,,transcriber',s ,,note3 ,see ,transcriber's ,endnote for details of this transcription4 ,scans of the original printed book are available from https3_/_/archive4org_/details_/writingi llumina#jj;john4 ,,the ,,artistic ,,crafts ,,series ,,of ,,technical ,,handbooks ,,edited ,,by ,w4 ,r4 ,,lethaby ,,writing ,,illuminating1 ,,and ,,lettering ,illustration3 ,frontispiece4 ,a ,,scriptorium ,this drawing 7about two-fifths of the linear size of the original7 is made from a photograph of a miniature painted in an old ,,ms4 7written in #adef at the ,hague by ,jean ,mielot1 ,secretary to ,philip the ,good1 ,duke of ,burgundy71 now in the ,paris ,national ,library 7,,ms4 ,fonds franais #i1aih74 ,it depicts ,jean ,mielot himself1 writing his collection of ,miracles of ,our ,lady in ,french4 ,his parchment appears to be held steady by a weight and also by 78 the knife or filler in7 his left hand--compare fig4 #da in this book4 ,above there is a sort of reading desk1 holding ,,mss4 for copying or reference4 ,,writing ,,illumin- ,,ating1 ,,lettering ,,by ,,edward ,,johnston4 ,,with ,,diagrams ,,illustrations ,,by ,,the ,,author ,,noel ,,rooke #h pp4 ,,examples ,,in ,,red,,black ,,and #bd pp4 ,,of ,,collotypes ,,published ,,by ,,john ,,hogg #ac ,,paternoster ,,row ,,london #aijf p-vii ,,editor',s ,,preface ,in issuing these volumes of a series of ,handbooks on the ,artistic ,crafts1 it will be well to state what are our general aims4 ,in the first place1 we wish to provide trustworthy text-books of workshop practice1 from the points of view of experts who have critically examined the methods current in the shops1 and putting aside vain survivals1 are prepared to say what is good workmanship1 and to set up a standard of quality in the crafts which are more especially associated with design4 ,secondly1 in doing this1 we hope to treat design itself as an essential part of good workmanship4 ,during the last century most of the arts1 save painting and sculpture of an academic kind1 were little considered1 and there was a tendency to look on 8design0 as a mere matter of appearance4 ,such 8ornamentation0 as there was was usually obtained by following in a mechanical way a drawing provided by an artist who often knew little of the technical processes involved in production4 ,with the critical attention given to the crafts by p-viii ,ruskin and ,morris1 it came to be seen that it was impossible to detach design from craft in this way1 and that1 in the widest sense1 true design is an inseparable element of good quality1 involving as it does the selection of good and suitable material1 contrivance for special purpose1 expert workmanship1 proper finish1 and so on1 far more than mere ornament1 and indeed1 that ornamentation itself was rather an exuberance of fine workmanship than a matter of merely abstract lines4 ,workmanship when separated by too wide a gulf from fresh thought--that is1 from design--inevitably decays1 and1 on the other hand1 ornamentation1 divorced from workmanship1 is necessarily unreal1 and quickly falls into affectation4 ,proper ornamentation may be defined as a language addressed to the eye2 it is pleasant thought expressed in the speech of the tool4 ,in the third place1 we would have this series put artistic craftsmanship before people as furnishing reasonable occupations for those who would gain a livelihood4 ,although within the bounds of academic art1 the competition1 of its kind1 is so acute that only a very few per cent4 can fairly hope to succeed as painters and sculptors2 yet1 as artistic craftsmen1 there is every probability that nearly every one who would pass through a sufficient period of apprenticeship to workmanship and design would reach a measure of success4 ,in the blending of handwork and thought in p-ix such arts as we propose to deal with1 happy careers may be found as far removed from the dreary routine of hack labour as from the terrible uncertainty of academic art4 ,it is desirable in every way that men of good education should be brought back into the productive crafts3 there are more than enough of us 8in the city10 and it is probable that more consideration will be given in this century than in the last to ,design and ,workmanship4 99 99 99 99 99 ,of all the ,arts1 writing1 perhaps1 shows most clearly the formative force of the instruments used4 ,in the analysis which ,mr4 ,johnston gives us in this volume1 nearly all seems to be explained by the two factors1 utility and masterly use of tools4 ,no one has ever invented a form of script1 and herein lies the wonderful interest of the subject2 the forms used have always formed themselves by a continuous process of development4 ,the curious assemblages of wedge-shaped indentations which make up ,assyrian writing are a direct outcome of the clay cake1 and the stylus used to imprint little marks on it4 ,the forms of ,chinese characters1 it is evident1 were made by quickly representing with a brush earlier pictorial signs4 ,the ,roman characters1 which are our letters to-day1 although their earlier forms have only come down to us cut in stone1 must have been formed by incessant practice with a flat1 stiff p-x brush1 or some such tool4 ,the disposition of the thicks and thins1 and the exact shape of the curves1 must have been settled by an instrument used rapidly2 ,i suppose1 indeed1 that most of the great monumental inscriptions were designed in situ by a master writer1 and only cut in by the mason1 the cutting being merely a fixing1 as it were1 of the writing1 and the cut inscriptions must always have been intended to be completed by painting4 ,the 8,rustic letters0 found in stone inscriptions of the fourth century are still more obviously cursive1 and in the ,catacombs some painted inscriptions of this kind remain which perfectly show that they were rapidly written4 ,the ordinary 8lower case0 type with which this page is printed is1 in its turn1 a simplified cursive form of the ,capital letters4 ,the ,italic is a still more swiftly written hand1 and comes near to the standard for ordinary handwriting4 ,all fine monumental inscriptions and types are but forms of writing modified according to the materials to which they are applied4 ,the ,italian type-founders of the fifteenth century sought out fine examples of old writing as models1 and for their capitals studied the monumental ,roman inscriptions4 ,roman letters were first introduced into ,english inscriptions by ,italian artists4 ,torrigiano1 on the tombs he made for p-xi ,henry ,,vii4 in ,westminster ,abbey and for ,dr4 ,young at the ,rolls ,chapel1 designed probably the most beautiful inscriptions of this kind to be found in ,england4 ,this volume is remarkable for the way in which its subject seems to be developed inevitably4 ,there is here no collection of all sorts of lettering1 some sensible and many eccentric1 for us to choose from1 but we are shown the essentials of form and spacing1 and the way is opened out to all who will devote practice to it to form an individual style by imperceptible variations from a fine standard4 ,writing is for us the most universal of the ,arts1 and most craftsmen have to deal with lettering of a more formal kind4 ,it is a commonplace of historical criticism to point out how much the ,italian artists owed to the general practice amongst them of goldsmith's work1 a craft which required accuracy and delicacy of hand4 ,we cannot go back to that1 but we do need a basis of training in a demonstrably useful art1 and ,i doubt if any is so generally fitted for the purpose of educating the hand1 the eye1 and the mind as this one of ,,writing4 ,w4 ,r4 ,,lethaby4 ,october #aijf4 p-xii 8,we must set up the strong present tense against all the rumours of wrath1 past or to come4 ,so many things are unsettled which it is of the first importance to settle1--and1 pending their settlement1 we will do as we do4 4 4 4 ,expediency of literature1 reason of literature1 lawfulness of writing down a thought1 is questioned2 much is to say on both sides1 and1 while the fight waxes hot1 thou1 dearest scholar1 stick to thy foolish task1 add a line every hour1 and between whiles add a line4 ,right to hold land1 right of property is disputed1 and the conventions convene1 and before the vote is taken1 dig away in your garden1 and spend your earnings as a waif or godsend to all serene and beautiful purposes4 ,life itself is a bubble and a scepticism1 and a sleep within a sleep4 ,grant it1 and as much more as they will1--but thou1 ,god's darling6 heed thy private dream3 thou wilt not be missed in the scorning and scepticism3 there are enough of them3 stay there in thy closet1 and toil1 until the rest are agreed what to do about it4 ,thy sickness1 they say1 and thy puny habit1 require that thou do this or avoid that1 but know that thy life is a flitting state1 a tent for a night1 and do thou1 sick or well1 finish that stint4 ,thou art sick1 but shall not be worse1 and the universe1 which holds thee dear1 shall be the better40 --,emerson4 8,i began to think that if ,i should discover how to make enamels1 ,i could make earthen vessels and other things very prettily1 because ,god had gifted me with some knowledge of drawing4 ,and thereafter1 regardless of the fact that ,i had no knowledge of drugs1 ,i began to seek for the enamels as a man gropes in the dark40 --,palissy4 84 4 4 in that communion only1 beholding beauty with the eye of the mind1 he will be enabled to bring forth1 not images of beauty1 but realities 7for he has hold not of an image but of a reality71 and bringing forth and nourishing true virtue to become the friend of ,god and be immortal1 if mortal man may40 --,plato4 p-xiii ,,author',s ,,preface ,,writing ,the arts of ,,writing1 ,,illuminating1 ,,lettering offer a wide field for the ingenious and careful craftsman and open the way to a number of delightful occupations4 ,beyond their many uses--some of which are referred to below--they have a very great educational value4 ,this has long been recognized in the teaching of elementary design1 and the practice of designing ,alphabets and ,inscriptions is now common in most ,schools of ,art4 ,much would be gained by substituting1 generally1 ,,writing for designing1 because writing being the medium by which nearly all our letters have been evolved from the ,roman ,capital 7see p4 #ce71 the use of the pen--essentially a letter-making tool--gives a practical insight into the construction of letters attainable in no other way4 ,the most important use of letters is in the making of books1 and the foundations of typography and book decoration may be mastered--as they were laid--by the planning1 writing1 and illuminating of ,,mss4 in book form4 ,of this a modern printer 7see also p4 #cfh7 says3 8,in the making of the ,written ,book1 4 4 4 4 4 4 the adjustment of letter to letter1 of word to word1 of picture to text and of text to picture1 and of the whole to the subject matter and to the page1 admits of great nicety and perfection4 ,the type is fluid1 and the letters and words1 picture1 text1 and page are conceived of as one and are all executed by one hand1 or by several hands all working together without intermediation on one identical page and p-xiv with a view to one identical effect4 ,in the ,printed ,book this adjustment is more difficult4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,yet in the making of the printed book1 as in the making of the written book1 this adjustment is essential1 and should be specially borne in mind1 and ,calligraphy and immediate decoration by hand and the unity which should be inseparably associated therewith would serve as an admirable discipline to that end40 ,and though calligraphy is a means to many ends1 a fine ,,ms4 has a beauty of its own that--if two arts may be compared--surpasses that of the finest printing4 ,this in itself would justify the transcribing and preservation of much good literature in this beautiful form 7besides the preparation of 8,illuminated ,addresses10 ,service ,books1 ,heraldic and other ,,mss47 and make the practice of formal writing desirable4 ,and furthermore as the old-fashioned notion that a legible hand is a mark of bad breeding dies out1 it may be that our current handwriting will take legibility and beauty from such practice4 ,and even the strict utilitarian could not fail to value the benefits that might some day come to men1 if children learnt to appreciate beauty of form in their letters and in their writing the beauty of carefulness4 ,,illuminating ,of the practice of ,,illuminating--properly associated with writing--it may be observed that1 among various ways of acquiring a knowledge of the elements of design decoration it is one of the most simple and complete4 ,moreover1 a fine illumination or miniature has a beauty of its own that may surpass the finest printed book-decoration4 ,and pictures in books may be as desirable as pictures on the wall--even though like the beautiful household gods of the ,japanese they are kept in safe hiding and displayed only now and then4 p-xv ,,lettering ,magnificent as are the dreams of a fine ,decoration based on lettering1 the innumerable practical applications of ,,lettering itself 7see ,chap4 ,,xvi47 make the study of ,letter-,craft not only desirable but imperative4 ,and perhaps ,i may here be permitted to quote from ,the ,athenum of ,feb4 #c1 #aijf1 which says of 8the new school of scribes and designers of inscriptions0 8,these have attacked the problem of applied design in one of its simplest and most universal applications1 and they have already done a great deal to establish a standard by which we shall be bound to revise all printed and written lettering4 ,if once the principles they have established could gain currency1 what a load of ugliness would be lifted from modern civilization6 ,if once the names of streets and houses1 and1 let us hope1 even the announcements of advertisers1 were executed in beautifully designed and well-spaced letters1 the eye would become so accustomed to good proportion in these simple and obvious things that it would insist on a similar gratification in more complex and difficult matters40 ,yet ,ordinary ,writing and even scribbling has had1 and still might have1 a good influence on the art of the ,letter maker1 and at least the common use of pen1 ink1 paper makes it a simple matter for any one to essay a formal or #8book' hand4 ,a broad nib cut to give clean thick and thin strokes 7without appreciable variation of pressure7 will teach any one who cares to learn1 very clearly and certainly4 ,and though much practice goes to the making of a perfect ,,ms41 it is easier than people suppose to make really beautiful things by taking a little pains4 ,as 8copy book0 hands simple1 primitive pen-forms--such as the ,uncial ,half-,uncial 7pp4 #ch1 #gj7--;afford the best training and permit p-xvi the cultivation of the freedom which is essential in writing3 they prepare the way for the mastery of the most practical characters--the ,,roman ,,capital1 roman small-letter1 ,italic--and the ultimate development of a lively and personal penmanship4 ,,modern ,,development ,,of ,,writing ,,illuminating ,developing1 or rather re-developing1 an art involves the tracing in one's own experience of a process resembling its past development4 ,and it is by such a course that we1 who wish to revive ,writing ,illuminating1 may renew them1 evolving new methods and traditions for ourselves1 till at length we attain a modern and beautiful technique4 ,and if we would be more than amateurs1 we must study and practise the making of beautiful ,,things and thereby gain experience of ,tools1 ,materials1 and ,methods4 ,for it is certain that we must teach ourselves how to make beautiful things1 and must have some notion of the aim and bent of our work1 of what we seek and what we do4 ,early illuminated ,,mss4 and printed books with woodcuts 7or good facsimiles7 may be studied with advantage by the would-be ,illuminator1 and he should if possible learn to draw from hedgerows and from country gardens4 ,in his practice he should begin as a scribe making ,,ms4 books and then decorating them with simple pen colour work4 ,we may pass most naturally from writing to the decoration of writing1 by the making and placing of initial letters4 ,for in seeking first a fine effectiveness we may put readableness before 8looks0 and1 generally1 make a text to read smoothly1 broken only by its natural division into paragraphs1 chapters1 and the like4 ,but these divisions1 suggesting that a pause in reading is desirable1 suggest also that p-xvii a mark is required--as in music--indicating the 8rest03 this a large capital does most effectively4 ,a technical division of illumination into ,colour-work1 ,pen-work1 and ,draughtsmanship is convenient 7see ,chap4 ,,xi474 ,though these are properly combined in practice1 it is suggested that1 at first1 it will be helpful to think of their effects as distinct so that we may attain quite definitely some mastery of pure1 bright1 colours simple colour effects1 of pen flourishing and ornament1 and of drawing--whether plain or coloured1 that will go decoratively with writing or printing4 ,this distinction makes it easier to devise definite schemes of illumination that will be within our power to carry out at any stage of our development4 ,and while the penman inevitably gains some power of pen decoration it is well for him as an illuminator to practise in bright colours and gold2 for illumination may be as brilliant and splendid in its own way as stained glass1 enamels1 and jewellery are in theirs4#a ,at first1 at any rate1 hues that have the least suspicion of being dull or weak are to be avoided as though they were plainly 8muddy0 or 8washed-out40 ,the more definite we make our work the more definitely will our materials instruct us2 and such service must precede mastery4 ,,modern ,,development ,,of ,,lettering ,referring again to good ,,lettering3 the second part of this book deals with some of its ,qualities1 ,forms--the ,roman ,capitals their important pen-derivatives--and ,uses4 ,it is written p-xviii largely from the penman's point of view1#b but a chapter on inscriptions in stone has been added and various types and modes of letter making are discussed4 ,the essential qualities of ,lettering are legibility1 beauty1 and character1 and these are to be found in numberless inscriptions and writings of the last two thousand years4 ,but since the traditions of the early scribes and printers and carvers have decayed1 we have become so used to inferior forms and arrangements that we hardly realize how poor the bulk of modern lettering really is4 ,in the recent 8revival0 of printing and book decoration1 many attempts have been made to design fine alphabets and beautiful books--in a number of cases with notable success4 ,but the study of ,palography and ,typography has hitherto been confined to a few specialists1 and these attempts to make 8decorative0 books often shew a vagueness of intention1 which weakens their interest and an ignorance of ,letter-craft which makes the poorest1 ordinary printing seem pleasant by comparison4 ,the development of ,letters was a purely natural process in the course of which distinct and characteristic types were evolved and some knowledge of how these came into being will help us in understanding their anatomy and distinguishing good and bad forms4 ,a comparatively little study of old manuscripts and inscriptions will make clear much of the beauty and method of the early work4 ,and we may accustom ourselves to good lettering by carefully studying such examples as we can find1 and acquire a practical knowledge p-xix of it by copying from them with a pen or chisel or other letter-making tool4 ,a conscientious endeavour to make our lettering readable1 and models#c and methods chosen to that end1 will keep our work straight3 and after all the problem before us is fairly simple--,to make good letters and to arrange them well4 ,to make good letters is not necessarily to 8design0 them--they have been designed long ago--but it is to take the best letters we can find1 and to acquire them and make them our own4 ,to arrange letters well requires no great art1 but it requires a practical knowledge of letter-forms and of the rational methods of grouping these forms to suit every circumstance4 ,,the ,,scope ,,of ,,this ,,handbook ,generally this book has been planned as a sort of 8guide0 to models and methods for ,letter-craftsmen and ,students--more particularly for those who cannot see the actual processes of ,writing1 ,illuminating1 c4 carried out1 and who may not have access to collections of ,,mss4 ,much of1 if not all1 the explanation is of the most obvious1 but that1 ,i hope1 gives it more nearly the value of a practical demonstration4 ,in describing methods and processes ,i have generally used the present tense--saying that they 8are--03 this is to be taken as meaning that they are so in early ,,mss4 and inscriptions1 and in the practice of the modern school of scribes who found their work on them4 ,regarding the copying of early work 7see pp4 #aie1 #cbc1 c47 it is contended that to revive an art p-xx one must begin at the beginning1 and that1 in an honest attempt to achieve a simple end1 one may lawfully follow a method#d without imitating a style4 ,we have an excellent precedent in the ,italian scribes who went back #cjj years for a model and gave us the ,roman small-letter as a result 7see p4 #dg74 ,the beginners attitude is largely1 and necessarily1 imitative1 and at this time we should have much to hope from a school of ,artist-,beginners who would make good construction the only novelty in their work4 ,we have almost as much--or as little--to be afraid of in ,originality as in imitation1 and our best attitude towards this problem is that of the ,irishman with a difficulty--8to look it boldly in the face and pass on0--making an honest attempt to achieve a simple end4 ,perhaps we trouble too much about what we 8ought to do0 8do03 it is of greater moment to know what we are doing trying to do4 ,in so far as tradition fails to bound or guide us we must think for ourselves and in practice make methods and rules for ourselves3 endeavouring that our work should be effective rather than have 8a fine effect0--or be1 rather than appear1 good--and following our craft rather than making it follow us4 ,for all things--materials1 tools1 methods--are waiting to serve us and p-xxi we have only to find the 8spell0 that will set the whole universe a-making for us4 ,endeavouring to attain this freedom we may make ,rules and ,methods serve us 7see p4 #bba71 knowing that ,rules are only ,guides and that ,methods are suggested by the work itself3 from first to last our necessary equipment consists in good models1 good tools1 a good will4 ,within the limits of our craft we cannot have too much freedom2 for too much fitting planning makes the work lifeless1 and it is conceivable that in the finest work the ,rules are concealed1 and that1 for example1 a ,,ms4 might be most beautiful without ruled lines and methodical arrangement 7see p4 #cdc74 ,but the more clearly we realize our limitations the more practical our work4 ,and it is rather as a stimulus to definite thought--not as an embodiment of hard and fast rules--that various methodical plans tables of comparison analysis are given in this book4 ,it is well to recognize at once1 the fact that mere taking to pieces1 or analysing1 followed by 8putting together10 is only a means of becoming acquainted with the mechanism of construction1 and will not reproduce the original beauty of a thing3 it is an education for work1 but all work which is honest and straightforward has a beauty and freshness of its own4 ,the commercial prospects of the student of ,writing ,illuminating--or1 indeed1 of any ,art or ,craft--are somewhat problematical1 depending largely on his efficiency opportunities4 ,there is a fairly steady demand for ,illuminated ,addresses2 but the independent craftsman would have to establish himself by useful practice1 and by seizing opportunities1 and by doing his work well4 ,only an attempt p-xxii to do practical work will raise practical problems1 and therefore useful practice is the making of real or definite things4 ,in the special conditions attaching to work which the craftsman is commissioned to do for another person1 there is a great advantage4 ,and the beginner by setting himself specific tasks 7for example3 making a ,,ms4 book for a specific purpose--see p4 #ajj7 should give reality to his work4 ,as a craftsman in ,lettering he might get work in some of the directions mentioned in pp4 #ccg-cda4 ,although the demand for good work is at present limited1 the production of good work will inevitably create a demand2 and1 finally1 the value of ,quality is always recognized--sooner or later1 but inevitably--and whatever 8practical0 reasons we may hear urged in favour of ,quantity1 the value of ,quality is gaining recognition every day in commerce and even in art1 and there or here1 sooner or later we shall know that we can afford the best4 ,,edward ,,johnston4 ,october #aijf4 ,my thanks are due to ,mr4 ,t4 ,j4 ,cobden-,sanderson1 to ,mr4 ,emery ,walker1 and to ,mr4 ,george ,allen for quotations3 to ,mr4 ,graily ,hewitt1 to ,mr4 ,douglas ,cockerell1 to ,mr4 ,a4 ,e4 ,r4 ,gill1 to ,mr4 ,c4 ,m4 ,firth1 and to ,mr4 ,g4 ,loumyer1 for special contributions on gilding1 binding1 and inscription-cutting3 to ,mr4 ,s4 ,c4 ,cockerell for several of the plates3 to ,mr4 ,w4 ,h4 ,cowlishaw1 to the ,rev4 ,dr4 ,t4 ,k4 ,abbott1 to ,dr4 ,f4 ,s4 ,kenyon of the ,new ,palographical ,society1 to the ,vicar of ,holy ,trinity ,church1 ,hastings1 to the ,secretary of the ,board of ,education1 ,s4 ,kensington1 to ,mr4 ,h4 ,yates-,thompson1 to ,mr4 ,g4 ,h4 ,powell1 and to others1 for permission to reproduce photographs1 c43 and to ,mr4 ,noel ,rooke and ,g4 ,j4 ,h4 for assistance with the illustrations and many other matters3 ,i should like1 moreover1 to acknowledge my indebtedness to ,mr4 ,w4 ,r4 ,lethaby and ,mr4 ,s4 ,c4 ,cockerell for encouragement and advice in years past4 ,e4 ,j4 ,,footnotes ,,to ,,author',s ,,preface3 #a ,see ,chap4 ,,xvi4 8,of ,colour0 in 8,stained ,glass ,work0 by ,c4 ,w4 ,whall1 in this ,series1 and the illuminator might profit by the suggestion 7ibid41 p4 #bcb7 of playing with a home-made kaleidoscope4 #b ,dealing with the practical and theoretical knowledge of letter-making and arrangement which may be gained most effectually by the use of the pen4 #c ,in making choice of a model we seek an essentially legible character1 remembering that our personal view of legibility is apt to favour custom and use unduly1 for a quite bad1 familiar writing may seem to us more readable than one that is far clearer in itself but unfamiliar4 #d ,much remains to be found out and done in the matter of improving tools materials processes1 and it would be preferable that the rediscovery of simple1 old methods should precede new complex inventions4 ,we still find the ,quill--for its substance for shaping it and keeping it sharp--is a better tool than a modern gold or metal pen 7see p4 #fj74 ,the old parchment1 paper1 ink1 gilding-size colours are all much better than those now obtainable 7see pp4 #ea1 #afg1 #agc1 #agh-agi74 ,i should greatly appreciate any advice from illuminators and letter-craftsmen as to materials and methods1 and should endeavour to make such information available to others4--,e4 ,j4 p-xxiii ,,addenda ,,corrigenda ,p4 #ea4 ,beginners practising large writing may more easily use a thin1 or diluted1 ink3 in small writing this does not show up the faults with sufficient clearness4 ,p4 #ei4 ,quills often have a sort of skin 7which tends to make a ragged nib71 this should be scraped off the back4 ,p4 #fc4 ,until the simple pen-stroke forms are mastered1 the pen should be used without appreciable pressure4 ,with practice one gains sleight of hand 7pp4 #he1 #caa71 and slightly changing pressures quick movements on to the corners1 or points1 of the nib are used4 ,the forms in the best ,,mss4 shew such variations2 e4g4 the ,uncials in fig4 #e appear to have been made with varying pressure 7perhaps with a soft reed7 their fine finishing-strokes with the nib-point 7comp4 forms in fig4 #adf74 ,versals likewise shew varying1 and sometimes uncertain1 structures that suggest a form consisting of strokes other than definite pen strokes4 p-xxv ,illustration3 ,figs4 a to n1 illustrating ,addenda ,corrigenda4 ,p4 #fd4 ,a nib may be sharpened several times1 before it is re-cut1 by paring it underneath 7fig4 a74 ,pp4 #gc #ha4 ,the thin finishing-strokes of j1 ,f1 ,g1 ,j1 ,n1 are made with the point of the nib--see note p4 #fc above4 ,p4 #ii4 ,the plan of a paper scale is shewn in fig4 b4 ,p4 #aji4 ,the dots for lines were often pricked through the edges of the book-sheets which were cut off after ruling 7fig4 c74 ,p4 #aah4 ,the spread or wedge-shaped thin stroke1 sometimes very strongly marked1 is common in early forms 7fig4 d74 ,p4 #add4 _/,v 3 better 7pen7 forms of these are shewn in fig4 e4 ,p4 #bjh4 ,ornamental ,letter forms may consist of flourishes1 patterns1 leaves1 flowers1 c4 7see fig4 f74 ,pp4 #bae-bag4 ,diapering generally means the variegation1 figuring1 or flowering1 of a plain or patterned surface1 with a finer pattern 7see fig4 #aia;a74 ,some diagrams of simple patterns 7g-g#b from modern cantagalli ware7 are shewn in fig4 g4 ,note3 the more solid penwork line-fillings in figs4 #hg1 #abf1 make effective framing borders 7see fig4 h74 ,pp4 #bai-bbj4 ,note3 the principle of breaking straight or long lines1 mentioned in regard to background edges 7p4 #aij71 and illustrated in the line-finishings 7fig4 #abf7 and flourishes 7fig4 #gi71 is related to branching out and is re-creative1 whereas the prolonged line is tiresome 7see figs4 k1 k#a1 comp4 k#b74 ,p4 #bdi4 ,the ,b ,d should be round-shouldered--see note p4 #bhj below4 p-xxvi ,p4 #bfj4 ,it is sometimes better to make narrow forms than to combine wide ones--example fig4 l4 ,pp4 #bgj-bge4 ,the large types--8,old ,face0 ,pp4 #bhj-bhh4 7founded on ,caslon ,type7 and 8,old ,french0 7modern7 respectively --are used in these pages as reference or index letters 7not as models74 ,p4 #bhj4 ,generally round-shouldered letters have finer and more stable forms than square-shouldered1 and generally emphasis should be laid on the strong1 thick stroke running obliquely down from left to right 771 while the weak1 thin stroke 7_/7 is rather to be avoided 7see fig4 m74 ,the writing used in the diagrams in this book1 considered as a formal hand1 shews a little too much of the thin stroke 7see p4 #dhe74 ,p4 #cbd4 ,commonly letters are made more slender in proportion as they are made larger1 and it is generally not desirable 7or possible7 in practical work to have exactly similar proportions in large and small lettering4 ,p4 #cbe4 g from fig4 #agc inaccurate--comp4 fig4 #agc see fig4 n4 ,p4 #cca4 ,ornamental letters--see note p4 #bjh above4 ,p4 #dha4 ,a small writing is often the most practical--in the matter of speed in reading and less bulk in the ,,ms41 besides speed in the writing of it--but it is more difficult for the beginner to write it well and it is apt to lose some of the virtues of formal penmanship 7see ,fine-pen writing pp4 #ei1 #hf1 #caa1 #cbd1 #dhb74 ,p4 #dhe4 ,oblique thin stroke--see note p4 #bhj above4 p-xxvii ,,contents ,editor's ,preface vii ,author's ,preface xiii ,addenda ,corrigenda xxiii ,,part ,i ,,writing ,,illuminating ,,chapter ,i ,,the ,,development ,,of ,,writing #ce ,,chapter ,,ii ,,acquiring ,a ,,formal ,,hand3 7#a7 ,,tools ,acquiring a ,formal ,hand3 ,tools1 c4 -- ,the ,desk -- ,paper ,ink -- ,pens3 ,the ,reed3 ,the ,quill -- ,of ,quills generally -- ,pen-knife1 ,cutting-slab1 c4 #dh ,,chapter ,,iii ,,acquiring ,a ,,formal ,,hand3 7#b7 ,,methods ,position of the ,desk -- ,the ,writing ,level -- ,use of the ,pen -- ,holding the ,pen -- ,filling the ,pen1 c4 #fa ,,chapter ,,iv ,,acquiring ,a ,,formal ,,hand3 7#c7 ,,models ,models -- ,notes on ,construction3 ,script ,i4 -- ,coupling the ,letters -- ,spacing3 ,letters1 ,words1 ,lines -- ,uncial ,capitals3 ,script ,,ii4 -- ,numerals ,punctuation ,marks -- ,of ,copying ,,mss4 ,generally #gj ,,chapter ,v ,,acquiring ,a ,,formal ,,hand3 7#d7 ,,practice ,practice -- ,scripts ,i4 ,,ii4 -- ,arranging ,ruling a ,single ,sheet -- ,problem ,i4 7a ,sheet of ,prose7 -- ,problem ,,ii4 7a ,sheet of ,poetry7 -- ,spacing ,planning ,manuscript #he ,,chapter ,,vi ,,manuscript ,,books ,,ms4 ,books3 ,tools ,materials -- ,methods ,proportions -- ,the ,size ,shape of the ,book -- ,the ,widths of the ,margins -- ,the ,size of the ,writing1 c4 -- ,ruling -- ,,ms4 ,books3 ,general ,remarks #ih ,,chapter ,,vii ,,versal ,,letters ,,coloured ,,capitals ,development of ,versals -- ,general ,analysis of ,versals -- ,notes on ,construction of ,versals -- ,spacing ,arrangement of ,versals #aab ,,chapter ,,viii ,,black ,,red ,rubricating -- ,initial ,pages or ,title ,pages -- ,prefaces ,notes in ,colour -- ,pages with ,coloured ,headings -- ,page or ,column ,heading ,initial -- ,versals in ,column or ,marginal ,bands -- ,stanzas or ,verses marked by ,versals -- ,music with ,red ,staves -- ,tail-,pieces1 ,colophons1 c4 -- ,rubricating3 ,general ,remarks #abg ,,chapter ,,ix ,,laying ,,burnishing ,,gold ,tools ,materials -- ,laying the ,ground -- ,laying the ,gold-,leaf -- ,burnishing the ,gold -- ,remedying ,faults in ,gilding -- ,gold ,writing -- ,other ,methods ,recipes for ,gilding -- ,appendix on ,gilding 7by ,graily ,hewitt7 #ade ,,chapter ,x ,,the ,,use ,,of ,,gold ,,colours ,,in ,,initial ,,letters ,,simple ,,illumination ,tools ,materials for ,simple ,illumination -- ,parchment1 8,vellum10 ,pounce -- ,colours -- ,simple ,colour ,effects -- ,matt ,gold -- ,burnished ,gold -- ,burnished ,gold ,forms1 ,outlines -- ,background ,capitals -- ,applying the ,background -- ,ornament of ,backgrounds #agb ,,chapter ,,xi ,a ,,theory ,,of ,,illumination ,illumination -- 8,barbaric1 or ,colour-,work1 ,illumination0 -- 8,filigree1 or ,pen-,work1 ,illumination0 -- 8,natural1 or ,limner's1 ,illumination0 #aic ,,chapter ,,xii ,,the ,,development ,,of ,,illumination ,the ,development of ,illumination -- ,line-,finishings -- ,initial ,letters -- ,borders ,backgrounds #bjd ,,chapter ,,xiii 8,,design0 ,,in ,,illumination 8,design0 -- ,elementary ,patterns in ,decoration -- ,scale ,scope of ,decoration -- ,of 8,designing0 ,manuscripts1 ,generally #bad ,,part ,,ii ,,lettering ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,good ,,lettering -- ,,some ,,methods ,,of ,,construction ,,arrangement ,good ,models -- ,the ,qualities of ,good ,lettering -- ,simplicity -- ,distinctiveness -- ,proportion -- ,beauty of ,form -- ,beauty of ,uniformity -- ,right ,arrangement -- ,setting ,out ,fitting ,in -- 8,massed ,writing0 8,fine ,writing0 -- ,even ,spacing -- ,theory ,practice #bcg ,,chapter ,,xv ,,the ,,roman ,,alphabet ,,its ,,derivatives ,the ,roman ,alphabet -- ,proportions of ,letters3 ,widths -- ,upper ,lower ,parts -- ,essential or ,structural ,forms -- ,characterisation of ,forms -- ,built-,up ,forms -- ,simple-,written ,capitals -- ,uncials -- ,capitals ,small-,letters -- ,early1 ,round1 ,upright1 ,formal ,hands -- ,slanted-,pen ,small-,letters -- ,roman ,small-,letters -- ,italics -- ,semi-,formal ,hands -- ,of ,formal ,writing ,generally -- ,decorative ,contrasts -- ,ornamental ,letters #bfh ,,appendix ,a ,,chapter ,,xvi ,,special ,,subjects ,divers ,uses of ,lettering -- ,,ms4 ,books1 c4 -- ,binding ,,mss 7with ,note by ,douglas ,cockerell7 -- ,broadsides1 ,wall ,inscriptions1 c4 -- ,illuminated ,addresses1 c4 -- ,monograms ,devices -- ,title ,pages -- ,lettering for ,reproduction -- ,printing -- ,inscriptions on ,metal1 ,stone1 ,wood1 c4 -- ,of ,inscriptions ,generally -- ,bibliography1 c4 #ccg ,,appendix ,b ,,chapter ,,xvii ,,inscriptions ,,in ,,stone 7,by ,a4 ,e4 ,r4 ,gill7 ,treatment ,arrangement -- ,the ,three ,alphabets -- ,size ,spacing -- ,the ,material -- ,setting ,out -- ,tools -- ,a ,right ,use of the ,chisel -- ,incised ,letters ,letters in ,relief -- ,the ,sections of ,letters -- ,working in situ #chi ,notes on the ,collotype ,plates #djg ,the ,collotype ,plates #dca ,index #dhi ,,part ,i ,,writing ,,illuminating ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4 p#jce ,,part ,i ,,writing ,,illuminating ,,chapter ,i ,,the ,,development ,,of ,,writing ,nearly every type of letter with which we are familiar is derived from the ,roman ,capitals1 and has come to us through the medium1 or been modified by the influence1 of the pen4 ,and1 therefore1 in trying to revive good ,lettering1 we cannot do better than make a practical study of the best pen-forms1 and learn at the same time to appreciate the forms of their magnificent archetypes as preserved in the monumental ,roman inscriptions4 ,the development and the relations of the principal types of letters are briefly set out in the accompanying 8family tree0--fig4 #a4 ,when the student has learnt to cut and handle a pen1 he can trace this development practically by trying to copy a few words from each example given below4 p#jcf ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4 ,,the ,,roman ,,alphabet4--,the ,alphabet1 as we know it1 begins with the ,,roman ,,capitals#e 7see fig4 #b74 ,their fine monumental forms were evolved by the use of the chisel--probably under the influence of writing--and had reached full development about #bjjj years ago 7see ,plates ,i41 ,,ii41 and ,chapter ,,xv474 ,,formal ,,writing--the 8book-hand0 or professional writing of the scribes--comes of the careful writing of the ,roman ,capitals 7see also footnote1 p4 #ch1 on the beginnings of fine penmanship74 ,it was the-- 8literary hand1 used in the production of exactly written ,,mss41 and therefore a hand of comparatively limited use4 ,by its side1 and of course of far more extensive and general use1 was the cursive hand of the time0#f p#jcg ,in early cursive writing--the running-hand or ordinary writing of the people-- 8,the ,letters are nothing more than the old ,roman letters written with speed1 and thus undergoing certain modifications in their forms1 which eventually developed into the minuscule hand40#g 7,see fig4 #c47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c4 ,here it is sufficient to trace the history of the formal ,latin 8hands10 but the continual1 modifying influence exerted on them by the ordinary cursive writing should be borne in mind4 ,notable results of this influence are seen in ,half-,uncials and ,italics4 ,,square ,,capitals were formal1 pen-made ,roman ,capitals1 of the monumental type3 they were used 7perhaps from the second7 till about the p#jch end of the fifth century for important books 7see ,plate ,,iii474 ,,rustic ,,capitals were probably a variety of the 8,square ,capitals10 and were in use till about the end of the fifth century 7fig4 #d2 see also p4 #big74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #d4--neid1 on vellum1 third or fourth century4 ,,roman ,,uncials were fully developed by the fourth century1 and were used from the fifth till the eighth century for the finest books 7fig4 #e74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #e4--,psalter1 fifth century4 ,uncials are true pen-forms#h--more quickly written than the 8,square10 and clearer than the 8,rustic0 ,capitals--having the characteristic1 simple strokes and beautiful1 rounded shapes which flow from the rightly handled reed or quill4 ,the p#jci typical ,uncial letters are the round ,d1 ,e1 ,h1 ,m1 ,u 7or ,v71 and ,a and ,q 7see p4 #cjj74 ,,roman ,,half-,,uncials--or ,semi-,uncials--7fig4 #f7 were mixed ,uncial and ,cursive forms adopted by the scribes for ease and quickness in writing4 ,their evolution marks the formal change from ,capitals to 8,small-,letters40 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #f4--,s4 ,augustine3 probably ,french sixth century4 ,they were first used as a book-hand for the less important books about the beginning of the sixth century4 ,,irish ,,half-,,uncials were founded on the ,roman ,half-,uncials 7probably brought to ,ireland by ,roman missionaries in the sixth century74 ,as a beautiful writing1 they attained in the seventh century a degree of perfection since unrivalled 7see ,plate ,,vi474 ,they developed in the eighth and ninth centuries into a 8pointed0 writing1 which became the ,irish national hand4 ,,english ,,half-,,uncials 7fig4 #g7 were modelled on the ,irish ,half-,uncials in the seventh p#jda century4 ,they also developed in the eighth and ninth centuries into a 8pointed0 writing4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #g4--8;,durham ,book03 ,lindisfarne1 about ,a4,d4 #gjj4 7,see also ,plate ,,vii47 ,,caroline 7or ,,carlovingian7 ,,writing4--,while ,english and ,irish writing thus came from ,roman ,half-,uncial1 the ,continental hands were much influenced by the rougher ,roman ,cursive1 and were1 till near the end of the eighth century1 comparatively poor4 8,the period of ,charlemagne is an epoch in the history of the handwritings of ,western ,europe4 ,with the revival of learning naturally came a reform of the writing in which the works of literature were to be made known4 ,a decree of the year #ghi called for the revision of church books2 and this work naturally brought with it a great activity in the writing schools of the chief monastic centres of ,france4 ,and in none was there greater activity than at ,tours1 where1 under the rule of ,alcuin of ,york1 who was abbot of ,st4 ,martin's from #gif to #hjd1 was specially developed the exact hand which has received the name of the ,caroline ,minuscule40#i p#jdb ,illustration3 ,fig4 #h4--;,british ,museum3 ,harl4 ,,ms4 #bgij4 ,caroline ,,ms4 first half of #ith century4 7,see also fig4 #aga p4 #cje47 p#jdc ,the influence of the ,caroline hands 7see fig4 #h7 presently spread throughout ,europe4 ,the letters in our modern copy-books may be regarded as their direct1 though degenerate1 descendants4 ,,slanted-,,pen or ,,tilted ,,writing4--,the forms of the letters in early writing indicate an easily held pen--slanted away from the right shoulder4 ,the slanted pen naturally produced oblique thick strokes and thin strokes1 and the letters were 8tilted0 7see fig4 #i74 ,in the highly finished hands--used from the sixth to the eighth centuries--such as the later ,uncials and the ,roman1 ,irish1 and ,english ,half-,uncials1 the pen was manipulated or cut so that the thin strokes were approximately horizontal1 and the thick strokes vertical 7fig4 #aj74 ,the earlier and easier practice came into fashion again in the eighth and ninth centuries1 and the round ,irish and ,english hands became 8pointed0 as a result of slanting the pen4 ,the alteration in widths and directions of pen strokes1 due to the use of the 8slanted pen10 had these effects on the half-uncial forms 7see fig4 #aa73-- #a4 ,the thin strokes taking an oblique 7upward7 direction 7a7 7giving a sharp angle with the verticals 7d1 a77 led to angularity and narrower forms 7a#a71 and a marked contrast between thick and thin strokes--due to the abrupt change from one to the other 7a#b74 #b4 ,the thick strokes becoming oblique 7b7 caused a thickening of the curves below on the left 7b#a71 and above on the right 7b#b71 which gave heavy shoulders and feet4 #c4 ,the horizontal strokes becoming thicker 7c7 gave stronger and less elegant forms4 p#jdd ,illustration3 ,fig4 #i4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aj4 p#jde #d4 ,the vertical strokes becoming thinner 7d7 7with oblique or pointed ends--not square ended7 increased the tendency to narrow letters4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aa4 ,it is to be noted that the ,caroline letters--though written with a 8slanted pen0--kept the open1 round appearance of the earlier forms4 p#jdf ,,tenth1 ,,eleventh1 ,,and ,,twelfth ,,century ,,writing4--,the easy use of the slanted pen1 and the lateral compression of the letters which naturally followed1 resulted in a valuable economy of time and space in the making of books4 ,this lateral compression is strongly marked in the tenth century 7see fig4 #ab71 and in the eleventh and twelfth centuries it caused curves to give place to angles1 and writing to become 8,gothic0 in character 7see ,plate ,,xi474 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ab4--,psalter3 ,english tenth century4 7,see also ,plate ,,viii47 ,,thirteenth1 ,,fourteenth1 ,,and ,,fifteenth ,,century ,,writing4--,the tendency to compression continued1 and a further economy of space was effected in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries by the general use of much smaller writing 7see fig4 #ac74 ,in the fifteenth century writing grew larger and taller again1 but the letters had steadily become p#jdg narrower1 more angular1 and stiffer1 till the written page consisted of rows of perpendicular thick strokes with heads and feet connected by oblique hair-lines--which often look as if they had been dashed in after with a fine pen--all made with an almost mechanical precision 7see ,plate ,,xvii474 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ac4--;,colophon of ,english ,,ms41 dated #abed4 ,,italian ,,writing4--,in ,italy alone the roundness of the earlier hands was preserved1 and though in course of time the letters were affected by the 8,gothic0 tendency1 they never lost the curved forms or acquired the extreme angularity which is seen in the writings of ,northern ,europe 7compare ,plates ,x4 and ,,xi474 ,at the time of the ,renaissance the ,italian scribes remodelled their 8hands0 on the beautiful ,italian writing of the eleventh and twelfth centuries 7see ,plates ,x4 and ,,xviii41 ,,xix41 ,,xx474 ,the early ,italian printers followed after the scribes and modelled their types on these round clear letters4 ,and thus the fifteenth century ,italian formal writing became the foundation of the 8,roman0 small letters1 which have superseded all others for the printing of books4 p#jdh ,,italics4--,the ,roman ,letters1 together with the cursive hand of the time1 gave rise to 8,italic0 letters 7see fig4 #a1 pp4 #caa1 #caf1 #dhc74 ,,ornamental ,,letters originated in the simple written forms1 which were developed for special purposes1 and were made larger or written in colour 7see ,versals1 c41 figs4 #a1 #ahi74 ,their first object was to mark important words1 or the beginnings of verses1 chapters1 or books4 ,as ,initial ,letters they were much modified and embellished1 and so gave rise to the art of ,illumination 7see pp4 #aac1 #aad74 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,acquiring ,a ,,formal ,,hand3 7#a7 ,,tools ,acquiring a ,formal ,hand3 ,tools1 c4 -- ,the ,desk -- ,paper ,ink -- ,pens3 ,the ,reed3 ,the ,quill -- ,of ,quills generally -- ,pen-knife1 ,cutting-slab1 c4 ,,acquiring ,a ,,formal ,,hand3 ,,tools1 ,c4 ,the simplest way of learning how to make letters is to acquire a fine formal hand4 ,to this end a legible and beautiful writing 7see p4 #gj7 should be chosen1 and be carefully copied with a properly cut pen4 ,for learning to write1 the following tools and materials are required3-- ,desk4 ,writing-paper4 ,ink and filler4 ,pens 7,reed and ,quill7 with 8springs40 p#jdi ,pen-knife1 sharpening-stone1 and cutting-slab4 ,magnifying glass4 ,two-foot 7preferably three-foot7 rule1 and pencil4 ,linen pen-wiper4 ,,the ,,desk ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ad4 ,an ordinary desk or drawing-board can be used1 but the best desk is made by hinging a drawing-board 78,imperial0 size7 to the edge of a table4 ,the board may be raised and supported at any desired angle by a hinged support1 or by a round tin set under it 7fig4 #ad74 ,for a more portable p#jej desk two drawing-boards may be similarly hinged together and placed on a table 7fig4 #ae74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ae4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #af4 ,a tape or string is tightly stretched--horizontally--across the desk to hold the writing-paper 7which1 as a rule1 is not pinned on74 ,the lower part of the writing-paper is held and protected by a piece of stout paper or vellum fixed tightly1 with drawing-pins1 across and over it 7fig4 #af74 ,under the writing-paper there should be a 8writing-pad10 consisting of one or two p#jea sheets of blotting-paper1 or some other suitable substance4#aj ,it is a good plan to have the lower1 front edge of the desk bevelled or rounded1 so that the tail part of a deep sheet1 which may hang below the table1 does not become accidentally creased by being pressed against it4 ,a curved piece of cardboard fixed on the edge will answer the same purpose4 ,,paper ,,ink ,for 8practice0 any smooth--not glazed--paper will do4 ,for careful work a smooth hand-made paper is best 7pp4 #ajc1 #aaa74 ,a good1 prepared1 liquid 7carbon7 ink is best4 ,it should be as black as possible1 without being too thick4 ,a jet-black ink will test the quality of the writing by 8showing up0 all the faults2 8pale0 or 8tinted0 inks rather conceal the faults1 and lend a false appearance of excellence 7p4 #cbb74 ,a thin ink greatly adds to the ease of writing 7see ,addenda1 p4 #bc74 ,waterproof inks1 as a rule1 are too thick or gummy1 and do not flow freely enough4 ,the ink-bottle is kept corked when not in use1 to keep the ink clean and prevent evaporation4 ,thick or muddy ink should be put away3 it is not worth while trying to use it4 ,a small brush is used for filling the pen4 ,,pens ,a ,reed or ,cane pen is best for very large writing--over half an inch in height--and therefore p#jeb it is of great use in studying pen strokes and forms4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ag4 ,a ,quill is best for smaller writing1 and is used for all ordinary ,,ms4 work 7pp4 #ed-fj74 ,the ,,reed#aa pen should be about #h inches long4 ,i4 ,one end is cut off obliquely 7fig4 #ag74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ah4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ai4 ,,ii4 ,the soft inside part is shaved away by means of a knife laid flat against it1 leaving the hard outer shell 7fig4 #ah74 ,,iii4 ,the nib is laid1 back up1 on the slab 7p4 #fa71 and--the knife-blade being vertical--the tip is cut off at right angles to the shaft 7fig4 #ai74 ,,iv4 ,a short longitudinal slit 7a-b7 is made by p#jec inserting the knife-blade in the middle of the tip 7fig4 #bj74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bj4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ba4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bb4 ,v4 ,a pencil or brush-handle is held under the nib1 and is gently twitched upwards to lengthen the slit 7fig4 #ba74 ,an ordinary reed should have a slit about #c_/d inch long4 ,a very stiff pen may have in addition a slit on either side of the centre4 ,the left thumb nail is pressed against the back of the pen--about #a inch from the tip--to prevent it splitting too far up 7see also fig4 #bg74 ,,vi4 ,the nib is laid1 back up1 on the slab1 and--the knife-blade being vertical--the tip is cut off at an angle of about #gj to the shaft1 removing the first rough slit a-b 7fig4 #bb74 p#jed ,,vii4 ,a strip of thin metal 7very thin tin1 or clock spring with the 8temper0 taken out by heating and slowly cooling7 is cut the width of the nib and about #b inches long4 ,this is folded into a 8spring0 7fig4 #bc74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bc4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bd4 ,,viii4 ,the spring is inserted into the pen 7fig4 #bd74 ,the loop a b c is 8sprung0 into place1 and holds the spring in the right position4 ,the loop c d1 which should be rather flat1 holds the ink in the pen4 ,the point d should be about #a_/h inch from the end of the nib4 ,,the ,,quill4--,a ,turkey's ,quill is strong1 and suitable for general writing4 ,as supplied by the stationers it consists of a complete wing-feather1 about #ab inches long1 having the quill part cut for ordinary use4 ,for careful writing it should be re-made thus3-- ,illustration3 ,fig4 #be4 ,i4 ,the quill should be cut down to #g or #h inches 7fig4 #be72 the long feather if left is apt to be in the way4 ,,ii4 ,the 8barbs0 or filaments of the feather are stripped off the shaft 7fig4 #bf74 p#jee ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bf4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bg4 ,,iii4 ,the nib already has a slit usually about #a_/d inch long4 ,this is sufficient in a fairly pliant pen2 in a very stiff pen 7see p4 #fj7 the slit may be lengthened to #c_/h inch4 ,this may be done with care by holding a half-nib between the forefinger p#jef and thumb of each hand1 but the safest way is to twitch the slit open 7fig4 #bg71 using the end of another pen 7or a brush-handle7 as explained under ,reed1 ,v4 7see p4 #ec74 ,,iv4 ,the sides of the nib are pared till the width across the tip is rather less than the width desired#ab 7fig4 #bh74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bh4 ,v4 ,the nib is laid1 back up1 on the glass slab1 and the extreme tip is cut off obliquely to the slit1 the knife blade being slightly sloped1 and its edge forming an angle of about #gj with the line of the shaft 7fig4 #bi2 see also fig4 #cf74 p#jeg ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bi4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cj4 ,the shaft rests lightly in the left hand 7not gripped and not pressed down on slab at all71 and the knife blade is entered with a steady pressure4 ,if the nib is then not wide enough it may be cut again2 if too wide1 the sides may be pared down4 ,cut very little at a time off the tip of the nib2 a heavy cut is apt to force the pen out of shape and spoil the edge of the nib4 ,,vi4 ,the nib should then be examined with the magnifying glass4 ,hold the pen1 back down1 over a sheet of white paper1 and see that the ends of the two half-nibs are in the same straight line a-b 7fig4 #cj74 ,the nib should have an oblique chisel-shaped tip1 very sharply cut 7fig4 #ca74 ,a magnifying glass is necessary for examining a fine pen2 a coarse pen may be held up against p#jeh the light from a window--a finger-tip being held just over the nib to direct the eye 7fig4 #cb74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ca4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cb4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cc4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cd4 ,a nib in which the slit does not quite close may be bent down to bring the two parts together 7fig4 #cc74 p#jei ,uneven or blunt nibs 7fig4 #cd7 must be carefully re-cut4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ce4 ,,vii4 ,the ,spring 7see ,reed1 ,,vii47 7about #c_/cb inch by #a-a_/b inch7 is placed so that the point is about #a_/af inch from the end of the nib4 ,the long loop should be made rather flat to hold plenty of ink 7,a1 fig4 #ce7--neither too much curved 7,b3 this holds only a drop71 nor quite flat 7,c3 this draws the ink up and away from the nib74 ,,of ,,quills ,,generally ,for ordinary use the nib may be cut with a fairly steep angle1 as shown 7magnified7 at 7a7 7fig4 #cf74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cf4 ,but it is better for fine1 sharp writing that the angle be made very sharp3 the knife blade is laid back 7much flatter than is shown in fig4 #bi7 and the quill is cut quite thin2 the knife blade is then held vertical and the extreme tip of the nib is cut off sharp and true 7b1 fig4 #cf74 ,for large writing1 the curved inside of the quill is pared flat 7c1 d1 fig4 #cf7 p#jfj to give full strokes4 ,if the nib be left curved and hollow underneath 7e71 it is apt to make hollow strokes4 ,the pen may be made more pliant by scraping it till it is thinner1 or by cutting the 8shoulder0 7a-b1 fig4 #bi7 longer1 or stiffer by cutting the nib back until the 8shoulder0 is short4 ,goose and ,crow ,quills 7see p4 #agb74 ,the main advantages of a quill over a metal pen are1 that the former may be shaped exactly as the writer desires1 and be re-cut when it becomes blunt4 ,a metal pen may be sharpened on an oilstone1 but the process takes so much longer that there is no saving in time3 it is not easily cut to the exact shape1 and it lacks the pleasant elasticity of the quill4 ,a gold pen is probably the best substitute for a quill1 and if it were possible to have a sharp1 8chisel-edged0 iridium tip on the gold nib1 it would be an extremely convenient form of pen4 ,a 8fountain pen0 might be used with thin ink4 ,,pen-,,knife1 ,,cutting-,,slab1 ,c4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cg4 ,,the ,,knife4--,quill makers use a special knife4 ,a surgical scalpel makes an excellent pen-knife4 ,the blade should be fairly stout1 as the edge of a thin blade is easily damaged4 ,it should be ground almost entirely on the right side of the blade 7fig4 #cg7 and kept very sharp4 p#jfa ,,the ,,slab4--,a piece of glass 7preferably white7 may be used for fine quills2 hard wood1 bone1 or celluloid for reed and cane pens4 ,,sharpening ,,stone4--,a 8,turkey0 7fine7 or 8,washita0 7fine or coarse grained7 stone4 ,,magnifying ,,glass4--,a magnifying glass 7about #a inch in diameter7 is necessary for examining fine pen nibs to see if they are 8true40 ,a 8pocket0 glass is the most suitable for general use1 and for the analysis of small writing1 c4 ,,rule4--,a #b1 or #c-;foot wood rule having brass strips let in to protect the edges1 or a metal rule4 ,,linen ,,pen-,,wiper4--,a piece of an old linen handkerchief may be used to keep the pen clean4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,acquiring ,a ,,formal ,,hand3 7#b7 ,,methods ,position of the ,desk -- ,the ,writing ,level -- ,use of the ,pen -- ,holding the ,pen -- ,filling the ,pen1 c4 ,,position ,,of ,,the ,,desk ,always write at a slope4 ,this enables you to sit up comfortably at your work1 and to see the ,,ms4 clearly as though it were on an easel--and1 by the resulting horizontal position of the pen1 the ink is kept under control4 ,it may be seen from ancient pictures that this was the method of the scribes 7see ,frontispiece74 ,never write on a flat table2 it causes the writer to stoop1 the ,,ms4 is seen foreshortened1 and the ink flows out of the pen too rapidly4 p#jfb ,the slope of the desk may be about1 or rather less than1 #de to begin with3 as the hand becomes accustomed to it1 it may be raised to about #fj 7fig4 #ch74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ch4 ,the 8heel0 of the right hand may be tired at first1 but it soon grows used to the position4 ,a rest for the left arm1 if necessary1 can be attached to the left side of the board4 ,lighting4 ,the desk is placed very near to a window1 so that a strong light falls on it from the left4 ,direct sunlight may be cut off by fixing a sheet of thin white paper in the window4 ,careful work should be done by daylight4 ,work done by artificial light always appears faulty and unsatisfactory when viewed by day4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ci4 ,,the ,,writing ,,level ,each penman will find for himself the writing level along which his pen will move most naturally and conveniently 7see figs4 #ci and #af74 ,the paper guard should be pinned on about #a inch below the p#jfc writing level3 the tape is fixed across about #c inches above the guard4 ,in the case of very large writing the space between the tape and the guard is greater1 and in the case of a very small ,,ms4 it is less4 ,the writing level is kept constant4 ,when one line has been written1 the writing paper--which is placed behind the tape and the guard--is pulled up for another line4 ,,use ,,of ,,the ,,pen ,for the practical study of pen-forms use a cane or a reed pen--or a quill cut very broad--giving a broad1 firm1 thick stroke4 ,it is the chisel edge 7p4 #eg7 of the nib which gives the 8clean cut0 thick and thin strokes and the graduated curved strokes characteristic of good writing 7fig4 #dj74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dj4 ,therefore1 let the nib glide about on the surface with the least possible pressure1 making natural pen-strokes the thickness of which is only varied p#jfd by the different directions in which the nib moves 7see ,addenda1 p4 #bc74 ,it is very important that the nib be cut 8sharp10 and as often as its edge wears blunt it must be resharpened4 ,it is impossible to make 8clean cut0 strokes with a blunt pen 7see ,addenda1 p4 #be74 ,when the nib is cut back1 the 8shoulder0 should be cut back to preserve the elasticity of the pen 7p4 #fj74 ,,holding ,,the ,,pen ,the hand holds the pen lightly and easily4 ,a good method is to loop the thumb and forefinger over1 and slightly gripping1 the shaft of the pen1 and support the shaft from below with the second finger4 ,the third and fourth fingers are tucked1 out of the way1 into the palm 7figs4 #da1 #de74 ,the pen should be so lightly held that the act of writing should draw the edge of the nib into perfect contact with the paper1 both the half-nibs touching the surface4 7,to make sure that the contact is perfect1 make experimental thick strokes on a scrap of paper--pinned at the right-hand side of the desk--and see that they are 8true10 i4e4 that they are of even width1 with 8clean cut0 edges and ends47 ,the writer should be able to feel what the nib is doing4 ,if the pen be gripped stiffly the edge of the nib cannot be felt on the paper2 and it will inevitably be forced out of shape and prematurely blunted4 ,a thin slip of bone--a 8folder0 or the handle of the pen-knife will do--is commonly held in the left hand to keep the paper flat and steady 7see fig4 #da74 p#jfe ,,the ,,customary ,,manner4--,the ancient scribe probably held his pen in the manner most convenient to himself2 and we1 in order to write with freedom1 should hold the pen in the way to which1 by long use1 we have been accustomed2 provided that1 for writing an upright round-hand1 the pen be so manipulated and cut as to make fine horizontal thin strokes and clean vertical thick strokes 7see fig4 #dj1 footnote1 p4 #cjd74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #da4 ,,slanted ,,shaft1 c4--,most people are accustomed to holding a pen slanted away from the right shoulder4 ,the nib therefore is cut at p#jff an oblique angle#ac to the shaft1 so that1 while the shaft is slanted1 the edge of the nib is parallel with the horizontal line of the paper1 and will therefore produce a horizontal thin stroke and a vertical thick stroke4 ,for example3 if the shaft is held slanted at an angle of #gj with the horizontal1 the nib is cut at an angle of #gj with the shaft 7fig4 #db74 ,the angle of the nib with the shaft may vary from #ij 7at right angles7 to about #gj1 according to the slant at which the shaft is held 7fig4 #dc74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #db4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dc4 ,if the writer prefers an extremely slanted shaft1 to cut the nib correspondingly obliquely would weaken it1 so it is better to counteract the slant by slightly tilting the paper 7fig4 #dd74 ,to produce the horizontal thin stroke1 therefore3 ,the slant at which the shaft is held1 ,the angle at which the nib is cut1 and ,the tilt which may be given to the paper3 p#jfg must be so adjusted1 one to another1 that the chisel edge of the nib is parallel to the horizontal line of the paper4 ,before writing1 make trial strokes on a scrap of paper to see that this is so3 the vertical thick strokes should be square ended and the full width of the nib1 the horizontal strokes as fine as possible4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dd4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #de4 ,,horizontal ,,shaft1 c4--,the pen shaft is held approximately horizontal4 ,this will be found the natural position for it when the slope p#jfh of the desk is about #ej or #fj4 ,it gives complete control of the ink in the pen1 which can be made to run faster or slower by slightly elevating or depressing the shaft 7fig4 #de74 ,the writing-board may be slightly lowered or raised with the object of elevating or depressing the pen shaft 7fig4 #df p4 #aah74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #df4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dg4 ,the pen makes a considerable angle with the writing surface1 so that the ink1 which is held in the hollow of the nib1 comes in contact with the paper at the very extremity of the nib1 making very fine strokes 7a1 fig4 #dg74 ,the spring is adjusted carefully1 the tip being approximately #a_/af inch from the tip of the nib4 ,the nearer the spring is to the end of the nib1 the faster the ink flows4 ,the loop must be kept flattish in order to hold the ink well 7see fig4 #ce74 p#jfi ,it is convenient to stand the ink1 c41 beside the desk on the left1 and for this purpose a little cup-shaped bracket or clip may be attached to the edge of the writing-board4 ,the filling-brush stands in the ink-bottle 7p4 #ea7 or pot of colour 7p4 #agf71 and is taken up in the left hand2 the pen1 retained in the right hand1 being brought over to the left to be filled4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dh4 ,the back of the nib is kept dry 7a1 fig4 #dh74 ,a very convenient and perfectly clean method1 when care is taken1 of removing any ink on the back of the pen is to draw it across the back of the left fore-finger4 ,in careful work the pen should be tried1 on a p#jgj scrap of paper1 almost every time it is filled 7to see that it is not too full and that the ink is flowing rightly74 ,the nib is kept clean4 ,a carbon ink 7p4 #ea71 through gradual evaporation1 is apt to clog the nib 7especially in hot weather72 therefore every now and then1 while the nib is in use1 the spring is taken out and the whole thoroughly cleaned4 ,it is impossible to write well with a dirty pen4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,acquiring ,a ,,formal ,,hand3 7#c7 ,,models ,models -- ,notes on ,construction3 ,script ,i4 -- ,coupling the ,letters -- ,spacing3 ,letters1 ,words1 ,lines -- ,uncial ,capitals3 ,script ,,ii4 -- ,numerals ,punctuation ,marks -- ,of ,copying ,,mss4 ,generally4 ,,models ,the best training is found in the practice of an upright round-hand 7p4 #cjb74 ,having mastered such a writing1 the penman can acquire any other hands--sloping or angular--with comparative ease 7p4 #cbc74 ,the ,english ,half-,uncial writing in ,plate ,,vii4 is an excellent model4 ,those who have sufficient time to spare for the careful study of this1 or any other legible and beautiful round-hand1 should obtain access to the ,,mss4 in a museum1 or procure good facsimiles 7see ,plates at end of ,book1 p4 #chh74 ,those who have not sufficient time for a careful and thorough study of an early ,,ms4 will find it p#jga easier to begin with a simplified and modernised writing1 such as ,script ,i4 7fig4 #di74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #di4 ,before copying a hand it is well to examine carefully the manuscript from which it is taken3 observe its general appearance3 note the character and mode of the ruling1 and the sizes and relative proportions of page1 text1 margins1 and ornaments4 ,with regard to the actual forms of the letters and the mode of their arrangement1 such a method of analysis as the following will be found useful1 as an aid to accuracy in copying1 and definiteness in self-criticism4 p#jgb ,a ,,method ,,of ,,analysis4 ,example3 ,analysis of ,script ,i4 7as in fig4 #ej74 #a4 ,,the ,,writing--general character3 ,modernised ,half-,uncial4 7,ruling7--,double or single lines1 ,double lines c4 7see pp4 #cjd1 #cje73 7see figs4 #ei1 #fe74 ,letters--round or angular3 round4 upright or sloping3 upright4 coupled or separate3 coupled4 #b4 ,,thin ,,strokes3 horizontal or horizontal4 oblique 7see figs4 #aj1 #i73 #c4 ,,thick ,,strokes3 heavy1 medium1 medium4 or light 7see fig4 #ahc73 #d4 8,,heads0 8,,feet03 character solid1 triangular1 c4 7see fig4 #ade73 #e4 ,,stems 7ascending medium4 descending73 short1 medium1 or long 7see fig4 #ahc73 #f4 ,,spacing 7,letters1 ,words1 fairly close ,lines73 close or wide 7see 7see figs4 #ed1 #ee74 fig4 #aed73 #g4 ,,arrangement3 in mass 7of equal in mass of equal lines lines71 or in column 7of 7see fig4 #ff74 unequal lines7 7see fig4 #aed73 #h4 ,,measurements 7 proportions see pp4 #cbd1 #cbg73 width of thick stroke 7see p4 #hc73 l about #c_/cb wide4 height of o and d 7see pp4 o about #c_/h high4 #hb1 #hd73 d about #aa_/af high4 writing lines1 distance apart ,lines #a apart4 7see p4 #hb73 #i4 ,,component ,,parts3 number and a has #c strokes4 forms 7see pp4 #ge1 #ha1 #hd73 b has #c strokes4 c has #b strokes4 and so on 7see fig4 #ea74 p#jgc ,the pen generally is held so as to give approximately horizontal thin strokes 7see p4 #ff71 but in making v 7w1 y7 and x1 parts of z1 c41 it is 8slanted40 ,in figs4 #ea and #eg these forms are marked with a small diagonal cross 7see also p4 #be74 ,most of the strokes begin as down-strokes1 but at the end of a down-stroke1 when the ink is flowing freely1 the stroke may be continued in an upward direction 7as in coupling-strokes1 c41 the feet of letters1 the thin stroke of x1 and1 if preferred1 in making the last stroke of g1 s1 and y74 ,while the ink is still wet in a down-stroke1 the nib may be replaced on it and be pushed upward and outward to form the round arch in b1 h1 m1 n1 p1 and r4 ,this stroke1 reversed1 is also used for the top of t4 ,the making of these ,,up-strokes is shown diagrammatically in fig4 #ea4 ,note4--,the forms oin in fig4 #ea contain all the principal strokes in this alphabet1 and are therefore useful for early practice4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ej4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ea4 ,,coupling ,,the ,,letters ,the letters are joined together by means of their coupling-strokes1 which for this purpose may be slightly drawn out1 and forward1 from the naturally round forms of the letters 7see c1 e1 c41 fig4 #eb fig4 #ei74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eb4 ,the coupling-strokes are finishing strokes--and as such are akin to serifs 7p4 #bdd7--;growing out of or added to such stems as need 8finishing40 ,coupling enables one to write faster and with p#jgf more freedom1 the concluding or 8coupling0 stroke not being slowed down1 but written with a dash1 which is covered by the first stroke of the succeeding p#jgg letter4 ,it keeps the individual words more distinct1 and therefore permits closer spacing of the text4 ,coupling is for convenience and legibility1 and where it tends to interfere with legibility1 we must be careful4 ,the freer and more cursive the hand1 the greater is the tendency to join and run letters together1 as in ordinary writing4 ,it is preferable to couple letters below1 if possible4 ,couplings above are sometimes apt to confuse the reading2 for example1 the cross-bar of t 7though the most natural coupling for the scribe to use--see petatis1 ,plate ,,vii47 should generally be made to pass over or fall short of the succeeding letter 7see fig4 #eb74 ,,spacing3 ,,letters1 ,,words1 ,,lines ,the letters of a word are fitted together so that there is a general effect of evenness4 ,this evenness is only to be attained by practice3 it is characteristic of rapid skilful writing1 and cannot be produced satisfactorily by any system of measurement while the writer's hand is still slow and uncertain4 ,it is worth noting1 however1 that the white interspaces vary slightly1 while the actual distances between the letters vary considerably1 according to whether the adjacent strokes curve 7or slant7 away or are perpendicular 7figs4 #ec1 #aeb74 ,it is sufficient for the beginner to take care that two curved letters are made very near each other1 and that two straight strokes are spaced well apart4 ,if the curves are too far apart there will be spots of light1 and where several heavy stems are made too close together1 8blots0 of dark1 marring the evenness of the page4 p#jgh ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ec4 ,words are kept as close as is compatible with legibility4 ,the average space between two words is the width of the letter o 7fig4 #ed74 p#jgi ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ed4 ,the ,lines in massed writing 7see p4 #bfb7 are kept as close together as is compatible with legibility4 ,the usual distance apart of the writing-lines is about three times the height of the letter o 7see also p4 #cbg74 ,the descending strokes of the upper line must 8clear0 the ascending strokes of the lower line4 ,interlocking of these strokes may be avoided by the experimental placing of p over d 7fig4 #ee74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ee4 ,,uncial ,,capitals3 ,,script ,,ii4 ,these modernised ,uncials 7see fig4 #ef1 p4 #cjj7 are intended to go with ,script ,i41 and their analysis and mode of construction are almost identical with those of ,script ,i4 7see pp4 #gb1 #gc74 p#jhb ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ef4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eg4 ,grouping3 ,uncials have no coupling-strokes2 when several are used together1 they are not joined1 but evenly grouped1 allowing as before for curves and straight strokes 7see p4 #gg74 ,spacing3 7a7 ,when used with ,script ,i41 ,uncials are written on the same lines1 and have to follow the same spacing 7in spite of their longer stems74 7b7 ,when ,uncials are used by themselves1 their spacing may be wider 7p4 #big74 ,note4--,the height of ,uncial o is about equal to the height of the ,half-,uncial d4 ,,numerals ,,punctuation ,,marks 7,see fig4 #eg47 ,these are best made with a 8slanted0 pen 7fig4 #i74 ,when writing 8,arabic numerals10 #a and #j may be made on the line1 #bdfh ascending1 and #cegi descending4 ,,of ,,copying ,,mss4 ,,generally ,when copying a ,,ms4 it is best to choose a complete page--or part of a page--to be copied in facsimile4 ,two or three lines are copied to begin with2 then the composition of the individual letters and words is studied by means of a large pen2 and finally the whole page is copied in facsimile4 7,of practising1 see pp4 #he1 #hf74 ,make a general examination and analysis as suggested at p4 #ga4 ,accurate measurements will be found helpful4 ,take the heights of the o and the d1 and the distance apart of the writing-lines with dividers p#jhc ,the width of the thick stroke is best found by making experimental thick strokes--the full width of the pen nib--on a scrap of paper3 cut the paper in half across the thick strokes1 and place the cut edge on the thickest strokes in the original ,,ms41 you will then find whether the pen nib should be cut wider or narrower4 ,the direction of the thickest strokes is approximately at right angles to the direction of the thin strokes2 which commonly approaches the horizontal in early round hands1 and is oblique in other hands 7see figs4 #i and #aj74 ,the positions both of these strokes in the model1 and of your pen1 determine the angle of the nib4 ,therefore1 cut the nib across at such an angle to the shaft of the pen that1 when you hold the pen naturally1 the direction of the thin strokes which it makes on the writing paper will coincide with the direction of the thin strokes in the model2 but 7a7 ,the way in which the shaft is held1 7b7 ,the angle at which the nib is cut1 7c7 ,the position of the writing paper1 may all be slightly varied1 so that the direction of the thin strokes can be followed exactly 7see p4 #ff74 ,the writing paper is cut and ruled exactly in accordance with the model2 and the heights of the letters and the widths of the thick strokes in the copy agree as nearly as possible with those in the original4 ,it is therefore a good test for accuracy--when a few lines of writing have been copied--to measure and compare their lengths4 ,if they correspond with their originals1 it goes far to prove the copy a good one4 ,before copying more of the page1 the construction of the letters should be carefully studied4 ,the number and the forms of pen-strokes in each letter p#jhd are found by examination--with a magnifying glass if necessary--and by the experimental putting together of strokes1 to form a similar letter4 ,for this a large pen1 such as a reed1 is useful1 and it is a good plan to write individual letters and words exactly two1 three1 or four times their height in the model3 both the pen nib and the individual letters are made correspondingly two1 three1 or four times as wide as in the original4 ,it is particularly important1 in copying1 to preserve accurately the proportion of the thick stroke to the height and width of a letter 7see p4 #cbd74 ,these are conveniently measured by the pen nib itself1 or by the estimated width of the thick stroke2 thus1 in the writing shown in fig4 #ej1 the width of the o is approximately five1 and the height approximately four1 times the width of the thick stroke4 ,not only must the copier ascertain what the forms are like and what are their proportions1 but he must try to find out how they were made4 ,this is of the greatest importance1 for the manner of making a letter1 or even a single stroke1 affects its form and character with a definite tendency 7see p4 #daf fig4 #agb74 ,and this becomes more marked the faster the writing4 ,an apparently right form may yet be wrongly--if slowly--made2 but in rapid writing1 a wrong manner of handling the pen will inevitably produce wrong forms4 ,as the real virtue of penmanship is attained only when we can write quickly1 it is well worth training the hand from the beginning in the proper manner4 ,patient and careful examination should be made of the changing pen-strokes1 and of the mode in which they join--to form letters--and begin and end--to form 8heads0 and 8feet40 ,this1 accompanied p#jhe by practical experiments in cutting and handling the pen1 will bring out details of the utmost technical value4 ,a certain amount of legitimate 8faking0 7p4 #bdf71 play of the pen1 and sleight of hand 7p4 #caa71 may be found1 but1 in the main1 the regular1 natural1 thick and thin strokes of the pen1 and the orderly arrangement of the writing1 give to a manuscript its beauty and character4 ,then having cut the nib rightly1 you may1 in a sense1 let the pen do the writing1 while you merely follow the strokes of the model1 and you will1 in course of time1 have the pleasure of seeing the same beautiful writing--in the very manner of the ancient scribes--growing under your own hand4 ,,chapter ,v ,,acquiring ,a ,,formal ,,hand3 7#d7 ,,practice ,practice -- ,scripts ,i4 ,,ii4 -- ,arranging ,ruling a ,single ,sheet -- ,problem ,i4 7a ,sheet of ,prose7 -- ,problem ,,ii4 7a ,sheet of ,poetry7 -- ,spacing ,planning ,manuscript4 ,,practice ,in acquiring a formal writing the penman should have two paper books constantly in hand3 one for the study of the forms of letters1 the other for both the letters and their arrangement4 ,the first should contain large and very carefully made writing--with perhaps only one word to the line2 the second p#jhf should have smaller and quicker writing1 neatly arranged on the pages1 with four or five words to the line4 7,see ,,ms4 ,books1 ,chap4 ,,vi47 ,a broad nib is used in preference to a narrow one1 so that the characteristics of true pen-work are brought out and the faults made clear4 ,a fine1 light handwriting is often very pretty1 but it is certain to mislead the novice in penmanship 7see p4 #cbd74 ,having acquired a formal hand the penman may modify and alter it1 taking care that the changes are compatible1 and that they do not impair its legibility or beauty4 ,such letters as are obsolete he replaces by legible forms akin to them in feeling1 and1 the style of the selected type becoming very naturally and almost unconsciously modified by personal use1 he at length attains an appropriate and modern ,formal-,handwriting4 ,the process of 8forming0 a hand requires time and practice3 it resembles the passage of 8,copy-book0 into 8,running0 hand1 familiar to us all 7see p4 #cbc74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eh4 ,,scripts ,i4 ,,ii4 ,having cut the nib of a reed or large quill to the exact width required for the thick stroke1 copy the component strokes of the letter 7,script ,i471 and p#jhg immediately make the complete letter3 go through the whole alphabet in this way several times 7fig4 #eh74 ,next join the letters together 7see p4 #gc7 p#jhh to form words--writing always between ruled lines 7fig4 #ei p4 #dad74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ei4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fj4 ,script ,,ii4 is similarly practised3 the letters are grouped 7p4 #hb7 to form words 7fig4 #fj74 ,next make a neat page of large writing1 and1 if possible1 write such a page every day4 ,the more definite and methodical practice is1 the better4 8,practising0 anyhow1 on scraps of paper1 does more harm than good4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fa4 ,,arranging ,,ruling ,a ,,single ,,sheet ,the size of an inscription is commonly settled before the arrangement of the text is planned out1 being determined by considerations of its future position and office1 or by custom and use 7see pp4 #ajj-ajc #cea74 p#jhi ,the proportions of the writing1 spacing1 and margins will likewise properly settle themselves 7see pp4 #bfe1 #ajc1 #ajg71 but where the size of the sheet only is fixed1 we have1 broadly speaking1 to decide between 8large0 writing with 8small0 margins 7fig4 #fa71 and 8small0 writing with 8large0 margins 7fig4 #fb74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fb4 ,generally a compromise is arrived at and the proportions are more evenly balanced 7fig4 #fc74 ,ruling 7see also pp4 #beh1 #ii74--,the mode of ruling marginal lines and writing lines is shown in fig4 #fe4 ,the ruling should be light1 but firm and accurate4 ,a fine pen1 or hard pencil1 or a blunt point may be used4 ,where the writing lines are double 7as for round hands1 p4 #cjd71 it is best to have a double ruling point 7see fig4 #gg74 ,two hard pencils firmly p#jij lashed together make a convenient tool for large work3 the distance between the points is easily adjusted by means of a small wedge4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fc4 ,,problem ,i4 7,a ,,sheet ,,of ,,prose7 ,to write out the ,pater noster 7#ej words7 in a formal round-hand 7arranged in 8mass0 of equal lines7 on a sheet of 8foolscap0 7i4e4 #ag inches high and #ac-a_/b inches wide74 ,if the size of the writing be considered of the first importance1 a few words are written out in a script chosen to suit the subject1 the space1 c41 and these are measured to find the area which the whole text so written would occupy 7fig4 #fd74 ,the size of the script is then modified1 if necessary1 to suit the available area4 p#jia ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fd4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fe4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ff4 p#jid ,frequently it is desirable first to determine the sizes of the margins4 ,these depend on various considerations of the position and office of the ,,ms41 but more particularly on the size of the sheet and the character of its future environment#ad 7see p4 #cea74 ,the top and side margins may be of equal width--or the top may be a little less 7see a1 fig4 #gj74 ,ample space should be allowed for the foot margin1 which is generally about twice the width of the top1 but may vary in different cases1 according as the text falls short of or encroaches upon it 7see pp4 #ceb1 #cdb74 ,for a plain foolscap sheet3 sides 7each7 #b-a_/b inches1 top 7approx47 #b inches1 and foot 7approx47 #d inches1 may be taken as suitable margins 7fig4 #fe74 ,the width of the sheet 7#ac-a_/b inches7 less the two side margins 7#b-a_/b inches each7 gives the length of the writing lines 7#ac-a_/b - #e #h-a_/b inches74 ,one or two such lines are written experimentally in a suitable script 7say1 #e_/af inch71 and the average number of words per line 7four7 is found4 ,the number of words in the complete text 7fifty7 will determine the number of lines3 an extra line or so may be allowed for safety 7#ej_/d #ab-a_/b1 say1 thirteen74 ,the spacing of these is calculated-- #e_/af in4 writing requires about #g_/h in4 7close7 spacing 7p4 #gi73 ,thirteen lines at #g_/h in4 gives #aa-c_/h in4 depth of text3 #aa-c_/h in4 from #ag in4 leaves #e-e_/h in4#ae for head and foot margins --and if the space is not sufficient1 the writing is made a little smaller4 ,if1 on the other hand1 the p#jie marginal depth left over were excessive1 the writing might be made a little larger in order to fill up the space4 ,,problem ,,ii4 7,a ,,sheet ,,of ,,poetry7 ,to write out 8,he that is down1 needs fear no fall10 in a formal round-hand on a sheet of foolscap 7i4e4 #ag inches high #ac #a_/b inches wide74 ,here there are three verses of four lines each3 these with two space lines1 left between the verses1 give a total of fourteen lines 7fig4 #fg74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fg4 ,a poem has a given number of lines of various lengths1 and only very strong reason or necessity can justify our altering its proper form 7e4g4 by breaking up the lines7 in order to make a mass of equal lines4 ,such theoretical margins as are possible in the treatment of prose can therefore seldom be observed in writing out a poem1 and1 unless the height or the width of the sheet can be altered1 there is apt to be an excess of margin in one or the other direction4 ,when such excess margin is obviously unavoidable1 no objection can be made to its appearance4 ,poetry may conveniently be treated as 8fine writing0 7see p4 #bfc74 ,if the size of the writing be considered of the first importance1 several of the longer lines 7e4g4 the first and the eleventh in the poem given7 are written on a piece of paper in the size of writing preferred 7say1 #a_/d inch74 ,by laying this paper on the given sheet1 it is seen whether such lines would allow of sufficient side margins4 7,if they would not1 the writing may be made smaller47 ,the height of the writing 7#a_/d inch7 must allow of the full number of lines 7fourteen7 being properly p#jig spaced on the sheet 7#ag inches7 with sufficient head and foot margins4 ,this is calculated-- #a_/d in4 writing requires approximately #c_/d in4 spacing 7p4 #gi73 ,fourteen lines at #c_/d in4 gives #aj-a_/b in4 depth of text3 #aj-a_/b in4 from #ag in4 leaves #f-a_/b in4 for head and foot margins --and if the space were not sufficient1 the lines might be made a little closer1 or the writing a little smaller 7or1 if necessary1 the blank lines might be left out between the verses2 p4 #abc74 ,the ,sizes of the ,margins4--,it will be seen that the above method is primarily for settling a length of line which will allow of sufficient side margins4 ,the process can be reversed2 if necessary1 the side margins are made of a given width1 thus determining the exact length of the line1 the size of writing which this line allows being found experimentally4 ,note4--,the extra long lines may slightly encroach on the right-hand margin3 the effect of this is balanced by the falling short of other lines4 ,,spacing ,,planning ,,manuscript ,in penmanship great nicety of spacing and arrangement is possible4 ,the ascending and descending strokes may be shortened or drawn out1 the spaces between letters and words may be slightly increased or decreased1 the lines may be written near or far apart1 and the letters may be written with a broader or narrower nib4 ,elaborate spacing and planning1 however1 should not be attempted at first1 and straightforward1 undesigned work is often the best4 ,the student is apt to waste time writing out an elaborate draft p#jih in order to ascertain how to space the matter4 ,this is a mistake1 because if written well1 it is a waste of good writing on a mere draft2 if written ill1 it is bad practice4 ,the briefer experiments and calculations are1 the better1 though the simplest problem always requires for its solution a calculation or process of guess and trial 7such as suggested in the preceding pages74 ,practice will make people very good guessers1 and the best work of all is done when the worker guesses rightly1 and follows his guesses with the actual work1 itself the trial and proof of accuracy4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,manuscript ,,books#af ,,ms4 ,books3 ,tools ,materials -- ,methods ,proportions -- ,the ,size ,shape of the ,book -- ,the ,widths of the ,margins -- ,the ,size of the ,writing1 c4 -- ,ruling -- ,,ms4 ,books3 ,general ,remarks4 ,,ms4 ,,books3 ,,tools ,,materials ,the making of manuscript books1 based on a study of the early ,,mss41 offers the best training to the scribe and illuminator in writing1 lettering1 rubricating1 gilding1 illuminating initials and borders1 and miniature painting1 and is the best means of mastering the foundations of ,book ,typography and ,decoration4 ,materials1 c4 for ,,ms4 ,books2 ,paper 7see pp4 #ea1 #ajc1 #aaa1 #cag72 ,vellum and ,parchment and ,pounce p#jii 7see pp4 #aaj1 #afg1 #agc-e74--;,cut a small sheet the size of a page of the book1 and clip the long edge between two flat pieces of wood 7holding it as it would be if bound74 ,if the page will bend over and stay down by its own weight1 it is thin enough 7,r fig4 #fh72 if it stands up 7,w71 it is too stiff4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fh4 ,cutting ,sheets4--,a frame or template 7the size of the sheet desired7 is used by parchment makers4 ,it is useful for cutting out the sheets for a common size of parchment book4 ,they are cut on the end-grain of wood1 or on card or glass4 ,folding4--,a ,folder1 as used by bookbinders 7or a bone paper-knife71 is useful1 and also a ,set or ,t-,square for testing right angles1 c4 ,the fold and the top edge of each book-sheet are commonly squared by proper folding4 ,ruling1 c4 7see p4 #cdc74--;,for marking distances of lines1 a carefully prepared paper#ag scale or pattern 7p4 #be7 and an awl 7p4 #aji71 or a p#ajj 8star-wheel0--having regular intervals between the spikes--may be used4 ,or the ruling--of the writing lines--may be simplified by using a stout card frame 7internally the size of the text-column7 with strips glued across it3 for a common size of book this might be made in stout tin or other metal4 ,the lines are commonly ruled with a ruling stylus 7see figs4 #gb1 #gg71 or a sort of 8rake0 may be made to rule six lines at once4 ,writing1 ,colouring1 ,gilding1 ,binding 7,chaps4 ,,ii41 ,x41 ,,ix41 ,,xvi474 ,,methods ,,proportions ,having to make a manuscript book for a specific purpose1 the scribe formulates in his mind a general plan of the work1 and decides approximately the respective sizes of page and of writing which seem most suitable4 ,he endeavours to fashion the book in accord with its use1 and therefore allows the 7most suitable7 material1 the subject-matter and the office of the book1 and the way in which it will be read and handled1 to determine as far as is possible the proportions of its parts1 and its treatment as a whole4 ,its material may be vellum1 parchment1 or paper1 on which a variety of pens1 brushes1 and other tools1 with inks1 colours1 and metal foils1 may be employed4 ,its office may be 8useful0 or 8ornamental02 its contents may be long or short1 weighty or light1 and of greater or less worth2 it may be for public or for private use2 and the book may be intended to be placed on a lectern1 to be held in the hand1 or to be carried in a coat pocket4 ,in following out such natural indications1 the p#aja practised craftsman relies greatly on his working methods1 preferring a direct mode of treatment to one which is too ingenious or subtle4 ,in deciding a doubtful point1 a common-sense of proportion is a sufficient guide1 and one may generally assume that great works are best 8writ large10 and that large letters look best on an ample page1 and vice vers4 ,the main proportions which have to be considered are interdependent1 and follow one another in their natural order 7see p4 #bef71 thus-- #a4 ,the size and shape of the book4 #b4 ,the widths of the margins4 #c4 ,the size of the writing1 c4 ,and the methodical scribe makes his books of certain definite and regular sizes1 each size having corresponding and regular proportions of margins and writing4 ,though these may greatly depend on individual taste and experience1 it is suggested that--like all good designs--they should be allowed as far as possible to settle and arrange themselves4 ,,the ,,size ,,shape ,,of ,,the ,,book ,a book is thought of by the scribe chiefly as an open book1 and the width and height of its pages are chosen with a view to its convenient shape and pleasant appearance when open4 ,the most economical sizes into which a suitable sheet of paper can be folded 7or a skin of parchment can be cut7 may commonly be allowed to decide these proportions4 ,when a printer is about to print a book he chooses a sheet of paper which will fold into a suitable shape and size4 ,if the sheet be folded p#ajb once to form two leaves1 the book is called a folio 7fig4 #fi72 folded again to form a 8section0 of four leaves--a quarto 7#dto72 or folded a third time to form a section of eight leaves--an octavo 7#hvo74#ah p#ajc ,the book is made up of a number of sections sewn on to strings or tapes 7see p4 #cdg74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fi4 ,the penman will find that1 besides saving time and labour1 it conduces to good work if he keep to certain regular sizes for 8large10 8medium10 and 8small0 books2 and1 if the ordinary sheets of paper which he uses will fold in convenient folio1 quarto1 and octavo sizes1 it is well that he make these his standards for paper books4 ,paper being made in sheets of various dimensions1 by folding a large or a small sheet1 a 8large0 or 8small0 folio--#dto1 #hvo--can be obtained4 ,it may be noted that the length and the width of sheets of paper#ai are very commonly about as #i is to #g4 ,and therefore1 when the sheet is folded for folio or octavo1 the proportions are roughly about #g3 #d-a_/b1 which are very good proportions for a page of a book4 ,it is obvious that a narrow 78upright07 book is easier to handle and more pleasant in appearance 7when open7 than an album or 8oblong0 shape of book 7b and c1 fig4 #gj74 ,,the ,,widths ,,of ,,the ,,margins ,margins are necessary in order to isolate and frame a text3 thus they contribute to its legibility and beauty4 ,it is better that they be wide rather than narrow 7see p4 #ajf1 ,note1 p4 #bfe72 but excessively wide margins are often neither convenient nor pleasing 7see p4 #bbb74 ,the 8page0 or column of text should be in such proportion to the page of the book1 and be placed on it in such a way as to leave adequate p#ajd margins on every side4 ,a narrow column of text is generally best1 for short lines are easiest to write and to read1 and do not tire the hand1 or the eye1 in passing from one line to the next4 ,for this reason the text is often divided into two or more columns when the page is wide1 or the writing is very small in comparison4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gj4 ,the exact proportion of margin to text in a given page depends on circumstances1 and is largely a matter of taste 7ex4 fig4 #ga note #b1 b1 p4 #bef74 ,but just as it is advantageous generally to keep to certain p#ajf sizes of pages1 it is well to keep to certain--corresponding--sizes of margins for regular use4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ga4--;,diagram showing the ruling of a 7,recto7 page #d-c_/d inches #g-a_/d inches as for a manuscript book 7allowing five or six words to the ,writing-line74 ,there are fifteen ,writing-lines1 the ,line-space being #e_/af inch4 ,the proportions of large ,,capitals1 shown above1 are set by the ,line-space 7footnote1 p4 #bba74 ,the ,foot margin is #a-g_/h inch4 ,the proportions of the margins to each other follow a sort of tradition 7see fig4 #gj71 the foot margin 7#d7 usually being twice as wide as that at the top 7#b71 the side margins generally greater than the top and less than the foot4 ,the two pages of an opening may be viewed as one sheet having two columns of text2 and the two inner margins1 which combine to form an interspace1 are therefore made narrow 7about #a-a_/b each71 so that together they are about equal to one side margin 7fig4 #gj74 ,these proportions 7#a-a_/b3 #b3 #c3 #d7 approximate to the proportions common in early ,,mss4 ,sufficient and proportional margins add greatly to the usefulness and beauty of a book4 ,that the writers and illuminators used them when books were read and valued in a way we can scarcely realise now1 shows that such things are not1 as some might suppose1 a matter of affectation4 ,besides the natural fitness of the common proportions commends them3 a deep foot margin is a foundation to the whole1 and gives a spare piece for the reader to hold1#bj and wide side margins rest the eyes and keep the text from 8running off the page0 at the end of each line2 and 7the two7 narrow inner margins combine to separate the pages sufficiently1 but not too far1 so that they form two 8columns0 together1 framed by the outer margins of the open book4 ,when books are meant to be bound1 from #a_/af inch to #a_/h inch extra margin should be allowed all round the page for the cutting down and binding4 ,the p#ajg binding is apt to encroach on the inner margins1 especially in vellum books1 which do not open fully2 in order1 therefore1 that the inner margins may keep their proper width1 an extra width of #a_/h to #a_/d inch 7according to the stiffness of the material7 is allowed4 ,,the ,,size ,,of ,,the ,,writing1 ,c4 ,the shape1 size1 and margins of the page 7already settled7 together determine the length of the writing-line 7see fig4 #ga72 and the size of the writing should be such as will allow a reasonable number of words to that line4#ba ,eight or nine words to the line is a common proportion in ordinary printed books1 and may be taken by the scribe as his ordinary maximum4 ,lines having very many words are difficult to read4 ,on the other hand1 lines of only two or three words each are generally tiresome1 though they may be allowed in special cases of fine writing 7see p4 #bfb71 where it is less necessary to economise space or time1 and the effect of an even mass is not desired4 ,but in any case where there is an attempt to make the right-hand edge of the text approximately even1 at least four or five words to the line are necessary2 the scribe may therefore take four words per line as his ordinary minimum4 ,we may say generally1 then1 that an ordinary manuscript book should contain between four and eight words 7or between #be and #ej letter-spaces7 to the line4 p#ajh ,the exact size of the writing allowed in a given case may be found by a process of guess and trial1 but this is seldom necessary for the practical scribe who uses regular sizes for regular occasions4 ,the line spacing4--,the size of the letter determines approximately the distance apart of the writing-lines 7see pp4 #gi1 #cbg74 ,much depends on whether the ascending and descending letters are long or short 7see fig4 #aed74 ,the number of writing-lines to the page equals the number of times that the line-space is contained in the text-column 7i4e4 the height of the page less the top and foot margins7--allowing for the top line not requiring a full space 7see fig4 #ga74 ,any fractional space left over may be added to the foot margin1 or1 if nearly equal to one line-space1 a little may be taken from the margins to complete it4 ,the ,large ,capitals are commonly one1 two1 or more of the line-spaces in height 7fig4 #ga1 p4 #abh74 ,,ruling ,having folded and cut the large sheet of paper into small 7book7 sheets of the size determined on1 take one of these as a pattern and rule it throughout as if it were to be used in the book4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gb4 ,the ruling stylus has a blunt point1 which indents the paper1 but does not scratch it4 ,a stout pin bent to a claw shape and held in a piece of wood does very well 7fig4 #gb74 p#aji ,under the writing paper there should be a 8pad0 of ordinary paper 7or blotting paper74 ,the marginal lines are ruled from head to foot of each leaf 7a1 fig4 #gc74 ,besides being a guide for the writing1 they give an appearance of straightness and strength to the written page4#bb ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gc4 ,the writing lines are ruled across1 between the marginal lines1 their places having been indicated by equidistant dots 7b1 fig4 #gc74 ,a dozen or more of the small sheets of the book are piled together on a board with their top edges exactly coinciding1 and the pattern sheet is accurately placed on the top of the pile4 ,the pile of sheets may be fixed by a narrow piece of wood placed across and screwed down 7fig4 #gd74 7,see ,addenda1 p4 #be47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gd4 ,the writing line dots are p#aaj pricked through all the sheets by means of a fine awl or needle set in a wooden handle 7fig4 #ge74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ge4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gf4 ,the writing lines are ruled as in fig4 #gf 7sometimes across the narrow inner margins74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gg4 ,for double writing lines a double-ruling stylus may be made of two pins fixed in a wooden handle at the exact width of the writing gauge 7fig4 #gg74 ,,ms4 ,,books--,,general ,,remarks ,sections 7p4 #ajb74--;,a section1 or 8gathering10 commonly consists of four book-sheets1 folded in half into eight leaves 7i4e4 sixteen pages71 but three or even two sheets are sufficient when they are extra thick1 and five or six may be used when extra thin4 ,parchment sheets should have their smooth sides so placed together that each 8opening0 of the book has both its pages rough or both smooth and the pages are pounced after they are ruled 7see p4 #agd74 ,before the writing is begun the pages of the section are numbered on the inner marginal line1 p#aaa about #a_/b inch or so below the footline4 ,this will prevent mistakes4 ,fly-leaves4--,one or more leaves of the first and last sections in a book are left blank 7besides the extra sheet or section 7p4 #cdf7 which is used in the binding--attached to the cover74 ,a book of any size or importance ought to have at least three fly-leaves at the beginning1 and three or four at the end4 ,these extra leaves protect the manuscript1 and1 in a sense1 constitute margins for the whole body of the text4 ,they may also be used to make thin books thicker1 for the sake of the binding4 ,at the end of ,service books1 or other books likely to be of permanent interest1 additional fly-leaves should be provided for notes and annotations 7see pp4 #cdd1 #cdf74 ,rough or ,smooth ,edges4--,the rough 8,deckle0 edges of hand-made paper are inconvenient in a book of any thickness1 and should be trimmed off after folding1 though they may be left in the case of very thin books4 ,the deckle edge should not occur at the top of the page1 as it would there be a trap for dust1 and because it is important that the tops of pages should all be level4 ,the top edge or head of a book is often cut and gilt in order to keep out the dust--this is called 8,library gilt40 ,it is more suitable1 however1 that all the edges be gilt4 ,the ,top ,margins throughout the book are kept quite level4 ,any irregularity at the top of a page catches the eye at once1 while slight differences at the side1 or considerable differences at the foot1 may occur without spoiling the appearance of the margins4 ,all measurements for marginal and writing lines1 c41 are therefore made from the p#aab fold of the book-sheet and from the top edge1 which is cut at right angles to the fold4 ,regular ,writing4--,in writing one page it is a good plan to have its fellow page1 or a similarly written one1 fixed on the desk beside it as a pattern4 ,this will save the beginner from a very common error--writing larger or smaller 7which of course spoils the look of the pages74 ,initial ,page4--,the text of a book commonly begins on a recto1 or right hand1 page 7see p4 #cfe74 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,versal ,,letters ,,coloured ,,capitals ,development of ,versals -- ,general ,analysis of ,versals -- ,notes on ,construction of ,versals -- ,spacing ,arrangement of ,versals4 ,,development ,,of ,,versals ,the earliest books consisted of a number of lines of continuous writing in capital letters4 ,there were seldom any divisions of the text--into paragraphs1 chapters1 or the like--or even of one word from another2 nor were important words distinguished by larger initials4 ,the first division of paragraphs was made by a slight break in the text and a mark2 later1 the first letter of the first complete line of the new paragraph was placed in the margin and written larger4 ,when 8small-letters0 were evolved1 capitals ceased to be used for the body of the text1 and became distinguishing letters for headings and important words4 p#aac ,the capitals written at the beginnings of books1 chapters1 and paragraphs grew larger and more ornamental1 and at length were made in colour and decorated with pen flourishes4 ,such letters1 used to mark the beginnings of verses1 paragraphs1 c41 were called 8,versals40#bc ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gh4 ,in modern printing and ordinary writing the first line of a paragraph is generally indented 7a1 fig4 #gh71 but the earlier method of employing a special mark or letter 7b or c7 is more effective1 and it might very well be used1 even in modern printed books1 for fine editions4 ,affording a legitimate opening for illumination and book-ornament1 it was 7and is7 the natural method for the penman1 who1 starting with these useful capitals1 by flourishing them--in their p#aad own colour1 or by dotting1 outlining1 or ornamenting them1 with a contrasting colour 7see fig4 #gi1 from an old ,,ms471 evolved the ,illuminated ,initial4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gi 7#acth century74 ,types of ,versal ,letters 7examples3 ,plates ,,ix41 ,x41 ,,xi41 ,,xii41 and figs4 #a1 #gh to #id1 #aej1 #afa1 #afe1 #aff1 #ahi74--,the earlier ,versals had very simple and beautiful pen shapes1 and are the best models for the modern penman to follow4 ,after the fourteenth century they were often fattened and vulgarised and overdone with ornament4 ,in this way they not only lost their typical forms2 but their 8essential forms0--as letters derived from the ,roman ,alphabet--became much disguised and confounded 7see fig4 #abh74 p#aae ,,general ,,analysis ,,of ,,versals #a4 ,,the ,,letters 7,pen-made71 ,built-up1 ,ornamental 7coloured71 8,gothic0 ,capitals 7,round and ,square forms74 #b4 ,,horizontals-- ,,straight3 ,medium--commonly the width of the nib4 ,,curved3 ,thin--the thin stroke of the pen4 #c4 ,,perpendiculars3 ,built-up1 slightly curved in on either side4 #d4 ,,serifs3 ,long1 thin1 slightly curved4 #e4 ,,long ,,stems3 ,various 7see p4 #aai1 figs4 #hd1 #ij74 #f4 ,,spacing-- ,letters ,words3 ,various 7see figs4 #hi1 #ib1 #aff74 ,lines3 ,usually one or more of the line-spaces apart 7see pp4 #abf1 #abh74 #g4 ,,arrangement3 ,singly3 set in text or margin1 or part in both 7fig4 #hf74 ,grouped3 after large initials 7fig4 #ib74 ,in ,lines3 wide or close1 often one word to the line 7fig4 #hi74 #h4 ,,measurements3 ,stem width3 commonly two or three widths-of-nib across thinnest part 7fig4 #afe74 ,o height3 commonly one1 two1 or more of the line-spaces4 #i4 ,,component ,,parts3 ,a has approx4 #aj strokes filling4 ,b has approx4 #h strokes filling4 ,c has approx4 #g strokes filling4 and so on 7see fig4 #ha74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hj4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ha4 p#aah ,,notes ,,on ,,construction ,,of ,,versals 7,see figs4 #hj1 #ha1 #he1 #afe7 ,versal ,letters are properly built-up 7p4 #bia7 with true pen-strokes 7b1 fig4 #ha74 ,drawn or painted1 they acquire a different character 7p4 #bib74 ,their office being to mark important parts of the text1 they are generally distinguished by colour and freedom of form--tending to curves and flourishes4 ,the pen has an extra long slit 7#a_/b inch to #c_/d inch71 and the writing-board may be lowered 7see fig4 #df1 b7 to permit of the thick1 liquid colour running out freely4 ,the nib is of the ordinary shape 7but not too oblique71 and generally rather less in width than the nib used for the accompanying text 7a1 fig4 #ha74 ,the outlining strokes are quickly written and immediately filled in1 each letter being loaded well with the colour1 which thereafter dries evenly1 with a slightly raised 8flat0 surface4 ,the liquid colour should be fairly thick 7see colour1 p4 #agf74 8,gothic lettering0 is a term used for 8,black-letter0 and related types1 as distinguished from 8,roman0 types4 8,gothic0 capitals tend to roundness1 the small-letters to angularity1 but in each the abrupt change from thick to thin strokes1 and the resulting contrast of stroke1 are characteristics--the result of pen work4#bd ,in ,versals this contrast is marked2 the ends of the thinner strokes spread 7see ,addenda1 p4 #be1 cross-bar of ,a1 fig4 #ga71 and the heavy parts are crossed by thin serifs4 ,versals may retain their pen character and yet approach p#aai the 8,roman ,letter0 7p4 #bid71 or be changed into the ornate 8,lombardic0 7p4 #cd74 ,they are capable of great variety1 and the 8round0 or 8square0 ,d1 ,e1 ,h1 ,m1 and ,w may be used at pleasure4 ,the ,stems curve in slightly on either side4 ,when they are very tall the mid part may be quite straight1 imperceptibly curving out towards the ends 7b1 fig4 #hb74 ,this gives an effect of curvature throughout the length1 while keeping the letter graceful and straight4 ,the head of a stem 7especially of an ascender7 should be slightly wider than the foot 7fig4 #hc74 ,this applies generally to every sort of built-up capitals4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hb4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hc4 ,the stem width may be nearly the same in ,versals of different heights 7a1 fig4 #hd73 generally the letters tend to become more slender in proportion as the letters grow taller 7b74 ,very large ,versals 7or initials7 are often made with a hollow stem to avoid a heavy appearance 7,l1 fig4 #hd74 p#abj ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hd4 ,the ,serifs are long and slightly curved in ornamental forms 7fig4 #gi73 shorter1 and nearly straight in stiffer forms 7fig4 #aff74 ,in many cases the serifs appear to have been written first1 the stems being added between them 7f1 fig4 #ha7--;in old ,,mss4 the stems often show ragged ends crossing the serifs4 ,sometimes the serif appears to have been added to the stem in two pieces1 half on either side springing from the corners of the stem 7g74 ,the safest way seems to be the complete finishing stroke added to1 and forming sharp angles with1 the stem 7h74 ,arms or ,branches4--,width of nib at start1 and built-up at free end4 7,pen horizontal1 figs4 #ha1 #afe74 p#aba ,illustration3 ,fig4 #he4 ,the ,bows or ,curves of ,versals 7and of built-up letters generally7 are begun with the inside stroke--a rather flat curve3 and finished with the outer stroke--a pronounced curve 7a1 fig4 #he74 ,this preserves p#abb the continuity of the interior curve1 together with the clean contrast of the thick and thin strokes 7see inside shapes1 p4 #bec74 ,the normal form may be flattened or curved a little 7b71 but exaggeration in either direction produces a degraded form4 ,part round letters1 as ,d1 ,p1 and q1 may be begun with a complete inner oval1 or a nearly completed ,o 7to which the stem is added72 this preserves their interior symmetry 7c74 ,the beauty and quality of ,versal letters depends very much on their freedom2 touching-up or trimming after they are made is apt to spoil them2 and when good letters are made with a free hand1 minute roughnesses1 which are due to their quick construction1 may be regarded as shewing a good rather than a bad form of care-less workmanship 7see 7c7 fig4 #afd74 ,,spacing ,,arrangement ,,of ,,versals 7,allowing for the special treatment of ,versals called for by the extreme freedom and elasticity of their pen forms1 the following remarks apply generally to the spacing and arrangement of coloured capitals in written pages7 ,versals accompanying ,small ,text are generally dropped below the writing-line1 so that their tops are level with the tops of the small letters 7fig4 #hf74 ,sizes of ,versals4--,letters which are of the same importance--i4e4 serve the same purpose--are usually of like size and form throughout2 and the more important a letter1 the more it tends to be elaborated and decorated 7see figs4 #ij1 #ib74 ,special words in ,text marked by ,versals4--,where coloured capitals are used throughout the text 7fig4 #ib71 the colours are usually varied 7pp4 #acd1 #ahe74 p#abc ,line beginnings marked by ,versals4--,where every line on a page begins with a coloured capital1 the majority of the forms are kept rather plain 7see 7#e7 p4 #acf74 ,they may be effectively treated as a band of simple or variegated colour 7p4 #acf74 ,this is a common treatment for a list of names or a poem2 sometimes1 especially if there are many lines1 simple-written capitals 7p4 #big7 may be used instead of ,versals4 ,verses or ,paragraphs may be marked by ,versals set in the text 7a71 or part in margin1 part in text 7b71 or wholly in the margin 7c1 fig4 #hf74 ,the marginal capital is the simplest1 and it has the advantage of leaving the page of text entire2 it may1 however1 sometimes be desirable to break the continuity by an inset capital1 especially in cases of closely written text1 or of stanzas not spaced apart 7see p4 #ach74 ,the first word of a paragraph1 which is begun with a ,versal1 is often completed in simple-written capitals of the same colour as the text 7a1 fig4 #hf74 ,various ways of marking ,paragraphs4--7a7 ,the paragraph marks 1 1 preferably coloured1 may be used instead of 7or even with7 ,versals 7comp4 fig4 #ie72 7b7 by one word or line 7or several words or lines7 of simple-written 7or built-up7 capitals in black or colour 7see fig4 #ic72 7c7 by some suitable ornament 7see fig4 #hg72 7d7 in many cases it is well to have spaces between the paragraphs or verses 7see p4 #ach74 ,line-,finishings at the ends of ,verses1 c4 7pp4 #bje1 #dbe71 may be made with the ,versal pens and colours4 p#abd ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hf4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hg4 p#abe ,to mark ,chapters 7or even ,books71 extra large ,versals 7fig4 #hh7 may be used1 in lieu of more elaborate initials4 ,smaller ,versals may be grouped round about1 beside or inside initials 7p4 #bjh fig4 #ib74 ,headings and ,pages in ,capitals 7see also pp4 #abh1 #acb74--;,each line of capitals is generally kept uniform throughout its length1#be though different lines vary in size and colour 7see fig4 #hi74 ,if it be possible it is well to keep the individual word entire p#abf and to let the heading or page contain the complete initial phrase or sentence 7see fig4 #ia74 ,generally the greater the number of capitals the plainer their forms are kept1 and the closer their spacing4 ,it is best to keep to the regular method of spacing the lines of ,versals one of the writing-line spaces 7or more7 apart--though in special cases the ,versals may be independent of the writing-lines4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hh4 ,spacing ,out4--,coloured letters and ornaments are usually put in after the plain ,,ms4 has been written4 ,a very little practice enables the scribe accurately to guess the amount of space which he should leave for the ,versals1 c41 whether it is designed to have several lines of them1 or a single letter only on the page4 ,a few pencil marks may be used to settle a doubtful point1 but an elaborate sketching or setting out in pencil spoils the freedom of the work4 p#abg ,,chapter ,,viii ,,black ,,red ,rubricating -- ,initial ,pages or ,title ,pages -- ,prefaces ,notes in ,colour -- ,pages with ,coloured ,headings -- ,page or ,column ,heading ,initial -- ,versals in ,column or ,marginal ,bands -- ,stanzas or ,verses marked by ,versals -- ,music with ,red ,staves -- ,tail-,pieces1 ,colophons1 c4 -- ,rubricating3 ,general ,remarks4 ,,rubricating 8,red1 either in the form of a pigment or fluid ink1 is of very ancient and common use4 ,it is seen on the early ,egyptian papyri2 and it appears in the earliest extant vellum ,,mss41 either in titles or the first lines of columns or chapters4 ,the ,greek term was 2 ,latin minium1#bf rubrica40--7,thompson's 8,g4 ,l4 ,palography10 p4 #ea47 ,rubricating1 or the adding of ,red1 or other coloured1 letters1 line-finishings1 or signs1 to a ,,ms4 or ,book1 in which the main body of the text is already completed in black1 constitutes in itself a very useful and effective form of decoration4 ,it is1 moreover1 a connecting link between plain writing and illumination proper2 and we may safely assume that the artists who made the beautiful illuminations of the ,middle ,ages were trained as scribes and rubricators4 ,,initial ,,pages ,,or ,,title ,,pages ,fig4 #hi represents an ,initial ,page in ,red ,capitals4 7,the same arrangement may of course be used p#abh with a variety of colours and with gold3 see ,note 7#d7 below74 ,such a page is1 as it were1 an 8illumination0 to all the pages1 following it in black text4 ,title ,pages came into fashion after printing was introduced4 ,early ,,mss4 commonly began with the opening words written in large1 decorated capitals1 the title sometimes being written quite small1 near the top of the page3 other details were commonly put in the colophon in early books 7see p4 #adb74 ,when the title is more important1 in a literary sense1 than the opening sentence1 it may be well to follow the modern fashion4 ,but when there is a finely worded opening sentence--perhaps the key-note to the rest of the text--while the title is merely for reference1 it seems reasonable to magnify and illuminate the actual beginning of the book rather than the mere name of it 7see p4 #cfe74 ,note 7#a74--;,in fig4 #hi the title--7,,jesu ,,christi7 ,evangelium ,secundum ,joannem--is written in as a decoration of the initial word2 the old form 8,,ih,v ,,xp,i0 is used for 8,jesu ,christi0 7these letters1 it will be noticed1 are here employed to lighten the large capitals1 see p4 #bjh74 7#b7 ,where ,,in is an initial word1 to enforce narrow initial ,i1 both letters may be magnified4 7#c7 ,the scale of the lettering corresponds with that of the ruled lines 7these do not show in the figure73 the letters and the interlinear spaces are each one line high2 the initial word is four lines high4 ,such a mode of spacing is very simple and effective1 and will save the rubricator much unnecessary trouble and fruitless planning 7see footnote1 p4 #bba74 7#d7 ,other ,colour ,schemes4--,all ,burnished ,gold 7or with ,title in red72 or ,,in gold1 with smaller capitals ,red 7or in ,blue and ,red lines alternately--or ,blue1 ,red1 ,green1 ,red3 see p4 #aha74 p#abi ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hi4 p#acj ,,prefaces ,,notes ,,in ,,colour ,fig4 #ij represents a preface1 or note1 written in red4 ,it was a frequent practice in old ,,mss41 where there were prefaces1 or prologues1 or notes--not actually part of the text--to keep these distinct by writing them in red4 ,a somewhat similar usage still exists in modern typography1 where such parts are sometimes distinguished by ,italic type 7see p4 #cae74 ,the distinction of a preface1 8rubric10 or note from the main body of the text makes a book more readable1 and1 as a page of red 7or blue7 writing is very pleasant and effective1 we may certainly take advantage of such a reasonable excuse for introducing it4 ,entire books have been written in red1 but this is a questionable mode1 as too much red text would tire the eye4 ,note 7#a74--,the writing is founded on the tenth-century ,english hand given in ,plate ,,viii4 7#b7 ,the flourishes on s and e fill gaps at the ends of the lines1 and the spread out ,a ,m ,e ,n fills the last line4 7#c7 ,the ,headline is in simple written capitals4 7#d7 ,the effect of colour contrast of the built-up ,ps with the simple writing3 the solid ,ps 7though really the same colour7 appear to be a much deeper red than the writing1 which is lightened by the intermingled white of the paper4 7#e7 ,other ,colour ,schemes4--,the ,versals 7,pp7 in burnished gold2 the rest in red or blue4 p#aca ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ij4 p#acb ,,pages ,,with ,,coloured ,,headings ,fig4 #ia represents the first page of a chapter 7or a book7 with a ,heading in red capitals4 ,it is convenient in practice clearly to distinguish between the two modes of beginning-- 7a7 with an illuminated ,initial-,page 7see fig4 #hi71 or1 7b7 with an illuminated ,heading 7see fig4 #ia74 ,the former may be treated as though it were a decoration to the whole book4 ,the latter is intended more particularly to decorate its own page4 ,the ,heading should therefore be proportionate to the body of the text below it4 ,about one-third ,heading and two-thirds text make a good proportion4 ,a 8,heading0 occupying half1 or more than half1 of the page is apt to look disproportionate1 and it would be preferable to this to have a complete1 or nearly complete1#bg ,page of coloured capitals4 ,note 7#a74--,the full effect of black and red is obtained by an arrangement of the two colours in marked contrast4 7#b7 ,the lines are used as a scale for the ,heading1 the red capitals and interspaces each being one line high4 ,if a ,heading so spaced appear too close to the first line of black writing1 another line space may be left4 7#c7 ,the round ,es are used to fill out the second line1 and the square1 narrow ,e to relieve the crowded third line4 7#d7 ,other ,colour ,schemes4--,the entire heading1 or the letters ,w1 ,h1 ,b1 ,o1 ,r1 in burnished gold2 or the whole variegated 7see p4 #ahj74 p#acc ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ia4 p#acd ,,page ,,or ,,column ,,heading ,,initial ,fig4 #ib represents the first page of a book or chapter in two columns1 beginning with a rather ornate ,heading1 in which the ,initial is made the principal feature1 and having coloured ,versals and line-finishings throughout the text4 ,it is more difficult to get a good effect in this way than by means of a marked colour contrast 7see p4 #add71 or variegated colour1 and gold 7see ,note #g74 ,note 7#a74--,the lines bounding the text would naturally be indented1 or pale 7not black as in the block71 and ruled from head to foot of the page 7see ,note 7#b7 on the next figure74 7#b7 ,the red ornamental line-finishings 7see p4 #bje7 would be more effective if variegated4 7#c7 ,the ,versals in the text are made about a line high1 but are dropped below the line 7p4 #abb74 7#d7 ,the ,versals in the ,heading are made one line high1 with one-line spacing--between ,o and ,d increased to two lines 7partly filled by a flourish from the ,d71 in order to fit the ,u1 ,o1 and ,d in evenly beside the ,initial4 7#e7 ,the ,initial ,q should project slightly up and out--beyond the bounding lines--to mark the top1 left corner more strongly 7see footnote1 p4 #baa74 7#f7 ,all the rubricating on this page is done with the same pen 7see pp4 #bje1 #bah74 7#g7 ,other ,colour ,schemes4 8,quod fuit ab initio10 the filigree ornament and the ,v ,v in burnished gold 7or the ,q and ,,vv in gold71 the rest of the ,versals and line-finishings in ,red and ,blue1 or ,red and ,green1 or ,red1 ,blue1 and ,green 7see pp4 #aha1 #ahe74 p#ace ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ib4 p#acf ,,versals ,,in ,,column ,,or ,,marginal ,,bands ,fig4 #ic represents two columns of black text1 consisting of short verses1 c41 which are marked by coloured capitals--forming bands of colour--in the margins4 ,note 7#a74--,the coloured capitals in the figure are made rather larger than usual1 to enforce the effect of the two lines of red and mark