woven into cloth1 is
 the presence of these scales4    ,till 
lately1 the best operative hatter and   
the investigating  philosopher were     
equally at a loss to explain upon what  

principle  such effects were produced4  
,take1 for instance1 a handful of wet   
fur  or wool1 which is merely an        
assemblage of hairs2 squeeze and press  
it1 work it a little in the hand1 and   
then observe the effect2 for            
immediately upon pressing it a certain  
locomotion is thereby conferred  upon   
every fibre of that assemblage1 which is
 increased by every turn  of position   
that is given to the body of wool4 ,the 
rolling and pressing  change the        
position of each fibre4 ,a friction is  
produced upon every  member composing   
the mass2 a footing as it were is       
obtained from  the scales of each1 and  
the fur or wool being all bent or       
curled1 a  progressive motion goes on1  
interlacing each other in their travels1
  resulting in a compact1 dense body1   
which may well challenge the  goddesses 
of both patience and perseverance to    
undo4 ,every hair has  been travelling  
in its own individual direction1 boring1
 warping1  grasping1 holding1 and       

twisting amongst its fellows like a     
collection  of live worms4    ,the power
 of combination1 like the fable of the  
bundle of sticks1 is  strikingly        
illustrated in the case of the hair1    
which when viewed  singly seems so very 
insignificant1 but collectively1 and    
when pressed  by the hand of oppression1
 hardship1 and ill treatment1 they      
combine  and become strong and defiant1 
clasping each other in their embrace1   
tenaciously clinging to each other the  
more they are tortured1 as if  they were
 living rational beings1 conscious of   
their innocence1 and  free from guilt4  
,stockings1 for instance1 that are knit 
with soft-spun wool1 for the use  of    
whale fishermen in northern latitudes1  
are large enough1 when first  formed1 to
 hold the whole man1 but are felted down
 to the required  size in the fulling   
mill1 where they are battered1 tossed   
about1 and  tortured to that degree that
 is required by their tormentors4 ,the  
writer has seen a millful of these      

stockings whose sides were felted so    
firmly together1 from a neglect of the  
workmen to turn them inside out1  in due
 time1 during the felting operation1    
that a knife was required to  open them1
 and which actually failed in several   
instances1 so firmly  had their two     
sides grown together2 common tearing    
having no effect  whatever1 each and    
every single hair had embraced its      
neighbors1 and  their mutual action     
defied all attempts to open these       
stockings4,a    ,there are instances of 
ruminating animals having died from the 
effect  of balls of hair having formed  
within their stomachs1 hair by hair     
having accumulated while licking        
themselves with their tongues4 ,these   
balls are all found to be as perfectly  
felted as the natural bend of  the      
several hairs composing them would      
allow1 the felting having been          
accomplished by the motions of the      
intestines of the animals4 ,the         
disgorged balls from the stomachs of    

nocturnal fowls are all of the  same    
nature4    ,as has been said1 felt may  
be made of any kind of animal fur1 wool1
 or  hair1 provided it be bent1 crimped1
 or curled1 for if straight as a        
bristle it would work out of the mass as
 readily as into it1 and lose  itself in
 the operator's hands4    ,all materials
 intended for felting must be cut from  
the pelt or skin1  and not pulled1 for  
the obvious reason that a pulled hair   
invariably  brings with it its root1 in 
the form of a button or bulb1 which     
would  greatly impede its progressive   
motion in the act of working1 as each   
and every hair under the operation of   
felting bores into and amongst  the     
other filaments of the fur composing the
 mass1 root end foremost1 a  sharp point
 therefore is obtained by cutting4 ,this
 rule is universally  and invariably    
adopted by all hat furriers4    ,wool of
 any great length of staple1 after being
 carded1 is pressed1 and  either        
clipped1 cut1 or chopped into shorter   

lengths1 which facilitates  the felting 
operation1 and improves the solidity of 
the felt that is  produced4,b    ,the   
various materials most used in          
hat-making are the furs of the  beaver1 
the otter1 the rabbit1 the hare1 a      
species of the muskrat1  a species of   
the monkey1 a species of the seal1 and a
 few others1  together with ,saxony and 
,spanish wools and the hair of camels   
and  goats4 ,numerous as are these      
various names1 most of the animals      
produce  five or six different qualities
 of stuff1 from particular parts of the 
same skin1 varying greatly in price or  
value4    ,the finest furs all come from
 those animals that inhabit the coldest 
climates1 and the season of the year in 
which any of them are killed  greatly   
influences the quality of the fur2 a    
summer skin of some of  these animals   
being comparatively valueless1 however  
excellent it  might be in the winter    
season4 ,and what is particularly worthy
 of the  hatter's attention is1 that fur

 that has been kept one or two years1   
after being cut from the skin1 produces 
a better working1 and a more  solid     
article of felt1 than fur from a        
newly-killed animal4 ,the lamina  of    
such fur seem to rise and erect         
themselves upon the stem of the hair  by
 being kept1 which may account for its  
better felting quality4 ,this  would    
appear to be confirmed by the well-known
 fact that the #e lb4 bags  in which old
 fur stuffs have been kept are generally
 burst open4    ,one or two properties  
peculiar to furs and wools may still be 
mentioned1 as1 for instance1 all        
felting1 by whatever means              
accomplished1 necessitates either a damp
 or wet process with the aid  of heat1  
and the facility of thickening or       
solidifying is accelerated  by the      
application of soap to the material     
under the operation4 ,or the  water may 
be acidulated for the same purpose with 
a little sulphuric  acid1 as either of  
these acts as a penetrating solvent upon

 the natural  oil of the animal which   
still remains between the stem and      
lamina or  scales of the hair1 thus     
baring the barbed points of the crusty  
scales1  the better to catch and hold   
their grip upon each other4    ,oil or  
grease1 on the contrary1 when applied   
directly upon wool1 covers  up these    
lamina or scales1 thereby destroying    
their felting power1 as  is well known  
to all wool spinners1 however little    
they may understand  the real cause of  
its being so1 further than the fact of  
giving to it a  smooth gliding effect1  
so necessary for the object of their    
business4    ,it may be amusing1 whether
 true or not1 to know that the rude     
,turcomans  are said to dwell1 even to  
this day1 in tents covered with felt1   
which  they make by treading with their 
feet the raw material of which it is    
made1 whilst it lies upon the ground1   
thus favoring the supposition  that     
felting was invented prior to weaving4  
,however1 so far as we can learn1 a real

 systematic method of felting  is       
comparatively of a late date1 and until 
within a few years felt has  been       
chiefly employed for hats and hats      
alone4 ,this is1 however1 now  but a    
branch of the felt manufacture1 for     
plaids1 coats1 vests1 pants1  leggings1 
shoes1 gaiters1 slippers1 mittens1 and  
caps1 the covering  of steam cylinders  
and boilers1 carpets1 polishing cushions
 for  jewellers and marble cutters1     
covering for the roofs of houses which  
is  afterwards waterproofed1 as also    
linings of water-tight compartments  in 
ships and ship sheathing1 and the       
covering for the blocks of calico  and  
other printing1 c4 c41 are now made of  
this material4 ,as the  nature of hair  
and the principle upon which its felting
 property  depends become better known1 
the manufacture of felt will be         
stimulated  and increased1 and applied  
to many purposes other than those above 
enumerated1 and not imagined at the     
present time4    ,the high price of the 

finer furs1 resulting from the          
indiscriminate  destruction of the      
animals which produce them1 forms the   
only apology  for the introduction of an
 inferior material into the body of the 
manufactured article4 ,cotton1 which is 
of quite a limber nature1 is too        
pliable1 as indeed are all vegetable    
products when mixed with fur4 ,they  lie
 dead within the body of the mass1 and  
if the labor be continued  beyond a     
certain time1 the active principle of   
the fur will be seen to  have clung to  
itself1 leaving the cotton quite exposed
 on the outside4  ,even under the most  
perfect manipulation1 a mixture of      
cotton1 from its  want of elasticity1   
will give a product which is to a       
corresponding  degree deteriorated4     
,there was a time when beaver skins were
 bought from the natives1 by the        
,hudson ,bay ,company1 at the regular   
price of #ad skins for a gun1 #g for a  
pistol1 #b for a shirt or one pair of   
stockings1 #a for a comb1 or twelve     

needles1 c4 c41 less than the hundredth 
part of their real value1 and  all the  
other fur-bearing skins belonging to    
that country were rated by  that of the 
beaver4    ,the ,scientific ,american of
 ,new ,york for ,dec4 #ahei says that1  
not much  more than half a century ago1 
not a pound of fine wool was raised in  
the ,united ,states1 in ,great ,britain1
 or in any other country except  ,spain4
 ,in the latter country the flocks were 
owned exclusively by the  nobility1 or  
by the ,crown4 ,in #agid1 a small flock 
was sent to the  ,elector of ,saxony1 as
 a present from the ,king of ,spain1    
whence came  the entire product of      
,saxony wool now of such immense value4 
,in #ahji1  during the second invasion  
of ,spain by the ,french1 some of the   
valuable  crown flocks were sold to     
raise money4 ,the ,american ,consul at  
,lisbon1  ,mr4 ,jarvis1 purchased       
fourteen hundred head1 and sent them to 
this  country4 ,a portion of the pure   
unmixed merino blood of these flocks is 

to be found in ,vermont at this time4   
,such was the origin of the immense     
flocks of fine woolled sheep in the     
,united ,states4    ,the same authority 
further adds that the simplest and most 
easy method  of judging of the quality  
of wools1 is1 to take a lock from a     
sheep's  back and place it upon an inch 
rule2 if you can count from #cj to #cc  
of  the spirals or folds in the space of
 an inch1 it equals in quality the      
finest ,saxony wool grown4 ,of course as
 the number of spirals to the  inch     
diminishes1 the quality of the wool     
becomes relatively inferior4  ,cotswold 
wool1 and some other inferior wools1 do 
not measure more than  nine spirals to  
the inch4      ,the ,fulling ,mill4     
,having alluded to the fulling mill as a
 felting machine1 it is only  necessary 
to remark here1 that it is a rude       
looking but effective  method of        
condensing a previously formed article4 
,it consists of  a trough six or eight  
feet long1 and two feet wide1 varying in

