,,transcriber',s ,,note4 ,in this plain text version of 8,the ,art of ,drinking03 ,words in italics are marked with underscores4 ,small capital letters are shown in upper case4 ,minor printer's errors have been corrected1 but variant and irregular spellings are retained4 ,,the ,,art ,,of ,,drinking4 ,a ,,historical ,,sketch4 ,,from ,,the ,,german ,,of ,g4 ,g4 ,,gervinus4 ,,translated ,,for ,,the ,,united ,,states ,,brewers' ,,association4 ,,new ,,york3 ,,united ,,states ,,brewers' ,,association4 #ahij4 ,,translator',s ,,note4 ,g4 ,g4 ,gervinus 7#ahje-ahga7 is recognized as one of the foremost historians of ,germany4 ,he was a man of marvelous erudition4 ,his fame rests not only upon a great number of profoundly learned works1 but also upon his brilliant advocacy of the constitutional rights of the people1 as against the reactionary tendency of the ,german princes during ,metternich's despotic rule4 ,he was one of the seven celebrated professors of the ,university of ,gttingen who boldly protested against the violation of the ,constitution by the ,king of ,hanover4 ,his best-known works are 8,history of the ,poetical ,literature of the ,germans10 8,history of the ,nineteenth ,century10 and a voluminous commentary on ,shakspeare1 8made popular in ,england0--as the ,encyclopdia ,britannica states--8by an excellent translation40 ,the following sketch was designed by ,gervinus as an outline of what a history of potology would be1 if conceived and executed by a philosophical mind4 ,an ,english translation of this sketch needs no justification in our time4 ,,the ,,art ,,of ,,drinking4 ,a ,,historical ,,sketch4 ,a sketch of the art of drinking might seem to announce a subject unworthy of a man whose energies have been devoted to earnest purposes and serious aims in life4 ,but it is not my intention to make the sketch a mere treasure-box of all sorts of curiosities1 nor to gratify thereby the curiosity of idle readers4 ,when it is approached from a scientific standpoint1 the dignity of science must necessarily exclude all frivolous treatment1 as well as all shallow and superficial purpose4 ,many would be satisfied if an insignificant sketch of this kind simply bore some pathetic motto1 as these words of ,seneca's3 ,animum aliquando debemus relaxare et quibusdam oblectamentis reficere2 sed ipsa oblectamenta opera sint4 ,i1 however1 would scorn a justification of this kind1 for ,i hold that recreation ought to be recreation1 and not work1 and should consider it far better if our labors were pleasures1 rather than our pleasures1 labors4 ,i wish in this sketch to point out the importance and serious significance of a work of this sort1 and shall have1 above all1 to prove that the apparently somewhat jocular subject has a very serious side1 and may be contemplated from a grave standpoint4 ,if ,i succeed from the very first in inducing the reader to adopt the same historical view of the matter that ,i take myself1 ,i shall have gained a great point1 for he will then lay aside all prejudice and preconceived opinion4 ,the real historian must be a stranger to all prejudice and preconceived opinion2 he cannot treat of any subject separately1 but is attracted by everything in a certain order and connection4 ,he must not choose any subject from personal inclination1 but according to the needs and demands of his time and of human society2 nor must he treat the chosen subject with that pathological interest and sympathy so common among the writers of the ,new ,world4 ,he must understand and know1 from historical experience1 that in times like ours1 which have outgrown the activity of imagination--that is to say1 ,art--and1 on the other hand1 are not yet ripe for speculation--that is to say1 ,philosophy1--universal observation1 which includes all departments of human activity1 is the only thing that in these very times and for this generation can furnish positive information and prove a certain gain4 ,the real historian1 whose profession it is to be equally interested in everything1 thus becomes an image of impartiality4 ,the impartial observer is attracted by all phenomena1 and to him nothing appears small1 insignificant or unimportant1 as soon as he begins to draw conclusions from his observations and to discover laws in the physical as well as the moral world4 ,in the world of reason there exists nothing small1 accidental or unimportant4 ,if the same laws of chemical combination govern immense masses of matter as well as the smallest atom1 if the march and development of mankind are the same as those of the most insignificant individual1 the observation of the smallest as well as the greatest is of equal importance1 and man may well feel comfort in the fact that each hair upon his head is1 indeed1 numbered4 ,this alone might refute any serious objection to my theme4 ,a history of oinology or potology would be able to show that man1 in satisfying a partly physical and partly intellectual desire1 is bound by the same laws that govern him in the satisfaction of the highest needs of his striving mind4 ,and if this be the case1 the theme might be considered worthy of being chosen by the most severe scientific moralist2 and matters of this kind are apt to be overlooked only because other things appear comparatively more