their contrast with the columns of black text4 ,in practice1 however1 they would be better and more distinct if rather smaller4 7#b7 ,the lines bounding the text would naturally be faint1 or grooved 7p4 #cdc72 but1 ruled from head to foot of the page1 they would be sufficiently apparent to add materially to the general effect of orderly arrangement4 7,lines are printed here to show clearly the way the two columns are ruled and to suggest this effect1 though the process block necessarily gives a false impression in making them appear too short and too heavy74 7#c7 ,extra width between the columns 7and also in the margin7 may be allowed for the coloured capitals 7compare fig4 #ib74 7#d7 ,words in simple written capitals are used to mark slight divisions1 or changes of sense1 in the text4 7#e7 ,a stiff ,versal of a rather 8,roman0 type is used1 partly because of the number of the capitals 7see p4 #abf74 7#f7 ,other ,colour ,schemes4--,the larger capitals might be in burnished gold1 the rest in red 7or in red1 blue1 and green72 or all might be in red1 blue1 and green4 p#acg ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ic4 p#ach ,,stanzas ,,or ,,verses ,,marked ,,by ,,versals ,fig4 #id represents a poem in two verses which are distinguished by interspaces and by coloured capitals--a brief introductory line also being in colour4 7,it is supposed that the poem occurs in a book--mainly in prose--written in ,roman small-letters47 ,it is generally best to distinguish the verses of poems by one-line interspaces4 ,when this is done1 coloured initials are not so necessary1 and their value become chiefly decorative 7see #abc74 ,note 7#a74--,the writing is founded on 8,italic0 7see ,plate ,,xxi471 and 7it is supposed that7 it would be used here wherever the songs occurred2 firstly1 to distinguish them from the rest of the text1 and secondly1 to keep the lines of the poem entire--,italics occupying less room than ordinary1 round ,small-,letters 7see p4 #cae74 7#b7 ,the story opens with the first line1 which may in this case be regarded either as a ,title or as a prefatory note in red4 7#c7 ,the two red capitals are made of a rather 8,roman0 type to match the ,italic 7and the small ,roman text of the book74 ,the difference in height made between the ,w and the ,s is intended to balance the difference in width1 and to give them an appearance of equal weight4 ,this may be permitted where there are only a few capitals2 where there are many1 their heights are generally kept more uniform4 7#d7 ,another ,colour ,scheme4--,w and ,s would look better in burnished gold4 p#aci ,illustration3 ,fig4 #id4 p#adj ,,music ,,with ,,red ,,staves ,fig4 #ie is a reproduction1 in facsimile1 showing quarter of a page of a folio ,service ,book 7probably ,french1 early sixteenth century74 ,the page consists of two columns of ten staves each1 and is headed ,in vigi 7lia71 natiuitatis dn4 ,the book is printed on vellum in red and black2 the columns of music have faint red bounding lines ruled by hand 7not shown in the figure74 ,the red stave is very effective1 and it was commonly used in early ,,mss4 and printed books4 ,there appears to be some doubt1 however1 as to its practical value1 and ,i have been advised that it is not so legible as the black line stave1 and also that1 in ,church ,service ,books 7see p4 #cde71 in order to make an absolutely clear distinction1 red should be reserved entirely for the rubrics4 ,the 8plain-song0 chant1 with its four-line stave1 has a simpler and finer appearance than the more modern and elaborate five-lined stave and tailed notes4 ,the latter1 however1 may yet be treated very effectively4 ,note #a4--,the mark and the capitals 1 and were blotted--it can scarcely be called 8painted0--with yellow4 ,yellow or red were often used in this way to mark the small black capitals in printed books 7p4 #dbh1 comp4 p4 #cjb74 ,it is a questionable method4 7,these blots have been removed from the figure--except1 by an oversight1 in the case of 74 7#b7 ,other ,colour ,schemes4--7a7 ,the title1 or 7b7 the text and the notes1 might be in burnished gold 7the other parts in either case remaining in red and black74 p#ada ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ie4 p#adb ,,tail-,,pieces1 ,,colophons1 ,c4 ,fig4 #if represents a coloured ,tail-piece or decorative finish at the end of a book 7or chapter74 ,the ,colophon 7see p4 #abh figs4 #ac1 #aia71 generally distinguished from the text by a smaller or different hand1 and--especially in early printed books--by colour or other decorative treatment1 occurs at the end of a book1 where it is the traditional right of the penman and the printer to add a statement or a symbolical device4 ,the ,name 7of craftsman and assistants71 ,time1 and ,place are commonly stated--preferably quite simply--e4g4 8,this book1 written out by me1 ,a4,b41 in ,,london1 was finished on the #cast day of ,,december #aijj40 ,any reasonable matter of interest concerning the text1 the materials1 methods1 lettering1 or ornament1 and an account of the number of leaves and their size1 c41 may be added4 ,but the craftsman1 properly and modestly keeping his name off the title-page1 is at liberty to exercise his right1 marking the end of1 and signing his work in any way he chooses--even in a speech or a sentiment--provided the form of the colophon be unobtrusive and its language natural4 ,printer's devices or book-marks1 consisting of symbols1 monograms1 c4 7p4 #cfb71 were likewise used4 ,the opportunity generally provided by the final margin1 and the natural wish to close the book with a fitting ornament1 also led to the use of colour or capitals in the concluding lines2 and sometimes the 8tail0 of the text was given a triangular form1 the lines becoming shorter and shorter till they ended in a single word1 or even one letter4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #if4 p#add ,,rubricating3 ,,general ,,remarks ,contrast of ,red and ,black4--,the most effective arrangement of red lettering with black text involves a sharp contrast1 and1 as a rule1 the concentration of the red in a line or mass 7see figs4 #ia1 #ic1 and #if1 where the red lettering is massed at the head1 side1 and foot of the black74 ,too many red capitals scattered through a page lose their effect1 and appear as though they were brown-red rather than bright red 7see pp4 #acd1 #ahe74 ,printed title-pages1 c41 may be seen with promiscuous lines of black and red1 in which the fine effects obtainable by the use of bright colour is dispersed and lost2 while the same1 or even a less1 amount of red1 massed in one or two places in the page1 would show to great advantage4 ,notes in ,red in ,margins4--,red lettering1 and particularly small red writing1 may be used freely in the margins2 being much lighter than black1 it appears there as a marginal decoration1 not interfering with the regular look of the page4 ,indeed1 red may be used more freely1 and ,i think its decorative effect is greater1 in the form of rubrics1 than in any other simple form of ornament 7see ,red in ,church ,service ,books 7pp4 #adj1 #cde7 and ,red substituted for ,italics 7p4 #cae774 ,paragraph and other ,marks4--,various symbols1 numerals1 and marks 7such as 99 _/,v --,addenda1 p4 #be7 may be made in red4 ,red ,lines4--,lines made to divide1 or outline1 pages 78rules0 or 8rule borders07 should be sparingly used1 and then rather in black than in red 7see p4 #cfd74 ,if in red1 particularly between lines of writing1 these should be 8ruled feint0 with diluted colour4 p#ade ,red for ,ornaments4--,red may be used pretty freely with other colours 7blue1 green1 and gold71 but by itself more sparingly4 ,,other ,,colours4--,the foregoing remarks refer mainly to contrasts of black and red1 but apply1 to a certain extent1 to black with any bright colour 7or gold7 7see 8,other ,colour ,schemes0 given above1 and p4 #ahj74 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,laying ,,burnishing ,,gold ,tools ,materials -- ,laying the ,ground -- ,laying the ,gold-,leaf -- ,burnishing the ,gold -- ,remedying ,faults in ,gilding -- ,gold ,writing -- ,other ,methods ,recipes for ,gilding -- ,appendix on ,gilding 7by ,graily ,hewitt74 ,,tools ,,materials ,these should be kept together in a convenient box1 as it is important that the process should not be interrupted by a search for a missing tool4 ,tools and ,materials4 ,summary of ,process4 ,,hard ,,lead ,,pencil4 ,for drawing forms if necessary4 ,,pounce4 ,for preparing surface3 8pouncing40 8,,size0 ,,or ,,raising ,,preparation4 ,for raising and backing leaf4 ,,small ,,saucer4 ,for mixing size in4 ,,needle ,,set ,,in ,,handle4 ,for bursting bubbles1 c4 ,,quill ,,pen4 ,for 8laying0 the size4 ,,knife4 ,for trimming size1 c4 ,,gold-,,leaf4 ,for gilding4 p#adf ,,scissors4 ,for cutting gold-leaf4 ,,burnishing-,,slab4 ,for backing the parchment or paper while under pressure4 ,,breathing-,,tube4 ,for damping size4 ,,rubbing-,,paper4 ,for pressing leaf on to size4 ,,chalk ,,or ,,soft ,,lead ,,pencil4 ,for marking form on rubbing-paper4 ,,burnisher1 ,,tooth ,,shape4 ,for 7#a7 pressing down1 and 7#b7 burnishing gold-leaf4 ,,feather 7,brush1 c474 ,for dusting off the pounce4 ,,brush4 ,for brushing off waste leaf4 7,,hard ,,indiarubber47 7,for removing gold from parchment47 7,,powder ,,gold ,,fine ,,brush47 7,for 8mending0 in certain cases47 ,,laying ,,the ,,ground ,drawing the ,form4--,elaborate letters or ornaments may be drawn with a hard pencil1 which will leave slight indentations in the surface of the page when the marks of the lead have been removed with indiarubber4 ,in the case of free lettering or gold writing1 however1 the forms should be made directly with the pen 7see pp4 #adh1 #afd74 ,preparing the ,surface3 ,pouncing4--,the surface is thoroughly cleaned and prepared with powdered pumice stone1 or other suitable 8pounce0 7see pp4 #afg1 #agd74 ,this being rubbed well into the actual part which is to take the size absorbs grease and slightly roughens#bh the surface4 ,the surrounding parts are also pounced to prevent the gold-leaf from sticking to them later4 ,composition of the ,ground or ,size4 ,the chief p#adg substance in a 8size0 or raising preparation is generally some kind of earthy matter1 to give it body4 ,other substances1 having toughness and stickiness1 are used to bind the earthy matter and prevent its breaking when the page is turned over or bent1 and also to make the size adhere to the page and the gold-leaf stick to the size4 ,yellow or red colouring matter is often added4 ,a preservative1 such as oil of cloves--in a minute quantity--may be present3 this will permit of the size being kept in a semi-liquid condition1 in a closed jar4 ,the following recipe was given to me by ,mr4 ,g4 ,loumyer3-- 8,chalk 7,whiting74 ,oxide of ,iron--#a_/b grain4 ,glue 7,carpenter's7--#d grains4 ,gum ,arabic--#b grains4 ,water--#ej grains4 ,melt the gum and the glue together in the water1 then add the oxide of iron1 and lastly put in enough chalk to make the whole a rather liquid paste4 ,apply to the parchment1 which you have previously well rubbed with whiting1 and1 when dry1 apply the gold-leaf with alcohol40 ,mixing the ,size with ,water4--,a little of the size1 taken from the jar 7see above71 is put in the saucer with a few drops of water to soak for an hour or two4 ,it is then rubbed down with a finger-tip1 care being taken to mix it very thoroughly and to avoid making bubbles4 ,the right consistency is judged by experience--it should be thick rather than thin4 ,it is essential that all the ingredients be present in their right proportions1 and the mixture should be stirred every now and then4 ,otherwise the earthy p#adh matter settles down1 and the sticky parts1 remaining in solution above1 are liable to be used up4 ,what is left in the saucer after use is apt to be deficient in its sticky parts1 and it is best thrown away4 ,take out of the jar only what is required at the time1 and mix a fresh lot the next time4 ,bubbles1 formed in the mixture1 may be burst by a needle1 or by adding a minute drop of oil of cloves4 ,methods of ,laying the ,size4--,the parchment or paper is laid flat on a table2 if on a slope1 the size would run down and lie unevenly4 ,a quill pen with a finely cut nib and an extra long slit 7about #e_/h inch7 is used for laying the size4 ,it is filled pretty full by means of a quill or a brush2 if by the latter1 special care must be taken to avoid bubbles4 ,experiments should be made in various methods4 ,i4 ,perhaps the best way of laying the size1 so that it may set properly and that the burnish may retain its brilliance1 is to put on a thin coat with a pen--in the direct manner in which coloured ,versals are made 7q4v47--and afterwards add two or three thin coats1 allowing each coat to dry thoroughly4 ,this requires considerable patience and skill1 as it takes a long time1 and there is a danger1 in adding several coats1 of spoiling the form by going over the edges4 ,,ii4 ,the simplest method for ordinary gold letters is to make them with one extra thick coat#bi of size1 exactly like coloured ,versals--first a natural pen outline1 and then the filling in 7see fig4 #ha74 ,this requires some practice to do well1 as the thicker size is more difficult to manage than the p#adi colour4#cj ,very narrow parts--such as the thin strokes--are apt to be deficient in size1 and therefore1 while they are still wet1 the pen--held nearly vertical with the nib in contact with the surface of the size--is moved slowly along it until the stroke has received sufficient size and is properly filled out4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ig4 ,,iii4 ,a method that may be found more convenient for heavy forms1 is to hold the pen across the form to be gilded 7which has previously been marked on the parchment7 with its nib resting on the further outline 7a1 fig4 #ig74 ,the nib being moved along that line1 by contact with the parchment restrains the size from passing beyond it1 while allowing it to flow out freely behind and below 7a1 #b74 ,the opposite side is similarly treated1 and1 if the form be narrow1 the size as it flows out blends with that already laid 7b74 ,the ends of the form are finished in like manner 7c74 p#aej ,the angle of the pen with the parchment is less for a wider form 7b1 fig4 #ih74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ih4 ,as a general rule the size should stand pretty high when wet2 it shrinks in drying1 and1 if it forms too thin a coat1 it will neither hold the gold-leaf fast nor burnish well4 ,while the size is still wet it is easy to raise it to any height desired by running more size into the form in the manner described above4 ,it is well1 however1 not to raise the size too high1 as burnished gold too much raised looks out of place on a page and has a heavy and vulgar appearance 7p4 #ahd74 ,very high raising also does not dry so well1 and when dry it is more liable to chip4 ,the work of laying the size should be carried out as quickly as possible4 ,if one part of the form is left any appreciable time before the remaining parts are sized1 the first part will begin to settle and dry1 and the different layings will not blend or lie evenly4 ,though the size is thick and awkward to use at first1 a little skill will coax it quickly and evenly out of the pen1 and it will all blend and dry with an even surface4 ,when it is sized1 put the work away to dry in a p#aea drawer or safe place where it cannot be smudged or get dusty4 ,drying the ,size4--,the average time allowed is twenty-four hours1 but it varies with the weather and the temperature2 damp weather may make a longer time necessary1 and dry weather or heat will shorten the time4 ,the thickness of the raising affects the time very much2 a very thin coat will dry in an hour or two1 while an extra thick coat may take several days4 ,size not dry enough is too sticky to burnish2 if too dry1 it is so absorbent that it sucks up all the moisture which is breathed on it4 ,to ensure the gold-leaf's sticking thoroughly1 it is safer on the whole to gild the size while it is still slightly damp1 and delay the burnishing till it is drier4 ,the time to allow and the right condition of the size for gilding can only be accurately judged by experience4 ,,laying ,,the ,,gold-,,leaf ,note4--,in illuminated ,,mss41 in order to avoid risk of injury to the gold it may be laid last of all 7see pp4 #agj-a74 ,the inexperienced illuminator1 however1 may find it better to follow the easier method of finishing the gold before applying the colours4 ,the process of gold-laying must be carried out steadily and quickly2 all the necessary tools1 c41 should be ready to hand 7see p4 #ade74 ,the ,gold-,leaf4--,this is sold in books of twenty-five leaves4 ,the ordinary leaf1 about #c-a_/d inches square1 consisting of gold and alloy1 is said to be beaten out to less than #a_/bjj1jjj inch in thickness4 ,as gold sticks readily to gold1 especially when very thin and liable to wrinkle and fold over1 or to paper1 red p#aeb bole or ochre is scattered between the leaves of the ordinary book4 ,this powder will come off on the work and give it an ugly colour1 when burnishing1 unless it is dusted off very carefully4 ,it is better to get gold 8double0 7or 8quadruple07 the ordinary thickness1 specially prepared for fine work such as illuminating1 quite pure1 and put up in white books 7without bole74 ,cutting the ,leaf4--,with the scissors1 which must be quite clean and sharp 7or else the gold will stick to them and tear71 cut a whole or half leaf of gold1 together with the paper leaf on which it lies1 out of the book4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ii4 ,the gold is cut on one paper 7fig4 #ii7 7not between papers1 for then it would stick and tear71 and the cut edges of the paper and the gold stick together slightly4 ,if the edge of the gold is anywhere loose and apt to flap about1 it and the corresponding paper edge can be nicked together with the scissors 7fig4 #ajj74 ,the gold-leaf being lightly held to the paper in this way is easily handled4 ,a piece of gold1 about #a_/h inch larger all round than the form to be gilded1 is cut from the leaf in the manner described above 7a1 b1 fig4 #ajj74 ,except in the case of a very large form1 it is not worth trying p#aec to save gold by cutting it out in the same shape4 ,square1 oblong1 and triangular shaped pieces are suitable for ordinary use2 these are laid in a convenient place--the edge of a book cover will do very well 7fig4 #aja7--ready to be picked up at the right moment4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajj4 ,the burnishing slab 7a flat piece of vulcanite1 celluloid1 or metal7 is placed under the page to give it a hard1 firm back1 which will make the pushing and rubbing of the burnisher effective4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aja4 ,preparing the ,size4--,if the size has dried rough1 it may be lightly scraped with the pen-knife--removing as little as possible of the surface1 in which the essential stickiness frequently seems to be concentrated4 p#aed ,ordinarily a form should not require trimming1 though if its edges have accidental roughnesses1 these may be trimmed a little with the pen-knife4 ,damping the ,size4--,the breathing tube is about #a_/b inch 7or less7 in diameter1 and #f inches or more in length2 it may be made of paper or cane4 ,one end of the tube being lightly held between the lips1 the other is moved about over the size1 which is gently breathed upon 7fig4 #ajb74 ,the breath condensing on the surface of the size1 moistens it and renders it sticky4 ,the amount of moistening required depends on the condition of the size4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajb4 ,care has to be taken that the breath does not condense in the tube and drop on to the work4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajc4 ,laying the ,gold-,leaf4--,immediately that the size has been sufficiently breathed upon1 the piece of paper with gold-leaf adhering 7held ready in the right p#aee hand7 is placed upon it1 gold-leaf downwards1 care being taken to place it steadily down1 and not drag it across the size 7fig4 #ajc74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajd4 ,the ,rubbing ,paper--a convenient piece of thin but tough paper 7held ready in the left hand7--is immediately laid above the gold-leaf paper1 and is then rubbed over firmly with the finger-tip1 in order at once to attach the leaf to the size 7fig4 #ajd74 ,it is then quickly rubbed with the soft pencil p#aef or chalk till the raised form underneath is indicated on the surface of the paper 7fig4 #aje74 ,these two operations may be combined by having a little blue chalk either on the finger-tip or on the upper surface of the rubbing paper4 ,round the outline of this form the point of the burnisher#ca is worked1 pressing the gold-leaf firmly--through both the papers--against the size1 in the angle formed by the size and the surface of the parchment 7fig4 #ajf74 ,the fore part of the burnisher is then passed rapidly all over the rubbing paper with a firm pressure 7fig4 #ajg74 ,the rubbing paper and the other paper are picked off1 and an experienced eye can usually tell if the gold is sticking properly by a peculiar1 smooth appearance which it then has4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aje4 ,several ,letters or ,forms which are close together may be gilded simultaneously--with one piece of gold-leaf--as if they were one complex form4 ,this saves time1 but if too many forms are gilded together1 some of them are liable to be less thoroughly and effectually treated4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajf4 ,small ,scattered ,forms 7dots1 c474--,for these the gold-leaf may be cut into a sufficient number of little pieces1 which are allowed to fall 7gold side downwards7 on a sheet placed to receive them4 p#aeg ,they are picked up separately by means of a needle stuck into their backing-paper4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajg4 ,additional ,coats of ,gold-,leaf4--,a second leaf of gold may be laid on immediately on the top of the first2 this will ensure richness and facilitate burnishing4 ,additional leaves may be laid after burnishing1 but1 unless the first gilding is absolutely clean1 there is a risk of the second leaf peeling off when re-burnished4 p#aeh ,,burnishing ,,the ,,gold ,the ,burnisher4--,a tooth-shaped agate burnisher 7fig4 #ajh7 is commonly used4 ,the point is used for pushing the leaf into angles and for burnishing angles 7a74 ,the fore-part for general burnishing 7b74 ,the bend for cross-burnishing and for angles 7c74 ,the side for very gentle and light burnishing 7d74 ,the burnisher is kept scrupulously clean1 and to ensure this it is frequently rubbed on a cloth4 ,dusting off the ,pounce4--,the edge of the parchment may be tapped smartly on the desk to shake off the pounce1 and a feather or a soft handkerchief may be used1 care being taken not to brush the pounce over the gold4 p#aei ,brushing off ,waste ,leaf4--,the superfluous gold round the edge of the gilded form may be lightly brushed off with the tip of the brush4 ,this may be done after or before the burnishing--preferably after 7see p4 #agj74 ,any gold which may have stuck to the surrounding parchment1 in spite of the pouncing1 may be removed with the knife or with the hard indiarubber point1 great care being taken not to touch the gilded size4 ,burnishing the ,gold4--,the gold-leaf may be burnished immediately after laying when the size is very dry1 but it is safer to wait for a quarter of an hour--or longer1 if the size is at all damp 7see ,drying1 p4 #aea74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajh4 ,the slab is again put under the work1 and the burnishing is begun very gently and cautiously3 should the burnisher stick in the very least1 it is instantly stopped 7or else the gold will be scratched off71 examined1 and cleaned4 ,the first strokes of the burnisher are generally carried all over the work1 very lightly and with a p#afj circular movement 7fig4 #aji71 till the gold begins to feel smooth1 and the matt surface gives place to a dull polish4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aji4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aaj4 ,as the gold gets smoother a little more pressure is used1 and the burnisher is moved in straight lines in every direction across the gold 7fig4 #aaj74 ,at this point the gold should have a peculiar and agreeable feeling of smoothness under the burnisher1 an unmistakable sign that all is going well4 ,a rapid light polish with the bend of the burnisher across a gold stem will give a very good finish 7c1 fig4 #ajh74 ,properly burnished gold in a right light is at first as bright as a mirror1 and in some lights may look p#afa quite dark by reason of its smoothness4 ,a piece of white paper may be held at such an angle that the white light from it is reflected by the gold2 this will show the quality of the burnish1 and also show up any brown spots which the leaf may have failed to cover4 ,it is helpful1 moreover1 during the actual process of burnishing to have a reflecting paper folded and standing beside the work 7fig4 #aaa74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aaa4 ,at first the size under the burnished gold is not thoroughly hardened1 and great care should be taken of it 7not to breathe on nor finger the gold in any way1 nor allow it to lie about and get dusty74 ,it is best to put it away safely in a drawer for a week or two4 ,after a week or fortnight1 when the size has set a little more1 it may be very gently re-burnished1 and this may be done again at the end of another p#afb fortnight4 ,this final burnishing1 when the size is nearly hard1 will give it a very lasting polish4 ,it is well1 however1 to take every care of burnished gold1 and to secure it from risk of damage as soon as may be4 ,illuminated miniatures were often protected by a piece of silk between the leaves--and this should be done now1 in the case of fine work4 ,that a bound volume protects the burnished gold within it is proved by the large number of ,,mss4 in which the gold1 laid and burnished #ejj years ago1 is in perfect and brilliant preservation4 ,,remedying ,,faults ,,in ,,gilding ,to lay and burnish gold satisfactorily requires considerable experience4 ,careful practice with a good 8size0 will overcome the chief difficulties3 these1 and their probable causes1 are here summarised3-- ,to make the ,size stick to the ,probable ,causes of ,size ,surface4 not sticking to ,parchment or ,paper4 ,clean and pounce thoroughly3 ,dirty ,surface4 roughen if necessary 7pp4 ,greasy ,surface4 #adf1 #afg74 ,horny ,surface or ,non-porous ,surface4 ,procure or make a proper ,size not sticky enough composition1 mix thoroughly always1 and stir frequently ,size not tough enough 7and when in use4 ,if composition is crumbling off7 at fault1 add-- a4 ,sticky matter4 both causes due to faulty b4 ,toughening matter composition1 or mixing4 p#afc 7pp4 #adg1 #aff1 and ,appendix74 ,to make the ,gold-leaf stick ,probable ,causes of ,gold-leaf to the ,size4 not sticking to ,size4 ,breathe on thoroughly and ,size not damped enough avoid delay in laying the gold due to insufficient breathing 7p4 #aed74 on1 or too absorbent nature or ,do not allow size to dry too condition of1 size4 long 7p4 #aea74 ,more1 and more careful1 ,not sufficient rubbing and rubbing and pressure pressing on of gold4 7p4 #aef74 7,see above47 ,size not sticky enough4 ,raise the size sufficiently ,not enough size1 particularly 7p4 #aej74 ,if not enough when in thin lines and edges4 dry1 roughen surface and add another coat4 ,try re-gilding 7p4 #aeg71 or1 ,the gold may refuse to stick if spots persist1 scrape them in spots with no apparent gently and try again3 failing reason1 but probably from one that1 gently scrape off all or other of the above causes4 the gold and try white of ,or the size may have been egg 7dilute71 or a slight touched accidentally and have re-sizing 7as above74 become greasy or dirty4 ,if the spots are very small and there is not time to spare for re-gilding1 they may be touched with powder gold and dilute white of egg1 and burnished when dry4 ,to make the ,gold-leaf smooth ,probable ,causes of ,gold-leaf's and bright4 not burnishing properly4 a4 ,allow longer time 7p4 #aea74 ,size too sticky4 b4 ,allow longer time 7p4 #aea74 ,due to-- c4 ,remove size and re-size with a4 ,damp weather4 proper composition4 b4 ,insufficient time allowed for drying4 ,sometimes this difficulty may be c4 ,too much sticky matter overcome by using several coats in size4 of gold-leaf 7p4 #aeg74 ,scrape smooth with sharp knife4 ,size rough surfaced4 7,sometimes the size itself is burnished before the gold-leaf is laid47 ,clean burnisher frequently4 ,burnisher becoming dirty4 p#afd ,both paper and parchment when much wet with size are apt to cockle4 ,generally it is not possible1 or desirable 7see p4 #agd71 to guard against this by first stretching the material1 but the size may be used with less water1 so that it will dry sooner4 ,in cases where there is a gold background it may often be divided into small parts 7to be sized at different times7 by the pattern 7see p4 #aia74 ,for large unbroken patches of gold several thin coats may be put on1 one after the other4 ,some sizes have a tendency to crack3 this is difficult to guard against4 ,but1 if the cracks are very minute--such as may be seen in many instances in the best early ,,mss4--they do not constitute a serious blemish4 ,burnished gold is often damaged by careless handling or insufficient protection4 ,,gold ,,writing ,the page 7having been ruled as for ordinary writing7 is thoroughly pounced all over4 ,the pen has an extra long slit1 and the size is made a little more fluid than usual to allow of its flowing freely and making true pen-strokes 7p4 #fc74 ,the desk is lowered 7fig4 #df1 b71 or flat1 so that the size may flow freely4 ,the nib sometimes makes only a wet down-stroke on the parchment1 but1 by lightly pushing the pen up again1 the stroke will be filled by the size which flows out from under the nib4 ,simple pen-strokes in small writing hold but little1 and so ought to be filled as full of size as possible 7pp4 #aej1 #ahd74 ,they will be found to dry much more p#afe quickly than larger forms1 and may be gilded within a few hours of writing4 ,half-a-dozen or more letters are gilded together 7see p4 #aef74 ,,other ,,methods ,,recipes ,,for ,,gilding ,gold-leaf may be cut with a 8gilder's knife0 on a 8gilder's cushion10 and picked up with a 8gilder's tip40 ,water1 white of egg1 or alcohol may be used to make the gold-leaf adhere to the size4 8,transfer gold-leaf0 is convenient1 but the greasiness of the transfer paper is apt to dim the gilding4 ,gold-leaf is made in many shades1 from 8red0 7gold copper7 to 8green0 7gold silver72 though these may be used very effectively1 they are liable to tarnish1 and it is best to begin with pure gold 7see pp4 #aeb1 #afi74 ,silver-leaf oxidises and turns black2 platinum 7a good substitute7 costs about #bs4 #f;d41 and aluminium 7not so good7 about #f;d4 per book4 8,gold ,ink0 has been made with powdered gold3 its effect is inferior to raised and burnished writing4 ,the following is from 8,the ,book of the ,art of ,cennino ,cennini0 7written about the beginning of the fifteenth ,century73 ,translated by ,christiana ,j4 ,herringham1 #ahii3-- 8,chap4 #aeg4--;,how you must do miniature-painting and put gold on parchment4 8,first1 if you would paint miniatures you must draw with a leaden style figures1 foliage1 letters1 or whatever you please1 on parchment1 that is to say1 in books3 then with a pen you must make the delicate permanent p#aff outline of what you have designed4 ,then you must have a paint that is a sort of gesso1 called asiso1 and it is made in this manner2 namely1 a little gesso sottile see chap4 #aaf1 below1 and a little biacca whitelead1 never more of this than equals a third part of the gesso2 then take a little candy1 less than the biacca2 grind these ingredients very finely with clear water1 collect them together1 and let them dry without sun4 ,when you wish to use some to put on gold1 cut off a piece as large as you have need of1 and temper it with the white of an egg1 well beaten1 as ,i have taught you4 ,the froth is allowed to stand for one night to clear itself4 ,temper this mixture with it2 let it dry2 then take your gold1 and either breathing on it or not1 as you please1 you can put it on2 and the gold being laid on1 take the tooth or burnishing-stone and burnish it1 but hold under the parchment a firm tablet of good wood1 very smooth4 ,and you must know that you may write letters with a pen and this asiso1 or lay a ground of it1 or whatever you please--it is most excellent4 ,but before you lay the gold on it1 see whether it is needful to scrape or level it with the point of a knife1 or clean it in any way1 for your brush sometimes puts more on in one place than in another4 ,always beware of this40 8,chap4 #aaf4--;,how to prepare gesso sottile 7slaked plaster of ,paris7 for grounding panels4 8,you must now prepare a plaster for fine grounds1 called gesso sottile4 ,this is made from the same plaster plaster of ,paris as the last1 but it must be well purified 7purgata71 and kept moist in a large tub for at least a month2 renew the water every day until it almost rots1 and is completely slaked1 and all fiery heat goes out of it1 and it becomes as soft as silk4 ,throw away the water1 make it into cakes1 and let it dry2 and this gesso is sold by the druggists to our painters4 ,it is used for grounding1 for gilding1 for working in relief1 and other fine works40 p#afg ,,appendix3 ,,on ,,gilding 7,by ,graily ,hewitt7 ,success with raised gilding can only be expected when practice has rendered attention to the details of the process automatic and there is no need to pause and think4 ,even then the results must be somewhat uncertain and experimental4 ,for our own preparations of size are usually unsatisfactory1 and the ingredients of the best we can buy are unknown to us4 ,and our vellum is certainly not of the quality we find in the old books4 ,some one is badly wanted to investigate the chemistry of the one and an appropriate preparation of the other4 ,but we can take as much care as our time allows1 passing nothing as 8good enough0 which we have not well examined1 and bringing to the business all the patience and deftness available4 ,vellum is too stiff1 or too dry1 or too greasy4 ,when stiff1 it is too thick for books2 when dry1 too apt to crack or cockle2 when too greasy1 exasperating4 ,and yet the soft and rather greasy sort can be rendered more agreeable than the rest with labour4 ,it should be rubbed by the flat of the hand with powdered pumice 7or even fine sandpaper on the rough side7 and ,french chalk1 especially on its split 7or rougher7 side1 until it is serviceable4 ,a few trials will teach how long to give to this4 ,five minutes for one side of a lamb's skin would not be too much4 ,it can then be beaten with a silk handkerchief1 but not rubbed with this until the size has been laid4 ,it may be rubbed cleaner between the laying of the size and the gilding4 ,especially must those parts of pages be thoroughly rubbed clean which in the book1 when made up1 will lie upon and be pressed against gold letters on the page opposite2 or the pumice left behind will scratch them4 ,on the other hand1 if the vellum has not been thoroughly pumiced on both pages1 the greasiness in p#afh it will dim the gold in time1 both from above and below2 or even make the size flake off altogether4 ,the size is often blamed for faults of the vellum and its want of preparation4 ,again size1 or 8raising preparation10 is too sticky or too dry4 ,if the former1 the gold will not burnish well2 if the latter1 it will burnish1 but will not stick at the edges1 and will crack sooner or later4 ,and though the essential quality of gilding is brightness1 one may be content to fail of this rather than have letters ragged in outline or broken on the surface4 ,the size in use should be just liquid enough to flow evenly from the pen4 ,more water makes it dry too brittle1 and tends to cockle the vellum also2 less tends to blobbiness and unevenness4 ,even when it is put on fairly an uncomfortable groove is apt to form as it dries down the centre of letters2 but this can be either filled up as soon as the first layer is dryish1 or the sides of the groove can be scraped 7when the letter is quite dry7 down to the level of the groove itself with a sharp knife4 ,the knife must be sharp4 ,as this scraping does not affect the extreme edges the power of the size there to hold the leaf is not impaired by it2 and certainly a well-scraped surface is extremely even and pleasant to gild4 ,if the surface1 however1 be burnished and not scraped before laying the leaf1 it will not hold the size well1 and remains lumpy also where lumps were there originally2 while scraping gets rid of these4 ,during use the size should be kept thoroughly mixed2 and a small sable brush serves well for this purpose1 as soon as it can be used so carefully as not to cause bubbles4 ,to know the exact time to allow between laying and gilding one had need to be a meteorologist1 so much 8depends on the weather40 ,very dry and very wet weather are equally unkind4 ,generally an interval of about twenty-four hours is right2 but it is better to gild too soon than too late1 provided one can be content1 on testing the naked surface of the gilded letter with a p#afi burnisher1 and noting that the glitter is reluctant to come1 to leave the burnishing for a while1 and only lay the leaf1 pressing it well home to the outline of the letters4 ,the burnishing can then be done in a few more hours4 ,but if the size be too dry1 the difficulty will be to make the leaf stick to it at all4 ,in this case the leaf adhering can be scraped off1 the size scraped down further1 and another thin coat added and gilded after a shorter interval4 ,if the letter be so fouled that such repairs are difficult1 it should be entirely scraped away and the size relaid altogether4 ,in doing this care is needed that the vellum be not injured round the letter4 ,the best gold-leaf for ordinary work costs about #cs4 for twenty-five pages4 ,more expensive leaf1 being thicker1 does not stick so well to the edges2 cheaper is too thin to burnish well4 ,two kinds may be used together with good results1 the finer leaf being put on next the size1 and the thicker at once on to the top of that4 ,the letter is then pressed and outlined as usual through paper1 and the thin leaf will be found of considerable assistance towards the making of a clean cut edge4 ,generally1 however1 the piling on of several leaves is inadvisable1 as bits are liable to flake away as the letter goes on drying1 leaving dim specks where they have been4 ,yet if1 after the outlining through the paper1 the leaf is seen to be very dull or speckled with the colour of the size1 this means that the size has been partly pressed through the leaf2 and another laid immediately will have enough to stick to1 and will burnish well4 ,the best result comes of one moderately thick leaf laid and burnished at the right time as quickly as possible4 ,thicker leaves need only be used for large surfaces1 where the edge can be scraped even and clean1 or where a black outline is to be added4 ,as soon as the leaf is laid1 and from that point onward1 the breath must be kept from the letter with a shield 7of cardboard or tin7 held in the left hand or otherwise4 ,inattention to this is responsible for many failures4 ,not p#agj only should the actual letters under operation be so protected1 but where a quantity are sized ready for gilding on the page these should be protected also1 as well as any parts already finished2 for breath not only moistens but warms1 and on warm size moisture condenses less easily4 ,if the work to be done presently is so warmed1 it will be found more difficult to deal with when its time comes4 ,the first work done in the day is often the best1 and for this reason1 that the size for it is cool2 but in gilding this portion one almost necessarily warms that to be done later4 ,two pages1 where possible1 should therefore be gilded alternately1 one cooling while a portion of the other is gilded4 ,or thin plates of metal1 or even cardboard1 may be placed about as shields to protect all surfaces not under actual operation4 ,superfluous gold is best removed by dusting lightly with an old and very clean and dry silk handkerchief4 ,indiarubber will certainly remove gold from the vellum1 but it will as certainly dim any part of the gilding it touches4 ,if the vellum was properly pounced to start with the silk will easily remove all the leaf unstuck1 except little odds and ends1 and these are safeliest taken away with the point of a knife4 ,as the pressure of burnishing helps the leaf to stick1 it is best to wait till the letter has been burnished before this dusting4 ,such spots as are visible ungilded may be afterwards treated with a slight breath and transfer gold-leaf1 or gold dust1 may be painted on them4 ,in the latter case the spots must be most carefully burnished1 if burnished at all1 or their surroundings will be scratched4 ,when a gold letter is to be set on a coloured background1 or in the neighbourhood of colour1 it is best put on after the colour2 as may be observed was the method occasionally with the old books4 ,if the gold is put on first1 it will certainly be dimmed by warmth and breath during the colouring4 ,on the other hand1 if it is put on last1 great care must be taken that the gold-leaf shall not stick to the coloured portions4 ,where possible1 a stencil p#aga pattern of the parts to be gilded should be cut out of paper4 ,this is easily made from a pencil rubbing taken after the size is laid1 the raised pattern being of course cut out carefully a trifle larger than the outline so obtained4 ,the paper is then laid over all the work1 and the sized portions showing through the cuttings can be gilded without injury to the colour4 ,all gilded work should be retained1 if possible1 for a week or more1 and then re-burnished4 ,and in burnishing generally the burnisher should not be used1 even when the size is hard1 with any great force or pressure at first4 ,for the size in drying sets as if moulded1 and this mould cannot be squeezed about or actually crushed without being loosened or cracked4 ,throughout the whole process a gentle and vigilant alacrity is required4 ,success will come easily if it means to come4 ,it cannot be forced to come4 ,the binder of a book with gilding in it should be warned to press the sheets as little as possible1 and to use all his care in handling it1 so as to keep moisture1 warmth1 and fingering from the gold4 ,the folding of the sheets1 when left to him1 should also be done rather differently from usual1 for all gilded pages need to be kept as flat as possible4 ,none of the sizes in use seem capable of resisting bending of their surfaces without crimping or cracking4 ,where there is much gilding1 the book will be the better for being sewn with a zigzag#cb through the sections1 as this helps to 8guard0 the gilded work4 p#agb ,,chapter ,x ,,the ,,use ,,of ,,gold ,,colours ,,in ,,initial ,,letters ,,simple ,,illumination ,tools ,materials for ,simple ,illumination -- ,parchment1 8,vellum10 ,pounce -- ,colours -- ,simple ,colour ,effects -- ,matt ,gold -- ,burnished ,gold -- ,burnished ,gold ,forms1 ,outlines -- ,background ,capitals -- ,applying the ,background -- ,ornament of ,backgrounds4 ,,tools ,,materials ,,for ,,simple ,,illumination ,,tools1 c41 ,,for ,,gilding4--,see ,chapter ,,ix4 7pp4 #ade-f74 ,,ivory ,,tracing ,,point4--,this is useful for various purposes1 and for indenting patterns in burnished gold 7see p4 #aia74 ,,brushes4--,red ,sables are very good4 ,a separate brush should be kept for each colour--or at least one brush each for ,reds1 ,blues1 ,greens1 ,white1 and gold 8paint0--and it is convenient to have a medium and a fine brush for each4 ,,pens ,,for ,,colour4--,quill pens are used3 8,turkey0 or 8,goose40 ,the latter is softer1 and is sometimes preferred for colour work4 ,for very fine work 7real7 ,crow ,quills may be tried4 ,a separate pen should be used for each colour4 ,,coloured ,,inks4--,brown ink 7tempered with black if desired7 may be used for fine outlines3 if the outlined forms are to be coloured afterwards1 it is convenient if the ink be waterproof4 p#agc ,coloured inks seldom have as good a colour as the best paint colours 7see ,colours for ,penwork1 p4 #agf74 ,,colours4--7p4 #age74 ,,matt ,,gold 7see p4 #ahc74 ,,paint-,,box4--,the little chests of drawers1 sold by stationers for #bs4 #f;d41 make very convenient 8paint-boxes03 pens1 c41 may be kept in one drawer2 gilding1 tools1 c41 in another2 and colours and brushes in another4 ,,paper 7see pp4 #ea1 #ih1 #ajc74--,,parchment1 ,,vellum1 ,,pounce 7see below74 ,,parchment1 8,,vellum10 ,,pounce 7,see also ,appendix on ,gilding1 p4 #afg and pp4 #ih1 #cef7 ,the name 8,vellum0 7strictly applicable only to calf-skin7 is generally given to any moderately good skin prepared for writing or printing on4 ,all the modern skins are apt to be too stiff and horny3 chemical action 7substituted for patient handling71 followed by liberal sizing and 8dressing10 is perhaps responsible4 ,the old skins have much more life and character1 and are commonly much softer4 ,their surface is generally very smooth--not necessarily glazed--often with a delicate velvety nap1 which forms a perfect writing surface4 ,parchment 7sheep-skin71 as supplied by law-stationers1 though rather hard1 still retains the character of a skin1 and is in every way preferable to the ,vellum#cc which is specially prepared for illuminators4 ,a piece of parchment about #bf inches by #bb inches costs about #bs4 #f;d4 ,lambskin is still better4 8,roman ,vellum0 is a fine quality of sheep or p#agd 8lamb0 skin1 made in imitation of the ,vellum used in the ,vatican4 ,the surface of a modern skin may be greatly improved by 8pouncing0 but there seems to be a danger of its becoming rough or porous4 ,pounce4--,fine powdered pumice 7as supplied by drysalters7 is very good4 ,it is rubbed on with the hand 7p4 #afg71 or with a pad or a piece of rag4 ,law-stationers use a pounce in which the main constituents are chalk 7or 8whiting07 and powdered resin4 ,the latter1 when used before gilding1 is apt to make the gold-leaf stick to the surrounding parchment4 7,before ,writing1 see ,note #g1 p4 #cei47 ,chalk1 8,whiting0 8,french ,chalk10 and ,powdered ,cuttlefish ,bone might be used as substitutes for pumice1 or as ingredients in preparing a pounce4 ,sandarach 7a resin7 rubbed on an erasure appears to prevent ink spreading when the surface is written over4 ,a skin of parchment has a smooth 7whiter7 side--the original flesh side--and a rougher1 yellower side--the original hair side4 ,the penman will find the smooth side preferable for writing on 7though1 of course1 both sides must be used in a book3 see p4 #aaj74 ,this side is more easily damaged1 and erasures have to be very carefully made with a sharp knife1 or by gentle rubbing with indiarubber4 ,on the rough side1 erasures cause little or no damage to the surface4 ,a piece of rubber--or a paper stump--dipped in pounce may be used4 ,it is better--as it is more straightforward--to avoid erasures if possible1 and to correct mistakes frankly1 as in ordinary writing 7see p4 #cdd74 ,for ordinary purposes parchment should be cut to the size desired1 and be held on the desk by the p#age tape1 guard1 c4 7see p4 #ej74 ,it is generally a mistake to pin it down1 or to damp and stretch it on the drawing-board 7see p4 #cef74 ,parchment is stained a fine purple with 8,brazil-wood03 this may be obtained from a 8store chemist40 ,three teacups full of ,brazil-wood are stewed in about two pints of water1 with two teaspoonsful of alum 7which acts as a mordant74 ,the colour of this liquid is brownish-red1 and to make it purple1 carbonate of potash is added 7very carefully1 or it will become too blue74 ,the liquid is poured into a tray1 and the parchment skin is placed in it for half a day or a couple of days4 ,the colour dries lighter1 so it should be prepared rather dark1 and diluted if necessary3 strips of parchment should be used to test it2 they are taken out and dried at the fire4 ,the parchment skin is stretched on a frame1 the edges being caught up over little buttons or pegs1 and tied at these points with string4 ,it is allowed to dry slowly4 ,,colours ,,powder ,,colours are the purest3 they may be mixed with gum arabic and water4 ,yolk of egg and water is sometimes used as a medium 7or white of egg7 7see pp4 #aff1 #agi74 ,it is more convenient for the beginner to use prepared colours1 which are ready and dependable4 ,,cake ,,colours rank next to powder colours for purity3 they seem to need tempering with a little gum or honey or glycerine 7or egg--see above7 for use on ordinary parchment4#cd ,used p#agf plain with water1 they are apt to flake off when dry4 ,,pan ,,colours are very safe for ordinary use4 ,,tube ,,colours sometimes seem to have too much glycerine2 they are1 however1 very convenient for preparing mixed colours in any quantity1 because of their semi-fluid condition1 and because the amount of each colour in the mixture may be judged with considerable accuracy by the length which is squeezed out of the tube 7p4 #agh74 ,,colours ,,for ,,penwork1 c4--,for simple letters or decoration it is well to use a pure ,,red--neither crimson nor orange tinged3 ,,blue--neither greenish nor purplish3 ,,green--neither bluish nor 8mossy40 ,a little 8body colour0 is generally used with blues and greens to keep them 8flat0 7p4 #aah74 ,these colours should be mixed as required1 and be diluted to the right consistency with water 7see p4 #aah74 ,colour which has been mixed and in use for some time--especially if it has been allowed to dry--is best thrown away 7see mixing size1 p4 #adh74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aab4 ,if there is much rubricating to be done1 a quantity of each colour sufficient to last several days may be mixed1 and kept in a covered pot4 ,a little pomatum pot is convenient--the smaller the better1 as it keeps the colour together1 and does not allow it to dry so quickly4 ,the filling-brush 7a rough brush kept for filling the pen7 may rest in the pot 7see fig4 #aab71 being given a stir round every time it is p#agg used to prevent the settling of the heavy parts of the colour4 ,a drop of water is added occasionally as the liquid evaporates and becomes too thick4#ce ,,tints ,,few ,,and ,,constant4--,red1 ,blue1 and ,green 7and perhaps purple7 with ,gold1 ,white1 and ,black1 are sufficient for everything but the most advanced type of ,illumination4 ,and it is in every way desirable that1 until he has become a ,master ,limner1 the ,writer and ,illuminator should strictly limit the number of his colours 7see p4 #bae74 ,it is one of the 8secrets0 of good 8design0 to use a limited number of elements--forms or colours or materials--and to produce variety by skilful and charming manipulation of these4 ,it is well to follow the early ,illuminators in this also3 that these few colours be kept constant4 ,when you have chosen a ,red1 a ,blue1 and a ,green--as pure and bright as you can make them--keep those particular tints as fixed colours to be used for ordinary purposes4 ,for special purposes 7pp4 #ahb1 #bjb7 paler tints may be made by adding white1 and varied tints may be mixed1 but even when your work has advanced so that you require a more complex 8palette10 you should stick to the principle of constant tints and modes of treatment for regular occasions3 this is the secret of method4 ,,red4--,vermilion is prepared in three forms3 8,vermilion10 8,scarlet ,vermilion10 and 8,orange ,vermilion40 ,for ordinary use 8,scarlet ,vermilion0 is the best 7it may be tempered with a minute quantity of white74 8,vermilion0 is not quite so bright1 and tends more to crimson1 but1 mixed with p#agh 8,orange ,vermilion0 it gives the 8scarlet0 form4 ,the pan colour is generally most convenient4 ,where scarlet is in juxtaposition with gold1 their effect may be harmonised by having a large proportion of blue in the neighbourhood3 sometimes a more crimson colour than vermilion may be used4 ,chinese ,vermilion is a fine colour1 but difficult to obtain2 it is even said that the genuine pigment is reserved exclusively for the ,chinese ,emperor 7whose edicts are written with 8,the ,vermilion ,pencil074 ,,green4--,verdigris is a very fine colour1 closely resembling1 and possibly the same pigment as1 the green in early ,,mss41 but ,i believe that it has not been rendered permanent in modern use4 ,green ,oxide of ,chromium 7transparent7 7or 8,veridian07 is a very good permanent green4 ,it is rather a thin colour1 and requires body1 which may be given with lemon yellow1 or with white and yellow ochre2 being a rather bluish green1 it is the better for a little yellow4 ,this 7mixed7 green is most conveniently prepared from tube colours4 ,,blue4--,ultramarine ,ash 7whole tube about #ds47 is a very beautiful colour4 ,it is rather pale and transparent 7and a little 8slimy0 to work7 when used alone4 ,a mixture 7preferably made with tube colours7 consisting of ,ultramarine ,ash and ,chinese ,white and 7a very little7 ,prussian ,blue makes an extremely fine1 pure blue4 ,a similar mixture with cobalt as a base makes a very good blue4 ,ultramarine or ,powdered ,lapis ,lazuli 7unfortunately known as 8,genuine ,ultramarine0#cf7 is a fine colour2 it may have a slightly purplish tint and need p#agi tempering with green to make a pure blue 7whole cake about #ahs474 ,the ,blue in common use in early ,,mss4 7before ,ultramarine came into use7 has a fine1 pure colour1 and considerable body3 it is more raised than any other colour2 it is often seen to be full of little sparkles1 as though there were powdered glass in it4 ,it is supposed to have been prepared from a copper ore4 ,the following note on this blue has been given to me by ,mr4 ,c4 ,m4 ,firth3-- 8,the blue is ,native ,carbonate of ,copper finely powdered and tempered with white of egg 7,vermilion is tempered with the ,yolk740 8,the ore is of two kinds1 a crystalline of a medium hardness found in ,france at ,chessy1 and hence called ,chessylite1 and a soft earthy kind which is obtained in ,hungary1 and largely now from ,australia4 ,the latter is from its ease of manipulation the best for paint making4 ,it should be ground dry till it is no longer gritty and is of a sky blue 7pale7 colour40 8,the ,blue in ,,mss4 was liable to wash off1 but the oil in the ,yolk prevented a similar result with the ,vermilion4 ,the ,blue is identical with the ,azzuro della magna 7for d'allemaigne7 of the ,middle ,ages4 ,the frequently advanced hypothesis that the blue was due to a glass is based on the accounts of 7,i47 ,the ,vestorian blue copper #8frit' for enamels probably2 7,,ii47 on the accounts in sixteenth century of the ,manufacture of ,smalt1 which owes its colour to a glass tinted with ,cobalt4 ,this ,azzuro is the oldest known ,western blue1 and was probably employed on ,egyptian walls1 where it has gone green1 as also in ,italian ,frescoes40 8,the ,green tint of the chemical change in the ,copper is seen in initials in books too much exposed to the damp4 ,these exhibit a bright green tint in places where the colour was thinly applied40 p#ahj ,it appears that ,yolk1 besides being unsuited in colour for tempering this blue1 changes it to a greenish colour 7the effect of the oil1 which forms about #cj per cent4 of ,yolk of ,egg74 ,,white4--,the tube ,chinese ,white#cg is the most convenient to use when tempering colours4 8,white ,line or ,hair ,finishing0 7see p4 #ahc74 ,various tools have been recommended for this4 ,a sable pencil with the outer hairs cut away1 8the smallest brush0 made1 and even a fine steel pen4 ,i am inclined to believe that some of the early ,illuminators used a fine quill--such as a crow quill1 or a goose quill scraped thin and sharply pointed4 ,,purple is seldom used in simple pen-work1 lettering1 c41 but largely and with very fine effect in complex illumination4 ,a reddish-purple is to be preferred4 ,a good colour can be made from the purple stain described on p4 #age1 or from ,ruby madder and a little ,rose madder1 with a very little ,ultramarine4 ,,simple ,,colour ,,effects ,simple 8,rubrication0 7see p4 #abg74--,red letters were most commonly contrasted with blue 7the 8warmest0 and 8coldest0 colours71#ch in some ,,mss4 with green alone1 but more commonly the three p#aha colours were used together1 the alterations being generally-- ,red cap4 in columns ,,red in lines of ,caps4 ,blue cap4 of ,versal ,,blue ,red cap4 letters ,,red ,green cap4 7see fig4 #ic7 ,,green 7see fig4 #hi74 c4 c4 ,repetition and ,limitation of ,simple ,colours 7and ,forms74--,the uniform treatment of a ,,ms4 necessitates that no colour 7or form7 in it should be quite singular1 or even isolated if it can possibly be repeated4 ,if1 for example1 there be a ,red capital on the 8,verso0 page1 the 8opening0 is improved by some ,red--a capital1 a rubric1 or even a line-finishing--on the 8,recto0 page4 ,very often the one piece of colour is very small1 and1 as it were1 an echo of the other 7compare ,line-finishings and ,initials1 pp4 #bje1 #aic74 ,while it is not always possible or desirable so to treat both pages of an opening1 yet1 in the book taken as a whole1 every colour used should be repeated as often as there is a reasonable opportunity4 ,and1 therefore1 where the opportunities for colour in a book are few and far between1 it is well to limit the 8colours0 used to two1 or even one4 ,this necessity for repetition applies to simple rather than to complex 8,illuminated0 ,forms--e4g4 a book need not have more than one ,illuminated ,initial--but within such complex forms themselves p#ahb repetition is recognised as one of the first principles of 8decorative design0 7see p4 #bae74 ,proportions of ,colours4--,in ,harmonious ,illumination1 ,blue very commonly is the predominating colour2 but no exact proportions can be laid down1 for the combined colour effect depends so much on the arrangement of the colours4 ,effects of ,neighbouring ,colours4#ci--,when blue and red are in juxtaposition1 the blue appears blur and greener2 the red appears brighter and more scarlet4 ,with ,red and ,green1 the ,red appears more crimson1 and the green1 greener and blur4 ,a greenish blue will appear plain blue beside a pure green2 a blue with a purplish tinge will appear more purple4 ,experiments might profitably be made with simple arrangements of ,red1 ,blue1 ,green1 ,black1 ,white1 and ,gold in combinations of two or more4 ,tempering ,colours with ,white4--,forms such as flower petals1 c41 may be painted in ,blue or ,red1 paled with ,white1 and then be shaded with the pure colour2 this gives considerable richness1 and the effect may be heightened by very careful white line work 7q4v474 ,green leaves1 c41 may be made very pale and then touched with ,yellow--this gives a brilliant effect4 ,black ,outlines4--,the effect of these is to make a bright colour appear brighter and richer1 to define1 and1 to a certain extent1 harmonise1 neighbouring colours and shapes1 and to keep the design flat p#ahc 7see p4 #ahf74 ,for one or more of these reasons1 all coloured forms--patterns1 charges1 c4--in a compound colour scheme have an outline--strong or delicate1 according to the strength or delicacy of the work 7see pp4 #ahh1 #ahg1 #bjb1 #bba1 #afe74 ,white ,lining4--,a black outline is often separated from the colour by a fine white line 7see fig4 #abi74 ,white lines also are used to harmonise colours1 one or more commonly being painted 7or 8penned07 upon the colours4 ,this tends to make the colours appear paler and lighter--brightening them if they are dark4 ,care must be taken not to overdo the white lining1 or it will make the colours chalky and cold4 ,white is also used in groups of dots1 and in fine patterns on backgrounds 7see pp4 #bac1 #dcj74 ,gold is even more effective than white or black for harmonising colours4 ,it is commonly ,burnished in bars or frames 7see p4 #dha71 and in spots 7pp4 #dha1 #ahg71 or in large masses 7p4 #aia74 ,matt ,gold 7see below74 ,,matt ,,gold ,matt gold1 or gold 8paint0--the pure gold powder with white of egg is best--is generally painted upon colour4 ,it was much used in old miniatures for 8hatching0 and lighting landscapes1 houses1 costumes1 c42 and stars1 rays of light1 and outlines of clouds were painted in delicate gold lines upon the blue of the skies4 ,such gold lining has a very mellowing and pleasant effect upon colour1 but it can easily be overdone4 ,matt gold may be used besides1 for letters1 ornament1 and patterns painted upon colour4 ,such forms have either no outline1 or a very faint one3 their effect depends upon their lightness1 and they are not made to appear solid4 p#ahd ,a very pretty effect may be obtained in a small and not very formal manuscript by painting into the spaces left for the capitals little squares of red and blue1 and painting upon these the letters and ornament--all in gold powder--very freely and quickly4 ,the kind of treatment is rather crudely suggested by fig4 #aac4 ,the pleasant appearance of the pages--as though they were scattered over with tiny squares of cloth of gold and red and blue--is produced with comparative ease1 while the use of leaf gold might entail an expenditure of more time and pains than the book was worth4 ,in the finest class of manuscripts1 however1 these matt gold letters would be somewhat informal and out of place4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aac4 ,,burnished ,,gold ,gold is always raised and burnished as bright as possible1 unless there is a special reason for using matt gold4 ,the height to which it is raised varies1 according to the effect desired1 from a considerable thickness to the