 size  according to the kind of goods to
 be operated on4 ,the bottom is of a    
semi-circular form1 having a radius of  
five or six feet1 with sides  rising    
three or four feet high1 a strong solid 
heading1 but no end  piece4 ,there is a 
heavy wooden battering-ram suspended    
from above1 at  a height answering to   
the curve of the trough2 its immense    
head has  a flat face fitting the trough
 in which it is made to play freely1    
similar to the pendulum of a clock4 ,the
 goods are tumbled promiscuously  into  
this trough in front of the ram1 with   
warm water1 fuller's earth1  and soap1  
in sufficient quantity to saturate and  
wash the material1 a  small stream of   
water from a boiler being admitted for  
that purpose4  ,the power of a          
water-wheel or steam engine draws back  
the ram out of  its perpendicular1 to   
its allotted distance1 whence it falls  
by its own  gravity1 with a momentum    
that sweeps the goods before it with a  
fearful  crash1 upon the solid heading  

of the trough4 ,on the withdrawal of    
this  enormous hammer for a second      
onset1 the goods roll over1 resuming    
their  quiescent state1 but differently 
disposed1 which is no sooner done than  
back comes the ram1 repeating its       
dashing blows upon its unoffending  and 
unresisting victims in the trough1      
washing1 scouring1 and  buffeting them  
about1 till they become not only clean1 
but completely  felted4    ,all of our  
broadcloths have been subjected to its  
action1 in the  process of which the    
hairs of the weft and those of the warp 
have  become mutually entangled1 and    
each with one another1 as with hatting  
in the regular hand process of loose    
wool or fur felting4 ,indeed1  every    
hair composing the whole piece of cloth 
has its individual and  independent     
progressive motions1 combining the      
threads of both warp and  weft together 
to such an extent that these cloths     
never unravel1 and no  hemming of a     
garment is required in the making of our

 clothes4    ,twelve hours in the mill  
will reduce a piece of cloth two-fifths 
of its  breadth and one-third of its    
length4    ,the progressive travelling  
motion of the hair resulting in the     
entanglement of the fibres and          
consequent felting and shrinking of the 
cloth1 is further exemplified in the    
comfortable soft half-dress caps  of the
 ,british soldiers1 and in the bonnets  
and caps of the ,scottish  peasantry    
generally1 which have all been first    
knitted very large with  soft spun yarn1
 and afterwards felted down to the      
required size in the  fulling mill4     
,during the fulling of any and all kinds
 of goods1 they  must be frequently     
taken out of the trough1 to be          
stretched1 turned1  the folds           
straightened1 and generally inspected4  
,history of ,hats and ,hatting4    ,the 
word hat is of ,saxon derivation1 being 
the name of a well-known  piece of dress
 worn upon the head by both sexes1 but  
principally by the  men1 as a covering  

from the hot sun of summer1 the cold of 
winter1  a defence from the blows of    
battle1 or for fashion4 ,being the most 
conspicuous article of dress1 and       
surmounting all the rest1 it has  often 
been ornamented with showy plumes1 and  
jewels1 and with bands  of gold1 silver1
 c4 ,it is generally distinguished from 
a cap by its  having a brim1 which a cap
 has not1 although there are exceptions 
even  to this rule of distinction1 for  
there are hats that have no brims1  and 
there are also caps that are provided   
with a margin4 ,those hats  that are    
made of fur or wool have all been       
felted1 and felt strictly  speaking is a
 fabric manufactured by matting the     
fibres together1  without the           
preliminary operation of either spinning
 or of weaving4    ,we find but little  
of hat-making recorded in history1 and  
anything  relating to hats is extremely 
meagre1 although their partial use may  
be  traced back to the time of ancient  
,greece amongst the ,dorian tribes1     

probably as early as the age of ,homer1 
when they were worn1 although  only by  
the better class of citizens when on a  
distant journey4 ,the  same custom      
prevailed among the ,athenians1 as is   
evident from some of  the equestrian    
figures in the ,elgin ,marbles4    ,the 
,romans used a bonnet or cap at their   
sacrifices and festivals1  but on a     
journey the hat with a brim was adopted4
 ,in the middle ages  the bonnet or cap 
with a front was in use among the laity1
 while the  ecclesiastics wore hoods1 or
 cowls4    ,pope ,innocent1 in the      
thirteenth century1 allowed the         
cardinals the use  of scarlet hats1 and 
about the year #addj1 the use of hats by
 persons on  a journey appears to have  
been introduced into ,france1 and soon  
after  became common in that country1   
whence probably it spread to the other  
,european ,states4    ,when ,charles    
,,vii4 of ,france made his triumphant   
entry into ,rouen in  #addj1 he wore a  
felted hat4    ,hatters of the present  

day most generously ascribe the honor of
 the  invention of felting1 and of its  
prospective introduction to that of     
hat-making1 to the old renowned ,monk   
,st4 ,clement1 who when marching at  the
 head of his pilgrim army obtained some 
sheep's wool to put between  the soles  
of his feet and the sandals that he     
wore1 which of course  became matted    
into a solid piece4 ,the old gentleman1 
philosophizing  upon this circumstance1 
promulgated the idea of its future      
usefulness1  and thus it is said arose  
the systematic art of felting and of    
hat-making4    ,however all this may be1
 still the invention of felted fabrics  
for the  use of man may have been1 as   
some assert1 very ancient and of quite  
uncertain origin4 ,the simplicity of its
 make1 as compared with that of  woven  
cloth1 shows all speculative assertions 
to be rather uncertain4    ,however     
obscure the origin may be1 we learn that
 the first authentic  accounts of       
hatters appeared in the middle ages1 in 

,nuremburg in #acfj1  in ,france in     
#achj1 in ,bavaria in #adja1 and in     
,london in #aeaj4    ,the hatting trade 
of the ,united ,states of ,america is   
noticed first in  the representations   
made by the ,london ,board of ,trade to 
the ,house of  ,commons in the year     
#agcb1 in which they refer to the       
complaints of  the ,london hatters1     
regarding the extent to which their     
particular  manufacture was being       
carried at that time in ,new ,york and  
in the ,new  ,england ,states4      ,the
 ,fashions4    ,a look at the fashions  
and mode of dressing in ancient times   
causes  amusement4 ,so capricious is the
 fancy of man that nothing is immutable1
  all is change1 and hats have been of  
all conceivable shapes and colors1  and 
dressed with the most fanciful          
decorations1 plumes1 jewels1            
silk-loops1 rosettes1 badges1 gold and  
silver bands and loops1 c4 c4    ,the   
crowns and brims having been in all     
possible styles from the  earliest      

period4 ,it would appear that nothing is
 left for the present  and all coming   
time1 but the revival of what has       
already been1 even to  the fantastical  
peaked crown that rose half a yard above
 the wearer's  head4    ,in the         
fifteenth century1 hats in ,great       
,britain were called vanities1  and were
 all imported1 costing twenty1 thirty1  
and forty ,english  shillings apiece1   
which were large sums of money at that  
early period4    ,the most extreme broad
 brims were worn about the year #agjj1  
shortly  after which the three-cornered 
cocked hat came in1 and about this time 
feathers ceased to be worn1 the         
lingering remains being left for the    
badge of servitude to the gentleman's   
attendant4 ,metal bands and loops  were 
only regarded as proper for naval and   
military men of honor4    ,it is a      
singular historical fact that the       
elegant soft hat of the  ,spaniard has  
remained the same from the earliest     
period to the present  day1 while among 

all other civilized nations a           
transformation in the  style of that    
article has taken place4 ,comfort in the
 wear seems to  have given place at all 
times to fancy and the demands of       
fashion4    ,queen ,elizabeth's patent  
grant to the hatters of ,london is still
  recognized in ,england1 and the #bc;d 
of ,november is the hatters' annual     
festival1 that being ,st4 ,clement's    
day1 the patron of the trade4           
,preparation of ,materials4    ,previous
 to cutting the fur from the various    
skins1 they must be  moistened1         
straightened1 and cleaned2 the          
projecting long coarse hairs  that are  
interspersed throughout the fur1 removed
 either by pulling1  clipping1 or       
shearing2 those of the rabbit1 c4 being 
pulled1 while  those of the hare1 c4 are
 clipped4 ,to pull these superfluous    
hairs by  the hand1 the person sits with
 the skin laid over the knee1 strapped  
down to the foot1 and with a dull-edged 
knife in hand1 the thumb  being covered 

with a soft shield1 the obnoxious guests
 are dextrously  uprooted4 ,if done by  
machinery1 they are pulled out by being 
nipped  between two revolving slender   
rollers4 ,the skin is drawn over a      
sharp-edged board1 which causes these   
hairs to project1 and the rollers       
placed in the proper position and       
distance1 frees the fur of its          
deteriorating associates with great     
facility1 without disturbing the  fur4  
,furs intended for body-making undergo a
 process called carroting or  secretage1
 which is an artificial method of       
increasing the felting  quality of the  
fur1 enabling the hatter to work at a   
kettle with clean  pure water1          
dispensing with all acids and the like1 
and using boilers  other than those of  
lead4    ,it is only of late years that 
carroting has been invented4 ,it is  a  
chemical operation or method of twisting
 or bending the natural  straight-haired
 furs1 and possesses also the property  
of raising or  lifting the points of the

 scales which clothe the fibres of the  
fur1  thereby facilitating the operation
 of felting2 while the fur in its       
original straight state could be used   
with satisfaction only as an  outside   
flowing nap upon the hat4    ,the method
 pursued to accomplish this result is1  
to dissolve #cb parts  of quicksilver in
 #ejj parts of common aqua-fortis1 and  
dilute the  solution with one half or   
two-thirds of its bulk of water         
according  to the strength of the acid4 
,the skin having been laid upon a table 
with the hair uppermost1 a stout brush1 
slightly moistened with the  mercurial  
solution1 is passed over the smooth     
surface of the hairs  with strong       
pressure4 ,this application must be     
repeated several times  in succession1  
till every part of the fur is equally   
touched1 and till  about two-thirds of  
the length of the hairs are moistened1  
or a little  more should they be rigid4 
,in order to aid this impregnation1 the 
skins  are laid together in pairs with  

the hairy sides in contact1 and put in  
this state into the stove-room1 and     
exposed to a heat in proportion to  the 
weakness of the mercurial solution4 ,the
 drying should be rapidly  effected1 as 
otherwise the concentration of the      
nitrate of mercury will  not produce its
 effect in causing the retraction and   
curling of the  hairs4    ,no other acid
 or metallic solution but the above has 
been found to  answer the desired       
purpose of the hat-maker1 although      
sulphuric acid  without the quicksilver 
has a limited effect when the skins are 
treated  as those above described4 ,for 
other purposes1 such as that of the     
upholsterer1 hair is curled by first    
boiling and then baking it in an  oven2 
or it may be spun into ropes and baked1 
after which it is teased  asunder4      
,preparatory to cutting the fur from the
 pelt1 the skins are dampened  and      
flattened2 they are thus made smooth and
 ready for the operation1  which is     
performed by hand1 with knives about two