important4 ,there is a history of wine and wine-drinking 7for of these alone ,i speak71 because it is connected with our spiritual development4 ,wine itself shows a certain element of development and perfectibility--a relation to organic life in its fermentation1 and a sympathetic feeling1 as it were1 in its movement during the period of the blooming of the vine1 while in the plant itself it shows an inner development4 ,i have just called wine-drinking a partly physical1 partly intellectual enjoyment1 and it is almost impossible to call up the image of any social gathering or entertainment without it4 ,and since all human culture proceeds from the manners and forms of society and social intercourse1 we would plainly see in such a history--what has often been divined and pointed out1 but also frequently smiled at--that wine is most closely connected with the civilization of ,states and with the development of free human culture1 and that the art of drinking at all times keeps step with this culture and development1 and sinks or rises with them4 ,for not at all times have men practiced this art with equal wisdom1 nor yet even practiced it in like manner2 and there is spiritual progress from the blood-thirsty revels of gisthe to those of the philosophers with ,plato2 from the cup-bearer ,hephstos to ,hebe and ,ganymede2 from the heavy1 dull metal cup to the transparent1 rounded crystal glass1 in ,lucian's time1 or our own1 which shows the color1 retains the perfume and promotes sound4 ,as the culture of the grape is only found where a higher human civilization has begun to develop1 it also shows itself at once where a new civilization appears2 it may be even in regions unfavorable to it1 where it is only cultivated till wine has become so great a want that it can no longer be dispensed with1 despite the lack of sufficient native production4 ,the first cultivators of the vine1 history praises as benefactors of mankind and propagators of civilization4 ,noah was the elect of ,god1 in spite of the improprieties produced by his wine2 old ,dionysos1 for all the ravings of his service1 a kindly god2 and ,urban1 of the ,middle ,ages1 a saint1 although he committed the greatest misdeeds under the influence of wine4 ,and wherever1 on the other hand1 in more enlightened history1 a man took an active part in the development of human civilization1 he did so also instinctively1 it would seem1 for that of wine--be it a ,heracles ,ipoctonos among the ,erythrans2 or an ,alexander1 who1 with his ,greek culture1 brought the grape-vine back to hot ,babylon2 or a ,charles ,,iv41 who1 with his ,italian education1 wished to force it upon cold ,bohemia4 ,we shall see that wherever hierarchical constitutions deprived the people of the advantages of education1 the wisdom of the priests was subtle enough to forbid wine too1 and the course of the ,mohammedan hierarchy will show us most plainly how the art of drinking brought with it bold reformatory deviations from the laws4 ,we shall observe1 even with ,christian nations1 how1 among certain races where the use of wine was confined to the ,communion table1 civilization also came to a stand-still4 ,we can then point to a patriarchal and heroic period of the art of drinking1 where wine1 as was formerly done by the ,gauls1 and even by our own ,suabian ancestors1 was despised1 and afterwards1 by all sorts of artificial means1 made more substantial than it is by nature--more like mead or beer1 which is at such periods the natural drink of the people4 ,at an aristocratic and knightly epoch1 in which society is unnaturally sublimated1 it is sought to increase and make more spiritual still the effect of wine also1 by the addition of spicy herbs4 ,with the first civil development of nations they return to simple nature2 a number of corporations and brotherhoods make it their business to watch over the art of drinking1 over the purity of the wine itself1 and its lawful use2 from king to beggar1 all cultivate the cheering art1 just as all are anxious1 also1 for spiritual enlightenment4 ,we see1 then1 in the last centuries the pedantic return to tea and coffee1 and among those nations who have shared but in very small measure in the intellectual progress of ,europe1 we find that the coffee-house 7caf7--an institution which is scarcely a century and a half old--almost crowded out the wine-saloons4 ,i have alluded to wine-drinking as a partly intellectual and partly physical enjoyment4 ,among material enjoyments1 it is one of the most spiritual2 among spiritual ones1 one of the most material1 keeping about the right middle course4 ,a history of the art of drinking would prove this4 ,everywhere in the history of nations we shall come upon times where amid a fulness of physical power1 the desire for more refinement in outward life1 as well as a striving for greater inner perfection1 began to manifest itself4 ,in ,germany1 the time of the ,reformation was such a period4 ,and at such times1 when outer and inner powers begin to stir with wonderful energy--times as yet divided between old roughness and new humanity2 between the coarse1 ordinary fare of every day for mind and imagination1 and the new hope of some finer nourishment--at such times the genial enjoyment of wine1 and the delights of