thinnest possible coat of 8size40 ,extremely thin and extremely thick raising are both objectionable 7see p4 #aej73 roughly speaking1 a suitable height for any ordinary purpose is between #a_/ajj and #a_/cb of an inch4 ,the surface1 in the case of large forms1 is generally made as smooth and perfect as possible1 so that1 as ,cennino ,cennini says1 the burnished gold 8will appear almost dark from its own brightness02 and its p#ahe brightness is only seen when the light falls on it at a particular angle4 ,the gilding of a manuscript1 however1 is slightly flexible1 and a large gilded surface is likely to be bent1 so that some part of it is sure to catch the light4 ,small surfaces highly burnished very often do not show the effect of1 or 8tell0 as1 gold1 unless they catch the light by accident4 ,it is well1 therefore1 where the forms are small to have several on the page1 so that one or another will always shine out and explain the rest4 ,and while the proper craftsman tries always to get the best finish which he reasonably can1 the natural1 slight unevennesses or varying planes of small gilded forms may be of advantage to the whole effect4 ,the pleasant effect of such natural variations may be seen in thirteenth-century ,initials1 where numbers of little gold pieces are fitted into the backgrounds1 and their changing surfaces cause the whole to be lit up with little sparkles of light4 ,a parallel to this may be found in the hand-tooling of a book-cover1 which sparkles with gold1 because the binder could not press in each piece of gold-leaf absolutely level4 ,on the other hand1 the 8deadness0 of a machine-stamped cover is largely due to the dead level of its gilding4 ,black and ,gold4--,one of the finest effects in calligraphy can be obtained by the simple contrast of gold capitals with black writing 7see p4 #bii74 ,while1 as in the case of black and red1 the strongest effects are obtained by a marked contrast1 gold may yet be very effectively used for small capitals throughout the black text4 ,it does not lose or blend its brilliance with the black of the writing as colour is apt to do1 but lights up and illuminates the page4 ,for this reason gold will p#ahf 8help out0 and make agreeable a black and colour effect which1 by itself1 would have been a failure 7see p4 #acd74 ,,burnished ,,gold ,,forms ,,outlines ,plain gold letters1 symbols1 and other detached forms1 not having backgrounds1 are usually not outlined4 ,an outline cheapens their effect1 making them darker and heavier1 and1 if the line be at all thick1 concealing the true form of the letter1 and giving it a clumsy appearance4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aad4 ,it is an instructive experiment to make a gold 7or plain white7 letter with a thick outline 7a1 fig4 #aad71 and then paint a background round it4 ,the effect is quite altered1 and greatly improved 7b1 fig4 #aad74 ,the outline no longer tells as the outer line of the form1 but partakes more of the nature of the background1 in which it cuts out1 as one might say1 a little niche for the letter to rest in4 ,gold-leaf forms on coloured backgrounds are p#ahg outlined--generally in black--in order that letter and background may together form a flat design1 stable and at rest in the page4 ,the distinction between the use of gold 8paint0 and the treatment of a leaf gold form should be carefully observed3 the matt gold powder lies upon colour1 and may appear to blend with it 7p4 #ahc72 the bright gold-leaf constitutes a distinct form1 which either lies upon the surface of a page1 or is1 as it were1 set in a background4 ,gold 7leaf7 ,floral ,ornament1 c4--,if the stalk and leaves are both gold3 they are commonly not outlined1 unless on a background4 ,if there be a thin stalk in black or colour with gold leaves3 the leaves are outlined with the stalk-colour 7they were commonly furred3 c1 fig4 #aae74 ,if there be a thick coloured stalk with gold leaves3 both stalk and leaves commonly have a black outline1 the 8leaves0 often being treated as spots of gold 7below74 ,gold ,spots or ,dots are usually outlined and furred with black 7fig4 #aae74 ,the effect produced is of a bright gold form on a grey background4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aae4 ,a simple 8leaf0 or detached spot of gold has a formless look1 much as a small blot of colour or ink would have4 ,the black outline and the grey background-effect seem in this case to give form and interest to the spot2 at least they give it a place to rest in--a nest to hold the small golden egg4 p#ahh ,even a stalk and tendril 7d1 fig4 #aae7 has the same effect of giving intention and meaning to what might otherwise be a mere blot4 ,when several spots of gold 7or colour7 are arranged in a simple design1 together they constitute a simple form which does not require a background4 ,thus the line-finishing 7a1 fig4 #abf7 has a formal and intentional arrangement in itself1 and therefore need not be outlined4 ,,background ,,capitals ,background ,capitals or ,initials frequently employ burnished gold1 either for the letters or the ground4 ,all the parts 7including 8solid0 patterns7 are generally outlined in black1 or dark colour4 ,the commonest colours for grounds are ,reds and ,blues4 ,the grounds are frequently countercharged1 or made one colour inside and another outside the initial 7p4 #aij74 ,sometimes little or no gold is used1 and many fine white lines are employed to separate and harmonise the colours of the ,initial and the ground4 ,it is well1 however1 for the beginner to keep the letter and the ground distinct1 by observing the ,herald's maxim1 and using 8,metal on colour1 or colour on metal40 ,the forms of the letters vary from those of ordinary capitals in being thicker in proportion to their height1 and frequently in having no serifs4 ,a very thin line or serif is apt to be lost in the background4 ,a very good form of background initial may be p#ahi made out of the ,,roman ,,capital 7a1 fig4 #aaf7 by thickening all its parts2 in place of the serifs1 curving out and shaping the ends of the stems 7b1 d7 to a sort of 8blunderbuss0 pattern 7g74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aaf4 ,,applying ,,the ,,background ,it is well first to make the letter1#dj and then to apply the background to it 7as though it were a sort of mosaic74 ,the background is packed tightly round the letter1 and the letter occupies the background1 p#aij so that they appear to be in the same plane 7a1 fig4 #aag74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aag4 ,such 8flatness0 is secured even more certainly and effectively by using two colours 7e4g4 red and blue7 in the background--one inside and one outside the letter 7see ,plate ,,xii474 ,the curves of the gold letter may with advantage slightly project1 and so break the hard1 square outline of the background4 ,the letter should not have the appearance of being 8stuck on10 as it is apt to if the background is large and empty1 or if the ornament passes behind the letter 7b1 fig4 #aag74 ,in the case of letters with projecting stems or tails3 the tail may be outside the background 7a1 p#aia fig4 #aah71 or the background may be prolonged on one or both sides of the tail 7b and c71 or the whole 8field0 may be enlarged to take in the complete letter 7d74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aah4 ,there is no limit to the variety of shapes which backgrounds may take--symmetrical or asymmetrical1 regular or irregular--provided they fit the initial or the ornament 7which may itself partially1 or entirely1 bound them71 are properly balanced 7see ,plate ,,xii41 and p4 #dai71 and take their right place on the page4 ,,ornament ,,of ,,backgrounds ,the ornament1 as a rule1 covers the background evenly1 and is closely packed or fitted into its place4 ,gold grounds are generally plain1 sometimes bearing patterns in dots4 ,these are indented in the surface by means of a point 7p4 #agb7 which is not too sharp4 ,it presses the gold-leaf into tiny pits1 but does not pierce it4 ,gold grounds may be broken up into small parts by coloured chequers 7p4 #bae7 or floral patterns4 p#aib ,coloured grounds are1 as a rule1 more or less evenly covered with some form of decoration in thin white or matt gold lines1 or in 8solid0 patterns in various colours 7see pp4 #bjb1 #bab74 ,a simple and pretty diaper pattern may be made by diagonal lines of matt gold1 cutting up the colour into small 8lozenges10 each alternate lozenge having a fleur-de-lis or little cross1 or other simple ornament 7fig4 #aai74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aai4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abj4 ,a bolder design1 in a broad white or coloured line1 may be1 as it were1 woven through counterfeited slits in the letter 7fig4 #abj74 ,this helps to preserve the general flatness of the letter1 p#aic background1 and ornament1 and gives additional interest4 ,the mimic slits are made by black lines drawn on the burnished gold of the letter4 ,where the stem of the ornament comes over the gold1 the size is cut away with a pen-knife2 the part hollowed out is painted with white to cover any blemishes1 and then painted with the stem colour1 and outlined4 ,a plain or pale stem may have a faint or brown outline1 and be 8shaded0 at the sides 7with greys1 browns1 or yellows7 to give an effect of solidity2 a stem that is painted in strong colour 7e4g4 red or blue7 may have a central white line painted upon it4 ,note that where the initials have backgrounds1 the line-finishings are commonly made with backgrounds to match1 though their treatment is naturally much simpler 7see ,plates ,,xv41 ,,xvii474 ,,chapter ,,xi ,a ,,theory ,,of ,,illumination ,illumination -- 8,barbaric1 or ,colour-,work1 ,illumination0 -- 8,filigree1 or ,pen-,work1 ,illumination0 -- 8,natural1 or ,limner's1 ,illumination40 ,,illumination ,it is convenient to give a wide meaning to the word when we speak of an 8illuminated manuscript10 for the scribe works with a very free hand1 and when he wishes to decorate his pages he can p#aid write the words themselves in red1 green1 or blue1 as easily as he could have written them in black4 ,he can take a clean pen and a new colour and initial and 8flourish0 any part of the work to his heart's content4 ,he may acquire the art of laying and burnishing gold1 and no possible brilliance of effect is denied him--within the limits of his skill as an illuminator 7see also pp4 #bih-bii74 ,a limited number of specially prepared printed books can likewise be illuminated4 ,but the greater the number of copies1 the less labour may be spent on each one1 and the more their illumination tends to be simple 8rubrication0--adding coloured capitals1 flourishes1 and the like 7see p4 #abg74 ,and1 if a large edition is to be decorated1 the printer must be content to use black1 or black and red1 in woodcut or 8process0 work 7see pp4 #cfe1 #cgb74 ,illumination proper may be defined as the decoration by hand1 in bright gold or colours1 of writing or printing4 ,there are three broad types of illumination1 which for want of better terms ,i distinguish as 8,barbaric0 7or colour-work71 8,filigree0 7or pen-work71 and 8,natural0 7or limner's74 ,these types run naturally one into another1 and they may be blended or combined in every possible way1 but it is convenient to consider them and the distinctive treatments which they involve separately4 8,,barbaric1 ,,or ,,colour-,,work1 ,,illumination0 7,see also pp4 #bjc1 #bjh1 #bji1 #bae-ah1 #dad1 #dba1 #dbb7 ,this is mainly a colour treatment in which forms seem to be regarded chiefly as vehicles for p#aie colour4 ,its effect appeals to the senses1 rather than to the imagination2 and such interest as the forms have lies greatly in their skilful disposal or intricate arrangement4 ,sometimes in their fantasy--where organic forms are introduced--as the 8great fish0 in the act of swallowing ,jonah 7in order to make the ,t of ,,et71 ,plate ,,xii4 ,this type of illumination appears to have reached its climax of barbaric splendour in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries4 ,though its revival nowadays might seem a little out of keeping with the more sedate and grown-up point of view of modern life1 we cannot doubt that it is still lawful to decorate our work with the brilliance and splendour of gold and colours4 ,whether it is expedient or not depends upon how it is done3 to justify our work1 it must succeed2 it must be bright and splendid1 and really gladden our eyes4 ,and we must really take pleasure in the making of it1 for if we do not1 we can hardly expect that it will give pleasure to others4 ,simple and ,complex ,forms4--,between simple forms--which are in a sense permanent--and complex forms--which are always changing--it is necessary to make a careful distinction4 ,an equilateral triangle drawn by 8,euclid0 and one drawn by a modern ,senior ,wrangler are1 or ought to be1 practically the same thing4 ,if the ancients made an ornamental band of geometrical forms1 that is no bar to us2 we also are at liberty to make decorative bands of circles1 lozenges1 or triangles4 ,the ancient ,romans made a capital ,a--its essential form 7see fig4 #adb7 two strokes sloped together and joined by a cross-bar 7very like the p#aif 8,pons ,asinorum071 it could hardly be simpler--they used chisels and pens1 which gave it its more characteristic and finished form4 ,if we use chisels and pens properly we shall get a similar result--not absolutely the same--for no two chisels or two hands can be quite the same--but closely resembling it and belonging to our own time as much as to any other4 ,the essential form of the 8,roman0 ,a is a purely abstract form1 the common property of every rational age and country1#da and its characterisation is mainly the product of tools and materials not peculiar to the ancient ,romans4 ,but when there is any real complexity of form and arrangement1 or sentiment1 we may reasonably suppose that it is peculiar to its time1 and that the life and virtue of it cannot be restored4 ,it was common enough in the ,middle ,ages to make an initial ,a of two dragons firmly locked together by claws and teeth4 ,such forms fitted the humour of the time1 and were part of the then natural 8scheme of things40 ,but we should beware of using such antique fantasies and 8organisms02 for medieval humour1 together with its fauna and flora1 belong to the past4 ,and our own work is only honest when made in our own humour1 time1 and place4 ,there are1 however1 an infinite variety of simple abstract forms and symbols1 such as circles1 crosses1 squares1 lozenges1 triangles1 and a number of ,alphabets1 such as ,square and ,round ,capitals1 p#aig ,small ,letters--upright and sloping--which--weeded of archaisms--we may use freely4 ,and all these forms can be diversified by the tools with which they are made1 and the manner in which the tools are used1 and be glorified by the addition of bright colours and silver and gold4 ,very effective 8designs0 can be made with 8chequers0 and diaper patterns1 and with the very letters themselves4 ,and ,i have little doubt that an excellent modern style of illumination is quite feasible1 in which the greatest possible richness of colour effect is achieved together with extreme simplicity of form4 8,,filigree1 ,,or ,,pen-,,work1 ,,illumination0 7,see also pp4 #bje-bjh1 #bji1 #bah-bj1 #dbe1 #dbh-bi2 figs4 #gi1 #ib1 #abe-bf1 #aej1 #ahh-hi2 ,plates ,,xi41 ,,xiii41 ,,xiv41 ,,xvii47 ,this is a type of illumination which can safely be attempted by one who1 having learnt to write1 is desirous of illuminating his writing2 for it is the direct outcome of penmanship 7see p4 #bjd71 and consists mainly of pen flourishes1 or semi-formal lines and shapes which can be made with a pen1 suitably applied to the part to be decorated4 ,its effect may be very charming and restful3 no colour standing out as in a positive colour scheme1 no individual form catching the eye2 but the whole having a richness of simple detail and smooth colouring more or less intricate and agreeably bewildering4 ,it may be compared to the tooling of a book-cover1 both in the method of producing it1 and in its effect4 ,a book-binder has a number of stamps which bear the simplest forms and symbols1 such as p#aih little circles and 8leaves0 and stars and curved lines1 and with these simple elements he builds up a pleasant 8design10 which he tools1 usually in gold-leaf1 upon the cover4 ,the scribe can vary the forms which his pen produces1 and the colours which he gives them1 with a freedom that the set form and the method of using the binder's tools do not allow4 ,but the skilled penman will find that his pen 7or1 at any rate1 his penmanship7 largely determines the forms of his freest flourishes and strokes1 and that the semi-formal nature of such ornament demands a certain simplicity and repetition of form and colour1 which do not unduly tax his skill as a craftsman4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aba4 ,suppose1 for example1 that the scribe wishes to illuminate the border of a page of writing4 ,he may choose a limited number of simple1 pen-made forms for the elements of his design2 say1 a circle1 a 8leaf10 and a 8tendril10 and a few curved flourishes and strokes 7fig4 #aba71 and with these cover the allotted space evenly and agreeably4 p#aii ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abb4 ,the ornament being treated as though it were a sort of floral growth1 requires a starting point or 8root40 ,the initial letter is the natural origin of the border ornament1 the stalk of which generally springs from the side or from one of the extremities of the letter4 ,the main stem and branches are first made with a very free pen1 forming a skeleton pattern 7fig4 #abb74 ,note4--,the numbers in the diagram indicate the order in which the strokes were made4 ,the main stem 7#aaa7 sweeps over and occupies most of the ground2 the secondary stem 7#bbb7 occupies the remainder2 the main branches 7#ccc1 c47 make the occupation secure4 p#bjj ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abc4 ,next the minor branches are added to cover the space evenly1 and then the flowers1 fruit1 and buds--made up of combinations of the 8leaves10 circles1 c4--are more or less evenly disposed in the spaces formed by the large1 round curves at the ends of the branches 7fig4 #abc74 p#bja ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abd4 ,the 8leaves0 are placed all over1 wherever there is convenient room for them 7just as the leaves of a real plant are74 ,then the stalks of the leaves are added1 and1 lastly1 the interspaces are filled with 8tendrils10 which greatly contribute to the pleasant intricacy of the design 7fig4 #abd74 p#bjb ,colour ,schemes4--,the safest treatment of such a 8design0 is in black and gold 7see p4 #ahg74 ,the leaves1 which are kept rather flat1 may be outlined after gilding4 ,the flowers1 c41 may be made up in red and blue 7tempered with white3 see p4 #ahb74 ,this is the colour treatment of the example1 ,plate ,,xvii4 ,if the leaves are green1 the stem and outline may be more delicately drawn in pale or grey-brown ink1 and the green may be a delicate pale olive or grey-green4 7,a strong1 black stem with bright green leaves is apt to look crude and hard47 ,in such a delicate green plant border1 delicate blue and red flowers1 and one or two rather flat gold 8berries0 7single1 or in threes7 may be placed4 ,a very effective colour decoration of a much simpler type may be made in red and green 7or blue7 pen-work--using the pen and the colours with which the ,versal letters and line-finishings are made4 ,a red flourished stem with red leaves or tendrils1 and green berries 7or leaves71 or a green stem with green leaves and red berries4 ,a floral pattern may also be made in plain burnished gold--both stem and leaves--not outlined 7p4 #ahg ,plate ,,xxii474 ,a more complex decoration resembling the 8floral filigree0 has a 8solid0 stem in light or dark colour on a dark or light ground 7or on a gold ground71 as suggested in the rough diagram1 fig4 #abj4 ,the examples of ,italian fifteenth-century work in ,plates ,,xviii4 and ,,xix4 show a related type of illumination1 known as the 8white vine pattern40 ,very carefully and beautifully drawn1 it strongly suggests natural form4 8,,natural1 ,,or ,,limner',s1#db ,,illumination0 7,see also pp4 #bab1 #bai-ba1 #bbg1 #dbc-bd1 #dbf-bh1 #dhf2 figs4 #aca;a-#ada2 ,plates ,,xv41 ,,xvi41 ,,xxiii47 ,this1 the finest type of illumination1 has very great possibilities2 and it is to be hoped that some craftsmen1 who have the necessary skill1 will find an opening for their work in this direction4 p#bjc ,plate ,,xv4 is a thirteenth-century example of the transition from the 8barbaric0 to the 8natural40 ,the dragon-tailed initial with its wonderful scroll-work and 8ivy-leaf0 being the perfection of barbaric form1 carrying brilliant colour and serving to support and frame the delicate and beautiful drawing which it contains4#dc ,but in the drawing itself the skill of a fine illuminator combines with the fancy of a cunning draughtsman to satisfy an sthetic taste and appeal to the imagination4 ,plate ,,xvi4 shows a rare1 and singularly beautiful1 treatment of an ,italian fourteenth-century ,,ms4 decorated with plant and insect forms 7p4 #dbg74 ,plate ,,xxiii4 7modern7 show a border of wild roses and climbing plants3 the colour treatment in the original is very brilliant 7see p4 #dhf74 ,the 8natural0 type depends very much on the beauty and interest of its form2 and a draughtsman before he had become an illuminator1 might be content to decorate ,,mss4 and printed books with pen drawings only faintly coloured or tinted2 but when he had mastered the limitations which the craft would impose on his drawing for pure and bright colour1 there is no degree of brilliance1 even unto 8barbaric splendour10 which he might not lay upon his trained and delicate forms4 p#bjd ,,chapter ,,xii ,,the ,,development ,,of ,,illumination#dd ,the ,development of ,illumination -- ,line-,finishings -- ,initial ,letters -- ,borders ,backgrounds4 ,,the ,,development ,,of ,,illumination ,an art or craft is so largely dependent on the tools and materials which are used by the craftsman1 that we may reasonably say that it begins with the tools and materials1 through which it has been produced4 ,now1 8illumination0 can be traced back step by step to simple penmanship4 ,and its true development is most graphically sketched by ,ruskin 78,lectures on ,art10 ,no4 ,v47 when he says-- 8,the pen 4 4 4 is not only the great instrument for the finest sketching1 but its right use is the foundation of the art of illumination4 4 4 4 ,perfect illumination is only writing made lovely2 4 4 4 ,but to make writing itself beautiful--to make the sweep of the pen lovely--is the true art of illumination20 ,and also that those who have acquired 8a habit of deliberate1 legible and lovely penmanship in their daily use of the pen1 4 4 4 may next discipline their hands into the control of lines of any length1 and1 finally1 add the beauty of colour and form to the flowing of these perfect lines40 p#bje ,,line-,,finishings ,line-finishings are used to preserve the evenness of the text when lines of writing fall short4 ,when the space left is small1 or occurs in the middle of a sentence1 a quick stroke of the pen--often a continuation of the last letter1 or springing from it--is sufficient 7fig4 #abe72 but where there are many and long gaps 7as1 for example1 in a psalter at the ends of the verses71 they may be filled in with dots 7see ,plate ,,viii47 or flourishes 7a1 b1 c1 fig4 #abf7 either made in black with the script pen1 or with another pen1 in colour or gold4 ,line-finishings commonly echo the treatment of the initials 7see p4 #aha74 ,in twelfth-century ,,mss4 long delicate flourishes are commonly found1 in red1 blue1 or green--matching the colours of the ,versals1 and probably made with the same pen4 ,the latter being rather finer than the text pen keeps these flourishes from appearing too prominent 7see e1 f1 fig4 #abf74 ,such work should be simple and characteristic pen-work1 showing the thicks and thins and crisp curves1 the result of the position of the pen1 which is usually 8slanted0 7see p4 #dc74 ,bands of pen-made 8geometrical0 patterns--used with rather close writing--may be very simple and direct1 though appearing pleasantly elaborate 7see figs4 #hg and 7g7 #abf1 ,plate ,,xiv41 and pp4 #bae #be74 ,,initial ,,letters 7,see also pp4 #af1 #dh1 #aab-ad1 #abd1 #acd1 #aha1 #ahh-aic1 #aic-ii1 #baa-ae1 and the ,collotype ,plates7 ,the development of ,illumination proper was--and still is--bound up with the growth and decoration of the ,initial ,letter4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abe4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abf4 p#bjh ,the first step in this development is the mastery of the pen-made ,versal letter1 and the right treatment of simple coloured capitals 7see chapters ,,vii41 ,,viii41 and ,x474 ,the next step is their elaboration4 ,the simplest ornamental treatment is found in the flourishing of a terminal of the initial letter 7fig4 #aej71 or the arrangement of the remaining letters of the word inside or beside it4 ,pen flourishes may consist of the simplest curved and zigzag strokes 7sometimes springing from the actual letter3 see p4 #bea71 ending with a 8twirl0 of the pen in a loop or a 8bud0 7figs4 #aej1 #gi72 or they may strike out a sort of formal floral pattern1 filling or surrounding the initial 7fig4 #ib71 and such a pattern in its turn may spring from the letter into the margin1 and grow into a complete 8illuminated border0 7see p4 #aii74 ,hollow ,letters4--,a large capital is often made hollow1 primarily with a view to lightening its appearance1 which might be rather heavy if the letter were made solid 7p4 #aai74 ,the hollow--which is commonly left plain 7i4e4 the colour of the paper or parchment7--may be a mere line1 straight or curved or zigzag 7fig4 #ahi71 or a pattern1 or lettering 7fig4 #hi74 ,sometimes it is made large and filled in with a contrasting colour1 leaving a white line1 however1 between the two colours4 ,and sometimes half the letter is made in one colour1 and the other half 7on the opposite side of the hollow centre7 is made in a contrasting colour4 ,a 8hollow0 letter 7especially if very large7 may be strengthened and improved by a filling of colour or ornament4 7,addenda1 p4 #be47 8,woven0 ,forms4--,a simple form of ornament 7related to 8,basket work07 which effectually strengthens the construction of a hollow letter--without impairing its lightness--consists in a crossing p#bji and 8weaving0 or knotting of its actual parts 7fig4 #abg74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abg4 ,the elaborated 7in fig4 #abg7 is from a #ajth or #aath century ,,ms4 7,brit4 ,museum1 ,egerton1 #fjh74 ,the ,initial and its inwoven ornament cut up the background into a number of distinct parts 7distinctly coloured74 ,note also that the entire background is contained by the ,initial4 ,the 8knot0 7fig4 #abg71 or a basket-work ornament1 is sometimes used as an arbitrary starting-point for a filigree border 7see p4 #dbh7 where an initial is lacking4 ,variety in ,initials4--,the sizes and styles of the initials which are used for the same purpose throughout the book vary very slightly or not at all4 ,generally1 the more important the division which the p#baj initial marks1 the larger the initial and the more ornate 7p4 #bih74 ,a slight complexity in the opening letter or word of a book does not seriously interfere with the readableness of the book as a whole4 ,the general rule is followed that the greater the number of 7decorative7 forms the plainer they are kept 7see p4 #abf71 and if a book contained an 8initial0 on every page1 it would be both an artistic and a working economy 7if there were many pages7 to make the majority of them rather plain4 ,but however simple the treatment of the initials may be1 there is still room for considerable variety of form or ornament or type--as 8round0 or 8square0 letters 7see fig4 #hj1 and especially ,plate ,,xi474 ,such variety is found in the best work2 it adds a liveliness and charm which are quite lacking where there is unnecessary or mechanical repetition4 8,lombardic0 versus ,roman ,capitals4--,the round1 fat letters which are known as 8,lombardic0 7see fig4 #a1 and ,plates ,,xv41 ,,xvii47 have been generally used for 8illuminated initials0 in ,northern ,europe since the thirteenth century4 ,but--though they are capable of very beautiful treatment--they are rather doubtful models for us to follow4 ,the fact that such letters will always pack neatly into a square niche or background--though an obvious convenience--is not an unmixed advantage4 ,and the majority of examples show a debased type of ,letters--often so unlike their originals1 and so like one another1 as to be scarcely readable4 ,for the sake of readableness the stems should be made longer 7fig4 #abh74 ,the more slender 8,roman0 type of initial1 commonly used in ,italy 7,plate ,,xviii471 is in every way a more legible letter4 ,the ,roman ,alphabet still remains the finest p#baa model1 and it is better that fine lettering should be almost too slender and delicate1 than that it should be at all heavy or clumsy4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abh4 ,,borders ,,backgrounds ,the illuminated border was originally an extension or branching out of the initial decoration4 ,it commonly occupied the greater part of the left-hand margin1 and from thence it extended into the head#de or foot margin 7or into both71 or completely surrounded the text1 and even the eight margins of a p#bac complete opening are sometimes covered with illumination4 ,in late and modern usage the border is frequently separated from the initial1 constituting a 8framing border40#df ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abi4 ,note4--,this diagram suggests a simple treatment of an initial word in colours and gold4 ,the graphic method employed by heralds for indicating these--by lines and dots--is here discarded for the stronger contrasts of black1 white1 and 8grey40 ,the letters contained inside the initial ,p are kept distinct--7#a7 crimson 78grey0 in diagram7 being used solely for the patches of ground adjoining the 7gold7 letters1 and for filling the hollow part of the 7gold7 ,p1 the whole word stands out in crimson and gold2 7#b7 the floral pattern is also in gold1 but it does not cover or hide any part of the word4 ,the remaining ground is green inside and blue outside the ,p4 ,the dots are in red on the green ground1 in cream with a red centre dot on the blue4 ,the gold throughout is outlined black1 and the blue ground has a black outline1 separated from it by a white line4 ,in some ,,mss4 there are two side-borders on a page1 one springing from the ,initials on the left1 the other sending branches into the gaps on the right 7see ,plates ,,xvii41 ,,xvi474 ,in some cases the two pages of an opening are balanced by a side-border in each of the wide side margins 7p4 #dbh74 ,backgrounds of ,initials 7see pp4 #ahh-aic1 #dba-bc7 and borders are treated very similarly4 ,it may be noted that1 where a solid-stem pattern cuts up the ground into small pieces1 these are often painted in different colours--commonly red1 and green1 and blue 7see pp4 #bji1 #dcj74 ,and the groups of dots 7fig4 #abi7--;in white or other colours--may fill the interstices of a background1 putting the finishing touch to the even covering and pleasant intricacy of the decoration 7comp4 p4 #bja74 ,or little flowers and leaves may be used instead--growing from a thin 7white7 stem which appears to twine throughout the main pattern--just as the smaller plants in a hedge creep and twine among the larger stems4 ,there is no better model in nature for the illuminator than a country hedgerow4 p#bad ,,chapter ,,xiii 8,,design0 ,,in ,,illumination 8,design0 -- ,elementary ,patterns in ,decoration -- ,scale ,scope of ,decoration -- ,of 8,designing0 ,manuscripts1 ,generally4 8,,design0 ,perhaps the nearest right definition of 8design0 is 8contrivance0--applied to the actual doing of the work1 rather than to the work when done3 8decoration0 7when that is the sense intended7 is a safer word1#dg because it implies 8of something40 ,and generally that 8something0 lies at the root of the matter4 ,for example3 8illuminated initials0 and 8illuminated borders10 so called1 are really illuminating3 they are properly a decoration of manuscript or print4 ,to consider a 8piece-of-decoration0 as a thing existing apart from that which it decorates1 as something drawn or copied1 and1 so to speak1 stuck on to the finished work1 is as unnatural as it would be to contemplate the flame-of-a-candle as a thing apart from the candle4 p#bae ,the finest decoration is really part of the work itself1 and may be described as the finishing touches given directly to the work by the tools which are properly employed on it4 ,the illuminator has1 as a rule1 to decorate a given manuscript with pen or brush work--it may be with the simplest pen flourishes1 or with the most elaborate figure 8design40 ,how to make that illumination part of the work1 he can learn only by patient practice and by careful handling of his tools4 ,,elementary ,,patterns ,,in ,,decoration ,nearly all simple ,decoration consists of a comparatively limited number of elements--simple forms and pure colours--which are built up into more complex forms to occupy an allotted space4 ,a primitive type of such built-up decoration is seen in the dotted patterns1 which are found in every age--in the remains of the most ancient art1 and in the shell decorations which children make on the sands at the present day4 ,examples of dotted 8backgrounds0 in the 8,durham ,book0 are shown in fig4 #acj 7a and b74 ,chequers and ,diapers--in which two or more elements are employed--are related patterns4#dh 7,see also ,addenda1 p4 #be fig4 #aia;a47 ,a simple way of filling a band 7or long narrow p#baf space7 is to run a zigzag line along it 7c74 ,this may be treated either as a line or wavy stem1 which may send out buds1 leaves1 or flowers into the spaces 7g71 or as two series of triangles which may be 8countercharged0 7f74#di ,a second zigzag1 cutting the first1 would produce two series of triangles and a central row of lozenges 7d74 ,and it is not a very great step from this to the 8twist0 where the two lines pass over and under1 the lines being made 8solid0 in white or gold on a coloured background 7e1 fig4 #acj74 ,the main difference appears to be that while the one is of the nature of an abstract form1 the other suggests a concrete form1 such as might be made with twisted cords or rods4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #acj4 ,these primitive patterns never become antiquated2 they are still the root forms of 8design10 and the pleasant even covering of a given space by simple elements--which is their mtier--accounts for much of the unconscious pleasure which we take in good bricklaying or sewing or writing1 and in a thousand things1 where 8many littles make a mickle40 ,for their decorative possibilities in ,illumination we can experiment in the most delightful way--framing our writing with bands of countercharged triangles in burnished gold1 and blue and white1 or with golden zigzags on a blue ground1 or chequering backgrounds with scarlet and blue1 and trying a hundred and one other ways 7p4 #aig74 ,such patterns have been made the most of in ,heraldry1 p#bah an art which in itself would form a foundation for a splendid and complete scheme of ,illumination4 ,,scale ,,scope ,,of ,,decoration ,penmanship4--,many of the most beautiful ,,mss4 were made in pen-work throughout4#ej ,and it is well that the penman should stick to his pen as much as is possible4 ,not only does it train his hand to make pen ornaments1 the forms of which are in keeping with the writing1 but it helps to keep the decoration proportionate in every way4 ,it is an excellent plan for the beginner to use the writing-pen for plain black capitals or flourishes1 and to make all other decoration with similar or slightly finer pens than the one used for the writing4 ,again1 the direct use of the pen will prevent much mischievous 8sketching40 ,sketching is right in its proper place1 and1 where you know exactly what you wish to do1 it is useful to sketch in lightly the main parts of a complex 8design0 so that each part may receive a fair portion of the available space4 ,but do not spoil your ,,ms4 by experimental pencilling in trying to find out what you want to do4 ,experiments are best made roughly with a pen or brush on a piece of paper laid on the available space in the ,,ms41 or by colouring a piece of paper and cutting it out to the pattern desired and laying it on4 ,such means are also used to settle small doubts which may arise in the actual p#bai illuminating--as to whether--and where--some form or some colour should be placed on the page4 ,filigree1 ,floral1 other ,decoration4--,the acquired skill of the penman leads very naturally to a pen flourishing and decoration of his work1 and this again to many different types of filigree decoration more or less resembling floral growths 7see figs4 #abe1 #abf2 pp4 #aig-bjb2 ,plates ,,xi41 ,,xvii474 ,now all right decoration in a sense arranges itself1 and we may compare the right action of the 8designer's0 mind to that necessary vibration or 8directive0 motion which permeates the universe and1 being communicated to the elements1 enables the various particles to fall into their right places3 as when iron filings are shaken near a magnet they arrange themselves in the natural curves of the magnetic field1 or as a cello bow1 drawn over the edge of a sand-sprinkled plate1 gathers the sand into beautiful 8musical patterns40 ,and to most natural growths1 whether of plants or ornament1 this principle of self-arrangement seems common1 that they spread out evenly and occupy to the greatest extent possible their allotted space4 ,branches and leaves most naturally grow away from the stem and from each other1 and oppose elbows and points in every direction4 ,in this way the growth fits its place1 looking secure and at rest--while in disconnected parallels1 or branches following their stem1 there is often insecurity and unrest4#ea 7,see also ,addenda1 p4 #be47 ,for example3 a circular space is filled more p#bbj decoratively by a cross 7a1 fig4 #aca7 than by a contained circle2 a square is better filled by a 8lozenge0 or a circle 7b and c7 than by a smaller square set square and parallel 7compare the diapering of the chequers in fig4 #aia a74 ,a circular or square space might be filled on this principle with a filigree arrangement such as is suggested by 7d1 fig4 #aca74 ,note4--,in the case of two curves in the ornament touching 7either internally or externally7 they may be linked at this point by a 7gold7 band or circle or lozenge 7e1 fig4 #aca1 see also ,plate ,,xvii474 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aca4 ,miniatures and ,drawing4--,in drawing and painting1 the difficulty which is apt to beset the illuminator is how to strike a balance between 8,naturalism0 and 8,conventionalism10 so called4 ,while the only criterion is good taste1 we may be guided by certain general principles4 ,to limit the number of elements in a 8design0--whether of form or colour--is nearly always an p#bba advantage 7pp4 #agg1 #aha1 #aih74 ,and the miniaturist1 while depicting the nature of a plant1 usually limits the number of its branches and leaves and shades of colour4 ,every part of a 8design0 should be drawn clearly and distinctly1 and in proportion to the whole4 ,the miniaturist1 therefore1 usually draws in careful outline every branch and leaf1 making the whole proportional with the ,,ms4 which it decorates4 ,in fact1 the qualities of good illumination are the same as the qualities of good writing--,simplicity1 ,distinctiveness1 ,proportion1 c4 7see p4 #bci74 ,and the 8convention0 7here literally a coming together7 required is only such as will make the drawing and colouring of the illumination and the form and colour of the writing go well together4 ,note4--,figs4 #ace to #ada 7woodcuts--with part of the text--from a ,herbal printed at ,venice in #aega p4 #cfi7 and figs4 #acb1 #acc1 and #acd;a 7wood engravings by ,t4 ,bewick1 printed #agia7 are suggested as examples of drawing--of plants and animals--suitable for book-decoration 7see also figs4 #acd;b1 c1 d2 ,plates ,,xv41 ,,xvi41 ,,xxiii41 and notes on 8limner's illumination10 p4 #bjc74 ,,of 8,,designing0 ,,manuscripts ,,generally ,cultivate the simplest and most direct methods1 and make 8rules of thumb0#eb for work-a-day use1 to carry you successfully through all routine or ordinary difficulties1 so that your hand will be trained and your mind free and ready to deal with the harder problems when they arise4 p#bbb ,use a limited number of pure1 bright colours1 and keep your work clean1 neat1 and definite4 ,go straight ahead1 trusting to workman-like methods1 and not calculating overmuch4 ,do the work in a regular order1 settling1 first1 the general scheme1 the size of the book1 the writing1 and the margins2 then when you are ready-- #a4 ,prepare the sheets 7see pp4 #ii1 #aaj1 #afg74 #b4 ,write the text--leaving spaces for decoration4 #c4 ,write in-- 7a7 ,the coloured writing4 7b7 ,the coloured capitals4 7c7 ,the line-finishings4 #d4 ,illuminate-- 7a7 ,the ,initials4 ,following a regular 7b7 ,line-finishings4 order in the various 7c7 ,the ,borders4 processes involved4 #e4 ,bind the book 7p4 #cdf71 or have it bound1 in order to make a real and finished piece of work4 ,practise an artistic economy of time and space3 usually the quicker you write the ,,ms4 the better it is4 ,allow sufficient margins to make the book readable and handsome1 but not so wide as to make it appear fanciful4 ,allow sufficient ornament1 not overloading the book with it4 ,let the ornament be of a type suited to the book and to the subject--not too painstaking or elaborate in an ordinary ,,ms42 not too hasty and slight in an important work4 ,endeavour to strike a balance between what may be called 8practical0 and 8ornamental0 considerations3 an illuminated ,,ms4 is not meant to be entirely 8practical10 but it is a greater failure if made entirely 8ornamental40 ,let the text be readable in every sense1 and let the ornament beautify it3 there should be give and take1 as it were1 and that most desirable quality--8sweet reasonableness40 p#bbc ,illustration3 ,fig4 #acb4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #acc4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #acd4 ,part of ,fig4 #acc4 ,enlarged twice linear4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #acd;a4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #acd;b4 p#bbg ,illustration3 ,fig4 #acd;c4 7,this and fig4 #acd d are copies from a thirteenth century ,,ms4 in the possession of ,mr4 ,yates-,thompson47 8,the intricacies of a natural scene 7fig4 #acd a--after ,bewick7 may be simplified when rendered in such a simple medium as the pen drawings of a ,,ms4 7comp4 fig4 #acd b74 ,figs4 #acd c d are old examples of strong1 simple drawing4 ,students should practise themselves by translating figs4 #acb1 #acc into fine1 ,quill-pen drawings40--7,n4 ,r47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #acd;d4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ace4--,the ,reed4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #acf4--;,asparagus4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #acg4--,the ,lentil4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ach4--,the ,vine4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aci4--,the ,carnation4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adj4--,the ,peony4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ada4--,the ,peach4 ,,footnotes ,,to ,,part ,i3 #e 8,the alphabet which we use at the present day has been traced back1 in all its essential forms1 to the ancient hieratic writing of ,egypt of about the twenty-fifth century before ,christ4 ,it is directly derived from the ,roman alphabet2 the ,roman1 from a local form of the ,greek2 the ,greek1 from the ,phnician2 the ,phnician1 from the ,egyptian hieratic4 4 4 4 ,we may without exaggeration 4 4 4 carry back the invention of ,egyptian writing to six or seven thousand years before ,christ40--,sir ,edward ,maunde ,thompson1 8,greek and ,latin ,palography10 pp4 #a-b4 #f ,ibid41 p4 #aif4 #g 8,g4 ,l4 ,palography10 p4 #bjd4 7,minuscules 8small letters40 ,half-,uncials are sometimes distinguished1 as 8round minuscules0--p4 #cjb47 #h ,it is possible that their forms were influenced by the use of the brush in painting up public notices and the like4 ,the introduction of the use of vellum--a perfect writing material--in the making of books1 led to such a great advance in the formality and finish of the book-hands 7especially of the ,uncial character7 that1 practically1 it may be said to mark the beginning of penmanship as a 8fine0 art4 ,this change may be assigned to any time between the first and the third centuries 7palographical dates before the fifth century must generally be regarded as approximate74 #i 8,greek and ,latin ,palography10 p4 #bcc4 #aj ,some ,eastern scribes use a 8pad0 of fur4 ,this1 or a piece of springy cloth1 or other elastic substance1 would probably be helpful1 and experiments should be made in this direction4 #aa ,the ordinary 8,reed pen0 of the artists' colourman is rather soft and weak for formal writing4 ,the reeds used by the native scribes in ,india and ,egypt1 and some of the harder ,english reeds1 are excellent4 ,a fine1 hollow cane also makes a very good pen4 #ab ,the width of the cut nib corresponds exactly with the width of the thickest stroke which the pen will make in writing4 #ac ,if the edge of the nib were cut at right angles to the shaft1 obviously the horizontal stroke would not be thin1 and the true thick and thin strokes would be oblique 7see 8slanted pen0 writing--figs4 #i #aa74 #ad ,for example1 a framed sheet does not require such wide margins as a similar sheet unframed4 #ae ,really about #f inches1 because the top line of writing will not occupy its full #g_/h inch1 the unused part of which adds to the top margin 7see fig4 #fe74 #af ,,ms4 ,books are further considered in ,chap4 ,,xvi4 #ag ,the direct use of a thick wood or metal scale may lead to inaccuracy4 #ah ,the two1 four1 eight 7or more7 pages are printed on both sides of the sheet before it is folded4 ,two or more sheets are generally folded and put together to form a folio 8section40 #ai ,such as ,foolscap 7#ag x #ac-a_/b71 ,crown 7#bj x #ae71 ,demy 7#bb-a_/b x #ag-a_/b71 ,royal 7#be x #bj71 c4 #bj ,in ,oriental books1 which are sometimes held by their top margins1 the top is deepest4 #ba ,if the average number of words be previously fixed--as in a poem 7see p4 #ie7--that will practically determine the size of the writing4 #bb ,they are often ruled double 7see p4 #cdc71 and sometimes the top and foot lines are ruled from edge to edge of the sheet4 #bc ,though ,versals may generally be regarded as paragraph marking letters1 it is convenient to apply the term to the ,versal type of letter--e4g4 8a heading in ,versal letters0 7see fig4 #ia74 #bd ,in 8,roman0 letters the thicks and thins are not necessarily strongly marked1 though their pen-forms have often a natural 8,gothic0 tendency4 #be ,the medival scribes often made the first line of a chapter or book in uniform capitals 7excepting the initial letter74 ,the succeeding line generally was smaller1 and of a different colour and type--even when a divided word was carried over into it4 #bf ,minium red-lead1 used in early times for 8rubrics0 and drawings1 hence is derived the word 8,miniature40 #bg ,an illuminated ,page will allow of a few lines of black text at the foot 7an arrangement very common in the elaborate ,initial ,pages of the fifteenth century71 but these should be quite subordinate to the 8,illumination40 #bh ,the surface of horny or greasy parchment may be slightly roughened with a pen-knife till little hairs are raised which will hold the size1 care being taken that this roughening does not extend beyond the actual parts which are to be covered with size4 7,oxgall3 see footnote1 p4 #age47 #bi ,as this is usually allowed to dry for twenty-four hours1 make sure1 before laying the size1 that you will be able to lay the gold-leaf on it at or near the same time on the next day4 #cj ,should a drop fall on the page it can be removed quickly with the knife1 but it is safer to allow it to dry and then to pick it off carefully4 ,size which has flowed beyond the bounds of the form may be trimmed away when it has set4 #ca ,a finer metal or ivory point may also be used4 #cb ,vide ,d4 ,cockerell1 8,bookbinding and the ,care of ,books10 p4 #ha4 #cc ,the very costly1 specially prepared calf-skin is too highly 8finished10 and has much the appearance of superior cardboard4 ,it is stiff and shiny1 and its surface is objectionable to work on4 #cd ,,oxgall may be used for a greasy surface2 painted on it1 or mixed with the colour4 #ce ,and the nib is cleaned out now and then 7with the filling brush71 or wiped1 to prevent the colour clogging it 7see p4 #gj74 #cf 8,french ,ultramarine0 is an artificial compound1 and a poor colour4 #cg ,for white lining1 c4--if in constant use--the ,chinese ,white in bottle is said to be the best2 a little ,spirits of ,wine should be poured into it1 to keep it moist and make it work better4 ,it should be stirred well1 and a sufficient quantity for immediate use is taken out and mixed in a small saucer4 ,the bottle is kept tightly corked4 #ch ,and single forms were often parti-coloured1 as ,,iii41 ,,iv41 ,blue1 with red serifs1 or vice vers 7see also pp4 #bjh1 #baf74 #ci ,in 8white light0 three rays 7known as the 8,primary ,colour-,sensations07 have been distinguished--,red1 ,green1 and ,blue2 any two of these are complementary to the remaining colour1 and appear to be induced optically in its neighbourhood4 7,yellow light is combined of ,red and ,green rays1 and this may partly explain the particular fitness of ,blue and ,gold ,illumination47 #dj ,in the case of a burnished gold letter1 the gilding may be deferred until the adjacent coloured parts are finished 7see p4 #agj74 #da ,it has even been supposed that we might make the inhabitants of ,mars aware of the existence of rational ,terrestrials1 by exhibiting a vast illumination--in lamp-light--consisting of a somewhat similar form--the first ,proposition in ,euclid4 #db ,note4--,limning strictly means ,illuminating1 but has come to imply drawing and painting1 especially of portraits and miniatures4 ,here1 all its senses are intended4 #dc ,the modern illuminator1 having no tradition for making such scroll-work1 would find that natural or organic forms--as of trees or plants 7see p4 #bba7--would serve the same end and have more 8sweet reasonableness0 in modern eyes4 ,excellent scroll-work1 moreover1 might be formed out of ornamental ,capitals--if sufficient excuse could be found for introducing them3 a large flourished ,l1 for example1 could be made exactly on the same lines as the pendant and scroll in ,plate ,,xv4 ,narrow gold rods also may be used in a border to support a floral growth1 or as frames if necessary 7compare rules1 p4 #cfd74 #dd ,the steps in the development sketched very briefly in this chapter1 refer both to the past history of the art of illumination and to its possible revival 7see ,author's preface1 p4 #af74 #de ,where it is possible it is desirable to mark the top left-hand corner of the 8page0 7and also the lower corner7 by a branch1 flourish1 bud1 or flower 7see ,plates ,,xix41 ,,xxii474 ,a top left-hand corner appearing vacant or rounded off is apt to weaken the whole effect 7see p4 #acd74 #df ,framing borders1 or borders which surround the text1 may be allowed nearly to fill the entire marginal space4 #dg 8,design0 has been associated so much with bad cleverness in the artist1 or clever badness in the natural man1 that if we use the word in a good sense it is apt to be misunderstood4 ,decoration is derived from decus1 decor comeliness or grace4 #dh ,chequers in colours and gold were largely used in the fourteenth-century ,,mss4 for backgrounds in miniatures4 ,there is an example of very beautiful heraldic diapering 7in enamel7 on the shield of ,william de ,valence1 ,earl of ,pembroke1 in ,westminster ,abbey 7,a4,d4 #abif74 ,on p4 #ccf of this book there is a diagram of a very fine shield bearing a diapered chequer4 #di ,if the triangles were countercharged in colour and colour--e4g4 red and blue--the zigzag would be made white1 black1 or gold1 to separate and harmonise the colours 7see pp4 #ahb-hc74 #ej ,a most beautiful twelfth-century ,,ms41 known as the 8,golden ,psalter10 has many gold 7decorated7 ,initials1 ,red1 ,blue1 and ,green 7plain7 ,versals and ,line-,finishings1 every part being pen-made throughout the book4 #ea ,in a spiral the stem1 following itself1 may be tied by an interlacing spiral1 or the turns of the spiral may be held at rest by the interlocking of the leaves 7see ,g1 ,plate ,,xxii474 #eb ,as an example of a good 8rule of thumb10 use the ruled lines of a manuscript as a scale for other measurements and proportions1 leaving one1 two1 three1 or more of the line-spaces for capitals1 ornaments1 c43 you have this scale--as it were1 a 8ready reckoner0--present on every page1 and following it enables you more easily to make the decoration agree and harmonise with the written text and with the book as a whole 7see p4 #abh figs4 #hi1 #ia1 #ga74 p#bcg ,,part ,,ii ,,lettering ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,good ,,lettering----,,some ,,methods ,,of ,,construction ,,arrangement ,good ,models -- ,the ,qualities of ,good ,lettering -- ,simplicity -- ,distinctiveness -- ,proportion -- ,beauty of ,form -- ,beauty of ,uniformity -- ,right ,arrangement -- ,setting ,out ,fitting ,in -- 8,massed ,writing0 8,fine ,writing0 -- ,even ,spacing -- ,theory ,practice4 ,,good ,,models ,if lettering is to be rightly constructed and arranged1 the study of good models is essential4 ,some of the writing and lettering in the old ,,mss41 and the letters used on various old tombstones and brasses1 weeded of archaisms1 will be found almost perfect models4 ,yet to select one of these from the many which are 8more or less0 good1 requires much discrimination4 ,it is suggested below that the essential virtues of good lettering are readableness1 beauty1 and character4 ,if1 then1 we can discover some of the underlying qualities which make for these1 our choice will at least be better considered1 and instead of p#bch forming our 8style0 on the first type of letter that pleases1 we shall found our work on a good model1 full of possibilities of development4 ,the ,roman ,capital 7,chap4 ,,xv474--,the ancestor of all our letters is in undisputed possession of the first place3 but it is open to comparatively few to make a practical study of its monumental forms by means of cutting inscriptions in stone with a chisel4 ,the ,pen-formed letters are more easily practised1 and the mastery of the pen acquired in the practice of a root form--such as the half-uncial--is the key to the majority of alphabets 7which are pen developed7 and to those principles underlying the right construction and arrangement of lettering1 which it is our business to discover4 ,doubtless a 8school0 of lettering might be founded on any fine type1 and a beautiful alphabet or fine hand might be founded on any fine inscription3 but the practical student of penmanship may be sure of acquiring a knowledge of lettering which would be useful to any craftsman concerned with letters1 be he printer1 book-illustrator1 engraver1 or even inscription carver4 ,,the ,,qualities ,,of ,,good ,,lettering ,the first general virtue of lettering is readableness1 the second1 fitness for a given ,use4 ,and the rational basis of the following summary is the assumption that such fitness is comprised in beauty and character1 and that a given piece of lettering having readableness1 beauty1 and character has the essential virtues of good lettering4 ,the qualities on which these virtues seem chiefly to depend1 and their special significations in the case of plain writing1 may be set forth as follows3-- p#bci ,,the ,,qualities ,,of ,,good ,,writing ,,right ,,form ,,readableness #a4 ,simplicity3 ,as having no unnecessary parts 7and as being simply arranged3 see #f74 #b4 ,distinctiveness3 ,as having the distinguishing characteristics of each letter strongly marked 7and the words distinctly arranged3 see #f74 #c4 ,proportion3 ,as having no part of a letter wrongly exaggerated or dwarfed 7and as the lettering being proportionally arranged3 see #f74 ,,beauty #d4 ,beauty of ,form3 ,as having beautiful shapes and constructions1 so that each letter is an individual and living whole 7not a mere collection of parts7 fitted for the position1 office1 and material of the object bearing the inscription4 #e4 ,beauty of ,uniformity3 ,as the assimilation of the corresponding parts--8bodies10 8limbs10 8heads0--and as the 8family likeness0 of the different letters1 so that they go well together4 ,,right ,,arrangement ,,beauty #f4 ,beauty of ,arrangement3 ,as having a general fitness in the placing1 connecting1 and spacing of letters1 words1 and lines1 in the disposal of the lettering in the given space1 and in the proportioning of every part of the lettering and its margins4 ,,right ,,expression ,,character #g4 ,essential qualities of 7,hand and ,pen7 work3 ,as being genuine calligraphy1 the direct outcome of a rightly made and rightly handled pen4 7,see p4 #bgh47 #h4 ,freedom3 ,as having skilled and unaffected boldness4 7,see pp4 #abb1 #cbg1 #cbc1 #cfi47 #i4 ,personality3 ,as having the characteristics which distinguish one person's hand from another's4 7,see also pp4 #bgh1 #cbc47 p#bdj ,this summary1 while not presuming to define the ,virtues1 or achieve ,beauty by a formula1 does indicate some guiding principles for the letter-maker1 and does suggest a definite meaning which may be given to the terms 8,right ,form10 8,right ,arrangement10 and 8,right ,expression0 in a particular craft4 ,it is true that 8,readableness0 and 8,character0 are comprised in ,beauty1 in the widest sense2 but it is useful here to distinguish them3 ,readableness as the only sound basis for a practical theory of lettering1 and ,character as the product of a particular hand tool at work in a particular craft4 ,the above table1 therefore1 may be used as a test of the qualities of any piece of lettering--whether ,manuscript1 ,printing1 or ,engraving--provided that the significations of those qualities on which 8,character0 depends be modified and adapted to each particular instance4 ,it is however a test for general qualities only--such as may help us in choosing a model3 for as to its particular virtue each work stands alone--judged by its merits--in spite of all rules4 ,,simplicity 7,as having no unnecessary parts7 ,essential ,forms and their ,characterisation4--,the 8,essential ,forms0 may be defined briefly as the necessary parts 7see p4 #bge74 ,they constitute the skeleton or structural plan of an alphabet2 and ,one of the finest things the letter-craftsman can do1 is to make the ,essential ,forms of letters beautiful in themselves1 giving them the character and finish which come naturally from a rightly handled tool4 p#bda ,if we take the 8,roman0 types--the letters with which we are most familiar--and draw them in single pencil strokes 7as a child does when it 8learns its letters071 we get a rough representation of their ,essential ,forms 7see diagram1 fig4 #adb74 ,such letters might be scratched with a point in wax or clay1 and if so used in practice would give rise to fresh and characteristic developments1#ec but if we take a 8square cut0 pen which will give a thin horizontal stroke and a thick vertical stroke 7figs4 #aj and #dj71 it will give us the 8straight-pen10 or simple written1 essential forms of these letters 7fig4 #adc74 ,these essential forms of straight-pen letters when compared with the plain line forms show a remarkable degree of interest1 brought about by the introduction of the thin and thick strokes and gradated curves1 characteristic of pen work4 ,certain letters 7,a1 ,k1 ,m1 ,n1 ,v1 ,w1 ,x1 ,y1 and k1 v1 w1 x1 y7 in fig4 #adc being composed chiefly of oblique strokes1 appear rather heavy4 ,they are lightened by using a naturally 8slanted0 pen which produces thin as well as thick oblique strokes4 ,and the verticals in ,m and ,n are made thin by further slanting the pen 7fig4 #add74 ,to our eyes1 accustomed to a traditional finish1 all these forms--in figs4 #adc and #add1 but particularly the slanted pen forms--look incomplete and unfinished2 and it is obvious that the thin strokes1 at least1 require marked terminals or serifs4 p#bdb ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adb4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adc4 p#bdd ,illustration3 ,fig4 #add4 ,finishing-,strokes4--,the pen naturally produces a variety of finishing-strokes--8heads10 8feet10 serifs1 c4--each type of which strongly characterises the alphabet in which it is employed4 ,the main types 7fig4 #ade7 are-- 7a7 ,hooks or beaks4 7b7 ,straight 7or curved7 strokes1 thick or thin according to the direction of the pen4 7c7 ,triangular 8heads0 7and 8feet071 straight or slanted1 and more or less curved and sharpened4 7d7 ,thin finishing-curves1 horizontal or oblique4 ,to give uniformity to the various letters of an alphabet it is necessary to treat similar parts as consistently as possible throughout 7see ,no4 #e1 p4 #bci74 ,and the remarkable way in which 8heads0 impart a 8family likeness0 to letters closely resembles the same phenomenon among human beings 7see pp4 #cbd1 #bed74 ,if we consider the four types of serif1 as applicable to straight-pen writing1 we find-- p#bde 7a7 ,hooks or ,beaks ,suitable only for certain parts of