 inches long by  four wide1 having a    
short upright handle4 ,the skins are    
held upon a  cutting-board1 and the pelt
 kept moistened with water2 a sheet of  
tin  is laid upon the skin1 pressed down
 by the left hand1 whilst the knife  in 
the right hand1 being guided by the edge
 of the tin1 is run rapidly  forward and
 backward across the skin1 gradually    
sliding the tin toward  the tail2 by    
this means the fur is gathered up1 and  
kept in one fleece4    ,the pelts are   
appropriated to the manufacture of      
gilder's cement1 or  will make excellent
 glue4 ,machines in the form of         
revolving shears1  similar to those used
 for dressing cloth1 are employed for   
such skins  as are uneven in the pelt1  
and which cut the pelt from the fur in  
slender shreds1 being quite the reverse 
of the hand method1 which cuts  the fur 
from the pelt4      ,stiffening and     
,water-,proofing ,materials4    ,there  
is reason to suppose that when hats were
 first invented and long  subsequently1 

the quantity of stuff or material       
weighed out for a  single hat was of    
itself considered sufficient to stand   
unharmed the  drenchings which it was   
likely to encounter4    ,however1 such a
 hat in the warm season being           
unpleasant1 a lighter body  was         
proposed1 to contain some stiffening    
substance as a substitute1  and the     
attempt proved quite successful4 ,a     
search was instituted  for something    
suitable for the purpose that would     
harden the hat  sufficiently1 without   
increasing the weight1 but rather       
diminish it4    ,in those times         
chemistry was comparatively unknown1 and
 glue being at  hand1 our predecessors  
in the hatting trade commenced the      
stiffening of  their hats with that     
material1 which long continued the only 
article  likely to succeed4 ,latterly1  
however1 glue has become quite obsolete1
  having been entirely superseded by the
 various gums and resins1 which1  when  
properly prepared1 enable the           

manufacturer to put into the market  a  
much superior hat1 and one more pleasant
 to wear1 weighing #c oz4  which in     
former times would have weighed full    
half a pound4    ,the solubility of glue
 in water was its defect1 and the       
ultimate  cause of its rejection4 ,our  
spirited predecessors in the business1  
by  a knowledge superior to that of     
their predecessors1 coupled with a      
devoted spirit and unfailing resolution1
 after many vexatious trials  but little
 known to our modern workers1 succeeded 
in rendering a hat  not only stout1     
light1 and water-proof1 but cheaper and 
more beautiful  to look at1 ventilated1 
and altogether pleasanter to wear4      
,upon a retrospective view1 and         
considering the total of these          
improvements1 we may well excuse the    
many secrets and partialities  existing 
in the trade1 for before any new        
admixture of stiffening  materials or   
method of applying them1 whether before 
or after dyeing1  c41 could be properly 

proved1 many dozens of hats were under  
way4 ,it  required a length of time to  
enable a proper judgment of the         
experiment  to be pronounced2 thus1 if  
unsuccessful1 involving the character of
 the  manufacturer as a tradesman1 and  
his pecuniary affairs at the same time4 
,the result1 however1 was at last       
satisfactory1 and now there are  several
 methods of stiffening with a           
water-proof stiff1 which possesses  all 
the requisite qualifications4    ,there 
is no department in the hatting trade of
 more importance than  that of          
stiffening1 as the kind1 quality1 and   
quantity of the stiff  must be regulated
 according to the country in which the  
hats are to be  worn4    ,england1 for  
instance1 where there is so much        
moisture in the  atmosphere1 requires a 
much harder stiff than we do in         
,america4  ,american manufacturers      
finding that shellac possesses every    
requisite  for both stiffening and      
water-proofing1 now for their best hats 

use  that gum only dissolved in alcohol4
      #bj lbs4 orange shellac being     
dissolved with #e gallons alcohol in a  
close vessel1 cold1    attending        
carefully to stir it up repeatedly to   
keep it from lumping  and sticking to   
the bottom4 ,the vessel commonly is used
 in the form  of a barrel or some sort  
of churn4 ,when fully melted the stiff  
is  ready for use by being thinned down 
to the desired consistency with         
additional alcohol and put into the hat 
with a stiff brush4    ,a cheaper1      
called alkali-stiff1 and much used for  
inferior hats1 is--      #i lbs4        
shellac1 dissolved with #ah oz4 of sal  
soda in #c galls4 water      in a tin   
vessel4    ,the vessel with the water is
 set into another containing boiling    
water1  and heated2 the soda is         
introduced gradually1 and is soon       
dissolved1  and the lac is then put in  
and stirred occasionally for about an   
hour1  by which time the lac will be    
dissolved4 ,the whole is then left for  

an  hour or two1 when it may be taken   
out and set to cool4 ,it is better if   
allowed to remain a few days after      
having been made4 ,when used1 it is     
reduced to the required strength with   
more water1 a hydrometer being  employed
 as a test4    ,the bodies are simply   
immersed in the liquor1 and passed      
between  a pair of rollers one by one1  
thereby sweeping off the superfluous    
compound1 but leaving them completely   
saturated4 ,the hats with this          
stiffening must be immediately and      
rapidly dried in the stove4    ,this    
stiff is rendered the more popular by   
adding #c oz4 of common salt  to the    
mixture before using it1 as the salt    
neutralizes the soda1 and  the hats may 
be blocked immediately after being      
stiffened1 thereby  saving time and     
dispensing with the use of the stove4   
,the two following receipts are given as
 good and reliable ,english  methods of 
stiffening hats3--        #g lbs4 of    
orange shellac4      #b lbs4 of gum     

sandarac4      #d ozs4 gum mastic4      
#a_/b lb4 of amber resin4      #a pint  
of solution of copal4      #a gallon of 
alcohol or of wood naphtha4    ,the lac1
 sandarac1 mastic1 and resin are        
dissolved in the spirit1 and  the       
solution of copal is added last4        
,this is called spirit proof1 and like  
our own is put into the body with  a    
stiff brush1 and1 being fully saturated1
 is set to dry4    ,a cheaper           
stiffening1 also like our own called    
alkali or water  stiffening1 is--       
#g lbs4 of common black shellac4      #a
 lb4 amber rosin4      #d ozs4 gum thus4
      #d ozs4 gum mastic4      #f ozs4  
borax4    #a_/b pint solution of copal4 
,the borax is first dissolved in #a     
gallon of warm water4    ,this alkaline 
liquor is now put into a copper pan     
heated by steam1 or  it may be set into 
another vessel containing boiling water1
 and the  shellac1 thus1 and mastic     
added4 ,this is allowed to boil for some
  time1 more warm water being added     

occasionally1 until it is of a proper   
consistence1 which is known by a little 
practice4 ,when the whole of the  gums  
seem dissolved1 half a pint of wood     
naphtha must be introduced1  and also   
the solution of copal1 the liquor should
 be passed through a  fine sieve1 when  
it will be perfectly clear and ready for
 use4 ,this  stiffening is used hot with
 the following preparations4    ,the hat
 bodies1 before they are stiffened1     
should be steeped in a weak  solution of
 soda1 to destroy any acid that may have
 been left in them4  ,if sulphuric acid 
has been used in the making of the      
bodies1 after they  have been steeped in
 the alkaline solution they must be     
perfectly dried  in the stove before the
 stiffening is applied4    ,when        
stiffened and stoved1 they should be    
steeped all night in water to  which a  
small quantity of sulphuric acid has    
been added4 ,this sets the  stiffening  
in the hat body and finishes the        
process4    ,if the proof is required   

cheaper1 more shellac and rosin may be  
introduced4      ,the ,blowing ,machine4
    ,in the manufacture of the finest   
kinds of fur hats1 namely1 those with  a
 flowing nap1 the stuffs of which they  
are made must be thoroughly  refined4   
,the clipping and pulling operations1 to
 which the skins were subjected         
previous to cutting off the fur1 never  
free the fur entirely of the  coarse    
hairs that are intermixed with the      
finer2 and to separate the  coarse from 
the fine1 the fur1 as it came off the   
skin1 is placed  under the action of the
 blowing machine1 which consists of a   
long1  close1 narrow1 wooden box1       
divided into a number of apartments1 the
  divisions between each of them having 
an open space at the top or  bottom1 so 
that a blast of wind can be propelled   
through the whole  length of the trunk4 
,the fur is put into one of these       
receptacles at  one end1 where it is    
teased and tossed by revolving brushes  
set in  the bottoms of several of them1 

and a revolving fan is placed at the    
head4 ,the whole being set in motion by 
some first power1 the blast of  wind    
from the fan seizes the loose thrown up 
fur that is tossed by  the revolving    
breakers and brushes1 and the stream of 
flying fur is  transmitted from division
 to division1 along the whole length of 
the  wooden box4 ,in this operation1 the
 fur is graded as it is blown along  and
 deposited gradually in the respective  
places1 lodging in the most  regular    
order1 from the one end of the wooden   
trunk to the other1 the  dust and dirt  
falling down below1 the heavier portion 
of fur not being  blown to the same     
distance as that of the finer1 which    
reaches the  farther end1 where the     
finest of all is received entirely      
refined of  its impurities4 ,but the    
cutting and blowing of fur are both     
independent  and distinct branches of   
business1 although relatively connected 
with  that of hatting1 and the various  
grades of fur are bought by the  hatters

 from the professional hat furriers or  
their agents4      ,the ,manufacture of 
,hats4    ,before commencing a detail of
 the processes of the trade1 it will be 
necessary to bear in mind that hatting  
is universally divided into two  great  
divisions1 viz41 the making1 and the    
finishing departments1 each  of which as
 a matter of course has its             
subdivisions4    ,with the exception of 
encyclopdias which give detached and    
very  abridged descriptions of felt     
making and of hatting generally1 there  
has been no specific account published  
in either pamphlet or book-form1  so far
 as the writer is aware1 of the manner  
in which felt hats are  made1 or of the 
principle of felting by which they are  
produced4    ,this is considered by the 
writer a sufficient inducement to       
illustrate  to the best of his ability a
 principle entirely belonging to natural
  history1 viz41 the natural scaly      
clothing that is upon all hair1 and     
hitherto but little known1 and upon     