regular social pleasures1 have always struck deepest root and had freest play4 ,such images as those1 this history would most willingly depict2 nor would it be superfluous to present them in our day1 when society seems more and more to forget that its aim is to be simply pleasure and recreation4 ,the future seems to offer nothing that could take the place of the great simplicity of past manners2 of those feasts of youth which asked nothing but uncontrolled enjoyment2 of those evening entertainments of the citizens1 which were devoted to their immediate surroundings in house or community2 of the frank and manly rectitude of that race which seemed1 indeed1 to find truth and constancy in wine1 and its best pleasures in an afternoon spent in the 8wine-garden10 surrounded by wife and children1 relatives and friends4 ,all public pleasure has disappeared from among us1 and we arrange parties and receptions that only tire ourselves and others4 ,ceremonious etiquette gives us work and trouble when we should find recreation1 and fatigues our minds when imagination should have free play4 ,only where men1 here and there1 permit themselves to meet about the bottle1 according to the good old custom1 and where no committee is necessary to approve of the toasts1 pure1 genuine pleasure revives once more1 together with the pure1 genuine art of drinking4 ,for there is no intellectual power that is so directly quickened and strengthened by any nourishment as imagination is by wine4 ,tea keeps conversation within the bounds of pedantic propriety1 and beer soothes but checks quick repartee2 but wine sharpens the sting of wit1 stimulates spirited conversation1 and brightens the whole social atmosphere4 ,the poet1 who lives in imagination1 and turns his back upon reality1 was always a lover of wine--the beverage which intensifies reality1 and1 at the same time1 lifts him above it4 ,the drinking-song1 from ,anacreon down to all his imitators in ,germany1 occupies a special and very prominent place in literature4 ,to wine are dedicated the first productions of the tragic art2 and to it has been assigned a particular dithyrambic measure1 which a poet who should set water above wine could never soar high enough to make his own4 ,and whosoever has any cause to turn away from the real world1 and longs for the freedom of living in an ideal one1 is fond of wine4 ,if ,i wished to spoil my idyllic picture by satire1 ,i should here name the converts and the monks2 but ,i should rather call up the wandering beggar1 whom want and hardship have made weary of the world4 ,sleep has been praised as the friend of poverty2 but there were times when wine also was called its friend1 which1 even in waking hours1 calls up dreams that charm away the burden of a miserable existence4 ,for wine tempts even the beggar to extravagance1 that vice which has often been set down to the account of wine2 although1 if there be such a thing as degrees in vice1 it may be called one of the nobler ones4 ,and this genial pleasure in spending helps the poor man in his misery2 consoles him for his destitution2 offers him who is homeless a spot where he may feel comfortable1 and teaches him to forget all that oppresses him4 ,wine makes man liberal and generous2 the offered cup was formerly the symbol of hospitality granted1 and even the miser is more ready to share tobacco and wine than any of his other possessions4 ,for it makes us communicative and confidential in social intercourse2 it founds friendships1 and is still the symbol of brotherhood4 ,if it sometimes stirs up heat and dissension1 it also smooths the way to union again2 and1 formerly1 no reconciliation could take place without having a seal set upon it by a common cup of wine4 ,at your cup you find the freest and most enlightened spot in the world1 where you may not only think what you please1 and say what you think1 but where your thoughts themselves take the highest flight man is capable of4 ,i do not know whether it is due to jealous gods that the excessive enjoyment of wine proves its own penalty4 ,without this depressing fire in the wine itself1 it seems to me heaven and its secrets would be far more endangered by the spiritual flight of the drinker than by the towering rocks of the ,titans4 ,thus1 wherever despots and hierarchs intended to keep nations in drowsy stupidity1 they forbade wine4 ,only at times1 when liberty and enlightenment were common property1 when no castes possessed an exclusive monoply of wisdom1 right or might1 was it possible to introduce political discussion at the cup4 ,for only at such times of universal public spirit and feeling could one take counsel of the imagination in practical affairs and matters of ,state1 and hope for such results of the evening discussion at the cup as would bear the test of the sober next day's light4 ,for only such heroic conditions as are represented by the ,germans and ,persians of ancient times can really show the virtues of truth and faithfulness1 and in the most public concerns could hear the voice that always speaks in wine2 and1 in those days1 no one needed to fear that wine would impel him to speak truth too freely4 ,only nations of really active nature1 who called manliness and war-power by the name of virtue1 could do full honor to