certain letters 7d7 ,thin ,finishing-,curves 7and for informal writing74 7b7 ,straight 7or ,curved7 ,,thin ,informal 7or ,ornamental74 ,strokes 7c7 ,triangular 8,heads0 ,formal and capable of imparting great elegance and finish4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ade4 ,for a formal1 straight-pen writing1 therefore1 we may assume that a form of triangular head is1 on the whole1 the most suitable1 while some of the letters may be allowed to end naturally in finishing hooks and curves4 p#bdf ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adf4 ,heads are easily built up at the ends of thick strokes1 but some practice is required to enable a penman to make them on the thin strokes properly and skilfully4 ,on the thin horizontals they are made with an almost continuous movement of the point of the nib from the thin stroke itself 7see 7a7 to 7h7 fig4 #adf7 closely resembling the termination of some of the thin strokes in the ,irish half-uncial 7,plate ,,vi474 ,on the thin oblique or vertical stems a thin crossing stroke is first made1 and then shaped p#bdg with the pen point to meet the stem 7see 7i7 and 7k7 fig4 #adf74 ,we may write out the letters now with their suitable serifs1 and we see that the ,pen character and finish1 given to the 8,essential1 or ,skeleton1 ,forms0 7fig4 #adb7 result in a very formal and highly finished alphabet 7fig4 #adg74 ,slanted-pen characters and serifs 7see fig4 #ade7-- 7a7 ,hooks or ,beaks ,suitable for most of the letters1 but tending to 7d7 ,thin ,finishing-,curves be informal4 7b7 ,straight 7or ,curved7 ,formal and strong4 ,,thick ,strokes 7c7 ,triangular ,heads ,formal and suitable for small-letters1 and free capitals 7see fig4 #afh74 ,the alphabets 7fig4 #adh71 produced from the skeleton forms 7fig4 #adb7 by the slanted pen1 while not having such a conscious air of finish as the straight-pen letters1 are much easier to write1 and have in a greater degree the virtues of strong1#ed legible1 natural penmanship4 ,they are eminently suitable for general ,,ms4 work 7see p4 #cje7 when the beginner has mastered an early form of round-hand 7see pp4 #gj1 #cjd74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adg4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adh4 ,,distinctiveness 7,as having the distinguishing characteristics of each letter strongly marked7 ,the 8,characteristic ,parts0 are those parts which most particularly serve to distinguish one letter from p#bej another 7fig4 #adi74 ,we should therefore1 when constructing letters1 give special attention to their preservation1 and sometimes they may even be accentuated with advantage--always with an eye to the life-history1 or evolution1 of the letter in question1 and allowing for the influence of the special tool with which it is to be made 7see ,proportion1 below74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adi4 p#bea ,,proportion 7,as having no part of a letter wrongly exaggerated or dwarfed--see pp4 #bgd1 #bgg-gh7 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aej4 ,the right proportioning of letters entails the preservation of their ,essential ,forms and their ,characteristic ,parts1 and1 provided these are not p#beb seriously interfered with1 a certain amount of exaggeration 7and dwarfing7#ee is allowable in special cases2 particularly in ornamental writings1 and ,pen-flourished capitals or terminal letters 7see figs4 #gi and #abe74 ,rational exaggeration usually amounts to the drawing out or flourishing of tails or free stems1 or branches--very often to the magnifying of a characteristic part 7see fig4 #aej1 pp4 #bej1 #cca74 ,it is a special form of decoration1 and very effective if used discriminately4 ,,beauty ,,of ,,form 7,as having beautiful shapes and constructions1 so that each letter is an individual and living whole 7not a mere collection of parts7 fitted for the position1 office1 and material of the object bearing the inscription7 ,to choose or construct beautiful forms requires good taste1 and that in its turn requires cultivation1 which comes from the observation of beautiful forms4 ,those who are not accustomed to seeing beautiful things are1 in consequence1 often uncertain whether they think a thing beautiful or not4 ,some--perhaps all of us--have an intuition for what is beautiful2 but most of us have to achieve beauty by taking pains4 ,at the least we are apt to be misled if we label abstract forms as essentially beautiful or essentially ugly--as by a mistaken recipe for beauty4 ,for us as craftsmen 8achieving beauty by taking pains10 means acquiring skill in a special craft and p#bec adapting that skill to a special piece of work4 ,and perhaps the surest way to learn1 is to let our tools and materials teach us and1 as it were1 make beautiful shapes for us4 8,inside ,shapes40--,the beauty of a letter depends very much on its inside shape--i4e4 the shape of the space enclosed by the letter form4 ,as this is often overlooked1 it may be briefly referred to4 ,frequently when it seems difficult to say what is wrong with a piece of bad lettering1 a glance at the inside shapes will reveal the fault4 ,in simple writing1 if the pen be properly cut and properly held1 these shapes will generally take care of themselves1 and internal angles or asymmetrical lines which occur are characteristic of that particular form of penmanship1 and not accidental 7b1 fig4 #aea74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aea4 p#bed ,in making ,built-up letters--which have both outer and inner strokes--the inner strokes should generally be made first 7see p4 #aba74 ,plain and ,ornamental ,forms4--,not only for the sake of readableness1 but to promote a beautiful and dignified effect1 the forms of letters are kept simple when the text is long4 ,and1 generally1 the less frequent the type1 the more ornamental may be its form 7see pp4 #abf1 #baj1 #bih1 #ccj74 ,,beauty ,,of ,,uniformity 7,as the assimilation of the corresponding parts--8bodies10 8limbs10 8heads0--and as the 8family likeness10 of the different letters1 so that they go well together7 ,right uniformity makes for readableness and beauty1 and is the result of good craftsmanship4 ,readableness4--,where the text letters are uniform1 the reader is free to give his attention to the sense of the words1 whereas the variations in an irregular or changing text are distracting4#ef ,beauty4--,the abstract beauty-of-uniformity may be said to lie in this1 that the different letters1 or individual elements1 8go well together40 ,the beautiful effect of uniform lettering is thus caused by the united forces1 as it were1 of all the letters4 ,good ,craftsmanship4--,a pen1 or other letter-making tool1 being handled freely and regularly1 the uniform movements of the tool in similar cases will produce uniform strokes1 c4 7,on the other hand1 the interruption and loss of freedom to the p#bee writer who is irregular1 or who forces an unnatural variety1#eg results in inferior work47 ,,right ,,arrangement ,,beauty ,,of ,,arrangement 7,as having a general fitness in the placing1 connecting1 and spacing of letters1 words1 and lines1 in the disposal of the lettering in the given space1 and in the proportioning of every part of the lettering and its margins7 ,the particular fitness of a given inscription depends upon considerations of its particular office1 position1 material1 c4 7see pp4 #ajj1 #cea74 ,for general use1 however1 the craftsman has certain regular modes of disposing and spacing the lettering1 and proportioning the whole4 ,and1 as in constructing individual letters1 so in treating lettering as a whole1 he endeavours to give his work the qualities that make for readableness3 viz4 simplicity1 distinctiveness1 and proportion4 ,simplicity in the ,disposal of the ,lettering4--,for convenience of construction1 reading1 or handling1 the simple1 traditional arrangement of lettering is generally followed in dealing with flat surfaces 7paper1 vellum1 c473#eh-- ,,the ,,text ,,forming ,a ,,rectangle1 ,,con- ,,sisting ,,of ,a ,,num- ,,ber ,,of ,,equal ,,lines p#bef ,distinctiveness in the ,spacing of the ,lettering necessitates sufficient interspaces3 the following common spacing of ,letters1 ,words1 ,lines1 c41 may be modified to suit special circumstances4 ,letters1 as a rule1 are not equidistant1 but their interspaces are approximately equal 7a1 fig4 #aeb74 ,words1 commonly one letter-space apart 7b and c74 ,lines of ,capitals1 frequently half 7d7 or whole 7e7 letter-height apart4 ,lines of ,small-,letters1 commonly ascenders and descenders just clearing 7f74 ,divisions of ,text a clear line apart1 or marked by a difference in colour or size 7see figs4 #id1 #if1 #ahf1 c474 ,proportion in the ,treatment of the ,whole ,inscription4--,the spacing-proportions referred to above apply to lettering generally1 but the proportions of an inscription as a whole involve the consideration of a special case4 ,example3-- ,the ,proportions to be ,considered in the ,case of a ,manuscript ,book 7see pp4 #ajj-ajh1 #cda1 c474 7#a7 ,size and shape of the ,book 7,set by custom1 use of ,book1 and its page 7proportion of size of material1 c47 7see figs4 width to height7 7see p4 #fi1 #gj1 and pp4 #aja1 c474 #ajc74 7#b7 ,width of ,margins-- ,proportions-- 7a7 7,commonly about #a-a_/b3b3c3d7 7a7 to each other4 7see fig4 #gj1 and pp4 #ajc-g74 7b7 to size of page4 7b7 7,frequently about1 or more 7c7 to the lettering4 than1 half the area of the page74 7#c7 ,size of ,writing-- 7,set by page1 and margin1 and ,proportion of height of number of words in the line2 letter to length of line4 usually more than four words to the line7 7see pp4 #ajg-h74 7#d7 ,number of lines-- 7,set by page1 margin1 and ,proportion of text to page4 height-of-letter1 and modified by treatment of spacing7 7see pp4 #ajh1 #bfb74 7#e7 ,size of ,large ,capitals1 7,set by ,small-,letter2 commonly ,initials1 c4 one1 two1 three1 or more of the writing-line-spaces high7 7see footnote1 p4 #bba74 7#f7 ,size of ,decorative 7,set by page1 c42 usually such ,divisions of the ,text ,division is relatively small 7marked by different or large--as a definite 8heading10 treatment1 colour1 ornament1 or a whole page7 7see p4 #acb74 c474 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aeb4 p#beh ,,setting ,,out1 ,,fitting ,,in ,ruling4--,the approximate sizes of margins and letters1 and the number of lines of text1 having been estimated1 guiding lines are ruled on the surface 7see p4 #cdc7--;a right and a left vertical marginal line1 with the necessary number of horizontals between them4 7,in the case of a manuscript1 these lines are ruled faintly 7or grooved71 and are left to form a feature of the page2 for inscriptions on other materials than paper1 parchment1 c41 they are generally removed after setting-out47 ,setting-out4--,an inscription of any size1 or one requiring complex or very nice arrangement1 is set-out in faint1 sketchy outline of lead pencil or chalk4 ,simple writing is not set-out1 but such slight calculation or planning as is necessary is carried out mentally1 or on a scrap of paper4 ,by practice the scribe1 like the compositor1 can fit his lettering to the given space with ease and accuracy4 ,for writing and 7to a large extent7 printing1 both combine setting-out and the act of 8lettering0 in one operation4 ,and this shows how practice gives foreknowledge of the 8mechanical0 part of the work1 leaving the mind free to take pleasure in its performance2 and also how slight--if necessary at all--is the experimental setting-out of simple forms required by the practised workman4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aec4 ,dividing ,monosyllables4--,in simple writing--the beauty of which depends on freedom rather than on precision--,i think that even such an awkward word as 8through0 should not be broken4 ,if the space at the end of a line is insufficient1 it should be left blank1 or be filled in with a dash of the pen4 ,but in the case of words in ,,large ,,capitals1 especially in title-pages and the like1 where spacing p#bei is more difficult1 and smooth reading less essential1 any word may be divided at any point if the necessity is sufficiently obvious4 ,but 7even when the division is syllabic7 breaking words1 as interfering with the ease of reading1 may often be avoided with advantage1 and divisions which give accidental words1 especially when they are objectionable1 as p#bfj 8,,th-,,rough10 or 8,,neigh-,,bour10 should not be allowed4 ,among other ways of dealing with small spaces1 without breaking words1 are the following3-- ,ending with ,smaller ,letters4--,the scribe is always at liberty to compress his writing slightly1 provided he does not spoil its readableness or beauty4 ,occasionally1 without harming either of these1 a marked difference in size of letter may be allowed2 one or more words1 or a part of one1 or a single letter1 being made smaller 7a1 b1 fig4 #aec2 see also ,plate ,v474 ,monogrammatic ,forms1 c4--,in any kind of lettering1 but more particularly in the case of capitals1 where the given space is insufficient for the given capitals1 monogrammatic forms resembling the ordinary diphthong may be used2 or the stem of one letter may be drawn out1 above or below1 and formed into another 7c1 fig4 #aec74 ,linking4--,letters which are large enough may be linked or looped together1 or one letter may be set inside another1 or free-stem letters may be drawn up above the line 7d1 fig4 #aec1 but see p4 #bf74 ,tying up4--,one or more words at the end of a line of writing--particularly in poetry 7see p4 #ie7--may be 8tied up10 i4e4 be written above or below the line1 with a pen stroke to connect them to it 7fig4 #fg74 ,care must be taken that none of these methods lead to confusion in the reading4 ,their 8,quaintness0--as it is sometimes called--is only pleasing when their contrivance is obviously made necessary4 8,,massed ,,writing0 8,,fine ,,writing0 ,we may distinguish two characteristic modes of treating an inscription1 in which the treatment of the letter is bound up with the treatment of the spacing 7fig4 #aed74 p#bfb ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aed4 8,massed ,writing0 7,close ,spacing74--,the written or printed page is very commonly set close1 or 8massed10 so that the letters support and enforce one another1 their individual beauty being merged in and giving beauty to the whole4 ,the closeness of the letters in each word keeps the words distinct1 so that but little space is required between them1#ei and the lines of writing are made close together 7ascending and descending stems being shortened1 if necessary1 for this purpose74 8,fine ,writing0 7,wide ,spacing74--,an inscription in 8,fine ,writing0 may be spaced widely to display the finished beauty of the letters1 or to give free play to the penman 7or letter-craftsman74 ,it consists generally of a number of distinct lines of ,writing 7or other lettering74 ,the two modes may be contrasted broadly1 thus-- ,,massed ,,writing 7,lines near ,,fine ,,writing 7,lines spaced together47 and separated47 ,has an effect of richness1 ,has an effect of elegance1 depending depending on tone of mass and on form of letters and distinct close1 even spacing4 arrangement of lines4 ,simple method 7for ordinary ,refined method 7for special use72 use72 saving of time and lavish of space and time1 space1 suited for long suited for large spaces or short inscriptions or small spaces4 inscriptions4 ,lines generally of equal ,lines may be of unequal length1 length1 or if some fall giving irregular1 right-hand edge1 short1 end-fillings may be as in poetry 7see p4 #bfc7--;gaps used--gaps are avoided if allowed on either side4 p#bfc possible4 ,ascending and descending ,stems--medium or long3 long stems stems--medium or short3 often a marked feature1 ending in serifs simple1 and not carefully made heads and feed1 strongly marked4 or flourishes4 ,suited for slanted-pen forms ,suited for straight and slanted of 8gothic0 tendency1 and pen forms of 8roman0 tendency1 heavy1 black writing and slender1 light writing 7example1 8black letter07499 7example1 8,italic07499 ,requires generally contrasts ,allows variety in size of ,letters of colour or weight 7p4 7see pp4 #bih1 #cbh73 its typical #ccj71 and will bear more treatment is as plain1 fine and heavier illumination lettering--better without 7,line-fillings1 ,initials1 heavy ,borders1 c4 7p4 #bii74 ,borders1 c474 99 ,note4--,both modes are suited for ,roman ,capitals and ,small-,letters4 ,these two modes may not have been recognised by the ancient letter-craftsmen3 their comparison here is intended chiefly as a stimulus to definite thought1 not as a hard-and-fast division of two 8styles02 for there may be any number of possible compromises between them4 ,in practice1 however1 it will be found convenient to distinguish them as two modes of treating ,,lines ,,of ,,writing which produce markedly different effects1 the one1 as it were1 of ,,colour1 the other of ,,form4 ,plates ,,xi41 ,,xiii41 ,,xiv41 ,,xv41 ,,xvii4 may be taken as examples of 8,massed ,writing10 ,plates ,,iv41 ,v41 ,,vi41 ,,vii41 ,,ix41 7,,xxi47 of 8,fine ,writing02 the other plates suggest compromises between the two4 ,poetry 7see p4 #ie71 or any text consisting of1 or which is conveniently broken up into unequal lines1 may be treated as 8,fine ,writing40 ,there is no objection to a straight left-hand edge with an irregular right-hand edge1#fj where the cause of the irregularity p#bfd is natural and obvious1 and no fault of the scribe's4 ,such an arrangement1 or rather1 straightforward writing1 of poetry is often the best by virtue of its freedom and simplicity 7see p4 #cga74 ,in many cases1 however1 a more formal and finished treatment of an irregular line text is to be preferred 7especially in inscriptions on stone1 metal1 c471 and the most natural arrangement is then an approximately symmetrical one1 inclining to 8,fine ,writing0 in treatment4 ,this is easily obtained in inscriptions which are previously set-out1 but a good plan--certainly the best for ,,mss4--is to sort the lines of the text into longs and shorts 7and sometimes medium lines71 and to set-in or indent the short lines two1 three1 or more letters4 ,the indentations on the left balance the accidental irregularities on the right 7fig4 #aed1 and ,plate ,,iv471 and give an appearance of symmetry to the page 7see ,phrasing1 p4 #chd74 ,either mode of spacing 7close or wide7 may be carried to an unwise or ridiculous extreme4 8,leading0 the lines of type was much in vogue a hundred years ago1 in what was then regarded as 8high-class0 printing4 ,too often the wide-spaced line and 8grand0 manner of the eighteenth-century printer was pretentious rather than effective3 this was partly due to the degraded type which he used1 but form1 arrangement1 and expression all tended to be artificial4 ,of late years a rich1 closely massed page has again become fashionable4 ,doubtless there has been a reaction in this from the eighteenth century to an earlier and better manner1 but the effect is sometimes overdone1 and the real ease and comfort of the reader has been sacrificed to his rather imaginary stheticism4 ,by attaching supreme importance to readableness1 p#bfe the letter-craftsman gains at least a rational basis for his work1 and is saved from the snares which lurk in all1 even in the best1 modes and fashions4 ,,even ,,spacing ,in the spacing of a given inscription on a limited surface1 where a comparatively large size of letter is required1 what little space there is to spare should generally be distributed evenly and consistently 7a1 fig4 #aee74 ,lavish expenditure of space on the margins would necessitate an undue crowding#fa of the lettering 7b71 and wide interspacing#fb would allow insufficient margins 7c7--either arrangement suggesting inconsistency 7but see p4 #ceb74 ,note4--,a given margin looks larger the heavier the mass of the text1#fc and smaller the lighter the mass of the text4 ,and1 therefore1 if lettering be spread out1 as in 8,fine ,writing10 the margins should be extra wide to have their true comparative value4 ,the space available for a given inscription may in this way largely determine the arrangement of the lettering1 comparatively small and large spaces suggesting respectively 8,massed ,writing0 and 8,fine ,writing0 7see p4 #bfb74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aee4 ,in certain decorative inscriptions1 where letters are merely treated as decorative forms--readableness p#bfg being a matter of little or no moment--the treatment of the spacing is adapted to a particular surface2 and1 for example3-- ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aef4 ,,theory ,,practice ,the above discussion of theories and 8rules0 for the construction and arrangement of good lettering is intended to suggest some useful methods--not to provoke excessive fitting or planning1 but rather to avoid it4 ,straightforwardness is perhaps the greatest virtue in a craft1 and whatever 8rules0 it may break through1 it is refreshing and charming4 ,an excellent example for the scribe or inscription maker is the method of an early printer1 who had only four or five sorts of type--say1 8,small-,letters0 and 8,capitals0 7,roman and ,italic7 and 8,large ,capitals10 and who1 without any elaborate 8design10 simply put his types into their proper p#bfh places1 and then pulled off his pleasant sheets of 8commonplace0 printing4 ,the scribe should choose the best and simplest forms and arrangements1 and master them before going further2 he should have a few definite types 8at his finger tips10 and1 for everyday use1 a matter-of-course way of putting them down on paper4 ,ambiguity is one of the greatest faults in a craft4 ,it comes often from vague ambitions4 ,one may be inspired by good ambitions1 but the immediate concern of the craftsman is to know what he is capable of doing at the present1 and to do it4 ,let the meaning of your work be obvious unless it is designed purely for your own amusement4 ,a good craftsman seeks out the commonplace and tries to master it1 knowing that 8originality0 comes of necessity1 and not of searching4 ,,chapter ,,xv ,,the ,,roman ,,alphabet ,,its ,,derivatives ,the ,roman ,alphabet -- ,proportions of ,letters3 ,widths -- ,upper ,lower ,parts--,essential or ,structural ,forms -- ,characterisation of ,forms -- ,built-,up ,forms -- ,simple-,written ,capitals -- ,uncials -- ,capitals ,small-,letters -- ,early1 ,round1 ,upright1 ,formal ,hands -- ,slanted-,pen ,small-,letters -- ,roman ,small-,letters -- ,italics -- ,semi-,formal ,hands -- ,of ,formal ,writing ,generally -- ,decorative ,contrasts -- ,ornamental ,letters4 ,the ,roman ,alphabet ,the ,roman ,alphabet is the foundation of all our alphabets 7see ,chapter ,i474 ,and since the full p#bfi development of their monumental forms about #bjjj years ago1 the ,roman ,capitals have held the supreme place among letters for readableness and beauty4 ,they are the best forms for the grandest and most important inscriptions1 and1 in regard to lettering generally1 a very good rule to follow is3 ,when in doubt1 use ,roman ,capitals4 ,the penman may with advantage devote some study to a fine monumental type of ,roman ,capital 7such as that of the ,trajan ,column ,inscription3 ,plates ,i4 and ,,ii471 and endeavour to embody its virtues in a built-up pen form for use in ,,mss4 7p4 #bid74 ,,proportions ,,of ,,letters3 ,,widths ,the marked distinction between the 8,square0 and the 8,round0 forms1 and the varying widths of the letters--as seen in the early inscriptions1#fd are characteristic of the ,roman ,alphabet4 ,we may broadly distinguish ,wide and ,narrow letters thus-- ,,wide ,o ,q ,c ,g ,d 8,round40 ,,wide ,m ,w 8,square40 ,,wide ,h 7,u7 ,a ,n ,v ,t 7,z7 8,square40 ,,narrow ,b ,e ,f ,r ,s ,y 7,x7 ,,narrow ,i ,j ,,narrow ,k ,l ,p p#bgj ,the 8,round0 ,wide ,letters--,o1 ,q1 ,c1 ,g1 ,d4-- ,o may be regarded as the ,key letter of an alphabet4 ,given an ,o and an ,i of any alphabet1 we can make a very good guess at the forms of the other letters4 ,in fine ,inscriptions the external line of ,o is commonly an almost perfect circle 7see ,plate ,,ii47--i4e4 its height and width are equal4 ,this may be regarded as the ideal shape1 though a slight widening or narrowing of the letter 7fig4 #aeg7 is quite permissible4#fe ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aeg4 ,q1 ,c1 ,g1 and ,d follow the proportions of ,o p#bga very nearly1 and1 though ,c1 ,g1 ,d are a little narrower1 they have the same effect of roundness and width4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aeh4 ,the 8,square0 ,wide ,letters--,m1 ,w1 and ,h1 7,u71 ,a1 ,n1 ,v1 ,t1 7,z7-- ,m ,w ,their mean width is properly about equal to their height4 ,h ,width equal to1 or a little less than1 height 7fig4 #aeh71 but if made too narrow it would look heavy1 being double-stemmed4 ,u 7see pp4 #bhg1 #bhd7 resembles ,h4 ,a1 ,n1 ,v are double-stemmed1 and have internal angles1 moreover1 which would become too sharp--and tend to close p#bgb up--if they were made too narrow 7fig4 #aeh74 ,t ,the cross-bar--the characteristic part of ,t--projects a fair way on either side of the stem4 ,z ,either wide or 7moderately7 narrow 7fig4 #aeh74 ,the ,narrow ,letters1 ,b1 ,e1 ,f1 ,r1 ,s1 ,y 7,x7 7see fig4 #aei74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aei4 ,there is a point of division in these letters about the middle of the stem or a little above 7see p4 #bgc71 and we may argue that each being composed1 as it were1 of two little letters--which are half-height1 they are proportionately half-width3 and this will be found approximately correct4 ,b may be said to consist of one little ,d on the top of another1 averaging respectively half the height and width of a full-sized ,d4 ,e1 ,f1 ,r follow the proportions of ,b 7see also ,e1 #d1 p4 #bhb74 p#bgc ,s may be made of one little tilted ,o on the top of another--joined together and having the superfluous parts removed4 ,y is like a little ,v upon a little ,i4 ,x ,either narrow or wide 7fig4 #aei74 ,the ,narrow letters1 ,k1 ,l1 and ,p-- ,these forms are related to the ,b1 ,e forms1 but it is permissible to make them a little wider to give clearance to the angles of the ,k and force to the single arm and loop--the characteristic parts 7see fig4 #adi7--of ,l and ,p4 ,,upper ,,lower ,,parts ,in the letters ,b1 ,e1 ,h1 ,k1 ,x 7,a71 ,f1 ,r1 ,p 7,s71 ,y there is generally a tendency to enlarge the lower part1 the cross-bar--or division--being set above mid-height4 ,this tendency may reasonably be accounted for as follows3-- ,the natural division of ,b1 ,e1 ,h1 ,k1 ,x1 regarded as abstract forms1 would be symmetrical--i4e4 at the centre of the stem4#ff ,in order that its apparent position may be central1 however1 it is necessary1 for optical reasons1 to make p#bgd its actual position above the centre4#fg ,and further1 by a reasonable enlargement of the lower part1 these letters acquire a greater appearance of stability4 ,it would be well1 ,i think1 for the letter-craftsman to begin by making such divisions at the apparent centre 7i4e4 very slightly above mid-height2 see ,e1 ,f1 ,x1 ,plate ,,ii471 so keeping most nearly to the essential forms 7see p4 #bge74 ,later he might consider the question of stability 7see ,b1 ,plate ,,ii474 ,the exaggerated raising 7or lowering7 of the division associated with 8,art ,lettering0 is illegible and ridiculous4 ,a ,the lower part is essentially bigger1 and the cross-bar is not raised1 as that would make the top part disproportionately small4 ,f usually follows ,e1 but being asymmetrical and open below it may1 if desired1 be made with the bar at--or even slightly below--the actual centre4 ,r ,in early forms the bow was frequently rather large 7see ,plate ,,ii471 but it is safer to make the tail--the characteristic part--more pronounced 7see ,plates ,,iii41 ,,xxiv474 ,p ,the characteristic part of ,p is the bow1 which may therefore be a little larger than the bow of ,r 7see ,plate ,,iii474 ,s ,in the best types of this letter the upper and lower parts are approximately equal2 there is a tendency slightly to enlarge the lower p#bge part4 7,in ,uncial and early round-hands the top part was larger3 see ,plates ,,iv4 to ,,vii47 ,y varies3 the upper part may be less than that of ,x1 or somewhat larger4 ,,essential ,,or ,,structural ,,forms ,the essential or structural forms 7see p4 #bdj7 are the simplest forms which preserve the characteristic structure1 distinctiveness1 and proportions of each individual letter4 ,the letter-craftsman must have a clear idea of the skeletons of his letters4 ,while in every case the precise form which commends itself to him is matter for his individual choice1 it is suggested in the following discussion of a typical form--the ,roman ,b--that the rationale of his selection 7whether conscious or unconscious7 is in brief to determine what is ,,absolutely essential to a form1 and then how far this may be amplified in the direction of the ,,practically essential4 ,the letter ,b reduced to its simplest 7curved-bow7 form--i4e4 to the bare necessity of its distinctive structure--comprises a perpendicular stem spanned by two equal1 circular bows 7a1 fig4 #afj74 ,in amplifying such a form for practical or sthetic reasons1 it is well as a rule not to exceed one's object--in this case to determine a reasonable 7though arbitrary7 standard essential form of ,b1 having a distinctive and proportionate 7f7 structure4 ,we may increase the arcs of the bows till their width is nearly equal to their height 7b71 make their outer ends meet the ends of the stem 7c71 and their inner ends coincide 7d74 ,raising the division till its apparent position is at or about the middle of the stem entails a proportionate increase of width in the lower part1 and a corresponding decrease in the upper part 7e74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afj4 ,the very idea of an essential form excludes the unnecessary1 and its further amplification is apt to take from its distinctiveness and legibility4 ,where no limits are set1 modification is apt to become p#bgf exaggeration4 ,and1 though special forms and ornamental letters may be produced by 8reasonable exaggeration0 7k1 l1 m1 fig4 #afa71 if the tool be kept p#bgh under proper control1 yet1 generally1 such structural changes do not improve the appearance of the plain letter forms4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afa4 ,we may test our 8,standard0 7a1 fig4 #afa7 by considering the effects of further amplification4 7#a7 ,raising the division#fh slightly is permissible 7b1 fig #afa7--too much makes the top part disproportionately small 7c74 7#b7 ,widening both bows1 or separating their junction from the stem1 tends to dissociate the bows from the stem1 making the letter less distinctive 7g and i1 fig4 #afa74 ,widening and narrowing are both allowable and occasionally desirable1 but assuming that a standard or ideal width can be approximately determined1 it is well to keep to it for common and ordinary use4 ,,characterisation ,,of ,,forms 7,see also ,built-,up ,forms1 pp4 #bia-f1 and pp4 #bdj1 #bec7 ,that the tool#fi gives character and finish to the ,essential ,forms of letters1 can easily be proved by a little practical experience of the natural action of a properly cut pen 7see figs4 #adb to #adh1 and #afb74 ,and the penman--or indeed any other letter-maker--is advised to allow the pen to train his hand to p#bhj make the proper strokes automatically3 then he may begin to master and control the pen1 making it conform to his hand and so produce ,letters which have every possible virtue of penmanship and are as much his own as his common handwriting4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afb4 ,most of the letters in a good alphabet have specially interesting or characteristic parts 7p4 #bej71 or they exhibit some general principles in letter making1 which are worth noting1 with a view to making good letters1 and in order to understand better the manner in which the tool--whether pen1 chisel1 or brush--should be used4 ,the characterisation of the ,roman ,capital ,form4 ,note4--,the large types below are indices--not models4 ,a #a4 ,a pointed form of ,a1 ,m1 and ,n 7see ,plate ,,ii47 may be suitable for inscriptions in stone1 c41 but in pen work the top is preferably hooked 7fig4 #afg71 beaked 7fig4 #adg71 or broken 7fig4 #aeh71 or specially marked in some way1 as this part 7both in ,capital ,a and small a7 has generally been 7fig4 #ahi74 #b4 ,the oblique strokes in ,a1 ,k1 ,m1 ,n1 ,r1 ,v1 ,w1 ,x1 ,y1 whether thick or thin1 are naturally finished with a short point inside the letter and a long1 sharp point1 or beak1 outside 7see serifs of oblique strokes1 p4 #bhi74 #c4 ,the thin stem may be drawn out below for an occasional form 7see ,f1 #c74 ,b #a4 ,b1 ,d1 ,r1 and ,p are generally best made round-shouldered 7fig4 #afb ,addenda1 p4 #bf74 #b4 ,b1 ,d1 ,e1 ,f1 ,p1 ,r 7and ,t7 have generally an angle between the stem and the top horizontal1 while p#bha #c4 below in ,b1 ,d1 ,e 7and ,l7 the stem curves or blends with the horizontal4 #d4 ,see ,o1 #b4 ,c #a4 ,c1 ,g1 and ,s2 the top horizontals or #8arms' may be straighter than the lower arms1 or vice vers 7see figs4 #afg and #bjf74 #b4 ,c1 ,g1 and ,s2 the inside curve is best continuous--from the #8bow' to the ends of the #8arms'--not being broken by the serifs1 and #c4 it is best to preserve an unbroken inside curve at the termination of all free arms and stems in built-up ,roman ,capitals4 ,in ,c1 ,g1 ,s1 ,e1 ,f1 ,l1 ,t1 and ,z the upper and lower arms are curved on the inside1 and squared or slightly pointed outside 7the vertical stems curve on either side7 7fig4 #afc74 #d4 #8,arms' are best shaped and curved rather gradually out to the terminal or serif1 which then is an actual part of the letter1 not an added lump 7p4 #bhi74 #e4 ,see ,o1 #b4 ,d #a4 ,see ,b1 #a4 #b4 ,see ,b1 #b and #c4 #c4 ,the curve may be considered as springing from the foot of the stem1 and may therefore for an occasional form be separated from the stem at the top 7,d1 fig4 #agg74 #d4 ,see ,o1 #b4 ,e #a4 ,see ,b1 #b and #c4 #b4 ,see ,c1 #c and #d4 #c4 ,the lower limb in ,e1 ,l 7and ,z7 is often drawn out3 these1 however1 are properly to be regarded as occasional or special p#bhb forms3 the lower serif of this type commonly points out 7see figs4 #bjf1 #ahh74 #d4 ,e's three arms 7 ,f's two7 are approximately equal in length in the best early forms 7,plate ,,ii41 c474 ,f #a4 ,see ,b1 #b4 #b4 ,see ,c1 #c and #d 7and ,e1 #d above74 #c4 ,one or more 7the development of the letter and tradition may decide which7 of the free stems of ,a1 ,f1 ,g1 ,h1 ,i1 ,j1 ,k1 ,l1 ,m1 ,n1 ,p1 ,r1 ,t1 ,v1 ,w1 ,x1 ,y may be drawn out for occasional forms 7see fig4 #ahh74 #d4 ,the elongated stems of ,f1 ,i1 ,j1 ,p1 ,t1 ,y may hang below the line1 or they may 7occasionally7 stand on the line and overtop the other letters4 ,g #a4 ,see ,c1 #a1 #b1 #c1 and #d4 #b4 ,the stem may be drawn out below the line 7,f1 #c74 #c4 ,the stem sometimes forms an angle with the lower #8arm' 7this is safest3 see fig4 #adh71 sometimes they blend 7fig4 #adg74 #d4 ,the point of the lower #8arm' may project a very little beyond the stem to mark the outer angle4 #e4 ,the wholly curved 8gothic0 7and also the other round letters3 see p4 #aai7 may be introduced occasionally among ,roman ,capitals4 #f4 ,see ,o1 #b4 ,h #a4 ,the left-hand stem is occasionally drawn out above 7,f1 #c comp4 fig4 #c71 and #b4 this form is sometimes associated with an ornamental cross-bar 7fig4 #ahi74 #c4 ,h and ,n may slightly widen out above4 p#bhc ,i #a4 ,the stem may be drawn out above or below 7,f1 #c and #d74 #b4 ,see ,j1 #b4 ,j #a4 ,the stem or tail may be drawn out 7,f1 #c and #d74 #b4 ,note4--,with regard to the use of ,i for ,j 7and ,v for ,u73 this is associated so much with the ,latin usage1 that it is perhaps permissible still in ,latin4#gj ,but for modern ,english1 in which these letters are strongly differentiated1 the tailed ,j and the round ,u are to be preferred4 ,besides the suspicion of affectation attaching to the other mode1 its strangeness gives an appearance of awkwardness--almost amounting to illegibility--to common words1 such as 8,a ,,qvaint ,,ivg0 or 8,,iam ,,iar40 ,and1 at the least1 very careful p#bhd discrimination is desirable3 8,,ivbilate0 may pass1 but 8,,ivivbe0 is not really readable4 #c4 ,the tail of the ,j may be slight1 provided it be distinct1 and the second stem of the ,u may match the first 7fig4 #aeh72 the ugly ,j and ,u in common use need not be copied4 #d4 ,see also ,tails1 pp4 #bhi-bia4 ,k #a4 ,the stem is sometimes drawn out above 7,f1 #c74 #b4 ,both arms are occasionally lengthened1 and the width of the letter increased1 by joining the thin arm to the stem lower down2 the thick arm1 or tail1 then springs from the side of the thin arm 7compare ,r74 ,this tends away from the essential1 and is therefore a less safe form4 #c4 ,the tail may be curved or drawn out occasionally 7see ,tails1 pp4 #bhi-bia74 #d4 ,serifs on arms4 ,see ,a1 #b4 ,l #a4 ,see ,b1 #c4 #b4 ,see ,c1 #c and #d4 #c4 ,see ,e1 #c4 #d4 ,see ,f1 #c4 ,m #a4 ,the stems are commonly slightly spread out to give greater clearance for the inner angles4 ,an occasional form is much spread out 4 #b4 ,note4--,there are inscriptional forms of ,m p#bhe and ,n without the top serif 7,plate ,,ii474 ,but the pen forms and others have top serifs1 and these commonly extend outward--tending to beaks 7see ,a1 #a and #b7--rather than in4 7,v1 ,w1 ,x1 ,y 7and ,n7 show a similar tendency--see p4 #bhi47 #c4 ,the thin stem of ,m is occasionally drawn out 7,f1 #c74 ,n #a4 ,sec ,c1 #c and #d4 #b4 ,see ,h1 #c4 #c4 ,see ,m1 #b1 and ,a1 #a and #b4 #d4 ,the first stem is drawn out below the line for an occasional form 7most suitable for an ,initial ,letter73 the right-hand stem is very occasionally raised 7when a final letter7 7,f1 #c74 #e4 ,note4--,the stems of ,n 7the only vertical thins--not counting ,m's--in the ,roman ,capitals7 tend sometimes to be thicker3 see ,plate ,,ii4 ,o #a4 ,o is the key letter of the curved forms and1 in a sense1 of the whole alphabet 7p4 #bgj74 ,the upright form--,o--may be regarded as the ideal simple letter4 #b4 ,very commonly1 however1 ,o is tilted----7see fig4 #afc71 and when this is the case1 all the curved letters--,b1 ,c1 ,d1 ,g1 ,p1 ,q1 ,r1 ,s1 ,u--are correspondingly tilted 7see ,plate ,,ii474 ,the tilted form is more easily made1 but both are good forms4 ,p #a4 ,see ,b1 #a and #b4 #b4 ,see ,o1 #b4 #c4 7,p with stem below line 7see ,plate ,,iv47 must not be allowed to confuse with ,d7 7see ,f1 #c and #d74 p#bhf #d4 ,the bow of ,p appears to be attached 7to the stem7 above3 in certain forms it is slightly separated from the stem below3 see ,plate ,,ii4 ,q #a4 ,q resembles ,o with a tail3 see ,o4 #b4 ,there are many characteristic varieties of the tail3 see ,tails 7pp4 #bhi-bia74 #c4 ,note4--,q being always followed by ,u1 it is convenient often to deal with the two letters together4 7,see ,plate ,,ii47 ,r #a4 ,see ,b1 #a and #b4 #b4 ,see ,o1 #b4 #c4 ,in the form nearest the essential1 the junction of the ,bow and the ,tail touches the stem4 ,if the tail springs from the curve of the bow 7,plate ,,ii47 greater care in construction is necessary 7compare ,k74 ,the treatment of the tail is very important4 ,it may end in a serif 7see ,a1 #b71 or it may be curved and pointed 7see ,tails1 pp4 #bhi-bia74 ,it may be drawn out 7see fig4 #ej74 #d4 ,see ,f1 #c 7 comp4 fig4 #afi74 ,s #a4 ,see ,c1 #a1 #b1 #c1 and #d4 #b4 ,see ,o1 #b 7and p4 #bgc74 #c4 ,s very often leans slightly forward4 ,t #a4 ,see ,b1 #b4 #b4 ,see ,c1 #c and #d4 #c4 ,drawing out of stem3 see ,f1 #c and #d4 #d4 ,note4--,the right arm is occasionally extended--to fill a line--when ,t is a terminal letter 7in this case it is generally made lighter1 and the left arm heavier--somewhat as in the ,uncial ,t1 figs4 #ef #ahh74 p#bhg ,u #a4 ,note4--,the curve--if it be modelled on the common tilted ,o 7see ,o1 #b7--;is thin where it meets the second stem4 #b4 7,v for ,u74 ,see ,j1 #b1 #c1 and footnote4 #c4 ,the foot of the second stem projects on the right only1 and gives clearance to the angle of the curve on the left4 ,sometimes the second stem ends in a hook or beak1 which 7very occasionally7 is drawn out below4 ,v #a4 ,see ,m1 #b1 and ,a1 #b4 #b4 ,the thick stem may be drawn up 7,f1 #c71 in which case the thin commonly curves over for strength 7see figs4 #hi1 #ie74 #c4 7,see note on ,v for ,u1 under ,j47 ,w #a4 ,see ,m1 #b1 and ,a1 #b4 #b4 ,the best form is of two ,v's crossed1 4 #c4 ,the first or both the thick stems may be drawn up and the thins curved over 7see ,v1 #b74 ,x #a4 ,see ,m1 #b1 and ,a1 #b4 #b4 ,there is sometimes a slight curving in of the stems1 especially the thin stem 7see fig4 #hj74 #c4 ,the thin stem is sometimes drawn out below 7,f1 #c71 and commonly curved4 ,y #a4 ,see ,m1 #b1 and ,a1 #b4 #b4 ,see ,f1 #c and #d4 7,y with stem below line 7see ,plate ,v47 must not be allowed to confuse with ,v47 #c4 ,an occasional rather interesting form p#bhh of ,y has the arms curving out and ending in points 7see fig4 #afg74 ,z #a4 ,see ,c1 #c and #d4 #b4 ,the lower arm of ,z is sometimes drawn out 7see ,e1 #c73 it may be curved and pointed 7or flourished74 99 99 99 99 99 ,general ,remarks on the characterisation of the ,roman ,capitals and related forms 7see fig4 #afc74ga ,,vertical ,,stems4--7a1 fig4 #afc7 ,thick 7excepting in the thin stemmed ,n 7and ,m774 7b7 ,slightly curved in on either side 7see fig4 #aaf71 or appearing so because of the outward curve of the serifs 7see figs4 #bjd1 #bjf74 7c7 ,a fine effect is obtained when the stem is made wider above than below 7see p4 #aai74 7d7 ,free stems occasionally are drawn out 7see above1 ,f1 #c and #d1 and pp4 #bea1 #bfj1 #ccb74 ,,oblique ,,strokes or ,,stems4--,thick1 to the left 1 thin1 to the right 7see ,a1 ,k1 c471 otherwise like vertical stems 7above7--7see also ,,serifs 7e7 below74 ,,horizontals1 ,,arms1 ,,branches1 or ,,bars4--,thin3 free ends sometimes drawn out and flourished 7see figs4 #abe1 #ahh74 ,,bows and ,,curves4--,gradated1 and following the ,o 7see pp4 #dd1 #aba1 #bgj1 #bhe74 ,,serifs or ,,finishing ,,strokes4--7a7 ,note4--,serifs of some sort are practically essential to the proper characterisation of an alphabet 7see figs4 #adg1 #adh1 #afb71 and should generally have a certain uniformity 7p4 #cbd74 p#bhi 7b7 ,the serifs1 c41 of simple-written forms are treated at p4 #bdd 7see fig4 #ade74 7c7 ,in ,versals and certain other forms the mode of making requires the serif to be a distinct addition to the letter 7see figs4 #aaf1 #aff74 7d1 fig4 #afc7 ,in the finest built-up ,a ,b ,cs serifs are treated as the actual finishing and shaping of the ends of the stems and branches1 rather than as added parts 7see ,c1 #c #d1 p4 #bha and p4 #bdj74 ,this particularly affects the construction of the thin strokes 7see figs4 #afe1 #afg74 7e7 ,the serifs of the oblique strokes in ,a1 ,k1 ,m1 ,n1 ,r1 ,v1 ,w1 ,x1 ,y are commonly not placed centrally1 but projecting in the direction of the stroke 7i4e4 away from the letter1 thus3 71 branching out from the parent stem 7see tails1 below71 and avoiding an acute angle 7as 74 ,this has tended to produce hooks and beaks 7see fig4 #afc71 which are often used for the oblique strokes1 particularly of ,a and ,n 7see figs4 #ahi1 #aeh71 and the tails of ,k and ,r 7see below74 7f7 ,there is a similar natural tendency to hook or flourish the terminals of vertical stems on the left1 particularly of ,b1 ,d1 ,i1 ,j1 ,k1 ,l1 ,p1 ,r2 less often of ,e1 ,f1 ,h4 ,a very interesting and beautiful effect may be obtained by delicately curving down the upper serifs on the left 7like thin beaks74 ,such serifs are sometimes very slightly turned up on the right1 and it may be noted that this tendency of the 8horizontals0 to curve up and forward is natural and characteristic of freely made1 vigorous lettering 7see ,uncial ,t1 pen dashes1 c41 figs4 #afi1 #abe1 c474 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afc4 ,,tails4--7a7 ,the tails of ,k1 ,q1 ,r p#bia 7and ,j7--and the strokes in ,a1 ,f1 ,g1 ,i1 ,m1 ,n1 ,p1 ,y1 c41 which may be drawn out tail-wise--play an important part in the right construction1 and the occasional decoration1 of plain lettering4 ,they may end either in serifs or in curves 7see ,,serifs 7e71 above1 and fig4 #ahh74 7b7 ,note4--,it is a characteristic of vigorous forms that branches1 c41 stand out well from their stems 7pp4 #bai1 7e7 #bhi1 7,n7 #bga71 and a good tail should stand out well from the letter 7,k1 ,q1 fig4 #afg74 7c7 ,an excellent form of tail for ordinary use1 combining strength and grace1 consists of a 7strong7 straight stroke ending more or less abruptly in a 7graceful7 finishing curve4 7d7 ,an extraordinarily long tail requires a slight double curve to take off its stiffness4 7e7 ,a good tail may be made by the addition of a double curved stroke on the under side of a straight tail 7or of a single curve above74 7f7 ,in treating the tail of ,j1 or the drawn-out stems of ,a1 ,f1 ,g1 ,i1 ,m1 ,n1 ,p1 ,y1 it is important to preserve the essential straightness of the stems4 ,therefore1 if a finishing curve be used1 its size is related to the length of the straight stroke1 and1 unless this be extraordinarily long1 the curve is usually made rather small and abrupt4 ,a curve which is too large is apt to weaken the form and 8pull it out of the straight0 7g1 fig4 #afc74 ,,built-,,up ,,forms ,built-up ,letters are composed of compound strokes 7c1 d1 fig4 #afd72 ,simple-written ,letters of simple strokes 7a1 b74 ,the ,pen being an instrument which produces p#bib definite thick and thin strokes on a smooth surface1 is perfectly adapted to the construction of either simple or compound forms2 other tools1 such as the stylus1 needle1 graver1 c41 produce various scratches1 stitches1 or cuts1 generally of the nature of rather varying thin strokes1 and to produce thick strokes a building-up process is required4 ,in making built-up forms the control exerted by the tool is less obvious1 and more depends upon the craftsman1 who must therefore use greater care and judgment4 ,not only is it possible1 but1 occasionally1 it may be desirable to depart from the more obvious tool-forms2 though generally the more simply and naturally tool-made a form is1 the better it is4 ,the fine early inscriptions are supposed to have been first drawn or painted 7in outline7 and then cut into the stone4 ,the chisel forms were doubtless affected in this way by brush 7and indirectly by pen7 forms1 but these were of the simplest--nothing was sketched in that was unfitted for the chisel to make into a natural and true chisel-form4 ,the action of the brush or 8pencil0 to a certain extent resembles that of the pen1 but their effects are really distinct4 ,in contrasting pen-made and brush-made letters1 we may observe that a pen form tends to abrupt changes from thin to thick3 a brush form to gradation 7fig4 #afd74 ,the pen particularly affects curved strokes 7comp4 a b71 generally making them more quick and abrupt 7or even broken1 see 99 99 c71 than brush curves4 ,the brush will give more graceful and finished but less uniform letters 7see p4 #cgf74 ,the character of a pen-letter depends greatly on the nib-width 7p4 #cbd71 and narrow1 medium1 or broad nibs are used according to the type of letter required4 p#bic ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afd4 ,a narrow nib may be used for special 7built-up7 ,initials and ,capitals1 which are drawn rather than written 7a1 fig4 #afe74 ,the horizontal arms 7made by the pen held horizontally7 are markedly affected1 and if a very fine nib were used1 the necessity of strengthening and thickening them would tend further to reduce the pen character4 ,a broad nib gives strong1 uniform pen-letters 7b74 ,for ordinary use letters are perhaps best made with a 8medium0 nib 7c74 ,the width of the ordinary writing-pen1 or rather narrower1 gives a good proportion for initials1 c4 7see pp4 #aah1 #bah74 ,in ,,ms4 books the early built-up ,capitals were p#bid commonly of a rather severe type--approaching the ,roman ,capital1 but having the sharp contrast between the thicks and the thins characteristic of pen-letters 7fig4 #aff74 ,they make very simple and effective 8,versals40 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afe4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aff4--,pen-capitals from a tenth-century ,,ms4 7writing-lines dotted in fig4 to show spacing method74 ,a more highly finished type of pen-made ,roman ,capital may be made by blending the serifs and stems 7d1 p4 #bhi73 it is nearer to the inscriptional form1 but it exhibits a more curved and supple p#bif outline1 which comes of natural pen-strokes 7fig4 #afg74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afg4 ,the remarks in ,chapter ,,vii4 on the treatment of the more elastic 8,gothic0 ,versal 7a free variety p#big of the ,roman7 may be taken as applying generally to 7,coloured7 ,built-up ,capitals--due allowance being made for the characteristic differences of the various types4 ,,simple-,,written ,,capitals 8,rustic ,capitals0 7fig4 #d7 may be referred to here as typical1 simple-written capitals4 ,though not a very practical form1#gb they are full of suggestions for a semi-ornamental lettering in which the pronounced treatment of the heads and feet might be a feature 7comp4 fig4 #bjc74 ,they were used as ornamental letters for titles and the like 7see ,plates ,,viii41 ,,ix41 c47 for centuries after they had gone out of ordinary use4 ,simple-written ,roman ,capitals4--7,examples3 ,plates ,,iii41 ,,xviii41 ,,xix41 ,,xxi41 figs4 #adg1 #adh1 #afh1 #age1 #agi4 ,see also pp4 #bdg1 #dbi47 ,uncials4--7,examples3 see p4 #cjj47 ,simple-written ,capitals ordinarily conform to the writing line--as set by the small text 7p4 #hb74 ,this applies even where several words in capitals have to be inserted in the small text1 though in special cases where these might look too crowded such capitals might be written on alternate lines4 ,used for ,initial ,words1 headings1 whole pages1 or books1 in black or colour1 they are written with greater freedom and accorded more special treatment 7see pp4 #bih1 #bii74 ,simple-written ,capitals are best composed of sharp1 clean1 pen-strokes3 they may be quite plain p#bih or more or less decorative 7fig4 #afh71 subject to the general rule that the fewer the number of letters or the more ornamental their office1 the more elaborate and fanciful may be the forms employed 7see p4 #bid74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afh4 ,a freely used pen naturally produces occasional varieties for special or ornamental purposes3 these tend to elegance and drawn out flourished strokes 7p4 #cca72 they vary chiefly in being extra large4#gc p#bii ,several of these may be used with fine effect in a page of plain ,capitals1 their 8weight0 7and generally their colour7 being the same as that of the text 7see ,plate ,v41 and p4 #cbh74 ,whole ,books or ,pages written in ,capitals4--,a very grand effect may be produced by these at the expense of a little more time and material than a ,small-letter ,,ms4 entails4 ,the lines of writing are commonly made one-letter-height apart3 this requires ordinary simple ruling--the capitals being written between every alternate pair of lines 7see p4 #dab74 ,such writing may conveniently be treated as 8,fine ,writing0 7p4 #bfb74 ,it justifies the use of wider margins4 ,it is generally more difficult 7and less necessary7 to keep the right-hand edge as straight as a small text permits4 ,the irregularities of this edge may be balanced by setting out in the left margin the first letters of sentences1 verses1 and the like 7see p4 #bfd74 ,such initials may be written larger or more ornamentally as suggested above2 or1 if built-up ,letters are required1 plain1 rather slender ,roman ,capitals are the most suitable3 these look best in burnished gold4 ,perhaps the finest and most beautiful work which the penman can produce1 is a book written entirely in gold#gd capitals#ge on purple vellum 7see pp4 #afd1 #age74 ,this is only possible in special cases1 but a book rightly so made being illuminated from within1 has an incomparable simplicity and grandeur1 surpassing that of the finest post-decorated and illuminated manuscripts4 p#cjj ,,uncials ,examples3 ,plates ,,iv41 ,v42 figs4 #e1 #afi 7enlarged72 7modified1 fig4 #ef74 ,uncials are typical pen-capitals4#gf ,though not of such practical use as the simple-written ,roman ,capitals1 their great possibilities and their beauty make them worth practising4 7,see ,round1 ,upright1 ,formal ,hands1 p4 #cjd47 ,their use is limited by two considerations-- ,first3 that while the round 1 1 1 1 are essentially legible 7p4 #bci71 people generally are not accustomed to them1 and may find them hard to read2 and ,secondly3 that 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 have ascending and descending strokes which are apt to become too pronounced and give an unpleasant appearance of 8tailiness0 to a page of ,uncial ,writing 7in ,english1 see footnote1 p4 #cbf74 ,the first difficulty may be met by keeping ,uncials for special ,,mss4--for private use--and introducing them sparingly or not at all in ,service ,books1 ,placards1 c41 where ease and quickness of reading are essential4 ,the appearance of 8tailiness0 7not so obvious in ,latin7 may be avoided by making the tails shorter and keeping the lines of writing well apart4 ,or freely made ,roman ,capitals without tails 7see ,d1 tail-less1 fig4 #eg7 may be substituted for one or more of the chief offenders4 p#cjb ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afi4--,part of ,plate ,v4 7q4v471 enlarged three times linear4 ,uncials may be 8round0 7see ,plate ,,iv41 fig4 #e1 and p4 #cjd71 or 8pointed0 7see fig4 #afi1 and p4 #dac74 ,,capitals ,,small-,,letters ,during the development of ,small-,letters from ,capitals but little distinction was made in their use1 and such capital forms as ,n and ,r were freely and promiscuously used in the round minuscule writings1 together with the small-letters n and r 7see ,plates ,,vi41 ,,vii474 ,on the other hand1 ,small-,letter forms were frequently written larger and used as initials4 ,in ,irish and ,anglo-,irish ,,mss4 these were filled inside with green1 yellow1 or red1 and surrounded outside with red dots1 or otherwise decorated with colour 7see fig4 #g1 and ,plate ,,vi474 ,in early ,,mss41 therefore1 one does not find an alphabet of ,simple-,written ,capitals1 which is peculiar to a given small text4 ,but we may employ a kindred capital--such as the round ,uncial for the round ,half-,uncial4 ,and a fitting alphabet may always be constructed1 from the 8,roman0 or 8,uncial0 types of ,capitals 7footnote1 p4 #cjj71 by taking the same pen with which the small-letters have been made and using it in a similar manner3 8straight0 for 8straight-pen0 writing1 and 8slanted0 for 8slanted-pen0 writing 7see figs4 #adg1 #adh74 ,when in doubt as to the type of ,capital--for any purpose--use ,roman ,capitals4 ,,early1 ,,round1 ,,upright1 ,,formal ,,hands ,examples3 ,half-,uncials--fig4 #f 7,roman72 ,plate ,,vi4 7,irish71 ,plate ,,vii4 7,english7 fig4 #agj later2 see also pp4 #dj1 #dd1 #dac-dae4 ,uncials 7,plate ,,iv4 and p4 #ch74 p#cjd ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agj4--,part of an ,english eight-century ,,ms4 7,british ,museum1 ,case ,c1 ,no4 #fh71 enlarged three times linear4 ,the main types are the 8round0 ,uncial and ,half-,uncial1 commonly written with an approximately 8straight pen40#gg ,they are generally treated as fine writing 7p4 #bfb71 and written between ruled lines3 this has a marked effect in preserving their roundness 7see p4 #dad74 ,they are very useful as copy-book hands 7see p4 #gj71 for though the smooth gradation of their curves1 their thin strokes1 and their general elegance unfit them for many practical purposes1 yet their essential roundness1 uprightness1 and formality afford the finest training to the penman1 and prevent him from falling into an angular1 slanting1 or lax hand4 ,their very great beauty1 moreover1 makes them well worth practising1 and even justifies their use 7in a modernised form7 for special ,,mss41 for the more romantic books--such as poetry and 8fairy tales0--and generally where speed in writing or reading is not essential4 ,with an eye trained and a hand disciplined by the practice of an ,irish or ,english ,half-,uncial1 or a modified type1 such as is given in fig4 #ej1 the penman may easily acquire some of the more practical later 8slanted-pen0 types4 8,,slanted-,,pen0 ,,small-,,letters ,typical ,examples3-- ,carlovingian ninth-century ,,ms4--,fig4 #h 7enlarged1 fig4 #aga73 p#cje ,english tenth-century ,,ms4--,plate ,,viii4 7enlarged1 fig4 #agb73 ,english eleventh-century ,,ms4--,plate ,,ix4 7enlarged1 fig4 #agc73 ,italian twelfth-century ,,ms4--,plate ,x4 7enlarged1 fig4 #agd74 ,the use of the 8slanted pen0 generally produced stronger1 narrower1 and stiffer letters4 ,its effects are detailed in pp4 #dc-dg1 and fig4 #aa1 and may best be studied in the tenth-century example 7fig4 #agb--the letter forms are described on p4 #daf74 ,in the ,carlovingian ,,ms4--which does not show these effects in any marked degree--we may note the wide letter forms1 the wide spacing1 the long stems 7thickened above by additional strokes71 the slight slope of the letters1 and the general effect of gracefulness and freedom 7see fig4 #aga74 ,carlovingian ,,mss4 may be said to represent a sort of medival copy-books1 and their far-reaching influence on writing makes them of great interest to the modern penman1 who would1 moreover1 find one of these hands an excellent model for a free 8formal hand40 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aga4--,part of fig4 #h1 enlarged three times linear 7see p4 #cje74 ,for practical purposes the 8slanted-pen0 letter is generally superior to the 8straight-pen0 letter4 ,the 8slanted-pen0 letters have greater strength and legibility1 due mainly to the presence of the thick horizontals--often equal in width to the verticals4 ,their use saves both space and time1 as they are narrower1 and more easily and freely written#gh than the straight-pen forms4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agb4--;,fig4 #ab1 enlarged twice linear 7see p4 #cje ,plate ,,viii474 ,note3 top line is cut down4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agc4--,part of ,plate ,,ix4 7,charter of ,,cnut71 enlarged three times linear 7see p4 #daf74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agd4--,part of ,plate ,x41 enlarged three times linear 7see pp4 #dag-dai74 ,the real importance to us of these early types p#caj lies1 ,i think1 in their relation to the ,roman ,small-,letter 7pp4 #dah-ai #dbi-hc71 and their great possibilities of development into modern formal hands approaching the 8,roman0 type4 ,,roman ,,small-,,letters ,ex43 7,italian7 ,plates ,,xix41 ,,xx4 7#aeth century72 figs4 #age1 #agf 7#afth century73 figs4 #adg1 #adh 7modern ,,ms474 ,the ,roman ,small-,letter is the universally recognised type in which the majority of books and papers are printed4 ,its form has been in use for over #djj years 7without essential alteration7 and as far as we are concerned it may be regarded as permanent4 ,and it is the object of the scribe or letter-maker gradually to attain a fine1 personal formal hand1 assimilating to the ,roman ,small-,letter2 a hand against the familiar and present form of which no allegations of unreadableness can be raised1 and a hand having a beauty and character now absent or unfamiliar4 ,the related ,italic will be mastered for formal ,,ms4 work 7p4 #cae71 and the ordinary handwriting improved 7p4 #cbc74 ,these three hands point the advance of the practical1 modern scribe4 ,the ,roman ,small-,letter is essentially a pen form 7and preferably a 8slanted-pen0 form2 p4 #cje71 and we would do well to follow its natural development from the ,roman ,capital--through ,round ,letters and ,slanted-,pen forms--so that we may arrive at a truly developed and characteristic type1 suitable for any formal manuscript work and full of suggestions for printers and letter-craftsmen generally4 ,a finished form1 such as that in ,plate ,,xx4--or even that of fig4 #age--would present many p#caa difficulties to the unpractised scribe1 and one who so began would be apt to remain a mere copyist1 more or less unconscious of the vitality and character of the letter4 ,an earlier type of letter--such as that in ,plate ,,viii4--enables the scribe to combine speed with accuracy1 and fits him at length to deal with the letters that represent the latest and most formal development of penmanship4 ,and in this connection1 beware of practising with a fine nib1 which tends to inaccuracy and the substitution of prettiness for character4 ,stick to definite pen strokes1 and preserve the definite shapes and the uniformity of the serifs 7p4 #cbd73 if these be made clumsily1 they become clumsy lumps4 ,it may be impossible always to ascertain the exact forms--especially of terminals and finishing strokes--for the practised scribe has attained a great uniformity and some sleight of hand which cannot be deliberately copied4 ,but--whatever the exact forms--we may be sure that in the best hands they are produced by uniform and proper pen strokes4 ,,italics ,ex43 ,plate ,,xxi41 and figs4 #id1 #agg1 #agh 7enlarged74 ,italics#gi closely resemble the ,roman ,small-,letters1 but are slightly narrowed1 slightly sloped to the p#cad right1 and very freely written 7commonly with a 8slanted pen074 ,the serifs generally consist of slight natural terminal hooks1 c4--though in p and q a finishing stroke is sometimes added4 ,ascending and descending strokes 7in b1 d1 f1 h1 k1 l1 g1 j1 p1 q1 y7 are commonly rather long1 and often end in curves1 sometimes in flourishes 7fig4 #agg74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #age4--;,italian ,prayer ,book3 #afth century 7see opp4 p4 p4 #cde74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agf4--7;,from same ,,ms4 as fig4 #age1 enlarged three times linear47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agg4 ,the lines of writing are generally widely spaced--allowing for the long stems3 the bodies of the letters being narrow are generally rather closely packed1 and frequently the lines of writing appear p#cae as almost continuous light but compact writing1 while the ascenders and descenders and parts of the ,capitals may be flourished freely in the spaces between the lines--sometimes filling them with ornamental pen work1 which contrasts strongly with the extreme plainness and regularity of the bodies4 ,italic ,capitals are a variety of the ,roman ,capitals1 slightly sloped 7frequently less sloped than the accompanying small-letters71 and sometimes much flourished 7fig4 #agg74 ,the types modelled on the latter were called by printers in the seventeenth century1 8,swash ,letters40 ,use of ,italics4--,in printing they served at first to mark such portions of the text as-- ,introductions1 ,prefaces1 ,indexes1 ,notes1 and subsequently were used for ,quotations1 ,emphasising1 ,words not part of the ,text 7e4g4 ,chapter headings in the ,bible1 c474 ,in ,,mss4 when it is not desirable to alter the character1 ,red ,writing 7see p4 #acj7 may be substituted for italics4 ,italics--either in black or red--go best with 8,roman0 characters4 ,like the ,roman ,small-,letter1 the ,italic is a generally recognised and accepted form3 this and other considerations1 such as the peculiar elegance and charm of the letters1 their formal relation to modern handwriting1 their compactness and economy of space in the line1 and the fact that they may be written easily and with extreme regularity--being indeed the most rapid of formal hands--are practical reasons for a careful study of the type1 and justify the writing of certain ,,ms4 books entirely in ,italics4 p#cag ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agh4--,part of ,plate ,,xxi41 enlarged1 7approx47 four times linear 7see p4 #dhc74 ,,semi-,,formal ,,writing ,figs4 #agi1 #ahj1 and #aha are taken from a sixteenth-century ,italian ,,ms4#hj written in a semi-formal cursive hand in dark brown and red-brown inks 7probably originally nearer black and red71 on #aej leaves of fine paper4 ,the proportions of the ,book1#ha together with the good writing1 have a very agreeable effect1 and are interesting as being used by a writer over #cjj years ago4 ,the extra width of the side margins may have been allowed for annotations--some notes were written in by the scribe himself4 ,page #aa-a_/h inches high1 #h inches wide4 ,margins ,inner 7#g_/h inch #c_/h inch allowed for ,small ,capitals7 #a-a_/d inch 7approximate74 ,top #a-c_/h inch 7constant74 ,side #b-c_/d inch 7approximate74 ,foot #c inch 7approximate74 ,writing-,line ,space nearly #e_/af inch high3 length 7varies71 average #d inches4 ,text ,column nearly #f-c_/d inches high1 consisting of #bb lines of ,,ms4 ,character of the ,writing4--,the good shapes of the letters1 their great uniformity1 and their easy yet formal arrangement1 mark this ,,ms4 as the work of a skilful penman4 ,but1 while pen character of a sort is very evident1 the writing approaches the stylographic 7apparently a rather narrow blunt nib was used71 and the absence of definite thicks and thins distinguishes it from all the formal hands hitherto discussed3 it may conveniently be termed ,semi-formal4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agi4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahj4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aha4 p#cba ,construction4--,the rapidity and uniformity of this writing are largely due to an extremely easy zigzag movement of the pen1 such as is natural in writing m1 n1 and u--the final upstroke usually running on into the next letter4 ,note particularly that the round letters c1 d1 e1 g1 o1 q generally begin with a nearly straight down stroke--like the first part of u--to which tops are added 7see fig4 #ahb74 ,in the case of a1 the first stroke curves forward to meet the second4 p#cbb ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahb4 ,in the straight-stemmed capitals ,b1 ,d1 ,e1 ,f1 ,h1 ,i1 ,l1 ,m1 ,n1 ,p1 ,r1 and ,t1 the first stroke is made rather like an 7showing the tendency to a zigzag7 the foot of which is generally crossed horizontally by a second stroke making a form resembling --on this as a base1 the rest of the letter is formed 7see fig4 #ahb74 ,this tends to preserve the uniformity of the letters3 and gives a fine constructive effect1 as1 for example1 in the letter 4 ,general ,remarks4--,the semi-formal nature of such a ,,ms4 would seem to permit of a good quill--not necessarily sharp--being used with the utmost freedom and all reasonable personal sleight of hand2 of soft tinted inks--such as browns and brown-reds2 of an un-ruled page 7a pattern page ruled dark1 being laid under the writing paper1 will1 by showing through1 keep the writing sufficiently straight71 and of a minimum of precision in the arrangement of the text4 ,and in this freedom and informality lie the reasons for and against the use of such a hand4 ,there is a danger of its becoming more informal and degenerating because it lacks the effect of the true pen in preserving form4#hb ,but1 on the other hand1 it combines great rapidity and freedom with beauty and legibility3 few printed books could compete in charm with this old 8catalogue10 which took the scribe but little longer to write than we might take in scribbling it4 ,many uses for such a hand will suggest themselves4 ,semi-formal documents which require to p#cbc be neatly written out1 and ,books and ,records of which only one or two copies are required1 and even ,books which are worthy to be--but never are--printed1 might1 at a comparatively low cost1 be preserved in this legible and beautiful form4 ,it suggests possibilities for an improvement in the ordinary present-day handwriting--a thing much to be desired1 and one of the most practical benefits of the study of calligraphy4 ,the practical scribe1 at any rate1 will prove the advantages of being a good all-round penman4 ,,of ,,formal ,,writing ,,generally ,on ,copying a ,hand4--,our intentions being right 7viz4 to make our work essentially readable7 and our actions being expedient 7viz4 to select and copy the simple forms which have remained essentially the same1 leaving the complex forms which have passed out of use--see pp4 #aie-f71 we need not vex ourselves with the question of 8lawfulness40#hc ,where beautiful character is the natural product of a tool1 any person may at any time give such character to a useful form1 and as at this time a properly cut and handled pen will produce letters resembling those of the early ,,mss41 we may take as models such early1 simple pen-forms as have remained essentially the same1#hd and copy them as closely as we can while keeping them exact and formal4 ,finally1 personal quality is essential to perfect workmanship1 but that is the natural and gradual--sometimes p#cbd scarcely visible--departure from a model1 that comes of practice and time4 ,forms of ,letters3 component pen-strokes4--,in a good hand the chief component strokes--stems1 bows1 and serifs--are repeated again and again 7see pp4 #bdd1 #bed7--this is essential to the uniform character and the quickness of the writing4 ,when substituting a new for an old letter a naturally used pen will produce such common pen-strokes1 giving the desired 8family likeness0 to the new letter#he 7b1 fig4 #ahc74 ,proportion#hf of ,thick ,strokes4--,the broader the thick stroke is in proportion to the height of a letter1 the more the form of the letter is controlled and affected by the pen 7c1 fig4 #ahc74 ,for training and practice1 therefore1 the wide nib is the most useful4 ,a narrower nib 7d or e7 allows of more freedom and variety1 and there is a great charm in slender lettering--this the trained scribe may essay 7see ,plate ,,xx41 and p4 #dhb74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahc4 ,proportion#hf of ,stem ,height4--,the character of a writing depends very much on whether the stems are short1 medium1 or long4 ,the stems of b and p may be as short as half the height of the bodies 7f1 fig4 #ahc72 a medium stem for ordinary use might be two-thirds of1 or equal to1 the height of the body 7g74 ,stems may be drawn out to almost any p#cbf length1 and may constitute a decorative feature of the writing1 as in the ,anglo-,saxon#hg ,,ms41 ,plate ,,ix4 7,see p4 #cca1 and fig4 #ahh47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahd4 ,distinct ,lines of ,writing4--,the line--especially in ,,ms4 books--is really a more important unit than p#cbg the page2 and the whole question of the arrangement of ,lettering hinges on the right treatment of the lines4 ,one is particularly struck by the distinctness of the lines of writing in the old ,,mss41 due mainly to-- 7a7 ,the binding together of the letters in the line--commonly by strong serifs or heavy 8shoulders0 and 8feet0 7see figs4 #aa1 #ahd1 and p4 #dad74 7b7 ,packing the letters well together 7see pp4 #gg1 #bfb74 7c7 ,spacing the lines sufficiently apart 7see pp4 #bfb-bfe74 ,it is a good rule 7especially when practising7 to space the lines fairly widely4 ,really fine writing shows generally to greater advantage if not too much crowded1 and there is more danger of making reading hard by crowding the lines1 than by crowding the words 7see fig4 #aef74 ,whatever mode of treatment be followed1 each line should be written with as much freedom as possible1 the simplest straightforward writing being preferable to that which is over-arranged4 ,,decorative ,,contrasts ,the decorative treatment of lettering generally involves contrasts of size1 weight1 colour1 or form--that is1 of large and small1 heavy and light1 variously coloured1 or variously shaped letters4 ,as a general rule1 marked contrasts are best2 a slight contrast may fail of its effect and yet be sufficiently noticeable to give an unpleasant appearance of irregularity4 ,contrasts of ,colour 7see pp4 #add1 #ahj74--,note that1 while it is convenient to distinguish 8colour0--as red1 blue1 green1 c4--weight strictly involves p#cbh colour3 built-up or heavy letters in black show extra black beside lighter writing1 while the latter appears grey in comparison 7see figs4 #aig1 #ahf72 in red writing the heavy letters appear red1 the lighter letters1 pink 7see fig4 #ij74 ,contrast of ,size4--,the simplest decorative contrast is that of ,,large#hh letters with smaller letters 7fig4 #ahe72 the strokes being of equal1 or nearly equal1 weight1 there is an harmonious evenness of tone throughout4 ,where the large letters are very much larger1 their parts are made somewhat heavier to keep their apparent 8weight0 approximately equal 7see p4 #dhf74 ,this is one of the most effective treatments for inscriptions generally 7see p4 #bii1 and ,plates ,v4 and ,,xxiv474 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahe4 ,contrasts of 8weight0 and size4--,in simple writing these are obtained by using two sizes of pen--the small1 light letters being used for the bulk of the p#cbi text1 the larger heavier letters being used for occasional words or lines 7or vice vers74 ,this is a very effective simple treatment for ,,mss4 7fig4 #ahf74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahf4--7,see also fig4 #aia47 ,the occasional letters may be more decoratively treated 7see ,responses and ,rubrics1 p4 #cde7 by introducing the further contrasts of colour 7p4 #add7 or form 7p4 #ccf74 p#ccj ,contrasts of form1 8weight10 and size4--,these are generally obtained by the use of large built-up ,capitals1 together with a simple-written 7or ordinarily printed7 text 7fig4 #ahg74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahg4 ,a marked contrast usually being desirable1 the built-up capitals 7especially if black7 are kept quite distinct from the rest of the text 7see fig4 #aig73 if they are scattered among the other letters they are apt to show like blots and give an appearance of irregularity to the whole4 ,as a rule1 the effect is improved by the use of red or another colour 7see figs4 #ia1 #ic74 ,contrast of form--for decorative purposes--is usually combined with contrast of weight 7e4g4 8,gothic10 heavier1 p4 #ccf7 or size 7e4g4 ,capitals1 larger1 p4 #cga74 ,,ornamental ,,letters 7,see ,chaps4 ,,vii41 ,,viii41 ,x41 ,,xii41 pp4 #cd1 #bea1 #bf7 ,to give ornament its true value we must distinguish between ordinary occasions when simplicity and directness are required1 and special occasions when elaboration is desirable or necessary4 ,the best way to make ornamental letters is to p#cca develop them from the simpler forms4 ,any plain type may be decoratively treated for special purposes--some part or parts of the letters usually being rationally 8exaggerated0 7p4 #beb74 ,free stems1 8branches10 tails1 c41 may be drawn out1 and terminals or serifs may be decorated or flourished 7fig4 #bjc74 ,built-,up ,forms4--,even greater license 7see fig4 #afa7 is allowed in ,built-,up ,letters--as they are less under the control of the tool 7p4 #bib7--;and their natural decorative development tends to produce a subordinate simple line decoration beside or upon their thicker parts 7fig4 #ahi p4 #bf74 ,in ,,mss4 the typical built-up1 ornamental form is the 8,versal0 7see ,chap4 ,,vii471 which developed--or degenerated--into the 8,lombardic0 7fig4 #a74 ,here again it is preferable to keep to the simpler form and to develop a natural decorative treatment of it for ourselves4 8,black ,letter0 or 8,gothic10 still in use as an ornamental letter 7fig4 #aij71 is descended from the fifteenth-century writing of ,northern ,europe 7,plate ,,xvii474 ,a better model may be found in the earlier and more lively forms of twelfth and thirteenth century writing 7fig4 #aia74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahh4--7,see also figs4 #abe and #aej47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahi4--7,see also ,plates ,,vi41 ,,xi41 ,,xxii41 figs4 #gi and #hd1 and p4 #dbj47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aij4--,ordinary ,modern 8,black ,letter0 ,type 7see p4 #cca74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aia4--,,ms4 written by an ,english ,scribe1 in #abfi1 at ,mons1 in ,hainault--,part of ,colophon in large text4 7,b4 ,m4 ,egerton1 ,,ms4 #befi4 ,reduced five-sixths ,scale47 ,rightly made1 and used1 it is one of the most picturesque forms of lettering--and therefore of ornament--and besides its ornamental value1 there is still in the popular fancy a halo of romance about 8black letter10 which may fairly be taken into account4 ,its comparative illegibility1 however1--due mainly to the substitution of straight for curved strokes--debars it from ordinary use4#hi ,though its p#ccf distinction in form and colour 7p4 #cbg7 from ordinary small lettering1 make it useful in arresting attention2 as in a legal document1 where the clauses are marked by fwhereas_/f c4 ,its most effective use1 however1 is as pure ornament--when it does not matter whether the words are easily read or not4 ,for mottoes1 c41 painted or carved on walls or furniture1 and for ornamental borders round tapestry hangings1 tombs1 book-covers1 bowls1 flagons1 plates1 c41 bands of such ornamental lettering are extremely decorative 7see footnote 7#b71 p4 #bee1 also p4 #cfd74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aia;a4--,shield of ,arms of ,earl de ,warrenne1 ,castle ,acre ,priory1 ,norfolk 7,gold and blue chequers1 diapered--see p4 #bae73 reproduced1 by permission1 from ,boutell's 8,english ,heraldry10 ,no4 #fh4 ,,footnotes ,,to ,,part ,,ii3 #ec ,in fact1 our 8small-letters0 are the formalised result of the rapidly scratched ,square ,capitals of the ,roman era 7p4 #cg fig4 #c74 #ed ,their greater strength may not at first be apparent in fig4 #adh1 as the nib used therefor is narrower1 in proportion to the height of letter1 than that used for fig4 #adg 7see also fig4 #aea74 #ee ,the exaggeration of one part may be said relatively to dwarf the other parts of a letter2 but it is seldom advantageous1 and often not permissible1 to dwarf part of a letter absolutely4 #ef ,as when the construction of a part of some letter is peculiar 7all the y or g tails1 for example1 catching the eye1 and standing out on the page71 or1 as when promiscuous types are used1 giving the impression of a confused crowd of letters4 #eg ,variety4--,there is a variety both readable and beautiful 7see pp4 #baj1 #cfi71 but it is founded on uniformity 7and sincerity74 #eh 8,bands0 and symmetrical or asymmetrical groups of lettering adapted to the available space are used--usually as ornament--upon friezes1 furniture1 chests1 book covers1 flagons1 dishes1 and the like 7see fig4 #aef p4 #ccf74 ,the special treatment of such things is a matter for the craftsman who makes them4 #ei ,by closing up the letters and the words one may generally avoid 8rivers10 or accidental spaces straggling through the text4 ,the presence of 8rivers0 is at once made evident by slanting the page and looking along its surface1 across the lines4 ,note1 that whether the lines be close or wide1 the interspacing of the ,small-,letters does not vary very much4 #fj ,the gaps on the right may be filled with line-finishings to preserve a 8,massed0 effect1 but for many purposes this would be apt to look too ornamental 7see pp4 #bje1 #dbc74 #fa ,in 7b7 fig4 #aee1 the letters have been unintentionally narrowed4 ,the natural tendency to do this forms another objection to such undue crowding4 #fb ,in 7c7 the letters have been unintentionally widened4 #fc ,experiment4--,cut out a piece of dark brown paper the exact size of the body of the text in an entire page of this ,handbook1 viz4 #e-a_/af inches by #c inches1 and lay it on the text3 the tone of the brown paper being much darker than that of the print makes the margins appear wider4 #fd ,such inscriptions contrast favourably with that ,nineteenth ,century style in which it was customary to make every letter occupy the same space and look as much like its neighbour as possible4 #fe ,note4--,there is less danger of spoiling letters by narrowing them than by widening1 because the limits to the possible narrowing of a letter are more obvious than the limits to its possible widening4 ,further1 when letters are widened there is a tendency to thicken their parts and make them heavy and vulgar4 #ff ,the primitive forms of these letters were vertically symmetrical1 ,i believe4 #fg ,it is interesting to note in this connection that the eye seems to prefer looking upon the tops of things1 and in reading1 is accustomed to run along the tops of the letters--not down one stroke and up the next4 ,this may suggest a further reason for smaller upper parts1 viz4 the concentration of as much of the letter as possible in the upper half4 #fh ,the extremely beautiful and finished ,b in the 8,trajan ,alphabet0 7,plate ,,ii47 has the division a little higher1 and a marked enlargement of the lower part2 until the letter-craftsman can approach the perfection of its execution he will find a simpler form more suitable for his 8standard40 ,a curious form1 in which the top lobe has nearly or quite disappeared 7comp4 c1 fig4 #afa71 is found in early ,roman inscriptions4 ,this form 7which may have helped to give us the useful small b7 is not suitable for a modern ,capital1 and would lack the distinctiveness of ,b4 #fi ,chisel-made ,roman ,capitals 7possibly influenced by brush1 c41 pp4 #bib1 #cia71 ,plates ,i41 ,,ii43 7modern71 ,,xxiv4 ,pen-made1 ,plates ,,iii41 ,,xviii43 7modern71 figs4 #adg1 #adh1 #afg1 #afh1 c4 #gj ,j4 ,c4 ,egbert in an 8,introduction to the ,study of ,latin ,inscriptions0 says1 8,j was not specialised as a letter until the #aeth ,century40 ,it would seem that in early inscriptions a tall ,i was frequently used for ,j between vowels1 and for ,i at the beginnings of words3 later1 while the medial ,i remained straight1 the initial form was curved to the left and used for both ,i and ,j2 this curved initial form1 ,j1 at length became identified with the letter ,j4 ,similarly1 it appears that ,v was used for an initial1 and ,u for a medial2 and later1 the ,v form became identified with the consonant4 ,in the words f,in vigi1 natiu_/f in fig4 #ie1 the initial ,i is curved like a ,j1 while the medial i's are straight2 the initial ,v has a v form1 while the medial ,v in nativ7itatis7 has a u form4 #ga ,the more ornamental treatment of ,stems1 ,bows1 ,serifs1 ,tails1 c41 is referred to at p4 #cca1 and in figs4 #ahh1 #ahi4 #gb ,their thin stems and heavy branches may tend to weakness and illegibility--e4g4 such letters as ,e1 ,f1 ,i1 ,l1 and ,t 7see fig4 #d7 are not always easily distinguishable4 #gc ,increasing the size of letter affects the form as though the nib were narrowed 7see p4 #cbd74 #gd ,some may be in 8silver0 7p4 #afe74 #ge ,in a very short book these might even be built-up capitals4 #gf ,palographers call them 8majuscules0 7 8large letters071 but distinguish them from 8,capitals40 ,for the purposes of the modern penman1 however1 they may be regarded as ,round ,capitals4 7,for their treatment1 see pp4 #big-bii1 and #cjd47 #gg ,the writing in fig4 #agj shows a slightly slanted pen4 ,to make quite horizontal thins is difficult1 and was probably never done1 but it is worth attempting them nearly horizontal for the sake of training the hand4 #gh ,note4--,single-line ruling is commonly used--the writing being on1 or a little above or below1 the line3 this allows of greater freedom than the double line 7see p4 #cjd74 #gi ,it is convenient to use the term 8,italics0 for both the cursive formal writing and the printing resembling it4 ,italic type was first used in a 8,virgil0 printed by ,aldus ,manutius of ,venice in #aejj4 ,the type was then called 8,venetian0 or 8,aldine40 ,it was counterfeited almost immediately 7in ,germany and ,holland it was called 8cursive072 ,wynkin de ,worde used it in #aebd4 ,it seems to have been originally intended for printing entire ,classics1 but was afterwards used to distinguish portions of the text 7see also p4 #cgc74 #hj ,the ,book is a catalogue of early ,roman inscriptions3 apparently a written copy of a printed book4 #ha ,with a sheet of paper #aa-a_/h inches by #af inches the student might reconstruct these4 #hb ,practising a more formal hand as a corrective would prevent this4 #hc ,the ,law fulfils itself3 that which we must not copy is that which we cannot copy4 #hd ,e4g4 the letters in the tenth-century ,english hand--,plate ,,viii43 excepting the archaic long and round 7b1 fig4 #ahc74 #he ,the propriety of the actual form of the new letter will largely depend on the scribe's knowledge of the development of that particular letter and its component parts 7comp4 the interesting development of g1 sketched in figs4 #c #ahc1 but note correction of ,ex4 #agc in ,addenda1 p4 #bf74 #hf ,the proportions of the thick strokes1 stem heights1 c41 in a given hand need not be exactly followed1 but it should be recognised that any alteration in these will inevitably alter the forms and the character of the letters 7fig4 #ahc1 and pp4 #hd #bf74 #hg ,in ,english so many ascending and descending letters are used1 that it might be the best and most natural treatment of these to make them a marked feature of the writing 7see also 8,fine ,writing10 pp4 #bfa-fc74 ,note1 in this connection1 that our a b c has been developed as a ,latin alphabet1 and that the evenness of ,latin ,,ms4 is largely due to the infrequence of tailed letters4 #hh ,where there is only a slight difference in size1 the effect is improved by using a different form or colour 7see pp4 #acj1 #cde74 #hi ,compare fmonotone_/f and monotone4 ,for general purposes1 therefore1 and particularly for forming a good hand1 the earlier scripts are to be preferred 7or the late ,italian73 even twelfth-century 8,gothic0 writing is hardly readable enough for 8practical0 purposes4 p#ccg ,,appendix ,a ,,chapter ,,xvi ,,special ,,subjects ,divers ,uses of ,lettering -- ,,ms4 ,books1 c4 -- ,binding ,,mss4 7with ,note by ,douglas ,cockerell7 -- ,broadsides1 ,wall ,inscriptions1 c4 -- ,illuminated ,addresses1 c4 -- ,monograms ,devices -- ,title ,pages -- ,lettering for ,reproduction -- ,printing -- ,inscriptions on ,metal1 ,stone1 ,wood1 c4 -- ,of ,inscriptions ,generally -- ,bibliography1 c4 ,,divers ,,uses ,,of ,,lettering ,the following list of some of the uses of hand-made lettering1 though necessarily very brief1 will perhaps suggest possibilities both to the student and the craftsman3-- ,,ms4 ,,books1 c43 7see pp4 #ih1 #cda1 ,author's ,preface74 ,fine ,literature3 7#a7 ,preferably 8the best40 7#b7 ,that which is worthy of calligraphy4 7#c7 ,that which is the 8favourite0 of the owner of the book4 ,poetry is differently treated from prose 7see pp4 #ie1 #bfc1 #cga1 #ach71 and should have extra wide side margins when possible 7p4 #dhc74 ,single ,poems1 c43 ,poems1 cards1 hymns1 c4 7see pp4 #acg-aci1 ,poetry1 above71 preferably in the form of small books4 ,tracts or ,treatises3 ,copies might be preserved 7p4 #cbc7 in good writing 7instead of ,typewriting74 ,church ,services3 ,prayers1 ,communion1 ,marriage1 c4 7pp4 #adj1 #add1 #cde74 ,gospels ,psalters3 ,note4--,the ,psalms1 c41 may be treated as poetry 7as in the 8,revised ,version07 or as prose 7as in the 8,authorised ,version071 see ,fine ,literature above4 ,almanacks3 ,these may be very varied2 containing vacations1 terms1 sessions2 public1 church1 or family festivals1 personal memoranda or topical quotations4 ,they offer great opportunities for heraldic or symbolic ornament 7such as coats-of-arms1 astronomical signs1 c474 ,dedications1 c41 in ,books3 7,lettering on ,architects' ,plans3 see ,maps ,plans1 p4 #cci7 ,these may be on a parchment leaf inserted and securely glued into the beginning 7preferably bound up with book71 or be written on a fly-leaf4 ,annotations1 extracts1 c41 may be written in colour in printed books 7p4 #add74 8,copy-,books30 7see below74 ,,broadsides3 ,sheets printed 7or written7 on one side3 see p4 #cej4 ,notices3 7,posters1 ,placards1 ,hand-bills1 c474 ,quotations3 7,texts1 ,mottoes1 c47 7see p4 #ccf74 ,church ,texts1 c43 7,the ,creed1 ,commandments1 c474 ,family ,trees ,pedigrees3 ,these may be very decorative--in plain black and red1 or with coats-of-arms or other ornament4 ,they might also be made in book form4 ,,wall ,,inscriptions3 ,carved or painted3 see pp4 #cej1 #cge-che1 ,chapter ,,xvii4 ,public ,notices3 ,lettering in ,churches1 c43 ,lettering in upon public buildings3 ,note3 on walls1 plastered1 or unsuited for carving1 sgraffito might be used with fine effect4 ,letters may also be painted upon cemented into the wall 7p4 #cgg74 7,,illuminated7 ,,addresses1 c43 7,petitions1 c47 7see p4 #cec74 ,,monograms ,,devices3 7see p4 #cfa4 ,these are frequently designed for stencilling or other mechanical reproduction74 ,,lettering ,,for ,,reproduction3 7see p4 #cfe74 ,see also ,,broadsides1 above4 ,printer's types and ,ornamental letters3 7in woodcut and metal3 pp4 #cfe1 #cfg74 ,title ,pages3 7see p4 #cfc74 ,paper and other ,book covers3 7,magazines1 ,newspaper-,headings1 ,music1 ,catalogues1 c474 ,maps ,plans3 good1 clear lettering may be used in these with fine effect4 ,book ,plates3 7preferably simple1 with ,arms1 ,crest1 or ,symbol1 and suitable lettering74 ,letter-paper ,headings1 ,cards1 c43 7preferably in copper-plate 8,roman0 and 8,italic074 ,bill ,heads1 ,receipt ,forms1 c43 7preferably in copper-plate or type3 see p4 #cfe74 ,certificates3 7,testimonials1 c47 ,the plainer these are made1 the better4 ,programmes1 ,menus1 ,cards1 c43 7,christmas cards1 c474 ,almanacks3 7see above74 ,,ms4 ,books and 8copy-books03 ,possibly might be reproduced by copper-plate if written well enough 7p4 #cfg74 ,advertisements1 c43 ,better lettering in these would not only mitigate many eyesores1 but would probably attract by its novelty 7see p4 #ceb74 ,,engraving1 c43 7see pp4 #cfd1 #cfe1 #cge74 ,brasses1 c43 78,brasses10 ,name-plates1 ,door-plates1 c474 ,punches3 7for naming1 numbering1 c474 ,utensils3 7,bowls1 flagons1 plates1 c474 ,ornaments3 7,jewellery1 c474 ,die ,sinking3 7for coins1 medals1 c41 and for embossed letter-paper headings1 c474 ,,inscriptions ,,in ,,stone ,,wood3 7see pp4 #cge-che1 ,chap4 ,,xvii474 ,on ,monuments ,buildings3 ,also on mile-stones1 boundary stones1 bridges1 c4 ,tombstones3 ,foundation ,stones3 ,memorial ,tablets3 8,,sign ,,writing03 7see pp4 #cej1 #cgf74 ,signs3 7for stations1 inns1 shops1 c474 ,shop ,fascias1 c43 ,names1 c43 7on doors on carts1 coaches1 c474 ,notice ,boards3 8,ticket ,writing03 ,,embroidery1 c43 see remarks on built-up forms1 p4 #bib3 and ,chapter ,,xii4 on ,lettering1 c4 of 8,embroidery and ,tapestry ,weaving10 by ,mrs4 ,a4 ,h4 ,christie1 in this ,series4 ,decoration for hangings1 7p4 #ccf73 ,marking clothes1 c4 p#cda ,all the arts employ lettering directly or indirectly1 in fine decoration or for simple service4 ,the following list of ancient uses is interesting3#ij-- 8,i4 ,,tituli #a4 ,dedicatory and ,votive ,inscriptions 7,tituli ,sacri74 #b4 ,sepulchral ,inscriptions 7,tituli ,sepulchrales74 #c4 ,honorary ,inscriptions 7,tituli ,honorarii74 #d4 ,inscriptions on ,public ,works 7,tituli ,operum ,publicorum74 #e4 ,inscriptions on ,movable ,objects 7,instrumentum74 ,,ii4 ,,instrumenta #a4 ,laws 7,leges et ,plebi ,scita74 #b4 ,decrees of the ,senate 7,senatus ,consulta74 #c4 ,imperial ,documents 7,instrumenta ,imperatorum74 #d4 ,decrees of ,magistrates 7,decreta ,magistratuum74 #e4 ,sacred and ,public ,documents 7,acta ,sacra et ,publica74 #f4 ,private ,documents 7,acta ,privata74 #g4 ,wall ,inscriptions 7,inscriptiones ,parietariae74 #h4 ,consular ,diptychs 7,diptycha ,consularia740 ,,ms4 ,,books1 ,c4 ,books in the making--as compared with ordinary inscriptions--are capable of great compression or expansion1 and may be said to have a quality of elasticity4 ,nearly all other ordinary inscriptions are set inscriptions 7p4 #cej71 requiring a given number of words to be set out in a given space4 ,but in books1 while it is convenient that the treatment of the text should conform generally to a chosen size of page 7p4 #ajc71 the contents of the page may vary according to the letter-form and the spacing 7pp4 #ajg1 #bfb71 and the number of the pages is not definitely limited1 so that another page1 or a p#cdb number of additional pages1 may always be taken to complete the text4 ,the size of page1 margin1 and writing having been settled 7see ,chap4 ,,vi47--and the pages ruled--the penman writes out the text with the utmost freedom1 not stopping to make fine calculations1 but leaving such spaces and lines1 for ,initials1 ,headings1 c41 as his fancy and common-sense dictate1 and letting the text--or its divisions--smoothly flow on from page to page till a natural termination is reached4 ,and if the terminal page has only one or two lines on it1 it is not necessary to attempt a balance with the previous page--the book or chapter#ia ends just there1 for the good reason that there is no more of it4 ,colophons1 ,tail-pieces1 c4 7see p4 #adb71 make a pleasant finish1 and may complete the page or not as convenient4 ,planning3 ,sections and ,pages4--,calculations of the amount of text1 of the number of sections or pages required1 and so on1 are useful1 and planning the pages may be convenient--for example1 one or more of the verses of a poem1 or a given number of words1 may be allotted to the page--provided always that the scribe preserves his freedom1 and treats each case on its merits4 ,if he think it most suitable to devote a complete page to each paragraph1 he may do so in spite of its resulting in the pages all being of different lengths4 ,the one general limitation which it is proper to p#cdc observe is that of the ,writing-line--its length#ib and spacing--and to this may be added the desirability of beginning the text of every page on the first or head line4#ic ,for most of us it is not practically possible to do without the aid of the writing-lines--which really lead1 through uniformity1 to greater freedom--though a book written without them#id might be as beautiful as any ruled manuscript4 ,marginal ,lines4--,these1 the terminals of the writing-lines1 are frequently made double1 with about #a_/d inch between 7see ,plates ,,xx4 and ,,xv474 ,on the left this space is utilised for marginal capitals1 or is left blank2 on the right the first line acts as a warning mark and the normal termination of the text1 the second as a barrier beyond which the writing should not go4 ,the double lines1 in being more obvious than single lines1 are also more effective in 8straightening0 the page 7p4 #aji73 presumably for this reason the two upper and two lower writing-lines were often ruled from edge to edge of the page 7see ,plate ,,xi474 ,ruling4--,marginal and writing-lines1 once ruled1 are to be left intact1 and may be regarded as actual component parts of the finished pages4 ,they are best made with a hard blunt point 7p4 #ajh7--the furrows so made give an interesting character1 almost a 8texture10 to the smooth surface of the page4 ,but they may be ruled with a fine lead pencil1 or with a fine pen and faint black or p#cdd coloured inks4 ,inked or coloured lines1 however1 are not generally written upon 7see footnote1 p4 #cje71 but between 7see ,plates ,,xiii41 ,,xvii41 ,,xx41 c474 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aib4 ,correcting ,mistakes4--,a neatly made rather small letter above and a 8carat0 below 7as in ordinary writing7 may be used for an omission 7fig4 #aib74 ,a superfluous letter may be neatly struck out4 ,erasures are usually unsatisfactory1 and a simple1 unostentatious correction1 besides disarming criticism1 is in accordance with the proper freedom of the craft 7see p4 #agd74 ,annotations1 c41 preferably in smaller coloured writing1 are very decorative in the broader margins 7pp4 #add1 #cae74 ,special ,books4--,a ,,ms4 book is necessarily unique1 and some special or personal interest--either of the craftsman 7see p4 #adb7 or his 8client0--inevitably attaches to it4 ,this may affect its size and form1 the treatment of the text1 and the decoration and construction generally 7see p4 #ajj74 ,every legitimate opportunity of adding to its individual character should be taken by the scribe and illuminator4 p#cde ,fig4 #age and ,plate ,,xx4 are both taken from private prayer books or psalters2 in each the name of the owner 7e4g4 8,euanzelista famulo tuo10 ,plate ,,xx47 is frequently inserted4 ,plates ,,xv4 and ,,xxii4 are also taken from specially commissioned ,,mss41 and many evidences of their ownership1 such as portraits or coats-of-arms1 form part of the decoration of such books4 ,church ,services1 c4--7,for a special church or person47 ,church uses are so varied1 that it is most important to ascertain the custom1 use1 or taste of the persons concerned--especially as to the order of1 and the introduction or omission of1 certain words1 paragraphs1 or parts1 the colours used in the text1 the notation of the music--and the manner in which the book will be used4 ,a service book for the use of a priest gives prominence to the parts in which he is concerned--the responses#ie may be smaller1 and different in form or colour4 ,the rubrics--in red 7see pp4 #adj1 #add7--;are kept quite distinct1 and may form a very decorative feature4 ,for a private person the other parts--such as are said by the congregation--might be specially marked4 ,in either case a certain amount of planning--e4g4 completing prayers1 c41 in an opening1 to avoid turning over--may be justified by its convenience to the reader4 ,should very careful planning ever be required1 a pattern-book may be made1 having the contents of each page roughly indicated in it4 ,wedding ,service ,books1 c4--,the interest and p#cdf value is enhanced if the book is specially prepared--containing the proper names and dates1 and only the special psalms1 hymns1 prayers1 homilies1 c41 which will be used4 ,dated pages may be provided at the end of the book for the signatures of the 8friends and neighbours0 of the principals4 ,,binding ,,mss4 ,,mss4 should be bound without delay in order to complete and protect them4 ,to bind books in stiff boards1 in leather1 requires considerable practice and skill1 but a very effective limp vellum cover can be made by the scribe himself1 who1 in binding his own books1 will learn to think of the binding as a part of the book1 and to allow for it in the writing and planning 7see p4 #ajf74 ,the following note#if on covering books in limp vellum is specially contributed by ,mr4 ,douglas ,cockerell3-- 8,how to cover a book in a limp vellum cover without using special appliances4 8,cut four strips of stiff vellum #c_/h inch wide and about four inches long4 ,on these slips you will sew the sections of your book4 8,add to your book a plain section at either end2#ig vellum for a vellum book1 paper for a paper book4 ,knock up the backs of the sections squarely1 keeping the heads level1 and across the back mark with a soft pencil guided by a square1 lines to show the position of the slips4 ,the positions of the four slips should leave the space between the slips the same as that between the p#cdg top slip and the head of the book2 the space between the bottom slip and the tail should be a little longer than the spaces between the slips4 ,at about #a_/b inch from either end make an additional line across the back for the 8kettle0 or catch stitch4 ,these lines will show as dots on the back of single sections4 ,each individual section should now have at the back a dot at either end for the kettle stitches1 and four pairs of dots #c_/h inch apart to show the position of the slips1 ten dots in all4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aic4 8,to sew the book1 fold the vellum slips about #a-a_/b inch from one end and bend to a right angle4 ,place your front end-paper outside downwards1 with the back even with the edge of a table or board1 and place your folded slips with their shorter ends under it4 ,then insert your needle from the outside1 at the head 8kettle stitch0 mark1 into the centre of the section and bring it out at the first band mark2 put the slip in position and reinsert your needle at the mark on the other side of the slip1 and so on to the end of the section1 coming out at the tail kettle stitch4 ,this should leave your section with a thread1#ih passing alternately along the centre fold inside and across the slips outside1 with a loose end hanging from the kettle stitch mark where you began1 and a thread with the needle hanging from the other kettle stitch mark 7fig4 #aic74 p#cdh ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aid4 8,lay on your next section and sew it in the same way but in the reverse direction1 tying up with the first loose end when you come to it4 ,sew the whole book in the same way1 tying on a new needleful of thread as each is exhausted1 making practically a continuous thread going backwards and forwards inside the sections and across the slips from end to end of the book4 ,each succeeding kettle stitch should be caught up by a loop 7fig4 #aid71 and it is well to catch together the loose threads crossing the slips4 8,when the book is sewn1 the back may be covered with thin glue and lined with a piece of leather1 but as this is a little difficult to manage neatly1 and as the book will hold together without it1 for a temporary binding the sections may be left without glue4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aie4 8,for the cover cut a piece of covering vellum#ii 7vellum with a surface7 large enough to cover the book and to leave a margin of #a-a_/b inches all round4 ,mark this with a folder on the underside1 as shown at ,a1 fig4 #aie4 ,spaces 7#a7 and 7#b7 are the size of the sides of the book with the surrounding 8squares10#ajj space 7#c7 is the width of the back1 and space 7#d7 the width for the overlaps on the foredge4#aja ,cut the corners as shown at 7#e71 and fold the edges over as at ,b1 and then fold over the overlaps p#cdi and back as at ,c4 ,be sure to make all folds sharp and true4 8,to avoid mistakes it is well to make a cover of stiff p#cej paper first1 and then1 when that fits exactly1 to mark up the vellum from it4 8,on the inside of the vellum cover1 mark faint lines about #c_/d inch from1 and parallel to1 the creases of the back1 and further lines about #a_/d inch from these4 ,place your book in the cover and mark the places where the slips cross these lines4 ,make slits in the cover there1 and lace the slips through them 7fig4 #aif71 first putting a piece of loose1 toned paper inside the cover to prevent any marks on the book from showing through the vellum4 ,then lace pieces of silk ribbon of good quality#ajb through the cover and end-papers1 leaving the ends long enough to tie40 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aif4 ,,broadsides1 ,,wall ,,inscriptions1 ,c4 ,set ,inscriptions4--,ordinary inscriptions generally consist of a given number of words to be set out in p#cea a given space4 ,careful planning may sometimes be required to fit in the words suitably1 or to adapt the lettering to the space4 ,but setting-out 7p4 #beh7 becomes much simpler after a little practice1 and the good craftsman avoids over-planning4 ,the ,place of the ,inscription4--,the actual space for a wall inscription is commonly suggested by an architectural feature--a stone1 a panel1 or a niche--of the wall2 but in choosing a suitable space for a given inscription1 or suitable lettering for a given space1 we must take into account-- #a4 ,the office of the inscription4 #b4 ,how it is to be read-- 7a7 8,at a glance10 or 7b7 by close inspection4 #c4 ,the distance from the reader4 #d4 ,the lighting of the space4 #e4 ,the character of the surroundings4 #f4 ,any special features4 ,the ,size of the ,letters4--,the all-important question of readableness may be settled thus3 the inscription having been planned suitably to fill the space1 one or two words are written or painted 7the exact size7 on paper--smoked or otherwise coloured if necessary to resemble the background4 ,this is stuck upon the chosen part of the wall1 and then viewed from the ordinary position of a reader4 ,when the inscription is high up1 the thin parts--especially the horizontals of the letters--must be made extra thick to be seen properly from below4 ,margins4--,wide margins are only required for comparatively small lettering which demands the close p#ceb attention of the reader1#ajc and generally a set inscription looks best if the lettering be comparatively large--covering most of the given surface1 and leaving comparatively narrow margins4 ,the frame or moulding1 or the natural edge or environment of the circumscribed space1 is very often sufficient 8margin0 7see ,plate ,,xxiv474 ,the margins vary1 however1 according to circumstances2 especially the foot margin1 which may be very narrow if all the space is required for the lettering 7see fig4 #baa71 or very large#ajd if there is plenty of space 7see fig4 #baj74 ,and1 as in special pages or terminal pages of books1 so in single sheets1 panels1 c41 the 8foot margin0 may show--as it really is--as the space which did not require to be filled1 and was therefore 8left over40 ,number of ,different ,types4--,while in a book of many pages considerable diversity is allowed1 it is essential to the strength and dignity of a single sheet or set inscription to limit the number of types employed in it4 ,three or four ordinary types will generally give sufficient variety1 and if it be necessary--as in notices and placards--that ,important ,words be put in special types to catch the eye1 let two--or at most three--special types suffice1 and let the remainder of the text be as quiet and reserved as possible4 8,display ,types0 commonly defeat their object by being overdone4 ,a simple contrast is the most effective 7fig4 #aig74 p#cec ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aig4 ,,illuminated ,,addresses1 ,c4 ,forms of ,addresses1 c4--,the writer should be prepared to advise his 8clients0 on the form which the address may take1 on special features in its writing and illuminating1 and on its general treatment4 ,ordinarily an ,illuminated ,address is prepared either as a ,framed ,parchment 7p4 #cef71 a ,parchment ,scroll1 or sheet 7p4 #cef71 or a small bound ,,ms4 7i4e4 in book form3 p4 #ceg74aje ,the wording commonly consists of three parts3 the ,heading 7usually the name of the addressee71 the ,text 7usually divided into paragraphs71 the ,signatures 7or a list of names7 of the subscribers4 ,an address is commonly in the #ast or #crd person1 and in case of any confusion of these1 any slip of the pen1 or other oversight in the draft1 the penman p#ced should1 if possible1 call attention to it before the document is put into permanent form4 ,a very convenient and agreeable style of 8address0 is a formal letter1 beginning 8,dear ,mr4 ,a-------- ,b--------10 and ending in the ordinary way4 ,this is a form which may be drawn up more simply1 and which reads more naturally1 than the ordinary #ast or #crd personal statement4 ,an 8address0 is sometimes in the form of a resolution passed by a public or private body or committee4 ,for municipal or other important corporations1 such an extract from their minutes1 neatly and 8clerkly0 written out on parchment1 and duly attested by the signatures of their 8head0 and their secretary1 and without ornament save their seal--on a dependent ribbon--or their coat-of-arms1 or badge1 would not only be the most natural1 but possibly the most dignified and effective shape which might be given to the formal presentation of their compliments4 ,an 8address0 accompanying a present is frequently little more than a list of names with a brief complimentary or explanatory statement4 ,if possible such an inscription should be written or engraved on the article itself1 or be specially designed to accompany it4 ,in some cases this is very simple3 when a volume1 or set of volumes1 is given1 the inscription may be written in the first volume--or on a parchment which may be inserted--or it may be prepared in book form1 in a binding to match4 ,a silver or other ornament sometimes has a little drawer provided to hold a narrow scroll of names4 ,a portrait may have an inscription on the frame--or even in a corner of the picture--or be accompanied by a simple1 framed parchment4 p#cee ,signatures4--,a neatly written out list of subscribers--especially when their number is large--is very convenient3 it does not require individual personal appointments1 nor involve risks of damage to the address4 ,the actual signatures of subscribers1 however1 are of greater interest and sentimental value1 and on such grounds are preferable to a mere list of names4 ,to avoid risks 7or with a view to incorporating the signatures in the decorative scheme7 the decoration1 gilding1 c41 may sometimes be deferred until after the signing of the address4 ,when the exact number and the names of the subscribers are known beforehand1 lines may be provided for their signatures1 marked with letters in alphabetical order 7the proper number of lines under each74 ,this method solves any difficulty in regard to precedence in signing4 ,note4--,ordinary signatures require about #a_/b inch by #c inches space each4 ,if there are many they may be conveniently arranged in two or more columns1 according to the space available4 ,directions for ,signing#ajf-- ,edges of parchment not to project beyond desk or table1 lest they be creased4 ,paper to be provided to cover the address1 with ,,flaps to raise when signing4 ,when lines for signatures are grooved 7p4 #ajh71 signatories to face the light 7this makes the lines more evident74 ,ink of one colour to be used if possible4 ,clean1 ,,ordinary pens to be provided1 and pieces of paper for trying them on4 p#cef ,framed ,parchments4--,the parchment may have--beyond the top and foot margins--spare pieces which 7after the writing and illuminating is finished7 are bent over the ends1 and glued to the back1 of a stout1 white card1 or millboard--covered with white or light coloured paper4 ,or--extra margin being allowed all round--the edges of the parchment are cut into tags or 8scallops10 and folded over an ordinary canvas stretcher1 and well tacked at the back with small brads4 ,the wedges are carefully adjusted till the parchment lies flat4 ,a parchment glued to the surface of a millboard is more convenient for framing1 but has a less natural surface1 and is not so easily managed by the penman as the plain1 flexible parchment4 ,frames should be gold1 black1 or white2 very plain1 and generally without mounts4 ,the parchment1 however1 must be framed so that there is no danger of any part of it coming into contact with the glass 7as that1 being damp1 would lead to cockling74 ,parchment ,scroll4--,the foot edge of the parchment may be folded over twice1#ajg a strong1 silk ribbon 7see footnote1 p4 #cej7 is laced along through slits in the folded part 7a1 fig4 #aih71 so that the two ends come out again at the centre--where they may be knotted together--and are ready to tie round the scroll when it is rolled up 7b74 ,a rather narrow1 8upright0 parchment is most convenient 7c74 ,an 8oblong0 parchment may be very effectively arranged in long lines of writing 7d74 ,if a special casket or case is not provided1 a neat p#ceg japanned tin case may be obtained for a few shillings4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aih4 ,a small ,bound ,,ms4 is certainly the most easily handled form in which an address may be prepared--its convenience to the penman1 the signatories1 the reader1 and the addressee1 is strongly in its favour4 ,a lengthy address1 or a very large number of names1 may be contained in a comparatively small book4 ,method of ,planning out ,addresses1 c4--,if in the p#ceh book form1 the address is treated much as an ordinary book 7see ,chap4 ,,vi41 and ,binding1 p4 #cdf74 ,the framed or scroll address is planned similarly to a single sheet 7p4 #ij74 ,the following notes of a working method were made during the planning out of an address3-- 7#a7 ,decide approximately the general form1 shape1 and decorative treatment of address4 7#b7 ,count words in ,,text 7leaving out ,,heading and ,,signatures7 #acj ,count paragraphs #c 7,decide whether first or last paragraph is to be in a different form or colour47 ,decide approximate width #ab inches4 ,decide approximate side margins 7#b-a_/b inches each7 #e 0 ,hence length of writing-line #g 0 ,allow #a_/b inch lines1 and approximately eight words to the line4 7#c7 #acj words ,,text1 approx4 #af lines #h in4 deep4 ,allow extra 7on account paragraphs7 #a line #a_/b 0 0 7,roughly sketch out ,,heading on lines each #a_/b inch by #g inches47 ,allow for ,,heading #f lines #c 0 0 ,allow for two ,,signatures1 c4 #c lines #a-a_/b 0 0 ---------------------------------------- -------- ,total depth of ,writing1 c4 #bf lines #ac inches4 ,allow for ,top margin #b 0 ,allow for ,foot margin #c 0 7,note4--,this was a 8scroll10 and the foot margin was folded up to within an inch of the ,,signatures4 ,a plain sheet would have required about #d inches foot margin47 ---------------------- ,length of ,parchment #ah inches4 7#d7 ,cut a paper pattern1 #ab inches by #ah inches4 ,rule 7in pencil7 ,side margins 7#b-a_/b inches and #b-a_/b inches71 and ,top margin 7#b inches71 and #bf 7#a_/b inch7 lines4 ,on this write out the address in ordinary handwriting1 using ordinary black and red 7or coloured7 inks3 make approximately eight words to the line1 and write as fast as possible2 this helps to keep the spacing uniform4 ,this written pattern should not take more than twenty minutes for its entire preparation3 it is intended to be used as a check on the previous calculation 7not as an exact plan71 and as a copy1 it being easier to copy from your own1 than from another's1 handwriting4 ,if the original draft is typewritten1 it is hardly necessary to make such a pattern4 7#e7 ,check this copy very carefully with the original to see that the words1 c41 are correct4 7#f7 ,cut1 rule1 and pounce the parchment 7pp4 #cdc1 #agd74 7#g7 ,on some scraps of parchment1 ruled with a few similar lines1 and pounced1 try one or two lines of writing1 both in vermilion and black1 to see that all goes well4 ,this enables you to get the pens and inks into working order1 and will very likely save the carefully prepared parchment from being spoilt4 7#h7 ,write out the address1 leaving suitable gaps for gold or special letters4 7#i7 ,put in special letters1 decorative capitals1 and any other decoration4 7#aj7 ,check the finished address very carefully with the original draft 7see 7#e7 above7 and look it over for mistakes1 dotting i's1 and putting in commas1 c41 if left out4 ,it is important that such a formal document should be accurate4 ,general ,remarks4--,the above simple mode of planning out can be further simplified in custom and practice4 ,by the penman keeping to regular shapes1 proportions1#ajh and modes of treatment for regular p#cfj occasions1 the addresses1 c41 will practically 8plan themselves0 7p4 #aja71 and better workmanship is the natural result4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aii4 ,generally the simpler the form and the treatment of an ,illuminated ,address1 the better the effect4 ,the most effective decoration is the plain coloured or gold capital1 and the finest ornament is a coat-of-arms 7see 8,heraldry10 below2 and for general1 p#cfa simple ,illumination1 see ,chapters ,,vii4 to ,,xiii474 ,a symbolical mark1 such as a crest1 badge1 monogram1 cypher1 or other device 7p4 #cfb71 boldly and decoratively treated1 may be used in place of a coat-of-arms4 ,there is too much 8,illumination0 in the conventional 8,address10 which looks like a 8piece of decoration0 with a little writing4 ,a really reasonable and effective ,illuminated ,address is a piece of writing suitably decorated4 99 99 99 99 99 ,heraldry4--,a reliable handbook must be consulted1 for accurate 8blazoning0 is essential4 ,early examples should be studied 7see p4 #chg74 ,the diagram1 fig4 #aii1 is given as an example of how a charge was evenly arranged on the shield 7see balanced background1 p4 #dai74 ,another example--showing a diapered chequer--is given on p4 #ccf4 ,shields in ,illuminated borders may be coloured before the border1 lest the brilliant mass of colour of the shield clash with the border4 ,the shield1 if large1 may with advantage set the tone of the whole colour scheme4 ,,monograms ,,devices ,a ,monogram consists of two or more letters combined in one form1 as the diphthong 1 and the amperzand#aji for 3 its legibility may be helped by compound colouring4 ,a ,cypher consists of linked or interlaced letters1 as 1 p#cfb and may be repeated and reversed if desired 7see fig4 #bjj74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bjj4 ,monograms and cyphers may be very decoratively employed as ornaments1 and may be used to mark a man's goods1 or as a signature on his work3 something easily recognized--either very legible or characteristic--is therefore desirable4 ,the two modes may be combined1 and there is no limit to p#cfc the effective devices and ornaments which may be composed of letters4 ,simple and straightforward devices1 however1 are generally preferable to very ornate or intricate designs4 ,chronograms4--,a chronogram consists of a word or words in which the numerical letters indicate a date4 ,the following is from a very fine memorial inscription at ,rye 7see fig4 #bjg73-- ,ioannes ,three,le ,me,,dio ,lt tat,is f,lore ob,,iit4 ,it expresses the date ,i ,l ,m ,d ,i ,l ,i ,l ,i ,i 7or #a #ej #ajjj #ejj #a #ej #a #ej #a #a7 #afee4 ,as every letter having a numerical value 7i4e4 ,c1 ,d1 ,i1 7,j71 ,l1 ,m1 7,u71 ,v1 7,w71 ,x7 may be counted1 a proper chronogram is not easily composed4 ,the letter-craftsman will discover many ways of 8playing0 with letters1 and of expressing--or concealing--names and numbers in other words1 and he may take every liberty he chooses in his private pleasure1 provided it does not clash with public convenience4 ,,title ,,pages ,if large capitals be used1 the ,name of the ,book1 the ,author1 c41 above2 the ,name of the ,publisher1 the ,date1 c41 below1#aaj may together fill the page4 ,ordinary capitals 7as used in the text7 leave a space in the centre 7see ,title ,page of this book73 often pleasantly filled by a small woodcut--a symbolical device1 monogram1 or printer's mark4 ,generally1 the fewer and simpler the types1 the better3 though contrasts of size1 form1 or colour p#cfd 7see p4 #cbg7--such as printing one or two words in large ,,capitals1 or in f,black ,letter_/f 7p4 #cca71 or part in red--may sometimes be used with good effect4 ,when the types are rather varied1 single or double framing lines 7called 8rules07 placed round the page have the effect of binding the whole together4 ,the page may also be divided into parts by transverse 8rules0--these further solidify it4 ,black rules are preferable to red 7p4 #add73 if they are double1 the outer line may be thicker than the inner4#aaa ,relation of ,title ,pages1 c41 to the ,text4--,generally the practical part of the book is to be considered and settled before the ornamental and the decorated ,title page conforms to the treatment of the text pages1 and should be clearly related to them by the character of its letters or its ornaments4 ,its margins 7especially the top margin7 should be approximately the same as those of the text pages1 though framing borders may occupy part of1 or nearly all1 the marginal space4 ,without doubt the artless1 ordinarily printed title page is preferable to those specially designed 8title pages0 that have little or no relation to the rest of the book4 ,wood ,engraving 7see pp4 #cfe1 #cga74--,of all the 8processes10 wood engraving agrees best with printing4 ,the splendid effect of ,title and ,initial pages engraved in wood may be seen in the books of the ,kelmscott ,press4 ,in early printing1 woodcut ornaments or borders were commonly used to p#cfe decorate the printed title page4 ,an example of this combined method--of which unfortunately the greater part of the borders have to be left out--is shown in fig4 #bja 7from a #afth century book74#aab ,initial ,pages and ,openings4--,the claim of these to decorative treatment should be considered 7p4 #abh74 ,we generally look at the outside of a book for the title--which should be clearly stamped on the cover4 ,but inside the book we look rather for its actual beginning than for its name1 and1 while something in the nature of the 8sub-title0 might be used1 it would be quite reasonable to revive the ancient fashion--especially in the case of ,,ms4 ,books--of making the actual beginning the most decorative part of the book4 ,or a very fine effect may be obtained by the decoration of the entire initial opening--the title on the verso 7left page71 the beginning of the first chapter on the recto 7right page74 ,,lettering ,,for ,,reproduction ,where it is possible1 it is generally best to make use of ordinary typography4 ,a good fount of type and a natural setting-up or arrangement of it1 are more effective than many special designs 7see pp4 #cfd1 #bfg74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bja 7see footnote1 p4 #cfe7 ,wood and ,metal ,engraving4--,if special forms or arrangements of letters are required1 for which type is lacking or unsuited1 they are best cut in wood or p#cfg metal4 ,the engraver leaves the mark of his tool and hand upon1 and so gives character to1 such lettering2 while1 if he has some knowledge of letters1 he may give fresh beauty to their forms4 ,the ,zincotype ,process reproduces1 either in facsimile or on a reduced scale1 the 8design0 made by the craftsman in 8black and white40 ,this it does more or less exactly according to the pains taken by the zincographer1 the quality of the paper employed1 c4 ,the literalness and facility of this process1 however1 seem to have had a prejudicial effect on the work of the designer4 ,unless he conscientiously determines that his design shall stand without 8touching-up10 the knowledge that he may blot out or trim a faulty line with white1 that he may fill out or finish a deficient stroke with black1 that he may work large and zincograph small1 is apt to result in carelessness combined with over-finishing--or a sort of perfection without character4 ,if zincography be used1 a strong1 rather type-like letter1 or a built-up letter--arranged to give a general effect of richness of mass1 would appear more natural than the doubtful 8reproduction0 of delicate writing or fine pen-lettering4#aac ,etching4--,calligraphy might be reproduced with very fine effect1 retaining its natural delicacy and on a plane surface1 if a process of etching writing in facsimile were possible4 ,,printing ,the general question of fine printing and its relation to calligraphy can only be briefly referred p#cfh to here4 ,a proper study of the art of typography necessitates practice with a printing press1 and probably the help of a trained assistant4 ,to would-be printers1 printers1 and all interested in typography1 the easily acquired art of writing may be commended as a practical introduction to a better knowledge of letter forms and their decorative possibilities4 ,in this connection ,i have quoted in the preface 7p4 #ac7 some remarks on ,calligraphy by ,mr4 ,cobden-,sanderson1 who1 again1 referring to typography1 says--#aad 8,the passage from the ,written ,book to the ,printed ,book was sudden and complete4 ,nor is it wonderful that the earliest productions of the printing press are the most beautiful1 and that the history of its subsequent career is but the history of its decadence4 ,the ,printer carried on into ,type the tradition of the ,calligrapher and of the ,calligrapher at his best4 ,as this tradition died out in the distance1 the craft of the ,printer declined4 ,it is the function of the ,calligrapher to revive and restore the craft of the ,printer to its original purity of intention and accomplishment4 ,the ,printer must at the same time be a ,calligrapher1 or in touch