which several important branches  of    
business depend4 ,indeed1 it seems      
almost absurd to think that a  hair1    
puny as it is in itself1 bears upon its 
sides a something of such  importance1  
so very minute as to require the utmost 
attention with  the aid of the best     
microscopes to be seen at all1 and yet  
upon that  something is based the art of
 felting and of course of hat-making1   
besides several branches of other       
trades1 some of which have already  been
 mentioned4    ,hat-making was long     
considered a business to which machinery
 never  could be applied1 but the       
inventions of man have at last dispelled
  this illusion1 and machinery is now   
employed in several of the most         
important departments of the trade4     
,the reason why this idea obtained such 
general credence was1 first1 on  account
 of the close attention requisite1 while
 the hat is under the  operation of     
sizing4    ,second1 the known           
impossibility of napping or ruffing a   

hat by any  means with machinery1 also1 
the acknowledged failures of several    
attempts to substitute carding for that 
of bowing1 and various futile  attempts 
with the irons in the finishing         
department4    ,the innovations of      
machinery1 however1 have now obtained a 
sure footing  in all large factories1   
and some of them will come under        
observation in  their proper places4    
,in the mean time we shall confine our  
observations to the old system1  which  
still prevails in most small factories  
and all small towns4    ,our honest     
forefathers1 the manufacturers in former
 times1 would insist  upon making hats  
to wear not for a season1 as with us1   
but for many  years1 being afraid of    
damaging the trade to do otherwise1 but 
now a  hat for city wear1 of scarcely   
three ounces weight1 and lasting two or 
it may be three months1 is quite a      
common thing4    ,the usual quantity of 
stuff given out for a regular felt hat1 
modified  of course to a very great     

extent by the market1 we shall suppose  
to be  three ounces of fur4 ,it may or  
may not be a mixture of different kinds 
and qualities of stuff previously       
prepared by carroting1 and may or may   
not be refined by the winnowing machine1
 which separates the different          
qualities of fur4 ,these three ounces1  
however1 are sometimes increased  by    
unprincipled men to four and a quarter  
or four and a half ounces1  by the      
addition of other and cheaper           
ingredients1 which are all laid  upon a 
platform of boards about five feet      
square1 called a hurdle1 over  which a  
large bow of about six feet long strung 
with cat-gut1 ,fig4 #a1  is suspended4  
,this bow is held by the left hand of   
the hatter1 and with  the right he holds
 a small piece of wood with a head or   
knot upon it1  ,fig4 #b1 with which he  
tugs the string of the bow and makes it 
vibrate  upon the stuff1 and into it1   
with great dexterity and with the nicest
  judgment4 ,this operation has always  

been considered a beautiful sight  to a 
stranger1 as the performer goes on      
plucking the string1 and the  string    
playing upon the top of the fur1 which  
lies upon the left hand  side of the    
platform4 ,the fur touched by the string
 is made to fly from  one side of the   
boards to the other with the greatest   
regularity4 ,so  nicely is this bowing  
performed1 the stuff flying from the    
bow-string  hair by hair1 and flake by  
flake1 that a hat in this loose state   
may  measure several inches in          
thickness4    ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4  
,hat ,bow4    ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4  
,bow-,pin4    ,in this operation1 the   
different materials are tossed about    
to-and-fro  repeatedly1 and mixed with a
 much greater regularity and change of  
position of the various filaments than  
if drawn by carding machinery4  ,one    
half of the intended hat1 called a bat1 
is bowed at a time1 and  both in nearly 
a triangular shape1 which being gathered
 up1 and pressed  with a flat square    

piece of wicker-work1 ,fig4 #c1 and     
afterwards with  a smooth skin or cloth1
 is pressed and gently rubbed with the  
hands  backward and forward so as to    
create a friction on the surface        
fibres1 thereby interlacing the outside 
filaments1 by which means  the simply   
safe-lifting of these two               
half-solidified portions of the  future 
hat is secured4 ,the one-half being laid
 upon the other1 with a  triangular     
piece of paper or cloth between1 they   
are joined together by  overlapping two 
of the three sides1 thereby giving to   
the intended hat  the form and figure of
 a hollow cone or great bag1 but so     
tender that  none but an experienced    
hatter could handle it4                 
,illustration3 ,fig4 #c4    ,hat        
,basket4    ,this operation of bowing is
 the same1 with but little variation1   
whether it be for coarse or fine hats4  
,if wholly of wool1 they are now        
swaddled carefully in an outer cloth1   
and sprinkled with water1 and laid upon 

a warm plate of metal which  sends the  
steam up through the hat which is to be 
pressed1 and slightly  rubbed1 sprinkled
 again1 and turned over4 ,continuing the
 pressing and  rubbing1 and by repeating
 these operations for some time1 the    
motions  are transmitted to all the     
inclosed fibres of wool with an         
irritating  feeling1 as it were1        
exciting their propensity for           
travelling1 till the  outer hairs1 in   
their motions1 warp themselves with each
 other and the  surface appears         
skin-like and becomes smooth4    ,during
 these actions1 the hat inside of the   
cloth must be several  times changed in 
position and kept in proper form1 when  
its swaddling  envelope and the paper   
within which kept the inside open and   
free may  be removed4 ,these operations 
concluded1 the tender hat must now be   
subjected to a much more laborious      
operation1 where1 properly speaking1    
the grand practical art of felting takes
 place1 where thousands of  thousands of

 filaments are all in active though slow
 motion1 all  travelling on their own   
individual course1 independent of1 and  
at the  same time dependent upon1 each  
other for their mutual support1 being   
carefully guided collectively1 by the   
hatter's good judgment4    ,this stage  
of the operation is a wet one requiring 
an open boiler  surrounded by planks1   
which slope towards the centre1 called a
 battery1  ,fig4 #d1 suitable for six or
 eight men to work at4 ,each man is     
provided  with a rolling-pin1 cloths1   
brushes1 c4 ,the soft and tender hat is 
laid upon one of these planks or        
benches1 wrapped in a damp cloth1 and   
carefully wetted1 squeezed1 folded1     
rolled and unrolled1 keeping it         
constantly moistened by dipping it in   
the hot water of the boiler1  folding   
and unfolding with every variety of     
crossings1 rolling it as  a scroll1     
pressing1 shaking1 dipping and rolling  
it again and again1  the hatter all the 
while bending over his work in front of 

the almost  boiling caldron1 and        
surrounded by steam4 ,he labors hard1   
ever changing  the position of the hat  
under his hands1 so as to make it an    
evenly  felted and perfect piece of     
work1 which these oft-repeated motions  
ultimately accomplish4    ,illustration3
 ,fig4 #d4    ,battery for ,sizing      
,hats4    ,this is the grand felting    
operation2 the cause of which was so    
long  considered a mystery1 and now     
ascertained to result from the peculiar 
natural construction of the animal      
fibre1 as already explained4    ,in this
 planking or sizing of the hat1         
sometimes with half a dozen  under hands
 at the same time1 the enveloping cloth 
is soon thrown aside  as the hat grows  
in solidity4 ,the hands of the hatter   
are defended from  the scalding water by
 thick leather shields upon the palms1  
and as  the hat approaches its proper   
size1 it is scalded and belabored with  
determined importunity1 coiled1 rolled1 
pressed1 and pinned1 backward  and      

forward till the size of the hat is     
reduced to nearly half of its  original 
dimensions1 and the tension of the      
several fibres becomes so  great that   
the hat will felt no farther4 ,at this  
stage it is impossible  for it to be    
torn asunder1 and is still in its       
original form of a  hollow cone4        
,such is the making department of the   
trade1 the felting process1 where  a    
firm piece of cloth 7for such is the    
body of a hat7 is manufactured  from    
loose wool or fur1 independent of either
 spinning or weaving4    ,we have now   
explained the making of the bare body1  
as it is called1 of  a plain hat1 in as 
concise a manner as the subject will    
permit4    ,there are yet a variety of  
qualities and kinds of hats requiring a 
variation more or less in the           
manipulation of the article1 so as to   
suit a fanciful and fastidious people4  
,for instance1 the quantity and  quality
 of fur1 or an entire change of         
materials1 produce quite a  different   

appearance both in the look1 the wear1  
and the price of the  hat1 while the    
form of the cone must be changed to     
admit of a high or  low crown1 or of a  
broad or narrow brim1 c4 c4    ,all     
,,felt hats1 of whatever texture1       
nature1 or name1 must have  undergone   
the above described operations1 and many
 have to go back  a second time to the  
plank kettle1 and there undergo an      
additional  teasing and ducking in the  
scalding water4 ,for instance1 all those
  destined to receive a coat of fur upon
 the outside finer than that of  which  
the body is made1 and constituting the  
flowing nap of the hat1  which is merely
 a kind of veneering or outside plating1
 which will  shortly be described4    ,a
 very good hat is made having a flowing 
nap that is raised directly  from the   
body itself4 ,thus when the body of such
 a hat as has been  described is about  
half wrought up at the kettle1 it       
undergoes in  another department the    
operation of shaving1 by which means the

  projecting coarse hairs are all cut   
off1 after which1 on being returned  to 
the kettle1 the hatter1 with his stiff  
brush1 card1 and comb1 raises  a nap    
upon the half solidified body1 which is 
constantly improved as  he continues to 
manipulate with the brush4 ,the hat is1 
at the same  time1 reduced in its       
dimensions by the operation of felting  
until at  the conclusion when it appears
 of the desired size1 fully felted1 and 
adorned on the outside with its rough   
and flowing nap1 which otherwise  would 
have been smooth and cloth-like4 ,this  
is called the brush hat4      ,shaving4 
,in the process of fur felting there is 
a constant tendency for the  strong     
straight hairs of the body to work to   
the outside1 so that  whether the hat is
 designed to receive a ,,bare finish    
afterwards1 or to  get a plated cover of
 beaver for a nap1 those bodies must all
 undergo  the operation of shaving4 ,a  
workman sits in another apartment with  
one of them1 when dry1 spread over his  

knee1 and with a long bladed  sharp     
knife in hand1 sweeps rapidly over the  
surface1 cutting off and  depriving it  
of those deteriorating superfluous      
intruders1 after which  the hats are    
forwarded to the stiffening department4 
,stiffening ,process4    ,the bodies of 
the hats now made1 dried and shaved1 and
 the spirit  water-proofing already     
prepared1 being thinned1 or reduced to  
the  proper consistence1 the hat is laid
 upon a flat sloping board1 and the     
stiffening is put into it with a stout  
brush1 and soaked to that degree  of    
saturation known only by experience1 the
 brims receiving a double  portion for  
extra stoutness1 and are then set aside 
to dry4    ,the alkali or inferior kind 
of stiffening1 when used1 is likewise   
diluted1 and applied by immersing the   
body fully into the prepared            
ingredients already described1 and      
either wrung out with the hands1  or    
passed a couple of times between a pair 
of rollers set at a proper  width1 which