wine1 and it could only be a ,greek who asked1 as did ,aristophanes3-- 8,dost thou boldly venture to say wine is not good for our reason8 ,what more than wine impels us to deeds and to action8 ,why1 look you1 as soon as men are drinkers of wine1 then ,rich are they all and active1 victorious in law-courts2 ,aye1 very happy too1 and to their friends useful40 ,among the ,germans1 too1 it has long been customary to settle all business with a drink1 and there was no betrothal1 no bargain1 and no compact that was not accompanied by the purchase of wine4 ,all ,german history is filled with the love of wine4 ,when the ,german border-line was first drawn1 the ,germans insisted on keeping the left bank of the ,rhine1 on account of its richness in grapes4 ,they wrote books about the national disposition to drink2 they divided their history according to drinking periods1 and old proverbs call the love of drink the ,german national vice1 as theft is that of the ,spaniards1 deceit that of the ,italians1 and vanity that of the ,french4 ,nowhere exist wines so capable of purity as the ,german wines1 and no real ,german will ever compare with their genuine wine-qualities those of the tricky southern wines2 and nowhere have mixtures been so carefully avoided1 as well as the purity of the art of drinking1 and the old drinking customs so scrupulously preserved1 as in ,germany4 ,only in ,germany could be conceived the idea of a history of the art of drinking4 ,perhaps the fates have ordained me to be the historian of wine1 in the very meaning of my name--ger-wn1 not gr-wn4 ,and perhaps some readers may be found for it in ,germany who do not consider it too indelicate to speak or to read of the natural needs of man4 ,let man never1 in foolish pride1 think himself above his own natural wishes and enjoyments1 for it is the reasonable care given to these which keeps him close to human nature4 ,as long as a people cannot live on newspaper reading and on staring about in public places1 as do ,frenchmen and ,italians1 it keeps its hands busy1 its powers actively employed1 and its eyes open1 and wherever active powers are astir1 no nation is in so very bad a condition4 ,i should be well content if ,i could bring before active and manly minds a cheerful picture of those manly enjoyments1 and induce them to taste of this somewhat coarser fare1 in addition to the delicate dishes of our literature4 ,i4 ,,the ,,fatherland ,,of ,,wine4 ,i would only here and there touch upon the botanical and industrial culture of the grape1 as many very valuable works on the subject already exist 7among others1 ,henderson's 8,history of ,ancient and ,modern ,wines071 which make almost a complete literature of wine4 ,i shall also speak of the home of the grape only for the sake of preserving the natural order of things1 and shall touch later upon the mythical origin of wine1 or the preparation of wine4 ,if we look for the original country of the grape1 we shall find that here1 too1 as in almost every other branch of culture1 the western highlands of ,asia are pointed out to us1 whether we follow the fable of ,father ,noah1 the ,nysan ,bacchus1 or the researches of the naturalists4 ,the latter teach us that on the ,canary ,isles and in ,america the grape grows not so much wild as in a degenerate condition2 but in the southwest of ,europe1 for instance the ,italian woods1 it is here and there found growing really wild2 that in the southeast this is still more common1 and in ,asia ever on the increase4 ,it is singular that at the ,ararat1 to which ,jewish tradition also points1 ,tournefort1 in his 8,journey to the ,levant10 discovered a regular workshop of the ,european plant1 and on the borders of transcaucasian ,georgia he saw the land covered with wild grape-vines and fruit-trees4 ,in the ,caucasus1 ,marshall found the grape flourishing independently in the forest and covering whole trees1 and we see in the rough and indifferent manner in which the inhabitants of these countries harvest and treat the grape that they consider it a very common product4 ,the manner in which they preserve the wine1 and the quantity they daily consume1 prove the same1 and this entirely agrees with what ,xenophon tells of the preservation of the wine in cisterns4 ,elphinstone1 in his report on ,cabul1 relates that the ,sultan presented him with grapes that grew without cultivation in his country4 ,and not only the quantities of the wild grapes in those countries induce us to regard them as their native soil1 it is also the excellent quality of the cultivated grape in ,persia4 ,the quantity and quality of the ,persian wine opposed in this respect an effective barrier to the laws of the ,koran1 which enjoined against the enjoyment of the beverage1 even in the ,orient1 which is so set in its religious rites and ceremonies4 ,olivier preferred the grapes about ,ispahan to all he had tasted in ,greece1 on the islands of the ,mediterranean1 and in ,syria4 ,none1 he says1 equals the ,kismish1 which bears a berry of middling size1 without seeds and with a thin skin4 ,shiraz1 rich in poets1 is celebrated on account of the excellence and plenty of its wine and its fine air1 and ,morier1 in his 8,journey through ,persia10 places the wine of ,kazwin even above that of ,shiraz1 and