with him1 and there must be in association with the ,printing ,press a ,scriptorium where beautiful writing may be practised and the art of letter-designing kept alive4 ,and there is this further evidence of the dependence of printing upon writing3 the great revival in printing which is taking place under our own eyes1 is the work of a ,printer who before he was a ,printer was a ,calligrapher and an ,illuminator1 ,,william ,,morris4 8,the whole duty of ,typography1 as of ,calligraphy1 is to communicate to the imagination1 without loss by the p#cfi way1 the thought or image intended to be communicated by the ,author4 ,and the whole duty of beautiful typography is not to substitute for the beauty or interest of the thing thought and intended to be conveyed by the symbol1 a beauty or interest of its own1 but1 on the one hand1 to win access for that communication by the clearness and beauty of the vehicle1 and on the other hand1 to take advantage of every pause or stage in that communication to interpose some characteristic and restful beauty in its own art40 ,early ,printing was in some points inferior in technical excellence to the best modern typography4 ,but the best early printers used finer founts of type and better proportions in the arrangement and spacing of their printed pages2 and it is now generally agreed that early printed books are the most beautiful4 ,it would repay a modern printer to endeavour to find out the real grounds for this opinion1 the underlying principles of the early work1 and1 where possible1 to put them into practice4 ,freedom4--,the treatment or 8planning0 of early printing--and generally of all pieces of lettering which are most pleasing--is strongly marked by freedom4 ,this freedom of former times is frequently referred to now as 8spontaneity0--sometimes it would seem to be implied that there was a lawless irresponsibility in the early craftsman1 incompatible with modern conditions4 ,true spontaneity1 however1 seems to come from working by rule1 but not being bound by it4 ,for example1 the old ,herbal from which figs4 #ace to #ada are taken contains many woodcuts of plants1 c41 devoting a complete page to each4 ,when a long explanation of a cut is required1 a smaller type is used 7comp4 figs4 #ace #ach72 when p#cgj the explanation is very short1 it does not fill the page4 ,this is a free and natural treatment of the greatest convenience to the reader1 for illustration and text are always in juxtaposition4 ,and though the size of the type and the amount of the text are varied1 yet the uniform top margins1 and the uniform treatment and arrangement of the woodcuts1 harmonise the pages1 and give to the whole book an agreeable effect of freedom combined with method4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bjb4 ,diagram shewing arrangement of pages 7about #a_/g size74 ,note3 ,inner columns of ,commentary narrow 7,text cols equal7 ,an old way of treating a text and its commentary is indicated by the diagram 7fig4 #bjb74 ,the text is printed in large type1 the commentary1 in smaller type1 surrounds it2 such portion of the text being printed on each page as will allow sufficient surrounding space for the accompanying p#cga commentary on that portion4 ,the proportions and treatment of every page are uniform 7note1 particularly1 the uniformity of the upper parts of the pages1 five lines of commentary being allowed to enclose the text1 or bound it above1 on every page7 with the exception that the height of the text-column varies--one page having as few as three lines of text to the column1 another having fifty-nine lines4 ,this free treatment of the text gives a charming variety to the pages4 ,poetry4--,a broader and freer treatment is desirable in the printing of poetry4 ,the original lines and the arrangement of the verses should be more generally preserved4 ,and though the opening lines of a poem may sometimes be magnified by printing them in capitals--which necessitate their division--to sacrifice the naturally varying line to the 8even page0 is questionable1 and to destroy the form of a poem in order to compress it is a 8typographical impertinence0 7see p4 #ie74 f,,decoration ,,of ,,print ,,much ,,may ,,be ,,done ,,by ,,arranging ,,important ,,text ,,in 8,,its ,,own0 ,,capitals2 ,,or ,,by ,,the ,,occasional ,,use ,,of ,,extra ,,large ,,capitals4_/f ,for special letters or ornaments1 woodcuts are best 7see p4 #cfd74 ,the early printers generally had little1 simple blocks of ornamental devices which might be used separately1 or be built up into a frame border for a whole page--a simple method and effective1 if used reasonably4 p#cgb ,the judicious use of colour1 especially of red 7see pp4 #abg1 #add71 is very effective4 ,the extra printings required for additional colours may make it worth while 7in the case of limited editions7 to put in simple initials1 paragraph marks1 notes1 c41 by hand 7see pp4 #aid1 #aac74 ,the earliest printed books1 being modelled on the ,,ms4 books1 employed such rubrication freely1 in spaces specially left in the text or in the margins4 ,there are still great possibilities in the hand decoration of printed books4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the following note on printing1 reproduced here by the permission of ,mr4 ,emery ,walker1 appeared in the ,introductory ,notes of the ,catalogue of the first exhibition of ,the ,arts and ,crafts ,exhibition ,society1 in #ahhh4 8,,printing 8,printing1 in the only sense with which we are at present concerned1 differs from most if not from all the arts and crafts represented in the ,exhibition in being comparatively modern4 ,for although the ,chinese took impressions from wood blocks engraved in relief for centuries before the wood-cutters of the ,netherlands1 by a similar process1 produced the block books1 which were the immediate predecessors of the true printed book1 the invention of movable metal letters in the middle of the fifteenth century may justly be considered as the invention of the art of printing4 ,and it is worth mention in passing that1 as an example of fine typography1 the earliest dated#aae book1 the ,gutenberg ,bible of #adee1 has never p#cgc been surpassed4 ,printing1 then1 for our purpose1 may be considered as the art of making books by means of movable types4 ,now1 as all books not primarily intended as picture-books consist principally of types composed to form letterpress1 it is of the first importance that the letter used should be fine in form2 especially1 as no more time is occupied1 or cost incurred1 in casting1 setting1 or printing beautiful letters1 than in the same operations with ugly ones4 ,so we find the fifteenth and early sixteenth century printers1 who were generally their own type-founders1 gave great attention to the forms of their types4 ,the designers of the letters used in the earliest books were probably the scribes whose manuscripts the fifteenth-century printed books so much resemble4 ,aldus of ,venice employed ,francesco ,francia of ,bologna1 goldsmith and painter1 to cut the punches for his celebrated italic letter4 ,froben1 the great ,basle printer1 got ,holbein to design ornaments for his press1 and it is not unreasonable to suppose that the painter may have drawn the models for the noble ,roman types we find in ,froben's books4 ,with the decadence in handwriting which became marked in the sixteenth century1 a corresponding change took place in the types2 the designers1 no longer having beautiful writing as a model and reference1 introduced variations arbitrarily4 ,the types of the ,elzevirs are regular and neat1 and in this respect modern1 but they altogether lack the spirit and originality that distinguish the early ,roman founts of ,italy and ,germany3 ,gothic characteristics inherited from their medival predecessors4 ,in the seventeenth century type-founding began to be carried on as a craft apart from that of the printer1 and although in this and the succeeding century many attempts were made to improve the 8face0 7as the printing surface of type is called71 such examples as a rule reflect only too clearly the growing debasement of the crafts of design4 ,notable among these attempts were the founts cut by ,william ,caslon1 who started in business in ,london as a letter-founder in #agbj1 taking for his models the ,elzevir p#cgd types4 ,from this time until the end of the century he and his successors turned out many founts relatively admirable4 ,but at the end of the eighteenth century a revolution was made1 and the founders entirely abandoned the traditional forms of their predecessors1 and evolved the tasteless letters with which nearly all the books published during the first sixty years of the present century are printed1 and which are still almost universally used for newspapers and for ,government publications4 ,particularly objectionable forms are in everyday use in all continental countries requiring ,roman letter4 7,the last two sentences are set in a type of this character47 8,in #ahdd the ,chiswick ,press printed for ,messrs4 ,longmans #8,the ,diary of ,lady ,willoughby1' and revived for this purpose one of ,caslon's founts4 ,this was an important step in the right direction1 and its success induced ,messrs4 ,miller ,richard of ,edinburgh to engrave a series of #8old style' founts1 with one of which this catalogue is printed4 ,most other type-founders now cast similar type1 and without doubt if their customers1 the printers1 demanded it1 they would expend some of the energy and talent which now goes in cutting ,japanese-,american and sham seventeenth-century monstrosities in endeavouring to produce once more the restrained and beautiful forms of the early printers1 until the day when the current handwriting may be elegant enough to be again used as a model for the type-punch engraver4 8,next in importance to the type are the ornaments1 initial letters1 and other decorations which can be printed along with it4 ,these1 it is obvious1 should always be designed and engraved so as to harmonise with the printed page regarded as a whole4 ,hence1 illustrations drawn only with reference to purely pictorial effects are entirely out of place in a book1 that is1 if we desire seriously to make it beautiful4 ,,emery ,,walker40 p#cge ,,inscriptions ,,on ,,metal1 ,,stone1 ,,wood1 ,c4 ,as the material naturally modifies the shapes of the letters cut or formed on its surface1 and as the object bearing the inscription affects their arrangement1 it is essential that the inscription cutter make himself familiar with various stones1 metals1 woods1 c41 with the various chisels and gravers which are properly employed on them1 and with fine inscriptions or examples of good pieces of lettering 7see pp4 #chh1 #bcg74 ,a knowledge of penmanship will be found useful1 and the pen may be appealed to to decide questions of abstract form in regard to letters which have come from pen forms 7e4g4 ,roman ,small-,letters1 ,italics1 c474 ,and in this connection it may be noted again that the 8slanted-pen forms0 7pp4 #cje1 #dc7 are generally the most practical4 ,engraving on ,metal4--,letters incised in metal may most nearly approach pen forms1 as the fine grain of the metal and the comparatively small scale of the work allow of fine 8thin strokes40 ,the engraver1 however1 while following generally the 8thicks0 and 8thins0 of the penman1 allows the metal and the tool and1 to a large extent1 his own hand1 to decide and characterise the precise forms and their proportions4 ,inscriptions in ,stone 7see ,chap4 ,,xvii41 ,plates ,i41 ,,ii41 and ,,xxiv41 and pp4 #bib1 #cf74--,the grain of stone does not generally allow of very fine thin strokes1 and the 8thicks0 and 8thins0 therefore tend to differ much less than in pen-work4 ,their origin1 moreover1 is much less easily traced to the tool--i4e4 the chisel--and the difference was less in the p#cgf early inscriptions 7see ,plate ,,ii47 than we are now accustomed to 7see ,plate ,,xxiv473 perhaps it may be explained as a fashion set by penmanship 7see p4 #bda74 ,inscriptions on ,wood are frequently in relief 7see raised letters1 p4 #cgg71 matching the carved ornament4 ,incised letters may be painted or gilded to make them show more clearly4 ,sign-,writing and ,brush-,work4--,inscriptions1 such as shop signs1 notices1 c41 painted on wood or stone1 require--besides a practical knowledge of materials--a considerable facility with the brush or 8pencil40 ,directness and freedom of workmanship are most desirable4#aaf ,a suitable brush will make letters closely resembling pen letters4 ,but the pen automatically makes letters with a uniform precision1 which it is neither desirable nor possible for the brush to imitate3 and greater skill is required to control the brush1 which in the hand of a good 8,writer0 will be permitted to give its own distinct character to the lettering 7see also p4 #bib1 and fig4 #afd74 ,the brush is properly used for temporary inscriptions1 especially on the surface of painted wood or stone1 but1 for more important work1 incising or carving 7painted if desired7 are to be preferred as p#cgg being more permanent#aag and preserving the original form#aah of the lettering4 ,,of ,,inscriptions ,,generally 7,see also ,chapter ,,xiv4 and pp4 #cej-cec7 ,alphabets4--,for practical purposes the best letters are the ,roman ,capitals1 ,roman ,small-,letters1 and ,italics4 ,these are susceptible of very decorative treatment without loss of legibility4 ,and there are many varieties of the pure ,roman ,capital 7see figs4 #bjc-bjg71 besides the 8,gothicised0 ,roman and the simple 8,gothic0 ,capitals1 which are all essentially readable4 ,different ,sizes of ,capitals in inscriptions in wood1 stone1 metal1 c41 are generally kept approximately equal in 8weight0 7see p4 #cbh74 ,note4--,a downward decrease in height of the letters is common in early inscriptions 7p4 #daj74 ,incising is generally the most simple1 and therefore the most natural1 method for making an ordinary inscription4 ,the letters should be large rather than small1 and be deeply cut4 ,note1 however1 an incised stamp or die produces an impression in relief on clay1 c4 ,this may be seen in the lettering on ,roman pottery4 ,raised ,letters4--,from the earliest times letters in relief 7or litter prominentes7 have been used for special purposes4 ,they are generally rather more legible than the incised letters1 and the difference between 8thicks0 and 8thins0 tends to disappear4 p#cgh ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bjc4--;,hbner's ,exempla1 ,no4 #ahg 7#a_/d scale of inscription71 8,rustic ,capitals0 7see p4 #big7 between ,a4,d4 #ad-cg4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bjd4--;,hbner's ,exempla1 ,no4 #chd 7one-fifth scale of inscription74 #ast or #bnd ,century1 ,a4,d4 ,illustraton3 ,fig4 #bje4--;,hbner's ,exempla1 ,no4 #ajhd 7one-fourth scale of inscription74 #bnd ,century1 ,a4,d4 ,illlustration3 ,fig4 #bjf4--7,two portions7 ,from a ,rubbing of a ,florentine marble dated ,,mcccclxvii41 slightly reduced 7scale twelve-thirteenths74 ,note the interlinear spaces are #a-c_/d inch4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bjg4--;,from a ,rubbing of a ,slate at ,rye1 dated #afee 7see p4 #cfc74 ,exact size4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bjh4--;,from a ,rubbing of a ,stone at ,oxford 7by ,a4 ,e4 ,r4 ,gill1 #aije74 ,reduced1 two-thirds scale4 p#chd ,it is quite possible to make a beautiful and characteristic alphabet of equal-stroke letters1 on the lines of the so-called 8,block ,letter0 but properly proportioned and finished 7such letters may be ,raised1 or ,incised or ,painted3 see incised form1 p4 #cia74 ,raised letters1 if exposed to wear or damage1 may be protected by being on a sunk panel or having a raised frame or ornament4 ,the background also may be left in raised strips flush with the letters1 between the lines of the inscription4 ,punctuation4--,in early inscriptions the words were separated by points2 in the more ancient they are square shaped 1 1 1 in the more elaborate1 triangular 1 1 1 sometimes with curved-in sides 7,plate ,i474 ,these developed later into the ivy leaf 1 or 8heder distinguentes40 ,such points may be used occasionally in modern work with fine effect1 but should seldom be used between every word1 unless the words are necessarily so close that distinguishing marks are required4 ,phrasing and ,arrangement4--,an inscription may be arranged in sentences or phrases1 and occasionally1 by the use of larger letters1 greater prominence is given to a word or phrase 7see figs4 #aig1 #bjd1 #baa74 ,this method is particularly adapted to the nature of a set inscription 7p4 #bfd71 and may help both its readableness and its appearance1 but it must be borne in mind that to lay stress on any one statement or word may pervert its meaning or attract too much attention to it4 ,any confusion of sense1 or accidental word 7p4 #bei7 or phrase1 appearing in the setting-out is p#che avoided1 if possible1 by a slight rearrangement of the part1 or1 if necessary1 of the whole inscription4 ,great care is taken that the spelling is accurate3 a pocket dictionary should be carried4 ,reading is further facilitated by avoiding1 where possible1 the dividing of words at the ends of lines4 ,it may be observed that in the more ancient inscriptions words were generally kept entire4 ,exercises in letter form and arrangement1 more profitable than mere paper 8designing10 might be devised by the craftsman4 ,inscriptions might be cut--on a small scale--in gesso or chalk1 or inscriptions might be variously spaced and arranged on a properly coloured surface--such as a drawing-board covered with light or dark cloth--in letters cut out of sheet-lead or card4 ,,bibliography1 ,c4 ,the few books and pamphlets given below are generally1 of recent date1 practical1 and inexpensive4 ,the prices quoted are1 ,i believe1 those at which the books are generally sold 7not necessarily their published prices74 ,they are all illustrated1 except ,nos4 99#i1 #aj1 #aa1 and #ai4 ,,writing1 c4 7,see also ,nos4 #h1 #ab1 #ad1 #ai1 #bh1 #bi1 and #ca47 #a4 ,the ,story of the ,alphabet3 ,edward ,clodd1 #aijj4 #i;d4 #b4 ,greek and ,latin ,palography3 ,edward ,maunde ,thompson4 #cs4 #i;d4 7,the extracts in these pp4 #cf1 #da1 #daf1 c41 are from the #bnd edition1 #ahid47 #c4 ,the ,journal of the ,society of ,arts1 ,no4 #bgbf1 ,feb4 #ag1 #aije2 ,papers on p#chf ,calligraphy and ,illumination3 ,edward ,johnston and ,graily ,hewitt4 #f;d4 #d4 ,fac-simils de ,manuscrits ,grecs1 ,latins et ,franais du ,ve au ,,xive ,sicle exposs dans la ,galerie ,mazarine3 ,bibliothque ,nationale ,dpartement des ,manuscrits4 #es4 #e4 8,a ,guide to the ,manuscripts0 in the ,british ,museum1 #aijf 7#cj plates74 #f;d4 #f4 ,bible ,illustrations3 ,oxford ,university ,press1 #ahif4 ,about #bs4 ,,illumination1 c4 7,see also ,nos4 #c1 #d1 #e1 #ab1 #ad1 #bi1 and #ca47 #g4 ,illuminated ,letters and ,borders3 ,john ,w4 ,bradley1 #aija 7#ai plates74 7,price at ,south ,kensington ,museum7 #as4 #h;d4 #h4 ,english ,illuminated ,manuscripts3 ,sir ,e4 ,m4 ,thompson1 #ahie4 7,now out of print47 99#i4 ,the ,journal of the ,society of ,arts1 ,no4 #bcfh1 ,april #h1 #ahih2 a ,paper on ,english ,art in ,illuminated ,manuscripts3 ,sir ,e4 ,m4 ,thompson4 #f;d4 99#aj4 ,the ,book of the ,art of ,cennino ,cennini 7a contemporary practical treatise on #adth-century ,italian painting73 ,translated by ,christiana ,j4 ,herringham1 #ahii4 #fs4 99#aa4 ,some ,hints on ,pattern ,designing3 7lecture1 #ahha71 ,william ,morris1 #ahii4 #bs4 #f;d4 7#aa;a4 8,books for the ,bairns4--,no4 #ej10 contains #ee reproductions of ,bewick's ,birds4 #a;d47 ,,books--,,manuscript ,,printing4 7,see also ,nos4 #b to #i1 and #bi and #ca47 #ab4 ,books in ,manuscript3 ,falconer ,madan1 #ahic4 #fs4 7,frontispiece drawn from this by permission47 #ac4 ,the ,story of ,books3 ,gertrude ,burford ,rawlings1 #aija4 #i;d4 p#chg #ad4 ,the ,old ,service-,books of the ,english ,church3 ,christopher ,wordsworth and ,henry ,littlehales1 #aijd4 #gs4 #f;d4 #ae4 ,early ,illustrated ,books3 ,alfred ,w4 ,pollard1 #ahic4 #fs4 #af4 ,facsimiles in colour from ,early ,printed ,books in the ,british ,museum1 #ahig4 #gs4 #f;d4 #ag4 ,a ,guide to the ,exhibition in the ,king's ,library 7illustrating the ,history of ,printing1 ,music ,printing1 and ,bookbinding73 ,british ,museum1 #aija 7#cf illustrations74 #f;d4 #ah4 8,arts and ,crafts ,essays by ,members of the ,arts and ,crafts ,exhibition ,society0--,printing3 ,william ,morris and ,emery ,walker--7#ast pub4 #ahic71 #ahii4 #bs4 #f;d4 99#ai4 8,ecce ,mundus10 containing ,the ,book ,beautiful3 ,t4 ,j4 ,cobden-,sanderson1 #aijb4 #bs4 #f;d4 #bj4 ,printing 7a technological handbook73 ,charles ,thomas ,jacobi1 #ahih4 #cs4 #i;d4 #ba4 ,bookbinding and the ,care of ,books 7,the ,artistic ,crafts ,series of ,technical ,handbooks71 #aija3 ,douglas ,cockerell4 #es4 #bb4 ,a ,note on ,bookbinding3 ,douglas ,cockerell1 #aijd4 #a;d4 ,,heraldry1 ,,symbolism1 c4 7,see also ,nos4 #a1 #ab1 #ae1 #bi1 and #ca47 #bc4 ,the ,journal of the ,society of ,arts1 ,no4 #bcji1 ,feb4 #ai1 #ahig2 ,a ,paper on ,the ,artistic ,treatment of ,heraldry3 by ,w4 ,h4 ,st4 ,john ,hope4 #f;d4 #bd4 ,english ,heraldry3 ,charles ,boutell1 #ahfg4 #fth ed4 #ahii1 about #cs4 #i;d4 #be4 ,the ,stall ,plates of the ,knights of the ,garter1 #acdh-adhe3 ,w4 ,h4 ,st4 ,john ,hope 7#ij coloured plates1 ,imp4 #hvo74 ,about #c4 p#chh #bf4 ,didron's ,christian ,iconography 7or the ,history of ,christian ,art in the ,middle ,ages73 #b vols4 #cs4 #i;d4 7each74 ,,lettering1 c4 7,see also ,nos4 #a to #h1 and #ab to #bj47 #bg4 ,lettering in ,ornament3 ,lewis ,f4 ,day1 #aijb4 #es4 #bh4 ,alphabets3 ,edward ,f4 ,strange 7#ast ed4 #ahie74 #dth ed41 #cs4 #i;d4 #bi4 ,the ,palographical ,society's ,publications 7out of print71 containing hundreds of facsimiles 7chiefly of ,,mss471 are of great interest4 ,they may of course be seen in the ,british ,museum ,library4 ,the ,new ,palographical ,society publishes a selection of facsimiles annually4 #cj4 ,hbner's ,exempla ,scripturae ,epigraphicae ,latinae a ,caesaris dictatoris morte ad aetatem ,justiniani 7,berlin1 #ahhe1 price #dfs47 contains many fine outline drawings of ancient ,roman inscriptions 7see figs4 #bjc-e74 ,it is kept with the books of reference in the ,reading ,room at the ,british ,museum4 #ca4 ,photographs of fine pieces of lettering may be obtained at the ,book ,stall in ,south ,kensington ,museum 7see footnote1 p4 #dji74 ,original ,,mss4 or ,inscriptions--from which we can learn much more than from photographs or drawings--may be found in most parts of the country1 and in ,london especially in the ,british ,museum1 ,south ,kensington ,museum 7see p4 #cia71 the ,record ,office 7,rolls ,chapel1 see p4 #aa71 and ,westminster ,abbey 7,,mss4 in the ,chapter-,house74 ,,footnotes ,,to ,,appendix ,a3 #ij p4 #bbd1 ,j4 ,c4 ,egbert's 8,introduction to the ,study of ,latin ,inscriptions10--#ahif4 #ia ,if there is sufficient room left on the terminal page for a clearly marked beginning 7such as a decorative initial71 the next chapter may begin there1 and so fill the page--but generally there is no objection to leaving blank what the text has failed to fill4 #ib ,the line need not always be filled by the writing 7p4 #dbe74 #ic ,it would not be necessary for the first page of a chapter to have the ordinary dropped head and blank upper space if a fine initial or decorative heading were used to mark it4 #id ,some of the books engraved by ,william ,blake suggest possibilities of such un-conventional treatment1 both of writing and 8illumination0 7see also p4 #ba74 #ie ,the distinction in the ,prayer ,book between 8,amen0 and 8,amen0--used as a response--is best marked by the sign 7for ,responsum7 in red1 placed before the latter1 as3 ,amen 7see pp4 #add1 #be74 #if ,figs4 #aie and #aif are from ,mr4 ,cockerell's 8,bookbinding and the ,care of ,books10 in this ,series4 #ig ,these form the fly-leaves 7p4 #aaa74 #ih ,thread should be unbleached4 ,silk of the best quality is better than thread4 #ii ,forrel may be used as a cheap substitute for vellum4 #ajj 8,squares0 8the portion of the boards projecting beyond the edges of the book40 #aja 8,foredge0 87fore edge7 the front edge of the leaves40 #ajb ,a good1 rather dark green ribbon looks well--such as that known as 8,church lace10 used for the 8tyers0 in some of the ,kelmscott books4 ,very good ribbons may be obtained from a bookbinder1 at #f;d4 to #as4 #f;d4 a yard4 #ajc ,e4g4 all ordinary written and printed matter intended to be read at a short distance 7see pp4 #ajc-ajf74 #ajd ,as much as two-thirds1 or more1 of the whole space4 #aje ,the addressee's taste and convenience ought to be considered3 e4g4 to one the framed inscription might be an embarrassment1 while by another it might be preferred4 #ajf ,to be given to the person in charge of the address4 #ajg ,the original intention of this fold1 in deeds1 was to provide for the attachment of the seal1 and1 perhaps1 to prevent any addition being made4 ,if the folded part be fairly wide1 say1 #c_/d to #a inch1 little or no foot margin need be allowed4 #ajh ,e4g4 to keep to #a_/b inch writing-line spaces 7except for extra small addresses1 or small books74 ,this being approximately the right space for ordinary ,,signatures1 results in further simplification of ruling and arrangement4 #aji ,in the common form 1 the letters 7see ,plate ,,vi47 are now barely traceable4 #aaj ,other particulars may be put in the colophon 7p4 #adb74 #aaa ,the use of 8rules10 though quite legitimate1 will be found misleading if it be depended on to 8doctor0 and 8pull together0 any weak arrangement of lettering4 #aab ,more1 ,sir ,thomas3 8,utopia1 et ,mori et ,erasmi ,epigrammata03 #dto1 ,froben1 ,basle1 #aeah4 ,woodcut borders and ,title pages by ,holbein4 7,the reproduction is from the title page to the ,epigrams47 ,note4--,the exceptionally fine type of capitals 7see p4 #cgc7 here shown is used throughout the book for headings1 c4 #aac ,doubtful1 because1 unless unusual care be taken1 its delicate quality may be lost in the process1 and also because of the type-like impress of the block on the paper4 #aad 8,ecce ,mundus 7,the ,book ,beautiful710 #aijb4 #aae ,it was dated #adef by a rubricator1 not by the printer4--,e4,w4 #aaf ,this is recognised in the ,sign-writing profession1 where1 ,i understand1 an applicant for work is sometimes given a blackboard or a piece of ,american cloth1 on which he writes out a short inscription in 8sharp white40 ,it is not necessary to watch the writer2 good1 direct workmanship shows itself1 and also every hesitating stroke or fault1 every patch or 8touching-up0 or 8going over10 is made evident4 #aag ,brush lettering may be used very effectively on ,tiles and ,china1 c4 7see p4 #cci71 when it is of course rendered permanent by baking4 #aah ,the original form of a painted inscription 7not carved7 is inevitably spoilt by re-painting4 p#chi ,,appendix ,b ,,chapter ,,xvii ,,inscriptions ,,in ,,stone 7,by ,a4 ,e4 ,r4 ,gill7 ,treatment ,arrangement -- ,the ,three ,alphabets -- ,size ,spacing -- ,the ,material -- ,setting ,out -- ,tools -- ,a ,right ,use of the ,chisel -- ,incised ,letters ,letters in ,relief -- ,the ,sections of ,letters -- ,working in situ4 ,,treatment ,,arrangement ,treatment4--,inscriptions are carved in stone for many uses3 for ,foundation ,stones and ,public ,inscriptions1 for ,tombstones and ,memorial ,inscriptions1 for ,mottos and ,texts1 for ,names and ,advertisements1 and each subject suggests its own treatment4 ,names and ,advertisements should be easily read1 and usually entirely unornamental4 ,the ,treatment of ,texts1 ,memorial ,inscriptions1 ,foundation ,stones1 c41 may1 according to the needs of the case or the opportunities of the carver1 be either simple or elaborate4 ,colour and ,gold may be used both for the beauty of them and1 in places where there is little light1 to increase legibility4 ,arrangement4--,there are two methods of arranging ,inscriptions3 the 8,massed0 and the p#cij 8,symmetrical40 ,in the former the lines are very close together1 and approximately equal in length1 and form a mass4 ,absolute equality is quite unnecessary4 ,where the lines are very long it is easy to make them equal2 but with lines of few words it is very difficult1 besides being derogatory to the appearance of the ,inscription4 ,in the 8,symmetrical0 ,inscription the length of the lines may vary considerably1 and each line 7often comprising a distinct phrase or statement7 is placed in the centre of the ,inscription space4 ,short ,inscriptions1such as those usually on ,tombstones or ,foundation ,stones1 may well be arranged in the 8,symmetrical0 way1 but long ,inscriptions are better arranged in the 8,massed0 way1 though1 sometimes1 the two methods may be combined in the same ,inscription4 ,,the ,,three ,,alphabets ,the ,roman ,alphabet1 the alphabet chiefly in use to-day1 reached its highest development in ,inscriptions incised in stone 7see ,plate ,i471 and it became absolutely suited to the material4 ,besides ,,roman ,,capitals1 it is necessary that the letter-cutter should know how to carve ,roman small-letters#aai 7or 8,lower case07 and ,italics1 either of which may be more suitable than ,capitals for some ,inscriptions4 ,where great magnificence combined with great legibility#abj is required1 use large ,roman ,capitals1 p#cia ,incised or in ,relief1 with plenty of space between the letters and the lines4 ,where great legibility but less magnificence is required1 use 8,roman ,small-,letters0 or 8,italics10 or ,roman ,capitals1 either small1 or close together1 or both4 ,all three ,alphabets may be used together1 as1 for instance1 on a ,tombstone1 one might carve the ,name in ,capitals and the rest of the ,inscription in ,small-,letters1 using ,italics for difference4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bji4 ,beauty of ,form may safely be left to a right use of the chisel1 combined with a well-advised study of the best examples of ,inscriptions3 such as that on the ,trajan ,column 7see ,plates ,i41 ,,ii47 and other ,roman ,inscriptions in the ,south ,kensington and ,british ,museums1 for ,roman ,,capitals2 and sixteenth and seventeenth century tombstones1 for ,roman small-letters and ,italics4#aba ,if the simple p#cib elementary form of the letter be cut firmly and directly1 it will be found that the chisel will suggest how that form may be made beautiful4 ,this may be shown1 for example1 by an attempt to carve a quite simple ,incised letter with no ,serifs and with all the strokes equally thick4 ,in making the ends of the strokes nice and clean it will be found that there is a tendency to spread them into ,serifs1 and the letter is at once1 in some sort1 beautified 7see fig4 #bji74 ,,size ,,spacing ,drawing out4--,take paper and pencil1 or what you will1 and write out the words of the ,inscription in ,capitals1 or small-letters 7or both71 without any regard to scale or the shape of the space the ,inscription is to go in4 ,the carver will then see easily of what letters and words his ,inscription is composed4 ,next draw the shape of the ,inscription space 7say to #a inch or #a-a_/b inch scale71 and in that space set out the ,inscription1 either 8,massed0 or 8,symmetrical10 as has been decided4 ,the drawing should be neither scribbled nor elaborated4 ,a good plan is to cut the lead of the pencil to a chisel shape4 ,the natural thicks and thins of the letters 7see p4 #dd7 may then be produced easily and quickly4 ,the carver will thus be able1 after a little experience1 to calculate quite easily what size he will be able to carve his letters1 what space he will be able to leave between the lines1 and what margins he can afford4#abb p#cic ,the ,size of ,lettering depends on where it is to go 7i4e4 outdoors or indoors1 far away or near71 the material to be used1 and the space at the carver's disposal4 ,out of ,doors letters should not1 as a rule1 be less than #a-a_/d inch high1 more if possible4#abc ,indoors smaller lettering may be carved1 but even then #a inch is quite small enough1 and that only in marble1 slate1 or the finest stones4 ,in such stones as ,ancaster or ,ham-,hill it is not possible to carve good letters less than #c inches high4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #baj4 ,more than one size of letter may be used in the same ,inscription to give emphasis to certain words1 thus3 on a ,foundation ,stone the ,date 7see fig4 #baj71 p#cid and on a ,tombstone the ,name 7see fig4 #baa71 may be made larger than the rest4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #baa4 ,spacing4--,proper spacing is essential to a good ,inscription4 ,as a general rule1 ,roman letters should not be crowded together4 ,space should be left between each1 varying according to the letters--a narrower space between two ,o's1 for example1 and1 generally1 a wider space between two straight letters4 ,the lines may be about the height of the lettering apart 7see ,plate ,i47 or pretty close together 7see ,plate ,,xxiv474 ,margins4--,if the ,inscription is to be carved in a panel1 the surrounding mouldings take the place of margins1 and the lettering may fill the panel 7see fig4 #baa74 ,if any space be left1 let it come1 as it p#cie naturally will1 at the bottom4 ,if the lettering is not to be in a panel1 the margins depend primarily on what the carver can afford1 and where the ,inscription is to go4 ,every case must be treated on its own merits1 but as a general rule one may say that the bottom margin should be the widest and the top margin the narrowest4 ,,the ,,material ,the best quality a stone can have1 from a letter-cutter's point of view1 is fineness or closeness of texture1 combined with freedom from holes and flints or occasional shells1 and the letter-cutter will do well to choose the stone himself1 if possible1 having regard to this quality4 ,the following is a list of a few of the best stones for outdoor and indoor use3-- ,outdoors or ,indoors4 ,portland4--,especially good for lettering on account of its fineness and its excellent weathering qualities1 for it not only hardens on the surface1 but also becomes quite white if exposed to wind and rain1 thus showing very clearly any differences of light and shade4 ,hoptonwood ,slate ,fine and hard3 good weathering qualities4 ,great delicacy may be attained in these4 ,ancaster ,ham-,hill ,ketton ,only suitable for large lettering4 ,indoors only4 ,clunch ,chalk ,very fine and delicate work may be done in these4 ,bath4--,a cheap stone1 and easily carved2 but unsuitable for small lettering4 ,marbles and ,alabasters4--,excellent for ,inscriptions indoors1 but much colour or veining tends to confuse lettering4 p#cif ,,setting ,,out ,the stone being ready for the setting out1 i4e4 smoothed and cleaned1 lines are ruled on it for the lines of lettering and margins with a pencil or point4 ,if the ,inscription is to be arranged 8,symmetrically10 a centre line is ruled from top to bottom4 ,the carver should rule and set out one line and carve that before ruling another1 as pencil marks are liable to be rubbed off by the hand in carving4#abd ,in 8,setting ,out10 the spacing of the letters is thought of rather than their forms4 ,and though the beginner may find careful drawing helpful1 the forms which may best be produced with the chisel are found only by practice and experience 7p4 #cii74 ,,tools ,the chisels needed for simple work are flat chisels of the following sizes3-- #a_/af inch1 #a_/d inch1 #c_/h inch1 #a_/b inch1 #a inch4 ,the shanks should be about #g inches long4 ,it will be found useful to keep a few 8,bull-nosed0 chisels 7see #g1 fig4 #bab7 for use in cutting curves1 and a few 8skewed0 chisels 7#h1 fig4 #bab7 for use in cutting the background of ,raised letters1 as a chisel of that shape is more easily used in a corner4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bab4 ,the chisels are either ,hammer-headed or ,mallet-headed1 or they may have wooden handles p#cig 7see fig4 #bab1 and pp4 #dja-b74 ,the ,hammer-headed are the most used1 and a good number should be procured4 ,the best are made with cupped ends1 to prevent them from slipping on the hammer 7see #e1 fig4 #bab74 p#cih ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bac4 ,temper and ,sharpness4--,above all things the chisels must be of the right temper1 and sharp4#abe ,they may be tempered by a smith or tool-maker--if the craftsman can do it for himself1 so much the p#cii better4 ,they are sharpened on a piece of ,grit-stone 7hard ,york stone1 for instance7 with water4 ,the ,temper of a chisel may be seen by the colour 7blue shows a soft or low-temper1 straw colour a hard or high temper71 and felt by the way it rubs on the ,grit-stone 7a hard tool will slide easily over the stone1 while a soft one will seem to stick or cling74#abf ,mallets4--,a wooden mallet or ,mell1 a ,zinc mallet or ,dummy1 and an iron or steel hammer are required 7fig4 #bac74 ,the ,mell is made wholly of wood1 and should1 for letter cutting1 be about #e-a_/b inches in diameter4 ,the ,dummy has a head of zinc and a wooden handle4 ,it should be about #b-a_/b inches in diameter4 ,the hammer should be about the same size and weight as the ,dummy4 ,a ,,right ,,use ,,of ,,the ,,chisel ,the workman must find out1 for himself1 how best to use his tools4 ,in the ordinary way1 it is best to hold the chisel at an angle of about #de with the surface of the stone--in the manner shown in fig4 #bad--;in cutting both straight stems and curves4 ,the chisel is held firmly 7usually in the left hand1 with the little finger about an inch from the cutting end of the chisel7 and tapped rather than banged1 and lightly rather than heavily4 ,the best way to cut a letter is to start at the extreme left-hand point of the bottom ,serif1 and1 working upwards1 to cut the left side of the stroke first4 ,then start similarly at the extreme right-hand point of the bottom ,serif1 and cut the right side of the stroke4 ,then finish the ,serifs4 p#djj ,when cutting a curve1 cut the inside first 7fig4 #bad71 and start as near the narrowest part of the curve as possible4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bad4 ,in ,incised letters unnecessary junctions of the parts may be avoided 7see fig4 #bae74 ,where they are necessary1 as in a capital ,e1 or in a small y1 cut p#dja away from the junction or down on to it1 rather than towards it4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bae4 ,the ,mallet-headed and wooden-handled chisels are used with the ,mell for large work and for cutting surfaces4 p#djb ,the ,hammer-headed chisels are used with the hammer for ordinary work1 and with the ,dummy for small and delicate work4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #baf4 ,a ,mallet or ,dummy is not used in carving chalk1 but the chisel is pushed2 the right hand doing the pushing1 and the left hand guiding and steadying the chisel 7see fig4 #baf74 ,if the chisel p#djc were struck1 the surface of the chalk would flake off4 ,in cutting an ,incised ,inscription with the ordinary 8,v0 section 7see fig4 #bag71 use one size of chisel throughout4 ,the width of the chisel should generally be about the width of the letter stem required4 ,more elaborate sections necessitate the use of several sizes of chisels4 ,,incised ,,letters ,,letters ,,in ,,relief ,inscriptions may be ,incised or in ,relief1 that is1 sunk or raised4#abg ,the modus operandi and the time spent in carving the actual letters are the same in either case1 but whereas when the ,incised letter is carved there is nothing more to be done1 after the carving of the ,raised letter there is still the stone surrounding it 7i4e4 the background7 to be dealt with1 and this may simply be carved smooth1#abh or1 if our imagination be strong enough1 and our hand have the cunning1 it may become under the tool a field of roses and lilies in which the letters are set4 ,other things being equal1 it becomes a question of economy which form of lettering one will carve1 as the necessity of dealing with the background of a ,raised ,inscription1 while more than doubling the opportunities of the carver1 at least doubles the time spent in carving4 ,raised lettering will show out more clearly than ,incised lettering where there is little light4 p#djd ,roman ,capitals are more adapted for carving in ,relief than are ,roman small-letters or ,italics1 which are directly derived from the pen4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bag4 ,raised lettering is more allied to ordinary carving1 while ,incised lettering may be thought of as writing in stone4 p#dje ,,the ,,sections ,,of ,,letters ,for ,incised letters1 a 8,v0 section 7#a1 fig4 #bag7 of about #fj is best for regular use2 deeper rather than shallower4 ,the letters may with advantage be cut a little deeper towards the ,serifs 7see fig4 #bah74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bah4 ,although the simple 8,v0 section is the most useful1 other sections may be used for large letters 7i4e4 letters more than #f inches high71 or letters in a very fine material 7#b #c1 fig4 #bag74 ,if the lettering is to be gilded1 and the stone will permit of it1 ,section #d 7fig4 #bag7 is a good one to use4 ,only the curved part is to be ,gilded1 and not the small bevelled sides4 ,for ,raised letters1 the best and most useful section is ,no4 #e2 the slightly bevelled sides tell as part of the letter4 ,experience1 and the weathering conditions1 will suggest the amount of ,relief to be given4 ,for letters #a-a_/b inch high1 out of doors1 #c_/af inch of relief is ample1 and if there be good light #a_/h inch is enough4 ,excessive relief looks clumsy4 ,sections ,nos4 #f and #g are suitable only for large letters2 and elaborate sections should as a rule be used only for letters standing alone4 ,,working ,,in ,,situ ,if possible the carver should work in situ4 ,when that is impracticable1#abi he should consider most carefully where his ,inscription is to go4 p#djf ,in an ,inscription which is much above the eye level1 the letters may be narrower in proportion to their height1 and the horizontal strokes extra thick to allow for foreshortening4 7,see also pp4 #cea1 #bgj47 ,the advantages of working in situ are great1 for by so doing the carver sees his job as he works under the same conditions of light and environment that it will finally be seen under1 and the work is more likely to become a part of the place because it has grown there4 ,and it is good to carve an ,inscription on the actual wall of a fine building1 and better still to work in the inspiriting atmosphere of building in progress1 or to work in the open air where the artificial notions of workshop or studio are dissipated and the feeling of life and freedom gained4 ,,footnotes ,,to ,,appendix ,b3 #aai ,with which we may include ,arabic numerals4 #abj ,it should be clearly understood that legibility by no means excludes either beauty or ornament4 ,the ugly form of 8,block0 letter so much in use is no more legible than the beautiful ,roman lettering on the ,trajan ,column 7see ,plates ,i41 ,,ii474 #aba ,roman small-letters and ,italics1 being originally pen letters1 are still better understood if the carver knows how to use a pen1 or1 at least1 has studied good examples of manuscripts in which those letters are used4 #abb ,some advice from the letter-cutter might be useful to the client as to the number of words and the space they will occupy in cases where it is possible to adapt the one to the other4 #abc ,small lettering is less convenient to read out of doors1 and is apt to get filled with dirt or moss4 #abd ,whenever it is possible the carver should not be bound to follow a drawing strictly1 but should do his work in the straightforward manner described above4 ,unfortunately he is often obliged to set out the whole ,inscription exactly before carving it1 and in such a case it is usual to carve the bottom line of letters first and to work upwards1 cutting the first line last4 #abe ,really sharp1 i4e4 sharp enough to cut a piece of paper without tearing it4 #abf ,the harder the stone to be carved1 the more highly tempered will the chisels need to be4 #abg ,in learning to cut ,inscriptions one would naturally begin with ,incised letters4 #abh ,where the ground between the letters is left plain1 an absolute flatness and evenness is not necessary4 ,the common method of jabbing or 8pecking0 the background is objectionable4 #abi ,e4g4 ,tombstones and ,memorial ,slabs are not usually fixed until finished4 p#dji ,,notes ,,on ,,the ,,collotype ,,plates 7,note4--,in order to make the illustrations whether of facsimiles or enlargements as large and as full as possible1 ,i have sacrificed 8appearance0 to use and allowed most of the collotype plates1 and many of the diagrams in the book1 to encroach on the margins4--,e4 ,j47 ,,general ,,note4--,all the plates are in facsimile as to size 7or nearly so1 allowing for errors in reproduction7 except ,i41 ,,ii41 ,,xxii41 and ,,xxiv41 which had to be reduced1 and therefore only portions of the ,,mss4 can be shown4 ,note4--,all the ,,mss4 are on 8,vellum0 7see p4 #agc74 ,in order to get a better impression of the size and general proportion of a ,,ms41 the student might reconstruct it--or at least mark off the margins1 text1 c4--on paper1 from the measurements given4 ,or a sheet of paper might be cut to the size of the given page or opening1 with an aperture 7in its proper place7 through which the plate might be viewed4 ,the plates are arranged in chronological order as nearly as possible4 ,they are intended briefly to illustrate the ,development of the ,formal ,book ,hands from the ,roman ,capital and the ,general ,development of the ,illuminated ,,ms43 ,i hope1 moreover1 that1 fragmentary as they are1 they will prove usefully suggestive in regard to the ,arrangement of ,text and ,lettering and ,ornament4 ,the wonderful effect of the colouring cannot be given here1 but1 in any case1 the illuminator should look at some original ,,mss4 ,several of the ,,mss4 from which the plates are taken are exhibited in the ,british ,museum4 ,,plate ,i4--,portion of ,inscription on base of ,trajan ,column199 ,rome1 circa #aad ,a4,d4 ,scale approx4 #a_/ith linear4 ,,the ,,stone 7within the internal line of the moulding73 #c feet #i inches high1 and #i feet #c_/d inch long4 p#daj ,,the ,,borders4--,the lettering practically fills the panel 7see p4 #ceb73 the surrounding moulding is approx4 #d inches wide4 ,,the ,,letters 7for their forms see next note74 ,approximate heights ,first two lines3 #d-a_/b inches high4 ,second two lines3 #d-c_/h 0 0 ,fifth line3 #d-a_/h 0 0 ,last line3 #c-g_/h 0 0 ,,the ,,spaces 7between ,lines7 decrease from #c inches to #b-c_/d inches4 ,a decrease in the height of the letters from the top to the foot line is common in early inscriptions 7see figs4 #bjc-bje74 ,several reasons for this suggest themselves3 7a7 7,sometimes the beginning words1 being farther from the reader1 may require to be larger74 7b7 ,the architectural beauty of a large heading 7comp4 stem heads1 p4 #bhh74 7c7 ,the importance of beginnings generally 7there is very often a marked difference between the upper lines containing important words and the rest of the inscription3 comp4 figs4 #aig1 #ia74 ,note4--,the ,,words are separated by triangular points 7p4 #chd74 99 ,there is a cast 7,no4 #ahfd-abh7 in the ,victoria and ,albert ,museum1 ,south ,kensington1 where also the photograph of the inscription is obtainable1 from portions of which ,plates ,i4 and ,,ii4 are reproduced4 ,,plate ,,ii4--,alphabet from ,trajan ,inscription4 7,circa #aad ,a4,d47 ,scale approx4 #a_/fth linear4 7,see note above47 ,,the 8,,trajan0 ,,alphabet4-- ,very fine letters for inscriptions in stone3 possibly painted before incision 7see p4 #bib72 see also remarks on ,roman ,capitals1 pp4 #bfh-bif1 and note3-- ,,serifs4--,small and carefully curved4 ,,thin ,,parts about half the width of the thick stems 7pp4 #cge1 #bhe74 ,a 7,m and ,n71 pointed 7p4 #bhj74 ,b--a very beautiful form1 with large lower bow 7p4 #bgh74 ,c1 ,g1 and 7,d7--,upper parts rather straight 7p4 #bha74 ,e and ,f--mid arm slightly shorter than upper arm4 ,e and ,l--lower serif pointed out 7p4 #bhb74 p#daa ,,lo 7shown sideways in collotype7 and ,,lt show ,l's arm projecting under next letter4 ,m--pointed3 slightly spread 7p4 #bhd71 distance apart of points above equal to inside distance of stems below4 ,n--pointed3 practically no difference in thickness of vertical and oblique parts 7p4 #bhe74 ,o--very beautiful3 width slightly less than height 7p4 #bgj72 slightly tilted 7as are all the other curved letters3 see p4 #bhe74 ,p--,bow not joined to stem below 7first ,p rounder topped74 ,q--tail carried under ,v 7,u74 ,r--large bow3 straight tail1 with finishing-curve 7p4 #bia74 ,s--leans forward slightly 7p4 #bhf74 ,proportions of widths to heights 7comp4 with pp4 #bfi-bgc7 ,,ocdgmnq width slightly less than height4 ,,artv width approx4 #a_/fth less than height4 ,,bx width rather more than half height4 ,p width approx4 equal half height4 ,,ls width slightly less than half height4 ,,ef width approx4 #c_/gths of height4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bai4 ,h1 7,j71 ,k1 7,u71 ,w1 ,y1 ,z are not present in the inscription4 ,a rough diagram 7fig4 #bai7 is given below showing approximately suitable forms for these 7,re junction of ,u in stone2 see p4 #djj1 fig4 #bae74 p#dab ,,plate ,,iii4--,written ,roman ,capitals1 ,fourth or ,fifth ,century4 7,virgil's 8neid074 7,from a facsimile in the ,palographical ,society's ,publications1 #ast ,series1 ,vol4 ,,ii41 ,pl4 #bjh1 of a ,,ms4 in the library of ,s4 ,gall1 ,switzerland4 ,see also 8,greek and ,latin ,palography10 p4 #ahe47 ,,letters4--,simple-written 7slanted-pen7 ,roman 8,square ,capitals40 ,,words in early ,,mss4 were not separated 7p4 #aab74 ,,lines ruled with a hard point 7p4 #cdc74 ,the letters appear to have been written between every alternate pair 7p4 #bii71 but slightly over the line4 ,a very handsome writing which might still be used for special ,,mss4 7see pp4 #cjd1 #cjj1 #bii74 ,,plate ,,iv4--,uncial ,writing1 probably ,italian ,sixth or ,seventh ,century4 7,latin ,gospels74 ,brit4 ,museum1 ,harl4 ,,ms4 #agge4 7,shown in ,brit4 ,mus4 ,department of ,,mss41 ,case ,g1 ,no4 #aa47 ,,the ,,volume contains #dfh leaves 7#g inches by #d-c_/d inches74 ,,margins1 ,approx43 ,inner #e_/h inch1 ,head #g_/h inch1 ,side #i_/h inch1 ,foot #h_/h inch4 7,they may have been cut down by the binder47 ,,writing4--,a fine round ,uncial ,,ms4 7pp4 #ch1 #cjb71 arranged in long and short lines4 ,note4--,on many of the letters there are fine hair-line curved tails and flourishes1 which are scarcely visible in the photograph4 7,these tails were also used in the earlier ,uncial shown in fig4 #e--see also ,addenda1 p4 #bc47 ,,sections4--,marked by built-up letters of an ,uncial type1 and numbered1 m,r cxxiiii to m,r cxxvi 7with references to 8,harmonies074 ,the passage is ,s4 ,mark xi4 #ba-be4 p#dac ,,plate ,v4--,uncial ,writing1 probably ,continental ,seventh ,century4 7,gospel of ,s4 ,john74 ,ex libris ,stonyhurst ,college4 7,see also enlargement1 fig4 #afi47 7,from a facsimile in the ,palographical ,society's ,publications1 #ast ,series1 ,vol4 ,,ii41 ,pl4 #ag47 ,,the ,,volume contains #ij leaves1 approx4 #e-c_/h inches by #c-e_/h inches4 ,the ,inner margin is approximately #a_/b inch wide4 ,,writing4--,a very beautiful pointed 7slanted-pen7 ,uncial4 ,the 8pointed0 character of the letters1 which yet retain their typical roundness1 give this writing a peculiar charm4 ,note the top of the ,p has a marked angle1 and the ,m and ,h1 and even the ,o1 have this slightly or strongly4 ,,ruling4--,single lines1 rather wide 7p4 #cje74 ,,arrangement4--,certain of the lines are indented one letter 7p4 #bfd74 ,,large ,,letters4--,on verso ,col marking a 8,chapter0 is built-up in red1 on recto the three large letters 7marking sections7 are simply written with the text pen 7p4 #bii74 7,the passage is ,s4 ,john xi4 #df-ef47 ,,plate ,,vi4--,half-,uncial 7,irish71 ,seventh ,century4 8,book of ,kells0 7,latin ,gospels74 ,ex libris ,trinity ,college1 ,dublin4 7,from a facsimile--part of ,pl4 ,,xlvii4--in 8,celtic ,ornaments from the ,book of ,kells10 by the ,rev4 ,dr4 ,t4 ,k4 ,abbott47 ,,the ,,leaves--which are cut down and much damaged--measure #ac inches by #aj inches4 ,,writing4--,a beautiful and highly finished 7approx4 straight pen7 ,half-,uncial 7pp4 #dj1 #cjd71 tending to ornamental and fanciful forms whenever opportunity offered4 7,note the treatment of inde47 ,,arrangement4--,long and short lines3 wide spacing4 p#dad ,,the ,,letters combine extreme gracefulness with an unusual appearance of strength4 ,this is mainly due to the ends of all the strokes being finished2 the thick strokes have large1 triangular heads 7p4 #cbg7 on the left1 and bases broadened by an additional stroke below on the right 7thus 74 ,and the horizontal thin strokes are either finished with a triangular terminal 7p4 #bdf71 or run on into the next letter--joining the letters together4 ,the extreme roundness of the letters is contributed to by their being written between ,,double ,,lines 7pp4 #cjd1 #hh71 the upper line of which tends to flatten the tops4 ,the pen not being quite 8straight0 7see footnote1 p4 #cjd71 together with a tendency to pull the left hand curves1 gives a characteristic shape to the letters 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,,the ,,illumination throughout the book is most elaborate and beautiful4 ,each division has an entire ,initial page occupied with the first few letters4 ,the ,,colours were 8paled green1 red1 violet1 and yellow1 intense black1 and white1 but no gold03 see description of ,celtic ,,mss41 p4 #dj1 ,bradley's 8,illuminated ,letters and ,borders10 and also the ,palographical ,society's #ast ,series1 ,vol4 ,,ii41 ,pl4 #ee-eh1 #hh1 #hi4 ,this notable book may be taken as an example of the marvellous possibilities of pen-work and complex colour-work 7see p4 #baf74 ,in considering the value of the writing as a model1 it may be noted that its highly finished nature demands practised skill on the part of the copyist1 and that though modern ,irish writing 7for which it would be an excellent model7 still employs 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 these letters would be apt to look peculiar in ,english4 ,the ,kells ,,ms4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 however1 might be used1 and a very beautiful ornamental hand 7p4 #cjd7 might be founded on this writing4 p#dae ,,plate ,,vii4--,half-,uncial 7,english71 circa #gjj ,a4,d4 8,durham ,book0 7,latin ,gospels74 ,brit4 ,mus41 ,cotton ,,mss4 ,nero ,d4 ,,iv4 ,,the ,,volume contains #beh leaves 7#ac-a_/b inches by #i-g_/h inches74 ,,the ,,writing is an ,english--or rather ,anglo-,irish--,half-,uncial1 written at ,lindisfarne 7,holy ,i47 under ,irish influence 7p4 #dj74 ,,arrangement--two columns of #bd lines--long and short--to the page 7note how eis is got into the fifth line73 wide spacing4 ,the writing bears a strong resemblance to that of the 8,book of ,kells10 but is generally much plainer2 it is also less graceful1 being heavier and wider in proportion4 ,the 8,book of ,kells0 ,o is a circle1 while the 8,durham ,book0 ,o is considerably wider than its height1 and all the other letters are correspondingly wide4 ,the ,,ruling in both books consists of double lines1 ruled with a hard point on both sides of each leaf4 ,,the ,,illumination also resembles that of the 8,book of ,kells0 7see opposite71 but a small amount of gold is employed in it4 7,see also ,palographical ,society's #ast ,series1 ,vol4 ,,ii41 ,pl4 #c-f1 #bb47 ,note4--,the 8,gloss10 or interlinear translation1 is in the ,northumbrian dialect1 and was put in in the tenth century1 more than #bjj years after the book was written4 ,a hand founded to some extent on the 8,durham ,book0 hand is given in ,chap4 ,,iv4 as an easy copy3 see figs4 #di1 #ej4 ,,plate ,,viii4--,english ,tenth-century ,writing4 7,psalter74 ,brit4 ,mus41 ,harl4 ,,ms4 #bijd4 7,see enlargement1 fig4 #agb74 7,shown ,b4 ,m4 ,grenville ,lib4 ,case #b1 ,no4 #i47 ,,the ,,volume contains #bad leaves 7#ac-a_/d inches by #aj inches71 #ah lines to the page2 probably written at ,winchester in late tenth century4 7,pl4 reduced scale #h_/iths47 ,,writing4--,an extremely good1 formal1 8slanted-pen0 writing1 having great freedom 7note the very slight p#daf slope forward7 and simplicity4 ,this type of letter may be regarded as a link between the ,half-,uncial and the ,roman ,small-,letter 7see p4 #caj74 ,,the ,,ruling3 single lines 7see footnote1 p4 #cje74 ,,the ,,letters show very strongly the effects of the 8slanted pen0 7see pp4 #dc1 #cje74 ,note the heavy shoulders and feet in n1 b1 c41 and the thick horizontals in 4 ,the curved tops or arches are flattish and strong3 the thick strokes end in points and are hooked below1 thin strokes scarcely appear except as the finishing strokes of a1 c1 e1 l1 1 while d1 7h71 i1 m1 n1 u end in small heavy hooks4 ,note generally the tendency to internal angles and external roundness 7examples1 and o74 ,note particularly the junctions and accidental crossings of the strokes 7seen best in the enlargement1 fig4 #agb7 as bearing on the mode of construction of the letters 7see p4 #hd74 ,note the fine shape of the amperzand 73 #crd line74 ,,the ,,illumination 7see ,characteristics of ,winchester ,illumination1 or 8,opus ,anglicum10 pp4 #hb1 #hc1 ,bradley3 8,illuminated ,letters and ,borders074 ,all the ,,capitals beginning the verses are in raised1 burnished gold1 in the margin4 ,the titles are in red in fancy 8,rustic ,capitals0 7p4 #big74 ,the ,line-,fillings consist of groups of red dots1 in threes 7 74 ,this extremely legible ,,ms4 would form an almost perfect model for a modern formal hand 7s being substituted for long 1 and the straight t for the curved 7see fig4 #ahc73 the removal of the e flourish would also help readableness74 ,and though it is somewhat large and heavy for ordinary use1 it is good for practising1 and might be developed into a form resembling any of the more difficult later forms 7,plates ,,ix41 ,x41 ,,xx474 ,,plate ,,ix4--,english ,writing1 dated #ajah4 ,two portions of a ,charter of ,,cnut4 ,brit4 ,museum4 7,see also enlargement1 fig4 #agc47 ,pl4 reduced scale #aa_/abths4 7,shown in ,brit4 ,mus41 ,department of ,,mss41 ,case ,v41 ,no4 #c47 ,,the ,,writing resembles that in ,plate ,,viii4 p#dag 7see above71 but is more slender and rounder--the pen being a little less slanted1 and the arches more curved1 and showing more of the thin stroke4 ,the ascenders and descenders are longer1 the heads are more marked1 and there is a general elegance and distinction1 due perhaps to the ,,ms4 being a charter4 ,charter-hands are generally more showy and less legible than ,book-hands1 but in this hand there is great legibility1 and a very few changes 7similar to those suggested above7 would make it quite suitable for modern use4 ,its relation to the ,roman ,small-,letter is obvious4 ,notes4--,the 7black7 ,v and u were probably built-up with the writing pen4 ,the forms of a1 e1 g1 7h71 r1 may be noted as differing considerably from the tenth-century hand4 ,the combined ra 7in the #dth line7 is curious2 and the r in ,anglorum--this r 7which represents the ,bow and ,tail of ,r7 commonly follows the round letters b1 o1 p1 in 8,gothic0 writing3 there is another curious form in the linked rt in cartula 7last line74 ,the word ,,cnut and several other names are in ornamental 8,rustic0 ,capitals 7see p4 #big74 ,the two lines of ,english from another part of the charter have very long stems and ornamental serifs1 giving a very decorative effect 7see footnote1 p4 #cbf74 ,,plate ,x4--,italian 7first half of7 ,twelfth-century ,writing4 7,homilies and ,lessons74 ,brit4 ,mus41 ,harl4 ,,ms4 #gahc4 7,see also enlargement1 fig4 #agd47 7,shown in ,brit4 ,mus41 ,department of ,,mss41 ,case ,c lower part1 ,no4 #aja47 ,,the ,,volume4--,homilies and ,lessons for ,sundays and ,festivals from ,advent to ,easter ,eve--contains #cag leaves 7approximately #ba-a_/b inches by #ae inches72 two columns1 each of #ej lines1 to the page4 ,the ,,margins are1 approximately1 ,inner #a-a_/d inch1 ,head p#dah #a-a_/d inch1 ,side #c-a_/d inches1 ,foot #d-a_/d inches 7between columns #a-a_/h inch3 see ,plate74 ,the portion of a page1 shown in ,plate ,x41 consists of the last eleven lines1 second column1 of folio #gh4 ,,writing4--,this has all the qualities of good writing 7p4 #bci7 in a marked degree1 and ,i consider it1 taken all round1 the most perfect and satisfactory penmanship which ,i have seen4 ,its simplicity and distinctiveness are very marked1 so also are its character and freedom4 ,there is an almost entire absence of artificial finish--the terminals are natural hooks1 beaks and 8feet0 made with a fine sleight of hand 7p4 #caa7--;and its very great beauty of form is the natural outcome of good traditions and eminently satisfactory craftsmanship4 ,notes4--,the letters are very wide1 and the inside shapes differ considerably from those of the tenth-century ,,ms4 7above7--with which1 however1 there is a considerable affinity 7see p4 #daf74 ,the f is longer than the 1 the g has a very fine form with a closed loop1 the r is sharpened1 the t straight4 ,small 7,uncial7 ,,capitals um follow the ,versal2 the serifs on the ,s and ,e are made with dexterous movements of the nib 7p4 #bdf71 and resemble those on the ,versal ,c4 ,v and ,u are both used for the consonant 7,v74 ,there are very few ,,versals in this book3 the ,c shown is in red 7which has been smudged74 ,the large 8,,illuminated ,,initials0 in the book are in yellow1 blue1 and red1 and appear to me to be comparatively poor1 at least1 to fall short of the perfection of the ,,ms4 ,of this writing1 ,sir ,edward ,maunde ,thompson 78,greek and ,latin ,palography10 pp4 #bga-b7 says3-- 8,the sense of grace of form which we perceive in the ,lombardic writing of ,italy is maintained in that country in the later writing of the new minuscule type1 which assumes under the pens of the