 determines the quantity of proofing    
absorbed by the hat4    ,it should be   
observed1 regarding this stiffening of  
hats1 that it is  simply a varnishing of
 the several fibres of the fur of which 
the  hat is made1 each hair individually
 has got a coat of water-proofing       
varnish1 for when dry it will be found  
that the interstices between  each and  
every fibre are quite open and free1 and
 therefore susceptible  of ventilation2 
thus differing entirely from what would 
have been the  case had it been         
stiffened with any kind of paste4       
,ruffing or ,napping4    ,very little of
 this is done at present in the ,united 
,states4 ,after the  bare body of the   
hat is stiffened1 if a flowing nap of   
beaver1 otter1  neutra1 or other fine   
fur is desired1 finer than that of which
 the  body is made1 half an ounce more  
or less of the superior uncarroted      
stuff is weighed out1 sufficient to     
cover the whole outside surface of  the 
hat4 ,the hatter lays this precious     

morsel with perhaps one-eighth  ounce of
 cotton on the hurdle1 under the bow1 as
 he did with the stuff  for the body1   
and with a similar but lighter          
instrument1 these two  stuffs are       
completely mixed and spread upon the    
boards1 as evenly as  his experienced   
hands can do it2 the cotton being used  
merely to enable  him to handle the fur1
 which otherwise would be so thinly     
spread1 and  so attenuated of itself1 as
 to endanger the simple act of lifting  
it4  ,this mixture of fur and cotton is 
next spread upon the wet bare body  of  
the hat as it lies upon the plank at the
 kettle1 a little water is  sprinkled   
over it and beat down with a brush4 ,the
 hat with this surface  covering is     
wrapped very carefully in a piece of    
cloth or coarse  hair-cloth1 and        
operated on very lightly1 and nearly in 
the same manner  as when felting the    
body4 ,the object to be attained is to  
get the  fibres of the fine fur to      
penetrate the body1 and take root as it 

were  therein--great care and           
watchfulness being demanded of the      
workman at  every motion of his hands1  
in this manner of working4 ,the points  
of the  fibres of the beaver fur        
penetrate the body of the hat1 and      
having once  got a footing1 it          
constantly advances1 as the active      
careful rolling1  folding and unfolding1
 shaking and tossing go on1 until the   
fur has  separated itself from the      
cotton2 by its boring1 having obtained a
  firm lodgment in the solid felt of the
 hat body root end foremost4 ,the       
cotton with which it was mixed is left  
behind loose and useless1 for  want of  
the little rough scaly property that the
 other possessed4 ,an  inexperienced    
workman in thus ruffing a hat is liable 
to continue his  work too long1 until   
the beaver napping has burrowed quite   
through to  the inside of the hat1 where
 it is lost4,c    ,in the various       
operations of the hatter with hot water1
 whether in  body-making1 napping1 or   

dyeing1 c41 the water should not be     
allowed  to boil1 for independent of the
 damage to some kinds of stiffening1 as 
hair contains a large portion of        
gelatine in its substance 7to which     
alone it owes its suppleness and        
toughness71 this gelatine will be       
separated from the hair4 ,this is       
particularly the case with napped  hats1
 for when thus treated the fibre becomes
 much more brittle than  before1 and the
 nap soon breaks off round the square4  
,fur hats having a flowing nap are      
sometimes clipped very short with       
revolving shears similar to those used  
in dressing cloth1 and which is  done   
previous to blocking or dyeing4         
,illustration3 ,fig4 #e4    ,hat ,block4
      ,blocking4    ,previous to dyeing1
 all hats must be blocked1 using such   
blocks as  approach the intended shape  
of the hat1 and as soon as possible     
after  the making department is         
concluded4 ,it is a laborious operation1
 though  simple1 as the nature of felt  

allows it to be stretched to a great    
extent in any direction when it is wet  
and hot4    ,in the act of blocking1 the
 conical form of the hat is lost for the
  first time4 ,the hat is now immersed  
in the boiling water of the  kettle1 and
 while wet and hot the tip is stretched 
wide1 and the whole  thing simply drawn 
down over the block1 a tight cord is run
 down to  where the band is to be and   
the brim flattened out4      ,dyeing4   
,the next operation is that of dyeing or
 coloring1 and if convenient1  and the  
hats fine1 each hat should be upon its  
respective block when  in the color     
kettle1 great care being observed to    
keep the square  from abrasion1 as the  
least rub may deprive a napped hat of   
its fur at  that exposed and important  
part4 ,most generally1 however1 the hats
 are  colored without a block1 the      
blocking being performed as soon after  
the  dyeing and washing as possible in  
boiling water4    ,the ordinary         
ingredients for black are1 for #ab      

dozen1        #add lbs4 of logwood1     
chipped1 or its value in extract4       
#ab lbs4 of green sulphate of iron or   
copperas4    #g-a_/b lbs4 of ,french    
verdigris4    ,the kettle should never  
boil nor exceed #aij degrees1 and during
 the  operation the hats must be        
repeatedly taken out and exposed to the 
action of the oxygen of the air1 so as  
to strike a deeper color1 and  during   
the necessary exposure to these airings1
 the time is improved by  having two    
suits of hats going on at the same time4
    ,from six to twelve hours are       
required to complete the operation4 ,the
  shorter the time the hats are in the  
dye1 compatible with the deepness  of   
the color1 the better will be the goods1
 as boiling extracts the  gelatine of   
the hair and makes the nap brittle1     
which is seen by  comparing dyed        
articles with those that are of a native
 color4      ,pumicing or ,pouncing4    
,pouncing is a term for rubbing down the
 outside of a hat with a piece  of      

pumice stone1 sand paper1 or emery      
paper1 whereby the hat is made  entirely
 bare1 smooth1 and fine1 resembling a   
piece of very fine  cloth4 ,these are   
generally called cassimere hats4 ,this  
operation is  usually performed after   
dyeing1 and previous to finishing4 ,some
 makers1  however1 prefer to singe the  
hats instead of pouncing1 but such  hats
 never feel so fine as the others1 as   
the singeing of any hair  invariably    
produces a hard crisp burnt knob upon   
the end4      ,finishing4,d    ,when a  
hat arrives at that state of forwardness
 ready for finishing1  it is a very     
unsightly object to any person but a    
hatter4 ,most of its  processes have    
been wet ones1 but now it is to assume a
 genteel and  prepossessing appearance1 
under the artistic appliances of        
brushes1  cloths1 hot irons1 and labored
 exercise4 ,if a plain soft hat1 it is  
pulled over such a block as is required1
 a cord is run round the hat to  keep it
 tight upon the block2 the tip and brim 

are then flattened with  the hot iron1  
wet sponge1 brushes1 and hair-cloth     
cushion or velure1  several wettings    
being necessary in finishing4           
,illustration3 ,fig4 #f4    ,hat ,iron4 
,the brim is next cut to the required   
width1 and the cord run down  to the    
depth of the block4 ,the side-crown is  
now to be finished1  along with the tip 
and upper and under sides of the brim1  
the hatter  exercising his best         
judgment4 ,the block is then withdrawn1 
the brim  curled and set1 and the       
finished hat sent off to the trimmer to 
get  lined and bound2 it is then tipped 
off and packed for market4    ,the      
finishing of this kind of hat is a      
simple operation when compared  to that 
of a napped hat2 requiring only the     
assuming of the proper  shape and form1 
the solidifying of the body1 and giving 
it such a  lustre and finish as the     
quality of the material will allow4     
,the stiff cassimere hat being less     
flexible1 is subjected to hot steam     

preparatory to blocking1 whereby it is  
made soft and pliable4 ,when in  this   
state it is drawn down over the block1  
and the block withdrawn1 to  insert a   
prepared disk of pasteboard into the    
crown for strength1 after  which it is  
finished much in the same way as that   
already described1  but with the        
difference1 that a cloth must always    
intervene between the  hot iron and the 
hat when finishing4    ,the finishing of
 a napped hat1 whether it be brush or   
beaver1 is a  very different process    
from that for either of those just      
described1  requiring the nicest        
attention and patient perseverance by   
the best  workmen4 ,the hats are given  
out by the half dozen1 which are sorted 
for  the different sizes and steamed one
 by one2 the hot steam softens the      
stiffening1 and when pliable1 the hat is
 drawn down over the respective         
finishing blocks1 the nap of each hat   
straightened with a wet brush1  and a   
half finish given to it with the water1 

brush1 and bare hot  iron4 ,the block is
 then withdrawn and the hat given to be 
shaved with  a razor4 ,this seems a     
singular operation2 but a few passes    
with that  instrument over the hat      
effectually cut off all those projecting
 coarse  hairs that have eluded all     
previous attempts at removal1 and       
without in  the smallest degree         
endangering the finer fur of the nap4   
,the hat is  now returned to the        
finisher to complete the process4       
,these coarse hairs1 when left in the   
hat depreciating very materially  its   
value1 were formerly plucked out by hand
 with a pair of pickers1  hair by hair1 
often to the injury of the hat4 ,the    
advantage of the  razor will be obvious 
to all4    ,a pasteboard disk1 well     
spread with dissolved shellac1 is now   
inserted  into the tip1 and the block   
reset4 ,the workman with his hot iron1  
wet  and dry brushes1 c41 lays down the 
nap in its proper direction1 and  the   
hat by continuous labor becomes         

solidified and more elastic1 the  tip is
 rendered stout by the adhesion of the  
prepared inside disk2  and by the       
repeated wettings1 and careful ironings 
and brushings1 all  the ripply          
appearance of the fur is destroyed1 and 
the whole surface  becomes smooth and   
shining4    ,the crown being finished is
 then papered up1 and the same          
operations  that were bestowed upon the 
crown are now to be repeated on the     
brim1  both on the upper and under side1
 which having been accomplished1 a      
gauge is applied and the brim cut to the
 required width ready for the  trimming4
    ,there is a beautiful invention for 
preserving the form of all hats  having 
flat or soft supple brims by means of a 
flattened wire1 upon  which two small   
twists are made1 and when joined as a   
hoop1 the proper  concave is produced4  
,this hoop is attached to the outer edge
 of the  brim1 and covered with the     
binding1 and thus the unsightly slouch  
that  often deformed1 particularly the  