the former city is so beautifully situated in so mild a climate that the ,persians have given it the name of 8,paradise40 ,in regard to the fruitfulness of the vine1 ,strabo tells us that in ,hyrcania one vine was apt to yield about thirty-three quarts of wine4 ,in ,margiana were said to be vines measuring at the base of the stem two fathoms in circumference and bearing grapes two yards long4 ,in ,asia the fruitfulness is said to be still greater1 and there the wine keeps1 in unpitched vessels1 through three generations4 ,,ii4 ,,wine ,,is ,,not ,,domesticated ,,among ,,the ,,negroes4 ,the course from east to west1 marked by the higher culture of the human race1 has been also closely followed by the culture of the grape4 ,other regions1 north and south from the boundary marked out1 may have had a certain share in that civilization2 but it seems now to be proved that the negro races1 the original inhabitants of ,africa1 have not in any way been connected with it4 ,in those regions of ,africa always inhabited by these races1 no grape-culture is1 up to the present day1 to be found2 and1 both in ancient and modern times1 the grape has been a stranger in ,africa1 and a stranger scarcely to be called naturalized anywhere4 ,to that king of the long-lived ,ethiopians in ,herodotus1 to whom ,cambyses sent his gifts1 wine1 therefore1 seemed the only desirable thing they possessed1 and to it he ascribed the brief old age which1 in the best case1 it was given the ,persians to attain4 ,his negroes1 therefore1 were not acquainted with wine1 and in this they were like all uncivilized people1 as we shall frequently see2 nor did they ever accept it1 any more than they accepted any other part of civilization2 they never advanced any further than to their ,towak1 the palm-wine made of flower-stems2 even the lotus-wine1 of the preparation of which ,herodotus knew1 seems to belong only to the ,libyans4 ,only emigrants1 in the most ancient as well as most recent times1 have introduced the grape-vine at different times into ,africa1 and we will briefly glance at this4 ,first1 the ,egyptians must be named1 ,caucasian races not autochthonically at home in ,libya4 ,the ancient culture of the grape in ,egypt is proved not only by historical documents1 but even by the ruins of old buildings1 and ,i shall return to the paintings in the vaults near ,el ,kab1 which represent1 among other things1 the manner of gathering the grapes1 and of preserving and cooling the wine4 ,several regions are specially mentioned as celebrated for their wine4 ,eleithya had grape-culture2 the lakes of ,mareos and ,taenia1 where all is now a barren desert1 were commended for their wine2 ,alexandria exported wine to ,rome1 and ,horace is acquainted with that of ,mareos4 ,to the ,epicureans1 however1 the ,falernian wine seemed better when treated in the ,egyptian manner2 and the wine of ,taenia was considered stronger and spicier than the ,alexandrian4 ,but even in the time of ,ahenos this culture had almost disappeared1 and only that of ,antylla still had a good name in those days4 ,and even in better times1 the native wine does not seem to have sufficed for home consumption1 for ,herodotus speaks at length of imported wine from ,hellas and ,phnicia4 ,the ,libyans and ,berbers probably never knew a grape-culture of their own without foreign aid4 ,it is certain that in old times the colonies of the ,greeks and ,carthagenians in the north of ,africa were full of the grape2 and we shall find further on that the cult of ,bacchus was widespread in ,cyrenaica1 and that traces of it still remain in the ruins4 ,pliny speaks of vineyards as traces of ancient civilization in the mountains of ,dyris 7,atlas72 and there are still1 more for the sake of the grapes than the wine1 vineyards near ,tunis1 in the rich district of ,derna1 as well as the poor one of ,mafa1 in ,fezzan4 ,in ,mauritania1 as ,strabo reports1 were found grapes a yard in circumference4 ,in the oases1 ,belzoni saw grapes1 and in that of ,siwah they are excellent1 as other southern fruit also4 ,in recent times the ,portuguese brought the grape1 with other fruit1 as well to ,madeira and the ,canary ,isles as to ,abyssinia4 ,there the poorness of the plant itself1 no less than the peculiar use of it1 shows plainly what a stranger it is4 ,thus1 also1 among the ,griquas it is cultivated by the missionaries only1 who1 confining1 as they are wont1 all civilization which they offer to the elements of ,christian religion1 give to grape-culture also only a ,christian significance1 planting the vine merely for its use at the ,communion table4 ,the celebrated ,cape wine is a different matter4 ,enlightened ,french emigrants1 ,protestants driven from home by the ,edict of ,nantes1 first planted the grape there2 but it is not certain whether the vines came both from ,persia and from the ,rhine1 or only from ,shiraz4 ,the climate seems there to favor the culture of the grape extremely2 the soil1 however1 appears most unfavorable1 and ,colebrooke1 in his work on the condition of the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 ascribes the earthy taste1 which makes the ,cape wines unpleasant1 to a substratum of the soil1 otherwise rather good1 consisting in many places of layers of clay and sand that