most expert ,italian scribes a very beautiful and round even style4 ,this style1 though peculiarly ,italian1 extended p#dai its influence abroad1 especially to the south of ,france1 and became the model of ,spanish writing at a later time4 ,we select a specimen from a very handsome ,,ms4 of ,homilies of the first half of the #abth century 7,pal4 ,soc4 ii4 pl4 #ee71 written in bold letters of the best type1 to which we shall find the scribes of the fifteenth century reverting in order to obtain a model for their ,,mss4 of the ,renaissance4 ,the exactness with which the writing is here executed is truly marvellous1 and was only rivalled1 not surpassed1 by the finished handiwork of its later imitators4 8,it will of course be understood that this was not the only style of hand that prevailed in ,italy4 ,others of a much rougher cast were also employed4 ,but as a typical book-hand1 which was the parent of the hands in which the greater proportion of carefully written ,,mss4 of succeeding periods were written in ,italy1 it is to be specially noticed40 7,p4 #bhd7--8we give a specimen of a hand of the ,italian ,renaissance1 a revival of the style of the eleventh or twelfth century1 and a very successful imitation of a ,,ms4 of that period4 ,it was this practice1 followed by the scribes of the ,renaissance1 of reverting to that fine period of ,italian writing 7see p4 #bgb7 to find models for the exquisitely finished ,,mss4 which they were compelled to produce in order to satisfy the refined taste of their day1 that influenced the early printers of ,italy in the choice of their form of type4099 7,p4 #bhe7--8;in the comparatively small number of extant literary ,,mss4 of a later date than the close of the fifteenth century it is noticeable that a large proportion of them are written in the style of the book-hand of the ,italian ,renaissance--the style which eventually superseded all others in the printing press4 ,the scribes of these late examples only followed the taste of the day in preferring those clear and simple characters to the rough letters of the native hands40 99 ,the specimen hand given is of date #adff4 ,plate ,,xviii4 may here be taken as an example of the ,renaissance revival2 ,plate ,,xx4 and fig4 #age as examples of later ,,mss4 ,,plate ,,xi4--,english 7late7 ,twelfth-century ,writing1 with flourished ,capitals4 7,breviary74 ,brit4 ,mus41 ,royal ,,ms4 #b4 ,a4 x4 7,shown in ,brit4 ,mus41 ,department of ,,mss41 ,case ,d1 ,no4 #aaa47 ,,the ,,volume--sometimes called the ,st4 ,albans or ,albanus ,psalter--contains #bjj leaves 7#f-g_/h inches by p#dbj #d-g_/h inches72 twenty-seven lines to the page1 some pages have two columns4 ,,margins1 approximately1 ,inner #e_/h inch1 ,head under #a_/b inch 7see ,plate71 ,side #a-a_/d inch 7part occupied by ,versals71 ,foot #a-a_/h inch4 ,,the ,,writing is fairly legible1 but approaches ,black ,letter 7p4 #cca7 too nearly to be of use to us for ordinary purposes4 ,note the ornamental ,semi-,rustic ,capitals in text4 ,note the ,,ruling of the two head lines and of the foot line is carried into the margin4 ,,the ,,versals4--,the main interest lies in the varied forms of the ,versals1 which are most beautifully made in red and green alternately4 ,there is one elaborate gold initial in the book1 and several ,versals in blue and white 7hollow3 see p4 #bjh74 ,the five 's--and the ,d in the text--on this page 7folio #he;b7 by no means exhaust the varieties of ,d alone1 and there are very many varieties of the forms of the other letters4 ,on some pages each line begins with a small ,versal1 while the more important ,initials are much larger1 varying in size and ornament4 ,,the ,,construction of the ,versals is unusually slender1 curved1 and gradated4 ,a rather fine pen seems to have been used 7p4 #bib71 and though the letters are upright1 the natural tendency to slant the pen can be detected in the thickening of the thin parts--above1 on the right1 and below1 on the left--giving the suspicion of a tilt to the ,o4 ,the ,o-part of each was made first1 and the tail added4 ,this is very obvious in the ,d in the text1 where a stem was added to ,o to make ,d4 ,note the dots inside the ,versals1 one above and one below4 ,originally these may have been intended to effect--or hide--the junction of the thin strokes1 by a twirl of the pen at the end of the first stroke and the beginning of the second1 thus 4 ,their use is very common in ,versal forms 7see fig4 #ahi71 and besides being decorative in the ordinary sense1 they may be said to p#dba strengthen the thin parts 7much as the weakest part of the loop in an old key was thickened for strength74 99 99 99 99 99 ,note the right-hand ,bows of the 's are made thinner1 as though the ,rubricator had been afraid of running into the text in making their last curves--such an expert1 however1 may well have had a better reason for it4 ,,plate ,,xii4--,illuminated ,initial in a ,flemish ,,ms4 ,a4,d4 #aadh4 7,latin ,bible74 ,brit4 ,museum1 ,addl4 ,,ms4 #adgij4 7,shown in ,brit4 ,museum1 ,department of ,,mss41 ,case ,c1 ,no4 #ia47 ,,the ,,volume--the third1 and most interesting1 of this ,,ms4 ,bible 7,numbered #adghh-hi-ij7--;contains #bbc leaves 7#ag inches by #aa-g_/h inches74 ,,margins1 approximately1 ,inner #a-a_/h inch1 ,head 7cut7 #a inch1 ,side #b-c_/h inches1 ,foot #c-a_/b inches4 7,between columns #ae_/af inch47 ,,the ,,writing is a not very legible 8,gothic40 ,the zigzag tendency exhibited1 especially by the word niniuen 7,niniveh71 second line1 is unsuited for such formal writing 7see p4 #dhd74 ,the rapid placing of the ,heads of the letters is such that they appear broken and partly detached from the stems4 ,the ,,versals are of a good type4 ,,the ,,initial is a monogrammatic ,,et4 ,the arms of the round terminate in leaves folded back1 its form is hollow and inwoven 7p4 #bjh71 and gives rise to foliage1 which fills the interior--passing over the fish and behind ,jonah4 ,note also how the jaws of the fish are interlaced1 and how compactly all the parts are put together4 ,the close application of the background to the curves adds to the general compactness1 and together with its spacing from the straight front balances the masses 7p4 #dbd73 it may be compared to the even spacing of curved and straight strokes 7see fig4 #ec74 ,there is an extension of the background to hold the fish's tail4 p#dbb ,,the ,,colours-- ,initial1 ,foliage1 ,fish3 red3 outlined lined2 ,parchment left plain4 ,jonah3 black3 outlined lined2 ,parchment left plain4 ,bands on ,initial1 gold1 outlined red4 ,hollows in ,initial1 gold1 outlined red4 ,backs of folded leaves3 gold1 outlined red4 ,outer background3 paled green4 ,dots on outer ground3 red4 ,inner background3 paled blue4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbj4 ,we may not1 ,i think1 attempt to imitate the complex #abth-century decoration of this initial 7see p4 #aif71 but the treatment of the elements of form and colour is very suggestive1 and the whole piece of lettering is characteristic of the grand style in which a book was at that time begun4 ,the ,,arrangement of the letters themselves is very simple1 and might be made good use of 7fig4 #bbj74 p#dbc ,,plate ,,xiii4--,english 7#bnd half7 ,thirteenth-century ,writing and ,illumination4 7,latin ,bible74 ,ex libris ,s4 ,c4 ,cockerell4 ,,the ,,volume--probably written at ,york--contains #dbg leaves 7#h inches by #e-a_/b inches73 two columns to the page3 ,,margins1 approx43 ,inner #e_/h inch1 ,head #e_/h inch1 ,side #g_/h inch1 ,foot #a-g_/af inch4 7,between the columns #c_/h inch47 ,the pages have been cut down4 ,,the ,,writing is very small1 and there are many contractions499 ,in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries the whole ,bible1 written in this fashion1 was often small enough to be carried in the pocket4 ,note the closed and the #g form of 4 ,the page is ,,ruled with #ej lines2 the #di lines of writing lie between these1 so that in each case the ascenders touch the line above1 and the descenders1 the line below4 ,note the double lines in the ,foot margin 7see p4 #cdc74 ,,versals4--,a very narrow type is used in the narrow margins3 the example shown is in red1 flourished blue2 it begins the second chapter 7,et angelo ephesi1 c471 which is also marked by coloured ,roman ,numerals at the side 7,,ii74 ,the page heading is 8,,apoca0 in small red and blue ,versals4 ,,the ,,illuminated ,,initial is 8historiated0--i4e4 it contains a picture illustrating the text1 viz4 a representation of ,s4 ,john writing to the ,seven ,churches--purely conventional forms1 or rather symbols1 for the most part1 are used and beautifully fitted into the available space4 ,the greater size and more careful drawing of the human figure 7the centre of interest7 is characteristic of a fine convention4 ,the slope of the vellum page on which ,s4 ,john is writing1 and even the manner in which the quill is held1 are such as would naturally be employed by a scribe 7see frontispiece1 p4 #fg74 p#dbd ,the capitals of the pillars mark the position of the cross-bar of ,a4 ,the top serif is carried up and forms a bud1 which gives rise to leaf-like flourishes2 the free thin stem runs down forming a grotesque1 which gives out a leaf-like tongue4 ,in either case the object--in every sense recreative--is a renewal of interest in the designed1 elongated1 growth of the forms4 ,note the curved thickening of ,a's left stem ends nearly level with the foot of the right stem4 ,this gives balance to the letter 7see ,r1 fig4 #ha ,a1 fig4 #ahi71 and preserves the essential form1 which suffers no distortion by the thinner continuation below4 ,note the balancing of the background mass on the straight and curved sides of the ,initial 7as in ,plate ,,xii41 see above72 also the extension and shape of the background accompanying the drawn out parts of the letter4 ,,colours of ,initial-- ,right stem3 red with white lines and patterns4 ,left stem and serif3 blue with white lines and patterns4 ,l4 stem1 lower half1 dragon3 pale 8lake40 ,the background 7counter- charged7 outer3 pale 8lake40 inner3 blue4 lower extension3 blue4 final flourish3 pale 8lake40 ,band 7dark7 down left side1 dragon's wings1 #f 8berries10 halo1 seat1 tops of pillar caps3 burnished gold4 ,leaves 7dark7 pillar caps3 red4 ,small stems leaves3 green4 ,here again no natural work would come of a modern attempt to imitate so complex a 8design0--natural and even inevitable #fjj years ago4 ,but the spirit of delicacy and fantasy1 the ingenious contrivance1 and the balancing and disposal of form and colour shown by the antique art1 may well be matter for imitation by the modern draughtsman-illuminator1 and even by the mere penman4 99 ,the ,apocalypse here begins 8,a,pocalipis iu xi0 7for ,i,u ,x,i1 derived from the ,greek and used as a medival ,latin contraction for ,jesu ,christi74 p#dbe ,,plate ,,xiv4--,thirteenth-century ,line-finishings3 ,pen-work4 7,psalter74 ,brit4 ,museum1 ,royal ,,ms4 #a4 ,d4 x4 ,,the ,,line-,,finishings 7see p4 #bje71 of which there are very many throughout the book1 all in red or blue pen-work1 are very varied4 ,nine kinds are shown in the plate 7which represents about a quarter of a page71 and three others from the same ,,ms4 are given in figs4 #hg 7b7 and #abf 7f1 g74 ,the directions of the thick and thin strokes indicate a pen held at right angles to its usual position 7almost 8upside down10 in fact3 see fig4 #abf1 g71 and the penmanship exhibits great speed and lightness of hand--the rapidity and skill are indeed quite remarkable 7e4g4 in the ,lion in the eighth line74 ,note that1 though the writing occasionally runs into the margin1 the line-finishings stop at the marginal-line4 ,the photograph shows red dark and blue light3 e4g4 the ,bird is red1 the ,lion and the ,fish are blue4 ,the fifth ,line-finishing is a red filigree with blue 8berries0--it can hardly be described as a 8floral growth10 as the 8branching0 is reversed3 the rubricator gained speed and uniformity by the simple repetition of the whorls all along the line--the upper branches were probably put in afterwards1 and the 8berries0 were added later when he was making the blue ,line-finishings4 ,the more complex decoration 7not shown in the plate7 in this ,,ms4 is inferior to the penmanship3 the small background ,capitals with which the verses begin--presumably put in by a different hand--are more pretentious1 and do not match the ,line-finishings4 ,general ,note4--,when a space occurs at the end of a line of writing1 it is often best to leave it1 and in a plain ,,ms41 if it be 8well and truly0 written1 there is no objection to varying lengths of line 7see pp4 #bfc1 #cga74 ,but a book1 such as a ,psalter1 divided into many short verses--in which the last line usually falls short of the marginal p#dbf line--offers a fair field for such simple and effective decoration4 7,see also pp4 #dbh1 #dhf1 fig4 #acj1 and ,plate ,,xxiii47 ,,plate ,,xv4--,english ,writing and ,illumination1 circa #abhd ,a4,d4 7,psalter74 ,brit4 ,museum1 ,addl4 ,,ms4 #bdfhf4 ,,the ,,writing is a fine1 freely formed1 8,gothic0 7p4 #cca74 ,note1 the i's are 8dotted40 ,note the double ,,marginal ,,lines 7p4 #cdc74 ,,the ,,small ,,initials are of the 8,lombardic0 type 7p4 #baj71 in which the ,serifs are much thickened and ornamented4 ,note the tails of the ,q's are turned to the left to clear the writing4 ,the ,,line-,,fillings match the small initials 7p4 #aic74 ,,the ,,large ,,initial1 c4--,the plate shows the end of the fourteenth and beginning of the fifteenth ,psalm 7omine quis habitabit74 ,note 8,arabic0 numerals 7#ae7 in margin4 ,the tail of the ,initial is formed of a dragon1 the head of which rests on the ,o-part3 its wings project into the inner margin 7and these in the plate1 which shows a fragment of a verso page1 run into the fold between the pages73 the tail 7together with the background7 descends till a convenient point is reached from which the lower scroll-work springs4 ,the tail1 wing1 and claws above1 belong to a magpie which is perched on the initial4 ,,the ,,drawing3 see reference to this at p4 #bjc1 and below4 ,sir ,edward ,maunde ,thompson 7p4 #ci1 8,english ,illuminated ,,mss407 says of this-- 8--the ,additional ,,ms4 #bdfhf in the ,british ,museum1 known as the ,tenison ,psalter1 from its having once formed part of the library of ,archbishop ,tenison4 ,this psalter is one of the most beautiful illuminated ,english manuscripts of its time1 but unfortunately only in part1 for it was not finished in the perfect p#dbg style in which it was begun 4 4 4 in the first quire of the text the ornamentation is of peculiar beauty4 4 4 4099 8--the progress of the art since the earlier part of the thirteenth century 4 4 4 is 4 4 4 manifest4 ,there is more freedom in the drawing1 the stiffness of the earlier examples is in great measure overcome2 and the pendant has thrown out a branch which has already put forth leaves4 ,a great variety of colours1 blue1 rose1 vermilion1 lake1 green1 brown1 as well as burnished gold1 is employed in the composition of the large initial and its accompanying pendant and border1 and the small initials are of gold laid on a ground of blue or lake1 and filled with lake or blue2 while the ribbons which fill up the spaces at the ends of the verses are alternately of the same colours and are decorated with patterns in silver on the blue and in gold on the lake40 8,the group of the dismounted knight despatching a gryphon1 which has proved too much for the horse1 upon whose dying body the expectant raven has already perched1 is tinted in lighter colours4 ,it is an instance of the use to which marginal space was put1 particularly by ,english artists1 for the introduction of little scenes1 such as episodes in romances or stories1 games1 grotesque combats1 social scenes1 c41 often drawn with a light free hand and most artistic touch4 ,without these little sketches1 much of the manners and customs1 dress1 and daily life of our ancestors would have remained for ever unknown to us40 99 ,it is supposed that the book was at first intended as a marriage gift for ,alphonso1 son of ,edward ,i4 ,the characteristic over and under arrangement of the gryphon's upper and lower bill1 makes this doubtful4 ,,plate ,,xvi4--,italian ,fourteenth-century ,,ms41 ,brit4 ,mus41 ,addl4 ,,ms4 #bhhda4 ,,the ,,volume3 one of two 7the other numbered #bgfie71 a ,latin treatise on the ,virtues and ,vices 7,the miniatures1 drawings1 c41 probably by 8the ,monk of ,hyres10 ,genoa74 ,the vellum leaves have been separated1 and are now preserved in paper books4 ,the leaf illustrated shows a margin of vellum of less than #c_/af inch all round 7the plate74 ,the decorative borders are much more naturalistic in p#dbh form and colouring than any other old illumination that ,i have seen 7see reference to ,plate ,,xvi41 p4 #bjc74 ,the foliage is a delicate green1 the berries are dark purple1 the single fruits plain and pale orange-red2 the two beetles in crimson and brown are made darker and too prominent in the photograph4 ,the bands of small 8,lombardic0 ,capitals are in burnished gold4 ,note how skilfully and naturally the upper corners of the border are managed1 and also the beautiful way in which the branches run into and among the text 7see p4 #bac74 ,,plate ,,xvii4--,french ,fifteenth-century ,writing1 with ,illuminated ,borders4 ,ex libris ,e4 ,johnston4 ,,the ,,page #i-a_/b inches by #f-a_/h inches3 ,,margins1 approx43 ,inner #a-a_/h inch1 ,head #a-c_/h inch1 ,side #b-c_/h inches1 ,foot #b-g_/h inches 7the edges have been slightly cut down74 ,the marginal lines 7from head to foot of the page7 and the writing lines are ,,ruled in faint red4 ,,the ,,writing is a late formal 8,gothic0--the thin strokes have evidently been added 7p4 #dg74 ,the written ,capitals are blotted with yellow 7see p4 #adj74 ,the ,,illuminated ,,initial ,q is in blue1 white lined1 on a gold ground1 contains a blue flower and five ornaments in 8lake40 ,the ,,line-,,fillings are in blue and 8lake10 separated by a gold circle1 triangle1 or lozenge4 ,,the ,,filigree ,,illumination springs from the initial in the narrow margin1 and from a centre ornament 7see 8knot10 fig4 #abg7 in the wide side margin4 ,the side margins are treated similarly on either page 7see p4 #bac72 the inner margins are generally plain4 ,this repetition gives to the pages a certain sameness--which is a characteristic rather than a fault of the treatment4 ,the border on the recto of the vellum leaf shows through on the verso or back of the leaf4 ,the main lines of the first border1 however1 are freely traced and p#dbi followed on the verso 7and so nearly hidden7 by the second border4 ,this is also suggestive of the more rapid methods of book production in the #aeth century4 ,,colours-- ,stems1 tendrils1 c43 black4 ,leaves ivy-shaped lanceolate3 burnished gold1 outlined black 7p4 #ahg74 plain4 furred4 ,flowers1 buds1 centre ornaments1 c43 7,see p4 #ahb47 blue1 8lake10 or green tempered with white1 and shaded with pure colour2 white markings2 the forms not outlined4 ,this type of illumination is discussed in pp4 #aig-bjb4 ,its chief points are its simplicity and rapidity4 ,a penman or a novice in illuminating can1 by taking a little pains1 beautify his ,,mss4 easily and quickly2 and he may perhaps pass on from this to 8higher0 types of illumination4 ,,plate ,,xviii4--,italian ,fifteenth-century ,writing and ,illumination4 7,perotti's translation of ,polybius74 ,ex libris ,h4 ,yates-,thompson4 ,,the ,,volume consists of #agd leaves 7#ac-a_/h inches by #i inches72 #ce lines to the page4 ,the plate shows a portion of the upper part of the ,initial 7recto7 page4 ,,the ,,writing4--,the ,capitals are simple-written1 slanted-pen 8,roman0--slightly ornamental--forms4 ,they are freely copied on a large scale in fig4 #afh3 see p4 #big4 ,the ,small-letters match the ,capitals--they are 8,roman0 forms with a slight 8,gothic0 tendency4 ,both these and the ,capitals would make very good models for free ,roman hands4 ,,the ,,initial is a 8,roman0 ,a in burnished gold4 ,note the exceedingly graceful shaping of the limbs1 the ornamental1 ,v-shaped cross-bar1 and the absence of serifs 7see fig4 #aaf74 p#dcj ,the 8,white ,vine ,pattern0 7see p4 #bjb71 most delicately and beautifully drawn1 interlaces with the letter and itself1 and covers the ,,background very evenly4 ,the interstices of the background are painted in blue1 red1 and green1 and its edge is adapted to the slightly projecting flowers and leaves4 ,there are groups 7 and '''7 of white dots on the blue parts of the background4 ,,the ,,border 7of which a small part is shown7 is approximately #a_/b inch wide in the narrow margin at the side of the text--it is separate from the ,initial4 ,it extends above and below the text1 where its depth is greater1 matching the greater depth of the margins4 ,its treatment is similar to1 though perhaps a little simpler than1 that of the ,initial decoration4 ,,plate ,,xix4--,italian ,,ms41 dated #adha4 ,ex libris ,s4 ,c4 ,cockerell4 8,part of a verso page from a book containing the ,psalter of ,st4 ,jerome and various ,prayers1 written and decorated by ,joachinus de ,gigantibus of ,rotenberg in #adha for ,pope ,sixtus ,,iv4 ,joachinus was employed at ,naples by ,ferdinand ,i41 and there are other fine examples of his work at the ,british ,museum and the ,bibliothque ,nationale1 ,paris4 ,in each of these1 as well as in the present book1 he states that he was both scribe and illuminator40--,s4 ,c4 ,c4 ,,the ,,volume contains #ca leaves 7#f-a_/b inches by #d-c_/d inches73 ,,margins1 approx43 ,inner #g_/h inch1 ,head #g_/h inch1 ,side #a-a_/b inch1 ,foot #a-c_/d inch4 7,the head margin1 together with the edge of the book-cover1 is shown in the plate47 ,,the ,,writing4--,very clear1 slightly slanted-pen 8,roman40 ,note the blending of b and p with e and o 7see fig4 #gf1 p4 #gg74 ,the ,,capitals are quite simple and plain1 made 7in 7,a7,,nima ,,christi and in text7 in black with the text pen4 ,note the long1 waved serifs 7see p4 #bhi74 ,the last two lines of the preceding prayer are made in burnished gold with a larger pen4 ,continued on p4 #dha p#dca ,,the ,,collotype ,,plates ,illustration3 ,plate ,i4--,portion of ,inscription on base of ,trajan ,column1 ,rome1 circa #aad ,a4,d4 ,scale approx4 #a_/ith linear4 7,see also ,plate ,,ii47 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,ii4--,alphabet from ,trajan ,inscription 7,circa #aad ,a4,d47 ,scale approx4 #a_/f linear4 7,see also ,plate ,i74 ,note4--,l and ,o are shown sideways in the #bnd line4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,iii4--,written ,roman ,capitals1 ,fourth or ,fifth ,century4 7,virgil's 8neid074 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,iv4--,uncial ,writing1 probably ,italian ,sixth or ,seventh ,century4 7,latin ,gospels74 ,brit4 ,museum1 ,harl4 ,,ms4 #agge4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,v4--,uncial ,writing1 probably ,continental ,seventh ,century 7,gospel of ,s4 ,john74 ,ex ,libris ,stonyhurst ,college4 7,see also enlargement1 fig4 #afi47 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,vi4--,half ,uncial 7,irish71 ,seventh ,century1 8,book of ,kells0 7,latin ,gospels74 ,ex ,libris ,trinity ,college1 ,dublin4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,vii4--,half ,uncial 7,english71 circa #gjj ,a4,d4 8,durham ,book0 7,latin ,gospels74 ,brit4 ,mus41 ,cotton ,,mss4 ,nero ,d4 ,,iv4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,viii4--,english ,tenth-century ,writing4 7,psalter74 ,brit4 ,mus41 ,harl4 ,,ms4 #bijd4 7,see enlargement fig4 #agb47 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,ix4--,english ,writing1 dated #ajah4 ,two portions of a ,charter of ,,cnut4 ,brit4 ,museum4 7,see also enlargement1 fig4 #agc47 ,illustration3 ,plate ,x4--,italian 7first half of7 ,twelfth-century ,writing4 7,homilies and ,lessons74 ,brit4 ,mus41 ,harl4 ,,ms4 #gahc4 7,see also enlargement1 fig4 #agd74 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xi4--,english 7late7 ,twelfth-century ,writing1 with flourished ,capitals4 7,breviary74 ,brit4 ,mus41 ,royal ,,ms4 #b4 ,a4,x4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xii4--,illuminated ,initial in a ,flemish ,,ms4 ,a4,d4 #aadh 7,latin ,bible74 ,brit4 ,museum1 ,addl4 ,,ms4 #adgij4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xiii4--,english 7#bnd half7 ,thirteenth-century ,writing and ,illumination 7,latin ,bible74 ,ex4 ,libris ,s4 ,c4 ,cockerell4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xiv4--,thirteenth-century ,line-finishings3 ,penwork4 7,psalter74 ,brit4 ,museum1 ,royal ,,ms4 #a1 ,d4,x4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xv4--,english ,writing and ,illumination1 circa #abhd ,a4,d4 7,psalter74 ,brit4 ,museum1 ,addl4 ,,ms4 #bdfhf4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xvi4--,italian ,fourteenth-century ,,ms41 ,brit4 ,mus41 ,addl4 ,,ms4 #bhhda4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xvii4--,french ,fifteenth-century ,writing1 with ,illuminated ,borders4 ,ex4 ,libris ,e4 ,johnston4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xviii4--,italian ,fifteenth-century ,writing and ,illumination 7,perotti's translation of ,polybius74 ,ex libris ,h4 ,yates-,thompson4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xix4--,italian ,,ms4 dated #adha4 ,ex libris ,s4 ,c4 ,cockerell4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xx4--,one page of an ,italian 7late7 ,fifteenth-century ,,ms4 ,ex4 libris ,s4 ,c4 ,cockerell4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xxi4--,italian 7early7 ,sixteenth-century 8cursive0 or 8,italic0 ,,ms4 ,ex4 libris ,s4 ,c4 ,cockerell4 7,see enlargement1 fig4 #agh47 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xxii4--8,communion ,service0 written and illuminated by ,e4 ,johnston1 #aijb ,a4,d4 78,office ,book10 ,holy ,trinity ,church1 ,hastings74 ,reduced 7nearly #c_/d scale74 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xxiii4--,the story of ,aucassin and ,nicolette1 written and illuminated by ,w4 ,h4 ,cowlishaw1 #ahih ,a4,d4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xxiv4--,inscription cut in ,stone by ,a4 ,e4 ,r4 ,gill1 #aijc ,a4,d4 ,reduced 7#c_/af scale74 ,note4--,to view these incised letters have the light on the left of the plate 7or cover with thin tissue paper74 p#dha ,,the ,,initial ,a1 its frame1 the frame of the border1 and the 8furred0 berries 77 are all in burnished gold1 outlined black4 ,the 8white vine pattern0 is rather simpler1 and has a rather thicker stalk 7in proportion7 than that in the previous plate 7see above74 ,its treatment is very similar1 but it may be noted that the border is in this case attached to the ,initial1 and the pattern has almost an appearance of springing from the ,initial4 ,the pattern--save one escaped leaf--is straitly confined1 by gold bars1 throughout the length of the text1 but at the ends it is branched out and beautifully flourished in the free margins above and below4 ,these terminals of the pattern having a broad blue outline 7dotted white7 may be said to carry their background with them4 ,the 7recto7 page opposite that shown in the plate has an initial ,d and a border similarly treated1 and each one of the ,psalms and ,prayers throughout the book is begun in like manner4 ,,plate ,,xx4--,one page of an ,italian 7late7 ,fifteenth-century ,,ms4 ,ex libris ,s4 ,c4 ,cockerell4 8,from a book containing the ,penitential ,psalms in ,italian1 the ,psalter of ,st4 ,jerome1 and various prayers4 ,written with great delicacy by ,mark of ,vicenza for some one named ,evangelista see #aath line in the last quarter of the fifteenth century4 ,other works of this accomplished scribe are known40--,s4 ,c4 ,c4 ,,the ,,volume--of which a complete 7recto7 page is shown--contains #fj leaves 7#e-a_/b inches by #c-c_/d inches73 ,,margins1 approx43 ,inner #a_/b inch1 ,head #g_/h inch1 ,side #a-c_/af inch1 ,foot #a-ac_/af inch4 ,this very fine ,,writing is typical of the practical style and beautiful workmanship which should be the aim of a modern scribe 7see pp4 #dg1 #caj74 ,it is written with a very narrow nib1 hence the pen-forms p#dhb are not so obvious as in some early formal hands2 and for this reason alone it would be better to practise such a hand as the tenth-century ,,ms4 7,plate ,,viii47 before seriously attempting to model a hand on the above 7see pp4 #daf1 #caa1 #cbd74 ,the use of a fine pen is apt to flatter the unskilled penman1 and he finds it hard to distinguish between delicate pen-work which has much character1 and that which has little or none4 ,and he will find1 after some knowledge of penmanship gained in practice with a broad nib1 that the copying of this fine ,italian writing--while in reality made much more feasible--may even appear more difficult than before4 ,,construction4--,the pen has a moderate slant--see thin stroke in e4 ,the letters are very square1 the tops flat 7especially in m1 n1 and r71 and the lower parts flat 7as in u74 ,this shows the same tendency that there is in the tenth century and other hands to avoid thin or high arches in the letters4 ,the feet in some of the letters 7in i1 for example7 are in the nature of stroke-serifs1 but the pen probably made these with an almost continuous movement--from the stem4 ,note--the fine form of the a2 that b and l have an angle where the stem joins the lower part2 that f was made something like t1 and the upper part was added3 this was a common mode--see fig4 #ahj 7the f shown in plate is unfortunately not a good specimen72 that g--a very graceful letter--lacks the coupling serif2 that i1 p1 u have triangular heads1 and m1 n1 r hooks2 that the ascenders have triangular heads1 and the descenders p and q1 stroke-serifs2 that the ascending and descending stems are longer than the bodies1 and the writing is in consequence fairly widely spaced4 p#dhc ,like most of the finest writings1 this bears evidences of considerable speed 7see pp4 #hd1 #caa74 ,besides the great uniformity of the letters1 the coupling strokes are occasionally carried over the succeeding stroke1 the arches of b1 h1 m1 n1 p1 r 7and the heads of the ascenders7 frequently are separated from the stems1 and the o and b occasionally fail to join below4 ,these broken forms are the results of speed1 and are not to be imitated except as to that which is both a cause and a result--their uniformity 7p4 #bed74 ,the ,,ruling is in faint ink3 there are two vertical marginal lines on the left and one on the right of every page4 ,the ,,decoration of the ,,ms4 is very simple4 ,the ,initial 7here shown7 is in green and powder-gold1 on a lake ground1 with white pattern3 there is a very fine brownish outline1 probably drawn first4 ,the two upper lines of writing and or are in red4 ,,plate ,,xxi4--,italian 7early7 ,sixteenth-century 8cursive0 or 8,italic0 ,,ms4 ,ex libris ,s4 ,c4 ,cockerell4 7,see enlargement1 fig4 #agh47 8,from the ,poems of ,cardinal ,bembo1 a fine example of the cursive writing perfected in ,italy in the first half of the sixteenth century4 ,the book measures #h-a_/b by #e-a_/d inches1 and contains #gi leaves40--,s4 ,c4 ,c4 ,,the ,,margins of the page from which the plate is taken are approximately3 ,inner #e_/h inch1 ,head #c_/d inch1 ,side #b inches1 ,foot #a-a_/b inch4 ,note4--,the lines of writing begin as usual at the left margin1 but do not extend to the 7true7 margin on the right1 hence the latter 7the side margin on the recto1 and the inner margin on the verso7 would appear unnaturally wide1 but the effect is carried off by the 7true7 side margins being already exceptionally wide 7and by the writing on the backs of the leaves showing through the semi-transparent vellum and so marking the true margins74 p#dhd ,this mode is very suitable for a book of poems1 in which the lengths of the lines of writing may vary considerably1 because the writing-line being longer than the ordinary line of writing allows room for extraordinarily long lines1 and any appearance of irregularity is carried off by the extra wide side margins4 ,,the ,,writing is very beautiful1 clear1 and rapid--made with a 8slanted pen0 7see 8,italics10 p4 #caa1 and fig4 #agh74 ,note the slightness of the slope of the letters 7especially of the ,capitals71 and the length of the stems and the wide spacing4 ,note1 also1 the flatness of the curves in a c d e g o q and the horizontal top stroke in a d g q1 oblique in e c 7giving angular tops74 ,the branching away from the stem of the first part of the arch in b h m n p r 7seen also reversed in a d g q u71 and the pointed1 almost angular1 quality of the arch4 ,this1 which is apt to become a fault in a more formal upright hand 7see note on ,plate ,,xxii47 is helpful in a more rapid running hand1 and gives clearance to the junctions of the strokes 7 7--see fig4 #ahb4 ,the heads1 simple or built-up1 hooks tending to become triangular4 ,the letters in this ,,ms4 are rarely coupled4 ,the very graceful g has a large pear-shaped lower loop touching the upper part4 ,,plate ,,xxii4--8,communion ,service0 written and illuminated by ,e4 ,johnston1 #aijb ,a4,d4 78,office ,book10 ,holy ,trinity ,church1 ,hastings74 ,reduced 7nearly #c_/d scale74 ,the ,,ms4 on #afj leaves 7#ae inches by #aj inches7 of fine parchment 78,roman ,vellum10 see p4 #agc71 contains the ,communion ,service and many collects1 epistles1 and gospels for special festivals1 c4 ,,margins3 ,inner #a-a_/h inch1 ,head #a-c_/d inch1 ,side #b-c_/d inches1 ,foot #c-c_/d inches4 p#dhe ,,the ,,writing--after tenth century model 7see ,plate ,,viii47--has the fault 7referred to at p4 #dba7 of showing too much thin line 7running up obliquely71 the upper and lower parts of the letters are not flat enough4 ,the tail of the g is inadequate1 and the lines of writing are too near together4 ,the writing is readable1 however1 and fairly regular4 ,the ,,capitals are ,uncials 7after ,plate ,v47 and occasional 8,romans40 ,the ,,rubric 78 ,then shall be said or sung07 is in red1 fitted in beside the round initial and marking the top left-hand corner of the page 7see footnote1 p4 #baa74 ,the word 8,,glory0 7and decoration7--and also the ,f and ,t1 showing in recto page--are in raised burnished gold1 which1 it will be seen1 has cracked considerably in the ,g 7see p4 #afd74 ,the ,,staves are in red 7p4 #adj71 the notes above ,,glory in raised gold1 those in the lower stave1 black4 ,the ,,book was of a special nature 7see pp4 #cdd-e71 being intended for use in a certain church and on certain special festivals3 hence a considerable degree of ornament and a generally decorative treatment was permitted 7p4 #ccj74 ,the ,prayer of ,consecration1 together with a miniature1 occupied a complete opening1 the eight margins of which were filled with solid1 framing borders 7p4 #bac7 in red1 blue1 green1 and gold4 ,coats-of-arms and other special symbols and devices were introduced on the ,title page and in other places4 ,,plate ,,xxiii4--,the ,story of ,aucassin and ,nicolette1 written and illuminated by ,w4 ,h4 ,cowlishaw1 #ahih ,a4,d4 ,,the ,,volume consists of #ej leaves of 8,roman ,vellum0 7#g-a_/b inches by #e-a_/b inches74 ,,margins1 approx43 ,inner #c_/d inch1 ,head #ae_/af inch1 ,side #a-c_/h inch1 ,foot #b inches4 ,,the ,,writing1 very legible1 rather 8,gothic-,roman40 p#dhf ,,the ,,capitals are illuminated throughout the text in gold on blue and red grounds4 ,the backgrounds are square1 with edges pointed or indented1 outlined black1 and lined inside white4 ,the ,,initial n is in gold on blue3 the moon and stars are in white and gold and white4 ,,the ,,line-,,finishings1 mostly in black pen-work1 consist of little groups 7sometimes of sprays7 of flowers1 c4 ,sprays from the border separate the 8,song0 from the 8,tale40 ,,the ,,music4--,staves black2 ,clefs1 gold2 ,notes1 red4 ,,the ,,borders 7in the opening from which the plate is taken7 frame the text on both pages--nearly filling the margins 7see p4 #bac73 the side and foot edges of the 7verso7 page are shown in the plate4 ,the main pattern is a wild rose1 flowers and all1 outlined with a rather broad blue line3 the stalks and leaves 7lined white7 are apple-green1 the flowers are painted white with raised gold hearts1 the thorns are red4 ,through the wild rose is twined honeysuckle and woody nightshade3 stalks--7h7 red1 7wn7 black2 and flowers--7h7 red with yellow spots1 7wn7 purplish red with gold centres4 ,the whole effect is very brilliant and charming4 ,the freedom and naturalness of the 8design0 remind one of a country hedgerow 7p4 #bac71 and show that vital beauty which is the essence of true illumination4 ,,plate ,,xxiv4--,inscription cut in ,stone by ,a4 ,e4 ,r4 ,gill1 #aijc ,a4,d4 ,reduced 7#c_/af scale74 ,note4--,to view these incised letters have light on the left of plate 7or cover with thin tissue-paper74 ,the ,,stone--a slab of 8,hopton ,wood0 7p4 #cie71 #cj inches by #ah inches by #b inches1 is intended to go over a lintel4 ,it has a simple moulding4 ,note how the ,,inscription occupies the space 7pp4 #ceb1 #cid73 the ,,letters have approximately the same apparent weight 7p4 #cbh7--the large stems are more than twice the height of the small2 they are only #a_/c wider4 p#dhg ,note the strongly marked and elegantly curved serifs2 the straight-tailed ,r2 the ,i drawn out 7marking the word ,,in72 the beaked ,a1 ,m1 and ,n2 the ,capital form of ,u4 ,the letters ,,deo would be rather wide for ordinary use 7p4 #bgj71 but as special letters1 occupying a wide space199 are permissible4 ,even in the collotype1 ,i think this inscription shows to what a high level modern inscription cutting might be raised by the use of good models and right and simple methods4 99 ,letters in early inscriptions separated as these are indicated each a word 7contracted71 as ,s4 ,p4 ,q4 ,r4 7,senatus ,populus ,que ,romanus74 p#dij ,,index ,a1 #ahi1 #bga1 #bgd1 #bhj1 #daj-aa ,a1 ,ancient ,modern1 #aie-aif ,abbott1 ,rev4 ,dr4 ,t4 ,k41 #dac ,accidental words1 #bei1 #chd ,acquiring a ,formal ,hand3 7#a7 ,tools1 #dh 7#b7 ,methods1 #fa 7#c7 ,models1 #gj 7#d7 ,practice1 #he ,addenda ,corrigenda1 #bc ,addresses1 ,illuminated1 #cec ,advertisements1 c41 #cdj1 #ceb1 #chi ,alabaster ,marbles1 #cie ,alcuin of ,york1 #da ,aldus1 #caa1 #cgc ,alphabet1 derivation of the1 #cf ,alphabets1 useful kinds of1 #bfg1 #cgg1 #cij ,aluminium leaf1 #afe ,amperzand 771 #cfa1 #daf 7,amperzand2 ,examples4--,figs4 #ej1 #gi1 #adh1 #agb1 #agc1 #bjh ,plates7 ,analysis of ,versals1 #aae ,analysis of ,writing1 #gb ,ancaster 7stone71 #cic1 #cie ,angles in ,writing1 #dc1 #df1 #aah1 #bec1 #daf ,anglo-,saxon writing1 #cbf ,annotations1 c41 #add1 #cae1 #cag1 #cdd 8,arabic ,numerals10 #hb1 #dbf ,arms or branches1 #abj 7v4 ,letters7 ,arrangement of ,lettering1 #hh1 #abb1 #bci1 #bee-bfh1 #chi 8,ascenders0 and ,ascending strokes1 #gi1 #ig1 #aai1 #cjj1 #cad ,asiso 7gesso71 #aff ,azzuro della magna1 #agi ,b1 #ahi1 #bgb1 #bgc1 #bge-bgi1 #bhj1 #daj-aa ,backgrounds1 #ahd1 #ahf1 #ahh-aic1 #baa-bac ,bands of lettering1 #abc1 #acf1 #bfg 8,barbaric0 illumination1 #aid 8,basket work10 #bjh1 #bji ,bath 7stone71 #cie ,beauty1 #bcg-bdj1 7#ab7 ,beauty of ,arrangement1 #bee ,beauty of ,form1 #beb ,beauty of ,uniformity1 #bed ,bibliography1 c41 #che ,binding books1 #cdf1 #ajc1 #ajf1 #aaj1 #aaa1 #aga1 #ahe1 #aig ,black and ,gold1 #ahe1 #bjb ,black and ,red1 #abg1 #cbh 8,black letter10 #aah1 #ada1 #bfc1 #cca1 #cfd ,black outlines1 #ahb1 #ahh1 #bab ,blake1 ,william1 7footnote7 #cdc 8,block letter10 #chd1 #cij ,blue1 #agf-ahj1 #aha1 #ahb ,book-hands1 #cf ,book ,marks1 #adb ,books1 binding1 #cdf1 #ajc1 #ajf1 #aaj1 #aaa1 #aga1 #ahe1 #aig ,books1 ,manuscript1 #ih1 #cda1 c4 ,books1 size and shape of1 #ajj-aja ,books1 size of writing in1 #aja1 #ajg ,book typography1 foundations of1 #ac1 #ih ,borders1 ,illuminated1 #ih1 #aih-bjc1 #baa1 #bad1 #dbg-dcj ,borders1 penwork1 #be ,bows ,curves1 #aba ,brasses1 #bcg1 #cdj1 #cge ,brazil-,wood1 #age ,british ,museum1 ,,mss4 in1 #chf1 #dji1 c4 ,broadsides1 #cch1 #cej ,brushes1 #agb ,brush-made 7painted7 letters1 #cgf1 #bhj1 7#aah71 #bib1 #chd ,bubbles1 in size1 #adh 8,built-up0 letters1 #bia1 #aah-aai1 #bed1 #bhi1 #cca ,burnished gold1 #afj1 #ahd 7see also ,gold7 ,burnisher1 the1 #aeh1 #aff1 #aga ,burnishing slab1 #adf1 #aec ,c1 #bgj1 #bha1 #daj-aa ,cake colours1 #age ,calligraphy1 #ad1 #cfh ,cane1 or ,reed pens1 #eb ,capitals 7see also ,letters7 ,capitals1 arrangement of1 #bef1 #beh2 7in ,lines1 ,headings ,pages7 #abe-abf1 #abh-acf1 #bii1 #dbb ,capitals1 coloured1 #aac1 #aah1 #abb1 #abc1 #acd1 #ahe ,capitals ,small letters1 #dj1 #aab1 #abb1 #cjb ,capitals1 severe type of1 #bid ,capitals1 simple-written1 #abc1 #big1 #cjb ,capitals1 sizes of1 #ajh1 #aai1 #abb ,carbonate of ,copper 7blue71 #agi ,caroline 7or ,carlovingian7 ,writing1 #da-dc1 #de1 #cje ,caslon1 ,william1 #cgc1 7#bf7 ,cennino ,cennini1 #afe1 #ahd1 #chf ,chalk1 #cie1 #djb ,chapters1 beginnings of1 #abe1 7footnote #a7 #cdb1 7#b7 #cdc ,character1 #bcg-bdj1 #cbc 8,characteristic ,parts10 #bdg1 #beb1 #bhj ,characterization of letters1 #bgh ,charlemagne1 #da ,charter hands1 #dag 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#ih1 #acj1 #add1 #ahj1 #aid1 #cdd1 #cde1 #cgb 8,rules10 #add1 #cfd ,ruling1 double1 #hh1 #cjd1 #dad ,ruling pages1 c41 #hi1 #ii1 #ajh1 #beh1 #bii1 #cdc ,ruling stylus1 #hi1 #ajj1 #ajh1 #aaj1 #cdc ,rustic ,capitals1 #ch1 #big ,rustic ,capital in ,stone1 #cgh ,rye1 ,slate at1 #cfc1 #chb ,s1 #bgc1 #bgd1 #bhf1 #daa 8,st4 ,albans ,psalter10 the1 #dai ,sandarach 7resin71 #agd ,scale for ruling1 #ii1 #be ,scalpel for pen-knife1 #fj ,scribes'1 methods1 #fe1 #hh1 #aja1 #ajc1 #aac1 #abh1 #acj1 #bba1 #beh1 #bfh ,scriptorium1 #d1 #cfh ,scroll work1 #bjc 8,section10 8,gathering01 7or 8,quire071 #ajb1 #aaj1 #cdf ,sections of ,letters in stone1 #dje1 #djc ,semi-formal ,writing1 #cag ,semi-,uncials1 see ,half-,uncials ,serifs1 #gc1 #hd1 #abj1 #bda1 #bdd-bdg1 #bhh1 #caa1 #cad1 #cib ,service ,books1 #adj1 #cde1 #chg1 #dhd ,set ,inscriptions1 #cej ,setting out spacing1 #abf1 #abh1 #bba1 #beh1 #cea1 #chd-e1 #cif ,sgraffito1 lettering in1 #cci ,sharpening stones1 #fa1 #cii ,sheets1 cutting1 folding ruling1 #ii ,sign ,writing ,brush-,work1 #cgf ,silver leaf1 #afe1 #bii ,simple and complex forms1 #aie1 #cbc ,simple ,written ,capitals1 #abc1 #big1 #cjb ,simple-,written ,letters1 #bia ,simplicity1 #bdj1 #bee 8,size0 or ,raising preparation1 #ade1 #adf1 #aff1 #afh ,size arrangement of inscriptions1 #hh1 #bfe1 #cea1 #cib ,size ,shape of book1 #ajj-aja ,sizes of ,capitals1 #aai1 #abb1 #bef ,sizes of paper sheets1 #ajc ,skeleton forms1 #bdj1 #bdg1 #bge 8,sketching10 #abf1 #bah1 #beh1 #bib 8,slanted-,pen0 or ,tilted ,writing1 #dc1 #gc1 #bda1 #bdg1 #cjd1 #caj1 #dae ,slate1 #chb1 #cie ,sleight of hand1 #bc1 #he1 #caa1 #cbb ,small-letters and ,capitals1 #dj1 #aab1 #abb1 #cjb ,small or ,fine-pen ,writing1 #ei1 #hf1 #caa1 #cbd1 #dhb1 #bf ,spacing close1 #bfb-fg ,spacing evenly1 #bfe1 #bai ,spacing letters1 words lines1 #gg1 #abh1 #bef1 #cid3 see also-- ,spacing planning ,,ms41 #hi1 #ig ,spacing setting out1 #abf1 #abh1 #bba-bb1 #beh1 #cea1 #che1 #cif ,spacing wide1 #bfb-fg1 #cad1 #cbg ,special ,books1 #cjj1 #cjd1 #cdd-cdf1 #dab1 #dhe1 #bii ,special words and letters1 #abc1 #ceb ,speed in writing1 #hd1 #cje1 #caa1 #cae1 #cbb1 #cbd1 #dhc ,spots1 in 8design10 #ahg-hh 8,spring0 for pens1 #ed1 #ei 8,square ,capitals10 #cg1 #dab 8,square and ,round0 letters1 #bfi ,square or round types of ,d1 ,e1 ,h1 ,m1 ,u1 c41 #dj1 #aai1 #acb1 #baj1 #bhb1 #cjj ,stanzas or ,verses1 #abc1 #ach 7see also ,poetry7 ,stones1 best kinds of1 for inscriptions1 #cie ,stones1 ,foundation1 #cic ,stonyhurst ,college1 ,gospel of ,s4 ,john1 in ,uncials1 #dac ,straightforwardness1 #ig1 #aja1 #bba-bb1 #beh1 #bfd1 #bfg1 #cbg1 #cdb1 #cdd1 #cea1 #cif 8,straight pen10 #dd1 #bda1 #cjd ,stylographic writing1 #cag 8,swash ,letters10 #cae ,symbolical devices1 #adb 8,symmetrical0 arrangement1 #bfd1 #chi ,t1 #bgb1 #bhf1 #daa ,tail-pieces1 #adb1 #cdb 8,tailiness10 #cjj ,tenison ,psalter1 the1 #dbf ,tenth ,century ,writing1 #df1 #acj1 #bie1 #cje1 #cbe1 7#cbf71 #dae1 #dhb1 #dhe ,theory practice1 #bfg ,thicks ,thins1 #dc1 #fc1 #hc-he1 #aah1 #bib1 #cag1 #cge1 #cgg1 #cib ,thin strokes1 horizontal1 #fe1 #ff1 #gb1 #cjd ,thirteenth ,century ,illumination1 #ahe1 #aad1 #aie1 #bjc1 #baj1 #dbc-dbg ,thirteenth ,century ,writing1 #df1 #aad1 7#aaf71 #cca1 #dbc1 #dbe1 #dbf ,thompson1 ,h4 ,yates-1 #bbg1 #dbi ,thompson1 ,sir ,e4 ,m41 #che 7quotations from71 #cf1 #cg1 #da1 #abg1 #dah1 #dbf 8,tilted0 letters 7,o1 c471 #bhe1 #dd1 #bij ,title pages1 #abh1 #adb1 #beh1 #cfc ,tombstones1 #bcg1 #cid ,tool-forms1 #bgh1 #bib1 #cbc1 #cib ,tools and ,materials for acquiring a formal hand1 #dh ,tools ,materials for illumination1 #agb1 #bj ,tools ,materials for laying burnishing gold1 #ade ,tools for inscriptions in stone-- ,chisels1 #cif-djc ,mallets1 c41 #cii-djb ,top margin 7or ,head71 #ajf1 #aaa1 #cdc ,trajan ,column1 ,inscription on1 #dji-daa ,turkey's ,quill1 a1 #ed ,twelfth ,century ,illumination1 #aie1 #bje1 #bah1 #dbj-dbb ,twelfth ,century ,writing1 #df1 #dg1 7#aaf71 #cje1 #cca1 #dag-dbb 8,tying up10 #bfj ,typography1 book1 foundations of1 #ac1 #ih ,u1 #bga1 #bhg1 #daa ,ultramarine ,ash1 #agh ,uncials 7,examples1 c471 #cjj ,uncials1 ,roman1 #ch ,uncials1 ,script ,,ii41 #gi ,uniformity1 #bdd1 #bed1 #caa1 #cbd1 #aha ,upright ,round-hand1 #dd1 #fe1 #gj1 #cjb-cjd1 #dab1 #dac-dae 8,upright0 shaped book1 #ajc ,v1 #bga1 #bhg1 #daa ,v for ,u1 use of1 #bhc ,variety1 #agg1 #bee1 #ceb ,variety in initials1 #bji ,varied types of letters1 #aad1 #aai1 #bji1 #cgg2 7on one page7 #ceb 8,vellum0 ,parchment1 #agc1 #ch1 #ajg1 #aaj1 #afg3 framing of1 #cef ,vellum for bindings1 #cdh ,verdigris1 #agh ,vermilion1 #agg ,versal ,letters1 #cd1 #aab-abf1 #bje1 #bjh1 #bah1 #bid1 #bif1 #cca1 #dbj1 #dbc 7see also ,chapter ,,viii47 ,versal ,letters1 ,examples of1 #aad 7and ,plates7 ,verses1 see ,versals1 ,paragraphs1 ,stanzas1 c4 ,vicenza1 ,mark of1 #dha ,w1 #bhg1 #daa ,walker1 ,emery1 #cgb1 #chg ,wall ,inscriptions1 #cej1 #djf ,waterproof ,ink1 #ea1 #agb 8,weight0 of lettering1 #cbg-cbh1 #cec1 #cgg ,whall1 ,c4 ,w41 #ag ,white1 ,chinese1 #ahj ,white1 use of1 #ahj1 #ahb1 #ahc1 #bab 8,whiting10 #adg1 #agd ,whitelead 7biacca71 #aff ,white-of-egg1 #afc1 #afe1 #aff1 #age1 #agi1 #ahc 8,white vine pattern10 #bjb1 #dcj1 #dha ,wide ,margins1 #hi1 #ajc1 #bac1 #bbb1 #bfe1 #bii1 #cag1 #cea1 #dhc ,wide spacing1 #bfb-fg1 #cad1 #cbg ,wood ,engraving1 #cfd1 #cfe1 #cga1 7#bba7 ,words in ,capitals1 #abf1 #acf1 #big 7see also ,headings ,spacing7 ,words to the line1 number of1 #he1 #ajg ,working in situ1 #dje ,writing1 #ast to #eth century1 #cf-ci1 #dab ,writing1 #fth to #ith century1 #dj-de1 #cjc1 #cje1 7#cbf71 #dab-dae ,writing1 #ajth century1 #df1 #acj1 7#bie71 #cje1 #cbe1 7#cbf71 #dae1 #dhb1 #dhe ,writing1 #aath century1 #df1 #dg1 #cje1 #daf ,writing1 #abth century1 #df1 #dg1 7#aaf71 #cje1 #cca1 #dag-dbb ,writing1 #acth century1 #df1 #aad1 7#aaf71 #cca1 #dbc1 #dbe1 #dbf ,writing1 #adth century1 #df1 7#aad71 #dbc1 7#dbg7 ,writing1 #aeth century1 #df1 #dg1 7#cbf71 #cca1 #dbh-dhc ,writing1 #afth century1 #caj-cbc1 7#cbf71 #dhc ,writing1 ,analysis of1 #gb1 7#aae7 ,writing1 ,anglo-,saxon1 #cbf ,writing1 ,fine ,massed1 #bfj1 #bii ,writing1 ordinary ,hand1 #ad1 #ae1 #gg1 #bhj1 #cae1 #cbc1 #cgd ,writing1 size of1 c41 #aja1 #ajg ,writing1 the ,development of1 #ce1 #dji1 ,author's ,preface ,writings1 construction of1 #gc1 #hc-he1 #aah1 #bib1 #caa 7see also ,collotype ,notes7 ,writing-,level1 the1 #fb ,writing-line1 length of1 #aje1 #ajg1 #aji1 #bfb1 #cdc 8,writing-,pad10 #ej1 7fur or cloth for7 #ea ,x1 #bgc1 #bhg1 #daa ,y1 #bgc1 #bge1 #bhg1 #daa ,yolk of egg1 #age1 #agi1 #ahj ,z1 #bgb1 #bhh1 #daa ,zincotype process1 the1 #cfg ,,the ,,end ,printed by ,ballantyne1 ,hanson ,co4 ,edinburgh ,london ,,hopton-,,wood ,,stone ,is the most reliable of all ,,english ,,marbles ,it is hard and of such fine and compact texture that the most intricate designs can be worked with sharpness and reliability1 and it will take and retain a fine polish equal to any other ,marble on the ,market4 ,it is a good weathering stone1 and has never been known to deteriorate4 ,write for ,descriptive ,illustrated ,brochure to-- ,the ,,hopton-,,wood ,,stone ,,firms1 ,ltd41 ,,wirksworth1 ,,derbyshire4 ,london ,agency-- #acd ,cheapside1 ,e4,c4 ,,vellums ,a ,,speciality ,,artists' ,,vellum for ,illuminated ,addresses1 c4 ,,kelmscott ,,vellum 7not so heavy as ,artists'71 specially prepared for printing 7as used by the late ,william ,morris in his great work 8,chaucer074 ,,roman ,,vellum1 a lighter substance1 and generally used by craftsmen and students1 both for writing and illuminating as well as for printing4 ,,oxford ,,classic ,,and ,,dark ,,covering ,,vellums4 ,apply to-- ,h4 ,,band ,co41 ,kelmscott ,house1 ,somerset ,road1 ,brentford4 ,,bookbinding ,writing and ,illuminating4 ,f ,sangorski ,g ,sutcliffe4 #aa ,southampton ,row1 ,london1 ,w4,c4 ,have had considerable experience in the binding of vellum manuscripts4 ,the greatest care is taken of raised gold4 ,prices from #f_/f ,,government ,,contractors ,w4 ,m4 ,,wheatley ,,sons 7,established a ,century7 ,,gold ,,and ,,silver ,,beaters ,,and ,,bronze ,,powder ,,manufacturers #ch ,,devonshire ,,street ,queen ,square ,,london1 ,w4 ,c4 ,gold ,leaf in all ,shades4 ,specialty for ,bookbinders4 ,illustration3 ,registered ,trade ,mark ,illustration ,est4 #ahdj ,a4 ,,copley1 #ij and #ib ,oakley ,street1 ,london1 ,s4,e4 ,best and ,largest ,stock of ,stone and ,marble ,working ,tools in ,london4 ,,makers ,,to ,,the ,l4,c4,c4 ,catalogues ,free4 ,,gold ,,leaf ,illustration ,specially prepared for ,illuminators 7guaranteed free from alloy7 in ,double1 ,treble1 and ,quadruple qualities4 ,gold ,powder1 ,platinum1 c41 c4 ,g4 ,m4 ,,whiley1 #eh ,whitfield ,st41 ,tottenham ,court ,road1 ,london1 ,w4 ,o4,w4 ,,papers--,,linen ,,rag ,guaranteed ,pure4 ,by ,r4 ,w4 ,s4 ,,royal ,,society of ,,painters ,,in ,,water ,,colours4 ,recognised as suitable for the finest work of every description4 ,hand-,made and ,machine-,made4 ,address-- ,o4,w4 ,p4 ,a4 ,co41 ,ltd41 #ajj ,gt4 ,russell ,st41 ,london1 ,w4,c4 ,,the ,,artistic ,,crafts ,,series ,,school ,,copies ,,and ,,examples4 ,selected by ,w4 ,r4 ,,lethaby and ,a4 ,h4 ,,christie4 ,twelve ,drawing-copies 7one in colours71 #ae-c_/d #ab1 with ,descriptive ,letter-press1 in a ,portfolio4 ,price #es4 net4 8,should be a marked success as a medium of artistic education40 --,the ,bookseller4 ,,published ,,by ,,john ,,hogg #ac ,paternoster ,row1 ,london1 ,e4,c4 ,,the ,,artistic ,,crafts ,,series ,,of ,,technical ,,handbooks ,,edited ,,by ,w4 ,r4 ,,lethaby ,extract from ,editor's ,preface4 8,we would have this series put artistic craftsmanship before people as furnishing reasonable occupation for those who would gain a livelihood4444 ,in the blending of handwork and thought in such arts as we propose to deal with1 happy careers may be found as far removed from the dreary routine of hack labour as from the terrible uncertainty of academic art4 ,it is desirable in every way that men of good education should be brought back into the productive crafts3 there are more than enough of us 8in the ,city10 and it is probable that more consideration will be given in this century than in the last to ,design and ,workmanship40 ,projected as a ,standard ,series of ,handbooks on the ,artistic ,crafts1 suitable for ,schools1 ,workshops1 ,libraries1 and all interested in the ,arts4 ,each ,craft will be dealt with by an ,expert1 qualified to speak with authority on ,design as well as on ,workmanship4 ,see following pages4 ,,published ,,by ,,john ,,hogg #ac ,paternoster ,row1 ,london1 ,e4,c4 ,,bookbinding1 ,,and ,,the ,,care ,,of ,,books4 ,a ,,text-,,book ,,for ,,bookbinders ,,and ,,librarians4 ,,by ,,douglas ,,cockerell4 ,with #abb ,diagrams and ,illustrations by ,noel ,rooke1 and #h ,pages of ,collotype ,reproductions of ,bindings4 #ceb ,pages4 ,price #es4 net ,,press ,,notices 8,an excellent book opens #8,the ,artistic ,crafts ,series of ,technical ,handbooks4'0--,times4 8,it would be hard to find any technical book of this kind which gives more importance to considerations of good taste than this4 4 4 4 ,it leaves no part of its subject unaccounted for1 and is in its own printing1 binding1 and illustration1 a favourable example of good craftsmanship4 ,valuable in itself1 it promises well for the series which it opens40--,scotsman4 8,a special word of praise must be bestowed upon the illustrations40-- ,athenum4 8,the first of a new series of technical handbooks1 and an admirable work it is40--,pall ,mall ,gazette4 8,in a manner lucid and practical the whole process of bookbinding is set forth1 the matter being enhanced in usefulness by the drawings for which ,mr4 ,noel ,rooke is responsible4 ,altogether the volume gives the greatest promise for the success of the series40--,newcastle ,daily ,journal4 8,workers of all degrees will find the book well worth acquisition alike from its valuable material and as inciting to a high standard of workmanship40--,the ,british ,printer4 8,bookbinders and librarians will find much to interest them in this lucid1 well-illustrated1 and valuable little treatise40--,the ,studio4 8,contains so much information useful to every book-owner that it will be found a very good investment even by the unprofessional40--,the ,pilot4 ,,published ,,by ,,john ,,hogg #ac ,paternoster ,row1 ,london1 ,e4,c4 ,,silverwork ,,and ,,jewellery4 ,a ,,text-,,book ,,for ,,students ,,and ,,workers ,,in ,,metal4 ,,by ,h4 ,,wilson4 ,with #ahb ,diagrams by the ,author1 and #af ,pages of ,collotype ,reproductions4 #cdh ,pages4 ,price #es4 net4 ,,press ,,notices 8,a lucid text-book for students and workers1 well illustrated1 being the second volume in the series which made a successful opening with ,mr4 ,d4 ,cockerell's #8,bookbinding4'0--,the ,times4 8,it teaches not only processes and workshop practice1 but also good taste in the making of objects in which in these days vulgarity is none too seldom seen4 ,admirably illustrated1 well written1 and practically serviceable1 the book should prove welcome alike to craftsmen and to amateurs40--,the ,scotsman4 84 4 4 ,the book will have a fascination for all craftsmen1 and may be read with advantage by every one who wishes to understand the underlying principles of the art crafts40--,the ,morning ,post4 8,not only to apprentices and learners1 but also to experienced craftsmen1 the book can be most cordially commended4 ,its value is enhanced by a full glossary and an index40--,glasgow ,herald4 8,this volume1 which belongs to the admirable ,artistic ,crafts ,series of ,technical ,handbooks1 gives practical instruction in one of the most beautiful of man's handicrafts40--,the ,newcastle ,chronicle4 8,we cannot imagine a better aid and supplement to practical experience in the workshop than this handbook4 ,all necessary processes1 from the simplest to the most complex1 are explained in a methodical and logical order1 with the aid of illustrations1 in which each touch is eloquent and fresh from the master's hand40--,the ,athenum4 ,,published ,,by ,,john ,,hogg #ac ,paternoster ,row1 ,london1 ,e4,c4 ,,wood ,,carving3 ,,design ,,and ,,workmanship4 ,,by ,,george ,,jack4 ,with #gh ,drawings by the ,author1 and #af ,pages of ,collotype ,reproductions4 #cbj ,pages4 ,price #es4 net ,,press ,,notices 8,the study of some form of handicraft has become an important matter in the training of an art student1 and those who practise wood-carving will find in this admirably written and illustrated book a comprehensive treatise on the subject40--,morning ,post4 8,in this notable addition to the ,handbooks on the ,artistic ,crafts1 ,mr4 ,jack deals thoroughly not only with the craftsmanship of wood-carving1 but also with the theory of design1 and the subject-matter which the artist should select to carve40--,newcastle ,daily ,journal4 8,the illustrations complete in a very appreciable way the value of one of the soundest text-books within the reach of the student of wood-carving40--,glasgow ,herald4 8,quite up to the level of its predecessors40--,studio4 8,his illustrations from both ancient examples and from his own work are excellently chosen and reproduced1 and show that he has made himself the master and the pupil of the best traditions of his craft40--,pall ,mall ,gazette4 8,clear instruction1 profusely illustrated1 and admirably presented by the publisher40--,sheffield ,daily ,telegraph4 8,mr4 ,jack's love of his art is evidenced by every one of his chapters 4 4 4 ,to read his book is a pleasure1 and we can very heartily commend it4 ,it is fully illustrated1 and contains a number of fine collotype plates and a good index4 ,it is exceedingly cheap at the published price of #es40--,furniture ,record4 8,in its affirmative aspect the book is entirely admirable1 4 4 4 and its value is immensely enhanced by the numerous and excellent illustrations4 ,its literary quality is greatly superior to that of the average text-book40--,builder4 ,,published ,,by ,,john ,,hogg #ac ,paternoster ,row1 ,london1 ,e4,c4 ,,the ,,artistic ,,crafts ,,series ,,of ,,technical ,,handbooks ,,edited ,,by ,w4 ,r4 ,,lethaby ,,stained ,,glass ,,work4 ,a ,text-,book for ,students and ,workers in ,glass4 ,by ,c4 ,w4 ,whall4 ,with #gc ,diagrams by two of his ,apprentices1 and #af pages of ,collotype ,reproductions4 ,now ready4 #cib pages4 ,price #es4 net4 8,no art student or art teacher could fail to derive benefit from a study of the book2 and no connoisseur1 whatever his special bent1 could read it without profit as well as pleasure40--,the ,aberdeen ,daily ,journal4 8,the highest praise possible for this handbook would be to say that it is worthy of the remarkable series to which it belongs1 and this1 without reserve1 we can affirm to be the case40--,arts and ,crafts4 8,the book is thoroughly practical1 describing in detail the whole process of stained-glass manufacture1 with illustrations and a large number of diagrams40--,the ,newcastle ,daily ,journal4 8,apart from the craftsman1 also1 this book should prove of great service to those interested in painted glass1 whether as custodians of buildings containing fine old windows or as architects or clients intent on securing good modern work40--,the ,glasgow ,herald4 8,students will appreciate the excellent material found in this book and the beautiful plates that accompany it40--,the ,educational ,review4 ,,embroidery ,,and ,,tapestry ,,weaving3 ,a ,practical ,text-,book of ,design and ,workmanship4 ,by ,mrs4 ,a4 ,h4 ,christie4 ,with #ahg ,illustrations and ,diagrams by the ,author1 and #af pp4 of ,collotype ,plates4 #daf pp4 ,price #fs4 net4 ,,writing ,,illuminating1 ,,and ,,lettering4 ,by ,e4 ,johnston4 ,with #bbg ,illustrations and ,diagrams by the ,author and ,noel ,rooke4 #h pp4 of ,examples in ,red and ,black1 and #bd pp4 of ,collotypes4 #eab pp4 ,price #fs4 #f;d4 net4 ,to be followed by others in due course4 ,,published ,,by ,,john ,,hogg #ac ,paternoster ,row1 ,london1 ,e4,c4 ,illustration ,,by ,,special ,,appointment ,,newman ,manufacturing ,artists' ,colourman ,,established ,,over #ajj ,,years4 ,materials of every description for ,illuminating1 ,missal ,painting1 c4 ,luminous ,body ,colours in ,tubes and ,screw-,capped ,bottles4 ,sable and other ,brushes4 ,prepared ,vellum and ,hand-,made ,papers4 ,pure ,gold1 in ,bottles1 ,cake1 ,shells1 c4 ,agate ,burnishers1 ,reed ,pens1 ,crow ,quills1 ,steel ,nibs1 c4 ,pocket ,magnifying ,glasses4 ,,catalogues--,,post ,,free4 #bd ,,soho ,,square1 ,,london1 ,w4 ,telephone #haii--8;,gerrard40 ,,transcriber',s ,,endnote4 ,original spelling and grammar has been generally retained1 with some exceptions noted below4 ,illustrations are moved from inside paragraphs to between paragraphs4 ,original printed page numbers are shown like these3 p-xiv or p#jeb4 ,original small caps ,,looks ,like ,this4 ,italics look like this4 ,original bolded text ,looks like this4 ,the code fabc xyz_/f means that the text abc xyz was printed in a special font or style not available in this edition4 ,the code denotes a special symbol not available in this edition4 ,the html edition contains images or characters for all of these4 ,most of the footnotes are renumbered into a single sequence and moved from the ends of pages to the ends of major sections1 which are3 the ,author's ,preface1 ,part ,i1 ,part ,,ii1 ,appendix ,a1 and ,appendix ,b4 ,footnotes in the section ,notes on the ,collotype ,plates are not renumbered1 but are relocated to the end of each ,plate description4 ,ditto marks are generally deleted1 and replaced with repeated text if necessary4 ,large curly brackets1 or 1 used to indicate combination or grouping of information on two or more lines1 have been eliminated from this ebook4 ,such information has been recast if necessary1 preferring minimal changes1 to retain the original meaning4 ,the complex tables on page #gb and pages #afb-c are examples of such recasting4 ,page viii3 ornamention was changed to ornamentation4 ,pages xxv1 #add1 etc43 the symbol ,u,a#ge;,e ,,latin ,,capital ,,letter ,v ,,with ,,diagonal ,,stroke is coded _/,v herein4 ,elsewhere1 a code like this3 ,v indicates a ,capital ,v with ,macron4 ,page #bad3 illluminated borders changed to illuminated borders4 ,page #bbg3 ,the ,figure originally marked ,fig4 #acd;a on this page was changed to ,fig4 #acd;d4 ,page #bci3 ,the complex table was recast as a nested list4 ,page #bga3 ,in the fifth paragraph1 the enlarged ,u has been rendered herein as a capital letter1 although the original looked more like an enlarged typical modern u4 ,page #bhd3 occasionly changed to occasionally4 ,page #dcj4 ,the section ,,notes ,,on ,,the ,,collotype ,,plates was broken off in the midst of a paragraph on page #dcj1 and continued on page #dha1 after the section ,,the ,,collotype ,,plates4 ,herein1 this structure was retained1 but the broken paragraph was closed1 with all of it on page #dcj4 ,index1 ,black outlines3 #hh changed to #ahh4 ,index1 ,proportions and ,methods3 this entry was repeated1 once between ,letters in ,bands and ,letters1 ,brush-made1 and once in its proper alphabetical order4 ,the first entry was deleted4