soft brimmed hat1 is permanently        
prevented1 and the graceful curve       
completely secured4      ,silk ,hatting4
    ,the art of silk hatting is         
comparatively of modern invention1      
consisting simply of a cover of silk    
plush over a body of some other         
material4 ,as much sleight of hand is   
required in this department1 it         
naturally follows that a good workman is
 a valuable and appreciated  artisan4   
,the bodies used for this kind of hat   
have been so various1 that a full1  or  
even succinct1 description of them would
 be quite superfluous4 ,wool  and fur   
bodies1 straw and leghorn1 cork1        
whalebone and muslin1 c41  even         
stretchers similar to umbrellas without 
a body at all have been  adopted1 and   
all of them have had their day4 ,at     
present1 however1 the  trade seems to   
have settled down to the two kinds--fur 
and muslin4    ,the fur body of a silk  
hat1 called a shell previous to coming  
into  the hands of the silk finisher1 is

 made much in the same manner as  that  
of a plain soft hat1 by felting and     
sizing it down to the proper  dimensions
 in the plank kettle4 ,it is quite light
 and thin1 and when  blocked or         
otherwise1 and dried1 is then ready for 
stiffening by the  finisher4    ,the    
different substances for this purpose1  
and the various methods of  doing it1   
have been as numerous as the varieties  
of bodies that have  been adopted4 ,the 
whole of them1 however1 now have been   
abandoned for  shellac4    ,the most    
simple and the best stiffening for any  
hat is shellac  dissolved in alcohol1   
and thinned down to a proper            
consistence4 ,a  cheaper1 however1 and  
at the same time good stiffening1 is the
 ammonia  stiff already described4      
,either of these is applied in a like   
manner  and with the like operations4   
,the soft body or shell1 as it is often 
called1 is immersed in the liquid in a  
basin1 then wrung out and pulled  upon a
 block1 the brim being flattened1 a     

brush is dipped into another  vessel    
containing a thicker lac1 and applied to
 the square and brim for  extra         
strength2 after this the block is       
withdrawn1 and the body set to  dry4    
,these felted bodies or shells1 as they 
are called1 when dry are steamed        
generally over the hatter's hot iron1   
and pulled when warm and soft  over the 
finishing block4 ,a cord is then run    
tight round the shell1 and  the block   
withdrawn2 the prepared pasteboard tip  
is inserted into the  crown1 and the    
block reset2 after which the body       
receives a regular hot  ironing all     
over4 ,in this operation the inserted   
tip adheres to the  felt1 and the whole 
body assumes the exact counterpart of   
the block1  both crown and brim4 ,the   
rough hairs are now to be removed by    
sand or  emery paper and the block      
withdrawn4 ,the body next receives a    
coat of  the best size1 and when dry two
 coats of seed-lac1 or copal varnish    
which finishes the making of this kind  

of body4    ,those bodies that are made 
of muslin1 when first invented1 were    
called  gossamer1 from their extreme    
lightness1 and though they have         
increased  in weight1 they still retain 
the name of gossamer hats4    ,in       
preparing for the body1 a few yards of  
muslin are extended upon a  frame1 and  
saturated with liquefied shellac1 or    
water stiff1 which when  dry is cut bias
 into strips for sides1 tips1 and brims4
 ,one side of  these side and tip pieces
 of muslin is overlaid with the silk    
intended  for the inside lining of the  
hat1 and pressed to adhesion2 or this   
may  be done while in the web before    
being cut into strips4 ,the block being 
set upon the bottom-board1 one of these 
extra prepared sides is wound  tight    
round the side-crown of it1 and the two 
ends stuck together by  overlapping4 ,a 
piece of the prepared tips is next laid 
on1 and made to  adhere to the          
side-crown4    ,the brim consists of    
three thicknesses of stout muslin of a  

circular  form1 each with a hole in the 
centre1 all of which are slipped over   
the crown down to their place of        
destination with a quarter of an inch   
of the edge rising up on the side4 ,a   
second side-crown and another tip  are  
now applied1 covering the others1 and   
the whole of these cemented  together   
with the hot iron1 the shellac with     
which they were stiffened  acting as a  
cement4 ,after receiving a coat of size 
and one of varnish1  this body will be  
ready1 like the other ,,fur body1 for   
the finisher4 ,in  preparing these      
bodies1 cover the block with a soft     
shell4    ,before commencing the        
finishing1 however1 we will describe the
 sewing  of the silk plush cover1 which 
is quite a nice and particular piece of 
work4 ,the strip of plush for the       
side-crown is cut from the web bias  and
 of a width the depth of the intended   
hat2 the tip piece which is  to mate    
this side-crown is of course circular1  
and a quarter of an  inch larger all    

round than the tip of the hat4 ,these   
two pieces are to  be sewed together by 
hand face to face1 the edges being      
folded back1  and the plush put well    
through to the proper side with the     
needle as  the sewers proceed1 so that  
the seam when the hat is finished may   
not  appear bare for want of plush4     
,in finishing1 whether the hat body be  
of fur or gossamer1 the first  thing is 
the putting on of the under brim1 which 
we shall suppose to  be plush1 satin1 or
 merino4 ,a strip is cut from the web or
 piece at  about an angle of forty-five 
degrees1 and having the length reduced  
to  suit the size of the hat2 the two   
ends are then sewed together1 and       
having been laid on the hat1 one of the 
edges is made fast to the edge  of the  
brim with the iron1 all round1 and      
smoothly laid down1 the bias  allowing  
this to be done by stretching4 ,it is   
next to be steamed with  a damp cloth   
under the hot iron and the inner edge   
stuck inside of the  hat with the nose  

of the iron4    ,the upper brim is next 
in order4 ,a strip of silk plush the    
requisite  width is run on1 slightly1 in
 much the same manner as with the under 
brim1 but dispensing with both the      
cloth-steaming and often with the       
sewing4 ,the one end of this upper brim 
being cut with the scissors and  the    
other with the knife1 a good invisible  
seam may be made4    ,the brims being   
now on1 the tip of the hat is wetted    
inside1 and the  block put in4 ,the silk
 plush cover1 having been previously    
spread with  gum tragacanth1 about where
 the side seam is likely to be1 and now 
dry1 is carefully drawn over the crown  
and fitted to the hat2 the two  ends of 
the cover being folded back and marked  
for the seam4 ,the cover  is then       
removed1 the plush brushed back at the  
folding1 and the cloth  cut for the seam
 with a pair of sharp scissors2 the top 
of the seam is  cleaned or dressed off  
and the cover replaced on the hat body4 
,the tip  and side crown are now to be  

stuck with the hot iron to the body with
  particular care1 so as to make a good 
joining at the seam1 and not to  draw   
through the varnish4 ,the making of a   
good seam is the test of a  good        
workman4    ,the dressing and polishing 
of the hat now commence2 and while it   
remains upon the block1 this is done by 
means of brushes1 wettings1  ironings1  
c41 once1 twice1 or three times in      
succession1 after which  it is fixed on 
the veluring machine where it is        
revolved rapidly1  for the purpose of   
freeing the nap of all impurities by    
means of the  hair-cloth velures that   
are applied4    ,the hat is next taken  
back to the bench1 where it receives its
 final  dry-ironing1 veluring1 c41 and  
the crown is papered up4    ,the brim is
 yet to be finished1 which is done by   
hand1 with the  brushes1 sponge1 iron1  
c41 and made to shine like the crown2   
after  this it is given to the trimmer  
to be trimmed and bound1 when it comes  
back to be curled and properly shaped in

 the brim1 suiting the taste of  the    
wearer4 ,the workman who gives the hat  
its final touches makes use  of a number
 of tools1 which1 though of seemingly   
trifling appearance1  are nevertheless  
necessary for his department1 which     
requires a refined  taste4      ,forming
 ,machines4    ,such is hat-making1 but 
we cannot conclude without remarking    
that  there have been many patents      
granted in this and other countries for 
improvements in hatting1 that we cannot 
notice4 ,nevertheless there  are two1 of
 decided merit1 claiming attention1 as  
having entirely  revolutionized one-half
 of the making department1 and which may
 be  modified and extended to answer    
many purposes1 in addition to that of   
hat-making4    ,illustration3 ,fig4 #g4 
,forming ,machine for ,fur ,hat ,bodies4
    ,the first and most ingenious is    
called the pneumatic process of forming 
the bodies1 hence in all large cities   
the bowing operation is not  employed4  
,it is as follows3 ,a cone of sheet     

copper punched full of  small holes1 and
 set upright1 revolves slowly upon its  
axis2 beneath  this or attached to it an
 exhausting fan is placed1 causing by   
its  rotation a current of air to draw  
through the holes from the outside4  ,a 
trunk or box with an opening facing     
against this revolving cone1  discharges
 the fur which is fed into it at the    
other end by a feeding  apron1 in       
quantity just sufficient for one        
hat-body4 ,it is drawn into  this trunk 
between two rollers that are covered    
with leather or felt1  and immediately  
seized by a cylinder revolving about    
four hundred times  in a minute1        
furnished with a number of stiff        
brushes4 ,this generates  a current of  
air which scatters the fur and blows it 
out of the mouth  of the trunk1 where   
floating in the air it is speedily drawn
 upon  the perforated cone1 and evenly  
spread over the top and sides of the    
same1 in quantity enough for one        
hat-body in so many revolutions4 ,the   

discharging trunk is so adjusted that   
any desired quantity of fur can  be     
deposited on any particular portion of  
the cone4 ,when the cone has  got the   
fur for one hat-body1 the workman wraps 
over it a wet cloth and  slips a        
metallic cover over the whole1 which he 
removes into a tank  of hot water4 ,a   
new cone is immediately set in its place
 to receive  another coating of fur4    
,the hot water into which it has been   
dipped  tends to make the mat more      
tenacious1 which is next slipped off the
  cone1 taken to a table1 gently worked 
by hand-rolling in a piece of  blanket1 
squeezed and pressed1 and folded into a 
convenient shape and  sent to the       
regular hatter to be felted at the      
ordinary plank kettle4    ,the cost of  
hat-bodies is reduced1 it is computed1  
by this process  as five or six to one  
of the old bowing system1 and the       
rapidity of  production is as thirty to 
one4    ,illustration3 ,fig4 #h4        
,forming ,machine for ,wool ,hat        