has been washed up4 ,and what is not spoiled by the soil1 seems to have been spoiled by the indolence of the ,dutchmen1 or some other disadvantage with which the ,african country is cursed4 ,a sort of fairy-tale is told of the totally wrong manner of planting the first vineyard2 and still not even the example of the far better ,constantia wine has induced men to make vineyards in rockier spots4 ,,iii4 ,,the ,,degenerate ,,culture ,,of ,,the ,,grape ,,and ,,the ,,art ,,of ,,drinking ,,in ,,china4 ,if the learned men of ,china can be trusted1 the grape-vine must have been known in their country more than a thousand years ,b4 ,c4 ,they refer to this in old books1 the 8,tshu-ly0 and the 8,shi-,king20 but as to the latter1 that seems everywhere to refer to the wine made of various grains1 which is almost exclusively used in ,china4 ,at all events1 it seems to be proved by the most trustworthy witnesses that rice-wine is older in ,china than the wine of grapes2 for while the highest age that can be assigned to wine is only given by the doubtful testimony of the supposed author of the 8,tshu-ly10 ,tshu-,kang1 who mounted the throne #aabb ,b4 ,c41 the invention of rice-wine is set down to the ,dynasty ,hia1 #bbji 7#agaf ,b4 ,c474 ,this also accords with experience elsewhere1 for beer of various kinds 7and the grain-wines of the ,chinese are nothing else1 except that they frequently mix them with all sorts of fruit1 including grapes7 everywhere became the national drink in advance of wine1 as brandy and other liquors follow wine4 ,grape-brandy has1 it appears1 been known in ,china only since the seventh century of our era1 but is now a favorite beverage with the common ,chinamen1 and is drunk by them warm and almost as strong as alcohol in large quantities1 in spite of its very unpleasant taste4 ,for only a comparatively short time the grape-culture seems to have flourished in ,china4 ,the ,chinese always have had their grain-wines and their brandy more at heart4 ,the inventor of the rice-wine was1 it is true1 banished by the ,emperor ,yu-te1 because he well foresaw the sad consequences of its use1 and yet the beverage has kept its place to the present day as an ornament of the ,chinese table4 ,it is like this people1 who live on nothing but that water-plant1 rice1 and tea1 to cling with the same obstinacy as they do to all old orders and customs1 to this beverage1 which is something between brandy and water1 and taken neither hot nor cold4 ,these wines are said to have a very bad effect2 they fatten at first1 but then bring on consumption1 entire loss of appetite1 and at last complete emaciation and death4 ,it was natural1 therefore1 that the paternal ,emperors1 who looked after their subjects as after real children1 and in whose laws dietetics always played a great part1 should forbid these injurious beverages1 and several of the ,emperors set the good example4 ,the third ,emperor of the ,dynasty ,mant-shu1 ,yong-,tsheng1 devoted one of his ten commandments to this subject1 and the great ,kanghi says in his writings that1 despite his pleasure in them1 he never became accustomed to wine and spirits4 ,at feasts and banquets he only touched it with his lips1 and so might well boast of not drinking any at all4 ,moreover1 this wine consumes a great deal of grain1 which in a densely peopled country1 whose very existence depends upon its supplies of grain1 is a matter of some importance1 so that perhaps from this higher standpoint also there was good reason for the prohibition4 ,but the most important reason lies deeper still1 and was still more carefully considered2 and as this chiefly concerns the wine from grapes1 we must first cast another glance at grape-culture4 ,we have seen above that grapes existed of old in ,china4 ,the just-mentioned learned1 philosophical and humane ,kanghi himself shows1 in his remarks on natural history in ,china1 that grapes came to ,china from the ,west1 and that before his time but few kinds had existed in ,china1 and boasts that he had sent for three new varieties to ,ha-mi1 as he would rather introduce a new fruit into his country than build a hundred porcelain towers4 ,he observes1 also1 that these grapes degenerate in the south1 but do well in the north in dry and stony soil4 ,the experiences of the missionaries in ,pekin1 however1 were unfavorable2 the soil was against them1 as well as the remarkably rough climate1 and possibly they went to work awkwardly in other respects also4 ,for it is certain that these very southern provinces once had many grape-vines1 and the wine made in ,shan-si1 ,shen-si1 ,petshe-ly1 ,shantong1 ,honan and ,hu-,kuang1 put into well-closed vessels and buried in the ground1 could be preserved for years4 ,this goes to prove an observation we shall often find repeated1 that after a time the most favorable soil no longer suffices for the grape1 which demands a certain youthful power in the soil in which it is to flourish most luxuriantly4 ,in the older and middle ages of ,china we therefore find the grape-wine mentioned in all their songs1 and that of the river ,kiang is specially praised4 ,it is known that at different periods vines were introduced from ,samarcand1 ,persia1 ,thibet1 ,kashgar1 ,turfu and ,ha-mi1 and the annals themselves plainly mention