,bodies4    ,it will not have escaped   
observation that this ingenious piece of
  machinery is applicable only for fur1 
the filaments of which are short  and   
less inclined to tangle than those of   
wool1 but another and no less  useful   
piece of mechanism has been invented for
 forming the bodies of  wool hats1 and  
like the other has entirely superseded  
the use of the  bow in all large        
factories where wool hats are made4 ,it 
consists of a  modified common carding  
machine1 the sliver from which is       
conducted to  a set of double conical   
blocks that are placed base to base1 and
 which  slowly revolve upon their axes  
in front of the carding machine1 and the
  sliver is received and wound upon     
these combined blocks to the required   
thickness1 sufficient for one hat1 both 
blocks being covered at the  same time4 
,this machine which carries the blocks  
has a horizontal  vibratory motion1 or  
swaying backwards and forwards1 that    
enables the  sliver to be wound in a    

systematic manner on the cones1 with a  
varied  thickness of material for brims 
and crowns1 and causing also the fibres 
of the wool to lie in a diagonal        
position1 as layer upon layer covers    
the blocks4 ,the bodies of the two hats1
 each of a conical figure1 are  thus    
made over the surface of a double cone  
which are separated by  cutting them    
along their middle or base line1 and    
slipping them off at  the end4 ,they are
 now ready to be wetted1 shrunk1 and    
felted in the  usual manner by the      
regular hatter4      ,shoes and ,gaiters
 of ,felt4    ,we will here describe the
 making of felted gaiters and shoes1    
which is  similar to the art of hatting4
 ,there may be other and better methods1
  as the expansive stretching nature of 
felt may admit of other modes4    ,the  
wearer of these gaiters may walk upon   
the slippery pavement with  comfort and 
full confidence1 and if furnished with a
 leather or rubber  under-sole1 they are
 a neat1 easy1 comfortable cover for the

 feet4    ,a given quantity of wool     
calculated for one pair of shoes is     
weighed  out1 which is divided into four
 equal portions1 two of them for each   
shoe4 ,one at a time is laid upon the   
hurdle1 and with the proper bow  it is  
bowed as if for a hat1 and disposed of  
in exactly an equilateral  triangle1    
which being gathered together with the  
basket1 is pressed1  and temporarily    
solidified1 laid aside1 and the other   
portion treated  in the same manner4 ,a 
piece of coarse brown paper is now      
folded into a  triangular shape1 a      
little smaller than the bats just bowed2
 all the  three edges are to be folded  
together with the paper inclosed4 ,the  
use  of the inclosed paper is to prevent
 the inner surfaces from felting        
together1 and to keep the inside open4  
,the intended shoe is next  lapped in a 
sheet of cloth1 and hardened at the hot 
basin 7the basin  is a disk of solid    
iron with a fire beneath74 ,water       
sprinkled on the  sheet when turned upon

 the basin1 sends steam all through the 
mass1 and  when rubbed slightly by hand1
 friction is communicated to the surface
  fibres1 which in a short time become  
smooth1 when the position of the        
triangular wool should be changed and   
the rubbing continued4 ,a few  crossings
 and rubbings give it a consistence     
sufficient for handling at  the plank   
kettle1 where we shall suppose both     
shoes to have arrived4    ,the felting  
operation at the kettle is performed in 
quite the same  manner as that of a hat1
 by pressing1 rolling1 folding1 and     
unfolding1  c41 with its dippings into  
the hot water1 until the material has   
assumed a hardness and solidity quite   
astonishing to the casual  observer4    
,this operation finished1 the shoe still
 in the triangular shape1 one  corner is
 now to be cut off to make an opening1  
and the confined paper  taken out1 which
 is quite a soggy spongy lump of pulp4  
,the mate to  this shoe having been     
advanced to the same forwardness1 they  

are to be  pulled upon their respective 
lasts and dried1 and perhaps dyed1 after
  which they are pounced1 and finally   
trimmed4      ,printers' ,sheets4       
,the making of sheet felt for calico and
 other printers is a business  that fell
 into the hands of the hatters at the   
introduction of the  water-proofing of  
hats1 as previous to that time the thick
 stout old  hats of former times were   
quite sufficiently thick for the        
fittings of  their blocks1 so that when 
no more of them could be gotten1        
recourse  was had to the new article1   
although it should be at a slight       
sacrifice4    ,felt is employed in this 
business because of the facility with   
which  it lifts and carries from the    
color sieve1 the colors that are to be  
applied to the cloth4 ,wood and ,copper 
blocks or rollers require two  different
 thicknesses of felt1 and though various
 qualities are made1  a solid body and  
clear smooth surface and edge when cut  
and pounced by  the block-cutter1 are   

absolutely necessary1 as otherwise1 a   
ragged edge  to the printed figures on  
the cloth will be the result4    ,the   
following makes a very good article3--  
#g ozs4 best backs of coney wool1 and   
#f ozs4 of ,saxony lamb's wool4    ,the 
coney is first well broken over with a  
light bow1 upon the hurdle1  and then by
 means of the heavier wool bow1 the     
well-carded ,saxony is  intimately mixed
 with it4 ,this thoroughly accomplished1
 the whole is to  be divided into two   
portions2 the one a little heavier than 
the other1  which is laid upon the      
hurdle1 and with the same wool bow1     
strung with  stouter cat-gut1 the hatter
 disposes of the mixture in a perfectly 
even  flat form1 of an oblong square1   
which when gathered by the hatter's     
basket1 measures #ah inches wide by #c  
feet long4 ,a cloth is then spread  over
 it1 and the whole turned upside down2  
the sides and ends of the  cloth are    
lapped over1 so that this bat as it is  
called is completely  enveloped4 ,a     

stiff skin is now thrown over it1 and   
pressed and rubbed  for some time in an 
even manner1 to reduce its thickness4   
,the skin  having been removed1 the     
sheet with its bat is rolled and pressed
 still  more1 then laid aside while the 
other half undergoes exactly the same   
operation1 but is made three inches     
shorter in length4    ,these two sheets1
 which are destined to form but one1 are
 connected  thus4 ,the shorter is first 
folded over upon itself1 and the two    
ends  joined by overlapping with a      
proper inlayer of paper2 then the larger
  bat is laid upon this one1 and the    
whole turned upside down1 so that  the  
joinings of the two bats will be upon   
opposite sides of the sheet  of felt4   
,after these joinings are carefully     
made1 the would-be sheet  appears       
exactly like a lady's muff1 and is again
 to be enveloped in the  cloth1 for the 
hardening process1 at the hot basin1    
where it receives  a partial steaming1  
rubbing1 re-folding1 c41 till finally it

 is  carried to the plank kettle1 where 
the severest labor must be applied2  the
 object being to condense the materials 
of which it is made to the  utmost      
degree of tension4 ,it is then cut open1
 dried1 and receives  an application of 
a weak solution of size2 when again dry 
it is well  pounced with pumice stone1  
and the edges cut straight1 which       
finishes  a first class printers' sheet 
of felt1 the size being #cc or #cc-a_/b 
inches long by #ab inches wide4 ,sheets 
for copper blocks or rollers  require a 
thickness of a quarter of an inch1 and  
those for wood  three-sixteenths of an  
inch4 ,some prefer a sheet altogether of
 ,saxony  wool4      ,cloth ,hats4      
,after the introduction of gutta-percha 
into the arts1 and the  manufacture of  
it into thin sheeting1 a new kind of hat
 was introduced1  made of gutta-percha  
cloth1 and from the variety of shades1  
c4 seemed  for some time to supersede   
the soft low-crowned ,,felt article4    
,but the  cupidity of some of the       

manufacturers destroyed the business    
almost  entirely when in its infancy1   
some say purposely1 by making them so   
very inferior and at the same time so   
perfect a counterfeit1 that the  really 
good and perfectly made hat became      
universally distrusted1 and  hence the  
result4    ,we shall refrain from all   
notice of the methods employed tending  
to  this deterioration of the new       
article1 and merely describe the making 
of the honest1 sound1 and valid hat1 the
 revival or resuscitation of  which is  
well worthy of consideration4    ,a dry1
 thin1 and soft fur or wool body is to  
be drawn upon the proper  block1        
generally #c or #d inches deep with     
either a square or round  crown1 and the
 brim spread out upon the bench or      
bottom board4 ,a  circular piece of     
gutta-percha gum the size of the        
intended brim1  having its centre cut   
out1 is to be slipped over the crown    
down on to  the felt brim2 a similar    
piece of good cloth is likewise slipped 

over  in the same manner to cover the   
gum1 and now the extreme outer edges of 
the felt and cloth are to be carefully  
cemented together by means of  the gum1 
by passing round a hot iron4 ,the usual 
stirrup or bridle is  then thrown over  
the hat1 girding the inner edge of the  
cloth to the  block1 and stuck with the 
heel of the iron4 ,this partially stuck 
brim  is finally overlaid with a wet    
loose brim-cloth and properly ironed1   
the heat of the steam from the damp     
cloth softens the gutta-percha gum  and 
effects the adhesion of the cloth to the
 fur body4 ,about half an  inch of cloth
 will project up on the side crown1     
which is also made to  adhere to the    
felt body by the heated iron4    ,the   
block is now to be withdrawn1 and the   
hat turned inside out1 which  reverses  
this would-be upper brim to the under   
side4 ,the hat is next  to be           
re-blocked1 a repetition of the gum and 
cloth is to be applied  to this side of 
the brim exactly as with the other1 and 

then succeeds  the covering of the      
crown1 which is to be wholly laid over  
first with  the gutta-percha and then   
with the previously prepared cloth cover
 as a  crown piece1 these being held    
tight by means of the blocking-cord4    
,the  whole crown1 both tip and sides1  
is to be cemented and finished1 never   
omitting the wet finishing-cloth between
 the hat and the hot iron1 and  the hat 
is now complete and ready for lining and
 trimming4    ,the above makes a good   
soft pliable cloth hat4 ,but if a       
stiffer and  firmer hat is wanted of the
 same material1 the felt body is to be  
put  through the process of the alkaline
 bath1 similar to that of fur hats1  and
 when dry1 proceeded with as above4     
,another method of making these cloth   
hats is to dispense with the fur  body  
entirely1 the block being covered with  
two thicknesses of cloth  and having a  
ply of gutta-percha gum between1 which  
are cemented  together by steaming and  
pressing1 using at all times a wet cloth