wine under the reign of ,emperor ,wu-ty1 ,dynasty ,han1 #adj ,b4 ,c4 ,from there we can follow up its use almost from reign to reign1 and after the already-mentioned ,kanghi1 the last dynasty shows still more rulers who introduced new grapes from distant countries1 so that the southern provinces begin to restore their old grape-culture again4 ,but the grapes in ,ha-mi and ,shan-si seem mostly to be used for raisins1 and what we occasionally hear of their condition in ,hoai-lai-hien--that their berries are of gigantic size1 like plums1 with a thick skin1 and that their size is not so much due to the climate as to the fact that the vines are grafted on mulberry-trees1 and that they ripen as early as ,april1 ,may and ,june--all this seems highly characteristic of a degenerate culture1 and gives us the poorest possible opinion of the wine that might be made there4 ,highly1 therefore1 as the ,jesuits attempt to praise grape-culture in ,china1 we can yet have but little belief in it2 but in the ,middle ,ages it must have been all the more brilliant4 ,the reports concerning it are1 however1 wrapped in a certain obscurity1 from which no fact stands out clearly4 ,the grape1 it is said1 flourished only too well in ,china--it caused various revolutions4 ,as often as the ,government had ordered the destruction of such trees as obstructed the grain-fields1 the useless grape-vine was also included1 and1 if memory served the reporters1 that plant was several times specially mentioned4 ,it is certain that the destruction of the vine in most of the provinces1 under various reigns1 was carried so far that even the recollection of it was lost1 and this induced the belief that the grape had been brought to ,china but recently from the ,occident4 ,it is plain that there was always a pretense put forward that the grape-wine detracted from the culture of the grain1 although1 with some care1 the same area might probably have yielded a nobler beverage than was made of the rice and barley1 grown where the grape had been rooted out4 ,but the intellectual effect of it was evidently feared4 ,in so regular a clock-work as the ,chinese ,state1 what might be more dangerous than irregular movements so very easily produced by wine in the heads of people8 ,even the making of the grape-wine was often prohibited4 ,when that did not avail1 its use was limited to feasts1 banquets and sacrifices1 and to guests and infirm old age4 ,not enough with this1 at such feasts a special ,mandarin was set over even the princes of the blood to keep watch over and not permit them to drink more than three glasses4 ,and still more1 certain ceremonies were prescribed1 long healths and salutations1 circumstantial rites1 at which a free-thinker1 as the ,jesuits say1 may laugh1 but in which a philosopher must admire the wisdom of the lawgiver1 and the subtlety with which he banished intemperance1 and that injudicious freedom of speech which is its inseparable companion1 from among the people6 ,we have seen the effects of grain-wine in ,china4 ,the wise ,emperor ,kanghi complains that it makes one stupid and dull and confuses the brain4 ,and how much more terrible still must have been the effect of the grape-wine6 ,this is probably meant in a certain book of the ,dynasty ,tshu1 where it is said in warning explanation of the well-founded apprehensions of the ,chinese ,government1 that if a spirit of rebellion and insurrection was then rife among the people of ,china1 if they had lost much of their old virtues and principles1 the cause of it must be sought solely in the effects of wine4 ,away1 therefore1 with that cursed boldness which betrays a tongue set free by wine2 that noisy action and damnable confidence in one's own strength2 that rising of the spirit1 which must have appeared to the learned ,emperor as synonymous with confusion2 the impudent overstepping of the good old laws of etiquette2 the wild breaking away from the good old ruts6 ,how should not all this1 which was inseparably connected with wine1 seem to the philosophical head of the ,state in his immovable peace and calmness1 and to the council of his ministerial pedants1 extremely dangerous to the ,state1 and worthy of being annihilated to the last trace8 ,need we be surprised1 therefore1 at the stories of abstinence told of the ,emperors8 ,it was their duty to give a good example to the people4 ,had not their prophet1 ,confucius1 left these words of moderation--that coarse rice for food1 and water for drink1 and the curved arm for a pillow1 were enough for happiness6 ,and thus the ,governments of ,china succeeded in establishing1 even in very early times1 a condition of submissive decency everywhere4 ,they confined wine to festive occasions1 and we learn from the 8,shi-,king0 that to the guest was granted the honor of the cup2 even to him1 however1 in but the spare measure that chimes with the sordid miserliness of the ,chinaman1 who could never have understood the art of drinking1 if for no other reason than because he has nothing of the liberality which the ,orient calls the 8flowing hand40 ,they say in a guest-song3-- 8,a noble guest has come beneath our roof2 ,for him melodious tunes were played1 ,so long as thus it pleased our guest1 ,and with the cup ,i sought to cheer him4 8,the