 under  the hot iron4 ,the brim is      
separate and distinct from the crown    
when  made1 and consists of a piece of  
thick wool padding1 which is to be      
covered on both sides with the proper   
cloth1 cemented together with the  gum1 
first one side and then the other1 after
 which the crown and brim  are sewed    
together4    ,in all these cases1 the   
gutta-percha gum acts not only as a     
cement but  also a water-proofing to the
 hat4      ,conclusion4    ,in this     
treatise upon the history of hats and   
hat-making1 of furs1  wools1 c41 and the
 manufacture of felt1 we are well aware 
of the  impossibility of illustrating in
 full the hatting trade of ,america1 as 
this country stands alone as compared   
with others1 on account of the  mixed   
population that is here collected4 ,as  
we have representatives in  this1 as in 
every other line of business1 from every
 civilized nation  upon earth1 with all 
their various methods of working in     
their own  accustomed ways1 the         

prejudices naturally engendered and     
entertained  through habit being hard to
 combat1 so that the judges of this work
 may  be numerous and various1 and no   
doubt profusely severe in some of their 
criticisms4    ,but there is going on a 
rapid amalgamation of all that is best  
in the  trade of hatting1 resulting from
 the continued flow of immigration1 and 
heightened greatly by the wanderings of 
hatters generally1 from shop  to shop1  
and from town to town1 that must        
ultimately bring together  in this our  
beloved land1 a perfection in the trade 
that cannot be  attained by any other   
nation4          ,,footnotes4    ,a ,the
 most familiar instance of mutual       
association and combination1  resulting 
in real utility1 though not so striking 
on account of our  familiarity with it1 
is the broadcloth of which our clothes  
are made1  which when cut by the tailor 
will never unravel4 ,this result is     
wholly  the effect of its felting in the
 fulling mill during the operation of   

scouring and washing1 every fibre of the
 wool of which the cloth is  made1      
having clung to its immediate neighbors1
 both warp and weft1 and  with the      
spirit of true friendship they still    
remain in each other's  embrace1 and the
 cloth is transformed from a loose to a 
solid fabric4    ,another instance of   
the power of combination is the         
mysterious ,gordian  knot that we read  
of in history1 which promised the empire
 of the world  to him who could unloose 
it1 and which ,alexander the ,great is  
reported  to have cut with his sword1   
because he failed in the attempt4 ,if   
not a  fabulous story1 that compound    
knot the illustrious ,gordius is        
supposed  to have cunningly felted      
previous to hanging it up in the temple4
    ,b ,the reason why wool and woollen 
goods felt and solidify more  readily   
than any straight fibred furs1 is owing 
to the natural curl  or frizzle         
possessed by wool1 each and every bend  
of every individual  filament assuming  

an inclination for travel independent of
 each other  and of the general         
inclination of the perfect fibre4    ,c 
,hatters' kettles for ,,fur hatting are 
made of copper1 as they take  less      
firing than those that are made of lead4
 ,but lead must be the  metal if        
sulphuric acid1 no matter in how small  
quantity1 is used in  the water4 ,it is 
generally resorted to by the men in     
sizing ,,wool hats1  as it facilitates  
the felting operation4 ,this acid       
7vitriol71 having no  affinity for lead1
 does not affect the kettle1 while it   
would soon eat  the one of copper       
through4 ,care1 however1 must be taken  
that no stone  be let fall into the     
water of the lead kettle1 for a hole    
will soon  result from such an accident4
    ,d ,as every hat must be finished   
upon a block of some particular form1   
upon which the hat assumes the exact    
counterpart1 it becomes necessary  with 
those having broad tops1 that the block 
be in five separate  pieces1 so as to   

get them out or into the hat1 the centre
 piece acting  as a wedge to the whole4 
,,index4        ,acid aids fulling1 #ba 
,alkali stiff1 #cc      ,analysis of    
hair1 #ab      ,ancient hats1 #bf       
,basket1 hat1 #dj      ,battery for     
sizing1 #da      ,bleaching of hair1 #ad
      ,block for hats1 #dg              
,blocking1 #dg      ,blowing machine1   
#ce      ,body making1 #da      ,bowing1
 #ci      ,bow-pin1 #ci                 
,broadcloth1 properties of1 #ai         
,cardinal's hats1 #bf      ,carroting1  
#bi      ,cassimere hats1 #dh           
,chemical analysis of hair1 #ab         
,cloth hats1 #fc      ,coloring1 #dg    
,conclusion1 #fe      ,construction of  
hair1 #af      ,cotton1 why it does not 
felt1 #ag        ,description of furs1  
wools1 hair1 c41 #aa      ,dressing1 #ef
      ,dyeing1 #dg      ,dyes1 #dh      
,elizabeth1 ,queen1 patent1 #bh         
,familiar proofs of felting1 #ag        
,fashions1 #bh      ,felting1 #ad       
familiar proofs of1 #ag      inventor   

of1 #bg      when invented1 #bb         
,felt made by ,turcomans1 #ba      uses 
of1 #bb      ,festival of hatters1 #bi  
,fine wool1 introduction into the       
,united ,states1 #bc      ,finishing1   
#di      ,first account of hatters1 #bg 
,flowing nap1 #dc      ,forming1 #ef    
machines1 #eg-ei      ,fulling1 #ad     
acid aids1 #ba      mill1 #bd      oil  
prevents1 #ba      process of1 #be      
soap aids1 #ba      ,fur1 kinds of1 #bj 
qualities of1 #ad      ,furs1           
description of1 #aa      how prepared1  
#bi      inferior articles employed     
with1 #bb      low prices of in early   
times1 #bc        ,gaiters of felt1 #fj 
,glue1 pelts used for1 #ca      ,goods1 
shrinking of1 #ae      ,gordian knot1   
#ai      ,gossamer hats1 #ec            
,grease prevents fulling1 #ba           
,hair balls in the stomach1 #ai         
bleaching of1 #ad      chemical analysis
 of1 #ab      construction of1 #af      
description of1 #aa      how it grows1  
#ab      peculiar properties of1 #ae    

why it felts1 #ad      ,hairs1 number   
of1 #ag      ,hat basket1 #dj           
block1 #dg      bow1 #ci      iron1 #di 
,hats1 ancient1 #bf      cardinal's1 #bf
      cassimere1 #dh      cloth1 #fc    
history of1 #be      manufacture of1 #cf
      scarlet1 #bf      ,spanish1 #bh   
,hatters' festival1 #bi      first      
account of1 #bg      kettles1 #df       
,hatting1 history of1 #be      in the   
,united ,states1 #bg      silk1 #eb     
,history of hats and hatting1 #be       
,how hair felts1 #ad      hair grows1   
#ab      to judge of the quality of     
wool1 #bc        ,inferior articles     
employed with furs1 #bb                 
,introductory remarks1 #i               
,introduction of fine wool into the     
,united ,states1 #bc      ,invention of 
felting1 #bb      ,inventor of felting1 
#bg        ,kettles1 #df      ,kinds of 
fur1 #bj        ,manufacture of hats1   
#cf      ,materials1 preparation of1 #bi
      for hats1 #bj        ,nap1        
flowing1 #dc      ,napping1 #de         

,number of hairs1 #ag        ,oil       
prevents fulling1 #ba        ,patent1   
,queen ,elizabeth's1 #bh      ,peculiar 
properties of hair1 #ae      ,pelts used
 for glue1 c41 #ca      ,planking1 #db  
,pneumatic process1 #eh      ,polishing1
 #ef      ,pouncing1 #dh                
,preparation of materials1 #bi          
,prices of furs in early times1 #bc     
,printers' sheets1 #fa      ,process of 
fulling1 #be      ,properties of        
broadcloth1 #ai      ,pulling1 #bi      
,pumicing1 #dh        ,qualities of fur1
 #ad      ,quality of wool1 how judged1 
#bc      ,quantity of stuff for a hat1  
#ch      ,queen ,elizabeth's patent1 #bh
        ,receipts for stiffs1 #cd       
,ruffing1 #de        ,scarlet hats1 #bf 
,secretage1 #bi      ,shaving1 #dd      
,shellac-stiff1 #cc      ,shoes of felt1
 #fj      ,shrinking of goods1 #ae      
,silk hatting1 #eb      ,sizing1 #db    
,soap aids fulling1 #ba      ,spanish   
hats1 #bh      ,stiffening1 #ca         
process1 #dd      ,stiffs1 #ca1 #cc1 #cd

      ,stockings1 wool1 #ah             
,stomach1 hair balls in1 #ai            
,stuff1 quantity of for a hat1 #ch      
,turcomans1 felt made by1 #ba           
,united ,states1 hatting in1 #bg        
,uses of felt1 #bb                      
,water-proofing materials1 #ca          
,when felting was invented1 #bb         
,when fine wool was introduced into the 
,united ,states1 #bc      ,why cotton   
does not felt1 #ag      hair felts1 #ad 
,wire hoop for brims1 #ea      ,wool1   
fine1 introduction into the ,united     
,states1 #bc      ,wool1 how to judge of
 the quality1 #bc      ,wools1          
description of1 #aa      ,wool          
stockings1 #ah             99       99  
99       99       99                    
,,transcriber',s ,,notes4    ,seven     
occurrences of etc4 have been changed to
 c4 on pages #bi  7twice71 #da1 #ef     
7three times71 and #fh4      ,page #g1  
,printer's changed to ,printers'        
7,printers' sheets7    ,page #g1 changed
 ,puffing to ,ruffing 7,ruffing or      

napping7    ,page #aj1 added of         
7dissemination as correct1 of that      
which7    ,page #ae1 then changed to    
than 7more readily than7    ,page #af1  
added of 7counting the number of these7 
,page #ai1 broad-cloth changed to       
broadcloth 7the broadcloth of which7    
,page #bc1 ,britian changed to ,britain 
7,great ,britain1 or7    ,page #bi1 too 
changed to two 7nipped between two      
revolving7    ,page #bi1 rolls changed  
to rollers 7and the rollers placed7     
,page #cb1 waterproof changed to        
water-proof 7light1 and water-proof7    
,page #cc1 waterproofing changed to     
water-proofing 7and water-proofing7     
,page #dj1 overlaping changed to        
overlapping 7together by overlapping7   
,page #dc1 shorly changed to shortly    
7will shortly be described7    ,page    
#dd1 clothlike changed to cloth-like    
7smooth and cloth-like7    ,page #de1   
waterproofing changed to water-proofing 
7of water-proofing7    ,page #di1       
singing changed to singeing 7as the     

singeing of7    ,page #ec1 ves el       
changed to vessel 7another vessel       
containing7    ,page #fa1 waterproofing 
changed to water-proofing               
7water-proofing of7