sound of music rang incessantly1 ,and ever was the cup kept full2 ,and in our honor did he empty it2 ,the wine was light and pure1 and harmed him not40 ,and in another place3-- 8,a hare is roasting on the spit2 ,a pumpkin leaf we go to pick2 ,a banquet we prepare our guest1 ,and fill his cup with wine the best40 ,we have seen from other authorities that wine was chiefly reserved to old age1 and here it is confirmed3-- 8,serve round the circle the wine-cup1 ye bearers2 ,with the spiced wine the aged refresh them2 ,in it their youth and their vigor reviving1 ,but your own youth surely needs no concoction40 ,even at the feasts where wine was permitted1 its use was limited by cautious restrictions4 ,all meals and banquets were subjected to rules of etiquette almost as rigorous as those which the ,court is accustomed to give its ambassadors4 ,the careful law is extended to the very preparation and serving of the viands1 and everywhere clips the wings of the art of cooking and of drinking4 ,if the ,emperor ,u-tse gave his warriors a banquet to gain their favor1 he still preserved the most rigid order of rank in the seating1 and the food and the drink2 and the ,emperor ,tsi-she-hoang is praised for restoring the old invitations and banquets1 where every single ceremony took its due course in beginning and end1 so that a modest and decent joy beamed in all eyes4 ,to give a model for domestic feasts1 they order public ceremonies in all the cities2 ,mandarins preside at them2 the law invites scholars and distinguished citizens to them2 and here1 too1 the rites are prescribed down to the minutest detail4 ,the chief object of these feasts is to signalize merit1 to preserve morality1 and the friendly as well as conventional proprieties4 ,the ,president reads aloud for that purpose1 in the name of the ,emperor1 certain paragraphs of the law1 the introduction to which specially calls to mind that the gathering is not really made for the sake of the enjoyment of meat and drink1 but to revive loyalty to the ,prince1 and more to the same effect2 and all their songs and pieces of music have reference to that4 ,a single drinking-song1 of somewhat more liberal spirit1 ,i found in the 8,shi-,king10 but in that the translator may possibly have had a large share1 especially in regard to the form4 ,the contents are very characteristic of ,chinese poetry in general1 whose bare realism offers a remarkable contrast to that of the ,orientals3-- 8,water1 the fresh1 ,is drunk by the fish-- ,the carps and the pikes2 ,and each noble knight ,at the board ,drinks water pure and bright4 8,water1 the fresh1 ,is drunk by the fish-- ,the eels and the salmon2 ,you sad fellows all ,at the board1 ,drink1 till for more ye shall call4 8,water1 the fresh1 ,is drunk by the fish-- ,the perch and the barbel2 ,ye good chums of mine ,at the board1 ,now drain ye the pearl of the wine4 8,water1 the fresh1 ,is drunk by the fish-- ,the trout and the merlin2 ,but we boys gay and bold ,at the board ,drain waves of the wine untold40 ,but1 even in their highest ecstasy1 the brave drinkers still preserve a sort of calmness2 and if there is anything that can be called a sober intoxication1 this seems to be excellently expressed in the following very characteristic song3-- 8,now our guests are growing tipsy2 ,decency is at an end2 ,sparks from out their eyes are darting1 ,and the babbling tongues unbend4 8,crooked caps shake back and forward1 ,hung but by a single hair2 ,stiff old legs the dance are trying1 ,hoarse old voices sing out fair4 8,at the first cup which thou drainest1 ,didst thou seem transformed to me2 ,if another now thou'dst empty1 ,wholly tipsy wouldst thou be4 8,truly thou dost shame me sorely2 ,sober quite you see ,i stay2 ,but if thou wilt take me homeward1 ,lead me gently on the way4 8,true1 thou lead'st me into ditches1 ,but my own head reels at last2 ,hold me by thy arm supported1 ,by thy pig-tail hanging fast40 ,with this extreme point of drinking ,i will close4 ,this dull intoxication is about what a warm grain-wine would produce1 and fits the disagreeable character of the ,chinese as well as the anecdote occurring in another song1 where one whose invited guests do not appear at the right time1 is actually rejoiced to think he may now drink up his wine alone4 ,the value of wine for social enjoyment can scarcely be known there1 where conventionality ties the tongues1 where there is a tribunal of ceremonies1 and where the tea-kettle is forever on the fire1 which among us1 too1 fosters only embroidery1 gossip and nervous debility4 ,and then the greedy desire for physical enjoyment is the one thing which makes the ,chinaman love his wine and his spicy concoctions1 and which in this point has ever driven him into a never-before-heard-of opposition against his ,government4 ,how dreadful it is1 however1 to see these crude and childish remnants of antiquated customs most closely knit now with the most refined and elaborate tastes1 wants and habits thus in vogue among the people1 together with secret and most pernicious vices1 and yet to find that not a single voice can be raised against it1 because1 with the most subtle cunning1 down to the very limits of physical needs1 every expression of indignation or of joy has been forbidden by law6